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FROM 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ IC 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


^Miiüitt 


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ICDNOGRAPHIC 

E  N  C  Y  C  L  0  P  iE  D  I  A 

OP 

SCIENCE,    LITEMTÜRE,    AND    ART. 


8T8TEMATICALLT  ABRANOED 


J •    G.    Ii £ C£ 


TRANSLATSD  FBOM  THE  OERM AN,  WITH  ADDITIONS, 
AND  EDITED  BT 

SPENCER  F.  BAIRD,  A.M.,  M.D., 

nOFESSOR  OF  NATVBAL  SCIBNCn  Of  DICKINSOH  OOLLESE,  CAKLISU,  tk. 


ILLUSTRATED  BY  FIVE  HUNDRED  STEEL  PLATES, 
coHTAiiniia  urwASDS  of  twelve  thousaho  EnsKATisa«. 


IN    FOUR    VOLUMES. 


VOL.    Ill: 

GEOGRAPHY  AND  PLANOGRAPHY, 

HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY,  MILITARY  SCIENCES, 

NAVAL  SCIENCES. 


NEW    YORK:  1861. 


RUDOLPH     6ARRI6UE,     PUBLISHER. 

9  BARCLAY  STREET  (ASTOR  BOVBB). 


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Entered,  according  to  Act  of  CongrasB»  in  the  year  1849,  by 

RUDOLPH    GARRIGÜE, 

In  tlie  Cleik'8  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 


\ 

\ 


B  Onlf taiMd.  PrlxMsr  «Dd  Btoreoiypsrr 
113  Fulton  at.  N.T. 


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CONTENTS 


GEOGRAPHY  AND  PLANOGRAPHY. 


[TlM  Bonben  i«lto  to  Uie  bottom  poglBf  of  the  tost] 


A.  General  Geography, 

1.  Eitrope,    . 

2.  Asia, 
8.  Africa,     . 

4.  America,  . 

5.  AuslnJia, 

B.  Historical  Geography, 

1.  Oleography  of  Ancient  Times, 

2.  Geography  of  the  Middle  Ages, 

3.  Geography  of  Modem  "Ernes, 

C.  Special  or  Political  Geography, 

I.  Europe,     . 

1.  Portugal, 

2.  Spain,  . 
8.  France, 
4*  Switzerland, 

5.  Belgium, 

6.  Netherlands, 

7.  England, 

8.  Denmark, 

9.  Sweden  and  Norway, 

10.  Russia, . 

11.  Turkey, 

12.  Greece, 

13.  Italy,    . 

14.  The  Austrian  Monarchy, 

15.  Prussia, 

16.  Germimy, 

17.  The  Railroads  of  Central  Europe, 
n.  Asia, 

1.  Asiatic  Russia,  . 

2.  Turkey  in  Asia, 
8.  Persia  (West  Lran), 
4,  Arabia, 
5*  Turkestan,  Turan,  or  Tartaiy, 


1 

4 
10 
18 
15 
19 
21 
21 
32 
42 
48 
48 
48 
50 
58 
56 
58 
59 
61 
65 
67 
69 
72 
74 
75 
79 
82 
84 
89 
93 
94 
94 
94 
95 
9C 


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OOSTESTB. 


Special  Oeograpby — (Continued,) 

6.  A^liftniatftTi  or  KAbolistaiiy 

7.  Beludchistan,    .  « 

8.  ChineBe  Empire, 

9.  Japan,  . 

10.  Hindostan  or  ffiüier  India, 

11.  Further  India,  . 

12.  The  East  India  Islands, . 
m.  Africa,      . 

2.  Barbary, 

8.  The  Sahara,      . 

4.  Nubia,  . 

5.  Habesh  or  Abyssinia,     . 

6.  The  West  Ckwt, 
1,  Soudan, 

8.  The  East  Coast, 

9.  The  Highlands  of  Africa, 

10.  The  Cape  Land, 

11.  The  Isknds  of  Africa,    . 
IV.  America,  . 

A.  North  America, 

1.  Continental  and  Insular  Region  of  the  North  Pole, 

2.  The  Hudson's  Bay  Territory  and  Bussian  Poesessions, 
8.  British  North  America, 

4.  The  United  States,     . 

5.  The  Republic  of  Mexico, 

6.  Free  States  of  Central  America, 

B.  West  Indies,     .... 

C.  South  America, 

1.  The  Three  Columbian  Repubtics, 

2.  Guyana, 
8.  The  Empire  of  Brazil, 

4.  The  Republic  of  Peru, 

5.  The  Republic  of  Bolivia, 

6.  The  Republic  of  Chili, 
1.  The  United  States  of  the  Rio  de  la  Hata, 

8.  The  Republic  of  Paraguay,     . 

9.  Uraguay,       .... 

10.  Patagonia,     .... 

11.  Terra  del  Fuego, 
y.  Australia, ..... 

1.  East  Australia  or  New  Sooth  Waka,      . 

2.  South  Australia, 

3.  Western  Australia, 

4.  North  Australia, 

5.  Islands  in  the  Vidnity  of  the  Mainland, . 

6.  Inner  Series  of  Australian  Ishmds, 

7.  Outer  Series  of  Australian  Islands, 


96 
96 
97 
98 
98 
100 
100 
101 
102 
102 
103 
103 
104 
104 
105 
105 
106 
106 
106 
107 
108 
108 
108 
109 
109 
112 
113 
113 
115 
115 
115 
116 
116 
116 
117 
117 
117 
118 
118 
118 
118 
119 
119 
119 
119 
120 
120 
120 


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OONTEHIB. 

▼ 

Special  Geography— ((7<m<in«Äf.) 

8.  Scattered  Islands, 121 

D.  Planography,  Plans  of  the  Principal  Cities  of  Eniope, 

.     128 

1.  London,            .... 

.     128 

2.  Paris,  . 

.     127 

8.  Constantinople, 

.     138 

4.  St  Petersburg, 

.     185 

5.  Warsaw, 

.     188 

6.  Berlin,  . 

.     140 

7.  Vienna, 

.     143 

8.  Lbbon, 

.     148 

9.  Naples, 

.     150 

10.  Rome,  . 

»     152 

11.  Milan,  . 

.     155 

12.  Madrid, 

.     157 

13.  Saragossa, 

.     159 

14.  Barcelona, 

.     160 

15.  Copenhagen,     , 

161 

16.  Stockhohn, 

162 

17.  Antwerp, 

.     16a 

18.  Amsterdam, 

165 

19.  Leghorn, 

167 

20.  Florence, 

168 

21.  Ancona, 

170 

22.  Modena, 

171 

CONTENTS  OF  THE  PLATES  (U.  Noi.  1-44) 

TO 

GEOGRAPHY    AND    PLANOGBAPHT. 

[bMlodijif  a  eomplete  ilowary  of  all  tiioM  German  geogiaphleal  naniM  and  tnrmi  on  the  plates,  wUeh  Tanr  flrott 
the  EDfUsh,  eoaprblnff  alto  the  wrfar«  namee  of  mneient  places,  rlren,  ^c  The  Longltode  in  the  Max»  is 
reckoned  ttom  the  meridian  of  Feno.  To  reduce  it  lo  the  meridian  of  Greenwich  (which  Is  that  need  throngnont 
the  text)  add  IflP  lO'  for  W.  long.,  and  subtract  the  same  lot  E.  long.] 

«*«  The  relerenoes  for  expUnations  of  the  mapfl  and  plans  are  to  the  bottom  paging  of  the  text 


FLATS  1. 

Phyrieal  map  of  Europe,  .... 

FLATS  9,3. 

Movntam  and  river  syttieam  of  Central  En- 
rope 

Seea]floAastiia,79;Pn«a,83;  Ger- 
many, 84 ;  Netherlands,  59. 

FLATS  4. 

Phjacal  map  of  Aria,       .        •        •       . 

FLATS  5. 

Fhjraieal  map  of  Aiiica,    .        .        ,        . 

FLATS  6. 

Pfayrieal  map  of  North  Amerioa»       • 


10 
13 
15 


FLATS  7. 

Phyrical  map  of  South  America,       .        .      15 

FLATS  8. 

I.  Map  of  the  world  according  to  Boro« 

dotofl, 91 

II.  Map  of  the  world  according  to  Strabo,  23 
m.           ••           "            *«           Ptole- 
my,         23 

IV.  Map  of  the  world  known  to  the  An- 
cients,   91 

V.  Wind-chart  of  Aristotle,    ...  94 
VI.       "       "         Vitmvius,    .        .        .94 

FLATS  9. 

The  kingdom  of  Alexander  the  OfMt^       •      94 


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Tl 


CONTENTS. 


rLATB  lOl 

Roman  Empire  onder  Constantiiie  the  Great,      24 

PLATE  11. 
Europe  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  .  32 

PLATE  19. 

Europe  at  the  time  of  the  Cmaadee,  .  35 

PLATE  13. 

Europe  before  the  French  Revolution  of 
1789, 42 

PLATE  14. 

Europe  as  it  is  at  present, ....      48 

PLATE  15,  16. 

W  railroads  of  Central  Europe,  .      89 

PLATE  17. 
The  Austrian  Empire,       ....      79 

PLATE  18. 
Prusna, .82 

PLATE   19. 

Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway,       .         65, 67 
PLATE  20. 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland, ....      61 

PLATE  21. 

Spain  and  Portugal, .        .        .        •         50, 48 

PLATE  22. 

France, 53 

PLATE  23. 

Switierland, 56 

PLATE  24. 

Italy, 75 

PLATE  25. 

Russia, 69 

PLATE  26. 

The  Turkkh  Empire,  72,94 

PLATE  27. 

Greece, 74 

PLATE  28. 

Asia, 93 

PLATE  29. 

Afiica, 101 

PLATE  30. 

North  America, 108 

PLATE  31. 

South  America, 115 

PLATE  32. 

Australia, 19,118 

PLATE  33. 
London, 123 

PLATE  34. 

Paris  and  eiiTirons, 123 

PLATE  35. 
Fortifications  of  Paris,       •        ...    123 


PLATE  36. 


Constantinople, 


.    133 


PLATE  37. 

St.  Petersburg, 135 

Wareaw, 138 


Beriin, 
Vienna, 


PLATE  38. 
PLATE  39. 


.    140 
143 

PLATE  40. 

Lisbon, 148 

Naples, 150 

PLATE  41. 

Rome, 152 

MÜan, 155 

PLATE  42. 

Madrid, 157 

Saragossa, 159 

Barcelona, 160 

PLATE  43. 

Copenhagen, 161 

StockhoUn, 162 

Antwerp, 163 

Amsterdam, 165 

PLATE  44. 

Leghorn, 167 

Florence, 168 

Ancona, 170 

Modena, 171 

6L08SAET  TO  THE  OEOeEAPHIOAL  MAPS. 

Abatgia,  Abkhas. 

Ahiuiien,  Abasei  (tribe  in  North  Alrica). 

Ahbitibet,  AbUtibbe  River. 

Abdera,  Adra. 

Abrineate,  Abrincafui. 

AbffsntUen,  Abyssinia. 

Aeeif  Guadix. 

Aehaltiche,  Akalzike. 

Aehen,  Aix  la  Chapelle. 

Acincum,  Buda  Pest. 

Adagkf  Island  Adack. 

AdmvralitäU  U.,  Admiralty  Islands. 

Adrianopelf  Adrianople. 

Adriatitckes  Meer,  Adriatic  Sea. 

AduliM,  St.  Gothard. 

Modische  In.,  the  islands  of  Levanso,  Favig- 

nana,  and  Maritimo  (the  ancient  .£gadee). 
JEgäi9che»  Meer,  Arcnipelago. 
Aegypten,  Egypt. 
JEgyptuehe  Schöne  tDovon  18«  a.  d.  Or.,  Elgyp- 

tian  milee  18}  to  a  degree. 
.Slana,  Akaba. 
Mimonaf  Laybach. 
.Squat,  d.  ewigen  Schnees,  Equator  of  peipetual 

snow. 
.Equatorgrenxe    d.    SchneefaUee,     Equatorial 

boundary  of  snow. 
JEquatorialgrente   d.  europ.  tropn.   Getreides, 

Equatorial    boundary    of   European    tropical 

grain. 
^uatorialgr.  de§  ewigen  Schnees,  Equatorial 

boundary  of  perpetual  snow. 
.Äthiopien,  Ethiopia. 


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OONTENXa 


QhoasAXY^Continued,) 
JElkiopUehM  Meer,  Ethiopian  Sea. 
Agrigentum,  GirgeQÜ. 
Jivja  S^.,  Cape  Aguya. 
Akjerman,  Akerman. 
Alandt  In.,  Aland  Islands. 
AJUmeUt  Alani. 
Albanien,  Albany. 
Albarttcin,  Albairacin. 
Albertehe,  Alberche  River. 
Albia,  Elbe  River. 
AUmfeira,  Albufera. 
Albufera  See,  Lake  Albufera. 
Alemannen,  Alemanui. 
AUsekH,  Aleahki. 
Alenten  Ineeln,  Aleutian  Islands. 
Alexandrien,  Alexandria. 
AlgeeiroM,  Al  Gezira. 
Algier,  Algiers. 
Aipen  1200  t,  mittlere  Höhe,  Alps  1200  toises 

mean  height 
Alpen  Gebirge,  the  Alps. 
Alpee  Baatamica,  Lower  Alps. 
A^e  Rhetti^t,  Rhaetian  Alps. 
Alaen,  Isle  of  Als. 
Alt  Califomien,  Upper  California. 
Alter  Molo,  Old  pier. 
Amasaera,  Amasserah. 
Amhoeer  Hochland,  Ambose  Highlands. 
Amenia,  Ameni  Island. 
Amiranten  L,  Amirante  lalands. 
Amieia,  Ems  River. 
Ammonia,  Hargiah. 
Anq/ra,  Angora. 
Andalueien,  Andalusia. 
Andamanen,  Andaman  Islands. 
Andee  von  Peru,  the  Andes  of  Peru. 
Andes  von  Quito,  the  Andes  of  Quito. 
Andöe,  Island  of  Andoen. 
Androe  mit  Hafen,  Andros  with  port. 
Anemwrium,  Cape  Anamour. 
Angeln,  Angli. 

Anten,  Ants  (Sarmatian  tribe). 
Antinoe,  Enseneh. 
Antwerpen,  Antwerp. 
Anurigrammum,  Anurajapoera. 
Aomue,  Ohund. 
Aoeta  Thai,  Aosto  Valley. 
Apeliotee  {0»t\,  Southeast  trade-wind. 
Apenmnen  Geh.,  the  Apennines. 
Apulien,  Apulia. 
Aqu^  Sextue,  Aiz. 
Aquitanien,  Aquitania. 
Arabien,  Arabia. 

Arabische  FTötffe,  Arabian  Desert. 
Arab.  Mb.,  Arabian  Gulf. 
Arahiechee  od.  Pereiechee  Meer,  Arabian  or  Per- 

aan  Sea. 
Arachoeia,  S.  E.  Cabul. 
Arachoius,  Lora  River. 
Aral  See,  Aral  Sea. 
Aran,  Karabagh. 
Araxee,  Aras  River. 
Arbela,  Arbay. 
Archangelek,  Archangel. 
Archipel  von  Neu  Britannia,  Archipelago   of 

New  Britain. 
Archil  der  Niedrigen  Ineeln,  Low  Islands. 
Areh^lague,  Archipelago. 
Ardennen,  Ardennes. 
Arelate,  Aries. 


OLOSSABT — (Continued.) 
Argolieche  In,,  Archipelago  of  Nauplia. 
Argelie,  Argellez. 
Argentoratum,  Strasbourg. 
Argonnen  Wald,  the  Argonne  Forest. 
Aria,  Khorasan. 
Aria  See,  Lake  of  Zarrah. 
Ariaapa,  Ariaspes  (inhabitants  of  Aria,  in  ancient 

Drangiana,  in  Persia. 
Ariminum,  Rimini. 
Armenier,  Armenians. 

Armoricum,  ancient  Aquitania  (S.  W.  France). 
Amheim,  Amhem. 
Aroe,  Patras. 
Araanua,  Murad  River. 
Arainoe,  Suez. 

Art.  Magaxin,  Artillery  Arsenal* 
Aru  In,  Aroo  Islands. 
Arvemum,  Auvergne. 
Aaiatiaehea  Buaaland,  Asiatic  Russia. 
Aaiatiachea  Sarmatn.,  Asiatic  Sannatia* 
.^•010,  Azov. 

Aaowaehea  Meer,  Sea  of  Azov. 
Aaaomtion,  Asuncion. 
Aaaym.,  Assyria. 
Aata,  Asti. 
Aaturica,  Astorga. 
Aaturien,  Asturias. 
Athabaaca  S.,  Lake  Athapescow. 
Athen,  Athens. 
Athena,  Athens. 
Athribia,  Tel  Atrib. 
Atlantiacher  Ocean,  Atlantic  Ocean. 
AtacMn,  Acheen. 
Attalia,  Adalia. 
Attici,  Inhab.  of  Attica. 
Augila,  Angela. 
Aug.  Turinorum,  Turin. 
Aug.  Vindelieorum,  Augsburg. 
Auguatodunum,  Autun. 
Aulona,  Valona. 
Auater  (Süd),  South  Wind. 
Auatralten,  Australia. 
Auatral.  Buaen,  Gulf  of  Australia. 
Auatraaien,  Empire  of  Chlodwig. 
AvaUtea,  Zeyla. 
Avalitiacher  G.,  Bay  of  Zeyla. 
Aventieum,  Avenche. 
Avemum,  Lake  Avemo. 
Axania,  Ajan. 
Azoriache  Inaeln,  Portugieaiach,  the    Azoref, 

Portuguese. 
Azowachea  Meer,  Sea  of  Azov. 

B.  von  Athen  od.  v.  JEgina,  Bay  of  Athens  or 

of  .£gina. 
B,  von  Nauplia  od.  v.  Argoa,  Bay  of  Nauplia  or 

of  Argos. 
Babadagh,  Baba  Dag. 
Bagiatanua,  Beesitoon. 
Bagoua  Geb.,  Bagous  Mountains. 
Bahama  Inaeln,  Bahama  Islands. 
Bai  u.  Dorf  Catalan,  Bay  and  village  of  Catalan. 
Baiem,  Bavaria. 

Baikal  S.  u.  Geb.,  Baikal  Lake  and  Mountains. 
Baireuth,  Bayreuth. 
Bairiacher  Wd.,  Bavarian  Forest. 
Baktrien,  Bactriana. 
Balearen,  Balearic  Islands. 
Balearea,  Balearic  Islands. 
Baleariacher  Canal,  Balearic  Channel. 


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VIU 


CONTENTS. 


GL088AST— {OtmtNNieil. 

Balkan  Geh.,  Balkan  Mountains. 

Balkasch  S.,  Lake  Balkash. 

Baltica,  Sweden. 

Banasaf  Mehediima. 

Banaler  Geh.,  Banat  Mountains. 

Banaler  Müil,  Grenge,  Military  frontier  of  the 

Banat. 
Banks  Land,  Banks'  Island. 
Bareelonnelli,  Barceloneta. 
Barcino,  Barcelona. 
Baeckkiren,  Bashkirs. 
Base  Straeee,  Bass's  Strait. 
BaeMlie,  Bashnia. 
Baumwolle,  Cotton. 
Baumwolle  u.  EeU,  Cotton  and  Rice. 
Bayrische  Alpen,  Bavarian  Alps. 
Batfrisehes  Hochland,  Bavarian  Highlands. 
Behrings  Meer,  Behring's  Strait. 
Behrings  Meer    od.   Meer    von  Kamtschalka, 

Behring's  Strait  or  Kamtsohatkian  Sea. 
Belgien,  Belgium. 
Beiice,  Belici  River. 

Beloehrohalen,  Belochrobati  (Slavonian  tribe). 
Belzoi  See,  Lake  Belzoi. 
Berenike,  Bengazi. 
Berg  Aridros,  Mount  Androe. 
Berkley  Sund,  Berkeley  Sound. 
Bermudas  od.  Sommer  L,  Bermudas  or  Somers 

Islands. 
Bemer  Alpen,  Bemese  Alps. 
Bemslein  Küsle,  Amber  Coast. 
Bessarabien,  Bessarabia. 
Bieler  S.,  Lake  of  Biel. 
Bjelos  See,  Lake  Biellos. 
Biled'ul-gerid,  od.  Dalleüand,  Biled-ul-gerid,  or 

Land  of  Dates. 
Biscayseher  Meerbusen,  Bay  of  Biscay. 
Bithynien,  Bithynium. 
Blaue  Bge.,  Blue  Mountains. 
Bodensee,  Lake  of  Constance. 
Böhmische  Höhe,  Bohemian  Highlands. 
Böhmischer  Kessel,  Bohemian  Basin. 
Bogen  Indianer,  Strongbow  Indians  (tribe  of  the 

Chippeways). 
Bolxoi,  oder  Grosser  See,  Bolzoi  or  Large  Lake. 
Boreas  (Nord),  North  Wind. 
Borysthenes,  rripet  River. 
Borysthenes  (Danapris),  Dniepr  River. 
Bosnien,  Bosna. 
Boslra,  Boszra. 

Bolhnischer  Busen,  Gulf  of  Botnia. 
Bracara,  Braga. 
Brasilien,  Brazil. 

Brasilische  Gebirge,  Brazil  Mountains. 
Brasilische  Slrömung,  Brazil  Current. 
Brasilisches  Guyana,  Brazil  Guyana. 
Braunschweig,  Brunswick. 
Brede  Bugl,  Bay  of  Brede. 
Brienxer  S.,  Lake  of  Brienz. 
Briganlium,  Brian^on. 
Brilannien,  Gr.  Britain. 
Briiisekes  Guyana,  British  Guyana. 
Brivates  Haf,  Bay  of  Brest. 
Br%issel,  Brussels. 
Brundisium,  Brindisi. 
Brundusium,  Biindisi. 
Bueephala,  Ihylum. 
Bucharest,  Bukarest. 
Bueharien,  Bokhara. 
Buehweitzen,  Buckwheat 


eLossA&T — (Continued.) 
Bucinarische  In.  Buccinarian  Islands. 
Bulgaren,  Bnlgari  (tribe  on  the  lower  Danube). 
Burdigala,  Bordeaux. 
Burgunder,  Burgundians. 
Busen  von  Bengalien,  Bay  of  Bengal, 
Busen  von  Cadix,  Bay  of  Cadiz. 
Busen  Carpenlaria,  Bay  of  Carpentaria. 
Busen  v.  Danzig,  Bay  of  Dantzig. 
Busen  von  Lepanto  oder  von  Karintht  Gulf  of 

Lepanto  or  of  Corinth. 
Busen  v.  Lion,  Gulf  of  Lyons. 
Busen  v.  Lübeck,  Bay  of  Lübeck. 
Busen  von  Panama,  Bay  of  Panama. 
Bu^en  von  Taranto,  Gulf  of  Taranto. 
Busen  von  Tehuantepec,  Gulf  of  Tehuantepeo. 
Busen  von  Triest,  Gulf  of  Trieste. 
Buoen  von  Venedig,  Bay  of  Venice. 
Byblos,  Djebail. 
Byzaeimm,  Tonte. 
Byzant.,  Constantinople. 

C.  d.  gulen  Hoffnung,  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

C.  Homer  Strömung,  Cape  Horn  Current. 

Cabillonus,  Chalons. 

CtBsar  Augusta,  Saragossa. 

Cettohriga,  Setobal. 

Cajela,  Gaeta. 

Caledonien,  Caledonia. 

CaUdonischer  Canal,  Caledonian  Canal. 

Calvadosfelsen,  Calvados  Rocks. 

Canal  oder  La  Manche,  the  British  Channel. 

Canal  ti.  Strömung  v.   Mozambique,  Channel 

and  current  of  Mozambique. 
Canal  von  Yucatan,  Channel  of  Yucatan. 
Canarische  Inseln,  Canary  Islands. 
Candriaces,  Nugor  River. 
Canopus,  Abouldr. 
Cantabrisches  Geb.  600  t.,  Santillanos  Mountains 

600  toises. 
Canlal  G.,  Cantal  Mountains. 
Cap  Strom,  Cape  current. 
Cap  u.  Ins.  Breton,  Cape  and  Island  of  Breton. 
Cappadocien,  Cappadocia. 
Capsa,  Wataras. 
Capstadt,  Cape  Town. 
Capverdische  Inseln,  Cape  Verde  Islands, 
Caraibisehes  Meer,  Caribbean  Sea. 
Caralis,  Cagliari. 

Carenisches  Gebirg,  Sutherland  Highlands. 
Carmania,  Keiman. 
Carpathus,  Scarpanto. 
Carina,  Ocana. 

Carthaginiensis  Sinus,  Gulf  of  Tunis. 
Carthago,  Carthage. 
Carthago  nova,  Cartagena. 
Gasp.  Engpässe,  Caspian  or  Caucasian  passes. 
Caspisehes  Meer,  Caspian  Sea. 
Caspisck.  See  liegt  33   t.  unter  d.  Niveau  d. 

Oceans,  Caspian  Sea,  lies  33  toises  lower  than 

the  level  of  the  ocean. 
Caspische  See,  Caspian  Sea. 
Cassiterides  Ins.,  Scilly  Islands. 
Calalonien,  Catalonia. 
CeUtruB,  Dingla. 
Cerasuo,  Keresoun. 
Cevennen,  Cevennes  Mountains. 
ChaUfai  der  Abassiden,  Caliphate  of  the  Abas- 


Charolais  Geb.  CharoUes  Mountains. 
Chemnis,  Ekhmin. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


CONTENTS. 


euysskRY^Continued.) 

Ckerton,  Kherson. 

Cker$onenu,  Cape  Razatin. 

Cheviot  Gebirge t  Cheviot  Hills. 

ChiU,  ChilL 

China  Walder,  Bathbark  Forests. 

ChineHteheM  Meer,  Chinese  Sea. 

Ckioe,  Scio. 

Choeo  Kette,  Choco  Mountain  Chain. 

Chorasmia  See,  Lake  Kharasm. 

C&orasmii,  Kharasm. 

Churhetten,  Electoral  Hesse. 

Cibali$,  Palanha. 

CiUeia,  Itshili ;  Die  CUicischen  Thore,  the  Passes 

of  Itshili. 
Cimbrische  Halb  L,  Cimbrian  Peninsula  (Jutland). 
Clearwater  See,  Clearwater  Lake. 
Cnoeeus,  Macritichos. 
Colchi»,  Mingrelia. 
Colchiecher  G.,  Gulf  of  Mingrelia. 
Colonia,  Cologne. 
Qfmana,  Bostan. 
Corner  S.,  Lake  of  Como. 
Comum,  Como. 
Conimbriga,  Coimbra. 
Constantinopel,  Constantinople. 
ConetantinopoUa,  Constantinople. 
Conotanz,  Constance. 
Cooke  Strasee,  Cook's  Strait. 
Cophae,  Guadel. 
C^hee,  Ghizni  River. 
Ciiftoe,  Ghouft. 
Coreyra,  Corfa. 
Cordofan,  Kordofan. 
Cknrduba,  Cordova. 
Corpo  unter  Heph<BMtion,  Corps  under  Hephss- 

tioa. 
Croatien,  Croatia. 
.Croatieehe   Militair  Grenze,  Croatian  military 

frontier. 
Cmrene,  Kuren. 
Curland,  Courland. 
Cydenia,  Canea. 
Cifnopolis,  Nesle  Shdk  Hassan. 
Chfpeni,  Cyprus. 
Cfprene,  West  Barca. 
Cyropolie,  Enzellee. 
Cifruo,  Politiea. 
Ofthtre,  Citria. 
Cfxieue,  Kyzik. 

Dada,  Hungary  and  Transylvania. 

Daenetnark,  Denmark. 

Dakien,  Dacia  (Hungary). 

Dalmatien,  Dalmatia. 

Dampfechiffe  von  Triett  der  CEstn.  Lloyd  Geo., 
Steamers  of  the  Austrian  Lloyd  Company  from 
Trieste. 

Dänen,  Danes. 

Danubiuo,  Danube  River. 

Danzig,  Dantzig. 

Daphne,,  Daia. 

Dardanellen  Schlösser,  Palaoes  at  the  Darda- 
nelles. 

Dardanellen  Str.,  Dardanelles. 

Damis,  Dema. 

Das  Alpen  Gebirge,  the  Alps. 

Das  Po  Thai,  the  Po  Valley. 

Daurisehes  Alpenland,  the  Da  Ooral  Alps 
(branch  of  the  Oural  Mountains). 

Dmms  Strasse,  Davis's  Strait. 


OLOSSART— (Cufiftiitted.) 
Delphi,  Castri. 

Dembo  Hochland,  Dembo  Highlands. 
D^Entreeasteavx  Sjpitze,  Point  d'Entrecasteauz. 
Der  Normannen  Reiche,  the  Norman  Empires. 
Der  Spiegel  des  todien  Meeres  liegt  220  t.  tiefer 
als  der  Ocean,  the  surface  of  the  Dead  Sea 
lies  220  toises  below  the  level  of  the  ocean. 
Der  Wash,  the  Wash. 
Dergh  See,  Lake  Derg. 
Dertosa,,  "Tortosa. 
Deutsche  Meilen  15  auf  den  Grad,  German  miles 

15  to  the  degree. 
Deutsche  unter  Kaiser  Friedrieh  //.,  Germans 

under  Emperor  Frederick  H. 
Deutsches  Kaiserreich,  German  Empire. 
Deva,  Ay  as. 

Die  Aleuten  od.  Catharinas  Archipel,  the  Aleu- 
tian Islands  or  Catharine's  Archipelago. 
Die  Aleutischen  Inseln,  the  Aleutian  Islands. 
Die  Azoren,  the  Azores. 
Die  bekannte  Welt  des  Alterthums,  the  world 

known  to  the  Ancients. 
Die  Carolinen,  the  Caroline  Islands. 
Die  3  Oder  Mündn.,  the  three  mouths  of  the 

Oder. 
Die  Eols  Grotten,  the  Grottoes  of  .Solus. 
Die  grosse  osteuropäische  Ebene  in  welcher  kein 
Punkt  die  Höhe  von  180  t.  erreicht,  the  large 
East-European  plain,  in  which  no  point  reaches 
the  height  of  180  toises. 
Die   Nord  See  oder  das  deutsehe   Meer,  the 

North  Sea  or  the  German  Sea. 
Die  Ostsee,  oder  das  Baltische  Meer,  the  Bal- 
tic. 
Die  Phil^ipinen,  the  Philippine  Islands. 
Die  Schweiz,  Switzerland. 
Die  sieben  Kuhfirsten,  the  Seven  Cowridges. 
Diemtiger  Th.,  Diemtig  Valley. 
Dinarisches  Alpen  Gebirg,  Dinarian  Alps  (on  the 

lower  Danube). 
Dio  Adelphi  {Die  2  Brüder),  Dio  Adelphi  (The 

Two  Brothers). 
Dioscorides  L,  Island  of  Socotra. 
Dioseurias,  Iskuria. 
District  diesseits  der  Donau,  District  north  of 

the  Danube. 
District  diesseits  der  Theiss,  District  west  of  the 

Theiss. 
District  jenseits  der  Donau,  District  beyond  the 

Danube. 
District  jenseits  der  T%eiss,  District  beyond  (east 

of)  the  Theiss. 
Dobrudscher,  Dobrocye. 
Donau,  Danube. 

Donaumündungen,  Mouths  of  the  Danube. 
Donauwörth,  Donauwörth. 
Donische  Kosaken,  Cossacks  of  the  Don. 
Dora  Baltea,  Doria  Baltea  River. 
Drapsaea,  Bamian. 
Dnmtheim,  Trondheim. 
Dschebil  el  Kamar  od.  Mond  Geb.,  Gebel  Komri, 

or  Mountains  of  the  Moon. 
Düna,  Dvina  River. 
Dünkirchen,  Dunkirk. 
Duritu,  Douro  River. 
Durovemum,  Canterbury. 

Eblana,  Dublin. 

Eboracum,  York. 

Ebro  Mündung,  Mouth  of  the  Ebro. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


CONTENTS. 


QjjOMSAXY^Continued.) 

Ebu8U8,  Iviza. 

Eisefibahnen,  Railroads. 

Ei$enbahnkarte  von  MitteUwropa,  Railroad 
chart  of  Central  Europe. 

Eismeer,  Arctic  Ocean. 

EUstarre  Sand  u.  Moriut  Fläche,  Frozen  Sand 
and  Swamp  Plain. 

Eluta,  EUmze. 

Emerita  Aug.,  Merida. 

Emirat  v.  Cordova,  Emirate  of  Cordora. 

Enara  See,  Lake  Enara. 

Engländer  unter  Eichard  Löwenkerz,  the  Eng- 
&h  under  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion. 

Engl.  Colonien  am  Schwanjßuste,  K.  Georfft  Sund 
und  N.  S.  Wales,  English  Coloniee  on  Swan 
River,  King  George's  Sound,  and  New  South 
Wales. 

Englische  Meilen  69S  a^f  den  Orad,  English 
miles,  69)go  to  the  degree. 

Engpass  v.  Kaipha,  Pass  of  Kaipha. 

Ephesus,  Ayasaluk. 

Epidaurus,  Ragusa  Vecchia. 

Epirus,  Albania. 

Eregli,  Erekli. 

Erklärung  dsr  Zahlen,  Ebcplanation  of  the 
figures. 

Erne  See,  Erne  Loch. 

Erymanthus,  Mount  Olonos. 

Eskimos,  Esquimaux. 

Esthland,  Esthonia. 

Euböa,  Negropont. 

Enphrat,  Euphrates. 

Europa  vor  der  Französischen  Revolution,  Eu- 
rope before  the  French  Revolution. 

Europa  zur  Zeit  der  Kreuzzüge,  Europe  during 
the  Crusades. 

Europa  zur  Zeit  Karls  des  Grossen,  Europe  at 
the  time  of  Charlemagne. 

Europäisch  Sarmatien,  European  Sarmatia. 

Europäische  Besitzungen  in  Nord  Guinea,  Eu- 
ropean possessions  in  North  Guinea. 

Europäisches  Russland,  European  Russia. 

Europäisches  Scythien,  European  Scythia. 

Fad^ewski,  Fadevskoi. 

Fitr  CEer,  Faro  Islands. 

Falklands  Ins.,  Falkland  lalanas. 

Falsche  Bai,  Bay  of  Falso. 

Faltschi,  Faltsi. 

Fan  CE.,  Fano  I. 

Favonius (West),  West  Wind  (Zephyr). 

Feuerland,  Terra  del  Fuego. 

Finnischer  Busen,  Gulf  of  Finland. 

Fischereien  von  Agoutinitza,  Fisheries  of  Agou- 

tinitza. 
Fittre  See,  Bahr  Fittre. 
Flachs  u.  Hanf,  Flax  and  Hemp. 
Flandern,  Flanders. 
Flavia  Cäsariensis,  Central  England. 
Flaviobriga,  Bilbao. 
FUtvionavia,  Laviana. 
Flevus,  Flevo,  Zuyder  Zee. 
Florentia,  Florence. 
Florenz,  Florence. 
Franken,  Franconia. 
Frankfurt,  Frankfort. 
Fränkisches  Italien,  Franki&h  Italy. 
Fränkisches  Plateau,  Franconian  plateau. 
Frankreich,  France. 
Französ.  Guyana,  French  Guyana. 


aLossAXY^Contimued,) 
Französische  Lieues  35  auf  den  Grad,  French 

leagues  25  to  the  degree. 
Franzosen  unter  Philipp  August,  The  French 

under  Philip  Augustus. 
Franzosen  unter  Ludwig  IX.,  The  French  under 

Louis  IX. 
Freiburg,  Freeburg. 
Freie  Indianer,  Free  Indians. 
Freundechafts  oder  Tonga  In.,  Friendly  or  Tonga 

Islands. 
Friedens  FL,  Peace  River. 
Frobischer  Str.,  Frobisher's  Strait. 
Fuchs  Ins.,  Fox  Islands. 
Funen,  Fyen. 
FuglcB,  Bird  Island. 

Fürstm.  Benevent,  Principality  of  Benevento. 
Furstenthum  Neuenburg,  Principality  of  Neaen- 

burg. 

Gab^,  Chavoe. 

Gades,  Cadiz. 

Gaditanum,  Gibraltar. 

GaUetia,  Anadolia. 

Galicien,  Galicia. 

Cralizien,  Galicia. 

Gallien,  Gallia  (France). 

Gallische  Wegestunden  wovon  50  auf  den  Grad, 

Gallic  miles  50  to  the  degree. 
Gangischer  oder  Indischer  Golf,  Bay  of  BengaL 
Garamantes,  Fezzaneers  and  libboo  (tribe). 
Garda  See,  Lake  of  Garda. 
Gaugamela,  Kamalis. 
Gaulos,  Island  of  Goza. 
Geb.  V.  Granada,  Granada  Mountains. 
Gebirge  von  Auvergne,  Mountains  of  Auvergne. 
Gedros,  Mekran. 
Gelbes  Meer,  Yellow  Sea. 
Genf,  Geneva. 

Genfer  See,  Lake  of  Geneva. 
Gent,  Ghent. 
Genua,  Genoa. 

Geographen  B.,  Greographer's  Bay. 
Geogr.  Meilen  15  auf  den  Grad,  Geographical 

miles  15  to  the  degree. 
Gepiden,  GepidflB  (tribe). 
Germanen,  Germans. 
Germanien,  Germany. 
Germanische  Meer,  North  Sea. 
Germanische  Tiefebene,  German  Low  Plain. 
Gerste,  Barley. 

Gerste,  Hafer,  Roggen,  Barley,  Oats,  Rye. 
Gerste,  Roggen,  Kartoffeln   und  Buchweitzen, 

Barley,  Rye,  PoUtoes,  and  Buckwheat. 
Gesellschafts  In.,  Society  Islands. 
Gesoriacum,  Boulogne. 
Geten,  Getae  (tribe). 
Gletscher,  Glacier. 
Glückliches  Arabien,  Arabia  Felix. 
Gogana,  Congoon. 
Göksschai  See,  Lake  Gokshai. 
Goldener  Chersonesus,  Golden  KhersoneflOB  (Ma- 

laya). 
Gordium,  Sarilar. 
Gorsynia,  Atchicola. 
Gothen,  Goths. 

Gr.  Bären  See,  Great  Bear  Lake. 
Gr.   Minsh    oder    Caledonisches   Meer,    Great 

Minsh  or  Caledonian  Sea. 
Gr.  Sclcven  S.,  Great  Slave  Lake. 
Grampian  Gebirge,  Grampian  Mountains. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


CONTENTS. 


noBSäRY^Qmtinued.) 
Graubundner  Alpen,  GriBon  Alps. 
Griechenlattd,  Greece. 
Grieehischei  Italien,  Greek  Italy. 
Grönland,  Greenland. 
Oro89  Britannien  und  Ireland,  Great  Britain  and 

Ireland. 
Groes  Phrygia,  Phrygia  Major. 
Gra9§  Buauand,  Great  Russia. 
Grotse  Antillen,  the  larger  Antilles  (West  India 

Islands). 
Gro99e  Eskimos,  Great  Esquimaux. 
Grosser  Atlas,  Mount  Atlas. 
Grosser  oder  Stiller  Ocean,  Pacific  Ocean. 
Grossherz.  Hessen,  Grand  Duchy  of  Hesse. 
Chrune  Berge,  Green  Mountains. 
Grünes  Vorgebirge,  Cape  Verde. 
Gürtel  des  Getreides,  Zone  of  the  grains. 
Gürtel  ohne  Cultur,  Zone  without  cultivation. 
Guräus,  Kamah  River. 

H,  1.  or  Halbinsel  stands  for  "  Peninsula"  before 
the  respective  names. 

Haag,  the  Hague. 

Hahesch,  Habesh. 

Hadrianopolis,  Adrianople. 

Hdsmus,  Balkan  Mountains. 

Haf.  V.  or  Hafen  von  stands  for  "  Port  of"  before 
the  respective  names. 

Hafer,  Oats. 

Hafer  u.  Gerste,  Oats  and  Barley. 

Hafer  u.  Weitxen,  Oats  and  Wheat. 

Halbinsel  Methana,  Peninsula  of  Dara  (Methana). 

Halieamassus,  Boodroom. 

Haliex  odef  Galixien,  Galicia. 

Han  Hai  {Sudl.  Meer),  South  Sea. 

Harz  Gb.,  Harz  Mountains. 

Hasen  Ind.,  Hare  Indians. 

Haupt  Equatorial  Strömung,  Principal  equato- 
rial current. 

Haupstadt,  Capital. 

Hebräische  Stadien  wovon  750  a.  d.  Gr.,  Hebrew 
stadia  750  to  the  degree. 

Hebriden  oder  Western  Inseln,  Hebrides  or 
Western  Islands. 

Hecatompylos,  Danghan. 

Hedschas,  Hedjas. 

Heiliges  Vgb.,  Promontorium  Sacrum. 

Heliopolis,  Baalbec. 

Hellas,  Greece. 

Hellespontus,  Dardanelles. 

Helsingör,  Elsinore. 

Heniochi,  Tribe  in  Armenia. 

Hermopolis,  E^hmounein. 

Hermunduren,  Hermundnri  (tribe  in  central  Ger- 
many). 

Herodots  Erdtafel,  Herodotus's  Map  of  the 
World. 

Hertder,  Heruli  (tribe  in  North  Germany). 

Herzogl.  Sächsische  Länder,  Saxon  Duchies. 

Herzogthum,  Duchy. 

Hibemien,  Hibemia. 

Hinter  Rhein,  Hind  Rhine  (one  of  the  rivulets 
tributory  to  the  Rhine). 

Hippo  Begins,  Bona. 

Hitikilis,  Seville. 

Hispanien,  Spain. 

Hoch  Alp,  High  Alp. 

Hoch  Sudan,  Soudah  Mountains. 

Hochland  von  Africa,  Highlands  of  Africa. 

Hohe  Taiarei,  Tartar  Highlands. 


6L0SSART— (Cimfmtfed.) 
Hoher  Atlas,  Mount  Atlas. 
Hügelgruppe  v.  Sandomir,  Group  of  Hills  of 

Sandomir. 
Hunds  Eibhen  Ind,  Dogrib  Indians. 
Hunigaren  oder  Ungrier,  Hungarians. 
Hydraotes,  Ravee  River. 
Hypanis,  Kuban  River. 
Hyphasis,  Beyah  River. 
Hyrcania,  Gyrgaun. 
Hyrkanisch.  Meer,  Caspian  Sea. 

/.,  la.,  Ins.,  or  Insel  stands  for  «*  Island"  before 
the  respective  names. 

/.  Helgoland,  Island  of  Heligoland. 

/.  Kängurah,  Kangaroo  Island. 

/.  u.  Stadt  Cayenne,  Island  and  Town  of  Cay- 
enne. 

Jacobs  Thai,  Jacob's  Valley. 

Jadera,  Zarah. 

Japanisches  Meer,  Sea  of  Japan. 

Jasygien,  Jassygia. 

Jaxartes,  Sihon  River. 

Jaxygen  (Sarmaten),  Sarmatians. 

Ibenes,  Ebro  River. 

Iberia,  Greorgia. 

Ichthyophagen,  Fiah-eaters. 

Iconium,  Konia. 

Jenseits  d.  Ganges,  Beyond  the  Ganges. 

Jenseits  d.  Imaus,  Beyond  the  Altai. 

Jemis,  Dunkerrin. 

lllyricum,  Ill3rria. 

Illyrien,  Ulyria. 

Im  Sommer  15^,  In  the  sunmier  66  degrees  F. 

Im  Winter  50,  In  the  winter  43  degrees  F. 

Imandra  See,  Lake  Imandra. 

Imaus  Geb.,  Altai  Mountains. 

Indischer  Ocean,  Indian  Ocean. 

Indsche  Burun,  Cape  Inc^'eh. 

Indus  Mündn.,  Mouths  of  the  Indus. 

Ins.  unter  d.  Winde,  Caribbean  Islands. 

Ins.  d.  günen  Vorgebirges,  Cape  Verde  Island» 

Jomanes,  Jumna  River. 

Jonische  Inseln,  Ionian  Islands. 

Joppe,  Yaffa. 

Joux  See,  Lake  Joux. 

Ipsus,  Ipsilihissar. 

Irgis,  Irghiz  River. 

Irische  See,  Irish  Sea. 

Irland,  Ireland. 

Irtisch,  Irtish  River. 

/*,  Hit. 

Isca,  Exe  River. 

Island,  Iceland. 

Issedones,  Mongolian  tribe. 

Ister  (Donau),  Danube. 

Ister  mündn.,  Mouths  of  the  Danube. 

Italien,  Italy. 

Jülich,  Juliers. 

Juten,  Jutlanders. 

Juliobriga,  Reynosa. 

Julische  Alpen,  Camic  or  Julian  Alps. 

Jura  Geb.,  Jura  Mountains. 

Jura  Sund,  Jura  Sound. 

Juvavia,  Saltzburg. 

K.  Charlotte  S,  Queen  Charlotte's  Sound. 
Kämthen,  Carinthia. 
Kaiser  Canal,  Emperor's  Canal. 
Kaiserthum  (Esterreich,  Empire  of  Austria. 
Kalmüken,  Calmucks. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


CONTENTS. 


OLOSSABT — (Continued.) 

Kamitche  Bulgaren,  Kama  Bulgarians. 

Kanäle,  Canals. 

Kanal  von  Bristol,  Bristol  Channel. 

Kaptschak,  Cabjak  (tribe  in  Bokhara). 

Karafta  oder  Sachtuin,  Caraphta  or  Sachalin. 

Karazuhazar,  Kara  Soo. 

Karchedon,  Carthage. 

Karischer  B.,  Bay  of  Carla. 

Karmanien,  Kennan. 

Karolinen,  Caroline  Islands. 

Karpathen  2000  t.  mittl.  Höhe,  Carpathian 
Mountains  3000  toises  mean  height. 

Karpathen  Geb.,  Carpathian  Mountains. 

Karpathisches  Waldgebirge,  Carpathian  Forest. 

Kartagena,  Cartagena. 

Karthago,  Carthage. 

Kartoffeln  u.  Hafer,  Potatoes  and  Oats. 

Kartoffeln  u.  Buchweitxen,  Potatoes  and  Buck- 
wheat. 

Katpisches  Meer,  Caspian  Sea. 

Kattegat,  Cattegat. 

Kaukaeien,  Caucasia. 

Kaukasus  Gebirge,  Caucasian  Mountains. 

Kaukasische  Steppe,  Caucasian  Steppes. 

Keine  Bäume  ab.  Graswuchs,  No  trees  but  grass. 

Kelten,  Celts. 

Kemi  See,  Lake  Kemin. 

Kgn,  Charlotte  I.,  Queen  Charlotte's  Island. 

lümbrischer  Cherson,  Cimbrian  Chersonesus  (Jut- 
land). 

Kjölen  Gebirge,  Koelen  Mountains. 

Kirchenstaat,  Papal  States. 

Kirgisen  Horde,  Kirghis  Horde. 

Kirghisen  Steppe,  Kirghis  Steppes. 

Kizil  Ermak,  Kiiil  Irmak  River. 

Kl.  Antillen,  Ldttle  Antilles  (Caribbean  Islands). 

Kl.  Karpathen,  Little  Carpatnians. 

Kl.  Kumanien,  Kis  Kunsag. 

Klein  Phrygia,  Phrygia  Minor. 

Klein  Russland,  Little  Russia  (Russian  Province). 

Kleinasien,  Asia  Minor. 

Kleine  Kirgisen  Horde,  Little  Kirghis  Horde. 

Koblenz,  Coblentz. 

Köln,  Cologne. 

Kön.  Georg  Sund,  King  George's  Sound. 

König.  Georg's  I.,  King  George's  Islands. 

Königin  Charlotte  Sund,  Queen  Charlotte's 
Sound. 

Königreich  stands  for  *'  kingdom"  before  the  re- 
spective names. 

Konäguen,  Tribe  of  E^squimaux. 

Kong  Gebirge,  Mountains  of  Kong. 

Kopenhagen,  Copenhagen. 

Kosaken,  Cossacks. 

Krakau,  Cracow. 

Krym,  Crimea. 

Kuba,  Cuba. 

Kupfer  Ind.,  Copper  Indians. 

L.  I.  Sund,  Long  Island  Sound. 
Ladoga  See,  Lake  Ladoga. 
Lakeneig,  Lakeneigh. 
Laminium,  Alambra. 
Lamose,  Lamusa  River. 
Lampsacus,  Lamsaki. 
Lanai,  Tribe  in  North  Germany. 
Lancerote,  Lancerota  Island. 
Land  der  Finnen,  Land  of  the  Finns. 
Land  der  kleinen  Eskimos,  Land  of  the  dwarf 
Esquimaux. 


QUOssA:siY^Continuei,) 
Lariee,  Lack. 
Lauriacum,  Lorch. 

Lausitzer  Gebirg,  Lusatian  Moontains. 
Z^ba  See,  Lake  Leba. 
Leman  S.,  Lake  Leman. 
Leptis,  Lebida. 
Lerdaisöer,  Lerdals  Islands. 
Lesbos,  MjTtilene. 
Lessöewerk,  Lessoe  forge. 
Leueas,  Amaxiki. 
Leuce,  Island  of  Adasi. 
l^dichen,  Bohemians. 
Libyen,  Africa. 

Libysche  Wüste,  Libyan  Desert. 
Lieukieu  In.,  Loo  Choo  Islands. 
Ligeris,  Loire  River. 
Liguria,  Genoa. 

Ligurisches  Meer,  Gulf  of  Genoa. 
Ltkeio  In.,  Loo  Choo  Islands. 
Lilybaum,  Boe. 
Lindum,  Lincoln. 
Liptauer  Alp,  Liptau  Alps. 
Lissus,  Allessio. 
Lithauer,  Lithuania. 
Litus  Saxonum,  Coast  of  Sussex. 
Litwanen,  Lithuania. 
Livadien,  Livadia. 
Liviner  Thai,  Livin  Valley. 
Livland,  Livonia. 
Livorno,  Leghorn. 
Lixus,  Luccos  River. 
Loja,  Loxa. 

Lombardei,  Lombardy.  ^ 

Lomond  S.,  Lake  Lomond. 
Londinum,  London. 
Langobarden,  Longobardi  (Lombards). 
Lucentum,  Alicante. 
Luceria,  Lucera. 

Lüneburger  Heide,  Lüneburg  Heath. 
Lüttich,  Liige. 

Lugdunensis,  North  West  France. 
Lugdunum,  Leyden. 
Lugovallum,  Carlisle. 
Lugumkloster,  Lugum  Convent. 
Lutea  See,  Lake  Lulea. 
Lumnitz  B.,  Mount  Lomnitz. 
Lusitania,  Portugal. 
Lutitschen,  Luititsi  or  Wilzi  (Tribe  in  North 

Germany). 
Luxem,  Lucerne. 
Lycaonia,  N.  W.  Karamania. 
lÄfon,  Lyons. 
Lystra,  lUisera. 

Maas,  Meuse  River. 

Maasstäbe,  Scales. 

Macedonien,  Macedonia. 

Mackenzie  In.,  Mackenzie's  Islands. 

Macquarie  In.,  Macquarie's  Island. 

Madgyaren,  Magyars. 

Mähren,  Moravia. 

Mährische  Höhe,  Moravian  Highlands. 

Malar  See,  Lake  Mielar. 

Maeotis  See,  Sea  of  Azov. 

Magelhaens  Strasse,  Straits  of  Magallan. 

Mahadia,  Mahedia. 

Mahrah,  Mahran. 

Mailand,  Milan. 

Mainz,  Mayence,  Maynz. 

Mais  und  Weitxen,  Indian  Com  and  Wheat 


Digitized  by 


Google 


CONTENTS. 


nu 


GiossAKY— (Continued,) 

lUdkarjew,  Makarir. 

3£a/  Ström,  Malstrom. 

Matacay  Malacca. 

Mabnö,  Malmo. 

Malmffsck,  Malmish. 

Malouinen,  Falkland  Islands. 

Mandeln,  Almonds. 

Mandsehurei,  Manchooria. 

Manylsch,  Manich  River. 

Maraniten,  Maranites,  tribe  in  Arabia  Felix. 

Marcomannen,  Marcomanni,  tribe  in  S.  E.  Ger- 
many. 

Mare  Adriaticum,  Adriatic  Sea. 

Mare  Caepium,  Caspian  Sea. 

Mare  ErythreBum  (Indisches  Meer),  Indian 
Ocean. 

Mare  Hyrcanum  oder  Caspium,  Caspian  Sea. 

Mare  Internum  {Mittelländisches  Meer),  Medi- 
terranean Sea. 

Marea,  El  Khreit. 

Margaret  In.,  Margaret's  Island. 

Margus,  Murghab  River. 

Marianen  od.  Ladronen,  Marian  Islands. 

Marinestunden  25  auf  den  Grad,  Marine  leagues 
95  to  the  degree. 

Marisus,  Maros  River. 

Marmara  Meer,  Sea  of  Marmora. 

Marschall  Inseln,  Mulgrave  Islands. 

Marseille,  Marseilles. 

Martyropolis,  Meia  Farekin. 

Masearenen  Inseln,  Mascarenhas  Islands  (Mau- 
ritius, Bourbon,  d&c). 

Massaga,  Massa. 

Massilia,  MarseUles. 

Mater,  Matter. 

Mauritania,  Algiers. 

Mauritanien,  Algiers. 

Maxima  Casariensis,  Northern  England. 

Mb.  V.  Issus  (Sinus  Iseilicus),  Bay  of  Iskenderoon. 

Meder,  Medes  (nation). 

Medioianum,  Milan. 

Medus,  Abkuren  River. 

Meer  Alpen,  Maritime  Alps. 

Meer  von  Ochotsh,  Sea  of  Okotsk. 

Meer  von  Tarrakai,  Gulf  of  Tartary. 

Meerb.  v.  Calif  or  nien.  Gulf  of  California. 

Meerb.  v.  Sues,  Gulf  of  Suez. 

Meerbusen  von  Mexico,  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Memingen,  Meinungen. 

Melgig  Sumpf,  Melgig  Swamp. 

Melitene,  Malatia. 

Memel  od.  Niemen,  Memau  River. 

Memel  Niederung,  Tilsit  Lowlands. 

Memnis,  Korkor  Baba. 

Memphis,  Mangel  Mousa,  or  Mit  Raheni. 

Meninx,  Jerba  Island. 

Mergui  In.,  Mergue  Archipelago. 

Meroe,  Gibbainy. 

Mesagna,  Mesagne. 

Mesemkria,  Miarivri. 

Mesopotamia,  Al  Gezira. 

Messana,  Messina. 

Mettis,  Metz. 

Mexieaniscke  Küstenströmung,  Mexican  Coast 
Current. 

MiUtus,  Falatia. 

MiUtär  Colonien,  Military  Colonies. 

MiUtair  Grenze,  Military  Boundary. 

JIftiitift,  Minho  River. 

Mit  See,  Lake  Mice. 


OLOSSABT — (Continued.) 

Mioritx  See,  Lake  Mioritz. 

Mississippi  Mündungen,  Mouths  of  the  Missis- 
sippi. 

Mittelländisches  Meer,  Mediterranean  Sea. 

Mittlere  Kirgisen  Horde,  Middle  Kirghis  Horde. 

Mittlere  Temperatur  nach  Celsius,  Mean  tem- 
perature according  to  Celsius. 

Mittlere  Temperatur  nach  Reaumur,  Mean  tem- 
perature according  to  Reaumur. 

Mogontiacum,  Mayntz. 

Molukken,  Molucca  Islands. 

Molukken  Str.,  Molucca  Passage. 

Mond  Gebirg,  Mountains  of  the  Moon. 

Mongolei,  Mongolia. 

MonreaU,  Monreal. 

Montagnes  Noires,  Black  Mountains  (Black 
Forest). 

Mordwinen,  Mordwines  (tribe  in  Asiatic  Russia). 

Moreton  C.  u.  B.,  Moreton  Cape  and  Bay. 

Moscha,  Morebat. 

Mosel,  Moselle  River. 

Moskenasö,  Mosken  Island. 

Moskau,  Moscow. 

Moskwa,  Moskow. 

Mosyneoci  (tribe  on  the  Black  Sea). 

Moxyr,  Mozir. 

Mühlhausen,  Mulhouse. 

München,  Munich. 

Mündung  des  Amazonen  Stroms,  Mouth  of  the 
Amazon  River. 

Mündung  der  Elbe,  Mouth  of  the  Elbe. 

Mündung  des  Tajo,  Mouth  of  the  Tagus. 

Murray  Busen,  Murray  Firth. 

Muthmassliche  Grenze  der  den  Alten  bekannten 
Binnenländer  von  Afrika  nach  den  Geogra- 
phen Walkenaer  und  Gosselin,  Probable  boun- 
dary of  the  African  inland  known  to  the  An- 
cients according  to  the  geographers  Walkenaer 
and  Gosselin. 

Mutina,  Modena. 

N.  Schottl,  North  Scotland. 

JV.  W.  Ausflüsse  des  JEquatorial  Stroms,  North- 
west termination  of  the  Equatorial  Current. 

Nabathaer,  NabathsBi  (nation  in  Arabia). 

Nadel  Banck,  Cape  Agulhas. 

Naissus,  Nissa. 

Namadus,  Nerbuddah  River. 

Napeta,  Mograt. 

Narbona,  Narbonne. 

Narbonensis,  Narbonne. 

Nasamonen,  Nasamones  (tribe  in  West  Barca). 

Natal  Küste,  Natal  Coast. 

Navusa  mit  Hafer,  Nausa,  with  port. 

Nazareth  Bank  und  Ins.^  Nazaret  Bank  and 
Island. 

Neagh  S.,  Lake  Neagh. 

Neapel  (Neapolis),  Naples. 

Nelson  Canal,  Nelson  Channel. 

Nemausus,  Niames. 

Nerbudda,  Nerbuddah  River. 

Neu  stands  for  "New"  before  the  respective 
names. 

Neu  Califomien,  New  California. 

iVeti  Georgien,  New  Georgia. 

Neu  Helvetien,  New  Helvetia, 

Neu  Karthago,  New  Carthage. 

Neu  Scotia,  Nova  Scotia. 

Neu  Sibirien,  New  Siberia. 

Neue  Hebriden,  New  I^brides. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


ZIY 


CONTENTS. 


QuornkSLY-— (Continued.) 

Neue  Saline,  New  Saltwork. 

Neuenburg,  Neufchatel. 

Neuenburger  S.,  Lake  of  Neufchatel. 

Neuetrien,  Neustria  (the  part  of  France  lying 
between  the  Meuse,  Loire,  and  the  Atlantic 
Ocean). 

Nicosia,  Island  of  Karos. 

Nicobaren,  Nicobar  Islands. 

Nicomedia,  Izmid. 

Nieder  Canada,  Lower  Canada. 

Nieder  Ungarische  Ebene,  Lower  Hungarian 
Plain. 

Niederl.  Guyana,  Dutch  Guyana. 

Niederlande,  Netherlands. 

Niger,  Niger  River. 

NU,  NÜe  River. 

Nil  Mündungen,  Mouths  of  the  Nile 

Nilua,  Nile  River. 

iVIffi««,  Nismes. 

Nipkates  Geb.,  Sepan  Mountains. 

Nizza,  Nice. 

Norba  Casaria,  Alcantara. 

Nördlicher  Oceanus,  Arctic  Ocean. 

Nördlicher  Polarkreie,  Arctic  Circle. 

Nördlicher  Wolga  Bücken,  Northern  Volga 
Ridge. 

Nördliches  Eismeer,  Arctic  Ocean. 

Nord  stands  for  "North"  before  the  req)ective 
names. 

Nord  Afrikanische  Strömung,  North  African 
Current 

Nord  Albinger,  North  Albingians  (tribe  in  Hol- 
stein). 

Nord  Georgien,  North  Georgia. 

Nord  Georgien  I.,  North  Georgia  I^and. 

Nord  See,  North  Sea. 

Norieum,  Styria,  Salzburg,  See. 

Norische  Alpen,  None  Alps. 

Normanische  Inseln,  Normandy  Islands  (Guern- 
sey, Jereey,  Aldemey,  Sark). 

Northlined  S.,  Northlined  Lake. 

Norwegen,  Norway. 

Noiium  Vgb.,  Mizen  Head. 

Nuba  See,  Nuba  Lake. 

Nuba  Sumpf,  Nuba  Swamp. 

Nubier,  Nubians  (tribe). 

Nubische  Wüste,  Nubian  Desert. 

Numidien,  Numidia  (East  Algiers). 

Nursa,  Norcia. 

Nymegen,  Nimegue. 

Obdorisches  Gebirge,  Obdorsk  Mountains  (North- 
em  extremity  of  the  Oural  Ms). 

Ober  See,  Lake  Superior. 

Obi,  Oby  Island. 

Obotriten,  Obotrites  (Vandal  tribe  in  North  Ger- 
many). 

Oceanus  Atlanticus,  Atlantic  Ocean. 

Oceanus  Germanicus,  North  Sea. 

Ochus  See,  mit  dem  Kaspisches  Meere  früher 
wahrscheinlich  zusammenhängend,  Ochus  Sea 
(Aral  Sea),  probably  formerly  connected  with 
the  Caspian  Sea. 

Odessus,  Odessa. 

Odyssus,  Odessa. 

CE.  L.  V.  Ferro,  East  longitude  from  the  Island 
of  Ferro. 

CE,  L.  v.  Paris,  East  longitude  from  Paris. 

CEca,  Tripoli. 

(Elbäume,  Olive  trees. 


OLOSSAST — (Continued.) 

CEsterreieh,  Austria. 

CEsterreichische  Alpen,  Austrian  Alps. 

CEsterreichische  Landeetheile,  Austrian  depeod- 
encies. 

CEstl.  GaU,  Eastern  Ghauts. 

(Esiliehe  Länge  von  Ferro,  E^ast  longitude  bom 
the  Island  of  Ferro. 

(Estliche  Länge  von  Paris,  East  longitude  frx>m 
Paris, 

Offene  B.,  Open  Bay. 

Olisibon  (Olisipo),  Lisbon. 

Olite,  Glitte. 

Olivenxa,  Olivenca. 

Olympia,  Miracca. 

Olympische  Stadien  wovon  600  a.  d.  Grad,  Olym- 
pic stadia,  600  to  the  degree. 

Onega  See,  Onega  Lake. 

Ophiusa,  Island  of  Formentera. 

Orange  od.  Gariep,  Orange  or  Gariep  River. 

Orangen,  Oranges. 

Orbelus,  Mt.  Gliubotin. 

Orchoe,  Bassora. 

Oregon  oder  Felsen  Gebirge,  Rocky  Mountains. 

Oregon  od.  Columbia,  Columbia  River. 

Orinoco  Mund.,  Mouth  of  the  Orinoco. 

Orkaden,  Orkney  Islands. 

Orscha,  Orsha. 

Orsowa,  Orsova. 

Ortles  Sp.,  Ortler  Spitz. 

Ortospanum,  Kandahar. 

Osca,  Huesca. 

Osmanisches  Asien,  Ottoman  Asia. 

Osmanisches  Reich,  Ottoman  Elmpire. 

Ossa,  Mount  Kissovo. 

Ossadia  (tribe  in  India). 

Ost  stands  for  **  East"  before  the  req)ective  names. 

Ost  Küste  von  Brasilien,  East  Coast  of  Brazil. 

Ost  Preussen,  East  Prussia. 

Ost  Pyrenäen,  East  Pyrenees. 

Ost  See,  Baltic. 

Ost  Römisches  Kaiserreich,  East  Roman  Empire. 

Ostphalen,  Eastphalians  (tribe  of  the  Saxon  na- 
tion). 

Ostracine,  Ras  Straki. 

Ostrogothen,  Ostrogoths. 

Othrys  Gebirg,  Othrys  (Hellovo)  Mountains. 

Ottomaken,  Ottomak  Indians. 

Oxus,  Amoo  River.  • 

Oxyrynchus,  Beheneee. 

Oxydraces,  Ozydrace  (tribe  in  Moultan). 

Ozark  Gebirg,  Ozark  Mountains. 

P.  Gr.  d.  Getreides  u.  d.  Zone  d.  Segens,  Polar 
boundary  of  grain  and  of  the  zone  of  rain. 

P.  Gr.  d.  Weines  u.  d.  europäisch,  tropen.  Getrei- 
des, Polar  boundary  of  the  grape  vine  and  of 
European  tropical  grain. 

Padua,  Padova. 

Padus,  Po  River. 

Pe^etum,  Pesto. 

Palästina,  Palestine. 

Palibothra  (Palimbothra),  Palna. 

Palks  Strasse,  Palk's  Straits. 

Palmyra  oder  Tadmor,  Palmyra  or  Tadmor. 

Palus  Maotis,  Sea  of  Azov. 

Pamphylia,  S.  E.  Anadolia. 

Pandosia,  Mendicino. 

Pannonia,  Hungary. 

Pannonien,  Hungary. 

Panormus,  Raphti. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


CONTENTS. 


XT 


OL089AKT — {Continued.) 
Panticapaum,  Kertch. 
Papklagofäa,  N.  E.  Anadolia. 
Paphos,  Bafla. 
Paratonium,  Al  Bareton. 
Parisii,  nation  in  North  France. 
Pturopanu9U9  Geh.,  Hindoo  Kooeh. 
Parthia,  Province  in  Khorasan  and  N.  E.  Irak. 
Partkiecut  (Tibiscus),  Theias  River. 
Pa9orgad4B  (Persepolia),  Istakar. 
PaetonOf  Fasten. 
Patagonien,  Patagonia. 
Patagomscike  Kette,  Patagonian  Cordilleras. 
Pax  Julia,  Beja. 
PeUa,  AllahkilissU. 
Peloponee,  Morea. 
Pelunum,  Tineh. 
Penniniaehe  Alpen,  Pennine  Alps. 
Pentapolie,  Ghittagong. 
Pentland  Strasse,  Pentland  Firth. 
Pergamua,  Pergamo. 
Pere.  Golf,  Gulf  of  Persia. 
Persien,  Persia. 
Persische  Parasangen,  wov.  25  a.  d.  Gr.,  Persian 

Parasangs,  25  to  the  degree. 
Persischer  M.  B.,  Gulf  of  Persia. 
Peruanische  Strömung,  Peruvian  Current. 
Petschenegen,  Petahenegs  (Tartar  tribe). 
Peucetia,  Terra  di  Ban. 
Peueiner,  Peucini  (tribe  in  Galicia,  &c.). 
Phanagoria,  Tmutarakan. 
Pharsalus,  Pharsala. 
Pharselis,  Tekrova. 
Phazania,  Fezzan. 
Philippi,  Filibah. 
Philippinen,  Philippine  Islands. 
Philippopel,  Philippopolis. 
Phoeaa,  Fokies. 

Phryger,  Phrygians  (nation  in  Anadolia). 
Physikalisehe  Karte  von    Europa    ( — Afrika, 

—  Asien,  —  Nord  America,  —  Süd  Amerika), 
Physical  map  of  Europe   ( — Africa,  — Asia, 

—  North  America,  —  South  America). 
Pictavi  (nation  in  Gallia  Aquitania). 
Picten,  Picts  ^nation  in  Scotland). 
Pielis  See,  Lake  of  Pielis. 

Pindus  Mn.,  Agrafa  and  Smocovo  Mountams. 

Pisidia,  S.  E.  Anadolia. 

Pithyusen  (Pityuss),  Islands  of  Iviza,  Formen- 
tera,  &lc. 

Pitffus,  Soukoum. 

Pitkarainen,  Pitcaim's  Island. 

Plateau  v.  (or  von)  stands  for  "  Plateau  of  be- 
fore the  respective  names. 

Plateau  von  Ost  Galixien,  Plateau  of  East  Galicia. 

Plattkopf  Indr.,  Flathead  Indians. 

Podolien,  Podolia. 

PoUtnen,  PoIsbusb  (Slavonic  tribe). 

Polargr.  d.  Bäume,  Polar  boundary  of  trees. 

Polargr.  d.  Moose  u.  Beeren,  Polar  boundary  of 
mosses  and  berries. 

Polargr.  d.  Obstbaumes,  Polar  boundary  of  fruit 
trees. 

Polargr.  d.  (Elbaumes,  Polar  boundary  of  the 
olive  tree. 

Polargr.  d.  Weinstocks,  Polar  boundary  of  the 
grapevine. 

Päargrenxe,  Polar  boundary. 

Peiargrenxe  d.  Banane  u.  d.  tropischen  Getrei- 
des, Polar  boundary  of  the  banana  and  of  the 
tropical  grain. 


GLOSSiBT — {Continued.) 

Polargrenze  des  Getreides,  Polar  boundary  of 
grain. 

Polargrenze  d.  Palmen,  Polar  boundary  of  palm 
trees.  • 

Polargrenze  d.  Weinstocks  u.  d.  europäisch, 
trop,  Getreides,  Polar  boundary  of  the  grape 
vine  and  of  the  European  tropical  grain. 

Polar  Kreis,  Arctic  (or  Antarctic)  Circle. 

Polen,  Poland. 

Polesiens  Urwälder  u.  Sümpfe,  Primitive  forests 
and  swamps  of  Poleeia  (now  Minsk  in  Russia). 

Pommern,  Pomerania. 

Pompelo,  Pampeluna. 

Pont.  Eux.  (Pontus  Euzinus),  Black  Sea. 

Pontinische  In.,  Ponza  Islands. 

Pontus,  N.  E.  Bulgaria. 

Pontus  Euxinus  {Schwarzes  Meer),  Black  Sea. 

Porata,  Pruth  River. 

Portland  Sjp.,  Portland  Point. 

Prag,  Prague. 

Prairien,  Prairies. 

Premnis,  Cas.  of  Ibrim. 

Pr.  Holland,  Prussian  Holland  (district  in  East 
Prussia). 

Preussen,  Prussia. 

Preussische  Landestheile,  Prussian  districts. 

Preussische  Höhe,  Prussian  Plateau. 

PropA^ana  (Prophthasia),  Dookahak. 

Propontis,  Sea  of  Marmora. 

Pskow,  Pskov. 

Psyllen,  Psylli  (tribe  in  N.  Africa). 

PtoUmaische  Erdtafel,  Map  of  the  world  accord- 
ing to  Ptolemy. 

Ptolemäische  Stadien  wovon  700  auf  den  Grad, 
Ptolemaean  stadia  700  to  the  degree. 

Pudosh,  Pudog. 

Pura,  Pureg. 

Purpur  Ins.,  Purpureas  Insulas  (probably  Salvage 
Islands). 

Putea,  Fuentes. 

Putziger  Wiek,  Bay  of  Putzig, 

Pyrenmi,  Pyrenees. 

Pyrenäen,  Pyrenees. 

Pyreneos  Geb.,  Pjrrenees. 

Quaden,  Quadi  (nation  in  Hungary). 

Quadra  u.  Vancouvers  I.,  Vancouver's  Island. 

Querimbe,  Querimba. 

Rathenow,  Rathenau. 

Ratiaria,  Arcer  Palanka. 

Rauhe  Alp,  Rauhe  Alpe. 

Rauraei,  Tribe  in  Abace. 

Rch.  d.  Picten,  Kingdom  of  the  Picts. 

Ree  See,  Lake  Ree. 

Regen  Fluss,  Rain  River. 

Regen  S.,  Rain  Lake. 

Regenloses  Gebiet,  Rainless  territory. 

Regensburg,  Ratisbon. 

Reich  der  Aglabiten,  Kingdom  of  the  Aglabites 
(djmasty  of  Ibrahim  ben  Aglab). 

Reich  Alexanders  des  Grossen,  Empire  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great. 

Reich  der  Bulgaren,  Empire  of  the  Bulgarians. 

Reich  der  Chazaren,  Empire  of  the  Chazares 
(nation  in  East  Russia). 

Reich  Karls  d.  Gr.,  Empire  of  Charlemagne. 

Reich  des  Porus,  Kingdom  of  Poms  (in  India). 

Reich  der  Seleuciden,  Kingdom  of  the  Seleucidas 
(dynasty  of  Seleucus). 


Digitized  by 


Google 


m 


CONTENTS. 


ahossAXY — {Continued.) 

Seieh  der  Slavent  Empire  of  the  SlaTonhiw. 

Reiche  d.  AngeUtaxen,  ÄDglo-Sazon  Poaseaaons. 

Reiche  d.  Briten,  Possessions  of  the  Biitons. 

Reiche  d.  Dänen,  PoasessioDs  of  the  Dance. 

Reiche  d.  Scoten,  Possessions  of  the  Scots. 

Rei»  vnd  Kaffee,  Rice  and  Coffee. 

Reis  und  Maie,  Rice  and  Indian  Com. 

Republik  Genua,  Republic  of  Genoa. 

Republik  Venedig,  Republic  of  Venice. 

Reue,  Reuss. 

Reval,  Revel. 

Rha  (Wolga],  Rha  (Volga). 

Rhätisehe  Alpen,  Rbstian  Alp8. 

Rhag<e,  Rha. 

Rhein,  Rhine  River. 

Rhein  Bayern,  Rhenish  Bavaria. 

Rhegium,  Reggio. 

Rheime,  Reims. 

Rhenue,  Rhine. 

Rhoda,  Rosas. 

Rhodanu»,  Rhone  River. 

Rhodus,  Rhodes. 

Rhön  Gh.,  Hohe  RhcBne  Mountains. 

Rhoxolanen,  Rhoxolani  (Sarmatian  tribe). 

Römiech  Deutsches  Kaiserreich,  Romano-Ger- 
manic Empire. 

Römische  Meilen  wovon  75  auf  den  Grad,  Ro- 
man miles  75  to  the  degree. 

Römisches  Reich,  Roman  Empire. 

Römisches  Reich  zur  Zeit  Constantins  des 
Grossen,  Roman  Empire  in  the  time  of  Con- 
stantino the  Great. 

Roggen,  Gerste,  Weitxen,  Rye,  Barley,  Wheat. 

Roggen  u.  Gerste,  Rye  and  Barley. 

Roggen  und  Weitxen,  Rye  and  Wheat. 

Rmn,  Rome. 

Roma,  Rome. 

Rolhes  od.  Erythräisehes  Meer,  Red  Sea. 

Rothes  Meer  od.  Arabischer  Meerb,  Red  Sea. 

Rotomagus,  Rouen. 

Roxolanen,  Rozolani  (Saimatian  tribe). 

Rückkehr  der  Flotte  unter  Nearch,  Return  of 
the  fleet  under  Nearchus. 

Rücklaufende  Strömung,  Counter  current. 

Ruinen  v.  Babylon,  Ruins  of  Babylon. 

Ruinen  von  Carthago,  Ruins  of  Carthage. 

Ruinen  v.  Palmyra,  Ruins  of  Palmyra. 

Ruinen  v.  Susa,  Ruins  of  Susa. 

Rumanier,  Rumini  (tribe  in  Bulgaria,  Moldavia, 
and  MoraviaV 

Rusadir,  Melilla. 

Rusicada,  Stora. 

Ruspa,  Shea. 

Russische  Werste  104.3  auf  den  Grad,  Russian 
Wersts  104.3  to  the  degree. 

Russisches  America,  Russian  America. 

Russlands  beste  Kornfelder,  Russia's  best  grain- 
fields. 

Rusucurrum,  Koleah. 

Saas  Thai,  Saas  Valley. 

Sabier,  Sabians  (St.  John  the  Baptist's  disciples ; 

sect  in  Persia). 
Sachalites  Golf,  Bay  of  Segei. 
Sachsen,  Saxony. 

Sächsische  Schweiz,  Saxonian  Switzerland. 
Saguntum,  Murviedro. 
Saima  S.,  Lake  Saim. 
Saker,  Sakr. 
Salamis,  Coulouri. 


Salmantica,  Salamanca. 

Salomons  Ins.,  Solomon  lalands. 

Saloniki,  Salonica. 

Salz  Seen,  Salt  Lakes. 

Salz  Wüste,  Salt  Desert. 

Sambus,  Chumbul  River. 

Samcjeden,  Samoyedes. 

Sajnoa  oder  Schiffer  In.,  Navigaton*  Islands. 

Samosate,  Samisat. 

Samsun,  Samsoun. 

Sandw.  Cobi  od.  Hanhai,  Desert  of  Cobi. 

Sand  Wüste,  Sandy  Desert. 

Sangarius,  Sakariah  River. 

Sarazenen,  Saracens  or  Moors. 

Sardes,  Sart. 

Sardica,  Sophia. 

Sardinien,  Sardinia. 

Sariphi  Geb.,  Shar  Mountains. 

Sarmata,  Sarmatiaxis. 

Sarmatien,  Saimatia. 

Sarmatische  Tiefebene,  Sarmatian  Lowland  (East 

Prussia,  Poland,  and  part  of  Russia). 
Sarmatisches  Meer,  Sarmatian  Sea  (part  of  the 

Baltic). 
Sarnia,  Island  of  Guernsey. 
Satala,  Shaygran. 
Sauromaten,  Sarmatians. 
Saxen,  Saxony  (Saxonians,  Saxons). 
Scandinavisehes  Meer,  Scandinavian  Sea. 
Schetland  In.,  Shetland  Islands. 
Schlangen  Indr.,  Snake  Indians. 
Schlesien,  Silesia. 

Sehloss  V.  Romelli,  Romelli  Castle. 
Schnee  Alp,  Snowy  Alpe. 
Schotland,  Scotland. 
Schwäbische  Alp,  Suabian  Mountains. 
Schwarzes  Meer  52  t.  tief.  Black  Sea  52  toiaes 

deep. 
Schwarzw.  (aid).  Black  Foreit. 
Schweden,  Sweden. 
Schweden,  Norwegen  und  Dänemark,  Sweden, 

Norway,  and  Denmark. 
Schwedische  LandestheÜe,  Swedi^  districts. 
Schweiz,  Switzerland. 
Sclaven  K  (üste).  Slave  Coast. 
Scodra,  Scutari. 
Scordisci,  tribe  in  Slavonia. 
Scythopolis,  Bysan. 
Scupi,  Uskup. 
Scylacium,  Squillace. 
See,  Sea  or  Lake. 
See  Alpen,  Maritime  Alps. 
See  Alpen  von   Californien,  Maritime  Alps  of 

California. 
See  Alpen  der  Nord  West  Küste,  Maritime  Alp0 

of  the  N.  W.  Coast. 
See  Arsissa,  Lake  Van. 
See  Küsten  Kette  v.  Venezuela,  Sea  coast  moim- 

tain  chain  of  Venezuela. 
See  Likari,  Lake  Likaris. 
Seehunds  B.,  Seal's  or  Shark's  Bay. 
Seeland,  Zealand. 
Seemeilen  20  auf  den  Grad,  Sea  miles  20  to  the 


Segobriga,  Segorbe. 
Seliger  S.,  Lake  Seligero. 
Selinus,  Vostizza  River. 
Senegambien,  Senegarobia. 
SenoraUia  (Lugdunensis  quarta).  Isle  of  France 
and  Champagne. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


CONTENTS. 


ztM 


Setnu,  Shannoii  Rirer. 

Septentrio  {N^rd),  Noitb. 

S^timaiien,  Septimani  (tribe  in  Ltngaedoc). 

SerÜen,  Servia. 

Se9ttmu9,  Amasaerah. 

Setuval,  Setubal. 

Seveimen,  CeTonnee  Mountains. 

SefMcheüen  Int.,  Seycbelle  Islanck 

Shetland  Inteln,  Shetland  Islands. 

Shin  See,  Shin  Lake. 

SHciUa,  Sicily. 

Sidodona,  Sbenaas. 

Sidon,  Sayda. 

Si^enhürgen,  Transyhrania. 

Si^enhürgUehet  Plateau,  Plateau  of  Transyl- 

Tania. 
Siena,  Sieona. 
Siga,  Takombreet 
Signia,  SegnL 
SO,  SUe  Rirer. 
Simferopol^  TaniMa. 
Simmen  Thal,  Simm  Valley. 
Singaglia,  Sinigaglia. 
Singttra,  Sinjar. 
Singidunum,  Beigrade. 
Siniope,  Sinub. 
Sinuo  Arabieuo,  Red  Sea. 
SirtniuM,  Alt  Schabacz. 
Sioeia,  Sziszek. 
Sitacus,  SiU  Rhegian  River. 
SUife,  Seteef. 
Skagerak,  Skager  Rack. 
Skageotrandobugt  u.  HandeUted,  Skager  Beach 

^y  and  Commercial  Town. 
Skandien  (Seandia),  Sweden. 
Skythen,  Scythians  (nation). 
Skythim  (Scythini)»  probably  Saraoei»  in  Anne- 

nia. 
Shoen,  SlaTonians. 
Slaoonioeho  MiUtair  Grenxt,  Slavonian  military 

frontier. 
Slowenen,  Wends  (Slavonio  nation). 
Sogdiana,  Great  Bnkaria. 
Soedianien  (Sogdiana),  Great  Bnkaria. 
Solanue  {0»t),  East. 
Soledad  od.  Ott  L,  Soledad  or  Eastern  Island 

(Falkland  laUnds). 
SoU,  Mezetlu. 

Soraben,  Soibi  (Slavonic  tribe), 
i^an.  Mark,  Spanish  mark  (modern  Catalonia, 

Navarre,  and  part  of  Arragonia). 
Spanien,  Spain. 
Speier,  Speyer. 
i^letum,  Spoleto. 

St.  George  Kanal,  St.  George's  Channel. 
Str.  Johann,  St.  John. 
Staaten  der  Mexieameohen  Union,  States  of  the 

Mexican  Union. 
Staaten  der  Nordamerikanioehen  Union,  States 

of  the  North  American  Union. 
Staatenland,  Suten  Island  (S.  A.). 
Stadt  der  Geta,  City  of  the  Gets. 
Stalaktiden  Grotte,  Stalactite  Grotto. 
Steiermark,  Styria. 

Str.  V.  (Straeee  von)  stands  for  '*  Straits  of  be- 
fore toe  respective  names. 
S^nbe^e  Erdiafel,  Map  of  the  World  according 

to  Strabo. 
Straeoe  «.  Calaie,  the  British  Channel. 
Strom  und  GebirgO'Sy&tem  ton  Mitteleuropa, 


QhomAMY^CMUimued.) 
River  and  Mosntam  System  of  Ceatral  Es- 
rope. 

Südamerika,  South  America. 

Süd  Atlantieche  Strömung,  South  Atlantic  Cur- 
rent 

Süd  Cap,  South  Cape. 

Süd  Georgien,  South  Georgia. 

Südl.  Continent,  Southem  Continent. 

Sudl.  Grenze  des  Weinetocke,  Southem  boundary 
of  the  grape  vine. 

Südliehe  Verbindunge  Strömung,  Southem  Con- 
necting Current. 

Südlicher  Polarkreie,  Antarctic  Circle. 

Süd  oder  Neu  Georgien,  South  or  New  Georgia. 

Süd  Sehetland,  New  South  Shetland. 

Süd  Weet,  South  West. 

Sümpfe  in  gleicher  Höhe  m.  d.  Ocean,  Swamps 
on  a  level  with  the  ocean. 

Sumpf,  Swamp. 

Sund,  Soimd. 

Sundia  See,  Sea  of  Sunda. 

Sunda  Strasee,  Straits  of  Sonda. 

Sueiana,  Khnziwtan  and  Lonristan. 

SwiUy  See,  Lake  Swilly. 

Sgbarie,  Cochyle  River. 

^acuea,  Syracuse. 

Sifrdaria,  Sir  lUver. 

iS^rrieji,  Syria. 

Sgriech  Arabische  Wüete,  Syro- Arabian  Desert. 

Sifrioche  Wüete,  Syrian  Desert. 

S!frUe,  GuHo(  Sidn. 

^tika  (Sell  or  Psylli),  in  Tripolis. 

Tabor,  Mt.  Tor. 

Tabraca,  Tabaroa. 

Tacape,  Cabes. 

Tafelland  von  Armenien  350  f.,  Armenian  Pla- 
teau 250  toises. 

Tafelland  von  Iran  650  I.  üb,  d.  Meere,  Plateau 
of  Iran  650  toises  above  the  level  of  the  eea. 

Tafelland  v.  Mexico  od.  Anahuac,  Plateau  of 
Mexico  or  Anahuac. 

Taifalen,  Taifale  (tribe  on  the  Danube). 

TVyo,  Tagus  River. 

TaminnD,  Tambov. 

Tameoie,  Thames  River. 

Tanaie  (Danaber),  Don  River. 

T(spe,  Bostam. 

Tapeo  Ind.,  Tappe  Indians. 

Taprobana,  Ceylon. 

Tarnowitxer  Höhe,  Plateau  of  Taraowitz. 

Tareue,  Tersooe. 

Tarum,  Tarem. 

Tatra  Gebirg,  Tatra  Mountains  (part  of  the  Car- 
pathian Ms.). 

Taurica,  Crimea. 

Taurien,  Tauria. 

Tauriecher  Cheroon,  Crimea. 

Taxila,  Attock. 

Toy  Mündung,  Firth  of  Tay. 

TeaU,  Chieti. 

Telmieeue,  Macry. 

Tenerifa,  Tenerifie. 

Termeeeue,  Schenet. 

Teufels  Inteln,  Devil's  Islands. 

Thapoacue,  Der. 

Thebaie,  Upper  Egypt 

Theben,  Thebes. 

ThebunU,  Melhafa. 

Themse,  Thames  River. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


xrm 


CONTENTS. 


auoesAMY^CotUinuid.) 

TkerwingeTf  Thervingi  (Gothic  tiibe). 

ThessalonicOf  Salonica. 

Thracia,  Rumilia. 

Thrakien  (Thracia),  Rumilia. 

Thuner  See,  Lake  of  Thim. 

Tiberit,  Tevere  River. 

Tief  Sudan,  Low  Soudan. 

Tiefland  von  Afrika,  Lowlands  of  Africa. 

Tingis,  Tangiere. 

Tisehii,  Tisheet. 

Tiiianua,  Tezzano. 

Titicaea  See,  Lake  Titicaca. 

Todies  Meer,  Dead  Sea. 

Toletum,  Toledo. 

Tomi,  Tomisvar. 

Tomeo  See  u.  Elf,  Tornea  Lake  and  River. 

Torres  Strasse,  Torres'  Strait. 

Toscana,  Tuscany. 

'Toskanisches  Hockland,  Tuscan  Highlands. 

Transylvanische  Alpen,  Transylvanian  Alps. 

Trapexunt,  Trebisonde. 

Trapezus,  Trebisonde. 

Tremitische  In.,  Tremiti  Islands. 

Tridenium,  Trento. 

Trier,  Treves. 

Triest,  Trieste. 

Trileucum,  Ortegal. 

Troglodyten,  Troglodytes  (tribe  on  the  Red  Sea). 

Tschad  See,  Lake  Tchad. 

TscherenUssen,  Tchermisses  (t'innish  tribe  in 
Russian  Asia). 

Tscherkessien,  Circassia. 

Tschemomorische  Kosaken,  Cimomorian  Cos- 
sacks. 

Tschuktsehen,  Tchookches  (tribe  in  N.  E.  Asia). 

Türkei,  Turkey. 

Türkisch  Croatien,  Turkish  Croatia. 

Tunes,  Tunis. 

Tungusen,  Tungouski  (nation  in  Asia). 

Turini,  Turin. 

Turkmanen,  Turcoman  (Tartar  tribe). 

Tusculum,  Frascati. 

Tyana,  Kiliss  Hissar. 

l)fras,  Dniestr  River. 

Tyras  Donaster,  Dniestr  River. 

Tyroler  Alpen,  Tyrol  Alps. 

Tfprhenen,  Tyrrheni  (Pelasgian  tribe). 

Tyrrhenisches  Meer,  Tyrrhenian  Sea  (part  of  the 
Mediterranean). 

Tffrus,  Soor. 

Umgebung  von  Neu  York,  Vicinity  of  New 
York. 

Unerforschte  AJpengebirge,  Unexplored  Moun- 
tain Region. 

Ungarisches  Erzgebirge,  Hungarian  Eragebirge. 

Ungarn,  Hungary. 

Unterirdische  Wasserleitung,  Subterranean  Aque- 
duct. 

UnxugängUehe  Felsenkuste,  Inaccessible  rocky 
coast. 

Ural  Gebirge,  Oural  Mountains. 

Uralische  Kosaken,  Oural  Cossacks. 

Urumija  See,  Lake  Urom^a. 

17m,  Ouse  River. 

Ursprung  der  Peruanischen  Küsten  Ström,  kal- 
ten Ivasurs,  Origin  of  the  Peruvian  cold  water 
current. 

Uxsn,  Cumanen  oder  Polowxer,  Utses  Camanes 
or  Polovzi  (Mongolian  .tribe). 


GLossimT — {Continusd.) 
Vandalen,  Vandals  (Gothic  tribe). 
VaniUe  m.  Cacao,  Vanilla  and  Cacao. 
Vaterland  des  Kaffeebavmes,  Country  of  the 

Coffee  tree. 
Veldidena,  WUden. 
Venedicus  Sinus,  Gulf  of  Venice. 
Venedig,  Venice. 

VenetiB,  Venetee  (tribe  in  Britany). 
Veneten,  Venetee  (tribe  in  Britany). 
Venetia,  Venice. 

Vereinigte  Staaten,  United  States. 
Verschiedene  Ind.  Stämme,  Various  Indian  tribet. 
Vesuv,  Vesuvius. 
Vgb.  Comaria,  Cape  Comorin. 
Vgb.  Maceta,  Cape  Musseldom. 
Vgb.  Prionotus,  Point  Comol. 
Vgb.  Syagros,  Cape  Ras  Vire. 
Viadrus,  Oder  River. 
Viennensis,  Dauphiny. 
Vienoaldstädter  See,  Lake  of  Lucerne. 
Vindhy  Kette,  Vindhya  Mountains. 
Vindobona,  Vienna. 
Virunum,  Waren. 
Visurgis,  Weser  River. 
Vogesen,  Vosges  Mountains. 
Volhynien,  Volh3mia. 
Volubilis,  Pharaoh's  Castle. 
Vorder  Rhein,  Fore  Rhine  (one  of  the  rivalets 

tributary  to  the  Rhine). 
Vorgeb  Aromata,  Cape  GuardafuL 
Vorgeb  Simylla,  Cape  Simylla. 
Votiaken,  Wotyaks  (Finnish  tribe). 

Wälder  S.,  Lake  of  the  Woods. 

Wahabiten,  Wahabites  (Mahomedan  sect). 

Walachei,  Walachia. 

Waldai  Geh.,  Waldai  Mountains. 

Walfisch  B.,  Whale  Bay. 

Wallaehisches  Tiefland,  Wallachian  Lowlanda 

Wallenstadter  See,  Lake  of  WallensUdt. 

Wan  See,  Lake  Van. 

Wanger  Oge,  Wanger  Oog. 

Warasdiner  Geb.,  Warasdin  Mountains. 

Warschau,  Warsaw. 

Weichsel,  Vistula  River. 

Weichsel  Niederung,  Vistula  Iiowlands. 

Weisse  Bai,  White  Bay. 

Weisse  Berge,  White  Mountains. 

Weisse  Bulgaren,  White  Bulgarians. 

Weisses  Meer,  White  Sea. 

Weisses  Vorgeb.,  Cape  Blanc. 

Weitxen,  Gerste  u.  Hafer,  Wheat,  Barley  and 
Oats. 

Weitxen,  Mais  und  BaumtDoüe,  Wheat,  Indian 
Com  and  Cotton. 

Weitxen  u.  Baumwolle,  Wheat  and  Cotton. 

Weitxen  u.  Reis,  Wheat  and  Rice. 

Wendekreis  des  Krebses,  Tropic  of  Cancer. 

Wendekreis  des  Steinbocks,  Tropic  of  Capri- 
corn. 

Wenden,  Wends  (Slavonic  tribe). 

Wenem  See,  Lake  Wenem. 

Wesegothen,  Visigoths  (nation). 

Weser  Gb.,  Weser  Mountains. 

West  Gats,  West  Ghauts. 

West  Indien,  West  Indies. 

West  Preussen,  West  Prussia. 

West  Pyrenäen,  West  Pyrenees. 

West  Russland,  West  Russia. 

Wester  W.,  Wester  Wald. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


CONTENTS, 


XIX 


OLOSSABT — (C9ntimud,) 

WestUeh«  Länge  von  Pari»,  W.  Longitiide 
from  Paris. 

WestpkaUn,  Weetphalia. 

Weitem  See,  Lake  Wettern. 

Wien,  VienDa. 

WUde  Völker,  Savage  nations. 

Windtafel  der  Griechen  nach  Arittoieles,  Wind- 
chart  of  the  Greeks  according  to  Aristotle. 

Windtafel  der  Römer  nach  Vitruviu»,  Wind- 
ehart of  the  Romans  according  to  Vitruvius. 

Winipeg  S.,  Winnipeg  Lake. 

WinipigBoe  S.,  Lake  Winnipigoos. 

WogiUen,  Woguls  or  Uranfi  (Finnish  tribe). 

Wolga,  Volga  Rirer. 

Wuete  al  Ahkaf,  Desert  Al  Ahkaf. 

Wuete  Hochebene,  Sandy  Plateau. 

Wueie  Kharaem,  Desert  of  Kharasm 

Wuete  Sahara,  Desert  of  Sahara. 

Wuete  Sahel,  Desert  of  Sahel. 

WueUo  Arabien,  Arabia  Deeerta. 

Zacfnthus,  Zante. 
Zadraeaeta,  Goorgaun. 
Zogrtc«  Geb.,  Aiagha  Mountains. 
Zeihn  u.  Elfenbein  K.,  Ivory  Coast. 
Zalieea,  Tiflis. 
Zana  See,  Lake  Zana. 
Zembre  S.,  Lake  Zembe. 
Zariaepa  später  Baetra  (Zariaspa,  later  Baetra)» 
Balkh. 


QLOOAMY^Continued.) 
Zeiton,  Zeitoun. 
Zenobia,  2«elebi. 
Zephyroe  (Weot),  West  wind. 
Zeretückelung  dee  Reiehee,  Diamembeiing  of  the 

£mpire. 
Zimmt,  Muekatnuee  m.    Gewürznelke,  Cinna- 
mon, Nutmeg,  and  Clove. 
Zoromba,  Dustee  River. 
Zucker,  Sugar. 

Zucker,  Ke^ee,  Thee,  Sugar,  Coffee,  Tea. 
Zucker  u.  Kaffee,  Sugar  and  Cofiee. 
Züricher  See,  Lake  of  Zurich. 
Zug  unter  Gottfried  von  BouiUon,  Crusade  under 

Godfrey  of  Bouillon. 
Zug  unter  Conrad  III.  u.  Ludwig  VIL,  Crusade 

under  Conrad  IIL  and  Iiouis  VII. 
Zur  unter  Ludwig  IX.  v.  Frankr.,  Crusade  un- 

der  Louis  IX.  of  France. 
Zug  unter  Friedrieh  Barbaroeea,  Crusade  under 

Frederick  Barbarossa. 
Zug  unter  Kaieer  Friedrieh  IL,  Crusade  under 

Emperor  Frederick  II. 
Ztig  unter  Richard  I.  u.  Fhil.  August,  Crusade 

under  Richard  I.  and  Philip  Augustus. 
Zufder  See,  Zuyder  Zee. 
Zwarte  Bge.,  Black  Mountains. 
Zweibrücken,  Bipont. 
Zwischen  Qo  und  IQo,  Between  Qo  and  IQo. 


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CONTENTS 


HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 


General  Introduction  to  History,            ...... 

rtnam 

173 

L  History  of  the  Ancient  World,        ...... 

174 

Rude  or  Non-Classic  Ages,     ...... 

174 

A.  From  Adam  to  Cyrus  (until  560  b.  c),  .            .            •            . 

174 

1.  The  %yptians  and  Ethiopians,            .            .            • 

.    175 

Internal  Condition  of  Egypt,            .            .            .            , 

177 

2.  The  Hebrews  or  Jews,            .             .            .            .            . 

180 

8.  Abyteinians,  Babylonians,  and  Medes, 

.     180 

4.  Persians,  Syrians,  and  Phrygians, 

.     180 

6.  Celts,  Scythians,  and  Sarmatians, 

.     181 

6.  Indians  and  Chinese, ..... 

181 

1,  Ethiopians,    ...... 

182 

8.  Arabians  and  Armenians,        .... 

.     182 

B.  From  Cyrus  to  Augustus  (560-530  b.  c), 

.     183 

1.  The  Parthians,            ..... 

.     183 

2.  The  Celts  and  Scythians,         .... 

.     183 

3.  The  Germans,             ..... 

.     184 

The  Classic  Ages,      ...... 

.     187 

1.  The  Greeks,  from  their  Settlement  to  the  Period  of  the  Roman 

Supremacy,    ...... 

.     187 

2.  The  Etruscans  and  Romans,       .... 

.     199 

3.  History  of  Rome,           ..... 

.     200 

4.  Rome  under  the  Emperors,         .... 

.     211 

Laws,  Institutions,  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Romans, 

.     214 

n.  History  of  the  Middle  Ages  (395-1500  A.  d.), 

.     225 

1.  The  Goths,            ...... 

.     228 

2.  The  Suevi, 

.     228 

8.  The  Gepid», 

.     229 

4.  The  Vandals, 

.     229 

5.  The  Marcomanni, 

.     230 

6.  The  Quadi, 

.     230 

7.  The  Heruli, 

.     231 

8.  The  Britons, 

.     231 

9.  The  Franks, 

.     232 

10.  The  Huns, 

.     232 

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CONTENTS. 


xn 


Bkiory— (Continued.) 

11.  The  Caledonians  (Rets),    .            .            .            .            , 

.    238 

12.  The  Anglo-vSaxons,            .            •            .            .            . 

.     234 

13.  The  Danes,            .             .             .            •            . 

.     234 

Second  Period  of  Mediaeval  History,  from  Charlemagne  to  the  coi 

mmenoe- 

ment  of  the  Crusades  (768-1096  a.  d.),  . 

.     234 

The  House  of  Hohenstaufen, 

.     246 

Chivalry,  Order  of  Knighthood,      .            .            •            , 

.     260 

The  Joust,  or  Tournament,             .            .            •            , 

.     262 

Heraldry, .,...., 

.     265 

The  Clergy  and  their  Influence, 

.    272 

The  Crusades,       ...... 

.    288 

m.  Ethnology  of  the  Present  Day,       .            .            .            .            , 

.     295 

Introduction,              ...... 

.     295 

The  People  of  Europe,            .            .            .            .            , 

.     802 

The  German  People,           .            .            .            .            , 

.     804 

The  Scandinavians,              .... 

.     829 

The  English  People,           .            .            .            .            , 

.     832 

The  Russians,         ...... 

.     835 

The  Inhabitants  of  the  Turkish  Empire, 

.     855 

The  Greeks,           ...... 

.     859 

The  Italians,           ..... 

.     860 

The  Spaniards  and  Portuguese,       .             .             .             . 

.     368 

The  Inhabitants  of  France,  Belgium,  and  the  Netherlands,  . 

.     865 

The  Nations  of  Asia, ..... 

.868 

The  Kurds,             ...... 

.     869 

The  Persians,         ...... 

.     370 

TheArahs,             ..... 

.     872 

The  Beludshis,       ..... 

.     876 

The  Afghans,         ..... 

.    876 

The  Hindoos,         ..... 

.    877 

The  Further  Indians,           .... 

.    882 

TheUsbeks,           ..... 

.    882 

The  Chinese,          ..... 

.     888 

The  Siamese,         ..... 

.     895 

The  Japanese,         ..... 

.     896 

The  Nations  of  Africa,            .            •            .            .            . 

.     398 

The  Moors,             ...... 

.     398 

The  Abyssinians,    ...... 

.    401 

The  Fezzanians  and  Bisherin,          .            .            .            < 

.     402 

The  Inhabitants  of  Egypt,  .             .            .             •             , 

.    408 

The  Berbers,          ...... 

.    405 

The  Negroes,          ...... 

.     405 

The  Inhabitants  of  America,   .             .            .            .            . 

.     420 

The  Esquimaux,     ...... 

.    422 

The  Greenlanders,  ...... 

.     424 

The  Indians  of  North  America,       .            .             .             . 

.     425 

The  Inhabitants  of  Central  America, 

.     488 

The  Indians  and  other  Inhabitants  of  South  America, 

.    489 

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CONTENTS. 


EÜinology— (  Continued,) 

The  Nations  of  Oceania^         .... 
The  Inhabitants  of  the  Caroline  or  New  Philippine  Islands, 
The  HawaTans  and  Sandwich  Islanders  in  general, 
The  New  Zealanders, 
The  Inhabitants  of  the  Society  Islands, 
The  Inhabitants  of  the  Amboynas, . 
The  Inhabitants  of  the  Philippines, 
The  Inhabitants  of  the  Marian  Islands, 
The  Inhabitants  of  the  Friendly  Islands, 
The  Inhabitants  of  the  Navigators*  Islands, 
The  Australians,  or  New  Hollanders, 


456 
460 
461 
463 
466 
468 
468 
470 
472 
478 
473 


CONTENTS  OP  THB  PLATES  (HI.  1— M  and  IT.  1—42) 


HISTORY    AND    ETHNOLOGY. 

«««  The  references  for  ezplanaüons  of  the  subjects  are  to  the  bottom  paging  of  the  text. 


A.  Ahcdeiit  Times  aito  Middle  Ages  (Plates 
in.  1—39). 


Fig. 


FLATB   1. 

Egypt. 
1.  The  court  of  the  dead» 
2-4.  DifTerent  trades» 
5.  Agriculture, 
S,  7.  Hunting  and  fishing, 

8.  Vintage,    . 

9.  King  in  his  chariot,    . 
10.  King  on  his  throne,  receiving  pre- 
sents,   

PLATE  2. 


178 
180 
180 
180 
180 
179 

179 


Figs.  1-3.  Egyptian  costumes. 

.    179 

it 

4.  Lybian  costume, 

.     179 

u 

5.  Chinese,    . 

.    181 

u 

6-14.  Assyrians,    . 

.    180 

u 

15,16.  Medes, 

.    180 

(« 

16-20.  Persians,      . 

.    180 

FLATS  3. 

Fig« 

.  1-4.  Egyptian  features  and  head- 

dresses, from  monuments, 

.    176 

it 

bah.  Heads  of  male  munmiies. 

.    176 

u 

6a6.  Heads  of  female  mummies, 

.    176 

u 

7.  Mummy  with  the  inner  fillets. 

178 

u 

8.  Mummy  with  the  exterior  cover. 

178 

u 

9-11.  Mummies  with  the  coffins. 

.    178 

u 

12.  Coffin  with  its  cover, 

178 

tt 

13, 14.  Embalmed  animals. 

.    178 

tt 

15, 16.  Vases, 

.    179 

M 

17-19.  Large  stone  vases. 

.    179 

U 

20a6.  Pitchers, 

.    179 

t* 

21,22.  Altars,         .        . 

.    179 

M 

23,24.  Chaii»,         .        . 

.    179 

t* 

25.  Folding  chair,  . 

.    179 

U 

26,27.  Thrones,      . 

.    179 

Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


PLATE  ^—(Continued.) 

28, 29.  Lounge  and  footstool. 

.    179 

30.  Knife,        . 

.    179 

31.  Royal  sceptre,   . 

.     179 

32,33.  Sphinxes,     . 

.     178 

34,35.  Obelisks,      . 

.     178 

36.  Entrance  to  the  Egyptian 

laby- 

rinth,  . 

.    176 

37-39.  Indian  pyramids,  ground 

[plan. 

elevation,  and  sectic 

)n,     .     181 

40.  Rock-tombs  near  Persepolii 

i,       .    180 

PLATE  4. 

1.  Carthaginian  king,     . 

.     182 

2.  Mauritanian,      . 

.     182 

3.  Persian  woman. 

.     180 

4-6.  Armenians,    . 

.     183 

7.  Arab, 

.    183 

8.  Phrygian,  . 

.    180 

9, 10.  Dacians,       . 

.     183 

11, 12.  Dacian  women. 

.     183 

13.  Syrian, 

.    180 

14.  Parthian,  . 

.     183 

15.  Celtiberian, 

.     183 

16.  Iberian  woman. 

.     184 

17.  British  woman, . 

.     184 

18-23.  Geiroans,     . 

.     164 

PLATS  5. 

1.  Grerman    dwelling,   . 

.     186 

2.  German     infant  plunged  i 

in  the 

river,  . 

.     186 

3.  German     wedding,    . 

.     186 

4-8.  Gauls,  . 

.    184 

PLATE   6. 

1, 2.  Egyptian  q>hinxes. 

.     178 

3-6.  Altars,  .        .        .        . 

.     179 

7.  Table,      . 

.    179 

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CONTENTS. 


XZUl 


PLATE  6 — (Continued.) 
FigB.  8-14a6.  Pitchers  and  vases,    .        .    179 
"    15-19.  Cupe  and  other  drinking  vea- 

sels»         ....    179 

«    20.  Bowl, 179 

«    31.  Dipper  (Sin^mUtm),  .  .179 

**  23a6.  Royal  necklace»  and  sceptre,  .  179 
«  23,24.  Ethiopian  royal  headgear,  .  182 
"    25.  Numidian         "  "  .     182 

*'    26.  Armenian  royal  headgear  (JTtda- 

rw), 182 

"  27.  Dacian  headgear,  ...  183 
"  28.  Sarmatian  headgear,  .  .  .181 
"  29.  Scythian  royal  tiara,  .  .  .181 
"    30,31.  Persian  royal  tiara,        .        .     180 

"    32.  Assyrian  tiara 180 

"    33-37.  Indian  caps,  .181 

"    38.  Assyrian  helmet,  .        .     180 

**    39.  Phrygian  cap,    .  .181 

"    40ab.  As^rrian  headgear,  .        .180 

"  41,456.  Indian  necklace  and  girdle, .  181 
*<    42.  Chinese  imperial  cap,  .        .     181 

"  43-45.  Fans  and  fly-brushes,  .  .  181 
*'    46.  Persian  covering  for  the  feet,  180 

"  47.  Persian  fan,  ....  180 
"  48-50.  Persian  drinking  vessels,  .  180 
**    51.  The  rock-tomb  of  Midas  in  Asia 

Minor,  .        .180 

«*  52.  Rock-tombs  at  Persepolis, .  .  180 
*<  53.  Monument  near  Tortosa  in  Syria,  180 
*'    54.  Absalom's  tomb  in  the  valley  of 

Josaphat,  near  Jerusalem,    .     180 
"    55-75a5.  Carthaginian  coins  and  me- 
dals,    .        .  .182 

ThATE   7. 

Grecian  Costumes. 

Figs.   I,2a6.  Maidens,     ....  196 

"      3.  Youth, 195 

•*      4.  Spinner, 196 

"      5.  Singer, 196 

"      6.  Amazon, 196 

"      7-13.  Women,  .        .196 

14.  Phrygian 181 


Fig. 


15, 16.  Greeks  from  Mount  Ida, 

17.  Philosopher, 

18.  Poet,         .... 

19.  Prefect,     .... 

20.  War-leader,       . 

PLATE  8. 

1.  Ceremony  at  a  Greek  wedding, 

2.  Greek  dancer,    . 

3.  Roman  funeral  ceremony,  . 

4.  Interior  of  a  Greek  dwelling, 

5.  The  Areopagus, 


196 
195 
195 
195 
195 


198 
196 
223 
197 
192 


Figs. 


PLATE  9. 

1-6.  Games  of  Greek  youth,  .        .    195 
7-24.  Olympian  games, .  194-196 


PLATE  10. 


Fig.     1.  The     philosophers'    garden 
Athens, 
**      2-34.  Various  Grecian    articles 

furniture, . 
-    35-39.  Various  Grecian  tools,  . 
*«    40-54.  Various  Grecian   articles 
toilet. 


at 


of 


of 


195 

197 
197 

197 


PLATE  11. 

Fig.    L  The  rock-tombs  of  Tarqmnii,     .     198 
"      2.  Thoseof  Assus,         .  .198 

"      3,4.  Those    of   Ceraaa,   and   their 

ground  plan,  .  .  .198 
"  5,6.  Tombs  of  Orcla;  elevation,  .  198 
"  7, 8.  The  same ;  the  ground  plan,  .  198 
"  9, 10.  Tombs  in  Telmessus ;  eleva- 
tion and  ground  plan,  198 
"     11,12.  Tomb  in  Falerii ;  ground  plan 

and  section,  .198 

"  13, 14.  Tomb  in  Agrigentum ;  eleva- 
tion and  section,  .  .198 
**  15.  Tomb  from  an  antique  vase,  .  198 
"  1&-20.  Urns  and  vases,  .  .  .198 
"  21-23.  Tripods,  ....  198 
"    24-34a6.  Greek  coins,      .        .        .193 

PLATE   12. 

Rome. 

Figs.   1-3.  Emperors,      ....    220 

"      4,5.  Empresses,     ....    220 

"      6,7.  Senators,  .     216,220 

"      8.  Philosopher,      .        .        .        .220 

**      9.  Lictor, 217 

"     10.  Citizen  and  his  wife,  .        .        .215 
"    11,12.  Youths,  .219 

"     13-16.  Women,      ....    220 
"    17-29.  Female  headgear,  .    220 

"    30-32.  Male  headgear,    ...    220 

PLATE   13. 

Rome. 
Fig.     1.  Exhibition  of  captives  in  the  fo- 
rum,     214 

'*      2.  Gladiators  in  the  theatre,    .        .    223 
"      3.  Gladiators  at  funerals,  .    224 

**      4.  Funeral  of  emperors, .  223, 224 

PLATE  14. 

Figs.   1-16.  Details  from  the  Circensian 

games,     ....    223 

PLATE  15. 
Fig.    1.  Combat  with  wild  beasts  in  the 
Coliseum   at    Rome,   under 
Domitian,    ....    223 
"      2-19.  Roman  consular  coins, .        .    219 
**    20-25.  Roman  imperial  coins,  .        .    219 

PLATE  16. 
Figs.   1-66.  Roman  furniture  and  tools,   216, 

220,221,224. 

PI^TE   17. 

Fig.  1.  The  street  of  tombs  in  Pompeii, .  224 

"  2-4.  Monuments,  ....  224 

"  5-7.  Sarcophagi,    ....  224 

'*  8-59.  Roman  furniture  and  tools,  .  221 

PLATE   18. 

fig.     1.  Gallic   women    of  the  Roman 

time, 221 

*'      2-6.  Bas-reliefs  from  Gaul,     .        .  221 

"      7, 8a6.*  Gallic  coins,        ...  221 

"      9, 10.  Gallic  sepulchral  urns, .        .  224 
«     11-39.  Various  Gallic  trinkets  and 

utensils,   ....  221 

"    40-42.  German    sepulchral  ums,     .  224 
"    43-56.  Coins,     medals,     and     ma- 
trices,     .                .     219,221 


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CONTENTS. 


PLATE  IS^Continued.) 

Figs.  57, 58.  Carthaginiaa  monuments,  .    224 

"    59, 60.  Gallic  monuments,       .  .221 

"    61.  The  Roman  oolunm  at  Cussy,  .    221 

PLATE  19. 
Fig.     1.  The  Apostles^  grotto  near  Jera- 

salem,         ....    224 
"      2.  The  catacombs  of  Syracuse,       .    224 
"      3-6.  The    catacombs    of    Naples; 
ground  plan ;  vertical  sec- 
tion of  a  part ;  horizontal 
section   of   another  part; 
the  chapel,       ...    224 
"      7-10.  The  caUcorabs  of  San  Mar- 
cellino  near  Rome ;  ground 
plan,  per^)ectiye  view,  and 
details,     ....    224 
"     11.  Plan  of  Platonia,  near  St.  Sebas- 
tian, before  the  walls  of  Rome,    224 
"     12, 13.  Tombs  of  Christian  martyrs,     224 
**     14.  Chrisüan  sarcophagus  from  the 

catacombs, ....  224 
"  15.  Chapel  of  St.  Hermes,  .  .  224 
"  16.  Chapel  of  St.  Agnes, .  .  .  224 
*'     17.  Plan  of  the  subterranean  church 

of  St  Hermes,  ...  224 
"  18.  External  elevation  of  the  subter- 
ranean church  of  St.  Prisca, .  224 
"  19.  Tabernacle  of  the  church  of  St. 
Nereus  and  St.  Achilleus, 
near  the  baths  of  Antoninus 
at  Rome,     ....    224 

PLATE  20. 

The  Tribes  of  the  Migration. 

Rg.    1.  Goth, 228 

*<      2.  Sueve, 228 

"      3.  Gepide 229 

"      4.  Vandal, 229 

"  5.  Marcoman,        ....  230 

"      6.  Quade, 230 

"      7.  Herulian, 231 

•*      8.  Briton, 221 

"      9.  Frank, 232 

"     10.  Hun, 232 

"     11-14.  Picts, 233 

"  15.  Anglo-Saxon  chieftain,      .        .  234 

"  1&-18.  Anglo-Saxons,     ...  234 

"  19.  Danish  king,      ....  234 

"  20.  Danish  warrior, .        ...  234 

"  21-23.  Danes,         ....  234 

PLATE  21. 

Costumes  of  Central  Europe. 
Fig.     1.  Queen  Clotilda  (6th  century),     .    232 
«      2.  Maid  of  honor,  .  .232 

"  3.  Frankish  leader,  ...  232 
«      4ab.  Frankish  warriors,  .  .    232 

"  5.  King  Clovis,  ....  232 
"      6.  Charlemagne,    .  .        .237 

"       7,8.  Prince    and    Princess    of   his 

house 237 

"  9, 10.  Noble  and  his  wife,  .  .  237 
"  11.  Leader  under  Charlemagne,  .  237 
«     I2<i6.  Warriors,       ....    237 

"     13.  Bishop, 237 

"     14.  Common  people,  .237 

"     15-18.  Frankish  king,  queen,  prince, 

and  princess,     .        .        .    239 


PLATE  ÜI— (Continued,) 

Figs.  19, 20.  Prebendary  and  nun,    .         .  239 

«    21.  Citizen, 239 

«'    22, 23.  Norman  king  and  queen,       .  239 

"    24-26.  Norman  nobles,    ...  239 

"    27, 28.  Norman  citizen  and  peasant,  239 

PLATE  22. 
Figs.   1.  2.  Clovis,  king  of  the  Franks,  and 

his  queen  Clotilda,    .         .  232 

**      3.  Fredegonda,  from  her  tomb,        .  232 

«      4.  Childebert,  king  of  the  Franks,   .  232 
**      5,6.  Statues  of  Females  from  the 

8th  century,     ...  237 
"      7.  Charlemagne,    ....  237 
"      8.  Charlemagne  receiving  the  sub- 
mission of  Wittekind,  .         .  237 
"      9-37.  Arms,  utensils,  and  furniture 

of  Charlemagne's  time,     .  258 
«    38.  Statue  of  Wiiteliind,  ...  237 
«    39-63.  Utensils  and  furniture  of  Char- 
lemagne's time,        .        .  258 


PLATE  23. 

1.  Travelling  of  Frankish  kings  in 

the  8th  century,   .        .        .258 

2.  Manner  of  transporting  wounded 

or  sick  princes  in  the  13th 
century,       ....    258 

3.  St.  Louis  administering  justice  in 

the  open  field,  .     293 

4.  Clerical  punishment  of   French 

princes  in  the  13th  century,  .    288 

5.  Vassals  paying  homage  to  their 

liege  lord,    ....    264 


Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


PLATE  24. 

1.  Full   armor  of  Emperor  Maxi- 
milian,        ....  264 

2.  Full  armor  of  King  Henry  VHL,  264 

3.  English  knight, .         .         .         .264 

4.  German  knights,         .         .         .  264 

5.  Squires, 264 

6.  English  knights  in  tournament,   .  264 

7.  German  knights  before  a  tourna- 
ment, .        .        .        .        .  264 

8.  Judge  of  the  tournament,    .        .  264 

PLATE  25. 

1.  Joust  with  lances  in  Germany,    .  264 

2.  Judicial  combat,  .  264 
"  3.  Combat  with  maces  in  France,  .  265 
"  4.  Judicial  combat  with  shields,  .  265 
"  5.  Combat  with  swords,  .  .  265 
*'  6.  Combat  with  lance  points, .  .  265 
"  7.  Carrying  the  ring  in  the  carrousel,  265 
**  8.  Squire  tailing  the  oath  of  knight- 
hood on  the  sword,      .        .  265 

PLATE  26. 
Fig.    1.  Young  knight  taking  the  solemn 

oath  on  the  altar,                  .  265 
"      2.  The    ceremony    of   dubbing    a 

knight,  .265 

PI.ATE  27. 
Figs.   1-13.  Forms  of  shields, .        .        .271 

"     14-32.  Colore  and  figures  of  shields,  270 

«*    33-43.  Divifflons  of  shields,      .        .  271 
«     64-86.  Different  crowns, .        .     268-271 

"    87-92.  Crests  of  shields,  .        .        .  267 


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CONTENTS. 


rLATB  S8. 

FlgB.  1-Sl.  Coats  of  aims,     .  .371 

PLATE  29. 

Figs.   1-31.  Coats  of  annB,     .  .373 

PLATE  30. 

The  Inquisition,         ...  382 

Fig.    I.  Searion  of  tlM  tribunal,  .  287 

**      3.  Tho  puniatinient  of  the  scourge,  .  288 

"      3.  Nailing  the  hand  to  the  post,      .  388 

*'      4.  The  punishment  of  strangling,    .  388 

"      5.  The  fire-torture  on  the  wheel,    .  388 

«*      6.  Auto-da-f(6  at  Seville,  .  388 

PLATE  31. 
The  Inquisition,                          .  383 
Rg.     1.  The  torture  of  the  rope  and  pul- 
ley,       385 

*      3.  The  water-torture,     ...  386 

"      3.  The  fire-torture,         ...  386 

**      4.  Auto-da-f%  in  Spain,  ...  388 

PLATE  33. 

Fig.  1.  St.  Augostin,     .                         .373 

••  3.  St.  Antony,                        .        .373 

«  3, 4.  Maronite  patriarch  and  monk,     373 

**  5, 6.  Armenian  patriarch  and  monk,    373 

"      7.  St.  BaaU, 374 

'<  8.  Greek  monk  in  Poland,      .        .    374 

"  9.  Jacobite  monk, .                 .        .    374 

**  10, 11.  Benedictine  monk  and  nun,  .    374 

«*  13.  Nun  of  Fontevrault,  .                 .375 

"  13, 14.  Augustine  monk  and  nun,     .    375 

**  15.  Prebendary  of  the  Congregation 

of  the  Lateran,    .  .375 

**  16.  Barefoot  Carmelite  monk,  .        .    376 

"  17.  Carmelite  nun,  .        .        .        .376 

'*  18.  Carthusian  nun,                  .        .    375 

"  19.  Calmalduensian  monk,       .        .    275 

"  20.  Valombrose  monk,     .        .        .278 

**  21.  Bemardine  nun,                           .275 

«*  22, 23.  Capuchin  monks, .        .        .276 

«  24.  Nun  of  St.  Clarissa,  .        .        .277 

"  25.  Sylvestrine  monk,      .        .        .    275 

**  26, 27.  Dominican  monk  and  nun,    .    276 

PLATE  33. 

Fig.    1.  Monk  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,     .  275 

**      3.  Ccelestine  monk,        .        .        .  275 

«      3.  Franciscan  monk,      .                 .  276 

**      4.  Ursuline  nun,     ....  277 
"      5.  Theaüne  nun,    .        .                 .277 

**      6.  Beguine, 277 

"      7.  Hospitaller    of   St.   Jaequet    du 

haut  pat,  ....  277 
'<  8.  Alezian  monk,  .  .  .278 
"  9.  Ambrosian  monk,  .  .  278 
**  10.  Religious  of  the  order  of  Jesus,  .  278 
**  11.  Annunciate  nun,  .  277 
"  13.  Nun  of'*  the  Immaculate  Concep- 
tion,"    377 

"    13.  Nun  of  "the  VisiUtion  of  St 

Mary,"        ....  378 
"    14.  Nun    of    "the    Word    become 

Flesh,"        ....  378 

**     15.  Franciscan  nun,                  .         .  376 
"    16.  Hospiul  nun  of  Hotel-Dieu  in 

Paris, 377 

"    17.  Jesuit, 377 

'<    18.  Jesuit  miadoDary  in  Chiiui»         .  377 


PLATE  33— (GMltUNMtf.) 

Fig.  19.  Sisler  of  Charity,       .  .377 

"    30.  Bethlehemite  monk,  .  .378 

"  31.  Priest  of  the  Oratory  in  France, .  377 
•*  S3.  Doctrinary,  ....  376 
"    33.  Bamabite  monk,        .  .877 

**    34.  Priest  of  the  pious  schools  of 

France  and  Belgium,  .  .  378 
"  35, 36.  Feuillantine  monk  and  nun,  .  375 
"    37.  MonkofSt.  Maurus,         .        .    375 

PLATE  34. 

Fig.     1.  Visitantine  nun  in  Flanders,        .  378 

"  3.  Nunof"iVblre-2)am«,"  .  .  378 
"      3.  Vmo("  Notre  Dame  de  la  Mi$i- 

rieorde,"  .  .378 

"      4.  Priest   of  the  Congregation    of 

•      Missions,     ....  378 
**      5.  Sister  of  Charity  of  St.  Vincent 

de  Paula,     ....  377 
"      6.  Hospital  nun  of  La  Fläche,        .  377 
"      7a.  Trappist  monk,                 .        .375 
"      7b.  Poor  volunteer  monk  of  Flan- 
ders,      378 

"      8.  Grand   master  of  the  Order  of 

Malta,         ....  379 

"  9.  Grand  cross  of  the  same,  .  .  379 
«  10.  Knight  of  Malta,  .379 
"     11.  Lady  of  the  Order  of  St.  John  of 

Jerusalem,  ....  380 

"    13.  Templar  in  house  dress,     .        .  280 

**     13.  Templar  in  war  costume,   .  280 

"  14.  Templar  in  full  armor  mounted,  280 
"     15.  Grand   master   of   the   German 

Knights,      ....  280 

"     16.  Knight  ofSt.Jamos  of  the  Sword,  280 

"     17.  Knight  of  the  Order  of  Calatrava,  280 

"     18.  Knight  of  the  OnJer  of  Alcantara,  280 

"     19.  Knight  of  St.  Avis  in  Portugal,  .  280 

"     20.  Knight  of  St.  Stephen,        .         .  280 

"     21.  Knight  of  the  Holy  Ghost,          .  280 

"    22.  HospiuUer  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  .  280 

"    23.  Religious  of  the  Order  d'Aubrac,  280 

PLATE  35. 

Freemasonry. 
Fig.     1.  Initiation  of  apprentice,      .        .    281 
«      2.  Initiation  of  master,   .        .        .281 
"      3.  Initiation  of  the  33d  degree  of  the 

Scottish  lodge,  .  .  .281 
"      4.  Funeral  of  a  companion,    .  281 

PLATE  36. 

Fig.     1.  Hawking  in  France,  .        .        .    265 
"      2.  Departure  of  crusaders  for  Pales- 
tine,     298 

PLATE  37. 
fig.    1.  Combat  between  crusaders  and 

Saracens,  ....  398 
"      3.  Harangue  to  crusaders  before  the 

walls  of  Jerusalem,  .    298 

PLATE  38. 
Fig.    1.  Return  of  crusaders  fi-om  Pales- 
tine,     294 

"      2.  Tournament  in  Germany,  .        .    264 
PLATE  39. 
Fig.     1.  Ground  plan  of  the  church  of  St. 
Mary  of  the  Manger  at  Beth- 
lehem,.       ...  294 


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IXVJ 


CONTENTS. 


FLATS  39— (Coflttflttfi.) 

Fig.  2.  Interiorofthechurohof  St.  Mary 
of  the  Manger  in  Bethlehem» 
with  the  entrance  to  the  cha- 
pel of  the  Holy  Grotto, 

**  3.  Interior  of  the  chapel  with  the 
Holy  Grotto, 

'*  4.  Ground  plan  of  the  church  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre  in  Jerusalem, 

**      5.  Portico  and  entrance  to  the  same, 

"  6.  Interior  of  the  same,  with  the 
Holy  Chapel,       . 


294 

294 

294 
294 

294 


B.  Ethnoloqt  of  the  Present  Day  (Plates 
IV.  1-42). 

FL  ate   1. 

The  Five  Principal  Races.  • 

1.  Caucanan  Race, 

Fig.  1.  Inhabitants  of  Central  Europe,   .    297 

«  2.  Greek,       ....     297,359 

"  3.  Turk,        .        .        .        .298,358 

"  4.  Cossack,   ....     298,340 

«  5.  Persian,     ....     298,370 

"  6.  Hindoo,    ....     299,377 

"  7.  Bedouin,    ....     298,374 

"  8, 9.  Cabyles,  .  .299 

2.  Mongolian  Race. 

Fig.  10.  Kalmuck, .  .  .     299,348 

•'     11.  Chinese,    .        .        .  .299,383 

»    12.  Samoyede,  .  .     299,355 

"     13.  Esquimaux,  .  .     299,423 

3.  Ethiopian  Race. 

Fig.  14.  Guinea  Negro,  .        .  .     301,405 

**     15.  Boussa  Negro,  .  .     301,405 

"    16.  Hottentot,  .     201,417 

«    23,24.  Papuas  (Australia),  .    459 

4.  American  Race. 

Figs.  17-^1.  Indians,      .        .        .        .300 

5.  Malay  Race, 
Fig.  22.  Native  of  Now  Zealand,     .        .    299 

FLATE  2. 

^Fig.    1.  Peasant  girl  from  Baden,    .        .    305 

2.  Peasant  ^om  the  Baden  highlands,    305 

3,4.  Inhabitants  ofthe  Black  Forest,    305 

5-9.  Wirtembergers,  305,306 

10-15.  Bavarians,    .  .306 

16,17.  Hessians,      ....    307 

18,19.  Inhabitants  of  Rhenish  Prussia,    309 

20.  Inhabitants  of  Brunswick,  .        .     310 

21,22.  Inhabitants  of  the  District  of 

Coblentz  (Rhine),         .        .    309 
««    23,24.  Inhabitants  of  Altenburg  (Sax- 
ony),   314 

FLATE  3. 

Fig.    1.  Inhabitants  of  the  District  of  Er- 
furt (Thuringia),  .  .314 
"      2.  Inhabitants  of  Holstein,      .        .    311 
**      3.  InhabitanU  of  the  District  of  Lü- 
neburg (Hanover),        .        .311 
«      4,5.  Inhabitants  of  the  District  of 

Hamburg,    .  .310 

«      6-8.  Inhabitants  of  East  Friesland 

(Hanover),  .  .311 

*<  9-11.  Inhabitants  of  Silesia,  .  .  318 
«*  12-15.  Inhabitante  of  Tyrol,  .  .  324 
"    16-19.  Inhabitante  of  Austria,  .         .    321 


FLATE  3— (Owi/tntieJ.) 
Figs.  20-22.  Inhabitante  of  Styria,    . 
'<    23.  Inhabitante  of  Bohemia,     . 
**    24.  Inhabitante  of  Illyria, 

FLATS  4. 

Upper  Division. 
Figs.   1-12.  The  German  gymnasium. 

Lower  Division. 
Figs.  lr-8.  Acrobatic  feate,     . 

FLATE  5. 
Figs.    1-^.  Equestrian  feate,   . 
FLATE  6. 


321 

319 


326 


Rgs 

1, 2.  Horse  races,  .... 

334 

(( 

3.  Masked  ball  at  Paris, 

FLATE  7. 

366 

Rg. 

1.  Grand  promenade  in  the  Elysian 

Relds  (Paris),      . 

366 

«< 

2.  Festival  at  St.  Petersburg, . 

338 

t€ 

3.  Public  meeting  in  England, 

FLATE  8. 

335 

Fig. 

1.  Naumachy  on  the  Seine  in  Paris, 

366 

ti 

2.  Rural  ball,         .... 

366 

<« 

3.  Illumination  in  Rome, 

FLATS  9. 

362 

Fig. 

1.  Spanish  bam,    .... 

364 

tt 

2.  Sardinian  bam, .... 

362 

ti 

3.  Sardinian  wedding,    . 

362 

«« 

4.  The  Bolero  (Spanish  dance),      . 

364 

M 

5.  Spanish  bull-fight,      . 

FLATS   10. 

Russian  Tribes. 

364 

Fig. 

1,2.  Strielzi, 

339 

** 

3.  Russo-Polish  guard,  . 

339 

*t 

4-7.  Inhabitante  of  Little  Russia,    . 

336 

tt 

8-10.  Fishermen  from  the  Volga,    . 

336 

tt 
ft 

11.  Inhabitante  of  Novgorod, 
12, 13.  Inhabitante  of  the  district  of 

336 

Twer, 

336 

tt 

14.  Inhabitante  of  the  Ukraine, 

336 

tt 

15.  Cossack  of  the  Don,  . 

340 

tt 

1 6    Inhabitante  of  the  district  of  Mos- 

cow,   

336 

Caucasian  Tribes. 
Figs.  17-^.  Circassians,.        ...     345 

23.  Turkoman,        .        .        .        .352 

24.  Abasian, 342 

25.  Mingrelian,  .  .348 

26.  Imeritian, 348 

27.  Georgian, 348 

FLATS   11. 

1,2.  Russian  rural  games,  .    337 

3.  Russian  public  bath,  .  .337 

4, 5.  Russian  large  and  small  knout,    336 


Figs. 


FLATS   12. 


Fig.     1.  Russian  sleighing  and  gliding  hill, 
"      2.  Russian  serfe  on  the  Don,  . 
"      3.  Russian  national  dance, 
"      4.  Festivity  at  Pergola  (Russia),     . 
"      5.  Lapland  winter  cabins, 

FLATE  13. 

Fig.  1  a-9.  Oriental  headgear, 


337 
341 
337 
339 
330 

358 


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CONTENTS. 


tt^nn 


TLATE  13— {Cowimued.) 
FSg.    d.  Syrüms,    . 
**      3.4.  Smyroeee,     . 
'<      5-8.  Maronites,     . 
"      9.  GirlofNftblonfl, 
"    10.  Naxareoefl, 
"    11-15.  Arabs,. 
"    16, 17.  AmieiuMW,  . 
"    18.  TarkofMaidiD, 


.  2a 

.  358 

.  358 

.  358 

.  358 
373.375 

.  358 

.  358 


Rg.  1. 

«  2. 

"  8. 

-  4. 

-  5. 
"  6. 


7LATX   14. 

Public  batbt  for  womeo  in  Twiktj,  358 

Interior  of  a  harem,  .                .  358 

Snpper  at  the  grand  vizier's,  .  358 
C^emony  in  the  sultan's  presence 

chamber,     ....  358 

Dance  of  the  derrises,  .  358 
Prayer  and  ablution  of  the  Maho- 

medans,  .  .358 

**      7.  Penitent  denrise,         ...  359 

FLAT!  15. 

FSgL  1-9.  Penians,  .370 

«    10.  Beludshis, 376 

«    11.  Usbek, 383 

V    13.  Afghan, 376 

•    13.  Kuid, 369 

•*    14.  Erghis, 350 

*•    15.  Imeritian, 348 

'*    16.  Georgian, 348 

"    17.  Mingielian,        ....  348 

"    18.  Caucasian  mountaineer,              .  343 

7LATB  16. 
Figs.   1-3.  Bashkirs    and    Kirghis    m 

camp,      .  .     350,351 

"      4-6.  Tartars,         ....  341 

"      7,8.  Kurds, 369 

"      9.  Penian  nobleman,     .                .  370 

TLATE  17. 

Rg.    1.  Wedding  in  Peraa,    ...  373 

"      3.  Persian  women  trayelling, .        .  373 

"      3.  Perrian  music,  ....  373 

*♦      4.  Persian  meal,     ....  371 
"      5.  Persian  game,    .                         .371 

"      6, 7.  Penian  punishments,               .  371 

PLATB  18. 
Fig.    1.  Rajah  of  Cutch  and  his  Yassals 

(English  East  Indies),  .        .  383 
"      3.  CaraTsn    in  Kattiavar  (English 

East  Indies),        ...  383 

PLATS  19. 

Rg.    1.  Arabian  nomades,                      .  375 

*•      3.  Bedouin  camp,  ....  375 

"      3, 4.  Arabian  music  and  dance,       .  376 

"      5, 6.  Travelling  in  Lahore,     .        .  376 

PLATS  30. 

Rgs.  1-3.  Indian  women  and  girls,        .  378 
"      4.  Slave  of  a  harem,      .                .378 

**      5.  Indian  harem,    ....  378 

**      6.  Car  festival  in  India, ...  380 

•<      7.  SaluUtion  of  the  Arabians,         .  376 
"      8.  Peman  funeral, .                         .373 

PLATE  31. 

Rg.    1.  Penitent  Hindoo  fanatic,     .        .  383 
"      3.  Burning  of  a  Hindoo  widow  with 

the  remains  of  her  husband,  .  379 


PLATS  3l^(GMlltlllietf.) 

Rg.    3.  Wedding  cereraoAy  of  the  Tan- 

garis  (Indian  gipsies),   .        «    380 
**      4.  Nuptial    procession  of  wealthy 

Hindoos,     ....    380 

PLATS  33. 
Rgs,  1-6.  Chinese, 
"      7.    Corean,  .... 
"      8.  Loo-Choo  islander,    . 
"      9-14.  Japanese,     . 


395 
398 
396 


390 
393 
384 


PLATS  33. 

fig.  1.  Tea  culture  in  China, 
"  3.  Silk  culture  in  China, 
"      3.  Chinese  rice-dealer,    . 

PLATS  34. 

Rg.    1.  Chinese  jug^ers,  .        .  393^ 

"      3.  Chinese  theatre,         ...  393 

«      3.  Chinese  punishment,  .  .  389 

PLATE  35. 

Rg.    1.  Chinese  puppet-show,  .    393 

"      3.  Chinese  mandarin  viaittng, .     387, 389 
**      3.  Chinese  quack, ....    393 

PLATS  36. 

Rg.    1.  Moorish  baths  in  Algiers, 


.  400 

3,3.  Moorish  noble  an^  merchant, .  400 

**      4.  Arabian  chief  in  Algiers,    .        .  400 

«<      5.  Jewess  of  Algiers,     .                .  399 

"      6.  Slave, 400 

-  7.  Lady  of  Cairo,  .  ...  405 
«  8.  GirlofBomou(Seoegal),  .  .  413 
<'      9.  Negro  king  of  Boussa,                .  413 

-  10, 11.  Girls  of  Timbuktoo  and  Sok- 

na(F«),     ....  413 

«    13.  Idolatry  in  Central  Afiica»         .  414 

PLATS  37. 
Rg.    1.  Egyptian  Fellahs,  .405 

*•      3.  Arabian  dames  and  tents,  .        .  405 

*•      3.  Bedouins, 405 

**      4, 5.  Arabian  caravan,    .        .        .  405 

«      6.  Nuptial  proceerion  in  Cairo,       .  405 
• 

PLATE  38. 

Fig.    1.  Abyssinian  costumes,                 .  403 

**      3.  Abyssinian  travelling,                 .  403 

«      3.  Elephant  hunting,      .                .  414 

-  4.  Negro  chief  and  suite,  .  416 
"      5.  Negro   funeral    south    of    the 

Coango  River,  .  .  416 
**      6.  Christian  negro-women  of  Ben- 

guela,  .416 

**      7.  Negro  soklier  (Portuguese  Afii- 

ca), 416 

^      8.  Molua    negroes   guarding    their 

king's  dwelling,   .  .416 

**      9.  Human  sacrifices  of  the  Cassange 

negroes,      ....  416 

PLATS  39. 

Rgs.    1-7.  Sports  of  Indian  tribes,  .     439-433 

PLATS  30. 

Fig.    1.  Mexican, 438 

"      3,3.  InhabiUntsofLaPuebla,       .  437 

"      4.  Womanof  Jalapa,     ...  437 

-  5, 6.  Costumes  of  Guatemala,         .  439 

-  7.  Rich  mulatto  woman,        .        .  438 


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CONTENTS. 


Pig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


FLATS  $(y^Cotiimmed.) 

8.  Brazifian  Mestizo,      ...  438 
9,10.  CostameflofBoliTia,     .        .  453 

11.  GirlofBogoU, .        ...  439 

18.  Giri  of  Lima,    ....  441 

13.  Squaw  of  the  district  of  Quito,  .  441 

14.  Muleteers  of  the  Cordiileras,       .  453 
15, 16.  Costumes  of  La  Conception, .  453 

17.  Costumes  of  Chili,      ...  453 

18.  Gaucho  of  Buenos  Ayres,  .        .  454 

PLATE  31. 
1.  Trayelling  farmer  from  the  Rio 

Grande  in  Brazil,  452, 456 

9.  Traveller  from  the  province  of 

Minas,         .... 

3.  Brazilian  planter's  family  driving 

to  mass,      .... 

4.  Townsmen  from  the  Brazilian  Rio 

Grande  travelling, 

5.  Caravan  of  Brazilian  merchants, 

6.  Convoy  of  diamonds, 

KATE  33. 

1.  Brazil  Camacans  in  the  forest,    . 
S.  Festivity  of  the  Camacans, 

3.  Negroes  from  Bahia, . 

4.  Free  negro  bringing  up  a  fugitive 

Slave, 

5.  Inhabitants  of  San  Paulo,  . 
6, 7.  Civilized  Paraguay  Indians,    « 


Fig. 


Pigs. 
Fig. 


Pigs. 


452 

452 

452 
452 
452 


449 
449 
456 

456 
452 
447 


PLATE  33. 

1.  Brazilian  plantation,  .        .        .  452 

2, 3.  Diamond  washing,  .  456 

4, 5.  Brazilian  sports,     .        .        .  452 

6.  Brazilian  planter's  family  walking 

to  mass,       ....  452 

7.  Patagonian  camp,  .  446 

PLATE  34. 
1-6.  Brazilian  slave  trade,  .    456 

PLATE  35. 

1.  Greenland  seal-hunting,  .    425 

2.  Brazilian  Indians  bird-ahooting,  .    449 

3.  Attack  by  Guaycouros  horaemea 

(BrazU),       ....    446 

4.  Cattle-hunting    on   the    Pampas 

(Brazil),       ....    452 

5.  Negro  dances  at  San  Paulo,       .    456 

6.  SouthPatagonian  huts  and  graves,    446 

PLATE  36. 

1-4.  Sports  of  Brazilian  Indians,  448, 456 
5ab.  Duels  and  combats  among  the 

Botocudes, ....    449 
6.  Duel  among  the  Purvis^     .        .    448 


PLATE  37. 
Fig.    1.  Human  sacrifice  of  the  aHeient 

Mexicans,  ....    437 

*•  9.  Cannibals  of  the  Paraguay  fo- 
rests,   447 

**      3.  Cannibals   preparing  a  peculiar 

beverage 447 

**  4-6.  War-dance,  execution  of  cap- 
tives, and  funeral  with  the 
Tupinambas,  .        .    447 

PLATE  38. 
Figs.  1, 2.  Funeral  of  a  chief  (Sandwich 

Islands),.  ...  463 
«  3.  Funeral  in  New  Zealand,  .  .  466 
"  4.  Tahitian  girl,  carrying  presents, .  468 
*<  5.  Dance  of  the  Tahitians,  .  .  468 
"      6.  Dance  of  the  aborigines  of  the 

Caroline  Islands, .  .    460 


Fig.    1.  Chief  from  the  Tonga  islands,     .  473 

**      2.  Combat  of  Tonga  women, .        .  473 
"      3-5.  Girlirh  sports  on  the  Tonga 

islands,    ....  473 
'*      6.  Dance  of  Australian  aborigines, .  475 
"      7-9.  Wedding    ceremony,    frineral, 
and  ball  of  Austmlian  abo- 
rigines,   ....  475 
"     10.  Ceremony  of  the  Gna-Lung,       .  474 

PLATE  40. 

Fig.    1.  War  dance  of  the  Booro  islanders,  468 
*<      2.  Cock-fight    on    the    Philippine 

islands,        ....  469 
"      3.  Making  brandy  on  the  Marian 

islands,        ....  470 
"      4.  Caroline  islander,               .        .461 

•*      5, 6.  Aborigines  of  New  Zealand,  .  463 

'*      7.  Dance  of  the  same,    .                 .  465 

PLATE  41. 
Fig.    1.  Ceremonial  salutation  among  the 

aborigines  of  New  Zealimd, .    465 
"      2.  Tattooing  of  the  same,  .    466 

"      3.  Indian  and  his  squaw  from  the 

Caroline  islands, .  .    461 

**      4.  Dance  of   the  Indians    of  this 

tribe, 461 

"      5-7.  Indians  of  the  island  of  Hawai,    462 
*<      8.  Dance  of  Australian  savages,      .    467 

PLATE  49. 

Fig.    1.  Dance  in  Samoa,  .  473 

**      2.  Dwelling  of  the  Chinooks,.        .  433 

**      3.  Meeting  on  Drummond's  ijaland, .  427 


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CONTENTS 


MILITARY    SCIENCES. 


Introduction,     .... 

rjMM 

.    477 

A.  Warfere  of  Antiquity, 

•            •            •            « 

.    478 

B.  Warfere  of  the  Middle  Ages, 

•            •            «            « 

•     506 

0.  Warfere  of  Modern  Timee,    . 

•            •            *            t 

.     620 

The  various  kinds  of  Arms,     . 

•            •            •            t 

.     689 

Military  Gymnastics,  . 

• 

.     642 

Tactics, 

.            •            •            « 

.     664 

Castrametation, 

•            • 

.     663 

Orders  and  Badges  of  Honor, 

>            .            • 

.     665 

D.  Military  Engines  in  general.    Science  oi 

Projectiles,. 

.     685 

Antiquity,      . 

. 

.     685 

The  Middle  Ages,      . 

.            .            • 

.     690 

Modem  Times, 

. 

.     694 

1.  Artillery  and  Carriages, 

• 

.     694 

2.  Fabrication  of  Artillery  and 

Projectiles,  Balls  and  Bombs 

,             .     604 

3.  Military  Pyrotechny, 

. 

.     611 

E.  Science  of  Fortification, 

... 

.     616 

Antiquity,     . 

• 

.     616 

The  Middle  Ages,      . 

.            •            • 

.     619 

Modem  Times, 

•            • 

.     623 

1.  Field  Fortification, 

.            •            • 

.     624 

2.  Permanent  Fortification, 

•            • 

.     680 

F.  Attack  and  Defence  of  Fortified  Places, 

.            •            • 

•     639 

1.  Attack  of  Fortified  Places, 

•            •            • 

.     640 

2.  Defence  of  Fortified  Places, 

•            •            • 

.     646 

0.  Pioneer  and  Pontoon  Service, 

•            • 

.     647 

1.  Mines, 

.            •            • 

.     647 

2.  Subterranean  Warfare, 

.            .            • 

.     649 

3.  Pontoon  Service,    . 

.            .            • 

.     650 

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CONTENTS  OF  THE  PLATES  (T.  1— SI) 

TO 

MILITARY    SCIENCES. 

y»y  The  references  for  explanations  of  the  sabjecU  are  to  the  bottom  paghig  of  the  text. 


PLATE  1. 

FigB.   1-33.  Weapons  of  the  Egyptians,  .    479 
**    38-56.  Weapons  of  the  Medes  and 

Persians,.  .483,483 


Fig. 


PLATE  3. 

1.  Grecian  hero,    . 

.    483 

3.  Amazon  from  the  Black  Sea,     .    483 

3-8.  Grecian  warriors  on 

foot,     485,486 

9.  Grecian  trumpeter,     . 

.    487 

10.  Grecian  combat. 

.    485 

11.  Grecian  herald. . 

.    487 

13i  13.  Grecian  horsemen, 

.    484 

14.  Etruscan  archer. 

.    493 

15.  Etruscan  homblower, 

.    493 

1&-18.  Etruscan  soldiers, 

.    493 

PLATE  3. 

Figs.  1-31.  Weapons  of  the  Greeks,  484-486 
**  33-35.  Weapons  of  the  Etruscans,  .  495 
"    36-43.  Weapons  of  the  Romans,  493-496 

PLATE  4. 

Fjgs.    1-30.  Illustrating  the  movements  of 

Grecian  troops,  487-489 

«    31-51.  Illustrating  the  movements  of 

Roman  troops,         .     500-506 

PLATE  5. 

f^g.    1.  Grecian  funeral  and  death  feast, .  490 

*'      3.  Roman  Imperator  and  suite,  493 

"      3.  The  war-elephant  in  combat,      .  484 

"      4.  Armed  chariot, ,        ...  484 

PLATE  6. 
Fig.    1.  Funeral  procession  of  Alextnder 

the  Great,    ....    490 
"      3.  Triumphal  procession  of  a  Ro- 
man general,  .        .    488 

PLATE  7. 
Figs.    1-5.  Roman  Italian  allies,  .    493 

"      6, 7.  German  allies,  .    493 

•*      8.  Roman  trumpeter,      .        .        .    493 
"      9.  Roman  homblower,  .  .    493 

"     10.  Roman  slinger, .  .493 

*'     11.  Roman  lancers, .        .  .    493 

**    13.  Velites, 493 

**    13-19.  Various  ranks  in  the  Roman 

army,  .        .491 

PLATE  8. 

Fig.    1.  Roman  Imperator,  .    493 

«      3.  Roman  general,  .    493 


Fig. 


Figs. 


Figs. 


PLATE  8 — (Continued.) 

3.  Roman  lictor,    ....  493 

4.  The  Imperator's  body-guard,      .  493 

5.  Sarmatian  mailed  horeeman,       .  493 

6.  Roman  legate 493 

7.  Roman  standard-bearers,  .  493 

8.  Roman  decurion  of  cavalry,        .  496 

9.  Roman  cavalry  soldier,      .        .  493 

PLATE  9. 
1-46.  Weapons  of  the  Gauls,  Franks, 
Grermans,    Britons,    An- 
glo-Saxons, and  Anglo- 
Danes,   .  .     495-497 

47.  Roman  saddle,         .         .         .    495 

48.  Anglo-Saxon  saddle,  .    496 
49-63.  Various  saddles  of  the  middle 

ages, 516 

63, 64.  Spurs  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury,       .        .        .        .516 


PLATE  10. 

1, 3.  Roman  legion  eagles, 

3*,  4.  Standards,      . 

5-15.  Field  badges, 
16-33.  Honorary  crowns, 
34, 35.  Honorary  medals, 
36,37.  Trophies,     . 
38.  Tr^an's  column, 

PLATE  11. 


491 
491 
491 
498 
498 
498 
498 


Fig.    1.  Roman  prisoners  passing  under 

the  yoke,     .  .499 

**  3.  Roman  victor  thanking  the  army,  497 
"      3-5.  Triumphal  processions,  .        .    498 

PLATE  13. 
Fig.    1.  The  war  dance  of  German  youths, 
**      3.  Ceremony  of  bestowing  the  right 

to  bear  arms, 
**      3.  Ceremony  of  soothsaying  before 

battle 

"      4.  Germans  in  combat,  . 

PLATE  13. 
Fig.    1.  Roman  camp,    ....    501 
"      3.  Roman  order  of  battle,  .    497 

"  3.  The  solid  wedge,  .  .  .489 
"  4.  The  boar's  head,  ...  489 
"      5.  The  tortoise,      .  .487 

"      6.  Carthaginian  order  of  battle  with 

elephants,    ....    497 


499 

499 

499 
499 


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CONTENTS. 


nxi 


509 
508 

509 


FLATS   14. 

Fig.     1.  DecimatioQ  of  prisoners, 
**      3.  Election  of  commander,     . 
*'      3.  Combat  of  iniantry  against  ca* 
▼airy, 

FLATS   15. 

Pigs.  1-77.  Weapons  of  the  Germans, 
Normans,  Anglo-Saxons, 
and  Danes,  509-513 

FLATS  16. 
Figs.   1-23.  Armor  of  the  middle  ages,  514-516 

PLATE  17. 
Fig.     1.  Emperoi's  suit  of  armor, 
"      3.  Elector's  suit  of  armor, 
"      3, 4.  Knights'  armor, 
"      5. 6.  Footeoldiers,  . 
**       7-10.  Tourney  equipments, 
"     11.  Awarding  the  prize  at  a  tourney, 

PLATE  18. 
Flga.   1-10.  Difierent   dignitaries    of  the 
war-ban, .... 
**    11.  The  marching  forth  of  an  army 
from  its  camp,     . 

PLATE  19. 
Upper  Division. 


515 
516 
517 
517 
517 
518 


517 
517 


Figs.   1-14.  Prussian  infantry. 
Lower  Division. 

521 

rigs.   1-12.  French  infantry,   . 

529 

PLATE  20. 

Upper  Division. 

Figs.    1-10.  Pruaeian  cavalry, . 

Lower  Division. 

524 

Rgs.  11-19.  French  cavalry,    . 

531 

PLATE  21. 

Upper  Division. 

Figa.   1-8.  Aastrian  infantry,  . 

Lower  Division. 

527 

Pigs.   1-1 1.  British  infantry,    . 

534 

PLATE  22. 

Figs.   1-9.  British  cavalry, 
"    10-20.  Belgian  cavalry,  artillery,  and 
engineers. 

535 
532 

PLATE  23. 

Figs.   I-IO.  Troops  of  the  older  Turkish 
military  system, 
"    11-17.  Modem  Turkish  army,. 

536 
539 

PLATE   24. 

Fig.    1.  Turkish  pasha  and  suite,    . 
**      2.  Encampment  of  a  pasha  of  three 

taUs, 

*      3.  Body-guard,       .... 
**      4, 5.  Turkish  wariike  games, . 

538 

538 
538 
537 

PLATS  25. 

Tigs.   1-60.  Illustrating  the  various  kinds 
of  arms  of  modern  times, . 

539 

PLATE  26. 

Figi.   1-41.  Illustrating  military  gymnas- 
tics,        .... 

542 

PLATE  27. 

Figs.   1-48.  Illustrating  military  feodng« . 
PLATE  28. 

Figs.   1-18.  Practical  exercises  in  fencing, 

PLATS  29. 
Figs.  1-47.  Illustrating  modem  tactics,   . 
"    48.  Disembarkation  of  French  troops 
in  Algiers,  .... 

PLATE  30. 

Upper  Division. 
FigB.  1-13.  Austrian  orders,    • 

Lower  Division. 
Figs.  1-11.  Prussian  orders,    . 

PLATS  31. 
Figs.  1-4.  Bavarian  orders,     . 

**      5, 6.  Saxon  orders, 

**      7-9.  Hanoverian  orders, 

••     10-12.  Wirtemberg  orders, 

"     13-15.  Orders  of  Baden,  . 

•*    16, 17.  Orders  of  Electoral  Hesse,    . 

**    18, 19.  Ordere  of  the  grand-duohy  of 

"  20,21.  The  Danish  bannebrog  order) 

"  22.  Order  of  the  white  falcon, . 

"  23.  Order  oftheSaxe-Emeetine  house, 

'<  24,25.  Ordere  of  Saxe- Altenburg,    . 

**  26.  War  medal  of  Saxe- Meiningen, . 

«  27.  War  medal  of  Saxe-Hildburghau- 


and^ 


Figs. 


28.  War  medal  of  Saxe-Gotha-Al- 

tenburg, 
29-31.  Ordere  of  Brunswick  anj^Nas- 
sau, 

32.  Mecklenburg  order, 

33.  Oldenburg  order, 

34.  War  medal  of  Anhalt  Kothen,    . 

35.  Volunteer's  cross  of  Anhalt  Des- 

sau,      

PLATS  32. 

1, 2.  French  orders, 
3, 4.  British  ordere, 
5, 6.  Russian  ordere, 
7, 8.  Turkish  ordere, 
9.  Persian  order,    .... 
10,11.  Spanish  order, 

12.  Portuguese  order, 

13.  Neapolitan  order, 

14, 15.  Sardinian  orders, . 

16.  Papal  onier,       .... 

17.  Tuscan  order,    .... 

18.  Grecian  order,  .... 

19.  Belgian  order,   .... 
20,21.  Swedish  ordere,    . 

22,23.  Dutch  ordere, 

24.  The  Danish  elephant-order, 

25.  Brazilian  order, .... 


546 

553 

554 
565 

565 
567 


571 
572 
572 
573 
574 
573 

573 
583 
573 
574 
574 
574 

575 

575 

575 
576 
576 
576 

577 


577 
578 
578 
579 
579 
580 
580 
580 
581 
581 
581 
581 
582 
582 
583 
583 
584 


PLATS  33. 

Figs.  1-18.  Ancient  military  enginee,      .    588 
PLATE  34. 

Figs.  1-24.  Military  engines  of  the  middle 

ages,        ....    590 

PLATS  35. 

Fig.    1.  Watch  tower,    ....    619 


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CONTENTS. 


FLATB  ZS—{C<mHwued.) 
Fig.    2.  Siege  tow«r, 
'<      3-6.  Movable  towen, 
«      7.  Ancient  trenches, 
**      8.  The  storming  ram, 
"      9.  The  lifting  forceps, 
"     10.  Drawbasket, 
**    11.  Storming  a  wall, 

PLATE  36. 
Figs.  1-48.  Ulnstrating  modem  artillery, . 

PLATE  37. 
Figs.  1-34.  Illustrating  artillery  oaniages, 

PLATE  38. 
Figs.  1-34.  Illustrating  artillery  and  pon- 
toon carriages, . 

PLATE  39. 
Figs.  1-50.  Illustrating  the  fabrication  of 
artillery    and    projectiles, 
balls  and  bombs, 

PLATE  40. 
Figs.  1-57.  ninstrating  military  pyrotech- 

ny» 


588 
639 
587 
590 
590 
589 


594 


597 


597 


604 


611 


PLATE  41. 

Fig.    1.  Roman  fortified  camp,  .    619 

**      2.  Scipio's  circumvallation  of  Nu- 

mantia,  .        .639 

«      3.  Cesar's  siege  of  Massilia,  .  639 

PLATE  42. 
Figs.  1-4.  The  simpleet  ancient  gates,  616, 617 
«  5.  The  Gate  ofthe  Lions  in  MyceniB,  617 
«  6-9f  The  walls  of  Meseene,  .  .617 
««  10,11.  The  gate  of  Spello,  .  .  618 
««  12, 13.  The  walls  of  Babylon, .  -617 
"  14, 15.  The  walls  of  Asbos,  .  .617 
«  16.  The  gates  of  Falerii,  .  .  .618 
"  17.  The  Appian  gate  of  Rome,  .  619 
«    18.  Gate  at  Pompeii,  .618 

**    19,20.  Sections  of  the  walls  of  Rome,    618 


PLATE  43. 
Figs.  1-5.  Walls  between  Athens  and  the 

Pir»u8.    .        .        .        .617 
«      6.  The  Capitoline  hill,   .  .    618 


PLATE  43 — (Continued.) 

Figs.  7-9.  Details  of  the  walls,                .  618 

"    10-15.  The  walls  of  Pompeii,  .        .  618 

PLATE  44. 

Fig.     1.  Ditchof  acabtle,       ...  620 

**      2.  Dungeon, 622 

"      3.  Oubliette, 623 

'*      4.  Turret, 621 

**      5, 6.  Plan  and  view  of  tower  stairs,  622 

"      7.  Lantern, 621 

"      8.  Tower  window,         ...  622 

"      9.  Magazine  under  a  dungeon,        .  622 

"     10.  Machicolis,        ....  622 

**     11-13.  Drawbridges,        ...  620 
**    14, 15.  Castle  of  Vincennes,  plan  and 

view 622 

*•    16.  Castle  of  Rheinstein, .        .        .  623 

PLATE  45. 

Fig.     1.  The  Chinese  wall,     ...  623 
**      2-4.  Different  lowers,     .                 .624 

«      5-10.  Battlements,         ...  621 

«    12-14.  Loopholes,  ....  622 

PLATB  46. 

Fig.    1.  Fortified  bridge,         ...  620 
"      2-7.  Fortified  gates,       .        .        .620 

"      8-10.  The  Bastille  in  Paris,   .        .  623 

"     11.  The  old  Louvie  in  Paris,    .        .  623 

•*     12-Sl.  Various  forms  of  loopholes,  .  €22 

PLATE  47. 

Figs.   1-57.  Illustrating  field  fortification,  624 

PLATE  48. 
Figs.   1-42.  nius-trating  permanent  fortifi- 
cations,   ....  630 

PLATE  49. 
Figs.   1-37.  Illustrating  attack  and  defence 

of  fortified  places,     .        .  639 

PLATE  50. 
Figs.   1-51.  Illustratingattack  and  defence 

of  fortified  places,     .        .  639 

PLATE  51. 
Figs.   1-54.  Illustrating  the  pioneer  and 

pontoon  service,       .        .  647 


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CONTENTS 


or 


NAVAL     SCIENCES. 


MOB 

EBstory  of  Navigation,  .            .            .            .            .            ...            .653 

1.  Navigation  of  the  Ancients, 

.     653 

2.  Navigation  of  the  Middle  Ages, 

.     662 

3.  Navigation  of  Modern  Times, 

.  '668 

4.  Navigation  of  Non-European  Natio 

ns. 

.     670 

Ship-Building,  .            .            .            •            . 

.     682 

1.  Theoretical  Part,    . 

.     682 

2.  Practical  Part,       .            .            . 

.     692 

A.  Ship-Carpentry,         .       ♦ 

•     692 

B.  Outfit  of  Ships, 

.     700 

C.  Equipment  of  Ships, . 

.     712 

3.  The  different  Kinds  of  Ships, 

.     721 

A.  Ships  of  War, 

.    722 

B.  Merchant  Vessels,      . 

.    732 

C.  Ships  for  Spedal  Purposes,    . 

.    734 

D.  Iron  Ships,   . 

.    736 

E.  Steamships,  . 

•    737 

Manning  of  Ships,         .... 

.     748 

A.  The  War  Marine, 

.    743 

B.  The  Merchant  Service, 

.    747 

Management  of  Ships,  . 

.    747 

A.  Manoeuvres  of  Separate  Ships, 

.    747 

B.  Manoeuvres  of  Fleets, 

.     762 

C.  Signals,    . 

.    767 

Harbors,  Arsenals,  and  Lighthouses,      . 

.    768 

A.  Harbors,  . 

.    768 

B.  Roadsteads, 

.     759 

C.  Docks,     . 

.    769 

D.  Shipyards, 

.    769 

R  Arsenals,  .            •            •            • 

» 

.    760 

F.  Diving  Bells, 

» 

.    760 

G.  Observatories,       •            •            • 

• 

t 

.    760 

H.  lighthouses,         •            • 

• 

• 

• 

.    760 

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C0HTENT8  OF  THB  PLATES  (H.  1—12) 

TO 

NAVAL     SCIENCES. 

9%  The  referenceB  for  ezplanations  of  the  fabjects  are  to  the  bottom  paging  of  the  text 


Figs. 


Fig. 


PLATE  2. 

1.  Egyptian  boat,  . 

2.  PhoBDician  vessel, 
3, 4.  Greek  veflsels, 
5, 6.  Greek  veseels, 

7.  Roman  yeeeel,  . 

8.  Greek  prow, 

9.  Egyptian  vesRel, 

10.  Cleopatra's  show-ship, 

11.  Ptolemy's  show-ship, 

12.  Roman  Nanmachia,  . 
13, 14.  Auchore, 


PLATE  1. 

1, 2.  Phosnician  yeseels,  657 

3,4.  Prows, 654 

5.  Stem-figure  {apluttre),  654 

6,7.  Prow-figuree,         ...  655 

8.  Hiero's  show-ship,  .        .  657 

9.  Vessel  used  in  the  Roman  Nan- 

machia,      ....  661 

10.  Ship  with  a  tower,     .        .        .  656 

11-14.  Roman  vessels  of  war, .  661 

15.  Norman  vessel  of  war,  662 

16.  Roman  sea-fight,  661 


.  656 

.  657 

.  659 

.  660 
654,656 

.  654 

.  658 

.  657 

.  657 

.  661 
653,655 

15.  Rudder, 655 

«     16.  Oar, 655 

"     17.  Oar-holes,          ....  654 

"     18.  Prow, 654 

"    19.  Lighthouse,        ....  658 
"    19a-J.  Ground-plans  of  the  light- 
house,     ....  658 
"    20-24.  Coins  showing  lighthouses,   .  658 
"    25.  Naval  Column,,        ...  660 

PLATE  3. 

Fig.  1.  French  vessel  of  the  16th  century,  666 

•*  2.  Genoese  prow, ....  665 

"  3.  Spanish  ship  of  war,  .  664 

*'  4.  The  Sovereign  of  the  Seae,         .  663 

"  5.  Soleil  royal,      ....  667 

"  6.  Venetian  galley,  .  664 

"  7.  The  ship  Ocean,        ...  667 

PLATE  4. 

Fig.  1.  Portuguese  carac,  .    663 

"  2.  The  Great  Hany,      ...    663 

"  3.  Stem  of  a  ship 665 

"  4.  French  galley,  ....    666 

'♦  5.  Observatory,      ,        .  .760 

"  6.  Lighthouse,       .  .        .760 

"  7, 8.  French  cutters,       .  .715 

"  9.  English  cutter,  .        .  .715 


679 
678 
678 
678 
678 
677 


676 
681 


PLATE  4 — {OmHnued,) 
Rg.  10.  Bomb  ketch,      .                 .        .    730 
"    11.  Felucca, 730 

PLATE  5. 

Fig.  1.  European  factory  at  Canton, 
"  2.  Chinese  war  penish,  . 
'*  3.  The  same  under  saü, . 
"  4, 5.  Chinese  coasters,  . 
**  6,  7.  Chinese  gondolas,  . 
"  8.  Chinese  junk,  . 
"      9.  Coaster  of  the  Maldives, 

"  10.  Malay  coaster,  . 

**  11.  Malay  anchor,  . 

**  12, 13.  Malacca  vessels,  . 

"  14.  Java  vessel, 

PLATE  6. 
Fig.    1.  Macao  vessel,    .  .        .678 

"  2.  Chinese  coaster,  .  .  .677 
*<      3.  Malacca  vessel,  676,680 

"  4, 5.  Vessels  of  the  Moluccas,  .  681 
"  6.  Java  coaster,  ....  680 
«      7,8.  Vessels    of    the    Coromandel 

coast, 674 

"      9, 10.  Manilla  coasters, .  .678 

"    11.12.  Coasters    of    the    Philqipine 

islands,    ....    681 
"    13,14.  Coasters  of  Celebes,  •    681 

PLATE  7. 

Figs.  1-^3.  Illustrating  the  theory  of  afaip- 

buUding,.  .     682-692 


PLATE  8. 

Fig.    1.  Ship  of  the  line  on  the  stocks, 

"      2.  Launch  of  a  ship  of  the  line, 

<*      3.  Caulking  of  a  vessel,  . 

"      4.  Graving  of  a  vessel,  . 

5.  Rope-walk, 


«      6.  Sail  bench, 

PLATE  9. 
Fig.  1.  Longitudinal  section  of  a  ship  of 
the  line,  .... 
**  2.  Transverse  section  of  the  same, . 
•*  3.  Iron  knee,  .... 
«*  4.  Construction  of  a  ship*s  stem,  . 
**  5.  Construction  of  deck, 
«      6-25.  lUustratiog  Seppings's  system 

of  ship-building, 
"    26.  A  capstan,         .... 


697 


705 
709 


690 


695 


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PASS 

PLATi  9~^ConHnu€d.) 
Fig.  97   Longitudinal  section  of  a  ship  of 
the  line^  showing  its  interior 
arrangoment,  691, 699, 701, 703, 733 

PLATE  10. 

Fig«     1.  ^^w  from  aboYe  of  the  lower  gon 

deck, 733 

•*  3.  View  from  above  ofthe  upper  deck,  733 
"  3.  French  frigate,  .  .  .  733-738 
"      4.  TopMul-yard  and  topgallant 

saU,    .        .        .        .     706,710 

-  5, 6.  Fore-and-aft  saik,  .      714, 715, 738 

•«      7.  A  vane, 711 

««.    8,9.  PennanU,  .        .711 

"    10.  A  ship's  pumpr  .        .  .695 

«    11.  A  windlass,       ....    695 

•  13,13.  DeUilsoftbesame,  .  .  696 
"  14-39.  Anchors,      ....    713 

-  30.  Splicing  cables,  .  .714 
«<  31,33.  Anchor-buoys,  .  .  713 
<*  33.  Mushroom  anchor,    .                 .713 

PLATE  11. 
Fig.    1.  French    ship    of    the    line, 
diowing  the  outfit  of  a 
ship,        .    700,701,703,705-709 
«      3.  Normandy  fishing-smack,  .  735 

"  3.  Mainyard  with  its  jeers,  .  703,706 
•*  4.  Upper  part  of  a  mainmast, .  701, 703 
**  5, 6.  Cape,  ....  701, 703 
"      7.  Dead-eyes,  .     705,706 

«  8.  Tackle  with  runner,  .  .  .704 
**      9.  Winding    tackle    in     threefold 

blocks,        ....     704 

-  10-16.  Various  blocks  and  dead-eyes,  704 
••    17, 18.  Pitch  ladles,  .        .731 

«    19    Axe, 730 

«>    30.  Pole-axe, 718 

«    31.  Scraper, 730 

•  33.  Double  scraper, .  .730 

«  33.  Horse-bit, 730 

«  34.  Adze, 730 

••  35.  Hatchet 730 

«  36,37.  Caulking  tools,    .  .731 

«  38,39.  Trucks,        ....    703 

"  30.  Knobbed  rope,  .  .799 

-  31,33a6.  Caulking  mallets,      .        .    731 

-  33.  Tar  brush,         ....     721 

"  34.  Callipers 731 

«*  35-40.  Implements  for  serviog  guns,      717 

"  41-49.  Various  kinds  of  shot,  .        .     717 

PLATE  13. 

Fig.    1.  Main  forward  deck  of  a  French 

ship  of  the  line,    .  .737 

«      3.  The  after-deck 737 

*<  3.  Lengthwise  view  of  a  French  two- 
decker,  with  a  portion  of  the 
planking  removed,  .    737 

PLATE  13. 
PLAOS  OF  VARIOUS  NATIONS. 

(Given  as  an  appendix  to  the  explanation  of  the 
nature  of  flags  and  penoants,  on  pages  711, 713. 
The  colors  of  the  flags  are  indicated  by  the 
difierent  tines  and  dots  marked  at  the  foot  of 
the  plate :  Gelb  meaning  yellow ;  Roth,  red  ; 
Hellblau,  light  blue ;  Dunkelblau,  dark  blue  ; 
&Atsarjr,  bUck  ;  Ae/igrön,  light  green  ;  Dun- 
kelgrün, dark  green  ;  Purpur,  purple ;  Broun, 
brown.) 


PLATE  13— (OraltmiMl.) 

Fig.  1.  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain. 

'*  3.  Kingdom  of  France  under  L.  Philippe. 

''  3.  Empire  of  Russia. 

"  4.  Empire  of  Austria. 

"  5.  Kingdom  of  Spain. 
**      6.  Kingdom  of  Portugal. 

"  7.  Kingdom  of  Holland. 

*'  8.  Kingdom  of  Sweden  and  Norway. 

'*  9.  Kingdom  of  Prussia. 

**  10.  Kingdom  of  Denmark. 

'<  11.  Kingdom  of  Naples. 

**  13.  IQngdom  of  Hanover. 

**  13.  British  red  flag. 

"  14.  British  white  flag. 

**  15.  British  blue  flag. 

«  16.  British  admiralty's  flag. 

**  17.  British  admiral's  flag. 

"  18.  East  India  Company's  flag. 

"  19.  Republic  of  the  Ionian  ialandf . 

"  30.  Maltese  flag. 

"  31.  French  conmiercial  flag. 

*'  33.  Franco- Algerine  flag. 

«  33.  Russian  naval  flag. 

**  34.  RusBo- American  flag. 

"  35.  Russian  commereial  flag. 

**  36.  Austrian  naval  and  commereial  flag. 

"  37.  Austro- Venetian  flag. 

«  38.  Spanish  naval  flag. 

"  39.  Spanish  commercial  flag. 

<*  30.  Spanish-Philippine  commereial  flag. 

**  31.  Portuguese  naval  and  commercial  flag. 

"  33.  Dutch  commereial  flag. 

**  33.  Dutch  Batavian  flag. 

"  34.  Norwegian  national  flag. 

**  35.  Swedish  naval  flag. 

**  36.  Swedish  commereial  flag. 

"  37.  Prussian  naval  flag. 

''  38.  Prussian  conmiercial  flag. 

**  39.  Danish  naval  flag. 

<<  40.  Danish  commercial  flag. 

«  41.  Schleswig-Holstein  flag. 

"  42,  Hamburg  admiralty  flag. 

**  43.  Hamburg  commercial  flag. 

"  44.  Old  Lubec  naval  flag. 

*'  45.  Lubec  commereial  flag. 

**  46.  Bremen  commereial  flag. 

*'  47.  Hanoverian  commercial  flag. 

•*  48.  Oldenburg  commercial  flag. 

*<  49.  Mecklenburg  commereial  flag. 

"  50.  Belgian  naval  and  commercial  flag. 

"  51.  Flag  ofthe  Saxon  river  cities. 

**  53.  Flag  of  the  Bavarian  river  cities. 

**  53.  Flag  ofthe  Wirtemberg  river  cities. 

"  54.  Flag  of  the  Baden  river  cities. 

•*  55.  Swiss  flag. 

"  56.  Flag  of  Frankfort  on  the  Main. 

*<  57.  Hungarian  flag. 

"  58.  Servian  flag. 

«  59.  Moldavian  flag. 

«  60.  Wallachian  flag. 

"  61.  Neapolitan  naval  and  commercial  flag. 

"  63.  Papal  flag. 

**  63.  Tuscan  naval  and  commercial  flag. 

'*  64.  Leghorn  flag. 

"  65.  Flag  of  Lucca. 

**  66.  Flag  of  Massa-Carrara. 

"  67.  Flag  of  Modena. 

"  68.  Flag  of  Monaco. 

'<  69.  Royal  Sardinian  flag. 

'*  70.  Sardinian  naval  and  commercial  flag. 


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CONTENTS. 


FLATi  13 — (Continued.) 
Fig.  71.  Old  Genoese  flag. 
••    72.  Old  Savoy  flag. 
**    73.  Flag  of  the  island  of  Sardinia. 
"     74.  Greek  naval  flag. 
**     75.  Greek  commercial  flag. 
**    76.  Greek  pirate's  flag. 
**    77.  Turkish  imperial  flag. 
«    78.  Turkish  naval  flag. 
*<     79.  Turkish  commercial  flag. 
"    80.  Flag  of  the  grand  vizier. 
"    81.  Flag  of  Capudan  Pasha. 
•«    82.  Comm.  flag  of  Tunis,  Tripoli,  Morocco. 
«    83.  Flag  of  Tunis. 
"    84.  Flag  of  Morocco. 
*'    85.  Flag  of  the  viceroy  of  Egypt. 
**    86.  Egyptian  commercial  flag. 
«'    87.  Flag  of  Tripoli. 
«    88.  Old  Algerine  flag. 
"    89.  Algerine  pirate's  flag. 
«<    90.  Arabian  flag. 
**    91.  Abyssinian  flag. 
«    92.  The  flag  of  the  Shah  of  Persia. 
*'    93.  Persian  commercial  flag. 
«    94.  Flag  of  Afghanistan. 
"    95.  Flag  of  Beloochistan. 
•*    96.  Flag  of  the  Great  Mogul. 
«    97.  Flag  of  Bengal. 
"    98.  Flag  of  Scind. 
*'    99.  Flag  of  the  Birmana. 
"  100.  Flag  of  Pegu. 
«*  101.  FlagofSiam 
"  102.  Flag  of  Sumatra. 
"  103.  Chinese  imperial  flag. 
"  104, 105.  Chinese  commercial  flags. 
«  106.  FlagofCochin-Chiua. 
"  107.  Japanese  imperial  flag. 
*'  108.  Commercial  flag  of  Japan. 
^  109.  Flag  of  the  United  Sutes,  N.  A. 
"  110.  Flag  of  Texas. 
"  111.  Flag  of  Mexico. 
"  112.  Flag  of  Guatemala. 
•*  113.  FlagofHayti. 
*'  114.  Flag  of  Columbia. 
"  115.  Flag  of  Venezuela. 
"  116.  Flag  of  Bolivia. 
«  117.  Flag  of  Peru. 
"  118.  FlagofChiU. 
«  119.  Flag  of  Brazil. 
"  120.  Flag  of  La  Plata. 
**  121.  Flag  of  Equador. 
"  122.  Flag  of  Ouheite. 
«  123.  Flag  of  the  Sandwich  Islands. 
«  124.  Flag  of  New  Zealand. 


Fig. 


PLATE   14. 

1.  A  galliot, . 

2.  An  Englbh  lugger,    . 

3.  A  sloop  of  war, 

4.  French  frigate,  . 

5.  French  ship  of  the  line, 

6.  Prison  ship, 


.  729 
.  729 
.  728 
.  723 
.  723 
730, 731 


Fig. 


PLATB   15. 

1.  Newfoundland  fisherman,  .        .  735 

2.  Havre  de  Grace  fishing-smack,  .  735 

3.  Coaster  of  the  Mediterranean,    .  735 

4.  French  coaster, ....  735 

5.  Mediterranean  xebec,  .        .  730 

6.  Mediterranean  pink,  .  733 

7.  Daoish  coaster, ....  735 


Rg. 


rLATE  l5~^Coniinuei,) 

Fig.    8.  A  galliot, 734 

"      9.  Dutch  brig  galliot,     ...  729 

'«     10.  A  barque, 733 

"     11.  Slave  ship,         ....  735 
•«    12.  After  part  of  a  French  merchant- 
man,    733 

PLATE  16. 

Fig.    1.  A  cutter, 734 

"      2.  Hermaphrodite  brig,  .        .        .  734 

'*      3.  Barque  taking  in  freight,    .        .  734 

«  4.  Whale  ship,  ....  734 
"  5.  Emigrant  ship,  .  .  .  .735 
**      6.  The  Bremen  steamboat  Guten-  « 

burg, 740 

*«      7.  The  American  steamship  Warfi- 

ington,         ....  740 

PLATE  17. 

1.  Spanish  gun-boat,      .        .        .  730 

2.  French  iron  steam  propeller,       .  736 

3.  EngliBh  war  cutter,    .        •        .  739 

4.  Swedish  brig  of  war, .        .        .  728 

5.  English  brig  of  war,  ...  728 

6.  French  steam  frigate,          .        .  740 

PLATE  18. 

1-22   Illustrating  the  construction  of 

steamships,       .        .        .  737 

PLATE  19. 
Figs.   1-31.  Illustrating  the  construction  of 

steamshipe,                .         .  737 

PLATE  20. 

Figs.   1-5.  French  naval  oflicers,     .  744 

**      6-10.  Rusnan  naval  ofiicers, .        .  744 

"     11-13.  English  naval  ofilcera, .        .  744 

"     14.  Naval  cadet  (midshipman),         .  744 

**     15-19.  Sailors,  boatswains,  &c.,       .  743 

PLATE  21. 

1.  Officer  on  watch,       .  714,718 

2.  The  wheel,  698,727.745 

3.  Middle  deck,      ....  718 

4.  Starboard  battery  at  night,          .  718 

5.  Starboard  battery  in  daytime,     .  718 

6.  Midshipmen's  cabin,  .         .         .  744 

PLATE  22. 

1.  Forward  part  of  a  French  frigate,  727 

2.  Afler  part  of  a  French  frigate,     .  727 

3.  Carronade  with  its  carriage,         .  718 

4.  Gun  with  its  carriage,        .        .715 

5.  Port-guard,  .746 

6.  Davit3  with  lifting  tackle,  .        .  704 


Figs. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


PLATE  23. 

1.  Caulking  shot  holes,  .        .         .746 

2.  Look-out  from  the  toptMul  yard, .     745 

3.  Taking  in  sail  and  reefing, .      708,  751 

4.  Throwing  the  lead,    .      720, 726, 727 

5.  Hoisting  out  a  boat,  .  .    744 

6.  Heaving  the  log,        ...     720 

7.  Cleaning  the  deck,     .        .        .    745 

PLATE  24. 

1.  Court-martial,    .  .        .746 

2.  Keel-hauling 746 

3.  Hoisting  the  flag,  711,745 

4.  Ship  on  fire,       .        .        .        .    759 


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F!g.    1 


Rg. 


Rg. 


PLATB  35. 

EngBah  ship  of  tbe  Ibe  firing  a 
salute,         .... 
3.  French  ship  of  the  line  in  flag 
parade 

3.  Hoisting  flag  in  nmnii 

4.  Striking  flag  in  i 

5.  Night  rignals,    . 

6.  Top-men, . 

7.  Sailore  playing  cards, 

8.  Confinement  in  irons» 

PLATE  96. 

1.  Ship  signalizing  wiüi  flags, 

2.  Ship  drying  saU, 

3.  Ship  indoMd  with  ice, 

4.  Ship  with  all  sails  set, 

5.  Ship  setting  sail, 

6.  Ship  getting  under  weigh,  . 

7.  Ship  bracing  round,    . 

Sab.  Ships  saiUng  on  a  half  wind,  . 
9üb.  Ships  going  about, . 

10.  Ships  bearing  to  windward, 

11.  Ships  shortening  sail, . 

19.  Ship  of  the  line  under  short  sail, 

FLATS  27. 
1.  Ships  getting  under  weigh, . 
3.  Ships  pitching,  .... 

3.  Barque  rolling,  .... 

4.  Barque   under  close-reefed  top- 


712 


Barque  thrown  on  one  side, 
ffliipwreck. 


PLATS  28. 

Figk  1-^.  Illustrating    mancBunes   of 
fleets,       .... 


757 
750 
747 
748 
750 
750 
750 
751 
751 
750 
751 
752 

750 
689 
687 

751 
752 
752 


752 


PLATS  29. 

Fig.    1.  ManoBurres  by  schooners,  .        .  729 
*«      2.  Steamer    of  war   carrying   de- 
spatches,     ....  723 
««      3.  Line  of  battle,    ....  723 
**      4.  Naval  battle,     ....  723 

PLATS  30. 
Fig.    1.  Drydock  in  Toulon,  .        .        .759 

*«      2.  Towing  a  vessel  into  port, .        .  758 

*'      3.  Ship-ways  dry  at  ebb  tide, .        .  759 

«      4.  Graving-dock,   ....  759 

«      5-7.  Diving-bells,  ....  760 

**      8, 9.  Steam  dredgers,      ...  758 

PLATE  31. 

Fig.    1,2.  Roadsteads,   ....  759 

"      3.  Crane  for  setting  masts,      .        .  760 

*'      4.  Pile-driving  machine, .        .  760 

•*      5.  Naval  arsenal,  ....  760 

**      6.  Common  dredging  machine,  758 

PLATE  32. 
Fig.    1.  Ground  plan  of  the  West  India 

docks  in  London,  759 
"      2.  Ground  plan  of  the  harbor  of 

Toulon,       .  .        .758 

-  3-6.  Prince's  docks  at  Liverpool,  .  759 
**      7.  Profile  of  the  wall  of  the  London 

docks,         ....  759 
"      8.  Profile  of  the  Mersey  quay  at  Li- 
verpool,      ....  7.59 

-  9-12.  Dundee  dry  dock,  .  759 
'*  13-17.  The  lighthouee  of  Trieste,  .  761 
**     18.  Lighthouse  of  Bell  rock  (vertical 

section),       .        .        .        .761 

"    13-23.  Iron  lighthouse  at  Bennuda, .  761 


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GEOGRAPHY. 

Plates  1—44. 


Geography  is  the  science  which  treats  of  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Three 
branches  of  geography  are  usually  distinguished,  according  to  the  different 
points  from  which  it  is  viewed,  viz.  Mathematical,  Physical,  and  Civil. 
Mathematical  (sometimes  called  Astronomical)  Geography  treats  of  the  earth 
as  a  part  of  the  solar  system,  investigating  its  size,  shape,  orbital  and 
rotatory  motions,  and  its  relation  to  other  heavenly  bodies ;  it  may  therefore 
be  considered  as  part  of  Astronomy.  Physical  Geography  treats  of  the 
natural  features  of  the  earth,  of  the  dry  land  and  sea,  of  the  fresh  waters,  and 
of  the  atmosphere  encompassing  it,  the  part  having  reference  to  the  latter 
(Meteorology)  being  often  thrown  into  connexion  with  Natural  Philosophy 
ox,  Physics,  as  we  have  done  (see  vol.  i.  p.  184).  Finally,  Political 
Geography  considers  the  earth  as  the  habitation  of  mankind,  and 
accordingly  treats  of  the  division  of  its  surface  into  states  and  countries ; 
of  the  different  towns,  villages,  and  works  of  art ;  of  the  various  races  and 
tribes,  with  their  dialects,  religion,  and  government,  and  manner  of  life  in 
general.  Mathematical  and  Physical  Geography,  taken  together,  may  be 
called  General  Geography,  as  distinguished  from  Political  or  Special 
Creography.  To  the  latter  belongs  also,  in  fact,  Historical  Geography, 
which  has  reference  to  the  condition  of  geographical  science  at  different 
epochs,  as  well  as  to  the  political  divisions  and  arrangements  of  the  earth  at 
different  times. 


A.  GENERAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

Plates  1 — 8. 

The  most  important  facts  in  respect  to  Mathematical  Geography  having 
already  been  presented  under  the  head  of  Astronomy,  we  shall  here  be  very 
brief  in  reference  to  this  subject.  That  the  earth  is  round,  differing  but 
little  in  shape  from  a  sphere,  has  already  been' mentioned ;  also,  that  it  turns 
once  in  twenty-four  hours  on  an  axis,  the  extremities  of  which  are  called 
respectively  the  North  and  South  Poles.  That  great  circle  of  the  earth's 
surface  to  which  her  axis  stands  perpendicular,  is  called  the  Equator ;  every 
point  of  this  is  equally  distant  from  either  pole,  and  the  whole  circle  divides 
the  earth  into  two  hemispheres,  a  Northern  and  a  Southern.     All  circles 

ICOKOORAPHIC   BNCTOLOPiSDIA. — VOU   III.  1  1 


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2  GEOGRAPHY. 

parallel  to  the  equator  are  parallel  circles,  or  parallels  of  latitude.  Great 
circles  passing  through  both  poles  are  called  Meridians.  The  geographical 
latitude  of  a  place  is  its  angular  distance  from  the  equator,  measured  along 
a  meridian ;  it  will  be  north  or  south  as  the  place  is  north  or  south  of  the 
equator.  The  geographical  longitude  of  a  place  is  that  arc  of  the  equator 
intercepted  between  two  meridians,  one  passing  through  the  place  and  the 
other  through  the  arbitrary  point  to  which  the  longitude  is  referred.  This 
latter  meridian  is  called  the  first  or  fixed  meridian,  and  difiers  in  different 
countries.  The  French  take  as  their  first  meridian  the  one  passing  through 
the  observatory  at  Paris ;  the  Germans  make  use  of  the  meridian  of  Ferro, 
20°  west  of  that  at  Paris,  and  passing  near  the  island  of  Ferro.  The 
English  make  all  references  to  the  meridian  of  Greenwich,  17°  46'  east  of 
that  of  Ferro,  as  do  the  Americans  also.  In  this  country,  however,  an 
effort  has  recently  been  made  to  have  a  meridian  of  our  own,  passing 
through  the  city  of  New  Orleans,  as  most  convenient  on  account  of  its  being 
as  nearly  as  possible  90°  west  of  Greenwich.  Our  maps  are  drawn  with 
reference  to  the  meridian  of  Ferro,  but  for  greater  convenience  we  shall 
use  the  meridian  of  Greenwich  in  the  body  of  the  work.  Longitude  may 
be  reckoned  either  west  and  east  to  the  amount  of  180°  each,  or  entirely 
west  to  360°.  The  two  circles  of  latitude  at  distances  of  23^o  on  each  side 
of  the  equator,  are  called  the  Tropics  (the  northern  is  the  Tropic  of  Cancer, 
the  southern  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn)  :  the  Polar  or  Arctic  circles  are  thode 
circles  of  latitude  23^°  from  each  pole,  the  northern  parallel  being  the 
Arctic,  the  southern  the  Antarctic  circle.  These  four  circles  divide  the 
earth  into  five  zones  :  one  torrid,  two  temperate,  and  two  frigid.  The  torrid 
zone  is  bounded  by  the  two  tropics,  and  embraces  all  that  part  of  the  earth 
where  the  rays  of  the  sun  fall  vertically  once  or  twice  a  year.  The  north 
frigid  zone  lies  within  the  Arctic  circle,  the  south  frigid  zone  within  the 
Antarctic ;  both  together  include  that  portion  of  the  earth  where  the  sun, 
during  the  summer,  does  not  fall  below  the  horizon  for  from  twenty-four 
hours  to  six  months,  and  during  winter  does  not  pass  above  the  horizon  for 
the  same  limits  of  time.  Each  of  the  temperate  zones  lies  between  the 
tropic  and  polar  circles  of  its  hemisphere.  The  two  temperate  zones 
together  include  more  than  half  (//y)  of  the  entire  surface  of  the  earth,  the 
torrid  embracing  ^VVi  and  the  two  frigid  only  jj,. 

The  e^iuator,  like  any  other  circle,  is  divided  into  360°,  the  sixtieth  part 
of  a  degree,  or  one  minute,  being  called  a  geographical  mile.  The  entire 
circumference  of  the  earth  at  the  equator  will  therefore  be  21,600 
geographical  miles,  the  diameter  being  6875^^.  Were  the  earth  a  perfect 
sphere,  then,  her  surface  would  amount  to  about  148,512,000  square  miles, 
and  her  volume  to  170,176  millions  of  cubic  miles.  Measurements, 
however,  carried  on  at  various  times,  and  in  various  places,  within  the  last 
one  hundred  years,  have  shown  that  degrees  of  the  meridian  are  not  of  the 
same  length  at  all  latitudes,  but  that  they  increase  slightly  from  the  equator 
towards  the  poles  ;  it  has  hence  been  concluded  that  the  earth  in  sdl 
strictness  is  not  a  sphere,  but  an  elliptical  spheroid,  flattened  or  depressed 
at  the  poles,  or  in  other  words,  is  such  a  body  as  would  be  produced  by  the 
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GEOGRAPHY.  3 

• 

rotation  of  an  ellipse  about  its  minor  axis.  Nevertheless,  the  difference 
between  the  greatest  and  least  diameters  of  the  earth,  or  the  oblateness, 
amounts  only  to  about  j^j  of  the  former  (the  equatorial),  or  to  about 
twenty-six  statute  miles.  The  following  table  expresses  the  dimensions  of 
the  earth,  as  given  in  English  statute  miles : 

Radius  at  the  equator,  .  .  .  3962.6. 
Radius  at  the  pole,  ....  3949.6. 
Mean  radius,  or  at  45°  latitude,  3956.1. 
Mean  length  of  a  degree,  .  .  69.05. 
The  fourth  part  of  a  meridian,      6214.2. 

The  length  of  an  English  geographical  mile  is  equal  to  about  2025  yards. 
As  the  statute  mile  is  1760  yards,  the  ratio  between  the  two  is  as  1 : 1.15. 
The  Germans  count  fifteen  geographical  miles  to  the  degree.  Consequently 
one  German  geographical  mile  is  equal  to  four  English  ditto ;  and  one 
German  geographical  mile  equals  4.6  English  statute  or  ordinary  miles. 
The  squares  of  these  values  expressing  square  miles  will  then  be  to  each 
other  as  1  to  21.16.  Unless  otherwise  stated,  future  measurements  will 
be  expressed  in  English  geographical  miles.  The  reduction  to  statute 
miles  can,  however,  be  readily  made  by  multiplying  by  1.15.  We  add  a 
comparison  of  some  French  and  English  measures  for  the  sake  of 
convenience  in  reduction : 

French    foot  =    1.065,765  English  feet. 
"      metre  =  39.370,091         "      yards, 
toise  =    6.394,592         "      feet. 

Coming  now  to  the  subject  of  Physical  Geography,  we  shall  present  a 
condensed  description  of  the  surface  of  the  earth,  introducing  as  many  of 
such  accessories  to  Physical  Geography  as  the  distribution  of  plants  and 
animals,  aerial  and  oceanic  currents,  &c.,  as  may  be  necessary  for  the 
proper  elucidation  of  the  plates. 

The  entire  surface  of  the  earth  includes  about  148,160,000  geographical 
square  miles,  of  which  about  one  fourth  belongs  to  the  land,  and  the 
remainder  to  the  sea.  The  world  of  waters  which  thus  covers  the  greater 
part  of  the  earth,  may  be  divided  into  five  principal  bodies  or  oceans :  the 
Arctic,  the  Antarctic,  the  Atlantic^  the  Pacific,  and  the  Indian. 

The  Arctic  Ocean  extends  from  the  arctic  circle  towards  the  north  pole ; 
the  Antarctic,  from  the  antarctic  circle  to  the  south  pole.  The  two  are  for 
the  most  part  continually  frozen,  and  consequently  inaccessible. 

The  Pacific  Ocean  is  bounded  to  the  west  by  Asia  and  New  Holland,  to 
the  east  by  the  Americas ;  to  the  south  it  is  continuous  with  the  Antarctic 
Ocean,  communicating  to  the  north  with  the  Arctic  Ocean,  through 
Behring's  Straits.  Its  area  amounts  to  about  44.800,000  square  miles,  or 
nearly  one  third  of  the  entire  surface  of  the  earth.  The  southern  part  of 
the  Pacific  Ocean  is  sometimes  called  the  South  Sea. 

The  Atlantic  Ocean  is  bounded  to  the  west  by  the  Americas,  to  the  east 
by  Europe  and  Africa ;  it  is  continuous  to  the  north  with  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
to  the  south-west  with  the  Pacific,  and  to  the  south-east  with  the  Indian. 

The   Indian   Ocean  lies   between    the   Atlantic    and   Pacific    Oceans, 


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4  GEOGRAPHY. 

bordering  to  the  north  on  Asia,  to  the  east  on  New  Holland,  to  thjs  south  on 
the  Antarctic  Ocean,  and  to  the  west  on  Africa.  *- 

The  dry  land  belonging  to  the  earth  is  divided  into  five  parts  or 
continents :  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  the  Americas,  and  New  Holland.  The 
largest  of  these  is  Asia,  with  about  14,128,000  square  miles ;  then  comes 
North  America  with  5,472,000;  South  America  with  5,136,000;  Africa 
with  8,720,000;  Europe  with  2,688,000;  and  lastly,  New  Holland,  or 
Australia,  with  2,208,000  square  miles. 


1.  EuEOPE  {PlaU  1). 

Europe  extends  from  36°  to  71°  north  latitude,  and  from  9°  west  to 
60°  20'  east  longitude,  reckoning  from  Greenwich.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Arctic  Ocean,  on  the  south  and  west  by  the  Atlantic,  and  to 
the  east  by  Asia.  Its  eastern  line  of  division  from  Asia  has  been  variously 
assigned,  although  the  Ural  Mountains  are  now  generally  takei^  as  the 
boundary.  Its  area  amounts,  as  already  remarked,  to  about  2,688,000 
geographical  square  miles;  its  coast  line  to  17,200  linear  geographical 
miles. 

'  The  Arctic  Ocean,  or  Icy  Sea,  presents  one  gulf,  the  White  Sea.  Of  the 
many  indentations  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  may  be  mentioned  :  a,  In  the  west 
of  Europe,  the  Scandinavian  Sea,  west  of  Norway,  extending  to  the  Arctic 
Ocean ;  the  English  Channel  between  England  and  France ;  St.  George's 
Channel,  or  the  Irish  Sea,  between  England  and  Ireland ;  the  North  Sea, 
united  to  the  ocean  to  the  south  by  the  Straits  of  Dover ;  the  Skagerrack 
and  the  Cattegat,  connecting  the  ISorth  Sea  with  the  Baltic ;  the  Baltic  or 
East  Sea,  with  the  Gulfs  of  Bothnia  and  Finland,  with  Riga  Bay  and  the 
Bay  of  Biscay  to  the  west  of  France  and  north  of  Spain,  b,  In  the  south  of 
Europe  we  have  the  Mediterranean  Sea  connected  with  the  Atlantic  by 
the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  and  having  numerous  minor  gulfs  and  seas.  The 
principal  of  these  are  the  Gulf  of  Lyons  in  the  south  of  France ;  the 
Tyrrhenian  or  Tuscan  Sea,  between  Corsica,  Sardinia,  Sicily,  and  Italy ; 
the  Adriatic  Sea  to  the  east  of  Italy ;  the  Ionian  Sea  between  lower  Italy 
and  Greece ;  the  Egaean  Sea,  or  the  Archipelago,  between  Greece  and  Asia 
Minor ;  the  Sea  of  Marmora  (Propontis),  connected  with  the  Egaean  Sea 
through  the  Dardanelles  (the  Hellespont),  and  with  the  Black  Sea  through 
the  Straits  of  Constantinople  (the  Bosphorus) ;  finally  the  Black  Sea  with  its 
gulf,  the  Sea  of  Azof 

The  arrows  placed  in  difierent  parts  of  the  seas  represented  on  pi  1, 
indicate  the  direction  of  the  oceanic  currents.  Two  kinds  of  currents  may 
be  distinguished  :  those  produced  by  the  action  of  the  wind,  and  those 
entirely  independent  of  this  cause.  The  latter  are  the  most  important, 
constituting  true  streams  of  from  fifty  to  two  hundred  miles  in  width.  One 
of  the  principal  of  these  is  that  which,  striking  from  the  north-western 
shores  of  Africa,  crosses  towards  America,  passing  round  in  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  and  thence  continued  to  the  north  as  the  Gulf-stream.  On 
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re^hing  Newfoundland  it  is  deflected  eastwards,  and  passing  south  by  the 
Arores,  joins  the  equatorial  current  again,  having  made  a  circuit  of  3800 
miles,  and  embracing  a  vast  space  nearly  stagnant  in  the  centre,  and  known 
as  the  Sargasso  Sea.  An  important  branch  current  leaves  the  Gulf-stream 
near  Newfoundland,  and  sets  towards  Britain  and  Norway.  A  current 
indicated  on  pL  1  as  "  Rennel's  Strömung,"  passes  from  the  north-western 
comer  of  Spain,  eastwards  along  the  coast  to  Bayonne,  then  north  along 
the  coast  of  France,  and  across  to  the  Irish  coast  at  Cape  Clear,  then 
turning  to  the  south-west ;  it  thus  describes  an  entire  circle.  A  constant 
current  passes  from  the  Baltic  through  the  Sound  and  the  Cattegat  into  the 
North  Sea ;  there  is  also  a  strong  current  from  the  Dardanelles  into  the  Medi- 
terranean. A  double  current  passes  by  Gibraltar,  an  upper  from  the  Atlantic 
into  the  Mediterranean,  extending  to  the  coast  of  Syria,  and  then  turning  back, 
and  a  second  current  towards  the  west,  at  a  certain  depth  below  the  surface. 
The  largest  Mountains  of  Europe  are  the  Pyrenees,  the  Alps,  and  the 
Carpathians,  to  which  may  be  added  the  Apennines,  the  Scandinavian 
Mountains,  and  others. 

I.  The  Pyrenees.  These  separate  France  from*  Spain,  and  are  about 
^0  statute  miles  long,  by  a  maximum  breadth  of  sixty  miles.  The  highest 
point  is  the  Malahite,  or  Maladetta,  11,170  feet;  the  middle  comb  is  about 
7990  feet  in  mean  altitude.  The  central  Pyrenees  contain  the  loftiest 
peaks,  the  eastern  and  western  (the  latter  especially)  being  of  less 
elevation.  Other  important  mountains  of  the  Spanish  peninsula  are  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  the  water-shed  between  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  and  of 
the  Mediterranean;  the  Sierra  Morena  on  the  southern  edge;  the 
Guadarama ;  the  Sierra  de  Toledo ;  the  Sierra  de  Estrella  in  Portugal,  &c. 

II.  The  Alps  in  Switzerland,  South  France,  and  Germany,  and  northern 
Italy  (the  principal  mountain  chain  in  Europe),  are  divided  up  into  numerous 
ranges,  and  may  be  considered  under  the  following  heads  :  the  French- 
Italian  Alps  (with  the  Maritime,  Cottian,  and  Grey  Alps),  the  Bernese, 
Valois,  and  Central  Swiss  Alps  (with  the  Pennine,  Lepontine,  and  Rhetian 
Alps),  and*  the  Austrian  Alps  in  its  more  extended  sense  including  the 
Norian,  Carnian,  Julian,  and  Dinarian  Alps.  The  highest  peaks  are  Mont 
Blanc,  15,739  feet ;  Monte  Rosa,  15,210  ;  Mont  Cervin,  14,836 ;  Finsteraar- 
hom,  14,026  ;  Jungfrau,  lS,672  ;  Mont  Iseran,  13,272 ;  Ortler  Spitz,  12,851 ; 
Mont  Terglou,  9386. 

III.  The  Carpathians  in  Hungary,  Galicia,  and  Siebenbürgen,  divide 
into  three  principal  members :  the  Highland  of  Siebenbürgen,  the  Car- 
pathian Wald,  and  the  Hungarian  Carpathians.  The  highest  peaks  are 
Ruska  Boyana,  9,912  ;  Budosch,  9,593  ;  Mount  Tatra,  8,524. 

IV.  The  Apennines  in  Middle  and  Lower  Italy.  Mount  Etna  in  Sicily 
may  be  considered  as  the  highest  point  (10,874  feet) :  on  the  mainland  in 
the  peninsula  of  Italy,  the  highest  point  is  the  Gran  Sasso  d'ltalia,  or  Monte 
Como,  in  the  Abruzzi  (9^29  feet). 

V.  The  HcBmus  or  Balkan  in  Turkey,  with  its  southern  spurs,  Pangaeus, 
Rhodope,  the  Strandsje,  and  the  Tekiri. 

VI.  The  curve  of  mountains  from  the  Cevennes  to  the  Carpathians  in 

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6  GEOGRAPHY. 

Middle  Europe,  consisting  of:  a,  the  Cevennes  in  France,  Mont  d'Or  (6200 
feet)  the  highest  point ;  ft,  the  Jura,  divided  into  the  Swiss,  the  French,  Sid 
the  Suabian  ;  c,  the  Middle  Rhenish  Mountains,  divided  into  the  Yosges  or 
the  Wasgau  Mountains,  with  the  Hardtgebirge  and  the  Donnersberg  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  the  Schwarzwald  (Feldberg  4675  feet  high),  the 
Odenwald,  and  the  Spessart,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine ;  d,  the  moun- 
tains in  the  north  Germany  and  Belgium  region,  including  the  Ardennes, 
the  Argonnerwald,  the  Eifel,  the  Hohewald  and  Hundsruck,  the  Sieben- 
gebirge, the  Westerwald,  Mount  Taunus,  the  Rothhaargebirge,  the  Teuto- 
burgerwald,  and  the  Hartz  ;  e,  the  Hessian  Mountains  (with  the  Rhoen,  3484 
feet) ;  the  Meisner,  the  Vogelsgebirge,  and  the  Habichtswald :  /,  the 
Bohemian  Mountains,  divided  into  the  Fichtelgebirge,  the  Thuringerwald, 
the  Franken wald,  the  Erzgebirge,  with  the  Mittelgebirge  and  the  Sax- 
onian  Switzerland,  the  Lusatian  Mountains,  the  Riesengebirge,  the  Sudetes» 
the  mountains  constituting  the  boundary  between  Bohemia  and  Moravia, 
and  the  Boehmerwald. 

YII.  The  mountains  of  Great  Britain  attaining  a  height  of  3557  feet  in 
Snowdon  (Wales),  and  4380  in  Ben  Nevis  (Scotland).  The  highest  moun- 
tains in  England  are  Cross  Fell  in  Cumberland  (3383),  Helvyllen  (3313), 
and  Skiddaw  (3083).  The  highest  in  Ireland  is  Curran  Tual  in  the  County 
"Kerry  (3412).  Other  prominent  members  of  the  mountain  group  of  Great 
Britain,  are  the  Cheviot  Hills,  the  Pentland  Hills,  Lead  Hills,  the  Peak 
Mountain,  the  Grampians,  &c. 

VIII.  The  Scandinavian  Mountains  extend  from  the  southern  point  of 
Norway  over  a  length  of  nearly  one  thousand  miles  to  the  North  Cape. 
The  highest  points  are  the  Skagestöltind,8101  feet  high,  and  Sneehattan  8120. 

The  principal  of  the  numerous  Promontories  and  Capes  of  Europe  are  :  1, 
the  North  Cape,  the  most  northern  point  of  Europe,  and  situated  on  an 
island  ;  2,  Cape  Lindesnas,  the  southern  point  of  Norway ;  3,  Arcona,  the 
most  northern  point  of  Germany  (on  the  Island  of  Rügen) ;  4,  Skagen  or 
Skagenshorn,  the  northern  point  of  Jutland ;  5,  Duncansby  Head,  the 
northern  point  of  Scotland  ;  6,  Land's-End,  the  southern  point  of^England ; 
7,  Cape  de  la  Roca  in  Portugal,  the  most  western  point  in  Europe ;  8,  Cape 
St.  Vincent,  the  south-western  point  of  Europe ;  9,  Tarifa,  not  far  from 
Gibraltar,  the  most  southern  point  of  Europe ;  10,  Cape  delle  Armi  and 
Cape  Spartivento,  the  southern  point  of  the  Italian  mainland;  11,  Cape 
Santa  Maria  di  Leuca  and  Cape  d'Otranto,  the  south-eastern  points  of 
Italy ;  12,  Cape  Peloro,  Cape  Passaro,  and  Cape  Boco,  the  three  points  of 
Sicily ;  13,  Cape  Linguetta  and  Actium  on  the  west  coast  of  Greece ;  14, 
the  promontories  of  Gallo,  Matapan,  and  St.  Angelo,  on  the  south  side  of 
the  Morea  ;  15,  Colonna  (the  ancient  Sunium)  on  the  south-eastern  side  of 
Greece. 

The  most  important  Yalkys,  Plains,  and  Lowlands  of  Europe,  are  as 
follows  :  1,  the  valley  of  the  Po,  included  between*  the  chains  of  the  Alps  ; 
2,  the  valleys  of  the  Rhone  and  Danube,  united  by  the  lowlands  of  the  Aar 
and  the  Rhine.  Portions  of  these  are  :  a,  from  the  Lake  of  Geneva  to  the 
Lake  of  Constance ;  b,  from  the  Lake  of  Constance  to  Linz  (the  former  is 
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GBOGRAPHT,  7 

the  Swiss  lowlands,  the  latter  the  plain  of  Munich) ;  c,  from  Linz  to  the 
Lake  of  Neusiedel ;  rf,  the  valley  of  the  Theiss  or  the  great  Hungarian 
plain,  1728  miles  long  in  a  direction  from  north  to  south,  and  1152  from 
east  to  west,  and  in  all  probability  the  bed  of  a  former  lake.  3.  The  plains 
within  the  circle  of  mountains  from  the  Cevennes  to  the  Carpathians, 
including  the  plains  of  the  middle  Rhine  and  the  Bohemian  Elbkessel.  4. 
The  great  lowlands  of  eastern  Europe,  with  their  western  off-shoots,  the 
plains  of  the  Baltic  and  North  Sea,  The  whole  of  eastern  Europe  consti- 
tutes a  single  immense  plain,  extending  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  the 
Baltic  to  the  Black  and  Caspian  seas,  and  bounded  to  the  east  by  the  Ural 
Mountains.  No  point  of  this  depression  (as  shown  in  Plate  1)  is  more  than 
180  toises  or  1150  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea;  the  highest  known  point 
is  the  Thurmberg,  between  Dantzic  and  Butow.  In  Russia  the  plain  rises 
not  far  from  the  town  of  Waldai,  into  the  so  called  plateau  of  Waldai,  to  a 
height  of  about  1080  feet.  This  is  important  as  the  water-shed  between  the 
Black  and  Caspian  seas  and  the  Baltic. 

The  Rivers  of  Europe  may  be  best  examined  according  to  the  seas  into 
which  they  empty. 

I.  Into  the  Arctic  Ocean  empty :  Petschora,  Mezen,  Dwina  (in  Russia), 
and  Tanaelf,  the  latter  forming  the  boundary  between  Lapland  and 
Norway. 

II.  Into  the  Cattegat  empty  :  Glommen  and  Gotaelf 

III.  Into  the  Baltic  there  empty :  Motalaelf,  Lake  Malar  (with  its  outlets, 
Norcder  and  Süderstrom),  Oalelf,  Angermanelf,  Piteaelf,  Luleaelf,  Torneaelf, 
in  Sweden ;  Kymmene  in  Finland ;  Newa,  Narowa  (Narwa),  Duna  or 
Dwina  in  Russia ;  Niemen  (Memel),  Pregel,  Passarge,  Weichsel,  Persante, 
Oder,  Warnow,  Trave,  in  Germany. 

IV.  Into  the  North  Sea  empty:  Eider,  Elbe,  Weser,  Ems,  Hunte, 
Vechte,  in  Germany ;  Rhine,  Maas,  and  Scheid,  in  the  Netherlands.  The 
most  important  branches  of  the  Elbe  are,  on  the  right  bank,  Iser,  Black 
Elster,  Havel,  Eide ;  on  the  left,  Moldau,  Eger,  Mulde,  Saale.  The  tribu- 
taries of  the  Weser,  besides  the  Fulda  and  Werra  by  whose  confluence  it  is 
formed,  are :  to  the  right.  Aller  with  the  Leine ;  to  the  left,  Diemel  and 
Hunte.  Tributaries  of  the  Rhine  are :  to  the  right  Plessur,  III,  Treisam, 
Kinzig,  Murg,  Neckar,  Main,  Lahn,  Sieg,  Wipper,  Ruhr,  Lippe;  to  the 
left,  Thur,  Aar,  III,  Queich,  Nahe,  Moselle,  Ahr,  Erffi.  In  the  Netherlands 
the  Rhine  divides  into  the  Waal,  the  Yssel,  the  Leek,  the  Vecht,  and  the 
old  Rhine. 

V.  Of  the  rivers  of  Great  Britain,  there  empty  into  the  North  Sea :  the 
Thames,  Ouse,  Humber,  Tweed,  Forth,  and  Tay ;  the  Clyde  and  Mersey 
into  the  Irish  Channel ;  the  Severn  and  the  Shannon,  the  latter  the 
principal  river  of  Ireland,  into  the  Atlantic. 

VI.  The  Seine  and  the  Somme  empty  into  the  English  Channel. 

VII.  Rivers  of  France  emptying  into  the  Atlantic  are :  the  Loire, 
Charente,  Garonne,  Adour,  Bidassoa ;  those  of  Portugal  are  the  Minho, 
Douro,  and  Tajo  or  Tagus ;  of  Spain,  the  Guadiana  and  Gkiadalquivir. 

VIII.  There  empty  into  the  Mediterranean :  1,  on  the  east  coast  of  Spain, 

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8  GEOGRAPHY. 

Segura,  Xucar,  Guadalaviar,  Ebro,  and  Llobregat ;  2,  on  the  south  coast 
of  France,  the  Rhone  and  the  Var ;  3,  on  the  west  coast  of  Italy,  the  Arno, 
Ombrone,  Tiber,  Garigliano,  Voltumo,  Sele ;  4,  into  the  Adriatic :  Osanto, 
Metauro,  Po,  Etsch,  Bacchiglione,  Brenta,  Piave,  Tagliamento ;  on  the  east 
coast  of  Italy,  Isonzo  in  lUyria,  Kerka  and  Narenta  in  Dalmatia,  Drin  in 
Turkey ;  5,  into  the  Sea  of  Ionia :  Acheron,  Achelous,  Alpheus,  Eurotas, 
Inachus;  6,  into  the  Egcean  Sea:  Cephissus,  Asopus,  Sperchius,  Peneus, 
Haliakmon,  Axius,  Strymon,  Nestus,  and  Hebrus. 

IX.  Into  the  Black  Sea  empty  the  Danube,  with  its  numerous  tributaries 
(to  the  right,  Iller,  Lech,  Isar,  Inn,  Traun,  Ens,  Raab,  Drau,  Sau,  Morawa ; 
to  the  left,  Wernitz,  Altmuhl,  Naab,  Regen,  March,  Gran,  Theiss,  Aluta, 
Sereth,  Pruth),  the  Dniester  and  the  Dnieper,  and  between  these  the  Bug ;  the 
Don  alone  empties  into  the  Sea  of  Azof. 

The  numerous  inland  Lakes  of  Europe  most  generally  discharge  their 
waters  into  the  sea  through  rivers.  The  largest  are  the  Lakes  Ladoga, 
Onega,  and  Peipus,  in  Russia ;  Wener  and  Wetter  in  Sweden ;  the  Platten 
and  Neusiedler  Lakes  in  Hungary.  Lakes  are  most  abundant  in  upper 
Italy  and  Switzerland  (the  Rhone  flows  through  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  and 
the  Rhine  drains  most  of  the  other  lakes). 

The  largest  Islands  of  Europe  are  Great  Britain,  with  about  69,000 
square  geographical  miles,  Ireland  with  about  32,000,  and  Iceland  with 
about  28,000  square  miles ;  all  these  lie  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  In  addition 
there  are :  1,  in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  various  Norwegian  Islands,  among  them 
the  Lofibdens;  2,  in  the  Atlantic,  the  Faroes,  the  Shetland  Islands,  the 
Orkneys  and  the  Hebrides  to  the  north  and  west  of  Scotland ;  the  Scilly 
Islands,  the  Isles  of  Man  and  of  Anglesea ;  3,  in  the  English  Channel 
the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  the  Norman  islands,  Jersey,  Guernsey,  and 
Aldemey ;  4,  in  the  North  Sea,  the  islands  at  the  mouth  of  the  Scheid  along 
the  coasts  of  Holland  and  Germany  (Texel,  Terschelling,  Amelang, 
Norderney,  Helgoland,  &c.),  also  various  Danish  islands,  Föhr,  Sylt,  &c. ; 
5,  Laessoe  and  Anholt  in  the  Cattegat ;  6,  in  the  Baltic,  the  Danish  islands, 
Fünen,  Seeland,  Laaland,  Möen,  Langeland,  Falster,  Bomholm,  Alsen,  &c., 
the  German  islands  of  Rügen,  Usedom,  and  Wollin,  the  Swedish  islands  of 
Aland  and  Gottland ;  the  Russian  islands  of  Aland,  as  also  of  Oesel  and 
Dagoe  ;  7,  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea  :  Ivica,  Minorca  and  Majorca,  Corsica, 
Sardinia,  Elba,  Capri,  Ischia,  Procida,  Sicily,  the  Lipari  and  iEgadian 
Islands,  Malta  with  Gozzo  and  Comino ;  8,  in  the  Adriatic  Sea :  Cherso, 
Veglio,  and  many  islands  belonging  to  Dalmatia ;  the  islands  of  Tremiti  on 
the  east  coast  of  Italy ;  9,  in  the  Ionian  Sea,  the  Ionian  Islands,  Corfu, 
Zante,  Cephalonia,  Theaki,  Santa  Maura,  Paxo,  and  Cerigo ;  10,  in  the 
Egsean  Sea,  Candia,  Egina,  Hydra,  Spezzia,  Euboea,  the  Cyclades,  Lemnos 
(now  Stalimene),  &c. 

The  dotted  lines  ( )  on  the  Physical  Chart  of  Europe  {pi.  1),  are 

isothermals ;  in  other  words,  lines  connecting  places  having  the  same  mean 
temperature  throughout  the  year.  At  the  right  hand  side  of  the  map  the 
corresponding  degrees  of  temperature  are  represented  according  to  the 
scale  of  Reaumur,  that  of  Celsius  being  employed  to  the  left  hand.  The 
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GEOGRAPHT.  9 

conversion  of  Reaumur's  scale  into  that  of  Fahrenheit,  may  readily  be 
effected  by  multiplying  by  f  and  adding  32^.  To  make  Xhe  conversion  from 
the  Centigrade  or  Celsius  scale  to  Fahrenheit,  multiply  by  f  and  add  82^. 
Isotheral  lines  are  those  which  connect  places  of  the  same  mean  summer 
temperature,  and  isocheimonal,  similar  lines  expressing  the  same  mean 
winter  temperature.  On  some  isothermal  lines  will  be  found  marked  the 
corresponding  mean  summer  and  winter  temperatures.  As  a  general  rule, 
the  cold  increases  both  with  the  latitude  and  the  elevation  above  the  sea. 
At  a  certain  elevation  above  the  latter,  the  snow  never  melts,  even  in  the 
hottest  parts  of  the  year.  The  boundary  above  which  snow  always  exists,  or  the 
lower  line  of  perpetual  snow  and  ice,  is  called  the  Snow  line.  This  possesses 
different  elevations  at  different  latitudes,  sinking  deeper  and  deeper  with 
increase  of  latitude,  until  near  the  poles  it  comes  down  to  the  level  of  the 
sea. 

The  vegetation  of  a  country   depends  greatly  upon  the  mean  annual 
temperature ;  still  more  upon  the  mean  summer  and  winter  temperature. 
The  differences  in  respect  to  the  vegetation  of  different  sections  of 
country,   we    have   endeavored   to  express  on    our  chart.      The    lines 
.--......  indicate  the  northern  or  polar  limits  of  various  plants, 

as  of  trees  (Bäume),  grain  (Getreide),  fruit  trees  (Obstbäume),  vine 
(Weinstock),  and  the  olive  (Oelbaum).  In  western  France  the  culture  of 
the  vine  extends  only  to  47**  20'  N.  L.,  in  Champagne  to  50®,  on  the  Rhine 
to  Ö1**,  at  Grunberg  in  Silesia  almost  to  52^  &c.  The  extent  over  which  a 
particular  plant  is  met  with,  is  called  its  circle  of  distribution  ;  the  extent 
from  north  to  south  is  its  zone  of  latitude,  that  from  east  to  west  the  zone 
of  longitude.  From  this  is  to  be  distinguished  the  vertical  distribution  of  a 
plant,  or  its  region,  that  is,  the  limits  of  maximum  and  minimum  height 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Within  the  Arctic  circle,  the  woody  vegetation 
dwindles  down  to  mere  shrubs,  no  trees  being  present.  Arable  land,  too,  is 
present  in  only  a  few  places.  The  most  northern  European  cerealia  are 
barley  and  oats ;  south  of  these  we  find  rye,  which  in  Norway  and  Sweden 
is  met  with  up  to  66°-67°.  The  two  first-mentioned  grains  constitute  the 
principal  articles  of  food  in  northern  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Scotland ;  rye, 
in  southern  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Scotland,  in  Denmark,  in  the  regions  of 
the  Baltic,  and  in  the  greater  part  of  Germany ;  wheat  in  England,  France, 
southern  Germany,  and  Hungary.  In  addition  to  wheat,  rice  and  Indian 
corn  are  cultivated  in  Portugal,  Spain,  south  France,  Italy,  and  Greece. 

In  conclusion,  the  chart  presents  the  height  of  numerous  points  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  expressed  in  French  toises.  The  figures  at  various  points 
of  the  ocean  indicate  the  depth  in  fathoms  of  six  feet.  Remarkable 
inequalities  in  the  bottom  of  the  sea  are  indicated  by  shaded  lines ;  an 
illustration  may  be  seen  on  the  map  extending  from  the  west  coast  of 
Sweden  through  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  to  the  west  of  Great  Britain,  France, 
&c.,  where  we  observe  such  numbers  as  250  and  70,  300  and  65, 140  and  70, 
close  together,  indicating  a  very  sudden  change  in  depth.  (These  general 
remarks,  in  explanation  of  the  physical  chart  of  Europe,  apply  equally  to 
the  physical  charts  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  America.) 

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10  OlOGRAPHT. 


2.    AfliA  (Plate  4). 

The  continent  of  Asia,  the  largest  part  of  the  world,  embracing  about 
12,000,000  square  geographical  miles,  and  about  16,000,000  statute  miles 
(according  to  other  estimates,  14,128,000),  lies  entirely  within  the  northern 
hemisphere.  It  is  connected  to  Europe  along  a  line  of  about  2000  miles,  and 
to  Africa  by  an  isthmus  of  only  60.  Behring's  Straits  separate  it  from 
America.  Its  greatest  length,  from  Suez  to  Behring's  Straits,  is  about  7370 
miles ;  and  its  greatest  breadth,  from  Cape  Comorin  in  India  to  Cape 
Taimurski  in  Siberia,  about  4820.  It  is  included  between  1^  and  77^  N.  Lat., 
and  26°  and  170°  longitude  east  of  Greenwich. 

The  Seas  washing  the  shores  of  Asia  are  the  Arctic  Ocean  in  the  north, 
forming  the  Gulfs  of  Obi  and  Kari ;  in  the  south,  the  Indian  Ocean  with 
numerous  gulfs  and  bays,  as  the  Persian  Gulf,  the  Gulf  of  Cutch,  the  Gulf 
of  Cambay,  the  Arabian  Sea,  the  Gulf  of  Manaar,  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  the 
Gulf  of  Siam,  the  Gulf  of  Tonquin,  the  Chinese  Sea,  the  Gulf  of  Hoang-hai 
or  the  Yellow  Sea,  the  Sea  of  Japan,  the  Sea  of  Okotsk,  the  Sea  of  Penjinsk, 
and  the  Sea  of  Behring  or  Kamtschatka. 

The  Mountains  of  Asia  may  be  arranged  in  the  following  manner,  although 
much  still  remains  to  be  known  respecting  them. 

I.  The  mountain  chain  of  the  desert  of  Cobi,  in  the  middle  of  Asia, 
inclosing  an  area  of  over  1000  miles  in  length,  and  200  to  400  miles  in 
breadth,  better  known  as  Central  Asia.  The  Bolor  or  Beloot  Tagh  Moun- 
tains form  the  western  border,  attaining  a  height  of  over  20,000  feet ;  the 
north  eastern  border  is  constituted  by  the  Thiam-shan  or  Celestial  Moun- 
tains, and  the  Altai  chain  dividing  into  the  west  and  east  Altai,  the  latter 
connected  with  the  Yablonoi  Mountains ;  the  eastern  border  is  formed  by 
the  Kinghan,  and  the  southern  by  the  Kuenlun  or  Chinese  range,  to  which 
also  belong  the  Kulkun  and  the  Tsunglin  Mountains. 

II.  The  Himalaya,  south  of  the  preceding,  and  connected  to  the  north 
west  with  the  Tsunglin  Mountains.  The  highest  summits  on  the  globe 
occur  in  these  mountains,  pre-eminent  among  which  is  Kunchinginga  in 
Sikim,  28,178  feet  high.  Dwalagiri  in  Nepaul,  until  lately  considered  as 
the  point  of  maximum  elevation,  is  26,862  feet  high.  Juwahir  in  Kumaoon  is 
25,670,  &c.  In  fact  there  are  twenty- two  peaks  of  the  Himalaya,  each  known 
to  exceed  20,000  feet  in  height.  The  highest  pass  of  this  range  is  the  Karo- 
korun  Pass  in  Tibet,  18,600  feet.  The  mean  height  of  the  Himalaya  has 
been  variously  estimated  from  11,000  to  16,000  feet. 

III.  The  Ural  Mountains  form  the  natural  boundary  between  Europe  and 
Asia.  They  extend  from  Ustart  as  the  southern  limit  between  the  Caspian 
Sea  and  the  Lake  of  Aral,  to  the  Gulf  of  Karskaia  (or  Karia)  in  the  Polar 
Sea.  They  attain  a  height  of  5897  feet  in  the  Kondjakowskoi-Kamen 
Peak. 

IV.  The  mountains  of  Hindostan,  namely  the  Ghauts  and  the  Vindhya. 
The  former  divide  into  the  West  Ghauts,  which  extend  for  a  length  of  800 
miles  along  the  western  coast,  and  attaining  a  height  of  6760  feet  in  the 

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GEOGRAPHY.  11 

NeHgherries ;  and  the  much  less  elevated  East  Ghauts,  separated  from  the 
other  branch  by  the  Deccan. 

y.  The  mountains  encircling  the  table  land  of  Persia  or  the  plateau  of 
Iran,  of  a  height  of  from  4000  to  7000  feet  above  the  sea.  This  is  bounded  to 
the  north  by  the  Hindukhos,  which  is  the  western  continuation  of  the 
Himalaya,  attaining  a  height  of  over  20,000  feet,  and  connected  through 
the  Parapomisan  chain  with  the  mountains  of  Elbruz  on  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  Caspian  Sea  (Damavend,  the  loftiest  peak  of  the  Elbruz, 
15,000  feet  high).  To  the  east  of  the  table  land  of  Persia  is  found  the 
Indo- Persian  mountain  boundary,  with  a  peak,  Sufeid  Kho,  15,000  feet  high ; 
also  the  Soliman  chain  and  the  Brahu  Mountains.  In  the  south-west  is  a 
range  of  120  to  200  miles  broad,  connected  with  the  Elbruz,  and  parallel 
with  the  south  western  shore  of  Iran ;  this  attains  a  height  of  13,000  feet 
in  Mount  Sevellan,  east  of  Tauris. 

VI.  The  mountains  of  Armenia  and  Koordistan,  forming  the  water-shed 
between  the  Persian  Gulf,  the  Black,  and  the  Caspian  seas.  The  highest 
mountain  in  Armenia  is  the  time-honored  Ararat,  17,112  feet  high.  Branches 
of  the  Armenian  mountains  are  :  1.  The  Caucasus,  between  the  Caspian  and 
Black  seas,  120  to  200  miles  long,  and  attaining  a  height  of  18,493  feet  in 
Elbruz.  2.  The  Antitaurus  (highest  point  Argeeus,  13,197).  3.  The  Taurus, 
in  Asia  Minor,  connected  with  the  preceding.  Single  mountains  of  Asia 
Minor  are  Olympus,  Ida,  Tmolus,  &c. 

VII.  The  mountains  of  Lebanon  in  Syria,  divided  by  the  valley  of  Ccelo- 
Syria  into  Lebanon  proper  and  Anti-Lebanon,  are  connected  towards  the 
south  with  the  mountains  east  and  west  of  the  Jordan ;  among  these  are 
Tabor,  Carmel,  Gilead,  &c.  The  elevation  of  Lebanon  proper  is  9517 
feet. 

VIII.  Sinai  and  Horeb  on  a  small  peninsula  in  the  north-west  of  Arabia, 
the  former  7498  feet,  the  latter  8593  in  height. 

The  most  important  Capes  Sind  Promontories  of  Asia,  sure :  1.  Ras-el-Gad, 
the  south-eastern  point  of  Arabia.  2.  Ras  Muhammed,  the  southern  point 
of  the  peninsula  of  Sinai.  3.  Cape  Comorin,  the  southern  point  of  Hindostan. 
4.  Cape  Romania,  the  southern  point  of  the  Malayan  Peninsula,  and  the 
extreme  southern  point  of  the  mainland  of  Asia.  5.  Cape  Cambodja,  the 
southern  point  of  the  eastern  part  of  Further  India.  6.  Cape  Lopatka,  the 
southern  point  of  Kamtschatka.  7.  the  East  Cape  or  the  Promontory  of 
Tschuktschen,  the  most  eastern  point  of  Asia.  8.  Cape  Taimura  or  Siwero 
Wastotschnoi,  the  most  northern  point  of  Asia. 

The  most  extensive  Plains  and  Deserts  of  Asia  are :  1.  The  Desert  of 
Cobi,  having  in  its  centre  a  sandy  tract  of  from  80  to  200  miles  in  breadth, 
and  2500  feet  high,  called  Schamo,  or  Hanhai,  bordered  to  the  north  and 
south  by  two  rocky  and  elevated  plains  of  about  3600  feet  in  height.  2. 
The  great  Indian  Desert  of  Scind,  in  Eastern  India,  440  miles  long,  and  320 
broad.  3.  The  plateau  of  Iran.  4.  The  great  Desert  of  Tartary.  5.  The 
Syro- Arabian  Desert.  The  entire  area  of  all  these  deserts  is  probably 
fully  equal  to  that  of  the  whole  of  Europe. 

The  Rivers  of  Asia  emptying  directly  into  the  sea  are : 

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12  .   GEOGRAPHY. 

I.  Those  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  Into  the  Persian  Gulf  empty  the 
Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  which,  by  their  union,  constitute  the  Ghat-el- 
Arab,  or  the  Arabian  River ;  along  the  west  coast  of  Hindostan  empty  the 
Indus,  Nerbudda,  and  Tapti ;  along  the  east  coast  of  Hindostan  empty  the 
Kaweri,  Krischna,  Godawery,  and  Mahanudy;  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal 
empties  the  Ganges,  to  which  is  united  the  Brahmaputra,  shortly  before ;  the 
Irawaddy,  the  Thaluen,  and  the  Tanasserim,  discharge  their  waters  along 
the  western  shores  of  Further  India. 

II.  Into  the  Pacific  Ocean  there  empty,  along  the  eastern  coast  of  Further 
India,  the  Menam  and  Cambodja;  in  China  the  Yantsekiang,  or  Blue 
River,  and  the  Hoangho,  or  Yellow  River;  in  Mandschurei,  the  Amur, 
arising  from  the  confluence  of  the  Argun  and  the  Schilka;  in  Eastern 
Siberia  the  Anadyr. 

III.  Into  the  North  Polar  Sea,  or  Arctic  Ocean,  empty  the  Kolyma, 
Indigirska,  Jana,  Lena,  Jenisei,  and  Ob. 

IV.  Into  the  Black  Sea  empty  the  Kuban,  Phasis  (now  called  Rion), 
Halys  (Kisil-Irmak),  Sangaris  (Sakarja). 

V.  Into  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  the  Granicus,  important  only  in  an 
historical  point  of  view. 

VI.  Into  the  Mediterranean  empty,  on  the  west  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  the 
Scamander,  Hermus,  Caystrus,  and  the  Meander;  on  the  south  coast  of 
Asia  Minor,  the  Cydnus ;  and  the  Orontes,  the  Leontes,  the  Belus,  and  the 
Kison,  on  the  coast  of  Syria  and  Palestine. 

Numerous  rivers  empty  into  the  inland  seas,  of  which  latter,  the  Caspian, 
640  miles  long,  and  from  100  to  240  broad,  is  by  far  the  largest.  Along  its 
northern  shore  empty  the  Ural  and  the  Wolga ;  along  the  western  coast 
the  Kuma,  Terek,  and  Kur.  Besides  this  there  are  discharged  into  the 
Aral  Sea  the  Gihon  (Oxus)  and  the  Sihon  (Jaxartes) ;  into  the  Dead  Sea 
the  Jordan,  Kedron,  and  Amon.  Other  lakes  are  Baikal,  Balkasch,  Urmia, 
Wan,  Zareh,  Lop,  &c. 

Asia  possesses  numerous  Islands,  the  principal  of  which  are  distributed  as 
follows.  1.  In  the  Indian  Ocean :  the  Laccadives,  the  Maldives,  the 
Andamans,  the  Nicobar  Islands,  and  the  great  island  of  Ceylon,  of  about 
16,000  square  miles,  and  containing  a  mountain,  Adam's  Mountain,  7420 
feet  high.  2.  Between  the  Indian  and  Pacific  Oceans :  the  great  Isles  of 
Sunda,  namely,  Borneo,  Sumatra,  Celebes,  and  Java,  together  with  the 
lesser  Isles  of  Sunda,  and  the  Moluccas  or  Spice  Islands.  3.  In  the  Pacific 
Ocean :  the  Philippines,  of  which  Manilla  or  Luzon,  and  Mindanao,  are  the 
largest  ;  the  Chinese  islands,  among  them  Hainan  and  Formosa ;  the 
Japanese  islands,  the  largest  of  them  Nipon  and  Jesso.  The  Kurile  and 
the  Aleutian  Islands  between  Asia  and  America.  4.  In  the  Arctic  Ocean : 
Novaja  Semlja,  Spitzbergen,  and  New  Siberia.  5.  In  the  Mediterranean, 
not  far  from  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  lie  Cyprus,  Rhodes,  Chios,  Samos, 
Lesbos,  Tenedos,  &c. 

The  Isothermal  Lines  of  Asia  are  given  on  her  physical  chart  {pi,  4). 

One  of   these   is   marked • — ,   and  is    indicated  as   the   equator 

of  heat  (Wärmeäquator);  by  this  is  to  be  understood  that  isothermal 
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GEOGRAPHY.  J3 

which  corresponds  to  the  greatest  observed  mean  temperature  of  about 
82°  F.  It  will  be  seen  that  this  is  far  from  coinciding  with  the  terrestrial 
equator.  The  chart  also  expresses  the  equatorial  limit  of  perpetual  snow, 
and  of  the  falling  of  snow  ;  these  show  how  far  to  the  south  perpetual  snow 
lies  in  different  countries,  and  how  far  it  falls  during  winter.  The  former 
line  coincides  with  the  polar  limits  of  mosses  and  berries. 

The  chart  likewise  indicates  the  limits  of  different  kinds  of  plants,  among 
which,  in  addition  to  the  various  cerealia,  are  to  be  found  the  sugar-cane 
(Zucker),  coffee  (Kaffee),  tea  (Thee),  cotton  (Baumwolle),  rice,  &c. ;  also, 
the  polar  limits  of  trees,  the  equatorial  and  polar  limits  of  the  vine>  and  of 
the  European  tropical  cerealia. 


3.  Africa  {Plate  5). 

This  still,  for  the  most  part,  unknown  portion  of  the  earth,  extends  from 
37°  20'  north  latitude  to  34°  50'  south  latitude ;  its  limits  in  longitude  are 
51°  22'  east,  and  17°  32'  west  longitude,  reckoned  from  Greenwich.  Its 
greatest  length  is  5000  statute  miles ;  its  greatest  breadth  about  4800.  It 
contains  about  8,902,000  square  geographical,  or  nearly  12,000,000  statute 
miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  on  the  west 
by  the  Atlantic,  on  the  south  and  east  by  the  Indian  Ocean ;  to  the  north- 
east it  is  connected  to  Asia  by  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  and  is  separated  from 
Europe  to  the  north-west  by  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar. 

The  portion  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  washing  the  south-western  part  of 
Africa,  is  the  South  Atlantic,  the  northern  part  of  which  is  termed  the  Gulf 
of  Guinea.  Smaller  portions  of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  are  the  Bights  of 
Benin  and  Biafra.  The  small  portion  of  the  Indian  Ocean  which  separates 
the  Island  of  Madagascar  from  the  mainland  of  Africa,  is  called  the 
Mozambique  Channel.  Between  the  north-eastern  coast  of  Africa  and  the 
western  coast  of  Arabia,  the  Indian  Ocean  runs  up  in  a  long,  narrow  gulf, 
the  Arabian  Gulf,  or  the  Red  Sea ;  this  is  connected  with  the  main  ocean 
by  the  Straits  of  Bab-el -Mandeb.  The  northern  extremity  of  the  Red  Sea 
is  called  the  Gulf  of  Suez.  In  the  northern  part  of  Africa  the  Mediter- 
ranean forms  the  Gulfs  of  Sidra,  Cabes,  and  Tunis. 

Among  the  Currents  of  the  African  seas,  as  represented  on  our  physical 
chart  of  the  Continent  {pL  5),  the  following  are  the  most  important :  Two 
currents  from  the  Indian  Ocean  (one  of  them  much  the  stronger  of  the  two, 
cj>ming  through  the  Mozambique  Channel)  unite  not  far  from  the  southern 
point  of  Africa,  and  there  constitute  a  current  from  360  to  400  miles  broad 
(the  Cape  current),  which  soon  after  takes  a  north-westerly  direction,  with 
a  mean  velocity  of  about  twelve  miles  per  hour.  From  this  branches  off  the 
South  Atlantic  current,  which  passes  along  the  western  coast  of  South 
Africa,  and  subsequently,  when  the  coast  takes  a  direction  to  the  west, 
continues  westward  along  the  equator.  It  now  forms  the  main  Equatorial 
current,  but  between  it  and  the  coast  there  runs  another  current  from  north 
to  south,  nearly  in  the  opposite  direction,  and  known  as  the  Guinea  current. 

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The  Equatorial  current  continues  its  course  on  both  sides  of  the  equator, 
and  at  a  degree  of  latitude  corresponding  to  about  20**  west  of  Greenwich, 
separates  into  a  northern  and  west-south-western  branch,  of  which  the 
latter  again  bifurcates.  The  Guinea  current  already  mentioned  is  only 
part  of  the  great  North  African  current  which  passes  southwards  along  the 
western  end  of  the  Desert  of  Sahara.  The  South  Atlantic  connecting 
current  carries  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans  into  the 
Indian  Ocean  ;  little,  however,  is  known  of  its  extent  and  direction. 

Very  little  is  known  of  the  Mountains  of  Africa.  The  following  are  the 
principal,  as  far  as  ascertained : 

I.  The  Atlas,  in  the  western  part  of  North  Africa.  The  most  western 
part  is  the  High  Atlas,  which,  in  Morocco,  attains  an  elevation  of  15,000 
feet,  and  is  covered  with  perpetual  snow ;  the  eastern  and  northern  part 
along  the  Mediterranean  is  called  the  Lesser  Atlas,  the  most  southern  part 
the  Great  Atlas.  Eastern  continuations  are  the  Ghariano  and  Soudah 
Mountains.  East  of  the  great  Gulf  of  Sidra,  the  Plateau  of  Barca  elevates 
itself  to  a  height  of  some  1600  feet.  The  left  bank  of  the  Nile  is  occupied 
by  the  Libyan  chain. 

II.  In  Middle  Africa  we  find  the  Abyssinian  Alps,  not  far  from  the  Red 
Sea,  and  sometimes  called  the  Samen  Mountains ;  to  the  south  these  are 
connected  with  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon  (Dschebel  el  Kamar),  and  the 
Barakat  Mountains. 

III.  In  South  Africa  the  mountains  of  the  Cape  are  conspicuous  for  their 
elevation,  and  consist  of  three  parallel  ranges.  The  first.  Lange  Kloof, 
runs  parallel  to  the  coast ;  the  second  is  the  Zwart  Berg ;  and  the  third 
is  the  Nieuweveldt's  Gebirge,  the  highest  of  all  (over  10,000  feet). 

The  principal  Capes  are :  1.  On  the  north  coast :  Capes  Spartel, 
Bugarona,  Farina,  Bon,  Rasat.  2.  On  the  west  coast :  Capes  Cantin, 
Ger,  Nun,  Bojadore,  Laguedo,  Blanco,  Mirik,  Verde  (westernmost  point  of 
Africa),  Roxo,  Verga,  Sierra  Leone,  Mesurado,  Palmas,  Three  Points,  Coast 
Castle,  St.  Paul,  Formosa,  St.  John,  Lopez,  Gonsalvo,  Padron.  3.  On  the 
southern  coast :  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Aiguilles,  Infanta,  St.  Franciscus, 
Recife,  Morgan.  4.  On  the  east  coast :  Corrientes,  Delgado,  Guardafui 
(the  easternmost  point  of  Africa). 

Among  the  innumerable  plains  of  Africa,  by  far  the  most  extensive  even 
in  the  world,  is  the  Great  Desert  of  Sahara,  2500  miles  long,  and  800  broad, 
containing  2,000,000  square  miles  of  area.  The  fertile  spots,  like  islands, 
which  are  distributed  through  the  Desert,  are  called  Oases ;  the  largest  of 
these  is  the  Oasis  of  Fezzan.  The  eastern  part  of  Sahara  is  called  tly 
Libyan  Desert,  separated  from  the  Nubian  Desert  by  the  river  Nile ;  the 
western  portion,  which  is  the  true  Sahara,  contains  but  few  oases. 

The  Rivers  of  Africa  are  : 

I.  Those  emptying  into  the  Mediterranean.     The  most  important  of  these 

15  the  Nile,  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Blue  River  (Bahr  el  Azrek)  and 
the  White  River  (Bahr  el  Abiad).  It  is  2700  statute  miles  long,  and 
empties  into  the  sea  by  two  arms  (formerly  by  seven)  forming  the  Delta  of 
the  Nile.     From   August  to  October  of  each  year,  it  rises  from   twenty 

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to  twenty-five  feet,  and    fertilizes  the    adjoining  country  by  its  over- 
flow. 

II.  Rivers  emptying  into  the  Atlantic.  These  are  the  Senegal,  the 
(vambia,  the  Rio  Grande,  the  Niger  (emptying  by  numerous  arms  into  the 
Bight  of  Benin,  and  there  constituting  an  immense  Delta),  the  Congo  or 
Zaire,  the  Cuenza  or  Coango,  and  Orange  River  or  the  Gariep. 

III.  Into  the  Indian  Ocean  there  empty  only  inconsiderable  rivers,  the 
only  ones  deserving  mention  being  the  Lorenzo-Marquez,  the  Zambeze, 
and  the  Quilmance. 

Africa  possesses  but  few  inland  Lakes,  The  largest,  as  far  as  known,  is 
Lake  Tschad,  situated  in  the  interior,  at  an  elevation  of  about  1400  feet, 
and  into  which  flow  various  rivers,  as  Yeou,  Shary,  &c.  In  the  north-east 
of  Africa  we  find  Lake  Zana  in  Abyssinia,  through  which  the  Nile  flows  ; 
south-east  of  this  is  the  Zawaja ;  also  Lake  Moeris  (Berket  el  Kerun)  and 
the  Natron  lakes  in  Egypt ;  and  the  Moravi  or  Zembre  lake  in  the  south- 
east. The  elevated  Lake  Koufla  is  situated  to  the  north-west  of  the 
latter. 

Islands.  1.  To  the  east  of  Africa :  Socotra,  in  the  south  of  Arabia ;  the 
Seychelles  or  Mah6  Islands,  south  of  the  equator,  with  the  Almirante 
Islands,  together  forming  the  Ethiopian  Archipelago ;  Madagascar,  the 
largest  of  all  the  islands  of  Africa,  containing  about  160,000  square  miles, 
and  separated  from  the  mainland  by  the  Channel  of  Mozambique;  the 
islands  of  Comoro  and  Primeira,  in  the  Channel  of  Mozambique ;  and  the 
Mascarene  Islands  to  the  east  of  Madagascar,  among  which  are  included 
the  Mauritius  (Isle  of  France)  and  Bourbon.  Upon  the  latter  is  a 
mountain  of  more  than  10,000  feet  in  height. 

2.  In  the  west  of  Africa,  a.  North  of  the  equator:  the  Azores  or 
Terceiras  (among  them  St.  Michael,  Terceira,  Flores,  Pico,  &c.),  Madeira, 
the  Canary  Islan<^,  Ferro,  Palma,  Teneriffe,  with  its  peak  of  12,172  feet  in 
height ;  the  Cape  ae  Verde  Islands,  the  largest  of  which  is  St.  Jago,  with  the 
volcano  of  Fuego,  9154  feet  high ;  the  Guinea  Islands,  of  which  Fernando 
Po,  Prince's  Island,  and  St.  Thomas  lie  north,  and  Anabon  south  of  the 
equator,  b.  South  of  the  equator:  Ascension,  St.  Helena,  and  Tristan 
d'Acunha. 

The  Isothermals  of  Africa  are  shown  on  the  chart.  The  equator  of  heat, 
or  the  isothermal  of  82^  F.,  passes  through  the  middle  of  Africa,  and  the 
equatorial  limit  of  snow  through  the  northern  part  of  Africa,  Algiers,  Tunis, 
and  Morocco.  The  southern  limit  of  the  vine  passes  a  little  further  south, 
through  Egypt,  &c. ;  through  South  Africa  passes  the  south  polar  limit  of 
the  banana,  and  of  the  tropical  grains ;  also  the  equatorial  limit  of  the 
European  tropical  grains ;  still  further  south  is  the  polar  limit  of  the  palm. 


4.  America  {Plates  6  and  7). 

The  continent  of  America  is  divided  into  two  portions,  called  North  and 
South,  by  a  narrow  stiip  of  land,  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.     North  America 

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16  GEOGRAPHY. 

lies  between  8^  and  72^  of  north  latitude,  and  55^  and  188^  of  longitude, 
west  of  Greenwich.  Its  greatest  length  from  Cape  Lisbum  in  Russian 
America,  to  Cape  Sable  in  Florida,  is  about  4260  miles ;  but  a  somewhat 
winding  line,  extending  from  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  to  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
west  of  Mackenzie  River,  will  not  fall  far  short  of  5900  miles.  Its  greatest 
breadth  between  62^  and  74^  is  nearly  3000  miles.  It  contains  about 
7.400,000  square  statute  miles. 

South  America  extends  from  12^  N.  latitude  to  56^  S.  latitude.  Its 
greatest  length  amounts  to  4550  miles,  the  greatest  breadth  to  8200 :  the 
area  included  is  6,300,000  square  statute  miles,  being  thus  over  1,000,000 
of  square  miles  less  than  North  America.  For  the  sake  of  conciseness  we 
shall  consider  the  entire  Continent  as  a  whole. 

The  northern  part  of  the  Continent  is  bounded  by  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
and  the  vast  space  between  it  and  the  Atlantic  is  occupied  by  Baffin's  Bay, 
with  its  strait  (Davis's),  and  Hudson's  Bay,  with  James  Bay  in  its  southern 
part,  and  conmiunicating  with  the  Atlantic  by  Hudson's  Strait. 

The  principal  indentations  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  are  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence,  Bay  of  Fundy,  Massachusetts  Bay,  Narragansett  Bay,  Delaware 
Bay,  Chesapeake  Bay,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the  Caribbean  Sea,  with 
their  various  bays,  Campeachy,  Honduras,  Darien,  Maracaibo,  &c. 

On  the  Pacific  side  we  find  Behring's  Sea,  or  the  Sea  of  Kamtschatka, 
between  America  and  Asia,  connected  with  the  Arctic  Ocean  by  Behring's 
Straits ;  Bay  of  San  Francisco ;  Gulf  of  California ;  Bay  of  Panama ;  Gulf 
of  Guayaquil ;  and  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  separating  the  mainland  of 
South  America  from  Terra  del  Fuego. 

We  have  already  referred  to  the  principal  current  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
as  coming  from  Africa,  and  dividing  in  the  vicinity  of  Cape  St.  Roque,  one 
branch  going  north  towards  the  West  Indies,  another  south  along  the  coast 
of  Brazil.  The  former  passes  through  the  channels  of  Üie  lesser  Antilles 
into  the  Caribbean  Sea.  A  most  remarkable  current,  known  as  the  Gulf 
Stream,  passes  out  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  towards  the  north-east,  and  is 
conspicuous  on  account  of  the  high  temperature  of  its  waters.  Among  the 
currents  of  the  Pacific  we  may  mention  the  cold  Peruvian  current,  passing 
along  the  west  coast  of  South  America,  from  south  to  north.  South  of  Cape 
Horn  a  constant  current  passes  from  west  to  east,  from  the  Pacific  to  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.  The  currents  of  the  North  Pacific  have  not  yet  been 
satisfactorily  ascertained,  although  a  constant  stream  is  known  to  flow 
south,  along  the  coast  of  California. 

I.  The  loftiest  Mountains  on  the  continent  occur  in  South  America.  Here, 
for  example,  we  find  the  Cordilleras,  which  traverse  the  whole  of  South 
America  from  north  to  south.  The  highest  peak  is  Aconcagua  in  Chili 
(23,910  feet).  Chimborazo,  long  considered  the  highest  mountain  of 
America,  is  exceeded  by  several  other  peaks ;  it  is  about  21,424  feet  high. 
Cayambe,  near  the  equator,  has  an  elevation  of  19,535  feet;  Antisana, 
19,137;  Cotopaxi,  18,875;  Pinchincha,  15,924;  Tunguragua,  16,424. 

II.  The  Brazilian  Mountains,  which  run  parallel  with  the  coast,  and  bear 
diflerent  names,  as  Sierra  do  Mar,  Sierra  Mantequeira,  Sierra  Espinha^o, 

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Ac.     They  extend  along  a  distance  of  about  2000  miles,  scarcely  ever 
attaining  a  height  of  over  6000  feet. 

III.  The  Oronoco  Mountains,  in  the  north-eastern  part  of  South 
America. 

IV.  The  Rocky  Mountain  range  of  Mexico  and  North  America.  With 
this  is  associated  a  lofty  table  land,  beginning  at  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec, 
and  extending  north-west  to  the  parallel  of  42^.  It  is  of  greatest  breadth 
(360  miles)  and  height  in  the  latitude  of  the  city  of  Mexico,  at  which  place 
it  is  7430  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  city  of 
Mexico  are  situated  numerous  volcanoes,  pre-eminent  among  which  are 
Popocatepetl,  17,884  feet;  Orizaba,  17,374;  and  IztascihuatI,  15,705  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  mountain  system  of  North  America  proper 
is  one  of  no  little  complexity.  The  Rocky  Mountains,  as  the  central  range, 
extend  to  the  mouth  of  Mackenzie  River ;  a  second  great  range  extends  from 
the  Peninsula  of  California  to  Russian  America,  leaving  only  two  gaps  for 
the  passage  of  the  waters  along  the  west  side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
which  are  occupied  respectively  by  the  Columbia  and  Frazer's  rivers.  It 
possesses  several  peaks  more  lofty  than  those  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
among  which  are  some  active  volcanoes.  This  range  in  California  is 
known  as  the  Sierra  Nevada.  Immediately  along  the  coast  of  California  is 
a  range  of  mountains,  known  as  the  Coast  Mountains,  and  separated  from 
the  preceding  by  the  valleys  of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin.  It  is 
pierced  by  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco.  About  the  latitude  of  42°  a  chain 
of  mountains  extends  east  and  west,  between  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  forming  the  northern  boundary  of  the  Great  Western 
Basin  of  North  America.  This  basin  is  about  500  miles  in  diameter  each 
way,  and  contains  its  own  system  of  lakes  and  streams,  without  any 
connexion  with  the  sea.  Many  of  these  lakes  are  salt ;  the  most  remarkable 
are  the  Great  Salt  Lake  (Timpanagos  of  Humboldt)  and  Utah.  The 
Ozark  Mountains,  which  run  from  Texas  to  the  Mississippi,  may  be 
considered  as  an  offset  from  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  highest  summits 
in  the  mountains  of  Western  North  America  are  Mount  St.  Elias,  16,775 
feet;  Fremont's  Peak,  13,570;  Mount  Brown,  16,000;  Mount  Hooker, 
10,700  feet;  Long's  Peak,  13,470;  James's  Peak,  11,500,  &c.  Some  of 
these  estimates  are  doubtless  incorrect. 

V.  The  Alleghany  Mountains,  which  occupy  the  region  east  of  the 
Mississippi  River,  have  for  their  base  a  strip  of  table-land,  extending  from 
Alabama  to  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  This  high  land  is  traversed 
throughout  1000  miles,  from  Alabama  to  Vermont,  by  from  three  to  five 
parallel  ridges  of  low  mountains,  rarely  more  than  from  3000  to  4000  feet 
high,  and  separated  by  fertile  longitudinal  valleys.  The  Alleghanies 
proper  are,  however,  restricted  to  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia.  The  chain 
is  well  characterized  by  the  parallelism  of  the  ridges,  and  the  uniform  level 
outline  of  their  summits,  with  but  few  indentations.  To  the  south  they 
maintain  a  distance  of  200  miles  from  the  Atlantic ;  further  north,  however, 
tbey  approach  closer  to  the  coast,  as  in  the  south-eastern  part  of  New  York, 
whence  their  course  is  nearly  north  towards  the  St.  Lawrence.     The  most 

lOOKOORAFHIO   SKOYCLOPiSDIA. — ^VOL.   HI.  2  17 


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18  GBOGRAPHT. 

eastern  ridge  is  continued  in  the  double  range  of  the  Green  Mountains  to 
6asp6  Point  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  Branches  extended  as  high  as 
Baffin's  Bay.  The  highest  point  in  the  chain  is  Black  Mountain,  6476  feet. 
Next  to  this  are  Mount  Tahawus,  or  Marcy,  5344  feet;  and  Mount 
Washington,  6225. 

Capes.  1.  In  South  America:  Point  Salinas,  tQ  the  north  ;  Cape  Roque, 
or  Point  Toira,  in  Brazil,  the  most  eastern  point ;  Cape  Forward,  the  most 
southern  point  of  the  main  land ;  Cape  Horn,  the  southernmost  point  of 
America  on  the  island  THermite;  Cape  Blanco  in  Peru.  2.  North 
America :  a,  on  the  Pacific ;  Cape  Corrientes  in  Mexico,  Cape  St.  Lucas, 
the  southern  point  of  Lower  California ;  Cape  Mendocino,  Ci4)e  Gregory, 
Cape  Lookout,  Cape  Flattery,  Cape  Newenham,  and  Cape  Prince  of  Wales. 
b.  In  the  Arctic  Ocean :  Cape  Barrow,  Cape  Dalhousie,  Cape  Bathurst,  Cape 
Parry  ;  Point  Tumagain,  Cape  Franklin ;  Cape  Liverpool,  Cape  York,  c, 
In  the  Atlantic  Ocean :  Cape  Farewell,  the  southern  point  of  Greenland ; 
Cape  Charles  in  Labrador ;  Cape  Baze  in  Newfoundland ;  Cape  May,  Cape 
Henlopen,  Cape  Hatteras,  Cape  Lookout,  Cape  Fear;  Cape  Sable,  the 
southern  point  of  Florida ;  Cape  Catoche,  the  northern  point  of  Yucatan. 

Among  the  Plains  of  America  may  be  mentioned  the  immense  Pampas 
of  Brazil,  especially  those  on  the  western  bank  of  the  La  Plata,  extending 
from  20°  to  40°  south  latitude,  and  abounding  in  salt  and  saltpetre ;  2,  the 
wooded  plains  (Selvas)  of  the  Amazon,  from  4°  north  latitude  to  15**  south 
latitude ;  3,  the  grass-covered  Llanos  of  the  Oronoco ;  4,  the  Prairies  of  the 
Mississippi,  nearly  as  large  as  the  whole  of  Europe,  and  partly  covered  with 
high  grasses ;  5,  the  plains  of  Canada. 

Rivers.  I.  Those  of  South  America  emptying  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean : 
1,  the  La  Plata,  arising  by  the  confluence  of  the  Paraguay,  the  Parana,  and 
the  Uruguay,  1920  miles  long ;  2,  St.  Francisco  in  Brazil,  1400  miles ;  3, 
the  Amazon,  or  Maranhon,  in  Brazil,  3080  miles  long,  traversing  the  whole 
breadth  of  South  America,  and  receiving  in  its  course  above  sixty 
considerable  rivers ;  it  is  from  4000  feet  to  twelve  miles  wide  (forty -eight 
at  the  mouth  of  its  long  arm,  and  twenty  at  that  of  the  south) ;  4,  the 
Oronoco,  1200  miles  long,  emptying  into  the  ocean  by  forty  arms ;  5,  the 
Magdalena  in  New  Grenada,  800  miles  long. 

II.  In  North  America.  A.  Emptying  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean:  1,  the 
Rio  del  Norte,  or  Rio  Grande  ;  2.  the  Mississippi,  2896  miles  long  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  to  its  source  above  Itasca  Lake,  and  3610  miles  from  the 
mouth  to  the  head  of  the  Missouri,  thus  forming  the  longest  river  in  the 
world  ;  3,  the  Alabama ;  4,  the  Apalachicola ;  5,  the  Suwanne,  all  emptying 
into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico ;  6,  the  St.  John's ;  7,  the  Altamaha ;  8,  the 
Savannah;  9,  the  Cape  Fear;  10,  the  Roanoke;  11,  the  James;  12,  the 
Potomac ;  13,  the  Susquehanna ;  14,  the  Delaware ;  15,  the  Hudson ;  16, 
the  Connecticut;  17,  the  Kennebec;  18,  the  Penobscot;  19,  the  St. 
Lawrence.  Numerous  rivers  of  considerable  size  empty  into  Hudson's 
Bay,  as  Nelson,  Churchill,  &c. 

B.  Into  the  Arctic  Ocean  there  empty  Back's,  or  Great  Fish  Ri^er,  the 
Coppermine,  and  the  Mackenzie. 
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C.  Into  the  Pacific  there  empty  the  Columbia  or  Oregon,  the  Sacramento 
and  Joaquin,  the  Colorado  and  the  Gila,  and  some  smaller  streams. 

Lakes,  1.  South  America  has  but  few  lakes,  and  those  of  small  extent; 
the  largest  are  Titicaca  in  Peru,  area  1000  square  miles,  and  Lake 
Maracaibo  (area  1200  square  miles)  connected  with  the  Gulf  of  Venezuela. 

2.  In  Central  America,  Lake  Nicaragua. 

3.  In  North  America :  Lake  Superior,  35,000  square  miles ;  Lake  Huron, 
20,000 ;  Michigan,  25,000  ;  Erie,  10,000  ;  Ontario,  8,200.  All  of  these  are 
connected  in  one  continuous  series,  discharging  their  waters  through  the 
St.  Lawrence  River.  Lake  Champlain,  900  square  miles,  is  an  offset  of  the 
same  system ;  Lake  Winnepeg,  12,500,  drained  by  Nelson's  River ;  Great 
Slave  Lake,  13.500;  Athabasca,  3500;  and  Great  Bear  Lake,  9000  square 
miles ;  all  these  empty  into  the  Arctic  Ocean  by  Mackenzie  River.  The 
Great  Western  Basin  contains  two  remarkable  lakes,  one  (the  Great  Salt 
Lake)  about  seventy  miles  long,  with  its  waters  saturated  with  salt ;  the 
other,  and  connected  with  the  latter,  Utah  Lake,  containing  fresh  water. 
It  is  between  these  two  lakes  that  the  Mormons  have  established  the 
nucleus  of  their  new  State  of  Deseret. 

Islands.  A.  In  the  Atlantic:  ö.  North  America.  Southampton  in 
Hudson's  Bay ;  Anticosti,  Prince  Edward's,  and  Cape  Breton,  in  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence;  Newfoundland,  Long  Island,  and  the  Bermudas.  6, 
West  Indies.  The  Bahamas,  among  which  is  San  Salvador  or  Guanahani, 
discovered  by  Columbus  in  1492 ;  the  four  greater  Antilles,  viz.  Cuba,  43,380 
square  miles ;  Hayti  or  St.  Domingo,  29,400 ;  Jamaica,  5,520 ;  and  Porto 
Rico,  3865;  the  lesser  Antilles,  which  constitute  an  arc,  extending  from 
Porto  Rico  to  Trinidad.  The  largest  are  Trinidad,  Guadaloupe,  Martinique, 
Barbadoes,  Tobago,  Dominica ;  Margarita,  Curasao,  and  others,  lie  on  the 
north  coast  of  South  America,  c,  South  America,  Fernando  de  Noronha 
and  Trinidad  on  the  coast  of  Brazil :  the  Falkland  Islands ;  Terra  del 
Fuego,  Staten  Land,  I'Hermite,  and  others  to  the  south  of  South  America ; 
New  or  South  (Seorgia,  Sandwich  Land,  South  Shetland,  and  the  South 
Orkneys. 

B.  In  the  Pacific  Ocean :  a,  North  America,  Kodiak,  Sitka,  Washington 
or  Charlotte,  Vancouver,  Prince  of  Wales,  &c.  6,  South  America.  The 
Gallapagos,  San  Felix,  Ambrosia,  Juan  Fernandez,  De  la  Campana,  Madre 
de  Dios,  the  Chiloe  Islands. 

C.  In  the  Arctic  Ocean  :  Melville  Islands,  Discoe,  &c. 

D.  In  the  Antarctic  Ocean :  there  are  obscure  indications  of  islands  in 
the  Antarctic  Ocean,  some  of  which  are  probably  portions  of  an  Antarctic 
continent. 

For  the  explanation  of  isothermal  lines,  and  of  the  lines  marking  the 
boundaries  of  various  plants,  as  marked  on  the  physical  charts  of  North  and 
South  America,  we  would  refer  our  readers  to  the  article  on  Europe. 

5.  Australia  (Plate  32). 

Australia,  sometimes    called  Australasia,  is    the    name    given    to  an 

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assemblage  of  huge  insular  masses  of  land,  occupying  the  western  parts  of 
the  Pacific,  and  extending  southwards  from  Eastern  Asia.  These  great 
oceanic  tracts  consist  of:  1,  New  Holland,  often  called  Australia;  2,  Van  • 
Diemen's  Land  ;  3,  New  Zealand ;  4,  Papua;  5,  New  Britain,  New  Ireland; 
6,  Solomon's  Island ;  7,  New  Hebrides ;  8,  New  Caledonia ;  9,  Polynesia. 
Of  these  New  Holland  is  by  far  the  most  extensive,  embracing  an  area  of 
nearly  3,000,000  square  miles,  with  a  length  of  2600  miles  from  east  to 
west,  and  2000  from  north  to  south.  It  is  included  between  10°  30'  and 
89°  south  latitude,  and  between  112°  20'  and  163°  40'  longitude,  east  of 
Greenwich.  It  is  watered  partly  by  the  Indian,  partly  by  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  The  former  indents  the  north  shore  in  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria, 
and  separates  the  Continent  from  Papua  or  New  Guinea,  in  Torres  Straits. 
Bass  Strait  separates  it  to  the  south  from  Van  Diemen's  Land. 

Little  is  known  of  the  Mountains  of  New  Holland,  excepting  that  they 
constitute  a  rocky  wall,  running  nearly  round  the  whole  island.  Their 
highest  summits  do  not  appear  to  exceed  3000  feet.  Mount  Kosciusko  is 
said  to  be  the  loftiest,  next  to  which  come  Mounts  Bellenden,  Elliot,  Abbon, 
Mitchell,  Cockburn,  Rugged,  Steriing,  and  Rouivl  Mountains. 

The  principal  Capes  are  Wilson's  promontory,  the  extreme  south  point, 
Cape  Leeuwin  (south-western  point).  Cape  Escarpee  (western  point),  Cape 
Grenville  (northern),  and  Sandy  Cape  (most  eastern  point). 

The  principal  Rivers  on  the  eastern  coast  are  the  Brisbane,  the  Hastings, 
and  the  Hawksbury ;  on  the  south  coast,  the  Murray,  with  its  tributaries, 
the  Morumbidgee  and  Dariing ;  on  the  western  coast,  Swan  River. 

Van  Diemen's  Land  lies  to  the  south  of  New  Holland,  of  which  it  may 
be  considered  an  island.  It  contains  an  area  of  27,192  square  miles.  New 
Zealand  comes  next  in  point  of  importance,  ranging  parallel  to  the  south  of 
New  Holland,  with  a  broad  intervening  expanse  of  ocean;  area  62,160 
statute  square  miles.  Papua  is  the  largest  mass  next  to  New  Holland, 
being  from  1200  to  1400  statute  miles  in  length,  and  varying  from  150  to 
200  miles  in  breadth.  It  possesses  various  mountains  of  great  elevation. 
New  Britain  and  New  Ireland  are  the  largest  of  a  group  of  islands 
beginning  at  the  north-eastern  boundary  of  New  Guinea,  and  ranging  in  a 
circuitous  line  parallel  to  New  Holland.  The  area  has  been  estimated  at 
16,000  statute  square  miles.  Solomon's  Islands  form  an  archipelago  lying 
east  of  New  Guinea.  The  New  Hebrides  are  situated  to  the  south-east  of 
the  preceding.  New  Caledonia  is  a  large  island  250  miles  long  and  sixty 
broad,  forming  the  southern  termination  of  the  great  chain  of  archipelagoes 
to  the  east  of  New  Guinea  and  New  Holland. 

The  islands  constituting  the  extended  group  called  Polynesia,  although 
in  all  strictness  excluded  from  Australia,  may  yet  be  considered  in  this 
place  for  the  sake  of  convenience.  First  among  them  are  the  Society 
Islands,  including  Tahiti,  Eimeo,  Ulietea,  Huahine,  &c.  The  Paumotu 
group  is  a  series  of  very  low  coral  islands,  extending  E.S.E.  from  the 
Society  Islands.  Pitcaim's  Island,  Easter  Island,  and  Cook's  Island,  are  of 
small  size.  The  Sandwich  Islands  constitute  a  solitary  group  far  north  of 
the  main  range.  They  are  ten  in  number,  of  which  eight  are  habitable. 
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GEOGRAPHY.  21 

Of  nearly  7000  square  miles  contained  in  the  whole,  Hawaii  alone  embrace« 
4,500.  The  others  are  Maui,  Oahu,  Tauai,  Molakai,  Ranai,  Niihaw, 
Tahaurowa.  We  have  only  room  to  mention  the  names  of  the  remaining 
clusters  :  they  are  the  Mendana  Archipelago,  including  the  Marquesas  and 
the  Washington  Islands  ;  the  Friendly  Islands,  or  the  Tonga  Archipelago ; 
the  Fejee  Islands,  Navigators'  Islands,  the  Carolines,  the  Central  Archipe- 
lago, the  Pelew  Islands,  and  the  Ladrones  or  the  Marianne  Islands. 


B.  HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

Geography  op  Ancient  Times  (Plates  8,  9,  10). 

The  first  geographical  accounts,  or  rather  indications,  are  due  to  the 
ddest  Greek  poets,  of  whom  Homer  in  particular  presents  us  with  numerous 
geographical  and  ethnographical  accounts,  for  which  reason  he  may  be 
looked  upon  as  the  oldest  geographer.  He  supposed  the  earth  to  be  a 
circular  disk,  inclosed  by  a  great  body  of  water,  the  ocean.  In  its  midst 
lay  the  mainland  of  Hellas.  Above  the  earth  was  placed  the  brazen  vault 
of  the  heavens,  and  beneath  the  earth  a  similar  vault,  inclosing  Tartarus,  or 
the  lower  regions,  situated  as  far  below  the  earth  as  this  was  below  the 
heavens.  Of  all  the  regions  of  the  earth.  Homer  was  only  acquainted  to 
any  extent  with  Greece  and  Asia  Minor,  although  he  refers  to  Thrace, 
Phoenicia,  Egypt,  Lybia,  Ethiopia,  and  some  few  islands  in  Western  Europe. 
Hesiod  (800  B.C.)  had  more  knowledge  of  this  subject  than  Homer ;  in  his 
writings  we  find  the  first  mention  of  Modern  Italy,  as  also  of  Spain,  under 
the  name  of  the  Garden  of  the  Hesperides.  iGschylus  and  Pindar 
distinguished  three  parts  of  the  world,  bounded  by  the  Phasis  and  the  Nile. 
The  philosophers  of  the  Ionian  school  (founded  by  Thales  of  Miletus,  640- 
548  B.C.)  endeavored  to  attain  a  knowledge  of  the  shape  and  physical 
features  of  the  earth  by  deductions  from  hypotheses ;  it  was  the  school  of 
Pythagoras,  however,  that  first  broached  the  idea  of  the  sphericity  of  the 
earth.  The  so-called  logographers,  or  the  oldest  Greek  historians  before 
Herodotus,  extended  the  knowledge  of  geography  to  a  considerable  extent. 
Among  them  may  be  especially  mentioned  Hecateeus  of  Miletus  (549-48Ö 
B.C.).  Certain  projectors  and  historians  of  (at  that  time)  great  voyages  of 
discovery,  as  Scylax  (509  B.C.)  and  Hanno  of  Carthage  (500  B.C.),  also 
deserve  honorable  mention.  (For  the  idea  of  Geography,  as  possessed  by 
the  ancients,  see  pi  8.) 

Herodotus  of  Halicarnassus  (484-408  B.C.)  is,  however,  to  be  looked 
upon  as  the  true  father  of  ancient  geography,  having  travelled  extensively 
for  years  at  a  time,  and  published  the  results  in  historical  works,  many  of 
which  are  still  extant.  He  returned  to  the  first  idea  of  a  terrestrial  disk 
resting  in  the  centre  of  the  universe,  and  assigned  to  the  disk  an  elongated 
or  oval  outline,  and  an  encompassing  ocean.  A  division  into  two  great 
halves  appeared  to  him  more  appropriate  than  that  into  three  parts ;  these 

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32  GEOGRAPHY. 

were  separated  by  the  Mediterranean,  the  Black»  and  the  Caspian  seas :  the 
northern  division  included  Europe  with  Northern  Asia  to  the  Phasis ;  the 
southern,  the  rest  of  Asia  and  that  portion  of  it  forming  the  peninsula  of 
Libya  (i.  e,  Africa).  In  his  works  we  first  find  the  name  Italia.  The  last 
inhabited  land  of  Europe,  according  to  him,  is  Thrace.  Scythia  forms  a 
square,  each  side  of  which  amounts  to  4000  stadia ;  to  the  north,  next  to 
Scythia,  dwell  the  Agathyrsoi,  Androphagoi,  &c.,  and  the  Sauromatoi,  north 
of  the  sea  of  Azof  (Maeotis).  Asia,  separated  from  Europe  by  the  Phasis, 
and  divided  by  the  Halys  into  two  principal  portions,  is  as  large  as  Africa. 
Along  the  Mediterranean,  inhabited  by  the  Colchians,  Saspeirians,  Medes, 
and  Persians,  are  two  great  peninsulas,  the  one  containing  Asia  Minor,  the 
other  Persia,  Syria,  and  Arabia.  The  latter  is  the  most  south-western 
land  in  Asia ;  India  the  most  south-eastern  land  in  the  world.  Africa,  or 
Libya,  was  divided  by  Herodotus  into  three  portions :  the  Valley  of  the 
Nile  or  Egypt,  Libya  in  its  restricted  sense,  and  the  land  of  Ethiopia,  or  the 
most  south-western  inhabited  region.  (See  the  map  of  the  world  according 
to  Herodotus,  on  pL  8.) 

After  Herodotus,  the  following  are  the  Greek  authors  who  added  to  the 
science  of  Geography :  Ctesias  of  Cnidos,  whose  works  are  lost;  Thucydides, 
in  his  history  of  the  Peloponnesian  war ;  Xenophon,  in  the  Anabasis  and 
other  works  ;  Theopompus  ;  Scylax,  in  his  Periplus  ;  Py theas ;  Aristotle, 
who  asserted  the  sphericity  of  the  earth  from  observations  on  lunar  eclipses, 
and  on  the  general  principles  of  gravity ;  Theophrastus,  &c. 

Geography  was  first  placed  on  a  systematic  basis  by  Eratosthenes  of 
Cyrene  (276-194  B.C.)  ;  he  it  was  who  wrote  the  first  scientifically  arranged 
work  on  the  subject.  This,  however,  has  entirely  disappeared,  excepting  a 
few  fragments.  He  also  constructed  the  first  chart  of  the  earth,  according 
to  astronomical  and  mathematical  principles.  He  considered  the  northern 
half  of  the  earth  to  be  alone  inhabited,  and  supposed  that  the  portion  thus 
occupied  amounted  to  about  one  eighth  of  the  whole  surface.  He  found  an 
ardent  opponent  to  many  of  his  views  in  the  great  astronomer  of  antiquity, 
Hipparchus  of  Nicsea. 

A  new  era  in  the  history  of  Geography  begins  with  Strabo  (66  B.C.  to  24 
A.D).  To  him  we  owe  the  first  extensive  and  complete  work  on  the  science 
(in  seventeen  books),  almost  entirely  extant  at  the  present  day.  In  its  pre- 
paration he  passed  many  years  in  study  and  travel.  In  his  view,  the  whole 
earth  is  inclosed  by  a  great  Atlantic  Ocean,  which  forms  four  large  gulfs : 
the  Caspian  Sea,  the  Persian  Gulf,  the  Arabian  Gulf,  and  the  Mediterranean, 
the  largest  of  all.  The  great  island  of  the  earth  he  divided  into  a  northern 
and  a  southern  half,  assuming,  however,  for  greater  convenience,  three  grand 
divisions,  Europe,  Asia,  and  Libya ;  the  limits  of  those  are  the  Straits  of 
Hercules  (Gibraltar),  the  Arabian  Gulf,  and  the  Tanais  (the  Don).  Iberia 
or  Spain  lies  furthest  west.  East  of  this  is  the  land  of  the  Celts  or  Gauls 
(France),  between  the  Pyrenees  and  the  Rhine,  parallel  to  these  mountains. 
Britain  has  the  shape  of  a  triangle,  north  of  which  is  the  island  lerne 
(Ireland),  the  most  northern  part  of  the  inhabited  earth.  Germany  is  only 
known  at  the  mouth  of  the  Albis  or  Elbe  :  further  east,  the  entire  northern 


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GEOGRAPHY.  23 

coast  of  the  earth  is  unknown.  The  Alps  rise  along  the  boundary  between 
Gaul  and  Italy,  and  to  them  are  opposed  the  Apennines.  Asia,  separated 
from  Europe  by  the  Tanais  and  Mseotis,  is  divided  into  a  northern  and  a 
southern  half  by  the  mountains  of  Taurus.  The  largest  and  most  eastern 
portion  of  the  earth  is  India.  Libya,  which  is  not  as  large  as  Europe,  and 
with  Europe  in  addition,  is  less  than  Asia,  is  of  a  triangular  shape,  the 
northern  shore  along  the  Mediterranean  constituting  the  base  ;  Egypt  and 
Ethiopia  constitute  its  most  eastern  portion.  (For  a  map  of  the  world 
according  to  Strabo,  see  pL  8.) 

Among  subsequent  geographers,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  is  Claudius 
Ptolemaeus,  who  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  second  century.  He 
wrote  a  geographical  work,  which  up  to  the  sixteenth  century  continued  to 
be  the  universal  manual.  He  presents  to  us  the  most  advanced  stage  of  the 
knowledge  of  Geography  as  possessed  by  the  ancients.  The  chief  peculiarities 
of  the  Ptolemaic  system  are  as  follows  (see  the  map  of  the  world  according 
to  Ptolemy  on  pL  8.)  Ireland  (luemia)  is  no  longer  to  the  north,  but  to 
the  west  of  Britain  (Albion) ;  to  the  north  of  Albion  lie  the  Orcades,  and 
still  further  north  the  Island  of  Thule.  Scandinavia  (Scandia)  is  an  island 
smaller  than  Ireland.  Even  the  Danish  islands  are  mentioned,  as  Jutland 
(the  Cimbrian  Chersonese).  The  Caspian  (H)nrcanian)  Sea  is  inland. 
Ptolemy  extends  Asia  to  the  east  far  beyond  the  Ganges,  and  speaks  of  the 
land  of  the  Sinae  (Chinese).  Asia  and  Africa,  he  supposed  to  be  connected, 
the  Indian  Ocean  intervening  simply  as  a  great  Mediterranean  sea.  Ceylon 
(Taprobane)  he  imagined  to  be  the  largest  island  on  the  earth  ;  next  to  it 
extended  from  north  to  south,  a  group  of  1378  islands.  He  makes  mention 
of  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon  and  the  sources  of  the  Nile  in  the  interior  of 
Africa,  the  River  Niger,  &c. ;  and  on  the  western  coast  he  laid  down  the 
Happy  Islands,  through  which  he  drew  his  first  meridian. 

In  the  time  of  Herodotus  the  measure  of  length  employed  was  the  stadium, 
or  the  length  of  the  Olympian  racecourse.  Various  estimates  have  been 
made  of  the  exact  length  of  the  stadium.  From  the  best  sources  of  infor- 
mation it  would  appear  that  this,  the  longest  measure  of  length  made  use  of 
in  classical  antiquity,  contained  600  Grecian  or  625  Roman  feet.  As  the 
Roman  foot  contains  nearly  eleven  French  inches,  this  would  make  the 
stadium  Ö70J-  French  or  Paris  feet,  equivalent  to  about  607  J  English  feet,  or 
less  than  |  of  an  English  mile  (tV  of  an  English  geographical  mile  of  2025 
yards).  We  may  therefore  count  600  stadia  to  a  degree.  A  Roman  mile 
contained  5000  feet,  and  was  equivalent  to  eight  stadia,  so  that  li'of  these 
go  to  the  geographical  mile,  and  75  to  a  degree  of  the  equator.  The 
Persian  parasang  has  been  estimated  at  thirty  stadia  or  ^^  of  a  geographical 
mile,  so  that  there  are  twenty  to  a  degree.  An  Egyptian  schoenos  contained 
two  parasangs  or  sixty  stadia ;  according  to  some  authors,  however,  only 
thirty  or  forty.  A  Gallic  hour  or  leuga  (leuca)  contains  1500  Roman  paces 
or  twelve  stadia :  consequently,  there  are  fifty  to  a  degree. 

The  circumference  of  the  earth,  as  is  well  known,  amounts  at  the 
equator  to  21,600  geographical  miles,  or  216,000  stadia.  Eratosthenes 
estimated  it  at  252,000  stadia ;  Hipparchus  at  275,000 ;  Posidonius  at  first  at 

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240,000,  but  subsequently  at  180,000  stadia,  or  f  of  its  actual  size.  The 
last-mentioned  estimate  was  accepted  by  most  of  the  subsequent  astronomer» 
and  geographers,  even  by  Ptolemy. 

The  Greek  compass  or  wind  card  (on  pL  8,  according  to  Aristotle)  is 
divided  into  eight  main  winds,  which,  from  west  round  by  north,  are  as 
follows :  Zephyros,  Argestes,  Boreas  or  Aparctias,  Caecias,  Apeliotes,  Euros, 
Notos,  Lips.  Between  Boreas  and  Argestes  blow  Thrascias  or  the  north 
north  west  wind,  and  between  Boreas  and  Csecias,  Meses,  or  the  north  north 
east  wind.  Two  additional  winds  were  subsequently  added  to  these  ten ; 
Phcenicias  or  south  south  east  wind,  and  Libonotos  or  south  south  west ; 
the  twelve  winds  then  divided  the  card  into  equal  parts,  so  that  excepting 
the  four  main  winds,  the  rest  had  an  entirely  different  signification  from 
those  on  our  card.  Vitruvius  enumerates  twenty-four  winds  (see  the  wind 
card  of  the  Romans  on  plate  8). 

Plate  9  represents  the  kingdom  of  Alexander  the  Ctreat,  This  renowned 
conqueror  was  originally  only  a  king  of  Macedonia,  a  country  of  small 
extent,  bounded  on  the  east  by  Thrace  and  the  Egaean  Sea,  south  by 
Epirus  and  Thessaly,  west  by  Illyria,  and  north  by  Dardania  and  Moesia : 
it  now  constitutes  part  of  Turkey  in  Europe.  Philip,  the  father  of  Alexander, 
had  already  subjected  numerous  Thracian,  Illyrian,  and  Dardanian  tribes, 
and  in  fact  all  Greece,  by  the  battle  of  Chceronea  (338  B.C).  Alexander, 
after  ascending  the  throne  in  336  B.C.,  conquered  the  Thracians,  Triballi, 
Getse,  and  Illyrians,  reduced  Thebes,  and  first  commenced  his  victorious 
career  as  Emperor  of  Greece,  by  his  expedition  against  the  Persians  in  334 
B.C.  After  the  battle  of  the  Granicus,  he  overran  Asia  Minor,  passing 
through  Syria,  Phoenicia,  and  Palestine,  to  the  borders  of  Egypt :  Egypt  he 
conquered  without  any  difficulty,  and  founded,  in  332,  the  city  of  Alexandria. 
After  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon,  in  the  Lybian  desert, 
Alexander  took  up  his  march  towards  Central  Asia,  overthrew  the  Persian 
empire  by  the  victory  at  Gaugamela  or  Arbela  (331),  and  afterwards 
conquered  Media,  Parthia,  Hyrcania,  Margiana,  Aria  (320),  Arachosia, 
Bactriana,  and  Sogdiana.  In  327,  Alexander  crossed  the  Indus,  Hydaspes, 
Acesines,  and  Hydraotes,  as  far  as  the  Hyphasis  (Sudletsch),  until  his 
warriors  refused  to  go  any  further.  He  now  returned  by  another  route  to 
the  Hydaspes,  embarked  on  the  Acesines,  and  passing  into  the  Indus,  ulti- 
mately gained  the  great  ocean.  From  the  mouth  of  the  Indus  he  returned 
by  land  through  the  deserts  of  Gedrosia  and  Carmania  (Nearchus  conducting 
his  fleet  through  the  Indian  Ocean,  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  the  Euphrates)  to 
Babylon,  where  he  died  in  323.  After  his  death  his  empire  fell  to  pieces, 
forming  several  smaller  kingdoms,  as :  1,  the  Macedonian  Greek  ;  2,  the 
Syrian  or  kingdom  of  the  Seleucid«  (founded  by  Seleucus  Nicator),  which 
included  the  principal  portion  of  the  old  Persian  empire,  and  by  whose 
downfall  there  arose  various  minor  governments,  as  Bactria,  Parthia, 
Armenia,  Judaea,  &c. ;  3,  the  Egyptian  empire  under  the  Ptolemies ;  4,^ 
Pergamos  in  Asia  Minor,  Pontus,  Bithynia.  &c.  (See  the  small  chart  on 
pi  9.) 

PI.  10  represents  the  Roman  Empire  under  Constantine  the  Great. 
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GEOGRAPHY.  26 

This  monarch,  in  880  A.U.,  divided  his  colossal  dominions  into  four  great 
prefectures :  Italy,  Gaul,  lUyria,  and  the  East.  Each  of  these  was  divided 
into  dioceses,  which  again  were  subdivided  into  provinces ;  of  these  there 
were  117  in  all. 

Italy,  the  First  Prefecture,  consisted  of  three  dioceses :  Italy  with 
Rome  as  its  capital,  lUyria  with  the  capital  Syrmium,  and  Africa  with  the 
capital  Carthage.  The  Diocese  of  Italy  was  divided  into  three  principal 
portions,  Gallia  Cisalpina  (Upper  Italy,  excepting  Savoy,  but  including  a 
part  of  the  Tyrol,  and  of  Middle  Italy) ;  Italy  proper  (Middle  Italy),  and 
Graecia  Magna  (Lower  Italy).  In  Cisalpine  Gaul  we  have  the  provinces  of 
Camia  (now  Friaul,  with  the  towns  of  Tergestum,  now  Trieste ;  Vedinum, 
now  Udine ;  Aquileia) ;  Venetia  (towns  Patavium,  now  Padua ;  Vicentia ; 
Verona)  ;  Istria  (Pola),  Gallia  Transpadana  (Brixia,  now  Brescia ;  Cre- 
mona ;  Mantua  ;  Bergamum,  now  Bergamo  ;  Comum,  now  Como  ;  Medio- 
lanum,  now  Milan;  Ticinum,  now  Pavia;  Augusta  Taurinorum,  now 
Turin)  ;  Gallia  Cispadana  (Placentia,  now  Piacenza ;  Parma ;  Mutina,  now 
Modena ;  Bononia,  now  Bologna ;  Ravenna)  ;  Liguria  (Genoa ;  Lucca ; 
Nicsea,  now  Nice).  In  Italy  proper  we  have  the  following  divisions : 
1,  Etruria,  the  present  Tuscany,  with  a  part  of  the  Papal  States  (Pisa  ;  Sena 
Julia,  now  Sienna ;  Portus  Herculis  Libronis,  now  Livorno ;  Perusia,  now 
Perugia) ;  2,  Umbria  (Ariminum,  now  Rimini ;  Sena  Gallia,  now  Sinigaglia ; 
Urbinum  Hortense,  now  Urbino) ;  3,  Picenum  (Ancona) ;  4,  Sabina,  with 
the  provinces  of  the  Marsi,  Peligni,  &c. ;  5,  Latium  (Rome ;  Tusculum, 
now  Frascati ;  Tibur,  now  Tivoli ;  Praeneste,  now  Palestrina ;  Terracina 
Velitrae,  now  Velletri ;  Cajeta,  now  Geeta).  Gr€Bcia  Magna,  or  Lower  Italy, 
was  divided  into  the  following  provinces ;  1,  Campania,  now  Terra  di 
Lavoro  (Capua  Neapolis,  now  Naples  ;  Herculaneum  ;  Pompeii ;  Stabia ;  2, 
the  Land  of  the  Picentini  (Salemum,  now  Salerno) ;  3,  Samnium  (Bene- 
ventum)  ;  4,  Land  of  the  Hirpini,  and  5,  of  the  Frentani ;  6,  Lucania,  now 
Basilicata  and  Principato  cilra  (Peestum  and  Sybaris,  now  no  longer  in 
existence) ;  7,  Bruttii,  now  Calabria  (Rhegium,  now  Reggio)  ;  8,  Apulia 
(Venusia,  now  Venosa ;  Barium,  now  Bari) ;  9,  Messapia  or  Calabria 
(Brundusium,  now  Brindisi ;  Hydruntum,  now  Otranto ;  Tarentum,  now 
Taranto).  Here  belong  also  the  three  great  islands  of  jStct/y  (Messina ; 
Catania  ;  Toormina  ;  Syracuse  ;  Agrigentum,  now  Girgenti ;  Panormus, 
now  Palermo) ;  Sardinia  (Calaris,  now  Cagliari)  and  Corsica. 

The  Diocese  of  Illy  Ha  consisted  of  lUyria  proper,  or  the  east  coast  of  the 
Adriatic  Sea  (now  Dalmatia,  most  of  Bosnia,  and  a  portion  of  the  present 
Croatia  and  Albania).  Illyria  was  subdivided  by  the  river  Drilo  into  two 
parts,  Barbarian  and  Grecian  Illyria,  the  latter  of  which,  with  the  cities  of 
Durazzo  and  Albanoplis,  was  subsequently  assigned  to  Macedonia ;  Bar- 
barian or  Roman  Illyria  consisted  of  the  provinces  Japydia,  Liburnia, 
and  Dalmatia.  Pannonia,  which  included  the  eastern  part  of  Austria, 
Styria,  Carinthia,  and  Carniola,  the  whole  of  Hungary  between  the 
Danube  and  the  Sau,  Sclavonia,  and  parts  of  Croatia  and  Bosnia,  was 
divided  into  upper  (or  western)  and  lower  (or  eastern).  Particular  pro- 
^niices  were  InUramnia    between  the   Sau  and  the   Drau,  Ripensis  ox 

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26  QEOGRAPHT. 

Savia  on  the  Sau,  and  the  province  of  Vakria  between  Raab,  the  Danube» 
and  the  Drau.  To  Upper  Pannonia  belonged  the  cities  of  Vindobona  (now 
Vienna),  and  Emona  (now  Laibach) ;  to  Lower  Pannonia  the  cities  of 
Arabona  (now  Raab),  Acincum  (now  Ofen),  Acimincum  (now  Peterwardin), 
Taurunum  (now  Semlin),  Sirmium,  the  largest  town  in  Pannonia,  now  in 
ruins.  Noricum  divided  into  Noricum  Ripense  in  the  north,  and 
Noricum  Mediterraneum  in  the  south,  including  the  greater  part  of  Austria, 
Styria,  Carinthia,  and  Salzburg,  and  embraced  the  cities  of  Lentia  (now 
Linz),  Juvavia  (now  Salzburg),  Noreja,  Celeja  (now  Cilly),  Laureacum 
(now  Lorch).  .  Here  belonged  in  addition  the  following  provinces: 
Vindelicia,  subsequently  called  Rhsetia  Secunda,  including  north-eastern 
Switzerland,  south-eastern  Baden,  the  most  southern  portion  of  Wurtem- 
berg  and  Bavaria,  with  the  northern  part  of  Tyrol,  and  Rhaetia  (Augusta 
Vindelicorum,  now  Augsburg ;  Regina,  now  Regensburg  or  Ratisbon ; 
Campodunum,  now  Kempten ;  Brigantium,  now  Bregenz ;  Batavia  Castra, 
now  Passau)  ;  Rhcetia  prima,  now  Graubünden  and  Tyrol,  with  a  part  of 
Lombardy  (Tridentum,  now  Trient ;  Veldidena,  now  Wilten  ;  Teriole 
Oeni  Pons,  now  Innspruck ;  Clavenna,  now  Chiavenna ;  Curia,  now 
Chur). 

To  the  Diocese  of  Africa  belonged  the  following  provinces :  Cyrenaica 
or  Pentapolis  (Ptolemais,  now  Tolometa ;  Arsinae,  now  Tochira  ;  Berenice, 
now  Benegasi  ;  Cyrene  the  capital)  ;  Syrtica,  or  Tripolitana  (with  three 
capitals,  Leptis  Magna  or  Neapolis,  now  Lebida ;  Oea  or  Oeca,  now  Tripoli ; 
Sabrata).  Africa  proper,  or  the  province  of  Africa,  divided  into  the 
districts  of  Byzacium  in  the  south  (Adrumetum ;  Tysdrus  ;  Capsa)  and 
Zeugitana  in  the  north  (Tunes,  now  Tunis ;  Carthago,  once  the  capital  of 
the  mighty  Carthaginian  nation,  but  long  since  in  ruins ;  Utica  next  in 
importance  to  Carthage.  Numidia,  the  present  Algiers  (Thabraca,  now 
Tabarca;  Hippo  Regius,  now  Bona;  in  the  interior,  Zama,  and  Cirta,  now 
Constantine).  Mauritania  divided  into  two  provinces:  the  eastern,  M. 
Ccesariensis  (capital  Caesarea) ;  and  the  western,  M.  Tingitana  (capital 
Tingis,  now  Tangiers).  Under  Diocletian  or  Constantine,  Mauritania 
Csesariensis  was  divided  into  two  provinces,  Caesariensis  in  the  west,  and 
Sitifensis  in  the  east;  M.  Tingitana  was  united  with  the  Diocese  of 
Spain. 

The  Second  Prefecture  of  Gallia  consisted  of  three  dioceses  :  Gallia 
in  its  restricted  sense,  Hispania,  and  Britannia.  Gallia  (the  present  France, 
with  Belgium,  Holland,  and  parts  of  Germany,  Italy,  and  Switzerland)  was 
divided  by  the  Emperor  Augustus  into  the  four  provinces,  Narbonensis,  Aqui- 
tanica,  Lugdunensis,  and  Belgica,  which,  however,  were  divided  by 
Constantine  the  Great  or  even  by  Diocletian  into  fourteen,  and  still  later 
into  seventeen  provinces.  Ctallia  Narbonensis  or  Braccata,  the  oldest 
Roman  province  before  the  time  of  Julius  Ccesar,  was  separated  into  five 
provinces :  Narbonensis  Prima  et  Secunda,  Alpes  Maritimse,  Viennensi«, 
Alpes  Graise,  and  Penninse ;  it  also  included  the  provinces  of  Languedoc» 
Roussillon,  Provence,  Dauphiny,  with  the  greater  part  of  Savoy,  Piedmont, 
and  the  cantons  of  Geneva  and  Valais  (Narbo  Maptius,  now  Narbonne,  tho 
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GBOGEAPHT.  27 

capital ;  Tolosa,  now  Toulouse ;  Massilia,  now  Marseilles ;  Telo  Martius, 

now   Toulon  ;    Arelate,   now  Aries  ;    Greneva  Valentia,    now  Valence). 

Aquitania  was  divided  into  the  three  provinces,  Novempopulana,  Aquitania 

Prima,  and  A.  Secunda;    it  embraced  the  districts  of  Gascony,   Bearn, 

Auvergne,  Guienne,  Poitou  (Burdigalia,   now  Bordeaux  ;    Besunna,   now 

Perigoux ;    Limonum,    now  Poitiers ;  Avaricum,  now  Bruges).      Gallia 

Lugdunensis,  previously  Celtica,   the  largest  of   the  four  provinces,  was 

divided  into  the  four  lesser  provinces,  Lugdunensis  Prima,  Secunda,  Tertia, 

and  Quarta,  and  included  the  provinces  of  Burgundy,  Normandy,  Brittany, 

Champagne,  Maine,  Touraine,  Anjou  (Lugdunum,  now  Lyons ;  Augusto- 

dunum,  now  Autun ;   Cabillonum,  now  Chalons  on  the  Saone ;    Lutetia 

Parisiorum,  now  Paris ;  Rotomagnus,  now  Rouen ;  Genabum  or  Aurelianensis 

Urbs,  now  Orleans  ;  Caesarodunum,  subsequently  Turoni,  now  Tours).     In 

conclusion,  Gallia  Belgica  was  divided  into  the  five  provinces,  Belgica  Prima 

et  Secunda,  Germania  Prima  et  Secunda,  and  Maxima  Sequanorum ;   it 

embraced  the  present  Lothringia,  a  portion  of  Champagne,  Picardy,  Belgium, 

the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  southern  Abace,  Franche-comt6,  and  western 

Switzeriand.     The  most  important  towns  embraced  within  these  limits  were 

in  the  land  of  the  Helvetii,  Lacus  Lausonius,  now  Lausanne  ;  Eburodurum, 

now    Yverdum ;    Salodurum,  now   Solothurn   (Soleure)  ;   Turicum,   now 

Zurich  :  in  the  land  of  the  Sequani,  their  capital  Vesontio,  now  Besannen ; 

Tullum,  now  Toul,  in  the  land  of   the  Leuci ;    Devodurum,   now   Metz, 

principal    town   of   the    Mediomatrici ;    Argentoratum,   now   Strasburg ; 

Noviomagus,  now  Spires;  Mogontiacum,   capital  of  Germania  Prima  or 

Superior,  now  Mayence ;  Borbeto  Magnus,  now  Worms ;  Augusta  Trevi- 

rorum,  capital  of  Belgica  Prima,  now  Trier ;  Confluentes,  now  Coblentz ; 

Colonia  Agrippina,  now  Cologne  ;  Bonna,  now  Bonn :  in  the  country  of  the 

Batavi,  called  Insula  Batavorum  ;  Lugdunum,  now  Leyden ;  Arenacum,  now 

Amheim  ;  Noviodunum,  now  Nim  wegen  ;  Traiectum,  now  Utrecht ;  also 

Cortoriacum,   now   Courtray  ;    Gesoriacum,    subsequently   Bononia,   now 

Boulc^e ;    Samarobriva,    now   Amiens  ;   Csesaromagus,    now  Beauvais ; 

Noviodurum   or  Augusta   Suessonum,   now   Soissons;   Durocortorum   or 

Remi,  now  Rheims ;  Durocatelauni  or  Catelauni,  now  Chalons  sur  Marne. 

The  Diocese  Hispania,  including  the  present  Spain  and  Portugal,  was 

divided  by  Augustus  into  three  provinces :  Baetica,  Lusitania,  and  Tarra- 

conensis.       To   these    Constantine   added   the   four  provinces,  GallsBcia, 

Carthaginiensis,  Baleares,  and  Mauritania  Tingitana  in  Africa.       Bcetica 

embraced   the   southern   part   of   Spain,   the   present   Andalusia,   or   the 

provinces  of  Sevilla,  Granada,  and  Cordova,  the  western  half  of  Jaen,  the 

eastern  part  of  the  Portuguese  province  Alemtejo,  and  tlie  southern  part  of 

Estremadura  (capital  Hispalis,  now  Seville).     Other  towns  are  Gades,  now 

Cadiz ;  Corduba,  now  Cordova  ;  Malaca,  now  Malaga.    Lusitania  embraced 

the  greater  part  of  Portugal,  and  the  Spanish  provinces  Estremadura  and 

Salamanca  (capital  Augusta  Emerita,  now  Merida  ;  also  Ebora,  now  Evora ; 

CMisipo,  now  Lisbon  ;    Salmantica,  now  Salamanca).     Hispania  Tarra- 

conensiSf  the  largest  province,  included  the  present  Navarre,  Arragon,  and 

Catalonia,  as  also  parts  of  Valencia  and  Castile :  according  to  Pliny,  it 

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28  GBOGRAPHY. 

contained  179  cities  (capital  Caesaraugusta,  now  Saragossa  ;  Carthago  Nova, 
now  Carthagena ;  Valentia ;  Tarraco,  now  Tarragon ;  Barcino,  now 
Barcelona ;  Pompelon,  now  Pampelona).  GallcBcia  embraced  the  Spanish 
province  of  Galicia,  the  Portuguese  province  Entre  Douro  e  Minho,  and 
the  western  part  of  Leon  and  Asturia,  subsequently  the  whole  of  Asturia 
(principal  towns,  Braga;  Brigantium,  now  Corunna).  On  the  Balearic 
Islands  (Major  and  Minor,  now  Majorca  and  Minorca)  we  find  the  towns 
Palma  and  Pollentia,  now  Pollenza. 

Of  the  British  Islands,  Britannia  and  Hibemia,  the  former  only,  and  of 
that  only  the  southern  part  or  England,  was  in  possession  of  the  Romans, 
who  divided  it  into  two  provinces,  Britannia  Superior  and  Inferior  (Scotland 
was  known  as  Caledonia  or  Britannia  Barbara).  Four  provinces  were 
subsequently  established  :  Britannia  Prima,  or  the  southern  part ;  B.  Secunda 
(Wales) ;  Maxima  Csesariensis  (the  land  between  the  Thames  and  the 
Humber) ;  and  Flavia  Ceesariensis  (the  country  north  of  the  Humber  to  the 
Roman  wall)  ;  to  these  was  subsequently  added  a  more  northern  province 
of  Valentia.  The  principal  towns  of  Roman  Britain  were  Londinum  or 
London;  Venta,  now  Winchester;  Dunium,  now  Dorchester;  Camalo- 
dunum,  Colchester  ;  Lindum,  now  Lincoln  ;  Ratce,  now  Leicester ; 
Eboracum,  now  York ;  Luguvallum,  now  Carlisle,  &c. 

The  Third  PRfeFBCTURE  of  Illyricum  (the  eastern  Illyria)  included  all 
the  country  of  Greece  to  the  Danube,  excepting  Thrace  and  the  true 
Illyria ;  it  consisted  of  the  Diocese  of  Macedonia  (capital  Thessalonica)  and 
Dacia.  To  the  former  belonged  not  only  Macedonia  proper,  but  also  the 
whole  of  Greece  ;  Macedonia  proper  being  divided  into  two  smaller 
provinces,  Macedonia  Prima,  including  the  coast,  country,  and  the  western 
mountain  region,  and  Macedonia  Secunda  or  Salutaris,  embracing  the 
northern  mountain  region ;  the  capital  of  the  former  was  Thessalonica,  now 
Salonica,  that  of  the  latter,  Stobi,  now  destroyed.  Pella  and  Philippi  are 
the  only  other  towns  worth  mentioning. 

Hellas,  or  Greece,  was  called  Achaia  by  the  Romans,  and  is  naturally 
divided  into  three  great  sections.  I.  Northern  Grreece,  in  the  north  of  the 
isthmus  of  Corinth,  and  including  the  following  provinces  :  1,  Thessalia,  the 
largest  of  all  the  Grecian  provinces  (towns,  Pharsalia,  Larissa)  ;  2, 
Acharnania  (towns,  Ambracia,  now  Arta ;  Actium) ;  3,  jEtolia  (Elaeus,  now 
Missolonghi)  ;  4,  Doris ;  5,  Locris  (Amphissa,  now  Salona ;  Naupactus,  now 
Lepanto)  ;  6,  Phocis  (Delphi,  now  Castri)  ;  7,  Basotia  (Thebae,  now  Thiva ; 
Platsea ;  Leuctra ;  Lebadea,  now  Livadia ;  Cheeronea ;  Coronea,  near  the 
present  Granitza ;  8,  Attica  (Athens,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece, 
with  the  three  harbors,  Piraeus,  Munychia,  and  Phalerus) ;  Megaris  (Megara, 
the  only  city  now  a  village  of  the  same  name).  There  also  belongs  here 
the  province  of  Epirus,  not  included  with  Achaia  (towns,  Buthrotum,  now 
Butrinto ;  Nicopolis,  now  Prevesa ;  Aulon  or  Aulona,  now  Balona).  II. 
The  Peninsula  of  Peloponnesus,  subsequently  called  the  Morea,  and 
embracing  the  following  ten  provinces  :  1,  Corinthia  (capital  Corinth) ;  2, 
Sicyonia,  (Sicyon) ;  3,  Phliasia  (Phlius) ;  4,  Achaia  (Patrae,  now  Patras)  ;  6, 
Elis  (Elis) ;  6,  Messenia  (Messene ;  Corona,  now  Coron ;  Methona,  now 
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GEOGRAPHY,  29 

Modon) ;  7,  Laconia  (towns  Sparta  or  Lacedaemon,  near  the  present 
Mistra)  ;  8,  CynuHa  (Thyrea) ;  9,  Argolis  (Argos,  still  extant ;  Nauplia, 
now  Napoli  di  Romania);  10,  Arcadia  (Megalopolis;  Mantinea;  Orcho- 
menos).  III.  The  Grecian  Islands.  In  the  Ionian  Sea  may  be  noticed^ 
Corey ra,  now  Corfu  ;  Paxi,«now  Paxos  and  Antipaxos ;  Leucas  or  Leucadia, 
now  Santa  Maura ;  Ithaca,  now  Thiaki ;  Cephallenia,  now  Cephalonia ; 
Zacynthus,  now  Zante ;  Cythera,  now  Cerigo ;  Aegina,  now  Eghina. 
EubcBa,  still  of  the  same  name,  but  formerly  called  Negroponte  (towns, 
Chalcis  ;  Eretria;  Carystus;  Histiaea).  Crete  was  the  largest  of  the  islands 
of  Greece ;  it  was  called  Candia  by  the  Turks  (the  Isle  of  Cyprus  belonged 
to  the  Prefecture  and  Diocese  of  the  East).  Among  the  Cyclades,  so  called 
from  their  lying  in  a  circle  about  Delos,  may  be  mentioned  Delos,  Paros, 
Melos,  Andres,  Tenos,  Syros,  Myconos,  Ceos,  Naxos,  Gyaros,  Cythnos, 
Siphnos,  and  Seriphos.  Among  the  Sporadian  Islands  were  included : 
Thasos,  Samothrace,  Imbros,  Lemnos,  now  Stalimene,  los,  Thera,  Astypatea, 
Amorgos,  &c.  The  other  Sporcj^ian  Islands,  as  Rhodes,  belonged  to  Asia. 
To  the  Diocese  of  Macedonia  also  belonged  the  so-called  Grecian  lUyria, 
Illyria  in  its  most  restricted  sense,,  likewise  Epirus  Nova,  which  embraced 
a  large  portion  of  Modern  Albania.  The  capital  was  Epidamnus,  subse- 
quently called  Dyrrhachium  and  now  Durazzo. 

The  Diocese  of  Dacia  included  the  central  part  of  Mcesia,  south  of  the 
Danube,  and  by  Aurelian  called  Dacia  Aureliani.  In  it  was  not  included 
the  true  Dacia  to  the  north  of  the  Danube,  embracing  Hungary  beyond  the 
Theiss,  Siebenbürgen,  Bukowina,  Moldavia,  and  Wallachia.  Subsequently 
there  was  distinguished  a  Dacia  Secunda,  or  RipensiSy  the  region  along  the 
Danube,  from  the  Dacia  Interior  or  Prima,  the  southern  strip  in  the 
interior  to  the  borders  of  Macedonia ;  also  Dardania  Prcevalitana  and 
MoBsia  Prima, 

The  Fourth  Prefecture  of  the  East  was  divided  into  five  dioceses : 
Thracia,  Pontus,  Asia,  Egypt,  and  the  Orient  or  East  in  its  more  restricted 
sense.  The  Diocese  of  Thracia^  with  Constantinople  (previously  called 
Byzantium)  for  its  capital,  embraced  a  large  part  of  the  present  Turkey  in 
Europe,  and  was  subdivided  into  the  provinces,  Moesia  Secunda,  Scythia, 
Hsemimontus,  Thracia,  Rhodope,  and  Europa.  In  addition  to  the  capital  it 
contained  the  following  towns :  a.  In  Massia  Secunda  ;  Nicopolis  on  the 
Hsemus,  now  Nikopoli ;  Durostorum,  now  Silistria ;  Odessus,  now  Varna ; 
6,  in  Scythia;  Tomi,  or  Tomis,  now  Temeswar;  Constantiana,  now 
Costendsche;  c,  in  the  Hcemimontus ;  Adrianopolis,  or  Orestias,  now 
Adrianople,  or  Edrene;  d,  in  Thracia;  Philippopolis,  now  Philippopoli ; 
«,  in  Rhodope ;  Abdera,  now  Polystilo,  or  Asperosa ;  iEnus,  now  Enos ;  /, 
in  Europa^  besides  Constantinople ;  Selymbria,  now  Selivria ;  Bisanthe, 
Rodosto,  Perinthus. 

The  Diocese  Pontus  embraced  eleven  provinces;  Bithynia,  Galatia, 
Cappadocia  Prima  and  Secunda,  Paphlagonia,  Honorias,  Galatia  Secunda, 
or  Salutaris,  Pontus  Polemoniacus  and  Helenopontus,  Armenia  Prima  and 
Secunda.  Bithynia,  the  eastern  part  of  which  was  named  Honorias,  had 
for  its  capital  Chalcedon ;  Bithynium,  subsequently  Claudiopol  is,  was  the 

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30  GBOGRAPHT. 

capital  of  Honorias.  Constantine  divided  Galatia  into  a  northern  part,  6. 
Prima,  and  a  southern,  G.  Secunda ;  Ancyra,  now  Angora,  was  the  capital 
of  the  former,  Pessinus  that  of  the  latter.  Cappadocia,  the  most  eastern 
province  of  Asia  Minor,  and  now  the  Turkish  province  of  Caramania,  was 
separated  into  two  provinces,  Cappadocia  Prima  in  the  north,  and 
Cappadocia  Secunda  in  the  south;  the  former  had  Cessarea  (previously 
Mazaca)  for  its  capital,  and  the  latter  Tyane,  now  Kills  Hissar.  Pontus^ 
the  most  northern  part  of  Asia  Minor,  included  the  present  Pachalics  of 
Trebisonde  and  Siwas;  it  was  divided  into  an  eastern  part,  P.  Polemoniacus, 
and  a  western,  Helenopontus  (previously  Pontus  Galaticus) :  chief  towns, 
Trapezus,  now  Trebisonde,  under  Trajan,  the  capita]  of  Pontus  Cappa- 
docius ;  Amasia,  capital  of  Helenopontus ;  Neo-C&esarea,  capital  of  P. 
Polemoniacus.  The  Provinces  of  Armenia  Prima  and  Secunda  together, 
constituted  Lesser  Armenia. 

The  Diocese  Asia  or  Asiana  formed  eleven  provinces :  Asia  Procon- 
sularis,  Hellespontus,  Insulse,  Pamphylia,  Lydia,  Carla,  Lycia,  Lycaonia, 
Pisidia,  Phrygia  Salutaris,  and  Pacatiana.  The  Province  Asia  Proconsularis 
included  the  western  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  from  Cape  Lectum  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Maeander,  or  the  greater  part  of  the  old  districts  of  JSotis  and  Ionia, 
with  the  neighboring  parts  of  Mysia  and  Lydia  (towns,  Pergamum,  now 
Pergama  or  Bergama;  Smyrna,  Clazomense,  Colophon,  and  Ephesus).  The 
Province  Hellespontus  embraced  Troas  and  most  of  the  northern  parts  of 
Mysia.  The  Province  Insults  included  all  the  islands  belonging  to  Asia 
Minor,  with  Rhodes,  situated  on  an  island  of  the  same  name,  for  the  capital. 
The  most  important  of  these  islands  are :  Tenedos  on  the  coast  of  Mysia, 
and  Lesbos  (capital  Mitylene)  on  the  coast  of  Ionia;  Chios,  now  Scio; 
Psyra,  now  Ipsara ;  Samos,  Icaria ;  on  the  coast  of  Caria,  Patmos,  now 
Patmo ;  Leros,  Calymna,  Cos,  Nisyros,  Telos,  and  Syme.  The  Province 
of  Pamphylia  was  a  narrow  strip  of  coast  in  the  south  of  Asia  Minor,  with 
Syde  for  its  capital.  The  Province  Lydia  contained  only  the  southern  part 
of  ancient  Lydia,  the  northern  and  smaller  portion  having  been  added  to 
Phrygia  under  the  name  of  Maeonia.  The  Province  of  Caina,  the  south- 
western part  of  the  peninsula,  embraced  the  present  Turkish  province  of 
Alidinella  and  Mentechseli ;  in  it  was  situated  the  town  of  Miletus.  The 
Province  of  Lycia,  a  peninsula  on  the  southern  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  now 
forms  the  western  part  of  the  district  Tekeh.  Lycaonia  had  for  its  capital 
Iconium,  now  Konieh  or  Kunjeh.  Pisidia  included  the  district  of  Isauria. 
Phrygia^  the  most  western  of  the  interior  divisions  of  Asia  Minor,  was 
divided  into  the  Province,  P.  Salutaris,  or  Salutaria,  the  largest  and  most 
central  portion  of  the  country  (capital  Synnada),  and  P.  Pacatiana 
(subsequently  Capatiana),  a  long  and  narrow  strip  in  the  west,  with 
Laodicea  or  Lycos  as  its  capital.  The  most  northern  part  of  Phrygia  was 
called  P.  Epictetus,  the  south-eastern  P.  Parorios. 

The   Diocese    Egypt  contained   the  following  as  the  more   important 

towns:    1.    Lower   Egypt;    Alexandria,   capital   of   the    Empire   of   the 

Ptolemies,  now  Scanderik ;  Canopus ;  Athribis ;  Babylon,  now  Baboul,  on 

the  boundary  between  Middle  and  Lower  Egypt;  Pelusium.     2.  Middle 

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Egypt;  Memphis,  capital  of  the  whole  of  Egypt;  Oxyrynchus,  now 
Behnese;  Hermopolis  Magna,  now  Achmunim.  3.  Upper  Egypt,  or 
Thebais ;  Tentyra,  now  Denderah ;  Captos,  now  Keft ;  Thebes,  one  of  the 
oldest  towns  in  Egypt  and  the  whole  world ;  Syene,  now  Assuan. 

The  Diocese  Orient  (in  its  more  limited  sense)  was  divided  into  fifteen 
provinces :  Palaestina  Prima,  Secunda,  and  Tertia  or  Salutaris ;  Phoenicia ; 
PhcBnicia  Libani ;  Syria  Prima  and  Salutaris ;  Cilicia  Prima  and  Secunda ; 
Cyprus,  Euphratensis,  Osrhoene,  Mesopotamia,  Arabia  Petraea,  and  Isauria ; 
Palaestina  or  Judaea  was  divided  into  the  region  this  side  and  beyond  the 
Jordan.  The  former  was  cut  up  by  the  Romans  into  three  districts,  Galilea 
in  the  north,  Samaria  in  the  middle,  and  Judaea  in  the  south  (the  southern 
part  of  the  latter  was  sometimes  called  Idumaea).  The  land  beyond 
Jordan  or  Peraea  was  divided  into  six  districts,  Trachonitis  or  Trachon, 
Ituraea,  Gaulanitis,  Auranitis,  Batanaea,  Peraea.  Of  these  provinces 
subsequently  erected,  Palcestina  Prima  embraced  the  largest  and  most 
northern  part  of  Judaea  with  Samaria;  P,  Secunda,  Galilaea  and  the 
northern  part  of  Peraea ;  P,  Tertia,  southern  Peraea,  the  southern  part  of 
Judaea,  and  a  portion  of  Arabia  Petraea.  Prominent  towns  besides  Jerusalem, 
the  chief  capital,  are  Caesarea;  Joppa,  now  Jaffa;  Jericho,  now  Richa; 
Ascalon,  now  Askalan;  and  Gaza;  all  in  Judaea.  In  Phcenicia  are  Tripolis, 
now  Tripoli  or  Tarablus  ;  Berytus,  now  Beirut ;  Sidon,  now  Saida ;  Tyre, 
the  most  important  city  of  all ;  Aca,  subsequently  Ptolemais,  and  now  Acca 
or  St.  Jean  d'Acre.  Syria,  the  present  Soristan,  was  divided  into  two 
principal  portions.  Upper  Syria,  or  Syria  proper,  and  Lower  Syria,  usually 
called  Ccelosyria ;  the  latter  was  the  more  southern  portion,  and,  in  a  wider 
sense,  likewise  included  Phoenicia  and  Palaestina.  The  Romans  divided 
Upper  Syria  into  ten  provinces,  Comagene,  Cyrrhestica,  Pieria,  Seleucis, 
Chalcidice,  Chalybonitis,  Palmyrene,  Laodicene,  Apamene,  Cassiotis. 
Constantine  the  Great,  however,  united  the  two  first  into  one  province, 
Euphratensis ;  and  Theodosius  the  Younger  divided  the  rest  of  the  land  into 
Syria  Prima  (the  northern  part,  capital  Antioch)  and  S.  Secunda,  or 
Salutaris  (the  southern  part,  capital  Apamea).  The  most  important  towns 
were  Samosata,  capital  of  Comagene ;  Hieropolis,  or  Bambyce,  capital  of 
Cyrrhestica,  and  subsequently  of  the  whole  province  Euphratensis ;  Seleucia 
in  Seleucis  ;  in  Palmyrene,  Palmyra,  now  Tadmor ;  in  Apamene,  Apamea, 
capital  of  Syria  Secunda;  Emesa,  now  Hems,  capital  of  Phoenicia 
Libanesia;  in  Cassiotis,  Antiocha  on  the  Orontes,  now  Antakia;  in 
Coelosyria,  Damascus,  now  Damaschk,  and  Heliopolis,  now  Baalbec.  Cilicia, 
the  most  south-eastern  coast  land  of  the  peninsula  of  Asia  Minor,  was 
separated  into  two  parts,  Cilicia  proper,  or  level  Cilicia,  the  largest  and 
eastern  portion,  now  Adana ;  and  rugged  Cilicia,  or  Tracheotis,  the  western 
portion,  now  called  Itschil.  Theodosius  II.  divided  the  former  into  two 
provinces,  Cilicia  Prima  (the  western  part)  and  C.  Secunda  (the  eastern). 
The  original  capital  of  Cilicia  was  Tarsus,  now  Tarso.  Rough  Cilicia 
became  an  appendage  to  Isauria.  The  province  of  Cyprus  included  only 
the  island  Cyprus  (capital  Salamis,  subsequently  Ccnstantia).  Mesopotamia, 
the  region  between  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  was  divided  into  two  parts, 

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32  GEOGRAPHY. 

Osrhoene  in  the  west  (capital  Edessa,  now  Orrhoa  or  Orfa)  and  Mesopo- 
tamia proper,  in  the  east,  also  called  Mygdonia  (capital  Nisibis  or  Antiocha, 
now  Nisib).  Arabia  was  divided  by  Ptolernaeus  into  A.  Deserta,  Petraea, 
and  Felix.  The  northern  part,  A.  Petraea,  alone  was  in  possession  of  the 
Romans.  Here  dwelt  the  Amalekites,  Edomites  or  Idumaeans,  the  Moabites, 
Ammonites,  and  Midianites.     Petraea  was  the  capital  city. 

Such  was  the  extent  and  arrangement  of  the  Roman  Empire  under  the 
first  Christian  emperor,  Constantine  the  Great  (305-337  A.D.),  who,  in  330, 
changed  his  residence  from  Rome  to  Constantinople,  the  ancient  Byzantium, 
thereby  making  the  distinction  into  an  eastern  and  a  western  Roman 
empire.  The  first  actual  division  of  the  empire  took  place  under  the 
Emperor  Diocletian  (284-305).  Diocletian,  in  285  A.D.,  took  Maximian 
as  his  colleague,  who  nominated  Constantius  Chlorus  as  associate,  Diocletian 
nominating  Galerius ;  the  empire  had  thus  four  rulers  (from  291  A.D).  Of 
these,  Diocletian  governed  all  the  eastern  provinces  beyond  the  Egaean  Sea ; 
Maximian  took  Italy,  Africa,  and  the  intermediate  islands  ;  Galerius, 
Thrace  and  lUyria ;  and  Constantius,  Britain,  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Mauritania. 
To  the  latter  emperor  succeeded  his  son  Constantine  the  Great,  in  306,  who, 
in  312,  after  the  victory  over  Maxentius,  son  of  Maximian,  became  master 
of  all  the  western  provinces  excepting  Mauritania  and  North  Africa.  In 
323  he  conquered  Licinius,  and  thereby  came  into  possession  of  all  the 
eastern  provinces,  and  thus  again  united  the  whole  empire  under  one 
sceptre.  After  his  death  in  337  A.D.,  the  empire  was  divided  again  among 
his  sons  Constantine  II.,  Constans,  and  Constantius  II.  The  latter  was  sole 
emperor  from  353-361,  and  to  him  succeeded  Julian  the  Apostate  to  863. 
In  394  A.D.,  Theodosius  the  Great  again  united  the  empire,  but  shortly 
before  his  death  divided  it  among  his  sons  Honorius  and  Arcadius,  the 
former  taking  the  western,  and  the  latter  the  eastern  empire.  This  division 
was  permanent.  The  former  empire  (the  capital  of  which,  for  a  long  time, 
was  Ravenna)  met  with  its  downfall  in  476,  by  the  irruption  of  innumerable 
hordes  of  barbarians  who  swept  over  Europe  towards  the  west  and  south. 
These  consisted  of  the  Turcilingi,  the  Goths,  the  Heruli,  the  Alans,  the 
Scyri,  and  the  Rugi,  with  Odoacer,  king  of  the  Turcilingi,  at  their  head :  this 
prince  then  ruled  the  whole  of  Italy.  The  last  emperor,  Romulus  Augus- 
tulus,  son  of  the  general  Orestes,  and  by  him  elevated  to  the  throne  in  476 
A.D.,  hardly  attained  to  the  government ;  his  predecessor,  Julius  Nepos,  the 
last  recognised  emperor  of  the  western  empire,  died  in  480,  after  which 
Odoacer  became  king  of  Italy.  The  eastern  Roman  empire,  also  called  the 
Byzantine  or  Greek  empire,  fell  away  by  degrees,  but  lingered  out  a 
miserable  existence  until  1492,  when  Constantinople,  with  the  remains  of 
the  empire,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Asiatic  Turks. 


2.  Geography  op  the  Middle  Ages  (Plates  II  and  12). 

In  Plate  1 1  we  present  to  our  readers  a  map  of  Europe  in  the  time  of 
Charlemagne.      The  empire  of   the   Franks  was  the  most  powerful   in 
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GEOGRAPHY.  33 

existence  at  that  period,  extending  over  France,  Switzerland,  Germany, 
Italy,  and  great  part  of  Hungary.  The  basis  of  the  empire  of  the  Franks 
was  laid  by  Clodio,  their  first  historical  king,  who,  about  437,  conquered  the 
northern  provinces  of  France.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Merovaeus, 
from  whom  the  first  royal  race  of  the  Franks  received  the  name  of  Mero- 
vingian. After  ruling  from  447  to  456.  he  was  succeeded  by  Childeric, 
456  to  481,  after  whom  came  his  son  Chlodvig  I.  (Clovis),  king  of  the 
Salian  Franks,  and  real  founder  of  the  Frankian  monarchy.  By  his 
victory  over  Syagrius  at  Nogent,  not  far  from  Soissons,  Clovis  put  an  end 
to  the  Roman  dominion  in  the  now  Frankish  Empire.  The  battle  of 
Tolbiacum,  now  Zulpech,  in  496,  gave  him  the  sovereignty  over  the 
Allemanni ;  in  508,  he  conquered  all  Aquitania,  and  all  the  West  Gothic 
provinces  in  Gaul ;  and  in  510  enlarged  his  empire  by  murdering  all  the 
other  kings  of  the  Franks. 

On  the  death  of  Clovis,  in  511,  his  dominions  were  parcelled  out  among 
his  four  sons,  Clodomir,  Childebert,  Lothar  I.,  and  Theodoric,  forming  four 
kingdoms,  with  Paris,  Orleans,  Soissons,  and  Metz,  as  the  capitals.  The 
fourth  kingdom  was  called  Austrasia,  and  included,  in  addition  to  the 
original  region,  the  Ripuarian  Franks,  the  Duchies  of  Friesia,  Thuringia, 
and  Bavaria ;  the  three  first  were  subsequently  united  under  the  name  of 
Neustria,  to  which  was  afterwards  attached  Britannia  Minor  or  Armorica, 
the  Brittany  of  the  present  day.  In  addition  to  Austrasia  and  Neustria, 
Gaul  included  two  other  principal  countries.  Burgundy  and  Aquitania. 
Burgundy,  from  443  to  534,  constituted  a  separate  government,  but  was 
conquered  in  534  by  the  British  kings,  and  united  with  the  kingdom  of 
Orleans ;  it  embraced  Burgundy  proper,  the  provinces  taken  in  544  from 
the  east  Goths,  western  Switzerland,  and  Dauphiny.  In  508,  Aquitania,  the 
south-western  part  of  France,  was  taken  from  the  west  Goths  :  in  it  were 
included  the  provinces  of  Auvergne  and  Gascony.  Theodebert,  the  son 
and  successor  of  Theodoric,  destroyed  the  government  of  Thuringia,  and 
turned  it  into  a  Frankish  province.  From  558  to  561,  Clothar  or  Lothar  I., 
son  of  Clovis,  reigned  alone ;  after  his  death,  however,  the  kingdom  was 
divided  among  his  four  sons.  Subsequently  we  find  only  the  two  kingdoms 
of  Austrasia  and  Neustria  (with  Burgundy)  which  Dagobert  I.  again  united 
in  628,  his  brother  Charibert  residing  at  Toulouse  as  king  of  Aquitania. 
Fresh  partitions  again  occurred,  but  in  687  Pepin  of  Heristal  became  actual 
ruler  of  the  three  kingdoms,  under  the  title  of  Major  Domus,  subsequently 
a  Duke  and  Prince  of  the  Franks :  Dietrich  III.  and  his  successors  being 
kings  only  in  name.  To  Pepin  succeeded  his  natural  son  Charles  Martel, 
who  elevated  himself  to  the  position  of  Duke  and  sole  lord  of  Neustria  and 
Austrasia,  after  the  death  of  Dietrich  IV,,  in  737,  and  converted  Friesland 
on  the  North  Sea  into  a  Frankish  province.  His  sons  Pipin  the  Short 
and  Carlmann  divided  the  kingdom  ;  the  latter,  however,  entering 
the  cloister,  and  Childebert  III.  having  been  deposed,  Pipin  was  crowned 
king  of  the  Franks  by  St.  Bonifacius  in  752,  and  subsequently  by 
Pope  Zacharias.  Shortly  after,  he  conquered  Septemania :  this  was 
the    former   Gallia    Narbonensis,    the    region     between    the    Cevennes, 

nrCOMOBAPHIC   ENOYCLOPJEDIA. — VOL.   III.  3  33 


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34  GEOGRAPHY. 

Pyrenees,  the  Rhone,  and  the  Mediterranean,  whose  western  portion  had 
already  been  snatched  from  the  west  Goths,  by  Clovis,  in  611.  The  strip 
along  the  coast  from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  Rhone,  with  the  capitals  Car- 
cassone  and  Narbonne,  still,  however,  remained  in  their  possession,  subse- 
quently falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Arabs.  Shortly  before  his  death,  Pipin, 
in  768,  divided  the  kingdom  between  his  two  sons,  Carlmann  and  Charles 
(the  Great),  the  former  receiving  Neustria  and  Burgundy,  the  latter 
Austrasia  ;  Aquitania  was  completely  subjected,  in  769,  and  divided 
between  the  two.  After  the  death  of  Carlmann,  in  771,  Charlemagne 
reigned  alone  ;  ultimately,  however,  he  gave  Aquitania  to  his  son  Louis  I. 
and  Italy  to  his  other  son  Pipin.  By  the  death  of  Pipin  in  810,  his  son 
Bernard  became  ruler  of  Italy.  This  prince,  in  774,  conquered  the  entire 
Longobardian  kingdom  of  Italy,  with  its  capital  Pavia,  and  in  778,  Pamplona 
and  a  part  of  Northern  Spain  as  far  as  the  Ebro.  In  785,  the  greater  part 
of  (Jermany,  namely  Saxony  and  Bavaria,  fell  into  his  hands ;  Hungary,  as 
far  as  the  Theiss,  followed  in  796,  and  Brittany  in  799 ;  in  800  he  was 
crowned  at  Rome,  Roman  Emperor.  In  804,  the  Saxons  surrendered 
themselves  entirely,  and  the  Eider  was  recognised  as  the  northern  boundary 
of  Bernard's  dominions.  Charlemagne  died  in  814  ;  his  son  Louis  the  Pious 
(814-840)  in  817  divided  the  kingdom  between  his  sons  Pipin  (Aquitania), 
Lothar  (co-ruler  and  future  superior),  and  Louis  (Bavaria,  Carinthia,  and 
Bohemia) ;  his  youngest  son  Charles  the  Bald,  in  829,  received  Alemannia 
and  Rhaetia,  in  837  Neustria,  and  after  the  death  of  Pipin,  in  838,  Aquitania 
also.  At  the  conference  of  Verdun,  in  843,  Charles  the  Bald  received 
West  Franconia  and  the  kingdom  of  France  ;  Lothar  I.  (from  820,  king  of 
Italy,  and  emperor  from  823)  took  the  middle  provinces,  Lothringia,  Elsace, 
Upper  and  Lower  Burgundy,  while  Louis  II.  (the  German)  had  East 
Franconia,  or  the  kingdom  of  Germany.  Charles  the  Stout  (882-884) 
united  all  the  states  of  the  Carlovingian  monarchy,  but  was  deposed  in  887 
by  the  Germans. 

Europe  at  one  time  consisted  of  the  following  monarchies.  The 
Greek  Empire,  limited  to  the  greater  part  of  the  present  Turkey,  Greece, 
Asia  Minor,  a  part  of  Lower  Italy  and  Sicily.  2.  The  Bulgarian  king- 
dom, in  what  had  previously  been  Lower  MoBsia.  3.  The  kingdom  of  the 
Ävari,  much  enfeebled  by  the  attacks  of  Charlemagne  subsequent  to  791, 
and  in  807  entirely  overthrown  by  the  Bulgarians.  4.  The  kingdom  of  the 
Chazari  in  Eastern  Russia,  much  harassed  in  the  ninth  century  by  the 
inroads  of  the  Petschenigenes  or  Patzinacites,  a  Turkish  tribe,  and  in  1016 
entirely  subjected  by  the  united  power  of  the  Russians  and  Greeks.  5. 
The  kingdom  of  the  Slavi  in  Western  Russia,  Poland,  Prussia,  Bohemia, 
Moravia,  and  Northern  Germany  as  far  as  the  Elbe.  6.  The  kingdom  of 
Sweden,  Norway,  and  Denmark.  In  Sweden,  the  posterity  of  Sigurd  II. 
(794-824)  ruled  as  kings  in  chief  until  1060 ;  King  Harold  Haarfager  or 
the  Fair-haired  (863-933)  first  in  Norway,  founded  a  separate  kingdom. 
Gorm  the  Old  (855-936)  is  to  be  looked  upon  as  the  true  founder  of  the 
Danish  government,  although  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  Gottfried  or 
Gdttrich,  king  of  South  Jutland,  possessed  considerable  power  in  Den- 
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mark.  7.  The  Seven  Anglo-Saxon  Monarchies  in  England  :  Kent,  Wessex, 
Sussex,  Northumberland  (previously  divided  into  Bernicia  and  Deiria), 
Mercia,  Essex,  and  East- Angles ;  these  were  all  united  in  827  into  one,  by 
Egbert,  king  of  Wessex,  who  called  himself  king  of  England.  In  addition 
to  these,  there  were  the  dominions  of  the  Britons  in  Western  England 
(Cornwallis,  Cumberland)  and  Wales  (North  Wales  or  Cambria,  South 
Wales  or  Damnonia)  ;  also  of  the  Picts  in  Eastern  Scotland,  and  of  the 
Scots  or  original  inhabitants  of  Ireland,  in  North-western  Scotland,  both 
united  in  838  by  King  Kenneth  II.,  together  with  many  small  powers  in 
Ireland.  These  last-mentioned  were  divided  into  four  sub-kingdoms : 
Ulster,  Connaught,  Leinster,  and  Munster.  8.  In  Spain  and  Portugal 
there  existed  at  this  time  two  governments ;  one  the  Arabic  kingdom  of 
Cordova  (Al  Hakem,  796-822),  established  by  Abderahman  I.  in  756,  and 
embracing  the  greater  part  of  Spain  and  the  whole  of  Portugal ;  the  other, 
the  Christian  kingdom  of  Asturia  or  Oviedo,  in  the  north-west  (Alphonso 
the  Chaste,  791-835).  Count  Garcias  (85S-870)  first  established  the  small 
kingdom  of  Navarre,  after  the  Gascons  in  Navarre  had  in  831  withdrawn 
fi*om  the  Prankish  rule.  9.  In  Lower  Italy,  after  the  downfall  of  the 
Longobardian  kingdom,  there  existed  an  independent  principality,  Benevent, 
established  by  Arigis,  who,  in  787,  submitted  to  Charlemagne.  Nevertheless, 
his  son  Grimoald  revolted  in  793,  and  died  in  806,  unconquered.  His 
successor  again  submitted  to  a  stronger  power  in  812,  but  in  818  Benevent 
was  again  independent.  About  840  was  established  the  Principality  of 
Salerno. 

Plate  12  represents  Europe  at  the  time  of  the  Crusades  (1100-1250).  In 
the  centre  of  Europe,  in  Germany  and  the  neighboring  countries,  we  find 
the  Roman-German  Monarchy,  whose  kings,  since  the  time  of  Otto  the 
Great  (962),  had,  for  the  most  part,  been  crowned  emperors  and  kings  of 
Italy.  Subject  to  them  were  the  Duchies  of  Swabia,  Bavaria,  Carinthia, 
Saxony,  Lothringia,  &c.  The  kingdom  of  Burgundy  and  Arelat,  in  1 032,  came " 
into  the  possession  of  the  Emperor  Conrad,  who  was  crowned  in  (Jeneva, 
king  of  Arelat ;  subsequently,  however,  the  greater  part  of  the  kingdom 
broke  up  into  independent  governments,  or  came  under  the  rule  of  the 
French.  The  north  and  largest  portion  of  Italy  belonged  to  the  Monarchy, 
only  the  smaller  part  of  Lower  Italy  to  the  Greek  Empire.  By  degrees 
there  arose  in  Upper  Italy  the  Republics  of  Milan  (1056),  Pisa,  Genoa, 
Pavia,  &c.  Lower  Italy,  however,  excepting  Naples  and  Benevent,  became 
subject  to  the  Normans,  who  erected  several  new  states.  These  were:  1. 
The  county  Aversa  and  principality  Capua,  the  latter  established  in  1062 
by  Count  Richard  I.  2.  Apulia,  a  county  from  1043,  and  a  duchy  (in 
connexion  with  Calabria  and  Sicily)  from  1060.  3.  Sicily,  snatched  by 
Count  Roger  in  1060-1090  from  the  Arabs.  The  universal  supremacy  of 
the  Pope  dates  from  the  gift  of  the  Marcgravine  Matilda  of  Tuscany,  who, 
in  1077  or  1079,  bestowed  upon  the  Church  all  her  extended  possessions  and 
properties,  consisting  of  Tuscany,  Mantua,  Parma,  Reggio,  Piacenza, 
Ferrara,  Modena,  and  a  part  of  Mark  Ancona.  Nevertheless,  after  the 
death  of  the  Emperor  in  1115,  only  a  small  portion  of  her  goods  went  to  the 

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36  GEOGRAPHY. 

Pope,  and  even  after  the  addition  of  vast  temporal  possessions  to  spiritual 
supremacy,  the  Popes  for  a  long  time  recognised  the  superiority  of  the 
Emperor.  The  boundaries  of  the  present  Papal  States  were  assigned  in 
1209  by  Emperor  Otto  IV.  Since  the  time  of  Innocent  III.  (died  1206), 
the  reigning  Pope  has  been  Primate  of  Rome  and  her  territories ;  these, 
however,  did  not  increase  materially  before  the  fifteenth  century. 

In  eastern  Europe  we  find  the  following  governments  :  1.  The  continually 
decaying  Eastern  or  Greek  Empire.  From  1081-1185,  the  race  of  the 
Comneni  had  possession  of  the  throne,  but  in  1185,  Isaac  Angeius  established 
a  new  dynasty.  From  1204-1261  there  existed  a  Latin  dynasty  in  Con- 
stantinople, established  by  Count  Baldwin  of  Flanders,  who,  in  1204, 
captured  Constantinople,  at  the  head  of  the  Crusaders :  this  was  limited  to 
the  vicinity  of  the  capital.  2.  Serbia,  after  the  death  of  the  powerful 
Emperor,  Emanuel  I.  Comnenus  (1143-1180),  became  independent,  and  the 
Zupan  (Prince)  Stephan  Venceanus  (1195-1224)  was  in  1217  crowned 
king  of  Rascia.  3.  In  1186  a  new  Wallachian- Bulgarian  kingdom  was 
established.  John  Asan  I.  (1217-1241)  conquered  Macedonia  and  the 
greater  part  of  Thrace,  and  immediately  assumed  the  imperial  title.  4. 
The  kingdom  of  the  Hungarians  or  Madschars  was  ruled  by  Princes  of 
the  house  of  Arpad  up  to  1301.  At  this  period  Stephan  I.  the  Holy  received 
the  royal  crown  from  the  Pope  (about  997),  and  obtained  Siebenbürgen ; 
he  introduced  Christianity  among  his  people.  Kings  Ladislaus  I.  (1077-1095) 
and  Colomann  (1095-1114)  conquered  the  whole  of  Croatia,  Sclavonia,  and 
Dalmatia,  although  the  latter  province  subsequently  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Venetians.  5.  The  duchy,  and  afterwards  kingdom  of  Poland,  which, 
since  1130,  had  extended  over  Pomerania  and  Silesia,  but,  since  1163,  had 
had  a  separate  duke.  For  more  than  five  centuries,  from  840-1370,  the  race 
of  Duke  Piast,  called  from  the  plough  to  the  sceptre,  ruled  over  the  land. 
In  965,  Mieczyslaw  I.  embraced  Christianity,  and  in  999  his  son  Boleslaw 
I.  (992-1025)  assumed  the  title  of  king.  Boleslaw  III.,  in  1138,  divided  the 
land  among  his  four  sons  ;  but  Wenzeslaw  II.,  in  1306,  again  united  most 
of  the  provinces.  The  principality,  and  subsequently  the  duchy  of 
Lithuania,  was  independent  of  Poland.  6.  The  Ghrand  Principality  of 
Russia,  under  Wladimir  I.,  who  introduced  Christianity,  in  1015,  among  his 
twelve  sons.  The  government  descended  to  his  son  Jaroslaw  I.,  who,  in 
1015,  divided  his  dominions  among  his  five  sons,  who  held  their  residences 
in  Kiew,  Tschernigow,  Perejoslawl,  Wladimir,  and  Smolensk.  Division  after 
division  subsequently  took  place,  until  there  were  fifty  principalities,  of 
which,  however,  the  Grand  Principality  of  Kiew  was  the  most  powerful,  and 
claimed  the  supremacy.  About  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century,  George 
Dolgoruki,  the  founder  of  Moscow,  established  a  new  principality  in  Western 
Russia,  with  Wladimir  as  the  seat  of  government,  which  soon  became  more 
potent  than  all  the  rest ;  in  1155  he  united  Wladimir  and  Kiew,  but  in  1157 
both  principalities  were  again  separated.  From  1237-1477  Russia  came 
under  the  rule  of  the  Mongolian  Tartars,  and  was  tributary  to  the  Khan  of 
Kaptschak.  The  seat  of  government,  from  1015-1169,  was  held  at  Kiew; 
at  Wladimir,  from  1169-1328,  and  after  that  at  Moscow.  Prussia  anid 
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GEOGRAPHY.  37 

L  vonia  were  ruled,  from  the  thirteenth  century,  by  the  German  Order, 
called  into  being  by  Duke  Conrad  of  Masowia,  in  1230,  to  fight  against  the 
heathen  Prussians ;  this  Order,  in  1237,  became  united  with  the  Order  of 
the  Brethren  of  the  Sword,  and  in  1243-1247,  conquered  Courland  and 
Semgallia. 

In  Northern  and  Western  Europe  there  existed  the  following  govern- 
ments :  1.  The  kingdom  of  Denmark.  This  attained  the  zenith  of  its  power 
under  King  Canute  IL  the  Great  (1016-1036)  who  was  at  once  king  of 
Denmark,  Norway  (conquered  1031,  lost  1036),  and  England  (conquered  in 
1013  by  his  father,  Sven),  as  also  of  Schleswig,  ceded  in  1035  by  Conrad 
II.  Under  Magnus  I.  the  Good,  king  of  Norway,  Denmark  became  a 
Norwegian  province,  but  in  1044  Jarl  Sven  Magnus  Estritson  assumed  the 
royal  title,  and  established  a  new  dynasty,  which  ruled  Denmark  up  to  the 
fifteenth  century.  Canute  Laward,  son  of  King  Erik  Eyegod,  was,  in  1115, 
the  first  Duke  of  South  Jutland  or  Schleswig.  Waldimar  I.  the  Great 
conquered  Rügen  in  1168,  Stettin  and  a  part  of  Pomerania  in  1173.  King 
Canute  IV.  (1182-1202)  subjected  the  Princes  of  Mecklenburg  and  the 
Duke  of  Pomerania,  named  himself  king  of  Wenden,  and  in  1200  conquered 
Holstein.  2.  The  kingdom  of  Noi^ay,  with  its  capital  Drontheim  (since 
1019)  ;  with  the  exception  of  the  period  of  Danish  dominion  under  Canute 
the  Great,  the  race  of  Hakon  ruled  here  up  to  1319.  3.  Kingdom  of 
Sweden.  The  Swedish  Prince  Olof  IL,  Skaut-Konung  (993-1024),  no 
longer  called  himself  king  of  Upsala,  the  title  which  had  been  borne  by  his 
predecessors  since  the  fifth  century,  but  king  of  Sweden.  In  1060,  the 
dynasty  of  Yngling  became  extinct,  from  which  time,  up  to  1127,  the  House 
of  Stenkil  held  the  sceptre,  and  afterwards,  up  to  1250,  the  Houses  of 
Swerker  and  Bonde  alternately.  King  Swerker,  in  1137,  united  the  whole 
country  into  one  monarchy.  4.  In  England,  after  Hardicanute  (son  of 
Canute),  Edward  the  Confessor  (1041-1066),  the  last  king  of  the  Saxon 
dynasty,  held  sway  ;  after  him  the  Normans,  under  William  the  Conqueror, 
came  into  power.  Henry  I.  (1100-1134)  united  Normandy  with  England, 
and  thereby  sowed  the  seed  of  perpetual  war  with  France.  The  House  of 
Plantagenet  reigned  from  the  year  1154.  Henry  II.,  the  first  of  the  line, 
acquired  the  dukedom  of  Brittany  in  1169.  In  Scotland,  which  at  that 
time  also  embraced  Cumberland,  Westmoreland,  and  Northern  Northum- 
berland (up  to  1157),  Macbeth  became  king  in  1040,  after  the  murder  of 
Duncan,  but  in  1057  was  replaced  by  Malcolm  III.,  son  of  Duncan. 
Malcolm  IV.  surrendered  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland  to  England,  in 
1157,  and  William  the  Lion-Hearted  of  Scotland  (1165-1214)  was  obliged 
to  yield  up  the  whole  country,  although  it  soon  seceded  again.  Ireland  was 
governed  in  part  by  the  Danes,  whose  chief  points  were  in  Dublin,  Wexford, 
Waterford,  and  Limerick.  In  1166,  the  English  began  the  invasion  of 
Ireland,  at  that  time  divided  among  many  rulers,  and  in  1172,  Henry  II. 
took  possession  of  the  country  in  person.  Nevertheless,  the  dominions 
of  the  English  extended  only  over  the  southern  and  south-eastern 
parts  of  the  island,  together*  with  a  narrow  strip  of  the  north-east 
coast,  while    the  whole   north   and   north-east,    Ulster   and  Connaught, 

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3a  GEOGRAPHY, 

remained  under  the  native  sway.  About  the  middle  of  the  eleventh 
century,  the  Hebrides  and  neighboring  islands  withdrew  from  the  Nor- 
wegian rule,  and  were  united  into  a  kingdom  of  the  Islands,  or  of  Man 
(Fingall  king  from  1066).  5.  In  France  reigned  the  third  dynasty  of  the 
Capetians  from  the  time  of  Hugo  Capet  (987-997).  At  that  time  the  king 
of  France  had  little  power  over  his  more  powerful  subjects.  The  whole 
western  part  of  France,  from  the  shores  of  the  Channel  to  the  Pyrenees, 
Normandy,  Brittany,  Anjou,  Touraine  and  Maine,  A  qui  tania,  with  Auvergne 
and  Gascony,  were  either  immediately,  or  as  fiefs,  in  the  power  of  the 
English  kings,  whose  French  dominions  were  most  extensive  under  Henry 
II.,  far  exceeding  those  in  England.  The  south  of  France  belonged  partly 
to  Spain  :  the  Count  of  Toulouse  possessed  Septimania,  and  the  Tolousanian 
Gau,  but  after  1067,  Count  Raymond  of  Barcelona,  by  the  purchase  of 
Carcassone  and  Rasez,  came  into  possession  of  part  of  his  dominions.  The 
remnant  of  the  great  kingdom  of  Burgundy,  in  connexion  with  France, 
formed  a  single  dukedom.  Robert,  grandson  of  Hugo  Capet,  opened  the 
line  of  Dukes  of  Burgundy,  who  ruled  on  to  the  fifteenth  century.  The 
royal  dominion  proper  embraced  only  a  part  of  the  former  dukedom  of 
France,  the  counties  Clermont,  Dreux,  Paris,  Corbeil,  Orleans ;  the  vicomt^ 
Bourges,  Etampes,  and  Melun ;  the  bishoprics  of  Noyon,  Laon,  and  Beau- 
vais.  After  the  year  1200,  Philip  Augustus  (1180-1223)  became  possessed 
of  Touraine,  Maine,  Anjou,  Normandy,  a  great  part  of  Poitou,  also  of  the 
coianties  Artois,  Vermandois,  Alen^on,  Amiens,  Evreux,  and  Valois.  His 
son  Louis  VIII.  acquired  Niort,  Rochelle,  and  Avignon ;  while  Louis  IX., 
son  of  Louis  YIII.,  obtained  the  dominions  of  the  Counts  of  Toulouse, 
Beziers,  Carcassone,  Bourbon,  Boulogne,  &c.  Thus  within  these  short 
limits,  the  power  of  the  French  crown  increased  more  than  two-fold. 
Provence  came  likewise  into  possession  of  the  royal  house,  by  the  marriage 
(in  1246)  of  the  heiress  Beatrice  with  Charles  of  Anjou,  brother  to 
Louis  IX. 

6.  In  Spain  we  find  at  this  period  the  following  great  Christian  powers : 
Castile,  Leon,  Arragon,  and  Navarre,  in  addition  to  that  of  the  Arabs. 
Sancho  the  Great  subjected  all  the  Christian  dominions  in  Spain,  excepting 
Leon  and  Barcelona,  which  he  then  divided  amongst  his  four  sons,  into 
Castile,  Navarre  (with  Biscaya  and  Alava),  Arragon,  and  Sobrarbe.  The 
latter,  in  1038,  became  attached  to  Arragon ;  as  also  Navarre,  in  1076,  this 
remaining  attached  until  1134,  when  Garcias  IV.  was  chosen  king.  One  of 
his  successors,  Sancho  VIL  the  Wise  (1194-1234),  in  1200,  lost  Alava, 
Biscaya,  and  Guipuzcoa,  to  Castile.  In  1037,  Leon  likewise  became  united 
to  Castile,  but  Ferdinand  I.  of  Castile,  who  inherited  the  throne,  divided  his 
dominions  in  1064  amongst  his  sons,  thus  giving  rise  to  three  kingdoms, 
Castile,  Leon  with  Asturia,  and  Galicia  with  Portugal.  These,  however, 
became  again  united  in  1073,  under  Alfonso  VI.  In  1084,  Toledo  was 
snatched  from  the  Moors,  and  converted  into  a  royal  possession  ;  this  people 
likewise  lost  all  the  land  north  of  the  Tagus  (New  Castile).  After  the 
death  of  Alfonso  VI.  in  1109,  Galicia,  Leon,  and  Castile,  fell  to  Alfonso  I. 
of  Arragon,  who  married  Urraca,  daughter  of  Alfonso  VI.  After  the 
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GEOGRAPHY.  39 

death  of  Alfonso  I.  in  1134,  Alfonso  VII.,  son  of  Urraca,  by  her  mar- 
riage with  Count  Raymond  of  Galicia,  was  recognised  king  of  Galicia, 
Leon,  and  Castile :  he  conquered  the  whole  of  La  Mancha,  as  also 
Calatrava,  was  crowned  Emperor  of  Spain  in  1135,  at  Leon,  and 
died  in  1157.  His  dominions  again  became  divided  into  the  kingdoms  of 
Castile  and  Leon,  this  separation  lasting  until  1230,  when  Leon,  after  the 
death  of  Alfonso  IX.,  became  permanently  united  to  Castile.  The  Moors  now 
lost  Cordova  in  1236,  Murcia  in  1243,  Jaen  and  its  territory  in  1246,  Seville 
in  1248,  Xeres,  Cadiz,  Sidonia,  &c.,  in  1256.  The  kingdom  of  Arragon, 
separated  in  1134  from  Castile,  was  in  1137  united  to  Barcelona,  whose 
Count,  Raymond,  became  king,  as"  son-in-law  of  Ramiero  II.  king  of 
Arragon.  This  kingdom  was  enlarged  by  the  acquisition  of  Tudela  in 
1114,  Saragossa  in  1115,  Tortosa  1138,  Lerida  1149,  Majorca  1229, 
Minorca  1233,  and  of  the  kingdom  of  Valencia  in  1232-1245.  The 
Moorish  part  of  the  peninsula  likewise  fell  into  numerous  principalities,  the 
most  important  of  which  were  :  1,  That  of  the  Edrisides,  Malaga,  Algesiras, 
Ceuta,  and  Tangiers,  1015-1086 ;  2,  that  of  the  Abadides  in  Seville,  to 
which  were  added  Cordova  in  1044,  Malaga,  Algesiras,  Alicante,  Murcia, 
&c.,  in  1086  (1026-1094) ;  3,  that  of  the  Beni-Alaftas  in  Badajoz  to  1094  ; 
4,  that  of  the  Dilnunides  in  Toledo,  1036-1085,  and  later  in  Valencia, 
1085-1092 ;  5,  that  of  the  Alamerides  in  Valencia,  Cuen^a,  <fec.,  1021-1085. 
In  addition  to  these,  there  was  the  territory  of  Saragossa ;  subject  to  the 
Emirs  residing  there,  were  the  vicegerents  of  Lerida,  Tortosa,  Huesca,  and 
Tudela.  All  the  Arabian  kingdoms,  except  Saragossa,  were,  in  1097, 
subject  to  the  race  of  Almoraviden  or  Morabethun,  from  which  they  were 
wrested  fifty  years  later,  by  the  race  of  Almohaden.  Nevertheless,  one 
province  after  another  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Christians,  until  there 
remained  to  the  Moors  only  the  kingdom  of  Granada,  established  in  1238  at 
Arjona,  and  the  territory  of  Alicante.  7.  Portugal  was  established  as  an 
independent  country  by  King  Alfonso  VI.  of  Castile,  in  1094,  for  Count 
Henry  of  Burgundy,  the  husband  of  his  natural  daughter  Theresa ;  Alfonso 
I.)  son  of  Henry,  acquired  Lisbon  in  1147,  Evora  in  1166,  and  called  himself 
king,  in  1139,  after  a  great  victory  over  the  Arabians  at  Ourique.  Alfonsc 
III.,  who  came  into  power  in  1244,  took  Algarbia  from  the  Arabians  in 
1250. 

The  Crusades.  Our  limits  permit  us  to  present  only  a  very  brief  outline 
in  reference  to  the  geographical  history  of  the  Crusades.  The  first  took 
place  in  1096,  excited  by  the  enthusiast,  Peter  of  Amiens,  sometimes  called 
Peter  the  Hermit.  Under  Peter,  his  friend  Walter  the  Moneyless,  the 
priest  Gottschalk,  and  Count  Enrico  of  Leiningen,  several  hundred  thousand 
crusaders,  principally  from  the  Rhine  country,  collected  together,  and 
marched  through  South  Germany,  Hungary,  and  Bulgaria,  towards  the 
Greek  empire  (Alexius  Comnenus,  Emperor).  Having  lost  fully  half  theii 
number  by  the  attacks  of  the  Hungarians  and  Bulgarians,  the  remnant  wa£ 
sent  across  the  Bosphonis  into  Asia,  by  Alexius.  Here  they  entered  the 
dominions  of  Kilidsche  Arslan,  Sultan  of  Iconium,  who  nearly  annihilated 
them  at  the  battle  of  Nicaea,  and  in  other  contests.    Subsequently  appearec 

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40  GEOGRAPHY. 

on  the  stage,  the  main  army  under  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  and  his  brother 
Baldwin  of  Flanders ;  Hugh  the  Great,  Count  of  Vermandois  and  brother 
of  the  King  of  France  ;  Duke  Robert  of  Normandy,  son  of  William,  King  of 
England  ;  Count  Raymond  of  Toulouse  ;  Count  Robert  of  Flanders  ;  Count 
Stephen  of  Blois ;  Bohemund,  Prince  of  Tarent,  son  of  Rolicrt  Guiscard, 
&c.  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  with  his  two  brothers,  Baldwin  and  Eustachius, 
set  out  on  the  15th  of  August,  1096,  and  marched  through  South  Germany 
and  Hungary  towards  Thrace:  Count  Hugo  of  Vermandois,  however, 
passed  through  Italy,  and  suffered  shipwreck  on  the  coast  of  Greece, 
thereby  losing  the  greater  part  of  his  forces ;  the  other  leaders,  with  their 
divisions,  followed  subsequently.  In  May,  1097,  the  whole  army,  with  its 
baggage,  was  collected  before  Nicaea  in  Bithynia,  which  soon  surrendered. 
A  victory  at  Doryteum  opened  the  way  to  Syria.  Baldwin  went  towards 
the  Euphrates,  and  established  a  sovereignty  in  Edessa,  while  the  other 
crusaders  besieged  Antioch,  gaining  possession  of  the  city  on  the  3d  June, 
1098,  after  a  siege  of  nine  months.  The  crusaders  set  out  for  Jerusalem  in 
May,  1099,  passing  between  Lebanon  and  the  coast,  and  subjugating  the 
Turkish  Emirs  of  Tripolis,  Tyre,  Sidon,  Ptolemais,  and  Caesarea.  They 
first  beheld  Jerusalem  on  the  6th  of  June,  1099,  and  on  the  15th  of  July 
the  city  was  taken  by  storm.  A  Christian  state  was  then  established,  and 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon  chosen  as  its  head,  who  maintained  it  at  the  siege  of 
Askalon  against  the  Sultan  of  Egypt.  At  the  same  time,  Tancred  set  up 
a  government  in  Tiberias,  Raymond  of  Toulouse  one  in  Laodicea,  &c. 
The  harbors  of  Ptolemais,  Tripolis,  and  Sidon,  were  subsequently  taken, 
with  the  assistance  of  the  Genoese,  and  afterwards  Tyre  also.  In  1144,  the 
Christians  lost  Edessa,  the  bulwark  of  their  dominion  in  Asia;  this  started 
the  second  crusade,  preached  by  Abbot  Bernard  of  Clairveaux. 

The  second  crusade  commenced  in  1 147.  At  its  head  were  the  Emperor 
Conrad  III.,  and  King  Louis  of  France ;  who  were  followed  by  140,000 
knights  and  about  a  million  of  foot.  The  German  army  set  out  in  the 
spring  of  this  year,  and  passing  through  Hungary  and  Greece,  sailed  across 
to  Asia.  Conrad  selected  the  shortest  but  more  dangerous  way  through 
Iconium  ;  but  the  incessant  attacks  of  the  Turks  wasted  away  his  army,  and 
with  but  a  feeble  force  he  escaped  to  Constantinople.  Louis,  who  started 
later,  reached  Attalea  in  Pamphylia,  with  but  a  small  part  of  his  force,  with 
whicji  he  set  out  for  Antioch.  Meeting  with  Conrad  and  Baldwin  HI.,  they 
laid  siege  to  Damascus  in  1148,  which,  however,  remained  unsubdued.  In 
1149,  the  European  princes  returned  to  their  homes. 

The  third  and  fourth  crusades  were  incited  by  the  capture  of  Jerusalem 
by  Saladin,  in  1187,  after  having  previously  taken  Sidon,  Joppe,  Berytus, 
Ptolemais,  &c.,  and  conquering  the  Christian  army  under  Guido,  at  the 
battle  of  Tiberias.  This  time,  the  cross  was  taken  up  by  Frederick  I., 
Henry  II.  of  England  (who,  dying  soon  after,  his  place  was  supplied  by  his 
son  Richard  the  Lion- Hearted),  and  Philip  Augustus  of  France.  In  January, 
1189,  the  German  army  set  out  from  Ratisbon :  the  emperor  being  accom- 
panied by  his  second  son  Duke  Frederick  of  Swabia,  as  also  by  Duke 
Berthold  of  Meran,  and  Ottokar  of  Styria,  Markgrave  Herman  of  Baden, 
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GEOGRAPHY.  41 

Counts  Adolf  of  Holstein  and  Rupert  of  Nassau,  the  Bishops  of  Würzburg, 
Münster,  Osnabrück,  Meissen,  and  others.  The  route  through  the  Grecian 
empire  had  to  be  forced  at  the  point  of  the  sword,  and  the  Emperor 
Frederick  reduced  Philippopolis,  Adrianople,  Nicopolis,  Demotica,  &c., 
until  the  Greek  Emperor,  in  March,  1190,  granted  the  right  of  way.  The 
army  crossed  the  Hellespont  to  Asia  in  Grecian  ships,  and  May  17,  attacked 
the  residence  of  the  faithless  Sultan  of  Iconium,  passing  then  through 
Cilicia  to  the  city  of  Seleucia  on  the  River  Calycadnus :  here  the  emperor, 
having  imprudently  thrown  himself  into  the  water,  was  drowned  by  the 
torrent  on  the  10th  of  June,  1190.  His  army  then  passed  by  Tarsus, 
Antioch,  and  Tyre,  to  Ptolemais,  which  had  been  besieged  since  1189,  by 
King  Guido.  The  kings  of  France  and  England  went  to  Palestine  by  sea. 
Philip  Augustus,  accompanied  by  Duke  Hugo  III.  of  Burgundy,  the  Counts 
of  Poitou,  Flanders,  Blois,  Perche,  Rochefort,  Champagne,  Sancerre,  Dreux, 
Clermont,  Soissons,  Vendome,  &c.,  sailed  in  the  summer  of  1 190  from  Genoa, 
and  King  Richard  of  England  from  Marseilles.  In  Messina,  the  armies  of 
both  united,  and  after  spending  the  wintet  in  Sicily,  landed  near  Ptolemais, 
in  April  and  June,  1191,  this  place  capitulating  on  the  Idth  July,  1191. 
The  titular  king  of  Jerusalem,  Guido  of  Lusignan,  transferred  his  claim  to 
Jerusalem,  to  Count  Henry  of  Champagne,  nephew  of  King  Richard, 
himself  establishing  a  new  kingdom  on  the  Island  of  Cyprus,  which  lasted 
nearly  three  hundred  years.  In  September,  1192,  Richard  returned  to 
Europe  :  Philip  Augustus,  as  well  as  the  (Serman  army,  had  left  long  before. 

The  Emperor  Frederick  II.  undertook  the  fifth  crusade.  This  prince  had 
made  a  vow  to  that  effect  on  ascending  the  throne,  to  which  he  was  doubly 
pledged,  having  married  the  daughter  of  the  titular  king  of  Jerusalem  (the 
Count  of  Brienne),  and  having  himself  assumed  the  title  of  king  of  Jerusalem. 
His  expedition  of  1227  was  a  failure,  but  in  1228  it  was  again  repeated,  and 
the  emperor  made  a  successful  debarkation  at  Ptolemais,  reached  Joppe  in 
November,  and  in  February  18,  1229,  concluded  a  truce  of  ten  years  with 
the  Sultan  of  Egypt;  in  this  time,  Jerusalem,  and  most  of  the  region 
belonging  to  it,  fell  into  the  hands  of  Frederick.  This  monarch  entered 
Jerusalem,  placed  the  crown  on  his  own  head  on  the  18th  of  March,  and 
by  the  end  of  May,  returned  to  Brundusium.  Jerusalem  was  again  lost  in 
1244,  by  the  inroads  of  a  troop  of  Chowaresmians,  who  fled  before  the 
Mongols. 

The  sixth  crusade  was  undertaken  by  Louis  IX.  of  France,  in  1248.  On 
the  25th  of  August,  the  crusaders  embarked  at  Aigues-Mortes,  and  reached 
Cjrprus  by  the  middle  .of  September:  here  they  remained  until  the  spring 
of  1249.  After  Pentecost,  1249,  the  army  anchored  before  Damietta,  and 
captured  the  town.  Here  it  remained  until  the  20th  of  November,  when 
it  set  out  along  the  Nile  for  Cairo.  This  city,  however,  was  never  reached, 
the  whole  French  army,  with  its  king  having  been  taken  prisoners  in  April, 
1250.  In  consequence  of  a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  Sultan,  Louis  returned  to 
Damietta,  went  thence  to  Ptolemais,  and  finally  returned  to  Europe,  in 
April,  1254.  A  second  crusade,  undertaken  by  Louis,  in  1270,  became 
converted  into  an  expedition  i^ainst  Tunis. 

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42  GBOGRAPHY. 

The  Christians  still  possessed  a  few  fortified  towns  in  Palestine  and  the 
coast  of  Syria,  namely,  Antioch,  Tripolis,  and  Ptolemais.  In  May,  1291, 
the  latter,  and  the  most  important,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Sultan  of 
Egypt,  after  which  the  remainder  either  surrendered  peaceably,  or  were 
captured. 


Geography  of  Modern  Times  (Plate  13). 

Plate  13  represents  Europe  before  the  French  Revolution  (1789).  The 
political  arrangement  of  Europe  in  the  above-mentioned  year,  difllered 
essentially  from  that  which  prevails  at  the  present  day. 

Germany,  with  Joseph  II.  for  its  head,  consisted  at  that  time  of  more  than 
three  hundred  greater  and  smaller  states,  most  of  which  were  distributed  in 
the  ten  circles  of  Maximilian  I.  Six  of  these  were  defined  by  this  emperor 
in  1500,  at  the  imperial  diet  of  Augsburg,  namely,  those  of  Franconia, 
Bavaria,  Swabia,  the  Upper  Rhine,  Westphalia,  and  Saxony ;  the  remaining 
four  were  added  at  the  diet  of  Cologne,  in  1512,  viz.  those  of  Austria,  Bur- 
gundy, the  Lower  Rhine,  and  Upper  Saxony :  this  arrangement  was 
confirmed  at  the  diet  of  Worms  and  Nürnberg,  in  1521  and  1522.  The 
distribution  into  circles  was,  however,  very  incomplete,  owing  to  its  not 
including  all  the  positions  in  the  empire.  The  components  of  the  individual 
circles  were  as  follows  : 

I.  The  Austrian  Circle,  the  largest  of  all,  had  only  the  following 
nobility :  the  Archduke  of  Austria  (who,  for  centuries,  was  both  Roman 
emperor  and  king  of  Germany),  the  Bishops  of  Trent  and  Brixen, 
the  German  Orders  and  the  Princes  of  Dietrichstein.  Its  constituents 
were : 

1.  The  Grand-Duchy  of  Austria,  called  also  Lower  Austria,  and  in  old 
decrees  the  Niederland,  consisting  of  two  portions,  one  with  Vienna,  the 
other  with  Linz,  as  the  chief  towns. 

2.  Inner  Austria,  consisting  of  the  Duchies  of  Steiermark  or  Styria, 
Carinthia,  and  Carniola  (capitals  Gratz,  Klagenfurt,  and  Laibach) ;  of 
Austrian  Istria  (Mitterburg  and  Capo  d'Istria)  ;  of  Austrian  Friaul  (Gradisca, 
Gorz,  Tolmein)  ;  and  of  the  coast  (Aquileia  and  Triest). 

3.  Upper  Austria,  or  the  county  of  Tyrol  (capital  Innsbruck),  with 
Montfort,  Bregenz,  Bludenz,  and  Sonneberg. 

4.  Further  Austria,  consisting  of  the  Austrian  Breisgau  (capital,  Freiburg), 
and  Swabian  Austria  (Burgau,  Nellenburg,  Altorf  and  Ravensburg, 
Hohenberg ;  five  towns  on  the  Danube,  Munderkingen,  Waldsee,  Sulgau, 
Riedlingen,  and  Mengen,  several  Monasteries,  and  the  towns  of  Constance, 
Zell,  Chingen,  &c). 

5  and  6.  Bishoprics  of  Trient  and  Brixen. 

7.  Two  Commanderies  of  the  Grerman  Order. 

8.  Trasp  in  Tyrol  belonging  to  the  Prince  Von  Dietrichstein. 

II.  The  BuRGUNDiAN  Circle  embraced  the  Austrian  Netherland  with  the 
capital  Brussels.    The  subdivisions  were : 
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GEOGRAPHY.  43 

1.  Duchy  of  Brabant  (in  part),  with  the  towns  Löwen,  Brussels,  and 
Antwerp. 

2,  Mechein  ;  3,  Limburg  ;  4,  Luxemburg  ;  5,  Grelderland  (in  part,  capital 
Roermonde) ;  6,  Flanders ;  7,  Doomik  or  Toumay ;  8,  the  Free  Lands 
including  Middelburg  and  Ostende ;  9,  Hennegau  (capital,  Mons)  ;  10, 
Namur  or  Namen. 

III.  The  Circle  op  Westphalia,  likewise  called  Lower  Rhenish  West- 
phalian  Circle,  whose  directors  were  the  Bishop  of  Münster,  and  alternately 
the  Electors  of  Brandenburg  and  of  the  Palatinate  included :  1,  the 
Bishoprics  of  Münster,  Paderborn,  Lüttich,  and  Osnabrück ;  2,  the  Abbacies, 
Corvey,  Stable,  and  Malmedy  (united).  Werden,  St.  Cornelis-Münster, 
Essen,  Thorn,  and  Herford  ;  3,  the  Duchies  of  Cleves  and  (Jeldem  (in  part), 
both  Prussian ;  Jülich  and  Berg  (capital,  Düsseldorf),  Oldenburg ;  4,  the 
Principalities  of  Minden,  East  Friesland,  and  Mors,  all  belonging  to  the 
king  of  Prussia;  Verden,  Nassau;  6,  the  Counties  Mark,  Ravensburg, 
Tecklenburg,  and  Lingen,  belonging  to  the  king  of  Prussia ;  Wied,  Sayn, 
Lippe,  Bentheim,  Steinfurt,  Yirnenburg,  Gronsfeld,  Reckheim,  Holzapfel, 
Blankenheim  and  Gerolstein,  Kerpen  and  Lommersum,  Schleiden,  Haller- 
münde,  Fagnolles,  Schaumburg,  Hoya,  Diepholz  and  Spiegelberg,  Rietberg, 
Pyrmont ;  6,  Anhalt,  Winnenburg  and  Beilstein,  Gehmen,  Gimborn  and 
Neustadt,  Wickerad,  &c. ;  7,  the  three  towns,  Cologne,  Aachen  (Aix  la 
Chapelle),  and  Dortmund. 

IV.  The  KuR  Rhine  Circle  embraced :  1,  the  Electorate  of  Mentz ;  2, 
the  Electorate  of  Trier ;  3,  the  Electorate  of  Cologne ;  4,  the  Palatinate ; 
5,  the  Principality  Arenberg ;  6,  Coblentz ;  7,  Niederisenburg ;  8,  Beilstein  ; 
and  9,  Rheineck. 

V.  The  Upper  Rhine  Circle  embraced :  1,  the  five  Bishoprics,  Worms, 
Speier,  Strasburg,  Basel,  and  Fulda ;  2,  Weissenburg ;  3,  Hertersheim ;  4, 
Prüm  and  Odenheim ;  5,  Hesse ;  6,  Simmem,  Lautem,  and  Yeldenz ; 
Zweibrücken,  Hersfeld,  Waldeck,  Nassau  in  part,  Wie^aden  ;  7,  Sponheim, 
Salm,  Hanau-Münzenberg,  Solms,  Königstein,  Oberisenburg,  Leiningen, 
Wittgenstein,  Falkenstein,  Kriechingen,  and  Wartenburg ;  8,  Reipoltskir- 
chen,  Hanau-Lichtenberg,  Bretzenheim,  Dachstuhl,  and  OUbrüch  ;  9,  the  five 
free  towns  of  Worms,  Speier,  Frankfurt  on  the  Maine,  Friedberg,  and  Wetzlar. 

VL  The  SwABiAN  Circle,  whose  Director  and  most  powerful  prince  was 
the  Duke  of  Würtemberg,  embraced :  1,  the  Bishoprics  Constance  and 
Augsburg :  2,  Ellwangen,  Kempten,  Lindau,  and  Buchau ;  3,  Würtemberg 
and  Teck ;  4,  Baden ;  5,  Hohenzollem  Sigmaringen  and  Liechtenstein ;  6, 
Thengen  and  Oeltingen ;  Stühlingen,  Baar,  &c. ;  Kletgaw ;  7,  twenty 
Abbacie«  and  one  Provostship ;  8,  twenty-eight  Manors  and  Counties  of 
the  Houses  Waldburg,  Fugger,  Königsegg,  &c. ;  9,  thirty-one  free  cities,  as 
Augsburg,  Ulm,  Esslingen,  &c. 

VII.   The   Bavarian   Circle    embraced  :    1,    Salzburg ;    2,    Freising, 

Regensburg,  and  Passau  ;  3,  Berchtesgaden  ;  4,  Lower  and  Upper  Münster ; 

5,  the  Duchy  of  Bavaria ;  6,  Neuburg  and  Sulzbach  ;  7,  Leuchtenberg  and 

Stemstein;  8,  Haag  and  Ortenburg;   9,  Ehrenfels,   Sulzbürg,   Pyrbaum, 

Hohenwaldeck,  and  Breiteneck  ;  10,  the  free  town  Reichsstadt. 

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44  GEOGRAPHY. 

VIII.  The  Feanconian  Circle  embraced  the  Bishoprics  Bambei^ 
Würzburg,  and  Eichsladt ;  2,  Mergentheim  and  Franconia ;  3,  Kulmbach 
(or  Baireuth)  and  Ansbach,  Brandenburg ;  4,  Henneberg  and  Schwarzen- 
berg ;  5,  Hohenlohe ;  6,  Castell,  Wertheim,  Rieneck  and  Erbach,  with  six 
manors  ;  7,  five  free  towns,  Nürnberg,  Rothenburg,  Windsheim,  Schweinfurt, 
and  Weissenburg. 

IX.  The  Circle  op  Upper  Saxony  included  :  1,  Saxony  ;  2,  Mark  Bran- 
denburg ;  3,  the  dominion  of  the  Dukes  of  Saxony  of  the  Line  of  Ernest 
(Weimar,  Eisenach,  Coburg,  Gotha,  and  Altenburg) ;  4,  Pomerania ;  5, 
Anhalt  ;  6,  Quedlinburg  and  Walkenried ;  7,  Schwarzburg,  Mansfeld, 
Stolberg,  and  Wernigerode ;  8,  the  dominions  of  the  Counts  and  Princes 
of  Reuss,  those  of  the  Counts  of  Schönburg  and  the  County  Hohenstein. 

X.  The  Circle  of  Lower  Saxony  included :  1,  Magdeburg ;  2,  the 
dominions  of  the  Electorate  of  Brunswick- Lüneburg,  consisting  of  Bremen, 
Lüneburg,  Grubenhagen,  and  Kaienberg ;  3,  Wolfenbüttel  and  Blanken- 
burg ;  4,  Halberstadt ;  5,  Mecklenburg-Schwerin  and  Mecklenburg-Güstrow, 
also  Schwerin ;  6,  the  Duchy  of  Holstein ;  7,  Hildesheim ;  8,  Saxon- 
Lauenburg;  9,  Lübeck;  10,  Ratzeburg;  11,  the  six  free  cities  of  Lübeck, 
(?osIar,  Mülhausen,  Nordhausen,  Hamburg,  and  Bremen. 

The  following  territories,  not  included  among  the  preceding  ten  circles, 
also  belonged  to  Germany :  1,  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  belonging  to  the 
House  of  Austria ;  2,  Upper  and  Lower  Lusatia ;  3,  Mompelgard  and 
Homburg;  4,  Arch,  Wasserburg,  Freudenberg,  Hörstgen,  Rheda,  Jever, 
Kniphausen,  Dyck,  Schaumburg,  &c.  ;  3,  Kappenberg,  Elten,  and 
Burtscheid;  4,  the  three  circles  of  the  immediate  nobility  in  Swabia, 
Franconia,  and  on  the  Rhine  ;  7,  several  places  owned  and  ruled  in  common 
by  more  than  one  family  ;  8,  six  free  villages,  and  the  free  people  in  Swabia 
occupying  thirty-nine  villages  and  hamlets. 

Besides  Germany,  Europe  in  1789  contained  the  following  states,  of  which 
eight  (including  the  ]gllectoral  Monarchy  of  Poland)  were  republics,  and  one 
under  the  order  of  St.  John ;  the  remainder  were  ruled  by  two  emperors, 
one  Grand  Sultan,  nine  kings,  one  pope,  one  grand  duke,  three  dukes,  and 
one  prince. 

I.  The  Kingdom  of  Portugal,  in  its  present  extent,  only  arranged 
differently. 

II.  The  Kingdom  of  Spain,  likewise  of  its  present  limits,  and  divided  into 
twenty-nine  provinces :  Madrid,  Toledo,  Cuen<ja,  Guadalajara,  and  La  Mancha 
(New  Castile)  ;  Burgos,  Soria,  Segovia,  A vila  (Old  Castile) ;  Leon,  Palencia, 
Toro,  Yalladolid,  Zamora ;  Salamanca  (kingdom  of  Leon)  ;  kingdom*  of 
Granada  or  Upper  Andalusia ;  kingdom  of  Galicia ;  Sevilla,  Cordova, 
Murcia,  Jaen  (Lower  Andalusia) ;  Asturia,  Estremadura,  Arragon,  Valencia, 
Majorca  (embracing  the  Balearic  and  Pithyusian  islands),  Catalonia,  king- 
dom of  Navarre,  and  the  united  districts  of  Guipuzcoa,  Alava,  and  Biscaya. 
In  addition  to  this  there  was  the  town  of  Antequera,  which  was  assigned  to 
no  province. 

III.  The  Kingdom  of  France,  with  limits  much  as  at  present,  but  including 
the  Duchy  of  Bouillon,  as  also  the  fortified  towns  Philippeville,  Marienburg, 

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GEOGRAPHY.  45 

Saar  Louis,  and  Landau,  which,  in  1814  and  1815,  were  ceded  to  Belgium, 
Prussia,  and  Bavaria ;  and  not  embracing  the  then  papal  counties  Avignon 
and  Venaissin.  It  was  divided,  in  a  military  point  of  view,  into  the  following 
forty-one  governments :  Paris,  Isle  of  France  (capital  Soissons) ;  Picardy 
(cap.  Amiens) ;  Boulonnais  (cap.  Boulogne) ;  Artois  (Arras)  ;  Champagne 
and  Brie  (Troyes) ;  Bourgogne  (cap.  Dijon) ;  Dombes  (cap.  Trevoux) ; 
Dauphiny  (cap.  Grenoble)  with  the  principality  Orange ;  Provence  (cap. 
Aries) ;  Languedoc  (cap.  Toulouse) ;  Foix  ;  Roussillon  (cap.  Perpignan) ; 
Navarra  and  Beam  (cap.  Pau) ;  Cayenne  and  Gascogne  (cap.  Bordeaux) ; 
Saintonge  and  An|;oumois  (cap.  Saintes)  ;  Rochelle  and  Aunis  (cap. 
Rochelle) ;  Poitou  (cap.  Poitiers) ;  Bretagne  (cap.  Rennes) ;  Normandy 
(cap.  Rouen)  ;  Maine  and  Perche  (cap.  Le  Mans)  ;  Orleanois  (cap. 
Orleans) ;  Nivernois  (cap.  Nevers) ;  Bourbonnois  (cap.  Moulins) ;  Lyonnois 
(cap.  Lyon)  ;  Auvergne  (c^p.  Clermont) )  Limousin  (cap.  Limoges)  ;  La 
Marche  (cap.  Gueret)  ;  Berry  (cap.  Bourges)  ;  Touraine  (cap.  Tours) ; 
Anjou  (cap.  Angiers) ;  Saumur  (cap.  Saumur) ;  Flanders  and  Hennegau 
(cap.  Lille)  ;  Messin  and  Verdunois  (cap.  Metz) ;  Lorraine  and  Bar  (cap. 
Nancy)  ;  Elsace  (cap.  Strasburg) ;  Franche-Comt6  (cap.  Besannen)  ;  Corsica 
(cap.  Bastia). 

IV.  The  Swiss  Confederacy  consisted  of  thirteen  Cantons,  namely : 
Zurich,  Bern,  Luzerne,  Uri,  Schwyz,  Untdrwalden,  Zug,  Glarus,  Basle, 
Freiburg,  Solothum  or  Soleure,  Schaffhausen,  and  Appenzell.  In  addition 
to  these  there  were  twenty- three  Landvogties  (seven  of  them  Italian),  and 
two  cities,  which  several  Cantons  possessed  in  common  :  Thurgau, 
Rheinthal,  Sargans,  Gaster,  Granson,  Baden,  Bellenz,  &c.,  with  ten  allied 
or  associated  places :  St.  Gallen,  Graubundten,  the  Valais,  the  town  of 
Muhlhausen  in  Elsace,  Neuenburg,  Geneva,  and  the  Bishopric  of  Basle  (in 
part). 

V.  The  United  Netherlands  constituted  a  republic  from  the  time  of  their 
liberation  from  the  Spanish  yoke  in  the  sixteenth  century.  They  consisted 
of  seven  smaller  republics  or  sovereign  states  :  Guelderland,  Holland, 
Seeland,  Utrecht,  Friesland,  Oberyssel,  and  Groningen,  with  Drenthe.  In 
addition  to  these  were  portions  of  Brabant  (cap.  Herzogenbusch),  Antwerp 
(cap.  Breda),  Guelderland  (cap.  Venloo),  and  Flanders,  which  had  been 
conquered  by  the  seven  united  provinces.  A  hereditary  Stattholder  stood 
at  the  head  of  the  common  republic. 

VI.  The  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  in  its  present  extent  and 
arrangement,  although  not  united  into  a  single  government  with  one 
parliament.  The  islands  of  Helgoland  and  Malta  at  that  time  did  not 
belong  to  England. 

VII.  The  United  Kingdom  of  Denmark  and  Norway,  each  in  its  present 
arrangement  and  extent.  Of  the  latter,  only  the  Faroes  remain  to  Denmark. 
The  Island  of  Helgoland,  now  English,  belonged  to  Denmark  up  to 
1814. 

VIII.  The  Kingdom  of  Sweden,  at  that  time  united  with  Finnland  and  not 
with  Norway,  was  divided  into  five  sections ;  1,  Sweden  proper,  subdivided 
into  Upland,   Sodermannland,   Nerike,   Westmannland,   and  Dalarne  or 

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46  GEOGRAPHY. 

Dalecarlia;  2,  the  Gothic  dominion,  divided  into  eastern,  western,  and 
southern ;  3,  Norrland  or  Nordland ;  4,  Swedish  Lapland ;  5,  Finnland. 
In  addition  to  this,  the  crown  held  in  Grermany  a  portion  of  Pomerania, 
with  the  island  of  Rügen,  and  Wismar,  at  present  a  town  of  Mecklenburg. 

IX.  The  Russian  Empire.  The  extent  of  this  empire,  in  1789,  was  much 
less  than  at  the  present  time,  as  it  did  not  include  the  following  countries  : 
Finnland,  with  a  part  of  Lappland,  Curland,  Poland  with  Lithuania, 
Volhvnia  with  Podolia,  Bessarabia,  Moldavia  east  of  Pruth,  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  region  of  the  Caucasus.  It  was  divided  into  the  following 
sections  :  1,  St.  Petersburg  or  Ingermannland  ;  2,  Riga  or  Livonia ;  3,  Reval 
or  Eslhonia ;  4,  Wiburg  or  Carelia,  with  a  part  of  Finnland  ;  5,  Olonetz ;  6, 
Archangel;  7,  Novogorod  ;  8,  Pleskow ;  9,  Twer ;  10,  Jaroslau  ;  11,  Wologda; 
12,  Kostroma;  13,  Wjatka;  14,  Perm;  15,  Tobolsk;  16,  Moscow;  17, 
Tula ;  18,  Kaluga ;  19,  Smolensk  or  White  Russia ;  20,  Polozk,  and  21, 
Mohilew  (these  two  were  taken  from  Lithuania  in  1772) ;  22,  Orel ;  23, 
Novogorod -Sawersk  ;  24,  Tschernigow ;  25,  Charkow  ;  26,  Kursk  ;  27, 
Woronesch;  28,  Rjasan ;  29,  Wladimir;  30,  Tambow;  31,  Saratow  ;  32, 
Pensa ;  33,  Nischnei-Novogorod ;  34,  Simbirsk ;  35,  Kasan ;  36,  Ufa,  with 

-the  province  of  Orenburg;  37,  Kolywan;  38,  Irkutsk;  39,  Kiew;  40, 
lekaterinoslaw ;  41,  Tauria  or  the  Krimea;  42,  Caucasus,  consisting  of  the 
provinces  Caucasus  (cap.  Asow),  and  Astrachan. 

X.  The  Kingdom  of  Prussia  (at  one  time  a  duchy,  but  a  kingdom  since 
1701).  This  was  divided  into  East  and  West  Prussia,  the  latter  consisting 
of  the  portion  of  Poland  ceded  to  Russia  in  1772. 

XI.  The  Republic  or  the  Elective  Monarchy  of  Poland  was  divided  into 
three  principal  portions  :  1,  Great  or  Lower  Poland  containing  the  Vay  vode- 
ships  of  Posen,  Kalisch,  Gnesen,  Sieradz,  Wielun,  Rawa,  Lenczyc,  Brzesc, 
Inowraclaw,  and  Dobrzin  (these  three  formed  the  district  Cujavier),  Plock, 
Masuren,  also  the  town  of  Dantzig  (almost  entirely  independent,  however), 
and  Thorn  ;  2,  Lesser  or  Upper  Poland,  with  the  Vayvodeships  of  Cracow, 
Sandomir,  Lublin,  Podlachia  (capital  Bielsk),  Chelm,  Volhynia  (cap.  Luck), 
Podolia  (cap.  Kaminiec  Podolski),  Lithuania,  and  Kijow  (part  of 'the 
Ukraine) ;  3,  Grand  Duchy  Lithuania,  consisting  of  Lithuania  Proper 
(cap.  Wilna),  Lithuanian  Russia  (Podlesia,  Black  Russia,  and  a  part  of 
White  Russia),  and  Samogitia. 

XII.  The  Duchy  of  Courland  and  Semgallia  had  its  own  duke,  but  was 
subject  to  Poland. 

XIII.  The  Austrian  Dominions  beyond  Germany  and  Italy  were  much  as 
at  present,  excepting  that  Galicia  was  smaller,  and  the  greater  part  of 
Dalmatia  was  wanting :  1,  the  kingdom  of  Galicia  and  Lodomeria 
(previously  the  principalities  Halitsch  and  Wladimir,  forming  Red  Russia, 
and  torn  in  1772  from  the  Republic  of  Poland)  excepting  Cracow,  but 
including  Bukowina  taken  from  the  Turks  in  1777  ;  2,  kingdom  of  Hungary 
with  the  kingdoms  of  Slavonia  and  Syrmia,  Croatia  and  Dalmatia, 
arranged  in  ten  provinces;  Raab,  Pesth,  Neutra,  Fünfkirchen,  Agram, 
Grosswardein,  Neusohl,  Munkatsch,  Kaschau,  Temesch  (Banat)  ;  3,  the 
Croatian  and  Slavonian  Military  Limits ;  4,  the  Grand  Duchy  Siebenburgen. 

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GEOGRAPHY.  47 

XrV.  The  '  Republic  of  Ragusa  under  the  protection  of  the  Grand 
Turk,  and  tributary  to  hin),  now  belonging  to  Austria  as  a  part  of 
Dalmatia. 

XV.  The  Thirkish  Empire,  whose  European  donninions  at  that  time 
embraced  Bessarabia  and  that  portion  of  Moldavia  lying  on  the  left  or 
eastern  bank  of  the  Pruth,  both  subsequently  ceded  to  Russia ;  also,  the 
present  kingdom  of  Greece.  The  now  nearly  independent  Principality  of 
Servia,  at  that  time  (to  1801)  formed  a  viceroy alty. 

XVI.  Italy,  with  which  we  here  conclude,  embraced  the  following  states, 
excluding  the  island  of  Corsica,  which  belonged  to  France.  1.  Kingdom  of 
Sardinia,  consisting  of  the  Duchies  of  Savoy  (embracing  Chablais, 
Faucigny,  Genevois,  Tarantaise,  and  Maurienne)  and  Montserrat,  the 
Principality  of  Piedmont  (with  the  Duchy  of  Aosta  and  the  County  of 
Nizza),  a  portion  of  the  Duchy  of  Milan,  and  the  island  of  Sardinia.  2. 
The  Austrian  possessions,  consisting  of  the  Duchies  of  Milan  (the  greater 
portion)  and  Mantua,  and  the  Principalities  of  Castiglione  and  Solferino. 
3.  The  Duchies  of  Parma,  Piacenza,  and  Guastalla.  4.  The  Duchy  of 
Modena,  with  Reggio,  Correggio,  Mirandola,  Massa,  and  Carrara.  5.  The 
Principality  of  Monaco  (under  French  protection).  6.  The  Republic  of 
Venice.  Her  dominions  embraced,  in  Italy,  the  Duchy  of  Venice,  the 
provinces  of  Padua,  Bassano,  Verona,  Vicenza,  Brescia,  Bergamo,  Erema, 
the  peninsula  Rovigo,  the  Mark  of  Treviso,  the  District  of  Friaul  and 
Istria.  Out  of  Italy  the  Venetian  possessions  consisted  of  parts  of  Dal- 
matia (Zara,  Sebenigo,  Trau,  Spalatro,  and  islands),  Albania,  and  the  seven 
Ionian  Islands :  all  these,  excepting  the  last,  are  Austrian.  7.  The  Republic 
of  Genoa :  her  territory  was  divided  into  the  Riviera  di  Levante  or  the 
eastern  part,  the  Riviera  di  Ponente  or  the  western  part,  and  Finale ;  it 
now  constitutes  the  Sardinian  Duchy  of  Genoa.  8.  The  Grand  Duchy  of 
Tuscany,  divided  into  the  old  state  or  the  Grand  Duchy  proper  (Florence, 
Pisa,  and  Livorno),  and  the  new  state  or  Siena,  acquired  in  1557.  9. 
The  States  of  the  Church ;  divided  into  Rome  with  her  territory ; 
Campagna  di  Roma  and  Maritima ;  Patrimonio  di  S.  Pietro ;  Duchy  of 
Castro  and  County  of  Ronciglione ;  Umbria  or  the  Duchy  of  Spoleto,  with 
Camorino,  Orvieto,  Perugia,  and  Castello ;  Mark  Ancona  with  the  Duchy 
Urbino  and  the  city  Fano ;  Romagna,  the  territory  of  Bologna,  and  the 
Duchy  Ferrara.  In  addition  to  these,  the  Pope  possessed,  as  now,  the 
Principality  of  Benvenuto,  and  in  France  the  Counties  Avignon  and 
Venaissin,  the  two  latter  subsequently  ceded  to  France.  10.  The  Republic 
of  Lucca,  and  11,  Republic  of  San  Marino.  12.  The  kingdom  of  the  two 
Sicilies,  consisting  of  the  kingdoms  of  Naples  and  of  Sicily.  The  former 
was  divided  into  twelve  districts  :  Terra  di  Lavoro,  Principato  Citra, 
Principato  Ultra,  Basilicato  or  Matera,  Northern  Calabria,  Southern  do., 
Terra  d'Otranto,  Terra  di  Bari,  Capitanata,  the  Abruzzi,  Teramo.  Sicily 
was  divided  into  three  districts,  Val  di  Mazzara  (cap.  Palermo),  Val  Demone 
(cap.  Messina),  and  Val  di  Noto  (cap.  Catania).  Besides  these,  the  king  of 
the  Sicilies  possessed  the  Stato  degli  Presidi,  consisting  of  the  Princi- 
pality Piombino  and  the  island  Elba,  now  united   to  Tuscany.     13.  The 

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48  GEOGRAPHY. 

Islands  of  Malta,  Gozzo,  and  Comino,  possessed  by  the  Order  of  Knights 
of  St.  John,  to  whom  they  had  been  given  by  Charles  V. 


SPECIAL  OR  POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
I.  EuROPB  {Plate  14). 

The  greater  portion  of  the  population  of  Europe  belongs  to  the  Indo- 
European  race,  and  is  divisible  into  the  following  families  :  1,  the  Germanic 
or  Teutonic,  over  sixty  millions,  in  Germany,  Switzerland,  the  Netherlands, 
Great  Britain,  Denmark,  Scandinavia,  &c. ;  2,  the  Graeco-Latinic,  over 
seventy-two  millions,  in  Greece,  Turkey,  Italy,  Switzerland,  France,  Spain, 
Portugal :  3,  the  Slavonian,  over  seventy-eight  millions,  in  Russia,  Poland, 
Germany,  Hungary,  Turkey,  &c. 

Less  numerous  families  are  the  Celtic  (about  nine  millions,  in  Ireland, 
Scotland,  and  Wales)  ;  the  Lettonian  (Lithuania,  Livonia,  Esthonia,  about 
two  millions),  the  Semitic  (two  millions  and  a  half,  Israelites,  and  60,000 
Moriscoes,  or  descendants  of  the  Spanish  Moors),  the  Basques  in  Spain, 
and  the  Gipsies  or  Zigeuni  (300,000). 

To  the  Tartar  stock  belong  the  Turks  (about  two  millions),  and  the 
Tartars  (in  Russia). 

To  the  Ural  stock  belong  the  Finns  (with  the  Lapps)  and  the  Hungarians 
or  Magyars  (about  eight  millions  in  all). 

In  its  political  division,  Europe  embraces  fifty-five  independent  states, 
namely  :  1.  Three  empires  :  Russia,  Austria,  and  Turkey.  2.  Fifteen  king- 
doms :  Portugal,  Spain,  Belgium,  Netherlands,  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
Sweden  and  Norway,  Denmark,  Prussia,  Hanover,  Saxony,  Bavaria, 
Würtemberg,  Sardinia,  the  two  Sicilies,  and  Greece.  3.  The  Papal  States. 
4.  One  Electorate :  Hesse-Cassel.  5.  Severi  Grand  Duchies :  Tuscany, 
Baden,  Oldenburg,  Hesse  Darmstadt,  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  Mecklenburg- 
Strelitz,  Saxe- Weimar.  6.  Nine  Duchies :  Nassau,  Brunswick,  Anhalt- 
Bemburg,  Anhalt-Dessau,  with  Kothen,  Saxe-Altenburg,  Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha,  Saxe-Meiningen-Hildburghausen,  Parma,  Modena.  7.  Ten  Princi- 
palities :  two  Schwartzburg,  two  Lippe,  two  Hohenzollern,  two  Reuss, 
Waldeck,  Liechtenstein.  8.  One  Landgraviate :  Hesse-Homburg.  9.  Eight 
Republics :  France,  Switzerland,  Hamburg,  Bremen,  Lübeck,  Frankfort  on 
the  Maine,  San  Marino,  and  the  Ionian  Islands. 

To  these  should  properly  be  added  the  semi-sovereign  states  of  Servia, 
Moldavia,  Wallachia,  the  Republic  of  Andorra  in  the  Pyrenees,  &c. 


1.  Portugal  {Plate  21). 

Portugal  extends  from  6^   15'  to  9°  80'  longitude  west  of  Greenwich 
(8^  9'  to  12°  longitude  east  of  Ferro,  as  given  in  the  map),  and  from 

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GEOGRAPHY.  49 

36^  55'  to  42^  13'  N.  Lat.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  and  east  by  Spain, 
on  the  south  and  west  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean  ;  and  including  the  Azores, 
occupies  about  27,552  square  gec^aphical  miles. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  land  forms  a  highland,  with  rugged  mountains ; 
the  most  northern  part,  however,  is  an  elevated  terrace.  Some  of  the 
individual  mountains  are  :  in  the  north,  Serra  de  Suazo,  S.  de  Santa  Lucia, 
S.  de  Gerez,  S.  de  Cahreira,  S.  de  Marao,  S.  de  Quadrasal,  S.  de  Noguiera ; 
in  the  centre,  S.  de  Acoba  or  Caramujo,  S.  de  Estrella  (the  highest),  S. 
Mansa,  S.  de  Anciao,  S.  de  Moradal,  S.  Brava,  S.  de  Melrica,  S.  Aire,  S. 
Albardos,  Monte  Cantaro,  M.  Junto,  S.  Patelo,  S.  do  Minde,  S.  Monta- 
chique,  S.  de  Portalegre,  S.  de  Arrabida ;  in  the  south,  S.  de  S.  Joao,  S.  de 
Ossa,  Monte  Maro,  S.  Aboleira,  S.  de  Grandola,  the  Algarbian  boundary 
mountain,  S.  de  Cadeiro,  S.  de  Monchique,  S.  de  Figueira,  M.  Figo. 

The  principal  rivers  are  as  follows  :  1.  The  Minho,  which  forms  the 
northern  boundary  between  Portugal  and  Spain.  2.  The  Douro,  upon 
which  Oporto  is  situated.  Tributaries  on  the  right,  Sabor,  Tua,  Tamega ; 
on  the  left,  Coa,  Tavoa,  Pavia.  3.  Tagus  or  Tejo,  the  most  important 
stream,  with  Lisbon  situated  at  its  mouth :  it  is  navigable  as  far  as  Abrantes. 
Tributaries  on  the  right,  Ponsel,  Zezere ;  on  the  left  Zatas  or  Sorraya, 
Canha.  4.  Guadiana,  which  in  its  lower  part  forms  portion  of  the  boundary 
between  Spain,  navigable  to  Martola.  Rivers  along  the  coast:  5.  Lima 
empties  at  Viana.     6.  Cavado.     7.  Bouga.     8.  Mondego.    9.  Sado. 

Southern  fruits  of  various  kinds  form  the  principal  products,  also  wine 
and  grain.  Sheep  are  raised  in  considerable  numbers,  and  the  fisheries  wr% 
important.     Mining  is  almost  entirely  unknown. 

In  1836,  the  population,  excluding  Lisbon  and  the  islands,  amounted  to 
3,061,684,  divided  into  380  Concelhos  or  congregations,  4034  parishes,  and 
791,492  families  or  hearths.  The  census  of  1838  gave  3,224,174  inhabitants^ 
in  382  congregations,  3692  parishes,  and  827,947  families :  that  of  1841, 
3,412,500  heads,  in  386  congregations,  3737  parishes,  847,343  families.  The 
Azores,  with  the  islands  of  Madeira  and  Porto  Santa,  have  330,500  inhabit- 
ants in  11  comarcas,  34  congregations,  163  parishes,  76,430  families.  This 
makes  3,743,000  souls  for  the  entire  European  population.  These  are  mostly 
of  Jewish  or  Moorish  descent,  speak  a  language  closely  allied  to  the  Spanish, 
but  mixed  with  many  Arabic  words,  and  abounding  in  nasal  sounds.  The 
religion  is  Roman  Catholic. 

The  kingdom  of  Portugal  is  a  constitutional  monarchy,  ruled  by  princes 
of  the  House  of  Braganza  (at  present  Maria  II.,  born  1819),  under  the 
constitution  granted  in  1826  by  Don  Pedro.  The  supreme  ruler  shares  the 
government  with  two  chambers,  which  assemble  annually,  and  which 
consist,  the  one  of  members  chosen  by  the  crown,  the  other  of  members 
elected  by  the  neople. 

The  state  revenue,  according  to  the  estimates  of  1848-49,  amounts  to 
about  sixteen  million?  of  dollars.  The  army  embraces  28,100  soldiers,  of 
which  only  18,000  are  m  service.  There  are  9000  soldiers  in  the  colonies. 
The  navy  consists  of  two  ship««  of  the  line,  six  frigates,  eight  corvettes, 
eleven  brigs,  seven  schooners,  two  steam- vessels.  &c. 

ICOKOORAPHIC   ENCYCLOPiSDIA. — VOL.   III.  4  49 


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60  GEOGRAPHY. 

Sub-divisions.  I.  Kingdom  of  Portugal  with  six  provinces :  1 .  Estre« 
madura,  with  780,000  inhabitants,  divided  into  the  three  circles,  Lisbon, 
Santarem,  and  Leira.  Here  is  situated  the  capital  city  and  royal  residence, 
Lisbon  or  Lisboa,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tagus,  with  260,000  inabitants. 
2.  Lbwer  Beira,  population  330,000.  3.  Upper  Beira,  population  290,000  ; 
circles,  Coimbra,  Aveiro,  Lamego,  Guarda.  4.  Entre  Minho  e  Douro, 
population  1,300,000  ;  circles,  Porto,  Braga,  Viana.  This  province  embraces 
Porto  or  Oporto  on  the  Douro,  the  second  city  in  the  kingdom,  with 
70,000  inhabitants.  5.  Traz  os  Montes,  population  300,000.  Circles, 
Villareal  and  Braganza.  6.  Alentejo,  population  280,000.  Circles,  Evora, 
Baja,  Portalegre. 

IL  Kingdom  of  Algarve  or  Algarbia,  population  130,000.  Capital  Faro, 
population  8000. 

III.  The  Azores,  nine  islands  in  all,  with  214,000  inhabitants.  1.  San 
Miguel,  population  90,000,  capital  Delgada.  2.  Terceira,  population  30,000, 
capital  Angra.  3.  Pico,  population  25,000,  without  any  town.  4.  Fayal, 
population  25,000,  capital  Horta.  5.  Santa  Maria,  population  6000.  6.  S. 
Jorge,  population  12,000.  7.  Graciosa,  population  10,000.  8.  Flores, 
population  15,000.     9.  Corvo,  population  1000. 

Portugal  owns  the  following  islands,  which,  however,  belong  geographi- 
cally to  Africa.  1.  Madeira,  capital  Funchal,  and  2,  Porto  Santo,  the  two 
with  116,000  inhabitants.  3.  The  ten  islands  of  the  Cape  de  Verdes,  popu- 
lation 70,000. 

*  The  colonies  of  Portugal  are  :  1.  In  Africa,  settlements  on  the  west  coast 
(Guinea)  with  the  island  Bissago ;  the  islands  of  St.  Thomas  and  do 
Principe,  with  20,000  inhabitants ;  the  islands  of  Mozambique  on  the  east 
coast,  and  the  eleven  Admiralty  Islands.  2.  In  Asia  :  East  Indies  (coast  of 
Malabar),  Goa,  the  towns  of  Diu  and  Damaun ;  Macao,  on  the  coast  of 
China,  population  38,000,  and  the  greater  portion  of  Timor. 


2.  Spain  {Plate  21). 

Spain  is  situated  between  the  parallels  of  36^  and  43^  46'  N.  lat.,  and 
the  meridians  3°  17'  east  and  9°  30'  west  from  Greenwich.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Bay  of  Biscay  and  France,  west  by  the  Atlantic  and 
Portugal,  south  and  east  by  the  Mediterranean  and  Atlantic.  The  area 
amounts  to  about  183,600  square  statute  miles. 

The  interior  of  Spain  is  a  highland  of  from  2000  to  3000  feet,  traversed 
by  mountains,  and  separated  by  one  grand  range  into  a  southern  and 
northern  portion,  the  plateaus  of  New  and  Old  Castile.  About  the  highland 
are  districts  of  less  elevation,  also  surrounded  by  mountains.  A  range  of 
mountains,  about  360  miles  in  length,  traverses  the  extrem-,  north  of  Spain, 
the  boundary  between  this  country  and  France  being  formed  by  a  portion 
of  about  two  hundred  miles  in  length,  and  known  as  the  Pyrenees.  The 
western  continuation  of  the  Pyrenees  corsiitutes  the  Cantabrian  Moun« 
tains,  to  the  west  of  which  join  on  the  Asiurean.  To  the  north-west,  west 
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of  the  Minho,  we  find  the  mountain  terrace  of  the  Parameras.  The 
principal  mountain  in  the  interior  is  the  Sierra  de  Guadarama,  separating 
the  Duero  from  the  Tagus,  to  which  are  joined  on  the  west,  the  Sierras  de 
Gredos,  de  Bajar,  and  de  Gata :  to  the  east,  the  Sierras  de  Ayllon,  de 
Solorio,  de  Cuen^a,  de  Molina,  and  de  Albarracin.  Between  the  Tagus  and 
Guadiana  are  situated  the  mountains  of  Toledo,  the  Sierras  de  Guadalupe, 
de  San  Mamed,  &c.  The  Sierra  Morena  forms  the  water-shed  betweem 
the  Guadiana  and  Guadalquiver,  in  conjunction  with  the  Sierras  de  Aroche, 
de  Almaden,  de  Alcaraz,  de  Constantina,  Sagra,  &c.  Lastly,  in  the  southern 
parts  of  Spain  exist  the  loftiest  mountains  in  the  whole  country,  the  Sierra 
Nevada  or  the  mountains  of  Granada.  Particular  portions  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  are  :  in  the  west,  Sierras  de  Ronda,  de  Malaga,  de  Almijaras ;  in 
the  east,  the  Alpujarras,  the  Sierras  del  Rallo,  de  Filabres,  de  Cabrera,  de 
Aljamilla,  &c. 

Spain  possesses  six  principal  rivers,  of  which  five  empty  into  the  Atlantic, 
and  one  into  the  Mediterranean.  This  latter  is  the  Ebro,  which  rises  in 
the  Cantabrian  Mountains,  is  navigable  to  Tudela,  and  empties  into  the  sea 
below  Tortosa.  Tributaries,  Aragon,  Xalon,  Gallegro,  Segre.  The 
Atlantic  streams  are:  1.  The  Miiio  (Portuguese  Minho),  which,  like  the 
last,  rises  in  the  Cantabrian  Mountains,  and  in  the  lower  part  of  its  course 
forms  the  boundary  between  Spain  and  Portugal.  2.  The  Duero  (Portu- 
guese Douro)  rises  in  the  Castilian  range,  and  flows  through  Portugal  to  the 
ocean.  Tributaries,  Pisuerga,  Esla,  Tormes.  3.  The  Guadiana  comes 
from  the  Sierra  de  Albarracin,  and  empties  into  the  ocean  at  Lisbon. 
Tributaries,  Xarama,  Alagon.  4.  The  Guadiana  rises  in  the  Sierra  d' Al- 
caraz, has  its  course  partly  in  Portugal,  and  is  not  navigable.  Tributary, 
Giquela.  5.  The  Guadalquiver  rises  in  the  Sierra  Sagra,  and  is  navigable 
to  Cordova.     Tributaries,  Guadalimar  and  Xenil. 

The  climate  of  Spain  is  as  unequal  as  its  elevation  above  the  sea ;  rude 
in  Galacia,  mild  in  Valencia  and  Murcia,  and  oppressively  hot  in  Andalusia 
and  Granada.  The  principal  exports  are  wines,  raisins,  grapes,  oranges, 
figs,  almonds,  and  oil.  The  usual  grains  are  wheat,  rice,  Indian  corn,  and 
barley.  Sheep  and  horses  are  raised  in  large  numbers,  mules  and  goats  are 
abundant.  The  silkworm  is  much  cultivated  in  the  south.  The  most 
important  metals  are  silver,  mercury,  lead,  and  iron :  there  are  also  stone 
coal,  salt,  alum,  vitriol,  saltpetre,  marble,  and  alabaster. 

The  inhabitants  amounted,  in  1836,  to  12,386,841,  at  present  the  number 
is  about  14,000,000.  The  interior  provinces  are  much  less  thickly  inhabited 
than  the  northern.  The  population  is  distributed  among  16,990  towns, 
villages,  and  hamlets,  forming  18,871  parishes.  The  Spaniards  are  a 
mixture  of  aborigines,  Romans,  Phoenicians,  West-Goths,  Arabians,  Vandals, 
&c.  There  are  also  over  500,000  Basques  in  the  north-east,  about  60,000 
Moriscoes  in  the  south,  and  above  40,000  Zigeuni.  The  principal  language 
is  the  Spanish,  a  branch  of  the  Romanic ;  of  its  dialects,  the  Castilian  is 
used  in  writing.  The  Basques  have  a  very  peculiar  language  of  their  own. 
Prevailing  religion  the  Roman  Catholic. 

Form  of  Government,     The  kingdom  of  Spain  is  ruled  by  a  line  of  the 

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62  GEOGRAPHY. 

House  of  Bourbon  (now  Isabella  II.,  born  1830).  The  constitutional 
government  dates  from  1837,  although  it  experienced  important  modifi- 
cations in  1844.  The  Cortes  or  Chamber  of  Lawgivers  is  divided  into 
a  Senate  and  a  Congress. 

The  revenues  of  the  state  amounted,  in  1848,  to  1,257,780,000  reals,  or 
about  62,890,000  dollars. 

The  army  consists  of  99,000  troops  of  the  line.  The  navy,  in  1846, 
embraced  three  ships  of  the  line,  six  frigates,  five  corvettes,  six  brigs,  two 
brig-galliots,  six  galliots,  six  steamships,  &c. 

Divisions.  Since  1833,  the  monarchy,  with  the  exception  of  the  Canary 
Islands,  has  been  divided  into  forty-nine  provinces,  which,  in  the  following 
exposition,  we  shall  classify  under  the  arrangement  which  prevailed  prior 
to  1833.  They  have  most  generally  names  similar  to  those  of  their 
capitals,  for  which  reason  the  latter  are  mentioned  only  when  the  name  is 
different. 

I.  New  Castile,  1.  Madrid,  pop.  320,000,  capital  and  seat  of  government 
of  the  same  name,  situated  on  the  Manzanares,  pop.  200,000  2.  Toledo, 
pop.  282,000.  3.  Ciudad-Real  (formerly  la  Mancha),  pop.  278,000.  4. 
Cuen^a,  pop.  335,000.     5.  Guadalaxara,  pop.  159,000. 

II.  Old  Castile.  6.  Burgos,  pop.  224,000.  7.  Logrofio,  pop.  148,000. 
8.  Santander,  pop.  169,000.  9.  Avila,  pop.  138,000.  10.  Segovia,  135,000. 
Soria,  pop.  216,000. 

III.  Leon.  12.  Valladolid,  pop.  185,000.  13.  Palencia,  pop.  148,000. 
14.  Leon,  pop.  267,000.  15.  Salamanca,  pop.  210,000.  16.  Zamora,  pop. 
159,000. 

IV.  Asturia.     17.  Oviedo,  pop.  435,000. 

V.  Ga//cia,with  1,472,000  inhabitants.  18.  Corufia,  pop.  436,000.  19.  Lugo, 
pop.  357,000.     20.  Orense,  pop.  319,000.     21.  Ponte-vedra,  pop.  360,000. 

VI.  Estremadura.     22.  Badajoz,  306,000.     23.  Caceres,  pop.  241,000. 

VII.  Andalusia.  24.  Cordova,  pop.  315,000.  25.  Jaen,  pop.  267,000. 
26.  Granada,  pop.  371,000.  27.  Almeira,  pop.  235,000.  28.  Malaga,  pop. 
890,000.  29.  Seville,  pop.  367,000.  30.  Cadiz,  pop.  325,000.  31.  Huelva, 
pop.  133,000. 

VIII.  Murcia.     32.  Murcia,  pop.  284,000.     33.  Albacete,  pop.  191,000. 

IX.  Valencia.  34.  Valencia,  pop.  389,000.  35.  Alicante,  pop.  369,000. 
36.  Castellon  de  la  Plana,  pop.  199,000. 

X.  Catalonia.  37.  Barcelona,  pop.  442,000.  38.  Tarragona,  pop. 
234,000.     39.  Lerida,  pop.  151,000.     40.  Gerona,  pop.  214,000. 

XI.  Arragon.  41.  Saragossa,  pop.  301,000.  42.  Huesca,  pop.  215,000. 
4«.  Teruel,  pop.  218,000. 

XII.  Navarre.    4A.  Pamplona,  231,000. 

XIII.  Biscay.  45.  Guipuzcoa,  pop.  109,000,  cap.  San  Sebastian,  46. 
Alava,  pop.  68,000,  cap.  Vittoria.  47.  Biscaya,  pop.  111,000,  cap. 
Bilboa. 

XIV.  48.  The  Balearic  Islands,  with  229,000  inhabitants;  Majorca, 
pop.  150,000,  cap.  Palma;  Minorca,  pop.  30,000,  cap.  Port  Mahon ;  Ivica 
or  Iviza,  cap.  Ivica  ;  Formentera,  &c. 

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XV.  49.  The  Canary  Islands,  with  200,000  inhabitants.  Only  seven 
out  of  the  twenty  islands  are  inhabited:  1.  Canaria,  pop.  45,000,  cap. 
Ciudad  de  las  Palmas.  2.  Tenerifie,  pop.  85,000,  cap.  Santa  Cruz.  3. 
Fuertaventura,  pop.  15,000,  cap.  St.  Maria  de  Betancuria.  4.  Palma,  pop. 
25,000,  cap.  Santa  Cruz.  5.  Lancerota,  pop.  16,000,  cap.  Teguisa.  6. 
Ferro,  pop.  4,000,  cap.  Valverde,  noted  as  having  the  first  meridian  of 
some  nations  passing  i°  east  of  it.  7.  Gomera,  pop.  10,000,  cap.  S. 
Sebastian. 

The  colonies  of  Spain  are  :  1.  In  Africa,  the  Presidios  (Ceuta,  pop.  7,000, 
opposite  Gibraltar,  Pefion  de  Velez,  Alhucemas,  Melilla,  and  the  Zapharine 
Islands)  and  the  Guinea  Islands,  together  including  17,000  inhabitants.  2. 
In  America,  the  captain-generalship  of  Havana,  embracing  Cuba,  Porto 
Rico,  and  some  of  the  Virgin  Islands,  with  1,000,000  inhabitants.  3.  In 
Asia  and  Australia,  the  captain-generalship  of  the  Philippines,  including 
part  of  Luzon  or  Manilla,  pop.  1,800,000 :  the  Bissay,  the  Babuya,  and 
Basch  Islands,  part  of  Magindanao,  and  the  Marian  group,  all  together  with 
2,700,000  inhabitants. 


3.  France  {Plate  22). 

France  lies  between  42°  80'  and  51°  10'  N.  lat,  and  between  8^  20'  east 
and  4°  40'  west  longitude  from  Greenwich.  Its  area  is  about  205,000 
English  square  miles,  or  above  130  millions  of  acres.  The  greatest  length 
is  thus  about  595  miles,  and  the  greatest  breadth  550.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north-east  by  Belgium  and  Germany,  to  the  east  by  Germany,  Switzerland, 
and  Italy,  to  the  south  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  by  Spain,  and  to  the 
west  and  north-west  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

To  the  south  and  east  of  France,  the  surface  is  high  land,  the  moderately 
elevated  mountains  of  the  interior  sloping  off  towards  the  north  and  west : 
to  the  north-west  and  south-west,  low  lands  prevail.  The  chief  mountain 
systems  are  the  Pyrenees  in  the  south,  from  which  the  Black  Mountains 
proceed  .nearly  north ;  in  the  east  we  find  the  Maritime  Alps  and  the 
Cottian  Alps,  with  the  Jura,  the  Vosges,  and  the  Ardennes ;  and  in  the 
interior  are  situated  the  central  mountains  of  France,  including  the 
Cevennes,  the  Foretz,  the  mountains  of  Auvergne,  Charolais,  &c.  The 
most  conspicuous  plains  are  those  of  the  Seine  and  Loire,  the  plateaus  of 
Auvergne  and  Langres,  the  Landes  in  the  south-west,  and  the  Crau  in 
Provence. 

France  is  exceedingly  rich  in  streams  of  water,  6000  rivers  being 
enumerated  by  French  geographers,  133  of  them  navigable.  Three  large 
streams,  the  Loire,  Garonne,  and  Seine,  are  included  entirely  within  her 
limits,  while  the  Rhone,  Scheldt,  the  Maas,  and  the  Moselle,  are  shared  with 
Switzerland,  Germany,  and  Belgium.  1.  The  Rhone,  coming  from  the 
Valais,  takes  up  the  Saone  with  the  Doubs,  the  Ain,  the  Isere,  the  Drome, 
the  Durance,  the  Ardeche,  and  others,  finally  separating  into  four  arms 
inclosing  a  delta,  and  emptying  into  the  Mediterranean.    2,  The  Garonne, 

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54  GEOGRAPHY. 

rising  in  the  central  Pyrenees,  has  as  tributaries,  the  Arriege,  the  Tarn,  with 
the  Aveyron,  the  Lot,  and  the  Dordogne.  It  is  navigable  to  Toulouse,  and 
empties  into  the  Atlantic,  having  changed  its  name  to  the  Gironde  after  its 
union  with  the  Dordogne.  3.  The  Loire,  rising  in  the  Cevennes,  empties 
into  the  ocean  at  Nantes,  after  receiving  the  Mayenne,  Sarthe,  Loiret, 
Marne,  Vienne,  Cher,  and  Allier ;  it  is  navigable  to  Roanne.  4.  The  Seine 
rises  in  Burgundy,  on  the  C6te  d'Or,  receives  the  Aube,  Marne,  Oise  with 
the  Aisne,  Yonne,  and  Eure,  and  empties  into  the  Channel  at  Havre.  5. 
The  Scheldt  rises  in  Picardy,  becomes  navigable  at  Cambray,  and  flows 
on  into  the  Netherlands.  6.  The  Maas,  and,  7,  the  Moselle,  rising  in  the 
Vosges,  water  Lothringia ;  the  former  flows  through  the  Ardennes  at 
Givet  in  Champagne,  towards  the  Netherlands  ;  the  latter,  with  the  Meurthe 
and  Ome,  towards  Germany  ;  both  empty  into,  8,  the  Rhine.  This  forms 
part  of  the  boundary  between  France  and  Germany,  and  receives  from 
Elsace  the  111  and  the  Lauter.  Coast  streams  of  the  Mediterranean  are 
Var,  Herault,  Aude ;  of  the  Atlantic,  Adour,  Charente,  Sevre,  Vilaine, 
Vire,  Orne,  and  Somme.  Besides  the  rivers,  there  are  seventy  canals, 
measuring  over  2000  miles  in  length. 

The  climate  varies  from  the  heat  of  Sicily  in  the  south  to  the  rude  blasts 
of  Northern  Germany  in  the  north,  but  the  greater  portion  of  the  country 
enjoys  a  mild  temperature  much  like  that  of  Southern  Germany. 

The  products  of  France  are  manifold ;  on  the  whole,  however,  much  as 
in  central  Europe  generally.  Those  more  peculiar  are  wine,  olive  oil, 
and  silk.  The  wines  of  Bordeaux,  Burgundy,  and  Champagne,  are  cele- 
brated ;  and  the  warmer  provinces  to  the  north-west  prepare  large  quanti- 
ties of  cider.  The  olive  and  silkworm  are  cultitated  in  the  south,  chiefly 
in  Provence.  The  rearing  of  sheep,  hogs,  and  bees,  is  carefully  attended 
to,  but  the  finer  varieties  of  cattle  and  horses  are  not  much  cultivated. 
The  fisheries  on  the  coast  yield  large  revenues. 

France  is  justly  celebrated  for  her  industrial  products,  the  entire  annual 
value  of  which  is  supposed  to  amount  to  about  2000  millions  of  francs. 
The  ingenuity  and  skill  of  the  French  are  especially  seen  in  the  manufacture 
of  silks  and  leathers,  jewelry,  articles  of  vertu,  watches,  &c.  The  com- 
merce of  France  is  greatly  facilitated  by  the  extensive  coast,  the  exceUent 
harbors,  navigable  rivers,  canals,  roads,  steamboats,  and  railroads.  The 
exports  of  France  amounted,  during  1848,  to  over  1000  millions  of  francs, 
her  imports  to  about  700  millions.  The  political  troubles  and  convulsions 
of  the  last  few  years  have,  however,  had  a  very  disastrous  influence  upon 
her  general  prosperity. 

The  population  of  France,  according  to  the  census  of  1846,  amounted  to 
33,400,486 ;  it  consists  of  a  mixed  race  of  Celts,  Romans,  Franks,  and  Bur- 
gundians.  In  Elsace,  and  in  Lothringia,  there  are  from  two  to  three 
millions  of  Germans ;  in  Flanders  and  Hennegau,  one  and  a  half  millions 
of  Walloons  and  Flemings ;  in  Brittany  a  million  of  Cymri ;  in  Corsica 
200,000  Italians ;  in  the  Pyrenees  125,000  Basques  and  6000  Cagots  (a  race, 
like  the  Cretins,  degenerate  in  mind  and  body) :  in  addition  to  these  are 
about  60,000  Jews  and  10,000  Zigeuni. 
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QBOGRAPHY.  66 

The  Roman  Catholic  religion  is  predominant  throughout  the  greater  part 
of  France,  although  all  forms  are  represented.  Thus  there  are  three 
millions  of  Lutherans,  one  million  of  the  Reformed  Church,  sixty  thousand 
Jews,  four  thousand  Mennonites,  five  hundred  Quakers,  &c.  The  state  of 
education  in  France  is  quite  promising,  although  many  portions  of  the 
country  are  sadly  deficient  in  the  means  of  instruction.  There  are  no 
universities  in  the  German  sense  of  the  term,  only  colleges  or  faculties  for 
special  sciences.  All  the  schools,  of  whatever  grade,  are  subordinate  to  the 
university  of  Paris. 

France  has  been  the  oldest  monarchy  in  Europe.  As  a  kingdom,  it  was 
ruled  in  succession  by  the  Frankish  kings,  the  Carlovingians,  the  descendants 
of  Capet  (987),  the  Valois  (1328),  the  Bourbons  (1587) ;  it  then  became  a 
republic  in  1792,  an  empire  in  1804,  again  a  kingdom  under  the  Bourbons 
(1815),  since  1880  under  the  House  of  Orleans,  and  since  1848  again  a 
republic.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  national  assembly  of  750 
members,  chosen  by  the  people ;  to  a  president,  elected  every  four  years,  is 
assigned  the  executive.  The  first  (and  present)  president  is  Louis  Napoleon 
Bonaparte. 

The  revenues  (for  1849)  have  been  estimated  at  1528  millions  of  francs. 
The  army  embraces  about  450,000  troops,  with  about  94,000  horses,  and 
16,500  pieces  of  ordnance.  The  navy  consists  of  a  sail  and  a  steam  fleet. 
The  former  has  in  active  service  ten  ships  of  the  line,  eight  frigates,  eighteen 
corvettes,  twenty-four  brigs,  twelve  transports,  and  twenty-four  light  boats : 
and  in  reserve  ten  ships  of  the  line  and  fifteen  frigates.  The  steam  navy 
has  in  active  service  fourteen  firigates,  fifteen  corvettes,  thirty-four  avisos ; 
in  reserve  ten  firigates,  six  corvettes,  and  six  avisos. 

The  whole  of  France  at  present  is  divided  into  eighty-six  departments, 
which  are  subdivided  into  arrondissements,  cantons,  and  communes.  At 
the  head  of  the  departments  stand  prefects  ;  the  arrondissements  are  governed 
by  sub-prefects,  the  cantons  and  commune^  by  maires.  The  eighty-six 
departmente  with  their  capitals  are  :  1,  Ain  (Bourg) ;  2,  Aisne  (Laon) ;  3, 
Allier  (Moulins)  ;  4,  Lower  Alps  (Digne)  ;  5,  Upper  Alps  (Gap)  ;  6,  Ardeche 
(Privas)  ;  7,  Ardennes  (M6zieres) ;  8,  Ariege  (Foix)  ;  9,  Aube  (Troyes) ;  10, 
Aude  (Carcassonne)  ;  11,  Aveyron  (Rodez) ;  12,  Calvados  (Caen)  ;  13, 
Cantal  (Aurillac)  ;  14,  Charente  (Angoul^me)  ;  15,  Lower  Charente  (La 
Rochelle)  ;  16,  Cher  (Bourges) ;  17,  Correze  (Tulle)  ;  18,  Corsica  (Ajaccio)  ; 
19,  C6te  d'  Or  (Dijon) ;  20,  Creuse  (Gu6ret) ;  21,  Dordogne  (P6rigueux)  ; 
22,  Doubs  (Besan^n) ;  28,  Dr6me  (Valence) ;  24,  Eure  (Evreux) ;  25, 
Eure- Loire  (Chartres);  26,  Finistere  (Quimper) ;  27,  Card  (Nimes) ;  28, 
Upper  Gi>ronne  (Toulouse) ;  29,  Gers  (Auchf ;  80,  Gironde  (Bordeaux)  ; 
81,  Landes  (Mont  de  Marsan) ;  32,  H6rault  (Montpellier)  ;  33,  Ille-Villaine 
(Rennes)  ;  84,  Indre  (Chateauroux) ;  35,  Indre-Loire  (Tours)  ;  36,  Isere 
(Grenoble)  :  87,  Jura  (Lons  le  Saulnier)  ;  88,  Canal  or  Manche  (Saint-L6)  , 
89,  Loir-et.Cher  (Blois) ;  40,  Loire  (Montbrison) ;  41,  Lower  Loire  (Nantes) ; 
42,  Upper  Loire  (Le-Puy) ;  43,  Loiret  (Orleans) ;  44,  Lot  (Cahors) ;  45, 
Lot-Garonne  (Agen)  ;  46,  Lozere  (Mende) ;  47,  Maine-Loire  (Angers)  ;  48, 
Marne  (Chalons-sur-Marne)  ;  49,  Upper  Marne  (Chaumont) ;  50,  Mayenne 

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(Laval) ;  51.  Meurthe  (Nancy)  ;  52,  Maas  (Bar-le-Duc) ;  53,  Morbihan 
(Vannes) ;  54,  Mosel  (Metz) ;  55,  Ni^vre  (Nevers)  ,  56,  Norden  (Lille)  ; 
57,  Cotes  du  Nord  (Saint- Brieuc)  ;  58,  Oise  (Beauvais)  ;  59,  Orae  (Alen^on) ; 
60,  Pas  de  Calais  (Arras)  ;  61,  Puy-de-D6me  (Clermont-Ferrand) ;  62, 
Lower  Pyrenees  (Pau) ;  63,  Upper  Pyrenees  (Tarbes) ;  64,  East  Pyrenees 
(Perpignan) ;  65,  Lower  Rhine  (Strasburg) ;  66,  Upper  Rhine  (Colmar) ; 
67,  Rhone  (Lyon)  ;  68,  Mouths  of  the  Rhone  (Marseilles)  ;  69,  Upper  Sa6ne 
(Vesoul);  70,  Sa6ne- Loire  (Mac6n);  71,  Sarthe  (Le  Mans);  72,  Seine 
(Paris) ;  73,  Lower  Seine  (Rouen)  ;  74,  Seine-Mame  (Melun) ;  75,  Seine- 
Oise  (Versailles) ;  76,  Deux  Sevres  (Niort)  ;  77,  Somme  (Amiens)  ;  78, 
Tarn  (Alby)  ;  79,  Tarn-Garonne  (Montauban) ;  80,  Var  (Draguignan)  ;  81, 
Vaucluse  (Avignon)  ;  82,  Vendue  (Bourbon- Vendöe)  ;  83,  Vienne  (Poitiers) ; 
84,  Upper  Vienne  (Limoges) ;  85,  Vosges  (Epinal) ;  86,  Yonne  (Auxerre). 
Foreign  possessions  of  France,  1.  In  Asia :  Pondicherry,  Carical,  Mah6, 
Chandemagore,  and  Yanoon  in  the  East  Indies,  with  168,000  inhabitants. 
.2.  In  Africa :  settlements  in  Senegal,  with  the  islands  St.  Louis  and  Gor6e, 
with  20,000  inhabitants;  island  of  Bourbon  or  Reunion,  with  107,000 
inhabitants ;  St.  Maria  de  Madagascar,  population  5000 ;  Algiers,  with  a 
European  population  of  113,000  in  1847.  3.  In  America:  of  the  Lesser 
Antilles,  Martinique,  Guadeloupe,  Maria  Galante,  Desirade,  and  the  Saints' 
group,  altogether  with  256,000  inhabitants.  In  South  America :  a  part  of 
Guiana,  with  the  island  of  Cayenne,  pop.  36,000.  In  North  America :  the 
islands  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon  in  Newfoundland,  pop.  1500.  4.  In 
Australia :  the  Marquesas  Islands,  pop.  20,000.  The  extra-European 
dominions  of  France  may  be  estimated  at  above  90,000  square 
geographical  miles. 

4.  Switzerland  (Plate  18). 

Switzerland  is  bounded  by  France,  Germany,  and  Italy,  which  inclose  it 
on  all  sides ;  France  on  the  west,  Germany  on  the  north  and  east,  the 
Italian  states,  Milan,  Piedmont,  and  Savoy  on  the  south.  It  is  situated 
nearly  between  46°  and  48°  N.  lat.,  and  6°  and  10°  30'  of  longitude  east  of 
Greenwich.  It  is  about  200  miles  long,  140  broad,  and  comprises  an  area 
of  15,000  square  statute  miles. 

The  surface  of  Switzerland  consists  almost  entirely  of  mountains  and 
lakes.  The  Alpine  chains  are  separated  by  deep  valleys  and  narrow  plains, 
which  form  the  beds  of  large  rivers,  or  the  basins  of  extensive  lakes.  The 
mountain  system  of  Switzerland  may  be  reduced  to  those  of  the  Alps  and 
the  Jura,  with  the  intermetliate  high  lands.  The  St.  Gothard  forms  the 
cenire  of  the  Alps,  and  from  this  radiate  five  main  chains :  1.  The  Lepontine 
Alps  to  Monte-Rosa  (15,210  feet  high),  and  the  Pennine  Alps  from  this  to 
the  Great  St.  Bernard.  2.  The  Bernese  Alps  from  the  Grimsel  to  the 
Jorat  in  the  Canton  Vaud  (highest  peaks,  the  Jungfrau,  13,672,  the  Finster- 
aarhom,  14,026).  3.  Lepontine-Rhsetian  Alps  in  the  Grisons  and  in  Yalais 
(Vogelsberg,  Bernhardin,  Splügen,  &c).  4.  The  Alps  running  to  the  north- 
east in  East  Uri,  Glarus,  St.  Gallen,  Appenzell,  Schwyz.  5.  The  Unter- 
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GEOGRAPHY.  57 

walden  Alps  extending  towards  the  north.  The  Jura  Mountain,  in  the 
north-west,  is  of  greatest  elevation  in  Mont  Tendre  and  Dole.  The  plateau 
of  the  Aar  is  alr^iost  everywhere  at  least  1200  feet  high. 

Rivers.  1.  The  Rhone  pours  out  of  the  glacier  of  the  Rhone  at  the  foot 
of  the  Furca,  flows  through  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  forms  for  a  time  the 
boundary  between  Savoy  and  France,  and  finally  enters  the  latter  country. 
2.  The  Rhine  rises  in  the  Grisons,  by  the  union  of  the  Lower  and  Middle 
Rhine,  to  which  subsequently  joins  the  Upper  Rhine;  it  then  flows 
through  Lake  Constance,  and  ultimately  leaves  Switzerland  at  Basel. 
Tributaries :  on  the  right,  the  Inn ;  on  the  left,  Thur,  Aar  (with  Emihe, 
Reuss,  Limmat,  Saane,  Zihl),  and  Birs.  3.  The  Inn,  a  tributary  of  the 
Danube,  comes  from  a  lake  on  the  Maloja  Mountain,  and  leaves  Switzer- 
land at  Finstermünz.  4.  The  Tessin,  a  tributary  of  the  Po,  comes  from  the 
St  Gotthard.  Among  the  numerous  lakes,  the  largest  are:  Geneva  or 
Leman,  area  176  square  geographical  miles,  Constance  144  do.,  Lakes 
Meofchatel,  Zurich,  Vierwaldstatt  or  Luzerne,  Brienne,  Wallenstadt,  and  Zug. 

The  climate  of  Switzerland  is  milder  on  the  plains  than  in  most  parts  of 
Germany,  although  becoming  more  and  more  severe  with  increasing 
elevation  of  the  land  ;  an  eternal  winter  reigns  on  the  summits  of  the  Alps. 
The  dairy  yields  better  than  the  ploughed  field,  and  grain  is  not  produced  in 
sufficient  quantity  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  inhabitants.  The  most 
important  products  of  Switzerland  are  flax,  hemp,  tobacco,  medicinal 
plants,  zinc,  cobalt,  iron,  marble,  clay,  lime,  gypsum,  slate,  stone  coal,  and 
peat     Silver,  copper,  and  lead,  are  only  obtained  in  small  quantities. 

The  population  of  Switzerland  is  mostly  of  the  German  stock :  they 
speak  dialects  of  the  German  language,  excepting  the  Italians  in  the  south 
(about  120,000),  and  the  French  in  six  cantons  of  the  west  (about  450,000). 
The  Romanic  language  is  spoken  in  part  of  the  Grisons.  The  census  of  1837 
gave  2,190,258  inhabitants  (among  them  54,767  foreigners).  There  are 
about  1,200,000  Protestants  and  800,000  Roman  Catholics,  together  with 
800  Jews  (in  two  villages)  and  900  Anabaptists  (in  Bern).  The  Roman 
Catholic  cantons  are  Luzerne,  Uri,  Schwyz,  Unterwaiden,  part  of  Appenzell, 
Tessin,  and  Valais  ;  the  rest  are  mixed  Catholic  and  Protestant. 

Politically,  Switzerland,  or  the  Swiss  alliance,  is  a  confederacy  formed  by 
twenty-three  minor  free  states  or  sovereign  cantons,  which  became  united 
into  one,  September  12th,  1848.  According  to  the  new  arrangement,  the 
supreme  power  is  vested  in  a  diet  consisting  of  two  sections :  one,  the 
Nationalrath  (one  member  to  every  20,000  souls  of  the  entire  population, 
now  a  hundred  and  eleven  in  all)  and  the  Standerath  (forty-six  deputies  of 
the  cantons,  two  from  each).  The  supreme  executive  power  is  a  court  of 
seven  members,  elected  by  the  diet  for  three  years. 

The  army  amounted,  in  1841,  to  64,019  soldiers.  Each  canton  is  obliged 
to  furnish  three  men  to  every  100  souls  of  the  Swiss  population. 

Divisions.  The  Swiss  cantons  are  as  follows:  1.  Zurich,  953  square 
(English  statute)  miles,  population  237,480,  capital  of  the  same  name  on 
the  Limmat  and  Lake  Zurich,  with  14,300  inhabitants.  2.  Bei*n,  3665 
square  miles,  pop.  411,470,  cap.  of  same  name  on  the  Aar,  pop.  22,500.    3. 

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68  GEOGRAPHY. 

Luzerne,  762  square  miles,  pop.  129,500,  cap.  Luzerne  on  the  Reuss  and 
Lake  Luzerne,  pop.  8500.  4.  Uri,  508  square  miles,  pop.  13,870,  cap. 
Altorf,  1500  inhabitants.  5.  Schwyz,  466  square  miles,  pop.  42,810,  ci4>. 
Schwyz  on  the  Mythenberg,  pop.  5200.  6.  Unterwaiden,  258  square  miles, 
pop.  23,470.  7.  Glarus,  460  square  miles,  pop.  30,270,  chief  town  Glarus, 
pop.  4100.  8.  Zug,  116  square  miles,  pop.  15,940,  cap.  Zug.  9.  Freiburg, 
487  square  miles,  pop.  94,320,  cap.  Freiburg,  pop.  9100.  10.  Solothum  or 
Soleure,  487  square  miles,  pop.  65,660,  cap.  do.  on  the  Aar,  pop.  4600.  11. 
Basel  (Stadt),  pop.  25,300,  chief  town  Basel  on  the  Rhine,  pop.  20,500. 
12.  Basel  (Landschaft),  pop.  42,750,  cap.  Liestal,  pop.  2600.  13. 
Schaffhausen,  169  square  miles,  pop.  31,990,  cap.  do.  on  the  Rhine, 
pop.  6000.  14.  Appenzell,  222  square  miles,  pop.  54,480.  15.  St. 
Gall,  847  square  miles,  pop.  165,190,  capital  of  same  name,  pop. 
9500.  16.  Grisons,  2966  square  miles,  pop.  90,280,  cap.  Chur  on  the 
Plessur,  with  5500  inhabitants.  17.  Aargau  762  square  miles,  pop.  190,060, 
cap.  Aarau  on  the  Aar,  pop.  4800.  18.  Thurgau,  349  square  miles,  pop. 
87,490,  cap.  Frauenfeld,  pop.  1200.  19.  Tessin  (Italian  Switzerland),  1133 
square  miles,  pop.  111,180,  chief  towns  Locarno,  Lugano,  and  Bellinzona. 
20.  Yaud,  1483  square  miles,  pop.  189,310,  cap.  Lausanne,  with  15,000 
inhabitants.  21.  Valais,  1949  square  miles,  pop.  77,310,  cap.  Sitten  on  the 
Rhone.  22.  Neufchatel,  296  square  miles,  pop.  60,500,  cap.  Neufchatel, 
with  6400  inhabitants.  23.  Geneva,  95  square  miles,  pop.  59,840. 
cap.  Geneva  on  the  Rhone  and  Lake  Geneva,  with  28,000  inhabitants. 


5.  Belgium  (Plates  15,  16). 

Belgium  lies  between  2°  29'  and  5**  54'  longitude  east  of  Greenwich,  and 
between  49^  30'  and  51°  30'  of  N.  latitude.  It  borders  on  the  Netherlands 
in  the  east :  on  the  Netherlands  and  Germany  (Prussia)  in  the  south-west ; 
on  the  North  Sea  in  the  north-west. 

Mountains  are  only  found  in  the  southern  parts  (the  provinces  Namur, 
Luttich,  and  Luxemburg),  which  is  traversed  by  the  Ardennes ;  the  greater 
portion  of  the  country  is  entirely  level.  The  plain  of  Campine,  between  the 
Scheldt  and  the  Mosel,  is  especially  worthy  of  attention. 

Rivers.  1.  The  Scheldt  comes  from  France,  and  enters  Belgium  as  a 
stream,  navigable  below  Cond6,  emptying  into  the  North  Sea,  in  the  Dutch 
province  of  Seeland.  Tributaries  are  Dender  and  Rupel  on  the  right  (the 
latter  formed  by  the  Nethe  and  Dyle),  and  Lys  on  the  left.  2.  The  Maas 
likewise  comes  from  France,  receives  the  Ourthe  on  the  right  and  the 
Sambre  on  the  left,  forms  for  a  considerable  time  the  boundary  between 
the  Belgian  and  the  Netherland  Limburg,  and  then  passes  into  the  latter. 
The  western  provinces  possess  numerous  canals. 

Agriculture  is  prosecuted  with  the  greatest  care.     The  products  of  the 

land  are  grain,  leguminous  seeds,  vegetable  oils,  hemp,  flax,  hops,  fruits» 

madder,  &c. ;  of  the  mineral  kingdom,  stone  coal  (from  more  than  250 

mines),  iron  (about  120  blast  furnaces),  copper,  lead,  zinc,  marble,  &c« 

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GEOGRAPHY.  59 

Mineral  springs  are  in  abundanoe»  and  the  raising  of  cattle,  horses,  and 
sheep,  is  prosecuted  extensively. 

According  to  the  census  of  1846,  Belgium  had  4,335.319  inhabitants, 
distributed  in  86  towns  and  2431  communes.  This  would  indicate  an 
exceedingly  dense  population  to  the  square  mile.  The  people  of  Belgium 
are  (in  the  west)  partly  Flemings  (allied  to  the  Hollanders)  and  (in  the 
south)  partly  Walloons  (allied  to  the  French).  The  French  is  the  language 
most  generally  used ;  although  next  to  it,  the  Flemish  is  much  employed. 
The  great  majority  of  the  population  is  Roman  Catholic,  there  being  only 
16,000  Protestants  and  30,000  Jews.  The  manufactured  products  are 
cloth,  linen,  carpets,  tapestry,  hats,  silk,  arms,  and  machines.  The  state  of 
public  education  is  not  at  all  elevated.  There  are  four  universities,  of  which 
those  in  Ghent  and  Luttich  are  supported  by  the  state,  those  in  Brussels  and 
Lowen  by  private  contribution.  The  arts  of  painting  and  sculpture  are 
much  cultivated. 

The  form  of  government  is  a  hereditary  constitutional  monarchy.  King 
Leopold  1.,  of  the  House  of  Saxe-Coburg  (since  21st  July,  1831)  is  the 
present  ruler,  according  to  the  constitution  of  Feb.  25,  1831.  The  king 
shares  the  lawgiving  power  with  two  chambers,  the  senate  and  chamber 
of  representatives,  both  elective.  The  revenues  of  the  state  amounted,  in 
1848,  to  117,612,250  francs.  The  army  consists  of  about  90,000  soldiers 
(sixty-five  battalions  of  infantry,  thirty-eight  of  cavalry,  &c). 

Belgium  is  divided  into  nine  provinces.  1.  Antwerp,  pop.  406,000,  cap. 
Antwerp  on  the  Scheldt,  with  85,000  inhabitants.  2.  South  Brabant,  pop. 
690,000,  cap.  Brussels  on  the  Senne,  with  113,000  inhabitants.  3.  West 
Flanders,  pop.  613,000,  cap.  Bruges,  with  49,000  inhabitants.  4.  East 
Flanders,  pop.  792,000,  cap.  Ghent  on  the  Scheldt,  and  Lys,  with  105,000 
inhabitants.  5.  Hennegau  (Hainault),  pop.  716,000,  cap.  Mons  or  Bergen» 
with  23,000  inhabitants.  6.  Lattich  (Liege),  pop.  453,000,  cap.  of  same 
name  on  the  Maas,  with  72,000  inhabitants.  7.  Limburg  (Belgian  portion), 
pop.  186,000,  cap.  Hasselt  on  the  Demer,  with  8700  inhabitants.  8. 
Luxemburg  (Belgian  portion),  pop.  186,000,  cap.  Arlon,  with  5000  inhabit- 
ants. 9.  Namur,  pop.  263,000,  cap.  Namur  on  the  Maas  and  Sambre,  with 
23,000  inhabitants. 


6.  Netherlands  {Plates  15,  16). 

This  country  lies  between  the  meridians  of  3°  14'  and  7°  04'  east  of 
Greenwich,  and  between  the  parallels  of  50°  50'  and  53°  30'  N.  lat.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  and  west  by  the  North  Sea,  on  the  east  by  Germany 
(Hanover  and  Prussia),  and  on  the  south  by  Belgium.  Luxemburg  is 
Mitirely  separated  from  the  other  provinces,  between  Belgium,  Germany, 
and  France,  and  is  embraced  within  the  parallels  of  49°  25'  and  50°  10' 
N.  lat. 

There  are  no  mountains  in  the  Netherlands,  excepting  a  range  from  the 
^krdennes  through  the  province  of  Luxemburg :  in  Utrecht  there  are  some 

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60  GEOGRAPHY. 

lines  of  hills.  Her  rivers,  however,  are  on  an  extensive  scale.  1.  The 
Rhine,  soon  after  entering  from  Germany,  divides  into  two  arms,  the 
southern  taking  the  name  of  the  Waal,  the  more  feeble  northern  one  retain- 
ing the  original  name.  At  Gorkum  the  Waal  becomes  united  to  the  Maas^ 
and  empties  into  the  North  Sea  by  two  principal  arms.  The  new  Yssel 
leaves  the  Rhine  not  far  from  Arnheim,  and  at  Campen  empties  into  the 
Zuyder  Zee ;  further  on,  at  Wyk,  a  new  division  takes  place.  The  left 
main  arm,  called  the  Leek,  takes  up  the  Merwe,  an  arm  of  the  Maas,  and 
passes  into  the  North  Sea  under  the  name  of  the  Maas ;  the  right  arm  flows 
on  as  the  crooked  Rhine  past  Utrecht  (where  it  sends  off  the  Vecht  into  the 
Zuyder  Zee)  to  Leyden,  and  then  empties  into  the  North  Sea  at  Katwyk. 
2.  The  Maas  enters  the  Netherlands  from  Belgium,  takes  up  the  Roer  from 
the  right,  and  empties  into  the  Waal  at  Gorkum.  3.  The  Scheldt  likewise 
comes  from  Belgium,  and  flows  into  the  North  Sea  by  two  arms,  which 
inosculate  by  small  branches  forming  islands.  In  addition  to  the  above,  the 
Vecht  empties  into  the  Zuyder  Zee,  and  the  Hunse  (both  from  (Jermany) 
into  the  Lau  wer  Zee.  In  addition  to  her  numerous  navigable  rivers,  the 
Netherlands  exhibits  a  plexus  of  canals,  far  exceeding  that  possessed  by  any 
other  country. 

The  climate  of  the  Netherlands  is  very  variable,  although  the  extremes 
of  heat  and  cold  are  not  so  widely  separated  as  in  Germany.  The  principal 
products  are  homed  cattle,  horses,  fish,  oysters,  grain,  flax,  hemp,  rape-seed, 
madder,  tobacco,  opium,  &c.  The  minerals  are  clay,  salt,  and  peat ;  there 
are  no  mineral  springs. 

The  population  of  the  Netherlands  amounted,  on  the  1st  of  January, 
1848,  to  3,236,741  souls,  mostly  of  German  descent;  to  the  north  of  the 
Maas  it  consists  of  Hollanders  and  Frieslanders,  south  of  this  river,  of 
Flemings.  Most  of  the  people  are  of  Protestant  persuasions;  in  1841 
(excluding  Luxemburg),  there  were  1,700,000  Protestants,  1,100,000  Roman 
Catholics,  52,000  Jews,  and  3300  Sectarians.  The  inhabitants  are  much 
given  to  the  pursuit  of  commerce,  although  not  on  so  extensive  a  scale  as 
formerly.  In  respect  to  advancement  in  sciences,  the  nation  is  behind  the 
Germans,  although  there  are  not  wanting  excellent  seminaries  of  instruction 
(among  them  three  universities,  at  Leyden,  Utrecht,  and  Groningen); 
there  are  also  rich  collections  of  all  kinds. 

The  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  is  a  constitutional  monarchy ;  the  ruling 
dynasty  is  the  Orange  line  of  the  House  of  Nassau.  Since  March  17, 1849, 
the  king  has  been  William  III.,  born  1817.  The  present  constitution  dates 
from  11th  October,  1848;  according  to  this,  the  legislative  branch  of 
government  consists  of  two  chambers.  The  first  chamber  embraces  thirty, 
nine  members,  chosen  by  the  nobility  for  nine  years  ;  the  second  is  elected 
for  four  years  directly  by  the  people,  according  to  a  certain  ratio. 

The  revenues,  in  1849,  amounted  to  71,692,316  florins,  or  to  28,676,926 
dollars. 

The  army  consists  of  nine  regiments  of  infantry,  five  regiments  and  two 
squadrons  of  cavalry,  four  regiments  of  artillery,  one  battalion  of  engineers, 
sappers,  and  miners,  and  one  pontoon  corps.  The  navy,  on  January  Ist, 
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GEOGRAPHY.  61 

1848  (including  vessels  on  the  stocks)  amounted  to  seven  ships  of  the  line, 
sixteen  frigates,  two  razee  frigates,  fifty-seven  smaller  vessels,  seventeen 
steamboats,  three  transports,  and  seventy-four  gun-boats. 

Divisions.  !.•  North  Holland,  pop.  463,000,  cap.  Amsterdam  on  the 
Amstel  and  the  Gulf  of  Y,  with  211,000  inhabitants.  2.  Guelderland,  pop. 
873,000,  cap.  Amhem  on  the  Rhine,  with  15,000  inhabitants.  3.  South 
Holland,  pop.  564,000,  cap.  the  Hague  or  Gravenhage,  the  royal  residence, 
with  19,000  inhabitants.  4.  North  Brabant,  pop.  404,000,  cap.  Herzogen- 
busch, with  19,000  inhabitants.  5.  Zealand,  consisting  of  over  twelve 
islands  in  the  mouth  of  the  Scheldt  (of  which  Walcheren,  Schouwen,  and 
Tholen  are  the  largest),  pop.  158,000,  cap.  Middelburg,  with  14,000 
inhabitants.  6.  Utrecht,  pop.  153,000,  cap.  Utrecht  on  the  crooked  Rhine, 
with  245,000  inhabitants.  7.  Friesland,  pop.  247,000,  cap.  Leeuwarden, 
with  21,000  inhabitants.  8.  Overyssel,  pop.  212,000,  cap.  ZwoUe  on  the 
Aa,  with  16,000  inhabitants.  9.  Groningen,  pop.  190,000,  cap.  do.  on  the 
Hunse  and  Aa,  with  31,000  inhabitants.  10.  Drenthe,  pop.  84,000,  cap. 
Assen.  11.  Duchy  Limburg,  pop.  203,000,  a  part  of  the  German  alliance, 
cap.  Maestricht  on  the  Maas,  with  30,000  inhabitants.  12.  Grand  Duchy 
of  Luxemburg,  pop.  186,000,  likewise  a  member  of  the  German  alliance, 
with  a  special  constitution  from  July  9th,  1848,  cap.  Luxemburg  on  the 
Elz,  with  12,000  inhabitants. 

Colonies  of  the  Netherlands.  1.  In  Asia :  large  possessions  in  Java, 
including  the  greater  part  of  the  island  ;  Sumatra  (S.E.,  West  and  N.W. 
coast)  ;  Borneo  (on  the  W.  and  S.  coast)  and  Celebes ;  the  Amboynas,  with 
62,000  inhabitants,  and  the  ten  Banda  Islands,  with  44,000  inhabitants ;  the 
islands  of  Bintang,  Banca,  Billiton,  Madura,  Salayer,  a  part  of  Temate, 
&c.  2.  In  Africa :  some  settlements  and  forts  on  the  coast  of  Guinea  (gold 
coast).  3.  In  America :  a  part  of  Guiana,  or  Surinam ;  of  the  Antilles, 
Curasao,  and  St.  Eustache,  together  with  the  smaller  islands,  Martin,  Aruba, 
Aves,  and  Bonaire. 


7.  England  {Plate  20). 

This  powerful  kingdom,  exclusive  of  the  smaller  islands,  is  situated 
between  50^  and  59°  N.  lat.,  and  2°  E.  and  lO""  W.  longitude  from  Green- 
wich.  Geographically,  it  is  divided  into  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  the 
former  being  again  divided  into  England  proper  (including  Wales),  with 
57,960  square  statute  miles,  and  Scotland  with  30,500.  England  is  entirely 
surrounded  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean:  that  portion  of  the  Atlantic  lying 
between  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  is  called  the  Irish  Sea  (to  the  North  the 
North  Channel,  and  to  the  south  St.  George's  Channel). 

The  mountains  of  England  do  not  attain  to  any  very  great  elevation. 
In  the  south-west  of  Great  Britain  are  the  mountains  of  Cornwall,  rich  in  tin, 
these  ending  in  the  promontories  of  Land's  End  and  Lizard  Point.  North 
of  these  is  the  high  land  of  Wales,  with  Snowden  (3557  feet)  for  the  loftiest 
summit    In  the  north,  a  range  known  as  the  Cheviot  and  Pentland  Hills, 

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62  GEOGRAPHY. 

separates  England  from  Scotland.  Scotland  is  a  land  of  hill  and  mountain ; 
the  Grampians  constitute  her  most  extensive  range,  situated  north  of  the 
Clyde  and  Forth.  Ben  Nevis,  the  highest  point,  has  an  elevation  of  4360 
feet.  Ireland  is  an  extensive  plain,  with  a  few  isolated  hiUs :  the  highest 
is  Curran  Tual  in  Kerry,  3412  feet. 

The  principal  rivers  of  England  are,  on  the  east  side :  the  Thames,  the 
Southern  Ouse,  the  Humber  (formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Trent  and  the 
Northern  Ouse),  the  Tyne,  and  the  Tweed ;  on  the  west  coast,  the  Severn, 
the  Dee,  the  Mersey,  Eden,  and  Esk.  In  Scotland,  the  Forth,  Tay,  and 
Dee  on  the  east,  and  the  Clyde  on  the  west.  The  principal  river  of  Ireland 
is  the  Shannon,  which  connects  numerous  lakes,  and  forms  a  large  bay. 
The  canals  of  England  are  important  means  of  internal  communication. 
Some  of  these  pass  over  rivers,  roads,  and  other  canals,  while  others  pene- 
trate mountains  by  tunnels.  The  most  important  are,  in  England :  the  Grand 
Trunk,  the  Liverpool  and  Leeds,  the  Oxford,  the  Grand  Junction,  and  the 
Bridgewater  between  Manchester  and  Liverpool ;  in  Scotland,  the  Caledo 
nian  ship  canal ;  and  in  Ireland,  the  Grand  Canal.  Of  the  numerous  lakes, 
the  largest  in  England  is  Windermere ;  in  Scotland,  Loch  Lomond ;  and  in 
Ireland,  Loch  Neagh. 

From  its  proximity  to  the  sea,  the  climate  of  England  is  much  damper 
and  more  moderate  than  that  of  Central  Europe :  the  freezing  of  the  Thames 
rarely  takes  place.  Owing  to  the  abundance  of  moisture  produced  by  the 
condensation  of  the  Gulf  Stream  vapors,  the  atmosphere  is  very  frequently 
filled  with  fogs.  With  a  large  extent  of  fertile  soil,  there  are  extensive 
tracts  of  barren  moor  and  heath,  especially  in  Scotland  and  Ireland. 

In  the  amount  and  excellence  of  her  products,  both  natural  and  manu- 
factured, England  surpasses  all  the  rest  of  Europe.  The  most  important 
of  the  former  are  salt,  alum,  vitriol,  coal,  iron,  lead,  tin,  zinc,  copper,  cobalt» 
calamine,  arsenic,  marble,  alabaster,  clay,  pipe  clay,  sulphur,  slate,  chalk, 
and  peat;  grain,  potatoes,  hops,  madder,  saffron,  apples  and  pears,  flax, 
hemp,  liquorice  ;  cattle,  sheep,  dogs,  horses,  goats,  pigs,  fish  (especially 
herring  and  salmon),  oysters,  &c.  Owing  to  the  scarcity  of  forests,  there 
are  few  wild  animals,  excepting  hares  and  rabbits. 

The  population  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  according  to  the  last 
census  (1841),  amounted  to  nearly  twenty-seven  millions,  in  addition  to 
which,  there  were  150,000  in  the  other  European  possessions.  Both 
England  and  Ireland  belong  to  the  most  populous  countries  of  Europe. 
The  inhabitants  are  mostly  a  mixed  race  of  Celtic,  German,  and  Roroan 
descent.  The  English  language  proper  exhibits  traces  of  many  others,  but 
is  essentially  derived  from  the  ancient  Saxon.  The  people  of  Wales  retain 
much  of  the  old  British  or  Cymrian  language  in  their  dialect ;  the  Highlanders 
of  Scotland  and  a  portion  of  the  Irish,  the  allied  Gaelic  or  Erse.  The 
language  of  the  Shetland  Islands  is  a  dialect  of  the  Norwegian,  that  of  the 
Norman  Islands  of  French :  it  is  German  in  Helgoland,  Italian  in  Malta, 
and  Spanish  in  Gibraltar.  As  to  the  form  of  religion,  the  majority  of  the 
inhabitants  of  England  proper  belong  to  the  Established  Church,  those  of 
Scotland  to  the  Presbyterian,  and  of  Ireland  to  the  Roman  Catholic ;  there 
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GEOGRAPHY.  68 

are  numerous  Methodists,  Independents,  Herrnhuters,  Lutherans,  Quakers, 
and  also  other  dissenters.  The  entire  kingdom,  in  1835,  contained  fourteen 
millions  of  Episcopalians,  two  millions  and  a  half  of  Presbyterians,  half  a 
million  of  Methodists,  seven  millions  of  Catholics.  The  number  of  Jews 
has  been  variously  estimated  Jrom  15,000  to  27,000. 

The  productive  industry  of  England  far  exceeds  that  of  any  other  nation 
on  earth.  Her  principal  manufactures  consist  of  woollen,  silk,  and  cotton 
goods,  linens,  stone  ware,  porcelain,  metal  wares  and  machinery  of  all 
kinds,  watches,  paper,  leather,  beer,  soap,  hats,  glass,  &c.  England's  commerce 
extends  to  every  sea,  and  corresponds  in  importance  to  her  productive 
industry.  The  three  united  kingdoms  possess  not  less  than  24,000  merchant 
vessels  (among  them  over  1100  steamboats)  amounting  to  a  tonnage  of 
twelve  millions.  The  exports,  in  1846,  reached  over  fifty-one  millions  of 
pounds  sterling.  The  sciences  and  arts  are  liberally  patronized,  and  the 
means  of  educaticin  are  abundant  and  widely  diffused,  although  very  much 
still  remains  to  be  done  in  the  cause  of  popular  education.  The  principal 
seminaries  of  learning  are  the  universities  of  Oxford,  Cambridge,  and 
London  in  England,  those  of  Glasgow,  Aberdeen.,  and  Saint  Andrew's  in 
Scotland,  and  that  of  Dublin  in  Ireland ;  these  have  been  mainly  founded, 
endowed,  and  supported  by  private  means,  comparatively  little  help  being 
derived  from  the  state. 

The  former  three  kingdoms  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  are  now 
included  in  one,  of  which  Victoria  I.  (bom  1819)  has  been  queen  since 
1837.  The  legislative  branch  of  government  consists  of  a  parliament 
composed  of  two  houses,  an  upper  and  a  lower.  The  members  of  the 
upper  house  are  the  royal  princes,  two  archbishops,  twenty-four  bishops, 
and  the  peers  or  lords  nominated  by  the  crown,  and  whose  privileges,  after 
their  decease,  descend  to  their  eldest  sons.  The  House  of  Commons,  or 
members  of  the  lower  house,  are  elected  for  seven  years  by  such  of  the 
people  as  are  entitled  to  vote  either  by  a  property  qualification,  or  by  the 
possession  of  certain  municipal  privileges.  The  entire  number  of  members 
consists  of  658,  of  which  477  are  from  England,  28  from  Wales,  53  from 
Scotland,  and  105  from  Ireland. 

The  public  revenues  amount  annually  to  over  fifty  millions  sterling,  of 
which  more  than  half  is  applied  to  paying  the  interest  of  the  state  debt, 
which  exceeds  800  millions  sterling.  • 

The  army  amounted,  in  1848,  to  about  150,000  men,  among  them  12,300 
cavalry,  12,400  artillery,  and  6600  guards  ;  in  the  East  Indies  were  stationed 
about  31,000,  in  the  West  Indies  8400,  in  the  remaining  colonies  5900. 
The  navy  included  over  600  vessels  of  war ;  among  them  100  ships  of  the 
line,  the  same  number  of  frigates,  125  steam  vessels,  &c.  Its  armament 
amounted  to  about  34,000  sailors  and  10,000 marines;  the  number  of  guns 
carried,  about  17,000. 

Divisions.  The  principal  portions  of  the  kingdom  in  Europe  are  the 
kingdoms  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  each  of  which  is  divided  into 
counties  or  shires. 

A.  Thb  Kingdom  op  England   embraces  :    I.    England   proper,   area 

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64  GEOGRAPHY. 

50,903  square  statute  miles,  and  population  14,905,000,  which  has,  from  time 
immemorial,  been  divided  into  forty  counties  or  shires,  as  follows :  1, 
Bedford ;  2,  Berks  (chief  town,  Reading) ;  3,  Buckingham  ;  4,  Cambridge ;  5. 
Chester ;  6,  Cornwall ;  7,  Cumberland  (Carlisle)  ;  8,  Derby ;  9,  Devon 
(Plymouth);  10,  Dorset;  11,  Durham;  12,. Essex;  13,  Gloucester;  14, 
Hampshire;  15,  Hereford;  16,  Hertford;  17,  Huntingdon;  18,  Kent; 
19,  Lancashire  (Manchester,  Liverpool) ;  20,  Leicester ;  21,  Lincoln ; 
22,  Middlesex  (part  of  London) ;  23,  Monmouth ;  24,  Norfolk ;  25,  Nor- 
thampton ;  26,  Northumberland ;  27,  Nottingham ;  28,  Oxford  (Oxford) ; 
29,  Rutland  ;  30,  Shropshire  ;  31,  Somerset ;  32,  Stafford ;  33,  Suffolk  ; 
34,  Surrey  ;  35,  Sussex ;  36,  Warwick  (Birmingham) ;  37,  Westmoreland ; 
38,  Wilts ;  39,  Worcester ;  40,  York. 

II.  The  Principality  of  Wales,  with  the  island  of  Anglesea  (formerly 
connected  with  the  mainland  by  a  chain  bridge,  but  recently  by  the  cele- . 
brated  Britannia  Tubular  Bridge),  has  an  area  of  7425  square  statute 
miles,  with  912,000  inhabitants ;  it  is  divided  into  twelve  counties :  1, 
Anglesea ;  2,  Caernarvon  ;  3,  Denbigh  ;  4,  Flint  ;  5,  Merioneth  ;  6, 
Montgomery ;  7,  Brecknock  ;  8,  Cardigan ;  9,  Caermarthen ;  10,  Glamorgan ; 
11,  Pembroke;  12,  Radnor. 

B.  The  Kingdom  of  Scotland  possesses  an  area  of  32,164  square  statute 
miles,  with  2,620,000  inhabitants.  Geographically,  it  may  be  divided  into  three 
parts.  North  Scotland  or  the  Highlands,  South  Scotland  or  the  Lowlands, 
and  Middle  Scotland  or  the  Islands  ;  politically  into  thirty-one  counties  and 
two  Stewartries. 

These  are:  1,  Aberdeen;  2,  Argyle;  3,  Ayr;  4,  Banff;  5,  Berwick  ;  6, 
Bute  ;  7,  Caithness;  8,  Clackmannan;  9,  Dumbarton;  10,  Dumfries;  11, 
Edinburgh  ;  12,  Elgin  ;  13,  Fife ;  14,  Forfar ;  15,  Haddington  ;  16,  Inverness ; 
17,  Kincardine;  18, Kinross;  19,  Kirkcudbright;  20,  Lanark;  21,  Linlith- 
gow ;  22,  Nairn ;  23,  Orkney  and  Shetland ;  24,  Peebles ;  25,  Perth  ;  26, 
Renfrew ;  27,  Ross  and  Cromarty ;  28,  Roxburgh  ;  29,  Selkirk  ;  30,  Stirling  ; 
31,  Sutherland  ;  32,  Wigton.  Of  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  Islands, 
twenty-six  of  the  sixty-seven  belonging  to  the  former  are  inhabited,  and 
thirty  of  the  eighty-six  belonging  to  the  latter. 

C.  The  Kingdom  of  Ireland  contains  an  area  of  32,035  square  miles, 
and  is  divided  popularly  into  four  provinces  ;  politically  into  thirty-two 
coun^es. 

I.  Leinster,  Counties:  1,  Dublin,  capital  Dublin,  with  over  300,000 
inhabitants ;  2,  Wicklow ;  3,  Wexford ;  4,  Kilkenny  ;  5,  Carlow  ;  6,  Queen's  ; 
7,  King's;  8,  Kildare ;  9,  Westmeath;  10,  Eastmeath;  11,  Louth;  12, 
Longford. 

II.  Ulster  in  the  north,  with  the  counties:  13,  Cavan;  14,  Monaghan ; 
15.  Armagh  ;  16,  Down ;  17,  Antrim  ;  18,  Londonderry  ;  19,  Donegal ;  20, 
Tyrone ;  21,  Fermanagh. 

III.  Connaught  in  the  west,  with  the  counties :  22,  Leitrim ;  23,  Sligo ; 
24,  Mayo ;  25,  Roscommon ;  26,  Galway. 

IV.  Munster  in  the  south,  with  the  counties  :  27,  Tipperary ;  28,  Water- 
ford  ;  29,  Cork;  30,  Kerry;  31,  Limerick;  32,  Clare. 

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GEOGRAPHY.  65 

The  European  appendages  of  the  United  Kingdom  are:  1.  The  Isle  of 
Man,  in  the  channel  between  England  and  Ireland  (chief  town,  Castletown). 
2.  The  Norman  Islands  of  Jersey,  Guernsey,  Alderney,  and  Sark,  not  far 
from  the  coast  of  France,  pop.  60,000.  3.  The  island  Helgoland,  in  the 
North  Sea,  pop.  2300.  4.  The  Fortress  of  Gibraltar,  in  Spain,  on  the 
Straits  of  Gibraltar.  5.  The  islands  Malta,  Gozzo,  and  Comino  (see  under 
Italy). 

The  foreign  or  extra-European  possessions  of  England  are  of  vast  extent, 
and  are  situated  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  1.  In  Asia:  the  island  of 
Ceylon,  with  1,442,000  inhabitants  ;  the  Chinese  island  of  Hong-Kong  ;  the 
island  of  Labuan  ;  the  possessions  of  the  East  India  Company,  of  which  the 
Punjaub  contains  over  one  hundred  millions  of  inhabitants ;  together  with 
the  states  under  protection  of  the  Company  containing  thirty  millions.  2. 
In  Africa :  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  or  the  Cape  Colony ;  the  islands  of 
Mauritius,  St.  Helena,  Ascension,  and  the  Seychelles.  Many  possessions 
on  the  west  coast,  as  Sierra  Leone,  Gambia,  &c.  3.  In  America :  a. 
Canada,  New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia,  Cape  Breton,  Prince  Edward's 
Island,  all  together  with  about  1,600,000  inhabitants,  b.  The  northern 
territories  on  Hudson's  Bay,  the  Arctic  Ocean,  the  Pacific,  &c.  c.  Guiana. 
d,  Honduras,  e.  The  West  India  Islands  of  Jamaica,  Trinidad,  Dominica, 
with  the  Bahamas.  4.  In  Australia,  various  immense  territories,  South  and 
West  Austral'a.  New  South  Wales,  Van  Dieman's  Land,  as  also  the  Falk- 
land and  New  Zealand  Islands. 


8.  Denmark  {Plate  19). 

Denmark,  including  Schleswig  and  the  Duchy  of  Holstein,  belonging  to 
the  German  alliance,  but  without  reckoning  Iceland  and  the  Faroes,  extends 
from  53^  20'  to  57°  44^-'  N.  lat.,  and  from  8°  to  10°  of  longitude  east  of 
Greenwich.  The  total  area  is  about  22,000  miles,  the  greatest  length  about 
280  miles,  and  greatest  breadth  120.  Denmark  is  bounded  on  the  south  by 
Germany  (Hanover,  Hamburg,  Mecklenburg  Schwerin,  Lübeck,  and  Olden- 
burg) ;  in  all  other  directions,  by  the  sea,  the  North  Sea  being  to  the  west, 
the  Skagerrack  to  the  north,  the  Cattegat  and  Baltic  to  the  east 

There  is  nothing  to  be  said  with  respect  to  any  mountains  and  large 
rivers  of  Denmark ;  in  their  stead  we  find  numerous  bays  and  straits.  The 
Cattegat  is  connected  with  the  North  Sea  by  three  straits  :  the  Sund,  the 
Great  Belt,  and  the  Little  Belt.  The  principal  river  of  the  peninsula  of 
Jutland  is  Guden,  flowing  towards  the  north-east;  the  remaining  rivers  are 
of  slight  importance,  and  flow  towards  the  west.  The  elevated  ridge  in 
the  centre  of  Jutland  in  no  place  exceeds  the  height  of  five  hundred  feet 
above  the  sea.  The  climate  of  Denmark  is  mild,  the  winters  being  much 
less  intense  than  those  of  Grermany.  The  islands,  with  the  Duchies  of 
Schleswig  and  Holstein,  are  quite  fertile ;  and  agriculture,  the  rearing  of 
cattle,  and  the  fisheries,  are  of  much  importance.  The  principal  product» 
are  horses,  cattle,  hogs,  wild  fowl,  fish,  oysters,  lobsters,  bees ;  grain,  rape 

ICONOOBAPHIO   INCYCLOPiBDIA. —  VOU   UI.  5  65 


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66  GEOGRAPHY. 

leed,  buck-wheat,  flax,  hops,  fruits,  peat,  lime,  tar,  stone  coal,  sah,  vitriol« 
amber.  Excepting  lime  and  peat,  there  is  no  mineral  of  importance ;  no 
metals  of  any  kind  are  found  in  Denmark. 

The  inhabitants  in  the  kingdom  and  in  the  Duchies  amounted,  in  1845,  to 
2,239,077  souls,  of  which  1,400,000  were  Danes,  and  40,000  Frieslanders ; 
the  rest,  about  one  third,  were  Germans.  Excepting  2000  Reformers,  and 
6000  Jews,  all  the  inhabitants  are  Lutherans,  under  eight  bishops,  and  one 
general  superintendent:  the  Lutheran  is  the  ests^lished  church.  The 
manufactured  products  are  lace,  leather  gloves,  woollen  and  linen  goods, 
rape-seed  oil,  sugar,  &c. ;  the  amount,  however,  is  not  very  great.  Owing 
to  the  peculiarly  favorable  position  of  the  country,  navigation  and  commerce 
are  carried  on  extensively.  The  cause  of  education  is  well  attended  to  by 
the  universities  in  Copenhagen  and  Kiel,  and  by  many  Gymnasia  and  good 
public  schools. 

Denmark  is  a  constitutional  monarchy,  governed  under  the  fundamental 
laws  of  June  5,  1849  (at  present  by  Frederick  VII.,  bom  1808).  The 
Reichstag,  which  must  be  assembled  annually  in  October,  consists 
of  two  chambers.  The  members  of  the  first  chamber  are  elected  for 
three  years  by  universal  and  direct  suffrage  :  one  member  to  14,000 
inhabitants.  The  members  of  the  second  chamber,  half  as  many  in  number 
as  those  of  the  first,  are  chosen  for  eight  years,  indirectly :  among  other 
requirements,  they  must  be  forty  years  of  age.  This  form  of  government 
does  not  apply  to  Holstein,  and  even  Schleswig  is  scarcely  subject  to  it. 

The  revenues  for  1848  amounted  to  16,709,000  rigsbank  dollars,  or  to 
8,354,500  dollars  of  American  currency.  The  military  force  embraces 
25,000  men  for  the  peace  establishment,  75,000  in  the  war.  The  navy- 
consists  of  six  ships  of  the  line  (of  which  only  one  is  equipped),  seven 
frigates,  five  corvettes,  four  brigs,  three  schooners,  &c.  The  whole  state  is 
divided  politically  into  bailiwicks,  ecclesiastically  into  eight  chapters.  The 
kingdom  of  Denmark,  in  its  more  restricted  sense,  consists  of  the  peninsula 
of  Jutland,  with  the  four  chapters  of  Aalborg,  Wiborg,  Aarhuus,  and  Ripen 
(pop.  577,000),  with  numerous  islands.  The  most  important  of  the  latter 
are :  1,  Zealand,  pop.  475,000,  containing  the  capital  city  and  royal  residence, 
Copenhagen,  with  127,000  inhabitants  ;  2,  Funen,  pop.  166,000  ;  3,  Laaland, 
pop.  53,000 ;  4,  Bornholm,  pop.  26,500 ;  5,  Falster,  pop.  22,000 ;  6,  Lange- 
land, pop.  17,000. 

The  appendages  to  Denmark  proper  are :  1.  The  Faroer,  twenty-five  in 
number,  of  which  only  seventeen  are  inhabited  (pop.  7300).  The  largest 
of  these  is  called  Stromoe.  2.  Iceland,  pop.  56,000,  cap.  Reikiavik.  3. 
The  Duchy  of  Schleswig,  with  363,000  inhabitants,  cap.  Schleswig.  Here 
also  belong  the  islands  Alsen,  Arroe,  Sylt,  Föhr,  Tehmern.  4.  The  Duchy 
of  Holstein,  pop.  479,000,  cap.  Gluckstadt.  5.  The  Duchy  of  Lauenburg, 
pop.  45,000,  cap.  Ratzeburg. 

The  colonies  or  foreign  possessions  of  Denmark  are:  1,  in  Asia,  the 
Nicobar  Islands ;  2,  in  Africa,  the  Forts  Christiansborg,  Fredensborg,  &c., 
in  Upper  Guinea  ;  3,  in  America,  Greenland,  and  the  West  India  Islands  of 
St.  Thomas,  St.  Croix,  and  St  John. 
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9.  Sweden  and  Norway  {Plate  19). 

The  kingdoms  of  Sweden  and  Norway  now  united  under  one  ruler, 
constitute  the  peninsula  of  Scandinavia;  this  extends  from  55^  21'  to 
71°  N.  lat.,  and  from  1°  to  35°  E.  longitude  from  Greenwich.  Its  greatest 
length  is  1550  statute  miles,  its  greatest  breadth  350.  The  area  included  is 
292,700  square  English  miles,  of  which  170,150  are  in  Sweden.  It  is  joined 
by  Russia  on  the  north-east,  but  is  surrounded  on  all  other  sides  by  the 
ocean  (to  the  east  by  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  and  the  Baltic,  to  the  south  by 
the  Baltic,  the  Sound,  the  Cattegat,  and  the  Skagerrack,  to  the  west  by  the 
North  Sea,  and  to  the  north  by  the  Arctic  Ocean). 

The  most  important  mountain  is  the  Kjolen  or  Dofrines  which  for  a  long 
distance  constitutes  the  barrier  between  what  were  once  the  hostile  states 
of  Norway  and  Sweden.  The  highest  point  is  the  Schneehattan  (8120 
feet),  next  to  which  comes  Skagtoltend,  8101.  The  western  part  of  the 
peninsula  is  high  land ;  in  the  south  formed  by  the  so  called  Fjelde  or  fields, 
barren  elevated  plains,  among  which  Dovrefjeld  and  Langijeld  are  the  most 
conspicuous.  Towards  the  south,  the  high  land  runs  off  into  the  great  plain 
of  Gothland.  In  addition  to  numerous  fiordes  (bays  or  arms  of  the  sea),  the 
peninsula  is  well  supplied  with  inland  waters,  both  lakes  and  rivers.  The 
most  important  river  in  Norway  is  the  Glommen,  with  its  tributaries ;  next  to 
this  the  Tanaelf,  the  boundary  between  Norway  and  Russia,  and  emptying 
into  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Among  the  numberless  rivers  (elfs)  of  Sweden 
may  be  mentioned  Tornaelf,  the  line  of  separation  from  Russia,  Calixelf, 
Lubeaelf,  Piteaelf,  Skellefteaelf,  Ulmeaelf,  Angermanelf,  Indalself,  Dalelf,  all 
emptying  into  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia.  Among  the  lakes  are,  in  Norway,  the 
M josen  and  the  Famund ;  in  Sweden,  the  Malar,  communicating  with  the 
sea,  the  Hjelmar,  the  Wener,  and  the  Wetter.  The  latter  is  connected  by 
the  Motala  River,  as  well  as  by  several  canals  and  lakes,  with  the  Baltic, 
and  by  canals  and  lakes  with  Lake  Wener ;  this  again  is  brought  into  com- 
munication with  the  Cattegat  by  the  Gotaelf  and  the  gigantic  Gota 
canal. 

The  climate  is  very  severe  in  the  north  of  the  peninsula,  belonging,  as  it 
does,  to  the  frigid  zone ;  nevertheless,  a  fiery  summer's  heat  contrasts 
strikingly  with  the  intense  cold  of  winter.  The  climate  of  Southern 
Sweden  is  much  like  that  of  north-east  Germany ;  the  south-western  shores 
of  Norway  have  a  moist  and  somewhat  remarkably  mild  coast  climate. 

The  mineral  products  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  are,  above  all  others, 
iron,  next  to  which  we  find  silver,  copper,  marble,  lime,  cobalt,  alum,  sulphur, 
vitriol,  saltpetre,  salt ;  wood  is  exceedingly  abundant.  The  rearing  of  cattle 
amounts  to  nothing  ;  but  wild  animals  are  in  abundance,  as  the  reindeer,  the 
elk  (a  species  very  closely  allied  to  the  American  moose,  and  not  at  all  to 
the  American  elk),  stag,  roebuck,  wild  boar,  beaver,  foxes,  hares,  otter, 
ermine,  &c.  Among  the  birds,  the  eider  duck  is  of  much  importance 
The  principal  fish  are  herring,  salmon,  trout,  cod,  sturgeon,  eels,  plaice, 
haddock,  &c 

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66  GEOGRAPHY. 

The  population  amounts  to  4,400,000,  of  which  one  fourth  belongs  to 
Norway.  The  Swedes  and  Norwegians,  like  the  Danes  and  Icelanders,  are 
of  Germanic  descent.  Among  the  population  are  to  be  distinguished  the 
Lapps  (termed  Finns  in  Norway),  probably  of  Mongolian  descent,  and  the 
true  Finns;  Sweden  includes  9000  Lapps, 7500  Finns,  2500  Germans,  1000 
Jews ;  while  in  Norway,  where  there  are  about  13,000  Lapps  and  6000 
Finns,  no  Jews  whatever  are  suffered.  The  prevalent  religion  is  the 
Lutheran.  The  intellectual  culture  of  the  peninsula  is  on  an  elevated 
stage.  For  instruction  in  the  higher  branches  of  scientific  education,  the 
universities  of  Upsala  and  Lund  in  Sweden,  and  that  of  Christiania  in 
Norway,  are  well  adapted. 

Sweden  and  Norway  are  two  entirely  independent  kingdoms,  governed, 
since  1814  by  one  king,  and  since  1818  by  the  House  of  Bernadotte 
(present  ruler  Oscar  I.).  The  Swedish  constitution  dates  from  6th  June, 
1809,  the  Norwegian  from  17th  May,  1814.  The  Swedish  diet  consists  of 
four  chambers  (nobles,  clergy,  burghers,  and  peasants) ;  the  Norwegian 
Storthing  of  two  sections,  Lagthing  and  Odelthing.  The  powers  of  the 
Storthing  are  very  great ;  it  can  assemble  without  having  been  convened 
by  the  king,  who  is  obliged  to  accept  any  project  which  has  been  three 
times  presented  by  the  Storthing. 

The  revenues  of  Sweden  amounted,  from  1844-1847,  to  about  five  millions 
and  a  half  of  dollars,  the  expenditures  to  over  eight  millions.  The  Swedish  army 
embraces  over  34,000  men,  with  95,000  as  a  reserve  force ;  the  Norwegian 
about  12,000.  The  Swedish  navy  counts  twenty-one  ships  of  the  line,  eight 
frigates,  eight  smaller  vessels,  and  247  gun-boats;  the  Norwegian,  six  small 
vessels  of  war,  and  117  gun-boats. 

Divisions,  Sweden  possesses  about  3,250,000  inhabitants  in  eighty-eight 
towns,  and  in  respect  to  government,  is  divided  into  twenty-four  Ian  or 
shires,  and  117  fogderies  or  districts;  politically,  it  is  divided  into  three 
principal  parts,  with  twenty-three  subdivisions,  namely  : 

I.  Svealand  or  Sweden  proper,  Svea  Rike,  the  central  portion  contains 
eight  lans  or  shires  ;  Stockholm  (pop.  84,000),  Upsala,  Westeras,  Nykoping, 
Oerobro,  Carlstad,  Stora-Kopparberg,  Gefleborg  ;  corresponding  to  the 
ancient  provinces  of  Upland,  Sodermanland,  Westmanland,  Nerike,  Warmer- 
land,  Dalarne  or  Dalecarlia,  Gestrikland,  and  Helsingland. 

II.  Ootaland,  Gotland  or  Gothia,  the  southern  part  of  the  kingdom, 
contains  the  lans  of  Linkoping,  Calmar,  Jonkoping,  Kronenberg,  Blekinge, 
Skaraborg,  Elfsborg,  Gotheburg  and  Bohus,  Halmstad,  Christianstad, 
Malmolus,  Gottland ;  corresponding  to  the  ancient  provinces  of  Ostergoth- 
land,  Smaland,  Bleckinge,  Westergothland,  Dasland,  Halland,  Skane,  and 
the  islands  of  Gottland  and  Oeland. 

III.  Norrland  or  Nordland  contains  the  lans  of  Nordbotten,  Westerbotten, 
Westnorrland  or  Hermasand,  Jamtland  ;  corresponding  to  the  ancient 
provinces  of  Wester  Bothnia  and  Lapmark,  Medelpada  and  Angermanland, 
Jamtland  and  Herjealden. 

Norway  has  a  population  of  about  1,150,000,  and  is  divided  into  amts, 
mder  the  following  arrangement : 
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I.  Christiania,  with  the  capital  Christiania,  also  called  Oploe  (pop.  25,000)» 
with  the  amts,  Hedermarken,  Aggerhuus,  Smaalehnen,  Christians-amt, 
Buskerud,  Brodsberg,  and  Jarlsberg-Laurvig. 

II.  Christiansand,  with  the  amts,  Stavanger,  Mandal,  and  Nedenas. 

III.  Bergen,  with  the  amts,  South  and  North  Bergenhuus. 

IV.  Trondhjem  or  Drontheim,  with  the  amts,  Romsdal,  S.  and  N. 
Drontheim,  Nordland,  and  Finmarken.  The  latter,  the  northern  part  of 
the  kingdom,  contains  innumerable  islands.  To  Nordland  belong  the 
Loffoden  Islands,  with  a  population  of  8000,  divided  into  the  fogderies 
Lofibden  and  Westeraalen. 


10.  Russia  {PlaU  25). 

The  Russian  monarchy,  in  three  continents,  Europe,  Asia,  and  America, 
tA  included  between  the  meridians  of  21^  and  220^  E.  from  Greenwich, 
equal  in  the  latitude  of  the  Arctic  circle  to  7590  statute  miles,  and  between 
the  parallels  of  38°  40'  and  78°  N.  lat.  This  immense  extent  is  divided  by 
Behring's  Strait  into  two  distinct  portions,  the  eastern  of  which  fornis  the 
north-west  point  of  America.  Of  the  larger,  or  European  and  Asiatic 
portion,  the  breadth  varies  from  1900  to  460  miles,  giving  an  area  of 
3,409,000  square  geographical  miles,  or  4,740,000  square  statute  miles  :  it  is 
bounded  on  the  north  b)P  Norway  and  the  Arctic  Ocean,  on  the  east  by  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  on  the  south  by  the  Chinese  empire,  Tartary,  the  Caspian 
Sea,  Asiatic  and  European  Turkey,  the  sea  of  Azof,  the  Black  Sea,  and 
Austria  (Galicia),  and  on  the  west  by  Moldavia,  Austria,  Prussia,  the 
Baltic,  Sweden,  and  Norway. 

By  far  the  most  important  mountain  range  is  that  of  the  Ural,  on  the 
boundary  between  Europe  and  Asia.  This  is  nearly  1400  miles  long,  and 
in  Kamen  Peak  reaches  a  height  of  5,397  feet.  There  are  no  mountains 
in  the  interior  ;  nevertheless,  the  great  Sarmatian  plain  is  interrupted  by  two 
elevations,  the  Baltic  Ural  in  the  north,  and  the  Carpathian  Ural  in  the  south, 
which  begins  even  in  Germany.  A  mountain  range  in  the  Crimea  attains 
an  elevation  of  over  5000  feet,  in  Tschatirdag.  In  South  Russia  are  vast 
woodless  steppes  or  plains,  and  in  Lithuania  extended  marshes. 

The  waters  of  Russia  are  exceedingly  numerous.  The  principal  rivers 
are :  of  those  emptying  into  the  Arctic  Ocean,  the  Petschora,  the  Mesen, 
the  Northern  Dwina,  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Jug  and  the  Suchona,  and 
the  Onega ;  into  the  Baltic  empty,  the  Kymen,  the  Neva,  the  Narowa,  the 
Pernau,  the  Dwina,  the  Niemen  (called  Memel  after  its  entrance  into 
Prussia),  the  Weichsel  (belonging  to  Prussia  in  its  lower  part)  ;  into  the 
Black  Sea  and  Sea  of  Azof,  the  Danube,  the  Dniester,  the  Dnieper  (with 
the  Beresina,  the  Southern  Bug,  &c ),  the  Don,  and  the  Kuban ;  into  the 
Caspian  Sea,  the  Wolga,  the  largest  stream  in  Europe,  and  the  Ural. 
Besides  these,  Russia  possesses  some  important  canals,  which  serve  to  unite 
the  White  and  Caspian  Seas,  the  Baltic  and  the  Black  Seas.  There  are 
alto  numerous  lakes.    The  Ladoga  is  the  largest  not  only  in  Russia,  but  in 

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alL  Europe ;  smaller  lakes  are  the  Onega,  Peipus,  Bielos,  Saima,  Urnen, 
&c.  Finnland  is  especially  rich  in  lakes  ;  in  the  south  there  are  numerous 
salt  lakes,  the  most  important  of  which  is  the  Elton. 

The  climate  of  so  immense  a  country  would  naturally  be  very  various ; 
the  northern  part  belongs  to  the  frigid  zone,  and  is  bound  up  in  perpetual 
snow  and  ice ;  in  the  south  are  cultivated  the  subtropical  fruits  and  the 
vine.  As  a  general  rule,  the  climate  is  more  severe  than  in  other  parts  of 
Europe  of  equal  latitude ;  although  in  equal  latitudes,  the  eastern  portion  is 
much  more  severe  than  the  western. 

The  principal  products  are  grain,  hemp,  flax,  flaxseed,  timber,  iron,fishy  and 
wild  animals.  Rye  is  more  cultivated  than  the  other  cerealia,  wheat  being 
only  raised  in  appreciable  quantity  in  Poland,  and  rice  and  Indian  com  in 
the  south.  In  particular  portions  of  the  empire  are  produced  wine,  spices, 
medicinal  plants,  and  tobacco.  The  forests  of  the  north  consist  of  pines 
and  birches ;  those  of  the  south  of  beech.  The  principal  domestic  animals 
are  cattle,  sheep,  hogs,  and  horses ;  there  are  reindeer  in  the  north,  and 
camels  in  the  south.  The  wild  animals  are  bears,  wolves,  sables,  beavers^ 
martins,  weasels,  foxes,  badgers,  wild  cats,  lynxes,  otters,  squirrels,  and 
in  the  south,  antelopes.  Besides  those  of  iron,  there  are  valuable  mines 
of  copper,  platinum,  lead,  and  (in  the  Ural)  gold.  Large  quantities  of  rock 
salt  are  also  mined. 

The  sum  total  of  the  population  amounts,  in  all  probability,  to  about 
sixty-six  millions,  of  which  sixty  millions  belong  t&  the  European  portion, 
including  Poland  and  Finnland.  Excepting  about  one  million  of  Mongolians 
(Baschkirs,  Kirgises,  Calmucks,  Tartars,  Samoiedes),  the  entire  European 
population  belongs  to  the  Caucasian  race,  which  is  here  reducible  to  the 
following  stocks :  1,  the  Slavonic,  constituting  the  great  majority,  and 
divided  into  the  Russians,  Poles,  Letts,  Lithuanians,  Serbians,  Bulgarians, 
Wallachians,  and  Moldavians;  2,  Tsckudic,  about  three  to  four  millions, 
divided  into  Finns,  Lapps,  Esthonians,  Livonians,  Permians,  Tscheremis* 
sians,  Tschuwaschians,  &c. ;  3,  Germanic,  about  half  a  million ;  4,  Jewish^ 
about  one  million  and  a  half;  5,  Greek,  about  half  a  million.  The  general 
ratio  of  population  is  very  small,  not  much  over  ten  to  the  square  mile, 
and  even  in  the  European  portion  scarcely  thirty-five. 

The  established  religion  of  Russia  is  the  Greek  Catholic  Church.  Next 
to  this,  the  Roman  Catholic  (to  which  most  of  the  Poles  belong)  has  the 
greatest  number  of  adherents.  There  are,  in  addition,  over  two  millions  and  a 
half  of  Protestants,  one  million  and  a  half  of  Jews,  and  one  million  and  three 
quarters  of  Mahommedans,  thirty  thousand  Lamaites,  &c.  The  intellectual 
culture  of  the  people  is  greatly  in  arrear,  although  much  has  been  done  within 
the  last  century.  At  the  head  of  the  seminaries  of  learning  stand  seven  uni- 
versities :  those  of  St.  Petersburg,  Moscow,  Dorpat,  Helsingfors,  Charkow, 
Kiew,  and  Kasan.  These  exercise  a  general  supervision  over  all  schools  of 
lower  grade.  The  inhabitants  of  the  arable  regions  carry  on  a  lively  trade 
in  the  products  of  their  farms,  and  the  arts  and  manufactures  exhibit  a 
steady  progression  in  excellence  and  extent.  The  most  important  articles 
of  trade  are  candles,  tallow,  soap,  leather,  furs,  sail  cloth,  linen,  silks,  potash, 
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glass»  powder,  sugar,  wooden  ware,  ropes,  twine,  &c.  The  inhabitants 
of  the  extreme  north  fish  and  hunt  exclusively,  while  those  of  the  Steppes 
raise  cattle. 

The  form  of  government  is  an  absolute  monarchy.  The  head  of  the  state 
(Emperor,  now  Nicholas  I.,  bom  1796,  of  the  House  of  Holstein-Gottorp) 
must  profess  the  religion  of  the  Greek  Church.  No  accurate  idea  can  be 
fcMrmed  of  the  revenues  and  expenditures  of  Russia,  as  nothing  official  is 
published  on  the  subject.  The  European  land  force,  with  the  reserve,  is 
stated  to  amount  to  568,000  men,  with  97,640  horses,  and  1672  pieces  of 
artillery;  to  this  must  be  added  the  Caucasian  army,  the  Finnish,  the 
Orenburg,  and  Siberian  corps,  together  with  various  corps  of  Cossacks. 
The  navy  is  estimated  at  fifty-six  ships  of  the  line  and  forty-eight  frigates, 
without  the  steamboats  and  smaller  vessels. 

Political  division.  The  Russian  Empire  is  divided  into  governments,  of 
which  forty-nine  belong  to  European  Russia  in  its  most  restricted  sense, 
eight  to  Finnland,  and  five  to  Poland.  In  addition  to  these,  we  shall  present 
the  historical  division. 

I.  Great  Russia  contains  nineteen  governments :  Moscow  (with  the  old 
capital  Moscow,  pop.  360,000),  Woronesch,  Kursk,  Tambow,  Rjasan, 
Tula,  Orel,  Kaluga,  Smolensk,  Pskow  or  Pleskow,  Novogorod,  Kostroma, 
Twer,  Wladimir,  Nischnei-Novogorod,  Jaroslaw,  Wologda,  Olonetz, 
Archangel. 

II.  Little  Russia,  whose  eastern  portion  was  formerly  called  the  Ukraine, 
contains  four  governments  :  Kiew,  Tschemigow,  Pultawa,  and  Charkow  (the 
Slobodian  Ukraine). 

III.  The  Baltic  Provinces  consist  of  four  governments  :  Ingermanland  or 
St  Petersburg  (with  the  capital  and  royal  residence  St.  Petersburg,  pop. 
450,000),  Esthonia,  Livonia,  andCourland. 

IV.  The  Kingdom  of  Kasan  consists  of  five  governments :  Kasan, 
Simbirsk,  Pensa,  Wjatka,  and  Perm. 

V.  The  Kingdom  of  Astrachan  consists  of  four  governments  :  Astrachan, 
Orenburg,  Saratow,  and  Stawropol  (Caucasus). 

VI.  South  Russia,  the  most  southern  part,  contains  five  governments : 
the  land  of  the  Don  Cossacks,  Jekaterinoslaw,  Tauria,  Chersonesus,  and 
Bessarabia. 

VII.  West  Russia,  the  south-western  part,  includes  the  governments  of 
Witebsk,  Mohilew,  Podolia,  Volhynia,  Minsk,  Grodno,  Wilna,  and  Bialystok. 
Of  these  provinces,  Pultawa  has  the  largest  population,  and  Astrakan  the 
smallest ;  while  on  the  other  hand,  Archangel  is  of  greatest  extent,  and 
Bialystok  of  least. 

Other  lands  belonging  to  the  European  portion  of  Russia  are : 

VIII.  The  Grand  Principality  or  Viceroyalty  of  Finnland,  containing 
1,400,000  inhabitants,  divided  into  eight  governments :  Nyland,  Abo, 
Tawassehuus,  Wiborg,  St.  Michael,  Kuopio,  Wasa,  and  Uleaborg. 

IX.  The  Kingdom  of  Poland,  with  a  population  of  4,857,000,  of  which, 
in  1845, 3.800,000  were  Roman  Catholics,  550,000  Jews,  250,000  Lutherans, 
340,000   United   Greeks,  4200  Independent  Greeks,  3800  Reformed,  3800 

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Greek  Sectarians,  1250  Mennoniles,  550  Moravian  Brethren,  350  Zigeuni, 
and  300  Mohammedans.  With  the  capital  Warsaw  (pop.  165,000)  Poland 
is  divided  into  five  governments  :  Warsaw,  Radom,  Lublin,  Augustowo,  and 
Plock. 

Russia  in  Asia  embraces  :  1.  Siberia,  with  three  millions  of  inhabitants, 
divided  into  the  general  governments  of  West  Siberia  and  East  Siberia,  of 
which  again  the  former  is  divided  into  the  governments  of  Tobolsk,  Omsk, 
and  Tomsk ;  the  latter  into  those  of  Jeniseisk,  Irkutsk,  lakutsk,  Ochotsk, 
and  the  district  of  Kamtschatka.  2.  Caucasus,  consisting  of  the  govern- 
ment of  Grusia-Imereti,  and  the  province  of  Caspia,  or  the  former  province 
of  Georgia  (or  Grusia),  Imiretia,  Armenia,  Tscherkessia,  Schwirwan,  and 
Daghestan.  In  a  great  part  of  these  provinces,  the  Russian  government  is 
entirely  repudiated. 

Russia  in  America  contains  a  population  of  probably  sixty  thousand 
souls. 


11.  Turkey  {Plate  26). 

The  Turkish  or  Ottoman  Empire  is  included  between  the  parallels  of 
dl''  and  49°  north  latitude,  and  is  divided  into  European  and  Asiatic 
Turkey  ;  the  former,  with  an  area  of  about  144,000  square  geographical 
miles,  and  a  population  of  thirteen  millions,  the  latter  with  an  area 
of  336,000  square  geographical  miles,  and  population  of  ten  millions. 
Turkey  in  Europe,  a  part  of  the  peninsula  of  Greece,  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Austria  and  Russia,  on  the  west  by  Austria,  the  Adriatic  and 
Ionian  seas,  on  the  south  by  Greece,  and  on  the  east  by  the  Archipelago, 
the  Sea  of  Marmora,  and  the  Black  Sea. 

A  considerable  mountain  divides  the  land  into  two  tolerably  equal  parts, 
of  which  the  northern  includes  Northern  Bosnia,  Servia,  Bulgaria,  Walla- 
chia,  and  Moldavia;  the  southern,  Rumelia,  Macedonia,  Albania,  and 
Thessaly.  It  bears  various  names :  in  the  west,  where  it  is  parallel  to  the 
Adriatic,  it  is  called  the  Dinarian  Alps,  then  Zamora,  Argentara,  Perserin, 
Schardagh,  &c.  At  about  the  middle  of  the  peninsula,  the  principal  arm, 
termed  Egrisu,  divides  into  two  branches,  the  more  northern  of  which  is 
called  the  Balkan,  and  afterwards  Eminehdagh,  the  southern,  Despoto 
Mountain.  Towards  the  south  are  sent  off  from  Schardagh,  the  Hellenic 
Mountains,  called  Voradagh  in  the  north,  and  Mezzovo  or  Pindus  in  the 
south.  From  this  pass  off,  towards  the  west,  the  Chimaero  or  Akrokeraunian 
Mountains  ;  towards  the  east,  the  Volutza  Mountains ;  and  towards  the  north, 
the  Livadian  Mountains. 

The  only  river  of  any  importance  in  Turkey  is  the  Danube.  Into  it 
empty  from  the  west,  or  north,  on  Turkish  territory,  the  Schyl  or  Schyll, 
the  Aluta,  the  Dumbowitza  with  the  Ardsisch,  the  Jalonitza,  the  Sereth 
with  the  Bystritza,  and  the  Pruth,  the  latter  the  boundary  to  Russia ;  to  the 
right,  or  from  the  south,  the  Sau  or  Save,  the  Morawa,  the  Isker,  the  Wid, 
and  the  Jandra.  Much  smaller  rivers,  and  indeed  only  coast  streams,  are  * 
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GEOGRAPHY.  73 

Maritza,  Karasu  or  Nestus,  Karasu  or  Strymon,  Vardar,  Indje-Karasu, 
Salambria,  which  empty  into  the  Archipelago,  also  the  Narenta,  the  Drin, 
the  Vojussa,  and  the  Aspropotamo,  emptying  into  the  Adriatic.  The  inland 
lakes  are  of  no  importance.  • 

The  climate  of  Turkey,  north  of  the  main  range  of  mountains,  is  very 
similar  to  that  of  Germany ;  that  to  the  south  resembles  that  of  Italy  :  it  is 
everywhere  healthy.  The  fertility  of  the  country  is  extraordinary  :  of  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  we  find  grain  (in  abundance),  Indian  corn,  millet,  wine, 
southern  fruits,  oil,  cotton,  flax,  hemp,  tobacco,  wood  of  all  kinds.  To  the 
animal  kingdom  belong  beautiful  horses,  camels,  asses,  mules,  horned  cattle, 
hc^s,  bees,  and  wild  beasts  of  various  kinds.  The  mineral  products  are 
rock  and  sea  salt,  saltpetre,  sulphur,  and  various  metals,  although  the 
system  of  mining  is  very  rude. 

The  population  of  Turkey  in  Europe  is  composed  of  Turks  (about 
700,000),  Greeks  (1,200,000),  and  Slavonians  (principally  in  the  north, 
Serbians,  Bulgarians,  Croats,  Montenegrians :  in  all,  about  six  millions) ; 
there  are  also  about  two  millions  of  Wallachians  and  Moldavians  (remains 
of  the  original  population),  1,600,000  Albanians  or  Arnauts,  250,000  Jews, 
100,000  Armenians,  and  250,000  Zigeuni.  The  religion  of  the  land  is  the 
Mohammedan,  although  there  are  about  eight  millions  and  a  half  of 
Christians,  mostly  Roman  and  Greek  Catholics.  The  scientific  culture  of 
the  Turks  is  very  slight.  Their  principal  occupation  consists  in  agriculture 
and  raising  of  cattle.  The  arts  and  manufactures  are  mainly  conducted  by 
Christians  and  Jews,  and  the  very  important  foreign  commerce  is  shared  by 
these  with  the  Armenians. 

The  government  of  Turkey  is  a  despotism,  the  supreme  ruler  (now  Abdul 
Meschid,  born  1822)  bearing  the  title  of  Padishaw,  Pasha,  Grand  Sultan» 
Grand  Turk,  or  Emperor.  The  minister  of  the  Padishaw,  to  whom  is 
delegated  the  supreme  power,  is  called  Grand  Vizier ;  next  to  him,  the 
Divan,  composed  of  the  principal  state  officers,  exercises  a  great  influence. 
Nothing  definite  is  known  as  to  the  finances  or  military  forces  of 
Turkey. 

Divisions.  Politically,  European  Turkey  is  divided  into  Turkey  proper 
and  secondary  Turkey.  The  former,  besides  the  two  capitals  of  Constan- 
tinople and  Adrianople,  is  divided  into  five  eyaletsor  provinces  (each  under 
a  pasha  of  three  tails),  which  again  are  subdivided  into  thirty-three 
sandschaks  (under  pashas  of  two  tails).  These  eyalets  are :  1,  Rum-Ili, 
and  2,  Silistria,  which  include  the  old  provinces  of  Bulgaria,  Thessaly, 
Thrace  and  Romania,  Macedonia  and  Albania;  3,  Bosna  or  Bosnia; 
4,  Deria,  also  called  Dschesair  or  the  viceroyalty  of  the  Capudan 
Pasha,  embraces  the  Turkish  Islands  of  the  Egeean  Sea,  except 
Crete,  Taso,  Samothraki,  Imbro,  Stalimene,  &c.,  as  also  the  neighboring 
coast  country  ;  5,  Kirid,  formed  by  the  island  of  Crete,  with  a  few 
neighboring  islands. 

Turkey  secondary,  or  the  vassal  states,  are  :  6,  Principality  of 
Serbia,  pop.  one  million,  under  Prince  Alexander  Georgewitsch  (cap, 
Belgrade). 

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74  GEOGRAPHY. 

7.  Principality  of  Wallachia,  pop.  950,000,  since  1849  under  the  Prince 
or  Hospodar  Barbo  Stirbey  (cap.  Bucharest). 

8.  Principality  of  Moldavia,  pop.  450,000,  under  Hospodar  Gregorius 
Alexander  Ghika  (cap.  Jassyfi  also 

9.  The  territory  of  Montenegro,  on  the  borders  of  Dalmatia,  the 
inhabitants  of  which,  under  their  Vladika  the  Bishop  of  Cettigne,  are 
almost  entirely  independent  of  the  Porte. 

Turkey  in  Asia  is  divided  into  nineteen  eyalets,  indicated  on  the  map. 
Of  these  numbers,  ten  to  fifteen  constitute  Asia  Minor  proper  or  Natolia; 
sixteen  to  nineteen,  Armenia ;  twenty  to  twenty-three,  Mesopotamia ;  and 
twenty-four  to  twenty-eight,  Syria. 

As  to  a  Turkey  in  Africa,  nothing  more  can  be  said  than  that  the  states 
of  North  Africa,  to  wit,  Egypt,  Tripoli,  and  Tunis  (and  excepting  Fez, 
Morocco,  and  the  French  colony  of  Algiers),  are  little  more  than  nominally 
subject  and  tributary  to  the  Porte. 


12.  Greece  {Plate  27). 

The  kingdom  of  Hellas  or  Greece,  containing  about  14,000  square 
gec^aphical  miles,  is  included  between  the  meridians  of  18^  44'  and 
25°  14'  longitude  east  of  Greenwich,  and  the  parallels  of  36°  30'  and  30* 
N.  lat.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Turkey,  in  all  other  directions  by 
the  Mediterranean  and  Egaean  seas.  Northern  Greece  is  traversed  by  the 
Hellenic  Mountains,  already  referred  to  under  the  head  of  Turkey,  and 
attaining,  in  Guiona,  a  height  of  8538  feet,  in  Parnassus,  8068  feet.  Other 
lofty  summits  are  Oeta  and  Helicon.  Even  the  Peloponnesus  is  very 
mountainous ;  the  highest  peak  being  Taygetos  (7904  feet),  and  Zyria  or 
Cyllene.  The  only  rivers  are  the  Aspropotamo  (otherwise  the  Achelous), 
Evenus,  Cephissus,  Rusia  or  Ryzo  (Alpheus),  and  Yri  or  Wasiliko 
(Eurotas).  The  climate  of  the  valleys  is  very  mild,  but  many  of  the  moun- 
tain peaks  are  covered  with  snow  for  several  months  in  the  year.  The  chief 
products  are  oil,  cotton,  dried  currants,  tobacco,  wine,  madder,  honey,  and  silL 

The  inhabitants  (850,000)  are  chiefly  modem  Greeks  (a  mixture  of 
descendants  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  of  Albanians,  Wallachians,  Sla- 
vonians, <fec.) ;  a  portion  consists  also  of  Jews,  Albanese,  &c.  The  Greek 
Catholic  is  the  prevailing  religion ;  but  on  the  islands  there  are  some 
20-30,000  Roman  Catholics.  Agriculture  and  manufactures  are  experiencing 
a  progressive  elevation  in  point  of  rank ;  and  from  the  favorable  position 
of  the  country,  commerce  has  long  been  in  a  flourishing  condition.  The 
university  of  Greece,  at  Athens,  stands  at  the  head  of  the  schools  of 
public  instruction,  which  have  greatly  increased  since  the  erection  of  the 
state  of  Greece. 

Until  1821,  Greece  was  subject  to  Turkey,  but  having  battled  successfully 
for  independence,  it  was  recognised  as  free  in  1829.  Since  1832,  it  has 
formed  a  kingdom,  governed  by  Prince  Otto  of  Bavaria  (brother  of  the 
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GEOGRAPHY.  76 

present  king  of  Bavaria),  born  1815.  In  consequence  of  a  revolutionary 
fliovement  in  September,  1843,  a  constitution  was  granted  on  the  16th 
March,  1844.  The  revenues  of  the  state  amount  to  about  2,400,000  dollars. 
The  army  includes  8900  men ;  the  present  navy,  only  two  corvettes,  two 
steamboats,  three  brigs,  five  cutters,  and  twelve  gunboats. 

Since  1838,  Greece  has  been  divided  into  twenty-four  dioceses  or 
governments ;  its  natural  divisions  are  : 

I.  Northern  Greece  or  Livadia,  with  the  seven  dioceses :  Attica  (with 
Megaris  and  iEgina,  cap.  Athens,  with  26,000  inhabitants),  Boeotia, 
Phthiotis,  Phocis,  Eurytania,  iEtolia,  and  Acamania. 

II.  The  Peninsula  of  Peloponnesus,  or  the  Morea,  with  twelve  dioceses : 
Argolis  (with  the  island  Spezzia  and  Hermione),  Hydra  (island),  Corinth, 
Achaia,  Cynoethe,  Triphylia,  Messenia,  Mantinea,  Gortynia,  Lacedsemon, 
Laconia  (cap.  Maina). 

III.  The  Islands,  with  the  five  dioceses :  Euboea  (largest  island  of 
Greece,  1120  square  geographical  miles,  with  the  islands  Skiathos,  Scopelos, 
&c.),  Tinos  (with  Andres),  Syra  (with  the  islands  Keos,  Cythnos,  Milos, 
Syphnos,  Cimolos,  Pholegandros,  Sicinos),  Naxos  (with  Paros),  and  Thei-a 
(with  the  islands  Amorgos,  los,  and  Anaphe). 

The  seven  Ionian  Islands,  situated  to  the  west  and  south  of  Greece  and 
Turkey :  Corfu,  Paxo,  Santa  Maura,  Cephalonia  (largest  of  all),  Theaki, 
Zante,  and  Cerigo,  with  a  population  of  220,000,  and  with  several  smaller 
islands,  constitute  a  republic  under  the  protection  of  England.  According 
to  the  constitution  of  2d  May,  1817,  the  executive  power  is  in  the  hands  of 
a  senate  of  six  members,  the  president  of  which  is  nominated  by  the  king 
of  England.  The  legislative  assemblage  embraces  forty  members,  of  whom 
eleven  are  chosen  by  the  English  Lord  High  Commissioner. 


13.  Italy  (PlaU  24). 

Italy,  or  the  Apennine  peninsula,  with  its  islands,  lies  between  the  meridians 
of  5**  and  18°  30'  east  longitude  from  Greenwich,  and  the  parallels  of  36® 
and  46"*  30'  N.  lat.,  embracing  about  120,000  square  miles  (excluding  Corsica, 
which  belongs  to  France).  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Switzerland  and 
the  Tyrol,  on  the  east  by  Austria  (Illyria)  and  the  Adriatic  and  Ionian  seas, 
south  and  west  by  the  Mediterranean  and  Tyrrhenian  seas,  and  north-west 
bv  France. 

Two  great  ranges  of  mountains  belong  either  wholly  or  in  part  to  Italy : 
the  Alps  and  the  Apennines.  The  Alps  traverse  the  northern  parts,  and 
send  the  following  chains  into  Italy :  1,  the  Sea  or  Maritime  Alps,  on  the 
Gulf  of  Genoa  (Monte  Viso,  13,599  feet  high),  north  of  which  are :  2,  the 
Cottian  Alps  (Mont-Cenis,  6,772) ;  3,  the  Gray  or  Graian  Alps  (Mont- 
Iseran,  13,279)  ;  4,  the  Pennine  Alps  (Monte  Rosa,  15,210) ;  5,  the  Lepontine 
Alps,  which  only  touch  Italy  in  part.  Between  the  Alps  and  the  Apennines 
lies  a  hilly  region.  The  Apennines,  at  whose  northern  slope  the  peninsula 
proper  commences,  join  on  to  the  Maritime  Alps  at  the  Col  di  Tenda,  pass 

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76  GEOGRAPHY. 

through  Italy,  first  in  an  easterly  direction,  then  south-east  from  lat.  44®  to 
41^,  in  a  main  range,  whose  greatest  central  elevation  is  in  Mont  Sasso 
(9521  feet),  and  finally  re-appear  in  Sicily  across  the  Straits  of  Messina. 
The  local  divisions  of  the  Apennines  are  into  Ligurian,  Etrurian,  Roman, 
Neapolitan,  and  Calabrian ;  the  Abruzzi  in  Lower  Italy  constitute  the 
highest  and  roughest.  Mount  Vesuvius  near  Naples,  and  Mount  Etna  in 
Sicily  (10,874  feet),  constitute  isolated  volcanic  peaks. 

The  principal  rivers  of  Italy  are  :  1.  The  Po,  which  rises  in  Monte- Viso, 
flows  through  the  whole  of  Upper  Italy  in  an  easterly  direction,  and  empties 
into  the  Adriatic  Sea  by  seven  arms,  after  receiving  the  Dora  Balta,  the  Sesia» 
the  Tessin,  the  Adda,  the  Oglio.  and  the  Mincio,  on  the  left ;  and  the  Tanaro, 
the  Trebbia,  the  Taro,  and  the  Panaro,  on  the  right.  2.  The  Adige,  which 
comes  from  Germany  and  empties  into  the  Adriatic  not  far  from  the  Po,  to 
which  it  is  connected  by  branches.  3.  The  Arno,  in  Tuscany,  empties 
into  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea  not  far  from  Pisa.  4.  The  Tiber,  united  to  the 
Arno  by  the  channel  of  Chiana,  empties  by  two  arms  into  the  Tyrrhenian 
Sea  near  Ostia.  The  coast  rivers  of  Upper  Italy  are :  Brenta,  Piave, 
Tagliamento ;  of  Lower  Italy,  Garigliano,  Volturno,  Pescara,  Osanto,  &c. 
The  only  Italian  lakes  of  importance  are  in  Upper  Italy  on  the  southern 
slope  of  the  Alps ;  they  consist  of  Lakes  Maggiore,  Como,  and  Garda,  with 
the  Tessin,  the  Adda,  and  the  Mincio,  flowing  through  them  respectively. 
Only  the  second  of  the  above-mentioned  lakes  belongs  entirely  to  Italy ;  the 
two  others  lie  with  their  northern  extremities,  the  one  in  Switzerland,  and 
the  other  in  the  Tyrol.  In  the  valleys  of  many  rivers,  especially  on  the 
coast,  there  are  considerable  tracts  of  marsh  land;  among  them  are  the 
Maremma  of  the  Delta  of  the  Po,  those  in  Tuscany,  and  the  Pontine  marshes 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  Papal  states. 

The  climate  of  Italy  is  very  various.  In  the  south  may  be  seen  the  palm 
and  sugar  cane,  in  the  north  the  thermometer  sinks  sometimes  to  15^  F. 
The  climate  of  Sicily  and  of  southern  Naples  bears  much  resemblance  to 
that  of  Africa,  and  the  Sirocco  or  south  wind  is  exceedingly  oppressive.  In 
many  parts  of  the  country,  noxious  exhalations  rise  from  the  ground. 

The  chief  products  of  Italy  are:  1.  From  the  mineral  kingdom,  iron 
(especially  from  Elba),  mercury,  alabaster,  marble,  stone  coal  and  lignite, 
salt,  saltpetre,  brimstone  (Sicily),  alum,  sal-ammoniac,  tripoli,  pumice,  and 
various  mineral  pigments.  From  the  vegetable  kingdom :  grain  (especially 
wheat  and  Indian  com),  rice,  oil,  wine,  southern  fruits,  carob  beans,  sugar- 
cane, chestnuts,  flax,  hemp,  tobacco,  liquorice,  and  cork.  From  the  animal 
kingdom  :  horses  (especially  in  Naples),  cattle,  sheep,  asses,  mules,  buffalo, 
goats,  silkworms,  bees,  fish,  oysters,  &c.  In  the  Alps  are  chamois,  marmots, 
wolves,  and  bears. 

The  population  of  Italy  amounts,  perhaps,  to  twenty-four  millions. 
Lucca  is  most  densely,  and  Sardinia  most  thinly  inhabited.  The  Italians 
are  a  mixed  race,  speaking  a  language  with  numerous  dialects  closely  allied 
to  the  Latin ;  there  are  likewise  French,  Celtish,  and  German  dialects  in 
the  north,  and  Greek  in  the  south.  The  prevailing  religion  is  the  Roman 
Catholic,  although  there  are  about  36,000  Jews  on  the  peninsula,  and  in 
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GEOGRAPHY.  *l1 

Sardinia  from  23,000  to  24,000  Waldenses.  Popular  education,  excepting  in 
the  Lombardo- Venetian  and  Tuscan  kingdoms,  is  in  rather  a  low  state. 
The  culture  of  grain  and  the  olive  is  most  successful  in  the  north,  where 
also  the  silkworm  and  the  products  of  mining  are  of  importance.  The 
manufactured  products  are  silks,  glass  ware,  mirrors,  porcelain,  soap,  paper, 
gloves,  essences,  &c.  Trade  is  extensively  prosecuted,  being  greatly  favored 
by  the  position  of  the  country,  but  commerce  is  mostly  in  the  hands  of 
foreigners,  and  internal  traffic  thrives  only  in  Upper  Italy,  where  there  are 
excellent  roads  and  numerous  canals. 

Italy  contains  three  kingdoms  :  the  Lombardo- Venetian  (under  Austrian 
sway),  Sardinia,  and  the  two  Sicilies ;  one  Grand  Duchy,  Tuscany ;  the 
Papal  States  ;  two  Duchies,  Modena  and  Parma  ;  one  republic,  San 
Marino  ;  and  finally  two  islands,  Corsica  and  Malta,  belonging  respectively 
to  France  and  England. 

I.  The  LombardO'Venetian  Kingdom  (see  Austria). 

II.  Kingdom  of  Sardinia.  This  state,  with  an  area  of  29,534  English 
square  miles,  contains  4,650,000  inhabitants  (according  to  the  census 
of  1839).  The  present  king,  Victor  Emanuel  II.  (born  1820),  of  the 
House  of  Savoy-Carignan,  has  ruled  since  1849,  and  according  to  the 
constitution  of  March  5th,  1848.  According  to  this,  the  crown  shares  the 
lawgiving  power  with  two  chambers,  a  senate  (the  members  chosen 
by  the  king),  and  an  elective  chamber.  The  land  forces  amount,  on  the 
peace  establishment,  to  37,500  men,  and  on  the  war,  to  146,000 ;  the  navy, 
to  four  frigates,  four  steamboats,  three  brigantines,  &c.,  in  all  seventy« 
seven  vessels  of  war. 

Divisions.  The  state  is  divided  into  the  provinces  of  the  mainland,  with 
4,125,000  inhabitants,  and  the  island  of  Sardinia  with  525,000.  The  former 
consist  of  the  Principality  of  Piedmont,  the  Duchies  of  Savoy,  Montserrat, 
and  Genoa,  a  portion  of  Milan,  and  the  county  of  Nice  (Nizza)  ;  these  are 
divided  into  eight  circles,  all  of  which,  excepting  Savoy,  are  named  after 
their  cliief  towns  :  1,  Turin,  with  the  capital  and  royal  residence,  containing 
125,000  inhabitants ;  2,  Cuneo  or  Coni,  the  southern  part  of  Piedmont ;  3, 
Savoy,  with  the  capital  Chambery ;  4,  Alessandria,  and  5,  Novara  (the 
Sardinian  portion  of  Milan)  ;  6,  Aosta,  the  northern  part  of  Piedmont ;  7, 
Nice ;  8,  Genoa,  with  the  island  of  Capraia,  not  far  from  the  coast  of 
Tuscany. 

The  island  of  Sardinia  (cap.  Cagliari)  is  ruled  by  a  vice-king,  and  is 
divided  into  the  circles,  Cagliari,  Sassari,  and  Nuoro. 

UI.  The  Duchy  of  Parma.  The  Duchy  of  Parma  is  surrounded  by 
Sardinia,  Lombardy,  Modena,  and  Tuscany,  and  has  about  500,000 
inhabitants,  on  an  area  of  about  1760  square  geographical  miles.  The 
present  king,  Charles  III.,  of  a  Spanish  branch  of  the  House  of  Bourbon, 
has  ruled  since  1849.  The  country  consists  of  the  Duchies  of  Parma 
(c^.  Parma,  with  40,000  inhabitants)  and  Piacenza,  to  which  were  added, 
in  1848,  the  districts  of  Pontremoli,  Bagnone,  Villafranca,  &c.,  derived 
partly  from  Modena,  partly  from  Tuscany. 

rV.  Duchy  of  Modena.    This  is  surrounded  by  Lombardy,  Parma,  the 

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Papal  States,   and  by  Tuscany,  and  possesses  an  area  of  1672  aquan 
geographical  miles,  with  a  pop.  of  500,000. 

The  present  duke,  Francis  V.,  from  a  branch  of  the  House  of  Austria,  has 
reigned  since  1846.  The  land  consists  of  the  four  Duchies  of  Modena 
(with  the  capital  and  royal  residence  of  the  same  name,  pop.  27,000), 
Reggio,  Guastalla  (separated  from  Parma  in  1846),  and  Massa. 

V.  Grand  Duchy  of  Tuscany.  Tuscany  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  Modena  and  the  Papal  States,  east  and  south-east  likewise  by 
the  Papal  States,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea.  With  an 
area  of  6880  square  geographical  miles,  it  has  a  population  of  1,800,000. 
The  present  grand  duke,  Leopold  II.  (bom  in  1797)  of  a  branch  of 
the  House  of  Austria,  has  reigned  since  1824.  The  government  is  a 
constitutional  monarchy,  according  to  the  constitution  of  15th  February, 
1848.  The  lawgiving  power  is  shared  by  the  prince  with  two  chambers, 
of  which  the  first  consists  of  members  chosen  for  life  by  the  grand 
duke,  the  second  of  members  elected  by  the  people.  The  revenues 
of  the  state  amount  to  twenty-five  millions  of  lira  or  3,875,000  dollars. 
The  forces  embrace  5500  men.  According  to  the  eariier  arrangements, 
the  land  was  divided  into  five  compartimehtos  or  circles,  named  after 
the  chief  towns :  Florence  (with  the  capital  and  royal  residence,  containing 
102,000  inhabitants),  Pisa  (with  the  island  Elba),  Siena,  Arezzo,  and 
Grosse t to  :  to  these  Lucca  has  been  added  since  1848,  with  170,000 
inhabitants. 

VI.  The  Papal  States.  The  Papal  States,  with  an  area  of  about 
12,000  square  geographical  miles,  contain  three  millions  of  inhabitants. 
The  present  pope,  Pius  IX.,  of  the  family  of  Mastai-Ferrenti,  bom  in 
1792,  has  reigned  since  1846.  The  form  of  government  was  an  absolute 
monarchy,  up  to  1848  ;  then  for  a  short  time  a  constitutional  monarchy, 
until  the  proclaiming  of  a  Roman  Republic,  February  9th,  1849;  since 
the  downfall  of  which  latter,  it  has  again  become  an  absolute  monarchy. 
The  revenues,  before  the  breaking  out  of  the  Revolution,  amounted  to 
9,600,000  scudi,  or  to  the  same  number  of  American  dollars.  The 
papal  army  is  at  present  entirely  disbanded.  Since  1681,  the  land  has 
been  divided  into  one  comarca,  Rome,  with  the  capital  and  royal 
residence  of  the  same  name  (170,000  inhabitants) ;  six  legations,  named 
according  to  the  principal  towns  :  Bologna,  Ferrara,  Forli,  Ravenna, 
Urbino  (with  Pesaro),  and  Velletri ;  and  thirteen  delegations,  likewise 
named  after  the  principal  towns :  Ancona,  Macerata,  Camerino,  Fermo, 
Ascoli,  Perugia,  Spoleto,  Rieti,  Viterbo,  Orvieto,  Frosinone,  Civita-Vecchia, 
and  Benevento. 

VII.  The  Republic  of  San-Marino.  This  small  republic  lies  within 
the  boundaries  of  the  Papal  States.  It  possesses  a  population  of  about 
7600,  on  an  area  of  about  twenty  square  miles.  The  chief  town  contains 
5500  inhabitants.  At  the  head  of  the  state  stand  two  capitani  regenti, 
elected  for  six  months. 

VIII.  Tßte  Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  This  constitutes  the  southern 
part  of  Italy,    and  contains  8,423,060  inhabitants  to  an  area  of  about 

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48,052  English  square  miles.  The  present  king,  Frederick  IL,  bom 
1810,  of  the  Spanish  line  of  the  House  of  Bourbon,  has  ruled  since 
1880.  The  form  of  government  is  a  constitutional  monarchy.  According 
to  the  constitution  of  February  10th,  1848,  the  king  shares  the  law- 
giving power  with  two  chambers,  one  of  peers  (chosen  by  the  king  in 
unlimited  number  for  life),  and  a  chamber  of  deputies,  one  to  every  40,000 
of  the  population.  The  relation  of  Sicily  to  the  state  is  not  yet  definitively 
established. 

The  army,  before  the  outbreak  in  Sicily,  consisted  of  about  49,000 
men,  without  the  reserve  forces;  the  navy,  of  one  ship  of  the  line 
and  five  frigates,  one  corvette,  five  brigantines,  two  galliots,  and  fourteen 
steamboats. 

The  state  is  geographically  divisible  into  two  principal  parts. 

a.  Sicily  this  side  of  the  straits,  also  called  Naples,  with  6,383,000 
inhabitants,  is  divided  into  fifteen  intendancies.  Of  these,  the  old  province 
of  Terra  di  Lavoro  was  constituted  by  Na;iles  (with  the  city  Naples,  pop. 
400,000,  and  the  islands  of  Capri,  Ischia,  and  Procida),  Terra  di  Lavoro, 
Principato  citeriore,  and  Principato  ulteriore;  Abruzzo  ulteriore  L,  A. 
ulteriore  IL,  and  A.  citeriore,  form  the  old  province  Abruzzo ;  Capitanata, 
Molise,  Terra  di  Bari,  Terra  di  Otranto,  constitute  the  ancient  Apulia ;  and 
finally  Basilicata,  Calabria  citeriore,  and  Calabria  ulteriore  I.  and  IL,  the 
ancient  Calabria. 

6.  The  kingdom  of  Sicily  beyond  the  straits,  consists  of  the  island  of 
Sicily,  also  of  the  Lipari  and  iEgidian  Islands  :  it  contains  about  2,040,000 
inhabitants,  and  is  divided  into  the  following  intendancies :  Palermo  (with 
the  capital  of  same  name,  pop.  170,000),  Girgenti,  Trapani,  Caltanisette, 
Messina,  Syracuse,  and  Catania. 

IX.  Tht  IsLsnds  of  Malta,  Oozzo,  and  Comino,  contain  about  eighty 
square  geographical  miles,  and  124,000  inhabitants.  The  capital.  La 
Valetta,  with  60,000  inhabitants,  is  situated  on  the  island  of  Malta. 


14.    The  Austrian  Monarchy  (Plate  17). 

The  Empire  of  Austria  is  situated  between  the  meridians  of  8°  29'  and 
26*^  29'  longitude  east  of  Greenwich,  and  between  the  parallels  of  42°  lö' 
and  51^  N.  lat.  It  is  bounded  on  the  south  and  east  by  Turkey,  on  the 
north-east  and  north  by  Russia,  to  the  north  and  west  by  Prussia,  Saxony, 
Bavaria,  and  Switzeriand,  and  to  the  south  and  west  by  Sardinia,  Parma, 
Modena,  the  Papal  States,  and  the  Adriatic  Sea.  Its  area  amounts  to 
about  193,000  square  geographical  miles. 

The  principal  mountains  of  Austria  are  the  Alps  and  the  Carpathians. 
The  Alps  divide  into  the  following  chains  :  1.  The  eastern  Rhselian  Alps, 
with  one  main  and  two  secondary  chains  (highest  point  Ortlerspitz,  12,851 
f(^et).  2.  The  Norian  Alps,  consisting  of  three  main  chains  (here  belong 
the  Styrian,  Austrian,  and  east  Salzburgian  Alps ;  highest  point  Gross- 

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80  GEOGRAPHY. 

glockner).  8.  The  Carniac  or  Carinthian  Alps,  attaining  a  height  of  eight 
to  nine  thousand  feet.  4.  The  Julian  or  Kräinian  Alps,  the  Terglou, 
9386  feet.  The  Carpathians  divide  into  six  main  groups  :  1.  The  Central 
Carpathians  or  the  Krapack  Mountains,  attaining  a  height  of  8611  feet  in 
Lomnitzer  Spitze.  2.  The  Beskides  and  Babia  Goru.  3.  The  Lesser 
or  Hungarian  Carpathians.  4.  The  Hungarian  Erzgebirge  (over  6200 
feet  high).  6.  The  Carpathian  Waldgebirge.  6.  The  Siebenbürgian 
Carpathians,  over  9500  feet  high.  The  space  between  the  Alps  and 
Carpathians  is  filled  by  the  Hungarian  plains,  of  which  that  of  Lower 
Hungary  covers  an  area  of  over  24,000  square  geographical  miles. 

Pre-eminent  among  the  rivers  of  Austria  stands  the  Danube,  with  its 
numerous  tributaries.  Those  of  the  right  bank  are  the  Inn,  with  the  Salzach» 
Traun,  Ens,  Leitha,  Raab,  Drau,  Sau.  To  the  left  are  the  March  or 
Morawa,  Waag,  Neutra,  Gran,  Eypel,  Theiss  (largest  tributary  of  the 
Danube).     The  Weichsel  forms  the  north-western  boundary  of  Galicia. 

The  principal  productions  of  Austria,  which  is  more  highly  endowed  by 
nature  than  any  other  country  in  Europe,  are  from  the  mineral  kingdom : 
gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  tin,  iron,  mercury,  cinnabar,  cobalt,  calamine, 
arsenic,  zinc,  precious  stones,  marble,  alabaster,  gypsum,  sulphur,  peat, 
lignite,  stone  coal,  salt,  soda,  vitriol,  alum,  saltpetre,  and  mineral  waters. 
From  the  vegetable  kingdom  are  derived,  grain,  Indian  corn,  rice,  garden 
and  kitchen  vegetables,  fruits,  timber,  wine,  tobacco,  hops,  flax,  hemp, 
saffron,  madder,  safflower,  liquorice  wood,  mastich,  and  succory  or 
chicory.  The  animals  are  horses,  cattle,  buffaloes,  sheep,  hogs,  goats, 
asses,  bears,  lynxes,  wolves,  marmots,  chamois,  tortoises,  domestic  fowls, 
pheasants,  salt  and  freshwater  fish,  bees,  silkworms,  and  leeches. 

The  population  of  Austria  amounts  to  nearly  thirty-eight  millions  ;  it  is 
densest  in  the  Italian  provinces,  and  most  sparse  in  the  Tyrol.  The  inhabit- 
ants belong  to  four  principal  stocks  :  to  the  German  (about  eight  millions),  the 
Slavic  (over  fifteen  millions),  the  Hungarian  (five  millions  and  a  halO»  and 
the  Grseco-Latin  (over  eight  millions).  The  Slavi  are  divisible  into  tlie 
Tschechs,  Moravians,  Slowaks,  Poles,  Ruthenes,  Slowenes,  Croats,  Sla- 
vonians, Serbians,  Dalmatians,  and  Istrians.  To  the  Hungarians  or 
Magyars  belong  the  Szekls  in  Siebenbürgen  ;  to  the  Greeco-Latin  stock,  the 
Italians,  Wallachians,  Moldavians,  and  Greeks.  To  the  above-mentioned 
stocks  must  be  added  about  700,000  Jews  (mostly  in  Galicia  and  Hungary), 
93,000  Zigeuni,  Armenians,, &c.  The  prevailing  religion  is  the  Roman 
Catholic ;  there  are,  however,  about  three  millions  of  independent  Greeks, 
over  two  millions  Reformed,  1,200,000  Lutherans,  50,000  Socinians,  17,000 
Arminians,  700,000  Jews,  &c.  At  the  head  of  numerous  establishments 
of  learning  stand  nine  universities ;  those  of  Vienna,  Prague,  Innsbruck, 
Gratz,  Olmütz,  Pesth,  Lemberg,  Padua,  and  Pavia ;  also  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  Vienna,  founded  in  1846.  The  principal  manufactured  products 
are  linens,  sail  cloths,  point  lace,  cotton  and  silk  goods,  cloths,  shawls, 
carpets,  hats,  paper,  leather  ware,  tobacco,  sugar,  soap,  wax,  fabrications 
of  gold  and  silver,  chemical  apparatus,  iron,  glass,  mirrors,  &c. 

The  form  of  government,  up  to  March,  1848,  was  an  absolute  monarchy ; 
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GEOGRAPHY.  81 

since  that,  it  has  been  changed  to  the  constitutional  form.  According  to 
the  chartered  constitution  of  March  4th,  1649,  which  is  to  avail  for  the 
whole  empire,  the  emperor  (since  1849,  Francis  Joseph,  born  1830)  shares 
the  lawgiving  power  with  two  houses,  an  upper  and  a  lower  house.  In 
addition  to  this,  each  crown  land  has  a  special  constitution  and  a  special 
diet.  The  revenues  of  the  state  (Hungary  excepted)  amounted,  in  1847,  to 
over  151  millions  of  gulden,  or  more  than  seventy-one  millions  of  dollars. 
In  the  half  year  ending  April,  1847,  the  receipts  amounted  to  over  forty-five 
millions  of  gulden,  the  expenditures  to  nearly  ninety-one  millions.  The 
army,  in  1847,  consisted  of  315,000  infantry,  49,000  cavalry  on  the 
peace  establishment,  and  489,000  infantry,  and  65,000  cavalry  on  the 
war  footing.  In  addition  to  these  were  26,000  artillery,  and  various 
extra  corps,  the  engineer  corps,  pioneer  corps,  &c.  At  present  all 
the  troops  are  divided  into  five  army  corps,  of  which  the  fifth  embraces 
the  military  limits;  the  four  others  include  358  battalions,  281  squad- 
rons, and  766  pieces  of  artillery.  The  navy  consists  of  three 
firigates,  two  corvettes,  five  brigs,  one  steamer,  two  galliots,  and  eight  gun- 
boats. 

According  to  the  new  constitution,  the  whole  state  is  divided  into  the 
following  crown  lands : 

I.  German.  I.  Grand  Duchy  of  Austria  above  the  Ens,  or  Upper 
Austria,  pop,  704,572,  cap.  Linz.  2.  Archduchy  of  Austria  below  the 
Ens,  or  Lower  Austria,  with  1,417,783  inhabitants,  cap.  Vienna,  at  the  same 
time  capital  of  the  whole  empire,  with  410,000  inhabitants.  3.  Duchy  of 
Salzburg,  pop.  146,519,  cap.  Salzburg.  4.  Duchy  of  Styria,  pop.  999,681, 
divided  into  three  circles,  those  of  Gratz,  Brück,  and  Marburg,  cap.  Gratz. 
5.  Duchy  of  Carinthia,  pop.  316,838.  6.  Duchy  of  Crainia,  pop.  474,525, 
cap.  Laibach.  7.  Coast  lands  with  Friaul  and  the  counties  Gorz  and 
Gradiska,  pop.  500,000,  cap.  Triest.  8.  Counties  of  Tyrol  and  Vorarlberg, 
pop.  867,178,  divided  into  four  circles,  those  of  Innsbruck,  Brixen,  Trient, 
and  Vorarlberg,  cap.  Innsbruck.  9.  Kingdom  of  Bohemia,  pop.  4,513,074, 
divided  into  seven  circles ;  their  capitals  are  Prague,  Budweis,  Prachatitz, 
Gitschin,  Böhmisch-Leippa,  Eger,  and  Pilsen.  10.  Marcgravedom  of 
Moravia,  with  1,826,057  inhabitants,  divided  into  the  circles  of  Brunn 
and  Olmütz,  cap.  Olmütz.  11.  Duchy  of  Silesia,  with  467,420  inha- 
bitants. 

II.  Extra  Oerman,  1.  Kingdom  of  Galicia,  with  the  Duchy  of  Cracow, 
pop.  5,250,000,  cap.  Lemberg.  2.  Duchy  of  Bukowina,  pop.  354,000,  cap. 
Czernowitz.  3.  Kingdom  of  Dalmatia,  Croatia,  and  Slavonia,  with  the 
coast  land  of  Croatia,  pop.  1,300,000.  4.  Kingdom  of  Hungary,  pop.  ten 
millions,  cap.  Ofen.  5.  Grand  Principality  of  Siebenbürgen,  pop.  2,182,000, 
cap.  Klausenburg.  6.  Lands  of  the  military  limits,  pop.  1,226,000,  divided 
into  the  Croatian,  Hungarian,  and  Siebenburgian.  7.  Lombardo- Venetian 
kingdom,  pop.  five  millions,  divided  into  the  government  of  Lombardy  (cap. 
Milan)  and  Venice,  cap.  Venice. 


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15.  Prusbia  {Plate  18). 

The  state  of  Prussia  is  situated  between  the  meridians  of  5^  44'  and 
22^  44'  of  longitude  east  of  Greenwich»  and  the  parallels  of  40^  8'  and 
55^  52'  N.  lat.,  and  is  divisible  into  a  large  eastern  and  a  smaller  western 
portion.  The  former  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Russia  and  Poland,  south 
by  Austria  (Galicia,  Moravia,  Bohemia),  Saxony,  and  the  Duchy  of  Saxony, 
west  by  the  Electorate  of  Hesse- Hanover,  Brunswick  and  Mecklenburg, 
and  north  by  the  Baltic.  The  smaller  portion  is  bounded  to  the  N.  £.  and 
S.  by  various  German  states,  Bavaria,  Hesse-Darmstadt,  Nassau,  Waldeck, 
Hesse-Lippe,  and  Hanover,  and  west  by  France,  Belgium,  and  the  Nether- 
lands. The  area  of  the  whole  monarchy  amounts  to  about  81,280  square 
geographical  miles,  of  which  a  sixth  belongs  to  the  western  part. 

The  mountains  of  Germany  which  belong  under  this  head  are :  in  the 
south-east,  the  Sudetes,  the  Glatzer-  and  Riesen-G^birge  (highest  summit 
5300),  the  Thuringerwald  ;  in  the  western  part,  the  Egge,  the  Westerwald, 
the  Hundsrück,  the  Lippische  Wald,  the  Sauerland  Mountains,  the  Siebenge- 
birge, the  Hochwald,  and  the  Eiffel.  The  principal  streams  are :  1.  The 
Weichsel,  which  rising  in  Germany  enters  Galicia,  returns  again  to  Ger- 
many, and  below  Marienwerder  divides  into  two  arms,  the  most  eastern  of 
which,  the  Nogat,  empties  by  twenty  mouths  into  the  Frische  Haff,  while 
the  western,  which  retains  the  name  of  Weichsel,  divides  near  the  sea  into 
the  Old  and  Dantzig- Weichsel,  and  empties  by  fourteen  mouths  into  the 
Frische  Haff,  and  by  two  into  the  Gulf  of  Dantzig.  2.  The  Oder,  which 
rises  in  Moravia  at  the  foot  of  the  Sudetes,  passes  into  Silesia,  and  flows 
for  over  five  hundred  miles  through  Prussian  territory.  Its  tributaries  are, 
to  the  right,  Olsa,  Klodnitz,  Bartsch,  Warthe,  Ihna ;  to  the  left,  Neisse, 
Ohlau,  Weistritz,  Katzbach,  Bober,  Görlitz,  Neisse,  and  Ucker.  3.  The 
Elbe,  which  rises  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  Riesengebirge,  and  empties 
into  the  North  Sea  about  eighty-five  miles  below  Hamburg.  Such  of  its 
tributaries  as  belong  here,  are  :  to  the  right,  the  Black  Elster,  and  Havel 
with  the  Spree ;  to  the  left,  Mulde  and  Saale.  4.  The  Weser  merely 
touches  the  territory  of  Prussia,  forming  for  a  short  distance  the  line  of 
separation  from  Brunswick.  5.  The  Rhine,  from  Bingen  to  above 
Coblentz,  forms  the  boundary  to  Nassau,  and  passes  through  the  western 
part  of  the  state  to  enter  the  Netherlands  below  Emmerich.  Its  Prussian 
tributaries  are,  to  the  right,  Lahn,  Sieg,  Wupper,  and  Ruhr ;  to  the  left, 
Nahe,  Moselle,  and  Erft. 

The  climate  and  productions  of  Prussia  are  not  essentially  different  from 
those  of  Germany.  In  addition  to  the  cerealia,  the  culture  of  flax,  tobacco, 
hops,  fruit,  and  the  vine,  is  of  importance.  Cattle  are  not  raised  in  large 
quantities,  but  the  rearing  of  sheep  is  attended  to  more  and  more.  Prussia 
is  very  rich  in  minerals,  especially  silver,  copper,  lead,  iron,  salt,  sulphur, 
lignite,  and  stone  coal. 

The  population  amounted,  at  the  end  of  1846,  to  16,112,948  souls.  It  w 
densest  in  the  Rhine  provinces,  and  sparsest  in  Pomerania.  The 
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predominant  races  are  the  German,  Slavic  (Poles,  Wendes,  Lithuanians, 
&c.)i  Walloons,  and  Jews.  The  inhabitants,  in  respect  to  their  religious 
belief,  may  be  divided  into  Evangelical  (1846,  9,635,000),  Roman  Catholics 
(over  six  millions),  215,000  Jews,  14,500  Mennonites,  1675  adherents  to  the 
Greek  Church  (Philippones).  There  are  also  Moravian  Brethren,  Hussites, 
Unitarians,  and  Herrnhuters.  In  intellectual  culture,  as  well  as  in 
mechanical  skill,  the  people  take  high  rank.  At  the  head  of  the  seminaries 
of  instruction,  stand  the  universities  of  Berlin,  Königsberg,  Halle,  Greifs- 
wald  (all  Protestant),  those  of  Bonn  and  Breslau  (mixed),  and  the  Roman 
Catholic  academy  at  Münster. 

The  Prussian  form  of  government  is  a  constitutional  monarchy,  ruled, 
since  1840,  by  King  Frederick  William  IV.  (bom  1795),  of  the  House  of 
Hohenzollern.  After  the  national  convention  called  together  in  May  22, 
1848,  had  been  dissolved  in  December,  1848,  without  having  agreed  with 
the  king  upon  a  constitution,  a  chartered  constitution  was  given  to  Prussia, 
with  the  proviso  of  a  revision  in  the  proper  mode  of  legislation.  According 
to  this,  the  law-making  power  is  exercised  in  common  by  two  chambers, 
one  consisting  of  180,  and  the  other  of  350  members,  all  of  them  elected. 
According  to  official  publications,  the  revenues  for  1849  amounted  to 
eighty-eight  millions  and  a  half  of  thalers  (fifty-nine  millions  of  dollars),  and 
the  state  debt  to  162,861,444  thalers  (108,574,296  dollars).  The  standing 
aimy  on  the  peace  establishment  amounts  to  121,100  men,  the 
Landwehr  of  the  first  summons  to  96,100,  that  of  the  second  to  62,600. 
The  war  footing  amounts  to  325,300  field  troops,  and  167,500 
garrison  soldiers  (without  counting  the  officers,  commissioned  and  non- 
commissioned). 

Prussia  is  divided  into  the  following  eight  provinces  :  I.  Prussia, 
consisting  of:  a.  East  Prussia,  area  11,296  square  geographical  miles,  pop. 
1,480,000;  circles,  Königsberg  and  Gumbinnen;  6,  West  Prussia,  7552 
square  geographical  miles,  pop.  1,019,000  ;  circles,  Dantzig  and  Marien- 
werder. The  capital  of  the  province  is  Königsberg,  with  75,000  inhabit- 
ants. II.  Posen,  8576  square  geographical  miles,  pop.  1,364,000;  circles, 
Posen  and  Bromberg.  The  capital,  Posen,  has  40,000  inhabitants.  III. 
Pomerania,  area  9184  square  geographical  miles;  and  1,165,000  inhabitants, 
including  the  largest  island  of  Germany,  Rügen  (pop.  3700)  ;  circles, 
Stettin,  Cöslin,  and  Stralsund.  The  capital  is  Stettin,  with  41,500  inhabit- 
ants. IV.  Silesia,  area  11,872  square  geographical  miles,  pop.  3,066,000; 
circles,  Breslau,  Oppeln,  and  Liegnitz,  capital  Breslau,  with  112,000  inhabit- 
ants. V.  Brandenburg,  area  1 1,744  square  geographical  miles,  pop.  2,067,000; 
circles,  Potsdam  (with  Berlin)  and  Frankfort.  Berlin,  with  300,000  inhabit- 
ants, is  the  capital  of  the  province,  and  at  the  same  time  of  the  monarchy. 
VI.  Saxony,  area  7376  square  geographical  miles,  pop.  1,742,000;  circles, 
Magdeburg,  Merseburg,  and  Erfurt,  capital  Magdeburg,  with  55,800 
inhabitants.  VII.  Westphalia,  5588  square  geographical  miles,  pop. 
1,446,000  ;  circles,  Münster,  Minden,  and  Arnsberg,  capital  Münster,  with 
23,000  inhabitants.  VIII.  Province  of  the  Rhine,  area  7792  square 
geographical  miles,  pop.  2,763,000 ;  circles,  Cologne,  Düsseldorf,  Coblentz, 

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84  GEOGRAPHY. 

Trier,  and  Aix  la  Chapelle.     The  capital  Cologne,  with  the  suburl»,  has 
05,000  inhabitants. 


16.  Germany  (Danble  Plate  16,  16). 

Germany,  including  the  Prussian  provinces  of  Posen  and  Prussia,  and 
the  Austrian  provinces  hitherto  reckoned  with  Germany,  extends  from 
44°  50'  to  55°  50'  of  N.  lat.,  and  from  5°  44'  to  22°  44'  of  longitude  east 
of  Greenwich  (23°  30'  to  40°  30'  east  of  Ferro).  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  North  Sea,  Denmark  (Schleswig),  and  the  Baltic  ;  east  by 
Russia,  Poland,  Galicia,  and  Hungary;  south  by  Croatia,  the  Adriatic  Sea, 
Italy,  and  Switzerland  ;  and  west  by  France,  Belgium,  and  the  Netherlands. 
The  area  amounts  to  over  209,600  square  geographical  miles. 

The  Alps,  the  most  important  of  the  mountains  of  Germany,  have  already 
been  considered  under  Austria,  only  a  very  small  portion  coming  into 
Germany  proper,  or  into  Bavaria.  North  of  the  Alps,  the  plateau  of  South 
Germany  expands  itself  to  the  Danube.  The  mountain  districts  of  Middle 
Grermany  may  be  divided  into  a  western,  middle,  and  eastern  portion.  In 
the  western,  we  find  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  the  Haardt  (1800  to 
2200  feet),  the  Donnersberg,  the  Hundsruck,  the  Eifelberg,  and  the  high 
Veen,  which  borders  on  the  Ardennes.  In  the  middle  part  between  the 
Rhine  and  the  Elbe,  are :  a,  between  the  Rhine,  Danube,  Naab,  and  Main :  the 
Schwarzwald,  the  German  and  Franconian  Jura,  the  Odenwald  ;  ft,  between 
the  Rhine,  Main,  Werra,  and  Weser :  Taunus,  Vogelsgebirge,  the  Spessart, 
the  Rhone  Mountain,  the  Westerwald,  Siebengebirge,  the  Wesergebirge, 
the  Egge,  the  Teutoburgerwald ;  c,  between  the  Weser,  Werra,  Main,  Naab, 
Danube,  March,  and  Elbe :  the  Hartz,  the  Frankenwald,  the  Thuringer- 
wald,  the  Fichtelgebirge,  the  Böhmerwald,  the  Saxon  Erzgebirge,  <fec. 
In  the  eastern  part,  there  are  only  the  Sudetes,  individual  regions  of  which 
bear  difierent  names:  the  Meissner  Highland  or  Saxon  Switzerland, 
Lausatian  Mountains,  Isargebirge,  Riesengebirge,  Silesian  Erzgebirge, 
Schweidnitz  Mountains,  &c.  The  northern  part  of  Germany  consists 
of  the  north  German  plateau. 

The  rivers  may  be  divided  into  those  of  the  northern  and  southern  slopes. 
To  the  former  belong  the  Rhine,  Ems,  Weser,  Elbe,  Oder,  Weichsel,  Pregel, 
and  Memel  (Niemen),  together  with  several  coast  streams,  as  the  Vechte, 
Trave,  Warnow,  Recknitz,  Peine,  <fec.  To  the  southern  slope  belong  the 
Danube  and  the  Etsch.  Lakes  of  some  size  occur  only  in  south  Germany ; 
thus,  besides  the  Boden-see  we  here  find  Lakes  Chiem,  Ammer,  Tegem, 
König,  Traun,  &c. 

The  climate  of  Germany,  on  the  whole,  is  mild,  although  severe  in  the 
Alpine  districts.  The  climate  of  the  north  is  generally  moister  and  more 
variable  than  that  of  the  south  ;  in  the  east,  the  extremes  of  temperature  are 
greater  than  in  the  west.  In  the  valleys  of  South  Tyrol,  and  on  the  coast 
land  along  the  Adriatic,  the  climate  is  much  like  that  of  northern 
Italy. 
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GEOGRAPHY.  85 

The  products  are,  on  the  whole,  much  the  same  with  those  already  given 
under  the  heads  of  Prussia  and  Austria.  From  the  mineral  kingdom  are 
derived,  iron,  lead,  silver,  copper,  zinc,  tin,  mercury,  cinnabar,  &c. ;  from 
the  vegetable,  Indian  corn,  grain  in  general,  chestnuts,  almonds,  &c. ;  from 
the  animal,  most  European  species  of  mammalia  and  birds,  and  of  fishes, 
sturgeon,  salmon,  trout,  eels,  pike,  &c. 

The  population  of  Germany,  with  the  provinces  recently  added,  amounts 
to  forty-five  millions ;  densest  in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  and  sparsest  in 
Pomerania  and  Mecklenburg-Strelitz.  This,  besides  the  Germans  proper, 
consists  of  seven  to  eight  millions  of  Slavi,  numerous  Lithuanians  in  the 
province  of  Prussia,  400,000  Italians  (in  lUyria  and  the  Tyrol),  300,000 
Walloons,  about  400,000  Jews,  500  Greeks  and  Armenians,  and  600 
Zigeuni.  In  a  denominational  point  of  view,  there  are  over  twenty-two 
millions  of  Roman  Catholics,  twenty-one  millions  of  Lutherans  and 
Reformed,  35,000  HeiTnhuters  and  other  sects,  with  400,000  Jews.  The 
arts  and  sciences  have  attained  to  a  high  degree  of  advancement  among  the 
inhabitants  of  Germany  ;  and  the  state  of  education  is  in  a  highly  prosperous 
condition.  Of  the  twenty-five  universities,  six  are  in  Prussia,  five  in 
Austria,  three  in  Bavaria,  two  in  Baden,  one  to  each  in  Würtemberg, 
Hanover,  Saxony,  Saxe- Weimar,  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  Hesse-Darmstadt, 
Electoral  Hesse,  and  Holstein.  There  are  also  several  hundred  Gymnasia 
(Colleges),  and  about  one  hundred  large  public  libraries.  All  branches 
of  agriculture,  forest  culture,  cattle  breeding,  &c.,  are  prosperous.  Foreign 
commerce  is  carried  on  mainly  from  the  towns  of  Hamburg,  Triest,  Bremen, 
Stettin,  Lübeck,  Emden,  Kiel,  Dantzig,  Berlin,  Frankfurt  on  the  Main,  Leipzig, 
Nürnberg,  Augsburg,  and  Vienna.  The  German  Zollverein  or  Customs 
Union,  has  greatly  contributed  to  the  flourishing  state  of  trade  :  this  embraces 
all  the  states  excepting  Austria,  Hanover,  Oldenburg,  Schaumburg- Lippe,  the 
two  Mecklenburgs,  Holstein,  the  three  Hanse  towns,  and  Lichtenstein. 

The  political  relations  of  Germany  are  very  undecided.  The  common- 
wealth consists  of  thirty-eight  larger  and  smaller  states,  which,  after  the 
dissolution  of  the  German  Empire  in  1806,  were  held  together  by  the 
German  Alliance  (established  by  the  act  of  June  9th,  1815).  This  faulty 
political  creation  fell  to  the  ground  soon  after  the  meeting  of  the  German 
Constitutional  Convention  at  Frankfurt  on  the  Main,  May  18th,  1848 
(June  12,  1848) :  this  established  a  provisional  central  government,  and  at 
the  head  of  aflairs  was  established  Archduke  John  of  Austria  as  regent. 
The  convention  above  referred  to,  fixed  upon  a  plan,  according  to  which 
the  king  of  Prussia  was  to  come  in  as  the  head  of  aflairs ;  but  it  separated 
in  May  of  the  same  year,  without  having  had  the  plan  recognised  and 
carried  out.  By  a  compact  concluded  on  the  30th  September,  1849,  at 
Vienna,  between  Austria  and  Prussia,  a  new  provisional  central  government 
has  been  established,  to  be  managed  by  these  two  powers  in  common,  and 
to  consist  of  two  members  from  each  state  :  nevertheless,  this  little 
promising  plan  still  lacks  the  assent  of  a  portion  of  the  remaining  states.  In 
fact,  the  regent,  on  the  6th  October,  1849,  announced  his  return  to  the 
exercise  of  his  former  office  in  Austria. 

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86  GEOGRAPHY. 

The  individual  states  of  Germany,  omitting  those  already  mentioned 
under  the  heads  of  Austria  and  Prussia,  are  as  follows  : 

I.  Kingdom  of  Bavaria,  with  22,304  square  geographical  miles,  pop. 
4,504,874.  Maximilian  II.  (born  1811),  king  since  1848.  Annual  revenues 
about  thirty-two  millions  of  gulden  (over  twelve  millions  of  dollars).  Army, 
76,294  men.  Divided  into  six  circles :  Upper  Bavaria,  cap.  Munich,  with 
113,000  inhabitants;  Lower  Bavaria,  cap.  Passau;  Palatinate,  cap.  Speier; 
Upper  Palatinate  and  Regensburg,  cap.  Regensburg  (Ratisbon)  ;  Upper 
Franconia,  cap.  Baireuth  ;  Middle  Franconia,  cap.  Ansbach  ;  Lower 
Franconia  and  Aschaffenburg,  cap.  Würzburg. 

II.  Kingdom  of  Saxony,  area  4352  square  geographical  miles,  pop.  1,836,438. 
Frederick  Augustus  II.,  king  since  1836.  Constitution  of  September  4,  1881. 
Annual  revenues,  4,200,000  dollars  (American).     Army  formerly  of  16,355 

'  men  :  at  present  it  is  to  consist  of  two  per  cent,  of  the  population.  Divided 
into  five  circles :  Meissen  (cap.  Dresden,  pop.  89,000),  Leipzig  (cap.  Leipzig» 
pop.  60,000),  Erzgebirge  (cap.  Freiberg,  pop.  12,000),  Voigtland  (cap.  Plauen, 
pop.  10,000),  and  Lausitz  (cap.  Bautzen,  pop.  8000). 

III.  Kingdom  of  Wta-temherg,  area  5760  square  geographical  miles,  pop. 
1,743,827.  William  I.  (born  1781),  king  since  1816.  Constitution  dates  from 
25th  Sept.,  1819,  but  is  shortly  to  be  revised.  Revenues,  sixteen  millions  and 
a  half  of  gulden  (nearly  $7,000,000).  Army  19,000  (war  footing).  Divided  into 
four  circles :  circles  of  the  Neckar  (cap.  Stuttgardt,  pop.  47,000)  ;  Schwartz- 
wald  (cap.  Reutlingen) ;  Jaxt  (cap.  Ellwangen) ;  and  Danube  (cap.  Ulm). 

IV.  Kingdom  of  Hanover,  area  11,184  square  geographical  miles,  pop. 
1,758,847;  revenues,  five  millions  of  dollars.  Army  of  21,200  men.  The 
constitutional  law  of  6th  August,  1848,  has  been  essentially  changed  by  the 
law  of  5th  September,  1848.  Ernest  August  (bom  1771)  has  ruled  since 
1837.  Divided  into  six  Landdrosteis :  Hanover  (cap.  Hanover,  pop.  38,000), 
Hildesheim,  Lüneburg,  Stade,  Osnabrück,  and  Aurich. 

V.  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden,  area  4448  square  geographical  miles,  pop. 
1,349,930.  Leopold,  Grand  Duke  since  1830.  Present  constitution  from 
22d  August,  1818.  Revenues,  about  twenty-five  millions  of  florins  (ten 
millions  of  dollars).  The  land  is  divided  into  four  circles  :  Middle  Rhine 
(cap.  Carlsruhe,  with  25,000  inhabitants) ;  Upper  Rhine  (cap.  Freiburg), 
Seekreis  (cap.  Constance),  Lower  Rhine  (cap.  Mannheim). 

VI.  Electorate  of  Hesse,  area  3344  square  geographical  miles,  pop. 
732,000.  Frederick  William  I.  (born  1802),  elector  since  1847.  Settled 
constitution  since  January  8,  1831.  Revenues,  about  2,900,000  dollars. 
The  land  is  divided  into  four  provinces :  Lower  Hesse  (cap.  Cassel,  pop. 
35,000) ;  Upper  Hesse  (cap.  Marburg) ;  Fulda,  and  Hanau. 

VII.  Grand  Duchy  of  Hesse  Darmstadt,  area  2832  square  geographical, 
miles,  pop.  853,000.  Ludwig  III.  (born  1806),  Grand  Duke  since  1848. 
Constitution  of  17th  December,  1820.  Revenues,  7,800,000  florins. 
Divided  into  three  provinces  :  Starkenburg  (cap.  Darmstadt,  pop.  30,000)  ; 
Rhine-Hesse  (cap.  Mayence) ;  Upper  Hesse  (cap.  Giessen). 

VIII.  Grand  Duchy  of  Holstein  and  Lauenburg,  with  an  area  of  2800 
square  geographical  miles,  and  pop.  526.850  (see  under  Denmark). 

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GEOGRAPHY.  87 

IX.  Orand  Duchy  of  Luxemburg  with  Limburgs  area  1392  square  geogra- 
phical miles,  pop.  369,000  (see  under  Netherlands). 

X.  Grand  Duchy  of  Mecklenburg-Schweriny  area  3,648  square  geographical 
miles,  and  528,000  inhabitants.  Frederick  Franz,  Grand  Duke  since  1842. 
The  state  constitutional  law  promulgated  October  1 1,  1849.  Gross  revenues, 
2,818,000  dollars.  The  land  is  divided  into  the  Duchies  of  Schwerin  and 
Güstrow,  the  Principality  of  Schwerin,  the  Manor  of  Wismar,  and  the 
District  of  Rostock. 

XI.  Chrand  Duchy  of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  area  576  square  geographical 
miles,  pop.  96,300.  George  Frederick,  Grand  Duke  since  1816,  rules 
according  to  the  ancient  constitution,  which  applied  to  both  Mecklenburgs. 
The  state  is  divided  into  the  Duchy  of  Strelitz  and  the  Principality  of 
Ratzeburg. 

XII.  Chrand  Duchy  of  Oldenburg,  area  1824  square  geographical  miles, 
pop.  279,000.  A  constitutional  government  was  introduced  February  18, 
1849,  by  Grand  Duke  Augustus,  who  has  reigned  since  1829.  The  revenues 
for  1849  amounted  to  576,000  dollars,  the  expenditures  to  about  856,000 
dollars.  The  state  is  divided,  both  politically  and  physically,  into  three  parts  : 
Duchy  of  Oldenburg,  Principality  Lübeck,  and  Principality  Birkenfeld  (on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine) ;  to  these  must  be  added  the  Herrschaft  of 
Kniphausen. 

XIII.  Grand  Duchy  of  Saxe- Weimar- Eisenach,  area  1072  square 
ge<^aphical  miles,  pop.  257,000.  Charles  Frederick,  Grand  Duke  since 
1828.  Constitution  of  May  5th,  1816.  Revenues  over  500,000  dollars. 
Divided  into  the  Principality  of  Weimar  (cap.  of  same  name,  pop.  12,000) 
and  Eisenach. 

XIV.  Duchy  of  Brunswick,  area  1152  square  geographical  miles,  pop. 
269,000.  Present  ruler,  Duke  William  (since  1830).  Constitution  pro- 
claimed October  12th,  1832.  Revenues,  841,000  dollars.  Divided  into  six 
circles :  Brunswick,  Wolfenbfittel,  Helmstadt,  Holzminden,  Gandersheim, 
and  Blankenburg,  cap.  Brunswick,  pop.  38,000. 

XV.  Duchy  of  Nassau,  area  1312  square  geographical  miles,  and  418,600 
inhabitants,  Duke  Adolphus,  ruler  since  1839.  Constitution  proclaimed 
September  1,  1814,  and  changed  1848.  Revenues  over  two  millions  of 
florins.     Divided  into  twenty-eight  amts.  cap.  Wiesbaden,  pop.  12,300. 

XVI.  Duchy  of  Saxe- Coburg-Gotha,  area  592  square  geographical  miles, 
and  147>000  inhabitants.  Duke  Ernest,  ruler  since  1844.  This  state  is 
divided  into  the  Principality  of  Coburg  and  Gotha,  each  of  which  has  its 
own  constitution,  the  former  since  8th  September,  1821,  the  latter  since 
March  25th,  1849.  Revenues  of  the  former,  122,217  dollars  ;  of  the  latter, 
680,170  dollars.  Capitals,  Coburg,  with  10,000,  and  Gotha,  with  14,000 
inhabitants. 

XVII.  Duchy  of  Saxe-Meiningen,  area  736  square  geographical  miles, 
pop.  160,500.  It  consists  of  a  Henneberg  portion,  a  Coburg  portion,  the 
Duchy  of  Hildburghausen,  and  the  Principality  of  Saalfeld.  Bernhard, 
Duke  since  1803.  Constitution  of  August  23,  1829.  Revenues,  1,208,208 
ttönas ;  cap.  Meiningen,  pop.  6000. 

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38  GEOGRAPHY. 

XVIII.  Duchy  of  Saxe-Ältenburg,  area  364  square  geographical  miles, 
pop.  130,000.  Duke  George,  ruler  since  1848.  Constitution  of  AprU  29th, 
1831.  Budget  for  1849,  426,000  dollars.  Divided  into  the  circles  of 
Altenburg  and  Saal-Eisenberg.     Capital  Altenburg,  with  15,000  inhabitants. 

XIX.  Duchy  of  Anhalt- Dessau^  area  272  square  geographical  miles,  pop. 
6300.  Leopold  Frederick,  Duke  since  1817.  Constitution  of  September 
29th,  1848 ;  cap.  Dessau,  with  12,000  inhabitants. 

XX.  Duchy  of  ÄnhaÜ-Bemburg,  area  224  square  geographical  miles, 
pop.  48,400.  Duke  Alexander  Charles,  ruler  since  1834 ;  cap.  Bemburg, 
with  6000  inhabitants. 

XXI.  Duchy  of  Anhalt-Kothen,  area  240  square  geographical  miles,  pop. 
43,000.  At  present  governed  by  the  Duke  of  Anhalt-Dessau.  Capital 
Kothen,  with  a  pop.  of  6500. 

XXII.  Principality  of  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen,  area  240  square 
geographical  miles,  pop.  58,700.  Günther  Frederick  Charles,  Prince  since 
1834.  Constitution  of  September  21st,  1841 ;  cap.  Sondershausen,  pop. 
4000. 

XXIII.  Principality  of  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt,  area  240  square 
geographical  miles,  pop.  68,900.  Günther  Frederick,  Prince  since  1807. 
Constitution  of  January  2,  1816.  Revenues,  250,000  florins  ;  cap.  Rudol- 
Stadt,  pop.  5300. 

XXIV.  Principality  of  Holienzollem-Sigmaringen^  area  256  square 
geographical  miles,  pop.  45,500.  Prince  Charles  Anthony,  ruler  since  1831 ; 
cap.  Sigmaringen,  with  1600  inhabitants. 

XXV.  Principality  of  Hohenzollern-Hechingen,  area  85  square  gec^ra- 
phical  miles,  pop.  20,000.  Prince  Frederick,  ruler  since  1838;  cap. 
Hechingen,  with  3000  inhabitants. 

XXVI.  Principality  of  Waldeck,  area  352  square  geographical  miles, 
pop  58,800;  consists  of  the  Principality  proper,  and  of  the  county 
Pyrmont,  capital  of  the  former  Korbach  ;  the  princely  residence  is 
Arolsen.  Prince  George  Victor,  ruler  under  the  constitution  of  28th 
May,  1849. 

XXVII.  Principality  of  Lippe,  area  320  square  geographical  miles,  pop. 
108,000.  Prince  Leopold,  ruler  under  the  constitution  of  1836;  cap. 
Detmold,  pop.  5000. 

XXVIII.  Principality  of  Schaumhurg-Lippe,  area  160  square  geogra- 
phical miles,  pop.  28,800.  The  present  prince,  George  William,  came  into 
power  in  1787.  Constitution  of  15th  January,  1816  ;  ca^.  Bückeburg,  with 
4200  inhabitants. 

XXIX.  Principality  of  Reuss,  of  the  old  line,  or  Reuss-Greiz,  area  100 
square  geographical  miles,  pop.  33,800.  Henry  XX.,  Prince  since  1836; 
sap.  Greiz,  pop.  7000. 

XXX.  Principality  of  Reuss,  of  the  new  line,  area  336  square  geogra- 
phical miles,  pop.  70,000,  consisting  of  the  counties,  Schleiz,  Lobenstein- 
Ebersdorf,  and  Gera.  Henry  LXII.,  Prince  since  1816.  Capitals,  Gera,  with 
10,000,  and  Schleiz,  with  5000  inhabitants. 

XXXI.  Principality  of  Lichtenstein  has  an  area  of  40  square  geogra- 
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phical   mUes,   and  pop.   6400.     Prince   Aloys  Joseph,  ruler  since   1836. 
Principal  place,  the  village  of  Vaduz,  pop.  1000. 

XXXII.  Landgrafschaft  of  Hesse-Homburg,  area  80  square  geographical 
miles,  pop.  24,400.  Ferdinand,  Landgrave  since  1848  ;  cap.  Homburg,  with 
3600  inhabitants. 

XXXIII.  Free  town  of  Hamburg,  area  112  square  geographical  miles, 
pop.  188,000,  of  which  148,000  belong  to  the  town  proper. 

XXXIV.  Free  toion  of  Bremen,  area  80  square  geographical  miles,  pop. 
72,800,  of  which  55,000  belong  to  the  town.  Constitution  from  18th  April, 
1849. 

XXXV.  Free  town  of  Frankfurt  on  the  Main,  area  25  square  geographical 
miles,  pop.  68,200,  of  which  58,000  belong  to  the  town. 

XXXVI.  Free  town  of  Lübeck,  area  96  square  geographical  miles,  pop. 
47,000,  of  which  26,000  belong  to  the  town.  Constitution  of  April  8, 
1848. 


The   Railroads  of  Central  Europe  (Double   Plate  15,  16) 

The  railroad  lines  opened  in  the  present  age  throughout  Europe  require 
some  special  notice ;  and  as  we  have  now  completed  our  review  of  the 
different  European  states,  this  will  be  an  appropriate  place  for  such  con- 
sideration. In  this  we  omit  England,  whose  railroads  are  so  numerous  as 
to  have  nearly  taken  the  place  of  all  her  highways.  We  may  remark  in 
general,  that  in  the  British  islands  on  the  1st  of  July,  1849,  there  were  no 
less  than  5447i  miles  of  railroad  open  and  in  actual  use. 

Germany  is  far  ahead  of  the  rest  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  in  respect 
to  railroads,  as  at  the  end  of  September,  1840,  there  were  4186  miles  of 
road  open  to  travel,  2048  of  these,  or  over  one  third,  being  government  roads. 
The  latter  are  as  follows:  1.  In  Austria:  from  Prague  to  Olmütz,  with  a 
branch  from  the  Bohemian  Trübau  to  Brunn,  and  from  M ürzzuschlag  by 
Gratz  and  Cilly  to  Laibach,  in  all  414  miles.  The  former  is  to  be  continued 
north  to  the  borders  of  Saxony  at  Tetschen,  the  latter  from  Laibach  to 
Triest  over  the  Karst;  the  one  will  be  finished  in  the  spring  of  1850,  the 
other  in  1852.  2.  In  Bavaria :  from  the  limits  of  Saxony,  between  Hof 
and  Plauen,  by  Bamberg,  Nürnberg,  Donauwörth,  and  Augsburg,  to  Kauf- 
beuem,  with  a  branch  from  Augsburg  to  Munich,  306  miles  in  all.  The 
continuation  from  Kaufbeuem  to  Lindau  is  in  progress,  as  also  a  road  from 
Bamberg  by  Würzburg  and  Aschaffenburg  to  Hanau.  3.  In  Würtemberg : 
from  Heilbronn.  by  Ludwigsburg  and  Stuttgart  to  Greisslingen,  also  from 
Biberach  to  Friedrichshafen  on  the  Bodensee,  in  all  115  miles.  The 
section  from  Geisslingen  by  Ulm  to  Biberach  will  probably  be  finished  in 
1850.  Connecting  links  to  Baden  and  Bavaria  are  in  distant  contemplation. 
4.  In  Baden :  from  Mannheim  by  Heidelberg,  Karlsruhe,  Offenburg, 
Freiburg  to  Efringen,  near  Basel,  with  branches  to  Kehl  and  Baden-Baden, 
as  also  from  Friedrichsfeld  to  the  borders  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Hesse,  in 
all  193  miles.     5.  In  Hesse-Darmstadt  and  Frankfurt  on  the  Main :   from 

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Frankfurt  by  Darmstadt  to  the  borders  of  Baden  (called  the  Main-Neckar 
Line)  with  branches  to  Offenbach,  in  all  38^  miles.  6.  In  Hanover :  from 
Hanover  to  Brunswick ;  from  Hildesheim  by  Celle  to  Harburg  (the  two 
roads  cross  each  other  at  Lehrte)  ;  from  Hanover  by  Wunstorf  to  Bremen ; 
and  from  Wunstorf  to  Minden,  in  all  214  miles,  without  counting  the  tracts 
lying  in  the  territories  of  Prussia,  Hesse,  Brunswick,  Lippe-Schaumbuj^, 
and  Bremen.  7.  In  Brunswick :  from  Oschersleben  by  Wolfenbüttel  and 
Brunswick  to  the  borders  of  Hanover ;  also  from  Wolfenbüttel  to  Neustadt 
in  the  Hartz ;  in  all  70  miles.  In  Saxony  (with  Saxony- Altenburg) :  the 
Saxony-Bavarian  railroad  from  Leipzig  by  Altenburg,  Reichenbach,  and 
Plauen,  to  the  borders  of  Bavaria  (completed,  with  the  exception  of  the 
part  from  Reichenbach  to  Plauen,  to  be  ready  in  1851),  with  a  branch  to 
Zwickau ;  also  the  Saxony-Bohemian  road  from  Dresden  to  Königsstein 
(the  continuation  of  which,  to  the  Bohemian  borders,  is  in  progress,  and 
mostly  finished),  in  all  99|  miles. 

Roads  built  and  equipped  by  joint  stock  companies  are  as  follows:  1.  In 
Austria :  the  Kaiser- Ferdinand  railroad  from  Vienna  by  Lundenburg  and 
Prerau  to  Oderberg,  where  it  joins  on  to  the  Prussian  railroads,  with 
branches  from  Vienna  to  Stockerau,  from  Genserndorf  to  the  borders  of 
Hungary  (continued  to  Pressburg),  from  Lundenburg  to  Brunn,  and  from 
Prerau  to  Olmutz,  in  all  263  miles.  Also  the  Vienna-GIoggnitz  railroad 
from  Vienna  by  Baden  and  Viennese-Neustadt  to  Gloggnitz,  with  branches 
to  Brück  on  the  Leitha,  to  Laxenburg  and  to  Oedenburg,  74^  miles. 
Finally,  the  Budweis-Linz-Gmundner  horse  road,  the  oldest  railroad  in 
Germany,  which  was  partly  m  use  in  1828, 122  miles  long.  2.  In  Bavaria: 
the  short  road  from  Nürnberg  to  Fürth,  notable  as  being  the  first  German 
road  on  which  steam  was  used  (opened  December  8,  1835)  ;  also  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  the  Palatine  Ludwig's  road  from  Ludwigshafen  and 
Speier  by  Neustadt  and  Kaiserslautern  to  Berbach,  69  miles.  3.  In  Hesse, 
Nassau,  and  the  Territory  of  the  free  town  of  Frankfurt :  the  Taunus  road, 
from  Frankfurt  on  the  Main  to  Wiesbaden,  with  branches  to  Biberich  and 
Soden,  28f  miles ;  also  the  short  road  from  Frankfurt  to  Hanau,  9  miles. 
4.  In  Kur-Hesse:  the  Frederick- William-Northern  railroad  from  the 
borders  of  Saxe- Weimar  at  Gerstungen,  by  way  of  Cassel,  to  Carlshafen  on 
the  Weser,  85  miles.  6.  In  Saxony  :  the  Leipzig-Dresden  road,  71 J 
miles ;  also  the  Saxony-Silesia  road  from  Dresden  by  way  of  Lobau  to 
Görlitz  with  branches  from  Lobau  to  Zittau,  85  miles  ;  the  Chemnitz-Riesa 
road  from  Riesa  by  Döbeln  to  Limmritz  (the  road  has  stopped  at  this  point), 
18^  miles.  6.  In  Prussia  and  the  neighboring  territories  (Saxony,  Anhalt, 
Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  Lauenburg,  Hamburg,  Lübeck,  Saxe- Weimar, 
Saxe-Gotha).  a.  The  Lower  Silesia-Mark  road  from  Berlin  by  Frankfurt 
on  the  Oder  to  Breslau,  with  branches  from  Kohlfurt  to  Görlitz,  and  from 
Hansdorf  by  Sagan  to  Glogau,  in  all  285  miles,  b.  The  Cologne-MInden 
road,  170  miles  long,  with  branches  from  Münster  to  Hamm,  20|  miles,  and 
from  Dortmund  to  Elberfeld,  85i^  miles,  c.  The  Berlin-Hamburg  road,  168 
miles,  d.  The  Berlin-Anhalt  road  from  Berlin  by  Jüterbog,  Wittenberg, 
and  Dessau,  to  Kothen,  with  a  branch  from  lüterbog  to  Röderau  at  Riesa, 
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125)  miles.  e.  The  Upper  Silesian  road  from  Breslau  by  Oppeln  and 
Kosel  to  Myslowitz,  124  miles,  with  connecting  links  from  Breslau  to 
Freiburg  and  Schweidnitz,41^  miles,  from  Brieg  to  Neisse,  28f  miles,  from 
Kosel  to  Oderbei^  (Williams  road),  38  J^  miles,  and  from  Myslowitz  to 
Cracow.  /.  The  Thuringian  road  from  Halle  by  Naumburg,  Weimar, 
Erfurt,  Grotha,  and  Eisenach,  to  Gerstungen,  11 5)  miles,  with  a  small  branch 
to  Waltershausen,  g.  The  road  from  Berlin  by  Stettin  to  Stargard,  102)- 
miles,  and  A,  the  road  from  Berlin  by  Potsdam  to  Magdeburg,  89J  miles. 
k.  The  road  from  Leipzig  by  Halle  and  Kothen  to  Magdeburg,  70  miles, 
with  a  branch  from  Kothen  to  Bernburg,  lOf  miles.  /.  The  road  from 
Magdeburg  to  Wittenberg  on  the  Elbe  (to  connect  with  the  Berlin-Hamburg 
road),  66  miles,  m.  The  road  from  Magdeburg  by  Oschersleben  to  Halber- 
stadt, 35^  miles,  n.  The  Rhenish  road  from  Cologne  by  Aix-la-Chapelle  to 
Herbesthal  on  the  borders  of  Belgium,  53  miles,  with  the  road  from  Cologne 
to  Bonn,  18}  miles,  o.  The  road  from  Düsseldorf  to  Elberfeld,  with  the 
branch  from  Steele  to  Bowinkel,  in  all  35^  miles.  7.  In  Mecklenburg :  the 
Mecklenburg  road  from  Wismar  by  Schwerin  to  Hagenow  on  the  Berlin- 
Hamburg  road,  39  miles  (to  be  opened  further  north  to  Rostock,  with  a 
branch  to  Güstrow,  in  1850).  8.  In  Holstein :  the  road  from  Altena  to 
Kiel,  formerly  termed  Christian  VIII.  Baltic  railroad,  with  branches  to  Glück- 
stadt and  Rendsburg,  in  all  96^  miles. 

From  the  above,  it  is  evident  that  German  railroads  already  reach  the 
bounds  of  Germany  in  the  following  places :  at  Myslowitz,  from  which  a 
road  goes  to  Cracow,  this  again  connecting  with  the  Warsaw- Vienna  road 
to  Warsaw  :  the  borders  of  Hungary  are  touched  in  three  places  ;  crossed 
by  roads  to  Presburg,  Brück,  and  Oedenburg ;  at  Basel,  where  a  small 
portion  only  of  the  Baden  railroad  lacks  completion  ;  at  Herbesthal,  on  the 
boundary  of  Belgium  and  Prussia,  where  the  Belgian  railroad  joins  on 
directly  to  the  Prussian  (Rhenish) ;  and  at  Kehl  opposite  Strasburg.  To 
sum  up  the  whole,  there  are  in  Prussia  1564  miles  of  railroad,  in  Austria 
773  miles,  in  Bavaria  377  miles,  in  Saxony  255  miles,  in  Hanover  223 
miles,  in  Baden  193  miles,  in  Wurtemberg  105  miles,  &c.  With  the 
exception  of  about  575  miles,  all  the  German  railroads  form  a  continuous 
network,  extending  from  Kiel  on  the  Baltic  to  Laibach,  and  from  the 
borders  of  Galicia  to  those  of  Belgium. 

Of  the  remaining  continental  countries,  France  comes  next  in  respect  to 
extent  of  railroads ;  the  sum  total  amounting  to  1840  miles.  The  lines 
most  worthy  of  mention  are :  1.  The  north  railroad  from  Paris  by  Arras  to 
Douay,  and  thence  in  two  branches  by  Lille  and  Valenciennes  to  the 
borders  of  Belgium,  there  connecting  with  the  roads  of  the  latter  country ; 
also  branches  from  Amiens  to  Boulogne,  from  Lille  to  Calais  and  Dunkirk, 
and  from  Creil  to  St.  Quentm  (opened  to  Chauny).  2.  From  Paris  by 
Rouen  to  Havre,  with' a  branch  from  Rouen  to  Dieppe.  3.  From  Paris  to 
Versailles  (two  roads  on  either  bank  of  the  Seine),  with  a  continuation  to 
Chartres.  4.  From  Paris  to  Orleans,  and  from  Orleans  on  the  one  side  by 
Tours  to  Saumur  (part  of  the  road  to  Nantes),  and  on  the  other,  to  Vierzon 
(central  road),  from  which  point  again,  one  road  runs  to  Chateauroux, 

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92  GEOGRAPHY. 

another  by  Bourges  to  Nerondes.  5.  From  Paris  by  Epernay  to  Chalons 
on  the  Marne  (commencement  of  the  road  to  Strasburg).  6.  From  Paris 
to  Lyons,  open  on  the  route  from  Paris  by  Montereau  to  Tonnerre,  with  a 
branch  from  Montereau  to  Troyes,  and  from  Dijon  to  Chalons  on  the 
Saone.  In  addition  to  these,  there  are  small  roads  from  Paris  to  St. 
Germain  and  Sceaux.  The  following  roads  are  at  present  unconnected 
with  the  capital.  From  St.  Etienne  to  Andrezieux,  from  this  to  Roanne, 
and  from  St.  Etienne  to  Lyons,  the  oldest  railroads  in  France  (the  first 
mentioned  has  been  in  existence  since  1827,  the  others  since  1832  and 
1833)  ;  from  Nismes  by  Montpelier  to  Cette,  from  Beaucaire  by  Nismes  to 
Alais  and  Grand  Combe ;  from  Strasburg  to  Basel,  with  a  branch  from 
Mühlhausen  to  Thann  ;  from  Bordeaux  to  Teste ;  from  Avignon  to  Mar- 
seilles.    To  these  must  be  added  numerous  coal  roads. 

Belgium  has  over  460  miles  of  railroad  (three  fourths  built  since  1835 
at  the  public  expense)  which  traverse  the  country  in  every  direction.  One 
main  line  passes  from  Herbesthal  on  the  borders  of  Prussia,  by  way  of 
Luttich,  Landes,  Löwen,  Mecheln,  Ghent,  and  Bruges,  to  Ostende ;  this  is 
crossed  at  Mecheln  by  the  second  line,  which  goes  from  Antwerp  by 
Brussels,  Hal,  Braine-le-Comte,  and  Mons,  to  Quievrain  on  the  borders  o! 
France,  and  in  French  territory  by  way  of  Valenciennes  to  Paris. 
Lateral  lines  lead  from  Landes  by  St.  Trond  to  Hasselt,  from  Braine-le- 
Comte  by  Charleroi  to  Namur,  from  Ghent  by  Courtroi  to  the  borders  of 
France  (in  the  direction  of  Lille),  and  to  Toumai.  During  the  last  year, 
private  roads  have  been  laid  out :  1,  from  Ghent  to  Antwerp ;  2,  from 
Bruges  to  Courtrai  (West  Flanders)  ;  3,  from  Tournai  to  Jurbise,  on 
the  road  passing  from  Brussels  to  Mons;  and  4,  many  other  smaller 
tracts. 

The  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  has  likewise  its  railroad  system,  con- 
sisting of  two  lines :  the  Holland  railroad  from  Amsterdam  by  Haarlem, 
Leyden,  and  the  Hague,  to  Rotterdam  ;  and  the  Rhine  railroad  from 
Amsterdam  by  Utrecht  to  Arnheim,  the  two  amounting  to  about  120 
miles.     The  first  tract  was  opened  in  1839,  the  latter  in  1847. 

In  Switzerland  we  find  only  a  few  short  roads,  as  the  one  from  Zurich  to 
Baden,  14  miles,  &c.  In  Denmark,  from  Copenhagen  to  Roeskilde  18^ 
miles,  the  Seeland  railroad  built  1847 ;  and  in  Spain  (not  included  in  the 
chart),  the  road  from  Barcelona  to  Mataro,  about  18^  miles,  built 
in  1848. 

In  Italy,  which  in  its  northern  part  at  least  belongs  here,  we  find  the 
following  railroads:  1.  In  Upper  Italy,  from  Chambery  to  the  Lake  of 
Bourget,  scarcely  5  miles  in  length ;  from  Turin  to  Montcaliere,  as  the 
beginning  of  the  Sardinian  network  of  roads ;  from  Milan  to  Monza,  with  a 
continuation  to  Como,  in  progress  as  far  as  Camnago ;  from  Venice  by 
Padua  and  Vicenza  to  Verona,  and  from  Milan  to  Treviglio  (the  deficient 
link  between  Treviglio  and  Verona  has  been  under  way  for  seven  years). 
2.  In  Middle  Italy,  from  Florence  by  Pisa  to  Leghorn,  with  branches  from 
Pisa  to  Lucca,  from  Empoli  to  Siena,  from  Florence  to  Prato.  3.  In 
Lower  Italy,  from  Naples  to  Nocera  and  Castellamare,  from  Naples  to 
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Capua  and  Nola.  The  oldest  Italian  railroad  is  that  from  Naples  to  Portici, 
opened  in  1839. 

In  Hungary  and  Galicia,  the  following  railroads  have  been  constructed 
9ince  1840 :  from  Presburg  by  Tyrnau  to  Szered ;  from  Pesth  on  the  one 
side  to  Szolnok,  on  the  other,  to  Waitzen  ;  from  Ckienburg  to  Katzeldorf 
(joining  on  to  the  Vienna-Gloggnitz  road),  and  from  Presburg  to  Marchegg 
(joining  on  to  the  Kaiser- Ferdinand-north  railroad)  ;  in  all  about  148  miles) 
The  Galician  road  from  Cracow  to  the  borders  of  Prussia  (called  the 
Cracow-Upper  Silesian  road,  32  miles  long)  has  already  been  mentioned 
among  the  German  railroads. 

In  Poland,  a  railroad  was  opened  in  1845-1848,  from  Warsaw  to  Cracow 
(the  Warsaw- Vienna  road),  with  a  branch  to  Lowicz,  in  all  198  miles.  In 
Russia,  a  road  of  16  miles  was  opened  in  1836-1837,  from  St.  Petersburg 
by  Zarskoe-Selo  to  Pawlowsk,  Whether  the  colossal  railroad  from  St. 
Petersburg  to  Moscow  (now  under  way  for  several  years)  be  opened  at  all, 
or  h6w  far,  nothing  satisfactory  can  be  learned. 

The  railroads  constructed  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  up  to  this  time, 
may  be  estimated  at  7360  miles,  more  than  half  of  them  in  Germany ;  if  to 
this  be  added  the  5447^  in  England,  we  shall  have  the  large  number  of 
12,807  J  miles  of  railroad  in  the  whole  of  Europe.  The  number  of  miles  of 
road  opened  and  in  use  on  the  1st  of  January,  1849,  in  the  United  States 
of  America,  amounted  to  6117^  miles,  and  the  sum  total,  by  the  end  of 
1852,  will  in  all  probability  reach,  if  it  do  not  exceed  10,000  miles. 


II.  ASIA  {Plate  28). 

Having  already  referred  to  the  principal  physical  features  of  this  great 
continent,  we  shall  here  confine  ourselves  to  a  brief  consideration  of  its 
political  relations.  The  inhabitants,  whose  numbers  have  been  estimated 
at  five  hundred  millions,  though  not  from  any  very  sure  data,  may  be 
divided  into  three  races :  Caucasian,  Mongolian,  and  Malay.  Only  a  small 
portion  belong  to  the  latter.  The  Caucasian  may  be  divided  into  the 
Caucasian  stock  proper  (Georgians,  Tscherkessians,  &c.),  the  Indo- Persian 
stock  (Hindoos,  Afghans,  Persians,  Armenians,  &c.),  and  the  Arabian  stock 
(Tartars,  Arabians,  Turks,  and  Turcomans).  The  Mongols  are  divided 
into  the  Mongols  proper,  Japanese,  Chinese  (with  the  inhabitants  of  Thibet 
and  Further  India),  and  the  various  tribes  in  Siberia.  Ethiopians  occur 
only  on  a  few  of  the  Indian  Islands.  The  prevailing  religions  are  those  of 
Budha,  Brahma,  the  Grand  Lama,  and  Mohammed  ;  in  addition  to  these  we 
find  Christianity  in  Asiatic  Russia  and  in  the  East  Indies.  In  a  political 
point  of  view,  the  following  lands  and  states  are  the  most  important :  in 
treating  of  them  we  shall  proceed  from  north  to  south 


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1    Asiatig  Russia. 

We  have  already  rererred,  under  the  head  of  European  Russia,  to  this 
part  of  Asia.  It  is  divided  into  Siberia  and  the  Caucasus,  the  former  of 
which  has  an  area  of  3,600,000  square  geographical  miles,  with  not  over 
thirteen  millions  of  inhabitants,  or  about  three  souls  to  the  ^uare  mile ;  the 
latter  has,  with  an  area  of  48,000  square  geographical  miles,  two  millions 
and  a  half  of  inhabitants.  Among  the  inhabitants  are  two  millions  of 
Tartars,  about  one  million  of  Caucasians,  25,000  Mongolians,  110,000 
Armenians,  besides  Tartars,  Slavi,  and  various  tribes  in  Eastern  Siberia  of 
uncertain  descent.  The  peninsula  of  Kamtschatka  belonging  to  Siberia, 
has  about  64,000  square  geographical  miles  of  area,  and  only  5000  inhabit- 
ants. Of  the  140  Kurile  Islands,  only  twenty-one  belong  to  Russia»  the  rest 
to  Japan. 

2.  Turkey  in  Asia 

Embraces  from  284,000  to  320,000  square  geographical  miles,  with  an 
indeterminable  population,  at  most  not  more  than  ten  to  twelve  millions. 
Among  them  are  about  four  millions  of  Turks,  two  millions  of  Greeks,  one 
million  and  a  half  of  Armenians,  one  million  and  a  half  of  Turcomans,  one 
million  of  Arabians,  one  million  of  Kurds,  one  million  and  a  half  of 
Maronites,  300,000  Jews,  &c.  The  following  provinces  are  usually 
distinguished:  1.  Natolia  or  Anadoli,  the  ancient  Asia  Minor,  128,000 
square  geographical  miles,  divided  into  six  eyalets.  2.  Armenia,  36,320 
square  geographical  miles,  divided  into  four  eyalets.  3.  Koordistan.  4. 
Mesopotamia  or  Dschesair,  with  Irak,  Arabia,  the  ancient  Babylonia  and 
Chaldaea,  divided  into  four  eyalets.  5.  Syria  or  Soristan,  32,000  square 
geographical  miles,  with  about  1,360,000  inhabitants,  and  five  eyalets.  The 
names  of  all  these  eyalets  will  be  found  on  Plate  26.  To  the  above 
provinces  must  be  added :  6.  The  Turkish  Islands,  of  which  Cyprus,  with 
about  4849  square  geographical  miles,  and  100,000  inhabitants,  is  largest. 
The  most  considerable  of  the  other  islands  are  :  Rhodes,  320  square 
geographical  miles,  pop.  10-30,000 ;  Chios,  Samos,  Tenedos,  Lesbos,  and 
the  nine  Prince's  Islands  in  the  Sea  of  Marmora. 


3.  Persia  (West   Iran). 

This  state  lies  between  44o  and  52^  E.  longitude  from  Greenwich  (62°  to 
79°  east  of  Ferro),  and  between  27°  and  40°  N.  lat.  It  embraces  an  area 
of  368,000  square  geographical  miles,  with  about  eleven  millions  of  inhabit- 
ants, among  which,  in  addition  to  the  Persians  proper,  are  Parsees  or 
Guebers,  Koords,  Armenians,  &c.  The  national  religion  is  the  Schiite- 
Mohammedan.  The  supreme  head  of  the  state  is  called  Shah  (Nasreddin 
since  1848,  of  the  ruling  family  of  the  Turcoman  Kadschars),  the  throne  is 
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nereditary  in  the  male  line.  The  kingdom  is  divided  into  twelve  provinces : 
1.  Irak  Adschemi,  the  ancient  Media,  with  the  capital  and  royal  residence, 
Teheran,  and  the  ancient  Ispahan.  2.  Farsistan  or  Pars,  Persia  proper, 
with  the  capital  Shiraz.  3.  Laristan.  4.  Kerman  or  Karamania,  the 
eastern  province,  cap.  Ravamania.  5.  Schusistan  or  Chusistan.  6. 
Adzerbeidschan,  with  the  cap.  Tauris  or  Tabriz.  7.  Ghilan.  8.  Masanderan» 
the  ancient  Hyrcania.  0.  Taberistan.  10.  Kuhistan.  11.  Chorasan. 
12.  Koordistan. 

4.  Arabia. 

Arabia  is  separated  from  Africa  by  the  Red  Sea  or  the  Gulf  of  Arabia, 
and  connected  to  it  by  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  has  an  area  of  720,000  square 
geographical  miles,  to  a  population  of  twelve  millions.  The  greater  part  of 
these  consist  of  Arabians,  although  there  are  also  Turks,  Turcomans, 
Armenians,  Banians  (Indian  merchants),  Jews,  Negroes,  and  Abyssinians. 
The  prevailing  religion  is  that  of  Islam,  which  here  had  its  origin ;  the  pre- 
vailing sect  is  the  Sunnitic  ;  only  in  the  interior  do  we  find  numerous 
Wechabites.  It  is  only  the  inhabitants  of  the  coast,  divided  into  Hedesi 
(dwellers  in  towns  and  villages)  and  Msedi  (a  semi-nomadic  people),  who 
pay  any  attention  to  agriculture,  manufactures,  and  commerce  (the  latter  is 
chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  Banians)  ;  the  Bedouins  in  the  interior  wander 
about  with  their  herds.  The  Imaum  of  Muscat  is  the  most  powerful  of  all 
the  numerous  petty  princes.  The  following  districts  of  unknown  extent 
have  received  special  names  :  1.  Hedschas^  the  coast  land  on  the  northern 
part  of  the  Gulf  of  Arabia,  over  which  the  Turkish  Sultan,  as  Khalif, 
exercises  a  kind  of  supremacy.  The  most  powerful  native  prince  is  the 
Shereef  of  Mecca.  The  most  important  towns  are  Mecca,  the  sacred  city 
of  the  Mohammedans,  where  their  prophet  was  born,  and  Medina,  where  he 
was  buried.  The  harbor  of  Mecca  is  termed  Dschidda ;  that  of  Medina, 
Yambo.  To  the  extreme  north-west  of  Hedschas  lies  the  peninsula  of 
Petrsea,  or  peninsula  of  Mount  Sinai,  with  the  towns  of  Akaba  and  Suez ; 
it  is  not  usually  included  under  Hedschas.  2.  Yemen,  the  south-western 
part  of  Arabia,  subject  in  part  to  the  Imaum  of  Sanna  or  Sanaa.  The  chief 
towns  are  Sanna,  Mocha,  and  Aden,  the  latter  in  possession  of  England 
since  1830,  and  in  a  high  state  of  prosperity.  3.  Hadramaut,  and  4, 
MaJirah,  form  the  southern  coast.  The  chief  towns  of  the  interior  are 
Hadramaut,  Schibam,  and  Terim ;  on  the  coast,  Makulla  or  Markalla.  5. 
Oman,  the  south-eastern  coast  from  Cape  Müssendem  to  the  island  of 
Mazeira,  divides  into  the  provinces  Dscheilan,  Oman,  Dhorra,  and  Batna. 
The  most  important  towns  are  Maskat,  Rastak,  Matarah,  and  Schohar.  6. 
Hadschar,  also  called  Lahsa  or  £1  Ahsa,  the  coast  land  along  the  Persian 
Gulf,  contains  the  towns  of  El  Katif,  Lahsa,  and  Graine.  7.  Nedschid,  the 
highland  of  the  interior,  is  almost  entirely  unknown.  It  contains  Derreyeh, 
the  chief  town  of  the  Wechabites.  The  greater  part  of  the  interior  is 
desert,  and  forms  the  so-called  Arabia  Deserta,  including  the  greater  part 
of  the  Arabian  peninsula. 

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5.  Turkestan,  Tukan,  or  Tartary. 

Turkestan,  the  home  of  the  Turks,  sometimes  called  Great  Bucharia,  liei 
between  Russia  in  Asia,  China,  Afghanistan,  and  Persia ;  it  has  an  area  of 
512,000  square  geographical  miles,  with  a  population  of  five  millions. 
This  belongs  chiefly  to  Tartary  stocks  (Usbekes  and  Todschiks  or 
Buchanans),  besides  Turcomans  or  Truchmenes,  Arabians,  Kirgises,  Kafirs 
(a  Hindoo  stock),  &c.  Excepting  the  last  mentioned,  all  are  Sunnite 
Mohammedans.  Besides  the  Nomadic  tribes  in  the  desert,  there  are  five 
large  states  subject  to  Khans.  These  are :  1.  Buchara  or  Bokhara,  capitals 
Samarcand  and  Bokhara.  2.  Chekand,  north-east  of  the  preceding,  with 
a  cap.  Chokand.  3.  Khiwa.  in  Chowaresm,  the  northern  part  of  the 
country,  with  the  land  of  the  Kourates  or  Aralian  Tartars.  4.  Kunduz, 
and  5,  Balkh,  with  capitals  of  similar  names.  We  must  add  to  the  above 
the  Turcoman  land  between  the  Caspian  and  Aral  seas ;  the  land  of  Buret, 
the  true  home  of  the  Kirgises,  and  the  territory  of  the  great  Orda  of  the 
Kirgises. 

6.  Afghanistan  or  Kabulistan. 

Afghanistan,  area  192-256,000  square  geographical  miles,  pop.  ten  to 
fourteen  millions,  constitutes,  with  Beludchistan,  the  eastern  part  of  the 
Iranian  plateau,  and  until  1847  belonged  to  Persia.  The  inhabitants  belong 
to  very  different  tribes;  the  Afghans  or  Patans,  introduced  as  conquerors, 
amounted  to  four  millions  and  a  half,  in  two  principal  stocks,  Gildschis  and 
Duranis  ;  Tadschiks  or  Persians,  the  original  inhabitants,  two  millions  and 
a  half;  Hendkis,  of  Indian  origin,  three  millions  ;  Eimaks  and  Hasarehs; 
also  Turkomans,  Arabians,  Armenians,  Abyssinian  slaves,  Jews,  &c.  The 
most  powerful  princes  are  the  Shah  of  Kabul,  and  the  Shah  of  Herat. 

The  proper  Afghan  country  includes  eleven  provinces:  Tschotsch, 
Lagman,  Pischawer,  Dschellalabad,  Hasareh,  Liwi,  Schirkarpur,  Kandahar 
(its  capital,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  towns  in  Asia),  Gasni  or  Ghisni,  and 
Furrah,  all  with  capitals  of  the  same  names. 

In  Khorasan,  once  a  Persian  portion  of  the  country,  we  find  Herat,  with 
100,000  inhabitants,  one  of  the  largest  and  most  important  places  of  trade 
in  Southern  Asia.  Additional  provinces  reckoned  by  many  geographers 
under  Afghanistan,  are  the  renowned  vale  of  Cashmere  (subject  to  a 
Maharadscha),  and  the  province  of  Mooltan. 


7.  Beludchistan. 

This  cotmtry,  situated  to  the  south  of  Afghanistan,  has  an  area  of  from 

06-112,000  square  geographical  miles,  with  a  population  of  two  to  three 

millions.     This  belongs  chiefly  to  the  two  races  of  the  Beluds  and  Brahus, 

both  a  pastoral  people,  and  the  latter  subdivisible  into  seventy-four  stocks 

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GEOGRAPnY.  97 

Six  provinces  are  usually  distinguished  :  Sarawan,  cap.  Kelat ;  Katsch* 
Gandawa,  cap.  Gandawa ;  Djhalawan,  cap.  Zuhri ;  Lus,  cap.  Bela ;  Mekran, 
cap.  Kedsch  or  Kedsche  ;  Kuhistan,  cap.  Buhra. 


6.  Chinese  Empire. 

This  immense  empire,  which  ranks  with  the  Russian  and  English,  as  the 
largest  on  earth,  extends  from  69^  to  115°  longitude  east  of  Greenwich 
(86**  to  162°  E.  of  Ferro),  and  from  20°  to  60°  N.  lat.  Its  greatest  length 
is  3450  miles,  its  greatest  breadth  amounts  to  2484  miles,  and  with  the 
tributary  and  vassal  countries,  embraces  an  area  of  4,000,000  square 
geographical  miles.  Of  this  amount  only  one  third  belongs  to  China  proper. 
The  number  of  inhabitants  can  be  only  approximately  ascertained,  the 
estimates  varying  from  150  to  360  millions;  at  any  rate,  this  empire 
exceeds  all  others  in  point  of  population.  In  addition  to  the  true  Chinese« 
forming  the  great  majority  of  the  population,  we  find  in  China  proper, 
Mantchous,  various  Mongolian  tribes,  and  Jews.  The  three  acknowledged 
religions  are  those  of  Kon-fu-tse  or  Confucius  (religion  of  the  educated),  of 
Fo  (Court  religion),  and  of  Lao-tse  (the  oldest  religion  of  the  people).  The 
form  of  government  is  an  unlimited  monarchy.  The  present  Emperor  is 
called  Ee  Lunz,  or  Yhi  Chiu ;  his  reign  dates  from  the  beginning  of  1850. 
The  empire  consists  of  directly  subject,  tributary,  and  vassal  or  protected 
lands. 

I.  Lands  immediately  subject  to  China,  a.  China  proper,  or  Schina,  is 
divided  into  seventeen  provinces.     These  from  north  to  south  are  as  follows : 

1.  Tschile  or  Petscheli,  pop.  twenty-eight  millions,  cap.  Peking,  with 
about  two  mi^ons  of  inhabitants  :  it  is  capital  of  the  whole  kingdom.  2. 
Schantung,  pop.  twenty-nine  millions,  cap.  Tsinansu.  3.  Kiangsu,  pop. 
thirty-eight  millions,  and  4.  Anhoei,  pop.  thirty-four  millions ;  cap.  Kiangningfu 
or  Nankin,  with  500,000  inhabitants.  5.  Tschekiang,  pop.  twenty-five 
millions,  cap.  Kangtscheufu  :  Ningpo,  with  500,000  inhabitants.  6.  Fukian, 
pop.  fifteen  millions,  cap.  Futschewfu,  with  400,000  inhabitants.  7. 
Kwangtung,  pop.  nineteen  millions,  cap.  Kwangtschufu  or  Canton,  with 
500,000  inhabitants.  In  the  vicinity  of  Canton  are  situated  the  Portuguese 
islaiKl  of  Macao,  and  the  English  island  of  Hongkong.  8.  Schansi,  pop.  ten 
millions,  cap.  Tajuan.  9.  Schensi,  and  10.  Kansu,  together,  with  a  pop.  of 
fourteen  millions,  and  one  cap.  Singan.  11.  Szetschuan,  pop.  twenty-one 
millions  and  a  half,  cap.  Tschingtu.  12.  lünnan,  pop.  five  millions  and  a 
half,  cap.  of  same  name.  13.  Kwangsi,  pop.  700,000,  cap.  Kweilin.  In  the 
interior  are  the  provinces  :  14.  Hunan,  pop.  eighteen  millions  and  a  halC 
cap.  Tschangscha.  15.  Kiangsi,  pop.  thirty  millions,  cap.  Nan  tschang.  16. 
Hupi,  pop.  twenty-seven  millions,  cap.  Wutschang.  17.  Honan,  pop. 
twenty-three  millions,  cap.  Kaiting  or  Kaifangfu.  In  addition  to  these,  the 
islands  of  Formosa  and  Hainan  belong  to  China. 

b.  Thian-Schan-Pelu  (or  the  Dsungarei),  and  Thian-Schan-Nanlu 
(Hi^    Tartary  or    Little    Bucharia),    both    together    called  Sin-Kiang 

ICOVOORAPmO   ENOTCLOPiBDIA. — ^VOL.  HI.  7  97 


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98  GEOGRAPHY. 

or  the  new  limits.     The  most  important  towns  are  Di  or  Guldja,  Yarkand, 
and  Kaschgar. 

II.  Tributary  Provinces,  1.  Mandschury,  also  called  Tungusia  or  the 
Amurland,  in  the  north  of  China  proper,  area  480  to  560,000  square  geogra- 
phical miles,  pop  two  millions,  cap.  Mukden.  2.  Mongoly,  area  from  90 
to  100,000  squaie  geographical  miles,  inhabited  by  about  three  millions  of 
nomadic  tribes,  subject  to  twenty-six  princes.  The  town  of  Urga  is 
situated  in  the  north,  and  Dschehol  in  the  south. 

III.  Lands  under  the  protection  of  China.  1.  Butan  or  Bhotan,  also 
included  under  the  East  Indies,  area  about  48,000  square  geographical 
miles,  pop.  one  million  and  a  half,  cap.  Tassisudon.  2.  Tübet  or  Thibet, 
area  about  400,000  square  geographical  miles,  cap.  Hlassa,  the  residence  of 
the  Dalai  Lama,  or  the  high  priest,  and  at  the  same  time  temporal  ruler. 
8.  Peninsula  of  Korea  or  Tschao-Sian,  area  112,000  square  geographical 
miles.  The  king  resides  in  Kinkitao.  4.  The  thirty-six  Lukeio  Islands, 
area  6880  square  geographical  miles,  with  300,000  inhabitants ;  also  the 
eleven  Madschico  Islands  south-west  of  the  latter. 


0.   Japan. 

This  island-state  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia,  embraces  an  area  of  102  to 
208,000  square  geographical  miles,  with  about  twenty  to  thirty  millions  of 
inhabitants.     These  are  about  equal  to  the  Chinese  in  intellectual  develop- 
ment ;  they  are  of  Mongolian  descent,  and  are  divided  into  eight  different 
\  classes.     The  national  religion  is  that  of  Budha,  in  eight  different  sects,  all 

recognised  by  the  state.  The  supreme  ruler  has  for  title  Dairi.  His,  however, 
is  only  a  spiritual  supremacy  ;  the  Seogoun  or  Kubo  governs  in^is  name,  with 
two  hundred  princes  subject  to  him.  The  entire  state  is  divided  into  eight 
provinces,  sixty-eight  circles,  and  622  districts.  The  principal  islands  are 
as  follows  : 

1.  Nipon,  about  80,000  square  geographical  miles,  situated  in  the  centre. 
The  capital,  Dscheddo,  is  said  to  have  1,600,000  inhabitants ;  Miako,  the 
residence  of  the  Dairi,  is  not  much  smaller.  2.  Kiusju  or  Schimo,  area  20,800 
square  geographical  miles,  with  its  capital  Nangasaki,  where  the  business 
of  the  Dutch  Company  is  carried  on  :  their  factory  is  on  the  small  island  of 
Desima.  3.  Sikok,  south  of  Nipon,  12,800  square  geographical  miles,  cap. 
Awa.  4.  Jesso,  north  of  Nipon,  46,400  square  geographical  miles,  cap. 
Matsmai,  with  50,000  inhabitants.  In  addition  to  these,  most  of  the  Kurile 
Islands  belong  to  Japan. 


10.    HlNDOSTAN   OR   HiTHER   InDIA. 

Hindostan,  or  the  western  peninsula  of  the  East  Indies,  this  side  of  the 
Ganges,  embraces  about  1,120,000  square  geographical  miles,  and  is  divided 
by  physical  features  into  four  essentially  different  portions  :  1,  the  Alpine 
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GEOGRAPHY.  99 

land  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  Himalaya ;  2,  the  lowland  of  the  Ganges 
or  Hindostan  proper ;  3,  the  lowland  of  the  Indus ;  and  4,  the  peninsula  of 
the  Decoan.  The  inhabitants,  about  150  millions  in  number,  may  be  divided 
into  Hindoos  or  natives  in  four  different  castes ;  the  so  called  Mongols, 
mostly  of  Perso-Turkish  origin,  about  fifteen  millions ;  Afghans,  Arabians, 
500,000  Parsees  or  Guebers,  Jews  and  Europeans.  The  prevailing  religion 
is  that  of  the  Brahmins  (with  three  principal  gods,  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and 
Shiwa),  to  which  about  107  millions  conform ;  there  are  also  about  twenty- 
five  millions  of  Mohammedans,  five  millions  of  Sikhs  or  Namaks,  over  one 
million  and  a  half  of  Christians  (600,000  Roman  Catholics,  500,000  Episco- 
palians and  Presbyterians,  200,000  Jacobites,  200,000  Thomas-Christians, 
50,000  Armenians,  &c.)>  and  50,000  followers  of  Budha. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  peninsula,  or  about  960,000  square  geogra- 
phical miles,  is  in  possession  of  the  English,  or  rather  of  the  British  East 
India  Company:  most  of  it,  with  110  millions  of  inhabitants,  is  directly 
owned  by  them,  and  the  rest  in  their  indirect  possession.  The  former  is 
divided  into  four  presidencies. 

1.  Calcutta  or  Bengal,  with  Assan  and  Arracan,  embraces  96,000  square 
geographical  miles,  with  sixty  millions  of  inhabitants.  The  capital  (and  the 
cap.  of  all  British  India)  is  Calcutta,  with  250,000  inhabitants.  2.  Agra, 
1 12,000  square  geographical  miles,  pop.  twenty-one  millions,  cap.  Allahabad, 
pop.  20,000.  Other  towns  are  Benares,  pop.  500,000,  Delhi,  pop  300,000, 
Mirzapur,  pop.  200,000,  Agra,  pop.  100,000.  3.  Madras,  96,000  square 
geographical  miles,  pop.  fifteen  millions,  cap.  Madras  in  the  Carnatic,  with 
a  pop.  of  460,000.  Other  important  towns  are  Trichinopoly,  Tanjore, 
Masulipatam,  Calicut,  Cotschin,  &c.  4.  Bombay,  56,000  square  geogra- 
phical miles,  pop.  six  millions  and  a  half,  cap.  Bombay  in  the  province  of 
Aurungabad,  .with  160,000  inhabitants.  Other  important  towns  are  Surat, 
Punah,  and  Ahmedabad.  Since  1843,  the  district  of  Scinde,  with  40,000 
square  geographical  miles,  and  one  million  of  inhabitants  (cap.  Hyderabad) ; 
and  since  1849,  the  Punjaub  (the  former  kingdom  of  Lahore  or  the  state  of 
the  Sikhs),  with  128,000  square  geographical  miles,  and  eight  millions  of 
inhabitants  (cap.  Lahore,  pop.  80,000),  together  with  the  district  of 
Petschauer,  have  become  part  of  the  Indo-British  Empire. 

The  indirect  territory  of  the  East  India  Company,  424,000  square 
geographical  miles  of  extent,  and  thirty-eight  millions  of  inhabitants, 
consists  of  numerous  states  of  various  size.  The  most  important  are  :  1. 
The  Kingdom  of  Hyderabad  or  the  Deccan,  72,000  square  geographical 
miles,  and  ten  millions  of  inhabitants,  with  the  cities  of  Hyderabad,  pop. 
200,000,  and  Aurungabad,  pop.  60,000.  The  prince,  or  Radscha,  is  called 
Nizam  or  Subah.  2.  Nagpur,  52,800  square  geographical  miles,  pop.  three 
millions,  with  a  cap.  of  the  same  name,  containing  110,000  inhabitants.  3. 
The  Mahratta  state  of  the  Maharadscha  Sindia,  29,760  square  geographical 
miles,  with  four  millions  of  inhabitants.  4.  Mysore,  20,320  square  geo- 
graphical miles,  and  three  millions  of  inhabitants,  with  the  cities  of  Mysore 
and  Bangalore.  5.  Aude,  15,200  square  geographical  miles,  pop.  three 
millions,  cap.  Lucknow,  with  300,000  inhabitants.    6.  The  States  of  the 

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Rajpoots,  37,280  square  geographical  miles,  pop.  two  millions.  7.  The 
State  of  Ghixerat,  13,600  square  geographical  miles,  pop.  two  millions, 
cap.  Baroda,  100,000  inhabitants.  8.  Satarah,  8000  square  geographical 
miJes,  pop.  one  million  and  a  half.  9.  The  State  of  the  Holkar,  8480  square 
geographical  miles,  pop.  one  million  and  a  quarter,  cap.  Indore.  10. 
Travancore,  6400  square  geographical  miles,  pop.  one  million,  chief  towns 
Travancore  and  Trivanderam. 

The  French  possessions  in  India  embrace  only  400  square  geographical 
miles,  with  170,000  inhabitants,  and  the  town  of  Pondicherry ;  the  Portu- 
guese 628  square  geographical  miles,  with  90,000  inhabitants,  and  the 
town  of  Goa. 

There  are  only  two  independent  states  in  Hither  India :  Nepaul,  40,000 
square  gec^aphical  miles,  with  two  millions  and  a  half  of  inhabitants,  cap. 
Katmandu ;  and  Butan  or  Bootan,  with  48,000  square  geographical  miles, 
one  million  and  a  half  inhabitants,  and  the  cap.  Tassisudon.  The  latter 
state  has  also  been  included  in  Thibet,  and  is  a  vassal  province  of  the 
Chinese  empire. 

11.  Further  India. 

Fiurther  India,  or  the  eastern  peninsula  of  the  East  Indies,  beyond  the 
Ganges,  embraces  about  640,000  square  geographical  miles,  with  thirty-six 
millions  of  inhabitants.  These  consist  of  Burmans,  Siamese,  Malays,  &c. ; 
most  of  them  speak  the  Malay  tongue,  and  profess  the  religion  of  Budha. 
The  principal  states  and  districts  are  as  follows : 

1.  Burmah  or  Ava,  192,000  square  geographical  miles,  pop.  four  millions 
and  a  half  (other  accounts  vary  between  two  and  fourteen  millions),  cap.  Ava; 
larger  towns  are  Amerapura  and  Rangoon.  2.  Siam,  about  144,000  square 
geographical  miles,  with  three  millions  and  a  half  of  inhabitants,  cap.  Bangkok, 
pop.  90,000.  3.  Anam,  consisting  of  the  districts  of  Cochin  China  and 
Tonquin,  208,000  square  geographical  miles,  with  twelve  millions  of  inhabit- 
ants. The  royal  residence  is  Hue-Fo  in  Cochin  China ;  other  important 
towns  are  Ketcho  in  Tonquin,  and  Saygun  in  Cambodscha.  4.  The 
Peninsula  of  Malacca  contains  several  small  independent  states.  3.  The 
British  Possessions,  belonging  to  the  presidency  of  Bengal,  are :  a,  Assam, 
subjected  since  1825,  32,000  square  geographical  miles,  pop.  one  million; 
b.  Provinces  taken  from  the  Burmans,  viz.  Arracan,  Martaban,  Ye,  Tavay, 
and  Tenasserim,  in  all  27,200  square  geographical  miles,  with  250,000 
inhabitants  ;  c.  Prince  of  Wales  Island,  one  of  the  Mergui  islands,  128 
square  gec^aphical  miles,  pop.  61,000;  cap.  Georgetown,  with  20,000 
inhabitants ;  e,  Island  of  Singapore,  south  of  Malacca,  240  square  geogra- 
phical miles,  pop.  21,000. 

12.  Thb  East  India  Islaiidb. 

1.  The  Laccadives,  west  of  Hindostan,  thirty- two  inhabited.    2.  The 
Maldives,  south   of   the  preceding  :   their  number   amounts  to  over  one 
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GEOGRAPHY.  101 

thousand ;  only  fifty,  however,  are  inhabited  by  200,000  Malays  under  a 
Sultan  3.  The  English  Island  of  Ceylon,  20,000  square  geographical 
miles,  pop.  one  million  and  a  half,  cap.  Colombo,  with  50,000  inhabit- 
ants. 4.  The  Andamans,  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  5.  The  Nicohar  Islands^ 
south  of  the  preceding.  The  Danish  settlements  on  these  islands  have 
been  long  since  abandoned.  6.  The  Ghreat  Sunda  Islands :  a.  Sumatra, 
112  to  128,000  square  geographical  miles,  inhabitants  mostly  Malays.  The 
Netherlands  are  in  possession  of  the  most  of  the  soulh-eastern  and  south- 
western coast.  Chief  towns :  Padang,  Bencoolen,  Palembang.  h,  Java, 
40,000  square  geographical  miles,  pop.  five  millions.  The  greater  part  of 
the  island  in  possession  of  the  Hollanders.  Chief  towns :  Batavia,  pop. 
50,000 ;  Samarang,  pop.  30,000 ;  Surabaya,  pop.  80,000.  c.  Borneo,  the 
largest  island  of  Asia,  160,000  square  geographical  miles,  with  about  three 
millions  of  inhabitants.  A  small  portion  of  the  island  is  in  possession  of  the 
Hollanders,  d,  Celebes,  41,600  square  geographical  miles,  pop.  three 
millions.  A  tract  of  3680  square  geographical  miles,  with  360,000  inhabit- 
ants, belongs  to  the  Netherlands.  7.  The  Small  Sunda  Islands,  extending 
eastwards  from  Java.  The  most  important  are  Timor,  6400  square  geogra- 
phical miles,  and  Sunbava,  but  little  less,  both  belonging  to  the  Netherlands, 
excepting  a  small  portion  of  Timor,  which  is  Portuguese.  8.  The  Moluccas 
or  Spice  Islands,  the  easternmost  East  India  islands  between  Celebes  and 
the  small  Sunda  Isles.  They  form  three  groups  :  the  Moluccas  proper  in 
the  north,  the  largest  Dschilolo,  but  the  best  known  Tern  ate  :  the  Amboina 
group  in  the  middle,  the  largest  of  which  are  Ceram  and  Burn,  but  Amboina 
the  most  important,  and  the  Banda  group.  Four  islands  of  the  latter,  with 
44,000  inhabitants,  with  a  portion  of  the  other  islands,  are  in  possession  of 
the  Hollanders.  9.  The  Philippines,  over  one  thousand  in  number,  mostly 
small,  and  in  possession  of  Spain.  The  largest  and  most  important  is 
Manilla  or  Luzon,  40,000  square  geographical  miles,  with  one  and  a  half 
to  two  millions  and  a  half  of  inhabitants,  cap.  Manilla.  The  most  southern 
island  is  Magindanao  or  Mindanao,  over  16,000  square  geographical  miles, 
with  nearly  one  million  of  inhabitants.  The  western  part  of  the  island 
only,  with  the  fortress  of  Zamboanga,  is  Spanish.  The  most  important  of 
the  remaining  islands  are  Mindoro,  Panay,  Negros,  Ley  te,  and  Samar.  To 
the  north  of  Manilla  lie  the  Babuyan  and  the  Baschi  Islands.  10.  The 
Sulu  Islands,  with  the  Island  of  Galawan,  between  Borneo  and  the 
Philippines. 

JIL  AFRICA  {Plate  29). 

This,  the  least  known  of  all  the  great  continents,  possesses  an  area  ol 
8,480,000  square  geographical  miles,  or  11,236,000  square  statute  miles.  Its 
length  amounts  to  4968  statute  miles,  and  its  breadth  to  4692  statute  miles. 
Only  an  approximate  estimate  can  be  formed  of  the  population,  as  the 
interior  is  almost  entirely  unknown.  Most  gec^raphers  give  one  hundred 
to  one  hundred  and  twenty  millions  as  the  number  of  inhabitants,  but  this 
must  be  considered  as  a  very  vague  statement,  without  much  veritable 

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102  GEOGRAPHY. 

foundation.  The  aboriginal  inhabitants  consist  of  two  stocks,  the  Negroes 
in  the  south,  and  the  Caucasian  Berbers  (Cabyles,  Copts,  Nubians)  in  the 
north.  Between  the  two  in  the  north  and  east  are  interposed  the  Arabians 
and  their  posterity  the  Moors,  who  have  penetrated  from  Asia.  The  great 
majority  of  the  inhabitants  are  Heathens. 

North  Africa  contains  the  following  lands  proceeding  from  east  to  west 


1.  Egypt. 

This  land,  interesting  in  so  many  respects,  is  situated  on  both  banks  of 
the  Nile,  and  embraces  about  128,000  square  geographical  miles,  with  two 
millions  and  a  half  of  inhabitants.  These  are  mostly  Arabians,  and  either 
Fellahs  (tillers  of  the  soil,  1,800,000  in  number)  or  nomadic  tribes,  amount- 
ing to  200,000  ;  next  to  these  come  the  Copts  (150,000).  There  are  also 
the  Barabras  allied  to  the  Berbers,  in  the  south,  some  15,000  Turks,  3500 
Jews,  &c.  The  prevailing  religion  is  the  Mohammedan,  although  the 
Copts  profess  Christianity.  Egypt  was  a  Turkish  province  since  1517,  but 
now  merely  acknowledges  the  supremacy  of  the  Porte,  the  Viceroy  (since 
1848,  Abbas  Pasha,  grandson  of  Mehemet  Ali)  being  almost  entirely  inde- 
pendent. Three  principal  districts  of  Egypt  were  recognised  in  the  older 
geographical  arrangement :  1.  Lower  Egypt,  Bahri,  or  the  northern  part  as 
far  as  the  delta  of  the  Nile.  This  portion  contains  the  celebrated  city  of 
Alexandria,  now  with  about  60,000  inhabitants.  2.  Middle  Egypt, 
Westani.  This  includes  Cairo  or  Cahira,  the  residence  of  the  Pasha,  with 
200,000  inhabitants.  3.  Upper  Egypt,  Said,  the  southern  part.  The  most 
important  town  is  Slut,  with  15,000  inhabitants. 

To  the  east  of  the  Nile  valley  or  Egypt  proper,  are  situated  the  harbors 
of  Suez  and  Cosseir.  Between  Egypt  and  Tripoli  is  situated  the  Libyan 
desert  or  the  Desert  of  Barca ;  and  in  this,  the  Oasis  of  Siwah  with  the 
town  of  the  same  name. 


2.  Barbary. 

This,  in  its  most  extensive  sense,  includes  the  whole  coast  of  Africa  lying 
to  the  west  of  Egypt,  a  strip  of  about  560,000  square  geographical  miles, 
inhabited  by  twelve  to  fifteen  millions  of  inhabitants.  These  are  princi- 
pally Moors,  Arabians  (Bedouins),  and  Berbers  or  Cabyles. 

a,  Tripoli,  area  144,000  square  geographical  miles,  pop.  650,000,  has  been 
a  Turkish  province  since  1835.  The  capital,  Tripoli,  has  about  20,000  inhabit- 
ants. Dependencies  of  Tripoli  are  the  Oases  of  Fezzan  (70,000  inhabitants) 
and  Augila,  as  likewise  the  district  of  Barca. 

h,  Tunis,  48  to  64,000  square  geographical  miles,  with  about  two  millions 
of  inhabitants,  is  subject  to  a  Bey,  who  is  Almost  entirely  independent  of 
the  Porte.     The  capital,  Tunis,  has  100,000  inhabitants.     Other  important 
towns  are  Kairwan,  Gabes  or  Cabes,  Monastir,  Sfar,  &c. 
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GEOGRAPHY.  108 

c.  Algiers,  with  67,200  square  geographical  miles,  and  a  pop.  of  1,000,000 
(among  them  at  least  150,000  Europeans),  has  been  a  French  colony  since 
1838,  ruled  by  a  military  governor.  The  immediate  territory  of  the  French, 
which,  besides  the  towns,  includes  only  their  immediate  vicinity,  is  divided 
into  the  three  divisions  of  Algiers,  Oran,  and  Constantine.  The  capital  is 
Algiers,  with  about  100,000  inhabitants.  Next  to  this,  the  most  important 
towns  are :  Constantine,  Qran,  Bona,  Philippeville,  Budschia,  Blidah, 
Medeah,  &c. 

cL  Empire  of  Fez  and  Morocco,  224,000  square  geographical  miles,  and 
six  to  eight  millions  of  inhabitants.  These  are  composed  mainly  of  Moors 
and  Arabs,  and  Amazirghes,  or  descendants  of  the  aboriginal  inhabitants 
(divided  into  Berbers  and  Schellus) ;  there  are  also  500,000  Jews,  and 
120,000  Negroes.  The  empire  is  subject  to  an  entirely  independent  Sultan 
(at  present  Muley  Abderrahman),  and  is  divided  into  the  kingdoms  of  Fez 
and  Morocco.  The  capital  of  Fez  is  the  town  Fez,  with  80,000  inhabit- 
ants :  other  towns  are  Mekines,  Tetuan,  Tangiers,  &c.  The  capital  of 
Morocco  is  Morocco,  with  30.000  inhabitants  ;  other  towns  are  Tarudant, 
Mogadore,  &c.     To  these  must  be  added  the  district  of  Tafilet. 

The  coast  towns  of  Ceuta,  Pefion  de  Velez,  and  Alhucemas,  belong  to 
Spain. 

3.  The  Sahara. 

By  Sahara  (Desert)  is  to  be  understood  that  extensive  African  lowland 
which,  with  the  exception  of  the  lands  already  referred  to,  and  Nubia, 
includes  the  whole  of  Northern  Africa,  to  the  amount  of  about  1,280,000 
square  geographical  miles.  The  western  portion,  termed  Sahel,  is  the  most 
desolate,  the  eastern  including  numerous  Oases.  The  most  extensive  of 
these  are :  In  the  East :  the  Little  Oasis  El  Wah,  only  ninety  miles  from 
the  Nile  ;  the  Middle  Oasis,  Takel ;  the  great  Oasis  south  of  the  first,  with 
the  town  of  El  Karjeh ;  the  Oasis  of  Darfu,  the  largest  of  all,  with  numerous 
inhabitants  under  a  Sultan.  2.  In  the  North  :  the  Oasis  Siwah  (Oasis  of 
Jupiter  Ammon),  Augila,  and  Tessan  or  Fezzan,  with  the  town  of  Mursuk. 
The  strip  of  land  between  the  Atlas  and  the  Desert  is  termed  Biledulgerld, 
or  the  Land  of  Dates. 


4.   Nubia. 

Nubia  extends  along  the  Gulf  of  Arabia  in  a  straight  direction  from  north 
to  south  for  more  than  800  statute  miles  ;  since  1822  it  has  been  under  the 
dominion  of  the  Pashas  of  Egypt.  The  inhabitants  are  partly  true 
Nubians  or  Barabras  in  three  branches,  partly  Negroes,  and  partly  Arabs ; 
all,  however,  are  Mohammedans.  The  southern  part  of  Nubia  is  termed 
Sennaar,  area  about  80,000  square  geographical  miles,  and  pop.  one  million 
and  a  half,  cap.  Sennaar.  North  of  this  is  the  land  of  Schendy,  and  to  the 
west  the  Oasis  of  Cordofan,  with  the  cap.  Obeid. 

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104  GEOGRAPHY. 


5.  Habesch,  or  Abyssinia. 

This  country  lies  to  the  south-east  of  Nubia,  and  is  inhabited  by 
Abyssinians,  Schangallas,  Gallas,  Schihos,  Danakils,  &c.  The  prevailing 
religion  is  Coptic  Christianity,  though  of  a  very  degenerate  character.  The 
whole  land  formerly  constituted  a  single  state,  governed  by  a  Negus :  at 
present  it  is  divided  into  several  single  states,  which  exhibit  a  merely 
nominal  recognition  of  the  Negus  as  head.     The  largest  of  these  states  are : 

I.  Tigre,  ruled  by  the  Ubie  who  resides  in  Antalo.  2.  Amhara  or  Gondar 
in  the  west,  under  the  Negus  or  Ras  Ali,  cap.  Gondar.  3.  Schoa,  with  Efat 
in  the  south,  under  the  Sehla  Selasse,  who  resides  in  Angololla.  Chief 
town,  Ancobar.  Eastward  of  Schoa  lies  the  land  of  Hurrur,  with  the  cap. 
of  same  name. 

0.  The  West  Coast. 

This  entire  coast,  from  the  Sahara  to  Cape  Negro,  is  inhabited  by 
Negroes,  divided  into  innumerable  tribes.  It  is  divisible  into  three  great 
sections :  Senegambia,  Upper  Guinea,  and  Lower  Guinea. 

a,  Senegambia :  from  16°  N.  to  10°  S.  lat.,  deriving  its  name  from  the 
two  rivers  Senegal  and  Gambia,  is  divided  into  a  vast  number  of  small 
negro  states.  The  most  numerous  tribes  are  the  Fulahs,  the  Mandingos,  the 
DschaloiTs  and  Felups,  the  Biafars,  &c.  The  following  European  nations 
have  settlements  on  this  coast :  1.  The  French  :  Islands  of  St.  Louis. 
Goree,  &c.  2,  The  English  (under  the  government  of  Sierra  Leone)  ; 
St.  James's  Island,  St.  Mary,  Macarthy,  Bulama.  3.  The  Portuguese: 
St.  Cacheo  or  Cacheu,  Farim,  Geba,  Island  of  Bissao. 

b.  Upper  or  North  Guinea  is  divided  from  east  to  west  into  the  following 
districts :  1.  District  of  Sierra  Leone,  2.  Coast  of  Malaghetta  or  grain 
coast;  to  this  belongs  the  Republic  of  Liberia  (colony  of  emancipated 
negroes  from  the  United  States),  cap.  Monrovia,  as  also  the  Kroo,  Sanguin, 
and  other  lands.  3.  Ivory  Coast.  4.  Gold  Coasts  the  best  known  part  of 
Guinea,  with  the  most  powerful  negro  nation  of  this  region,  the  Ashantees, 
amounting  to  from  one  to  two  millions  of  souls.  Their  chief  town  is  Kumassi. 
6.  Slave  Coast,  with  Dahomey,  chief  town  Abomey.  6.  Coast  of  Benin, 
a  peninsula,  with  the  important  negro  kingdom  of  Benin. 

The  European  settlements  of  North  Guinea  are  :  1.  English  :  the 
government  of  Sierra  Leone,  to  which  all  slaves  captured  in  slavers  by  the 
English  are  taken,  cap.  Freetown ;  on  the  Gold  Coast,  the  forts,  Apollonia, 
Dixcove,  Commenda,  Cape  Coast  Castle,  Annamabu,  Winnebah,  and 
Prambran  (indicated  on  our  map,  Plate  29,  by  the  numbers  1,  3,  4,  6,  7,  9, 

II,  in  order);  James's  Castle,  with  the  negro  town  Akkra  (No.  10).  2. 
French :  the  factories  Grand  Bassan  on  the  Ivory  Coast,  and  Assinie  on  the 
Gold  Coast.  3.  Netherlands :  forts  Antonius,  Elmina  or  St.  George  de  la 
Mina,  Tantam  (given  on  the  map  by  the  numbers,  2,  6,  8),  HoUandia, 
Crevecceur,  near  Akkra,  Sebastian,  St.  lago,  &c.,  all  on  the  Gold  Coast 

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GEOGRAPHY.  105 

4.  Danish :  forts  Akkra  (No.  10),  Quita  (No.  12),  Christiansburg,  Friedens- 
bui^,  and  others,  on  the  Gold  Coast ;  Prinzenstein  on  the  Slave  Coast. 

c.  Lower  or  South  GuineUy  separated  from  Upper  Guinea  by  the  Ambos 
highlands,  and  partly  under  the  supremacy  of  the  Portuguese  (300,000 
subjects),  contains  the  following  independent  negro  kingdoms  :  1.  Loango, 
cap.  of  same  name  ;  subject  to  it  is  the  kingdom  of  Cakongo.  2.  Congo,  to 
the  south  of  the  preceding,  with  the  town  of  San  Salvador  or  Congo. 
Under  Portuguese  dominion,  are :  3,  Angola,  with  the  town  of  S.  Paolo  de 
Loando,  and  4,  Benguela,  with  the  Portuguese  town  of  the  same  name :  in 
the  interior  is  the  town  of  Matamba. 


7.  Soudan. 

By  this  is  to  be  understood  an  indefinite  extent  of  country  in  the  interior 
of  Middle  Africa,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Sahara,  east  by  Darfur, 
west  by  Senegambia  and  Upper  Guinea,  and  south  by  the  inner  highlands. 
The  area  of  this  little  known  country  (entirely  unexplored  in  the  eastern 
part)  amounts  at  least  to  from  640  to  800,000  square  geographical  miles.  The 
low  northern  part  is  called  Low  Soudan  or  Nigritia.  The  district  of  Haussa 
divides  it  into  a  western  and  eastern  portion,  the  former  of  which  contains 
the  basin  of  the  Niger  or  Quarra  (termed  DschoUiba  in  its  upper  part),  the 
latter  that  of  Lake  Tschad.  The  inhabitants  are  negroes,  as  far  as  known ; 
amongst  them  the  most  advanced  in  civilization  are  the  Haussans.  The 
principal  kingdoms,  as  far  as  known,  are :  1.  Bomu,  probable  pop.  five 
millions  ;  chief  town.  New  Birnie,  not  far  from  Lake  Tschad.  2.  Haussa, 
or  the  kingdom  of  the  Fellatahs ;  chief  town,  Sakkatu.  3.  Mandara,  south 
of  Bomu  ;  chief  town,  Mora.  4.  Tarriba,  cap.  Katunga  or  Eyeo.  5. 
BorgUy  cap.  Bussa.  6.  Yauro,  cap.  Yauri.  7.  Timbuctoo,  cap.  Timbuctoo, 
an  important  place  of  trade.  8.  Lower  Bambarra,  cap.  Inne  or  Dschenne. 
9.  Upper  Bambara,  cap.  Sago  or  Segu.  The  more  elevated  portion  of 
Soudan  to  the  north  of  North  Guinea,  is  called  High  Soudan. 


8.  The  East  Coast. 

This  coast,  3680  statute  miles  long,  from  Cape  Guardafui  to  Delagoa  Bay, 
or  from  12^  N.  lat.  to  25^^°  S.  lat.,  is  still  but  very  little  known.  The 
inhabitants  are  mainly  negroes,  but  in  the  north  we  find  Arab  tribes.  The 
only  European  settlements  are  those  of  the  Portuguese,  who  have  had  a 
footing  for  more  than  three  hundred  years.  The  subdivisions  of  the  country 
are  from  north  to  south  as  follows:  1.  Ajan,  or  the  deserts  of  the  Somalis 
and  Sowalis,  mostly  desert,  and  inhabited  by  Arab  and  Galla  tribes.  Towns, 
Mukdischa,  Magadoxo,  Brava,  Melinde.  2.  Zanguebar  or  Zanzibar,  from 
the  river  Quilimanci  to  the  river  Mongallo,  on  Cape  Delgado  ;  cities, 
Mombaca,  Lamu.  Here  belong  the  islands  of  Pemba  and  Zanguebar.  on 
the  latter  of  which  resides  the  Imaum  of  Muscat.    3.  Mozambique,  from 

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106  GEOGRAPHY. 

the  Mongollo  to  the  Zambesc  ;  the  city  and  island  of  Mozambique  form  the 
seat  of  the  Portuguese  government  of  the  east  coast.  Islands  are  Oibo, 
Querimba  (both  with  Portuguese  settlements),  Angora,  Fuego,  and  St. 
Quilimane.  Not  far  from  the  coast  reside  the  M akuas,  a  rude  negro  race. 
4.  Coast  lands  of  Sena,  Sofala,  Sabia,  and  Inhambare.  In  the  interior  are 
situated  the  negro  states  of  Monomotapa  (cap.  Zimbaoe)  and  lambara ;  and 
on  the  coast,  the  Portuguese  settlements  of  Inhambane,  Sena,  Tete,  Zumbo, 
and  Manica. 

Between  Cape  Guardafui  and  the  Straits  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  lies  the  coast 
of  Adel,  with  the  districts  of  Zeile  and  Berbera. 


9.  The  Highlands  of  Africa, 

Which  in  all  probability  include  the  interior  of  the  whole  of  South  Africa, 
are  almost  entirely  unknown,  with  the  exception  of  the  southern  portion. 
The  inhabitants  are  negroes,  amongst  which  are  usually  distinguished  four 
main  stocks :  the  Schaggas,  Gallas,  Caffirs,  and  Hottentots.  The  Bechuanas 
of  Orange  River  belong  to  the  Caffirs,  who  likewise  inhabit  a  portion  of  the 
east  coast.  The  Hottentots,  among  which  belong  the  Bosjemins  or 
Bushmen,  dwell  on  the  Middle  and  Lower  Orange ;  some  tribes  (as  tbe 
Griquas)  have  partly  embraced  Christianity. 


10.  The  Cape  Land. 

By  this  is  to  be  understood  such  of  the  southern  part  of  Africa  as  hiia 
been  penetrated  by  European  settlers.  Its  area  amounts  to  from  128  to  160,000 
square  geographical  miles,  the  proper  area  of  the  colony  to  about  112,000 
square  geographical  miles  ;  the  number  of  inhabitants  is  150  to  160,000.  The 
Netherlands  possessed  this  country  since  1600,  the  first  settlement  being 
made  in  1652 ;  their  territory  was  conquered  by  the  English  in  1806,  in 
whose  hands  it  still  remains.  The  land  is  subject  to  a  governor,  and  is 
divided  into  two  provinces. 

I.  The  Western  Province,  divided  into  seven  districts  :  Cape  district, 
with  40,000  inhabitants  ;  cap.  Cape  Town,  with  30,000  inhabitants,  amongst 
which  are  12,000  Mohammedans  and  6,000  Negroes  ;  Stellenbosch,  pop. 
18,000  ;  Worcester  or  Tulbagh,  and  Clanwilliam,  pop.  18,000 ;  Zwellendam, 
pop.  17,000;  George,  with  10,000  inhabitants;  and  Beaufort. 

II.  Eastern  Province,  divided  into  five  districts :  Graaf  Reynett,  pop 
16,000;  Uitenhage,  pop.  12,000:  Albany,  pop.  9000;  Somerset,  pop. 
12,000;  and  Adelaide. 


11.  The  Islands  of  Africa. 

A.  On  the  East  Coast  from  north  to  south  :  Socotora,  140  miles  firom 
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GEOGRAPHY.  107 

Cape  Guardafui,  in  possession  of  the  Arabian  Emirs  of  Kissim,  cap. 
Tamerida.  2.  The  Sechelks,  or  Mah6  Islands,  thirty  in  number,  English 
colonies  since  1814.  The  most  important  are  Mah6,  Praslin,  and  La 
Digue.  3.  The  Amirantes  or  Admiralty  islands,  south-west  of  the  preceding, 
belonging  to  the  Portuguese.  4.  Madagascar,  168,000  square  geographical 
miles,  is  unknown  as  to  its  interior.  The  inhabitants,  termed  Madegassas, 
although  of  dark  complexion,  are  not  negroes,  and  possess  some  advance- 
ment in  civilization.  The  island  is  divided  into  twenty-two  individual 
states  :  the  most  important  are  north  and  south  Sekelava  on  the  west  coast, 
and  Anossy  in  the  interior.  The  French  have  established  several  settle- 
ments on  the  east  coast,  among  them  St.  Marie,  Foulpoint,  Nossib^,  &c. 
In  the  vicinity  of  the  northern  point,  the  English  possess  the  harbor  of 
Loquez  or  Diego  Suarez.  5.  The  Comorin,  or  Comoro  Islands,  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  Mozambique  Channel,  four  in  number,  the  largest, 
Angazaye  or  Comoro ;  the  others  are  called  Anjuan,  Mehilla,  and  Mayotta 
(the  latter  in  possession  of  the  French).  6.  The  Mascarene  Islands,  Bourbon 
and  Mauritius.  The  former  belongs  to  France,  and  has  an  area  of  1760 
square  geographical  miles,  with  a  pop.  of  100,000,  cap.  St.  Denis :  the 
latter  to  England,  area  880  square  geographical  miles,  pop.  100,000,  cap. 
Port  Louis.  7.  The  single  islands  of  Rodrigues,  John  of  Lisbon,  Kerguelen's 
Land,  St.  Paul  and  Amsterdam,  &c. 

B.  On  the  West  Coast  from  south  to  north  :  1.  Tristan  d'Acunha, 
three  islands  in  possession  of  the  English.  2.  St.  Helena,  88  squai-e 
geographical  miles,  pop.  5000,  belongs  to  England.  3.  Ascension,  also 
English.  4.  Guinea  Idands,  only  70  to  250  miles  from  the  coast  of 
Guinea ;  of  these,  Fernando  Po  belongs  to  the  English ;  the  Princes  Islands 
and  Annobon  to  the  Spanish ;  St.  Thomas  to  the  Portuguese.  5.  The  Cape 
de  Verde  Islands,  fourteen  in  number  (four  of  these  barren  rocks  only),  in 
possession  of  the  Portuguese.  The  largest  are  San  Jago,  San  Nicholas,  S. 
Vincente,  S.  Philipp  or  Fuego,  S.  Antonio,  and  S.  Juan.  6.  The  Canary 
Islands  (see  page  53).  7.  The  Madeiras,  of  which  Madeira,  256-320 
square  geographical  miles,  and  pop.  100,000,  is  solely  of  importance.  It  is 
in  possession  of  the  Portuguese.  The  capital,  Funchal,  has  20,000  inhabit- 
ants. The  northern  islands  of  Porto  Santo  and  Salvages  likewise  belong 
to  Portugal. 


IV.  AMERICA  (Plate  30,  31). 

The  great  western  continent  extends  in  a  north  and  south  direction  from 
71°  20'  N.  to  54°  30'  S.  lat.,  its  extreme  length  from  the  Straits  of  Magellan 
to  Behring's  Strait  being  10,500  statute  miles.  The  entire  area  may  be 
estimated  at  14,950,000  square  statute  miles. 

It  is  divided  by  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  into  two  large  triangles.  North 
and  South  America,  between  which  lies  a  large  chain  of  islands.  The 
inhabitants  are  partly  of  aboriginal  origin  (Indians  and  Esquimaux),  and 
partly  introduced  (Europeans  and  Africans,  with  their  descendants).    Thfi 

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108  GEOGRAPHY. 

population  amounts  to  over  fifty  millions.  The  prevailing  religion  of  North 
America  is  the  Protestant ;  that  of  Central  and  South  America,  Catholic.  In 
addition  to  these,  there  are  numerous  tribes  in  both  Americas,  which  have 
not  embraced  any  form  of  Christianity. 


A.  NORTH  AMERICA. 

1.  Continental  and  Insular   Region  of  the  North  Pole. 

a.  Lands  to  the  west  of  Baffin's  Bay.  On  the  west  side  of  Baffin's  Bay 
is  situated  Baffin's  Land,  consisting  of  one  or  more  islands  (called  Cock- 
burn  Island  in  the  north,  and  Cumberland  Island  in  the  south),  to  the  west 
of  which  is  Melville  Peninsula.  North  of  Barrow's  Straits  lies  the  land  of 
North  Devon  ;  west  of  it,  the  North  Georgian  Islands,  Cornwallis,  Bathurst, 
Byam  Martin,  Sabine,  and  Melville ;  to  the  south  of  the  first  and  last 
respectively,  lie  North  Somerset,  whose  southern  part  is  called  Boothia 
Felix,  and  Banks  Land. 

b.  Crreenland,  to  the  east  of  Baffin's  Bay,  is  probably  an  island,  and  is 
inhabited  by  copper-colored  Esquimaux.  The  Danes  have  settlements  on 
the  west  coast  (New  Greenland),  embracing  from  20-25,000  inhabitants^ 
and  divided  into  a  north  and  a  south  Inspectorate,  with  about  9000 
Christian  inhabitants.  The  southern  and  most  thickly  populated  place  is 
Julianenhaab,  with  16,000  inabitants ;  the  oldest  is  Goodshaab,  the  most 
northern  Upernavik.  Disco  is  the  largest  of  all  the  numerous  islands  on  the 
west  coast.  The  east  coast,  discovered  in  962,  was  almost  inaccessible  for 
nearly  one  hundred  years  previous  to  1822,owing  to  numerous  icebergs. 

c.  Spitzbergen,  the  most  northern  land  known  (extending  to  81°  N.  L.), 
consists  of  three  large,  and  several  smaller  islands,  all  together  possessing 
an  area  of  22,400  square  geographical  miles.  It  is  uninhabited,  save  by  a 
few  Russians  in  summer,  who  carry  on  fishing  and  hunting  for  several 
months  in  the  year. 

2.  The  Hudson's  Bat  Territory  and  Russian  Possessions. 

The  territory  embraced  under  this  head,  and  lying  between  the  Atlantic 
and  the  Pacific  Oceans,  covers  an  area  of  over  3,570,000  square  statute 
miles.  Individual  portions  are:  1.  Labrador  and  East  Main,  together 
constituting  a  peninsula  between  Hudson's  Bay  and  the  Atlantic.  2.  New 
Wales  or  West  Main,  called  New  North  Wales  in  the  north,  and  New 
South  Wales  in  the  south,  situated  south  and  west  of  Hudson's  Bay.  3. 
Along  the  Pacific  from  north  to  south.  New  Norfolk,  New  Cornwall,  New 
Hanover,  New  Georgia.  The  whole  country  has  been  termed  New 
Britain.  All  the  region  north  of  60^  N.  lat.,  and  west  of  the  meridian  of 
141*^  W.  longitude  from  Greenwich,  belongs  to  Russia,  the  territories  of  the 
United  States  beginning  with  the  parallel  of  49°  N.  lat  in  the  western 
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GEOGRAPHY.  109 

region.  The  most  important  point  in  Russian  America  is  the  settlement  of 
New  Archangel  on  the  island  of  Sitka.  The  British  territory  embraces 
378,816  square  geographical  miles,  with  about  2,500,000  inhabitants,  and  is 
divided  into  twenty  districts,  although  the  only  settlements  are  those  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  scattered  forts  and  factories  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company. 


3.  British  North  America. 

In  addition  to  New  Britain  just  referred  to,  the  following  territories  of 
North  America  belong  to  Great  Britain,  amounting  to  327,424  square 
geographical  miles,  with  1,620,000  inhabitants. 

1.  Canada,  with  347,612  square  statute  miles,  and  1,165,000  inhabitants, 
is  divided  into  Lower  and  Upper  Canada,  or  Canada  East  and  Canada 
West  About  30,000  of  the  inhabitants  are  descended  from  the  Aborigines 
of  the  country,  the  rest  are  of  European  origin  (French,  English,  Scotch, 
dtc.)  The  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  Lower  Canada  are  of  French 
extraction,  and  profess  the  Catholic  religion.  The  Governor  of  Canada,  who 
is  at  the  same  time  Governor  General  of  all  British  America,  shares  the 
government  with  a  parliament  composed  of  a  legislative  council  and  a 
house  of  assembly.  The  most  important  towns  are,  in  Lower  Canada  : 
Montreal  (former  capital),  pop.  40,000,  and  Quebec  with  40,000 ;  in  Upper 
Canada,  Toronto  (present  capital),  with  11,000,  and  Kingston  with  12,000. 
The  present  Governor  of  Canada  and  Captain  General  of  all  the  British 
Provinces  of  North  America  is  Lord  Elgin.  2.  New  Brunswick,  27,700 
square  statute  miles,  pop.  156,000  (mostly  English),  situated  to  the  east  of 
Lower  Canada,  capital  Fredericktown,  with  5000  inhabitants.  St.  John's, 
the  chief  place  of  trade,  has  15,000  inhabitants.  Present  Lieutenant 
Governor,  Sir  W.  Colebrooke.  3.  Nova  Scotia  and  Cape  Breton,  both 
tc^ether  of  17,500  square  statute  miles  in  area,  with  200,000  inhabitants ;  capital 
Halifax,  with  20,000  inhabitants.  Pictou  and  Sidney  are  important  towns. 
Sir  John  Harvey,  Lieutenant  Governor.  4.  Prince  Edward's  Island,  area 
2134  square  statute  miles,  pop.  34,666,  capital  Charlottetown,  Lieutenant 
Governor,  H.  V.  Huntley.  5.  Newfottodland,  separated  from  Labrador  by  the 
Straits  of  Belleisle,  area  35,913  square  statute  miles,  pop.  90,000,  of  mixed 
French  and  English  descent,  capital  St.  John's.  The  large  island  of  Anti- 
costi,  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  belongs  here.  The  neighboring  islands 
of  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon,  with  2000  inhabitants,  belong  to  France.  6. 
The  Bermuda  Islands,  situated  nearly  500  miles  from  the  coast,  amount  in 
number  to  about  400,  of  which  only  five  are  inhabited,  namely  St.  George 
(cap.  Georgetown),  Bermuda,  St.  David,  Ireland,  and  Somerset. 


4.  Thb  United  States  of  AMBRiex. 

The  vast  territory  belonging  to  the  United  States  is  included  between 
the  parallels  of  25''  and  49o  N.  lat.,  and  the  meridians  of  67^  and  125"^  of 

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110  GEOGRAPHY. 

longitude  west  of  Greenwich.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  British 
America,  on  the  east  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific, 
and  on  the  south  by  the  State  and  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Its  area  amounts  to 
3,260,073  square  statute  miles,  of  which  1,570,916  belong  to  thirty  states,  the 
thirty-first  state,  or  California,  being  included  in  the  estimate  for  territories. 
Some  authorities  allow  2,167,496  square  miles  to  the  territories  ;  this, 
however,  includes  the  whole  of  Texas  as  claimed  by  her. 

The  population  of  the  United  States,  as  ascertained  by  the  census  of 
1840,  amounted  to  17,063,353 ;  the  census  of  1850  will  probably  exhibit  an 
aggregate  of  over  twenty-one  millions.  The  number  of  slaves,  in  1840, 
amounted  to  2,009,031 ;  of  free  negroes,  to  386,235.  The  densest  popula- 
tion is  found  in  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  and  New  York.  The  great 
majority  of  the  inhabitants  are  whites,  principally  of  English  descent  or 
Anglo-American  ;  the  English  is  the  prevailing  language  ;  next  to  this  the 
German  is  most  in  use,  being  spoken  by  over  five  millions  of  people.  The 
aboriginal  inhabitants  are  fast  melting  away,  their  number,  according  to 
some  estimates,  amounting  only  to  200,000,  and  at  any  rate  not  exceeding 
half  a  million.  The  largest  denomination  (as  regards  actual  communicants) 
b  the  Roman  Catholic,  which  embraces  1,191,000  communicants;  next 
comes  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  with  1,112,756  communicants,  the 
Baptists  with  686,807,  the  Presbyterians  (old  and  new  school)  with  339,877, 
the  Lutheran  with  163,000,  the  Congregational  with  197,196,  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  with  67,550,  the  Dutch  and  German  Reformed  with  102,840, 
dsc.  The  proportion  is  somewhat  diflferent  as  regards  simple  profession  of 
faith. 

According  to  the  constitution  of  1787,  the  United  States  form  a 
confederacy,  at  the  head  of  which  stands  a  president  (now  Millard  Fillmore) 
elected  for  four  years,  and  a  congress.  This  congress  consists  of  a  senate 
and  a  house  of  representatives,  which  must  assemble  at  least  once  a  year, 
unless  otherwise  provided  by  law.  The  senate  is  composed  of  two  members 
from  each  state,  the  present  number  being  sixty-two.  They  are  chosen  by  the 
legislatures  of  the  several  states,  for  the  term  of  six  years.  The  Vice- 
President  of  the  United  States  is  the  President  of  the  Senate,  in  which  he 
has  only  a  casting  vote.  The  house  *of  representatives  is  composed  of 
members  elected  by  the  people  of  the  several  states  for  the  period  of  two 
years.  The  thirty-first  congress  is  chosen  according  to  the  apportionment 
of  1842,  the  ratio  being  one  representative  for  every  70,680  persons  in  each 
state.  The  present  number  of  representatives  is  231,  and  there  are  two 
delegates,  one  from  Minnesota  and  the  other  from  Oregon,  who  have  a  right 
to  speak  but  not  to  vote.  The  compensation  of  each  member  of  congress 
is  eight  dollars  per  day,  when  in  attendance  in  congress  :  in  addition  to 
this,  he  receives  eight  dollars  for  every  twenty  miles  of  travel  in  going  to  or 
returning  from  the  seat  of  government. 

The  governments  of  the  individual  states,  although  exhibiting   slight 
variations  among  each  other,  are  modelled  closely  on  the   system  of  the 
general  government,  namely   a  governor    and  a  legislature,  the    latter 
composed  of  a  senate  and  assembly. 
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GEOGRAPHY.  Ill 


a.  The  Individual  States. 

In  the   following  table  of   statistics,   the   population,  unless   otherwise 
expressed,  is  given  according  to  the  census  of  1840  : 

1.  Maine  (since  1820),  32,400  square  statute  miles,  with  501,793  inhabit- 
ants, capital  Augusta.  2.  New  Hampshire  (since  1623),  9500  sq.  st.  m., 
with  284,574  inhabs.,  cap.  Concord.  3.  Vermont  (since  1791),  9700  sq.  st. 
m.,  with  291,948  inhabs.,  cap.  Montpelier.  4.  Massachusetts  (since  1628), 
7800  sq.  St.  m.,  with  737,699  inhabs.,  cap.  Boston,  with  114,000  inhabs.  5. 
Rhode  Island  (since  1638),  1251  sq.  st.  m.,  with  108,830  inhabs.,  cap. 
Providence,  with  23,000  inhabs.,  and  Newport.  6.  Connecticut  (since 
1635),  4789  sq.  st.  m.,  with  309,978  inhabs.,  cap.  Hartford,  with  1300  inhabs., 
and  New  Haven.  7.  New  York  (since  1614),  46,220  sq.  st.  m.,  with 
2,428,921  inhabs.,  cap.  Albany  with  34,000  inhabs. ;  the  first  commercial 
and  most  populous  city  of  the  whole  union  is  New  York,  with  370,000 
inhabs.  8.  New  Jersey  (since  1624),  7948  sq.  st.  m.,  with  373,306  inhabs., 
cap.  Trenton,  with  4000  inhabs.  9.  Pennsylvania  (since  1682),  42,215  sq. 
St.  m.,  with  1,724,023  inhabs.,  cap.  Harrisburg,  with  6000  inhabs. ;  the 
second  city  of  the  union  in  population  is  Philadelphia,  with  260,000  inhabs. 
10.  Delaware  (since  1627),  2068  sq.  st.  m.,  with  78,085  inhabs.,  cap.  Dover, 
with  6600  inhabs.  11.  Maryland  (since  1633),  10,755  sq.  st.  m.,  with 
470,019  inhabs.,  cap.  Annapolis,  with  3000  inhabs. ;  here  belongs  the  third 
city  of  the  union,  Baltimore,  with  134,000  inhabs.  12.  Virginia  (since  1607), 
65,700  sq.  st.  m.,  with  1,239,797  inhabs.,  cap.  Richmond,  with  20,000  inhabs. 
13.  North  Carolina  (since  1650),  51,632  sq.  st.  m.,  with  753,419  inhabs., 
cap.  Raleigh,  with  2000  inhabs.  14.  South  Carolina  (since  1670),  31,565 
sq.  St.  m.,  with  594,398  inhabs.,  cap.  Columbia,  with  4300  inhabs.  15. 
Geoi^a  (since  1733),  61,683  sq.  st.  m.,  with  691,392  inhabs.,  cap.  Milledge- 
ville.  16.  Florida  (since  1845),  56,336  sq.  st.  m.,  with  54,447  inhabs.,  cap. 
Tallahasse.  17.  Alabama  (since  1819),  54,084  sq.  st.  m.,  with  590,756 
inhabs.,  cap.  Montgomery.  18.  Mississippi  (since  1817),  49,356  sq.  st.  m., 
with  375,651  inhabs.,  cap.  Jackson.  19.  Louisiana  (since  1812),  47,413  sq. 
8t.  m.,  with  352,411  inhabs..  cap.  Baton  Rouge.  20.  Tennessee  (since 
1796),  41,752  sq.  st.  m.,  with  829,210  inhabs.,  cap.  Nashville.  21.  Kentucky 
(since  1792),  40,023  sq.  st.  m.,  with  779,828  inhabs.,  cap.  Frankfort.  22. 
Ohio  (since  1802),  40,500  sq.  st.  m.,  with  1,519,464  inhabs.,  cap.  Columbus ; 
far  more  important  is  Cincinnati,  with  more  than  100,000  inhabs.  23. 
Indiana  (since  1816),  35,626  sq.  st.  m.,  with  685,866  inhabs.,  cap.  Indiana- 
polis. 24.  Blinois  (since  1818),  56,506  sq.  st.  m.,with  476,183  inhabs.,  cap. 
Springfield.  25.  Michigan  (since  1836),  60,537  sq.  st.  m.,  with  212,267 
inhabs.,  cap.  Lansing.  26.  Missouri  (since  1820),  70,050  sq.  st.  m.,  with 
883,702  inhabs.,  cap.  Jefferson  city ;  the  most  important  city  is  St.  Louis, 
with  40,000  inhabs.  27.  Arkansas  (since  1835),  54,617  sq.  st.  m.,  with 
97,574  inhabs.,  cap.  Arkopolis  or  Little-Rock.  28.  Wisconsin  (since  1846), 
92,930  sq.  st.  m.,  with  30,945  inhabs.,  cap.  Madison.  29.  Iowa  (since  1845), 
173,786  sq.  st.  m.,  with  43,112  inhabs.,  cap.  Iowa  city.     30.  Texas  (since 

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112  GEOGRAPHY. 

1845;  till  J  835  a  part  of  Mexico,  then  1835-45  an  independent  republic)i 
cities :  Austin,  the  capital,  other  towns  Bexar,  Houston,  and  Galveston.  31 
California  ysince  ISoO),  cap.  not  decided  upon,  inhabs.  not  precisely  ascer- 
tained.    Principal  city,  San  Francisco. 

1.  District  of  Columbia,  formerly  ten  miles  square,  now  confined  to  that 
part  of  the  square  formerly  in  Maryland,  and  north  of  the  Potomac,  cap. 
Washington,  and  at  the  same  time  the  seat  of  the  general  government,  pop. 
23,000.  2.  The  Indian  Territory  north  of  Texas,  west  of  Missouri  and 
Arkansas,  and  south  of  the  Platte,  area  248,851  square  statute  miles, 
inhabited  by  the  Delawares,  Kansas,  Arrapahoes,  Shawnees,  Osages, 
Cherokees,  Seminoles,  &c.  3.  Nebraska,  north  of  the  Platte  and  of  Iowa, 
and  extending  to  the  British  line  of  49°  N.  lat,  bounded  east  by  the  Missouri 
and  west  by  the  Rocky  Mountains,  inhabited  by  the  Minnetarees,  Mandans, 
Cheyennes,  Tetons,  Blackfeet,  Pawnees,  &c.,  723,248  square  statute  miles. 
4.  Minnesota,  area  150,000  square  statute  miles,  west  of  Iowa  and  Wis- 
consin, east  of  the  Missouri  river,  and  south  of  the  British  line  of  49°,  inhabited 
by  Winnebagos,  Sioux,  &c.,  and  by  an  increasing  population  of  whites,  chief 
town  St.  Pad's.  5.  Oregon,  bounded  north  by  the  parallel  of  49°,  south  by 
the  parallel  of  42°,  east  by  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  west  by  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  inhabited  by  Clatsops,  Wallah  Wallahs,  Shoshonees,  and  other 
tribes  of  Indians,  and  by  a  large  and  increasing  number  of  persons  from 
the  United  States,  area  341,463  square  statute  miles.  6.  New  CalU 
fomia  (recently  erected  into  a  state),  south  of  Oregon  and  north  of  Mexico, 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  on  the  west  by  New  Mexico. 
This  country,  within  the  last  few  years,  has  been  the  object  of  universal 
attention  on  account  of  the  vast  deposits  of  gold  which  it  contains,  either 
in  the  rock  or  in  the  alluvial  sands.  The  white  population,  consisting  mainly 
of  individuals  from  the  United  States,  amounted,  on  the  1st  of  January, 
1850,  in  all  probability,  to  100,000.  Principal  town,  San  Francisco.  7. 
New  Mexico,  north-west  of  Texas,  north  of  Mexico,  and  east  of  New 
California,  with  an  area  of  77,128  square  statute  miles.  Principal  town 
Santa  F6,  inhabited  by  predatory  bands  of  Indians,  by  Mexicans,  and 
Anglo-Americans,  the  latter  increasing  rapidly  in  number. 

b.  Republic  of  Mexico. 

This  great  sitate,  to  the  south  of  the  United  States  of  America,  has  an  area  of 
1,100,000  square  statute  miles,  with  a  population  of  seven  to  nine  millions.  Of 
this,  about  four  sevenths  are  aboriginal  inhabitants,  two  sevenths  a  mixed  race, 
and  one  seventh  Europeans  or  their  descendants,  mostly  of  Spanish  origin. 
Slavery  is  not  recognised  in  this  country.  The  principal  language  is  the  Spanish, 
although  many  others  are  in  use.  The  prevailing  religion  is  the  Roman 
Catholic.  Although  a  confederacy,  the  independence  of  the  individual  states  as 
provinces  was  taken  away  by  the  constitution  of  1825.  These  states  may  be 
divided  into  western,  eastern,  and  interior.  The  western  states,  represented  on 
the  map  of  North  America  (pL  30)  by  the  numbers  1,  15,  16,  5,  7,  4,  are  in 
this  order :  Mexico  (with  the  cap.  Mexico,  pop.  220,000) ;  Puebla  (cap.  Puebla, 
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pop.  75,000),  with  the  district  Tlascala ;  Oaxaca  (cap.  do.,  pop.  33,000, 
Xalisco,  Cinaloa,  with  Sonora  and  Mechoacan.  Eastern  states,  on  the 
map  Nos.  18,  12,  and  14,  are  Tabasco,  Tamaulipas  (pap.  Tampico),  and 
Vera  Cruz.  Interior  states,  Nos.  2,  3,  6,  8,  9,  10,  11,  13,  17,  on  our  map, 
are :  Queretaro  (cap.  do.,  with  20,000  inhabitants)  ;  Guanaxato  (cap.  do., 
pop.  50,000) ;  Zacatecas  (cap.  do.,  pop.  22,000) ;  Cohahuila ;  New  Leon 
(cap.  Monterey,  pop.  15,000)  ;  San  Luis  Potosi  (cap.  do.,  with  32,000 
inhabitants)  ;  Chiapa.  There  are  also  three  territories  :  Lower  California, 
a  peninsula,  nearly  700  miles  long,  Colima,  and  Tlascala. 

The  province  of  Yucatan,  of  from  42-63,000  square  geographical  miles, 
and  with  6-700,000  inhabitants,  since  1841  has  formed  an  independent  free 
state.     The  cap.  is  Merida,  with  28,000  inhabitants. 

The  English  possess  a  settlement  on  the  south-eastern  coast  of  the 
peninsula  of  Yucatan,  namely  Balize  or  Honduras. 


6.  Fbee  States  of  Central  America. 

These  states,  situated  to  the  south  of  Mexico,  have  an  area  of  169-190,000 
square  statute  miles,  with  5-600,000  white,  and  about  one  million  and  a 
half  of  Indian  inhabitants.  From  1821  to  1823,  they  formed  part  of  the 
Mexican  confederacy;  from  the  1st  of  July,  1823  to  1839,  they  constituted 
a  separate  confederacy,  which  in  1839  dissolved  into  the  following  five 
independent  republics :  the  four  first,  however,  formed  a  new  confederacy 
on  the  7th  October,  1842.  1.  Guatemala,  area  28,000  square  statute  miles, 
with  950,000  inhabitants,  cap.  New  Guatemala,  with  55,000  inhabitants. 
2.  San  Salvador,  24,000  square  statute  miles,  pop.  350,000,  cap.  San 
Salvador,  with  31,000  inhabitants.  3.  Nicaragua,  area  30,000  square 
statute  miles,  pop.  350,000,  of  which  one  half  are  Ladinos  (mixture 
of  Whites  and  Indians),  one  third  Indians,  and  one  sixth  Mulattoes  and 
Blacks ;  cap.  Leon,  with  50,000  inhabitants.  4.  Honduras,  81,000  square 
statute  miles,  with  from  200-350,000  inhabitants,  cap.  New  Valladolid  or 
Comayagua,  pop.  18,000.  5.  Costa  Rica,  or  Isthmus  of  Panama,  area  33,000 
square  statute  miles,  pop.  180,000 ;  cap.  San  Jose  (da  Costa),  pop.  20,000. 

The  eastern  part  of  the  peninsula  of  Honduras  is  occupied  by  the 
Mosquito  Indians,  who  have  there  a  so-called  kingdom  under  the  protection 
of  the  English,  cap.  Blewfield. 

B.  WEST  INDIES. 

By  this  is  to  be  understood  the  numerous  chain  of  islands  situated  in 
front  of  or  in  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  lying  between  the  parallels  of  10°  and 
27°  N.  lat.  Together  they  present  an  area  of  about  92,800  square  statute 
miles,  with  a  pop.  of  some  three  millions,  mostly  negroes  and  mulattoes  (one 
million  of  slaves)  ;  about  one  sixth  of  the  number  are  whites.  With  few 
exceptions  they  belong  to  six  European  powers,  as  follows : 

L  The  Great  Antilles,  four  in   number.      1.  Cuba,  41,788  square 

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114  GHEOGRAPHT. 

statute  miles,  pop.  one  million  (one  half  slaves),  in  the  possession  of  Spain 
since  1511;  cap.  Havanna,  with  137,000  inhabitants.  2.  Jamaica,  5697 
square  statute  miles,  pop.  485,000  (of  these,  in  1837,  only  16,000  were 
whites),  is  the  most  important  British  island.  The  cap.  is  Spanish  Town, 
with  5000  inhabitants ;  the  most  important  place,  however,  is  Kingston,  with 
83,000.  Here  belong  the  two  Cayman  Islands,  the  larger  of  which  alone  is 
inhabited.  3.  Haiti,  formerly  St.  Domingo  or  Hispaniola,  29,400  square 
statute  miles,  pop.  950,000  (among  them  500,000  negroes,  420,000 
mulattoes,  and  30,000  whites),  belongs  to  free  negroes  and  mulattoes, 
and  from  1822-1843  constituted  an  independent  republic,  which  in  the 
latter  year  was  divided  into  two :  a,  the  Republic  of  Dominica  in  the 
eastern  (formerly  Spanish)  portion  of  the  island,  with  the  cap.  San 
Domingo,  and  6,  the  Republic  of  Haiti,  in  the  western  (formerly  French) 
end  ;  cap.  Port  Republican  (formerly  Port  au  Prince).  The  latter  republic, 
since  August  29,  1849,  has  been  changed  into  a  monarchy,  the  President, 
General  Soulouque,  having  been  proclaimed  Emperor  under  the  name  of 
Faustin  I.  4.  Forto  Rico,  3840  square  statute  miles,  with  280,000  inhabit- 
ants (400,000  according  to  other  estimates),  amongst  them  40,000  slaves. 
It  has  been  Spanish  since  1510 ;  cap.  San  Juan  de  Porto  Rico,  with  10,000 
inhabitants. 

II.  The  Lesser  Antilles,  or  Caribbean  Islands,  with  an  area  of  about 
5275  square  statute  miles. 

a.  In  possession  of  England.  1.  The  Virgin  Islands,  Spanish  Town  or 
Virgin  Gorda,  Tortola,  and  Anegada,  in  all  189  square  statute  miles,  with 
66,000  inhabitants.  2.  Antigua,  105  square  statute  miles,  pop.  36,000,  cap. 
St.  John's,  with  16,000  inhabitants ;  to  this  belong  the  islands  Anguilla, 
pop.  1600 ;  St.  Kitt's,  pop.  23,000,  cap.  Basse-Terre ;  Montserrat,  pop. 
73,000,  cap.  Plymouth  ;  Nevis,  pop.  9000,  cap.  Charlestown.  3.  Dominica 
or  Dominique,  273  square  statute  miles,  with  20,000  inhabitants,  cap. 
Roseau.  4.  Barbadoes,  to  the  east  of  all  the  Antilles,  210  square  statute 
miles,  pop.  22,000.  Next  to  Jamaica,  it  is  the  most  important  of  all  the 
British  West  Indies;  cap.  Bridgetown,  wit[f  20,000  inhabitants.  5.  St. 
Lucie,  220  square  statute  miles,  pop.  21,000,  cap.  Carenage,  with  the  harbor 
Port  Castries.  6.  St,  Vincent,  126-168  square  statute  miles,  pop.  28,000, 
cap.  Kingston.  7.  Chrenada,  126-168  square  statute  miles,  pop.  29,000 ; 
cap.  Georgetown,  with  10,000  inhabitants.  8.  The  Grrenadillas,  a  small 
group,  68  square  statute  miles,  pop.  2000.  9.  Tobago,  126-168  square 
statute  miles,  with  13,000  inhabitants,  cap.  Scarborough.  10.  Trinidad, 
1680  square  statute  miles,  or  according  to  other  estimates,  2373  square 
statute  miles,  pop.  60,000 ;  cap.  Spanish  town  or  Puerto  de  Espana. 

b.  The  French  possess:  1.  Guadaloupe,  378-756  square  statute  miles, 
pop.  116,000;  among  them  90,000  slaves.  It  consists  in  reality  of  two 
islands,  separated  by  an  arm  of  the  sea :  Grand  Terre  and  Basse-Terre.  On 
the  latter  is  situated  the  capital  of  the  same  name.  2.  Desirade,  21  square 
statute  miles,  with  1300  inhabitants.  3.  Marie  Galante,  84  square  statute 
miles,  pop.  12,000.  4.  Les  Saintes,  three  islands,  126  square  statute  miles, 
pop.  1200.     5.  Martinique,  858  square  statute  miles,  pop.  120,000,  cap. 

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Port  Royal,  with  10,000  inhabitants ;  St.  Pierre  is  still  larger,  with  30,000 
inhabitants. 

c.  The  Spanish  possess  only  two  of  the  Virgin  Islands,  Passage  and 
Culebra  Islands,  147  square  statute  miles,  with  4000  inhabitants. 

d.  Islands  of  the  Netherlands,  in  all  252  square  statute  miles,  with  20,000 
inhabitants.  1.  St.  Martin,  pop.  8000:  a  portion  of  the  island,  with  8500 
inhabitants,  is  French.  2.  St.  Eustache,  20-40  square  statute  miles,  with 
18,000  inhabitants,  cap.  St.  Eustache.  8.  Saba,  10  square  statute  miles, 
with  8000  inhabitants.  4.  Curassao,  178  square  statute  miles,  pop.  14,000 ; 
cap.  Wilhelmstadt 

e.  The  Danes  possess  three  of  the  Virgin  Isles,  178  square  statute  miles 
in  all,  with  45,000  inhabitants:  1.  St.  Croix;  2,  St.  Thomas;  8,  St. 
Jean. 

III.  The  Bahamas  owned  by  the  English,  about  500  in  number,  of  which 
only  two  are  inhabited.  Area  of  the  whole,  4200  to  5250  square  statute 
miles,  with  a  pop.  of  25,000.  The  most  important  islands  are  New  Provi- 
dence, 168  square  statute  miles,  pop.  8000,  cap.  Nassau :  Abaco  or  Lucayo ; 
Bahama  Grande,  346  square  statute  miles,  but  uninhabited ;  St.  Salvadoi 
or  Guanahani,  also  called  Cat  Island,  836  square  statute  miles,  the  first  land 
discovered  by  Columbus ;  Turk's  Island ;  Caicos. 


C.  SOUTH  AMERICA  {Plate  81). 

1.  The  Three  Columbian  Republics. 

The  Republic  of  Columbia,  established  in  1819,  became  separated  in  1830 
into  three  smaller  republics. 

a.  New  Grenada,  the  north-western  part,  880,000  square  statute  miles, 
pop.  1,687,000,  divided  into  five  departments  ;  the  cap.  is  Santa  F6  de 
B<^ota,  with  40,000  inhabitants. 

b.  Venezuela,  450,000  square  statute  miles,  divided  into  thirteen  provinces ; 
pop.  about  one  million,  of  which  800,000  are  whites,  480,000  mixed,  48,000 
negro  slaves,  4000  subjected  Indians,  50,000  free  do.,  &c. ;  cap.  Caraccas, 
with  45,000  inhabitants.  Here  belongs  the  West  Indian  island,  La  Mar- 
garita or  Margaretha,  399  square  statute  miles,  with  14-19,000  inhabitants, 
together  with  several  other  smaller  blands. 

c.  Ecuador  or  Quito,  area  825,000  square  statute  miles,  pop.  825,000, 
formerly  divided  into  three  departments,  now  into  eight  provinces ;  cap. 
Quito,  with  70-80,000  inhabitants. 

2.  Guyana  or  Guiana. 

By  this  is  to  be  understood  the  territory  belonging  to  England,  France, 
and  the  Netherlands,  situated  between  Venezuela  and  Brazil,  with  an  area 

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116  GEOGRAPHY. 

of  163,800  square  statute  miles,  and  a  pop.  of  250,000  (160,000  negroes), 
exclusive  of  the  free  Indians.  Maroon-negroes  or  runaway  slaves  are 
numerous  in  the  forests. 

a.  British  Guiana  has  an  area  of  96,700  square  statute  miles,  and  a  pop. 
of  100,000,  among  which  7000  are  whites.  It  is  divided  into  three 
colonies :  Demerara,  Essequibo,  and  Berbice,  cap.  Georgetown,  with  20,000 
inhabitants. 

b.  Netherlandish  Ghiyana  or  Surinam,  area  35-37,800  square  statute 
miles,  and  a  pop.  of  only  70,000 ;  of  this,  60,000  are  slaves  ;  cap.  Parama- 
ribo, with  20,000  inhabitants. 

c.  French  Guiana  or  Cayenne,  27-29,400  square  statute  miles,  pop. 
22,000,  of  which  15,000  are  negro  slaves;  cap.  Cayenne,  on  a  small  island. 


3.  Empire  of  Brazil. 

The  area  of  this  enormous  state,  the  second  in  point  of  rank  in  America, 
amounts  to  2,300,000  square  statute  miles,  and  the  pop.  to  5,200,000,  without 
including  the  wild  Indian  tribes.  Brazil  was  a  Portuguese  territory  from 
the  sixteenth  century;  from  1815  it  was  a  kingdom  ;  and  since  1822  it  has 
been  an  independent  state,  with  a  representative  government,  and  an 
emperor.  Since  !83I,  the  emperor  has  been  Don  Pedro  II.,  of  the  House 
of  Braganza,  brother  of  the  reigning  Queen  of  Portugal.  The  map  exhibits 
the  eighteen  provinces  into  which  the  empire  is  divided.  The  capital  city 
is  Rio  Janeiro,  with  150,000  inhabitants ;  next  to  it,  in  point  of  size,  come 
the  two  towns  of  Bahia,  with  80,000,  and  Pernambuco,  with  60,000 
inhabitants. 

4.  Republic  of  Peru. 

With  an  area  of  524,000  square  statute  miles,  this  state  has  a  population 
of  1,374,000  souls.  This  consists  chiefly  of  Creoles,  Mestizoes,  Mulattoes, 
Indians,  and  Negroes,  all  of  whom,  with  little  exception,  profess  the  Roman 
Catholic  religion.  Our  map  presents  the  three  departments,  Lima,  Liber- 
tad,  and  Junin ;  but  recent  geographers  add  four  more  provinces,  Arequipa, 
Ayacucho,  Cuzco,  and  Puno ;  and  others  again,  the  departments,  Amazonas, 
Anchas,  Guancavelica,  and  Mosquegna ;  cap.  Lima,  with  40,000  inhabitants. 


5.    Republic  of  Bolivia. 

Under  Spanish  government  this  country  was  called  Upper  Peru ;  but 
becoming  free  in  1825,  it  took  the  name  of  Bolivar,  which  was  subsequently 
changed  to  Bolivia.  It  covers  an  extent  of  318,000  square  statute  miles, 
and  has  a  pop.  of  1,700,000  souls,  more  than  half  of  which  are  tributary 
Indian  tribes.  The  cap.  is  Chuquisaca,  formerly  termed  Charcas  or  La 
Plata  (pop.  13,000).  Other  important  towns  are  Potosi,  with  14,000, 
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GEOGRAPHY.  J. 17 

La   Paz    de    Ayacucho    with    32,000,    and    Cochabamba,    with    30,000 
inhabitants. 


6.  Republic  of  Chili. 

This  strip  of  coast  land  embraces  an  area  of  144,000  square  statute  miles, 
with  a  pop.  of  about  1,200,000.  The  state  is  divided  into  eight  provinces  : 
1.  San  lago,  with  the  cap.  Santiago  (pop.  60,000),  and  the  important  harbor 
of  Valparaiso.  2.  Aconcagua,  cap.  Ciudad  de  Felipe.  3.  Coquimbo,  the 
largest  province,  cap.  Coquimbo,  or  Ciudad  de  Serena,  pop.  11,000.  4. 
Colchagua,  cap.  Villa  de  Curico.  5.  Maule,  cap.  Villa  de  Cauquenes.  6. 
Concepcion,  cap.  Concepcion.  7.  Valdivia,  cap.  do.  8.  Chiloe- Archipelago, 
consisting  of  seventy-three  islands,  of  which  thirty-six  are  inhabited  by 
45  to  50,000  persons.  The  principal  island,  Chiloe,  has  an  area  of  4200 
square  statute  miles,  cap.  Ciudad  de  Castro.  Further  south  lie  the  Chonos 
and  Guayanecas  Islands,  and  about  460  miles  off  the  coast  are  the  two 
Juan  Fernandez  Islands,  Masatierra  and  Masafuero. 


7.  United  States  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata. 

The  Argentine  Republic  has  an  area  of  726,000  square  statute  miles, 
with  675,000  inhabitants,  exclusive  of  some  1,500,000  Indians.  The 
Gauchos,  descendants  of  Spaniards,  are  remarkable  for  living  almost 
entirely  on  horseback,  and  for  the  skill  with  which  they  use  the  lasso. 
Prominent  Indian  tribes  are  the  Abipones,  Guayanas,  Tupis,  and  Charruas, 
in  the  north ;  and  the  Pampas  Indians  in  the  south.  The  confederacy 
embraces  the  following  states :  1.  Buenos  Ayres,  or  Argentina  in  its 
restricted  sense,  with  168,000  inhabitants  ;  cap.  do.,  with  85,000  inhabitants. 
2.  Entre  Rios,  cap.  Parana.  3.  Corrientes,  cap.  do.  4.  Santa  Fe,  cap. 
do.  5.  Cordova,  cap.  do.  6.  St,  lago  del  Estero,  cap.  do.  7.  Tucuman, 
cap.  San  Miguel.  8.  Salta,  cap.  do.  9.  Juguy,  cap.  San  Salvador  de 
Juguy.  10.  Catamarca.  11.  Rioja.  12.  San  Juan  de  la  Frontera.  13. 
San  Luis  de  la  Punta.     14.  Mendoza ;  all  with  capitals  of  similar  names. 


8.  Republic  of  Paraguay. 

This  state,  so  long  under  the  rule  of  the  celebrated  dictator.  Dr.  Francia 
(deceased  in  1840),  during  which  it  was  entirely  inaccessible  to  foreigners, 
is  the  only  one  in  America  which  does  not  touch  the  sea  in  some  point. 
Its  area  amounts  to  74,000  square  statute  miles,  its  pop.  to  250,000.  The 
capital  is  Asuncion,  with  about  10,000  inhabitants.  The  individual  depart- 
ments are  Asuncion,  Concepcion,  San  lago,  Villarica,  Caruguatay,  Cande- 
laria,  San  Fernando,  and  Santa  Hermengilda. 

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IIÖ  GBOGRAPHT. 


9.  (Oriental  del)  Uraouat. 

This  state,  recognised  as  independent  since  1828,  and  known  under  the 
names  of  Banda  Oriental,  Montevideo,  and  Cisplatina,  has  an  area  of  120,000 
square  statute  miles,  and  a  pop.  of  140,000,  which  is  mostly  European 
(French,  Italian,  English),  with  but  few  Indians  and  Negroes.  The  republic 
is  divided  into  nine  departments :  Montevideo,  Maldonado,  Canelones,  San 
Jose,  Colonia  del  Sagramento,  Soriano,  Paysandu,  Duranjo,  Cerro  Largo. 
The  capital  is  Montevideo,  with  20,000  inhabitants. 


10.  Patagonia. 

By  this  is  to  be  understood  the  southern  extremity  of  America,  below  the 
parallel  of  38^  S.  lat.  It  embraces  an  area  of  some  105,000  square  statute 
miles,  and  is  inhabited  solely  by  native  tribes.  Those  in  the  west  are 
termed  Moluches ;  the  eastern  are  the  Patagonians,  or  Tehuelhets,  once 
celebrated  for  their  size,  although  the  narrations  of  the  earlier  voyagers  in 
this  respect  do  not  appear  to  be  borne  out  by  the  experience  of  the  present 
day.     There  are  no  settlements  of  Europeans. 


11.  Terra  del  Fueoo. 

The  Straits  of  Magellan  separate  Patagonia  from  Terra  del  Fuego,  which 
consists  of  eleven  large  and  about  twenty  small  islands,  with  a  total  area 
of  about  31,500  square  statute  miles.  On  the  island  THermite  is  situated 
the  most  southern  land  of  America,  Cape  Horn.  The  inhabitants  are  the 
rude  and  savage  Pescherahs,  scarcely  2000  in  number.  On  Staatenland 
the  English  have  a  settlement. 

To  the  east  of  the  Straits  of  Magellan  are  situated  the  Falkland  Islands, 
two  large  and  eighty  to  ninety  small  islands,  in  possession  of  England,  and 
covering  an  area  of  3360  square  statute  miles.  Of  the  two  large  islands, 
the  western  is  called  Falkland,  the  eastern  Soledad.  Seat  of  government, 
Port  William. 


V.  AUSTRALIA  {PlaU  32). 

This  continent,  sometimes  called  New  Holland,  is  situated  between  the 
parallels  of  10^  40'  and  39^  S.  lat.,  or  entirely  within  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere. Its  area  amounts  to  about  2,240,000  square  geographical  miles ;  to 
2,560.000  square  geographical  miles,  however,  if  we  include  the  innumerable 
small  islands  which  may  be  referred  to  it  as  the  centre.  The  inhabitants, 
whose  numbers  are  unknown,  are  chiefly  Malays,  among  which  we 
distinguish  two  classes :  the  Malays  proper,  or  Australian  Indians,  of  lightish 
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GEOGRAPHY.  11& 

color,  and  the  more  or  less  black  Papuas  or  Australian  Negroes.  The  latter 
live  principally  on  the  mainland  and  the  western  islands.  The  number  of 
Europeans  probably  exceeds  200,000. 


1.  East  Australia  or  New  South  Wales. 

The  English  have  here  had  a  colony  of  criminals,  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  east  coast,  since  1788 ;  it  is  this  district  only,  divided  into  nineteen 
counties,  or  New  South  Wales  proper,  that  is  known  with  any  degree  of 
precision.  In  1837,  there  were  37«830  convicts,  and  47^270  free  people  : 
of  these  54,600  were  Protestants,  and  21,900  Roman  Catholics.  In  1845, 
the  English  population  amounted  to  181,500.  The  capital  is  Sidney,  with 
26  to  30,000  inhabitants  in  the  county  of  Cumberland.  Other  important 
towns  are  Paramatta  and  Bathurst. 


2.  South  AUSTRALIA. 

The  English  have  had  a  settlement  here  since  1836,  the  capital  of  which 
is  Adelaide.  In  1842,  with  an  area  of  113,040  square  geographical  miles, 
it  possessed  a  pop.  of  15,000.  The  European  population,  at  the  end  of 
1849,  was  estimated  at  25,000.  East  of  this  is  the  colony  of  Australia 
Felix,  established  in  1839 ;  cap.  Melbourne.  West  of  South  Australia  lies 
Nuyts  Land,  with  a  colony  at  Port  Raffles,  settled  in  1827. 


3.  Western  Australia. 

Since  1828,  there  has  been  an  English  settlement  in  Leeu win's  Land,  on 
the  southern  part  of  this  coast,  which  now  embraces  twenty-six  counties  in 
an  area  of  75,360  square  geographical  miles,  cap.  Perth.  The  whole  colony 
contained  3476  inhabitants  in  1842.  The  coast  north  of  this  is  called,  in 
order  of  succession,  Blaming's  Land,  Edel's  Land,  Eendracht's  Land  (the 
first  discovered  part  of  the  coast  by  the  Netherlanders  in  1616),  Dewitt's 
Land,  and  Tasman's  Land. 


4.  North  Australia. 

In  1824,  the  English  took  possession  of  the  peninsula  to  the  west  of  the 
Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  called  Arnhem's  Land  and  Van  Diemen's  Land, 
together  with  the  islands  of  Melville  and  Bathurst.  On  the  peninsula  of 
Coburg  is  situated  the  town  of  Victoria.  East  of  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria 
is  the  entirely  unknown  Carpentaria  Land. 


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120  GEOGRAPHY. 


5.   Islands  in  the  Vicinity  of  the  Mainland. 

1.  Van  Diemen* s  Land,  or  Tasmania,  separated  from  the  south-eastern 
point  of  Australia  by  Bass  Strait,  embraces  about  19,200  square  geogra- 
phical miles,  and  since  1805  has  been  colonized  by  the  English.  It  now 
counts  over  50,000  inhabitants,  of  which  18,700  are  convicts  ;  cap. 
Hobart-town,  with  14,500  inhabitants.  The  island  is  divided  into  nine 
districts.  2.  Foumeaux  Islands,  at  the  eastern  entrance  of  Bass  Strait. 
3.  King's  Island,  at  the  western  entrance  of  Bass  Strait.  4.  Kangaroo 
Island,  on  the  coast  of  South  Australia. 


6.  Inner  Series  of  Australian  Islands. 

1.  New  Guinea,  north  of  New  Holland,  and  separated  from  it  by  Torres 
Strait,  next  to  New  Holland  is  the  largest  island  of  the  south  seas.  It 
includes  an  area  of  about  160,000  square  geographical  miles,  which, 
however,  excepting  a  few  points  along  the  coast,  is  entirely  unknown.  The 
inhabitants  are  partly  Malays,  under  the  names  of  Haraforas,  Alfoaras,  and 
Alfakis,  partly  Papuas  and  partly  Badschus  (wandering  fishermen). 
2.  Admiralty  Islands,  north-east  of  New  Guinea,  about  thirty  in  number, 
with  the  Hermit  Islands.  3.  Archipelago  of  New  Britain,  consisting  of 
New  Britain  (the  largest).  New  Ireland  (Tombara),  and  New  Hanover,  the 
total  area  of  which  amounts  to  18,000  square  geographical  miles.  The 
inhabitants  are  Papuas.  4.  Archipelago  of  the  Louisiadc,  south  of  New 
Britain.  5.  Solomon's  Islands,  or  New  Georgian  Islands,  south-east  of  New 
Ireland.  Near  them  lie  the  Arsacides.  6.  Islands  of  Queen  Charlotte, 
or  Archipelago  of  Santa  Cruz,  east  of  the  preceding.  The  largest  island  is 
Santa  Cruz  or  Egmont.  To  the  south-east  lies  the  island  of  Wanikoro  or 
La  Perouse  (also  called  Recherche).  7.  The  New  Hebrides,  nine  large 
and  many  small  islands,  south  of  the  preceding.  The  largest  island  is 
Espiritu  Santo ;  next  to  it  comes  Mallicollo.  Banks  and  Torres  Islands 
belong  here.  8.  New  Caledonia,  south-east  of  the  preceding,  4800  square 
geographical  miles,  to  the  east  of  which  lie  the  Loyalty,  Cypress,  Plant, 
Walpole,  and  Matthew's  Islands. 


7.  Outer  Series  of  Australian  Islands. 

1.  Mariannes  or  Ladrones,  14-20  islands,  of  about  912  square  geogra- 
phical miles,  in  possession  of  Spain.  Only  two  or  three  of  them  are 
inhabited.  On  the  Guam,  the  largest  and  most  southern,  is  situated  the 
capital,  San  Ignacio  d'Agana  ;  the  population  amounts  to  about  5000.  2. 
The  Carolines,  or  New  Philippines,  separated  from  the  Mariannes  by  the 
Caroline  Straits,  a  group  of  several  hundred  diminutive  islands,  claimed  but 
not  settled  by  Spain.  3.  The  Pelews,  west  of  the  Carolines,  more  than 
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GEOGRAPHY.  J21 

twenty  inconsiderable  islands.  The  largest  are  termed  Babeltuab  and 
Corure.  4.  Lord  Mulgrave^s  Archipelago^  consisting  of  two  groups :  the 
Radack  and  Ralick  Islands  in  the  north,  sometimes  called  the  Marshall 
Islands,  and  the  Gilbert's  Islands,  in  the  south.  The  number  of  the  latter 
amounts  to  seventy.  In  the  vicinity  lie  the  Brown's  group,  as  also  the 
Fisher,  Kutusow,  and  Suwarow  Islands.  5.  The  Fejee  Islands,  to  the 
south  of  Gilbert's  Islands  and  east  of  the  New  Hebrides,  200  and  more  in 
number.  Nearly  all  are  small,  but  well  settled  ;  the  largest  is  Pau.  6.  The 
Tonga  or  Friendly  Islands,  south-east  of  the  preceding ;  32  large  and  over 
100  small  islands,  of  which  Wauwau,  Lifuga,  and  Tonga-Tabu,  are  the 
largest.  The  inhabitants  are  of  a  light  brown  color,  friendly  disposition,  and 
somewhat  civilized ;  they  number  over  200,000,  with  a  king  at  their  head. 
7.  The  Samoa,  or  Sailor's  group,  north-east  of  the  preceding,  eight  small  but 
densely  populated  islands,  of  which  Pola  or  Olawhi,  Ogalava,  and  Mauna,  are 
the  largest  8.  CooAj'sIs/anrf^,  south-west  of  the  last  group.  9.  The  Archu 
pelago  of  the  Low  Islands  consists  mainly  of  coral  rocks,  but  little  known. 
They  are  probably  the  most  recent  of  the  Australian  islands.  The  southern 
group  has  received  the  name  of  the  Dangerous  Islands.  Here  belong  the  Palliser 
Islands,  and  Pitcairn's  Island  lying  out  of  the  torrid  zone.  10.  The  Society 
Islands,  fourteen  large  and  numerous  smaller  islands,  discovered  since  1606, 
and  most  visited  and  best  known  of  all  the  south  sea  islands.  The  population, 
governed  by  a  king,  amounts  to  100,000  persons,  some  of  which  are  of  dark 
brown,  some  of  light  olive,  nearly  white  complexion  ;  they  are  of  good 
disposition,  and  have  been  brought  within  the  pale  of  civilization  by  English 
and  American  missionaries.  The  islands  are  divisible  into  two  groups  ;  a, 
the  south-eastern,  called  George's  Islands,  including  Otaheite  or  Tahiti,  the 
largest  of  all,  420-525  square  statute  miles,  and  very  fertile,  now  under  the 
so-called  protection  of  the  French ;  Eimeo,  52  square  statute  miles,  and 
1500  inhabitants  ;  Tabuai,  Manu,  Maitia,  and  the  five  Tetuaro  Islands,  fr. 
The  north-western  group,  with  Rajatea,  52  square  statute  miles,  pop.  1800  ; 
Taha,  31  square  statute  miles  ;  Huaheine,  26  square  statute  miles,  with 
1800  inhabitants ;  Borabora,  14  square  statute  miles,  pop.  1000 ;  Maurua, 
10  square  statute  miles.  11.  Mendana's  Archipelago,  consisting  of  two 
groups  :  a,  a  southern,  the  Marquesas  Islands,  five  islands  of  2352  square 
statute  miles  (the  largest  is  Hiwaoa,  or  St.  Dominica,  the  most  visited 
Tahuata  or  St.  Christina,  owned  by  France  since  1841) ;  h,  the  eight 
Washington  or  New  Marquesas.  The  largest  of  these  is  Nukahiwa,  with 
18,000  inhabitants,  occupied  by  the  French  since  1843. 


8.  Scattered  Islands. 

1.  New  Zealand,  to  the  south-east  of  New  Holland,  consists  of  two 
islands,  separated  by  Cook's  Strait :  Ikanamauwi  or  North,  and  Tawai- 
Punamu  or  South  Island.  The  two  together  embrace  an  area  of  about 
64,000  square  geographical  miles,  with  a  pop.  of  130,000.  These  are  of 
light  brown  color,  and  of  very  savage  disposition.     The  English  have  taken 


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122  GBOGRAPHT. 

possession  of  the  island  since  1840 ;  since  when,  numerous  colonies  have 
started  up  on  the  northern  island,  including  over  10,000  Europeans.  There 
are  two  towns,  Nelson  and  Wellington,  of  which  the  latter  is  the  capital 
Here  belongs  Stewart  Island,  to  the  south  of  the  southern  island.  In  the 
vicinity  lie  :  in  the  north,  Norfolk  Island  (with  an  English  convict  colony), 
and  the  three  Kermandic  Islands  ;  to  the  south-east,  Chatham  Island, 
Bounty  Island,  and  Antipodes  Island ;  in  the  south,  the  Auckland  and  the 
M acquarie  Islands.  The  latter  are  the  most  southern  of  all  the  Australian 
islands. 

2.  The  Sandwich  Islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  thirteen  in  number,  with 
an  area  of  5270-6330  square  statute  miles,  and  a  population  of  120-150,000 
(among  them  90,000  Christians).  These  belong  to  the  Malay  race,  are  of 
a  dark  color,  fine  figure,  and  far  advanced  in  civilization,  through  the  agency 
of  missionaries.  In  1630,  there  were  30,000  of  the  inhabitants  who  could 
read.  The  islands  form  a  monarchy  under  a  king  (now  Tameamea  IIL) ; 
the  Christian  is  the  state  religion.  The  largest  island  is  Hawaii,  or  Owyhee, 
with  an  area  of  about  4220  square  statute  miles,  and  85,000  inhabitants. 
On  the  island  of  Oahu,  527  square  statute  miles,  and  with  a  pop.  of  28,000, 
is  the  royal  residence,  Honolulu,  with  10,000  inhabitants.  The  largest  of 
the  remaining  islands  are  Maui,  area  633  square  statute  miles,  pop.  25,000 ; 
Tawai,  area  527  square  statute  miles ;  Morotai,  area  168  square  statute 
miles ;  and  Ranai,  area  105  square  statute  miles. 

4.  Eastern  Island,  or  Waihu,  and  the  uninhabited  island  Sala  y  Gomez, 
are  the  most  eastern  of  all  the  Australian  islands. 


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PLANOGRAPHY. 

Plans  of  the  Principal  Cities  of  Europe  {Plates  33 — 44). 

1.  London  (Plate  33). 

London,  the  largest  city  in  Europe,  and  the  capital  of  the  British  Empire, 
is  situated  on  both  banks  of  the  Thames,  about  sixty  miles  from  where  it 
empties  into  the  North  Sea.  The  population  amounts  to  over  two  millions 
(the  London  Police  District,  in  1649,  included  even  2,336,960),  among 
which  are  only  about  8000  soldiers.  It  consists  of  three  portions :  the  city 
in  the  north  and  east,  Westminster  in  the  west,  both  on  the  north  bank  of 
the  Thames,  and  Southwark  on  the  south  bank  ;  the  last  belongs  to  the 
County  of  Surrey.  The  City^  or  OUTotim,  of  an  area  equal  to  one  square 
mile,  is  divided  into  twenty-six  districts.  It  is  contracted  and  irregularly 
built,  but  constitutes  the  heart  of  the  city  or  the  principal  seat  of  commerce. 
The  principal  streets  are  Cheapside  and  Fleet  street.  The  most  conspicuous 
buildings  are  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  the  largest  Protestant  Church  in  the 
world,  500  feet  long,  250  feet  broad,  and  356  feet  high,  with  a  dome  282 
feet  high,  140  broad,  and  resting  upon  thirty-two  columns  ;  it  contains  fifty 
monuments,  among  them  one  of  Nelson,  who  is  here  buried.  There  are, 
likewise,  the  Tower,  on  the  Thames,  an  old  citadel,  and  formerly  the  royal 
residence,  containing  many  dwelling  houses,  the  Magazine,  the  Mint,  the 
Public  Archives,  prisons  of  state ;  the  Bank ;  the  new  Exchange,  293 
feet  long,  175  broad,  with  a  portico,  a  tower  160  feet  high,  and  a  place  of 
assembly  270  feet  long  and  112  wide;  Guildhall,  with  a  hall  153  feet  long, 
48  broad,  and  55  high,  capable  of  accommodating  several  thousand  persons ; 
the  Custom  House,  480  feet  long,  with  a  beautiful  facade,  and  a  hall  190 
feet  long  and  66  broad ;  the  East  India  House  ;  Newgate  Prison  (capable 
of  containing  900  persons).  In  the  city  is  also  the  Monument,  a  column  of 
marble  200  feet  high,  in  commemoration  of  the  great  fire  of  1666. 

Westminster^  the  finest  and  most  regularly  built  part  of  London,  is 
divided  into  sixteen  districts.  The  principsd  streets  are  the  Strand; 
Kccodilly,  with  the  Burlington  Arcade,  600  feet  long,  and  lighted  from 
above  with  glass  windows ;  Regent  street,  Oxford  street,  and  New  Bond 
street  The  principal  squares  are  Covent  Garden,  Hanover,  Charing  Cross, 
with  the  equestrian  statue  of  Charles  I.,  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields,  St.  James's 
square,  with  the  statues  of  the  Duke  of  York  and  William  III. ;  Russell 
square,  Grosvenor  square,  with  the  statue  of  George  II.  on  horseback, 
dec.  The  principal  buildings  are  St.  James's  Palace,  a  royal  residence 
since  1695,  and  Buckingham  House,  the  residence  of  the  queen,  in  St 
James's  Park ;  Westminster  Abbey,  where  the  sovereigns  of  England  are 
crowned    and   buried,    a   master-piece    of  Gothic  architecture,  890  feet 

123 


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124  GBOGRAPHY. 

long,  with  forty-eight  marble  columns  and  many  chapels ;  the  immense  new 
Houses  of  Parliament,  built  in  the  Gk>thic  style  on  a  terrace  along  the  Thames, 
with  the  statue  of  Canning  in  front ;  Westminster  Hall ;  the  Admiralty 
Building;  St.  Martin's,  St. Pancras',  St.  Stephen's, St.  Ann's,  St.  George's,  and 
St.  Margaret's  Churches ;  the  British  Museum,  with  a  large  library  (3-400,000 
vols.,  and  50,000  manuscripts),  and  one  of  the  finest  collections  of  Natural 
History  and  of  Art  in  the  world ;  the  National  Gallery  in  Trafalgar  square, 
461  feet  long,  and  56  feet  broad ;  the  University  Building,  430  feet  long, 
with  chapel,  library,  and  dining  hall ;  the  Pantechnicon,  500  feet  long,  with 
numerous  shops  ;  the  three  principal  theatres.  Queen's  Theatre  or  the 
Italian  Opera  House,  for  2400  persons,  Covent  Garden,  and  Drury  Lane, 
the  latter  capable  of  containing  3,000  spectators ;  the  Barracks  of  the 
Guards.  The  finest  private  house  is  the  palace  of  the  Duke  of  Nor- 
thumberland ;  next  to  it  comes  Apsley  House,  the  palace  of  the  Duke 
of  Wellington,  with  those  of  Lords  Marlborough,  Bedford,  Staflford, 
Spencer,  &c. 

Southwark,  the  southern  part  of  London,  inhabited  by  the  poorest  and 
humblest  part  of  the  population,  has  but  few  buildings  of  any  note,  besides 
Lambeth  House  (residence  of  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury),  and  the 
Queen's  Bench  (Court  of  Justice),  with  numerous  prisons.  Other  portions 
of  London,  arising  from  the  incorporation  of  individual  villages,  lie  to  the 
west,  north,  and  east,  about  the  city  and  Westminster.  They  may  be 
divided  into  three  divisions  or  parishes  :  Holborn,  including  Marylebone, 
Paddington,  and  Pancras,  and  called  West  End,  from  lying  west  of  the 
city ;  Finsburt/y  north  of  the  city,  with  Clerkenwell,  Finchley,  Islington, 
&c. ;  Tower  Hamlets,  east  of  the  city,  and  therefore  called  East  End,  with 
Bethnal  Green,  Hackney,  Limehouse,  Shoreditch,  Stratford,  Stepney, 
Spitalfields,  Wapping.  On  the  south  bank  of  the  Thames  lie  also  Lambeth, 
Battersea,  Camberwell,  Clapham,  Wandsworth,  Rotherhithe,  &c.,  which 
together  constitute  the  Brixton  division. 

Six  bridges  cross  the  Thames  for  the  purpose  of  accommodating  the 
northern  and  southern  parts  of  the  city.  These  are,  from  west  to 
east :  1,  the  iron  Vauxhall  Bridge,  801  feet  long,  with  nine  arches  ; 
2,  Westminster  Bridge,  1223  feet  long,  48  feet  broad,  with  14  piers  ;  3,  the 
superb  Waterloo  Bridge  of  dressed  granite,  1248  feet  long,  with  9  large 
arches ;  4,  Biackfriars'  Bridge,  995  feet  long,  with  9  arches ;  5,  the  iron 
Southwark  Bridge,  with  three  arches,  the  middle  one  of  which  has  a 
span  of  240  feet ;  6,  London  Bridge,  928  feet  long,  52  feet  broad,  with  five 
arches.  To  the  east,  there  is  the  Tunnel,  constructed  by  Brunei  in  1824-42, 
between  Rotherhithe  and  Wapping,  1300  feet  long,  34  feet  beneath  the  bed 
of  the  river,  divided  into  vaulted  galleries,  13f  feet  broad,  and  10  J  feet  high 
each. 

The  most  frequented  promenades  are :  1,  St.  James's  Park,  with  a 
beautiful  gate  of  marble,  and  the  equestrian  statue  of  George  IV. ;  2, 
Green  Park  ;  8,  Hyde  Park,  reaching  to  Kensington,  395  acres  in  extent, 
with  a  statu«  of  Achilles  eighteen  feet  high,  and  one  of  Wellington  on  a 
pedestal  150  feet  high ;  4,  Regent's  Park,  360  acres,  newly  laid  out,  in  the 
124 


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PLANOGRAPHY. 


126 


West    End    (here    are    situated    the    Botanic    Garden    and    Zoological 
Gardens). 

The  immense  docks,  or  artificial  basins  for  the  reception  of  vessels, 
deserve  especial  mention.  Of  these,  there  are  the  West  India  Docks, 
covering  24  acres,  the  London  Docks,  of  20  and  14  acres,  the  East  India 
Docks,  and  St.  Catharine's  Docks,  of  llj  acres,  &c.  They  are  all 
surrounded  by  gigantic  warehouses. 


Explanation  of  thb  Plan. 


Bridges. 

a,  Battersea  or  Chelsea  bridge, 
ft.  Vauxhall  bridge. 

c.  Westminster  bridge. 

d.  Hungerford  bridge  (suspension). 

e.  Waterloo  bridge. 
/.  Blackfriars'  bridge. 
g.  South wark  bridge. 
h.  London  bridge. 


Docks  and  Basins. 

I.  South  dock. 
II.  Timber  docks. 

III.  Commercial  docks. 

IV.  Grand  Surrey  outer  dock. 
V.  Grand  Surrey  inner  dock. 

VI.  Greenland  dock. 
VII.  East  county  dock. 

and  IX.  West  docks. 

Mast  pond. 

East  and  west  docks. 

Mill  pond. 

London  docks. 

East  Lcmdon  dock. 

St.  Catharine's  dock. 


VIII. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 


Squares. 


A.  Grosvenor  square,  with  the  statue 

of  King  (Jeorge  II. 

B.  Portland  square. 

C.  Berkeley  square,  with  the  statue 

ofcKing  William  III. 


D. 
E. 
F. 
G. 
H. 
I. 

K. 
L. 

M. 

N. 
O. 
P. 

Q. 

R. 

s. 

T. 
U. 
V. 
W, 
X. 
Y. 


St.  James's  square. 

Hanover  square. 

Manchester  square. 

Cavendish  square. 

Golden  square. 

Soho  square,  with  the   statue  of 

King  Charles  I. 
Bedford  square. 
Bloomsbury  square,  with  the  statue 

of  the  minister  Fox. 
Russell  square. 
Tavistock  square. 
Gordon  square. 
Easton  square. 
Brunswick  square. 
Mecklenbui^  square. 
Red  Lion  square. 
Lincoln's  Inn  square. 
Trinity  square. 
Wellclose  square. 
,  Finsbury  square. 
Smithfield  square. 
The  Oval. 


Public  Buildings, 

1.  St.  Paurs  Church. 

2.  The  Tower. 

3.  New  Mint. 

4.  Bank. 

5.  The  Lord  Mayor's  House. 

6.  House  of  the  East  India  Company. 

7.  Exchange. 

8.  Custom  House. 

9.  Guildhall. 

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1 


126                                          GEOORAPHT. 

1 

10.  London  Institute. 

57.  St.  Leonard's  Church. 

11.  St.  Luke's  Hospital. 

58.  Alms  House. 

12.  Charter  House  Hospital. 

59.  St.  Luke's  Workhouse. 

18.  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital. 

60.  Sadler's  Wells  Theatre. 

14.  Fleet  Prison. 

61.  Polygon. 

15.  Entrance  to  Temple  Garden. 

62.  Park  square. 

16.  Westminster  Abbey. 

63.  Statue  of  the  Duke  of  Kent 

17.  Parliament  Houses. 

64.  Marylebone  Church. 

18.  St.  James's  Palace. 

65.  Wellington's  Monument. 

19.  Royal  Palace. 

66.  St.  George's  Hospital. 

20.  Somerset  House. 

67.  Lock  Hospital. 

21.  Admiralty. 

68.  Invalids'  Hospital. 

22.  War  Department. 

69.  New  Bridewell. 

23.  Treasury. 

70.  Lambeth  Palace. 

24.  British  Äf useum. 

71.  Elephant  and  Castle. 

25.  university  of  London. 

72.  St  John's  Church. 

26.  Colosseum. 

73.  Church  of  Mary  Magdalene. 

27.  Diorama. 

74.  Jenkins's  Nursery. 

28.  House  of  Correction. 

29.  Chelsea  Hospital. 

80.  Guy's  Hospital. 

Streets. 

81.  St.  Thomas's  Hospital. 

32.  Magdalene  Hospital. 

1.  Waterloo. 

83.  Bethlehem  Hospital  (Bedlam). 

2.  Grand  Surrey. 

34.  Queen's  Bench  Prison. 

3.  Westminster. 

35.  Vauxhall. 

4.  Borough. 

86.  Temple  Gardens. 

5.  Lambeth. 

87.  Gray's  Inn  Gardens. 

6.  New  Camberwell. 

38.  Zoological  Gardens. 

7.  Kennington. 

39.  Ranelagh. 

8.  Walworth. 

40.  Deaf  and  Dumb  Institute. 

9.  New  Kent. 

41.  Blind  Institute. 

10.  Old  Kent. 

42.  Surrey  Theatre. 

11.  St  George^s. 

43.  Astley's  Theatre. 

12.  Long  Lane. 

44.  Italian  Opera  House. 

13.  Tooley. 

45.  Covent  Garden  Theatre. 

14.  West  India  Dock. 

46.  Drury  Lane  Theatre. 

15.  Radclifie  Highway. 

47.  Lyceum  or  English  Theatre. 

16.  New  street. 

48.  Adelphi  Theatre. 

17.  Handel's. 

49.  West  Theatre. 

18.  White  Chapel. 

50.  Pantheon. 

19.  Mile  End. 

51.  London  Monument. 

20.  Hackney. 

52.  St.  George's  Church. 

21.  Bethnal  Green. 

53.  St.  Paul's  Cathedral. 

22.  Shoreditch,  Kingsland. 

54.  London  Hospital. 

28.  Bishopsgate. 

55.  St.  Stephen's  Chapel. 

24.  Thames. 

56.  Jew's  Hospital. 
136 

25.  Chei^de.                     ^ 

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PLÄNOGBAPHY. 


427 


26.  Newgate. 

27.  Holborn. 

28.  Oxford. 

29.  Pity. 

80.  Goswell. 

81.  Aldersgate. 
32.  New. 

88.  Gray's  Inn  Lane. 

84.  Seymour. 

85.  Hampstead. 

86.  Tottenham  Court 

87.  Portland  Place. 

88.  Regent. 

89.  Wimpole. 

40.  Bond. 

41.  Baker. 

42.  Gloucester. 

43.  Park. 

44.  Rawford. 

45.  Devonshire. 

46.  Audley. 


47.  Piccadilly. 

48.  St.  George 

49.  WhitehalL 

50.  Vauxhall. 

51.  Belgrave  square. 

52.  King. 

53.  Sloane. 

54.  Brompton. 

55.  Marlborough. 

56.  Clarence. 

57.  Grove. 

58.  Edgeware. 

59.  Great  Union. 


Principal  Divisions  of  the  City^ 


A.  City  proper. 

B.  Westminster. 

C.  Southwark. 


2.  Paris  {Plates  84,  35). 


Paris,  the  time-honored  capital  of  France,  lies  in  a  plain  traversed  by  the 
Seine.  At  the  last  census,  of  1846,  it  had  a  population  of  about  1,053,897 
inhabitants,  amongst  which  945,721  belonged  to  the  fixed  population,  and 
88,475  to  the  floating,  or  those  in  schools,  hospitals,  &c. ;  and  19>701  to  the 
garrison.  Paris  is  about  fourteen  miles  in  circumference,  with  an  area  of 
three  millions  and  a  half  of  hectares,  and  is  divided  into  twelve  Mairies 
or  Arrondissements,  with  forty-eight  Quartiers  or  Police  districts.  The 
Seine  separates  it  into  a  south  and  north  part,  the  latter  of  which  is  the 
larger.  It  is  inclosed  by  a  continuous  wall,  twelve  to  sixteen  feet  high, 
through  which  lead  fifty-eight  entrances  or  Barridres.  The  city  contains 
30,000  houses,  113  churches  and  chapels,  43  public  libraries,  40  convents, 
22  theatres,  27  hospitals,  38  ban*acks,  22  bridges,  80  fountains,  more  than 
80  public  squares,  and  some  1700  streets  and  quais.  The  principal  points 
of  interest  are  as  follows : 

a.  In  the  City  Proper,  north  of  the  Seine :  the  Tuileries,  formerly  the 
residence  of  the  French  king,  1071  feet  long,  with  a  garden  2000  feet  in 
length ;  the  Louvre,  525  feet  long,  united  with  it  by  a  superb  building  with 
a  colonnade  1332  feet  in  length,  and  containing  the  antique  museum,  the 
galleries  of  paintings  (in  a  hall  1382  feet  long),  of  antiquities,  of  models  of 
ships,  of  plaster  casts,  of  designs,  and  of  recent  statuary ;  the  Palace  Elyste 
Bourbon,  formerly  the  palace  of  the  Duke  of  Bourdeaux,  now  the  residence 
of  the  President  of  the  Republic ;  the  Palais  Royal,  formerly  the  property  of 
the  Duke  of  Orleans,  with  a  court  700  feet  long  and  800  broad,  surrounded 

127 


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128  GEOGRAPHY. 

by  arcades  of  180  arches,  containing  the  most  brilliant  shops,  &c. ;  the  Palace 
of  the  Bourse,  and  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  208  feet  long,  adorned 
w  ith  sixty-six  Corinthian  columns ;  the  Library  Building,  containing,  according 
to  different  estimates,  from  700,000  to  1,000,000  volumes,  and  over  80,000 
manuscripts,  150,000  coins,  and  one  million  and  a  half  of  engravings  and 
charts ;  the  great  church  of  St.  Eustache,  with  painted  glass  windows  ;  the 
beautiful  Magdalene  Church,  318  feet  long,  138  feet  broad ;  the  Hospital  of 
St.  Louis,  with  800  beds ;  the  City  Hall  or  Hotel  de  Ville.  The  largest 
and  most  beautiful  square  is  the  Place  de  la  Concorde  (formerly  Place 
Louis  XV.,  and  Place  de  la  Revolution),  780  feet  long,  and  adorned  with 
the  Obelisk  of  Luxor,  a  mass  of  granite  45  feet  high ;  other  beautiful 
squares  are  the  Place  du  «Carrousel,  before  the  Tuileries,  with  a  magnificent 
triumphal  arch  45  feet  high  ;  the  Champs  Elys4es,  which  leads  to  the 
triumphal  Arch  de  TEtoile,  152  feet  long,  138  broad,  and  80  feet  high;  the 
Place  Vendome,  450  feet  long,  with  the  Victor's  column  of  bronze,  140  feet 
high,  and  12  thick,  having  the  statue  of  Napoleon  on  the  top,  access  to  which 
is  gained  by  176  steps ;  the  Place  Roy  ale,  with  the  equestrian  statue  of  Louis 
Xill. ;  the  Place  de  la  Bastille,  with  the  July  column  of  bronze,  158  feet 
high,  and  10  feet  thick ;  the  Place  Louvois,  the  Place  du  Chatelet,  and  the 
March6  des  Innocens,  all  with  beautiful  fountains ;  the  Place  des  Victoires, 
with  the  statue  of  Louis  XIV.,  &c. 

b.  The  Ancient  City,  or  Cito,  consists  of  three  islands  of  the  Seine.  On 
the  largest  of  these,  Cit6  in  a  restricted  sense,  or  He  du  Palais,  is  situated 
the  grand  church  of  Notre  Dame,  a  masterpiece  of  Gothic  architecture,  390 
feet  long,  144  feet  broad,  with  a  dome  162  feet  high,  and  two  towers  of  204 
feet.  Here  are  also  the  Palace  of  the  Archbishop  ;  the  Palais  de  Justice ; 
the  prison  Conciergerie ;  and  the  Hospital  Hotel  Dieu,  which  contains 
1500  beds  in  twenty- three  rooms.  The  two  other  islands  are  termed  St. 
Louis  and  Louviers. 

c.  In  the  inconsiderable  portion  of  the  city  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
Seine  (University),  are  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  and  the  Botanic 
Garden  (Jardin  des  Plantes),  with  the  richest  menagerie  in  the  world ;  the 
Castle  of  Luxemburg,  with  a  large  and  beautiful  garden ;  the  Pantheon,  or 
the  former  church  of  St.  Genoveva,  340  feet  long,  with  a  superb  dome, 
supported  by  130  columns ;  the  Hospital  Salpetriere,  for  5000  old  women, 
and  the  Insane  Asylum  Bic^tre,  for  3000  insane  persons ;  the  Manufactory 
of  the  Gobelins ;  the  Palace  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  with  a  beautiful 
hall  with  columns  and  extensive  gardens,  which  end  in  a  terrace  1500  feet 
long ;  the  Observatory,  with  a  platform  85  feet  high  ;  the  Hotel  des 
Monnaies  or  the  Mint  Building,  360  feet  long ;  the  Military  School,  now 
Barracks,  consisting  of  six  buildings  with  fifteen  courts,  1320  feet  long,  and 
780  feet  broad ;  the  Hospital  of  the  Invalides,  with  a  beautiful  church,  in 
which  is  situated  the  tomb  of  Napoleon.  The  Champ  de  Mars  is  an 
extensive  square  at  the  west  end  of  the  city,  2700  feet  long  and  900  feet 
broad,  serving  for  military  parades. 

The  most  important  of  the  bridges  over  the  Seine  are  the  bridge  of  Jena, 
a  stone  bridge  460  feet  long,  the  bridge  or  Pont  de  la  Concorde,  600  feet 
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PLANOGRAPHT.  129 

long,  of  five  arches,  and  adorned  with  twelve  statues ;  the  Pont  Royal ; 
the  Pont  des  Arts,  516  feet  long,  of  nine  iron  arches ;  the  Pont  Neuf,  713 
feet  long,  with  the  statue  of  Henry  IV.,  fourteen  feet  high ;  the  Bridge  of 
Austerlitz,  with  five  iron  arches,  400  feet  long. 

The  Catacombs  were  formerly  quarries,  from  which  was  obtained  the 
stone  used  in  building  the  city  of  Paris.  They  now  constiti^e  an  enormous 
subterranean  cemetery,  access  to  which  is  obtained  by  a  flight  of  ninety 
steps.  Other  points  of  interest  are  the  Artesian  Well  in  the  Slaughter 
House  of  Crenelle,  1961  (English)  feet  deep;  the  Cemetery  of  P^re  la 
Chaise,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  city,  with  25,000  graves,  and  innumerable 
monuments.  The  following  communes  are  united  with  the  city  government : 
On  the  right  of  the  Seine,  Belleville,  BatignoUes,  Montmartre,  La  Chapelle, 
La  Villette,  Neuilly,  Bercy,  Passy,  Charronne  ;  on  the  left  bank,  Baugirard, 
Chantilly,  Mont  Rouge,  and  Crenelle.  These  lie  between  the  barridres  and 
the  fortifications  erected  since  1841.  The  fortifications  consist  of  eighty-five 
bastions,  with  walls,  ditches,  &c.  At  from  600-2500  paces  firom  the  circular 
wall  are  sixteen  detached  forts,  mounted  with  2206  cannon.  Instead  of  the 
ancient  fortifications,  the  interior  of  the  city,  within  the  circular  wall,  is 
surrounded  by  ten  Boulevards,  86,000  feet  long,  and  planted  with  tree^. 

Railroads  lead  from  Paris,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Seine,  northward  to 
Versailles  (St.  Cermain  and  Rouen)  and  Brussels  (Northern  Railroad),  and 
eastward  to  Strasburg ;  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Seine,  south-west  to  Ver 
sailles,  south-east  to  Orleans  and  Lyons. 


Explanation  of  the  Plans. 
Paris  and  its  Vicinity. 


Suburbs. 

Public  Squares. 

A.  Justice  du  Cros-Caillon. 

A. 

Place  de  la  Concorde. 

B.  Faubourg  St  Cermain. 

AA 

M 

et  barrio  de  TEtoile. 

C. 

St.  Jacques. 

B. 

«( 

Vend6me. 

D. 

St.  Marceau. 

C. 

« 

du  Carrousel. 

E. 

St.  Antoine. 

D. 

t* 

de  la  Bourse. 

F.  a.    " 

du  Temple. 

E. 

« 

des  Victoires. 

F.  b.     " 

St  Martin. 

P. 

« 

du  Palais-Royal. 

H.G.  - 

M6nilmontant 

G. 

tt 

du  Mus^. 

H.       « 

St  Denis. 

H. 

tt 

du  Louvre. 

I. 

Poissonni^. 

L 

« 

de  rOratoire. 

K.       " 

Montmartre. 

K. 

M 

de  la  Madeleine. 

L. 

au  Roule. 

L. 

«< 

du  Ch&telet. 

M.        ^ 

St  Honor«. 

M. 

« 

de  l'Hötel  de  Villa 

N.  Justice  de  la  Chausste  d' Antin. 

N. 

tt 

de  la  Bastille. 

0.       " 

de  la  Cit& 

p. 

t€ 

Royale. 

P-        « 

de  rue  St  Louis.  . 

P. 

€i 

duTrAne. 

icoiiooRAPmo  xiroTOLOPin>Uw— YOU  m. 

9                             189 

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Google 


13( 

)                                           GBOGRAPHY. 

Q. 

Place  du  Panthton. 

88. 

Rue  Vivienne. 

R. 

"      de  rOdöon. 

84. 

u 

Montmartre. 

S. 

"     St.  Sulpice. 

85. 

€( 

Poissonniire. 

T. 

"     de  Vauban. 

86. 

U 

St.  Denis. 

U. 

'*     de  Fontenoy. 

87. 

tt 

St.  Martin. 

V. 

"     du  Parvis-Notre-Dame. 

88. 

u 

Rambuteau. 

w. 

"     Dauphine. 

89. 

tt 

du  Temple. 

89». 

tt 

vieille  du  Temple. 

40. 

tt 

St.  Louis. 

Quays  and  Streets. 

41. 

it 

St  Antoine. 

41*. 

*t 

du  faub.  St.  Antoine. 

1. 

Quai  de  la  GrÄve. 

42. 

tt 

Lafayette. 

2. 

'*    de  la  Megisserie. 

43. 

it 

du  faub.  du  Temple. 

8. 

"    del'Ecole. 

44. 

tt 

du  faub.  St  Martin. 

4. 

"    du  Louvre. 

45. 

it 

du  faub.  St  Denis. 

5. 

"    des  Tuileries. 

46. 

it 

du  faub.  Poissonniire. 

6*. 

''    Cours  la  Reine,  and  Quai 

47. 

it 

du  faub.  Montmartre. 

de  la  Conference. 

48. 

it 

Laffitte. 

6. 

"    d'Orsay. 

49. 

tt 

du  Mont  Blanc. 

6*. 

«    Voltaire. 

60. 

it 

du  faubourg  du  Roule. 

7. 

"    Malaquais. 

51. 

tt 

du  faubourg  St  Honor«. 

8. 

"    Conti. 

52. 

it 

d'Arcole. 

9. 

"    des  Grands  Augustins. 

58. 

tt 

de  la  Seine. 

10. 

"    St.  Michel. 

54. 

it 

de  rUniversit«. 

11. 

''    Montebello  ou  Billy. 

55. 

tt 

de  Vaugirard. 

12. 

"    de  la  Toumelle. 

56. 

tt 

de  Sövres. 

18. 

"    St.  Bernard. 

57. 

it 

St  Jacques. 

14. 

"    d'Austerlitz. 

58. 

it 

St.  Victor. 

15. 

"    de  la  Rapte. 

16. 

"    Moraud. 

17. 

"    des  Ormes. 

Boulevards. 

18. 

"    de  B6thune. 

19. 

"    de  r  ArchevÄch«. 

a.  Boulevard  de  la  Madeleine. 

20. 

"    desOrfövres. 

b. 

*'       des  Capucines. 

21. 

"    de  I'Horloge. 

c. 

.  t 

*        des  Italiens. 

22. 

«    Napoleon. 

d. 

"        Montmartre. 

28. 

"    Bourbon. 

e. 

<i 

Poissonnidre. 

24. 

"    d'Anjou. 

/. 

t 

'       Bonne-Nouvelle. 

25. 

Port  aux  Vina. 

«r. 

« 

St  Denis. 

26. 

Rue  Royale. 

h. 

it 

St  Martin. 

27. 

«    Trouchet 

i. 

tt 

du  Temple. 

28. 

<*    Malherbes. 

k. 

tt 

des  Filles  du  Calvaire. 

29. 

"    Rivoli. 

I 

tt 

St.  Antoine. 

80. 

"    Castiglione. 

m. 

tt 

de  r  Arsenal  oude  Bourdoit 

80> 

"    delaPaix. 

n. 

t* 

'       de  l'H6pital. 

81. 

"    St  Honor«. 

0. 

n 

^       des  Gobelinet» 

82. 

"    Richelieu. 

?• 

1« 

St  Jacques. 

180 


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PLANOGRAFHY.                                         181 

?• 

Boulevard  d'Enfer. 

11.  Palais  de  rinstitut 

r. 

**           du  Mont  Parnasse. 

12.  Observatoire. 

9. 

''           des  Invalides. 

18.  Palais  de  Justice. 

t. 

Avenue  de  BreteuiL 

14.      "      Soubise,  Archives  du  Roy- 

n. 

All6e  des  Veuves. 

aume. 

15.  Le  Temple. 

16.  Banque  de  France. 

Bridges. 

17.  Minist^re  des  Affaires  ^trangdres. 

18.  Ministire  des  Finances. 

a. 

Pont  de  Bercy,  ou  de  la  Gare. 

19.  ElysÄe-Bourbon. 

b. 

M 

d'Austerlitz. 

20.  Ministire  de  la  Marine. 

c. 

U 

de  Constantino. 

Q.  Pantheon. 

d. 

U 

de  Damiette. 

M.  Hotel-de-ViUe. 

e. 

ti 

de  la  Toumelle. 

D.  Bourse  et  Tribunal  du  commerce 

/. 

a 

Marie. 

21.'  tiarde-Meubles. 

g- 

t€ 

de  la  Cit«. 

h. 

u 

Louis  Philippe. 

t. 

u 

d'Arcole. 

Churches. 

i. 

u 

Notre  Dame. 

/. 

w 

au  Change. 

22.  Eglise  Notre  Dame. 

m. 

M 

Neuf. 

23.      "      St.  Germain-des-Pr&. 

ft. 

« 

de  TArchevÄch*. 

24.      "      St.  Thomas  d'Aquin. 

0. 

u 

au  Double. 

24".     "      St.  ValÄre. 

?. 

u 

Petit  St.  Michel. 

26.      "      St.  Etienne-du-Mont 

?• 

€4 

St.  Michel. 

26.      «      du  Val^e-gr&ce. 

r. 

u 

des  Arts. 

27.      "      St  Germain  TAuxerrois. 

«. 

u 

du  Carrousel. 

28.      <'      St.  Eustache. 

/. 

u 

Royal. 

29.      "      St.  Roch. 

«. 

u 

de  la  Concorde. 

80.      "      St.  Gervais. 

V. 

it 

des  Invalides. 

81.      "      St.  Paul. 

to. 

u 

d'Jena. 

82.      "      Notre  Dame  de  Lorette. 

2. 

u 

de  Crenelle. 

88.      "      St.  Francois  de  Paul. 
S.      "      St.  Sulpice. 

Public  Buildings. 

K.      "      de  la  Madeleine. 
84.  Chapelle  St  Louis. 

1.  Palais  des  Tuileries. 

2.  **     du  Louvre. 

8.  "      Royal. 

4.  **     du  Luxembourg  (Chamber 

of  Peers). 

5.  "     Bourbon    (Chamber    of 

Deputies). 

6.  HAtel  des  Invalides. 

7.  Ecole  Militaire. 

&  Palais  de  la  Legion  d'Honneur. 

9.  **     du  quai  d'Qrsay. 
10.  Hötd  des  Monnaies. 


ITieatres. 


85. 
86. 

Academic  Royale  de  Musique. 
Thtetre  Italien. 

87. 
88. 

« 

Francois. 
Ventadour. 

39. 
40. 

de  rOpera^omique, 
de  la  Porte  St  Martm- 

41. 
42. 

u 
u 

de  rAmbigu-comique. 
du  Cirque  Olympique. 

m 

Digitized  by  VnO 

132 


GBOGRAPHT. 


48.  Th^fttreduGymnasedramatique. 

44.  "        des  Varietes. 

45.  ''        Cirque    des    Champs 

Elys^s. 
45.  b.  Panorama. 


76.  Prison  du  NouTeau  Bic^tre. 

77.  **       Militaire  de  Montaigne. 

Scientific  Institutions. 


R.  ThMtre  de  I'Od^on. 

78.  Sorbonne. 

79.  Ecole  de  Droit. 

80.      "      de  Medecin. 

Hallt  and  Market». 

81.       "       Polytechnique. 

^ 

82.      «      des  Beaux- Arts. 

46.  Entrepot  g^n^ral. 

83.      "      des  Mines. 

47.  Halle  aux  vins. 

84.      "      de  Musique. 

48.      "     aux  bl^. 

85.  Coll^  de  France. 

49.  March6  du  Temple. 

86.  Institution  des  Sourds-muets. 

50.        ''      des  Innocents. 

87.  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers. 

51.        "      St.  Germain. 

88.  Biblioth^ue  Royale. 

52.        ''      au  gibier  (game  market) . 

89.  Museum  d'histoire  naturelle. 

53.        "      St.  Honors. 

90.  S^minaire  de  St  Sulpice. 

53.  b.     *'      aux  chevaux. 

54.  Abattoirs  (slaughter-houses). 

55.  Grenier  de  reserve. 

Military  Plan  of  Paris  {pi  85). 

Hospitals. 

56.  Hotel  Dieu. 

57.  HApital  de  la  Piti4. 

58.  "  de  la  Charit«. 

59.  "  St.  Antoine. 

60.  "  de  la  Salp^triire. 

61.  "  Cochin. 

62.  '*  Necker. 

63.  "  Beaujon. 

64.  ••  St.  Louis. 

65.  Hospice  des  Enfants  trouv^. 

66.  "  des  Orphelins. 

67.  "  des  Quinze-vingts. 

68.  "  des  femmes  incurables. 

69.  **  des  hommes  incurables. 

Prisons. 

70.  Prison  de  la  Force. 

71.  "  Ste.  Pflagie. 

72.  "  des  Madelonnettes. 

73.  "  St.  Lazare. 

74.  "  Clichy  (des  dettes). 

75.  "  Module. 
18S 


1.  Palace  of  the  Tuileries. 

2.  Chamber  of  Peers. 

8.  Chamber  of  Deputies. 

4.  The  Louvre. 

5.  Hotel  de  Ville. 

6.  War  Department. 

7.  Principal  quarter  of  the  first  mili- 

tary division. 

8.  Military  Intendency. 

9.  Military  School. 

10.  H6tel  des  Invalides. 

1 1 .  Arsenals  and  Military  Storehouses. 
I.  12.  Principal  quarter  of  the  first 

Legion  of  the  Nat  Guards. 


II.  13. 

III.  14. 

IV.  15. 


V. 

VL 

VII. 

VIII. 


16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 


IX.  20. 

X.  21. 

XI.  22. 

XIL28. 


2d  Legion. 

8d 

4th 

5th 

6th 

7th 

8th 

9th 
10th 
11th 
12th 


Digitized  by 


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34. 

Largespace  intended  for  Parades 

V. 

.  Pont  des  Invalides. 

and  Barracks. 

ID, 

.      "    d'J^na. 

36. 

Strategetical  ways,  connecting 
the  forts. 

X. 

.      "    de  Crenelle. 

26. 

Barracks. 

27. 

Military  Hospital. 

Observations, 

a. 

Pont  (bridge)  de  Bercy. 

b. 

"    d'Austerlitz. 

1. 

The  line  outside  of  the  ring  wall 

c. 

"    de  Constantine. 

and  of  the  forts,  indicates  the 

d. 

"    de  Damiette. 

breadth  of  the  glacis. 

e. 

"    de  la  Toumelle. 

2. 

The  first  dotted  line  indicates  the 

/ 

"    Marie. 

breadth  of  the  military  district. 

g' 

"    de  la  Cit6. 

8. 

The  second  dotted  line  about  the 

k. 

"    Louis  Philippe. 

forts,  indicates  the  mean  musket 

I. 

"    d'  Arcole. 

range. 

k. 

"    Notre  Dame. 

4. 

The  second  dotted  circular  line 

I. 

"    au  Change. 

about  the  forts,  indicates  the 

m. 

"    Neuf. 

mean  grapeshot  range. 

n. 

«    de  l'ArchevtehÄ. 

5. 

The  third  dotted  circular  line  indi- 

0. 

"    au  Double. 

cates  the  extreme    range  of 

P* 

"    St.  Michel  (Peüt). 

the  mortars  and  twenty-four 

?• 

"    St.  Michel  (Grand). 

pounders. 

r. 

"    des  Arts. 

6. 

The  Bastions  of  the  Ring  walls  bear 

$. 

"    du  Carrousel. 

the  successive  numbers,  1-94, 

t. 

".   Royal. 

beginning  at  the  Seine  above 

u. 

"    de  la  Concorde. 

Bercy. 

8.  Constantinople  (Plate  36). 

Constantinople,  the  Turkish  Stamboul,  the  capital  of  the  Turkish  Empire, 
is  situated  at  the  southern  entrance  of  the  Straits  of  Constantinople, 
formerly  the  Bosphorus.  It  forms  a  triangle,  the  northern  part  of  which  is 
bounded  by  the  Bay  of  Constantinople,  the  southern  by  the  Sea  of  Marmora, 
while  the  third  side  is  occupied  by  fields  and  gardens.  The  population,  like 
mat  of  all  eastern  cities,  is  hard  to  determine,  although  it  amounts  at  least 
to  half  a  million,  of  which  half  are  Turks,  one  fourth  Greeks,  and  the  rest 
Europeans,  Jews,  and  Armenians.  The  city  wall,  erected  by  the  Emperor 
Theodosius,  is  provided  with  648  towers,  and  protected  by  a  ditch  twenty- 
five  feet  broad  ;  the  walls  are  doubled  on  the  land  side,  often  trebled,  with  a 
space  of  twenty  feet  between  the  walls.  The  most  remarkable  part  of  the 
city  is  its  extreme  point  on  the  sea,  which  contains  the  castle  of  the  Grand 
Turk,  called  Serai  or  Seraglio ;  this  is  over  two  miles  in  circumferenpe, 
includes  a  number  of  gardens,  mosques,  &c.,  and  is  inhabited  by  some 
thousands  of  persons.  Near  the  Seraglio  is  the  residence  of  the  Grand 
Vizier,  the  gate  of  which  is  called  the  Sublime  Porte.  Next  to  the  Seraglio, 
the  most  remarkable  public  buildings  are  the  Mosques,  built  by  the  Sultans. 

188 


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134 


GBOGRAPHY. 


Of  these  there  are  517  in  all,  thirty-six  of  them  large ;  oonspicuous  among 
them  is  the  Hagia  Sofia,  or  the  former  church  of  St.  Sophia,  built  by  the 
Emperor  Justinian  in  538.  It  is  270  feet  long,  with  a  magnificent  dome, 
and  170  columns  of  marble,  granite,  &c.  Also  the  Mosque  Suleimanje, 
built  in  1550,  and  a  masterpiece  of  oriental  architecture,  with  thirteen 
domes ;  the  Mosque  Ahmedidje,  with  six  domes  (all  other  mosques  having 
but  four).  In  addition  to  these,  Constantinople  has  24  Greek,  9  Roman 
Catholic,  and  three  Armenian  Churches,  183  Hospitals,  101  Caf<^,  9  Insane 
Asylums,  130  Public  Baths,  40  Khans  or  houses  of  refreshment,  &c.  The 
most  important  bazaar  is  the  labyrinthine  Jeni  Bazaar,  in  the  middle  of  the 
city.  The  only  noteworthy  public  square  is  the  Atmeidan,  250  paces 
long,  inclosed  by  pillars,  and  with  an  obelisk  sixty  feet  high  ;  this  was 
formerly  a  circus  for  races.  Of  the  seven  aqueducts,  two  date  back  as  far 
as  the  Grecian  times;  as  also  the  two  colossal  cisterns,  of  which  one, 
entirely  in  disuse,  contains  672  marble  pillars,  and  the  other  336.  Of  the 
sixteen  suburbs,  the  most  important  are  Pera,  the  residence  of  the  foreign 
embassies,  and  of  many  European  merchants ;  and  Galata,  both  separated 
from  the  town  itself  by  the  bay ;  Tophana ;  Hassan  or  Kassim  Pasha ;  Fanar 
or  Fanal,  at  the  point  of  the  bay,  where  dwell  most  of  the  Greeks,  hence  called 
Fanariotes.  Scutari,  on  the  Asiatic  side,  separated  from  Constantinople  by 
the  Bosphorus,  is  also  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  suburb. 


Explanation  of  the  Plan. 


A.  Seraglio  of  the  Sultan. 

B.  Former  quarter  of  the  Janissaries. 

C.  Quarter  of  the  Armenians. 

D.  The  Blachemes. 

E.  Quarter  of  the  Franks. 

1.  Mosque  of  Aja  Sofia. 

2.  Church  of  St.  Irene. 

8.  TheAtmeidan,with  the  Mosque 
of  Achmed. 

4.  First  Court  of  the  Seraglio. 

5.  Second  Court  of  the  Seraglio. 

6.  Imperial  Treasury. 

7.  Summer  Harem  \     ^  , 

8.  Winter  Harem    > 

9.  Marble  Kiosk      )^^''^^- 

10.  Vizier's  Seraglio. 

11.  Mosque  of  Sultan  Osman. 

12.  Mosque  of  Sultan  Bajazed. 

13.  School  Building. 

14.  leni  Khan. 

15.  Khan  of  the  Sultana  Yalide. 

16.  Other  Khans. 
184 


17.  Old  Seraglio. 

18.  Mosque  Suleimanje. 
10.  Coffee  Houses. 

20.  Hospital. 

21.  Mosque  Khalilzade. 

22.  Formerbarracks  of  the  Janissaries. 

23.  Laleli-dschamisi. 

24.  Mosque  of  Sultana  Yalide. 

25.  Custom  House. 

26.  New  Imaret. 

27.  Budrun-dschamisi. 

28.  Mosque  Achmed  Hissar. 

29.  "       Daud  Pasha. 

30.  "       Hekim  Oghli. 

31.  **       Mustafa. 

32.  ''       Ismail  Pasha. 

38.  Mosques  and  Houses  of  Prayer. 

34.  Column  of  Arcadius. 

35.  Mosque  of  Mohammed  and  Tawk- 

hane  Hospital. 

36.  Meidan  dschamisi  Seraglio» 

37.  Mosque  of  Selim. 


Digitized  by 


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FLANOORAPHT. 


Idft 


S8.  Ancient  Cisterns.  54.  Mosque  Mostaffa  Eflfendi. 

39.  The  Fanal  (Lighthouse).  55.        «'       Sinan  Pasha. 

40.  Tekfur  Seraglio,  former  palace  56.  Palace  of  Sultana  Begum. 

ofConstantine  the  Great.  57.       "  "       Valide. 


Sulmrb  of  OalaUu 

41.  Barracks  of  the  Bombardiers. 
iSl.  CMd  Cannon  Foundry. 
48.  Engineers'  School. 

44.  New  Cannon  Foundry,  with  the 

Administration  Buildings. 

45.  Magazines  and  Ropewalks. 

46.  School  Building. 

47.  Seraglio  of  the  Capudan  Pasha. 

48.  Magazines  and  Wharfs. 

49.  Tower  of  Galata. 

50.  Old  Artillery  Barracks. 

51.  New      " 

52.  Mosque,   Coffee    Houses,    and 

Fountains. 
58.  Palace  of  Beshik-Tash. 


Suhurh  of  Pera, 

a.  Hotel  of  the  French  Embassy. 
h.      "         "      Austrian 

c.  "         "      Holland        « 

d.  "         «      English 

e.  **         "      Norwegian-Swedish 

Embassy. 


Scutari, 

58.  Granaries. 

59.  Mosque  Shemsi  Pasha. 

60.  Ibrik  dschamisi. 

61.  Khan  of  the  Sultana  Mother. 


4.  St.  Peterbbubo  {PlaU  21). 

St.  Petersburg  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  cities  in  Europe,  not  on  account 
of  its  position,  but  by  merit  of  its  superior  plan  and  architectural  features. 
It  is  the  most  important  commercial  place  in  the  Russian  Empire,  of  which 
it  is  also  one  of  the  capitals.  It  is  situated  between  the  Lake  of  Ladoga  and 
the  Gulf  of  Finnland,  near  the  mouth  of  the  River  Neva.  It  has  a  circum- 
ference of  nearly  sixteen  miles,  with  a  population  of  some  450,000,  amongst 
which  are  only  about  150,000  females;  there  are  120,000  peasants,  75,000 
military  persons ;  25,000  Lutherans,  23,000  Roman  Catholics,  8000  Reformed, 
2,200  Mohammedans,  570  Jews;  3000  French,  2700  English,  20-25,000 
Germans,  &c.  Of  its  8700  houses,  5400  are  of  wood  ;  there  are  ten  imperial 
palaces,  over  750  government  buildings,  304  police  stations,  163  churches 
and  chapels,  amongst  them  but  twelve  Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic.  The 
city  is  divided  into  thirteen  districts,  of  which  nine  lie  on  the  southern 
bank  of  the  Neva ;  two  form  islands,  Petrofskoi  and  Wasiliefskoi-Ostrow, 
between  the  Neva  and  Newka ;  one  lies  north  of  the  Neva,  and  is  not  yet 
fiilly  built  up  ;  the  thirteenth  district  is  the  former  village  of  Ochta  on  the 
Neva.  In  all,  excepting  the  last,  which  has  been  but  recently  drawn  into 
the  city,  the  streets  are  straight  and  broad.  The  finest  street  is  the 
Newsky-perspective,  15,000  feet  long,  and  140-150  feet  broad,  abounding  in 
the  most  brilliant  shops.     The  finest  parts  of  the  city  are  the  four  Admiralty 

135 


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136  GEOGRAPHY. 

Districts,  between  the  Neva  and  the  Fontanka  Canal ;  in  these  are  situated 
the  Imperial  Winter  Palace,  450  feet  long  on  the  Neva ;  in  front  of  it 
stands  the  immense  column  in  honor  of  Alexander  1.»  eighty-four  feet  high 
and  thirty-six  feet  thick,  wrought  of  a  single  mass  of  granite ;  the  Hermitage, 
with  a  very  valuable  collection  of  paintings,  and  a  library  of  100,000  volumes; 
the  Marble  Palace,  built  of  granite  and  coated  with  marble,  and  with  a 
copper  roof;  the  Palaces  of  the  Grand  Prince  Michael,  and  of  the  Duke  of 
Leuchtenberg ;  the  immense  Navy  Yard,  with  workshops  for  shipbuilding, 
magazines,  and  docks.  Some  of  the  other  numerous  public  buildings  are  the 
Imperial  Foundling  Hospital  for  5000  children  ;  the  Imperial  Public  Library, 
with  450,000  volumes  and  18,000  manuscripts  ;  the  Royal  stables,  with 
accommodations  for  1500  horses ;  the  Taurian  Palace,  formerly  belonging 
to  Prince  Potemkin,  with  a  collection  of  antiquities ;  the  large  bazaar, 
Gostinnoi  Dwor,  with  arcades  and  170  shops ;  the  Exchange»  on  the  island 
of  Wasiliefskoi-Ostrow,  380  feet  long  and  246  feet  broad,  with  forty  Doric 
columns,  and  a  hall  136  feet  long;  the  building  of  the  Academy  of  Arts; 
the  fine  University  building ;  the  Land  and  Sea  Cadet  House,  the  former 
for  700,  the  latter  for  350  pupils.  The  principal  churches  are  St.  Isaac's 
Church,  built  entirely  of  marble  and  metal,  with  112  granite  columns,  56 
feet  high,  each  one  cut  from  a  single  block,  and  with  a  dome  330  feet  high 
and  100  feet  in  diameter,  one  of  the  largest  and  most  magnificent  churches 
in  the  world ;  the  Church  of  Our  Lady  of  Kasan,  with  marble  floor  and  fifty- 
six  granite  columns,  together  with  an  external,  semi-circular  portico  of  130 
columns  ;  the  Church  of  St.  Nicholas,-  of  two  stories,  the  lower  of  which 
can  be  heated ;  St.  Peter-Paul's  Church,  with  tlv^  imperial  vault,  in  which 
all  the  Emperors  are  entombed,  and  with  a  spire,  330  feet  high,  gilded  at  the 
expense  of  60,000  ducats ;  the  Church  of  the  Order  of  Alexander-Newsky  ; 
also  an  imperial  burying-place,  containing  the  silver  tomb  of  St  Alexander. 
Of  monuments  and  statues,  in  addition  to  those  already  noentioned,  the 
principal  are  the  bronze  equestrian  statue  of  Peter  the  Great,  on  a  single 
block  of  granite,  17  feet  high,  and  weighing  1500  tons ;  the  monuments  of 
the  Marshals  Suwarrow,  Kutusow,  and  Barclay  de  Tolly.  Public  places  of 
resort  are  the  islands  of  Chreskowsky,  Jelagin,  and  Kammenoi-Ostrow  (or 
Stone  Island),  with  gardens,  walks,  parks,  &c. 

Explanation  op  the  Plan. 

Districts.  F.  Liteinoi. 

G.  Wiborg  Side. 

A.  1.  Admiralty's.  H.  Petersburg  Side. 
A'.   2.  Admiralty's.  I.  Wasiliefskoi-Ostrow. 
A".  3.  Admiralty's.  J.  Ochta. 

A"' 4.  Admiralty's.  .   

B.  Narwa.  K.  New  Holland. 

C.  Moscow.  L.  Malysowskoi  Island. 

D.  Karetnoi.  M.  Fort  of  St.  Peter  and  St  PauL 

E.  Rozestwenskoi.  N.  Stone  Bridge. 


136 


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PLANC 
Skip  Bridges. 

>GRAPHY.                                         137 
B.  Srednia  Prospect. 

F.  Maloi  Prospect. 

a.  Isakiefiskoi. 

o.  Corpusnaia  and  1.  Line. 

b.  Troitzkoi. 

H.  Pusskarskoi  Prospect. 

c.   Workresenskoi. 

I.  Bolschoi  Prospect. 

d.  Samsoniefkoi. 

J.  Kamennoi  Prospect. 

e.  Tutschkoff. 

K.  Maloi  Prospect. 

L.  Pesotschnoi. 

Streets  and  Squares. 

M.  Woskresenskaia  Ulitza. 

N.  Bolsch.   Samsonskoi  Prospect 

a\  Newskoy  Prospect. 

o.  Botscharnaia  Ulitza. 

a.  Little  Morskoi. 

b.  Little  Ochta  Prospect. 

Public  Buildings. 

c.  Slonowaia  Ulitza. 

d.  Dechtiarnaia  Ulitza. 

1.  Imperial  Marble  Palace. 

e.  Offizerskaia  Ulitza. 

2.  Imperial  Winter  Palace. 

/.  Bolschoi  Woskresenskoi  Prospect. 

3.  Barracks. 

g,  Sergiefskaia  Ulitza. 

4.  Depart,  of  the  Imperial  Pensions. 

g'.  Summer  Garden. 

6.  Greneralty  with    the  Column  of 

^'.  Mars'   Field,  with  Suwarrow's 

Alexander. 

Statue. 

6.  Hotel  of  the  French  Embassy. 

h.  Kirschnaia  Ulitza. 

7.  Admiralty  Building. 

i.  Liteinoi  Prospect. 

8.  St.  Isaac's  Church. 

j.  Machawaia  Ulitza. 

9.  General  Post  Office. 

k.  Znamenskaia  Ulitza. 

10.  Square  and  Equestrian  Statue  of 

/.  Forstadstkaia  Ulitza. 

Peter  I. 

m.  Bolotnaia  Ulitza. 

11.  Navy  Department. 

n.  )          .,       ,    .  -, 

12.  Palace  of  the  Senate  and   Holy 

^  Ismailowskoi  Prospect 

Synod. 

P'     Bolsch.  Sadowaia  Ulitza. 

13.  New  Admiralty  Building. 

q.) 

14.  Imperial  Stable. 

r.  Bolsch.  Meschtschanskaia  Ulitza. 

15.  Cathedral  of  Our  Lady  of  Kasan. 

f.  Petroffskoi  Prospect. 

16.  Foundling  Asylum. 

t  Bolsch.  Offizerskaia  Ulitza. 

17.  Loan  Bank. 

u.  Angliskoi  Prospect. 

18.  Second  Gymnasium  (School). 

V.  Torgowaia  Ulitza. 

19.  Church  of  St.  Nicholas. 

w.  Galernaia  Ulitza. 

20.  The  large  Theatre. 

X.  Angliskaia  Nabereschnaia. 

21 .  Engineers'  School  (the  old  Michai- 

y.  Bolschoi  Morskoi. 

low  Palace). 

y\  Wosnesenskoi  Prospect. 

22.  Riding  School  of  the  Guards. 

z.  Admiraltitatskoi  Prospect. 

23.  Catholic  School  of  St.  Catharine. 

A.  Garagowaia  Ulitza. 

24.  Imperial  Palace  Anischko,  Cabinet 

B.  Italianskaia  Ulitza. 

of  the  Emperor. 

B'.  Little  Million. 

25.  Imperial  Treasury. 

0*.  Great  Million. 

26.  House  of  the  Imperial  Orderlies. 

c.   Kosewannoi  Prospect 

27.  The  City  Hall. 

D.   Bolschoi  Prospect 

28.  The  Alexandra  Theatre. 

18t 

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GBOOBAPHT. 


28\ 
29. 
30. 
30', 
31. 


33. 
34. 
35. 

36. 
37. 
38. 
39. 
40. 
41. 

42. 
43. 

44. 
45. 
46. 
47. 
48. 
49. 
50. 
51. 
52. 
53. 
54. 


Imperial  Library.  55. 

The  Pages'  BuikUng.  56. 

Bank.  57. 

Gostinnoi  Dwor.  58. 

Church  ofthe  Ascension  of  Christ.  59. 

Church  of  the  Ascension  of  St.  60. 

Mary.  61. 

School  of  Civil  Engineers.  62. 

The  Nicholas  Market.  63. 

Church  of  the  Intercession  of  64. 

the  Virgin  Mary.  65. 

New  Arsenal  and  Foundry.  66. 
Hospital  for  the  Poor. 

Church  of  Christ's  Glorification.  67. 

Artillery  Department.  68. 
Imperial  Gobelin  Manufactory. 

Building  of  the  Guard  of  Che-  69. 

valiers.  70. 

Church  of  St.  Wladimir.  71 . 

Nobility  Institute  of  the   Im-  72. 

perial  university.  73. 

Technological  Institute.  74. 

Trinity  Church.  75. 

Building  of  the  2d  Cadet  Corps.  76. 

Exercising  School.  77. 

St.  Nicholas  Church.  77\ 

Chemical  Laboratory.  78. 

Military  Hospitals.  79. 

Veterinary  School.  80. 

Medico-Chirurgical  Academy.  81. 

Palace  of  Grand  Prince  Michael.  82. 

Imperial  Archives.  83. 


Main  Custom  House. 

Armenian  Church. 

House  of  Cossacks  of  the  Don. 

Catharine  Institution. 

Police  Building. 

Magazine. 

House  of  Peter  the  Great 

Taurian  Palace. 

Convent  of  Smolna. 

City  Hospital. 

Military  Hospital. 

Convent    of  Alexander-Newsky» 

with  the  Theological  Academy. 
Mirror  and  Glass  Works. 
Barracks    of    Cossacks    of    the 

Guard. 
Sugar  Refineries. 
Institute  of  the  Mining  Corps. 
Marine  Cadet  School. 
Academy  of  Sciences. 
Academy  of  Arts.  ^ 
Buildings  of  the  first  Cadet  Corps. 
Custom  House  Stores. 
Observatory. 
Exchange. 

Old  Palace  of  Peter  the  Great. 
Rope  Walks. 
Brandy  Depots. 
Herring  Depots. 
Botanic  Garden. 
Military  Hospital. 
Church  of  Our  Lady  of  Smolensk. 


5.  Warsaw  {Plate  37). 

Warsaw,  the  capital  of  the  Russian  Kingdom  of  Poland,  is  situated  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Weichsel,  and  has  about  165,000  inhabitants,  amongst 
which  are  some  38,000  Jews,  7000  Protestants,  and  3000  Greeks.  About 
one  third  of  the  city,  which  is  about  five  miles  long  and  two  miles  and  a 
half  broad,  is  occupied  by  gardens  and  open  squares.  The  city  itself 
consists  of  mean  houses  (with  1400  stone  buildings  there  are  1700  of  wood) 
and  splendid  palaces  (of  these  there  are  no  less  than  180,  public  and  private). 
The  inner  town,  divided  into  the  Old  and  New,  is  exceeded  in  beauty  by  the 
four  suburbs,  conspicuous  amongst  which  is  that  of  Praga,  situated  on  the 
opposite  bank  of  the  Weichsel,  and  with  8000  inhabitants.  The  principal 
streets  are  Honey  street,  I^ong  street,  King's  Street,  Senator  street,  &c. 
The  most  beautiful  squares  are  Saxony  Square,  and  those  of  Marieville  and  of 
13B 


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PLANOORAPHT. 


139 


King  Sigismund.  The  most  conspicuous  buildings  are  the  Royal,  now 
Imperial  Palace,  on  an  elevation ;  the  Palace  of  the  former  vice-King ;  the 
Saxon  Palace  ;  the  former  BrClhl  Palace ;  the  Arsenal ;  the  Mint ;  the  Bank ; 
the  Post  Office ;  the  City  Hall ;  the  Great  Hospital  of  the  Child  Jesus ; 
the  Cathedral ;  the  Augustine,  Piarist,  the  Cross  and  Alexander  Churches. 
There  are  nineteen  churches  in  all,  namely  sixteen  Roman  Catholic,  two 
Protestant,  and  one  Greek.  Among  monuments,  may  be  mentioned  the 
monument  erected  to  Copernicus  in  1830;  an  iron  obelisk  in  Saxony 
Square,  resting  on  eight  lions,  in  honor  of  the  Poles  who  fell  in  1830,  fighting 
on  the  Russian  side ;  before  the  city,  the  marble  monumental  column  of 
King  Sigismund  XL,  with  the  gilt  statue  of  this  prince. 


Explanation  of  tbb  Plan. 


StreeU. 

4.  Palace   Krasinski. 

5.       *'        Branicki. 

a.  Czemiakowska. 

6.       "        Radziwillow. 

ft.  Soler. 

7.  Rynek  Starego-Miacta. 

c.  Alexandryjska. 

8.  Palace  Mniszkowski. 

d.  Marszalkowska. 

10.      "        Oginski. 

e.  Twarda. 

11.       "        Zamoyski. 

/.  Wielopolska. 

12.      ''        Lubomirski. 

g.  Chlodna. 

13.  Cavalry  Barracks. 

h.  Elektorolna. 

14.  Trinity  Church. 

t.  Krolewska. 

15.  St.  Alexander's  Church. 

i.  Wierzbowa. 

16.  Lutheran  Church. 

/.  Senatorska. 

17.  Church  of  the  Holy  Cross. 

m.  Miodowa. 

18.  Saxon  Palace. 

n.  Povwale. 

19.  Riding  School. 

0.  Dluga. 

20.  Kooszary  Mirowskie  (Barracks). 

p.  Mostowa. 

21.  Finance  Department. 

q.  Zakroczymska. 

22.  Arsenal. 

r.  Gwardyjska. 

23.  Artillery  Barracks. 

s.  Fulary. 

24.  Guard  Barracks. 

L  Franciszkanska. 

25.  Dominican  Church. 

«.  Leszno. 

26.  Royal  Palace. 

V.  Dzika. 

27.  Mint. 

X.  S.  Janska. 

28.  Krakowskie  Przedmiescie  Suburb. 

y.  Nalewsky. 

29.  Gymnasium  (School). 

30.  Grzybowa. 

31.  Post  Office. 

Public  Buildings. 

32.  City  Hall. 

33.  Bank. 

1.  Palace  Ossolinski. 

34.  Theatre. 

2.  Palace  Radzinski. 

35.  Child  Jesus'  Hospital. 

S.  The  Saxony  Garden. 

18» 

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140  OBOQRAPHY. 


6.  Berlin  {Plate  88). 

Berlin,  the  first  city  of  the  Prussian  Monarchy»  lies  in  the  former  Mark, 
and  present  Province  of  Brandenburg,  in  a  perfectly  level,  sandy,  and 
unattractive  region,  on  the  Spree.  Its  present  population  is  400,000, 
amongst  which  are  7000  Jews,  5-6000  Roman  Catholics,  5500  French 
Reformed,  850  Bohemian  Protestants,  and  the  rest  Evangelical.  It  is 
incontestably  one  of  the  most  beautifully  built  cities  in  Europe,  and,  in  its 
newer  quarters,  has  a  large  number  of  superb  edifices.  It  is  divided  into  the 
following  six  parts  :  Berlin  Proper  or  Old  Berlin,  Old  and  New  Cologne  (the 
oldest  parts  of  the  city),  Friedrichstadt,  Friedrichswerder,  Dorothea-  or 
Neustadt,  Friedrich- Wilhems-stadt ;  to  these  must  be  added  the  Königsstadt, 
the  Spandau  and  Stralau  quarters,  together  with  the  Oranienburg,  the 
Rosenthal,  the  Potsdam,  and  the  Köpenick  Suburbs  (the  latter  now 
Louisenstadt).  The  Friedrichs-  and  the  Neustadt  are  especially  distin- 
guished by  broad  and  perfectly  straight  streets.  The  most  conspicuous  are 
the  Linden,  with  a  fourfold  avenue  of  lindens,  2000  paces  long  and  160  feet 
broad;  the  Friedrichsstrasse,  8250  paces  long;  Königsstrasse,  2170  paces; 
Wilhelmsstrasse,  4650  paces  ;  the  Leipzigerstrasse,  and  the  new  Friedrichs- 
strasse. The  most  beautiful  squares  are  the  Paris  square,  Wilhelmsplatz, 
with  six  Marble  Statues  of  Prussian  Generals  of  the  Seven  Years'  war ; 
the  Belle  Alliance  Platz,  with  a  column  supporting  a  Victory,  in  com* 
memoration  of  the  twenty-five  years'  peace  of  1840 ;  the  Lustgarten ;  the 
square  in  front  of  the  Arsenal ;  the  Opera  square,  with  the  statues  of 
Blücher,  Schamhorst,  and  Bülow  ;  the  Gendarmen  Mark,  440  paces  long ; 
the  Donhof,  the  Leipzig,  and  the  Schlossplatz.  Among  the  gates,  the  Branden- 
burg Gate,  at  the  end  of  the  Linden,  deserves  especial  mention ;  it  consists  of 
twelve  Corinthian  columns  of  forty-four  feet  in  height  and  five  in  diameter ; 
*  it  is  195  feet  broad,  64  feet  high,  and  built  after  the  model  of  the  Propylasa  at 
Athens ;  upon  it  stands  the  celebrated  four  span  of  horses  with  the  Victoria. 
Of  the  forty  bridges  across  the  Spree  (among  them  six  of  iron  and  eighteen 
of  stone),  the  most  conspicuous  are  the  Long  Bridge,  with  the  bronze 
equestrian  statue  of  the  great  Elector ;  and  the  new  Palace  Bridge.  Of  the 
thirty-three  churches,  none  deserve  especial  notice  ;  the  most  beautiful  are 
the  recently  restored  Convent  Church,  and  the  new  Friedrichswerder 
Church  ;  in  the  place  of  the  old  unsightly  Cathedral,  built  in  1748,  a  much 
larger  is  to  be  erected,  surrounded  by  a  Campo  Santo,  containing  the  burial- 
place  of  the  Royal  House,  and  decorated  with  frescoes  by  Cornelius.  The 
most  conspicuous  public  buildings  are  the  King's  Palace,  460  feet  long, 
with  four  courts,  500  chambers,  and  a  beautiful  dome ;  the  Arsenal,  280 
feet  long ;  the  Opera  House ;  the  Royal  Library  (containing  over  250,000 
volumes,  and  4600  manuscripts) ;  the  University  Building ;  the  Museum 
of  Art  and  Antiquity  (in  a  former  bed  of  the  river,  placed  on  8000  piles),  a 
quadrangle  276  feet  long,  170  feet  deep,  to  which  has  been  recently  added 
a  second  Museum  (not  yet  completed) ;  the  Mint ;  the  Architects'  School ; 
the  Royal  Guard  House ;  the  building  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences ;  the 
140 


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141 


Theatre ;  the  new  Royal  Veterinary  School,  &c.  In  the  vicinity  of  Berlin 
the  Thiergarten  is  a  very  favorite  and  exceedingly  beautiful  promenade ;  in 
this,  a  nionunient  to  Friedrich  Wilhelm  III.  has  been  recently  erected. 
Another  remarkable  monument  of  cast  iron,  in  commemoration  of  the 
struggle  of  1813  to  1815,  presents  itself  on  the  Kreuzberg  before  the 
Halle  Gate. 

Explanation  of  thb  Plan. 


Divisions  of  the  City. 

A.  Berlin  Proper  or  Old  Berlin. 

B.  Old  and  New  Cologne. 

C.  Louisenstadt,   formerly   Kope- 

nicker  Vorstadt. 

D.  Friedrichsstadt. 
B.  Friedrichswerder. 

F.  Dorothea,  or  Neustadt. 

G.  Friedrich- Wilhelm's  Stadt. 
H.  Spandau  Quarter. 

I.  Königsstadt. 

K.  Stralau  Quarter. 

L.  Oranienburger  Vorstadt  (Voigt- 
land). 

M.  Rosenthaler  Vorstadt  (Neuvoigt- 
land). 

N.  Potsdamer  or  Friedrichsvorstadt. 


Public  Squares  (Plätze), 

A.  Opemplatz. 

B.  Gendarmenmarkt,  with  the  Royal 

Theatre, 
c.  Schlossplatz. 

D.  Lustgarten. 

E.  Leipziger  Platz. 

F.  Wilhelms  Platz, 
a.  Pariser  Platz. 
B.  Donhof  Platz. 

I.  Belle  Alliance  Platz. 
K.  Ascasnischer  Platz. 
L.  Hausvoigtei  Ratz. 
M.  Alexander  Platz. 
N.  New  Market. 
0.  Stralau  Platz. 


Public  Buildings, 

1.  Royal  Palace. 

2.  King's  private  Palace. 

3.  Military  Government  Hall. 

4.  Arsenal. 

6.  University. 

6.  Royal  Academy. 

7.  Library,  and  Palace  of  the  Prince 

of  Prussia. 

8.  Royal  Opera  House. 

9.  St.  Hedwig's  Church. 

10.  French  Reformed  Church. 

11.  Cathedral. 

12.  Police  Prison. 

13.  Royal  Mint. 

14.  Werder  Church. 

15.  Royal  Museum. 

16.  Artillery  Barracks. 

17.  Frederick  William's  Institute. 

18.  Grand  Lodge ;  opposite  St  Doro- 

thea Church. 

19.  Royal  Stables. 

20.  Warehouse-,  and  Island-Buildings 

21.  St.  Nicholas  Church. 

22.  Civil  Government  Hall. 

23.  Parish  Church. 

24.  Royal  Cadet  House. 
26.  Convent  Church. 

26.  French  Church. 

27.  City  Hall. 

28.  General  Post  Office. 

29.  ^f  ilitary  School. 

80.  Joachimsthal  Gymnasium:  School. 

81.  Garrison  Church. 

82.  St.  Mary's  Church. 

83.  Monbijoa  Palace. 

141 


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142 


GEOGRAPHY. 


34.  New  Post  Office. 

35.  Barracks  of  the  2d  Regiment  of 

Guards. 

86.  Old  Post  Office. 

87.  Stables  of  the  Mounted  Artillery 

Guard. 

88.  Barracks  of  the  Infantry  Guard. 

89.  Old  Charit^  (hospital). 

40.  Veterinary  School. 

41.  New  Charity  (hospital). 

42.  Hospital  of  the  Invalids. 

48.  Royal  Iron  Foundry. 

44.  House  of  Artillery  Practice. 

45.  St.  Elizabeth  Church. 

46.  St.  Sophia  Church. 

47.  Royal  Lithographic  Institute. 
18.  Barracks  of  the  Regiment  of 

Emperor  Alexander. 

49.  St.  George  Church. 

50.  Königsstadt  Theatre. 

51.  Barracks  of  the  Regiment  Em- 

peror Francis. 
j2.  Forage  Magazine. 
58.  Provision  Magazine. 

54.  Frederick  William  Hospital. 

55.  Royal  Salt  Warehouse. 

56.  Barracks   of  the   Pioneer  and 

Guard  Sharp  Shooters. 

57.  St.  Jacob's  Church. 

58.  St.  Sebastian  Church. 

59.  Barracks  of  the  Regiment  Em- 

peror Francis. 

60.  Chancery  of  State. 

61.  Hospital  Church. 

62.  Jerusalem  Church. 
68.  Military  Prison. 

64.  Court  of  Justice. 

65.  )  Barracks  and  Stables  of  the 

66.  )       Dragoons  of  the  Guard. 

67.  Barracks    of     the    Cuirassier 

Guards. 

68.  Barracks  of  the  Hulan  Guards. 

69.  Observatory. 

70.  Bohemian  Church. 

71.  Trinity  Church. 

72.  Foreign  Department. 

78.  Department  of  the  Royal  House. 
142 


74.  War  Department. 

75.  Palace  of  Prince  Albert. 

76.  Palace  of  Prince  Radziwil. 

77.  Ministry  of  Justice. 

78.  Prince  Frederick's  Palace. 

79.  Artillery  School  and  Police  Office. 

80.  Artillery  Workshops. 


Bridges  (Brücken). 

a.  Oberbaum. 

b.  Schilling's     Bridge. 

c.  Jannovitz  " 

d.  Waisen 

e.  Fischer  «* 
/  Long 

g.  Cavalry  ** 

A.  New  Fredericks" 
1.   Eberts  « 

j.  Weidendammer  " 
*.  Marschall's  " 
/.  Unterbaum  " 
m.  Konig's  ** 

n.  Kunowski  " 

0.  Spandau  " 
p.  Stralau 

q.  Schloss  "  (large)- 

r.  Schloss  "  (small). 

1.  Jungfern  " 
t.  Gertrauden  " 
u,  Grünstrassen  " 
V.  Rossslrassen  '' 
to.  Island  ** 


Streets  (Strtusen). 

1.  Unter  den  Linden. 

2.  Friedrich's   Strasse. 
8.  Louisen  *' 
8*.  Karls 

4.  Wilhelm  •« 

5.  Leipziger  " 

6.  Linden  ** 

7.  Mauer  •* 

8.  Charlotten  ^ 


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PLANOGBAPHY. 


143 


9.  Markgrafen  Strasse. 

10.  Jerusalemer  ** 

11.  Koch 

12.  Zimmer  •* 
18.  Schützen  ** 

14.  Krausen  " 

15.  Kronen  * 

16.  Mohren 

17.  Tauben  " 

18.  Jäger  ^ 

19.  Französische  " 

20.  Behren  '' 

21.  NiederwaU  " 

22.  Kur 

23.  Oberwall  " 

24.  Dorotheen  " 

25.  Mittel 

26.  Wall 

27.  Alte  Jacobs 

28.  Ritter 

29.  Orangen  " 

30.  Commandanten    " 

81.  Stallschreiber      " 

82.  Sebastians  ** 

33.  Dresdener  " 

34.  Schäfergasse  (alley). 
85.  Köpeniker  Strasse. 

36.  Schlesische  ** 

37.  Neander  " 

38.  Brücken 

39.  Holzmarkt 

40.  Mühlen  " 

41.  Lange  Gasse  (alley). 

42.  Alexander  Strasse. 

43.  Blumen  '* 


44.  Kaiser  Strasse. 

45.  Grosse  Frankfurter  " 

46.  Rosengasse. 

47.  Landsberger  Strasse. 

48.  Neue  Königs      " 

49.  Golnowsgasse. 

50.  Weber  Strasse. 

51.  Prenzlauer  " 

52.  Kleine  Alexander      " 

53.  Alte  Schönhäuser     " 

54.  Rosenthaler  " 

55.  Neue  Schönhäuser    " 

56.  Münz  *' 

57.  Alexander  " 

58.  Linien  " 

59.  Hirtengasse. 

60.  August  Strasse. 

61.  Oranienburger  " 

62.  Kleine  Hambui^er  ** 

63.  Gips  « 

64.  Sophien  " 

65.  Grosse  Hamburger  '* 

66.  Königs 

67.  Stralauer  " 

68.  Neue  Friedrichs       " 

69.  Kloster  " 

70.  Juden  " 

71.  Spandauer  " 

72.  Heilige  Geist  " 

73.  Post  " 

74.  Breite  " 

75.  Brüder  " 

76.  An  der  Friedrichsgracht. 

77.  Neu-CöUn  on  the  Water. 


7.  Vienna  (Plate  39). 

Vienna,  or  Wien,  the  beautiful  and  lively  capital  of  Austria,  is  situated  at 
the  foot  of  the  Wiener  Mountain,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  which  is 
here  divided  into  three  arms,  and  also  on  a  canal,  and  on  the  Wien.  With 
its  suburbs  it  is  about  sixteen  miles  in  circumference,  and  includes  9000 
houses,  with  410,000  inhabitants  (not  counting  the  military).  Of  these, 
about  12,000  are  Protestants,  and  600  Greeks.  The  inner  city,  or  city 
proper,  which  forms  only  the  tenth  part  of  the  whole,  is  separated  from  the 
thirty-four  suburbs  by  the  Esplanade  or  glacis,  a  surface  600  paces  broad, 

148 


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144  GEOGRAPHY. 

intersected  by  meadow  lands  and  avenues,  which  occupies  the  place  of  die 
former  fortifications :  a  further  separation  is  efiected  bj  ramparts  forty  to  sixty 
feet  high,  with  eleven  bastions  (the  latter  partly  changed  into  public  gardens 
and  promenades).  All  the  suburbs,  however,  lie  within  the  line,  a  wall 
twelve  feet  high  and  42,500  feet  long.  Although  the  inner  town  (with  12 
gates,  127  streets,  19  squares,  1300  houses,  and  64,000  inhabitants)  is 
irregularly  built,  it  has  many  beautiful  buildings,  and  numerous  palaces. 
The  finest  squares  are:  the  Burg  or  Paradeplatz,  950  feet  long;  the  Hof, 
400  feet  long,  with  a  marble  column  and  two  fountains  ;  the  High  Market, 
with  a  marble  monument  in  the  form  of  a  temple,  representing  the  nuptials 
of  Joseph  and  Mary;  the  Franzensplatz,  with  a  monument  to  Emperor 
Francis  I. ;  the  Graben,  a  street  100  feet  broad,  with  the  Marble  Trinity 
Column,  66  feet  high ;  the  Josephsplatz,  with  an  equestrian  statue  <^ 
Emperor  Joseph  II.,  38  feet  high  ;  the  New  Market,  with  a  beautiful  basin, 
äEbd  the  Freiung,  with  the  new  fountain,  ornamented  by  Schwanthaler's 
allegorical  representations  of  the  four  principal  rivers.  The  principal 
buildings  are :  the  Burg  or  imperial  residence,  1200  feet  long,  with  three 
courts,  and  containing  in  one  hall,  240  feet  long  and  84  broad,  the  Imperial 
Library,  with  360,000  volumes  and  12,000  manuscripts;  the  great  Imperial 
Cabinet  of  Natural  History  in  4  halls ;  also  a  collection  of  300,000  engravings, 
antiquities,  works  of  art,  &c.,  32,000  coins  and  medals,  and  the  Treasury ; 
the  Riding  School  near  the  Burg;  the  Castle  of  Arch  Duke  Charles; 
the  Hof  kammer ;  the  Bank ;  the  War  Department,  and  the  University 
Buildings;  and  about  thirty  noteworthy  private  palaces.  Of  the  fifty-six 
churches  and  chapels  (among  them  only  two  Protestant  and  three  Greek) 
are  St.  Stephen's  Church,  330  feet  long,  216  broad,  with  a  spire  432^ 
feet  high  (containing  a  bell  weighing  35,400  pounds),  38  marble  altars, 
31  windows,  and  many  tombs,  amongst  them  those  of  Prince  Eugene  of 
Savoy,  and  of  Emperor  Frederick  III. ;  the  Augustins'  Church,  with  the 
celebrated  monument  to  the  Grand  Duchess  Christina,  by  Canova;  the 
Church  of  the  Redemptorists  at  Maria-Stiegen,  with  a  spire  180  feet  high» 
ending  in  a  calyx  and  surmounted  by  a  cross ;  the  Capucin  Church,  with 
the  tombs  of  the  imperial  family ;  the  Italian  Church,  and  the  Church  of  St 
Michael. 

Of  the  suburbs,  which  are  divided  into  eight  police  districts,  the  most 
beautiful  are  the  Leopoldstadt  and  Josephstadt,  as  also  the  Jägerzeil  and  the 
Taborstrasse ;  the  most  extended,  however,  are  the  Wieden,  with  33,000 
inhabitants,  the  Landstrasse  with  26,000,  the  Leopoldstadt  with  23,000 
the  Schottenfeld  with  21,000,  and  Gumpendorf  with  13,000.  The  principal 
buildings  of  the  suburbs  are  the  Imperial  stable,  600  feet  long,  capable 
of  containing  400  horses ;  the  Palace  Belvedere,  containing  the  valuable 
picture  gallery,  and  in  an  adjoining  building  the  Ambrase  collection  of 
armor  and  works  of  art  of  the  middle  ages ;  the  two  Liechtenstein  Palaces, 
on^  of  them  with  a  rich  gidlery  of  paintings;  the  Esterhazy  and  the 
Auersperg  Palaces ;  the  Stahremberg  Free-House,  with  800  residences  and 
3200  inhabitants;  the  Medico-Chirurgical,  the  Engineer  and  the  Nobles' 
Academies ;  the  Invalid  Hospital  for  600  men ;  the  Polytechnic  Institute ; 
144 


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PLANOGRAPHY.  145 

the  Public  Hospital,  with  111  apartments  and  2000  beds;  the  Cannon 
Foundry ;  the  great  steam  Rolling  Mill ;  the  Porcelain  Manufactory.  The 
Church  of  St.  Borromaeus  in  the  suburb  Wieden,  built  in  the  Italian  style, 
with  domes,  portals,  paintings,  and  the  monument  of  Collin,  next  to  the 
Church  of  St.  Stephen,  is  the  most  beautiful  in  Vienna. 

The  River  Wien  is  spanned  by  two  stone  bridges,  one  plank,  and  one 
suspension  bridge;  also  by  one  suspension  and  several  simple  wooden 
footpaths ;  over  the  Wiener  Donau  Canal  are  six  bridges,  among  them 
three  suspension  bridges ;  over  the  Danube,  which  converts  the  Leopold- 
stadt into  an  island,  are  several  wooden  yoke  bridges.  The  southern 
suburbs  are  provided  with  water  by  the  aqueduct  from  Hüttendorf  to 
Vienna,  which  feeds  twelve  wells,  as  also  by  the  new  Emperor  Ferdinand's 
aqueduct,  which  draws  up  the  water  of  the  Danube  at  Nursdorf,  by  means 
of  seven  steam  engines ;  in  addition  to  these  sources  of  supply,  there  are 
forty  Artesian  wells  in  different  parts  of  the  city. 

The  principal  promenades  are  :  1,  the  Imperial  Garden,  with  a  menagerie 
and  hothouses  568  feet  long,  containing  a  conservatory  72  feet  long ;  2,  the 
Prater  and  the  Augarten  in  the  Leopoldstadt ;  3,  the  Volksgarten,  with  a 
temple  containing  a  statue  of  Theseus,  by  Canova;  4,  the  Gardens  of 
Princes  Schwarzenberg  and  Liechtenstein. 

Vienna  has  two  railroad  depots :  one  in  the  north,  on  the  island  of 
Leopoldstadt,  not  far  from  the  Praterstern,  from  which  the  Emperor  Fer- 
dinand's Northern  Railroad  takes  its  origin ;  and  one  in  the  south,  not  far 
from  the  Belvedere  line,  from  which  the  roads  go  out  to  Gloggnitz  and 
Brück. 

Explanation  op  the  Plan. 

Suburbs.  e.  Freiung. 
p.  Graben. 

A.  Leopoldstadt.  e.  Minoritenplatz. 

B.  Landsti^asse.  h.  Neuer  Paradeplatz. 

C.  Wieden.  i.  Josephsplatz 

D.  Mariahilf.  k.  Ballplatz. 

E.  Neubau.  l.  Volksgarten. 

F.  Josephstadt.  m.  Hofgarten. 

G.  Aisergrund.  w.  Kirchen  platz. 
H.  Rossau.  o.  Swine  Market. 

p.  Botanical  Garden 
a.  Fruit  Market.. 
Squares  and  Gardens.  h.  Grain  Market. 

A.  St    Stephansplatz    (with    the 

Cathedral).  Bastions  and  CbUes  (Basieien  «. 

B.  The  Hof.  Thore). 
c.  High  Market 

D.  Jew's  Place.  1.  Biberbaatei. 

XCOKOOBAPmo  XN0T0L0P.SDIA. — VOL.  m.  10  145 


Digitized  by 


Google 


2.  Rothe  BasteL 

rAAjrjci.1.. 

z.  Insane  Asylum. 

8.  Gonzaga  " 

aa.  Asylum. 

4.  Fiflcherthor. 

hb.  Porcelain  Manufactory. 

6.  Neue  Thorbastei. 

cc.  Orphan  Asylum. 

6.  Schottenbastei. 

7.  Schottenthor. 

8.  Mölker  Bastei 

StreeU  {Strassen)  andAüeys  (Gasse 

9.  Kaiser-Franzthor. 

10.  Lowelbastei. 

aa.  Herren    Gasse. 

11.  Burgthor. 

hb.  Augustiner  " 

12.  Augustinerbastei. 

cc.  Kamthner  Strasse. 

18.  Kämthnerthor. 

dd.  Singer             " 

14.  Wasserkunstbastei. 

ee.  Lichtensteg. 

16.  Seilerstetterthor. 

ff.  Wipplinger  Strasse. 

16.  Stubenthorbastei. 

gg.  Hohe  Brücke. 

17.  Stubenthor. 

hh.  Renn  Gasse. 

18.  Dommikanerbastei. 

ü.  Wallner  " 

19.  Hauptmauththor  (Customhouse 

1.  Jägerzeile. 

Gate). 

2.  Prater  Strasse. 

8.  Tabor      « 

Public  Buildings. 

4.  Zur  Franzensbrücke. 

6.  On  the  Tabor. 

a.  Imperial  Burg. 

6.  Herren     Gasse. 

6.  University. 

7.  Lilienbrunn  " 

c.  Arsenal. 

8.  Neue            •* 

d.  Archbishop's  Palace. 

9.  Donau  Strasse. 

e.  Infantry  Barracks. 

10.  Augarten  " 

/.  Mint  Building. 

11.  Prater       " 

g.  Court  Opera  House. 

12.  From  Augarten. 

*.  House  of  Invalids. 

13.  On  the  Glacis. 

t.  Custom  House. 

14.  Land  Strasse,  Haupt  Strasse. 

k.  Belvedere. 

15.  Halter  Gasse. 

i*.  Schwarzenberg  Palace. 

16.  Erdbei^    " 

/.  German  Nobleguards. 

17.  Ritter 

m.  Foundry. 

18.  Anton 

n.  Theresianum. 

19.  Raben 

0.  Freehouse. 

20.  Waag 

p.  Imperial  Stables. 

21.  Paulus  Grund,  Haupt  Strasse. 

q.  St.  Charles  Church. 

22.  Ungar  Gasse. 

r.  Polytechnic  Institute. 

23.  Renntrog  •* 

«.  Barracks. 

24.  Feld 

t.  Theatre  on  the  Wien. 

25.  St  Pauli  Hohe. 

u.  Italian  Nobleguards. 

26.  Paulus  Grund. 

0.  Hungarian  Nobleguards. 

27.  Kirchen  Gasse. 

w.  Criminal  Court 

28.  Stern 

X.  Public  Hospital. 

29.  Gartner      « 

y.  Military  Hospital. 

80.  Weissgerber  Haupt  Strasse. 

146 

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PLANOGRAPHT.                                         14 

SI.  Lower  Grarten  Gasse. 

78.  Burg  Gasse. 

82.  On  the  Gestatte. 

79.  Wendelstadt 

83.  On  the  Danube. 

80.  Lange  Keller  Gasse. 

84.  Renntrog  Gasse. 

81.  Ritter                  •* 

85.  Fasan 

82.  Kandel 

8«.  Heu 

88.  Kirchen               •" 

87.  Favoriten  Linien  Strasse. 

84.  Lamm                  ** 

88.  Weiringer  Gasse. 

85.  Fuhrmannes         •* 

89.  Linien             '* 

86.  Feld 

40.  Blechernes  Thurmfeld. 

87.  Ziegler 

41.  Meyerhofel  Gasse. 

88.  Neubau                ** 

42.  Old  Wiedner  Haupt  Strasse. 

89.  On  the  PlatzL 

43.  Matzleinsdorfer  Haupt  " 

90.  Neustift. 

44.  Mittersteig. 

91.  Stadt  Gasse. 

45.  Sieben  Brunnen  Gasse. 

92.  Kaiser  Strasse. 

46.  Sieben  Brunnen  Meadow. 

93.  Roverani  Gasse. 

47.  New  Wiedner  Haupt  Strasse. 

94.  Lerchenfelder  Haupt  Strasse. 

48.  Gries  Gasse. 

95.  Lerchenfelder                  ** 

49.  Margarethen  Lange  Gasse. 

96.  Josephstadter  Kaiser        '' 

50.  Tiange                            « 

97.  Lange  Gasse.         , 

5L  Hundsthurmer  Linien  ** 

98.  On  the  Glacis. 

62.  Schloss 

99.  Strozzische     Grund       Haupt 

58.  Ziegelofen                     '' 

Strasse. 

54.  Kugel 

100.  Neu  Gasse. 

55.  Reinprechtsdorfer  Strasse. 

101.  Allee    " 

56.  Grosse  Neue  Gasse. 

102.  Benno  " 

57.  Trappel 

103.  Albert  " 

58.  Penzinger  Strasse. 

104.  Feld     " 

59.  Mariahilfer  Haupt  Strasse. 

105.  Aiser  Haupt  Strasse. 

60.  Leimgnibe. 

106.  Magazin       Grasse. 

6L  Roth  Gasse. 

107.  Floriani            « 

62.  Drei  Hufeisen  Gasse. 

108.  Herren             ** 

68.  On  the  Wien. 

109.  Piaristen 

64.  Schleifmühl  Gasse. 

110.  Neue  Schotten" 

65.  Gumpendorfer  Haupt  Strasse. 

111.  On  the  Burg  Strasse. 

66.  Windmuhl         Gasse. 

112.  On  the  Alsterbach. 

67.  Grosse  Stein 

113.  Spital         Gasse. 

68.  Stumper 

114.  Währinger     " 

69.  Maller                   <' 

115.  Fuhrmanns    '* 

70.  Linien                   ** 

116.  Lange 

71.  Zwerg 

117.  Drei  Mohren" 

72.  Schmalzhof 

118.  Schmied        ** 

73.  Grosse  Schmiede  '' 

119.  Bramer 

74.  Schwaben 

120.  Juden 

75.  Sieben  Stern 

121.  Porzellan 

76.  Kleine  Stift 

122.  Hauptplatz. 

77.  Spittelberg. 

123.  Gestatten  Gasse. 

147 

Digitized  by  VnO 

148  GEOGRAPHY. 

124.  Nussdorfer  Haupt  Strasse.  127.  Grosse  Kirchen  Gasse. 

125.  Lichlenthaler  '<  ''  128.  Schimmel  Gasse. 

126.  Kirchen  Gasse. 


8.  Lisbon  {Plate  40). 

Lisbon,  or  Lisboa,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Portugal,  is  situated  on 
the  TaguS;  being  extended  for  about  five  miles  along  its  bank.  It  includes 
a  population  of  about  280,000  souls,  amongst  which  are  a  goodly  number  of 
negroes  and  mulattoes.  In  point  of  beauty  of  situation  it  competes  with 
Naples,  Constantinople,  Genoa,  and  Stockholm.  It  has  neither  walls  nor 
gates,  but  incloses  three  hills,  as  also  numerous  gardens,  and  even  some 
fields.  The  north  and  east  quarters  of  the  town  are  irregularly  built,  and 
contain  mostly  narrow,  crooked,  and  in  part  steep,  streets.  On  the  other 
hand,  however,  the  New  City,  built  up  since  the  great  earthquake  of  1755, 
is  equally  conspicuous  for  its  regularity  and  beauty.  Here  we  find  three 
great  squares :  the  Praza  do  Comercio,  or  Trade  Market,  600  feet  long, 
adorned,  in  addition  to  the  brazen  equestrian  statue  of  Joseph  I.,  by  a 
number  of  splendid  buildings,  such  as  Library,  Exchange,  Custom  House, 
Government  Buildings,  Arsenal,  India  House,  &c. ;  also  the  Rocio,  1800 
feet  Song,  and  the  Praza  do  Figueira  or  Fruit  Market,  planted  with  trees 
and  filled  with  booths  ;  the  Praza  do  Polerim,  &c.  In  addition  to  the 
buildings  already  named,  there  are  the  Opera  House,  City  Hall,  Arsenal,  the 
College  of  the  Nobility,  the  Com  Hall,  the  Cannon  Foundry,  the  Prison 
(Limoeiro),  the  Treasury,  &c.  The  numerous  churches  are  neither  large 
nor  beautiful,  although  generally  adorned  to  a  great  extent  internally ;  the 
Patriarchal  Church,  by  its  elevation  on  a  hill,  towers  above  all  the  rest,  and 
the  Church  of  St.  Rochus  is  worthy  of  note,  on  account  of  its  splendid 
chapel  built  by  John  V.  The  Royal  Palace  lies  in  the  hamlet  of  Belem, 
now  embraced  within  the  city.  A  masterpiece  of  architecture  is  seen  in 
the  marble  aqueduct,  built  by  John  V.,  which  supplies  the  city  with  water ; 
it  consists  of  thirty-five  arches,  which  carry  the  water  for  2400  feet  across 
the  valley  of  Alcantara :  the  highest  of  these  arches  is  over  230  feet  in 
elevation.  The  city  itself  is  without  fortifications ;  a  remnant  of  antiquity 
is  met  with  in  the  Moorish  Castle  on  the  highest  hill  in  the  city,  in  which 
are  kept  the  Archives,  and  a  House  of  Correction.  The  extensive  and  safe 
harbor  is  protected  by  several  forts :  Fort  St.  Juliao,  Torre  do  Buzio,  Belem» 
and  St.  Sebastiao. 


Explanation  op  the  Plan. 

Squares.  C.  Pr&<;a  (square)  Rato. 

D.      "  Romulares. 

A.  Pr&^a  (square)   Alcantara.  E.      ''  Rocio. 

B.  "  Amorcuras.  F.      •*  AUegria. 
148 


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PLANOQRAPHY. 


149 


G.  Largo  Passiäo  Publico. 
H.  Prä^a  S.  Domingo. 
I.  Largo  Carmo. 


w,  Rua  de  San  Bento. 
X.  Largo  do  Calhariz. 
y.  Rua  do  M onho  de  Vento. 


K. 

Prä^a  Figueira. 

z. 

"      da  Salitre. 

L. 

Pa^o  da  Rainha. 

aa. 

'<      de  Santa  Martha. 

M. 

Pra^a  or  Campo  de  Santa  Clara. 

bb. 

Careira  dos  Cavallos. 

N. 

Largo  S.  Vincente. 

cc. 

Rua  do  Sol  do  Rato. 

O. 

Pra^a  Pelourinno. 

dd. 

Costa  do  Castello. 

P. 

"      das  Flores. 

Q. 

Largo  do  Convento  da  6ra<;a. 

R. 

"      do  Socorro. 

Public  Buildings, 

s. 

"      do  Outeirinho. 

T. 

Porta  do  Sol. 

1. 

Palacio     (Palace)    de    Nostra 

Ü. 

Largo  do  Loretto. 

Sennora  Necessidades. 

V. 

"      Quintella. 

2. 

Old  Fort  on  the  Tagus. 

W 

.  Pr&^a  do  Comercio. 

3. 

Armarens  do  Polvora. 

X. 

Public      Promenade      (Passeio 

4. 

Convento  et  Igregia  (Convent  and 

publico). 

Church)  dos  Barb,  da  Bo  Morto. 

Y. 

Largo  Conde  Bar&o. 

5. 

Convento  do  Cara^&o  de  Jesus. 

Z. 

Square  in  front  of  the  Castle  and 

6. 

da  Estrella. 

Convent  of  Santa  Cruz. 

8. 

S.  Isabel. 

9. 

de  S.  Bento. 

10. 

"         dos  Inglezinhos. 

Streets  (Ruas). 

11. 

"          da  Esperan^a. 

12. 

"          dos  Paulistes. 

a. 

Rua  Augusta. 

18. 

.  "         de  Jesus. 

b. 

*"    da  Magdalena. 

14. 

Collegio  des  Inglezes  (of  the  Eng- 

c. 

."    nova  del  Rey. 

lish). 

d. 

"    Santa  Julia. 

15. 

Convento  et  Igregia  da  Trinidade. 

e. 

"    da  Conseicäo. 

16. 

"               do  Carmo. 

/ 

Traversa  de  San  Nicdlao. 

17. 

Cara  da  Mi- 

g' 

"         da  Victoria. 

sericordia. 

h. 

**         da  Assump^&o. 

18. 

Palacio  da  Inquisizione. 

i. 

"         de  Santa  Justa. 

19. 

Convento  et  Igregio  de  S.  Fran- 

3- 

Rua  dos  Martyres. 

Cisco. 

k. 

**    das  Flores  Largo. 

20. 

Church  San  Roque. 

I 

"    de  San  Paulo. 

21. 

"      San  Loretto. 

m. 

"    da  Boa  Vista. 

22. 

"      San  Paulo. 

«. 

do  M arquez  de  Abrantes. 

28. 

Alfandega   et    Aduana   (Custom 

0. 

**    de  S.  Francisco  de  Paula. 

House). 

P- 

"    do  Sacramento. 

24. 

Convento  da  Gra^a. 

9- 

**    do  Livramento. 

25. 

Nostra  Sennora  do  Monte. 

r. 

"    de  Buenos- Ayres. 

26. 

Convento  S.  Vicente  de  Fora. 

B. 

Cal^ado  do  Estrella. 

27. 

do  Santa  Clara. 

t. 

Rua  do  Quelhas. 

28. 

Fundi^ao  de  Baixo. 

u. 

«     da  Esperan^a. 

29. 

Palacio  Bemposta. 

V. 

"     do  Poes  Negros. 

30. 

Igregia  do  Coro<;ao  de  Jesus. 

Digitized  by  VriOO 

160  OBOOBAPHT. 

81.  Convento  S.  Antonio  dos  Ca-    82.  Convento  dos  Desterro. 
puchos.  88.  CoUegio  dos  Nobres. 


9.  Naples  {PlaU  40). 

Naples,  or  Napoli,  the  capital  city  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  SiciKes,  is 
celebrated  for  its  beautiful  situation  on  a  magnificent  bay,  encircled  by  the 
Capes  Miseno  and  Campanella,  and  the  islands  of  Capri,  Ischia,  and  Procida. 
The  city,  with  its  population  of  370,000  inhabitants,  is  one  of  the  largest, 
and  at  the  same  time  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  Europe.  It  is  indeed  true, 
that  the  streets  are  generally  only  from  six  to  eight  paces  wide,  and  that  the 
houses  are  very  high,  having  sometimes  as  many  as  eight  stories,  but  some 
streets  are  conspicuously  broad  and  regular;  amongst  these,  the  street 
Toledo  is  the  most  important,  as  well  as  the  liveliest  Some  of  the  principal 
points  and  squares  in  the  city  are :  the  Chiaja,  a  fine  street  along  the  sea, 
with  the  Villa  Reale,  a  royal  pleasure  castle ;  the  squares  Largo  di  Castello, 
Largo  dello  Spirito  Santo,  with  the  equestrian  statue  of  Charles  III. ;  the 
Piazza  di  Santa  Lucia,  and  the  Market  Place,  termed  Largo  del  Mercato. 
The  principal  buildings  are  the  Royal  Palace,  adjoining  the  Arsenal  andCastel 
Nuovo  on  the  great  harbor ;  the  Palace  Capo  di  Monte  on  a  mountain 
before  the  city,  with  Observatory  and  Library ;  the  Finance  Palace  ;  the 
Archbishop's  Palace;  the  great  Grain  Magazine;  the  great  Poor  House, 
and  the  Theatre  San  Carlo,  the  largest  in  Italy,  with  six  tiers  of  boxes. 
Amongst  the  churches  and  chapels,  over  two  hundred  in  number,  may  be 
mentioned  the  Church  of  St.  Francis  of  Paula,  although  many  others  are 
more  or  less  eminent  for  their  interior  decoration«  antiquity,  paintings, 
sculpture,  &c.  Among  the  collections  of  science  and  art,  is  the  Musep 
Borbonico,  in  the  Palace  degli  Studi,  consisting  of  a  rich  gallery  of 
paintings  in  eight  halls,  and  a  still  richer  collection  of  antiques.  Six  castles 
protect  and  command  the  city  ;  among  them,  Castel  St.  Elmo,  in  the  highest 
part  of  the  city,  connected  by  a  bridge  with  the  Castel  Pizzo  Falcone ; 
Castel  Nuovo,  the  former  royal  residence,  now  containing  an  artillery 
school ;  the  Castello  dell'  Uovo  on  an  island  in  the  harbor,  connected  with  the 
main  land  by  a  bridge  ;  and  the  Castello  Capuano,  which  likewise  served  as 
a  royal  residence  for  a  time,  and  now  contains  the  Supreme  Court  of 
Justice. 


Explanation  of  the  Plan. 


Public  Squares  and  Gates. 

E.  Largo  delle  Pigne. 

F.  "       de'  Miracoli. 

A. 

Porta  di  Constantinopoli. 

G.  Piazza  de  Tribunali. 

B. 

"     Medina. 

C. 

*'     Suscella. 

I.      ''      Ponte  dellaMaddalena. 

D. 

•*     di  San  Gennaro. 

150 

K.  Piazza  del  Marcato. 

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FLANOORAFHT. 


151 


L.  Piazza  del  Real  Palazzo. 

gg.  Strada  dell'  Infrascata. 

M.  Largo  del  Castello. 

kh.       "      Monte  Santo. 

N.      **     Santa  Maria  a  Capella. 

Ü.        ''      de'  Sette  d<dorL 

0.       "     del  Vasto. 

kk.       "      S.  Polito. 

P.       "*     dello  Spirito  Santo. 

//.        '«      di  Chiaja. 

Q.  Kazza  del  Gesü  Nuovo. 

mm.  Chiaja. 

R.      **      di  S.  Domenico. 

nn.  Strada  Monte  di  Dio. 

S.       '<       della  Carito. 

00.  Salita  del  Vomero. 

T.      *•       della  Vittoria. 

pp.  Strada  di  Piedigrotta. 

qq.  .  "       Santa  Catterina. 

rr.     "        S.  Teresa. 

Streets. 

a,  Strada  Nuova  di  Capo  di  Monte. 

Public  Buildings. 

b.       **      arena  della  Saniti. 

c.       •*      de*  Cristallini. 

L  Palazza  del  R& 

d.      "      delle  Vergini. 

2.       "       Vecchio. 

e.       "      Foria. 

3.  Teatro  San  Carlo. 

e'.      "      S.  Carlo  all'  Arena. 

4.  San  Francesco  di  Paola. 

/.  Fossi  di  Ponte  nuovo. 

5.  Palazzo  Francavilla. 

g.  Strada  del  Borgo  di  S.  Antonio 

6.  L'Ascensione  a  Chiaja. 

Abbate. 

7.  Pizzofalcone  et  Tipografia  Reale 

k.  Strada  Carbonara. 

8.  Quartiere  (Barracks). 

i.       "       deir  Orticello. 

9.  Ministeri  di  Stato. 

i'i\   "       di  Tribunali. 

10.  Ufficio  della  Posta. 

*.      "       S.  M.  Constantinopoli. 

11.  Posta. 

/.      "       I'Anticaglia. 

12.  Dogana. 

m.      "       Triniti  maggiore. 

13.  Banco  delle  due  Sicilie. 

«.      "       Nolana. 

14.  Teatro  Nuovo. 

o.  SeDarie  Pennino. 

15.  S.  Pietro  Martire. 

p.  Strada  Boi^o  di  Loretto. 

16.  Ospedali  la  TrinitA. 

q.      "      Nuova. 

17.  San  Martine. 

r.  Molo  Piccolo. 

18.  Bagni. 

s.  Posta  Strada  di  Porto. 

19.  Chiesa  del  Carmine. 

t.   Strada  Lanzieri. 

20.  S.  Agostino  della  Zecca. 

u.      **      Medina. 

21.  Yullo  deir  Annunciata. 

V.       **      San  Carlo. 

22.  Palazzo  Tribunali. 

w.     "      Montoliveto. 

23.  S.  Marcellino. 

X.      **      Santa  Anna  de'  Lombardi. 

24.  UniversitJL 

y.  Calata  Triniti  maggiore. 

25.  Santa  Chiara. 

z.  Strada  Lucia. 

26.  S.  Domenico  maggiore. 

aa,    **       del  Gigante. 

27.  Banco  dello  Spiritu  Santo. 

W.     "       Toledo. 

28.  San  Paolo. 

cc.    "       S.  Teresa. 

29.  Duomo. 

dd.    "       Mater  Dei. 

80.  Incurabile  Ospedal. 

ee.  Salita  Gonfalone. 

31.  CoUegio  de'  Med.  et  de'  Chirurg. 

ff.  Strada  della  Salute. 

82.  Museo  Borbonioo. 

151 

Digitized  by  V:iO( 

152  GEOGRAPHY. 

3d.  Sacramento  Ospedal.  36.  Villa  Marchese  Tomasi. 

34.  San  Giovanni  a  Carbonara.  37.  San  Gennaro  o  le  Catacombe. 

35.  Reale  Collegio  de'  Miracoli.         38.  Reclusorio  (House  of  Correction). 


10.  Rome  {Plate  41). 

This  ancient  city,  once  the  capital  of  the  most  powerful  nation  on  the 
earth,  and  now  the  capital  city  of  the  States  of  the  Church,  is  situated  on 
the  Tiber,  about  fourteen  miles  from  where  it  discharges  into  the  sea.  It  is 
fourteen  to  twenty  miles  in  circumference,  and  has  a  population  of  about 
160,000,  amongst  which  are  over  6000  ecclesiastics,  monks,  and  nuns,  and 
about  4000  Jews.  Its  walls  still  inclose  the  seven  ancient  hills,  the  Pala- 
tine, Capitoline,  Quirinal,  Coelian,  Aventine,  Viminal,  and  Esquiline.  The 
principal  of  the  public  squares  are  :  the  Capitol  Square,  with  the  gilt 
equestrian  statue  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  the  statues  of  Castor  and  Pollux, 
together  with  the  Palace  of  the  Senate,  the  Capitoline  Museum,  and  the 
Palace  dei  Conservatori ;  2,  the  Piazza  (square)  del  Popolo,  with  the 
beautiful  churches  de'  Miracoli  and  di  Monte  Santo,  as  also  with  an  Egjrptian 
obelisk  eighty-two  feet  high ;  3,  Piazza  Colonna,  with  the  column  of  Anto- 
nine,  and  the  Palaces  Chigi  and  Spada ;  4,  the  Piazza  del  Monte  Citorio, 
with  the  obelisk  of  the  Sun  and  the  Palace  of  Justice ;  5,  the  Piazza  di  S. 
Pietro,  in  front  of  St.  Peter's,  with  the  Custom  House ;  6,  the  Piazza  ^otonda, 
with  the  Pantheon ;  7,  the  Piazza  Navona,  an  ancient  circus,  with  the  Church 
of  St.  Agnes,  and  three  fountains ;  8,  the  Piazza  della  Trinitä  del  Monte ; 
9,  the  Piazza  di  Monte  Cavallo,  with  the  palace  of  the  Pope  (Quirinal),  two 
antique  horses,  and  the  Palace  della  Consulta.  The  ancient  Forum  is  now 
covered  to  a  depth  of  thirty  feet  with  rubbish,  and  is  called  Campo  Vaccino 
(Cowmarket).  Rome's  three  principal  streets  are  the  Corso,  a  straight  line 
for  2700  paces,  the  Via  Ripetta,  and  the  Via  Babbuina.  Among  the  341 
churches  and  chapels,  stands  pre-eminent  the  celebrated  St.  Peter's,  640  feet 
long,  470  feet  broad  in  the  cross,  408  feet  high  in  the  spire,  and  with  a 
dome  220  feet  high  in  the  interior,  with  twenty-nine  altars  and  innumerable 
statues ;  a  still  more  gorgeous  church,  although  of  less  size,  is  that  of  St. 
John  in  the  Lateran,  with  335  columns,  the  Parish  Church  of  the  Pope,  and 
the  principal  church  of  Catholic  Christianity ;  other  churches  are  St.  Mary's 
Church,  or  the  ancient  Pantheon ;  the  Church  of  Sta.  Maria  Maggiore,  with 
40  columns  of  granite  and  marble ;  Trinity  del  Monte,  with  a  beautiful 
flight  of  steps  ;  Santa  Maria,  in  Trastevere,  the  oldest  church  in  Rome,  &c. 
Among  the  palaces  may  be  mentioned :  the  Vatican,  connected  with  the 
Castle  of  St.  Angelo  by  a  covered  way  ;  it  is  1200  feet  long,  1000  feet  broad, 
with  twenty-two  courts,  and  several  thousand  chambers,  containing  count- 
less treasures  of  books,  manuscripts,  records,  antiquities,  and  works  of  art;' 
the  Quirinal,  residence  of  the  Pope ;  the  Palaces  Pamfili,  Barberini,  Aldo- 
brandini,  Spada,  Colonna,  Boi^hese,  Caffarelli,  Braschi,  Orsini,  Corsini, 
Famese,  &c.,  all  remarkable  for  their  size,  architecture,  or  collections  of 
art.  Of  the  innumerable  ruins,  from  the  times  of  the  ancient  Romans,  some 
152 


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PLANOGRAPHY. 


153 


of  the  principal  are :  the  Coliseum  or  Amphitheatre  of  Titus,  560  feet  long, 
472  broad,  154  high,  capable  of  seating  80,000  persons ;  the  Column  of 
Trajan,  141  feet  high,  12  feet  thick,  composed  of  34  blocks  of  marble;  the 
marble  column  of  Antonine,  117  feet  high;  eleven  obelisks  (the  largest  115 
feet  high,  9  feet  thick,  of  red  granite)  ;  the  aqueducts,  of  which  three  still 
supply  the  city  with  water ;  the  Baths  of  Caracalla,  Diocletian,  and  Titus ; 
the  Pyramid  of  Cestius,  126  feet  high  (with  the  Protestant  burying-ground 
in  front).  The  subterranean  passages  called  Catacombs,  and  extending  to  a 
great  distance  under  ground,  are  very  interesting ;  originally  stone  quarries, 
they  were  subsequently  used  as  burial-places  and  places  of  worship.  Rome 
has  numerous  beautiful  fountains,  the  finest  of  which  are  the  Fontana  Trevi 
or  Vergine,  Fontana  di  Tritone,  Fontana  dell'  Acqua  Felice,  and  the  spring  on 
the  Piazza  Navona.  Among  the  educational  institutions  are  the  Unirersity 
and  the  Collegio  Romano,  with  an  observatory  and  a  botanic  garden.  Tiie 
chief  among  charitable  institutions  are  the  immense  Hospital  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  and  the  Hospital  of  St.  Michael,  for  230  old  men,  100  women,  480 
boys,  and  520  girls. 

Explanation  of  the  Plan. 


A. 

Piazza  di  S.  Pietro. 

19. 

Piazza  di  Ponte. 

B. 

"      del  Popolo. 

20. 

Teatro  Tordinone. 

C. 

"      Navona. 

21. 

Monte  Giordano. 

D. 

"      de'  Capucini. 

22. 

Piazza  Sforza.* 

E. 

"      degli  Apostoli. 

23. 

Carcere. 

F. 

*'      de'  Termini. 

24. 

Statua  di  Pasquino. 

G. 

"     della  TrinitA  de'  Monti. 

25. 

Cancelleria. 

1. 

Mausoleo  di  Adriano. 

26. 

Sapienza. 

2. 

Ruins  of  the  Vatican  Bridge. 

27. 

Teatro  della  Valle. 

3. 

Ospedale  di  Santo  Spirito. 

28. 

Chiesa  di  S.  Eustachio. 

4. 

Piazza  di  Santa  Marta. 

29. 

Panteon. 

5. 

Covered  way  from  the  Vatican 

30. 

Collegio  Romano. 

to  the  Castle  of  St.  Angelo. 

31. 

Piazza  della  Minerva. 

6. 

Palazzo  Farnese. 

32. 

Dogana. 

7. 

Piazza  di  San  Francesco. 

33. 

Monte  Citorio. 

8. 

Ospizio  di  S.  Michele. 

34. 

Teatro  Capranica. 

9. 

Arsenale. 

35. 

Piazza  Colonna. 

10. 

Ospedale  di  San  Giacomo. 

36. 

Fontana  di  Trevi. 

11. 

Mausoleo  di  Augusto. 

37. 

Piazza  delta  Pilotta. 

12. 

Teatro  Aliberti. 

38. 

"      di  Monte  Cavallo. 

13. 

Piazza  di  Spagna. 

39. 

Palazzo  Pontefico. 

14. 

"      Mignanelli. 

40. 

Piazza  di  Venezia. 

15. 

"      Nicosia. 

41. 

Giardino  Colonna. 

16. 

"      Silvestro. 

42. 

Reservoir  of  the  Baths  of  Diocle- 

17. 

"      Barberini. 

tian. 

18. 

House  of  Sallust  and  Temple  of 
Venus. 

43. 

Aqueduct. 

158 


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164                                         OBOORAPHT.                                                           | 

44.  Basilica  di  Santa  Maria  Mag* 

».  Borgo  Pio. 

giore. 

*.      •*      Nuova 

45.  Terme  (Bagni)  di  Paolo  Emilio. 

/.      "      Vecchio. 

46.  Colonna  e    Basilica   del   foro 

m.      **      S.  spirito. 

Trajano. 

n.  Via  di  Ripetta. 

47.  Palazzo  Famese. 

0.    **    delCorso. 

48.  Piazza 

p.    **    Babbuina. 

49.  Teatro  di  Pompejo. 

q.    ''    della  Fontanella. 

50.       **       Argentina. 

r.    **    de'Condotti.                                       | 

51.  Piazza  Cenci. 

t.    ••    Sistina. 

5S.      **       Giudea. 

t.    **    Felice.                                                | 

5«.  Teatro  di  Marcello. 

If.    **    delle  quattro  Fontane. 

54.  Rocca  Tarpea. 

V.    "    diPorUPia. 

55.  Campidoglio. 

w.    "    della  Vita. 

56.  Campo  Vaccino. 

X.    ''    delle  Mercede. 

57.  Cloaca  Maxima. 

y.    "    Tordinona. 

58.  Forum  Boarium. 

*.    "    deir  Orso. 

59.  Ruins  of  the  Palaces  of  the 

of.    "    di'  Coronari. 

Ccesars. 

b\    "    di'Banchi. 

60.  Reservoirs  oftheBathsof  Titus. 

c'.    **    di  Monserrato. 

61.  Trofei  di  Mario. 

a.    «    Giulia. 

62.  Mausoleo  di  Mario. 

&.    "    del  Fontanone. 

M.  Tempio  di  Minerva  Medica. 

/.    «    del  Pelegrino. 

64.  Anfiteatro  Castrense. 

g*.    "    del  Govemo  Vecchio. 

65.  Basilica    di    S.    Giovanni    in 

A'.    "    di' Giubbonari. 

Laterano. 

»'.    '«    del  Pianto. 

66.  Ospedale. 

*'.    "    delCesarini. 

67.  Chiesa  di  S.  Stefano  Rotondo. 

P.    "    delGesü. 

68.  Piazza  di  S.  Gregorio. 

m'.    "    diArceli. 

69.  Ponte  Sublicio. 

n'.    *'    Arco  de'  Pantani. 

70.  Ponte  Rotto. 

o\    "    Baccina. 

71.  Terme  di  Tito. 

p'.    •*    del  Coliseo. 

72.  Coliseo. 

g*,    «    de'  Serpenti. 

78.  Chiesa  di  S.  Giovanni  e  Paolo. 

r'.    "    del  Boschetto. 

74.  Isola  S.  Bartolomeo. 

«".    ''    delle  Carette. 

75.  Ponte  Sisto. 

f .    *'    di  S.  Lorenzo  in  Pane  e  penuu 

76.      "      S.  Angek). 

u'.    "    Urbana. 

a.  Via  della  Lungara. 

v'.    "    Graziosa. 

h.    **    della  Lungaretta. 

w'.    "    di  S.  Pudenziana. 

c.    "    de'  Genovesi. 

x'.    "    di  S.  Maria  Maggiore. 

d.    "    de'  MorticellL 

y'.    "    Paolo. 

6.    "    di  S.  Francesco. 

z'.    *'    di  S.  Lucia  in  Selci. 

/.    "    diS.  Michele. 

a".   "    di  S.  Martine. 

g.    "    delleFratte. 

fc".   "    diS.  Vito. 

h.  Borgo  Vittoria. 

c".   •*    diMarmorata. 

154 


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PLAN06RAPHT.  155 


11.  Milan  (P/oto  41). 

Milan  (in  Grerman,  Mailand),  the  capital  of  the  Lombardo-Venetian  king« 
dorn,  although  an  ancient-looking,  irregular  city,  still  possesses  some  recently 
built  palaces  and  churches,  with  many  beautiful  streets.  The  first  rank 
amongst  the  public  buildings  is  assumed  by  the  celebrated  Cathedral,  4M 
feet  long,  275  broad,  built  entirely  of  white  marble,  and  adorned,  or  rather  over- 
loaded, externally,  with  not  less  than  4000  statues ;  of  the  other  seventy-eight 
churches,  we  may  mention  San  Lorenzo,  with  antique  marble  columns,  and 
Madonna  presse  San  Celso ;  of  the  convents,  the  former  Dominican  Convent 
of  Santa  Maria  delle  Grazie,  containing  the  renowned,  but  now  almost 
entirely  destroyed,  fresco  painting  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  of  the  Last 
Supper ;  likewise  the  Palace  della  Corte,  the  Government  Palace,  the  Palace 
of  the  Archbishop,  the  Mint,  the  Palace  of  the  Court  of  Appeal,  the  Theatre 
della  Scala,  with  400  boxes,  and  capable  of  seating  7000  persons  (in  addition 
to  which,  Milan  has  six  other  theatres)  ;  the  large  hospital.  The  principal 
collections  of  art  and  science  are :  the  Palace  Brera,  formerly  belonging  to 
the  Jesuits,  with  a  library,  a  gallery  of  antiques  and  paintings,  a  botanic 
garden,  and  an  observatory ;  also,  the  celebrated  Ambrosian  Library,  with 
15y000  manuscripts,  and  a  large  cabinet  of  coins.  There  still  remains  to  be 
mentioned  the  circus,  built  under  Napoleon  in  the  ancient  style,  and  capable 
of  seating  80,000  persons,  with  an  arrangement  for  filling  the  arena  with 
water :  also  the  Marble  Arch  of  Peace,  commenced  in  1807,  by  Napoleon, 
and  completed  in  1829 ;  it  is  eighty-four  feet  high,  forty-two  broad,  with 
eight  marble  columns  forty-two  feet  high  and  two  feet  thick,  and  entirely 
covered  with  alto  relievos.  The  most  frequented  promenade  is  the  Corso. 
The  place  of  a  river  is  supplied  by  the  Grand  Naviglio  Canal,  commenced 
in  1271 ;  it  is  nineteen  miles  long,  and  goes  by  the  Abbiate  Grosso  into  the 
Ticino. 


Explanation  of  thb  Plan. 


A.  Piazza  del  Duomo. 

6.  Tipi^rafia  Reale. 

B.       ""       dei  Marcanti. 

7.  Palazzo  della  ContabilitA  generale. 

C.       "       del  Palazzo  Reale. 

8.  S.  Pietro  Celestino. 

D.      "       Fontana. 

9.  San  Damiano. 

E.      "       della  Vetra. 

10.  San  Pietro  in  Gessate. 

F.       "       e  Parochia  di  S.  Eustorgio. 

11.  Collegio  Imp.  delle  Fanciulle. 

6.  Foppone,  ossia  Campo  Santo. 

12.  La  Guastalla,  Collegio. 

H.  Ponte  di  Porta  Romana. 

18.  Ospedale  di  S.  Catterina. 

1.  Piazza  e  Parrochia  di  S.  Marco. 

14.  Santa  Maria  del  Paradise. 

2.  Collegio  delle  Vevode. 

15.  San  Calimero. 

8.  Ospedale  de'  Fatebene-Fratelli. 

16.  Orfanotrofio  Milit.  di  S.  Luca. 

4.  Collegio  de*  Nobili. 

17.  La  Vittoria. 

5.  San  Bartolomeo. 

18.  S.  Calimero. 

155 

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156 


QBOGRAPHT. 


19.  S.  Vittore  al  Carpo. 

20.  S.  Nicolo. 

21.  Santa  Maria  del  Castello. 

22.  Broletto    Delegaz.    Provinz,    e 

Municipale. 

23.  Corte  d'  Apello  ed  Ipoteca. 

24.  S.  Tomaso  in  Terra  Mala. 

25.  Uffizio  de'  Tesi  e  Misure. 

26.  11  Carmine,  Parrochia. 

27.  Palazzo     dell'     Imper.     Reale 

Commt  Militare. 

28.  Palazzo   di   Brera,   Accademia 

Reale- 

29.  Ponte  Marcellino. 

30.  Posta  de'  Cavalli. 
81.  Monte  de  Pietiu 

32.  S.  Giuseppe. 

33.  Amministrazione  del  Lotto. 

34.  Real  Teatro  della  Scala. 

35.  Filodrammatici. 

36.  Direzione  generale  di  Polizia. 

37.  Palazzo    dei    Marini    e    della 

Finanza. 

38.  Uffizio  della  Diligenza. 

39.  Monte. 

40.  Seminario. 

41.  Ponte  di  Porta  Orientale. 

42.  "      di  San  Damiano. 

43.  Piazza     e      Palazzo      Belgio- 

joso. 

44.  Piazza  e  Parrochia  S.  Fedele. 

45.  Uffizio  generale  del  Censo. 

46.  Teatro  Rk 

47.  Archivio  pubblico. 

48.  Residenza  de'  Tribunali  Civili. 

49.  Biblioteca  Ambrosiana. 

50.  Ponte  di  Porta  Toaa. 

51.  Luogo  Pio  Trivulzi. 

52.  Palazzo  di  Giustizia. 

53.  "        Archivescovile. 
64.       "        Reale. 

55.  Corte  di  Giustizia  Correzionale. 

56.  Ospedale  Maggiore. 

57.  Teatro  della  Conobbiana. 

58.  uffizio  della  Posta  per  le  Lettere. 

59.  S.  Sepolcro  e  Piazza. 

60.  Direzione  generale  del  Demanio. 
150 


61.  S.   M.  Pedone  e  Piazza  Borro- 

mea. 

62.  S.  Giorgio. 

63.  S.  Alessandro. 

64.  Teatro  del  Lentasio. 

65.  S.  Eufemia  e  Piazza. 

66.  Ponte  di  S.  Celso. 

67.  "      delle  Pioppette. 

68.  San  Lorenzo. 

69.  Ponte  di  Porta  Ticinese. 

70.  Ponte  de'  Fabbri. 

71.  Ospedale  Milit.  di  S.  Ambrogio. 

72.  Ponte  di  S.  Vittore. 

73.  Caserma. 

74.  Ponte  di  Porta  Vercellina. 

75.  Conservatorio  di  Musica  e  S.  M. 

della  Passione. 

76.  Palazzo  del  Govemo. 

77.  S.  Simpliciana  e  Caserma. 

78.  Collegio  Calchi. 

79.  La  Stella,  Orfanotrofio. 

80.  Ospedale  di  S.  Antonio. 

81.  Salesiane. 

82.  Teatro  Carcano. 

a.  Stada  di  S.  Teresa. 

b.  "      di  S.  Angelo. 

c.  "      Risara. 

d.  Borgo  di  S.  Angelo. 

e.  Corso  e  Borgo  di  Porta  Comasina. 
/.  Strada  de'  Fatebene-Fratelli. 

g,  Contrada  di  Borgo  nuovo. 
A.  Contrada  di  Brera. 
I.   Strada  del  Pontaccio. 
k.  Contrada  del  Monte  di  PietJL 
/.         "         deir  Olmetto. 
m.  Corso  di  Porta  nuova. 
n.  Corsia  del  Giardino. 
0.  Strada  di  S.  P.  Celestino. 
p,      "       di  S.  P.  Damiano. 
q.  Contrada  di  S.  P.  Romana 
r.        "         del  Monte. 
s.         "         di  S-  Paolo. 
t.        "         del  Marino. 
u,  Corsia  de'  Servi. 
V.  Contrada  S-  Margherita. 
uj.        "         delle  Meraviglie. 
X.  Corso  di  Porta  Vercellina. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


PLANOGRAPHY.                                         1 

y- 

Borgo  delle  Grazie. 

0'.  Contrada  dell'  Ospedale. 

z. 

Stradone  di  S.  Vittore. 

/>'.  Contrada  Larga. 

a'. 

Strada  del  Ponte  de'  Fabbri. 

q',  Corso  di  Porta  Tosa. 

6'. 

Strada  della  Vittoria. 

r'.  Contrada  del  Durino. 

c'. 

Borgo  di  Viarenna. 

f'.          "        della  Lupa. 

d\ 

Corso  di  Porta  Ticinese. 

V.          «        di  S.  Orsola, 

e. 

Borgo  di  Cittadella. 

u\         «        di  S.  Simone. 

/. 

Strada  del  Molino  delle  Armi. 

t?'.         **        de'  Ratti. 

^. 

Corso  e  Borgo  di  S.  Celso. 

tt>'.  Corsia  del  Duomo. 

A'. 

Strada  di  S.  Sofia. 

X'.  Corso  di  S,  Vittore  40  Martin, 

f. 

Corso  di  Porta  Romana. 

y'.       "      di  S.  Andrea. 

i'. 

Borgo  di  Porta  Vigentina. 

«'.       «     de'Bastelli. 

/'. 

Strada  dell'  Ospedale. 

a"      «      di  S.  Giuseppe. 

m'. 

.  Contrada  di  S.  Prassede. 

V       "      de'  Filodrammatici. 

n'. 

Strada  del  Fop|K>ne. 

167 


12.  Madrid  {Plate  42). 

Madrid,  the  capital  city  of  Spain,  with  a  population  of  200,000,  lies  in  a 
bare  unattractive  plain  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Manzanares,  about  2000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  is  built  on  a  number  of  small  hills.  The 
river  at  the  city  is  crossed  by  two  large  stone  bridges,  one  of  them  1130 
paces  long.  The  city  forms  an  irregular  quadrangle,  surrounded  by  a  high 
brick  wall,  and  is  divided  into  two  northern  and  two  southern  quarters. 
The  old  quarter  to  the  south-west  has  mean  houses  and  narrow  streets ;  the 
new,  much  larger  and  more  beautiful  buildings,  and  broad  straight  streets ; 
amongst  which  may  be  mentioned  those  of  Alcala,  San-Bernardo,  Fuen- 
carrel,  and  Toledo.  The  principal  squares  are  the  great  market  or  Plaza 
Mayor,  and  the  Plaza  Puerto  del  Sol,  the  latter  the  centre  of  the  city  and 
the  gathering  place  of  the  business  people.  Of  the  public  buildings,  we  may 
mention  the  Castle  Buen  Retire,  or  the  ancient  royal  castle,  on  the  east  side 
of  the  city ;  the  still  unfinished  new  palace,  470  feet  long,  on  the  west  side 
of  the  city ;  the  large  Ferdinando-Hospital,  the  City  Hail,  the  Custom 
House,  Post-Oflice,  Arsenal,  Mint,  Court  Prison,  &c.  Among  the  seventy- 
seven  churches,  conspicuous  not  on  account  of  their  architectural  beauty, 
but  for  their  excellent  paintings,  those  deserving  of  especial  notice  are  St. 
Isidore's  Chapel,  the  Church  of  the  Salesian  nuns,  the  Church  of  St.  Isabella, 
and  the  Church  of  Antiochia ;  of  the  convents,  the  Franciscan  Monastery, 
inclosing  ten  courts.  The  collections  of  art  and  science  are  very  important ; 
among  them  the  Royal  Library  of  200,000  volumes,  with  a  cabinet  of 
150,000  coins  and  medals ;  the  Library  of  San  Isidore,  of  50,000  volumes; 
the  Royal  Museum,  with  one  of  the  finest  collections  of  paintings  in 
existence ;  the  Royal  Cabinet  of  Natural  History,  and  the  Observatory  on 
the  new  castle.  The  Prado  is  the  most  beautiful  public  promenade ;  it 
extends  between  the  Palace  Buen  Retiro  and  the  city,  adorned  with  four 
rows  of  trees,  as  also  with  fountains  and  statues.     There  is  likewise  the 

167 


Digitized  by 


Google 


158 


QBOGRAPHT. 


garden  of  Buen  Retiro  close  to  the  Prado,  with  the  statues  of  Philip  II.  and 
Charles  I.  A  large  aqueduct  conducts  springs  of  water  from  the  Guadarama 
Mountain  into  the  city,  which  is  there  distributed  in  thirty-two  wells. 


Explanation  of  the  Plan. 


1.  Palacio  del  Rey. 

2.  Real  Biblioteca. 
8.  Ministerios. 

4.  Casa  que  fue  de  suprema  Inqui- 

sicion. 

5.  Casa  del  Duque  del  Parque. 

6.  Quartel  de  Caballeria. 

7.  Casa  del  Duque  de  Osufia. 

8.  Quartel    de    las    Guardias  de 

Corps. 

9.  Seminario  de  los  Nobles. 

10.  Colegio  de  las  Arrepentidas. 

11.  Monserrate,     Monasterio 

Benitos. 

12.  El  Salvador. 

18.  Santa  Ana  (Bemardos). 

14.  El  Rosario  (Dominicos). 

15.  Casa  del  Duqu6  de  Albuquerque. 

16.  Hospital  de  los  Franceses. 

17.  Carmen  Calzado,  Convento. 

18.  Quartel  de  las  Guardias  Espa- 

ilolas. 

19.  El  Hospicio,  Colegio. 

20.  Ninas  de  Leganes,  Colegio. 

21.  Aduana  y  Estanco  general. 

22.  Academia  de  las  Nobles  Artes. 
28.  Carmelitas  Descalzos,  Convento. 

24.  Las  Salesas,  Monasterio. 

25.  San  Pasqual,  Franciscas. 

26.  Casa    del    Duque    de  Medina 

Sidonia. 

27.  Hta.  de  San  Felipe  Neri. 

28.  Gustinos  Recoletos. 

29.  Real  Casadi  Moneda. 

80.  Posito. 

81.  Espiritu  Santo. 

82.  Buen  Suceso,  Hospital. 

88.  Descalzados  Reales,  Franciscas. 

84.  San  Felipe  Neri,  Convento. 

85.  Los  Consjos. 
158 


86. 
87. 

88. 
89. 
40. 

4L 

42. 
48. 
44. 


de    45. 


46. 
47. 
48. 
49. 
50. 
51. 
52. 
58. 
54. 

55. 
56. 
57. 

58. 
59. 
60. 
61. 
62. 
68. 
64. 
65. 
66. 
67. 
68. 


Plaza  de  la  Villa. 
Casa  del  Duque  de  Infantado. 
San  Andres,  Parroqua. 
Casa  del  Duque  de  Alba. 
Casa  del  Conde  de   Fernando 

Nuüez. 
San     Francisco,  Convento    y 

Campilk). 
Fabrica  Real  de  Cristales. 
Orden  Tercerca,  Hospital. 
Matadero    en    la    Puerta    de 

Toledo. 
Carniceria  del    Rastro   y  Plaza 

Cerillo. 
La  Latina,  Hospital. 
San  Isidorio  y  Real  Colegio. 
Academia  de  la  historia. 
Carcel  de  Cwte. 
Santo  Tomas,  Dominicanos. 
Santa  Cruz,  Parroqua. 
San  Felipe  Real,  Augustinos. 
Casa  de  Correos. 
La  Magdalena  y  Casa  del  C.  dt 

Salvatierra. 
Trinitarios,  Calza  Convento. 
Casa  del  Duque  de  Alba. 
Fabrica  de  Aguardiente   (Cigar- 

ros). 
Nuestra  Sefiora  de  la  Paz. 
Plaza  y  Fuente  de  Lavapies. 
San  Lorenzo. 
Carcel  de  la  Corona. 
Anton  Martin,  Hospital. 
Hospital  de  la  Misericordia. 
Beatas  de  San  Josef. 
Loretto  Ninas,  Colegio. 
Hospital  grande  para  Hombres. 
Agonizantes,  Hospital. 
Capuchinos  del  PVado,  Convento. 
Trinitarios  Descalzos. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


PLANOGRAPHT. 


169 


70.  Cabineto  de  Historia  Natural. 

71.  Quartal  de  Caballeria. 

72.  Plan  del  Coliseo. 

78.  Plaza  principal  y  Casa  de  los 

Proceres. 
74.  Estudio  y  Jardin  Botanico. 
76.  Observatorio. 

76.  Campo  Santo. 

77.  Estatua    Equestre     del    Rey 

FeUpelV. 


78.  La  Leonera. 

79.  Plaza  de  los  Toros. 

80.  Ermita  de  Nuestra  Sefiora  del 

Puerto. 

81.  Passeo  de  la  Florida. 

82.  Santa  Maria  de  la  Pabera. 

83.  Nuestra  Seilora  de  Atocha. 

84.  Fabrioa  Real  de  Tapices. 


13.  Saragossa  (Plate  43). 

Saragossa,  or  Zaragoza,  the  capital  of  the  Spanish  province  of  Arragon, 
is  situated  in  a  fertile  plain  on  the  Ebro,  over  which  stream  is  thrown  a 
fine  stone  bridge,  600  feet  in  length.  Below  the  city,  the  Huerba  or  Guerva 
empties  into  the  Ebro,  after  having  inclosed  the  south-eastern  part  of  the 
city  in  a  crescent.  The  population  amounts  to  about  45,000.  The  streets, 
with  but  few  exceptions,  are  narrow,  crooked,  and  badly  paved.  One  of 
the  most  prominent  public  buildings  is  the  Church  Nuestra  Seilora  del  Pilar, 
with  an  image  of  Mary  on  a  column  of  jasper.  The  city  is  celebrated  for 
its  heroic  defence  under  Palafox,  against  the  besieging  army  of  the  French, 
from  the  4th  to  the  14th  of  August,  1808,  and  a  second  time  from  December 
20th,  1808,  to  Feb.  21,  1800,  in  which  60,000  persons  perished  by  sword  and 
famine.    Under  the  Romans,  this  city  was  called  Caesar  Augusta,  or  Caesarea. 


Explanation  of  thb  Plan. 


1.  -Convento  de  los  Faoetas. 

18.  Calle  del  Mercado  nuevo. 

2.  Santa  Lucia. 

19.  San  Juan  de  los  Panales. 

3.  San  Domingo. 

20.  Nuestra  Seilora  del  Pilar. 

4.  Santa  Inte. 

21.  San  Felipe. 

5.  Capuchinos  Descalzos. 

22.    "    Tomas. 

6.  Nuestra  Sefiora  del  Portillo. 

23.  Convento  de  San  Francisco. 

7.  Quartel  de  Caballeria. 

24.  San  Diego. 

8.  Circo  para  los  Toros. 

25.  Plaza  del  Carmen. 

9.  La  Misericordia. 

26.     *"     y   Convento    de    Santa 

10.  Plaza  de  la  Misericordia. 

Engracia. 

11.  Convento  de  los  Capuchinos. 

27.  Las  Monjas  de  Jerusalem. 

12.  Hospital. 

28.  Hospital  de  los  Locos. 

13.  La  Encamacion. 

29.  El  Asco. 

14.  Carmeletas  Descakos. 

80.  ElSepulcro. 

15.  Convento. 

16.        "         de  la  Vitoria. 

32.  Universitad. 

17.  San  FaUo. 

83.  San  Augustin. 

15f 

Digitized  by  VnC 

160 


GEOGRAPHY. 


34.  Santa  Monica. 

35.  Plaza  San  Augustin. 

36.  Convento  de  San  Josef. 

37.  "         de  San  Lazaro, 


88.  El  Calzas  de  San  Josef. 

89.  Castillo  de  Aljaferia  (de  la  IiKioi* 

sicion). 


14.  Barcelona  (Plate  42). 

Barcelona,  the  capital  of  the  Spanish  Principality  of  Catalonia,  one  of 
the  largest  and  most  flourishing  cities  in  Spain»  is  situated  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  between  the  mouths  of  the  Llobregat  and  Bezas.  With  the 
neighboring  town,  or  rather  suburb  Barceioneta,  it  has  over  10,000  houses, 
and  about  150,000  inhabitants,  of  which  10,000  belong  to  the  above- 
mentioned  suburb.  On  the  east  side  of  the  city  is  situated  a  strong  citadel, 
which  is  connected  with  the  Fort  of  San  Carlos  on  the  sea  ;  on  the  west 
side  rises  up  Montjuy,  with  a  fort  which  commands  the  harbor.  Among  the 
principal  buildings  are  the  great  Cathedral,  the  ancient  castle  of  the  former 
Counts  of  Barcelona,  a  large  hospital  for  3000  invalids,  the  Arsenal,  the 
Cannon  Foundry,  &c.  There  still  remain,  from  the  time  of  the  Romans, 
the  ruins  of  a  Temple  of  Hercules,  and  of  some  baths.  The  spacious,  but 
not  sufficiently  deep  harbor,  is  protected  by  an  extensive  mole,  at  the  end 
of  which  is  a  lighthouse. 


Explanation  of  thb  Plan. 


1. 

Balhuarte  (Bastion)  de  la  Porta 

20. 

Nueva. 

21. 

2. 

Balhuarte  de  San  Pedro. 

22. 

8. 

"          de  Jonqueras. 

23. 

4. 

del  Angel. 

24. 

5. 

"         de  los  Estudlos. 

25. 

6. 

de  Tellers. 

26. 

7. 

"          de  Valdoncella, 

27. 

8. 

"          Nueva. 

28. 

9. 

"          de  San  Antonio. 

29. 

10. 

del  Key. 

30. 

11. 

Quartel  de  Atarazanas. 

31. 

12. 

Balhuarte   San    Francisco  de 

82. 

Asis. 

88. 

18. 

San  Ramon. 

84. 

14. 

Balhuarte  de  Mediodia. 

85. 

15. 

"          de  la  Rejma. 

86. 

16. 

Casa  del  Gobernador. 

87. 

17. 

Iglesia  (Church). 

88. 

18. 

Quartels  (Barracks). 

39. 

19. 

Balhuarte  del  Key  de  laCitadella. 
160 

40. 

Balhuarte  del  Principe. 
San  Felipe. 

"    Fernando. 
Seminaritas,  Colegio  de  Religiöses. 
La  Misericordia. 
Quartel  de  Cordelles. 
Convento  de  las  Capuchinas. 
Hospital  de  San  Lazaro. 
Hospital  general. 
Colegio  de  San  Buenaventura. 

"        del  Carmen. 
Casa  de  Comedias. 
Administracion  de  Correos. 
Fundicion  de  Artilleria. 
Estanco  Real  del  Tabaco. 
Barracas  del  Vino  y  Azeite. 
Aduana. 

Palacio  del  Greneral. 
La  Lonja. 

Hospital  de  Santa  Maria. 
Inquisicion. 


Digitized  by 


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PLANOGRAPHY.  161 

41.  La  Catedral.  46.  Quarte!  de  Infanteria  de  Bar-celoneta. 

42.  Academia  Militär.  47.  Plaza  Mayor. 

43.  Nuestra  Senora  de  Junqueras.  48.  San  Miguel. 

44.  Quartel  de  ios  Estudios.  49.  Quartel  de  Caballeria. 

45.  Parroqua  de  San  Pedro.  50,  Plaza  San  Miguel. 

15.  CoPENHAOEN  (Plate  43). 

Copenhagen,  or  Kiobenhavn,  the  capital  city  of  the  Danish  monarchy,  is 
situated  on  the  island  of  Zealand,  on  the  Sound,  and  in  part  on  the  small 
island  Amak ;  it  has  a  population  of  about  125,000  souls,  among  them  2400 
Jews.  It  consists  of  Copenhagen  proper,  again  divided  into  the  Old  Town 
and  New,  or  Frederick  Town  (the  two  separated  by  the  Goth's  street,  4200 
feet  long),  Christianshaven  on  the  island  of  Amak,  and  the  citadel  Frede- 
rikshaven.  Frederiksstad  is  the  most  beautiful  and  regular  part  of  the 
city,  rendering  Copenhagen  one  of  the  finest  towns  in  Europe.  The  principal 
squares  are  the  Frederiks  Plads,  with  the  statue  of  Frederick  V.,  and 
King's  New  Market,  with  the  statue  of  Christian  V.  The  most  conspicuous 
buildings  are  the  royal  residence  Amalienburg,  with  two  other  castles,  that 
of  Rosenborg  (with  a  cabinet  of  coins  and  a  fine  garden),  and  the  new 
Christiansborg  (containing  a  beautiful  chapel,  a  large  library,  and  a  museum 
of  art  consisting  of  paintings  and  antiques) ;  adjoining  the  palace  is  the 
Thorwaldsen  Museum,  containing  all  the  works  of  the  great  sculptor,  and 
valuable  collections  of  paintings,  coins,  medals,  gems,  &c.,  bequeathed  by 
him  to  his  native  city ;  the  Church  of  Our  Lady,  with  statues  by  Thorwaldsen, 
representing  Christ  and  the  Apostles  ;  the  Church  of  the  Trinity,  with  a  tower 
111  feet  high,  access  to  which,  even  for  wagons,  can  be  had  by  a  flat  spiral 
ascent ;  the  Frederik  or  Marble  Church  (ruin  of  an  unfinished  edifice)  ;  the 
Church  of  the  Redeemer,  with  a  high  spire,  the  top  of  which  is  reached  by  an 
external  spiral  staircase ;  the  great  Frederik's  Hospital,  &c.  Among  the 
scientific  collections  are :  the  Royal  Library,  of  500,000  volumes,  and  the  rich 
collections  illustrative  of  northern  antiquity,  in  Christianburg  Castle,  where 
they  fill  six  rooms.  Copenhagen  is  remarkable  for  its  exquisite  naval  and 
commercial  harbors. 

Explanation  op  thb  Plan. 

Squares  (Pladser,  Torve).  D.  Rosenborg's  Have. 

E.  Exercer  Plads. 

A.  Kongens  Nytorv  (King's  Mar-     F.  Slots  Pladsen  (Castle  Square). 

ket),  with  the  statue  of  Chris-  G.  Gammelholm, 

tian  v.,  the  Royal  Theatre,  the  H.  St.  Anna  Plads. 

Royal  Academy  of  Arts,  &c.  I.  Dronningens  Enghave. 

B.  Frederiks  Plads,  with  the  Ama-  K.  Tommer  Pladsen. 

lienborg,  and  the  equestrian      L.  Yilders  Plads. 
statue  of  Frederick  V.  M.  Hambros  Plads. 

C.  Marmor  Pladsen.  N.  Hoibro  Hads. 

lOOHOGRAPHIO   BNOTOLOPiBOIA. — VOL.   nu  11  161 


Digitized  by 


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162 


GBOOBAPHT. 


Buildings. 

22.  Rosenboi^  Slot 

23.  Royal    Porcelain     Factory   and 

1.  Christiansborg  Slot,  with  the 

Orphan  Asylum. 

Museum,  the  Court  Theatre, 

24.  Petrikirke. 

the  Court  Chapel,  Library, 

25.  Fruekirkc. 

&c. 

26.  Gammel  Torv,  and  Ny  Torv. 

2.  Prindsen's  Palais. 

27.  Halm  Torv. 

8.  Sobatterie. 

28a.  Lange  Bro  (Bridge). 

4.  Proviant  Gaard. 

28b.  Knippels  Bro. 

5.  Exchange  and  Bank. 

29.  Holms  Pladsen  and  Laboratory. 

6.  university  Direction. 

30.  Porcelain  Manufactory. 

7.  Holmenskirke  (Archives). 

31.  Artesian  Well. 

8.  Barracks. 

9.  Frederiks  Hospital. 

10.  Clasens  Library. 

StreeU. 

11.  Land  Cadet  Academi. 

12.  Chirurgisk  Academi. 

c.  Gammel  Strand. 

13.  General  Staff  Bureau. 

6.  (Jothers  Gade  (street). 

14.  Palace. 

c.  Nyhavn,Byens  and  Charlottenborg 

16.  Museum  of  Art. 

Side. 

16.  Gamisonskirke. 

d.  Botanisk  Have. 

17.  So-Cadet  Academi. 

e.  Amalie          Gade. 

18. .  House  of  the  West  India  Com- 

/.  (Ester 

pany. 

g.  Adel 

19.  Bommen  (gate  of  harbor). 

A.  Borger             " 

20.  Garnisons  Hospital. 

i.  Store-Kongens" 

21.  Deaf  and  Dumb  Asylum. 

*.  Norges             •• 

16.  Stockholm  {Phte  43). 

Stockholm,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Sweden,  has  a  highly  pictur- 
esque situation,  partly  on  islands,  partly  on  the  mainland  at  the  outlet  of 
Lake  Malar.  The  city  contains  a  population  amounting  to  90,000,  and  is 
divided  into  six  parts  ;  the  city  proper,  on  three  islands,  Helgeand,  Stads-, 
and  Riddarholm.  Norrmalm,  with  Blasiiholm,  united  to  the  city  proper  by 
a  handsome  granite  bridge ;  Sodermalm,  the  southern  suburb;  Skips- and 
Castellholm  to  the  north-east ;  Ladugorsland,  with  Djurgorden.  in  the  east, 
and  Kongesholm.  The  central  part  of  the  city  has  many  beautiful  buildings, 
fine  squares  and  regular  streets,  while  the  outside  consists  of  miserable 
hovels.  Among  the  principal  buildings  are :  the  Castle  on  the  island  of 
Stockholm,  built  in  1698-1701,  with  a  large  garden ;  the  Hoved-  and  Ritter- 
holm  Churches,  the  latter  vrith  the  tombs  of  the  kings  (since  Charles  X.),  with 
those  of  many  eminent  men,  together  with  5000  standards  captured  in  battle ; 
the  Adolph  Frederick's  Church ;  the  Opera  House,  Arsenal,  City  Hall,  and 
the  Nobles'  House ;  the  immense  Iron  Warehouse ;  the  Store  House ;  the  Palace 
of  the  Stattholder ;  the  Bank,  Mint,  Observatory,  &c.  Among  the  monuments 
162 


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PLANOGEAPHY. 


163 


are :  the  bronze  statue  of  Gustavus  III.,  in  front  of  the  Castle  Square,  <m 
the  coast ;  the  statue  of  Gustavus  Vasa  and  Gustavus  Adol{^us ;  and  the 
statue  of  Charles  XIIL  on  the  Parade  Square. 


Explanation  of  th^  Plan. 


A.  Royal  Castle  and  Castle  Square. 

/•  Ronde  Gatan. 

B.  RiddarhusTorget  (Nobles' House  g.  Stads  Tragords  Gatan. 

Market). 

A.  Tjarhofs  Tvargatan. 

C.  Karl  XIII.  Torget. 

i.  St.  Paul's  Gatan. 

D.  Artillery  Square  and  Barracks. 

*.  Horn's 

E.  Ladugords  Lands  Torget. 

/.   Besvars 

F.  Humlegorden. 

m,  Timmerman's  or  Makleres  Gatan. 

G.  Helgeandsholmen. 

n.  Tanto           Gatan. 

H.  Adolf  Frederick's  TcM^t 

0.  Horns  Tulls      " 

I.  Ny  Torget. 

p.  (Ester  Lang     " 

1.  Johanniskyrka  (Church). 

q.  Stora  Ny          " 

2.  Adolf  Fredric'skyrka. 

r.  Nya  Norr  Bro. 

8.  Observatory. 

$.  Regerings  Gatan. 

4.  Eleanora  Church. 

t.  Drottning     " 

5.  St.  Clara      « 

u.  Kungs           " 

6.  Kungsholm  ** 

V.  Nore  Tulls    " 

7.  Lazaretto. 

w.  Grobergs.      " 

8.  Nya  kungsholm  Bro. 

X,  Gomla  Kungsholm  Bro. 

9.  Island  Stromsborg. 

X,  Munklagers           Gatan. 

10.  St.  Maria's  Church. 

y.  Stora  Kungsholms    " 

IL  St.  Katherine's  Church. 

z.  Handverkare             ** 

12.  Black  Torget 

a'.  St  Sur  Brans           ^ 

18.  Gustavus  Adolphus'  Monument 

6'.  Kammakare              " 

c'.  Sodra  Hummelgards  " 

d\  Stor 

Streets. 

c'.  Nya  Quarters            *' 

/'.  Skippare 

a.  Stora  Gothe  Gatan. 

g^.Norrlands 

h.  TuUports 

A'.Ny  Bron                    " 

t.  Sodermanlands  ** 

i'.  Nybro                         " 

d.  Tjorhols 

f.Sevedbats                  « 

c.  Falkenbergs 

17.  Antwerp  (Plate  48). 

Antwerp,  capital  of  the  Belgian  province  of  the  same  name,  the  most 
prominent  city  in  Belgium,  with  a  population  of  80,000,  is  situated  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  River  Scheldt,  which  is  here  very  broad  and  navigable 
for  large  ships.    It  is  regularly  built,  and  has  many  beautiful  edifices. 

168 


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GEOGRAPHY. 


Amongst  them :  the  Cathedral,  the  largest  and  finest  Church  of  the  Nether- 
lands, 500  feet  long,  240  broad,  with  125  pillars,  five  nares,  and  the  highest 
spire  in  the  world  (444  feet),  it  is  distinguished  also  for  containing  the 
monument  to  Rubens  and  his  two  great  masterpieces,  the  Descent  from  the 
Cross  and  the  Ascent ;  also,  the  new  Theatre,  the  old  Hanseatic  House,  Sac. 
Other  objects  deserving  of  attention,  are  the  capacious  Wharves  and 
Arsenals,  the  two  great  basins  of  hewn  stone,  thirty  feet  deep,  connected 
with  the  Scheldt  by  sluices,  and  capable  of  containing  thirty-four  and 
fourteen  ships  of  the  line,  respectively.  Among  the  other  sights,  is  a 
fine  gallery  of  paintings  (Museum),  especially  rich  in  works  of  Rubens  and 
Vandyk.  A  monument  to  the  first-named  artist,  in  the  shape  of  his  statue 
by  Geefs,  has  recently  been  erected.  The  city  is  strongly  fortified  ;  on  the 
southern  point  of  the  city  is  situated  the  renowned  Citadel,  built  since  1567. 


Explanation  of  the  Plan. 


Gates  (Portes). 

Streets. 

I.  Porte  de  Malines. 

1. 

Rue  du  Convent. 

II.      "      de  ßorgerhout. 

2. 

Quai  Plantin. 

III.      "      Rouge. 

8. 

Rue  haute. 

IV.      «      de  Slycke. 

4. 

"     Pierre  Pot. 

V.      «      de  TEscaut. 

5. 

Quai  Vandyk. 

6. 

"      Jordaens. 

7. 

"      Tavemiers 

Squares. 

8. 

**      St  Laureys. 

9. 

"      Timmermans. 

A.  Place  S.  Vaiburge. 

10. 

"      Godefridus. 

B.  Grande  Place. 

11. 

"      Ste.  Aldegonde. 

C.  Place  de  la  Monnaie. 

12. 

Rue  des  Brasseurs. 

D.      "     du  March^  de  Vendredi. 

18. 

Canal  des  Facons. 

E.      "      Verte. 

14. 

"      d' Amidon. 

F.  March^  au  betail. 

15. 

Marchö  aux  Chevaux. 

G.         "       aux  veaux. 

16. 

Rue  Klapdorp. 

H.  Place  des  Facons. 

17. 

March^  au  Lait. 

I.      "      de  Meir. 

18. 

Rue  des  Soeurs  Noires. 

K.  Le  Gage. 

19. 

Vieux  March4  aux  Cordes. 

L.  March^  aux  grains. 

20. 

Rue  des  Peignes. 

M.  Place  du  Canal  Sal. 

21. 

"     Large. 

N.  Jardin  Botanique. 

22. 

"    des  Beguines. 

0.  March^  aux  Boeufs. 

23. 

Ruelle  du  Livre. 

P.  Place  Krauwel. 

24. 

Rue  des  Chevaliers. 

Q.      *'      des  Accises. 

25. 

"    de  rhöpital. 

R.       "      Nassau. 

26. 

"    du  Rosier. 

S.       "     de  Hesse. 

27. 

"    Champ  des  Flamands. 

T.  March6  aux  Cochons. 

28. 

«    du  Vieux  Coq. 

164 

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PLANOGRAPTTY. 

39. 

Rue  de  la  Digue  d'Ever. 

50.  Rue  des  Aveugles. 

30. 

"    Rempt  du  Lombard. 

51.     "    des  Princes. 

81. 

Les  trois  Coins. 

52.    "    d'Hoboken. 

32. 

Rue  des  Tanneurs. 

53.     "    Rouge. 

33. 

"    Pr6  de  rh6pital. 

54.     "    de  la  Boutique. 

34. 

"    d'Aremberg. 

55.  Verke  Straet. 

35. 

*'    dela^ant4. 

56.  Rue  de  Venus. 

36. 

Longue  rue  du  Mai. 

57.  Canal  des  Recolets. 

37. 

Rue  des  Arbal^triers. 

58.  March^  aux  Boeufs. 

38. 

"    des  Agneaux. 

59.  Rue  des  Pr6dicateurs 

39. 

"    de  la  Houblonni^re. 

60.     "    de  la  Cuiller. 

40. 

"    de  Jesus. 

61.     «     V.  Roch. 

41. 

"    de  Arquebusiers. 

62.     "    de  Mannageurs. 

42. 

«    Sale. 

a.  Theatre  des  Vari6t6s, 

43. 

"    du  CWne. 

b.  Höpital  Civil. 

44. 

Courte  Rue  neuve. 

c.  Ancien  Arsenal. 

45. 

Longue  Rue  neuve. 

d.  Com6die. 

46. 

Rue  Kipdorp. 

Maison  de  Rubens. 

47. 

March^  V.  Jacques. 

48. 

Rue  St.  Anne. 

g.  Poste  aux  lettres. 

49. 

"    de  TEmpereur. 

165 


18.  Amsterdam  {Plate  43). 

Amsterdam,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  and  especially 
of  the  province  of  North  Holland,  and  one  of  the  most  important  places  of 
trade  in  Europe,  is  situated  on  the  Amstel  and  the  Bay  of  Y  ;  it  is  divided 
by  numerous  canals  (graghten)  into  ninety  islands,  which  are  united  again 
by  290  bridges.  In  1840,  its  population  amounted  to  211,000,  and  now  to 
at  least  225,000,  amongst  which  are  46,000  Catholics,  35,000  Lutherans, 
24,000  Jews  (20,000  Germans  and  4,000  Portuguese),  2000  Anabaptists, 
&c.  On  account  of  the  marshy  soil,  most  of  the  houses  (which  amount  to 
the  number  of  27,000,  with  thirty-nine  churches)  are  built  on  piles.  Among 
the  canals,  which  impart  so  peculiar  an  appearance  to  this  city,  as  well  as 
to  all  others  in  Holland,  are  the  Heeren-,  Keizers-,  and  Prinsengraght,  with 
the  Cingel,  all  of  which  are  planted  with  trees,  and  encircle  the  city  in 
parallel  curves,  and  distinguished  for  their  breadth  (the  Keizergraght  is  140 
feet  wide),  their  length,  and  for  the  beauty  of  the  buildings  on  their  banks. 
The  most  important  and  largest  buildings  are :  the  former  City  Hall, 
built  in  1648-1655,  but  now  the  royal  palace,  resting  on  13,659  piles, 
beautifully  ornamented  throughout  the  interior :  it  is  282  feet  long,  235 
broad,  116  high,  with  a  spire  327  feet  in  elevation ;  near  it,  and  likewise 
on  the  Dam,  is  the  new  church,  built  on  6000  piles,  with  numerous  monu- 
ments of  eminent  men,  especially  of  De  Ruyter  and  Vondel ;  the  Reformed 
Male  and  Female  Hospital,  360  feet  long,  230  feet  broad,  and  adapted 
for  more  than  600  persons  ;  the  Trippen  House,  with  a  good  collection  of 

165 


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GEOGRAPHY. 


paintings,  &c.  Among  the  peculiar  constructions  are  the  numerooi 
wharves,  docks,  sail  and  rope  factories,  &c.,  all  in  the  vicinity  of  the  harbor 
on  the  Y.  Finally,  the  Botanic  Garden  and  the  Menagerie  Gardens  of  the 
Society  "  Natura  Artis  Magistra,"  are  well  worthy  of  being  seen. 


Explanation  of  thb  Plan. 


Squares. 

21.  2^  Dwars  Straat. 

22.  Noordsee  Bosch. 

A.  De  Noorder  Markt. 

23.  Noorder       Straat. 

B.  Heere  Markt. 

24.  Nieuwe  Loyer  " 

C.  De  Wester  Haien  Mkt. 

26.        "           "     Sloot. 

D.  Den  Dam. 

26.  Utrechtsche  Dwars  Str. 

E.  Anthonis  Markt. 

27.  Weesper     Straat. 

F.  Boter  Markt. 

28.  Utrechtsche    - 

G.  Weesper  Plein. 

29.  Yssel 

H.  Stads  hout  Werf. 

SO.  Spiegel             "" 

I.  Varcken  Markt. 

81.  Leydsche        •* 

K.  Ösen  Markt. 

82.  Kalver 

L.  Leydsche  Plein. 

83.  Doelen 

M.  Haarl  Plein. 

84.  Nieuwen  Dyk. 

85.  Zee  Dyk. 

86.  S.  Anton  Bree  Straat 

Streets. 

87.  Ho(^                    •• 

88.  Regul.  Bree          " 

1.  Bikkers  Straat. 

89.  Regul.  Dwars       " 

2.  Bikkers  Eyland. 

40.  Amstel                  « 

8.  Hout  Tuynen. 

41.  Swanenburger     •* 

4.  Haarlemer  Dyk. 

42.  Vloyenburger       ^ 

5.  Vinke  Straat. 

48.  Joden  Bree          •* 

6.  Palm. 

44.  Hout  Tuynen      " 

7.  Goudbloem  Straat. 

45.  Rapenburger        ** 

8.  Linden. 

46.  Valkenburger       •* 

9.  Boom. 

47.  üylenburger         •* 

10.  Angeliers. 

48.  Batavier                " 

11.  Tuyn. 

49.  Binnen  Kant. 

12.  Eglantiers. 

50.  Waels  Eyland. 

13.  Nieuwe  Lely  Straat. 

51.  Katten  Burgh. 

14.  Blom     Straat. 

62.  Witten  Straat. 

15.  Laurier      " 

58.  Oosten. 

16.  Elands 

54.  Kerk. 

17.  Körte  Leydsche  Dwars  Straat. 

55.  Wittenburger      Straat 

18.  Lange 

56.  Kl.  Kattenburger    " 

19.  Kerk           Straat. 

57.  Gr. 

20.  l**  Dwars 

58.  Koninglyke  Werf. 

106 

Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 

PLANOGRAPHT. 

59.  Haring  Facfcerje. 

V.  De  Noorder  Kerk. 

a.  Zoulkeetens  Graght  (canal). 

w.  De  Wester       " 

b.  Reaalen    Graght. 

X.  Nieuwe            " 

c.  Brouwers      " 

y.  Paleis. 

d.  Leyn  Baens  •* 

z.  De  Beurs  (Exchange)« 

e.  Prinsen         ** 

a'.  Oude  Kerk. 

/•  Keizers         •* 

6'.  Anthonis  Waegh. 

g.  Heeren         •* 

d.  Gasthuys  (Hospital). 

A.  Cingel. 

d^.  Reguliers  Waegh. 

t.   Nieuwe  Zydts. 

d.  Reguliers  Tooren. 

k.  Spuy. 

/'.  Caserne  Oranje  Nassau. 

I   Kloveniers  Burg  Wal. 

^.  Koul  Magazyn. 

m.  Greldersche  Kaay. 

A'.  Ryks 

«.  Waals  Eylands  Graght. 

i'.  DeStadts" 

0.  Rapenburg  Wal. 

f.  Amstel  Schul  Sluys. 

p.  Uylenburg  Wal. 

I.  Haart  Poort  (Hafen). 

q.  Marckens  Graght. 

II.  Leydsche     Poort. 

r.  Hout  Köpers  Burg- Wal. 

III.  Utrechtsche    " 

s.  De  Muyder  Graght. 

IV.  Weesper 

L   Achter 

V.  Muiden 

%.  Reguliers          ** 

167 


19.  Leghorn  {Plate  44). 

Leghorn,  or  Livomo,  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Tuscany,  is  situated  in  a 
low  country  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  a  canal  connecting  the  city 
with  the  Arno.  With  its  excellent  and  double  harbor  (Darsena)  and  large 
Mole,  it  is  one  of  the  most  important  places  in  Italy  for  the  pursuits  of  navi- 
gation and  commerce.  The  population  amounts  to  80,000  souls,  including 
5000  Jews,  who  possess  two  thirds  of  the  town ;  there  are  also  Greeks, 
Armenians,  and  Turks.  The  north  part  of  the  city,  termed  New  Venice, 
and  intersected  extensively  by  canals,  is  very  regularly  built.  The  finest 
street  is  the  Strada  Ferdinanda;  theirest  are  straight  and  well  paved,  but 
rather  narrow  and  obscure.  A  mong  the  buildings  of  note  are  :  the  Grand 
Ducal  Castle ;  the  Synagogue ;  the  Turkish  Mosque ;  the  colossal  marble 
statue  of  Ferdinand  I.,  in  front  of  the  harbor ;  the  Arsenal ;  the  Quaran- 
tine establishment,  with  three  Lazarettoes,  and  especially  the  Magazine  for 
goods  coming  from  lands  infested  with  the  plague ;  the  large  hospitals ;  a 
lighthouse  in  the  sea,  with  214  steps ;  an  aqueduct  of  nine  miles ;  an  enor- 
mous cistern.     The  Leopold  Railroad  connects  Leghorn  with  Florence. 


Explanation  of  the  Plan. 


A.  Piazza  dei  Grani. 

B.  Piazzetta  la  Crocetta. 


C.  Piazza  S.  Marco. 

D.  "      de'  Grani. 


16Y 


Digitized  by 


Google 


16 

8 

GEOGRAPHY. 

E. 

Piazza  della  Posta. 

17. 

Porta  Colonetta. 

F. 

"      deir  Erba. 

18. 

(( 

Nuova. 

G. 

"      Rangoni. 

19. 

C( 

San  Marco. 

H. 

"      dei  Condotti. 

20. 

c< 

a  Pisa. 

I. 

"      d'Armi. 

a. 

Via  dei  Capuccini. 

J. 

"      della  Darsena 

b. 

« 

del  Lazzaretto  S.  Rocco. 

K. 

"      S.  Benedetto. 

c. 

ti 

del  Ponte  de'  Lami. 

L. 

Cimetero  Vecchio. 

d. 

tt 

dello  Spalto  S.  Cosimo. 

M. 

Inglese. 

e. 

I  Condotti  Nuovi. 

1. 

Cattedrale. 

/ 

Via 

Disperata. 

2. 

Palazzo  Reale. 

g- 

Borgo  Reale. 

3. 

Cancelleria  Communale. 

h. 

Via  delle  quattro  Cantonate. 

4. 

I  Tre  Palazzi. 

i. 

« 

Reale. 

5. 

Real  Dogana. 

k. 

«< 

Serristori. 

6. 

Palazzo  del  Governo. 

I 

«< 

S.  Francesco. 

7. 

Magazzino  del  Sale. 

m. 

(( 

S.  Giulia. 

8. 

Arsenale. 

n. 

« 

del  Monte. 

9. 

Casone. 

0, 

(( 

Grande. 

10. 

Fortino. 

P- 

ft 

del  Giardino. 

11. 

Pariatori. 

9- 

(t 

deir  Annunziata. 

12. 

Teltoia  del  Fanale. 

r. 

tt 

di  S.  Giovanni. 

13. 

"      Nuova. 

s. 

tt 

del  Porticciolo. 

14. 

"      della  Cuoia. 

t. 

tt 

BoiTa. 

15. 

Porta  Murata. 

u. 

tt 

S.  Marco. 

16. 

"      Capuccini. 

V. 

tt 

del  Corso. 

20.  Florence  {Plate  44). 

Florence  (Firenze),  surnamed  "  the  beautiful,"  the  charming  capital  of 
Tuscany,  with  a  population  of  105,000,  is  situated  in  a  fertile  plain  on  the 
Arno,  surrounded  by  mountains.  It  is  protected  by  two  citadels,  and 
possesses  streets  which  are  mostly  narrow,  although  clean  (excellently  paved 
in  mosaic  work,  with  plates  of  basalt),  amongst  which  the  finest  are  the 
Via  Larga  and  the  Corso.  There  are  160  public  monuments,  10  fountains, 
170  churches  and  chapels,  89  monasteries  and  nunneries,  8  theatres,  and  17 
large  squares.  The  finest  of  the  last  are  the  Grand  Duke's  Square,  with  the 
column  of  Cosmo  I.,  and  a  marble  group  (Rape  of  the  Sabine  women),  by 
John  of  Bologna ;  the  square  Santa  Maria,  with  two  obelisks,  and  the 
square  dell'  Annunziata,  with  two  fountains,  and  the  statue  of  Ferdinand  I. 
The  finest  churches  and  chapels  are :  the  Cathedral,  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore, 
600  feet  long,  covered  externally  with  squares  of  black  and  white  marble, 
chess-board  fashion,  and  with  an  octagonal  dome  380  feet  high,  and  a 
separate  tower  of  280  feet;  the  church  St.  Maria  Novella,  with  many 
painted  windows,  and  other  pictures ;  Santa  Croce,  with  the  tombs  and 
monuments  of  Galileo,  Macchiavelli,  Alfieri,  and  Michael  Angelo  ;  the 
chapel  of  St.  Lawrence  Church,  adorned  with  jasper,  lapis  lazuli,  and  other 
168 


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PLANOGRAPHY, 


169 


precious  stones,  and  with  monuments  of  the  Grand  Duke  ;  the  baptizing 
chapel,  il  Battisterio,  in  which  all  children  born  in  Florence  are  baptized, 
with  the  metal  folding  doors  by  Ghiberti ;  the  church  and  convent  of  the 
Holy  Ghost ;  the  Church  del  Carmine,  with  a  finely  painted  dome,  &c 
The  royal  residence,  called  Palace  Pitti,  to  which  belongs  the  garden 
Boboli,  is  over  500  feet  long,  and  contains  the  finest  works  of  art,  in  eight 
saloons  and  several  hundred  rooms  ;  the  same  may  also  be  said  of  the  con- 
tiguous Palazzo  Vecchio,  the  former  residence  of  the  Grand  Duke,  with  its 
fine  Loggia  or  Hall.  More  celebrated  and  better  worth  seeing  than  either, 
is  the  gallery  termed  Palazzo  degli  Uffici,  which  is  directly  opposite,  and 
whose  third  story  contains,  in  twenty-three  saloons  and  apartments,  the 
rarest  master-pieces  of  art,  paintings,  engravings,  statuary,  gems,  mosaics, 
bronzes,  and  coins,  all  combined.  Another  large  collection  is  that  of  the 
Academy  of  Arts ;  and  the  palaces  of  the  old  Florentine  families,  Riccardi, 
Strozzi,  Gerini,  and  Corsini,  and  others,  are  likewise  rich  in  gems  of  art 
Among  the  scientific  collections  may  be  mentioned  :  the  M^dicean  Library 
in  the  Convent  of  St.  Lorenzo,  with  120,000  volumes ;  the  Grand  Ducal 
and  Magliabecchian  Library ;  the  Marucelli  Library ;  the  Museum  of 
Natural  Sciences,  and  the  Botanic  Garden.  At  the  head  of  the  scientific 
and  literary  institutions  stands  the  University,  founded  in  1438,  although 
for  the  Italian  language  the  Accademia  della  Crusca  is  far  more  renowned  ; 
chief  among  the  charitable  institutions  is  the  great  St.  Mary's  Hospital, 
capable  of  accommodating  seven  hundred  sick  persons. 


Explanation  op  the  Plan. 


A. 

Piazza  S.  Marco. 

11. 

Teatro  della  Pergola. 

B. 

Vecchia. 

12. 

Chiesa  S.  Maria  Maddalena  de' 

C. 

S.  Maria  Novella. 

Pazzi. 

D. 

"       del  Gran  Duca. 

13. 

Chiesa  S.  Ambrogio. 

E. 

S.  Croce. 

14. 

Teatro  Alfieri. 

F. 

"       del  Carmine. 

15. 

Chiesa  S.  Croce. 

G. 

«       S.  Spirit©. 

16. 

Galleria  Medici. 

H. 

«       dei  Pitti. 

17. 

Palazzo  Vecchio. 

1. 

Chiesa  S.  Maria  Novella. 

18. 

"      Pitti. 

2. 

S.  S.  Triniti. 

19. 

Museo  di  Storia  Naturale. 

3. 

"       S.  Lorenzo. 

20. 

Teatro  Goldoni. 

4. 

Teatro  del  Cocomero. 

21. 

Chiesa  S.  Spirito. 

5. 

Duomo  S.  Maria  del  fiore. 

22. 

"       il  Carmine. 

6. 

Chiesa  S.  Marco. 

a. 

Via  Chiara  Boffi. 

7. 

Accademia  di  Belle  Arti. 

b. 

"    de'  Serragli. 

8. 

Chiesa  S.  Annunziata. 

c. 

"    S.  Agostino. 

0. 

Teatro  degli  Intrepidi  o  Torro 

d. 

"    Maggio. 

Nuovo. 

e. 

*'    della  Nunziatina. 

10. 

Ospedale  de  S.  Maria  Nuovo. 

/. 

"    del  Campuccio. 

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170 

GEOGRAPHY. 

g.  ViadeirOrto. 

KViaS.  Bastiano. 

A.  Borgo  S.  Frediano. 

c'.  "    Borgo  di  Pinti. 

i.      "       S.  Jacopo. 

d^.  "    Pietrapiana. 

t.  LuDgo  TArno. 

ef.  Borgo  la  Croce. 

/.   Viade'BardL 

/'.  Via  deir  Agnola. 

m.  Palazzuolo. 

g*.    «    delle  FomacL 

».  Borgo  C^issanti. 

A'.    *<    Ghibellina. 

0.  Pantano  di  Ripoli. 

t'.     <'    dei  MalcontentL 

p.  Via  della  Scala. 

k.  Corso. 

q.  Valfonda. 

/'•   Borgo  degli  Albizzi. 

r.  Via  Faenza. 

mf.  Via  delle  Torn, 

$.    "    Vangelista. 

%'.  P.  S.  Maria  Mercato  Calmara. 

U     "    deiCiliegio. 

&.  Via  del  Giglio. 

«.    <<    degUAlfani. 

p'.  Via  de'  Ginori. 

t>.    "    dei  Pilastri. 

a.   Ponte  di  ferro. 

w.  «    S.  Zanobi. 

b.       «     alia  Caraja. 

X.    "    del  Campo  Aooio. 

0.       "     S.  Trinitade. 

y.    "    S.  Gallo. 

d.      "     Vecchio. 

%.    "     Larga. 

e.      "     alle  Grazie. 

a'.  "    del  Cocomero  Maglio. 

21.  Ancona  (Plate  44). 

Ancona,  the  most  important  harbor  and  place  of  trade  in  the  Papal  States, 
and  capital  of  the  delegation  of  the  same  name,  is  situated  on  the  Adriatic 
Sea,  between  two  hills,  one  of  which  carries  the  citadel,  and  the  other  the 
cathedral.  Its  present  population  is  24,000  (or  82,000,  according  to  other 
estimates),  amongst  which  are  5000  Jews.  The  streets,  with  few  excep- 
tions, are  narrow  and  crooked.  The  finest  building  is  the  Exchange ;  other 
objects  of  interest  are  the  great  Quarantine  Building ;  the  great  Triumphal 
Arch,  of  white  marble,  erected  in  honor  of  the  Emperor  Trajan,  and  of 
Pope  Benedict  XIV.,  the  one  as  builder,  the  other  as  restorer  of  the  Mole ; 
the  remains  of  a  Roman  Amphitheatre,  and  the  Mole  on  the  harbor,  2000 
feet  long. 


Explanation  op  the  Plan. 


A. 

Piazza  S.  Bartolomeo. 

H.  Piazza  S.  Maria. 

B. 

« 

del  Commune. 

I.       «      S.  Primiano. 

C. 

«( 

S.  Francesco. 

1.  Duomo  Cattedrale. 

D. 

c< 

Grande. 

2.  S.  Domenico  Convento. 

E. 

tt 

del  Teatro. 

3.  SS.  Annunziata. 

F. 

it 

Nuova. 

4.  S.  Francesco  ad  Alto  Conyento. 

G. 

« 

Sotto  Fortezza. 

5.  La  SS.  Concezione. 

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PLANÖGRAPHY. 


171 


6*  S.  Agostino  Convento. 

7.  SS.  Sacramento. 

8.  Francesco  del  Ospedale. 

9.  II  Gesü  Seminario. 

10.  San  Palazia. 

11.  San  Pellegrino. 

12.  Palazzo  Apostolico. 

13.  "       del  Commune. 

14.  Teatro  nuovo  Casino. 

15.  Loggia  de'  Mercanti. 

16.  Arsenale. 

L  Porta  Farina. 


II.  Porta  Calamo. 
IIL     "      Capo  di  Monte. 

a.  Strada  nuova  del  Duomo. 

b.  Via  Grande. 

c.  Strada  Nembrini. 


d. 

ii 

delle  Scuole. 

e. 

tt 

Calamo. 

/■ 

u 

deir  Annunziata. 

g- 

u 

S.  Pietro. 

k. 

u 

della  Loggia. 

i. 

tt 

del  Porto. 

k. 

tt 

grande  di  Capo  di  Monte 

22.  MoDENA  (Plate  44). 

Modena,  the  capital  of  the  Italian  Duchy  of  Modena,  with  a  population 
of  28,000,  is  situated  on  a  canal  connecting  the  Secchio  with  the  Panaro. 
It  is  well  built,  and  most  of  the  streets  have  covered  ways  or  arcades  on  the 
side.  The  beautiful  castle  is  well  arranged  internally,  and  contains  an 
excellent  collection  of  paintings  and  antiques,  although  the  former  picture 
gallery  was  sold  to  Dresden  in  1746.  The  town  has  thirty-four  churches 
and  three  convents.  Among  the  scientific  institutions  are :  a  University, 
a  Library,  an  Academy  for  nobles,  a  Society  of  Sciences,  &c.  The  former 
citadel  now  serves  as  a  house  of  correction.  The  city  itself  is  very  ancient. 
In  the  time  of  the  Romans  it  was  called  Mutina. 


Explanation  op  the  Plan. 


1.  Palazzo  Ducale. 

13.  Dogana. 

2.  Ministerio  di  Buon  Govemo  e 

14.  Tribunali  di  Giustizia. 

Polizia,  Accademia  delle  Belle 

15.  Congregazione  di  S.  Filippo  Neri. 

Arti,  &c. 

16.  Intendanza  delle  Opere  pie. 

3.  Ministerio  delle  Finanze. 

17.  Educandato  di  S.  Paolo. 

4.  Scuderie  Ducali,  Uffizio 

Tipo- 

18.  Teatro  Communale. 

grafico. 

19.  Tipografia  Camerale. 

5.  Palazzo  Communale. 

20.  Chiesa  del  Voto. 

6.  Duomo  e  Vescovado. 

21.  Madonna  del  Popolo. 

7.  Seminario  Vescoville. 

22.  S.  Giovanni  decollate. 

8.  UniversitA. 

23.  P.  Domenico. 

9.  Convitto  Medico. 

24.  Terziarie  di  S.  Domenico. 

10.        "        Legale. 

25.  Paradise. 

11.        "        Matematico. 

26.  Salesiane. 

12.  Collegio  dei  Gesuiti. 

27.  S.  Bartolomeo. 

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172  GBOGRAPHT. 

28.  San  Salvatore.  85.  San  Pietro. 

29.  San  Paolo.  86.  Santa  TriniÜL 

80.  San  Carlo.  87.  Corpus  Domini. 

81.  Santa  Maria  Pomposa.  88.  San  Vicenzo. 

82.  S.  Sebastiano.  89.  San  Francesco. 
88.  Crocefisso.  40.  Chiesa  Tedesca. 

84.  San  Bamaba.  41.  Terziare  di  S.  Francesco. 


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HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

81  Plates  :  III.  1—39,  and  IV.  1—42. 


General  Introduction  to  History. 

History,  in  general,  is  a  credible  narration  of  remarkable  events,  occurring 
within  the  sphere  of  man.  Historiology^  or  historic  lore,  is  the  personal 
apprehension  or  knowledge  of  these  events ;  or,  more  comprehensively,  it  is 
a  clear  perception  of  the  authentic  and  distinguished  transactions  of 
humanity,  in  their  proper  connexions  and  dependences. 

Nothing  but  positive,  actual  occurrences  may  constitute  the  contents  or 
material  of  history.  Their  form  is  narration ;  and  history  can  claim  for 
itself  a  just  and  reliable  basis,  only  as  it  relates  what  is  absolutely  truthful. 
Hence  two  elements  must  enter  into  all  genuine  history :  veritable  fads  as 
a  foimdation,  and  unyielding  fidelity  in  their  communication.  Historical 
verity  depends  upon  the  correctness  of  the  evidence  supporting  the  facts, 
for  we  cannot  become  cognisant  of  past  occurrences  by  intuition,  much 
less  by  personal  observation  ('Auro4/ia),  and  we  dare  not  manufacture  them  to 
suit  our  purpose ;  historical  fidelity  rests  upon  the  honest  presentation  of 
the  facts.  It  must  be  obvious,  therefore,  that  a  writer  of  history  ought  to 
possess  the  highest  intellectual  and  moral  qualifications,  and  if  either  of 
these  be  wanting,  his  production  will  be  defective.  Pragmatic  history 
exhibits  clearly  the  causes  and  consequences  of  events.  The  practical 
results  arising  from  a  general  review  of  the  facts,  and  especially  of  the 
nature  and  efficient  cause  of  events,  make  up  the  philosophy  of  history. 
By  historical  inquiry  or  investigation  is  meant  the  collection  of  materials 
for  the  work.  Method  (Historiomathy)  arranges  these  in  accordance  with 
some  ascertained  plan ;  and  the  writing  of  history  (Historiography)  means, 
of  course,  giving  form  and  style  to  the  materials. 

The  sources  of  very  ancient  history  are  fables,  legends,  traditions,  myths,  and 
popular  songs ;  grottoes,  sepulchres,  altars,  pillars,  mounds,  monuments,  &c. ; 
festivals,  games,  and  public  structures  erected  in  commemoration  of  some 
event.  Of  later  history  the  materials  are  more  abundant.  In  addition  to 
public  buildings,  monuments,  pillars,  and  graves,  we  consult  inscriptions, 
triumphal  arches,  coins,  medals,  genealogical  tables,  the  science  of  heraldry, 
public  archives,  diplomatic  papers  and  correspondence,  codes  of  law,  annals, 
memoirs,  chronicles,  journals,  magazines,  and  newspapers. 

History  presents  great  variety  in  its  subject  matter,  and  in  this  view  it  is 

VIZ 


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2  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

divided  into  numerous  departments.  Thus  we  have  Universal,  Particular^ 
and  Special  (Monographic)  history;  and  these  again,  according  to  the 
subject  under  discussion,  take  the  names  of  Church  history,  Political,  or 
Literary  history.  When  the  writer  wishes  to  collect  and  arrange  the 
transactions  in  their  proper  order  of  succession,  his  work  is  called 
Chronology  ;  and  Synchronical  history  ranks  the  leading  events  of  all 
countries  in  parallel  positions,  in  the  order  of  their  dates.  To  this  class 
belong  "  Historic  Charts,"  "  Streams  of  Time,"  &c.  It  is  also  divided  into 
Synthetic  and  Analytic.  On  the  s}mthetic  method  are  constructed  such 
histories  as  dispose  in  chronological  order  all  events  relating  to  a  common 
topic ;  on  the  analytic,  all  the  events  are  narrated  together  which  have 
reference  to  any  object  of  importance.  So  far  as  the  transactions  of  a 
nation  may  illustrate  its  social  condition,  government,  and  constitution,  their 
treatment  is  called  political  history ;  and  when  the  discussion  involves  an 
investigation  of  the  character,  development,  and  genius  of  a  people,  it  is 
called  the  history  of  dvilitation.  In  practice,  however,  this  distinction 
seldom  appears,  as  both  are  usually  combined  in  the  same  work.  From  thi| 
whole  subject,  it  will  be  seen  that  history  derives  important  aid  from 
Geography,  Chronology,  and  Statistics. 

On  the  score  of  time,  history  is  usually  divided  into  Ancient,  Middle, 
Modern,  and  Recent,  and  each  of  these  again  into  several  periods. 

Ancient  history  has  two  subdivisions :  the  Classic  and  the  non-Classic 
Ages,  an  arrangement  which  we  have  adopted  both  in  the  letter-press  and 
the  plates. 


I.   HISTORY   OF  THE  ANCIENT   WORLD. 

RUDE  OR  NON-CLASSIC  AGEa 

A.  From  Adam  to  Ctrub  (until  560  B.C.). 

Over  the  origin  of  the  world,  no  less  than  that  of  man  himself,  there  rests 
an  impenetrable  veil.  Nevertheless,  every  nation  in  its  primeval  days 
formed  various  views  about  it,  which  were  rendered  in  different  versions  by 
the  philosophers,  priests,  and  poets  of  a  later  day.  Thus  appear  the  myths 
and  legends  describing  the  creation  of  the  world  and  of  man ;  and  although 
these  are  strongly  colored  by  the  peculiarities  of  national  character»  yet  they 
bear  more  or  less  resemblance  to  one  another,  and  are  our  only  light  to  the 
almost  rayless  past. 

The  Jewish  chronicles,  which  Christians  implicitly  follow,  represent 
Adam  and  Eve  as  the  common  ancestors  of  the  human  race.  Their  first 
children  were  Cain  and  Abel.  Cain,  actuated  by  envy,  murdered  Abel»  and 
fled  westward,  where  he  somehow  established  a  colony,  and  became  the 
father  of  a  busy  race  of  craftsmen  and  artificers.  Thus  Jabal  was  the  father 
of  such  as  dwell  in  tents  and  raise  cattle  (nomades) ;  Jubal  was  the  inventor 
of  music ;  Tubalcain  was  the  first  artificer  in  brass  and  iron;  Lamech  was 
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HI8T0RT  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  3 

the  founder  of  ihe  art  of  poetry ;  and  Naamah  introduced  the  useful  arts  of 
spinning  and  knitting.  Society  soon  became  divided  into  castes,  the 
stronger  confirming  themselves  in  power,  and  placing  their  weaker  brethren 
in  servitude. 

Afler  the  flight  of  Cain,  Eve  bore  another  son,  Seth.  The  exiled 
murderer,  unfortunately,  had  not  carried  with  him  all  depravity,  for  the 
corruption  of  morals  was  commensurate  with  the  increase  of  population« 
To  arrest  the  progress  of  vice,  the  deluge  came,  and,  with  the  exception  of 
Noah,  the  descendant  of  Seth,  and  his  family  (eight  persons  in  all)  swept 
man  and  beast  from  the  face  of  the  earth.  Traditions  concerning  this  flood 
are  found  in  many  nations,  and  they  generally  agree  with  each  other. 

After  the  subsidence  of  the  waters,  the  family  so  signally  preserved» 
turned  their  earliest  attention  to  the  business  of  husbandry  and  the  rearing 
of  flocks,  specimens  of  which,  together  with  every  species  of  living  nature» 
Noah  had  taken  with  him  into  the  aik.  Ham,  a  son  of  Noah,  having 
offended  the  paternal  dignity,  fell  under  his  father's  curse,  which  consigned 
him  and  his  children  to  bondage  under  his  brothers.  This  caused  inequality 
of  condition»  and  the  patriarchal  form  of  government  grew  weak  and 
ineflicient. 

Noah's  other  posterity,  proceeding  eastward,  settled  in  the  country  of 
Mesopotamia,  between  the  rivers  Euphrates  and  Tigris.  At  first  they  led 
a  nomadic  life ;  but  wishing  to  attain  a  more  stable  position,  the  whole 
people  assembled  in  the  plains  of  Babylonia,  and  commenced  the  erection 
oi  a  tower,  whose  lofty  dome  was  to  pierce  the  clouds,  and  form  the  rallying 
point  for  the  scattered  laborers  and  warriors,  when  affairs  of  general  interest 
were  to  be  discussed.  But  according  to  the  legend  of  the  Old  Testament, 
the  Deity,  behdding  in  this  movement  a  bold  and  rebellious  spirit,  con* 
founded  the  language  of  the  laborers,  and  thereby  dispersed  the 
multitude.  The  various  parties,  united  now  in  accordance  with  their 
leading  interests,  abandoned  the  place,  and  founded  colonies  in  different 
parts  of  the  globe.  Thus  separate  tribes  present  themselves  before  us  as 
early  as  2000  B.C.  Thenceforth  their  legends  grow  more  authentic,  and 
make  a  respectable  approach  towards  history.  We  now  proceed  to  treat 
of  them  in  order. 

1.   The  Egtptians  and  Ethiopians. 

The  opinion  has  long  prevailed  that  the  old  Egyptians  sprang  from  the 
African  Negro  stock.  It  has  oeen  proved,  however,  that  the  inhabitants  of 
Africa  have  belonged  to  three  different  races  in  all  history.  The  Negro 
stock  predominates  in  the  interior  or  west,  the  Caffrarian  occupies  the  south, 
and  the  Moors,  who  in  their  form,  physiognomy,  and  hair,  resemble  the 
handsomely-shaped  nations  of  Eurc^  and  Western  Asia,  and  indeed  differ  only 
in  possessing  a  dark  color,  settled  in  the  north  and  west.  Beyond  question, 
the  ancient  Egyptians  were  descended  from  the  Moors,  as  must  be  obvious  by 
the  numerous  monuments  in  which  the  country  abounds.  The  mummies,  as 
well  as  the  inhabitants  repnesented  on  these  huge  structures,  point  to  the 

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4  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

same  fact.  The  figure  of  the  bodies  and  the  color  of  the  skin  demonstrate 
the  identity  of  origin.  {Plate  3,  figs.  1-4,  various  Egyptian  faces  and  head- 
dresses ;  figs.  5  •  and  *,  heads  of  male  mummies ;  figs.  6  •  and  *,  female 
heads ;  fig.  7,  a  mummy.) 

Rich  as  Egypt  is  in  monuments  of  antiquity,  they  contribute  but  slightly 
to  her  early  history.  What  subsequently  became  the  powerful  kingdom  of 
Egypt,  was  once  a  group  of  small  states,  each  of  which  had  its  king. 
Of  these,  Thebes  and  Memphis  were  by  far  the  most  powerful.  Abraham, 
who,  during  a  famine  in  Palestine  (2000  B.C.),  wandered  into  Lower  Egypt, 
found  there  a  powerful  and  flourishing  kingdom.  Joseph  entered  Middle 
Egypt,  1800  B.C.,  and  later  induced  his  father  and  brothers  to  emigrate 
thither  and  settle  in  the  land  of  Goshen.  Two  hundred  years  after- 
wards, their  descendants,  the  Israelites,  were  forced  to  leave  Egypt  for 
Palestine. 

The  most  celebrated  of  the  early  kings  was  Sesostris,  1500  B.C.  He 
consolidated  the  whole  of  Egypt  into  one  government,  subdued  the  eastern 
districts  of  the  country  to  the  Red  Sea  and  Ethiopia,  and  by  gifts  of  money 
and  land,  secured  the  affections  of  his  subjects.  With  an  army  of  nearly  a 
million  men,  he  then  conquered  the  Ethiopians  and  Troglodytes,  crossed  the 
Ganges,  and  is  said  to  have  overrun  nearly  the  whole  of  Northern  Asia, 
contended  with  the  Scythians,  and  entered  Europe  from  the  East.  Upon 
his  return  home,  he  directed  his  attention  to  the  improvement  of  the 
country  ;  and  with  his  rich  spoils  and  skilful  artists  from  other  lands,  whom  he 
brought  home  as  prisoners,  he  constructed  those  immense  works  of  utility 
and  ornament,  for  which  Egypt  is  so  celebrated. 

The  immediate  successors  of  Sesostris  have  left  but  little  to  rescue  their 
names  from  oblivion.  Cheops  and  his  brother  Chephren,  and  also  Mycerinus 
the  son  of  Cheops,  have  indeed  handed  down  some  vestiges  of  their  power 
and  wealth,  in  the  shape  of  the  pyramids.  But  they  enjoy  an  unenviable 
immortality,  as  the  erection  of  these  massive  piles  was  marked  by  tyranny, 
poverty,  and  suflfering.  It  opened  the  way  for  dissensions  at  home,  and  invited 
upon  a  weak  and  oppressed  people,  the  invasion  of  foreign  nations.  At  last 
twelve  leading  princes,  666  B.C.,  formed  a  confederacy  for  the  restoration  of 
peace  and  union,  and  erected  the  Labyrinth  as  a  sign  of  their  own  unanimity. 
(PI.  3,  fig.  36,  entrance  to  the  Labyrinth.)  But  the  compact  was  of  short 
duration.  One  of  the  princes,  Psammeticus,  uniting  with  a  band  of  Greek 
mercenaries  and  pirates,  expelled  his  allies  and  restored  the  monarchy.  His 
son,  Necho  (610  B.C.),  attempted  to  connect  by  a  canal  the  Nile  and  the  Arabian 
Gulf.  He  conquered  the  whole  country  between  Egypt  and  the  Euphrates ; 
but  lost  the  battle  with  Nebuchadonazar  at  Circesium,  606  B.C.,  and  thus 
Egypt  became  subject  to  the  Babylonian  empire. 

Passing  over  the  unimportant  reigns  of  Psammis  and  Apries,  we  come 
next  to  Amasis  (536  B.C.).  Under  this  able  prince,  Egypt  recovered  much 
of  her  splendor,  industry  found  suitable  encouragements,  and  a  brisk  com- 
merce was  carried  on  with  Greece  and  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago. 
But  about  a  month  after  his  decease,  Cambyses,  king  of  Persia,  marched 
against  the  new  monarch,  Psammenitus,  besieged  Pelusium,  which  surren- 
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HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  6 

dered  with  scarcely  the  show  of  resistance,  reduced  the  country  to 
bondage,  and  placed  the  priests  especially  under  the  severest  yoke.  Egypt 
now  remained  a  Persian  province,  until  it  was  conquered  by  Alexander  the 
Great,  331  B.C.  After  his  death  (321  B.C.),  it  became  the  inheritance  of 
one  of  his  generals,  Ptolemy,  who  again  elevated  it  to  the  dignity  of  an 
independent  kingdom.  In  this  form  it  maintained  its  ascendency  until  the 
battle  of  Actium,  31  B.C.,  when  it  changed  masters  again  and  became  a 
Roman  province. 

Internal  Condition  of  Egypt, 

Under  the  reign  of  Sesostris,  the  country  was  divided  into  thirty-six 
provinces,  administered  by  functionaries  of  different  grades,  according  to  a 
written  code  of  laws.  The  population  ranged  between  five  and  seven 
millions,  and  was  divided  into  several  castes.  The  principal  of  these  were 
the  Sacerdotal  Caste,  who  occupied  all  the  valuable  public  offices,  and 
patronized  the  arts  and  sciences ;  the  Warrior's  Caste  watched  over  the 
external  defence  and  internal  tranquillity,  constituted  a  complete  war 
establishment,  and  was  the  rank  from  which  the  king  was  usually  elected. 
Then  followed  in  rank,  respectively,  the  Agriculturists,  the  Herdsmen,  the 
Tradesmen  (artists,  mechanics,  retailers,  and  merchants  of  every  sort),  the 
Interpreters,  who  conducted  the  negotiations  between  the  Egyptians  and 
foreigners ;  and  finally,  the  Boatmen  of  the  Nile,  Each  caste  lived  sepa- 
rately, and  the  offspring  could  not  rise  above  the  rank  in  which  they  were 
bom. 

The  education  of  the  priesthood  was  mostly  practical.  It  was  directed  to 
an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  soil,  climate,  and  productions  of  the  country, 
and  to  the  sciences  bearing  upon  these  subjects :  Astronomy,  Mathematics 
(especially  Geometry),  Architecture,  Painting,  Music,  Botany,  Medicine, 
and  Chemistry.  They  knew  the  art  of  writing,  and  had  exclusive 
possession  of  the  art  of  recording  transactions,  discoveries,  &c.,  in 
symbolical  pictures  and  figures  (hieroglyphics)  standing  for  words  and  ideas, 
decipherable  only  by  themselves. 

The  religion  and  its  various  ceremonies,  of  the  Egyptians,  are  in  a  mea- 
sure represented  on  our  plates.  In  addition  to  the  stars,  they  worshipped 
the  crocodile,  the  falcon,  the  ichneumon,  the  ibis,  dog,  cat,  wolf,  and  above 
all  the  ox  (apis).  Astronomy  has  placed  the  figures  of  animals  among  the 
constellations,  and  as  animal  worship  was  doubtless  the  result  of  star  worship, 
so  the  psychological  ideas  of  the  Egyptians  had  a  close  relation  to  the  same 
subject.  Thus  they  assigned  to  the  souls  of  the  dead  a  journey  of  three 
thousand  years  over  the  zodiac,  when  they  again  would  return  to  animate 
human  bodies.  This  explains,  also,  the  great  care  bestowed  upon  the 
preservation  of  the  bodies  by  embalming.  It  was  a  powerful  eflfort  to 
protect  against  the  corroding  touch  of  time,  the  human  tabernacle,  and  have 
it  in  readiness  when  the  spirit  should  have  accomplished  its  pilgrimage. 

The  process  of  embalming  was  conducted  by  a  large  class  of  persons, 
and  formed  a  considerable  business.     The  flesh  was  first  well  pressed,  so  as 

leONOORAPHIC  KNOTOLOPiSDIA. — ^VOL.  m.  12  177 


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6  HKTORT  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

to  discharge  the  free  juices,  the  brain  was  extracted  through  the  nose,  and  the 
body  enveloped  in  bandages.  PL  3,  fig.  7,  exhibits  a  mummy  with  the 
inner  folds.  Over  these  were  wrapped  other  pieces,  to  the  number  of 
fifteen  or  twenty.  The  head  was  covered  with  a  square  sheet  of  linen 
cloth,  which  spread  over  the  face  and  formed  a  species  of  mask.  Sometimes 
five  or  six  of  these  pieces  were  laid  upon  the  face,  the  outer  fold  being 
painted  or  gilded,  and  representing,  with  some  approach  towards  accuracy, 
the  countenance  of  the  deceased.  The  legs  were  fastened  together,  and  the 
arms  crossed  on  the  breast,  by  fillets  saturated  with  rosin ;  and  after  the 
entire  person  had  been  fully  bandaged,  with  much  art  and  symmetry,  the 
bands  were  adorned  with  hieroglyphics  {fig,  8).  These  fiUets  were, 
however,  usually  surrounded  by  an  envelope  of  peculiar  construction.  It 
consisted  of  linen,  folded  many  times,  and  stifiened  by  glue  or  paste.  This 
was  again  inclosed  in  a  coffin  made  of  sycamore  or  cedar,  which  resembled 
the  mummy  in  form  and  size,  and  consisted  of  two  pieces  fastened  to  each 
other  by  pegs  or  cords,  and  coated  with  plaster  or  varnish.  The  outside 
was  then  ornamented,  and  marked  with  hieroglyphics  (fig.  9).  Remains 
of  these  mummies,  inclosed  in  wooden  chests  or  coffins,  are  but  rarely  found 
at  the  present  day.  Figs.  10,  11  represent  mummies  in  coflins;  fig.  12, 
side  view  of  the  coffin,  with  the  lid. 

Besides  human  corpses,  the  Egyptians  frequently  embalmed  their  sacred 
animals,  especially  the  Apis,  if  it  died  a  natural  death,  and  the  Ibis  nearly 
always.  They  inclosed  the  body  in  linen  or  woollen  bandages,  over  which 
were  fitted  fine  thread  nets  {fig.  13).  A  kind  of  embalming  was  followed 
also  with  smaller  animals,  mammalia,  amphibia,  &c.  {fig.  14). 

The  mummies  were  deposited  in  cellars  hewn  in  the  rocks.  Many  of  these 
sepulchres  have  been  discovered,  and  are  known  under  the  name  catacombs. 
Upon  the  limestone  walls,  numerous  representations — some  in  sculpture, 
and  others  in  painting — are  found,  indicating  the  domestic,  civil,  and 
religious  condition  of  the  people.  The  pyramids  {pL  1,  fig.  1),  of  which  a 
fuller  description  will  be  given  under  the  head  of  Architecture,  were  also 
used  as  depositories  for  the  dead  ;  whilst  those  lofty  pointed  columns  known 
as  obelisks  {pL  1,  figs.  34,  35),  were  only  erected  as  monuments  to  illus- 
trious  departed. 

It  was  considered  the  greatest  disgrace  not  to  be  buried  with  solemnity. 
But  lest  the  honor  of  a  solemn  sepulture  should  be  bestowed  upon  the 
wicked,  the  dead  were  tried  before  a  court  {pi.  1,  fig.  1)  consisting  of  forty 
judges,  whose  office  it  was  to  determine  whether  the  deceased  had  merited 
embalming  and  a  solemn  funeral,  or  not. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  a  group  of  pyramids  at  Ghizze,  not  far  from  Cairo, 
stands  a  gigantic  sphinx,  hewn  from  a  single  rock.  It  is  143  feet  in  length, 
and  62  feet  in  height.  Only  twenty-seven  feet  of  it  now  project  from  the 
ground,  the  remainder  being  concealed  by  the  sand.  The  sphinx  originally 
jji'esented  the  body  of  a  lion,  with  a  human  head  {pi.  1,  fig.  1  ;  pL  3,  fig. 
32  ;  pL  6,  fig.  1) ;  sometimes  the  figure  of  a  lion  covered  with  a  veil  {pL 
3>fig'  33).  At  the  temple  orKamak,  sphinxes  have  been  found,  with 
rams'  heads,  lions'  bodies,  and  human  hair  reaching  over  the  back  and  breail 
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HIßTORT  AND  ETHNOLOGY  7 

(pL  6,  ßg.  2).     The  sphinx  symbolized  power  and  wisdom  as  the  attributes 
of  Deity  ;  therefore  the  temples  contain  a  great  number  of  these  emblems. 

The  sculpture  and  painting  of  the  catacombs  already  referred  to,  intro- 
duce us  to  the  life  and  pursuits  of  the  Egyptians,  and  acquaint  us  especially 
with  their  employments,  science  of  warfare,  musical  instruments,  and 
the  furniture  and  implements  of  their  houses  and  farms.  Thus  pL  2, 
ßg.  1,  represents  an  Egyptian  king  in  a  short  cloak,  or  in  his  war  dress 
with  a  striped  tunic  over  it;  another  is  drawn  in  a  carriage  by  two 
splendidly  caparisoned  horses  led  by  warriors,  while  other  attendants  shade 
him  with  parasols.  Other  pictures  represent  kings  in  battle,  or  the  customs 
observed  at  their  birth  or  during  their  education,  the  offerings  and  presents 
made  to  them  (fig.  10),  and  the  solemnities  connected  with  their  death. 
Those  pictures  also  embrace  vivid  representations  of  the  priests  and  people, 
and  their  common  pursuits.  Agriculture,  commerce,  and  trade,  were  the 
occupation  of  the  people,  i.e.  of  all  but  the  caste  of  the  priests.  The  priests' 
dress  consisted  of  a  short  linen  tunic,  with  short  sleeves,  and  fastened  above 
the  hips  by  a  girdle  {pL  2,  fig.  2).  They  wore  shoes  of  papyrus  or  leather. 
The  head  was  seldom  covered,  and  the  hair  was  curled  or  braided.  Some- 
times a  linen  cloak  was  thrown  over  the  shoulders,  but  always  laid  off  before 
entering  a  temple.  The  women  {pi.  2,  fig.  8)  wore  a  full  dress  over  the 
tunic.  It  was  either  of  linen  or  cotton,  with  wide  sleeves,  and  of  various 
figures  and  colors,  though  white  was  preferred.  They  wore  their  hair  care- 
fully arranged,  and  adorned  their  heads,  ears,  and  hands,  with  ribbons, 
buckles,  and  rings,  in  rich  profusion.  Their  feet  were  neatly,  though  lightly 
covered. 

The  furniture  of  the  various  rooms  was  costly  and  magnificent.  Precious 
metals  and  the  choicest  wood  from  foreign  countries  were  wrought  up  into 
articles  exhibiting  much  taste.  These,  together  with  silks  and  cloths  of 
oriental  texture,  increased  the  comforts  and  charms  of  the  dwellings.  The 
beds,  richly  hung  with  tapestry,  were  in  the  form  of  Kons,  jackalls,  bulls, 
and  sphinxes ;  and  the  ottomans,  divans,  couches,  chests,  coffers,  drinking 
vessels,  &c.,  were  of  the  most  finished  workmanship.  The  folding  chairs 
had  commonly  feet  representing  necks  of  swans,  the  heads  downwards ; 
candelabra  and  lamps,  vessels  of  every  size,  vases  of  gold,  gilded  metal, 
silver,  and  other  expensive  materials ;  all  these  in  luxuriant  abundance,  of 
costly  form,  and  studded  with  enamel  and  precious  stones,  were  the  usual 
appendages  in  every  well  regulated  Egyptian  dwelling.  In  the  palaces  of 
the  nobles  and  kings,  of  course,  these  ornaments  reached  an  astonishing 
degree  of  magnificence. 

For  a  representation  of  these  articles,  we  refer  to  pi.  3,  figs.  15  and  16, 
urns ;  figs.  17-19,  large  stone  vases  ;  fig.  20  •  and  *,  pitchers  ;  figs.  21  and 
22,  altars ;  figs.  23  and  24,  common  chairs  ;  fig.  25,  folding  chair ;  figs.  26 
and  27,  arm  chairs ;  figs.  28  and  29,  divan  and  foot  stool ;  fig.  30,  a  knife ; 
and  fig.  31,  a  royal  sceptre.  PI.  6,  figs.  3-6,  altars ;  fig.  7,  a  table  ;  figs. 
^14  «*,  various  pitchers,  goblets,  and  vases ;  figs.  15-19,  bowls  and  drinking 
vessels ;  fig.  20,  a  bowl ;  fig.  21,  a  ladle  ;  fig.  22  •,  a  necklace ;  and  fig 
92  *,  a  war  sceptre. 

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8  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY, 

Hunting  and  fishing  served  among  the  Egyptians  as  pleasant  diversions 
(pi.  I,  figs,  6, 7  AB),  though  sometimes  they  became  employments ;  and  the 
plate  now  referred  to  delineates  the  various  animals  of  the  chase,  and  also 
the  peculiar  styles  of  fishing,  as  the  hook,  line,  net,  and  trident ;  and  fig, 
7  B  presents  the  preparing  of  the  fish  for  the  table.  Fig,  5  represents  some 
operations  common  in  agriculture.  The  wine  culture,  and  ever}'thing  per- 
taining to  it,  is  seen  in  fig,  8,  A-D.  Figs,  2-4  show  the  manipulations  of 
other  trades,  and  particularly  fig,  2,  workers  in  leather ;  fig.  8,  cabinet- 
makers ;  and  fi^,  4,  butchers. 

2.  The  Hebrbwb  or  Jews. 

We  shall  refer  at  large  to  these  people  under  the  head  of  Religious  Rites. 
FV)r  the  present  we  merely  call  attention  to  a  view  of  Absalom's  grave  in 
the  Valley  of  Josaphat  {pi,  6,  fig.  64). 

3.  AssTEiANS,  Babylonians,  and  Medes. 

As  before  observed,  the  districts  around  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  were 
peopled  at  a  very  early  period.  Of  their  first  settlement,  nothing  is  abso- 
lutely known ;  the  Assyrians,  Babylonians,  and  Medes,  present  themselves 
as  the  most  powerful  and  ancient  races  in  that  division.  Having  scarcely 
any  written  accounts,  we  must  form  an  idea  of  their  civilization  and  luxury 
from  the  representations  copied  from  their  old  monuments.  PI,  2,  figs,  7, 
8,  magnificent  costume  of  distinguished  Assyrians ;  figs.  15  and  16,  the 
simpler  dress  of  the  Medes  ;^^«.  10  and  11,  Assyrian  warriors  on  foot; 
figs,  12,  13,  Assyrian  horsemen  ;  fig.  9,  Assyrian  slaves.  The  head-dress 
was  very  various  and  splendid,  as  already  observed.  PI,  6,  fig,  32,  gives  an 
Assyrian  tiara  \fig,  38,  a  helmet ;  and^^.  40  «*,  plain  Assyrian  head-dresses. 

4.  Persians,  Syrians,  and  Phrygians. 

The  province  Persia,  in  the  south  bordering  on  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  in 
the  north  on  Media,  was  doubtless  the  nucleus  of  the  great  Persian 
monarchy. 

The  Persians,  like  the  Egyptians,  buried  their  dead  with  great  solemnity, 
in  rock  vaults.  PI,  3,  fig,  40,  and  pi  6,  fig,  51,  represent  the  vaults  found 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Persepolis.  The  Persian  apparel  strongly  resembled 
that  of  the  Medes  {pl,  2,  figs,  17-20),  though  the  women  wore  a  peculiar 
head-dress  {pl.  4,  fig.  3).  For  the  head-dress  of  the  Persian  kings,  see  pl. 
6,  figs,  30,  31.  A  laced  shoe  {fig,  46)  covered  the  foot.  For  a  fly-brush 
they  used  a  bunch  of  horse  hair,  fastened  to  a  carved  handle  {fig.  47). 
The  Persian  trumpet  {fig.  48)  was  straight ;  and  their  dishes  and  vessels 
sometimes  plain  {fig.  50),  at  other  times  costly  {fig.  49).  Pl.  4,  fig.  13, 
represents  a  Syrian ;  and  pl.  6,  fig.  52,  the  so  called  rock-grave  of 
Midas. 

The  ancient  Phrygians  adopted  a  simple  style  of  clothing  {pl.  4,  fig.  8) 
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They  covered  their  heads  either  with  the  capes  of  their  full  wide-sleeved 
cloaks,  or  with  a  peculiar  cap  {pL  6,  fig.  39).  At  their  public  solemnities, 
as  festivals,  sacrifices,  &c.,  they  wore  a  dress  with  tight  sleeves,  and  over  this 
another,  which  was  embroidered  and  had  no  sleeves.  Ribbons  and  wreaths 
adomed  their  heads ;  and  they  usually  wore  boots,  laced  in  front.  The 
upper  part  of  the  leg  was  lefl  bare  (pi  7,  fig.  14). 


5.  Celts,  Scythians,  and  Sarmatians. 

According  to  the  Greek  historians,  the  Celts  lived  in  Western  Europe. 
The  Romans  called  them  Gauls,  and  under  this  name  particularly,  they  have 
rendered  themselves  illustrious  for  energy  and  power. 

It  is  highly  probable  that  they  occupied  the  districts  around  the  Caspian 
Sea,  whence  they  emigrated  about  the  time  of  the  elder  Tarquin, 
overrunning  the  South  and'  West  of  Europe.  PL  6,  fig.  28,  a  Sarmatian 
head-dress ;  fig.  29,  the  tiara  of  a  Scythian  king. 

6.  Indians  and  Chinese. 

By  many  writers  the  Indians  are  regarded  as  the  most  ancient  people 
extant,  because  about  them  we  have  the  earliest  records  of  their  state  of 
civilization ;  but  their  annals  are  involved  in  the  usual  obscurity  which  marks 
all  chronicles  of  remote  antiquity.  Modern  East  India  is  the  scene  of  their 
pursuits  ;  and  much  information  may  be  gathered  from  their  architecture, 
temples,  monuments,  and  sepulchres. 

We  give  (pL  3,  fig.  37)  a  ground  plan  of  an  Indian  pyramid,  used  as  a 
tomb ;  fig.  38,  elevation  of  the  same ;  and  fig.  39,  a  section.  Other 
interesting  monuments  of  ancient  Indian  architecture  will  be  represented 
on  the  plates  illustrating  Architecture. 

The  dress  of  the  Indians,  mostly  made  of  silk  and  cotton,  was  not 
remarkably  gaudy.  The  head  coverings  were  melon-shaped,  as  pi.  6,  fig. 
83,  female  head-dress,  and  figs.  34,  36,  male  head-dresses ;  or  cylindrical 
(fig.  37) ;  or  simply  a  hood  (fig.  35)  extending  down  below  the  neck. 
Their  fans  were  made  of  peacocks'  and  pheasants'  feathers  (fig.  43) ;  also, 
the  fly  brushes  (figs.  44,  45).  They  did  not  display  much  skill  in  their 
ornaments,  if  we  may  judge  from  a  necklace  (fig.  41),  or  from  a  belt 
(fig.  45  *). 

Of  China  we  shall  treat  more  at  large  hereafter.  We  here  only  describe 
the  emperor's  dress  (pi.  6,  fig.  42).  He  wore  a  pearl  in  his  cap  (the  cap 
buttons  are  used  even  in  modern  times,  to  mark  the  rank  of  the  Chinese), 
and  a  yellow  silk  under-dress,  on  which  was  stamped  the  five-clawed 
dragon,  which  none  but  the  emperor  might  wear.  The  warriors  differ  but 
slightly  in  dress  from  the  other  classes  (pi.  2,  fig.  5).  Their  armor 
consisted  of  the  short  sword,  and  the  bow  and  arrow,  and  they  wore  a 
species  of  helnset  or  leather  cap,  as  a  defence  to  the  head  and  face. 

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10  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 


7.  Ethiopians. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  this  tribe,  when  treating  of  the  Egyptians. 
They  are  alluded  to  in  the  earliest  known  legends,  and  they  seem  to  have 
spread  over  a  vast  extent  of  territory.  In  the  progress  of  time,  however, 
the  name  was  applied  separately  to  the  nations  living  in  modern  Nubia» 
Abyssinia,  Adel,  &c.,  as  far  as  Cape  Prasum  (Dulgado). 

Ol*  all  these  states,  MeroS  was  the  most  distinguished  for  industry, 
civilization,  and  refinement.  In  no  ancient  country,  perhaps,  were  religion 
and  its  ceremonies  more  respected.  See  (pi.  6,  figs,  23,  24)  the  head-dress 
of  Ethiopian  monarchs. 

A  large  peninsula,  formed  by  the  rivers  Astaboras  (Laccazze)  in  the  west, 
and  Astaphus  (Bahr  el  Abiad),  properly  an  arm  of  the  Nile,  in  the  east, 
composes  the  modern  kingdom  of  Senaar  in  Nubia,  and  the  northern 
portion  of  Abyssinia.  This  was  the  ancient  Meroö,  where,  at  an  early 
date,  the  priests  formed  a  very  powerful  caste. 

West  of  Meroe  was  the  land  of  the  Nubians,  beyond  these  the  Sem- 
britians,  while  the  Macrobians  occupied  the  south  along  the  coast  of  the 
Indian  Ocean.  The  Troglodytes,  a  race  of  traders  and  cattle  breeders, 
lived  on  the  coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  from  the  limits  of  Egypt  to  Cape  Dire. 
During  the  rainy  season  they  retired  to  large  caves  in  the  rocks. 

Ancient  Numidia  answered  to  modem  Algiers.  It  contained  several 
important  cities,  among  which  we  name  Cirta,  the  capital.  PI.  6,  fig. 
25,  represents  the  head-dress  of  a  Numidian  king. 

Mauritania  lay  westward  from  Numidia,  from  which  it  was  separated 
by  the  River  Ampsaga.  It  constituted  the  north-western  portion  of  A^ca» 
and  had  a  valuable  and  extensive  coast  on  the  Mediterranean.  Its 
inhabitants,  the  Moors,  were  unequalled  in  horsemanship,  and  the  use  of  the 
bow  and  lance,  like  their  modem  descendants.  PI.  4,  fig.  2,  shows  the 
apparel  of  an  ancient  Mauritanian. 

The  Carthaginians,  a  North-African  nation,  sprang  from  a  colony  of 
Phoenicians.  The  city  was  founded  by  Dido,  queen  of  Tyre.  As  we  shall 
return  to  the  Carthaginians  when  speaking  of  Rome,  we  close  this  notice 
by  a  reference  to  (pL  6,  figs.  55-57)  Carthaginian  coins,  exhibiting  also 
the  common  head-dress  of  the  citizens ;  and  pi.  4,  fig.  1,  the  costume  of  a 
Carthaginian  king. 

8.  Arabians  and  Armenians. 

Legend  generally  attributes  the  origin  of  the  Arabians  to  Ishmael,  the 
9on  of  Abraham  and  his  bond-woman  Hagar.  The  Arabians  designate  as 
the  father  of  their  race,  Kahton  or  Joctan,  the  ancestor  of  Abraham.  The 
northem  provinces  can  never  have  been  occupied  by  any  powerful  state, 
as  will  appear  from  Moses'  expeditions,  and  the  easy  conquest  of  the  country 
by  David  and  Solomon.  Yet  the  whole  peninsula  was  never  completely 
subjugated  by  any  foreign  conquerocs.  The  vast  deserts,  the  free  and 
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HBTOBY  AND  EHPHirOLOGT.  11 

daring  spirit  of  the  nomadic  tribes,  have  guarded  the  soil.    PL  4,  fig.  7»  an 
Arabian  warrior. 

Ancient  Armenia  comprehended  not  only  the  districts  and  the  sources 
rf  the  Rivers  Euphrates,  Tigris,  Kjrros,  and  of  the  Araxes  to  its  junction 
with  the  K3nros,  but  extended  to  the  Caspian  and  Black  Seas,  and  reached 
far  into  Asia  Minor.  With  its  neighbor  Assinria,  it  succumbed  first  to  the 
Median  sway,  afterwards  to  Persia,  and  never  again  recovered  its  inde- 
pendence. Commerce  was  the  favorite  pursuit  of  this  people.  PL  4,  fig. 
4»  Armenians,  man  and  boy ;  figs.  5,  6,  Armenian  warriors. 


B.  From  Ctrus  to  Augustus  (560-580  B.C.). 

1.  The  Parthians. 

Parthia  was  a  small  province  lying  to  the  south-east  of  the  Caspian. 
Originally  it  formed  a  part  of  Hyrcania,  a  province  of  the  Persian  empire. 
Under  Arsaces  it  rose  to  the  rank  of  a  kingdom.  His  successors,  the 
Arsacidse,  resided  in  Hecatompylos.  Like  Thessaly  in  Greece,  Parthia 
was  celebrated  for  its  excellent  horses.  The  Parthians  were  distinguished 
for  their  admirable  riding,  and  the  use  of  the  bow.  They  led  a  wild,  roving 
Hfe.     PL  4,  fig.  14,  a  Parthian. 

2.  The  Celts  and  Sotthianb. 

We  have  previously  said  that  a  portion  of  the  Celts  or  Gauls  overran 
Western  Europe.  Another  branch  invaded  Italy,  and  settled  along  the 
shores  of  the  Adriatic,  while  amother  horde  peopled  Gallia  and  a  large 
portion  of  Spain.  Some  even  penetrated  north,  and  crossed  into  Britain. 
Thus  the  great  Celtic  root  comprehended  several  important  stocks,  which 
branched  out  in  various  directions,  experienced  singular  vicissitudes,  and  by 
irequent  grafting,  lost  much  of  their  original  character.  We  now  intro- 
duce the  following  tribes. 

a.  The  GetcB.  This  tribe,  descendants  of  the  Scythians,  inhabited  that 
part  of  Thrace  lying  between  Mount  Haemus  and  the  River  Ister  (Danube). 
They  were  a  brave  and  hardy  race,  and  vigorously  contested  every  inch 
of  ground  with  the  Romans ;  but  were  at  last  compelled  to  surrender  to 
the  emperor  Trajan,  who  joined  their  country  to  Dacia. 

h.  The  Dacians.  These  also  lived  between  Hsemus  and  the  Danube, 
and  were  distinguished  equally  with  the  Get®  for  courage.  They  possessed 
a  strong  and  almost  unconquerable  nationality,  and  had  peculiar  customs  ; 
but  they  too  yielded  before  the  all-subduing  might  of  the  Romans  under 
Trajan.  PL  \,  figs.  9,  10,  Dacian  warriors;/^«.  11,  12,  Dacian  women. 
PL  6,  fig.  27,  common  head-dress  of  the  Dacians. 

c.  The  Celtiberians  (pL  4,  fig.  15)  were  a  mixed  tribe  of  native  Iberians 
and  roving  Celts,  who  lived  in  the  districts  washed  by  the  Iberus  (Ebro) 
and  the  upper  part  of  the  Durius  (Duero)  in  Spain. 

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12  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY, 

d.  The  Iberians  (Spaniards)  (fig.  6,  an  Iberian  woman)  were  a  tribe 
living  originally  near  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  but  who  afterwards  over* 
spread  a  large  portion  of  the  peninsula. 

c.  The  Gauls  possessed  nearly  all  modem  France,  North  Italy,  part  of 
the  Tyrol,  Carniola,  and  some  districts  of  Central  Italy.  They  were  of 
Celtic  extraction,  and,  prior  to  the  invasion  of  the  Romans,  totally  rude  and 
uncivilized.  They  conducted  their  religious  ceremonies  in  the  dense  forest, 
whose  strong  oaks  served  as  temples ;  their  sacrifices  were  accompanied  by 
the  gloomy  songs  of  the  bards,  who  also  during  battle  sang,  at  the  head  of 
the  combatants,  their  wild  strains  of  victory  and  war.  P/.  5,  ßg,  4,  Gauls 
from  the  district  of  Narbonne,  and  a  bard ;  ßg,  5,  a  Druid  and  a  warrior 
of  Gallia  Belgica  ;  ßg,  6,  a  native  of  Gallia  Celtica,  near  Marseilles ;  and^^i. 
7,  8,  a  common  and  a  noble  Gaul  in  the  time  of  the  Roman  supremacy. 

/.  BHtain  was  first  discovered  by  the  Phcenicians,  who  carried  on  a 
commerce  in  tin  with  the  natives.  The  first  inhabitants  had  come  from  the 
continent,  and  gradually  overspread  the  whole  island ;  but  at  a  later  period 
were  repulsed  and  dislodged  by  the  Belgae,  who,  landing  on  the  east,  com- 
pelled their  adversaries  to  confine  themselves  to  the  north  and  west 
When  the  Romans  invaded  the  island,  they  took  them  for  aborigines,  and 
named  them  Britons.  Penetrating  to  the  north,  they  were  driven  back  by 
the  furious  Picts  and  Scots,  whose  descendants  to  this  day  inhabit  the 
Scottish  Highlands,  the  Hebrides,  and  a  considerable  portion  of  Ireland. 
PI*  4,  ßg.  17,  a  female  impersonating  Britannia. 

3.  The  Germans. 

If  Tacitus  may  be  credited,  the  Germans  have  always  dwelt  in  the  country 
bearing  their  name.     They  were  genuine  aborigines. 

They  worshipped  the  earth-descended  Tuisco  (Teut)  and  his  son  Mannus 
as  their  prime  ancestors.  From  the  sons  of  Mannus  sprang  three  leading 
tribes :  the  Inagcevones  near  the  North  Sea,  the  Istcevones  on  the  Rhine, 
and  the  Hermiones  in  the  interior  and  south.  To  these  Pliny  adds  other 
powerful  tribes :  the  Vindili  near  the  Baltic,  and  the  Peucini  in  Hungary. 
Some  writers  lean  to  the  opinion  that  the  Celts  had  dwelt  in  the  country 
before  the  Germans,  who  entered  it  from  the  south-east.  At  a  very  early 
period,  we  see  not  only  the  names  of  tribes  here  mentioned,  but  many  othe» 
of  less  importance. 

The  first  grand  historical  movement  of  the  Germans  occurred  about  114 
B.C.  They  now  appear  restless  and  discordant,  harassing  and  plundering 
each  other;  and  one  body,  dissatisfied  with  their  location,  emigi*ating 
southwards  to  the  Danube,  invaded  the  Roman  lines,  and  scattered  death 
and  ruin  in  their  track.  They  conquered  the  Romans  lying  at  Noreia  in 
Styria,  113  B.C.,  but  instead  of  pressing  into  Italy,  they  crossed  the  Rhine 
and  entered  the  Gallic  territories.  These  hordes  bore  the  name  of  Teutons 
and  Cimbri. 

The  subjugation  of  Gallia  was  easy  and  rapid.  The  Teutons  were  still 
carrying  on  sanguinary  battles  with  the  Belg»,  while  the  Cimbri, 
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HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  18 

abandoning  Gallia,  penetrated  as  far  as  Marseilles,  where  they  encountered 
and  completely  routed  a  Roman  legion,  109  B.C.  This  successful  battle 
was  followed  by  several  others,  and  in  the  year  105  B.C.,  on  the  banks  of 
the  Rhone,  they  overwhelmed  the  whole  of  the  Roman  forces.  Again 
they  failed  to  profit  by  their  good  fortune.  Instead  of  a  direct  invasion 
of  Italy,  they  marched  to  Spain  to  subdue  the  Celtiberians ;  but  when 
they  returned,  102  B.C.,  without  accomplishing  their  object,  and  now 
commenced  the  invasion  of  Italy,  they  found  the  Romans  well  prepared 
to  meet  them,  and  so  unfortunate  were  their  repeated  contests  for  the 
Teutons,  that  their  forces  were  almost  annihilated. 

The  Cimbri  followed  their  brethren  in  an  eflTort  to  subjugate  Rome 
(101  B.C.),  but  met  with  small  success,  and  finally  relinquished  the  plan. 
Their  defeat  terminated  the  war,  and  a  quiet  of  several  years'  duration 
succeeded.  Civil  war,  however,  still  prevailed  in  Germany  for  some  time, 
until  at  length  the  tribes  on  the  Upper  Elbe,  Vistula,  and  Danube,  formed 
the  confederation  known  as  the  Suevian  Union,  whose  power  seemed 
invincible.  A  branch  of  it,  the  Marcomanni,  from  the  district  between 
the  Danube  and  the  Neckar,  under  Ariovistus,  72  B.C.,  went  to  the  aid  of 
the  Sequani  and  Arvemi  against  the  iEdui,  both  Gallian  tribes.  Their  aid 
decided  the  conflict  in  favor  of  the  Sequani,  who  were  now  compelled  to 
give  up  a  third  part  of  the  country  to  their  allies,  who  settled  there,  and 
drew  after  them  more  Germans,  neither  Romans  nor  Gauls  daring  to 
interfere.  But  when  they  became  too  troublesome,  the  helpless  Gauls 
invoked  against  their  oppressors  the  aid  of  Julius  Caesar,  who,  when 
Ariovistus  had  refused  to  negotiate,  attacked  him  at  Besannen,  58  B.C., 
and  completely  routed  the  Germans;  Ariovistus  escaped  with  a  few 
adherents  across  the  Rhine.  Caesar  won  a  similar  battle  against  the 
German  tribes,  the  Usipiti  and  Tenchtheri,  who  had  crossed  the  Rhine. 
He  gave  up  his  idea  of  penetrating  further  into  the  country  when  he 
learned  that  the  whole  Suevian  Union  were  arming  themselves  against 
him.  Meantime  Rome  had  won  many  battles  in  other  lands,  and  had 
succeeded  in  gaining  the  friendship  of  some  German  tribes ;  several 
tribes,  especially  the  Ubii,  even  fought  with  their  forces.  When  ihe 
Roman  republic  was  changed  into  a  monarchy,  and  the  idea  of  a  universal 
dominion  had  taken  deep  root  in  the  Romans,  they  resolved  to  subjugate 
the  whole  of  Germany.  In  the  pursuit  of  this  ruling  idea,  the  Roman  army 
soon  distinguished  itself  along  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  subdued  Noricum, 
Rhaetia,  and  Vindelicia,  and  reduced  them  to  Roman  provinces,  15  B.C. 

We  break  here  the  thread  of  German  history,  purposing  to  resume  it  at  a 
subsequent  period.  A  brief  glance  at  their  character  and  manners  may 
not  be  uninteresting. 

The  ancient  Germans  were  a  gigantic  race,  with  fair  hair,  blue  eyes,  a 
clear  white  skin,  and  a  piercing  and  haughty  glance.  From  their  early 
youth  they  were  trained  to  the  endurance  of  hardships,  in  their  rough 
climate,  which  rendered  them  indifferent  to  suffering  and  fatigue.  They 
possessed  an  astonishing  power  of  endurance.  Immediately  after  birth, 
infants  were  plunged  into  cold  water,  in  the  presence  of  the  family  and  of 

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14  fflSTOBY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

warriors  (/>/.  5,^.  2).  The  children  went  naked,  and  were  bathed  m 
cold  water  by  their  mothers;  men,  women,  boys,  and  girls,  constantly 
invigorated  themselves  by  bathing  in  the  rivers. 

The  prevailing  characteristics  were  patriotism,  truth,  chastity,  courage, 
hospitality,  and  love  of  order  and  discipline.  Marriage  with  them  was  a 
sacred  institution,  and  virtue  and  modesty  were,  above  all  things,  expected 
of  every  bride.  The  youth  who  loved  a  maiden  ofiered  her  his  hand  for 
lawful  alliance,  and  the  parents  blessed  the  union.  The  parties  then 
exchanged  presents ;  the  bride  c^ered  the  bridegroom  various  pieces  of 
armor,  and  he  in  turn  presented  her  with  oxen  and  cows,  a  bridled  horse, 
shield,  lance,  and  sword.    PL  5,ßg.  3,  ceremony  of  a  German  wedding. 

In  time  of  peace  the  Germans  abandoned  themselves  to  idleness  or  play ; 
sometimes  they  indulged  in  the  excitement  of  the  chase.  The  free  Germans 
disdained  agricultural  labor ;  they  left  the  care  of  husbandry  to  meniids,  and 
the  domestic  concerns  to  the  women.  They  lived  chiefly  on  the  flesh  of 
wild  and  domestic  animals,  fruits,  milk,  &c.  They  made  beer  from  barley, 
mead  of  wild  honey  and  water,  and  only  on  the  Rhine  was  wine  drunk. 
They  wore  no  ornaments  except  their  arms.  Arrayed  in  these  they  even 
appeared  at  their  banquets,  of  which  all  were  very  fond,  and  which 
frequently  degenerated  into  revels. 

Their  dress,  like  their  dwellings,  was  simple  and  unadorned.  The  men 
wore  a  mantle  manufactured  from  bast  or  the  skin  of  wild  beasts.  The 
women  dressed  in  a  garment  gaudily  colored,  without  sleeves,  and  fastened 
by  a  girdle.     Their  long,  beautiful  hair  flowed  loosely  over  their  shoulders. 

Architectural  taste  seems  to  have  been  little  known  among  the 
Germans.  They  generally  lived  in  huts,  constructed  of  rude  logs  and 
mud,  and  covered  with  thatch;  not  a  few  would  seek  shelter  merely  in 
caves,  especially  in  winter.  PL  5,  ßg.  1,  a  Grerman  family  in  their 
dwelling. 

Four  great  classes  marked  their  social  arrangements.  1.  The  superior, 
wealthy  aristocracy.  These  held  great  property,  controlled  the  legislation, 
and  furnished  the  leaders  in  battle.  2.  The  common  freemen,  enjoying 
less  respect  and  influence  than  the  former,  and  limited  as  to  their  property 
in  goods  and  slaves.  Though  of  inferior  position,  they  constituted  a 
powerful  body.  8.  The  tenants  (Clientes,  Lassi),  who  received  from  the 
proprietors  of  the  soil  a  small  tract  for  cultivation,  and  paid  for  it  in  com, 
cattle,  and  cloth.  4.  Slaves,  These  were  bought  and  sold  at  pleasure,  and 
labored  only  for  the  profit  of  their  owners,  who  possessed  over  them  the 
power  of  life  and  death.  On  the  whole,  however,  the  German  slaves  were 
not  so  cruelly  treated  as  those  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 

The  superiors  formed  commonwealths,  several  of  which  were  grouped 
in  a  district,  several  districts  making  a  county,  which  was  ruled  by  a  count. 
In  time  of  war  several  united  counties  elected  a  duke.  Only  a  few  tribes 
were  governed  by  kings.  The  German  warriors  usually  fought  on  foot, 
horsemen  only  being  found  where  horses  were  bred.  PL  4,  ßg.  18,  a 
German  war  leader  (duke) ;  ßg,  19,  a  warrior. 
Religious  ideas  consisted  mainly  in  the  worship  of  nature.  However, 
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mSTOEY  AND  ETIINOLOGY.  15 

the  (Germans  also  adored  godlike  characters,  as  Thor,  Wodan,  and  Freia. 
They  reverenced  no  visible  objects,  and  erected  no  temples.  Their  sacred 
places  were  groves  and  woods,  where  they  built  their  altars  and  offered 
their  sacrifices.  Their  system  included  priests  and  priestesses,  and 
ecclesiastical  authority  often  extended  beyond  any  jurisdiction  which  the 
civil  magistrate  would  dare  to  assume.  The  priest  could  scourge  a  citizen 
in  the  name  of  the  Deity ;  he  generally  opened  the  legislative  assembly, 
commanded  silence,  and  held  the  banner  of  the  tribe  in  battle.  The 
priestess  confined  herself  within  the  sphere  of  prophecy. 

The  dead  were  burnt  upon  a  funeral  pile,  amid  the  shrieks  and  lamenta- 
tions  of  their  surviving  relatives.  If  the  deceased  was  a  young  man,  his 
arms  and  horse  were  consumed  with  him.  After  the  fire  had  gone  out,  the 
ashes  and  the  bones  of  the  body  were  carefully  collected,  and  buried  beneath 
a  light  sod.  They  believed  in  the  immortiüity  of  the  soul,  and  therefore 
would  meet  death  without  fear  or  terror. 

Their  ideas  of  heaven  (Valhalla)  were  rather  sensual.  It  was  peopled 
only  with  German  heroes,  who  continued  their  warlike  pursuits,  inter- 
mingled with  banquets  and  revels. 


THE  CLASSIC  AGES. 

1.  Thb  Grebks  (*EXX9vs(,  Hellenes)  prom  their  Settlement  to  the 
Period  of  the  Roman  Supremacy. 

Historians  unite  in  the  opinion  that  the  greater  part  of*  ancient  Greece 
was  colonized  by  the  Pelasgians.  They  were  even  considered  as  the  abo- 
rigines of  several  provinces,  as  of  Arcadia.  It  is,  however,  more  likely 
that  the  Arcadians  came  from  Asia. 

Greece  presents  four  grand  natural  divisions :  Hellas,  Macedonia, 
Epirus  and  Thessaly,  and  the  Peloponnesus. 

The  southern  division,  Peloponnesus,  contained  the  districts  of  Arcadia, 
Achaia,  Argolis,  Laconia  or  Sparta,  Elea,  and  Messenia.  In  Hellas,  or 
Greece  Proper,  were  Attica  (Athens),  Bceotia,  Phocis,  and  iEtolia. 

The  Greeks  are  generally  represented  as  rude  and  uncultivated,  yet  from 
the  accounts  which  have  reached  us  of  their  ancient  architecture,  religious 
ceremonies,  and  discoveries,  we  infer  a  degree  of  civilization  among  them, 
even  in  the  most  ancient  times.  Probably  not  more  than  five  generations 
had  lived  in  Thessaly,  when  Deucalion  arrived  there.  A  general  deluge 
had  driven  him  and  his  men  from  the  deserts  of  Parnassus.  His  followers 
named  themselves  Hellenes,  after  his  son  Hellenes.  Spreading  themselves 
over  Greece,  and  mingling  with  the  Pelasgi,  their  name  became  by  degrees 
predominant  throughout  the  country.  At  a  later  period,  the  -/Eolians, 
Dorians,  lonians,  and  Achaeans  stand  out  prominently  in  history  ;  some 
Greek  historians  mention  new  accessions  of  emigrants  from  Asia  and 
Bgypt,  in  1580  and  1350  B.C.     These  various  elements  gradually  combined 


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16  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

into  a  harmonious  whole»  still  preserving,  however,  some  traces  of  their 
original  manners  and  descent. 

An  ardent  spirit  of  heroism  soon  became  characteristic  of  the  people. 
Great  glory  was  attached  to  the  names  of  Hercules,  Jason,  Perseus,  and 
Theseus.  They  were  indeed  so  highly  reverenced  by  their  posterity  as  to 
be  made  demi-gods.  Bold  lyrical  strains  celebrated  their  services  to  man- 
kind ;  rehearsed  the  adventures  connected  with  the  Argonautic  Expedition, 
1300  B.C. ;  the  campaign  against  Thebes,  1225  B.C.,  by  the  allied  powers 
of  Peloponnesus ;  and  finally,  the  various  excursions  in  quest  of  booty 
along  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor.  The  whole  of  the  two  centuries,  1400-1200 
B.C.,  was  so  marked  by  valorous  exploits,  and  a  devoted  attention  to  the 
practice  of  warfare,  as  to  have  received  the  appellation  of  the  Heroic  Age. 
It  was  only  by  Agamemnon's  confederacy  with  all  the  Greek  states,  in  view 
of  an  attack  upon  Troy,  1194-1184  B.C.,  that  Greece  became  a  consoli- 
dated nation.  After  the  fall  of  this  city,  the  history  of  Greece  becomes  more 
reliable.  On  their  return,  the  Greeks  turned  their  arms  against  each 
other.  The  Dorians  (Heraclidae)  invaded  the  Peloponnesus,  1100  B.C., 
whence  they  had  formerly  been  expelled  by  the  inhabitants  (the  Pelopidae). 
Wearied  with  internal  strife,  many  of  the  Greeks  moved  over  to  the  coast 
of  Asia  Minor.  The  numerous  small  kingdoms,  no  longer  able  to  sustain 
themselves,  fell  to  ruin.  With  the  exception  of  Sparta,  they  became  repub- 
lics, every  city  constituting  the  nucleus  of  a  separate  independent  state. 

Though  this  tended  to  sever  the  Greeks  from  each  other,  they  nevertheless 
possessed  several  incitements  to  union.  Their  language  and  religion,  their 
annual  sports,  the  Olympic  games,  and  especially  the  Amphictyonic  Council, 
served  as  national  bonds  which  could  not  be  easily  sundered.  Art  and 
science  began  to  be  developed  ;  a  spirit  of  freedom  took  firm  hold  of  the 
popular  mind.  Yet  party  strife  rose  high  among  them  ;  and  having  no  state 
laws  in  common,  they  were  not  formidable  antagonists  to  foreigners,  except 
when  mutual  interest  compelled  them  to  make  common  cause,  and  to  form 
strong  alliances. 

Sparta  and  Athens  held  the  supremacy  over  the  other  states.  Each  of 
these  powers  named  its  constitution  from  its  own  lawgivers :  Lycurgus, 
and  Draco  and  Solon.  Sparta,  after  a  bloody  contest  of  fifty  years, 
conquered  Messenia,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  her  subsequent 
eminence.  Athens  sufiered  from  civil  broils  between  the  lower  and  higher 
orders,  until  Pisistratus  assumed  the  reins  of  power,  561  B.C.  Fresh  dis- 
turbances arose  under  Hipparchus,  a  son  and  successor  of  Pisistratus. 
Hipparchus  was  banished,  510  B.C.  Ostracism  was  introduced,  but  the 
measure  did  not  restore  quiet,  which  was  still  more  interrupted  by  a  war 
with  Sparta.  Ostracism  was  the  system  of  banishing  too  powerful 
citizens  for  ten  years.  The  votes  for  this  banishment  were  written 
on  shells,  which  was  the  cause  of  the  appellation  (^trrpoxov,  a  shell). 

After  all,  these  commotions  may  have  had  their  use  in  the  preservation 

and  training  of  a  superior  courage,  a  quality  soon  to  be  brought  into  requi» 

•ition  by  the  Greeks,  who  were  called  to  defend  their  liberties  and  home« 

against  the  hosts  of  Persia.     In  the  tedious  and  sanguinary  wars  that 

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HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  17 

followed,  the  Greeks  displayed  a  rare  intellectual  and  physical  energy,  which 
nothing  but  intense  patriotism  and  zeal  for  liberty  could  have  prompted. 
Then  the  Greek  mind  seems  to  have  received  its  first  high  and  glorious 
impulse:  an  impulse  which  called  forth  the  most  perfect  works  of  the  Fine  Arts. 

With  the  introduction  of  art  and  refinement  came  also  their  almost 
invariable  accompaniments :  luxury,  extravagance,  licentiousness.  The 
Persian  campaigns  opened  the  way  to  oriental  voluptuousness,  which  tended 
greatly  to  the  degeneration  of  the  Greeks. 

Fears  of  foreign  subjugation  had  united  the  states  in  defensive  alliance ;  but 
when  the  danger  had  subsided,  the  former  internal  animosities  returned  with 
increased  acrimony,  viz.  the  discord  of  the  neighboring  provinces,  caused 
by  envy  and  jealousy,  and  the  special  interests  which  separated  the  smaller 
states  from  those  of  Sparta  and  Athens.  When  Sparta  ceased  to  promote 
the  contest  against  Persia,  Athens  persevered,  until,  at  the  expense  of  her 
allies,  the  islands  of  Scyros,  Naxos,  and  Thasos,  she  acquired  the  sovereignty 
of  the  seas,  and  even  dictated  peace  to  Asia,  449  B.C.  Under  Pericles, 
her  power  continued  to  rise,  and  her  neighbors,  Megara,  Eubcea,  Samos, 
and  Corinth,  felt  her  oppression  in  no  small  degree.  Sparta  found  herself 
disregarded,  and  her  power  diminished.  In  all  the  states,  contentions  arose 
between  the  aristocracy  and  the  democracy.  Sparta  lent  assistance 
and  protection  to  the  aristocratic  party  (the  oligarchy),  while  the  democracy 
found  strong  support  in  Athens.  Thus  Sparta  still  retained  influence  over 
some  states,  and  even  subdued  several.  At  length  all  the  forces  of  the 
Peloponnesus  rose  against  Athens,  431  B.C.,  which  was  compelled  to  yield, 
and  henceforth  Sparta  held  the  supremacy  of  Greece  from  404-371  B.C. 
For  this  success  she  was  indebted  to  the  genius  and  talents  of  Lysander. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  conquered  cities  and  islands  soon  felt  the  yoke  of 
the  rude  Spartans.  A  new  war  with  Persia  required  great  subsidies,  which 
had  to  be  furnished  partly  by  them,  a  circumstance  which  made  this 
dominion  still  more  painful 

Agesilaus  wanted  to  penetrate  boldly  into  Persia,  and  would  probably 
have  completely  overwhelmed  that  empire,  if  the  Persians  had  not  succeeded 
by  bribery  in  counteracting  his  plans,  while  they  more  and  more  agitated  the 
Greek  people  at  home.  The  war  of  Corinth  ensued,  394  B.C.  The  Spartans 
fought  the  memorable  battle  at  Coronea,  and  won  a  splendid  victory  over 
the  Thebans.  But  Corion  of  Athens  defeated  the  Spartan  fleet  at  Cnidus. 
Athens,  after  this,  had  the  superiority,  and  envy  induced  the  Spartans  to 
conclude  a  dishonorable  peace  with  Persia,  387  B.C.  This  treaty  took  its 
name  from  Antalcidas,  the  Spartan  Ambassador  by  whom  it  was 
negotiated. 

Thebes  was  forced  to  join  it,  and  soon  felt  the  insolence  of  the  Spartans, 
who,  during  divisions  among  the  democrats  and  aristocrats  in  Thebes,  took 
possession  of  this  city,  and  besieged  Cadmea.  But  the  fall  of  Sparta  soon 
ensued.  Under  Epaminondas  the  Thebans  gained  a  glorious  victory,  371 
B.C.,  and  Thebes  rose  to  be  the  first  and  most  important  state  of  Greece. 
With  the  death  of  Epaminondas,  362  B.C.,  the  flames  of  civil  strife  in 
Greece  were  temporarily  smothered. 

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18  HISTORY  AND  BraNOLOGT. 

About  this  time  a  new  power  sprang  imo  note,  and  became  a  dangerooi 
opponent  to  Greece.  The  Macedonians,  under  Philip  I.,  after  having 
conquered  the  neighboring  territories,  made  themselves  masters  of  Greece, 
338  B.C.  This  monarch,  however,  treated  the  Greeks  with  forbearance 
and  kindness,  and  gained  their  co-operation  in  his  plan  of  punishing  the 
Persians ;  but  before  any  important  results  had  accrued,  his  life  was  brought 
to  a  close,  and  his  kingdom  descended  to  one  more  formidable  than  himselC 
his  son  Alexander  the  Great.  The  subjugated  people  once  more  arose,  but 
were  soon  compelled  to  humble  themselves  before  the  powerful  conqueror, 
the  Spartans  excepted,  who  refused  to  acknowledge  the  sway  of  Alexander, 
as  they  had  before  that  of  Philip.  Alexander  now  accomplished  his  father's 
plan  of  uniting  with  the  Greeks  in  an  expedition  against  Persia.  He  was 
victorious,  and  thus  became  master  of  Asia  Minor,  334  B.C. 

After  his  death,  322  B.C.,  the  Greeks  again  attempted  to  liberate  them- 
selves from  the  tyranny  of  Macedonia.  This  effort,  however,  was  not  only 
vain,  but  their  state  of  bondage  became  even  more  abject.  However,  dis- 
turbances in  Macedonia  afforded  several  Greek  states  an  opportunity  of 
disengaging  themselves  more  or  less  from  that  empire.  They  formed  the 
Achaean  league,  281  B.C.,  which  was  followed  by  the  league  of  the 
iEtolians.  These  confederacies  maintained  for  a  while  the  dying  spirit  of 
freedom,  and  served  as  a  strong  check  to  the  encroachments  of  Mace- 
donia. But  nothing  could  appease  the  old  jealousies  which  gave  rise  to 
fresh  discords.  The  war  of  Cleomenes  resulted,  227-221  B.C.,  and  it  was 
followed  by  that  of  the  iEtolians,  221-217  B.C.  Thus,  Philip  III.  of  Mace- 
donia acquired  the  ascendency,  and  maintained  it,  until  the  Romans  suc- 
ceeded in  gaining  adherents,  and  caused  the  formation  of  two  leading 
parties  :  the  Roman  and  the  Macedonian  (the  old  ^tolian),  211  B.C.  The 
latter  were  by  far  superior,  until  their  forces  were  completely  routed  at 
Cynocephalse,  197  B.C.,  and  the  Greeks  proclaimed  their  independence  at 
the  Isthmian  games,  195  B.C. 

The  iEtolians,  meanwhile,  unwilling  to  submit  to  the  guardianship  of  the 
Romans,  invoked  the  aid  of  Antiochus  III.,  king  of  SyrisL,  against  their  new 
oppressors,  but  were  obliged,  by  a  disgraceful  peace,  to  acknowledge  the 
power  of  Rome,  189  B.C.  The  Achsean  league  furnished  the  only  remaining 
obstacle  to  the  Roman  arms  ;  but  after  many  a  contest  and  much 
oppression,  it  fell  and  was  dissolved.  All  Greece,  under  the  title  of  Achaia, 
became  a  Roman  province,  146  B.C.  Athens,  as  a  reward  for  her  devo- 
tion to  the  Romans,  enjoyed  several  privileges,  but  when  she  sided  with 
Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus,  in  his  quarrel  with  the  Romans,  she  was 
attacked,  subdued,  and  plundered,  and  for  ever  deprived  of  her  liberties,  81 
B.C.     Thus  sank  at  last  this  beautiful  abode  of  art  and  science. 

The  social  arrangements  and  internal  relations  of  the  Greeks  in  the  Heroic 
Ages,  were  based  upon  unions  formed  by  families  and  tribes :  at  the  head  of  the 
state,  asof  afamily,  one  was  chief  (king).  He  represented  the  highest  authority 
of  government;  he  led  the  army  in  war;  kept  up  order  and  discipline  according 
toestablished  usage  ;  presided  at  the  sacrifices  made  in  the  name  and  in  behalf 
of  the  state ;  and  made  general  provision  for  the  maintenance  of  religious  oere- 
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HISTOBY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  19 

moiues.  His  office  was  hereditary,  though  in  a  great  measure  the  succession 
was  regulated  by  the  voice  of  the  people  and  the  will  of  the  gods.  The 
chief  qualities  demanded  in  the  candidates  were»  bravery,  physical  strength 
and  beauty,  generosity,  and  experience.  Such  qualities,  which  their  prede- 
cessors had  possessed,  contributed  towards  giving  them  with  the  people  the 
name  of  having  descended  from  the  gods.  Various  privileged  classes,  as 
it  were,  the  nobility  of  the  state,  held  rank  next  to  the  king.  Those 
among  them  who  were  distinguished  by  age,  experience,  and  courage, 
and  other  brilliant  qualities,  were  allowed  to  assist  the  king  with  their 
advice  and  admonition  in  public  affairs,  and  to.  restrain  him  from  acts  of 
tyranny;  but  the  great  mass  of  the  people  enjoyed  no  share  in  the 
government. 

After  the  heroic  ages,  we  find  this  form  of  government  entirely  abolished 
in  some  states,  and  in  others  tending  to  decline.  As  the  history  of  Greece 
is  sufficiently  comprehended  under  the  accounts  of  Sparta  and  Athens,  so 
their  constitutions  may  serve  as  fair  specimens  of  all  the  rest.  We 
may  remark,  generally,  that  in  the  principles  of  political  government,  the 
Doric  states  imitated  Sparta,  and  the  Ionic,  Athens. 

The  constitution  of  Sparta  was  a  mixture  of  monarchical  and  repre- 
sentative powers.  Kings  indeed  were  chosen  and  invested  with  royal 
prerogatives ;  but  their  acts  were  in  a  measure  controlled  by  the  popular 
assembly.  This  body  had  an  undisputed  vote  upon  all  propositions 
emanating  from  the  two  kings  and  twenty-eight  elders,  each  of  whom  must 
be  at  least  sixty  years  of  age.  They  were  termed  the  Council  of  the  Elders. 
The  kings  performed  the  functions  of  priests,  and  in  battle  marched  at  the 
head  of  the  army. 

Another  class  of  magistrates  took  the  name  of  Ephori  (supervisors). 
They  were  five  in  number,  and  were  elected  annually.  The  kings  were 
bound  to  submit  to  their  judgment,  and  might  even  be  dethroned  at  their 
pleasure. 

Lycurgus  was  the  great  Spartan  lawgiver.  The  basis  of  his  constitution 
was  equality  among  all  citizens.  The  uniformity  of  fortune  which  this 
required  he  endeavored  to  produce  by  a  an  equal  distribution  of  landed 
property.  As  means  to  this  end  he  also  propounded  laws  regulating 
clothing,  food,  and  dwellings,  the  substitution  of  iron  for  a  gold  and  silver 
^.urrency,  and  the  education  of  youth  towards  a  common  aim,  that  of 
-lecoming  brave  warriors. 

The  constitution  of  Athens  emanated  from  Solon.  His  system  contem- 
plated not  so  much  the  quality  as  the  liberty  of  the  people.  No  ruler  was 
admitted ;  Athens  was  a  genuine  republic. 

The  peopSe  were  divided  into  four  classes,  differing  from  each  other  not 
less  in  number  than  in  rank  and  importance.  1.  The  free  citizens,  whose 
numbers  were  not  allowed  to  exceed  20,000.  2.  The  free  commoners, 
immigrants  to  whom  the  prerogatives  of  the  free  citizens  were  refused,  but 
who  received  protection  from  the  latter.  3.  Strangers,  persons  who  merely 
sojourned  for  a  short  while  in  the  city,  without  making  it  their  place  of 
residence.    4.  Slaves,  most  of  whom  were  captives  of  war,  and  who  were 

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20  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

subjected  to  actual  bondage.  They  met  with  a  kinder  treatment  in  Athens 
than  in  the  other  states. 

By  the  Athenian  constitution  the  administration  of  the  government  was 
vested  in  the  Assembly  of  the  People,  the  Archons,  the  Grand  Council,  and 
the  Areopagus. 

The  Grand  Council  consisted  of  400  members,  chosen  annually,  by  lot, 
from  the  citizens.  They  were  required  to  be  of  unimpeachable  integrity,  and 
at  least  thirty  years  of  age.  On  them  devolved  the  actual  charge  of  the 
government.  They  also  proposed  laws,  but  had  to  give  an  account  to  the 
people  every  year,  and  to  undergo  the  penalty  which  the  assembly  of  the 
people  had  a  right  to  impose  upon  them  in  case  of  bad  administration. 

The  Archons,  who  before  the  time  of  Solon  had  been  almost  as  kings, 
under  his  code  only  exercised  judicature  in  special  branches  of  juris- 
diction. 

The  Areopagus  had  existed  ever  since  the  most  ancient  times  as  a  kind 
of  tribunal  for  capital  crimes;  but  Solon  assigned  to  it  the  charge  of 
supervising  the  management  of  the  state,  the  conduct  of  public  officers,  and 
the  observance  of  laws  and  morals,  &c.  This  court  even  acquired  the 
power  of  rejecting  decrees  of  the  popular  assembly,  when  it  deemed 
them  unjust  or  unlawful.  Thus  it  formed  a  barrier  to  the  people's  passions 
and  thoughtlessness.  The  Areopagus  was  chosen  from  former  archons 
whose  administration  had  given  no  cause  for  complaint  It  numbered 
more  than  300  members,  who,  when  once  elected,  retained  their  dignity 
for  life.  They  held  their  sessions  publicly  in  the  open  air,  which  gave 
their  proceedings  an  air  of  authority  and  solemnity.  PL  B,ßg.  5,  the 
Areopagus  in  session. 

Solon  had  paid  particular  attention  to  the  administration  of  justice, 
and  laid  it  down  as  a  principle  to  let  the  greatest  possible  number  of 
judges  vote  in  cases  of  litigation.  Besides  this,  the  power  lay  in  the 
people  to  ostracize  or  banish  for  ten  years  a  man  whose  ambition  appeared 
to  threaten  the  liberties  of  the  state.  The  Athenians,  finally,  had  a  written 
system  of  jurisprudence,  which  was  highly  prized.  Part  of  it  was  even 
subsequently  incorporated  in  the  laws  of  the  Roman  and  other  nations. 

An  account  of  all  matters  relating  to  Grecian  warfare  will  be  given 
under  the  head  of  Military  Sciences,  and  the  religious  ceremonies  will  be 
treated  of  under  Mythology.  Here  we  only  refer  to  pL  27,  ßgs,  19,  20, 
Greek  War-leaders. 

The  laws  of  Lycurgus  prohibited  the  Spartan  citizens  from  carrying  on 
any  trade.  War  and  hunting  constituted  honorable  employments.  The 
helots  (slaves)  tilled  the  soil,  and  also  provided  for  the  necessaries  of  life. 
Rough  iron,  and  sometimes  iron  coin,  constituted  the  sole  currency. 
Simplicity  of  manners,  and  frugality  of  living,  continued  to  characterize 
the  Spartans  up  to  the  close  of  the  Peloponnesian  war ;  but  after  that 
date,  when  an  intercourse  began  to  grow  up  between  Asia  and  Greece,  the 
infection  of  eastern  luxury  reached  even  to  Sparta,  and  the  early  poverty 
was  succeeded  by  a  season  of  private  and  public  wealth. 

The  wealthy  Athenian  citizens  had  always  devoted  themselves  more 
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PISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  21 

to  public  than  private  a^airs,  leaving  the  care  of  agriculture  and  trade  to 
the  slaves.  Many,  however,  would  inspect  their  workmen,  nay,  participate 
in  manual  labor,  especially  in  husbandry.  Mining  was  left  to  the  slaves. 
Besides  marble  quarries,  silver  was  found  in  great  abundance  in  the  mines 
of  Mount  Laurion.  The  poorer  citizens  would  follow  some  trade,  whilst  the 
opulent  had  factories  where  their  slaves  were  set  to  work.  The  rights  of 
labor  were  unrestricted.  Several  circumstances  conspired  to  favor 
commerce,  and  thereby  trade ;  among  these  we  may  mention  the  happy 
position  of  the  country,  and  the  admirable  harbor  of  Athens.  Commerce 
might  have  risen  to  still  greater  importance  had  not  the  Athenian  love  of 
conquest  given  another  aim  to  their  pre-eminence  at  sea.  Besides,  there 
was  a  law  prohibiting  the  importation  and  exportation  of  certain 
products  in  time  of  war. 

The  currency  used  in  trade  was  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  iron. 
Originally  these  metals  were  not  coined,  and  the  value  was  estimated  by  the 
weight.  But  at  the  time  of  Solon  coins  had  come  into  general  use,  and  in 
Athens  they  were  stamped  with  an  image  of  Minerva  with  the  owl.  The 
Athenian  currency  served  as  a  model  for  that  of  surrounding  states,  and 
throughout  all  Hellas  the  talent  and  mina  were  used  as  conventional  standards 
of  value :  1  talent  =  60  minse  (about  91000) ;  1  mina  =  100  drachmas ; 
1  drachma  =  6  oboli ;  1  obolus  =  8  chalci ;  1  chalcus  =  7  lepta.  Gold 
coin  bore  a  proportion  to  silver  of  1 :  10 ;  at  other  times  1 :  12,  12j,  and 
even  15.  Down  to  the  half  obolus  silver  was  used ;  the  quarter  obolus 
sometimes  silver,  and  sometimes  copper;  while  the  smaller  coins  were 
made  of  copper  only. 

Prior  to  the  time  of  Solon  coins  of  the  same  denomination  were  heavier 
than  under  him  and  his  successors,  for  he  coined  100  drachmas  from  the 
same  amount  of  metal  that  used  to  give  72  or  73  drachmas.  The  drachma 
of  iEgina  did  not  suffer  reduction,  and  in  Euboea  the  coin  underwent  less 
alteration  than  in  Attica. 

For  fac-si miles  of  several  Grecian,  Macedonian,  and  other  coins,  see 
pL  11,  ßg,  21,  a  double  drachma,  didrachma,  obverse  of  a  silver  coin  of 
iEgina ;  fig,  25  •*,  Syracusan  coins  ;  fig»  26,  obverse  of  a  Theben  silver  coin  ; 
fig.  27  •*,  Alexandrian  silver  coin  of  four  drachmas ;  fig,  28  •*,  silver  coin  of 
Crotona  ;  fig,  29  ^,  golden  octodrachma  of  Ptolemseus  I. ;  fig,  30  •*,  Athenian 
silver  tetradrachma  ;  fig.  31  •*,  silver  tetradrachma  of  Alexander  the  Great ; 
fig.  32  •*,  gold  double  drachma  of  Philip  II.  of  Macedon ;  fig.  33  •*,  gold 
drachma  of  Hiero  II. ;  erndfig.  34  •*,  Parthian  silver  drachma  of  Arsaces  VI. 

Manners  and  Character  of  the  Ghreeks,  The  Greeks  of  the  heroic  age 
lived  midway  between  barbarism  and  civilization  ;  but  owing  to  favorable 
circumstances,  they  had,  unlike  other  nations,  the  advantage  of  a  free 
development.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  quarrels  were  adjusted  by  the  law 
of  retaliation,  and  violent  and  bloody  scenes  frequently  occurred ;  but  so 
sensitive  was  the  susceptibility  to  praise  or  censure,  that  even  the  superiors 
did  not  venture  to  risk  their  characters  by  deeds  of  oppression.  Hospitality 
was  always  a  religious  virtue;  and  wandering  minstrels,  who  were  held  in 
high  esteem  by  people  and  princes,  contributed  essentially  towards  the  moral 

lOOKOGBAPHIO   BNCTOLOPiKDIA. — ^VOU  III.  13  198 


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t2  mSTCMRY  AND  ETHNOLOGT. 

refinement.  The  public  games  were  another  powerful  bond  of  nationality. 
The  grand  gamed  were  four ;  the  Olympic,  Delphic,  Nemean,  and  Isthmian, 
all  possessing  at  first  only  a  local  importance,  but  afterwards  raised  to 
the  rank  of  national  festivals.  They  became  a  centre  of  union  for  the 
most  distant  states,  for  to  them  repaired  visitors  from  all  parts  of  the 
country,  by  land  and  by  sea. 

The  Olympic  games  were  celebrated  in  the  grove  of  Altis,  in  Pisatis. 
They  derive  their  name  from  the  sacred  edifices  called  Olympia,  which  were 
situated  near  the  grove.  The  games  were  held  at  intervals  of  five 
years.  They  lasted  from  the  11th  to  the  16th  day  of  the  month  of 
Hekatombseon,  at  the  time  of  full  moon  after  the  summer  solstice. 
They  were  celebrated  in  honor  of  the  Olympian  Jupiter.  During  the 
solemnities  hostilities  were  universally  suspended.  Racing  originally  formed 
the  leading  contest,  though,  at  a  later  period,  other  exercises  were  added. 
Special  judges  were  appointed  to  decide  who  had  won  the  prize,  and  if  they 
failed  to  agree,  the  case  was  submitted  to  the  grand  Olympic  Council. 
The  only  reward  of  the  victor  was  an  olive  wreath  or  crown. 

These  games  were  established  by  Klimenos,  about  fifty  years  after 
Deucalion,  and  suppressed  by  the  Emperor  Theodosius,  894  A.D.  From 
776  B.C.,  time  was  reckoned  by  Olympiads.  PL  9  represents  several 
scenes  connected  with  the  Olympian  performances.  Fig.  7,  a  ball-slinger ; 
fig,  8,  a  discus-slinger  (the  discus,  or  quoit,  was  a  heavy  stone  or  iron  disk, 
and  the  play  consisted  in  throwing  it  in  a  curved  line  to  a  fixed  mark) ; 
fig,  9,  a  ring  or  hoop-racer ;  fig.  10,  archers;  fig.  11,  a  lancer;  fig.  12, 
a  leaper;  figs.  13  and  14,  rope-walkers;  fig.  16,  wrestlers;  fig.  16, 
boxers  ;  fig.  17,  foot-racers  ;  figs.  18-20,  horse  and  chariot  racing. 

Apollo  is  said  to  have  founded  the  Delphic  or  Pythian  games  after  he 
had  slain  the  dragon  and  taken  possession  of  the  Delphian  oracle.  That 
was  the  reason  why  these  games  were  always  consecrated  to  him.  This 
festival  was  celebrated  on  the  Crisssean  Plain,  near  Delphi,  and  like  the 
Olympian,  occurred  every  fifth  year,  in  the  spring  of  the  third  Olympic 
year.  At  first  the  exercises  consisted  of  music  upon  the  guitar  alone ;  the 
flute  was  admitted  subsequently,  and  so  were  gymnastic  performances. 
They  were  regulated  by  the  Amphictyonic  Council. 

Tradition  ascribes  the  founding  of  the  Nemean  games  to  Hercules,  son  of 
Alcmena,  after  his  defeat  of  the  Nemean  lion.  He  dedicated  these  to  the 
Nemean  Jupiter«  They  were  celebrated  in  the  grove  of  Nemea,  between 
the  cities  of  Cleonse  and  Philus,  and  occurred  twice  in  each  Olympiad. 

The  origin  of  the  Isthmian  games  is  attributed  to  Sisyphus,  who  wished  to 
honor  with  becoming  solemnities  the  death  of  his  nephew  Melicertes, 
or  Palaemon.  Theseus  subsequently  revived  them,  and  dedicated  them  to 
Poseidon.  They  were  celebrated  where  the  isthmus  commences,  running 
from  Corinth  towards  the  Scironian  rocks.  The  exercises  consisted,  as  in 
the  three  others,  of  musical  and  gymnastic  contests  and  horse-races.  They 
took  place  twice  in  each  Olympiad. 

Education.    While  all  Greece  enjoyed  a  fair  celebrity  for  art  and 
sciences,  to  Athens  belongs  the  glory  of  precedence  in  this  respect.    The 
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HBSTOBY  AND  KTHNOLOGT.  fi3 

education  o[  a  young  Athenian  lasted  until  his  twentieth  year.  It  was 
intrusted  to  the  parents,  parif  oularly  the  mother,  until  the  age  of  seven. 
At  that  period  the  boy  passed  into  the  hands  of  a  tutor,  who  took  him  to 
the  public  schools.  Special  care  was  bestowed  on  the  production  of  a 
perfect  physical  and  mental  organization.  The  instruction  aimed  at  a 
high  order  of  liberal  and  generous  feelings  and  sentiments,  and  was  made 
up  of  the  arts  that  bore  reference  to  the  Muses,  chiefly  of  music,  poetry^ 
eloquence,  and  gymnastic  exercises.  The  youths  studied  also  the  elements 
of  their  native  tongue,  as  well  as  grammar ;  and  later  they  attended  upon 
the  sophists  and  philosophers,  whose  information  was  sought  principally 
with  r^ard  to  its  practical  usefulness.  PL  l.figs.  17  and  18,  a  philosopher 
and  a  poet  Originally,  rhetoric  and  philosophy  did  not  compose  part  of 
national  education ;  but  after  the  Peloponnesian  war,  when  the  influence  of  a 
good  orator  became  obvious,  the  schools  of  the  rhetoricians  and  philosophers 
were  crowded.  Gymnastic  exercises  would  sometimes  commence  at  the 
early  age  of  seven  years.  They  were  performed  in  the  three  gymnasia 
erected  by  the  state.  These  buildings  were-  large,  and  surrounded 
by  beautiful  gardens.  They  contained  spaces  for  the  exercises,  and 
large  rooms  for  the  philosophers,  rhetoricians,  and  sophists.  At  eighteen 
took  place  the  declaration  of  manhood,  and  the  young  man  was  bound  over 
to  the  service  of  his  country.  At  twenty  he  entered  upon  the  full 
enjoyment  of  all  his  rights  as  a  citizen.  PI  7,  fig,  3,  a  Grecian  youth ; 
pi  10,  fi^.  1,  the  academic  grove  at  Athens ;  pi  9,  fig.  1,  a  game  of 
manual  skill ;  fig,  2,  swinging. 

The  domestic  life  of  the  Greeks  during  the  heroic  ages  was  simple, 
though  among  the  upper  classes  it  was  not  wholly  destitute  of  a  certain 
elegance.  Their  food  consisted  of  wheat  and  barley  bread,  fruits,  milk,  the 
flesh  of  oxen,  sheep,  swine,  goats,  deer,  also  of  poultry  and  fish.  Wine  and 
water  constituted  the  customary  drink.  Great  banquets  were  among  their 
chief  amusements,  and  served  as  celebrations  of  religious  and  private 
festivals.  The  guests  were  arranged  around  the  table  according  to  a 
certain  order  of  rank,  and  the  pleasures  of  the  feast  Were  enhanced  by 
singing,  dancing,  and  instrumental  music. 

The  men  wore  a  garment  of  cloth,  without  sleeves,  which  was  lifted, 
when  required  by  their  occupation,  by  a  girdle.  Over  this  was  thrown  a 
mantle,  suspended  by  a  clasp  to  the  shoulders.  The  inner  garment  was 
preferred  of  snowy  white  and  of  fine  texture ;  the  mantle,  on  the  contrary, 
which  served  also  as  a  covering  at  night,  was  of  thick  cloth,  but,  nevertheless, 
richly  ornamented.  Except  during  war  and  in  travelling,  the  feet  and  head 
were  uncovered.  Long  hair  was  worn  by  the  men.  The  women  exchanged 
the  dd  Doric  vestment,  with  its  double  girdle  or  sash,  for  the  simple  Ionian 
garment.  This  was  made  of  linen  or  cotton,  and  consisted  of  an  under  robe, 
with  sleeves,  above  which  was  worn  a  state-dress  ;  the  latter  was  very  wide, 
and  woven  with  great  art.  It  also  covered  the  head,  and  was  secured  by 
numerous  clasps.  At  a  later  period  this  mode  of  living  and  of  dressing 
underwent  various  changes. 

The  fare  of  the  Spartans  was  simple  in  the  extreme,  having  no  object 

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«4  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

Imt  the  mere  assuaging  of  hun^r  and  thirst.  The  black  soup,  a  dish 
composed  mainly  of  blood  and  onions,  was  common  in  earlier  times.  Aft^ 
the  death  of  Agesilaus',  however,  Sparta  began  to  acquire  a  taste  for  Astatic 
luxury.  Athens,  too,  sober  and  frugal  at  the  time  of  Solon,  from  the  days 
of  Pericles  adopted  a  costly  method  of  living.  During  meals  the  company 
reclined,  according  to  their  rank,  upon  soft  and  luxuriant  couches,  and 
incense  and  other  fragrant  odors  perfumed  the  halls,  while  vessels  of  silver 
and  gold  glittered  upon  the  tables.  The  guests  were  anointed  with  costly 
balsam,  and  their  heads  festooned  with  garlands.  Various  amusements  took 
place  during  the  repast.  PL  8,  fig.  2,  dancers ;  pi  9,  figs.  23  and  24, 
dice  ;  figs,  21  and  22,  theatrical  masks ;  figs.  5  and  6,  female  jugglers.  The 
Greeks  had  quite  a  fondness  for  magic  and  jugglery.  At  the  close  of  the 
feast  a  libation  of  wine  was  poured  out  to  the  gods« 

The  Spartan  dress  prescribed  by  Lycurgus  was  characterized  by  great 
simplicity.  The  clothing  was  frequently  nothing  more  than  a  short 
mantle ;  the  head  was  sheltered  by  a  broad  hat,  a  plain  sandal  covered  the 
foot,  and  the  hand  grasped  a  stout  club.  The  women  as  yet  retained  the 
old  Doric  habit :  a  light,  thin  garment,  which  did  not  even  quite  cover  the 
thighs,  as  it  was  left  open  on  the  two  sides.  The  natural  feeling  of 
feminine  delicacy  was  early  suppressed,  and  women  strengthened  their 
bodies  by  vigorous  exercises,  with  a  view  to  the  production  of  healthy, 
vigorous  children.  Later,  their  freedom  of  manners  degenerated  into 
licentiousness,  and  they  too  got  a  taste  for  luxury  and  prodigality.  The 
[onic  style  was  distinguished  for  fullness,  and  training  of  the  state-dress. 
The  hair  was  tastefully  dressed  in  clustered  curls,  fastened  by  costly  pins. 

Some  Greeks  wore  a  state-dress  of  linen,  others  one  of  woollen  material. 
Later,  this  habiliment  was  also  changed  in  Athens  for  the  Dorian  one, 
which  was  shorter  and  lighter.  Usually  the  dress  was  uncolored,  but  at 
public  solemnities  a  yellow  one  was  worn.  The  sandal  protecting  the  foot 
was  fastened  by  a  strap.     When  hunting  the  Greeks  wore  a  kind  of  boot 

After  the  Peloponnesian  war  the  Athenians  also  introduced  a  considerable 
luxury  in  dressing,  such  as  numerous  ornaments  for  the  head  and  feet, 
costly  colored  shawls,  and  special  clothes  for  the  different  seasons.  The 
women  of  Athens  appeared  in  public  with  a  long  flowing  robe  of  wool  or 
linen,  fastened  round  the  waist  by  a  splendid  girdle  or  sash.  In  the  other 
states,  also,  this  costume  gradually  supplanted  the  Dorian  one,  which  was 
much  freer.  In  this  period  women  began  to  put  rouge  on  their  cheeks  and 
to  paint  their  eyebrows;  they  also  adorned  their  heads  with  flowers. 
^^-  '^yfig'  2  "*>  two  Grecian  girls  ;  fig.  3,  a  youth  ;  fig.  4,  a  spinner ;  fig.  5, 
a  songstress ;  fig.  6,  an  Amazon ;  fig.  1,  female  half-dress ;  figs.  8-13, 
several  Greek  female  garments ;  fig.  14,  dress  of  a  Phrygian  ; 
figs.  15,  16,  two  Greeks  from  Mount  Ida;  pi.  9,  fig.  4,  a  Bacchante,  or 
priestess  of  Bacchus  ;  fig,  8,  a  dancer. 

We  pass  on  to  the  dwellings  of  the  Greeks ;  and  first,  the  houses  of  the 

princes,  as  being  the  finest  and  most  costly.     The  residence  of  Ulysses,  for 

instance,  was  surrounded  by  a  wall  crowned  with  battlements.    The  visitor 

entered  the  domestic  halls,  and  passed  by  a  double-gate  to  the  firont-yard, 

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HBTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  26 

which  was  paved  and  surrounded  by  a  veranda.  Next  followed  a  suite  of 
rooms  for  various  purposes.  The  actual  dwelling-house  contained  hatha 
and  other  conveniences,  besides  the  hall  for  the  men  and  the  apartment 
where  the  queen  worked,  attended  by  her  servants,  and  which  had  several 
contiguous  rooms. 

When  the  city  was  in  its  infancy,  the  houses  of  the  wealthy  citizens  did 
not  differ  materially  from  those  of  the  poorer  people.  They  were  small 
and  simple,  whereas  the  city  in  its  prime  was  embellished  by  large  public 
structures,  and  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great  the  private  edifices 
reached  no  ordinary  elegance.  The  houses  did  not  rise  above  two  stories^ 
and  had  in  thieir  centre  a  yard  surrounded  by  a  colonnade.  The  apartments 
of  the  men  and  women  were  separated.  PL  8,  ßg.  4,  interior  of  a  dwelling- 
house. 

In  the  age  of  luxury,  the  household  furniture  and  vessels  of  primitive 
simplicity  were  replaced  by  others  of  more  costly  material  and  finish. 
The  elegant  forms,  fine  paintings,  and  richly  wrought  vessels,  were  most 
remarkable.  The  bowls,  goblets,  censer£  for  frankincense,  &c.,  sometimes 
earthen,  but  mostly  of  brass  and  silver,  were  gcnrgeously  wrought,  and 
frequently  of  gold  set  with  precious  stones.  Among  all  the  objects  of  art 
of  this  kind  which  remain  from  those  days,  none  have  attracted  greater 
attention  than  the  Etruscan  vases.  They  derive  their  name  from  Etruria, 
partly  because  the  Greeks  highly  prized  the  vases  there  made,  and  partly  on 
account  of  their  design,  which  was  supposed  to  be  of  Etruscan  origin.  They 
have  been  brought  to  light  in  Campania  as  well  as  in  Greece,  especially  in 
the  vicinity  of  Athens.  The  material  is  a  fine  red  clay,  the  form  graceful, 
and  the  tracery  beautiful,  easy,  and  well  drawn.  The  colors  are  red  on  a 
ground  of  black.  A  few  have  black  figures  on  a  red  ground,  but  they 
are  supposed  to  be  the  earliest  specimens.     PL  10,  fig-  17. 

We  give  in  pL  10  s.  general  view  of  the  Etruscan  pottery,  implements, 
and  furniture ;  figs.  2-6,  chairs  and  seats  of  various  forms ;  7,  a  round 
table ;  8,  water-basin  ;  9,  large  water  font ;  10-12,  small  drinking  vessels ; 
13-18,  vases  of  several  kinds  ;  19-21,  other  vases  and  jars;  22,  a  jug;  23, 
bottle  for  wine  or  other  liquids;  24-27**,  spoons,  ladles,  and  dippers; 
28^,  lamps;  29,  30,  candlesticks;  31-34,  various  candelabra;  35,  scales; 
36,  37,  hatchet  and  axe ;  38,  a  mallet ;  39,  a  hand-saw.  Next  follows  a  list 
of  toilette  furniture  for  Grecian  women.  Fig.  40,  a  casket  for  ornaments ; 
41,  a  sun-shade;  42,  a  fan;  43^  and  44,  metallic  mirrors;  45-54,  boxes, 
combs,  hair-ties,  armlets,  eardrops,  &c. 

In  concluding  matrimonial  alliances,  the  Greeks  attached  more  importance 
to  the  wishes  of  the  parents  than  to  the  inclinations  of  the  parties  to  be 
united.  The  youth  who  asked  for  a  maiden's  hand  sent  presents  to  her 
parents.  If  he  was  accepted  he  led  his  bride  home  in  a  solemn  procession, 
preceded  by  torches.  A  number  of  young  people  of  both  sexes  danced 
and  sang,  and  the  festivity  closed  with  a  banquet  A  man  was  allowed 
to  have  a  plurality  of  wives,  but  the  principal  consort  always  enjoyed 
the  domestic  supremacy. 

Marriage  was  established  in  Sparta  for  public  utility ;  it  was  a  union 

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26  BIOTORY  AND  BTEOrOLOöT. 

designed  to  supply  the  state  with  vigoroos  citizens  and  defenders.  Celibacj 
and  marriage  below  rank  were  considered  criminal  oflbnces.  The  women 
were  highly  respected  by  their  husbands,  and  were  allowed  to  show 
themselves  in  public.  That  was  not  the  case  with  the  women  of  Athens ; 
they  lived  retired,  and  only  appeared  *in  public  on  rare  occasions. 
They  were  seen,  for  instance,  at  the  national  festivals,  and  behaved  with 
great  dignity.  For  the  most  part  they  selected  the  domestic  circle  as  the 
fittest  place  for  the  display  of  their  activity. 

Previous  to  a  wedding  ceremony  the  betrothed  and  their  parents  ofiered 
solemn  sacrifices  to  the  patrons  of  matrimony,  Jupiter,  Hero,  Artemis, 
and  the  Pare».  The  marriage  ceremonies  in  course  of  time  became  more 
varied ;  thus  the  practice  of  washing  the  feet  of  the  bride  was  introduced. 
PI  S,ßg,  1. 

In  all  ancient  nations  a  sacred  regard  was  always  felt  for  the  dead, 
and  it  found  its  best  expression  in  ceremonies  of  sepulture.  Immediately 
after  dissolution,  the  relatives  closed  the  eyes  of  the  corpse,  and  had  it 
washed  and  anointed.  It  was  then  wrapped  in  the  habiliments  of  the 
grave,  and  laid  out  for  the  visits  of  friends.  Dirges  were  sung,  and  the 
grief  expressed  by  symbolical  actions.  The  body  was  then  solemnly 
consumed.  In  Sparta  the  obsequies  were  simple ;  puMic  demonstrations 
of  bereavement  were  prohibited,  and  the  period  of  mourning  confined 
within  eleven  days.  Only  the  graves  of  those  who  had  died  in  the  service 
of  their  country  were  allowed  monuments  and  inscriptions. 

Among  the  Athenians,  the  body  of  the  deceased,  after  anointing,  was 
folded  in  a  costly  robe,  and  decked  with  green  boughs  and  flowers.  It  was 
then  laid  out  to  public  view.  Before  sunset  the  procession  started  for 
the  grave.  It  was  headed  by  a  band  of  music,  and  none  of  the  friends 
under  sixty  years  of  age  might  walk  in  it.  In  early  times  it  was  customary 
to  bury  the  corpse,  but  afterwards  it  was  generally  burned.  The  ashes 
were  carefully  collected  and  deposited  in  an  urn.  Next  fdlowed  a 
libation,  accompanied  by  loud  and  prolonged  wailing.  A  meal  generally 
closed  the  funeral  solemnities. 

The  Ceramicus  was  the  common  place  of  burial.  The  earliest  graves 
among  the  Greeks  were  simple  caves,  or  high  mounds  or  elevations  above 
the  corpse.  These  afterwards  gave  place  to  tombs,  rising  several  feet,  and 
not  seldom  surrounded  with  a  balustrade.  Marble  monuments  frequently 
rose  above  the  dead.  The  grave-stones  of  celebrated  characters  showed 
ornamented  views  of  the  chase,  game,  contests,  races,  and  sacrifices ;  and 
in  the  interior  hung  beautiful  lamps.  Paintings  and  mosaic  work  gave  a 
pleasing  appearance  to  the  whde  tomb.  PL  II,  ßg*  1,  stone  tombs  of 
Tarquinii,  an  old  city  of  South  Etruria ;  ßg.  2,  tombs  of  Assus  in  the 
district  of  Cephalonia ;  ßg,  3,  tombs  of  Ceraea,  of  which  ^^.  4  presents  the 
ground  plan ;  ßgs.  5,  6,  elevation  of  the  grave  of  Orcla  ;  ßgs,  7,  8,  ground 
plan  of  the  same  ;  ßgs,  9,  10,  elevation  and  ground  plan  of  graves  in 
Telmessus  ;  ßgs,  11,  13,  tombs  of  Falerii ;  ßg.  18,  elevation  of  monument 
in  Agrigentum  ;  ßg.  14,  section  of  the  same ;  ßg.  15,  sepulchre,  with 
figures  and  vase ;  ßgs.  16-20,  various  urns ;  ßgs.  21-28,  tripods. 
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HMTORY  AIO)  ETHlfOLOOT.  27 


2  Thb  Etkusoanb  and  Romans. 

If(mg*before  Italy  came  into  possession  of  the  Romans,  it  was  inhabited  hj 
difierent  tribes,  several  of  whom,  later,  constituted  the  Roman  people. 
They  came  from  the  north  and  north-east,  and  each  horde  as  it  entered 
pushed  its  predecessors  further  south,  until  the  whole  peninsula  was 
appropriated.  We  have  room  only  for  a  glance  at  the  most  prominent  of 
these  original  settlers. 

1.  The  Illyrians.  These,  at  an  early  period,  secured  a  hold  in  the  south« 
and  exercised  a  species  of  authority  over  the  various  smaller  nations  around 
them.  The  districts  of  Bruttium  and  Lucania  contained  the  CEnotrians, 
Chonians,  and  Morgetians ;  while  in  the  east,  from  Metapont  to  Moimt 
Garganus,  dwelt  the  Messapii,  Salentinians,  Calabrians,  Peucetians,  and 
Daunians.  The  Illjnrian  stock  appeared  further  north  also.  The  Pelignians 
appear  as  descendants  of  the  Illyrians  and  Sabines ;  and  Herodotus  gives 
the  name  of  Illyrians  to  the  Venetians. 

2.  The  Siculi  originally  possessed  Latium  ;  but  in  the  general  movement 
south  they  changed  their  residence,  and  at  last  settled  in  Sicily,  giving  their 
name  to  the  island. 

8.  The  Aurunci  occupied  the  region  of  country  lying  between  the  Tiber 
and  the  Sicilian  Straits,  and  from  the  Apennines  westwards  to  the  sea 
coast.  Some  of  their  descendants  afterwards  received  the  name  of 
Vdscians. 

4.  The  Sabines,  with  their  descendants  the  Sabelles,  a  free,  hardy  moun- 
tain race,  occupied  the  Apennines  around  Amiternum,  in  the  centre  of 
Italy.  The  courageous  and  faithful  Samnites,  Pelignians,  and  Marsians, 
the  indolent  and  cowardly  Pioenians,  the  law-loving  and  deeply  religious 
Sabines,  and  the  plundering  and  murderous  Lucanians,  were  all  united  with 
the  Sabelles. 

5.  The  Umbrians  were  a  strong  nation,  possessing  the  province  of 
Umbria  and  other  districts  in  the  east  of  Etruria,  and  between  the 
Apennines  and  the  Tiber. 

6.  The  Etruscans  differed  in  every  respect  from  the  above-mentioned 
tribes.  They  divided  the  people  into  two  castes,  superiors  and  servants. 
Prior  to  the  founding  of  Rome  they  had  acquired  wealth  and  influence  by 
commerce  and  piracy,  but  from  500  to  470  B.C.,  they  lost  their  supremacy 
on  the  seas,  and  were  no  longer  terrible  to  others.  Most  authors  assign 
them  a  Pelasgic  origin ;  they  built  the  old  cities  on  the  mountains,  and 
were  finally  conquered  by  new  settlers  from  the  east. 

7.  The  Pelasgians. 

8.  The  Latins.  At  an  early  *>eriod,  the  Pelasgians,  Sabines,  Umbrians, 
Ausonians,  and  Siculians,  commiiigled  in  the  kingdom  of  Latium,  and  from 
the  union  originated  the  Latins.  With  the  history  of  this  people  begins 
that  of  Rome  itself. 


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28  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 


3  HiBTORT  OP  Rome. 


Tradition  affirms,  that  when  Latinus  was  king  of  Latium,  a  Trojan 
prince,  iGneas,  landed  in  Italy,  and  founded  the  town  of  Lavinium,  which 
he  named  after  Lavinia  his  wife,  the  daughter  of  Latinus.  But  this  pro* 
voked  the  jealousy  of  Turnus,  king  of  the  Rutulians.  In  the  war  which 
ensued  Latinus  fell,  although  victorious,  and  iGneas  reigned  over  the  Latins 
and  Trojans,  until,  in  a  subsequent  war  with  the  Rutulians  and  Tyrrhenes, 
he  also  was  killed. 

Thirty  years  after  the  foundation  of  Lavinium,  Ascanius,  the  son  of 
iBneas,  built  the  town  of  Alba  Longa,  the  parent  city  of  Rome.  Between 
Ascanius  and  Romulus  fifteen  kings  reigned,  under  whom  cities  and 
villages  sprang  up  rapidly. 

The  fourteenth  king,  Procus,  left  two  sons,  Numitor  and  Amulius,  who 
were  to  reign  alternately.  But  Amulius,  in  oixler  to  secure  the  whole 
power  to  himself,  banished  Numitor,  put  to  death  his  only  son,  and 
compelled  his  daughter  Rhea  Silvia  to  become  priestess  of  Vesta,  thus 
binding  her  to  perpetual  celibacy.  His  scheme,  however,  did  not  succeed ; 
for  Silvia,  notwithstanding,  gave  birth  to  the  twin  boys,  Romulus  and 
Remus,  whose  father,  according  to  the  myth,  was  the  god  of  war,  Mars. 
In  his  rage,  Amulius  ordered  the  boys  to  be  thrown  into  the  Tiber,  which  at 
that  time  had  overflowed  its  banks.  The  basket  which  contained  the 
children  was  deposited  by  a  servant  in  shallow  water,  and  when  the 
river  subsided,  the  little  pair  were  left  high  and  dry  upon  the  shore.  A 
she-wolf,  happening  to  find  them  here,  suckled  them.  Faustulus,  a  royal 
shepherd,  discovered  them  in  this  condition,  and  took  them  home  to  his 
wife,  by  whom  they  were  carefully  reared.  While  in  this  family,  they 
followed  the  business  of  shepherds,  and  frequently  mingled  in  the  contests 
of  the  rustic  factions. 

During  one  of  these  skirmishes,  Remus  was  captured,  and  dragged  before 
his  grandfather,  Numitor.  The  latter  discovered  his  origin,  and  ascertained 
from  Faustulus  the  circumstance  of  his  singular  preservation  from  drowning. 
Remus,  uniting  with  his  brother,  organized  a  force  which  expelled  Amulius 
and  restored  Numitor  to  the  throne.  Of  the  latter  they  obtained  permission 
to  build  a  city  on  the  spot  where  they  had  lived  as  shepherds.  It  was 
situated  on  the  banks  of  the  Tiber,  on  the  Palatine  hill,  and  received  the 
name  of  Rome  (754  B.C.).  While  it  was  building,  a  dispute  arose,  in  the 
course  of  which  Remus  was  killed,  and  Romulus  became  absolute  monarch. 

The  language,  manners,  and  constitution  of  early  Rome,  indicate  that 
probably  other  tribes  soon  made  their  appearance  in  the  neighborhood, 
especially  Sabines  and  Etruscans.  Then  the  number  of  inhabitants 
was  increased  by  ofiering  refuge  to  the  fugitives  and  the  malcontents 
of  other  states.  This  caused  an  excess  of  mala  over  female  inhabit- 
ants and  Romulus,  with  a  view  of  obtaining  women,  invited  a  large 
number  of  Latin  and  Sabine  families  to  attend  a  festival  which  he  pro- 
claimed in  honor  of  Neptune ;  and.  during  the  progress  of  the  games,  he 
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HISTORY  AND  BTHNOLOGT  Ö§ 

caused  a  band  of  Roman  youths  to  carry  off  a  number  of  maidens,  whom 
they  compelled  to  become  their  wives.  This  involved  the  Romans  in  a  war 
with  their  neighbors,  in  which  the  Latins  were  defeated  ;  but  the  Sabines 
penetrated  as  far  as  the  Forum,  and  were  only  persuaded  by  the  stolen  wives 
to  make  peace  with  the  Romans.  The  Sabines  settled  on  the  Capitoline 
hill,  which  they  had  taken,  and  united  with  the  Roman  people  under  the 
name  of  Quirites.  Romulus,  and  the  Sabine  king,  Titus  Tatius,  governed 
jointly,  until  the  latter  was  murdered  at  Lavinium,  when  Romulus  again 
acquired  the  sole  power.  Not  long  after,  his  own  life  was  brought  to  a  close. 
There  is  a  strong  probability  that  he  was  killed  by  the  senate,  who  made 
the  people  believe  that  he  had  been  carried  to  heaven  to  take  a  place 
among  the  gods.     He  was  deified  under  the  name  of  Quirinus. 

A  year  after  the  death  of  Romulus,  the  people  elected  a  king,  Numa 
Pompilius  (716-673  B.C.),  a  wise  and  peace-loving  prince,  to  whom  Rome 
owed  many  beneficial  institutions  and  regulations.  He  was  followed 
by  the  warlike  Tullus  Hostilius  (673-640  B.C.),  who  vanquished  the 
Albans,  levelled  Alba  Longa  to  the  ground,  and  transferred  its  citizens  to 
Rome,  where  he  made  them  settle  on  the  Ccelian  hill. 

His  successor,  Ancus  Martins,  (640-617)  was  more  pacific.  He  enacted 
laws  favorable  to  agriculture,  and  reinstated  the  religious  ceremonies  which 
had  fallen  into  neglect.  The  Latins  revolted  against  his  government,  but  he 
quickly  subdued  them,  demolished  several  of  their  cities,  and  made  a 
number  of  their  inhabitants  cultivate  the  Aventine  hill.  He  extended  the 
Roman  possessions  to  the  sea,  and  founded  the  town  and  port  of  Ostia  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Tiber,  thus  laying  the  foundation  of  Roman  commerce  and 
navigation.  He  was  succeeded  by  Tarquinius  Prisons  (617-578),  a  Greek, 
and  an  ardent  lover  of  the  fine  arts,  who  adorned  and  beautified  the  city 
with  great  taste.  During  his  reign,  Rome  increasecl  in  power  by  successful 
wars  against  the  Sabines,  Latins,  and  Etruscans.  The  sons  of  Ancus  Martins 
at  last  murdered  him  for  having  robbed  them  of  the  succession.  The  murderers, 
however,  did  not  succeed  him,  for  Servius  Tullius,  son-in-law  of  Tarquinius, 
ascended  the  throne  (578-534);  This  king  enlarged  Rome  by  annexing  to  it 
theQuirinal,  Viminal,  and  Esquilinal  hills ;  he  revised  the  Roman  constitution, 
and  made  treaties  with  the  unconquered  Latin  towns,  Gabii,  Ardea,  and 
others.  At  the  instigation  of  his  unnatural  and  imperious  daughter,  Tullia, 
he  was  murdered  by  his  own  son-in-law,  Tarquinius  Superbus,  who  suc- 
ceeded him  on  the  throne,  reigning  from  534-510,  with  arbitrary  power  and 
great  cruelty.  He  raised  Rome  to  be  the  first  in  the  confederacy  of  the 
Latin  provinces,  made  peace  with  the  neighboring  tribes,  and  improved  the 
city.  By  a  stratagem  he  also  brought  the  city  of  Gabii  into  the  possession  of 
Rome.  He  forfeited  the  throne  by  his  despotic  acts,  for  a  people  so 
conscious  of  freedom  could  not  long  endure  the  arbitrary  will  of  any  indi- 
vidual. On  ascending  the  throne  he  had  caused  some  of  the  most  influ- 
ential Patricians  to  be  put  to  death.  Lucius  Junius,  a  relative  of  Tarquin, 
and  son  of  one  of  the  murdered  Patricians,  had  himself  escaped  death  only 
by  feigning  idiocy,  whence  he  received  the  name  of  Brutus.  He  had  long 
planned  the  downfall  of  tyranny.  When,  therefore,  Sextus,  the  son  of  Tarquin, 

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30  HISTOBT  AND  BTHNOLOOT* 

oflfored  Tidenoe  to  Luoretia»  the  Tirtuous  wife  of  Lucius  Tarquinius  Colla 
tinus,  and  she,  not  able  to  survive  such  dishonor,  put  an  end  to  her  life, 
Brutus  threw  off  the  mask,  and  uniting  himself  with  Publius  Valerius, 
Coilatinus,  and  other  patriots,  assembled  the  people,  showed  them  Lucretia's 
bloody  corpse,  related  the  infamy  of  Sextus,  and  described  all  the 
tyranny  of  the  king,  who  was  just  then  engaged  in  a  war  with  the  Rutulians. 
When  the  enraged  people  were  ripe  for  vengeance,  Brutus  proclaimed 
the  banishment  of  the  king  and  his  family,  and  royalty  was  abolished, 
510  B.C. 

Thenceforth  Rome  became  a  republic.  In  the  place  <^  king,  two  consuls, 
at  first  called  f  rotors,  held  the  chi^  command.  Brutus,  and  Colla- 
tinus,  the  husband  of  Lucretia,  were  the  first  magistrates  under  the  new 
system.  But  Rome  did  not  long  enjoy  peace.  The  banished  tyrant  was 
not  idle.  From  his  first  place  of  refiige,  Gabii,  he  betook  himself  to  Etruria, 
planned  a  conspiracy  in  Rome,  and  actually  succeeded,  by  the  help  of  an 
Etrurian  delegation,  in  finding  assistants  in  the  city  itself,  among  whom 
were  two  nephews  of  CoUatinus,  two  nephews,  and  even  two  sons  of 
Brutus  ;  but  the  plot  being  discovered,  the  conspirators  expiated  the  crime 
with  th^ir  lives.  Brutus  even  pronounced  sentence  of  death  upon  his  sons, 
and  they  fell  under  the  axe  of  the  executioner.  CoUatinus  wishing  to  spare 
his  nephews,  suspicion  of  his  patriotism  began  to  be  entertained  both  by 
Brutus  and  the  people  ;  he  was  therefore  regularly  deposed,  and  Publius 
Valerius  succeeded  to  the  office.  Valerius  rendered  himself  so  popular  with 
the  masses  that  they  gave  him  the  name  of  Publicola  (friend  of  the  people). 
He  issued  an  amnesty  for  all  the  partisans  of  Tarquinius,  and  thus  a  great 
number  of  noble  citizens  were  restored  to  the  Roman  state.  But 
Tarquin  had  not  yet  relinquished  hopes  of  regaining  his  throne ;  and, 
with  the  assistance  of  the  town  of  Veii,  now  attacked  Rome  in  person.  In 
the  battle  which  took  place  near  the  grove  of  Orsia,  Brutus  was  killed,  but 
the  Romans  obtained  the  victory,  which,  however,  was  not  very  decisive. 
While  Tarquin  was  seeking  further  assistance,  Valerius,  the  remaining 
consul,  continued  to  administer  the  government  alone.  He  did  not  act  from 
ambition,  but  from  a  desire  to  accomplish  his  plans  of  internal  improvement 
without  the  opposition  of  another  consul.  At  the  expiration  of  his  year, 
and  when  he  had  carried  out  his  plans,  he  issued  orders  for  the  election  of 
two  consuls.  The  choice  fell  upon  himself  and  T.  Lucretius,  the  brother 
of  Lucretia. 

In  the  meantime,  Tarquin  obtained  aid  from  Porsenna,  king  of  Clusium« 
a  powerful  city  of  Etruria.  This  monarch  marched  with  a  great  force 
against  Rome.  But  now  the  Romans  displayed  all  their  valor  and  patriotism. 
Horatius  Codes  saved  the  city,  by  defending,  single-handed,  the  bridge 
across  the  Tiber,  until  it  was  cut  down  behind,  him.  Mucins  Scaevola 
went  by  stealth  into  the  camp  of  the  enemy,  with  the  intention  of  killing 
Porsenna.  By  mistake,  however,  he  only  stabbed  his  secretary.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  deed,  he  was  sentenced  to  suffer  death  by  fire ;  but  the  courage 
which  he  showed,  by  holding  his  right  hand,  during  a  speech  to  the  king, 
over  a  pan  with  glowing  coals,  and  suffering  it  to  be  entirely  consumed, 
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filBTC^T  AND  ETHNOLOGT.  31 

made  such  an  impretsion  on  Porsenna,  that  he  hastened  the  con- 
tdnsion  of  peace  with  Rome,  though  not  on  very  favoraUe  terms  to  that 
city. 

Upon  his  return  to  Closium,  Porsenna  sent  one  of  his  sons  to  attack  the 
Latin  city  of  Aricia.  This  expedition  failing  of  its  object,  the  Romans 
endeavored  to  liberate  themselves.  Porsenna  abandoned  his  efforts  in  behalf 
of  Tarquin,  and  allowed  Rome  to  throw  off  the  Etruscan  yoke.  But  all 
these  events  had  reduced  Rome  to  a  state  of  decay,  which  encouraged 
thirty  Latin  and  Sabine  cities  to  form  a  confederacy  and  revolt  against 
Rome.  In  this  perplexity  Rome  was  obliged  to  elect  a  Dictator,  to  whom 
was  intrusted,  for  a  time,  sole  dominion.  He  possessed  the  power  of 
ibrtune  and  Itfe  over  the  citizens.  Titus  Lartius  first  held  the  office,  449 
'fi.C.  Under  him  and  his  successor,  Auhis  Posthumius,  the  Romans 
vanquished  the  insurgents,  especially  in  the  memorable  battle  near  Lake 
Regillus,  where  the  two  sons  of  Tarquin  were  killed,  and  he  himself,  child- 
less, and  without  hope  of  regaining  the  throne,  retired  to  Cum»,  where  he 
died.  The  Romans  and  Latins  finished  by  forming  a  union,  495  B.C., 
in  which  both  parties  obtained  equal  privileges,  and  incurred  mutual 
obligations. 

With  the  removal  of  external  difficulties,  the  old  feud  revived  between 
the  Patricians  and  Plebeians.  It  lasted  for  many  years,  and  crippled  the 
wealth  and  energies  of  the  republic.  The  Patricians  were  forced  to  yield 
to  the  enraged  people ;  and,  in  order  to  prevent  further  abuse  of  the  consular 
power,  two  Tribunes  were  chosen  from  among  the  Plebeians.  Their  persons 
were  sacred,  and  they  had  the  power  of  the  veto  over  any  law  tending  to 
oppress  the  people. 

In  the  following  year  (494  B.C.),  the  number  of  tribunes  was  increased 
to  five,  and  afterwards  to  ten,  and  new  prerogatives  were  at  the  same  time 
accorded.  Thus  step  by  step  did  the  Plebeians  rise  in  influence  and  power, 
until  they  ^secured  a  list  of  privileges  equal  to  those  of  the  Patricians. 
They  also  obtained  the  appointment  of  two  iEdiles,  chosen  from  among 
themselves  to  act  as  guardians  of  public  safety,  and  as  assistants  of  the 
tribunes. 

The  struggle  between  the  several  classes  having  at  length  ceased,  the 
Romans  could  prepare  to  meet  the  attacks  of  their  enemies,  of  whom  the 
Volsoi  were  the  fiercest.  Duriog  the  constant  wars,  the  labors  of  husbandry 
had  been  much  neglected,  whereby  Rome  was  exposed  to  famine.  Hunger 
itself  was  endured  with  tolerable  patience,  and  in  seasonable  time  a  supply 
of  grain  arrived  from  Sicily.  This  relief  caused  the  strife  between  the  classes 
to  break  out  more  violently  than  ever,  for  in  the  senate,  Coridanus  proposed 
that  the  corn  should  be  sold  at  cheap  rates  to  the  Plebeians  only  on  conditicm 
that  they  would  surrender  the  privileges  they  had  recently  acquired.  His 
impeachment  followed  before  the  tribunes,  who  condemned  him  to  perpetual 
banishment.  He  immediately  fled  to  the  Volsci,  whom  he  easily  persuaded 
to  begin  a  new  war  with  Rome.  Many  other  exiles  also  made  common 
cause  with  them  against  Rome.  With  a  large  force  they  invaded  Latium^ 
488  B.C.,  plundered  a  multitude  of  cities,  and  committed  the  fiercest  out» 

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32  mSTOBY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

rages  on  the  property  of  the  Plebeians,  while  the  Patricians  generally 
escaped.  Coriolanus  at  last  attacked  Rome,  which  would  doubtless  have 
submitted,  had  the  terms  ofTered  been  less  humiliating.  In  the  midst  of  the 
carnage,  a  deputation  of  Roman  matrons,  among  whom  were  the  mother 
and  the  wife  of  Coriolanus,  proceeded  to  his  tent,  and  by  their  remonstrances 
and  entreaties,  saved  the  city  from  impending  destruction.  Coriolanus 
retired  to  die  in  exile.  But  the  class  feuds  continued  to  rage  with 
increased  violence.  The  contests  with  the  neighboring  states  also  con- 
tinued, but  were  of  less  consequence  than  the  perpetual  strife  for  supremacy 
at  home.  After  a  number  of  years,  the  Plebeians  secured  to  themselves 
several  privileges  of  the  Patricians ;  and  dignities  of  the  state  which  the 
latter  had  possessed  exclusively,  soon  became  accessible  to  the  Plebeians. 
The  people  were  animated  by  a  new  spirit ;  complaints  and  troubles  ceased, 
the  possession  of  real  estate  attached  them  strongly  to  their  country,  and 
Rome  was  sufficiently  invigorated  to  resume  her  quarrels  with  surrounding 
nations,  and  thus  to  extend  her  dominion  by  conquest. 

Four  difierent  times,  861,  360,  358,  and  849,  B.C.,  she  vanquished  the 
Gauls  who  roamed  about  Northern  Italy  ;  she  also  carried  on  a  war  of  seventy 
years  with  the  Samnites,  who  were  finally  subdued  and  rendered  tributary, 
290  B.C.  In  like  manner,  the  Latins,  388,  the  Hernici,  308,  and  the  Volsci 
and  iGqui,  304,  in  successicm,  yielded  to  the  progress  of  the  Roman  arms, 
and  agreed  to  furnish  troops  for  the  defence  of  the  country.  The  Taren- 
tines,  Samnites,  Lucanians,  Bruttians,  Peucentini,  and  Salentines,  all 
passed  under  the  yoke  of  Rome,  so  that  in  266  B.C.,  the  Roman  standard 
waved  over  the  whole  country,  from  the  Rubicon  in  the  north  to  *  the 
Sicrlian  straits  in  the  south. 

Thus  far,  physical  force  and  might  in  battle  constituted  the  chief  glory 
of  the  Romans.  Science  and  art  had  accomplished  but  little.  Having  suc- 
ceeded in  humbling  all  Italy,  the  Romans  now  began  to  seek  other  theatres 
for  the  display  of  their  courage ;  and  Carthage,  Macedonia,  Greece,  and 
Syria,  came  gradually  to  acknowledge  their  supremacy. 

The  republic  of  Carthage  had  extended  her  dominion  vastly.  She  ruled 
over  nearly  all  Northern  Africa  and  South  Iberia.  The  sovereignty  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  most  of  its  islands  was  also  hers,  and  she  had  even  a 
strong  foothold  in  Sicily ;  and  although  Rome  and  Carthage  had  concluded 
treaties  of  commerce,  the  rival  powers  had  long  watched  each  other  with 
increasing  jealousy.  As  Rome  gradually  extended  her  conquests  in  a 
southern  direction,  she  occasionally  came  in  contact  with  the  Carthaginians, 
whom  she  especially  grudged  the  supremacy  in  Sicily,  her  own  valuable 
granary  in  time  of  need.  She  could  no  longer  allow  the  rapid  aggrandize- 
ment of  her  powerful  neighbor.  A  pretext  was  not  long  wanting  for  the 
commencement  of  hostilities.  A  body  of  Campanian  warriors  had  been  hired 
by  Agathocles,  tyrant  of  Sicily.  They  boastfully  called  themselves  Ma- 
mertines  (sons  of  Mars).  After  the  death  of  their  employer,  they  roamed 
about  the  island  without  distinct  purpose,  until  they  were  enlisted  by  the 
citizens  of  Messana.  But  they  killed  their  employers  and  took  possession 
of  the  town.  With  a  view  of  revenging  this  outrage,  Carthage  and  Syrai» 
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HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  83 

cuse,  long  inveterate  enemies,  desisted  from  mutual  hostilities,  and  uniting 
their  forces,  besieged  Messana.  The  Mamertines  applied  for  assistance  to 
the  Romans,  who  granted  it,  took  possession  of  the  place,  vanquished  Hiero, 
king  of  Syracuse,  and  the  Carthaginians,  and  then  marched  their  forces  upon 
Syracuse.  But  Hiero  preferred  an  alliance  with  Rome  to  the  impending 
contest,  and  their  united  strength  was  now  directed  against  the  Cartha« 
ginian  cities  in  Sicily,  263  B.C. 

Hitherto  the  Romans  knew  nothing  of  naval  warfare.  After  the  capture 
of  Agrigentum,  however,  they  began  building  their  first  fleet  under  Duilius, 
and  gained  a  victory  at  sea,  259  B.C.  The  war  was  now  prosecuted  with 
spirit  and  vigor  in  Sicily,  Corsica,  and  Sardinia.  Another  victory  opened 
the  way  to  Carthage.  Kegulus  penetrated  to  the  very  gates  of  the  city 
(256  B.C.),  but  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by  Xantippus,  and  for  a  time 
fortune  seemed  to  desert  the  Roman  arms.  Several  fleets  were  lost  in  war  or 
by  tempests.  Nevertheless,  Rome  continued  the  war  by  land  and  sea,  and 
was  at  length  victorious  under  the  consul  Lutatius  Catulus,  by  whose  success 
Carthage  had  to  yield  possession  of  Sicily  and  the  smaller  islands,  and  to 
submit  to  other  humiliating  terms.     Thus  ended  the  First  Punic  War. 

Carthage,  however,  soon  recovered  strength  by  fresh  conquests  in  a 
different  direction,  and  had  especially  found  in  Spain  a  new  source  of  power 
and  wealth.  Hamilcar  Barcas  commenced  the  subjugation  of  Spain,  but 
fell  in  the  effort,  229  B.C.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son-in-law,  Asdrubal, 
and  at  length,  221  B.C.,  the  supreme  command  was  assumed  by  his  son 
Hannibal.  He  laid  siege  to  Saguntum,  a  city  of  Spain,  which  was  under 
the  protection  of  Rome,  in  spite  of  remonstrances  on  the  part  of  that 
power,  which,  in  consequence,  immediately  declared  war.  Hannibal  longed 
for  an  opportunity  to  redeem  an  early  vow  of  perpetual  hostility  to  Rome, 
and  was  desirous  of  making  it  the  theatre  of  his  martial  exploits.  The 
Romans  had  already  sent  one  army  to  Spain  and  another  to  Africa,  when 
Hannibal  crossed  the  Pyrenees,  marched  through  Gallia,  passed  the 
Rhone,  and  then  the  Alps,  in  spite  of  the  season  (it  was  the  month  of 
November),  and  appeared  on  the  plains  of  Upper  Italy,  a  terror  to  Rome. 
This  forced  march  cost  him  the  lives  of  30,000  men,  and  many  horses  and 
elephants ;  the  remnant  of  his  forces  consisted  only  of  26,000  men.  In 
three  engagements  he  was  victorious,  and  then  proceeded  towards  Rome. 
But  conscious  of  his  diminished  strength,  and  feeling  how  imprudent  it 
would  be  with  such  reduced  forces  to  attack  the  city,  Hannibal  retired  over 
the  Apennines,  and  through  the  morasses  of  the  Arno  and  Apulia  to 
Lower  Italy. 

In  the  meantime,  the  Dictator,  Fabius  Maximus,  hung  upon  the  flanks  of 
the  enemy,  harassing  all  his  movements,  but  avoiding  a  general  engagement. 
He  would  infallibly  have  taken  the  Carthaginian  army  captive,  had  not 
Hannibal,  by  a  cunningly  devised  stratagem,  deceived  the  Romans  as  to 
his  movements,  add  thus  gained  time  to  escape  from  the  toils  which  were 
closing  round  him. 

The  senate,  wearied  with  the  procrastination  of  Fabius,  and  distrustful 
of  him,  appointed  Minucius,  who  had  the  command  of  the  horsemen,  to 

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04  HBTORT  AKD  BTHNOLOGT, 

lead  half  the  forces,  and  invested  him  with  the  power  of  diotaton  Ue 
attacked  Hannibal,  but  was  defeated,  and  would  have  been  annihilated,  but 
for  Fabias  coming  promptly  to  his  rescue.  The  consuls  pf  the  year 
210,  Paulus  iEmilius,  and  the  inconsiderate  Terentius  Varro,  sought 
to  terminate  the  war  by  a  bold  stroke ;  but  they  met  with  a  terriUe  defeat 
Paulus  iEmilius,  with  5<^000  Romans^  lay  dead  on  the  field.  This  battle 
secured  to  Hannibal  the  support  of  Southern  Italy  ;  but  he  still 
delayed  marching  on  Rome  with  his  forces,  in  spite  of  the  favorable 
moment.  Being  without  succor  from  Carthage,  he  endeavored  to  recruit 
his  army  in  Campania,  which  province,  like  most  tribes  of  Southern  Italy, 
had  broken  allegiance  to  Rome.  But  here  his  warriors  degenerated  and 
became  effeminate.  He  then  negotiated  with  Philip  of  Macedonia,  and 
won  the  new  king  of  Syracuse  to  the  interests  of  Carthage.  This  caused 
the  invasion  of  Sicily  by  a  strong  Roman  army  under  Marcellus,  who 
captured  Syracuse,  after  a  siege  of  three  years  (214-213),  and  made  the 
whole  of  Sicily,  as  well  as  Sardinia,  a  Roman  province.  Hannibal, 
leaving  Capua  (in  Campania),  advanced  towards  Rome,  but  soon  retired 
again,  and  even  lost  Campania.  His  brother  Asdrubal's  army,  which  was 
sent  to  reinforce  him,  was  completely  routed  near  Sena  (207),  and  Hannibal 
was  obliged  to  retire  to  the  southernmost  point  of  Italy. 

Cornelius  Scipio,  a  celebrated  Roman  hero,  conquered  the  whole  of 
Carthaginian  Spain,  210-206,  and  negotiated  alliances  with  the  African  neigh- 
bors of  Carthage,  Masinissa  and  Syphax,  which  became  vastly  useful  to 
him  in  205,  when  he,  then  consul  of  Rome,  transferred  the  seat  of  war  from 
Sicily  to  Africa.  Victory  upon  victory  was  won  by  his  indomitable 
warriors,  and  he  at  length  threatened  the  city  of  Carthage  itself,  whose 
citizens,  apprehending  the  greatest  evil,  recalled  Hannibal  from  Italy.  Having 
speedily  collected  a  strong  force  of  horsemen,  Hannibal  defeated  Masinissa, 
but  lost  the  battle  of  Zama  (202) ;  and  in  201,  Carthage  was  constrained  to 
accept  the  peace  dictated  by  Rome.  Thus  ended  the  Second  Punic  War. 
Scipio  was  henceforth  known  by  the  surname  Africanus. 

The  power  of  Rome  was  now  re-established,  and  she  was  again  enabled 
to  carry  war  into  the  countries  of  her  enemies.  Her  first  efibrt  was  to 
punish  Philip  of  Macedonia  for  his  alliance  with  Hannibal.  She  sent  a 
strong  army  into  Epirus,  and  after  four  years  of  varying  success  (200-197), 
was  at  length  completely  victorious,  dictating  another  peace,  eventful  in  its 
consequences. 

Antiochus,  king  of  Syria,  having  also  lent  assistance  to  the  Cartha- 
ginians, next  fell  under  the  vengeance  of  the  Romans,  who  made  war  upon 
him,  which,  after  a  short  duration,  also  terminated  in  their  favor,  190.  A 
second  Macedonian  war  against  Perseus,  was  closed  by  .£milius  Paulus, 
at  the  battle  of  Pjrdna  (168),  and  in  148  that  empire  was  reduced  to  the 
condition  of  a  Roman  province. 

In  our  account  of  Greece,  we  have  already  shown  on  what  terms  Rome 

was  with  that  country.    Rome  no  longer  hesitated  to  proclaim  herself  mistress 

of  the  world,  and  boasted  of  her  power.     To  her  Carthage  was  at  last  destined 

to  succumb.    By  deceit  and  perfidy  Rome  provoked  a  war,  and  after  three 

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mSTÖRT  AND  ETHirOLOaT.  36 

years  of  iocredible  exertions,  the  city  of  Carthage  was  utterly  destroyed  (thus 
ending  the  Thud  Punio  War).  The  territory  became  a  Roman  province! 
and  the  name  was  mei^ed  in  that  of  Africa,  146  B.C.  Some  more 
conquests  were  made.  Rome,  occupying,  200  years  before,  so  frail  and  pre- 
carious a  position,  now  stood  forth  mistress  of  the  world,  having  extended 
her  sovereignty  over  all  Italy,  Sicily,  Spain,  Sardinia,  Corsica,  Portugal, 
Africa,  Liguria  (Grenoa),  Grallia  Cisalpina,  Macedonia,  Achaia  (Greece),  and 
Asia  Minor. 

When  all  foreign  excitement  had  ceased,  the  old  quarrels  between  the 
Patricians  and  Plebeians  were  renewed.  The  poor  groaned  under  the 
oppressions  and  the  assumptions  of  the  rich,  and  the  parties  gave  vent  to 
their  fury  in  bloody  civil  wars.  A  general  demoralization  also  contributed 
towards  the  ruin  of  the  republic. 

At  this  time,  the  wars  with  the  Cimbri  and  Teutones  took  place,  and  the 
Romans  here  also  were  the  victors  (102-101).  To  this  conflict  suc- 
ceeded the  Social  War  (91-80  B.C.).  The  Marsi,  Peligni,  Picentines, 
Samnites,  Lucanians,  &c.,  conspired  against  the  republic.  Rome  expended 
some  of  her  best  blood  and  vast  treasures,  and  at  last  suppressed  the  rebellion. 
Next  Mithridates  VI.,  in  Asia,  rose  against  Rome.  Sylla  was  intrusted  with 
the  command  of  the  troops  destined  for  this  war ;  this  preference  galled 
Marius,  who  contrived,  by  the  iafluence  of  the  tribune  Sulpicius,  to 
obtain  for  himself  the  command.  Sylla,  immediately  leaving  Capua  with 
six  legions,  q>peared  suddenly  before  Rome,  88  B.C.  After  a  violent 
combat  with  the  Marian  faction,  he  entered  the  city  ;  procured  the 
oudawry  of  Marius  and  eight  of  his  principal  adherents ;  restored  the 
influence  of  the  aristocracy ;  caused  the  election  of  two  consuls  (Caius 
Octavius  and  Cinna,  the  latter  a  friend  of  Marius) ;  and  went  himself  as 
proconsul  to  Greece.  Marius,  after  his  proscription,  had  fled  to  Africa,  but 
even  in  the  ruins  of  Carthage  he  was  denied  refuge.  Sylla  had  scarcely 
left  Rome  when  new  troubles  broke  out  there.  Cinna  was  removed  from 
his  ofiice  and  banished,  but  soon  returned,  with  Marius,  at  the  head  of  an 
army  which  they  had  succeeded  in  enlisting,  and  Rome  was  forced  to  open 
her  gates  to  them  (87).  Sylla's  adherents  were  slaughtered,  and  Marius  and 
Cinna  made  themselves  consuls ;  the  former  died  soon  after  (86). 

In  the  meantime,  the  expedition  of  Sylla  resulted  victoriously.  He 
completely  conquered  Athens,  87  B.C. ;  overthrew  Archelaus,  the  com» 
mander  of  Mithridates,  at  Cheronea  and  Orchomenus,  86  B.C. ;  and 
crossing  to  Asia,  concluded  an  advantageous  peace  with  Mithridates, 
86  B.C. 

Valerius  Flaccus,  the  successor  of  Marius  in  the  consulate,  now 
proceeded  from  Rome  in  order  to  oppose  Sylla  ;  but  many  of  his 
adherents  deserted  to  Sylla.  Flaccus  was  murdered  by  his  own  subaltern 
leader.  Flavins  Fimbria.  Sylla  only  turned  his  forces  against  this  same 
Fimbria  after  having  ratified  the  peace  with  Mithridates.  The  troops  of 
Fimbria  soon  deserted  him,  going  over  to  Sylla ;  and  Fimbria,  in  despair, 
made  one  of  his  own  warriors  stab  him.  Sylla,  after  taking  the  oath  of 
allegiance  from  the  troops,  landed  at  Brindusium,  83  B.C.    Metellus,  and 

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36  HI8TDRY  AND  ETHNOLOGY, 

the  youthful  but  ambitious  Poropej,  joined  him.  After  a  brief  struggle 
with  the  adherents  of  Marius,  he  conquered  Rome,  82  B.C.,  had  himself 
elected  dictator  for  life,  and  began  a  deliberate  retribution.  He  banished 
his  enemies,  and  confiscated  their  goods  ;  doomed  conspicuous  offenders  to 
massacre;  and  strove  to  crush  the  last  remnant  of  democratic  power. 
When  all  this  was  accomplished,  he  voluntarily  resigned  the  dictatorship, 
79  B.C.  ;  and  retiring  to  Cumse,  lived  only  for  his  pleasure,  and  died  the  year 
after  his  abdication,  of  the  consequences  of  his  debauchery,  78  B.C. 

Whilst  the  republic  was  increasing  in  extj^nt  and  power  in  foreign  lands, 
a  conspiracy  broke  out  at  home,  68  B.C.,  which  threatened  the  very 
existence  of  the  republic.  Lucius  Sergius  Catilina  formed  the  design 
of  murdering  the  consuls,  and  spreading  revolution  throughout  Italy.  He 
succeeded  in  gaining  for  his  schemes  great  numbers  of  the  people,  and  even 
a  large  body  of  the  noblest  and  most  distinguished  men.  Cicero,  then 
consul,  discovered  the  conspiracy,  and  by  his  eloquence  and  authority  in  the 
senate,  caused  Catilina  to  be  convicted  of  treason,  and  obtained  against  him 
the  sentence  of  death.  But  Catilina  fled  from  the  city,  and  after  a  short 
time,  fell  in  the  battle  against  the  consular  legate,  Petreius,  at  Pistoia, 
62.    Cicero  obtained  the  honorable  title  of  Father  of  his  country. 

Pompey,  returning  from  Asia,  met  with  an  enthusiastic  reception 
from  the  people  at  his  triumphal  procession;  but  the  senate  refused  to 
confirm  the  grants  of  land  in  Asia  which  he  had  promised  to  his 
soldiers.  This  opposition  induced  him  to  cast  himself  upon  the  popular 
favor. 

At  this  period,  the  praetor,  Julius  Caesar,  returned  from  his  province  of 
Spain,  where  he  had  subjugated  all  the  tribes  as  far  as  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
His  influence  prevailed  in  reconciling  Pompey  and  his  rival,  Crassus ;  and 
uniting  them  with  himself  in  the  administration  of  the  government,  he 
formed  a  Triummrate.  In  the  distribution  of  ofiices,  Caesar  obtained  the 
provinces  of  Cis-  and  Trans-Alpine  Gallia,  with  the  command  of  four 
legions  for  five  years.  He  immediately  set  out  to  his  station,  with  the 
design  of  subduing  other  countries ;  encountered  the  Helvetians,  Belgians, 
and  Aquitanians ;  crossed  the  Rhine,  and  fought  with  the  German  hordes 
under  Ariovistus ;  penetrated  into  Germania  and  Britain,  and  laid  the 
foundation  of  its  future  subjugation  ;  and,  during  these  exploits,  organized 
an  army  which  might  one  day,  if  required,  be  employed  against  Rome 
itself. 

In  the  course  of  these  wars,  he  obtained,  through  the  friendship  of 
Pompey  and  Crassus,  an  extension  of  his  proconsulship  in  Gallia  for  five 
years.  Pompey  was  appointed  to  Spain  and  Africa,  while  the  rich  and 
grasping  Crassus  received  Syria.  The  latter  began  a  war  against  the 
PsüTthians,  in  which  he  fell,  with  30,000  men,  near  Carrae,  58  B.C. 

Pompey,  now  too  late,  became  aware  of  the  growing  ascendency  of  Caesar. 
As  a  check  upon  his  rival,  he  managed  to  have  himself  elected  consul 
without  colleagues  (52).  He  acted  as  in  possession  of  individual  power; 
secured,  the  next  year,  the  eleation  of  the  consuls  from  among  his  friends ; 
and,  while  he  himself  was  consul  in  Rome,  governed  Spain  as  a  province. 
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JHI8T0BY  AUD  ETHNOLOGY.  87 

He  required  Caesar  to  disband  his  army  and  return  himself  to  Rome,  if  he 
bad  any  claims  to  the  consulship. 

The  tribune,  Curio,  however,  bribed  by  Caesar,  proposed  that  both  consuls 
should  dismiss  their  armies.  Caesar  disbanded  two  legions,  but  the  senate 
demanded  the  dispersal  of  the  entire  army.  Curio  and  Antony  interposed 
objections,  and,  when  threatened  with  imprisonment,  fled  to  Caesar's  camp, 
at  Ravenna,  Caesar  being  considered  the  protector  of  democracy  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  haughty  Pompey.  He  passed  the  Rubicon  in  arms,  a  step  which 
no  commander  had  ever  before  ventured  upon,  without  the  permission  of 
the  senate.  Pompey,  who  had  made  no  preparation  to  oppose  his  march, 
fled  to  Epirus.  He  had  boastingly  said,  that  he  only  needed  to  stamp  with 
his  foot  on  the  ground,  and  legions  would  be  at  his  command.  In  sixty 
days,  all  Italy  was  in  the  possession  of  Caesar,  and  the  troops  of  Pompey  in 
Spain  were  partly  vanquished  by  his  warlike  skill,  and  partly  won  over  by  his 
eloquence. 

In  the  meantime  Pompey  had  raised  an  army  in  Macedonia  of  70,000 
men.  Returning  victorious  to  Rome,  Caesar  departed  immediately  for 
Greece.  At  first  he  fought  with  indiflerent  success,  but  finished  by 
completely  defeating  Pompey  at  Pharsalia,  48.  Pompey  fled  to  Egypt, 
where  he  was  soon  after  murdered. 

Caesar  followed  the  vanquished  hero.  He  intended  to  reinstate  Queen 
Cleopatra,  who  had  been  banished  to  Syria ;  but  he  was  pressed  hard  by 
Ptolemeus,  until  the  latter  was  accidentally  drowned.  Cleopatra  won  him 
by  her  charms ;  he  decided  the  disputes  about  the  succession  in  her  favor, 
and  remained  a  year  at  her  court. 

At  length  a  revolution  in  the  Bosphorus  by  Phamaces  called  Caesar  to  Asia. 
Pharnaces  being  murdered,  he  suppressed  the  rebellion  without  a  single  battia 
His  victory,  however,  over  the  party  of  Pompey  in  Africa  was  not  so 
easily  won,  but  at  last  he  gave  them  a  total  overthrow  at  Thapsus,  46  B.C. 
Scipio,  Juba,  king  of  Numidia,  and  the  republican  Cato  of  Utica,  destroyed 
themselves  in  despair  at  their  defeat. 

Caesar  was  now  chosen  dictator  for  ten  years.  He  ordered  new  colonies 
for  80,000  citizens  to  be  founded,  and  the  cities  of  Corinth  and  Carthage  to 
be  rebuilt,  and  then  set  out  for  Spain,  in  order  to  crush  the  rest  of  Pompey's 
party.     He  accomplished  this  only  with  great  effort,  45  B.C. 

His  fifth  triumphal  procession  fc'Vowed  his  return  home.  He  was  hailed 
"Father  of  his  Country,"  and  created  dictator  and  Imperator  for  life,  and 
consul  for  ten  years ;  and,  to  complete  his  honors,  the  senate  conferred 
upon  him  the  additional  offices  of  sole  censor  and  pontifex  maximus.  His 
person  was  declared  inviolable,  and  thus  he  had  unliniited  authority, 
though  the  people  were  deceived  by  the  republican  form  that  was  still 
retained.  He  was  exceedingly  popular,  and  the  senate  was  subordinate  to 
his  will.  He  was  almost  idolized.  The  unbounded  homage  disgusted  even 
himself.  But  a  true  republican  spirit  was  yet  alive  in  some  men.  And  when 
a  proposal  was  made  that  Caesar  should  receive  the  title  of  king  in  all  con- 
quered countries,  Brutus  and  Cassius  headed  a  conspiracy,  44  B.C.  The 
conspirators  a^roached  his  golden  chair  in  the  senate,  and  under  the  pretence 

lOONOORAPHIO  SKCTOLOPJEDIAw — ^VOL.  in.  14  209 


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38  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

of  preferring  a  petition,  tore  off  his  mantle,  and  pierced  him  with  twent]r*three 
wounds.  W  hen  Caesar  saw  among  his  murderers  his  friend  Brutus,  he  covered 
his  face  with  his  mantle,  and  expired  near  the  base  of  Pompey's  statue. 

Instead  of  joy  and  freedom,  the  republic  was  now  pervaded  by  new 
terrors  and  anarchy.  The  senate  fled ;  but  the  new  consuls  approved  the 
murder.  Marcus  Antonius,  however,  aroused  the  indignation  of  the 
citizens,  and  the  assassins  were  compelled  to  fly  for  their  lives. 
Antonius  strove  to  become  Ccesar's  successor,  but  he  found  a  powerful 
competitor  in  the  young  Caius  Octavianus,  the  nephew  and  heir  of  Caesar. 
Antonius  wanted  to  withhold  his  inheritance  from  him,  but  he  was  supported 
by  the  senate.  The  people  also  adhered  to  him,  and  Cicero  and  the  army 
were  soon  won.  So  Antonius  left  Rome,  and  went  to  the  Cis-Rhenish 
Gallia,  with  the  intention  of  wresting  this  province  from  Decimus  Brutus, 
44  B.C.  Cicero  declared  him  a  traitor  to  his  country.  The  consuls 
Hirtius  and  Pansa  were  sent  to  meet  him ;  they  conquered,  but  fell,  at 
Mutina,  43  B.C.  Antonius  fled  to  Trans-Rhenish  Gallia.  Octavianus  led  the 
army  in  triumph  back  to  Rome,  and  claimed  the  consulship.  His  ambitious 
views  now  began  to  be  apparent,  but  still  he  actually,  in  43  B.C.,  formed  a 
new  triumvirate,  with  Antonius  and  Lepidus.  The  latter  was  a  man  of 
little  worth,  but  had  risen  high  by  favorable  circumstances.  They  resolved 
to  divide  the  provinces  among  them,  to  avenge  the  murder  of  Julius 
Caesar,  and  in  fact  to  destroy  the  republican  party.  To  obtain  money 
proscriptions  followed.  Lepidus  even  sacrificed  his  brother ;  Antonius  his 
uncle  ;  and  Octavianus  his  former  protector  Cicero,  who  received  the 
death-blow,  42  B.C. 

Brutus  and  Cassius  had  gone  from  Asia  to  Macedonia.  Antonius  made 
a  successful  onset  upon  Cassius.  Brutus,  however,  quickly  compelled 
Octavianus  to  retreat.  Cassius,  taking  the  horsemen  of  Brutus  who 
hastened  to  his  succor  to  be  enemies,  and  supposing  all  was  lost,  killed 
himself  At  the  end  of  twenty  days,  Brutus  risked  a  new  battle,  but 
losing  it,  committed  suicide.  Thus  the  last  republicans  died  one  after 
another.  The  youngest  son  of  Pompey  had  also  fallen  shortly  previous 
in  the  war  of  Sicily. 

The  triumvirs  now  turned  their  arms  against  each  other.  Lepidus  at 
first  supported  Octavianus,  and  therefore  laid  claim  to  increase  of  power ; 
but  the  latter  easily  persuaded  his  army  to  desert  him,  and  succeeded  in 
expelling  him  from  the  triumvirate. 

Antonius,  the  conqueror  at  Philippi,  crippled  the  strength  of  Asia,  made 
Herodes  tetrarch  of  Judea,  and  bade  Cleopatra  appear  before  his  court  in 
Sicily,  to  defend  herself  against  the  charge  of  having  befriended  Cassius ; 
but  when  she  appeared  in  most  luxuriant  apparel  at  Tarsus,  he  became  a  slave 
to  her  charms,  sent  his  wife  back  to  her  brother  Octavianus,  and  gave  away 
entire  kingdoms  to  the  Egyptian  queen.  This  induced  the  senate  to  declare 
war,  ostensibly  against  her,  but  really  against  Antonius. 

To  this  expedition  Octavianus  was  chosen.  After  disciplining  hit 
warriors  by  several  victories  over  the  Pannonians  and  Dalmatiaiia, 
85-33  B.C.,  he  set  out  against  his  brother-in-law.  The  rival  armaments  at 
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HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  39 

length  met  at  Actium  in  Acarnania.  Antony's  force  was  superior  to  that 
of  Octavianus.  A  naval  battle  began,  and  for  a  long  time  the  issue  appeared 
doubtful.  At  length  Cleopatra,  withdrawing  with  her  fleet,  was  followed 
by  Antonius,  who  meanly  preferred  flight  to  an  honorable  death.  The  fleet 
surrendered  the  same  day,  and  the  land  forces  seven  days  afterwards. 

Antonius,  forsaken  by  his  troops  as  well  as  by  Cleopatra,  perished  by  the 
sword ;  and  Cleopatra,  too  proud  to  grace  the  triumph  of  Octavianus, 
caused  her  own  death  by  the  bite  of  a  viper.  Egypt  was  now  reduced  to 
a  Roman  province,  80  B.C.  The  battle  of  Actium  decided  the  fate  of 
Rome ;  the  republic  was  at  an  end,  and  Octavianus  returned  to  Rome  as 
sole  governor,  with  unlimited  power. 


4  Rome  under  the  Emperors. 

At  the  time  of  Octavianus  Augustus,  the  Roman  dominions  had  reached 
an  unprecedented  extent.  After  having  vanquished  all  his  opponents, 
Octavianus,  now  more  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  Augustus, 
displayed  great  afiability,  moderation,  and  clemency,  and  sought  to  conceal 
the  appearance  of  his  unlimited  power.  He  preserved  the  external  form  of 
a  republican  constitution,  yet,  at  the  same  time,  concentrated  all  the 
principal  dignities  and  ofiices  in  his  own  person.  In  this  way  he  became 
in  fact  emperor  (Caesar),  without  assuming  the  title,  which  was  first  done 
by  his  successor.  He  called  around  him  prudent,  active,  and  intelligent 
counsellors,  among  whom  we  may  mention  Agrippa,  Cilnius,  Maecenas,  and 
Valerius  Messala ;  and  by  their  aid  sought  to  restore  repose  and  order, 
introduce  wholesome  regulations,  and  arrest  the  course  of  prodigality  and 
corruption.  Avoiding  all  new  wars,  he  aimed  only  at  securing  the 
provinces.  Thus  he  entirely  subdued  Egypt,  80  B.C. ;  Maesia,  27  B.C. ; 
Rhaetia,  Noricum,  Vindelicia,  and  Pannonia,  15  B.C. ;  and  Spain,  25  B.C 
His  efforts  with  the  Arabians,  however,  failed,  and  the  attempt  against 
the  (rermans  beyond  the  Rhine  succeeded  no  better.  Germany  then 
extended  from  the  Rhine  to  the  Vistula,  and  from  the  Danube  to  the  North 
Sea  and  the  Baltic.  Its  natives  were  as  wild  as  their  own  forests,  and  by 
their  rough  exercises  and  simple  fare  they  acquired  a  physical  vigor  which 
astonished  the  inhabitants  of  other  countries.  Hunting  and  war  constituted 
their  highest  pleasures,  and  when  they  had  peace  at  home  they  immediately 
fell  with  savage  ferocity  upon  the  Roman  provinces,  and  thus  became 
dangerous  neighbors  to  the  Romans. 

To  chastise  this  predatory  race,  Augustus  despatched  his  step-son, 
Drusus,  with  a  vast  army  against  them.  He  conquered  the  country  of  the 
CheniBCi,  from  the  North  Sea  to  the  Visurgis  (Weser)  1 1  B.C.  But  the 
Germans  soon  recovered  all  they  had  lost,  and  compelled  Drusus  to  retreat. 
He  next  proceeded  from  Moguntia  towards  the  Elbe,  and  fought  with  the 
Catti,  but  a  fall  from  a  horse  ended  his  life,  9  B.C.  His  brother  Tiberius, 
and  other  commanders,  continued  his  undertaking,  and  for  a  while  hoped, 
by  erectii^  strong  castles  and    introducing  the  Roman  language  and 

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40  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

customs,  to  maintain  themselves.  But  Arminius  (better  known  as  Herr- 
mann), a  young  prince  of  the  Cherusci,  educated  at  Rome,  placed  himself 
at  the  head  of  the  Germans,  and  destroyed  three  Roman  legions  under 
Varus,  who  fell  by  his  own  hand.  This  took  place  9  A.D.,  in  the  Teuto- 
burg  Forest,  a  mountain  ridge  in  Northern  Germany  (now  in  Westphalia). 

Germanicus,  the  son  of  Drusus,  14-16  A.D.,  achieved  several  important 
victories  over  the  Marsi,  Catti,  and  Cherusci,  when  the  jealous  Tiberius 
recalled  him,  and  sent  him  to  Syria,  abandoning  the  design  of  conquering 
Germany.  Augustus  died  14  A.D.  His  son  Tiberius,  already  co-regent, 
succeeded  to  the  throne.  With  him  begins  a  line  of  tyrants,  in  the  worst 
sense  of  the  term.  The  whole  reign  of  Tiberius  (15-37  A.D.)  presents 
little  more  than  a  constant  display  of  cruelty,  dissimulation,  and  rapacity. 

After  his  assassination,  Caius  Caligula  reigned  four  years  (37-41  x\.D.), 
in  whose  disposition  the  height  of  cruelty  was  combined  with  unparalleled 
folly.  As  an  example,  we  may  mention  his  attempt  to  appoint  his  favorite 
horse  to  the  consulship.     Like  his  predecessor,  he  was  assassinated. 

Claudius  succeeded  to  the  throne.  Murder  constituted  his  amusement, 
and  he  loved  to  protract  the  sufferings  of  the  dying.  His  wives  and 
liberated  slaves  reigned  more  than  himself.  He  was  poisoned  by  his  own 
wife  Agrippina,  54  A.D. 

He  was,  if  possible,  surpassed  in  cruelty  by  his  successor  Nero,  54-68 
A.D.,  who  murdered  his  own  mother,  persecuted  and  destroyed  the 
Christians,  and  set  fire  to  Rome  for  his  own  amusement,  in  order 
to  enjoy  the  sight  of  unusual  distress.  With  his  cruelty  he  combined 
a  ridiculous  degree  of  vanity.  At  length  the  people  rose  against  him  in 
open  rebellion,  when  he  fled,  and  ordered  one  of  his  liberated  slaves  to 
mflict  upon  him  a  mortal  wound. 

During  a  period  of  less  than  two  years,  68-69  A.D.,  three  emperors, 
Galba,  Otho,  and  Vitellius,  succeeded  each  other,  all  of  whom  met  with 
violent  deaths. 

Flavins  Vespasian,  69-79  A.D.,  restored  order  and  security,  increased 
the  dignity  of  the  senate,  retrenched  public  expenditure,  and  appropriated, 
in  spite  of  his  uncommon  economy,  money  to  the  rebuilding  of  public 
edifices,  promoted  arts  and  sciences,  and  reduced  rebellious  provinces  to 
subjection.  After  Augustus,  he  was  the  first  emperor  who  met  a  natural 
death. 

Titus  Flavins  Vespasian  ascended  in  peace  the  throne  of  his  father, 
73-81  A.D.     His  reign,  though  short,  was  blissful. 

Very  different  in  character  was  his  brother  Domitian,  81-96  A.D.  He 
was  a  monster  of  vice  and  cruelty,  and  was  murdered. 

He  was  succeeded  by  Nerva,  96-98.  He  is  the  first  of  a  succession  of 
the  noblest  emperors: — Trajan,  A.D.  98-117;  Adrian,  A.D.  117-138; 
Anttminus  Pius,  138-161  A.D. ;  and  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus,  161-180 
A.D. 

During  his  administration,   the  southern   Germans   (the    Marcomanni) 
poured  in  great  numbers  into  Italy.     The  empire  was  at  that  time  suffering 
from  pestilence;  many  legions  were  destroyed,  and  it  became  necessary 
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HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  41 

to  recruit  the  army  with  slaves  and  gladiators.  The  l^ud  was  laid  waste. 
The  emperor  contended  with  the  enemy  for  thirteen  years,  with  alternate 
good  and  bad  fortune,  and  even  sold  the  furniture  of  his  palace  to  meet  the 
expenses  of  the  war.  He  died  of  the  plague  before  the  termination  of  the 
contest,  at  Sirmium,  on  the  Danube,  180  A.D. 

Under  the  ignorant  and  vicious  Commodus,  his  son  and  successor,  the 
weakness  of  the  empire  increased,  and  became  more  perceptible  to 
watchful  neighbors.  The  Romans  lost  their  spirit  of  freedom,  exhibited  the 
most  wanton  profligacy,  and  cast  off  all  fear  of  the  gods.  The  soldiers,  who 
stood  high  in  favor  with  the  emperor,  abused  their  influence,  became  mutinous, 
changed  the  emperors  at  discretion,  and  were  bribed  into  bestowing  the 
best  oflices  on  most  unworthy  persons.  Party  strife,  invasions  of  the 
barbarians,  and  revolutions  of  the  oppressed  provinces,  alternately  harassed 
the  country,  whose  power  and  wealth  sank  rapidly. 

In  one  hundred  and  twenty  years,  from  180-300  A.D.,  no  less  than 
thirty-six  emperors  reigned  over  Rome.  Of  this  number  twenty-seven  were 
assassinated,  three  fell  in  battle,  and  only  six  died  a  natural  death. 

At  the  close  of  this  stormy  period,  the  Roman  people  began  to  fear  that 
the  gods  had  forsaken  them  for  ever.  Their  appeals  for  mercy  and  succor 
had  all  failed.  Such  a  withdrawal  of  divine  protection  caused  strong  sus- 
picion of  the  power  of  the  old  gods,  and  inclined  them  more  and  more  towards 
Christianity,  which  offered  them  more  solace.  The  emperors  and  their 
governors  chastised  with  increasing  severity  the  converts  to  the  new 
doctrine,  until  the  course  of  conversion  embraced  the  emperor  himself 
Constantine  made  a  public  profession  of  Christianity,  323  A.D.,  and  soon 
after  proclaimed  it  as  the  religion  of  the  state.  This  emperor  removed  the 
seat  of  government  to  Byzantium  (330  A.D.),  which  he  greatly  enlarged 
and  beautified,  naming  it  after  himself,  Constantinople,  thus  accelerating  the 
decline  of  imperious  Rome. 

Constantine  died,  337  A.D.,  and  left  the  empire  to  his  three  sons,  Con- 
stantinus  II.,  Constantius,  and  Constans.  Their  avarice  and  jealousy  soon 
led  to  fraternal  discord  and  war,  of  which  their  captains  did  not  hesitate  to 
avail  themselves  to  procure  their  own  advancement.  Constantius  survived 
his  brothers,  and  raised  Julian  to  the  dignity  of  his  co-regent,  356.  Julian 
prosecuted  a  successful  war  with  the  Greeks  and  Allemanni,  and,  on  the 
strength  of  his  popularity,  aspired  successfully  to  the  sole  command. 
Constantius  turned  his  forces  against  him,  but  dying,  Julian  ascended  the 
throne,  261  A.D. 

Julian  returned  to  Paganism,  and  tried  to  obstruct  Christianity,  but  died 
on  an  expedition  against  Persia  (363). 

After  Julian,  followed  in  rapid  succession,  Jovian,  Valentinian  I.,  and 
his  sons,  Gratian  and  Valentinian  II.  During  their  reigns,  the  throng  of 
people  on  the  frontiers  of  the  Roman  empire  increased.  At  the  same 
period,  the  Mongolian  Huns  emerged  from  the  highlands  of  Central  Asia, 
and  crossing  the  Volga,  pressed  on  in  exhaustless  multitudes,  their  irresistible 
torrent  sweeping  all  before  it.  Urged  on  by  the  swarms  behind  them,  they 
soon  desolated  the  rich  fields  of  the  Ostrogoths,  obliging  the  latter  to  fall 

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42  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

upoD  the  Visigoths,  and  compelliog  them  to  abandon  their  cultiyated  homes 
on  the  Dniester,  and  settle  sooth  of  the  Danube.  This  change  brought  the 
Goths  into  contact  with  the  Roman  governors,  who  pressed  them  hard,  when 
the  enraged  hordes  turned  against  Constantinople.  They  defeated  Valens 
at  Adrianople,  where  he  was  killed  on  the  field,  378,  and  advanced  towards 
Achaia.  Gratian  appointed  Theodosius  in  Spain,  Augustus  of  the  East  and 
Illyrium.  The  new  emperor,  Theodosius  the  Great,  379-396,  made  peace 
with  the  Goths,  and  gave  them  lands  in  Thracia  and  Phrygia.  After  the 
deposition  and  murder  of  Gratian  by  his  captain,  Maximus  (383),  of 
Maximus  by  Theodosius  (388),  the  assassination  of  Valentinian  H.,  and  the 
subjection  of  his  successor,  Theodosius  remained  the  sole  and  last  emperor 
of  the  united  Roman  empire.  He  died  395,  and  after  his  death  the  empire 
was  divided  between  Arcadius,  who  received  the  East,  and  resided  in 
Constantinople,  and  Honorius»  who,  residing  at  Ravenna,  governed  the 
West. 


Laws,  Institutions,  Manners,  and  Customs  of  the  Romans. 

The  people  were  divided  into  freemen  and  slaves.  Slavery  had  its  origin 
in  war,  its  first  subjects  being  war  prisoners.  (PL  13,  fig.  1,  an  exhibition 
of  captives  in  the  Forum  at  Rome.)  Next  came  their  descendants,  and  such 
as  had  forfeited  their  civil  rights  by  crime  ;  but  above  all,  many  slaves  were 
bought ;  for,  when  the  Roman  sway  extended  itself,  the  number  of  slave- 
dealers  augmented  rapidly,  and  thousands  of  Greeks  and  Asiatics  were  sold 
in  open  market.  The  slaves  were  viewed  not  as  persons,  but  as  chattels 
which  the  masters  might  sell,  transfer,  or  mortgage  at  pleasure.  Slaves 
born  in  the  house,  or  such  as  manifested  shining  and  useful  capabilities, 
generally  received  a  milder  treatment ;  but  the  others  were  the  victims  of 
a  cruelty  so  unbounded,  that  it  had  at  difierent  times  to  be  checked  by 
special  laws. 

A  solemn  act  of  liberation  promoted  them  to  the  rank  of  citizens.  This  act 
consisted  either  in  placing  the  name  of  the  slave  on  the  list  of  citizens  kept 
by  the  Censor,  or  in  bequeathing  to  him  his  liberty  by  will  and  testament. 
However,  the  freedman  was  still  bound  to  render  his  former  master  certain 
services  as  client,  and  he  was  punished  according  to  law  in  case  of 
ingratitude. 

Political  fireedom  enured  to  the  Romans  either  by  birth  or  by  acquisition. 
Those  who  were  born  free  possessed  the  largest  liberty,  and  the  full  privi- 
leges of  citizenship ;  while  those  who  were  enfranchised  still  remained,  in  a 
measure,  dependents  of  the  city  authorities. 

The  Roman  constitution,  originally  municipal,  retained  this  character 
through  all  the  changes  of  the  monarchy,  republic,  and  empire.  Unim- 
paired civil  privileges  belonged  at  first  only  to  such  as  held  their  residence 
within  the  limits  of  the  city.  During  the  first  century,  permanent  settlers 
only  rose  to  the  grade  of  citizens,  and  they  were  eagerly  received  under 

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HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  43 

the  kings  as  well  as  at  the  beginning  of  the  republic,  as  the  wars  considerably 
diminished  the  numbers  of  the  citizens.  But  by  degrees,  as  the  state 
increased,  and  the  true  spirit  of  republicanism  had  grown  strong,  so  that  it 
became  an  object  of  ambition  to  be  a  Roman  citizen,  only  few  were 
admitted  to  this  honor.  Later,  entire  cities  obtained  the  right  of  citizenship 
without  interfering  with  their  own  municipal  privileges.  All  Italian 
tribes  who  had  been  allies  obtained  that  right  after  the  Social  War; 
Julius  Caesar  gave  it  to  Gallia ;  and,  in  the  process  of  time,  even  foreign 
cities  and  provinces  gradually  rose  to  similar  equality,  until  finally  all 
fireemen  of  the  Roman  empire  became  Roman  citizens.  {PL  12,  ßg.  10, 
Roman  citizen  and  his  wife.) 

To  express  the  grand  totality  of  the  citizens^  the  term  Roman  People 
(Populus  Romanus)  was  employed.  They  exercised  their  political  rights, 
especially  the  passing  of  laws  and  the  election  of  officers,  in  assemblies, 
to  which  they  gave  the  name  of  Comitia,  In  this  assembly  inhered  the 
whole  authority  (Majestas),  and  it  was  responsible  to  no  one. 

The  senate,  chosen  from  the  people,  constituted  the  legislative  body,  while 
the  executive  power  was  lodged  with  the  magistrate. 

Members  of  the  senate  constituted  a  social  order  (ordo  senatorius).  At 
a  later  period,  another  rank  appeared,  in  the  persons  of  knights  {ordo 
equestris).  The  remaining  population  formed  no  particular  class,  or  at  least 
had  no  special  denomination. 

The  knights  originally  consisted  of  such  citizens  as  had  served  in  war, 
as  horsemen  ;  and,  as  their  profession  involved  considerable  expenditure,  it 
was  open,  of  course,  only  to  the  wealthy.  The  possession  of  a  certain 
fortune,  without  regard  to  his  connexion  with  either  the  Patrician  or 
Plebeian  order,  qualified  a  man  for  election  to  knighthood.  The  consent  of 
the  highest  authorities  (kings,  consuls,  censors,  or  emperors)  was  required 
for  the  admission  to  the  knightly  order.  This  order,  in  later  times, 
enlarged  their  prerogatives,  and  at  the  courts  of  justice  took  their  seats  with 
the  senators.  By  their  wealth  they  secured  to  themselves  the  farming  of 
the  revenues  (the  most  profitable  pecuniary  speculation  at  that  period),  and 
they  became  so  strongly  united  by  undertakings  of  common  interest,  that 
even  in  the  times  of  the  emperors  they  were  able  to  maintain  themselves 
as  an  order. 

The  senate,  as  the  first  legislative  body,  originated  with  Romulus,  and 
was  composed  entirely  of  the  Patrician  class.  The  members  were  called 
Senators,  or  Patres,  and  at  first  numbered  only  one  hundred.  They  were 
afterwards  increased  to  one  thousand,  but  Augustus  reduced  them  to  six 
hundred.  Though  at  first  (until  306  B.C.)  none  but  the  Patricians  were 
eligible  to  the  office,  the  position  was,  later,  also  accessible  to  the  Plebeians, 
and  finally  the  order  of  knights  furnished  the  majority  of  the  members  of  the 
senate.  The  prerogatives  of  the  senators  were  not  always  the  same,  but 
the  following  appear  to  have  constituted  their  general  duties :  1.  They 
regulated  the  service  of  religion.  2.  They  managed  the  finances.  3. 
They  appointed  officers  to  the  provinces  :  in  the  times  of  the  emperors  only 
to  certain  provinces.    4.  They  could  invest  individuals  with  the  highest 

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44  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

executire  power.  5.  With  them  was  lodged  the  power  to  conduct  negotia- 
tions and  appoint  ambassadors.  6.  They  bestowed  public  honors,  especially 
that  of  triumphal  processions.  7.  They  administered  part  of  the  criminal 
jurisdiction.  8.  They  appointed  the  dictator.  9.  Lastly,  until  the  legisla- 
tion of  the  Decemvirs,  they  dictated  peace  and  war,  and  possessed  a  general 
command  over  the  army. 

As  signs  of  his  rank,  a  senator  wore  gaiter  boots  of  black  leather,  to  the 
top  of  which  was  affixed  a  silver  or  ivory  C  (centum  =  100,-  the  original 
number  of  the  order),  and  a  tunic,  marked  on  the  breast  with  a  perpen- 
dicular strip  of  purple.  Th6  senators  had  a  conspicuous  seat  at  all  the 
grand  spectacles.  While  on  a  tour  through  the  provinces,  they  were 
attended  by  an  escort  of  lictors,  and  might  claim  honors  equal  to  those  of 
the  resident  ambassadors.     (PL  12,  ßgs,  6,  7,  senators  clad  in  their  Togas.) 

The  term  Magutratus  applied  both  to  the  offices  of  state  collectively, 
and  to  the  incumbents  of  the  several  offices.  These  were  considered  as 
great  dignities,  and  were  filled  by  public  election. 

After  the  expulsion  of  the  Tarquins,  the  people  annually  chose  two 
consuls.  At  first  they  were  called  prsetors,  and  during  the  year  for  which 
they  were  elected,  possessed  regal  power.  While  engaged  in  public 
deliberations,  they  occupied  a  splendid  chair  of  office  {pi,  16,  fig,  6).  They 
carried  an  ivory  rod  as  a  sign  of  authority,  and  wore  a  robe  edged  with 
purple  {toga  prcstexta).  The  two  consuls  enjoyed  the  chief  authority 
alternately.  The  principal  consul  was  always  preceded  by  twelve  lictors, 
carrying  fasces  laureati,  or  bundles  of  rods,  with  an  axe  in  the  centre, 
adorned  with  laurel  twigs  {pi.  14,  figs.  15,  16);  the  other  w^s  followed 
by  the  lictors  without  fasces. 

In  the  time  of  the  emperors  the  consuls  wore  an  official  dre^s  {trcibea), 
but  the  office  relinquished  much  of  its  power  to  that  of  the  emperor. 
When  the  patricians  were  obliged  to  admit  plebeians  to  the  consulship, 
366  B.C.,  they  availed  themselves  of  the  frequent  absence  of  the  consuls  in 
war  to  create  the  patrician  dignity  of  praetor,  and  to  confer  upon  that  office 
the  management  of  the  jurisdiction. 

During  the  reign  of  Servius  Tullius,  a  law  was  enacted  requiring  a  census 
to  be  taken  every  fifth  year.  For  this  purpose  the  people  were  assembled 
in  the  Campus  Martins,  and  all  were  bound,  on  penalty  of  the  loss  of 
freedom  and  property,  to  report  their  names,  ages,  wealth,  families,  and 
social  condition.  In  the  commencement  of  the  republic  the  consuls  had 
the  charge  of  this  census,  but  from  444  B.C.,  it  was  intrusted  to  two  special 
censors,  who  also  had  to  watch  over  the  public  morals,  could  deprive  a  senator 
of  his  seat  or  a  knight  of  his  dignity,  and,  on  some  occasions,  curtail  the 
rights  of  other  citizens.  An  appeal  from  their  verdict  lay  to  their  succes- 
sors, and  even  to  the  people.  The  censors  exercised  supervision  over 
the  public  buildings,  and  farmed  out  the  public  revenues.  The  censorial  dig- 
nity vested  finally  in  the  person  of  the  emperor. 

When  great  danger  threatened  the  commonwealth,  the  Romans  appointed 
a  Dictator.     The  senate  was  judge  of  the  exigency  which  demanded  the 
creation  of  this  office.     The  power  of  the  dictator  was  very  extensive. 
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HISTORY  AND  feTHNOLOGY.  4fe 

Without  seeking  the  consent  of  the  senate,  or  fearing  the  opposition  of  the 
tribunes,  he  decided  all  afiairs  of  the  state,  and  possessed  the  authority  of 
life  and  death.  After  the  Macedonian  war,  however,  no  instance 
occurred  of  the  choice  of  a  dictator.  Twenty-four  lictors  preceded  him,  as 
well  within  the  city  as  beyond  its  walls.  Only  when  there  was  a  dictator, 
and  by  him  alone,  a  magister  equitum  was  appointed.  It  was  his  business 
to  command  the  horsemen,  and  act,  as  it  were,  as  adjutant-general  to  the 
dictator. 

The  above  mentioned  officers  formed  the  grand  council.  Other  subor- 
dinate and  occasional  officers  were :  the  prefect  of  the  city  {pr^efectus 
urbis),  acting  during  the  absence  of  the  consul ;  decemviri  (council  of  ten), 
appointed  to  frame  a  code  of  laws  ;  tribuni  militum  (council  of  war)  ;  an*' 
triummri  (council  of  three). 

The  Tribunes  of  the  People  (tribuni  plebis)  belonged  to  the  minor 
council.  They  had  to  guard  the  rights  of  the  citizens  against  encroach» 
ments,  and  their  persons  were  inviolable.  At  first  they  only  had  the 
right  of  protest  against  the  arrogations  of  consuls  or  senators,  but  they  soon 
extended  their  power.  Their  functions  ceased  with  the  republic.  Under 
the  emperors  their  dignity  amounted  to  nothing  but  the  mere  title. 

Other  offices  of  the  minor  council  were  the  jEdiles  pkbeii  et  curule$^ 
QucBstores,  &c.,  who  had  to  regulate  the  market-prices,  the  transfer  of 
property,  &c. 

Under  the  emperors  the  Prcefecti  pnetorii  (governors  of  the  emperor's 
palace)  held  a  high  rank. 

We  mention  finally  the  commanders  of  the  fleets  (preefecti  classium)^ 
and  the  commander  of  the  seven  cohorts  which  guarded  the  city  (prafectus 
vigilum). 

For  the  assistance  of  these  officers  we  find,  1,  the  scribce,  who  recorded 
the  legislative  acts,  and  preserved  the  public  documents  and  archives ; 
2.  the  notariij  who  recorded  public  transactions ;  3,  the  prcecones,  who 
called  the  people  to  the  assemblies,  delivered  the  proclamations  in  these 
assemblies,  conducted  auctions,  &c. ;  4,  lictores,  who  preceded  or  followed 
the  higher  officers  in  their  processions,  and  executed  the  judgments  against 
convicts;  they  bore  the  fasces  already  described  {pi.  12,  ßg.  9,  a  lictor)  ; 
5,  accensi  and  viatores,  who  occupied  with  certain  magistrates  the  place  of 
prsBCones  and  lictors.  The  latter  had  originally  been  messengers  who 
summoned  the  country  senators  to  the  meeting  of  the  senatorial  body. 

Upon  their  first  entrance  on  the  stage  of  history,  the  Romans  sought 
pre-eminence  in  war,  and  accordingly  the  interests  of  the  warrior  and 
those  of  the  state  were  identical.  The  consciousness  of  their  strength  as 
warriors  made  them  exercise  their  civic  privileges  without  detriment  to  the 
public  spirit  of  order,  which  was  guarded  by  a  great  simplicity  of  manners, 
a  deep  reverence  for  religion,  the  stringent  nature  of  the  domestic  and 
public  laws,  and  by  the  high  authority  of  the  magistrate.  We  may 
characterize  the  early  Romans  as  being  endowed  with  indomitable  valor, 
contempt  of  death,  love  of  renown  and  patriotism,  a  deep  contempt  for 
imbecility,  and  an  aversion  to  intellectual  culture.     But  when  Roma 

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46  HI8T0RY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

commenced  establishing  her  world-wide  empire,  and  extending  it  often  by 
ignoble  means,  the  genuine  Roman  character  was  gradually  changed  and 
finally  lost.  Some  subjugated  Italian  tribes  contributed  to  the  degeneracy 
of  the  Roman  people,  and  Oriental  luxury  increased  the  evil.  And  when 
Carthage,  Corinth,  Macedonia,  and  Asia,  yielded  up  their  treasures  to  the 
conquerors,  extravagance  reached  a  pitch  such  as  would  not  have  been 
expected  from  the  former  character  of  the  Romans.  Riches,  extorted  by 
fraud  and  violence,  were  wasted  by  the  most  influential  men  in  the  most 
outrageous  manner.  The  wealthy  freely  abandoned  themselves  to  drunken- 
ness and  debauchery,  while  the  masses  of  the  people  were  exposed  to  the 
horrors  and  miseries  of  poverty  and  disease.  They  would  have  starved 
but  for  occasional  alms  which  they  received  from  the  public  treasury,  or 
from  the  bounty  of  some  of  the  rich  citizens.  In  the  midst  of  such 
degradation,  it  is  clear  that  the  populace  were  easy  subjects  of  bribery, 
fit  instruments  for  those  who  needed  their  assistance  in  order  to  secure 
public  honors. 

At  this  period  of  licentiousness  and  profligacy  the  taste  for  the  arts  and 
sciences  first  manifested  itself.  It  was  called  forth  by  the  treasures  of  art 
which  the  Romans  had  brought  home  as  booty,  and  by  the  influence  of 
Greek  scholars,  who  were  the  guests  of  the  wealthy  citizens  of  Rome.  The 
young  men  henceforth  received  a  Greek  education. 

Husbandry  or  agriculture,  from  the  first,  constituted  the  principal  branch 
of  industry.  To  this  was  soon  added  the  raising  of  cattle,  and  consequently 
the  cultivation  of  grass  lands.  Much  care  also  was  bestowed  upon  the 
gardens  and  vineyards.  The  mechanical  trades  were  generally  despised, 
and  mostly  conducted  by  the  poorer  classes,  foreigners,  aqd  slaves.  Still 
the  number  of  mechanics  was  not  inconsiderable.  The  same  low  opinion 
was  entertained  of  commerce.  But  as  the  number  of  knights  increased, 
they  assumed  the  control  of  commerce  and  the  farming  of  the  revenues. 
Manufactures  did  not  flourish  extensively  at  Rome,  the  people  contenting 
themselves  for  the  most  part  with  imported  articles. 

The  traflic  of  the  Romans,  like  that  of  all  other  ancient  nations,  was 
limited  to  barter  and  purchase  with  uncoined  metals.  Servius  Tullius 
first  instituted  cast  coins,  but  not  stamped.  The  coins  were  clumsy 
quadrangular  plates  of  copper,  alloyed  with  tin  or  zinc.  Silver  coins  came 
into  use  269  B.C.,  and  gold  207  B.C.  The  principal  unit  in  the  Roman 
money,  was  the  cbs,  as,  libra,  or  pound.  It  was  originally  a  pound  in 
weight,  and  was  divided  into  twelve  ounces  (unciai).  The  Roman  pound 
was  to  the  Paris  pound  as  32  :21,  and  was  about  equal  to  eleven  ounces 
avoirdupois  weight.  The  names  of  the  coins  were  as  follows :  ^^  of  an  as 
fi=  1  uncia ;  /y  or  j^  =  1  sextans ;  j\  or  i  =  1  quadrans ;  ^  or  J  =  1  triens ; 
1*^=1  quincunx;  -|\  or  i  =  l  semissis  (semi-assis)  ;  -fj^^  septunx; 
iV  or  f  =  1  bes  (bis-triens) ;  x\  or  J  =  1  dodrans  ;  ||  or  f  =  1  decunx, 
or  dextans  ;  H  ~  I  deunx. 

The  as  suffered  one  reduction  after  another,  until,  from  its  original 
weight  of  a  pound,  it  was  depreciated  to  ^V  of  a  pound.  The  common 
impression  on  an  as  was  a  Janus  bifrons  on  one  side,  and  on  the  reverse 
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HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY,  47 

the  rostrum  of  a  ship.  An  as  libralis  (as  <sris  gravis,  as  csneus)  was 
equal  to  about  40  cents,  and  after  its  last  depreciation,  only  little  over  one 
cent.  The  denominations  of  the  as  multiplied,  were  : — duponditis,  sester^ 
tins,  tressis,  quatrtissis,  quinquessis,  ^.,  up  to  centussis. 

Silver  coins,  as  above  remarked,  came  into  use  269  B.C.  The  pound  of 
silver  was  worth  about  $13  20.  It  was  subdivided  into  100  denarii,  worth 
at  difierent  times  from  10  to  18  copper  as  each.  The  denar  was  also 
called  bigatus  or  quadrigatus,  on  account  of  the  coinage  representing  a 
double  or  quadruple  span. 

The  half-denarius  had  on  one  side  an  image  of  the  goddess  of  victory, 
and  was  therefore  called  victoriatus.  The  quarter-denarius  was  called 
nummus  sestertius  (semis  tertius),  and  was  marked  LLS,  or  IIS,  or  HS, 
meaning  duce  lihrce  et  semissis. 

Gold,  when  first  introduced,  counted  96  gold  denarii  (aurei)  to  the 
pound,  but  towards  the  close  of  the  republic  only  40.  The  value  of  gold  as 
compared  with  silver  was  originally  as  10  :  1 ;  in  the  best  days  of  the 
republic  as  12^ :  1  ;  and  under  the  emperors  as  14: 1.  An  aureus,  or 
solidus,  as  it  was  called  during  the  empire,  was  worth  25  denarii. 

Lai^e  sums  of  money  were  usually  reckoned  by  asses  or  sestertii.  The 
denarius  was  originally  assayed  and  stamped  after  the  Grecian  drachma ; 
hence  the  Roman  writers  frequently  use  the  word  drachma  for  denarius, 
even  at  the  time  when  the  denarius  had  much  depreciated  in  value,  and 
bore  to  the  drachma  the  proportion  of  28:25.  One  thousand  sestertii 
were  called  a  sestertium  (about  935).  A  very  common  coin  was  the 
sextans.     The  quadrans  was  also  much  used  :  it  bore  the  image  of  a  ship. 

We  give  fac-similes  of  several  coins.  PL  15,  figs.  2-10,  copper  pieces; 
figs.  11-15,  silver  coins  ;  figs.  16-19,  gold  pieces,  all  belonging  to  the  time 
of  the  republic  (consular  coins)  ;  figs.  20-25  exhibit  the  currency  of  the 
empire,  viz.  fig.  20,  a  copper  piece  ;  figs.  21-24,  silver  pieces ;  and  fig.  25, 
a  gold  piece.  PI.  18,  figs.  43-46,  matrices  for  coins  and  medals;  and 
figs.  47-56,  Gallic  coins  and  medals. 

In  the  training  of  the  young,  in  ancient  times,  the  improvement  of  the 
body  rather  than  of  the  mind  was  considered  of  importance.  It  consisted 
for  the  most  part  in  instilling  early  the  habits  and  principles  of  an 
honest  citizen ;  also  in  rehearsing  old  ballads  and  the  laws  of  the  Twelve 
Tables.  But  when  arts  and  sciences  had  been  introduced  by  the  Greeks, 
they  procured  Greek  slaves  (paedagogi)  to  instruct  them  in  the  elementary 
branches,  whereupon  they  were  sent  to  schools  to  acquire  knowledge  of 
different  kinds,  as  grammar,  rhetoric,  philosophy,  and  mathematics,  without, 
however,  neglecting  regular  gymnastic  exercises.  At  the  age  of  fifteen 
the  young  Roman  was  declared  a  citizen,  and  solemnly  invested  with  the 
toga  virilis  {pi.  \%figs.  11,  12,  Roman  youths).  After  the  ceremony  he 
continued  his  previous  style  of  training,  but  enjoyed  access  to  the  con^  er- 
sation  of  great  men,  was  present  at  public  transactions,  and  by  foreign 
travel,  especially  visiting  Greek  cities,  he  completed  his  preparation  for  the 
duties  of  manhood  and  active  life. 

The  dress  of  the  Romans  was  at  first  very  plain ;  consisting  of  the  toga 

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46  ÖISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

and  tunic  for  both  sexes.  These  remained  the  costume  of  the  men,  but  the 
increase  of  luxury  made  many  additions  to  the  attire  of  the  females.  The 
toga  was  a  wide  gown,  or  mantle,  of  an  almost  circular  form,  without 
sleeves.  It  covered  the  left  arm,  but  permitted  the  right  to  be  free.  It 
was  usually  of  wool,  but  the  color  and  ornaments  varied  according  to  the 
circumstances  of  the  wearer. 

Other  and  peculiar  dresses  were  the  following :  the  Icena^  lacerna,  and 
p€Bnulla,  mantles  used  in  winter  or  in  travelling;  the  sagum,  or  sack,  a 
short  thick  cape  worn  in  war  ;  the  paludamentum,  a  Grecian  purple  cloak, 
worn  by  the  commander-in-chief;  the  trabia,  a  species  of  toga  worn  by 
the  knights  and  augurs. 

The  tunic  was  worn  under  the  toga.  It  was  usually  white,  sometimes 
colored,  without  sleeves,  and  of  wool.  It  was  fastened  with  a  girdle 
{cingulum),  and  reached  below  the  knees.  It  constituted  the  only  clothing 
of  the  poor,  and  it  served,  without  the  toga,  as  a  suitable  apparel  in  the 
house  of  the  wealthy.  The  tunic  of  the  senators  {pi,  12,  figs,  6,  7)  was 
marked  upon  the  breast  by  a  broad  purple  stripe,  that  of  the  knights  by  a 
narrow  one  (clavtu). 

Except  in  journeying,  or  during  bad  weather,  all  the  Romans  went 
bareheaded.  The  feet  were  covered  in  the  house  by  leathern  sandals 
(soka,  crepida),  in  walking  or  travelling  by  shoes  more  or  less  high  (calceus). 

The  hair  and  beard  were  allowed  to  grow  prior  to  the  introduction  of 
Greek  fashions,  when  the  beard  was  shaved,  and  the  hair  cut,  anointed,  and 
curled. 

Distinguished  and  wealthy  Roman  women  usually  wore,  besides  the  under- 
garment {indusium),  a  costly  dress  {stola),  and  over  this  a  sort  of  cape 
(palla).  They  also  adorned  their  persons  with  rings,  necklaces,  ear-drops, 
head-dresses,  ribbons,  &;c.  PI,  12,  figt,  13-15,  Roman  matrons  ;  ^^.  16,  a 
Roman  maiden ;  figs,  17-29,  head-dresses  of  Roman  matrons  and  maidens ; 
figs,  30-32,  head-dresses  of  the  men.  The  dresses  of  the  emperor  and 
empress  did  not  vary  essentially  from  those  of  the  nobility.  We  represent, 
pi,  12, fig,  1,  a  Roman  emperor  without  his  arms;  fig,  2,  the  same  in  his 
war-cloak ;  ^^.  3,  the  emperor  arrayed  for  the  sacrifices ;  ^g"*.  4  and  5, 
Roman  empresses. 

In  early  times  the  dwellings  of  the  Romans  were  very  plain  and 
small ;  but  after  the  Punic  wars,  and  particularly  in  the  time  of  Sylla, 
private  mansions  of  great  magnificence  were  erected.  The  country-seats 
especially  showed  much  elegance.  The  dwellings  had  flat  roofs,  and  only 
one  story. 

The  fare  of  the  ancient  Romans  was  prepared  with  the  greatest 
simplicity  and  frugality ;  but  in  later  years  richness  and  costliness 
increased  also  in  this  respect.  Towards  the  end  of  the  republic,  and  in  the 
days  of  the  emperors,  their  luxury  and  voluptuousness  excelled  even 
that  of  the  ancient  Asiatics.  For  their  meals  the  rich  Romans  had  special 
apartments.  The  tables  were  quadrangular,  and  had  on  both  sides  soft 
couches.  In  the  time  of  the  Caesars  the  table  took  the  form  of  a  semicircle 
(pi.  16,  a  Roman  feast; figs.  2  and  3,  couches).  Originally  wine  was 
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rarely  drunk  by  the  men,  and  altogether  avoided  by  the  women;  but, 
subsequently,  both  Italian  and  foreign  wines,  and  especially  those  from 
Greece,  were  habitually  drunk  at  meals.  Various  games  and  amusements 
were  indulged  in  during  the  meals,  as  dice,  bufibonery,  music,  and 
dancing  (pL  16,  figs.  58-^2,  various  forms  of  dice). 

A  number  of  vessels,  ornaments,  and  domestic  utensils,  are  represented 
in  pis.  16  and  17.  Thus/?/.  17,  figs.  8-10,  urns  and  vases  finely  wrought; 
figs.  11  and  12,  large  water-bowls;  figs.  13-15,  vases  on  tripods ;^^^. 
16-19,  candelabra;  figs.  20-22,  pitchers  and  flasks;  figs.  23«*,  24-26, 
bowls ;  figs.  27-30,  lamps ;  figs.  31-33,  torches ;  fig.  34,  case  for  the 
preservation  of  manuscripts:/^.  35,  basket;/^«.  36-41,  kitchen  utensils; 
figs.  42-46,  drinking  vessels ;  figs.  47  and  48,  knife  handles  ;  figs.  49  and 
50,  sickles  ;  fig.  51,  congius,  or  measure  for  liquids  (8  congii  =  1  amphora ; 
1  congius  =  161.3625  cubic  inches)  ;  fig.  52,  grain  measure  {modius, 
bushel)  ;  fig.  53,  granite  bath  ;  figs.  54  and  55,  skimming  ladles :  figs.56-59, 
articles  connected  with  the  toilette;  pi.  16, fig,  4,  folding  chair ;/^.  5**, 
chairs  ;  fig.  7,  table  ;  figs.  8  and  9,  candelabra ;  fig.  10,  Palladium  (vessels 
supported  by  statues  of  Minerva);/^.  11,  font;  figs.  19-21,  bowls  ;/^5, 
22-25,  fonts  supported  by  tripods  ;  fig.  26,  sarcophagus ;  fig.  27,  domestic 
altar ;  figs.  28-34,  clasp-pins  and  rings  for  women  ;  figs.  35-47,  finger  and 
ear-rings  ;  figs,  48,  49,  styli,  instruments  for  writing  and  engraving ;  figs. 
50,  51,  seals  ;  figs.  52  «*-57,  keys ;  figs.  63-65,  knife  and  fork  handles. 

The  Carthaginians,  Phrygians,  Sarmatians,  Germans,  Gauls,  and  other 
nations,  who  either  submitted  to  the  Romans  or  formed  alliances  with 
them,  adopted  nlany  of  the  Roman  customs  and  fashions.  In  pi.  18  are 
represented  relievos  which  exhibit  sundry  costumes,  also  coins,  utensils, 
ornaments,  &c.  Fig.  I,  Gallic  matrons  and  their  dresses  ;  fig.  2,  antique 
bas-relief  from  Marseilles ;  fig.  3,  bas-relief  from  Narbonne ;  fig.  4,  one 
from  Metz;  figs.  5  and  6,  two  from  Langres  and  Paris  respectively; 
fig.  7**,  old  Gothic  coin;  fig.  8*^,  Gallic  coin  stamped  after  Greek 
models;  figs.  11  and  27,  Gallic  keys;  fig.  12,  fragment  of  a  Gothic 
frontlet;  figs.  13-16,  coverings  for  the  feet;  figs.  17  and  18,  lamps; 
figs.  19  and  20,  candelabra ;  fig.  21,  a  chime  of  bells  ;  fig.  22-26,  table,  chairs, 
and  couch;  figs.  28-30,  table  vessels;/^«.  31  and  32,  fork  and  spoon; 
figs.  33  and  34,  ear-drops ;  fig.  35  •*,  rings ;  fig.  36,  necklace ;  fig.  37, 
seal  ■»  fig^'  43-46,  matrices  or  dies  for  coins  and  medals ;  fig.  61,  Cussy 
column,  t.  e.  an  octangular  pillar,  surrounded  by  statues  of  the  Roman 
gods.  It  stands  on  a  meadow,  near  the  French  village  of  Cussy -la- 
Colonne,  in  the  district  of  Beaune,  department  of  Cote  d'Or,  and  is, 
unquestionably,  a  specimen  of  old  Roman  art. 

Without  permission  of  the  senate,  no  marriage  but  that  of  Roman 
citizens  and  matrons  was  lawful ;  and  at  first  the  intermarriage  of  patricians 
and  plebeians  was  prohibited.  Before  the  celebration  of  the  nuptials,  a 
solemn  betrothal  took  place,  at  which  the  bridegroom  placed  a  ring  upon 
the  finger  of  the  bride,  after  the  consent  of  the  fathers  had  been  given,  and 
in  presence  of  all  the  relations. 

On  the  evening  of  the  wedding,  the  bride  was  wrested  with  apparent 

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i50  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

force  from  her  mother's  arms,  and  covered  with  a  veil.  She  was  theft 
conducted  by  three  boys  with  torches,  and  escorted  by  relatives  and  friends 
to  the  house  of  the  bridegroom.  Here  she  smeared  the  door-posts  with 
grease  to  prevent  evil  enchantments,  and  was  then  lifted  by  the  attendants 
over  the  threshold.  She  carried  from  home  a  distaff,  with  spindle  and  wool, 
and  received  on  entering  the  keys  of  the  house,  fire,  and  water.  Then 
followed  the  festive  entertainment,  accompanied  with  singing  and  dancing. 
Nuts  were  scattered  among  the  people.  On  the  next  day  followed  a  thank- 
offering,  by  the  newly-espoused,  to  the  Lares  or  Penates  (household  gods). 

Divorces  were  at  all  times  permitted  on  the  part  of  the  husband  ;  but  in 
the  early  ages,  owing  to  the  strict  mode  of  living,  seldom  occurred. 
Under  the  emperors  divorces  frequently  took  place  for  the  most  frivolous 
reasons,  on  both  sides. 

The  festivals  of  the  Romans  were  partly  celebrated  by  private  families, 
partly  by  the  whole  people.  The  public  games  ranked  among  them ; 
their  primary  and  original  importance  lay  in  their  religious  significance,  but 
by  degrees  they  changed  their  character  entirely.  We  notice  some  of  the 
principal  sports. 

1.  The  Ltidi  Circenses,  These  are  said  to  have  been  instituted  by 
Romulus  in  honor  of  the  god  Census,  though  they  took  their  name  from 
the  Circus  Maximus,  built  by  Tarquinius  Priscus,  who  ordered  them 
to  be  celebrated  in  this  place.  The  procession  marched  from  the  Capitol, 
through  the  market,  to  the  Circus.  The  youth  occupied  the  front,  some 
on  foot,  others  mounted ;  then  followed  the  chariots ;  after  these,  the 
gladiators,  cithara  and  flute-players,  buffoons,  jugglers,  the  band  of  music, 
and,  finally,  persons  haying  charge  of  the  sacrifice,  bearing  golden  and 
silver  vessels  and  the  images  of  the  gods,  in  splendid  carriages  or  frames. 
Before  the  opening  of  the  games,  sacrifices  were  made  by  the  magistrates 
and  priests.  The  contests  which  followed  consisted  of  races  on  horses  and 
in  chariots,  gymnastic  exercises  in  the  style  of  the  Greeks,  various  warlike 
performances  on  foot  and  horseback,  and  combats  of  beasts,  in  which  the 
animals  either  fought  alone,  or  with  gladiators.  These  latter  were  either 
volunteers  or  condemned  criminals.  Finally,  representations  of  naval 
battles  took  place. 

The  circus  had  room  for  150,000  persons,  or,  according  to  others, 
885,000.  On  the  one  side  were  the  lists  (carceres),  with  openings  (ostia) 
from  which  the  chariots  received  the  signal  to  start.  Through  the  middle 
extended  a  strong  wall  (spina).  It  was  four  feet  high,  and  ornamented* 
with  statues  and  designs  suited  to  the  place.  The  course  encompassed  this 
wall,  at  each  end  of  which  arose  three  pyramidal  pillars  (met<B). 

2.  Ludi  Gladiatorii,  the  games  of  the  gladiators.  These  were  originally 
held  in  honor  of  the  distinguished  dead,  and  took  place  at  their  obsequies. 
Afterwards  they  became  public  amusements,  given  on  certain  solemn 
occasions  at  the  expense  of  the  state  or  of  individuals,  in  amphitheatres 
built  for  the  purpose.  The  gladiators  were  generally  slaves,  prisoners,  and 
criminals ;  but  freemen,  too,  for  money  would  take  their  place.  Under 
the  emperors  these  games  reached    a  fearful    eminence.      During   the 

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HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  61 

festivals  ordered  after  Trajan's  victory  over  the  Dacians,  and  which  lasted 
123  days,  ]  0,000  men  and  11,000  animals  were  active  combatants. 

8.  Ludi  scenici,  dramatic  representations,  first  introduced  by  tht. 
Etruscan  players,  364  B.C.  More  than  one  hundred  years  later,  Livius 
Andronicus  introduced  the  Greek  drama. 

PI.  14  gives  illustrations  of  the  principal  details  of  the  Circensian  games. 
Fig.  1,  procession  on  horseback  round  the  spina ;  fig.  2,  racing  on  horse- 
back ;  fig.  3,  chariot  races ;  fig.  4,  ground  plan  of  the  Circus  Neronis  ;  fig. 
5,  elevation  of  the  wing  AA  ;  fig.  6,  elevation  of  the  wing  BB  ;  fig.  7,  ele- 
vation of  the  spina  ££,  adorned  from  a  to  q,  with  altars,  statues,  &c. ; 
particularly,  a,  a  temple  with  an  obelisk ;  ft,  a  temple  with  seven  balls  or 
eggs,  dedicated  to  Castor  and  Pollux ;  c,  pillar  with  a  statue  of  victory ;  i, 
central  obelisk  of  the  spina,  and  answering  the  purpose  of  a  dial ;  fig. 
8,  meics,  the  pillars  at  the  end  of  the  circus ;  fig.  9,  dial  obelisk  of  the 
spina  on  a  larger  scale ;  fig.  10,  statue  of  Mercury  marking  the  commence- 
ment of  the  lists  in  the  circus ;  fig.  1 1,  a  race  chariot ;  figs.  12,  13,  portions 
of  the  same;  fig.  14,  banner  with  a  winged  victory;  pi.  15,  fi^.  J, 
gladiatorial  combat  with  animals  in  the  Coliseum  in  the  reign  of  Domitian  , 
pi.  13,  fig.  2,  contest  of  gladiators  in  the  theatre. 

The  Romans,  like  the  Greeks,  regarded  the  burial  of  the  dead  as  a 
religious  ceremony,  and  the  wealthy  spared  no  cost  in  the  splendor  amd 
pageantry  of  their  interments.  This  went  so  far,  that  the  law  was  finally 
compelled  to  interfere  to  regulate  them. 

Distinguished  Romans  were  buried  nearly  as  follows:  After  various 
ceremonies,  the  corpse  was  publicly  exposed  for  several  days.  On  the 
eighth  day  it  was  folded  in  the  toga,  or  if  the  deceased  had  been  a  public 
character,  in  the  oflicial  dress,  and  a  small  coin,  as  a  fee  to  Charon,  was 
placed  in  the  mouth.  Then  followed  a  solemn  funeral.  In  earlier  times 
funerals  took  place  at  night,  but  the  time  was  afterwards  changed  to  the 
morning.  At  the  head  of  the  procession  marched  a  band  of  music,  and  a 
number  of  women,  hired  as  mourners.  Then  followed  several  players  and 
mimics,  who,  concealed  by  carefully  executed  masks,  represented  the  deceased 
and  his  ancestors.  Next  came  persons  carrying  the  portraits  of  the 
ancestors  and  the  decorations  of  the  deceased ;  and  finally,  the  corpse  upon 
an  open  bier,  surrounded  and  carried  by  relatives  and  friends  in  mourning. 
In  the  Forum,  through  which  the  pageant  passed,  a  funeral  address  was 
pronounced,  after  which  the  body  was  borne  out  of  the  city  to  be  either 
•burned  or  interred.  In  the  first  century  before  Christ,  the  former  mode  of 
disposing  of  the  body  was  prevalent,  but  after  the  introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity, ceased  entirely.  The  coifin  was  not  unfrequently  made  of  stone.  In 
case  the  body  was  burnt,  the  magnitude  of  the  funeral  pile  varied,  of  coui-se, 
with  the  wealth  and  position  of  the  deceased.  The  pile  consisted  of 
odoriferous  combustibles,  or  was  sprinkled  with  incense  after  being  lighted 
by  the  relatives,  with  their  faces  averted.  Costly  objects,  especially  the 
armor,  clothing,  and  industrial  implements  of  the  deceased,  were  usually 
consumed  with  the  body  (pi.  IS,  fig.  4).  In  the  meantime,  the  female 
mourners,  joined  by  the  bystanders,  sang  funeral  songs.  Occasionally,  during 

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62  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

the  burning  of  the  corpse,  or  after  it  was  consumed,  gladiatorial  combats 
were  performed  {pi.  13,  ßg.  3). 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  deification  (apotheosis)  of  Romulus. 
After  Julius  Caesar,  the  practice  became  frequent  with  the  emperors.  The 
person  thus  deified  took  the  appellation  Divus,  or  in  the  case  of  an  empress, 
Diva,  the  family  name  was  changed,  and  the  new  deity  was  represented 
with  the  attributes  of  glory,  divinity,  &c.  During  the  burning  of  the  body 
of  a  deified  person,  an  eagle  was  caused  to  rise  from  the  flames  {ßg.  4) ; 
on  monuments  is  represented  the  divinity  supported  by  an  eagle,  or  if  it  is 
an  empress,  by  a  peacock.  After  the  fire  was  extinguished,  the  relatives 
collected  the  ashes  and  bones,  and  had  them  solemnly  deposited  with  costly 
spices  in  an  urn  {pL  16,  ßgs,  13-18 •*)  ;  pi  17,  ßgs.  8-10,  Roman  urns. 
For  old  Gallic  funeral  urns,  see  pi  18,  ßgs,  9,  10,  38,  39 ;  and  German 
urns,  ßgs.  40-42.  These  urns  were  finally  deposited  in  graves,  vaults 
{Sepulchra,  Mausolea,  Cenotaphia,  Catacombce,  &c.) .  Originally,  the  remains 
were  interred  either  in  the  fields  or  near  the  dwelling  of  the  deceased ; 
but  after  the  promulgation  of  the  Twelve  Tables,  only  Vestal  Virgins,  and 
such  persons  as  obtained  special  permission,  could  be  buried  within  the 
limits  of  the  city.  Interments  were  frequently  made  near  the  public  roads, 
and  celebrated  men  were  buried  in  the  Campus  Martins  or  Campus  Esqui- 
linus.  The  wealthv  had  tombs  on  their  own  manors  and  estates :  the 
poor  people  were  buried  in  a  field  outside  the  Esquiline  gate.  PL  16, 
ßg.  26,  and  pL  17,  ßgs.  5-7,  sarcophagi ;  pL  17,  ßgs.  2-4,  tombs  ;  pi.  18,  ßgs. 
Ö7,  58,  Carthaginian  monuments;  pi  17,  ßg.  1,  the  tomb  street  in  Pompeii, 
taking  its  name  from  the  beautifully  finished  tombs  along  its  sides. 

Italy  had  numerous  catacombs,  similar  to  those  of  Egypt,  Asia  Minor, 
Syria,  Persia,  &c.  These  subterranean  structures  were  originally  quarries, 
but  were  used  in  later  times  as  places  of  burial.  During  the  persecutions, 
these  dismal  caves  served  as  places  of  worship  for  the  Christians.  A 
large  number  of  martyrs  are  interred  in  the  catacombs  of  Rome,  to  which 
the  church  of  St.  Sebastian  forms  the  principal  entrance.  PI  \9y  ßg.  11, 
ground  plan  of  part  of  the  Roman  catacombs ;  ßg.  2,  those  of  Syracuse ; 
ßg.  3,  those  of  Naples ;  ßg.  4,  longitudinal  section  of  part  of  the  latter ; 
ßg.  5,  transverse  section  of  another  part  of  the  same ;  ßg.  6,  the  chapel 
seen  in  ßg.  5,  on  a  larger  scale  ;  ßg.  7  •,  plan  of  the  catacombs  of  San 
Marcellino,  near  Rome  ;  ßg.  7  *,  perspective  view  of  some  galleries  in  the 
same ;  ßgs.  8,  9,  details  of  the  same  ;  ßg.  10,  view  of  one  of  its  chapels ; 
ßgs.  12,  13,  the  opened  graves  of  the  Christian  martyrs ;  ßg.  14,  a  sarco- 
phagus from  the  catacombs  ;  ßg.  15,  chapel  and  tomb  of  St.  Hermes  ;  ßg. 
16,  chapel  and  oratory  connected  with  the  grave  of  St.  Agnes ;  ßg.  17, 
ground  plan  of  the  subterranean  church  of  St.  Hermes  ;^^.  18,  elevation 
of  the  subterranean  church  of  St.  Prisca  ;  ßg.  19,  tabernacle  of  the  church 
of  St.  Nereus  and  St.  Achilles,  near  the  columns  of  Antoninus ;  and  ßg. 
1,  view  of  the  apostles'  grotto  at  Jerusalem. 

St.  Agnes,  a  beautiful  young  woman  of  Rome,  was  universally  celebrated 
for  sanctity  and  purity,  and  suffered  martyrdom,  303  A.D.     The  29th  of 
January  is  sacred  to  her  memory.     St.  Hermes  or  Hermas  was  one  of  the 
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HI8T0BY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  63 

Apostolic  Fathers,  mentioned  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  xvi.  14 ; 
according  to  others,  he  was  a  brother  of  the  Roman  bishop  Pius,  140  A.D. ; 
while  still  another  class  maintain  that  he  was  one  of  the  seventy-three 
disciples,  and  bishop  of  Philippi  and  Philipopolis.  St.  Prisca,  or  Priscilla, 
is  named  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  xviii.  2,  18,  and  26,  and  Epist. 
Romans  xvi.  3.  St.  Nereus  (St.  Neri)  was  a  follower  of  St.  Maria 
Domitilla,  whom  he  accompanied  with  St.  Achilles,  in  her  exile  to  Pontus, 
where  both  sufiered  martyrdom  through  the  agency  of  the  proconsul 
Minutius  Rufus,  under  the  emperor  Domitian.  The  day  sacred  to  the 
memory  of  both  is  May  12th.  It  is  supposed  they  were  baptized  by  the 
Apostle  Peter. 


II.  HISTORY  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES  (895-1Ö00  A.D.). 

The  history  of  the  middle  age»  usually  embraces  the  period  between  the 
fall  of  the  West-Roman  empire  and  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century.  At 
the  decline  of  the  Roman  empire  in  the  west,  Europe  presented  a  scene 
of  boundless  confusion.  Savage  conquerors  swarmed  over  the  dismem- 
bered parts  of  the  vast  empire,  and  destroyed,  with  cruel  hands,  the 
admirable  works  of  art,  skill,  and  industry.  Out  of  this  chaos  of  bar- 
barism new  states  were  destined  to  arise,  and  give  to  order  and  civilization 
a  new  and  lasting  impetus. 

Religion  is  the  source  of  all  human  civilization,  and  on  this  element  rests 
the  history  of  the  people  of  the  middle  ages.  Three  grand  forms  of  religion 
prevailed  :  Christianity,  Islamism,  and  the  worship  of  the  Grand  Lama.  These 
found  their  expression  in  three  vast  hierarchies,  which,  though  differing  in 
their  respective  constitutions,  nevertheless  furnished  strong  bonds  of  union 
for  the  scattered  nations.  The  grand  theatre  for  the  movement  of  the 
middle  ages  is  Europe  and  Asia. 

At  the  commencement  of  this  period,  the  Roman  empire  appears  rent  in 
two  divisions :  the  eastern  and  western.  Through  internal  and  external 
causes,  the  former  gradually  declined,  but  the  latter  continued  to  exist  for 
several  centuries,  although  deprived  of  its  earlier  glory.  Persia  still 
asserted  her  power,  threatening  that  of  Rome,  while  from  the  north,  in 
wild  multitudes,  poured  down  the  Germans,  Sarmatians,  and  Scythians. 
About  the  close  of  the  fourth  century,  after  the  Visigoths  and  ihe  Vandals 
had  overrun  the  eastern  wing  of  the  empire,  and  the  Huns  had  scattered 
their  terrors  over  the  plains  of  Italy,  the  Herulian  Odoaker,  and  soon  after 
the  Ostrogoth  Theodoric,  appeared  in  Europe,  and  led  on  their  armies  to 
decided  triumphs.  All  the  provinces  of  Western  Rome,  by  degrees,  became 
subject  to  the  conquering  tribes.  The  Vandals  possessed  themselves  of 
Africa ;  Spain  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Alans,  Suevians,  and  Visigoths : 
the  last,  however,  also  took  possession  of  Gallia ;  the  Burgundians  located 
along  the  banks  of  the  Saone  ;  and  the  Alemanni  upon  those  of  the  Upper 
Rhine.     The  Franks  obtained  Northern  and  Eastern  Gallia,  while  the  Angli 

lOONOORAPHIC   XNCTCLOPiBDIA. — ^VOL.   m.  15  226 


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64  HBBTOBY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

and  Saxons  moved  into  Britain  ;  the  Rugii  and  Heruli  seized  upon 
Noricum  and  the  adjoining  districts,  and  the  Ostrogoths  took  Italy  and  the 
Rhaetian  and  Illyrian  provinces.  The  eastern  empire,  too,  was  compelled 
helplessly  to  witness  the  spoliation  of  its  European  provinces,  particulariy 
those  of  the  north.  In  passing  to  the  west,  the  Gothic  tribes  had  seized 
upon  the  rich  and  cultivated  territories  lying  on  the  Danube  and  about  Mount 
Haemus,  and  soon  after  the  Gepid®,  a  cognate  people,  settled  in  Pannonia. 
Next  to  these  came  the  terrible  Huns,  driving  all  before  them,  and  moving 
unchecked  as  far  as  the  Loire  and  the  Po ;  and  finally,  the  no  less  savage 
Bulgarians,  Avari,  &c. 

These  vast  national  incursions  continued  down  to  the  beginning  of  the 
eighth  century.  The  Slavonic  and  new  (^ermanic  tribes  became  the  successors 
of  the  Asiatic  invaders,  and  took  up  their  abodes  in  the  Roman,  Germanic, 
and  Sarmatian  dominions.  About  this  period  were  organized  the  realms  of 
the  Saxons,  Frisii,  Thuringians,  and  Bavarians.  The  Liombards  secured  the 
ascendency  in  Upper  Italy,  while  the  Wendic,  Slavonic,  Turkish,  and 
Tartar  races,  entered  the  regions  lying  *  between  the  Black  and  Baltic 
seas,  and  waged  perpetual  wars  with  each  other.  In  this  way  many  new 
kingdoms  were  founded,  most  of  which  soon  again  went  to  ruin,  so  that 
their  very  names  were  forgotten ;  others,  again,  lost  their  independence. 
Thus  the  vast  and  powerful  kingdom  of  the  Huns  was  entirely  dissolved, 
soon  after  the  death  of  their  leader,  Attila,  454  A.D.  From  the  Palus 
Maeotis  to  the  boundaries  of  Bavaria,  the  Calmuck  and  Tartar  hordes 
enjoyed  unmolested  empire,  while  beyond  them,  towards  the  north,  ruled 
Slavonic  tribes.  The  Visigoths  conquered  the  Suevi  and  Alans  in  Spain. 
The  Vandals,  who  had  crossed  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  and  settled  in  North 
Africa,  were  obliged  to  relinquish  their  homes,  and  thus  the  powerful  state 
founded  by  Genseric  was  destroyed  by  the  Roman  commander,  Belisarius, 
in  the  first  part  of  the  sixth  century,  and  fell  under  Roman  dominion.  Not 
long  after,  under  the  immediate  successors  of  the  great  Theodoric,  the 
Ostrogothic  empire  tottered  to  its  fall ;  and  only  a  few  years  later,  the 
Longobardi,  who  had  already  subverted  the  kingdom  of  the  Gepid®  and 
Heruli,  wrested  Upper  Italy  from  the  Byzantines ;  but  in  their  turn,  were 
at  last  obliged  to  submit  to  the  victorious  Franks,  774  A.D. 

Clodowig,  or  Clovis,  founded  the  monarchy  of  the  Franks,  496  A.D. 
The  empire  rose  rapidly.  Having  crushed  the  few  remains  of  Roman 
dominion,  Clovis  next  subdued  the  Alemanni,  and  expelled  the  Visigoths 
from  Southern  Gallia.  He  afterwards  reduced  to  a  condition  of  dependence, 
the  Burgundians,  Thuringians,  Frisii,  Bavarians,  and  a  considerable 
division  of  the  Saxons,  and  thus  laid  in  the  heart  of  Europe  the  foundation 
of  a  new  and  splendid  political  power,  which  attained  the  summit  of  its 
strength  in  the  reign  of  Charlemagne  (768-814). 

Various  fortunate  circumstances  combined  to  enable  Constantinople  to 
turn  aside  the  streams  of  the  barbarian  migrations.  Under  Justinian  the 
Great,  appeared  for  a  while  to  be  regained,  through  Belisarius  and  Narses, 
some  of  the  former  Roman  glory  at  arms.  But  the  old  causes  of  decline : 
the  despotism,  profligacy,  and  mental  imbecility  of  the  emperors,  and  the 
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HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  56 

ambitious  iDtrigues  of  the  priesthood  and  the  army,  shook  the  empire  to  its 
foundation.  Had  not  external  circumstances  been  favorable,  the  Byzantine 
throne  had  crumbled  to  dust  much  sooner  than  it  did.  In  Asia  it  only 
retained  Asia  Minor  and  the  Syrian  coast,  and  Persia  formed  its  eastern 
boundary.  The  last  great  prince  of  the  Persian  empire  was  Chosroe«! 
Parvis.  He  reigned  from  591-628  A.D.,  and  was  assassinated  through  the 
instrumentality  of  his  son  Shirves ;  whose  successor  fell  with  the  whole 
empire,  under  the  power  of  the  Arabian  Caliph  Omar,  684  A.D. 

Arabia,  invincible  on  account  of  its  deserts,  and  consequently  having 
never  yet  fallen  under  any  conqueror,  now  became  an  empire  of  importance 
in  the  world.  It  soon  extended  over  three  parts  of  the  globe,  and  thei*«) 
sprang  up  a  religion  which  even  at  present  is  far  spread  in  the  east. 

Mahomed,  son  of  Abdallah,  was  the  founder  both  of  the  empire  and  of 
the  religion.  He  was  bom  at  Mecca,  569  or  571  A.D.,  and  his  religion 
bears  his  name.  He  died  632  A.D.  A  hardy  people  like  the  Arabians,  full 
of  religious  enthusiasm,  and  believing  in  fatalism,  could  hardly  meet  any 
efiectual  resistance. 

Asia  Minor  was  conquered  by  Osman,  whose  reign  lasted  from  644-650 
A.D.  He  created  a  naval  force,  subdued  Cyprus,  Rhodus,  and  Creta,  and  at 
length  even  threatened  Constantinople.  Later,  the  Arabians  established  their 
government  over  India,  Samarcand,  and  Northern  Africa.  Carthage  yielded, 
689  A.D.  ;  and  crossing  the  straits  to  Spain,  711  A.D.,  the  Mahomedans 
vanquished  the  Visigoths  at  Xeres  de  la  Frontera,  subdued  Sevilla,  and 
erected  in  the  city  of  Cordova  a  separate  Caliphate.  It  was  their  plan  to 
return  to  Arabia  through  France,  Germany,  and  Hungary,  by  way  of  Con* 
stantinople,  and  to  win  these  countries  to  Islamism ;  but  they  were  prevented 
by  the  successful  interposition  of  Charles  Martel,  782  A.D.  They  also  secured  * 
strong  positions  in  Sicily  and  Lower  Italy.  Under  Caliph  Al-Walid, 
705-715  A.D.,  the  Mahomedan  power  rose  to  the  height  of  its  grandeur 
and  extent.  But  violent  internal  quarrels  in  regard  to  the  regal  succession 
distracted  the  empire.  The  family  of  the  Abassides  at  length  gained  the 
supremacy.  They  were  greatly  distinguished  for  the  promotion  of  science 
and  art.  Among  its.  members  ranked  high  Al-Mansin,  who  made  the 
newly-built  city  of  Bagdad  his  residence;  Harun-al-Rashid,  the  great 
contemporary  of  Charlemagne,  who  died  806  A.D. ;  and  Al-Mamum,  who 
died  832  A.D. 

The  Chinese  empire  exhibited  no  signs  of  progress  or  development.  Of 
immense  extent,  and  well  stocked  with  schools,  scholars,  and  bonzes 
(priests),  it  seems,  nevertheless,  to  have  stood  still  on  a  certain  step  of 
civilization,  while  all  its  neighbors  were  in  a  phase  of  rapid  development 
and  reorganization.     It  will  not  claim  our  attention  till  at  a  later  period. 

We  here  close  the  first  division  of  this  period,  and  propose,  before 
entering  on  the  second,  to  append  some  special  notices  about  several  tribes 
aBuded  to  in  this  outline. 


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56  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 


1.  The  60TH8. 

The  Goths  (Gode-men)  are  a  German  nation,  and  it  is  supposed  that 
they  originally  resided  far  north  in  the  Scandinavian  peninsula.  Inclosed 
by  the  sea  on  two  sides,  they  early  became  mariners.  They  abandoned 
their  rude  homes,  and  setting  out  upon  frail  vessels  under  King  Verig, 
they  located  in  European  Sarmatia.  Historians  represent  them  as  early  as 
820  B.C.  living  at  the  mouth  of  the  Vistula.  We  see  them  about  the  end 
rf  the  second  century  of  the  Christian  era  uniting  with  other  German 
tribes,  and  breaking  beyond  their  boundaries  in  vast  numbers.  In  the  third 
century  they  appeared  in  Dacia,  and  penetrating  in  an  eastern  direction, 
seized  the  best  portions  of  coast  along  the  Black  and  Caspian  seas.  They 
tnade  continual  incursions  into  the  Roman  provinces,  and  carried  on 
numerous  and  successful  piratical  expeditions.  While  residing  in  the 
south-east  of  Europe,  they  separated  into  two  grand  political  divisions, 
ruled  by  special  royal  families :  the  Ostrogoths,  who  occupied  the  coasts 
of  Pontus ;  and  the  Visigoths,  who  settled  in  Dacia.  Their  subsequent 
history  has  already  been  given.     {PL  20,  fig.  1,  a  Goth.) 


2.  The  Subvl 

Some  writers  attribute  the  derivation  of  the  name  Suevi  to  a  custom  of 
wearing  the  hair  tied  at  the  top  of  the  head,  though  it  seems  more  natural  to 
deduce  it  from  their  principal  river,  Suevus  (Oder).  Suevi  is  a  compre- 
hensive appellation  for  all  the  tribes  living  between  the  Vistula,  Upper 
Elbe,  and  Danube,  the  principal  of  whom  were  the  Semnones,  Quadi, 
Marcomanni,  Goths,  &c.,  who  were  members  of  the  powerful  alliance 
mentioned  as  the  Suevian  Union.  Caesar  gives  the  earliest  account  of 
them.  He  says  that  their  state  was  divided  into  one  hundred  counties, 
every  one  of  which  annually  furnished  1000  armed  men  for  war  purposes. 
Those  who  remained  at  home  cultivated  the  soil  for  their  own  support  and 
that  of  the  army;  and  every  year  the  husbandmen  and  the  warriors 
exchanged  employments.  None  had  private  landed  property,  and  the 
residences  were  changed  yearly  ;  for  that  reason  they  are  not  likely  to 
have  had  cities. 

Irritated  by  some  incursions  of  the  Romans  into  Pannonia  and  Noricum, 
the  Suevi  crossed  the  Danube,  under  their  leader  Marbodius,  and  seized 
q[pon  the  adjacent  countries.  From  that  period  the  name  Suevi  has  been 
applied  only  to  the  southern  branch  of  the  alliance,  though,  in  the  fourth 
century,  these  tribes  were  called  by  their  different  names,  while  only  the 
Germans  who  settled  in  the  modern  Suabia  were  known  by  the  name  of 
Suevi,  which  henceforth  became  the  appellation  of  one  people.  {PL  20» 
fig.  2,  a  Suevian.) 


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HISTOEY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  57 


8.  The  GEPiDiS. 

These  were  clearly  a  branch  of  the  old  Gothic  stock.  Their  name 
^G^pid® :  lazy,  slothful)  originated,  it  is  believed,  from  the  sluggish 
movement  of  the  awkward  ships  in  which  they  emigrated  from  Scandi- 
navia  into  Germany. 

After  settling  near  the  mouth  of  the  Vistula  they  became  so  numerous 
and  powerful  that,  254  A.D.,  they  moved  out  under  their  king  Fastida,  and 
conquered  the  Burgundians.  Very  soon  after  this  they  met  a  mortifying 
defeat  from  the  Ostrogoths.  Subdued  by  the  hordes  of  Attila,  they  finally 
settled,  454  A.D.,  in  Dacia,  where  they  founded  a  kingdom,  concluded  a 
friendly  alliance  with  the  Romans,  and  assisted  the  Ostrogoths  against  the 
iSuevi,  but  strove  to  prevent  the  passage  of  King  Theodoric  into  Italy, 
489  A.D.,  although  their  attempt  was  unsuccessful. 

In  the  reign  of  Justinian  they  began  to  extend  their  dominion,  but  he 
applied  to  the  Longobardi  for  assistance  against  them;  and  in  the  war 
which  ensued  they  were  obliged  to  encounter  the  united  forces  of 
the  Longobardi,  Avonians,  and  Romans.  They  fell,  in  the  unequal  contest, 
under  the  power  of  Alboin,  king  of  the  Lombards,  and  became  incor- 
porated with  the  Lombardi,  565  A.D.  (PL  20,ßg,  8,  aGepide.) 


4.  The  Vandals. 

The  Vandals  were  a  cognate  race  with  the  Goths,  dwelling  in  the 
mountainous  regions  of  Lusatia.  They  possessed  a  fine  physical  formation, 
having  slender  figures,  fair  complexion,  yellow  hair,  and  a  frank  open 
countenance.  Near  the  end  of  the  second  century  they"  concluded  a 
treaty  of  alliance  with  the  Romans  under  the  emperor  Commodus,  and  also 
with  the  Quadi  and  Marcomanni.  Later,  they  waged  war  with  the 
emperor  Aurelian,  but  were  unsuccessful,  when,  uniting  with  the  Bur- 
gundians, 280  A.D.,  against  the  emperor  Probus,  they  renewed  hostilities 
on  the  frontiers  of  Gallia  with  no  better  fortune,  part  of  them  being  laid 
low,  and  the  remainder  either  persecuted  or  sent  to  Britain  with  the 
legions  as  agriculturists. 

From  this  point  we  lose  sight  of  the  West  Vandals,  while  their  eastern 
brethren  gained  a  considerable  celebrity.  They  had  early  settled  in 
Transylvania,  which  they  continued  to  hold  and  govern  until  the  Goths 
expelled  them,  when  they  were  kindly  received  by  the  emperor  Constantinus, 
who  located  them  in  Pannonia.  During  the  great  national  migrations  the 
peaceful  Vandals,  tc^ther  with  some  hordes  of  the  Alani,  were  pushed  on 
into  Gaul,  406  A.D.  On  their  march  they  received  numerous  accessions 
from  the  Suevi.  Strengthened  by  these  forces,  they  attacked  and 
devastated  Strasburg,  Worms,  Mayence,  and  various  other  citieS;  and 
then  marched  through  the  entire  country  of  Gallia.  After  a  brief  sojourn 
here  they  passed  into  Spain,  by  the  Pyrenees,  400  A.D.    There  they 

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58  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY* 

settled,  in  the  western  and  south-eastern  parts  of  the  country.  Again 
disturbed  by  the  restless  Goths,  they  joined  Genseric,  who,  with  his 
Alani,  was  conducting  an  expedition  against  Africa,  429  A.D.  In  ten 
years  they  conquered  the  whole  northern  coast,  from  Tangiers  to 
Tripoli,  and  made  Carthage  the  capital  of  the  new  empire.  Genseric  was 
victorious  in  all  his  expeditions,  and  did  not  stop  in  his  career  until  he  had 
even  conquered  Rome  itself,  455  A.D.,  which  for  ten  days  was  plun- 
dered by  his  horde.  When  he  died,  477  A.D.,  the  Vandalic  kingdom 
fell  into  fragments.  The  rest  of  the  nation  was  either  merged  in  the 
African  provinces,  or  sent  as  Greek  soldiers  to  the  Persian  frontier.  {PL 
^0,ßg.  4,  a  Vandal.) 


5.  The  Marcom anni. 

The  Marcomanni  (mark-men,  inhabitants  of  the  frontier)  originally  lived 
in  the  southern  part  of  Germany,  and  probably  in  what  is  now  known  as 
Moravia,  though,  according  to  some  authors,  they  resided  between  the 
Main  and  the  Neckar.  This  much,  however,  is  certain,  that  they  removed, 
under  Marbodius,  into  Bohemia,  where  they  formed  an  alliance  against  the 
Romans,  at  the  head  of  which  they  were,  until  at  length  the  Cherusoi 
superseded  them  in  the  command.  They  retained  much  of  their  former 
vigor,  but  remained  quiet  towards  the  Romans  until  the  time  of  Domitian» 
who  attempted  to  subjugate  them  and  the  Quadi.  He  lost  an  important 
battle  with  their  united  forces.  After  various  incursions  in  Pannonia,  the 
two  nations  were  mastered  by  Nerva  and  Trajan.  They  strengthened 
thenmelves,  however,  for  another  conflict  by  alliances  with  the  other 
Grerman  tribes.  Thus  prepared,  they  made  a  descent  upon  the  Roman 
empire,  and  carried  on  the  bitter  war,  in  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius, 
known  as  the  war  of  the  Marcomanni,  166-180  A.D.  Commodus,  180  A.D., 
concluded  with  them  a  peace,  to  secure  which  they  had  to  give  hostages 
to  the  Romans ;  moreover,  they  were  made  to  pay  a  heavy  tribute  of  grain, 
restore  all  the  prisoners  (100,000  men),  and  even  furnish  auxiliary  troops 
to  the  Roman  legions.  Nevertheless,  they  continued  to  make  one 
incursion  after  another  into  the  Roman  empire,  until  the  fifth  century, 
when  they  gradually  disappeared,  part  of  them  being  swept  along  with  the 
vast  migrations  of  the  times,  and  the  rest  merging  with  the  Bavarians. 
(PL  20,  fig.  5,  a  Marcomann.) 


G.  The  Quadi. 

These  people  always  appear  in  connexion  with  the  Marcomanni, 
together  with  whom  they  had  taken  possession  of  the  territories  of  the 
Bavarii,  after  expelling  these.  The  constitutions  of  both  people  were  alike, 
the  throne  being  hereditary ;  and  both  proved  equally  formidable  and 
oppressive  to  their  neighbors.    The  Quadi  disappeared  from  the  list  o£ 


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HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  59 

nations  in  the  fifth  century,  being  most  probably  borne  into  Spain  along 
with  the  general  current  of  emigration. 

The  original  residence  of  the  Quadi  seems  to  have  been  modem 
Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Austria  Proper,  and  they  were  bounded,  east  by 
the  territory  of  the  Jazyges,  south  by  the  Danube,  north  by  the  Carpathian 
and  the  Sudeti  mountains,  and  west  by  the  Marcomanni. 

At  a  later  period  appeared  another  tribe  bearing  the  name  of  Quadi,  and 
formed  most  probably  of  some  of  the  different  Suevian  tribes.  They 
obtained  from  the  Romans  the  strip  of  land  lying  between  the  rivers  Marus 
and  Cusus,  in  Upper  Hungary,  and  were  governed  by  Vannius,  a  king 
descended  from  the  older  Quadi.     (  PL  20,ßg.  6,  a  Quade). 


7.  The  Hbbuli. 

The  Heruli  were  a  German  tribe,  inhabiting  Scandinavia.  «  The  Danes 
subsequently  dispossessed  them  of  that  region,  when  they  removed  to  those 
districts  on  the  Baltic  lying  near  the  mouth  of  the  Vistula.  About  the 
time  of  the  emperor  Galienus  they  again  abandoned  their  homes,  and 
settled  on  the  coast  of  the  Black  Sea,  when,  uniting  with  the  Goths,  they 
lived  as  pirates. 

Some  of  the  better  chieftains  attached  themselves  to  the  service  of  the 
Romans,  and  constituted  a  special  division  of  horse.  Another  company 
undertook  an  invasion  of  Gallia,  but  were  totally  defeated  by  the  legions 
of  Maximilian.  Near  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century  the  Heruli  were 
much  crippled  by  the  heroic  Ermanarich,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  but  after 
the  fall  of  the  Gothic  empire  they  again  rose  to  some  eminence.  In  the 
time  of  the  emperor  Anastasius  they  entered  the  Roman  domains,  and 
settled  in  Illyricum.  Justinian  granted  them  annually  a  fixed  sum  of 
money  from  the  treasury,  and  rented  lands  to  them  in  Servia,  for  which  they 
agreed  to  assist  him  in  all  his  wars  against  the  Vandals,  Goths,  and  Persians. 
At  this  period  they  adopted  the  Christian  faith.  Their  system  of  religion, 
while  heathens,  differed  materially  from  that  of  other  German  tribes.  Thus 
it  was  considered  the  duty  of  the  aged  and  incurably  diseased  to  request  their 
relatives  to  put  them  to  death.  The  death-blow  was  given  by  a  stranger. 
If  a  Herulian  died  a  natural  death,  his  widow  was  compelled  to  strangle 
herself  at  the  grave  of  her  husband.     (  PL  20,  fig.  7,  a  Herulian.) 


8.  The  Britonb. 

The  inhabitants  of  Britain  were  a  mixture  of  Cimri,  Gaels,  and  Ibenans. 
At  the  period  of  Caesar's  invasion  the  Cimri  occupied  the  southern  districts, 
uid  had  pushed  the  Gaels  further  north.  They  were  in  their  turn 
compelled  by  the  Anglo-Saxons,  under  Hengist  and  Horsa  (449  A.D.),  to 
emigrate  to  Bretagne,  where  they  are  still  found.  The  inhabitants  of 
modem  Wales  are  also  their  descendants. 

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The  ancient  Britons  fought  mainly  on  foot,  but  also  on  a  species  of 
chariot  which  the  Romans  called  essedcL.  They  combined  in  small  clans, 
governed  by  chiefs,  similarly  to  the  modern  Highland  clan.  They  lived 
chiefly  on  flesh,  and  agriculture  formed  the  occupation  of  none  but  the 
inhabitants  of  the  coast.  They  dressed  in  skins,  and  their  towns  were 
nothing  but  large  inclosures  in  the  forest.  Their  language  was  a  Celtic 
dialect.     ( PL  20,ßg.  8,  a  Briton.) 


9.  The  Franks. 

As  early  as  the  third  century  the  Franks  (frank,  free  people)  arose  out  of 
the  old  Cheruscian  confederacy.  Under  the  emperor  Maximinus,  they 
occupied  the  territory  lying  west  of  the  Rhine,  as  far  as  the  Bohemian 
mountains,  in  the  parts  of  Germany  later  known  as  Thuringia,  Hesse,  and 
Franconia.  , 

From  237  to  244  A.D.,  during  the  reign  of  Gordian,  and  later,  at  the 
time  of  Probus,  they  began  to  be  formidable  to  the  Romans.  Probus,  in 
the  year  278  A.D.,  completely  routed  their  forces,  and  sent  vast  numbers 
of  the  prisoners  to  Pontus ;  but  they  escaped  by  sea,  and  returned  to 
their  native  land.  The  rest  he  colonized  among  the  Treviri  and  Naevii. 
The  emperor  Constantinus  wrested  from  them  their  possessions  in  Batavia 
(Netherlands),  293-306  A.D.,  when  they  commenced  a  crusade  upon 
Gallia,  and  were  not  conquered  until  the  time  of  Justinian.  857  A.D.  This 
emperor  eflfectually  humbled  them. 

The  Franks  at  that  period  lived  under  several  chiefs  and  kings,  of  whom 
Merowig  and  Chilperic  gave  great  celebrity  and  influence  to  the  Salique 
house.  Chlodwig  (Clovis),  the  son  of  Chilperic,  established  the  dominion  of 
the  Franks  over  all  Gallia,  and  became  the  founder  of  the  great  empire  of 
France,  to  which  part  of  the  German  Franks  continued  subject.  PL  20, 
fig,  9,  Franks  in  camp;  pL  21,  fig,  1,  Queen  Clotilda,  the  beautifid 
consort  of  Clovis,  in  her  royal  dress.  She  was  a  princess  of  Burgundy, 
and  had  adopted  the  Christian  religion,  to  which  she  also  won  her  husband. 
Fig,  2,  a  maid  of  honor ;  fig.  4  «*,  Frank  warriors  in  the  time  of  Clovis,  and 
fig,  5,  king  of  the  Franks  in  his  regal  attire;  pL  22,  figs,  1  and  2,  statues 
of  Clovis  and  Clotilda ;  fig,  5,  Fredegonda,  mistress  of  Chilperic,  the  father 
of  Clovis.  She  was  born  543  A.D.,  at  Montdidiers,  of  mean  parentage. 
Fig,  3  represents  her  tomb  in  mosaic  work ;  fig.  4,  bas-relief  on  the  tomb 
of  the  Frank  king,  Childebert. 


10.  The  Huns. 

The  Huns  inhabited  the  territories  around  the  Caspian  Sea.     In  the 

fourth  century  they  commenced  their  conquests,  and  gained  a  name  in 

history.    In  person  the   Huns  were  short.     They  had  broad  shoulders, 

prominent  cheek-bones,   flat  noses,  and   deeply-sunk  eyes.     By  cutting 

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HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  61 

and  mangling  the  faces,  they  prevented  the  growth  of  the  beard.  They 
seemed  to  live  on  horseback,  eating  and  sleeping,  even  keeping  council 
without  dismounting,  so  that  they  were  very  poor  pedestrians.  Their 
horses  were  ugly,  but  strong,  quick,  and  well  trained.  Roots  and  flesh 
constituted  their  nourishment ;  they  ate  their  meat  raw,  having  first  made 
it  tender  by  carrying  it  some  hours  between  the  saddle  and  the  back  of 
their  horses.  They  had  no  houses,  nor  even  huts,  and  their  women  and 
children  lived  in  wagons  ;  here  the  children  were  born  and  reared.  Their 
weapons  consisted  of  darts,  slings,  spears,  and  sabres.  In  wai*  they  aimed 
chiefly  at  dismounting  and  plundering  the  enemy,  and  observed  no  distinct 
order  of  battle. 

Various  theories  are  given  of  the  origin  of  the  Huns.  It  is  most  likely 
that  they  sprang  from  Upper  Asia,  and  were  of  Mongolian  descent.  This 
view  is  confirmed  by  the  historical  fact,  that  about  a  century  previous  lo  their 
appearance  in  Europe,  the  Hiong-Nus,  or  Mongols,  were  attacked  by  the 
Chinese.  Their  empire  was  dissolved,  and  the  inhabitants  are  supposed  to 
have  roamed  about  the  Steppes  of  Tartary.  Tradition  even  ascribes  to 
them  the  foundation  of  a  kingdom  between  the  Jaik  and  the  Obi  rivers. 
We  may  add,  that  in  many  of  their  habits  the  Huns  bore  a  strong 
resemblance  to  the  olden  Mongols,  who  are  supposed  to  have  been  driven 
from  their  possessions  on  the  river  Obi,  about  318  A.D.,  and  to  have  settled 
near  the  Caspian  Sea.  The  leading  features  of  the  migrations  of  the  Huns 
have  already  been  given.     {PL  20, ßg.  10,  a  Hun.) 


11.  The  Caledonians  (Pictb). 


The  Caledonians  were  the  inhabitants  of  the  northern  part  of  the  island 
Albion,  now  Scotland.  They  came  from  the  Celto-Gselic  stock,  and  were 
•  probably  the  first  inhabitants  of  the  large  island.  Retreating  before  the 
Belgic  or  Cambrian  forces,  they  abandoned  the  south  for  the  northern 
districts;  at  the  arrival  of  the  Romans  they  retired  to  the  northern 
Highlands,  and  large  companies  of  them  crossed  to  and  settled  in  Hibernia 
(Ireland).  The  Romans  gave  them  the  name  of  Picts  (Picti),  from  their 
custom  of  painting,  but  they  also  called  them  Scots.  During  all  the  time 
of  their  sway  in  Britain  the  Scots  kept  up  continual  wars  with  the 
Romans,  who  sought  to  limit  their  incursions  by  erecting  high  walls, 
remains  of  which  still  exist.  The  Romans  gave  the  name  of  Bri- 
tannia  Barbara,  or  Ulterior,  to  that  part  of  the  island  which  they 
failed  to  subjugate ;  Caledonia,  also,  was  a  term  applied  to  the  northern 
regions. 

The  Gaelic  dialect  was  spoken  by  the  ancient  Caledonians ;  and  their 
modern  descendants,  the  Highlanders  of  Scotland  and  the  Irish,  still  retain 
the  ancient  language.  The  people  lived  in  feudal  communities  or  clans» 
all    of   which    had    a    common    chieftain,    and    later,    a    king.      The 

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62  mSTCÄY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

Caledonians  adopted    Christianity  in  the  sixth  century.    {PI.  20,  ßgt. 
11-14»  Caledonians  or  Picts.) 


12.   The  Anglo-Saxons. 

Tacitus  designates  the  Angli  as  a  Suevian  tribe  who  lived  on  the  Elbe. 
Combining  at  an  early  period  with  a  branch  of  the  Saxons  and  Jutes,  they 
crossed  over  into  Britain  during  the  latter  part  of  the  fifth  century.  At  first 
they  were  auxiliaries  to  the  inhabitants,  but  afterwards  their  conquerors 
and  oppressors.  At  the  close  of  a  conflict  extending  through  180  years 
they  found  themselves  masters  of  the  whole  island. 

Of  these  three  nations  the  Saxons  were  the  most  influential.  They 
were  called  Anglo-Saxons  to  distinguish  them  from  the  Saxons  who  still 
remained  on  the  continent ;  and  after  the  sixth  century  the  country  took 
the  name  of  Anglia,  which  was  subsequently  changed  to  England.  The 
ancient  inhabitants  are  represented  as  rude  and  warlike.  Prior  to  their 
invasion  of  Britain  they  had  scoured  the  seas  as  pirates.  They  erected  by 
degrees  seven  principalities,  known  as  the  Heptarchy.  These  were  united 
into  one  kingdom  by  King  Egbert.  (Pi  20,  ßgs.  16-18,  various  Anglo- 
Saxons  ;  ßg.  15,  Anglo-Saxon  chieftain.) 


13.  The  Danes. 

Denmark  is  considered  the  residence  of  the  ancient  Cimbri.  In  the 
year  113  B.C.,  this  people  emerged  from  the  northern  plains,  pouring  by 
hundreds  of  thousands,  including  their  wives  and  children,  into  the  Roman 
provinces.  Their  progress,  at  first  almost  irresistible,  was  at  length 
arrested  by  Catulus  and  Marius,  101  B.C.,  who  completely  routed  them  in 
the  plains  near  Verona.  Somewhat  later  the  triumphant  Odin,  advancing 
with  his  Gothic  warriors  from  the  south-east,  overran  Denmark,  and  gave  a 
new  religion  to  the  inhabitants.  Between  his  arrival  and  the  period  of 
Harald  III.,  several  kings,  or  rather  princes,  ruled  over  the  lawless 
piratical  tribes.  One  of  these  kings,  Skiold,  obtained  no  mean  historical 
celebrity.  Charlemagne  waged  a  vigorous  war  with  Gothric,  king  of 
Schleswic  and  Jutland.  At  the  close  of  the  contest  the  river  Eyder  was 
recognised  as  the  boundary  of  the  Carolingian  dominions,  810  A.D.  (PL  20, 
ßgs.  21-23,  Danish  citizens ;  ßg,  19,  a  king  of  Denmark ;  ßg.  20,  a  Danish 
warrior.) 

We  now  pass  on  to  the    « 

Second  Period  of  Medubval  Hibtort, 

extending  from  the  reign  of  Charles   the  Great   (Charlemagne)   to  the 
commencement  of  the  Crusades,  768-1096  A.D. 
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BISTORT  ABTD  ETHNOLOGY.  63 

Charles  the  Great  stands  forth  pre-eminent  in  this  period.  He  was  the 
son  of  Pepin  and  Bertha,  and  was  born  742  A.D.  Nature  had  endowed  him 
richly,  both  as  to  physical  and  intellectual  gifts,  which  he  developed  by 
early  exercise.  With  a  quick  glance  he  surveyed  all,  was  great  in  word 
and  action,  yet  not  faultless. 

At  the  death  of  his  father  he  inherited  the  north,  from  the  limits  of 
the  Slavonic  territories  to  the  Garonne*,  while  his  brother  Carloman 
obtained  Alemannia,  Alsacia,  Burgundy,  and  all  the  southern  parts  of 
France,  as  far  as  the  Pyrenees.  The  first  occasion  for  the  exercise  of 
Charles's  warlike  genius  was  furnished  by  the  rebellion  of  the  Aquitanians, 
under  the  old  Hunalde,  who  had  formed  a  secret  alliance  with  the  Spanish 
Arabians.  He  soon  quelled  the  insurrection,  but  this  war  involved  him  in 
a  quarrel  with  his  brother,  who  had  refused  his  aid  in  the  struggle. 
Before  this  quarrel  could  lead  to  civil  war  between  the  brothers,  Carloman 
died  suddenly,  and  Charles,  regardless  of  the  claims  of  his  nephews, 
induced  the  chief  men  of  his  brother's  realm  to  proclaim  himself  king. 
Charles  thus  assumed  the  sole  government  of  the  whole  empire,  771  A.D. 

This  empire,  founded  by  force  of  arms,  could  only  be  maintained  and 
extended  by  the  same  means,  being  entirely  surrounded  by  savage  and 
warlike  tribes,  who  frequently  invaded  the  frontiers,  spreading  death  and 
destruction  wherever  they  went. 

At  this  period  Desiderius  was  king  in  Pavia,  the  capital  of  the  Longo- 
bardic  empire.  He  had  given  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  Charlemagne,  who, 
however,  became  enraged  with  his  father-in-law  for  offering  refuge  to  his 
exiled  nephews,  the  sons  of  Carloman,  and  sent  his  wife  back  to  her  father. 
Desiderius  felt  this  insult  keenly,  but  not  daring  to  take  open  steps  against 
Charlemagne,  he  tried  to  raise  a  party  in  favor  of  the  sons  of  Carloman, 
and  applied  to  Pope  Hadrian  to  anoint  them  as  kings  of  Prance.  The 
pope  refusing,  Desiderius  turned  his  forces  against  him,  invading  the 
territories  which  the  pope  had  received  from  Pepin.  The  holy  father 
sought  protection  from  Charles.  The  latter  proposed  a  compromise,  which 
being  refused  by  the  proud  king  of  Lombardy,  induced  Charles  to  declare 
war  and  to  besiege  Pavia.  The  city  maintained  an  obstinate  resistance 
for  ten  months,  but  hunger  and  pestilence  finally  compelled  the 
Lombards  to  surrender.  Desiderius  was  taken  prisoner,  and  after  being 
deprived  of  his  sight,  was  consigned  for  the  remainder  of  his  life  to  a 
monastery.  Charles  was  crowned  king  of  Lombardy  774  A.D.  Adelgi, 
son  of  Desiderius,  tried  to  oppose  him,  but  was  defeated.  The  Duke 
Friaul,  who  would  not  submit  quietly  to  the  authority  of  Charles,  was 
punished  like  a  common  felon,  and  even  the  powerful  duke  of  fienevento 
was  compelled  to  acknowledge  the  Franconian  supremacy. 

The  quarrel  with  the  Saxons  had  commenced  previous  to  this  time,  and 
continued  for  more  than  thirty  years  (772-803).  Charles  opened  the  war 
by  capturing  Cresburg,  and  enraged  the  Saxons  by  destroying  the  column 
of  Irmin,  which  was  venerated  by  them.  He  then  penetrated  as  far  as  the 
Weser;  but  however  successfully  he  fought,  the  Saxons,  having  only 
yielded  to  superior  numbers,  always  rallied  and  attacked  their  oppressors 

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64  HIOTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

with  great  fury.  Charles  at  length  became  convinced  oX  the  impractica- 
bility of  their  permanent  subjugation,  and  finally  consented  to  leave  them 
their  own  freedom  and  laws,  in  hopes  thus  to  secure  to  himself  their 
allegiance,  and  to  induce  them  to  adopt  the  Christian  religion.  A  great 
number  of  the  Saxons  received  the  rite  of  baptism,  and  recognised  Charles 
as  their  liege  lord,  777  A.D. 

This  submission,  however,  was  not  universal.  Wittekind,  a  noble 
Westphalian,  and  a  glorious  leader  of  the  Saxons,  did  not  yield,  but  fled  to 
the  king  of  Denmark.  Among  the  subdued  Saxons  rebellion  broke  out 
twice,  and  was  quelled  by  Charles,  who,  exasperated  at  their  unruliness, 
put  4,500  of  his  prisoners  to  death  in  one  day,  atVerdin,  on  the  Aller, 
and  devastated  all  the  territory  up  to  the  banks  of  the  Elbe.  The 
gallant  Wittekind,  who  was  again  at  the  head  of  his  party,  touched 
with  the  sad  fortunes  of  his  compatriots,  at  length  began  to  relent  in 
his  hostility  to  the  Franks.  At  the  same  time  distrust  arose  in  his  mind  in 
regard  to  the  power  of  his  own  gods.  Despairing  of  final  success,  he 
listened  to  the  oft  repeated  proposals  of  his  great  enemy,  professed  his 
belief  in  Christ,  and  was  baptized  at  Attigny  in  France,  804  A.D.,  Charles 
standing  as  his  godfather.  Charles  felt  satisfied  that  by  Wittekind's 
conversion  the  only  obstacle  to  a  lasting  peace  with  the  Saxons  was 
removed.  Wittekind  remained  faithful  to  the  Christian  cause,  and 
became  zealous  for  its  promotion.  Vast  numbers  of  his  countrymen 
followed  his  example,  and  submitted  to  the  ceremony  of  baptism;  and 
under  the  benign  influences  of  the  new  religion  the  fair  fields  of  Saxony 
once  more  yielded  the  means  of  wealth  and  happiness. 

Charles  had  convened  a  council  or  diet  at  Paderborn,  in  777  A.D.,  at 
which  appeared,  among  others,  delegates  from  two  Spanish  emirs,  in  order 
to  implore  his  protection  against  their  oppressor,  the  Caliph  Abderrhaman. 
With  the  hope  of  planting  the  cross  firmly  in  Mahomedan  Spain,  Charles 
complied  with  their  solicitations,  proceeded  in  the  year  778  with  a  powerful 
force  across  the  Pyrenees,  and  in  a  short  time  captured  Pampeluna  and 
Saragossa,  and  conquered  the  whole  country  to  the  Ebro,  which,  under  the 
title  of  the  Spanish  Mark,  was  joined  to  his  dominions.  But  on  his  home- 
ward march  he  was  furiously  attacked  by  the  mountaineers,  and  sustained 
great  losses ;  and  it  was  in  this  engagement  the  noble  Roland  fell,  who  is 
so  heroically  and  beautifully  sung  by  Ariosto. 

Not  long  after  the  conclusion  of  peace  in  Saxony,  new  troubles  arose 
by  the  rebellion  of  Tassilo,  duke  of  Bavaria,  and  son-in-law  of  Desiderius, 
king  of  Lombardy.  Charles  suppressed  the  insurrection  (788);  but  the 
treachery  of  Tassilo,  who  soon  after  induced  the  Hungarian  Avari  to 
march  into  Franconia,  did  not  permit  him  to  remain  long  quiet.  Irritated 
by  this  conduct,  Charles  had  him  arrested  at  Ingelheim,  and  he  was 
imprisoned  in  a  convent.  In  retaliation  upon  the  Avari,  Charles  con- 
quered their  territory  and  annexed  it  to  his  kingdom  under  the  title  of  the 
East  Mark,  799  A.D. 

Pope  Leo  III.,  the  successor  of  Hadrian,  being  furiously  attacked  by  his 
enemies,  sought  the  assistance  of  Charles.    The  latter  repaired  at  once  to 
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HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  66 

Rome,  restored  general  order,  and,  at  the  request  of  Leo,  pardoned  the 
leaders  of  the  rebellion.  In  gratitude  for  his  timely  aid,  Leo  crowned 
him  as  Roman  emperor,  at  which  the  crowd  testified  their  delight  by 
loud  rejoicings.  Thus  was  renewed  the  title  of  Roman  Emperor,  after  a 
lapse  of  324  years. 

Hitherto  Charles  had  done  much  for  the  extension  of  Christianity.  He 
now  also  took  care  of  the  internal  administration  of  the  church,  encouraged 
talent  in  preaching,  reformed  the  church  music,  founded  bishoprics  and 
schools,  aided  in  the  improvement  of  the  German  language,  and  himself 
learned  to  write  at  the  age  of  fifty-eight.  Nor  was  he  blind  to  the  temporal 
interests  of  his  kingdom.  He  sent  officers  of  inspection  into  his  provinces 
that  were  governed  by  counts,  he  protected  commerce  as  the  means  of 
uniting  the  nations  and  encouraging  civilization.  Soon  after  his  return  from 
Italy  he  had  the  happiness  to  see  all  his  differences  with  the  Saxons  finally 
adjusted  by  the  peace  of  Selz,  on  the  Saale,  803  A.D.  He  was,  however, 
still  troubled  by  his  belligerent  neighbors,  the  Wilsii,  in  the  east,  and  the 
Normans  in  the  north.  Charles  first  set  out  against  the  Wilsii,  a  branch 
of  the  Slavonic  tribe,  defeated  them,  and  built  a  castle  on  the  Saale  (modern 
Halle),  and  another  (now  known  as  Magdeburg)  on  the  Elbe.  These 
fortifications  were  destined  for  the  overawing  of  these  enemies.  The 
Normans  in  Denmark  succumbed  to  the  arms  of  Charles,  and  their  king, 
Henning,  was  compelled  to  acknowledge  the  Eyder  as  the  boundary 
between  his  kingdom  and  that  of  the  Franks.  Charles's  empire  was  now 
extended  from  the  Tiber  to  the  Eyder,  from  the  Ebro  in  Spain  to  the 
shores  of  the  North  Sea,  and  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  the  Elbe  in 
Germany,  and  the  Raab  in  Hungary. 

Near  the  close  of  his  reign  he  lost  two  of  his  sons ;  his  surviving  son, 
Louis,  in  anticipation  of  his  own  approaching  demise,  he  caused  to  be 
crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle.  He  died  a  few  months  after,  814  A.D.,  in  the 
seventy-second  year  of  his  active  life.  Arrayed  in  full  imperial  costume, 
with  his  crown  and  sword,  a  gilded  copy  of  the  Gospel  on  his  knees,  and  a 
piece  of  the  Holy  Cross  over  his  head,  seated  in  a  golden  chair,  with  a 
pilgrim's  pouch  upon  his  thighs,  he  was  placed  in  his  tomb  in  the  Chapel  of 
St.  Mary,  at  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

PL  21,  ßg,  6,  the  Emperor  Charlemagne  in  his  imperial  dress ;  ßgs. 
1  and  8,  prince  and  princess  of  Charlemagne's  house ;  figs.  9  and  10,  a 
noble  of  that  period  and  his  wife;^^.  11,  a  commander  under  Charles, 
with  the  imperial  standard  ;  fig,  12  «  and  12  ^  Austrian  and  Aquitanian 
warriors  under  Charles;  fig.  13,  one  of  Charles's  bishops;  and  ^.  14, 
people  in  humble  life ;  pL  22yfig$,  5  and  6,  statues  of  women  in  the  eighth 
century ;  fig.  7,  mosaic  figure  of  Charlemagne ;  fig.  8,  Charles  receiving 
the  submission  of  Wittekind ;  fig.  38,  Wittekind's  statue. 

From  his  kind  disposition  and  peaceful  virtues,  Louis,  who  now  ascended 
the  throne,  obtained  the  surname  of  the  Meek  (Debonnaire)  ;  but  with  the 
crown  he  inherited  scarcely  any  of  his  father's  qualities  and  energies.  In 
the  fourth  year  of  his  reign  he  united  his  eldest  son  Lothaire  with  himself 
as  co-regent.     The  latter  was  destined  to  become  the  principal  heir  of  the 

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66  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

empire,  having  the  supreme  command  over  his  two  brothers,  Peinn  and 
Louis,  while  the  father  divided  his  lands  among  them  all  three.  This 
arrangement  only  served  to  create  jealousy  between  the  brothers.  Civil 
war  for  a  while  seemed  inevitable,  when  a  new  train  of  circumstances 
united  all  the  brothers  against  their  father. 

At  the  death  of  the  empress  Irmengarde,  Louis  married  Judith,  a 
Bavarian  princess,  who,  in  623,  bore  him  a  fourth  son,  Charles  the  Bald. 
The  father  wished  also  to  bestow  a  kingdom  on  this  new  descendant,  and 
therefore  undertook  a  new  division.  The  elder  sons  were  not  disposed  to 
lose  anything ;  they  raised  the  nation  against  their  father,  attacked  him 
with  an  army  from  three  sides,  and  made  him  a  prisoner,  830.  By  the 
sympathy  of  several  German  princes,  and  the  want  of  harmony  between  the 
brothers,  Louis  was  permitted  to  retain  his  crown.  His  sons  seemingly 
humbled  themselves,  but  they  soon  again  revolted.  Louis  was  a  second  time 
made  prisoner  by  his  sons,  deprived  of  his  authority,  and,  to  complete  his 
degradation  in  the  eyes  of  his  subjects,  compelled  to  perform  a  solemn 
ecclesiastical  penance.  Much  as  this  humiliating  spectacle  delighted 
Lothaire,  the  other  sons  declared  in  favor  of  the  father,  and  in  835 
restored  the  crown  to  him.  Despite  his  bitter  experience,  he  re-confirmed 
the  partition  of  the  empire,  and  after  the  death  of  Pepin,  still  continued  to 
bestow  his  fondest  favors  on  his  son  Charles,  and  even  to  show  his  prefer- 
ence for  Lothaire,  whereby  he  prompted  Louis  to  make  a  third  rebellion 
against  his  father,  who  in  consequence  died  of  a  broken  heart  in  640. 

On  the  decease  of  Louis,  Lothaire,  now  emperor,  regarded  himself  as 
the  exclusive  heir  of  the  whole  empire.  But  his  younger  brothers,  with 
their  nephew  Pepin,  raised  an  army  against  him,  and  met  him  at  Fontenay, 
near  Auxerre,  641  A.D.  Lothaire  lost  the  battle  and  fled,  leaving  100,000 
Franks  dead  upon  the  field.  He  now  claimed  the  aid  of  the  Saxons,  but 
his  second  battle  at  Strasburg  was  not  more  successful  than  the  first ;  and 
the  Saxon  warriors  were  severely  punished  by  Louis  (the  German). 
Lothaire  at  length  proposed  terms  of  peace.  A  truce  was  concluded  at 
Verdun,  843,  by  which  the  empire  was  apportioned  into  three  great 
divisions,  France,  Italy,  and  Germany.  Lothaire  retained  the  title  of 
emperor,  and  received  Italy  and  the  long  range  of  territory  along  the 
Rhone,  Saone,  Meuse,  and  Scheldt,  to  the  Rhine.  Mayence,  Worms,  and 
Speier,  with  the  countries  east  of  the  Rhine,  fell  to  Louis,  the  German  ; 
while  Charles  the  Bald  received  those  countries  lying  west  of  the  river 
already  mentioned,  to  the  ocean,  or  France  Proper.  Pepin  and  Charles, 
nephews  of  the  three  kings,  were  satisfied  with  Aquitania ;  but  even  of  this 
district  they  were  soon  deprived  by  Charles  the  Bald.  It  does  not  appear 
that  in  this  arrangement  any  permanent  separation  of  the  family  or  empire 
was  contemplated.  The  Carolingian  inheritance  was,  on  the  contrary, 
considered  as  a  mutual  claim ;  and  so  also  was  the  Arriere-ban.  Thus  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  idea  of  one  entire  empire,  with  one  regent,  existed 
still,  and  it  seemed  left  entirely  to  circumstances  to  determine  whether  tbe 
empire  was  completely  divided,  or  might  yet  be  consolidated  under  some 
future  monarch.  Destiny,  however,  decided  upon  a  perpetual  division. 
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HIOTORY  AND  BTTHNOLOGY.  67 

After  the  treaty  of  Verdun»  the  family  of  Charles  the  Bald,  known  by 
the  name  of  the  Carolingians,  occupied  the  French  throne  down  to  the 
dose  of  the  tenth  century.  If  we  may  judge  from  the  surnames  given  to 
the  monarchs,  as  the  Stammerer,  the  Simple,  the  Lazy,  &c.,  the  line  does 
not  appear  to  have  been  remarkable  for  its  virtues.  Most  of  them  met 
violent  deaths,  and  under  their  weak  administration  it  excites  no  wonder  that 
the  Normans  attacked  the  country.  This  powerful  and  extensive  people 
inhabited  at  that  time  the  coasts  of  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway. 
They  devoted  the  trees  of  their  noble  forests  to  the  construction  of  ships, 
and  as  the  Huns  are  reported  to  have  lived  almost  entirely  on  horseback, 
io  these  hardy  Northmen  seemed  contented  only  in  their  vessels,  and  their 
immense  fleets  were  met  on  every  sea.  They  passed  up  the  rivers  to  the 
inland  country,  overwhelmed  by  their  numbers  the  defenceless  towns  and 
hamlets,  and  plundered  and  destroyed  without  restriction.  They  were  a 
savage  race  whom  no  sufi*erings  daunted,  and  to  whom  death  itself  was  only 
the  glorious  road  to  the  palaces  of  the  gods.  They  agreed  to  a  peace  with 
France,  the  conditions  of  which  assigned  to  them  the  province  of 
Normandy.  They  pursued  their,  predatory  incursions  in  Italy,  England, 
and  Grermany,  but  by  mingling  with  the  inhabitants,  or  settling  down  in 
small  communities,  they  at  last  lost  their  nationality,  and  disappeared  as  a 
distinct  tribe  from  history.  i 

PL  21,  ßgs.  22  and  23,  king  and  queen  of  the  Normans ;  ßg.  24,  a 
Norman  dame ;  ßgs.  25  and  26,  Norman  nobles  ;  ßg.  27,  Norman  citizen  ; 
and^j^".  28,  Norman  laborers. 

The  French  kingdom  suffered  not  less  from  internal  troubles  than  from 
the  depredations  of  the  Normans.  The  nobility  of  the  empire  availed 
themselves  of  the  weakness  of  their  king,  and  appropriated  to  themselves 
his  power  and  rights.  Every  count  and  duke  had  his  own  court,  and 
heedless  of  the  orders  of  his  king,  he  relied  on  his  own  strength.  To 
appease  the  rapacity  of  these  turbulent  vassals,  the  government  resorted 
to  the  policy  of  allowing  them  great  privileges  and  making  them  consider- 
able donations  ;  and  thus  the  royal  domains  gradually  dwindled  away,  until, 
in  the  time  of  Louis  V.,  the  last  of  the  Carolingian  house,  they  embraced 
only  Laon  and  Rheims. 

At  the  death  of  Louis  V.,  in  987,  the  wealthy  and  popular  Hugh  Capet, 
Count  of  Paris,  took  possession  of  the  throne.  Under  him  and  his 
successors  the  power  of  the  arr(^ant  nobles  was  gradually  broken,  and  one 
fief  after  another  restored  to  the  crown.  The  family  of  Capet  existed  until 
modem  times. 

PL  21, ßg.  15,  Louis  V.  in  his  tunic; ^g*.  16,  the  queen  in  full  costume; 
ßgs.  17  and  18,  princesses  in  domestic  and  state  dresses ;  ßg.  19,  a 
prebendary ;  ßg.  20,  a  nun  ;  ßg.  21,  citizens. 

In  Germany  the  descendants  of  Charlemagne  reigned  only  until  911,  and 
in  general  the  princes  were  little  superior  to  their  relatives  in  France.  By 
the  treaty  of  Verdun,  843  A.D.,  Germany  fell  to  Louis,  who  soon  found 
himself  embarrassed  by  a  jealous  and  powerful  nobility,  the  Normans,  and 
his  own  rebellious  children.    All  the  states  of  Charlemagne  were  added  to 

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68  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

the  empire  under  his  successor,  Charles  the  Stout ;  but,  in  consequence  of 
a  disgraceful  peace  with  the  Normans,  he  was  deposed  by  his  nobles,  887. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew  Amulph,  duke  of  Carinthia.  Amulph 
was  a  brave  and  energetic  prince,  and  under  his  administration  the 
Normans  and  other  enemies  of  Germany  were  kept  at  a  distance. 

In  Italy,  more  than  in  any  other  portion  of  the  Carolingian  empire,  party 
strife  prevailed.  At  the  time  of  Amulph  two  competitors  appeared  for  the 
throne.  Guido,  duke  of  Spoleto,  and  Berengar,  duke  of  Friuli.  Guido  was 
victorious,  and  received  the  imperial  crown  from  Pope  Stephen  V.  His 
son  Lambert  followed  him.  The  aid  of  Amulph  was  now  sought  by  the 
rival  faction.  Amulph  crossed  the  Alps  in  894,  carved  with  his  sword  a 
path  through  Italy,  carried  Rome  itself  by  storm,  and  obtained  the  imperial 
purple  in  896.  But  he  had  scarcely  evacuated  Italy,  before  the  Romans,  to 
whom  a  foreigner  was  highly  odious,  again  proclaimed  Lambert  emperor. 
The  latter  died  in  898,  whereupon  a  long  continued  strife  began  between 
King  Louis  of  Lower  Burgundy,  and  Berengar»  duke  of  Friuli,  and  their 
successors,  until  the  accession  of  Otto  the  Great. 

Arnulph  died  in  the  year  900.  His  son,  Louis  the  Child,  still  in  his 
infancy,  succeeded  him.  During  his  reign,  the  Hungarians  invaded  the 
country,  and  desolated  it  terribly.  He  died  prematurely  in  911,  and  was 
the  last  of  his  house. 

The  various  German  nations,  the  Saxons,  Thuringians,  Lorrains, 
Suabians,  Friislanders,  Bavarians,  and  Franks,  now  proceeded  to  choose  a 
king  of  their  own,  thus  constituting  Germany  an  elective  monarchy.  But 
in  Germany  the  great  and  the  people  have  never  agreed  very  well, 
especially  in  the  choice  of  a  king.  At  the  very  first  election  Franconia 
and  Saxony  only  chose  the  Franconian  duke,  Conrad,  911,  after  the  refusal 
of  the  crown  by  Duke  Otto  of  Saxony. 

Conrad  could  neither  avert  internal  commotions  nor  suppress  external 
aggressions.  The  inhabitants  of  Lorraine,  dissatisfied  with  his  election, 
annexed  themselves  to  France.  This  movement  originated  tedious  and 
wasting  wars  between  Germany  and  France.  Conrad  was  obliged,  at  the 
same  time,  to  contend  with  refractory  and  powerful  vassals,  especially  with 
Henry,  duke  of  Saxony,  and  son  of  Otto.  The  Hungarians  also  resumed 
their  aggressions  upon  the  empire.  In  the  midst  of  these  annoyances 
Conrad  died,  918  A.D. 

Anticipating  his  decease,  and  desirous  of  promoting  the  welfare  of 
the  country,  he  had  himself  nominated  to  the  succession  his  old  enemy, 
Duke  Henry  of  Saxony,  who  was  duly  elected.  When  his  brother  Eberard 
brought  to  him  the  regal  jewels,  he  found  him  at  his  fowling-floor,  whence 
his  surname  the  Fowler.  He  succeeded  in  pacifying  the  princes  of  the 
empire,  in  defeating  the  Slavonians  on  several  occasions,  and  in  con- 
quering the  Hungarians  completely  in  933. 

Henry  was   essentially   Grerman   in   character;    he    was    simple    and 

bland  in  his  manners,  modest  while  enjoying  good  fortune,  and  not  easily 

disheartened    in   bad.     Though  ordinarily   mild   and  easy,   he  exhibited 

unyielding  firmness  in   trying  circumstances.      He  reverenced  religion 

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HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  69 

without  subjecting  himself  to  the  clergy.    He  was,  in  short,  a  most 
excellent  prince.     He  died  in  the  year  936. 

His  son,  Otto  I.,  succeeded  him,  and  ruled  until  973.  He  too  had  to 
war  against  the  Hungarians,  and  was  successful.  Nearly  one  half  of  his 
reign  was  disturbed  by  civil  wars.  Eberard,  brother  of  Conrad  I.,  and 
other  Franconian  princes,  Giselbert,  duke  of  Lorraine,  and  the  son  of 
Amulph  the  Wicked,  of  Bavaria,  conspired  repeatedly  against  his  govern- 
ment. His  own  brothers,  also,  and  even  his  son  Ludolf,  and  his  son-in-law 
Conrad,  rebelled.  Yet  his  energy,  skill,  and  good  fortune,  finally  overcame 
all  these  conspiracies.  He  was  equally  victorious  in  his  contests  with  the 
Wends,  Danes,  and  French.  But  his  most  brilliant  and  important 
achievements  were  in  Italy.  Berengar  II.,  having  wrested  from  Lothaire, 
the  son  of  Hugh,  one  half  of  that  kingdom,  at  the  death  of  Lothaire, 
950  A.D.,  claimed  the  remainder,  and  was  recognised  king  of  Italy.  To 
confirm  his  title,  he  endeavored  to  marry  his  son  Adalbert  to  Adelaide, 
widow  of  Lothaire,  and  failing  in  his  negotiations,  had  recourse  to  force. 
In  her  distress  Adelaide  invoked  the  assistance  of  Otto,  who  flew  to  her 
rescue,  and  married  her  himself.  Berengar  was  reduced  to  vassalage,  and 
was  permitted  to  govern  Italy  as  a  fief.  His  faithlessness  and  tyranny 
exasperated  all  classes  of  society  against  him,  and   the  people,  princes, 

esthood,  and   pope,  with  one  voice,  again  called  Otto  to  their  relief. 

e  latter  a  second   time  proceeded  to  Rome,  defeated  Berengar,  and 

lished  him  to  Bamberg,  d60  A.D.  The  iron  crown  of  Lombardy  was 
,  ced  upon  his  head,  and  soon  after  he  received  from  Pope  John  XII.  the 
g.   ien  imperial  crown,  962  A.D. 

'  )tto  had  not  long  departed  from  Rome,  before  the  same  pope  who  had 
c^'.twned  him  treacherously  planned  rebellion  against  him,  and  incited  the 
{»f  iiple  to  resist  his  authority.  Hearing  of  this  treachery.  Otto  hastened  back 
t^-  Rome,  and  promptly  suppressed  the  movement.  At  a  general  synod  he 
'  '  ised  the  deposition  of  Pope  John  XII.,  and  the  election  of  Leo  VIII.  in 
h  place.  Otto  was  obliged  to  visit  Rome  twice  more  to  quell  sedition, 
^       the   severity   with   which  he   found    it   necessary   to    punish   crime 

leased  the  popular  animosity.     He  died  in  973. 
-  ^His  younger  son.  Otto  IL,  was  highly  talented,  but  lacked  firmness  and 
moral  principle.    He  ruled  from  973  to  983.    He  won  no  glory  in  his  battles 
with  France.    He  tried  to  wrest  Lower  Italy  from  the  Greeks  and  their  allies, 
the  Arabians,  but  lost  the  battle  of  Basantello,  and  died  soon  after,  983. 

Otto  III.  inherited  the  troubles  which  had  harassed  his  father.  He 
intended  to  transfer  the  seat  of  government  to  Italy  ;  but  he  met  his  death 
there,  and,  it  is  believed,  by  poison,  in  the  year  1002. 

As   Otto  III.  died  without  issue,  the  throne  of  Germany  was  open 
for  a  while  to  dispute ;  but  the  succession  was  settled  upon  Henry,  duke, 
of  Bavaria.     His  election  met  with  strong  opposition  in  Italy,  especially 
from  the  margrave   Ardoin ;   but  Henry  at  last  overcame  all  obstacles 
He  died  1024  A.D.,  and  with  him  ended  the  Saxon  dynasty. 

For  the  selection  of  a  new  monarch,  the  spiritual  and  temporal  princes 
of  the  German  nation  assembled  in  council,  between  Mayence  and  Worms. 

lOONOORAPHIO  XNOTOLOPiBDIA. — VOU  IIL  16  241 


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70  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

They  chose  the  Franconian  prince,  Conrad  II.,  who,  on  account  of  his 
immense  domains  on  the  Saale,  was  sumamed  the  Saltan.  The  Saxons 
very  reluctantly  saw  the  crown  pass  to  the  Franconian  line,  and  their 
opposition  placed  Conrad  in  a  difficult  position  from  the  very  first.  But  he 
grasped  the  political  helm  with  a  powerful  hand ;  kept  the  refractory 
lords  of  the  empire  in  proper  subjection ;  and  thus  bequeathed  to  his  son 
a  dominion  consolidated  at  home  and  respected  abroad. 

Henry  III.,  early  designated  to  the  succession  by  his  father,  began  his 
reign  in  1039.  Under  his  rule  Germany  eclipsed  in  grandeur  and  influence 
all  the  other  states  of  Christendom.  Since  the  days  of  Charlemagne  no 
prince  had  governed  with  such  ability  and  dignity.  He  died  in  1056,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Henry  IV. 

During  the  minority  of  Henry  IV.,  who  on  the  decease  of  his  father  was 
only  six  years  of  age,  the  cares  of  the  empire  devolved  on  his  mother, 
Agnes.  The  German  nobility,  irrituted  at  having  a  woman  at  the  head  of 
the  government,  again  distracted  the  empire  with  intestine  feuds.  They 
persecuted  every  person  whom  the  empress  honored  with  her  confidence, 
and  bitter  factions  began  to  prevail.  One  of  the  conspirators,  Hanno, 
archbishop  of  Cologne,  seized  prince  Henry,  and  carried  him  to  his  palace, 
where  he  was  treated  with  great  rigor  and  unkindness.  Hanno  himself 
took  possession  of  the  regency.  It  was  the  fortune  of  Adalbert,  bishop  of 
Bremen,  to  free  Henry  from  his  confinement,  and  to  carry  him  ofi*  to  the 
Saxons.  In  this  way  two  high  ecclesiastical  dignitaries,  the  one  by  a 
system  of  selfish  austerity,  the  other  by  indulgence  and  flattery,  had 
ruined  the  disposition  of  the  youthful  king,  who,  at  the  age  of  fifteen, 
oppressed  the  Germans,  and  above  all,  the  Saxons.  The  latter,  as  well  as 
the  Thuringians,  rebelled  against  his  government,  and,  in  conjunction  with 
other  conspirators,  set  up  a  rival  king,  first  in  the  person  of  Rudolph,  the 
Suabian,  and,  subsequently,  in  Hermann  of  Luxemburg.  The  Saxons 
finally  accused  him  to  Pope  Gregory  VII.  (Hildebrand).  This  pontiff"  had 
long  entertained  a  desire  of  fully  divorcing  the  church  from  the  influence  of 
the  state,  and  of  making  the  papal  see  the  arbiter  of  kings  and  princes, 
investing  it  with  the  highest  power  on  earth.  As  a  prudential  measure  he 
therefore  ordered  all  ecclesiastics  to  remain  in  celibacy,  so  as  to  have  no 
families  dependent  upon  the  temporal  power,  and  thus  weaken  or 
divide  the  influence  and  fortunes  of  the  church.  No  priest  was  to 
be  responsible  to  temporal  power.  He  also  ordained  that  priests  should 
not  receive  investiture  at  the  hands  of  laymen,  and  forbade  the 
acquisition  of  cures  by  purchase.  All  the  kingdoms  of  Christendom  were 
to  be  papal  fiefs,  and  without  the  consent  of  the  holy  see  no  prince,  king, 
or  emperor,  should  be  elected.  Gregory  was  precisely  the  man  to 
prosecute  these  reforms,  and  though  his  preachers  of  celibacy  were  beaten 
and  killed  by  the  people,  though  he  was  himself  once  deposed  and  cruelly 
iH-treated  in  Rome,  he  nevertheless  persevered,  through  strife  and 
bloodshed,  until  he  brought  the  hierarchy  to  the  pinnacle  of  power. 

Gregory  was  well  disposed  to  listen  to  complaints  against  a  king  who 
had  once  deposed  him,  and  he  immediately  excommunicated  Henry. 
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HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  71 

If  Henry  had  possessed  the  aflections  of  his  people,  it  is  likely  that  he  would 
have  been  spared  the  mortification  of  undertaking  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome  a« 
a  suppliant,  and  during  a  three  days'  penance  (January  25-28,  1077),  in 
the  open  yaitl  of  the  Castle  of  Canossa,  to  beg  of  the  pope  the  removal  of 
the  ban.  He  obtained  absolution,  but  he  wras  not  allowed  to  return  to  hig 
throne  until  he  had  undergone  a  personal  examination  by  the  pope  with 
regard  to  the  conduct  of  the  internal  affairs  of  his  government. 

Enraged  at  this  painful  humiliation,  the  princes  of  Lombardy,  who  felt 
themselves  degraded  in  the  person  of  their  king,  rallied  to  his  support,  and 
called  upon  Henry  to  avenge  this  indignity.  In  the  splendor  of  restored 
majesty,  and  with  an  enthusiastic  army,  he  traversed  the  papal  territories. 
But  the  alarming  report  from  Germany  reached  him,  that  disloyal  nobles 
had  elected  Rudolph  of  Suabia  king.  Henry  immediately  returned  across  the 
Alps,  and  hastened  to  the  scene  of  revolt.  Only  a  few  secular  princes 
declared  in  his  favor,  but  all  the  bishops,  except  five,  and  most  of  the 
cities,  supported  his  cause.  War  naturally  followed,  and  the  contest  was 
tedious,  sanguinary,  and  changeable.  All  Germany  was  one  vast  theatre 
of  rage,  faction,  and  bloodshed.  Parties  everywhere  ranged  themselves 
under  the  watchwords  "king"  and  "anti-king,"  "bishop"  and  "anti- 
bishop."  Rudolph  did  not  long  wear  his  usurped  crown.  He  and  Henry 
met,  after  a  three  years'  struggle,  on  the  field  of  Molsen,  near  Merseburg, 
1080  A.D.  For  a  long  time  the  issue  remained  doubtful,  when  a  young 
knight  of  Henry's  army,  Godfrey  de  Bouillon,  riding  up  to  Rudolph,  with 
a  single  blow  severed  his  sword-arm  from  the  body.  The  wound  proved 
mortal.  Rudolph's  duchy  had  already  been  assigned  to  the  brave  and 
noble  Frederic  of  Hohenstaufen,  Henry's  son-in-law.  The  other  rebels 
were  also  punished.  Welph  lost  his  duchy,  and  Leopold  of  Austria  his 
margraviate. 

The  pope  meanwhile  had  again  placed  Henry  under  the  ban,  and  given 
his  support  to  Rudolph  ;  but  Henry  resolved  to  avenge  himself  on  the  pope. 
Accompanied  by  an  anti-pope.  Archbishop  Guibert  of  Ravenna,  chosen 
pontiff  by  a  synod  held  at  Brixen,  he  set  out  for  Italy,  1081,  conquered 
Rome,  caused  himself  to  be  crowned  emperor,  and  besieged  Gregory  in  the 
Castle  of  St.  Angelo.  The  pope  remained  a  prisoner  in  the  castle  for 
three  years,  but  was  at  length  liberated  by  Robert  Guiscard,  a  Norman 
duke  in  Calabria,  and  removed  for  safety  to  Salerno,  where  he  died  in  1085. 

By  the  death  of  Gregory  VII.  Henry  had  lost  his  most  formidable 
enemy.  The  Germans  indeed  had  elected  a  new  anti-king,  Count  Hermann 
of  Luxemburg,  but  he  was  no  match  for  Henry,  and  soon  relinquished  his 
dignity.  The  Saxons,  too,  soon  inclined  to  peace.  The  declining  years 
of  the  aged  monarch  were  embittered  by  the  conduct  of  his  sons.  Both 
Conrad  and  Henry  allowed  themselves  to  be  won  over  to  the  papal  party. 
Gregory's  successors,  Urban  II.  and  Paschal  II.,  had  revived  the  ban 
against  Henry,  whose  son  Henry,  under  the  assumed  pretext  of  piety, 
declared  that  he  could  not  preserve  friendly  relations  with  a  parent  who 
rested  under  the  penalty  of  excommunication.  By  infamous  intrigue  he 
took  possession  of  the  throne  and  imprisoned  his  father.     The  unhappy 

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72  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

emperor,  however,  soon  escaped.  At  Li^e  he  marshalled  an  army  to 
punish  his  son  ;  but  in  the  midst  of  this  campaign  he  died,  1106  A.D. 

Henry  V.,  now  no  longer  requiring  the  assistance  of  the  pope,  at  once 
laid  aside  the  mask,  and  began  a  contest  with  the  pope  in  regard  to  the 
right  of  investiture,  which  continued  until  1122,  when  a  final  adjustment 
of  the  question  was  made  under  the  successor  of  Paschal,  Pope  Calixtus. 
At  the  conclusion  of  this  dispute,  Henry  found  himself  embroiled  anew  with 
the  nobility  of  the  empire.  His  whole  life  was  thus  disturbed,  and  in  1 125, 
in  the  flower  of  his  age,  he  died  without  heirs,  and  was  the  last  of  the 
Franconio-Salian  house. 

The  Eastroman  empire  was  governed  at  Byzantium,  from  602  until 
1078,  by  two  empresses  and  twenty-four  emperors.  Frequent  ruptures 
occurred  between  themselves  and  the  barbarians,  and  every  treaty 
contributed  to  the  weakening  of  the  empire.  Disastrous  alliances  were 
concluded  with  the  Bulgarians,  Arabs,  and  Turks,  to  the  latter  of  whom 
province  after  province  was  ceded.  Spain,  on  the  contrary,  made  noble 
efforts  to  deliver  herself  from  the  yoke  of  her  oppressors,  the  Arabs.  In  this 
enterprise  the  Spanish  hero,  Rodrigo  Diaz,  Count  of  Bivar,  usually  called 
the  Cid  (Lord),  shone  conspicuously.  After  a  series  of  adventures,  this 
chieftain  conquered  Valencia,  and  rendered  the  Saracen  princes  of  Toledo 
and  Seville  tributary  to  his  master,  King  Ferdinand,  who  reigned  from 
1085  to  1065.  The  kingdom  of  Portugal,  near  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century, 
was  taken  from  the  Moors,  but  acquired  its  independence  from  Spain  only 
in  1109. 

In  England,  King  Alfred  the  Great  (871-901)  fought  against  the 
Normans  from  Denmark,  who  made  frequent  attacks  upon  the  country. 
Alfred  in  the  beginning  was  defeated,  and  fled ;  but  collecting  reinforcements 
he  again  took  the  field,  and  was  victorious.  Under  his  successor  the  war 
was  renewed  by  the  Danish  king,  Sven,  who,  with  his  son  Canute,  and  OlafT 
of  Norway,  invaded  the  island«  plundered  it  without  mercy,  and  finally  placed 
himself  on  the  throne  of  England.  To  his  three  kingdoms,  Denmark, 
Norway  (of  which  he  was  liege  lord),  and  England,  Sven  added  South 
Scotland.  He  died  in  1035.  After  ruling  England  for  twenty-five  years, 
the  Danes  were  expelled,  and  Edward  the  Confessor  obtained  the  English 
crown,  1041,  and  with  his  death  (1066)  the  house  of  Alfred  became 
extinct.  He  was  succeeded  by  William,  duke  of  Normandy,  who  won  the 
o*'own,  to  which  he  had  only  remote  claim,  on  the  battle-field  of  Hastings. 
He  had  repeated  rebellions  to  quell,  for  the  English  submitted  to  the 
foreign  dynasty  with  great  reluctance. 

As  Normandy  had  been  a  fief  of  France,  and  a  vassal  could  not  lawfully 
conquer  for  himself,  the  French  kings  declared  England  tributary  to 
France.  This  claim  was  resisted  :  and  thus  arose  those  fearful  and  bloody 
contests  which  lasted  four  hundred  years. 

The  Normans  also  took  possession  of  Lower  Italy.    Even  the  founding 

of  the  Russian  empire  is  ascribed  to  them ;   for  a  Norman  tribe   called 

Waregers,  under  Rurik,  Oskold,  Dir,  Sineus,  and  Truwor,  coming  from  the 

Baltic,  entered  the  provinces  near  the  Neva,  Dnieper,  and  Wolga,  about  the 

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HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  73 

year  860,  subjugated  these  districts,  and  penetrated  as  far  as  Kiew  and 
Novogorod. 

Of  the  Asiatic  empires,  the  Arabian  Caliphate  of  Bagdad  had  reached  its 
highest  splendor  under  Al  Mansur,  Harun  Al-Rashid,  and  Al-Mahmun.  The 
realm,  however,  was  soon  after  split  into  several  divisions ;  and  thus  materially 
weakened,  it  fell  at  length  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks.  The  Arabs  of 
this  period  were  distinguished  for  science  and  art,  especially  architecture. 

Towards  the  close  of  this  period  also  commenced  the  Crusades,  of  which 
we  shall  treat  more  fully  hereafter. 


The  House  of  Hohenstaufen. 

After  the  extinction  of  the  Prankish  imperial  house  by  the  death  of 
Henry  V.,  1125,  the  Germans  elected  king  Lothaire  duke  of  Saxony.  He 
was,  however,  vigorously  opposed  by  the  two  Hohenstaufen,  Frederic  of 
Suabia  and  Conrad  of  Franconia.  In  order  to  fortify  himself  against  these 
enemies,  he  formed  an  alliance  with  Henry  the  Proud,  Duke  of  Bavaria, 
giving  him  his  daughter  in  marriage,  and  his  own  duchy  of  Saxony  as 
dowry.  This  possession  made  Henry  the  most  powerful  prince  in  Ger- 
many, so  that  when  Lothaire  died  childless  in  1137,  he,  as  his  son-in-law,, 
ventured  to  claim  the  succession,  and  to  seize  the  imperial  jewels.  But  the 
people,  fearing  rather  than  loving  his  character,  refused  to  elect  him,  and 
chose  for  emperor  Conrad  of  Hohenstaufen.  With  him  began  a  line  of 
powerful  monarchs,  of  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen,  whose  members  at  first 
resided  at  the  castle  of  Hohenstaufen  in  Suabia.  The  rejected  Henry  was 
deprived  of  his  duchies  and  outlawed.  Saxony  fell  to  Albert  the  Bear, 
Margrave  of  Brandenburg,  and  Bavaria  to  Leopold,  Margrave  of  Austria. 
Henry,  enraged  at  this  partition  of  his  territories,  marched  an  army  against 
Albert,  whom  he  effectually  subdued,  but  before  hostilities  commenced  with 
Leopold,  he  died,  1139. 

His  son  Henry,  afterwards  surnamed  the  Lion,  only  recovered  Saxony. 
Welph,  a  brother  of  the  deceased,  lent  him  his  aid  in  asserting  his  claitns  to 
the  paternal  inheritance,  and  at  last  strove  to  vindicate  them  in  a  battle 
with  Conrad,  near  Weinsberg,  1140.  From  the  battle-cry  of  the  Bavarians, 
"Here  Welph!"  and  that  of  Hohenstaufen,  "Here  Waiblingen!"  (the 
name  of  a  castle  belonging  to  this  family)  originated  the  party  names 
Welphs  (Guelphs  or  Bavarians)  and  Waiblingens  (Ghibelines  or  Suabians)  ; 
and  the  bitterest  feuds  between  these  political  factions  existed  for  centuries. 
Welph  lost  the  battle ;  and  Conrad  having  stormed  Weinsberg,  permitted 
none  but  the  women  to  leave  the  town,  with  the  clause,  however,  that  each 
might  take  with  her  the  object  which  she  might  deem  most  valuable. 
The  women  had  recourse  to  the  stratagem  of  carrying  off  their  husbands  as 
their  best  treasures.     Conrad  died  in  1 151. 

He  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew  Frederic  I.  (Barbarossa),  a  most  heroic 
and  sagacious  monarch,  who  reigned  from  1152  to  1190.  Bavaria  was  now 
restored  to  Henry  the  Lion,  and  Austria  made  a  duchy  independent  of 

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74  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

Bavaria.  Frederic  also  sought  to  reestablish  the  imperial  power  in  Italy 
by  many  a  hard  battle ;  after  which,  he  was  compelled  to  conclude  an 
armistice  for  six  years,  with  his  rebellious  subjects  in  Italy,  who  had  com- 
pletely defeated  him  at  Lignano,  1176.  Henry  the  Lion  having  deserted 
his  cause  in  this  decisive  battle,  and  thereby  principally  caused  his  defeat, 
Frederic,  on  his  return  to  Germany,  confiscated  his  duchies  and  other  fiefs, 
which  he  distributed  to  others,  allotting  Saxony  to  Count  Bernard  of  Anhalt, 
Äon  of  Albert  the  Bear,  who  gave  the  first  impulse  to  the  importance  of 
Brandenburg ;  while  Bavaria  was  assigned  to  Palatine  Otto  of  Wittelsbach, 
the  progenitor  of  the  yet  reigning  house  of  Bavaria.  Henry  the  Lion  com- 
menced an  armed  resistance,  but  was  very  soon  humbled,  and  compelled  to 
throw  himself  on  the  clemency  of  the  emperor.  Frederic,  in  remembrance 
of  his  former  friendship,  pardoned  him,  and  restored  to  Henry  his  allodial 
possessions,  Brunswick  and  Lüneburg  ;  but  at  the  same  time  banished 
him  for  three  years.     The  offender  passed  his  exile  in  England. 

At  the  expiration  of  the  six  years'  armistice  with  the  Lombards,  peace 
was  fully  concluded  by  the  treaty  of  Constance,  1 188.  Frederic  also  became 
reconciled  to  the  Norman  king  of  Lower  Italy,  who  had  allied  himself  with 
the  party  of  the  Welphs ;  and  married  his  son  to  the  Norman  princess 
Constantia,  heiress  to  Naples  and  Sicily,  in  order  to  enhance  the  glory 
of  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen. 

The  aged  Frederic,  leaving  the  government  of  his  empire  to  his  son,  later 
known  as  emperor  Henry  VI.,  undertook,  in  the  evening  of  his  life,  a 
crusade  to  Jerusalem.  But  he  was  not  permitted  to  gaze  upon  the  tomb  of 
the  Redeemer.  He  died  1 190  A.D.,  near  the  borders  of  Syria,  to  which, 
after  many  dangers,  he  had  led  his  triumphant  hosts. 

Henry  VI.  was  inferior  to  his  father  in  talents  and  virtue ;  and,  though 
he  ascended  the  throne  under  more  favorable  circumstances  than  his  father, 
he  was  less  successful.  Through  his  cruelty,  avarice,  and  perfidy,  he 
alienated  the  affections  of  his  subjects,  and,  after  a  brief  reign,  died  unre- 
gretted,  1196. 

The  German  princes  did  not  feel  bound  to  recognise  the  claims  of 
Henry's  infant ;  and  wishing  at  the  same  time  to  terminate  the  supremacy 
of  the  Hohenstaufen,  they  elected  Otto  of  Brunswick,  son  of  Henry  the 
Lion.  The  Hohenstaufen  party,  in  the  meantime,  chose  Philip  of  Suabia, 
who  already  governed  as  regent  of  the  empire.  Philip  proved  too  crafly 
and  powerful  for  his  rival.  His  cause  was  also  strongly  supported  by  Philip 
Augustus,  king  of  France,  and  for  some  time  by  Ottokar  I.,  king  of 
Bohemia,  upon  whom  he  had  conferred  the  hereditary  royalty.  And 
although  subsequently  Ottokar  deserted  him,  several  cities  following  his 
example,  and  Pope  Innocent  III.  excommunicated  him,  Philip,  nevertheless, 
retained  the  support  of  the  majority  of  the  princes,  and  at  last  compelled 
Otto  IV,  to  flee  to  England. 

The  crafty  and  daring  pope  availed  himself  of  these  civil  dissensions  in 

Germany,  in  order  to  augment  his  own  power  in  Italy.     With  the  cities  of 

Lombardy  he  concluded  an  advantageous  treaty  (League  of  the  Guelphs) 

against  the  emperor.      Afterwards,  however,  he  became  umpire  between 

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mSTORT  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  76 

Philip  and  Otto,  dictating  the  arrangement  that  Philip  should  be  sole 
emperor,  and  Otto  his  successor.  He  then  revoked  his  anathema,  and 
Philip  in  turn  gave  his  sanction  to  the  pope's  acquisitions  in  Italy.  Philip  was 
soon  after  murdered,  1208,  in  revenge  for  some  imaginary  offence,  by  Otto 
of  Wittelsbach,  the  nephew  of  him  who  had  been  elevated  to  the  duoal 
dignity  by  Philip's  father. 

Otto  IV.  now  succeeding  to  the  throne,  demanded  the  restoration  of  the 
countries  which  the  pope  had  acquired  in  Italy,  and  even  asserted  the  right 
of  the  empire  to  the  kingdoms  of  Naples  and  Sicily.  Innocent  pronounced 
an  anathema  against  Otto,  and  set  up  as  his  rival  the  Sicilian  prince, 
Frederic,  son  of  Henry  VL,  and  ward  of  the  pope,  but  made  him  promise 
not  to  encroach  upon  the  papal  possessions  or  prerc^atives.  Frederic 
received  at  Mayence,  1312,  the  homage  of  many  princes,  and  not  long  after 
was  solemnly  crowned  at  Aix-la^Chapelle.  Thus  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen 
again  wore  the  imperial  purple. 

Frederic  II.  filled  the  throne  with  great  glory  ;  he  was  brave  and 
wise,  and  distinguished  for  all  the  virtues  of  a  perfect  prince.  His  reign 
was  marked  by  numerous  wars  with  the  popes,' Lombards,  and  rival  kings. 
In  Germany,  Otto  IV.  was  soon  eclipsed  by  him  ;  but  in  Italy  the  pope 
frustrated  his  efforts  to  unite  that  country  with  Germany  as  a  hereditary 
empire.  Frederic  had  promised  to  undertake  a  crusade,  and  as  he  did  not 
redeem  his  pledge  in  proper  time,  Gregory  IX.  placed  him  under  the  ban. 
He  at  length  started  on  the  crusade,  1228  A.D.,  but  did  not  thereby  recon« 
eile  the  pope,  who  even  strode  to  excite  general  opposition  to  the  emperor 
in  Palestine.  But  Frederic  triumphed  over  all  obstacles,  meeting  every- 
where with  the  most  astonishing  fortune.  He  concluded  with  the  Saracens 
a  ten  years'  armistice ;  Jerusalem,  Bethlehem,  and  Nazareth,  submitted  to 
his  arms,  and  in  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  he  crowned  himself 
king  of  Jerusalem.  Returning  triumphant  to  Italy,  he  expelled  his 
enemies  from  his  dominions,  and  was  at  length  reconciled  with  the  pope. 
For  his  new  hereditary  possessions  in  Italy  he  provided  most  admirable 
regulations. 

A  new  insurrection  broke  out  in  (Germany,  headed  by  his  son  Henry,  who 
had  governed  during  his  father's  absence.  Frederic  suppressed  this  move- 
ment, and  sent  his  son  to  prison  in  Italy,  where  he  died  seven  years  after. 
In  1237,  Frederic  obtained  a  complete  victory  over  the  Milanese  at  Corte 
Nuova.  Gregory  IX.  once  more  excommunicated  him.  Innocent  IV., 
Gregory's  successor,  entered  readily  into  the  quarrel.  In  a  synod  at  Lyons, 
he  accused  Frederic  of  perjury,  heresy,  and  impiety  ;  and  the  assembly  not 
only  reiterated  the  anathema,  but  deposed  Frederic  from  his  crown  and 
dignities.  His  German  opponents  elected  Henry  Raspe,  Landgrave  of 
Thuringia  in  his  place,  1246.  Raspe  enjoyed  his  elevation  but  a  short 
time ;  he  was  beaten  by  Henry's  son,  Conrad,  and  died  the  following  year, 
1248.  William,  Count  of  Holland,  was  next  advanced  by  the  papal  party. 
Frederic,  in  the  meantime,  fought  with  the  revolted  Lombards,  but  his 
fortune  had  left  him.  Many  of  his  best  friends  fell  by  his  side,  and  the 
ficUe  joined  his  enemies.     At  last,  after  losing  a  battle,  and  seeing  his  son 

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76  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

Enzius  taken  captive,  his  heart  being  overwhelmed  with  grief,  especiaUy 
at  the  proscription  of  the  church  resting  on  him,  he  died  in  1250. 

His  son,  Conrad  IV.,  had  to  contend  with  the  opposition  of  his  rival, 
William  of  Holland.  He  died,  probably  by  poison,  in  1254,  the  year  of 
Pope  Innocent's  decease. 

A  sadder  fate  was  awaiting  his  son  Conradin.  In  his  efforts  to  recover 
from  Prince  Charles  of  Anjou  his  hereditary  provinces  of  Naples  and 
Sicily,  which  the  pope  had  given  to  the  latter,  himself  and  his  friend 
Frederic  of  Austria  were  taken  prisoners.  On  the  scaffold  at  Naples,  the 
royal  youth,  the  last  of  the  Hohenstaufen,  fell  under  the  executioner's 
axe. 

During  an  interregnum  of  eighteen  years,  anarchy  prevailed  in  Germany, 
which  was  during  that  period  ruled  mostly  by  foreigners.  At  length  Rudolph 
of  Hapsburg  was  elected  by  the  German  princes,  1273.  He  gained  great 
popularity  by  the  evident  capacity  which  he  exhibited  for  government.  A 
true  father  of  his  people,  he  had  nothing  more  at  heart  than  to  restore  tran- 
quillity to  the  empire. 

Ottokar  II.,  king  of  Bohemia,  ha\  ing  refused  to  recognise  the  authority 
of  Rudolph,  was  deprived  of  his  dominions,  and  proscribed,  1277  ;  he  then 
commenced  a  war,  but  perished  in  the  unfortunate  battle  of  Marchfeld, 
1278.  His  son,  Wenceslaus  II.,  retained  Bohemia  and  Moravia;  but 
Austria,  Styria,  and  Camiola,  the  former  fiefs  of  Ottokar  by  marriage,  were 
transferred  to  Rudolph's  sons,  Rudolph  and  Albert,  1282.  Rudolph 
managed  to  preserve  friendly  relations  with  thi  popes,  and  confirmed  them 
in  their  right  to  the  papal  states  ;  but  no  persuasion  could  induce  him  to  visit 
Italy,  in  order  to  be  crowned  emperor.  He  failed  in  procuring  the  succession 
for  his  son  Albert,  though  he  rendered  his  family  strong  and  popular.  He 
died  in  1291,  and  his  body  was  deposited  in  the  cathedral  at  Spire. 

After  a  brief  interregnum,  Adolphus,  Count  of  Nassau,  was  raised  to  the 
dignity  of  emperor,  1291.  He  was,  however,  soon  deposed,  but  not  without 
resistance.     He  lost  both  crown  and  life  in  the  battle  of  Worms,  1298. 

The  princes  now  supported  the  proud,  imperious,  and  gloomy  Albert  I. 
This  emperor  aimed  only  at  personal  aggrandizement ;  but  his  ambitious 
progress  was  boldly  arrested  by  the  free  inhabitants  of  Switzerland. 
Hitherto,  the  Swiss  Cantons  on  the  Vierwaldstadt  Lake  had  recognised  the 
German  rulers  merely  as  liege  lords,  but  Albert  earnestly  strove  to  attach 
them  to  his  empire.  The  Swiss  rejected  the  interference  of  his  wicked 
governors,  and  drove  them  from  the  country,  after  the  brave  archer.  Tell, 
had  killed  Gessler,  to  which  deed  he  had  been  provoked  in  a  private  but 
just  cause. 

Impelled  by  his  courageous  spirit,  Albert  again  endeavored  to  subdue  the 
brave  Swiss,  but  he  fell,  1308,  by  the  hands  of  his  cousin  John  of  ^uabia, 
whom  he  had  despoiled  of  his  patrimony.  The  Cantons  of  Switzerland  now 
formed  the  mutual  alliance  known  as  the  Swiss  Confederation,  and  bravely 
fought  for  their  liberties  at  Morgarten  (1385),  Sembach  (1386),  and  Nssfelft 
(1388).  It  was  at  Sembach  that  the  celebrated  Arnold  of  Winkelried  so 
nobly  sacrificed  himself  for  the  good  of  his  country,  by  burying  in  his  own 
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breast  as  many  of  the  enemy's  iances  as  he  could  embrace,  thus  making  an 
opening  in  their  line  through  which  his  brethren  poured  in,  and  scattering 
the  Austrian  forces,  gained  the  battle. 

Henry  VII.,  Count  of  Luxemburg,  who  obtained  the  (Jerman  crown, 
1308,  died  of  poison,  1313,  in  Italy,  where  he  had  gone  to  reestablish  the 
German  claim  of  empire.  On  his  death,  Frederic  of  Austria  and  Louis 
of  Bavaria  appeared  as  rival  candidates  for  the  vacant  throne.  After  a 
contest  of  more  than  seven  years,  Louis  secured  his  own  election,  and 
received  the  purple,  1322.  Pope  John  XXII.  had  officiated  as  arbiter 
during  the  existence  of  the  quarrel,  intending  to  secure  the  crown  to  the 
French  king.  Greatly  displeased  at  the  accession  of  Louis,  the  pope 
demanded  of  him  to  deposit  his  crown  till  the  papal  decision  had  been  made. 
The  king  of  course  declined  the  suggestion,  and  even  gave  efficient  aid  to 
John's  enemies  in  Italy.  The  pope,  at  this  time,  resided  at  Avignon  in 
France.  He  at  once  thundered  forth  his  ban  and  interdict  against  Louis, 
1324.  The  latter,  in  turn,  appealed  to  a  general  council,  which  deposed 
John  and  replaced  him  by  Nicholas  V.  Louis  then  had  himself  proclaimed 
emperor  in  Rome,  by  excommunicated  bishops,  1328.  The  decease  of  John 
did  not  disperse  the  adversaries  of  Louis,  who  now  found  himself  opposed 
by  Charles,  Margrave  of  Moravia,  who  had  been  nominated  to  the  throne  of 
Germany  by  the  party  of  Clement  VI.  He  was  too  timorous  to  carry  out 
his  scheme,  when,  fortunately  for  him,  Louis  died,  1347.  He  then  ascended 
the  German  throne  under  the  name  of  Charles  lY.  He  aimed  chiefly  at 
his  personal  advantage,  and  the  elevation  of  his  allodial  country,  Bohemia. 
With  this  latter  design  in  view,  he  transferred  the  royal  residence 
to  Prague,  where  he  also  founded  the  first  German  university,  1349. 
He  efiected  an  important  change  in  the  German  constitution.  The  Golden 
Seal  confirmed  the  new  fundamental  law,  proclaiming  the  seven  princes  who 
were  to  elect  the  German  king  and  Roman  emperor,  and  the  place  and 
manner  of  the  election.  This  was  the  most  prominent  work  of  Charles  IV., 
who  died,  1378. 

Wenceslaus  III.,  sumamed  the  drunkard,  succeeded  his  father  in  the  same 
year,  chosen  by  electors  who  had  been  bribed  while  his  father  was  yet 
alive. 

Rival  kings  were  set  up  against  Wenceslaus,  first  in  the  person  of  Palatine 
Rupert,  and  after  his  death,  1410,  in  Sigismund  of  Hungary  (1410-1437), 
his  own  brother,  and  finally  in  Jodocus  of  Moravia.  At  the  same  time, 
three  popes  were  disputing  about  the  pontifical  see. 

The  anarchy  necessarily  arising,  in  consequence  of  so  many  diflferent 
claims  to  supremacy,  renewed  the  times  when  the  will  of  the  strongest  was 
the  only  law.  Wenceslaus  was  rough,  seldom  left  Bohemia,  and  even  there 
terrified  his  subjects  so  much,  that  history  has  given  him  the  title  of  the 
second  Nero.  Prague  having  become  hardly  an  eligible  place  for  the  culti- 
vation of  sciences,  the  university  was  removed  to  Leipsic,  1409. 

The  confusion  of  all  church  aSairs,  arising  from  the  disgraceful  rivalry 
of  the  three  popes,  was  finally  arrested  by  the  Council  of  Constance,  1415, 
convened  by  Sigismund,  when  two  popes  had  already  been  deposed,  and  a 

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Bew  one  elected,  the  two  former,  however,  refusing  to  yield.  Now  all  the 
three  popes  were  deposed,  and  Martin  V.  was  elected  in  their  stead ;  but 
the  much  desired  reformation  of  the  church  was  not  effected.  On  the 
contrary,  the  doctrines  of  Huss  of  Hussinetz,  and  of  Jacob  of  Mies, 
tending  towards  the  correction  of  clerical  abuses,  were  condemned,  and 
their  originator,  in  spite  of  having  appeared  at  the  council  under  the 
protection  of  a  safe-conduct  from  Sigismund,  was  burned  by  the  decree  of 
the  council,  1415.  His  friend  and  defender,  Jerome  of  Prague,  suffered 
the  same  fate  the  year  after. 

The  result  of  this  event  wa9  the  bloody  Hussite  war  in  Bohemia, 
1419-33,  the  adherents  of  the  new  doctrines  arming  themselves  for  the 
defence  of  their  faith.  Their  army  spread  terror  wherever  it  went. 
Fortune  seemed  to  shed  her  favors  upon  them,  and  they  soon  deposed  the 
king.  The  party,  however,  at  length  split  up  into  factions ;  the  terrors 
of  war  disposed  the  fathers  of  the  church  to  a  reconciliation,  and  the 
Hussites  themselves  were  tired  of  the  contest.  A  new  council  was  assembled 
at  Basle.  The  Calixtines,  who  were  the  more  moderate  of  the  Hussites, 
asking  only  the  use  of  the  cup  in  the  Holy  Sacrament,  with  the  concession  of 
some  minor  points,  were  received  into  the  communion  of  the  orthodox, 
1433,  while  the  Taborites,  a  name  applied  to  the  fanatics  of  the  party,  were 
still  refused  admission.  The  Calixtines  now  persecuted  their  less 
fortunate  brethren,  and  the  Taborite  chief,  Procopius,  was  conquered  and 
killed  in  battle  by  Mainhard  of  Neuhaus,  the  leader  of  the  Calixtines, 
1434  A.D.  This  catastrophe  terminated  the  war.  Sigismund,  who,  in  the 
meantime,  1483,  had  received  the  Roman  imperial  crown,  was  again 
acknowledged  king  of  Bohemia,  1435.     He  died  two  years  after. 

After  the  death  of  Sigismund,  Albert  of  Austria,  his  son-in-law, 
succeeded  to  the  empire  as  Albert  II.  He  united  in  his  person  the 
governments  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia.  He  was  an  excellent,  resolute 
prince,  but  his  reign  was  cut  short  by  death.  He  fell  in  an  expedition 
against  the  Turks,  1489. 

Frederic  IV.,  duke  of  Styria,  and  son  of  Ernest  the  Iron,  a  relative 
of  Albert,  next  ascended  the  throne.  His  protracted  administration 
(1440-93)  was  not  signalized  in  any  way,  Frederic  possessing  more  of  good 
will  than  of  energy,  and  not  being  favored  by  fortune.  His  whole  reign 
contrasts  pitifully  with  those  of  contemporary  monarchs  in  Europe. 

In  France  the  Capetians  had  ruled  from  987  to  1328.  Several  kings  of  this 
line  presided  over  the  interests  of  their  country  with  distinguished  ability. 
Louis  VI.,  1108-37,  greatly  enlarged  the  rights  and  liberties  of  his  subjects. 
Louis  VII.,  1137-1180,  and  Philip  Augustus,  1180-1223,  distinguished  them- 
selves in  the  crusades.  Philip  established  the  class  of  the  peerage,  founded 
the  University  of  Paris,  and  took  the  preliminary  steps  towards  making 
the  monarchy  hereditary  and  absolute.  Louis  IX.,  sumamed  St.  Louis, 
1226-70,  distinguished  by  his  crusades,  in  the  course  of  one  of  which  he  died 
at  Tunis,  governed  with  wisdom  the  kingdom  which  his  victories  and  policy 
had  enlarged,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  a  healthy  freedom  for  the  Gallican 
church.  Philip  IV.,  the  Fair,  1285-1814,  governed  with  vigor,  and 
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HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  79 

distinguished  his  reign  by  a  fortunate  contest  with  the  hierarchy  (the  popei 
in  France).  He  suppressed  the  order  of  the  Knights  Templars,  whose 
treasures  tempted  him ;  and  he  created  an  epoch  in  French  history,  by 
coovening  for  the  first  time  a  national  assembly,  known  as  the  States 
General  (Etats  g^n^raux).  He  died  in  1314,  and  his  three  sons,  who 
followed  each  other  in  rapid  succession,  wound  up  the  direct  male  line  of 
the  Capetian  kings,  1328. 

The  Capetians  had  broken  the  influence  of  the  nobility  in  France.  The 
collateral  line  who  next  claimed  the  throne  plunged  the  country  into  wars 
with  England ;  and  in  one  of  these,  under  Charles  YIL,  the  celebrated 
Joan  of  Arc  appeared  at  the  head  of  the  French  troops,  led  them  on  to 
victory,  but  was  herself  eventually  taken  prisoner,  and  burnt  at  the  stake. 

The  dukes  of  Burgundy,  a  branch  of  the  French  reignhig  house,  acquired 
considerable   importance  during  this  period.     John   the   Good,  in  1363, 
had  transferred  Burgundy  as  a  fief  to  his  youngest  son,  Philip  the  Bold. 
Philip  was  succeeded  by  his  son  John  the  Intrepid,  1404-19 ;  he  again  by 
Philip  the  Good,  1419-67,  and  Charles  of  Charolois,  sumamed  the  Bold, 
1467-1477.     There    was    a    constant    animosity   between    France    and 
Burgundy.    Charles  of  Charolois  acquired  in  addition  Franche  Comt4  and 
the  largest  portion  of  the  Netherlands,  and  maintained  at  Brussels  the  most 
splendid  court  in  Europe.     The  duke  opened  negotiations  with  the  king  of 
Germany,  Frederic   IV.,  about  the   title   of  king,  when  the  latter  asked 
for  his  son  Maximilian  the  hand  of  Charles's  daughter,   Mary,  heiress 
to  Burgundy.     But  differences  arose  in  the  course  of  their  conferences,  and 
Frederic,   instigated   by  Louis   XI.   of  France,  broke  them   ofi*  entirely. 
Charles  determined  that  Maximilian  should  never  be  allied  to  his  family ; 
but  his  daughter  afterwards  engaged  herself  to  the  emperor's  son  by  letter. 
The  crafty  duke  marched,  in  1476,  against  his  neighbor  Renatus,  duke 
of  Lorraine,  and  his  allies,  the  Swiss,  in  order  to  attach  their  countries  to 
his  own  dominion.     Having  taken  Nancy,  the   capital  of  Lorraine,  and 
expelled  Renatus,  he  advanced  in  the  same  year  with  60,000  men  against 
Switzerland.     In   his   attack   upon   Granson   his   perfidy   and   cruelty  so 
exasperated  this  brave  and  free  people,  that  they  arose  with  a  courage 
commensurate   with   their  patriotism,   and    completely  routed   the    Bur- 
gundiarr  army,  who  were  obliged  to  leave  their  rich  camp  in  the  hands  of 
the  Swiss.    Chagrined   at  this  unexpected  misfortune,  Charles  advanced 
against  them  with  a  new  army,  but  was  again  defeated  at  Murten,  with 
a  loss  of  20,000  men,  some  falling  on  the  field,  and  others  being  driven  into 
the  adjoining  lake.     At  a  third  battle  at  Nancy,  1477,  Charles  himself  was 
slain:    his  army  was  partly  destroyed,  and  partly  deserted  him.     With 
Charles  the  Bold  the  Burgundian  dominion  came  to  an  end. 

Mary,  the  heiress  of  Charles,  now  married  Maximilian  I.  Louis  XL, 
too,  had  claimed  her  hand  for  his  son,  who  was  only  seven  years  old. 
Maximilian  thus  became  involved  in  a  bloody  war  with  Louis  of  France, 
and  he  demanded  the  restoration  of  the  Burgundian  provinces  which  Louis 
had  taken.  In  the  war  that  followed  Frederic  could  not  assist  his  son,  as 
his  own  dominions  were  menaced  by  the  Turks  and  Hungarians.     But  by 

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80  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

the  aid  which  he  received  from  the  Netherlands,  he  was  enabled  to  conduct 
a  splendid  campaign. 

In  1480,  three  years  after  her  marriage,  Mary  died.  Louis  once  more  took 
up  arms,  and  secured  the  provinces  of  Fianche  Compt^  and  Artois  as 
the  dowry  for  the  young  Margaret,  daughter  of  Maximilian,  destined  for  the 
dauphin  of  France.  Maximilian  had  only  the  name  of  emperor,  and  it  was 
not  till  after  a  serious  war  that  his  right  to  the  administration  was  recognised. 
In  1483  died  Louis  XI.  of  France,  one  of  the  most  subtle  despots  of  his  age. 

In  England  the  Norman  dynasty  terminated  in  1154,  and  that  of  the  Plan- 
tagenets,  under  Henry  II.,  began.  Henry  governed  as  vassal  in  France, 
Normandy,  Aquitaine,  and  Poitou,  as  well  as  the  counties  of  Anjou, 
Touraine,  and  Maine.  Ireland  and  Bretagne  he  acquired  by  conquest.  He 
met  with  great  opposition  from  his  sons,  and  did  not  live  long  enough  to 
redeem  his  vow  of  making  a  crusade.     He  died  in  1184. 

Richard  the  Lion-hearted  accomplished  the  vow  made  by  his  father. 
While  distinguishing  himself  by  his  prowess  in  the  East,  the  perfidy 
of  his  brother  John,  and  of  Philip  of  France,  compelled  him  to  return.  The 
latter  was  lending  his  aid  to  John  in  his  efibrts  to  wrest  the  crown  from 
Richard. 

After  the  death  of  Richard,  1199,  his  brother  John  (Lackland),  disre- 
garding the  rights  of  his  nephew  Arthur,  succeeded  to  the  throne.  Philip 
of  France  despoiled  him  of  the  fairest  part  of  his  dominions,  and  Pope  Inno- 
cent III.  placed  England  under  an  interdict,  and  John  under  anathema. 
The  king  fought  his  enemies  with  great  disadvantage,  and  at  length  yielded 
to  the  demands  of  the  church.  His  nobles  also  wrested  from  him  the 
Magna  Charta,  1215,  an  ever  memorable  transaction  in  British  history.  It 
secured  the  liberty  of  all  ranks  and  of  every  individual  against  the  tyranny 
of  the  monarch.  He  died  in  his  war  with  Philip.  One  of  his  contemporaries 
says  of  him,  that  even  hell  must  have  been  polluted  by  his  presence. 

Henry  III.,  John's  son  (1216-72),  oppressed  the  people,  and  a  civil  war  was 
the  consequence.  He  became  involved  in  a  contest  with  his  barons,  and  in 
his  reign  for  the  first  time  deputies  appeared  in  parliament  from  the  cities 
and  boroughs. 

Under  his  son,  Edward  I.  (1273-1807),  Wales  was  completely  con- 
quered.  His  successors  renewed  the  bitter  contests  between  England  and 
France  in  regard  to  the  succession,  and  in  fact  Henry  V.  and  VI.  assumed 
to  themselves  the  title  of  kings  of  France. 

To  these  wars  succeeded  civil  broils.  The  families  of  York  and  Lan- 
caster (whose  respective  emblems  were  the  red  and  the  white  rose)  had 
been  disputing  one  with  another  the  right  to  the  throne  since  1453,  when 
at  last  Henry  VII.,  by  a  marriage,  put  an  end  to  the  serious  quarrel  in 
1486.  The  new  dynasty  was  that  of  the  Tudors,  which  reigned  from 
1486  to  1603.     The  house  of  Stuart  governed  in  Scotland  from  1371. 

In    the    latter  period   of  the   Middle   Ages   Italy   appeared  torn   and 

weakened.     Naples  and  Sicily,  the  patrimony  of  the  Hohenstaufen,  were 

groaning  under  the  yoke  of  Charles  of  Anjou.     In  the  year  1282  Sicily  rid 

herself  of  the  French  rule.    The  Sicilian  Vespers,  on  the  second  day  of 

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HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  81 

Easter,  1282,  were  the  appointed  signal  for  a  general  massacre  of  the 
French,  who  were  attacked  simultaneously  all  over  the  island.  Peter  of 
Arragon  aided  in  the  rebellion,  and  the  insurgents  at  last  prevailed. 
Charles  in  vain  attempted  to  recover  his  possessions.  Naples  remained 
200  years  separated  from  Sicily,  and  finally,  also  became  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  Arragon,  1458,  after  having  endured  frequent  changes  of 
rulers. 

The  papal  court  had  resided  at  Avignon  from  1305,  and  the  Romans 
longed  for  its  return  to  the  Eternal  City,  for  the  sources  of  their  wealth  had 
been  much  impaired  by  its  departure. 

The  old  noble  families  of  the  Colonna  and  Orsini  were  waging  war  with 
each  other.  Rienzi,  a  young  and  ambitious  plebeian,  made  a  vigorous 
effort  to  exterminate  the  nobility,  and  to  revive  the  glories  of  the  ancient 
republic;  but  the  fickle  populace  deserted  his  cause.  He  was  mur- 
dered, 1354.  Gregory  XI.  restored  the  pontifical  residence  to  Rome, 
1376.  From  that  period  the  papal  power  suffered  severely  by  sequestra- 
tions. It  did  not  recover  its  political  supremacy  till  much  later,  under 
Nicholas  Y.,  Paul  IL,  Alexander  YL,  and  Julius  11. 

At  this  period  the  Marquis  of  Este,  lord  of  Modena,  increased  in  wealth 
and  power.  Savoy  belonged  to  Burgundy,  but  in  1416  the  counts  (at  a 
later  period  dukes)  of  Savoy  gradually  founded  an  independent  power. 

The  political  ascendency  of  Pisa  sank  in  the  12th  century  through  its 
contest  with  Genoa,  which  now  rose  so  rapidly  as  to  acquire  a  footing  in  Pro- 
vence and  Marseilles,  and  secure  valuable  commercial  advantages  upon  the 
eastern  seas.  Genoa,  however,  labored  under  constant  internal  strife,  which 
weakened  its  strength  and  encouraged  its  enemies,  one  of  whom,  Yenice, 
after  a  long  war,  secured  the  supremacy.  The  severest  exactions  were 
imposed  on  Genoa  by  its  tyrannical  doges ;  and  it  was  finally  subdued  by 
the  dukes  of  Milan  or  the  kings  of  France. 

Florence  felt  the  revolutionary  spirit  of  the  age.  At  times  the  nobles 
oppressed  the  people,  then  again  the  mob  had  all  the  power.  Through  the 
government,  policy,  and  virtues  of  the  noble  house  of  the  Medici,  she  at 
length  rose  to  a  magnificent  position  among  the  nations.  One  of  this  family, 
Cosmo  di  Medici,  was  immensely  rich ;  he  presided  over  the  state,  yet  he 
kept  up  the  form  of  republican  government.  While  in  the  enjoyment  of 
power  his  virtues  shone  with  undiminished  splendor,  and  his  noble  gene- 
rosity to  the  people  made  him  very  popular.  The  persecutions  of  his 
enemies  only  contributed  to  elevate  him  the  more,  for  when  they  succeeded 
in  banishing  him,  he  was  recalled  with  great  honors,  and  the  people 
proclaimed  anew  their  attachment  to  him.    Cosmo  died  in  1464. 

His  son  Pedro  was  exposed  to  a  powerful  opposition,  but  it  did  not  resolve 
itself  into  a  conspiracy  until  the  time  of  his  amiable  sons,  Lorenzo  and 
Julian,  1442.  At  the  bottom  of  the  plot  were  the  Florentine  house  of  Pazzi, 
and  Salviati,  archbishop  of  Pisa,  who  laid  a  cunning  scheme  for  the  assassin- 
ation of  the  brothers.  The  villains  succeeded  in  mortally  stabbing  Julian  ; 
but  Lorenzo  escape^,  bleeding  from  seven  wounds.  Proper  punishment 
was   at  last  meted  out  to  these   murderers  by   the  people  themselves 

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82  fflSTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

Lorenzo  had  to  bear  up  against  the  hostility  of  Pope  Sixtus  lY.  and  of  Fer- 
dinand I.,  king  of  Naples ;  but  he  gallantly  defended  himself  against  both* 
and  became  the  benefactor  of  his  people.    He  died  in  1402. 

In  Milan  the  family  of  the  Visconti  won  great  consideration.  One  of  its 
members,  John  Galeazzo,  purchased  the  title  of  duke,  in  1395,  of  Wenoeslaos, 
the  German  king;  and  soon  swayed  the  govei*nment  of  twenty-two  Italian 
cities.  When  the  male  line  of  the  Visconti  became  extinct,  in  1447, 
Francis  Sforza  assumed  the  ducal  crown,  and  governed  with  some  renown. 
He  died  in  1467.  His  son,  Galeazzo  Maria,  was  murdered  by  conspirators 
in  1476.  John  Galeazzo,  son  of  Maria,  was  recognised  as  successor,  but  was 
at  length  poisoned  by  his  uncle  and  guardian,  Louis  the  Moor,  who  seized 
upon  the  regency.  Louis  himself  finally  fell  a  victim  to  his  own 
intrigues. 

In  Spain  the  chief  power  of  the  Christians  was  vested  in  two  leading  houses, 
those  of  Castile  and  Arragon.  On  the  latter,  Majorca,  Sicily,  and  Sardinia, 
were  dependencies.  The  Arabian  caliphate,  in  the  south,  lost  one  province 
after  another.  By  the  marriage  of  Ferdinand  II.  of  Arragon  with  Isabella 
of  Castile,  1469,  the  two  Christian  states  were  more  closely  allied;  but 
Spain  only  consolidated  her  government  in  1516.  In  1492  the  kingdom  of 
Granada  passed  from  the  hands  of  the  Mohammedans  to  those  of  the 
Christians.  The  same  year  witnessed  the  discovery  of  America  by  Christo- 
pher Columbus,  an  event  of  importance  not  only  to  Spain  but  to  the 
world  at  large. 

Portugal,  which  for  a  long  time  was  governed  by  dukes,  rose  in  1139  to 
the  dignity  of  a  kingdom,  and  Algarvia  was  allotted  to  it  in  1253.  By  the 
aid  of  the  crusaders  Lisbon  was  wrested  from  the  Moors,  1147.  The  reign 
of  Dionysius  (Dinez)  the  Just,  extending  from  1279  to  1322,  was  remark- 
ably fortunate.  His  grandson  Pedro,  1357,  immortalized  in  song  by  his 
romantic  passion  for  Inez  de  Castro,  likewise  ruled  with  much  ability  and 
justice.  With  the  death  of  his  son  Ferdinand,  1383,  the  proper  Burgundian 
line  became  extinct;  for  though  John  II.  of  Castile,  husband  of  Ferdinand's 
daughter,  claimed  the  throne,  the  popular  voice  called  for  Prince  John, 
natural  son  of  Pedro,  and  grand  master  of  the  order  of  Aviz.  His  reign 
lasted  fifty  years,  and  was  very  glorious  and  prosperous. 

During  this  century  the  Portuguese,  under  the  patronage  of  Henry, 
third  son  of  John,  commenced  their  voyages  of  discovery,  and  met  with 
great  success.  Thgir  bold  seamen  passed  Cape  Non  on  the  African  coast, 
and  discovered  Madeira  and  the  Azores.  The  immediate  successors  of 
John,  Conradin  I.  and  Alphonso  Y.,  permitted  the  interest  in  these  voyages 
to  decline,  but  John  II.  (1481)  manifested  the  same  predilection  for  maritime 
afifairs  as  John  I.,  and,  above  all,  made  the  East  Indies  the  object  of  his  enter- 
prises, in  order  to  wrest  their  commerce  from  the  Genoese  and  Venetiana. 
Africa's  most  southern  point,  Capo  Tormentoso  (afterwards  called  Cape  of 
Good  Hope)  had  already  been  discovered,  when  John  died,  and  left  his 
eastern  plans  to  be  completed  under  Emanuel  the  Great,  by  Vasco  de  Gama. 

The  kingdom  of  Denmark  had  reached  its  greatest  extent  under  Walde- 
m^r  I.  (1157-82)  and  Waldemar  II.  (1202-41) ;  but  in  1223  it  lost  Holstein, 
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mSTORT  AND  EmNOLOGT.  S3 

Mecktenburg,  Lübeck,  and  Hamburg.  The  house  of  Estritson  reigned 
until  1448,  when  it  was  succeeded  by  that  of  Oldenburg. 

In  Sweden  the  house  of  Stenkil  passed  away,  1180,  for  that  of  Swerk,  a 
Goth,  and  this  again  yielded  (1222)  to  that  of  Bonde.  In  1250  the  line  of 
the  Fdkungs  began :  it  ended  in  1889. 

The  old  Ynglingian  dynasty  prevailed  in  Norway  from  875  until  1819. 
Margaret,  daughter  of  Waldemar  III.,  and  wife  of  Hakon  VIII.,  king  of 
Norway  and  Sweden,  and  guardian  of  her  son  Olaf,  in  Denmark,  achieved  a 
union  of  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Denmark  (the  Calmar  Union,  1807). 
While  the  kingdoms  were  brought  within  one  confederation,  each  preserved 
its  own  laws  and  constitution.  Erick  of  Pomerania,  a  grandson  of  her 
sister,  was  destined  to  govern  the  united  countries  after  her ;  but  Sweden 
and  Norway  looked  with  jealousy  and  envy  upon  Denmark,  as  the  favorite 
state  ;  besides,  his  tyranny  at  length  drove  the  Swedes  to  rebellion.  Even 
the  Danes  could  not  brook  the  intolerant  rule  of  the  government  at 
Copenhagen.  In  1486  Charles  Canuteson  Bonde  was  appointed  governor  of 
the  empire;  Erick  fled  to  Gothland,  and  the  Danes,  1439,  elected  his 
nephew  Christopher,  prince  of  Bavaria,  whom  the  Swedes  and  Norwegians 
also  recognised.  He  enjoyed  a  more  tranquil  and  fortunate  reign.  At  his 
death,  1448,  the  Danes  conferred  the  royal  dignity  on  Christian  I.,  count  of 
Oldenburg  and  Delmenhorst,  and  in  1450  the  Norwegians,  too,  elected  him. 
He  was  the  son  of  Dietrich  of  Oldenburg,  who  had  married  Hedwig,  sister 
of  Count  Adolphus  VIII.,  of  Holstein,  1449.  Christian  received  Schleswick 
and  Holstein  by  a  solemn  guarantee  of  their  liberties ;  but  his  brother 
Gerard  succeeded  to  the  patrimonial  inheritance. 

In  Sweden  the  diet  had  elected  Charles  Canuteson  Bonde  king,  but 
owing  to  a  quarrel  with  the  clergy,  he  was  banished  from  the  kingdom. 
After  Christian  I.  had  ascended  the  throne  Charles  was  recalled.  On 
his  death,  his  sister's  son,  Sten  Sture,  was  chosen  governor,  and  maintained 
himself  against  the  machinations  of  Christian.  John,  the  son  of  Christian, 
was  elected  after  the  death  of  Sten  Sture,  but  by  the  abuse  of  his  power  he 
drove  the  Swedes  to  revolt,  and  the  Stures  again  won  the  supremacy.  In 
Sweden  and  Norway  John  was  succeeded  by  his  son.  Christian  II.,  1518. 

In  the  meantime  the  German  order  of  Lords  had  converted  Prussia  to 
Christianity,  while  the  order  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Sword  had  accomplished 
the  same  in  Livonia  and  Courland.  They  also  created  these  powers  inde- 
pendent states.  By  the  peace  of  Thorn,  1466,  Poland  obtained  the  whole 
of  West  Prussia,  and  the  grand  master  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Sword  governed 
East  Prussia  as  a  Polish  vassal.  Poland  and  Silesia  suffered  severely  from 
the  Mongolian  incursions,  but  won  a  decided  victory  at  Liegnitz,  1241. 
In  the  thirteenth  century  the  various  Polish  dependencies  were  united 
under  the  names  of  Great  and  Little  Poland,  and  in  1805  the  two  divisions 
were  combined,  under  King  Vladislaus  Loktieck.  Among  all  his  suc- 
cessors none  were  more  distinguished  than  Casimir  the  Great,  of  the 
house  of  Piast  (1888-70).  His  successor  Louis,  who  was  also  king  of 
Hungary,  having  confirmed  the  Poles  in  their  freedom  and  nation- 
ality,    they    chose    his    daughter    Hedwig    queen,    1884.      She    soon 

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84  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

after  gave  her  hand  to  Prince  Jagello,  and  the  crown  remained  in  his  line 
until  1572. 

In  Hungary  the  Anjou-Neapolitan  line  obtained  the  throne  in  1308. 
The  Arpad  dynasty  had  expired  in  1301.  Charles  Robert  (1308-42),  the  first 
king  of  the  new  dynasty,  received  the  crown  by  right  of  his  mother. 
Under  the  brilliant  reign  of  Louis  the  Great,  mentioned  as  king  of  Poland 
(1342-82),  Hungary  was  remarkable  for  her  power  and  civilization.  At 
his  death  his  daughter  Mary,  wife  of  Sigismund,  succeeded  to  the  throne, 
while,  as  before  remarked,  her  sister  Hedwig  became  queen  of  Poland. 

During  the  fifteenth  century  the  Turks  frequently  caused  great  trouble 
to  Hungary ;  and  at  Varna,  1444,  the  Christian  army  met  a  most  terrible 
defeat.  King  Yladislaus  fell  on  that  bloody  field.  The  Hungarians  now 
called  Matthias  Corvinus,  son  of  John  Hunyades,  to  the  throne,  1468.  His 
arms  were  victorious.'  He  not  only  routed  the  Turks,  but  increased  the 
domain  of  the  empire  by  the  conquest  of  Vienna,  Carinthia,  Styria,  Silesia, 
Ukraine,  and  Moravia.  His  reign  was  noted  also  for  great  advances  in 
knowledge  and  art.     He  died  in  1490  A.D. 

Russia  was  divided  into  more  than  fifty  districts.  It  fell  an  easy  prey  to 
the  rapacity  of  the  Mongols.  Among  the  conquered  princes  Alexander 
Newski,  of  Novogorod,  was  distinguished.  He  died  in  1263.  In  spite  of  his 
dependence,  he  vanquished  near  the  Neva,  in  1240,  the  Swedes,  Lithu- 
anians, and  the  Brethren  of  the  Sword,  who,  since  1237,  had  united  their 
order  to  that  of  the  German  Knights.  Sartak  elevated  Alexander,  in  1252, 
to  the  princedom  of  Vladimir,  and  his  son  obtained  Novogorod. 

Internal  divisions  at  length  weakened  the  Mongol  power  in  Russia.  Iwan  I. 
made  Moscow  his  residence,  united  several  leading  principalities,  and,  with 
the  consent  of  the  Mongolian  Khan,  his  sons  took  the  title  of  Grand  Dukes 
of  all  th6  Russias.  By  enlarging  the  limits  of  the  confederacy,  sufficient 
force  was  at  length  secured  to  throw  off  the  foreign  yoke.  This  was  effected 
under  Iwan  III.,  son  of  Wasili  III.  Dimtrii  (Donskoi)  had  previouslv 
made  a  similar  attempt,  and  had  been  fortunate  in  gaining  great  victories  over 
the  Tartars  at  the  Don,  1380.  Owing  to  the  breaking  up  of  the  Mongol 
khanate  of  Kaptshak  into  the  principalities  Crimea,  Kasan,  Astrachan,  and 
Turan  (Siberia),  and  the  consequent  division  of  strength,  Iwan's  success 
was  greatly  facilitated.  The  khan  of  Kasan  was  compelled  to  implore 
peace  in  1469.  Henceforth  Iwan  appointed  the  khans,  and  took  the  title  of 
Czar,  and  placed  upon  his  escutcheon  the  double  eagle.  Novogorod  suc- 
cumbed to  the  Muscovite  dynasty,  and  Khan  Achmet  fell,  1480. 

The  government  of  the  Greeks  came  to  a  final  close  in  the  fourteenth 
century.  They  had  to  yield  to  the  victorious  Turks  the  provinces  of  Asia 
Minor.  The  latter,  under  their  commander  Orchan,  secured  a  residence 
at  Prusa,  in  Bithynia,  1327.  In  the  year  1357,  Soliman  and  Murat,  sons 
of  Orchan,  crossed  the  Hellespont,  and  capturing  Gallipole,  obtained  a 
footing  in  Europe,  conquering  Thrace,  Thessalia,  Macedonia,  and  Bulgaria, 
and  in  1362  they  established  themselves  in  Adrianople. 

John  IV.  only  retained  the  capital  of  Thessalonica  and  a  few  districts  of 
the  Morea,  with  some  of  the  Archipelagan  islands.  Bajazet,  son  of  Amurath» 
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HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  86 

1369-1403,  was  famed  for  his  victories.  His  most  memorable  triumph 
occurred  in  1396,  when  he  totally  destroyed  the  Christian  army,  under  Sigis- 
mund,  king  of  Hungary.  The  emperor  was  compelled  to  permit  the 
establishment  of  a  mosque  and  the  appointment  of  a  cadi  in  his  capital,  and 
would  probably  have  lost  his  throne  to  the  sultan  had  not  the  latter  been 
attacked  by  an  enemy  more  powerful  than  himself  This  was  Timur,  or 
Tamerlane,  prince  of  the  Mongols  (born  1336,  at  Kesh,  near  Samarkand). 
In  1402  the  Mongol  and  Ottoman  armies  met  upon  the  plain  of  Angora 
(the  ancient  Ancyra),  in  Asia  Minor.  Bajazet  lost  the  battle,  and  being 
made  captive,  was  borne  off  by  the  conqueror  in  an  iron  cage.  Death 
released  him  from  his  disgrace  in  1403.  Tamerlane  died  on  his  march 
towards  China,  with  his  plans  of  conquest  yet  unfinished. 

Musa,  appointed  sultan  by  Tamerlane,  assassinated  his  elder  brother, 
but  finally  perished  himself  by  the  hand  of  his  younger  brother,  Mohammed 
I.,  who  restored  the  Turks  to  power,  and.harassed  the  Christian  states. 

His  son  and  successor,  Amurath  II.,  marched  against  Constantinople, 
1422,  but  without  conquering  it,  contented  himself  with  imposing  upon  the 
Greek  emperor  severe  exactions.  In  1444  he  won  a  splendid  victory  at 
Varna,  over  Yladislaus,  king  of  Hungary  and  Poland,  and  nearly  annihilated 
tlie  forces  of  John  Hunnyades  at  Kassova. 

Mohammed  II.,  son  of  Amurath,  disregarding  the  treaty  between  his 
father  and  the  Byzantine  power  in  1453,  began  the  siege  of  Constantinople. 
The  Greek  empire  had  already  sunk  so  low  that  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
the  capital  constituted  its  only  domains.  When  Constantine  XL  ascended 
the  throne,  Mohammed  advanced  with  his  forces,  which  Constantinople 
could  not  resist.  Constantine  XI.  displayed  a  wonderful  courage.  On  the 
fifty-third  day  of  the  siege  the  imperial  city  was  laid  waste.  Constantine 
and  his  noble  friends  fell  in  the  conflict,  the  Byzantine  throne  was  over- 
whehned,  and  the  Greek  empire  was  no  more. 

The  rest  of  Greece  soon  passed  to  the  hands  of  the  Turks ;  the  provinces 
of  Bosnia  and  Servia  rendered  submission  to  Mohammed  ;  Albania  alone 
made  successful  resistance  under  the  celebrated  Scanderbeg.  The  impor- 
tant fortress  of  Belgrade  defied  all  efibrts  for  its  capture,  in  1456.  Rhodes, 
too,  bravely  opposed  the  Turks.  In  other  directions,  however,  Moham- 
med's enterprises  were  more  successful.  He  drove  the  Genoese  from  the 
Crimea,  and  spread  alarm  throughout  Italy  and  all  the  western  part  of  Europe. 
Otranto  yielded  to  his  arms  in  1460.  He  died  the  following  year  while  on 
his  expedition  against  Usum  Hassan,  the  Turkoman  conqueror  of  Persia. 
During  a  period  of  thirty  years,  Mohammed  had  conquered  two  empires, 
twelve  kingdoms,  and  two  thousand  cities.  The  Christian  cross  was 
displaced  by  the  Moslem  crescent,  and  the  capital  itself  took  the  Turkish 
name  of  Istamboul. 

About  this  period  the  Mongols,  a  nomadic  horde,  began  to  assume  a  lead- 
ing rank  among  the  tribes  of  Central  Asia.  One  of  their  hereditary  leaders, 
Temudchin,  by  his  valor  and  cruelty  managed  to  obtain  the  command  of 
a  few  neighboring,  tribes,  and  soon  attained  the  supremacy  over  all  the 
Mongolians.    He  assumed  the  title  of  Tshinghis  Khan  (Great  Khan),  and 

lOONOORAPmO  XNOTOLOPiSriA/— VOL.  m.  17  257 


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86  HISTORY  A»D  ETHNOLOGY. 

began  his  conquests  by  a  war  against  China,  1209.  After  passing  the 
Great  Wall,  he  penetrated  the  interior  and  fired  Pekin,  which  continued 
burning  an  entire  month,  in  1215,  subdued  Bukhara  and  Chowaresem, 
invaded  Tangut,  and  destroyed  Nanking. 

He  died  in  1227,  and  the  conquest  of  China  was  completed  by  his  sons  and 
his  grandson,  Batu.  The  latter  humbled  the  caliphate  at  Bagdad,  and 
made  the  Turkish  sultan  of  Iconium  his  vassal.  Batu  also  directed  the 
Mongol  invasion  of  Russia,  1287,  and  under  him  Peta  advanced  as  far  as 
Silesia,  1241.     He  died  in  1256. 

These  immense  conquests,  so  rapidly  made,  caused  the  empire  to  extend 
from  China  to  the  Vistula ;  but  it  was  soon  dissolved  into  single  khanates. 
Out  of  one  of  these  districts  arose  the  mighty  Tamerlane,  to  restore  for  a 
brief  season  the  glory  of  his  nation.  He  united  the  three  Mongol  tribes, 
and  made  himself  master  of  Asia  Minor,  Central  Asia,  Persia,  and  Hin- 
dostan,  in  the  last  of  which  one  of  his  successors,  Baber,  founded,  in  1519, 
the  kingdom  of  the  Great  Mogul. 

Of  the  African  states  of  this  period  Arabia  was  pre-eminent  until  1254, 
when  Mamelouk  Egypt  rose  to  be  the  first  in  power  and  rank. 

Before  passing  on  to  a  sketch  of  the  civil  condition  of  the  nations  of  the 
middle  ages,  we  call  attention  to  the  objects  represented  in  our  plates  as 
illustrative  of  the  period  of  whose  history  we  have  now  completed  the 
outline. 

PL  22,  fig.  9,  sword  of  the  Prankish  king,  Childeric ;  fig.  10  •  and ». 
forms  of  the  chalice  in  the  mass ;  fig.  11  ^*>^',  specimens  of  the  edging  on 
the  tunic,  the  sandals  and  martial  dress  of  Clovis ;  fig.  12,  the  crown  of 
Clovis ;  fig.  13,  clasp  worn  by  Queen  Chlotilda ;  ^^.  14,  15,  •  and  *,  girdle 
ornaments  ;^^«.  16*20,  a  style  for  writing,  buttons,  buckles,  and  rings  ;^^.  21, 
one  of  300  golden  bees  in  the  royal  cloak  of  Childeric ;  fig.  22,  royal  sceptre 
of  Lothaire  II. ;  figs.  23-25,  throne  and  ottomans  ;  fig.  26  *  and  ^  metallic 
thrones  of  Dagobert ;  figs.  27  •  and  *,  and  28,  royal  caps  and  crown  of  the 
Merovingian  family ;  fig.  29,  bishop's  mitre ;  fig.  30,  seal  of  Childebert  III. ; 
fig.  31  ^  *,  and  ^  sceptre,  hand-of-justice,  and  crown  of  Charlemagne  ;  figs. 
32-34,  three  of  Charlemagne's  swords ;  fig.  35  •  and  •,  two  of  his  shoes  ;  fig. 
36  *  and  *,  part  of  his  girdle  and  one  of  his  spurs ;  fig.  37,  bishop's  crosier ; 
figs.  39  and  40,  throne  and  ottoman ;  fig.  41,  chest  for  the  preservation 
of  valuable  objects;  fig.  42,  flutes  ;  fig.  43*  and*,  incense  vessels;  fig. 
44,  shears  ;  fig.  44  *,  hand  basket ;  figs.  45  and  46,  hatchet  and  axe ; 
fig.  47,  smaJl  sword;  figs.  48*  and  •,  49  •,  *,  •,  and',  various  cooking 
utensils.  (The  objects  included  between  ^^i.  39  and  49  belong  to  the  age 
of  Charlemagne.)  Figs.  50-52,  lounge  or  sofa,  chest,  and  money  safe ; 
fig.  53,  bed ;  fig.  54  *  to  '^  fkble  utensils ;  fig.  55  •  and  •,  knives ;  figs.  56  and 
57,  wine  flagon  and  incensory ;  fig.  56  *  and  *,  iron  and  wooden  chairs  of 
the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries;  fig.  59,  writing-desk;  fig.  60,  Norman 
chair ;  fig.  61,  royal  chair ;  fig.  62,  a  table  ;  and  fig.  63,  praying  desk. 

PI.  23,  fig.  2,  travelling  litter  of  a  Prankish  king  of  the  eighth  century 
borne  by  two  horses ;  fig.  1,  wagon  bearing  a  sick  or  wounded  prinee  of 
the  thirteenth  century. 
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HISTORY  AND  «THNOLOGT.  87 

In  surveying  the  civilization  of  the  middle  ages,  we  find  Roman 
demoralization  on  the  one  hand,  and  Asiatic  and  (rermanic  barbarism  on 
the  other.  Not  one  city  was  spared  by  the  destructive  Asiatic  hordes 
under  Attila,  and  though  all  German  tribes  did  not  equal  them  in  rapacity, 
still  the  name  of  Vandal  has  become  proverbially  infamous  as  a  term 
expressive  of  every  attack  upon  refinement. 

In  the  West,  arts  and  sciences,  trade,  &c.,  were  still  in  their  infancy, 
but  agriculture  soon  became  the  tie  which,  in  the  new  realms,  attached  to 
the  soil.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  the  agriculturists  suffered  as  bondmen,  but 
on  the  other  hand  there  sprang  up  in  the  flourishing  cities  a  powerful  middle 
class,  holding  rank  between  a  warlike  nobility  and  the  degraded  serfs  and 
rustics.  By  degrees,  as  wants  began  to  be  felt,  labor  was  lightened  by 
useful  inventions,  wealth  was  acquired,  and  a  feeling  of  dignity  roused,  but 
with  it  a  desire  for  greater  liberty. 

The  influence  of  the  clergy  kept  pace  with  temporal  progress.  They 
soon  constituted  the  first  and  most  powerful  rank  in  the  social  scale. 

War  furnished  an  exhilarating  excitement  to  the  nobility,  and,  for  want 
of  external  wars,  they  frequently  came  in  conflict  with  cities  and  boroughs, 
and  quarrels  occasionally  arose  between  neighboring  barons  and  lords.  In 
this  way  the  laws  of  physical  force  usurped  the  province  of  right  and 
justice,  and  the  aristocracy  did  not  hesitate  to  participate  in  robbing 
travelling  merchants  and  tradesmen,  and  laying  heavy  taxes  on  them. 

The  ruling  princes  often  needed  the  assistance  of  their  barons  in 
suppressing  external  foes;  so  they  could  ill  afibrd  to  arrest  the  reign  of 
club-law. 

Arts  and  learning  had  taken  up  their  abode  with  the  clergy,  though  they 
were  poorly  enough  represented  among  them,  at  least  in  Germany.  In  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  middle  ages  great  progress  was  made  in  the  fine  arts,  sciences, 
and  trades.  Though  convents  and  seminaries  were  as  yet  the  only  abodes 
of  learning,  yet  in  the  12th  and  13th  centuries  there  were  erected  univer- 
sities and  other  colleges,  which  increased  rapidly  in  number  and  considera- 
tion. The  university  of  Bologna  was  celebrated  as  a  law-school,  that 
of  Salerno  boasted  of  its  professors  in  medicine.  Other  cities  vied  with 
each  other  in  the  erection  and  embellishment  of  these  institutions.  Those 
of  Oxford,  Pai'is,  and  Cambridge,  were  founded  about  1200;  Naples,  1226  ; 
Toulouse,  1228;  Salamanca,  1240;  Lisbon,  1290;  Rome,  1313;  Prague, 
1340;  Vienna,  1365;  Heidelberg,  1386;  Leipsic,  1409;  Upsala,  1476; 
Tübingen,  1447;  and  Copenhagen,  1479.  The  Arabs,  too,  had  their 
schools  in  Bagdad,  Bassora,  Cairo,  Alexandria,  Fez,  Morocco,  Sevilla, 
Granada,  and  especially  in  Cordova«  So  the  Jews  erected  schools  at 
Tiberias  and  Babylon. 

As  the  cities  and  towns  of  Europe  grew  more  independent,  they  enlarged 
their  privileges,  made  laws  for  themselves,  and  even  formed  confederations 
among  each  other.  Such  were  the  Hermandad  in  Spain,  the  Lombard 
Union  in  Upper  Italy,  and  the  Hanseatic  League  in  Germany.  Yet  quarrels 
were  inevitable,  sometimes  with  the  patricians  or  nobility,  at  others  with  the 
guikis  and  corporations,  and  the  disputes  would  often  terminate  in  blood- 

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88  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

shed.  The  nobility  generally  devoted  themselves  to  warfare,  hunting, 
and  chivalrous  exploits,  and  continued  to  form  the  standing  army  of  their 
feudal  lord  and  master. 

When  gunpowder  was  invented,  and  its  terrible  explosive  power  had 
indicated  it  as  an  instrument  of  warfare  (1354),  the  nobility  preferred  to 
contribute  by  money  towards  the  pay  of  mercenaries  to  engaging  in  war 
themselves.  Thus  standing  armies  of  paid  and  disciplined  men,  mostly 
foot-soldiers,  were  formed,  though  they  retained  for  a  long  while  the  spear, 
bow,  an*ow,  and  crossbow,  as  their  chief  arms. 

Just  as  gunpowder  effected  a  revolution  in  the  art  of  warfare,  so  the 
invention  of  the  art  of  printing  brought  about  a  great  change  in  literature, 
1440. 


Chivalry.    Order  of  Knighthood. 

Among  the  Germans,  as  among  nations  generally,  the  army  consisted 
mainly  of  infantry ;  a  small  portion  were  horsemen.  The  latter  wore  a 
cumbrous  armor.  A  weighty  helmet  pressed  the  head,  the  body  was 
invested  in  a  powerful  coat  of  mail,  metallic  greaves  protected  the  arms 
and  legs,  while  the  weapons  consisted  of  the  ponderous  lance  and  sword. 

As  such  an  equipment  involved  a  large  expenditure,  n©ne  but  the  noble 
and  wealthy  could  afford  to  wear  it,  so  that  this  branch  of  the  service  soon 
won  great  consideration.  The  nobility  stood  apart  from  all  the  other 
orders  of  society,  who  served  only  on  foot.  With  the  view  of  main- 
taining their  distinguished  position,  the  nobility  devoted  their  lives  almost 
entirely  to  exercises  calculated  to  increase  the  physical  powers,  render  the 
body  superior  to  the  effects  of  fatigue,  and  thus  to  make  themselves  superior 
warriors,  whilst  little  or  nothing  was  done  for  the  cultivation  of  the  mind. 
In  early  boyhood  the  nobles  learned  to  curb  a  steed  and  to  manage  lance 
and  sword.  Before  the  invention  of  gunpowder,  activity  and  strength 
alone  could  decide  a  contest.  The  knights,  clad  in  armor  from  head  to 
foot,  and  trained  to  combat  from  early  youth,  had  naturally  great  advan- 
tages over  all  other  combatants.  They  were  regarded  as  the  pride  and  flower 
of  an  army,  its  efficiency  being  in  general  proportionate  to  their  numbers  ; 
and  from  their  service,  which  was  always  performed  on  horseback,  they 
received  the  name  of  chevalier. 

We  find  the  mention  of  knights  as  early  as  the  time  of  Charlemagne ; 
nay,  Tacitus  adverts  to  a  similar  order  among  the  ancient  Germans.  It  is 
only  in  the  eleventh  centurj-,  however,  that  we  meet  with  the  knight  as  vassal, 
performing  the  duties  imposed  upon  him  by  feudal  law,  either  alone  or  accom- 
panied by  his  men.  In  his  seventh  year  the  boy  was  committed  to  the  care 
of  a  male  teacher.  Very  frequently  he  was  placed  in  the  castle  of  some 
other  knight,  where  he  was  taught  the  rudiments  of  chivalry  by  serving  his 
master  in  the  capacity  of  page,  and  by  respectful  intercourse  with  noble 
ladies.  He  attended  his  lord  or  lady  in  the  chase,  on  journeys,  during  a 
ride,  or  on  a  visit.  He  carried  their  messages  for  them,  waited  at  table, 
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HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  89 

and  acted  as  cup-bearer.  His  remaining  time  was  occupied  in  gymnastic 
training,  together  with  a  very  limited  instruction  in  religion.  On  all 
occasions  care  was  taken  to  impress  him  with  a  love  of  chivalry,  and  the 
most  ardent  veneration  for  the  gentler  sex. 

Having  reached  his  fourteenth  year,  he  was  armed  with  a  sword,  and 
elevated  to  the  rank  of  squire.  Thenceforth  practice  at  arms,  acqui- 
sition of  knowledge  of  tactics,  and  of  weiapons  and  chivalrous  pursuits, 
prepared  the  squire  for  his  future  dignity  of  knight  He  accompanied  his 
master  in  battle,  and  if  he  showed  faithful  attachment  to  him,  if,  above  all, 
he  succeeded  in  saving  him  from  danger,  sword  in  hand,  and  at  the  hazard 
of  his  own  life,  his  glorious  reward  was  that  of  being  pointed  out  as  a  brave 
and  noble  youth. 

When  the  squire  had  attained  his  twenty-first  year  he  could  claim  the 
honor  of  knighthood.  Occasionally  that  rank  was  conferred  at  an  earlier 
age,  provided  the  squire  had  obtained  a  prize  in  a  contest  with  light  arms, 
or  had  performed  any  remarkable  feat  of  courage  in  the  games  which  the 
squires  celebrated  on  the  day  previous  to  a  tournament. 

The  preparation  for  this  ceremony  consisted  in  fasting,  nightly  prayers, 
with  a  priest  and  godfather,  in  a  church  or  chapel,  penance  and  bathing, 
the  whole  concluding  with  the  sacrament  of  the  Holy  Supper.  These 
preliminaries  over,  he  proceeded  to  the  church,  dressed  in  simple,  generally 
white  clothing,  with  his  sword  fastened  to  his  shoulder,  approached  the 
altar,  when  the  priest  cons^rated  his  sword,  and  then  knelt  down  at  the 
feet  of  the  count,  duke,  or  prince,  who  was  to  dub  him.  None  but  a  knight 
could  assist  at  this  ceremony.  He  was  now  asked  whether  his  intentions  in 
assuming  this  profession  were  perfectly  pure  ;  if  he  would  always  defend  the 
weak  and  oppressed,  and  particularly  the  widows  and  orphans,  and  the  fair 
lex ;  if  he  was  steadfast  in  his  regard  for  religion  and  for  the  honor  of 
chivalry ;  and  if  he  would  ever  maintain  an  unflinching  love  for  the  truth. 
After  answering  these  questions  in  the  affirmative,  he  took  an  oath  to  obey 
the  statutes  of  the  order;  after  which  the  other  knights  and  the  ladies, 
friends  of  the  novice,  gathered  around,  and  commenced  equipping  him,  first 
with  his  left  spur,  then  the  right ;  next  came  the  greaves  and  coat  of  mail, 
and  finally  the  sword. 

At  the  conclusion  of  this  service  he  again  knelt  before  the  ofliciating 
knight,  who  rose  from  his  seat  and  conferred  upon  the  candidate  the  order 
of  knighthood,  by  applying  three  blows  with  a  naked  sword  upon  the  neck 
or  shoulders,  or  sometimes  a  gentle  touch  on  the  cheek,  accompanying  the 
strokes  with  the  words,  "  In  the  name  of  God,  St.  Michael,  and  St.  George, 
I  confer  upon  thee  the  honor  and  dignity  of  knighthood.  Be  brave,  bold, 
and  true ! " 

The  young  knight  now  rose  from  his  knees,  and  after  being  greeted  with 
tlie  fraternal  kiss  or  salutation,  he  proceeded  to  take  his  helmet,  shield» 
and  lance,  sprang  into  the  saddle,  oftentimes  without  touching  the  stirrup, 
and  rode  forth  among  the  people. 

The  times  u.<»ually  selected  for  these  ceremonies  were  the  leading  church 
festivals,  coronations,  celebrations  of  victories,  and  other  holidays.     They 

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90  HISTORY  AND  EMnfOLOCfr. 

mostly  took  place  in  churches  or  chapek,  sometinies  in  halb  of  castles  or 
court-yards  of  palaces ;  on  special  occasions,  e.g.  after  a  battle,  they  were 
performed  in  the  open  field. 

During  a  period  of  actual  war  the  cheyalier  was  bound  to  follow  the 
banner  of  his  liege  lord ;  if  he  was  a  lord  himself,  he  would  lead  the  array. 
In  time  of  peace  the  knight  frequently  went  to  strange  lands  in  quest 
of  occasions  of  gaining  instruction  and  experience.  On  these  tours  he 
visited  castles  and  courts,  attended  ceremonies  of  investiture,  took  a 
ready  share  in  tournaments  or  serious  quarrels,  protected  the  weak  from 
injustice,  enlarged  the  circle  of  his  friends,  greeted  his  brethren  in  arms, 
and  signified  his  friendship  by  an  exchange  of  weapons.  He  bore  the  title 
of  a  knight-errant,  and  was  welcome  wherever  he  went,  until  knight- 
errantry  was  disgraced  by  gross  abuses. 


Thb  Joust,  or  Tourh amint. 

The  tournaments  offered  another  occasion  for  the  display  of  knightly 
skill  and  valor,  and  an  opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  warlike  weapons, 
even  when  there  was  no  war.  They  consisted  of  a  series  of  martial 
contests,  and  formed  an  important  feature  on  occasions  of  festival  at  the 
castles  of  nobles,  princes,  and  kings.  The  tournament  is  from  the  French 
ioumer,  to  turn ;  it  only  became  general  in  the  middle  of  the  twelfth 
century. 

In  the  time  of  Conrad  II.,  or  Henry  VI.,  the  knights  formed  four  tourna- 
ment associations,  or  circles :  the  Rhenish,  the  Bavarian,  the  Suabian,  and 
the  Prankish  ;  each  of  which  was  headed  by  a  field-king,  or  judge  of  the 
tournament.  Subsequently  these  circles  were  respectively  divided  into  three 
branches,  each  under  the  control  of  a  subordinate  king-at-arms. 

Those  only  were  qualified  for  entering  the  lists  who  belonged  to  an  old 
family  of  the  nobility  counting  at  least  four  knights  among  their  ancestors, 
in  France  three ;  but  the  conditions  were  subsequently  modified,  so  as  to 
admit  the  more  recent  nobility.  Still  they  excluded  all  persons  whose 
circumstances  obliged  them  to  pursue  any  branch  of  business  or  trade,  and 
who  lived  in  cities ;  any  one  who  had  married  into  a  rank  beneath  himself, 
together  with  the  issue  of  such  marriage  to  the  third  generation ;  aU 
natural  children ;  and,  finally,  all  who  had  by  unworthy  conduct  forfeited 
the  honor  of  knighthood. 

The  qualifications  for  tourneying  were  tested  by  the  following  regula- 
tions: 1.  The  heralds  exhibited  a  helmet  and  scutcheon,  at  the  same  time 
proclaiming  the  name  of  their  owner ;  and  if  any  one  made  objection  to 
his  honor,  the  points  of  opposition  were  reported  to  the  master  of  cere- 
monies. 2.  The  knight  recorded  his  name  in  a  register,  so  that  the  freest 
investigation  might  at  any  time  be  instituted  in  regard  to  his  anoestry. 
8.  A  certificate  from  a  field-king  was  made  out  for  each  knight  afler  a 
tournament,  and  served  not  only  hin^ßelf,  but  also  his  posterity,  as  a  testi- 
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HISTOBT  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  91 

monj  of  his  qualifications  for  tournaments.  4.  The  applicant  could  rebut 
all  charges  against  his  honor  by  competent  testimony. 

Besides  the  stewards  and  heralds,  beadles  or  overseers  assisted  in  main« 
taining  order.  With  thin  long  poles,  or  tipstafis,  they  stood  in  the  lists 
in  order  to  separate  the  combatants  when  the  contest  grew  serious,  and  to 
protect  the  one  who  was  exposed  to  danger.  Another  class  of  servants 
kept  the  crowds  in  order,  took  care  of  lost  arms  and  armor,  &c.  Ladies, 
loo,  had  certain  official  duties  to  discharge.  Every  tournament  association 
sent  one  married  woman,  one  widow,  and  one  maiden,  who  were  present 
at  the  exhibition  of  arms.  Others  crowned  the  victorious  knight  with  the 
prize ;  still  others  enjoyed  the  right  of  naming  the  time  and  place  of  the 
next  tournament,  though  the  stewards  were  generally  left  to  decide  those 
matters. 

The  ground  for  the  contest  was  a  large  elliptical  and  inclosed  area  (called 
the  lists),  and  openings  were  left  at  the  ends  for  ingress  and  egress.  At  the 
sides  were  erected  large  galleries  or  stages,  beautifully  adorned  with 
heraldic  tapestry  and  insignia,  and  appropriated  entirely  to  the  ladies, 
princes,  courtiers,  and  nobles. 

On  the  evening  previous  to  the  real  tournament,  that  of  the  squires  took 
place.  On  the  morning  of  the  tournament  the  knights  attended  mass,  and 
were  then  conducted  to  the  lists  in  a  body  by  heralds,  and  foUowed  by 
their  squires,  all  in  full  armor.  Halting  without  the  inclosure,  the  dress  and 
armor  of  the  knights  were  examined,  and  care  was  taken  against  any 
attempts  to  fasten  their  persons  by  straps,  or  other  means,  to  the  saddles. 
At  a  signal  given  by  the  sound  of  the  trumpet  the  beadles  cut  the  ropes  of  the 
lists,  and  the  horses  entered  the  circle.  The  contests  commonly  consisted 
of  single  combats,  though  sometimes  whole  companies  fought  against 
each  other.  The  exercises  opened  by  a  passage  at  arms  with  short  blunted 
spears,  fastened  by  chains  to  the  cuirass.  A  flourish  from  the  trumpet  pro* 
claimed  the  close  of  this  species  of  fight,  and  then  commenced  the  joust  of 
the  sword.  In  this  contest  the  chief  object  was  to  cut  down  the  crest 
and  other  ornaments  from  the  adversary's  helmet. 

Next  came  the  contest  with  the  blunted  lance  and  the  shield,  as  sole 
weapons  of  ofience  and  defence.  In  fighting  across  the  lists  there 
was  a  kind  of  barrier  between  the  combatants,  and  they  were  required 
to  meet  each  other  at  full  speed.  Whoever  struck  his  adversary 
so  forcibly  as  to  unhorse  him  or  to  break  his  lance,  had  won  a 
point,  and  the  knight  gaining  the  greatest  number  of  points  bore  ofi*  the 
prize.  The  close  of  the  games  was  followed  by  the  heralds  announcing 
the  names  and  dignities  of  the  victors,  whereupon  the  prizes  were  distributed 
by  the  ladies  who  had  been  elected  for  the  purpose.  The  prizes  consisted 
of  splendid  arms,  shoulder  knots,  golden  chains  and  bracelets,  richly 
caparisoned  horses,  &c.,  &c.  Blasts  of  trumpets  and  shouts  of  joy  accom- 
panied this  ceremony,  and  the  receiver  had  a  right  to  claim  a  kiss  from  the 
lady  who  handed  him  the  prize,  and  then  to  invite  her  to  a  dance.  French 
ladies  would  offer  their  champions  presents  by  way  of  encouragement  or  as 
a  reward,  both  during  and  after  the  combat,  such  as  scarfs,  veils,  bracelets» 

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92  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

locks  of  their  hair,  &c.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  tournament  the  knights 
were  disarmed  by  the  ladies,  and  after  receiving  magnificent  clothing  were 
led  to  the  feast.  A  ball  concluded  the  entertainment,  the  knights  taking 
precedence  according  to  their  success  during  the  exercises  of  the  morning. 

The  last  public  tournament  was  held  at  Worms  in  1487.  The  intro- 
duction of  gunpowder  as  a  material  of  warfare,  and  the  cost  attending  the 
magnificent  displays,  caused  these  exercises  to  be  abolished. 

The  carrousel  took  the  place  of  the  tournament,  especially  in  France. 
It  opened  with  a  quadrille  of  horsemen,  in  bands  of  four  to  twelve  knights, 
and  commanded  by  a  leader.  >  Next  followed  the  quintaine.  The  game 
consisted  in  marking  a  point  on  a  tree  or  pillar,  which  must  be  struck  with  a 
lance  at  full  speed.  Another  form  of  the  sport  was  afterwards  introduced. 
Wooden  figures  were  placed  on  pegs,  so  that  they  could  turn  round,  and 
were  to  be  hit  in  the  face.  Sometimes  the  figure  to  be  struck  was  a  Moor's 
or  Turk's  head.  Another  play  consisted  in  striking  ofi*  a  ring  placed  upon 
the  top  of  a  pole.  In  all  these  sports  the  ladies  presided  and  distributed 
the  prizes. 

The  judicial  combat,  or  the  trial  by  the  judgment  of  God,  difiered  from 
the  tournament.  It  proceeded  upon  the  presumption  that  God  would  give 
success  only  to  the  party  having  a  just  cause.  We  find  these  contests 
among  the  German  tribes  as  early  as  the  sixth  century,  and  they  soon 
increased  so  much  that  laws  were  passed  for  their  regulation.  The 
leading  features  were,  in  the  main  points,  the  same  as  at  the  tourna- 
ment. It  may  be  observed,  that  before  the  combat  took  place  the  com- 
plainant had  to  swear  to  the  truth  of  his  accusation,  and  the  defendant, 
with  similar  formality,  to  his  innocence.  Particular  clothing  and  armor 
were  worn  by  the  contending  parties  ;  special  judges  enforced  a  strict  com- 
pliance with  the  rules,  and  the  combatants  deposited  with  the  officers  a 
pledge  suflicient  to  satisfy  the  victor.  As  such  a  pledge  often  consisted  of 
a  garment,  it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  custom  of  throwing  down  the  gauntlet 
in  challenge  originated  in  these  pledges.  The  vanquished  met  with  more 
or  less  severe  punishment ;  and  if  he  was  sentenced  to  death,  or  fell  in  the 
conflict,  he  was  denied  the  privilege  of  honorable  burial,  as  the  issue  of  the 
combat  was  thought  to  fasten  the  guilt  of  perjury  on  the  conquered  man. 
The  laws  exempted  minors,  the  aged,  the  maimed,  the  sick,  women,  and 
the  clergy,  from  this  mode  of  trial,  though  any  of  these  classes  might 
employ  others  to  fight  for  them. 

From  this  custom,  doubtless,  originated  the  private  duel  and  the  code  of 
honor,  the  first  traces  of  which  we  meet  with  in  France  in  1250.  It  was 
in  that  country  also  that  the  last  judicial  combat  took  place  in  1547. 

PL  28,  fig,  5,  vassals  ofiering  their  allegiance  when  admitted  to  the 
castle;  pL  24,  fig.  1,  Maximilian  I.  in  full  armor;  j€^.  2,  Henry  VIII.  of 
England  in  full  armor :  fig.  3,  an  English  knight ;  fig.  4,  a  German  knight ; 
fig.  5,  squires ;  fig.  6,  English  knights  as  they  appeared  in  the  tournament ; 
fig.  7,  German  knights  before  the  tournament ;  fig.  8,  king-at-arms,  or 
judge.  FL  S8,  fig.  2,  view  of  a  tournament  in  Germany.  PL  25,  fig.  1 
contest  with  the  lance  by  German  knights ;  fig.  2,  judicial  combat  with 
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HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  93 

lances ;  fig,  3,  contest  with  axe  and  mace  in  France ;  fig.  4,  judicial  combat 
with  shields :  fig,  5,  the  same  with  swords ;  fig.  6,  the  same  with  lance 
points ;  fig.  7,  carrying  the  ring  in  the  carrousel ;  fig.  8,  squire  taking  the 
oath  on  the  sword.  PI,  26,  fig,  2,  young  knight  at  the  altar,  vowing  to 
serve  God,  honor,  and  the  ladies ;  fig.  2,  ceremony  of  dubbing  a  knight. 
PI,  26,  fig.  1,  French  knights  and  ladies  hawking. 


Heraldry. 

The  fall  suit  of  armor  being  entirely  closed,  left  no  trace  by  which  the 
knight  who  wore  it  might  be  recognised.  To  obviate  this  difficulty  special 
marks  of  distinction  were  introduced  on  different  parts  of  the  armor.  They 
consisted  of  differently  shaped  and  colored  plumes  on  the  helmet,  of  par- 
ticular colors  or  forms  of  the  sashes  or  shoulder  knots,  but  most  especially 
of  various  designs  on  the  shields.  These  latter  designs  were  worn  by  the 
descendants  of  the  knights  in  commemoration  of  their  ancestors ;  and  thus 
originated  the  distinction  of  families  by  their  coats  of  arms,  which  at  first 
consisted  only  of  the  private  mark  or  motto  adopted  by  a  knight  for  the 
decoration  of  his  shield. 

Heraldry  is  the  science  treating  of  the  various  coats  of  arms,  which  soon 
became  manifold,  partly  by  the  combination  of  several  family  escutcheons  by 
marriage,  partly  by  being  made  indicative  of  the  various  possessions  and 
dignities  of  the  owner.  Coats  of  arms  were  also  bestowed  by  princes  upon 
the  nobility,  upon  cities  and  corporations. 

The  figures  which  ancient  heroes  engraved  upon  their  shields,  helmets» 
and  other  arms,  were  entirely  arbitrary,  each  individual  selecting  such 
symbols  and  devices  as  best  suited  his  fancy.  About  the  tenth  century, 
and  certainly  in  the  eleventh,  these  representations  began  to  take  certain 
fixed  forms,  though  the  fancy  of  the  wearer  still  had  an  important  share  in 
determining  the  inscriptions.  Among  the  uses  to  which  these  figures  were 
applied,  we  may  mention  their  aid  in  testing  the  claims  of  a  knight  at  the 
tournaments,  and  in  the  crusades  they  were  universally  adopted  in  the 
Christian  lands.  In  the  progress  of  time  the  shield  proper  formed  no 
necessary  part  of  the  armorial  bearings,  as  the  figures  could  as  well  be 
etched  upon  seals,  &c.  The  classes  of  persons  entitled  to  wear  them 
were  increased,  the  princes  bestowing  them  as  badges  of  honor  on  the 
learned  bodies,  philosophers,  or  artists ;  and  families  whose  nobility  was 
extinct  retained  their  coats  of  arms. 

So  long  as  the  armorial  bearings  indicated  precisely  the  rank  of  the 
wearer,  the  rights  of  nobility  were  thereby  discerned.  The  heralds  before 
described  were  required  to  be  quite  familiar  with  the  laws  of  heraldry,  as  it 
was  their  duty  to  ascertain  and  announce  the  rank«  country,  and  dignity  of 
the  knights  who  signified  their  desire  to  take  part  in  the  tournaments. 
Heraldry  first  became  a  science  in  France,  then  in  Germany,  Eng- 
land,  &c.  Heraldic  tables  are  still  of  vast  importance,  not  merely  to 
titled  families,  in  order  to  establish  their  origin  and  rights,  but  also  to 

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94  HISIOBT  AND  BTHNOLOGT, 

historians  and  antiquarians,  and  to  such  as  wish  to  settle  the  degrees  of 
consanguinity  between  relatives  and  families  in  lawsuits  or  other  ques- 
tions. Heraldry,  in  short,  indicates  a  man's  rank  and  family,  collateral 
descent,  and  relationship  by  marriage,  as  the  arms  of  the  wife  were 
combined  with  those  of  her  husband.  It  establishes  also  the  political  or 
ecclesiastical  power,  residence  and  occupation,  right  of  succession,  and^ 
finally,  adoption,  as  in  the  last  case  the  arms  of  the  patron  are  united  with 
those  of  the  ward.  Armorial  designs  belong  (a)  to  individuals,  as  a  lord- 
bishop  ;  (6)  to  each  branch  of  the  family,  hence  family-arms ;  (c)  to  a 
republic  or  an  association.  Again,  we  meet  with  arms  designating  the  sacred 
position  of  the  wearer,  or  his  authority,  or  some  circumstance  indicative  of 
the  occasion  on  which  the  dignity  was  conferred  by  the  king ;  or,  finally^ 
armor  of  patronage  and  protection.  When  the  names  of  the  figures  or 
symbols  composed  the  name  of  the  wearer,  it  was  called  denominational  or 
titular  armor ;  thus  the  Hennebei^  family  emblazoned  their  shield  with  a 
black  hen  (Henne)  on  a  green  mountain  (Berg). 

The  armorial  shield  usually  contained  various  ornamental  pieces,  as  the 
helmet,  crown,  cap,  or  hat ;  sometimes  animals  or  men  supported  it,  while 
m  other  cases  pillars  or  insignia  peculiar  to  military  orders  surmounted  it 
As  marks  of  condition,  it  was  also  adorned  with  the  ^obe  of  empire,  sceptre, 
sword,  crozier,  or  other  accidental  symbols. 

The  form  of  the  armor  was  often  national.  Thus  the  French  shield 
terminated  below  in  two  wave  lines  ipeeting  each  other  {pi.  27, ßg.  10), 
while  the  lower  part  of  the  Spanish  shield  is  rounded  (fig,  11).  The 
German  shield  had  several  indentations  (fig.  6),  though  originally  it  had 
but  one  (fig.  1).  The  prominent  parts  were  often  twined  or  ornamented. 
As  the  shape  is  not  essential,  the  shield  often  takes  a  triangular  (fig.  2)  ot 
heart  form  (fig.  4).  The  Knights  of  the  Banner  in  France  bore  square 
shields  (fig.  13),  while  the  ladies  selected  the  rhomboidal  (fig.  5),  or  the 
heart-shaped  (fig,  4).  SchcJars  frequently  adopted  the  French  form  in  a 
slanting  position  (fig.  6).  Many  families  had  the  shield  crooked  or  inverted. 
When  a  man  could  claim  several  shields,  they  were  grouped  in  a  circle, 
placing  the  most  honorable  in  the  centre,  and  the  others  in  accordance 
with  their  rank ;  but  they  might  also  be  combined,  and  form  the  fields  of 
one  large  shield.  The  science  of  heraldry  regulated  this  ap-angement, 
and  the  heralds  at  the  tournaments,  in  announcing  or  blazoning  the  titles 
of  a  knight,  mentioned  first  the  central  shield,  and  then  proceeded  from 
the  right  to  the  left,  and  from  the  top  downwards. 

The  shield  is  generally  divided  into  five  principal  points ;  the  centre  b 
called  the  heart  or  fess  point ;  the  top  the  head  point,  or  precise  middle 
chief;  the  point  equally  between  the  fess  and  chief  was  called  the  honor 
point ;  that  at  the  foot  the  precise  middle  base  ;  and  that  between  the  heart 
and  base,  the  navel  or  nombril  point. 

If  the  shield  contains  several  representations  separated  by  lines,  the 
portions  of  the  shield  thus  set  apart  are  termed  fields  (pL  27,  fig.  53),  and 
when  there  are  four  equsd  divisions,  as  in  figs.  13,  29,  and  58,  the  shield  k 
called  quadripartite. 
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HrarOBT  AKD  BTHFOLOOY.  96 

Sometimes  shields  are  divided  into  three  parts  each  way,  exhibiting  nine 
&lds  in  three  rows  or  charges,  which  are  named  as  follows :  the  upper  or 
chief  charge,  transverse  middle  charge,  base  charge,  middle  vertical  charge, 
right  vertical  chai^  and  left  vertical  charge.  This  arrangement  also 
determined  the  number  and  names  of  the  fields  or  grounds ;  thus  we  find 
the  terms  middle  chief,  dexter  chief,  sinister  chief;  fess,  with  its  dexter  and 
sinister ;  and  middle  base,  with  its  like  grounds.  When  there  are  five  rows 
they  may  be  called :  row  of  the  head  point,  honor-point,  fess-point,  navel- 
point,  and  base.  If  the  horizontal  division  be  interrupted,  then  the  longi- 
tudinal decides.  One  or  several  vertical  fields  are  called  a  pale.  When  a 
pannel  in  the  middle  base  presents  two  curve  lines  pointing  upwards  it  is 
said  to  be  engrafted ;  and  engrafted  pannels  may  also  occur  in  the  centre 
of  the  escutcheon,  and  even  in  three  diflbrent  rows. 

The  lines  have  several  directions  on  the  face  of  the  shield,  as  the 
perpendicular,  the  transverse,  the  oblique,  from  dexter  chief  to  sinister 
base,  and  from  sinister  chief  to  dexter  base. 

The  helmet,  with  its  decorations  (or  in  place  of  the  helmet,  the  crown, 
cap,  or  hat)  surmounting  the  fields,  is  called  upper  shield.  The  hehnet  was 
jnroperly  the  designation  of  knightly  dignity ;  and  although  but  one  helmet 
usually  was  placed  on  a  shield,  yet  the  number  might  be  increased  accord- 
ing to  circumstances,  and  the  two  external  helmets  were  occasionally  worn 
by  the  shield-bearers.  The  helmet,  and  when  several  were  used,  the  middle 
one,  is  commonly  represented  looking  straight  forward,  as  in  pL  27,  figs.  87 
and  90  ;  occasionally  it  appears  turned  aside,  as  in^^.  91.  The  other  helmets 
always  look  to  the  centre.  The  armorial  helmet  is  either  open  or  closed, 
sometimes  entirely  open,  with  bows,^^.  87,  90, 92.  In  the  latter  case,  the 
more  numerous  the  bows  the  more  distinguished  was  the  family  to  whom 
the  arms  belonged ;  so  it  was,  at  least,  in  France.  The  closed  helmet  has 
properly  none  but  the  slightest  openings,  fig.  88.  Kings  universally 
wore  the  casque  freely  open,  the  higher  nobility  partly  open,  with  bows, 
the  lower  dignitaries  had  it  almost  entirely  closed.  Open  helmets  were 
also  called  tournament  helmets,  being  worn  by  those  who  might  claim 
admission  to  the  lists.  Crowned  heads  sometimes  adopted  indifferently  the 
closed  or  the  helmet  with  bows.  The  casque  usually  supported  jewels, 
strings  of  pearls,  or  chains  adorned  by  pendents;  and  it  was  frequently 
marked  by  foliated  impressions,  tastefully  finished  with  gold  and  silver 
mountings.  These  were  called  helmet  coverings,  and  the  colors  indicated 
that  of  the  lining.  Sometimes  a  crown  surmounted  the  decorations.  The 
crown,  however,  was  not  indicative  of  any  regal  or  imperial  power.  It 
consisted  of  a  ring  fitted  to  the  head,  set  with  stones,  and  further  adorned 
with  four  rosettes,  between  every  two  of  which  was  a  pearl.  In  other  cases, 
a  wreath  supplied  the  place  of  the  crown,  and  took  a  variety  of  names 
according  to  the  number  of  ribands  and  jewels  employed  in  its  construction. 
These  helmet  coverings  only  served  to  support  figures  attached  to  the 
helmet,  and  called  helmet  ornaments  or  gems,  and  which  were  mostly 
repetitions  of  a  figure  or  emblem  worn  in  the  shield.  Such  emblems  were, 
for  instance,  wings  of  eagles,  a  pair  of  which  was  termed  a  flight»  open,  if 

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96  mSTOßr  AlfD  ETHNOLOGY. 

extended  in  front,  and  closed,  if  seen  from  one  side.  The  flight  itself  was 
often  decorated  by  other  figures.  Lions,  eagles,  and  other  animals ;  heads 
of  men  and  beasts,  talons  and  beaks  of  birds,  claws  of  animals,  a  man's 
arm,  the  hand  grasping  some  object,  horns  of  the  buffalo,  antlers  of  the  deer, 
banners,  fans,  screens,  mirrors,  &c.,  &c.,  were  also  decorations  of  helmets. 
Certain  classes  of  objects  showed  the  rank  of  the  party  ;  thus  the  hat,  cap^ 
mitre,  sceptre,  globe  of  empire,  and  the  upper  part  of  a  human  body,  male 
or  female,  which  was  termed  a  doll.  The  most  common  animals  were  the 
stag,  unicorn,  and  birds  of  prey.  It  was  always  deemed  necessary  that  the 
figures  should  occupy  an  upright  position,  and  proceed  from  the  crown. 

Instead  of  the  helmet,  any  other  mark  of  distinction,  and  especially  the 
crown,  might  occupy  the  highest  position  upon  the  armorial  bearings.  The 
rim  or  circle  constitutes  the  most  significant  portion  of  the  crown.  It 
forms  the  basis  on  which  rest  the  various  ornaments,  as  rays,  arches, 
rosettes,  pearls,  stones,  lines,  crosses,  &c.,  all  of  which  are  mere  ornaments, 
but  serve  at  the  same  time  as  certain  distinctions  in  the  coat  of  arms.  The 
same  is  the  case  with  the  four,  six,  or  eight  bows  or  arches,  which  some» 
times  are  attached  to  the  upper  edge  of  the  band,  and  unite  in  the  centre, 
where  they  support  a  globe  of  empire,  lily,  cross,  lion,  or  eagle.  The 
outer  faces  of  the  bows  are  richly  studded  with  pearls,  and  in  some  crowns 
they  rest  upon  a  rich  lining.  This  is  particularly  the  case  in  the  English 
crown,  the  arches  of  which  are  also  bordered  with  ermine.  In  all  cases 
the  crown  is  of  gold,  and  the  pearls  and  stones  preserve  their  natural 
color. 

The  imperial  crown  appears  in  several  German  coats  of  arms,  and  is 
represented  as  consisting  of  eight  plates  of  gold,  rounded  at  the  top  and 
decorated  with  jewels  and  insignia,  the  front  plate  sustaining  a  cross, 
and  a  bow  extending  from  the  rear  to  the  cross  {pi  22,  fig.  31 S  Charle- 
magne's crown). 

The  modern  German  crown  is  of  regal  shape,  with  four  leaves  and  three 
broad  bows.  A  rich  cap  underlies  the  jewelled  part,  and  from  the  right 
and  left  sides  are  suspended  two  broad  ribands.  The  globe  of  empire  rests 
upon  the  summit  {pi.  2S,fig.  2). 

The  Russian  imperial  crown  {fig.  1)  has  the  cap  beneath ;  and  the 
Hungarian  crown  is  high,  and  not  only  lined,  but  richly  set  with  pearls,  and 
bears  images  of  saints.  In  the  crown  of  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany 
there  are  several  notches,  and  it  is  unlined. 

The  tiara,  or  pope's  crown  {pi.  27,  fig.  88),  consists  of  a  high  cap^ 
divided  into  three  equal  compartments  by  three  crown  rims,  adorned  with 
leaves  and  surmounted  by  the  globe  of  empire. 

On  all  the  German  royal  and  arch-ducal  crowns  are  eight  leaves  on  the 
rim  and  four  or  eight  bows  {pL  21,  figs.  67-76)  ;  the  crowns  of  the  mar- 
quises,  counts,  viscounts,  barons,  and  lords,  are  without  bows  {figt*  80,  81, 
83).  The  crowns  of  the  viscounts  contain  several  pearis,  those  of  the 
barons  have  only  a  few,  while  those  of  the  lords  have  merely  &  rim,  round 
which  is  wound  a  string  of  pearls.  Electoral  princes  wear  crowns  edged 
with  ermine,  and  surmounted  by  the  globe  and  cross,  or  simply  by  a  tuft 


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HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  97 

of  ermine.  Sometimes  four  rows  of  pearls  extend  from  the  rim  of  ermine 
to  the  top  of  the  crown  {figs.  11,  78,  79). 

The  bishop's  hat,  or  infula  {fig.  84),  consists  of  a  high  cap,  composed  of 
two  broad  leaves,  tapering  towards  the  top,  and  embellished  with  pearls  or 
jewels.  From  both  sides,  as  in  the  pope's  tiara,  broad  ribands  are  sus- 
pended. In  the  infnla  of  English  bishops  the  two  broad  leaves  are 
supported  by  a  crown  rim.  Catholic  prelates  wear  a  low  hat,  with  wide 
upturned  rim,  and  two  pendent  tassels,  one  on  either  side. 

The  color  of  the  hat  and  the  number  of  tassels  indicate  the  difference  in 
rank  and  dignity.  The  cardinal's  hat  is  red,  and  carries  now  fifteen  tassels 
on  either  sHAe^fig.  85.  In  some  Catholic  countries  the  cardinal  exhibits  in 
his  escutcheon  a  princely  hat,  and  even  a  crown  below  the  cardinal's  hat, 
but  at  Rome  this  is  not  permitted.  In  Spain  and  France  the  archbishops 
show  a  green  hat  with  ten  tassels,  the  bishops  one  with  six  tassels,  while 
the  prothonotary  is  known  by  a  black  hat  with  three  videt  blue  tassels. 

Since  the  Congress  of  Vienna  the  right  of  showing  the  regal  crown 
belongs  not  only  to  kings  and  grand-dukes,  but  also  to  other  ruling  princes. 
Princes  of  the  blood  in  some  countries  adopt  crowns  of  a  prescribed  form ; 
in  others,  they  follow  the  style  peculiar  to  their  d}masty. 

The  globe  of  empire  originated  in  this  way  :  Pope  Benedict  VIII.  pre- 
sented to  the  Emperor  Henry  II.  a  small  globe  surmounted  by  a  cross, 
meaning  it  not  merely  as  a  part  of  his  royal  insignia,  but  also  as  a  symbol 
of  the  power  of  the  cross  over  the  world.  Later  it  became  an  emblem  of 
imperial  authority.  Free  cities  received  it  in  their  armorial  designs  as  a 
mark  of  imperial  favor ;  soon  after  kings  and  princes  adopted  it  to  signify 
their  power  as  Christian  rulers. 

As  the  successor  of  the  Apostle  Peter,  the  pope  incorporates  in  his  arms 
the  figure  of  two  keys  crossing  each  other.  Bishops  and  abbots  marshal 
behind  the  shield,  and  leaning  obliquely  on  the  left  side,  a  crook  or  crozier, 
as  emblematical  of  their  ofiice  as  pastors  over  the  flock  of  Christ ;  and  in 
case  the  incumbent  is  at  the  same  time  invested  with  civil  authority,  the 
other  side  presents  the  figure  of  a  sword.  The  arms  of  an  abbess  show  no 
infula ;  but  in  lieu  of  it,  the  staff  or  crozier  in  the  middle,  behind  the  shield. 

In  France  the  marshals  show  two  marshals'  staves ;  admirals  two 
anchors;  and  the  lord  chamberlain  two  keys,  which  must  be  of  a  shape 
different  from  that  of  the  pope's  keys. 

The  imperial  or  double-headed  eagle  bears  the  arms  on  its  breast,  and 
holds  in  one  talon  the  sceptre  and  sword,  in  the  other  the  imperial  globe. 
In  the  Russian  imperial  arms  there  are  three  subordinate  shields  on  each 
wing ;  and  the  German  arms  of  the  imperial  house  show  five  additional 
shields  upon  the  tail. 

Frequently  the  shield  and  the  shield-holders  rest  upon  some  basis,  as  a 
floor  or  a  ribbon,  on  which  mottoes  are  placed. 

The  colors  or  hues  of  the  shields  were  the  principal  mark  of  distinction 
between  the  chevaliers,  and  are,  therefore,  still  minutely  determined  when  a 
coat  of  arms  is  conferred.  They  are  termed  tinctures,  as,  for  example,  those 
designated  by  the  metals,  gold,  silver,  and  iron,  and  the  colors  proper,  red, 

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98  HISTORY  AKD  ETHNOLOGY. 

blue,  green,  and  black.  Yellow  and  white  were  not  employed  as  tincturefl, 
but  represent  gold  and  silver.  Purple,  as  approaching  to  red,  and  violet  as  a 
combination  of  red  and  blue,  are  used ;  and  in  England,  also  the  blood  red, 
and  the  orange  or  tenny,  a  mixture  of  yellow  and  red.  If,  as  in  copperplate 
engravings,  woodcuts,  &c.,  the  actual  colors  were  not  put  on,  it  was  once 
customary  to  express  them  by  their  initials,  G.  S.  I.  Gr.  B.  Bl.  R. ;  or  by 
planetary  symbols  {pL  21,  figs.  14-20).  At  a  later  period  they  were 
indicated  by  dots  and  lines,  thus :  gold  was  expressed  by  dots  (fig.  14) ; 
silver  by  a  plain  surface,  without  dots  or  lines  {fig.  15) ;  red  by  perpen- 
dicular lines  {fig.  16) ;  blue  by  horizontal  lines  {fig.  17) ;  green  by 
diagonal  lines,  from  left  to  right  {fig.  19) ;  purple  by  the  reverse  of  green 
{fig.  20) ;  black  by  the  intersection  of  horizontal  and  perpendicular  lines 
(fig-  I^)  ;  ii'on,  by  diagonal  lines  crossing  each  other  {fig.  21).  Blood  red 
was  expressed  in  the  same  manner  as  iron ;  and  the  tenny  by  perpendicular 
lines,  intersected  by  left  diagonal  ones. 

Metals  must  always  alternate  with  colors ;  a  figure  of  metal  must  be 
painted  on  color,  and  a  colored  figure  on  metal.  The  coverings  and 
figures  belonging  to  the  helmet  also  follow  this  rule ;  but  the  color  of 
purple  forms  an  exception.  Other  exceptions  also  are  found,  e.  g.  when  a 
figure  is  intended  to  retain  its  natural  color ;  or  when  the  ground  of  a  field 
may  have  at  the  same  time  both  metal  and  color,  and  the  figure  extends 
over  both ;  or  when  the  figure  is  to  mark  a  peculiar  branch  of  an  old 
or  extinct  family ;  or  lastly,  when  the  same  figure  has  a  portion  of  itself 
varying  in  color  from  the  rest,  as  in  the  red  tongue  of  an  animal. 

False  arms  are  such  as  do  not  follow  these  rules.  They  are  also  called 
enigmatical,  because  they  contain  a  proposition  to  be  solved.  Thus  the 
arms  of  the  king  of  Prussia  contain  a  red  griffin,  as  a  metaphor  of  the  duchy 
of  Stettin. 

The  figures  of  a  shield  are  partly  mere  combinations  of  tinctures,  partly 
actual  images.  The  former  class  are  termed  honor  pieces,  and  consist  of 
crosses,  arches,  beams,  triangles,  spars,  &c.  (two  oblique  beams  united, 
pi.  29,  fig.  25),  few  of  them  having  any  actual  meaning.  A  shield  is  called 
vacant  when  it  bears  only  tinctured  fields  of  equal  size,  and  without 
figures  (fig.  34). 

In  addition  to  the  right-lined  and  curvilinear  division  of  the  tinctures,  we 
find  the  following  shapes  of  honor  pieces :  checker  work,  battlements,  stairs; 
scales  arranged  in  various  ways,  swallow-tails,  crutches,  crosses,  &c.,  &c. 
A  shield  is  said  to  be  expectant  when  it  contains  merely  fields  or  tinctures 
upon  which  figures  may  be  inserted,  as  circumstances  may  suggest. 
Vacant  shields,  which  are  embellished  upon  their  surfaces  with  lines,  are 
termed  damasked.  If  two  different  tinctures  meet  in  a  point  in  the  middle 
of  a  field,  the  field  is  said  to  be  diagonally  quartered  {fig.  54).  If  two 
tinctures  change  in  a  square,  the  field  is  quartered  {fig.  53),  and  the 
position  may  be  either  straight  or  oblique  ;  if  straight,  the  field  is  checkered 
{fig.  31),  if  oblique,  the  checkering  of  course  is  lozenged  {fig.  32).  Other 
fields  are  graded,  greaved,  netted,  and  alternated,  as  the  seams  of  a  wall. 
The  trellis  or  grate  is  formed  of  lines  crossing  each  other  at  either  right  or 
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HISTORY  AJSD  ETHNOLOGY.  9» 

obtuie  angles.  A  neat  variation  of  tincture  is  in  the  small  iron  hats,  which 
resemble  and  have  been  interpreted  as  furs,  but  which  actually  represented 
the  iron  hats  of  the  knights  {ßgs.  26-28).  They  had  the  form  of  small 
pointed  spires  or  cones.  Sometimes,  however,  ermine  is  represented  upon 
shields ;  wh^i  the  ground  is  black  and  the  points  white  it  is  called  counter 
ermine. 

On  the  same  field  of  an  honor-piece  various  figures  may  be  found 
opposite,  beside,  and  even  upon  each  other,  e,g,  beams  and  rafters,  or  piles, 
spars  or  beams,  with  diamonds,  rings,  or  coins,  upon  them.  The  cross 
occurs  in  a  great  variety  of  shapes,  and  is  considered  an  honor-piece. 

In  regard  to  the  form  of  the  shield,  nothing  is  essential.  Thus  we  have, 
pL  27,  fig.  1,  the  crescent-shaped ;  ^f.  2,  the  triangular ;  ^^.  3,  the  fancy 
form ;  fig.  4,  the  heart  form,  usually  adopted  by  ladies ;  fig.  5,  the  diamond ; 
fig.  6,  the  reclining ;  figs.  7,  8,  forms  of  ancient  shields ;  fig.  9,  German 
shield  ;^^.  10,  French;^.  11,  Spanish ;^^.  12,  Italian;/^.  13,  ensign 
or  banner  shield.  In  addition  to  the  description  of  the  representation  of 
colors  already  given,  we  call  attention  to  fig.  22,  which  indicates  natural 
colors,  e.g.  the  horse  ;  fig.  23,  ermine  ;  fig.  24,  counter  ermine  ;  fig.  25, 
spotted  ;  fig.  26,  small  blue  and  white  hats  ;  fig.  27,  red  and  yellow  hats  ; 
fig.  28,  irregular  blue  and  white  hats ;  fig.  29,  fur ;  fig.  30,  greaved  or 
scaly.  The  division  of  shields  is  as  follows r^g-.  33,  vertical;  fig.  31, 
horizontal ;  fig.  35,  diagonal  left ;  fig.  36,  diagonal  right ;  fig.  37,  right 
indented  ;  fig.  38,  left  indented ;  fig.  39,  horizontal  indented ;  fig.  40,  vertical 
indented;  fig.  41,  vertical  left;  fig.  42,  vertical  right  ;^.  43,  vertical 
triple ;  fig.  44,  horizontal  triple ;  fig.  45,  diagonal  left  triple ;  fig.  46,  diagonal 
right  triple ;  fig.  47,  superior  angular ;  fig.  48,  inferior  angular ;  fig.  49, 
vertical  stripe  ;  fig.  50,  horizontal  stripe  ;  fig.  51,  diagonal  left  stripe ;  fig.  52, 
diagonal  right  stripe  ;  fig.  53,  quartered  shield ;  fig.  54,  diagonal  quartered  ; 
fig.  55,  upward  rafters ;  fig.  56,  downward  rafters  ;  fig.  57,  cross ;  fig.  58, 
oblique  cross ;  fig.  59,  advanced  shield  ;  fig.  60,  enigmatical  shield  ;  fig.  61, 
expressive  shield ;  fig.  62,  covered  shield ;  fig.  63,  shield  supporting  a  small 
shield.  « 

On  the  same  plate  will  be  found  representations  of  the  principal  European 
crowns ;  fig.  64,  ancient  German  imperial ;  fig.  65,  Russian  imperial ; 
fig.  66,  Turkish  imperial ;  fig.  67,  English ;  fig.  68,  French ;  fig.  69, 
Spanish;  fig.  70,  Prussian;  fig.  71,  Swedish;^.  72,  Danish;/^.  73, 
Sardinian ;  fig.  74,  Hungarian ;  fig.  75,  Scottish ;  fig.  76,  grand  ducal 
crown ;  fig.  77,  crown  of  an  electoral  prince ;  fig.  78,  crown  of  a  prince  of 
the  blood ;  fig.  79,  ducal  crown ;  fig.  80,  count's ;  fig.  81,  viscount's ; 
fig.  82,  baron's ;  fig.  83,  bishop's  ;  fig.  84,  papal  crown  ;  fig.  85,  cardinal's 
hat ;  fig.  86,  hat  of  the  doge  of  Venice ;  figs.  87-92,  helmets  of  arms. 

We  close  the  whole  subject  with  a  list  of  the  coats  of  arms  belonging  to 
the  princes  and  some  of  the  noble  families.  PL  28,  fig.  1,  Russian  imperial ; 
fig.  2,  Austrian  imperial ;  fig.  3,  British  royal ;  fig.  4,  late  royal  French ; 
fig.  5,  royal  Belgian ;  fig.  6,  royal  arms  of  the  Netherlands ;  fig.  7,  royal 
Swedish ;  fig.  8,  royal  Danish ;  fig.  9,  royal  Spanish ;  fig.  10,  royal 
Portuguese;  fig.   11,  royal  Sardinian;  fig.    12,  royal  Sicilian;/^.  18, 

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100  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

pontifical;  fig,  14,  royal  Grecian;  fig.  15,  grand  duchy  of  Tuscany; 
fig.  16,  duchy  of  Modena;  fig.  17,  duchy  of  Lucca;  fig.  18,  Baron 
von  Seckendorf;  fig.  19,  Baron  von  Fahnenberg;  fig.  20,  Baron  of 
Brussels ;  fig.  21,  Cotta  von  Cottendorf  PI.  29,  fig.  1,  royal  Prussian ; 
fig.  2,  royal  Bavarian  ;  fig.  3,  royal  Saxon  ;  fig.  4,  royal  Hanoverian  ;  fig.  5, 
royal  Wurtembergian ;  fig.  6,  grand  duchy  of  Baden ;  fig.  7,  electorate  of 
Hesse ;  fig.  8,  grand  duchy  of  Hesse  Darmstadt ;  fig.  9,  grand  duchy  of 
Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach;^^.  10,  duchyof  Saxe  Meiningen  ;  ^^.  11,  duchy 
of  Saxe- Altenburg ;  fig.  12,  duchy  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ;  fi^.  13,  duchy  of 
Brunswick  ;  fig.  14,  duchy  of  Nassau  ;  fig.  15,  grand  duchy  of  Mecklen- 
burg ;  fig.  16,  grand  duchy  of  Oldenburg  ;  fig.  17,  duchy  of  Anhalt  Dessau; 
fig.  18,  duchy  of  Anhalt  Bernburg;  fig.  19,  duchy  of  Anhalt-Kothen ; 
fig.  20,  principality  of  Schwartzburg ;  ^^.  21,  principality  of  HohenzoUem 
Hechingen ;  fig.  22,  principality  of  Hohenzollem  Sigmaringen ;  fig.  23, 
principality  of  Waldeck ;  fig.  24,  principality  of  Reuss ;  fig.  25,  principality 
of  Lippe  Schaumburg;  fig.  26,  principality  of  Lippe-Detmold;  fig.  27, 
principality  of  Liechtenstein;  fig.  28,  landgrave  of  Hesse-Homburg ; 
fig.  29,  duchy  of  Parma;  fig.  30,  Prince  Esterhazy;  fig.  31,  Prince 
Metternich. 


The  Cleeot  and  the»  Influence. 

In  the  middle  ages  the  Christian  religion  gradually  and  constantly 
progressed.  It  was  adopted  among  the  German,  Slavonic,  and  Scan- 
dinavian nations,  in  Russia  and  Hungary,  and  even  among  some  of  the 
Tartar  hordes  of  Asia.  But  its  original  purity  soon  became  dimmed; 
and  its  spirituality  and  simplicity  were  often  lost  amid  the  gorgeous- 
ness  of  imposing  ceremonies.  The  doctrines  of  the  cross  were  loaded  with 
human  inventions,  by  which  the  church  was  brought  to  disunion  and 
endless  controversy. 

*  Three  great  sections  of  the  Christian  church  appear  but  a  few  centuries 
after  its  organization. 

1.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church.  This  branch  has  its  sovereign  head  at 
Rome,  in  the  person  of  the  pope.  In  addition  to  the  Bible,  it  recognises 
the  authority  of  tradition.  It  regards  the  decrees  of  synods  and  of  bishops 
as  necessary  to  the  maintenance  of  truth  and  unity.  The  church  believes 
in  the  doctrine  of  extraordinary  merit,  especially  in  works  of  supereroga- 
tion in  the  saints,  in  the  power  of  their  intercession,  and  in  indulgences. 
Another  doctrine  prominently  set  forth  is  that  of  purgatory.  The  standards 
of  the  church  teach  seven  sacraments :  baptism,  the  Lord's  supper,  confirm- 
ation, penance  or  confession,  ordination  of  priests,  matrimony,  and  extreme 
unction.  In  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  supper  the  Catholic  church  holds 
the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  i.e.  that  through  the  force  of  the  words 
of  institution,  pronounced  by  the  officiating  priest,  the  essential  nature 
of  the  bread  and  wine  is  changed  into  the  substance  of  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ ;  and  holding  at  the  same  time  that  the  reception  of  the  body 
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HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  101 

includes  that  of  the  blood,  it  excludes  the  laity  from  the  use  of  the  cup. 
Regarding  the  supper  in  the  specific  form  of  the  mass  as  an  efficacious 
offering  or  sacrifice,  beneficial  to  the  dead  as  well  as  the  living,  the  priests 
perform  mass  for  the  repose  of  departed  souls. 

2.  The  Greek  Churchy  which  was  entirely  separated  from  the  Roman  in 
1054,  is  under  the  control  of  patriarchs.  It  is  not  unanimous  on  some 
questions  of  importance ;  thus  one  party  still  regards  the  pope  as  the 
supreme  head  of  the  universal  church,  while  another  rejects  all  belief  in  the 
necessity  of  this  supremacy.  Both,  however,  acknowledge  as  the  rule  of 
faith  the  Bible,  the  writings  of  the  apostolical  fathers,  and  the  decrees  of 
the  seven  councils.  They  believe  that  the  Holy  Ghost  proceeds  from  the 
Father  only.  They  also  ascribe  a  meritorious  efficacy  to  good  works, 
especially  fasting,  charity,  almsgiving,  and  monastic  life ;  but  they  deny 
the  doctrine  of  purgatory,  and  condemn  the  practice  of  granting  indulgences. 
In  regard  to  the  souls  of  the  departed,  they  believe  in  a  middle  state,  where 
the  pious  souls  calmly  await  the  day  of  judgment,  and  th^  wicked  in  terror 
and  anguish  look  forward  to  the  day  when  their  punishment  is  to  commence, 
unless  the  intercession  of  the  priests  delivers  them  from  their  torment. 
This  church,  too,  recognises  the  seven  sacraments.  The  sacrament  of  the 
Lord's  supper  is  administered  to  the  communicants  in  the  form  of  cylin- 
drical pieces  of  leavened  bread,  dipped  in  wine,  so  that  they  receive  both 
bread  and  wine. 

3.  The  Armenian  Church,  {PL  32,  figs.  5,  6,  Armenian  patriarch  and 
monk.)  The  supreme  authority  of  this  church  is  vested  in  the  Catholicos 
of  all  Armenians,  under  whom  rank  several  patriarchs.  She  rejects  the 
veneration  of  images.  She  sees  in  Christ  only  one  nature,  the  divine,  like 
the  Jacobite  and  Coptic  sects. 

The  M ennonites  and  Maronites  in  Syria  {figs,  3  and  4,  M aronite  patriarch 
and  monk)  confess  in  Christ  one  person,  but  two  natures,  actuated  by  one 
will. 

The  vestments  of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop  consist  of  the  pontifical 
shoes  and  stockings,  the  cross  upon  the  breast,  the  tunic,  the  dalmatica  or 
alba,  the  finger  ring,  the  mitre  or  infula,  the  crozier,  the  mantle  {pallium), 
the  gloves,  the  orale  (a  veil,  covering  the  shoulders  and  breast),  and  the 
praecinctorium,  {PL  S2,  fig.  1,  St.  Augustine  in  full  canonicals ;  fig.  2,  St. 
Antony.)  In  the  pope's  dress  the  chief  distinction  is  the  triple  crown.  The 
customary  official  costume  of  the  priest  embraces  the  amictus,  the  white 
linen  shirt,  the  alba,  the  girdle,  the  rochette  (a  species  of  white  linen  gown 
or  cassock,  with  closed  sleeves) ;  the  stola  (a  broad  sash  worn  by  the 
priests  around  the  neck,  and  crossed  upon  the  breast ;  the  deacons,  however, 
usually  place  it  across  the  left  shoulder),  and,  finally,  the  dress  for  performing 
the  offering  of  the  mass.  The  priests  also  place  upon  their  heads  a  low 
quadrangular  cap. 

The  practice  of  monastic  seclusion  rose  to  its  height  during  the  middle  ages. 
Its  commencement  probably  dates  back  to  the  time  of  the  early  Christians, 
who,  to  preserve  their  lives  from  the  fearful  storms  of  persecution,  betook 
themselves  to  the  mountains  and  deserts,  where  they  passed  their  days  in  con- 

ICONOOBAPHIO  BNOTCLOPiBDIA, — ^VOU  HI.  18  278 


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102  HISTORY  AND  BTHNOLOOT. 

temptation  and  prayer.  The  leading  Scriptural  authority  for  the  insthutioii 
is  found  in  the  remark  of  Christ  to  the  young  man  who  inquired  the 
way  of  eternal  life  :  **  One  thing  thou  lackest.  Gk>  thy  way,  sell 
whatsoever  thou  hast,  and  give  to  the  poor,  and  thou  shalt  have  trea- 
sure in  heaven ;  and  come,  take  up  the  cross,  and  follow  me."  These 
words  many  applied  to  themselves  ;  and  renouncing  all  earthly  and  woridly 
goods,  they  sought  an  undisturbed  tranquillity  where  they  might  devote 
themselves  to  prayer  and  meditation,  whilst  they  mortified  their  flesh. 

Such  persons  received  the  names  of  recluses,  anchorites,  or  /lermits  (from 
lpi}|xo^,  waste,  desert),  and  subsequently  monks  (from  fMvo^  and  fMva^^e^,  solitary, 
alone).  Their  quiet  contemplative  life  offered  strong  inducements  to  imita- 
tion, and  the  numbers  at  length  increased  to  such  an  extent  that  they 
united  in  associations.  Their  common  residence,  inclosed  with  hedges  or 
walls,  was  called  cloister  (from  claustrum,  an  inclosure)  The  superior 
took  the  title  of  abbot,  from  the  Syriac  abba,  signifying  father.  Women 
and  young  girls  formed  themselves  into  similar  societies,  and  called  them- 
selves nuns,  an  Egyptian  word  meaning  mother.  The  cloisters  probably 
originated  in  the  fourth  century,  but  their  number  was  increased  in  every 
coming  century.  PL  32,  ßg.  8,  Greek  monk  of  Poland ;  fig.  9,  Jacobite 
monk. 

After  the  sixth  century  the  monks  began  to  act  in  accordance  with  fixed 
rules,  though  as  early  as  the  year  350,  St.  Basil  (pL  32,  fig.  7)  of  Neo- 
Caesarea  drew  up  a  system  of  regulations  for  the  use  of  both  monks  and 
nuns.  These  rules  were  especially  spread  in  the  East,  and  are  still  observed 
in  all  convents  of  the  Greek  church,  as  well  as  by  the  Basilians  in  Spain 
and  Sicily.  On  the  plan  of  St.  Basil  the  monks  and  nuns  were  required  to 
observe  chastity,  obedience  to  the  superior,  prayers  at  regular  hours,  long 
continued  fasts,  and  to  live  mainly  upon  a  vegetable  diet. 

About  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century,  St.  Benedict  of  Norcia  reformed 
the  whole  system  of  monachism  in  the  west.  As  a  pious  and  judicious 
leader  of  an  order,  he  built  a  cloister  on  Mount  Cassino,  near  Naples,  and 
the  regulations  which  he  established  in  his  society  proved  so  successful  that 
they  came  to  be  generally  adopted  in  all  similar  institutions  of  the  west. 
He  made  the  cloisters  the  abode  of  piety,  temperance,  and  industry ;  and 
during  those  lawless  and  revolutionary  times  they  became  the  retreat  of 
philosophy  and  literature.  Benedict,  considering  the  wants  of  the  times» 
abolished  the  severe  fasts  and  the  constantly  repeated  prayers,  and  per- 
suaded the  monks  to  work,  and  thus  to  render  themselves  of  service  to  the 
community  in  which  they  lived.  His  society,  known  in  history  as  the 
Benedictines,  pledged  themselves  to  obedience  to  the  canons,  to  an  uncondi- 
tional submission  to  the  superior,  to  a  constant  monastic  life,  to  uniform  and 
settled  hours  for  prayers  and  secular  duties,  to  the  observance  of  an 
inviolable  chastity,  and  to  the  entire  relinquishment  of  all  woridly  pleasures. 
In  place  of  the  white  dress  adopted  by  the  order  of  St.  Basil,  the  Bene- 
dictines wore  a  black  cowl.  PL  32,  figs.  10,  11,  Benedictine  monk  and 
nun. 

In  the  course  of  time  the  original  discipline  was  gradually  relaxed.  To 
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HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  108 

some  enthusiastic  members  of  the  order,  however,  it  did  not  seem  severe 
enough,  and  consequently  the  rigidity  of  the  rules  was  increased,  and 
new  additions  made,  so  that  among  different  societies  called  by  the  same  name 
it  was  often  difficult  to  trace  even  a  dim  resemblance.  Thus  arose  the  order 
of  the  Clugnyacensians,  founded  by  St.  Odon  of  Clugny ;  the  Congregation  of 
Mount  Cassino,  ordained  1408,  by  St.  Justinus  at  Padua  and  Mount  Cassino : 
the  Congregation  of  St.  Maurus,  established  by  St.  Maurus,  in  France,  1621 
(pi,  3S,ßg,  27,  a  monk  of  this  Congregation)  ;  the  Calmalduensians,  founded 
by  St.  Romoald  between  960  and  1009,  at  Campo  Maldoni,  near  Milan  {pL 
B2,ßg.  19,  a  monk  of  this  society)  ;  the  Sylvestrinians,  founded  by  Sylvester 
Gozzolan  of  Ancona  (pL  32,  fig,  25,  the  general  of  the  Sylvestrinians) ;  the 
Orammontensians  (grand  mountaineers),  founded  by  St.  Stephen  of  Thiers, 
on  Grandmont,  near  Limoges,  1076  ;  and  the  Carthusian8,yfho3e  founder  was 
St.  Bruno,  1086,  a  pious  monk  of  Rheims.  Owing  to  the  great  dissipation 
prevalent  in  those  times,  he  was  induced  to  seek  solitude.  St.  Bruno  betook 
himself,  with  a  few  congenial  friends,  to  a  narrow  and  desolate  valley,  called 
Chartreuse,  lying  between  two  precipitous  rocks,  covered  with  snow  and 
bramble,  and  not  far  from  Grenoble.  In  this  dreary  spot  he  erected  a 
cloister,  where  the  emaciated  monks  lived  in  the  deepest  poverty.  Their 
regulations  were  of  the  most  stringent  character ;  even  conversation  at 
times  was  prohibited  (fig.  18,  Carthusian  nun  in  her  dress  preparatory  to 
confirmation).  We  mention  also  the  Celestines,  founded  by  Peter  di  Mar- 
done,  1264,  afterwards  Pope  Celestine  V.  {pi,  SS,  fig.  2.  Celestine  monk) ; 
the  Cistertians,  established  1075,  by  twenty-one  monks,  who,  led  by  their 
abbot  Robert,  had  emigrated  to  Cistemum.  Out  of  these,  in  the  way  of 
further  reformation,  sprang  the  Bemardines,  by  St.  Bernard,  abbot  of 
Clairvaux,  in  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century  (pL  32,  fig.  21,  Ber- 
nardine  nun).  To  these  may  yet  be  added  the  Feuillans,  established  1580, 
by  John  de  la  Barriere,  prior  of  the  abbey  of  Feuillans,  near  Toulouse 
(pi  33,  figs.  25  and  26,  monk  and  nun  of  this  order) ;  the  order  of  Fronte- 
vrault,  founded  by  Robert  «of  Arbrissel  in  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth 
century  (pi,  32,  fig.  12,  Frontevrault  nan)  ;  the  Congregation  of  Port 
Royal,  founded  for  nuns,  1204  ;  and  the  Monks  of  la  Trappe,  in  Normandy 
(pL  3^9  fig,  7,  monk  of  la  Trappe),  founded  by  Rotrou,  count  of  Perche. 

The  rules  adopted  by  St.  Augustine  bore  a  strong  similarity  to  those  of 
the  Benedictines.  Indeed,  his  were  not  monastic  regulations  proper,  but 
rules  for  the  clergy  of  his  diocese,  binding  them  to  poverty,  chastity, 
common  prayers,  (fee,  without  constituting  them  an  order.  The  congrega- 
tions of  canons  and  prebendaries  adopted  his  rules  without  forming  monas- 
teries. Among  them  were  the  canons  of  the  Lateran  (pi.  32,  fig,  15), 
those  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  (pi,  33,  fig.  1),  those  of  St.  Salvator,  St. 
(Jenevieve,  St.  Rufin,  and  the  Hospitallers  generally. 

These  rules  were  later  adopted  by  monks  also,  and  thus  was  formed  the 
Order  of  Augustines,  consisting  of  hermits  united  into  one  body  in  the  year 
1256,  by  Pope  Alexander  IV.  At  a  later  period  Augustine  nunneries 
were  established  (pi.  3f2,figs.  13,  14,  Augustine  monk  and  nun).  Following 
the  Augostines,  arose  the  Pramonstrants,  founded  by  St.  Norbert,  in  the 

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104  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

north  of  France,  1220 ;  the  Serviles,  by  Monaldi,  near  Florence,  1223 ;  the 
Jeromites,  who  were  divided  into  Hermits  of  St.  Jerome  of  Spain  and  Hermits 
of  SL  Jerome  of  the  Observance,  1429,  the  Congregation  of  Peter  Gam- 
bretti,  1337,  and  Hermits  of  St,  Jerome  of  Fiesole,  1360.  Other  classes  of 
Augustine  monks  were,  the  Jesuates,  founded  by  John  of  Columbine ;  the 
BrigittineSf  founded  by  St.  Brigitta,  1344,  at  Western,  near  Lynkoping,  in 
Sweden  ;  the  Carmelites ^  founded  in  1208,  by  Albert,  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem, 
and  divided  into  two  branches,  the  barefoot  and  the  shod.  PI.  32,  fig.  16, 
barefoot  Carmelite  in  his  mantle  ;  fig,  17,  Carmelite  nun  in  her  surplice. 

After  the  twelfth  century  various  religious  orders  were  formed,  who,  not 
satisfied  with  the  secluded  and  inactive  life  of  the  cloister,  sought  to  extend 
the  sphere  of  their  usefulness  beyond  its  walls.  The  first  among  these  were 
the  Trinitarians  or  Mathurines  (order  of  Mercy),  who  were  established, 
in  1 198,  by  John  of  Malta  and  Felix  of  Wales.  The  institution  was  dedicated 
to  the  Trinity,  and  devoted  itself,  among  other  objects,  to  the  liberation  of 
Christian  slaves.  Soon  after,  the  Roman  see  established  the  orders  of  the 
Mendicants,  or  begging  friars,  who  were  to  prevent  the  increase  of  know- 
ledge. The  pope  conferred  upon  them  the  most  important  privileges,  e,g, 
exemption  from  all  civil  and  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction,  permission  to  preach 
and  collect  alms,  hear  confessions,  perform  masses,  and  sell  indulgences 
everywhere.  In  form,  their  constitution  was  a  military  one,  the  superiors 
exacting  strict  subordination  and  discipline  from  the  subalterns,  and  aiming 
at  the  elevation  and  grandeur  of  the  hierarchy.  The  two  great  branches 
of  this  society  were  : 

1.  The  Dominicans  (Jacobins,  Evangelists,  Mendicants),  founded  in  1212 
by  St.  Dominicus,at  first  an  order  of  ecclesiastics  or  preachers,  but  afterwards 
commissioned  with  maintaining  the  Inquisition.  They  adopted  the  rules 
of  St.  Augustine.  PL  32,  fig,  26,  Dominican  monk  ;  fig.  27,  Dominican 
nun. 

2.  The  Franciscans  (Cordeliers,  Minorites,  Fratres  minores,  <&c.), 
founded  by  St.  Franciscus  of  Assissi,  in  the^  beginning  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  They  assumed  a  variety  of  names,  according  to  their  objects  and 
condition :  the  Barefoot  (Soccolanti),  who  were  again  subdivided  into  the 
Organized  Franciscans  (Cordeliers,  Observantines),  the  Austere  (Reformati, 
Recollecti,  &c.),  and  Most  Austere  (Alcantarines,  <&c.) ;  and  the  Covered  or 
Shod  Franciscans  (Conventuales),  to  whom  belong  the  Capuchins,  esta- 
blished at  Florence  in  1525,  by  Matthias  of  Bassi,  and  afterwards  many 
others.  This  order  also  embraced  the  CtBsarines,  Celestines,  Spirituals, 
Clarentines,  Fraticelli,  and  Minimes,  the  latter  having  been  founded  in 
Calabria,  in  1485,  by  Francis  of  Paula.  PI.  32,  fig.  22,  Capuchin  monk  in 
his  mantle ;  fig.  23,  the  same  going  to  oflliciate  at  mass  in  Rome ;  pi.  33, 
fig.  3,  a  Minime :  fig.  15,  a  Franciscan  nun  of  the  order  of  St.  Elizabeth. 

At  the  period  of  the  Reformation  these  various  societies  attracted 
peculiar  attention,  and  many  of  them  could  not  pass  the  examination  to 
which  they  were  subjected  in  order  to  test  their  usefulness.  Some  orders, 
therefore,  embraced  new  objects,  the  members  devoting  themselves  to 
attendance  upon  the  sick,  to  the  study  and  practice  of  medicine,  to  the 
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HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY,  105 

furtherance  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church  by  missions.  Thus  were 
organized  the  Theatinians,  in  1520,  by  John  Peter  Caraffa  (or,  more 
properly,  Theate,  afterwards  Pope  Paul  IV.),  who  devoted  themselves 
expressly  to  the  propagation  of  the  faith  (fig.  5,  Theatinian  nun) ;  the 
BarnahiteSy  consecrated  also  to  missions  and  to  the  instruction  of  the  young, 
established  by  several  persons  at  Milan  in  1538  (fig,  JJ3,  Bamabite) ;  the 
Bartholomceans,  by  Bartholomew  Hobhäuser,  in  Salzburg,  in  1640;  the 
Lazarists,  by  Vincent  de  Paula,  at  Paris,  for  missions  and  seminaries ;  the 
Brothers  and  Sisters  of  Charity,  in  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  for  nursing  the  indigent  sick  (pi  34,  fig,  5,  Sister  of  Charity  of 
St.  Vincent  de  Paula  ;j5/.  38,/^.  19,  Sister  of  Charity  of  another  cloister) ; 
the  Jesuits,  by  Ignatius  Loyola,  in  1534,  for  the  promulgation  of  the  Catholic 
religion,  the  consolidation  of  the  hierarchy,  and  the  furtherance  of  their 
own  power  (pL  33,  fig,  17,  Jesuits ;  fig.  18,  Jesuit  missionary) ;  the 
Somaskians,  the  fathers  of  Christian  doctrine,  for  public  instruction ;  the 
Priests  of  the  Oratorium  {fig,  21)  ;  the  Piarists,  &c.,  &c. 

The  orders  of  nuns  sometimes  chose  the  same  titles  as  the  monks ;  others 
united  with  the  monastic  orders  without  assuming  their  names.  Thus  the 
nuns  of  St.  Clarissa  {pi.  32,  fig,  24),  the  nuns  of  the  Immaculate  Conception 
{pi,  33,  fig.  12),  the  nuns  of  St,  Urban,  the  nuns  of  the  Annunciation 
{fig,  11),  all  belonged  to  the  Franciscan  order,  while  the  Angelicals 
attached  themselves  to  the  Barnabites.  Finally,  others  retained  their 
independence,  both  in  name  and  support,  adopting  for  the  most  part  the 
rules  of  St.  Augustine.  Among  these  we  mention  the  nuns  of  Penitence, 
of  Magdalena,  the  Salesians,  the  nuns  of  St,  Ursula  {pi.  33,  fig.  4),  the  Hos- 
pital nuns  {fig,  16,  nun  of  this  society  of  the  Hotel  Dieu  in  Paris ;  pi.  34, 
fig.  6,  Hospital  nun  of  La  Fläche).  There  were  also  Hospital  monks 
{pi,  33,  fig,  7,  Hospital  monk  of  St,  Jaquet  du  haut  pas). 

The  Society  of  Beguins  was  composed  of  pious  women,  who  betook 
themselves  to  a  thoughtful,  solitary  life,  without  assuming  any  particular 
vow.  Some  writers  trace  their  origin  to  St.  Begga,  and  others  to  a  pries{ 
of  Li^e,  Lambert  le  Begue(1180),  whilst  others  say  that  the  society  was 
formed  as  early  as  the  year  1000,  by  the  unostentatious  union  of  a  number 
of  pious  women.  They  began  in  the  Netherlands,  and  in  the  thirteenth 
century  spread  over  Germany,  France,  and  Switzerland.  Their  usual 
dress  was  grey  or  brown,  but  in  Lower  Saxony  they  wore  a  sky-blue 
habit.  They  either  resided  all  in  one  building,  or  in  several  houses  standing 
together,  in  large  yards  or  inclosures.  In  some  places,  as  at  Cologne,  they 
numbered  2000  persons.  They  maintained  themselves  by  legacies  and 
foundations,  and  by  their  own  work,  especially  weaving.  The  membership 
of  this  society  was  frequently  obtained  by  purchase,  and  the  fortunes  of 
deceased  members  fell  to  the  common  fund.  Upon  their  entrance  into  the 
community  each  one  took  a  vow  of  chastity  and  obedience ;  but  the  consti- 
tution permitted  the  members  at  any  time  to  withdraw  and  marry.  The 
order  exists  now  only  in  the  Netherlands.     PI.  33,  fig.  6,  a  Beguin  nun. 

To  the  numerous  associations  already  described  we  add  yet  others, 
members  of  which  are  represented  on  our  plates.     The   Bethlehemites, 

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106  HISTORY  AND  ETEDBTOLOGY. 

established  in  Guatemala  in  1650,  by  Peter  Betancourt.  They  obey  the 
rules  of  St.  Augustine,  labor  in  the  education  of  youth  and  the  relief  of  the 
sick,  confine  their  operations  to  America,  and  wear  the  dress  of  the 
Capuchins,  with  a  shield,  on  which  is  painted  the  birth  of  the  Savior 
(pL  SStßg.  20).  A  branch  of  this  order,  the  Bethlehemite  Sisters,  founded 
by  Count  Cifuendes,  live  in  Spain,  and  are  regulatßd  by  the  precepts  of 
St.  Franciscus.  The  AUzians,  or  Cellites,  of  Flanders,  sometimes  called 
Cell  Brethren  {pi  33,  fig,  8),  constitute  an  important  order  of  lay- 
brethren,  and  their  cloisters  are  houses  of  correction  for  refractory 
children.  In  periods  of  general  sickness  they  strive  to  alleviate  suffering; 
they  attend  the  execution  of  malefactors,  and  take  charge  of  funerals, 
whence  their  name  Cellites,  from  cella,  a  grave.  There  also  exist 
Akxian  nuns,  who  take  the  name  of  the  Black  Sisters.  The  Ambrosian 
monks  (pL  BS,  fig.  9)  arose  in  the  fourteenth -century,  under  Pope  Gregory 
IL,  and  called  themselves  after  St.  Ambrosius,  though  they  followed  the 
rules  of  St  Augustine.  An  order  of  Ambrosian  nuns  was  founded  in  1408. 
Their  chief  cloister  is  in  Pavia.  The  order  of  8t,  Mary's  Visitation 
(visitationis  Beates  MaritB  congregatio)  was  established  by  Francis  of 
Sales,  bishop  of  Geneva.  The  members  pledge  themselves  to  seek  out  and 
provide  for  sick,  maimed,  or  destitute  girls  {pL  33,  fig.  13,  nuns  of  this 
order).  Visitantesses  in  Flanders  {pi.  34,  fig.  1)  ;  nuns  of  the  order  of  the 
Word'become-Flesh  {pi  33,  fig.  14)  ;  nuns  of  the  Congregation  of  Notre- 
Dame  {pi  34,  fig.  2);  nuns  of  the  order  Notre-Dame  de  la  MisSricorde 
{pi  34,  fig.  3)  ;  priests  of  the  order  of  Missions  {fig.  4)  ;  Poor  Volunteer  of 
Flanders  {fig.  7  *)  ;  monks  of  the  order  of  Vallombrosa  {pi  32,  fig.  20) ;  Reli- 
gious of  the  Society  of  the  Blessed  Jesus  {pi  33,  fig.  10),  Fig.  24  represents 
an  ordained  clergyman  of  the  theological  schools  of  France  and  Belgium. 

The  domestic  work  of  monasteries  and  cloisters  was  performed  by  lay 
brethren  and  sisters,  who  were  first  introduced  by  the  order  of  Vallombrosa. 
Still  another  class  of  inmates  of  cloisters  was  composed  of  those  persons 
who,  without  assuming  any  vow,  or  being  ecclesiastics,  belonged  to  the 
order.  These  were  called  Tertiarians.  Though  they  were  allowed  to  wear 
the  dress  of  the  society,  they  usually  contented  themselves  with  the  scapu« 
lary  under  their  citizen's  clothing.  So  valuable  was  the  privilege  of 
belonging  to  an  order  regarded,  that  many  persons  paid  large  sums  to  secure 
a  place  as  Tertiarian.  St.  Francis  of  Assissi  first  introduced  this  class 
among  the  Franciscans. 

The  same  leading  principle  which  had  called  into  existence  the  cloisters 
and  nunneries  gave  rise  to  a  new  society  in  the  twelfth  and  succeeding 
centuries.  These  were  the  Templars,  originally  noble  pilgrims,  united  in 
view  of  assisting  sick  and  needy  pilgrims,  or  such  as  were  exposed  to 
danger,  and  in  order  to  combat  the  infidel  Turks  ;  but  subsequently  becoming 
strong  and  formidable,  they  forgot  the  design  of  their  institution,  and  mingled 
in  political  contests.  In  imitation  of  these  spiritual  orders,  the  sovereigns 
founded  secular  orders,  by  way  of  securing  in  their  members  trusty  friends 
to  the  throne.  Among  the  spiritual  orders  of  knighthood  the  following 
have  the  greatest  reputation : 
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HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  107 

1.  The  Order  of  the  Knights  of  St.  John.  As  early  as  the  year  1046, 
some  merchants  of  Amalfi,  in  Lower  Italy,  had  erected  near  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  a  hospital  for  the  reception  of  sick  and  destitute  pilgrims.  The 
hospital  was  placed  under  the  protection  of  St.  John  the  Baptist ;  hence  the 
name  of  the  association,  Knights  of  St.  John,  though  the  monks  were 
also  called  Hospitallers.  In  connexion  with  this  order  was  established 
that  of  the  Dames  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem  (pi,  34,  ßg,  11,  sister  of 
this  order). 

By  liberal  donations  wealth  poured  m  from  every  quarter  upon  the 
Knights  and  Dames  of  St.  John,  and  they  consequently  rose  to  a  dis- 
tinguished position. 

After  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem,  in  1118,  the  order  of  St.  John  was 
divided  into  three  classes:  knights,  clergy,  and  serving  brethren.  The 
knights  protected  the  pilgrims  against  the  Saracens ;  the  clei^  performed 
divine  service;  while  the  serving  brethren  administered  to  the  suffering 
pilgrims.  This  order  resisted  for  a  long  time  the  attacks  of  the  Saracens. 
The  Turks,  however,  finally  triumphed,  and  the  Christians  lost  the  Holy 
Land,  when  the  Hospitallers  settled  on  the  island  of  Cyprus,  whence, 
however,  they  were  soon  driven  by  the  Turks.  They  then  went  to  the 
Island  of  Rhodes  (1310).  They  could  not,  however,  permanently  guard 
the  place  against  the  ferocious  attacks  of  the  Turks.  They  at  length 
evacuated  it,  and  removed  to  Malta,  which  the  emperor  Charles  V.  had 
given  them  in  1530.  From  this  period  they  took  the  name  of  Knights  of 
Malta.  In  the  year  1798  Napoleon  captured  Malta,  but  two  years  after- 
wards it  was  recovered  by  the  English.  It  was  not,  however,  restored  to 
the  knights,  whose  order  answered  no  practical  purpose  in  this  age ;  and 
since  then  it  has  only  existed  as  a  title  to  wear  certain  decorations. 

The  costume  adopted  by  the  Knights  of  St.  John  consisted  of  a  black 
mantle,  on  which  was  fastened  an  eight-pointed  cross  of  white  linen. 
During  war  they  wore  a  red  tabard,  with  a  white  cross  without  points,  on 
the  breast  and  back ;  more  recently  a  red  uniform,  with  white  trimmings, 
and  a  single  cross  upon  the  breast.  The  knights  of  the  present  day  wear 
in  the  button-hole  a  golden,  white  enamelled  cross  upon  a  black  ribbon. 
PL  34,  fig.  8,  grand  master  of  the  Order  of  Malta ;  fig.  9,  Knight  of  the 
Grand  Cross ;  fig.  10,  Knight  of  Malta  with  his  mantle. 

2.  The  Order  of  the  Knights  Templars.  This  society  originated  aftei 
the  conquest  of  Jerusalem  in  1118,  and  was  established  by  nine  knights, 
who  pledged  themselves  to  conduct  the  pilgrims  through  Palestine,  and 
protect  them  against  the  infidels.  Baldwin,  king  of  Jerusalem,  assigned 
them  a  location  near  the  site  of  Solomon's  Temple,  whence  their  name  of 
Templars.  By  the  aid  of  rich  legacies  and  donations,  the  order  soon  rose 
to  rank  and  importance.  They  probably  numbered  more  French  than  any 
other  knights  in  their  ranks.  Their  ruin  was  caused  by  Philip  IV.  (the  Fair) 
of  France,  in  1307.  He  arrested  all  the  Templars  in  his  dominions,  sub- 
jected  them  to  a  painful  imprisonment,  and  accused  them  of  unparalleled 
atrocities.  By  means  of  torture  he  forced  them  to  confess  crimes  of  which 
they  were  innocent,  and  ordered  many  to  be  buried  alive.    In  1312  Pope 

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108  fflSTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

Clement  Y.,  in  a  general  council  held  at  Vienne  (on  the  Rhone),  dissolved 
the  order.  Their  property  was  confiscated  by  the  crafty  and  avaricious 
monarch,  who  quietly  appropriated  it  to  his  own  purposes. 

The  order  was  composed  of  knights,  squires,  and  serving  brethren, 
besides  a  large  number  of  ecclesiastics.  As  a  badge  of  distinction  they  all 
wore  a  linen  girdle,  and  the  knights  wore,  besides  a  simple  suit  of  armor, 
white  linen  tabards  and  mantles,  with  a  blood-red  cross.  The  clerical 
members  usually  wore  the  white  surplice  with  the  cross ;  and  the  serving 
brethren  a  grey  or  black  habit  likewise  with  the  red  cross.  PL  Si,  fig,  12, 
Templar  in  domestic  dress;  fig,  13,  Templar  in  full  costume;  fig,  14, 
Templar  in  armor  on  horseback. 

3.  The  German  Knights,  or  the  Order  of  Lords,  This  order  was 
founded  by  Germans  in  1190.  Like  the  other  orders,  they  took  the  vow 
of  obedience,  poverty,  and  celibacy ;  and  like  them,  strove  to  protect  the 
poor  and  helpless.  After  the  loss  of  the  Holy  Land  they  settled  at  Venice. 
In  1229  they  were  called  out  under  their  Grand  Master,  Hermann  von 
Salza,  to  aid  the  Poles  against  the  Prussians.  At  that  time  the  Prussians 
were  heathens,  whom,  after  a  contest  of  fifty-three  years,  the  Order  of  Lords 
finally  conquered  and  converted  to  Christianity.  The  Grand  Master  fixed 
his  residence  at  Marienburg,  1309.  During  the  reformation  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  the  Grand  Master,  Margrave  Albert  of  Brandenburg,  with  a  large 
body  of  the  order,  passed  over  to  the  Lutheran  church,  and  the  remainder 
settled  in  the  town  of  Mergentheim  in  Würtemberg.  Subsequently  the 
oiBce  of  Grand  Master  vested  in  the  person  of  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  and 
in  1805  the  order  was  abolished.  The  German  Knights  were  known  also  by 
the  names  :  Knights  of  the  Cross,  Knights  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  Brethren  or 
Hospitallers  of  the  German  House  of  Our  Blessed  Lady  at  Jerusalem. 
They  wore  a  white  mantle  with  a  black  cross.  PL  34,  fig.  15,  Grand 
Master  of  the  German  Knights. 

The  infidels  of  Palestine  did  not  constitute  the  sole  objects  of  the  warlike 
zeal  of  the  spiritual  knights.  It  was  directed  against  the  heathens  generally, 
wherever  they  stood  in  the  way  of  Christianity.  Thus  in  Spain  the 
Alcantara,  Calatrava,  and  other  organizations,  fought  with  the  Saracens ; 
and  in  Prussia  and  Livonia,  the  Brethren  of  the  Sword  against  the 
heathenish  tribes  of  those  countries.  The  Calatrava  {pL  34,  fig,  17,  knight 
of  this  order)  was  founded  by  Sancho  III.  in  1158 ;  the  Alcantara  (fig.  18) 
by  Alexander  III.,  in  1177 ;  another  order,  that  of  St.  James  of  the  Sword 
{fig.  16),  in  Spain,  in  1170;  the  Order  of  Avis  in  Portugal,  in  1143,  by 
Alphonso  Henriquez  (fig.  19) ;  the  Order  of  St.  Stephen,  by  Maria  Theresa, 
in  Austria,  in  1764  (fig.  20,  knight  in  costume  of  ceremony) ;  the  Order  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  by  Henry  III.  of  France,  1578. (/^.  21,  knight,  s^nd  fig.  22, 
hospitaller  of  this  order) ;  and  the  Order  of  Aubrac  by  Allard  in  Flanders, 
in  1120  (fig.  23,  ecclesiastic  of  this  order). 

In  the  seventeenth  century  it  became  customary  to  organize  associations 
with  temporal  rather  than  religious  motives.     Hence  originated  the  various 
academies  of  art  and  scientific  societies,  &c.,  &c.     Secret  orders  were  like- 
wise formed,  whose  objects  were  mostly  superstitious,  and  therefore  kept 
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HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  109 

secret  from  the  public  at  large,  as  the  Alchemists,  Rosicrucians,  Illuminati. 
Other  secret  societies  of  several  kinds,  as  the  Carbonari,  Virtuous  Alliance» 
&c.,  had  political  tendencies. 

Finally,  we  must  briefly  mention  the  Freemasons,  whose  objects  are 
somewhat  different,  and  who  do  not  assume  the  title  of  Order,  but  wish  to 
be  considered  as  a  society  or  an  association,  although  they  at  first  them- 
selves called  their  fraternal  association  an  order.  Their  real  origin  is  not 
positively  known.  They  first  sprang  into  public  notice  in  1723,  by  their 
book  of  constitutions,  whose  author  was  James  Anderson.  From  this  book 
we  learn  that  the  Freemasons'  association  originated  in  the  diverse 
associations  of  architects  of  the  middle  ages,  from  whom  they  had  entirely 
separated  in  London,  in  1717,  retaining  only  their  symbols ;  and  that  their 
objects  were  exclusively  charitable  and  educational. 

The  society  at  present  is  composed  of  men  who  follow  some  proper 
avocation,  and  have  a  good  reputation.  They  are  admitted  with  certain 
ceremonies,  and  call  each  other  brethren,  whereby  they  indicate  that  they 
cherish  an  inviolable  friendship  for  each  other,  and  are  always  ready  to 
afford  one  another  speedy  and  effectual  assistance.  In  their  meetings  (lodges) 
all  distinctions  of  rank  belonging  to  common  life  are  forgotten.  Wealth 
and  poverty,  obscurity  and  eminence,  together  with  all  religious  peculiarities, 
for  the  time  being,  cease  to  exist,  and  all  are  esteemed  as  brethren.  By 
their  constitution  they  pledge  themselves  to  preserve  inviolate  the  secret  of 
the  proceedings  of  the  lodge,  though  in  place  of  the  former  terrible  oath  the 
promise  is  now  made  upon  the  word  of  honor. 

Freemasonry  soon  spread  all  over  Europe,  although  in  some  countries  it 
continued  to  be  prohibited  by  law.  In  1726  the  first  lodge  was  established  at 
Paris,  similar  to  those  in  England,  though  it  soon  after  underwent  important 
alterations.  In  1735  the  order  passed  into  Germany,  and  in  1730  it  began 
to  excite  attention  in  America  and  India.  According  to  the  English  form, 
freemasons  occupy  three  different  degrees:  apprentice,  companion,  and 
master.  The  Grand  Master  is  the  highest  authority.  In  several  lodges,  e.g. 
the  Scottish,  additional  higher  degrees  exist,  whose  members  are  often 
unknown  to  those  of  lower  degrees. 

PL  35,  fig,  1,  initiation  of  a  candidate  into  the  first  degree ;  fig.  2, 
initiation  of  a  master  mason ;  fig,  3,  conferring  of  the  thirty-third  degree 
according  to  the  Scottish  ritual ;  fig.  4,  funeral  of  a  brother  mason. 

After  this  digression,  we  return  to  the  church  and  the  clergy.  The 
power  of  the  priesthood  increased  from  year  to  year.  In  the  long  night  of 
intellectual  darkness,  the  church  possessed  almost  unlimited  means  of 
strength  and  conquest.  The  priesthood  could  safely  assume  an  authority 
before  which  princes  bowed  with  reverence.  It  hoarded  in  the  monasteries 
the  treasures  of  knowledge,  dazzled  the  people  by  mummeries,  blazoned 
trifles  as  the  genuine  product  of  true  Christianity,  and,  above  all,  shielded 
itself  from  investigation  under  the  pretence  of  ineffable  sanctity.  In 
fact  the  spiritual  powers,  having  a  common  interest,  common  laws,  and 
a  well  constructed  constitution,  managed  to  elevate  the  priestly  order  above 
every  other ;  the  church  employeil  tlie  all  crushing  power  of  tlie  anathema 

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110  HISTOBT  AND  SFHlfOLOGT. 

and  the  interdict,  and  subsequently,  the  Inquisition,  that  dreadful  tribunal 
for  all  manner  of  heresy,  which  invented  cruelties  from  which  the  ancient 
pagans,  as  well  as  the  most  savage  tribes  of  the  new  world,  would  have 
turned  away  in  disgust  and  horror.  The  feelings  revolt  at  the  thoughts 
of  the  refined  barbarities  perpetrated  by  Christians,  näy,  by  Christian 
priests.  By  means  of  ph.  30  and  31,  the  eye  can  realize  some  of  the 
horrors  connected  with  the  Inquisition,  which  we  should  despair  of  fully 
conveying  by  description. 

The  Inquisition  owes  its  institution  to  Pope  Innocent  III.,  in  1138,  who 
established  a  tribunal  for  the  suppression  of  some  rapidly  increasing  sects, 
as  the  Amoldists,  Waldenses,  and  Albigenses.  To  this  work  the  Domini- 
can monks  were  judged  competent.  This  tribunal,  however,  only  attained 
to  a  decided  rank  and  celebrity  under  Gregory  IX.  In  1228  it  was  located 
at  Toulouse,  and  was  placed  under  the  superintendence  of  the  papal  legate, 
one  spiritual,  and  three  temporal  vice-presidents.  At  that  time  it  directed 
its  energies  especially  against  the  Albigenses. 

At  first  the  power  of  the  inquisitors  was  quite  limited,  and  they  operated 
indirectly  upon  the  objects  of  their  displeasure.  Instead  of  punishing  the 
heretics,  they  endeavored  to  engage  princes  and  magistrates  in  this  work, 
while  they  confined  themselves  to  lectures  against  the  sects.  It  was  also  a 
part  of  their  business  to  record  the  number,  names,  common  avocations, 
and  success  of  the  dissenters,  the  activity  of  the  bishops  and  other  clergy 
in  arresting  the  sectarian  spirit,  and  to  transmit  the  result  of  their  observa- 
tions to  the  Holy  See.  The  powers  of  the  institutioff,  however,  were  soon 
enlarged,  and  in  due  time  its  ofiicers  were  permitted  to  dispense  indulgences 
and  to  preach  in  favor  of  crusades.  They  received  letters  of  safe  conduct, 
the  right  of  investigating  charges  of  heresy,  of  passing  sentence  upon 
those  convicted,  and  of  compelling  the  civil  authorities  to  execute  their 
verdicts.  If  an  individual  to  whom  the  charge  of  heresy  was  brought  home 
refused  to  abjure  his  opinions,  his  punishment  consisted  in  being  burnt 
at  the  stake  ;  and  if  he  recanted,  his  doom  was  perpetual  imprisonment. 

Venice  created  a  court  of  Inquisition,  independent  of  the  pope,  but 
employed  for  president  a  papal  nuncio,  assisted  by  the  patriarch,  the 
inquisitor,  and  three  temporal  judges.  In  Naples  the  Inquisition  did  not 
exist  in  its  true  form,  but  in  Sicily  one  was  established  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Spanish  Inquisitor-General.  Several  cities  in  France  adopted  it,  but 
the  people  interposed,  and  made  an  energetic  opposition  to  its  remaining  there; 
and  even  when  the  hostility  was  less  decisive,  the  inquisitors  abandoned  the 
kingdom.  In  Germany,  Netherlands,  and  England,  all  eflforts  to  establish 
its  supremacy  failed.  The  theatre  of  its  fullest  sway  lay  in  certain  districts 
of  Italy  and  Spain.  In  1536  it  established  itself  firmly  in  Portugal,  and 
even  passed  over  into  both  the  East  and  West  Indian  colonies. 

In  Spain  the  tribunal  directed  its  chief  eflforts  against  the  Jews  and 
Mahometans.  Torquemada,  confessor  of  Queen  Isabella,  induced  her  to 
promise,  at  her  accession  to  the  throne,  a  vigilant  persecution  of  heretics ; 
and  as  the  best  means  to  accomplish  their  extermination,  he  had  sug- 
gested the  Inquisition.  On  her  recommendation  it  was  soon  introduced 
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HISTOKT  AND  BTHSTOLOGY.  Ill 

by  ber  husband,  Ferdinand  of  Arragon.  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  sanctioned  its 
establishment  in  1483,  and  Torquemada  became  its  first  inqnisitor-general. 
It  was  the  infamous  lot  of  this  wretch,  in  the  short  period  of  fourteen 
years,  to  drag  before  the  tribunal  100»  000  persons,  and  to  consign  6000  to 
the  stake.  In  the  execution  of  his  horrible  duties,  he  had  the  assistance 
of  numerous  subordinates,  who  bore  the  unassuming  title  of"  Familiars  of 
the  Holy  Office."  He  armed  the  younger  members  among  these  agents 
in  1494,  and  conferred  upon  them  the  name  of  "  Warriors  of  Christ !" 
They  were  amenable  only  to  the  authority  of  the  Inquisition,  and,  by  virtue 
of  their  position,  enjoyed  peculiar  prerc^atives. 

Such  was  the  cruelty  exercised  against  all  suspected  persons,  and  so 
perfect  the  system  of  espionage  employed  by  Torquemada,  that  even  many 
of  the  nobles  of  Spain,  though  shocked  at  the  atrocities  of  the  tribunal, 
preferred  becoming  its  assistants  to  being  reported  as  heretical,  and 
falling  under  its  fearful  power.  This  example  of  the  nobility,  taken 
in  connexion  with  the  valuable  privileges  conferred  by  Ferdinand  of 
Arragon  upon  all  assistants  of  the  Inquisition,  was  gradually  imitated  by  large 
multitudes  of  the  lower  orders.  They  were  exempted  from  taxation  and 
other  public  liabilities,  and  soon  there  were  as  many  assistants  of  the 
Inquisition  as  there  had  been  taxpaying  citizens.  The  Familiars  were 
assistants  of  the  Inquisition  in  every  imaginable  manner.  They  tracked 
out  the  retreats  of  the  heretics,  denounced  them,  had  them  arrested,  and 
conducted  the  prisoners  to  the  place  of  execution.  This  act  was  called 
performing  the  part  of  a  godfather  (padrino). 

The  officers  of  every  Spanish  inquisitorial  tribunal  consisted  of  three 
inquisitors,  three  secretaries,  one  alguacil  (summoner),  and  three  receivers 
and  assessors,  besides  numerous  familiars  and  jailers. 

At  first  the  tribunal  directed  the  fury  of  its  fires  mainly  against  the 
professors  of  the  black  arts,  astrology,  soothsaying,  magic,  sorcery  ;  against 
the  ungodly  and  the  blasphemers,  and  those  who  insulted  the  Inquisition. 
Subsequently,  it  enlarged  its  jurisdiction,  and  punished  Jews,  Mahometans, 
and  unbelievers,  especially  if  they  were  found  opposing  the  brethren  of  the 
holy  office.  Sheer  covetousness  not  unfrequently  prompted  its  activity. 
Sometimes  the  inquisitors  employed  their  official  power  to  harass  their 
personal  enemies ;  and  in  this  way  the  institution  exerted  its  malignant  spirit 
against  many  excellent  Christians.  Thus  Padilla,  Poriier,  chief  justice  of 
Arragon,  and  thousands  more,  becapie  its  victims,  because  they  earnestly 
asserted  the  rights  of  man  against  its  aggressions.  Johanna  Bohorquez, 
Mary  of  Burgundy  (surnamed  the  mother  of  the  poor),  Rodriguez  de 
Valero,  and  numerous  other  true  Christians,  suffered  martyrdom.  Juan 
d'Avila,  St.  Juan  de  la  Cruz,  St.  Juan  de  Dios,  St.  Theresa,  Father  Luis  de 
Leon,  Father  Luis  de  Granada,  Mariana,  every  one  of  whom  Rome  itself  has 
been  compelled  to  denominate  saints,  besides  other  men  whose  erudition  and 
genius,  combined  with  true  Christian  piety,  were  the  wonder  of  Europe, 
and  therefore  the  envy  of  their  persecutors,  iall  had  to  encounter  the  indig- 
nation and  malice  of  this  accursed  institution^  The  Inquisition  relent- 
lessly persecuted  the    noble    Moorish    knights,    who    had    passed    from 

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112  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY, 

MahcMnetanism  to  Christianity,  and  their  descendants,  for  they  were 
wealthy,  and  the  inquisitors  were  thus  tempted  to  stain  their  hands  in  their 
blood.  Deza  and  his  successors,  having  affixed  to  the  flower  of  the 
Andalusian  knights  the  odious  name  of  Marranos  (swine),  persecuted  them 
to  the  death  as  heretics  and  rebels.  As  a  pretext  for  thus  turning  their 
arms  against  their  brethren,  they  accused  them  of  a  mere  external 
adhesion  to  Christianity,  while  they  secretly  entertained  a  predilection 
for  Islamism ;  and  to  this  charge  false  witnesses  could  always  be  induced 
to  swear.  The  rich  Jews,  also,  who  had  adopted  Christianity,  soon  learned 
that  nothing  was  to  be  gained  by  abjuring  the  religion  of  their  fathers. 

Emboldened  by  these  successes,  the  agents  of  the  Inquisition  sought  to 
prostrate  all  barriers  to  their  sway  whether  they  were  erected  by  clerical 
or  worldly  authorities.  At  first  the  use  of  the  rack  and  torture  was  only 
allowed  once,  but  soon  it  was  applied  several  times,  under  pretence  that  the 
renewed  infliction  of  torture  was  but  a  continuation  of  the  former  one.  If 
a  victim  confessed  all  that  was  charged  against  him,  and  underwent  the 
full  penance  imposed,  then  the  tribunal,  according  to  its  own  rules,  should 
give  up  the  prosecution,  and  be  contented  with  a  considerable  fine.  But 
in  such  cases  the  vindictive  and  covetous  spirit  of  Deza,  Lucero,  and 
others,  not  satisfied  with  so  mild  a  punishment,  instituted  a  new  charge, 
accusing  their  victims  of  having  confessed  insincerely,  and  declaring 
them  false  penitents.  This  crime  they  had  to  expiate  at  the  stake,  or  in 
perpetual  confinement.  In  either  case  the  property  of  the  condemned  was 
confiscated  for  the  benefit  of  the  Inquisition. 

By  such  machinations  as  these  the  authority  of  the  Inquisition  became 
almost  unlimited,  and  princes  themselves  could  not  escape  its  grasp. 
Whoever  fell  under  suspicion  was  summoned  three,  times  to  attend  his 
trial.  If  he  failed  to  appear,  his  absence  was  construed  into  a  tacit 
confession  of  guilt ;  he  was  excommunicated,  and  condemned  to  pay  a 
heavy  fine.  Very  rarely  did  an  accused  escape,  for  the  familiars  of  the 
Inquisition,  the  Brotherhood  of  the  Cruciata,  and  the  Hermandad,  a 
company  of  police  soldiers,  appointed  by  the  Council  of  Castile  to  guard  the 
safety  of  the  public  highways,  persecuted  relentlessly  whoever  had  been 
marked  by  the  inquisitorial  tribunal.  Nobody  dared  to  oppose  the  arrest 
of  an  accused.  He  was  considered  proscribed ;  his  own  relatives  and 
friends  forsook  him ;  he  found  no  place  of  refuge ;  no  public  services  he 
might  have  rendered,  no  rank,  however  exalted,  could  protect  him ;  no 
testimony  of  his  innocence  from  friends  or  relatives  was  admitted ;  the 
unfortunate  victim  was  doomed  even  before  the  commencement  of  the 
trial.  Stripped  of  everything  valuable  about  his  person,  the  helpless 
wretch  was  thrown  into  prison.  The  horrible  prisons  of  the  Inquisition 
consisted  of  subterranean  vaulted  passages,  about  ten  feet  high,  and 
branching  off  into  numerous  small  cells,  surrounded  with  walls  about  five 
(eet  in  thickness,  and  entirely  without  light.  Any  word  uttered  by  the 
captive,  except  in  reply  to  a  question,  was  punished  with  merciless  scourging. 
At  his  trial  he  did  not  learn  who  witnessed  against  him ;  no  proof  of 
their  testimony  was  asked  of  the  witnesses;  their  uprightness  and 
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maroRY  and  ethnology.  H3 

▼eracity  were  not  questioned.  The  accuser  himself,  as  well  as  the 
relations  of  the  accused,  were  admitted  as  witnesses,  provided  they  would 
testify  against  the  prisoner. 

If,  at  the  close  of  such  proceedings,  the  accused  did  not  confess  the  crime 
imputed  to  him,  the  torture  was  applied.  Of  this  there  were  three  degrees : 
the  cord  and  pulley,  water,  and  fire.  The  apartment  in  which  the  penal- 
ties were  inflicted  was  called  the  torture  chamber.  It  was  a  circular 
room,  in  a  deep  cellar.  Two  dim  tapers  cast  a  pale,  sickly  light.  The 
atmosphere  was  humid,  oppressive,  and  burdened  with  a  noisome  odor. 
Water  oozed  through  the  soft  stone  of  the  walls,  on  which  were  suspended 
the  unsightly  instruments  of  torture,  the  diabolical  inventions  of  bigoted 
monks,  at  whose  very  aspect  the  stoutest  heart  quailed  in  terror.  Scaffold- 
ing for  various  purposes  was  in  readiness ;  iron  bolts,  chains,  screws, 
and  spikes  of  frightful  length,  were  strewed  about  the  place ;  and  the  blaze 
of  a  huge  pan  of  glowing  coals  threw  a  hideous  glare  over  the  whole. 

The  executioners  were  dressed  in  black  linen  gowns,  which  reached 
nearly  to  the  feet,  and  wore  masks  of  the  same  color.  The  inquisitors, 
with  a  bishop  of  the  diocese,  occupied  an  elevated  position,  so  as  to  observe 
the  application  of  the  torture.  At  a  sign  from  the  Grand  Inquisitor,  the 
familiars  seized  and  stripped  the  convict,  leaving  him  only  his  shirt.  He 
was  then  once  more  advised  to  confess.  If  he  persisted  in  affirming  his 
innocence,  or  if  he  maintained  silence,  he  then  underwent  the  torture  of  the 
first  degree.  The  tormentors,  after  placing  his  hands  behind  his  back, 
attached  to  them  a  cord  which  passed  over  a  pulley  at  the  top  of  the  arch  ; 
then  seizing  the  other  end,  they  swung  him  rapidly  to  the  ceiling,  and  then 
made  him  descend  forcibly  to  within  a  small  distance  from  the  ground.  By 
this  agonizing  process  the  victim  frequently  lost  his  consciousness.  His 
persecutors  hardly  waited  till  he  had  had  time  to  revive.  As  soon  as  he 
opened  his  eyes,  up  he  went  again  with  greater  violence,  if  possible, 
than  before,  and  was  either  dropped  in  the  same  manner,  or  left 
suspended  while  he  was  once  more  exhorted  to  confess.  At  Rome  this 
torture  was  carried  on  for  half  an  hour,  and  in  Spain  for  even  a  full  hour. 
It  often  happened  that  the  cord  pressed  deep  into  the  quivering  flesh,  so  that 
the  blood  streamed  down,  and  the  prisoner's  limbs  and  muscles  were  so 
wrenched  as  to  make  it  impossible  for  him  to  stand. 

Next  came  the  second  degree,  or  the  water  torture.  The  apparatus  for 
this  operation  consisted  of  a  large  trough,  capable  of  holding  a  man's 
body.  It  was  so  arranged  that  the  head  lay  lower  than  the  feet.  The 
prisoner  was  fixed  in  his  position,  being  merely  supported  by  a  sharp-edged 
stave,  the  torturers  binding  his  hand  and  feet  firmly  to  the  frame.  He  was 
then  again  admonished  to  confess  his  guilt.  If  he  steadfastly  asserted  his 
innocence,  a  few  turns  of  a  crank  would  so  tighten  the  ropes  fastening  his 
feet  and  hands,  that  they  cut  deep  into  the  flesh,  and  drew  streams  of  blood. 
Upon  his  continued  refusal  to  confess,  the  torturers  laid  upon  his  face  a 
fine  towel,  part  of  which  covered  the  mouth,  and  part  entered  the  nostrils ; 
the  whole  was  then  moistened  with  water,  which  passed  slowly,  drop  by 
drop,  into  the  mouth  and  nose.    As  the  fluid  trickled  into  the  throat, 

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114  HBTOBT  AND  ETHNOLOGY; 

nearly  suflfoeating  the  (Misoner,  he  made  spasmodic  efforts  to  expel  it  and 
inhale  a  little  fresh  air ;  and  every  exertion  of  this  kind  was  certain  to  be 
accompanied  by  new  turns  of  the  crank,  driving  the  cords  deeper  into  the 
flesh.  The  water  torture  continued  about  an  hour.  If  the  patient  mani- 
fested  any  signs  of  torpor  or  insensibility,  agencies  were  employed  to 
restore  consciousness.  Whenever  the  physician,  who  always  attended  the 
torture,  suggested  the  impossibility  of  further  endurance,  the  punishment 
terminated.  Sometimes  the  nose  was  closed,  and  water  poured  down  the 
throat  through  a  funnel. 

The  third  degree  was  the  fire  torture,  which  was  af^lied  in  different 
ways.  The  most  common  application  was  the  following  :  the  accused  was 
bound  to  a  bench  or  to  the  floor,  and  in  such  a  position  that  his  bare  feet 
could  extend  to  a  little  furnace  of  red  hot  coals.  The  feet  were  held  so 
near  the  fire  as  to  feel  its  gradually  blistering  eflfects.  Here  they  remained 
until  the  skin  was  as  white  as  parchment,  when  they  were  basted  and  rubbed 
with  oil.  The  power  of  the  fire,  increased  by  the  grease,  grew  so  great  as 
to  peel  ofi*  the  skin,  and  expose  the  nerves,  veins,  and  muscles.  Another 
contrivance  was  to  bind  the  victim  upon  the  circumference  of  a  lai^ 
wheel,  which  was  slowly  turned  over  the  fire,  bringing  his  body  in  close 
proximity  with  the  coals.  It  was  in  vain  to  look  for  a  cessation  of 
tortures.  They  were  frequently  repeated,  and  every  time  combined  with 
some  new  element  of  cruelty.  If  the  poor  captive,  amid  intolerable 
agonies,  confessed  to  the  charges  made  against  him,  he  was  consigned  to 
the  galleys  or  perpetual  imprisonment,  his  property  was  confiscated,  and  his 
family  proscribed. 

Burning  at  the  stake  constituted  the  usual  punishment  of  such  as  con* 
tinned  to  refuse  confession.  The  day  on  which  the  execution  took  place 
was  considered  as  solemn  and  holy.  Vast  multitudes  assembled  to  witness 
the  mournful  spectacle.  The  charcoal-bearers,  armed  with  muskets  and 
lances,  headed  the  procession,  and  for  this  distinguished  honor  they  bound 
themselves  to  supply,  at  their  own  expense,  the  necessary  fuel  for  burning 
the  condemned.  Next  followed  the  great  white  cross,  being  the  banner  of 
the  **  Children  of  Dominions  de  Guzman,"  and  borne  by  a  friar  of  the  order. 
The  banner  was  followed  by  its  order  in  a  body.  After  them  came  the 
persons  of  rank  and  the  public  assistants  of  the  Inquisition,  who  in  turn 
were  succeeded  by  the  condemned.  Foremost  among  those  unhappy 
wretches  walked  such  as  expected  what  the  tribunal  styled  an  easy  punish- 
ment. They  wore  the  San  Benito,  a  brown  linen  dress,  on  the  breast  of 
which  was  wrought  a  large  yellow  cross  of  St.  Andrew.  Their  heads  and 
feet  were  uncovered.  Next  came  those  who  were  destined  for  the  galleys, 
perpetual  imprisonment,  or  public  flogging.  The  third  class  comprised 
those  who  expected  martyrdom,  and  who,  in  reward  of  a  late  confession, 
had  obtained  the  privilege  of  being  strangled  before  they  were  burnt. 
Upon  their  San  Benito  were  painted  inverted  devils  and  flames,  and  their 
heads  were  disfigured  by  the  Coraza,  or  conical  cap,  about  three  feet  high, 
and  also  painted.  Last  came  the  victims  destined  to  be  burnt  alive.  They, 
too,  had  on  the  Coraza,  and  bore  upon  their  San  Benito  devils  and  flames  in 
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HBTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  115 

an  apright  position  ;  they  carried  in  the  hand  a  yellow  wax  taper.  Each 
convict  was  attended  by  two  familiars  and  two  monks,  who  not  unfire* 
quently  had  to  carry  their  victim,  who,  by  the  foregoing  torture,  had  been 
rendered  incapaUe  of  walking.  Behind  these  walked  a  number  of  carriers 
loaded  with  boxes,  which  contained  the  remains  of  such  as  had  expired  at 
the  rack,  or  died  in  their  cells ;  not  even  these  were  allowed  to  enjoy  the 
repose  of  the  grave :  their  remains  and  their  efiigies  were  publicly  burnt. 

Along  the  sides  of  the  place  of  execution  arose  an  immense  amphitheatre, 
designed  to  accommodate  the  members  of  the  supreme  court  and  other 
public  officers.  Above  them  was  the  seat  of  the  Grand  Inquisitor. 
Opposite  appeared  another  amphitheatre  for  the  prisoners.  A  third  and 
smaller  one  supported  cages  in  which  the  convicts  were  placed  while  their 
verdict  was  read  to  them.  At  the  foot  of  the  first  tribune  stood  an  altav^ 
and  opposite  to  it  a  large  cross,  shrouded  with  black  crape.  Galleries  for 
ambassadors  and  other  distinguished  political  functionaries,  and  seats  for 
the  common  people,  completed  the  remaining  accommodations.  As  the 
auto  da  i%  took  place  in  front  of  the  royal  palace,  the  king,  whenever  he 
attended  the  execution,  witnessed  it  from  his  own  balcony. 

The  stakes  were  erected  on  a  foundation  of  stone  in  the  middle  of  the 
place.  They  were  surrounded  by  fagots  of  straw  and  wood,  saturated 
with  pitch  or  oil ;  every  victim  had  a  separate  stake.  The  proceedings  began 
with  a  solemn  mass.  After  this,  the  Grand  Inquisitor  addressed  the  king, 
demanding  of  him  the  oath  to  guard  and  defend  the  faith,  to  be  zealous  in 
extirpating  heresy,  and  promoting  the  glory  of  the  Inquisition.  He  also 
administered  a  similar  oath  to  the  rest  of  the  assemblage ;  and  afterwards 
followed  a  sermon  by  one  of  the  Dominicans.  The  verdict  was  then 
pronounced,  during  which  ceremony  the  Jews  had  spikes  driven  through 
one  hand.  Absolution  was  then  granted  to  those  who  had  early  confessed, 
and  then  began  the  executions.     . 

Each  martyr  knelt  before  the  stake  at  which  he  was  to  be  immolated, 
and  during  the  operation  of  chaining  fast  his  limbs  and  body,  the  monks 
were  industriously  urging  him  to  confession.  As  the  fire  grew  stronger, 
the  flames  enveloped  him  in  their  folds,  and  the  dense  smoke  shut  him  and 
his  writhings  from  the  gaze  of  the  spectators.  His  heart-rending  cries 
were  the  only  evidence  of  his  agonies,  and  these  soon  grew  faint  and 
silent. 

In  lieu  of  the  stake  and  pile,  the  inquisitors  sometimes  made  use  of  a 
large  furnace,  into  which  several  heretics  might  be  thrown  and  burnt  at 
once.  Another  apparatus  consisted  of  hollow  statues  of  plaster,  capable  of 
holding  a  human  body.  Neo-Christians,  when  they  relapsed  into  their 
former  belief,  were  placed  inside  of  these  statues,  which  were  then  exposed 
to  a  gradually  increasing  heat,  killing  the  victims  slowly. 

Our  plates  represent  sotne  of  the  most  important  objects  in  the  foregoing 
description.  PL  SO,  fig.  1,  the  tribunal  in  session.  In  the  extreme  back- 
ground sits  the  Grand  Inquisitor.  Before  him  stands  the  accused,  around 
whom  are  placed  a  series  of  tables,  occupied  by  the  secretaries  and  other 
assistants.     The  figures  in  the  background,  with  black  hoods  over  their 

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116  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

faces,  are  executioners ;  those  on  the  right  hand  side  of  the  foreground  are 
spectators.  To  the  left  of  the  criminal  may  be  seen  a  contrivance  of 
cruelty,  worthy  the  inventive  genius  of  the  Inquisition.  An  accused  was 
not  allowed  to  sit  down  on  a  common  bench,  but  only  on  the  sharp  edge 
of  a  triangular  bar,  supported  by  two  cross-shaped  feel.  This  seat  was 
named  potro.  The  prisoner  who  refused  to  confess  to  the  crimes  laid  to 
his  charge  was  forced  to  sit  or  kneel,  often  for  two  or  three  hours,  upon  the 
potro,  a  torture  which  was  applied  in  the  very  chamber  of  justice.  In 
pi  SI,  fig,  1,  we  have  the  cord  and  pulley  ordeal ;  fig.  2,  the  water  torture ; 
fig,  3,  one  form  of  fire  torture ;  pi.  30,  fig.  5,  fire  torture  by  the  wheel ; 
pi.  Sly  fig.  4,  auto  da  fö  in  Spain  ;  pi.  SO,  fig.  2,  the  punishment  of  flogging; 
fig.  S,  neo-Christians  nailed  through  the  hand  and  exposed  in  the  pillory. 
This  punishment  was  inflicted  upon  such  as  relapsed  into  Judaism,  and  the 
inquisitors  termed  it  retaliation  for  the  crucifixion  of  Christ.  FH.g.  4,  the 
process  of  strangling  before  burning ;  fig.  6,  burning  of  heretics  in  the 
furnace,  at  Seville. 

From  an  examination  of  this  whole  subject,  it  is  easy  to  see  how  the 
priesthood  of  the  middle  ages  exerted  so  unlimited  a  control  over  the 
fortunes  of  mankind.  They  even  ventured  to  punish  kings  and  princes. 
Thus  we  see,  in  the  commencement  of  the  thirteenth  century,  French  kings 
publicly  endure  the  corrections  of  the  church,  as  for  instance,  scourging 
(pi.  23,  fig.  4),  and  Henry  IV.  do  penance,  barefoot  and  in  penitential 
garments,  before  Gregory  VII.  at  Canossa ;  every  new  triumph  over  the 
secular  authorities  leading  to  new  and  grosser  abuses  of  clerical  power, 
already  sufiiciently  degraded  by  the  freest  indulgence  in  the  lowest  passions, 
avarice  and  voluptuousness. 

The  Inquisition  had  full  sway  until  the  eighteenth  century,  when  its 
horrors  were  gradually  diminished,  and  the  dreadful  auto  da  fö  was  very 
rarely  seen.  In  1770  a  royal  decree  prohibited  the  arrest  of  any  subject 
before  the  full  establishment  of  the  accusation ;  and  in  1784  another  law 
was  passed,  making  it  obligatory  on  the  inquisitors  to  submit  to  the  king 
for  his  approval  the  proceedings  against  every  noble,  minister,  oflScer,  or 
person  employed  by  the  state.  The  holy  office  was  first  peremptorily 
abolished  by  Napoleon  in  1808.  Ferdinand  VII.,  after  his  return  to  Spain, 
reinstated  it ;  but  it  was  effectually  abolished  by  the  constitution  of  the 
Cortes,  in  1820. 


The  Crusades. 

The  crusades,  as  has  been  previously  stated,  were  expeditions  which 
many,  nay,  all  Christian  nations,  undertook  in  common ;  uniting  upon  one 
object,  that  of  guarding  the'  pilgrims  to  the  Holy  Land  against  the  attacks 
of  the  Saracens  and  other  savage  hordes,  and  of  wresting  from  the  hands 
of  these  heathenish  people  the  dominion  over  the  land  where  Christ  had  lived 
and  died.     Religious,  not  political  motives,  actuated  the  crusading  hosts. 

Pilgrimages  to  spots  whose  memory  was  hallowed  by  religious  associations 
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HISTORY  AND  BraNOLOQY.  117 

• 

had  always  been  considered  as  works  of  piety,  even  among  heathens.  The 
same  feeling  prompted  the  Christians,  long  before  the  eleventh  century,  to 
perform  wearisome  and  costly  pilgrimages  to  Jerusalem  and  the  Holy  Land« 
where  Jesus  was  born,  crucified,  and  buried.  The  scenes  around  them 
awakened  in  their  minds  the  holiest  recollections,  and  stimulated  them  to  a 
loftier  faith  and  hope,  so  that  the  pious  pilgrim  often  imagined  himself 
nearer  heaven  in  Palestine  than  in  his  native  land.  These  pilgrimages, 
however,  were  attended  with  considerable  difliculty  and  danger,  for  the 
Saracens,  who  hated  the  Christians,  not  only  desecrated  the  spots  con- 
sidered sacred  by  the  followers  of  Christ,  but  did  all  in  their  power  to 
prevent  them  from  visiting  those  places.  They  waylaid  and  plundered  the 
pilgrims,  imprisoning  some  and  slaughtering  many  who  fell  into  their 
hands. 

Pope  Sylvester  II.,  as  well  as  Gregory  VII.,  appealed  to  Christendom  at 
large  against  these  atrocities.  They  formed  the  project  of  recovering  the 
Holy  Land  from  the  infidels.  The  suggestion,  as  it  looked  to  the  aggran- 
dizement of  the  Church,  met  with  a  favorable  reception  from  the  clergy. 
Many  hoped  thereby  to  obtain  bishoprics  or  patriarchates.  The  knights 
were  dazzled  with  prospects  of  glory  and  renown ;  ambitious  squires  exulted 
in  the  hope  of  early  knighthood ;  merchants  longed  for  the  wealth  which 
the  enterprise  would  give  them ;  bondsmen  and  serfs  anticipated  a 
speedy  and  permanent  emancipation ;  bankrupts  descried  the  means  of 
defrauding  their  creditors  ;  while  gamblers  and  vagabonds  of  all  descriptions 
regarded  the  coming  strife  as  a  bright  era  for  their  several  professions.  In 
spite  of  so  many  elements  joining  in  the  movement,  from  more  or  less 
selfish  motives,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  purest  religious  zeal  actuated 
the  majority.  Some  wished  to  leave  the  scenes  of  war  and  strife  in  the 
west  for  a  nobler  career ;  others  believed  that  they  would  thereby  expiate 
previous  sins  ;  and  the  whole  undertaking  was  considered  by  the  pious  as  a 
work  pleasant  to  Heaven,  and  therefore  in  itself  a  virtue. 

Under  Pope  Urban  II.  the  crusades  first  began  to  play  an  active  pai-t. 
He  issued  a  summons  to  all  Christian  people  to  contribute  towards 
recovering  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  and  the  Holy  Land  altogether,  from  the 
hands  of  the  infidels.  A  visionary  hermit  of  Picardy,  Peter  of  Amiens, 
had  induced  Urban  II.  to  carry  this  grand  plan  into  execution.  He  had 
visited  the  Holy  Land,  and  had  witnessed  in  sorrow  the  wrongs  and 
indignities  to  which  the  Saracens  subjected  the  pilgrims.  These  enormities 
he  depicted  to  the  supreme  pontiflT  in  glowing  language,  exhibiting  a 
certificate  from  the  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  and  closing  by  asserting  a  call 
from  Heaven  to  avenge  the  wrongs  of  the  Christians.  Urban  saw  in  Peter 
an  appropriate  agent  in  arousing  to  fury  an  indignant  populace.  He 
dismissed  him  with  the  apostolic  blessing,  and  bespoke  for  him  every 
necessary  aid  and  encouragement.  Peter  set  out  upon  his  mission 
Mounted  upon  an  ass,  his  head  uncovered,  his  half-famished  bodj 
encircled  by  a  rope,  and  holding  a  crucifix  in  his  hand,  he  rode  from  village 
to  village,  and  from  country  to  country,  calling  upon  the  faithful  to  rally  to 
the  rescue  of  Jerusalem.  He  painted  in  the  most  dismal  colors  the 
lOoiroeKAPHio  xNoroLOPiEDLLr— vol.  ul        19  289 


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118  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

intolerable  sufferings  of  the  pilgrims;  and  in  the  most  fiery  language 
harangued  his  audiences,  urging  them  on  to  revenge  against  the  Saracens. 
As  a  final  argument  he  usually  produced  a  written  document,  which  he 
alleged  he  had  seen  falling  from  the  skies,  and  which  urged  the  firiends  of 
the  Church  to  immediate  action.  These  inflammatory  appeals  were  not 
made  in  vain.  They  quickened  the  zeal  of  his  audiences,  and  rendered 
more  rancorous  than  ever  their  hatred  of  the  Mahometans. 

In  the  meantime  Urban  was  aiding  the  work  by  other  agencies.  He 
assembled  a  church  council  at  Piacenza.  Thirty  thousand  persons  attended 
it.  The  excitement  was  immense,  but  no  definitive  action  was  had. 
During  the  next  year  (1095)  another  council  was  called  at  Clermont,  in 
France.  Here  large  bodies  of  the  nobility  offered  themselves  to  the  pope. 
Uiban  elected  a  chief,  whom  he  ordered  to  kneel  down  while  he  invested  him 
with  the  red  cross  upon  the  right  shoulder.  The  rest  of  the  knights  were 
decorated  with  the  same  sign,  whence  their  appellation  of  Knights  of  the 
Cross.  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  duke  of  Lorraine,  took  the  command.  Every 
earthly  object  was  sacrificed  for  a  place  in  the  army.  When  men  had  no 
money  they  sold  their  lands  and  castles  to  the  cloisters  for  a  mere  trifle ; 
and  when  they  had  nothing  to  sell,  they  entered  the  service  of  the  knights. 

The  commander  fixed  upon  the  month  of  August,  1096,  for  the  com- 
mencement of  the  march.  The  impetuous  Peter  of  Amiens,  however, 
impatient  of  the  slightest  delay,  at  once  set  forward  with  40,000  men, 
whose  ranks  soon  swelled  to  80,000.  Peter  divided  his  command  with 
Gautiers,  or  Walter,  a  Burgundian  knight,  who  being  poor,  bore  the  name 
of  Walter  the  Pennyless.  The  wild  multitudes  consisted  mostly  of  natives 
of  France,  Lorraine,  and  Lombardy,  though  in  their  march  they  absorbed 
vast  numbers  in  South  Germany,  Hungary,  and  Bulgaria.  They  felt 
at  liberty  to  tax  freely  the  inhabitants  of  those  countries  through  which 
they  passed ;  and  when  their  exactions  were  resisted,  as  in  Hungary,  where 
the  inhabitants  were  less  ready  to  support  the  disorderly  multitude,  they 
had  recourse  to  violence,  and  thousands  were  killed  in  the  conflicts  which 
ensued,  so  that  on  his  arrival  at  Constantinople,  Peter  had  scarcely 
one  fourth  of  his  forces  remaining. 

The  Germans  had  thus  far  stood  aloof  from  the  crusades,  but  were  at 
length  induced  to  join  with  the  Italians  and  French.  To  quicken  the 
hesitating,  numerous  prodigies  and  omens  were  at  hand.  A  comet 
appeared,  and  marvellous  sights  were  seen  in  the  sky ;  and,  as  usual,  the 
clergy  availed  themselves  of  these  phenomena  to  inflame  and  impel  the 
superstitious  masses.  A  report  prevailed  that  Charlemagne  had  risen  from 
the  dead,  and  was  commanding  the  crusaders  in  person.  The  Saxon 
Volkmarr  marshalled  12,000  of  his  countrymen  ;  the  priest  Gottshalk  raised 
a  considerable  force  in  Franconia;  and  Count  Emico,  of  Leiningen,  collected 
another  on  the  Rhine.  Prior  to  their  departure  for  Constantinople,  they 
began  a  furious  and  unprovoked  persecution  of  the  Jews,  great  multitudes 
of  whom  fell  in  the  districts  of  the  Rhine.  Gottshalk  and  his  fanatics, 
however,  met  a  cruel  fate  at  the  hands  of  the  Hungarians,  not  more  than 
one  third  of  the  Franconian  crusaders  being  so  fortunate  as  to  reach 
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fflSTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  119 

Greece.  The  Greek  emperor  rid  himself  of  their  presence  as  soon  as 
possible,  by  promoting  their  speedy  transhipment  to  Asia.  As  soon  as  they 
entered  Natolia  they  resumed  their  course  of  rapine  and  murder.  Discord 
broke  out  in  their  ranks,  and  this  circumstance  was  turned  to  account  by 
Soliman,  sultan  of  Iconium,  who  routed  the  crusaders  so  effectually  at  the 
battle  of  Nicsea,  that  Peter,  with  only  about  3000  surviving  comrades, 
embarked  and  sailed  back  to  Constantinople. 

After  the  loss  of  so  many  lives,  the  main  body  of  the  crusaders  was  seen 
to  approach.  They  amounted  to  100,000  steel-clad  knights  and  200,000 
stalwart  foot,  led  by  the  noble  duke  of  Lorraine,  Godfrey  de  Bouillon, 
aided  by  Hugh  the  Great,  count  of  Vermandois  (brother  to  the  king  of 
France),  Robert,  duke  of  Normandy  (son  of  William  the  Conqueror), 
Robert,  earl  of  Flanders,  Raymond  of  Toulouse,  Stephen,  earl  of 
Chartres,  the  brave  Bohemund,  prince  of  Tarent,  Robert  Guiscard'^  son, 
and  his  heroic  relative,  Tancred.  Immediately  after  passing  the  Bosphorus, 
Godfrey  besieged  and  captured  Nicaea,  June  20th,  1097.  A  second  victory 
at  Dorilseum  opened  to  him  the  way  to  Syria.  The  army  now  encamped 
at  Antiochia,  while  Godfrey's  brother,  Baldwin,  erected  a  principality  in 
Odessa,  and  extended  his  sceptre  over  some  of  the  finest  provinces  of 
Mesopotamia  and  Armenia.  Antiochia,  after  a  vigorous  resistance, 
submitted ;  but  the  crusaders  soon  found  themselves  completely  surrounded 
by  their  enemies,  who  cut  off  all  supplies  from  the  conquered  city,  so  that 
the  impending  famine  was  only  escaped  by  a  bold  sally.  They  now  turned 
towards  the  real  object  of  the  expedition,  the  holy  city  of  Jerusalem.  Their 
progress  was,  however,  fearfully  opposed  by  the  Turks,  who  at  first  had 
stood  aghast  at  the  appearance  of  men  clad  in  glittering  steel,  but  by 
experience  had  become  used  to  the  formidable  armor,  and  had  learned 
how  to  attack  them  to  advantage.  They  waylaid  them  in  the  mountains, 
and  being  quite  familiar  with  the  ground,  selected  the  most  difficult 
passages,  and  assailed  their  adversaries  with  no  small  success ;  they  also 
cut  off  their  supplies,  and  destroyed  the  crops  in  the  fields  by  fire.  The 
crusaders  soon  found  themselves  surrounded  by  dangers  which  they  had 
never  anticipated.  They  had  to  endure  not  only  the  calamities  of  the  field, 
but  the  effects  of  the  climate ;  and  thousands  of  women  and  children  sank 
disheartened  on  the  ground,  and  died.  Not  more  than  60,000  men,  and 
these  careworn  and  weary,  reached  Jerusalem.  They  kept  up  a  desperate 
siege  upon  the  city  from  the  7th  of  June  till  the  15th  of  July,  when  they 
finally  carried  the  place  by  storm. 

The  caliph  of  Egypt  had  united  the  city  to  his  dominions  a  few  years 
before,  and  now  sought  to  recover  it  from  the  Christians ;  but  he  was 
defeated  in  the  battle  of  Ascalon,  and  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  was  crowned 
king  of  the  new  Christian  kingdom.  But  he  died  in  the  following  year 
(1100),  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Baldwin  I.  Then  followed  his 
relative,  Baldwin  II.,  in  1118;  and  finally,  in  1142,  the  son  of  the  latter, 
Baldwin  III.  These  three  princes  maintained,  with  various  fortunes,  a 
constant  war  with  the  Saracens ;  and  as  their  whole  force  finally 
dwindled  down  to   12,000  men,  they  would  probably  have   abandoned 

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120  fflSTORY  4lND  ETHNOLOGY. 

the  contest  but  for  the  aid  they  received  from  the  clerical  orders 
of  knights  then  growing  into  importance,  and  from  new  arrivals  of 
crusaders. 

In  1147  a  new  crusade,  composed  entirely  of  Germans,  marched  under 
Conrad  III.,  and  was  strengthened  by  other  accessions  under  Louis  VII. 
of  France.  Reports  had  reached  Europe  that  Odessa  was  lost,  and  46,000 
inhabitants  put  to  death ;  and  Bernard,  abbot  of  Clairvaux,  engaged  in  the 
work  of  arousing  the  powers  of  the  west  to  a  renewed  effort  in  behalf  of 
the  suffering  Christians  in  the  East.  Conrad  advanced  with  his  gallant 
followers,  but  the  Greek  emperor,  Emanuel  Comnenus,  who  had  several 
times  behaved  perfidiously  towards  the  Christians,  prepared  their  ruin  by 
treachery  and  intrigue.  When  they  had  crossed  to  Asia,  he  caused  them 
to  be  led  by  false  guides  into  barren  wilds,  where  they  were  aban- 
doned and  left  to  perish,  partly  by  the  terrors  of  the  desert  and  partly  by 
the  sword  of  the  enemy.  Conrad  commenced  his  retreat  upon  Constanti- 
nople with  but  few  of  his  men.  On  the  way  he  fell  in  with  the  French 
crusaders  under  Louis.  They,  too,  had  to  endure  the  same  calamities  as 
his  own  forces.  The  relics  of  both  armies  now  combined  in  the  siege  of 
Damascus,  but  discord  and  want  of  unity  in  the  command  preveiited 
a  successful  issue.  The  siege  had  to  be  raised,  and  in  1 149  the  French 
and  Germans,  under  their  respective  kings,  returned  to  Europe,  leaving 
their  project  of  subjugating  the  East  unaccomplished. 

Notwithstanding  these  failures,  the  brave  Baldwin  III.  did  not  despair. 
He  occasionally  received  assistance  from  the  Knights  of  St.  John  and  the 
Templars,  but  their  own  dissensions  finally  deprived  him  of  the  assistance 
which  he  so  greatly  needed.  In  the  midst  of  severe  trials,  he  died  in  1150. 
Almeric  succeeded  him  until  1152,  when  Baldwin  IV.  obtained  the  throne : 
both  kept  up  a  continual  contest  with  the  Saracens.  Baldwin's  successor, 
Baldwin  V.,  accomplished  nothing  of  importance,  and  was  followed  by 
Guido  of  Lusignon,  w^ho  closed  the  dynasty  of  the  Christian  kings  of 
Jerusalem.  Guido  suffered  a  terrible  defeat  at  the  battle  of  Tiberias,  in 
1187,  and  with  the  Grand  Master  of  the  Templars,  and  the  flower  of 
his  army,  was  taken  prisoner.  The  Saracenic  governor  of  Egypt»  Sultan 
Saladin  (Selaheddin  of  Kurdistan),  not  satisfied  with  the  victory,  advanced 
to  the  city  of  Jerusalem,  and  captured  it,  October  3d,  1187.  This  sultan, 
a  son  of  Ejub,  and  commonly  known  by  the  surname.  Lion  of  Kurdistan, 
is  one  of  the  noblest  and  most  splendid  characters  in  Oriental  history. 
Nothing  so  much  adorns  his  reputation  as  his  general  clemency  to  the 
Christians,  most  of  whom  he  liberated  from  confinement,  and  then  facilitated 
their  return  to  Europe. 

When  the  news  of  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  spread  through  Europe,  it  served 
as  a  signal  for  the  organization  of  a  third  crusade.  In  Germany  the  aged 
Frederic  I.  devoted  the  resources  of  his  empire  to  the  cause  ;  and  the  kings 
of  France  and  England,  Philip  Augustus  and  Henry  II.,  placed  themselves 
at  the  head  of  the  army.  Henry  died  before  accomplishing  his  vow,  and 
his  son,  Richard  the  Lion-hearted,  succeeded  him  in  command.  The 
venerable  Frederic,  too,  died  before  reaching  the  Holy  Land.  The  remam- 
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HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.  121 

ing  leaders  accomplished  but  little,  their  efforts  being  thwarted  by  unhappy 
dissensions,  which  were  mainly  caused  by  the  imperiousness  of  the  proud 
Richard.  They  conquered,  with  great  difficulty,  only  Ptolemais  and  St. 
Jean  d'Acre,  and  maintained  themselves  on  a  small  territory  on  the  coast. 
Disheartened  at  the  failure,  Philip  Augustus  returned  to  Europe.  Richard 
remained,  but  though  he  signalized  himself  in  his  engagements  with  Saladin 
by  astonishing  personal  bravery,  he  met  with  but  Uttle  success,  and  unable 
to  recover  Jerusalem,  concluded  a  truce  with  the  Sultan,  in  1192.  Saladin 
died  the  following  year,  at  Damascus,  and  Richard,  in  1199,  in  France. 

During  the  reign  of  Almeric  U^  a  fourth  crusade  was  projected  under 
the  supervision  of  French  and  Italian  leaders.  It  was,  however,  turned 
into  a  different  channel  by  events  at  Constantinople.  The  Greek  emperor, 
Isaac,  was  deposed  by  his  brother  Alexius  III.,  and  afterwards  imprisoned 
and  depriyed  of  sight,  in  1195.  His  son,  having  escaped  assassination, 
besought  the  protection  of  the  crusaders.  Commanded  by  the  brave  and 
sagacious  doge,  Dandolo  of  Venice,  Margrave  Boniface  of  Montferrat, 
and  Count  Baldwin  of  Flanders,  the  crusaders  gave  up  the  war  with  the 
infidels,  advanced  against  Constantinople,  and  carried  the  place  by  storm, 
in  1204.  After  several  counter-plots  and  revolutions.  Count  Baldwin  of 
Flanders  was  crowned  Greek  emperor.  Thus  originated  the  Latin  dynasty 
in  the  East.     It  existed  fifty-seven  years,  1204-61. 

The  crusade  of  1212  deserves  a  passing  notice.  It  was  composed  of 
children,  20,000  from  Germany,  and  30,000  from  France.  It  was  believed 
that  the  infidels  would  not  be  able  to  resist  such  numbers  of  innocent 
beings.  But  most  of  these  juvenile  warriors  perished  with  hunger  and 
fatigue,  while  the  rest  were  captured  by  slave  traders,  and  sold  into 
Egyptian  slavery. 

Andreas,  king  of  Hungary,  instituted  still  another  crusade,  in  1217,  and 
now  directed  his  hostilities  against  Egypt,  the  land  which  had  hitherto  been 
the  cause  of  so  many  losses  and  misfortunes  to  the  Christians,  and  which, 
when  conquered,  would  open  a  passage  to  the  Holy  Land.  King  John, 
also,  fitted  out  a  similar  expedition,  and  in  1221  captured  Damietta.  Sultan 
Meleddin  offered  to  exchange  Jerusalem  for  Damietta  ;  but  the  Hungarians 
rejected  the  proposal,  and  advanced  to  the  siege  of  Cairo  just  at  the  time 
when  the  annual  inundation  of  the  Nile  came  on.  The  sultan  opened 
upon  them  its  sluices,  and  the  floods  rose  upon  them,  threatening  the 
complete  annihilation  of  the  Christian  army.  Nothing  but  a  hasty  peace 
saved  them.  Damietta  was  to  be  evacuated,  and  a  truce  of  eight  years 
was  to  be  observed.  The  sultan  magnanimously  returned  the  Holy  Cross 
which  had  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Turks  since  the  battle  of  Tiberias 
in  1187. 

While  Germany  was  suffering  from  rude  violence  and  lawlessness, 
France  was  moving  on  to  glory  and  refinement  under  the  mild  reign  of  the 
fatherly  Louis  IX.  {pi  23,  fig.  3,  St.  Louis  administering  justice  in  the 
open  air).  This  monarch,  during  a  severe  fit  of  sickness,  had  made  a 
solemn  vow  to  undertake  a  crusade,  should  God  spare  his  life  and  restore 
him  to  health  ;  and  upon  his  recovery  he  immediately  began  the  prepara- 

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122  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

tions  for  redeeming  his  vow.  He  directed  his  crusade  against  the  sultan 
of  Egypt,  who  still  had  possession  of  Jerusalem  and  Palestine.  Louis 
embarked  in  1248,  with  his  queen,  his  brothers,  and  numerous  French 
nobles.  They  landed  at  Damietta,  which  they  soon  conquered.  Louis 
won  two  other  splendid  victories  over  the  sultan,  but  his  forces  beginning 
to  suffer  under  the  influences  of  the  climate,  he  saw  his  fortunes  rapidly 
declining.  Pestilence  and  famine  prostrated  his  soldiers,  and  compelled 
him  to  withdraw.  Pressed  by  the  pursuing  Mahometans,  he  risked  another 
battle  at  Mansura,  1250 ;  but  though  the  French  behaved  with  admirable 
courage,  fortune  deserted  them,  and  they  were  obliged  to  surrender  them- 
selves prisoners  to  the  sultan.  The  latter  was  so  impressed  by  the  noble 
bearing  of  Louis  that  he  restored  him  and  his  companions  to  freedom,  upon 
their  delivering  up  Damietta,  and  agreeing  to  pay  a  stipulated  ransom 
(1254).  Louis  at  a  later  period  resolved  to  undertake  a  second  crusade, 
but  instead  of  doing  so  he  led  his  expedition  against  Tunis,  in  the  hope  of 
converting  the  sovereign  of  that  state  to  Christianity.  The  hope  was  not 
to  be  realized,  and  Louis  closed  his  career  in  Africa  in  1270. 

After  this  failure  no  crusade  of  any  importance  was  undertaken.  By  the 
fall  of  Ptolemais  (1291)  the  Mahometans  obtained  nearly  all  the  Christian 
possessions  in  Palestine  or  on  the  coast  of  Syria ;  so  that  after  more  than 
two  hundred  years  of  unparalleled  exertion  on  the  part  of  all  Christian 
people,  they  were  still  as  far  from  the  realization  of  their  grand  object  as 
ever. 

But  though  the  movement  resulted  so  disastrously,  its  incidental  conse* 
quences  were  of  the  highest  value.  Intellectual  improvement  and  a  higher 
civilization  were  the  fruit  of  the  beneficial  influence  of  these  vast 
operations.  Before  dismissing  the  subject,  we  call  attention  to  the  scenes 
from  the  crusades  represented  on  our  plates.  PL  S6,  fig,  2,  departure  of  a 
company  of  crusaders  for  Palestine ;  pi.  37,  fig.  1,  battle  between  the 
crusaders  and  Saracens ;  fig.  2,  harangue  to  the  crusaders  before  the  gates 
of  Jerusalem  ;  pL  SS»  fig.  1,  crusaders  returning  to  Europe ;  pi.  29,  fig.  1, 
ground-plan  of  the  church  of  St.  Mary  of  the  Manger.  This  building 
stands  near  a  strong  cloister  of  the  Franciscans,  in  Bethlehem,  and  is  the 
oldest  church  in  Palestine.  A  little  stone  grotto  within  its  walls  is  pointed 
out  as  the  place  where  the  infant  Saviour  was  born.  Fig.  2,  interior  of  the 
same  church,  with  the  entrance  to  the  holy  grotto;  fig.  3,  the  chapel 
containing  the  grotto,  and  constantly  lighted  by  thirty-two  lamps  ;  fig.  4, 
ground-plan  of  the  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem ;  fig.  5,  its 
portico  and  main  entrance ;  fig.  6,  interior  view  of  the  part  under  the 
cupola,  exhibiting  the  chapel  with  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  The  whole  is 
properly  divided  into  four  churches :  that  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre ;  the 
church  of  the  Crucifixion,  lying  to  the  south ;  at  the  eastern  end  the  partly 
subterranean  church  of  the  Recovered  Cross ;  and  lastly,  the  chapel  at  the 
northern  end,  marking  the  spot  where  Mary  Magdalene  first  noticed  the 
fact  of  the  resurrection.  The  light  penetrating  through  the  dome  falls 
directly  in  the  chapel  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  The  entire  diameter  of  the 
chapel  is  about  thirty  feet,  but  after  deducting  the  enormous  thickness  of 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  123 

the  walls,  the  chamber  containing  the  tomb  is  not  more  than  about  seven 
feet  by  six.  Another  small  chamber,  called  the  chapel  of  the  Angel, 
measures  about  ten  feet  square.  The  walls  are  relics  of  the  rock  which 
surrounded  the  grave  of  Christ.  The  walls  of  the  chapel  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre,  especially,  are  of  rough  limestone,  coated  externally  and 
internally  with  marble.     The  interior  is  illumined  by  golden  lamps. 


III.  ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY. 
Plates  IV.     1-42. 

INTRODUCTION. 

As  in  the  selection  of  representations  of  people  of  the  present  day,  regard 
is  had  less  to  historical  relation  than  in  those  referring  to  earlier  ages,  we 
follow  the  same  plan  in  the  explanatory  text,  and  devote  our  attention  less 
to  the  history  than  to  the  character,  and  manners,  and  customs  of  the 
people.  Nevertheless,  before  we  pass  on  to  particular  descriptions  of 
individual  nations,  we  must  be  permitted  (with  a  reference  to  pL  1)  to 
premise  some  remarks  upon  the  fundamental  types  of  the  Human  race. 

Assuming  the  fact  that  all  men  are  the  descendants  of  one  common 
ancestral  pair,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  numerous  stocks  differ  from 
each  other  not  only  in  language  and  habits,  but  also  in  certain  physical 
characteristic  marks,  which  also  pass  by  inheritance  without  change,  frOiSi 
generation  to  generation,  when  not  modified  by  the  intermixture  of  different 
stocks ;  so  that,  however  different  they  may  appear,  they  may  nevertheless 
be  traced  back  to  a  few  types.  Conformably  to  these  types,  therefore, 
naturalists  have  divided  mankind  into  a  greater  or  less  number  of  races, 
according  as  they  assumed  a  greater  or  less  number  of  such  types.  Cuvier 
establishes  but  three  races ;  and  as  we  have  already  spoken  fully  of  them 
under  the  head  of  Anthropology,  we  will  here  recapitulate  only  the  more 
important  points. 

The  Caucasian  race  is  characterized  by  the  beautiful  oval  of  the  head, 
the  ample  and  prominent  forehead,  and  cheek-bones  but  slightly  or  not  at 
all  projecting.  The  ears  are  small  and  isit  closely,  the  teeth  stand  verti- 
cally, the  jaws  are  moderately  strong,  the  chin  is  well  formed.  The  hair 
and  complexion  vary  greatly ;  the  former,  however,  is  generally  long  and 
smooth,  more  rarely  curled. 

The  Mongolian  race  is  characterized  by  a  large  head  elevated  at  the 
crown,  as  also  by  projecting  cheek-bones,  flat  broad  face,  small  and 
obliquely  set  eyes,  imperfectly  opened  eyelids,  flattened  nose  with  wide 
nostrils,  large,  broad  ears,  wide  mouth,  teeth  standing  straight,  almost 
beardless  face,  and  smooth  black  straight  hair.  The  color  of  the  skin  is 
yellowish,  or  olive- brown. 

The  Negro  race,  finally,  has  a  head  laterally  compressed,  with  large 

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HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 


projecting  jaws,  whose  alveolar  margin  slopes  towards  the  front,  by  reason 
of  which  the  teeth  have  an  oblique  direction.  The  forehead  is  small, 
the  cheek-bones  and  arches  of  the  temporal  bones  prominent,  the  lips 
protruding,  nose  flattened,  and  nostrils  wide;  hair  mostly  woolly,  and 
matted  together  like  felt,  sometimes  curled,  or  straight  and  long;  beard 
generally  thin  and  bristly.  Complexion  black  to  yellowish  brown.  Cuvier 
distributes  the  difl!erent  stocks  of  mankind  amongst  these  three  races  in  the 
following  manner : 


^Assyrians. 

Chaldeans. 

Arabians. 

Phoenicians. 

Hebrews. 

Abyssinians. 
^Egyptians? 


Armenians 


Caucasian  Race.< 


Indians. 


fAncient  Per- 
Sanscrit  Stock,    -s      sians. 

(^Hindoos. 

rCelts? 
Pelasgian  Stock.  ^  Greeks. 

(^  Latins. 

TGermans  and 

Dutch. 
^  English. 
Danes  and 
Swedes. 

Russians. 
Poles. 

Bohemians. 
Wendes. 


Gothic  Stock. 


^Slavonic  Stock.  -< 


Mongolian  or 
Altaian  Race. 


< 


Scythians  and 
Tartars. 

'^Calmucs. 
Kalkas-Mongols. 
Mandchus. 
Japanese  and 
Coreans 


fParthians. 
J  Turks. 
I  Finlanders. 
(^Hungarians. 


^Siberians. 


I  Samoyeds. 

<  Laplanders. 

I  Esquimaux. 


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Negro  or  Ethio- 
pian Race, 


ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY,  126 

fCaffres. 
Foulahs. 
Mandingoes. 
Fellatahs. 
Hamburas. 
Madagassees. 
Negroes  of  Cen- 
tral Africa. 
Hottentots. 
Bushmen. 

Cuvier,  on  account  of  their  unmistakable  conformity,  appears  inclined  to 
include  the  American  stocks  in  the  Mongolian  race.  These  stocks  may  be 
reduced  to  the  three  following : 

1.  Columbian  Stock,  Inhabitants  of  the  plains  from  the  river  St.  Law- 
rence to  the  eastern  coast  of  Mexico,  the  Antilles,  Terra  Firma,  Guiana, 
the  district  of  Cumana,  and  the  Canada  Indians,  the  natives  of  Yucatan, 
Honduras,  the  Caribbee  Islands,  &c. 

2.  American  Stock.  Inhabitants  of  the  plains  on  the  Upper  Oronoco,  on 
the  river  Amazon,  of  Brazil,  Paraguay,  and  of  the  interior  portions  of 
Chili. 

3.  Patagonian  Stock,     Natives  of  Patagonia. 

Australia,  to  which  besides  New  Holland,  the  whole  Indian  Archipelago 
or  Polynesia,  and  the  Islands  of  the  South  Sea  or  Oceanica  belong, 
possesses  no  peculiar  human  population;  all  these  races  are  here  asso- 
ciated. To  the  Australian  Caucasians  belong  the  Malays  in  the  Indian 
Archipelago,  the  inhabitants  of  the  Marian,  Caroline,  Friendly,  and  Society 
Islands,  those  of  New  Zealand,  of  the  Pelew,  Sandwich,  Marquesas  Islands, 
&c.  The  Australian  Mongolians  likewise  inhabit  the  Carolines,  the  Nico- 
bars,  and  New  Guinea.  Finally,  to  the  Australian  Negroes  belong  the 
New  Hollanders,  Alfureses,  the  Endamenians  in  New  Guinea,  and  the 
Papuans. 

PL  1  gives  a  view  of  the  Australian  races,  while  upon  the  same  plate 
different  stocks  of  all  three  races  are  represented.  At  fig,  1  we  perceive  a 
Central  European  in  the  costume  of  the  higher  classes,  and  of  the  true 
Gothic  (Teutonic)  stock,  which  manifests  itself  in  its  purity  in  the  blue 
eyes,  light  hair,  white  complexion  faintly  tinged  with  red,  and  tall  stature, 
with  the  dress  fitting,  for  the  most  part,  close  to  the  body. 

Fig.  2.  A  Greek,  in  the  Palian  dress,  belonging  to  the  Pelasgian  stock. 
The  skull  of  the  Greeks,  who  constitute  the  type  of  the  last  named  race,  is 
very  well  developed  ;  the  forehead  rises  in  a  bold  arch ;  and  the  arch  of  the 
anterior  portion  of  the  skull,  when  seen  from  above,  entirely  conceals  the 
face,  so  that  the  facial  angle  is  one  of  almost  90  degrees.  The  face  is 
small,  with  a  rounded  contour ;  and  all  the  parts  are  in  beautiful  harmony 
with  each  other.  The  hair  of  the  Greeks  is  dark  and  smooth ;  the  com- 
plexion white,  more  or  less  tinged  with  olive,  or  dull  brown  ;  the  eyes  are 
large,  overshadowed  by  the  eyebrows,  which  more  resemble  a  cross-line 

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126  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

than  a  true  arch  ;  the  nose  is  straight,  or  nearly  aquiline,  is  continued  in  a 
single  right  line  from  the  forehead  with  only  a  small  depression  between 
the  eyes ;  finally,  the  stature  is  of  middle  size. 

Fig.  3.  A  Turk,  in  the  ancient  national  dress.  The  Turks  have  been 
referred  by  most  authors  to  the  Tartar  stock.  This  has  a  vigorous  and  ath- 
letic form,  somewhat  short  and  crooked  legs,  dark,  olive-colored  complexion ; 
the  upper  part  of  the  face  is  broad  and  flat,  the  eyes  are  small,  deep-sunken, 
and  standing  wide  apart,  the  eyelids  thick  ;  the  nose  is  much  depressed,  and 
the  nostrils  conspicuous;  the  hair  is  long,  straight,  and  black;  the  eye- 
brows are  bushy,  and  the  beard  (especially  upon  the  upper  lip)  is  thick. 
The  Turks  are  undoubtedly  a  hybrid  people  derived  from  the  Tartars  and 
Mongols,  having,  however,  received  noble  forms  through  their  later  inter- 
mixture with  the  Mingrelians,  Georgians,  Circassians,  and  Greeks.  Their 
forehead  is  straight,  and  does  not  stand  out  so  boldly  as  with  the  Greeks ; 
still  it  is  beautifully  formed.  The  eyebrows  and  the  depression  between  the 
eyes  are  conspicuous;  the  nose  is  long  and  aquiline,  running  out  in  the 
same  direction  with  the  forehead.  The  eyes,  which  are  large,  are  placed 
wide  apart,  and  the  inner  and  outer  corners  stand  at  the  same  height 
The  upper  lip  is  short,  the  chin  full,  but  the  distance  of  the  chin  from  the 
angle  of  the  lower  jaw  very  trifling.  The  countenance  seen  in  front  is 
long,  and  becomes  small  below  the  tolerably  prominent  cheek  bones. 
Viewed  from  the  side,  the  line  from  the  forehead  over  the  nose  to  the  chin 
is  perpendicular,  as  the  facial  angle  amounts  to  90  degrees  or  there- 
abouts. The  beard  is  full  and  flowing,  the  expression  of  the  physiognon^y 
serious  and  dignified.  The  skull  of  the  Turks  has  a  globular  contour, 
and  the  posterior  foramen  magnum,  which  is  large,  is  situated  near  the 
hinder  part  of  the  base  of  the  skull. 

Fig,  4.  A  Cossack  of  the  Don.  The  Cossacks  of  the  Don  and  the 
Volga,  belonging  to  the  same  stock,  appear  nevertheless  to  have  proceeded 
from  an  intermixture  of  Tartars  with  Slavonians.  The  orbits  of  the  skull 
of  the  Don  Cossacks  are  very  deep,  broad,  and  placed  low  down ;  the  orifice  • 
for  the  nose  is  wide ;  the  superciliary  arches  jut  out  boldly,  and  meet  in  the 
space  between  the  eyes.  The  branches  of  the  lower  jaw  are  divergent  and 
uneven,  by  reason  of  the  prominence  of  the  masseters.  The  posterior 
foramen  magnum  is  narrow,  the  occipital  bone  is  very  thick,  and  the  whole 
skull  possesses  a  marble-like  density  and  polish. 

FHg,  5.  A  Persian  of  the  higher  ranks.  The  Sanscrit  stock,  to  which 
the  ancient  Persians  are  referred,  is  of  middle  height  or  under,  of  delicate, 
slender  figure,  with  straight,  handsomely  formed  nose,  mouth  of  moderate 
size,  thin  lips,  and  round  chin.  The  cuticle  is  usually  somewhat  yellow. 
The  hair  is  long,  black,  fine,  and  glossy.  The  skull  is  of  a  light,  delicate 
structure,  nearly  round,  with  prominent  occipital  and  small  cheek  bones. 
The  modern  Persians  exhibit  many  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  Armenian 
(Semitic)  branch,  to  which  belongs  the  Arab  (Bedouin)  represented  at  fig. 
7.  This  branch  has  an  oval  face,  with  a  pointed  chin,  a  high  forehead,  an 
aquiline  nose,  large  dark  eyes,  arched  eyebrows,  well  formed  mouth,  and 
long  black  hair,  characteristics  which  are  most  distinctly  impressed  upon 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  127 

the  Arab.  The  Cahyles,  that  is  the  Berbers,  in  Algiers  and  Tunis  (pi.  1, 
ßgs.  8  and  9),  likewise  belong  here.  They  are  also  denominated  Dshebalis, 
i,  e,  inhabitants  of  the  mountains,  by  the  people  of  the  Arabian-Moorish 
cities ;  in  Tunis  they  are  also  called  Suaves.  They  are  a  handsome  race 
of  men,  allied  in  their  manners  to  the  Bedouins. 

The  Hindoos  {fig.  6,  a  Hindoo  of  the  citizen  class)  have  a  stature  of 
moderate  size,  or  below  the  medium ;  their  complexion  is  yellow,  with  a 
tinge  of  bronze  color.  Their  form  is  delicate  and  slender ;  the  nose  straight 
and  handsomely  moulded,  never  flattened  down,  never  with  widespread 
nostrils ;  the  mouth  is  of  moderate  size,  the  lips  are  thin,  the  chin  round 
and  usually  dimpled,  the  eyes  large,  with  arched  eyebrows  and  long 
eyelashes.  The  iris  is  generally  black,  the  white  of  the  eye  passes  into 
yellow ;  ears  of  moderate  size  and  beautifully  formed :  hands  and  feet 
small ;  skin  thin ;  hair  long,  black,  fine,  and  glossy ;  beard  scanty,  except 
on  the  upper  lip. 

The  New  Zealanders,  who  belong  to  the  Australo-Caucasian  stock, 
and  one  of  whom  is  represented  at  fig,  22,  we  shall  treat  of  more  fully 
hereafter. 

The  stocks  represented  at  figs.  10 — 13  belong  to  the  Mongolian  race. 
The  Calmucs  {fig.  10,  a  Calmuc  in  war  equipments)  have  usually  thin, 
lean  limbs,  a  slender  body,  and  a  short  neck.  Their  pre-eminently 
characteristic  feature,  however,  consists  of  the  obliquely  placed  eyes, 
whose  inner  corner  descending  to  the  nose,  is  a  little  open  and  fleshy. 
The  eyebrows  are  black,  thin,  and  form  low  arches ;  the  nose  is  generally 
flattened  and  depressed  towards  the  forehead ;  the  cheek  bones  project  in 
front ;  head  and  face  are  round,  lips  thick  and  fleshy,  chin  short,  teeth  very 
white,  remaining  beautiful  and  sound  to  an  advanced  age.  The  ears  aie 
very  large,  and  project.  The  peculiarities  of  the  skull  of  the  Mon- 
golian race  are,  the  globular  form  of  the  cranium,  the  flatness  and 
width  both  of  the  forehead  and  face,  and  the  boldness  of  the  arches  of 
the  temporal  bones.  The  orbits  of  the  eyes  are  large,  but  the  super- 
ciliary arches  are  not  well  defined.  The  alveolar  process  is  obtusely 
arched  in  front,  and  the  chin  somewhat  projecting.  The  Chinese  also 
{fig.  11)  are  of  Mongolian  origin  ;  at  least  Davis  supposes,  that  in  ancient 
times  a  colony  from  India  settled  in  China,  and  mingled  with  the  aborigines 
and  rude  Mongols.  The  small  eye,  elliptical  at  its  nasal  angle,  is  peculiar 
to  the  Chinese  as  well  as  the  Tartars ;  both  also  have  the  same  pointed 
chin  and  prominent  cheek-bones.  Their  color  is  more  or  less  brownish 
yellow,  according  as  the  people  are  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  climate ; 
limbs  well  proportioned,  but  the  head  large ;  beard  weak ;  hair  straight, 
smooth,  coarse,  and  always  black.  To  the  Mongolian  race  belong  also 
many  tribes  which  inhabit  the  wilds  of  Siberia,  northwards  from  the 
Altaian  chain  to  the  coast  of  the  Arctic  Ocean ;  the  inhabitants  of  Corea, 
Kamschatka,  and  the  adjacent  Aleutian  Islands ;  the  Tungusians,  Samoyedes, 
and  Ostiaks,  as  well  as  the  Greenlanders  and  Esquimaux  of  North  America. 
At  fig.  12,  we  give  a  representation  of  a  Samoyed,  and  at  fig.  13,  one 
of  an  EsquimoMx.    The  hair  of  the  Samoyedes  is  long,  harsh,  and  black ;  the 

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128  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

face  flat  and  broad ;  the  cheek  bones  prominent ;  the  eyes  long,  with 
naiTow  openings,  and  oblique ;  the  nose  depressed ;  the  mouth  large ;  the 
beard  very  thin ;  the  complexion  dark  brown ;  stature  small,  frame  stout, 
and  the  strong  lower  limbs  appear  disproportionally  short.  The  Esquimaux, 
again,  have  high  cheek  bones,  broad  forehead,  flat  face ;  eyes  with  nar- 
row  fissures,  long  lashes,  and  so  small  that  the  white  is  scarcely  visible  ;  a 
large  mouth;  flattened  nose;  dark  yellow  or  brown  complexion,  and 
straight  black  hair.  The  men  are  of  medium  stature,  or  small,  but  stout ; 
the  hands  and  feet  are  small. 

Besides  these  last  named  people,  America  ofiers  us  an  indigenous  popula- 
tion, which  is  divided  into  many  tribes  and  very  numerous  stocks,  extend- 
ing from  the  northern  latitude  of  the  Polar  Circle  to  Terra  del  Fuego  in 
the  south.  Of  these  we  have  represented,  at  fig.  17,  a  Charrua  Indian, 
figs,  19  and  20,  Crow  Indians,  and  fig.  21,  a  Californian.  The  Indians 
have  in  general  a  vigorous,  broad,  though  not  tall  form.  The  chest  is  broad, 
the  neck  short  and  thick,  the  abdomen  very  prominent ;  the  lower  part  of 
the  thigh  not  powerful,  the  calves  especially  thin,  but  the  arms  round  and 
muscular.  The  foot  is  small  behind  and  very  broad  before ;  the  great  toe 
is  separated  from  the  others ;  the  hands  are  almost  always  cold,  and  the 
fingers,  comparatively  speaking,  thin ;  the  nails  are  very  short ;  the  color 
of  the  skin  is  copper-red.  The  children  are,  however,  yellowish,  like 
mulattoes;  sick  persons  are  brownish-yellow;  the  darkness  of  the  com- 
plexion is  also  more  decided  in  those  who  are  especially  vigorous  and  active, 
and  live  much  in  the  open  air.  Their  skin  is  fine,  soft,  and  shining ;  and 
when  exposed  to  the  sun,  much  inclined  to  perspire.  The  long,  coarse, 
straight,  glossy  hair  hangs  down  in  thick  tangled  masses.  The  beard  of  the 
men  is  generally  thin  ;  with  some,  however,  thick.  The  crown  of  the  head 
and  the  cheek  bone  are  broad,  corresponding  with  the  breadth  of  the  chest; 
the  forehead  is  low ;  the  temples  are  prominent,  narrow  above,  and  very 
retreating.  The  occiput  does  not  hang  so  low  down  as  with  the  Negro. 
The  face  is  broad  and  angular,  and  projects  much  less  than  in  the  Negro, 
but  more  than  is  the  case  with  the  Calmucs  and  Europeans.  The  small, 
neatly  shaped  ears  turn  somewhat  outwardly.  The  eye  is  small  and  dark 
brown,  placed  slanting,  and  turned  towards  the  inner  corner  of  the  nose ; 
the  eyebrows  are  thin,  and  very  high  in  the  middle ;  the  nose  is  short  but 
depressed,  broad  below,  and  not  turned  up  so  much  as  with  the  Negro ;  the 
wide  nostrils  are  but  little  prominent ;  the  lips  are  not  so  thick  and  prominent 
as  is  the  case  with  the  Negro,  and  the  mouth  is  smaller  and  more  compact ; 
the  teeth  are  white,  and  the  incisors  very  broad  and  even,  the  eye-teeth 
projecting.  From  all  this  it  follows  that  the  Indian  bears  a  greater  resem- 
blance to  other  races,  especially  the  Chinese  and  Calmucs,  than  to  the 
Negro.  The  Charrua  Indians  of  Buenos  Ayres,  below  the  40th  degree  of 
south  latitude,  are  almost  black,  and  without  any  mixture  of  red.  The 
Osage  Indians  {pi,  I,  fig.  18)  have  their  villages  on  the  head  waters  of 
the  Osage  and  the  Verdigris,  one  of  the  northern  tributaries  of  the  Arkansas. 
They  have  relinquished  a  part  of  their  territory  to  the  United  States,  and 
are  still,  even  at  the  present  day,  a  numerous  and  powerful  nation,  which 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  129 

wages  war  with  all  its  neighbors.  The  Raven,  or  Crow  Indians  (Crow, 
or  Upsacoka  nation),  are  a  nomadic  tribe,  south  of  the  Missouri,  between 
the  Little  Missouri  and  the  ßouth-eastern  branches  of  the  Yellow  Stone 
River.  The  Indians  of  New  California  are  of  a  savage  appearance,  and 
of  a  very  dark  color.  Their  flat,  broad  face,  lighted  up  by  large  wild 
eyes,  is  thickly  overshadowed  by  long  black  hair. 

Of  the  Negro  race,  ßg,  14  represents  a  Chiinea  negro ;  fig.  15,  a  Boussa 
negro ;  fig.  16,  a  Hottentot ;  Biud  figs.  23  and  24,  Paupans  of  East  Australia 
and  Van  Diemen's  Land.  The  black  stocks  of  South  Asia  and  Australia, 
for  the  purpose  of  distinguishing  them  from  the  negroes,  negritoes,  or 
Australian  negroes,  have  been  denominated  Paupans,  after  a  Malay  word, 
which  signifies  woolly- haired.  The  natives  of  the  north-west  coast  of  New 
Guinea  bear,  more  especially,  the  latter  name.  We  distinguish  also  true 
Papuans  from  the  mixed,  with  whom  we  rank  those  which  maintain  a 
position  about  midway  between  the  true  Papuans  and  the  Malay  settlers. 
The  figure  of  the  Papuans  is  handsome ;  their  exterior  indicates  strength 
and  agility;  their  skin  is  dark  brown,  tinged  with  yellow;  the  nose 
somewhat  flat;  the  mouth  large;  the  whole  form  of  the  face  tolerai)ly 
regular.  The  hair  is  generally  curly,  close,  and  very  thick.  Some  stocks 
of  New  Guinea,  New  Britain,  and  New  Ireland,  allow  it  to  hang  down 
upon  the  shoulders  in  long,  straggling  ringlets ;  with  others  it  stands  on 
end,  thus  giving  the  head  a  monstrous  circumference.  The  Paupans  go 
entirely  naked,  and  ornament  their  shoulders  and  breasts  with  incisions  in 
straight  or  crooked  lines.  There  prevails  also  amongst  them  the  custom 
of  covering  their  heads  with  a  mixture  of  grease  and  ochre,  which  reddens 
the  hair  and  entire  face.  In  the  inhabitants  of  Tasmania,  or  Van  Diemen's 
Land,  the  characteristics  of  the  Papuans  have  degenerated.  Their  hair  is 
decidedly  woolly  ;  the  nose  broad,  the  nostrils  widely  expanded ;  the 
mouth  is  large ;  the  cheek  bones  very  prominent ;  the  eyes  long  and 
narrow ;  the  lower  part  of  the  face  is  larger  than  the  upper  part,  and  the 
color  is  dull  black. 

The  Bovssa  negroes  are  a  negro  stock,  belonging  to  the  Eyeoes,  who 
inhabit  the  southern  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Houssa,  on  both  sides  of  the 
Quorra  Niger,  this  kingdom  being  under  the  dominion  of  the  Fellatahs  of 
Saccatoo.  Our  plate  (pi.  I,  fig*  15)  represents  the  King  of  Boussa,  show- 
ing  the  features  of  the  face  to  be  very  regular,  the  lips  also  not  so  thick  as 
we  usually  find  to  be  the  case  among  the  negroes.  The  Eyeoes,  moreover, 
trace  their  origin  from  Bornou.  Most  of  the  Guinea  negroes  exhibit 
all  the  characteristics  of  the  negro  race.  Their  skin  is  thick,  like 
velvet  to  the  touch,  and  secretes  a  perspiration  of  an  unpleasant  odor.  The 
color  is  black,  and  the  crisp,  woolly  hair  is  also  generally  of  the  same  hue. 
But  the  stocks  living  between  Cape  Palmas  and  Cape  Three  Points  (Ivory 
Coast),  as  well  as  those  of  the  country  extending  from  the  latter  cape  to 
the  Rio  Valta  (Gold  Coast),  to  wit,  the  Quaques,  Buntakees,  Ashantees, 
Fantees,  Intas,  &c.,  have  very  little  of  the  negro  physiognomy ;  on  the 
contrary,  more  of  the  Indian,  or  almost  regularly  Grecian  style  of  features. 

The  Hottentots,  according  to  Barrow,  are  well  proportioned  and  straight ; 

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130  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY 

have  forms  rather  delicate  than  muscular ;  their  joints  and  limbs  are  very 
small ;  countenance  ugly,  but  differing,  in  this  respect,  in  different  families. 
Some  individuals  possess  very  flat  noses,  others  have  them  quite  prominent ; 
their  eyes  are  dark  chestnut  brown,  long,  with  narrow  openings,  widely 
separated,  with  the  inner  angles  rounded  as  in  the  Chinese,  to  whom,  gene- 
rally, the  Hottentots  have  much  resemblance.  The  cheek  bones  are  high 
and  prominent,  and  with  the  small  pointed  chin,  form  almost  a  triangle ; 
the  teeth  are  white.  The  young  women  are  well  and  pleasingly  formed ; 
the  breasts  are  unusually  large,  and  the  bosom  very  full ;  but  soon  after  the 
birth  of  the  first  child,  it  becomes  flabby,  and  in  old  age  very  pendulous. 
The  abdomen  swells  out,  and  the  hinder  part  is  covered  with  a  thick  mass 
of  pure  fat.  Burchell  describes  them  in  a  similar  manner.  "  The  hands 
and  feet,"  says  he,  ''  are  small ;  the  eyes  so  oblique  that  transverse  lines 
drawn  through  the  angles  do  not  converge  upon  the  same  plane,  but  some- 
times intersect  half  way  up  the  nose ;  the  face  between  the  two  cheek 
bones  is  flat ;  the  ridge  of  the  nose  is  scarcely  perceptible,  but  the  end  is 
broad  and  flattened ;  the  nostrils  diverge ;  the  chin  is  long  and  projects  in 
front :  the  small  size  of  the  lower  face  is  also  a  characteristic  of  the  race." 
The  hair  grows  in  small  crisp  knots,  tufts,  or  long  rope-like  locks,  which 
stand  apart  from  each  other  at  certain  distances,  and  cannot  be  penetrated 
by  a  comb.  The  complexion  is  of  a  yellow  leather  color,  or  pale  yellowbh 
brown.    Sparrman  compares  the  hue  to  that  caused  by  the  jaundice. 


The  People  op  Europe. 

In  Europe  there  are  twenty  different  stocks  of  people,  all  of  whom,  how- 
ever, except  the  Lapps,  Finns,  and  Calmucs,  who  appertain  to  the  Mongolian 
race,  belong  to  one  race,  the  Caucasian.  Three  of  these  stocks  are  distin- 
guished as  well  for  their  intellectual  cultivation  as  for  their  numbers  and 
power.  The  first  is  the  Greeco-Latinic,  to  which  belong  the  Arnauts, 
Albanians,  Wallachians,  Greeks,  Italians,  French,  Spaniards,  and  Portu- 
guese ;  who  speak  languages  derived  from  the  Greek  and  Latin ;  exhibit 
graceful,  unconstrained  movements ;  have  black  eyes,  black  hair,  brown 
complexion,  and  sharp,  distinctly  marked  features  ;  are  lively,  ardent,  cour- 
teous,  but  generally  fickle  and  frivolous,  easily  influenced  by  the  passions, 
and  indefatigable  in  their  efforts  towards  the  gratification  of  their  wishes 
and  desires.  They  are,  nevertheless,  temperate  in  eating  and  drinking. 
Peculiar  circumstances  have,  moreover,  here  and  there  called  forth  a 
deviation  from  these  traits ;  thus,  for  example,  the  inhabitants  of  Andalusia 
and  Algarves  have  an  African  tincture,  through  their  contact  with  Arabs 
and  Moors:  the  fiery  spirit  of  the  Belgians  and  rJorlhern  French  has 
become  somewhat  tempered  by  the  admixture  of  Celts  and  Germans ;  and 
the  Greeks,  through  their  contact  with  Slavonia,  approach  somewhat  to  the 
disposition  of  the  Slavonic  stock.  These  Graeco-Latinic  people,  moreover, 
inhabit  the  southern  islands  and  peninsulas  of  Europe,  France,  and  Belgioin» 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  131 

the  greater  part  living  in  the  volcanic  region  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 
The  religion  is  the  Roman  and  Greek  Catholic. 

The  second  large  stock  of  people  is  the  Germanic  or  central,  of  a  power- 
ful frame,  with  less  sharply  marked  features ;  hair  mostly  blond ;  blue  or 
grey  eyes ;  a  more  sedate,  firm  carriage,  and  a  fixed  ease  of  manner.  In 
an  intellectual  point  of  view,  it  is  distinguished  by  tranquil  reflection,  strong 
reasoning  powers,  deep,  quiet  feelings,  firmness,  candor,  absence  of 
southern  duplicity  and  falsehood,  as  well  as  by  indefatigability  in  labor. 
The  people  of  this  stock  have  a  fondness  for  spirituous  liquors.  The 
languages  are  the  (Jermanic,  and  the  religion  chiefly  Protestant.  Here  belong 
the  people  of  Germany,  Holland,  Denmark,  Scandinavia,  and  England,  for 
the  most  part  living  upon  the  central  chain  of  mountains  and  upon  the 
North  Sea  and  Baltic.  The  English  and  Dutch,  by  reason  of  their  mari- 
time commerce,  have  acquired  a  character  somewhat  diflferent  from  the 
above.  Finally  the  Slavonic  or  Oriental  stock,  which  inhabits  Russia» 
Poland,  and  non-German  Austria,  professes  in  general  the  Greek  religion, 
and  speaks  the  Slavonic  languages.  The  frame  is  muscular,  the  physi- 
ognomy coarse,  savage,  and  expressive  of  sensuality.  The  spirits  are 
easily  ^vated  or  depressed  ;  the  will  strong ;  the  imagination  seldom  very 
lively.  The  people  of  this  stock  have  a  hankering  after  solid  food ;  in 
abundance  they  readily  indulge  to  superfluity,  but  are  capable  also  of 
enduring  a  long  abstinence.  Susceptible  of  high  development  by  civiliza- 
tion, they  are  degraded  by  tyrannical  treatment  to  a  state  little  higher  than 
that  of  beasts.  Polish  men  of  rank  have  become  refined  in  their  manners 
through  western  civilization ;  the  common  people,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
still  quite  rude. 

The  remaining  smaller  stocks  in  Europe  are : — (1)  The  Iberians  or  Basques, 
in  Spain  and  France :  (2)  the  Celts,  including  the  true  Celts,  in  Ireland,  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland,  and  upon  the  Isle  of  Man ;  the  Welsh  (Cymri)  in 
Wales,  and  the  Bretons  in  France  :  (3)  the  Tschudes  (Uralians),  the  Finns, 
Esthes,  Lapps,  Tcheremisses,  Tchuwaches,  Watiaks,  Kumans,  Udi,  Woguls, 
and  Magyars  (Hungarians)  :  (4)  the  Samoyedes,  in  the  polar  regions  : 
(5)  Turks — Osmanni,  Turcomans,  Baschkirs :  (6)  Calmucs  :  (7  to  14)  the 
inhabitants  of  Caucasus,  with  Avari,  Kasikumuks,  Akooches,  Koorahs, 
Circassians,  Abassians,  Mizchegis,  and  the  Ossetes  (Bucharians)  :  (15)  the 
Semites — Jews  and  Maltese :  (16)  the  Hindoos,  or  rather  the  Zigeuni 
(Gypsies)  descended  from  them :  and  (17)  the  Armenians. 

In  our  short  description  of  the  inhabitants  of  Europe,  after  having 
first  treated  of  Germany,  including  Austria,  Prussia,  and  Switzerland, 
we  will  from  thence  pass  on  to  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway  (Scan- 
dinavia). Taking  up,  next,  England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland  (Great  Britain), 
-we  will  then  turn  to  Russia,  go  through  the  whole  of  Eastern  Europe,  not 
forgetting  the  nations  of  Asiatic  Russia,  and  finally  visit  Turkey,  Greece, 
Italy,  Portugal,  Spain,  and  France. 


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132  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 


The  German  People, 

The  German  people  live  along  the  Rhine,  the  Weser,  Elbe,  Oder,  and 
the  upper  Danube,  in  a  dense  mass.  Further  over  beyond  this  natural 
district  the  Germans  have  mixed  with  other  European  stocks :  thus,  towards 
the  East,  between  the  Oder  and  Vistula,  with  the  Slavonians ;  towards  the 
Adriatic  Sea,  with  the  Slavonians  and  Latins ;  towards  France,  with  the 
Franco-Latins.  Within  the  limits  above  mentioned  the  pure  German 
genius  now  displays  itself;  not  animated,  indeed,  by  southern  fire ;  distin- 
guished by  no  elasticity  of  disposition  nor  of  character ;  by  no  nicety  of 
taste ;  but  which,  nevertheless,  is  elevated  above  that  of  other  people  by 
many  other  fundamental  traits.  One  of  these  distinguishing  characteristics 
is  the  love  of  liberty,  which,  no  matter  how  oft  it  may  be  smothered, 
always  burns  again  afresh.  To  this  is  joined  a  strong  moral  sense,  from 
which  proceed  a  deeply  implanted  love  of  truth  and  rectitude,  unshaken 
fidelity,  veneration  for  the  female  sex,  attachment  to  the  ruling  princes,  which 
qualities  are  dignified  by  the  religious  fervor  pervading  all  the  feelings  of 
the  Germans.  Another  characteristic  of  the  Germans  is  their  profoundness 
of  thought  and  love  of  research.  The  eflfort  to  discover  new  things 
and  improve  those  already  known  to  them  proceeds  from  this,  as  well  as 
the  propensity  to  travel,  which  carries  the  German  into  foreign  lands,  where 
he,  by  his  versatility  of  mind,  easily  accommodates  himself  to  what  is 
strange,  and  adapts  foreign  habits  to  his  own  disposition.  To  conclude, 
steadfast  courage,  great  perseverance,  and  cheerfulness  are  associated  with 
these  characteristics  of  the  German. 

Diverse  as  is  the  configuration  of  the  soil  of  Germany,  so  diflferent  also  are 
her  stocks  of  people,  in  their  external  appearance,  their  occupations,  their 
manners,  and  their  language ;  although  the  German  fundamental  traits  above 
referred  to  always  predominate.  The  Germans  are  generally  divided  into  two 
principal  groups :  in  the  north  they  are  large  and  fair;  in  the  south,  somewhat 
smaller  and  darker.  Their  language  is  divided  into  the  soft  sounding  low 
or  broad  German,  the  harsh  middle  German,  and  the  sharp  sounding 
high  German.  In  religion,  science,  and  art  the  Germans  stand  upon 
a  high,  if  not  upon  the  highest  eminence;  as  respects  husbandry  and 
industry,  Germany  rivals  other  lands ;  her  commerce,  also,  is  in  a  flourishing 
condition. 

After  these  general  characteristics  of  the  Germans,  we  will  consider 
more  closely  some  German  stocks  of  people,  with  reference  to  Plates  2 
and  3. 

Wirtemberg  and  Baden.  In  general  the  inhabitants  of  Wirtemberg  and 
Baden  are  strongly  built  and  well  formed;  the  handsomest  and  healthiest 
of  them  are  found  in  the  Schwarzwald  (Black  Forest),  and  in  some  of  the 
north-western  valleys  of  the  province  of  Alp,  especially  in  the  hilly  parts, 
and  also  in  a  few  small  districts  of  the  lowlands.  Their  kindly  disposition 
is  characteristic,  and  attendant  on  this  a  quiet,  domestic,  industrious,  honest, 
religious  feeling,  a  conscientious  thoroughness,  heartiness,  poetical  torn  of. 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  133 

thought»  and  enthusiasm.  Wirtemberg  is  the  heart  of  ancient  Suabia. 
The  Suabian  dialect,  in  a  more  restricted  sense,  however,  prevails  between 
the  Schwarzwald  and  the  river  Lech,  and  from  the  Allgau  Alps  to  the  river 
Kocher,  or  in  the  greater  part  of  Wirtemberg,  and  beyond  the  latter,  as  far 
as  Augsburg.  The  people  of  Baden  are  esteemed  industrious,  faithful,  sin- 
cere, honest,  and  brave  in  war.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Schwarzwald 
exhibit,  in  the  highest  degree,  the  simplicity  and  honesty  of  the  German 
stock.  They  are  sensible,  enduring,  frugal,  temperate,  modest,  and  very  reli- 
gious ;  they  are  lively  and  cheerful ;  in  many  places,  indeed,  also  brawling 
and  quarrelsome ;  in  others,  on^the  contrary,  of  very  peaceable  disposition. 

The  inhabitant  of  the  Odenwald  is,  with  all  his  poverty,  cheerful  and 
hospitable.  He  lives  quietly,  and  thinks  much  and  freely.  The  people  of 
the  Rhine  valley  are  represented  as  well  formed,  sensible,  laborious,  and  neat. 
They  are  quicker  and  apparently  more  enlightened  than  the  inhabitants  of 
the  mountain  forests,  but  neither  so  frugal  nor  altogether  so  correct  in  their 
morals.  Here,  again,  great  differences  are  exhibited  in  character,  which 
varies  according  to  the  configuration  of  the  country.  The  Wirtemberg 
peasant  is  accused  of  an  extravagant  refinement  in  customs  and  mode 
of  life,  and  especially  of  abandoning  his  national  costume,  particularly  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  towns.  To  the  costume  of  the  Wirtemberg  peasant 
belong,  more  particularly,  a  triangular  hat,  worn  upon  the  smoothly 
combed  hair ;  also  a  comb  in  the  hair ;  a  warm  smock-frock,  with  polished 
metal  buttons ;  shoes  with  buckles ;  a  kind  of  bodice ;  red  stockings  and 
high  heels. 

Our  plate  represents,  in  the  first  place,  a  peasant  girl  of  the  district  of 
Furtwangen  in  Baden  {pL  2,  fig.  1).  She  has  on  a  narrow-brimmed  straw 
hat,  a  black  jacket  over  a  red  bodice  adorned  with  blue  ribands,  and  a 
white  apron  embroidered  at  the  bottom  over  a  black  and  red  striped  petti- 
coat.    The  stockings  are  red. 

jPt^.  2.  A  shepherd  of  Hauenstein,  in  the  highland  of  Baden.  His  hat 
is  turned  up  at  the  sides,  and  ornamented  with  a  black  riband  and  a 
buckle ;  above  a  red  undercoat,  bordered  at  the  top  with  black,  he  wears 
a  short  black  sack  coat ;  the  breeches  are  short,  black,  and  gathered  up  in 
pufiis  in  several  places ;  the  stockings  are  white. 

Figs.  3  and  4.  Schwarzwald  tavernkeepers,  from  the  region  about 
Schramberg.  The  dress  of  the  man  is  black  as  far  down  as  the  stockings, 
which  are  white,  the  waistcoat  being  bordered  with  red.  The  woman  has 
a  peculiar,  high,  black  lace  cap,  with  broad  ribands,  a  yellow  stomacher, 
cinnamon-colored  jacket,  red  apron,  and  blue  petticoat.  The  stockings  are 
grey  or  white. 

Figs,  5  and  6.  Male  and  female  peasant  of  the  district  of  Aeut- 
iingen,  in  Wirtemberg,  engaged  in  making  hay.  Both  the  man  and 
woman  have  on  black  caps.  The  woman  wears  a  riband  with  a  medal 
around  the  neck ;  the  bodice  is  peach-blossom  colored,  with  double  broad 
green  trimming  above  and  black  lacings  below.  The  chemise  sleeves 
are  wide,  petticoat  blue  with  a  yellow  border;  stockings  and  apron 
white.    The  man  wears  short  yellow  leather  breeches  and  a  long  white 

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134  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

loose  coat,  over  a  black  waistcoat,  mounted  with  many  metal  buttons ; 
over  the  shirt,  however,  he  wears  colored  suspenders. 

FHgs,  7  and  8.  Bridal  party  from  Fullheim,  in  the  district  of  Tutt- 
lingen, in  Wirtemberg.  The  entire  dress  of  the  bride  is  black,  with  a 
red  bodice,  over  which  blue  ribands  are  laced.  Stockings  red.  A 
coronet  covers  the  head,  and  from  the  long  plaits  of  hair  ribands  hang 
down  to  the  ground.  The  bridegroom  has  a  triangular  hat,  blue  breast 
straps,  with  trimming  over  the  white  shirt,  over  that  a  waistcoat  with 
many  buttons  worn  open,  and  a  cinnamon  colored  jacket.  Breeches  short, 
stockings  white.  Both  bride  and  bridegroom  wear  a  nosegay  of  flowers  at 
the  breast,  and  the  latter  one  also  in  his  hat. 

jFV^.  9.  Female  flaxbreakers  from  the  Steinlach  valley,  in  Wirtemberg, 
district  of  Tübingen.  The  foremost  with  black  dress,  the  frock  bordered 
with  green,  the  apron  blue,  neckerchief  red,  cap  trimmed  with  broad 
lace.  The  hinder  one  with  a  green  bodice,  pink  breast-bands,  blue  apron, 
red  frock,  and  black  cap  upon  the  head ;  chemise  sleeves  white. 

The  Bavarians.  Three  stocks  of  people  may  especially  be  distinguished 
in  Bavaria ;  namely,  the  Old  Bavarian,  Franconian,  and  Suabian,  which 
differ  from  each  other  very  much  in  character,  dialect,  and  customs ;  but 
all  bear  the  South  German  stamp.  The  Old  Bavarians  have  a  strong- 
boned,  muscular  frame,  but  are  rather  stout  than  tall ;  they  are  of  a 
cordial,  kind  disposition,  strongly  attached  to  what  is  ancient,  religious, 
devoted  to  their  priest,  and  obeying  him  submissively ;  not  unfrequently 
very  superstitious  withal.  They  are  a  robust,  stout  people,  very  quarrel- 
some, but  brave  in  battle;  often  reproached  with  sensuality  and  want 
of  cleanliness  and  industry ;  although  it  is  conceded  that  their  heart  is 
right,  and  needs  only  proper  education.  The  fashions  of  dress  in  the 
highlands  differ  from  those  in  the  plains.  The  highlander  wears  the  usual 
dress  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Alps :  the  pointed  hat,  the  short  breeches 
with  Alp-stockings,  the  suspenders  with  breastbands,  and  the  short,  wide 
coat;  sometimes  waistcoat  and  long  coat  are  worn.  The  female  dress 
is  seldom  becoming,  as  a  sort  of  man's  hat,  or  a  great  fur  cap,  or  a  hand- 
kerchief, usually  covers  the  head,  and  the  jacket  is  not  particulariy 
neat.  At  a  greater  distance  from  the  Alps,  in  the  towns  of  Old  Bavaria, 
the  female  attire  is  much  neater.  A  small  silver-lace  cap,  which  only 
covers  the  black  hair,  and  a  dark  bodice,  laced  in  front  with  silver  chains 
and  adorned  with  glistening  medals,  constitute  the  principal  finery.  Mid- 
way between  the  Old  Bavarian  and  the  Franconian  stands  the  inhabitant 
of  the  Upper  Palatinate.  The  Franconian  is  distinguished  from  the  CHd 
Bavarian  by  greater  liveliness,  a  finer  taste  for  the  arts,  active  industry, 
more  zeal  for  political  liberty,  greater  cheerfulness ;  in  a  word,  more  elas- 
ticity both  of  mind  and  body.  On  the  other  hand  he  is  justly  reproached 
with  an  excessive  fondness  for  beer. 

At  figs,  10  and  11,  male  and  female  peasants  of  the  district  of  New  Ulm, 

are  represented  as  they  are  coming  from  the  fair.    The  coat  of  the  man  is 

brown,  waistcoat  and  breeches  black,  suspenders  pink,  waistcoat  and  coat 

mounted  with  polished  buttons.    The  woman  has  a  black  jacket,  Uack 

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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  135 

apron,  light  blue  petticoat  with  a  dark  border,  and  over  the  white  bodice 
pass  pink  ribands.  The  black  cap,  which  covers  the  hinder  part  of  the 
head  only,  is  tied  under  the  chin  with  broad  ribands  of  the  same  color. 

PI.  2,  ßg.  12.  An  Upper  Bavarian  woman  of  the  citizen  class,  distin- 
guished by  the  head-dress,  the  short  bodice  adorned  with  chains  and  coins, 
and  a  pocket  with  a  clasp  attached  to  the  side. 

Figs.  13  and  14  represent  women  of  Dachau,  in  Upper  Bavaria,  having 
peculiar  black  lace  caps,  with  large  bows  of  riband  above,  and  surrounded 
by  a  broad  red  riband.  The  jacket  of  the  one  is  very  short,  red,  with 
white  cuffs  and  border ;  around  the  neck  is  worn  a  black  riband  with  a 
shining  metal  clasp;  chains  and  coins  likewise  adorn  the  bodice;  the 
petticoats  hanging  in  long  folds  are  black,  bordered  with  red,  and  the 
aprons  blue. 

Fig.  15.  A  man  from  Lake  Schlier,  in  Upper  Bavaria,  with  the  sugarloaf 
hat  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Alps,  the  brim,  however,  being  small.  The 
short  grey  coat  is  turned  up  with  green,  and  the  short  black  breeches  are 
also  trimmed  with  green.  The  stockings  extend  only  to  the  ankles,  as 
the  shoes  worn  in  the  Alps  cover  the  bare  feet. 

The  Hessians.  Arndt,  in  his  "Essay  upon  the  Comparative  History 
of  Nations,"  describes  the  Hessians  in  the  following  manner :  "  The 
opposite  of  the  Thuringian  is  his  neighbor  the  Hessian,  the  descendant  of 
the  ancient  Catti,  who  occupies  Lower  Hesse  of  the  present  time,  between 
the  Taunus  and  Rhön  mountains  on  the  south  and  east,  and  the  bend  of 
the  Weser,  where  the  Fulda  flows  into  that  river,  the  district  of  Fulda,  the 
greater  part  of  Nassau  and  Waldeck,  and  a  portion  of  Paderborn.  The 
Hessian  of  the  present  day,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Nassau  and  of  Fulda, 
as  well  as  the  Friesian  of  the  coasts  of  the  North  Sea,  and  the  Saxon  of 
Westphalia,  of  the  Weser  and  Leine,  as  far  as  the  western  Hartz,  have 
preserved  their  Germanic  purity  from  all  foreign  admixture.  The  Hessian 
bears  the  stamp  of  his  purely  Grerman  extraction  in  his  marked  traits  of 
character  and  peculiar  manners,  which  still  call  to  mind  the  description  of 
Tacitus.  He  is  nicknamed  the  blind  Hessian.  This  word  blind,  however, 
denotes  no  defect,  but  a  fixed,  firm,  immovable  manner,  which  is  subject 
to  no  changes  and  variations;  it  indicates  the  quiet,  firm  courage,  with 
which  the  Hessian  with  his  eyes  open,  as  another  with  them  shut,  goes  to 
meet  danger  and  death.  Tacitus  highly  extols  the  valor  and  military  skill 
of  the  Catti,  in  which  they  were  distinguished  above  all  their  countrymen 
and  neighbors.  A  gravity  and  tranquillity  of  manner  altogether  peculiar 
marked  these  splendid  men.  Nowhere  in  Germany  are  the  men  so  little 
inquisitive  and  talkative."  Arndt,  however,  considers  the  Hessians  here 
only  in  their  narrowest  limits ;  by  extending  the  boundaries,  we  find  that 
the  Franconian  stock  predominates,  comprehending  also  the  Lower  Saxon 
and  Thuringian.  French  and  Netherlanders  have  also  come  in  among 
them.  In  Electoral  Hesse,  the  Franconian  stock  is  spread  over  Upper 
Hesse,  the  greater  part  of  Lower  Hesse,  and  over  Fulda  and  Hanau ;  the 
Lower  Saxon  is  spread  over  the  circles  Hofgeismar  and  Schaumburg,  and 
the  greater  part  of  the  circle  Wolfshagen ;  the  Thuringian  is  found  in  the 

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136  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

Werra  valley  and  Schmalkalden.  In  general,  true  and  upright,  active  and 
industrious,  the  Lower  Hessian,  on  account  of  the  advantages  he  possesses, 
in  numerous  towns  as  well  as  land  and  water  communications,  is  inclined 
to  the  pursuit  of  a  stirring,  active  business  life  ;  whilst  the  Upper  Hessian 
devotes  himself  chiefly  to  agriculture.  He  is  not  inferior  in  integrity  and 
industry  to  the  Lower  Hessian,  excels  him  even  in  perseverance,  is 
more  straightforward  in  his  manners,  and  generally  more  wealthy.  He  is 
distinguished  by  his  stout  frame  and  plain  mode  of  life,  and  is  ardently 
attached  to  ancient  customs,  thus  preserving  a  strongly  marked  nationality. 
He  still  wears,  for  the  most  part,  the  white  smock-frock,  hat  with  flap  bent 
downwards,  and  short  breeches.  The  dress  of  the  women  is  either  entirely 
black,  or  fancy  colored,  with  a  peculiar  small,  double  cap,  and  two 
long  plaits  of  hair  falling  down  the  back ;  they  wear  a  closely-fastened 
bodice,  lying  in  small  folds,  with  short  tight  sleeves,  over  which  frequently 
fall  down  abundantly  wide  ones ;  a  snow-white  chemise,  seen  under  these 
sleeves;  a  breast-piece,  richly  embroidered  with  gold;  a  petticoat  with 
hundreds  of  gathers,  reaching  only  to  the  knee ;  shoes  with  high  heels ; 
and  on  festive  occasions  they  add  a  little  mantle,  which  is  hung  upon  the 
head,  and  which  reaches  only  to  the  shoulders.  The  native  of  Schwalm 
wears  a  hemispherical  red  or  green  velvet  cap,  which  is  bordered  with  fur, 
and  trimmed  with  gold  lace ;  in  winter  this  is  exchanged  for  one  of  a  cylin- 
drical shape.  Not  unfrequently  also  the  married  man  wears  a  triangular 
hat,  especially  when  he  goes  abroad  into  the  field.  The  waistcoat,  mounted 
with  many  small  metal  buttons,  is  bright  red ;  the  coat  and  breeches  are  of 
fine  white  linen.  The  female  dress  is  richer;  it  consists  of  a  neat  cap, 
trimmed  with  red  and  embroidered  in  fancy  colors  ;  a  string  of  coral 
around  the  neck ;  a  bodice  of  blue  cambric,  with  short  sleeves  turned  up 
at  the  elbows  and  richly  ornamented  with  lace.  Over  the  latter  is  worn 
a  black  corset,  and  upon  the  breast  lies  a  black  breast-piece,  embroidered 
with  gold  and  silver  pearls  and  silk.  From  the  hips  depend  eight  to  ten 
short  skirts,  the  uppermost  of  which  is  black,  the  others  bordered  with  gay 
colors.  Every  skirt  is  a  little  longer  than  the  next  outer  one,  the  innermost 
being  the  longest,  extending,  however,  only  to  the  knee.  The  chemise, 
which  peeps  out  below,  is  provided,  moreover,  with  a  hem  of  a  hand  s 
breadth.  The  stockings  are  of  linen,  and  furnished  with  cotton  clocks; 
and  the  shoes  have  high  heels.  On  extraordinary  occasions  the  "  schapper* 
(chaplet),  a  head-dress  which  is  wrought  of  flowers,  gold  spangles,  <fec.,  and 
sits  upon  the  head  in  the  manner  of  a  tiara,  takes  the  place  of  the  cap. 
Maidens  only  are  permitted  to  wear  fancy  colors.  The  peasant  of  Fulda 
wears  a  green  or  blue  linen  coat,  and  a  furred  cap  or  broad-brimmed 
hat.  The  picturesqueness  of  the  female  dress  is  heightened  by  the  long 
hair  being  wound  round  the  crown  of  the  head,  and  fastened  in  the  middle 
with  a  neat  wooden  pin.  The  people  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Hesse  are  a 
peaceable  nation,  but  by  no  means  «deficient  in  courage  when  the  occasion 
demands.  The  natives  of  Rhenish  Hesse  are  particularly  lively  and  quick  in 
their  movements.  The  inhabitant  of  the  highlands  displays  more  distinctly 
yid  strongly  marked  peculiarities  than  the  lowlander;  he  is  rude,  more 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  137 

laborious,  frugal,  active,  and  industrious.  The  inhabitant  of  the  Odenwald 
is  vigorous  and  energetic  in  bodily  labor,  good  natured,  tender  hearted  and 
obliging,  and  possesses  a  strong  sense  of  right.  The  people  of  Vogelberg 
and  Hinterland  are  a  strong  race  of  men,  possessing  a  courageous  dispo- 
sition, great  uprightness,  honesty,  and  complaisance,  and  are  as  yet  but 
Kttle  acquainted  with  depraved  manners  and  habits.  On  the  other  hand, 
their  minds  are  not  as  highly  cultivated  as  those  of  the  people  of  the  lower 
districts,  the  Bergstrasse,  the  regions  on  the  Rhine,  and  especially  Rhenish 
Hesse.  The  inhabitant  of  the  Odenwald  formerly  wore  a  large  comb, 
going  entirely  round  the  hinder  part  of  the  head,  a  turned  up  triangular 
hat,  a  green  cowl,  light  blue  waistcoat,  woollen  stockings  with  garters,  and 
shoes  with  large  buckles.  At  present  the  green  cowl  is  rarely  seen,  and 
instead  of  this  there  is  ä  long  coat  of  dark  blue  cloth  with  a  single  row  of 
buttons.  The  women  have  retained  their  old  fashions  tolerably  well,  and 
wear  a  dark  blue  cloth  jacket,  bordered  with  white ;  a  long  frock  of  the 
same  material  with  numerous  folds ;  a  cap  of  black  calico,  which  is 
trimmed  on  both  sides  and  above  with  pearls ;  white  or  blue  woollen 
stockings,  and  shoes  with  ribands. 

In  pi  2,ßgs,  16  and  17,  are  represented  an  Odenwald  female,  and  also  a 
male  peasant,  from  the  district  of  Heppenheim,  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Hesse. 

The  inhabitants  of  Rhenish  Prussia  differ  very  much  from  each  other 
in  descent  and  manners ;  in  general,  however,  what  Duller  says  of  all  the 
people  living  along  the  Rhine,  may  also  be  said  of  them.  "  The  Rhine," 
says  he,  "  exercises  its  powerful  charm  upon  all  the  men  who  live  near  it, 
or  indeed  in  the  districts  watered  by  it.  However  different  the  employ- 
ments may  be  (agriculture,  especially  the  cultivation  of  the  vine,  and 
manufactures),  influencing  variously  those  who  follow  them;  however 
decided  the  religious  feeling  in  all  (no  matter  whether  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  or  Lutheran  creed),  the  ever  fresh  enjoyment  of  life  is  the 
Palladium  obtained  by  them  from  Old  Rhine,  father  of  wines ;  a  sanguine, 
ardent  race,  with  predominating  activity  of  nerves,  capable  of  every 
upward  flight,  quickly  influenced  by  love  or  hate,  with  admirable  mental 
talents,  though  these  have  been  and  are  restrained  in  their  development, 
in  many  districts  of  the  land,  under  long  standing  clerical  dominion  and 
education ;  with  wit  quick  and  sharp,  as  an  arrow,  with  iron-bound  zeal  for 
maintaining  provincial  independence,  full  of  art-creating  energy,  fond  of 
singing,  rich  in  tradition,  hospitable  and  sociable.'' 

The  female  reapers  from  Niederklee,  in  the  district  of  Wetzlar,  in 
Rhenish  Prussia  {pi  2,  ßgs,  18  and  19),  have  on  white  caps  with  black 
ribands,  and  black  bodices ;  and  wear  a  green  jacket  fastened  with  loops 
of  ribands  over  the  bodice.  The  frocks  are  brown,  the  aprons  white  or 
blue,  the  stockings  black,  the  shoes  fastened  with  ribands. 

The  women  of  the  Aar  valley  (figs.  21  and  22)  are  distinguished  by 
their  white  caps,'  with  three  sides,  inclosed  also  at  the  place  of  their 
junction  with  broad  lace.  Both  jackets  and  gowns  have  wide  sleeves; 
over  the  breast  is  fastened  a  three-cornered  handkerchief,  and  the  hair  is 
rolled  up  behind. 

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138  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

North  Germans  are  the  inhabitants  of  Waldeck  and  Schaumburg,  Lii^)e*- 
Detmold,  Oldenburg,  Bremen,  the  three  Grand  Duchies  of  Anhalt,  Bruns- 
wick, Hanover,  Hamburg,  Holstein,  Lübeck,  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  and 
Mecklenburg-Strelitz.  They  are  partly  of  ancient  Friesian  and  ancient 
Saxon,  partly  also  of  Wendish  descent.  Of  Wendish  descent,  but  ger- 
manized,  we  find  the  inhabitants  of  Mecklenburg,  whose  line  of  princes  is 
still  of  Slavonic  descent,  as  well  as  the  people  living  in  Lübeck,  in 
Ratzeburg,  in  Holstein  proper,  and  in  Wagrien ;  of  Friesian  descent  are 
the  inhabitants  on  the  Oldenburg  and  Hanoverian  coasts  of  the  North  Sea, 
those  of  Ditmarsch,  who  live  in  the  dikeland  between  the  Elbe  and  the 
mouth  of  the  Eyder.  Even  beyond  the  Eyder  there  are  people  of  pure 
German  origin,  but  the  Scandinavians  predominate. 

In  the  Duchy  of  Brunswick  the  young  peasant  wears  a  red  waistcoat, 
mounted  with  numerous  metal  buttons  in  two  rows,  a  dark  short  jacket  or 
a  coat,  short  breeches,  and  blue  stockings  with  white  clocks.  A  velvet 
cap,  turned  up  with  fur,  covers  the  head.  Old  peasants  often  wear  a  large 
hat  turned  up  at  the  sides  and  behind,  a  red  waistcoat  with  one  row  of 
buttons,  and  a  white  coat  lined  with  red.  The  peasant  girls  {pi  2,  fig.  20) 
wear  on  the  hair  combed  back  from  the  forehead  a  small  black  cap  with 
long  ribands  hanging  down  behind;  a  broad  black  riband,  embroidered 
with  silver  or  set  with  stones,  around  the  neck ;  a  bodice  bordered  with 
riband,  over  which  is  placed  a  large  white  handkerchief;  a  light  apron 
over  a  frock  which  is  dark,  but  bordered  with  bright  colors ;  a  sash  whose 
two  ends  hang  down  over  the  whole  length  of  the  apron;  and  grey 
stockings,  with  black  clocks. 

In  Brunswick-Lüneberg,  Wendish  traces  are  still  here  and  there  mani- 
fested, as  well  in  the  names  of  places  as  in  pronunciation,  dress,  decoration 
of  the  hair,  marriage  ceremonies,  &c.  The  people  are  vigorous,  temperate, 
hospitable,  and  obliging,  PL  3,  fig.  3,  represents  a  female  peasant  of 
Lüneburg.  She  has  a  handkerchief  bound  around  the  head  and  fastened 
at  the  throat,  and  on  this  is  placed  a  round  cushion  on  which  she  carries 
her  basket.  The  frock  has  tight  sleeves,  and  is  fastened  tight  around  the 
breast,  where  it  is  cut  out  tolerably  low.  The  inhabitants  of  the  fo'ir 
provinces,  Kirchwerder,  Altengamm,  Neuengamm,  and  Curslac,  in  the 
domain  of  Bergedorf,  which  is  possessed  by  Hamburg  jointly  with  Lübeck, 
are  called  "Vierländer"  (Four- Landers).  These  four  lands  are  a  fruitful 
district  on  the  Elbe,  and  here  the  cultivation  of  vegetables  and  fruit,  as  well 
as  of  flowers,  is  practised  in  a  superior  manner.  Many  a  farmer  sells 
annually  20,000  to  30,000  pounds  of  cherries  at  Hamburg,  where  straw- 
berries from  the  same  region  of  the  value  of  50,000  to  60,000  marks 
($14,300  to  817,000)  are'  also  sold  in  a  year.  Cattle  breeding  is  also 
carried  on  here,  and  the  Vierland  cows  are  large,  handsome,  and  good 
milkers.  The  inhabitants  of  Vierland,  who  are  distinguished  by  their 
peculiar  fashion  of  dress  and  ceremonies,  are  probably  the  descendants  of 
colonists  who  immigrated  in  the  twelfth  century  from  the  Netherlands. 
PL  3,  figs.  4  and  5,  represent  a  Vierland  man  and  woman.  The  man 
has  on  an  ordinary  round  hat;  a  red  waistcoat,  with  two  rows  of 
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ETHNOLOar  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  139 

metal  buttons ;  a  blue  jacket ;  short  black  breeches  with  metal  buttons,  and 
black  stockings.  The  Vierland  peasant  woman  is  distinguished,  in  the  first 
place,  by  a  peculiar  straw  hat,  which  is  turned  high  up  and  then  bent 
down  again.  The  hair  is  plaited  into  long  braids,  which  hang  down. 
Bows  of  black  riband,  with  long  tips,  adorn  the  neck.  A  jacket,  a  short 
full  petticoat,  an  apron,  and  black  stockings  complete  the  dress. 

The  Holsteiners  are  a  vigorous,  well  set,  very  healthy  race,  and  the 
peasants  support  themselves  by  horse-dealing,  cattle  breeding,  and  the 
extensive  cultivafion  of  grain  and  rape-seed.  Holstein  butter  is  celebrated. 
PL  3,  ßg.  2,  gives  us  a  picture  of  a  Holstein  butter  woman,  who  is 
especially  distinguished  by  a  round  hat,  about  which  is  bound  a  broad 
black  riband  with  bows.  The  remainder  of  the  attire  has  in  it  nothing 
peculiar. 

The  East  Friesians  are  a  people  who  love  truth  and  rectitude,  and  who 
are  loyally  attached  to  their  native  country.  They  are  straightforward 
and  guileless ;  serious  and  discreet ;  devoted  to  that  which  is  ancient  and 
mistrustful  of  innovations,  but  when  the  latter  have  been  once  tested, 
they  introduce  them  energetically.  They  are  withal  frugal,  temperate, 
chaste,  hospitable,  but  in  a  measure  still  very  superstitious.  The  mode 
of  life  and  disposition  certainly  differ  in  different  districts,  but  in  the 
interior  the  ancient  character  and  manner  of  life  are  still  the  most  preva- 
lent. Fig.  6,  a  female  peasant  of  Saterland  in  East  Friesia  (in  the  Grand 
Duchy  of  Oldenburg).  The  people  of  Saterland  are  single-minded,  good- 
hearted,  friendly  men,  who  are  strongly  attached  to  their  old  customs  and 
usages,  to  their  ancient  rights  and  liberties.  The  woman  here  represented 
is  in  her  Sunday  dress,  intending  to  go  to  church.  She  has  on  a  white 
cap,  with  red  ribands  upon  it ;  a  red  jacket  and  a  red  petticoat ;  black 
sleeves  on  the  fore-arms,  besides  a  fancy-colored  handkerchief  over  the 
bosom,  and  a  green  apron  tied  around  the  waist.  Fig,  7  gives  the  picture  of 
a  servant  girl  from  Leer,  a  Hanoverian  town  on  the  Leda,  thirteen  miles 
south-east  from  Emden,  and  thirty  from  Oldenburg.  Maritime  trade 
is  brisk  at  this  place,  where  there  are  also  considerable  linen  factories 
and  horse-markets.  The  servant  girl  here  represented  has  over  the 
brown  or  generally  dark-colored  petticoat,  a  short  garment  which 
reaches  only  to  the  knees,  with  short  sleeves,  and  cut  out  a  little  at  the  top. 
The  hair  is  worn  parted  on  the  crown  and  tucked  up  behind.  A  long 
green  apron  is  tied  around  the  waist.  The  fish-women  of  East  Friesl^nd 
(ßg,  8)  wear  red  petticoats,  black  bodices,  and  no  neckerchiefs ;  a  straw 
hat  with  red  ribands  and  red  trimmings ;  grey  stockings  and  coarse  fisher- 
men's shoes,  turned  up  high  in  front. 

The  Middle  Germans  also  display  many  differences  among  them- 
selves ;  and  their  manners,  customs,  costumes,  and  language,  are  merging, 
at  the  north  and  south,  into  those  of  the  North  and  South  Germans.  The 
two  principal  portions  are  the  Thuringian  Upper  Saxon  and  the  Hessian 
group  of  territories.  The  former  consists  of  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony,  around 
which  are  grouped  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Saxe- Weimar  and  the  Saxon 
Duchies,  and  the  Principalities  of ^  Schwarzburg  and  Reuss  ;  and  the  latter 

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140  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

extends  upwards  on  the  Eder,  Fulda,  and  Werra,  and  downwards  on  the 
Lahn,  and  penetrates  like  a  wedge  into  Franconia.  It  includes,  how- 
ever, also  the  districts  of  the  Westerwald-Taunus  (Nassau),  the  Bavarian 
Palatinate  of  the  Rhine,  Birkenfeld,  Nahland,  Saarland,  and  Luxem- 
burg. The  political  boundary  lines,  indeed,  cut  in  the  midst  the  natural 
division  lines  of  the  people.  On  the  whole,  the  Middle  Grermans  inhabit  a 
beautiful,  large,  and  favored  territory. 

The  Saxons  received  their  name  only  at  a  late  date.  Until  the  tenth 
century,  Slavonic  stocks  (the  Sorben  Wendes)  inhabited  the  land  of 
Saxony.  Conquered  by  Henry  I.,  a  portion  became  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity, part  of  them  adopting  German  manners  and  intermingling  with  the 
Germans ;  others  remained  unmixed,  as  we  find  even  now  in  Saxony, 
especially  in  Upper  Lusatia,  near  50,000  Slavonians  (Wendes),  who  retain 
their  peculiar  customs  and  language.  The  name  Saxony  was  first  given 
to  their  possessions  upon  the  Middle  Elbe  by  the  Ascanians  when,  at  the  fall 
of  Henry  the  Lion  (1180),  the  great  old  Saxon  duchy  was  dismembered. 
From  the  Ascanians,  through  Frederick  the  Warlike,  the  Margraves  of 
Meissen  received  the  Ascanian  electoral  dignity,  the  Ascanian  coat  of  arms, 
and  the  name  Saxony.  "  They  are,"  says  Duller,  "  a  lively,  sociable 
race,  exceedingly  capable  of  improvement,  in  whom  a  transition  from 
the  corporeal  structure  of  the  North  to  that  of  the  South  is  perceptible. 
They  possess  great  industry  and  aptitude ;  are  careful  as  to  what  they  do 
and  what  they  leave  undone ;  upright  in  their  intentions  and  actions ; 
respecters  of  the  laws;  brave  in  war;  conscious  of  iheir  own  powers, 
without  presumption  or  vanity ;  of  yielding  disposition,  without  weakness ; 
tractable  and  civil ;  obliging  and  agreeable,  without  being  inclined  to  yield 
what  is  due  to  themselves." 

Gotzinger  remarks  with  reference  to  the  Upper  Saxon  dialect :  "  It  pre- 
vails in  Thuringia  and  the  old  Margraviate  of  Meissen,  and  has  dso 
been  spread  over  Upper  Lusatia  and  Silesia.  With  very  immaterial 
alterations,  it  appears  to  be  the  same  everywhere,  great  as  is  the 
extent  of  the  country  throughout  which  it  is  spoken,  and  presents,  at  all 
events,  fewer  variations  and  changes  than  the  Franconian.  Only  in  the 
modulation  of  the  voice,  and  the  high  and  deep  utterance  of  the  vowels,  do 
the  Thuringians,  the  people  of  Meissen,  the  Lusatians,  and  the  Silesians 
diflfer  from  each  other ;  the  relation  of  sounds  and  grammatical  structure  are 
essentially  alike  everywhere."  Whether,  however,  an  original  Thuringian 
dialect  forms  the  basis  of  this  Upper  Saxon,  or  whether  the  entire  idiom 
has  arisen  from  an  intimate  union  of  the  Franconian  with  the  Lower  Saxon, 
Gotzinger  leaves  undecided ;  he  thinks,  however,  that  Thuringia,  at  all 
events,  appears  to  be  the  native  place  of  this  dialect,  since  German  stocks 
always  lived  here ;  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  Meissen  was  wrested  from  the 
Slavonians,  and  peopled  with  Thuringians  and  Saxons.  Gotzinger  desig- 
nates the  Upper  Saxon  dialect,  moreover,  as  an  intermediate  one  between 
the  high  and  low  German  ;  the  skeleton  being  high  Grerman,  the  idiom 
and  construction  a  low  German  dialect.  The  Saxons  are  attached  with 
extraordinary  fervor  to  the  land  of  their  birth,  and  are  less  inclined  to 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  141 

emigrate  than  the  people  in  South  Germany.  The  mountaineers,  who,  for 
the  most  part,  are  poorer  than  the  inhabitants  of  the  fertile  plains,  are  more 
good-natured  and  more  complaisant,  but  more  sensual  also,  than  the  farm- 
ing peasantry  of  the  low  lands.  The  popular  festivals  most  generally  kept 
are  the  anniversaries  of  church  consecrations  (church-ale)  and  target 
shooting,  which  is  carried  on,  on  a  grand  scale. 

The  Wendes  are  less  refined,  but  industrious  and  temperate,  frugal 
and  hospitable.  They  are  a  vigorous  kind  of  men,  and  their  language  is 
melodious  and  energetic.  In  their  manners  and  customs  they  have  many 
peculiarities.  At  the  birth  of  a  child,  the  midwife  goes  out  to  invite  the 
sponsors.  In  case  the  child  is  a  boy,  she  holds  in  her  hands  a  small  black 
rod ;  if  a  girl,  a  white  one,  or  else  merely  a  white  cloth.  After  the  chris* 
tening  of  the  child,  she  takes  it  back  to  its  parents,  bringing  at  the  same 
time  the  presents  of  the  sponsors,  to  which,  when  it  is  a  boy,  are  added 
nine  kinds  of  seeds  ;  when  a  girl,  a  sewing  needle  and  a  few  grains  of  flax- 
seed. When  giving  invitations  to  a  weddingr  the  bridegroom  and  the 
inviters  (Hochzeitbitter)  appear  in  black  attire,  upon  black  horses  adorned 
with  variegated  ribands  :  it  is  only  in  case  the  bridegroom  is  poor  that 
they  appear  on  foot.  On  the  wedding  day  the  bride  wears  a  black 
coat  lined  with  fur,  a  black  velvet  cone-shaped  cap,  upon  which  is 
placed  a  broad  brass  ring  studded  with  stars,  and  a  green  or  red  silk 
crown.  The  two  plaits  of  hair,  which  hang  down  below  the  bridal  cap, 
are  bound  around  with  a  green  silk  riband.  Strings  of  coral,  and  gold  or 
silver  chains  with  old  coins,  decorate  the  neck.  When  the  procession  pro- 
ceeds to  church,  the  bride  is  attended  by  a  troop  of  bridesmaids  dressed  like 
herself,  and  the  bride-mother  or  Salzmäste  (literally  salt  box),  which  latter 
personage,  upon  the  return,  throws  out  cakes  and  small  pieces  of  money. 
Musicians  marching  in  front  play  the  bridal  march.  Among  rich  Wends 
many,  among  poor  ones  few  dishes  are  customary,  and  after  every  course 
the  guest  cleans  his  wooden  platter  with  a  piece  of  bread.  The  bride  holds 
the  slice  of  bread  first  cut  off,  and  preserves  it  carefully,  as  hidden  virtues 
are  ascribed  to  it.  After  the  eating  comes  dancing.  At  the  home-bringing 
of  the  bride  to  her  future  dwelling,  she  sits  upon  a  wagon  packed  with 
her  entire  effects,  and  gives,  as  a  present,  to  the  first  person  who  meets 
her  in  the  yard  of  her  new  residence,  a  loaf  of  bread,  and  to  the  others 
beer  out  of  a  milk  vessel. 

The  Prussian  Province  of  Saxony  comprehends  very  different  stocks  of 
people.  It  consists  of  that  portion  which  formerly  belonged  to  the  Kingdom 
of  Saxony,  and  which  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna  fell  to  the  share  of 
Prussia,  and  of  the  Altmark  fused  into  the  governmental  district  Magde- 
burg. Ancient  and  modern  Saxon  and  Thuringian,  as  well  as  ancient 
German  and  Slavonic  manners,  are  here  combined. 

The  Thuringian  stock  is  a  peculiar  one,  and  inhabits  the  Province  of 
Saxony,  the  Grand  Duchy  Saxe- Weimar,  the  Duchies  Saxe-Meiningen- 
Hildbui^hausen  and  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  ;  also  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, 
Sondershausen,  and  Electoral  Hesse.  The  Thuringian  post^esses  a  true 
Grerman  character ;  he  is  faithful  and  honest ;  makes  use  of  but  few  words, 

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142  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

but  his  word  once  given  is  sacred.  His  inextinguishable  love  of  home  is 
still  stronger  than  his  genuine  German  migratory  inclinations  ;  he  respects 
and  exercises  hospitality ;  is  industrious,  and  manifests  at  the  same  time 
lively  enjoyment  of  life,  good  sense,  and  ability.  In  the  eastern  part  of 
the  Thüringer- Wald,  old  persons  still  wear  leather  breeches,  long  dark-colored 
coats,  with  large  polished  or  mohair  covered  buttons,  shoes  with  buckles, 
and  a  large  triangular  hat;  whilst  the  village  youths,  throughout  almost 
the  whole  of  Thuringia,  wear  a  species  of  plain  national  dress,  boots,  long 
pantaloons  of  cloth  or  summer  stuff,  a  green  or  brown  jacket,  and  a  light 
cloth  cap ;  in  Franconia  the  fur  cap  also.  A  prominent  part  of  the  female 
dress  is  an  expensive  cap,  made  of  velvet  or  silk,  with  genuine  gold  and 
silver  embroidery,  and  an  abundance  of  bows  of  riband.  The  Franconian 
females  wear  a  large  straw  hat  in  the  form  of  a  great  hood,  which  for 
girls  is  mostly  trimmed  with  green  riband  and  rosettes,  for  women  and  for 
persons  in  mourning  with  black  riband.  A  handkerchief  wound  round  the 
head  in  the  manner  of  a  Durban,  the  broad  points  of  which  fall  down  on 
the  nape  of  the  neck,  is  also  often  worn  instead  of  the  hood.  The  bodice 
of  girls  is  mostly  fancy  colored,  that  of  women  dark  colored  ;  the  full  heavy 
frock  of  cloth  or  some  other  woollen  fabric  is  green,  with  light  green  trim- 
ming. In  Gotha  countrymen  wear  a  coat  woven  of  wool  and  flax  (linsey- 
woolsey),  or  an  ordinary  peasant's  coat  of  cloth.  Under  this  they  have  a 
fancy  colored  waistcoat,  and  yellow  leather  breeches.  Over  it,  when  about 
to  attend  to  business  out  of  the  house,  the  peasant  throws  a  white  or  blue 
linen  frock,  shaped  like  a  shirt.  Grey  cloth  or  white  linen  gaiters  cover 
the  legs.  The  women  generally  wear  dark  green  or  dark  blue  cloth,  frieze 
or  linsey-woolsey  petticoats,  trimmed  with  light  blue  and  green  ribands ; 
out  of  doors,  a  yellow  straw  hat  and  black  cloak.  The  bridal  dress  consists 
of  a  red  head-dress  of  riband,  lying  evenly  around  the  bound  up  hair,  upon 
which  is  placed  the  wreath,  a  black  bodice,  long  very  full  petticoat,  and  a 
black  jacket  with  wide  sleeves,  and  trimmed  with  strips  of  yellow  velvet. 
From  the  left  to  the  right  side  depends  a  belt  of  linked  plates  of  silver  with 
a  gilt  clasp ;  at  the  place  where  it  hangs  lowest,  a  key  and  handkerchief 
are  fastened.  Blue  velvet  muffs  or  gloves,  tipped  with  marten's  fur,  cover 
the  hands. 

The  female  peasants  represented  in  pi.  3,  fig.  1,  in  Sunday  dress  are 
from  the  neighborhood  of  Erfurt.  They  wear  the  above  mentioned  cap» 
of  black  color  trimmed  with  ribands  ;  variegated  kerchiefs,  plain,  colored, 
or  figured  long  sleeved  jackets,  with  a  large  turned  over  collar;  under 
the  latter  a  tucker ;  and  besides  these  articles,  a  frock  and  apron  with  or 
without  trimming. 

Thuringia  abounds  in  popular  festivals,  and  also  in  peculiar  local  gather- 
ings, of  which  fairs,  shooting  targets,  and  church-ale  are  the  principal 
ones.  The  Thuringians  are  fond  of  dancing  also,  and  their  favorite,  true 
national  dance  is  a  kind  of  figured  waltz.  Their  simple,  generally  melan- 
choly, and  love-breathing  popular  ballads  are  ever  sung  by  the  musical 
sons  and  daughters  of  Thuringia. 

The  peasants  in  the  Duchy  of  Saxe  AUenburg  are  a  species  of  people 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  143 

altogether  peculiar.  They  are  of  Sorben  Wendish  descent,  but  by  this 
time,  however,  have  become  fully  germanized.  PL  2,  ßgs,  28  and  24; 
give  us  a  representation  of  the  costumes  of  a  male  and  female  peasant  of 
Altenburg.  It  is  very  original,  and  even  children  wear  it  from  the  time 
they  are  three  years  of  age.  The  hair  is  cut  short,  and  round  ;  and  upon 
the  head,  as  an  esteemed  ornament,  sits  a  quite  low,  narrow  brimmed, 
black  felt  hat.  The  shirt  is  furnished  with  a  collar  resembling  a  border, 
embroidered  with  small  figures  of  white  linen  thread.  The  name  of  the 
owner  is  wrought  in  black  silk,  and  the  shirt  is  fastened  with  a  black  riband, 
and  a  buckle,  which  is  often  valuable.  Over  the  shirt  is  worn  a  broad 
black  vest,  which  is  edged  at  the  neck  with  red  cloth ;  and  over  this  are. 
veorn  suspenders  of  black  varnished  leather,  neatly  stitched  with  green  silk, 
and  held  together  in  the  middle  by  a  cross-piece.  Wide  black  buckskin 
breeches,  fastened  at  the  knee,  form  a  part  of  the  best  dress,  especially 
when  the  wearer,  on  holidays  or  at  weddings,  and  in  warm  weather,  throws 
off  his  upper  garment,  and  goes  in  his  fine,  very  wide,  finely  plaited,  snow- 
white  shirt  sleeves.  Over  this  under-dress,  the  peasant  wears  his  principal 
garment,  the  cape,  of  black  cloth,  lined  with  green  flannel,  with  three  neat 
plaits  upon  the  back,  reaching  from  the  short  waist  to  the  calf  of  the 
leg,  and  fastened  in  front  with  hooks  and  loops,  or  with  buttons.  Boots 
are  worn  on  the  feet,  laced  shoes  less  frequently,  and  then  generally  in 
summer.  When  the  more  aged  peasant  goes  to  town  he  carries  his  basket 
on  his  back,  and  has  an  iron  stick.  In  summer  the  peasant  has  another 
cape  of  very  white  cloth,  tight,  without  seam,  with  small  plaits  on  the 
shoulder,  wide  sleeves  growing  narrower  towards  the  hand,  trimmed  at- the 
end  with  black  leather,  and  adorned  with  velvet  cuffs,  which  reach  nearly 
to  the  elbows.  From  the  neck,  down  in  front,  the  white  cape  is  lined  with 
blue  striped  ticking,  or  some  other  linen  fabric  of  a  similar  nature,  some- 
times also  with  English  calico,  with  a  narrow  border  of  leather  or  velvet. 
Shoes  are  worn  with  the  white  cape.  The  peasants,  at  present,  also 
frequently  wear  a  cloth  spencer,  mostly  of  a  green  color,  which  is  always 
kept  buttoned  up,  and  in  winter  trimmed  with  fur  or  plush.  In  winter, 
and  in  rainy  weather,  a  large  cloak,  generally  made  of  green  or  dark  blue 
cloth,  or  a  species  of  blanket  coat,  is  also  worn.  Besides  these,  the  peasant 
often  wears  in  winter  a  coat  of  handsome  white  fur  on  the  outside,  and 
a  black  fur  cap,  upon  which  the  small  hat  is  squeezed.  Girls  wear  their 
hair  in  two  plaited  bands,  which  are  twisted  in  the  form  of  a  circle  around 
the  centre  of  the  head,  and  above  this  is  the  "  nest,"  which  consists  of  a 
band  of  pasteboard  about  two  inches  broad,  sewed  together  at  the  ends, 
covered  with  calico,  or  other  stuff,  beset  with  enamel  or  spangles,  and 
encompassed  by  a  rim  of  pasteboard  or  paper.  It  is  held  fast  by  an  iron 
or  brass  needle  (Senknale),  broad  at  both  ends.  Underneath  and  around 
the  nest  is  worn  a  black  riband  binding,  which  ends  on  the  forehead  in 
a  point,  and  at  the  place  where  the  ends  of  the  pasteboard  are  fastened  in 
a  neat  bow.  The  throat  and  back  of  the  neck  are  covered  with  a  collar 
and  ribands.  At  present,  the  girls  frequently  wear  a  variegated  hand- 
kerchief over  their  braids  in  winter,  from  the  knots  of  which  the  two  long 

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144  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

ends  proceed  like  wings.  Variously  ornamented  figured  sleeves  are  worn 
over  the  chemise.  The  two  ribands  hanging  down  from  the  collar  attached 
to  the  sleeves,  are  tied  under  the  chin  in  a  bow.  Then  comes  the  bodice. 
In  front  of  this  is  the  great  pasteboard  stomacher  covered  with  stuff  of 
some  sort.  This  covers  the  entire  chest,  is  flat  as  a  board,  and  stands  out 
so  far  that  nose  and  mouth  may  be  nearly  concealed  underneath  it.  On 
Sundays  or  holidays,  as  well  as  in  cold  weather,  a  jacket  is  put  on  over 
the  latter.  The  petticoat,  which  often  reaches  only  to  the  calf  of  the  leg, 
is  of  calico,  half  silk,  or  woollen  material,  and  is  made  with  many  gathers 
tightly  sewed  together.  Above  this  is  an  aproa.  For  mourning,  as  well 
as  in  old  age,  the  dress  is  black.  To  the  short  petticoat  belong  very  white 
stockings,  often  embroidered  and  open-worked,  with  handsome  figured 
garters.  The  shoes  and  slippers,  also,  are  frequently  beautifully  ornamented. 
Women  defend  themselves  against  the  weather  by  means  of  a  large  calico 
cloak,  or  a  cloth,  or  silk  upper  garment.  Maidens,  at  weddings,  or  when 
acting  as  godmothers,  are  distinguished  by  the  "  Hormt,"  a  headdress  in  the 
form  of  a  round  bandbox  without  bottom,  covered  within  and  without  with 
red  damask  or  velvet,  and  secured  by  ribands  under  the  chin.  Around  the 
Hormt  are  disposed  thirteen  silver  plates  or  tablets,  and  upon  every  one 
of  them  stand  three  rows  of  raised  silver  buttons.  Silver  plates,  heavily 
gilded,  hang  round  about  it  on  rings ;  and  behind,  on  the  Hormt,  are  two 
tresses  of  tow,  whigh,  bound  around  with  red  or  green  velvet  riband,  and 
arched  in  a  half  circle  above  it,  are  adjusted  at  the  forehead.  Between 
these  tresses  is  a  coronet  of  silver  tinsel,  set  off,  if  the  girl  is  a  bride,  with 
green  silk,  if  she  stands  as  a  godmother,  with  red  silk,  and  made  still  more 
gaudy  by  the  addition  of  gilt  beads.  Behind,  where  the  two  tresses  meet, 
there  is  a  red  silk  riband  bow,  and  another  underneath  it,  to  which 
are  attached  long,  flowing,  fancy  colored  ribands.  These  tresses,  when 
forming  a  part  of  a  bridal  dress,  are  green,  at  other  times  red.  A  Hormt 
costs  from  40  to  100  thalers  ($30  to  975),  and  on  this  account  passes  in 
the  family  by  inheritance,  or  it  is  often  lent  also  for  particular  occasions 
merely.  The  weddings  of  the  rich  are  celebrated  with  great  expenditure 
of  money ;  and  great  processions,  on  foot,  or  on  horseback,  or  in  wagons, 
accompany  the  groom  when  he  goes  to  fetch  the  bride.  At  such  times  the 
guests  meet  at  the  house  of  the  groom,  and  after  they  have  been  entertained 
with  cakes,  beer,  and  whiskey,  move  in  couples  on  foot  and  with  music,  to 
the  house  of  the  bride.  If  she,  however,  is  in  another  village,  they  ride  on 
horseback  often  to  the  number  of  fifty  or  sixty  men,  followed  by  forty  or 
fifty  women  in  wagons.  The  musicians  at  the  head,  on  horseback,  or  in 
wagons,  play  cheerful  airs ;  then  comes  the  inviter  to  the  wedding,  who 
leads  the  nearest  relations  of  the  groom ;  next  follows  the  groom  himself, 
with  his  two  groomsmen  (who  are  brothers  or  near  relations  of  his),  and 
finally  the  guests  above  referred  to.  All  the  horses  are  provided  with 
white,  yellow,  red,  and  black  harness,  adorned  with  ribands;  the  tail 
having,  moreover,  twigs  of  box  tree,  or  a  nosegay  of  flowers,  attached  to 
it.  Maidens,  adorned  with  the  Hormt,  accompany  the  bride.  Our  space 
will  not  permit  us  to  describe  the  wedding  festival  itself. 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  145 

In  the  house  of  an  Altenburg  peasant  great  neatness  and  order  usually 
prevail.  In  the  sitting-room  we  find  for  the  most  part  tables,  benches, 
and  chairs,  which  are  scoured  to  whiteness,  and  a  rich,  neatly-decked 
kitchen  rack.  The  copper  boilers  placed  in  the  tiled  stove  are  highly 
polished.  There  are  no  true  popular  festivals  in  this  part  of  the  country ; 
besides  the  three  high  holidays,  church-ales,  betrothals,  weddings,  movings 
of  new  married  people,  and  christening  festivals,  only  small  family  parties, 
cherry-gatherings,  harvest-homes,  &c.,  are  held  in  taverns.  There  is  much 
dancing  indeed  at  these  festivals,  but  the  peculiar  national  dances  have 
gone  out  of  fashion.  Card  playing  is  a  favorite  amusement,  and  high  play, 
we  are  sorry  to  say,  often  occurs.  Altenburg  peasants  know  how  to  live 
well,  and,  especially  when  they  pay  a  visit  to  town,  spend  a  great  deal  of 
money.  The  country  people  of  Altenburg  are  divided  into  three  classes. 
At  the  head,  as  the  most  opulent,  stand  the  large  farmers,  and  farmers  on  a 
smaller  scale  but  who  still  keep  houses.  The  second  class  are  farmers 
who  cultivate  rented  land,  gardeners,  and  cattle-breeders ;  and  the  third 
class  are  cottagers  who  neither  own  nor  rent  land,  but  have  the  use  of  a 
cottage  and  a  plot  of  ground  on  the  farm  of  a  first  class  peasant,  paying  an 
equivalent  in  the  shape  of  labor.  • 

The  Silesian.  In  very  ancient  times  Silesia  became  inhabited  by  the 
Lygines  and  Quadi,  who  in  the  sixth  century  were  dispossessed  by  the 
Slavonians,  in  consequence  of  which  the  country  afterwards  fell  to  the 
Poles.  The  name  Silesia,  is  derived  from  the  Slavonic  word  "  zle,"  which 
is  the  Polish  translation  of  the  word  qruzd  (bad).  Under  the  Polish  rule 
Christianity,  and  also  the  Polish  language  and  customs,  were  introduced. 
The  present  inhabitants  are  partly  Germans,  partly  Slavonians  of  the 
Polish  stock  ;  in  Lusatia,  however,  also  Wendes.  The  Slavonians  on  the 
right  side  of  the  Oder  are  more  fully  germanized,  those  living  on  the 
confines  of  Poland  and  in  Upper  Silesia  the  least  so.  Here,  as  every- 
where, the  Germans  are  distinguished  above  the  Slavonians  by  industry 
and  greater  civilization.  To  proceed:  Silesia  consists  of  the  Duchy  of 
Silesia,  the  County  of  Glatz,  the  Prussian  portion  of  Upper  Lusatia,  and 
an  unimportant  part  of  New  Mark.  The  Duchy  of  Silesia  is  usually 
divided,  in  ordinary  acceptation,  into  Upper  and  Lower  Silesia.  Lower 
Silesia  extends  from  Brieg,  upon  both  sides  of  the  Oder,  as  far  down  as 
the  borders  of  Brandenburg ;  Upper  Silesia,  on  the  other  hand,  forms 
the  south-eastern  part  of  Silesia,  on  the  confines  of  Moravia.  The 
principalities  of  Troppau,  Jagemdorf,  and  Neisse,  and  some  other  small 
principalities  of  Upper  Silesia,  belong  to  Austria.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
Riesengebirge  (Giant  Mountains)  are  strong,  slender,  and  hale ;  temperate, 
industrious;  pure  in  morals,  benevolent,  and  religious,  but  credulous  and 
superstitious  also.  The  rural  population  still  attach  credit  to  the  legend  of 
Number  Nip.  The  dress  of  the  men  is  a  blue,  green,  or  grey  cloth  coat, 
reaching  to  the  thigh  or  to  the  knee;  a  cloth  waistcoat,  short  black  or 
yellow  breeches,  grey  or  white  woollen  stockings,  and  a  triangular  felt 
bat.  To  these  are  added  shoes  with  nails ;  and  in  snow,  snow  hoops ;  on 
^azed    frost,  ice-spurs.    The  snow  hoops    are  mostly   made  of   tough 

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146  •      HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

pine  twigs.  They  are  about  ten  inches  in  diameter,  and  are  interwoven  on 
the  inside  with  cord.  One  of  these  hoops  is  laid  flat  under  each  foot,  and 
fastened  to  it  with  strings,  by  means  of  which  the  sole  obtains  a  greater 
surface  and  cannot  easily  sink  in  the  deep  snow.  When  the  people  cross 
the  mountains  they  make  use  for  support  of  a  smooth  pine  stick  about 
five  Bohemian  feet  long  and  an  inch  and  a  half  thick.  The  women  wear  a 
cloth  bodice,  with  a  large  flat  stiff*  stomacher;  a  short-sleeved  chemise, 
fastened  at  the  throat  with  a  pin ;  around  the  neck  and  bosom  a  hand- 
kerchief of  printed  linen ;  a  grey  or  gay  colored  woollen  petticoat  which 
reaches  to  the  heels ;  and  an  under-jacket  mostly  of  black  stufl*,  woollen 
stockings,  and  shoes.  Unmarried  women  wear  the  head  bare,  and  the  hair 
twisted  in  braids,  which  are  wound  into  a  nest  around  the  crown  of  the 
head  ;  married  women  wear  caps  of  white  or  figured  linen,  and  both  classes 
when  at  work  tie  a  handkerchief  around  the  head.  The  mountaineer 
builds  his  house,  very  judiciously,  upon  the  grassy  declivity  of  the  moun- 
tain. The  architecture  and  size  of  the  house  are  very  much  the  same 
throughout  the  Riesengebirge,  and  *'  baude"  (booth)  is  the  universal  name 
of  these  houses.  Except  a  stone-walled  terrace  which  forms  the  foun- 
dation,* all  the  rest,  for  the  sake  of  greater  warmth,  is  built  of  wood. 
Boards  closely  joined  together  form  the  walls,  the  seams  of  which  are 
stufled  with  moss,  and  sometimes  plastered  over  with  loam.  In-doors  the 
walls  are  lined  with  boards,  partly  for  the  sake  of  greater  cleanliness,  but 
more  for  warmth,  and  the  floor  is  planked ;  the  outside,  on  the  west  and 
north  sides  of  the  house,  is  covered  with  shingles.  The  sitting-room 
occupies  the  smaller  half  of  the  house,  and  in  it,  even  in  summer,  the  fire  is 
kept  burning  in  the  large  brick  stove.  Before  it  are  the  entrance  hall  and 
kitchen,  with  the  dairy  adjoining.  From  the  hall  there  is  an  entrance 
into  the  stable,  which,  however,  has  another  entrance  at  the  front  of  the 
house,  through  which  the  cattle  are  driven  in  and  out.  The  inhabitants  of 
Upper  Silesia  are  also  a  vigorous  race  of  men.  PI  3,  ßgs.  9  and  10, 
represent  male  and  female  peasants  from  the  neighborhood  of  Krappitz. 
The  man  wears  a  fur  cap ;  a  short  coat  with  large  flaps,  and  one  row  of 
buttons;  a  white  shirt  with  a  turnover  collar;  a  fancy  colored  hand- 
kerchief tied  around  the  neck ;  short  breeches  and  long  boots  ;  and  a  long 
coat  over  the  whole  dress.  The  woman  wears  a  cap  with  a  fur  border  ;  a 
jacket  with  a  large  collar  and  long  skirt;  a  tolerably  long  petticoat 
bordered  with  riband;  abroad  gathered  apron;  a  red  handkerchief;  and 
around  the  neck  a  scolloped  collar.  The  stockings  are  scarlet  colored,  and 
the  shoes  have  bows  of  bright  colored  riband. 

The  Bohemians  belong  to  two  diflferent  stocks,  the  Slavonic  and  the 
Grerman.  The  Bohemian  Slavonians,  who  constitute  the  fourth  part  of 
the  entire  population,  calling  themselves  Czeches  (Tchekes),  belong  to 
the  north-western  (Lechish)  stock  of  the  Slavonians,  and  their  language, 
of  all  dialects,  first  became  cultivated.  The  German  Bohemians  inhabit 
mostly  the  country  bordering  on  Bavaria,  Saxony,  and  Prussia,  and  their 
language  is  now  that  of  the  educated  people  of  the  country.  The  Czeches 
inhabiting  Bohemia  are  not  everywhere  idike.  In  the  north-east  we  find  a 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  147 

tall  stature  and  well  shaped  countenances,  which  is  not  the  case  in  the 
south-west.  The  Bohemians,  everywhere,  are  muscular  and  strong,  but  not 
obese.  The  German  Bohemians  are  somewhat  taller,  especially  those  who 
live  near  the  river  Eger,  who  are  a  hardy,  powerful  race.  True  national 
dress  is  seldom  found  in  Bohemia;  the  ordinary  German  style  prevails 
almost  everywhere.  The  Slavonic  inhabitants  wear  a  round  cut  coat, 
with  a  single  row  of  buttons,  a  very  low  collar,  and  many  gathers  at 
the  pockets ;  a  vest  with  pockets  and  one  row  of  metal  buttons ;  short 
breeches ;  woollen  stockings ;  a  low  round  hat  with  a  broad  brim,  or, 
instead  of  the  latter,  sometimes  the  old  fashioned  high  Slavonic  fur  cap 
The  hair,  in  south-western  Bohemia,  is  worn  long  and  combed  behind  the 
ears ;  in  the  north-east,  however,  it  is  cut  in  different  ways.  The  girls 
and  women  wear  a  high,  stiff,  and  tub-shaped  bodice,  reaching  to  the  nape 
and  chin;  very  full  skirts,  often  eight  or  ten,  one  over  the  other;  red 
woollen  stockings  with  white  clocks ;  shoes  with  bucHles,  or  sandal  slip- 
pers ;  a  silk  or  cotton  apron,  and  a  corset  with  a  round  falling  collar.  The 
hair  is  worn  in  braids,  through  which  silver  or  brass  pins  are  stuck ;  above 
tliese  is  placed  a  round  low  cap,  with  a  very  large  riband  bow  behind. 
Instead  of  the  cap,  girls  wear  a  bandeau,  the  broad  stiff  ends  of  which  stand 
out  on  both  sides  like  wings.  Around  the  neck  they  wear  strings  of  pearls, 
or  else  ribands,  on  which  hang  gold  and  silver  coins.  South  of  Prague 
wooden  shoes  begin  to  be  common.  The  German  inhabitants  are  easily 
nKSOgnised  by  the  dark  blue  coat  and  the  bright  red  waistcoat,  mounted 
with  polished  buttons.  The  triangular  hat,  with  the  flap  turned  down  in 
front,  with  them  takes  the  place  of  the  small  round  hat  of  the  Czeches. 
The  peasant  of  the  districts  near  the  Eger  remains  true  to  his  ancient  style 
of  costume  and  black  color  of  dress,  on  account  of  which  an  affinity 
between  him  and  the  inhabitants  of  Altenburg  may  be  presumed.  In  the 
circle  of  Pilsen,  particularly  in  the  principality  of  Chotieschau,  the  women 
ipi'  3,  ßg.  23)  wear  lace  caps,  with  broad  round  sides,  and  a  rosette  of 
riband  on  the  side,  and  which  are  tied  with  a  broad  «blue  riband.  The 
waist  is  very  short ;  the  blue  skirt,  trimmed  with  variegated  ribands,  reaches 
to  the  knee.  Under  this  frock,  however,  there  are  other  petticoats,  worn 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  cause  a  great  projection  behind.  On  the  bosom 
is  worn  a  white  chemisette,  and  over  this  a  red  handkerchief  bound  cross- 
wise. The  remainder  of  the  dress  consists  of  a  short  spencer,  turned  up 
with  red,  and  provided  with  short  skirts,  having  many  gathers,  and  stand- 
ing off  from  the  body.  Around  the  waist  are  bound  a  chequered  apron, 
and  a  girdle  embroidered  with  gold  and  silver.  The  stockings  are  scarlet, 
and  the  black  leather  shoes  have  large  green  riband  bows.  Their  baskets 
are  also  trimmed  with  a  number  of  light  colored  ribands.  Girls  wear  long 
plaits,  and  a  blue  riband,  in  the  manner  of  a  diadem,  around  the  bare  head ; 
and  at  the  back  of  the  head  long,  pendent,  variegated  ribands. 

The  male  dress  consists  of  a  broad  brimmed  round  hat,  with  a  broad 
band,  buckle,  and  lace  upon  it ;  a  figured  waistcoat  and  long  coat,  both  of 
them  bordered  with  red,  and  furnished  with  large  button-holes  embroidered 
with  green,  and  a  great  number  of  buttons  standing  close  to  one  another 

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148  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

(forty  on  the  coat  alone).  The  coat  is  lined  with  white.  Yellow  leather 
breeches  and  black  top  boots  cover  the  legs.  The  German  dialect  in  the 
circle  of  Pilsen  is  not  very  different  from  the  Franconian,  and  appears  to  be 
a  transition  from  the  latter  to  the  Saxon.  In  the  vicinity  of  Bunzlau,  the  male 
dress  consists  of  a  hat  with  broad  brim,  black  leather  breeches,  and  a  short 
dark  blue  coat.  The  women  wear  a  round  cap,  with  a  small  lace  border, 
lying  smooth  on  the  forehead  and  cheeks;  girls,  however,  wear  braids, 
which  are  wound  together  upon  the  crown  of  the  head  in  a  nest,  which  is 
held  by  a  pin,  and  over  this  is  a  handkerchief  The  remaining  attire 
consists  of  a  high  stomacher ;  fancy  colored  ribands  worn  on  the  shoulders ; 
a  short  full  skirt ;  red  stockings,  and  shoes  with  high  heels.  The  German 
inhabitants  of  the  central  Böhmer- Wald  are  of  middling  size,  fair-haired, 
and  of  muscular  form ;  sometimes  rough  in  manner ;  and  having  a  great 
predilection  and  considerable  talent  for  music  and  singing.  They  are  indus- 
trious and  pious  in  their  family  circles,  friendly  and  complaisant  towards 
their  neighbors.  In  them,  also,  the  love  of  travelling  is  united  in  a  peculiar 
manner  with  the  love  of  home.  The  male  dress  consists  of  short  black 
leather  breeches,  trimmed  at  the  seams  with  white  lace;  white  stockings 
with  shoes,  or  blue  stockings  with  half  boots,  which  fall  down  in  folds  below 
the  middle  of  the  calf;  a  crimson,  blue,  or  green  silk  waistcoat,  flowered 
with  gold  and  adorned  with  polished  buttons ;  a  loose  violet  blue  or  black 
velveteen  jacket,  reaching  to  the  hips ;  and  finally,  a  cloth  coat,  extending 
to  the  ankles,  with  a  narrow,  simple,  stiff-standing  collar.  A  crimson  hand- 
kerchief is  tied  around  the  neck ;  and  from  the  pocket,  on  the  right  side  of 
the  breeches,  projects  a  silver-mounted  case,  containing  a  knife,  fork,  ami 
spoon.  The  women  tie  up  the  head  in  a  check  handkerchief  which  entirely 
conceals  the  hair,  except  at  the  temples,  where  a  little  of  it  is  seen.  Their 
stuff  jacket  does  not  reach  entirely  to  the  hips,  is  much  cut  out  at 
the  bosom,  where  it  is  broadly  trimmed,  and  permits  the  chemise,  which 
reaches  almost  to  the  throat,  to  appear.  Under  the  jacket  girls  wear 
a  bodice,  which  is» black  or  red,  and  trimmed  with  a  gold  border.  The 
petticoat  formerly  consisted  of  strong  red  linen  stuff,  and  reached  scarcely 
to  the  calf  of  the  leg ;  at  present  it  is  longer,  and  composed  of  various 
materials.     The  stockings  are  most  frequently  white. 

The  Austrian,  in  general,  evinces  more  cheerfulness  and  genuine  good- 
nature than  earnest  depth  of  soul :  he  is  honest,  upright,  hospitable,  chari- 
table, and  intelligent.  In  the  revolutionary  movement  of  the  year  1848,  the 
truth  of  the  following  remarks  of  Duller  with  reference  to  the  Austrians,  was 
plainly  shown.  **  Happy,  thoughtless,  excessively  fond  of  pleasure,  as  is  the 
Austrian,  especially  the  Viennese,  we  must  not  nevertheless  believe  that  his 
love  of  show  and  enjoyment  of  every  description  impairs  the  clearness  of 
his  views  and  his  convictions.  A  strong  sense  of  right  especially  supports 
him,  much  as  he  has  become  accustomed  to  endure ;  and  in  the  cities, 
particularly  in  Vienna,  under  the  external  appearance  of  frivolity,  the  mind 
is  agitated,  imperiously  claiming  participation  in  the  promotion  of  the 
interests  of  the  German  people.  Powerful  as  this  instinct  is  in  the  very- 
heart  of  all  the  educated  classes,  their  patriotism  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  149 

and  honorable  characteristic  traits  of  the  Austrian,  is  no  less  ardent.  It  is 
not  only  the  soil  that  he  loves,  it  is  the  sacred  idea  of  the  Fatherland,  for 
the  sake  of  which  he  joyfully  meets  every  danger." 

The  inhabitants  of  Upper  and  Lower  Austria  are  not  only  distinguished 
by  the  different  dialects  spoken  by  them,  and  which  our  space  forbids  us  to 
characterize  in  this  place,  but  also  by  their  different  manners  and  costumes. 
There  is  even  a  marked  difference  among  the  Lower  Austrians  themselves, 
inhabiting  different  districts,  observable  not  only  in  dress  and  habits,  but 
even  in  bodily  form,  strength,  and  beauty.  In  the  central  part  of  the 
country,  the  dress  is  very  much  the  same  everywhere,  and  not  very  becom- 
ing. It  consists  of  handkerchiefs  (among  the  rich,  of  black  silk)  tied  around 
the  head,  with  the  two  long  ends  covering  the  neck ;  short  jackets  with 
short  waists  and  broad  shoulder-pieces,  variegated  handkerchiefs  around 
the  neck  and  bosom,  long  petticoats,  and  aprons.  The  men,  especially  the 
artisans  in  small  towns,  wear  cloth  caps,  or  old-fashioned  felt  hats,  coats  of 
medium  length,  and  short  or  long  breeches.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  moun- 
tains and  in  the  mountains  themselves,  however,  the  peculiarities  of  the 
mountaineers,  or  inhabitants  of  the  neighboring  Alps,  may  be  observed ; 
in  the  same  way  the  vicinity  of  towns  is  found  to  influence  the  dress  of 
country  people. 

The  Upper  Austrians  are  a  very  susceptible  people  and  full  of  humor, 
as  well  as  industrious,  benevolent,  and  honest ;  in  them  cordiality  is  united 
with  prudence  and  activity.  They  understand  the  mode  of  cultivating 
their  beautiful  country  better  than  the  lower  Austrians,  and  are  more 
advanced  in  husbandry  generally  than  the  latter.  They  are  withal  a  hand- 
some, healthy  race  ;  the  beauty  of  the  women  of  Upper  Austria,  especially 
in  the  vicinity  of  Linz,  has  even  become  proverbial. 

The  people  of  Salzburg  are  able-bodied,  courageous,  and  of  a  poetical 
temperament.  PL  3,  ßg,  19,  represents  a  Salzburg  woman,  with  the 
becoming  cap,  rich  in  gold.  The  females  of  Linz  and  other  Austrian 
women  wear  a  similar  cap,  which,  however,  is  going  out  of  fashion.  The 
peasant  of  Pongau  in  Salzburg  (ßg.  16)  wears  a  broad  girdle  around  the 
waist ;  green  suspenders,  with  a  cross-band ;  a  waistcoat  with  two  rows 
of  buttons ;  short  black  breeches ;  white  or  grey  stockings ;  shoes ;  and 
a  brown  coat,  bordered  in  front  with  green,  without  lappels,  and  with  a 
short  collar.  The  hat  is  the  usual  round  one.  Fig.  17  represents  an  Upper 
Austrian  peasant  from  Lake  St.  Gilgen,  with  round  hat ;  short  red  waist- 
coat, trimmed  with  gold  lace ;  short  ordinary  blue  jacket  with  metal  but- 
tons ;  short  black  breeches,  with  broad  waistband,  trimmed  with  lace,  and 
either  tied  or  buttoned  at  the  knee ;  white  stockings,  and  half  boots  laced  in 
front  The  country  girls  on  Lake  Fuschl,  in  Upper  Austria  (ßg.  18),  wear 
a  round,  somewhat  broad-brimmed  hat,  a  low  stomacher  and  breast-piece, 
a  long  colored  frock,  and  a  blue  or  fancy  colored  apron.  Around  the  neck 
they  wear  a  broad  pearl  necklace,  with  a  large  locket. 

The  Styrians  belong  to  two  entirely  different  stocks,  the  German  and 
the  Slavonic ;  the  former  inhabiting  the  northern,  the  latter  (the  Wendes) 
the  southern  part  of  Styria.    The  Germans  speak  the  rough  and  harsh 

lOOVOeRAFHIC  SNOTOLOPiKDIA. — ^VOL.   m.  21  821 


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160  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

dialect  of  South  Grermany,  rich  in  obsolete  words  and  provincialisms,  but 
approaching  in  sound  to  the  true  Austrian  dialect.  The  whining,  sing- 
song enunciation  of  the  people  of  Middle  Styria  is  endurable  only  through 
habit.  The  Upper  Styrian  has  a  more  solid,  stronger  body,  and  better 
established  health  than  the  Lower  Styrian,  who,  owing  to  the  mildness  of 
the  climate,  and  his  less  burdensome  work,  is  taller  and  thinner,  but  less 
enduring.  The  upper  Styrian  still  retains  the  ancient  German  probity  in 
a  high  degree,  and  it  is  but  seldom  accompanied  by  rudeness.  In  the 
mountainous  tracts,  his  harmless,  gay  taste  is  displayed  in  a  great  love  of 
tinging  and  dancing,  and  in  the  characters  of  his  national  songs.  The 
tunes  of  the  dancing  music,  produced  on  a  kind  of  cymbal  (dulcimer), 
which  is  never  wanting  upon  such  occasions,  and  b&t  two  violins  and  a 
violoncello  in  addition,  are  mostly  taken  from  popular  airs.  Notwith- 
standing the  expressiveness  of  the  national  Styrian  dance  in  itself,  owing 
to  its  twisting,  turning,  entwining,  releasing,  withdrawing,  recovering,  and 
gentle  balancing,  the  dancers  are  not  satisfied  with  such  a  pantomime  of  jovial 
frolicsomeness  and  hearty  good  will,  but  will  often  intermingle  detached 
verses  of  songs,  and  jumping  up  will  clap  their  hands,  sing  a  snatch  from  a 
yodUng  song  (characteristic,  undulating  melody  of  the  mountaineers),  or 
utter  a  piercing  whistling,  the  embodiment  of  the  highest  glee.  The 
Upper  Styrian,  withal,  is  pious  even  to  bigotry  and  superstition,  but  also 
compassionate  and  charitable.  The  peasant  is  insolently  proud  of  his  rank 
in  life,  free  from  servility  to  his  superiors,  and  hates  nothing  more  than 
partiality.  Serenading  is  customary  in  Styria,  and  the  low  tones  of  the 
jew's-harp  attract  the  chosen  maiden  to  the  window.  Besides  singing  and 
dancing,  the  Upper  Styrian  is  passionately  fond  of  shooting  at  a  mark  and 
hunting.  The  dress  of  the  Styrians  varies  greatly  ;  the  Gterman  inhabit- 
ants dress  chiefly  in  the  German  style;  the  Wendes  adopt  partly  the 
German,  more  frequently  the  Croatian  dress.  The  costume  of  the  Upper 
Styrian  consists  of  a  dark  green,  or  brown,  or  grey  coat,  turned  up  with 
green,  green  suspenders  with  or  without  breast  straps,  black  leather 
breeches,  a  broad  leathern  belt,  tie  shoes,  and  large,  black,  often  tapering,  and 
high  hats.  He  adorns  his  hat  with  feathers  of  the  mountain  cock  or  heath- 
cock,  and  the  beard  of  the  chamois.  Instead  of  a  coat  he  sometimes  wears 
a  brown  or  grey  jacket  turned  up  with  green  {pL  3,  fig.  20)  :  the  hat  is 
sometimes  of  green  felt,  and  not  tapering,  but  on  the  contrary  becoming 
larger  towards  the  top,  and  having  a  broad  green  riband  and  a  large 
buckle.  The  women  {figs,  21  and  22)  wear  full  skirted  woollen  petticoats 
of  green,  brown,  or  black  colors,  a  variegated  stomacher,  a  colored  bodice, 
short  corsets  of  printed  linen  or  calico,  blue  linen  aprons,  red  or  green 
woollen  stockings.  On  the  head  they  wear  hats  of  felt  or  of  black  stuflF 
with  a  broad  plaited  brim,  or  a  black  cap,  either  conical  or  round,  and 
plaited,  bound  with  gold  lace. 

The  lUyrians,    The  northern  portion  of  the  Kingdom  of  Illjnria  consists 
of  the  Duchies  of  Camiola  and  Carinthia ;  the  maritime  country  consti- 
tuting the  southern  section.     Most  of  the   inhabitants   are  of  Slavonic 
descent,  the  Germans,  Italians,  &c.,  residing  here  being  much  inferior  in 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  161 

number  to  the  former.    The  Slavonians  living  in  Carinthia,  as  well  as  the 
people  of  Gaiithal,  Rosenthal,  and  Faunthal,  are  Wendes.     The  Grermans 
in  Carinthia  are  of  Franco-Boiish  descent.    Carniola  is  inhabited  almost 
entirely  by  Wendes,  who  are  usually  called  Carniolans ;  and  in  the  midst 
of  them  are  a  people  of  true  German  origin,  the  Gottscheers.     Slavonians, 
tc^ether  with  Karsti,  Istriani,  Liburnii,  Furlani,  and  some  others,  constitute 
the  inhabitants  of  the  greater  part  of  the  Illyrian  maritime  country.     The 
Slavonic   inhabitants  are  in  general  well  formed,  hale,  and  long  lived. 
The  German  Carinthians,  as  respects  externals,  bear  great  resemblance  to 
the  Styrians.     They  are  a  kind,  upright,  active,  industrious  people.     The 
Wendes  of  Carinthia  are  less  industrious  than  the  Grermans  of  the  same 
country,  and,  excepting  the  people  of  Gaiithal,  less  cleanly.     The  Carni- 
olans are  honest,  upright,  industrious,  and  gay,   but   at  the  same  time 
choleric  and  superstitious.     The  Gottscheer  is  considered  a  good-natured, 
frugal,  loyal,  pious  man.     The  character  of  the  inhabitant  of  the  Illyrian 
maritime  country  is  partly  the  Slavonic,  as  in  Carniola,  and  partly  passes  into 
the  Italian.     The  national  costume  of  the  Carinthian  resembles  in  general 
that  of  the  Styrian.     The  peasant  wears  a  short  woollen  coat  with  a  nap 
on  the  inside,  which,  in  winter,  is  exchanged  for  a  furred  smock-frock ;  a 
coarse  woollen  or  leather  jerkin,  with  one  row  of  buttons  in  the  middle ;  a 
black  handkerchief  tied  around  the  neck ;  short  leather  breeches,  in  the 
side-pockets  of  which,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  mountains,  a  knife 
and  fork  are  placed ;  white  stockings  ;  and  tie  shoes,  which  are  fastened  to 
the  feet  with  thongs.     The  female  peasant  wears  a  short  petticoat ;  shoes 
fastened  with  ribands ;  a  hood  that  lies  smoothly  upon  the  head,  and  which 
is  ornamented  all  round  with  riband,  or  instead  of  this  a  fur  cap.    On  the 
top  of  these  she  places  a  very  large  round  hat.     The  German  Camiolan 
generally  wears  a  red  jacket,  a  dark  brown  cloth  coat,  short  black  breeches, 
and  blue  stockings.     When  upon  a  journey,  the  Lower  Carniolan  carries 
the  "  torba"  (a  small  pouch) ;  the  Upper  Carniolan,  under  similar  circum- 
stances, throws  the  "bassaga"  (wallet)  over  his  shoulder.     A  black  silk 
hood,  trimmed  with  white  lace,  a  very  full,  black   over-gown,  and  red 
woollen  stockings,  constitute  the  usual  attire  of  females  of  Carniola.     The 
Gottscheer  of  the  same  country  {pL  3,  fig.  24)  belongs  to  an  industrious 
race  of  traders,  who,  at  home,  manufacture  linen,  wooden  ware,  sieves,  &c., 
in  large  quantities,  and  take  these  things,  or  southern  fruits,  olive  oil, 
rosoglio,  iron  ware,  and  other  articles,  to  the  fairs  all  over  Europe.     The 
Gottscheer  wears  a  broad-brimmed,  round,  low,  felt  hat ;  neck  and  breast 
generally  remain  bare.     He  also  wears  a  shirt  with  a  broad  collar  that  can 
be  turned  over  the  coat,  wide  coarse  cloth  pantaloons,  or  long  leather 
breeches  trimmed  with  riband.     With  the  latter  article,  low  shoes  with 
numerous  leather  thongs,  or  short  boots,  are  worn.     A  short  jerkin,  or  a 
short  whitish-grey  or  brown  cloth  habit,  without  gathers  and  pockets,  a 
broad  leather  girdle  around  the  waist,  and  (in  winter)  also  a  whitish-grey 
coarse  cloth  cloak,  complete  the  dress.    Women  wear  a  large  white  blanket 
around  them,  fastened  in  front  under  the  chin.     Their  hair  is  cut  short ; 
the  girls  only  wear  plaits.    A  long  chemise,  with  ruffled  wristbands  and 

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152  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

broadly  plaited  collar,  linen  petticoat  and  apron,  a  wide,  coarse  cloth  frock, 
without  sleeves,  over  the  articles  first  mentioned,  and  a  blue  or  black 
woollen  belt  around  the  waist,  constitute  the  attire  of  these  women. 

The  Tyrolese  are  divided  into  the  German  in  the  north  and  the  Italian 
in  the  south.     The  German  Tyrolese  are  handsome,  often  rather  lank,  but 
at  the  same  time  muscular.     They  have  small  eyes,  open  countenances, 
high  and  broad  shoulders ;  are  hale,  vigorous,  and  active,  to  an  advanced 
age.     Many  a  Tyrolese  mountaineer  might  serve  as  a  model  of  manly 
beauty  ;  the  women,  on  the  contrary,  are  but  seldom  very  beautiful.    Those 
of  the  district  of  Innsbruck,  however,  are  often  noticed  for  an  attractive 
physiognomy,  oval  face,  sometimes  dark,  sometimes  light  hair,  and  hand- 
some brown  eyes,  and  always  for  their  fair  skin.     In  other  districts,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  women  have  such  colossal  figures,  that  they  form  the  great- 
est contrast  with  those  of  Innsbruck.    The  dialects  of  Tyrol  differ,  but  may 
be  ranked  in  three  principal  groups :  that  of  Bregenz,  that  of  the  valley  of 
the  Lower  Inn,  and  that  of  the  valley  of  the  Zill.     The  first  is  of  Allemannic 
derivation,  and  still  has  many  ancient  German  forms  of  speech ;  the  second 
is  the  softest,  is  easy  and  careless ;  the  third,  on  the  contrary,  is  energetic 
and  harsh,  with  strong  accentuation  of  the  guttural  sounds.     The  two  last 
ones  are  made  up  of  Bavarian  roots.     The  dress  of  the  Tyrolese  is  pictu- 
resque, but  different  in  every  valley.    The  Passeyrian  {pi.  ^,ßgs.  12  and  13, 
man  and  woman)  has  his  brown  jacket  bordered  with  red  and  green  ;  his 
suspenders  are  brown,  and  his  green  hat  is  bordered  with  yellow.     Short 
black  breeches,  a  violet  breast-piece  under  the  suspenders,  a  broad  black 
leather  belt  around  the  waist,  white  stockings,  which  only  extend  from  the 
foot  to  the  upper  end  of  the  calf,  leaving  a  bare  space  below  the  knee,  and 
shoes  trimmed  with  red  ribands,  constitute  the  remainder  of  his  dress. 
The  women,  on  the  contrary,  are  unbecomingly  dressed,  as  the  large  thic^k 
quilted  cap,  open  jacket  with  short  sleeves  ruffled  at  the  wrists,  the  wide, 
long,  full  petticoat,  wide  apron,  and  the  waist  (anything  but  diminutive), 
give  them  a  very  awkward  appearance.     The  woman  of  Bregenz  {fig.  11) 
wears  a  similar  cap,  somewhat  more  conical,  a  long,  black,  full  petticoat, 
which  is  cut  out  angularly  at  the  breast  and  trimmed  with  a  border.     A 
piece  of  gold  embroidery,  or  a  white  chemisette,  is  displayed  above  this. 
The  gown  reaches  to  the  ankles.     After  those  of  the  Zill  valley,  the  women 
of  Bregenz  are  esteemed  the  handsomest.    The  inhabitant  of  the  Zill  valley 
{figs.  14  and  15)  wears  a  large  tapering  hat,  adorned  with  the  beard  of  the 
chamois,  flowers,  and  cock  feathers  ;  a  redbreast-piece,  bordered  with  yellow 
or  gold ;  a  coarse  brown  woollen  jacket ;  short  breeches ;  a  black  leather 
girdle,  embroidered  with  peacocks*  quills  (the  name  of  the  owner  being 
inserted  in  the  middle  of  it)  ;  white  stockings,  and  black  shoes  of  the  ordi- 
nary kind.     A  black  handkerchief  is  tied  around  the  neck.     The  women 
wear  green,  or,  more  commonly,  black  hats,  of  the  same  kind ;  the  remainder 
of  their  dress  does  not  differ,  at  present,  in  style  from  that  usually  worn 
in  Germany.     The  peasants  of  Botzen  wear  long  brown  coats ;  those  of 
Pusterthal,  short  breeches  and  jackets,  dark  vests,  black  leather  belts,  white 
or  blue  stockings ;  those  of  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Inn,  short  black  breeches, 
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scarlet  waistcoats,  over  which  green  suspenders  are  worn,  jackets  of  various 
colors,  green  or  blue  stockings,  and  broad-brimmed  black  or  green  hats, 
with  riband. 

The  uprightness  of  the  T3nrolese  is  well  known.  They  are  a  very  reli- 
gious people ;  industrious  and  frugal,  ingenious,  courageous,  and  high- 
minded  :  they  combine  with  the  love  of  their  native  land  a  great  propensity 
to  travel ;  are  always  of  a  cheerful  and  gay  disposition  ;  and,  like  the  Sty-* 
rians,  are  fond  of  singing,  yodeln,  whistling,  music,  and  dancing. 

The  Swiss  (with  the  exception  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  canton  Tessin, 
who  are  of  Italian  descent,  and  those  of  the  canton  Geneva,  and  the  people 
living  on  the  confines  of  France,  who  are  of  French  lineage)  are  likewise 
of  German  origin.  At  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  of  the  West,  the 
Alemanni,  Burgundians,  and  Ostrogoths  took  possession  of  the  almost 
depopulated  country,  permitting  the  aborigines,  the  Helvetians,  to  retain 
their  customs  and  laws.  By  this  means  the  different  tribes  became  inter- 
mixed, and  the  German  stock  remained  at  last  predominant.  The  Swiss 
appear  to  be,  in  general,  an  excellent  people ;  they  are  vigorous  in  body 
and  energetic  in  character.  The  women  are  generally  very  pretty,  and 
sometimes  even  of  exquisite  beauty,  a  remark  which  applies  particularly 
to  those  living  in  the  Hasli  valley  in  the  highlands  of  Berne,  as  they  exhibit 
softer  features  and  more  delicate  figures  than  the  women  of  other  cantons. 
The  Swiss  are  a  truthful  and  honest  people,  who  steadfastly  retain  their 
original  character,  and  are  immovably  attached  to  their  native  land,  and  to 
the  customs  of  their  forefathers,  from  whom  they  have  inherited  the  most 
ardent  love  of  liberty.  In  some  cantons,  manufactures  and  commerce, 
facilitated  by  excellent  highways,  are  in  a  most  flourishing  condition. 
Cattle  breeding  and  alpine  husbandry  form,  however,  the  principal  pursuits 
of  the  people.  The  cantons  Lucerne,  Schwytz,  Uri,  Unterwaiden,  Zug, 
Freiburg,  Solothurn,  Tessin,  and  Valais,  are  Roman  Catholic ;  Zurich, 
Berne,  Basle,  Schaffhausen,  Geneva,  and  Neufchatel,  are  Calvinistic ; 
Grisons,  St.  Gall,  Appenzell,  Glarus,  Thurgau,  Aargau,  and  Vaud,  profess 
different  creeds.  The  Roman  Catholics  constitute  about  three  eighths  of 
the  inhabitants.  The  male  dress  varies  less  than  that  of  the  female  sex, 
the  latter  being  different  in  almost  every  canton. 

After  the  foregoing  consideration  of  these  different  German  nations,  or  at 
least  nations  speaking  the  German  language,  we  proceed  to  view  them  in 
general,  with  reference  to  their  mental  and  bodily  condition.  Notwith- 
standing the  climate,  formerly  so  inclement,  has  become  mild  by  the  clearing 
of  the  forests,  and  in  spite  of  the  introduction  of  foreign  customs  and  vices, 
by  which  the  descendants  of  the  ancient  Germans  have  been,  in  a  measure, 
efeminated,  very  vigorous  forms  are  still  found,  especially  amongst  the 
mountaineers ;  and  fidelity,  honesty,  candor,  frugality,  and  industry,  are  the 
predominant  virtues  of  the  German  people.  Their  correct  judgment,  their 
perseverance  in  scientific  pursuits,  and  their  knowledge  obtained  by  these 
means,  are  productive  of  excellent  results ;  even  if,  in  consequence  of  the 
depth  of  their  researches  into  the  arts  and  sciences,  and  their  deliberateness, 
the  firuit  of  their  \qS)OT  is  of  slower  growth  than  is  the  case  with  other 

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154  •     HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

nations.  It  was  Germany,  principally,  that  formed  the  most  eminent  philo- 
sophers ;  and  in  no  part  of  the  world  is  so  great  care  bestowed  upon  a 
thorough  education  as  in  Germany,  although  it  yields  the  palm  to  the 
United  States  with  regard  to  the  general  instruction  of  the  masses,  due  to 
the  public  free  schools  of  the  latter  country. 

The  fine  arts  and  the  sciences,  commerce,  and  the  industrial  arts,  have 
always  flourished  among  the  German  nations  of  modern  times;  and  the 
great  prosperity  of  Germany  affords,  plainly  enough,  the  best  evidence  of 
their  mental  and  physical  activity.  In  spite  of  the  less  favorable  geogra- 
phical situation,  in  spite  of  the  wars  and  revolutions  which  have  raged 
among  them,  in  spite  of  the  internal  divisions  of  their  country,  they  stand, 
intellectually  and  physically,  on  a  level  with  the  people  of  the  most  favored 
country.  When,  moreover,  the  youth  continue,  as  they  have  already  com- 
menced, acquiring  activity,  strength,  and  health,  by  means  of  systematic 
bodily  exercises,  the  German  may  easily  invigorate  not  only  the  body,  but 
the  mind,  to  a  degree  never  before  attained.  The  experience  of  organized 
gymnasia  shows  that  the  mind  becomes  fresher  and  stronger  by  the  practice 
of  g}'mnastic  exercises,  which  have  been,  therefore,  wisely  adopted  as  a 
part  of  scholastic  training. 

Gymnastics,  according  to  the  best  authors  upon  this  subject,  is  the  art 
of  taking  bodily  exercise  according  to  certain  rules,  as  was  formerly  done 
in  the  gymnasia  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  hence  the  derivation  of  the 
name.  The  usual  gymnastic  exercises  are  :  (a)  lifting,  carrying,  and 
drawing ;  (h)  walking  with  grace  and  ease ;  (c)  running,  with  a  view  to 
rapidity  and  steadiness ;  (d)  jumping,  upwards,  horizontally,  and  downwards, 
with  or  without  a  leaping  pole ;  (e)  wrestling,  with  the  view  of  throwing 
the  adversary  on  the  floor,  or  of  snatching  something  from  his  hands; 
(/)  throwing  with  stones,  aloft,  to  a  distance,  or  at  a  mark,  with  or 
without  the  sling,  and  hurling  the  javelin  ;  (g)  climbing  up  a  pendent  rope, 
or  a  pole,  trees,  &c. ;  (Ä)  balancing  (the  art  of  equilibration)  of  the  body,  in 
standing  upon  one  leg,  or  standing  or  walking  upon  a  beam,  or  a  rope,  in 
running  on  stilts,  and  in  skating ;  (i)  dancing,  riding,  swimming,  and  fencing. 

At  the  gymnasium,  that  is  to  say,  the  place  prepared  for  the  practice  of 
gymnastic  exercises,  fixtures  adapted  to  the  various  exercises  are  usually 
found.  The  bars  and  horizontal  pole  are  altogether  peculiar  contrivances 
for  these  purposes. 

The  bars  consist  of  two  horizontal  parallel  rails,  eight  feet  in  length,  each 
of  which  rests  upon  two  posts.  The  rails  must  be  of  solid,  smooth,  sound, 
and  thoroughly  seasoned  wood.  Their  size  should  be  such  as  to  allow  a 
firm  grasp  of  the  hand ;  they  must,  therefore,  be  rounded  above,  and  not  so 
thin  as  to  hurt  the  body  when  a  person  places  himself  upon  them.  They 
must  also  be  properly  erected,  especially  with  regard  to  the  distance  between 
them,  which  varies  from  eighteen  to  thirty  inches,  according  to  the  age, 
size,  and  strength  of  the  gymnasts.  The  posts  must  not  be  broader  at  top 
than  the  rail,  but  must  increase  in  strength  downwards,  and  be  deeply  set 
in  the  ground,  so  that  they  may  stand  with  the  proper  firmness,  and  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  strongest  man  cannot  make  them  shake. 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  155 

The  horizontal  pole  should  be  at  least  two  inches  in  diameter,  entirely 
round,  six  to  eight  feet  long,  resting  horizontally  upon  two  posts,  similar  to 
one  of  the  sides  of  the  bars,  the  difference  consisting  in  the  perfect  round- 
ness of  the  pole  and  the  considerably  higher  posts,  which  are  also  much 
thicker  than  those  supporting  the  bars,  the  pole  being  set  in  them  near  the 
top,  not  upon  them.  The  horizontal  pole  must  be  so  high,  that  the  person 
standing  underneath  can  just  touch  the  b|tr  with  his  hands  extended  straight 
upwards.  The  pole  must,  of  course,  be  of  particularly  solid  wood,  and 
must  not  turn,  and  the  supporting  posts  should  stand  firm. 

The  simplest  and  easiest  exercises  upon  the  bars  are  :  (1)  swinging  to 
and  fro,  with  a  hand  upon  each  rail,  keeping  the  arms  and  body  entirely 
stretched ;  (2)  walking  on  the  hands,  one  on  each  bar,  the  body  perpendi- 
cular between  the  bars,  and  without  moving  the  feet ;  (3)  jumping  back- 
wards and  forwards  with  both  hands,  at  the  same  time,  the  body  and  feet 
following  the  same  rule  as  in  the  second  exercise. 

An  exercise  particularly  good  for  strengthening  the  chest  and  arms  is 
the  gradual  raising  and  lowering  of  the  body,  while  the  hands  remain  firmly 
upon  the  bars,  and  no  other  movement  being  allowed  to  the  legs  than  the 
bending  of  the  knees  to  avoid  touching  the  ground.  Swinging  and  rocking 
the  body  between  the  rails  is  also  a  very  healthy  exercise. 

The  exercises  upon  the  horizontal  pole  are  hanging,  swinging,  and  osciU 
lating,  which  admit  of  a  variety  of  the  most  difficult  feats. 

In  the  two  upper  panels  ofpL  4,  two  gymnasia  are  represented.  Figs.  1 
and  2,  are  the  two  positions  of  the  body  in  jumping  over  a  cord,  the  feet 
drawn  up  together  and  the  feet  stretched  apart ;  ßgs.  3,  4,  and  12  9,  are  the 
vaulting  horse ;  ßg.  3  representing  the  raising  of  the  feet  on  leaving  the 
saddle ;  ßg.  4,  the  vaulting  leap  with  closed  feet  over  the  crupper ;  ßg.  12  7, 
the  leap  up  from  behind.  Figs.  5  and  6  represent  leaping  with  a  pole, 
fig.  5  being  the  side  leap  (lengthways),  and  fig.  6  the  upward  leap  (over 
a  high  object).  Fig.  7,  wrestling,  one  of  the  combatants  being  in  the  a<jt 
of  lifting  his  opponent  from  the  ground ;  fig.  8,  dragging  a  load  up  a  hill ; 
fig.  9,  the  cord  stretched  by  weights  between  two  posts,  which  are  so 
arranged  that  the  cord  may  be  fastened  at  different  heights  between  them, 
by  way  of  practising  leaps  of  various  degrees  of  difiiculty ;  fig.  10,  standing 
upon  the  hands,  upon  the  bars,  thej  head  being  downwards  ;  fig.  11,  climb- 
ing forwards  upon*  the  rounds  of  a  ladder.  Fig.  12  a,  the  parallel  bars ; 
b,  horizontal  pole ;  c,  balancing  beam ;  d,  large  mast  with  cross-trees ; 
e,  posts;  /,  cross-beam;  g,  climbing  pole;  Ä,  leaning  pole;  i,  wooden 
ladder;  A,  rope  ladder;  /,  ropes;  m,  knotted  rope  (for  climbing);  n,  iron 
rings  attached  to  ropes,  used  for  swinging  suspended  by  the  hands ;  o,  hand 
staples,  and  p,  foot  staples,  for  keeping  the  body  extended  horizontally  in 
the  air  and  in  a  secure  manner. 

Balancing  arts,  as  they  are  often  exhibited  publicly  for  money  by  itinerant 
performers,  are  likewise  represented  in  pi.  4,  in  the  lower  panel.  Gymnastic 
performers  of  the  present  day  frequently  exhibit  dislocations  of  the  limbs 
the  most  contrary  to  nature,  so  that  all  the  limbs  of  the  body  appear 
inverted.     Feats  of  the  last  mentioned  kind  came  from  England  to  the 

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166  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

continents  of  Europe  and  America,  having  been  originally  brought  to  that 
island  from  the  East  Indies.  Somersets  form  part  of  these  feats,  and  we 
see,  for  example,  at  fig,  1,  the  backward  somerset  with  the  hands  on  the 
ground.  The  feats  of  the  Bedouins  which  were  exhibited  in  Europe 
originally  by  Bedouins,  for  instance  the  pyramids  represented  at  figs,  2 — 4, 
are  now  frequently  witnessed.  We  perceive  further  {fig,  5),  balancing 
between  two  chairs,  in  which  the*  equilibrist  holds  fast  on  the  cross-pieces 
of  two  chairs,  and  then  extends  his  body  in  the  air,  head  downwards,  and 
keeps  on  grasping  higher  and  higher  with  his  hands,  until  he  reaches  the 
topmost  rounds.  He  also  adjusts  himself  with  the  tips  of  his  toes  upon  the 
top  rounds  of  two  chairs,  which  he  then  pushes  slowly  from  each  other,  to 
such  a  distance  that  the  extended  legs  are  in  an  entirely  horizontal  position. 
Balancing  upon  the  hands  and  feet,  as  represented  at  fig.  6,  is  frequently 
seen  in  our  day ;  likewise  athletic  arts  of  every  sort,  especially  large  groups 
of  athletae,  in  which  the  athlete  {fig,  7)  supports  upon  himself  three  or  more 
persons  in  different  picturesque  attitudes.  The  bottle  dance  {fig,  8)  intro- 
duced from  England  into  other  parts  of  the  world,  is  a  feat  usually  shown 
at  exhibitions,  involving  the  very  difficult  task  of  balancing  on  the  necks 
of  bottles.  Among  equilibristics  belong  also  the  feats  of  jugglers,  which  are 
of  East  Indian  origin,  of  rope-dancers,  and  circus  riders.  In  the  latter, 
which  usually  take  place  only  at  public  exhibitions  of  itinerant  performers, 
the  rider  displays  his  dexterity  on  horses  trained  for  the  purpose.  He  shows 
his  skill  in  the  management  of  these  animals  by  standing  with  perfect  ease 
upon  a  horse  that  is  running  round  in  the  circus,  or  he  dances,  or  leaps,  or 
assumes  upon  its  back  the  mbst  difficult  attitudes.  The  English  are  parti- 
cularly expert  in  this  art  (an  art  practised,  however,  even  among  the  ancient 
Romans),  for  which  reason  equestrian  performers  are  frequently  called 
English  riders  in  some  parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe.  Of  late,  however, 
Frenchmen,  Germans,  Italians,  and  Americans,  have  successfully  rivalled 
the  English  ;  Frenchmen  especially  in  training  horses.  The  Italians  excel 
as  rope-dancers.  The  public  having  become  surfeited  with  performances 
of  this  kind,  it  is  essential,  by  way  of  compensation  for  the  necessity  of 
seeing  again  that  which  has  often  been  witnessed  before,  that  the  most 
exquisite  horses,  brilliant  ornaments,  and  gorgeous  costumes,  should  be 
produced ;  and  that  scenes  more  comprehensive  in  their  character,  in  which 
a  larger  number  of  performers  take  a  part,  should  be  introduced.  Noble 
and  splendidly  furnished  circuses  are  to  be  found  especially  in  London  and 
Paris.  PI,  5  represents  scenes  from  Franconi's  circus  in  Paris  ;^^.  1,  a 
waltz ;  fig,  2,  a  quadrille  on  horseback  ;  fig,  3,  Olympic  games. 

Childebert  I.  erected  a  circus  at  Paris  and  Soissons,  in  order  that  the 
taste  for  Olympic  games  might  in  this  way  be  revived  ;  but  his  plan  did  not 
prove  successful.  In  that  age  of  true  chivalry,  tournaments  alone  possessed 
attractions  for  the  people,  and  they  retained  their  charm  until,  in  conse- 
quence of  Berthold  Schwarz's  invention  of  gunpowder,  the  mode  of  carry- 
ing  on  war  underwent  an  entire  change,  and  genuine  knighthood  began  to 
decline. 

The  taste  for  riding  exercises  and  racing  became  common  at  an  early  day 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  167 

in  England,  and  soon  passed  over  to  France,  and  with  it  also  the  love 
of  equestrian  performances.  Large  companies  of  equestrians  were  formed 
in  the  latter  country;  and  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  our  time  is  that  of 
Franconi  &  Laloue,  who,  in  the  year  1845,  built  at  the  extremity  of  the 
Elysian  Fields  the  most  magnificent  circus  of  the  age.  It  was  capable 
of  seating  in  its  amphitheatre  more  than  15,000  spectators,  and,  although 
finished  with  painted  boards,  pasteboard,  and  paper,  afforded  a  capti- 
vating spectacle  by  reason  of  its  size  and  tasteful  aiTangements.  It  was 
burnt  to  the  ground  a  year  afterwards,  but  rebuilt  even  more  tastefully. 

The  Scandinavians. 

The  Scandinavians  inhabit  the  peninsula  of  Jutland,  the  Danish  islands, 
the  whole  of  Norway  and  the  southern  part  of  Sweden,  in  the  Scandinavian 
peninsula  proper,  as  well  as  the  maritime  provinces  almost  all  round  the 
Gulf  of  Bothnia ;  a  great  portion  of  the  northern  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Fin- 
land ;  also  Run  Island  and  a  small  part  of  the  island  of  (Esel,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Gulf  of  Riga.  In  Finland  and  Livonia,  also,  traces  of  their  former 
dominion  are  visible.  They  had,  in  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries,  but  one 
language,  the  Norman  or  ancient  northern,  the  language  of  the  skalds  in 
the  Edda.  They  are  at  present  split  into  three  divisions :  Norwegians, 
Swedes,  and  Danes.  The  Swedish  language  is  divided  into  the  pure 
Swedish  (the  written  language  of  the  country)  and  the  modern  Gothic, 
which  is  spoken  in  the  southern  part  of  the  kingdom.  In  like  manner,  the 
Danish  language  appears  to  be  divided  into  two  branches,  the  pure  Danish 
and  the  Norwegian,  which  are,  however,  essentially  the  same  languages,  all 
the  difference  being  in  the  enunciation. 

The  Swedes  have  a  tall,  slender  figure,  white  complexion,  blue  eyes,  and 
fair  or  brown  hair.  In  the  female  sex,  ease  and  grace  of  movement  are 
united  to  a  good  figure.  The  character  of  the  Swedes  is  firm  and  serious ; 
they  are  religious  and  fond  of  their  native  land,  their  laws,  and  liberty ; 
honest,  unselfish,  moral,  and  courageous,  and  at  the  same  time  hospitable 
and  communicative.  They  are  acute  in  judgment,  but  less  quick  of  com- 
prehension than  the  people  of  Southern  Europe,  and  are  slow,  also,  in  the 
undertaking  and  execution  of  their  designs.  The  Swedes  are  fond  of  music 
and  poetry.  The  educated  classes  are  very  refined ;  the  lower  ones, 
though  industrious,  are  poor  and  ignorant,  owing  to  their  frequent  excesses 
in  drinking. 

The  Norwegians,  although  they  are  not  favorably  disposed  towards  the 
Swedes,  resemble  them  very  much  in  their  mode  of  life  and  disposition ;  they 
are,  however,  more  vigorous,  still  more  serious,  and  also  more  temperate 
than  the  latter.  They  are  admirable  soldiers  and  still  better  sailors.  The 
majority  of  them  are  husbandmen,  and  men  of  this  class  usually  wear  a 
leather  or  coarse  cloth  jacket,  which  is  fastened  by  a  broad  girdle  orna- 
mented with  a  single  buckle.  Shoes  and  gaiters  generally  form  a  part  of 
the  holiday  dress  ;  a  broad  brimmed  felt  hat,  or  a  woollen  cap,  covers  the 
bead.     The  females  are  renowned  for  their  beauty  more  than  for  their 

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158  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

intellect.    Though  gay  and  fond  of  dressing  and  amusement,  they  are 
distinguished  for  their  moral  purity  and  domestic  virtues. 

The  Dalecarlians,  the  inhabitants  of  Dalecarlia,  a  province  in  the  north 
of  Sweden  (Norland),  have  tall  and  large  bodies,  powerful  but  slender  limbs, 
broad  foreheads,  deep-set  dark  blue  eyes,  high  cheek  bones,  full  lips,  and 
broad,  generally  cleft,  chins.  Their  long  legs  are  singular,  being  nearly 
without  calves.  The  women  are  somewhat  stouter  than  the  men,  and  have 
mostly  broad,  fresh  faces,  and  small  sparkling  eyes.  The  disposition  of  the 
Dalecarlian  is  serious,  quiet,  and  discreet.  The  sterility  of  their  soil  fre- 
quently compels  them  to  seek  employment  in  other  provinces,  often  at  a 
distance  of  two  or  three  hundred  miles  from  their  villages.  They  travel, 
thus,  for  example,  to  the  Lappmarks,  where  they  labor  in  the  smelting  works. 
Others  go  to  the  metropolis  (Stockholm),  and  take  with  them  for  sale, 
house  clocks,  wooden  utensils,  and  other  products  of  their  domestic  industry. 
They  are  everywhere  liked  on  account  of  their  honesty.  Their  dress  is 
mostly  the  Swedish ;  but,  in  some  valleys  of  Dalecarlia,  the  very  ancient 
white  national  dress  is  retained,  which  consists  of  a  cowl-like  overcoat  of 
heavy  white  woollen  stuff,  with  one  row  of  buttons  and  wide  sleeves,  knee 
breeches  of  the  same  material,  shoes,  and  stockings.  Women  and  girls 
dress  in  white  linen  jackets  and  caps,  white  standing  collars,  woollen  aprons, 
and  red  woollen  stockings.  Their  houses,  which  are  of  but  a  single  story, 
are  covered  with  shingles  and  painted  red  at  the  corners. 

The  Finns,  now  that  Finland  has  been  ceded  to  Russia,  are  to  be  found 
only  in  a  few  of  the  more  northern  provinces  of  Sweden.  They  are  vigor- 
ous, hale,  and  hardy,  and  have  round  full  faces  and  fiery  eyes.  They  are 
stern  and  rough  like  their  country,  frank,  hospitable,  obliging,  pious,  and 
inoffensive.  They  are  simple  and  frugal  in  their  way  of  living,  have  much 
taste  for  music  and  poetry,  and  are  skilful  in  mechanical  employments. 
They  are  engaged  chiefly  in  cattle  breeding,  but  attention  is  paid  also  to 
farming,  hunting,  and  fishing. 

The  Lapps  or  Laplanders  (pi  12,  fig.  5,  Laplanders  in  their  winter  huts) 
are  of  the  same  stock  as  the  Finns,  live  in  the  extreme  north,  and  have 
remained  until  the  present  time  without  the  admixture  of  any  other  people. 
They  call  themselves  Sami,  and  their  country  Samiland.  The  last  traces 
of  paganism  have  of  late  years  disappeared  from  among  them,  and  the 
entire  body  of  the  people  is  now  Christian.  They  are  small,  have  short 
slender  lees,  very  small  feet,  a  broad  depressed  face,  large  prominent  cheek 
bones,  and  brown  or  black  hair.  Their  eyes  are  dark,  and  are  frequently 
observed  to  be  bleared,  in  consequence  of  the  smoke  which  fills  the  huts 
of  these  people ;  and  the  opening  of  the  eyelids  is  long,  but  narrow.  The 
large  broad  ears  stand  off  from  the  head ;  the  mouth  is  small,  the  color  of 
the  face  yellowish-brown.  Their  body  is  not  vigorous,  but  very  hardy  and 
flexible,  and  hence  the  Laplanders  are  capable  of  enduring  very  great 
fatigues.  They  are  distinguished  also  for  agility,  and  are  usually  faithful 
and  honest,  gay  and  cheerful.  They  are  almost  always  laughing  and  sing. 
ing;  their  songs,  however,  are  very  monotonous.  They  are  very  com- 
municative, inquisitive,  and  timorous.  Riches,  which  among  them  consist 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  159 

almost  entirely  of  reindeer,  are  of  great  importance  in  their  eyes.  Upon 
the  whole  they  are  temperate,  but  still  very  fond  of  whiskey  and  tobacco ; 
and  both  sexes  smoke  and  chew  the  latter  article. 

The  Laplanders,  according  to  their  mode  of  life,  are  divided  into 
Mountain  or  Reindeer  Lapps,  Forest  Lapps,  and  Mendicant  Lapps. 
Herds  of  reindeer  furnish  the  first  class  with  the  means  of  subsistence.  In 
«ummer  they  go  into  the  mountains,  and  in  winter  roam  about  in  the 
Lappmarks,  on  account  of  the  wood  found  there.  Their  pyramidal  huts, 
which  are  set  up  at  their  different  places  of  sojourn,  are  about  six  feet  high, 
and  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  feet  in  cirtumference  at  the  base.  The  floor 
is  covered  with  twigs  of  the  birch  tree,  upon  which  reindeer  skins  are  laid. 
The  entrance  is  small,  and  covered  with  a  piece  of  cloth ;  and  there  is  an 
opening  above  at  the  apex,  through  which  the  light  enters  and  the  smoke 
passes  out.  Stones  are  piled  together  upon  the  floor,  in  the  middle  of  the 
hut,  in  the  form  of  a  parallelogram,  and  the  fire  burns  in  this  inclosed 
space.  When  a  place  of  residence  is  about  to  be  changed,  the  huts,  which 
are  constructed  of  poles  covered  with  coarse  cloth,  are  struck,  and  placed 
upon  reindeer.  Rich  Lapps  frequently  possess  upwards  of  1000  reindeer ; 
the  individual,  however,  who  does  not  own  more  than  100  head  is  con- 
sidered a  poor  man.  The  great  usefulness  of  these  animals  to  the  Lap- 
landers is  well  known. 

The  Forest  Lapps  have  smaller  herds  of  reindeer,  which  they  drive  into 
the  forests  to  pasture.  They  practise  fishing  besides,  and  the  Fishing 
Lapps  support  themselves  almost  exclusively  by  this  means.  The  latttir 
possess  but  few  reindeer,  which  are  pastured  by  the  Mountain  Lapps. 
The  Fishing  Lapps  have  both  large  and  small  boats  upon  the  lakes.  The 
larger  vessels  are  purchased ;  the  smaller,  which  are  built  by  themselves, 
are  fastened  together  only  with  ropes  and  roots  of  trees. 

The  Mendicant  Lapps  are  employed  as  herdsmen  or  day  laborers,  or  go 
begging.  These,  as  well  as  the  Forest  Lapps  and  Fishing  Lapps,  are,  for 
the  most  part,  impoverished  Reindeer  Lapps,  who  have  lost  their  cattle  by 
misfortune,  or  sacrificed  them  to  their  love  of  whiskey.  Poverty  gains 
upon  them  continually ;  and  as  more  than  two  children  are  seldom  found  in 
a  family,  the  number  of  people  is  constantly  diminishing.  The  dress  of 
both  the  sexes  is  very  much  the  same.  Reindeer  skins,  with  the  hair 
turned  outward,  constitute  their  winter  coats.  A  long  coat  is  worn 
under  these  instead  of  a  shirt.  In  summer  the  coats  are  of  cloth  or  leather. 
At  the  belt  which  holds  the  coat,  hangs  a  sheath  in  which  are  placed  a 
knife  and  other  utensils ;  the  tobacco  pipe  is  also  suspended  at  the  belt. 
The  shoes,  made  of  reindeer  leather,  are  filled  with  hay.  The  head  is 
covered  with  a  small  cap,  or  a  high  conical  red,  blue,  or  green  cloth  cap, 
that  of  the  men  being  somewhat  higher  than  that  of  the  female. 

The  Lapps  are  good  hunters.  Their  guns  are  furnished  with  rifle- 
barrels,  and  very  simple  locks.  Wolves  and  bears  are  the  animals  chiefly 
slain  by  them  with  this  weapon.  They  shoot  squirrels  with  cross-bow  and 
bolts  in  order  that  the  skin  may  not  be  injured.  Reindeer  are  taken  with 
ropes,  which  the  hunters  know  how  to  throw  in  a  skilful  manner  around 

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160  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

these  animals.  The  Lapps  employ  their  time  in  winter  in  making  their 
clothes,  and  in  manufacturing  wooden-ware  for  sale,  which  they  bring  to 
market  and  purchase  other  articles  with  the  proceeds.  The  sleighs  of  the 
Laplanders  are  very  narrow,  only  one  foot  high,  pointed  in  front,  and  are 
furnished  with  an  upright  board  behind,  against  which  the  driver  leans. 
When  travelling  on  foot,  large  snow  shoes  are  worn.  These  are  boards 
cut  out  in  the  shape  of  a  boat  over  four  feet  in  length,  fastened  to  the  feet, 
and  on  which  they  glide  swiftly  along  over  the  snow  with  great  dexterity. 
Very  recently,  a  great  number  of  families  have  at  length  begun  to 
construct  fixed  habitations  for  themselves,  and  to  pursue  husbandry  and 
cattle  breeding. 

The  Danes  no  longer  resemble  their  forefathers.  They  have  small,  com- 
pact bodies,  a  mild  disposition,  are  thoughtful,  industrious,  frugal,  just,  and 
fond  of  peace,  not  adventurous  and  warlike  like  their  ancestors,  and  very 
hospitable,  though  cautious  towards  strangers.  As  respects  dress  they 
difier  but  little  from  the  inhabitants  of  North  Germany.  The  population 
of  the  towns  and  cities,  especially  on  the  islands,  are  generally  thoroughly 
educated  and  devoted  to  the  sciences  and  the  fine  arts.  Society  is  very 
refined.  They  are  less  musical  than  the  Swedes.  The  country  people  of 
Jutland  and  Friesland,  as  well  as  the  peasantry  of  the  islands,  are  more 
vigorously  formed  and  have  ruder  manners. 


The  English  Peopk. 

This  people  inhabit  Great  Britain  and  the  adjacent  islands.  They 
are  descended  from  a  mixture  of  Celts,  Gauls,  Scandinavians,  Saxons, 
Normans,  and  probably  other  tribes,  who  came  over  from  the  continent  at 
diflferent  times  ;  and  each,  in  its  turn,  yielding  more  or  less  to  the  invader, 
withdrew  to  remote  districts  of  the  country,  where  they  remained  com- 
paratively unmolested.  Hence  have  arisen  those  sectional  peculiarities, 
which  so  strongly  characterize  various  portions  of  the  British  Islands  ; 
hence  those  differences  of  physiognomy,  so  well  defined  even  at  the  present 
day ;  hence  those  varieties  of  habits  and  dispositions,  which  centuries  have 
failed  to  efface. 

The  ancient  Celtic  or  Gaelic  language  is  still  spoken  more  or  less  in 
Wales,  in  the  Islands  and  Highlands  of  Scotland,  in  Ireland,  and,  till  very 
lately,  in  the  county  of  Cornwall ;  and  remains  of  the  Danish  dialect  may  be 
found  in  the  county  of  Northumberland,  where  the  Danes  were  most  thickly 
settled.  But  the  English  language  is  now  spoken  by  all  who  have  received 
the  rudiments  of  education  ;  like  the  people,  it  exhibits  unmistakable  traces 
of  its  miscellaneous  origin,  and  the  Saxon,  Danish,  Celtic,  Norman,  Latin, 
French,  and  Greek,  with  some  others,  contribute  largely  to  its  copiousness 
and  significance. 

Though  the  sectional  distinctions  of  language  are  gradually  becoming 
less  conspicuous,  the  form  and  features  of  the  several  races  still  offer  such 
marked  distinctions  as  to  merit  particular  notice.  Among  the  English, 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  161 

the  head  is  sotiiewhat  flattened  at  the  sides,  but  the  upper  part  is  well 
developed;  the  Scotch  have  the  skull  broad,  and  partially  flattened  at 
the  back.  The  latter  are  also  distinguished  by  high  cheek  bones  and 
strongly  marked  features.  The  head  of  the  Irish  is  narrower  than  that 
of  either  the  English  or  Scotch,  and  the  region  immediately  above  the 
forehead  is  frequently  much  depressed.  The  forms  of  the  English  and 
Irish  are  more  rounded  than  those  of  the  Scotch,  and  the  features  are  less 
prominent. 

The  differences  of  race  are  equally  well  defined  in  the  mental  charac- 
teristics as  in  the  physical  conformation  of  the  natives  of  these  islands. 
The  Englishman  possesses  an  energetic  spirit ;  is  industrious  and  fond 
of  the  useful  sciences,  and  passionately  addicted  to  the  sports  of  the  field. 
In  private,  he  is  a  hospitable  and  agreeable  companion ;  but  in  public  he 
is  reserved  and  unsociable.  The  English  nobility  are  the  only  individuals 
in  the  nation  who  enjoy  rank  and  privileges  differing  from  those  of  the 
other  subjects.  They  are  mostly  landed  proprietors,  and  are  mainly  occu- 
pied with  their  legislative  duties,  the  care  of  their  estates,  and  the  promotion 
of  the  arts  and  sciences  by  their  patronage  and  example.  The  mercantile 
and  manufacturing  classes  are  those  on  whose  industry  the  welfare  of  the 
community  mainly  depends,  and  the  recent  repeal  and  relaxation  of  many 
stringent  laws  affecting  the  operations  of  commerce  are  a  striking  proof 
of  their  growing  power  and  ascendency  in  political  affairs.  The  mechanics 
and  cultivators  of  the  soil  are,  generally  speaking,  in  a  better  condition 
than  those  of  the  same  class  in  other  European  countries ;  but  much 
distress  has  of  late  prevailed,  especially  among  the  agriculturists,  into  the 
causes  of  which  it  is  not  our  province  to  enter.  The  Protestant  Episcopal 
is  the  prevailing  form  of  worship. 

The  Welsh,  who,  from  the  mountainous  character  of  their  country,  have 
succeeded  in  preserving  their  primitive  usages  almost  unimpaired  to  the 
present  day,  are  the  descendants  of  the  original  Britons.  They  are  choleric, 
honest,  brave,  and  hospitable.  Proud  of  their  nationality,  they  cling  to  their 
language  as  its  most  conspicuous  symbol.  This  latter  characteristic  has 
been  a  great  obstacle  to  the  educational  advancement  of  the  people ;  hence, 
especially  in  the  rural  districts,  much  ignorance  prevails.  Several  circum- 
stances have  occurred  of  late  years  which  have  drawn  the  attention  of 
Parliament  to  the  condition  of  Wales ;  and  we  believe  a  strenuous  effort 
has  been  made  to  introduce  the  English  language,  as  a  preliminary  step  to 
the  general  improvement  of  the  people. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  southern  part  of  Scotland  have,  by  long  and 
intimate  association  with  the  English,  been  divested  of  most  of  their 
distinctive  traits ;  and  in  language,  habits,  and  dress,  a  general  similarity 
prevails  between  them  and  their  southern  neighbors.  But  the  natives  of  the 
Highlands  and  the  neighboring  islands  have  not  entirely  lost  their  individu- 
ality ;  and  though  their  picturesque  attire,  their  habits  of  roving,  and  their 
continual  feuds  with  each  other  and  their  Lowland  neighbors,  are  now 
matters  of  tradition,  and  the  ruthless  Highland  cateran  has  been  converted 
into  the  peaceful  drover,  the  primitive  habits  of  former  times  may  still  be 

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162  mSTOET  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

found  in  remote  districts,  and  the  Gaelic  language  still  lingers  on  the 
domestic  hearth.  However,  the  days  of  these  relics  of  the  olden  time  are 
numbered,  and  the  steam  car  and  the  steam  press  are  silently  doing  what 
the  sword  had  failed  to  accomplish. 

The  Scotch  are  a  bold  and  hardy  people;  industrious,  thrifty,  and 
persevering ;  shrewd  and  cautious  in  their  business  undertakings ;  honest, 
hospitable,  kind-hearted,  and  friendly ;  proud  of  their  country  and  its 
history.  The  lower  orders  are  generally  better  instructed  than  the  corres- 
ponding classes  in  England.     The  form  of  religion  is  the  Presbyterian. 

The  population  of  Ireland  is  of  Gaelic  origin.  As  in  the  case  of  Wales, 
the  ancient  language  of  the  country,  which  is  a  dialect  of  the  Celtic,  is 
much  in  use  even  at  the  present  day,  and  probably  with  much  the  same 
disadvantageous  results.  But  the  social  and  domestic  condition  of  the 
Irish  is  far  inferior  to  that  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  sister  kingdom. 
Though  the  land  is  fertile  and  the  climate  propitious,  scientific  agriculture, 
as  a  general  thing,  is  unknown ;  the  soil  is  not  half  cultivated,  the  manu- 
factures are  only  nominal,  and  the  great  mass  of  the  people  are  in  a  state 
of  abject  destitution.  If  we  seek  for  the  cause  of  this  anomalous  condition, 
we  are  lost  in  a  maze  of  contradictory  evidence;. books  and  newspapers 
are  filled  with  discussions  on  the  subject,  but  the  cause  or  causes  elude  the 
keenest  research,  and  unhappy  Ireland  still  remains  an  object  of  wonder 
and  compassion  to  the  whole  civilized  world.  The  prevailing  religion  is 
the  Roman  Catholic. 

The  character  of  the  Irishman,  like  his  physical  conformation,  exhibits 
distinguishing  features  firom  that  of  the  English  and  Scotch.  He  is  far 
more  impulsive  than  either ;  bold,  even  to  rashness ;  patriotic,  generous, 
and  hospitable ;  quick  tempered ;  overflowing  with  fun  and  frolic,  and  witty 
by  birthright ;  fond  of  music,  singing,  and  dancing.  He  is,  however,  too 
frequently  revengeful,  extravagant,  and  idle ;  the  slave  of  prejudice  and 
superstition ;  and  more  inclined  to  repine  at  than  to  repair  his  moral  and 
physical  condition.     The  state  of  education  is  exceedingly  low. 

To  return  to  the  English,  who,  as  the  leading  race,  may  be  considered 
as  the  type  of  the  national  character  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  British 
Islands,  we  may  remark  that  they  are  especially  distinguished  for  bodily 
vigor,  activity,  and  muscular  strength.     This  characteristic  is  attributable 
to  the  fondness  for  athletic  sports  which  is  common  to  all  classes;   and 
yachting,   hunting,   racing,   boxing,  wrestling,  cricket,  quoits,  and   other 
manly  exercises,  which  call  for  the  display  of  skill  and  strength,  are  popular 
diversions.     PL  6,  ßg.  1,  represents  a  horse  race.     Races  take  place  at 
regular   intervals,  on  established   race-courses,   in  different  parts  of  the 
country,  the  most  celebrated  being  at  Ascot,  Doncaster,  Epsom,  and  Ne-w- 
market.     They  are  attended  by  crowds  of  the  nobility  and  fashionables, 
and  royalty  itself  is  often  present.     The  prizes  run  for  are  made  up  by 
subscription.     The  betting  is  generally  very  heavy,  and  a  favorite  horse 
is  frequently  backed  up  to  a  large  amount.     Pig.  2  represents  a  steeple 
chase,  so  called  from  some  prominent  object  at  a  distance  being  selected 
as  a  goal,  when  the  contending  parties  ride  across  the  open  country  in  as 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  163 

straight  a  line  as  the  numerous  natural  and  artificial  impediments  admit. 
This  is  a  dangerous  sport,  and  many  accidents  ha^w  occurred  from  des- 
perate leaps  and  headlong  riding  through  every  obstacle. 

PL  l.fig.  3,  represents  a  public  meeting.  The  speaker  is  mounted  on  a 
stand,  surrounded  by  his  friends  with  banners  and  badges,  and  haranguing 
in  a  style  which  all  acquainted  with  electioneering  tactics  will  readily 
comprehend. 

The  Englishman's  house  is  distinguished  less  by  external  splendor  than 
by  neatness,  and  an  appearance  of  comfort  which  invests  it  peculiarly 
^ith  the  ^ir  of  a  home.  As  regards  dress,  the  Parisian  style  is  generally 
followed. 

Agriculture  has  been  carried  to  a  high  state  of  perfection  in  England ; 
and  the  face  of  the  country,  with  its  trim  inclosures,  has  the  appearance 
of  a  continued  garden  to  those  coming  from  lands  less  highly  cultivated. 
A  knowledge  of  the  theory  and  practice  of  the  rotation  of  crops,  draining, 
and  deep  tillage,  is  widely  diffused ;  and  the  breeding  and  rearing  of  cattle, 
and  farming  stock  in  general,  are  carefully  attended  to.  The  working 
farmers  are  generally  tenants  of  the  large  landed  proprietors.  Small  pro- 
perties are  not  common,  partly  in  consequence  of  the  operation  of  the  laws 
of  entail  and  primogeniture. 


The  Russians. 

The  Russians  are,  in  general,  of  medium  size,  well  set,  and  compact ; 
have  large  bones,  and  full,  solid,  tough  muscles,  black  or  blackish-brown 
hair,  twinkling  black  or  blackish-brown  eyes,  and  prominent  cheek  bones. 
Their  Slavonic  character  is,  in  general,  distinctly  visible ;  of  the  higher 
classes  only  this  does  not  always  hold  good.  The  latter  have  frequently 
not  only  perfect  figures,  but  also  a  taller  stature,  on  an  average,  than  the 
lower  classes.  Blooming  complexions  are  very  rarely  seen  among  the 
common  people  of  Russia ;  the  color  of  their  skin  passes  into  yellowish ; 
and  reddish  or  reddish-brown  hair  is  very  frequent. 

With  regard  to  dress,  the  Russians,  even  people  of  rank,  still  adhere  to 
their  old  national  costume.  They  bid  defiance  to  the  terrible  cold  in  winter 
by  long  fur  coats,  warm  boots,  and  fur  caps.  The  common  people,  how- 
ever, only  wrap  their  legs  with  bandages  of  linen,  or  pieces  of  woollen  stuff 
or  felt,  and  then  cover  their  feet  with  shoes  made  of  bast.  Their  fur  coats 
are  generally  made  of  sheepskins  ;  people  of  rank,  on  the  other  hand,  often 
pay  prodigious  sums  for  the  rarest  furs.  In  summer,  the  common  Russian 
leaves  the  head  and  feet  uncovered,  and  wears  no  cravat ;  his  cloth  coat 
(kaftan)  reaches  below  the  knee,  and  crosses  over  the  breast,  where  it  is 
fastened  by  metal  buttons.  A  girdle  of  woollen  stuff,  linen,  &c.,  is  worn 
around  the  waist.  The  merchants  wear  long  cloth  coats,  which  reach 
almost  down  to  the  feet,  fit  closely,  and  are  buttoned  over  the  breast 
These  coats  are  without  pockets,  and  have  numerous  gathers  on  the  lower 
part     They  tie  a  silk  sash  around  the  body,  and  usually  permit  the  beard 

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164  niSTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

to  grow  long.  The  color  generally  esteemed  in  Russia  is  green,  and  most 
of  the  uniforms  of  th«  soldiers  and  civil  officers  are  of  that  color.  Women 
of  the  lowest  ranks  wear  a  short  blue  cloth  petticoat,  with  a  border  of  some 
other  color.  The  stomacher  is  fastened  with  one  row  of  buttons,  and  upon 
the  head  they  wear  a  light-colored  figured  handkerchief,  tied  under  the  chin. 
Married  female  villagers  conceal  all  their  hair  under  the  handkerchief; 
the  unmarried,  on  the  contrary,  wear  it  combed  smooth  and  tied  together 
at  the  end  with  a  riband  {pL  II,  ßgs.  1,  2,  and  4).  The  wives  of  the 
artisans  and  merchants  are  dressed  with  more  taste.  Their  peculiar  caps 
are  usually  of  velvet  trimmed  with  gold,  and  of  divers  forms ;  the  most 
oddly  shaped  are  worn  in  Kaluga.  They  are  called  "  kokoshniks."  Those 
worn  on  Sundays  and  holidays  are  made  of  gold  brocade,  and  embroidered 
in  flowers  of  gold  and  silver.  The  highest  classes  are  dressed  like  people 
of  the  same  rank  everywhere  in  Europe.  PL  10,  ßgs,  4  and  5,  countiy 
people  of  Little  Russia ;  ßgs.  6  and  7,  a  Russian  shopkeeper  and  his  wife  ; . 
ßgs.  8 — 10,  fishermen  of  the  Volga;  ßg.  11,  wife  of  a  citizen  of  Nishni 
Novgorod ;  ßgs,  12  and  13,  country  people  from  the  district  of  Twer ; 
ßg.  14,  girl  from  the  LTkraine ;  ßg.  16,  peasant  from  the  vicinity  of  Moscow. 
The  peasants'  houses  of  the  Russians  are  usually  log  cabins  {pi  12,  ßgs.  3 
and  i). 

The  villages  in  Russia  are  mostly  small,  but  long,  as  they  have  but  one 
street.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  Government  of  Voronesh,  and  in  many 
other  regions  of  Russia,  however,  we  find  also  large  and  handsome  village«, 
where  the  houses  are  built  of  stone.  The  people  of  Little  Russia  have 
houses  of  loam  and  wicker-work,  that  are  whitewashed  within  and  without. 
The  villages  in  the  military  colonies  present  a  very  cheerful  appearance, 
especially  those  of  the  German  colonists. 

The  villages  of  the  Don  Cossacks  are  composed,  for  the  most  part,  of 
well  built,  neat  houses.  The  dwellings  of  the  Tartars  upon  the  shores 
of  the  Crimea  are  neater  than  those  of  the  Russian  common  people  and 
Poles,  and  their  roofs  are  generally  flat.  The  Esthes  and  Lettes  do  not 
live  much  better  than  the  Poles  and  Lithuanians.  The  habitations  of  the 
Finns  usually  present  a  very  miserable  appearance  ;  a  few  holes  supply  the 
place  of  windows,  and  a  breach  in  the  roof  serves  in  place  of  a  chimney. 
Those  on  the  sea  coast  are  better  than  those  in  the  interior  of  the  country. 

The  serving  classes  (peasants  and  menials)  are  still,  as  a  general  rule, 
treated  very  harshly.  The  opinion  that  the  Russian  can  be  governed  only 
by  blows,  is  too  deeply  rooted.  The  usual  punishments  are  blows  of  the 
knout,  in  which  the  distinction  into  the  great  and  small  knout  is  made 
{pi.  ll,/^5.  4and5). 

Hospitality  is  everywhere  met  with  in  Russia,  owing  in  a  measure,  pro- 
bably, to  the  general  cheapness  of  victuals,  which  are  only  more  expensive 
in  a  few  districts.  The  Russians  are  fond  of  social  pleasures,  and  hence 
like  to  meet  in  their  domestic  circles  for  the  purpose  of  amusing  themselves. 
The  long  winter  evenings  are  devoted,  in  particular,  to  these  social  gather- 
ings, where,  after  work  is  over,  they  have  a  very  merry  time  of  it.  You 
not  unfrequently  see  rural  farces  and  regular  masquerades  performed  by 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  165 

the  young  people  of  both  sexes,  who  flavor  them  with  jokes,  sometimes  of 
a  rather  practical  nature.  A  game  of  forfeits,  or  a  dance  to  simple  music, 
usually  closes  the  whole  afiair.  The  older  people  amuse  themselves  mean- 
while with  card  playhig,  draughts,  (A*  chess.  The  two  latter  games  are  in 
universal  favor.  Russian  country  people  not  unfrequently  practise,  as  a 
pastime,  jumping  on  a  board  and  bone-playing,  in  the  manner  represented 
in  pL  11,  Bt  figs.  1  and  2.  Skating,  sledge  riding,  and  sliding  down  the 
ice-course,  are,  in  winter,  next  to  dancing,  the  principal  recreations.  The 
peculiar  structure  called  the  ice-course,  or  gliding-hill,  is  represented  in 
pL  12,  fig.  1.  The  Russian  national  dance,  which  is  pantomimic  in  its 
character,  and  in  which  the  woman  at  one  time  approaches  the  man  and 
then  retires  from  him,  is  represented  at  fig.  3.  At  the  entertainments  of 
people  of  rank  in  the  principal  cities  of  Russia,  great  abundance  and  luxury 
prevail,  regulated  by  a  refined  taste.  The  wealth  is  displayed  chiefly  by 
the  number  of  servants  and  by  the  abundance  and  splendor  of  the  tables, 
at  which,  moreover,  there  are  no  rules  of  precedence,  the  most  distinguished 
persons  often  sitting  in  the  midst  of  unimportant  characters.  Gk>od  wines, 
chiefly  champagne,  are  provided  in  abundance. 

The  Russians  are  accustomed,  from  childhood,  to  frequent  bathing ;  even 
the  poor  Russian  peasant  bathes  at  least  once  in  the  week,  or  oftener.  As 
each  house  has  its  bath  room,  the  bath  is  not  refused  even  to  the  be^ar, 
still  less  to  the  guest.  It  is  a  singular  circumstance,  that  both  sexes,  at 
\easi  among  the  poorer  classes  of  the  people,  bathe  promiscuously.  {PL  11, 
fig.  3,  a  Russian  public  vapor  bath.) 

Petty  thefts  are  not  unfrequent  in  Russia ;  highway  robberies  and  bur- 
glaries, on  the  contrary,  are  almost  unknown  there.  A  Russian,  moreover, 
will  not  steal  household  utensils,  in  his  own  country;  such  articles  are 
inviolable  with  him,  and  he  lays  hold  of  other  things  to  which  he  may  have 
taken  a  fancy.  Hoffman,  in  speaking  of  the  pilferings  of  the  Russians,  says : 
"  My  love  for  the  Russian  nation,  which  I  have  no  desire  to  conceal,  need 
not  prevent  me  from  mentioning  some  things  which  cannot  be  reckoned 
among  those  worthy  of  admiration.  Where,  however,  so  much  kindness, 
such  a  groundwork  of  true  moral  feeling  exists,  as  is  the  case  with  these 
unsophisticated  men,  it  cannot  be  difiicult  also  to  extirpate  these  remaining 
blemishes,  even  to  their  last  vestiges.  The  most  certain  known  means  of 
protection  against  a  thief  within  doors,  is  to  take  him  into  your  own  service. 
From  that  moment  you  are  certain  not  only  to  be  robbed  no  more  by  your 
new  domestic,  but  to  possess  in  him  also  the  best  guard  against  all  other 
thieves,  as  it  becomes  with  him  a  point  d'honneur  to  repress  aU  pilfering, 
by  reason  of  which  suspicion  might  fall  upon  himself;  the  opinion  being 
held  by  the  man  of  the  common  ranks  of  life,  that  he  may  perhaps  steal 
certain  articles  of  trifling  value  from  strangers,  without  on  that  account 
being  considered  directly  dishonest ;  but  to  defraud  his  own  master,  accord- 
ing to  his  idea  of  the  matter,  is  a  heinous  and  inexcusable  sin." 

The  Russians  of  the  lowest  classes  are  accustomed  to  simple  fare. 
Buckwheat  groats,  and,  among  the  inhabitants  of  Little  Russia,  millet 
groats,  are  frequently  eaten  :  sour  krout,  pickled  beets,  onions,  cucumbers, 

lOOHOOBAPHIO  KXOIOhOTMDlJu — ^VOL.  lU.  22  837 


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166  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

and  dried  fish,  are  favorite  food ;  and  in  the  evening,  milk,  honey,  and  bread 
constitute  the  frugal  supper.  The  bread  is  mostly  baked  of  rye  meal, 
crushed  wheat,  and  buckwheat  meal.  Meat  is  served  only  on  Sundays 
and  holidays.  Quas,  or  kwas,  is  the  tAual  drink,  as  well  among  people  of 
the  higher  as  among  those  of  the  lower  classes  of  society.  This  bev^age 
is  composed  of  water  and  meal,  or  malt,  has  a  sour  taste,  and  may  be  com- 
pared to  sour  small  beer.  It  is  often  improved  by  lemon  peel  and  spices. 
In  winter  a  warm  drink  is  commonly  prepared  from  water,  honey,  and 
Cayenne  pepper,  which  is  called  "sbitin."  In  the  western  part  of  the 
Russian  Empire,  a  great  deal  of  mead  is  consumed,  and  whiskey  is  a 
customary  drink  throughout  the  country.  Expensive  as  is  the  letter,  even 
the  poorest  man  contrives  to  procure  it.  Drunkenness  is  rather  common 
in  Russia ;  and  the  Russian  not  only  sympathizes  with  an  intoxicated  man, 
but  has  a  kind  of  regard  for  him,  and  lends  him  a  helping  hand  as  if  he 
were  a  saint.  This  arises,  perhaps,  from  the  fact  that  the  common  people 
know  full  well  that  they  have  often  been  found  in  the  same  condition,  and 
may  often  get  into  it  again.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  Russians,  even  under 
the  influence  of  whiskey,  are  uncommonly  peaceable.  The  quarrelsome 
Russian  is  rendered  meek  by  this  fluid,  and  disputes  and  brawls  seldom 
occur  among  drunken  persons.  The  bitterest  enemies,  when  drunk,  treat 
one  another  like  the  tenderest  friends.  Tea,  also,  in  large  quantities,  is 
drunk  in  Russia. 

We  mention,  in  conclusion,  a  few  of  the  Russian  festivals.  The  mer- 
riest time  for  the  Russian  is  the  so-called  "butter  week,"  the  Russian 
carnival ;  since  at  the  close  of  this  week  the  Easter  Lent  commences,  a  fast 
which  continues  fifty-six  days.  It  has  obtained  its  name  butter  week 
(masliza)  from  the  circumstance,  that  in  it,  if  even  no  meat,  yet  a  little 
butter,  milk,  and  eggs  are  permitted  to  be  eaten.  The  masliza  bear  is  one 
of  the  sports  of  the  season.  A  man  in  a  bearskin  is  the  principal  figure. 
Seated  on  a  low  sleigh  he  is  drawn  all  about  town  amidst  unlimited  fun. 
Whiskey,  of  course,  is  the  grand  stimulus,  and  the  bear  is  allowed  his  due 
share.  The  Semick  is  a  popular  festival  held  on  the  Sunday  after  Ascen- 
sion day,  a  kind  of  celebration  of  spring,  which  has  come  down  from  the 
times  of  Slavonic  heathenism.  At  Christmas  masquerades  are  held,  known 
as  akrutshniks,  and  which  last  a  fortnight.  Easter  week,  which  concludes 
the  long  period  of  rigorous  fasting,  is  celebrated  by  all  classes  of  people 
with  great  rejoicing  and  universal  merry-making.  On  Easter  day  at 
midnight  all  church  bells  toll,  calling  to  solemn  worship,  and  everybody 
goes  to  hear  the  night  mass.  The  universal  salutation  between  friends  or 
strangers  on  Easter  day  is  the  phrase,  "  Christ  is  arisen ;"  to  which  is 
answered,  "  He  is  in  truth  arisen."  On  Easter  Monday  presents  of  Easter 
eggs  are  given  and  received.  All  kinds  of  gifts  are,  however,  on  this  day 
called  Easter  eggs. 

On  the  sixth  day  of  January,  at  the  feast  of  the  Epiphany,  the  conse- 
cration of  water,  in  remembrance  of  the  baptism  of  Christ  in  the  Jordan,  is 
celebrated  in  Russia,  principally  in  St.  Petersburg,  with  great  pomp  {pL  7, 
fig,  2).     The  celebration  is  held  upon  the  ice  of  the  Neva.    A  hole  is  cut 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  167 

in  the  ice,  which  is  named  the  Jordan.  After  the  customary  prayers,  the, 
priesthood  repair  thither  in  their  richest  robes,  followed  by  the  imperial' 
family  and  the  entire  court.  All  the  troops  are  under  arms  with  flying 
colors.  One  of  the  priests  hereupon  consecrates  the  water  of  the  Neva, 
dipping  the  holy  cross  thrice  in  the  flood,  and  pronouncing  the  words  of 
consecration.  Then  he  fills  a  vessel  with  the  water,  with  which  he 
sprinkles  the  clergy  and  all  other  attendants.  Discharges  of  artillery  con- 
clude the  solemnities  proper.  As  soon,  however,  as  the  court  have  with- 
drawn, all  hasten  to  the  Jordan  to  fetch  water  for  themselves,  which, 
according  to  the  opinion  of  the  common  people  of  Russia,  will  remain  for 
years  pure  as  the  clearest  spring  water,  and  will  have  the  power  of  healing 


On  the  evening  previous  to  the  feast  of  St.  John,  bonfires  are  kindled  in 
many  places,  which  are  visited  by  processions  of  the  people  (pL  I2,ßg.  4). 

PL  10,  figs.  1-3,  represent  characters  from  the  early  history  of  Russia, 
to  wit :  figs,  1  and  2,  two  Strielzi ;  and  fig,  3,  a  soldier  of  the  old  Russian 
Polish  Guard.  The  Strielzi  or  Strolzi,  signifying  riflemen,  were  a  Russian 
militia  established  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century  by  Czar  Ivan 
Vasilijewitsh  as  his  life-guards.  They  numbered  from  30,000  to  40,000, 
and  were  clad  and  armed  entirely  in  the  aiicient  Russian  style.  The  Strielzi 
were  the  best  troops  of  the  Russian  army  at  that  time,  but  stubbornly 
attached  to  their  ancient  regulations  and  privileges.  Indeed,  they  soon 
acquired  the  general  consequence  and  character  of  the  Janizaries.  They 
rebelled  more  than  once ;  and  Peter  the  Great  at  length  found  himself 
under  the  necessity  of  disbanding  the  few  remnants  of  the  once  formidable 
body,  in  1705. 

The  Russians  are  the  most  important  of  the  Slavonic  nations,  partly  on 
account  of  their  prodigious  number,  and  their  extension  over  a  very  large 
territory,  partly  on  account  of  the  commanding  position  maintained  by 
their  sovereign  in  Europe.  The  Russian  race  rule  from  the  Black  Sea  to 
the  Arctic  Ocean,  from  the  Vistula  and  Wartha  as  far  as  Kamschatka  and 
Sitka.  The  Russians  are  usually  divided  into :  (1.)  Little-Russians,  who 
inhabit  the  entire  southern  portion  of  Russia,  Galicia,  and  the  northeastern 
part  of  Hungary ;  (2.)  White-Russians,  along  the  borders  of  Poland  and 
Lithuania,  bounded  by  the  territories  of  the  Little-Russians  in  the  south, 
the  Great-Russians  in  the  east,  and  the  Novogorodians  in  the  north  ;  (3.) 
Great- Russians,  or  the  Russians  proper,  who  form  the  centre  of  the 
Russian  power ;  (4.)  Novogorodians,  the  inhabitants  of  the  former  republic 
of  Novogorod,  whose  independence  was  superseded  by  the  monarchical 
rule  of  the  Great-Russians. 

The  Russian  territory  includes  not  only  European,  but  also  Asiatic  and 
American  countries  ;  and  Asiatic  Russia  comprehends  almost  one  third  part 
of  the  whole  continent  of  Asia.  The  inhabitants  of  Asiatic  Russia  are 
partly  of  Slavonic  stock  (Russians  and  Cossacks)  ;  partly  Finns  (Permians, 
Woguls,  Tchuwaches,  Tcheremisses,  Wotiaks,  Morduines,  Ostiaks) ;  Tar- 
tars (Tartars  proper,  Karakalpaks,  Bashkirs,  Kirghiz  Teloites,  Yakoutes)  ; 
Armenians,  Circassians  (Lesghians,  Kistes,  Ossetes,  Circassians,  Abasians, 

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168  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY, 

Mingrelians,  Imeritians,  Georgians) ;  Mongols  (Calmucs,  Burates,  Tun- 
guses,  &c.) ;  and  finally,  the  inhabitants  of  the  extreme  north,  Samoyedes, 
Ostiaks  of  Narim,  several  East-Siberian  tribes,  as  the  Kamschatkians, 
Koriaks,  Tchouktches,  Kuriles,  Aleoutes,  and  Europeans  and  Asiatics  of 
other  stocks  scattered  in  different  parts. 

We  shall  give  the  characteristics  of  most  of  these  stocks  under  this  head, 
although  they  properly  belong  to  the  section  relating  to  the  people  of  Asia. 

The  Cossacks  {pi  1,  ßg.  4,  and  pL  10, fig,  15)  are  a  stock  of  people  in 
Little-Russia,  who  probably  derive  their  name  from  the  word  kosack,  a 
word  which  in  Turkish  signifies  "robber,"  but  in  the  Tartar  language, 
"  light  horse."  Apparently,  they  are  of  Tartaric  origin.  The  form  of  their 
bodies  is,  in  general,  handsome.  Their  language  is  the  Russian,  with 
which,  however,  they  have  mingled  many  Polish,  Turkish,  and  West 
European  words.  They  live  in  small  houses,  fifty  or  one  hundred  of  which 
constitute  a  village  (stanitza).  These  villages  are  situated  upon  rivers, 
have  unpaved  streets,  one  or  more  churches,  and  an  earthen  rampart  as  a 
fortification.  The  occupations  of  the  Cossacks  consist,  in  time  of  peace,  in 
the  rearing  of  horses,  sheep,  and  bees,  in  horticulture,  and  the  cultivation 
of  the  vine.  Their  agriculture  embraces  the  ordinary  products  of  the 
fields,  and  they  manufacture  whatever  is  necessary  in  their  households. 
Tradesmen  proper  are  also  found  in  many  places.  In  time  of  war  they 
serve  as  light  cavalry.  Their  principal  weapon  is  the  lance;  but  they 
have  the  sabre  and  pistols  besides,  and  in  case  of  necessity  also  bows  and 
arrows.  In  a  regular  attack  only  the  fine  truly  military  regiments  are 
employed,  especially  the  Don  Cossacks ;  the  others  are  formidable  on 
account  of  the  great  steadiness  of  their  small  horses,  and  their  indefati- 
gability  in  oft  repeated  charges.  They  are  the  terror  of  flying  enemies, 
and  fearful  in  their  attacks  upon  the  baggage.  Their  assault  is  irregular, 
and  with  a  loud  hurrah.  They  are  employed  chiefly  in  the  advanced  posts 
service  and  as  patroles,  being  distinguished  for  the  extraordinary  acuteness 
of  their  senses.  The  regiments  are  not  all  dressed  in  uniform.  The  Don 
Cossacks  of  the  guard  have  a  uniform  consisting  of  a  blue  jacket,  wide  blue 
trowsers,  and  a  fur  cap  with  a  light  blue  or  red  bag  at  the  top  of  it,  or  a 
blue  cloth  cap  with  a  red  band.  The  black  leather  belts  are  ornamented 
with  silver  or  tin.  Dress,  arms,  equipments,  and  horses  are  provided  by 
them  at  their  own  expense.  The  Cossack  sits  very  high  upon  his  horse,  as 
the  saddle  forms  a  soft  round  cushion  very  thickly  upholstered,  under 
which  he  moreover  keeps  his  clothes  and  booty.  Their  commander-in- 
chief  is  only  confirmed  by  the  Russian  government,  being  chosen  by 
themselves.  According  to  their  different  districts,  they  are  divided  into 
regiments  or  pulks  of  500  to  3000  men,  commanded  by  a  colonel  {ataman, 
hetman,  pokolnik) ;  and  companies  led  by  a  captain  {sotnik),  the  company 
always  having  an  ensign  {kharunshd).  A  commander-in-chief  {ataman, 
woiskowi),  holding  the  rank  of  general,  commands  the  collective  body  of  all 
the  regiments.  The  rest  of  the  ofiicers  do  not  hold  any  military  rank ;  asd 
it  is  considered  no  disgrace  among  the  Cossacks  to  be  at  one  time  an 
oflicer  and  at  another  a  common  soldier.  The  time  of  service  is  firom  the 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  169 

eighteenth  to  the  fiftieth  year.  They  are  estimated  at  about  800,000 
fighting  men ;  the  whole  population,  however,  at  three  millions.  From  the 
collective  body  of  the  Cossack  pulks  the  tallest  and  finest-looking  men  are 
usually  formed  into  Cossack  guards.  In  the  war  of  1812-14,  the  Russians 
had  recruited  peasants  also,  who  went  to  war  in  their  peasant  dress,  and 
were  known  as  peasant  Cossacks.  PL  12,  ßg.  2,  serfs  on  the  Don  upon 
the  march. 

The  Tartars  are  slender  and  of  medium  height,  have  an  oval  head,  hand- 
some regular  features,  small,  sparkling,  mostly  black  eyes,  a  fine,  down- 
wardly arched  nose,  small  lips,  strong  white  teeth,  and  dark  hair.  In 
their  movements  they  are  active.  The  men  are  more  lively  than  the 
women,  and  the  latter  rouge  their  faces  and  dress  very  untastefully.  They 
are  firank,  hospitable,  and  friendly  towards  strangers,  neater  and  more 
orderly  than  their  neighbors,  fond  of  comfort  without  being  lazy,  and 
jealous  of  their  honor.  They  are  of  the  Mahommedan  religion.  Reading 
and  writing  are  taught  in  the  schools,  and  the  girls  are  instructed  also  in 
sewing  and  the  art  of  embroidery  in  gold  and  silver  upon  leather.  The 
male  dress  usually  consists  of  a  linen  shirt ;  a  fancy  striped,  long,  close- 
fitting  undercoat  of  half  silk  stuff;  linen  or  chintz  trowsers ;  a  fancy-colored 
overcoat,  somewhat  like  a  dressing-gown,  manufactured  of  cotton  or  linen 
stuff,  and  a  handkerchief  of  similar  material  that  is  tied  around  the  waist. 
Their  yellow  or  green  morocco  boots  have  soft  soles,  and  their  slippers 
of  the  same,  or  of  sheepskin,  are  without  heels.  Instead  of  a  turban,  the 
poorer  people  wear  a  fur  cap.  In  winter,  the  sheepskin  coat  and  other 
articles  of  the  Russian  dress  are  worn. 

Females  wear  cotton  or  silk  (usually  red)  chemises,  with  long  sleeves 
hanging  down  over  the  arms,  wide  trowsers,  leather  stockings,  and  a  dress 
of  fancy  colored  stuff,  fastened  with  a  neat  clasp.  Their  finery  consists  of 
a  string  of  beads,  with  coins,  small  plates  of  metal,  and  gilt  balls ;  or,  instead 
of  this  necklace,  a  case  with  amulets  or  perfumery ;  bracelets  adorned  with 
pearis  and  stones,  and  golden  ear  and  finger  rings.  They  blacken  their 
beautiful  teeth  with  a  powder  of  copperas  and  nutgalls,  and  paint  their 
nails  red.  The  head-dress  varies.  Some  wrap  a  handkerchief  around  the 
neck  and  head,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave  only  the  face  uncovered ;  and 
many  place  over  it  a  net,  from  which  long  cords  hang  down  behind. 
PL  16,  figs,  4  and  5,  a  Tartar  family. 

A  portion  of  the  Tartars  have  permanent  places  of  abode,  and  dwell  in 
wooden  buildings,  with  windows  of  glass  or  mica  (among  the  poor,  of  fish 
skin  or  oiled  paper).  The  roofs  are  usually  flat.  The  nomadic  Tartars 
are  less  neat,  and  live  in  small  buildings  without  windows,  and  with  an 
opening  at  top  instead  of  a  chimney.  These  tents  are  not  taken  apart 
when  a  migration  occurs,  but  are  removed  on  carts  as  they  stand,  from 
one  spot  to  another. 

The  Tartars  collectively  are  a  free  people.  Their  princes  are  called 
Murses,  their  chiefs  Baschliks.  The  Mufti  is  their  spiritual  head ;  the 
higher  priests  are  termed  Achums,  the  lower,  Mollas,  Their  mosques  are 
known  as  Medsched. 

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170  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY, 

They  are  expert  in  riding  to  an  extraordinary  degree,  and  sometimee 
have  horse  races.     (Fig.  6.) 

The  Caucasians,  that  is  to  say,  the  nations  which  have  inhabited  the 
Caucasus  since  the  historical  era,  form  three  great  divisions,  according  to 
their  languages,  viz.  the  Lesghi,  or  East  Caucasians;  the  Mizdshegiy  or 
Kistes,  Middle  Caucasians ;  and  the  Circassian  and  Abasian  tribes,  or 
West  Caucasians.  Many  other  nations,  as,  for  example,  the  Osseies, 
Georgians,  and  Bassians  (the  last  of  Turkish  origin),  settled  in  the  Caucasus 
and  its  southern  borders  only  in  later  times. 

The  Lesghi,  Lesghians,  or  Lesghines,  are  the  inhabitants  of  the  eastern 
part  of  the  Caucasian  range,  lying  between  the  Koisu,  the  Alasane  Rivers, 
and  the  plains  on  the  shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  which  is  called  by  the 
Turkish  and  other  Asiatic  people,  Daghestan,  i.  e.  "hilly  country,"  or 
Lesghistan,  i,  e,  land  of  the  Lesghi.  The  Lesghi  are  divided  into  numerous 
small  tribes  of  people,  most  of  whom  have  lived  in  the  Caucasus  for  a  very 
long  time,  as  even  Strabo  and  Plutarch  speak  of  them ;  they  appear  to  have 
mixed  since  with  other  stocks.  Klaproth  conjectures  that  the  Avari,  a 
Lesghian  tribe  inhabiting  the  Chundsah,  might  perhaps  have  descended 
from  the  ancient  Avari,  who  were  the  second  branch  of  the  Huns.  Like 
all  Caucasians,  the  Lesghi  are  savage,  cruel,  rapacious,  and  always  ready 
to  serve  any  one  who  will  pay  them.  Their  daring  courage  often  borders 
on  foolhardiness.  Their  weapons  are  gun,  sword,  and  dagger,  which  are 
used  with  great  dexterity ;  they  are,  however,  good  archers  also  (pi,  15, 
ßg.  18).  They  are  as  good  footmen  as  horsemen,  and  bear  the  fatigues  of 
a  campaign  with  great  patience,  provided  their  pay  is  only  regular.  Their 
bravery  is  so  great,  that  their  participation  has  decided  many  battles.  Most 
of  the  Lesghi  are  Mohammedans  of  the  sect  of  the  Sunnites ;  among  a  few 
stocks,  however,  faint  traces  of  Christianity  are  still  found.  The  most 
powerful  stocks  are  the  Kasi-Kumucs,  Avari,  Akooshahs,  and  Koulitshi. 

The  Mizdshegi,  or  Kistes,  to  the  west  and  north-west  of  the  Lesghi,  are 
still  more  decided  robbers  than  the  latter,  and  the  Russians  have  as  yet 
failed  to  subjugate  them.  The  most  barbarous  of  them  are  the  Tshet- 
shentzes,  the  stock  inhabiting  the  country  watered  by  the  Gicha,  Farthan, 
Argun,  and  the  Dsahlk  Rivers.  To  the  west  of  them  live  the  Karabulak ; 
and  the  westernmost  stock  are  the  Ingoushes,  who  are  less  rapacious,  and 
almost  entirely  subjected  to  the  Russians. 

The  Circassians  and  Abasians  of  our  day  inhabit  the  country  extending 
from  the  Upper  Kuban  to  the  Black  Sea. 

The  Abasians  (pi  10,  ßg.  24)  appear  never  to  have  left  the  coasts  of  the 
Black  Sea  and  the  western  part  of  the  mountain  range.  They  call  them- 
selves Absne,  or  Abene;  they  are  termed,  however,  by  the  Russians  and 
Turks  Abasa,  and  by  the  Georgians  Abchassi,  from  which  Europeans  have 
made  Abases,  Abasians,  AJjases,  Abgasetes,  &c.  They  resemble  the  Cir- 
cassians in  manners,  dress,  and  ceremonies,  their  languages  being  also 
related  to  each  other.  The  Abasians  are  agriculturists,  but  live  chiefly  by 
cattle  breeding.  Their  large  and  handsome  breed  of  horses  is  renowned. 
Their  possessions  extended  in  former  times  to  a  much  greater  distance  than 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESBaTT  DAY.  171 

at  present,  the  Circassians  having  pushed  them  back  to  the  mountains. 
They  became  converted  to  Christianity  by  the  Byzantine  emperors.  In 
the  eighteenth  century,  however,  they  were  reduced  to  subjection  by  the 
Turks,  and  compelled  to  adopt  Islamism.  Subsequently,  in  the  year  1771, 
they  revolted  against  the  Porte  and  returned  to  their  ancient  superstition, 
which  they  preferred  to  newer  doctrines.  Piracies  are  frequently  committed 
by  them ;  their  vessels,  however,  are  mere  rowing  boats,  and  being  without 
cannon  are  not  dangerous,  at  least  to  ships  of  war.  In  earlier  times,  many 
young  Abasians  went  to  Egypt,  and  there  sold  themselves  as  slaves  to 
Mamelouks  and  to  the  princes  of  the  country,  in  order,  in  this  way,  to 
make  their  fortunes,  and  by  personal  valor  to  obtain  a  distinguished  military 
position ;  and  many  have  actually  succeeded  in  attaining  these  objects. 
The  Abasian  women  are  handsome,  and  as  much  in  demand  for  the  Turkish 
harems  as  the  Circassian. 

The  Circassians  inhabit  Great  and  Little  Kabardah,  and  the  country 
beyond  the  Kuban,  as  far  as  the  Black  Sea,  call  themselves  Nobles,  and 
were  known  in  the  middle  ages  as  Sikhs.  Formerly  they  dwelt  still  further 
towards  the  north,  but  have  been  pushed  back  by  the  Russians  below  the 
Terek  and  Kuban  Rivers.  Those  inhabiting  Great  and  Little  Kabardah 
are  usually  called  Kabardes,  or  Kabardines. 

The  i^ople  are  divided  into  five  strictly  defined  classes.  The  class  of 
"  psheh"  comprehends  the  princes ;  the  second  class,  the  ancient  nobles, 
who  are  called  "  work"  in  the  language  of  the  country ;  the  third  class,  the 
(reedmen  of  the  princes  and  ancient  nobles,  who,  however,  remain  bouiid 
to  serve  in  war  under  their  late  lords ;  the  fourth  class  is  composed  of  the 
freedmen  of  the  new  nobles;  and  the  fifth,  of  the  serfs,  "tchokotl,"  who  are 
partly  the  property  of  the  higher  classes  and  partly  of  the  country  people. 
The  several  branches  of  the  princely  families  have  again  families  under  them, 
and  under  the  latter  are  peasants  as  hereditary  property.  The  nobles 
together  with  their  serfs  can  pass  over  from  one'  prince  to  another.  In  this 
manner  certain  princes  acquire  ascendency  over  others.  Nobles  and 
princes  are  lords  of  the  serfs,  even  as  far  as  life  and  death  are  concerned. 
Before  Islamism  was  established  amongst  the  Circassians,  the  princes  had, 
however,  still  greater  privileges  than  at  present. 

Old  age  is  held  in  high  respect  by  the  Circassians,  and  hence  the  most 
aged  of  each  class  meet  in  council  on  important  affairs.  There  are  neither 
fixed  places  of  administering  justice  nor  written  laws.  Judgment  is  passed 
according  to  old  usages ;  the  meetings,  at  which  the  princes  preside,  are 
held  in  the  forests,  and  at  them  almost  all  matters  are  adjudged.  If  the 
family  of  a  slain  person  do  not  demand  the  blood  of  the  murderer,  but  are 
willing  to  enter  into  a  composition  with  him,  the  assembly  assesses  the  fine 
to  be  paid  down  by  the  slayer.  The  disturber  of  the  public  peace  is  also 
fined  in  money,  and  thieves  who  are  caught  in  the  act  are  obliged  to  restore 
many  times  the  value  of  the  stolen  articles.  Thefts  accomplished  with 
adroitness,  however,  do  not  bring  disgrace  upon  the  perpetrator,  but  are 
considered  almost  as  meritorious  as  skilfully  executed  expeditions  of  war. 
Hence  all  take  pains  to  learn  the  art  of  stealing  cleverly ;  and  the  greatest 

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172  HISTOET  Am>  ETHNOLOGY. 

reproach  which  a  girl  can  make  to  a  young  man,  is  to  say  to  him,  that  he 
has  not  been  able  to  steal  even  a  cow. 

Hospitality  is  esteemed  a  sacred  duty  by  the  Circassians,  and  is  fully 
carried  out  among  them. 

When  a  child  is  born  to  a  prince,  the  father  prepares  great  festivals.  If 
it  is  a  son,  he  delivers  the  child,  on  the  third  day  after  its  birth,  to  one 
of  his  nobles,  to  be  brought  up  by  him.  The  guardian  obtains  a  wetnurse 
for  the  child,  and  she  gives  him  a  name.  The  son  never  visits  his  father 
before  his  marriage,  hence  the  love  of  both  towards  each  other  cannot  be  very 
great.  The  person  who  inquires  after  the  health  of  the  consort  and  children 
of  a  prince  commits  a  grave  offence  against  the  laws  of  etiquette,  and 
excites  great  indignation  on  the  part  of  the  latter  by  such  a  proceeding. 
Sons  of  noblemen  are  committed  to  the  care  of  a  guardian  of  similar  rank, 
but  not  until  their  third  or  fourth  year.  The  tutor  chooses  the  consort  for 
the  young  prince ;  and,  when  the  presents  which  the  parents  of  the  chosen 
bride  are  entitled  to  have  been  offered  and  accepted,  the  prince,  accom- 
panied by  a  friend,  kidnaps  the  lady,  the  companion  taking  her  before  him 
upon  his  horse.  They  then  ride  at  full  gallop  to  the  house  of  the  bride- 
groom's parents,  where  the  friend  introduces  the  bride.  She  thereupon  is 
conducted  to  the  chamber  selected  for  the  newly  married  couple,  where 
she  awaits  the  bridegroom.  The  young  groom  remains  in  the  forest  until 
he  is  called  by  his  friend,  and  conducted  by  him  into  the  presence  of  his 
wife,  which  is  not  done  before  all  the  inmates  of  the  house  are  supposed  to 
be  asleep. 

The  Circassians  are,  in  general,  well  formed,  and  the  men  in  particular 
are  distinguished  for  their  handsome  figures ;  and  as  they  employ  every 
means  to  keep  themselves  slender,  fine  forms  are  very  common.  They  are 
of  medium  size,  of  great  nerve,  and  only  very  rarely  stout.  The  shoulders 
and  chest  are  broad,  but  the  lower  part  of  the  body  is  very  narrow.  The 
hair  and  eyes  are  brown  ;  the  head  is  high  and  narrow ;  the  nose  thin  and 
straight.  The  Circassian  women  are  always  deemed  the  handsomest  in  the 
entire  Caucasus,  yet  those  of  Georgia  greatly  excel  them  in  beauty.  A 
turned  up  nose  and  red  hair  are  not  uncommon  amongst  them,  but  are 
never  found  amongst  the  Georgians. 

The  men  wear  their  beards,  or  at  least  moustaches,  but  shave  off  the  hair 
of  the  head.  The  dress  is  easy  and  neat.  The  head  is  covered  with  a 
cap  sometimes  higher  and  melon  shaped,  sometimes  lower,  stuffed  out  with 
cotton  and  quilted.  People  of  distinction  wear  it  generally  of  white  color 
trimmed  with  gold  and  silver  lace,  the  lower  classes  of  dark  color  edged 
with  fancy  colors.  Upon  each  side  of  the  breast  of  the  short  light  coat  is 
found  a  pocket  sewed  throughout  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  numerous 
tubular  divisions,  which  are  used  as  receptacles  for  cartridges.  The  long 
trowsers  fit  closely,  and  with  men  of  rank  are  frequently  ornamented  with 
gold  and  silver  lace;  and  the  morocco  boots,  which  might  with  greater 
propriety  be  called  socks,  are  adorned  in  a  similar  manner.  The  lower 
garment  is  of  fine  light  stuff,  and  mostly  white.  Over  this,  the  man  of  rank 
wears  a  shorter  rich  waistcoat,  either  with  or  without  a  skirt.  The  latter, 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESKTT  DAY.  173 

if  present,  is  made  of  thicker  material,  of  cloth  or  fur.  Upon  state 
occasions  princes  and  nobles  wear  a  coat  of  mail  and  full  armor,  instead  of 
the  under  garment.  This  coat  of  mail  is  ingeniously  composed  of  polished 
steel  rings ;  and  from  the  hinder  part  and  sides  of  the  helmet,  made  in  a 
similar  manner  and  pointed  at  top,  a  piece  of  the  same  durable  network 
hangs  down  and  serves  as  a  defence  to  the  neck  and  shoulders.  The 
armlets  also  are  of  polished  steel.  A  broad  black  belt  is  tightly  fastened 
above  the  hips,  and  serves  at  the  same  time  as  a  receptacle  for  the  dagger 
and  pistols.  A  narrower  one  hangs  around  the  hips,  supporting  the  bow 
and  quiver  with  the  arrows.  The  sabre  seldom  leaves  the  side  of  the 
Circassian,  even  in  the  house.  The  common  people  wear  clothes  made  of 
coarser  material,  and  almost  always  over  them  a  cloak  of  fulled  shaggy  felt, 
which  they  call  burki,  and  do  not  willingly  lay  aside  even  in  the  greatest 
heats  of  summer.  When  the  Circassian  of  the  lower  classes  walks  or  rides 
abroad,  and  takes  with  him  neither  sword  nor  gun,  he  never  omits  to  arm 
himself  with  a  long,  strong  stick,  furnished  at  top  with  a  heavy  iron  knob, 
and  at  bottom  with  a  sharp  ferule  of  the  same  metal  almost  two  spans  long, 
which  he  can  use  also  as  a  javelin.  {PL  10,  ßg,  17,  Circassian  prince  of 
the  Great  Kabardah  ;  ßg,  18,  Circassians  of  rank  in  the  house  dress;  and 
ßgs.  19  and  20,  in  war  equipments.) 

The  women  cover  the  head  with  a  white  cloth  which  lies  flat  over  the 
forehead  and  is  fastened  under  the  chin;  but  the  girls  wear  caps  with 
embroidery  and  lace  similar  to  those  of  the  men.  The  hair  is  braided  into 
a  thick  plait  behind,  which  they  cover  over  with  linen.  The  under 
garment  reaches  to  the  ankles,  and  has  long  sleeves.  It  is  open  in  front 
and  held  together  by  lacings ;  the  over  gown,  whose  sleeves  are  cut  open, 
is  not  fastened  at  top  in  front.  Women  of  rank  choose  different  fancy 
colors  and  fine  stuffs  for  these  articles  of  dress,  and  trim  them  with  gold 
and  silver  lace.  Married  women  wear  wide  trowsers,  and  all  cover  the 
feet  with  close-fitting  boots  or  rather  socks,  ornamented  at  the  edges  with 
embroidery  or  lace  ;  and  over  these,  when  going  abroad,  they  put  on  stilt 
shoes.  A  broad  belt  or  corset  is  secured  or  fastened  with  clasps  around 
girls  after  the  tenth  year,  which  compresses  the  waist  very  much,  and  is 
not  to  be  removed  before  their  marriage.  This  small  wasp-like  waist  is 
considered  a  great  beauty  amongst  the  Circassians,  as  it  frequently  is 
among  Europeans  and  Americans  also,  much  to  the  detriment  of  health ; 
and  in  order  that  it  may  be  retained  for  as  great  a  length  of  time  as 
possible,  but  scanty  food,  chiefly  pastry  and  milk,  is  given  to  girls.  The 
men  also,  as  has  been  remarked  above,  endeavor  to  preserve  their  slen- 
derness  of  figure. 

Concerning  the  habitations  of  the  Circassians,  Pallas  observes :  The 
Circassians  live  in  villages,  which  they  desert  from  time  to  time  either  on 
account  of  increasing  uncleanliness  or  insecurity,  &c.,  taking  with  them 
only  the  best  spars  and  timbers  of  the  dwellings,  after  having  burnt  the  . 
remainder.  They  then  choose  another  convenient  site  for  their  village, 
and  in  case  they  do  not  find  water  in  the  immediate  vicinity  contrive  to 
conduct  it  thither  by  means  of  dams  and  small  canals.     They  build  their 

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174  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

dwellings  close  together  in  one  or  more  circles  or  parallelograms,  so  that 
the  inner  space  may  afford  a  large  cattle-yard  common  to  all,  which  has 
but  one  gate,  and  is  entirely  shut  in,  and  thus  in  a  measure  defended  by  the 
houses. 

Outside  of  the  circle  stands  the  house  of  the  prince,  which  consists  of  a 
greater  number  of  apartments  ;  and  here  and  there  are  also  single  buildings 
for  the  reception  of  strangers.  Round  about  are  placed  hay  or  corn- 
houses,  as  well  as  large  baskets  securely  set  in  the  ground,  and  furnished 
with  covers,  in  which  the  threshed  grain  is  stored  up. 

The  houses  themselves  are  oblong  parallelograms  20  to  30  feet  broad, 
made  of  wicker-work,  closely  plaited,  and  covered  with  loam  within  and 
without.  Upon  the  top  of  the  wicker-work  rests  a  flat  roof  of  light  spar- 
work  covered  with  turf.  The  wife  has  a  larger,  the  female  slaves  and  girls 
a  smaller  chamber;  the  husband  usually  occupies  a  separate  dwelling. 
Some  tribes  of  the  Circassians  fortify  their  villages  by  propping  up  thick 
posts  crosswise  against  each  other,  and  Ailing  up  the  interstices  below  with 
earth,  and  those  above  with  thorn  bushes. 

The  principal  food  of  the  Circassians  is  millet  softened  with  water. 
They  also  make  of  it  a  kind  of  bread,  as  well  as  their  usual  drink,  which  is 
called  by  them  "handkups."  Carrots,  turnips,  onions,  pumpkins,  ar»d 
watermelons,  form,  moreover,  a  part  of  their  ordinary  fare.  Mutton,  be€:f, 
and  game,  are  often  eaten  by  them.  Honey,  obtained  by  means  of  their 
careful  rearing  of  bees,  is  converted  into  mead  by  the  infusion  of  hot 
water,  or  is  mixed  with  the  "  busa,"  a  strongly  intoxicating  drink,  brewed 
from  millet  and  fermented.  It  is  also  eaten,  and  the  wax  obtained  from 
it  is  an  important  article  of  commerce  with  the  Circassians. 

The  herds  are  numerous,  the  country  possessing  beautiful  pastures  that 
furnish  sufficient  food  for  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and  horses.  The  sheep  have 
fat  tails  and  fine  wool,  and  out  of  the  latter  the  women  weave  very  strong 
woollen  cloth.  Wool,  as  well  as  cloth  and  ready-made  clothing,  the  latter 
being  also  manufactured  by  the  women,  are  sold  also  to  the  neighboring 
states.  The  black  cattle  are  of  a  small  breed,  and  are  used  as  draught 
cattle.  The  horses  are  exquisite,  and  in  fact  the  best  after  those  of 
Arabia.  They  rove  freely  over  the  fields,  and  never  go  into  a  stable.  The 
agriculture  of  the  Circassians  is  very  simple.  In  spring  they  burn  the 
herbs  that  cover  the  fields,  meadows,  &c ,  and  this  is  the  only  manure  that 
they  give  them.  The  soil  is  then  ploughed  and  harrowed,  the  harrows 
being  trees  having  the  foliage  still  remaining  on  them.  The  dance  of  the 
Circassians  is  peculiar.  Their  games  are  founded  upon  activity,  strength, 
and  skill. 

The  Georgians  differ  from  the  rest  of  the  inhabitants  of  Caucasia  in 
language  and  form  of  body.  In  the  north  they  are  bordered  by  the 
Caucasus,  and  in  the  south  separated  from  nations  of  different  language 
and  origin,  by  the  river  Kur,  the  mountains  of  Karabag,  Pampaki, 
Tshildier,  and  Pontus.  Their  name  is  derived  from  the  word  "  Gur"  or 
"  Kur,"  which  is  the  present  name  of  the  river  Cyrus  of  the  ancients.  The 
country  is  called  Gurgistan  by  the  Persians,  Gurtsh  by  the  Turks,  and 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  175 

Grusia  by  the  Russians:  in  ancient  times,  however,  it  was  denominated 
Iberia,  and  comprehended  ancient  Albania  and  Colchis.  Since  the  earliest 
times  the  Georgians  have  enjoyed  greater  civilization  than  the  northern 
mountaineers.  Their  history  proper  begins,  however,  with  the  intro- 
duction of  Christianity  in  the  fourth  century.  Nevertheless  their  old 
traditions  arc  mixed  up  with  biblical  history,  as  they  maintain  that  the 
ancient  Georgians  sprang  from  Targamos,  a  descendant  of  Japhet,  on 
which  account  they  call  all  people  belonging  to  their  stock  Targamosians. 
The  true  Georgians  of  the  present  day  denominate  themselves  *'  Kart-uhli," 
from  Kartlos,  the  son  of  Targamos. 

The  Georgians  are  divided  into  four  main  branches.  The  first,  the 
Georgians  proper,  live  in  Kartli,  Kacheti  (ancient  Albania),  and  Imeritia, 
extending  to  the  banks  of  the  Tscheniss-Skali,  a  tributary  of  the  Phasis. 
The  Pshawi  and  Gudamakari  speak  the  Old  Georgian  language,  which  is 
very  different  from  the  New  Georgian  (Grusian  or  Iberian) ;  still  they 
must  be  reckoned  with  this  stock.  They  inhabit  a  few  narrow  valleys  of 
the  high  Caucasus,  eastwardly  from  the  Upper  Aragui  River. 

The  inhabitants  of  Mingrelia  (ancient  Colchis),  Odischi,  and  Guria,  con- 
stitute the  second  branch,  speaking  a  rude  dialect  intermixed  with  many 
foreign  words. 

The  third  branch,  the  Suani  or  Snaw  (Tson),  speak  a  dialect  differing 
still  more,  and  which  has  received  many  Caucasian  words.  They  inhabit 
the  high  mountains  of  Caucasus,  westwardly  from  the  Elboors  and  north- 
wardly from  Imeritia,  as  far  as  the  sources  of  the  Tscheniss-Skali,  Enguii, 
and  Egrissi.  They  are  independent,  and  are  considered  the  most  uncleanly 
in  their  habits  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Caucasus. 

The  Lasi  (Turkish,  Lash),  who  constitute  the  fourth  branch,  are  bar- 
barous, rapacious  mountaineers,  along  the  Black  Sea,  from  Trebizond  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Tshoroki  or  Thoroch,  which  separates  them  from  Guria. 

The  Georgians  have  a  vigorous  frame,  tall  figure,  generally  handsome, 
sharply  chiselled  features,  black,  finely  formed  eyes,  and  a  large  nose,  which 
is  often  aquiline,  but  less  of  a  Roman  than  a  Jewish  outline.  Their 
carriage  is  proud,  the  gait  is  somewhat  swinging.  A  recent  writer  says  : 
"  The  men  and  women  of  Imeritia  are  world-renowned  for  their  beauty. 
No  race  of  men  in  the  wide  world  equals  the  people  of  Imeritia,  Mingrelia, 
Guria,  and  Adshari,  in  symmetry  of  limb,  and  regular  beauty  of  the 
physiognomy.  In  these  respects  even  the  slender  heroic  figures  of  the  men 
of  Circassia  are  inferior.  In  the  solitary  forests  of  Mingrelia  I  at  times 
saw  true  ideals  of  the  handsomest  male  figures,  that  might  have  served  as 
models  to  a  Thorwaldsen.  The  Georgians  inhabit  a  country  which  until 
lately  has  been  continually  exposed  to  the  incursions  of  foreign  nations,  for 
the  Russians  have  but  recently  obtained  possession  of  the  land,  with  the 
exception  of  a  small  portion  of  Guria  and  Lasi  yet  belonging  to  the 
Ottomans.  In  consequence  of  this  state  of  things,  the  Georgians  have  been 
under  the  necessity  of  always  standing  upon  their  guard  as  well  against  the 
Ottomans  as  against  the  Persians  and  Lesghians.  This  position  in  the 
midst  of  these  nations  has  rendered  the  Greorgian  warlike ;  but  as  he  does 

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176  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

not  belong  to  a  numerous  tribe,  he  has  been  compelled  to  fight  against 
forces  vastly  superior  in  numbers,  and  has  accordingly  accustomed  himself 
more  to  a  partisan  warfare  than  to  regular  battles."  The  Georgians  are 
excellent  horsemen  and  very  brave ;  they  are  upright  and  trustworthy,  but 
at  times  somewhat  rude  ;  hospitable  indeed,  but  not  very  friendly  and  polite ; 
ingenious  and  quick  of  apprehension,  but  ignorant  in  the  highest  degree. 
The  people  of  the  country,  though  they  do  not  display  the  pride  that  charac- 
terizes the  men  of  rank,  yet  by  their  tone  and  entire  manner  betray*  their 
martial  character,  as  in  general  the  Georgians  have  acquired  the  virtues  as 
well  as  the  vices  of  soldiers.  Georgians  practise  farming,  and  cultivate  the 
vine  to  a  large  extent,  as  a  great  deal  of  wine  is  consumed  by  them. 
Silkworms  are  reared,  and  cattle,  principally  sheep,  raised.  They  have 
not,  as  yet,  entered  upon  the  practice  of  the  industrial  arts  to  any  extent. 
Their  domestic  life  is  very  plain.  The  carpets  upon  which  the  Georgians 
sit  with  their  legs  turned  under  them,  according  to  the  oriental  fashion, 
constitute  almost  their  only  furniture.  Rich  and  poor  live  in  the  same 
manner,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  people  of  Tiflis,  who  endeavor 
to  imitate  the  Russians.  Their  dress  is  very  comfortable  and  good,  and 
consists  mostly  of  woollen  material.  The  women  wear  trowsers,  are 
initiated  also  in  all  the  arts  of  the  toilette,  and  even  take  pride  in  rouging 
very  handsomely.  Their  dress  is  modest,  and  shows  to  advantage  the 
beautiful  slender  figure,  the  regularity  of  the  features  of  the  face,  the 
fairness  of  the  complexion,  and  the  inexpressible  mildness  in  the  glance  of 
the  eye.  The  reader  will  best  learn  the  dress  from  the  representations 
given  hj  pi  10,  fig.  25,  a  Mingrelian  girl ;  fig.  26,  and  pL  15,  fig.  15,  an 
Imeritian  prince  (overcoat  orange,  under  garment  and  breeches  green, 
boots  yellow,  no  stockings,  the  legs  naked  to  the  knee,  hat  yellow)  ;  pi,  10, 
fig.  27,  Georgian  prince;  pi.  15,  fig.  16,  a  Georgian  female  of  the  higher 
ranks.  Gown  scarlet,  head-dress  and  veil  white,  sash  yellow,  ornaments 
on  the  head-dress  and  gown  golden;  fig.  17,  a  Mingrelian  of  the  lowest 
ranks  carrying  the  produce  of  his  rich  vineyard  to  market.  Overcoat 
green,  under  dress  and  breeches  scarlet,  straw  hat  yellow,  sash  striped 
yellow  and  red,  shoes  black,  worn  over  short  yellow  boots. 

The  Calmucks  {pi.  12,  fig.  10),  who  call  themselves  "  Derben-Oret,"  that 
is  to  say,  the  four  united  nations,  are  an  offshoot  of  the  Mongols,  and  form 
four  hordes :  the  Choshoutes,  the  Soongores,  the  Derbets,  and  the  Torgots. 
They  live  on  the  Lower  Volga  and  in  Central  Asia.  They  formerly 
professed  the  religion  of  the  Shamans,  but  afterwards  embraced  the 
doctrine  of  Fo  ;  nevertheless  their  chief-priests  ("  lamas")  are  independent 
of  the  highest  priest  ("dalai  lama"),  having  broken  off  all  intercourse 
with  his  residence.  The  "  gelungi"  (priests)  are  subordinate  to  the  chief- 
priests,  the  "  gezuli"  are  subordinate  to  the  gelungi,  and  the  "  mandshikami" 
to  the  gezuli. 

When  the  camp  is  broken  up,  the  kihitkas  (houses),  in  which  the  temples 

of  the  idols  are  kept,  are  likewise  removed  from  one  place  to  another. 

The  priests  form  the  tenth  part  of  the  entire  nation,  and  as  they  neither 

pay  taxes  nor  perform  any  duty  necessary  to  the  commonwealth,  they 

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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  Ill 

must  be  a  heavy  burden  upon  the  people.  Superstition  prevails  to  a 
considerable  degree  ;  astrolc^,  for  example,  is  much  practised. 

The  language  of  the  Calmucs  is  derived  from  the  Mongolian,  but  is 
intermingled  with  many  Tartar  words. 

Of  the  hordes  under  the  Russian  sovereignty,  that  of  the  Derbets  is  the 
strongest,  as  they  have  10,000  kibitkas  or  families.  The  number  of 
Calmucs  in  the  Russian  Empire,  taken  collectively,  amounts  to  about 
100,000. 

The  encampments  of  the  hordes  are  subordinate  to  chiefs  who  pay 
tribute  (Taishis) ;  and  the  Vice-Khan,  who  is  chosen  by  Russia,  governs  the 
entire  people,  consisting  of  the  high-priesthood,  the  nobility,  the  inferioi 
priests,  and  the  common  people.  In  some  countries,  Spain  for  instance, 
the  nobility  are  distinguished  according  to  blood,  while  the  Calmucs  are 
classed  according  to  flesh  and  bones ;  the  higher  priesthood  and  the  nobles 
(say  these  people)  have  white  bones,  the  inferior  priests  and  the  common 
people  black  bones,  and  (by  a  classification  somewhat  similar)  women  of 
rank  are  provided  with  white  flesh,  females  of  the  ordinary  classes  with 
black  flesh. 

The  Calmucs  possess  the  senses  of  sight,  hearing,  and  smelling  in  great 
perfection ;  those  of  taste  and  touch  are  not  so  good.  Their  memory  is 
excellent,  and  hence  they  quickly  acquire  foreign  languages.  They  recei\  e 
instruction  in  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  geography,  astronomy,  astrology, 
and  medicine,  each  camp  having  its  schoolmaster  (bashka).  They  are,  t.o 
be  sure,  not  far  advanced  in  these  branches ;  and  in  the  medical  sciences 
(chiefly  in  regard  to  internal  diseases)  they  are  very  deficient. 

The  Calmucs  must  be  pronounced  rather  short  than  tall.  They  are  not 
fleshy,  but  broad  shouldered,  have  a  broad  flat  face,  a  small  flat  nose  with 
large  nostrils,  narrowly  opened  eyes,  and  a  short  chin,  long  ears  that  stand 
oflF  from  the  head,  and  always  black  hair.  As  they  sit  with  their  lower 
limbs  crossed  under  them,  and  ride  a  great  deal,  they  are  bandy-legged. 
Their  habits  are  extremely  uncleanly,  and  in  the  choice  of  food  they  do 
not  disdain  even  cattle  that  have  died  a  natural  death,  entrails,  cats,  mice, 
grass,  &c.  Bread  is  rarely  eaten  by  them,  but  a  mixture  of  ryemeal  and 
salt  water  is  often  used.  Sour  milk,  whey,  a  spirituous  liquor  manu- 
factured of  mares'  milk  and  resembling  whiskey,  tea,  and  water,  are  their 
ordinary  drinks.     Both  sexes  are  passionately  fond  of  smoking  tobacco. 

They  are,  upon  the  whole,  lazy  and  averse  to  work.  Their  principal 
occupations  consist  in  the  rearing  of  their  cattle,  in  the  manufacture  of 
their  kibitkas,  their  household  utensils,  and  their  horse  trappings.  The 
women  are  more  active,  and  prepctre  the  furs,  the  felt,  the  clothing  and 
boots,  the  whiskey  and  cheese ;  they  also  spin  the  wool  of  the  camel  sheep, 
weave  tape,  saddle  girths,  &c. 

The  herds  of  the  hordes  consist  of  a  large  number  of  camels  and  horses, 
as  well  as  cows,  sheep,  and  goats. 

In  their  migrations,  the  kibitkas,  utensils,  and  food  of  people  of  rank  are 
loaded  upon  camels,  those  of  the  poorer  classes  upon  horned  cattle,  and  the 
women  and  children,  on  horseback,  drive  the  herds.    The  horses  of  men 

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178  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

of  distinction  are  ornamented  with  small  bells  of  different  kinds,  and  the 
baggage  is  covered  with  carpets  or  blankets.  The  lord  rides  at  the  head  with 
his  people,  and  after  him  his  steward,  canying  a  small  banner  in  his  hand. 
The  cradles  with  the  infants  are  placed  on  both  sides  of  the  camel  saddles. 

The  dress  of  the  men  consists  of  an  over  garment  made  of  cloth  or 
cotton  stuff,  which  reaches  to  the  calves  of  the  legs,  and  has  long  sleeves, 
very  wide  above  and  tapering  to  the  hand.  In  addition  to  this,  there  are 
one  or  more  under  garments  (of  damask  with  the  rich),  which  fit  closely, 
are  fastened  at  the  breast  with  buttons,  and  girded  with  a  belt.  Over  long 
linen  breeches  short  boots  are  worn.  The  poor  wear  red  leather  breeches 
and  a  fur  coat  upon  the  bare  body.  In  winter,  men  of  rank  also  wear 
furs.  The  women  wear  wide  trowsers ;  their  chemise  fastens  at  the 
throat ;  their  dress  is  similar  to  that  of  the  men,  only  usually  lighter  and 
neater,  and  the  upper  garment  is  often  without  collar  and  sleeves,  has 
variegated  bordering,  and  is  cut  open  behind.  The  head  of  the  Calmucs  is 
shaved,  with  the  exception  of  a  small  space  behind  the  crown,  where  they 
permit  the  hair  to  grow,  and  twist  it  into  one  or  more  queues.  The  hair 
of  young  girls  is  attended  to  with  care,  parted  from  the  crown  down,  and 
twisted  behind  into  one  large  plait,  and  into  several  smaller  ones  at  the 
sides.  At  their  marriage,  all  these  tresses  are  loosened,  and  but  two  large 
plaits  are  made  of  them,  which,  secured  in  a  covering  of  black  material, 
hang  down  over  the  shoulder.  Women  wear  rings  in  both  ears,  girls  in 
but  one.  Females,  also,  wear  short  boots ;  those  of  a  red  color  being  most 
esteemed.  Yellow,  being  considered  sacred,  is  never  selected.  Both  men 
and  women  wear  caps,  which  are  usually  round,  low,  and  bordered  with 
fur.  In  summer,  men  of  rank  and  the  priests  wear  large,  flat,  round  summer 
hats.    Both  women  and  girls  rouge  their  cheeks. 

The  house  of  the  Calmucs,  called  by  the  Russians  "kybitka,"  by  the 
Calmucs  themselves  "  g»rr,"  consists  of  a  framework  of  lath,  painted  red, 
which  may  be  easily  set  up  and  again  taken  apart,  and  which  is  overlaid 
with  felt  coverings  when  in  use.  The  houses  are  round,  with  a  conical 
roof,  having  an  opening  at  top  for  the  egress  of  smoke.  They  are  a  very 
ingenious  invention  for  a  pastoral  people ;  strong,  and  fit  to  withstand 
storms ;  warm  in  winter,  spacious,  and  fully  secured  against  snow  and  rain 
by  means  of  the  covering  of  white  felt  which  entirely  envelopes  them. 
Fuel,  in  winter,  consists  for  the  most  part  of  dried  dung  of  the  camel  and 
horned  cattle,  as  the  steppes  furnish  but  little  wood. 

The  great  number  of  cattle  renders  a  migratory  mode  of  life  on  the  part 
of  the  owners  necessary,  and  in  summer  these  changes  of  abode  are  made 
as  often  as  once  in  six  or  seven  days ;  in  winter,  however,  they  are  not  so 
frequent. 

The  Kirghis  {pi  15,  fig.  14,  and  pi  16,  figs.  2  and  3,  Kirghis  in  camp). 
The  three  great  hordes  of  horsemen  living  in  the  territory  extending  from 
Lake  Aral  to  the  confines  of  China,  and,  in  part,  in  the  far-spreading  dis- 
tricts of  the  Celestial  Empire,  are  called  by  the  Russians,  "  Kirghese," 
"  Kirghis-Cossacks,"  or  "  Kirghis-Kaisacks :"  they,  however,  call  them« 
selves  "  Burnt." 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  179 

The  great  and  golden  horde  is  now  the  smallest.  Many  of  their  branches 
are  called  by  the  Russians  "Wild,"  or  "Stone,"  or  "Black  Kirghis." 
They  are  braver,  more  barbarous,  more  rapacious  and  revengeful,  than  the 
other  hordes.  Travellers  through  their  territory  must  either  pay  a  tribute, 
or  dread  being  attacked,  plundered,  and  perhaps  even  made  slaves.  The 
Middle  Horde,  which  is  the  most  numerous,  is  said  to  number  about  480,000 
persons  of  the  male  sex,  and  extends  from  Lake  Aral  to  the  Upper  Irtish. 
The  Little  Horde,  dwelling  principally  between  and  to  the  north  of  the 
Caspian  Sea  and  Lake  Aral,  is  reported  to  be  nearly  as  numerous  as  the 
one  last  mentioned. 

The  Kirghis  are,  for  the  most  part,  tolerably  large,  the  poorer  portion 
being  generally  slender,  the  richer,  on  the  contrary,  frequently  very  corpu- 
lent. As  they  but  seldom  alight  from  their  horses,  and  when  off  their 
backs  are  squatted  upon  their  felt  blankets,  they  are  usually  bandy-legged, 
like  the  Calmucs.  Their  features  show  a  mixture  of  the  Calmuc  and 
Tartar  characters ;  in  the  east,  however,  approaching  more  to  that  of  the 
former,  in  the  west  to  that  of  the  latter.  Almost  all  have  black  eyes ; 
most  of  them  also  black,  seldom  brown  or  reddish  hair.  The  complexion 
of  adults  is  tanned.  Men  wear  their  beards,  but  shave  their  heads. 
Women  twist  their  hair  into  two  plaits,  girls  into  many. 

The  men  wear  wide  coats  of  cotton  or  silk  stuff,  which  supply  at  the 
same  time  the  place  of  shirts.  They  sometimes  put  on  several,  one  over 
the  other,  and  an  overcoat  of  cloth,  nankeen,  or  silk ;  in  winter,  of  fur,  and 
wadded,  or  lined  with  soft  leather.  A  broad  woollen  or  silk  girdle  holds 
the  undercoats  together ;  the  overcoat  is  held  by  a  leather  belt,  ornamented 
with  plates  of  copper  or  brass,  from  which  are  suspended  a  pouch,  contain- 
ing the  pipe  and  various  small  utensils,  and  a  knife.  The  wide  pantaloons 
are  of  various  materials,  and  in  riding  extraordinarily  wide  leather  over- 
trowsers  are  put  on,  all  the  coats,  with  the  exception  of  the  overcoat,  being 
thrust  into  them.  The  boots  are  made  of  black,  green,  or  red  leather,  with 
toes  bent  upwards  and  very  high  heels.  The  covering  for  the  head  consists 
of  a  tapering  cap,  with  flaps  capable  of  being  turned  up  or  down.  In  the 
eastern  districts  it  is  much  lower  than  in  the  western.  The  long  wide 
frocks  of  the  women  are  left  open  to  the  girdle.  Women,  however,  wear 
trowsers  and  boots  like  the  men. 

The  habitations  are  tents  of  felt,  as  with  the  Calmucs ;  and  thirty  to 
fifty,  or  more,  constitute  an  "  Aul,"  or  village. 

Rearing  cattle,  hunting,  and  plundering  excursions,  constitute  the  prin- 
cipal employment  of  the  Kirghis ;  but  they  also  trade  in  skins,  furs,  wool, 
felt,  &c.  A  bartering  commerce  exists  between  the  eastern  Kirghis  and 
the  Chinese ;  the  former  giving  their  goods  in  exchange  for  silk  stuffs, 
tobacco,  tobacco  pipes,  a  small  quantity  of  silver,  tea,  and  lacquered 
wooden  wares,  &c. 

The  Bashkirs  {pL  16,  ßg,  1)  inhabit  the  southern  Ural ;  many  have 
fixed  their  abode  in  the  villages  of  the  southern  circles  of  the  provinces  of 
Wiatka  and  Perm.  These  latter  are  peaceable,  very  plain  both  in  their 
dwellings   and  their  manner  of  living,  and   are  distinguished  for  their 

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180  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

cleanliness.  Their  originally  Finnish  stock  is  strongly  intermixed  with 
Turkish,  Mongolian,  and  Russian  blood,  and  the  Turkish  language  has 
become  their  idiom.  The  Bashkirs  of  the  province  of  Orenburg  are 
warlike,  rapacious,  and  rude  in  their  manners.  They  rear  cattle  and  bees, 
and  are  hunters  and  agriculturists,  their  herds  being,  however,  their  prin- 
cipal means  of  support.  They  raise  little  grain,  and  eat  but  little  bread. 
Instead  of  paying  tribute,  they  render  Cossack  service  to  the  Russian 
governmeijt,  and  are  usually  added  in  small  numbers  to  the  Cossack  regi- 
ments. They  are  mostly  wealthy,  and  many  of  them  very  rich  in 
cattle.  Their  limbs  are  strong,  their  hair  never  fair,  their  eyes  always 
small. 

The  Turkomans  {pL  10,  fig.  23)  arc  the  Turkish  tribes  that  rove  about 
with  their  herds  in  a  portion  of  Northern  Persia,  west  of  the  Caspian  Sea, 
in  Armenia,  Southern  Georgia,  Shirwan,  and  Daghestan,  and  constitute  the 
principal  part  of  the  population  of  these  countries.  It  is  difficult  to  deter- 
mine their  origin.  They  are  Turkish  tribes  which,  in  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  centuries,  came  over  the  Dshihun,  or  Oxus,  to  Khorasan,  and 
from  that  place  spread  over  Northern  Persia,  and,  more  westwardly,  over 
Syria  and  Asia  Minor ;  although  they  themselves  contend  that  the  source 
from  which  they  are  derived  is  at  the  north-eastern  end  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 
The  Persian  word  "  Turkman"  is  said  to  signify  "  Turk-like,"  as  the  Per- 
sians hold  that  the  Turcomans  are  descended  of  those  Turks  who  in 
Khorasan  had  married  women  of  that  place.  As,  however,  the  portion 
of  the  nation  which  did  not  come  to  Persia,  and  remained  behind  on  the 
Dshihun,  also  call  themselves  by  that  name,  the  Persian  explanation  cannot 
be  very  correct.  According  to  Burns,  "Turkuman"  signifies  "a  wan- 
derer,'' and  "Turk-man"  "I  am  a  Turk."  The  Turkomans  of  the  desert 
of  Khiva  are  usually  denominated  "  Truchmenes"  by  the  Russians,  and  are 
at  present  chiefly  under  the  government  of  the  Usbeck  Khans  of  Khiva, 
Khokan,  and  Bucharia,  or,  according  to  their  own  version  of  the  thing, 
their  .allies  and  guests.  The  tribe  most  worthy  of  note  is  the  race  of  Salyr, 
and  after  it  that  of  Ata,  who  assert  that  they  are  descended  directly  from 
the  Caliph  Osman.  The  Turcomans  have  neither  the  firmness  of  character 
nor  the  love  of  justice  that  so  greatly  distinguish  the  Caucasian  nations. 
"  They  are,"  says  Murawiew,  "  a  nation  of  beggars,  who,  in  spite  of  their 
nomadic  habits,  have  no  idea  of  hospitality  ;  having  no  desire  but  for 
money,  they  will  lend  themselves  to  any  baseness  for  lucre.  Obedience  is, 
as  it  were,  a  word  unknown  to  them  :  they  will,  however,  yield  obedience 
to  any  one  among  themselves  who  proves  himself  more  cunning  and  more 
enterprising  than  the  rest,  without  questioning  his  authority.  They  are 
perfectly  harmless  to  travellers,  even  though  they  be  unprotected  or 
unarmed.  They  will  even  bear  with  a  great  deal,  showing  a  complete 
indifference  to  harsh  language  and  even  to  blows.  Ideas  such  as  the  state 
and  its  welfare,  personal  or  public  disgrace,  and  the  like,  are  entirely 
beyond  their  comprehension."  They  are  an  equestrian  nation,  and  of 
the  Mohammedan  religion,  following  the  doctrines  of  Omar. 

The  North  and  East  Siberian  inhabitants  of  Russia  comprise  the 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  181 

Tchouktches,  Koriaks,  Kamschatkians,  Aleutes,  Yakoutes,  Tungouses» 
fiurates,  Ostiaks,  and  Samoyedes. 

The  Tchouktches,  inhabitants  of  the  extreme  north-eastern  portion  of 
Asia,  belong  to  the  Mongolian  race,  and  are  related  to  the  Koriaks,  who 
live  southwardly  from  the  peninsula  of  the  Tchouktches,  in  the  north  of 
the  peninsula  of  Kamschatka.  Some  of  them  are  nomadic,  others  have 
fixed  places  of  abode ;  and  although  subjects  of  Russia,  they  have  preserved 
a  considerable  degree  of  liberty.  They  have  stout  frames,  and  are  of 
medium  size.  Their  head  is  small,  with  a  dusky  brown,  spare,  round  face. 
Their  hair  is  black,  and  is  worn  short  by  the  men,  whilst  the  women  twist 
theirs  into  two  pendent  braids.  The  women  tattoo  two  black  semicircles 
upon  each  cheek,  which  are  connected  by  a  cross-line.  The  warriors,  who 
are  estimated  at  4000  to  5000,  ornament  their  arms  and  legs  with  various 
figures.  Their  dress  consists  of  long  coats  of  skins,  doe-skin  breeches,  and 
long  or  short  boots.  The  women  wear  wide  jackets,  to  which  the  trowsers 
are  sewed.  Both  these  articles,  as  well  as  the  boots,  are  made  of  doeskin. 
Their  finery  consists  of  necklaces  and  ear-drops  of  beads,  and  brass  or  iron 
rings.  Flesh,  fish,  and  train  oil,  with  berries  in  summer,  are  almost  their 
only  food,  bread  being  very  expensive.  The  nomads  have  herds  of  rein- 
deer,  sometimes  consisting  of  from  1000  to  10,000  head;  those  having  fixed 
places  of  abode  are  engaged  in  hunting  and  fishing.  The  sleighs  are 
drawn  by  dogs;  and  for  navigation  they  use  boats,  made  of  driftwood, 
whalebone,  and  morse-skin.  These  boats  are  called  "baiders,"  and  are 
prevented  from  upsetting  by  means  of  bladders,  filled  with  air,  fastened  to 
the  sides.  Summer  residences  consist  of  a  frame  of  slender  poles  or  bones, 
covered  with  the  skins  of  animals ;  for  winter  habitations,  however,  whale 
ribs  are  employed  as  beams,  and  are  covered  with  grass  and  earth  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  give  to  the  huts,  when  seen  from  a  distance,  the  appear- 
ance of  mounds. 

The  Kamschatkians  live  to  the  south  of  the  Koriaks,  in  a  large,  inhos- 
pitable territory.  In  the  interior,  however,  there  are  valleys  favorable  to 
vegetation,  and  producing  even  trees  that  furnish  timber  for  shipbuilding. 
The  number  of  the  Kamschatkians  is  said  not  to  exceed  6000.  They  have 
adopted  the  Russian  customs  and  ceremonies,  and  even  their  disposilion  is 
essentially  Russian.  The  dress  and  dwellings  also  are  similar  to  those  of 
the  Russians.  They  belong  to  the  Mongolian  race,  are  short,  have  large 
heads  with  a  flat  broad  face,  and  small  sunken  eyes,  that  are  frequently 
inflamed  by  the  dazzling  snow.  The  lips  are  thin,  and  the  scanty  hair  is 
black.  The  females  are  well  formed,  and  highly  respected  by  the  men. 
Hunting  and  fishing  are  the  chief  employments  of  this  people,  who  from 
laziness  shun  cattle-breeding  and  agriculture  as  being  too  laborious. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Aleutian  Islands,  about  3000  in  number,  live  in 
large  caverns,  are  good  natured,  wear  bones  adorned  with  beads  in  the  per- 
forated ears,  nose,  and  lips,  and  support  themselves  by  hunting  and  fishing. 

The  Yakoutes  are  found  on  both  sides  of  the  Lower  Lena.  The 
wealthier  among  them  dress  in  reindeer  skins,  the  poor  in  horsehides. 
When  going  abroad  they  attach  to  their  girdle  a  knife  fastened  to  a  long 

ICOITOORAPHIO   INCTCLOPJEDIA. — VOL.    III.  23  353 


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182  HISTORT  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

stick,  and  carry  with  them  steel,  flint,  and  tinder  prepared  frcNii  the 
wormwood  plant.  The  short-stemmed  pipe  is  placed  in  the  hinder  part  of 
the  boot.  Tobacco  smoking  has  with  them  become  a  matter  of  prime 
necessity ;  they  usually  swallow  the  smoke,  and  often  continue  the  enjoy- 
ment till  they  fall  down  senseless.  The  summer  "  yourtes"  (habitations) 
are  conically  shaped,  constructed  of  long  poles,  and  covered  on  the  outside 
with  birch  bark.  The  winter  yourtes  are  quadrilateral.  In  constructing 
the  latter,  three  parallel  rows  of  posts  are  first  driven  into  the  ground,  the 
middle  row  being  somewhat  higher  than  the  two  others.  Each  row  is 
topped  by  a  beam  connecting  the  several  posts ;  and  at  each  end  the  higher 
middle  row  is  connected  by  a  cross  beam  with  both  of  the  lower  rows. 
This  framework  is  then  covered  with  boards  reaching  from  the  highest 
row  to  the  lower  ones,  the  side  walls  being  likewise  made  of  the  same 
materials.  The  whole,  however,  is  then  covered  with  weeds,  earth,  and 
dung.  In  the  centre,  over  the  fire  which  is  kindled  upon  the  bare  ground, 
a  kind  of  chimney  is  constructed.  Broad  benches  separated  by  parti- 
tions, so  as  to  serve  also  for  beds,  are  fixed  to  the  walls  around  the  inside 
of  the  yourte.  The  cattle  are  kept  in  an  adjoining  building  having  its 
entrance  in  the  yourte. 

The  Yakoutes  are  of  medium  size,  but  robust  form ;  the  face  is  some- 
what broad  and  meagre,  and  of  a  light  copper  color ;  the  eyes  are  small, 
the  hair  weak  in  growth  and  worn  short.  They  are  fond  of  eating,  and 
consume  a  great  deal  of  food  ;  but  are  regardless  of  its  nature,  whether  the 
flesh  of  reindeer,  horses,  rats,  or  mice,  or  whether  it  is  fresh  or  putrid. 
They  eat  blood  and  fat  formed  into  a  pulpy  mass,  and  pour  down  their 
throats  tea  and  broth  hot  enough  to  scald  the  lips  of  a  European.  The 
Yakoutes  are  very  hospitable.     They  are  engaged  chiefly  in  rearing  cattle. 

The  Tungouses,  between  the  Lena  and  the  Yenesei,  are  of  Mongolian 
extraction.  They  are  divided  into  Forest  and  Prairie  Tungouses.  Accord- 
ing to  their  occupations,  however,  they  are  further  divided  into  fishermen, 
reindeer,  horse,  and  dog  owners.  They  are  of  medium  size,  have  broad 
faces,  small  sparkling  eyes,  and  long  black  hair,  which  they  shave  ofi*, 
leaving  only  a  long  tuft  at  the  crown.  The  complexion  of  older  persons  is 
yellowish,  that  of  younger  persons  whiter.  The  dress  is  mostly  made  of 
leather  or  furs.  The  Tungouses  congregate  in  tribes,  some  of  which  are 
considered  of  more  consequence  than  others.  The  tribes  elect  their  own 
sovereign,  who  is  confirmed  afterwards  by  the  government.  Only  a  few  of 
them  are  Christians ;  the  greater  portion  worship  the  sun  and  fire.  Their 
disposition  is  gay  and  frank,  and  they  are  very  hospitable.  Their  senses 
of  hearing  and  sight  are  exquisitely  refined. 

The  Burates,  denominated  Bratski  in  Russia,  are  of  Mongolian  lineage, 
are  weak  bodied,  and  almost  always  look  unhealthy,  probably  on  account 
of  their  great  uncleanliness.  Their  occupations  are  the  rearing  of  cattle, 
fishing,  and  hunting.  The  greater  part  of  them  are  adherents  of  Bud- 
dhaism. 

The  Ostiaks  inhabit  a  large  portion  of  Western  Siberia,  and  the  origin 
of  those  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Obi  river  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
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ETHNOLOGY  OP  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  188 

Finns.  They  are  small  and  weak,  have  broad,  inexpressive  countenances, 
yellow  hair  passing  into  reddish,  and  thin  legs;  they  are  timid,  good- 
natUfed,  and  very  honest.     Both  sexes  dress  in  furs. 

The  Samoyedes  {pi  1,  fig,  12)  live  in  North-western  Asia  and  North- 
eastern Europe,  and  are  mostly  very  small  in  stature.  Their  head  is 
comparatively  large,  the  face  fiat,  mouth  wide,  eyes  long  and  narrow,  and 
ears  very  large ;  complexion  of  a  brownish  yellow  color,  and  glistening 
with  grease ;  hair  black  and  bristly.  The  dress  consists  of  furs.  The 
hardest  work  falls  to  the  lot  of  the  women.  Rearing  live  stock,  especially 
reindeer,  is  the  principal  occupation  of  the  Samoyedes.  They  worship  a 
number  of  gods,  and  the  sun  and  moon  are  adored  as  inferior  deities. 


The  Inhabitants  of  the  Turkish  Empire. 

The  Turkish  Empire  comprehends  provinces  in  Europe,  Asia,  and 
Africa.  European  Turkey  has  an  area  of  144,000  square  miles,  and  the 
population  is  estimated  at  about  1,700,000  Turks  or  Osmanlis.  The 
remaining  inhabitants  are  very  numerous,  consisting  of  Greeks,  Slavonians, 
Wallachians,  Arnauts,  Jews,  Armenians,  Gipsies,  &c.  Asiatic  Turkey, 
with  an  area  of  337,000  square  miles,  is  inhabited,  besides  Turks  or 
Osmanlis,  by  Greeks,  Armenians,  Lasi,  Georgians,  Arabs,  Jews,  Turko- 
mans, Kurds,  Nosairs,  Druses,  Maronites,  and  Gipsies. 

Mohammedanism  is  the  established  religion;  other  religious  denomi- 
nations (rayas)  are  tolerated,  but  obliged  to  pay  a  capitation  tax  (karatch). 
The  Turkish  Empire  is  an  absolute  monarchy,  and  the  Grand  Sultan 
Padishah)  possesses  the  highest  temporal  and  spiritual  power.  The  throne 
is  hereditary  in  the  male  line  alone.  The  imperial  court  is  denominated 
the  Sublime  Porte.  The  governors  of  provinces  are  called  "  beglerbegs," 
"  pashas  of  two  or  three  horse-tails,"  and  "  sandshaks ;"  the  government  of 
some  districts  being,  however,  committed  to  **  voivodes"  and  "  agas,"  who 
are  entirely  independent  of  the  first  named  functionaries.  The  divan  is 
the  Sultan's  cabinet  council.  The  minister  of  public  worship  and  instruc- 
tion is  called  Grand  Mufti ;  the  prime  minister  of  state  and  war,  Grand 
Vizier ;  and  the  minister  of  foreign  afiairs,  Reis-Efiendi.  The  Grand  Mufli 
and  the  higher  priesthood,  who  are  also  learned  in  law,  constitute  the  corps 
of  the  Ulema,  and  form  a  part  of  the  divan. 

The  Turks  call  themselves  Osmanlis^  since  the  name  Turk  signifies  a 
rude  man.  The  Ottomans  are  descended  not  from  one  people,  but  from 
many.  When  their  progenitors  under  Osman  founded  the  Ottoman  Empire 
in  Asia  Minor,  the  conquerors  intermixed  with  the  vanquished  nations, 
who  had  embraced  Islamism.  In  the  south-eastern  portion  of  European 
Turkey  alone,  do  they  constitute  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants.  Of  true 
Tartar  descent,  they  have  not  yet  stripped  off  all  traces  of  Tartar  manners. 
Though  wanting  in  taste,  they  can  claim  credit  both  for  intelligence  and 
heart ;  and  though  rude  and  unpolished,  indolent  and  covetous,  they  are» 
on  the  other  hand,  temperate,  plain,  and  friendly.    For  a  long  time  accus- 

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184  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

tomed  to  look  upon  themselves  as  lords  of  the  country  and  superior  beings, 
they  have,  as  might  be  expected,  assumed  a  somewhat  imperious  manner, 
which  has  not  as  yet  left  them.  There  are  a  few  Turkomans  in  Euro- 
pean Turkey,  allied  to  the  Osmanlis  in  language,  faith,  and  customs. 
Attempts  have  been  made  to  render  the  inhabitants  of  Turkey  in  Europe 
more  like  the  people  of  other  parts  of  that  continent ;  the  entire  constitu- 
tion has  experienced  many  alterations,  but  things  remain,  notwithstanding, 
very  much  as  they  were  in  ancient  times.  Thus,  even  at  this  day,  each 
house  contains  a  woman's  apartment  (Harem),  carefully  separated  from  the 
reception  room  of  the  men  (Selamlik).  The  court  ^f  the  Sultan  is  also 
strictly  divided  into  the  departments  of  the  Serai  (Seraglio),  i.  e.  of  the 
exterior,  and  that  of  the  Harem,  t.  e,  of  the  interior.  The  ministries  of  the 
Interior  and  of  Foreign  Affairs,  and  the  Executive,  have  their  offices  at 
the  entrance  of  the  Sublime  Porte.  Next  after  these  buildings,  the  trea- 
sury, with  its  different  divisions,  is  located,  in  which  are  kept  the  jewels 
belonging  to  the  house,  the  gold  and  silver.  Further  in  the  interior  is 
found  the  hearth,  held  sacred  by  the  Ottomans,  as  the  emblem  of  the  war- 
like power  of  the  empire,  and  of  hospitality  and  domesticity.  The  places 
of  honor,  "shadars"  (sofas),  belong  to  the  Ulema,  a  body  composed  of 
persons  enjoying  the  highest  dignities,  sacerdotal  and  juridical.  Hence  the 
highest  offices  are  collectively  called  Shadars.  To  the  exterior  part  of 
the  Sultan's  court  belong  the  seven  apartments ;  the  innermost,  the  trea- 
sury, the  provision  room,  the  linen  room,  the  great  and  small  chambers, 
and  the  Seraglio  of  Galata,  where  pages  are  educated  for  the  Seraglio. 
The  kitchen  and  stable,  gardens  and  hunting  grounds,  hospital,  exchequer, 
and  the  guard  of  the  Seraglio,  belong  also  to  this  part  of  the  establishment. 

The  dignity  of  Sultan  frequently,  but  not  always,  passes  to  the  first-born 
son.     The  Empress  Mother  exerts  a  great  influence  at  the  court  of  her  son. 

The  Grand  Vizier  manages  all  the  affairs  of  the  Empire,  and  at  the  same 
time  is  keeper  of  the  great  seal,  the  Sultan  possessing  a  duplicate.  All 
commands  issued  by  the  Grand  Vizier  are  looked  upon  as  if  they  came  from 
the  Sultan  himself.  Divans  are  held  in  his  palace  five  times  in  the  week, 
but  he  can  at  any  time  command  access  to  the  Sultan  for  the  purpose  of 
reporting  to  or  conferring  with  him.  Next  below  him  are  the  ministers. 
The  interpreters,  through  whom  business  with  foreign  ambassadors  is  trans- 
acted, are  called  dragomans.  To  the  Ulema,  mentioned  above,  belong  also 
the  Cadis,  or  judges ;  the  Muftis,  or  men  learned  in  the  laws,  who  are 
called  upon  for  advice ;  the  Imaums,  or  ministers  of  religion ;  and  the 
Dervises.  or  monks.  The  churches  (Mosques)  are  divided  into  great  or 
Dshami,  and  small  or  Medshed. 

The  Turks  are  lovers  of  the  table.  Pilau,  that  is  to  say,  fowls  or  mutton 
with  rice  and  spices,  is  a  national  dish.  Roast  meat,  with  the  exception 
of  pork,  is  frequently  eaten.  Few  vegetables  are  eaten ;  but  pastry,  and 
especially  preserved  fruits,  are  much  liked  by  the  Turks.  Their  principal 
drink  is  coffee,  which  is  taken  while  they  are  smoking  tobacco,  both  sexes 
indulging  in  this  latter  practice.  As  food  is  prohibited  in  the  day-time 
during  the  fast  of  Ramazan,  the  pleasures  of  the  table  are  enjoyed  the  more 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  185 

St  night  The  Turk  understands  how  to  associate  in  his  life  the  enjoyment 
of  repose  with  everything  gratifying  to  the  senses.  He  is  not  fond  of  such 
recreations  as  walking  and  dancing,  and  he  is  not  very  sociable.  His 
ignorance  is  a  bar  to.  rational  conversation.  When  visits  are  paid,  men 
never  meet  any  but  persons  of  their  own  sex,  women  not  being  permitted 
to  appear  in  male  society.  Even  among  the  lower  classes  they  never  go 
abroad  unless  veiled,  the  eyes  alone  being  visible.  The  place  in  which  the 
women  reside  (harem,  that  is  to  say,  prohibited  spot)  is  always  separated 
from  the  portion  of  the  house  inhabited  by  men.  Women  only  meet  in 
their  carefully  inclosed  baths,  or  in  the  interior  of  the  harem,  where  their 
feasts  also  take  place.  At  such  assemblages  they  partake  of  sherbets, 
confectionery,  &c.,  exhibit  and  admire  dresses  and  jewelry,  and  converse 
about  the  male  sex  and  female  neighbors.  Female  dancers,  who  perform 
the  most  voluptuous  pieces  before  them,  are  allowed  to  enter :  a  respectable 
woman  never  dances  herself.  They  are  forbidden  also  to  take  part  in  the 
public  prayers  at  the  mosques.  Although  confined  in  this  manner,  the 
women  are  very  adroit  in  contriving  intrigues  against  their  husbands,  and 
for  such  purposes  chiefly  make  use  of  milliners,  who  are  usually  Jewesses 
or  Armenian  females. 

Rope  dancing,  Chinese  magic  lanterns,  public  dances,  and  ill-performed 
masquerades  in  the  open  fields,  are  the  principal  amusements  of  the  Turks. 
They  have  no  particular  taste  for  the  drama  and  music.  Games  of  chance 
are  strictly  prohibited. 

Turkish  artists  and  artisans  are  divided  into  guilds.  Among  the  crafts- 
men, the  workers  in  leather  are  distinguished  above  the  rest  for  their 
beautiful  work ;  they  furnish  excellent  saddles  and  harness.  The  Turkish 
painter  produces  only  landscapes,  flowers,  birds,  &c.,  and  arabesques ;  the 
Koran  forbidding  him  to  paint  the  human  form.  The  sculptor  executes 
tombstones,  but  seldom  any  other  work ;  and  the  engraver  cuts  seals  and 
passages  from  the  Koran.  The  physicians  entertain  many  superstitions 
and  prejudices,  and  hence  Franks  (Christians)  are  preferred  as  medical 
attendants.  Commerce  is  in  the  hands  of  Greeks,  Armenians,  and  foreign 
commercial  houses ;  the  banking  and  exchanging  business  is  managed  by 
Armenians  and  Jews.  There  are  but  few  Turkish  farmers,  and  they  never 
raise  a  greater  quantity  of  produce  than  is  necessary  for  the  subsistence 
of  their  families  and  the  payment  of  their  trifling  imposts. 

The  dress  of  the  Turks  consists  of  long  wide  trowsers  and  a  long  full 
garment,  under  which  a  handsomely  trimmed  vest  is  worn.  When  out 
of  doors,  they  wear  fancy-colored  leather  slippers,  which  are  put  off*  before 
entering  a  mosque  or  a  room.  Boots  are  made  use  of  only  for  riding. 
The  head  is  shaved  and  covered  with  a  turban.  The  beard  is  worn  full, 
and  is  carefully  trimmed.  The  military  have  at  present  the  tight-fitting 
European  dress.  The  men  attach  great  value  to  costly  pipes  ornamented 
with  gold  and  precious  stones ;  gorgeous  and  expensive  riding  equipments 
are  equally  esteemed. 

Females  color  the  edges  of  the  eyelids  with  a  fine  black  powder  (Surmeh), 
and  the  nails,  brown,  dark  yellow,  or  red.     They  wear  a  long,  wide  mantle 

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186  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

of  taffeta  or  satin,  having  very  wide  sleeves  that  reach  to  the  elbows,  wiA 
or  without  fur  trimming,  according  to  the  season  of  the  year.  The  under 
gown  is  of  thinner  silk,  or  gold  and  silver  brocade ;  likewise  long,  open  at 
the  bosom,  and  with  sleeves  that  reach  to  the  hand.  A  girdle  of  leather, 
satin,  or  embroidered  velvet,  sometimes  a  Cashmere  shawl,  is  loosely  tied 
around  the  waist.  This  girdle  is  usually  the  most  costly  part  of  the  dress. 
Wide  silk  trowsers  reach  to  the  ankles ;  precious  stones  and  pearls  are 
necessary  requisites  of  ladies'  dress ;  rich  armlets  and  necklaces  are  also 
frequently  worn.  Persons  of  less  wealth  wear  sequins,  or  other  gold  coins, 
around  the  neck.  PI,  I,  fig*  8,  Turk  in  the  ancient  national  dress.  PL  18, 
fig.  1  a,  Turban  of  the  inhabitants  of  Lebanon ;  6,  Turban  of  Armenian 
merchants  at  Damascus ;  c,  Turban  of  the  people  in  the  district  of  Smyrna; 
e,  of  the  Bethlehemites ;  /,  of  the  people  of  Syria  generally ;  g,  Kaffich  of 
the  people  of  Beyrout ;  A,  Travelling  turban ;  t,  Head-dress  for  rainy 
weather ;  q,  Turkish  fez ;  s,  Dervise's  cap.  Fig,  2,  Syrian  Sheikh  and  his 
wife  ;  fig.  8,  ancient  female  dress  of  the  Smymiotes ;  fig.  4,  modem  female 
dress  of  the  Levant ;  fig.  5,  dress  of  the  Maronites ;  figs.  6 — 8,  Maronite 
women  ;  fig.  9,  dress  of  girls  of  Nablous ;  fig.  10,  costume  of  the  Nazarenes ; 
fig.  16,  Armenian  merchant ;  fig.  17,  Armenian  girl ;  fig.  18,  Turk  of 
Mardin.  PL  14,  fig.  1,  Turkish  public  bath  for  females  ;  fig.  2,  the  interior 
of  a  Turkish  woman's  ajpartment ;  fig.  3,  the  Iftar,  meal  of  the  Grand  Vizier 
with  the  other  ministers  of  the  Porte,  on  the  third  night  of  the  Ramazan. 
-FV^.  4,  ceremonies  in  the  presence  chamber,  on  the  day  before  the  festival 
of  Bei  ram.  There  are,  properly  speaking,  two  Beirams,  the  only  religious 
festivals  of  the  Mohammedans.  The  first,  Id-fitr,  i.  e.  breaking  of  the  fast, 
comes  immediately  after  the  fast  of  Ramazan,  and  is  called  Beiram  Kutshuck, 
or  Kitschi'Beiram^  that  is,  the  little  Beiram.  As  it  closes  the  fast,  and  is 
celebrated  with  great  manifestations  of  joy,  it  is  called  the  Easter  of  the 
Turks,  and  considered  their  greatest  festival.  The  second,  Id-Adha,  or 
Kurbaan- Beiram,  that  is  to  say,  festival  of  the  sacrifice,  is  celebrated 
seventy  days  afterwards :  it  is  said  to  be  a  celebration  of  the  offering  of 
Ishmael  (Isaac).  As  the  Mohammedans  calculate  time  by  lunar  years, 
these  festivals  run  through  all  seasons  in  a  period  of  thirty-three  years. 
The  first  festival  continues  properly  but  one  day,  but  it  is  kept  up  by 
the  people  for  three  days  ;  the  second,  four  days.  These  two  festivals  ai-e 
the  only  true  holidays  .of  the  nation,  and  are  celebrated  with  the  greatest 
pomp.  At  an  early  hour  the  Sultan  receives  the  congratulations  of  the 
principal  officers  of  state  in  solemn  audience  {pi.  14,  fig.  4),  and  then  goes 
with  great  parade  to  the  mosque.  After  devotions,  the  officers  of  state  are 
feasted,  sixteen  of  them  presented  with  sable  furs,  and  then  the  changes  in ' 
the  government  are  determined  upon. 

PI.  14.  fifr.  5.  represents  a  religious  dance  of  Turkish  dervises,  which 
consists  of  a  continual  whirling  in  a  circle,  causing  a  great  puffing  out  of 
the  wide  dress.  Fig.  6,  prayer  and  ablution  of  Mohammedans,  prescribed 
by  the  Koran,  which  ordains  the  fast  of  Ramazan,  the  distribution  of  alms, 
works  of  charity,  the  performance  of  at  least  one  pilgrimage  to  Mecca, 
prayers  offered  at  least  five  times  a  day,  and  the  outward  cleansing  of  the 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  187 

body,  which  is  the  object  of  the  figure  referred  to.    jFV^.  7,  a  dervise  doing 
penance ;  with  a  rosary  on  which  are  ninety-nine  coral  beads. 


The  Greeks. 

The  Kingdom  of  Greece  extends  in  a  southerly  direction  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Aspro  and  the  Gulf  of  Zeitoun ;  projects  into  the  Ionian  and  the 
^gean  Seas,  with  numerous  and  deep  indentations  and  many  high  pro- 
montories and  jagged  peninsulas ;  is  surrounded  by  a  scattered  group  of 
islands  of  a  semi- volcanic  character ;  and  divided  by  the  deeply  cutting 
Gulf  of  Lepanto  into  two  grand  divisions,  Livadia  and  the  Morea.  Since 
the  7th  of  May,  1832,  after  bloody  struggles  with  the  Turks,  it  has  formed 
an  independent  kingdom.  The  inhabitants  are  Greeks  and  Albanians, 
and  of  foreigners  chiefly  French  and  Germans.  "  The  Greek,"  says 
G.  Brückner,  "  whose  ancient  classic  beauty  has  been  somewhat  defaced 
by  intermixture  with  Slavonians  and  Albanians,  but  who  notwithstanding 
possesses  a  vigorous,  well-moulded,  characteristic  figure,  is  more  frivolous 
than  the  Spaniard,  resembling  him,  however,  in  temperament,  as  well  as  in 
frugality  and  fondness  for  independence,  in  heroic  endurance,  in  spirit  and 
wit,  and  in  perfidiousness  and  his  fondness  for  civil  disputes.  His  education, 
like  his  civilization,  has,  until  the  present  time,  been  of  no  high  character,  as 
the  inhabitants  of  the  coast  were  corrupted  whilst  the  mountaineers  and  the 
warlike  Mainotes  of  the  Morea  were  still  rude."  The  nation  adhere  to  the 
Greek  religion,  and  now  have  their  own  independent  spiritual  government. 
The  modern  Greek  language  is  called  the  Romaica  or  Aplo-Hellenic,  and 
the  nation  still  denominate  themselves  Romai  (Romans)  from  the  Roman 
Empire  of  the  East.  The  universal  higher  dialect,  i.  e.  the  more  improved 
language  of  letters  and  the  churches,  and  that  used  in  conversation  by 
educated  persons,  particularly  in  Constantinople,  differs  less  from  the 
classic  Greek'  than  the  numerous  vulgar  dialects,  as,  for  example,  the 
modern  Volo  Doric,  the  Zagoran  (a  remnant  of  the  Doric),  the  Cretan  or 
Candiote,  and  the  Epirean.  In  Constantinople,  in  the  vicinity  of  Mount 
Athos,  and  on  the  Islands  of  Paros  and  Nicaria,  the  purest  language  is 
spoken ;  in  Cyprus,  it  has  still  retained  a  great  deal  of  the  ancient  Greek, 
but  is  very  much  deteriorated ;  in  Corfu,  the  Greek  has  been  pushed  into 
the  interior  of  the  country  by  the  Venetian  dialect ;  and  the  Mainotes  in 
what  was  formerly  Sparta,  from  whom  a  colony  in  Corsica  is  descended, 
speak  a  miserable  and  corrupt  Greek.  The  dress  of  the  men  {pL  hfig.  2) 
bears  much  resemblance  to  the  Turkish  costume;  they  have,  however, 
mostly  laid  aside  the  turban,  and  adopted  the  fur  cap  or  the  fez  in  its 
stead ;  the  soldiers,  especially,  wearing  the  latter  {pL  13,  fig.  T),  a  cap  of 
red  felt  with  a  large  blue  tassel. 

Rouging,  and  coloring  the  eyebrows  black,  is  yet  a  universal  practice 
among  the  women.  They  display  bad  taste  in  their  attire,  overload  them- 
selves  with  finery,  and  at  the  same  time  attach  but  little  importance  to 
neatness  or  symmetrical  disposition  of  their  dress.    Females,  even  now« 


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188  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

live  as  they  did  in  the  ages  of  antiquity,  separated  from  the  male  sex ;  and 
every  Greek  lady  of  rank  is  confined  to  her  women's  apartment.  Baths, 
here  as  among  the  Turks,  are  the  resorts  where  women  meet.  In  parts 
of  the  country,  however,  where  the  Greeks  have  had  more  intercourse  with 
the  rest  of  the  people  of  Europe,  for  instance  upon  the  islands  and  in  the 
large  towns,  the  manner  of  living  has  already  experienced  a  great  change, 
and  women  take  part  in  social  intercourse. 

Fertile  as  is  the  soil  of  Greece,  agriculture  is  yet  pursued  in  a  very 
slovenly  manner,  and  the  implements  of  husbandry  are  still  very  inferior. 
The  Greeks,  however,  cultivate  olive  trees  and  rear  silkworms,  and  the 
country  derives  great  advantage  from  these  sources.  The  vine  thrives 
very  well  in  Greece,  where  the  finest  sorti  are  grown ;  and  in  the  Morea 
currants  also.  Much  is  now  done  for  the  cultivation  of  the  intellect, 
although  the  Greek  clergy  strive  to  prevent  enlightenment  of  the  masses. 
Since  the  year  1837  Athens  has  possessed  a  university. 


The  Italians, 

In  general,  not  much  can  be  said  with  precision  respecting  the  character 
of  the  present  inhabitants  of  Italy,  as  the  country  is  split  up  into  so  many 
small  states  with  different  forms  of  government ;  yet  it  may  be  asserted 
with  justice,  that  they  are  distinguished  in  a  manner  altogether  peculiar, 
by  natural  vivacity  of  spirit,  great  aptitude  for  poetry,  music,  and  the 
plastic  arts,  as  well  as  by  a  taste  for  the  beautiful  in  every  phase  of  its 
development.  Want  of  principle,  pusillanimity,  deceit,  and  a  vindictive 
disposition,  are  too  frequently  found  amongst  them.  Even  their  piety  is  of 
a  sensual  nature,  and  more  an  affair  of  habit  than  of  the  heart.  Strong 
excitement  is  requisite  to  arouse  them  from  their  general  apathy  ;  and  their 
emotions,  though  powerful  for  a  time,  are  rarely  deeply  seated.  Owing  to 
the  great  ignorance  of  the  masses,  external  observation  of  piops  forms  is  fre- 
quently found  in  connexion  with  a  life  deeply  stained  with  vice  and  crime. 
The  bandit  commits  murder  for  a  trifle  at  the  order  of  another ;  the  robber 
frequently  takes  life  also,  but  believes  he  can  atone  for  everything  by 
means  of  prayer,  fastings,  &c.  Tuscany  and  the  Lombardo- Venetian 
Kingdom,  nevertheless,  form  honorable  exceptions,  and  show  that  where  a 
good  government  has  the  control  of  affairs,  and  especially  where  much  is 
done  for  popular  instruction,  a  people  sunk  even  as  low  as  the  Italians, 
may  yet  be  raised  again. 

The  Italian  finds  less  pleasure  in  travelling,  walking,  cheerful  company, 
and  hospitality,  than  in  driving  through  the  principal  streets,  in  music, 
frequenting  of  public  places,  gambling,  and  especially  the  theatre.  The 
most  common  public  diversions  are  those  of  the  carnival,  nowhere  so 
brilliantly  and  noisily  celebrated  as  in  Italy,  principally  in  Rome,  Florence, 
and  Venice.  Even  priests,  monks,  and  nuns,  are  permitted  to  take  part  in 
the  frolic.  Almost  all  the  people  are  masked,  every  serious  employment  is 
laid  aside,  and  the  churches  and  halls  of  justice  remain  empty. 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAT.  189 

National  costume  is  no  longer  found  among  the  higher  classes;  the 
cloak,  however,  in  which  the  Italian  wraps  himself  during  the  day,  is  the 
most  important  part  of  his  dress.  Should  he  possess  no  such  article,  he  at 
least  hangs  his  jacket  over  his  shoulder  in  the  manner  of  a  cloak. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Sardinian  Monarchy,  who  are  a  mixture  com- 
posed chiefly  of  French,  Romans,  Lombards,  may  be  divided  into  four 
principal  branches :  the  Savoyards,  Piedmontese,  Genoese,  and  Sardes. 

Among  the  Piedmontese,  married  women,  widows,  and  girls,  are  some- 
times distinguished  by  their  dress,  chiefly  by  the  breadth  and  number  of 
rows  of  red  ribands  upon  the  aprons.  The  dress  of  the  women  of  the 
region  of  Costa  is  very  neat;  they  wear  a  short,  tightly-fitting  brown 
petticoat,  with  a  frill  at  the  breast,  and  a  small  hat  fastened  sideways  upon 
the  head.  Their  hair  is  tastefully  braided,  and  fastened  with  combs  or 
silver  pins.  Older  persons  wear  a  hnen  veil.  No  attention,  however,  is 
paid  to  cleanliness,  particularly  by  the  lower  classes.  The  common 
Genoese  still  wear  the  old  Genoa  cap,  a  cloth  jacket,  short  breeches,  with 
woollen  stockings,  and  not  unfrequently  gaiters ;  the  women  attach  their 
veils  with  address  and  taste.  They  cover  the  head  and  arms  in  such  a 
manner,  however,  that  their  charms  are  by  this  means  only  placed  in  a 
more  advantageous  light. 

The  head-dress  of  the  women  of  the  maritime  districts  of  Oenoa,  those 
for  example  living  in  the  vicinity  of  the  town  of  Chiavari,  is  odd.  Their 
hair  is  neatly  braided,  and  fastened  in  a  thick  roll  upon  the  top  of  the  head. 
Upon  this  they  place  a  cloth  folded  together  in  a  square  form,  and  fasten  it 
firmly  by  means  of  a  large  pin.  In  unfavorable  weather  it  is  unfolded  and 
tied  round  the  head.  The  country  girls  secure  their  braids  of  hair  with 
five  or  six  large  silver  hair  pins.  Women  of  the  vicinity  of  Nice  wear  a 
tight  bodice,  adorned  on  holidays  with  ribands  and  bouquets  of  flowers. 
The  petticoat,  which  is  pretty  long,  and  the  apron,  are  without  ornament 
Girls  wear  woollen  gowns,  marriage  only  conferring  the  right  to  wear  silk 
dresses. 

The  holiday  attire  of  the  men  consists  of  a  short,  tightly-fastened  waists 
coat,  reaching  only  to  the  girdle,  and  a  very  short  coat,  having  short 
sleeves  with  narrow  cufis.  Their  belt  is  blue  or  red.  Short  breeches,  and 
brown  or  blue  woollen  stockings,  and  low  shoes,  complete  the  dress. 
When  not  in  full  dress,  both  sexes  wear  their  hair  in  a  green  net. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Island  of  Sardinia  (Sardes)  are  a  mixture  of 
several  nations ;  the  Italians,  however,  constitute  the  majority.  They  are 
not  tall,  but  of  a  vigorous  frame ;  are  gay,  courageous,  persevering,  suscep- 
tible of  love,  but  implacable  in  hatred.  Their  minds  are  fine  and  pliable ; 
they  have  a  particular  talent  for  poetry ;  but  little  is  done  for  their 
instruction,  and  they  are  still  almost  mere  men  of  nature.  The  Sarde  is 
very  fond  of  music,  games  of  chance,  skill,  or  courage,  and  other  recrea- 
tions. The  dress  of  the  common  people  consists  of  a  woollen  jacket, 
mostly  white  or  scarlet,  over  which  is  worn  a  wide  and  long  smock-firock 
without  sleeves  and  made  of  sheepskins  sewed  together,  resembling  a  vest ; 
this  is  fastened  around  the  waist  by  a  leather  b^t  embroidered  with  silk« 

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190  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

in  which  a  knife  is  placed.  The  breeches  are  very  wide,  made  of  plain 
wool,  and  open  at  the  knee.  Woollen  gaiters  or  black  sheepskins  clothe  the 
feet  A  white  or  black  woollen  cap  covers  the  head.  Women  wear  a  full 
scarlet  or  white  jacket,  a  bodice  with  whalebone,  woollen  petticoats,  and  a 
handkerchief  of  muslin  wound  around  the  head.  {PL  9,  fig.  2,  threshing- 
floor  of  Sardinian  farmers ;  fig.  8,  marriage  celebration  of  Sardinians.) 

The  dress  of  the  Tuscans  is  the  one  common  throughout  Italy.  Coats 
and  boots  are  seldom  seen ;  only  in  bad  weather  a  kind  of  cloak  is  worn. 
A  black  or  white  straw  hat,  manufactured  by  themselves,  usually  covers 
the  head.  Women  and  girls  wear  bodices  without  sleeves,  and  chemises 
with  short  sleeves,  bound  with  small  red  ribands.  The  petticoat  is  generally 
scarlet  like  the  bodice,  which  is  laced  both  in  front  and  behind  ;  and  the 
small  apron  is  very  neat.  On  week  days  the  hair  is  worn  in  a  silk  net ;  on 
holidays,  however,  it  is  nicely  arranged  and  ornamented  with  flowers.  A 
neat  little  straw  or  black  felt  hat,  frequently  adorned  with  a  nosegay,  or 
feathers,  is  set  almost  upon  one  ear.  In  cold  weather  a  handkerchief  is 
tied  over  the  hat  or  net 

The  inhabitants  of  the  States  of  the  Church  are  distinguished  for  a  clear 
understanding,  an  ardent  fancy,  and  deep,  easily  excited  feelings.  Their 
dress  does  not  differ  from  the  usual  costume  of  the  Italians.  PL  8,  fig.  3, 
gives  a  representation  of  the  illumination  of  the  dome  of  St.  Peter's  Church 
and  the  fireworks  at  the  Castle  of  St.  Angelo,  that  take  place  in  Rome  on 
the  evening  of  St.  Peter's  day. 

The  principal  characteristic  traits  of  the  Neapolitans  are,  good  natuie, 
laziness,  superstition,  attachment  to  all  sorts  of  sensual  pleasures,  and 
passions,  violent,  but  soon  cooled.  The  Neapolitan  differs  in  outward 
appearance  from  other  Italians  only  in  having  a  browner  complexion. 
The  figures  of  the  men  are,  in  general,  handsome  and  vigorous ;  females 
among  the  lower  classes,  on  the  contrary,  are  ill-favored  and  grow  old 
prematurely;  their  great  filthiness  makes  them  still  uglier.  Both  sexes 
frequently  wear  their  singularly  long  hair  in  nets ;  women  dye  their  hair 
brilliantly  black.  Females  of  Mola  di  Gaeta  wear  their  hair  neatly  braided, 
wound  about  some  light  substance,  and  fastened  with  a  large  silver  pin. 
The  shepherds  of  Apulia  are  dressed  in  sheepskins.  The  general  national 
dance  of  the  Neapolitans  is  the  Tarantella.  The  Lazzaroni  form  a  peculiar 
class  among  the  Neapolitans,  gaining  their  bread  as  fishermen,  fruit  and 
vegetable  sellers,  porters,  &c.  They  are  mostly  of  tall,  vigorous  growth, 
wear  linen  breeches  scarcely  covering  half  the  thighs,  and  sometimes  a  shirt, 
though  more  frequently  none.  They  often  sleep  under  the  open  sky,  with  a 
stone  for  a  pillow.  They  rarely  work,  except  under  the  pressure  of  imme- 
diate want.  On  the  one  side,  the  Lazzaroni  are  good  natured  and  faithful ; 
on  the  other,  however,  ready  again  at  any  time  to  commit  arson  to  order, 
and  to  rob.     They  are  much  to  be  dreaded  in  revolutionary  times. 

The  Sicilians  of  the  present  day  are  a  mixture  of  various  nations. 
Their  bodily  form,  as  a  rule,  is  handsome,  strong,  and  well  shaped ;  com- 
plexion olive  colored  ;  eyes  fiery ;  features  expressive.  The  women,  with 
the  exception,  perhaps,  of  those  of  Catania,  are  said  to  be  less  good-looking. 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  191 

The  Sicilian  is  hospitable,  detests  drunkenness,  and  is  generally  temperate 
in  eating  and  drinking.  In  his  character  the  most  opposite  properties  are 
found  associated  together ;  for  example,  good  nature  and  knavery,  courage 
and  a  cringing  disposition,  sobriety  and  a  love  of  pleasure.  Patriotism 
and  a  thirst  for  independence  are  his  principal  prominent  traits.  The 
attire  is  poor,  like  the  dwellings,  with  the  women  often  gaudy,  and  in 
some  districts  similar  to  the  Moorish.  As  little  is  done  for  the  education 
of  the  common  people,  they  are  almost  without  information. 


The  Spaniards  and  Portuguese. 

The  Spanish  nation  are  distinguished  for  many  good  qualities ;  firmness, 
vivacity  of  mind,  courage,  perseverance,  temperance,  and  a  sentiment  of 
individual  and  national  honor,  combined  with  piety,  are  pre-eminently 
proper  to  them.  The  humblest  Spaniard  does  not  demean  himself,  nevor 
manifests  servility  or  slavish  abjectness ;  his  glance  is  firm,  his  bearing  frank 
and  upright ;  his  greeting,  address,  and  farewell  simple ;  and  he  recognis<iS 
and  respects  the  human  being,  even  in  the  otherwise  despised  beggar.  If 
the  Spaniards,  as  a  general  rule,  are  less  industrious  than  the  German  c 
people,  they  are,  of  all  Romanic  or  South  European  people,  generally  tlie 
most  industrious.  They  know  nothing  of  the  sweet  inaction  of  the  Neapoli- 
tans ;  they  are  generally  active,  in  the  northern  provinces  particularly  indui- 
trious ;  and  this  holds  good  of 'the  women  also,  who  are  domestic  and  con- 
stantly occupied ;  idleness,  except  perhaps  in  the  tertulias  (evening  parties), 
being  esteemed  a  disgrace  amongst  them.  A  very  praiseworthy  principL), 
also,  of  the  Spaniard,  is  that  of  having  as  few  necessities  as  possible,  and 
of  regulating  them  according  to  his  means,  without  even  making  himself 
entirely  dependent  upon  the  latter.  In  this  way  he  secures  his  independ- 
ence. If,  in  addition  to  the  above,  we  take  into  consideration  his  vigorous 
frame  and  his  good  health,  which  enable  him  to  bear  with  ease  the  greatest 
hardships  and  all  changes  of  climate  and  weather,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
the  Spaniard  is  as  good  a  soldier  as  man  of  business.  The  Spanish  women 
are  as  handsome  as  they  are  lively ;  they  have  a  glowing  imagination,  and 
their  love  is  a  fresh,  deep,  inward  feeling,  with  no  afiectation  or  coquetry. 
They  are,  in  general,  very  faithful  and  domestic.  Society  and  custom 
allow  no  treachery,  not  even  against  the  mere  lover,  and  their  revenge  is 
certain.  Love  is  almost  like  a  sacrament ;  dissimulation  is  foreign  to  the. 
Spanish  disposition,  and  is  never  the  basis  of  a  love  afiiair. 

People  of  rank  in  Spain  have  almost  entirely  dropped  the  national  costume ; 
even  the  cloak  is  worn  only  in  winter,  or  when  they  follow  an  adventure 
in  the  evening,  when  the  large  hat  with  brim  bent  downwards  is  also  some- 
times put  on.  Officers  of  the  court,  magistrates,  professors  and  doctors, 
and  the  priests,  appear  in  uniform.  Only  the  lower  classes,  and  these 
principally  country  people,  have  retained  the  national  dress.  They  wear, 
in  general,  dark-colored  waistcoats ;  short  jackets,  often  trimmed  with 
fancy  colored  ribands  ;  a  cloak  over  them ;  and  on  the  head  a  net  of  yam 

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192  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

or  silk,  hanging  down  behind  and  inclosing  the  hair,  which  is  often  braided 
into  a  thick  queue.  Instead  of  the  Arabian  veil  formerly  customary,  the 
women  wear  a  black  or  white  mantilla,  fastened  on  the  head,  and  reaching 
down  to  the  sides  and  over  the  girdle  behind.  With  ladies  of  rank,  it  is 
of  very  fine  blonde  or  point  lace ;  among  the  lower  classes,  of  taffeta, 
gauze,  or  light  woollen  stuffs.  Women  of  the  highest  as  well  as  the  lowest 
grades  of  society  carry  fans,  and  attach  the  greatest  importance  to  beau- 
tiful shoes.  The  common  people  of  New  Castile  wear  a  cloth  or  leather 
doublet,  buttoned  up  and  fastened  with  a  strap;  and,  upon  the  head,  the 
mantira,  i.  e.  a  square  cap,  with  turned  up  sides  and  a  point  in  front.  In 
Old  Castile,  the  women  have  retained  the  ancient  Spanish  costume  almost 
entirely.  They  wear  a  robe,  usually  brown,  and  tightly  fastened  at  the 
neck  and  wrists,  and  a  belt  around  the  waist.  Their  braided  hair  is  hang- 
ing down  behind ;  upon  the  head  they  wear  a  mant^ra  or  a  black  beaver. 
The  country  people  of  Salamanca  (pi.  9,  ßg.  1,  threshing-floor  of  the 
peasants)  wear  silk  bodices  with  pockets  and  open  sleeves,  ornamented 
with  small  metal  buttons,  and  fastened  with  a  dark  silk  sash.  Brown 
cloaks,  with  bright  colored  collars,  hang  in  a  negligent  manner  over  the 
right  shoulder.  Both  sexes  wear  the  net  (redezilla),  ornamented  with  a 
broad  riband ;  the  veil  of  the  women  is  fastened  to  the  net.  The  necks  and 
breasts  of  the  women  are  adorned  with  necklaces  of  pearls,  or  chains  of 
precious  metals.  The  wristbands  of  the  shirts  are  richly  embroidered  with 
colored  silk.  The  less  wealthy  farmer  wears  a  dark  brown  doublet, 
ornamented  with  small  buttons  and  ribands,  cut  out  in  front  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  show  the  red  breast- cloth.  A  colored  sash  encompasses  the 
lower  part  of  the  body.  The  brown  cloth  breeches  do  not  reach  entirely 
to  the  knee,  and  stockings  of  similar  color  and  material  reach  up  to  them. 
PI'  ^ifig^'  1»  4,  and  5,  represent  various  specimens  of  the  Spanish  national 
costume. 

The  Spanish  national  dance  is  the  fandango,  in  use  from  the  most 
ancient  times.  It  consists  of  systematic  convulsive  movements  hither  and 
thither,  of  the  entire  body,  expressive  of  the  most  different  passions.  The 
pair  of  dancers  beat  time  to  it  with  the  castanets.  The  bolero  (fig,  4)  is 
an  imitation,  but  less  impassioned.  Besides  these,  there  are  other  dances 
in  use,  as,  for  example,  the  guaracca,  the  olle,  and  cachirulo,  the  egg  and 
the  staff  dances. 

The  greatest  popular  amusements  of  the  Spaniards  are  the  hull  fights 
{fig,  5,  bull  fight  in  the  Grand  Arena  at  Seville).  The  active  persons  in 
the"fight  are,  the  toreros  (bull  fighters)  ;  i\iQ  picadores  (pikemen),  who  keep 
the  bull  in  action  by  pricking  him  with  small  pikes,  thus  raising  his  rage 
to  madness ;  the  matadores,  who  give  the  death-blow  to  the  furious  bull ; 
and  the  media-espada  (half-swords),  assistants  of  the  matadores.  Detailed 
descriptions  of  these  cruel  and  exciting  amusements  are  to  be  found  in 
almost  every  account  of  travels  in  Spain.  It  must  be  hailed  as  a  token 
of  progress  in  humanity  and  civilization  generally,  that  bull  fights  are 
becoming  less  frequent. 

The  Portuguese  are  not  large,  but  strongly  built ;  have  black  eyes  and 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  193 

hair,  strong  beards,  and  dark  complexions.  They  are  sensual,  vain,  indo- 
lent, dissimulating  to  strangers,  irritable  and  revengeful,  proud  as  a  nation, 
and  implacable,  as  a  people,  in  their  hatred  of  the  Spaniards.  On  the  other 
hand,  they  have  the  credit  of  fidelity  in  friendship,  magnanimity,  charity, 
temperance,  and  courtesy.  Music  and  singing  are  their  favorite  amuse- 
ments ;  and  bull  fights,  with  them  also,  rank  high  among  the  popular  festivals. 
The  higher  orders  of  society  dress  in  the  styles  of  the  English  and 
French.  Women  of  the  middle  classes,  however,  no  matter  how  great 
the  heat  of  the  weather,  wrap  themselves  in  a  long  cloth  cloak  with  a 
broad  collar,  and  cover  their  heads  with  a  muslin  cloth.  When  going  to 
church,  they  wear  a  dark  silk  frock,  and  a  large  transparent  veil.  Here, 
also,  great  attention  is  paid  to  the  covering  of  the  feet,  which  are  generally 
well  formed.  The  dress  of  the  lower  ranks  in  the  country  is  like  that  worn 
in  the  cities,  only  of  coarser  stuff.  Men  wear  waistcoats  of  light  colors, 
and  short  jackets  over  them.  Short  breeches,  shoes,  and  stockings,  are 
worn  all  over  the  country.  The  cloaks  are  always  brown,  and  furnished 
with  a  flat  cowl.  Many  wear  the  hair  in  a  net ;  others  have  high  tapering 
caps,  with  sides  turned  up.  Such  caps  are  also  worn  by  the  female 
peasants,  who,  in  addition,  wear  striped  veils  and  nets.  Country  girls, 
when  riding  upon  their  donkeys  to  market,  wear  wide  boots,  short  jackets 
with  long  sleeves,  fancy  colored  little  caps  cocked  up  in  front,  and  gene- 
rally carry  a  fan.  They  ornament  the  neck  with  strings  of  pearl  and 
metal  buttons. 


The  Inhabitants  of  France,  Belgium,  and  the  Netherlands. 

Generally  speaking,  vivacity,  which  not  unfrequently  degenerates  info 
levity  and  superficiality,  characterize  the  French  as  a  nation.  The 
Frenchman  enters  with  enthusiasm  upon  the  boldest  enterprises,  but  soon 
carelessly  abandons  them  again,  in  order  to  undertake  new  ones.  He 
devotes  himself  almost  entirely  to  the  passing  hour,  caring  but  little  for 
the'  past  and  the  future.  His  urbanity,  his  acuteness  of  understanding,  and 
his  hospitality,  are  known :  he  cheerfully  relieves  the  necessities  of  the 
poor,  and  assists  the  sick  in  their  distress.  From  time  immemorial,  on 
the  other  hand,  he  has  been  justly  reproached  of  a  national  pride  that 
causes  him  to  look  with  contempt  upon  everything  foreign.  Of  late,  how- 
ever, he  has  commenced  to  notice  and  prize  foreign  literature,  formerly 
overlooked  by  him  altogether. 

The  French  peasant  is  generally  very  frugal,  and  in  some  districts  of 
Lorraine,  subsists  almost  entirely  upon  potatoes  and  curdled  milk.  He  is 
strongly  attached  to  the  customs  of  his  forefathers.  In  the  northern 
departments  alone,  where  he  is  greatly  influenced  by  civilization,  this 
attachment  to  the  old  is,  in  a  measure,  disappearing.  The  country  people 
of  some  districts  on  the  river  Loire,  especially  in  the  part  which  formed 
the  ancient  provinces  Berry  and  Poitou,  may  be  pronounced  obtuse  in  the 
highest  degree,  indeed  even  void  of  feeling.     The  inhabitant  of  Brittany, 

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194  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

in  western  France,  is  distinguished  for  violent  passions  and  stubbornness , 
whilst  the  people  of  Normandy  are  crafty,  selfish,  and  quarrelsome.  The 
people  living  upon  the  banks  of  the  Somme  are  plain  in  their  habits,  but 
of  a  very  irritable  disposition.  In  the  northern  end  of  France,  Flemish 
customs  prevail ;  many  persons  still  have  subterranean  dwellings.  Spintu- 
ous  liquors,  chiefly  gin,  are  largely  consumed,  and  the  common  people  are 
unsociable  in  their  habits.  In  the  department  of  the  Mame,  and  in  the 
region  of  the  Upper  Seine,  in  what  was  formerly  Champagne,  the  manners 
of  the  inhabitants  are  very  plain.  German  blood  flows  in  the  veins  of  the 
mountaineers  of  Vosges ;  they  are  candid,  open-hearted,  and  hospitable, 
but  also  phlegmatic.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Jura  are  temperate  and  frugal, 
and  free  from  violent  passions.  In  the  districts  of  the  Rhone,  Dordogne, 
the  Garonne,  and  the  Adour,  the  people  are,  in  general,  of  very  lively 
temper,  and  fond  of  an  impassioned,  figurative  style  of  language.  In 
Provence,  these  traits  are  associated  with  manners  neither  refined  nor 
amiable,  whilst  in  Languedoc  directly  the  reverse  is  the  case.  In  Guyenne 
and  Gascony,  the  natural  disposition  of  the  inhabitants  is  not  always  frank. 
In  the  mountains  of  Auvergne  and  Limousin,  the  exterior  of  a  portion  of 
the  population  corresponds  altogether  with  the  miserable  soil  cultivated 
by  them,  but  they  are  good  natured  and  candid,  charitable  and  hospitable. 
Many  are  compelled  by  poverty  to  leave  their  homes,  in  order,  like  the 
emigrants  of  Dauphiny,  to  seek  their  bread  in  the  cities,  as  peddlers,  porters, 
water  carriers,  &c. 

The  dress,  in  a  few  districts  of  France,  has  a  character  altogether  pecu- 
liar ;  in  general,  however,  it  is  miserable  and  wanting  in  taste.  In  many 
parts  of  the  country,  the  people  themselves  manufacture  almost  all  the 
materials  for  their  clothes.  In  the  marshy  regions  of  the  heaths,  the 
inhabitants  go  upon  stilts. 

The  French  have  no  well  defined  national  costume ;  the  dress  of  citizens 
and  peasants  diflfers  in  many  points,  according  to  the  various  provinces  in 
which  they  are  found.  Upon  the  whole,  the  dress  of  the  peasant  is  poor, 
and  lacks  taste.  The  blouse  (linen  or  cotton  smock-frock)  is  much  in  use 
among  them,  as  well  as  among  the  lower  ranks  in  cities.  Wooden  shoes 
are  very  common.  The  social  pleasures  of  the  French  consist  of  music, 
dancing,  the  theatre,  a  variety  of  games,  &c.  As  a  rule,  the  French  dance 
well  and  with  ease,  and  this  amusement  is  mingled  with  all  their  merry- 
makings. Great  luxury  is  manifested  in  the  balls,  and  especially  at  the 
masked  balls ;  particularly  those  that  take  place  in  the  principal  cities,  and 
above  all  at  Paris.  In  summer,  inhabitants  of  the  large  towns  give  dancing 
entertainments  in  the  country,  and  the  promenades  in  the  cities  are  ire- 
quently  visited  in  favorable  weather.  (PL  6,  fig,  3,  a  great  masked  ball  at 
Paris;  pL  l.fig-  1,  promenade  in  that  city;  and/?/.  8,^^.  2,  a  rural  ball.) 

To  the  popular  amusements,  belongs,  among  others,  the  naumachy 
(/?/.  8,  fig.  1),  a  kind  of  tournament  performed  in  boats,  during  which  the 
combatants  stand  at  the  extreme  end  of  their  long  narrow  vessels,  and 
endeavor  to  push  each  other  into  the  water  with  long  lances  with  knobs 
at  top. 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  196 

The  French  are  a  mixture  of  the  ancient  Celts,  Romans,  and  Germans, 
and  their  general  traits  are  those  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  South  of  Europe ; 
they  form  the  connecting  link  between  the  people  of  the  south  and 
those  of  the  north.  The  Bretons  in  the  Armorican  peninsula,  the  Basques 
and  Gascons  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  the  Germans  in  Alsace,  and  the 
Walloons  near  Belgium  are,  however,  of  other  stocks.  The  French  are 
somewhat  smaller,  but  generally  more  active  than  the  Germans,  and 
usually  well  formed.  Their  language,  derived  ijrom  the  Latin  mixed  with 
German  and  Celtic  words,  is  simple  and  expressive.  It  has  two  dialects : 
that  of  the  south  (langue  d'Oc),  with  a  predominance  of  the  Romanic 
element ;  and  that  of  the  north  {langue  cTOui),  with  a  greater  number  of 
Germanic  elements.  French  is  the  language  of  conversation  and  of  the 
courts  of  all  the  enlightened  nations  of  Europe.  It  is,  however,  inferior  to 
the  German  in  structure  and  copiousness. 

The  Belgians,  of  Germano-Celtic  origin,  are  Flemings  and  Walloons :  the 
former,  in  the  north,  related  to  the  Dutch ;  the  latter,  in  the  south,  of  the 
same  race  with  the  French  and  Spaniards.  Traces  of  the  two  latter 
nations,  although  moderated  by  the  rough  climate  of  Belgium,  are  never- 
theless still  to  be  discerned  in  the  easy  elevation  of  their  spirit,  and  the 
unconstrained  movements  of  their  bodies.  The  higher  classes  speak 
I  rench  or  Flemish  (a  Dutch  dialect) ;  the  people  of  the  south-east  speak 
the  Walloon  language  (a  mixture  of  French  and  Spanish);  and  in  the 
north  Flemish  is  spoken.  The  common  national  dress  in  Belgium  is  the 
blouse.  The  higher  ranks  follow  the  French  fashions.  The  attire  of  the 
country  girls  of  Flanders  is  very  neat.  (The  principal  city  of  East 
Flanders  is  Ghent,  and  of  West  Flanders,  Bruges.)  The  dress  consists  of 
a  short,  tight  petticoat,  a  pretty  bodice  with  a  stomacher,  and  a  head-dress 
not  unlike  a  helmet  descending  behind  the  ears  and  encompassing  the  neck 
in  a  kind  of  lace  collar.  Over  the  latter  article  they  wear  a  black  veil  or 
rain  cloth,  which  the  girls  arrange  in  a  neat  manner. 

The  Dutch  are  the  offspring  of  the  ancient  Batavians,  to  whom,  upon 
the  whole,  they  still  bear  a  resemblance.  They  are  robust,  vigorous, 
have  broad  shoulders  and  hips,  but  are  rather  fat  than  muscular.  Their 
eyes,  mostly  blue  or  grey,  have  usually  a  cold,  steady  stare,  from  under 
the  heavy  brows.  The  women  fade  more  quickly  than  the  men,  who 
generally  retain  their  fresh  healthy  complexion  to  an  advanced  age. 
Rectitude,  candor,  honesty,  constancy,  patience,  equanimity,  temperance, 
cleanliness  carried  almost  to  excess,  plainness  in  their  manner  of  living, 
fidelity  to  their  word,  are  particularly  prominent  attributes  of  the  Dutch  ; 
they  are  reproached,  however,  with  avarice,  greediness  of  gain,  and  inquisi- 
tiveness.  Their  confidence  in  their  own  powers,  which  has  often  the 
appearance  of  cold  indiflference,  their  imperturbability,  and  their  circum- 
spectness  in  answering  and  in  judging,  have  brought  upon  them  the 
reputation  of  sluggishness ;  although  no  one  can  deny  that  they  possess 
industry,  courage,  and  contempt  of  every  danger,  particularly  in  under- 
takings considered  likely  to  result  in  profit  to  themselves.  Their  costume 
is  plain.     People  of  consequence  dress  in  the  English  and  French  styles, 

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196  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

the  loweit  classes  in  cloth  of  a  dark  color ;  and  old  persons  sometimes  still 
wear  the  costume  of  their  ancestors,  that  is  to  say,  a  triangular  hat,  black 
coat,  large  silver  buckles  to  the  breeches,  and  broad  buckles  on  the  shoes. 
Peasants  on  the  coast  as  well  as  in  the  interior  generally  wear  a  triangular 
or  round  hat,  a  long  wide  overcoat  of  dark  color,  breeches  with  two  large 
buttons  at  the  flap,  three  to  four  breast-pieces,>one  over  the  other,  adorned 
with  silver  buttons,  and  large  shoe-buckles.  The  dress  of  females  is  not 
the  same  in  the  dilTerent  provinces ;  the  principal  parts  of  it,  however,  are 
almost  everywhere  a  small  cambric  cap,  usually  fastened  on  both  sides 
with  a  round  brass  (also  gilt)  plate,  stiJBT  stays,  several  handkerchiefs  one 
over  the  other,  a  jacket,  two  rolls  on  the  hips  on  which  rest  a  number  of 
heavy  petticoats,  and  hanging  pouch  at  the  side.  A  straw  hat  lined  with 
silk  frequently  covers  the  lace  cap. 


The  Nations  op  Asia. 

Asia,  beyond  doubt  the  cradle  and  first  seat  of  mankind,  differs  quite  iis 
much  in  its  climate,  soil,  and  products,  as  do  its  inhabitants  in  color, 
physiognomy,  stature,  mode  of  life,  civilization,  &c.  The  most  thickly 
inhabited  section  is  the  Chinese,  a  well  watered  country  in  the  south-east ; 
the  most  sparsely  settled  is  Siberia.  The  elevated  table-lands  exhibit 
inhabitants  distinguished  above  the  others  for  vigor ;  the  river  countries, 
especially  the  rich,  luxurious,  southern  districts  of  Asia,  on  the  contrary, 
possess  the  feeblest,  most  effeminate  occupants.  Asia  is  estimated  to  have, 
in  an  area  of  fifteen  millions  of  square  miles,  a  population  of  upwards  of  500 
millions.  The  greater  portion  of  the  inhabitants  of  Asia  can  be  associated 
into  two  groups,  namely,  the  Caucasian  and  the  Old-Asiatic  or  Mongolian. 
The  former  extends  from  the  west  as  far  as  the  Obi,  Belour,  and  Burrampooter 
(Bramaputra)  rivers,  and  besides  many  small  hordes,  comprehends  four  prin- 
cipal stocks  :  the  Arabs,  Persians  (Armenians),  Turkish  nations  (Tartars), 
and  Hindoos.  The  latter,  on  the  other  hand,  includes  the  nations  of  the 
elevated  table-land  and  eastern  part  of  Asia,  subdivided  into  the  six  following 
principal  stocks :  Mongols,  Bucharians,  Mandchoos,  Japanese,  Chinese,  and 
Further-Indians.  To  these  great  families  intermixed  in  many  different 
ways,  must  still  be  added,  as  true  families,  those  of  the  north-east  of 
Siberia,  viz.  the  Samoyedes,  the  Yenesei  stock,  the  Yukaghires,  Kam- 
schatkians,  Kuriles,  and  Tschoudes ;  and  in  the  south-east,  the  Malays  of 
Malacca,  the  neighboring  islands,  and  Formosa,  and  the  Papuas  on  some 
of  the  Indian  Islands,  and  the  Moluccas.  In  the  south  and  south-west, 
dialects  of  the  Sanscrit  (Hindostanee),  or  Median  (Persian),  or  Semitic 
(Syrian,  Arabian),  are  spoken ;  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Japanese 
islands,  Tartar  (Turkish,  Mongolian,  Tungousian)  and  Thibetan  languages 
prevail;  in  the  south-east,  the  Chinese  and  Birman.  Islamism  is  the 
most  widely  extended  of  all  the  religions  of  Asia  (in  Western  Asia,  and  in 
part  of  Northern  and  Southern  Asia).  Buddhism,  however,  has  a  greater 
number  of  adherents ;  these  are  to  be  found  in  the  elevated  country  and 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  197 

eastern  part  of  the  continent.  Brahminism  extends  over  India,  and  the 
religions  of  Confucius  and  Sintoo  over  South-eastern  Asia.  The  followers 
of  all  these  creeds  have  always,  with  more  or  less  malignity,  opposed 
the  Christians  and  Jews ;  at  one  time  entirely  crushing,  at  another  at  least 
checking  them. 

A  great  portion  of  Asia^  is  under  European  dominion ;  the  whole  of 
Northern  Asia  belonging  to  Russia,  and  a  part  of  Western  Asia  to  Turkey. 
We  have  already  referred  to  the  inhabitants  of  these  two  sections  in  the 
descriptions  of  the  two  European  nations  to  whom  they  belong.  The 
British  rule  over  Hindostan  and  a  few  islands ;  and  the  Dutch,  Portuguese, 
Spaniards,  French,  and  Danes,  have  scattered  possessions  in  Asia  also. 
The  remaining  countries  are  partly  states  with  despotic  governments,  partly 
inhabited  by  nomadic  tribes  possessing  a  patriarchal  form  of  government. 


The  Kurds. 

The  Kurds  inhabit  Kurdistan  (land  of  the  Kurds)  and  several  provinces 
of  Western  and  Northern  Persia.  Some  live  also  scattered  in  Mesopo- 
tamia, Syria,  and  the  eastern  districts  of  Asia  Minor.  Their  language, 
which  is  related  to  the  Persian,  is  intermixed  with  many  Semitic  words, 
which  they  have  received  from  the  Syrians  and  Chaldeans.  The  nation  is 
divided  into  two  classes,  having  different  manners  of  living  and  difiereut 
customs.  One*  of  these  is  denominated  Guran,  in  Persian  Rajah,  in 
Turkish  Konylu,  consists  of  agriculturists,  and  forms  the  subordinate  class. 
The  second  is  that*  of  the  Assireta  or  Sipah,  and  constitutes  the  class  of 
warriors.  The  latter  seldom  or  never  cultivate  the  soil,  whilst  the  Guran 
are  never  soldiers.  The  Sipah  consider  the  Guran  as  created  for  their 
special  benefit.  The  dialects  of  the  two  differ  also.  The  Sipah  are 
divided  into  many  tribes ;  few  of  which,  however,  have  fixed  residences, 
being  wanderers  who  pitch  camps  according  to  the  wants  of  their  herds. 

The  Kurds  are  a  vigorous,  warlike,  but  also  barbarous,  and  even  cruel 
set  of  robbers,  who  belong  to  the  orthodox  Mahommedan  church,  and  for 
that  reason  are  sworn  religious  enemies  of  the  Persians.  Some  of  them 
constitute  a  separate  sect,  called  Jesides,  but  designated  by  orthodox 
Mahommedans  as  worshippers  of  the  devil  The  Kurds  live  in  a  state  of 
almost  constant  warfare  with  their  neighbors,  are  the  most  resolute  and 
daring  nomads  of  Western  Asia,  are  continually  on  horseback,  and  are 
considered  accomplished  riders.  A  sabre,  a  .pair  of  pistols,  frequently  a 
gun,  or  a  long  carbine  also,  are  their  weapons ;  and  their  horses  are  small, 
spare,  but  of  extraordinary  speed  and  endurance.  The  Kurds  keep 
together  in  bands,  consisting  of  firom  twelve  to  twenty  horsemen,  espy  the 
routes  taken  by  caravans,  attack  the  Strahlers  or  even  the  main  body  of 
the  caravan  itself  if  it  does  not  appear  too  strong  for  them^  and  massacre 
indiscriminately,  in  contradistinction  fi-om  Arabian  and  Turkoman  robbers, 
who  do  not  murder  travellers  that  fall  into  their  hands.  Danger  can  only 
be  escaped  by  winning  the  favor  of  the  chiefs  in  paying  them  a  heavy 

lOONOOBAPBIO   11I0T0L0P4CDIA. — VOL.   IIL  24  369 


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198  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

tribute.  Their  dress  is  sometimes  the  Turkish  including  die  turbra,  some* 
times  consists  of  a  long  brown  coat  worn  over  wide  trowsers,  with  a  red 
handkerchief  around  the  waist,  and  upon  the  head  a  pointed  red  cap,  which 
hangs  down  in  ends  at  the  sides.  Many  also  wear  the  Persian  dress. 
The  women  wear  turban-like  caps,  with  a  veil  attached  behind,  and  long 
petticoats  with  long  ribands  around  the  waist,  the  ends  hanging  down  behind. 
{PL  15,  fig,  13,  pL  16, ßg.  7,  Kurds ;  fig,  8,  dance  of  Kurdish  women.) 


Z%e  Persians. 

The  Persians  are  divided  into  nomads  and  such  a»  have  permanent 
residences.  The  majority  live  in  cities  and  villages;  poor  people  in 
miserable  mud  hovels,  persons  in  good  circumstances  in  brick  houses, 
the  rich  in  palaces  generally  encircled  by  gardens  and  having  apartments 
ornamented  and  cooled  by  fountains.  The  present  inhabitants  of  Persia 
are  the  descendants  of  various  nations  that  successively  occupied  the 
country.  The  Tadshiks  constitute  the  principal  mass  of  the  people»  and 
are  at  the  same  time  the  aborigines.  They  are  of  medium  size  and 
well  grown,  slender,  but  strongly  built  and  muscular.  The  face  is 
regular,  the  nose  arched,  the  mouth  small ;  the  hair  and  beard,  which  are 
carefully  nourished»  are  black.  The  hair  on  the  hind  part  of  the  head, 
a  hand's-breadth  from  the  forehead  and  downwards,  is  shaved  off,  but  the 
remainder  is  worn  pretty  long.  In  their  dress  dark  colors  are  preferred. 
Their  long,  wide  trowsers  are  of  silk  or  cotton,  the  shirt  mostly  of  silk, 
the  tight  waistcoat  of  cotton  stuff;  the  coat  long,  and  girded  around 
with  a  broad  shawl.  People  of  rank  wear  an  overcoatt  trimmed  with, 
costly  furs.  The  poor  wear  jackets  with  the  trowsers,  and  in  winter 
sheepskin  coats.  All  classes  use  sheepskin  caps  about  a  foot  in  height, 
which  the  rich  and  distinguished  gird  around  with  shawls«  Boots  are 
worn  only  for  riding ;  at  other  times  shoes  and  slippers,  usually  yellow  or 
red,  with  men  of  rank  green,  cover  the  feet.  Although  their  religion 
enjoins  frequent  bathing,  they  are  nevertheless  no  friends  of  cleanlinessr 
and  their  clethes  are  seldom  changed.  The  dress  of  the  female  sex  is 
plain  but  rich.  Their  trowsers  are  very  wide,  made  of  thick  velvet,  and 
come  down  to  the  heels.  Over  these  they  wear  a  chemise  of  silk,  muslin,  or 
gauze,  which  is  open  to  the  middle  of  the  body,  and  fastened  by  a  wide  and 
richly  ornamented  girdle.  In  winter  they  wrap  themselves  besides  in 
a  shawl.  Slipper*like  shoes  clothe  the  feet.  When  going  abroad  they 
envelope  themselves  in  a  veil  or  mantle  reaching  to  the  feet,  but  having  a 
fine  net  in  front  of  the  face»  or  two  holes  for  the  eyes.  They  ornament 
the  ends  of  their  hair  braids  with  flowers»  pearls»  &c.  The  frontleli» 
diadems»  and  hoods,  worn  by  the  women»  are  of  many  different  shapes,  and 
more  or  less  costly.  The  common  head-dress,  however,  is  simply  a  shawl» 
hanging  loosely  down  in  front  and  behind.  Girls  are  instructed  in  the 
schools,  in  reading,  writing,  and  embroidery,  until  their  age,  according  to 
the  customs  of  this  part  of  the  world,  no  k>nger  permits  them  to  go  oui 

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ETHNOLOGY  OP  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  199 

Qilireiled.  From  this  time  forward  they  remain  in  the  harem  or  women's 
apartments,  ^here  they  can  only  associate  with  their  own  sex.  The 
female«  of  the  lower  classes  are  not  locked  up  in  harems,  and  hence  enjoy 
mticH  greater  liberty. 

The  food  of  the  Persians  is  plain,  yet  of  a  tolerably  diversified  character. 
Their  bread  is  baked  of  wheat  jflour.  Two  principal  meals  are  taken  :  the 
one  in  the  morning  at  about  eleven  o'clock,  consisting  of  dishes  of  milk, 
fniH,  and  pastry ;  the  other  at  sunset,  when  more  substantial  food,  pilau, 
meat,  and  vegetables  are  eaten.  At  their  meals  the  Persians  sii  upon 
carpets  on  the  ground,  with  their  legs  turned  under  them.  (Pi  17,  ßg.  4, 
a  Persian  meal.)  Wine  and  liquors  are  prohibited,  but  frequently  partaken 
of  in  private.  Cofiee,  tea,  and  sherbet  are  the  usual  drinks.  Tobacco 
smoking  is  universal.  The  Persians  are  very  fond  of  ceremonious  courtesy.* 
Their  amusements  consist  in  chess,  which  they  play  well,  readings  or 
recitab^  of  fairy  tales,  music,  and  dancing.  A  warlike  game  of  theirs  is  the 
keikadihin  (pL  VI ^  fig-  3).  Hunting,  particularly  the  chase  of  the  antelope, 
constitutes  one  of  the  principal  recreations  of  people  of  rank.  The  baths 
also  belong  to  their  places  of  pleasurable  resort.  Hence  baths  have  not 
only  dressing  apartments,  but  also  parlors  and  saloons,  and  are  generally 
arranged  very  conveniently  and  luxuriously. 

The  Persians  may  be  divided  into  four  classes  :  1.  The  officers  of  the 
court,  state  and  military;  2,  Inhabitants  of  the  cities,  merchants,  crafts- 
men, &c. ;  3,  Villagers ;  and  4,  The  nomadic  tribes.  The  first  class, 
being  treated  with  merciless  tyranny  by  the  Shah,  their  lord,  who  tolerates 
no  opposition,  take  their  revenge  upon  their  own  inferiors ;  and  in  this 
manner  tyranny  is  continued  downwards  step  by  step.  Hence  no  subject 
is  for  a  moment  secure  of  his  life  and  property.  Farmers  and  tenants  fare 
the  worst  in  this  respect.  The  nomadic  tribes,  the  Ilauts  (Jllyats,  lis), 
constitute  the  main  body  of  the  army.  They  are  brave,  but  undisciplined, 
and  very  rapacious.  They  serve  the  Shah  as  mercenary  troops,  for  pay, 
and  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  booty.  In  the  spring  they  leave  their 
retreats,  assemble  at  the  place  to  which  they  are  ordered,  engage  only  for 
a  single  campaign,  and  in  winter  return  to  their  tribes.  They  are  mostly 
of  Turkish,  Lurish,  Kurdish,  and  Arabian  stocks. 

The  Tadshiks  and  the  higher  classes  make  use  of  the  modem  Persian 
language,  which  is  divided  into  that  of  the  court  (Deri),  and  that  of  the 
people  {Votand).  The  latter  has  characters  of  its  own,  but  the  former  is 
written  with  Arabic  letters. 

The  Persians  differ  from  many  other  followers  of  Mohammed  in  con- 
sidering  Ali,  the  father*in-law  of  Mohammed,  the  prophet  of  God.  They 
belong  to  the  sect  of  the  Shiites,  who  are  mortal  enemies  of  the  Sunnites, 
among  whom  the  Turks  are  classed.  A  few  only  are  still  fire-worshippers, 
and  are  called  Par  sis  (Parses,  Persians),  The  chief  of  the  followers  of 
Ali  is  called  Sheikh  Islam,  that  is  to  say,  the  patriarch  of  the  true  faith 
Under  him  rank  the  muftis,  under  these  the  kaßs  and  mollas  (judges),  the 
imaums  (preachers  and  proclaimers  of  prayers),  and  the  dervises  (monks). 

Crime  is  barbarously  punished  among  the  Persians.    Tearing  out  the 

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200  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

eyes  is  one  kind  of  punishment,  administered  especially  to  people  of  rank. 
Beheading  is  the  usual  mode  of  execution.  For  offences  of  trifling  import- 
ance the  bastinado  (blows  upon  the  soles  of  the  feet,  pL  17,  fig.  6)  and 
the  pillory  are  applied.  The  representation  at  fig.  7  shows  the  peculiar 
stocks  which  in  the  latter  punishment  are  attached  around  the  neck  Bud 
to  the  right  arm.     Fines  also  are  not  unusual. 

The  musical  instruments  of  the  Persians  consist  of  long  straight  horns  of 
various  sizes,  and  of  kettle-drums,  which  are  frequently  beaten  with  the 
bare  hands  (fig.  3). 

If  a  Persian  has  several  legitimate  wives  (as  a  Moslem,  he  is  not 
permitted  to  have  more  than  four),  the  one  first  married  ranks  highest 
according  to  a  law,  which,  however,  is  frequently  disregarded.  The  bride 
proceeds  to  meet  her  future  husband  entirely  enveloped  in  a  red  veil,  and 
upon  a  horse  sent  by  him ;  the  presents  of  the  groom  being  often  carried 
before  her  in  open  coffers  overlaid  with  red  silk  covers.  One  of  the 
conductors  of  the  bridegroom  carries  a  candle,  the  other  a  torch,  and 
behind  him  goes  a  drummer.  (Fig,  1,  marriage  ceremonies.)  Women  of 
rank  travel  in  a  closed  litter,  which  is  borne  by  mules  and  has  lattice-work 
at  the  sides  (fig.  2). 

When  a  Persian  is  dying,  a  fire  is  kindled  on  the  roof  of  his  house,  that 
every  passer-by  may  pray  for  the  departing  soul.  The  last  breath  having 
been  drawn,  the  corpse  is  forthwith  carefully  washed.  After  this,  the  body 
is  laid  out  upon  a  bed  of  state  (pi  20,  fig.  8),  and  the  relatives  and  friends 
meet  in  order  to  lament  their  loss,  the  nearest  relatives  showing  their 
distress  by  tearing  their  clothes  and  strewing  their  heads  with  ashes.  The 
corpse  is  then  wrapped  in  a  cloth  inscribed  with  passages  from  the  Koran, 
and  laid  in  a  coflin  on  a  bed  of  spices,  lime,  and  salt,  which  is  then  placed 
in  a  pit  furnished  with  a  flight  of  stairs. 

The  dress  of  a  Persian  Shah  is  represented  in  pL  15,  fig.  2  ;  that  of  the 
Khans  and  officers  of  court  in  figs.  1,  and  3-6 ;  that  of  a  lady  in  fig.  7 ; 
and  that  of  common  people  in  figs.  8  and  9.  PL  16,  fig.  9,  a  Persian  of 
rank  with  his  attendants. 


The  Arabs. 

The  Arabs  (South  Semites),  who  have  inhabited  Arabia  from  time 
immemorial,  are  either  herdsmen,  agriculturists,  or  inhabitants  of  towns 
(Moors).  The  settled  Arabs  of  Africa  are  more  especially  denominated 
Moors.  The  pastoral  Arabs  are  called,  in  the  language  of  the  country, 
Ebn  el  Arab,  i.  e.  Arab's  son,  or  also  Bedauvi,  which  the  Europeans  have 
rendered  by  Bedouin.  The  agriculturist  is  called  Fehla,  and  an  inhabitant 
of  a  town  Haddri.  The  people  of  the  towns  are  blended  with  the  Turks, 
and  have  imbibed  their  manners  without  having  laid  aside  the  principal 
peculiar  traits  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  deserts.  The  Fehlahin  (plural  of 
Fehla)  are  of  large  strong  frame,  and  do  not  possess  the  keen,  fiery  eyes 
of  the  Bedouins,  nor  their  silky  beards,  being,  moreover,  inferior  to  them 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  201 

in  intellect.  The  Fehlahin  wear  long,  coarse  cotton  shirts,  held  together 
by  a  leather  belt  of  a  hand's-breadth,  and  over  them  is  worn  a  kind  of 
cloak  of  goat's  or  earners  hair ;  in  winter,  however,  a  sheepskin  coat.  A 
piece  of  striped  cloth,  with  fringe,  covers  the  head.  {PL  13,  fig.  1/,  head- 
dress of  a  Fehla.)  The  neck  and  feet  are  left  bare.  Rich  Sheikhs  some- 
times, upon  occasions  of  ceremony,  wear  a  silk  cloak,  or  a  cloth  coat,  over 
the  shirt.  The  women  dress  like  the  Bedouins.  The  Fehlahin  live,  in  part, 
in  the  numerous  large  and  fine  ruins  of  the  times  of  the  ancient  Greeks 
and  Romans ;  in  part  in  hovels  of  earth,  or  in  mountain  caves.  The  house- 
hold furniture  is  of  a  very  simple  character.  Wealth  is  computed  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  their  yoke  of  cattle,  or  the  number  of  acres  held ; 
and  by  the  same  rules  their  taxes,  which  are  high,  are  adjusted.  Besides 
the  payment  of  these  taxes,  they  are  obliged  to  provide  for  all  soldiers 
marching  through  their  districts,  which  is  the  more  burdensome  as  they 
are  all  horsemen.  Extraordinary  imposts  and  rapacious  inroads  of  the 
hordes  of  Bedouins,  reduce  these  people  to  the  greatest  misery.  The 
attacks  of  robbers,  or  scarcity  of  water,  frequently  compel  them  to  abandon 
entire  villages.  Towards  strangers,  the  poor  Fehlahin  are  veiy  polite  and 
hospitable,  and  never  demand  anything  for  the  lodging  alTorded.  The 
Sheikh  of  each  village  is,  moreover,  bound  to  keep  a  free  tavern,  in  which 
every  guest  can  claim  food  and  one  night's  rest.  Wheaten  groats  and 
sour  milk  are  the  principal  fare  of  the  Fehlahin. 

In  the  large  towns,  slaves,  mostly  negroes,  are  found  in  all  families  whose 
circumstances  allow  it.  Slavery  here,  as  in  almost  all  Mohammedan 
countries,  is,  however,  not  of  a  rigorous  character. 

Arabia  has  never  been  a  state,  not  even  in  the  times  of  the  mightiest 
Caliphs.  At  present,  the  country  may  contain,  perhaps,  several  hundred 
independent  tribes,  or  small  states,  if  this  term  can  properly  be  applied  to 
them.  The  island-like  situation  of  the  country  has  always  restrained 
foreign  conquerors;  the  power  of  the  Persians  among  them  was  very 
trifling,  and  even  the  strength  of  the  Romans  was  wrecked  in  the  deserts 
of  Arabia.  Each  tribe  has  its  chief,  usually  called  Sherif,  Chiefs  of  less 
importance  are  called  Shechs  (Sheikhs)  or  Emirs, 

Mecca  is  the  centre  of  the  Arabian  as  of  the  Mohammedan  world  ;  it  is 
a  place  of  conflux,  not  only  for  all  the  tribes,  but  for  many  foreign  people 
also;  hence  the  population  is  greatly  mixed.  All  males  born  in  Mecca 
and  Dshidda  are  tattooed  on  the  face,  by  the  parents,  as  early  as  the 
fortieth  day  after  the  birth  of  the  child,  three  long  incisions  being  made  on 
both  its  cheeks  and  on  the  right  temple.  The  Bedouins  do  not  observe 
this  custom,  but  the  men  of  Mecca  are  proud  of  the  distinction,  which 
excludes  other  inhabitants  of  the  Hedjaz,  in  foreign  countries,  from  the 
claim  to  the  honor  of  being  natives  of  the  holy  city.  In  very  few  instances, 
girls  are  also  tattooed.  The  complexion  of  the  people  of  Mecca  is  a  dull, 
yellowish  brown,  clearer  or  darker  according  to  the  origin  of  the  mother, 
who  very  often  is  an  Abyssinian  slave.  Their  physiognomy  resembles 
very  much  that  of  the  Bedouins,  and  this  is  chiefly  the  case  with  the 
Sberifs,  or  members  of  the  oldest  and  noblest  families,  who  claim  direct 

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202  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

descent  from  the  Prophet.  They  have  the  face,  eyes,  and  aquiline  nose 
of  the  Bedouins ;  the  countenance  is  very  handsome,  but  more  fleshy  than 
that  of  the  latter  people.  The  lower  ranks  of  Mecca,  generally,  are  very 
strong  and  muscular ;  the  higher  classes,  on  the  contrary,  are  of  slender, 
fleshless  figure ;  and  similar  in  this  respect  are  also  the  inhabitants  deriving 
their  origin  from  Yemen  or  India.  The  dress  of  the  higher  ranks  consists, 
in  winter,  of  a  cloth  henish,  or  overcoat,  and  a  dshubbe,  or  under  garment, 
likewise  of  cloth,  and  cut  like  those  worn  in  all  parts  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire.  A  long,  glistening,  silk  coat,  bound  with  a  thin  Cashmere  sash, 
a  white  muslin  turban,  and  yellow  slippers,  constitute  the  remainder  of  the 
dress.  In  summer,  a  benish  of  India  silk  stuffs  is  worn.  People  of  the 
highest  ranks,  who  wear  the  Turkish  costume,  have  red  caps  from  Barbary 
under  the  turban.  Those  worn  by  the  other  classes  are  of  linen,  richly 
embroidered  with  silk,  the  work  of  the  women,  and  usually  given  as  pre- 
sents to  their  lovers.  The  long  coats  of  well  dressed  persons  of  the  middle 
rank  are  generally  of  white  India  muslin,  without  lining ;  they  are  called 
beden,  and  differ  from  the  common  Levantine  anteri,  which  is  very  short, 
without  sleeves,  and  hence  much  cooler.  Over  the  beden  a  dshubbe  of 
light  cloth  or  India  silk  is  worn,  which  in  hot  weather  is  hung  loosely  over 
the  shoulders.  The  under  shirts  are  of  India  silk,  or  Egyptian  or  Arabian 
linen.  In  summer,  the  lower  ranks  wear  only  a  shirt,  and  around  it  a 
piece  of  nankeen  instead  of  pantaloons  ;  in  winter,  a  striped  beden  of  India 
chintz,  without  a  girdle.  The  middle  and  lower  classes  use  sandals,  those 
coming  from  Yemen  being  the  best  In  summer,  mamy  have  mere  caps, 
without  the  turban.  The  latter  usually  consists  of  cambric  or  muslin ; 
each  class  having  a  mode  of  winding  it  round  the  head  peculiar  to  itself. 
The  Ulema,  or  learned  body,  allow  the  end  to  fall  down  in  a  small 
fold  to  the  middle  of  the  cheeks.  In  some  parts  of  the  country,  men  of 
rank  wear  red  hats,  shaped  like  the  round  hats  of  Europeans.  The  women 
of  Mecca  and  Dshidda  are  dressed  in  India  silk  frocks,  and  very  long  blue 
striped  trowsers,  reaching  to  the  ankles,  embroidered  at  the  bottom  with 
silver  thread.  Over  these  they  wear  a  wide  frock,  called  habra,  of  black 
silk  stuff,  customary  also  in  Syria  and  Egypt,  or  a  blue  and  white  striped 
mellay.  The  face  is  concealed  by  a  white  or  blue  borkz ;  upon  the  head 
covered  with  the  meUay,  they  wear  a  cap,  around  which  a  piece  of  colored 
muslin  is  wound  in  tight  folds.  The  head-dress  is  encircled  and  orna- 
mented by  a  row  9f  gold  coins.  Many  wear  golden  necklaces  and  armlets, 
and  rings  of  silver  around  the  ankles.  The  people  of  Mecca  are  princi- 
pally engaged  in  commerce. 

The  Bedouins  {Bedovi,  or  Bedauvi^  signifymg  in  Arabic  "  vagrants,"  or 
"inhabitants  of  the  desert")  have  sprung  from  Arabia,  and  are  spread  over 
the  southwestern  part  of  Asia  and  northern  Africa.  Since  the  earliest 
times  they  have  remained  almost  entirely  unchanged,  and  hence  are  proud 
of  the  parity  of  their  blood  and  their  steadfastly  maintained  liberty. 
The  doctrines  of  Islam  have  made  but  little  alteration  in  their  customs. 
All  of  them  are  very  indifferent  professors  of  this  faith,  and  those  inhabiting 
the  interior  of  the  desert  scarcely  know  the  name  of  Mohammed.  Tb^y 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  '203 

mostly  lead  a  roaming  life,  are  divided  into  many  tribes,  eaoh  of  which  is 
commanded  by  an  Emhr,  and  is  again  separated  into  families,  with  a  Sheikh 
at  the  head  of  each.  They  have  no  well  defined  laws,  but  follow  only 
their  customs  and  usages.  Their  camels,  their  horses  of  the  noblest  breed, 
and  their  cattle,  the  most  important  part  of  their  property,  constitute  the 
entire  wealth  of  this  people ;  and  the  rearing  of  live  stock,  together  with 
hunting  and  robbery,  affords  their  only  means  of  support.  The  complexion 
of  the  Bedouins  is  brown,  but  there  are  many  women  among  them  that 
resemble  Europeans  in  fairness,  in  consequence  of  little  exposure  to  the 
sun.  In  figure  they  are  generally  slender,  and  rather  short.  The  hair  is 
curly ;  the  beard  short  and  raven  black ;  the  eyes  are  small  and  fiery. 
Their  dexterity,  their  activity  and  bodily  strength,  are  oftentimes  extra- 
ordinary. They  are  excellent  horsemen.  Among  them,  love  of  liberty 
and  hospitality  are  associated  with  bravery,  rapacity,  and  revenge.  Cara- 
vans and  single  travellers  are  unsparingly  plundered.  They  fall  upon  the 
former  from  different  sides,  like  a  swarm  of  bees,  but  seldom  take  life  in 
these  attacks,  and  fly  if  vigorous  resistance  is  made.  Every  stranger,  on 
the  other  hand,  be  he  Christian  or  Mohammedan,  who  comes  into  their 
camp,  which  consists  of  a  circle  of  tents,  is  received  with  the  greatest 
hospitality  ;  and  without  recompense  they  divide  their  all  with  him,  and 
protect  him  with  property  and  life.  Even  travellers  just  plitndered  are 
afterwards  received  in  a  friendly  manner  by  their  robbers,  and  obtain 
presents  from  them.  The  weapons  of  the  Bedouins  are  the  sabre  and 
dagger,  but  chiefly  a  lance  from  ten  to  thirteen  feet  in  length,  having 
a  long  triangular  head.  Sometimes  they  have  javelins,  clubs,  pistols,  atii 
rifles.  The  Emirs  have  but  little  authority  over  their  subjects,  and  are 
equally  liable  to  the  penalties  of  the  wild  custom  of  bloody  revenge  for 
injuries  which  has  prevailed  from  the  remotest  times. 

Two  different  kinds  of  tradesmen  only  are  found  among  the  Bedouins, 
viz.  weavers  and  farriers,  the  few  household  materials  needed  being  made 
by  each  person  for  himself.  It  is  a  difficult  matter  to  specify  the  individulJ 
tribes.  In  the  Arabian  desert  there  are :  Miseny,  living  poor  and  unknowü 
in  the  peninsula  of  Petrea ;  Wuld-Äli,  in  Central  and  Northern  Arabia ; 
BenuKhaled,  Beni-Kiab,  Beni-Lam,  and  Montesik,  In  the  Mesopotamian 
desert :  Ten.  In  the  Syrian :  Mavaliy  Beni-SzeJier,  Pahely,  Anasse, 
and  many  others.  Besides  these,  there  are  numerous  tribes  in  North 
Africa, 

PI.  ISfßgs.  II  and  12,  Arabs  of  Gaza  and  its  vicinity;  fig.  13,  Arab 
of  rank,  with  the  above  described  red  hat,  white  and  blue  striped  under 
dress,  nankeen  cloth,  red  stockings,  and  yellow  shoes ;  fig.  14,  Arab  mer- 
chant, with  white  under  garment ;  white  and  red  striped  sash  and  turban  ; 
white  and  blue  striped  overcoat ;  red  stockings,  and  yellow  shoes.  Fig.  16, 
Arab  girl  of  the  lower  classes,  with  white  and  red  striped  gown,  the  artto 
and  bosom  left  bare ;  a  panther  skin  around  the  hips ;  a  white  cap,  orna- 
mented with  red  riband ;  the  hair  in  long  pendent  plaits,  and  sandals  mi 
the  feet.  jFY^.  1,  A,  exhibits  the  head-dress  of  Arabs  of  the  desert.  PL  19, 
fig.  1,  Assemblage  of  nomadic  Arabs  around  their  Sheikh ;  fig.  2,  Encamp- 

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204  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

ment  of  a  Bedouin  family ;  fig.  3,  Arabian  concert ;  fi^.  4,  Performanoe 
of  Arab  dancing  girls  {Almehs) ;  pi  20,  fig,  7,  Mode  of  salutation  among 
men  of  Arabia. 


The  Beludshis, 

The  Beludshis,  or  Beluchis,  are  the  inhabitants  of  Beluchistan,  a  large 
South  Persian  province,  formerly  included  in  East  Persia,  and  only  explored 
since  the  year  1810.  They  are  slender,  well  formed,  and  active,  but  of 
comparatively  inferior  physical  strength.  Their  complexion  is  dark  ;  their 
hair  black.  All  of  them  are  very  fond  of  robbery,  and  consider  the  bold 
pillage  of  a  foreign  territory  as  honorable  in  a  high  degree ;  they  fear  no 
danger,  and  are  brave  in  battle.  Their  mode  of  life,  with  the  exception 
of  the  inhabitants  of  cities  (who  are  engaged  in  navigation  and  commerce), 
is  the  patriarchal  pastoral.  Their  dwellings  are  tents  and  huts.  They 
inhabit  the  country  together  with  the  Brahus,  a  nomadic  people ;  and 
are  subjects  of  a  Khan  common  to  both,  to  whom  they  pay  tribute  and 
in  war  furnish  a  contingent  of  troops.  (PL  15,  fig.  10,  a  warrior  in  full 
equipment.) 

The  Afghans. 

The  Afghans  are  a  powerful  nation  west  of  the  Indus.  They  are  called 
by  the  Persians  Af*gan  or  Ag'uan,  by  themselves  Pushtan  (in  the  plural, 
Pushtanneh)  ;  in  India,  Pitan  and  Patan ;  by  the  Arabs,  Solimani.  The 
Afghans  are,  in  a  great  measure,  a  pastoral  people ;  a  small  portion  only 
being  settled  and  pursuing  agriculture.  They  are  divided  into  a  great 
multitude  of  tribes,  differing  essentially  in  usages,  habits,  and  manner  of 
living,  although  speaking  the  same  language  and  forming  one  nation.  The 
Berdurani  are  the  tribes  in  the  north-eastern  section  of  Afghanistan, 
between  the  high  mountains  of  Hindoo  Khash,  the  Indus,  the  Salt  range, 
and  the  Soliman  mountains.  The  Damani  inhabit  the  province  oi Daman; 
the  Solimani,  the  Soliman-Kuh;  the  Durani  live  in  the  steppes  of  the 
table  land  of  East  Iran,  between  the  two  cities  Kandahar  and  Herat, 
inhabit  also  the  first  named  city,  and  consider  themselves  the  noblest  stock 
of  their  nation.  The  Ghilshi,  finally,  constitute  the  principal  tribe  of  the 
Afghans,  and  occupy  the  country  between  Candahar,  Cabul,  the  Paropa- 
misus,  and  Hindoo  Khash,  east  of  the  Durani.  PI  15,  fig.  12,  represents 
an  Afghan  of  the  tribe  of  Durani  wearing  a  red  interwoven  under  garment, 
wide  trowsers,  a  yellow  cap,  and  a  blue  cloak.  His  weapons  are  a  long 
gun  and  sword.  The  dress  of  the  tribe  of  the  Ghilshi  is  entirely  white,  with 
the  exception  of  a  scarlet  sash,  and  consists  of  a  long  coat,  wide  trowsers, 
and  turban.  Many  tribes  also  wear  tight  fitting  pantaloons,  a  short  shirt, 
and  pointed  cap.  PI.  19,  fig.  5,  shows  the  mode  of  travelling  adopted  by 
persons  of  distinction ;  and  fig.  6,  that  customary  among  the  lower  classes 
of  people  in  Afghanistan  and  in  Lahore  (India).  The  Afghans  profess  the 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  206 

Sunnite  Islam.  The  provinces  of  the  empire  are  divided  among  the  men 
of  rank,  who  possess  unlimited  authority,  which  passes  also  by  inheritance. 
They  are  a  well  shaped, --hardy  race,  proud  and  insolent,  and,  long  accus- 
tomed only  to  robbery  and  war,  are  strangers  to  all  polite  education. 


The  Hindoos. 

The  Hindoos  (about  14  millions)  are  the  aborigines  of  the  East  Indies. 
They  are  of  medium  size ;  of  slender,  regular,  but  not  powerful  build ; 
have  a  brownish  yellow  or  olive  colored,  shining,  and  very  soft  skin,  which, 
however,  is  of  a  dirty  appearance.  Their  eyes  are  rather  soft  than  fiery ; 
the  brows  handsomely  arched ;  the  hair  soft,  black,  and  glossy.  The 
women  are  more  delicately  formed  than  the  men ;  both,  however,  have 
small  hands  and  feet.  They  are  temperate,  intelligent,  and  skilful; 
generally  of  a  mild  disposition,  but  cowardly,  crafty,  deceitful,  and  very 
arrogant  towards  their  inferiors  in  position  or  strength. 

The  Hindoos  are  divided  into  five  principal  castes,  the  four  first  of  which 
are  considered  noble,  the  fifth,  ignoble;  with  subdivisions  in  all.  The 
Brahmins  form  the  highest  and  noblest  caste.  They  are  honored  by  all 
the  rest  as  superior  beings,  who  must  be  treated  with  the  greatest  respect. 
They  are  permitted  neither  to  be  under  the  same  roof  with  a  person  of  a 
different  caste,  nor  to  taste  anything  not  prepared  by  a  Brahmin.  They 
consist  mostly  of  priests,  oflicers  of  state,  and  learned  men  ;  many,  never- 
theless, are  engaged  in  mechanical  arts,  commerce,  and  the  cultivation  of 
fields  and  gardens.  They  are  not  allowed  to  drink  wine,  eat  flesh,  or  chew 
betel. 

Next  in  rank  follow  the  Tshetries,  Rädshas,  or  Kshatrias;  to  whom 
belong  the  sovereigns,  princes,  and  warriors. 

The  third  class,  the  Vaishis,  Vaishias,  or  Vassiers,  are  engaged  in  rear- 
ing cattle,  agriculture,  horticulture,  and  commerce.  They  are  educated, 
moral,  and  industrious,  and  are  believers  in  the  doctrine  of  transmigration 
of  souls.  Hence  they  kill  no  animal,  not  even  a  small  insect,  and  even 
purchase  animals  about  to  be  slaughtered  in  order  to  preserve  their  lives, 
and  nurse  aged  or  sick  animals  at  their  own  expense. 

The  Shuders,  or  Sudras,  constitute  the  last  of  the  noble  castes.  They 
are  either  engaged  in  the  arts  and  handicrafts,  or  are  monks,  soothsayers, 
magicians,  and  jugglers.  The  lowest  division  of  this  caste  consists  of  the 
curriers,  who  are  at  the  same  time  shoemakers ;  of  the  butchers,  who  are 
also  executioners ;  and  the  bayaderes  or  public  dancing  women. 

There  are  several  middle  classes  besides,  that  have  arisen  from  a  mixture 
of  the  pure  castes,  and  who  are  not  respected,  but  are  yet  esteemed  much 
higher  than  the  fifth  class,  which  contains  the  unfortunate  Pariahs,  The 
Pariahs  are  condemned,  from  their  very  birth,  to  pass  their  lives  in  the 
bitterest  misery,  and  are  universally  despised  and  even  abominated.  They 
are  obliged  to  perform  duties  of  the  lowest  description,  which  would  be 
degrading  to  all  other  castes.     They  neither  perform  the  prescribed  ablu- 

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«06  HIOTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY, 

iticms,  nor  abstain  from  forbidden  food.  They  dwell  in  holes  or  huts,  and 
«re  only  admitted  into  the  house  of  a  Hindoo  through  a  particular  door. 
They  are  not  allowed  to  touch  a  person  belonging  to  another  caste,  must 
stand  far  distant  from  him,  and  hold  the  hand  in  front  of  the  mouth  when 
they  speak  to  him.  The  Pariahs  are  herdsmen  or  menial  servants  among 
the  Hindoos,  and  soldiers,  porters,  cooks,  &c.,  among  Europeans.  The 
Poolias  form  a  particular  division  of  the  Pariahs,  living  upon  the  west 
coast  of  the  peninsula,  west  of  the  Ganges. 

Rice  is  the  principal  food  of  the  Hindoos ;  besides  this,  other  kinds  of 
grain  are  also  eaten.  Flesh  diet,  as  has  already  been  remarked,  is  not 
permitted  to  every  caste.  At  their  meals  they  sit  squatted  down;  they 
wash  themselves  before  and  after  eating.  The  usual  drink  is  water,  but 
also  spirituous  liquors.  Spoons,  knives  and  forks,  dishes  and  plates,  they 
have  not ;  hands  supply  the  places  of  the  three  first,  and  leaves  of  trees 
those  of  the  two  latter.  The  household  furniture  is  very  simple.  They 
have  no  beds,  but  lie  upon  coverings  spread  upon  the  floor. 

The  dress  is  for  the  most  part  plain.  The  lower  classes  usually  twist  a 
piece  of  stuff  around  the  hips  and  pass  it  between  the  legs,  leaving  the  rest 
of  the  body  bare  or  wearing  a  light  garment  over  it.  Sandals  and  shoes 
constitute  the  dress  of  the  feet,  and  in  several  districts  both  sexes  wear 
wide  trowsers.  The  head-dress  of  both  men  and  women  consists  of  a  fine 
cloth  wound  around  the  head  in  the  manner  of  a  turban. 

Nearly  all  the  men  shave  their  heads ;  some  castes,  however,  leave  a 
tuft  of  hair  on  the  crown,  and  the  Brahmins  on  the  hind  part  of  the  head. 
The  women  wear  their  hair  according  to  their  own  fancy.  Only  widows 
in  their  mourning,  and  criminals,  are  obliged  to  have  their  heads  shaved. 
Most  of  the  men  wear  mustachios.  Women  usually  tattoo  themselves; 
both  sexes  of  ail  castes  paint  a  black  line  around  the  eyes,  and  color  the 
palms  of  the  hands  and  soles  of  the  feet  red.  The  Brahmins  wear  as  a 
sign  of  their  rank  a  cotton  cord,  which  is  a  combination  of  twenty-seven 
small  cords,  and  hangs  over  the  breast,  shoulder,  and  back.  PL  20,  figs. 
1-3,  Indian  women  and  girls ;  fig,  4,  slaves  of  a  harem  of  Santorin  ;  fig.  5, 
Indian  women  in  a  harem. 

Chess,  said  to  have  been  invented  in  the  East  Indies,  is  the  usual  game 
of  the  Hindoos.  Somewhat  similar  to  it  is  the  game  of  four  kings,  played 
by  that  number  of  persons.  Hunting  is  likewise  one  of  their  principal 
recreations.  They  seek  to  amuse  themselves  besides  by  listening  to  tellers 
of  stories  and  ballad-singers,  by  witnessing  the  extraordinary  gymnastic 
feats  of  the  jugglers,  or  the  dances  of  the  bayaderes.  Theatrical  per- 
formances and  pantomimes  also  are  exhibited  in  India.  A  number  of 
musical  instruments  are  used,  but  very  inferior  to  our  own. 

The  Indians  have  a  sacred  language,  the  Sanscrit,  and  a  language  of  the 
people.  The  former  is  a  dead  language,  and  understood  only  by  a  few 
learned  men,  remaining  entirely  unknown  to  the  masses.  In  Sanscrit  are 
written  most  of  their  works  esteemed  classical.  The  Mongolo-Hindoa- 
tanee  is  the  most  common  dialect  of  the  popular  language,  especially  in  the 
northern  section.  The  Persian  is  the  language  of  the  court.  The  C«r- 
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ETHNOLOG-r  OF  THB  PRESENT  DAY.  207 

nata,  Telinga,  Tamul,  Malabar,  Marattu,  and  the  Malay,  are  the  &ve 
principal  languages  of  the  Deccan. 

The  decimal  system  and  algebra  are  said  to  have  originated  in  India. 
The  study  of  astronomy  has  been  pursued  in  the  East  Indies  since  the 
earliest  times ;  but  although  the  Hindoos  have  made  gugater  advances  in 
this  science  than  many  other  nations,  they  still  entertain  very  erroneous 
and  imperfect  ideas  of  the  planetary  system.  They  hold,  for  instance,  that 
the  earth  stands  in  the  centre,  and  that  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  revolve 
about  it ;  that  the  planets  are  propelled  in  their  orbits  by  currents  of  air ; 
and  that  the  stars,  moved  by  strong  whirlwinds,  perform  their  revoluticois 
around  the  earth  with  prodigious  swiftness  in  twenty-four  hours. 

The  Hindoos  sacrifice  bulls  and  horses  to  the  gods,  white  being  the 
preferred  color  for  the  victims.  Human  sacrifices,  though  not  allowed, 
are  yet  said  to  take  place  secretly. 

Famine,  an  affliction  not  of  rare  occurrence,  owing  to  oft  repeated 
droughts,  frequently  constrains  parents  to  kill  their  children,  or,  more  com- 
monly, to  sell  them  for  provisions  or  money.  This  traffic  in  human  flesh 
is,  however,  said  to  be  carried  on  also  in  times  of  abundance.  Suicide  is 
of  frequent  occurrence  in  India,  and  the  Brahmins  even  endeavor  to  cause 
and  promote  its  commission.  It  is  an  ancient  custom  for  the  wife,  after 
the  death  of  her  husband,  to  be  burned  alive  with  the  corpse ;  and  if  the 
man  has  several  consorts,  some  of  them  not  unfrequently  dispute  who  shall 
have  the  honor.  As  a  rule,  wives  desirous  of  distinguishing  themselves  in 
this  manner  are  already  advanced  in  years,  and  have  sad  prospects  for  the 
iuture,  in  case  they  remain  alive,  since  they  would  be  a  burden  to  their 
relations.  Hence  the  latter,  as  well  as  the  Brahmins,  try  to  persuade  them 
to  sacrifice  themselves.  The  English  have  attempted  to  abolish  this  cruel 
custom ;  it  is  said,  nevertheless,  to  be  by  no  means  entirely  extirpated. 
{PL  21,  ßg,  2,  Burning  of  a  Hindoo  widow  with  the  corpse  of  her  spouse.) 
The  sick  and  dying  are  very  harshly  treated  in  India.  Funeral  solemnities 
difier  according  to  the  castes.  The  dead  are  either  burnt  or  thrown  into 
a  sacred  stream,  especially  into  the  Ganges,  or  buried,  the  lower  castes 
especially  adopting  the  last  manner.  As  the  dead  are  considered  unclean, 
they  are  removed  as  soon  as  possible;  not  through  the  usual  entrance 
of  the  house,  but  through  a  particular  door.  Pariahs  carrying  them  in  a 
sitting  posture.  It  is  the  same  passage  through  which  the  latter  enter  the 
bouses  with  downcast  eyes. 

All  Hindoos  look  upon  matrimony  as  a  sacred  state  into  which  every 
one  is  bound  to  enter.  Polygamy  is  lawful,  but  only  distinguished  and 
rich  persons  make  use  of  the  privilege.  There  are  two  modes  of  marriage, 
one  by  means  of  the  pariam,  the  other  by  means  of  the  kaningadanam. 
Sums  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  dollars,  which  the  father  of  the  bridegroom 
pays,  before  the  wedding,  as  the  purchase  price  to  the  bride's  father,  are 
called  "pariam.*^  "Kaningadanam,"  that  is  to  say,  "present  of  a  virgin/' 
is  the  nan>e  of  the  transaction,  when  a  rich  simmer  gives  a  sufficient  sum 
to  a  poor  Brahmin  to  enable  him  to  marry,  or  yields  up  his  daughter 
m  %k  spouse  to  a  poor  relative,  who  is  not  in  a  condition  to  pay  tke 

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208  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

pariam.  In  such  a  case,  however,  the  receiver  must  take  upon  himself 
all  the  sins  of  the  liberal  benefactor,  and  hence  marriages  of  this  sort  are 
rare.  The  settling  of  a  marriage  contract  is  preceded  by  many  formalities, 
mostly  superstitious,  at  which  astrologers  and  soothsayers  play  no  unim- 
portant part.  On  the  wedding  day,  the  invited  relatives  and  friends 
assemble  at  the  house  of  the  bridegroom,  and  thence  go  to  the  dwelling 
of  the  bride.  In  front  go  the  porters,  carrying  the  nuptial  presents  intended 
for  the  bride.  In  one  of  the  baskets  is  found  the  pariekure,  or  sash,  which, 
even  amongst  the  poorest  people,  must  be  of  silk,  and  is  designed  only  for 
the  adornment  of  the  bride  on  the  marriage  day.  In  place  of  the  pariam, 
men  of  rank  give  a  costly  jewel,  or  a  rich  ornament,  which  is  laid  upon  the 
pariekure.  As  soon  as  the  party  have  arrived  at  the  house,  the  basket 
with  the  last  named  article  is  uncovered  in  the  presence  of  the  whole 
assemblage ;  the  pariam  is  then  presented  by  the  father  of  the  bridegroom 
to  the  father  of  the  bride,  with  the  words,  "  The  money  is  thine,  and  the 
daughter  is  mine ;"  whereupon  the  latter  answer,  "  The  money  is  mine, 
and  the  daughter  is  thine."  Hereupon  the  Brahmin,  amid  kind  congratu- 
lations, ratifies  the  completed  union.  In  the  place  of  our  wedding-ring,  the 
tali,  a  small  gold  figure,  often  a  tiger's  tooth  set  in  gold,  is  the  nuptial 
symbol.  This  is  consecrated  at  the  marriage  by  the  Brahmin,  and  handed 
to  the  bridegroom,  who  hangs  it  around  the  neck  of  the  bride.  Rich  and 
distinguished  persons  have  sometimes  a  number  of  additional  ceremom'es 
at  their  weddings ;  and  not  unfrequently  the  newly  married  couple,  seated 
opposite  to  each  other  in  a  palanquin,  are  borne  for  several  days  through 
the  principal  streets,  escorted  by  their  relatives,  friends,  and  servants,  and 
surrounded  by  numbers  of  musicians  and  dancing  women.  The  expense 
of  the  wedding  and  subsequent  ceremonies  falls  upon  the  groom's  father 
alone  ;  and  including  presents  to  the  Brahmins,  who  come  to  the  weddings 
of  the  wealthy  from  the  vicinity,  and  even  distances  of  thirty  or  forty  miles, 
amounts  to  a  very  large  sum.  PL  21»  ßg.  4,  represents  a  procession  of  an 
East  Indian  bridal  party  ;  ßg.  3,  exhibits  the  wedding  ceremonies  of  the 
Zingaroos,  an  Indian  gipsy  stock.  The  Zigeune  (or  Gipsy)  takes  his  bride 
by  one  hand,  and  in  the  other  holds  a  jug,  which  he  throws  high  in  the  air, 
by  way  of  determining  the  duration  of  his  marriage,  which  is  done  by 
counting  the  pieces  into  which  the  jug  is  broken  when  falling,  the  marriage 
being  valid  for  as  many  years  as  there  are  pieces.  In  case  the  bride  does 
not  please  him,  however,  the  Zigeune,  if  so  inclined,  dissolves  the  connexion 
even  at  an  earlier  period  than  the  time  indicated  by  the  above  ceremony ; 
neither  is  his  young  wife  bound  to  observe  strict  fidelity. 

The  religious  festivals  of  the  Hindoos  are  very  numerous;  about  a 
hundred  of  them  are  reckoned,  and  nearly  every  god  has  his  own.  On 
such  holidays,  the  pagodas  (temples)  are  ornamented  with  gai*lands,  muslin 
handkerchiefs,  and  costly  stuffs.  One  of  the  most  important  festivals  is 
the  tirunal,  or  car  festival  {pi.  20,  ßg.  6),  which  is  annually  celebrated 
during  a  period  of  ten  days,  in  remembrance  of  the  consecration  of  each 
great  pagoda.  Pilgrims  approach  from  the  neighborhood  and  from  a 
distance,  according  as  the  pagoda  is  more  or  less  renowned.  Large  bands 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  209 

of  music,  on  the  eve  of  the  festival,  march  through  the  streets  and  places 
through  which  the  procession  is  to  pass  on  the  following  day.  On  the  first 
day,  the  procession  takes  place  only  in  the  interior  of  the  pagoda ;  from  the 
second  to  the  sixth  day,  the  figure  of  the  divinity  to  whom  the  temple  is 
consecrated  is  borne  through  the  streets  in  solemn  array  and  with  music. 
On  the  seventh,  however,  it  is  placed  in  the  uppermost  window  of  the 
temple  tower,  when  all  the  people  rush  to  the  pagoda,  in  order  to  deposit 
in  the  hands  of  Brahmins  rich  offerings  for  the  divinity.  On  the  eighth 
and  ninth  days,  the  Brahmins  themselves  carry  the  likeness  of  the  god 
about  within  the  temple ;  on  the  tenth  day,  the  festival  is  closed  with  the 
principal  procession  through  the  streets.  The  gong  {tantam),  firing  of 
cannon,  and  explosions  of  gunpowder,  are  the  signals  for  assembling.  A 
crowd  of  musicians,  with  noisy  instruments,  form  the  head  of  the  proces- 
sion ;  a  number  of  whom,  gliding  on  their  backs,  keep  up  with  the  others 
and  maintain  the  time  of  the  tune,  a  performance  considered  particularly 
meritorious.  After  these  follow  several  thousand  worshippers,  in  two  rows, 
with  gaudy  flags,  parasols,  banners,  and  a  staff  three  feet  long,  on  one  end 
of  which  an  oil  lamp  is  fastened,  the  processions  usually  commencing 
towards  nightfall.  Then,  often  borne  by  thirty  or  forty  men,  comes  the 
image  screen,  called  Ter,  in  the  form  of  a  temple  with  pillars,  and  contain- 
ing the  idol  ornamented  with  costly  jewels.  This  small  portable  chapel 
is  frequently  placed  upon  a  prodigious  car  resting  upon  four  wheels,  richly 
ornamented,  furnished  with  a  gaudy  canppy  and  numerous  flags,  and  drawn 
by  a  great  multitude  of  persons.  Around  the  idol  and  its  car  the  dewadashis 
perform  their  sacred  dance.  Youths,  overburdened  with  finery,  go  behind 
the  car ;  and  officers  of  government  and  the  authorities  generally,  together 
with  the  rich  and  men  of  rank,  bring  up  the  close  of  the  procession. 
From  time  to  time  it  stops  near  small  chapels  erected  for  the  purpose,  in 
which  the  idol,  being  taken  from  the  car,  is  placed  for  a  little  while.  For 
the  particular  edification  of  the  worshippers,  a  number  of  small  puppets, 
suspended  on  silk  strings,  descend  from  the  upper  part  of  the  chapel, 
paying,  as  it  were,  their  respects  to  the  divinity,  and  dancing  and  jumping 
around  its  image.  During  this  solemn  procession,  the  pious  phrensy  of  the 
people  often  goes  to  such  lengths,  that  some  persons,  either  in  order  to 
wipe  away  their  sins,  or  the  more  certainly  to  obtain  future  salvation  by 
means  of  their  self-immolation,  place  themselves  in  the  track  of  the 
immense  car  to  be  crushed  by  its  wheels.  The  plaintive  cries  of  the 
dying,  if  indeed  they  utter  anything  of  the  sort,  are  smothered  by  the 
crashing  music  and  the  noise  of  the  passing  multitude  of  people. 

Many  different  kinds  of  oblations,  and  various  accompanying  ceremonies, 
occur  among  the  Hindoos.  They  are  partly  such  as  are  daily  offered  to 
the  gods,  in  order  to  obtain  firom  them  protection  and  favor;  partly  of 
a  solemn,  mysterious  nature,  which  take  place  only  at  certain  times. 
The  offerings  consist  of  all  sorts  of  provisions,  flowers,  spices,  and  money. 
All  are  acceptable  to  the  Brahmins,  as  they  form  a  part  of  their  subsistence. 
Blood,  as  a  rule,  is  not  shed  at  the  oblations ;  in  certain  cases,  however, 
living  animals  are  the  victims,  and  it  is  even  said  that  human  beings  have 

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2ia  fflSTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

sometimes  been  sacrificed.  Etoh  at  the  present  time,  something  simHar 
to  this  is  shown  at  the  oflbring  tukam,  when  not  only  a  number  of  cocks  < 
are  sacrificed  to  Parvati  (Bahvani),  btit  a  penitent  has  the  skin  of  his  bact 
perforated  with  one  or  two  iron  hooks  attached  to  a  kind  of  batanoe 
gallows,  on  which  he  is  elerated  in  the  air  in  this  inconvenient  toad 
painful  situation,  and  then  turned  about  amidst  exultations  to  pray  to 
the  goddess  (pi.  21,  fig.  1).  According  to  the  information  given  by  Son- 
nerat,  this  olSering  appertains  to  Mariatak,  the  goddess  of  the  small-pox. 
It  is  done  at  the  celebration  of  the  festival  Quedil  (in  the  month  ChiUere, 
i.  e.  April),  when  persons  who  believe  themselves  pre-eminently  beholden 
to  the  goddes«,  or  wish  to  obtain  peculiar  benefits  fVom  her,  cause  them« 
selves  to  be  suspended  on  a  long  lever,  by  a  double  hook  which  goes 
through  the  fleshy  part  of  the  back.  With  a  lemon  in  one  hand,  and 
a  sword  or  shield  in  the  other,  a  fanatic  of  this  sort  is  obliged  with  a  cheer- 
ful countenance  to  play  the  part  of  a  combatant.  In  this  situation,  he  is 
turned  by  another  several  times  up,  down,  and  around  the  pole.  The 
sufferer,  however,  not  only  loses  the  entire  advantage  of  this  cruel  ju^ling, 
but  even  forfeits  the  honor  of  his  caste,  if  by  complaints  and  groans  he 
shows  any  dissatisfaction.  As  the  goddess  Mariatale  belongs  to  an  inferior 
order,  this  festival  is  celebrated  only  by  the  lowest  ranks  of  pec^le,  chiefly 
by  the  Pariahs. 

PL  18,  fig.  1,  gives  us  a  representation  of  an  East  India  expedition  of 
soldiers,  presenting  the  march  of  the  Rajah  of  Cutch  (English  East  Indian 
possessions)  at  the  head  of  his  vassals  ;  and  fig.  2  displays  a  national  spec- 
tacle in  the  English  East  Indian  possession  Cattiawar,  viz.  a  caravan  with 
its  escort  making  a  pilgrimage  to  a  temple. 


The  Further  Indurns. 

The  population  of  Further  India  consists,  in  the  south,  o[  Malays ;  in  the 
north-west  of  Caucasians ;  the  renmining  and  largest  portion  being  Mongols. 
The  greater  part  of  these  Mongols  are  Buddhists,  and  except  the  mono» 
syllabic  language,  have  nothing  in  coaamcHi  with  the  Chinese.  The  Malays 
are  followers  of  Islam^  Gold  and  silversmiths'  work  and  ship-building 
are  the  principal  industrial  arts  of  the  inhabitants ;  but  the  Cochin-Chinese^ 
the  neighbors  of  China,  have^  by  the  assistance  of  Europeans,  made  progress 
in  ship-building  and  the  art  of  war ;  hsace  they  pay  the  greatest  attention 
to  commerce,  being  second  only  to  the  Birmans,  Europeans,  and  Chinese^ 
who  carry  it  on  with  greater  energy.     Tbe'govemment  is  despotic. 


The^  Usbek»: 

The  Usheki  (pi.  lb,  fig.  11)  »are  a  nomadic  mAwwaf  horsemen  iritabiting^ 
Btioharia  (Bokhara),  or  Usbekistan,  in  th^soath  oftBaeharia^  but  wlw  have^ 
ako  spread  over  other  parts  of  the  county.    'Ptwy  formeriy  rettded » 'm  tHr r 
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ETHNOLOGY  OP  THE  PBB8EST  DAY.  211 

heart  of  Asia,  south  of  the  Celestial  Mountains,  but  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
fifteenth  century  penetrated  into  Buoharia.  They  spring  from  the  Turkt ; 
are  strong,  handsome,  and  tall ;  their  faoes  resemble  the  Mongolian  only  in 
complexion.     Their  eyes  are  large  and  piercing. 

The'Usbeks  are  hospitable,  but  at  the  same  time  very  niggardly,  and 
hence  live  in  an  extremely  frugal  manner  at  home,  but  are  insatiable  where 
indulgence  costs  them  nothing.  In  general,  they  possess  a  martial  disposi- 
tion, but  are  good  only  for  short  expeditions.  Their  manner  of  fighting 
wants  spirit  and  courage ;  the  first  attack  decides  the  battle ;  if  this  fails, 
the  leader  immediately  takes  to  flight.  If  victorious,  on  the  contrary,  they 
pursue  the  enemy  relentlessly,  cut  down  in  the  most  unmerciful  manner 
those  offering  resistance,  and  carry  away  the  defenceless  as  slaves.  Sabre, 
bow  and  arrows,  lance  and  knife,  are  their  principal  weapons.  Their  dress 
i$  always  wadded,  and  frequently  very  expensive. 


The  Chinese. 

The  Chinese  are  of  medium  stature,  and  their  limbs,  more  especially  at 
the  extremities,  small.  The  color  of  the  skin  is  brownish  yellow ;  the 
inhabitants  of  the  northern  provinces  have  a  lighter  complexion.  Manda- 
rins, the  rich,  and  ladies  who  are  shut  up  in  their  harems,  are  also  lighter 
colored  than  the  lower  classes,  for  example,  the  coolies,  or  porters,  who  are 
always  exposed  to  the  air.  The  face  is  broad  and  flat,  wi^h  prominent 
cheek  bones ;  the  nostrils  are  wide ;  the  eyes  stand  far  apart,  and  are 
obliquely  set.  The  hair  is  deep  black  and  the  beard  thin.  The  fair  sex  is 
distinguished  for  extremely  short  feet,  which  are,  however,  very  broad,  and 
almost  resemble  the  feet  of  horses,  receiving  their  form,  not  from  nature, 
but  by  means  of  art,  since  they  are  confined  by  hard  shoes  worn  from 
childhood,  causing  the  ankles  to  swell  up,  and  making  it  very  troublesome 
for  them  to  walk. 

The  Chinese  wear  a  full  garment,  shaped  like  our  wide  dressing-gown, 
covering  the  whole  of  the  body,  fastened  with  buttons,  and  having  wide 
sleeves  tapering  down  towards  the  hand.  This  outer  garment  is  of  cotton 
or  silk,  and,  in  summer,  without  lining;  in  winter,  it  is  lined  with  cotton 
or  fur.  In  the  former  season,  according  as  the  weather  is  more  or  less  cool, 
several  such  garments  are  worn,  one  over  the  other.  Blue  is  the  prevailing, 
or  rather  prescribed  color  for  male  dress;  next  in  favor  are  violet  arul 
black.  High  oflicers  of  state  are  dressed,  on  days  of  ceremony,  in  satin  with 
a  red  ground  ;  none  but  the  Emperor  and  princes  of  the  blood  are  allowed 
to  wear  yellow.  The  fair  sex  dress  principally  in  pink ;  also  in  grey  and 
red  A  girdle  around  the  waist  serves  at  times  for  carrying  weapons, 
the  tobacco  pouchy  knife  and  chopsticks,  and,  in  summer,  fans,  even  with 
men.  A  wide  jerkin  is  the  only  garment  of  the  countryman.  Below  the 
tunic,  long  cotton,  linen,  or  silk  under  garments  are  worn  ;  and  under  the 
latter,  wide  trowsers  of  nankeen  or  silk,  covering  the  whole  of  the  legs. 
The  boots  are  made  of  silk  and  nankeen ;  for  people  of  rank,  sometimes 

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212  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

of  velvet.  The  shoes,  which  more  resemble  slippers,  are  likewise  of 
nankeen,  <fec. ;  the  soles  of  both  consist  merely  of  thick  pasteboard.  The 
caps  of  the  rich  are  round,  short,  conical,  of  cherry-colored  satin  with  red 
tassels,  and  frequently  trimmed  with  costly  furs.  A  button  manufactured 
out  of  a  precious  stone  adorns  the  cap  of  officers  of  state,  the  color  and 
value  of  which  differ  according  to  the  rank  of  the  functionary.  The 
Chinese  of  ordinary  rank  goes  either  without  a  covering  for  his  head, 
or  wears  a  short,  conically  shaped,  wide  brimmed  hat,  finely  plaited,  of 
bamboo  cane  ;  thiis  is  also  worn  in  summer  by  people  of  rank.  Men  shave 
their  heads,  leaving  a  tress  on  the  crown.  Women  wear  the  whole  of  their 
hair,  secured  with  two  large  pins,  and  decorate  it  with  other  gold  orna- 
ments besides.  It  is  combed  straight  up  from  the  forehead,  and  fastened  in 
a  knot  behind.  The  eyebrows  are  colored  black ;  upon  the  under  lip  and 
chin  is  painted  a  round  red  spot,  whilst  the  face^is  generally  rouged  and 
whitened  very  perceptibly. 

PL  22,  ßg,  1,  represents  the  Emperor  of  China  in  the  imperial  robes; 
fig.  2,  Empress ;  fig.  8,  Chinese  Mandarins ;  fig.  4,  Chinese  ladies  of  the 
court ;  fig.  5,  Bonzes  (priests)  ;  fig.  6,  Chinese  of  the  inferior  classes  ;  fig.  7, 
Corean  of  the  lower  ranks.  The  inhabitants  of  Corea  (Coreans)  wear 
short,  wide,  brown  trowsers,  long  stockings,  a  short  nankeen  coat,  and  a 
black  pointed  hat. 

The  poor  Chinese  live  principally  on  boiled  rice  or  millet,  with  onions 
and  garlic,  made  greasy  with  rancid  oil ;  pure  oil  does  not  suit  the  taste 
of  the  Chinese.  These  dishes  are  cooked  and  sold  in  the  streets  {pi.  23, 
fig.  8,  Rice  dealer).  Tea  is  the  universal  drink.  Persons  of  distinction 
enjoy  more  expensive  and  rarer  viands,  which  are  set  on  the  table  ready 
carved.  Instead  of  forks,  they  make  use  of  two  pointed  sticks  (chopsticks), 
about  twelve  inches  long,  which  are  held  in  one  hand  with  the  thumb  and 
three  of  the  fingers.  The  Chinese  drink  wine  unmixed,  not  out  of  glasses, 
however,  but  out  of  cups.  Ceremonies  are  not  wanting  at  banquets,  but 
the  cheerfulness  and  conviviality  of  Europeans  under  similar  circumstances 
are  not  witnessed.  More  than  from  two  to  four  never  sit  at  one  table. 
The  tables  are  arranged  in  two  rows,  in  such  a  manner  that  a  space 
remains  in  the  middle  for  theatrical  performers. 

Opium  smoking  is  very  common,  although  strictly  prohibited.  Those 
enjoying  this  luxury  make  use  of  peculiar  small  pipes,  with  exceedingly 
diminutive  bowls;  and,  besides  opium,  the  smoker  keeps  about  him  some 
fine  tobacco,  which  is  rolled  up  in  balls,  in  order  to  be  thrust  quickly  into 
the  pipe,  in  case  of  the  intrusion  of  strangers. 

The  dwellings  are  plain,  with  the  fronts  generally  turned  towards  the  south. 
Even  country  people  usually  have  houses  built  of  brick,  but  mostly  only  of 
one  story.  The  houses  of  men  of  rank  have  a  second  story  for  the  cham- 
bers of  women.  The  roofs  are  pavilion-like,  jutting  out  over  the  house,  and 
resting  on  pillars  that  sometimes  form  a  colonnade.  The  tiles  are  often 
fancy-colored  and  glazed,  or  overlaid  with  varnish.  The  language  of  the 
Chinese  does  not  sound  agreeably ;  that  of  the  common  people  is  divided 
into  several  dialects.  The  learned  or  written  language,  at  the  same  time 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  218 

that  of  the  higher  classes,  is  denominated  Kuan-hua,  or  Mandarin  dialect. 
In  the  written  language  each  syllable  has  a  mark  for  itself  and  syllables 
are  combined  into  words  containing  from  two  to  three  syllables.  There 
are  said  to  be  not  much  over  three  hundred  of  such  radical  words,  every 
one  of  which,  however,  has  more  than  fifty  meanings.  The  language 
spoken  by  the  people  generally  has  only  a  limited  number  of  monosyllabic 
words,  many  oiF  which  can  be  distinguished  only  by  the  enunciation.  The 
Chinese  print  and  read,  not  from  the  left  to  the  right  side,  or  the  reverse, 
but  from  the  top  downwards.     Letters  are  always  printed,  never  written. 

From  their  earliest  childhood,  reverence  and  love  towards  parents  are 
instilled  into  the  minds  of  the  Chinese.  An  offence  against  parents  is 
punished  in  the  severest  manner,  even  with  death.  The  Chinese  are 
industrious,  patient,  enterprising,  and  skilful  in  imitating.  Upon  the  whole» 
they  are  courteous ;  but  as  tradespeople,  sly  and  crafty.  The  greater 
portion  of  the  Chinese  pursue  agriculture ;  the  implements  of  husbandry, 
however,  are  still  very  imperfect.  Besides  farming,  they  are  engaged  in 
fishing  and  hunting,  rearing  silkworms,  trade,  and  commerce;  less  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  arts  and  sciences.  With  respect  to  improvements  in  the 
latter,  this  people  are  now  as  far  behind  as  they  were  formerly  in  advance. 
Several  supposed  modern  inventions,  those  of  gunpowder  and  porcelain  for 
example,  were  known  to  the  Chinese  long  before  these  articles  were  heard 
of  in  Europe  ;  many,  on  the  contrary,  now  long  familiar  to  us,  remain 
unknown  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  Celestial  Empire,  who  are  also  very  defi- 
cient in  the  knowledge  of  the  heavens  and  the  computation  of  time,  from 
causes  which  will  be  made  evident  in  the  course  of  this  sketch.  The 
principal  religion  of  the  Chinese  is  that  of  Kon-fu-tse  (Confucius),  who  is 
said  to  have  1500  temples  in  China. 

The  Emperor  of  China  is  looked  upon  as  the  father  of  his  people,  and 
hence  bears  the  title  "  Great  Father."  According  to  the  belief  of  the 
Chinese,  he  is  not  of  terrestrial  origin,  but  a  son  of  heaven,  sovereign  of 
the  celestial  empire,  only  ruler  of  the  world.  As  he  is  father  of  the  empire, 
so  the  governors  are  fathers  of  the  provinces.  The  Emperor  appears  in 
public  but  seldom.  He  is  assisted  in  his  government  of  the  country  by  a 
high  council  chosen  from  Mandchoo  and  Chinese,  who  guide  the  six 
ministers  (of  appointments,  finances,  ceremonies,  war,  justice,  and  public 
works),  under  the  ministers  rank  the  several  departments.  In  the  pro- 
vinces the  highest  power  is  in  the  hands  of  the  vice-king.  The  Emperor, 
owing  to  his  entire  absolute  will,  enjoys  such  a  slavish  reverence,  that  the 
people  are  obliged  to  kneel  down  and  touch  the  earth  with  the  head  nine 
times  even  before  the  mandates  and  documents  issued  by  him.  The  pride 
arising  from  this  reverence  is  manifested  in  a  sti^nge  manner  in  the 
Emperor's  dispatches  to  the  European  powers,  whom  he  appears  to  deem 
entirely  dependent  on  him,  because  they  send  embassies  to  China.  The 
power  of  the  Emperor  is  entirely  unlimited,  and  the  idea  of  paternity 
makes  every  opposition  still  more  culpable.  It  is  true  that  historiographers 
are  placed  over  him,  censors  as  it  were  of  his  actions,  who  record  what  he 
does,  says,  and  everything  that  happens  to  him,  and  whose  business  it  is  to 

lOONOOBAPHIC   KNCTOLOPiKDIA. — ^VOL.   III.  25  885 


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214  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

warn  him  in  case  his  inclinations  lead  him  to  do  anything  contrary  to  law ; 
but  they  are  often  compelled  to  pay  with  their  lives  for  their  love  of  truth. 
The  people  are  oppressed  in  the  harshest  manner,  and  are  not  suffered  to 
become  enlightened,  a  prohibition  the  more  easily  enforced  as  the  country 
is  kept  closed  against  foreigners,  intercourse  with  whom  is  thus  rendered 
very  difficult.  It  is  possible  that  a  change  is  at  hand  in  China,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  greater  facilities  of  commerce  obtained  by  the  English 
through  their  fortunate  victories ;  for  many  of  the  weaknesses  of  the 
empire  are  now  laid  bare,  new  avenues  to  the  people  obtained  by  force  or 
purchase,  and  thus  the  contact  of  foreign  nations  with  the  Chinese  is 
rendered  possible.  Chinese  civilization,  which  has  been  stationary  for 
thousands  of  years,  will  very  quickly  feel  foreign  influence^  and  will  not 
be  able  much  longer  to  resist  the  English. 

History  does  not  show  with  precision  how  mental  cultivation  amongst 
the  Chinese  stopped  suddenly  in  its  glorious  viae.  An  ancient  account 
says  :  "  In  a  large  mountain  range  in  the  interior  of  Asia  there  lived  once 
upon  a  time  a  model  people  very  rich  in  experience  and  knowledge. 
When  this  nation  could  acquire  no  more  new  learning  between  their  own 
mountains,  they  all  left  the  country,  aod  wandered  forth  towards  the  north 
and  south,  towards  the  east  and  wefst.  The  oldest  and  wisest,  who  stood 
together  by  a  natural  predilection,  did  not  intend  to  wander  far,  and  found 
rest  in  China.  The  aborigines  approached  in  troops  in  order  to  acquire 
knowledge  from  them ;  the  wise  men  instructed  all  comers,  and  dispensed 
sciences  and  arts  with  full  hands  until  they  knew  nothing  more  to  teach. 
The  natives  now  departed,  and  for  the  patriarchs  nothing  remained  but  to 
lie  down  and  die.  But  as  there  were  no  descendants  of  these  wise  men,  no 
one  was  capable  of  making  advances  in  the  cultivation  of  the  sciences  and 
arts,  and  thus  nothing  new  was  ever  added  to  the  stock  of  knowledge 
brought  by  the  patriarchs." 

The  Chinese  give  another  reason  for  their  stationary  condition.  Accord- 
ing to  their  chroniclers,  China  was  first,  and  for  a  period  of  an  unmea- 
surable  number  of  years,  ruled  by  gods,  called  Trin-Hoan-Shi,  It  is 
conceivable  that  these  god-regents  were  able  to  instruct  their  subjects  in 
many  different  arts,  both  useful  and  acceptable.  But  as  feelings  of  tedium 
and  discontent  now  frequently  arise  in  Europe  when  a  government  has 
hardly  seen  fifty  years,  it  cannot  be  made  a  matter  of  blame  to  the  Chinese 
that  a  dynasty  which  had  enjoyed  the  rule  for  several  millions  of  years 
finally  became  obnoxious  to  the  people.  The  nation  came  to  a  quick  reso- 
lution and  deposed  the  eternal  sovereigns,  who  out  of  revenge  took  with 
them  all  finished  and  unfinished  projects  of  reform,  so  that  the  Chinese 
were  compelled  to  renvain  exactly  where  they  had  been  standing. 

History,  which  rejects  such  traditions,  records  no  progress  among  the 
Chinese  during  many  centuries.  They  have  been  found  to  be  familiar 
with  many  things  the  proper  use  of  which  they  were  obliged  to  learn  from 
the  Europeans.  Flavio  Giqja  of  Amalfi  invented  his  compass  about  four 
thousand  years  liter  than  the  Chinese.  As  early  as  2600  years  before  the 
Christian  era,  the  *'  Yellow  Emperor"  possessed  a  carriage»  on  the  top  of 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  215 

which  was  a  figure  which  always  pointed  towards  the  south,  whatever 
might  be  the  direction  of  the  vehicle.  Nevertheless  the  Chinese  crept 
along  the  coasts  in  their  clumsy  junks,  until  the  Europeans  at  last  showed 
them  the  mode  of  finding  their  way  on  the  open  sea  by  the  help  of  the 
magnetic  needle.  The  Chinese  invented  gunpowder  in  the  age  of  the 
birth  of  Christ,  but  cannons  and  guns  would  have  been  unknown  to  them 
without  the  Europeans.  Printing  was  practised  by  them  five  hundred 
years  earlier  than  by  the  Europeans,  but  they  print  even  at  the  present 
time,  like  the  first  European  wood  cutters,  by  means  of  immovable  tablets, 
on  which  the  characters  are  cut.  Their  physicians  base  their  entire  art 
upon  the  miraculous  harmony  of  the  number  five  ;  in  the  five  points  where 
they  feel  the  pulse,  the  five  intestines,  the  five  planets,  and  the  five 
elements.  Their  astronomers  know  with  certainty  that  the  stars  rise  and 
set  only  in  order  to  announce  the  elevation  and  fall  of  dynasties,  and  at 
similar  levels  stand  the  remaining  sciences. 

These  are  only  sin^e  features  of  Chinese  civilization,  to  which,  however, 
might  be  added  others  without  number.  Does  this  blighted  blossom  spring 
from  a  healthy  stock  ?  Can  that  be  a  vigorous,  moral  nation,  which  for 
centuries  has  produced  no  man  of  sufiUcient  powers  to  enlarge  the  confines 
of  science?  Bceotia,  after  a  long  rest,  produced  a  Pindar:  China  has 
neglected  to  exercise  her  powers  for  too  great  a  length  of  time  to  have 
much  vitality ;  her  existence  is  only  the  semblance  of  life. 

After  this  general  description  of  the  Chinese  nation,  we  will  now 
mention  more  particularly  a  few  customs  and  usages. 

No  nation  attaches  such  importance  to  ceremonies  and  the  duties  of 
politeness  as  the  Chinese.  Among  men  the  usual  mode  of  saluting  each 
other  is  as  follows :  they  fold  the  hands  upon  the  breast,  move  them  in  a 
peculiar  manner,  then  incline  the  head  somewhat,  but  not  much,  and  at 
the  same  time  say  zin-zin,  a  courteous  exclamation  without  settled  meaning. 
If  an  individual  meets  a  person  entitled  to  a  greater  degree  of  respect,  he 
olaps  his  hands,  raises  them,  then  lowers  them  almost  to  the  ground,  and  at 
the  same  time  bends  the  head  very  low.  When  two  acquaintances  see 
each  other  again  for  the  first  time  after  a  long  separation,  both  fall  twice 
or  three  times  upon  their  knees,  and  bow  to  the  ground.  If  two  quang  or 
mmndarins  o(  the  same  rank  meet  in  the  street,  they  greet  each  other 
without  rising  or  descending  from  their  sedan  chairs,  by  clapping  the  hands 
and  then  lowering  and  raising  them  to  the  head ;  which  process  is  repeated 
until  they  can  see  each  other  no  longer.  If,  however,  one  of  them  ranks 
higher  than  the  other,  the  latter  is  obliged  to  stop  with  his  sedan,  or  if  on 
horseback,  to  dismount,  and  make  a  low  bow.  On  this  account,  officers 
of  an  inferior  rank  endeavor  to  avoid  meeting  their  superiors.  A  main 
point  of  Chinese  politeness  consists  in  the  payment  of  visits  to  each  other. 
{PL  25, ßg.  2,  mandarin  paying  visits.)  In  visiting,  it  is  above  all  requisite 
to  deliver  to  the  doorkeeper  a  portentous  visiting  card  called  "  Tye-ze." 
This  article  consists  of  a  sheet  of  red  paper  with  gilt  flowers,  and  folds  up 
Uke  a  screen.  Upoa  it»  the  name  of  the  visitor  is  printed,  together  with 
•Moe  reqpectfiil  expressions,  which  difier  according  to  the  rank  or  standing 

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216  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

of  the  person  to  whom  the  visit  is  paid.  For  mourning,  white  paper  is 
taken.  Sometimes  a  mandarin  is  satisfied  with  receiving  the  " tye-ze**  and 
then  tells  the  stranger  that  he  need  not  trouble  himself  about  descending 
from  his  sedan.  This,  however,  occurs  only  when  mere  visits  of  politeness 
are  paid.  The  reverence  manifested  towards  the  Chinese  Emperor  con- 
forms to  his  absolute  power,  and  is  almost  equivalent  to  worship.  No  one, 
not  even  his  eldest  brother,  is  allowed  to  speak  to  him  otherwise  than 
kneeling.  The  grandees  constituting  his  daily  society  are  alone  permitted 
to  stand  in  his  presence,  and  address  him,  merely  bowing  one  knee. 
Similar  testimonies  of  respect  are  due  even  to  the  things  used  by  the 
Emperor,  for  instance  the  throne,  the  robes,  &c.  A  peculiar  right  of  the 
Emperor  is  the  power  enjoyed  by  him  of  selecting,  not  the  firstborn  of  bis 
sons  or  kinsmen,  as  his  successor,  but  the  one  whom  he  considers  best 
qualified ;  and  should  he  deem  none  of  his  own  relations  capable,  he  is 
allowed  to  appoint  the  most  deserving  individual  of  his  subjects  heir  to  the 
throne.  Hence  the  greatest  attention  is  bestowed  upon  the  nurture  of  the 
princes.  It  is  the  right  of  the  Emperor,  immediately  or  mediately,  to 
iq>point  all  public  officers,  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest,  and  again  to 
remove  the  same ;  to  invest  with  places  and  titles  of  honor,  to  ennoble  even 
the  dead,  and  in  his  capacity  of  high-priest,  to  register  the  latter  among  the 
number  of  the  saints  considered  worthy  of  adoration  as  divinities,  and  to 
whom  temples  are  erected.  No  order  of  any  of  the  authorities  is  valid 
before  it  is  approved  by  the  Emperor;  his  ordinances  and  commands, 
however,  are  unalterable  and  irrevocable.  Among  the  principal  tokens  of 
imperial  p<iwer  belong  the  seals,  which  are  annexed  to  all  public  documents 
and  enactments  of  the  offices  of  state.  These  seals  are  about  eight  inches 
square,  and  are  cut  in  very  fine  jasper.  This  stone  is  highly  esteemed  by 
the  Chinese,  and  no  one  besides  the  Emperor  and  his  officers  is  allowed  to 
make  use  of  it  as  a  signet.  No  person  can  obtain  a  place  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  Chinese  Empire  who  has  not  prepared  and  qualified  himself 
for  the  situation  by  literary  studies.  In  case  the  examination  which  is 
held,  shows  the  requisite  capacity,  and  the  applicant  enters  into  the  service 
of  the  state,  he  receives  the  title  of  qvang  (i.  e,  overseer),  translated  by  the 
Portuguese  into  mandarin  (from  mandar,  a  commander).  The  quang  or 
mandarins  are  divided  into  nine  classes  of  nicely  graduated  rank.  Besides 
the  before  mentioned  buttons  upon  the  caps,  the  different  classes  wear 
upon  the  breast  as  badges  of  distinction  a  piece  of  stuff  called  ptui-sy, 
expensively  worked,  and  containing  a  motto  in  the  midst  having  a  refer- 
ence to  the  office.  Some  mandarins  in  the  civil  service  have  in  addition 
a  dragon  with  four  claws,  others  an  eagle,  a  sun,  &c.  In  like  manner 
mandarins  of  the  army  wear  representations  of  leopards,  tigers,  lions,  dec. 
Upon  the  pud-sy  of  the  Emperor  are  found  his  arms,  a  dragon  with  five 
claws  on  each  foot,  in  a  blue  field. 

The  laws  have  banished  revelry  and  pomp  from  the  private  life  of  the 

Chinese,  but  upon  public  occasions  they  are  not  only  permitted  but  even 

enjoined.    Ceremonies  and  testimonies  of  respect,  which  must  be  paid  to 

the  mandarins  by  the  people  in  the  streets,  vary  according  to  their  rank. 

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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  217 

No  functionary  goes  on  duty  into  the  street  without  being  accompanied  by 
all  his  subordinate  officers ;  and  if  one  of  the  populace  forgets  to  render 
proper  respect  to  the  mandarin,  or  is  not  sufficiently  quick  in  turning  aside, 
he  is  driven  out  of  the  road  by  blows  of  bamboo-canes.  (PL  25,  fig.  2.) 
When  a  zong-tu  or  vice-king  goes  abroad  his  retinue  consists  of  at  least 
one  hundred  men,  civil  officers,  soldiers,  police-officers,  musicians,  house 
servants,  &c.,  all  clothed  in  the  most  expensive  manner.  Military  man- 
darins, upon  public  occasions  and  when  making  journeys,  are  always  on 
horseback,  and  display  costly  riding  equipage,  the  bridle,  bit,  and  stirrups 
being  manufactured  of  gold  and  silver.  Nothing,  however,  bears  any 
resemblance  in  magnificence  and  splendor  to  the  public  audiences  given  by 
the  Emperor,  or  his  receptions  of  ambassadors  from  nations  and  princes 
subjected  or  tributary  to  him  (pL  22,  fig,  1). 

The  first  section  of  the  Chinese  code  of  laws,  which  is  written  for  the 
good  of  the  subjects  in  the  plainest  characters  the  language  affi)rds,  bears 
the  title  "  General  Laws,*'  and  commences  with  a  summary  enumeration 
of  the  customary  punishments.  The  mildest  is  moderate  correction  with  a 
thin  bamboo,  which  is  scarcely  considered  a  punishment  by  the  Chinese, 
but  merely  a  mild,  at  any  rate  not  a  degrading,  admonition.  More  dis- 
graceful is  the  carrying  of  the  tsha,  that  Ls  to  say,  a  great  wooden  tablet, 
upon  which  the  offence  of  the  condemned  is  written  in  lai^e.  characters, 
and  which  he  is  obliged  to  carry  about  with  him  for  weeks  and  months, 
according  to  the  circumstances  of  the  case.  The  highest  ministers,  and 
grown  sons  of  the  Emperors,  are  not  exempt  from  the  punishment  of  blows 
with  bamboos ;  the  Emperor  himself  being  the  only  individual  not  liable  to 
correction.  Death  is  the  severest  punishment;  then  follows  perpetual 
banishment  to  a  distance  of  from  2000  to  4000  miles  from  the  capital,  with 
one  hundred  blows  with  rods  in  addition.  In  many  cases,  punishment 
consists  also  of  blows  with  bamboos  upon  the  soles  of  the  feet.  (Bastinado, 
pi.  24,  fig.  3.) 

All  the  military  forces  of  the  Chinese  Empire  are  under  the  ministry  of 
war  {Ping'pu),  the  only  final  authority,  as  soon  as  the  Emperor  has  given 
his  orders  in  regard  to  the  execution  of  important  expeditions.  The 
command  of  the  army  is  committed  to  the  Tong-tshing-fu,  or  General 
Field  Marshalate,  the  chief  president  of  which  is  one  of  the  most  respected 
grandees  of  the  Empire,  and  under  whose  immediate  orders  is  the  entire 
army.  This  is  divided  into  five  great  bodies,  each  with  a  field-marshal 
and  two  aides-de-camp,  who  all  reside  in  the  capital  of  the  Empire.  The 
Mandchoo  troops  are  the  most  important,  numbering  678  companies  of  100 
men  each  ;  the  second  division,  211  companies,  comprehends  the  Mongols, 
who  came  into  the  country  with  the  Mandchoo  at  the  conquest  of  China  by 
the  latter.  The  third  division,  270  companies,  is  made  up  of  Utskeng- 
Tshocha,  who,  at  the  close  of  the  last  Chinese  dynasty  Ming,  went  over  to  the 
Mandchoo,  and  assisted  them  in  taking  possession  of  the  Chinese  throne. 
These  three  divisions  form  the  Mandchoo  army  proper,  which  consists  of 
about  116,000  men,  mostly  cavalry,  with  field  artillery  to  the  number  of 
400  pieces,  and  constitutes  the  nucleus  of  the  Chinese  military  force.     The 

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218  mSTOBY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

fourth  and  fifth  divisions  of  the  Chinese  army  consist  of  native  Chineie, 
called  Lu'ki,  that  is  to  say,  troops  of  the  green  color.  They  comprise  field 
troops,  and  city  and  country  militia ;  and,  except  in  important  wars, 
perform  almost  exclusively  police  service.  The  entire  military  force 
amounts,  by  a  moderate  estimate,  to  1,347,000  men.  Powerful  as  it 
sounds,  this  host  is  nevertheless  little  to  be  feared,  as  the  Chinese  are  poor 
soldiers,  and  even  the  Mandchoo  and  Mongol  troops  are  no  longer  what 
they  formerly  were.  The  weapons  are  bows  and  arrows,  swords,  and 
muskets.  Chinese  troops  are  in  uniform  only  when  in  service;  out  of 
service,  they  dress  as  citizens,  and  are  engaged  in  civil  occupations.  The 
uniform  of  Chinese  infantry  is  represented  in  pi.  22,  fig.  8.  It  very  much 
resembles  the  common  dress  of  citizens ;  the  spencer  (kurma)  differs,  and 
must  be  of  the  same  color  with  the  standard  to  which  the  soldier  belongs. 
The  uniform,  however,  of  the  so-called  Tiger  Guard  is  entirely  peculiar. 
It  consists  of  a  jacket,  long  trowsers,  and  a  yellow  cloth  cap  with  dark 
brown  stripes.  The  cap  has  two  ends  resembling  ears,  envelops  the 
entire  bead,  and  its  cape  reaches  down  to  the  shoulders.  A  gaudily- 
colored  shield  of  bamboo  wicker-work,  and  a  sabre,  are  their  arms.  The 
cavalry  are  mounted  upon  small  horses,  and  make  their  attack  in  a 
rash  and  impetuous  manner.  Their  saddles  are  very  soft,  and  as  high 
in  front  as  behind,  so  that  the  rider  cannot  easily  be  thrown  from  his 
seat. 

The  Chinese  manifest  great  industry  and  perseverance  at  their  work, 
and  in  the  rational  pursuit  of  agriculture  are  distinguished  in  a  manner 
altogether  peculiar.  Their  land  never  lies  fallow ;  and,  as  a  general  rule, 
the  same  acre  yields  three  crops  in  the  course  of  a  year ;  first  rice,  then 
vetches,  and  lastly,  wheat  or  other  grain,  or  sometimes  beans.  The  great- 
est care  is  bestowed  upon  the  manuring  of  the  fields.  The  Chinese  direct, 
in  particular,  great  attention  to  the  cultivation  of  rice ;  and  this  branch  of 
agriculture  is  pursued  not  only  in  the  plains,  but  a  certain  variety  of  this 
grain  is  grown  upon  the  slopes  of  the  mountains,  where  a  system  of  irrigation 
and  trenching  of  the  most  ingenious  character  is  employed.  Pleasure  and 
flower  gardens,  on  the  contrary,  are  seldom  found,  the  soil  being  too 
expensive  to  the  Chinese  to  be  made  use  of  for  the  gratification  of  luxurious 
tastes,  in  a  country  so  densely  populated.  The  Chinese  pay  also  but  little 
attention  to  the  raising  of  fruits  ;  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar-cane,  the 
mulberry,  and  the  tea  shrub,  on  the  other  hand,  is  the  more  zealously 
followed.  Great  quantities  of  kitchen  vegetables  are  likewise  grown.  The 
most  flourishing  tea  plantations  are  in  the  province  Fo-kieen,  and  the 
adjoining  section  of  the  province  Kiang-su.  Tea  shrubs  are  planted  in 
China,  in  part  as  inclosures  for  fields ;  partly,  and  chiefly,  in  particular 
grounds  and  gardens.  In  the  third  year  the  crop  begins,  and  a  single 
shrub  frequently  furnishes  from  three  to  four  pounds  of  tea  leaves.  Three 
crops  are  gathered  yearly,  and  each  time  the  leaves  are  picked  and  assorted 
according  to  the  difierent  kinds.  The  leaves  are  pinched  off  with  the  nail ; 
in  doing  which,  injury  to  the  branches  and  buds  is  solicitously  avoided.  In 
the  preparation  of  black  tea,  the  leaves  are  plucked  with  their  pedicles,  hhd 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  219 

exposed  to  the  sun  for  two  hours,  in  large  bamboo  baskets  placed  upon 
a  scaffold,  being  carefully  turned  from  time  to  time.  They  are  then  carried 
into  the  workhouse,  and  spread  out  upon  a  hurdle  for  half  an  hour,  in  order 
to  cool,  after  which  they  are  placed  in  baskets  on  a  scaffold.  Next  the 
leaves  are  worked  with  the  flat  of  the  hands  for  about  ten  minutes,  and 
then  taken  to  a  hurdle  again,  where  they  remain  for  about  half  an  hour. 
This  process  is  repeated  until  they  become  soft,  and  are  ready  to  be 
roasted  in  a  cast-iron  basin.  The  basin  stands  upon  a  round  brick  oven, 
where  it  is  brought  to  a  red  heat.  The  overseer  of  the  workshop  attends 
to  the  roasting :  at  his  left  hand  a  man  holds  a  basket  with  leaves  to 
be  roasted,  and  at  his  right  hand  stand  two  others  to  receive  the  roasted 
leaves  in  small  baskets.  The  roasted  leaves  are  now  spread  upon  a  table» 
around  which  men,  women,  and  children  stand  and  roll  them  together  m 
the  shape  of  a  ball.  In  order  to  free  them  from  their  moisture,  they  are 
finally  exposed  to  heat  in  a  basket,  upon  an  oven,  until  they  are  half  dried. 
They  are  then  again  placed  on  a  hurdle,  in  baskets,  in  order  to  be  com- 
pletely dried  in  the  air.  The  leaves  designed  for  green  tea  are  gathered 
without  their  pedicles,  and  immediately  thrown,  two  or  three  pounds  at 
a  time,  into  a  cauldron  healed  to  redness,  where  they  are  turned  about  in 
all  directions,  at  first  with  the  hands,  then  with  small  bamboo  sticks.  After 
about  three  minutes,  they  have  become  so  flexible  that  they  are  capable 
of  being  rolled  up.  They  are  now  taken  from  the  fire,  thrown  into  flat 
baskets,  and  swung  in  the  air,  in  order  to  cool.  The  leaves  are  then 
softened  by  kneading  with  the  hands,  and  formed  into  conical  ball». 
These  balls  are  exposed  to  the  sun  for  eight  or  ten  minutes,  or  are  warmed 
slowly  in  a  drying  room.  When  the  leaves,  by  means  of  repeated  knead- 
ing,  have  lost  the  greater  portion  of  their  moisture,  they  are  thrown  a 
second  time  into  the  caldron  heated  to  redness,  and  again  studiously  turned. 
After  this,  they  are  poured  into  a  basket,  and  then  rammed,  fifteen  or 
twenty  pounds  at  a  time,  into  a  thick  linen  bag,  four  feet  long  and  two 
broad,  in  which  they  are  tightly  pressed  together.  The  sack  is  then  tied 
up,  and  trodden  with  the  feet  until  it  becomes  as  hard  as  stone.  After  the 
lapse  of  a  day,  the  leaves  are  taken  out  of  the  bag,  put  into  baskets,  and 
placed  near  the  fire,  where  they  remain  until  they  are  sufficiently  curled, 
and  rolled  up  in  a  spiral  form.  They  are  now  packed  in  chests,  or  bamboo 
baskets,  and  allowed  to  stand  from  two  to  six  months.  The  leaves  are  then 
taken  out,  and  spread  in  large  baskets  upon  hurdles,  where  they  remain 
until  they  have  become  sufficienily  soft  to  be  rolled  up.  They  are  then 
again  thrown  into  a  hot  basin  (six  to  seven  pounds  at  a  time),  where  they 
are  rolled  together  with  both  hands  alternately,  after  which  they  are  passed 
through  three  sieves,  standing  one  above  another,  and  whose  holes  are 
of  different  widths,  in  order  that  the  leaves  may  be  sorted  according  to 
their  various  sizes.  For  further  sorting,  other  peculiar  contrivances  are 
employed.  After  this  sorting,  the  tea  is  thrown  once  more  into  a  heated 
basin,  and  again  rolled  and  sorted.  During  this  final  roasting,  half  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  a  powder  consisting  of  three  parts  of  sulphate  of  lime  and  one 
part  of  indigo,  is  added  to  everv  seven  pounds  of  tea,  rolling  the  whole  for 

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220  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

at  least  an  hour,  in  order  to  give  it  a  uniform  color.  {PL  2S,fig.  1,  The 
planting  and  preparation  of  tea.) 

The  Chinese  pay  the  greatest  attention  to  the  rearing  of  cattle,  the  main 
support  of  agriculture,  and  besides  the  common  domestic  animals  they 
possess  camels.  Hunting,  fowling,  and  fishing  are  frequently  followed  by 
them. 

Silkworm  rearing  is  a  very  ancient  occupation,  dating  as  far  back  as  the 
age  of  the  Emperor  Hoang-ti,  who,  according  to  the  earliest  Chinese 
authors,  ruled  when  the  country  had  just  been  rendered  habitable  and  man 
was  yet  dressed  in  skins ;  but  when,  owing  to  the  increase  in  population, 
skins  became  scarce,  the  use  of  silk  for  clothing  was  invented  by  a  consort 
of  the  Emperor.  This  report  from  a  time  rich  in  tradition  and  fable  con- 
tains  one  unquestionable  truth,  namely,  that  the  production  of  silk  had  its 
origin  in  China.  The  provinces  which  have  obtained  the  greatest  celebrity 
in  raising  silkworms,  and  in  the  silk  manufacture,  are  Tshe-kiang,  Kiang-su, 
and  Ugan-koei;  here  silk  stuffs  are  fabricated,  the  fineness,  softness,  and 
lustre  of  which  European  manufacturers  have  not  yet  attained,  and  which 
are  distinguished  also  for  their  great  variety.  {Fig,  2,  Sorting  of  silkworm 
cocoons  in  China.) 

Cotton  manufactures  are  quite  as  noted,  of  which  we  will  mention  only 
the  well  known  nankeen.  In  the  fabrication  of  porcelain,  called  in  China 
Ze-ki,  the  Chinese  long  since  arrived  at  a  perfection  not  attained  in  Europe 
until  within  the  last  few  years.  Latterly,  however,  the  Europeans  have 
excelled  the  workmen  of  China  in  this  branch  of  art.  The  Chinese,  more- 
over, have  made  extraordinary  progress  in  the  manufacture  of  lacquered 
and  varnished  work,  in  dyeing  and  embroidery,  in  the  fabrication  of  black 
color  (known  as  India  ink),  and  in  paper  making ;  but  especially  in  fine 
carving  in  wood  and  ivory.  In  many  of  these  branches  they  excel  the 
Europeans. 

With  respect  to  the  sciences,  we  only  mention  particularly  the  fact  that 
imperial  schools  of  medicine  formerly  existed ;  at  present,  however,  the 
most  celebrated  physicians  are  those  whose  ancestors  belonged  to  the  same 
profession,  and  whose  knowledge  has  been  transmitted  from  father  to  son. 
The  medicines,  which  are  prepared  by  the  physicians  themselves,  there 
being  no  apothecaries  in  China,  are  mostly  of  a  very  simple  nature ;  and 
affusion  with  cold  water,  as  well  as  cauterizing  with  red-hot  pins,  or  fire 
buttons  {moxcL),  are  remedies  greatly  esteemed.  Bleeding,  emetics,  clysters, 
and  purgatives,  are  not  in  use  among  them,  and  the  main  cure  is  a  strict 
diet.  There  are  plenty  of  travelling  quacks  (/>/.  25,  ßg,  3),  who  perform 
ail  sorts  of  experiments  before  spectators,  particularly  juggleries  with 
venomous  snakes. 

Among  the  holidays  kept  by  the  Chinese,  new  year  and  the  feast  of 
lanterns  are  the  most  important.  By  the  commencement  of  the  new  year, 
they  understand  the  space  of  time  included  between  the  end  of  the  twelfth 
and  about  the  twenty-first  day  of  the  first  month  in  the  following  year. 
During  this  period,  all  work,  even  the  post-office  business,  is  discontinued, 
and  all  transactions  of  the  administration  of  the  state  cease,  which  is  called 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  221 

the  locking  up  of  the  seals,  because  the  cofiers,  in  which  the  official  seals 
of  every  authority  are  kept,  are  then  closed  with  many  ceremonies.  This 
celebration  continues  for  a  month,  during  which  one  festival  follows  close 
upon  another.  The  last  days  of  the  year,  especially,  are  celebrated  with 
great  pomp,  and  congratulations  and  presents  are  offered. 

The  festival  of  lanterns  falls  in  the  middle  of  the  first  month,  com- 
mencing on  the  evening  of  the  thirteenth  day,  and  continuing  until  the 
seventeenth,  during  which  time  all  China  is  illuminated.  Fireworks,  in  the 
manufacture  of  which  the  Chinese  display  their  great  skill  in  the  pyro- 
technic art,  are  added  to  the  universal  illumination  of  the  streets  and 
interiors  of  buildings  by  means  of  gorgeous  lanterns. 

On  the  fifth  day  of  the  fifth  month,  a  great  festival  takes  place,  which  is 
celebrated  on  the  water,  and  consists  of  games,  banquets,  and  aquatic  com- 
bats in  dragon  boats. 

The  principal  diversions  are  plays,  puppet  shows,  and  sleight-of-hand 
performances.  There  are  no  stationary  theatres  in  China,  except  in 
Peking,  where  there  are  six  in  one  street,  and  in  a  few  other  great  cities ; 
even  the  court  being  satisfied  with  itinerant  companies.  {PL  24,  fig,  2, 
Chinese  theatre.)  The  pieces  are  commonly  taken  from  Chinese  history, 
and  the  dialogue  is  generally  maintained  in  a  kind  of  recitative.  No  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  regularity,  nor  to  unity  of  place  and  time.  Female  parts  are 
played  by  eunuchs.  Ghosts,  animals,  ghastly  scenes  of  bodily  punishment, 
&c  ,  are  usually  not  wanting  in  the  scenes.  Pantomimes  are  also  performed. 
The  conjurors  execute  very  surprising  tricks ;  and  the  feats  of  the  rope- 
dancers,  jugglers  {jig,  1),  and  caperers,  are  said  to  excel  those  of  the  most 
skilful  Europeans.  The  puppet  manager,  under  a  curtain  of  blue  and  white 
stuff,  which  reaches  to  the  ankles,  plays  a  kind  of  comedy  with  his  little 
figures.  A  small  box  upon  his  head  represents  the  theatre.  Other  puppet 
theatres  are  seen,  however,  the  player  standing  beside  the  box,  upon  which 
the  figures  are  placed  and  moved  by  means  of  strings,  the  orchestra  consist- 
ing of  a  single  performer,  blowing  a  bamboo  flute,  with  one  foot  beating 
a  kettle-drum,  and  with  the  other  striking  cymbals  {pi  25,  fig.  1).  The 
homes  also  {pL  22,  fig,  5),  a  species  of  mendicant  monks,  priests  of  jPo, 
are  frequently  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  sleight-of-hand  tricks,  in  order 
to  obtain  beggarly  alms.  They  go  from  door  to  door,  and  sing  a  kind 
of  monotonous  song,  accompanied  by  feeble  blows  upon  a  hollow  pyriform 
piece  of  wood. 

In  conclusion,  we  will  make  a  brief  statement  in  regard  to  the  Tibetans 
and  Coreans,  whom  we  have  named  among  the  people  of  China. 

The  Tibetans,  or  Thibetans,  are  the  inhabitants  of  the  high,  cold  table- 
land of  the  interior  of  Asia,  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Himmalaya,  and 
on  the  north  by  the  mountain  chain  of  Kuen-lin,  and  watered  by  the  Indus 
and  the  Yaru-zangbo-tshu.  They  call  themselves  Bod-gshi  and  Bod-ba, 
and  their  country  Bod,  Besides  the  region  mentioned  above,  the  Tibet- 
ans inhabit  the  southern  valleys  of  the  south-eastern  Himmalaya,  in  the 
province  Bhotan,  or  Bootan.  Under  the  name  of  Bootiyahs,  they  live 
also  in  the  Himmalaya  of  Nepaul,  and  in  the  British  part  of  the  same 

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222  HISTORY  AND  ETDNOLOGY. 

mountains  ;  and,  under  entirely  difierent  names,  in  the  western  and  south- 
em  provinces  of  China.  The  Tibetans  have  broad,  flat  faces,  flat  noses, 
and  eyes  with  narrow  apertures;  but  besides  these  Mongolian,  they 
display  also  Caucasian  features,  that  especially  remind  observers  of  the 
Semitic  physiognomy.  They  are  well  built  in  figure,  strong,  and  tolerably 
lai^e,  but  frequently  suffer  from  the  goitre,  in  consequence  of  the  moun- 
tainous character  of  their  country.  In  places  where  they  are  not  corrupted 
by  other  nations,  they  are  described  as  peaceable,  mild,  honest,  and  frank. 
The  land  is  not  productive,  and  the  population  therefore  very  small. 
Besides  agriculture,  the  rearing  of  cattle  forms  a  main  business  of  the 
Tibetans.  They  raise  horses  and  cattle,  but  pay  particular  attention  to 
sheep  and  goats ;  and  their  goats  are  of  the  well  known  Cashmere  breed, 
from  the  wool  of  which  the  expensive  Cashmere  shawls  are  woven.  The 
industry  of  the  Tibetans  is  confined  principally  to  the  weaving  of  wool  and 
silk,  and  the  manufacturing  of  articles  of  gold  and  silver,  carved  wood- 
work, sculpture,  and  turned  wares.  Their  turned  wooden  vessels  are,  in 
particular,  greatly  esteemed.  The  houses  of  the  Tibetans  are  built  in  a 
massive  manner,  of  stones  rough  from  the  quarry.  They  are  very  large, 
and  frequently  several  stories  high,  and  at  times  capable  of  affording  room 
to  some  hundreds  of  people.  The  dress  consists  of  a  coat,  which  in  sum- 
mer is  manufactured  of  woollen  stuff",  in  winter  of  sheepskin  or  fox  furs, 
or  also  of  thick  felted  wool.  On  the  head  they  wear  a  fur  cap,  ornamented 
with  teeth  of  wild  boars,  or  pieces  of  tortoise-shell ;  and  with  the  rich,  with 
pearls.  The  latter  sometimes  wear  silk  clothes  and  handsome  furs;  and 
females,  a  jerkin  with  short  sleeves  and  an  apron  of  tammy  or  silk,  and  cover 
the  neck  with  a  small  handkerchief.  Both  sexes  adorn  themselves  with 
rings,  armlets,  and  coral  necklaces,  and  wear  boots,  often  of  very  costly 
description  ;  but  although  thus  paying  much  attention  to  ornament,  they 
are  nevertheless  said  to  be  very  uncleanly,  and  to  wash  themselves  but 
seldom. 

Their  language  is  very  harsh,  but  rich  in  combinations  of  rough  con- 
sonants, and  is  spoken  in  a  number  of  dialects.     (PL  22,  ßg.  9,  a  Tibetan.) 

The  Coreans  inhabit  the  peninsula  of  Corea,  and  are  usually  called  in 
the  Chinese  Kao-li,  in  the  Japanese  language  Koo-rai,  They  spring  from 
a  Central- Asiatic  nation,  long  since  extinct,  the  Sianpis,  who  inhabited 
the  Ghirin  mountains  in  Mongolia,  north-west  of  Peking.  Their  eupho- 
nious language  is  at  present  interspersed  with  many  Chinese  and 
Japanese  words.  The  Coreans  are  taller  than  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  ; 
stronger,  more  sinewy,  and  vigorous ;  more  symmetrically  formed,  and  at 
the  same  time  robust  and  agile.  The  countenance  is  Mongolian,  but 
approaches  the  Caucasian.  The  Corean  is  serious,  tranquil,  frank  ;  his 
gait  exhibits  firmness,  his  deportment  more  self-dependence  and  enei^y 
than  is  the  case  with  the  Japanese  and  Chinese ;  but  in  refinement  of 
manners  he  is  inferior  to  both.  He  is  at  the  same  time  uncleanly,  and 
rather  intemperate  in  eating  and  drinking ;  also,  according  to  travellers, 
very  much  addicted  to  lying,  cheating,  and  stealing.  He  is*  described,  like- 
wise, as  superstitious  and  effeminate,  and  fond  of  music  and  dancing. 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  223 

The  dress  consi^  of  embroidered  and  colored  robes  and  short  sleeved 
jackets,  high  square  fiir  caps,  or  round  broad-brimmed  hats,  and  boots 
made  of  leather,  cotton,  or  silk.  Men  of  distinction  prefer  purple  silk,  and 
like  to  have  gold  and  silver  embroidery  on  their  clothes.  The  dress  of  the 
women  is  ornamented  with  borders  and  laces. 

The  King  of  Corea  pays  tribute  to  the  Chinese  as  well  as  the  Japanese 
government,  but  is  nevertheless  absolute  lord  in  his  own  country.  Farm- 
ing, the  raising  of  hemp,  cotton  and  tobacco,  silkworms  and  cattle,  are  the 
employments  of  the  people.  Rice  is  the  principal  food,  and  tobacco 
smoking  is  genera]  among  both  sexes  from  childhood.  The  houses  of  men 
of  rank  are  very  showy,  those  of  the  lower  classes  small ;  in  the  cities  they 
are  constructed  of  bricks,  in  the  country  of  framework,  the  manner  of 
baüding  being  very  similar  to  that  in  use  by  the  Chinese.  (Fig,  7,  a 
Corean.) 


The  Siamese. 

The  Siams,  or  Siamese,  have  large  faces,  with  broad  foreheads,  covered 
at  the  sides  by  the  hair ;  great,  broad,  prominent  cheekbones,  and  occiputs 
so  flat  that  from  the  crown  to  the  nape  they  form  almost  a  straight 
Une.  Their  limbs  are  large,  the  muscles  lax.  The  complexion  is  blackish- 
brown  ;  the  teeth  are  stained  black ;  the  nails,  especially  the  one  on  the 
forefinger,  are  worn  very  long ;  and  the  lips  are  very  red  in  consequence 
of  frequent  chewing  of  betel.  Their  dress  is  of  a  plain  character.  The 
upper  part  of  the  body  is  entirely  bare,  or  covered  with  a  cloth  merely.  A 
similar  one  is  wrapped  around  the  hips  and  thighs.  Only  persons  of  conse- 
quence wear  clothes,  usually  of  a  red  color.  Men  dye  their  feet  and  legs 
as  far  up  as  the  calves  of  a  blue  color.  The  head  is  usually  uncovered ; 
when  travelling,  a  hat  braided  of  rushes  and  palm  leaves  is  worn  for 
protection  against  the  sun.  The  king,  and  officers  of  distinction,  only, 
habitually  wear  pyramidal  caps  ornamented  with  gold  and  jewels.  Priests 
cover  their  bodies  carefully.  The  Siamese  are  neat  in  their  habits,  bathe 
frequently,  and  anoint  themselves  with  perfumed  waters  and  oils.  They 
are  distinguished  also  for  temperance  in  eating  and  drinking.  The  prin- 
cipal food  is  rice,  but  fruits,  eggs,  poultry,  and  fish  are  also  frequently 
taken ;  more  rarely  the  flesh  of  mammiferous  animals.  Believing  in  the 
doctrine  of  a  migration  of  souls,  i.  e.  that  the  souls  of  the  dead  enter  into 
the  innoxious  animals,  the  Siamese  kill  only  wild  and  dangerous  beasts. 
They  drink  water  and  buf&lo's  milk ;  men  of  rank  indulge  in  arrack  and 
wine.  Their  respect  for  the  dead,  as  well  as  their  love  for  their  children, 
is  great.  The  corpses  of  men  of  consequence  are  burnt ;  those  of  the  poor 
are  committed  to  the  water.  The  Siamese  not  unfrequently  knead  the 
ashes  of  the  dead  into  paste,  from  which  they  mould,  with  many  cere- 
monies, an  image  of  Buddha,  which  is  sometimes  gilded  and  taken  into  a 
temple,  or  preserved  by  the  survivors  as  a  domestic  idol. 

The  Siamese  are  expert  in  dissimulation  and  lying,  and  they  are  at 

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224  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

fawning  towards  their  superiors  as  they  are  harsh  and  haughty  in  behavior 
towards  their  inferiors.  Thefts  are  rare,  probably  on  account  of  the 
severity  of  the  laws.  The  Siamese  have  a  language  of  their  own,  which  is 
written  and  read  from  the  left  to  the  right.  The  Pali  tongue  is  the 
language  of  religion,  and  known  only  to  the  priests.  Buddha,  whom  they 
adore  together  with  many  other  divinities,  is  called  by  them  Sommona- 
Kadom,  The  sovereign  is  a  despot,  and  the  subjects  are  his  slaves,  of 
whose  lives  and  property  he  has  the  power  of  disposing  at  will. 


The  Japanese. 

The  Japanese  are  in  general  of  medium  size,  and  brownish-yellow  color, 
often  passing  into  livid.  Women  of  rank,  who  are  less  exposed  to  the 
open  air  and  sun,  are  alone  found  to  be  as  fair  as  European  women.  The 
eyes  are  sunken,  with  narrow  apertures,  but  beautifully  black ;  and  in 
the  female  sex  have  a  very  gentle  expression,  and  indicate  inherent  good 
nature.  The  eyebrows  are  very  high,  and  from  the  corners  of  the  eyes 
numerous  wrinkles  run  out  towards  the  temples.  The  nose  is  short 
and  straight;  the  head  generally  large,  the  neck  on  the  contrary  short; 
and  the  rich  black  hair  glistens  as  if  oiled.  Men  shave  their  heads 
bare,  excepting  the  hair  on  the  hinder  part  and  top  of  the  head,  which  is 
united  in  a  tuft  upon  the  crown.  Their  beards  are  weak.  Women  permit 
their  hair  to  grow  long,  bind  it  together  upon  the  head,  and  secure  it  with 
several  long  pins.  Perfect  beauties  are  found  among  the  females  of  Japan, 
but  all  are  small  of  stature.  Concerning  the  disposition  of  the  Japanese  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  they  have  good  mental  faculties,  but  they  are 
deceitful  and  cringing  towards  their  superiors;  proud,  haughty,  resolute, 
reckless  of  their  own  lives,  and  consequently  fearless  of  death.  Their 
ordinary  deportment  is  marked  by  extreme  courtesy.  They  greet  each 
other  either  by  bending  one  knee,  or  in  case  they  wish  to  salute  in  a  more 
submissive  manner,  or  to  offer  great  honor  to  any  one,  they  kneel  down 
and  incline  the  face  to  the  ground,  which,  however,  is  done  only  within 
doors.  The  Japanese  are  very  revengeful,  but  also  very  faithful  in  friend- 
ship, and  very  jealous  of  their  honor.  They  deserve  credit  also  for  being 
temperate  in  eating  and  drinking,  cleanly,  industrious,  and  economical, 
honest  and  true ;  but,  like  the  Chinese,  they  think  themselves  much  above 
all  other  nations  in  every  respect.  They  are  usually  found  singing  at  their 
work,  and  are  almost  always  lively  and  cheerful.  Few  nations  are  so  fond 
of  show  as  the  Japanese.  Their  dress  is  subject  to  no  changes  of  fashion,  it 
has  remained  the  same  for  centuries.  Their  long,  full,  silk  or  woollen  coat, 
with  wide  sleeves,  resembles  the  Turkish  morning-gown.  The  men  wear 
it  of  a  plain  color;  the  women  of  a  material  ornamented  with  lai^ 
flowers,  and  not  so  wide.  Men  wear  from  three  to  four,  women,  out  of 
vanity  or  for  defence  against  the  cold,  ten,  and  sometimes  even  from  thirty 
to  fifty  such  coats,  one  over  the  other,  as  these  garments  are  very  light 
Over  them  a  kind  of  cloak  is  sometimes  worn.  Trowsers  are  in  use  only 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  225 

for  state  dress.  The  feet  are  protected  by  sandals,  with  or  without 
stockings.  The  usual  color  of  the  clothes  is  black,  white  being  the 
mourning  color  with  the  Japanese.  Their  hats  are  of  straw,  wood,  or 
leather,  painted  and  lacquered,  with  small  crowns  but  large  brims. 

Mining,  agriculture,  horticulture,  fishing,  and  rearing  silkworms,  are 
much  more  attended  to  in  Japan  than  hunting  and  cattle-breeding.  Their 
silk  fabrics  are  by  far  the  best  in  commerce.  The  Japanese  are  very 
skilful  also  in  lacquered  work,  as  well  as  in  making  hardware,  and  their 
porcelain  is  better  and  more  durable  than  that  manufactured  by  the 
Chinese.  In  medical  science  they  are  likewise  more  advanced  than  the 
Chinese ;  their  navigation,  however,  is  still  very  imperfect.  The  use  of  the 
compass  is  nevertheless  understood  by  them,  the  circle  being  divided  into 
twelve  parts  (winds).  In  astronomy,  they  are  still  far  behind ;  their  land 
and  sea  charts,  however,  are  not  bad,  being  perhaps  copies  of  European 
ones.  Foreign  commerce  rests  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Chinese  and 
Dutch.  It  is  no  longer  of  very  great  importance,  as  but  few  ships  are 
permitted  to  come  to  Japan.  Before  the  extirpation  of  Christianity,  there 
were  quite  a  number  of  religions  and  religious  sects  in  Japan ;  at  present 
there  are  only  four,  according  to  others  seven,  prevailing  creeds.  Some 
worship  the  heavenly  bodies,  others  still  cling  to  the  ancient  faith  of 
the  country,  the  Sinto  religion,  the  head  of  which  is  called  Kin- Reh,  by 
the  Europeans  Dairi,  who  at  the  same  time  is  the  spiritual  chief  of  all 
Japan.  The  Kubo  or  Ziogoen  is  in  possession  of  the  temporal  power,  and 
is  little  restrained  by  the  Dairi,  who  is  his  apparent  superior.  The  state 
or  crown  property  constitutes  more  than  half  the  empire;  the  Kubo 
receives  besides  considerable  presents  from  the  hereditary  princes  of  the 
country ;  and  as  the  taxes  and  duties  swell  his  receipts  still  more,  the  Kubo 
may  be  considered  as  one  of  the  richest  sovereigns  in  the  world.  The 
army  is  maintained,  for  the  greater  part,  by  the  hereditary  princes. 
Japanese  laws  either  depend  upon  the  orders  of  the  Emperors  or  follow 
ancient  usages.  The  legal  code  is  very  short;  there  are  few  magis- 
trates, and  the  penal  statutes  are  very  severe,  but  are  as  rigidly  enforced 
towards  the  higher  as  towards  the  lower  classes.  The  police  are  vigilant, 
and  endeavor  strictly  to  maintain  public  order.  All  the  streets  of  the 
cities  have  officers  of  their  own,  who  take  care  that  the  regulations  are 
properly  observed ;  these  again  have  others  over  them. 

The  Japanese  inhabit  the  Islands  of  Nipon,  Sikok,  Kiu-siu,  and  Lieu- 
Kieu  or  Riukiu.  The  name  of  this  nation  is  of  Chinese  origin,  and  is 
made  by  the  Europeans  from  Shi-pan,  i.  e.  "  sun-rise,"  which  in  Southern 
China  is  pronounced  ^'a-,  or  jot-pan.  The  Japanese  pronounce  it  Nif  on  or 
Nipon ;  hence  the  Europeans  denominated  the  largest  island  Nipon, 
although  the  name  belongs  properly  to  the  whole  group. 

Between  the  Japanese  language  and  those  of  the  neighboring  Kurile  and 
Mandchoo-Tungusian  tribes  there  is  no  similarity  whatever.  Any  resem- 
blance manifested  to  the  Chinese  and  Corean  has  unquestionably  arisen  in 
later  times,  when  the  Japanese  aborigines  were  civilized  by  Chinese  colo- 
niof,  and  received  the  Buddhist  religion  by  way  of  Corea.    There  can  be 

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22G  HISTORY  AND  ETUNOLOGT. 

DO  doubt  that  aborigines  inhabited  Japan  since  the  earliest  times ;  and  it 
must  be  pronounced  very  unlikely  that  the  population  of  Japan  cmme  froon 
the  continent  of  Asia. 

PL  *i2,  fig.  10,  represents  a  Japanese  lady ;  fig.  11,  a  Japanese  man  cf 
rank  in  the  act  of  drawing  on  his  fine  gloves  ;  fig.  12,  one  of  the  same  class 
in  gala  dress ;  fig.  13,  a  Japanese  fisherman's  family ;  and  fig.  14,  parasol 
and  sign-bearers.  Fig.  8  represents  an  inhabit«mt  of  the  island  of  Lieu- 
Kieu,  with  a  blue  coat  reaching  to  the  knee,  a  red  girdle  suspending  the 
pipe  and  tobacco-pouch,  sandals  attached  to  the  bare  feet,  and  in  his  hand 
a  feather  fan. 


The  Nations  of  Afuca. 

Africa  is  the  hottest  part  of  the  world,  owing  to  its  position,  shape,  and  the 
conformation  of  its  soU ;  and  although  a  fourth  part  lies  within  the  tempersle 
zone,  it  has,  with  the  exception  of  the  northern  declivity  of  the  Atlas,  the 
hot  climate  of  the  rest  of  the  continent,  in  consequence  of  the  influence 
of  the  whole.  The  eastern  coast  is  cooler  than  the  western,  only  by  reason 
of  the  trade  winds,  prevailing  almost  all  over  Africa.  In  the  interior,  hot 
days  alternate  with  cool  nights,  often  even  with  night  frosts,  a  change  in 
the  highest  degree  pernicious  to  the  human  frame.  Still  more  injurious 
b  the  alternation  of  the  hot  and  rainy  seasons,  chiefly  on  the  west  and  east 
coasts ;  having,  it  is  true,  the  more  beneficial  effect  upon  nature,  which,  as 
soon  as  the  rain,  preceded  by  the  most  terrible  heats,  ceases,  shows  an 
indescribable  luxuriance.  Everything  has  obtained  new  life ;  it  is  the 
joyful  season  of  hot  Africa.  The  fruitful  season,  however,  does  not 
long  continue  ;  the  heat  increases,  the  rivers  dry  up,  vegetation,  with 
the  exception  of  the  small  succulent  plants,  perishes,  until  the  time  of 
rich  blessings  again  begins.  The  greatest  fertility  is  observed  on  the 
coasts  of  Africa,  where  the  large  rivers  and  the  heats  exercise  a  joint 
influence. 

Africa  i«  not  densely  populated.  In  the  southern  part  of  Soudan  (Nigri- 
tia)  live  the  dusky  Negro  race  :  in  the  north  of  the  same  country  the  light 
colored  Berbers  are  found  as  an  original  stock ;  whom,  however,  later 
immigrants  and  conquerors,  as  Moors,  Jews,  and  Arabs,  have  driven  into 
the  mountains  and  oases.  In  the  south  of  Africa  dwell  the  Hottentots  and 
Bushmen  ;  in  the  north-east  the  inhabitants  of  Abysmnia;  and  round  about 
on  the  coast  Europeans  have  settled. 


The  Moot's. 

The  name  Moors  originated  in  the  eighth  century,  when  the  Araks  of 

Africa  invaded  southern  Europe,  as  they  were  confounded  with  the  aaoient 

Moors  of  Mauritania.     The  name  Moor  was  then  giyen,  q«H  only  to  all 

wni*nomadic  Arabs,  but  even  to  aU  MohammedbiiB  of  India,  liUle  as  tbejT 

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ETmWLOGY  OF  THE  PRESiafT  DAY.  227 

have  in  comnion  with  the  Moors  proper.  It  was  applied  particularly  to 
the  settled  Arabs  of  Moghrib  (West  Africa),  of  whom  it  is  known  that 
they  immigrated  as  nomads,  and  in  the  course  of  time  took  possession  of 
fixed  abodes  among  the  Berbers,  the  aborigines  of  Moghrib,  intermingling 
with  them  and  other  nations,  but  nevertheless  securing  to  themselves  the 
supremacy.  Gräberg  de  Hemso  had  occasion  to  observe  these  true  Moors 
for  a  long  time,  in  different  countries  of  Africa.  He  describes  them  as 
rather  slender,  well  formed,  of  medium  size,  and  appearing  stouter  than 
they  actually  are,  only  on  account  of  their  full  dress.  It  is  said,  however, 
that  at  a  more  advanced  age,  men  as  well  as  women,  in  consequence  of 
their  inactive  mode  of  life  and  want  of  exercise,  become  rather  corpulent 
Their  eyes  and  teeth  are  handsome ;  the  complexion,  however,  varies 
^atly,  owing  to  the  different  colors  of  the  mothers,  who  are  of  various 
tribes,  especially  the  blacks  of  Soudan.  The  more  the  color  approaches  to 
black,  the  handsomer  and  of  more  decided  character  are  the  men.  The 
women,  who,  when  young,  are  weH  formed  and  pretty,  color  their  eyelids 
and  eyelashes  with  antimony,  and  paint  their  fingers  and  toes,  faces,  and 
other  parts  of  the  body.  The  dress  of  the  Moors  consists  of  a  shirt  with 
wide  sleeves,  and  of  very  wide  trowsers  of  white  linen,  over  which  they 
wear  the  kaftan,  usually  of  bright  yellow  color  or  sky-blue,  with  short 
sleeves  buttoned  at  the  wrist,  and  fastened  by  many  with  a  colored  sash« 
Over  this  is  displayed  the  haick,  or  cloak,  of  reddish  cotton  or  silk,  which 
is  worn  in  the  manner  of  a  Roman  toga.  At  times  a  garment  of  blue  cloth 
with  a  cowl,  called  burnous  by  them,  is  added,  or  a  lighter  under  vest  (sool- 
ham),  usually  of  white  casimere.  The  covering  for  the  head  consists  of  a 
white  cap,  to  which  is  added,  by  such  as  have  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca, 
a  turban  of  white  muslin.  The  foet  are  covered  with  yellow  leather  shoes, 
or  half  boots.  Women  also  wear  the  hoick ;  indeed  it  is  frequently  their 
only  article  of  dress,  and  often  so  fine  as  to  be  almost  transparent.  Those 
in  easier  circumstances  wear  a  wide  and  handsome  chemise  of  fine  linen 
embroidered  at  the  bosom  with  gold,  and  over  it  an  ample  kaftan,  usually 
of  cloth,  or  velvet  worked  with  gold.  Strips  of  a  silk  or  gold- worked  veil 
{a*haur)  are  wrapped  around  the  head,  and  fastened  at  the  neck,  where  its 
knots  fall  with  the  braided  hair  upon  the  girdle.  Sometimes  they  add  a 
riband  ornamented  with  gold  coins  and  pearls  {A^xaha,  or  Sßfa),  encom- 
passing the  forehead  like  a  diadem.  In  the  upper  part  of  the  ear  they  wear 
a  small  ring  (amara)  and  in  the  lobe  of  the  ear  a  larger  weighty  one  (kherst, 
khorsa),  both  ornamented  with  costly  stones ;  around  the  neck,  rows  of 
gold  and  silver  coins  with  jewels,  called  texra ;  on  the  wrists,  thick  gold  or 
silver  bracelets  {dehlis,  mukis).  Such  bandeaux  are  worn  on  the  legs  also, 
the  lower  being  called  khelkal,  that  around  the  knee  ruccus.  Over  the 
kaftan  is  thrown  a  light  linen  garment  (moji-oria),  which  is  fastened 
around  the  body,  either  by  a  girdle  of  crimson  velvet  embroidered  with 
gold,  and  with  a  gold  or  silver  buckle,  or  simply  with  a  twisted  sash. 
They  wear  red  slippers;  but  like  the  men,  no  stockings.  The  lower 
classes  and  the  poor  wear,  as  their  only  garment,  a  kind  of  sack  of  coarse 
linen,  called  dshelabiay  with  a  hole  at  the  top  for  the  head,  and  openings 

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228  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

at  the  sides,  through  which  to  thrust  the  arms.  (PL  26,  fig.  2,  Moor  of 
rank  ;  fig.  3,  Moorish  merchant ;  fig.  4,  Arab  chief  of  Algiers ;  fig.  6,  Negro 
female  slave  of  that  place.) 

Among  the  Moors,  as  amongst  all  Mohammedans,  bathing  is,  as  it  were, 
a  religious  act,  which  must  never  be  omitted ;  and  the  public  baths  are 
with  them  also  places  of  meeting  for  social  conversation  (fig.  1,  Moorish 
bath  in  Algiers).  The  usual  and  best  article  of  food  of  the  Moors  is  the 
sucfu  or  cuscusuy  which  consists  of  a  fine  paste  of  coriander  seed,  meat, 
broth,  butter,  eggs,  saffron,  cayenne  pepper,  &c.,  and  is  eaten  with  the 
fingers  out  of  a  large  bowl.  Coffee  is  seldom  used,  but  tea  is  partaken  of 
several  times  in  the  day.  Instead  of  tobacco,  they  frequently  smoke  a  kind 
of  hemp  (khashis-cha),  or  the  seeds  of  a  plant  called  kif. 

The  disposition  of  the  Moors  is  described  by  Graberg  de  Hemso  in 
these  words :  "  We,  who  ourselves  lived  and  had  intercourse  for  twelve 
years  with  the  Moors  of  several  Atlantic  countries,  and  have  attentively 
studied  their  disposition,  can  conscientiously  declare  that  everything  mean 
and  despicable  in  the  extreme,  to  be  found  in  the  human  heart,  constitutes 
the  general  disposition  of  these  Africans.  They  are,  and  will  be  for  many 
years  to  come,  the  same  barbarians  they  were  in  the  times  of  Sallust  and 
Procopius ;  fickle,  faithless,  lying,  cruel,  incapable  of  being  held  in  check 
by  fear  or  acts  of  kindness.  Their  predominant  passions  are  sensual  love, 
revenge,  ambition,  and  covetousness.  Of  a  cruel,  barbarous,  imperious, 
unfeeling  disposition,  the  idea  of  kindness  and  sympathy  is  entirely  foreign 
to  them.  Haughty,  harsh,  and  arrogant  to  their  inferiors,  they  are  servile 
and  submissive  towards  their  superiors ;  and  to  the  powerful,  of  the  basest, 
most  slavish  deportment.  Their  covetousness  is  incredible,  and  more 
than  makes  good  the  adage,  '  a  Moor  would  resign  an  eye,  in  order  to  put 
in  its  place  a  gold  coin.'  They  scrape  together  riches,  feigning  poverty  at 
the  same  time.  In  addition,  they  are  fanatical,  hypocritical,  and  cruel ; 
detest  all  foreigners,  persecute  the  Christians,  and  oppress  the  Jews  in  the 
most  unjust  manner ;  but  especially  hate  the  Turks,  because  they  con- 
sider them  heretics  and  propagandists,  and  the  Roman  Catholics,  because 
they  esteem  them  idolaters.  When  sustaining  bodily  chastisement,  pain, 
or  suffering,  they  display,  in  general,  the  cold  indifference  of  savages." 
From  the  catalogue  of  sins  of  the  Moors  we  have  selected  only  the  most 
important,  since  Graberg  de  Hemso  enumerates  many  more. 

Females  pass  lives  of  entire  seclusion,  and,  like  their  husbands,  believe 
that  God  created  woman  only  for  sensual  pleasure,  and  for  the  propagation 
of  the  human  species.  Hence  women  are  satisfied  to  be  shut  up  in  their 
harems,  and  an  exposure  to  the  eyes  of  a  stranger  by  their  consorts  would 
be  considered  an  offence. 

Our  readers  have  already  become  acquainted  with  the  Bedouins,  in 
reading  the  portion  of  this  treatise  devoted  to  Asia,  and  hence  we  only 
observe  that  on  pi  27,  figs.  4  and  5,  are  represented  Arabian  caravans ; 
at  figs.  1 — 3,  Egyptian  Fellahs  and  Bedouins,  with  their  tents,  two  of  the 
Bedouins  being  in  the  act  of  performing  a  martial  dance. 

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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  229 


The^  Ahyssinians. 

The  Abyssinians  (Habbesh,  Habessinians)  inhabit  the  elevated  country 
of  East  Africa.  They  are  a  Semitic  stock,  who  call  themselves  by  pre- 
ference Agaxians,  or  frequently  also  Itjopjawan  (Ethiopians),  since  they 
have  settled  among  the  true  Ethiopians.  They  spring  from  the  Cushites 
of  Arabia,  and  are  called  Cush  in  the  Bible,  like  the  people  from  which 
they  are  derived.  Even  before  the  time  of  Moses  they  must  have  passed 
over  the  narrow  arm  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  taken  possession  of  the  territory 
which  subsequently  constituted  the  Kingdom  of  Tigre.  The  word  "  Hab- 
besh"  signifies  properly  "  a  mixed  people,"  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  East 
African  highlands  justify  the  denomination  by  their  actual  mixed  descrip- 
tion. The  majority  of  the  population  are  handsomely  formed,  and  of  the 
Caucasian  race,  with  the  physiognomy  of  the  nomads  of  Arabia.  The  face 
is  oval ;  the  nose  finely  sharpened  ;  the  mouth  well  proportioned,  with  lips 
properly  formed,  and  by  no  means  exuberant ;  sparkling  eyes  and  well-set 
teeth  ;  hair  somewhat  curled,  but  also  straight.  They  are  of  medium  size. 
The  greater  portion  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  high  mountains  of  Simen  and 
of  the  plains  around  Lake  Zana,  as  well  as  the  Felashah,  or  Jews,  the 
heathen  Gamants  and  the  Agows,  belong  to  the  same  stock,  in  spite  of  the 
difference  in  their  languages  and  dialects.  A  second  division  of  the  inha- 
bitants of  Abyssinia  have  a  less  sharpened  and  pointed,  and  somewhat 
aquiline  nose ;  thick  lips ;  eyes  dull,  with  narrow  apertures ;  and  very 
crisply  curled,  thick,  almost  woolly  hair.  This  division  includes  a  portion 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Abyssinian  coast,  of  the  provinces  of  Hamases  and 
the  other  districts  along  the  northern  confines  of  Abyssinia.  RQppel,  the 
author  followed  by  us  in  our  characteristics  of  the  Abyssinians,  mentions 
a  third,  the  Galla,  including  the  Shoho.  The  unprepossessing  features 
of  the  latter  tribe  are  found  quite  frequently  among  the  inhabitants  of  the 
province  of  Tigre,  and  among  the  soldiery  of  most  other  districts.  Negro 
physiognomies  occur  only  among  the  Shangalla  slaves  imported  hither 
from  the  west,  and  their  cross-breed  children.  With  the  exception  of  those 
who  are  entirely  black,  the  complexion  of  the  remaining  inhabitants  of 
Abyssinia  varies  greatly,  from  brownish  yellow  to  dusky  blackish-brown. 

The  Abyssinians  are  described  as  being  quite  as  corrupt  as  the  Moors. 
Travellers  depict  their  moral  condition  in  the  darkest  colors ;  the  ideas  of 
truth  and  faith,  and  every  other  virtue,  may  be  called  unknown  to  them ; 
their  disposition  is  made  up  of  all  the  vices  of  which  the  human  heart  is 
at  all  capable,  the  Christian  inhabitants  being  in  every  respect  as  bad  as 
the  others.  They  have  no  conception  of  the  sanctity  of  the  marriage 
tie ;  and,  consequently,  immorality  pervades  all  orders  of  society,  and 
is  the  more  dangerous  for  the  strict  observance  of  apparent  decorum.  A 
few  good  qualities  are  perceptible  in  spite  of  the  general  corruption,  espe- 
cially the  hospitality,  protection,  and  security  afforded  to  strangers. 

Abyssinia  shows  not  a  trace  of  any  regular  form  of  government  The 
entire  country  has  fallen  into  anarchy,  in  which  the  strongest  and  moft 

lOOVOORAPHIO   SNOTOLOPJEDIA. — ^VOL.  III.  26  401 


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2»0  HISTOBY  AFD  ETHNOLOGY. 

crafty  holds  the  power  until  he  is  dispossessed  by  another.  Rüppel  says : 
"  The  history  of  the  last  sixty  years  shows  a  complete  political  dissolution 
of  the  country,  and  relates  merely  to  the  various  chieftains  who  have 
nteceeded  in  attaining  unlimited  power  in  the  several  provinces,  that 
existed  as  separate  states  independent  of  each  other,  supplanting  their 
rivals  by  stratagem  or  boldness ;  and  falling  in  their  turn  by  the  treachery 
of  their  confederates.  The  natural  consequence  of  such  rivalry  was 
continual  civil  wars,  and  subsequent  general  impoverishmeat.  Landed 
property  has  hardly  any  value,  agriculture  is  almost  entirely  neglected, 
amd  the  rearing  of  cattle  is  very  sensibly  decreasing.  On  account  of  the 
great  insecurity,  traffic  is  often  entirely  suspended.  Most  of  the  habitations 
are  small,  filthy,  thatched  cots,  surrounded  by  a  high  thora  hedge  for  the 
protection  of  the  domestic  animals  at  night  A  few  of  the  houses  only 
have  a  circular  stone  wall,  usually  four  feet  in  height^  as  a  foundation,  and 
a  solid,  conical,  thatched  roof,  resting  in  the  midKUe  upon  a  main  pillar,  and 
supported  besides  by  a  circular  row  of  wiooden  props.  Daylight  is 
admitted  only  through  the  door.  In  RtAamegash,  in  the  Kingdom  of 
Tigre,  the  houses  have  flat  roofs.  Some  Abyssinians  still  live  in  caverns, 
as  was  customary  in  ancient  times ;  or  they  erect  walls  at  right  angles  on 
liie  steep  declivities  of  the  hiils,  and  place  thereon  a  turf  roof  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  make  it  agree  with  the  slope  of  the  hill,  and  to  give  the 
iriiole  the  appearanoe  of  a  cavern.  There  are  very  few  towns,  and  these 
•ensist  mostly  of  groups  of  oonicMd  thatched  huts. 

The  dress  of  the  Abyssinians  is  simple,  and  consists  partly  of  skins,  in 
part  of  cotton  stuffs.  Short  trowsers,  usually  wide,  and  a  cloth  threwn 
MTound  the  shoulders,  gei^rally  constitute  the  entire  dress.  Men  of  rank, 
hewever,  wear  a  shirt  of  white  Indian  stuff)  with  tight  sleeves,  and  very 
iae  colored  silk  embroidery,  and  over  it  several  cotton  robes.  Their 
emaments  for  the  arous,  neck,  and  feet,  are  of  silvei*.  Red  slippers  are 
onported  from  Egypt;  black  ones,  however,  are  manufactured  in  the 
eountry.  Women  are  enveloped  to  the  chin ;  and  the  sleeves  fall  down  to 
the  tips  of  the  fingers.  The  weapons  of  the  men  «re  chiefly  the  shield  and 
lance.  A  curved  knife  sixteen  inoh^  in  length,  and  something  under  two 
in  breadth,  is  placed  in  a  cotton  girdle,  and  upoB  the  right  side.  In  Abys- 
sinia, moreover,  as  in  all  other  countries,  small  variations  in  the  dress  and 
habitations  are  observed.  (PL  28,  ßg.  1,  Abyssinian  oei^i  and  women ; 
ßg.  %,  travellers.) 


The  FetxanioMs  and  JBuAerm. 

The  Fezxanimns  inhabit  the  oasis  of  Fexxan  or  Fesean,  and  differ  as  wdl 
m  complexion  as  in  physiognomy,  and  are,  therefore,  probably  a  mixture 
0f  sev^*al  nations.  The  inhabitants  of  the  north  are  white,  like  the  Arabs; 
at  Morzouk,  however,  a  chai^  of  color  b^ns,  and  a  transition  is  per- 
ceived from  this  light  hue  to  the  darkness  of  mulattoes,  and  from  the  latter 
lo  the  black  of  the  Fezzanians  living  to  the  south,  who  remind  observers  of 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRB8ENT  DAY.  231 

tke  Tuarik  branch  of  the  Berbers.  Horneman  considers  the  inhabitanta 
of  the  province  Shati,  as  the  real  or  main  stock  of  the  Fezzanians.  They 
are  of  medium  growth,  dusky  brown,  with  short  black  hair,  tolerably 
regular  features,  and  nose  less  flattened  than  is  the  case  with  the  negroes. 
In  general  the  figure  of  the  men  is  not  handsome;  the  women  are 
strikingly  ugly,  and  both  sexes  are  destitute  of  vigor  and  courage.  They 
are  fond  of  singing  and  music;  and  though  they  are  naturally  cheerful, 
obliging,  and  hospitable,  the  oppression  of  the  government  has  made  them 
iikhospitable,  covetous,  faithless,  and  malicious.  They  have  adopted  the 
Arabic  language,  but  speak  it  with  the  rough  and  harsh  Moghrib  dialect. 
They  are  nominally  Mohammedans,  but  mingle  all  kinds  of  heathenish 
ideas  with  their  religion.  Their  chief  employment  is  commerce;  and 
Morzouk,  the  metropolis  of  the  country,  is  the  rallying  point  and  market 
for  the  caravans  that  keep  up  the  trade  of  Kahira  (Cairo),  Benghafi,  and 
Tripoli,  with  Soudan.  A  few  handicrafts,  agriculture,  and  horticulture,  am 
also  pursued  in  Fezzan. 

The  Fezzanian  dress  consists  of  a  coarse  linen  or  cotton  shirt,  trowsers 
of  the  same  material,  and  sandals  of  camel's  skin.  In  the  street  a 
woollen  covering,  called  abben  or  diherid,  is  sometimes  worn  like  a  cloak. 
A  turban  and  yellow  slippers  are  sometimes  put  on  on  Fridays.  Women 
have  the  fronts  of  their  chemises  embroidered,  and  consider  their  head- 
dress and  the  rings  on  the  arms  and  feet  their  chief  ornaments.  On  the 
feet  they  always  wear  red  slippers.  The  houses,  built  of  sun-dried  bricks, 
are  low  and  very  uncomfortable. 

The  Bisherin  (Biscarijin)  live  in  the  mountains  that  range  along  the 
Red  Sea,  north  of  Abyssinia,  east  of  the  Barabras  and  northwest  of 
Massowa,  almost  the  whole  distance  up  to  Suez.  They  seem  to  be  the 
descendants  of  the  Bega  or  Bedsha,  who  were  a  powerful  nation  in  the 
middle  ages,  controlling  the  commerce  with  the  whole  world  from  both 
sides  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  who  in  still  earlier  times  appear  to  have  ruled  from 
the  Island  of  Meroe  over  the  entire  valley  of  the  Nile  as  far  as  Assouan. 
The  Bisherin  are  consequently  descendants  from  the  true  Ethiopians  of 
flourishing  Meroe.  They  are  divided  into  three  sections  :  the  true  Bisherin^ 
the  Hadharebe  or  Adareb,  and  the  Ababdeh,  They  speak,  however,  the  same 
langui^e ;  and  are  very  similar  in  physiognomy,  as  well  as  in  their  entire 
«eterior,  to  the  Barabras  of  the  Nile  valley,  and  in  part  to  the  inhabitants 
of  Abyssinia.  Their  color  is  very  dark  brown,  almost  black,  but  the  face 
does  not  ^ow  the  negro  type.  The  nation  is  rapacious  and  warlike,  and  the 
numerous  small,  isolated  tribes,  are  always  at  enmity  and  war  with  each  other. 


The  InhabitantM  of  Egypt. 

The  fNrincipal  divisions  of  the  population  of  Egypt  are  the  Copts,  Arabs, 
and  Turks,  besides  Jews,  &c.  The  Turks  constitute  the  smallest  portion, 
bnt  have  pre-eminence  as  rulers ;  the  Arabs  are  the  most  numerous,  the 
Copts  the  most  ancient  tribe.    The  Arabs  are  either  farmers  (Fellahs) 

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232  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

or  artisans ;  and  the  numerous  Arabic  nomadic  tribes,  or  Bedouins,  rore 
through  the  wide  expanse  of  the  desert.  They  were  formeriy  dangerous 
robbers  in  the  peopled  districts  of  Egypt,  but  have  at  present  been  made 
nearly  harmless  by  the  ruler  of  the  country. 

There  may  still  live  scattered  through  the  whole  country  about  150,000 
Copts.  They  are  of  medium  size  ;  stout ;  of  dusky  yellowish-brown  com- 
plexion  ;  with  black  hair,  depressed  nose,  thick  lips,  and  black,  prominent, 
but  dull  eyes.  They  have  a  language  of  their  own,  but  usually  speak  the 
Arabic ;  they  are  sensible,  prudent,  grave,  persevering,  and  are  employed 
by  the  Turks  as  writers,  tax  collectors,  day  laborers,  &c.  Copts  live  also 
in  Nubia,  Abyssinia,  and  Cyprus,  &c.  Their  religion  is  the  Greek  Catholic, 
according  to  the  principles  of  Eutychius.  The  Moslems  constitute  the 
majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  Egypt.  They  are  descendants  of  various 
Arabic  tribes  and  families,  who  have  established  themselves  at  different 
periods  in  this  country ;  but  through  intermixture  with  Copts  and  other 
stocks,  as  well  as  by  reason  of  the  manners  prevailing  in  Egypt,  the  Arabic 
character  has  been  in  a  great  measure  obliterated.  They  are  of  medium 
size,  and  mostly  well  proportioned ;  the  men  muscular  and  strong,  the 
women  beautifully  formed.  The  skin  is  of  a  very  clear  yellow,  and  soft. 
Among  the  inhabitants  of  Central  Egypt,  however,  it  is  of  a  more  brownish 
yellow ;  in  the  southern  provinces  dusky  bronze-colored,  or  brown ;  and 
towards  Nubia,  even  almost  black.  The  face  is  mostly  handsome,  oval, 
moderately  large,  yet  prominent ;  the  black,  brilliant  eyes  lie  deep  in  their 
sockets  ;  the  nose  is  straight  and  somewhat  thick  ;  the  mouth  well  formed, 
with  rather  thick  lips ;  the  teeth  exquisitely  beautiful ;  the  beard  usually 
black,  curly,  but  rather  thin.  The  dress  is  that  ordinarily  worn  by  Moham« 
medans.  Men  who  do  not  belong  to  the  poorest  classes  wear  long  trowsers, 
and  a  long,  full  coat  (shirt)  of  linen,  calico,  or  woollen  fabric,  mostly  blue 
or  brown,  which  is  open  from  the  throat  to  the  middle  of  the  body,  ana 
sometimes  fastened  by  a  white  or  red  woollen  girdle.  The  turban  is  mostly 
a  white,  red,  or  yellow  shawl,  or  a  piece  of  coarse  calico  or  muslin,  wound 
around  a  white  or  red  felt  cap.  The  trowsers  are  wide.  Many  Egyptians 
are  so  poor,  however,  that  they  only  wear  a  blue  or  brown  coat,  and 
neither  trowsers  nor  turban.  In  cold  weather  cloaks  are  worn.  The  shoes 
are  of  red  or  yellow  leather,  or  sheepskin.  All  Egyptians  shave  off  the 
hair  of  the  head,  with  the  exception  of  a  small  tuft  upon  the  crown.  The 
women  of  the  lower  classes  wear  long  trowsers,  and  over  these  a  white  or 
blue  chemise  with  long  wide  sleeves,  a  simple  handkerchief  being  the  only 
head-dress.  They  wear  their  hair  in  pendent  braids,  ornamented  with 
common  metal,  and  pierce  the  lobes  of  their  ears,  and  sometimes  their  noses, 
to  admit  rings.  They  envelope  themselves  in  a  large  veil,  covering  the 
figure  and  face,  except  the  eyes  and  a  small  portion  of  the  forehead,  which 
is  much  disfigured  by  black  and  blue  markings.  Among  females  of  distinc- 
tion the  style  of  dress  much  resembles  that  of  the  men,  only  it  is  much  finer 
and  more  showy,  and  over  the  chemise  a  light  satin  garment  is  worn. 
When  going  abroad,  a  cloak  and  a  long  black  silk  veil  are  thrown  over 
them  ;  the  head-dress  is  varied. 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  233 

In  eating  and  drinking  the  Egyptians  are  temperate,  and  the  meals  of  the 
rich  and  eminent  are  as  simple  as  those  of  the  poor.  Much  attention  is 
paid  to  the  cleanliness  of  the  person,  especially  by  the  women.  Superstition 
and  sensuality,  on  the  other  hand,  prevail  everywhere.  The  Egyptians  are 
described  also  as  covetous,  hypocritical,  treacherous,  thievish,  cowardly, 
and  lazy.  On  the  whole,  their  customs  and  usages  resemble  those  of  the 
Osmanlis.  (PL  27,  ßgs.  1  and  3,  Egyptian  Fellahs  and  Bedouins  ;  ßg.  2, 
dances  and  tents  of  the  same ;  ßgs,  4  and  5,  Arabian  caravan  in  Egypt ; 
pi  lS,ßg.  1, 1»,  head-dress  of  a  Coptish  patriarch  ;  n,  of  a  Coptish  priest ; 
o,  of  an  Egyptian ;  p,  of  an  Egyptian  camel  driver ;  d,  of  the  people  of 
Cairo.  FL  26fßg,  7,  woman  of  quality  of  Cairo ;  pL  27, ßg.  6,  a  wedding 
at  Cairo.) 


The  Berbers. 

The  Berbers,  who  call  themselves,  however,  Amazirgh,  that  is  to  say, 
•*  Noble,"  "  Free,"  are  the  true  descendants  of  the  most  ancient  inhabitants 
of  Mauritania,  Numidia,  and  Libya,  or  Moghrib  (West),  the  name  applied 
by  the  Arabs  to  northern  Africa.  Their  territory  extends  from  the  high 
west  bank  of  the  Nile,  and  the  range  of  oases  running  along  the  west  side 
of  Egypt,  to  the  coast  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean ;  and  from  the  shore  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  and  the  heights  of  the  Atlas  Mountains  to  the  southern- 
border  of  the  Great  Desert.  They  belong  to  the  Semitic  stock,  but  are 
divided  into  numerous  tribes  with  different  dialects  :  1.  Tamazirgt,  includ- 
ing Berbers  or  Amaxirghs  proper,  S/telloochees  or  Shillooks ;  2.  Showi, 
t.  e,  the  Berbers  of  Algiers  and  Tunis,  also  called  Kabyles  and  JZuaves ; 
8.  the  inhabitants  of  Wadreag  and  Wurgela,  or  Wagela,  who  speak  the 
Ezegiah  dialect;  4.  the  Beni-Mozab,  including  the  Berber  hordes  of 
Mozabis,  Bisearies,  Wadreagans,  and  Wurgelans,  dwelling  within  the 
confines  of  ancient  Ocetulia,  and  intermixed  with  Bedouin  Arabs ;  5.  the 
Tuariks,  inhabitants  of  the  great  Desert  of  Sahara,  who  speak  the  Tergia 
dialect 


The  Negroes. 

The  Ethiopian  stock  (Negro  race)  live  in  the  districts  extending 
from  the  southern  edge  of  the  Desert  of  Sahara  to  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope ;  and  thus,  properly  speaking,  inhabit  the  whole  of  central  and 
southern  Africa.  They  exhibit  many  different  shadings,  as  well  in  external 
form  as  in  habits.  The  physical  attributes  among  the  African  nations, 
according  to  Prichard,  have  an  evident  relation  to  their  moral  and  social 
condition,  and  to  the  different  degrees  of  barbarism  or  civilization  in  which 
they  live.  Tribes  in  which  the  Negro  type  is  developed  in  a  very  high 
degree,  are  uniformly  in  the  lowest  grade  of  human  society;  they  are  either 
ferocious  savages,  or  present  themselves  to  us  as  stupid,  sensual,  and  indo- 

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234  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

lent  creatures,  scarcely  elevated  above  animal  life,  as  for  instance,  the 
Papeh,  Bullous,  and  other  rude  hordes,  upon  the  coast  of  West  Guinea, 
and  many  tribes  on  the  Slave  Coast  and  the  Bay  of  Benin,  where  the  slave 
trade  has  been  and  is  still  carried  on  to  the  greatest  extent,  exercisiDg  its 
pernicious  influence.  On  the  other  hand,  wherever  we  hear  of  a  negro 
state  whose  inhabitants  have  made  considerable  advances  in  their  social 
condition,  we  invariably  find  that  their  physical  character  drflfers  materially 
from  the  distinctly  stamped  Negro  type.  The  Ashantees,  Soulimas,  and 
DahomianSy  may  serve  as  instances  of  this.  The  negroes  of  Gooha  and 
Houssa,  where  a  considerable  degree  of  civilization  has  existed  for  a  long 
time,  are  perhaps  the  handsomest  race  of  true  Negroes  upon  the  continent, 
rivalled  only  by  the  Joloffes.  The  latter  have  been  a  comparaliveiy 
civilized  people  since  the  time  of  their  first  discovery  by  the  Portuguese. 

Monotheism  has  gained  but  little  ground  among  the  Negroes.  A  large 
portion  still  entertain  the  rudest  conceptions  of  religious  matters ;  one 
third  has  become  converted  by  the  Moors  to  Mohammedanism.  Islamism, 
though  much  mutilated,  has  been  naturalized  in  the  whole  of  central  Africa; 
there  the  Foolahs  and  Mandingoes  are  the  most  zealous  in  religion,  and 
at  present  are  oflfering  great  obstacles  to  the  propagation  of  Christianity 
from  the  coast.  The  only  spot  upon  which  the  Christian  faith  has  planted 
a  firm  foot  is  in  South  Africa,  among  the  tribe  of  Beshtians,  into  whose 
highlands  Islamism  has  not  penetrated. 

In  sketching  the  principal  Negro  tribes,  we  begin  with  those  settled  in 
the  west,  upon  the  highlands  of  Soudan,  where  the  Foolahs  and  the  Man« 
dingoes  are  the  most  powerful  tribes. 

The  Foolahs  inhabit  a  wide  space,  more  than  700,000  square  mileg, 
extending  from  near  the  mouth  of  the  Senegal,  on  the  Atlantic  eoast,  and 
Senegambia  in  the  west,  to  the  kingdom  of  Bornou  and  Mandara  in  the 
east,  and  from  the  desert  of  Sahara  in  the  north  to  the  mountains  of 
Guinea  or  Kong  in  the  south.  The  Foolahs  are  called  also  Foolehs, 
Fulbies,  Fellanies,  Fallatahs,  Fellatahs,  Peuls,  dec,  names  that  belong 
properly  speaking  to  different  tribes,  associated,  however,  into  one  nation, 
by  means  of  a  language  common  to  all.  In  Senegambia  and  the  mountain- 
ous country  back  of  Sierra  Leone,  the  Foulahs  have  formed  four  principal 
states,  Fouta-TorOy  Fouta-Bondon,  Fouta-Jallon,  Foulahdon,  The  four  are 
governed  by  an  elective  chief,  bearing  the  title  of  Ahnamy  {El  Imam),  and 
who  may  be  considered  as  the  president  of  an  oligarchical  council.  In 
other  Nesgro  countries  into  which  these  nomadic  tribes  have  penetrated, 
they  pay  tribute  to  the  princes  for  the  land  which  they  occupy.  The 
Foulahs  differ,  however,  so  much  from  the  true  Negroes,  that  many  travel- 
lers are  inclined  to  arrange  them  as  a  particular  race.  In  turns,  their 
, complexion  has  been  described  as  bronze,  copper  red,  reddish,  and  some- 
times even  white.  Mungo  Park  found  them  in  the  western  parts  of 
Senegambia,  and  Crowther  on  the  Quorra  River,  mostly  with  tan-colored 
complexions,  silky  hair,  and  agreeable  features.  Oldendorp  thus  describes 
a  Foulah  :  "  His  black  hair  was  like  that  of  Europeans ;  his  color  less  black 
than  that  of  the  Negroes,  the  nose  not  so  flat ;  the  lips  black,  not  red  like 

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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  235 

those  of  the  Negroe$."  According  to  Vater's  conjecture,  the  Foulaht 
belong  to  a  race  intermediate  between  the  Negroes  proper  and  the  Africaa 
whites. 

The  Foulahs  are  a  warlike,  pastoral  nation ;  in  the  course  of  the  present 
century  they  have  become  politically  organized,  acquired  dominion  over  a 
great  part  of  Soudan,  and  in  1805  founded  Soccotoo,  the  metropolis  of  the 
kingdom.  The  Foulahs  are  strict  Mohammedans,  and  eager  to  make  coii- 
verts  to  their  faith.  They  exercise  a  powerful  influence  upon  the  moral  aad 
social  condition  of  the  Central  African,  and  will  perhaps  be  the  instruments 
to  be  employed  in  the  future  civilization  of  their  vast  continent. 

The  houses  of  the  wealthy  are  constructed  of  cylindrical  air-dried 
bticks,  one  story  high,  with  but  two  rooms,  flat  roofs,  and  very  brightly 
whitewashed.  A  hole  in  the  roof  serves  in  place  of  a  chimney.  Persons 
of  the  poorer  elates  live  in  small  conically  formed  huts,  composed  of 
trunks  of  trees,  and  covered  with  straw,  as  represented  in  pL  26,  in  the 
background  between  figs.  8  and  10.  The  mosques  are  also  built  of  air- 
dried  bricks.  In  both  houses  and  huts  the  greatest  neatness  prevails,  and 
much  attention  is  paid  to  the  construction  and  maintenance  of  good  streets 
and  roads. 

The  dress  of  the  Foulahs  consists  of  long  full  cotton  trowsers,  shirts,  and 
conical  straw  hats.  The  material  from  which  these  garments  are  manu- 
factured is  woven  and  dyed  a  handsome  blue  color  by  the  people  them- 
selves. Cloth  is  also  made  by  them  of  the  long  wool  of  their  sheep. 
According  to  Oldfield,  Fellatah  women  adorn  themselves  with  assiduous 
care,  their  toilet  occupying  several  hours.  They  dye  their  toes  and  handl 
a  pretty  purple,  and  their  front  teeth  with  different  colors,  one  blue,  two 
others  purple,  and  yellow,  leaving  the  fourth  white.  The  eyelids  ari 
marked  with  sulphuret  of  antimony,  and  their  hair  is  plaited  into  foot 
perpendicular  bunches,  four  or  five  inches  in  length.  Their  bodies  are 
coated  with  a  red  paint,  in  order  to  heighten  the  color  of  the  skin,  and  to 
correct  the  odor  of  the  perspiration.  The  same  observer  states  also  that 
the  Fellatahs  are  very  fond  of  dancing  and  other  recreations ;  and  like  aU 
negroes  with  whom  he  became  acquainted,  at  the  times  of  new  and  fidi 
moon,  pass  their  nights  in  these  diversions. 

In  number  and  power  the  Mandingoes  rank  next  to  the  Foulahs.  Thejr 
are  found  in  the  western  sections  of  Central  Africa,  where  they  inhabit  the 
upper  regions  of  the  Senegal,  the  Gambia,  and  the  Joliba  Quorra.  FroM 
these  districts,  however,  tl^y  have  spread  over  all  the  neighboring  coaa- 
tries,  where  they  constitute  the  wealthiest,  best  educated,  and  most  influ- 
ential portion  of  the  inhabitants,  although  inferior  in  numbers.  They  are 
genuine  negroes,  black,  with  a  mixture  of  yellow.  They  are  laborious» 
industrious  agriculturists,  who  maintain  their  land  in  a  good  state  of  culti- 
ration,  and  rear  a  considerable  stock  of  neat  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats,  bat 
like  the  Foulahs  keep  no  swine. 

The  Mandingoes  have  schools,  and  learn  to  read  and  write  of  tliair 
priests.  They  are  as  zealous  Mohammedans  as  the  Foulahs  themselves, 
and  better  educated  than  other  negro  nations.     Their  disposition  is  imM, 

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236  fflSTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

feeling,  and  benevolent,  probably  the  consequence  of  their  predilection  for 
trade,  and  the  journeys  which  occupy  much  of  their  time.  They  pay 
attention  also  to  fishing,  and  the  manufacturing  of  leather  and  iron.  They 
do  not  form  one  state,  but  are  split  into  numerous  societies,  which  not 
unfrequently  wage  war  against  each  other,  being  at  times  limited  monar- 
chies, at  other  times  republics.  Bambouk,  renowned  on  account  of  its 
gold  mines,  Satodon,  and  Honkadon,  are  the  most  important  of  these 
states. 

In  spite  of  their  industry  in  the  field,  as  well  as  in  traffic,  the  Man- 
dingoes  love  their  comfort  and  repose,  and  are  neither  hunters  nor  fowlers, 
taking  most  pleasure  in  banquets  and  a  kind  of  game  of  draughts. 

The  Mandingo  language  is  split  into  numerous  dialects  :  the  Bamboukee, 
spoken  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  kingdom  of  Bambouk ;  the  Curanco, 
belonging  to  a  tribe  more  resembling  in  their  manners  the  rude  Timmanies 
than  the  cultivated  M andingoes,  and  who  comb  their  very  woolly  hair  in 
lai^e  balls  over  both  temples,  file  their  teeth  to  a  point,  and  tattoo  their 
breasts  and  backs ;  the  dialect  of  the  Bambarras,  part  of  whom  are  still 
heathens  ;  that  of  the  Jallonkas,  in  the  highest  section  of  Senegambia ;  the 
dialect  of  the  Sokko  or  Assokko,  who  reside  east  of  the  Jallonkas,  along  the 
Congo  mountains,  in  the  countries  back  of  the  Gold  Coast,  and  who  seem 
to  be  more  civilized  than  the  surrounding  nations,  their  religion  being  a 
mixture  of  Christianity  and  Mohammedanism,  owing  probably  much  of  its 
form  to  national  ideas  and  usages ;  the  dialect  of  the  Serrawallies,  who 
are  also  called  Serakhakhs,  Saracolets,  or  Tilubmikoes,  and  inhabit  the 
kingdom  of  Galam  or  Kadshaga.  It  is,  however,  not  entirely  certain  that 
the  latter  nation  is  to  be  included  among  the  Mandingoes,  although  their 
language  is  understood  in  a  large  portion  of  the  northern  Mandingo 
country. 

The  Jalloffs  (Jolofs,  Jolufs,  Walofs,  Wolofs)  live  in  the  lowlands  of 
Senegambia,  between  the  Senegal  and  the  Gambia.  Less  numerous  than 
the  Foulahs  and  Mandingoes,  they  have  nevertheless  always  been  distin- 
guished as  a  powerful,  active,  and  warlike  nation.  They  are  tall  and 
slender,  have  regular  features,  somewhat  rounded  noses,  not  very  thick 
lips,  crisp  woolly  hair,  and  the  skin  is  of  a  very  glossy  black  color.  They 
are  described  as  the  handsomest  negroes  of  this  part  of  Africa,  and  their 
women  as  particularly  good-looking.  They  are,  however,  said  to  be  proud, 
malicious,  revengeful,  lying  and  deceitful,  gluttonous,  intemperate  in 
drinking  liquors,  lazy  and  averse  to  labor.  Hospitality  is  the  only  good 
quality  for  which  travellers  give  them  credit.  Their  magicians  and 
soothsayers  are  greatly  respected  amongst  them.  A  small  stock  of  cattle 
constitutes  their  only  property.  In  former  times  the  Jalloffs  were  the 
subjects  of  a  single  prince,  at  present  they  are  divided  into  many  small 
states  governed  by  insolent  despots.  Among  the  Jallofi^  are  classed  the  ' 
Serreras,  a  pastoral  people  that  live  in  the  neighborhood  of  Cape  Verde 
and  upon  the  confines  of  the  Jalloff  country,  and  go  entirely  naked. 

The  hot  and  fertile  Gold  Coast  of  West  Africa  extends  from  the  River 
Suciro  to  the  Rio  Volta.     Besides  the  products  of  the  vegetable  and 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  237 

animal  kingdoms,  the  country  possessed  at  one  time  an  abundance  of  pure 
gold,  and  hence  the  name  of  the  coast.  This  rich  source  of  the  precious 
metal  has,  however,  been  almost  exhausted  by  Europeans.  The  Negroes 
of  the  Gold  Coast  are  not  like  those  on  the  Senegal  and  Gambia,  but  are 
quite  as  well  formed.  Their  complexion  is  a  deep  shining  black,  the  eyes 
sparkling,  and  the  teeth  white.  In  youth  these  negroes  endeavor  to  check 
the  growth  of  hair  upon  the  face ;  at  a  more  advanced  age,  however,  many 
wear  handsome  curled  beards.  The  hair  of  the  head  is  shaved  off,  with 
the  exception  of  a  tuft  upon  the  crown.  Women  ornament  this  tuft  with 
gay-colored  feathers  and  gold  pins,  and  usually  paint  their  bodies  with 
white  figures,  whilst  their  faces  are  mostly  decorated  with  blue  and  green. 
Among  both  sexes,  the  greater  part  of  the  body  is  unclothed.  Metal  rings 
encircle  the  legs  and  arms.  The  weapons  are  spears,  bows  and  arrows, 
guns  and  knives,  and  shields  for  defence  against  th«  assault  of  an  enemy. 
Besides  their  arms,  they  attach  to  their  persons  a  vessel  in  which  the 
provisions  are  kept,  a  calabash  to  be  used  for  drinking,  and,  when  setting 
out  for  battle,  a  strong  bast  rope  for  tying  their  captives.  Warriors  some- 
times wear  on  their  heads  the  dried  scalp  of  a  slain  animal,  which  they 
smear  with  blood. 

The  habitations,  which  are  round,  consist  of  wicker-work  covered  with 
loam,  and  have  roofs  of  palm  branches.  A  bunch  of  rushes  projects  at 
the  top  like  a  crest.  As  every  house  has  but  a  single  apartment,  every 
family  usually  possesses  several  dwellings,  which  are  inclosed  by  a  hedge. 
Men  of  rank,  accustomed  to  luxury,  however,  in  consequence  of  intercourse 
with  Europeans,  have  larger  houses  with  several  rooms. 

Owing  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  the  cultivation  of  the  earth  gives  but 
little  trouble.  The  Grold  Coast  Negroes  are  not  unskilful  smiths,  and  now 
even  manufacture  guns.  Neat  baskets,  mats,  and  parasols  are  plaited  by 
them  with  considerable  dexterity.  They  are  not  particular  in  the  selection 
of  food,  and  eat  many  animals  that  civilized  people  .would  not  willingly 
touch.  In  their  disposition  they  exhibit,  like  all  the  natives  that  associate 
with  Europeans,  the  strongest  mixture  of  good  and  bad.  They  are  mild, 
sympathizing,  hospitable,  but  in  a  high  degree  slaves  to  their  sensual 
desires,  sacrificing  everything  to  their  gratification.  At  the  same  time 
they  are  proud,  and  oppress  wherever  they  are  able  to  domineer.  As 
enemies  they  are  implacable,  and  their  thirst  for  revenge  is  great.  The 
slave  trade  hardens  them  ;  the  desire  for  fire-water,  the  brandy  of  Europe- 
ans, smothers  in  them  all  delicate  feelings ;  but  notwithstanding  all  this, 
they  love  and  take  great  care  of  their  children.  Like  all  negroes,  they 
give  themselves  up  to  sluggish  repose ;  and  if  they  own  slaves,  the  latter  are 
obliged  to  perform  all  the  work.  In  case  they  have  none,  the  greater  part 
of  the  labor  falls  upon  the  women.  All  negroes  are  exceedingly  fond  of 
dancing.  At  times,  also,  a  kind  of  pantomimic  representation  is  given. 
Games  of  hazard  are  often  played  with  great  passion ;  and  many  a  man 
stakes  his  entire  property  and  estate,  and  indeed  even  his  liberty.  Almost 
every  village  has  its  ruler  or  king,  who,  however,  has  no  particular  marks 
of  distinction,  unless  intercourse  with  Europeans  has  induced  him  to  adopt 

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use  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

Mmething  of  the  sort.  He  governs^  however,  with  harshness;  awerds 
punishments  affecting  money  and  property,  liberty  and  life ;  but  even  the 
severest  penalty  may  be  bought  off  by  means  of  presents.  Justice  is 
administered  altogether  according  to  his  arbitrary  will. 

The  religion  of  most  of  the  negroes  of  the  Gold  Coast  is  heathenish ; 
they  are  chiefly  pagans;  a  few,  however,  lukewarm  Mohammedans,  or 
Christians.  Among  them,  as  among  all  negroes,  respect  for  the  priests 
prevails;  and  priestcraft  rules,  afflicts,  and  oppresses  the  ignorant  pocnr. 
Judgments  of  God  are  usual  among  them,  and  through  their  instrumentality 
revenge  and  avarice  are  often  gratified,  and  the  innocent  crushed. 

Between  the  Gambia  and  Sierra  Leone  are  many  other  small  tribes; 
among  them,  1.  The  Feloups  (Felloopi),  living  in  villages  in  the  thickets  on 
the  Lasamanga  and  the  head  waters  of  the  Vintain,  a  river  emptying  on 
the  left  side  of  the  Q^unbia ;  2.  The  Banyone»,  and  to  the  south  of  them, 
8.  The  Papels,  a  savage,  cruel,  revengeful,  and  warlike  tribe ;  4.  South  of 
the  Papels,  the  rude  and  ill-favored  Balantes ;  5.  The  large«  strong,  cruel, 
and  savage  Bissagoes,  inhabiting  the  islands  of  the  same  name ;  6.  The 
Biafars,  considered  the  handsomest  nation  of  this  coast,  and  living  on  the 
Geba,  facing  the  island  Bissao,  and  as  far  as  Koli,  where  they  are  bordered 
by  7.  The  Basares,  who  are  reported  to  be  cannibak.  In  the  same  vicinity 
live  also :  8.  The  Natuhes,  separated  from  the  Biafars  by  the  Rio  Grande. 
Between  the  Rio  Nunez  and  Sierra  Leone,  on  the  banks  of  four  other 
navigable  rivers,  are,  9.  The  Zapes,  10.  The  Foolics,  11.  The  Cocolies,  and 
12.  The  Nakz,  all  idolaters.  Almost  all  these  tribes  are  described  as  repul- 
sive savages,  with  large  and  coarse  features,  flat  noses,  and  of  dirty  and 
livid  complexion. 

The  S00S004  live  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  British  settlement  of 
Sierra  Leone.  Next  to  them  reside  the  Booloms,  in  whose  territory  the 
colony  alluded  to  is  situated,  and  who  extend  to  the  Island  of  Sherbro. 
Then  follow  the  Timmanies  and  Bagous,  or  Bagas.  All  four  are  hand^ 
some  and  strong,  with  prepossessing  features,  and  lees  barbarous  than  the 
preceding.  In  the  highlands  back  of  Sierra  Leone,  south  of  Fouta  Jallon, 
in  the  district  of  the  sources  of  the  River  Mungo  and  of  the  Rochello  or 
Sala,  live  the  warlike,  powerful  Soulimas,  who  are  among  the  most  culti- 
vated  and  handsome  of  the  heathen  nations.  Close  to  them,  beyond  the 
sources  of  the  Joliba-Quorra,  are  the  Sangars^  similar  to  the  last  named ; 
and  south  of  them,  the  Kissis  and  Limbas.  Of  tbe  numerous  small  tribes 
peopling  the  Grain  and  Pepper  Coasts,  and  the  Ivory  Coast,  to  the  east 
and  west  of  Cape  Palmas,  as  well  as  the  interior  of  the  back  country,  we 
name  only  the  Kroohs  (Kroomen,  Karoos),  the  Kangas,  Mangries,  Gien$, 
Deys,  Crorahs,  Greyhos,  Bassos,  Fiks,  Queahs  (Keahs),  Kasso/uhs,  Quoies, 
Hondos,  Folgies,  Gtbhes,  Timmes,  Quilligies,  and  Puys.  On  tbe  Ivory  Coast, 
between  Cape  Palmas  and  Cape  Three  Points,  and  the  country  behind 
Ibis  shore,  the  Quaqutu  are  esteemed  the  principal  nation.  Here  belong, 
moreover,  the  Isinis  or  Oshin,  Ghiomos,  Veieres,  and  Esieps,  who  likewise 
live  along  the  Ivory  Coast.  In  the  back  country  live  the  powerful  Bunia- 
imks,  bounded  on  the  east  side  by  the  kingdom  of  the  JLskantees  {JnUu} 
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ETHirOLOGY  OF  TOE  PRESENT  DAY.  389 

Hie  latter  tffe  well  proportioned,  with  bandsoine  oval  faces,  sparkling  ejrei, 
small  ears,  and  high,  thick  eyebrows;  well  proportioned  mouths;  good- 
looking,  olean,  white  teeth  ;  fresh  red  lips,  neither  very  thick  nor  pendent ; 
and  not  very  broad  noses.  Their  hair  is  long,  curly,  and  tolerably  soft. 
Their  complexion  is  deep  black.  The  religion  of  the  Ashantees  is  a  rude, 
bloody  idolatry,  or  fetish  worship,  their  form  of  government  a  tyrannical 
despotism,  and  tbehr  captives  are  tortured  to  death.  Round  about  the 
Intas,  of  whom,  properly  speaking,  the  Ashantees  are  only  the  principal 
nation,  are  the  Akraes,  formerly  powerful,  but  at  present  greatly  thinned 
by  the  Ashantees.  They  likewise  are  rude  heathens.  The  Foys,  or  Dahö- 
mies,  are  the  inhabitants  of  the  kingdom  of  Dahomey,  or  Dabon>et.  They 
are  called  Foys  after  the  country  Foy  or  Fouin,  in  which  they  formerly 
resided,  and  which  lies  to  the  north-east  of  their  present  territory.  They 
have  their  own  language,  of  which  the  Widah,  Ardrah,  Papaa,  and  Atshe, 
or  Watshßf  are  dialects.  The  Foys  are  industrious,  and  in  spite  of  their 
despotic  government,  have  made  the  furthest  advances  in  civilization  of  alf 
the  heathen  negro  nations ;  for  which  they  are  indebted  to  their  long  inter- 
course with  Europeans,  who  for  centuries  have  resided  near  them,  in  order 
to  carry  on  the  slave  trade.  The  Foys  are  well  formed  and  large  of 
stature,  but  have  not  the  soft  features  of  the  Akraes.  The  women  are 
veiy  ugly.  The  Foys  display  a  remarkable  mixture  of  savageness  and 
civilisation,  of  barbarity  and  lofty  sentiments. 

In  the  interior  of  the  delta  overspread  by  the  great  Niger  with  a 
network  of  river-channels,  the  most  numerous  nation  is  constituted  by  the 
Ibues  {Iboei,  Eboes),  on  both  sides  of  the  Quorra,  eastwardly,  as  far  as  the 
River  Calabar ;  other  tribes  residing  there  are  the  Igan,  Evo,  Bihi,  Mokös 
(Mokko)j  Benines,  Calbra,  Camacons,  Omuns,  Acanucunus,  and  Inniong. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  interior  of  Africa  are  divided,  according  to  their 
languages,  into  six  principal  nations :  Kissures  of  Timbuctoo  (West  Sou- 
dan) ;  Haussans,  or  Ctouberies  (East  Soudan)  ;  Bomouese ;  Eyeos ;  Mob- 
bans ;  and  Bergharmese, 

The  Kissures  are  a  civilized  negro  nation,  very  little  impressed  with  the 
negro  type.  Mohammedanism  has  spread  over  the  wholQ  of  Soudan,  but 
its  inhabitants  are  not  such  strict  professors  as  the  Foulahs.  They  are 
tolerant,  and  polite  and  friendly  to  every  one.  Towards  females  also  they 
are  not  so  harsh  as  the  Senegambian  and  Guinea  negro  nations.  Women 
are  permitted  to  go  unveiled,  but  not  to  eat  with  their  husbands,  nor  even 
with  their  own  sons.  Besides  the  language  of  the  country,  the  Arabic  is 
in  general  use,  and  they  have  also  Arabic  letters.  The  inhabitants  <^ 
West  Soudan  are  very  intelligent.  Their  principal  employment  is  hus- 
bandry (the  cultivation  of  maize,  millet,  tobacco,  &c.) ;  but  less  attention 
is  paid  to  rearing  cattle.  The  labor  of  farming,  however,  is  mostly  con- 
signed to  slaves,  the  free  rich  devoting  themselves  to  traffic,  the  poor  of  the 
cities  to  handicrafts.  The  Kissures  live  very  well ;  their  principal  food  is 
rice ;  fresh  meat,  however,  forms  a  part  of  the  meals  ainrjost  daily.  They 
sit  around  a  large  platter,  out  of  which  the  food  is  taken  with  the  fingera, 
Us  k  customary  amongst  all  the  nations  of  the  interior.     The  cities,  Jinnee 

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240  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

and  Timbuctoo  for  instance,  are  like  the  villages  of  Europe,  bat  surrounded 
with  walls  14  feet  thick  and  10  or  12  feet  in  height.  The  houses  are  built 
of  air-dried  bricks,  one  story  high,  with  flat  roof,  the  windows  opening  on 
the  court.  Every  house  has  a  flight  of  steps  leading  up  to  the  roof.  The 
streets  are  irregular,  and  often  very  broad. 

The  dress  of  the  Kissures  approaches  the  graceful  costume  of  the  Moors. 
In  pL  26,  ßg.  10,  a  girl  is  represented,  wearing  a  conical  cap,  a  short- 
sleeved  blue  jacket,  richly  ornamented  with  gold,  over  the  wide-sleeved 
chemise,  and  a  boddice  fitting  tight  on  the  bosom ;  the  jacket  being 
encircled  above  the  hips  by  a  wadded  white  and  red  striped  border.  The 
frock,  which  reaches  below  the  knees,  is  trimmed  with  broad  gold  lace. 
The  wide  scarlet  mantle  is  only  slung  around  the  hips  in  fine  weather. 
Small  slippers  are  worn  on  the  bare  feet,  and  a  wide  ring  loosely  girds  the 
ankles.  In  the  right  hand,  the  girl  here  represented  carries  a  feather  brush 
or  fan. 

Hereditary  princes  are  at  the  head  of  the  government,  which  is  based 
upon  the  directions  of  the  Koran,  and  is  described  as  being  very  mild. 
The  King  of  Timbuctoo  has  lost  much  of  his  independence  by  the  inces- 
sant inroads  of  the  Tuaricks,  called  Sorgous  by  the  Kissures.  The  royal 
house  is  marked  by  no  splendor,  and  the  sovereign  lives  in  a  style  little 
better  than  that  of  his  subjects. 

The  Gouberies,  or  Haussans,  all  speak  the  language  of  Gouber.  Before 
the  last  conquests  of  the  Foulahs  in  Soudan,  the  different  tribes  of  East 
Soudan,  as  Prichard  informs  us,  had  become  the  subjects  of  one  sovereign, 
and  were  blended  into  a  single  kingdom  which  was  called  Haussa  {Houssa, 
Hawsa),  after  the  principal  state.  The  inhabitants  spoke  a  dialect  of  the 
language  common  to  the  whole  nation,  siifce  then  called  the  Houssa 
dialect,  and  which  seems  to  have  been  divided  into  more  or  less  varying 
sub-dialects,  according  to  the  different  provinces  in  which  it  formed  the 
idiom  of  the  people.  The  East  Soudanians  are  not  entirely  black,  have 
interesting  physiognomies,  with  small,  not  broad  noses,  and  their  appear- 
ance is  less  repulsive  than  that  of  the  negroes  of  Guinea.  Their  eyes  are 
black,  with  a  frank  and  noble  expression.  True  beauties  are  found  among 
the  female  sex,  hence  the  women  are  greatly  esteemed  as  slaves.  Since 
the  inhabitants  are  yet  exposed  to  being  sold  as  slaves,  it  may  be  presumed 
that  they  have  not  yet  all  embraced  Mohammedanism.  The  Houssans  are 
a  subdued  nation,  under  the  dominion  of  the  Fellatahs,  who  have  settled  in 
numerous  colonies  among  them.  The  former,  however,  have  retained  their 
old  customs  and  occupations.  They  pursue  agriculture,  rearing  cattle, 
mechanical  occupations,  and  traflüc  in  the  interior  of  the  country.  They 
live  in  villages  and  towns,  the  latter  of  which,  Kashna  (Kasnea)  for  mstance, 
are  frequently  very  large.  The  sword  and  bow  and  arrows  are  the  wea- 
pons  in  use.  Women  often  color  their  hair,  hands,  feet,  thighs,  and  eye- 
brows, blue  ;  and  among  both  sexes,  the  teeth  and  lips  are  generally  dyed. 

The  Bomouese,  inhabitants  of  Bomou,  are  blacker,  stouter,  and  have 
more  strongly  marked  f<^tures  than  the  Houssas ;  but  handsome  figures 
are  also  found,  especially  among  the  women,  who  not  unfrequently  have  a 
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ETHNOLOGY  OP  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  241 

complexion  more  inclining  to  brown.  The  Bomouese  call  themselves 
Kanowry;  and  the  rude  mountaineers,  who  are  still  heathens,  Bedies. 
From  descriptions  of  this  nation,  we  learn  that  they,  particularly  the 
Mohammedan  portion,  are  peaceable,  quiet,  timid,  and  polite,  but  revenge- 
ful withal.  A  certain  melancholy  is  said  to  be  perceptible  in  their  looks. 
The  cultivation  of  grain  is  the  principal  means  of  support;  rearing 
cattle  is  followed  to  a  great  extent  by  the  immigrated  Arabs,  who  are  here 
called  Shouas,  Few  of  the  industrial  arts  are  practised  in  this  country, 
and  hence  the  Bornouese  are  obliged  to  look  to  commerce  with  foreign 
lands  as  the  means  of  obtaining  many  articles  considered  necessary. 
Tattooing  and  painting  the  body  blue  are  still  in  use  among  the  Bomouese. 
Bornou  possesses  large  towns,  surrounded  by  walls  forty  feet  in  height  and 
twenty  thick,  and  the  houses  are  pretty  and  roomy ;  in  the  country,  how- 
ever, they  have  only  straw  and  mud  huts.  Bornou  is  under  an  absolute 
elective  prince.  The  chief  power  rests,  nevertheless,  in  the  hands  of  the 
grandees,  who  form  the  court  of  the  Sultan.  Their  government  is  bcuied 
upon  the  Mosaic  code,  and  is  said  to  be  just  and  tolerably  mild.  The 
Bornou  girls  (/>/.  26,ßg.  8)  wear  petticoats  reaching  below  the  knee,  and 
over  them  blue  garments  which  leave  the  arms  and  left  breast  free.  Their 
hair  hangs  down  on  both  sides  in  short  braids,  ornamented  with  pearls,  and 
a  red  frontlet  girds  the  temples,  another  riband  being  attached  to  it,  which 
lies  across  the  crown  of  the  head.    On  the  feet  they  wear  sandals. 

In  the  southern  section  of  the  kingdom  of  Houssa,  on  both  sides  of  the 
Quorra  Niger,  there  are  tribes  who  differ  from  the  Gouberies  in  language 
and  manners.  Among  them  are  the  Eyeos  {Ayos,  Oyos,  Okyaus),  whose 
language  is  the  national  tongue  of  the  kingdom  of  Jarriba  or  Eyeo,  and  of 
the  province  of  Borgou  or  Borgho,  which  is  divided  into  many  small  states. 
Clapperton  says  of  the  natives  of  Jarriba,  that  they  have  less  characteristic 
negro  features  than  any  other  nation  of  Africa ;  the  lips  are  not  so  thick, 
and  the  nose  is  somewhat  aquiline.  He  describes  the  King  of  Boussa 
(pL  26,  fig.  9)  as  a  handsome  man,  and  our  representation  appears  to 
corroborate  this  account.  His  overcoat  is  green  with  red  stripes,  and 
worked  with  arabesques.  Turban,  sash,  and  the  wide  trowsers  are  scarlet; 
the  boots  yellow.  Lander  was  astonished  at  the  regularity  of  the  features, 
the  elegance  of  the  form,  and  the  great  dignity  in  the  manners  of  the  black 
king  of  Kiama.  In  Wawa,  the  men  are  tall  and  well  formed.  The  greater 
portion  of  these  tribes  are  still  heathens,  but  human  sacrifices  are  not 
offered.  Lizards,  crocodiles,  tortoises,  boa  constrictors,  &c.,  are  their 
fetishes.  The  Eyeos  trace  back  their  origin  to  Bornou,  and  assert  that 
their  country  was  formerly  inhabited  by  the  Cumbries,  who,  at  the  time  of 
their  immigration,  were  driven  out  of  Bornou  into  the  mountains  and 
forests.  On  the  western  shore  of  the  lower  Quorra,  a  short  distance  above 
its  junction  with  the  Tshadda,  is  the  district  of  the  Ibbedos  (Kakunda). 

To  the  east  of  Bornou  lies  the  country  of  Mobba  (Borgou,  Dar  Eselek, 
Wadai,  or  Wadey),  whose  inhabitants  are  not  very  dusky  black,  and  among 
whom  the  negro  type  is  in  some  cases  more,  in  others  less  observed. 
Islamism  is  their  religion,  and  instmotion  is  given  in  reading  and  writing 

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242  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

Arabic.     Thejr  appear  to  be  mild  and  frank,  and  veracious  towardi  straoi- 
gers.     The  metropolis  is  called  Wara. 

The  Begharmese  inhabit  the  country  Begharmeh  (Begharmi,  Bagermi), 
have  their  own  language,  and  are  mostly  Mohammedans.  They  are  proud 
and  warlike,  but  also  industrious ;  their  cotton  weaving  and  dyeing  deserve 
especial  mention.  This  nation  is  continually  at  war  with  the  Bomouese« 
In  the  neighborhood  live,  also,  the  Mandarans,  and  the  powerful  warlike 
Mangowies,  as  well  as  the  repulsive  Biddmnah, 

In  the  southern  and  eastern  parts  of  Kordefan,  and  Dar-Fki  bordering 
thereon,  and  as  far  as  the  White  Nile  (Arabic  Bahrel-Äbiad),  and  along 
this  river,  there  are  various  Ntiba  or  negro  tribes,  speaking  different  Ian* 
guagee.  According  to  Röppel,  four  dialects  are  spoken  in  Kordofan  by  the 
same  number  of  nations  {Koldagi,  Ckabun,  Takete,  and  Deier,  or  Dahert^ 
who  are  all  united  under  the  name  of  Nuba.  Besides  the  Nubas,  we  men- 
tion the  Fouries,  Rungas,  Begos  or  Dageous,  Zegkawas,  KuUaa,  FertUSi 
Denkas,  and  Shillooks,  The  latter  inhabit  the  mountainous  country  o( 
Bertrat,  rich  in  rivers,  which  borders  on  Fertit,  south  of  Kordofan  and 
Dar  Fur,  and  to  the  west  of  Abyssinia.  A  portion  of  the  last  mentioned 
nation,  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  took  possession  of  Sen« 
naar,  and  erected  the  city  of  that  name  the  metropolis  of  their  kingdom, 
as  it  was  then  constituted.  Here  they  Qall  themselves  Fungi  (signifying 
"conquerors"  in  Arabic),  whilst  they  give  the  names  Akbits,  Abkd,  or 
Nuba,  that  is  to  say,  negroes,  to  those  of  their  tribe  and  language  remain- 
ing at  home  in  Bertrat.  To  this  nation  probably  belong  die  negro  tribes 
who  live  in  the  low  swampy  and  forest  districts  at  the  fi>ot  of  the  Abys- 
sinian highlands,  and  are  called  Skangallas  by  the  Abyssinians.  The. 
Skangallas  prefer  a  savage  existence  by  hunting,  fishing,  and  robbery,  and 
are  without  social  coherence,  except  in  cases  of  single  hordes  or  families. 
They  are  rude  and  barbarous,  subsist  on  the  fle^  of  wild  animals  and  fish, 
are  devoted  to  idolatry,  dwell  in  caverns,  and  pay  no  attention  to  agricul- 
ture and  the  rearing  of  cattle.  With  ttie  Abyssinians  they  live  in  a  state 
of  perpetual  warfare.  Like  the  Shillooks,  they  seem  to  worship  the  sun 
and  moon.  The  Koldagi-Nuha  are  husbandmen,  and  inhabit  the  central 
and  northern  section  of  Kordofan.  PL  96,^.  1%  represents  Negroes  ot 
Central  Africa  worshipping  a  fetish.  PL  98,  fig.  3,  Negroes  about  a  slain 
elephant. 

According  to  Lichtenstein,  l^e  inliabitants  of  the  entire  southern  half  of 
Africa,  from  the  equator,  and  even  a  poini  beyond  it  on  the  north,  as  far 
as  the  confines  of  the  Cape  Land,  or  the  territory  of  the  Hottentots,  belong 
to  a  single  slock,  since  they  are  united  by  a  common  language,  spoken 
in  different  dialects.  The  philologist  Maroden  has  corroborated  this 
assertion. 

At  present  the  western  tribes,  or  Congo  Negree»,  are  split  into  numerous 
small  states,  but  finrmerly  belonged  to  a  single  nation.  They  lived  in  the 
north-eastern  section  of  the  oountiy,  but  extended  their  conquests  so 
widely  as  to  advance  to  that  part  cf  the  coast  now  called  Congo,  and  iirm^' 
the  tribes  then  dweUing  there  to  the  south.  Tke  oonquerers  cded  them- 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  248 

fldvea  Mohta  (cfaieO*  A  kind  of  pestilence,  however,  forced  tliem,  with 
tbe  exception  of  a  portion,  back  to  their  own  country.  The  colony  remain- 
ing liebind  were  usually  denominated  not  only  Memba  Molua,  but  also 
Abufuia  (conquerors).  This  territory  was  afterwards  re-conquered  by  a 
ohieftain  of  the  dispossessed  natives,  called  Angola,  and  his  name  was 
finally  applied  to  the  country  itself.  The  Bunda  is  the  most  universal 
language  of  the  kingdom  of  Angola ;  it  is  said  to  be  derived  from  Cassange, 
is  spoken  also  in  Mattemba  and  Libolo,  and  is  very  near  akin  to  the  Congo 
tongue.  The  latter  is  in  use  in  the  entire  region  of  country  extending 
from  the  banks  of  the  Liiune  to  Cape  St.  Catharine,  on  the  border  of  the 
kingdom  of  Lioango,  and  is  prevalent  in  the  latter  kingdom  also.  On  the 
southern  side  of  the  river  Coanza»  another,  the  Benguela  language,  is 
spoken,  containing,  however,  many  words  of  the  Bunda. 

The  negroes  dwelling  in  eastern  Congo,  and  still  independent  of  Portu^ 
gal,  are  very  different  from  those  under  Portuguese  dominion.  They  are 
more  active  and  courageous ;  are  expert  warriors,  who  often  quarrel  with 
neighboring  nations,  in  order  to  take  frxHn  the  latter  their  women,  children, 
and  cattle.  The  coast  regions  are  more  densely  populated  than  the  interior 
of  the  country. 

The  comfdexion  is  not  equally  black  in  all  the  Congo  negroes,  but  the 
skin  is  universally  very  glistening,  which  is  the  more  apt  to  be  the  case 
from  the  fact  thai  they  smear  themselves  with  animal  grease  or  palm  oil. 
The  forehead  is  narrow,  the  nose  thick  and  flat,  the  chin  short  and  bent 
backwards,  the  hair  woolly  and  grey  in  old  age ;  the  jaws  are  long,  the  lips 
turned  out,  and  the  ears  large. 

We  here  take  occasion  to  mention  also  several  other  peculiarities  that 
have  been  observed  in  the  negroes  generally.  Thus,  for  instance,  the 
brain  of  the  negro  cranium  is  of  a  brown  color,  and  weighs  from  two  to 
four  ounces  less  than  that  of  white  people.  The  bones  of  the  cranium  are 
stronger  with  the  negroes.  In  fevers,  discharged  bile  is  black  in  color^ 
thick  and  flaky ;  among  the  whites,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  brown  or  grass 
green.  The  blood  of  the  negroes  is  dark  brown,  in  death  viscous,  black, 
and  so  thick  that  it  appears  to  unite  with  the  flesh  into  one  mass.  New 
born  children  are  bright  copper-colored,  but  become  darker  after  a  fort- 
night ;  the  aged  are  yellowish  black.  The  blood  is  two  degrees  warmer  on 
an  average  than  that  of  the  whites.  Negroes  in  Africa  soon  grow  old,  so 
that  a  negro  of  thirty  years  of  age  is  not  more  vigorous  than  a  white  man 
in  Europe  of  from  fifty  to  sixty.  Negroes  numbering  over  forty  years 
are  even  rare.  The  perspiration  of  the  negroes  smells. very  offensively, 
especially  after  violent  exercise»  dancing  for  instance.  Females  grow  old 
still  s<KH2er  than  the  men ;  as  early  as  the  twenty-first  year  the  infirmities 
of  age  begin.  When  at  work,  women  have  their  children  upon  their 
badis;  even  whilst  dancing  they  keep  the  latter  with  them,  and  never 
trust  their  offspring  to  the  care  of  strangers.  In  the  coast  districts,  the 
small-pox  and  gout  very  frequently  occur ;  but  at  a  distance  of  not  more 
tiian  130  to  160  miles,  these  diseases  are  entirely  unknown.  The  Congo 
n^oes  look  rude,  sullen,  savage,  and  cruel,  but  in  spite  of  their  serious 

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244  fflSTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

disposition  engage  in  jokes  and  raillery,  and  laugh  with  a  hearty  good  will 
Their  intellect  is  generally  of  a  very  inferior  order,  they  comprehend  with 
great  difficulty,  and  reflection  appears  to  fatigue  them;  they  give  them- 
selves up  to  sensual  enjoyments  and  pleasure  without  the  least  restraint, 
and  their  highest  good  fortune  is  inaction.  The  fetishes  worshipped  by 
them  are  either  certain  living  animals,  intrusted  to  the  care  of  youths  and 
maidens  employed  for  the  purpose ;  or  representations  of  human  beings 
and  animals  carved  by  themselves;  sometimes  also  plants,  chiefly  trees. 
The  negroes  pray  to  these  idols,  not  from  fear,  but  with  a  view  of  per- 
suading them  to  show  them  greater  favor;  and  the  sorcerers  and  jugglers 
employ  every  means  to  keep  these  poor  creatures  in  their  superstition. 
They  believe  in  a  sort  of  spiritual  existence  after  death,  and  in  a  transmi- 
gration of  souls ;  and  the  negroes  acquainted  with  Europeans  entertain  the 
desire  that  after  death  their  soul  may  go  into  the  body  of  a  white  man ; 
indeed,  they  even  beseech  their  gods,  if  there  is  no  place  ready  for  it, 
to  keep  their  soul  in  heaven  until  it  can  pass  into  a  white  man.  Some 
tribes  are  said  to  be  cannibals.  Negroes  bear  bodily  pain  with  the  greatest 
calmness ;  and  a  sound  indicative  of  sufiering  is  seldom  heard  from  them 
even  when  undergoing  the  most  horrible  t(H*ments. 

PL  2Srßg.  6,  baptized  negresses  of  Benguela;  ßg.  8,  armed  Mohia 
negroes  guarding  the  king's  house ;  fig.  9,  human  sacrifice  among  the 
Cassange  negroes ;  fig.  4,  a  negro  chief  under  the  Portuguese  dominion 
surrounded  by  his  chieftains  and  wives ;  fig,  5,  solemnity  in  honor  of  the 
dead  among  the  negro  tribes  south  of  the  river  Coango;  fig.  7,  negro 
soldier  of  the  Portuguese  possessions. 

In  the  regions  on  the  coast  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  from  the  confines  of  the 
Cape  Land  to  a  point  beneath  the  equator,  there  is  a  race  differing  greatly 
from  the  negroes  proper.  Their  skull  is  high-arched,  the  entire  head  of  an 
agreeable  form,  the  nose  not  flat,  and  the  teeth  of  dazzling  whiteness ;  the 
lips  nevertheless  are  large,  and  the  cheekbones  prominent.  The  men,  in 
particular,  display  a  vigorous  and  slender  form,  and  their  limbs  are  strong 
and  symmetrical.  Their  complexion  is  brown,  but  towards  the  equator 
passes  into  the  deepest  black ;  the  hair  is  black,  short,  and  woolly. 

When  the  Portuguese  came  to  the  coasts  of  Sofala  and  Mozambique, 
they  found  two  kinds  of  inhabitants :  Arabic  colonists  of  mixed  or  pure 
blood,  and  the  dark-colored  natives  of  the  country.  The  former,  being  of  • 
the  Mohammedan  faith,  were  denominated  by  the  Portuguese,  Moors; 
the  latter,  however,  were  called  by  the  Arabs,  Kafirs,  that  is  to  say 
"  unbelievers."  This  name  was  retained  by  the  Portuguese,  corrupting  it 
by  degrees  into  Kafiers,  or  Caffires,  which  is  now  applied  to  a  tribe  whoee 
territory  is  not  confined  to  the  eastern  coast  merely,  but  extends  over  the 
entire  elevated  country  of  South  Africa,  as  far  as  the  Atlantic  coast. 
Caffreland,  or  Caffraria  proper,  reaches  from  the  Keiskamma  (the  river 
constituting  the  boundary  line  between  Caflraria  and  the  British  Ci^ 
Colony)  to  an  undetermined  boundary  which  falls  a  little  to  the  south  of 
Delagoa  Bay.  The  western  border  is  said  to  be  in  the  district  of  the 
sources  of  the  Orange  river,  emptying  into  the  Atlantic  ocean,  and  the 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  245 

river  Mapoula,  whose  mouth  is  in  Delagoa  Bay.  The  CafTres  are  divided 
into  four  great  nations:  Ama-Kosa,  Atna-Temba,  Ama-Fonda,  and  Ama- 
Zula. 

The  Caffres  are  cheerful»  frank,  and  manly,  and  engaged  principally  in 
rearing  cattle,  less  in  hunting  and  farming ;  the  herds  constituting  their 
chief  means  of  support.  Amongst  them  are  found  traces  of  a  belief  in  a 
higher  being,  and  in  inferior  spirits ;  but  they  have  no  regular  worship. 
Circumcision  is  general  amongst  the  CafTres.  Their  clothing  consists  of 
the  skins  of  animals,  which  these  people  understand  how  to  reduce  to 
softness  and  pliancy.  Their  weapons  are  a  spear,  a  broad  shield*  of  buffalo 
hide,  and  a  short  club ;  sometimes  also  a  kind  of  sword.  In  their  wars, 
which  are  not  very  bloody,  the  Caffres  show  respect  to  the  female  sex,  and 
also  treat  European  women  that  fall  into  their  hands  in  a  very  humane 
manner.  To  European  missionaries,  merchants,  and  travellers,  they  always 
manifest  friendship,  provided  they  are  not  met  in  company  with  a  detach- 
ment of  enemies.  The  Europeans,  notwithstanding  all  this,  show  little 
justice  or  humanity  towards  them,  but  on  the  contrary  subject  them  even 
to  the  most  shameful  cruelties. 

The  Hottentots  {pL  I,  fig.  16),  whom  we  have  already  described,  inhabit 
the  southern  end  of  Africa. 

When  the  Dutch  (in  the  17th  century)  set  foot  upon  this  section  of 
South  Africa,  as  friends  of  the  natives,  the  latter  gave  for  toys  and  a  few 
bottles  of  gin,  as  much  land  as  was  required  for  a  small  settlement.  Tha 
natives,  at  that  time,  were  a  tolerably  numerous  nation,  living  in  prosperity 
on  the  produce  of  their  herds,  and  divided  into  many  tribes,  each  under  its 
own  chief.  They  called  themselves  Quaique;  the  name  Hottentot  was 
entirely  unknown  to  them,  and  its  origin  is  not  ascertained.  A  sheepskin 
cloak  served  as  a  dress  by  day,  and  as  a  covering  during  the  night.  Cell- 
like huts,  constructed  of  piles  and  boughs,  and  covered  with  beech  mats, 
protected  them  from  the  effects  of  the  weather,  and  could  easily  be  carried 
from  one  spot  to  another,  by  means  of  their  pack  oxen.  Their  weapons 
consisted  of  a  light  spear,  and  a  bow  with  poisoned  arrows.  For  half  a 
century,  perhaps,  the  Europeans  remained  true  to  what  they  had  promised, 
and  manifested  no  hostility  towards  the  natives.  After  this  period,  how- 
ever, they  broke  their  friendship,  endeavored  to  enlarge  their  settlement, 
and  hence  waged  war  against  the  ii^mote  tribes,  gradually  taking  possession 
of  a  great  part  of  the  Cape  Land,  driving  back  the  tribes  of  the  Namaquas, 
Corannas,  and  Bushmen,  into  the  barren  deserts,  and  not  even  permitting 
them  to  pasture  their  herds  in  the  less  fertile  regions;  so  that  these  poor 
creatures  were  at  length  no  longer  able  to  keep  cattle,  and  their  herds  also 
passed  into  the  possession  of  the  robbers  who  had  seized  upon  their  pas- 
tures. Having  lost  their  possessions  in  this  manner,  they  were  constrained 
to  become  bondmen  to  the  Dutch,  and  thus  finally  saw  themselves 
deprived  of  personal  liberty,  and  treated  in  the  most  cruel  manner,  by  the 
Europeans..  Henoe  it  is  not  surprising  that  a  nation,  so  innocuous,  so 
gentle  and  quiet  by  nature,  sometimes  arm  themselves  in  order  to  regain 
their  liberty.    In  later  times,  since  1828,  they  have  been  placed  in  the  same 

lOOHOORAPHIO  BNOTOLOPiBDIA. — ^VOL.  m.  27  417 


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246  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

grade  with  the  rest  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Cape,  and  are  no  longer  bought 
and  sold ;  but  they  are  always  treated  in  the  harshest  manner  by  their 
masters,  never  receive  the  clothing  and  better  food  of  slaves,  and  are 
employed  for  work  for  wFiich  the  latter  are  considered  too  good.  Thus 
they  are  sent,  for  instance,  as  keepers  with  the  herds  of  their  masters,  into 
sections  of  the  country  where  life  is  placed  in  jeopardy,  and  where  they 
are  not  unfrequently  torn  to  pieces  by  lions.  The  moral  condition  of  the 
nation  is,  in  general,  improved,  and  they  endeavor  to  provide  a  better 
education  /or  their  children  than  was  formerly  given.  When,  In  the  year 
1829,  a  tract  of  their  land  was  restored  to  a  few  Hottentots  (about  250 
men  capable  of  bearing  arms,  with  their  families),  the  pursuit  of  agriculture 
was  commenced  by  them  with  such  zeal  and  attention,  that  many  soon 
rose  from  the  most  pinching  poverty  to  tolerable  wealth.  The  neighboring 
tribes  of  the  Cafires,  who  in  the  beginning  manifested  hostility,  finally 
entered  into  friendly  relations  with  them ;  and  as  more  and  more  of  their 
own  countrymen  obtained  permission  to  join  them,  their  number  rose  at 
last  to  4000  souls,  700  of  whom  were  armed  with  guns.  Virtue,  industry, 
and  temperance  now  increased  amongst  the  Hottentots,  and  at  the  present 
time  they  appear  to  be  subjects  of  the  most  loyal  and  peaceable  character. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  East  Coast  of  South  Africa,  from  Inhambane  to 
the  equator,  diifer  from  the  CafTres  in  external  formation,  but  as  far  as 
language  is  concerned,  are  nevertheless  to  be  included  with  them.  On  the 
coast  of  Mozambique  are,  the  Maquas  (Makwanos),  the  Madshowyin  (per- 
haps synonymous  with  Mongol  or  Mondshus),  the  Mtshauva,  the  Mnichem-* 
pani,  the  Mlomoi,  and  more  in  the  interior  the  Maravis.  Round  about 
Delagoa  Bay  dwell  the  Ma-Put  a  (La-Puta),  Mafumo,  MattoII,  and  Temby, 
nations  mixed  up  of  CafTres  and  Negroes.  On  the  Zambese  River,  in  the 
interior  of  South  Africa,  are  the  very  savage  Mumbos;  and  nearer  the 
coast,  the  Zimbas  or  Maximbas ;  both  said  to  be  nations  of  cannibals. 
Northwardly  from  the  Maquas,  upon  the  coast  of  Zanzibar,  from  Magadoxa 
to  the  vicinity  of  Mombasa,  are  the  Mohammedan  Souhaili,  or  Sowahili. 

The  tribes  of  the  highlands  of  the  interior,  the  Beshuanas  or  Bichuanas, 
are  subdivided  into  numerous  branches ;  and  separated  from  them  by  a 
great  desert  and  on  the  coast  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  live  the  Damaras. 
North  of  the  Beshuanas^  in  the  district  watered  by  the  Zambese  or  Cuanna, 
are  the  Macarouga ;  north  and  north-^st  of  these  the  Bororas  (Maravis)  ; 
next  follow  the  Mowiza ;  and  besides  those  mentioned,  the  Mucamango, 
Mutshiva,  Monomoezi,  and  Wambungo,  are  particular  tribes. 

Upon  the  elevated  region  of  the  interior  portion  of  East  Africa,  is  the 
savage  and  numerous  nation  of  Gallas ;  of  browner  complexion,  and  with 
long  black  hair.  Akin  to  them  appear  to  be  the  Danhali  and  Sumali,  living 
to  the  east  of  the  Gallas ;  as  also  the  Shohos^  who  inhabit  the  eastern  decli- 
vity of  the  Abyssinian  highlands  towards  Massua,  and  the  neighboring 
mountain  districts.  The  Dokos  are  a  very  savage  race,  scarcely  four  feet 
in  height ;  their  complexion  is  dark  olive  ;  and  in  customs  and  habits  they 
stand  in  the  lowest  of  all  grades  of  civilization.  They  are  in  no  way  allied 
to  the  Gallas. 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  247 

There  are  but  few  islands  around  Africa :  almost  all  of  them  are  small, 
hence  without  especial  influence  on  this  division  of  the  world.  Even 
Madagascar  has,  until  the  present  time,  been  entirely  cut  off  from  Africa 
by  the  strong  oceanic  current  in  the  Mozambique  channel.  Nevertheless 
we  cannot  allude  to  the  largest  African  island  without  at  least  a  brief 
statement  in  regard  to  its  population. 

The  Island  of  Madagascar  is  inhabited,  besides  Negroes  (on  the  west 
coast)  and  Caffres  (in  the  south),  by  the  Malpushes  and  Horas,  both  the 
latter  being  denominated  Madagassees.  Both  have,  in  general,  similar 
manners ;  the  Horas,  however,  are  the  more  warlike.  On  the  whole,  they 
are  distinguished  for  a  fine  growth,  are  of  more  than  medium  size,  and  of 
a  complexion  similar  to  that  of  the  Abyssinians ;  they  have  short,  crisp, 
and  black  woolly  hair,  but  regular  and  agreeable  features.  They  are 
lively,  and  fond  of  sensual  enjoyments.  Their  dress  is  very  simple,  consist- 
ing of  a  strip  of  cloth  which  is  wound  around  the  hips,  and  another  similar 
one,  which  is  thrown  across  the  shoulders  like  a  cloak.  The  women  wear 
a  broader  piece  of  cloth  arranged  like  a  skirt,  and  a  boddice  without  sleeves. 
Their  ornaments  are  necklaces,  armlets,  and  anklets,  of  metal,  pearls, 
corals,  &c. ;  a  heavy  gold  chain  is  worn  around  the  neck  and  breast,  which 
suspends  various  small  articles.  The  hair,  which  is  also  adorned  with  trin- 
kets, is  worn  in  several  braids,  which  married  women  wind  about  the 
head,  whilst  the  girls  let  them  hang  down  free.  Long  hair  is  esteemed  an 
essential  part  of  beauty;  and  hence  it  is  rubbed  with  oily  substances,  in 
order  that  its  growth  may  be  promoted. 

The  Madagassees  live  in  large  villages,  surrounded  by  high  palisades,  for 
protection  against  attacks.  Their  huts  are  very  simple,  of  a  bee-hive  form, 
and  rather  neat.  The  doors,  which  are  made  of  wicker-work,  are  movable, 
and  the  entrance  is  closed  by  simply  placing  them  before  the  opening. 
Sometimes  a  few  bundles  of  thorns  or  bushes  supply  the  place  of  doors. 
Palm  trees  afford  the  principal  material  for  these  huts.  The  man  of  conse- 
quence builds  around  his  large  hut  several  smaller  ones,  which  he  divides 
amongst  the  members  of  his  family.  The  entire  space  occupied  by  a 
Madagassee  village  is  very  attractive,  being  like  a  park  of  cocoa-palm, 
orange,  lemon,  plantain,  and  fig  trees,  &c.,  offering  numerous  shady  places, 
and  combining  the  charms  of  coolness,  fragrance,  and  juicy  fruits.  The 
household  furniture  is  very  simple ;  plaited  mats  are  used  for  tables  and 
couches ;  the  vessels  are  of  burnt  clay  or  wood ;  palm  leaves  serve  as 
table  cloths,  napkins,  spoons,  platters,  and  plates.  The  principal  food  is 
rice,  which  is  moistened  with  meat  broth,  and  seasoned  with  fragrant 
herbs  and  parts  of  other  aromatic  plants.  Many  roots,  manioc  for  instance, 
are  used  as  a  species  of  bread.  Fruits  and  berries  add  variety  to  the  meal. 
The  flesh  of  beasts,  birds,  and  fish,  is  eaten  boiled  or  broiled.  Mead,  with 
or  without  water,  is  the  favorite  beverage. 

The  Madagassees  are  mostly  good-natured  people,  benevolent  towards 
others;  only  by  their  intercourse  with  Europeans  have  they  become 
suspicious,  and  the  necessity  of  securing  their  liberty  sometimes  makes 
them  cruel  and  treacherous.     They  support  themselves  by  agriculture, 

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248  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

rearing  cattle,  fishing,  several  mechanic  trades,  and  commerce  in  home 
produce  and  'slaves.  Their  work  evinces  judgment.  Iron  and  other 
metals  are  smelted  by  them,  and  manufactured  into  utensils;  they  make 
mats,  baskets,  pots,  mortars,  spears,  arrows,  knives,  ä&c. ;  and  these  articles 
are  mostly  neat,  durable,  and  perfectly  adequate  to  their  purposes.  They 
have  also  boats,  in  which,  however,  they  only  venture  on  the  rivers  and 
along  the  coasts.  The  language  of  the  country  is  akin  to  the  Malay ;  the 
priests,  however,  understand  and  write  Arabic  also,  using  the  peel  of  a 
species  of  bulrush,  called  sanga-sanga,  instead  of  paper.  A  decoction  of 
the  bark  of  the  arandraco  tree  supplies  them  with  ink,  and  their  pens  are 
made  of  thin  bamboo  canes.  All  Madagassees  were  idolaters  until  their 
extraordinarily  energetic  and  active  prince  Radama  introduced  among 
them  European  life  (Christianity,  schools,  and  mode  of  building).  Unfor- 
tunately, this  prince  was  poisoned  in  his  twenty-seventh  year,  by  his 
intriguing  wife  Ranavala-Manjoka.  It  must  be  mentioned,  in  conclusion, 
that  the  Madagassees  have  particular  castes  or  families,  from  which  the 
sovereigns,  the  overseers  of  districts,  judges,  freemen,  &c.,  are  chosen. 
Slavery  is  permitted,  but  in  a  mitigated  form.  The  government  differs 
according  to  the  various  sections  of  the  country ;  in  some  provinces  it  is 
despotic,  in  others  more  liberal ;  the  laws  are  not  written,  but  established 
by  custom  ;  and  appeals  to  the  judgment  of  God,  by  means  of  the  ordeal 
of  poison,  are  not  unusual. 


The  Inhabitants  of  America.  . 

Extending  from  the  north  nearly  to  the  south  pole,  the  continent  of  Ame- 
rica comprehends  almost  every  variety  of  climate.  In  consequence,  how- 
ever, of  the  height  of  the  mountains  and  table  lands,  the  latter  of  which  are 
sometimes  elevated  9000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  owing  to  the 
vicinity  of  the  ocean,  the  number  and  magnitude  of  the  rivers,  and  the 
direction  of  the  prevailing  winds,  the  warm  regions  are  more  exempt  from 
excessive  heat  than  other  parts  of  the  world  under  like  degrees  of  latitude. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  temperate  countries  are  colder  than  those  of  Europe 
situated  at  the  same  distance  towards  the  north.  In  North  America,  as  in 
the  old  world,  the  heat  decreases  from  the  west  to  the  east,  on  account 
of  the  prevailing  atmospheric  currents  ;  the  temperature,  however,  is  lower 
upon  the  western  coast  of  South  America  than  upon  the  east  coast,  a 
difference  caused  by  the  violence  of  the  winds  on  the  plateaus  of  the 
Cordilleras,  and  the  south  polar  current.  America  exhibits  in  its  produc- 
tions the  greatest  variety  and  peculiarity  of  forms,  and  a  wealth  and  luxu- 
riance, especially  as  far  as  the  vegetable  kingdom  is  concerned,  observed 
in  but  few  districts  of  the  old  world.  Forms  of  plants,  which  in  Europe 
are  often  small  and  unimportant,  frequently  occur  here  of  colossal  pro- 
portions. Boundless  primeval  forests,  having  truly  gigantic  trees,  and 
interwoven  with  huge  creepers,  are  spread  over  the  great  plains  of  Ame- 
rica ;  and  a  luxuriant  growth  of  grass  decks  large  tracts  of  the  level  coun- 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  249 

try.  Hosts  of  animals  enliven  these  regions ;  and  the  wealth  in  precious 
metals  and  stones  is  prodigious.  In  Russian  America,  the  animal  and 
vegetable  worlds  correspond  with  those  in  Siberia.  The  plants  in  the 
plains  of  Brazil,  Guiana,  and  North  America  differ  in  their  nature  from 
those  of  the  table  lands  of  Peru  and  Mexico,  and  from  those  found  in 
Patagonia  and  British  North  America;  and,  as  a  matter  of  course,  the 
nearer  the  productions  are  to  the  tropics,  the  more  massive  and  varied 
they  appear. 

The  natives  of  America  may  be  separated  into  two  classes.  The  one 
embraces  the  Esquimaux  of  Greenland,  Labrador,  and  Hudson's  Bay,  and 
the  inhabitants  of  Behring's  Strait,  of  Alaska,  and  Prince  William's  Sound. 
They  are  smaller  than  the  rest  of  the  Americans,  lively  and  loquacious, 
and  belong  to  the  Mongolian  race.  The  second  class  is  spread  from 
the  northern  sections  to  the  southernmost  point  of  America.  They  are 
larger,  copper  colored  or  of  a  lighter  complexion,  warlike,  and  taciturn« 
They  form  the  American  race.  They  have  at  present  either  adopted  the 
white  man's  habits,  or  live  as  nomads  and  hunters.  The  former  have  fixed 
dwelling-places,  and  follow  the  industrial  arts,  agriculture,  mining,  and  the 
rearing  of  cattle ;  the  latter  are  hunters  and  herdsmen  upon  the  wide 
prairies  (llanos,  pampas),  and  in  the  boundless  primeval  forests,  or  fbher- 
men  when  dwelling  on  the  seacoasts,  the  lakes,  and  rivers.  A  rude  system 
of  agriculture  and  a  few  handicrafts,  are  practised  by  those  having  regu- 
lated governments,  but  amongst  no  others.  The  tribes  still  free  have 
republican  patriarchal  constitutions,  the  bravest  and  strongest  individual  in 
most  cases  being  ruler.  In  consequence  of  the  advantages  derived  from 
horses,  some  have  become  genuine  robbers ;  others,  possessing  the  largest 
herds  of  cattle  to  be  found  upon  the  face  of  the  earth,  have  been  trans- 
formed into  confirmed  nomads.  Owing  to  the  immigration  of  Europeans, 
the  greater  part  of  America  has  become  a  new  Europe ;  for  in  no  other 
division  of  the  world  have  they  exerted  so  deep  a  moral  and  political 
influence  as  here.  European  civilization  advanced  from  the  coast  towards 
the  interior  of  the  country,  and  carried  along  with  it  the  languages,  reli- 
gions, laws,  customs,  sciences,  and  arts,  as  well  as  the  animals  (particularly 
horses,  not  known  before  in  America)  and  plants  of  Europe.  Commercial 
enterprises  and  missions  are  driving  back  more  and  more  the  savage  hordes 
of  Indians.  European  civilization  is  nowhere  displayed  in  a  more  suc- 
cessful and  stronger  manner  than  in  the  United  States,  which  exhibit  a 
popular  life,  a  national  vigor,  and  a  cultivation,  that  vie  with  those  of  the 
first  powers  of  Europe.  But  if  we  reverse  the  picture,  and  contemplate 
the  enslavement  of  the  negro  race,  we  must  acknowledge  that  in  that  at 
least  they  are  inconsistent  with  the  doctrines  of  freedom.  Commerce  and 
navigation  extending  over  the  whole  world,  have  taken  up  their  chief 
abode  in  America.  America  receives  the  productions  of  European 
industry,  and  gives  for  them  the  products  of  her  soil. 

We  commence  the  characteristics  of  the  nations  of  America  with  those 
of  the  people  of  Mongolian  lineage. 

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250  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

The  Esquimaux. 

The  Esquimaux  are  a  tribe  of  northern  America,  inhabiting  the  rang© 
of  the  coasts  on  the  Arctic  Sea,  Greenland,  and  the  numerous  adjacent 
islands,  but  numbering  probably  not  more  than  30,000  individuals,  who 
differ  entirely  in  formation  and  habits,  from  the  rest  of  the  aborigines 
of  America.  The  Humoky  or  Esquimaux  proper,  considered  the  stock 
from  which  all  others  are  derived,  live  on  the  eastern,  western,  and 
northern  coasts  of  Labrador,  Their  principal  residences  are  in  the  vici-^ 
nity  of  the  coasts,  and  upon  the  numerous  small  islands  bordering  upon 
it ;  as  in  such  situations  they  are  best  able  to  follow  their  chief  business, 
seal-hunting.  Prominent  cheek-bones,  broad  forehead,  small  eyes,  flat 
nose,  large  mouth,  white  and  naturally  irregular  teeth,  and  spotted  yellow 
complexion,  amongst  the  female  sex  somewhat  lighter,  characterize  the 
Esquimaux  in  the  main.  The  women  only  tattoo  their  foreheads,  cheeks, 
and  chins.  They  wear  ringlets  at  the  temples,  and  the  rest  of  the  hair  is 
plaited  as  among  civilized  nations.  Men  attain  a  height  of  fiYe  feet  and 
upwards,  are  broad  shouldered,  but  do  not  possess  so  much  muscular  power 
as  the  Greenlanders.  Adult  males  wear  small  mustachios  and  a  diminutive 
beard  on  the  chin.  Like  the  Greenlanders,  they  have  summer  and  winter 
residences.  The  former  consist  of  tents ;  the  latter,  of  caverns  in  the  earth 
or  hollows  in  the  snow  resembling  ovens,  the  entrances  to  which  are  closed 
with  blocks  of  ice.  Raw  flesh  is  preferred  by  them  to  cooked  meat,  and 
from  this  circumstance  they  have  obtained  the  name  Esquimaux  (i.  e.  raw- 
flesh  eaters).  On  the  whole  their  customs  and  usages  are  similar  to  those 
of  the  Greenlanders,  but  to  their  relatives  they  appear  much  more  hard- 
hearted than  the  latter,  at  least  those  uninfluenced  by  the  doctrines  of  the 
Moravians.  If  the  first-born  child,  for  instance,  dies,  and  its  mother  still 
survives,  she  is  killed  ;  and  aged,  infirm  persons,  widows  and  orphans,  are 
robbed  of  their  property  and  left  to  perish.  The  only  domestic  animal 
is  the  dog  ;  it  is,  however,  very  ferocious,  attacks  strangers,  is  stubborn, 
and  never  fondles ;  but  nevertheless  displays  fidelity  towards  its  master. 
It  cannot  bark,  but  merely  howls.  Six  of  these  dogs  are  usually  attached 
in  front  of  the  sleigh  of  an  Esquimaux,  each  having  a  collar  of  sealskin,  to 
which  a  thong  of  strong  leather,  nine  feet  in  length,  is  attached,  and 
fastened  by  the  other  end  to  the  fore  part  of  the  sleigh.  As  soon  as  the 
dogs  hear  the  crack  of  the  whip,  they  set  off  in  a  run,  and  are  easily 
managed  without  reins,  either  by  the  voice  or  the  sounds  of  the  lash.  With 
sleighs  of  this  description  occupied  usually  by  one  person  only,  but  some- 
times containing  even  from  four  to  six,  the  Esquimaux  make  from  forty  to 
fifty  miles  in  a  day. 

The  Esquimaux  inhabiting  the  shores  of  Bafl^n's  Bay  resemble  those  of 
Greenland  and  Labrador,  but  speak  a  different  dialect,  and  devote  greater 
attention  to  fishing  and  hunting.  Their  dress,  according  to  Captain  Ross, 
consists  principally  of  fine  reindeer  skins.  The  upper  garments  are  double, 
the  inner  skin  having  the  hair  turned  inside,  the  outer,  outside.  They 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  251 

reach  from  the  chin  to  the  middle  of  the  thigh.  A  hood  is  attached  to  the 
back  part,  capable  of  being  drawn  over  the  head  ;  the  flap  hangs  down  in 
the  manner  of  an  apron,  as  far  as  the  calves,  and  the  sleeves  cover  the 
fingers.  Two  pairs  of  boots  are  worn,  with  the  hairy  sides  of  the  skins 
turned  inwardly.  Over  the  boots  the  Esquimaux  wear  trowsers  of  reindeer 
skin  that  reach  far  down  on  the  legs.  Many  wear  shoes  over  their  boots, 
and  breeches  of  seal  skin.  In  these  clothes  they  appear  stouter  than  they 
really  are.  The  dresses  are,  however,  neatly  made,  and  sometimes  adorned 
with  fringes  of  sinew,  or  with  strings  of  small  bones. 

The  Esquimaux  are  cheerful  and  lively,  and  in  spite  of  the  small  size  of 
their  bodies,  capable  of-enduring  the  greatest  fatigues.  They  possess  some 
skill  in  the  arts,  but  also  all  the  faults  of  a  people  of  nature.  Upon  the 
west  coast  of  Greenland,  and  in  Labrador,  the  greater  portion  have  become 
Christians.  Among  those  that  are  still  heathens,  the  infinitely  good  Being 
is  called  Ukkowma,  the  bad  Being,  Wittike.  Others  call  the  former  Toro- 
garesook,  and  imagine  the  latter  as  a  female  without  a  name.  {PL  I, 
fig.  13,  an  Esquimaux.) 

Among  the  eastern  Esquimaux,  at  least  three  dialects,  or  languages, 
allied  to  each  other,  may  be  distinguished :  the  dialect  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  north  and  west  shores  of  Hudson's  Bay,  and  which  extends  to 
beyond  Mackenzie's  River ;  the  dialect  of  Greenland,  which  may  embrace 
two  difierent  sub-dialects,  as  the  inhabitants  of  the  west  coast  maintain  no 
intercourse  with  those  of  the  east  coast,  and  hence  speak,  perhaps,  a  difier- 
ent dialect ;  the  dialect  of  the  coast  of  Labrador,  probably  allied  to  the 
language  of  the  Esquimaux  on  Hudson's  Bay.  The  Esquimaux  constitut- 
ing the  western  division  extend  along  the  shore  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  from 
Behring's  Strait  southward  as  far  as  the  end  of  the  Peninsula  of  Alaska,  in 
latitude  57**  north,  where  they  may  be  traced  towards  the  west,  over  the 
Aleutian  series  of  islands,  and  eastwardly  as  far  as  the  vicinity  of  Behring's 
Bay  and  Mount  St.  Elias,  in  latitude  60"*  north,  and  longitude  140"*  west 
(of  Paris),  where  they  entirely  disappear.  According  to  Captain  Franklin, 
the  division  line  between  the  eastern  and  western  Esquimaux  is  found  on 
the  Arctic  Sea  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  in  longi- 
tude about  142**  west;  a  place  where  the  western  Esquimaux  annually 
meet  those  of  the  east,  in  order  to  barter  iron  or  other  wares  of  Russian 
manufacture,  for  seal  skins,  train  oil,  and  furs.  This  intercourse,  which 
has  not  been  established  until  recently,  has  shown,  however,  that  the 
western  Esquimaux  speak  a  dialect  so  difierent  from  that  of  the  eastern 
tribes,  that  in  the  beginning  they  had  great  diflSculty  in  talking  to  each 
other.  The  dialects  of  the  various  western  tribes  diflfer  also  from  one 
another,  more  than  is  the  case  with  those  of  the  eastern.  To  the  western 
tribes  belong  the  Aleutians ;  the  Kadiacks  {Koniages)  ;  the  Chongaches, 
on  the  shores  of  Prince  William's  Land,  westwardly  as  far  as  the 
entrance  of  Cook's  Inlet;  the  Agolegmetes,  at  the  mouths  of  the  River» 
Nushagac  and  Nackneck,  by  whom  the  former  inhabitants,  the  Uga- 
themes  and  Sewemowzes,  were  driven  away  to  the  eastern  part  of  the 
peninsula  of  Alaska ;  the  Kiates  and  Kuskokwimers,  the  Quichpacs,  Ma- 

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262  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

gimetes,  &c.    Of  the  eastern  Esquimaux,  the  Greenlanders  claim  special 
notice. 


The  Greenlanders, 

The^  southeramost  section  of  Greenland  lies  at  the  northern  extremity 
of  the  temperate  zone ;  the  remainder,  however,  is  situated  within  the 
polar  circle :  in  the  former,  therefore,  vegetables,  potatoes,  and  oats  may 
be  cultivated,  while  they  cannot  be  raised  in  the  latter.  The  east  coast 
of  Greenland,  for  a  great  distance  down,  is  beset  by  perpetual  ice ;  an 
extent  of  300  miles  of  the  southern  part  of  the  west  coast  (New  Greenland), 
however,  is  free  from  ice  for  eight  months  in  the  year,  and  hence  at  this 
season  is  much  frequented  by  Danish  fishermen,  on  which  account  it  is 
the  region  best  known.  The  mountains  of  the  interior  ascend  to  a  height 
of  more  than  4000  feet,  and  are  covered  with  perpetual  snow  and  ice. 
The  Greenlanders  belong  to  the  most  innocuous  of  savages ;  and  theft, 
drunkenness,  brawls,  or  homicide,  are  things  of  very  rare  occurrence 
among  them ;  but  again  they  have  certainly  little  susceptibility  for  civiliza- 
tion, great  as  is  the  solicitude  of  the  Danish  government  in  regard  to  the 
matter.  Only  a  hundred  years  ago,  they  lived  in  the  deepest  superstition 
and  total  ignorance.  Their  religious  traditions  were  a  jumble  of  ridiculous 
fables,  by  which  their  sorcerers,  or  Angekoks,  profited  in  their  jugglings. 
Members  of  families  display  great  attachment  towards  each  other.  The 
Greenlanders  inhabit  only  the  coast  and  coast  islands ;  living,  in  winter, 
in  miserable  huts  made  of  stones,  earth,  and  turf;  in  summer,  in  tents 
of  doubled  seal  and  reindeer  skins,  in  which  everything  is  arranged  with 
a  much  greater  regard  to  neatness  than  is  shown  in  the  winter  dwell- 
ings. Wealthy  persons  dress  in  blue  cloth ;  but  as  a  general  rule,  both 
sexes  are  clad  in  skins  of  seals,  reindeer,  and  sea  birds,  the  last  furnishing 
the  fur  shirts  ;  the  two  first,  the  coat,  trowsers,  stockings,  and  shoes.  The 
dress  of  the  women  differs  from  that  of  the  men  only  in  the  coat,  which  is 
wider  and  has  a  hood  at  the  back,  in  which  they  carry  their  children  about 
with  them  perfectly  naked.  Older  children  they  sometimes  place  in  the 
boots,  which  are  wide  and  stiffened  with  whalebone.  They  fasten  their 
long  hair  in  a  roll  on  the  crown  ;  the  men  wear  theirs  short. 

The  principal  talent  of  a  Greenlander  consists  in  catching  seals ;  in 
which  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  he  should  understand  the  art  of 
navigating  his  boat  (Kajak),  These  boats  are  constructed  of  laths  and 
whalebone,  and  coated  with  seal  skins,  leaving  an  opening  in  the  middle 
of  the  deck  just  large  enough  to  admit  the  body  of  the  fisherman ;  so  that 
when  he  takes  his  seat,  the  edge  of  the  hole  fits  tight  around  his  body  over 
the  hips,  and  permits  no  water  to  penetrate.  At  his  side  he  places  his 
various  javelins  or  harpoons,  securing  them  between  the  thongs  fastened 
across  the  kajak ;  in  front  of  him  is  his  roll  of  line,  and  behind  him  an  air- 
buoy,  made  of  a  small  seal  skin,  which  is  attached  to  the  harpoon.  Hb 
pantik,  or  oar,  has  blades  about  four  inches  wide  at  both  ends,  which  are 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  253 

alternately  dipped,  the  middle  of  the  oar  being  grasped  with  both  hands. 
With  a  boat  of  this  description,  he  travels  very  rapidly,  perhaps  45  or  50 
miles  in  a  day ;  and  with  the  oar,  not  only  keeps  his  bark  in  the  proper 
position,  but  understands  also  how  to  right  himself,  in  case  the  waves  over- 
turn the  vessel.  The  boat  used  by;?»romen  (umiak)  is  larger,  and  frequently 
contains  ten  or  twelve  persons,  with  all  their  utensils. 

Hardly  any  attention  is  paid  by  the  Greenlanders  to  rearing  cattle. 
Reindeer  occur  generally  only  in  a  wild  state,  and  have  at  present  become 
very  scarce.  Dogs  are  the  only  domestic  animals,  and  they  are  used  for 
drawing  sleighs.  The  flesh  of  seals,  marine  birds,  and  sea  fish,  best  relished 
if  half  rotten  and  frozen,  constitutes  the  principal  food.  Reindeer  meat 
seldom  falls  to  their  lot.  They  are  fond  of  whiskey  and  tobacco,  especially 
snufi*. 

PL  2b,  fig.  1,  represents  the  manner  in  which  the  Greenlanders  kill  seals, 
approaching  them  by  creeping  slowly  forward  and  imitating  their  motions, 
and  in  this  way  decoying  them. 

We  now  pass  on  to  the  inhabitants  of  America  belonging  to  the  Ameri- 
can Race.  They  are  usually  called  Indians,  and  are  divided  into  numerous 
tribes,  whose  various  tongues  may,  nevertheless,  be  traced  back  to  certaiti 
principal  languages. 


The  Indians  of  North  America. 

All  the  numerous  native  tribes  of  North  America,  not  belonging  to  the 
Mongolian  Race,  are  designated  by  the  common  name  Indians;  and,  in 
general,  there  is  really  such  an  agreement  in  bodily  form,  disposition, 
customs,  and  usages,  that  even  if  some  difierences  exist  with  respect  to 
details,  the  fact  that  all  North  American  Indians  have  the  same  origin,  can 
scarcely  be  doubted.  Their  complexion  is  yellow  or  cinnamon-brown, 
passing  more  or  less  into  lightness  or  duskiness  ;  the  face  is  broad,  but  not 
flat,  with  prominent  cheek  bones  and  sharply  defined  features ;  in  many 
tribes,  however,  the  latter  are  almost  as  regular  as  those  of  the  white  man. 
The  wings  of  the  nose  are  always  broad,  but  the  eyes  vary  considerably ; 
the  hair  is  straight,  stifl*,  and  black  as  pitch.  The  Indians  that  inhabit  the 
extreme  north  are  of  small,  insignificant  growth ;  those  of  the  temperate 
zone,  of  handsome  and  vigorous  frame ;  those  living  between  the  tropics, 
however,  mostly  thick-set.  The  men  of  many  tribes  pull  out  the  hair 
growing  upon  their  faces ;  others,  especially  those  of  the  far  west,  wear 
beards. 

Although  more  vigorous  than  the  inhabitants  of  South  America,  they 
are  nevertheless  deficient  in  perseverance,  being  too  much  accustomed  to 
roving  about  and  hunting,  to  have  the  power  of  applying  for  any  length 
of  time  to  manual  labor.  They  can  run  with  great  swiftness,  are  good 
walkers,  and  have  sharp  sight  and  hearing,  as  well  as  a  very  fine  sense 
of  smell.  Their  memory,  also,  is  very  good.  A  lively  imagination  and 
good  judgment  enable  them  to  learn  easily  whatever  they  consider  useful* 

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254  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

They  are  sound  in  their  morals,  good-natured,  upright,  modest,  and  polite 
to  every  one  deserving  such  treatment ;  courteous  towards  each  other, 
without  flattery ;  and  generally,  also,  circumspect  and  sedate,  composed 
and  grave.  An  injury  to  their  honor  is  followed  by  certain  vengeance ;  on 
the  other  hand,  fidelity  and  good  faith  are  innate  with  them,  and  their  pro- 
mises are  constantly  and  invariably  kept,  if  performance  is  possible. 

In  spite  of  the  above  mentioned  good  qualities,  not  proper,  however,  to 
all  the  tribes,  these  unfortunates  find  themselves  driven  more  and  more 
towards  the  west,  and  despoiled  of  their  property  by  white  settlers.  Hence 
it  is  not  surprising  that  they  should  appear  stern  and  gloomy  in  the  pre- 
sence of  strangers.  Among  themselves,  they  are  frequently  cheerful,  and 
even  frolicsome.  They  are  witty  also,  and  by  their  satirical  and  inge 
nious  remarks  not  unfrequently  excite  laughter,  without  giving  offence, 
however,  by  their  observations.  Their  patience,  long  sufferance,  and 
tranquillity  are  great,  and  they  will  bear  the  most  frightful  tortures  with 
courage.  They  possess  remarkable  control  over  their  passions ;  those, 
however,  who  have  become  acquainted  with  the  white  man's  manners, 
easily  give  themselves  up  to  drinking,  as  spirituous  liquors  are  used,  partly 
that  the  bodily  vigor  may  be  roused  by  this  means,  and  partly  that  a 
temporary  oblivion  of  their  wrongs,  and  of  their  decayed  condition,  may 
thus  be  brought  about. 

The  Indians  display  great  love  and  care  for  their  children.  Wives 
(squaws),  however,  are  the  slaves  of  their  husbands,  obliged  to  perform  the 
hardest  and  most  difficult  work,  and  but  seldom  receiving  thanks  for  what 
they  have  done.  The  husband  is  occupied  the  entire  year  in  hunting; 
whilst  the  labor  of  the  field,  which  is  left  to  the  women,  at  most  continues 
but  six  weeks  in  a  season.  The  principal  duties  of  the  squaws,  besides 
tilling  the  fields  and  taking  care  of  the  crops,  are,  to  crush  the  com,  in 
order  to  make  of  it  a  kind  of  porridge,  or  to  bake  a  species  of  bread  of  the 
meal  in  hot  ashes.  When  they  travel  with  their  husbands,  and  the  party 
possess  no  horses,  they  serve  as  beasts  of  burden,  being  obliged  to  cany 
the  necessary  baggage  upon  their  backs.  In  the  beginning  of  March,  the 
whole  family  set  out  for  the  places  where  maple  sugar  is  boiled.  The 
women  also  cook  the  meat  or  dry  it  in  the  air,  lay  up  the  tallow,  prepare 
the  skins,  and  make  cords,  &c.,  from  the  wild  hemp  gathered  by  themselves. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  men  follow  the.  troublesome  occupation  of  hunting, 
which  is  often  attended  with  the  greatest  dangers  and  fatigues.  Any 
portioÄ  of  their  prey  not  needed  by  themselves  is  bartered  or  sold. 

Some  of  the  dwellings  of  the  Indians  resemble  the  worst  houses  of  civil- 
ized countries ;  others  are  similar  to  tents ;  others  again  being  round,  and 
according  to  the  climate,  either  open,  or  furnished  with  a  roof,  or  closed  in 
with  loam,  poles,  or  bark  of  trees.  The  houses  have  roofs  projecting  some 
distance  over  the  entrance,  so  that  the  occupants  may  sit  in  the  shade.  In 
the  establishment  of  a  village  no  regard  is  had  to  regularity.  A  village 
containing  twenty  houses  is  considered  a  large  Indian  town.  According 
to  the  necessities  of  the  families,  interiors  of  houses  are  divided  into  a 
greater  or  less  number  of  rooms  or  chambers.  Tribes  leading  a  wandering 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  256 

Hfe  have  simple,  easily  arranged  huts  or  tents.  Sometimes  the  Indians 
have  also  large  houses  designed  for  public  councils  or  meetings  of  the 
people.  One  of  this  sort,  for  example,  is  possessed  by  the  inhabitants  of 
Drummond's  Island  in  Lake  Huron.  PL  42,  fig,  3,  represents  its  interior, 
and  a  meeting  of  the  people  held  under  a  mariapa.  The  Indians  have  few 
and  very  simple  household  utensils,  made  mostly  by  themselves,  and  with 
tools  of  an  inferior  kind.  Almost  all  the  tribes  have  obtained  iron  kettles  for 
cooking  and  knives,  by  traffic.  The  women,  among  some  tribes,  make  their 
mugs  and  other  vessels  of  red  clay.  The  weapons  of  the  Indians  consist 
of  bows  and  arrows,  a  battle-axe,  called  by  them  tomahawk,  a  lance,  a 
spear,  a  club,  and  a  scalping-knife.  Many  carry  also  shields  made  of 
buffalo  hide.  Firearms  have  of  late  become  very  common  amongst  the 
tribei  of  North  America,  the  different  fur  companies  being  in  the  habit  of 
exchanging  guns  of  an  inferior  character  for  peltry,  &c. 

The  clothing  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  northern  portion  of  the  country 
formerly  consisted  of  skins  of  animals  and  feather  dresses ;  while  those 
living  in  warmer  latitudes  covered  themselves  with  cotton  stuffs  or  feathers« 
Striking  colors  were  their  favorites  even  at  that  time.  At  present,  skin 
dresses  are  found  only  in  the  extreme  northwestern  and  northeastern  parts. 
Woollen  blankets  and  shirts  are  now  in  use.  Men  wear  leggings,  women 
short  petticoats  of  blue  or  black  broadcloth.  The  more  wealthy  take  pride 
in  adorning  themselves  with  bright-colored  ribands,  girdles,  silver  clasps, 
&c.  Upon  the  painting  of  the  face,  breast,  and  limbs,  much  time  is  spent, 
particularly  when  they  are  preparing  for  a  dance.  Indians  allow  their  hair 
to  grow  long  and  twist  it  in  plaits,  or  fasten  it  together  with  ribands,  &c. 

According  to  the  analogy  of  language  the  Indians  of  North  America 
may  be  divided  in  the  following  manner : 

Ä.  The  Koloshes.  In  this  stock  may  be  classed  all  the  Indian  tribes 
that  inhabit  the  northwest  coast  of  America,  and  that  portion  of  the  interior 
contiguous  to  it,  between  50®  and  65®  north  latitude.  They  comprise, 
according  to  the  statement  of  the  Russian  Admiral  Wrangel : 

1.  The  true  Koloshes  or  KoKushes,  having  their  dwelling-place,  according 
to  Wenjaminow,  from  Mount  St.  Elias  to  the  Columbia  River  (including 
the  Prince  of  Wales,  and  George  III.  Archipelagoes),  but  extending  pro- 
bably towards  the  south  only  as  far  as  the  Strait  of  Fuca. 

2.  The  Ougalenzes  (Ugaljachmutzi),  west  of  Mount  St.  Elias;  in  winter, 
on  a  small  bay  east  of  the  island  of  Kadiak ;  in  summer,  on  Copper  River 
for  fishing  purposes. 

3.  The  Ätnas  {Atnachts,  in  Russian,  Mjednowzt),  on  the  Copper  River 
or  Atna. 

4.  The  Koltshans  (Gakans)  on  the  shores  of  the  northern  and  eastern 
waters  emptying  into  Copper  River. 

5.  The  Kenais  {Kenaiut),  on  the  coast  and  in  the  country  surrounding 
Cook's  Inlet,  or  on  the  Kenai  Sound  and  around  Lakes  Illiamma  and  Knisshik. 

6.  The  Inkilichliats,  on  the  River  Choulitra  and  the  upper  tributaries  of 
the  rivers  Kuskoquim  and  Quickpack. 

According  to  North  American  researches  the  Indians  of  the  Northwett 

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2Ö6  HISTORY  AND  ETBNOLOGY. 

coast,  between  the  forty-eighth  and  fifty-ninth  degrees  of  latitude,  are 
divided  into  twenty  different  tribes,  and  these  into  four  different  groups  of 
languages,  embracing  probably  only  the  Koloshes  proper. 

1.  The  language  of  &VcAa. 

Here  belong  the  Chilcart,  the  Sitka,  the  Hoodsunhoo,  the  Ark  and 
Kake,  the  Eelikinoo,  the  Hennega,  the  Stickeen,  and  Thimgarse  tribes. 

2.  The  Naass  language. 

The  Naass,  the  C/iebaska,  and  the  Millbank  Indians. 

3.  The  language  of  the  tribes  upon  Queen  Charlotte's  Island  and  of 
some  others. 

The  Cumshewary  the  Massit,  the  Skiddegat  or  Skittagete,  the  Kesam, 
and  the  Kigarnee  tribes. 

4.  The  Newettee  or  Newitte  language,  which  is  spoken  on  the  nortkwest 
end  of  Vancouver's  Island  in  Lat.  66®. 

The  Koloshes  have  a  strong,  bony  structure,  prominent  cheekbones,  a 
broad,  flat  nose,  large  mouth,  thick  lips,  and  small  black  eyes.  Men  pluck 
out  the  beard.  Their  complexion  passes  but  little  into  reddish-brown,  but 
the  practice  of  rubbing  themselves  daily  with  black  earth  gives  it  a  darker 
appearance  than  it  would  otherwise  have.  They  paint  the  face  crosswise, 
with  broad,  black,  red,  and  white  stripes.  Men  and  women  bore  the 
bridge  of  the  nose,  and  the  ears,  in  order  to  put  in  all  sorts  of  ornaments, 
and  also  pierce  the  under  lip  for  the  reception  of  a  bone,  and  a  large  oval  • 
double  button  called  kaluga.  With  the  exception  of  a  small  leather  apron, 
the  Koloshes  go  entirely  naked,  and  the  wealthy  alone  hang  around  them  a 
bearskin  cloak  or  covering  of  goat's  hair ;  the  richest,  however,  sometimes 
take  pride  also  in  wearing  European  clothing.  Kotzebue  calls  them  rapa- 
cious, faithless,  and  bloodthirsty. 

B.  The  Athapascas.  According  to  Berghaus,  if  we  draw  a  line  from  the 
mouth  of  Churchill  or  Missinipi  River  at  Hudson's  Bay,  upwards  towards 
its  source  where  it  is  called  Beaver  River,  and  thence  continue  it  along 
the  chain  of  mountains  which  divide  the  north  branch  of  the  Saskatchawan 
River  from  the  tributaries  of  the  Athapasca  or  Elk  River,  and  finally,  carry 
it  on  westwards  to  within  about  ninety  miles  of  the  coast  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean  at  52^  or  58^  north  latitude :  all  the  Indian  tribes  that  dwell  upon 
the  north  side  of  this  line,  and  are  surrounded  in  all  other  directions  from 
Hudson's  Bay  to  the  Great  Ocean  by  the  narrow  belt  of  Esquimaux  and 
Koloshes,  belong,  as  far  as  known  to  us  at  present,  with  the  only  exception 
of  the  Quarrellers  or  Loucheux,  to  one  family,  and  speak  kindred  lan- 
guages. Gallatin  has  comprehended  them  under  the  arbitrary  denomination 
of  Athapascas.    They  embrace : 

1.  The  Northern  Indians,  the  eastern  branch  of  the  family,  extending  to 
Hudson's  Bay,  and  separated  into  the  following  tribes:  the  Northern 
Indians  proper,  the  Cheppet/ans,  the  Coppermine  Indians,  the  Dog-rib, 
the  Strong-bow,  the  Mountain,  the  Ambawtawoot  or  Sheep,  the  Kancko 
or  Hare  Indians,  the  Indians  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  Sussees  or 
Sursees,  the  Nauscuddennies,  and  the  Nagaikrs.  Most  of  them  speak  the 
Cheppeyan  language. 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  ?67 

9.  The  Carriers  (TaculKes,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains), 
300  miles  from  east  to  west,  between  5V  and  58^  north  latitude.  Dialects 
of  their  language  are  spoken  by  the  Sicaunies  and  Nateotetains. 

The  Athapascas,  and  in  particular  the  Chippeways,  who  are  best  known, 
are  of  medium  stature,  have  good  teeth  and  fine  eyes,  but  a  broad  face, 
with  prominent  cheekbones  and  wide  nostrils.  They  tattoo  themselves, 
and  some  wear  the  hair  long,  others  cut  it  oflf.  They  are  grave,  reserved, 
just  towards  each  other,  but  deceitful  and  knavish  towards  strangers. 
Their  dress  generally  consists  of  reindeer  and  other  skins. 

C.  Thb  Aloonkins,  or  Lenapes,  at  the  time  of  the  first  settlements  of  the 
Europeans  in  North  America,  dwelt  in  the  territory  north  of  the  Missinipi 
River  from  its  source  to  the  mouth  in  Hudson's  Bay,  along  the  south  and 
east  coasts  of  that  bay,  east  as  far  as  to  the  boundary  line  of  the  territory 
of  the  Labrador  Esquimaux,  and  south  down  to  Cape  Hatteras.  The 
western  boundary  was  the  Mississippi  up  to  its  source,  and  the  Red  River 
to  Lake  Winnebago.  The  southern  boundary  ran  from  Cape  Hattera3 
west  to  near  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio.  The  numerous  nations  and  tribes  into 
which  the  family  of  Algonkins  was  divided,  may  be  brought  in  the  following 
manner  into  four  divisions : 

L  Northern  Algonkins.  The  Knistenaux,  Algonkins  proper,  Chip- 
peways  or  Ojibways,  the  Ottawas  and  Potowotomies,  and  the  Mississagues. 

2.  Northeastern  Algonkins.  The  Skoffies  and  Sheshatapoosh  or 
Mountaineers,  the  Micmacs,  the  Etchemins,  and  the  Abenakis. 

3.  Eastern  or  Atlantic  Algonkins.  The  New  England  Indians, 
embracing  the  Pequods  or  Piquods,  Naticks,  Narragansets,  Mohicans 
(Mohegans),  Pokanokets,  Pawtuckets,  and  Nipmucks ;  the  Indians  upon 
Long  Island,  Montauks,  Unchagogs,  and  Shinicooks ;  the  Delawares 
(LennO'Lenape),  the  Nanticokes,  Susquehannocks,  Powhatans,  and  Pamp- 
ticoes. 

4.  Western  Algonkins.  The  Menomonies,  Miamies,  and  Illinois  ;  the 
Sacs,  who,  having  relinquished  their  district  lying  east  of  the  Mississippi  to 
the  United  States,  have  lived  since  that  time  upon  the  west  side  of  the 
river  in  the  State  of  Missouri,  partially  however  still  in  Illinois,  and  pursue 
a  system  of  agriculture  {pL  29,  fig.  6,  Sac  Indians) ;  the  Foxes,  Kickapoos, 
and  Shawnees. 

Many  of  these  tribes  are  entirely  extinct,  others  have  been  divided 
amongst  tribes  that  survived,  but  few  number  many  individuals. 

With  respect  to  their  manners  our  introductory  statement  concerning 
the  Indians  in  general  will  hold  good. 

D.  The  laoauois,  who  became  notorious  in  the  history  of  European 
settlements  on  account  of  their  desire  for  conquest  and  destruction,  as  well 
as  for  their  thirst  for  blood,  formed  a  northern  and  southern  division.  The 
northern  portion  were  surrounded  by  the  Lenapes.  The  southern  division 
extended  in  the  States  of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  of  the  present  day, 
from  above  the  falls  of  the  large  streams,  as  far  as  James  River,  and  south 
•t  least  to  the  River  Neuse.  On  the  east  they  had  for  neighbors  the 
Lenape  tribes  dwelling  on  the  Chesapeake  and  the  Ocean,  on  the  south  side 

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268  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

the  Cherokees  and  Catawbas,  and  upon  the  north  and  west  sides  Lenape 
and  other  tribes  now  extinct. 

1.  The  Northern  Iroquois  consisted  of  the  Wyandots,  the  Attiouandarons, 
the  Erigas,  and  the  Andastes,  the  confederacy  of  the  Five  Iroquois  Nations 
{Maquas,  Mingoes),  composed  of  the  Mohawks,  Oneidas,  Onondagas, 
Cayugas,  and  Senecas.  This  confederacy  soon  obtained  an  ascendency 
over  the  others,  for  which  they  were  indebted  to  their  fortunate  geogra- 
phical position,  especially,  however,  to  their  wise  policy,  by  virtue  of  which 
they  confined  themselves  even  at  the  times  of  their  greatest  consequence  to 
their  original  dwelling-place.  Against  every  imminent  or  sudden  attack 
they  were  completely  fortified,  in  the  south  by  the  broad  mountain  chain 
of  the  Alleghanies,  in  the  north  by  Lake  Ontario.  Of  still  greater  import- 
ance, however,  especially  in  a  war  of  savages,  was  their  bravery,  combined, 
however,  with  cruelty,  in  which  they  surpassed  all  other  nations.  In  agri- 
culture, the  manufacture  of  their  weapons,  and  the  few  arts  of  Indians,  they 
were  further  advanced  than  the  tribes  of  the  Algonkin  or  Lenape  family. 
Upon  all  occasions  they  displayed  a  high  degree  of  intelligence,  and  in 
nothing  perhaps  more  than  in  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  their 
league,  and  the  attacks  which  by  degrees  they  directed  against  the  small 
tribes  surrounding  them,  and  who  formed  no  confederacy. 

2.  The  Southern  Iroquois  appear  to  have  been  known  at  first  under  the 
collective  name  of  Monacans.  Amongst  them  the  most  powerful  nation 
were  the  Tuscaroras,  dwelling  in  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth 
century  in  fifteen  towns  on  the  rivers  Neuse  and  Taw  or  Tar,  in  what  is 
now  the  State  of  North  Carolina.  The  remnant  of  the  Tuscaroras  were 
received,  however,  into  the  confederacy  of  the  Five  Nations  some  time 
after  the  settlement  of  Europeans  in  America.  The  Chowans,  Tuteloes, 
and  Notloways,  were  known  as  particular  tribes. 

E.  The  Florida  Nations  were  spread  to  the  south  of  the  Algonkins  and 
Iroquois,  and  to  the  east  of  the  Lower  Mississippi ;  and  at  the  present  time 
are  met  with  in  considerable  numbers.  They  are  divided  into  the  six  fd- 
lowing  nations :  the  Catawbas,  Cherokees  (Tsalakees,  who  have  become  a 
Christian  civilized  people),  the  Muskhogees,  inhabiting  the  entire  southern 
section  of  the  United  States  as  far  as  the  extremity  of  the  peninsula  of 
Florida,  consisting  of  the  tribes  of  the  Muskhogees  proper,  the  Hitchittees^ 
Seminoles,  the  Alabamas,  Chickasaws,  and  Tuskigies ;  the  Choctaws,  üchees^ 
and  the  Notches,  form  the  Creek  confederacy,  and  hence  are  called  Creek 
Indians. 

Like  the  Cherokees,  the  nations  of  the  Creek  alliance  and  the  Choctaws 
are  now  engaged  in  the  pursuit  of  agriculture ;  and  it  appears  that  their 
laws,  courts,  juries,  schools,  and  even  politics,  are  gradually  becoming 
formed  after  American  models.  The  Cherokees,  as  well  as  all  the  other 
Florida  nations,  with  the  exception  of  the  Catawbas,  have  been  removed 
by  the  government  of  the  United  States  to  the  west  side  of  the  Mississipjn, 
or  at  least  this  change  of  settlement  has  been  commenced.  Government 
bears  the  expense  of  the  removal,  and  allows  the  Indians  a  handsonoe 
annuity. 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  259 

F.  The  Caddoes,  and  the  other  nations  upon  the  west  side  of  the  Lower 
Mississippi,  within  the  United  States,  are  partly  such  as  may  be  considered 
the  aborigines  of  this  section  of  country,  in  part  Indians  who  have  immi- 
grated at  a  later  period  from  the  east  side  of  the  Mississippi. 

To  the  aboriginal  population  belong : 

1.  The  Caddoes,  who  at  present  are  settled  on  a  tributary  of  the  Red 
River,  about  140  miles  above  Natchitoches.  A  dialect  of  the  Caddo 
language  is  spoken  by  ih^  Nandakoes,  Inies,  or  Tachies,  from  whom  the 
State  of  Texas  derives  its  name,  and  the  Nahedaches  ;  2.  the  Natchitoches^ 
50  miles  from  the  place  of  that  name  on  Red  River,  and  the  Yatassees, 
speaking  a  particular  langui^e ;  3.  the  Adaixe;  4.  the  Appelousas  or  Opelou- 
tas ;  5.  the  Attacapas ;  6.  the  Chactoos ;  and  7.  the  Chitimachas. 

The  immigrating  tribes  include  the  Apalaches,  the  Alabamas,  and  Con- 
chattas  {Conshutas),  who  came  from  the  Creeks,  the  Taensas,  the  Houmas 
or  Oumas,  the  Tunicas,  Boltixas,  Pascagoulas,  and  Pacanas. 

G.  The  Sioux  speak  a  language  akin  to  that  of  the  Iroquois.  They  rove 
in  the  country  watered  by  the  Mississippi,  on  the  west  side  of  this  stream 
and  the  Red  River,  from  Lake  Winnipago  far  into  the  interior,  even  to  the 
savannahs  and  prairies  at  the  eastern  foot  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  We 
divide  them  into  four  groups. 

1.  The  Winnebagoes  (Puans,  Otchagras,  Horoje,  or  Hochttngohrah), 
between  the  Mississippi  and  Lake  Michigan. 

2.  The  Sioux  proper  (Naudowessies,  Dahcotas)  are  divided  into  seven 
tribes,  and  hence  call  themselves  Ochente  Shakoans,  i.  e,  the  seven  fires. 
These  tribes  are :  (a)  Mendewahkantoans,  the  only  one  in  which  tillage 
receives  any  attention,  east  of  the  Mississippi,  between  43°  and  46°  north 
latitude ;  (6)  the  Wahkpatoans ;  (c)  the  Wahkpakotoans ;  and  (rf)  the  Sisi- 
toans.  The  three  western  tribes  are  the  Yanktons,  Yanktoanans,  and 
Tetons.  Since  time  immemorial,  these  tribes  have  carried  on  a  war  of 
extermination  against  all  the  other  tribes  on  the  Missouri,  from  the  Man- 
dans  to  the  Osages ;  whilst  the  four  eastern  tribes,  for  as  long  a  period, 
have  been  the  inveterate  enemies  of  the  Chippeways.  The  Assiniboins,  a 
Dahcota  tribe,  separated  from  the  remainder  of  the  nation,  and  dwelt  with 
the  Algonkins  ;  and  the  Shyennes  were  driven  from  their  residence  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Red  River,  and  settled  at  the  sources  of  the  Shyenne, 
a  south-western  tributary  of  the  Missouri.  {PL  29,  fig.  1,  Sioux  Indians 
in  camp  ;  fig.  7,  horse  races  of  the  Sioux.) 

The  Sioux,  like  all  other  Indians,  believe  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul. 
As  soon  as  the  warrior  is  assured  of  his  death  by  the  attending  physician, 
he  takes  leave  of  his  relations,  and  orders  an  entertainment  to  be  prepared 
for  those  who  are  to  deliver  his  funeral  oration.'.  Immediately  after  his 
decease,  he  is  dressed  and  placed  in  a  sitting  posture,  with  his  weapons 
by  his  side,  in  the  midst  of  friends  assembled  around  him.  When  the 
necessary  ceremonies  have  been  performed,  the  body  is  deposited  on  a 
kind  of  scaffold,  as  represented  at^^.  2.  The  obsequies  begin  with  lamen- 
tation and  howling,  in  which  men  are  not  permitted  to  shed  tears,  but  the 
women  make  up  for  all  deficiencies  on  that  score.    Whilst  this  is  going  on, 

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260  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

they  sometimes  lacerate  their  arms  and  legs ;  and  the  women  frequently 
visit  the  graves  and  strew  them  with  locks  of  hair  cut  from  their  heads  for 
the  purpose,  often  chanting,  during  the  process,  lamentations  very  poetical 
in  style.  Carver  has  communicated  a  funeral  oration  of  a  Naudowessie 
(Sioux) ;  it  runs  thus :  "  Thou  still  sittest  amongst  us,  brother ;  thy  body 
retains  its  usual  appearance,  and  without  any  perceptible  exception  is  still 
similar  to  our  own ;  but  the  power  of  action  is  wanting  to  it.  But  whither 
has  the  breath  fled,  which  a  few  hours  since  blew  smoke  aloft  towards  the 
Great  Spirit  ?  Why  are  now  silent  the  lips  from  which,  a  short  time  ago^ 
we  heard  such  expressive  and  agreeable  language  ?  Why  are  motionless 
the  feet  which,  a  few  days  since,  were  swifter  than  the  deer  upon  the 
mountains  ?  Wherefore  hang  these  arms  powerless,  that  climbed  the  high- 
est trees,  and  bent  the  strongest  bow  ?  Alas !  every  part  of  the  structure 
that  we  regarded  with  admiration  and  astonishment,  is  as  inanimate  as 
it  was  three  hundred  winters  ago.  Nevertheless  we  will  not  mourn  as  if 
thou  wert  for  ever  lost  to  us,  or  as  if  thy  name  should  never  again  be 
heard.  Thy  soul  still  lives  in  the  great  land  of  spirits,  with  the  souls  of 
thy  countrymen  who  have  gone  thither  before  thee.  We,  it  is  true,  remain 
behind  in  order  to  maintain  thy  renown,  but  we  too  shall  one  day  follow 
thee.  Animated  by  the  regard  which  we  cherished  for  thee  in  thy  lifetime» 
we  come  now  to  render  thee  the  last  oflice  of  kindness.  In  order  that  thy 
remains  may  not  be  left  upon  the  plain,  a  prey  to  the  beasts  of  the  field  or 
the  birds  of  the  air,  we  will  carefully  place  them  with  the  bodies  of  thy 
predecessors,  in  the  hope  that  thy  soul  may  banquet  with  their  spirits,  and 
be  ready  to  receive  ours  when  we  also  arrive  in  the  great  spirit  land." 
The  burial-place,  we  will  add,  is  usually  a  large  cave. 

8.  The  Minetares,  who  are  divided  into  three  tribes :  settled  Minetares, 
including  the  Annahawas,  Mandans,  and  Crow  Indians  or  Upsaroka  nation. 
The  two  first  are  farmers,  and  dwell  in  villages  on  or  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Missouri,  between  47**  and  48*  north  latitude.  The  Crow  Indians  (pi.  1, 
figs.  19  and  20)  are  a  wandering  people  south  of  the  Missouri,  between 
the  Little  Missouri  and  the  south-eastern  branches  of  the  Yellowstone 
River.  Among  the  Mandan  Indians^  complexions  almost  entirely  white, 
and  even  blue  eyes,  occur.  {PI.  29,  fig.  3,  dance  of  Mandan  women,  and 
fig,  4,  of  Mandan  men  ;  fig.  5,  buffalo  dance  of  the  latter.)  The  buffaloes 
(properly,  bisons)  wander  over  the  plains  in  large  herds.  The  Mandans  are 
frequently  deprived  of  the  means  of  subsistence  when  these  animals  fail  to 
make  their  appearance.  As  soon  as  this  calamity  occurs,  the  Mandans  put 
on  their  disguises  of  buffalo  skins,  and  then  commence  the  buffalo  dance, 
performed  in  order  to  induce  these  animals  to  return,  and  repeated  until 
they  actually  make  their  appearance,  called,  according  to  their  opinion, 
by  the  dance  alone.  Whilst  the  ceremony  is  going  on,  drums  are  beaten, 
rattles  set  in  motion,  and  the  air  resounds  with  the  incessant  singing  and 
yelping  of  spectators. 

The  Southern  Sioux  consist  of  eight  tribes,  and  their  territory  originally 
extended  along  the  Mississippi,  from  a  point  below  the  mouth  of  the 
Arkansas  to  4P  north  latitude.  They  lived,  and  still  dwell,  to  the  ncnrth 
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ETHNOLOGr  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY,  261 

of  the  Dahcotas,  upon  the  west  side  of  the  Pawnees ;  on  the  south  are 
bounded  by  the  Washita  and  Red  River,  and  on  the  south-west  by  nomadic 
tribes.  Their  hunting  grounds  extend  westward  as  far  as  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, but  all  are  engaged  in  agriculture.  The  three  southern  tribes  are, 
the  Quappas  and  Arkansas;  the  Osages  (pi.  l^  fig'  18),  living  on  the 
sources  of  the  Osage  and  Verdigris,  a  northern  tributary  of  the  Arkansas, 
and  who  are  a  numerous,  powerful  tribe,  that  waged  war  against  all  their 
neighbors,  but  who  have  relinquished  a  portion  of  their  territory  for 
the  colonization  of  the  Cherokees,  Creeks,  and  Chocktaws ;  and  the  Kan- 
sas, The  remaining  five  tribes  are,  the  lowat/s,  Missouris  or  Neo- 
jehe,  the  Ottoes  or  Wahtootahtah,  the  Omahaws  or  Mahas,  and  the 
Puncas. 

H,  Thb  Pawnees,  consisting  of  the  Pawnees  proper  (on  the  Platte  River, 
to  the  west  of  the  Ottoes  and  the  Omahaws),  and  the  Ricaras  or  Aricaras 
(on  the  Missouri,  about  650  miles  below  the  Mandans,  in  latitude  46®  30'). 
Agriculture  is  one  of  their  occupations ;  and  they  extend  their  hunting 
expeditions  southwardly  as  far  as  the  Arkansas,  and  westwardly  to  the  head 
waters  of  the  Platte  River. 

/.  The  Saskachawins  are  two  nomadic  nations  of  the  eastern  declivity 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  viz.  the  Fall,  Rapid,  or  Paunch  Indians,  and 
the  Blackfeet  The  former  dwell  the  furthest  towards  the  east ;  the  latter 
are  one  of  the  most  powerful  Indian  nations,  and  live  in  a  state  of  constant 
ofiensive  warfare  with  all  the  neighboring  tribes,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Knistineaux  and  Assiniboins,  against  whom  they  act  defensively.  The 
Piekans  or  Picanos  and  the  Blood  Indians  are  subdivisions  of  the  Black- 
feet.  Perhaps  here  also  belong  the  Sussees,  dwelling  near  a  part  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains. 

K,  The  Oregon  Nations,  called  after  the  River  Oregon  (Columbia),  which 
commands  a  district  upon  the  west  side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  extending 
from  41®  to  50®  north  latitude.  Lewis  divided  these  nations,  according  to 
their  languages,  into  three  families. 

1.  The  Mountaineers;  including  the  Selipsh  or  Flatheads,  the  Oatlaskut, 
the  Crow  Mountain  Indians,  and  the  Tushipaw. 

2.  The  Uplanders ;  comprising  the  Chopunish,  the  Sinmithkumanaw,  the 
Selluaipallaw,  the  Walla-Wallas,  the  Williewaw,  the  Wahowipums,  the 
Echillools,  the  Chimnapun,  the  Sokulks,  the  Chillukkutteguaw,  the  Chickai- 
lish,  the  Ponderays,  the  Flatbow  Indians,  and  many  others. 

3.  The  Indians  of  the  Pacific  coast:  including  the  Clackamous,  the 
Umkwas,  the  Clatsops,  the  Quathlapotte,  the  Shilloots,  the  Chinooks 
(pi,  42.  fig.  2,  interior  view  of  a  lodge  of  the  last  mentioned),  the  ChiUs, 
and  many  others. 

The  Bonnaks  are  mentioned  as  a  savage,  warlike  nation ;  the  principal 
tribe  being  the  Skyuse,  in  Oregon  Territory,  who  once  exercised  unlimited 
power  over  the  neighboring  tribes,  but  at  present  are  barely  able  to  extend 
it  over  the  Walla- Wallas  and  Chinooks.  The  Atnahs  may  also  be  ranked 
here  (in  the  interior,  in  latitude  52®),  and  north  of  them,  the  Nagailers  or 
Carrier  Indians.  ^ 

lOOHOQRAPHIO  HVOTOhOTMDlJL. — ^VOL.   UI.  28  438 


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262  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

The  Wakash,  on  the  Island  of  Nootka,  speak  a  language  distinct  from 
the  idioms  of  all  the  neighboring  nations. 

L,  The  California  Indians  dwell  along  the  coast  of  the  whole  of  New 
or  Aha  California,  as  also  on  the  peninsula  of  Old  California  as  far  as  the 
southern  extremity,  Cape  St.  Lucas,  ii)  28®  north  latitude.  Whether  the 
Old  Californians  are  actually  tribes  akin  to  those  of  New  California,  is  a 
fact  not  yet  ascertained  with  certainty.  All  the  Old  Californians  have  for 
a  long  time  been  under  the  influence  of  Spanish  missionaries,  which  is  also 
the  case  with  regard  to  the  coast  tribes  of  New  California.  But  those 
Indians,  united  in  missions,  have  been  only  apparentiy  won  over  to  the 
occupations  of  stationary  and  civilized  life ;  whilst  the  inhabitants  of  the 
interior  of  California  are  devoted,  as  formerly,  to  a  savage  hunting  exist- 
ence. According  to  Chamisso,  they  stand  much  below  the  tribes  of  the 
north-west  coast  and  interior  of  America,  in  point  of  civilization.  All  are 
of  an  extremely  savage  appearance,  and  very  dark  color.  Their  flat,  broad 
faces,  from  which  gleam  large  fierce  eyes,  are  overshadowed  by  long, 
thick,  even,  and  black  hair.  Modification  of  colors,  tattooing,  painting  for 
the  war  dance,  weapons,  and  customs,  diflfer  according  to  the  various 
tribes.     (PL  I,  fig.  21,  a  California  Indian.) 

M,  The  Shoshonees,  or  Camanches,  fill  up  the  entire  space  bounded  on 
the  one  side  by  a  line  extending  from  the  Columbia,  in  latitude  45®,  to  the 
Rivers  Colorado  and  Gila,  in  latitude  84®.  From  this  boundary,  their 
territory  extends  eastwardly  across  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  to  the  Gulf» 
of  Mexico,  in  80®  north  latitude.  All  the  tribes  speak  the  same  language 
and  of  them  the  Shoshonees  and  Camanches  proper  are  the  most  numerous. 
The  former  dwell  upon  the  west  side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  in  the  north- 
western section  of  the  district  described  above ;  the  latter  are  found  upon 
the  east  side  of  the  range,  in  the  south-eastern  portion  of  the  territory  ;  the 
southern  regions  are  inhabited  by  the  Apaches,  The  Shoshonees  live  on 
fish  or  game ;  those  on  the  Colorado  keep  also  a  large  number  of  swine  as 
domestic  animals,  and  many  horses.  Their  dwellings  are  portable,  and 
consist  of  skin  tents.  They  are  peaceable,  not  cruel,  and  very  hospitable  ; 
highly  intelligent  also,  and  good  in  their  morals.  The  Camanches  {Hietans, 
Jetans,  Paducas)  are  at  present  perhaps  the  most  powerful  nation  of  the 
Indians  of  the  continent  of  North  America ;  and  their  matchless  equestrian 
skill,  their  formidable  mode  of  attack,  their  unsurpassed  rapidity  in  loading 
and  discharging  their  guns,  as  well  as  their  inextinguishable  hatred  of  the 
whites,  make  the  enmity  of  these  Indians  more  to  be  dreaded  than  that  of 
any  other  tribe  of  natives.  They  also  have  poi^table  tents  for  dwellings, 
and  never  remain  long  in  one  place. 

The  Arrapahoes,  who  are  allied  in  language  to  both  tribes,  live  south  of 
the  Shoshonees. 

iV.  Independent  Nations  have  concentrated  themselves  in  the  prolonga- 
tion of  the  Sierra  Madre  of  Mexico,  in  order  to  carry  on  a  war  of  exter- 
mination against  the  Europeans.  They  have  re-conquered  this  region  from 
the  Spaniards,  and  maintain  a  complete  independence.  To  them  belong 
the  PiroSy  X^/nanos,  Lanos,  Zuros,  Moquis,  Tiguos,  Pecuri,  Keres,  Yahi- 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  263 

pais,  Mecos,  Carancahuas,  Cuchaties  (the  latter  in  Texas).     They  all 
differ  from  the  Shoshonees  and  Camanches. 

O,  The  Nations  op  the  Plateau  of  Mexico,  with  the  districts  adjoining 
it  on  the  north,  and  on  the  south,  as  far  as  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 
A.  von  Humboldt,  whom  we  here  follow,  assumes  that  at  present  the  Indians 
of  pure  blood  still  constitute  more  than  two  fifths  of  the  population,  and  in 
some  provinces,  as  for  example  in  the  states  of  Puebla  and  Oaxaca,  even 
two  thirds. 

The  principal  languages  are  the  Aztec,  the  most  widely  spread  of  all,  the 
Otomie,  Matlazing,  Tarask,  Pirinda,  Zapoteca,  Mixteca,  Popoluca,  Mixe, 
Maya,  Poconchi,  Huasteca,  Totonac,  Cora,  Huitcole,  Tepehuana,  Topics, 
Acaxee,  Xixema,  Sicuraba,  Hina,  Huimi,  Tubar,  Tarahumara,  Zuaque, 
Guiama,  Guazave,  Zoe,  Huite,  Opata,  Pima,  Eudebe,  Yaqui,  Caquikil, 
Chontal,  and  the  Orotina. 

In  general,  the  Mexican  Indian  resembles  those  inhabiting  Canada  and 
Florida,  Peru  and  Brazil.  He  has  the  same  dark  brown  and  copper  color, 
even  and  smooth  hair,  deficient  beard;  his  stature  is  thick-set,  the  eye 
long  and  turned  up  towards  the  temple;  the  cheek  bones  are  prominent, 
and  the  lips  thick ;  but  in  his  mouth  are  expressed  a  mildness  and  a  gentle- 
ness that  contrast  strangely  with  the  gloomy,  stern  expression  of  the  eye. 
The  Mexican  Indians  are,  however,  of  darker  complexion  than  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  hottest  countries  of  South  America ;  they  have  a  stronger 
growth  of  beard,  also,  especially  the  Aztecs  and  Otomites.  Almost  all  the 
Indians  in  the  environs  of  the  metropolis  wear  small  mustachios.  The 
Indians  who  are  under  European  authority,  as  peaceable  farmers,  univer- 
sally attain  an  advanced  age,  if  the  fondness  for  drinking,  so  customary 
amongst  them,  does  not  enfeeble  their  systems.  Their  intoxicating  drinks 
are  spirits  made  of  sugar  cane,  maize,  and  the  Yatropha  root,  and  especially 
pulque,  a  wine  prepared  from  the  American  aloe  (century  plant). 

In  the  Mexican  Indian  have  been  remarked  neither  that  variability  of 
emotions,  gestures,  and  features,  exhibited  by  most  of  the  Indians  of  North 
America,  nor  that  activity  of  mind  which  so  advantageously  distinguishes 
the  latter.  He  is  serious,  melancholy,  taciturn,  as  long  as  he  is  not  affected 
by  spirituous  liquors.  He  likes  to  be  somewhat  mysterious,  even  in  his 
most  indifferent  actions ;  the  strongest  passions  are  never  expressed  upon 
his  countenance,  and  it  is  frightful  to  see  him  suddenly  change  from 
absolute  repose  to  violent  and  unbridled  emotion.  The  Peruvian  has  more 
gentleness  in  his  manners ;  the  energy  of  the  Mexican  degenerates  into 
roughness.  The  music  and  dancing  of  the  Indians  exhibit  the  total  want 
of  cheerfulness  which  characterizes  them,  and  may  be  observed  also  in  the 
whole  of  South  America.  Their  singing  breathes  sadness  and  dejection. 
Women  display  more  liveliness  than  men,  but  labor  under  the  misfortune 
of  subjection  and  of  servitude,  to  which  the  female  sex  is  doomed  in  all 
nations  that  have  made  but  trifling  advances  in  civilization.  Females  * 
do  not  participate  in  the  dance ;  they  assist  at  this  amusement  of  the  men, 
only  for  the  purpose  of  foretasting  the  spirituous  drinks  prepared  by  them. 
The  Mexicans  have  preserved  a  peculiar  taste  for  painting,  and  sculpture 

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264  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

in  wood  and  stone.  It  is  astonishing  to  see  what  they  carve  with  a  blunt 
knife  in  the  hardest  wood.  They  make,  principally,  pictures  and  statues 
of  saints ;  and  for  three  hundred  years  have  servilely  copied  the  models 
brought  with  them  by  the  Spaniards  at  the  beginning  of  their  conquests. 
In  addition  to  this,  they  show  the  same  taste  for  flowers  which  Cortez  found 
among  them  in  his  time.  A  bouquet  was  the  most  valuable  present  to  the 
ambassadors  at  the  court  of  Montezuma.  This  monarch  and  his  forefathers 
cultivated  a  great  multitude  of  the  rarer  plants  in  the  gardens  of  Istapalapan. 
Cortez,  in  his  letters  to  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  frequently  extolled  the 
industry  displayed  by  the  Mexicans  in  horticulture.  No  Indian  sells  any 
of  his  products  in  the  great  market  of  Mexico,  without  having  adorned  his 
booth  with  flowers,  which  are  renewed  every  day.  Every  Indian  has  near 
his  house  a  little  garden,  in  which  he  raises  an  abundance  of  flowers, 
besides  tropical  fruits.  The  Chinampas,  or  floating  gardens,  look  particu- 
larly beautiful.  They  are  rafts  covered  with  earth ;  some  floating  about 
on  the  lake,  others  fastened  to  the  shore. 

The  dwellings  of  the  Indians  are  simple  and  neat,  but  differ  in  (orm.  In 
the  hot  region  of  the  coast,  they  are  a  kind  of  cages,  built  of  canes,  or 
branches  of  trees  and  boards,  here  and  there  also  of  sun-dried  bricks,  and 
having  flat  roofs.  Where  the  Indians  are  associated  with  Spaniards,  espe- 
cially in  the  neighborhood  of  Mexico,  their  houses  are  very  similar  to  those 
of  the  latter.  A  few  earthen  jugs  and  bottles,  a  stone  for  the  preparation 
of  maize  bread,  and  a  multitude  of  representations  of  saints,  constitute  the 
adornment  of  the  dwellings.  A  mattress  spread  upon  the  earth,  or  a 
hammock  fastened  to  the  ceiling,  serves  instead  of  a  bed.  Their  villages 
and  hamlets  are  often  entirely  concealed  in  the  woods.  Perhaps  nowhere 
is  there  such  a  frightful  inequality  in  the  distribution  of  wealth,  civilization, 
the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  and  the  population,  as  in  Mexico.  In  the 
interior  of  the  table  land  there  are  four  cities,  distant  from  each  other 
but  one  or  two  days'  journey,  and  containing  35,000,  67,000,  70,000,  and 
135,000  inhabitants.  The  central  plateau  from  Puebia  to  Mexico,  and 
from  thence  to  Salamanca  and  Zalaya,  is  covered  quite  as  thickly  with 
villages  and  hamlets  as  the  most  highly  cultivated  tracts  of  Lombardy. 
On  the  east  and  west  of  this  narrow  slip  extend  uncultivated  regions,  in 
which  the  population  scarcely  amounts  to  one  person  to  the  square  mile. 
The  metropolis  and  other  cities  have  learned  institutions,  comparable  to 
those  of  Europe.  The  style  of  the  architecture  of  public  and  private  build- 
ings, the  elegance  of  household  furniture,  the  equipages,  the  luxury  in 
female  dress,  the  tone  of  society,  in  short  everything,  betrays  a  refinement 
strongly  contrasting  with  the  nakedness,  ignorance,  and  rudeness  of  the 
common  people.  And  this  inequality  of  riches  is  found  not  merely  among 
the  whites,  but  amongst  the  Indians  also.  In  general,  the  Mexican  Indians 
present  the  picture  of  extreme  poverty,  and  yet  individuals  are  met  with, 
•  who,  in  spite  of  the  mask  of  indigence,  have  great  wealth.  Persons  of  the 
latter  class  are  held  in  high  respect  by  their  countrymen ;  but,  though 
wealthy,  go  barefoot,  and  wear  the  Mexican  tunic  of  coarse,  brownish  stuff, 
like  the  poorest  and  lowest  Indians.  In  the  large  towns,  however,  not  only 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  266 

in  Mexico,  but  also  in  Puebla,  Jalapa,  &c.,  the  dress  is  more  complete ;  the 
broad-brimmed  hat  and  enveloping  head-dress  being  probably  copied  from 
the  Spaniards.  {PL  30,  ßgs.  2  and  3,  male  and  female  dress  of  Puebla ; 
ßg.  4,  woman  of  Jalapa.)  The  new  order  of  things  brought  about  by  the 
separation  of  the  Spanish  colony  from  the  mother  country,  has,  it  is  true» 
improved  the  condition  of  the  Indians,  as  it  was  really  by  their  assistance 
that  the  subversion  of  the  Spanish  power  was  effected  ;  and  this  portion  of 
the  population,  subjected  to  the  greatest  restrictions,  and  frequently  treated 
with  the  most  cruel  severity,  whilst  Spain  was  mistress,  under  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  new  republican  states  became  citizens.  Their  rights  of  citizen- 
ship, however,  are  altogether  nominal,  and  their  moral  and  spiritual  condition 
is  still  the  same  as  under  the  predominance  of  the  Spanish  viceroys,  whose 
policy  in  reference  to  the  oppression  practised  by  white  masters  and  men 
in  power  upon  the  Indians,  if  abolished  on  paper,  is  still  continued  in 
fact. 

If  we  glance  at  the  former  religion  of  the  Mexicans,  we  shall  find  that 
it  consisted  of  idolatry  and  sacrifices  of  the  most  cruel  description.  Ttie 
priests  of  the  idols  were  bloodthirsty,  unfeeling  murderers  of  human  beings, 
who  made  the  holy  awe  felt  towards  them  by  the  people  the  means  of  grati- 
fying their  sensual  lusts,  their  self-interests,  and  their  fondness  for  carnage. 
The  priest  needed  only  to  say  that  the  god  hungered,  and  sons  and  daugh- 
ters had  to  be  brought  to  the  altar,  or  the  prince  was  obliged  to  go  to  war 
and  take  prisoners.  Victims  obtained  in  either  way  were  laid  upon  a  black 
stone,  and  the  priest  with  a  sharp  flint  cut  the  palpitating  heart  out  of  the 
living  body,  in  order  to  expose  it  reeking  to  the  sun.  {PL  37,  ßg,  1.) 
Their  most  important  idol  was  Vitzliputzli,  which  was  worshipped  in  a 
splendid  temple,  and  to  which  offerings  of  the  above  description  were  made ; 
and  another  renowned  idol,  to  which  they  did  homage,  was  the  god  of  the  ' 
air,  or  Quetztdcatl,  in  honor  of  which  curious  dances  and  games  were 
customary.  In  the  latter  eyen  the  kings  took  part,  and  in  their  most 
magnificent  costumes ;  whilst  the  common  people  were  in  the  habit  of  dis- 
guising themselves  as  animals,  for  which  purpose  they  had  peculiar  dresses 
of  skins  or  feathers.  The  Mexicans  are  now  converted  to  Christianity, 
it  is  true ;  but  the  change  has  produced  no  other  effect  than  the  substitution 
of  new  ceremonies,  symbols  of  a  mild  and  humane  religion,  for  those  of  a 
bloody  worship  of  idols.  This  transition  from  old  rites  to  new  was  the  work 
of  force  and  not  of  conviction,  and  Christianity  was  thus  intermixed  with 
the  Mexican  mythology ;  a  course  of  policy  not  only  tolerated  by  the  rulers 
and  missionaries,  but  even  favored  to  a  certain  extent,  in  order  that  in  this 
way  the  introduction  of  Christianity  might  be  facilitated.  They  persuaded 
the  natives  that  the  gospel  had  been  preached  in  America  even  in  very 
ancient  times,  and  sought  its  vestiges  in  the  rites  of  the  Aztecs.  We  may 
account  in  this  manner  for  the  fact  that  the  Mexican  Indians,  in  spite  of 
the  obstinacy  with  which  they  cling  to  everything  received  firom  their 
fathers,  easily  forgot  their  former  religious  practices.  They  know  nothing 
more  of  religion  than  the  external  forms  of  worship ;  and  being  fond  of  cere- 
monies, take  much  pleasure  in  the  Christian  service.    Church  festivals,  the 

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S66  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

fireworks  let  off  upon  occasions  of  the  kind,  the  processions,  from  which 
dancing  and  the  quaintest  disguisings  are  inseparable,  afford  a  rich  source 
of  delight  to  the  common  mass  of  Indians.  Christian  worship,  however, 
not  merely  in  Mexico,  but  everywhere,  has  received  shadings  from  the 
countries  into  which  it  has  been  transplanted. 

With  regard,  finally,  to  the  remaining  population,  the  Europeans,  but 
especially  the  pure-blooded  descendants  of  the  Spanish  conquerors  of 
Mexico,  unquestionably  hold  the  highest  rank.  Then  follow  the  Africans, 
the  negroes,  who  here  are  almost  all  free  people,  and  in  part  marry  amongst 
themselves.  Indian  women  prefer  negroes  as  husbands,  not  only  to  men 
of  their  own  race,  but  even  to  Europeans,  as  the  boisterous  vivacity  of  the 
Congo  negro  suits  them  better. 

Whites  born  in  tropical  countries,  of  European  parents,  or  their  descend- 
ants in  pure  lineage,  are  usually  called  Creoles ;  descendants  of  negroes, 
Creole  negroes ;  the  offspring  of  whites  and  negroes,  mulattoes ;  of  whites 
and  American  Indians,  red  mestizoes ;  and  of  whites  and  Hindoos,  yel- 
low mestizoes.  The  descendants  of  mulattoes  are  called  hashes;  of  a 
white  and  mulatto,  terzeron ;  of  a  white  and  a  terzeron,  quateron.  Chil- 
dren sprung  from  Europeans  and  aborigines  of  Brazil  are  called  mame- 
tuhos ;  those  from  a  Chinese  man  and  a  Malay  woman,  tehos ;  those  from 
a  Hindoo  and  a  negress,  buganeses  ;  and  finally,  those  from  Hottentots  and 
whites,  hastes,  PL  30,  fig,  1,  represents  a  Spanish  Creole,  a  Mayor  of 
Jerez  in  Mexico ;  fi^g,  7,  a  mulatto  woman  of  rank ;  and  fig.  8,  a  Brazilian 
mestizo. 


The  Inhabitants  of  Central  America. 

The  Republic  of  Central  America  (Guatemala),  constituting  the  con- 
necting link  between  South  and  North  America,  forms  a  curved,  high, 
mountainous  country,  surrounded  by  the  two  great  oceans  and  the  two 
declivities  of  the  Andes  (Panama  and  Tehuantepec).  Capes  Honduras  and 
Gracios  a  Dios  extend  into  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  Cape  Blanco  into  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  The  climate  is  warmer  here  than  in  Mexico,  the  soil  more 
luxuriant,  the  productions  richer.  Of  the  population,  two  fifths  are  abo- 
rigines, two  fifths  mestizoes,  and  one  fifth  whites ;  besides  many  independent 
Indian  tribes  upon  the  entire  west  and  northwest  coasts,  of  whom  the  Mos- 
guitoes  in  Honduras  have  intercourse  with  the  English  and  Americans,  but 
are  mortal  enemies  of  the  Spaniards.  The  settled  Indians,  or  Indios 
ladinos,  are  baptized,  and  like  the  Mexicans  have  adopted  all  the  external 
rites  of  Christianity  without  having  any  idea  of  its  spirit.  Their  costume 
is  picturesque.  Persons  in  good  circumstances  wear  a  cotton  shirt,  wide 
trowsers,  leather  sandals,  and  a  girdle  of  colored  stuff.  The  common 
Indians  do  not  wear  cotton  fabrics,  but  materials  woven  of  the  fibres  of  the 
agave  {maguey),  and  other  plants.  Gentleness,  industry,  taciturnity,  hospi- 
tality, and  veracity,  are  virtues  for  which  they  are  celebrated ;  drunkenness, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  their  greatest  fault.  The  industrial  arts,  agriculture, 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY,  267 

and  civilization,  are  yet  in  their  infancy  among  them ;  nevertheless,  they 
display  so  much  desire  for  knowledge  that  the  best  is  to  be  hoped  for  the 
future.  PL  SO,  fig,  5,  gives  a  representation  of  the  dress  of  males,  and^^. 
6,  of  females,  of  Guatemala. 


The  Indians  and  other  Inhabitants  of  South  America. 

The  indigenous  nations  of  South  America  have  in  some  instances  an 
olive-brown,  in  others  a  yellowish-brown  color,  passing  by  divers  shadings 
into  each  other,  or  sometimes  also  into  copper-red  ;  the  yellow  complexion, 
however,  predominates  more  among  the  eastern  nations,  the  brown  among 
the  western  and  those  inhabiting  the  interior  of  South  America.  Accord- 
ing to  Alcide  d*Orbigny,  the  South  American  Indians  are  separated  into 
three  great  classes,  each  of  the  two  first  of  which,  conformably  to  the 
diversity  of  language,  is  subdivided  into  tribes  or  branches  : 

1.  The  Ando-Peruvians,  inhabitants  of  the  chain  of  the  Andes,  a. 
the  Peruvians ;  b.  the  Antisans  ;  c.  the  Araucanians ;  and  d.  Indians  of 
Cundinamarca  (Republic  of  New  Grenada). 

2.  The  Pampans,  inhabitants  of  the  great  plain  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Cordilleras,  a.  The  Pampans  proper,  so  called  after  the  large  pampas  or 
plains,  that  extend  from  Terra  del  Fuego  to  the  interior  of  the  country 
watered  by  the  La  Plata;  6.  the  tribes  of  the  Chiquitos ;  and  c.  the 
Moxos. 

3.  The  Güarani-Caribbean  Stock,  being  the  aborigines  of  Brazil^ 
Guiana,  and  Venezuela. 

The  Cundinamarcans  of  the  mountains  were  found  by  the  Spanish  con- 
querors small  and  thick-set,  copper-red ;  in  the  plains  olive-brown ;  their 
forehead  little  elevated  and  retreating ;  the  eye  horizontal  and  never  con- 
tracted at  its  outer  corner,  at  the  same  time  without  any  expression  ;  the 
cheekbones  prominent,  the  lips  thick,  the  beard  not  apparent  till  advanced 
age.  At  the  present  time  the  Indians  of  New  Grenada  have  the  same 
appearance.  The  ruling  nation  were  the  Muiscas,  who  had  founded  tlie 
great  Kingdom  of  Zaque,  to  which  all  the  other  nations  from  Los  Pastos  to 
Panama  and  the  Gulf  of  Maracaibo  were  subject.  They  were  more  civil- 
ized than  all  other  neighboring  nations  belonging  to  the  kingdom ;  which  is 
still  the  case  at  this  day  among  the  many  Indian  nations  of  New  Grenada, 
who  are  distinguished  by  language,  and  by  a  settled  or  nomadic  life,  or  as 
hunters  and  fishermen.  At  this  time  they  are  partly  civilized,  converted 
to  Christianity,  and  distributed  in  Missions ;  in  part  savage,  roving  in 
entire  independence  through  the  primeval  forests. 

The  following  tribes  may  with  tolerable  certainty  be  included  among  the 
Cundinamarcans.  I.  The  Muiscas  {Muyscas  or  Mozcas),  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Cundinamarca  (Bogota,  Mariquita),  as  well  as  upon  the  greatest 
past  of  the  eastern  Cordilleras,  and  the  neighboring  valley  provinces  of  the 
Magdalena  River.  Settled  farmers  and  herdsmen,  proportion  ably  of  higher 
civilization  than  the  other  tribes.     {PL  SO,  fig.  11,  girl  of  Bogota.)     2.  The 

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268  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

rude  Punishes,  a  nation  surrounding  the  country  inhabited  by  the  tribe  last 
named.  In  the  coast  country  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  between  Rio  Hacha 
and  the  Gulf  of  Maracaibo,  the  Goahiros  (Cruagiros,  Ghiajires)  and  the 
Cocinas.  The  Muisca  tongue  is  almost  entirely  extinct,  and  still  fewer 
traces  are  found  of  the  languages  which  were  in  use  in  the  western  districts 
of  New  Grenada,  in  Popayan,  and  as  far  as  Darien ;  a  region  in  which  52 
different  nations  were  formerly  known,  of  which  the  southern  and  some  of 
the  eastern  and  northern  were  subdued  by  the  sword,  the  remainder  by 
missionaries.  The  missions  known  to  us  were  among :  8.  the  Andakits ; 
4.  the  Citaras ;  5.  the  Chocos,  in  the  Province  of  Choco;  6.  the  Chia- 
nacas;  7.  the  Neyvas ;  8.  the  CcuianuccLs;  0.  the  Quaquas ;  10.  the 
Paes ;  and  11.  the  Timanaes.  The  three  last  probably  belong  to  the 
great  nation  of  the  Ouarani-Caribs,  as  their  names  resemble  those  of 
tribes  belonging  to  the  Caribs  living  on  the  Orinoco.  With  still  greater 
certainty  may  this  be  supposed  of:  12.  the  Urabas  or  Idibas,  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Darien ;  and  13.  of  the  Htunmies  or  Guaimies,  who  inhabit  the 
Province  of  Veragua  of  the  Department  Istmo. 

The  Peruvian  branch,  or  the  Ando-Peruvian  nations,  inhabit  the  greatest 
part  of  the  old  territory  of  the  Incas  before  the  Spanish  conquest,  that  is  to 
say,  the  Andes  and  their  declivities,  from  the  equator  to  Santiago  del 
Estero  in  latitude  28^  south.  This  territory  embraces  upon  the  mountains 
a  part  only  of  the  Republic  of  Ecuador,  the  entire  Republics  of  Peru  and 
Bolivia,  as  well  as  a  portion  of  the  La  Plata  States.  We  may  divide  them 
into  four  nations : 

1.  The  Quichua,  or  Inca  nation,  who  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  con- 
quest were  the  rulers.  The  name  Quichua  appears  to  have  formerly 
denoted  a  tribe  merely,  and  Inca  was  applied  to  the  royal  family  alone,  and 
signified  properly  king  or  chief.  Their  princes  were  called  Capalla  Inga, 
that  is  to  say,  sole  ruler.  The  complexion  of  the  Quichuas  is  olive-brown. 
They  are  not  large,  have  broad  shoulders,  very  high  and  long  chests,  tole- 
rably large  heads,  and  small  hands  and  feet;  foreheads  slightly  arched, 
faces  broad,  more  round  than  oval ;  noses  prominent,  aquiline ;  mouths 
rather  large,  projecting,  without  the  lips  being  thick ;  teeth  fine  ;  eyes  small 
or  medium  sized,  never  contracted  at  the  outer  comer.  Eyebrows  narrow 
and  much  arched,  hair  of  a  handsome  black  color,  coarse,  thick,  and  long. 
The  expression  of  the  countenance  indicates  equanimity,  seriousness,  and 
reflection.  They  are  mild,  sociable,  peaceable,  obedient  to  servility,  firm 
and  consistent,  hospitable,  but  even  at  festivals  taciturn  and  cold.  Although 
they  seldom  forget  injuries,  revenge  is  but  rarely  taken,  and  homicide  is 
hardly  ever  heard  of.  Under  the  old  priestly  reign  of  the  Incas  no  trifling 
degree  of  civilization  existed,  to  which  numberless  monuments,  highroads, 
tombs,  temples,  and  mines,  testified,  when  Pizarro  in  1525  penetrated  into 
Peru.  In  the  villages  of  the  Peruvians  of  the  present  day  most  of  the 
houses  are  round  and  composed  entirely  of  stones  more  or  less  hewn,  the 
seams  of  which  are  filled  with  earth  and  sods.  The  round  pointed  roofs 
are  plaited  of  hay.  The  whole  building  consists  of  a  single  apartment, 
which,  at  the  same  time,  is  the  kitchen  and  provision  room.  A  hole  two 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  269 

feet  and  a  half  high  supplies  the  place  of  a  door  into  which  the  occu- 
pants creep,  and  also  serves  for  the  exit  of  smoke.  Cactus  trunks  are 
used  for  beams  and  spars.  Thongs  of  lama  hide  are  used  instead  of  nails. 
Upon  a  small  heap  of  earth  in  front  of  every  house  a  cross  composed  of 
two  sticks  is  usually  erected.  Crosses  are  affixed  in  the  interior  also,  the 
Peruvians  being  now  Roman  Catholics.  In  very  ancient  times  they  were 
addicted  to  the  grossest  idolatry.  Some  were  cannibals ;  they  lived  mostly 
scattered  upon  the  mountains  and  in  forests,  without  agriculture,  and  the 
strongest  and  most  daring  was  unlimited  sovereign.  In  the  warmer  dis- 
tricts they  knew  nothing  of  dress ;  in  the  cooler,  they  clothed  themselves 
usually  in  skins  of  animals.  Idolatry  was  afterwards  exchanged  for  a  pure 
worship  of  the  sun,  the  nomadic  mode  of  life  for  the  agricultural,  when,  as 
the  tradition  informs  us,  Manco  Capac,  and  his  consort  Mama  Oello,  came 
as  children  of  the  sun  from  some  distant  country  to  the  shores  of  Lake 
Titicaca,  built  the  city  of  Cusco,  and  civilized  the  inhabitants.  Other 
traditions  relate  the  matter  differently ;  all  agree,  nevertheless,  in  this,  that 
the  worship  of  the  sun  and  civilization  were  brought  into  the  country  by 
foreigners,  and  that  the  first  among  them  was  Manco  Capac.  The  chief 
inhabitants  received  the  name  and  rank  of  Inca ;  and  marks  of  distinction 
in  clothing,  and  the  decoration  of  the  hair  were  allowed  to  them.  Definite 
,  dresses  were  also  prescribed  to  the  other  nations  that  were  afterwards 
gained  over  to  the  worship  of  the  sun,  more  by  favors  than  by  force.  The 
chief  priest  at  Cusco  was  always  a  brother  or  uncle  of  the  king,  and  the 
other  priests  at  that  place  were  of  the  race  of  the  Incas.  Animals  and 
plants  constituted  the  offerings.  The  clothing  of  these  Indians  now  con- 
sists of  a  tunic  which  falls  half  way  down  the  leg,  and  breeches  reaching  to 
the  knee.  Upon  the  head  is  worn  a  cap,  and  on  the  feet  sandals  or  cjotai^ 
all  of  dark  color,  and  a  fabric  of  alpaca  wool  rather  coarse  in  texture. 
They  wear  the  hair  long,  hanging  down  behind  in  braids.  The  female 
dress  consists  of  a  woollen  chemise,  over  it  a  tunic  without  sleeves,  which 
is  not  sewed  together  at  top,  but  the  two  lappets  are  fastened  by  means 
of  two  lupus  or  silver  pins,  and  covered  with  a  square  piece  of  stuff  pinned 
upon  the  bosom  by  another  tupu.  Their  hair  falls  over  the  shoulders  like- 
wise, and  theiir  sole  ornament  consists  of  a  necklace  of  precious  stones. 
The  clothes  of  the  Indian  women  of  Quito  are  rather  different,  as  is  shown 
by  the  representation  (pL  30,  ßg.  18),  the  %ure  exhibiting  also  the  peculiar 
manner  in  which  children  are  carried.  The  Spanish  women  of  Lima  are 
distinguished  on  account  of  a  very  close^^fitting  frock,  a  kind  of  mantilla, 
and  apron  reaching  to  the  knee  (ßg.  12). 

2.  The  Aimara  nation,  who,  long  before  the  erection  of  the  empire  of  the 
Incas,  had  their  residence  not  far  from  the  shores  of  Lake  Titicaca.  At 
present  they  inhabit  the  entire  plateau  of  the  Andes,  between  latitudes  15^ 
and  20^  south,  firom  the  provinces  Tinta  and  Arequipa  to  the  basin  of 
Paria  and  Oruro,  between  60^  and  75^  of  west  longitude  (from  Paris),  and 
their  language  has  been  so  well  preserved,  that  it  is  in  use  as  the  language 
of  conversation,  even  in  the  cities,  and  by  the  descendants  of  the  Spaniards^ 
while  the  Spanish  is  spoken  only  in  communicating  with  foreigners.    Exter* 

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270  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

nally,  however,  they  do  not  differ  from  the  Quichuas,  and  in  their  disposi- 
tion and  customs  also  resemble  the  latter. 

8.  The  Atacama  nation  (Olipes,  Llipi)  inhabit  the  whole  western  decli- 
vity of  the  Andes,  between  19*  and  22®  south  latitude  (the  entire  provinces 
of  Tarapaca  and  Atacama),  and  are  likewise  distinguished  by  their  lan- 
guage. 

4.  In  the  region  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  between  22®  and  24®  south  latitude, 
principally  in  the  environs  of  the  port  of  Cobija  in  Bolivia,  live  the  Change 
nation.  They  are  somewhat  darker,  and  have  more  of  a  blackish  brown 
color  than  the  Quichuas,  and  noses  almost  never  aquiline.  In  disposition, 
they  are  mild,  gentle,  courteous,  yielding,  hospitable,  and  submissive  to  the 
laws  of  the  land.     They  are  engaged  in  fishing. 

The  Pouquina  and  Yunka-Mochica  tongues  belonged  likewise  to  the 
general  languages  of  the  Empire  of  the  Incas.  Tunka  signifies  hot  plaitij 
and  by  it  is  denoted  the  seat  of  this  nation,  who  were  settled  more  especially 
in  the  valley  of  Chincha,  where  their  language  is  said  to  be  still  spoken. 
The  Pouquina  language  was  certainly  in  use  in  a  few  villages  upon  the 
small  islands  of  Lake  Chuquito  or  Titicaca,  in  the  diocese  of  La  Paz,  and 
in  some  parts  of  the  diocese  of  Lima. 

Tfie  Antisans  have  extended  their  place  of  residence  over  the  hot  and 
damp  regions  of  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Bolivian  and  Peruvian  Andes,  from 
the  projections  of  the  latter  at  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra,  in  17®  south  latitude, 
in  a  northerly  direction  up  to  the  equator.  Their  complexion  varies,  pass- 
ing firom  olive  brown  to  a  very  light  color.  Their  forehead  does  not  recede ; 
the  face  is  oval ;  the  nose  shaped  in  a  variety  of  ways  ;  the  mouth  medium 
size ;  the  eyes  do  not  stand  obliquely.  Their  physiognomy  expresses  liveli- 
ness and  gentleness,  but  has  in  it  something  weak.  Of  the  different  nations 
of  this  stock,  the  Yuraccars,  Mocetenes,  Tacanas,  Maropas,  and  Apolisttu^ 
are  known. 

The  Araucanians  are  brownish  olive-colored,  not  very  dark,  robust; 
have  a  low  forehead,  round  face,  short,  flat  nose,  eyes  that  are  not  oblique, 
medium  sized  mouth,  thin  lips,  serious,  cold  physiognomy,  and  effeminate 
features.  They  dwell  upon  the  western  declivity  of  the  Andes,  firom  80® 
south  latitude  to  the  extremity  of  Terra  del  Fuego,  and  from  the  upper 
valleys  and  plains  east  of  the  Cordilleras,  between  88®  and  42®  south  lati- 
tude, upon  the  mountains  and  their  slopes.  They  continue  in  the  condition 
of  barbarism.     We  divide  them  into  two  groups. 

1.  The  Araucanians  or  Aucas.  To  them  belong  the  Araucanians  in  a 
still  narrower  sense,  who  dwell  upon  the  west  side  of  the  Andes  and  in  the 
mountains  themselves.  They  lead  a  settled  life,  and  may  be  divided  into 
the  Chanos  (south  of  Valdivia),  Araucanians  proper  (in  the  province  of 
Arauco),  and  Pehuenches.  Besides  these  are  the  Aucas ;  that  is,  all  the 
tribes  that  wander  about  the  pampas.  They  are  divided  into  the  Ronqueks^ 
dwelling  in  the  pampas,  and  the  Chiknos,  who  have  their  roving  place 
around  the  sources  of  the  Rio  Negro.  In  their  disposition,  the  Araucanians 
are  proud,  courageous,  fickle,  sly,  resentful,  not  very  cheerful,  frequently 
taciturn.  Indomitable  warriors,  indefatigable  travellers,  the  Aucas,  like  the 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  271 

Araucanians,  are  still  quite  as  free  as  they  were  at  the  time  of  the  conquest, 
and  have  never  become  converted  to  Christianity.  The  Aucas  are  con- 
stantly on  the  march,  live  under  leather  tents,  and  subsist  upon  food  obtained 
by  hunting  or  from  their  herds.  Always  on  horseback,  they  are  the  best 
riders  of  South  America.  The  Araucanians  of  southern  Chili,  on  the  con- 
trary, have  fixed  abodes  in  the  valleys,  are  engaged  in  the  pursuit  of  agri- 
culture and  rearing  cattle,  and  dwell  in  houses  ;  but  are  quite  as  warlike  as 
the  nomadic  tribes,  and  live  in  a  state  of  perpetual  hatred  and  warfare 
towards  the  Christians,  to  whom  they  have  never  become  subjected,  and 
also  against  the  neighboring  nations.  They  combine  for  the  conflict,  armed 
with  their  bolaSy  consisting  of  three  balls  attached  to  the  same  number  of 
thongs,  two  feet  in  length,  joined  to  a  point.  With  these,  and  their  slings, 
and  spears  fifteen  to  eighteen  feet  in  length,  sometimes  with  firearms  also, 
and  in  company  with  their  wives  and  children,  they  set  out  upon  the  route, 
under  the  direction  of  a  great  orator  or  chieftain,  approach  the  place 
designed  to  be  attacked,  send  out  scouts  to  reconnoitre,  and  upon  the 
following  night  suddenly  rush  upon  the  enemy.  The  women  and  children 
rob  the  latter  of  their  cattle,  and  make  booty  of  everything  falling  in  their 
way.  After  the  victors  have  killed  the  men,  they  carry  oflf  with  them  the 
women  and  children. 

Their  language  is  agreeable  to  the  ear,  and  at  the  same  time  copious 
and  very  easy  to  learn.  The  domestic  life  and  clothing  of  the  Arau- 
canians are  very  simple.  The  dwellings  consist  of  wooden  huts,  which  are 
covered  with  straw,  have  no  partitions  or  windows,  and  are  shut  only  by 
a  door  of  ox-hide.  A  few  benches  and  a  table  constitute  the  household 
furniture.  Sheepskins  are  spread  out  instead  of  beds.  Plates  are  made  of 
wood  or  clay,  the  cups  of  horn.  Men  of  consequence  have  better  houses 
and  furniture.  The  female  dress  consists  of  a  long  woollen  undergarment 
without  sleeves,  fastened  around  the  middle  of  the  body.  Over  this  hangs 
a  small  woollen  cloak,  joined  in  front  by  means  of  a  broad  clasp,  mostly  of 
silver.  The  long  hair  is  bound  in  six  braids,  and  around  the  head  they 
wear  bright-colored  stones.  Drops  ornament  the  ears,  rings  the  finger^ 
and  parti-colored  glass  balls  the  arms  and  legs.  Over  the  shirt  men  wear 
the  pongo,  a  species  of  cloak  reaching  tb  the  calves  of  the  legs,  and  having 
at  the  top,  in  the  middle,  a  mere  opening,  through  which  the  head  is  thrust. 
With  the  ulmenes  (princes),  the  dress  is  of  better  material.  They  wear 
hats  with  tufts  of  feathers  and  heavy  silver  spurs,  and  carry  rods  with 
knobs  of  this  metal.  With  all  this,  they  go  barefoot  like  the  rest.  Their 
martial  attire  consists  of  a  tabard  and  a  helmet  hood  of  strong  ox-hide, 
frequently  ornamented  with  handsome  feathers.  In  Chili  itself  the  Roman 
Catholic  is  the  established  religion.  In  the  cities,  as  in  every  place  in 
which  Europeans  have  settled  in  America,  European  manners  have  been 
introduced.  (PL  SO,  fig.  15,  men  and  women  of  La  Conception ;  ^f.  16, 
girl  of  that  place ;  fig.  17,  a  Chilian  of  the  lower  ranks.) 

2.  The  people  of  Terra  del  Fuego  inhabit  all  the  coasts  of  Terra  del 
Fuego  and  both  sides  of  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  from  Elizabeth  Island  and 
Port  Famine  in  the  east  to  the  archipelago  that  fills  up  all  the  western  parts 

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272,  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

of  the  north  and  south  sides  of  the  Strait.  From  the  Patagonians  they  are 
separated  partly  by  the  ocean,  in  part  by  the  mountain  chain  on  the  isthmus 
connecting  the  peninsula  of  Brunswick  with  the  mainland.  Their  mode 
of  life  and  the  glaciers  of  their  mountain  country  constrain  them  to  remain 
upon  the  coasts  exclusively. 

They  are  called  Peskerays,  and  are  described  as  being  cold,  poor,  and 
wretched,  like  the  nature  of  this  region.  Forster  relates  of  them :  "  All 
other  nations  of  the  South  Sea  usually  met  us  with  a  loud  huzza  or  joyful 
exclamation,  but  the  inhabitants  of  Terra  del  Fuego  kept  up  a  profound 
silence,  even  when  close  to  the  ship,  where  we  expected  at  least  an  address ; 
they  uttered  no  other  sound  than  'pesheray.'  When,  after  many  signs, 
some  of  them  were  brought  on  board  the  vessel,  they  showed  not  the  slight- 
est indications  of  pleasure,  and  appeared  also  to  be  entirely  without  curiosity. 
They  were  short  of  stature,  none  over  five  feet  six  inches  in  height ;  had 
thick,  large  heads,  broad  faces,  very  flat  noses,  and  the  cheek  bones  under 
the  eyes  were  very  prominent.  The  eyes  themselves  were  of  a  brown 
color,  but  small  and  dull ;  the  hair  black,  entirely  straight,  anointed  with 
train  oil,  and  hanging  wild  and  shaggy  around  the  head.  Instead  of  a 
beard,  a  few  isolated  bristles  stood  upon  the  chin.  Their  mouth  was  ugly 
and  always  open ;  shoulders  and  chest  broad  and  strong ;  .the  lower  part  of 
the  body,  however,  so  meagre  and  shrivelled  up,  that  one  could  scarcely 
imagine  it  belonged  to  the  upper  portion.  The  legs  were  thin  and  crooked, 
and  the  knees  much  too  large.  Their  single  miserable  article  of  clothing 
consisted  of  an  old  sealskin,  which  was  fastened  around  the  neck  by  means 
of  a  cord.  For  the  rest,  they  went  entirely  naked.  Their  complexion  is 
olive  brown  with  a  copper  colored  tinge,  and  by  many  the  hue  is  heightened 
by  means  of  stripes  of  red  and  white  ochre.  The  women  were  formed 
almost  like  the  men,  but  were  somewhat  smaller  and  less  ugly.  Besides 
the  word  pesheray,  at  one  time  uttered  in  a  complaining,  at  another  in 
a  caressing  tone,  some  of  them  spoke  a  few  other  words."  So  far  Forster's 
account.  Later  travellers  have  witnessed  a  rather  greater  display  of  inte- 
rest in  European  ships,  wares,  and  the  like ;  they  have  also  seen  the  Pesherays 
dance  and  heard  them  sing,  and  found  them  somewhat  more  conversible. 
Their  food  consisted  of  seals'  flesh,  frequently  already  spoiled,  and  greasy 
and  disgusting  blubber  was  their  most  esteemed  article  of  diet.  Their 
weapons,  which  consisted  of  bow,  arrows,  and  a  lance,  gave  the  only 
proof  of  any  reflection  and  of  some  industry.  The  Pesharays  appear  to 
pass  in  their  canoes  or  rafts  from  one  island  to  another,  but  nevertheless 
have  their  fixed  places  of  abode.  Their  villages  consist  of  a  few  huts  of 
the  rudest  construction.  A  pair  of  poles  being  set  upright,  are  bent  towards 
each  other  somewhat  in  the  form  of  a  beehive,  and  covered  on  the  weather 
side  with  grass,  boughs,  seal  and  other  skins ;  the  other  side  having  an 
opening  of  about  the  eighth  part  of  the  circle  as  a  door.  Here  also  is  the 
place  for  the  fire,  around  which  the  family,  in  midsummer,  sit  trembling 
with  the  cold. 

r*«  Pampans  are  the  inhabitants  of  the  great  plains  or  pampas.    Their 
places  of  residence  commence  at  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  in  53^  south 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  273 

latitude,  upon  the  arid  and  cold  soil  of  Patagonia,  extend  across  the  north- 
western pampas,  and  along  the  temperate,  hot,  and  in  part  shaded  plains  of 
the  River  Gran  Chaco,  as  far  as  the  first  hills  of  the  province  of  Chiquitos, 
in  10^  south  latitude. 

In  general,  these  nations  are  brownish,  olive-colored,  or  chestnut-brown ; 
their  medium  size  is  five  feet,  two  or  three  inches ;  their  forms,  however,  are 
herculean  ;  the  forehead  is  arched,  the  face  broad  and  flat,  the  nose  broad 
and  depressed,  with  wide,  open  nostrils ;  the  mouth,  at  the  same  time,  very 
large  ;  the  lips  thick,  very  projecting ;  the  eyes  horizontal,  yet  sometimes 
contracted  at  the  outer  corner ;  the  eye-bones  projecting ;  the  features 
manly  and  expressive,  but  cold,  and  frequently  fierce.  In  almost  every 
instance  they  are  roving,  martial,  and  often  cruel  tribes.  We  divide  them 
into  the  following  nations  : 

I.  The  Patagonians  (Tehtielches).  They  inhabit  the  southernmost  part  of 
America,  from  40°  south  latitude  to  the  southern  extremity  of  this  division 
of  the  world  :  a  rough,  barren  country,  in  the  southern  half  of  which  the 
weather  is  even  more  constantly  and  penetratingly  cold  than  is  the  case  in 
the  most  frigid  regions  of  the  north.  But  little  is  known  of  them  ;  and  that 
little — at  least  what  has  been  mentioned  of  their  extraordinary  bodily  size — 
appears  to  be  undeserving  of  full  belief  For  centuries  the  Patagonians 
were  the  more  important  objects  of  curiosity,  the  more  fabulous  the  notices 
of  them  given  us  by  travellers.  The  first  circumnavigators  of  the  globe 
described  them  as  true  giants,  of  nine,  indeed  even  twelve  feet  in  height, 
colossally  formed.  Other  travellers,  on  the  contrary,  asserted  that  they 
were  persons  of  the  usual  size ;  indeed,  even  small.  The  Patagonians  call 
themselves  Tehulhets,  and  by  the  Spaniards  have  been  denominated 
Sierranes  (Mountaineers).  They  are  likewise  split  into  numerous  tribes. 
By  recent  travellers  they  are  described  as  persons  of  from  five  feet  six  to 
ten  inches  (Paris  measure)  in  height,  and  with  their  vigorous,  broad-shoul- 
dered frame,  the  size  of  the  head,  and  the  thickness  of  their  limbs,  of  course 
appear  still  larger.  They  are  strong  and  corpulent,  of  dense  muscle  and  firm 
flesh.  At  the  same  time,  their  figures  are  not  disagreeable.  Their  face  is 
round  ;  the  eyes  are  sparkling  ;  the  teeth  very  white.  Their  long  black  hair 
is  worn  fastened  firmly  upon  the  crown.  Some  men  wear  long,  but  thin 
mustachios.  Their  complexion  is  copper-brown.  In  point  of  size,  the 
women  bear  a  proportion  to  the  men.  Their  complexion,  however,  is 
lighter.  The  attire  of  the  men  consists  of  a  sleeveless  coat,  made  of  the 
skins  of  animals,  thrown  over  the  body,  and  bound  around  the  waist  by 
means  of  a  girdle.  A  broad  piece  of  leather  is  worn  also  around  the  middle 
of  the  body.  Horse-hide  boots  cover  the  feet.  They  paint  the  face  and 
body  with  bright  colored  lines,  and  ornament  themselves  besides  with  rings, 
bracelets,  and  strings  of  imitation  coral  beads.  The  dress  of  the  women  is 
much  the  same.  In  general,  the  Patagonians  are  described  as  good-natured. 
Their  principal  weapon  is  the  ball-sling,  which  consists  of  two  round  stones 
connected  by  thongs,  and  inclosed  by  the  latter  in  a  net- like  manner;  but 
lances,  bows,  and  clubs  are  also  used  by  them.  They  are  a  wandering  nation 
of  hunters;  pay  no  attention  to  agriculture,  and  live  upon  the  flesh  of  wild 

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274  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

lamas,  horses,  ostriches  (rheas),  and  other  animals.  The  horse  is  everything 
to  them ;  and  their  dwellings  consist  at  the  most  of  light  tents  of  skins  or 
rushes.  {PL  S5,ßg,  6,  huts  and  graves  of  the  southern  Patagonians ;  pL  38., 
ßg.  7,  Patagonians  in  their  camp.) 

2.  The  Puelches  dwell  between  the  Rio  Negro  and  the  Rio  Colorado ; 
especially  on  the  banks  of  the  latter.  3.  The  Charruas  east  of  Uruguay, 
north  of  latitude  31°  south.  4.  The  Mbocobis  or  Tobas  fill  the  greatest  part 
of  Chaco,  in  latitudes  21°  to  32°  south.  5.  The  Mataguayos  from  22°  to 
28°  south  latitude.  6.  The  Abipones,  7.  The  Lenguas.  8.  The  Payaguas, 
9.  The  Mbayos,  and  10,  the  Guaycouros,  {PL  35,  fig.  3,  charge  of  horse 
by  the  Guaycouros.)  The  latter  are  a  tribe  now  almost  unknown,  who 
used  to  live  on  the  banks  of  the  Gran  Chacos. 

The  ChiquitoSy  the  American  aborigines  of  the  province  of  Chiquito,  are 
light  brownish  olive-colored.  Their  medium  height  is  5  feet  1^  inches ;  the 
figure  moderately  robust ;  the  face  full  and  round ;  the  forehead  arched ;  the 
nose  short,  and  little  flattened;  the  mouth  moderate,  with  thin,  small, 
projecting  lips;  the  eyes  are  horizontal,  sometimes  moderately  slit  at  the 
outer  side ;  the  cheek-bones  not  prominent ;  the  features  eflfeminate,  and  the 
physiognomy  indicating  vigilance,  vivacity,  and  cheerfulness.  We  divide 
them  into  the  following  nations :  The  Chiquitos,  Samucus,  Curaves,  TapiU^ 
Oorabecas,  Saravecas,  Otuquis  or  Otukes,  CurumiTuicas,  Covarecas,  Cum- 
canecas,  and  Paiconecas. 

The  Moxos  inhabit  the  province  of  Moxos ;  are  olive-brown  in  complex- 
ion, but  not  very  dark ;  their  medium  height  is  five  feet,  one  inch,  and  eight 
lines ;  the  limbs  are  robust ;  the  forehead  is  slightly  arched ;  the  mouth  of 
moderate  size ;  the  lips  are  somewhat  projecting ;  the  eyes  horizontal  and 
not  slit;  the  cheek-bones  not  very  prominent,  and  the  physiognomy  is 
mild.  They  are  divided  into  the  following  nations:  The  Moxos,  Cha- 
pacuras,  Cayuvavas,  Pacaguaras,  Itenes,  Itonamas,  Canichanas,  and  Mo» 
vimas. 

The  Guaranis  or  Caribs,  This  great  stock  displays  in  general  a  yellow 
complexion,  intermixed  with  very  pale  red  ;  the  medium  height  is  five  feet ; 
the  forms  are  very  massive;  the  forehead  is  not  retreating;  the  face 
full  and  circular ;  the  nose  short  and  narrow  ;  the  nostrils  are 
narrow;  the  mouth  moderate-sized,  not  projecting,  with  small  lips;  the 
eyes  frequently  stand  obliquely,  and  are  always  elevated  at  the  exterior 
angle  ;  the  cheek-bones  are  not  very  prominent,  and  the  features  are  mostly 
soft  and  delicate.  The  Guaranis,  who  might  be  called  the  Brazilian  stock, 
after  the  country  in  which  they  more  especially  dwell,  occupy  the  entire 
eastern  moiety  of  South  America,  from  the  Antilles  to  the  vicinity  of  the 
Plata  river.  The  nations  belonging  here  are  so  numerous,  that  we  can 
select  only  a  few  of  them.  The  principal  nation  are  the  Guaranis  proper 
{Tupi,  Caribs,  Caraibs),  who  in  large  numbers  inhabit  the  entire  eastern 
part  of  the  southern  half  of  the  New  World.  Martius  divides  this  great 
nation  (that  is,  the  part  of  it  found  extended  over  Brazil  and  over  the 
borders  of  Bolivia,  Paraguay,  and  Montevideo  or  Uruguay)  into  five  groups 
and  thirty-one  nations,  to  which  nine  others  may  still  be  added. 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  275 

The  Guaranis  are  good  natured,  gentle,  frank,  hospitable,  easily  persuaded, 
and  blindly  follow  a  principle  once  embraced.      Theft  and  adultery  are  so 
greatly  detested  as  to  be  punished  with  death.    They  are  as  good  fathers  as 
they  are  husbands,  and  unacquainted  with  envy  and  malevolence.     But  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  they  are  cruel  and  bloodthirsty  towards  their  enemies, 
and  even  kill  and  eat  their  prisoners  of  war.     It  is  said,  however,  that 
cannibalism  is  not  practised  by  all  the  tribes,  and  that  it  ceased  with  the 
conquest.      The  Guaranis  are  serious,  but  fond  of  games  and  festivals. 
Divided  into  small  tribes  and  families,  they  always  settle  down  on  the  shores 
of  a  brook,  a  lake,  on  the  border  of  a  wood;  sometimes  upon  plains,  at 
others  in  the  thick  of  the  forest.      Usually  they  have  fixed  abodes,  being 
at  the  same  time  farmers,  hunters,  fishermen,  and  sailors.     The  Guaranis 
take  a  second  wife  when  the  first  grows  old,  but  keep  the  latter  in  their  house, 
and  honor  her  as  the  most  worthy.       The  weapons  of  the  Guaranis  consisted 
formerly  of  bow  and  arrows  and  a  club  ;  the  latter  in  some  cases  round,  and 
in  others  having  cutting  edges.      Besides  the  manufacture  of  these  articles, 
their  industrial  arts  were  confined  to  the  building  of  huts  and  pirogues,  as 
well  as  the  weaving  of  their  mats  and  parts  of  female  dress.    Much  attention 
was  paid  to  the  fabrication  of  feather  decorations,  armlets,  and  leg-bands  of 
different  forms.      The  women  made  vessels  for  keeping  drinks,  and  cofins 
for  the  dead,  of  clay.     The  same  industrial  arts,  and  the  same  usages,  exist 
now  also  among  the  uncivilized  Guaranis.      At  the  present  day  (as  they  did 
formerly)  the  Guaranis  go  naked ;  or,  when  travelling,  make  use  of  a  very 
scanty  covering.    Women  sometimes  wrap  a  piece  of  stuff  around  the  hips. 
At  the  same  time  the  Guaranis  cover  the  body  with  black,  red,  and  yellow 
daubings  of  paint,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  half  of  the  person  is  uniform 
in  color.      Only  those  who  have  become  civilized  are  accustomed  to  dress 
themselves  in  light,  loose  garments.      The  chiefs  of  the  numerous  small 
tribes  often  obtain  their  rank  by  inheritance,  but  have  no  other  rights  than 
those  of  giving  advice  in  peace,  and  heading  the  attack  in  time  of  war. 
Religion  among  the  uncivilized  Guaranis,  like  their  manners,  was  and  is 
simple,  and  quite  as  mild  in  its  character  as  the  disposition  of  some  of  the 
tribes.     {PI.  37,  ßg.  2,  Guaranis  in  the  forests  of  Paraguay  as  cannibals  ; 
ßg.  3,  the  preparation  of  the  cacuin  drink  among  the  same  ;  ßg,  4,  war 
dance  of  the  eastern  Guaranis  {Tupinambas);  fig.  5,  captives  of  the  same, 
led  to  death  ;  andfig.  6,  funeral  among  the  same;  pi.  22,  figs.  6,  8,  civilized 
Guaranis  of  Paraguay  and  the  province  of  Rio  Grande.)     The  tribe  of 
eastern  Guaranis,  Tupinambas,  dwell  principally  along  the  sea-coast  of  St. 
Catharine's  Island,  to  the  mouth  of  the  river  Amazon. 

Other  nations  of  Brazil  and  Guiana,  not  belonging  to  the  Guaranis,  are: 
The  Puris,  who  formerly  constituted  one  nation  with  the  Coroados,  but 
afterwards  separated  from  them  ;  hence,  their  customs  are  very  similar  to 
those  of  the  latter.  The  Coropos  and  Macuanis  belong  to  them  also.  The 
greatest  part  of  the  Puris  have  not  been  subjugated  by  the  European 
settlers,  but  are  at  peace  with  them.  They  dwell  on  the  upper  course  of 
the  Paraiba,  and  in  the  interior  of  the  province  of  Espirito  Santo,  between 
the  river  of  the  same  name  and  the  Paraiba,  and  with  the  Guianas  on  Rio 

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276  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

Iguassu  and  Rio  Xipoto.    {PI.  36,  fig.  1,  dance  of  the  Puris ;  fig.  6,  duel  of 
the  same.) 

The  Coroados  are  still  living  in  the  forests  of  Rio  Xipoto  in  the  province 
of  Minas  Geraes,  and  as  yet  in  a  condition  of  semi-barbarism.  The  most 
civilized  of  those  found  between  the  rivers  Macahe  and  Cabapuana  are  the 
tribe  called  Goitacas.  {Fig.  2,  drinking  frolic  of  Coroados.)  The  Coropo» 
dwell  beside  the  Coroados,  along  the  Rio  Xipoto,  in  the  Presidio  de  San 
Joao  Baptista.  The  Macuanis  are  at  present  settled  in  part  on  the  coast 
at  Caravellas,  partly  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Quartel  of  Alto  dos  Boys,  in 
Minas  Novas. 

The  Botocudos  or  Aymoris,  who  call  themselves  Engecrakenong,  dwelt 
in  the  sixteenth  century  in  the  Captaincy  of  Ilheos,  extending  as  far  as 
Porto  Seguro,  where  they  carried  on  a  cruel  war  with  the  Portuguese 
colonists ;  but  are  now  found  in  the  interior,  upon  a  section  of  country 
running  parallel  to  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  between  the  Rio  Doce  and  the 
Rio  Pardo,  lying  between  18**  and  20®  south  latitude,  mainly  upon  the  Sierra 
dos  Aimores.     Their  number  amounts  to  about  4,000. 

The  Botocudos  received  their  name  from  the  Portuguese,  from  the  fact  of 
their  wearing  in  the  under  lip  and  lobe  of  the  ear  pieces  of  wood  resembling 
the^ungof  a  cask  (Portuguese,  fto^oqrtte  or  Äa/oqrue).  They  live  by  hunting 
and  fishing.  A  singular  custom  is  the  one  just  alluded  to,  that  of  piercing 
the  under  lip  and  ear  lobe,  and  placing  in  the  openings  thick,  round  disks  of 
wood.  From  time  to  time,  when  the  apertures  have  become  enlarged,  the 
blocks  are  replaced  by  larger  pieces,  as  it  is  considered  a  great  beauty 
among  them  in  case  the  wooden  stoppers  are  very  large.  At  last  the 
under  lip  projects  so  far  horizontally  that  it  can  no  longer  be  moved 
upwards,  nor  the  mouth  closed.  The  ear  lobes  hang  down  so  much  that 
when  the  wooden  stoppers  are  removed  they  almost  touch  the  shoulders. 
In  their  native  country,  the  complexion  of  the  Botocudos  is  brown ;  it  pro- 
bably becomes  darker  by  reason  of  the  rubbing  with  oil  and  clay  practised 
amongst  them.  The  Botocudos  appear  to  be  even  tempered,  and  at  the 
same  time  timid.  They  have  remained  independent  even  until  the  present 
time,  and  are  divided  into  different  tribes,  some  of  which  evince  a  desire 
of  cultivating  friendly  relations  with  the  whites,  and  do  not  eat  human 
flesh;  whilst  the  principal  tribe,  which  is  addicted  to  this  barbarous 
custom,  is  distinguished  for  cruelty  and  implacable  hatred  towards  the 
European  settlers ;  and,  rendered  sufficiently  sagacious  by  misfortune, 
has,  in  spite  of  exertions  and  sacrifices  on  the  part  of  the  government, 
known  how  to  maintain  its  freedom  in  the  forests,  and  keep  its  original 
ground.  How  shamefully  Indians  are  dealt  with,  is  shown  in  the  treatment 
of  the  Botocudos.  The  whites  were  not  satisfied  with  shooting  them  down 
wherever  they  met  them,  but  employed  also  the  most  disgraceful  means  in 
order  to  surprise  them  in  their  dwellings,  and  massacre  them  without  mercy. 
Under  assurances  of  friendship  they  enticed  them  to  draw  near,  gave  them 
food,  and  murdered  them  whilst  they  were  eating.  Indeed,  they  went  so 
far  as  to  hang  up  in  the  forests  clothes  of  persons  ill  with  the  small  pox,  so 
that  they  might  be  found  and  put  on  by  the  Botocudos,  and  thus  commiici- 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  277 

cate  the  disease  to  their  fellows ;  which  soon  effectually  swept  off  countless 
numbers.  Truly,  under  such  circumstances  it  is  not  surprising  that  the 
Botocudos  do  not  act  less  cruelly  towards  the  whites. 

All  Botocudos  are  of  medium  size,  thick-set,  broad  shouldered,  and 
strongly  built.  In  war,  they  steal  upon  their  enemies  in  the  manner  employed 
by  them  when  hunting  game.  Their  weapons  consist  of  a  bow  seven  feet 
long,  with  arrows  five  feet  in  length.  Their  leaders  are  distinguished  more 
by  prudence  in  the  arrangement  of  the  battle,  than  by  valor ;  they  do  not 
even  take  part  in  the  combat.  Their  prisoners  are  killed  in  order  that  the 
flesh  may  be  eaten ;  the  flesh  of  negroes,  however,  is  preferred  to  that  of 
whites.  The  Botocudos  appear  to  be  particularly  fond  of  the  blood  of  the 
slain.  On  the  whole,  we  have  but  few  accounts  of  their  customs  and 
usages.  (PL  36,  ßg.  5,  a,  single  combat  of  Botocudos ;  ßg,  5,  b,  battle  of 
women  of  this  nation.) 

Besides  the  above  are  the  Canarins^  Macliakans,  Malalis,  Patachos, 
Camacans,  Paniames,  &c.,  as  well  as  the  Capoxos  (Capochos,  Caposhos), 
a  nomadic  tribe  in  the  rocky  mountain  forests,  upon  the  boundary  between 
Minas  Geraes  and  Porto  Seguro  {pL  35,  ßg,  2,  Capoxos  shooting  birds), 
the  Sabujos,  &c. 

The  Camadans  have  gradually  accustomed  themselves  to  fixed  residences. 
Their  skin  has  a  handsome  brown,  often  tolerably  dark  color.  Their  huts 
are  constructed  of  laths,  and  covered  with  pieces  of  bark  of  trees.  Around 
them  they  plant  bananas,  maize,  manioc  (the  roots  of  which  they  eat  roasted), 
and  sweet  potatoes ;  honey  is  one  of  their  most  esteemed  articles  of  food. 
Some  skill  in  the  arts  is  displayed  by  them.  The  women  in  particular  are 
very  dexterous  in  manufacturing  cotton,  the  threads  of  which  they  under- 
stand how  to  twist  in  a  very  neat  manner,  so  as  to  be  able  to  make  of  them 
an  apron,  their  only  article  of  clothing.  On  festive  occasions  they  wear 
besides  a  cap,  called  sharo,  which  consists  of  a  cotton-thread  net,  trimmed 
with  parrot  feathers.  Very  neat  vessels  are  made  by  them  of  clay.  In 
case  the  spoils  of  hunting  have  been  good,  the  Camacans  are  very  much 
inclined  to  get  up  feasts,  with  dancing  and  singing,  at  which  they  go  by 
turns  to  a  cask  and  drink  caui,  a  liquor  prepared  from  maize  and  manioc  by 
the  women.  (PL  S2,ßg,  1,  Camacans  in  the  forest ;  ßg.  2,  the  dancing  and 
drinking  feast  just  mentioned.) 

In  the  province  of  Mato  Grosso  live  the  Caupeses,  Cfuajis,  Cabijis, 
Parecis,  &c. ;  upon  the  west  side,  in  the  eastern  part  of  Campos  dos 
Parecis,  however,  and  upon  the  northern  declivity  of  this  table  land,  the 
Maturares,  Mambares,  Ujapas,  Mambriacas,  and  many  others. 

In  the  province  of  Goyaz,  and  the  neighboring  countries,  dwell  the  Caya- 
pos  (Caipos),  Aroes,  Tapirakes,  Chavantes,  Cherentes,  Puchetys,  Carayas, 
Tapacoas,  &c. ;  and  especially  the  Ges  or  Gez,  a  great  nation,  of  whom 
many  populous  hordes  and  tribes  are  known.  They  reside  in  the  country 
between  the  Tocantins  and  Araguya,  to  within  140  miles  south  of  San  Pedro 
de  Alcantara,  and  extend  their  excursions  frequently  as  far  northwards  as 
Para.  Until  the  present  time  they  have  remained  unsubdued,  but  isolated 
hordes  have  commercial  intercourse  with  travellers.      On  account  of  their 

lOOKOORAPHIO  XNCTCLOPiSDIA. — ^VOL.  UI.  29  449 


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278  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

savage,  rapacious  attacks,  they  are  dangerous  to  Üie  settlers.  They  «re 
divided  into  Norogua-,  Apina^,  Canacata-,  Manacoh-^  Poncata-,  Pateab', 
Ao-,  Cran-,  and  Cricata-Gez ;  the  last  called  also  Falcon  Indians.  The 
Cr  ans  (Tumbias,  Imbiras)  are  unquestionably  a  branch  of  the  Grez,  and 
divided  into  ten  tribes,  whose  hostile  inroads  are  extended  far  into  the  pro- 
vinces of  Para  and  Maranhao. 

In  the  provinces  of  Piahu  and  Maranhao,  and  in  the  interior  of  Baliia, 
dwell  the  Acroas,  the  Masacaras,  Jaicos,  Pimenteiras,  Chocos  or  Chuctt- 
rus,  &c.  * 

In  Para,  along  the  Rio  dos  Amazonas  (Amazon  river),  live,  upon  the 
south  side  of  the  stream,  the  Coyacas,  Ammarious,  Tacuhunos,  Jacundas, 
PirikitaSy  Muras,  and  others ;  upon  the  north  side,  the  Amicitanos,  Arma- 
butos,  Tucujus,  Wayapis,  AracujuSy  &c. 

In  the  province  of  Rio  Negro  we  find  the  Puru-Purus,  Wamanis,  Marci- 
was,  Catawijis,  Catukinas,  Canamering,  and  others,  who  live  on  the 
Soiimoes  and  its  southern  tributaries ;  between  the  Solimoes  and  the  Rio 
Negro,  the  Oavrijanas,  Pavianas,  Caca-Taptotyas,  &o. ;  further,  the  Juma^ 
nas  {Xumanas),  on  the  I^a,  between  this  stream  and  the  Joami  and  Purees, 
whose  hordes  are  the  Oarwana  {Charruas,  pi,  36,  fig.  4),  the  Warawama, 
and  others.  Allied  to  them  are  the  Mariaranas,  between  the  lower  Yupura 
and  the  Rio  Negro,  and  the  Wainumas  between  the  Upi,  a  tributary  of  the 
19a,  and  the  Courinari,  which  falls  into  the  Yupura.  The  Turis,  between 
the  Yuri  and  I^a,  probably  belong  here  also.  Other  nations  of  this  district 
are  the  Coretus,  Airinys,  Tucunas,  Miranyas,  Umawas^  &c.  Northwardly 
and  northeastwardly  of  the  Rio  Negro  dwell  the  Taramas,  Manoas,  Bares, 
Yabaynas,  Ouranoas,  Carajas,  4^. 

The  tribes  of  the  Orinoco,  its  branches  and  tributaries,  are  likewise 
numerous.  A.  von  Humboldt,  in  the  account  of  his  travels,  has  noticed 
120  tribes  in  alphabetical  order;  and  in  addition,  twenty-six  of  British, 
Dutch,  and  French  Guiana.  But  as  all  these  tribes  do  not  differ  essentially 
in  their  modes  of  life,  our  limited  space  will  not  permit  a  full  enumeration 
of  them.  We  will  now  close,  therefore,  the  consideration  of  the  Indians» 
and  add  a  few  remarks  in  reference  to  the  remaining  inhabitants  of  South 
America. 

The  occupations  of  the  Europeans  in  Guiana  consist  chiefly  of  the 
cultivation  of  plantations,  and  of  commerce.  To  be  a  merchant,  owner  of 
a  plantation,  director,  and  administrator,  is  here  considered  the  height  of 
man's  ambition,  and  every  white  is  animated  by  a  mere  commercial  spirit. 
Sciences  and  arts  are  little  cultivated,  and  instruction  therein  is  esteemed 
only  a  secondary  matter  in  the  education  of  youth.  The  French  are  the 
worst  of  colonists ;  for  which  reason,  also,  their  colony,  founded  in  1Ö26  by 
merchants  of  Rouen,  has  never  flourished,  although  possessing  the  same 
natural  advantages  with  the  rest  of  Guiana.  The  colonies  of  British 
Guiana,  Essequebo,  Demerara,  and  Berbice,  were  founded  by  the  Dutch,  and 
conquered  by  the  English.  Demerara,  inhabited  mostly  by  Dutch,  is  the 
principal  and  most  flourishing  amongst  them.  Here,  as  in  all  colonies,  the 
English  live  in  grand  style ;  rise  at  six  o'clock,  drink  coffee  or  chocolate ; 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  279 

breakfast  at  ten  upon  meats,  fruits,  wines,  and  the  like;  at  five  o'clock  dine 
richly  in  the  society  of  the  great,  and  spend  the  evening  on  'Change,  in  the 
cofi*ee-house,  at  play,  balls,  and  entertainments. 

Dutch  Guiana,  cut  into  two  parts  by  the  river  Surinam,  from  which 
stream  the  entire  colony  takes  its  name,  is  one  of  the  finest  colonies  in  the 
tropics.  The  life  of  the  inhabitant  is  as  follows :  At  six  o'clock  in  the 
morning,  he  appears  in  his  dressing-gown  under  the  balcony  of  his  house> 
where  he  receives  the  reports  of  overseers  of  the  plantation,  and  gives 
orders.  A  negress  hands  him  a  cup  of  coffee,  and  a  negro  boy  brings 
cigars,  tobacco,  and  a  bottle  of  wine.  At  nine,  he  returns  to  his  chamber — 
which  has  been  scrubbed  with  limes  in  the  meantime — ^in  order  to  wash 
and  dress  himself.  At  about  eleven  o'clock  appears  a  breakfast  of  meats, 
vegetables,  and  fruit,  with  the  addition  of  wine  or  beer,  and  water.  At 
twelve,  he  rides  to  the  plantation,  accon^panied  by  a  negro  slave  with 
cigars.  At  three  o'clock,  he  takes  his  dinner.  After  the  siesta,  he  drinks 
his  coffee,  smokes,  walks,  and  passes  the  evening  in  games,  boating  excur- 
sions, assemblies,  and  concerts. 

The  white  inhabitants  of  Quito  are  of  medium  size,  have  expressive 
features,  fine  color,  and  slender  waists ;  and  their  sparkling  eyes  betray  the 
vivacity  of  their  spirits.  In  social  life  they  are  very  kind,  frank,  loquacious, 
and  hospitable.  The  women  are  of  very  variable  dispositions,  and  enjoy 
high  respect  The  ladies  of  Guayaquil  are  celebrated  for  their  great 
beauty ;  having  fine  features,  slender  waists,  a  pretty  gait,  and  a  great  deal 
of  grace.  They  are  said  to  be  particularly  good  dancers,  intelligent,  and 
witty.  The  ordinary  dress  of  the  Spaniards  and  Creoles  is  similar  to  that  of 
the  English  and  French,  to  which  is  added  a  blue,  white,  or  red  cloak.  Hoop 
petticoat#are  now  worn  by  old  ladies  alone;  by  young  ladies,  at  most  only 
in  church.  The  mestizoes  are  very  well  formed,  tall,  slender,  vigorous,  of  a 
reddish  tinge,  and  have  prepossessing  features.  They  are  said  to  have 
many  virtues  in  common  with  the  whites ;  they  exceed  them,  however,  in 
their  vices.  Their  style  of  dress  is  inferior  to  that  of  the  Creoles.  They 
are  fond  of  going  barefoot.  Knee  breeches,  a  narrow  jerkin,  blue  Spanish 
cloak,  and  black  straw  hat,  constitute  the  clothing  of  the  men.  Women 
still  frequently  wear  the  stiff  hoop  petticoat,  with  it  a  tight  bodice,  and 
over  their  shoulders  hangs  a  small  flannel  shawl ;  the  hair  falls  down  on  the 
neck  in  long  locks ;  a  net  covers  the  head  ;  a  multitude  of  ribands,  fringes, 
laces,  and  brooches,  complete  their  attire.  The  national  pleasures  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Quito  are  bull  fights,  masquerades,  dancing,  and  music  ;  and 
their  fondness  for  the  latter  is  gratified  also  in  the  religious  ceremonies, 
processions,  and  parades. 

Among  the  whites  of  Brazil,  the  Portuguese  play  the  first  part.  Pride 
and  indolence  are  faults  laid  to  their  charge,  but  they  are  very  temperate  in 
eating  and  drinking.  The  Brazilians  dress  in  the  English  fashion,  and  live  in 
Oriental  style.  The  indoor  attire  of  women  is  a  thin  garment  of  the  finest 
muslin  or  cambric,  one  shoulder  being  uncovered.  When  they  go  abroad 
or  are  carried  to  pay  visits,  they  throw  around  the  person  a  long  black  silk 
mantilla,  which  goes  over  the  head  also.     They  are  surrounded  by  black 

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280  HISTORY  AND  ETUNOLOGY. 

female  servants,  who  live  with  them  upon  the  most  confidential  terms,  but 
are  frequently  obliged  to  endure  the  harshest  treatment.  Among  the 
whites  of  Brazil,  the  inhabitants  of  the  province  of  San  Paulo  are  chiefly 
distinguished  as  an  entirely  singular,  vigorous  race.  We  find  these  people, 
who  first  unveiled  the  riches  of  the  country  and  discovered  the  gold  mines 
and  diamonds  of  Brazil,  scattered  throughout  the  entire  kingdom,  and 
recognise  them  in  their  enthusiasm  for  great  things,  in  their  inclination  for 
adventure,  and  in  their  rather  rough  but  strong  voice.  The  Paulistas  are 
celebrated  as  well  for  their  beauty,  as  on  account  of  their  good  nature  and 
fidelity.  In  disposition  the  Brazilian  is  more  lively  and  fonder  of  pleasure. 
In  the  evening  the  notes  of  the  guitar  are  heard  almost  everywhere,  to 
which  instrument  the  people  sing  and  dance.  Their  national  dance  is 
called  haducca,  and  performed  by  but  one  man  and  one  woman,  who, 
snapping  their  fingers,  trip  with  unrestrained  movements,  at  one  time 
towards,  at  another  from  each  other.  This  amusement  is  frequently  kept 
up  for  a  long  time  to  the  monotonous  sounds  of  the  instrument  mentioned 
above,  alternated  with  impromptu  singing  or  national  songs.  Landed 
estates,  with  their  farm-houses  and  plantations,  are  denominated  fazendas, 
and  the  proprietors  or  planters  themselves  are  called  fazendeiros.  Every 
fazendeiro  possesses  several  hundred  and  even  several  thousand  head  of 
cattle,  all  roving  freely  over  the  pasturage.  To  every  cattle  fazenda 
belongs  a  sufiicient  number  of  vaqueiros,  who  take  care  that  the  animals  of 
the  herd  are  not  dispersed  out  of  the  district.  The  vaqueiros  are  clothed 
entirely  in  rough  skins,  ride  good  horses,  and  are  furnished  with  a  long  pole 
with  a  blunt  iron  head,  to  keep  the  oxen  from  pressing  too  closely  upon  them ; 
they  generally  carry  also  a  noose  with  which  to  catch  the  animals.  They 
are  good  riders  and  horsebreakers  withal.  {PI,  Sl^  fig,  1,  Braziliati  country 
people  of  Rio  Grande  upon  a  journey  ;  fig.  2,  inhabitant  of  the  Province  of 
Minas  travelling ;  fig.  3,  planter's  family  of  Brazil  driving  to  mass  ;  fig.  4, 
townspeople  of  Rio  Grande  journeying ;  fig.  5,  caravan  of  travelling  Bra- 
zilian merchants ;  fig.  6,  transportation  of  diamonds  with  the  escort.  PL 
^^>fig'  4,  cattle-hunting  in  the  Brazilian  pampas.  PI.  33,  fig.  1,  Brazilian 
planter's  dwelling ;  fig.  4,  game  of  Loss-Porodos  of  Brazilians ;  fig.  5, 
haducca,  national  dance  of  the  Brazilians ;  fig.  6,  planter's  family  walking 
to  mass.     PI.  22,  fig.  5,  inhabitant  of  the  Brazilian  Province  San  Paulo.) 

In  Peru  also,  the  Creoles  are  lively,  agile,  and  kindly  disposed.  Conjugal 
and  parental  fondness,  filial  love,  charity,  generosity,  and  hospitality,  are 
found  as  a  general  rule  in  the  households  of  the  Creoles.  Their  pride  is 
skilfully  concealed  under  the  appearance  of  affability,  and  their  main  fault 
is  an  inordinate  longing  after  enjoyments,  especially  an  unbounded  love  for 
the  pleasures  of  the  table.  The  dress,  particularly  in  Lima,  the  Paris  of 
South  America,  is  handsome  and  picturesque.  Men  wear  the  Spanish 
cloak ;  women  of  all  classes,  under  the  cloak,  the  saya,  a  garment  of  velvet, 
satin,  or  stuff,  mostly  black  and  cinnamon- brown,  but  with  ladies  of  higher 
standing  red  and  light  blue,  gathered  in  very  small  plaits  and  fitting  tight 
around  the  body,  very  narrow  below  and  trimmed  with  fringe,  pearls,  and 
embroidery.  Silk  stockings  and  satin  shoes,  a  handsome  shawl,  and  a  li^t 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  281 

loose  garment  of  thin  black  silk,  make  up  the  attire.  Perfumes  and  scented 
waters  are  great  favorites  with  the  ladies;  they  also  adorn  themselves 
richly  with  precious  stones  and  flowers.  The  manner  of  living  in  Bolivia 
(Upper  Peru)  is  still  very  plain  ;  the  character  of  the  people,  like  their  cus- 
toms, is  steadfast  and  honorable.  In  mental  culture  and  religious  enlight- 
enment they  are  nearly  like  the  Lower  Peruvians.  {PL  30,  fig.  12,  female 
dress  in  Lima ;  figs.  9  and  10,  female  and  male  dress  in  Bolivia.)  The 
Spaniards,  met  with  in  small  numbers  in  Chili,  have  laid  aside  their  pride. 
The  Creoles,  fiery  and  spirited  in  this  country  as  everywhere,  are  in  pos- 
session of  the  greatest  part  of  the  landed  property  and  the  public  offices. 
Among  the  men,  European  dress  is  in  use ;  a  poncho  (cloak),  however,  is 
sometimes  worn.  Women  wear  fancy-colored  bodices,  and  a  frock  of 
colored  flannel  or  black  velvet  over  a  hoop  petticoat,  frequently  of  immense 
size.  When  going  abroad  they  put  on  a  man's  hat,  covering  it  with  a 
muslin  shawl.  Young  girls,  however,  usually  wear  the  dress  of  Lima. 
(PL  80,  fig.  15,  men  and  women ;  fig.  Id,  girl  of  La  Concepcion ;  fig.  17, 
Chilian  of  the  lower  ranks.)  A  peculiar  class  are  the  Spaniards  who 
inhabit  the  central  plains  of  the  pampas,  and  who  are  true  Bedouins. 
They  are  called  Gauchos,  and  live  dispersed  in  the  desert.  Every  Gaucho, 
a  man  often  sprung  from  noble  Spanish  families,  is  patriarchal  lord  in  the 
midst  of  his  farm.  His  hut  is  surrounded  by  an  inclosure  for  the  herds ; 
his  bed  consists  of  skins,  his  clothing  partly  of  the  same  material.  The 
only  food  is  beef  roasted  on  a  spit  over  the  fire.  Vegetable  diet  is  despised ; 
and  cheese  and  butter  are  not  made  by  them.  They  are  scarcely  more 
civilized  than  the  savage  Pampan  Indians,  who  sometimes  rob  them  of  their 
cattle.  In  love  of  liberty  as  well  as  in  bodily  activity,  the  Gauchos  resem- 
ble the  Arabs ;  that  gentleness  of  manners  prevailing  in  the  tents  of  the 
latter  is  sought  in  vain,  however,  among  them.  They  are  gloomy,  suspi- 
cious, and  indolent.  Only  when  engaged  in  breaking  in  horses  or  in 
ferocious  fighting  is  their  eye  animated.  Not  a  step  is  taken  on  foot ;  they 
carouse  on  horseback  before  the  doors  of  the  taverns  when  in  town ;  even 
mass  is  heard  by  them  in  front  of  the  open  door  of  the  chapel  without 
dismounting.  Card-playing  and  singing  to  the  guitar  are  their  principal 
recreations.  They  are  excellent  soldiers,  and  endure  extraordinary  pri- 
vations. Of  late  years  they  have  frequently  been  the  instruments  in  the 
hands  of  designing  party  men  for  the  attainment  of  the  revolutionary 
objects  of  the  latter,  and  under  the  hands  of  these  savages  the  noblest 
chiefs  of  the  republic  were  wantonly  sacrificed. 

Argentina  is  superior  to  the  other  republics  of  South  America,  in  possess- 
ing by  far  the  best  educated  city  population.  This  is  especially  the  case 
with  regard  to  Buenos  Ayres,  one  of  the  handsomest  and  most  important 
commercial  cities  of  South  America,  exhibiting  a  Moorish  character  in  its 
architecture.  Assumptions  by  privileged  classes  are  seldom  remarked  here. 
The  very  first  officers  of  the  state  live  unostentatiously  and  very  plainly. 
No  restraint  is  imposed  upon  the  women ;  they  are  virtuous  and  respected. 
Citizens  live  very  well,  but  temperately,  regularly  attend  their  magnificent 
churches,  and  are  very  sociable.    A  strong  intermixture  of  Indian  blood  is 

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282  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

perceptible  in  the  population,  which  includes  a  large  number  of  civilized 
Indians.  Many  French  and  English,  especially  artisans  of  the  latter 
nation,  reside  there  also.  The  streets  are  constantly  occupied  by  Gauchos 
on  horseback,  who  with  their  grotesque  appearance,  their  dusky  sunburnt 
countenances,  their  straw  hats,  ponchos  fluttering  in  the  breeze,  Patagonian 
boots,  and  rude  horse  trappings,  make  a  singular  impression  on  foreigners. 
{PL  SO,  fig.  18,  a  Gaucho  in  Buenos  Ay  res.) 

We  close  this  subject  with  a  few  remarks  concerning  the  journey  across 
the  Cordilleras.  The  passes  of  these  mountains,  which  cannot  lay  claim  to 
the  name  of  roads,  are  impracticable  for  six  months  at  a  time.  Only  from 
November  until  the  end  of  May  can  the  perilous  journey  to  Chili  be  ven- 
tured upon,  and  then  only  on  mules.  These  animals  are  justly  preferred 
to  horses  in  these  mountain  tracts.  The  traveller's  best  course  is  to 
resign  himself  to  the  unerring  instinct  of  his  mule.  It  is  his  business,  on 
the  other  hand,  to  retain  his  self-command,  and  not  to  allow  himself  to  be 
overcome  by  fear  when  the  animal  he  is  riding  stands  still  over  dizzy  gul& 
in  order  to  breathe  and  look  for  firm  ground.  Food  and  other  necessary 
requisites  are  carried  by  the  muleteers  and  peons  (pL  30,  fig,  14),  who 
accompany  the  traveller.  The  nearer  he  comes  to  the  summit  of  the  Cor- 
dilleras the  more  oppressive  is  that  painful  sensation  designated  in  Chili 
by  the  name  of  guna,  which  is  caused  by  the  rarefaction  of  the  atmo- 
sphere and  upward  motion.  Arrived  at  the  top,  he  casts  a  last  glance 
upon  the  plains  of  the  Kio  de  la  Plata,  which  spread  themselves  out  to 
view  in  the  far  distance.  The  desert  with  its  dazzling  snow  and  perpetual 
silence,  opens  before  him ;  it  must  be  traversed.  Silently  he  bridles  his 
mule  and  follows  his  guide.  Like  the  latter,  he  bows  before  the  wooden 
crosses  past  which  the  road  leads,  and  which  mark  the  sites  of  former 
casualties.  If  a  tempest  bursts  forth,  the  caravan  flies,  if  possible,  to  one  of 
the  miserable  huts  erected  at  certain  points  by  the  guides.  Here  the  party 
are  obliged  to  await  the  end  of  the  storm,  frequently  abiding  several  days, 
their  provisions,  their  strength,  and  their  courage,  being  wasted  in  the  mean- 
time. The  pass  of  Uspallata,  the  one  usually  chosen  by  merchants,  extends 
from  800  miles  west  of  the  confines  of  Chili  to  Villa  Vicencio  in  the  Pro- 
vince of  Mendoga.  The  journey  through  it  is  made  in  seven  to  eight  days. 
The  house  in  which  travellers  abide  a  few  days  is  1987  toises  above  the 
level  of  the  sea. 

We  cannot  leave  the  subject  of  the  people  of  America  without  advert- 
ing to  the  African  race,  who  form  part  of  the  population  both  in  North 
and  South  America,  mostly  in  a  state  of  bondage,  and  who  are  employed  in 
the  warmer  temperate  and  in  the  torrid  zones  as  tillers  of  the  soil  which  is 
owned  by  their  masters,  and  as  domestic  servants.  They  are  bought  and 
sold  like  other  property ;  and  forming  a  very  considerable  portion  of  the 
wealth  of  their  owners,  will  probably  for  generations  to  come  remain  slaves, 
until  finally  some  wise  man  contrives  a  way  of  emancipating  them  without 
ruining  at  the  same  time  the  very  existence  of  the  districts  in  which,  in  the 
present  condition  of  things,  their  labor  cannot  be  dispensed  with,  however 
violently  abstract  philanthropy  may  argue  to  the  contrary.  Setting  aside 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  283 

tkis  quetticm,  which  does  not  fall  mto  our  province,  we  only  mention  the 
negroes  of  the  southern  United  States,  Central,  and  South  America,  with 
regard  to  their  physical  and  moral  condition.  They  are  generally  a 
healthy,  cheerful  race,  kind  when  well  treated,  but  savage  when  driven  to 
despair  by  wanton  cruelty,  such  as  has  been  perpetrated  sometimes  in 
Dutch  Guiana  and  Brazil,  and  which  has  led  to  bloody  revolts,  and  subse- 
quent independent  settlements  of  the  negroes  in  the  forests  and  mountains 
of  those  countries. 

The  independence  of  the  colored  population  of  the  Island  of  Haiti 
was  accomplished  by  the  negro  general  Toussaint  TOuverture,  after  a 
series  of  revolutions,  characterized  by  the  most  atrocious  cruelties,  and 
extending  over  four  years  (1791-1795).  Several  attempts  have  been 
made  since  to  re-establish  slavery,  but  unsuccessfully.  The  negroes 
remain  not  only  free,  but  even  masters  of  the  idand,  and  have  alternately 
had  governments  of  republican  and  monarchical  forms.  They  have  not, 
however,  realized  the  hopes  entertained  by  their  friends,  with  regard  to 
their  capacity  for  administering  the  affiiirs  of  the  island,  which,  when  it 
came  into  their  possession,  was  the  most  flourishing  in  the  West  Indies. 
They  exhibit  an  invincible  physical  and  mental  inddence,  caring  only 
for  sensual  enjoyments;  and  the  natural  consequence  is,  that  agriculture 
and  commerce  have  suffered  considerably  since  the  departure  of  the  white 
population.  At  present,  they  are  under  the  sceptre  of  the  self-installed 
Emperor  Faustin  I.,  with  a  newly  formed  aristocracy ;  and  it  remains  to 
be  seen  if  the  wisdom  which  is  inherent  to  crowned  heads  will  save  the 
country  from  all  the  difficulties  into  which  it  has  gradually  been  brought, 
and  which  for  the  time  being  have  a  very  threatening  aspect. 

On  the  British  West  India  Islands  the  slaves  were  emancipated  by  act 
of  Parliament  in  1838,  the  greater  part  of  a  century  having  been  spent  by 
the  friends  of  this  measure  in  urging  its  policy.  The  negroes  and  colored 
people  generally  in  the  British  possessions  have  equal  social  rights  with  the 
whites,  being  like  the  latter  subjects  of  the  crown  of  England.  Too  litUe 
time  has  elapsed  since  their  liberation  and  consequent  adoption  as  citizens 
to  allow  of  conclusive  judgment  upon  the  working  of  a  system,  of  which  the 
introduction  was  marked  by  great  disturbances  owing  to  the  unwillingness 
of  the  emancipated  slaves  to  work  even  for  pay.  This  state  of  things  has 
now  ceased  to  exist,  and  the  colored  people  appear  to  have  become  gradu- 
ally familiar  with  the  fact  that  a  freeman  has  duties  as  well  as  rights.  The 
produce  of  the  islands,  however,  is  still  far  inferior  to  what  it  was  in  the 
days  of  slavery,  and  the  value  of  property  is  much  depreciated. 

Owing  to  their  position,  the  negroes  in  America  are  mostiy  as  ignorant 
as  their  kinsmen  in  Africa  to  whom  civilization  has  not  *as  yet  penetrated. 
In  the  northern  United  States,  where  the  negroes  are  free,  individuals  are, 
however,  found  among  them,  who  possess  no  inconsiderable  degree  of  edu- 
cation, and  give  evidence  that  the  race  are  capable  of  receiving  instruction 
under  circumstances  favoring  its  acquisition.  Yet  their  condition  is  by 
no  means  enviable,  owing  to  the  reigning  prejudice  which  forbids  colored 
people  to  live  on  a  footing  of  equality  with  the  whites.     The  treatment  of  the 

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284  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

slaves  in  the  United  States  is  mild  and  kind,  and  great  attachment  is  fre- 
quently observed  to  exist  between  master  and  slave,  especially  domestics  and 
such  as  have  been  bom  and  reared  on  the  estate.  In  South  America  the 
slaves  are  treated  less  humanely,  often  even  with  great  cruelty ;  but  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  an  improved  political  condition  would  be  the  source 
of  improvement  in  the  social  condition  of  the  slaves.  As  yet  scenes  like 
those  represented  in  our  plates  are  not  unfrequently  witnessed  in  Brazil. 
(PL  B4/fig,  1,  a  slave  trader ;  ^^.  2,  the  punishment  of  the  stocks ;  fig.  3, 
the  scourge.  PL  S2,  fig.  4,  a  free  negro  bringing  back  a  runaway  slave ; 
fig.  3,  negroes  of  Bahia.  PL  S4,  fig.  4,  negroes  employed  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  manioc  flour ;  fig.  6,  others  returning  home  from  hunting ;  and 
fig.  6,  others,  again,  as  porters.  PL  SI,  fig.  1,  two  sedan  bearers,  and  with 
them  travelling  farmers  (sertomejos),  of  the  Brazilian  province  of  Rio 
Grande.  PL  36,  fig.  5,  negroes  of  San  Paulo  dancing.  PL  36,  fig.  3, 
dance  of  Indians  in  the  mission  of  St.  John.  PL  33.  fig.  2,  diamond  dealer, 
BXid  fig.  3,  negroes  as  diamond  washers.) 

Diamonds  are  searched  for  by  negro  slaves,  under  strict  supervision ;  in 
doing  which  they  make  use  of  the  same  kind  of  box  employed  in  washing 
for  gold.  When  a  diamond  is  discovered  by  one  of  them,  in  the  sand 
brought  up  from  the  bed  of  the  river,  he  rises  from  his  seat,  and  claps 
thrice  with  his  hands.  As  long  as  the  washing  continues  the  overseers 
follow  vigilantly  the  movements  of  all  the  slaves,  lest  they  should  embezzle 
any  of  the  diamonds.  Still,  in  spite  of  this  strict  supervision  and  the  severe 
punishment  which  they  have  to  expect  upon  discovery,  they  understand 
how  to  conceal,  during  the  washing,  between  the  fingers  or  toes,  in  the 
ears,  in  the  mouth,  in  the  frizzled  hair,  &c.,  the  diamonds  found  by  them. 

In  the  preparation  of  flour  from  manioc  (Jatropha  manihot,  pL  M,fig.  4), 
the  roots  of  this  plant  are  first  scraped,  in  order  to  free  them  from  the  bark. 
They  are  then  held  on  a  large  revolving  wheel,  and  by  this  means  ground 
to  a  jelly.  After  this,  the  mass  is  placed  in  long  wide  hose,  plaited  of  reeds 
and  bast,  which  are  hung  up  and  drawn  out,  thus  making  them  narrower, 
and  pressing  out  the  juice  of  the  mass.  The  remaining  pulpy  mass  is  thrown 
into  large  pans  of  copper  or  burnt  clay  set  in  mason- work,  in  which  it  is  fully 
dried  by  heat,  being  constantly  stirred  in  order  that  the  mass  may  not  bum. 
Of  the  meal  thus  obtained  a  savory  bread  is  baked,  which  keeps  for  months. 


The  Nations  of  Oceania. 

Oceania,  spread  over  a  greater  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  than  the 
other  four  divisions  of  the  world  together,  is  the  least  known  of  all,  but 
the  richest  and  the  most  remarkable  in  the  variety  of  objects  presented  to 
view.  It  might  be  termed  the  region  of  wonders.  It  contains  the  most 
opposite  races,  the  strangest  productions  of  nature,  and  the  most  remarkable 
monuments  of  the  arts.  Oceania  consists  of  islands  merely,  the  largest  of 
which,  situated  to  the  south-east  of  Asia,  is  not  unfrequently  considered  a 
continent,  on  account  of  its  magnitude.  It  is  called  New  Holland  or 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  286 

Australia,  and  has  been  taken  possession  of  by  England,  whose  govern- 
ment is  now  endeavoring  to  increase  the  population  and  render  the  country 
more  profitable,  by  means  of  European  settlers.     The  south-eastern  portion 
of  this  vast  island  is  called  New  South  Wales ;  many  settlements  exist 
there,  as  well  as  upon  the  eastern  part  of  the  south  coast,  the  west  and 
north  coasts.     The  whole  of  Oceania  has  been  divided  in  difierent  ways ; 
one  of  those  most  natural  appears,  however,  to  be  that  of  Domeny  de  Rienzi, 
improved  by  Dumont  d'Urville  :   1.  Malaysia  or  West  Oceania^  improperly 
denominated  by  the  English  the  Indian  Archipelago,  with  Borneo  as  a 
centre ;  2.  Micronesia  or  North  Oceania,  comprising  the  very  small  islands 
and  naked  rocks  in  a  space  extending  from  a  little  below  the  Tropic  of  Can* 
cer  in  the  south  to  40^  north  latitude,  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Island  of 
Borodino,  on  the  east,  at  about  167°  west  longitude  (from  Paris),  by  Neker 
Island,  the  most  important  part  of  it  being  the  group  of  Munin  Sima. 
3.  Polynesia,  consisting  of  the  St.  David  or  Free-will  Islands,  Nevil  Island, 
the  great  archipelago  of  the  Carolinas,  including  the  Pelew  and  Navigators' 
Islands,  the  large  island  of  Cocal,  and  others  of  this  chain ;  in  general,  all 
the  islands  of  the  South  Sea,  from  the  Hawaian  or  Sandwich  archipelago 
to  the  Bishop  and  Clerk  Islands,  south  of  New  Zealand,  to  the  Island  of 
Ticopia  near  Vanicoro,  in  the  west,  and  to  the  island  of  Sala  y  Gromez  in 
the  east,  in   the  direction  of  America :   4.  Melanesia ;  that  is,  Australia 
with  the  archipelago  belonging  to  it,  Van  Diemen's  Land,  New  Caledonia, 
Malicollo,  &c..  New  Guinea  and  the  adjacent  Papua  Islands,  and  all  the 
islands  to  the  east  and  south-east  with  a  black  population,  e.  g.  Solomon's 
and  Viti  Islands,  New  Ireland,  New  Britain,  &c. 

The  possessions  of  the  Dutch  in  Malaysia  number  about  10,000,000  of 
inhabitants.  Portugal  holds  the  north-eastern  part  of  the  island  of  Timor, 
and  the  two  small  islands  of  Sabrao  and  Solor.  Spain  owns  the  greatest 
^portion  of  the  Archipelago  of  the  Philippines,  and  is  endeavoring  to  enter 
into  the  interior  of  Leyte,  Samar,  Mindora,  Mindanao,  and  La  Paragua  or 
Palawan.  England  possesses  Pulo  Penang  and  Singhapura,  Melville  Island, 
north,  Norfolk,  east,  Tasmania,  south  of  Australia.  She  holds  the  entire 
east  coast,  or  New  South  Wales,  and  some  points  in  the  south,  west,  and 
north  of  this  great  island  or  continent,  which  is  almost  as  large  as  Europe. 
The  Malays  are  the  race  most  widely  spread  in  Oceania.  In  all  proba- 
bility the  east  coast  of  Borneo  is  the  native  place  of  this  seafaring  and 
commercial  people.  They  conquered  and  gave  their  name  to  the  peninsula 
of  Malacca,  and  the  east  coasts  of  Madagascar  and  Formosa  were  probably 
colonized  by  them.  The  coasts  of  Sumatra,  a  part  of  the  Moluccas  and  of 
the  Nicobars,  Pinang,  Nias,  Singhapura,  Linging,  Bingtang,  &c.,  are 
inhabited  by  this  stock.  The  Malays  are  well  formed,  of  medium  thick-set 
stature,  little  inclined  to  corpulency ;  their  feet  small.  Upon  almost  all  the 
shores  of  West  Oceania,  where  they  have  settled,  they  appear  to  occupy 
the  middle  position  between  Hindoos  and  Chinese,  but  their  complexion 
approaches  the  dark  brick-red  of  the  Illinois  and  Caribs,  and  sometimes 
inclines  to  white  or  black,  according  to  the  intermixture  of  nations.  In 
Timor,  dark  and  tan-colored  faces  are  seen ;  in  Borneo,  the  complexion  is 

457 


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286  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

dearer ;  in  Temati,  it  is  deep  blackish  brown,  and  inclining  to  sooty.    The 
Javanese  and  Balians  are  in  all  probability  mongrels  of  Bomeese  and 
Hindoos ;  the  former  being  of  a  yellow  tinge,  the  latter  whiter  and  better 
formed  ;  -  both  inferior  to  the  Malays.   The  ugliest  race  is  found  in  Linging, 
the  handsomest  in  Mindanao ;  the  bravest  Malays  are  those  of  Palembang. 
The  women  are  tolerably  pretty,  delicate,   and   agile;   in   Manilla  and 
Formosa  they  are  almost  white.      Their  facial  angle  is  of  80°  to  85°;  their 
nose  is  short,  thick,  and  sometimes  flat ;  the  mouth,  even  of  females,  very 
wide.    Chinese  have -settled  upon  almost  all  the  Malayan  islands,  and  inter- 
married with  women  of  the  country  ;  and  to  this  intermixture  of  races  may 
be  attributed  the  fact  that  many  Afalays  have  deep  set  and  oblique  eyes, 
like  the  people  of  China.    Nowhere,  excepting  upon  Wayoo,  was  the  effort 
to  spread  the  Chinese  tongue  successful,  so  greatly  is  it  disliked  by  these 
natives,  whose  language  is  soft  like  the  Italian  and  Portuguese.    Their  food 
consists  of  sago,  rice,  and  fish.   Some  chew  a  mixture  of  betel,  pepper,  quick 
lime,  areca  nuts,  and  tobacco,  called  in  Java  siri ;  others  use  gambir  or 
kino,  a  very  astringent  substance,  made  of  the  Nauclea  gambir,  a  large 
creeping  plant      The  latter  gives  a  black  color  to  the  teeth,  tongue,  and 
roof  of  the  mouth,  without  affecting  the  gums.    Betel  chewing  is  customary 
also  in  the  East  Indies  and  many  other  regions.    Upon  the  islands  of  Ling- 
ing, Lingan,  Bingtang,  Singhapura,  Pinang,  Sumatra,  Java,  &c.,  the  people 
never  go  naked,  but  throw  a  sarong  (a  kind  of  tunic)  around  the  body,  and 
wear  an  undergarment,  and  a  cap  or  cloth  wrapped  about  the  head.     In 
Java  the  Orang  Kaya,  or  nobleman,  adds  a  cloak,  and  sometimes  a  cap 
called  kuluk.     The  priests  alone  are  clothed  in  white,  and  have  a  kind  of 
turban.    Many  of  the  Malays  are  Mussulmans,  but  do  not  shave  the  head 
entirely.     They  are  fond  of  a  life  at  sea,  and  among  other  things  follow 
piracy ;  are  industrious  artisans  and  skilful  merchants.    Proud  and  jealous, 
licentious  and  faithless,  but  brave  and  independent,  they  go  constantly 
armed  with  the  kris  (javelin),  except  in  the  towns;  and  this  weai)on  is* 
frequently  poisoned  with  the  fearful  Upas. 

The  second  stock  are  the  Polynesians  and  Dyaks.  De  Rienzi  thinks 
that  he  discovered  in  the  race  of  the  Dyaks  and  other  people  of  Borneo, 
the  origin  of  the  Malayan,  Melanesian,  and  Polynesian  nations.  The  light 
yellow,  more  or  less  embrowned,  complexion  of  their  face ;  their  facial 
angle,  which  resembles  that  of  Europeans ;  the  tall  stature,  regular  physiog- 
nomy, high  nose  and  forehead,  and  long  black  hair ;  the  beauty,  sweetness, 
and  the  insinuating  and  voluptuous  manners  of  the  women,  especially  of  the 
dancers  ;  the  traceable  similarity  of  their  language ;  the  habits  of  agricul« 
ture,  hunting,  and  fishing;  the  skill  in  manufacturing  their  pirogues  and 
utensils ;  their  huge  huts ;  their  religious  conceptions;  the  human  sacrifices ; 
their  usages,  and  the  peculiar  kind  of  consecration  or  tahoo — all  these 
things,  «ays  Domeny  de  Rienzi,  show  a  very  great  affinity  between  the 
Dyaks  and  the  Polynesians.  Still  more  complete  was  the  agreement 
between  the  latter  and  the  Touradashas  and  the  Boughuis  of  Celebes,  who, 
if  they  did  not  actually  belong  to  the  stock  of  the  Dyaks,  at  least  like  them 
respected  the  property  of  the  great  and  priests  as  sacred  and  inviolable. 
458 


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ETHNOLOGY  OP  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  287 

The  BaJians,  the  natives  of  the  islands  of  Nias,  Nassau  or  Poggee,  the 
Ternaties,  the  Guilolies,  and  the  rahabitants  of  a  part  of  the  Mohiccad,  the 
Holo  Archipelago,  the  Philippines  and  Palaos  islands,  appear  to  belong  to 
the  Dyak  race.  According  to  the  assurance  of  credible  trayellers,  the 
resemblance  of  the  Tahitians,  the  New  Zealanders,  and  the  Battas  to  the 
Dyaks  is  surprising.  Their  language  is,  as  it  were,  the  connecting  link 
between  the  Äf  alay  and  the  Polynesian ;  and  the  Mala3rs  and  the  Javanese 
on  the  coasts  of  Borneo  acknowledge  them  as  the  aborigines,  the  Orange 
Benoa  of  the  country.  All  Polynesians  are  unacquainted  with  the  use  of 
the  bow  as  a  weapon  of  war ;  all  partake  of  the  intoxicating  drink  kava  ; 
among  some  civilization  has  made  considerable  advances,  especially  among 
the  inhabitants  of  Hawai,  Tahiti,  and  Tonga. 

The  third  division  are  the  Alfuras;  a  name  which,  in  the  language  of 
the  Dyaks,  signifies  a  savage  race,  and  which  the  Malays  do  not  apply  to 
nations  of  one  color,  or  pure  black  alone,  but  to  various  tribes  living  in 
a  state  of  nature.  The  Alfuras  of  Boom  are  copper  colored ;  the  Baitas,  or 
Alfuras  of  Sumatra,  dark  yellow;  and  the  Tourcubhas,  or  Alfuras  of 
Celebes,  resemble  the  latter ;  whilst  the  Alfuras  of  Mindanao,  Mindora, 
&c.,  are  of  a  dusky  black,  and  those  of  Lu^on  and  of  Buglas,  who  are 
mongrels  of  the  Endamenians  and  Papuans,  present  two  black  shadings.  In 
all  probability  the  blacks  formed  the  original  population  of  Oceania.  It  may 
be  that  the  Alfuras  belong  to  an  Endamenian  stock,  who,  after  having  been 
expelled  from  Borneo,  spread  over  the  greatest  portion  of  this  Archipelago. 
Borneo,  however,  contained  a  tribe  of  Papuans  also,  who  in  the  beginning 
lived  upon  this  island  alone,  vanquished  the  Endamenians,  almost  extirpat- 
ing them,  and  subsequently  invaded  the  coasts  of  the  neighboring  islands, 
driving  back  the  remainder  of  the  Endamenian  population  into  the  interior 
of  the  countries,  until  they  themselve«  succumbed  to  the  Malay  tribes.  In 
the  interior  of  the  country  both  stocks  are  frequently  seen  intermingled. 

The  Igolotes  {Papuans)  are  of  yellowish  black  cdor,  and  precbminate  in 
a  great  portion  of  Melanesia.  On  the  island  of  Borneo,  whence  they  spring, 
and  where  they  stiU  exist,  they  are  also  called  Dyaks.  Mixed  or  distinct, 
but  at  all  events  inhabitants  of  the  same  soil,  the  Papuans  and  Endamenians 
are  still  masters  of  a  part  of  Lu^on,  Mindora,  Buglas,  Mindanao,  Timor, 
Sumatra,  Celebes,  and  Java,  some  districts  of  Madagascar,  and  the  interior 
of  Formosa,  &c. ;  and  are  known  in  the  different  places  by  the  diflerent 
names  of  Aetas,  Nequitos,  Negrillos,  Zambales,  Finguianes,  Italones, 
KalingoSy  Igorrotes,  Orang-Karbec  (in  Sumatra),  and  Binzimhas  (in 
Madagascar).  The  Papuans  are  blacker  than  the  Endamenians  and  the 
Shangallas  of  Abyssinia,  to  whom  they  are  very  similar,  except  with  regard 
to  the  hair,  having  the  same  rounded  form  and  agreeable  physi(^nomy. 
The  pirogues  of  the  Papuans  of  New  Guinea  and  all  the  islands  of  Melanesia 
are  formed  in  the  same  manner,  a  fact  indicating  a  common  origin  of  the 
inhabitants«  By  stature  they  are  rather  tall ;  their  skin  is  black  and  shining, 
passing  into  yellow ;  their  facial  angle  has  63^  to  69^ ;  their  hair  is  Uack, 
neither  smooth  nor  frizzled,  but  woolly,  tolerably  fine,  and  much  curied  in 
front,  which  gives  the  head  a  monstrous  appearance.    They  are  seldom 

460 


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288  HISTORT  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

tattooed,  and  with  few  exceptions  go  naked.  Among  the  numerous  varieties 
of  the  Papuan  stock,  that  of  Viti  appears  to  occupy  the  principal,  that  of 
Van  Diemen's  Land  and  Mallioolla  the  lowest  rank.  From  a  mixture  of 
Malays  with  Papuans  arose  a  mongrel  people,  who  have  been  denominated 
Papuans  also,  but  might  with  much  greater  propriety  be  called  Papua-Malays. 
The  usages  of  both  stocks  prevail  amongst  them ;  some  are  Mahommedans, 
others  idolaters ;  and  their  language  is  rich  in  Malay  words.  Their  stature 
is  small ;  and  their  facial  angle  is  at  the  most  64^  to  69^.  They  inhabit  the 
coasts  of  Wayoo,  Saluati,  Gamen,  and  Battanta,  and  northern  New  Guinea 
from  Cape  Sabelo  to  Cape  Dorey. 

New  Guinea  or  Papuasia  is  the  centre  of  Melanesia ;  Borneo  the  place 
whence  the  inhabitants  originally  came.  All  the  natives  of  Melanesia  are 
more  or  less  yellowish  black ;  but  a  stock  occurs  diflering  as  much  from 
Papuans  as  do  the  Bushmen  from  the  Caffires.  They  inhabit  the  interior  and 
probably  the  south  of  New  Guinea,  and  are  denominated  Endamenians,  owing 
to  their  great  resemblance  to  the  ugly  negroes  of  the  Endamena  islands. 
At  one  time  they  must  have  been  very  numerous  in  New  Guinea,  but  have 
now  become  rare,  by  reason  of  the  perpetual  persecutions  and  wars  of  the 
Papuans,  who  excel  them  in  bravery,  and  are  both  bodily  and  mentally  supe- 
rior to  them.  Most  of  the  Endamenians  seen  by  Europeans  are  captives 
designed  for  sale.  They  are  less  black  than  the  negroes  of  Africa,  but 
yellower  than  the  Papuans  ;  and  this  yellow  inclines  to  a  dull,  sooty  brown. 
Among  many  tribes,  the  complexion  has  more  of  a  faint  yellow  than  black 
hue ;  the  cranium  is  tolerably  round ;  the  forehead  retreating ;  the  hair 
woolly,  and  mostly  frizzled.  Their  arms  are  very  long ;  their  legs  thin,  and 
still  longer,  often  covered  with  hair.  They  have  a  huge  mouth,  a  very 
broad  and  depressed  nose,  wide  nostrils,  and  somewhat  projecting,  but 
beautifully  enamelled  teeth.  The  lower  jaw  is  prominent;  the  countenance 
has  a  repulsive,  animal  appearance ;  and  the  facial  angle  is  very  acute,  and 
of  not  more  than  from  60^  to  66^.  These  Endamenians  have  also  been 
denominated  the  Australian  or  New  Holland  stock ;  and  occur  unmixed, 
not  merely  in  Australia,  but  also  in  New  Caledonia,  and  on  most  of  the 
Spirito  Santo  blands.  They  will  be  presently  mentioned  more  fully.  Our 
object  here  was  merely  to  give  an  outline  of  the  nations  of  Oceania,  in 
which  we  have  followed  the  reports  of  Domeny  de  Rienzi 


The  Inhabitants  of  the  Caroline  or  New  Philippine  Islands. 

The  natives  of  the  Carolines  have  a  brown,  sometimes  rather  copper-red 
color.  The  skin  is  greasy  and  soft,  as  it  is  sedulously  anointed  with  cocoa 
oil ;  the  hair  is  frizzly  and  curled,  but  not  woolly  like  that  of  negroes. 
Some  of  the  men  destroy  the  beard.  They  are  strong,  handsome,  and 
neatly  and  well  built.  Their  teeth,  however,  are  disfigured  by  chewing 
betel.  They  dress  in  mats  woven  of  cocoa  and  plantain  fibres,  worn  as 
aprons,  and  sometimes  throw  over  the  shoulder  a  kind  of  cloak.  Tattodng 
is  universal;  the  chiefs  being  more  strongly  marked  than  other  peopl#. 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  289 

The  bridge  of  the  nose  is  bored  through,  and  frequently  ornamented  with 
firagrant  flowers.  Ear-rings,  necklaces,  and  armlets,  made  of  the  tortoise 
and  other  shells,  usually  constitute  their  ornaments.  Upon  certain  festive 
occasions,  they  sometimes  paint  themselves  with  ochre  and  turmeric. 
Their  food  consists  of  cocoa  nuts,  bread  fruit,  arum,  oranges,  sugar  cane, 
and  roots ;  they  partake  of  but  little  flesh,  and  out  of  the  sap  of  the  cocoa 
palm  make  a  kind  of  palm  wine  and  syrup,  cutting  ofl*  the  blossom  stem  as 
soon  as  it  appears,  and  collecting  the  sap,  which  is  copiously  discharged,  by 
means  of  bamboo  canes.  Their  houses  consist  of  square,  roomy  buildings, 
with  four  and  more  divisions.  The  foundation  is  of  stone.  Their  household 
utensils  are  very  inartificial,  but  already  indicative  of  some  acquaintance 
with  Europeans  and  acquired  necessities.  In  general,  the  inhabitants  of 
these  islands  are  esteemed  good,  amiable  people  of  nature,  entirely  uneducated 
and  inofiensive.  Kadu,  who  travelled  with  Kotzebue,  describes  them  as 
humane,  grateful,  afiectionate,  hospitable,  and  averse  to  war.  Their  women 
are  not  treated  slavishly,  but  with  respect,  and  as  companions  of  their 
husbands.  {PL  ^0,ßg.  4,  and  pL  41,  ßg.  3,  men  and  women  of  the  Caroline 
Islands.)  They  are  said  to  be  very  fond  of  dancing  {pL  SB,  fig.  6;  pL  41, 
fig.  4),  singing,  and  amusing  games.  In  the  Caroline  Islands  the  people 
believe  only  in  invisible  heavenly  gods,  and  idols  are  nowhere  observed. 
In  the  eastern  archipelago  neither  priests  nor  temples  occur,  nor  do  solemn 
sacrifices  take  place ;  on  the  western  islands,  on  the  contrary,  temples  are 
built,  sacrifices  oflered,  and  religious  worship  exists.  The  chiefs  appear  to 
be  subordinate  to  each  other,  according  to  a  kind  of  feudal  system ;  opinion 
elevates  them  high  above  the  lower  classes,  and  they  receive  extraordinary 
respect  from  the  latter.  On  all  these  islands  a  curious  custom  prevails 
among  the  men,  for  two  individuals  to  form'  an  inviolable  bond  of  firiend- 
ship,  which  is  faithfully  adhered  to  by  the  contracting  parties. 


Ttie  Hawatans  and  Sandwich  Islanders  in  general. 

In  comparison  with  the  preceding,  the  Hawaians  and  Sandwich  Islanders 
are  selfish,  ungraceful,  uncleanly,  and  less  hospitable,  but  much  more 
powerful  as  a  nation ;  and  hence  display  more  self-confidence  and  greater 
cheerfulness.  The  chiefs,  especially,  are  of  the  handsomest  and  strongest 
bodily  form.  The  females  are  pretty,  but  without  attraction.  The  Hawai- 
ans are  but  little  tattooed,  and  that  without  regard  to  regularity.  Men 
shave  the  beard  and  cut  the  hair  in  the  form  of  a  helmet,  the  crest  of  which 
is  frequently  tinged  fair  or  whitish.  Women  wear  the  hair  cut  short,  only 
around  the  forehead  a  border  of  longer,  bristle-like,  erect  hair,  burnt  white 
with  unslaked  lime ;  and  sometimes,  in  the  middle  of  the  forehead,  a  fine 
long  lock,  which  is  tinged  violet  and  combed  backwards.  In  general,  the 
Hawaians  have  remained  true  to  theur  national  dress,  as  well  as  their 
ancient  mode  of  life.  Only  in  honor  of  European  travellers  do  the  chiefs 
appear  in  fine  English  clothes.  They  put  them  on  in  the  neatest  way,  and 
imitate  with  good  grace  the  manners  of  civilized  people.    For  the  rest,  they 

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290  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

go  clothed  in  the  fashion  peculiar  to  their  country ;  and  their  foreign 
alone  is  served  on  porcelain  and  silver.  Fashion  prevails  also  at  Hawai« 
with  changeable  caprice,  especially  among  the  women.  All  now  carry 
mirrors  and  tobacco-pipe  bowls,  and  an  European  handkerchief  around  thM» 
neck.  The  ornaments  worn  by  the  queens  and  persons  of  rank  are  of  con^ 
siderable  value.  Poetry,  music,  and  dancing  have  also  become  eommoa. 
Their  dance  is  not  without  grace,  and  is  even  described  by  travellers  as 
truly  beautiful.     {PL  41,  figs.  5,  6,  Hawaians  and  their  dancing.) 

The  Sandwich  Islanders,  in  general,  belong  to  the  Malay  race ;  are  noC 
large,  but  of  agreeable  physiognomy,  the  nostrils,  however,  being  somewhat 
wide ;  the  hair,  which  does  not  curl,  is  black,  and  worn  short ;  the  com- 
plexion is  blackish  brown,  and  tattooing  not  frequent.  A  piece  of  staS, 
manufactured  of  the  fibres  of  the  paper  mulberry  tree,  is  their  only  dress. 
Upon  festive  occasions,  a  bast  cloak  ornamented  with  feathers  and  painting, 
as  well  as  a  feather  cap,  frequently  in  the  shape  of  a  helmet,  is  added. 
Females  wear  a  kind  of  chemise.  Besides  the  article  just  mentioned,  they 
adorn  themselves  with  strings  of  shells,  bones,  teeth,  and  feathers,  neck- 
laces, &c.  European  clothing,  however,  is  now  also  worn  by  many  indi- 
viduals. The  dwellings  are  round,  formed  of  wicker-work  of  cane  and 
leaves,  and  have  pointed  roofs«  The  huts  stand  tc^ether  in  streets  ;  those 
near  the  sea  are  provided  with  mason-work  for  protection  against  the 
waves.  But  few  household  utensils  are  seen.  Many  houses  are  now  built 
according  to  the  European  style,  and  all  people  of  consequence  have  stone 
edifices.  A  change  has  taken  place  also  with  respect  to  food,  and  dishes 
are  prepared  according  to  the  European  mode.  In  former  times  the  Sand- 
wich Islanders  were  described  as  a  very  amiable  people,  advantageously 
distinguished  for  hospitality,  gentleness,  kindness,  love  of  the  members  of 
families  for  each  other,  and  a  certain  gravity.  European  manners,  how- 
ever, have  thrown  many  of  these  virtues  into  the  background.  But 
notwithstanding  this,  they  are  still  found  in  a  greater  measure  than  on 
other  islands  of  Oceania,  together  with  industry,  activity,  and  skill  in  the 
arts,  and  superior  agriculture.  The  Sandwich  Islanders  understand  the 
art  of  fishing  very  well,  manufacture  cloths  that  evince  ingenuity,  and  their 
articles  of  ornament  made  of  feathers  are  true  works  of  art.  Their  boats 
are  very  strong,  and  built  with  much  skill ;  the  builders  being  as  familiar 
vrith  the  water  as  with  the  firm  land,  possessing  great  dexterity  in  the 
management  of  their  boats,  even  in  the  roughest  weather,  and  evincing 
also  a  high  degree  of  courage  on  board  of  ships.  Their  former  weapons, 
spears,  slings,  bows  and  arrows,  have  been  changed  in  part  for  firearms ; 
and  European  crafts  have  already  been  brought  to  a  flourishing  condition 
among  them.  They  amuse  themselves  by  dancing  and  various  games. 
Until  recently  they  were  heathens,  and  every  district,  each  chief,  had 
particular  gods  and  idols;  their  priests  possessed  great  power,  acting  at 
the  same  time  as  physicians  and  sorcerers.  The  sacred  places  where  their 
idols  were  erected,  and  to  which  the  ofierings — sometimes  human  sacrifices 
— were  brought,  were  called  Morals, 

The  Sandwich  Islanders  are  governed  by  kings  unlimited  in  power  ;iand 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  291 

when  Cook  discovered  the  islands,  Temeoboo  orTeriopu  ruled  over  Hawai. 
After  his  death,  which  soon  followed,  Tamehameha,  his  nephew,  succeeded 
to  the  government,  who  conquered  the  neighboring  islands,  obtained  an 
European  ship  from  the  English,  accepted  the.  protection  of  the  King  of 
Great  Britain,  persuaded  many  Europeans  to  settle  upon  the  island,  and 
endeavored  to  extend  European  civilization  as  much  as  possible.  Chris* 
tianity,  nevertheless,  was  not  yet  embraced  by  him,  probably  because  he 
feared  to  lose  by  this  step  something  of  the  absoluteness  of  his  power ;  for 
the  practice  especially  of  offering  human  sacrifice,  by  means  of  which  he 
could  easily  rid  himself  of  troublesome  individuals,  combined  with  terror 
and  superstition,  enabled  him  to  govern  without  any  restraint.  His  son 
and  successor,  Rio  Rio,  was  the  first  to  order  the  destruction  of  all  the 
Morais,  and  to  proclaim  the  doctrine  of  the  foreigners,  at  that  time  not 
exactly  understood  by  him,  as  the  religion  of  the  state ;  and  in  1820  the 
principal  inhabitants  of  the  Sandwich  Islands  were  converted  to  Christianity 
by  North  American  missionaries.  Kotzebue,  in  the  account  of  his  last 
travels,  gives,  to  be  sure,  a  mournful  picture  of  the  Christian  religion  in 
these  islands.  He  pronounces  it,  like  that  found  upon  the  Society  Island^ 
to  be  mere  fanaticism  and  hypocrisy,  forced  upon  the  people  by  the  king 
and  missionaries,  and  combined  with  superstitions  and  everything  but  pure 
conceptions  of  Christianity ;  and  compares  these  pitiful  results  with  the 
horrors  of  the  cruel  war  carried  on  with  the  view  of  introducing  Chris- 
tianity. According  to  later  accounts,  however,  the  state  of  the  Christian 
religion  among  the  aborigines  is  said  to  be  much  improved.  Commerce 
flourishes  in  a  high  degree  in  this  part  of  the  world. 

The  funeral  of  a  deceased  chieftain  used  to  be  attended  by  many  cere- 
monies (pi.  SS,  figs,  1  and  2).  The  corpse,  after  having  been  exposed  for 
some  time  on  a  scaffold  amidst  lamentations  and  ceremonies,  was  deposited 
in  a  cave,  where  it  remained  until  the  flesh  had  rotted,  when  the  bones 
were  cleaned,  some  being  preserved  in  sacred  places,  others  distributed  as 
relics  amongst  the  relatives. 


The  New  Zealanders. 

The  New  Zealanders  belong  to  two  stocks,  a  dusky  and  a  light-colored  ; 
but  have  gradually  become  so  intermixed,  that  many  transitions  firom  the 
one  to  the  other  occur.  The  darker  race  are  probably  the  descendants 
of  the  aborigines ;  the  lighter,  on  the  contrary,  the  offspring  of  former 
conquerors.  The  first  named  are  shorter,  stouter,  and  broader-shouldered 
than  the  latter,  whose  height  frequently  exceeds  5  feet  9  inches.  The 
former  somewhat  resemble  mulattoes  in  complexion ;  the  latter,  however, 
are  only  rather  darker  than  the  inhabitants  of  the  southernmost  parts  of 
Europe.  The  style  of  their  features  greatly  resembles  that  of  Jewish  faces. 
The  hair  is  sometimes  smooth,  long,  and  chestnut- brown ;  in  other  cases, 
dark  and  curled.     {PL  40,  figs.  5,  6.) 

The  first  and  most  conspicuous  quality  in  the  disposition  of  the  New 

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292  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

Zealanders  is  their  inordinate  passion  for  war,  although  many  are  not 
insensible  to  the  unfortunate  effects  of  their  dissensions.  Beyond  all  doubt, 
many  of  the  New  Zealand  wars  have  their  origin  merely  in  the  ambition 
and  covetousness  of  individuals.  Some  asserted  to  Englishmen  that  their 
fathers  and  ancestors  had  always  been  engaged  in  warfare,  which  fact  they 
appeared  to  consider  a  sufficient  reason  why  it  should  never  be  otherwise 
among  them  or  their  descendants.  The  wars  of  these  savages  are  kept  up 
through  their  fondness  for  conflict  and  carnage,  and  by  reason  of  the  spirit 
of  revenge,  which  among  them  appears  to  be  more  insatiable  than  with  any 
other  nation  of  the  earth.  The  law  of  retaliation,  in  the  most  rigorous  and 
literal  sense,  is  their  only  rule  for  the  accommodation  of  differences ;  and  so 
long  as  satisfaction  is  not  rendered  to  the  claims  of  this  inexorable  principle, 
both  parties  can  consider  each  other  only  as  enemies.  If  old  oflences  give 
no  pretext  to  the  New  Zealanders  for  their  insane  and  destructive  quarrels, 
their  pride,  their  irritability,  and  quick  sensibility  are  skilled,  in  an  extra- 
ordinary degree,  in  discovering  in  a  moment  reasons  for  taking  offence. 
The  most  trifling  neglect,  or  anything  that  they  consider  an  affront  or 
a  want  of  respect,  puts  them  into  a.  violent  rage,  and  furnishes  apparent 
cause  for  long  continued  strife.  Although  the  courage  of  the  New 
Zealanders  is  great,  and  they  display  an  extraordinary  indifference  to 
danger  and  death,  yet  they  are  imbued  with  a  spirit  of  boasting,  by  which 
their  character  suffers  almost  as  much  as  by  their  ferocity  and  cruelty. 
With  the  New  Zealand  warrior,  hatred  or  contempt  for  his  enemy  is 
expressed  in  every  word,  tone,  and  gesture.  He  challenges  him  to  the 
combat  with  every  distortion  of  the  limbs  and  posture  of  the  person  which 
he  can  call  to  mind  as  most  expressive  of  scorn  and  insult ;  and  after  having 
vanquished  and  slain  him,  vents  his  remaining  fury  and  disdain  on  his  dead 
body,  and  even  the  suspicion  of  eating  the  flesh  of  his  enemies  is  founded 
on  strong  probability ;  indeed  facts  narrated  by  former  travellers  reduce 
it  to  certainty. 

Their  ideas  of  theft  are  very  loose,  if  it  is  not  committed  upon  their  friends, 
but  only  upon  those  who  have  no  claim  on  their  hospitality  or  indulgence. 
Their  covetousness  and  greediness  are  extraordinarily  great,  and  they  are 
fond  of  ornaments  and  finery.  The  New  Zealand  chieftain  adorns  his  head 
with  feathers,  and  without  doubt  is  proud  of  this  splendid  distinction.  His 
cloak  of  state  is  carefully  embroidered,  and  both  sexes  frequently  wear 
pretty  carved  combs  in  the  hair,  and  masses  of  ornaments  suspended  from 
their  ears  and  neck.  All  display  the  vanity  of  children  when  they  are  more 
magnificently  dressed  than  usual. 

Unacquainted  as  are  the  New  Zealanders  with  everything  deserving  the 
name  of  science,  and  insignificant  as  are  the  advances  made  by  them  in  the 
arts,  yet  their  intellectual  faculties  are  evidently  of  a  high  order.  Those 
who  have  come  in  contact  with  European  civilization  have,  in  general, 
exhibited  extraordinary  quickness  and  tact  in  comprehending  its  spirit,  and 
in  adjusting  themselves  to  the  new  opinions  and  customs  with  which  they 
have  been  made  acquainted;  and  all  the  facts  reported  concerning  them 
prove  sagacity,  reflection,  and  other  capacities  of  the  mind,  which  betray  a 
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ETHNOLOGY  OP  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  293 

high  intellectual  organization.  In  the  few  arts  known  amongst  them, — for 
example,  in  spinning  mats  of  the  flax  lily,  in  cutting  tools,  weapons,  vessels, 
&c.,  often  ornamented  in  the  most  ingenious  manner, — they  display  uncom- 
mon dexterity  and  skill,  and  even  a  degree  of  taste  and  elegance.  Their 
music  is  said  to  be  more  complete  than  that  of  many  other  South  Sea 
Islanders ;  they  even  have  national  poems,  constantly  increasing  in  num- 
ber,  as  new  occurrences  rouse  up  the  imagination  of  their  bards ;  and 
eloquence  in  the  assembly  is  a  quality  as  indispensable  to  their  chiefs  and 
warriors,  as  valor  in  the  field.  AU  classes  of  people  are  fond  of  conversa- 
tion ;  especially  of  talking  of  what  relates  to  their  chief  and  his  family,  or 
of  matters  lying  beyond  the  very  narrow  circle  of  their  own  experience  or 
tradition.  They  are,  however,  not  inclined  to  believe  all  things,  and  often 
cross-question  for  a  long  time,  until  they  are  satisfied  with  the  explanation 
given.  Many  are  well  acquainted  with  the  geography  of  their  country;  and 
notwithstanding  the  want  of  roads,  travel  over  the  island  in  all  directions. 
Next  to  singing,  dancing  {pL  40,  fig.  7)  affords  them  the  greatest  pleasure. 
The  martial  dance  is  hideous,  and  accompanied  by  horrid  pantomimic 
motions  and  twistings  of  the  limbs,  clashing  of  weapons,  huzzas,  and  scream- 
ing. 

Many  of  their  truly  disagreeable  faults,  as  their  restlessness,  fierceness, 
and  sanguinary  disposition  ;  their  slyness,  jealousy,  and  dissimulation ;  their 
suspicion,  and  lying,  and  slandering,  indicate  not  so  much  a  want  of 
understanding,  as  of  moral  principle.  They  are  the  fruit  of  intellectual 
powers  allowed  to  grow  wild  and  without  their  natural  and  requisite 
nourishment,  as  is  not  unfrequently  found  to  be  the  case  with  intelligent 
children,  in  whose  education  little  judgment  has  been  manifested.  The 
English  missionaries  have  established  several  schools ;  not,  however,  with* 
out  meeting  many  obstacles  in  the  outset.  Yet,  with  all  their  savageness^ 
most  of  the  children  made  very  rapid  advances  in  learning  to  read  their 
mother  tongue  in  the  primer  prepared  for  their  use.  When  their  attention 
was  once  fixed,  their  quickness  of  comprehension  was  found  equal  to  that 
of  English  children.     After  a  while  they  were  taught  writing  also. 

All  that  has  hitherto  been  done  for  the  civilization  of  New  Zealand  is  the 
work  of  the  last  thirty  years,  and  the  honor  is  due  to  certain  religious 
associations  in  England,  panicularly  to  the  Church  Missionary  Society, 
who  have  several  settlements,  with  three  clergymen  of  the  Church  of 
England,  and  five  schools  at  three  different  stations,  frequented  by  almost 
two  hundred  children,  and  some  adults.  At  all  the  settlements  the  houses 
are  built  in  the  English  style.  English  agricultural  and  horticultural 
systems  have  even  been  introduced  upon  the  estates  of  various  chieftains. 
The  lay  members  employed  by  the  society  not  only  render  assistance  in 
instructing,  but  carry  on  various  trades  in  the  new  country. 

Upon  the  whole,  the  civilization  of  this  nation  has  commenced  in  a  very 
promising  manner.  Their  mode  of  greeting  each  other  is  that  of  many 
other  islands  of  Oceania ;  namely,  by  touching  the  tips  of  their  noses  (pi. 
41,  fig.  1).  The  houses  of  the  New  Zealanders  are  less  ingenious  than 
might  be  expected.     They  are  small  and  low  huts,  of  seven  or  eight  feet  in 

lOOKOORAPHIO   XKCTOLOPilDIA. — VOU  m.  30  465 


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294  mSTORT  AND  ETHNOLOGY.    ' 

length,  five  or  six  in  breadth,  and  four  or  five  in  height.  Those  of  the 
chiefs  are  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  feet  long,  eight  to  twenty  broad,  and  six 
high,  but  like  the  others  have  an  entrance  only  two  feet  broad  and  three  in 
height,  which  is  closed  by  a  board  or  a  thick  mat.  The  window  is  two  feet 
square,  near  the  door  but  somewhat  higher,  and  has  a  grating  of  canes. 
On  the  side  where  the  entrance  is,  the  roof  projects  three  or  four  feet  The 
dwelling-houses  of  the  chiefs  are  ornamented  with  carved  work.  Smoke 
makes  its  exit  through  the  door  and  windows.  Household  utensils  are 
simple  and  not  numerous.  The  largest  buildings  are  the  public  storehouses. 
The  huts  of  the  natives  are  scattered  over  the  country  ;  each  horde,  however, 
possesses  a  fortified  village,  built  upon  steep  rocks  and  other  inaccessible 
spots,  which  is  large  enough  to  receive  all  the  members  in  time  of  war. 
Formerly,  before  firearms  became  common  amongst  the  New  Zealanders, 
these  villages  could  be  defended  for  months. 

Two  square,  thickly  woven  mats  constitute  the  dress  of  both  sexes  ;  the 
one  worn  as  a  kind  of  coat,  and  the  other  as  a  cloak.  At  present  they 
endeavor  to  adorn  their  persons  with  European  clothing.  They  anoint 
themselves  with  train  oil,  and  smear  the  face — and  in  time  of  war  the 
whole  body — with  ochre.  The  faces  and  persons  of  the  chiefs  are  frequently 
so  much  tattooed,  that  scarcely  any  part  of  the  original  color  remains  visible. 
The  innumerable  lines  frequently  form,  however,  the  most  beautiful  and 
ingenious  figures  {pL  41  ^  fig,  2,  operation  of  tattooing  performed  by  women). 
Great  care  is  bestowed  upon  the  construction  of  their  pirogues  ;  their  fishing 
nets  are  extraordinarily  large. 

Deceased  persons,  especially  of  the  higher  classes,  receive  great  honors. 
In  the  first  place,  the  corpse  is  watched  for  three  days,  since  the  New 
Zealanders  believe  that  the  soul  does  not  fully  separate  from  its  mortal 
integument  in  less  than  that  time.  The  deceased  is  clothed  in  his  hand- 
somest garments,  rubbed  with  oil,  and  ornamented  and  attired  as  in  his 
lifetime.  Relations  and  friends  show  their  grief  by  tears  and  loud  lamenta- 
tions, and  by  means  of  bloody  lacerations  of  the  face  and  shoulders.  Instead 
of  extending  the  body,  as  is  done  in  Europe  and  America,  the  limbs  are 
bent  towards  the  belly,  and  packed  together.  The  corpse  is  then  borne  to 
a  solitary  spot,  there  buried,  and  the  grave  surrounded  with  palisades. 
Posts,  crosses,  or  carved  figures,  colored  with  ochre,  mark  the  final  resting- 
place  of  a  chief;  that  of  a  common  man  is  designated  only  by  a  heap  of 
stones.  A  grave  is  called  udupa  (abode  of  glory).  Provisions  are  deposited 
upon  the  sepulchre.  According  to  the  opinion  of  the  New  Zealanders,  the 
soul  of  the  deceased,  although  immaterial,  still  partakes  of  food.  (PL  88» 
fig.  3,  funeral  of  a  prince.) 


The  Inhabitants  of  the  Society  Islands. 

The  Society  Islands,  the  largest  of  which  is  the  island  of  O'Taiti,  or 
Otahiti,  like  the  Friendly  Islands,  possess  a  climate  which,  although  under 
the  perpendicular  beams  of  the  sun,  is  nevertheless  softened  Iff  the  sur- 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  295 

rounding  ocean,  and  upon  the  high  mountains  is  even  temperate.  Hence» 
tropic  plants,  as  well  as  those  of  temperate  climates,  thrive  in  the  mo^ 
luxuriant  abundance  on  these  paradisiacal  islands.  For  this  reason,  the 
inhabitants  obtained  with  easy  labor  tlieir  trifling  necessaries  <^  life,  and 
lived  in  prosperity  and  happiness  until  the  Europeans  obtruded  upon  them 
by  force  a  new  belief,  and  robbed  them  of  the  enjoyment  of  life.  Since 
1815,  Pomare  IL,  Queen  of  Otahiti,  with  the  assistance  of  the  missionaries, 
has  drawn  up  a  code  of  laws,  which  has  gradually  increased  through  addi* 
tions.  Since  1825,  there  has  existed  a  kind  of  assembly  of  representaUves, 
to  which  the  diflferent  districts  of  the  island  send  delegates  chosen  by  the 
people.  By  this  means,  the  missionaries,  it  is  true,  have  secured  liberty 
and  property  to  the  mass  of  the  population,  but  nevertheless  have  intro* 
duced  many  regulations  that  militate  too  greatly  against  the  national  cha- 
racter to  lead  to  a  good  result. 

The  baubles  formerly  tendered  by  sailors  to  the  natives  for  the  productions 
of  their  country  no  longer  satisfy  them ;  articles  of  clothing  and  money  are 
now  demanded,  and  even  the  latter  is  not  taken  in  full  when  not  quite 
bright  and  handsome.  They  are  very  avaricious,  and  yet  reproach  with 
avarice  every  person  who  will  not  give  them  enough.  Men  of  rank  are 
arrayed  in  a  motley  mixture  of  European  and  domestic  dress.  The  latter 
resembles,  upon  the  whole,  that  seen  in  the  Friendly  Islands.  With  trifling 
exceptions,  the  dwelling-houses  are  still  as  they  were  at  the  time  of  Cook ; 
bearing  some  resemblance  to  what  we  call  sheds,  and  having  a  thatched 
roof  supported  by  posts  and  bamboo  poles  standing  close  alongside  of  each 
other.  The  floor  is  always  strewn  with  hay,  which  soon  becomes  disgust^ 
ing  from  dirt  and  moisture,  and  is  only  renewed  when  the  evaporation 
becomes  too  intolerable.  A  chest  of  drawers  or  a  bedstead  is  sometimes 
found  in  a  corner  of  the  apartment ;  but  little  use  is  generally  made  of 
household  furniture,  and  these  people  prefer  sleeping  upon  mats  spread 
out  upon  straw.  In  general,  they  pursue  only  such  employments  as  are 
absolutely  necessary  to  the  support  of  life,  or  with  which  they  can  satisfy 
their  vanity.  In  their  huts  they  lie  stretched  lazily  out,  playing  upon  the 
jew's-harp,  braiding  straw  hats,  or  making  ear-rings  or  finger-rings  of 
small  glass  beads. 

Dancing  was  formerly  one  of  the  amusements  most  enjoyed  by  them,  and 
the  attire  of  the  female  dancers  was  peculiar  and  fantastic.  A  wide  petti- 
coat surrounded  the  lower  part  of  the  body,  and  a  piece  of  stuflT  bound 
below  the  breast,  around  the  waist,  formed  upon  the  back  two  large  plaited 
wings.  At  present  the  law  forbids  dancing.  Belcher,  one  of  the  latest 
visitors  to  these  islands,  had,  however,  the  opportunity  of  seeing  a  dance  of 
this  description  in  the  house  of  the  regent.     He  says  with  regard  to  it : 

"She  (the  regent)  commanded  that  a  dance  be  performed  for  our 
amusement.  This  gratification  we  had  scarcely  dared  to  expect,  as  such 
representations  are  prohibited  by  law  under  a  heavy  penalty,  as  well  to 
performers  as  spectators,  and  for  the  same  reason  it  was  necessary  that 
everything  should  be  arranged  quietly,  and  the  sounds  of  the  vivo  or  bam- 
boo flute  muffled,  so  that  they  might  not  peradventure  reach  the  ears  of  an 

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296  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

Aava  (police  officer),  who,  in  a  soldier's  jacket  and  armed  with  a  rusty 
sword,  marched  up  and  down  on  the  seashore.  Even  this  little  melodious 
instrument,  which  affords  so  much  pleasure  to  the  natives,  with  whose 
nature  dancing  and  music  are  intimately  interwoven,  is  now  strictly  pro- 
hibited. Before  the  enactment  of  the  law  which  abolished  dancing  none 
of  us  had  witnessed  such  a  performance ;  but  in  that  to  which  we  were 
treated,  not  the  slightest  thing  occurred  calculated  to  give  offence  to  an 
unprejudiced  person;  and  I  was  hence  confirmed  in  the  opinion  that 
Pomare,  or  whoever  it  wis  that  made  the  laws,  would  have  attained  his 
object  more  effectually  by  not  prohibiting  these  amusements  entirely,  but 
by  imposing  suitable  restrictions.  To  some  of  us  who  had  read  the  capti- 
vating description  of  the  Otahitian  dance  given  by  Webb,  the  companion 
of  Cook,  the  reality  seemed  so  flat  that  we  preferred  listening  to  the  simple, 
well  performed  songs  of  the  girls  attending  the  queen,  which  skilful  impro- 
visatrices  always  adapted  the  words  of  their  song  to  the  occasion."  {PL  38, 
fig.  4,  Tahitian  girl  carrying  presents ;  fig.  5,  Tahitian  dance.) 


The  InhabUarUs  of  the  Amboynas, 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Amboynas  are  mostly  of  Malayan  origin.  The 
men  go  almost  naked ;  an  apron  around  their  loins,  and  a  palmleaf  hat, 
fancifully  painted,  or  a  colored  turban,  constitute  their  entire  dress.  Spear, 
shiekl,  and  sword  are  their  usual  weapons ;  ear-rings,  necklaces  of  coral  or 
shells,  and  bracelets,  serve  for  finery.  At  times  also  the  dress  consists  of  a 
species  of  shirt  with  or  without  sleeves.  The  hilt  of  the  broad,  somewhat 
bent,  and  rather  short  sword,  is  not  unfrequently  ornamented  with  the  hair 
of  a  slain  enemy  ;  and  the  shield  is  square,  made  of  wicker-work,  and  often 
overlaid  with  shells  and  plates  of  metal.  The  women  are  not  so  much 
exposed  to  the  sun,  bathe  several  times  a  day,  and  anoint  the  skin  in  order 
to  make  it  soft  and  delicate ;  and  have  in  consequence  a  lighter  complexion 
than  the  men.  They  wear  a  chemise  open  in  front ;  their  hair  is  cut  short 
at  the  forehead  and  the  back  hair  bound  up  on  the  crown.  {PI.  40,  fig.  1, 
martial  dance  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Island  of  Booru  or  Booro,  one  of  the 
Amboynas.) 


The  Inhabitants  of  the  Philippines. 

Besides  Spaniards  and  Chinese,  &c.,  the  population  of  these  islands  is 
made  up  of  Malays  and  Papuans.  The  Malay  stock  are  distinguished  above 
that  of  other  islands  for  a  diminutive  stature,  especially  in  the  female  sex. 
Before  the  Spaniards  made  their  appearance  upon  these  islands  there  pre- 
vailed among  the  tribes  a  blind  heathenism,  intermingled  with  some 
Mohammedan  views  propagated  by  Arabs.  The  dress  of  the  majority  con- 
sisted barely  of  a  piece  of  matting  or  stuff  tied  round  the  hips.  Even  at 
that  time  a  brisk  trade  by  barter  was  carried  on,  customary  also  at  the 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  297 

present  day.     By  the  Chinese  they  had  been  taught  a  knowledge  of  weights 
and  measures,  and  a  current  coin  called  patty  was  found  amongst  them. 
On  the  whole  the  Philippine  Malays  are  esteemed  good-natured,  kind,  and 
sociable ;  the  cruel  treatment,  however,  and  bad  example  of  their  oppress- 
ors have  made  most  of  them  malignant,  indolent,  hypocritical,  and  covetous. 
The   Spanish   government  forced  upon   them  by  revolting  tyranny  the 
Roman  Catholic  faith,  but  only  succeeded  in  making  seeming  Christians  cX 
the  people.     They  are  excessively  fond  of  games  of  chance  ;  cockfighting 
and  combats  with  paper  kites  are  among  their  favorite  recreations.    Neither 
pains  nor  expense  are  spared  in  breeding  gamecocks,  in  manufacturing  and 
decorating  large  paper  kites,  and  training  themselves  in  their  management, 
in  order  to  be  able  to  give  a  public  cockfight  or  ki^e  battle.     Young  and 
old  assemble  to  witness  both  these  amusements,  and  considerable  wagers 
are  staked  upon  such  occasions  (pL  40,  fig,  2,  a  cockfight).     As  a  general 
thing,  cockfights  have  been  common  amongst  the  Polynesians  since  the 
earliest  times.     The  cocks  enter  upon   the  conflict  without  any  other 
weapons  than  those  furnished  by  nature.    No  particular  color  is  preferred, 
but  compact  wings,  necks  properly  furnished  with  feathers,  and  long  tails 
are  considered  essential  points   in   the  birds.     Fights  for  wagers  occur 
sometimes  between  individual  owners  of  gamecocks ;  at  others,  entire  sec- 
tions of  the  island  take  sides.     A  particular  god  presides  over  these  fights, 
RuaUfatoa  (the  god  of  gamecocks),  one  of  the  inferior  deities.     To  the 
recreations  customary  amongst  the  Polynesians  belong  wrestling,  boxing, 
and  swimming  matches.    Races  for  wagers  on  foot  and  in  canoes  occur, 
and  military  games  are  performed,  among  which  the  Vero-patia  (hurling 
the  javelin)  is  most  worthy  of  notice.     Ball-playing  is  also  practised,  in 
which  the  ball  is  struck  with  short  sticks;  football  also  is  one  of  their 
amusements.    Another  game  of  ball  is  customary,  however,  only  among 
women.     A  place  is  chosen  upon  the  beach,  the  ball  thrown  aloft,  and 
both  parties  endeavor  to  get  possession  of  it.     Very  frequently  it  is  driven 
into  the  sea,  and  then  some  twenty  women  are  seen  to  plunge  into  the 
waves,  and  continue  the  struggle  whilst  swimming.     Numerous  and  varied 
are  the  dances  of  the  Polynesians.     At  times  both  sexes  take  part  in  them, 
sometimes  only  one.     Flutes,  drums,  and   sometimes  singing,   form   the 
accompaniment.    Most  of  these  dances  represent  a  kind  of  pantomime,  in 
which  the  arms  and  feet  are  moved.     The  prettiest  of  these  dances,  called 
hura,  is  usually  performed  by  daughters  of  chiefs,  five  or  six  in  number. 
The  most  important  families  of  the  neighborhood  are  invited  to  be  present, 
and  the  dancers  recommended  to  the  attention  of  the  young  chiefs,  in  the 
hope  that  the  latter,  transported  by  their  charms,  may  demand  the  young 
ladies  in   marriage.     The  pauses  between  the  dances  are  filled  up  by 
clowns,  who  by  means  of  their  grimaces  and  capers  must  draw  laughter 
from  the  spectators. 

The  aboriginal  negroes  of  the  Philippines  are  now  called  Äit€U,  and  the 
Papuans,  who  came  across  from  the  island  of  Codemantan,  are  denominated 
Igolotet  or  Negritos.  Upon  many  large  islands,  like  Buglas  and  Panay, 
they  are  readily  distinguishable.    The  former  are  soot-colored,  the  hair 

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298  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

somewhat  frizzled ;  the  others  are  blacker,  have  more  agreeable  forms,  and 
waving  locks.  The  islanders  mastered  these  blacks  with  great  difBcultj, 
and  drove  them  away  from  the  level  country.  Those  found  by  the 
Spaniards  on  Lugon  had  made  some  advances  in  civilization.  They  were 
under  a  government  composed  of  chiefs,  assisted  by  aged  persons,  who 
were  to  guard  the  laws.  The  Aetas  still  go  naked,  only  tying  a  piece  of 
Btuflf  around  the  hips.  Their  occupations  are  hunting,  fishing,  and  search- 
ing for  wild  fruits.  Bows  and  arrows  are  their  only  weapons,  and  are 
handled  with  dexterity.  Among  the  children,  some  are  met  with  who  in 
spite  of  their  black  parents  are  almost  entirely  white ;  they  are  known  in 
Manilla  by  the  name  of  sons  of  the  sun.  A  few  missions  are  still  kept  up  by 
the  Manilla  government  for  the  conversion  of  the  Aetas,  but  as  the  priests 
know  that  at. the  first  opportunity  the  converts  withdraw  from  the  clerical 
authority,  they  baptize  only  children,  who  are  bought  by  the  Spaniards  or 
Mestizos  at  an  age  when  the  mode  of  life  practised  by  their  fathers  has  not 
yet  been  engrafted  upon  them.  The  soil  held  by  the  mountaineers  is  so 
productive  in  fruits  that  they  resign  themselves  to  great  indolence.  In 
former  times  they  were  pleased  to  restrain  the  Spaniards  in  cutting  wood 
upon  their  mountains  and  make  them  pay  a  tribute  in  tobacco.  At  present, 
being  less  numerous  and  having  become  intimidated,  they  allow  their  ene- 
mies to  extend  themselves  wherever  they  like,  and  before  long  will  have 
entirely  disappeared  from  their  native  country,  if  they  do  not  embrace  the 
civilization  which  is  confining  them  on  all  sides. 


The  Inhabitants  of  the  Marian  Islands. 

The  missionaries  describe  the  inhabitants  of  the  Marian  Islands  as  a 
handsome,  vigorous  race,  whose  principal  traits  are  childlike  simplicity, 
afifection,  and  mildness.  Here  likewise,  immediately  after  th^ir  occupancy 
of  the  islands,  the  Spaniards  introduced  the  laws  of  their  native  country 
and  Christianity ;  but  according  to  what  may  be  inferred  from  the  accounts 
of  travellers,  the  inhabitants  appear  to  have  been  by  far  a  more  civilized 
people  than  the  Spaniards  themselves.  They  are  also  physically  active,  and 
swim  and  dive  admirably.  The  men  are  dusky  brown,  tall,  muscular,  with 
strong  limbs,  expressive  face,  the  latter,  however,  not  without  a  trait  of 
wildness.  Formerly  they  went  naked,  without  tattooing  or  painting;  the 
women  alone  wore  short  aprons  around  the  hips,  an  ornament  of  small 
shells  around  the  neck  and  arms,  a  decoration  of  tortoise-shell  on  the  fore- 
head, and  similar  ones  attached  to  the  girdle.  Their  dwellings  were  built  of 
palm  trunks,  thatched  with  leaves  of  the  same  tree,  and  lined  on  the  inside 
with  bast  mats.  Their  food  consisted  of  cocoanuts,  bread-fruit,  yams,  and 
rice,  and  the  flesh  of  birds  and  fish.  A  spirituous  drink  was  also  made  by 
them  {pi.  40,  fig.  8),  but  they  were  temperate  in  their  habits.  Women  were 
treated  with  a  respect  otherwise  only  to  be  found  amongst  the  most  civilized 
nations.  It  is  said  that  in  consequence  of  this  treatment  they  really  were 
beautiful  and  delicately  formed,  evincing  cheerfulness,  good-nature,  and 
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ETHNOLOGY  OP  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  200 

friendly,  agreeable  manners.     They  rendered  the  ballads  of  their  poets  in 
sweet  songs  and  expressive  pantomimic   dances,  thereby  giving  general 
pleasure.     The  management  of  the  household  was  in  their  hands  exclu- 
sively.    Without  any  law  against  polygamy  every  man  contented  himself 
with  a  single  wife,  who  not  unfrequently  revenged  infidelity  committed  by 
the  husband.     A  neglected  or  ill-treated  wife  had  the  right  to  return  home 
to  her  family,  and  to  take  with  her  the  entire  household  furniture.     Even 
when  his  better  half  proved  false,   the  husband,  although  permitted  to 
wreak  his  vengeance  upon  or  even  slay  the  seducer,  was  obliged  to  treat 
the  erring  fair  one  with  forbearance.     In  case  a  man  divorced  his  wife  she 
remained  in  possession  of  the  property  and  children.     The  Malay  feudal 
system  prevailed  among  the  natives  of  the  Marian  Islands.     The  chamorris 
or  high  nobility,  the  middle  class,  and  the  common  people  constituted  the 
population.     These  classes  did  not   intermingle  by  marriage;   a  higher 
caste  never  even  eat  with  a  lower.     Their  religion  was  very  simple,  yet  so 
far  developed  as  to  employ  priests.    A  highest  being  elevated  over  all 
things  and  creator  of  the  universe,  with  many  intermediate  spirits  standing 
between  him  and  mankind,  was  acknowledged  and  revered.     It  is  probable 
also  that  they  worshipped  the  stars,  as  they  everywhere  individualized 
nature,  and  held  that  the  mountains  and  valleys,  rivers  and  trees,  were 
peopled  by  spirits.     The  fundamental  idea  of  a  good  and  bad  being  was 
also  found  amongst  them.     The  priests  were  at  the  same  time  the  sages, 
physicians,  and  bards  of  the  nation.     Their  funerals  were  very  solemn  fes- 
tivals, the  dead  were  buried  in  the  ground,  and  their  tombs  ingeniously 
ornamented.     The  widely  extended  custom  of  having  the  deceased  deplored 
by  mourning  females  was  also  found  here.     To  Father  Gobien  we  owe  the 
preservation  of  some  of  these  lamentations.     One  of  them  runs  thus  :  **  My 
life  is  without  value,  my  future  a  lingering  death ;  grief  envelops  my  eyes, 
weariness  clouds  my  being.     My  star  is  extinct,  the  light  of  my  moon,  the 
sun  of  my  enjoyment,  darkened  for  ever;  deep  night,  the  whirlpool  of 
misery,  the  ocean  of  despair  flows  around  me."    As  a  refrain,  another 
mourning  woman  replies  :  "  I  too  have  lost  all  things ;  the  comfort  of  my 
days  is  no  more.     Stop,  my  heart,  for  thou  beatest  no  more  in  his  presence! 
Behold,  the  image  of  our  hero,  the  honor  of  our  house  is  torpid  !    His  arm 
no  longer  defends  our  people.     As  he  is  no  more,  what  shall  we  do  here  ? 
Of  what  value  is  life  to  us  without  him  ?"     These  lamentations  uttered  in  a 
singing,  tone,  with  strong  modulation,  were  closed  with  long  drawn  out 
bowlings.     A  truly  sorrowful  impression  is  made  by  the  lamentations  of 
this  nation  foreseeing  their  destruction  at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  cen[- 
tury.    "  These  strangers  promised  to  make  us  happy ;   alas !  they  have 
robbed  us  of  liberty.     They  have  confined  us  in  clothes  that  paralyse  the 
use  of  our  arms ;  they  have  brought  us  diseases  and  detestable  vermin  and 
noxious  animals.     Unknown  troubles  have  they  poured  out  over  us,  the 
hungry  guests.     We  led  an  innocent  life,  full  of  work  and  pleasure ;  were 
healthy  and  happy     But  they  brought  new  necessities  and  new  troubles  ; 
we  no  longer  freely  and  happily  enjoy  life  ;  our  loss  is  irreparable."    Their 
complaints,  however,  were  too  late,  too  late  the  war  against  the  oppressors ; 

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300  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

they  succumbed  to  European  weapons,  and  in  1817  Kotzebue  met  with 
only  a  solitary  couple  of  the  old  original  stock.  At  present  Spaniards  and 
mestizos,  mulattoes,  Philippine  and  Sandwich  Islanders,  Caiolinians,  &c., 
inhabit  the  Marian  Islands.  All  the  inhabitants  profess  the  Christian  reli- 
gion, and  wear  a  cross  around  the  neck,  and  in  every  village  ^  stone*  cross 
is  erected. 


The  Inhabitants  of  the  Friendly  Islands. 

They  are  in  general  of  handsome,  regular  gi'owth,  large,  vigorous,  and 
fleshy,  without  being  so  stout  as  the  inhabitants  of  the  Society  Islands. 
Corpulency  is  rare ;  a  few  of  the  chiefs  only  being  inclined  to  it  Physiog- 
nomy varies  as  it  does  amongst  the  Caucasian  race,  and  if  we  can  trust 
some  of  the  representations,  may  even  be  called  handsome.  Many  have 
smooth  hair,  not  very  thick  lips,  and  some  an  arched  nose.  The  eyes  are 
rather  small,  and  oblique ;  the  complexion,  particularly  of  persons  of  distinc- 
tion, is  not  very  dark — about  like  that  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  southernmost 
parts  of  Europe.  Women  of  rank  frequently  have  a  handsome  figure,  and 
an  almost  entirely  white  complexion.  In  general,  the  Tongans  (inhabitants 
of  Tonga-Taboo)  enjoy  good  health,  but  are  sometimes  troubled  with  a  kind 
of  leprosy.  In  their  intercourse  with  Europeans,  they  show  themselves  in 
the  beginning  very  friendly  and  amiable;  after  some  acquaintance,  how- 
ever, they  evince  directly  opposite  qualities.  They  are  covetous,  daring, 
and  masters  of  the  art  of  dissimulation ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  hospitable, 
courteous,  and  magnanimous ;  very  brave  and  decided  in  character,  without 
being  at  the  same  time  addicted  to  boasting.  In  mental  capacity,  there 
appears  to  be  a  great  similarity  between  them  and  the  New  Zealanders.  In 
their  households  they  are  very  mild  and  amiable,  and  greatly  devoted  to 
their  superiors,  strangers,  and  relations. 

The  dwellings  are  neatly  and  very  durably  constructed,  mostly  oval,  and 
about  80  feet  long,  20  feet  broad,  and  12  to  15  feet  high,  if  they  belong  to  men 
of  rank ;  the  huts  of  the  lower  classes  are  much  smaller.  They  consist  of  a 
scaffold  of  props  and  beams,  which  are  very  dexterously  joined,  and  nailed 
together  with  cocoa  pegs.  At  the  two  sides,  the  roof  reaches  to  within  four 
feet  of  the  ground ;  at  both  ends,  however,  it  touches  the  floor.  People  of 
rank  thatch  it  with  sugar-cane  leaves;  poor  persons  use  cocoa  mats.  Their 
utensils  are  simple,  and  exhibit  no  great  variety.  A  number  of  houses  are 
usually  grouped  into  small  villages,  several  of  which  are  fortified.  Their 
food  consists  of  bananas,  bread-fruit,  cocoa-nuts,  fish,  shell-fish,  &c. ;  pork, 
poultry,  and  turtle,  appear  upon  the  tables  of  the  rich.  Common  people, 
among  other  things,  eat  rats.  The  dress  of  both  sexes  consists  of  a  piece  of 
stuff  wrapped  around  the  hips,  and  fastened  with  a  girdle.  Poor  persons 
frequently  possess  nothing  but  an  apron.  For  a  head-dress  a  cap,  or  a  kind  of 
turban,  or  a  feather  crown  is  worn.  Some  wear  long  pendent  hair ;  others 
cut  it  short  all  over,  or  only  on  certain  parts  of  the  head ;  it  is  rubbed  with 
pomatum  and  all  kinds  of  greasy  substances,  and  a  red,  white,  or  fair  color 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  301 

18  given  to  it  by  means  of  quick-lime  or  other  things.  They  bathe  very 
often,  and  as  persons  of  rank  anoint  the  whole  body  with  perfumed  cocoa- 
oil,  their  skin  attains  an  extraordinary  softness  and  great  beauty.  Upon 
festive  occasions,  the  hair  is  so  immoderately  rubbed  with  oil  that  the 
grease  is  continually  trickling  down,  and,  on  account  of  the  strong  odor, 
is  very  unpleasant  to  those  unaccustomed  to  it.  The  Society  Islanders  are 
fond  of  adorning  themselves  with  necklaces  of  red  pandanus  berries,  or  with 
fragrant  flowers,  small  shells  or  pieces  of  mother  of  pearl,  bird-bones,  &c. 
They  also  wear  bracelets,  and  are  passionately  fond  of  glass  beads.  Tillage» 
the  building  of  their  houses  and  pirogues,  manufacturing  their  articles  of 
clothing,  necklaces,  and  bracelets,  tattooing,  &c.,  constitute  their  employ- 
ments. Singing  and  dancing,  as  well  as  many  kinds  of  games,  are  their 
amusements.  Their  musical  instruments  consist  of  a  kind  of  flute,  and  a 
species  of  drum.  {PL  29,  ßg.  1,  chief  of  the  Tongans ;  ßg.  2,  fight  between 
two  women ;  and  ßgs.  8,  4,  5,  sports  of  girls  among  the  same.)  The  Ton- 
gans worship  a  multitude  of  gods,  bearing  the  common  name  Hatua.  Jug- 
gling and  astrology  greatly  prevail  amongst  them. 


The  Inhabitants  of  the  Navigators'  Islands. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Navigators'  Islands  are  described  differently ;  but 
they  are  all  cannibals,  and  a  curved  line  drawn  from  the  south  end  of  New 
Zealand,  around  the  Feejee,  Navigators',  and  Tonga  islands,  will  perhaps 
inclose  the  region  where  the  practice  of  eating  the  flesh  of  human  beings  is 
most  general. 

The  inhabitants  of  this  section  are,  however,  by  no  means  in  the  lowest 
grade  of  civilization.  They  belong  to  the  handsomest  of  the  East  Oceanians, 
are  frequently  six  feet  six  inches  in  height,  and  built  in  a  herculean  manner. 
The  women  are  somewhat  smaller.  In  many  arts  they  have  made  great 
advances,  and  are  superior  to  all  as  sailors,  being  scarcely  ever  away  from 
the  water.   (PL  42,  ßg.  I,  dance  in  Samoa,  one  of  the  Navigators'  Islands.) 


7%€  Australians,  or  New  Hollanders. 

The  inhabitants  of  New  Holland  are  a  small  and  ugly  people ;  distin- 
guished— and  not  very  advantageously,  as  we  have  already  remarked — for 
very  long  spare  legs  and  arms,  forming  a  contrast  with  the  large  feet  and 
hands.  The  knee  is  thick,  and  the  calf  thin ;  but  this  is  chiefly  the  case 
with  those  who  live  in  the  forests,  and  have  but  little  food.  This  they  are 
obliged  to  bring  down  from  the  trees,  which  they  are  very  skilful  in  climb- 
ing. The  exterior  of  the  men  is  harsh  and  repulsive ;  the  nose  very  broad 
beiow ;  the  mouth  large ;  the  beard  goat-like ;  the  hair  bristly ;  the  eyes  are 
black,  deep-set ;  the  eye-brows  thick ;  the  lips  large,  and  turned  out ;  the 
teeth,  however,  well  arranged;  the  jaws  frequently  projecting  very  far. 
Upon  the  whole,  the  countenance  is  spiritless.    Many  have  a  suffering,  bat 

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Ä02  HISTORY  AND  BTHNOLOGY, 

at  the  same  time  a  malignant  look.  The  complexion  differs  greatly  in  the 
various  tribes,  being  deep  black,  blackish-brown,  or  yellowish-brown,  accord- 
ing as  they  are  more  or  less  distant  from  the  equator.  Both  sexes  rub  their 
skin  with  fish  oil,  which  gives  it  a  bad  smell,  but  protects  them  from  the 
bites  of  mosquitoes.  They  have  the  strangest  taste  with  regard  to  orna- 
ments. Some  decorate  the  hair  with  fish  and  bird  bones,  kangaroos'  and 
sharks'  teeth,  feathers,  small  bits  of  wood,  and  dogs'  tails,  attaching  these 
odd  trinkets  with  gum  ;  or  cover  their  heads  with  moss*  To  the  south  of 
Botany  Bay,  the  hair  is  braided  in  the  shape  of  small  bits  of  rope.  In  fitting 
out  for  war,  they  smear  themselves  with  red  resin ;  when  going  to  dance, 
however,  they  bedaub  their  persons  with  shell-lime.  Around  their  eyes  they 
paint  a  wide  circle,  and  undulating  lines  around  the  arms,  legs,  and  feet 
Amongst  both  sexes  scars  are  esteemed  the  greatest  ornaments ;  and  the 
flesh  of  their  wounds,  therefore,  is  often  torn  open,  and  kept  in  this  condi- 
tion until  it  swells  out,  the  sores  not  being  allowed  to  close  before  then. 
This  singular  embellishment  is  applied  even  to  children.  Among  women, 
two  joints  of  the  little  finger  of  the  left  hand  are  wanting,  the  upper  joint 
of  the  little  finger  of  small  children  of  the  female  sex  being  bound  under 
with  a  strong  hair,  thus  checking  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  and  causing 
the  two  front  joints  to  rot  off.  It  is  generally  believed  that  the  New 
Hollanders  perform  this  operation  because  the  joints  just  mentioned  hinder 
the  women  in  holding  the  angling  rod.  The  men,  at  least  those  dwelling 
in  the  vicinity  of  known  coasts,  have  a  front  tooth  knocked  out,  which  is 
delivered  to  the  predominant  tribe  as  a  token  of  subjection  (pi.  S9yßg.  10). 
This  is  called  the  ceremony  of  the  gna-lung,  by  which  the  youth  enters 
upon  the  rights  of  manhood,  and  is  henceforth  bound  to  practise  assiduously 
the  use  of  arms,  and  to  harden  himself  in  the  endurance  of  pain. 

The  weapons  of  the  New  Hollanders  consist  of  lances,  shields,  battle- 
axes,  and  clubs.  The  lances  are  hurled  with  great  dexterity,  by  means  of 
a  staff  three  feet  long,  the  proper  office  of  which,  no  doubt,  is  to  direct  the 
course  of  the  lance.  The  shield  is  made  of  bark  of  trees,  or  solid  wood 
hardened  over  the  fire.  The  stone  battle-axe  is  their  most  destructive 
weapon.  The  carved  work  on  the  w.eapons  is  not  the  same  in  all  the 
divisions  of  a  tribe,  and  by  it  they  are  recognised.  Angling-rods  and  nets, 
and  the  dances,  differ  also  in  the  several  hordes.  As  it  is  a  difficult  matter 
for  these  people  to  kindle  a  fire,  it  is  almost  always  carried  with  them.  In 
case  they  have  none,  however,  the  process  by  which  they  obtain  it  is  as 
ibllows :  they  take  a  small  board  or  flat  piece  of  soft  wood,  in  which  they 
make  a  groove ;  in  this  they  insert  the  point  of  a  short  stick  of  very  hard 
wood,  and  move  it  to  and  fro  with  great  rapidity  and  pressing  the  point  as 
much  as  possible,  until  the  continued  friction  ignites  the  softer  wood.  As 
this  is  a  very  fatiguing  operation,  it  is  seldom  accomplished  by  a  single 
tnan,  but  several  draw  near  together,  and  as  soon  as  one  gets  tired  another 
oontinues  the  task,  until  the  object  is  attained.  The  dwellings  are  very 
•imple.  The  people  living  in  the  forests  construct  theirs  simply  by  placing 
pieces  of  bark  together,  and  cover  the  ground  with  sea  grass.  The  house- 
hold utensils  consist  of  a  few  baskets  made  of  bark,  or  hollowed  pieces 
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ETHNOLOGY  OF  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  303 

of  wood.  The  residents  of  the  sea  coasts  have  larger  huts  than  the 
inhabitants  of  the  forests.  Many  also  live  in  clefts  in  the  rocks,  or  grot- 
toes. Being  very  sound  sleepers,  they  endeavor  to  obtain  dogs  from 
European  settlers,  in  order  to  use  these  animals  as  guards.  Some  of  the 
natives  having  intercourse  with  the  English  cover  themselves  with  rags, 
or  with  a  piece  of  cloth,  in  order  that  they  may  not  be  in  a  state  of  entire 
nudity ;  the  rest  go  naked,  girls  only  wearing  aprons. 

The  New  Hollanders  appear  not  to  have  any  object  of  religious  worship, 
not  even  the  fire,  but  nevertheless  seem  to  have  a  conception  of  a  life  after 
death.  The  inhabitants  of  the  coast,  of  whom  we  know  most,  live  on  fish. 
Their  fragile  boats  are  made  of  the  bark  of  trees.  The  foresters  manufac* 
ture  a  kind  of  dough  of  roots  and  bruised  ants,  to  which  the  eggs  of  this 
insect  are  then  sometimes  added.  Worms,  caterpillars,  and  everything  else 
coming  in  their  way,  are  eaten,  as  nothing  nauseates  them. 

Their  disposition  presents  the  most  glaring  contrasts  ;  cruelty  and 
magnanimity,  generosity  and  selfishness,  forgiveness  and  revenge,  courage 
and  sluggishness,  candor  and  cunning,  confidence  and  jealousy.  Revenge 
for  blood  is  rigidly  carried  out,  and  their  women  are  treated  barbarously. 
Pain  is  endured  with  the  greatest  patience  and  firmness.  Age  is  highly 
honored,  and  the  highest  respect  shown  to  blind  old  people.  No  one  is 
allowed  to  place  himself  before  an  individual  of  this  description,  and  even 
in  a  boat  the  rower  is  obliged  to  sit  behind  the  blind  old  man.  Towards 
armed  persons  they  are  submissive  ;  the  unarmed,  however,  are  very  likely 
to  be  attacked  by  them.     They  are  very  skilful  imitators. 

When  a  child  is  from  four  to  six  weeks  old,  they  give  to  it,  without  any 
ceremony,  a  name  borrowed  from  some  object  that  they  have  daily  before 
their  eyes.  From  childhood  they  are  taught  to  hurl  the  lance  and  to  evade 
the  throw.  In  the  twelfth  or  fifteenth  year  the  bridge  of  the  nose  is 
pierced,  in  order  to  admit  a  bone  or  a  piece  of  rush  as  an  ornament.  In 
roost  cases,  the  husband  selects  his  companion  for  life  from  another  and 
indeed  hostile  tribe,  and  carries  her  off  by  force  in  the  absence  of  her  pro- 
tectors (pL  39,  fig.  7),  who  in  their  turn  retaliate  upon  his  tribe  as  soon  as 
opportunity  offers.  The  woman  obtained  in  this  way,  in  spite  of  all  cruel 
treatment,  soon  becomes  reconciled  to  her  lot.  (The  peculiar  dance  of  the 
New  Hollanders  is  represented  in  pi.  29,  figs.  6  and  9.) 

The  oldest  of  the  family  are  the  heads,  and  are  called  Biannai,  that  is 
to  say,  father.  When  the  New  Hollander  dies,  his  skin  is  stripped  off, 
dried,  packed  up,  and  preserved,  whilst  the  body  is  burnt.  (Fig.  8  repre* 
sents  the  procession  to  the  funeral  pile.) 


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MILITABY  SCIENCES. 

Platm  V.  1—61. 


INTRODUCTION. 

War,  that  destructiye  strife  of  parties,  a  strife  for  life  and  death,  has  ever 
been  the  lot  of  nations,  for  even  the  longest  peace  has  been  only  a  prepa- 
ration for  war.  Immeasurable  is  the  evil  war  has  brought  upon  the  world, 
immeasurable  that  which  it  will  still  bring,  and  yet  we  maintain  that  war 
must  be ;  war  is  the  spur  of  nations.  Assuredly  we  would  not  deny  the 
blessings  of  peace,  we  would  not  dispute  that  arts,  sciences,  commerce,  and 
industry  flourish  only  where  it  prevails;  but  in  peace  too  the  unused 
strength  grows  languid;  in  peace  the  most  corrupting  luxury,  the  most 
enervating  indolence  are  bom  and  nursed.  Only  that  state,  only  that  peo- 
ple, which  in  peace  provides  for  war,  will  be  prepared  for  every  contin- 
gency ;  therefore  should  we  study  the  art  of  war,  therefore  should  we 
practise  military  sciences,  and  every  citizen  should  be  also  a  soldier.  And 
is  not  this  impulse  to  warfare  based  in  man's  very  nature  ?  Is  it  not  mani- 
fested even  in  the  sports  of  thoughtless,  unconscious  boyhood  ? 

As  war,  then,  occupies  so  important  a  place  in  the  circle  of  human 
activity,  we  would  in  what  follows  show  by  general  outlines  the  character 
and  manner  of  warfare  among  the  earliest  nations,  and  how  in  process  of 
time  this  has  been  brought  to  the  degree  of  perfection  which  we  now  find 
it  displaying. 

Sources  of  accurate  information  respecting  the  warfare  of  ancient  nations 
are  not  wanting.  The  poets  sang  at  first  the  deeds  of  warriors,  and 
Homer  and  Virgil  are  rich  in  such  materials.  Historians  related  the  strife 
of  heroes,  traits  of  heroism,  and  artifices  of  war ;  they  described  the  equip- 
ments, the  war-machines,  and  the  field-equipages.  The  sculptures  also  of 
Thebes,  Luxor,  and  Nineveh,  of  the  Grecian  monuments,  of  Trajan's  pil- 
lar, &c.,  the  fresco  paintings  of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum  are,  besides  the 
works  of  a  Polybius,  of  a  Vegetius,  and  others,  excellent  sources  of 
knowledge. 

Much  nearer  to  us  are  the  middle  ages ;  and  our  armories  and  arsenals 
still  contain  in  abundance  the  weapons  and  armor  of  that  time.  But  even 
the  interior  arrangements  of  the  middle-age  warfare,  since  the  brave  George 
of  Frondsbeig,  have  been  described  for  us  in  a  large  work  by  a  citizen  of 
Ulm,  Leonard  Fronsperger. 

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MILITARY  SCIENCES. 


A.  WARFARE  OF  ANTIQUITY. 

If  we  would  survey  the  warfare  of  antiquity  we  can  only  do  so  by 
examining  that  of  the  separate  nations,  for  each  had  its  own  peculiar  sys- 
tem, dependent  partly  upon  the  situation  of  the  country,  partly  upon  the 
political  position  and  the  civilization  of  its  people.  The  warfare  of  antiquity 
we  consider  as  extending  from  the  earliest  times  of  which  we  have  any 
knowledge  down  to  that  period  when,  with  the  destruction  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  an  entire  change  in  the  political  condition  of  nations  and  a  totally 
different  mode  of  carrying  on  war  commenced. 

Among  the  nations  of  which  history  gives  us  the  earliest  knowledge 
Eg}rpt  stands  first,  for  besides  the  historical  books  of  the  Bible,  Herodotus 
and  other  authors  supply  copious  accounts  of  this  in  so  many  ways  remark- 
able nation. 

The  Egyptian  Military  System.  In  Egypt  the  separation  between 
the  different  ranks  was  strictly  defined,  and  in  whatever  caste  an  individual 
was  born  he  found  there  the  aim  and  purpose  of  his  life.  Thus,  there  was 
a  sacerdotal  caste,  and  besides  others,  a  warrior  caste  also. 

During  the  predominance  of  the  sacerdotal  caste,  the  historians  of  anti- 
quity assign  to  the  warrior  caste  the  second  rank  in  the  state ;  but  when 
the  warriors,  no  longer  permitting  themselves  to  be  ruled  by  a  priest-king, 
chose  their  ruler  from  among  their  own  caste,  they  assumed  the  foremost 
rank.    Menes  was  the  first  king  so  chosen. 

The  idea  of  an  army  of  mercenaries  never  occurred  to  the  ancient 
Egyptians ;  military  service  was  given  as  a  privilege  to  a  certain  class  in 
the  nation,  and  they  intrusted  the  defence  of  their  country  to  men  who 
had  something  to  lose ;  for  the  common  soldier  possessed  not  less  than 
twelve  ares  (about  six  acres),  wljich  land  served  for  the  support  of  his 
family  in  peace,  and  was  free  from  taxation.  In  the  time  of  Herodotus 
the  warrior  caste  was  separated  into  two  divisions,  the  Calasyrians  and  the 
Hermotybians.  The  first  numbered  about  250,000  men  and  occupied 
about  4^  noTnes  in  the  Delta;  while  the  Hermotybians  were  but  160,000 
strong  and  dwelt  in  the  nomes  of  Middle  Egypt,  Chemmis,  and  Thebes. 
Strabo  makes  the  war  power  much  more  important,  indeed  almost  twice  as 
great ;  and  this  is  probable,  for  at  the  time  of  Herodotus  Egypt  already 
hastened  to  its  downfall.  As  Egypt  was  compelled  constantly  to  secure  its 
boundaries  against  the  inroads  of  foreign  nations,  a  part  of  the  army 
was  always  in  service  ;  the  garrisons  of  the  different  military  posts  relieved 
each  other  at  stated  periods,  which  were  fixed  at  two  years.  Such  a  gar- 
rison, 100,000  strong,  which  was  left  for  three  years  unrelieved,  abandoned 
its  post  and  established  itself  as  a  military  colony  at  the  cataracts  of 
the  Nile.  The  medium  strength  of  the  armed  force  of  Egypt  in  time  of 
peace  is  estimated  at  180,000,  but  the  details  of  their  organization  we 
know  only  from  the  sculpture-strewn  walls  of  old  monuments.  In  these 
the  different  parts  of  the  army  can  be  distinguished  with  toleraUe  accuracy. 
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WARFARE  OF  ANTIQÜITY.  d 

First  come  those  who  fought  in  chariots,  necessarily  in  smaller  proportion 
than  other  arms.  Each  car  had  two  wheels,  was  open  behind,  harnessed 
with  two  horses,  and  furnished  with  javelin,  bow  and  arrows,  or  battle-axe. 
At  the  warrior's  right  stood  the  driver.  These  chal-iots  took  among  the 
Egyptians  the  place  of  cavalry,  since  they  are  said  to  have  had  no  horse- 
tnen.  If  horsemen  are  seen  on  old  monuments  it  is  only  singly,  and  usually 
äs  unarmed  messengers.  The  remainder  of  the  army  consisted  of  infantry. 
Of  this  the  heavy  armed,  which  fought  in  line,  carried  breast-plate,  helmet, 
shield,  spear,  or  battle-axe  and  sword  ;  the  others,  light  troops,  wer^  bow- 
men, slingers,  and  scythe-men.  PL  I  shows  a  great  variety  of  Egyptian 
weapons,  as  they  are  found  partly  upon  old  monuments  and  partly  in 
catacombs  and  the  pyramids.  Fig.  I  shows  a  two-edged  straight  sword ; 
ßg.  2,  a  curved  sabre  sharpened  only  on  the  outer  edge  ;  ßg^  8  is  a  dagger ; 
and  ßg.  4  a  short  mace,  which  in  hand  to  hand  combat  was  a  very  dan- 
gerous weapon.  Pig,  5  is  a  shield  of  rectangular  shape ;  but  these  are 
found  also  with  a  round  piece  taken  out  on  the  right  side,  and  small  ones 
entirely  round  for  light  troops.  In  order  to  protect  the  throat  and  upper 
part  of  the  breast  those  who  fought  in  chariots  and  the  light  troops  wore 
a  breast-plate  (ßg,  6)  either  of  strong  leather  or  metal ;  and  the  former, 
as  well  as  at  times  the  heavy  armed  and  the  bowmen,  wore  a  shirt  of  woven 
mail  (ßg,  22).  Upon  the  head  were  worn  helmets  of  the  most  various 
forms,  wadßgs,  7,  8,  9,  10,  11,  and  12,  show  several  patterns  of  these,  some 
of  which  were  of  leather  and  some  of  metal.  Fig.  9  is  an  archer's  helmet 
of  the  oldest  form  ;  ßg.  12  a  king's  of  the  time  of  Herodotus  ;  ßgs.  10  and 
11,  chiefs'  helmets  of  heavy  armed  infantry.  Fig.  14  is  a  javelin  with  a 
hook,  and  ßg.  13  shows  the  case  in  which  such  javelins  were  carried. 
Fig.  15  is  a  quiver  with  a  cover  for  such  arrows  as  are  represented  in  ßg. 
16 ;  such  a  quiver  was  fastened  by  a  chain  or  strong  thong  passing  over 
the  shoulder,  and  lay  obliquely  across  the  back,  the  opening  on  the  right 
side.  F\g.  17  is  a  spear.  Figs.  18  and  19  battle-axes,  such  as  were 
earned  by  the  heavy  armed  in  addition  to  the  spear.  The  bows  were  very 
large  and  strung  with  sinew.  The  emblem  of  the  warrior  caste  was  the 
vulture,  and  in  all  representations  of  battles  this  bird  is  always  seen  near 
the  king. 

The  troops  marched  and  manoeuvred  in  regular  order  and  movement  by 
legions  or  companies  to  the  sound  of  the  trumpet  or  the  drum  and  fife. 
Instead  of  standards  they  carried  insignia  such  as  are  shown  in  ßgs.  20  and 
21.  The  king  was  commander-in-chief,  his  sons  or  his  bravest  men  his 
generals.  The  king  shared  personally  in  all  the  fatigues  of  war,  and  stood 
in  his  chariot :  armed  from  head  to  foot  he  hurled  his  darts  upon  the  foe  or 
smote  him  with  the  battle-axe.  A  tamed  lion,  accoutred  for  the  battle-field, 
was  always  beside  the  king's  chariot.  The  troops  were  diligently  trained 
in  time  of  peace  by  various  gymnastic  exercises,  in  performing  which  they 
went  almost  nak^,  and  had  only  a  broad  leather  belt  about  the  body. 
Thus,  too,  they  often  fought  in  war,  as  is  shown  in  numberless  instances 
by  the  sculptures.  The  dignitaries  of  the  host  were  called  (Em;  the 
captain  was  adorned  with  an  ostrich  feather ;  officers  of  other  grades  were 

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distinguished  by  different  insignia.    Every  nome  was  commanded  by  a 
general. 

The  castrametation  of  the  Egyptians  was  simple.  A  palisade  carefiilly 
guarded  inclosed  the  camp.  The  tent  of  the  king  or  commander  was  upon 
the  side  opposite  to  the  entrance,  in  its  neighborhood  smaller  tents  for  the 
subordinates ;  the  tamed  lion,  his  feet  fettered,  was  with  his  keeper  beside 
the  king's  tent.  Horses  and  asses  were  arranged  symmetrically  at  the 
entrance  of  the  camp;  opposite,  the  chariots,  baggage  and  equipage 
wagons  for  the  horses,  for  the  asses  pack-saddles  with  panniers.  Upon 
the  right  hand  side  of  the  camp  was  arranged  the  effective  force,  and 
here  soldiers  and  recruits  were  trained  and  disciplined;  upon  the  left 
were  the  hospitals  and  lazarettoes.  The  principal  exercises  were  per- 
formed outside  the  camp.  On  the  march  the  war-chariots  went  behind 
and  on  both  sides  of  the  column,  the  heavy  armed  infantry  protected  by 
their  large  shields  in  the  centre;  at  all  exposed  points  the  light  troops 
formed  an  advanced  guard. 

Upon  the  naval  force  and  warfare  of  the  Egyptians  we  shdl  give  details 
under  the  head  of  Naval  Sciences. 

The  Phcbnician  Military  System.  Next  to  the  Egyptians  in  import- 
ance at  the  age  of  which  we  are  treating  stand  the  Phoenicians.  All 
knowledge  of  their  earliest  formation  and  first  undertakings  is  lost,  and  for 
the  little  we  know  about  them  we  are  indebted  to  the  Bible.  The  Phoeni- 
cians had  established  themselves  on  the  Syrian  coast  upon  the  narrow  strip 
of  land  extending  from  Aradus  to  Tyre.  Sidon  was  the  oldest  city,  and 
from  her  Tyre  and  other  colonies  were  founded. 

A  consolidated  Phoenician  kingdom  indeed  had  never  any  real  existence, 
but  only  a  league  of  small  states  which  lent  each  other  mutual  assistance 
against  external  foes.  At  the  head  of  this  confederacy  stood  Tyre.  Car- 
thage and  Gades  were  the  heads  of  other  colonies. 

Of  a  standing  army  with  the  Phoenicians  we  know  nothing,  at  least  not 
a  native  one ;  but  the  small  population  of  their  cities  must  always  have 
compelled  a  resort  to  mercenaries  in  war,  and  accordingly  the  garrison  of 
Tyre  consisted  of  Persians,  Lydians,  Lycians,  and  the  contingent  of 
Aradus.     The  mode  of  warfare  of  the  Phoenicians  we  learn  from 

The  Carthaginian  Military  System.  Carthage,  a  Phoenician  colony, 
which  came  frequently  in  contact  with  the  cultivated  nations  of  the  next 
age,  and  whose  origin  and  history  were  therefore  studied  by  them,  was 
at  once  a  land  and  sea  power.  Upon  her  naval  strength  we  shall  treat 
under  its  proper  head. 

It  lay  in  the  very  nature  of  a  state  like  Carthage  that  only  a  small 
portion  of  her  citizens  could  become  soldiers ;  these  were  principally  the 
distinguished  and  the  noble ;  and  for  them  especially  the  cavalry  were  orga- 
nized. The  cavalry  were  lavish  in  expense,  and  were  permitted  to  wear  rings, 
as  many  indeed  as  they  had  made  campaigns.  Diodorus  tells  us  that  in  an 
army  of  70,000  men  only  2500  were  citizens ;  but  on  the  other  hand  that 
in  time  of  need  all  took  arms,  and  that  once  the  city  of  Carthage  alone 
furnished  40,000  infantry  and  1000  horsemen.  The  Carthaginians  proper 
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WARFARE  OF  ANTIQUITY.  6 

formed  a  peculiar  corps,  usually  the  body-guard  of  the  general,  composed 
of  footmen  and  cavalry. 

The  great  army,  however,  which  Carthage  brought  into  the  field,  con- 
sisted of  mercenaries ;  and  nearly  half  of  Africa  and  Europe  sent  their 
hirelings  to  them.  Half  naked  Gauls  stood  side  by  side  with  white-clad 
Iberians ;  savage  Ligurians  beside  well  equipped  Nasamones  and  Lotophagi. 
Carthaginians  and  Phoenician  Africans  formed  the  centre ;  countless 
swarms  of  Numidian  horsemen,  from  all  the  races  of  the  desert,  the  wings 
of  this  vast  host.  Balearic  slingers  were  the  advanced  guard,  and  elephants 
with'  their  Ethiopian  drivers  upon  their  towers  (pi.  5,  fig.  3)  made,  as  it 
were,  a  chain  of  movable  fortresses  along  its  front.  This  Carthaginian 
order  of  battle  with  elephants  is  shown  in  pi,  IS,  fig.  6. 

The  Military  Systems  of  Media  and  Persia.  If  now  we  turn  to  Asia, 
the  Medes  and  Persians  will,  of  all  people  known  to  ancient  history,  most 
attract  our  attention.  From  the  Medo-Assyrian  kingdom  of  Arbaces,  a 
Median  kingdom  proper  separated  itself,  under  Deioces,  about  700  years 
before  Christ,  whose  king  first  established  an  organized  army  among  the 
Medians,  aod  then  among  the  subjected  Persians,  by  separating  the  lance- 
men,  archers,  and  cavalry  into  distinct  divisions.  Yet  only  under  Cyrus 
did  the  armament  and  discipline  become  effective. 

In  every  province  of  the  empire,  spread  over  the  level  country,  or 
collected  into  garrisons,  were  troops  which  differed  in  their  organization. 
As  to  the  first,  their  number  was  exactly  fixed  for  each  province.  The 
main  strength  was  cavalry,  but  there  were  also  archers,  slingers,  and  heavy 
armed  infantry.  The  province  was  compelled  to  maintain  the  force ;  and 
with  respect  to  administrative  government,  they  were  subject  to  the  satrap, 
but  the  command  was  the  king's  alone,  by  whom  the  troops  were  yearly 
mustered,  and  without  whose  consent  no  satrap  could  discharge  them.  In 
this  manner  was  the  whole  land,  independently  of  political  divisions, 
separated  into  military  districts,  each  with  its  appropriate  muster-place. 
The  division  of  these  troops  through  the  country  was  into  bodies  of  1000 
men  each,  whose  commander  was  called  a  chiliarch.  Cyrus  had  in  Upper 
Asia  100,000  men.  His  general  Abrocomas  commanded  300,000,  and  the 
army  upon  the  Granicus  numbered  40,000.  Distinguished  from  these  troops 
were  the  garrisons  of  the  fortified  cities,  which  had  again  their  own  com- 
manders. Those  just  named  were  the  royal  troops;  but  besides  these  were 
the  household  troops  of  the  nobility,  whose  number  often  amounted  to  many 
thousands. 

Originally  the  whole  Persian  army  was  composed  of  Persians,  but 
afterwards  these  withdrew  from  the  service  and  their  place  was  supplied 
by  hirelings,  partly  Asiatics,  partly  Hyrcanians,  Parthians,  and  Sacians; 
the  flower  of  the  army,  however,  at  that  time  consisted  of  Greeks.  The 
national  army  of  Persia  was  organized  by  dividing  the  whole  population 
able  to  bear  arms  into  squads  of  ten,  each  having  its  chief,  then  came  the 
commander  of  a  hundred,  then  the  chiliarch  commanding  1000,  and  then 
the  commander  of  10,000  men ;  thus  it  was  easy  to  assemble  very  rapidly 
the  largest  force,  as  it  needed  only  an  order  to  the  myriarch,  the  chief 

lOONOQRAPHIC   ENCYCLOPAEDIA. — VOL.   III.  31  481 


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6  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

of  10,000,  who  communicated  it  to  his  subordinates.  These  same  divisions 
were  retained  afterwards  with  the  mercenaries.  The  higher  officers  stood 
in  great  respect,  and  the  generals  were  always  relations  of  the  king.  When 
a  great  war  commenced,  then  a  levy  en  masse  was  ordered ;  all  the  nations 
of  the  empire  were  assembled  and  divided  as  above.  Upon  the  march  no 
order  was  observed ;  the  king  with  the  Persians  was  in  the  centre,  the 
other  nations  marched  as  they  chose.  As  little  order  was  maintained  in 
their  encampments ;  for  the  king  and  chief  officers  there  were  tents ;  all 
the  rest  bivouacked  in  the  open  air.  Only  on  approaching  the  hostile 
boundary  was  there  a  muster  and  division  of  the  host  by  nations ;  and  when 
Xerxes  mustered  his  army  in  Europe,  it  was  found  to  contain  fifty-six 
nations.  Among  them  were  Sagartians,  who,  otherwise  weaponless, 
caught  their  foe  in  a  leathern  noose,  Libyans  with  armed  chariots  {pi.  5» 
ßg.  4),  and  Arabs  upon  camels. 

The  arms  of  this  motley  host  were  naturally  of  equal  diversity.  A 
number  of  the  weapons  used  by  Asiatic  nations  who  belonged  mostly  to 
the  Persian  armies  are  brought  together  on  pt.  1.  Thus  ßg,  23  shows  the 
bow  and  quiver  of  the  Medes  and  Persians,  whose  shield  of  strong  leather 
with  a  rim  and  boss  of  iron  is  represented  in  ßg,  24.  The  b9w  was 
carried  usually  in  the  case  belonging  to  it,  shown  in  ßg,  25,  where  a  spear 
also  is  represented.  Figs,  26  and  27  show  Median  and  Persian  helmets 
and  storming-caps.  The  Parthians  had  bows  as  in  fig,  28,  and  spears 
whose  momentum  was  increased  by  a  ball  at  the  butt,  as  in  fig.  29.  One 
of  the  showy  helmets  of  the  Syrians,  made  of  leather  with  metal  ornaments, 
is  represented  in  fig.  80;  while  ^.  31  shows  a  peculiarly  formed  and  often 
painted  helmet  of  leather  bound  with  iron,  worn  by  the  Armenians.  The 
Scythian  heavy  armed  infantry  were  clad  in  a  leathern  cuirass,  strengthened 
by  thin  scales  of  iron,  as  shown  at  fig,  32,  wore  a  leathern  helmet  bound 
with  strong  iron  bands  (fig,  33),  and  carried  an  oval,  often  richly  orna- 
mented shield  of  leather,  covered  entirely  with  metal  plate  (fig,  34).  The 
bow  (fig,  36)  was  with  them  only  secondary,  and  was,  therefore,  small  and 
light ;  but  they  carried  clubs  with  Ibng  spikes,  for  blow  or  thrust,  and 
maces  set  with  iron  spikes,  as  shown  in  fig,  36,  where  both  are  given.  The 
short  sword,  or  more  properly  long  dagger  (figs,  37,  38),  they  had  in 
common  with  the  Dacians,  of  whose  leathern  helmets,  gaily  painted  and 
the  head-piece  studded  with  metal  scales,  an  example  is  given  in  fig,  45 ; 
while  fig.  44  shows  one  of  the  Dacian  field  badges,  such  as  were  carried 
by  the  larger  divisions  of  the  army,  and  which  were  distinguished  from  each 
other  by  the  most  various  forms.  The  M ysians  had  circular  shields  plated 
with  metal,  as  in  fig.  39,  and  javelins  (figs.  42,  43),  whose  shaft  was  often 
carved  in  rings  or  spirals,  with  a  counter-weight  for  greater  momentum, 
and  on  this  weight  a  short  spike  for  close  combat.  Quite  similar  were 
the  Thracian  javelins,  of  which  ^g*^.  40  and  41  give  examples,  save  that 
the  counter-weight  was  often  nearer  the  middle.  The  Thracian  helmet 
was  of  buffiEÜo-hide,  bound  with  iron.  The  skin  of  the  head  was  often 
chosen  for  this  purpose,  with  the  horns  kept  on ;  often  that  form  was 
merely  imitated,  and  false  horns  added  (fig.  55).  The  Thracian  shield  was 
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WABFARE  OF  ANTIQUITY.  7 

light  and  small,  usually  of  the  crescent  form,  and  painted  {fig.  66).  The 
Phrygians  belonging  to  the  heavy  infantry  had  short  woollen  tabards  {fig. 
46),  usually  embroidered  in  rich  patterns,  and  often  covered  also  with  metal 
rings.  Their  helmets,  of  which  figs,  4T  and  48  give  examples,  were  imita- 
tions  of  the  Phrygian  cap,  of  buffalo  leather,  gaily  painted,  with  a  crest  and 
neck-piece  to  deaden  descending  blows,  and  with  cheek-pieces ;  frequently 
they  were  surmounted  by  a  horse-tail.  As  indeed  the  whole  equipment  of 
the  Phrygians  displays  superior  elegance,  so  this  appears  also  in  their  eres- 
cent-shaped  shields  of  bufialo-hide,  painted  and  adorned  with  iron  ring» 
(fig.  50),  and  in  their  bows  and  quivers  {fig.  40).  The  Phrygian  battle- 
*^®s  {figs.  51^4)  were  light,  sometimes  long,  sometimes  short,  and  often 
with  a  point  for  thrusting.  The  axe  was  their  chief  weapon,  and  was 
usually  broad-headed  on  one  side,  but  narrowed  to  a  point  on  the  other, 
that  it  might  smite  through  helm  and  shield. 

Thb  Militart  Systems  of  Macedonia  and  Gkebcb.  The  Macedonians 
and  Greeks  owing  their  existence  to  war,  and  involved  constantly  in 
hostilities  on  one  side  or  another,  were  compelled  to  perpetual  vigilance 
as  to  the  perfection  of  their  military  force.  Hence  we  find  among  them, 
at  a  very  early  period,  a  completely  oi^anized  army  and  a  peculiar  tactic, 
which  were  so  much  the  more  necessary  as  the  Greeks  were  not  in  a 
condition  togpaintain  a  very  numerous  force,  and  were,  therefore,  usually 
obliged  to  encounter  their  enemies  with  greatly  inferior  numbers,  an 
inequality  to  be  counterbalanced  only  by  superior  intelligence.  Thus  on 
the  plain  of  Marathon  fought  scarcely  10,000  Athenians.  Great  armies 
were  formed  only  by  the  union  of  several  states ;  and  at  the  battle  of  Plataea, 
where  perhaps  the  largest  Grecian  army  was  collected,  were  numbered 
111,000  men,  of  whom,  however,  only  38,000  were  heavy  armed,  and  of 
the  light  armed  37,000  were  Spartan  helots. 

Grecian  warfare,  and  therewith  the  formation  of  their  military  system,  may 
be  divided  into  three  periods.  The  first  is  that  of  the  Persian  war ;  the 
second,  that  of  the  Peloponnesian  or  internal  war  of  the  Greeks  to  the  time 
of  Philip ;  and  the  third,  that  of  the  Macedonian,  Achaian,  and  iBtolian 
wars,  in  which  period  fall  the  wars  of  Alexander  the  Great  and  the  war 
with  Rome.  The  expeditions  of  the  Greeks  before  the  Persian  contest 
belong  to  the  mythic  age,  and  then,  as  indeed  also  in  the  commencement 
of  the  historical,  Grecian  warfare  was  in  its  infancy.  The  Grecian  heroes 
still  fought  naked,  though  well  armed  {pi.  2,  fig.  1).  Of  the  wars  of  the 
mythic  age,  we  shall  mention  only  the  Theban  and  the  Trojan.  The 
traditions  which  the  poets  give  of  these  show  that  here  only  rude  strength 
was  brought  into  play,  and  even  that  so  imperfectly  guided,  that  the  desired 
result  was  attained  only  after  a  long  period,  sometimes  not  at  all,  or  by 
means  of  single  combats,  which  were  regarded  as  a  kind  of  divine  decision. 
Thus  the  Theban  war  terminated  by  the  duel  between  two  brothers,  in 
which  both  fell,  not  to  mention  other  single  combats  of  similar  character. 

When  Greece,  however,  was  assailed  by  external  foes,  the  Greeks  held 
fast  and  firm  together,  and  the  greatest  men  of  Greece  devoted  themselves 
to  the  organization  of  her  warfare.    They  began  to  carry  on  war  systemati- 

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8  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

cally ;  laid  out  plans  by  which  they  would  endeavor  to  conduct  the  military 
operations ;  practised  in  peace  the  manoeuvres  required  in  war ;  studied 
their  arms  and  means  of  defence,  improving  the  old  and  inventing  new. 
They  devised  and  tested  organizations  for  their  army,  so  that  were  war 
declared,  the  army  might  be  brought  promptly  into  activity  and  consist 
of  disciplined  troops.  The  land  force,  however,  though  sufficient,  was  yet 
less  perfectly  organized  than  the  naval,  since  the  geographical  position 
of  Greece  caused  her  enemies  in  almost  every  case  to  approach  her  by 
sea,  so  that  the  first  and  most  decisive  combat  fell  to  the  lot  of  the  fleet. 
In  the  department  of  this  work  which  is  devoted  to  naval  affairs,  we  shall 
find  occasion  to  treat  of  the  ancient  Greek  navy  and  its  system,  and  we 
confine  ourselves  here  exclusively  to  the  land  force. 

The  Greek  army  consisted  of  infantry  and  cavalry.  The  infantry  were 
either  heavy  armed  (JcXirai,  Hoplites),  light  armed  (YiXoi,  Psilites),  or  formed 
a  middle  class  (ceXro^'rai,  Pel  tastes).  The  first  had  long  spears  (24  feet  at 
first,  afterwards  somewhat  shorter)  and  broad  shields  ;  the  second  had 
bows,  javelins,  and  slings  ;  the  last,  shields  and  short  lances.  The  cavalry 
also  were  divided  into  light  and  heavy,  and  as  middle  class  served  a  species 
of  soldier  who  fought  sometimes  on  foot  and  sometimes  mounted.  With 
the  heavy  armed  both  horse  and  rider  were  clad  in  mail ;  their  weapon 
was  a  long  spear,  often  pointed  at  both  ends.  The  light  arn^  had  mail- 
less  horses,  and  carried  javelins  or  arrows.  The  heavy  cavalry  consisted 
of  citizens,  the  light  of  mercenaries.  The  best  horsemen  were  the  Thes- 
salian.  Saddles  and  stirrups  were  not  used ;  the  horse  was  ridden  bare- 
backed (pL  2,  figs,  12  and  Id).  The  Athenian  cavalry  numbered  at  first 
only  69  men,  but  were  afterwards  increased  to  1200.  Before  the  intro- 
duction of  cavalry,  and  indeed  at  the  time  of  Homer,  the  armed  chariot 
with  partially  mailed  horses  was  used  {pi  5,fig^  4).  These  chariots  were 
harnessed  usually  with  two,  but  sometimes  with  three  or  four  horses,  of 
which,  however,  only  the  two  inside  drew ;  the  others,  merely  guided  by 
the  reins,  served  only  to  increase  the  onset.  Upon  the  car  stood  the 
warrior  and  the  driver.  One  kind  of  these  chariots  had  a  sharp  spike 
projecting  from  the  pole,  and  sharp  scythes  set  on  the  ends  of  the  axles,  as 
shown  in  the  representation,  and  were  called  scythe-cars.  The  battle-cars 
were  mostly  two-wheeled,  yet  some  had  four  wheels.  At  the  time  of  the 
Persian  war  such  battle  and  scythe-cars  were  still  in  use ;  elephants  and 
camels  were  first  used  in  the  time  of  Alexander,  who  saw  them  in  the 
Indian  armies.  The  former  carried  turrets  upon  their  backs,  in  which 
from  ten  to  thirty  soldiers  were  placed  (pi.  5,  fig,  3). 
\  The  arms  of  the  Greeks  were  divided  into  offensive  and  defensive,  or 
weapons  of  attack  and  of  defence ;  and  the  former  again  into  missiles  and 
weapons  of  percussion,  of  which  the  last  were  most  carefully  perfected.  The 
earliest  offensive  weapons  were  the  club,  lance,  and  javelin.  The  lance,  of 
which  pi,  3,  fig,  4,  and  also  the  two  preceding  plates  give  various  represen- 
tations, was  long — not  less,  indeed,  than  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  ells  for 
the  longest,  the  Sarissa,  which  was  used  by  the  phalanx ;  but  there  were 
also  shorter  ones,  of  four  to  six  ells.  The  shorter  had  sometimes  two  points, 
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WARFARE  OF  ANTIQUITY.  9 

as  in  fig,  4.  When  the  lance,  however,  was  only  three  or  four  ells  long,  it  was 
called  a  javelin,  and  each  warrior  had  then  from  two  to  four  of  them,  sometimes 
double  pointed  also  (pL  2,  figs,  3, 4).  The  sword  was  usually  straight,  and 
very  short,  because  it  was  a  point  of  honor  to  let  the  foe  approach  closely. 
The  straight  sword  (pi.  3,  fig.  14),  which  was  carried  at  the  right  side  in  a 
belt  from  the  shoulder,  had  a  broad  blade,  seldom  any  point,  but  a  short 
cross-guard,  and  was  used  for  cutting;  there  was,  however,  another  and 
shorter  sword  (fig.  16),  which  served  as  a  long  dagger,  and  had  no  cross- 
guard.  PI.  2,  figs,  6,  7,  8,  10,  16,  and  17,  show  the  manner  of  using  both 
kinds.  A  curved  sword  is  also  frequently  seen  (pi.  S,fig.  21).  This  was 
very  slightly  bent,  sharpened  only  on  one  edge,  had  a  cross-guard,  and,  for 
better  balance,  was  heaviest  at  the  lower  end.  The  sheath  (fig.  20)  was 
straight,  like  a  quiver.  The  bow  had  various  forms ;  thus,  the  Theban  bow 
(fig-  27)  had  a  single  curve,  while  the  Athenian  was  double  curved,  with  a 
straight  piece  in  the  middle,  for  the  better  placing  of  the  arrow  (fig.  17).  The 
bows  were  made  sometimes  of  naturally  curved  wood  or  horn,  sometimes  cut 
out  of  hard  close-grained  wood  ;  they  were  strung  with  sinew  or  horse-hair. 
When  not  in  use  they  were  thrust  into  the  bow-case  (figs.  2,  3).  The 
arrows,  of  light  wood  and  very  long,  were  carried  in  a  quiver  (fig.  2),  which 
hung  usually  over  the  shoulder  on  the  left  side,  as  with  the  Amazons  (/>/.  2, 
fig.  2),  but  was  also  often  carried  on  the  back ;  to  its  barbed  head  wisps  of 
tow,  dipped  in  pitch  and  lighted,  were  often  fastened,  for  the  purpose  of 
setting  fire  to  objects.  The  sling,  with  which  stones,  leaden  balls,  and  often 
fire  balls  were  thrown,  consisted  of  several  thongs,  with  a  centre-piece  in 
which  the  projectile  lay,  but  was  soon  laid  aside  as  the  use  of  the  lance 
came  to  be  better  understood.  To  defensive  arms  belong,  first,  the  helmet ; 
and  with  the  Greeks  this  piece  of  armor  had  the  greatest  variety  of  forms, 
from  the  simplest  skull-cap  to  the  highest  adornment.  PI.  S»figs.  9,  10,  11, 
12,  and  13,  give  examples  of  this,  and  on  pi.  2,  also,  are  various  patterns. 
The  helmet  was  sometimes  of  hide,  studded  with  metal,  and  painted  ;  some- 
times entirely  of  wrought  metal.  The  principal  part  was  the  cap,  to  which 
cheek-pieces  were  attached,  serving  as  well  to  give  a  firmer  hold  upon  the 
head  as  to  protect  the  face  of  the  wearer  (pi  2,  fig.  7  ;  and  the  trumpeter, 
fig.  9).  Often,  however,  these  parts  were  wanting  in  the  helmet,  while  the 
neck-piece  was  never  absent.  Finally  we  remark  the  crest ;  this  had  often 
the  strangest  forms,  as  in  pi.  S»  figs.  10  and  11,  but  was  usually  adorned 
with  a  plume  of  feathers  or  horse-hair,  which  flaunted  in  the  gayest  colors ; 
frequently,  indeed,  the  plume  was  triple,  as  fig.  13 ;  or  there  were  other 
plumes  at  the  sides,  as  fig.  12  ;  or  buffalo  horns,  as  fig.  10.  In  most  cases, 
a  horse-tail  floated  from  the  lower  end  of  the  crest.  Often  the  helmet  had 
a  vizor,  to  protect  the  face,  as  fig.  9 ;  this  vizor  had  holes  for  the  eyes,  and 
in  combat  was  pushed  down  (pi.  2,  figs.  3  and  6).  The  cuirass  consisted 
of  a  breast  and  a  back-piece,  and  extended  from  the  neck  to  the  hips,  where 
it  was  held  together  by  a  belt.  From  the  back-piece  forward  a  plate  passed 
over  each  shoulder,  uniting  the  two  halves  at  the  upper  part.  PI.  ^,figs.  18 
and  19,  show  cuirasses,  one  of  which  reaches  below  the  hips,  but  the  other 
has  a  row  of  metal  plates,  or  leather  straps  covered  with  woven  wire,  which 

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JO  MILITARY  SGIENOES. 

protect  the  thighs  and  abdomen.  On  pi  2,  figs.  8-8,  10,  and  16,  show 
various  kinds  of  cuirasses.  The  cuirass  was  usually  of  ox-leather,  gaily 
painted  and  studded,  plated  or  bound  with  metal.  Sometimes,  though 
only  with  the  heavy  cavalry,  they  were  wholly  of  metal  plate ;  but  usually 
were  merely  set  with  scales  (fig,  7)  ;  or  the  front-piece  only  (fig.  5)  was  a 
plate  of  metal.  Frequentljp  only  the  front-piece,  the  half-mail,  was  worn ; 
particularly  by  the  mercenaries,  who  were  thereby  deterred  from  flight,  and 
by  the  light  troops,  for  ease  of  motion.  Later  the  cuirass  was  made  of  linen, 
doubled  with  a  thick-quilted  wadding.  To  this  cuirass  belonged  a  breast- 
plate of  thin  iron,  lined  with  wadding,  and  worn  close  to  the  body  under  the 
cuirass ;  and  a  tabard  without  sleeves,  worn  also  under  the  cuirass ;  often 
arm-pieces  were  added,  which  then  extended  from  the  shoulder  over  half 
the  upper  part  of  the  arm  (figs,  16  and  17).  The  Amazons,  from  the  Black 
Sea,  wore  complete  woven  mail  (fig.  2),  and  leggings  set  with  scales.  With 
the  cuirass  belonged  also  the  greaves,  or  leg-pieces,  of  which  pL  3,  fig.  5, 
shows,  in  the  upper  figure,  the  inside ;  and  in  the  lower,  the  outside.  These 
protected  the  shin-bone,  and  frequently  the  knee  also  from  injury ;  were 
made  of  hammered  metal  plate,  and  fastened  by  two  straps  on  the  back  of 
the  leg  (pi,  2,  figs.  4  and  10);  these  greaves  were  usually  ornamented ;  they 
were  made  also  of  thick  woollen  stuff  sometimes,  and  then  were  closed 
-behind  (figs.  3,  6,  9,  and  17).  Soldiers  wore  usually  on  their  feet  soles  of 
thick  leather,  sandals,  which  were  fastened  with  straps  around  the  instep 
and  ankle;  the  cavalry  wore  a  kind  of  boot  (pi.  2,  figs.  12  and  13)  with 
ialling  tops.  Lastly,  we  have  to  mention  the  shield.  This  was  usually  of 
willow  wicker-work,  covered  with  leather  or  metal  plate,  or  else  entirely  of 
43ix4eather ;  but  always  the  verge,  at  least,  was  plated.  The  shields  were 
often  showily  decorated,  and  painted  with  lively  colors ;  sometimes  they  had 
peculiar  emblems,  a  species  of  blazonry ;  they  were  usually  of  curved  form, 
and  had  always  two  handles  on  the  inner  side,  by  means  of  which  they  were 
carried  on  the  left  arm  (fig.  3).  In  the  centre  of  the  shield  was  generally 
an  elevation,  a  point,  the  boss  of  the  shield,  partly  to  strengthen  it  there  and 
make  a  protection  from  assault,  and  partly  that  arrows  might  glance  from  it 
more  easily.  The  shield  was  large  or  small,  according  to  the  character  of 
the  troops.  The  heavy  armed  troops  had  large  and  long  shields,  covering 
the  whole  body.  PI.  3,  figs.  1  and  6  show  rude  shields,  in  front  and  side 
view ;  fig.  7  shows  the  inside.  The  light  armed  troops  and  the  cavalry  had 
small,  round,  Argolic  shields  (fig.  8).  The  shields  shown  in  figs.  I  and  8 
were  used  by  the  Thebans. 

The  army  organization  of  the  Greeks  is  rather  complicated,  but  very 
systematic  in  arrangement.  The  first  division  is  the  hekatontarchy,  a 
body  of  one  hundred  men,  which  separated  into  four  files  (hckos),  consist- 
ing each  o[  twenty-four  men  and  a  lochagos.  Each  file  was  again  divided 
into  two  decades,  and  each  decade  into  two  pempades,  under  the  decadarehs 
and  pempadarcbs,  who  stood  in  the  ranks.  Ten  such  hekatontarchies  made 
a  chüiarchy,  commanded  by  a  chiliarch,  under  whom  two  pentacosiarchs, 
chiefs  oi  five  hundred,  and  five  syntagmatarcks,  chiefs  of  two  hundred, 
commanded.  Two  chiliarchies  had  again  an  especial  commander,  the 
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WARFARE  OF  ANTIQUITY.  11 

telarch  or  merarch.  Four  chiliarchies  formed  a  phalanx,  whose  com- 
mander was  called  strategos  {phalangarch);  the  double  phalanx  (8,000  men), 
however,  was  under  a  kerarch,  and  the  quadruple  (16,000)  under  a  hege- 
mon.  The  Macedonian  phalanx  was  armed  with  long  spears,  and  formed 
with  a  front  of  five  hundred  files,  and  depth  of  sixteen.  The  term,  pha- 
lanx, was  originally  applied  to  a  certain  number  of  men,  but  came  afterwards 
to  signify  the  whole  army  drawn  up  in  order  of  battle.  On  both  sides  of  the 
phalanx  cavalry  was  stationed,  to  cover  the  flanks. 

The  front  and  rear  rank  men  were  called  protostates  and  epistaies ;  those 
of  the  inner  files,  parastates.  For  the  lochages  of  the  protostates,  who  had 
ever  to  sustain  the  first  attack,  the  strongest  and  bravest  men  only  were 
chosen ;  equally  important,  however,  were  the  posts  of  the  rearmost  ranks 
{urage$),  who  had  to  be  brave  soldiers,  as,  in  case  of  attack  in  the  rear, 
they  had  to  face  about  and  repulse  the  foe.  In  the  open  phalanx  six  feet, 
in  the  closed  three,  and  in  the  narrow  phalanx  only  one  and  a  half  feet 
were  assigned  to  each  man.  The  last  order  bore  much  resemblance  to  the 
Roman  testudo  (tortoise)  (pi.  lS,ßg.  6),  onljr  that  it  was  quadrangular,  and 
not  covered  over;  although  instances  are  found  in  which  the  circular  form 
was  assumed. 

Half  the  phalanx  was  usually  composed  of  light  troops;  the  files  were  not 
over  eight  deep ;  two  files  made  a  sy stasis,  two  systases  a  pentekontarchy, 
and  two  of  the  last  a  hekatontarchy  (128  men)  ;  each  hekatontarchy  had  in 
addition  a  trumpeter  {pL  %  fig*  9),  a  standard-bearer,  an  adjutant,  and  a 
herald  {fig.  II).  Two  hekatontarchies  were  a  psilagia,  of  which  two 
formed  a  xenagia  (512  men),  and  four  a  systremma.  Two  systremmas  were 
an  epixenagia,  four  a  styphos  (4,096  men),  and  two  stypha  an  epitagma 
(8,192  men),  which  had  eight  principal  oflicers,  namely:  four  epixenages 
and  four  systremmatarchs.  The  peltastes  were  a  medium  between  heavy 
and  light  armed  troops.  They  formed  subsequently  the  body-guard  of  Alex*- 
ander,  the  leucaspides  or  argyraspides,  so  called  from  their  silver  shields. 

The  cavalry,  again,  had  a  peculiar  division.  An  ile  consisted  of  64 
men;  Ijyo  iles  were  an  epilarchy ;  two  of  which,  256  men,  formed  a 
tarentinarchy.  The  hipparchy  contained  512  men,  and  two  of  these  formed 
an  ephipparchy ;  two  ephipparchies  a  tolos,  and  two  toloi  an  epitagma  of 
■4,096  men.  Two  battle-cars  were  a  xygarchy,  four  a  syxygarchy,  eight  an 
epizygarchy,  sixteen  a  harmatarchy,  twenty-four  a  keras,  and  forty-eight  a 
phalanx.  The  commanders  of  one  elephant  were  called  xoarchs,  of  two  the- 
rarchs,  of  four  epitherarchs,  and  of  eight,  that  is  of  a  turma,  ilarchs.  Six- 
teen elephants  were  an  elephantarchy,  thirty-two  a  keratarchy,  and  sixty- 
four  a  phalanx,  which  a  phalangarch  or  elephantarch  commanded. 

The  movements  of  the  troops,  as  well  in  place  as  on  the  march,  were 
very  intricate.  Klisis  was  a  quarter-wheel  to  the  right  or  left  from  a 
halt ;  metabole  was  the  half- wheel,  and  was  made  either  to  the  right  or  the 
left.  Of  the  turnings  of  the  phalanx  we  mention  the  wheel,  epistraphe 
{pi  4,  fig.  I,  wheel  on  a  halted  pivot),  which  was  made  from  ab  to  a  c, 
to  the  right  or  left ;  and  on  the  outermost  lochagos,  a,  of  the  halted  flank 
as  a  pivot     When  this  wheel  was   reversed,  it  was  called  anastrophe 

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12  MILTTAJRir  SCIENCES. 

{fig-  S)>  ^^<i  the  movement  was  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow  from  a  dh\o 
a  c.  The  perispasmus  {fig,  3)  is  a  double  epistrophe,  so  that  the  section 
describes  a  half-circle  from  a  db  io  a  c.  By  this  wheel  the  phalanx  gained 
its  whole  depth  to  the  rear,  and  presented  the  urages  instead  of  the  lo- 
chages  to  the  foe.  The  ekperispasmtis  (fig,  4)  is  a  triple  epistrophe,  in  which 
the  section  ab  d  moves  in  the  direction  of  the  arrows,  a,  c.  Changes  of 
front  were  executed  by  countermarches  as  well  as  by  wheels ;  the  counter- 
march of  a  phalanx  was  either  by  file  or  by  division,  and  each  of  these 
movements  could  be  executed  in  three  different  ways.  The  Macedonian 
countermarch  by  file  (fig.  6).  The  new  front  line  is  A  A,  the  old  BB ;  the 
enemy's  line  C.  The  first  division  makes  here  a  metabole,  while  the  other 
divisions  file  round  close  to  the  first,  in  the  direction  from  a  to  i,  and  esta- 
blish themselves  in  their  former  order,  in  rear  of  it.  The  Laconian  counter- 
march by  file  (fig,  6)  is  the  reverse  of  the  preceding.  AA  is  the  new,  BB 
the  old  front  line ;  C,  the  enemy's  position.  It  will  be  seen,  that  while  by 
the  first  movement  the  phalanx  gains  its  depth  to  the  rear,  by  the  second  it 
gains  its  depth  to  the  front.  In  this  movement  the  last  division,  the  urages, 
remain  stationary,  while  the  other  divisions,  a,  6,  and  c,  file  round  by  the 
flanks,  and  establish  themselves  in  the  positions  d,  e,  and/,  when  the  urages 
face  about.  The  Cretan,  Persian,  or  Carian  countermarch  by  file  (fig.  7) 
differs  from  the  others  in  having  no  changes  of  place,  the  phalanx  only 
changing  its  front  line.  The  file-leaders,  a,  face  together  to  the  right 
about  and  march,  followed  by  their  proper  files,  towards  6,  until  the  file- 
leader  has  taken  the  place  of  his  rear  rank  man.  The  Macedonian  counter- 
march by  divisions  (fig,  8)  began  always  upon  the  flank  which  was  nearest 
the  foe  A,  and  finished  by  the  former  left  flank  becoming  the  right.  The 
Laconian  countermarch  by  divisions  (fig,  9)  was  a  movement  of  attack, 
and  began  upon  the  wing  which  was  furthest  from  the  foe  A ;  in  this  like- 
wise the  former  left  wing  became  the  right,  but  established  itself  nearer  the 
foe  than  before.  In  the  Cretan  countermarch  by  divisions  (fig,  10),  one 
wing  took  the  place  of  the  other  without  any  change  of  ground. 

Another  manoeuvre  was  duplication,  diplasiasmus  (fig,  11),  and  was 
effected  in  two  ways,  either  by  accession  of  force  and  thus  without  exten- 
sion of  front,  or  by  opening  the  files,  so  that  the  front  a  b  occupied  after 
duplication  the  length  c  d.  In  this  case  the  second  division  stepped  into 
the  intervals  of  the  first,  the  fourth  into  those  of  the  third,  &c.,  the  odd 
files,  in  short,  next  to  the  even.  If,  instead  of  the  front,  the  depth  was 
to  be  increased,  the  files  opened  to  the  rear,  and  the  even  files  stepped 
behind  the  odd. 

The  order  of  battle  of  the  phalanx  was  either  parallel  to  the  enemy 
or,  as  in  fig,  12,  oblique,  one  wing  being  nearer  to  the  foe  A  than  the  other. 
The  vanguard  was  called  protaxisy  the  rearguard  epitaxis. 

If  a  section  of  the  phalanx  was  thrown  forward  and  its  place  Supplied  from 
a  supporting  corps-de-reserve,  this  was  called  parembole ;  but  if  a  section 
of  the  reserve  attached  itself  to  the  right  or  left  wing  of  the  phalanx,  or 
to  both  (fig,  14),  this  manoeuvre  was  called  prostaxis,  Entaxis  was  when 
the  light  armed  fought  between  the  heavy  armed,  but  if  the  light  troops 
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WARFARE  OF  ANTIQUITy.  13 

formed  "  en-potence''  on  the  jflanks  of  the  phalanx,  in  order  to  cover  them, 
that  was  called  hypotaxis  (fig.  15).  The  march  of  the  troops  was  either 
paragogic  or  epagogic.  In  the  epagogue  (fig.  16),  the  front  was  parted 
into  subdivisions,  which  marched  one  behind  the  other  (in  sections).  In 
the  paragogue  (fig,  17),  the  files  faced  to  the  right  or  left  about,  and 
gained  ground  by  a  flank  movement.  The  flank  nearest  the  foe  was 
always  strengthened.  The  column  was  composed  of  two  or  more  pha- 
langes ;  usually  there  were  two  of  these,  which  marched  with  a  flank  of 
32  files  (fig,  18).  Had  a  phalanx  two  opposite  fronts,  so  that  one  half 
of  it  turned  their  backs  to  the  other  half  (fig.  19),  it  was  called  antistomos. 
Were  two  phalanges  so  united  that  the  lochages  formed  the  two  fronts, 
whUe  the  urages  stood  in  the  middle  (fig.  20),  they  called  this  a  dipha- 
langia  with  two  fronts ;  while  the  reversed  position  (fig,  21),  where  the 
lochages  were  in  the  middle  and  the  urages  formed  the  outer  fronts,  was 
the  diphalangic  antistomos.  Finally,  we  must  mention  a  particular  form  of 
diphalangia,  namely  that  of  two  equal  fronts  (fig,  22),  which  arose  where 
the  urages  of  one  phalanx  and  the  lochages  of  another  stood  in  the  middle. 
A  particular  order  of  battle  was  the  wedge  (embolon),  which  was  either 
solid  or  hollow.  The  solid  wedge  (pi,  IS,  fig.  3,  and  pi.  4,  fig.  2b  ab  c),  which 
^lian  describes,  was  a  triangle  at  whose  apex  c  a  single  man,  or  accord- 
ing to  others,  three  men  stood.  The  hollow  wedge  (fig.  23)  was  formed 
when  two  phalanges,  a b  and  cd,  so  united,  under  an  acute  angle,  that  the 
flanks  b  and  d  met  at  tft  vertex.  This  order  of  battle  was  used  to  break 
with  irresistible  force  the  hostile  ranks.  The  reversed  wedge,  koilem* 
bolon  (fig.  24),  had  the  open  side  made  by  the  phalanges  a  b  and  c  d, 
from  6  to  c  turned  towards  the  foe,  and  was  used  to  inclose  the  hostile 
wedge,  wherefore  this  manoeuvre  was  called  the  forceps.  The  rhombus 
was  a  combination  of  the  embolon  and  the  koilembolon.  Here  belongs 
also  another  order  of  battle,  which  was  called  the  boar*S'kead,  and  which 
is  represented  in  pi.  4,  fig.  30.  It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  it  is  really 
nothing  but  a  solid  wedge,  as  the  sections  ab,  cd,  ef,  gh,  ik,  im,  no,  pq, 
rs,  tu,  anAu  are  integral  parts  of  a  phalanx  (pi.  IS,  fig.  4).  The  simplest 
order  of  battle,  however,  and  therefore  generally  the  best,  is  the  square, 
which  was  likewise  applied  in  various  ways  by  the  Persians  and  Greeks. 
That  this  square  should  have  a  good  proportion  for  cavalry,  it  was  requisite 
that  the  front  should  be  at  least  twice  the  depth,  and  thus  the  ulamos  of 
the  Spartans  had  ten  horsemen  in  front  and  five  in  file,  in  all  therefore 
fifty  men.  For  a  perfect  square,  three  men  were  placed  in  front  on  one 
in  depth.  The  plaision  was  an  oblong  figure  inclining  to  oval,  and  the 
plinthion  was  in  the  form  of  a  parallelogram.  Here  belongs  also  that 
arrangement  of  the  phalanx  which  was  not  rectilinear,  namely  the  con- 
cave phalanx  (pL  4,  fig*  27),  in  which  the  flanks  were  thrown  forward 
and  the  centre  retired ;  and  the  convex  phalanx  (fig.  26),  in  which  the 
flanks  were  retired  and  the  centre  advanced.  In  actual  combat,  however, 
these  evolutions  were  not  carried  out  exactly  as  represented  in  the  above 
figures,  but  a  movement  as  in  figs.  28  and  29  found  preference,  which 
nearly  resembled  our  formation  in  echelon. 

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14  MILITART  SCKNCaBS. 

The  strategoi  gave  their  commands,  when  possible,  by  the  voice  alone ; 
when  this  was  drowned  by  the  roar  of  battle,  they  had  the  trumpeterM 
(pi-  2)  fig'  9)>  adjutants,  kypereUs,  and  heralds  (fig.  1 1),  which  last  were 
distinguished  from  the  other  troops  by  their  dress,  and  were  invidable. 
Besides  these,  numerous  other  persons  were  attached  to  the  army,  as  the 
field-surgeons,  sutlers,  and  overseers  of  war-machines  and  baggage.  The 
last  marched  in  front  or  rear  of  the  army,  on  the  right  or  left  flank,  ot 
in  the  centre,  the  latter  only  when  attack  was  expected  firom  various 
quarters. 

The  combat  ended,  the  slain  of  the  victors  were  buried,  but  in  the 
earliest  times  those  of  the  conquered  left  to  the  beasts  of  prey.  Afterwards 
this  usage  was  abandoned,  and  instead  the  Greeks  often  took  their  dead 
home  with  them  for  burial,  or  burned  them  and  sent  home  the  ashes.  At 
the  funeral  and  after  the  same,  a  death- feast  {pi.  &,  fig.  1)  was  held,  in 
which  orators  celebrated  the  deeds  of  the  fallen  heroes.  As  an  instance  ot 
sepulchral  rites  upon  a  grand  scale,  we  here  mention  the  ftmeral  procession 
of  Alexander  the  Great  {pi.  6,  fig.  1)  ordered  by  Ptolemy.  The  coffin  was 
of  gold,  and  in  it  lay  the  king's  body  wrapped  in  spices ;  over  the  coffin 
was  a  gold-embroidered  purple  tapestry,  and  thereupon  Alexander's  armor. 
Over  the  car  arched  a  golden  canopy  set  with  jewels ;  this  was  15  feet  11 
inches  broad  and  17  feet  7^  inches  long.  Beneath  the  canopy  stood  a  throne 
of  gold  adorned  with  raised  work,  and  over  this  a  crown.  At  each  comer  of 
the  arch  stood  a  golden  Victory,  bearing  a  trophy.  The  peristyle  of  Ionic 
columns,  upon  which  the  canopy  rested,  was  also  of  gold,  and  behind  it 
a  golden  net,  adorned  above  with  paintings,  which  formed  as  it  were  the 
cella  of  a  temple,  before  which  two  lions  kept  watch.  The  whole  rested 
upon  a  platform  which  was  supported  on  two  axles,  having  each  two 
Persian  wheels,  whose  naves  and  spokes  were  gilded.  Golden  lions'-heads, 
holding  a  javelin  in  their  jaws,  formed  the  end  of  the  axles.  The  car  itself 
was  so  artfully  constructed,  that  even  inequalities  of  the  ground  did  not 
disturb  the  perpendicularity  of  the  structure.  This  car  had  four  poles,  and 
to  each  sixteen  mules  were  harnessed,  four  abreast,  each  mule  wearing  a 
small  golden  horn,  a  jewelled  neck-band,  and  little  bell.  This  whole  equi- 
page made  the  journey  from  Babylon  to  Memphis  (700  miles)  without 
accident. 

The  Roman  Military  System.  With  respect  to  the  military  system 
of  the  Romans  in  the  earliest  times  our  information  is  very  defective,  yet 
the  writings  of  Livy  teach  us  that  even  in  the  age  of  the  kings  their  war- 
fare had  already  begun  to  elevate  itself  into  a  certain  regularity.  At  the 
time  of  Romulus  the  people  were  divided  into  three  tribes  of  ten  citrus, 
and  each  tribe  was  required  to  furnish  1000  foot  and  100  horse.  This 
army  was  commanded  by  three  tribunes.  In  addition  to  this  they  had  300 
cavalry,  celeres,  for  the  king's  body-guard.  Under  Servius  Tuilius,  who 
divided  the  people  into  four  tribes,  the  strength  of  the  legion  was  increased 
to  4000  foot  and  400  horse.  All  were  divided  into  centuries,  so  that  there 
were  forty  centuries  of  foot  and  four  of  horse.  Tullus  Hostilius  and 
Tarquinius  Prisons  increased  the  army  yet  further.  The  armament  took 
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WARFABE  OF  AiniQüITY.  16 

I^aoe  according  to  the  census  which  Senrius  Tullius  introduced«  who  also 
increased  the  cavalry  to  2400  men.  The  first  class  of  citizens  had  Argolic 
shields,  spears,  cuirass,  iron  skull-caps,  greaves,  and  swords,  and  formed  the 
van.  The  second  class  had  the  same  weapons,  with  no  cuirass,  but  long 
shields ;  they  formed  the  second  line.  The  third  class  had  neither  cuirass 
nor  greaves;  the  fourth  only  large  shields,  spears,  and  swords;  the  fifth 
class  were  armed  only  with  slii^  and  javelins,  and  stationed  outside  the 
main  order  of  battle,  which  was  very  similar  to  the  Greek  phalanx.  The 
sixth  class,  the  paupers,  were  free  from  military  service.  The  cavalry  was 
chosen  from  the  richest  and  most  distinguished  citizens. 

The  first  improvement  which  the  Romans  introduced  into  the  Grecian 
order  of  battle  was  the  division  of  the  phalanx  into  three  lines :  the  kastati, 
principes,  and  tHarii  or  pilani.  The  hastati  {pi  7,ßg,  13)  formed  the  first 
line,  and  had  light  javelins ;  the  principes  (Jig.  14)  stood  in  the  second  line 
and  were  heavy  armed ;  they  formed  the  main  body,  and  had  heavy  jave- 
lins. The  triarii  (ßg,  15),  who  made  the  third  line,  the  reserve,  had  also 
heavy  javelins,  afterwards  lances.  The  velites  (fig,  12),  light  troops,  had 
very  light  javelins  and  round  shields ;  in  rapid  attacks  they  sprang  up  behind 
the  cavahry  on  horseback  and  dismounted  on  reaching  the  required  spot. 

The  Roman  legion,  which  under  Servius  Tullius  was  4400  strong,  wag 
increased  after  the  battle  of  Cannse  to  5000,  and  under  Marius  to  even 
6000,  which  was  its  strength  also  under  the  emperors.  Each  consul,  of 
whom  there  were  two,  liad  the  guidance  of  two  legions,  so  that  the  con- 
sular army  consisted  of  four  legions.  The  troops  were  chosen  from  the 
35  tribes  in  this  manner:  from  each  group  of  four  equal  sized  men» 
each  tribune  alternately  chose  a  man ;  after  selection,  and  the  administra- 
tion of  the  oath  of  allegiance,  each  legion  was  divided  into  two  parts,  the 
heavy  and  light  troops.  Of  those  between  17  and  25  years  of  age,  1200 
were  light  armed  ;  the  remainder  were  divided  into  hastati  (from  25  to  32), 
prindipes  (32  to  40),  and  triarii  (40  to  45),  and  then  the  legion  received  its 
standard  and  field  badges.  PL  I0,ßgs.  I  and  2,  show  legion-eagles ;  figs.  3 
and  4  standards ;  and ^^5.  5-15  various  field  badges  of  the  smaller  sections. 
The  standards  of  the  infantry  were  called  signa ;  those  of  the  cavalry, 
vexilla.  The  principal  standard  was  of  gold  and  purple ;  some  were  striped. 
The  field  badges  were  adorned  with  wreaths,  turrets,  and  likenesses  of 
difierent  emperors  and  heroes.  The  standards  and  badges  were  carried  by 
chosen,  trusty  men,  standard-bearers,  signiferi  (pi,  7,  figs.  16  and  17). 
They  wore  usually  the  skin  of  a  lion  or  bear. 

During  the  monarchy  the  kings  were  themselves  commanders-in-chief  of 
the  army  ;  in  their  stead  came  afterwards  the  consuls  and  the  prators  with 
their  legates.  The  two  consuls  had  chief  command  on  alternate  days. 
To  the  consuls  followed  in  rank  the  tribunes,  then  the  centurions  (fig9.  18 
and  19),  who  commanded  100,  and  the  decurions  or  decani,  who  com- 
manded 10  men.  In  the  time  of  the  republic  the  dictator  was  commander- 
in-chief  and  named  his  own  subordinates. 

The  Imperator  ^eneral-in-chief)  (pi- S,  fig.  1)  filled  one  of  the  first  places 
in  Rome ;  to  him  the  soldiers  swore  fealty ;  he  had  before  him,  as  token  of 

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16  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

the  highest  power,  the  lictor  {pi  S,ßg.  3),  an  officer  of  justice,  who  also  exe- 
cuted the  sentence  of  death,  and  behind  him  a  crowd  of  officers  and  soldier« 
(pi.  8,  fig.  4,  and  pL  5,ßg.  2).  He  named  the  legates  (pi  S,fig,  6),  whom 
the  Senate  confirmed,  and  who  commanded  next  himself.  They  were  men 
of  courage,  experience,  and  foresight,  usually  had  served  a  consulate,  and 
were  employed  also  in  concluding  treaties.  After  the  prefects  came  the 
tribunes  (fig.  2),  whose  position  we  have  already  mentioned ;  but  the  pro- 
per magistrate  for  the  army  was  the  prefect  of  the  legion,  in  the  absence 
of  the  legate  the  commander,  from  whom  the  tribunes,  &c.,  received  the 
directions  for  guard-duty,  watchword,  &c.,  and  the  supervisor  of  all  the 
inunitions  of  war. 

Each  of  the  divisions  of  the  infantry  of  the  legion  was  subdivided  into  15 
maniples ;  in  all,  therefore,  into  45.  Each  maniple  had  60  common  soldiers, 
two  (triarii  only  one)  centurions,  and  a  signifer.  To  each  maniple  of  the 
hastati  belonged  also  20  men  of  light  troops.  The  principes  had  no  light 
troops,  but  the  triarii  had  30  vexilli  to  every  60  men,  a  centurion  and  a 
standard-bearer ;  half  of  these  were  called  rorarii,  the  other  hdMaccensi.  At 
the  time  of  the  Punic  wars,  however,  the  number  of  maniples  in  the  legion 
was  reduced  to  30,  but  their  numerical  strength,  except  among  the  triarii, 
was  doubled ;  so  that  a  legion  consisted  of  1200  hastati,  1200  principes,  and 
600  triarii,  to  which  are  to  be  added  1200  light  troops,  who  were  divided 
equally  among  the  30  maniples.  Each  legion  was  further  divided  into  ten 
cohorts,  each  of  which  contained  always  three  maniples  of  the  three  several 
arms.  Every  Roman  soldier  had  his  prescribed  place  in  time  of  battle,  which 
he  might  not  change  without  orders,  and  thus  each  decury  fought  inde- 
pendently.  The  auxiliaries  were  usually  attached  to  the  legion,  forming,  as 
it  were,  light  troops.  They  were  either  Italian  nations,  as  the  Etruscans, 
one  of  whose  archers  is  shown  in  pi  2,  fig.  14,  and  in  figs.  15,  16,  17,  and 
18,  a  horn-blower  and  other  soldiers;  or  Samnites,  or  other  nations  in 
alliance  with  the  Romans.  PI  7,  figs.  1  and  2,  show  commanders  of 'such 
Italian  allies  ;  fig.  3,  a  Samnite ;  fig.  4,  an  African ;  fig.  5,  a  Sarmatian ; 
figs,  6  and  7,  German  confederates ;  and  pi  8,  fig.  5,  Sarmatian  mailed 
horsemen. 

Of  the  other  light  troops  belonging  to  the  Roman  armies  we  mention 
here:  •  1.  The  slingers  (pi  7,  fig.  10),  who  rendered  very  good  service  in 
war ;  the  most  renowned  were  those  of  the  Balearic  isles.  2.  The  javelin- 
men,  who  fought  with  darts  and  javelins  which  they  threw  by  hand.  The 
Carthaginians  and  Romans  employed  these  against  cavalry.  3.  The  archers 
(pi  2,  fig.  14),  who  shot  arrows  and  even  short  darts  from  a  bow.  4.  The 
dart-men,  who  had  barbed  darts  which  they  threw  by  hand,  and  which 
were  attached  to  a  thong  so  as  to  be  drawn  back  after  they  had  struck, 
rendering  the  wound  usually  fatal.  5.  The  crossbow-men  shot  round  peb- 
bles and  bolts  from  crossbows.  6.  The  ferentarii  had  slings,  javelins,  and 
stones,  which  they  threw  with  the  hand  only;  they  were  always  in  the 
van  of  the  army,  and  a  portion  were  mounted.  They  were  employed  also 
to  bring  fresh  weapons  from  the  magazines  to  those  who  had  expended 
their  supply. 
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WARFARE  OF  ANTIQUITY.  17 

The  field-music  of  the  Romans  was  designed  principally  for  giving  the 
requisite  signals  in  time  of  action.  For  this  were  employed  the  tuba  or 
trumpet ;  buccina,  the  bugle-horn ;  and  comu,  the  common  horn.  Of  the 
tuba  there  were  six  different  kinds,  part  of  metal  and  part  of  reed ;  they 
were  perfectly  straight,  and  grew  larger  towards  the  lower  orifice,  which 
was  often  in  the  shape  of  a  lion's  head  or  dragon's  jaws. 

PI'  '^fßg'  8»  shows  a  Roman  trumpeter  (tubicen)  as  he  went  into  battle ; 
like  the  standard-bearer,  he  wore  usually,  instead  of  helmet,  the  head  skin 
of  a  lion  or  tiger.  The  buccina  was  also  of  metal,  and  was  bent  into  the 
circular  form  ;  ßg,  9  shows  a  horn-blower  (buccinator  or  comicen)  equip- 
ped for  battle.  The  horn,  comu,  was  a  common  ox-horn,  usually  silver- 
mounted.  The  army  knew  by  the  note  of  the  horn  whether  it  was  to  halt, 
advance,  or  retreat.  Besides  these  musicians,  however,  the  army  had 
also  shalm  and  cithern  players.  When  the  standards  were  to  advance 
the  signal».was  sounded  with  the  horns,  otherwise  with  the  tuba  only ;  but 
the  chief  signal  was  given  with  the  buccina,  by  order  of  the  imperator, 
beside  the  praetorium ;  thus  also  was  proclaimed  the  completion  of  an 
execution. 

The  legionary  cavalry  was  raised  firom  that  part  of  the  equestrian  order 
(the  equites)  who  were  assessed  at  10,000  asses  (91000),  which  was  increased 
afterwards  to  400,000  sestertii  (920,000).  They  received  their  horses  from 
the  state.  Towards  the  close  of  the  republic  the  equites  freed  themselves 
from  the  service,  and  the  cavalry  then  consisted  principally  of  foreigners. 
(PL  8,  fig.  8,  a  decurion  of  cavalry  ;  fig.  9,  a  cavalry  soldier ;  and  fig.  7, 
two  standard-bearers  of  cavalry.  The  cavalry  of  a  legion  amounted 
usually  to  300  men,  or  one  horseman  to  ten  foot  soldiers,  yet  that  pro- 
portion was  now  and  then  violated,  particularly  in  later  times ;  in  the  con- 
federate legion  the  cavalry  was  double  this  strength.  The  300  cavalry 
were  divided  by  the  tribunes,  according  to  the  number  of  maniples  com- 
posing  the  legion,  into  30  decuries,  or,  according  to  the  number  of  cohorts, 
into  10  turmce,  so  that  a  turma  contained  30  men.  Each  turma  had  three 
decurii,  of  whom  the  first  led  the  turma.  The  turma  had  besides  three 
uragi,  who  closed  the  files,  and  an  ensign.  At  the  time  of  Vegetius  the 
turma  was  twice  as  strong ;  it  was  arranged  in  three  and  also  in  six  ranks. 

The  dress  of  the  Roman  soldier  consisted  of  a  robe  reaching  to  the  knee, 
under  which  he  wore  the  tunic ;  around  it  was  girt  the  sword-belt.  The 
breeches,  where  any  were  worn,  were  of  leather,  and  reached  to  the  calf. 
On  the  feet  he  wore  half-boots  or  sandals.  The  hair  was  cut  short.  In 
winter  the  soldier  wore  also  a  cloak  with  a  hood,  with  which  he  could 
protect  the  neck  and  head. 

The  arms  were  either  offensive  or  defensive.  The  light-armed  troops 
were  at  first  the  ferentarii,  rorarii,  and  accensi^  but  in  the  year  542  a.  u.  c, 
the  velites  {pi.  7,  fig.  12)  were  instituted.  The  arms  of  the  velites  were,  1, 
a  short  sword  (pi.  3,  fig.  49) ;  it  was  pointed  and  very  sharp,  designed  for 
cut  or  thrust :  2,  seven  small  javelins,  of  which  the  staff  was  an  inch  thick 
and  four  feet  long ;  the  iron  head,  nine  inches  in  length,  was  very  slender, 
and  bent  with  the  first  throw,  so  that  the  enemy  could  not  send  it  back : 

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18  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

sometimes  a  long  thong  was  fastened  to  the  spear,  so  that  it  might  be 
drawn  back  after  projection ;  but  in  that  case  the  spear  was  barbed  {pi.  3, 
fig,  28):  3,  a  shield  of  wood  covered  with  leather ;  it  was  round,  and  three  feet 
in  diameter  {pL  lyfig»  13).  The  head  covering  was  a  cap  of  wolf-skin  or 
cow-hide,  in  the  form  of  a  helmet ;  metal  helmets  the  velites  had  not.  The 
rest  of  the  infantry,  the  hastati,  principes,  and  triarii,  carried  a  shield ;  its 
form  was  very  various,  and  equally  so  its  style  of  decoration ;  but  the  usual 
dimensions  were  four  feet,  or  four  feet  four  inches  high,  by  two  feet  six  inches 
wide  in  the  middle,  so  that  the  bearer  could  be  entirely  concealed  behind  it. 
They  were  a  rounded  oblong,  as  in  pi  S^fig,  48,  or  an  oval,  cut  off  at  top  and 
bottom  {fig,  46),  or  hexagonal  {fig.  45),  or  the  same  breadth  from  top  to 
bottom,  and  concave,  as  if  cut  from  a  hollow  cylinder  {fig.  47).  At  first,  the 
shield  was  of  doubled  leather  only ;  afterwards  of  wicker-work,  covered  with 
copper-plate ;  and  finally  of  tough  wood,  with  a  covering  of  leather  or  metal ; 
or,  indeed,  cast  entirely  of  metal,  and  even  of  gold  or  silver. 

The  shield  of  jointed  wood,  when  covered  only  with  leather,  had  always 
an  iron  rim  to  turn  off  the  blows ;  and  in  the  centre  a  raised  piece,  the  boss, 
for  the  better  glancing  of  arrows  and  stones.  The  shields  were  in  part 
painted,  sometimes  by  cohorts  uniformly,  in  part  decorated  with  raised 
metal  ornaments  ;  and  were  often  very  costly  when  belonging  to  the  higher 
oflücers.  The  soldier  had  further  two  spears ;  one  of  them  strong,  either 
round  or  square,  and  two  and  a  half  inches  in  diameter,  so  that  it  filled  the 
hand ;  the  small  one  was  a  javelin,  and  almost  like  an  arrow ;  the  shaft  of 
each  was  about  six  feet  long,  and  the  head  had  branches  running  back  the 
whole  length  of  the  shaft,  to  strengthen  it  against  blows  and  fracture. 
Sometimes,  though  seldom,  the  spear  had  two  heads  {pi.  3,  fig.  48).  The 
helmet  was  of  leather  at  first,  studded  with  metal,  and  of  the  simplest  form, 
with  a  neck-piece  and  crest  {fig.  36).  Afterwards  the  helmet  was  made 
entirely  of  metal,  and  often  very  splendid ;  it  had  neck-piece  and  cheek- 
pieces,  but  no  visor,  like  the  Greek  helmet ;  the  crest  was  adorned  with  an 
erect  plume,  usually  of  purple  feathers  {fig.  37);  frequently  with  a  red 
comb  also,  a  crest  of  hair,  or  a  horse's  mane.  The  cuirass  was  of  metal  or 
leather,  and  reached  from  the  breast  to  the  girdle.  The  arms,  from  the 
shoulder  half  way  to  the  elbow,  were  likewise  covered  with  metal  plates. 
The  cuirass  was  set  with  scales  or  rings,  or  interwoven  with  chains ;  there 
were  even  some  very  fine  ones  made  entirely  of  rings,  and  covering  nearly 
the  whole  body ;  generally  the  form  and  adornment  of  the  cuirass  were 
very  various,  and  regulated  only  by  the  means  and  taste  of  him  to  whom  it 
belonged.  PI.  3  shows  various  forms  of  the  cuirass ;  fig.  41  is  the  cuirass 
of  a  Roman  emperor,  of  silver  inlaid  with  gold,  and  with  purple  fittings ; 
fig.  40  is  the  cuirass  of  a  general  oflScer,  also  richly  bedecked  ;fig.  42  shows 
the  front,  and  fig.  43  the  back  of  the  plate-mail  cuirass  of  a  triarius ;  fig. 
44  a  scale  cuirass  of  Trajan's  time.  The  poorer  soldiers  wore,  instead  of  a 
cuirass,  only  a  breast-plate,  broader  above  than  below.  The  greaves  were 
like  the  Grecian,  but  gave  way  afterwards  to  half-boots,  which  were  often 
set  with  scales  of  metal.  The  sword»  which  up  to  the  time  of  Vespasian 
was  carried  on  the  right  thigh,  where,  after  its  removal  to  the  left  side,  its 
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WARFARE  OF  ANTIQUITT.  19 

place  was  supplied  by  a  dagger,  hung  at  first  from  a  belt,  but  afterwards 
from  a  baldric;  its  short  blade  was  broad  and  strong,  very  sharp  and 
pointed  for  cut  or  thrust ;  it  had  a  cross-guard,  and  usually  a  richly  deco- 
rated scabbard  (pi,  3,  j^.  50). 

The  cavalry  armament,  at  first  very  simple,  was  subsequently  arranged 
after  the  pattern  of  the  Greek  cavalry.  Their  defensive  arms  were  helmet» 
cuirass,  round  or  oval  shield  of  about  three  feet  diameter,  and  half-boots, 
usually  set  with  scales.  The  ofiensive  arms  were,  a  sword,  longer  than  that 
of  the  infantry,  and  adapted  for  striking  only ;  a  dagger,  and  a  two-pointed 
lance,  which  was  used,  however,  only  at  the  first  onset.  The  horses  had 
leather  housings,  strengthened  often  about  the  head  and  breast  with  iron 
scales.     PI,  9,  fig,  47,  shows  an  ancient  Roman  saddle. 

The  arms  of  the  allies  were  very  various.  PI,  S,figs,  22  to  35  give  those  of 
the  Samnites  and  Etruscans  ;fig.  22  is  a  Samnite  leathern  cuirass,  with  metal 
neck-band  or  ring-collar;  /^^.  31  to  35  ajre  various  forms  of  Etruscan  cui« 
rass,  as  well  leathern  {figs,  31  and  32)  as  scaled  (fig.  33) ;  cross-plated,  as 
fig,  34,  or  with  plates  running  up  and  down,  as  fig.  35.  Of  the  helmets 
figs,  23  and  24  are  Samnite  ;  these  leathern,  metal-plated  helms  are 
distinguished  by  having  a  protection  for  the  face,  which  with  the  Romans 
was  always  left  free.  The  helm  {fig,  23)  is  evidently  the  prototype  of  the 
knight's  helmet  in  the  middle  ages.  Figs.  29  and  30  are  Etruscan  helmets  ; 
fig,  29  is  a  leather  cap,  with  a  large  crest  of  plate-iron ;  fig,  30  resembles 
the  old  Grecian  helmet.  Fig.  26  is  the  leather  cap  of  the  Samnite  archer. 
The  Samnite  shield  (fig,  25)  is  entirely  of  wicker-work,  covered  on  both 
sides  with  leather,  and  has  the  cylindrical  form  {fig.  47);  the  Etruscan  cir- 
cular wooden  shield,  metal  plated  throughout,  was  about  three  feet  in 
diameter.  The  Samnite  bow  {fig.  27)  is  simply  cut  from  curved  wood, 
with  hardly  any  artificial  bend. 

The  arms  of  the  Gauls  ai^d  Franks  we  find  on  pi.  9.  Fig.  1  is  a  Gallic 
cuirass,  as  Julius  Caesar  found  it ;  fig.  2,  a  Gallic  shield  of  wicker-work, 
covered  with  leather,  and  richly  painted ;  fig.  3,  the  Gallic  spear,  nearly  like 
the  Roman,  only  shorter  ironed,  and  with  a  four-edged  head ;  figs,  4  and 
Ö,  bows  and  arrows,  like  the  Greek.  The  Gallic  sword  {fig.  6)  was  either 
short,  with  a  small  cross-guard  and  broad  blade,  for  the  infantry  alone,  and 
for  striking  only;  or  considerably  longer,  with  a  large  cross-guard,  and 
blade  often  three  inches  broad,  for  cut  and  thrust,  for  the  cavalry.  Besides 
the  sword,  the  Gauls  carried  maces  {pi,  9,  fig,  7),  strong,  heavy  blocks  of 
wood  or  iron,  set  round  with  points,  and  on  a  short  handle ;  a  terrible  wea* 
pon,  which  neither  shield  nor  helm  could  easily  withstand.  The  Gallic 
helmet  was  cast  or  hammered  from  bronze,  in  rather  rude  forms,  and 
exhibiting,  in  almost  all  cases,  the  head  of  some  animal  as  its  pattern. 
Thus  the  helmet,  fig.  10,  displays  two  horns; /^.  11,  with  the  rough,  bell- 
like form,  a  horse-plume  and  mane;^.  9,  approximating  to  the  Roman 
form ;  a  horse-hair  comb,  with  the  ears  and  mane  of  a  horse.  A  singular 
form  is  that  of  fig.  8,  which  is  set  like  a  war-club,  with  long,  stout,  iron 
points.  The  Gallic  troops  had,  like  the  Romans,  field  badges ;  but  instead 
of  the  Roman  eagle  they  carried  the  Gallic  cock  {fig,  12),  which  is  at  this 

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20  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

day  their  emblem.     PI,  l.fig*  11,  shows  two  armed  Gauls.      The  Prankish 
helmet  is  merely  a  rude  cap  of  ox-hide,  with  an  iron  crest  {pi.  9,  fig,  18). 

The  sword  {Jig.  14),  like  the  Roman,  short,  broad,  and  pointed,  but  with- 
out  cross-guard,  was  only  for  stabbing,  and  the  spear  with  a  broad,  four- 
edged  head,  was  provided  with  a  loop  of  cord  or  leather.  Figs.  15-21  show 
specimens  of  German  weapons.  The  shields  were  of  wicker-work  and 
quadrangular,  somewhat  vaulted,  in  figs.  15  and  16  a,  adorned  with  an 
inlaid  or  interwoven  pattern,  or  they  were  of  wood,  bound  at  the  edge  with 
metal,  as  fig.  16  i.  The  spears  {figs.  17  and  18)  resembled  the  Roman, 
but  had  shorter  heads,  and  the  swords  were  also  like  the  Roman,  only  con- 
siderably longer,  as  much  as  three  feet  in  length ;  figs.  20  and  21  give 
specimens.  The  sword  was  carried  on  the  left  thigh  by  a  chain  over  the 
shoulder.  The  Germans  were  often  armed  besides  with  a  heavy  club  of 
oak  wood  {fig.  19) ;  helmets  they  had  none,  as  in  war  they  wore  usually 
for  a  cloak  the  skin  of  some  wild  beast,  the  head  of  which  was  made 
to  cover  their  own  {pi.  Itfigs.  6  and  7).  Sometimes  they  wore  also  a  kind 
of  sleeved  cuirass  of  leather,  with  breeches  and  half-boots  of  the  same,  but 
often  they  marched  naked  to  battle. 

The  kindred  race  to  the  German,  the  Saxon,  afterwards  Anglo-Saxon 
and  Anglo-Dane,  varied  little  from  the  Germans  in  their  equipment,  where- 
fore we  shall  at  once  insert  them  here.  PI.  9,  figs.  32,  35,  36,  and  37,  show 
Anglo-Saxon  helmets,  which  were  nothing  more  than  caps  of  thick  leather, 
studded  here  and  there  with  iron,  and  sometimes  provided  with  a  narrow 
visor,  to  protect  the  face  from  sun  and  rain.  The  Anglo-Danish  helm  {fig 
43)  is  nothing  more.  The  Anglo-Saxon  cuirass  {figs.  33, 34)  is  a  close-fitting 
leathern  jerkin,  of  several  overlapping  layers  of  leather  cut  scale-shaped, 
below,  and  sometimes  covering  also  the  shoulder  and  upper-arm,  as^^.  34 ; 
the  Anglo-Saxon  shield  {fig.  32)  was  oblong,  three  and  a  half  feet  high  and 
three  feet  broad,  after  the  manner  of  the  Roman,  of  wood,  with  iron-bound 
verge,  and  boss ;  but  the  Anglo-Danish  {fig.  38)  was  of  wood,  plated  with 
leather  or  metal,  after  the  manner  of  the  old  Grecian,  carved  in  artistic  form 
and  proportionately  small,  as  for  the  light  troops  of  the  Roman  army.  The 
Anglo-Saxon  sword  {fig.  32)  and  the  Anglo-Danish  {fig.  44)  resembled 
entirely  the  broad,  short  Roman  sword ;  the  spear  also  {figs.  32,  39,  40) 
was  like  theirs  in  length  and  strength,  but  the  head  was  usually  barbed,  or 
had  tassels  of  wool,  or  a  kind  of  cross-guard,  which  seemed  not  without  use. 
Instead  of  the  German  club,  the  Anglo-Danes  had  a  mace,  as  figs.  45  and 
46,  and  battle-axes,  either  edged  on  one  side  and  pointed  on  the  other,  as 
fig.  41,  or  an  axe  formed  on  both  sides,  as  fig.  42.  The  Anglo-Saxon 
horsemen  had  saddles,  as^^.  48. 

The  Britons  had  weapons  differing  in  many  respects  from  those  above 
described.  The  helmets  were  at  first  thick  leather  caps,  adorned  at  the 
vertex  with  feathers  {figs.  30  and  31) ;  afterwards  the  cap  was  forged  or 
hammered  from  metal  in  the  same  form  and  provided  with  a  visor,  as  pi.  3, 
fig.  38,  or  with  cheek-pieces  also,  as^^.  39. 

Of  the  decorations  of  the  Roman  helmet  we  find  not  a  trace.    The 
shields  were  circular,  scarcely  three  feet  in  diameter,  often  indeed  smaller 
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WARFARE  OF  ANnQUITY.  21 

{pl'  ^ifig'  ^)i  of  wood  strongly  plated  with  metal,  the  nail  heads  forming 
knobs,  and  the  boss  projecting  into  a  sharp  spike.  The  sword  was  very- 
short  and  pointed,  fit  only  for  stabbing  {fig.  29).  The  spear  had  a  rather 
elongated  head,  either  needle-shaped  as  fig.  26,  or  in  the  shape  of  a  myrtle 
leaf  {fig.  25),  but  with  a  projection  at  the  upper  part  which  prevented 
its  penetrating  too  far.  The  spear,  like  fig.  26,  was  shorter,  for  throwing, 
while  fig.  25  was  long  and  used  only  as  a  pike.  War-clubs  also  were 
used  by  the  Britons  as  by  the  Gauls,  sometimes  set  with  points,  as  fig.  28 ; 
sometimes  quadrangular,  and  running  out  into  a  point,  for  blow  and  thrust, 
&s  fig.  27.  The  battle-axe  {figs.  28  and  24)  was  bladed  only  on  one  side, 
and  was  wielded  with  both  hands.  PI.  7,  fig.  5,  is  an  armed  British 
warrior.     The  cuirass  was  of  leather  with  metal  scales  or  rings. 

The  order  of  battle  of  the  Roman  legion  is  shown  in  pi.  IS,  fig.  2,  for  four 
legions.  On  the  day  of  battle  the  Roman  legion  always  took  the  centre  of 
the  line,  while  the  allies  and  the  cavalry  covered  the  flanks,  or  were  held 
in  reserve.  The  legion  was  divided  into  its  maniples,  and  further  into 
three  lines,  so  that  always  the  ten  maniples  of  the  hastati  made  the  first 
line,  a  a  a,  the  principes  the  middle,  ccc,  and  the  triarii  the  last  line,  eee. 
Between  every  two  maniples  such  an  interval  was  left,  that  the  maniple  of 
the  second  line  could  march  through  unimpeded,  and  the  maniples  of  the 
rear  ranks  were  opposite  to  the  intervals  of  the  line  in  front,  so  that  the 
principes  were  opposite  the  intervals  of  the  hastati  and  the  triarii  opposite 
those  of  the  principes.  This  is  the  well  known  quincunx  disposition,  as 
mentioned  by  Polybius  at  the  battle  of  Zama.  Between  the  hastati  and  the 
principes  was  a  considerable  interval,  bbb,  the  depth  of  a  maniple,  and 
between  the  line  of  the  principes  and  triarii  another  much  greater,  ddd,  in 
which  war  machines  were  placed.  If  the  first  line  was  compelled  to  give 
way,  it  drew  back  into  the  intervals  of  the  next,  or  the  second  advanced 
for  reinforcement  into  the  intervals  of  the  first.  The  light  troops,  bowmen 
and  slingers  {pi.  IS, fig.  2  AAA),  commenced  the  attack.  The  reserve  we 
see  stationed  in  the  great  legion-interval  of  the  triarii.  Were  the  two  fore- 
most lines  compelled  to  retreat  upon  the  triarii,  then  the  army  fought  in 
one  line,  from  behind  which  the  light  troops,  with  slings,  darts,  and  arrows, 
galled  the  advancing  foe.  On  the  flanks  were  the  cavalry,  //,  and  the 
allies  and  confederates,  g.  At  i  was  the  position  of  the  chief  oflicers,  the 
eagles,  the  tribunes,  the  first  maniple  of  the  triarii,  and  the  äite  of  the  con- 
federate infantry  and  of  the  cavalry. 

Fig.  6  shows  the  Carthaginian  order  of  battle  with  elephants,  as  it  was 
assumed  before  a  hostile  position  ;  a  was  the  position  of  the  enemy ;  6,  the 
entrenchment  before  it ;  c,  the  infantry,  and  d,  the  war  elephants,  which 
advanced  through  the  intervals  of  the  infismtry;  e,  are  the  columns  of 
cavalry. 

When  an  action  was  victoriously  ended,  the  general  lauded  the  assembled 
warriors,  embraced  the  leaders,  and  thanked  them  and  the  army  {pL  11, 
fig,  2).  Those  who  had  distinguished  themselves  by  especial  bravery  in 
the  fight  were  personally  praised  and  rewarded.  The  rewards  were  vari- 
ous.     Particularly  remarkable  among    these  are  the  crowns  :    1.   The 

lOOirOOBAPHIO  BNOTOLOPiBDIA^— VOL.  in.  82  407 


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22  MHITART  8CIEN0BB. 

triumphal  crown,  or  crown  of  victory,  of  laurel  leaves  at  finrt  and  after- 
wards of  gold  (pi.  10,  figt.  16,  17),  which  was  presented  to  the  general  by 
the  confederates  and  nations,  and  in  the  triumph  was  borne  foremost. 
2.  The  corona  obsidionaUs  (Jig.  18),  which  was  given  to  him  who  had 
relieved  a  besieged  city  or  camp  ;  it  was  woven  of  grass  from  the  rescued 
place,  and  was  a  very  precious  reward,  as  it  was  seldom  given.  8.  The 
civic  crown  (pL  10,  fig.  19)  of  golden  oak  leaves,  was  given  in  war  to  a 
citizen  who  had  saved  the  life  of  a  fellow  citizen,  and  bore  the  inscriptioD, 
"  Ob  civem  servatum;"  it  was  one  of  foremost  distinction ;  all  others  were 
inferior  to  it,  though  it  was  the  same  whether  the  life  preserved  was  that 
of  a  peasant  or  a  king.  4.  The  mural  crown,  received  by  him  who  in  the 
assault  first  mounted  the  wall  of  a  besieged  city ;  it  was  cf  gold.  6.  An- 
other mural  crown  (fig.  22),  given  to  him  who  first  scaled  the  enemy's 
entrenchment.  6.  The  naval  crown  (fig.  23)  was  the  reward,  after  a  sea* 
fight,  of  those  who  first  boarded  an  enemy's  ship ;  some  part  of  a  vessel 
was  represented  upon  it ;  this,  like  the  mural  crown,  was  of  gold.  The 
myrtle  crown  (fig.  21)  was  of  myrtle  leaves  and  oval ;  the  general  wore  it 
when  he  marched  triumphant  into  Rome. 

On  a  victory  gained,  medaht  were  struck  aIso>  having  the  likeness  of  the 
general  and  other  emblems,  with  an  inscription  touching  the  facts ;  figs.  24 
and  25  give  such  medals ;  the  first  was  struck  by  the  Senate  on  the  victory 
of  Trajan  over  the  Dacians,  the  second  for  a  victory  over  the  Grermans. 
The  Greeks  erected  trophies  upon  the  field  of  battle.  The  Romans  also  did 
this,  and  the  trophies  were  always  made  of  conquered  arms,  with  inscriptions 
commemorating  incidents  of  the  campaign  or  battle.  The  generals  had 
such  trophies  made  of  marble  also,  and  set  up  in  Rome.  Two  of  these 
(figs.  26  and  27)  have  come  down  to  our  own  time,  and  Pope  Sixtus  V. 
adorned  the  Capitol  with  them.  Triumphal  columns  also  were  erected  in 
memory  of  great  victories,  and  for  sea-fights  naval  columns,  which  were 
adorned  with  the  beaks  of  captured  ships.  For  the  victory  of  the  land 
forces  similar  columns  were  erected,  and  the  most  remarkable  of  these  are 
still  in  existence,  one  to  Antoninus  Pius,  and  one  to  the  Emperor  Trajan 
after  the  conquest  of  the  Dacians,  both  in  Rome.  Fig.  28  represents  the 
last;  it  is  118  feet  high,  and  consists  of  34  blocks  of  marble;  upon  its 
summit  stood  a  statue  of  the  emperor,  23  feet  in  height,  now  refJaced  by 
an  image  of  St.  Peter;  within  the  column  is  a  winding  stair,  which  is 
lighted  by  43  small  openings ;  on  the  shaft  the  victories  of  Trajan  are 
represented  in  half  relief,  2500  figures,  which  for  the  study  of  ancient 
costume,  manners,  customs,  and  arrangements,  are  of  the  greatest  vahie. 

The  triumph  was  the  greatest  honor  which  the  Roman  people  oodd 
extend  to  its  generals.  PI.  11,  figs.  3,  4,  5,  and  pi.  6,  fig.  2,  give  re(»ne- 
sentations  of  such  triumphal  processions.  The  general  to  whom  a  triumph 
was  awarded  must  be  at  least  Praetor,  Consul,  or  Dictator,  and  a  Roman 
citizen ;  the  victory  must  have  been  gained  over  a  nation,  not  over  pirates» 
robbers,  or  the  like ;  not  less  than  5000  of  the  foe  must  have  fallen,  and 
the  enemy  must  not  have  been  defeated  in  a  foreign  province.  The  gene- 
ral solicited  the  triumph,  and  it  was  either  the  great  triumph,  in  triumpiial 
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WARFARE  OF  ANUQÜIIT.  23 

chariots,  &c.,  or  only  the  ovation,  in  which  the  general  went  on  horseback, 
that  was  granted.  The  solemn  procession  commenced  on  the  Field  of 
Mars,  and  went  from  the  Porta  Triumphalis  over  the  principal  places  in 
the  city  to  the  Capitol.  The  streets  were  strewn  with  flowers.  Singers 
and  musicians  commenced  the  train;  then  came  the  animals  destined  for 
sacrifice,  richly  adorned ;  then  the  booty  captured  from  the  foe,  partly 
carried  (pi  11,  ßg.  4),  partly  on  peculiar  trophy-cars  (ßg,  ö),  and  the 
models  and  names  of  captured  and  conquered  cities  and  people  on  separate 
tablets  {pi.  6,  fig,  2,  left),  in  front  of  which  the  conquered  generals  and  other 
captives  were  led  by  the  lictors,  their  fasces  bound  with  laurel.  After  these 
came  the  triumphal  chariot  (Jig.  2),  or  else  perhaps  an  elephant  (/>/.  II, fig.  3) 
with  a  throne,  upon  which  stood  the  Triumphator,  clad  in  purple  robes  and 
bearing  a  branch  of  laurel  or  an  ivory  sceptre.  The  chariot  was  drawn  by 
four  white  horses,  in  later  times  by  elephants,  and  was  richly  gilt  and  inlaid 
with  ivory.  The  friends  and  family  of  the  Triumphator  and  many  citizens 
accompanied  the  chariot,  as  also  the  consuls  and  senators.  The  legates 
and  war-tribunes  surrounded  it  on  horseback.  The  victorious  army, 
bedecked  with  laurel  twigs  and  tokens  of  honor,  closed  the  procession. 

The  various  punishments  with  the  army  were  very  severe,  often  indeed 
cruel.  To  be  passed  under  the  yoke  (fig.  1)  was  a  punishment  for  the 
whole  hostile  army  when  vanquished.  The  victorious  foe  had  a  yoke 
made  of  three  spears,  by  striking  two  upright  in  the  ground  and  fastening 
the  third  across  them  at  top ;  through  this  yoke  the  conquered  must  march 
naked,  having  first  laid  down  their  arms ;  the  chiefs  were  led  foremost  in 
order  of  rank,  and  then  came  the  whole  army. 

From  the  connexion  in  which  the  Germans  stood  with  the  Romans,  some 
peculiarities  in  the  war  customs  of  the  former  people  may  be  introduced 
here.  The  Germans  were  a  brave  and  very  warlike  nation ;  even  the  plays 
of  their  children  were  all  martial,  and  the  weapon-dance  was  the  youth's 
greatest  delight.  This  is  shown  in  pL  12,  fig.  1.  The  youths  either  wound 
in  various  mazes  between  outstretched  swords  and  spears,  or  else  ran  upon 
them  at  full  speed  and  avoided  them  by  dexterous  movements  of  the  body. 
Men  and  maidens  gazed  upon  the  sports,  and  praised  the  dexterous  and 
skilful.  When  the  youth  attained  manhood,  he  received  the  right  of  bear- 
ing arms  (pi.  12,  fig.  2),  the  elder  of  the  family  bestowing  upon  hirp 
sword  and  lance,  while  the  mother  or  sister  brought  the  shield.  This  free- 
dom of  arms  was  bestowed  in  the  assembly  of  the  people,  so  that  all  were 
witnesses  of  the  oath  taken  by  the  youth  to  his  father  and  the  nation. 
Before  a  battle,  an  oracle  was  consulted  as  to  the  issue  (Jig.  3).  They 
betook  themselves  to  the  Druid  Grove,  and  the  priestess,  the  druid,  or  a 
priest  made  known  to  the  army  the  decision  of  the  gods.  Only  in  the  last 
necessity,  and  when  hotly  assailed,  did  the  Germans  ever  engage,  unless 
the  druids  had  prophesied  victory.  When  the  combat  had  once  begun, 
then  all  took  part  therein,  and  a  true  strife  of  extermination  commeticed 
(Jig.  4) ;  even  the  women  seized  weapons. 

Of  the  order  of  battle  and  the  army  movements  of  the  Romans,  and  how 
the  former  was  by  degrees  perfected,  we  give  the  following  outline. 

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24  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

The  first  order  of  battle  assumed  by  the  Romans  was  very  like  the  Greek 
phalanx.  PL  4,ßg,  81,  shows  such  a  disposition  in  one  line ;  BB  is  the  line 
of  the  infantry ;  and  here  four  legions,  with  very  narrow  intervals,  form  a 
complete  phalanx.  The  cavalry  was  posted  on  the  flanks  at  AA,  and  the 
light  troops  form  the  line  CC.  This  disposition,  however,  was  soon  aban- 
doned ;  in  its  stead,  the  manipular  disposition  was  introduced  (ßg.  82),  in 
which  the  maniples  were  established  in  one  line,  with  intervals  between 
each  maniple ;  the  equites  formed  here  the  advanced  line  BB ;  then  came 
the  line  of  the  legion  AA,  made  up  of  single  maniples ;  and  lastly  the  light 
troops  CC,  who,  after  having  made  the  first  onset,  retired  behind  the  legion. 
The  intervals  meanwhile  remained  open  only  until  the  light  troops  and 
cavalry  had  retired  through  them ;  then  the  files  opened,  so  that  each 
soldier  might  have  free  space  for  combat,  and  thereby  space  was  made 
in  which  the  horsemen  used  to  support  the  wearied  foot-soldiers.  Such 
was  the  order  of  battle  to  the  time  of  the  consulate.  Under  the  consuls, 
however,  the  so-called  quincunx  was  first  adopted  :  ßg.  33  shows  this.  In 
the  first  line,  A  A,  stood  the  hastati ;  and  in  their  front  the  light  troops,  in 
two  ranks,  as  shown  by  the  shading.  Each  maniple  of  sixty  men,  and 
twenty  light  armed,  had  a  front  of  ten,  and  the  intervals  were  equal  to  the 
fronts.  The  maniples  of  the  principes  stood  in  like  strength  and  front 
behind  the  hastati,  but  so  that  each  maniple  of  the  second  line  BB  was 
opposite  an  interval  of  the  first.  At  first,  the  principes  occupied  the  fore- 
most line  (whence  their  name),  but  in  the  new  disposition  it  was  held  better 
to  place  the  younger  people  in  the  first  line,  and  the  elder,  principes,  as  the 
firmer  and  more  experienced,  in  the  second.  The  third  line,  CC,  was  held 
by  the  triarii,  who  were  again  stationed  on  the  intervals  of  the  second ;  the 
rorarii,  light  armed  troops,  formed  the  fourth  line  DD,  mostly  bowmen  and 
slingers,  who  made  the  first  attack,  and  then  retired  through  the  maniple- 
intervals  to  their  assigned  place.  The  fifth  line,  EE,  was  formed  by  the 
accensiy  or  troops  who  were  posted  as  a  reserve,  and  from  whom  the 
maniples  of  the  foremost  lines  were  recruited.  Regulus  improved  on  this 
disposition  of  the  quincunx,  by  increasing  the  depth  of  the-  maniples  one 
third,  and  giving  the  legion,  instead  of  fifteen  maniples  front,  only  ten  {pi 
4,  ßg^  84).  The  light  armed  troops  now  formed  a  complete  line,  AA ;  the 
maniples  of  the  hastati  the  line  BB ;  of  the  principes  the  line  CC ;  and  of 
the  triarii  the  line  DD. 

Later  this  disposition  by  maniples  was  abandoned,  and  that  by  cohorts 
was  introduced,  every  two  maniples  of  the  same  line  being  united  to  form  a 
cohort.  Fig.  8ö  shows  this  disposition :  A  A  are  the  five  cohorts  of  the 
principes ;  the  plan  of  placing  the  hastati  on  the  first  line  being  now  given 
up,  and  their  cohorts  forming  the  second  line  BB,  stationed  on  the  intervals 
of  the  first  line ;  the  third  continuous  line  CC  was  made  by  the  light  troops, 
wh<^  so  established  themselves  after  their  first  onset ;  and  the  fourth  line, 
DD,  was  held  by  the  triarii.  At  this  time  great  value  began  to  be  placed 
upon  projectile  weapons,  and  the  heavy  armed  received,  in  addition  to  their 
former  equipment,  five  darts  loaded  with  lead. 

At  the  time  of  the  civil  wars  the  distinction  between  hastati,  principes, 
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WARFARE  OF  ANTIQUITY.  26 

and  triarii  ceased,  and  Caesar  formed  legions  of  ten  mixed  cohorts  of  four  to 
five  hundred  men,  which  he  so  placed  {fig.  36)  that  the  first  line  contained 
four  cohorts,  and  each  of  the  others  three.  The  depth  of  the  cohort,  at  this 
time,  was  ten  files.  The  intervals  of  the  third  line  were  such,  that  the 
cohorts  of  its  right  and  left  flanks  were  exactly  in  rear  of  the  corresponding 
cohorts  of  the  first  line,  while  the  centre  cohort  exactly  covered  that  of  the 
second  line,  and  the  interval  between  the  second  and  third  was  greater  than 
that  between  the  first  and  second  lines.  Under  Augustus,  however,  another 
order  of  battle  was  adopted  {fig.  37),  the  third  line  being  done  away  with, 
and  the  cohorts  receiving  at  the  same  time  a  different  division.  The  first 
consisted  of  1,105  foot  and  132  horse,  and  carried  the  eagle  of  the  legion 
as  well  as  the  image  of  the  emperor ;  the  remaining  cohorts  consisted  of 
only  555  foot  and  66  horse.  The  first  formed,  in  two  divisions,  the  right 
wing,  and  then  came  the  four  others,  of  which  the  central  cohort  (*)  and 
the  flank  cohort  (•)  were  composed  of  the  best  men.  The  five  following 
cohorts  made  the  second  line ;  and  of  these  also  the  flank  and  centre  cohorts 
(•,  •,  and  '^  were  of  picked  men.  The  intervals  between  the  cohorts  had 
only  half  the  breadth  of  their  fronts.  The  princeps  of  the  legion  was 
primipil,  and  commanded  the  four  centuries  of  the  first  half  of  the  first 
cohort ;  the  second  princeps  of  the  first  cohort  commanded  two  centuries  of 
the  second  half  of  that  cohort.  The  first  and  second  hastati  had  each  150 
men  of  the  second  half  of  the  first  cohort,  and  the  first  triarius  commanded 
the  fifth  century  of  the  first  half  of  the  first  cohort.  The  centuries  had, 
besides  this,  particular  centurions;  and  there  were  decurions  over  every  ten 
men  {contvbemiutrC). 

Under  Trajan  the  order  of  battle  was  again  altered,  and  assumed  the 
disposition  shown  in  pi.  4,  fig.  38,  which  represents  the  order  of  battle 
of  Arrian  against  the  Alani.  The  archers  stood  upon  two  hills  on  the 
flanks,  and  shot  over  the  heads  of  the  heavy  armed  cohorts  in  front  of  them. 
The  legion  stood  eight  files  deep,  in  close  order,  i.  e.  three  feet  to  a  file  ;  in 
the  four  first  ranks,  a  a,  were  those  who  were  armed  with  light  lances ;  in 
the  four  others,  b  6,  those  armed  with  long  lances.  Afterwards  a  ninth 
rank, c  c, was  added,  consisting  of  Nomadian,  Cyrenean,  and  other  archers; 
whereupon,  after  the  commencement  of  the  action,  the  first-named  archers 
also  united  in  a  rank,  d  d,  in  rear  of  all,  in  order  to  shoot  over  the  heads  of 
the  legion.  The  station  for  the  war-machines  is  in  the  line  e  c,  behind  the 
united  order  of  battle ;  and  the  cavalry  collected  in  eight  masses,  four  of 
which  were  stationed  at//,  in  rear  of  the  archers,  and  the  others  on  the 
two  flanks.  Were  the  foe  routed,  the  legion  opened  and  permitted  the 
cavalry,  //,  to  pass  through  in  pursuit. 

Castrametation  also  is  a  part  of  tactics,  and  pi.  13,  fig.  1,  represents  a 
great  Roman  camp  according  to  Polybius.  The  Roman  camp  had  the 
form  of  a  square,  and  so  soon  as  the  place  of  encampment  was  designated, 
a  standard  was  set  up  at  the  best  and  most  open  spot,  and  on  each  of  the 
four  sides  of  this  a  line  of  100  feet  was  staked  off.  The  square  so  formed,  A, 
was  the  prcetorium,  and  contained  the  praetor's  tent.  In  front  of  this,  and 
on  the  side  most  convenient    to  water  and  forage,  the  legions  were 

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26  lOUTABT  SGISiraBg. 

encamped.    As  now  each  legion  had  «x  tribuiMs»  and  each  consul  com» 
manded  two  legions,  there  were  twelve  tribunes  under  each ;  the  tents  of 
the  tribunes  were  set  up  in  one  line  D  D,  parallel  with  the  front  of  tbo 
pTtttorium  and  occupying  each  50  feet  of  front»  their  openings  towards  the 
legion ;  the  intervals  were  so  arranged  that  the  breadth  of  the  tribunes' 
encampment  was  equal  to  the  front  of  the  legion's ;  100  feet  in  front  of  and 
parallel  to  this  line  of  tents  began  the  camp  of  the  legions ;  the  street  thus 
formed  was  oaHed  the  main  street.     The  line  of  the  front  side  of  the 
tribunes'  tents  we  call  the  front  line.     Perpendicular  to  the  front  line  in 
the  centre  a  street  of  50  feet  wide  was  laid  off,  on  each  side  of  which,  at 
M  M,  the  legion  cavalry  were  encamped.     To  each  iurma  was  allowed  a 
space  100  feet  square,  and  between  the  ten  turmae  a  second  street  of  50 
feet  in  width,  the  quintana  T,  parallel  to  the  main  street,  ran  across  the 
entire  camp.    Behind   the   cavalry,  at  OO,  the   triarii  were  encamped» 
having  a  space  100  feet  broad  and  50  feet  deep ;  then  came  on  each  side 
a  street,  and  at  P  P  the  camping  ground  of  the  principes  100  feet  square ; 
then  that  of  the  hastati,  Q  Q,  of  the  same  size  ;  then  a  street  again  on  each 
side,  and  next  this,  at  R  R,  the  camp  of  the  allied  cavalry,  100  feet  long  and 
183^  feet  deep,  and  behind  these,  at  S  S,  the  allied  infantry  were  encamped 
having  100  feet  of  breadth  and  200  of  depth.     Thus  is  the  breadth  of  the 
whole  encampment  determined  at  1617  feet.     At  the  upper  part  of  the 
camp,  next  the  prsetorium,  was  on  each  side  a  market-plaoe,  upon  which,  at 
C,  stood  the  tents  of  ttie  two  legates,  and  at  B  the  qxuestorium.    At  N  also 
the  market  was  sometimes  established.     The  leaders  of  the  confederates 
found  place  at  E  E.     The  61ite  and  the  veteran  troops  had  the  honor  of  a 
separate  encampment  in  the  vicinity  of  the  praetorium  apart  from  the  rest 
of  the  legion :  the  cavalry  of  the  flite  at  G,  their  infantry  at  J ;  the  cavalry 
of  the  veterans  at  F,  and  their  infantry  at  H.     The  troops  of  the  reserve 
were  placed  above  the  praetorium,  their  cavalry  at  K,  their  infantry  at  L. 
Entirely  around  the  whole  encampment  ran  the  camp  street,  A  A,  of  200 
feet  in  width,  and  then  came  the  entrenchment,  in  front  of  which  was  a 
ditch  to  secure  the  camp  from  a  sudden  assault.     The  camp  had  four 
gates,  of  which  that  opposite  the  front  of  the  praetorium,  the  porta  prce- 
ioriana,  X  a,  was  for  the  praetors ;  the  one  on  the  opposite  side  from  this, 
the  porta  decumana,  X  b,  for  the  chief  officers  ;  while  that  on  the  left,  X  c, 
the  porta  principalx$  sinistra,  and  on  the  right,  X  d,  the  porta  principalis 
dextra^  were  for  the  imperator. 

According  to  Polybius  the  Romans  used  two  principal  orders  of  marches : 
the  forward  march  {pi.  4,  fig.  89),  and  the  fiank  march  {ßg,  40),  The 
forward  march  was  always  in  one  column,  because  battle  was  given 
usually  only  near  the  encampment,  so  that  the  marching  out  was  from  only 
one  point.  First  came  the  cavalry  (pi  4,  fig,  30  A),  then  the  legions  in 
succession  ready  for  battle  with  their  baggage  B,  and  in  the  rear  again  cavalry 
C,  closing  the  march.  If  an  attack  was  expected  on  the  route,  then  the 
Ix^gg*^  ^^  transferred  to  the  rear  of  the  column  in  front  of  the  closing 
cavalry,  to  which  in  that  case  an  infantry  legion  was  united.  The  front 
«f  the  cdumn  was,  at  the  time  of  the  manipular  disposition,  only  one 


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WABFABB  OP  ANTIQÜITY,  27 

DMUDiple ;  in  the  dkpomtkNi  by  ooborts,  one  oobort  The  second  order  of 
nuuroh  (fig.  40)  waa  the  flank  march.  The  legion  formed  in  the  quincuTix 
order ;  the  Telites  at  A  (the  unshaded  squares  in  our  figure)  ;  the  hastati  at 
B,  the  principes  at  C,  and  the  triarii  at  D,  took  the  baggage  in  the  centre, 
in  the  intervals  of  the  lines  B,  C,  D,  while  the  relites  covered  the  intervals, 
then  faced  to  the  right  or  left,  and  marched.  Arrived  upon  the  field  of  bat- 
tle the  legion  faced  again  to  the  left  or  right,  according  to  their  position,  so 
as  to  front  the  enemy,  and  drew  out  from  the  ba^age  in  the  direction  of 
the  dotted  lines  in  the  drawing,  at  first  direct  to  the  front,  afterwards 
bringing  forward  one  or  the  other  shoulder,  on  to  the  assigned  position,  in 
the  quincunx  order  of  battle. 

When  the  legion  had  marched  in  the  order  represented  hy  fig.  39,  and  it 
was  denred  to  assunoe  again  the  triple  order,  the  following  manoeuvre  was 
employed.  Suppose  the  march  to  have  been  by  maniples,  as  shown  in 
fig.  41,  then  the  first  maniple  of  the  triarii,  as  soon  as  they  arrived  on  the 
alignment  of  the  triarii,  faced  to  the  right  and  moved  to  the  right  flank ; 
the  same  with  the  principes  and  hastati,  and  then  with  the  other  maniples 
in  succession,  as  each  came  upon  its  proper  alignment  in  the  march  by 
column.  Then  the  proper  intervals  of  the  quincunx  order  were  assumed 
in  these  alignments.  In  the  disposition  by  cohorts  the  manoeuvre  shown 
by  fig.  42  was  used.  The  column  of  cohorts  halted ;  the  first,  second, 
third,  fifth,  sixth,  eighth,  and  ninth  faced  to  the  right,  and  took  their  posi- 
tions and  intervals  in  order  of  battle ;  while  the  fourth,  seventh,  and  tenth, 
to  soon  as  they  were  uncovered  by  the  others,  were  by  the  command 
"  march"  moved  forward  on  to  their  proper  alignment.  We  will  give  here 
one  other  case,  that,  namely,  where  the  column  of  route  by  the  first  order, 
attacked  in  front,  must  establish  itself  in  order  of  battle.  This  manoeuvre, 
which  Metellus  practised  against  Jugurtha,  by  whom  he  was  attacked  on 
the  march,  is  represented  in  fig.  43.  The  even  numbered  maniples  of  the 
hastati,  principes,  and  triarii  marched  in  the  column  behind  each  other. 
The  march  had  been  to  the  left,  and  the  left  flank  therefore  was  in  front ; 
the  attack  was  made  on  the  right.  In  forming  into  line  of  battle,  all  the 
maniples  of  the  hastati  and  principes  faced  to  the  right,  and  moved  by  a 
flank  until  they  touched  their  proper  alignment,  when  they  came  into  line 
by  bringing  forward  the  left  shoulder  or  by  a  wheel,  and  assumed  their 
proper  intervals.  The  triarii  meanwhile  marched  straight  forward  until 
each  manijde  reached  its  position,  when  they  wheeled  into  line.  Finally, 
we  must  mention  an  order  of  march,  namely  the  quadrangular,  which 
Marius  assumed  when  he  had  victoriously  repulsed,  though  only  with  the 
greatest  diflSculty,  the  attacks  directed  by  Jugurtha  upon  various  sides  of 
his  column  of  route.  He  feared  a  speedy  repetition  of  the  attacks,  for  he 
knew  the  Numidian  warfare,  and  resolved  to  prepare  for  them.  PI.  i,fig. 
44,  shows  the  order  of  march  chosen  by  Marius,  and  the  attack  which,  in 
truth,  shortly  followed  firom  Jugurtha.  The  Roman  general  marched  with  his 
army  in  order  of  battle.  The  line  b  b  was  formed  by  two  Roman  legions 
with  a  front  of  24  men  reckoned  along  the  line  &c,  a  length  of  2880  feet; 
at  the  side  of  these  legions  marched  Sylla  with  44  turmse  of  cavalry,  a  a, 

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28  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

on  a  length  of  2610  feet.  To  the  left,  beside  the  legions,  marched  Manilas 
with  the  slingers,  archers,  and  some  cohorts  of  the  allies,  c  c,  which  to  cor- 
respond, formed  also  two  legions,  or  were  made  up  to  that  complement  by 
the  allies.  The  two  lines  b  c  and  b  c  were  formed  by  the  remaining  cohorts 
of  the  allies  which  marched  with  the  full  front.  At  the  head  of  the  whole 
order  of  march  was  Marios  himself,  with  the  third  part  of  the  auxiliary 
cavaby,  dd.  After  the  march  had  been  continued  in  this  manner  for  four 
days,  scouts  came  suddenly  from  all  sides  announcing  the  attack  of  the 
Numidians.  Sylla  was  first  assailed  by  the  Mauritanian  cavalry,  A ;  and 
meanwhile  Bocchus  with  his  infantry,  C,  fell  upon  the  rear  of  the  Romans ; 
and  Jugurtha  with  his  Numidian  cavalry,  B,  kept  Marius  employed.  As 
soon  as  Jugurtha  had  intelligence  of  the  attack  of  Bocchus,  he  turned  with 
part  of  his  troops.  A,  upon  the  legions,  and  endeavored  to  spread  the  report 
that  Marius  had  fallen ;  while  the  Numidian  infantry,  at  A  A,  essayed  an 
attack  upon  the  archers,  at  c  c.  By  these  numerous  attacks  the  Romans 
were  shaken  certainly,  but  when  Sylla,  having  put  the  Mauritanian 
cavalry  to  flight,  fell  upon  Bocchus  in  flank,  overthrew  him,  and  then  turned 
upon  Jugurtha,  whom  Marius  had  also  taken  in  flank,  the  flight  of  the 
Numidians  became  general,  and  the  victory  was  won.  From  this  time  for- 
ward this  order  of  march  came  much  in  vogue  with  the  Romans,  and  the 
quadrangles  of  Crassus  and  Antony  are  renowned  in  military  history. 

An  instance  in  which  from  a  simple  order  of  battle,  the  quadrangular 
was  formed,  is  presented  by  the  manceuvre  of  Julius  Caesar  near  Ruspina, 
where  he  had  put  himself  in  march  with  30  cohorts  and  400  horse  to 
obtain  provisions,  but  at  3000  paces  from  his  camp  was  attacked  by  the 
Numidians  under  Labienus  and  the  Pacidi.  PI,  4,  fig,  45,  shows  this 
manceuvre.  As  soon  as  the  foe  came  on,  Caesar  formed  his  30  cohorts  in  a 
long  line  a  a,  on  whose  flanks  he  posted  the  cavalry.  Directly,  however, 
the  hostile  cavalry  so  extended  itself  as  to  outflank  Caesar's  line  on  both 
sides,  and  in  connexion  with  the  infantry,  after  Caesar's  cavalry  was 
doubled  up  and  thrown  back  upon  his  foot,  to  entirely  inclose  the  whole 
army  in  the  oblong  dotted  line,  endeavoring  to  overwhelm  them.  Caesar 
now  caused  all  the  even  cohorts  to  make  the  half-face,  and  the  even  and 
odd  alike  to  draw  out  30  paces  from  the  first  line  of  battle,  while  the  two 
15th  cohorts  made  a  wheel  on  a  fixed  centre  pivot.  The  fifteen  cohorts  on 
the  left  then  marched  to  the  left,  those  on  the  right  to  the  right,  and  formed 
a  junction,  thus  making  two  quadrangles,  with  which  Caesar  broke  through 
the  Numidian  cavalry,  and  took  a  new  position  at  b  and  b.  The  repulsed 
cavalry  formed  the  extremes  of  these  quadrangles  on  the  right  and  left 
flank.  After  thus  forming  these  quadrangles,  which  mutually  protected 
each  other  and  divided  the  Numidian  force,  Caesar  devised  how  to  unite 
them  both  and  commence  the  retreat  to  his  camp.  For  this,  he  by 
degrees  drew  back  both  quadrangles  upon  a  new  line  of  battle,  and  then 
caused  them,  approaching  each  other  in  c  c,  to  unite  into  a  single  quadrangle 
with  which  he  retired  to  his  camp. 

The  Romans  had   eight  modes  of  attack,  seven  of  which    Vegetius 
imparts  to  us.    Fig.  46  shows  the  first,  where  the  whole  army  attacks  in 
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WARFARE  OF  ANTIQUITY.  29 

line,  the  infantry  in  the  centre,  the  tumuB  of  cavalry  on  the  flanks  at  A  A. 
By  the  second  mode  (ßg.  47),  the  left  wing,  with  its  cavalry  A,  preserves 
such  a  distance  from  the  right  wing  of  the  enemy  as  to  be  out  of  reach  of 
his  projectiles,  while  the  right  wing,  with  its  cavalry  A,  advances  in  echelon 
from  the  right  and  strives  to  drive  him  back  or  outflank  him.  The  third 
method  is  in  all  respects  like  the  second,  save  that  the  attack  is  directed 
against  the  left  wing  of  the  foe.  The  fourth  mode  {fig,  48  a)  was  thus : 
the  direct  order  of  battle  was  maintained  until  within  150  paces  of  the 
enemy ;  then  the  centre  halted,  and  both  wings  advanced  rapidly  upon  the 
foe  to  overthrow  his  flanks.  As  an  example  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  methods, 
the  action  at  Elinga,  between  Scipio  and  Hasdrubal,  may  be  given  (fig.  50). 
On  the  day  of  the  fight,  Scipio  beat  up  the  advanced  posts  of  the  Cartha- 
ginians with  his  cavalry  and  light  troops,  while  he  placed  his  army  in  order 
of  battle,  thus :  the  auxiliaries  in  the  centre  A,  but  the  Roman  legions 
forming  the  wings  B  B,  so  that  they  were  opposite  Hasdrubal's  Spanish 
auxiliaries,  who  were  on  the  flanks  of  his  direct  line  of  battle  C.  After  the 
light  troops  had  fought  for  some  time  with  tolerable  success,  Scipio  caused 
them  to  retire  through  the  intervals  of  the  maniples  and  to  take  post  behind 
the  wings,  the  light  troops  in  the  first  line,  the  cavalry  in  the  second,  and  he 
then  advanced  upon  the  foe.  When  the  army  was  yet  about  a  stadium 
(125  paces)  distant  from  the  line  of  the  enemy,  the  centre  was  ordered  to 
step  short,  while  Scipio  with  the  right  wing  and  J.  Silanus  with  the  left 
advanced  in  echelon  by  the  centre  from  the  flanks  of  each  wing,  upon  the 
two  extremities  of  the  hostile  line,  the  cavalry  at  the  same  time  advancing 
from  the  cover  of  the  flanks  B  B  and  attacking  the  cavalry  of  Hasdrubal  D  D. 
Both  flanks  of  Hasdrubal's  line  were  broken,  and  his  army  would  have  been 
destroyed  had  not  a  violent  storm  of  wind  and  rain  forced  both  armies  back 
to  their  camps. 

The  sixth  mode  of  attack  is  nearly  related  to  the  second,  yet  the  explana- 
tion of  it  by  Vegetius  is  so  obscure  that  it  permits  two  different  representa- 
tions.  According  to  the  first  {pL  4,  fig.  48  b)  the  army  advances  in  the  direct 
order,  and  at  the  distance  of  a  stadium  (125  paces)  from  the  foe  is  halted, 
-when  the  right  wing  attacks  the  hostile  left  in  the  second  method,  while  the 
centre  and  left  wing  retire  in  echelon  from  the  right,  until  the  whole  army 
forms  an  oblique  Ime  to  the  enemy,  while  the  reserve  at  A  forms  a  square. 
The  explanation  which  Vegetius  adds  in  this  case,  however,  that  the  army  is 
brought  thereby  into  the  form  of  an  I,  hastcaused  the  second  representation 
(fig.  49,  right).  By  this  the  whole  army  advances  in  column  of  maniples 
upon  the  left  flank  of  the  enemy,  the  cavalry  A  draws  out  to  the  right 
against  the  hostile  cavalry,  and  the  maniples  then  face  to  the  left  and  march 
until  they  have  formed  the  echelon  A  A,  when  they  face  again  to  the  front 
and  advance  in  this  oblique  formation  upon  the  foe,  as  shown  at  B  B,  in 
order  thus  to  roll  him  up. 

The  seventh  mode  of  attack  is  either  of  the  preceding  modes  when  one 
flank  is  supported  upon  a  fixed  point,  as  a  hill,  a  river,  or  the  like.  An 
eighth  mode  was  that  which  determined  the  battle  of  Cannae,  where  Hanni- 
bfd  attacked  with  the  centre  and  threw  back  his  flanks.     The  Romans  had 

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sCrengthened  their  srmy  to  eight  I^ions  of  5000  foot  aad  800  horse  each« 
which  under  iSmiliits  Paulus  and  Tereutius  Yarro  stood  at  Cairna  oj^xMed 
to  Hannibal,  who  supported  his  camp,  and  the  left  flank  of  his  line  of  battle 
on  the  river  Aufidus,  and  divided  their  army  into  two  camps.  On  the  day 
when  Yarro  had  the  command,  he  gave  the  signal  for  combat,  and  the 
Roman  army  took  such  an  order  of  battle  that  on  the  left  wing  at  A  was 
the  allied  cavalry  k  A,  and  beside  them  the  alUed  infantry  under  Yarro. 
The  disposition  of  the  right  wing,  under  ^milius»  was  similar,  the  cavalry 
being  at  i  i;  the  proconsuls  Marcus  and  Cneius  formed  the  centre.  The 
army  was  disposed  in  four  lines,  the  triarii  at  a  <(  the  principes  at  fte»  and 
the  hastati  at  c/,  while  the  light  armed  and  slingers  formed  the  advanced 
line  g  k.  The  maniples  of  the  triarii  were  largely  strengthened»  and  the 
whole  army,  with  the  auxiliaries,  numbered  80,000  foot  and  nearly  6009 
horse.  Hannibal  posted  his  Balearic  slingers  and  other  light  troops  in  the 
line  qq  before  his  army;  on  the  river  he  posted  the  Iberian  and  Gallic 
cavalry  p  m  and  m  m,  opposite  the  Romans  ;  next  these  the  Iberian»  Gallic» 
and  other  infantry  //;  then  came  the  Libyan,  and  finally  the  Numidian 
cavalry  at  nnu.  The  Gauls  and  Iberians  were  intermingled  by  maniples» 
first  a  troop  of  Gauls,  then  a  troop  of  Iberians.  Hasdrubal  led  the  left 
wing,  Hanno  the  right,  and  Hannibal  the  centre.  To  the  attack  Hannibal 
advanced  the  eighth  central  syntagma  of  Gauls  and  Iberians»  and  supported 
them  by  twenty-four  syntagmata  on  each  side,  advanced  in  echdcm  by  three 
divisions,  so  that  the  whole  line  of  battle  was  curved  forward  at  the  centre. 
The  light  troops  now  made  as  usual  the  first  attack,  in  which  fortune  was 
doubtful,  but  then  commenced  the  charge  of  cavalry,  which,  as  the  masses 
on  both  sides  were  hemmed  in  by  the  river  and  by  the  infantry  so  that  they 
could  not  extend,  was  terrible,  and  terminated  in  the  total  destruction  of 
the  Romans  at  this  point.  Now  the  light  troops  retired  and  the  main 
battle  engaged ;  here  the  Romans  were  at  first  victors  and  drove  back  the 
advanced  syntagmata  of  Hannibal,  but  as  these  retained  their  perfect  order, 
the  salient  curve  at  o  became  at  last  re-entering,  forming  a  concave  into 
which  the  Romans  pressed  with  a  boar's-l^ad  (see  pi  13,  fig.  4),  which 
Hannibal  inclosed  with  a  hollow  wedge  and  oppressed»  while  Hasdrubal, 
who  had  beaten  and  put  to  flight  the  Roman  cavalry,  charged  it  in  the 
rear.  Meanwhile  ^milius  had  fallen,  the  Romans  had  lost  courage,  and  as 
now  Hanno  returned  from  pursuit,  the  victory  of  Hannibal  was  decided» 
and  the  greater  part  of  the  Roman  army  destroyed. 

Under  the  Emperor  Augustus  and  his  8UGcess<nv  a  standing  army  was 
introduced»  and  the  whole  system  of  war  changed. 


B.    WARFARE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 

The  continual  wars  of  the  Romans  with  the  nations  dwelling  north  firom 
them»  and  their  conquests  in  all  the  other  parts  of  Europe,  had  served  to 
civilize  the  people  with  whom  they  came  in  contact»  and  thus,  when  the 
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WARFABE  OF  THB  MIDDLE  AGES.  H 

monstrous  Roman  empire,  from  the  weakne«  of  its  mlenr  «tid  of  hs  iostl* 
lotions,  fell  to  pieces,  the  other  natkHM  of  Ewrope  bad  already  received  the 
seeds  of  a  culture  which  developed  itself  with  giant  strides  so  soon  as  they 
established  themsdves  in  fixed  settlements  and  became  habituated  to  per- 
manent residences.  Thus  far  we  have  had  to  mention  the  other  nations 
of  Europe  only  as  they  waged  war  with  the  Romans^  or  as  allies  aided  them 
in  their  warfare ;  from  this  time  forth  we  have  to  consider  these  nations  as 
possessing  each  a  peculiar  military  system  of  its  own,  which  was  soon 
destined  to  hold  the  Roman  in  check,  and  to  experience  in  itself  the  effects 
of  that  continual  elevation  in  culture  of  which  it  was  itself  the  cause.  We 
must  follow,  through  a  succession  of  centuries,  the  principal  stages  in  the 
formation  of  the  Italian  and  Grerman  military  systems,  in  order  to  deduce 
from  the  same  our  present  science  of  war,  in  its  incontestaUy  highly  per*' 
fected  condition. 

With  the  permanent  establishment  of  the  German  people  in  fixed  locali* 
ties  came  naturally  a  change  of  their  internal  relations  and  circumstances« 
fiefore,  the  whole  race  had  a  common  interest,  every  free  man  was  horn  a 
soldier,  and  his  calling  was  to  fight  the  enemies  of  bis  people.  Now,  this 
was  all  changed,  and  the  question  soon  arose,  whether  the  war  commenced 
was  really  a  war  of  race  and  nation,  or  if  only  some  otkb  of  those  who  had 
contrived  to'  attain  a  certain  supremacy,  had  begun  the  feud  for  his  own 
personal  objects.  In  the  first  case»  war  service  became  an  undeniable  duty, 
but  in  the  second  was  merely  free  choice  or  the  lust  of  gain.  For  these 
national  wars  arose  the  ormy-frann,  a  war  service  founded  upon  real 
property,  for  discharge  of  which  ownership  o[  the  soil  was  the  pay,  proof 
in  other  words  that  pay  was  not  needed,  or  that»  by  the  lien  on  the  soil,  it 
had  been  received  once  for  all. 

This  war  duty  was  naturally  in  the  highest  degree  troublesome,  not  fee 
the  vassals  alone,  but  the  leader  received  thereby  great  numbers  ai  people 
utterly  unfit  for  real  service,  so  that  the  necessity  arose  for  having,  besides 
the  army  proper,  a  number  of  men  trained  to  war,  who  should  not  only  be 
ready  themselves  in  all  cases,  but  be  fitted  to  instruct  and  discipline  the 
army-bann  if  called  out.  At  all  times  the  exactor  of  war  service  cared  less 
for  the  person  by  whom  it  was  rendered  than  for  the  actual  performance 
of  the  duty ;  and  thus  it  soon  became  the  custom  to  accept  a  substitute,  or 
an  equivalent  in  money,  with  which  an  agreement  was  then  made  with 
some  war-loving  leaders  for  the  enlistment  of  whole  parties.  In  later  times, 
free  men  who  found  themselves  in  destitute  circumstances,  or  were  in  some 
manner  oppressed,  entered  into  a  kind  of  vassalage  with  the  powerful,  and 
gave  up  their  freedom,  and  even  a  portion  of  property,  for  the  sake  of 
protection  and  to  be  fireed  for  ever  from  war  service.  Others  engaged 
themselves,  in  consideration  of  various  privileges  and  advantages,  and 
became  feudatories.  Thus  many  free  men  elevated  themselves  so  much 
above  their  fellows,  that  they  became  masters  and  formed  an  especial  class 
of  their  own,  the  war  nobility.  But  even  among  these  war  nobles  no 
equality  reigned,  for  here  also  was  a  higher  class,  upon  whom  the  lower 
were  to  a  certain  degree  dependent,  and  thus  arose  the  feudal  system,  iB 

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82  MnJTART  SCIENCES. 

which  the  holding  of  a  fee  imposed  the  duty  of  war  service  on  the  lord,  just 
as  formerly  the  possession  of  real  estate  had  imposed  the  army-bann  service. 
As,  however,  the  number  of  feuds  diminished  with  their  increased  extent, 
so  the  number  of  soldiers  became  naturally  smaller,  and  instead  of  foot 
the  greater  proportion  were  horsemen  or  knights.     The  fee  service  was 
now  the  principal,  and  the  war  of  the  empire  affected  the  vassal  only 
mediately,   through  his  liege  lord.     The    general   obligation  to  service 
remained  properly  the  same,  but  much  modified,  according  as  the  subject 
was  a  liege>lord,  or  possessed  a  freehold,  a  feehold,  a  sockage,  or  no  estate 
at  all,  according  as  he  was  mediately  or  immediately  dependent  on  the 
empire ;  and  even  here  all  sorts  of  modifications  were  introduced  by  contract 
and  relation.     The  feudal  system  had  the  efifect  withal  of  removing  the 
mass  of  the  people  from  war  service  and  creating  a  warrior  class.     The 
number  of  soldiers,  however,  was  small,  the  duration  of  service  short,  and 
thus  wars  could  not  become  either  national  struggles  or  wars  of  conquest, 
but  were  confined  really  to  short  feuds.     The  feudatories  must,  in  general, 
serve  the  empire  six  weeks  at  their  own  cost,  or,  on  the  coronation  proces- 
sions of  the  newly- appointed  kings  to  Rome,  until  he  was  crowned  by  the 
pope.     Many  sought  to  free  themselves  from  this  service,  and  sent  substi- 
tutes, or  money  to  procure  such.     Thus  arose  the  paid  service. 

All  mercenaries  were  taken  merely  for  the  time  of  actual  War,  and  dis- 
banded so  soon  as  that  was  ended ;  in  the  Byzantine  kingdom  alone  do  we 
find  traces  of  a  standing  army.  With  respect  to  the  maintenance  of  the 
troops,  in  the  times  preceding  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  all 
accurate  infonnation  is  wanting.  When  a  somewhat  regular  allowance 
found  place,  one  and  a  half  pounds  of  bread,  a  portion  of  wine,  and  meat 
three  times  a  week,  were  given,  besides  cheese,  beans,  and  other  pulse, 
alternately. 

In  the  earliest  times,  the  commander-in-chief  was  chosen  in  the  field  by 
the  elders  of  the  people,  in  free  election ;  and  after  the  choice  had  been 
announced  to  and  accepted  by  him,  he  was  clad  in  all  the  insignia  of  his 
rank,  and  elevated  upon  a  shield  in  the  presence  of  the  people,  whose  weal 
he  was  to  defend,  and  of  the  army,  whose  chief  he  was  to  be  (pi.  14,  fig,  2). 
Afterwards,  when,  instead  of  the  army-bann,  the  host  was  competed  of 
lords  with  their  vassals,  the  feudal  superior  was  commander-in-chief,  and 
his  vassals,  the  great  feudatories,  became  his  subordinates  and  council  of 
war ;  the  oflicers,  if  we  may  admit  such  a  position  here,  were  chosen  by 
each  subordinate  for  himself;  and  there  were,  of  course,  as  many  of  them 
as  there  were  separate  followings  among  the  vassalage  of  each,  so  that  no 
such  thing  as  a  regular  organization  of  the  army  was  to  be  thought  of 
Where  there  were  mercenaries,  a  captain  had  the  immediate  command, 
and  designated  those  who  should  command  under  him.  That  under  such 
circumstances  no  particular  tactic  or  art  of  war  was  practicable,  is 
evident  enough.  Of  great  strategic  plans  for  a  whole  campaign,  of  divid- 
ing or  cutting  off,  etc.,  of  whole  corps,  of  skilful  marches,  we  find  in  the 
military  history  of  the  middle  ages  scarcely  any  trace.  In  general  the 
two  parties  assailed  each  other  hotly ;  the  brevity  of  the  fee-service  and 
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WARFARE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  38 

the  expense  of  war,  urging  them  to  bring  on  at  once  a  great  battle,  by 
which  the  issue  was  usually  decided ;  and  this  main  action  itself  was  mostly 
a  series  of  single  combats,  without  plan  or  order,  it  being  of  much  less  con- 
sequence that  the  commander-in-chief  should  have  especial  skill  in  the  art 
of  war,  than  that  he  should  be  looked  up  to  with  respect  by  the  army,  and 
that  each  subordinate  should  obey  him  willingly  and  observe  his  orders. 

In  the  feudatory  force,  cavalry  was  predominant ;  in  that  furnished  by 
the  cities,  infantry ;  until  here  also  equalization  was  introduced.  Sometimes 
the  cavahy  fought  entirely  distinct,  usually  on  the  flanks ;  sometimes  dis- 
persed in  masses  among  the  infantry,  or  with  single  foot-soldiers  between 
the  horsemen  to  support  them;  or  the  archers  brought  on  the  conflict, 
which  the  cavalry  then  continued.  The  infantry  were  usually  disposed  (as 
in^^.  3)  in  deep  order,  and  carried  long  spears,  with  which  they  killed  the 
horses,  and  so  put  the  riders  hors-de-combat 

Prisoners  were,  in  general,  harshly  treated ;  not  unfrequently,  indeed,  put 
to  death.  A  very  common  practice  was  that  of  decimation  (pL  I4,ßg.  1), 
which  was  applied  also  in  case  of  mutiny  in  the  army.  The  whole  number 
of  condemned  were  placed  in  a  row,  and  then  every  tenth  man  counted  ofi* 
and  immediately  executed,  while  the  remainder  were  permitted  to  go  free» 
or  with  only  some  light  punishment 

Ere  we  proceed  to  the  time  when,  under  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  the 
German  army  received,  from  the  renowned  Captain  George  of  Frondsberg, 
a  regular  organization,  we  will  give  some  details  respecting  the  arms  and 
military  dress  of  that  period. 

The  most  ancient  weapons  of  the  Germans,  Normans,  Anglo-Saxons,  and 
Danes,  we  have  described  already  in  pages  19,  ^.  The  art  of  the  armorei 
was  everywhere  diffused  in  the  middle-ages,  and  stood  in  high  repute ;  next 
to  peltry,  arms  were  up  to  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  the  chief  article 
of  barter  for  the  wares  of  India.  Among  the  Goths  in  Southern  France, 
we  find  mentioned,  in  the  fifth  century,  shields  inlaid  with  gold  and  silver ; 
and  the  swords  of  the  Vandals  were  also  inlaid  with  gold.  PI  15,  ßg.  63, 
shows  a  dagger  which  Duke  Rudolph  of  Swabia  wore,  when,  in  1080,  he 
fought  at  Merseburg,  against  King  Henry  IV.,  which  belongs,  therefore,  to 
the  last  hall  of  the  eleventh  century,  if  not  still  earlier.  This  dagger,  the 
richly  decorated  gold  hilt  of  which  displays  a  skill  in  carving  remarkable 
foi  that  age,  gives  evidence  also  of  the  perfection  of  the  armorer's  art  at 
that  period.  In  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries,  however,  this  art 
attained  in  Germany,  but  especially  in  Northern  Italy,  a  very  high  degree 
of  excellence ;  and  we  have  admirable  suits  of  armor  of  that  age,  in  which 
the  inlaid  work  is  principally  arabesque  and  leaf-work,  or  escutcheons. 
Here  also  we  will  follow  the  division  of  weapons  into  those  of  offence  and 
defence,  and  describe  them  as  they  are  represented  in  plates  15  and  16. 

The  bow  proper  (pL  lö^figs,  I  and  2)  held  its  repute  longest  among  the 
Scandinavians  and  Normans ;  in  Germany  it  was  almost  entirely  super- 
seded, as  early  as  the  twelfth  century,  by  the  crossbow,  which  the  old 
bulista  suggdBied. 

The  Genoese  were  the  first  who  constructed  the  balista,  known  in  anti 

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quity  on  so  small  a  scale  that  it  could  be  handled  by  one  man.  Richard  I. 
introduced  it  into  England,  and  in  the  third  crusade  it  was  already  a  common 
weapon.  The  crossbow  represented  in  our  plate  {fig.  8)  shows  the  earliest 
form  of  this  arm ;  the  wooden  stock  is  three  feet  three  inches  long,  ooe 
and  three-quarter  inches  broad  in  the  widest  place,  and  five  and  three- 
quarter  inches  thick  in  the  thickest.  The  bow  is  of  steel,  two  feet  long, 
and  in  the  broadest  part  nearly  four  inches  wide ;  the  whole  weapon  weighs 
fifteen  pounds.  The  string  was  usually  double,  made  of  gut»  twisted  and 
wound  with  silk  or  thread ;  each  man  had  two  such  strings.  At  the  upper 
end  of  the  stock  was  a  piece  of  curved  iron,  in  which  the  bolt  or  arrow  was 
laid,  and  then  held  behind  by  a  catch.  For  taking  aim,  there  was  a  small 
back-sight,  which  was  brought  in  a  line  with  the  notch  on  the  arrow.  When 
the  bow  was  bent,  Che  string  was  held  back  by  a  claw,  which,  being  pushed 
up  by  the  trigger,  let  the  string  fly  in  firing.  Afterwards,  a  f>articular  kind  of 
lock,  similar  to  our  musket-locks,  was  contrived,  to  make  the  discharge  easier. 
The  crossbow  was  bent  by  means  of  a  windlass  which  each  man  carried  with 
him,  and  which  was  constructed  in  various  ways.  Sometimes  it  consisted 
merely  of  several  wheels,  sometimes  of  a  kind  of  pulley ;  frequently  it  was 
merely  a  double  lever.  At  first,  only  arrows  like  those  shot  from  the  bow  pro- 
per (/?/.  1 5,  figs.  4,  Ö,  6)  were  shot  from  the  crossbow,  but  afterwards,  when  the 
steel  bow  had  been  still  more  strengthened,  heavy  bolts  (fig,  13);  and  the  effect 
was  so  powerful,  that  even  at  considerable  distances  such  bolts  penetrated 
light  cuirasses,  shields,  and  helmets,  and  completely  transfixed  the  unarmed. 
The  arrows  were  feathered  at  the  upper  end,  for  greater  steadiness  of  flight, 
as  the  figures  show ;  frequently  they,  as  well  as  the  bolts,  were  split,  and  a 
strip  of  leather  or  parchment  inserted.  The  heads  of  the  arrows  were  of 
various  forms  (figs.  7,  8, 9,  10,  11,  and  12).  They  are  found  single,  double, 
and  triple-pointed,  provided  usually  with  one,  often  with  two  and  three 
pairs  of  sharpened  barbs.  Sometimes,  when  objects  were  to  be  set  on  fire, 
a  ball  of  pitch,  tow,  and  other  combustibles,  was  fastened  close  behind  the 
head  (fig.  6),  and  lighted  just  as  the  arrow  was  discharged.  Such  fire- 
arrows,  carrying  the  Greek-fire,  were  very  much  used.  For  the  crossbow 
heavy  bolts  were  used  (fig.  13),  pointed  also  often  with  several  points,  and 
formidable  even  from  their  weight  alone. 

The  dress  of  the  crossbow-man  consisted  usually  of  a  cuirass,  which  was 
woven  of  wire,  and  hung  low  enough  to  cover  the  legs.  The  head  was 
protected  by  a  close-fitting  cap  of  tin  plate,  which  passed  afterwards  into 
the  form  of  a  kind  of  helmet.  The  poorer  archers  wore  only  a  breastplate 
or  leather  jerkin,  set  here  and  there  with  pieces  of  tin  plate.  In  such  cases 
the  archers  were  protected  by  shield-formed  wicker  hurdles,  of  the  height 
of  a  man,  which  were  carried  by  men  appointed  for  the  purpose,  and  set  up 
in  the  ground  before  them.  A  short  sword  or  battle-axe  also  was  usually 
carried  by  the  archers. 

The  spear  or  lance  was  the  most  ancient  weapon  of  the  Germans,  and 

this  arm  has  been  maintained  in  honor.     From  the  formation  of  the  feudal 

nobility,  the  lance  was  the  chief  weapon  of  the  knightly  equipi&ent.     The 

staff  of  this  knightly  lance,  which  differed  widely  frpm  the  common  spear» 

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WARFARE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  35 

and  was  much  heavier,  was  of  oak,  fir,  linden,  sycamore,  or  ash  wood,  often 
carved  and  richly  decorated ;  and  where  it  was  clamped  under  the  arm,  was 
hollowed  out  {pi.  16,  fig.  48).  The  head  for  war  use  was  rather  strong 
and  heavy,  than  sharp  ;  sometimes  twelve  to  fourteen  inches  long  and  eight 
inches  broad.  Below  the  head  was  fastened  a  pennon,  partly  as  insignia, 
partly  to  frighten  the  enemy's  horse.  In  later  times,  the  knight-banneret 
bore  his  banner  on  the  lance.  Over  the  hollow  for  the  arm  an  iron  guard 
was  sometimes  fastened,  and  a  funnel-shaped  cap  of  tin  plate,  which,  when 
the  lance  was  laid  in  rest,  protected  the  breast  and  arm.  At  tournaments 
and  tiltings  the  lances  had  no  heads,  but  only,  as  in  fig.  48,  a  kind  of  knob 
with  three  short  points,  serving  merely  to  prevent  the  lance  from  slipping 
when  it  struck  the  mail  plate. 

Besides  the  knightly  lance,  however,  we  must  mention  the  spear  or  pike, 
the  main  weapon  of  the  footman ;  from  which,  too,  the  hunting-spear  (fig. 
19)  must  be  distinguished,  the  head  of  which  was  leaf-shaped  and  orna- 
mented, and  decorated  usually  with  a  pair  of  woollen  tassels.  The  war- 
spear  had  a  long  and  not  too  heavy  shaft  of  tough  wood,  and  a  head  which 
was  heavy,  and  of  the  most  various  forms.  In  the  earliest  times,  only  a 
simple  head  was  used,  or  at  most  a  barb  was  added ;  but  in  the  later  middle 
ages  the  most  various,  and  often  the  strangest  forms  made  their  appearance 
ifigs,  20-47).  At  first  a  hook  only  was  added  to  the  head,  which  could  be 
fixed  in  the  meshes  of  the  hauberk,  and  the  foe  thus  pulled  down;  but 
afterwards  the  spear  was  so  contrived  as  to  afibrd  a  double  weapon.  The 
spear  had  often  two,  three^or  even  more  points,  as  figs.  31,  35,  43-47,  of 
which  some  were  thrust  forward  by  pressure  of  a  spring.  There  were 
lances  of  which  the  head  part  was  two  or  three  feet  long.  Often,  too,  hxl 
axe,  or  other  weapon,  was  united  with  the  spear.  Such  an  arm  was  called 
a  bisarm  or  gisartn,  and  consisted  of  a  point,  with  a  curved  blade  for  strik- 
ing (figs.  20,  21, 23-28  and  47),  or  of  one  straightforward  point,  and  several 
others  projecting  at  the  sides  (figs.  24,  30,  31,  32,  42,  45).  As  the  knightly 
lance  disappeared,  the  spear  also  passed,  in  the  fourteenth  century,  into  the 
partisan  and  halberd,  and  the  officers  of  infantry  carried  these  even  to 
modern  times.  The  shaft  of  the  partisan  (pi.  15,  figs.  32,  49,  and  50,  a  b) 
was  six  to  eight  feet  long,  shod  with  iron ;  the  head  consisted  of  a  broad 
two-edged  blade,  dagger-shaped,  beneath  which  was  a  crescent-shaped  axe 
for  striking,  and  on  the  opposite  side  a  point  or  hook. 

A  weapon  of  great  importance  in  the  middle  ages  was  the  sword,  the 
form  of  which  had  changed  very  little  among  the  Germans  since  the  ear- 
liest  times.  The  sword  was  then,  that  is  to  say  the  state  sword,  very  short 
and  very  broad,  with  a  very  short  hilt.  There  belong,  for  example,  the  sword 
of  Childerick  (see  Division  III.,  History,  pi.  22,  fig.  33),  and  Charles  the 
Great's  sword  (pi.  15,  fig.  59),  the  lower  end  of  which  is  here  wanting.  The 
later  forms  of  the  knight's  sword  are  shown  in  figs.  51,  52,  53,  and  56.  The 
hilt  was  very  long,  because,  in  consequence  of  the  great  weight  of  these 
swords,  it  was  necessary  to  use  both  hands  in  wielding  them ;  and  the  pom- 
mel very  heavy,  not,  however,  to  serve  as  a  counterbalance  to  the  blade, 
for  it  was  rather  desired  to  make  the  sword  heaviest  at  the  point  for  the 

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36  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

greater  momentum  {fig.  56),  but  for  beauty's  sake  only,  and  to  aflord  a  firniß 
hold.  The  cross^shaped  guard,  often  richly  and  tastefully  adorned,  served  at 
once  for  protection  and  for  ornament.  The  blade  was  either  rounded  at 
the  point  or  cut  off  in  a  very  obtuse  angle,  and  was  at  the  same  time  very 
long ;  thus,  for  example,  the  blade  of  the  sword  (fig,  56)  which  was  worn 
by  John  George  I.  of  Saxony  is  5  feet  long,  and  of  that  (fig.  57)  which 
Henry  the  Pious  once  bore,  6  feet.  In  old  accounts  swords  of  even  1 1  feet 
in  length  are  spoken  of,  but  these  were  only  carried  in  processions.  Be- 
sides the  great  German  sword,  the  French  had  some,  somewhat  smaUer 
indeed,  but  ending  in  a  sharp  point,  so  as  to  be  used  for  thrusting.  Such 
swords  "  ä  Vestoc,"  which  the  Germans  called  rapiers  (panzerstecher)^  are 
shown  in  figs.  58  and  62  ;  strictly  speaking,  fig.  51  belongs  here  also.  In 
the  fifteenth  century  we  find  swords  whose  edge  is  straight  on  one  side  but 
waved  on  the  other,  or  with  the  whole  blade  flame-shaped  (figs.  54  and 
55).  The  same  were  used  very  seldom  except  by  the  Swiss,  or  on  occasions 
of  ceremony.  In  addition  to  the  great  sword  the  knights  often  carried  a 
small  one  at  the  saddle-bow. 

From  the  Saracens  the  Germans  got  the  sword  with  a  curved  blade, 
endeavoring  to  adapt  the  sickle-formed  edge  of  the  Turkish  scymetar  to 
the  straight  blade  of  the  German  sword.  Fig.  60  a  gives  such  a  sickle- 
shaped  sword,  having  its  edge  on  the  side  where  the  back  would  be  in  a 
common  sword,  so  that  with  these  scymetars  the  wielder  did  not  strike 
forward  but  drew  them  towards  him  as  in  reaping.  A  rather  clumsy 
weapon  of  this  kind  the  Bohemians  used  in  the  Hussite  wars,  and  called  it 
dusseg  or  dusscLc  (pi.  lb,  fig.  606);  it  seems,  however,  to  come  nearer  a 
crooked  dagger. 

The  sword  was  carried  at  the  left  side  in  a  belt,  yet  we  find  also  the  old 
Normans  carrying  it  on  the  right  side  without  a  belt,  attached  by  two  studs 
to  the  cuirass.  On  the  blade,  upon  which  was  often  an  inscription,  and  on 
the  hilt  of  the  sword  great  expense  was  bestowed  (figs.  51  and  58.)  Fig. 
58  is  the  so-called  electoral  sword  from  the  armory  at  Dresden ;  the  hilt  is 
of  silver  chased  with  gold.  Still  later  the  old  sword-form  passed  into  the 
rapier-form  (fig.  61),  and  the  blade  became  shorter  than  before.  Along 
with  the  sword  was  also  used  the  dagger,  which  hung  at  the  right  side  to  a 
chain,  or  by  a  separate  stud  on  the  cuirass.  Not  until  later  did  the  blade 
of  the  dagger  become  short,  three-edged,  and  pointed,  as  in  fig.  63.  We 
have  spoken  of  this  dagger  already,  and  have  only  to  remark  here  that  the 
hilt  is  of  ivory  and  the  blade  gilded.  An  uncommon  form  of  dagger,  used 
by  the  Bohemians,  is  the  sickle  (fig.  64).  The  dagger  was  used  for 
quicker  defence  at  arm's  length  and  in  single  combats,  when  the  com- 
batants were  overthrown,  to  continue  the  fight ;  often  also  to  give  the  fallen 
enemy  a  death-thrust  in  the  throat  or  back,  whence  in  old  chronicles  we 
find  the  dagger  called  also  **  misericorde"  (mercy).  The  Normans,  who 
wore  the  sword  on  the  right  side,  carried  the  dagger  on  the  left.  The 
ancient  Saxons  had  also  a  dagger-like  weapon,  which  was  called  sahs  or 
sax,  and  from  which  some  derive  the  name  of  Sassens  or  Saxons. 
Other  kinds  of  offensive  weapons  are  the  hattk-axe,  mace  (morgenstem), 
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WARFARE  OF  IDE  MIDDLE  AGES.  37 

&c.  The  earliest  battle-axes,  for  they  go  back  to  times  when  the  use  of 
iron  was  unknown»  were  generally  of  flint,  sharpened  either  by  striking,  or  by 
grinding  in  some  way  not  now  understood,  and  with  a  hole  worked  out  for 
the  handle.  Figs,  14-18  are  such  stone  battle-axes.  Later  the  stone  was 
exchanged  for  iron  ;  and  a  mallet,  which  was  also  hurled,  was  added  to  the 
weapons.  In  the  13th  century  this  weapon  had  already  become  smaller 
(ßg.  69,  left  side),  and  was  used  by  the  knights,  being  carried  at  the  saddle- 
bow or  in  the  belt.  Nearly  equal  to  the  mallet  was  the  battle-axe,  which, 
at  the  time  of  the  migrations,  had  become  a  common  weapon  among  the 
Germans,  as  we  have  before  mentioned  in  treating  of  the  warfare  of  anti- 
quity (page  20).  Later  it  was  used  principally  by  the  Danes,  „where- 
fore it  was  called  also  the  Danish  axe  {pi.  15,  fig,  65.)  To  give  the 
blow  more  momentum  the  handle  was  often  of  iron ;  fig.  66  shows 
such  an  axe,  which  has  also  several  points.  An  elegant  weapon  of  this 
kind  is  the  battle-axe  of  the  Elector  John  George  I.  of  Saxony  {fig.  67), 
upon  the  iron  handle  of  which  the  idolatry  of  the  Jews  is  represented  in 
half-relief.  The  handle  was  hollow,  and  formed  the  sheath  for  the  fine 
dagger-blade  shown  in  our  engraving,  which  was  itself  ornamented  with 
etchings. 

To  the  death  clubs  belongs  the  pointed  flail  {fig.  69,  right  hand),  which  was 
earned  chiefly  in  the  Hussite  and  peasant  wars ;  the  Swiss  also  used  it  at 
Morgarten  and  Murten,  d^fig.  70  shows.  But  at  that  time  the  morgenstem 
had  become  the  more  common  weapon,  stout  wooden  or  iron  clubs,  set  all 
over  with  prickles  or  hooks,  which  appear  also  in  the  10th  and  11th  cen- 
turies. The  morgenstem,  represented  in  fig.  71,  is  found  in  the  armory  at 
Dresden,  and  is  of  wood,  with  iron  points,  &c.  Another  kind  of  morgen- 
stem are  the  clubs  {fig.  68),  which  are  small,  all  of  iron,  very  short,  and 
instead  of  hooks  are  set  with  sharpened  knife-comers.  These  clubs  (maces) 
the  knights  carried  alike  in  the  toumament  and  the  field. 

To  the  earliest  of  defensive  arms  belongs  the  shield ;  of  its  most  ancient 
form  and  material  we  have  spoken  already.  Among  the  Anglo-Saxons  the 
shield  was  oval,  of  wood,  bound  with  an  iron  rim,  and  with  an  iron  point 
(boss)  in  the  centre ;  the  Franks  had  it  three-cornered,  broad  above,  sharp 
below,  and  this  continued  to  be  the  general  form  in  the  middle  ages,  although 
now  and  then  it  was  made  more  omamental  by  indentations  in  the  rim,  &c. 
This  shield  was  also  of  wood,  plated  with  hammered  iron,  and  when  not  in 
use  hung  by  a  band  over  the  right  shoulder  and  on  the  back.  Frequently  the 
shield  was  furnished  with  strong  iron  spikes,  so  that  it  might  be  serviceable 
also  for  a  blow  {fig.  77).  Such  shields  were  permitted  even  in  the  ordeal  by 
combat,  bat  the  points  must  not  be  more  than  one  foot  in  length.  The  infantry 
had  a  lai^r  shield  {fig.  72)  of  wood,  painted  usually  virith  the  arms  of  the 
liege  lord  and  knight,  and  bound  with  an  iron  rim.  To  protect  the  archers 
the  shield  was  yet  larger  and  curved  {fig.  73),  in  other  respects  as  above 
described.  They  ceased  to  be  used  in  the  15th  century ;  among  the  Bohe- 
mians alone  are  they  found  as  late  as  the  16th.  Round  shields  also  are 
firequent,  at  the  time  of  the  crusades  especially,  when  they  were  adopted 
firom  the  Saracens.    They  are  usually  flat- vaulted  and  very  large  {fig.  74), 

lOONOORAPmO  KNCTOLOPiKDLA. — VOL.  DL  83  518 


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38  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

sometimes,  however,  very  small  for  knights  (ßg.  76),  with  a  boss  and  with- 
out ;  of  wood  plated  with  iron,  often  entirely  of  hammered  steel ;  adorned 
very  frequently  with  tasteful  ornaments,  inlaid  with  gold  and  silver,  or 
gilded.  In  state  processions  they  were  often  entirely  of  silver  or  even  of 
gold.  One  particular  kind  of  Saracenic  shield  (fig,  75)  was  high-vaulted 
and  had  a  boss,  but  this  is  seldom  seen.  The  shield  was  frequently  stuffed ; 
always,  however,  lined  with  cloth  or  velvet,  and  sometimes  fringed  {ßgs. 
72,  75,  and  7Ö). 

Next  to  the  shield  the  helmet  is  the  oldest  defensive  arm.  It  was 
made  of  hammered  and  also  of  cast  iron.  The  cap,  which  is  the  oldest 
form  of  the  helmet,  received  afterwards  a  projection  which  extended  over 
the  nose,  but  left  the  eyes  and  cheeks  free.  Such  helmets  appear  in  the 
10th  and  11th  centuries.  The  first  visor  we  find  in  the  year  1155,  and  at 
the  time  of  the  third  crusade  they  had  become  common.  The  first 
visors  were  immovable,  and  consisted  of  cross-bars  riveted  to  the  helmet. 
From  the  middle  of  the  13th  century  the  helmet  was  rounded  above,  and  in 
the  14th  and  15th  centuries  forms  as  in  pi  16,  figs.  1,  2,  and  3,  are  general. 
To  the  upper  helm  iron  plates  were  added  to  protect  the  throat  and  back 
of  the  neck  ;  the  visor,  however,  was  very  differently  shaped  and  contrived 
to  raise  and  lower.  It  consisted  either  of  several  small  iron  bars  (fig,  3), 
or  of  plates  with  openings  opposite  the  eyes  and  mouth  only  (fig.  2),  or  of 
plates  cut  oi'  pierced  like  a  grate  or  sieve  (fig.  1).  Besides  these  knights' 
helmets,  however,  the  simple,  close-fitting  head-piece,  pot,  or  skull-cap 
remained  in  use  for  the  attendants,  grooms,  footmen,  and  men-at-arms 
(figs,  4-7).  Even  the  knights  when  not  expecting  immediate  combat,  yet 
wishing  to  be  protected,  wore  such,  but  of  much  more  elegant  forms.  PL 
\l,figs,  1-4,  and  pi.  18,  fi^s.  4,  8,  9,  10,  and  11,  give  various  examples  of 
knights'  helmets.  As  to  the  decorations  of  the  helmet  and  the  material  of 
which  it  was  made,  we  find  it  sometimes  of  iron  and  sometimes  of  steel,  or 
even,  for  state  occasions,  of  gold  and  silver.  The  steel  ones  were  either 
painted  entirely  black,  or  the  steel  was  blued  and  variously  ornamented, 
engraved,  inlaid  with  gold  and  silver,  striped  and  studded,  or  even  set  with 
precious  stones.  Kings  wore  crowns  upon  their  helmets  ;  counts  and  barons 
also  often  wore  the  coronets  of  pearl  belonging  to  their  rank  upon  their 
helms.  In  the  18th  and  14th  centuries  horse-tails  were  worn  on  the 
helmet-crest,  afterwards  plumes  of  feathers  took  the  place  of  them.  In 
later  years,  when  heraldic  bearings  became  common,  symbols  proper  to  the 
bearing  were  often  placed  upon  the  helm,  as  animals,  horns,  wings,  human 
figures,  &c.     These  decorations  became  general  in  the  15th  century. 

The  Germans  and  their  kindred  nations  received  mail-harness  from  the 
Romans,  whose  cuirass  in  the  latter  ages  had  a  form  widely  differing  from 
that  first  given  to  it,  for  the  horsemen  were  completely  covered  with  iron. 
The  different  members  were  so  protected,  by  means  of  stout,  scale-shaped 
plates  of  iron,  lapped  one  over  another  at  the  edges,  that  they  retained  the 
power  of  motion.  The  helmet  closed  around  the  face,  so  that  projectiles 
could  penetrate  only  at  those  places  where  openings  were  left  for  the  eyes 
and  for  breathing.  Even  the  horses  were  equipped  in  a  similar  manner ; 
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WARFARE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  39 

these  horsemen  were  called  cataphracti.  The  oldest  form  of  the  cuirass  is 
represented  in  pL  \ß,  fig.  8,  where  the  scales  are  secured  upon  a  leathern 
under-coat.  This  harness,  from  the  Dresden  armory,  is  said  to  have 
belonged  to  King  John  Sobiesky  of  Poland.  The  form  of  the  helmet  is  like* 
wise  the  very  oldest  of  all,  that  of  a  round  cap  fitting  over  the  head-piece  of 
the  cuirass,  by  which  the  cheeks  were  protected.  The  feather-plumes  and 
Maltese  cross  are  doubtless  additions  of  a  later  time ;  the  feathers,  indeed, 
were  most  probably  added  only  to  give  the  harness  a  better  appearance 
when  it  was  set  up.  In  the  10th  and  11th  centuries  the  ring-cuirass  (hau- 
berk, fig,  16)  became  common.  It  consisted  of  iron  rings  linked  one  in 
another,  which  were  fastened  upon  a  leathern  under-coat;  among  the 
Normans  such  cuirasses  appear  very  frequently.  At  first  these  hauberks 
came  only  to  the  hips,  afterwards  they  covered  the  thighs  to  the  knee, 
where  they  were  met  by  a  similar  covering  for  the  leg ;  according,  indeed, 
to  representations  in  the  Bayeux  tapestry,  there  were  such  mail-suits  of  a 
single  piece,  which  were  drawn  on  from  below.  In  the  oldest  harness  of 
this  description  the  rings  were  only  laid  close  together,  but  not  inter- 
linked.  Upon  old  monuments  we  find  also  woven  mail,  one,  for  example, 
of  the  year  1100,  where  the  whole  looks  like  basket-work,  whence  it  has 
been  concluded  that  this  mail  was  braided  with  strips  of  leather ;  yet  it 
might  as  easily  and  much  more  probably  be  small  iron  wire  sewed  upon 
leather  in  the  horizontal  and  vertical  position  alternately.  Underneath 
the  cuiraäs  was  a  quilted  woollen  jerkin  reaching  to  the  knee.  The  horses 
also  were  provided  with  such  ring  and  scale  mail,  and  carried  on  the  head 
a  plate  of  iron  with  a  spike  projecting  from  it  in  front  {charfron).  The 
ring  and  scale  mail  was  gradually  displaced  by  that  composed  of  plates,  in 
which  the  upper  arm,  for  instance,  was  covered  with  a  single  plate,  and  the 
divisions  were  only  at  the  joints,  where  still  other  plates  were  fitted  over 
these  divisions,  so  as  to  give  the  power  of  motion.  At  first  the  upper  part 
of  the  body  was  clad  in  the  ring  or  scale  mail,  and  only  the  lower  part 
covered  with  the  plate,  as  shown  by  the  corresponding  parts  of  a  knight's 
harness  in  pi.  16,  figs.  16  and  17.  By  the  end  of  the  15th  century,  how- 
ever, the  plate  or  iron  band  armor  had  become  general,  although  light  ring- 
cuirasses  were  still  worn  under  the  plate  harness  in  the  16th  century  {figs. 
9,  10,  and  12).  At  the  same  time  with  their  riders,  the  horses  also  were 
provided  with  mail,  which  on  the  head,  breast,  and  hind-quarters  consisted 
of  plates,  but  on  the  neck  of  iron  bands  {fig,  23)  ;  frequently,  however,  the 
croup  and  hind-quarters  were  protected  against  cuts  by  separate  bands 
only  {pi  18,  fig.  2). 

PL  16,  figs.  9,  10,  and  11,  show  mail  composed  chiefly  of  iron  bands  such 
as  was  used  in  and  after  the  fifteenth  century,  the  armor  represented  being 
that  of  the  Elector  Joachim  II.,  of  Brandenburg.  Figs.  12,  13,  14,  and  15, 
belong  to  this  kind  also.  The  complete  plate-mail  arrangement,  however, 
appears  in  pi  23,  representing  the  state  equipment  of  Christian  I.,  Elector  of 
Saxony,  which  is  to  be  found  in  the  Dresden  armory.  It  is  of  polished 
steel,  and  richly  inlaid  with  gold.  Here,  too,  belongs  the  suit  of  armor  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.  {pi  17,  fig.  1),  of  the  Elector  John  the  Steadfast  of 

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40  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

Saxony  {fig.  2),  and  of  the  knight  (figs.  3  and  4).  When  the  breast-plate 
was  made  of  a  single  piece,  it  became  necessary  to  have  a  support  for  the 
lance  when  placed  in  rest,  and  for  this  purpose  a  hook  was  fixed  on  the 
right  breast  {pL  16,  figs.  9  and  10),  or  sometimes  a  short  horizontal  iron 
bar,  with  a  curve. 

In  the  armor,  especially  of  later  times,  great  magnificence  was  displayed. 
It  is  found  painted  black  or  red,  with  gold  or  silver  nails  and  edges ;  of  blued 
steel,  with  gold  and  silver  borders  and  leaf- work  {fig.  9);  bright  polished,  with 
graven  or  inlaid  ornaments,  and  even  adorned  with  precious  stones.  Armor 
of  silver  entirely,  or  gilt  all  over,  is  frequently  mentioned.  Where  the  parts 
of  the  armor  came  in  contact  with  each  other,  they  were  lined  with  leather 
and  colored  cloth  {figs.  14  and  15).  The  separate  pieces  were  fastened 
together  by  straps  or  hooks  {figs.  12,  18,  14,  and  15),  and  in  the  same  way 
the  greaves,  which  covered  only  the  fore  part  of  the  thigh,  the  shin-bone, 
and  the  knee,  were  buckled  over  the  hose  {figs.  13  and  17).  Of  especial 
interest  are  the  ring-shaped  pieces  which  protect  the  elbow  and  joint  of  the 
arms  {figs.  9,  12,  13,  14,  and  15). 

Particular  attention  was  given  to  the  gauntlets  also,  as  they  were  to  pra> 
tect  the  hand  and  wrist,  and  yet  in  no  respect  interfere  with  their  free 
motion.  The  gauntlet  proper,  therefore,  consisted  of  thick  leather  only,  but 
all  parts  which  were  anywhere  exposed  to  a  blow,  were  protected  by  larger 
or  smaller  strips  of  iron  and  steel-plate,  sewed  on  with  wire  {pi.  16,  figs.  18- 
22).  The  gauntlets  were  often  engraved  or  inlaid  on  the  cuius,  and  the 
separate  strips  ornamented  with  gut  or  silvered  edges  and  studs. 

Spurs  are  a  German  invention,  for  the  name  {sporen)  has  passed  into 
foreign  languages  from  the  German.  At  first,  the  spur  had  but  one  point  ; 
later,  since  the  fourteenth  century,  this  has  been  supplied  by  a  pointed 
rowel.  The  fork  which  held  the  wheel  was  at  first  straight  {pi.  9,  fig.  64), 
afterwards  curved  (fig.  63).  The  oldest  spurs  were  very  broad,  often 
richly  adorned ;  the  rowels  had  points  of  an  inch  and  more  in  length.  The 
golden  spur  was  the  mark  of  a  knight ;  and  a  nobleman  who  was  not  a 
knight  could  wear  only  silver  or  steel  spurs. 

The  oldest  nations  rode  their  horses  only  on  the  bare  back,  yet  even 
among  the  Visigoths  saddles  are  mentioned.  Among  the  Anglo-Saxons 
the  saddle  was  only  a  cushion,  with  a  small  seat  {figs.  47  and  48).  In  the 
eleventh  century,  the  front  and  rear  projections  were  already  considerably 
higher,  as  was  requisite  for  the  mode  of  fighting  practised  by  the  heavy  armed. 
This  is  shown  by  the  Norman  saddle  of  the  year  1120  {fig.  49).  How 
the  form  of  the  saddle  afterwards  changed  is  shown  \nfigs.  50-56.  Fig.  50 
shows  a  saddle  of  the  middle,  ^g^.  51  one  of  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century; 
fig.  52  one  of  the  thirteenth.  To  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century  belong 
the  saddles  in  figs.  54  and  55 ;  in  the  commencement  of  the  fifteenth,  the 
form  was  as  in^^.  53,  and  at  the  close  of  the  same  as  in^^.  56.  jFV^.  60  is 
a  German  saddle  of  the  beginning,  fig.  61  of  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  fig.  62  is  of  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth.  A  state  saddle 
of  the  fifteenth  or  sixteenth  century  is  represented  in  figs.  57,  68,  and  69 ; 
fig.  68  is  the  front,  fig.  59  the  rear  view.  Both  saddle-pads  are  wrought 
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WARFARE  OP  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  41 

in  iron ;  the  figures  and  edges  gilded ;  housings  and  cover  are  of  black 
velvet,  richly  embroidered  with  gold ;  the  stirrups  of  gilded  iron. 

The  warrior  garb  of  the  middle  ages  had  transformed  itself,  in  the  course 
of  centuries,  from  the  severe  simplicity  of  the  old  Germans,  until,  in  the 
time  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  it  reached  the  extreme  of  pomp  and  cost- 
liness. Broadcloth,  silk,  and  velvet,  were  the  stufis  from  which  the  garments, 
often  with  a  superfluity  of  material,  were  made ;  costly  embroideries  in  silk, 
silver,  gold,  and  pearls,  adorned  the  surcoats  at  jousts,  tournaments,  and  pro- 
cessions ;  and  the  barrett-cap,  which  it  was  then  the  wont  to  substitute  for 
the  helmet,  the  last  being  carried  by  a  page  in  the  rear,  flaunted  with  rich 
plumes  of  all  colors.  The  helmet,  too,  which  had  sometimes  a  cover  of  its 
own,  the  helm-case  of  the  same  color  with  that  in  the  escutcheon,  bore  also, 
where  no  particular  crest  was  taken  for  it  from  the  arms,  the  richest  plumes. 
The  squires  and  pages  likewise  were  clad  usually  in  the  colors  of  their  knight, 
while  the  men-at-arms  were  equipped  according  to  their  means  and  taste. 
A  surcoat,  usually  richly  embroidered,  was  generally  worn  by  the  knights 
over  the  cuirass ;  it  reached  half  way  to  the  knee,  had  short  sleeves,  and 
was  sometimes  open  at  the  breast  to  show  the  breast-plate. 

PL  17,  figs.  5  and  6,  are  two  groups  of  foot-soldiers,  from  the  triumphal 
processions  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  after  Albrecht  Durer's  wood-cuts ; 
figs.  3  and  4,  two  groups  of  knights  on  foot,  completely  armed,  and  wearing 
the  above-mentioned  surcoats.  In  pi.  18,  figs.  7,  8,  9,  and  10,  are  four 
groups  of  ensign  and  standard  bearers,  of  different  cities  and  districts  of  the 
German  empire,  on  richly  adorned  horses.  It  is  seen  here  how  the  horses, 
when  not  equipped  for  battle,  were  covered  with  rich  housings.  At  tour- 
naments, also,  such  housings  were  general,  and  they  were  then  arranged 
according  to  the  color  of  the  escutcheons,  or  they  held  devices  and  various 
figures  (figs.  8  and  10),  or  else  rich  embroidery,  as  fig.  4.  Upon  the  ban- 
ners  and  standards  the  arms  of  the  cities  or  districts,  or  sometimes  only 
devices  and  mottoes,  were  embroidered.  Among  the  standards  represented 
here  are  those  of  Steiermark  and  the  two  Austrias  (fig.  10),  of  Frioul,  An- 
dechsum,  and  Tockenburg  (fig.  9),  of  Kirchberg,  Ravenstein,  and  Wald- 
hausen  (fig.  8),  and  of  Saalgaw,  Bregenz,  and  Fischbach  (fig.  7),  bearing 
the  arms  of  the  cities  and  districts.  Musicians  on  horseback  we  find  in 
pi  17,  fig.  10,  having  cases  with  them  for  their  instruments. 

From  the  entrance  of  Charles  V.  into  Bologna,  after  Lucas  Kranach's 
woodcuts,  figs.  7  and  8  show  the  Spanish  knight  with  the  mallet  and  the 
imperial  banner-bearer ;  pi.  18,  figs.  1  and  2,  the  herald  of  the  Golden 
Fleece  and  the  gold-scättering  herald ;  figs.  3,  4,  and  5,  the  banner  bearers 
of  the  city  of  Rome,  of  the  emperor,  and  of  the  pope ;  fig.  6,  the  banner 
bearer  of  Bologna  with  his  suite. 

The  picture  in  fig.  11  may  serve  us  as  the  conclusion  of  this  period  in 
warfare,  presenting,  as  it  does,  a  lively  representation  of  an  army  as  it 
appeared  at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  marching  forth  of  an 
army  from  its  camp  is  here  depictured;  the  general-in-chief  with  the 
standard,  which  flutters  gaily  in  the  morning  breeze,  stands  upon  a  rising 
ground,  surrounded  by  his  leaders  and  attendants,  beside  the  last  tents 

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42  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

which  yet  remain  erect,  and  as  the  host  of  knights,  squires,  and  men-at-anns 
defile  before  him,  kindles  them  by  glowing  words  to  deeds  of  valor  in  the 
coming  combat. 

In  the  last  decade  of  the  fifteenth  century  arose  that  tedious  strife 
between  France  and  Hapsburg.  In  France  the  ban  and  arrHre-ban  were 
no  more,  the  German  vassals  disowned  their  homage  to  the  Emperor ; 
but  France  had  formed  its  **  compagnies  d'ordonnance,"  the  "  hommes 
d'armes,"  a  paid  standing  army,  from  which  came  forth  her  Bayard, 
La  Tremouille,  La  Police  ;  and  Maximilian  I.,  the  young  hero  full 
of  "  precious  thoughts,"  deserted  by.  the  nobility  of  his  hereditary  states, 
must,  if  he  would  maintain  the  dignity  of  World-ruler,  be  the  founder  of  a 
new  war  system.  He  created  the  "good  Landsknechts,"  by  assembling 
the  rude  burghers  and  peasants  of  his  Austrian  patrimony  under  his  banners, 
arming  them  after  the  Swiss  fashion  with  long  spears,  halberts,  and  swords, 
having  them  taught  to  keep  rank  and  file,  to  wield  the  lance,  and  form  the 
"porcupine."  Remarkable  is  it,  that  in  the  very  year  which  saw  the 
defence  of  the  German  empire  pass  from  the  hands  of  the  nobles  into  those 
of  the  peasants,  the  year  1487,  the  last  tournament  of  four  nations  should 
have  been  held  at  Worms.  Ludwig  von  Rheinach,  Christoph  von  Kammer, 
Otto  von  Lichtenstein,  and  Friedrich  Kämmerer  von  Dalberg  were  the  last 
tourney  kings ;  and  after  the  Countess  Palatine  had  bestowed  upon  Conrad, 
knight  of  Ahelfingen,  the  prize  of  victory  (pL  1*1, ßg,  11),  the  four  tourney 
kings,  with  the  chief  victor  and  one  of  the  nobles  of  each  of  the  four  nations, 
had  their  escutcheons  set  up  for  show.  Thus  ended  the  Grerman  knight- 
hood. 

The  constitution  of  the  German  soldiery  was  at  this  time  very  free.  No 
conscription  or  canton  service  carried  the  sons  of  the  German  boor  or 
burgher  to  the  standard ;  they  went  of  their  own  accord,  but  they  demanded 
even  in  the  imperial  camp,  securities  for  their  burgher  privileges,  and  these 
were  promised  them  by  the  Emperor.  So  often,  therefore,  as  a  ruler  needed 
an  army,  he  gave  to  some  distinguished  warrior  a  commission  as  general-in- 
chief,  with  the  license  to  raise  a  regiment  of  Landsknechts,  but  at  the  same 
time  the  "statute  brief"  also,  that  is,  the  constitution  and  the  usage  by 
which  the  prince  would  hold  his  soldiery.  To  the  term  regiment,  however, 
we  must  not  attach  the  quantitative  idea  of  our  own  times,  but  to  "  raise  a 
regiment"  meant  then  to  call  an  army  together  under  the  written  constitu- 
tion, founding  as  it  were  a  military  empire.  As  soon  as  the  war  chief  had 
his  brief,  and  the  place  of  meeting  and  muster  was  appointed,  he  chose  his 
lieutenant  and  deputy,  and  as  many  officers  as  he  had  companies  to  raise. 
These  were  then  to  "  beat  about,"  all  over  the  country,  for  recruits,  and 
persuade  creditable  and  effective  fellows  to  the  war  game.  Admission  into 
the  ranks  of  the  "  good  Landsknechts"  stood  not  open  indeed  to  every  land- 
louper, but  the  candidate  must  appear  well  armed  and  well  clad,  and  thus 
only  people  of  some  means  could  follow  the  recruiting  drum.  When 
assembled,  an  imperial  or  royal  muster-chief  made  his  appearance,  with 
war-counsellors  and  muster-clerks,  and  every  single  man  was  carefully 
examined  in  respect  to  his  person,  arms,  &c.  All  the  best  armed,  being 
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WARFARE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  43 

mostly  men  of  long  service,  were  put  on  the  "  first  roll,"  and  received  higher 
pay,  and  each  company  of  400  men  must  have  at  least  100  of  these;  the 
remainder,  came  on  the  "second  roll,"  and  all  received  pay  from  the 
paymaster.  The  chief  gave  his  people  a  stirring  speech,  had  the  statute- 
brief  read  before  them,  made  them  take  the  oath,  and  then  delivered 
the  standards  to  the  ensigns,  admonishing  them  to  lose  them  only  with 
their  lives.  Then  the  different  companies  came  together,  the  captain 
cautioned  his  people,  presented  to  them  the  lieutenant,  cl^rk,  chaplain, 
and  surgeon,  whom  he  had  chosen,  and  now  began  "in  the  ring"  the 
choice  of  sergeants,  of  sergeants-major,  of  guides,  of  commissaries  (Fourier), 
and  of  corporals,  by  majority  of  voices ;  and  in  this  way  the  regiment, 
consisting  generally  of  fifteen  to  sixteen  companies  of  400  men,  was  divided 
and  organized  from  highest  to  lowest.  The  colonel  had  in  his  regiment 
the  absolute  power  of  life  and  death.  The  provost  had  the  rank  of 
captain,  preserved  order/  and  in  assaults«^  carried  a  sword  himself.  The 
camp  followers,  consisting  of  sutlers,  laundresses,  and  various  women,  the 
soldier  brats  and  rabble  "who  followed  the  drum,"  were  under  a  special 
commander. 

The  administration  of  justice  was  severe ;  at  its  head  stood  the  mayor 
(SchuUheiss),  and  the  sentence  was  given  by  a  species  of  jury  court,  which 
consisted  of  twelve  judges  and  the  sworn  jurors,  who  were  always  chosen 
from  the  company  afi*ected.  The  sentence  was  executed  as  soon  as  passed. 
The  drill  and  discipline  of  these  unwieldy  landsknecht  regiments,  which 
often  swelled  up  from  4,000  to  10,000  men,  were  suited  to  the  battle-fields 
of  those  days.  Averse  to  tactical  exercises,  the  German  soldiery  of  that 
period  knew  nothing  but  to  rush  upon  the  foe  in  open  field  with  levelled 
lance  and  halbert,  or  in  close  ranks  to  storm  his  entrenchments  and  strong 
places.  Foremost  went  the  "forlorn  hope,"  chosen  usually  by  lot,  and 
commenced  the  onslaught ;  close  upon  them  pressed  the  "  storming  party," 
in  solid  square,  at  the  pas-de-charge.  The  arquebusiers,  with  their  light 
companies,  were  in  later  times  attached  in  separate  bodies,  as  wings,  to  the 
flanks  of  the  square  or  in  front  and  rear.  On  the  outmost  sides  of  the 
square  "the  porcupine,"  those  nearest  to  the  foe,  the  best  equipped  men, 
with  long  spears,  swords,  and  halberts,  formed  a  "  front  rank"  ("  Blatt"), 
to  which  followed  the  three  first  companies.  The  middle  space  was  filled 
up  by  four  companies  less  perfectly  armed,  and  all  having  long  spears ;  in 
the  three  rear  companies  there  bristled  again  a  forest  of  spears,  next  to  a 
rank  of  swordsmen ;  and  in  the  last  ranks  stood  the  strongest,  best-armed 
people  with  long  spears,  usually  the  double- pay  men.  Whenever  they  were 
about  to  engage,  the  army  fell  upon  their  knees,  sent  forth  a  hymn  and 
prayer,  then  shook  the  dust  from  their  feet,  and  rushed  on  with  levelled 
spears.  Before  the  first  rank  rode  or  marched  the  general  with  his  chief 
ofiicers  near  him,  for  not  until  afterwards  did  the  custom  arise  of  placing, 
"  for  the  sake  of  the  common  good,"  the  officers  behind  the  ranks.  In  front 
of  the  square  masses  of  infantry  the  single  combats  of  the  knights  then 
took  place  which  preceded  every  action. 

Such  was  the  formation,  the  internal  organization,  the  law  usage,  and  the 

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44  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

custom  of  war  of  the  first  regular  European  infantry,  from  which  by  Tarioiis 
modifications  the  infantry  of  all  modem  nations  has  originated. 

As  to  cavalry,  the  Emperor  Charles  created — for  until  his  time  only 
individual  knights  had  fought  with  the  armies — ^whole  regiments  after  the 
fashion  of  the  French  "  compagnies  d'ordonnance"  and  "  hommes  d'armes," 
which  were  raised  by  any  distinguished  prince  of  the  empire,  with  the 
imperial  commission.  Noble  birth  was  not  required.  The  choice  of 
captains  and  officers  was  left  to  the  field-marshal,  for  so  the  general 
of  cavalry  wa3  entitled,  to  distinguish  him  from  the  general  of  infantry. 
As  soon  as  the  cavalry  service  ceased  to  be  peculiar  to  the  nobles,  a 
regimental  organization  very  similar  to  that  of  the  landsknechts  was 
intrioduced. 

It  was  the  Emperor  Maximilian  who  first  placed  the  artillery  upop  a 
formidable  footing,  and  created  the  proper  artillery  corps  in  the  army ;  but 
it  was  long  after  ere  any  degree  of  mobility  was  given  to  it,  and  this 
was  first  efiected  by  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  The  general  of  ordnance 
(Oberfeldzeugmeister)  had  the  whole  artillery,  with  all  artificers  and  gunners, 
under  his  command;  next  to  him  came  his  lieutenant  and  the  master  of 
ordnance  (Zeugmeister)  and  his  halberdiers  and  apprentices  {Jungen). 
The  gunner  (Büchsenmeister)  had  charge  of  a  piece,  and  must  understand 
laying  it  by  the  quadrant.  The  artificer,  armorer,  and  inspector  (Zeugwart) 
had  charge  of  all  the  materials  for  a  piece;  the  wagon-master  commanded 
the  whole  baggage  train,  and  that  was  not  small,  for  the  battering-gun 
(Scharf metze),  which  weighed  five  tons  and  threw  a  ball  of  100  lbs.  weight, 
required  33  horses,  and  the  ammunition  32  wagons  with  163  horses,  &c. 
The  harness-master  took  care  of  the  teams,  the  powder-master  of  the  ammu- 
nition. Finally  the  pioneer  and  pontoon  train,  which  the  perfected  service 
of  the  artillery  required,  were  commanded  by  the  trench-master  (Schanz* 
meister).    Bridge-masters  and  their  people  were  called  hurryers  (Schneller). 


C.    WARFARE  OF  MODERN  TIMES. 

With  the  invention  of  gunpowder  commenced  a  new  era  in  Europe ;  not 
in  armies  and  warfare  alone,  but  in  the  whole  civil  constitution  of  society  a 
total  transformation  was  begun,  which  proceeded  not,  it  is  true,  with  start* 
ling  violence,  yet  all  the  more  securely.  Although,  at  first,  gunpowder  was 
used  only  for  heavy  artillery,  of  which  the  largest  armies  would  have  but  a 
few  pieces,  so  that,  for  two  hundred  years  after  its  invention,  its  employ- 
ment was  still  very  rare,  and  efiected  no  striking  change  in  warfare,  or  in 
modes  of  attack  and  defence ;  yet  this  change  was  brought  about  so  soon  as 
the  weapon  was  constructed  of  proportions  small  enough  to  be  handled  by 
a  single  man.  The  first  efiect  was  to  lighten  the  whole  equipment  ThÄ 
fire-arm  threw  its  shot  to  great  distances,  and  thus  the  long  lances  and 
swords  lost  all  value,  and  were  both  made  shorter  and  lighter.  The  com- 
mon means  of  protection  against  blow  and  thrust,  the  cuirass,  shield,  and 
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WARFABB  OF  MODERN  TIMES.  45 

helmet,  were  no  defence  against  the  fire-arm,  unless  made  very  thick,  when 
they  became  so  weighty  that  they  were  no  longer  available  for  infantry ; 
whereupon  these  also  were  laid  aside.  By  the  invention  of  gunpowder, 
victory  was  snatched  from  the  hands  of  brute  force  and  given  to  superior 
intelligence.  The  art  of  war,  which  until  now  had  found  its  advan- 
tage only  in  superior  numbers,  or  in  the  great  personal  strength  and 
fiery  courage  of  the  warrior,  became  a  science ;  and  the  most  skilfiil  usually 
carried  away  the  victory  from  the  merely  brave.  With  this  advance  in 
the  art  of  war,  however,  an  unremitting  practice  of  the  same  became  requi- 
site, and  warfare  could  be  waged  only  by  experienced  people,  who  were 
familiar  with  the  use  of  fire-arms,  and  with  the  complicated  manoeuvres 
necessary  to  their  employment  in  the  field;  even  in  peace,  therefore,  it 
became  indispensable  to  maintain  a  standing  army.  To  this  cause  is  owing 
the  great  number  of  wars  which  were  waged,  either  in  the  cause  of  religion, 
as  the  war  of  the  Reformation,  or  on  political  grounds,  as  the  wars  of  the 
Revolution  and  Succession. 

That  the  organization,  the  armament,  and  even  the  support  of  such  armies» 
were  not  placed  at  first  on  that  stage  of  perfection  where  they  now  stand,  is 
natural.  The  science  continuaüy  advanced ;  each  i^  brought  new  inven- 
tions ;  and  even  fashion  asserted  here,  likewise,  when  uniformity  of  clothing 
was  soon  introduced,  her  irresistible  power.  Hence,  we  find  a  constant 
change  in  the  tactic,  continually  new  and  more  efiective  weapons,  and 
even  the  uniform  ever  advancing  in  improvement  The  first  impulse  to 
the  thorough  reformations  which,  in  the  present  century,  created  as  it  were 
a  new  warfare,  was  given  by  Napoleon,  whose  wars  were  waged  in  a 
manner  unheard  of  until  then.  In  his  marches  and  countermarches,  which 
were  rapid  as  the  storm,  he  needed  light  troops,  and  such  he  knew  how  to 
call  into  existence.  As  he  efiected  a  complete  revolution  in  tactics,  so 
did  he  also  in  the  clothing  and  in  the  armament ;  and  only  our  persistence 
in  building  upon  the  foundation  laid  by  this  mighty  spirit,  have  we  to  thank 
for  our  present  possession  of  an  art  and  system  of  warfare  approaching  very 
closely  to  perfection,  and  capable  often  of  producing  the  greatest  effects 
with  very  slight  means. 

We  will  now  examine  more  closely  the  system  of  war  and  military 
organization  in  some  of  the  more  prominent  European  States,  and  wiUi 
respect  to  the  different  arms  employed,  whether  infantry,  cavalry,  artillery» 
or  engineers. 

The  Prussian  Militant  Stbtbm.  The  Prussian  army  was  first  estab- 
lished as  a  standing  army  under  the  Elector  Frederick  I.,  who  formed,  from 
among  the  feudal  nobles,  a  body-guard  of  two  hundred  men,  and  placed  in 
the  fortresses  some  companies  of  landsknechU,  Two  hundred  years  later, 
the  Elector  John  William  had  three  companies  of  guards,  of  100  men 
each,  and  five  companies  of  infantry,  200  strong,  all  uniformly  clad,  at  that 
time  unusual.  His  successor,  the  great  Elector,  carried  recruiting  into 
foreign  states,  and  his  army  went  up  to  30,000  men  :  among  them,  300 
artillery.  Elector  Frederick  III.,  the  first  king  of  Prussia,  had  36,000  men 
of  disciplined  troops,  under  the  command  of  Prince  Leopold  I.,  of  Dessau» 

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46  MILTTABT  SCIENCES. 

and  excellently  organized.  Frederick  William  I.  introduced  the  rigid  mili- 
tary discipline  and  most  of  the  institutions  which  still  prevail,  especially  the 
cantonment  service,  &c.  At  his  death  (1740)  the  army  numbered  76,000 
men.  Frederick  the  Great  gave  his  military  regulations  in  1749,  and 
under  him  the  modem  tactic  was  really  introduced.  To  the  cavalry  the 
king  gave  special  attention,  and  Ziethen  was  the  creator  of  the  Prussian 
hussars,  while  Seidlitz  organized  the  cavalry  tactics.  The  artillery  was 
newly  constituted  in  1759,  and  the  organized  horse-artillery  brigades 
came  forward  in  1769,  as  an  entirely  new  arm.  The  army  consisted 
at  that  time  of  120,000  infantry,  40,000  cavalry,  10,000  artillery,  and 
80,000  garrison  troops.  Under  Frederick  William  II.,  the  army,  despite  the 
French  revolution,  did  not  increase  materially ;  for,  at  his  death,  it  contained 
only  182,000  infantry,  41,000  cavalry,  and  12,000  artillery.  His  successor» 
Frederick  William  III.,  created  an  entirely  new  army,  after  Napoleon,  by 
the  Treaty  of  Tilsit,  had  limited  the  Prussian  force  to  42,000  men.  Prince 
William  of  Prussia,  and  Gen.  von  Scharnhorst,  conducted  the  new  CM^gani- 
zation;  foreigners  were  discharged,  and  the  people  became  the  soldiers, 
every  son  of  the  soil  being  subject  to  military  service.  The  cadet  estab- 
lishments were  improved,  and  upper  and  lower  military  schools  erected. 
By  a  rapid  exchange  of  personnel  in  the  small  standing  army  (Kremper 
system)  an  immense  disciplined  force  was  prepared,  and  thus,  in  1813^  a 
trained  army  of  150,000  men  could  be  immediately  put  on  foot,  which  waa 
increased  in  two  months  by  the  landwehr  (reserve)  to  250,000,  and  from  1813 
to  1815,  Prussia  had  one  million  of  men  under  arms.  At  present,  Prussia's 
military  organization  is  on  the  greatest  scale,  her  power  resting  as  much  <m 
the  troops  of  the  line,  as  on  the  completely  trained  and  practised  landwehr.  At 
present,  the  Prussian  army,  exclusive  of  the  **  garde  du  corps"  is  organized 
into  four  army-divisions,  each  of  two  army-corps,  containing  each  two 
divisions  of  two  brigades,  one  of  infantry  and  one  of  cavalry.  Every  bri- 
gade consists  of  two  regiments  and  one  landwehr  brigade.  In  addition  to 
these,  each  army-corps  has  one  artillery  brigade,  one  pioneer  division,  one 
combined  reserve-battalion,  one  light  infantry  and  rifle  division  of  two  com- 
panies, one  reserve  landwehr  battalion,  one  reserve  landwehr  squadn»,  two 
invalid  companies,  six  half-invalid  sections,  one  army-gendarmerie  com- 
mand. The  field  strength  of  the  army-corps  is  28,000  infantry,  5,200 
cavalry,  5,000  artillery,  and  750  pioneers. 

The  infantry  consists  of  two  regiments  of  the  guard,  two  grenadier  regi- 
ments, one  battalion  riflemen  of  the  guard,  one  light  infantry  battalion  of  the 
guard,  ayd  one  infantry  battalion  of  instruction  (the  last  assembled  only  in 
summer),  one  combined  reserve-battalion  of  the  guard,  thirty-two  infantry 
,  regiments  of  the  line  of  three  battalions  (two  line  and  one  light  battalion),  eight 
reserve  infantry  regiments  of  two  battalions,  four  rifle  and  four  light  infantry 
divisions,  and  eight  combined  reserve-infantry-battalions.  Each  battalion  has 
four  companies,  with  6  oflicers,  20  non-commissioned  oflicers,  4  musicians,  2 
baggage  men,  and  226  men,  and  is,  therefore,  258  in  the  a^regate.  In  peace, 
only  about  half  of  these  are  under  arms.  With  the  staff,  the  surgeons,  the 
commissariat,  musicians,  &c.,  a  regiment  of  the  guard  contains  8,148,  a 
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WAEPABE  OF  MODERN  TIMES.  47 

line  regiment  8405,  a  reserve  regiment  2,075,  aggregate,  on  the  war  footing. 
The  light  infantry  and  rifle  battalions  of  the  guard  have  each  1,050,  the 
light  infantry  and  rifle  divisions  527  a^pregate. 

A  general  of  infantry  or  cavalry  (p//19,  upper ^^.  1,)  usually  commands 
the  army  corps  and  army  division,  one  lieutenant  general  the  division,  one 
major  general  the  brigade,  one  colonel  the  regiment,  one  lieutenant  colonel 
or  major  the  battalion.  The  general  stafi*  consists  of  1  general,  37  staff- 
officers  {fig.  2),  15  captains,  and  3  lieutenants.  Of  the  adjutants  (fig.  3), 
two  are  assigned  to  each  prince^royal,  to  each  general  commanding,  to  each 
division,  and  one  to  every  brigade ;  the  rest  of  the  adjutants  are  selected 
from  the  regiments  to  which  they  are  attached. 

The  general's  uniform  (fig.  1)  is  blue,  with  red,  richly  embroidered  collar 
and  cuffs,  two  rows  of  yellow  buttons,  and  an  aiguillette  on  the  right 
shoulder.  The  undress  uniform  has  no  embroidery;  only  one  row  of 
buttons,  and  epaulettes  with  bouillons.  Pantaloons  grey,  with  red  stripes, 
and  edgings.  Black  and  silver  sash,  with  long  tassels.  Hat  with  white 
and  black  plumes.  The  uniform  of  the  general  staff  (fig.  2)  is  blue»  with 
crimson  collar  and  cuffs,  with  silver  lace  (gold  for  the  war  ministry),  dark 
blue  epaulettes,  with  silver  crescent,  buttons  white.  Hat  with  white  and 
black  plumes.  The  uniform  of  the  adjutants  (fig.  3)  is  dark  blue,  with 
green  collar  and  cufis,  with  light  gold  embroidery ;  yellow  buttons,  blue 
epaulettes,  with  gold  crescent.  Hat  with  white  and  black  plumes.  The 
rank  of  officers  generally  is  distinguished  by  the  epaulette.  All  wear  silver 
sashes,  with  long  silver  and  black  tassels  (the  hussars  buckled  sashes 
without  tassels),  silver  and  black  sword-knots,  the  cavalry  with  a  leather 
strap.  The  epaulettes  are  of  cloth,  the  color  according  to  the  army- 
division  (white,  red,  yellow,  or  light  blue),  with  silver  or  gilt  crescent 
bound  with  black  and  silver  galloon,  and  lined  with  red.  Staff  officers  have 
silver  fringe  on  the  epaulette;  adjutants  general  and  king's  aide-de-camp, 
silver  epaulettes  ;  the  lieutenant  general,  one  star ;  the  general  of  infantry 
two  on  epaulette  or  aiguillette ;  the  field  marshal,  two  embroidered  gold 
bars ;  the  colonel  and  captain  have  two  small  silver  stars  on  the  epaulette ; 
the  lieutenant  colonel  and  first  lieutenant  have  one  ;  the  major  and  second 
lieutenant  none.  Hussar  officers  have,  instead  of  epaulettes,  silver  shoulder- 
knots,  twisted  for  the  staff  officers,  plain  for  the  others,  with  stars  upon 
them,  according  to  rank.  The  non-commissioned  officers  have  lace  round 
the  collar  and  cuffs  (the  bombardiers  of  artillery  only  round  the  cuffs),  and 
black  and  white  woollen  sabre-knots(the  sergeant-major,  troop-sergeant, 
chief  artificer  (laboratory  sergeant),  and  ensign,  silver). 

The  color  of  the  infantry  uniform  is  dark  blue  ;  of  the  light  infantry  and 
rifle  divisions  green.  The  dress,  a  short  frock-coat,  reaching  nearly  to  the 
knee,  with  one  row  of  buttons  and  blue  standing  collar,  a  red  flap  on  both 
sides  in  front,  and  red  cuffs,  with  a  flap,  which,  as  well  as  the  shoulder-strap, 
varies  with  the  color  of  the  army  corps  and  division.  The  pantaloons  are 
grey,  with  red  edgings,  in  summer  white.  The  head-covering  is  a  helmet 
(casque)  of  leather,  plated  with  brass,  terminating  above  in  a  point,  in 
which  openmgs  are  arranged  to  permit  the  evaporation  from  the  head  to 

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48  mUTART  SdEHCBS. 

pas8  off.    On  the  front  of  the  casque  the  guard  wear  the  flying  eagle ;  the 
infantry  the  escutcheon  eagle,  with  the  king's  cypher,  instead  of  which  the 
landwehr  eagle  has  the  landwehr  cross.     The  guard  corps  have  white  or 
black  horse-tails  on  the  helmets,  and  are  distinguished  further  by  white  or 
yellow  lace  on  cufis  and  collar.    The  light  infantry  of  the  guard  have 
black ;  the  rifles,  red  collar  and  cufis ;  the  rest  of  the  light  infantry  and 
rifles  the  same,  but  without  lace.    The  equipment  consists  of  bayonet- 
muskets,  with  percussion  locks,  rifles,  and  percussion-needle  muskets ;  for 
the  infantry,  a  short  sabre,  for  the  light  infantry  and  rifles,  a  sword-bayonet, 
with  woollen  tassels.    The  belts  are  white  for  the  infantry  of  the  line  and 
grenadiers ;  for  the  light  battalions,  rifles,  &c.,  black.     The  first  regiment 
of  the  guard  has  a  peculiar  uniform  for  great  parades,  which  originated 
firom  the  uniform  of  Frederick  the  Great's  time :  pL  9,  upper  ßg.  4  shows 
a  non-commissioned  ofilcer  of  this  regiment  in  parade  uniform,  which  b 
blue,  and  has  red  cufis  and  collar,  with  white  lace.     The  cap  is  white,  with 
red  upper  part,  and  silver  shield,  on  which  is  wrought  the  star  of  the  goanL 
Fig.  5  is  one  of  the  guard  riflemen  (Neufchatel) ;  fig.  6,  a  guard  light 
infantry  man ;  fig.  7,  a  grenadier  of  the  guard,  of  the  Emperor  Francis  regi- 
ment (red  shoulder-straps,  with  yellow) ;  fig.  8,  a  grenadier  of  the  Emperor 
Alexander's  regiment  of  the  guud  (white  shoulder-straps,  with  red) ;  fig.  9, 
an  officer  of  infantry;  fig.  10,  sergeant-major  of  infantry;  fig.  11,  mus- 
keteer; fig.  12,  drummer  of  infantry;  fig.  13,  officer  of  light  infantry 
division ;  fig.  14,  private  of  rifle  division ;  pi.  20,  fig.  10,  private  of  the 
landwehr,  in  marching  equipment. 

The  cavalry  contains  one  body-guard  regiment  i^arde  du  corps),  pi.  20, 
fig.  1 :  white  frock-coats,  with  red  trimmings ;  collar  and  cufl&,  with  white 
lace.  Helmet  of  yellow  metal,  with  white  edges,  and  the  silver  star  of  the 
guard.  For  parade  yellow,  at  other  times  white  or  black  cuirass,  with 
breast  and  back-piece ;  German  saddle,  white  belts ;  red  caparison,  with  the 
guard  star  and  white  trimmings.  One  cuirassier  regiment  of  the  guajd 
{fig,  2) :  white  frock-coat,  with  sky-blue  trimmings;  collar  and  cufl^'with 
white  lace ;  helmet  same  as  the  body-guard,  but,  instead  of  the  point,  having 
the  Prussian  eagle,  in  silver,  standing ;  caparison  sky-blue,  with  the  guard- 
star,  and  red  and  white  trimmings  ;  cuirass  as  the  garde  du  corps.  Ei^t 
cuirassier  regiments  {fig.  5)  :  white  frock-coat,  with  black,  crimson,  sky- 
blue,  orange,  pink,  dark  blue,  yellow,  and  green  trimmings ;  collar  and 
cufis;  white  casques,  with  yellow  plating  and  points;  white  cuirass; 
caparison  according  to  the  color  of  the  collar.  One  guard  dragoon  r^- 
ment :  deep  blue  frock-coat,  with  crimson  collar  and  cufis,  and  yellow  lace; 
white  helmet,  with  yellow  plate  and  point,  and  the  guard-star.  Four  dragoon 
regiments  {fig.  6) :  same  colored  frock-coat,  with  red,  black,  pink,  and 
white  facings;  black  helmet,  with  yellow  plate  and  point;  Hungarian 
saddle;  white  belts;  light  blue  caparison,  with  trimmings  according  to 
color  of  the  collar.  One  guard  hussar  regiment :  dark  blue  pelisse  and 
dolman,  with  yellow  lace ;  hussar  cap,  with  hair  plume  and  wings ;  buckled 
sash;  red  sabretache,  with  yellow  cypher.  Twelve  hussar  r^punents, 
with  various  colored  pelisses  and  dolmans.  The  1st  and  2d  body  regi- 
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WARFARE  OF  MODISN  TIMES.  49 

ments  {fig.  8)  :  blaok,  with  white  lace ;  red  sabretache,  with  white  cypher, 
the  death's-head  on  the  cap>  black  caparison,  with  red  and  white  trim- 
mings; black  belts;  Hungarian  saddle.  The  7th  regiment:  black,  with 
yellow  lace.  The  4th :  brown,  with  yellow  lace.  The  dd  and  8th  (fig. 
8):  dark  blue,  with  yellow  and  white  lace.  The  6lh,  10th,  and  11th: 
dark  green,  with  white  and  with  yellow  lace.  The  9th  and  12th :  light 
blue,  with  white  and  with  yellow  lace.  The  5th  (Blücher's)  regiment : 
crimson,  with  white  lace ;  caparison  crimson,  with  blaqk  and  white  trim- 
mings. Two  guard  hulan  regiments  (fig.  4) :  blue  jackets  (collet),  with 
different  colored  collars,  cuffs,  facings,  and  girdles;  deep  blue  chapkas 
(caps) ;  white  belts,  and  lance  with  black  and  white  pennon ;  white  horse- 
hair plume  on  the  chapka ;  Hungarian  saddle :  dark  blue  caparison,  with 
trimmings  the  color  of  the  facings.  Eight  hulan  regiments  (fig.  7): 
dark  blue,  with  red  collars,  cuffs,  facings,  and  girdles ;  deep  blue  chapka, 
without  plume.  The  landwehr  cavalry  (fig.  9)  have  dark  blue  frock-coat, 
with  colored  collar  and  shoulder  straps,  and  girdle  with  colored  edge; 
black  casques,  with  yellow  plating  and  point,  and  lances  like  the  hulans ; 
Hungarian  saddle,  with  dark  blue  caparison,  with  trimmings  the  color  of 
the  collar ;  belts  white.  The  arms  of  the  cavalry  are :  for  the  cuirassiers, 
the  long,  straight  sword,  for  the  remainder,  the  curved  sabre,  pistols,  and, 
in  addition,  carbines  for  the  dragoons,  and  for  the  hulans,  lances.  The 
fourth  subdivision  of  each  squadron  has  carbines.  Each  cavalry  regiment 
has  four  squadrons,  with  6  officers,  15  non-commissioned  officers,  1  surgeon, 
1  farrier,  3  trumpeters,and  127  (in  the  guard  137)  men,  so  that,  including 
the  staff,  the  regiment  numbers  616  (in  the  guard  636)  aggregate,  with  570 
royal  horses. 

The  Artillery  consists  of  one  guard  and  eight  army  brigades,  and  one  labo- 
ratory division.  Each  brigade  has  3  horse  and  12  foot  batteries,  of  which 
each  is  manned  by  one  company.  There  is  besides,  one  company  of 
artificers.  Three  companies  man  12-pounder  batteries  of  six  12-pounder 
guns  and  two  10-pounder  howitzers  each ;  three  horse  and  five  of  the  foot 
companies  man  6-pounder  batteries  of  six  6-pounder  guns,  and  two  7-pounder 
howitzers  each.  Two  foot  companies  man  each  a  howitzer  battery,  the 
one  of  six  10-pounder,  the  other  of  eight  7»pounder  howitzers.  Three 
foot  companies  are  assigned  to  the  fortress  service.  In  peace,  only  20 
pieces  of  the  brigade  are  harnessed,  and  then  the  brigade  has  1  brigadier, 
3  chiefs  of  sections,  1  staff  officer,  15  captains,  16  first  and  32  second 
lieutenants,  192  non-commissioned  officers,  240  bombardiers,  35  musicians, 
960  canuoniers,  1  regimental  surgeon,  16  company  surgeons,  6  farriers; 
aggregate  1524  men,  which  in  time  of  war  is  increased  to  5000  men  and 
8600  horses.  The  uniform  is,  for  the  foot  artillery,  the  same  as  the  infantry ; 
for  the  horse  artillery,  as  for  the  dragoons,  only  that  the  frock-coats  are 
dark  blue.  Collar  flaps  and  cufii  are  black,  with  red  edgings,  for  the 
i^cers  velvet,  for  the  guard  with  yellow  lace;  edgings  and  shoulder 
straps  red,  buttons  yellow.  The  helmets  as  for  the  troops  of  the  line,  but 
the  guard  and  horse  artillery  have  horse-hair  plumes.  The  saddle  for  the 
light  artillery  is  Hungarian,  for  the  field  artillery,  German ;  caparison  dark 

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60  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

blue,  with  black,  red-edged  trimmings.    The  arms,  short  sabres  for  the  foot 
artillery ;  for  the  light,  cavalry  sabres  and  pistols ;  belts  white. 

The  engineer  corps  is  commanded  by  a  lieutenant  general,  and  has 
charge  of  the  fortification  service  and  the  pioneer  duty.  It  numbers  2 
generals,  20  staff  officers,  280  other  officers,  and  embraces  1  guard  and  8 
pioneer  divisions,  besides  2  reserve  divisions;  in  all  20  companies  of  111 
men,  each  of  which  forms  2  sapper,  1  miner,  and  I  pontonier  secticm. 
Two  companies  of  219  men  (in  the  field  628  men)  form  a  division.  The 
guard  has  280  men  and  12  mariniers.  Each  division  has  also  a  pontoon 
train,  in  the  field  206  pontoons,  54  train  wagons,  1152  men  of  the  train, 
and  2214  horses.  The  pioneer  uniform  is  that  of  the  artillery,  with  white 
lace  for  the  guard,  black  belts,  and  white  buttons.  The  arms,  a  fascine 
knife,  sharp  in  front,  the  back  toothed  like  a  saw,  and  a  bayonet-carbine. 
Besides  these,  each  pioneer  carries  one  of  the  most  necessary  entrenchii^ 
utensils. 

The  Austrian  Military  System.  The  Austrian  army  stands  under  the 
general  command  of  the  Aulic  or  Ministerial  Council  of  War  (Hofkriegs^ 
rath),  and  consists  of  12  general  commands,  each  of  which  contains  several 
divisions,  each  under  a  lieutenant  general  and  made  up  of  2  to  3  brigades 
(each  of  from  4  to  8  battalions  or  squadrons)  under  a  major  general.  The 
general  officers  were,  a  few  years  ago,  4  field  marshals,  20  generals,  98 
lieutenant  generals,  and  122  major  generals,  all  active,  and  about  the  same 
number  inactive.  The  uniform  of  generals  is  a  white  dress-coat  with 
white  collar,  red  cuffs  and  skirt  facings,  red  pantaloons  with  gold  lace, 
sword  in  golden  baldric ;  cocked  hat  with  green  feather.  The  desig- 
nations of  rank :  field  marshal,  embroidery  on  cuffs  and  collar ;  general, 
two  strips  of  lace  on  the  sleeve  ;  lieutenant  general,  one  strip  of  lace 
2^  inches  wide ;  major  general,  one  strip  2  inches  wide.  Undress  uniform : 
pike-grey  with  red  collar  and  cuflfs.  Generals  who  have  had  the  rank  of 
colonel  in  the  Hungarian  cavalry  wear  hussar  uniform,  red  dolmans  and 
red  breeches,  white  pelisse  trimmed  with  sable,  bear-skin  cap  with  white 
heron  plume ;  sabre  and  sabretache.  The  designations  of  rank  for  the 
remainder  of  the  officers,  who  wear  sword-knots  of  black  and  gold  with 
yellow  and  black  silk  sash,  but  no  epaulettes,  are  displayed  upon  the  shako ; 
for  the  lieutenants,  lace  two  inches  wide,  black  in  the  centre,  gold  at  the 
sides ;  captain  of  cavalry  and  infantry  the  same,  gold  in  the  middle,  black 
at  sides ;  and  the  staflf-officers,  in  addition  to  this,  narrow  lace  around  the 
shako  and  lace  one  inch  wide  about  the  cuffs.  If  the  regiment  wears  helmets, 
the  officer  has  on  his  a  black  and  gold  crest.  The  non-commissioned 
officers  have  lace  like  the  officers,  according  to  their  diflferent  grades,  but 
of  wool ;  lance-corporals  only  a  black  and  yellow  cord.  Sword-knot  fw 
all  of  yellow  silk. 

The  troops  consist  of  guards,  who,  however,  are  not  reckoned  among 
the  field  troops.  To  these  belong:  1.  The  Arcieren  Guards,  composed 
entirely  of  persons  who  have  served  as  officers,  from  captains  upwards ; 
56  men  with  12  officers,  who,  down  to  the  second  lieutenant,  have  been 
generals  in  the  army,  the  sergeants  have  been  staff-officers.  They  are 
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WARFARE  OF  MODERN  TIMES.  61 

all  mounted  on  black  horses,  and  have  deep  red  uniform,  with  black 
collar  and  cuflfs  and  gold  lace.  2.  The  Hungarian  Bodj  Guard,  com- 
posed of  young  Hungarian  nobility;  the  officers  have  all  been  generals, 
staff-officers,  or  captains  of  cavalry  in  the  army ;  there  are  4  of  them  and 
65  guards,  all  mounted  on  white  horses.  They  wear  bright  red  dolmans 
Mrith  silver,  a  tiger-skin  instead  of  the  pelisse,  bear-skin  cap  with  heron 
plume,  red  pantaloons,  and  yellow  boots.  3.  Lombardo- Venetian  Body 
Guard,  composed  of  young  Italian  nobles,  60  strong.  It  and  the  Hungarian 
Guard  serve  as  a  preparatory  school  for  officers.  The  uniform  is  red  with 
deep  blue  velvet  collar  and  cuffs,  white  pantaloons,  yellow  epaulettes  and 
aiguillettes,  silver  helmet.  4.  Halberdier  Life  Guards  in  Vienna  and  Milan : 
4  officers,  12  non-commissioned  officers,  110  men,  and  5  musicians.  Uni- 
form as  No.  1,  but  halberds  as  weapons.  5.  The  Palace  Cfuard :  4  officers, 
24  non-commissioned  officers,  250  men,  4  drummers.  Uniform  pike-grey 
with  black  hats,  white  pantaloons,  and  high  boots.  Arms :  bayonet-carbine 
and  short  sabre. 

The  infantry  consists:  1.  Of  61  regiments  of  the  line,  of  which  15  are 
Hungarian,  13  Galitzian,  8  Italian,  8  Bohemian,  5  Austrian,  4  Moravian, 
3  niyrian,  4  Silesian,  and  1  Styrian.     Each  regiment,  save  the  Hungarian, 
has,  besides  two  grenadier  companies,  2  battalions  of  six  and  1  of  four 
companies.     To  these  in  time  of  war  are  added  the  landwehr,  but  not  to 
the   Italian   regiments.     The   infantry  company   has  4  officers,    14  non- 
commissioned officers,    12   lance  corporals,   2  drummers,   and    186  men. 
The  regiment  has,  without  the  grenadiers,  3562  men  in  peace,  and  4437 
in  war.     The  Hungarian  regiment  contains  in  peace  4434,  in  war  5759 
men.     The  arms  :  muskets  with  bayonets  and  percussion  locks  ;  120  men 
in  each  regiment  have  rifles  with  sword  bayonets.     The  bayonet  is  carried 
in  the  belt  instead  of  a  sabre ;  belts  white.     The  uniform  is  white  with 
collars  and  cuffs  of  various  colors ;   pantaloons  deep  blue,  shakos  with 
metal  ornaments  and  pompon  (pi,  21,  upper  fig.  2,  an  officer,  ^^.  6,  private). 
2.  Of  the  grenadiers :  they  form  20  battalions,  which  are  composed  of  the 
grenadier  companies  of  the  different  regiments  of  the  line.     A  grenadier 
company  has  3  officers,  15  non-commissioned  officers,  and  155  men.     The 
uniform  is  as  for  the  infantry  of  the  line ;  instead  of  the  shako  the  grena- 
diers wear  the  bear-skin  cap,   with  red  sack  and  sabre   (npper  fig.  5,  a^ 
drummer,  a  sapper,  and  a  grenadier).     Of  late  the  grenadiers  also  wear 
deep-blue  pantaloons.     The  Hungarian  grenadiers  (fig,  4)  have  tight  deep 
blue  pantaloons,  trimmed  with  black  and   yellow  cord,  and  laced  boots 
(Baganschen).     The  officers  (fig.  3)  have  tight  pantaloons  trimmed  with 
black  and  gold  also,  and  top-boots  (Zischmen)  sewed  and  with  the  tops  fall- 
incT   half  way  down   the   shin.     3.  Of  Border   Troops   (Grenztruppen)  : 
17   regiments  of  (Czaikisten)   light   troops   are   organized   in  a  peculiar 
manner  along  the  southern  boundary  of  Dalmatia  as  far  as  Bukowina, 
seventeen  circles  of  territory  being  placed  under  an  entirely  military  con- 
stitution.    Each  regiment  has  2  battalions  and  numbers  2727  men.     The 
Siebenbürger  regiments,  however,  only  2677  men.     Each  regiment  has  240 
riflemen  and  50  artillerists.     With  the   (Szekkr)   frontier  hussars,  the 

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62  MILITARY  SCIENCEg. 

frontier  troops  number  50,000  men,  in  war  80,000,  and  when  all  the 
serviceable  are  called  out,  214,000  men.  They  are  armed  with  bayonet- 
muskets  and  sabres ;  the  uniform  is  brown  with  cuflfs  of  all  colors ;  belts 
black;  buttons  yellow  and  white;  pantaloons  as  in  the  Hungarian  regi- 
ments {fig.  1,  an  officer;/^.  7,  a  private).  4.  Of  Jägers:  consistii^  of 
1  Tyrolese  Jäger  regiment  of  24  companies  in  4  battalions.  The  company 
has  4  officers,  20  sergeant-majors,  12  sergeants,  12  lance  corporals,  and  184 
men ;  in  all  (with  the  staff),  5459  men.  Also  12  Jäger  battalions,  in  peace 
of  1278,  in  war,  of  1490  men.  Arms :  the  first  and  second  rank,  smooth- 
bore Jägers  and  sabres  ;  the  third  rank,  rifles  with  sword  bayonets  (/»/.  21, 
upper ^^.  8,  an  oflicer  and  private).  Uniform :  pike-grey,  with  green  collar 
and  cuflfs  and  yellow  buttons;  pike-grey  pantaloons;  round  Corsican  hat 
with  upturned  brim ;  black  belts ;  boots  and  gaiters. 

The  cavalry  consists :  1.  Of  6  Cuirassier  regiments,  of  3  divisions  each 
of  2  squadrons  165  strong.  In  war,  a  cuirassier  regiment  consists  of  1294 
men,  with  1283  service  horses.  Arms:  long  straight  sword  {Pallasch), 
two  pistols,  black-lacquered  half-cuirass.  Uniform  white,  with  colored 
collar-flaps  and  cuffs,  deep  blue  pantaloons,  helmet  black.  German  saddle 
with  cover  of  white  lamb's- wool,  bound  with  red ;  red  shabrack  with  yeUow 
binding  (gold  lace  for  officers).  2.  Of  6  Dragoon  regiments,  strength  as 
above.  Arms :  sabre,  long  carbine,  two  pistols.  Uniform  the  same  a?  cuiras- 
siers, only  without  cuirass.  3.  Of  7  regiments  of  Light  Horse  of  4  divisions 
and  8  squadrons,  containing  in  peace  184,  in  war  208  men,  whence  the 
regiment  numbers  in  peace  1518,  and  in  war  2044  men,  with  1972  horses. 
Arms  as  above,  only  short  carbines  and  rifles.  Uniform :  4  regiments 
white ;  3  green,  otherwise  same  as  the  dragoons.  4.  Of  12  Hussar  regi- 
ments, whose  strength  and  arms  are  in  all  respects  the  same  as  for  the 
light  horse.  Uniform  for  3  regiments,  dark  blue ;  for  2,  deep  blue ;  for 
3,  light  blue ;  for  4,  dark  green.  Pelisse,  pantaloons,  and  dolmans  of  the 
same  color ;  only  for  the  green  hussars  the  pantaloons  are  dark  red.  Top 
boots  with  turned-down,  falling  tops  {Zisckmen).  For  common  service 
the  hussars  wear  blackish  grey  pantaloons  and  common  boots.  Shakos 
for  5  regiments  black,  for  7  colored,  with  black  and  yellow  plumes. 
5.  Of  4  Ulan  regiments :  formation  as  in  the  light  horse ;  arms  the  same 
also,  and  in  addition,  a  lance  with  black  and  yellow  pennon.  Uniform 
green  with  red ;  shakos  yellow,  green,  red,  and  white,  with  yellow  cap  cord, 
and  horse-hair  plume.  Oflicers  have  full  golden  epaulettes  and  golden 
cap  cord. 

The  artillery  consists:  1.  Of  the  bombardier  corps,  5  companies,  2082 
men.  School  for  the  artillery  oflicers.  2.  Five  field-artillery  regiments 
of  4  battalions,  3663  men ;  they  man  in  the  field  the  3-,  6-,  12-,  and 
18-pounder  batterie^.  Each  battery  has  four  guns  and  two  7-  or  18-pounder 
howitzers ;  the  field-artillery  man  also  the  cavalry  batteries,  which  consist 
of  six  6-pounders.  Most  of  the  gunners  and  matrosses  can  drive  also.  The 
field-artillery  can  man  200  batteries.  3.  Of  the  rocket  or  firework  corps, 
containing  4  companies  or  766  men,  which  in  war  can  be  still  furtl^ 
increased.  It  mans  16  congreve-rocket  batteries  of  6  stands  each.  4.  Of 
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WARFARE  OF  MODERN  TIMES.  53 

garrison  artillery,  mostly  half  invalids.  Arms  :  sabre.  Belts  white. 
Uniform  dark  brown  with  red ;  one  row  of  yellow  buttons.  The  officers 
have  gold  lace  and  cocked  hats,  while  the  privates  have  Corsican  hats, 
with  black  and  yellow  feather  plumes. 

The  engineer  corps  has :  1.  One  engineer-director,  2  lieutenant  generals, 
7  generals,  36  staff  and  136  other  officers,  and  7  cadets.  Uniform  light 
blue  with  cherry-red,  yellow  buttons,  and  hat  with  feathers.  2.  Five  com- 
panies of  miners  of  152  ihen;  with  the  staff,  in  all,  830  men.  3.  Six  com- 
panies of  sappers  of  149  men,  with  the  staff,  1058  men.  Uniform  for  both 
light  blue  and  crimson ;  shakos  black,  with  suitable  emblems  in  brass-plate ; 
belts  black.  4.  Pioneers :  2  battalions  of  4  companies ;  in  war,  3  bat- 
talions. The  corps  has  in  peace  2004  men,  in  war,  3051.  Arms :  muskets 
and  fascine-knives.  Uniform :  pike-grey  and  green ;  white  buttons  ;  pike- 
grey  pantaloons ;  shakos  with  horse-hair  plume.  5.  Pontoniers :  6  com- 
panies of  150  men  ;  in  all,  918  men  who  manage  the  Biragosche  bridge-trains. 
Arms :  carbines  and  sabres ;  black  belts.  Uniform :  light  blue  with  red  ; 
white  buttons  ;  shakos  with  horse-hair  plume. 

The  French  Military  System.  The  Army  of  France  belongs  to  the 
oldest  of  standing  armies,  for  King  Charles  VII.  established  in  the  15lh 
century  5  compagnies  cCordonnance,  each  of  500  knights  and  5000  light 
horsemen,  who  wore  uniform  tabards.  To  these  Louis  XI.  added  6000 
Swiss  and  10,000  French  infantry.  In  1610,  Henry  IV.  had  already 
37,000  men,  and  after  the  peace  of  the  Pyrenees,  in  1659,  the  French 
army  amounted  to  100,000  men.  After  the  peace  of  Nimeguen,  Louis  XIV. 
had  138,482  men,  who  during  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession  were 
increased  to  392,233,  but  were  diminished  again  afterwards.  Louis  XV. 
had  in  1759,  33,000  men,  subsequently  159,016,  who  were  diminished  under 
Louis  XVI.  to  147,236.  The  army  of  the  first  republic,  139,500  men  strong  in 
1792,  had  in  1794  increased  to  1,169,144  men,  of  whom  749,545  were  then 
under  arms.     In  the  year  1825  the  French  army  contained  182,385  men. 

At  present  the  defence  of  France  is  intrusted  to  a  standing  army  and  to 
the  National  Guard.  The  National  Guard  was  organized  on  the  very  day 
after  the  taking  of  the  Bastile,  but  after  the  Revolution  of  1830  was 
re-established  and  first  attained  its  full  splendor.  With  very  few  excep- 
tions every  independent  man  from  20  to  60  years  of  age,  not  disgraced  by 
crime,  is  liable  for  service.  The  organization  is  entirely  military.  In  each 
arrondissement  the  National  Guard  is  arranged  into  companies,  battalions, 
and  regiments;  each  company  has  a  small,  each  battalion  a  large  color 
(drapeau).  The  state  provides  the  arms,  the  individual  his  uniform.  The 
oflicers,  chiefs  of  battalion .  and  squadron,  and  non-commissioned  oflScers, 
are  chosen  for  three  years  by  the  guard  themselves ;  the  higher  ofiicers  are 
designated  by  the  government  from  ten  candidates  proposed  to  it.  If  the 
service  lasts  longer  than  one  day  their  pay  and  subsistence  can  be  required 
as  in  the  line ;  longer  than  two  months  the  service  cannot  endure.  On  the 
register  are  found  1,871,078  men  of  arj-ondissement  infantry,  1,823,958  of 
canton  infantry,  10,415  cavalry,  19,015  artillery,  54,723  sappers,  2012 
marines  and  laborers,  in  all  3,781,206  uniformed  men,  of  whom,  however 

lOONOORAPHIO   EirCTCLOPiBDlA. — VOL.    III.  34  629 


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64  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

only  one  million  is  arnied.  The  uniform  and  arms  of  the  National  Guard 
differ  little  from  those  of  the  standing  army ;  the  arms  given  them  are 
indeed  those  which  have  been  previously  in  use  by  the  troops  of  the  line. 
PL  19,  lower  ^^.  11,  represents  a  captain,  and  ^^.  12,  a  private  of  the 
grenadier  corps  of  the  National  Guard.  The  frock-coats  are  blue,  with 
blue  red-edged  breast-facings;  collars,  cuflfs,  and  skirt-facings  red,  the 
epaulettes  of  red  wool  for  the  rank  and  file,  and  for  the  officers  of  silver, 
who  have  also  a  silver  crescent  below  the  collar  in  front.  Belts  white. 
The  officers  have  curved  sabres.  The  bearskin  cap  is  black,  with  a  metal 
plate  and  red  tuft.  Pantaloons  red  in  winter,  in  summer  white,  boots  and 
white  gaiters.  The  uniform  of  the  chasseurs  corresponds  exactly  with  the 
above  described,  save  that  the  covering  for  the  head,  instead  of  the  bear- 
skin cap,  is  a  shako,  with  pompon,  cap-plate,  and  red  binding.  The  cavair}* 
is  variously  uniformed.  PL  20^  fig,  18,  is  an  officer  of  light  cavalry.  The 
jacket  is  dark  blue,  with  blue  red-edged  breast-facings,  pantaloons  blue 
with  red  trimmings,  and  the  cap  (chapka)  the  same  color,  with  silver- 
mountings  and  cap-cord,  and  red  horsehair  tuft.  Epaulettes  silver,  belts 
white.     Shabrack  and  valise  dark-blue  with  red  trimming. 

With  respect  to  the  standing  army,  France  is  divided  into  24  military 
districts,  each  of  which  comprises  within  it  several  departments.  France 
had  a  short  while  since  nine  marshals ;  the  superior  general  staff  forms 
two  sections,  one  of  which  contains  the  active  generals,  the  other  those  of 
the  reserve.  The  first  should  not  number  in  lime  of  peace  more  than  80 
lieutenant  generals  and  160  brigadier  generals  {marSchatix-de-camp),  the 
second  is  unlimited.  The  peace  establishment  of  the  French  army  is  fixed 
at :  1.  100  regiments  of  line  and  light  infantry  of  3  battalions,  with  7 
companies.  The  arms  consist  of  bayonet-muskets  and  the  so-called  sabre- 
poniard,  a  short  straight  sword  in  the  waist  belt  on  the  left  side,  the 
bayonet  in  its  scabbard  on  the  right.  Uniform  :  frock-coat  (blouse)  reach- 
ing to  the  knee,  blue,  with  collar  of  some  other  color,  and  edgings  in  front 
and  on  the  cuffs,  according  to  the  color  of  the  collar ;  red  pantaloons  and 
epaulettes ;  belts  white ;  shakos  black,  bound  with  yellow  or  white,  with 
brass  agraffe,  pompon,  and  cap-cord.  PL  19,  lower  fig.  1,  a  chief  of  bat- 
talion {chef-de-hataillon) :  blue  body-coat,  with  collar  and  skirt  facings  of 
different  colors.  Silver  epaulettes  with  full  fringe  and  crescent.  Red 
pantaloons.  On  the  shako  the  tricolor  feather  plume,  red  at  top,  then 
white,  blue  below.  Fig.  2,  a  captain  ;  uniform  the  same  ;  light  epaulettes, 
and  on  the  shako  a  pompon  with  small  tuft.  Fig,  4,  a  first-lieutenant  and 
color-bearer:  one  half  and  one  full  epaulette  and  crescent;  shako  with 
pompon  and  short  tuft ;  red  sash  ;  the  color  from  the  staff  out  blue,  white, 
and  red  ;  the  bands  tricolor  also  with  gold  borders  ;  the  Gallic  cock,  which 
forms  the  siaff-head,  gilded.  The  sous-lieutenants  have  only  two  half- 
epaulettes  ;  the  non-commissioned  officers  are  distinguished  from  one  another 
in  rank  by  chevrons  on  the  cuff,  and  the  years  of  service  are  indicated  by 
chevrons  on  the  arm  above  the  elbow.  Figs,  5  and  6,  show  non-commis- 
sioned officers.  Fig,  8,  a  private  of  infantry,  line  or  light.  Fig.  3  is  a 
drum-major,  and  fig,  7  a  sapper  of  the  same  infantry,  their  uniform  corm- 
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WARFARE  OF  MODERN  TBIES.  55 

spending  in  all  respects  with  that  of  the  regiment  to  which  they  belong. 
2.  10  battalions  of  foot*chasseurs,  each  of  8  companies.  Arms  :. rifles  and 
sword  bayonets  made  to  fix.  Uniform :  blue  frock  with  different  edgings 
about  the  collar,  cuffs,  and  lapels;  grey  pantaloons;  black  gaiters  and 
boots ;  green  woollen  epaulettes  with  brass  crescent ;  black  belts ;  grey 
shakos,  with  black  trimming  and  horsehair  tuft,  for  parade ;  at  other  times 
oilcloth  cover  and  pompon.  PI.  19,  lower  ^^.  9,  chasseur  d'Orleans  in 
marching  equipment;  ßg,  10,  in  parade-dress ;  and  the  other  dXfig.  9,  in 
camp  costume :  blue  jacket ;  grey  linen  pantaloons ;  green  shoulder  strap  ; 
blue  forage  cap  with  edging.  3.  1  regiment  foot  Zouaves  in  Algiers,  of  3 
battalions,  with  9  companies,  uniform :  blue  red-edged  jacket ;  blue  tur- 
ban with  red  fez ;  wide,  red,  Arabian  trowsers  and  gaiters.  Arms :  bay- 
onet-muskets and  sword-bayonets.  4.  3  battalions  of  light  infantry  in 
Africa,  each  of  10  companies.  Uniform :  blue  frock  with  different  colored 
collar  ;  red  pantaloons  and  shakos ;  white  epaulettes  and  cloak.  5.  12  dis- 
cipline and  punishment  companies  (compagnies  de  punition  et  discipline) ; 
and  1  foreign  legion,  in  2  regiments  of  3  battalions,  with  8  companies. 

The  cavalry  consists  of  10  regiments  of  cuirassiers  of  5  squadrons, 
which  in  war  can  be  increased  by  one.  2  regiments  of  carbiniers ; 
12  regiments  of  dragoons ;  8  of  lancers  or  ulans ;  13  of  chasseurs  ä 
cheval;  9  of  hussars.  Besides  these,  in  Africa:  4  regiments  chasseurs 
d*Afrique;  3  squadrons  of  Spahis  in  Bona,  and  4  regiments  of  regular 
Spahis  in  Oran.  Arms  :  long  sabre,  but  slightly  curved,  and  with  basket- 
hilt,  and  for  the  reserve  and  line  cavalry  long  carbines,  as  with  the 
German  troops.  Uniform :  very  showy,  dressy,  and  rich.  Carbiniers  and 
cuirassiers,  blue  jackets,  with  helmets,  and  back  and  breast  cuirass ;  dra- 
goons green,  with  helmets  also;  lancers  light  blue  with  red  collar  and  cap ; 
chasseurs  green,  faced  with  yellow,  with  white  buttons,  red  shakos,  sugar- 
loaf  form  cut  off  at  the  top ;  hussars  with  pelisse  and  dolman  of  various 
colors ;  the  Spahis  very  elegantly  clad  in  the  Turkish  fashion.  Saddle- 
covers  throughout  of  white  sheepskin  with  the  wool.  PL  20,  ßg.  12,  shows 
an  officer  of  cuirassiers ;  ßg.  1 1,  a  standard-bearer  of  carbiniers.  jFY^.  13  ö, 
a  trumpeter,  and^^.  136,  a  private  of  dragoons.  Fig,  14,  a  chasseur  with 
the  now  abandoned  bearskin  cap,  in  place  of  which  the  shako  is  at  present 
used ;  ßg.  15,  a  chef-d'escadron  of  lancers  (the  pennons  are  red  above, 
white  in  the  middle,  blue  below).  Fig.  16,  an  officer,  and  fig.  17,  a  private 
of  hussars.     Fig.  19  is  an  aide-de-camp. 

The  artillery  consists  of  14  regiments,  to  10  of  which  belong  15  batteries 
each,  and  to  4  fourteen  batteries  each,  so  that  they  man  in  all  206  bat- 
teries, of  which  32  are  flying  artillery.  Each  battery  contains  nine  8-  or 
12-pounder  guns.  To  the  artillery  belong  also  1  regiment  of  pontoniers  of 
12  companies,  and  12  artificer  companies  ;  half  a  company  of  armorers,  and 
4  squadrons  of  train.  Arms,  as  for  the  infantry,  the  musket  with  slings. 
Uniform  :  blue  jackets  edged  with  red,  with  the  same  kind  of  collar,  red 
cuffs,  yellow  buttons  and  red  epaulettes ;  white  belts ;  blue  pantaloons  with 
red  stripes ;  shakos  with  cross-cannon,  red  cap-cord  (gold  for  officers), 
and  red  horsehair  tuft. 

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66  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

The  engineer  corps  consist  of  3  regiments,  each  of  2  battalions,  com- 
posed of  1  miner  and  7  sapper  companies.  Each  regiment  has  in  addition 
1  company  of  sapper  conductors,  and  2  companies  of  laborers.  Arms  as 
in  the  infantry,  but  shorter  muskets.  Uniform:  blue,  edged  with  red, 
collar  and  cuffs  black,  white  buttons. 

The  whole  French  army  numbers:  the  general  staff,  3879  men  and  318 
horses;  the  gendarmerie,  14,663  men  and  10,316  horses;  the  infantry, 
291,408  men  and  516  horses;  the  cavalry,  55,531  men  and  49,046  horses; 
artillery,  35,410  men  and  49,906  horses;  engineers,  8,753  men  and  1150 
horses ;  militarj'  train,  6,729  men  and  5,539  horses ;  veterans,  3,789  men ; 
government  of  Algiers,  1,426  men  and  207  horses.  In  all  421,588  men 
and  91,708  horses.  To  these  are  to  be  added  the  contingent  troops  of 
natives  of  Algiers,  4,321  men  and  1,840  horses. 

The  Belgian  Military  System.  Before  the  separation  from  Holland 
(1831),  there  was  no  Belgian  army,  and  even  immediately  after  the  separa- 
tion as  good  as  none.  Most  of  all,  efficient  officers  were  wanting,  and  not 
until  the  year  1833  had  any  sufficient  organization  been  reached.  General 
Goethals,  Count  d'Hane,  and  Dufailly  strove  in  succession,  but  vainly,  to 
put  a  regular  army  on  foot,  until  at  last  De  Brouckere,  then  Minister  of 
Finance,  undertook  the  war  department,  and  by  his  great  circumspection 
and  activity,  accomplished  much.  The  volunteer  corps  was  disbanded  and 
divided  among  the  chasseur  regiments.  In  the  administration,  the  very 
strictest  severity  was  practised,  every  mal-practice  punished  by  cashiering, 
and  all  inefficient  officers  dismissed ;  in  their  place  experienced  French 
officers  were  employed,  and  20,000  men  from  the  first  ban  of  the  militia 
were  drafted  to  the  army,  and  drilled  at  the  garrisons.  The  infantry 
was  increased  by  two  line  and  two  chasseur  regiments,  and  the  mounted 
regiment  raised  from  four  to  six  squadrons.  In  the  course  of  three  or  four 
months,  the  king  could  control  more  than  48,000  men,  3,000  horses,  and  60 
cannon.  After  De  Brouckere  had  sent  in  his  resignation,  the  artillery 
general,  Evain,  completed  the  organization.  At  present,  the  Belgian 
infantry  consists  of  three  regiments  of  chasseurs  of  three  battalions,  with  six 
companies,  one  regiment  of  ^lite  troops  of  four  battalions,  twelve  regiments 
infantry  of  the  line  of  three  battalions,  and  seven  regiments  reserve,  alto- 
gether twenty-three  battalions.  The  armament  is  throughout  like  the 
French,  and  the  uniform  also  after  the  French  cut.  The  line  infantry  has 
blue  coats,  woollen  epaulettes  (the  officers  gold  or  silver,  and  for  all  grades 
double),  red  cuffs  and  skirt  facings,  dark  breast-facings,  yellow  edged,  grey 
pantaloons,  red  edged,  white  belts,  shakos  in  the  French  style.  The  chas- 
seurs have  green  coats. 

The  cavalry  has  two  chasseur  regiments  of  six  squadrons,  two  of  lancers 
of  six  squadrons,  two  of  cuirassiers  of  four  squadrons,  one  of  guides  of  six 
squadrons.  PI  22,  fig,  12,  is  a  chasseur  of  the  2d  regiment,  uniform : 
green  jacket  and  pantaloons,  red  collar  and  skirt  facings,  the  cuff  red  edged ; 
red  trimmings  on  the  pantaloons,  white  epaulettes,  and  red  shako,  with  white 
cap-cord,  and  horse-hair  tuft ;  white  belts,  green  shabrack,  with  red  trim- 
mings, saddle  cover  of  white  sheepskin.  For  parade  {fig,  11),  officers  have 
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WARFARE  OF  MODERN  TIMES.  67 

white  pantaloons.  Fig.  14,  an  officer ;  fig,  15,  a  private  of  lancers  or 
Ulans,  2d  regiment ;  blue  pantaloons  and  jackets,  with  yellow  breast-facings, 
collars,  cuflfs,  and  skirt-facings,  yellow  stripes  also  on  the  pantaloons,  and 
yellow  shakos,  with  white  horse-hair  tuft;  white  belts  and  epaulettes, 
white  cap-cord  (officers  silver  and  silver  sashes),  lance  with  pennon,  yellow 
above,  red  below ;  blue  shabrack,  with  yellow  trimmings,  black  saddle  cover. 
PL  22,  fig.  10,  cuirassier  officer :  double,  white,  polished  cuirass,  iron 
helmet,  with  horse-tail  and  white  feather  plume,  long  straight  sword 
(Palasch),  blue  pantaloons  and  jacket,  with  yellow  collar,  skirt-facings,  and 
edgings,  and  yellow  stripes  on  the  pantaloons ;  silver  epaulettes,  blue  sha- 
brack, with  white  binding.  Fig.  13,  officer  of  the  regiment  of  guides: 
green  pantaloons  and  jacket,  with  green,  white-edged  collar  and  cufis. 
and  white  stripes  on  the  pantaloons,  pink  breast  and  skirt-facings,  silvei 
epaulettes  and  cap-cord,  white  belts ;  high,  upright,  bear-skin  cap,  with  red 
calpac  and  white  feather  plume,  and  also,  for  ordinary  service,  a*  black 
shako ;  green  shabrack,  with  white  trimmings,  saddle  cover  of  white  sheep- 
skin, bound  with  red. 

The  artillery  consists  of  three  regiments,  who  man  altogether  15  batteries 
with  130  pieces  6-and  12-pounders  and  howitzers.  Fig.  16  is  an  officer ; 
fig.  17  a  private  of  flying  artillery.  Uniform  :  dark  blue  pantaloons  and 
jacket,  with  red-edged  collar,  red  cuffs,  skirt-facings,  and  stripes  on  the 
pantaloons,  and  red  epaulettes,  cap-cord,  and  shako  trimmings  (gold  for 
officers)  ;  belts  white,  with  yellow  grenades,  black  shako,  with  brass  cross 
cannon,  black  horse-hair  tuft ;  blue  shabrack,  with  red  binding  (for  officers 
gold).  Arms :  curved  sabre  and  pistols.  To  the  above  artillery  must  be 
added :  1  squadron  artillery  train,  1  company  pontoniers,  1  company 
artillery  artificers,  1  company  artillery  armorers. 

The  engineer  corps  consists  of  two  batteries  of  sappers  and  miners. 
Figs.  18  and  19  are  officers ;  fig.  20  is  a  private  of  the  engineer  corps. 
Arms  :  short  bayonet-musket  and  sabre.  Uniform  :  blue  coat  and  panta- 
loons (the  latter  white  in  summer),  the  coat  edged  with  red,  with  grenades 
on  the  skirts,  pantaloons  with  broad  red  stripes ;  red  epaulettes  and  shako 
trimmings  (gold  for  officers) ;  grenade  on  front  of  shako. 

The  English  Military  System.  In  England,  even  when  Scotland  and 
Ireland  were  united  with  her,  there  was  for  centuries  no  standing  army, 
but  the  inhabitants  capable  of  bearing  arms  were  called  together  when  a 
war  commenced,  and  disbanded  again  when  the  war  was  concluded.  Thus 
was  it  still,  on  the  side  of  the  people,  even  in  the  civil  war,  although  the 
king  had  then  a  kind  of  standing  army.  Afterwards,  the  army  was 
increased,  and  at  the  time  of  the  seven  years'  war  it  amounted  to  100,000 
men.  In  the  French  revolution  the  army  was  yet  further  increased,  and 
had  risen  in  1805  to  200,000  men,  and  in  1814  to  more  than  450,000.  The 
king  is  commander-in-chief  of  the  army,  and  the  Parliament  has  no  share  in 
the  control  or  organization  of  the  same,  the  general  whom  the  king  appoints 
to  the  command  being  responsible  to  him  alone.  The  secretary  of  war  has 
to  do  only  with  the  financial  relations.  Without  consent  of  Parliament,  no 
standing  army  at  all  can  be  brought  on  foot,  and  the  present  one  is  granted 

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58  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

only  from  year  to  year,  and  of  such  strength  alone  as  parliament  permit. 
Should  the  appropriations  not  be  made  for  the  new  year,  then  the  army  must 
be  dissolved.  In  England,  no  form  of  conscription  exists,  but  there  is  only 
voluntary  enlistment  for  bounty-money,  at  first  for  seven  years.  Each 
regiment  has  its  recruiting  district.  The  punishments  are  very  severe, 
and  corporal  chastisement  is  yet  practised.  Officers*  commissions,  as  high 
as  a  lieutenant  colonelcy,  are  purchasable,  and  the  established  price  for  a 
lieutenant  colonelcy  in  the  foot-guards  is  7,250  pounds  sterling,  and  so  down 
to  the  ensigncy,  which  costs  1,200  pounds.  In  the  line,  the  price  of  the  same 
commissions  is  4,500  and  450  pounds,  but  these  places  are  often  purchased 
much  higher.  To  guard  against  abuses,  various  restrictions  are  imposed, 
and  the  king  appoints  to  the  places  vacated  by  death.  We  refer  here  only 
to  the  European  army  of  Great  Britain. 

The  general  staff  consists  of  6  field-marshals,  90  generals,  106  lieutenant 
generals,  and  216  major  generals.  All  officers  included,  there  are  twenty- 
three  soldiers  to  one  officer.  The  commissioned  officers  are  7,582  in 
number;  the  non-commissioned,  28,000.  PI.  21,  lower  ^g*.  1,  is  a  general 
of  infantry.  Uniform  :  red,  with  blue,  richly  embroidered  collar  and  cuffs ; 
golden  sash  and  epaulettes ;  hat  with  yellow  agraffe  and  white  plumes ; 
shabrack  and  holsters,  purple  velvet  and  gold  ;  head-gear  red,  richly  stitched 
with  gold. 

The  infantry  consists  of:  1.  Three  regiments  infantry  of  the  guard,  the 
Grenadier  guards  having  26,  the  Coldstream  and  3d  regiment  having  16 
companies  of  45  to  90  nien  each.  The  infantry  have  bayonet-muskets,  and 
the  bayonet  in  its  sheath  on  the  left  side.  Lower  ^^.  2  shows  an  officer  of 
the  grenadier  guards.  Uniform  :  red,  with  blue  collar  and  cuffs,  the  collar 
richly  embroidered  with  gold,  and  with  the  star  of  the  Order  of  the  Garter, 
the  cuff  with  gold  flaps ;  white  skirt  facings  and  white  pantaloons.  Red 
silk  sash ;  rather  straight  sabre ;  full  gold  epaulettes ;  bear-skin  cap,  with 
gold  tassel ;  white  tuft  and  red  top,  with  the  star  of  the  Garter.  Yellow 
buttons;  white  baldric,  with  plate  and  star  over  the  right  shoulder,  in 
which  the  sabre  is  carried.  2.  100  regiments  of  infantry,  each  regiment 
of  10  companies,  save  the  68th,  which  has  20.  Six  regiments  of  these  are 
Highlanders,  eight  light,  and  four  fusilier  regiments.  Lower  fig.  3  is  an 
officer  of  the  75th  regiment  (grenadier).  Red  uniform,  with  white  collar 
and  cuffs,  the  collar  with  embroidered  lace ;  the  cuffs  with  red  flaps, 
edged  with  white.  Yellow  buttons ;  instead  of  epaulettes,  gold  wings.  Red 
silk  sash,  white  baldric,  with  gold  plate;  bear-skin  cap,  like  the  guards; 
pantaloons  white.  Arms:  a  rather  straight  sabre.  Fig.  ^,  officer,  and 
fig.  10,  private  of  infantry.  Red  uniform,  with  yellow  collar,  cuffs,  flaps, 
and  buttons ;  full  gold  epaulettes,  collar  standing,  shako  with  gold  plate, 
gold  cap-cord,  and  white  feather  plume ;  dark  red  sash,  and  white  panta- 
loons. The  sabre  is  suspended  from  a  white  baldric  with  a  gold  plate, 
over  the  right  shoulder.  Fig.  5,  officer  of  the  9th  light  infantry  regiment 
Uniform :  red,  with  yellow  cuffs  and  collar,  laced,  and  with  red  flaps ; 
instead  of  epaulettes,  gold  wings  on  the  shoulders ;  dark  red  silk  sash ; 
white  pantaloons ;  black  shako,  with  gold  plate,  and  pompon  without  cap- 
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WARFARE  OF  MODERN  TIMES.  ^9 

cord.  Arms :  straight  sabre,  in  white  baldric,  with  gold  plate  and  chains. 
Fig,  6,  officer  of  the  royal  Highlanders.  Red  uniform,  with  black  collar 
and  cuffs,  yellow  flaps  and  buttons,  gold-wrought  lace  on  the  collar,  and 
gold  wings  on  the  shoulders.  No  pantaloons,  but  only  the  Scotch  kilt  of 
green  and  black  tartan.  White  sporran,  with  gold  tassels.  Shoes,  and 
plaited  buskins.  The  sash,  of  dark  red  silk,  is  worn  over  the  shoulders  from 
left  to  right,  the  knot  over  the  right  hip.  Black  bear-skin  cap,  with  green, 
red,  and  white  lower  part,  and  red  feather  plume.  Arms :  straight  sword 
with  basket  hilt,  hung  over  the  right  shoulder  by  a  baldric  with  gold  plate, 
and  a  long  dagger  on  the  right  hip.  THg.  7,  private,  and  fig,  8,  drummer 
of  Highlanders  of  the  line.  Uniform  :  red  jackets,  with  blue  collars,  breast- 
facings,  and  cuffs.  Yellow  lace  on  collars,  breast-facings,  and  skirts  ;  white 
skirt  facings  and  white  wings;  belts  also  white.  No  pantaloons,  but  kilt 
of  black  and  green  tartan ;  shoes  and  plaited  white  and  brown  gaiters ; 
bear-skin  cap,  with  red  and  white  chequered  lower  part  and  white  tuft. 
The  drummers  decorated  with  blue  and  white  lace  and  chevrons.  Arms : 
bayonet-muskets.  3.  One  light  brigade,  consisting  of  two  light  infantry 
and  rifle  battalions  (of  10  companies).  Arms:  rifles  and  sword-bayonets. 
Fig,  9,  officer,  ^^.  11,  bugler  of  rifles.  Uniform  :  green  coat,  with  black 
collar  and  cuffs,  and  woollen  wings.  The  officers  have  green  pelisses  like 
the  hussars,  with  black  trimmings  and  lace.  Green  pantaloons  (officers 
with  silver  stripes);  black  belts;  officers  with  silver  plate  and  chain,  and 
the  sabre  hung  with  strings.  Black  shakos,  with  leather  trimmings,  yellow 
plate,  and  pompon. 

The  cavalry  consists  of:  1.  Three  regiments  Life-Guards,  of  8  companies 
of  50  to  60  men.  PI,  22,  fig,  1,  is  an  officer  of  the  "Queen's  Own" 
Life-Guards.  Arms :  straight  cuirassier  sword  with  basket  hilt,  white 
cuirass  with  breast  and  back  piece.  Uniform :  red  coat,  with  blue  skirt 
facings,  collar  and  cuffs  entirely  covered  with  gold  embroidery.  Gold 
epaulettes,  aiguillettes,  sash,  bandolier,  and  baldric,  gauntlet-gloves,  and 
tight  pantaloons,  white,  with  high  boots ;  lofty  bear-skin  cap,  with  gold 
tassels  and  white  tuft ;  head-stall  richly  stitched  with  gold  ;  blue  shabrack, 
with  gold  trimmings  bound  with  red.  Mounted  entirely  on  black  horses. 
Fig.  2,  officer  of  2d  regiment  Life-Guards.  Arms  and  uniform  the  same  in 
all  respects  as  for  the  Queen's,  only  instead  of  the  bear-skin  cap,  silver 
helmets,  with  gold  plate  and  binding,  and  black  crest.  Fig,  3,  an  officer 
of  the  dd  Life-Guards.  Uniform  and  arms  as  for  the  1st,  save  that  the  coat 
is  blue  instead  of  red,  the  gold  embroidered  collar,  cuffs,  and  skirt  facings 
red  instead  of  blue,  and  on  the  somewhat  lower  bear-skin  cap  a  dark  red 
feather  plume.  The  shabrack  scarlet,  with  gold  trimmings  and  embroidery. 
Mounted  entirely  on  brown  horses.  2.  Seven  regiments  dragoon  guards, 
of  8  companies,  and  3  heavy  and  13  light  cavalry  regiments  of  8  com- 
panies of  50  to  60  men.  Fig .  5  shows  an  officer  of  heavy  dragoons. 
Arms :  long  straight  sword  and  pistols,  the  private  with  carbine  besides ; 
yellow  helmet,  with  black  horse-tail.  Uniform  :  red  coat,  with  yellow  but- 
tons,  white  collar  and  cuffs,  richly  embroidered  with  gold,  and  white  skirt 
facings ;  golden  bandolier  and  baldric   (privates  white),  white  sabretache, 


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60  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

with  gold  embroidery,  gold  sash  and  cartridge  box,  gold  epaulettes ;  blue 
pantaloons,  with  gold  stripes  (red  for  privates) ;  blue  shabrack,  trimmed 
with  gold,  bear-skin  saddle-cover,  bound  with  red.  Fig.  4,  officer  of  10th 
light  dragoon  regiment.  Dark  blue  pelisse,  dolman,  and  pantaloons ;  pelisse 
and  dolman  very  rich,  with  gold  lace  and  cord  ;  pantaloons  trimmed  with 
gold  lace  (woollen  for  privates)  ;  gold  baldric  (privates,  white  leather  belts)  ; 
red  sabretache,  gold  embroidered,  and  with  gold  lace ;  round  bear-skin  cap, 
with  red  calpac,  gold  cord,  and  white  heron  plume ;  red  shabrack  and 
saddle-cover,  trimmed  with  gold.  Arms :  sabre  and  pistols,  the  privates 
carbines  also.  Pig,  8,  officer  of  1st  hussar  regiment.  Bright  blue  pelisse 
and  dolman,  with  silver  cords  (while  woollen  for  privates),  and  black  fur 
trimmings.  Red  pantaloons,  with  two  gold  stripes;  red  shako,  trimmed 
with  gold,  and  black  horse-hair  tuft.  Black  belts  and  sabretache,  with  gold 
plate ;  blue  shabrack,  with  white  binding,  red  notched ;  bear-skin  saddle- 
cover,  red  cloak-bag ;  head-stall  white,  holsters  red.  PL  22,  fig.  9,  officer 
of  11th  hussar  regiment.  Dark  blue  pelisse  and  dolman,  with  rich  gold 
cords,  lace  and  black  fur  trimmings  ;  crimson  pantaloons,  with  gold  stripes ; 
gold  bandolier  and  baldric  ;  red  sabretache,  with  gold  cypher  and  binding  ; 
holsters  with  bear-skin  cover ;  head-stall  and  trappings  red,  richly  worked 
with  gold ;  round  black  bear-skin  cap,  with  crimson  calpac  and  white 
heron  plume.  Fig,  6,  officer  of  1st  lancers  regiment.  Arms :  sabre  and 
pistols,  and  for  the  privates,  lances  with  pennons,  blue  above,  red  below. 
Uniform :  red  jacket,  with  black  collar  and  cuffs,  and  white  skirt  facings, 
the  collar  richly  embroidered  with  gold,  and  the  cuff  with  gold  flaps.  Yel- 
low buttons,  and  gold  bandolier  and  baldric ;  blue  shabrack,  with  gold 
name-cypher  and  binding ;  blue  pantaloons  with  broad  gold  stripes  (red  for 
privates)  ;  cap,  black  below,  with  gold  sun,  dark  blue  above,  bound  with 
gold ;  gold  cap-cord  and  epaulettes  (privates  woollen) ;  green  drooping 
feather  plume  ;  dark  blue  shabrack,  with  gold  name-cypher  and  trimming ; 
tiger-skin  saddle-cover,  bound  with  gold  lace;  head-stall  of  light  calf-skin. 
Jf^.  7,  private  of  9th  lancers.  Arms  as  above.  Uniform :  dark  blue 
jacket  with  crimson  collar,  cuffs,  and  skirt  facings,  and  gold  lace ;  dark  blue 
pantaloons,  with  crimson  stripes ;  yellow  girdle  and  buttons,  yellow  epau- 
lettes, white  belts,  and  cap-cord  ;  cap  black  below,  with  gold  sun,  red  above, 
with  blue,  white,  and  red  drooping  feather  plume ;  black  sabretache ;  blue  sha- 
brack, with  gold  trimmings,  and  saddle-cover  of  sheepskin  ;  head-stall  black. 

The  artillery  consists  of  9  battalions  of  foot  artillery,  each  of  8  compa- 
nies,  and  one  brigade  light  artillery,  of  7  companies ;  to  these  the  rocket 
corps  is  to  be  added.  The  arms  are  :  for  the  foot  artillery,  a  short  sabre, 
for  the  light,  sabre  and  pistols.  Uniform  :  blue,  with  red  collars  and  yellow 
cords,  black  belts,  and  white  shakos. 

The  engineer  corps  consists  of  1 1  colonels,  26  lieutenant  colonels,  80 
captains,  and  106  lieutenants.  To  this  belong  also  the  royal  staff  corps 
(pioneers  and  pontoniers)  and  the  royal  sappers  and  miners,  altogether  11 
companies. 

Thb  Turkish  Military  System.     The  Turkish  is  probably  the  oldest  of 
all  standing  armies,  for  even  in  the  year  1328,  when  the  Ottoman  Empire 
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WARFARE  OF  MODERN  TIMES.  61 

received  its  earliest  laws  and  form  of  government  from  Aladdin,  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  standing  army  was  one  of  the  objects  to  which  this  lawgiver 
directed  his  chief  attention ;  and  this  army  arose,  therefore,  not  less  than 
100  years  before  Charles  VII.,  whom  we  have  hitherto  regarded  as  the 
founder  of  standing  armies.  The  organization  at  that  time  was  like  the 
Roman,  with  Decurions,  Centurions,  and  chiefs  of  a  thousand,  and  besides 
these,  Jaga  or  Piade,  footmen,  the  Jeni  Tscheri  (new  troops,  Janizaries) 
were  created,  who  were  to  consist  entirely  of  Christian  children  who  had 
been  forcibly  converted  to  Islamism.  These  formed  afterwards  the  flower 
of  the  army.  The  Piades  were  disbanded,  and  received  land  in  fee,  with 
the  obligation  to  keep  the  military  roads  in  order  in  time  of  war ;  they  were 
therefore  pioneers,  and  their  name,  with  their  office,  has  passed  into  Euro- 
pean warfare.  The  irregular  troops  were  called  Asab  (light),  and  the 
cavalry  of  the  same  Akindschi  (runners  on  horses),  and  formed  predatory, 
skirmishing,  and  foraging  parties.  The  Jeni  Tscheri  (Janizaries ;  pi.  23, 
ßg.  1,  shows  an  officer ;  and  ßg.  2,  a  private)  formed  four  bodies,  after  the 
manner  of  the  banner  guard  which  the  Caliph  Omar  established  for  the 
protection  of  the  holy  standard  (ßg,  3),  and  which  consisted  of  2400  men. 
Soliman  the  Great  increased  this  by  4000  men,  namely,  1000  Spahis 
(horsemen),  1000  Silidhare,  mounted  militia  (ßg.  6),  1000  Ulufedschi,  mer- 
cenaries,  Chatis  (ßg.  5),  and  1000  Ghureba,  strangers  (fig.  3),  Arabs  from 
the  region  about  Acre,  who  were  disposed,  in  four  bodies,  to  the  right  and 
left  of  the  holy  standard,  and  formed  the  body-guard  and  escort  of  the 
Sultan.  Besides  the  paid  Spahis,  there  was  formed  afterwards  an  unpaid 
(feoffee)  cavalry,  the  Mosseliman  (freed).  The  troops  were  under  com- 
manders called  Baschi,  Pasha  (fig.  4),  who  were  Szubaschi  when  they 
commanded  100,  Bimbaschi  when  they  commanded  1000,  and  when  more 
than  1000,  were  Sandshack-begs  (Princes  of  the  Standard).  In  the  cam- 
paign of  Szigeth,  Soliman  had  48,316  men,  whose  pay  amounted  to  52,818 
ducats.  The  marines  were  similarly  organized.  An  admiral  had  the  chief 
command, '  under  whom  were  one  or  more  vice-admirals  (fig.  7);  then 
followed  the  ship  captains  (fig.  8),  the  marine  officers  (fig.  9),  and  the 
marines  (fig.  10).  The  troops  were  carefully  trained  in  war  and  in  peace; 
gymnastic  exercises  particularly  were  very  much  practised,  all  of  them 
designed  to  give  the  spldiei*s  that  remarkable  agility  and  dexterity  for  which 
in  earlier  times  these  troops  were  ever  distinguished.  Among  these  warlike 
games,  which  even  in  camp  were  still  practised,  we  may  mention,  for  the 
footmen,  the  Tomak,  game  of  Itsch  Oglau  (pi.  24,  fig.  4),  in  which  the 
object  was  to  strike  an  antagonist  with  a  ball  fastened  to  the  end  of  a  long 
cord,  while  he  sought  to  avoid  the  blow,  to  seize  the  hostile  ball,  and  strike 
his  opponent  with  his  own.  For  the  cavalry  there  was  the  Djerid,  game  of 
the  Djindis  (pi.  24,  fig.  5),  in  which  each  sought  to  hit  his  antagonist,  while 
at  full  speed,  with  a  wooden  staff  or  blunt  javelin,  and  each  strove  to  avoid 
the  blow  for  himself  by  dexterous  movements  of  the  body  or  of  the  horse, 
and  with  his  own  djerid  to  hit  his  opponent.  The  djerid,  when  once 
thrown,  had  to  be  picked  up  again  from  the  ground  without  alighting  from 
the  horse,  and  at  full  speed. 

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62  MILITARY  SCDENCBa 

Since  the  time  of  Mahmoud  IL,  the  Turkish  government  has  been  con* 
stantly  striving  to  perfect  its  military  system,  and  bring  the  Turkish  army 
nearer  and  nearer  to  the  European  organization.  At  the  death  of  Mah- 
moud IL,  the  army  consisted  of  50,000  regular  troops.  To  these  could  be 
added  109,700  men  of  the  reserve  (Retif ),  which  they  had  sought  to  form 
after  the  manner  of  the  Prussian.  In  the  year  1843  these  Retifs  were  dis- 
banded, and  in  their  stead  more  regular  regiments  were  formed.  Besides 
these  there  were,  in  1829,  10,000  Topdschis,  or  artillerists,  after  the  old 
mode,  miners  {Lagkumdschiller),  bombardiers  {Kumbaregdschiller),  and 
5,000  Spahis,  and  other  irregular  troops.  These,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Spahis,  yet  exist,  and  by  means  of  them  the  army  can  be  increased  to 
300,000  men.  The  irregular  troops  are  arranged  in  squads  of  60  men, 
under  command  of  Boluk  Bas.chis ;  they  arm  themselves,  the  infantry  with 
muskets  without  bayonets,  and  short  sabres ;  sometimes,  also,  a  small  iron 
cuirass,  inlaid  with  gold,  silver,  or  copper.  The  cavalry  consists  mostly  of 
Asiatics ;  they  have  long  muskets  and  Turkish  sabres,  and  their  mode  of 
fighting  is  the  modern  Greek.  For  attacks  in  line  they  are  unfit.  Since 
1840,  the  following  improvements  have  found  place  in  the  regular  army, 
after  the  doing  away  with  the  reserve.  Eight  new  infantry  regiments 
have  been  formed,  and  the  artillery  so  increased,  that  two  guard  and  four 
line-infantry  regiments  were  stationed  in  Constantinople,  and  the  present 
strength  of  the  standing  army  can  be  put  at  100,000  men. 

The  Seraskier  commands  the  army ;  the  Guard,  which  is  independent  of 
this,  is  commanded  by  a  Beglerbeg  Vizier,  with  the  title  Muschirci  Esakirsi 
Chassai.  For  the  cavalry  and  the  infantry,  the  French  tactic;  for  the 
artillery,  the  Prussian  is  used.  The  infantry  is  called  Piade,  the  cavabry 
Suvarri,  the  artillery  Topdschi.  The  general  of  an  army  corps,  or  G^eneral- 
in-Chief,  is  called  Muschir,  or  Pasha  of  Three  Horse  Tails ;  pL  24,ßg,  2,  is  a 
view  of  the  encampment  of  a  Pasha  of  Three  Tails,  as  it  was  in  1840.  In 
the  foreground  is  seen  the  Pasha  (ßg,  3)  with  his  suite,  to  whom  the  body- 
guard pays  the  usual  honors.  The  divisions  are  called  Feriks,  and  the 
chiefs  of  divisions  Feriki  Pashas  of  Two  Tails.  A  brigadier  general,  Liwa 
Pasha  {fig,  1),  bears  one  tail.  The  regiment  is  called  Alai ;  its  colonel,  Mir 
Alai,  has  under  him  a  lieutenant  colonel,  Kaimakan  Beg.  Each  regiment 
consists  of  four  battalions  (Tabur),  each  under  a  major  (Bim  Baschi,  com- 
mander of  a  thousand).  The  battalion  has  eight  companies,  of  which  four 
are  always  marksmen.  The  company  is  commanded  by  a  captain  (JusBaschi, 
commander  of  one  hundred),  and  is  divided  into  ten  squads,  each  under  a 
non-commissioned  officer  (On  Baschi).  The  sergeant  (Utsch  Baschi)  has 
two  On  Baschi  under  him.  In  the  infantry  each  company  has  two  lieute- 
nants (Mulassim);  in  the  cavalry  four.  The  rank  and  file  are  called  Nefer, 
the  music  Mehterchane.  The  armament  is  European  ;  the  infantry  have 
bayonet-muskets,  the  subaltern  oflUcers  sabres  like  the  German,  the  staff- 
ofRcers  the  old  Turkish  sabre.  The  cavalry  have  lances  fourteen  feet  in 
length,  with  red  pennons,  sabres,  and  two  pistols ;  the  saddles  are  a  combi- 
nation of  Hungarian  and  English,  with  German  stirrups ;  blue  shabracks 
with  red  binding.  The  uniform  is  dark-blue,  with  red  c^lar.  Priyi^tes  und 
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WARFARE  OP  MODERN  TIMES.  63 

non-commissioned  and  subaltern  officers  wear  jackets,  corded  with  red,  for 
the  cavalry.  The  guard  has  breast-facings,  with  gold  lace.  Besides  this, 
there  are  other  cavalry,  whose  dress  approaches  nearer  to  the  old  Mussulman 
garb.  The  head-covering  is,  with  few  exceptions,  the  Turkish  red  fez,  with 
blue  tassels.  The  pantaloons  are  blue,  very  full,  with  red  stripes  (gold  for 
officers);  in  summer  grey  linen.  A  part  of  the  cavalry  has  full  white  panta- 
loons, with  high  boots ;  but,  with  this  exception,  the  dress  for  the  feet  con- 
sists  of  shoes  and  socks.  Up  to  this  time  only  officers  wear  stocks ;  the 
staff-officers  wear  capotes,  with  red  collars.  All  in  authority  are  distinguished 
by  a  crescent  and  star  suspended  on  the  breast ;  generals  and  staff-officers 
have  them  of  diamonds,  distinguished  from  one  another  by  size  and  position ; 
on  the  subaltern  officers  they  are  of  gold,  and  for  the  non-commissioned 
silver.  The  staff-officers  wear  at  present  full  gold  epaulettes,  the  generals 
with  bouillons.  Belts  black ;  the  waist  belt  with  brass  plate.  The  officers 
have  red,  the  non-commissioned  officera  white  baldrics,  worked  with  gold. 
Except  on  service,  no  weapon  is  carried  usually.  The  liability  to  service 
is  general,  and  the  period  five  years.  PL  23,  ßg,  11,  is  an  officer  of  guard- 
cavalry  ;  ßg,  12,  an  artillery  officer ;  ßg.  13,  an  infantry  soldier ;  and^.  14, 
shows  officers  of  the  regular  line-infantry  ;  ßg.  15,  a  non-commissioned 
officer  of  the  Egyptian  heavy  cavalry;  ßgs.  16  and  17,  men  of  the  Egyptian 
light  cavalry. 


The  Various  Kindd  of  Arms. 

For  the  better  understanding  of  various  weapons,  parts  of  dress,  and 
army-implements,  we  have  brought  together  a  great  number  of  such  objects 
on  pi.  25.  1.  Cutting  weapons  :  a,  cavalry  swords;  ßg.  18',  French  heavy 
cavalry  sword,  pattern  of  1803,  with  iron  scabbard  ;  the  blade  (ßg.  18**)  has 
two  grooves,  and  is  ground  to  a  point  obliquely  from  the  edge  to  the  back  ; 
the  cross  section  of  the  same,  with  a  view  of  the  hilt  and  basket  seen  from 
above,  is  shown  in  ßg.  18".  This  is  also  the  sword  of  the  Austrian  heavy 
cavalry.  The  French  heavy  cavalry  sword  pattern  of  1816  {ßg.  19')  has 
likewise  an  iron  scabbard ;  the  blade  (ßg.  19^)  has  also  a  double  gutter 
(ßg.  19*)»  but  it  is  ground  to  a  point  from  both  sides;  hilt  and  basket 
(ßg.  19")  are  like  the  first  also,  but  somewhat  slighter.  This  sword  is  car- 
ried also  by  the  Prussian  heavy  cavalry.  The  French  heavy  cavalry 
sword,  pattern  of  1822,  the  newest  pattern  (ßg.  20'),  has  also  an  iron  scab- 
bard, but  is  somewhat  longer,  and  the  blade  (ßgs.  20  ^  20*)  is  slightly  curved 
to  the  back ;  the  grooves,  also,  are  narrower,  whereby  the  cutting  wedge, 
which  before  was  very  blunt,  becomes  sharper.  The  basket  (ßg.  20*)  is 
made  stronger  below,  b.  Curved  sabres:  the  sabre  of  the  French  light 
cavalry,  pattern  of  1803  (ßg.  21 '),  has  an  iron  scabbard,  and  is  very  heavy ; 
the  blade  (ßg.  21  ^  21*)  has  one  broad  groove,  tapers  somewhat  sharply  to 
the  point,  and  is  strongly  curved  backwards.  The  hilt  (ßg.  21  •)  has  three 
strong  bows  and  no  stool,  and  the  gripe  has  a  rivet  through  the  tang.  The 
same  blade,  but  with  a  single  bow  instead  of  the  basket,  it  used  by  the 

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64  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

Prussian  light  cavalry ;  the  sabre,  too,  is  somewhat  lighter.  The  French 
light  cavalry  sabre,  pattern  of  1816  {fig.  22*),  has  an  iron  scabbard,  the 
blade  {fig.  22  *•  and  22*)  is  strongly  curved  backwards,  but  has  no  groove, 
only  a  round  back  and  sharply  wedge-shaped  edge.  The  hilt  {Jig.  22*)  is 
something  lighter  than  the  preceding,  has  a  stool,  and  the  gripe,  is  rather 
straighter.  The  same  sabre,  pattern  of  1822  {fig.  23'),  with  iron  scabbard, 
has  a  strongly  curved  blade  {fig.  23**  and  23*)  with  narrow  groove,  broad 
back,  and  bluntly  wedge-shaped  edge.  The  hilt  {fig.  23*)  has  no  cross- 
guard,  but  the  stool  round  behind.  The  officers'  sabres  {figs,  24  and  25) 
are  lighter,  have  no  basket,  but  only  a  simple  bow  and  a  more  elegant  gripe. 
The  blades  are  mostly  after  the  form  in^^.  21*,  or^^.  23*,  or  even  entirely 
smooth,  c.  Infantry  sabres  :  The  common  infantry  sabre  {fig.  15)  is  in 
a  leather  scabbard,  little  curved,  the  blade  often  without  grooves,  flat  wedge- 
shaped  edge,  the  hilt  furnished  only  with  a  brass  bow  and  cross-guard,  and 
is  carried  in  this  form  by  most  armies ;  the  French  army,  on  the  contrary, 
has  adopted  in  modern  times  a  two-edged  infantry  sword  {fig.  17),  resem- 
bling the  ancient  Greek,  and  called  "  poignard-sabre"  from  its  being  more 
like  a  dagger  than  a  sword.  The  French  artillery  sabre  {pi.  2b,  fig.  16')  is 
very  short,  straight,  and  the  blade  {fig.  16**)  with  peculiar  grooves,  has  a 
very  heavy  tang,  in  order  that  the  sabre  may  be  used  not  only  as  a  weapon 
but  also  as  an  intrenching  tool.  The  yatagan  {fig.  26),  which  the  expedi- 
tion to  Algiers  has  brought  into  the  French  army,  is  a  dagger-like  sabre, 
with  double  curved  blade  about  two  feet  long,  the  gripe  without  cross-guard. 

2.  Thrusting  weapons,  a.  The  lance.  The  old  French  lance  (Jig.  13),  pattern 
of  1812,  has  a  head  quadrangular  below  and  running  out  in  a  long  quadran- 
gular pyramid  to  a  point ;  this  is  put  upon  the  staff  without  any  prongs. 
Much  better  than  this  is  the  pattern  of  1823  {fig.  14)  with  long  prongs,  and 
this,  with  slight  variations,  is  the  one  used  by  other  armies,  h.  'The  bayonet. 
The  most  ancient  form  of  this  {fig.  5)  is  merely  a  lance-head,  which  was 
stuck  into  the  musket  barrel  by  its  wooden  staff.  Afterwards  came  a 
bayonet  {fig.  6)  with  curved  neck  and  three-sided,  reed-shaped  blade,  which 
was  slipped  on  to  the  barrel  by  a  slit  socket  and  turned  so  as  to  catch 
against  a  stud  on  the  same,  which  prevented  its  being  pulled  off.  The 
modern  bayonet  {fig.  7)  has  a  long,  triangular,  hollowed,  straight  blade, 
arched  neck,  and  is  fixed  over  a  rivet,  then  turned  in  and  fastened  by  the 
bayonet  catch.  The  bayonet  for  the  percussion-musket  {fig.  11)  has  only 
one  thick,  ring-formed  projection,  over  which  the  hook  of  the  bayonet-spring 
(which  is  fastened  to  the  stock)  catches.  The  blade  is  very  long,  thi^ee- 
edged,  flat,  and  sharp  pointed.  Two  bayonets  of  different  forms,  the  so-called 
sabre-bayonets,  are  shown  In  fig.  12. 

3.  Projectile  weapons,  a.  Muskets.  Fig.  1  is  the  common  infantry 
musket  with  flint  lock,  as  now  used  where  the  percussion-musket  {fig.  8) 
is  not  adopted.  A  somewhat  larger  kind  of  percussion  arm  is  the  wall-piece 
{fig.  9'),  which  has  a  rifled  bore  and  throws  a  two  ounce  ball ;  it  is  designed 
for  the  defence  of  forts.  The  French  artillery  have  a  shorter  musket  {fi^.  2), 
a  kind  of  carbine  with  a  flint  lock,  and  a  long  bayonet.  The  cavalry  have 
carbines  {fig.  S)  with  flint  locks  and  a  bow,  in  the  ring  of  which  the  car- 

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WARFARE  OF  MODERN  TIMES.  65 

bine  hook  is  fastened.  The  riflemen  and  light  infantry  have  grooved  rifles 
{fig.  9  b)  with  percussion  locks  and  hair  triggers,  on  which,  instead  of  the 
common  bayonet,  the  rifle  sword-bayonet  is  fixed  and  held  fast  by  the 
bayonet-spring,  serving  both  for  cut  and  thrust.  The  old  cavalry  pistol 
{fig.  4  a  b)  was  very  short  in  the  bore  and  long-stocked,  with  the  flint  lock ; 
the  modern  is  short-stocked  {fig.  10),  longer  in  barrel,  often  rifled,  and  has 
the  percussion  lock. 

4.  Defensive  arms.  The  cuirass  {fig.  27)  which  with  little  variation  is 
used  for  the  heavy  cavalry  of  all  armies,  consists  of  a  front  and  a  back  piece, 
either  of  steel  or  brass,  polished  or  painted  black,  held  together  at  the 
bottom  by  means  of  straps  and  at  the  top  by  the  shoulder-bands.  Where 
only  the  breast«plate  is  used,  it  is  fastened .  by  cross  straps,  which  pass 
obliquely  over  the  back.  Of  head  coverings  we  find  on  pi.  25  :  a.  Helmets. 
The  Prussian  Garde  du  Corps  {fig.  30)  ;  Cuirassiers  of  the  Guard  {fig.  29) ; 
Dragoon  Guard  {fig.  32) ;  Line  Infantry  (fig.  41) ;  French  Cuirassiers 
{fig.  28)  ;  Carbiniers  {fig.  31).  b.  Shakos.  The  French  Hussars  {fig.  33)  ; 
Chasseurs  (fig.  37) ;  Artillery  {fig.  38) ;  Line  Infantry  {fig.  39) ;  African 
Light  Infantry  {fig.  40) ;  the  Prussian  Hussar  cap  {fig.  35),  that  for  the 
Ist  Regiment  of  Body  Hussars,*  which  bears  as  a  distinction  the  silver 
death's-head. 

5.  Knapsacks  and  Belts.  The  manner  of  packing  the  clothing  and 
necessaries  of  the  soldier  in  the  field  is  seen  by  the  knapsack  of  the  French 
Line  Infantry  {fig.  42),  of  the  Prussian  Infantry  {fig.  43),  of  the  Prussian 
Artillery  {fig.  45),  and  the  Prussian  Pioneers  (fig.  44).  Of  belts  and  equip- 
ments, fig.  60  gives  the  cartridge-box  of  the  French  Light  Cavalry  (right 
side)  and  the  baldric  and  shoulder-belt  of  the  French  Light  Infantry  (left 
side)  ;  fig.  34,  the  sabretache  of  the  French,  and  fig.  36,  of  the  Prussian 
Hussars. 

6.  Drums  and  Music.  Figs.  46  and  47  are  field-drums  with  brass  shells 
and  wooden  hoops,  painted  in  toothed  chequer- work  according  to  the  colors 
of  the  cockade.  Figs.  48  and  49  are  cavalry  trumpets, ^^.  50  a  bugle-horn, 
and^^.  51  a  trombone. 

7.  Colors  and  Standards.  Fig.  52  shows  the  French  eagle,  as  it  was  in 
the  time  of  the  Emperor.  Fig.  53,  the  Prussian  eagle.  Fig.  57  is  the  color 
of  the  (Jerman  Empire,  of  black,  red,  and  yellow,  cross  striped,  and  with 
the  black  eagle  of  the  empire  in  a  yellow  field  in  the  centre ;  fig.  55  is  the 
Grerman  imperial  standard,  in  black,  red,  and  yellow,  cross  striped :  both 
are  trimmed  with  gold  fringe  and  have  cords  and  tassels  of  black,  red,  and 
gold.  Fig.  56  is  the  French  color,  blue,  white,  and  red,  striped  perpendi- 
cularly, with  blue,  white,  and  red  bands  and  gold  fringe.  Instead  of  a  head 
the  Gallic  cock  in  gold  is  placed  on  the  top  of  the  staflT.  The  French 
standard  is  precisely  the  same,  only  smaller  {fig.  54).  The  English  color 
{fig.  58)  is  of  white  silk,  and  has  usually  on  one  side  the  arms  of  England 
and  the  Star  of  the  Garter,  and  on  the  other  a  laurel  wreath,  with  the  name 

*  Body  (Leib)  regimeDts  In  the  Gennan  serrice  are  those  regiments  which  are  attached  to 
the  person  of  a  sovereign  prinoe. 

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66  MILITARY  SOIENGBS. 

of  the  battles  in  which  the  regiment  bearing  the  color  has  difitingiiislMd 
itaelf.  Cords,  tassel«,  and  fringes  are  of  gold.  There  is  here,  however,  the 
greatest  diversity.  The  color  of  the  United  States  of  America  is  cross 
striped  red  and  white,  with  gold  fringe  and  tassels. 


Military  Gymnastics. 

Indispensable  requisites  for  a  good  soldier  are,  great  activity,  precision, 
and  dexterity  in  all  his  movements.  The  ordinary  exercises,  however,  are 
entirely  insufficient  to  effect  this  physical  training,  being  directed  principally 
to  the  carriage  of  the  person,  the  motions  in  rank  and  file,  and  the  manage- 
ment of  the  weapons.  In  order,  therefore,  to  render  the  soldier  agile  and 
to  increase  his  strength  and  muscle,  the  practice  of  gymnastics,  upon  which 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  formerly  laid  great  stress,  has  now  been  made  one 
of  the  objects  of  military  instruction,  and  reduced  to  a  species  of  system,  as 
found  most  applicable  to  the  wants  of  war  service.  Plates  26,  27,  and  38, 
contain  the  principal  exercises  of  military  gymnastics. 

The  first  exercises  of  gymnastics  relate  to  the  right  positions  of  foot, 
knee,  hip,  shoulders,  arms,  head,  and  the  whole  body  in  place ;  to  render 
the  limbs  movable  and  maintain  the  body  in  equilibrium ;  upon  which 
follow  the  staff*  and  ball  exercises,  to  strengthen  the  muscles  of  the  breast, 
arm,  and  spine.  The  wheeling  exercises  which  succeed  these  have  for 
object  to  maintain  the  good  carriage  of  the  body,  once  acquired,  in  all 
directions,  and  that  the  wheelings  should  be  made  rapidly  and  with  pre- 
cision ;  for  which  purpose  the  exercises  are  continued  in  advancing,  march- 
ing, and  running,  as  well  in  straight  line  as  in  zigzag  and  curve,  singly  and 
in  rank  and  file.  The  next  exercises  are  in  leaping,  partly  free,  partly  with 
the  leaping-pole,  the  leap  in  length,  the  leap  in  height,  and  the  leap  in  depth, 
and  then  the  swinging  or  vaulting.  The  leaps  on  to  and  over  the  vaulting- 
horse  are  divided  into  longitudinal  and  cross  leaps,  the  first  from  behind, 
the  last  from  one  side.  At  first  the  eflTort  is  only  to  complete  the  leap  by 
the  assistance  of  the  hand,  afterwards  without  touching  with  the  hands. 
One  of  the  most  remarkable  leaps  is  the  back  leap  {pi.  26, ßg,  6),  where 
the  leaper  clears  the  saddle  by  a  running  jump,  resting  both  hands  upon  the 
cantles;  in  rising  the  legs  are  stretched  wide  with  the  toes  pointed  oat- 
wards,  so  that  one  leg  passes  over  the  crupper,  the  other  over  the  neck  of 
the  horse,  without  touching  him ;  the  hands  then  let  go  the  cantles,  and  the 
descent  is  made  with  the  legs  closed  together,  the  back  towards  the  horse. 
If  it  is  desired  to  render  the  leap  still  more  complicated,  the  half-turn  can 
be  made  at  the  same  time,  bringing  the  face  towards  the  horse  in  alighting. 
Very  difficult  also  are  the  half  and  whole  thief  s  leap.  The  half  thief  s  leap 
(pL  26,  fig.  7)  is  made  by  a  run  directly  towards  the  saddle,  then  at  the 
distance  of  a  half  to  two  paces  from  it,  springing  up  with  the  left  foot  aJone, 
bringing  the  right  shoulder  by  a  turn  directly  over  the  middle  of  the  saddle, 
the  well  extended  right  leg,  with  the  toes  pointed  forwards,  raised  so  high 
as  to  clear  it  entirely,  and  ending  in  the  saddle.  The  right  teg  mast  not  km 
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WARFARE  OF  MODERN  TIMES.  67 

swung  over  the  crupper,  but  must  go  directly  forwards  ;  the  hands  are  not 
rested  and  must  not  touch  the  horse,  so  that  it  is  sometimes  made  holding, 
at  the  same  time  one  or  two  flags  or  muskets.  In  the  full  thiefs  leap,  the 
spring  is  made  also  on  the  left  foot  alone,  but  in  rising  the  right  is  brought 
up  as  well  and  the  leaper  passes  entirely  over  the  saddle,  without  touching 
it,  and  comes  down  on  the  other  side  of  the  horse.  This  leap  also  is  made 
with  flags  or  muskets,  and  the  half  turn  can  be  made  in  it  likewise,  so  that 
in  alighting  the  face  is  towards  the  horse. 

After  vaulting  come  bathing  and  swimming,  in  which  the  soldier  is 
practised  not  merely  in  the  ordinary  swimming  and  treading  water,  but 
also  in  swimming  with  the  full  equipment  and  carrying  the  weapons,  in 
exercising  and  firing  while  in  the  water,  in  riding  upon  the  swimming  horse 
in  rank  and  file,  and  is  taught  also  how  to  proceed  in  rescuing  persons  from 
drowning. 

So  soon  as  these  exercises  are  completed  they  pass  to  the  beam  on  the 
ground,  the  balancing  beam,  and  the  hanging  beam.  The  first  exercises  only 
teach  the  man  to  preserve  his  equilibrium,  even  under  the  most  difiicult  cir- 
cumstances, and  not  to  lose  at  the  same  time  the  proper  carriage  of  the  body. 
But  when  the  soldier  comes  upon  the  balancing  beam,  he  is  raised  above 
the  ground,  and  must,  in  the  beginning,  maintain  his  equilibrium  by  means 
of  his  outstretched  arms,  until  after  a  time  he  learns  to  keep  it  with  his  arms 
folded,  is  even  able  to  step  over  objects  held  in  front  of  him,  or  to  stoop 
down  and  remove  things  which  are  lying  upon  the  beam  {fig,  1),  and  at  the 
end  of  the  beam  to  turn  round,  or  to  go  backwards  and  pass  another  per- 
son on  the  beam.  Then  follow  exercises  in  balancing  on  one  foot  with  the 
other  hanging  down  (fig,  2),  changing  the  feet  and  thus  moving  forward,  and 
finally  exercising  with  the  musket  upon  the  beam  {fig,  8),  which,  of  course, 
is  placed  higher  and  higher  as  the  men  acquire  greater  confidence.  Last 
comes  marching  with  the  whole  equipment  upon  the  beam  {fig,  4),  at  first 
when  supported,  and  finally  when  suspended  from  ropes  at  each  end  of  the 
hanging  beam. 

The  exercises  in  climbing  are  very  various.  The  men  climb  first  upon 
a  rope  ladder  with  wooden  rungs,  then  on  the  common  rope  ladder  {fig,  15) 
carried  obliquely  to  the  beam  ;  this  climbing  is  at  first  with  both  hands  and 
feet,  afterwards  with  the  hands  alone.  Then  come  exercises  upon  the  free 
hanging  rope  with  wooden  rungs  inserted ;  then  on  a  rope  which  has  only 
knots  instead  of  rungs  {fig,  16),  and  finally  on  the  smooth  rope  {fig,  17) ; 
all  of  these  exercises  being  made  also  with  the  hands  alone,  the  feet  hanging 
free.  The  final  exercise  in  rope-climbing  is  climbing  between  two  loose 
hanging  ropes,  using  the  hands  alone  {fig,  18),  and  on  the  rope  stretched 
obliquely  {fig,  32),  in  which,  at  first,  to  guard  against  accident,  particularly 
where  the  climber  is  using  the  hands  alone,  an  assistant  is  employed  {fig.  33), 
who  supports  the  climber  by  means  of  a  rope  passing  over  a  roller.  The 
same  exercises  are  made  also  between  two  ropes  stretched  in  the  same 
manner.  Then  begins  climbing  on  the  ladder-pole,  an  upright  pole  through 
which  rungs  are  inserted  in  the  ladder  form,  or  in  a  spiral  line,  and  this  leads 
to  climbing  <m  the  smooth  pole,  of  5  to  7  inches  in  diameter  {fig,  19),  which 

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68  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

is  grasped  by  the  hands,  one  above  the  other,  and  at  the  same  time  between 
the  calf  of  one  leg  and  the  shin-bone  and  ankle  joint  of  the  other.  The 
beam  elevated  on  posts  is  crossed  by  the  climber,  either  sitting  upon  it,  as 
on  a  horse  {fig,  28),  or  crosswise  {fig,  30),  and  moving  forwards  by  the 
use  of  one  or  both  hands ;  in  this  exercise  the  climber  has  two  ropes, 
fastened  to  rings  on  a  girdle  round  his  waist  and  passing  on  each  side  of  the 
beam  to  the  ground,  where  they  are  held  by  two  men,  to  support  him  in 
case  he  loses  his  balance  {figs,  29,  31).  These  exercises  can  also  be  made 
hanging,  or  in  other  positions,  as  for  example  in  fig,  38.  Climbing  on  a 
ladder  with  movable  rungs  is  a  peculiar  exercise.  The  ladder  {fig,  20) 
consists  of  two  ladder  rails,  which  are  grooved  on  the  inner  side,  so  that 
the  rungs  can  be  shoved  up  and  down  between  the  two  rails ;  in  the  middle 
hangs  a  rope  passing  through  holes  in  the  rungs  and  having  a  knot  for  each 
rung  to  rest  upon :  the  climber  clasps  the  ladder-rails  with  his  arms,  and 
ascends  the  rungs  with  his  feet  by  their  assistance.  The  common  ladder 
is  mounted  while  standing  obliquely,  at  first  with  both  hands,  then  with  the 
face  turned  outwards  and  the  hands  resting  on  the  ladder  behind  the  back, 
then  only  one  hand  is  used,  while  something  is  carried  in  the  other,  and 
finally  the  ladder  is  ascended  and  descended  without  the  use  of  the  hands 
at  all  {pi,  26,  figs.  13,  23).  In  this  assistants  are  required  at  first  {figs,  14 
and  22),  who  keep  hold  of  a  rope,  which  passes  over  a  roller  and  is  fastened 
to  the  waist  of  the  climber,  before  or  behind,  to  preserve  his  equilibrium. 
These  exercises  can  be  variously  modified ;  as,  for  instance,  by  two  persons 
passing  each  other  on  the  ladder ;  by  ascending  on  the  front  and  descend- 
ing on  the  back ;  by  overreaching  one  rung ;  by  ascending  and  descending 
on  the  inside,  and  at  last  with  the  hands  alone,  the  body  hanging  free  in  the 
air  {fig,  25) ;  or  with  hands  and  feet  on  the  same  rung  at  once  (jumping). 
In  all  these  last  exercises  an  assistant  is  required  at  first  {fig,  27),  with  a  rope, 
which  sustains  in  part  the  weight  of  the  body,  until  the  muscles  of  the  arms 
have  attained  the  necessary  strength.  To  this  class  belongs  also  the  mounting 
and  descending  a  ladder  carrying  a  load  on  the  back  and  without  the  use  of 
the  hands  {fig.  24)  with  the  aid  of  an  assistant  {fig.  26).  The  last  of  the  climb- 
ing exercises  is  mounting  the  perpendicular  ladder  {fig,  21)  and  descending 
on  the  other  side,  after  passing  round  the  ladder-rail  at  the  top ;  this  may  be 
done  also  with  the  hands  alone,  after  sufficient  practice.  The  next  exercise 
is  climbing  a  wall  by  means  of  small  orifices  made  for  the  purpose.  In  a  wall 
openings  are  made  six  inches  long  and  four  high,  and  from  six  to  eight  inches 
distant  from  each  other ;  the  climber  places  his  hands  and  feet  in  these  alter- 
nately, and  thus  mounts  or  descends  the  wall  {fig,  40  g).  To  these  exercises 
belongs  also  the  mounting  a  wall  by  means  of  the  pyramid ;  the  representa- 
tion of  this  in^^.  8  explains,  better  than  words,  how,  by  means  of  a  pyramid 
of  twelve  persons,  the  thirteenth  is  brought  in  position  to  surmount  the 
upper  angle  of  a  wall  from  twenty  to  twenty-two  feet  high ;  if  the  wall 
is  lower  then  two,  six,  or  more  men  are  sufficient,  as  shown  in^^.  40  e,/. 
It  is  necessary  always  to  take  care  that  in  the  lower  stages  only  the  strong- 
est men  are  placed.  Fig.  40  shows  the  various  applications  of  exercises  in 
climbing  to  passing  rivers  and  mounting  walls.  Narrow  ditches  are  over* 
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WARFARE  OF  MODERN  TIMES.  69 

leaped  without  assistance ;  wider  ones  by  means  of  the  leaping-pole ;  if  still 
wider  and  there  are  strong  beams  to  lay  over  them,  they  are  crossed  as  in 
üy  a ;  if  the  beams  are  weaker,  with  the  body  in  a  horizontal  position,  as  ft,  A, 
silting  aside  or  crosswise,  as  c,  c,  or  a  rope  can  be  stretched  across  and 
fastened  to  a  higher  point  on  the  opposite  side,  upon  which  men  then  clam- 
ber over,  as  at  cf,  rf.  A  wall  can  be  scaled  by  means  of  the  pyramid  (e,  e) 
of  more  or  lewer  men,  according  to  the  height  (//,  k) ;  or  by  the  climbing- 
holes  {g,  g) ;  or  by  the  knotted  rope  (A  A),  or  the  rope  ladder  (f  t).  When  the 
top  is  reached,  the  descent  on  the  other  side  {fig,  41)  is  made  by  leaping 
down  from  small  elevations,  or  else  knotted  ropes  or  rope-ladders  are  fastened 
to  props  or  hooks,  and  the  men  climb  or  are  lowered  down  by  these. 

Corporal  Exercises.  These  are  designed  to  give  greater  flexibility  to 
the  body ;  they  consist,  first,  of  exercises  in  running  and  swinging  with  a 
rope,  which  fastened  to  an  elevated  point  at  one  end  is  outstretched  by  the 
man  who  holds  it  at  the  other  going  backwards  until  he  just  touches  the 
ground  with  his  toes ;  in  this  position  the  running  in  a  circle  and  various 
other  running  and  swinging  exercises  are  performed.  Another  of  these 
exercises  is  the  swinging  over  a  ditch  or  river;  a  frame  is  erected  on  one 
bank  of  a  height  proportionate  to  the  breadth  of  the  stream  {fig.  5),  and  in 
this  a  hook  is  fixed,  from  which  hang  two  ropes  ;  the  man  who  desires  to 
leap  over  the  stream  steps  upon  a  somewhat  elevated  platform  {fig,  9), 
takes  one  of  the  ropes  and  holds  it  so  that  the  end  hangs  loose  over  his 
back,  while  he  grasps  the  rope  with  both  hands  outstretched  and  leans 
backwards  as  far  as  possible ;  he  then  lifls  his  feet  and  thus  leaves  his  stand- 
ing-place {fig.  11)  swinging  pendulum-like  forward  to  the  other  side  of  the 
obstacle,  upon  reaching  which  he  lets  go  of  the  rope  and  goes  on  his  way 
{fig.  10),  the  rope  falling  back  again  to  the  side  whence  he  came  {fig.  12). 
The  second  rope  serves  for  another  man. 

Exercises  of  the  bars  and  the  horizontal  pole  form  a  very  important  part 
of  these  corporal  exercises.  The  bar  on  which  the  first  is  made  consists  of 
two  beams  fixed  upon  posts  not  very  far  apart,  and  in  such  a  manner  that 
they  can  be  raised  or  lowered  according  to  the  height  of  the  exercisers. 
The  exercises  are  various.  The  horizontal  pole  is  a  peculiar  apparatus, 
which  is  represented  on  the  right  hand  iide,  upper  part,  of  pi.  26.  Of  the 
numerous  exercises  upon  this  we  shall  mention  only  the  under-grip  {fig. 
34),  in  which  the  pole  is  grasped  by  the  hands  in  such  a  manner  that  both 
thumbs  are  not  turned  to  the  same  side,  but  away  from  each  other  and 
outwards,  while  the  hands  seize  the  pole  on  the  outside  and  from  below 
upwards ;  in  this  position  the  hand-hang  is  practised.  The  knee-hang  is 
shown  {fig.  89),  and  can  also  be  made  with  one  knee  while  the  other  is 
swung  over  the  pole  or  hangs  below  it.  The  hang-recumbent  {fig,  38)  is 
executed  by  seizing  the  pole  with  both  hands  and  swinging  the  body  for- 
wards and  upwards,  passing  at  the  same  time  the  right  leg  over  the  pole, 
then  dropping  the  hold  with  the  left  hand,  slipping  the  right  arm  over  the 
pole  to  the  elbow,  and  so  remaining  suspended  at  length  by  the  right  elbow 
and  right  knee.  The  side  seat  {fi^.  35)  can  be  so  executed  that  one  hand  is 
before,  the  other  behind  the  body.     From  this  position  many  turnings  and 

lOOHOaBAPHIO  SNOTCLOPiBDIA. — VOL.  IIL  85  545 


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70  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

other  exercises  can  be  performed.  The  side-hold  {fig.  36)  is  when  both 
hands  are  rested  upon  the  pole  and  the  body  sustained  upon  them  with  the 
face  or  back  towards  the  pole ;  from  this  position  draw-climbing,  lifting, 
bracing,  and  winding  are  executed.  When  the  man  lifts  himself  by  the 
side-hold  and  then  turns  slowly  over  backwards,  without  any  violent  swing 
{fig'  37),  so  that  the  balls  of  both  feet  come  to  the  ground  together,  it  is 
called  the  back-drop.  There  are  various  other  exercises,  tl^  particular 
mention  of  which  would  occupy  too  much  space. 

Fencing.  At  first  the  science  of  fencing  united  both  cut  and  thrust  in 
one  method,  but  as  the  art  became  more  highly  improved  the  two  were 
divided,  and  each  was  taught  and  practised  as  a  separate  art. 

The  art  of  fighting  by  the  thrust  alone  (fencing  proper)  teaches  so  to  use 
the  weapon,  according  to  certain  fixed  and  calculated  principles,  as  to 
defend  ourself  from  the  attacks  of  an  enemy  with  the  small-sword  alone 
and  inflict  wounds  upon  him.     In  fencing  for  practice  the  foil  is  used,  for 
earnest  the  small-sword.     This  sword  {pi,  27,  fig,  1  a)  consists  of  a  blade 
(fc)  of  the  best  steel,  which  is  either  two-edged  (a)  or  three-edged  (c) ;  the 
tang  which  is  inserted  into  the  gripe  is  six  inches  long ;  the  blade  is  divided 
{fig,  2  6)  into  fouÄ parts  from  the  hilt  {ah),  namely,  the  forte,  the  half-forte, 
the  foible,  and  half-foible,  each  being  exactly  \  of  the  blade.     The  hilt  {fig. 
1  a)  has  a  stool,  a  cross-guard  gripe,  bow,  and  pommel.     The  German  foil 
{fig,  2  a)  is  oblong  in  cross-section,  and  has  a  button  at  the  point  which  is 
covered,  and  the  gripe  has  a  stool.     The  French  foil  {fig.  3)  has  instead  of 
the  stool  a  "  brille"  with  fore-leather,  or  else  only  a  cross-guard  {fig.  4). 
The  fencing-gloves  {fig.  5  a  and  b)  are  on  the  outside  of  double  leather  and 
stuffed  over  the  wrist,  on  the  inside  of  thin  single  leather ;  for  the  teacher 
the  gloves  must  be  thickly  wadded  {fig.  6  a  and  b),  and  he  has  also,  since 
the  pupil  must  make  all  thrusts  home,  a  plastron  {fig.  7)  of  leather,  upon 
which  the  aim  for  the  thrust  is  marked  right  and  left.     The  mask  {fig.  8)  is 
of  strong  wire  and  protects  the  face  in  practice.     The  extension  of  action 
is  with  the  right  foot  forward  and  the  right  knee  slightly  bent,  while  the 
body  rests  upon  the  lefl  leg,  the  knee  of  which  is  also  slightly  bent  towards 
the  left  hand  side ;  the  left  breast  is  turned  away  and  the  upper  part  of  the 
body  presented  sideways  to  the  antagonist ;  the  right  arm  is  easily  extended 
holding' the  foil  with  the  point  on  a  level  with  the  eyes  of  the  opponent,  the 
left  arm  is  held  up  in  a  curved  position  so  as  to  bring  the  opened  hand 
about  four  inches  higher  than  the  head  {pi.  27,  fig,  14).     This  is  the  exten- 
sion of  guard.     Fig.  15  b  is  the  position  of  thrust ;  but  the  passage,  a  pass- 
ing to  the  attack  with  the  left  hand,  is  shown  in  fig.  23  a.     The  passage 
can  be  made  backwards  also,  to  permit  the  lunge  of  the  antagonist  to  pass 
by  and  then  disarm  him  by  a  strong  battement.     The  engagement  can  be 
made  close,  medium,  and  wide.     The  medium  engagement  is  the  most 
common  {fig.  14),  and  in  this  the  blades  bind  in  the  middle  of  their  "  foible," 
so  that  in  the  lunge  the  heart  of  the  antagonist  c^n  be  reached.     The 
engagement,  once  taken,  must  be  maintained  even  during  the  vaultings, 
when  the  place  is  changed  in  a  circle  to  the  right  or  left.     The  movements 
of  the  hand,  from  which  the  thrusts  originate,  are  simple.     The  first,  prime 
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WARFARE  OF  MODERN  TIMES.  71 

(Jig,  10)  is  the  simplest  and  least  fatiguing  and  forms  the  extension ;  in  the 
secondy  seconde  {fig.  11),  the  little  finger  is  above,  the  thumb  below,  the 
fingers  on  the  outside ;  the  third,  tierce  (fig.  12),  turns  the  hand  in  the 
quarter  circle  so  that  the  fingers  are  below,  the  knuckles  upwards,  but  the 
thumb  directed  inwards ;  the  fourth,  quarte  {fig.  13),  is  the  reverse  of  the 
preceding.  These  motions  must  be  industriously  practised  in  rapid  suc- 
cession. The  thrusts  are  either  high  (fig.  9  a)  under  the  eye ;  middle  or 
chief  thrusts  (fig.  9  b)  at  the  middle  of  the  right  breast ;  or  low  (fig.  9  c)  at 
the  right  side  of  the  lower  body  above  the  hip.  High  thrusts  are  middle 
thrusts  only  with  the  point  of  the  foil  a  little  more  elevated ;  thrusts  below 
the  hip  are  irregular  and  generally  forbidden.  The  thrust  in  prime  is  from 
the  motion  of  prime  (fig.  15  6),  is  seldom  given,  and  serves  more  for  exten- 
sion, as  it  is  not  easy  to  thrust  with  the  hand  high  and  point  low ;  its  mark 
is  the  breast,  or  for  high  prime  the  face.  The  thrust  in  seconde  (fig.  16  a) 
divides  into  the  seconde  inside,  which  is  made  under  the  blade  at  the  lower 
body,  and  the  outside  seconde,  which  is  made  at  the  same  point  but  over 
the  blade;  both  are  seldom  delivered.  The  thrust  in  tierce  (fig.  17  6), 
from  the  motion  of  tierce,  must  be  delivered  quick  and  strong,  whereby  the 
whole  forte  of  your  own  blade  engages  the  foible  of  your  antagonist's ;  it  is 
delivered  over  the  arm  on  the  outer  side  of  the  opponent ;  tierce  inside  is 
impracticable.  High  tierce  aims  at  the  face.  The  thrust  in  quarte  is  from 
the  motion  of  quarte,  and  is  the  one  most  used.  Quarte  inside  passes 
within  the  blade  at  the  breast  (fig.  18  6);  high  quarte,  whether  inside  or 
outside,  at  the  face.  Low  quarte  aims  at  the  lower  body  (fig.  Ida)  and  is 
given  inside  ;  delivered  on  the  outside  it  is  called  quarte-reverse,  whereby 
one  engages  the  whole  foible  of  his  opponent's  blade  with  the  whole  forte 
of  his  own,  presses  it  down,  passes  over  it  to  the  outside,  or  sometimes  from 
the  outside  to  the  in,  and  then,  with  a  turn  of  the  wrist  to  the  blade  of  the 
antagonist,  thrusts  at  his  side.  The  parades  or  parries  are  either  flying  or 
short,  or  stroke-parades,  contre-parades,  battements,  and  ligades.  The 
short  parades  are  :  prime  parade  (fig,  15  a),  made  against  prime  and  tierce ; 
quarte  inside  and  outside,  by  a  short  pressure  with  the  whole  forte  of  the 
blade  upon  the  whole  foible  of  the  antagonist's.  Seconde  parade  (fig.  16  6) 
is  a  twisting  of  the  hand  from  the  prime-motion  into  the  seconde-motion, 
and  goes  against  outside  and  inside  seconde.  The  tierce  parade  (fig.  17  a)  is 
a  twisting  of  the  hand  out  of  the  prime  into  the  tierce  motion,  and  with  it  are 
parried  outside  prime,  tierce,  and  outside  quarte.  The  quarte  parade  (fig. 
IS  a)  is  a  quick,  strong  turning  of  the  hand  from  the  prime  motion  to  the 
quarte  motion,  whereby  the  arm  must  be  stretched  and  ready  for  thrust. 
After  the  parade,  however,  the  hand  goes  rapidly  back  to  the  prime  posi- 
tion. With  this  parade  inside  prime  and  quarte  are  caught,  while  the  hand 
at  the  same  time  is  moved  somewhat  sideways;  also  tierce  and  outside 
quarte  by  a  slight  pressure  to  the  outside,  and  low  quarte  (fig.  19  6)  by 
sinking  the  hand  and  point  of  the  blade  somewhat.  All  these  are  called 
stroke-parades,  in  which  with  the  whole  forte  of  your  own  blade  you  bind 
the  whole  foible  of  your  antagonist's,  then  slide  lightly  up  it  to  the  forte, 
thus  forcing  it  some  distance  out  of  direction.     As  by  this  means  an  open- 

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72  MHITART  SOIENGES. 

ing  is  at  once  made,  so  the  after-thrust  must  immediately  follow.  Stroke- 
parade,  however,  must  never  degenerate  into  a  blow,  else  you  yourself 
leave  an  opening.  Contre-parades  arise  when  you  go  round  your  adver- 
sary's blade ;  a  light  stroke-parade  may  also  be  united  with  them.  They 
are  cmly  in  quarte,  tierce,  and  seconde.  The  battement  is  a  strong  stroke- 
parade,  with  which  an  antagonist  is  usually  disarmed  if  he  do  not  hold  his  foil 
firmly,  or  at  least  an  opening  is  made.  There  are  quarte,  tierce,  and  seconde 
battements,  which  are  made  from  the  corresponding  motions,  and  parry  the 
thrusts  in  the  manner  of  the  corresponding  light  parades.  Ligades  are  bat- 
tements in  which  at  the  conclusion  you  pass  from  one  motion  into  another, 
and  thereby  twist  your  antagonist's  sword  from  his  hand,  or  at  least  force 
from  him  an  opening,  which  you  instantly  make  use  of  by  an  after-thrust. 

In  the  teaching  of  fencing  the  blades  are  first  engaged  or  bound,  that  is, 
in  the  prime-motion,  laid  softly  against  the  blade  of  the  antagonist,  on  the 
inside  or  outside.  Then  the  thrusts  and  parades  are  shown  and  made,  at 
first  by  "  times,"  afterwards  at  will.  The  pupil  is  shown  also  how  to  pass 
from  the  parade  to  the  after-thrust  and  the  contre-parade.  Next  follow  the 
feints.  To  feint  is  to  make  the  mere  show  of  a  thrust,  so  as  to  mislead  the 
antagonist  into  the  parade  and  thereby  obtain  on  the  opposite  side  an  open- 
ing for  a  real  thrust.  There  are  single,  double,  triple,  and  finally  stroke- 
feints.  The  last  consists  in  binding  with  the  forte  of  your  own  blade  the 
foible  of  your  antagonist's,  sliding  briskly  up  that,  making  feint  outside  or 
inside,  and  passing  instantly  to  the  thrust  for  which  an  opening  may  pre- 
sent. Time  and  stop-thrusts  are  such  as  are  given  at  the  instant  when  the 
antagonist,  purposing  a  thrust,  makes  too  much  or  irregular  preparation  for 
it.  An  example  of  a  stop-thrust  (when  the  antagonist  is  permitted  to 
deliver)  is  the  following :  If  we  perceive  that  our  antagonist  delivers  his 
thrusts  mostly  over  our  arm,  we  wait  for  the  moment  when  such  a  thrust 
is  to  follow  (pi  27,  fig.  20  a),  set  the  left  foot,  while  the  left  knee  is  straight- 
ened as  far  back  as  possible,  extend  the  right  arm,  twist  the  hand  "en 
seconde,"  and  so  let  the  antagonist  deliver  (fig.  20  b),  keeping  down  the 
head  somewhat  that  the  hostile  thrust  may  pass  over  it.  Counter-thrust  is 
the  application  of  all  that  has  been  taught  at  the  discretion  of  the  pupil,  and 
shows  whether  he  has  understood  it  well  or  not.  Hereby  various  artifices 
come  in  play.  Thus,  for  example,  instead  of  a  battement  or  ligade  one 
may  disarm  his  antagonist  when  he  has  thrust  tierce  (fig.  23 ab),  by 
making  a  passade  with  the  left  foot  (stepping  in)  and  seizing  his  wrist  at 
the  same  time  with  the  left  hand,  while  with  the  blade  in  the  right  the  hos- 
tile weapon  is  pressed  down  or  battered.  Or,  when  the  antagonist  has 
delivered  in  quarte  (fig.  24  a  b),  bind  the  quarte  thrust  with  counter-tierce, 
making  the  passade  with  the  left  foot,  force  up  with  the  left  hand  the  right 
hand  of  the  opponent,  and  set  your  sword  at  his  breast.  Or  the  so-called 
theatre-thrust  (fig.  25  a  6),  if  the  opponent  thrusts  en  seconde,  press  with 
the  flat  of  the  left  hand  his  blade  away  from  your  breast  so  that  it  passes  by 
on  the  right,  while  your  own  blade  goes  round  below  it.  The  left  foot 
makes  the  passade,  the  left  hand  forces  up  the  opponent's  right»  his  blade 
passing  under  your  left  arm  and  bringing  up  your  own  blade  again,  by  a 
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WARFARE  OF  MODERN  TIMES.  73 

Curve,  you  thrust  quarte.  A  parade-position  for  combatants  is  the  follow- 
ing {fig.  21  a  b) :  The  opponent  thrusts  quarte,  you  let  the  thrust  in,  draw  up 
the  left  foot  to  the  heel  of  the  right  and  take  up  the  point  of  his  sword  with 
the  flat  of  your  left  hand,  while  your  right  brings  your  own  weapon  under 
and  across  the  forte  of  his,  so  that  it  can  be  forced  into  a  curve.  It  is  well 
in  ail  cases  for  the  teacher,  in  the  beginning,  to  carry  the  blade  of  the  pupil 
to  its  place.  For  example,  the  pupil  delivers  quarte,  you  let  the  thrust  in 
{fig*  22  a  ft),  draw  up  the  left  foot  to  the  heel  of  the  right,  bring  the  left 
hand  flat  on  the  breast  where  the  pupil's  point  should  hit,  and  lay  your 
blade  under  that  of  the  pupil  to  give  his  hand  the  right  direction. 

Cut-and-thrust,  a  German  exercise,  teaches  how  to  use  a  cutting  weapon 
according  to  fixed  rules  deduced  from  calculation  and  experience,  so  as  to 
defend  yourself  and  injure  your  adversary.  The  weapon  for  this  is  the 
cut-and-thrust  sword  (or  the  broadsword),  which  is  one  or  two  edged, 
and  broader  and  heavier  than  the  small  sword.  For  practice,  the  cut-and- 
thrust  foil  is  used  {fig.  26),  having  a  blunt  blade,  and  a  bell  guard  and 
bow  to  the  hilt.  The  blade  is  divided,  as  in  the  small  sword,  into  forte  and 
foible,  and  must  be  so  proportioned  to  the  hilt  that  the  point  of  equilibrium 
lies  about  two  inches  from  that  The  fighting  gloves  {fig.  29  a,  h)  are  pro- 
vided with  long  gauntlets,  are  of  double  leather  in  the  hand,  and  well  stuffed« 
elsewhere  of  single  buckskin  ;  the  gauntlets  standing  up  around  the  wrists, 
must  be  of  very  thick  buckskin,  double,  and  not  too  wide.  The  mask 
{fig.  28)  is  very  strong,  of  wire,  and  stufied  all  around  the  frame.  The 
fighting  hat  {fig.  27)  has  a  brim  four  inches  wide,  which  is  drawn  down  at 
the  sides  by  strings.  The  best  extension  is  shown  at  fig.  34  a,  b.  The  left 
foot  stands  perpendicular  to  the  fighting  line  (the  fixed  foot),  the  right  (step 
foot)  -about  eighteen  inches  forward  and  from  seven  to  nine  inches  out  of 
the  line.  The  right  leg  stands  perpendicular,  the  left  is  stretched,  and  the 
weight  of  the  body  rests  most  upon  this ;  the  lower  body  is  drawn  back  '* 
the  breast  presented  to  the  antagonist,  the  right  shoulder  a  little  advanced. 
The  left  arm  lies,  with  the  hand  turned  outwards,  upon  the  back.  Fig,  31 
shows  the  hoMing  of  the  blade.  The  arm  is  raised  stretched,  until  the  hand 
is  at  the  height  of  the  shoulder ;  if  the  opponent  is  the  tallest,  the  extension 
must  be  somewhat  higher,  and  lower  if  the  reverse.  The  point  of  the  blade  is 
opposite  the  opponent's  right  eye.  Arm  and  blade  must  form  a  very  obtuse 
angle,  and  the  blade  be  always  lightly  bound  with  that  of  the  antagonist.  In 
the  delivery,  the  step  foot  is  set  forward,  but  not  slid ;  the  giving  back  for 
defence  also  must  be  equally  by  a  step.  In  cut-and-thrust  fighting  there  are 
also  vaultings  and  steppings  in.  The  engagement  is  also  threefold,  close, 
medium,  and  wide  ;  the  medium  {fig.  34  a,  b)  is  that  where  the  blades  bind 
in  the  half  foible,  and  by  a  moderate  stretching  of  the  arm  the  elbow  of  the 
antagonist  can  be  reached ;  in  delivery,  his  breast  The  movements  of  the  hand, 
or  the  motions,  are :  Prime,  the  back  of  the  hand  to  the  outside,  the  thumb 
above.  Seconde,  the  back  of  the  hand  to  the  insidi^  the  thumb  under ;  the 
cuts  ft'om  this  motion  are  the  most  difficult  Tierce,  the  back  of  the  hand 
uppermost ;  the  cuts  herefrom  go  to  the  right  side.  In  quarte,  the  back  of 
the  hand  lies  underneath,  and  the  cuts  go  to  the  left  side  of  the  opponent.    As 

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74  MILITARY  SdENCBS. 

to  the  cuts,  you  suppose  yourself  opposite  the  fist  of  the  sword-arm  of  yoiff 
opponent,  and  on  the  same  level  with  this  a  middle  point,  to  which  all  cuts 
are  carried.  If  you  desire  to  cut  close  and  fine,  then  the  circle  for  this 
middle  point  is  small,  and  confined  merely  to  the  sword-arm  of  the  antago- 
nist {fig.  81).  Then  prime  comes  from  a,  seconde  from  6,  tierce  from  c, 
quarte  from  d,  steep  quarte  from  «,  steep  tierce  from  g,  seconde  outside 
from  /,  and  the  inside  seconde  or  Polish  quarte  from  k.  If,  however,  you 
imagine  the  central  point  upon  the  breast  of  your  opponent  {fig.  80),  with 
the  lines  in  the  figure  running  through  it,  then  you  find  there  the  same  cuts, 
and  if  you  conceive  besides  a  horizontal  line  through  the  nose  and  another 
through  the  hips,  then  high  tierce  falls  from  /,  and  low  from  m,  high  quarte 
from  t,  and  low  from  it.  Figt.  82  and  88  are  frames  upon  which  the  cuts 
are  delivered  according  to  the  above  delineation,  and  towards  which  the 
pupil  learns  to  give  them  in  the  air,  before  he  is  made  acquainted  with  the 
parades,  dec. 

Prime  {fig.  85  h)  goes  from  the  prime  motion  short  to  the  swcHtl-arm  of 
the  opponent ;  long,  to  his  head.  Seconde  {fig.  86  a),  cut  perpendicularly 
upwards  from  the  motion  of  seconde,  goes  short  to  the  forearm,  long  to  the 
upper  arm  of  the  opponent,  and  must  be  delivered  by  the  stretched  arm  and 
wrist  solely.  Tierce,  {fig.  87  i),  cut  short,  strikes  from  the  tierce  motion 
the  right  side  of  the  sword  arm,  cut  long,  the  right  side  of  the  body. 
Quarte  {fig.  38  a),  from  the  quarte  motion,  is  exactly  the  reverse  of  the 
preceding.  These  four  are  the  chief  cuts.  The  middle  cuts  are :  half  or 
steep  quarte  {fig.  89  a),  at  the  inside  of  the  arm,  short ;  from  the  left 
shoulder  across  the  breast,  long;  the  thumb  lies  sideways  uppermost. 
Half  outside  seconde  {fig.  40  b)  falls  upon  the  arm,  cut  short ;  from  with- 
out, over  the  breast  upwards ;  if  cut  long,  a  good  after  cut.  The  thumb 
lies  obliquely  downwards.  Steep  tierce  {fig.  41  6),  the  thumb  sideways 
upwards,  and  the  hand  in  position  of  tierce.  The  cut  goes  steep  to  the 
right  side,  short  upon  the  arm ;  long,  from  the  right  shoulder  obliquely 
across  the  breast.  Half  inside  seconde  {fig.  42  a),  the  thumb  obliquely 
down  sideways,  the  little  finger  to  the  left  outwards  up.  The  cut  falls,  if 
short,  from  below  upon  the  inside  of  the  arm ;  if  long,  obliquely  across  the 
lower  body  towards  the  breast.  Polish  quarte  {fig.  48  h),  on  the  same  line, 
is  only  distinguished  from  the  preceding  by  coming  from  the  motion  of 
quarte.  It  is  unhandy,  and  the  most  difllicult  cut.  The  four  high  and  low 
cuts  can  only  be  cut  long,  and  are :  high  quarte  {fig,  44  a),  from  the 
quarte  motion,  but  with  the  foible  raised,  from  right  to  left  through  the 
face ;  low  quarte  {fig.  45  a),  from  the  quarte  motion,  with  the  foible 
lowered,  from  right  to  left  across  the  lower  body ;  high  tierce  {fig.  46  a), 
from  the  tierce  motion,  exactly  the  reverse  of  high  quarte ;  low  tierce,  from 
the  tierce  motion,  exactly  the  reverse  of  low  quarte.  The  parades  (parries) 
are  so  made,  that,  to  the  cut  of  your  antagonist,  the  forte  of  your  own 
blade  is  always  opposed,  and  the  edge  on  the  bow  side,  so  as  to  receive  the 
cut  about  half  way  between  the  bow  and  the  end  of  the  forte,  and  thus 
render  it  harmless.  Prime  parade  {fig.  85  a)  is  given,  without  turning  the 
hand,  opposite  to  the  cut,  and  then  back  to  the  extension.  Seconde  parade 
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WARFARE  OF  MODERN  TIMES.  75 

(fig-  36  ft)  18  given  with  hand  advanced,  so  that  the  bow,  with  fingers 
directed  downwards,  is  pressed  down,  and  the  blade  turned,  edge  down, 
towards  the  antagonist's  right  side,  wherefrom  you  go  rapidly  back  to  the 
extension.  Tierce  parade  {fig.  87  a)  :  the  bow  and  the  forte  of  the  blade 
are  pushed  out  of  the  extension  a  little  towards  the  right;  the  foible 
remains  upwards.  Quarte  parade  {fig,  88  h)  requires  that  the  blade  be  so 
held,  with  hand  laid  back,  that  the  bow  comes  on  the  inside,  and  the  cut 
falls  exactly  in  the  angle  of  blade  and  basket.  The  point  is  directed 
towards  the  antagonist's  right  hip,  the  flat  towards  his  breast.  Steep  quarte 
parade  {fig,  39  h)  is  like  the  preceding,  only  the  hand  must  be  held  higher, 
and  a  sharp  counter  cut  made.  Half  outside  seconde  parade  {fig,  40  a) 
is  the  seconde  parade,  but  the  guard  is  pushed  somewhat  to  the  outside. 
Steep  tierce  parade  {fig.  Ala)  is  the  tierce  parade,  but  must  be  pushed 
upwards  and  outwards.  Half  inside  seconde  parade  {fig,  42  b)  is  seconde 
parade,  only  the  hostile  cut  must  be  met  from  within  and  underneath. 
Polish  quarte  parade  {fig,  48  a)  is  so  given,  with  the  foible  hanging  down 
and  the  hand  somewhat  raised,  that  you  can  see  your  antagonist  with  your 
right  eye  through  the  angle  of  the  bell  and  back  of  the  blade.  High  quarte 
parade  {fig,  44  A)  is  made. from  the  quarte  motion,  with  foible  somewhat 
less  depending,  but  must  be  strongly  pushed  forward.  Low  quarte  parade 
{fig,  45  h)  is  the  preceding,  but  more  hanging,  and  sharper  pushed.  High 
tierce  parade  (fig,  46  h)  is  the  chief  tierce  parade,  only  the  bell  is  more 
sharply  upwards,  and  you  push  sideways  with  the  forte  of  the  blade  or  the 
bow,  whereby  you  see  your  antagonist  under  the  blade.  In  low  tierce 
parade  the  bell  is  pushed  sideways  and  downwards  to  the  right.  After  the 
teacher  has  shown  the  out  or  assault  cuts,  after  cuts,  and  double  cuts,  he 
passes  to  the  feints.  Direct  feints  are  those  where  the  feint  and  the  real 
cut  lie  opposite  to  each  other ;  angle  feints,  where  they  lie  perpendicular 
upon  each  other.  In  circle  feints,  the  blade  goes  rapidly  over  the  blade 
and  then  under  the  sword-arm  of  the  antagonist,  describes  a  circle  there- 
fore, and  then  delivers  the  purposed  cut.  Time  or  stop  cuts  are  given  in 
all  positions  of  the  hand,  and  fall  at  the  same  instant  with  the  cut  of  the 
opponent,  if  in  cutting  he  uncovers,  or  makes  too  much  preparation.  It  is 
further  to  be  remarked  in  time  cuts,  that  the  body  turns  away  from  the 
opponent  as  soon  as  he  steps  in  {pi,  27,  fig,  47  fr),  and  consequently  the 
right  foot  steps  from  its  place,  as  much  behind  the  left  as  it  was  before  in 
front  of  it  (passade).  Pig.  4n a,  cuts  steep  quarte  "a  tempo'*  in  the  pas- 
sade.  '  Vaultings  are  used  in  cut-and-thrust  also,  whereby  the  combatants 
in  this  movement  describe  a  circle,  the  diameter  of  which  is  always  an 
engagement.  In  right  hand  vaultings,  the  right  foot,  in  short  cutting,  is  set 
as  far  sideways  as  possible ;  in  long  cutting,  forwards  and  sideways.  The 
left  foot  must  follow  the  right.  In  after  cuts,  however,  the  body  is  brought» 
by  setting  the  left  foot  sideways,  to  extension  distance  behind  the  right 
foot.  The  right  foot  goes  rapidly  over  to  extension  in  the  standing  line  of 
the  opponent,  or,  vaulting  wider,  forward  to  a  long  or  short  afler  cut 
{fig.  48,  a,  h).  After  the  pupil  is  finally  taught  to  make  the  cuts  out  of 
soccession,  he  passes  to  counter-cutting,  where  attack  and  defence  alter- 

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76  MILITARY  SOIENCEB. 

nate,  and  feints,  after  cuts,  doable,  and  time  cuts  are  applied  at  discretion 
wherewith  the  instruction  terminates. 

Fencing  with  the  curved  sabre  must  also  be  practised.  To  give  the 
mere  command  of  this  weapon,  these  exercises  must  be  made,  first  upon 
the  fencing  bench,  as  it  is  called,  and  afterwards  upon  horseback,  as  the 
movements  of  the  horse  have  great  influence  upon  the  cuts  to  be  deli- 
vered, since  they  change  at  every  moment  the  position  of  the  antago- 
nists towards  each  other,  and,  therefore,  the  most  effective  cuts  to  be 
chosen.  The  extension  with  curved  blades  is  like  that  for  straight,  yet  the 
point,  though  at  the  height  of  the  eye,  lies  over  the  shoulder  of  the  antago- 
nist, and  each  sees  the  other  with  the  right  eye  over  and  through  the  angle 
formed  by  the  two  blades.  Short  after  cuts  and  fine  cuts  proper  are 
impracticable,  because  of  the  backward  bent  hilt,  the  curved  point,  and  the 
gripe  without  bar;  but  all  other  rules  for  cut-and-thrust  are  applicable. 
The  chief  object  of  the  cavalry  soldier  must  be  to  gain,  by  turnings, 
wheelings,  vaultings,  &c.,  the  left  side  of  his  opponent,  and  never  expose 
his  own.  As  soon  as  the  man  is  properly  practised  in  all  that  relates  to  the 
use  of  the  sword  on  foot,  he  is  permitted  to  make  the  cuts  in  the  air  on 
horseback,  and,  that  he  may  accustom  himself  to  give  his  blows  a  definite 
aim,  a  mark  is  set  up  for  him,  a  head,  for  example  (pL  28,  fig,  2  a),  at 
which,  first  riding  sharply  up  and  short  parrying  {fig.  1),  then  riding  past 
in  full  career  {fig*  2),  he  practises  the  cuts.  Then  follows  the  combat 
between  two  men  in  the  manner  of  counter«cut.  The  best  plan  here,  is 
first  to  give  the  pupils,  in  lessons,  a  proper  succession  of  cuts  and  thrusts, 
and  make  them  deliver  them  at  the  word  of  command,  before  leaving  them 
to  deliver  the  cuts  at  their  own  choice.  Examples  of  this  are :  fig.  4  a, 
steep  tierce  at  the  flying  antagonist,  who  {fig.  4  b)  turns  backwards  and 
parries  tierce;  fig.  6a,  steep  quarte  at  the  approaching  opponent,  who 
{fig-  6  b)  parries  steep  quarte ;  fig.  3  a,  steep  tierce  at  the  same  when  he 
is  in  the  act  of  riding  past  you,  whereby  he  parries  steep  tierce  {fig.  3  b) ; 
fig.  5  b,  prime,  while  riding  past  the  left  side  of  the  antagonist,  who  parries 
prime  {fig.  5  a),  leaning  over  to  the  left.  In  the  combat  between  lance  and 
sabre,  as  the  first  is  a  thrust  weapon,  the  rules  of  thrust  fencing  apply  ;  but 
all  the  parades  must  be  very  strongly  made  and  pushed  forward,  which  can 
be  done  with  the  less  hesitation,  as  there  is  no  after  cut  to  fear.  On  the 
side  of  the  swordsman,  however,  the  after  cuts  are  very  eflfeotive,  as  the 
lancer,  after  his  thrust  is  parried,  can  seldom  come  into  position  quick 
enough  to  give  a  new  thrust.  Against  the  blow  with  the  lance  at  thö  head, 
a  very  strong  prime  parade  is  employed.  Lastly,  the  contest  between 
cavalry  and  infantry  is  practised. 

The  cavalry  soldier  must  further  be  practised  with  the  lance.  The  lanoe, 
like  the  cut  and  thrust  weapons,  divides  into  the  forte  and  the  foible.  The 
whole  forte  and  the  lower  part  of  the  lanoe  are  called  also  the  queue,  b 
the  lanoe  exercise,  which  must  first  be  made  on  foot,  the  pupils  are  placed 
with  great  intervals  between  them.  At  the  stepping  in,  the  lance  is  held 
perpendicularly  in  the  right  hand,  which  lies,  with  the  arm  bent,  at  the 
height  of  the  shoulder,  the  butt  resting  near  the  right  foot  {fig.  7).     In  the 


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ordinary  position  of  the  lance  under  the  right  arm,  and  the  mancsuvres 
with  the  same,  the  feet  are  placed  about  eighteen  inches  apart,  the  right 
foot  a  little  advanced  {figt.  9, 10) ;  if  the  lance  is  brought  over  the  left 
arm,  however«  the  left  foot  is  set  forwards  the  same  distance.  The  lance- 
present,  as  it  is  called,  is  made  according  to  fig,  8,  whenever  the  man  exer- 
cises on  foot.  The  usual  position  of  guard,  to  which  the  man  must  always 
go  back  after  having  delivered  a  thrust,  is  with  levelled  lance.  It  lies  then 
in  equilibrium  in  the  right  hand,  the  queue  brought  directly  under  the  right 
shoulder ;  the  thumb  lies  above  and  outward  on  the  right  side  of  the  shaft, 
the  knuckles  under.  To  make  the  thrust,  the  lance  is  drawn  sharply  back 
with  the  right  arm,  the  hand  turning  it  at  the  same  time,  so  that  the  little 
finger  comes  uppermost  and  the  thumb  under ;  then  the  right  arm  thrusts 
the  lance  rapidly  forwards  at  the  point  of  aim  upon  which  the  eye  is  fixed, 
the  arm  extending  itself  to  the  uttermost,  but  so  that  the  lance  remains  always 
under  the  right  shoulder  {pi,  28,  fig,  10)  ;  the  thumb  comes  uppermost  as 
before,  and  the  thrust  being  completed,  the  position  of  guard  is  at  once 
resumed.  In  every  thrust,  the  upper  part  of  the  body  must  stretch  a  little. 
To  accustom  the  pupil  to  aim  correctly,  and  deliver  the  thrusts  with  force, 
he  is  made  to  thrust  at  a  leather  ball  or  ring  (fig,  1 V)  suspended  for  that 
purpose,  at  first  on  foot  and  stationary,  and  then  at  all  the  various  paces  of 
the  horse.  The  thrusts  are  practised  in  all  directions :  in  thrusts  to  the  rear 
the  lance  is  turned  in  such  a  manner  that  the  point  comes  behind  and  the 
queue  in  front,  but  this  wheel-like  movement  of  the  lance  must  take  place 
very  quickly,  that  the  lancer  may  return  immediately  to  the  position  of 
defence;  all  parades  (parries)  are  short  blows  upon  the  weapon  of  the 
assailant,  after  which  the  position  of  guard  is  instantly  resumed,  so  as  to  be 
in  readiness  for  a  new  thrust.  To  whirl  the  lance  {fig,  9)  it  is  swung 
over  the  head  towards  the  left  hand,  so  as  to  lie,  with  the  point  directed  to 
the  left,  in  line  with  the  right  hand  and  left  upper-arm,  the  right  hand  grasp- 
ing it  firmly  as  before,  close  in  front  of  the  head,  the  man  at  the  same  time 
turning  the  head  and  upper-body  in  this  direction,  and  then  straight  to  the 
front.  The  lance  is  then  swung  in  the  same  manner  to  the  right,  and 
brought,  with  the  point  to  the  rear,  under  the  right  arm,  the  head  and  upper 
body  going  at  the  same  time  to  the  left  again ;  the  hand  hereby  is  brought 
to  the  front,  but  leaves  this  position  and  is  turned,  so  that  the  thumb  is  to 
the  front  and  right,  and  the  fingers  on  the  outside ;  the  swinging  to  the  left 
arm  is  then  repeated,  and  the  lance  finally  brought  back  to  the  position  of 
guard. 

In  the  combat  of  lancers  with  infantry,  the  bayonets  of  the  latter  come 
into  immediate  requisition,  so  that  the  infantry  must  be  previously  trained 
Jn  all  the  movements,  thrusts,  and  parries,  which  can  here  be  employed. 
Fig.  12  shows  the  extension  and  position  of  guard  for  the  infantry  soldier, 
to  which  he  must  always  come  back  as  rapidly  as  possiUe,  whether  he  has 
left  it  for  attack  or  defence.  At  first,  the  conflicts  between  lancers  and 
infantry,  divided  into  systematically  arranged  lessons,  must  be  practised  by 
word  of  command,  and  only  after  the  men  are  thoroughly  trained  in  these 
exercises  can  the  ocrnnter-thrusting,  as  it  is  called,  come  in  practice  here 

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78  MIUTART  SCIENCBS. 

likewise ;  this  demands,  however,  always  the  greatest  caution,  and  mast  be 
done  without  passion,  otherwise  the  instructor  must  immediately  interpose. 
We  add  here  a  few  explanatory  lessons.  1.  Engagement  outwards  (the 
musket  to  the  left  of  the  lance),  the  lancer  (pi.  28,  fig.  18^)  thrusts  at 
the  left  side  of  the  foot-soldier,  who  parries  tierce  (fig.  18'),  thrusts  back, 
and  takes  the  position  of  guard  ;  the  lancer  (fig.  17  ^)  thrusts  at  the  lower 
body  or  thigh  of  the  foot-soldier,  who  parries  seoonde  (fig*  17 '),  thrusts,  and 
*'en  garde."  2.  Engagement  inwards  (the  musket  on  the  right  of  the 
lance) :  the  lancer  (fig,  18  ^)  thrusts  at  the  right  side  of  the  foot-sddier,  who 
(fig.  13')  parries  quarte,  thrusts,  and  ''en  garde;"  then  follow  thrust  and 
parry  as  in  fig.  17*'^  3.  Engagement  inside  and  outside,  with  disengage- 
ment. Lancer :  engagement  outside,  disengagement  and  thrust  to  the  left, 
at  the  right  side  of  footman  {fig.  13^).  Footman :  quarte-parade  (fig.  13'), 
thrust,  and  "  en  garde."  Lancer :  engagement  inwards,  disengagement,  and 
thrust  to  the  right,  at  the  left  side  of  footman  (fig.  18  ^).  Footman :  tierce- 
parade  (fig.  18 '),  thrust,  "  en  garde."  Lancer :  engagement  outwards, 
disengagement,  and  deep  thrust  to  the  left,  at  the  lower  body  or  thigh. 
Footman :  parry  seconde,  thrust,  en  garde.  Lancer :  engagement  outwards, 
disengagement,  and  deep  thrust  to  the  right  (fig.  17  ^).  Footman :  seconde- 
parade  (fig.  17'),  thrust,  and  en  garde.  4.  With  swingings:  Lancer:  swing 
by  the  right  upper-arm  to  the  front,  and  thrust  to  the  front  (fig,  15*"). 
Footman:  high-quarte-parade  (fig.  15'),  thrust,  and  en  garde.  Lancer: 
swing  under  the  right  arm  to  the  rear,  and  thrust  right,  backwards 
(fig.  13  ^)  Footman  :  quarte-parade,  thrust,  and  en  garde.  Lancer:  swing 
to  the  left  upper-arm  to  the  rear,  and  thrust  left  backwards.  Footman: 
tierce  parade  and  en  garde.  Lancer:  swing  under  the  right  arm,  and 
thrust  to  the  front  (fig.  14  *).  Footman :  high-tierce-parade  (fig.  14*),  and 
en  garde  in  the  kneeling  position  (fig.  16 ').  Lancer :  thrust  at  footman's 
head  {fig.  16  ^).  Footman  :  springs  up  with  a  yell  (to  frighten  the  horse), 
high  tierce-parade  (fig.  14'),  thrust,  and  en  garde.  The  lessons  in  such 
manoeuvres  can  be  very  much  varied,  the  blows  with  the  lance  introduced 
into  them,  and  finally  the  combat  in  the  circle.  The  conclusion  of  the 
instruction  is  counter- thrusting,  in  which,  without  commands,  the  men 
engage  each  other  by  twos,  and  combat  at  their  own  discretion.  Two 
footmen  may  engage  one  horseman,  or  the  reverse. 

Tactics.* 

The  drilling  of  soldiers,  or  the  training  in  rank  and  file,  after  they  have, 

*  Throughout  this  treatise  on  tactics  the  word  **  Zug"  is  uniformly  rendered  by  *  oom- 
pany,''  that  being  the  nearest  equivalent  most  suited  to  convey  a  correct  idea  of  the  more- 
menta  to  an  American  reader.  The  word  meana,  however,  Uterally  the  eight&  part  of  a 
battalion  of  four  companies,  according  to  the  organization  of  the  Grerman  armies,  which  is  prin- 
cipally referred  to  in  this  treatise,  and  would  thus  be  half  a  company^  or,  by  our  organization, 
a  **  platoon.**  In  all  the  movements,  however,  it  corresponds  exactly  with  our  **  company,* 
which  is  also  the  eighth  part  of  the  battalion  proper.  The  words  of  command  are  also  the 
German  and  not  the  American,  though  they  are  sometimes  very  nearly  the  same. 
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WARFARE  OF  MODERN  TIMES.  79 

as  individuals,  attained  the  requisite  dexterity  and  precision  in  their  nfK>ye- 
ments  by  gymnastic  exercises,  requires  great  attention,  and  every  army, 
therefore,  has  its  own  system  of  instruction,  according  to  which  the  neces- 
sary exercises  are  performed.  As  these  systems  differ  essentially  from  each 
other,  we  can  give  here  only  a  general  outline  of  the  principal  evolutions. 

The  fundamental  principle  which  must  prevail  in  all  movements  and 
passings  from  one  place  to  another  is  this,  that  every  movement  shall  be 
effected  in  the  shortest  possible  time  and  with  the  utmost  possible  simpli- 
city ;  the  first,  in  order  that  the  troops,  when  such  movements  are  made 
under  the  enemy's  fire,  shall  be  exposed  to  it,  inactive  and  defenceless,  for 
the  least  time  possible  ;  the  second,  in  order  to  avoid  that  confusion,  which, 
in  complicated  manceuvres  under  fire,  only  too  readily  arises. 

The  facings  of  single  files  in  place  are  either  quarter  facings,  to  the  right 
or  left  (right  face,  left  face),  whereby  the  man  so  changes  his  front  that  the 
new  one  is  perpendicular  to  the  old,  or  half-facings  (about  face),  in 
which  the  man  brings  his  face  in  the  direction  which  his  back  had  at  first. 
Different  armies  require  these  movements  to  be  made,  either  always  to  the 
right  or  always  to  the  left.  Between  these  principal  facings  come  the 
eighth  facings  (right  half-face,  left  half-face)  and  the  three-eighths  facings, 
right  or  left,  the  nature  of  which  is  given  by  the  name.  These  facings  are 
made  in  place  and  on  the  march  alike.  The  manner  of  march  (the  pace) 
is  different  in  different  armies ;  there  are  generally  two  distinct  kinds,  the 
parade  step  of  60  paces  to  the  minute,  and  the  double  or  quick  step  of  90 
to  120  paces  per  minute ;  in  many  armies,  however,  there  is  only  a  medium 
time  of  100  to  105  paces  per  minute,  and  all  quicker  movements  are  made 
in  a  trot.  In  the  American  service  there  are  three  times  or  paces,  viz. 
common  time,  90  paces  to  the  minute  ;  quick  time,  120  paces  ;  and 
double  quick  time,  140  paces  ;  the  last  is  a  trot. 

Where  the  troops  are  to  be  exercised  in  bodies  the  disposition  in  rank 
and  file  takes  place.  In  rank  the  men  stand  so  that  each  one  can  feel 
lightly  the  elbow  of  the  file  on  his  right  and  left ;  this  feeling  (touch)  is  not 
to  be  lost  even  when  on  the  march.  The  formation  is  either  in  two  or  in 
three  ranks,  so  disposed  that  between  each  rank  there  is  an  interval  of  about 
three  fourths  of  a  yard,  to  give  the  rear  men  free  space  for  their  motions ; 
the  men  who  stand  one  behind  the  other  form  a  file.  The  company  forms 
usually  two  platoons,  rarely  three,  and  the  platoons  are  again  divided  into 
sections,  which  must  contain  not  more  than  six  nor  less  than  four  files. 
(In  the  American  service  the  platoon  is  divided  into  two  sections  only.) 
On  the  right  and  left  flank  of  each  platoon  stands  an  ofllcer,  and  in  rear  of 
each  a  non-commissioned  oflicer,  who  steps  immediately  into  the  ofllcer's 
place  whenever  he  loses  it.  The  rest  of  the  commissioned  and  non- 
commissioned are  dispersed  behind  the  platoons  (file-closers),  or,  when 
sections  are  formed,  pass  to  the  flanks  of  these. 

The  direction  in  rank  (dress)  is  attained  when  each  file,  keeping  the 
shoulders  square  and  without  turning  the  head,  can  just  see  the  breast  of 
the  second  man  on  his  right  or  left.  When,  however,  the  whole  line  is  to 
take  a  new  direction,  this  is  done  on  particular  objects  (points).    For  this 

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60  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

purpose  each  company  has  an  especial  non-commissioned  officer  (marker), 
who  carries  a  small  flag  (guidon,  marker's  staff).  If  the  whole  battalion  is 
to  take  a  new  direction,  the  adjutant  first  establishes  the  markers  at  com- 
pany distance  from  each  other  on  the  new  line;  then,  at  the  command 
*'  Guides  on  the  line !"  the  proper  non-commissioned  officers  step  forward 
for  each  platoon  and  establish  themselves  on  the  line ;  if  then  the  new  line 
is  not  more  than  four  paces  distant  from  the  old,  the  men  form  themselves 
upon  it  by  the  command  "  Right"  or  **  Left  Dress !"  but  if  the  distance  is 
more  than  that,  then  at  the  command  ''  Dress  V  the  chief  of  each  company 
gives  the  command  **  March !"  and  leads  his  company  by  the  shortest  line 
upon  the  new  alignment. 

Changes  of  front  are  effected  either  by  the  various  facings  of  individual 
files  or  by  evolutions  of  the  whole  together.  When  the  line  is  faced 
about,  the  front  rank,  of  course,  becomes  the  rear  and  the  right  flank  the 
left ;  in  order,  therefore,  to  maintain  the  proper  position  of  the  flanks  and 
files,  the  countermarch  must  be  performed  {pi  29,  ßg.  1).  When  the 
companies  have  made  the  about  face,  the  sections  will  be  in  the  order 
8,  7,  6,  5,  4,  3,  2,  1,  and  the  first  rank  will  be  the  last ;  then  the  command 
"  Left  face"  is  given,  and  at  the  word  *'  March  !*'  the  leading  file  of  the 
second  rank  turns  on  his  own  ground  to  the  right,  while  his  rear-rank  man, 
who  is  the  leading  file  of  the  first  rank,  turns  on  him  as  a  pivot  until  he 
fronts  towards  the  new  flank,  rhaintaining  the  proper  touch  of  elbow ;  then 
this  file  marches  along  the  front,  followed  by  all  the  other  files  in  succession, 
each  turning  in  the  same  manner  on  the  same  ground,  until  they  arrive  at 
8,  when  the  command  ''  Halt,  front  I"  is  given,  and  the  company  has  the 
position  1,  2,  8,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  the  first  rank  being  in  front  and  the  flanks  in 
their  proper  place.  As  this  manceuvre  would  take  too  much  time  with 
a  long  line,  it  is  made  by  sections  or  by  platoons  (Jig.  2). 

Another  method  of  changing  front  in  line  is  by  wheels  to  the  right  or 
left.  On  the  command  "  Left  wheel !"  the  left  file  of  the  company  faces  to 
the  left  {ßg.  3)  and  the  rest  of  the  line  step  out,  so  that  each  man  on  the 
march  describes  a  circle,  of  which  the  left  file  is  the  centre.  As  soon  as  the 
company  has  arrived  upon  the  new  line  of  direction  the  command  "  Forward 
march !"  is  given,  on  which  each  man  marches  again  direct  to  the  front.  By 
this  method  of  course,  the  company,  when  the  wheel  is  ended,  has  gained  its 
whole  breadth  to  the  left ;  but  if  the  wheel  must  be  on  the  same  ground, 
then  it  must  be  made  on  a  centre  pivot  {pi.  29,  fig.  4) ;  in  this  case  one 
half  the  company,  here  the  sections  5,  6,  7,  and  8,  faces  about,  and  at 
the  word  of  command  each  wheels  independently ;  when  the  new  line  is 
attained  the  command  "  Halt !"  is  given,  the  sections  5,  6,  7,  and  8  face  to 
the  front,  and  the  new  alignment  is  established.  Another  species  of  wheel 
is  **  Shoulders  forward  !"  which  dithrs  from  the  first  in  thb,  that  the  pivot 
man  does  not  remain  standing,  but  describes,  taking  very  short  steps,  a 
»mall  circle  about  the  wheeling  point  {fig.  34  at  *).  In  all  the  aix)ve 
described  manoeuvres,  the  men  must  take  longer  steps  the  further  distant 
they  are  from  the  wheeling  point»  so  that  the  line  shall  remain  always 
•traight.  To  the  changes  of  front  belong  also  the  formations  by  file, 
^5« 


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WARFARE  OF  MODERN  TIMES.  81 

by  means  of  which  a  position  may  be  taken,  without  wheeling  or  counter- 
marching, which  is  either  directly  opposite  to  the  first  or  perpendicular  to 
it.  The  formation  by  file  can  be  made,  on  the  same  ground,  either 
forwards  or  backwards,  but  on  the  march  it  can  be  effected  only  forwards 
and  from  the  march  by  a  flank.  It  can  be  made  from  the  front  and  flank 
forwards  by  the  half-face,  backwards  by  lace  and  a  half;  the  fugle- 
man from  whom  the  formation  starts  forms  the  base  on  which  it  is  made. 
For  the  file  formation  on  the  same  ground  the  command  is,  "  By  files  right 
(left),  march  I"  {fig.  5)  whereupon  the  right  (left)  fugleman  faces  to  the 
right,  but  all  the  rest  of  the  files  half-face  to  the  right.  On  the  command 
**  March  f"  the  fugleman  remains  halted,  and  the  rest  move  forward  in  the 
direction  of  the  half-face  until  they  arrive  on  the  new  line  (the  dotted  line 
in  our  figure),  when  they  assume  the  touch  and  dress.  This  formation 
can  be  made  by  sections  sdso  {fig.  6).  In  our  figure  the  formation  is  made 
to  the  left ;  the  whole  line  faces  about,  section  1  makes  a  quarter  wheel  and 
then  fronts.  The  other  sections  wheel  on  a  centre  pivot  and  march  on  the 
diagonal  to  the  new  alignment,  where  they  halt,  front,  and  dress  on 
the  1st  section.  (In  our  figure,  by  an  error  of  the  engraver  the  numbers 
on  the  new  (dotted)  line  at'e  in  reversed  order,  so  that  No.  1  comes  where 
No.  8  should  be,  &c.)  The  file-formation  backwards  is  made  by  the  com- 
mand, "  By  file  right  backwards  march !"  At  this  the  right  fugleman,  who 
is  the  base  of  formation,  faces  to  the  left-about,  the  others  make  a  face 
and  a  half  to  the  right.  At  the  word  "  March !"  the  fugleman  remains 
standing,  all  the  others  step  out ;  the  rear  rank  file  of  the  fugleman  passes 
round  him  and  establishes  himself  on  the  new  alignment  in  his  rear,  the 
others  pass  over  the  shortest  line  on  to  the  new  direction,  where  they  halt, 
front,  and  dress  on  the  base  which  is  already  established  in  it,  the  second 
rank  passing  by  files  into  the  rear  of  the  first.  When  the  file-formation  is 
to  be  made  from  the  march  by  a  flank,  the  leading  file  halts  at  the  word 
"March!"  the  others  make  a  half-face  to  the  left  and  come  up  in  the 
diagonal  upon  the  new  line,  where  they  halt  and  dress  upon  the  resting  flank. 

To  put  divisions  of  troops  in  march  there  is  a  great  variety  of  methods. 
The  march  may  be  with  unchanged  firont  (forward  march),  or  with  altered 
front  (march  to  the  rear,  oblique  march,  flank  march)  ;  it  can  be  with  full 
firont  (front  march),  or  with  broken  front  (by  companies,  platoons,  or  sec- 
tions). In  the  front  march  (battalion  forward  march  in  line  of  battle) 
the  dress  is  always  on  the  color,  which  with  the  color  section  is  in  the  cen- 
tre. The  color  and  the  oflicers,  in  this  case,  step  forward  and  take  the 
direction,  while  the  whole  line  follow  them.  In  the  march  to  the  rear  in 
line  of  battle  the  whole  line  faces  about,  the  color  and  ofiicers  pass  to  the 
front,  and  the  march  is  made  as  before.  The  flank  march  is  made  only  to 
the  right  or  left,  and  when  concluded  the  proper  front  is  resumed. 

The  march  with  broken  front  is  either  by  companies,  platoons,  or  sec- 
tions. The  front  is  broken  by  the  command :  "  By  companies,  platoons, 
or  sections,  right  or  left  wheel !"  If  the  march  is  to  be  made  forward  and 
from  the  right  flank  {pi.  29,  fig.  13)  then  the  command  is :  "  By  companies, 
right  wheel ;  first  company  forward !"  and  at  the  word, ''  March  I"  the  first 

567 


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62  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

company  moves  direct  to  the  front  until  it  has  gained  company's  distance, 
when  it  halts.  Meanwhile  each  of  the  other  companies  has  made  the  ^ 
wheel  to  the  right  and  halted.  At  the  command,  "  March  !*'  the  first  com- 
pany moves  forward,  the  second  commences  the  wheel  to  the  left,  and  as 
soon  as  it  is  completed  moves  forward,  as  shown  at  *  ";  meanwhile  the 
third  company  has  reached  the  wheeling-point,  and  wheels  at  the  instant 
the  second  marches  to  the  first,  and  so  on  in  succession  to  the  eighth.  The 
movement  is  made  from  the  left  fiank  by  the  same  means  in  reversed  order 
and  command.  If  after  a  march  by  companies  the  full  front  is  to  be 
formed  again,  the  first  company,  if  the  march  has  been  right  in  front, 
halts  on  reaching  the  designated  alignment,  the  second  company  wheels  at 
the  same  time  to  the  left,  and  as  soon  as  the  wheel  is  completed  comes 
right  into  line ;  with  the  commencement  of  this  movement  the  third 
company  has  arrived  at  the  wheeling-point,  when  it  wheels  to  the  left  and 
then  marches  forward  until  it  arrives  opposite  the  left  flank  of  the  second 
company,  which  by  this  time  is  established  on  the  line,  when  it  comes  right 
into  line,  as  before,  and  so  for  each  company  in  succession.  If  the  march  was 
left  in  front  {pL  29,  fig,  24)  the  eighth  company  halts,  and  the  movements 
already  described  are  made  by  the  others  in  reversed  order  and  direction.  If 
the  march  has  been  by  platoons  and  it  is  desired  to  form  companies  (fig.  15), 
the  second,  fourth,  sixth,  and  eighth  platoons  move  in  quick  time  left  oblique 
to  the  side  of  their  corresponding  covering  platoon,  and  if  then  the  front  is 
to  be  re-established  the  first  company  halts  on  the  designated  line,  and  the 
other  companies  do  the  same  as  soon  as  they  have  covered  those  in  front 
of  them  ;  the  first,  second,  and  third  companies  then  face  to  the  right  and 
march  by  that  flank,  until  they  are  opposite  their  proper  place  in  line, 
when  they  face  to  the  left  and  come  up  on  to  it,  the  fourth  company 
moving,  as  soon  as  uncovered,  directly  forward  to  its  place.  If  the  line  is 
to  be  formed  to  the  left  of  the  point  at  which  the  column  has  struck  it,  the 
first  company  stands  fast ;  the  second,  third,  and  fourth,  as  soon  as  they 
have  covered,  face  to  the  left,  march  to  that  flank  in  the  same  manner  as 
before,  and  come  by  the  right  face  into  line.  If  a  bridge  is  to  be  crossed 
which  is  too  narrow  for  the  front  of  a  company  or  platoon  {fig.  16),  the 
first  section  passes  by  the  front,  the  second  files  round  by  the  flank,  per- 
pendicularly to  the  line  of  the  first,  as  at  ^  and  in  this  position  crosses  the 
bridge,  as  at  * ;  when  the  other  side  is  reached  it  comes  again  into  line  with 
the  first  section  by  a  file  formation. 

To  the  march  with  changed  front  belongs  the  march  to  the  rear,  the 
simplest  form  of  which,  by  the  about-face  in  line  of  battle,  has  been 
already  described.  Fig.  13  shows  a  march  to  the  rear  in  broken  front  and 
from  the  left  flank.  The  eighth  company  makes  a  half-circle  wheel  to  the 
left  and  thus  moves  direct  to  the  front ;  all  the  other  companies  make  at 
first  only  the  quarter  wheel,  and  the  second  wheel  only  on  reaching  the 
ground  where  the  eighth  has  wheeled.  The  same  movement  may  be  made 
to  the  right.  If  the  march  was  made  by  the  about-face  by  companies 
from  the  left  flank,  so  that  the  eighth  company  is  leading  and  the  rear-rank 
in  front,  then  the  line  is  re-established  by  counter-marching  the  companies, 
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WARFARE  OF  MODERN  TIMES.  83 

which  brings  the  ranks  u^to  place ;  the  eighth  company  establishes  itself  on 
the  alignment,  the  seventh  wheels  to  the  right,  and  as  soon  as  it  is  opposite 
the  right  flank  of  the  eighth  comes  on  the  left  into  line,  the  other  companies 
wheel  on  the  same  ground  as  the  seventh,  and  come  successively  into  line 
in  the  same  manner.  If  the  march  was  by  platoons  from  the  left,  as  in  fig, 
24,  and  it  is  desired  to  form  companies  in  retreat  and  present  the  full  front 
again  to  the  enemy,  the  manoeuvre  is  as  in  fig.  27.  Here  the  first  rank  is 
foremost,  and  would,  therefore,  by  the  subsequent  formation  be  brought 
into  the  rear ;  to  avoid  this  the  platoons  are  countermarched,  then  form 
companies  according  io  pi.  29,  fig.  15,  establish  the  line  of  battle  as  shown 
by  that  figure  also,  and  then  the  whole  line  is  faced  to  the  front. 

Oblique  marches  are  designed  to  move  a  direct  line  of  battle  over  a 
diagonal,  and  are  made  with  unbroken  front  by  each  file  making  the  eighth 
face  in  the  direction  indicated  by  the  leader,  and  then  marching  forward  in 
that  direction.  If,  however,  an  oblique  front  is  to  be  moved  in  a  parallel 
direction  (figs.  31  and  17),  then  the  front  is  broken  into  sections,  which 
wheel  inwards  so  far  as  to  be  perpendicular  to  the  line  of  march,  and  then 
move  direct  to  the  front  by  sections  until  the  left  flank  of  each  comes  upon 
the  new  alignment,  when  they  halt  and  are  wheeled  into  line.  (Here  also 
the  engraver  has  reversed  the  number  of  sections  in  the  new  position.)  If 
a  line  of  battle,  which  with  about-face  has  marched  obliquely  by  com- 
panies from  the  left  flank  (fig.  28,  the  unhatched  part),  is  to  take  a  new 
position,  with  the  front  to  the  enemy  and  parallel,  therefore,  to  the  first, 
then  points  are  established  upon  the  new  line,  which  being  done  the  com- 
panies move  by  a  flank  in  the  proper  direction  on  to  it,  and  are  there  wheeled 
into  line  and  fronted  towards  the  enemy.  If  the  new  line,  oblique  to  the 
line  of  march,  intersects  this  (fig.  29),  then  the  command  "  Halt !"  is  given, 
the  points  are  established  in  the  new  line,  part  of  the  companies  move  by 
the  right  flank,  the  other  part  by  the  left  upon  this,  and  on  reaching  it  are 
wheeled  and  fronted  as  before;  in  this  case,  however,  part  of  the  com- 
panies (here  the  fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth)  must  pass  over  the  align- 
ment until  their  left  flank  rests  upon  it. 

The  march  by  a  flank,  when  not  made  with  unbroken  front  by  a  face 
of  the  whole  line,  may  be  either  in  companies  or  platoons.  In  the  march 
by  the  right  flank  (fig.  10)  the  companies  or  platoons  wheel  together  to  the 
right  and  then  move  oflf  in  column,  the  first  in  front.  The  line  is  re-estab- 
lished by  the  commands,  "  Halt  V  and  "  Left  into  line,  wheel  !*'  In  the  march 
by  the  left  flank  (fig.  11)  the  wheel  is  to  the  left  and  the  second  platoon  is  in 
front ;  the  line  is  re-established  by  a  wheel  to  the  right.  If  the  march  is  to  be 
by  the  left  flank,  yet  with  the  first  company  or  platoon  in  front,  then  a  kind 
of  countermarch  is  made  (fig.  14).  All  the  companies  wheel  to  the  right ; 
on  the  next  command,  "  March !"  the  first  company  wheels  again  a  half- 
circle  to  the  right,  and  then  marches  direct  to  the  front  along  the  former 
line.     The  other  companies  follow  and  wheel  on  the  same  ground  as  the  first 

A  column  is  formed  so  soon  as  the  companies  approach  each  other  so 
closely  that  the  distance  between  them  is  no  longer  the  length  of  a  com- 
pany as  usual,  but  at  most  one  pace  from  the  line  of  file-closers.    The 

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84  MnJTAKY  SCIENCES. 

oolumn  is  formed,  from  the  march  to  the  flank,  by  the  command,  "  Form 
column !"  on  which  the  first  company  halts  and  the  others  close  upon  it 
In  the  United  States  service,  as  in  the  French,  this  restriction  of  the 
column  is  not  received;  the  column  is  formed  whenever  the  line  is 
broken  into  companies,  platoons,  sections,  or  other  subdivisions,  placed  one 
in  rear  of  the  other,  and  that  which  alone  is  here  called  the  column  is 
merely  distinguished  as  the  close  column.  A  column  of  companies  at 
platoon  distance  is  called  column  at  half  distance. 

If  the  column  is  to  be  formed  from  line  of  battle,  it  can  be  done  on  the 
first,  last,  or  one  of  the  inner  platoons.  To  form  column  on  the  first  com- 
pany {pi.  29,  fig,  7),  the  command  is,  "On  right,  into  column  ;  first  company 
stand  fast ;  right  face !  "  whereupon  all  the  companies,  save  the  first,  face 
to  the  right.  On  the  word,  "  March !"  all  the  other  companies  move  by  the 
right  flank,  obliquely  one  behind  the  other,  into  the  rear  of  the  first  company. 
If  the  column  is  to  be  formed  on  the  last  company,  however,  the  command 
is,  "On  left,  into  column  ;  last  company  stand  fast;  left  face ! "  whereupon 
all  the  companies,  save  the  last,  face  to  the  left ;  and  at  the  word  "  March !" 
move  obliquely,  one  before  the  other,  in  front  of  the  last  company  {fig,  8). 
To  form  the  column  on  any  other  company  {fig.  9)  the  command  is,  "  Column 
on  the  centre ;  second  (or  other  company),  stand  fast ;  right  and  left  face! " 
whereupon  the  companies  in  front  of  the  designated  platoon  face  to  the  left, 
those  in  its  rear  to  the  right,  and  at  the  word,  "  March !"  they  move  by  the 
left  and  right  flanks  obliquely  to  the  front  and  rear,  and  establish  them- 
selves before  and  behind  the  company  which  stands  fast.  To  re-form  the 
line  of  battle  from  the  column  of  companies  the  deployment  is  practised. 
If  the  column  was  formed  to  the  right  {fig.  18)  the  command  is,  "  Deploy 
by  the  left !"  whereupon  guides  are  established  on  the  prolongation  of  the 
line  of  the  first  company,  by  which  the  new  alignment  is  determined.  On 
the  further  command,  **  Left  face !"  all  the  companies  save  the  first  face  to 
the  left,  and  at  the  word,  "  March !"  move  off  by  the  left  flank ;  a^  each 
company  comes  opposite  its  interval  in  line  its  chief  commands,  "  Right 
face !"  and  marches  it  on  to  the  alignment,  when  he  halts  and  dresses  it. 
If  the  column  was  formed  to  the  left  {fig.  20),  the  command  is,  "  Deploy  by 
the  right !"  upon  which  guides  are  established  for  the  new  alignment  on  the 
prolongation  of  the  line  of  the  last  company ;  on  the  command,  "  Left 
face!"  all  the  companies  save  the  last  make  this  movement,  and  at  the 
word,  "  March  !"  move  by  the  flank,  opposite  to  their  interval  in  line,  where 
they  face  to  the  left  again,  move  forward  into  it,  then  face  about  and 
dress.  If  the  column  was  formed  on  the  centre  {fig.  19)  the  command  is, 
"  Deploy  by  the  right  and  left !"  Whereupon  the  guides  in  front  of  the  pla- 
toon on  which  the  formation  was  made  prolong  themselves  to  the  right  on 
the  line  of  the  first  company,  and  those  in  rear  of  the  company  of  formation 
prolong  themselves  to  the  left  of  this  front  line ;  at  the  command,  "  Right 
and  left  face !"  the  company  of  formation  stands  fast,  the  companies  in  rear 
of  this  face  to  the  left,  those  in  front  of  it  to  the  right,  and  at  the  word, 
**  March  !''  all  move  opposite  to  their  intervals  in  line,  the  company  of  for- 
mation marching,  as  soon  as  uncovered,  direct  to  the  front  on  to  this  line ; 
660 


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WARFARE  OF  MODERN  TIMES.  85 

the  others  establish  themselves  upon  it  in  the  same  manner  as  before 
explained.  Sometimes  the  column  is  formed  to  the  left  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  first  companies  have  faced  to  the  left  and  established  themselves  in 
rear  of  the  last  (left  in  front),  then  the  line  of  battle  is  re-formed  by  deploy- 
ment to  the  right  and  coming  into  line  by  the  right  face.  If  a  column, 
formed  on  the  first  company,  is  cm  the  march  to  the  rear,  and  is  to  be 
established  on  the  alignment  of  the  last  company  with  the  front  to  the 
enemy  (pL  29,  fig.  21)^  the  Column  is  first  countermarched  by  companies, 
then  deployed  by  the  right  and  with  right  face,  but  brought  into  line  by 
the  left  face. 

A  column  can  change  its  direction  in  march  by  advancing  the  shoulders, 
the  fugleman  of  the  first  company  moving  with  short  steps  into  the  new 
direction,  the  other  files  conforming  themselves  to  him  by  degrees.  If,  for 
example,  a  new  alignment  is  to  be  established  upon  the  first  company,  at 
an  angle  of  45^  with  the  old  (fig,  22),  the  first  company  moves  on  the  com- 
mand, "  Left  shoulders  forward !"  on  to  the  new  alignment  which  has  been 
indicated  by  guides ;  as  soon  as  the  column  has  re-established  itself  again, 
covering  the  first  company,  the  deployment  is  made  by  the  left,  and  the 
companies  brought  into  line  by  the  right  face.  If  instead  of  the  eighth  part 
of  a  crrcle  the  change  of  direction  is  to  be  the  fourth  part  (fig.  28),  the  right 
hand  fugleman  of  the  first  company  makes  a  full  face  in  the  required  direc- 
tion, the  guides  are  established  to  the  left  and  dressed  on  him,  the  column 
is  then  faced  and  led  by  the  flank  upon  the  new  direction. 

In  the  passage  of  a  defile  or  over  a  bridge  when  a  new  line  of  battle  is  to 
be  formed  to  the  front  immediately  upon  emerging  from  the  defile  (fig.  30), 
one  company  (the  fourth  in  this  case)  is  marched  by  the  front  across  the 
defile  and  established  upon  the  new  line,  then  the  other  companies  face  to 
the  right  and  left  and  march  by  the  flank,  two  at  a  time,  through  the  defile, 
until  their  leading  flanks  come  opposite  to  their  place  in  the  new  line,  when 
they  establish  themselves  upon  this  by  a  file  formation  to  the  front  on 
each  side  of  the  standing  company. 

The  echelon  order  (fig.  32)  is  now  seldom  introduced;  it  consists  in 
this :  single  companies  are  arranged  one  behind  the  other  obliquely,  like 
steps,  while  the  principal  part  of  the  order  of  battle  forms  the  proper  front 
of  attack.  The  echelon  may  be  formed  also  from  the  centre,  producing  a 
kind  of  wedge-shaped  order.  Fig.  34  shows  on  the  left  half  in  the  hatched 
part  a  front  of  6  companies  in  parade  order,  in  three  ranks,  with  the 
file-closers,  &c.,  in  the  rear.  The  remainder  of  the  figure  represents 
the  passing  in  review  of  these  companies.  After  the  parade  is  formed 
and  has  saluted,  the  command  is  given  :  '*  Pass  in  review ;  first  company 
forward ;  by  companies,  right  wheel,  march !"  upon  which  the  captains 
pass  to  the  front  of  their  companies,  and  the  flank  officers  or  non-commis- 
sioned officers  take  their  places.  The  first  company  marches  direct  to  the 
point  until  it  has  gained  company  distance,  the  others  wheel  to  the  right, 
and  then  all  halt.  The  guides  (markers)  are  established  at  the  wheeling- 
points  as  points  of  direction.  On  the  command,  '*'  Parade,  march !"  the 
companies  move  direct  to  the  front,  only  the  second  wheels  immediately, 

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and  the  succeeding  ones  as  they  arrive  at  the  same  place.  When  the  first 
company  arrives  at  the  second  wheeling  point  it  wheels  again  to  the  left 
until  the  command  "  Forward !"  is  given,  and  so  with  all  the  other  com- 
panies. In  passing,  the  officers  and  color  salute,  the  men  carry  arms. 
PL  29,  fig,  6,  shows  the  bhange  of  direction  by  the  shoulders  forward, 
in  which  the  fugleman  on  the  left  (the  pivot  file)  describes  with  short  steps 
a  small  circle,  but  in  fig.  5  the  change  of  direction  by  a  wheel,  in  which 
the  left  fugleman  makes  a  face  in  the  required  direction,  and  then  remains 
at  a  halt  until  the  command,  "  Forward !"  is  given. 

Fig,  33  shows  the  movements  of  an  Army  corps  which  forms,  from  its 
two  lines  of  battle,  columns  of  march  by  the  left  flank,  two  columns  from 
each  line ;  the  first  half  of  each  line  marching  direct  to  the  front,  the  other 
half  making  a  double  wheel  at  d,  and  then  moving  parallel  to  the  first 
column.  After  completion  of  the  march  the  new  double  lines  of  battle  are 
re-established  by  means  of  opposite  wheels  at  e. 

The  Artillery  drill  is  very  complicated,  as  in  this  the  artillerists  must  be 
in  great  part  converted  into  drivers,  as  with  most  armies  the  drivers  are 
artillerists  also.  The  pieces  are  manned,  according  to  the  weight  of  the 
ball  they  carry,  with  more  or  fewer  persons.  Thus :  a  6-pounder  requires 
six  men  ;  a  12-pounder,  eight  men  for  its  service,  including  the  drivers,  non- 
commissioned officers,  &c.  Fig.  35  shows  the  disposition  of  the  men  at  a 
12-pounder.  At  *  stands  a  man  who  sponges  and  rams ;  at '  the  one  who 
inserts  the  cartridge.  For  this  purpose  both  step  round  the  wheel  near  to  the 
muzzle,  and  step  back  again  when  the  piece  is  about  to  be  discharged. 
The  man  at  "  has  charge  of  the  direction,  in  which  he  is  assisted  by  "  and 
",  who  move  the  trail  to  one  side  or  the  other  at  his  signal,  and  he  then 
prepares  the  piece  to  fire ;  the  man  at  •  touches  off,  and  in  heavy  ground 
assists  at  the  wheel  in  giving  the  direction.  At  the  limber  are  two  men 
more  as  reserve,  and  to  assist  in  limbering  and  unlimbering,  &c. ;  they  also 
supply  ammunition.  At  a  6-pounder  only  four  men  serve  the  piece,  the 
man  who  fires  assisting  also  at  the  trail  handspikes  to  give  the  direction ; 
there  are  two  men  at  the  limber  employed  as  with  the  12-pounder.  The 
movements  of  a  gun  in  changing  place  are  very  various.  For  very  short 
distances  the  piece  may  be  moved  forwards  and  backwards  by  the  men  who 
serve  it  {pi.  29,  fig.  36),  those  at  "'  *•  *'  and  *  lay  hold  of  the  wheel-spokes, 
and  the  men  of  the  reserve  assist  at  the  wheels  likewise  at  *»  ■•  *•  and  ***•*, 
while  at  "  and  "  two  men  heave  at  the  trail  with  handspikes,  to  move  it 
right  or  left,  and  thus  guide  the  piece  in  the  required  direction.  For 
greater  distances  bricoles  are  used,  one  or  two  for  light  pieces,  two  or 
four  for  heavier  ones.  Fig.  39  shows  a  light  gun  which  is  being  moved 
back  with  two  bricoles ;  they  are  attached  to  the  hooks  for  that  purpose  at 
the  trail,  and  are  manned  by  the  troops,  while  two  of  those  who  serve  the 
gun  assist  at  the  wheels.  Fig.  38  shows  the  same  piece  being  moved  for- 
wards; here  the  bricoles  are  attached  to  hooks  upon  the  washers  of  the 
wheels,  and  the  piece  is  dragged  forwards  by  the  men,  while  two  at  the 
trail  handspikes  ('*  and  ")  give  the  necessary  direction.  FHg.  40  shows  a 
heavy  gun  being  moved  with  bricoles,  backwards ;  here  two  bricoles  are 
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attached  at  the  cheeks  of  the  trail  and  two  at  the  wheel-washers,  at  which 
the  men  of  the  piece  and  the  reserve  draw.  If  the  piece  is  to  be  trans- 
ported to  still  gi'eater  distances,  it  is  limbered  up,  as  shown  in  fig,  87, 
where  the  crew  distributing  themselves  about  the  gun  move  on  each  side 
of  and  parallel  to  it,  those  who  serve  the  piece,  at  ^'  •'  •'  and  ",  as  they  stand 
at  it ;  those  from  the  trail  at  ",  and  *■  at  the  limber ;  the  men  of  the  reserve 
at  the  limber  at  '*  and  near  the  horses  at  " ;  the  non-commissioned  officer 
near  the  horses  at  the  head  as  leader.  This  drill  is  used  by  the  English 
artillery ;  with  the  Prussian  and  French  it  is  simplified,  as  with  them  only 
the  prolonge  is  used,  which  is  fastened  either  to  the  ring  of  the  trail  or 
to  the  breast-transom,  and  then  for  considerable  distances  the  piece  is 
moved  not  by  its  crew  but  by  the  limber  at  the  end  of  the  prolonge.  For 
short  distances  the  piece  is  moved  always  by  hand  as  in  fig,  36. 


Castrametation. 

Castrametation  is  a  distinct  branch  of  military  science,  and  belongs  to 
the  department  of  the  general  staff  officers.  When  a  division  of  the  army 
is  to  encamp,  a  suitable  place  is  first  sought  for  by  proper  reconnoissances ; 
then  a  camp  is  staked  out,  and  the  tents  carried  by  the  train,  or  huts  and 
bivouacs  of  material  found  on  the  spot,  are  set  up  by  the  persons  detailed 
for  that  purpose.  The  tents  are  designed  to  contain  each,  either  8  infantry 
or  half  that  number  of  cavalry,  or  else  16  infantry,  or  the  same  proportion 
of  cavalry.  PI.  29,  fig,  41  •  shows  the  ground  plan  of  the  small  8  man 
tent;  fig,  41  ^  the  elevation  of  the  same.  In  the  centre  of  the  tent  stands 
lengthwise  a  wooden  frame,  over  which  the  tent  is  thrown,  and  whose 
ridge-piece  forms  the  top  of  the  same.  The  front  wall  is  straight,  and 
contains  the  entrance ;  the  back  is  half  round,  or  rather  conical.  At  the 
bottom,  the  tent  is  fastened  by  means  of  tent  pegs,  on  which  a  notch  is  cut, 
and  which  are  driven  through  loops  in  the  ground,  as  shown  in  the  figure  ; 
a  shallow  ditch  being  dug  around  them  to  carry  off  the  water.  The  tent 
for  16  men  {fig,  42  a,  h)  is  rounded  at  both  ends,  of  double  the  size,  and 
has  its  entrance  in  the  middle  of  the  side.  For  laying  out  the  camp  and 
setting  off  the  right  angles,  the  tracing  line  {fig,  43)  is  used ;  but  a  right 
angle  can  always  be  laid  off  very  easily,  by  having  in  the  measuring  line 
four  knots,  which  are  six,  eight,  and  ten  feet  distant  from  each  other,  by 
sticking  a  peg  into  the  knot  between  six  and  eight,  and  then  forming  a 
triangle  of  six,  eight,  and  ten,  the  angle  at  the  peg  six  will  always  be  a 
right  angle. 

As  to  the  general  form  of  encampment,  fig,  44  represents  a  camp  of  four 
infantry  regiments,  two  cavalry  regiments,  and  three  batteries.  The  rec- 
tangle, a,  a,  a,  a,  1410  paces  in  depth  and  5872  paces  (of  two  feet )  in  breadth, 
forms  the  line  of  the  outermost  posts.  Then  comes,  120  paces  inside  of  this, 
the  second  line  of  posts,  6,  h,  b,  ft,  and  again,  at  120  paces  firom  the  firont 
and  two  sides  of  these,  on  three  sides  therefore,  the  tent«  of  the  camp 
guani  c,  c,  c.    At  A,  A,  A,  A,  is  the  camp  of  the  four  infantry  regiments ; 

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at  B,  B,  lie  the  cavalry  regiments ;  at  C  and  C,  the  light  artillery ;  at  D 
and  E,  foot  artillery ;  and  at  F,  the  pioneer  division  and  the  pontoon  and 
camp  trains. 

Fig,  45  is  part  of  a  camp  for  an  infantry  regiment  of  three  battalions  in 
the  first  line,  with  tents  or  huts  for  sixteen  men  each.  In  the  part  here 
represented  lay  four  companies  of  the  third  battalion,  the  vrhole  second 
battalion,  and  five  companies  of  the  first ;  the  remainder  is  left  out  to  save 
space,  but  can  easily  be  added.  A,  are  the  colonel's  tents ;  he  has  two 
assigned  to  him,  one  of  which  is  used  as  an  oflice  and  store-tent ;  B»  B,  B, 
the  tents  of  battalion  commanders ;  C,  the  lieutenant  colonel's  tent ;  D,  D, 
the  tents  of  the  men,  which  stand  five  paces  distant  from  each  other  in 
breKidth ;  E,  the  wagon  train ;  a,  regimental  adjutant ;  ft,  the  administrative 
officers  ;  c,  captains  ;  d,  ensigns ;  e,  adjutants ;  /,  surgeons  ;  g,  line  of  camp 
kitchens ;  A,  guard-house  for  the  advanced  posts  of  the  camp  guard  ;  t,  sen- 
try-box for  the  same  ;  j,  hut  for  prisoners  ;  k,  line  of  camp  benches;  /,  1st 
and  2d  lieutenants ;  m,  musicians ;  n,  battalion  drummer  and  staff  bugler ; 
o,  laborers ;  p,  camp  guard ;  gr,  officer  of  this  guard ;  r,  arm  racks  of  the 
camp  guard  ;  8,  wagon  master ;  t,  paymaster's  chest ;  le,  arm  racks  of  the 
camp  piquets ;  v,  sutler's  tent ;  w,  wash  tent ;  x,  stand  for  the  train  horses ; 
y,  soldiers  of  the  train ;  z,  ofikers'  horses  ;  bb,  sinks  for  the  men  ;  ee,  sinks 
for  the  officers. 

PL  29,  fig.  46,  shows  the  arrangement  of  a  French  camp  for  two  infantry 
battalions,  or  rather  two  thirds  of  the  camp  of  a  regiment.  The  tents  here 
are  designed  for  eight  men,  and  they  are  placed  with  their  backs  together, 
and  the  broad  side  towards  the  front  of  the  camp,  in  order  to  give  it  less 
depth  ;  this  brings  the  entrances  upon  the  camp  streets.  The  rows  of  tents 
are  three  paces  distant  from  each  other,  and  the  camp  streets  are  five  paces 
wide.  The  letter  references  are  exactly  the  same  as  in  the  preceding 
figure. 

Fig.  47  is  the  camp  of  a  French  cavalry  regiment  of  six  squadrons,  with 
huts  for  fourteen  men  each.  The  huts  are  so  placed,  that  their  entrances 
are  on  the  camp  streets ;  the  horses  of  each  section  are  in  one  line,  with 
their  heads  towards  the  huts,  and  fastened  to  the  picket  pole.  The  letters 
indicate  different  objects,  as  follows :  O,  the  two  huts  of  the  colonel ; 
OL,  the  lieutenant  colonel ;  EC,  chef  d'escadron,  or  major ;  ftA,  regi- 
mental adjutant ;  AS,  paymaster,  adjutant,  and  ensign ;  RC,  regimental 
surgeon ;  A,  adjutant ;  D,  men's  huts ;  F,  drivers  of  the  train ;  LL,  laza- 
retto and  hospital ;  OF,  officers*  huts  ;  T,  farriers ;  UO,  non-commissioned 
officers ;  W,  wagon  master  and  laborers  ;  WP,  quarter  guard ;  a«,  line  of 
camp  kitchens ;  b,  smithies  ;  cc,  place  for  forage  ;  ee,  line  of  horses  at  the 
picket  pole ;  gg,  men's  sinks :  the  officers'  sinks  lie  160  paces  in  rear  of 
the  officers'  huts.  On  the  left  of  the  figure  in  front  of  the  encampment, 
the  six  ^sijuadrons  are  represented  on  parade  as  they  have  marched  firom 
their  cantonteents. 

Around  th^  encampment  is  thrown,  as  above  mentioned,  a  chain  erf" 
advanced  posts,  which  are  designed  to  observe  any  approach  of  the  enemy 
at  a  distance  so  great,  that  before  an  actual  attack  can  be  made,  the  whole 
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WARFARE  OF  MODERN  TIMES.  89 

eamp  is  on  tbe  alert,  and  all  the  men  ready  for  action.  Such  advanced  posts 
are  usually  established  in  every  case  when,  from  any  cause,  the  force  is 
not  in  condition  to  form  instantly  in  battle  array,  ready  for  assault,  as  in 
disembarkations,  for  example.  Fig,  48  shows  such  a  disembarkation  of 
French  troops  in  Algiers.  While  the  boats  of  the  fleet  are  landing  the 
soldiery,  and  these  are  assembling,  a  chain  of  advanced  posts  is  immedi- 
ately thrown  8ut,  who  observe  the  field  in  all  directions,  and,  opposing  a 
slight  resistance  to  any  attempt  of  the  foe,  arouse  the  attention  of  the  main 
body,  which  will  thus  be  in  readiness  to  beat  back  the  assailants. 


Orders  and  Badges  of  Honor. 

The  military  service  is  one  of  sacrifice  and  privation,  and  many  qualities 
are  required  from  the  soldier  which  are  not  nearly  so  indispensable  for  the 
civilian,  such  as  courage  bordering  on  contempt  of  death,  devotion,  perspi- 
cacity, presence  of  mind,  endurance,  and  many  other  qualities  seldom 
united  in  the  same  individual,  and  even  with  the  best  requiring  some 
stimulus ;  recognition  at  least,  when  they  appear  in  a  remarkable  degree 
and  with  striking  efiect;  where  they  are  wanting,  or  injurious  qualities 
display  themselves  by  the  production  of  offences,  admonition  and  punish- 
ment. The  system  of  rewards  and  punishments  for  the  military  must 
therefore  be  a  very  elaborate  one. 

We  shall  here  speak  only  of  the  rewards,  which  consi^  of  promotion^ 
out  of  the  regular  order,  and  of  personal  distinctions  by  orders  and  tokens 
of  honor.  Orders  are  the  most  common  means  of  reward,  as  the  possibility 
of  promotion  is  always  limited,  and  by  promotions  out  of  the  regular  order 
others  less  favored  by  fortune  are  often  injured.  Every  state  has  its  own 
orders,  and  a  great  number  of  these,  especially  designed  for  distinction  in 
military  service,  are  represented  on  PUUes  30,  31,  and  32,  which  we  will 
describe  more  in  detail. 

Austrian  Empire.  The  Military  Order  of  Maria  Theresa  {pL  30,  upper 
figs.  1  and  2)  was  founded  by  Maria  Theresa  as  a  reward  for  truth, 
bravery,  and  capacity  in  the  military  class,  and  for  the  honorable  remem- 
brance of  heroes  and  heroism.  Its  foundation  day  is  the  18th  of  June, 
1757  (Battle  of  KoUin).  The  order  has  Grand  Crosses,  Commanders,  and 
Knights.  The  insignia  of  the  order  are  a  gold  white  enamelled  cross 
(fig.  1) ;  in  the  centre  shield  is  a  silver  beam  <m  a  red  field,  with  the 
motto,  Fortitudini,  around  it.  On  the  reverse  is  the  name-cypher,  M.  T.  F. 
(Maria  Theresa.  FVanciscus),  enamelled  in  black  upon  a  white  field,  sur- 
rounded with  a  laurel  wreath.  The  Grand  Crosses  wear  the  insignia 
suspended  from  a  hand-broad  ribbon  with  three  equal  stripes  of  red  and 
white,  and  passing  en  echarpe  from  the  right  to  the  left ;  the  Commanders 
from  a  similar  one,  but  nairower,  and  en  sauioir  (round  the  neck) ;  the 
knights  wear  a  smaller  cross  (fig.  2),  at  a  narrow  ribbon  on  the  breast. 
The  Grand  Crosses  wear  besides  a  silver  embroidered  decoration  upon  the 
left  breast,  which  displays  the  cross  of  the  order  resting  upon  a  green  laurel 

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wreath  in  a  golden  border.  All  members  receive  the  rank  of  Knight  in 
virtue  of  the  Order,  if  they  had  it  not  before. 

The  Order  of  Leopold  (pi.  30,  upper  figs.  6  and  7)  was  founded  by  the 
Emperor  Francis  I.,  on  the  8th  of  January,  1808.  It  consists  of  Grand 
Crosses,  Commanders,  and  Knights,  and  is  bestowed  also  on  civilians. 
The  insignia  of  the  Order  are  a  gold  cross,  enamelled  red,  with  white  edges, 
having  on  the  face  the  name-cypher,  F.  J.  A.,  in  a  red  cenfte  shield,  with 
the  device,  Integritate  et  merito,  on  the  white  border ;  and  on  the  reverse, 
in  an  oak  wreath,  the  Emperor  Leopold's  motto.  Opes  regum  corda  subdi- 
toimm.  Between  the  arms  of  the  cross  are  golden  oak  leaves  and  acorns, 
and  above  it  the  Imperial  crown.  Grand  Crosses  wear  the  order  en  eckarpe 
at  a  hand-broad,  red  silk,  white  bordered  ribbon  (fig.  6),  and  on  the  left 
breast  a  silver  octagonal  star,  with  the  cross  of  the  Order.  This  Order 
has  also  a  collar,  which  is  of  gold,  and  consists  of  laurel  wreaths  and  the 
intertwined  letters  F.  and  L.,  adorned  with  the  Imperial  crown.  The  Com- 
manders wear  the  cross  at  a  narrower  ribbon,  and  en  sautoir;  the  Knights 
at  a  narrow  ribbon  on  the  breast  {fig.  7). 

The  Order  of  Elizabeth  Theresa  {fig.  3)  is  called  also  the  Military  Foun- 
dation  of  Elizabeth  Theresa.  It  was  founded  in  1750  by  Elizabeth 
Christina,  the  widow  of  Charles  VL,  for  twenty  Knights,  and  may  be  given 
to  persons  of  any  nation  or  religion.  The  badge  of  the  Order  is  an  oval. 
octagonal,  red  and  white  star,  with  a  golden  border,  beneath  the  Imperial 
crown  in  gold.  The  white  central  shield  displays,  under  the  golden  Imperial 
crown,  the  name-cyphers  E.  C.  and  M .  T.,  and  around  them  the  device  of 
the  Order :  M.  Theresia  parentis  gratiam  perennem  voluit.  The  order  is 
worn  round  the  neck  with  a  narrow  black  ribbon.  The  Catholic  Knights 
must  pray  daily  three  Pater  Nosters  and  three  Ave  Marias  for  the  founder. 
The  Lutheran  must  pay  three  ducats  yearly  to  the  Invalid  Institute. 

The  Order  of  the  Iron  Crown  {figs.  4  and  6)  was  founded  by  Napoleon 
in  1805,  and  confirmed  by  the  Emperor  Francis  on  the  12th  of  October, 
1815.  It  is  bestowed  upon  civilians  also,  consists  of  three  classes,  and  has 
twenty  Knights  of  the  first,  thirty  of  the  second,  and  fifty  of  the  third  class. 
The  Knights  have,  for  all  occasions  of  ceremony,  an  order  dress  in  the 
style  of  the  middle  ages,  of  yellow,  blue,  and  white,  with  gold  fringes  and 
embroidery.  The  badge  of  the  Order  is  an  imitation  of  the  iron  crown, 
under  a  golden,  imperial,  crowned  double  eagle,  who  bears  upon  his  breast 
a  blue  heart-shapenl  shield,  with  the  cypher  F.  Knights  of  the  first  class 
wear  the  order  with  a  broad  gold-yellow  silk  ribbon  {fig.  4)  with  dark  blue 
border,  en  echarpe  from  right  to  left,  and  besides,  on  the  left  breast,  a  silver 
octagonal  star,  upon  which  is  a  round  gold  shield  with  the  iron  crown. 
The  shield  has  a  blue  border  with  gold  edge,  and  the  device  of  the  Order  : 
Avita  et  aucta.  The  gold  collar  consists  of  the  letters  F.  P.,  the  iron  crown, 
and  an  oak  wreath  alternately.  Knights  of  the  second  class  wear  a  some- 
what smaller  badge  at  a  narrower  ribbon,  en  sautoir,  and  those  of  the  third 
class  one  still  smaller  on  the  breast  (upper  fig.  5). 

The  Metal  Cross  of  the  Army  {fi^s.  8  and  9)  the  Emperor  Francis  I. 
founded  on  the  31st  of  May,  1814,  at  Paris.  It  was  given  to  all  who  had  made 
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WARFARE  OF  MODERN  TIMES.  91 

the  campaigns  of  1813  and  1814,  and  consisted  of  a  four-cornered  cross, 
with  a  green  oak  wreath,  coined  from  captured  gun  meta],  having  on  one 
side  the  inscription  :  Crrati  princeps  et  patria.  Franc.  Imp.  Aug.,  and  on 
the  other:  Europce  libertate  asserta,  MDCCCXIII.  MDCCCXIV.  It  is 
worn  on  the  breast  from  a  ribbon  having  three  stripes  of  black  and  yellow. 

The  Medal  for  Military  Bravery  (upper  7^^^.  10,  11,  12,  13)  was  estab- 
lished by  the  Emperor  Joseph  IL,  and  designed  for  the  troops,  from  the  ser- 
geant major  and  sergeant  downwards.  It  had  at  that  time  two  classes.  The 
first  (ßg.  10)  consisted  of  a  golden  medal  (917  75  value)  at  a  red  ribbon, 
the  second  {ßg.  11)  of  a  silver  medal  (75  cents  value)  at  a  red  and  white 
cross-striped  ribbon  with  red  and  white  border.  Francis  I.  constituted  the 
medal  anew ;  it  is  now  worn  at  the  breast  from  the  same  ribbon  as  in  the 
second  class  before,  and  is  cast  in  gold  and  silver  (figs.  12,  13),  displaying 
on  one  side  the  Emperor's  bust,  and  on  the  other  a  laurel  wreath  and  color, 
with  the  legend :  Der  Tapferkeit  (to  bravery). 

Kingdom  of  Prussia.  The  Order  of  the  Black  Eagle  {pi.  30,  lower 
figs.  1,  2,  3)  was  founded  by  King  Frederick  1.  of  Prussia,  on  the  18th  of 
January,  1701,  and  is  the  first  order  in  the  state.  It  was  to  have  originally, 
besides  the  sons  and  brothers  of  the  reigning  king  (who  were  bom  Knights  of 
the  Order),  only  thirty  Knights,  who  must  be  at  least  thirty  years  of  age,  or, 
if  princes,  of  the  age  of  confirmation,  usually  14  years.  The  badge  of  the 
Order  consists  of  a  gold,  blue  enamelled  Maltese  cross,  on  the  central  shield 
of  which  is  the  cypher  F.  R.  In  the  angles  of  the  cross  are  four  black 
eagles  with  spread  wings.  The  cross  {fig.  3)  is  worn  from  a  hand-broad 
orange  colored  silk  ribbon,  en  echarpe  from  left  to  right.  There  belongs  to 
it  on  the  left  breast,  a  silver  embroidered  eight  pointed  star,  with  a  round 
centre  shield,  in  which,  on  an  orange  colored  ground,  is  a  flying  black 
eagle,  having  a  laurel  wreath  in  one  claw  and  a  thunderbolt  in  the  other. 
The  white  border  bears,  in  gold,  the  device  of  the  Order :  Suum  cuique 
{fig.  1).  Subsequently  the  knights  had  a  peculiar  Order  costume,  and  a 
collar  {fig.  2),  which  was  composed  of  black  eagles  with  thunderbolts,  and 
round  shields  set  with  four  crowns.  The  shields  were  blue,  with  golden 
borders  and  white  centre  fields,  with  the  device  of  the  Order.  On  the  blue 
ground  stood  four  times  the  name-cypher  'IF.  R.  At  present  the  collar  is 
borne  only  at  royal  obsequies  and  as  heraldic  decoration,  and  the  number 
of  knights  is  unlimited.  They  are  at  the  same  time  Knights  of  the  Order 
of  the  Red  Eagle  of  the  first  class,  and  wear  it  round  the  neck. 

The  Order  of  the  Red  Eagle  {pi.  30,  lower/g-5.  4  and  5)  George  William 
instituted  in  1705,  when  he  was  yet  hereditary  prince  of  Baireuth,  and  con- 
firmed on  his  accession  to  the  throne  in  1712.  It  was  regenerated  on  the 
18th  of  January,  1810,  and  divided  into  three  classes.  The  insignia  of  the 
Order  {fig.  4)  consist  of  a  gold,  white  enamelled  cross ;  in  its  round  white 
centre  shield  soars,  on  the  face,  the  crowned  red  eagle  with  the  Hohenzol- 
lem  escutcheon  (quartered  black  and  white)  on  the  heart,  and  a  laurel 
branch  in  the  claws.  On  the  reverse  is  the  name-cypher  F.  W.  on  a  white 
ground,  with  a  crown.  The  cross  is  the  same  for  all  classes,  only  of 
different  sizes.    Knights  of  the  first  class  wear  it  from  a  broad  silk  ribbon, 

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92  MILTTABir  SOIE27CES. 

white,  with  orange  border,  en  echarpe  from  left  to  right,  and  with  it,  on  the 
left  breast,  a  silver  embroidered  eight  pointed  star,  whose  centre  shield  k 
like  that  of  the  Order  cross,  and  has  the  superscription  :  Sincere  et  con^ 
stanter.  Where  the  knight  has  been  previously  of  the  second  and  third 
classes,  oak  leaves  are  added  to  the  insignia.  Knights  of  the  second  class 
wear  the  badge  of  the  Order,  en  sautoir,  from  a  narrow  ribbon,  and  the 
oldest  knights  a  four  pointed  silver  embroidered  star,  worked  with  the  fall 
insignia  of  the  Order,  on  the  left  breast.  Knights  of  the  third  class  wear  a 
small  cross,  from  a  narrow  ribbon,  on  the  breast.  On  the  18th  of  Januaiy, 
1830,  the  fourth  class  of  the  Order  was  founded,  to  take  the  place  of  the 
Merit  medal.  The  badge  is  of  silver  instead  of  enamelled  gold  (ßg,  5). 
Knights  of  the  third  class  who  have  had  the  fourth,  wear  the  third  with  a 
bow. 

The  Order  of  Military  Merit  (ßg.  7)  was  instituted  in  1665  by  Prince 
Charles  Emilius,  under  the  title.  Ordre  de  la  GinSrosite,  Frederick  IL,  on 
his  accession  to  the  throne  in  1740,  changed  that  name  to  its  present  one. 
The  badge  of  the  Order  is  a  blue  enamelled  Maltese  cross,  whose  upper  arm 
bears  the  letter  F  under  a  crown,  and  the  three  other  arms  the  inscription : 
Pour  le  m6rite.  In  the  angles  of  the  cross  are  golden  eagles  with  outspread 
wings.  The  cross  is  worn,  en  sautoir,  from  a  black  silk  ribbon  with  silver 
border.  Extraordinary  merit  adds  oak  leaves  to  the  order,  and  a  second 
silver  stripe  to  the  border.  Of  this  Order  there  is  a  peace  class  also  for 
civil  merit. 

The  Order  of  St.  John  (pi.  30,  lower ^^.  6).  After  the  old  commanderies 
of  the  Order  of  St.  John,  Brandenburg,  and  the  Mastership  of  the  Army 
were  done  away  with  in  1810  and  1811,  the  new  Order  of  St  John  was 
founded  on  the  2dd  of  May,  1812,  as  an  order  of  merit,  but  principally  as  a 
token  of  favor,  given,  however,  only  to  nobles  (without  proof  of  ancestry). 
The  badge  of  the  Order  is  a  white  enamelled  Maltese  cross,  in  the  angles  of 
which  are  crowned  black  eagles  with  outspread  wings.  The  cross  is  worn 
by  the  knights,  who  form  but  one  class,  en  sautoir,  from  a  black  watered 
silk  ribbon.  On  the  left  breast  is  worn  a  simple  white  Maltese  cross.  The 
Order  has  a  peculiar  state  uniform. 

The  Iron  Cross  (figs.  9  and  10)  was  instituted  on  the  10th  of  March, 
1813,  for  those  who  had  rendered  effective  service  to  the  fatherland.  The 
cross  continues  by  inheritance  in  the  regiment,  so  long  as  any  deserving 
persons  remain  in  it  who  took  part  in  the  campaigns  of  1813  and  1814. 
The  Order  has  two  classes.  The  cross  is  of  cast  iron,  with  silver  border, 
and  bears  the  name-cypher  F.  W.  under  a  crown,  three  oak  leaves,  and 
the  date,  1813  (fig.  9).  Military  men  wear  it  from  a  black  ribbon  with 
white  border ;  civilians,  firom  a  white  ribbon  with  black  border  (fig.  10), 
both  on  the  breast.  Knights  of  the  first  class  bear,  in  addition,  a  simple 
black,  silver  bordered  cross,  as  a  star,  on  the  left  breast.  There  were  also 
some  Grrand  Crosses  (Blücher,  for  example),  who  wore  the  cross  twice  as 
large,  en  sautoir.  This  Order  is  now  gradually  dying  out,  as  it  was 
bestowed  only  in  1813-14. 

The  Medal  of  Military  Merit  (fig.  8),  instituted  in  1793  by  Fkrederid[ 
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WARFARE  OP  MODERN  TIMES.  93 

William  II.,  was  for  non-commissioned  officers  a  gold,  for  privates  a  silver 
medal,  which  had  on  one  side  the  name-cypher  of  the  king  with  the  date 
1793,  on  the  other,  in  a  laurel  wreath  the  worcb,  Verdienst  um  den  Staat 
(Service  to  the  State),  and  was  worn  on  the  breast  from  a  black  ribbon. 
Since  1814  this  medal  has  been  changed  for  a  silver  cross  (as  ßg.  5),  is 
called  Military  Decoration  of  the  first  class,  and  is  worn  from  the  ribbon  of 
the  Iron  Cross. 

The  Medal  for  1813-14  (ßg,  11),  instituted  in  1813,  by  Frederick  WiU 
Ham  III.,  for  all  the  military  who  had  served  without  reproach  against  the 
enemy  in  ]  81 3-14.  The  medal  has  on  one  side,  under  the  crowned  name- 
cypher  F.  W.  the  inscription,  Freussens  tapfem  Kriegern  (Prussia's 
brave  warriors),  with  the  circumscription,  Oott  war  mit  uns,  ihm  sei  die 
Ehre  (6od  was  with  us,  to  him  be  the  honor).  On  the  other  side  is  a  cross 
upon  rays,  in  whose  centre,  within  a  laurel  wreath,  is  the  date  1813,  1814. 
On  the  edge  are  the  words.  Aus  feindlichem  geschiüz  (from  the  enemy's 
guns).  The  medal  is  worn  upon  the  breast  from  an  orange  ribbon  with 
black  and  white  border.  Non-combatants  received  iron  medals  with  the 
inscription.  Fur  Pflichttreue  im  Kriege  (for  faith  in  war),  the  king's  cypher 
and  the  circumscription,  Crott  war  mit  uns,  ihm  sei  die  Ehre,  These 
medals  were  worn  at  the  breast  from  a  white  ribbon  with  black  and  orange 
border. 

Kingdom  of  Bavaria,  The  Military  Order  of  Max  Joseph  {pi  Sl,ßg.  1) 
consists  of  three  classes.  Grand  Crosses,  Commanders,  and  Knights,  and 
was  instituted  by  Maximilian  Joseph  I.  in  1806,  out  of  the  Military  Decora- 
tion established  by  the  Elector  Charles  Theodore  in  1797.  The  Order 
carries  with  it  pension  and  personal  nobility ;  if  the  father  and  grandfather 
have  had  the  order,  that  constitutes  a  nobility  of  descent.  The  badge  of  the 
order  is  a  gold,  white  enamelled,  Maltese  cross,  with  a  gold  crown.  Upon 
the  blue  enamelled  centre  shield  is,  on  one  side,  the  name  cypher  M.  K.,  on 
the  other  side  the  motto  of  the  order,  Virtuti  pro  patria.  Between  the 
points,  each  of  which  has  a  gold  ball,  are  golden  rays.  The  order  is  worn 
by  Grand  Crosses  from  a  hand-broad,  black  silk  ribbon  with  white  and  blue 
border,  en  echarpe,  from  right  to  left,  Aid  in  addition,  on  the  left  breast,  a 
silver  eight-pointed  star,  embroidered  with  the  badge  and  device  of  the 
Order.  Commanders  wear  the  order  en  sautoir,  and  Knights  a  somewhat 
smaller  one  from  a  narrow  ribbon  at  the  breast. 

The  royal  Order  of  Louis  (ßg.  2)  was  instituted  by  Louis  I.  in  1827,  for 
fifty  years'  service,  years  of  campaign  being  reckoned  double.  The  badge 
of  the  Order  (ßg,  2)  is,  for  persons  who  have  the  rank  of  officers,  a  gold 
cross  surmounted  by  the  royal  crown,  having  on  one  side  the  inscription, 
Ludwig  Konig  von  Baiem  and  the  bust  of  the  founder  in  gold  upon  a 
white  ground;  on  the  other  side,  surrounded  by  a  green  oak- wreath,  the 
words  /Hör  ehrenvolle  fünfzig  Dienstjahre  (For  fifty  years'  honorable 
service).  The  four  arms  of  the  cross  bear  the  inscription,  Am  25. 
Aug,  1827.  Knights  under  the  rank  of  officer  receive  a  gold  medal  with 
the  same  inscription.  This  order  is  worn,  from  a  deep  red  ribbon  with 
light  blue  border,  at  the  left  breast. 

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94  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

The  Military  Medal  of  Honor  {fig.  3)  was  established  by  Max  Joseph  in 
1794,  for  the  military,  from  the  rank  of  sergeant  major  and  sergeant 
downwards,  who  had  distinguished  themselves  by  bravery,  and  was  distri- 
buted in  gold  and  silver.  The  silver  medal  brought  the  possessor  an 
addition  of  half,  the  gold  medal  of  full  pay,  which  remained  to  them  even 
in  case  they  passed  afterwards  into  the  rank  of  officer.  The  medal  displays 
on  one  side  the  bust  of  the  founder,  on  the  other  the  royal  arms,  held  hj 
a  lion  armed  with  a  sword,  and  the  circumscription.  Der  Tapferkeit 
(to  bravery).  The  medal  is  worn  upon  the  breast,  from  a  black  ribbon  with 
white  and  blue  border. 

The  Decoration  of  the  Army  Hospital  Corps  {ph  81,  fig,  4)  was  esta- 
blished in  1812,  by  Max  Joseph,  for  the  surgeons,  who  had  been  particularly 
efficient  in  the  field  hospital  and  on  the  field  of  battle.  The  decoration 
consists  of  a  gold  or  silver  medal,  which  has  on  one  side  the  bust  of  the 
founder,  and  on  the  other,  in  a  laurel-wreath,  the  inscription.  Oh  milites 
inter  prcßlia  et  arte  et  virtute  servatos,  and  is  worn  at  the  breast  from  a 
black  ribbon  with  white  and  blue  border. 

Kingdom  of  Saxony,  The  Military  Order  of  St.  Henry  {fig,  5) 
was  founded  on  the  7th  November,  1736,  at  Hubertusburg,  by  King 
Augustus  III.,  for  military  merit;  in  1829  it  received  new  statutes  from 
King  Anthony.  It  consists  of  Grand  Crosses,  Commanders  of  the  first  and 
second  classes,  and  Knights.  The  badge  of  the  Order  is  a  gold  Maltese 
cross  with  white  enamelled  border.  In  the  centre  is  a  white  enamelled 
round  shield,  and  in  this  the  Emperor  Henry,  standing,  in  full  costume, 
and  the  letters  S.  H.  In  the  blue  border  stands,  Frid.  Aug.  D,  G.  Rex 
Sax,  instauravit.  The  reverse  displays,  in  the  central  field,  the  arms  of 
Saxony,  and  in  the  blue  border  the  words,  Virtuti  in  hello.  The  four 
angles  of  the  cross  contain  parts  of  the  Saxon  lozenge-crown.  This  badge 
is  of  three  sizes.  Grand  Crosses  wear  it  from  a  hand-broad  sky-blue  ribbon 
with  yellow  border,  en  echarpe,  from  right  to  left,  and  on  the  left  breast  an 
octagonal  star  of  gold  rays,  in  whose  centre  is  the  round  shield  of  the  cross 
(Emperor  Henry),  with  the  circumscription  Virtuti  in  hello  on  a  blue 
ground.  Commanders  of  the  first  •lass  wear  a  smaller  cross,  en  sautoir, 
and  the  star,  but  of  smaller  size  (3  inches),  on  the  breast ;  Commanders  of 
the  second  class  only  the  cross.  Knights  wear  the  smallest  cross,  from  a 
ribbon  H  inches  broad,  at  the  breast.  The  Knights  advance  through  the 
classes.     A  fifth  class  of  this  Order  is  formed  by 

The  Medal  of  Military  Merit  {fig.  6),  established  in  1796,  for  non-com- 
missioned officers  and  privates.  This  is  given  in  gold  and  silver,  displays 
on  one  side  the  bust  of  the  founder,  and  on  the  other,  in  a  laurel- wreath 
and  flag,  the  words,  Verdienst  um  das  Vaterland  (Service  to  the  country)^ 
and  is  worn  at  the  breast  from  a  ribbon  one  inch  wide,  sky-blue  with  yellow 
border. 

Kingdom  of  Hanover.     The  Guelphic  Order  {figs.  7,  8)  was  founded  in 

1815  by  George  IV.,  at  that  time  Prince  Regent  of  England,  and  was  then 

divided  into  three  classes,  Grand  Crosses,  Commanders,  and  Knights.     The 

badge  of  the  order  is  a  Maltese  cross  of  dead  gold  with  polished  edges,  set 

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WARFARE  OF  MODERN  TIMES.  9<J 

with  balls  at  the  points ;  in  its  angles,  four  golden  lions  passant.  In  the 
centre  of  the  cross  lies  a  round,  red  shield»  bearing  the  white  horse  of 
Brunswick.  The  shield  is  surrounded  with  a  blue  border,  which  contains 
the  device  of  the  order,  Nee  aspera  terrent.  Around  this  blue  border 
lies,  for  civilians  an  oak,  for  military  a  laurel-wreath,  in  gold.  On  the 
reverse  is,  in  a  red  field,  the  name-cypher  "  G.  R."  with  the  royal  crown, 
and  in  the  golden  border  the  date  MDCCCXV.  Above  the  cross  is  the 
Hanoverian  crown,  and,  for  the  military,  between  the  cross  and  crown  two 
crossed  swords.  The  cross  is  the  same  for  all  classes,  but  of  different  sizes. 
The  Grand  Crosses  wear  it  from  a  broad  light-blue  ribbon,  en  echarpe, 
from  left  to  right,  but  on  gala  days  about  the  neck,  from  a  golden  chain 
composed  of  lions,  royal  crowns,  and  the  cypher  G.  R.  alternately.  On  the 
left  breast  is  a  silver  eight-pointed  star  of  forty  straight  and  eight  twisted 
rays,  and  on  this  the  central  field  of  the  order,  which,  for  military,  rests 
upon  two  crossed  swords  (pL  SI,  fig.  7).  Commanders  wear  a  somewhat 
smaller  order,  en  sautoir,  from  a  narrower  ribbon,  and  on  the  left  breast 
the  badge  of  the  Order  embroidered  in  silver,  but  with  the  central  shield 
in  its  appropriate  colors.  Knights  wear  the  smallest  cross  {fig,  8),  at  the 
button-hole,  from  a  ribbon  1^  inches  wTde.  For  non-commissioned  officers 
and  soldiers  there  is  the  Guelphic  Medal,  which  resembles  the  Waterloo 
Medal  (hereafter  to  be  described),  but  is  worn  from  the  ribbon  of  the  Guelphic 
Order  as  a  particular  class  of  that  Order.  In  the  year  1841  two  classes 
more  were  instituted  in  this  Order ;  Commanders  of  the  second  class  who 
do  not  bear  the  star  on  the  breast  and  the  holders  of  the  Silver  Cross  (fifth 
class)  for  whom  the  order  is  entirely  of  silver,  but  the  central  shield  in  its 
proper  colors,  and  bearing  instead  of  the  cjrpher  G.  R.  the  cypher  E.  A.  R. 
(Ernest  Aug.  Rex.)  The  Waterloo  Medal  {fig,  9)  was  established  in  com- 
memoration of  the  18th  June,  1815,  for  those  who  had  taken  part  in  the 
battle  of  Waterloo.  It  is  of  silver,  and  displays,  on  one  side,  the  bust  of  the 
founder  (Prince  Regent  George  IV.)  with  the  date  1815,  and  on  the  other, 
in  a  laurel  wreath  and  under  a  trophy,  the  inscription,  Waterloo,  June 
xviii.  with  the  circumscription  Hannoverscher  Tapferkeit  (to  Hanoverian 
bravery).  The  medal,  which  bears  also  the  name  and  office  of  the  possessor, 
is  worn  at  the  breast  from  a  crimson  ribbon  with  sky-blue  border,  and 
was  sent  also  to  the  heirs  of  those  that  fell  at  Waterloo  as  an  honorable 
memorial. 

Kingdom  of  Wirtemberg,  The  Order  of  Frederick  {fig.  10)  was  founded 
by  the  present  King  William,  in  1880,  for  civil  and  military  desert,  and  has 
only  one  class.  The  badge  of  the  Order  is  a  gold,  white  enamelled  cross, 
with  golden  rays  between  the  arms.  The  golden  central  shield,  surrounded 
with  a  blue  border,  displays  the  bust  of  King  Frederick,  and  on  the  blue 
border  the  circumscription,  Friedrich,  König  von  Würtemberg.  On  the 
reverse  the  central  shield  is  white  enamelled  and  has  in  gold  the  inscription. 
Dem  Verdienste  (To  merit).  On  the  blue  border  stands  the  motto  of  King 
Frederick,  Gott  und  mein  Recht  (God  and  my  right).  The  order  is  worn 
from  a  broad,  royal-blue  ribbon,  en  echarpe,  from  right  to  left,  and  on  the 
breast  the  badge  of  the  Order,  embroidered  in  gold  and  silver,  with  the 

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motto,  Cfott  und  mein  Recht,  on  the  blue  enamelled  border.  The  order 
confers  personal  nobility. 

The  Order  of  Military  Merit  (pi  Sl,ßg.  11)  was  founded  by  Charles 
Eugene  of  Wirtemberg  in  1759,  and  Reorganized  in  1799,  1S06,  1816,  and 
1818.  It  consists  now  of  Grand  Crosses,  Commendators,  and  Knights. 
The  decoration,  which  is  alike  for  Grand  Crosses  and  Commendators,  bat 
smaller  for  Knights,  consists  of  a  golden,  white  enamelled  cross,  with  a 
central  shield  of  the  same,  having  on  its  face  a  green  laurel  wreath,  with 
the  words  Furchtlos  und  trew  (Fearless  and  faithful)  in  the  blue  border ; 
on  the  reverse  the  king's  cypher  W.,  inclosed  by  a  blue  border  bearing  the 
motto  of  the  face.  Over  the  cross  is  a  double  notched  crown  of  gold. 
The  order  is  worn,  by  Grand  Crosses  and  Commendators,  en  sautoir,  from 
a  dark  blue  silk  ribbon ;  by  the  Knights,  whose  cross  has  no  crown,  at  the 
breast  Grand  Crosses  have  also,  on  the  left  breast,  the  cross  of  the  Order 
embroidered  in  silver,  on  which  the  enamelled  central  shield  of  the  face  is 
found.  For  non-commissioned  officers  and  privates  there  is  a  gold  and 
silver  medal  at  the  same  ribbon. 

The  Military  Decoration,  for  Officers,  Non-commissioned,  and  Privates 
{fig,  12),  was  established  in  1839^  for  officers  of  25,  non-commissioned 
officers  and  privates  of  20  years'  service.  This  decoration  is  an  eight- 
pointed  cross,  whose  central  field  contains  within  a  laurel  wreath  the  letter 
W.  Officers  bear  it  in  gold,  non-commissioned  and  privates  in  silver,  from 
a  deep  red,  blue-bordered  ribbon  1^  inches  wide,  at  the  breast. 

Grrand  Duchy  of  Baden.  Charles  Frederick's  Military  Order  of  Merit 
(figs.  13  and  14),  founded  in  1807,  by  the  Grand  Duke  Charles  Frederick,  has 
three  classes.  Grand  Crosses,  Commanders,  and  Knights.  The  badge  of  the 
Order  is  of  three  different  sizes,  and  consists  of  a  white  enamelled  Maltese 
cross  surrounded  with  a  laurel-wreath,  beneath  a  golden  crown  (fig.  14). 
On  the  face  is  a  red  central  shield,  in  which  is  the  name-cypher  of  the 
founder  in  gold,  surrounded  by  a  blue  ring,  with  the  circumscription,  jP^ 
Badens  Ehre  (For  Baden's  Honor).  The  reverse  has  a  similar  shield 
with  like  border,  upon  which,  in  a  field  of  dead  gold,  is  displayed  a  silver 
griffin  ready  for  fight,  holding  a  shield  with  the  arms  of  Baden  in  the  left, 
and  a  sword  in  the  right  claw.  The  order  is  worn  from  a  red  and  yellow 
striped  ribbon  by  Grand  Crosses,  en  echarpe,  from  left  to  right ;  by  Com- 
manders, en  sautoir,  and  by  Knights,  at  the  breast.  Grand  Crosses  and 
Commanders  (if  generals)  bear  upon  the  breast  a  silver  star  (fig.  13),  with 
four  principal  rays,  and  four  smaller  intermediate  rays,  the  central  shield  of 
which  is  like  that  on  the  reverse  of  the  order. 

The  Military  Merit  Medal  (fig.  15)  was  established  at  the  same  time 
with  the  Order  of  Charles  Frederick,  and  is  designed  for  non-commissioned 
officers  and  privates.  It  displays  on  the  face,  in  gold  or  silver,  an  armed 
griffin,  holding  in  the  left  claw,  a  shiekl  with  the  oblique  bar  of  Baden  and 
a  sword  in  the  right  and  the  circumscription.  Fur  Badens  Ehre ;  on  the 
reverse,  the  inscription  Dem  Tapfem  (To  the  Brave),  and  beneath,  the 
name  of  the  bearer.  The  Medal  is  worn  from  the  narrow  ribbon  of  the 
Charles  Frederick  Order.  The  holders  of  the  silver  medal  have  an  additioft 
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WARFARE  OF  MODERN  TIMES.  97 

of  half,  those  of  a  gold  medal  of  full  pay,  which  after  they  leave  the  service 
remains  to  them  as  a  pension  for  life. 

Electorate  of  Hesse.  The  Military  Merit  Order  {pL  3l,ßg.  16)  was  founded 
in  1720  by  Landgrave  Frederick  II.  and  organized  anew  in  1820.  The  Order 
has  only  one  class.  The  badge  of  the  Order  is  a  gold,  pink  enamelled 
Maltese  cross,  in  the  angles  of  which  are  crowned  lions  of  gold.  The  face 
displays,  in  the  upper  field  of  the  cross,  the  name-cypher  W  K^,  in  gold, 
and  in  the  other  three  fields  the  inscription,  Virtuti,  The  reverse  is 
smooth.  The  cross  is  covered  with  a  royal  crown,  and  is  worn  en  sautoir 
firom  a  sky-blue  ribbon  with  white  pearl  woven  border. 

The  Medal  of  Honor  and  Remembrance  (ßg.  17)  the  Elector  Wilhelm  II. 
instituted  on  the  14th  of  March,  1821,  for  the  warriors  who  had  made  with 
him  the  campaigns  of  1814  and  1815.  This  is,  for  combatants,  of  gun- 
metal,  for  non-combatants,  of  cast  iron.  The  face  bears,  in  a  laurel 
wreath,  the  inscription,  JK".  W,  IL  seinen  tapfem  Hessen  (to  his  brave 
Hessians),  1821,  and  the  reverse,  a  cross  resting  on  an  oak  wreath,  with 
the  circumscription,  Oott  brach  des  Feindes  Macht  und  Hessen  war  befreit 
(God  broke  the  enemy's  strength  and  Hesse  was  freed).  Upon  the  cross 
lies  a  laurel  wreath,  over  wliich  stands  a  knight's  helmet,  and  in  the  wreath 
the  dates  1814,  1815.  Combatants  wear  the  medal  from  a  blue,  red-bordered 
ribbon  li  inches  wide ;  non-combatants  from  a  white  ribbon  red-bordered. 

Ghrnnd  Duchy  of  Hesse.  The  Military  Service  Decoration  {pi  Shßg.  18) 
was  established  on  the  26th  December,  1833,  by  the  Grand  Duke  Louis  II., 
and  consists,  for  oflicers,  of  a  gold,  for  non-commissioned  ofllcers  and  soldiers, 
of  a  silver  cross,  on  the  face  of  which  is  an  L  with  a  crown ;  on  the  reverse, 
the  words,  XXV  Jahre  treuer  Dienste  (25  years  of  faithful  service).  The  cross 
is  worn  at  the  breast,  from  a  crimson  ribbon  with  white  borders.  In  bestow- 
ing it  years  of  campaign  count  double«  For  fifty  years'  service  the  cross 
receives  curved  comers,  a  crown,  and  instead  of  the  XXY  the  figure  L. 

The  Field  Service  Token  (ßg.  10)  was  instituted  14th  June,  1840,  for  all 
those  who  have  made  a  campaign  in  the  Hessian  service,  and  consists  of  a 
bronze  medal,  having  on  its  face  an  L  with  a  crown  and  the  inscription, 
Gestiftet  am  14  Juni,  1840  (Founded  14th  June,  1840) ;  on  the  reverse, 
the  words,  For  treuen  Dienst  im  Kriege  (For  faithful  service  in  war)* 
The  medal  is  worn  from  a  crimson  ribbon  with  white  borders. 

Grand  Duchy  of  Saze-Weimar-Eisenach.  The  Order  of  the  White 
Falcon  {ßg.  22)  was  founded  in  1732  by  Duke  Ernest  Augustus,  as  the 
Order  of  Watchfulness,  and  renewed  in  1815  by  the  Grand  Duke  Charles 
Augustus.  It  consists  of  three  classes.  Grand  Crosses,  25  Commanders, 
and  50  Knights.  The  badge  of  the  Order  is  a  golden,  white  enamelled 
falcon,  upon  a  golden,  green  enamelled  Maltese  cross.  In  the  angles  appear 
four  red  points,  white  enamelled  at  the  ends.  On  the  reverse  the  cross  is 
white,  the  points  green  enamelled.  In  the  centre  is  a  blue  enamelled  shield 
with  the  motto  Vigilando  ascendimus,  bordered  with  a  gold  laurel-wreath, 
with  armatures  for  the  military,  and  covered  by  a  gold  crown.  Above  the  star 
is  a  crown^royal  of  gold.  Grand  Crosses  wear  this  Order  from  a  broad, 
deep  red,  silk  ribbon,  en  echarpe^  from  right  to  left,  and  also  a  silver,  eight* 

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98  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

pointed  star,  on  which  lies  the  green  cross  of  the  order,  with  a  gold  central 
shield  in  which  the  falcon  appears.  The  central  shield  has  a  circular  blue 
border,  with  the  motto,  Vigilando  ascendimus,  ^The  order  has  also  a 
golden  collar,  which  is  composed  of  golden  falcons  and  the  name-cyphers 
E.  A.  and  C.  A.  The  Commanders  wear  the  order  en  sautoir ;  the  Knights 
have  it  smaller  and  from  a  narrow  ribbon  at  the  button-hole. 

Duchy  of  Saxe-Cohurg-Gotha.  The  Order  of  the  Saxe-Ernestine  House 
{fig.  23),  founded  1838  for  Saxe-Cobyrg-Gotha,  Saxe- Altenburg,  and  Saxe- 
Meiningen-Hildburghausen  by  Dukes  Frederick,  Ernest,  and  Bernhard 
Erich  Freund,  as  a  renewal  of  the  Order  of  German  Honesty,  established 
by  Ernest  the  Pious  in  1690,  consists  of  Grand  Crosses,  twelve  Commenda- 
tors  of  the  first  and  eighteen  of  the  second  class,  and  thirty-six  Knights. 
The  badge  of  the  Order  is  a  gold,  white  enamelled  Maltese  cross,  between 
the  arms  of  which  are  golden  lions,  two  marked  with  black  and  two  with 
white.  On  the  face  is  a  round  gold  shield,  with  the  bust  of  Ernest  the 
Pious  in  gold,  and,  in  a  blue  enamelled  margin,  the  inscription,  FideliUr 
et  constanter,  about  which  is  wound  a  green  gold-bound  oak  wreath.  The 
central  shield  of  the  reverse  displays  the  arms  of  the  House  of  Saxe,  border 
and  wreath  as  before,  but  as  inscription,  25  December^  1833.  Above  the 
cross  is  a  gold  crown.  For  foreigners,  the  oak  wreath  is  left  out ;  for  the 
military,  it  becomes  a  laurel  wreath,  and  the  cross  rests  upon  two  crossed 
swords.  For  the  duchy  which  belonged  to  the  founder,  the  upper  arm  of 
the  cross  bears  his  name.  The  order  is  of  three  sizes.  Grand  Crosses  wear 
it  from  a  hand-broad,  red,  green-bordered  ribbon,  en  echarpe,  from  the 
right,  and  with  it  an  embroidered  eight  pointed  star,  the  points  alternately 
of  gold  and  silver,  on  which  lies  the  white  Maltese  cross,  with  a  gold  central 
shield  bearing  the  green  rue-crown.  In  the  blue  border,  about  which  is 
wound  a  green  oak  wreath  (wanting  for  foreigners),  stands  the  device, 
Fideliter  et  constanter.  The  Commendators  wear  the  order  en  sautoir^ 
and  the  first  class  have  also,  on  the  left  breast,  the  cross  from  the  order-star 
of  the  Grand  Crosses.  The  Knights  wear  the  order  from  a  narrow  ribbon 
at  the  breast. 

Duchy  of  Saxe-Altenhurg,  The  Cross  of  Distinction  for  Service  for 
Officers  {pi  SI,  fig.  24)  founded  by  Duke  Joseph  Frederick  Ernest  in  1836 
for  those  officers  who  had  served  the  state  honorably  for  twenty-five  years, 
is  a  silver  cross,  with  gold,  border  and  a  gold  central  shield,  having  on  one 
side  the  cypher  J.  F.  E.  under  a  crown,  on  the  other,  XXV.,  and  is  worn 
from  a  green,  silver-bordered  ribbon,  one  and  a  half  inches  wide,  on  the 
breast. 

The  War  Medal  for  1814  {fig,  25)  was  instituted  by  Duke  Ernest  in 
1816.  The  medal  is  of  silver,  and  has  for  inscription,  Dem  Vertheidiger 
des  Vaterlandes  (To  the  defenders  of  the  fatherland),  1814;  and  the  cir- 
cumscription, Ernst  H.  z.  S.  C.  S.  The  reverse  displays  a  Maltese  cross 
in  an  oak  wreath.     The  ribbon  is  green  and  white  striped. 

Duchy  of  Saxe- Meiningen,     The  War  Medal  for  1814  {fig.  26),  esta- 
olished  by  Duchess  Louise  Eleonora  in  1816,  is  of  silver,  and  displays  on  one 
side  a  Maltese  cross,  surrounded  by  an  oak  wreath,  on  the  other  the 
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WARFARE  OF  MODERN  TIMES.  99 

inscription,  Dem  Vertheidiger  des  Vaterlandes.  1814  ;  and  the  circumscrip- 
tion, Louise  Eleonore  v.  H.  z,  S.  O.  V.  u.  L.  R.,  Obervormunderin  (Chief 
Guardian)  and  Landesregentin  (Regent).  The  ribbon  is  striped  green  and 
white. 

Duchy  of  Saxe-Hildburghausen.  The  War  Medal  for  1814-15  (pi.  31, 
fig,  27),  established  in  1816  by  Duke  Frederick  of  Saxe-Altenburg  for  the 
then  Hildburghausen  troops,  is  in  all  respects  like  the  last  described,  only 
having  the  superscription,  Friedrich  H.  z,  S.  H. 

Duchy  of  Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg.  War  Medal  for  1814-15  (fig,  28), 
established  in  1816  by  Duke  Emilius  Leopold  Aug.  of  Saxe-Gotha- Alten- 
burg :  for  the  privates  of  gun-metal,  for  officers  gilded,  having  on  one  side  the 
Altenburg  rose,  on  the  other  a  prince's  crown,  with  the  circumscription, 
Im  Kampf e  für  das  Recht  (In  Battle  for  the  Right).  On  the  edge  stands, 
Herzogthum  Gotha  und  Altenburg.  MDCCCXIV.  MDCCCXV.  The 
ribbon  is  green,  with  yellow  and  black  border. 

Duchy  of  Brunswick.  The  Order  of  Henry  the  Lion  {fig.  81),  founded 
in  1834  by  Duke  William,  in  memory  of  his  grandfather  Charles  William 
Ferdinand,  consists  of  four  classes :  Grand  Crosses,  Commanders  of  the 
first  and  second  class,  and  Knights.  The  badge  of  the  Order  is  a  golden, 
blue  enamelled  Maltese  cross,  adorned  with  gold  balls  at  the  points,  and 
with  a  red  central  shield.  Upon  the  face  of  the  cross  is  the  helmet  of  the 
Brunswick  escutcheon,  with  its  crest,  so  arranged  that  the  helmet  lies 
upon  the  lower  arm ;  the  crowned  pillar,  with  the  galloping  horse  and  the 
two  sickles,  on  the  central  shield ;  the  peacocks'  tails  on  the  three  remaining 
arms.  In  the  angle  of  the  upper  arm,  between  two  laurel  branches,  is  the 
golden  Lion  of  Brunswick,  under  a  ducal  crown.  In  the  angles  of  the 
cross,  between  the  arms,  is  the  name-cypher,  W.,  surmounted  by  a  crown. 
On  the  reverse  of  the  cross,  in  the  red  central  shield,  stands  the  motto, 
Immota  fides,  in  gold ;  and  in  the  golden  border,  the  date,  MDCCCXXXIV. 
The  order  is  of  three  sizes.  Grand  Crosses  wear  it  en  echarpe,  from  left 
to  right,  from  a  broad,  red,  yellow  bordered  ribbon,  and  with  it  a  star  with 
silver  rays,  on  which  lies  the  golden,  blue  enamelled  cross  of  the  Order, 
having  a  silver  central  shield,  with  the  golden  name-cypher,  W.,  with 
a  crown,  and  bearing  the  motto,  Immota  fides,  in  its  red  edge.  They 
have  also  a  golden  collar,  in  which,  between  two  chains,  the  Brunswick 
escutcheon  (Brunswick  and  Lüneburg),  surrounded  with  standards,  alternates 
between  two  lions  and  a  round  field.  This  field  is  of  silver,  with  the  golden 
name-cypher  W.,  with  the  crown,  and  has  a  red  border,  with  the  inscrip- 
tion, Immota  fides.  Commanders  wear  the  Order  en  sautoir,  and  the  first 
class  have  besides,  the  Maltese  cross  of  the  order  embroidered  in  silver  on 
the  left  breast,  with  the  crowned  name-cypher  in  the  angles,  in  gold,  and  a 
red  central  shield,  bearing  the  motto,  Immota  fides,  and  on  its  golden 
verge,  the  date,  MDCCCXXXIV.  Knights  wear  the  small  cross  at  the 
breast,  from  a  ribbon  one  and  a  half  inches  wide. 

The  Waterioo  Medal  {pi.  SI,  fig.  29')  was  established  in  1818  for  the 
troops  who  had  fought  through  the  campaign  against  France,  by  the  Pro- 
tectoral  (English)  Government.     This  medal  displays  on  one  side  the  bust 

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100  MnJTABT  SCIENOES. 

of  Duke  Frederick  William,  with  the  circumscription»  Friedrich  WiOtelm, 
Herzog  (Duke),  and  on  the  other  the  date,  1815,  in  a  laurel  wreath,  with 
the  circumscription^  Braunschweig  seinen  Kriegern:  Quatrebras  und 
Waterloo  (Brunswick  to  her  brave  Warriors).  The  medal  is  worn  from 
a  bright  yellow  ribbon  with  sky-blue  border.  The  name  and  rank  of  the 
bearer  stand  on  the  edge. 

The  Service- Distinction  Cross  for  Officers  {ßg.  29*).  This  decoration 
for  from  ten  to  twenty-five  years'  service,  was  established  by  Duke  William, 
April  7,  1830.  Officers  who  have  served  twenty^five  years  and  upwards 
received  a  golden,  deep  red  and  black  enamelled  cross,  whose  white 
enamelled  central  shield  bears  on  the  face  a  W,  with  a  crown,  and  on  the 
reverse  the  number  25,  and  which  is  worn  at  the  breast  from  a  royal  blue, 
yellow  bordered  ribbon.  Non-commissioned  officers  and  soldiers  receive 
at  the  same  ribbon,  for  twenty-five  years'  service,  a  silver  cross,  with 
name-cypher  and  number  as  the  preceding,  and  rays  in  the  angles ;  for 
twenty  years'  service,  a  silver  cross  without  rays,  with  cypher  and  the 
number  20 ;  for  fifteen  years'  service,  a  silver  buckle,  with  the  number  15 ; 
for  ten  years'  service,  an  iron,  silver  bordered  buckle,  with  the  number  10. 

Duchy  of  Nassau.  The  Military  Service  Decoration  (ßg.  30)  was 
established  in  1834  by  Duke  William,  and  consists,  for  officers  who  have 
served  twenty-five  years  honorably,  of  a  golden  cross,  which  has  on  the 
face  the  name-cypher  of  the  Duke  in  the  central  field,  and  on  the  arms 
of  the  cross  the  words,  XXV  treue  Dienstjahre ;  on  the  central  field  of 
the  reverse  the  inscription,  25.  Februar,  1884 ;  and  is  worn  at  the  breast 
from  a  sky-blue  ribbon.  Non-commissioned  officers  and  privates  receive 
the  same  cross  in  silver,  but  of  three  classes,  for  twenty-two,  sixteen,  and 
ten  years'  service,  with  corresponding  numbers.  The  first  class  has  the 
ribbon  like  the  officers,  but  for  the  second  it  has  a  border  of  one,  and  for 
the  third,  of  two  golden  yellow  stripes. 

Grand  Duchy  of  Mecklenburg.  The  Military  Service  Cross  (ßg.  32) 
was  established  in  1831  by  the  Grand  Duke  Paul  Frederick  of  Mecklenbui^ 
for  such  of  the  military  as  had  served  faithfully  twenty-five,  twenty,  fifteen, 
and  ten  years.  It  consists  of  a  simple  cross,  which  for  the  first  class  is  of 
silver,  with  a  gold  shield ;  for  the  second,  of  silver ;  for  the  third,  of  bronze, 
with  silver  shield ;  and  for  the  fourth,  entirely  of  bronze.  The  shield  has  on 
one  side  the  name-cypher  P.  F.  M.,  under  a  crown  ;  on  the  other,  the  num- 
ber of  years'  service.  Officers  and  officials  in  that  rank  bear  a  gold  cross, 
hut  all  classes  wear  it  at  the  breast  from  a  crimson  silk  ribbon  with  blue 
and  gold  border. 

Grand  Duchy  of  Oldenburg.  The  Military  Honor  Cross  (ßg.  33)  fw 
twenty-five  years'  service,  was  established  by  the  Grand  Duke  Augustus  on 
the  24th  December,  1838.  For  officers,  it  is  of  gold,  for  non-commissioned 
officers  and  privates  of  silver,  having  in  its  central  field  on  one  side  the 
number  XXV.,  on  the  other  the  letters  P.  F.  A.,  under  a  crown,  and  is 
worn  from  a  crimson  ribbon  with  sky-blue  border.  The  cross  bestows 
increased  pay  and  pension. 

Grand  Duchy  of  AnhaU-Köthen.  The  War  Medal  for  1813-15  (ßg.  34) 
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WARFARE  OF  MODERN  TIMES.  101 

was  established  in  1819  for  those  who  had  fought  through  the  above  men- 
tioned campaigns  in  the  army  of  Köthen  without  reproach.  It  is  of  iron, 
and  has  on  one  side,  over  two  oak  branches,  the  inscription,  Den  Vater- 
landsvertheidigem,  1813, 1814, 1815 ;  and  on  the  other  the  name-cypher  of 
Duke  Louis,  over  two  laurel  branches  and  under  a  crown.  The  numbers 
change  according  to  the  campaigns  made.  The  medal  is  worn  from  a  half 
white  half  leaf  green  ribbon. 

Ducky  of  Anhalt- Dessau.  The  Cross  for  Volunteers  of  1813-^15  (ßg.  35). 
As  early  as  1815,  the  volunteers  of  Anhalt-Dessau  were  permitted  to  wear, 
as  a  distinction,  a  green  ribbon  with  deep  red  and  white  border ;  in  the  year 
1823  a  bronze  cross  was  added  to  this,  having  on  one  side  the  inscription, 
AnhaWs  tapfem  Kriegern  (to  the  brave  warriors  of  Anhalt),  1813,  1815; 
and  on  the  other  a  ducal  crown,  with  the  letters  L.  F.  Franz,  H.  v.  A.  The 
four  quarters  of  a  green  laurel  wreath  lie  between  the  arms  of  the  cross. 

France.  Order  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  (pi.  S2,  fig.  1).  The  first 
institution  of  this  falls  in  the  year  1802  (2d  May),  and  the  order  has 
maintained  itself  through  all  storms  and  revolutions  to  the  present  time, 
but  the  decoration  has  undergone  occasional  changes.  The  number  of 
Grand  Crosses  amounts  to  80,  Grand  Officers  140,  Commanders  400, 
Officers  2000  ;  the  number  of  Knights  is  unlimited.  The  bestowal  of  the 
order  is  restricted  by  very  exact  conditions.  The  badge  of  the  Order  is  a 
white  enamelled,  gold,  five  armed  Maltese  cross,  with  gold  balls  at  the 
points.  In  the  golden  central  field  is  the  bust  of  Henry  IV.  within  a  blue 
border,  the  inscription,  Henri  /F.,  and  two  laurel  twigs.  The  central 
shield  of  the  reverse  displays  a  stand  of  French  colors,  and  in  the  blue 
margin  the  circumscription,  Honneur  et  patrie.  The  cross  lies  on  a  green 
enamelled  wreath,  half  of  laurel,  half  of  oak  leaves,  and  over  it  is  a  crown. 
The  order  is  of  two  sizes  ^  the  smaller  is  for  the  officers  :  the  Knights  have 
a  star,  on  the  central  field  of  which  all  is  of  silver  which  for  the  officers  is 
of  gold.  The  Grand  Crosses  wear  the  order  en  echarpe  from  right  to  left, 
firom  a  broad  red  ribbon,  and  with  it,  on  the  left  breast,  a  silver  embroidered 
star,  which  is  formed  like  the  order,  but  has  a  silver  central  shield  with  the 
gold  bust,  and  a  gold  margin  with  the  inscription,  Honneur  et  patrie. 
Instead  of  wreaths  there  are  stands  of  tricolored  flags  in  the  angles.  The 
Grand  Officers  wear  the  order  en  sautoir,  and  the  star  ;  Commanders,  only 
the  order  en  sautoir ;  Officers  and  Knights,  the  order  at  the  breast. 

The  Cross  of  July  {pi.  32,  ßg.  2)  was  instituted  on  the  30th  December, 
1830,  by  Louis  Philippe,  in  remembrance  of  the  days  of  July.  It  is  a  three- 
armed  silver  Maltese  cross ;  the  round  central  shield  has  three  bands  of 
blue,  white,  and  red  in  succession,  with,  on  one  side,  in  the  red  band,  the 
words,  Patrie  et  liberty,  in  the  blue,  a  gold  field,  with  the  Gallic  cock,  and 
on  the  other  side,  in  the  red  band,  the  words,  DonnS  par  le  Roi  des  Fran- 
gais ;  in  the  blue,  27,  28,  29  Juillet ;  and  in  the  white,  1830.  The  cross  is 
surrounded  by  an  oak  wreath  (green  enamelled),  and  hangs  by  this  from  a 
mural  crown.  The  riband  from  which  the  cross  is  worn  at  the  breast 
is  royal  blue,  with  red  border. 

Kingdom  of  Great  Britain.     The  Order  of  St.  Michael  and  St.  G^eorge. 

ICONOOHAPHIC   EKOTCLOPJIDIA.— VOL.    Ill,  37  677 


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102  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

{fig  8)  was  founded  in  1818,  by  George  IIL,  for  the  Ionian  Islands;  altered 
by  George  IV.  in  1826 ;  and  again  changed  and  enlarged  by  William  IV.  in 
1832.  It  consists  of  three  classes :  fifteen  Grand  Crosses,  twenty  Com- 
manders, twenty-eight  Cavaliers,  natives  of  Great  Britain  or  Ireland, 
Companions.  Yet  this  number  is  not  rigidly  adhered  to.  The  order  con- 
fers personal  nobility.  The  badge  of  the  Order  consists  of  a  seven  armed» 
golden,  white  enamelled  Maltese  cross,  under  a  king's  crown  of  gold ;  for 
clerical  members,  under  a  bishop's  mitre.  The  golden  central  shield 
displays  on  the  face  the  Chevalier  St.  G^eorge  on  horseback  with  the 
Dragon;  on  the  other  side,  the  Archangel  St.  Michael  with  the  Dragon. 
Both  sides  are  surrounded  with  a  blue  enamelled  border,  which  bears  the 
device  of  the  order :  Auspicium  melioris  cBvi.  Grand  Crosses  wear  the 
order  en  echarpe,  from  a  ribbon  of  blue  and  crimson  in  three  equal  stripes, 
and  with  it  a  seven  pointed,  silver  embroidered  star,  like  the  order,  on  the 
breast.  Between  each  two  points  is  a  bundle  of  golden  rays.  In  this  star 
the  seventh  point  is  under.  On  it  lies  a  simple  red,  gold  bordered  cross,  on 
the  central  field  of  which  the  Archangel  Michael  appears,  and  which  is 
surrounded  by  a  blue  border,  containing  the  device  of  the  Order :  Auspicium 
melioris  croL  The  golden  collar  has  in  the  middle  two  lions  of  St.  Mark, 
with  bundles  of  seven  arrows,  and  over  them  the  English  royal  crown ; 
then  follows  on  the  left  the  cypher  ,  S.  M.,  and  on  the  right,  S.  G. ;  then 
on  each  side  a  white  enamelled,  gold  Maltese  cross,  and  next  the  English 
lion.  Above  and  below,  gold  chains  unite  the  different  pieces.  Com- 
manders wear  the  order  en  sauioir,  and  a  recumbent  Maltese  cross  in 
silver,  with  silver  rays  between  the  arms,  on  the  breast.  On  this  star  is  a 
cross  as  on  the  star  of  the  Grand  Crosses.  Chevaliers  wear  the  order  from 
a  narrow  riband  at  the  breast. 

The  Military  Decoration  (pL  32,  fig,  4)  has  various  badges :  for  higher 
officers,  medals ;  then  medals  with  slides,  crosses,  and  crosses  with  slides. 
The  simple  medal  is  for  the  first  battle,  for  the  next  the  slide  is  added. 
After  four  battles  comes  a  golden  cross  (fig.  4),  which  has  in  the  centre 
the  English  lion  over  a  laurel  branch,  and  in  the  four  corners  the  names 
of  the  battles.  To  this  is  added  again  slides  with  the  names  of  new  battles, 
and  England  has  officers  with  the  cross  and  seven  slides.  Medals  and 
crosses  are  worn  from  a  deep  red  riband  with  sky-blue  border, 

Russian  Empire.  The  Royal  Imperial  Order  of  the  White  Eagle  {fig.  5), 
it  is  said,  was  founded  in  1325  by  King  Wladislaus  V.  of  Poland.  King 
Augustus  renewed  it  in  1705.  At  the  partition  of  Poland  in  1795,  it 
seemed  to  expire;  but  when  King  Frederick  Augustus  became  in  1807 
Duke  of  Warsaw,  be  again  renewed  it,  and  subsequently  the  Emperor 
Nicholas  made  it  a  Russian  Order.  The  badge  consists  of  a  golden,  red 
enamelled  Maltese  cross,  with  gold  balls  at  the  points,  on  which  is  displayed 
a  white  enamelled  eagle  with  outspread  wings.  This  cross  lies  upon  a 
golden,  black  enamelled  hexagon,  within  which  is  a  golden  triangle,  whose 
points  touch  the  hexagon.  The  whole  of  this  lies  upon  the  Russian  double- 
headed  black  eagle,  of  gold,  black  enamelled,  and  this  hangs  by  two  chains 
from  the  Russian  imperial  crown.  There  is  only  one  class,  and  the  order  is 
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WARFARE  OF  MODERN  IIMES.  103 

worn  en  echarpe  from  a  broad  sky-blue  riband.  With  this  is  worn  upon 
the  breast  a  golden  eight  pointed  star,  with  a  gold  central  shield,  upon 
which  lies  a  gold  cross  with  wide  red  border.  The  central  shield  has  a 
blue  border,  with  the  inscription,  Pro  fide,  rege  et  lege.  The  members  of 
the  Order  are  named  by  letters  in  the  Emperor's  own  hand. 

The  Royal  Imperial  Military  Service  Decoration  was  founded  by  King 
Stanislaus  Augustus  of  Poland,  but  afterwards,  when  the  king  acceded  to 
the  congregation  of  Targowitz,  suppressed,  and  first  renewed  on  the  26th 
December,  1807,  by  King  Frederick  Augustus  of  Saxony,  Duke  of  War- 
saw, with  all  the  rest  of  the  Polish  orders.  The  Emperor  Alexander  made 
it  the  third  Polish  order.  After  the  Polish  Revolution  it  became  a  Russian 
order,  and  was  divided  into  five  classes,  but  must  no  longer  be  conferred. 
The  badge  of  the  order  for  Grand  Crosses  and  Commanders  is  a  gold,  black 
enamelled  cross,  with  balls  at  the  points,  and  the  silver  inscription,  Virtuti 
militari.  The  gold  central  field  displays,  in  a  green  laurel  wreath,  the 
White  Eagle  of  Poland.  Above  the  cross  is  the  royal  crown.  Grand 
Crosses  wear  the  order,  en  echarpe,  from  a  blue  riband  with  black  border, 
and  with  it  on  the  breast,  an  eight  pointed  silver  star,  bearing  the  cross  of 
the  Order.  Commanders  of  the  first  class  wear  the  order  en  sautoir,  and 
with  the  star,  of  the  second  class  without.  Knights  of  the  first  class  have 
a  small  gold  cross  {pi.  32,  fig.  6),  on  whose  four  arms  stand  the  letters 
S.  A.  R.  P.  (Stan.  Aug.  Rex.  Pol.),  and  in  the  central  field  the  words,  Rex 
et  patria.  The  cross  is  worn  at  the  breast  from  a  narrow  blue  riband  with 
black  borders.     For  Knights  of  the  second  class  the  cross  is  of  silver. 

The  Ottoman  Empire.  The  Order  of  the  Crescent,  founded  in  1799  by 
Sultan  Selim  III.  in  honor  of  the  victory  at  Aboukir,  and  first  conferred  on 
Nelson,  consists  of  three  classes,  and  is  only  given  to  foreigners  for  services 
rendered  to  the  Porte.  The  badge  of  the  Order  is  a  round  gold  medal,  upon 
whose  red  enamelled  central  shield  is  seen  the  Turkish  crescent-moon  and  a 
star  in  diamonds  surrounded  by  rays.  The  reverse  displays,  on  a  like  red 
central  shield,  the  name-cypher  of  Selim  III.  in  gold.  The  order  is  worn  by 
Knights  of  the  first  class  from  a  broad,  red  silk  riband,  en  echarpe,  from 
the  right,  and  with  it,  on  the  left  breast,  an  eight-pointed  star  embroidered 
in  silver  (fig.  7),  upon  which  lies  the  badge  of  the  order,  but  in  oval. 
Knights  of  the  second  class  wear  the  order  en  sautoir ;  of  the  third  class 
at  the  breast,  from  a  narrow  riband,  and  the  moon  and  star  are  of  silver 
only. 

The  Medal  of  Honor  (pL  S2,  fig.  8),  which  Selim  III.  likewise  distributed 
after  the  battle  of  Aboukir,  is  like  the  Order  of  the  Crescent,  but  entirely 
of  gold,  and  worn  from  a  ribbon  of  golden  yellow. 

Kingdom  of  Persia.  The  Order  of  the  Sun- Lion  (fig.  9)  was  founded 
by  Feth  Ali  Schah  in  1808,  after  the  example  of  the  Turkish  Order  of  the 
Crescent,  is  conferred  likewise  on  foreigners,  and  has  two  classes,  Stars 
and  Medals.  The  badge  is  a  golden,  white  enamelled,  six-pointed,  rounded 
star  with  golden  balls,  which  rests  upon  a  green  enamelled  wreath  of  palm 
leaves.  The  central  field  displays  the  rising  sun,  and  on  the  reverse,  a 
couchant  lion.   It  is  worn  from  a  flame-colored  riband  about  the  neck.   The 

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104  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

medal  is  of  gold,  and  displays  only  the  central  field  of  the  star ;  it  is  worn 
at  the  breast. 

Kingdom  of  Spain,  The  Military  Order  of  St.  Ferdinand  (ßg.  10)  was 
established  in  1811  by  the  Cortes-General,  and  renewed  in  1815  by 
Ferdinand  VII.,  in  somewhat  altered  form,  as  Order  of  Military  Merit.  It 
has  five  classes,  which  can  contain  only  officers  of  designated  grades.  The 
insignia  are  a  gold,  white  enamelled,  Maltese  cross  with  gold  balls.  The 
golden  central  field  displays  the  figure  of  St.  Ferdinand  enamelled  in 
colors,  and  the  blue  border  contains  the  words,  ÄI  Merito  Militär,  For 
the  higher  classes  the  cross  has  a  laurel  wreath  in  its  angles,  and  for  the 
two  highest  a  laurel  wreath  above  also.  It  is  worn  from  a  deep  red  riband 
with  gold-yellow  border.  The  Star  of  Grand  Crosses  is  likewise  a  Maltese 
cross,  like  the  order,  but  embroidered  in  gold  and  having  gold  lilies  in  the 
angles.  The  central  field  is  that  of  the  order,  only  rather  larger.  First 
class,  star  and  order  with  two  wreaths,  en  echarpe.  Second  class,  order 
with  two  wreaths,  en  sautoir.  Third  class,  order  with  two  wreaths,  at  the 
breast.  Fourth  class,  order  with  one  wreath,  at  the  breast.  Fifth  class, 
order  without  wreath,  at  the  breast. 

Crosses  of  Honor  for  military  distinction  are  very  numerous.  Fig,  1 1 
shows  that  for  the  battle  of  Talavera  de  la  Reyna,  which  was  established 
by  the  Spanisfi  Council  of  Regency  in  1810.  It  is  a  gold,  white  enamelled, 
Maltese  cross,  with  golden  balls  under  a  royal  crown,  and  bears  the  inscrip- 
tion, Talavera,  28  de  Julio  de  1809.  It  is  worn  from  a  half  black,  half 
deep-red  riband. 

Kingdom  of  Portugal,  The  Order  of  Avis  {pL  S2,fig,  12),  called  formerly 
of  Evora,  was  founded  by  the  first  King  of  Portugal  and  changed  in  1162 
into  an  Order  of  Spiritual  Knighthood,  but  by  Queen  Maria  in  1780  made 
a  secular  Order  of  Military  Merit,  and  has  6  Grand  Crosses,  49  Commanders, 
and  an  unlimited  number  of  Knights.  The  badge  is  a  gold,  bright  green 
enamelled,  lily-cross,  above  which  is  an  eight-pointed  gold  star,  with  golden 
rays  in  the  angles.  On  the  star  is  a  gold  central  shield,  upon  which  lies  a 
red,  blazing  heart,  surrounded  with  a  crown  of  thorns ;  in  the  flames  of  the 
heart  is  a  gold,  black  enamelled  cross.  The  order  is  worn  by  the  Grand 
Crosses  from  a  leaf-green  riband  en  echarpe,  and  with  it,  on  the  breast, 
embroidered  in  silver,  a  sun  with  a  white,  gold-bordered  central  shield,  on 
which  lies  the  green  lily-cross,  but  over  the  shield  the  flaming  heart  with 
the  cross.  Commanders  wear  the  order  en  sautoir,  Knights  smaller,  at  the 
breast. 

Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  The  Order  of  Francis  I.  (ßg.  13)  was 
founded  by  Francis  I.,  the  23d  Sept.  1829.  The  Order  has  three  classes, 
Grand  Crosses,  Commanders,  and  Knights.  The  badge  of  the  Order  is  a 
gold,  white  enamelled,  Maltese  cross  under  a  crown  royal ;  in  the  angles 
of  this  are  four  Bourbon  lilies  in  gold ;  the  golden  central  shield  contains, 
on  the  face,  in  a  green  laurel  wreath,  the  letters  F.  I.  under  a  crown ;  on 
the  reverse,  the  words.  Franc,  I.  instituit,  1829.  The  blue  border  of  the 
central  shield  contains  the  words.  De  rege  optime  merito.  The  order  is 
worn  from  a  deep-red  riband  with  blue  border.  The  Star  of  Grand  Crosses 
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WARFARE  OF  MODERN  TIMES.  105 

is  in  all  respects  like  the  order,  without  the  crown,  and  is  embroidered  in 
silver. 

Kingdom  of  Sardinia.  The  Royal  Military  Order  of  Savoy  (ßg.  14), 
founded  by  King  Victor  Emanuel  in  1815  for  military  only,  has  four  classes. 
Grand  Crosses,  Commendators,  Knights,  and  holders  of  the  silver  cross 
(non-commissioned  officers  and  soldiers).  The  badge  of  the  Order  for  the 
three  first  classes  is  a  golden,  white-enamelled,  St.  Lazarus  cross,  in  the 
angles  of  which  appear  the  arms  of  a  golden,  green  enamelled.  Maltese 
cross  with  balls  at  the  points,  under  a  golden  king's-crown.  Grand  Crosses 
wear  this  from  a  broad,  green  riband,  en  echarpe,  and  with  it  a  silver- 
embroidered,  eight-pointed  star,  adorned  with  the  cross  of  the  Order  without 
the  crown.  Commanders  wear  the  order  en  sautoir :  Knights  at  the  breast. 
The  badge  of  the  Order  for  the  fourth  class  is  wholly  of  silver,  with  gold 
edges,  and  a  rosette  instead  of  the  crown.  The  Military  Medal  established 
by  Charles  Albert  in  1833,  is  given  in  gold  and  silver.  The  face  displays, 
between  two  laurel  branches,  a  round  shield  with  a  cross  and  a  king's  crown 
over  it.  The  circumscription  reads,  Al  valore  militare.  The  reverse 
(/?/.  32,  fig,  15)  contains  between  two  laurel  branches  the  name  of  the 
possessor.     The  medal  is  worn  from  a  blue  silk  riband. 

Papal  States.  The  Order  of  St.  Gregory,  founded  in  1831  by 
Pope  Gregory  XVI.,  has  Grand  Crosses  of  the  first  and  second  class.  Com- 
manders, and  Knights.  The  badge  of  the  Order  is  a  golden,  red  enamelled 
Maltese  cross  with  golden  balls.  The  blue  central  shield  displays  the  golden 
bust  of  St.  Gregory,  and  in  the  golden  border  the  inscription,  S.  Gregorius 
magnus.  Over  the  cross  the  military  have  a  golden  trophy,  civilians  a 
green  oak-branch.  Grand  Crosses  of  the  first  class  wear  the  order  from 
a  red,  yellow  bordered  riband,  en  ecluirpe,  from  the  right,  and  on  the  breast 
an  eight-pointed  star,  silver  embroidered,  with  the  badge  of  the  Order 
(Jig.  16).  Grand  Crosses  of  the  second  class  wear  the  order  en  sautoir 
with  the  star ;  Commanders,  the  order  only,  en  sautoir ;  and  Knights,  the 
order,  at  the  breast,  and  smaller. 

Grand  Duchy  of  Tuscany.  The  Silver  Military  Medal  (fig.  17)  was 
established  in  1815  for  non-commissioned  officers  and  soldiers.  The  face 
contains  the  bust  of  the  Grand  Duke  Ferdinand  III.  with  a  circumscription ; 
the  reverse,  in  a  laurel  wreath,  the  words,  Ai  prodi  e  fedeli  Toscani,  1815. 
It  is  worn  from  a  riband  half  red,  half  white. 

Kingdom  of  Greece.  The  Order  of  the  Redeemer,  founded  by  King  Otho 
in  1883,  has  five  classes  :  12  Grand  Crosses,  20  Grand  Commanders, 
30  Commanders,  120  Knights  of  the  gold,  and  an  unlimited  number  of  the 
silver  cross.  The  badge  of  the  Order  consists  of  a  white  enamelled  Maltese 
cross,  covered  with  the  royal  crown.  The  centre  of  the  cross,  surrounded 
with  a  green  wreath  of  oak  and  laurel,  displays,  in  a  blue  field,  the  Greek 
cross  with  the  Bavarian  centre  shield,  and  in  the  blue  border  the 
words,  •H  AEHIA  20T  XEIP  KTPIE  AEAOHA2TAI  EN  12XTI  (Lord,  thy  right 
hand  is  glorious  in  power).  The  reverse  displays  the  bust  of  the  founder, 
with  the  circumscription  (in  Greek),  Otho,  King  of  Greece.  The  silver 
cross  is  precisely  like  the  gold    in  shape,  but  has    everywhere  silvei 

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106  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

instead  of  gold.  Grand  Crosses  wear  the  order  from  a  broad,  blue,  white 
bordered  riband,  en  echarpe,  from  the  left,  and  on  the  left  breast  a  star 
(pi.  92,  ßg.  18),  which  is  embroidered  with  eight  long  and  forty  short  rays, 
and  upon  which  rests  the  badge  of  the  Order,  so  changed  that  the  motto  is 
not  upon  the  cross  but  on  a  broad  blue  border  around  the  same.  Com- 
manders of  the  first  class  wear  the  order  en  sautoir,  and  a  somewhat 
smaller  cross  on  the  right  breast.  Commanders,  the  cross  alone,  somewhat 
larger  than  the  Knight's  cross,  en  sautoir ;  Knights,  the  cross,  on  the  left 
breast. 

Kingdom  of  Belgium,  The  Order  of  Leopold  (ßg,  19)  was  founded  on 
the  11th  July,  1832,  by  King  Leopold,  and  has  four  classes :  Grand  Crosses, 
Commanders,  Officers,  and  Knights.  The  decoration  is  a  golden,  white 
enamelled  Maltese  cross,  with  balls  at  the  points,  which  are  united  by  an 
oak  and  laurel  wreath.  In  the  centre  is  a  black  enamelled  shield  with  a 
red,  gold-edged  border,  which  contains  on  the  face  the  name-cypher  of  the 
king,  consisting  of  two  L's  and  two  R's,  on  the  reverse  the  Belgian  lion. 
The  face  of  the  border  contains,  the  device  Vunion  fait  la  force ;  the 
reverse  two  laurel  branches.  Over  the  cross  is  a  royal  crown,  and  for 
companions  who  belong  to  the  military  two  crossed  swords  below  this. 
The  riband  is  of  deep  red  silk  and  of  three  widths,  as  the  decoration  is  of 
three  sizes.  The  golden  collar  for  Grand  Crosses  consists  alternately  of  a 
crown  with  the  Belgian  lion  on  each  side,  and  the  double  name-cypher  of  the 
king  between  two  chains.  Grand  Crosses  wear  the  decoration  en  echarpe 
from  the  right,  and  on  the  left  breast  a  silver  eight-pointed  star,  with  the 
central  shield  of  the  decoration  (with  the  lion),  which  for  military  rests 
upon  two  crossed  swords.  Commanders  wear  the  decoration  en  satUoir^ 
and  at  the  same  time  in  silver  and  colors  (for  military  resting  on  two 
crossed  swords),  embroidered  on  the  left  breast.  Officers  and  knights  wear 
the  cross  from  a  narrow  riband  at  the  breast. 

Kingdom  of  Sweden.  The  Seraphim  Order  {ßg.  20)  is  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  King  Magnus  I.  in  1280,  and  was  renewed  by  King  Fre- 
derick I.  in  1748,  and  increased  under  Charles  XIII.  The  Order  has.  only 
one  class,  and  the  candidate  for  it  must  have  received  already  the  Orders  of 
the  Sword,  and  of  the  North  Star.  The  decoration  is  a  golden,  white 
enamelled  Maltese  cross,  with  balls,  under  a  royal  crown.  The  lozenge- 
shaped,  blue  central  shield,  contains  on  the  face  the  letters  I.  H.  S.  {Jesus 
Hominum  Sahator),  over  the  centre  of  which  stands  a  cross,  and  on  the 
reverse  the  words,  Fredericus  rex  Suecice.  The  central  field  is  sur- 
rounded by  four  golden  seraphim  heads  and  four  golden  patriarchs'  crosses. 
The  decoration  is  worn  from  a  broad  blue  riband  en  echarpe  from  the  right. 
With  it,  on  the  left  breast,  a  silver  Maltese  cross,  with  a  round,  blue,  cen- 
tral shield,  which  contains  the  above-mentioned  letters,  &c.,  in  white,  with 
gold  edges,  and  also  three  gold  crowns,  two  above,  one  below,  and  under 
these  three  gold  nails.  On  the  arms  of  the  cross  lie  the  four  silver  patriarchs* 
crosses,  and  between  the  arms  the  four  silver  seraphim  heads.  The  golden 
collar,  for  festal  occasions,  consists  of  gold  seraphim  heads,  and  blue,  gold- 
edged  patriarch  crosses  alternately  between  the  chains.  Grand  officers 
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WARFARE  OF  MODERN  TIMES.  107 

wear  the  order  en  santair  and  the  star.  Lower  officers  the  cross  on  the 
breast.     There  is  a  peculiar  Order  costume  for  ceremony. 

The  Medal  for  Bravery  in  the  Field  {pi.  S2,ßg.  21)  is  of  gold  for  officers, 
for  the  rank  and  file  of  silver,  is  worn  on  the  IsNreast  from  a  yellow,  blue 
bordered  riband,  and  contains  on  the  face,  between  the  laurel  branches,  the 
words.  For  Tapperhet  i  Fait  (For  bravery  in  the  field) ;  and  on  the  reverse, 
also  between  two  laurel  branches,  the  name  of  the  holder  and  the  date  of 
bestowal. 

Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands.  The  Military  Order  of  William  {fig.  22) 
was  founded  by  King  William  in  1815,  and  has  four  classes ;  Grand  Crosses, 
Commanders,  Knights  of  the  third  and  fourth  classes.  The  decoration  is  a 
golden,  white  enamelled  Maltese  cross,  under  a  king's  crown,  in  the  angles 
of  which  lie  four  green  enamelled  laurel  twigs ;  for  grand  crosses  thi?  Mal- 
tese cross  displays  a  blue  central  shield,  in  which,  between  two  golden 
laurel  twigs,  stands  the  letter  W.  For  other  classes,  instead  of  the  central 
shield,  there  is  a  gold,  or  white  enamelled  gold  bordered  fire  steel ;  knights 
of  the  fourth  class,  however,  for  whom  the  cross  and  crown  are  of  silver, 
have  the  blue  central  shield  with  the  name-cypher  upon  the  cross.  On  the 
arms  of  the  cross  stands  the  device,  Voor  Moed  Beleid  Trouw  (For  Cou- 
rage, Conduct,  Truth).  Grand  Crosses  wear  the  decoration  en  echarpe  from 
a  broad,  orange  silk  riband,  with  two  narrow  blue  stripes  at  the  sides,  and 
with  it  on  the  breast  an  eight-pointed  silver  star,  upon  which  is  the  decoration 
of  the  Order  (with  the  gold  fire  steel).  Commanders  wear  the  decoration 
en  sautoir  and  embroidered  on  the  left  breast,  after  fig.  22 ;  knights  of  the 
third  and  fourth  classes  from  a  narrow  riband  at  the  button  hde. 

The  Medal  for  Faithful  Service  {fig.  23)  was  established  by  King  Wil- 
liam in  1825,  for  12  and  24  years'  service,  and  is  worn  in  bronze  and  silver 
from  an  orange  colored  riband.  It  displays  on  one  side  the  Netherlandish 
arms  with  the  inscription,  Voor  trouwen  Dienst^  on  the  other  the  name- 
cypher  W.  on  a  royal  mantle,  under  a  crown. 

Kingdom  of  Denmark.  The  Order  of  the  Elephant  {pt.  ^,fig.  24),  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  of  European  orders,  is  said  to  have  been  founded 
by  King  Canute  VI.  It  was  renewed  by  King  Christian  I.  in  1458.  Ac- 
cording to  the  latest  statutes  of  Christian  V.  of  1693,  there  are,  besides  the 
princes,  only  30  knights.  The  decoration  is  a  white  enamelled  elephant, 
with  gold  tusks,  and  blue,  gold  seamed  housing  and  girths.  Upon  the 
housing  lies  a  cross  of  five  large  table-diamonds ;  the  elephant  carries  a  red 
enamelled  tower,  set  forth  with  brilliants.  The  decoration  is  worn  en 
echarpe  from  the  left,  from  a  broad  sky  blue  riband.  With  it  belongs  a 
silver  star  with  four  long  rays,  four  of  half  the  length  and  thirty-two  short, 
with  a  round,  gold,  central  field,  upon  which  two  laurel  branches  form  a 
silver  wreath,  inclosing  a  red  field  with  a  cross  of  ten  brilliants.  The  golden 
collar,  for  festal  occasions,  consists  of  golden  elephants  with  blue  housings, 
having  the  letter  D,  alternating  with  gold  towers,  between  two  gold  chains. 

The  Danebrog  Order  {pL  31,  figs.  20,  21)  is  said  to  have  originated  as 
early  as  1279 ;  in  1690  it  was  renewed ;  and  made  by  Frederick  VI.,  in 
1808,  an  Order  of  Merit.    The  Order  has  four  classes :  Grand  Command- 

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108  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

ers,  Grand  Crosses,  Commanders  of  the  Order,  and  Knights.  Besides 
these,  there  has  been  since  1809  a  fifth  class,  the  Danebrogsmen,  who  wear 
the  decoration  of  silver  entirely.  This  cross  is  given  even  to  the  knights 
and  higher  classes  of  the  Danebrog  Order  as  a  new  favor,  and  worn  in 
addition  to  the  decoration  of  the  Order.  The  decoration  is  an  oblong,  golden 
white  enamelled  cross,  with  wide  red  border.  In  the  angles  of  the  cross, 
placed  over  the  corner,  are  four  golden  royal  crowns,  and  above  the  cross 
the  golden  name-cypher,  F.  R.  VI.,  surmounted  by  the  royal  crown.  The 
face  bears,  on  the  arms  of  the  cross,  the  inscription.  Chid  og  Kongen  (God 
and  the  King),  and  in  the  centre  a  W  under  a  crown  ;  the  reverse  has  like- 
wise a  W  under  a  crown  in  the  centre,  and  the  dates  1279  on  the  left,  1671 
on  the  right,  and  1808  above.  This  is  the  knight's  cross,  and  is  worn  at  the 
left  breast,  from  a  white  riband  1|  inches  wide,  with  red  borders.  The 
Commanders  of  the  order  wear  the  same  a  little  larger  en  saiUoir.  Grand 
Crosses  have  a  cross  like  that  of  the  knights,  but  without  the  name-cypher 
and  crown,  and  the  white  enamelled  part  is  replaced  by  fourteen  brilliants. 
This  cross  is  worn  en  echarpe  from  a  broad  white  riband  with  red  borders, 
and  with  it  on  the  left  breast  the  decoration  of  the  Order  embroidered,  a 
white,  gold  bordered  cross,  with  the  full  inscription  in  gold,  about  this  a  red 
border,  and  round  that  again  gold  pearls.  Grand  Commanders  wear  the 
insignia  of  the  Order  entirely  in  brilliants  {fig,  21),  the  cross  red,  edged 
with  gold,  bordered,  en  sautoir,  and  on  the  left  breast  a  silver  embroidered 
star  {fig,  20)  bearing  the  decoration  of  the  Order  for  Grand  Crosses. 

Empire  of  Brazil  The  Order  of  the  Southern  Cross  {pi,  32,  fig,  26), 
founded  by  the  Emperor  Don  Pedro  I.  in  1822,  and  for  ladies  also,  has  four 
classes:  Grand  Crosses,  Dignitaries,  Officers,  and  Knights.  The  deco- 
ration of  the  Order  is  a  golden,  white  enamelled,  five  armed  cross,  set  with 
balls  at  the  points,  upon  a  golden,  green  enamelled  laurel  wreath,  the  middle 
point  under,  surmounted  by  the  imperial  crown.  The  golden  central  field 
displays  the  bust  of  Don  Pedro  I.,  and  has  a  blue  border,  with  the  inscrip- 
tion, Petrus  L  Brasilice  imperator.  The  reverse  of  the  central  shield  dis- 
plays four  golden  stars,  and  in  the  blue  border  the  device,  PrcBmium  bene 
merentium.  The  cross  is  of  three  sizes,  and  is  worn  by  Grand  Crosses 
from  a  broad  blue  riband  en  echarpe  from  the  right ;  by  Dignitaries  large  ; 
by  Officers  smaller  en  sautoir ;  and  by  Knights  the  smallest  size,  with  a 
buckle  at  the  breast.  Grand  Crosses,  Dignitaries,  and  Officers  have  besides 
a  gold  five-rayed  star  embroidered  on  the  left  breast,  the  middle  point 
under  and  over  the  star  an  imperial  cro^vn.  Upon  the  blue,  circular,  cen- 
tral shield  are  four  golden  stars,  and  in  the  blue  border  stands  the  device, 
FrcBmium  bene  mererUium, 


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MILITARY  ENGINES.  109 

D.  MILITARY  ENGINES  IN  GENERAL.    PROJECTILES. 

ANTiatJITT. 

Before  gunpowder  was  invented,  and  the  enormous  force  with  which  it 
projects  a  missile  was  known,  no  other  power  was  available,  of  course,  for 
war  machines,  than  that  produced  by  the  immediate  application  of  human 
strength,  increased  in  some  cases  by  the  intervention  of  mechanical  aids. 
These  mechanical  aids  were  chiefly  the  power  of  the  lever  and  of  the 
spring.     In  the  war  engines  of  antiquity  we  have  to  do  with  these  alone. 

The  implements  of  which  the  ancients  made  use  in  war  and  in  sieges 
may  be  most  simply  divided  into :  a,  darting  and  slinging  engines  ;  b,  bat- 
tering engines ;  c,  machines  for  transport ;  and  d,  implements  for  defence. 

a.  Projectile  Engines.  To  these  belong  catapults  and  ballistce,  which 
with  the  ancients  took  the  place  of  artillery.  They  are  divided  into  those 
where  the  power  of  the  spring  and  those  where  the  power  of  the  lever  was 
used.  The  first,  the  catapults,  took  the  place  of  our  cannon  ;  they  served 
to  project  arrows  or  balls  in  a  direct  line  or  with  slight  elevation ;  the 
latter,  with  which  stones  and  fragments  of  rock  were  projected  in  lofty 
curves,  took  the  place  of  our  mortars,  and  were  called  ballist».  The  later 
Roman  authors  have  constantly  confounded  these  two  names,  have  even 
applied  them  both  as  synonymous  with  catapult,  and  given  to  the  ballista 
the  name  of  onager.  By  the  Greeks,  however,  the  distinction  has  always 
been  strictly  maintained.  The  smallest  catapults  were  the  scorpions. 
There  were  field  and  siege  engines,  according  to  their  use,  the  latter  being 
much  the  largest. 

The  bows  of  the  light-armed  troops  led  to  the  construction  of  the  cata- 
pult, which  was  indeed  nothing  else  than  a  bow  on  a  very  large  scale. 
The  lightest  kind  of  catapult  was  the  hand  catapult,  the  scorpion  {pi.  33, 
ßg.  3),  a  bow  upon  a  light  stand,  which  could  be  aimed  high  or  low,  and 
which  was  drawn  at  first  with  the  hand,  afterwards^with  a  winch,  as  the 
string  tightened,  until  it  came  to  the  trigger.  The  field  catapult,  somewhat 
larger,  was  laid  upon  a  trestle  {ßg.  1).  The  bow  was  longer  and  heavier, 
and  the  string  was  stretched  by  the  application  of  a  double  lever,  which 
had  the  form  of  a  X.  The  long  arm  of  this  lever  rested  against  a  fixed 
point,  and  the  shorter  pressed  the  string  back  to  the  trigger,  when  the  long 
arm  was  depressed.  Another  species  of  field  catapult,  which,  however, 
drove  its  arrow  only  a  short  distance  {ßg.  2),  has  no  bow,  but  the  arrow  is 
projected  by  the  strong  blow  of  a  striking  lever,  which  lies  obliquely  at  the 
hinder  end  of  the  catapult.  Siege  catapults  were  designed  either  to  dis- 
charge many  arrows  at  once  during  an  assault  {ßg.  4),  or  to  drive  great  jave- 
lins and  beams  to  a  considerable  distance.  The  first  consisted  of  an  upright 
plank,  with  cross  cuts,  in  which  feathered  arrows  were  laid,  their  points 
resting  upon  movable  supports  at  a  greater  or  less  elevation,  as  desired. 
An  elastic  board,  fastened  below,  and  drawn  back  by  means  of  a  rope  at 
the  top,  struck,  when  let  loose,  against  the  arrows,  and  drove  them  forth. 

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110  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

The  heavy  catapult  {fig.  5)  projected  arrows  of  six  feet  in  length  and  sixty 
pounds'  weight  to  the  distance  of  alhout  four  hundred  paces.  This  catapult 
had  no  proper  bow,  but  two  pieces  of  plank,  a,ay  which  were  inserted 
between  strong  ropes,  c,  c,  in  the  main  frame,  and  those  ropes  so  twisted  by 
means  of  the  racket  wheels,  dyd,  that  the  ends  of  these  planks  pressed 
powerfully  against  the  cushions,  iw,  m.  If  now,  by  means  of  the  windlass,  y, 
and  the  hook  fastened  to  it,  the  bow  string,  which  was  made  of  twisted 
hide,  was  drawn  strongly  backwards,  the  ropes  at  c  c  were  thereby  still 
more  sharply  twisted  together,  and  when  the  string  was  suddenly  let  loose, 
it  drove  the  arrow,  lying  in  its  groove,  r,  r,  with  great  violence  before  it 
Afterwards  the  two  pieces,  a,  a,  were  replaced  by  a  strong  steel  bow.  Of 
the  ballistsB  there  were  also  lighter  kinds  for  field  use,  and  heavier  for  siege 
service.  The  field  ballista  {pi  33,  fig.  6)  was  placed  upon  a  light  car,  and 
consisted  of  a  strong  frame,  having  between  its  uprights  a  twisted  rope,  as 
seen  in  our  common  wood  saw ;  and  in  the  twist  of  this  rope,  as  the  key,  a 
ladle  at  the  end  of  a  strong  handle.  This  ladle  is  drawn  back  by  means  of 
a  rope,  a  stone  laid  in  it,  and  the  draw  then  suddenly  let  go,  when  the 
ladle  strikes  with  violence  against  the  cap  of  the  frame,  and  the  stone  is 
projected  with  great  force  by  the  impulse  it  has  received,  with  so  much  the 
greater,  indeed,  as  the  rope  is  more  strongly  twisted.  Another  kind  of 
field  ballista  is  the  sling  ballista  {fig.  7)  and  {pL  34,  figs.  3,  4).  Beside  a 
groove  made  of  planks  stands  a  post,  upon  which  is  a  cross-beam  with  pins  at 
the  ends  ;  on  these  pins  a  fork  moves,  at  the  ends  of  which  are  fastened  boxes 
loaded  with  weights  or  stones.  The  bow  of  the  fork  bears  a  long  handle, 
reaching  downwards  to  the  groove,  at  the  extremity  of  which  is  attached  an 
ordinary  stone  sling.  When,  by  means  of  a  rope  and  small  winch  on  the 
ground,  the  long  arm  of  the  lever  is  drawn  down  {fig,  3  and  pL  33,  fig.  7) 
and  the  sling  is  loaded,  the  draw  rope  is  let  loose,  and  the  counter  weights, 
which  have  attained  their  highest  elevation,  pull  the  handle  suddenly 
upwards,  and  thus  the  sling  is  discharged  {pi.  34,  fig.  4).  The  heavy 
ballistae  are  like  the  light,  only  much  larger.  PI.  S3,  figs.  8  and  9,  represent 
such  siege  ballistsß.  •  a,  a,  a,  is  the  ground  frame  upon  which  the  uprights, 
B,  B,  are  erected,  on  whose  cap,  at  e,  is  a  projection,  against  which  the 
handle,  c,  of  the  ladle,  s,  strikes  when  it  flies  up,  to  give  the  back  stroke. 
The  handle,  o,  is  twisted  into  a  rope,  which  is  tightened  on  each  side  by 
means  of  the  racket  wheels,  q,  which  are  turned  by  the  racks,  x,  and  heM 
in  place  by  the  stops,  y.  In  order  to  set  the  ballista,  a  rope  is  attached 
just  below  the  ladle,  s,  and  wound  round  the  roller,  t,  which  is  turned  by 
handspikes,  and  held  in  place  by  a  racket  wheel.  As  soon  as  the  ladle  is 
charged,  the  rope  is  let  loose  and  the  ladle  flies  up  (fig.  9).  With  such 
ballistae,  stones  of  from  ten  to  three  hundred  and  sixty  pounds'  weight  were 
hurled.  Archimedes,  indeed,  constructed  ballistae  which  threw  stones  of 
ten  hundredweight ;  quantities  of  heavy  leaden  balls  were  also  discharged 
from  the  ballistae.  A  smaller  ballista  for  fire  balls  is  shown,  pL  34,  fig,  5. 
Fire  arrows  were  shot  by  the  catapult. 

b.  Battering  Engines.     The  most  ancient  and  simplest  wall  breacbers 
are  the  wall  borers,  by  means  of  which  the  joints  of  a  fortress  wall  were 
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MILITARY  ENGINES.  Ill 

penetrated,  and  then  the  stones  broken  out  The  first  borers  consisted 
(pi.  33,  ßg.  11)  of  a  spindle  with  a  sharp  iron  head,  which  was  laid  upon 
trestles  and  turned  by  means  of  a  winch.  Later,  the  borer  was  placed  in  a 
rolling  frame  (ßg,  10),  and  forced  forwards  by  a  screw  against  the  wall. 
These  wall  augers  being  too  slow  and  tedious,  however,  and  their  effects 
too  imperfect,  it  was  soon  found  better  to  crush,  shatter,  and  knock  out  the 
stones,  than  laboriously  to  extricate  them  in  this  manner.  For  this  purpose 
the  ram  was  invented.  The  rams  were  long,  heavy  beams,  frequently  from 
fifty  to  one  hundred  feet  in  length,  which,  at  the  foremost  end,  were 
strongly  plated  with  iron,  this  plating  being  usually  in  the  form  of  a  ram's 
head.  From  this  and  the  butting  motion  of  the  machine  it  received  its 
name.  Yet  there  were  rams  also  which  were  mounted  with  one  or  more 
points.  These  beams  were  suspended  in  equilibrium  from  the  top  of  a 
lofty  frame  by  ropes  {ßg.  12),  brought  up  close  to  the  wall  by  means  of 
rollers  on  the  frame,  and  then,  by  one  or  several  ropes  attached  to  the 
hinder  end,  were  set  into  a  swinging  motion,  and  thus  made  to  strike 
against  the  wall,  which  by  degrees  was  shattered  and  overthrown.  This 
kind  of  machine  was  called  the  swinging  ram,  and  the  simplest  form  is 
shown  in  pi,  S5,ßg.  8.  In  another  form  of  construction  used  when  the  beam 
was  very  long,  it  was  laid  upon  a  carriage  with  numerous  rollers  {pi.  88, 
ßg.  18).  This  carriage  ran  upon  a  frame  constructed  for  that  purpose,  and 
supported  on  a  scaffold,  in  which  frame  it  was  pulled  backwards  and  forwards, 
by  means  of  ropes  from  each  end  passing  over  rollers  at  the  ends  of  the 
frame,  and  thus  the  beam  was  made  to  strike  against  the  wall.  The 
battering-ram  which  Demetrius  Poliorcetes  used  at  the  siege  of  Rhodes  was 
106  feet  long ;  and  Vespasian  had,  in  the  war  against  the  Jews,  a  ram  which, 
though  only  50  feet  long,  was  armed  with  a  mighty  iron  butt  of  twenty- 
five  points,  each  of  which  was  as  thick  as  a  man,  and  two  feet  apart.  The 
counter-weight  at  the  hindmost  end  amounted  to  1075  cwt.,  and  1500  men 
were  required  to  work  this  machine.  For  transportation,  the  rams  were 
loaded  on  small  carriages  (fig.  14),  on  which  also  they  were  sometimes  used 
when  the  walls  were  weak. 

c.  Machines  op  Transport.  In  order  to  bring  troops  upon  the  wall  of 
a  besieged  city,  or  at  least  to  bring  them  on  a  level  with  the  breast-works 
and  thus  render  *an  encounter  with  the  garrison  practicable  before  the  walls 
were  destroyed,  machines  of  transport  were  employed,  of  a  magnitude  such 
as  it  is  now  scarcely  possible  for  us  to  conceive.  To  these  machines  of  trans- 
port belong,  first,  the  draw  basket  (pi.  S5,fig.  10),  which  served  to  convey 
a  larger  or  smaller  number  of  soldiers  upon  the  hostile  wall,  and  thus  perhaps 
enable  them  to  surprise  some  unguarded  place.  For  this  object  a  mast 
was  planted  in  the  ground,  and  at  its  summit  a  cross-beam  suspended  in 
equilibrium,  after  the  manner  of  the  draw-well.  To  the  foremost  end  of 
this  beam  a  large  basket,  or  rather  a  platform  with  a  railing,  was  attached, 
in  which  the  warriors  mounted,  when,  by  drawing  down  the  hinder  end  of 
the  beam,  the  platform  was  elevated  to  the  height  required.  To  bring 
greater  numbers  of  men  upon  a  level  with  the  battlements  of  the  wall,  and 
enable  them  to  mount  thereon,  or  to  fight  with  the  defenders  at  the  same 

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elevation,  movable  towers  were  erected.  Such  movable  towers  were  con- 
structed of  carpenters'  work,  with  steps  on  the  inside,  and  with  a  platform 
and  battlements,  set  upon  rollers  or  wheels,  and  by  means  of  pulleys  and 
windlasses  moved  on  to  the  point  of  attack.  Frequently  these  towers,  when 
they  were  designed  to  effect  the  actual  scaling  of  the  wall  by  the  troops* 
were  provided  with  a  drawbridge,  which  was  let  down  as  soon  as  the 
tower  reached  the  designated  spot,  and  thus  a  passage  was  established  for 
the  troops  from  the  tower  to  the  wall. 

As  to  the  construction  of  these  movable  towers,  it  did  not  differ  greatly 
from  that  of  a  house  with  several  stories,  for  they  consisted  of  several  rows 
of  uprights,  united  by  horizontal  tie-beams,  which  formed  the  stories.  The 
whole  was  made  firm  and  strong,  and  so  bound  together  within,  that  it 
could  not  only  sustain  its  own  weight  and  that  of  the  soldiers,  but  endure 
being  moved  from  place  to  place.  We  can  scarcely  conceive  how  it  was 
possible  to  move  these  enormous  machines  upon  so  few  wheels,  for,  accord- 
ing to  the  testimony  of  ancient  authors,  the  largest  towers  had  not  more 
than  eight  and  the  smaller  only  four  wheels.  The  height  of  the  towers  was 
regulated  according  to  the  wall  which  was  to  be  attained ;  but  there  were 
such  towers  carried,  in  pieces,  with  the  baggage  of  the  army,  and  for  which, 
in  case  their  height  was  deficient,  a  mound  was  thrown  up.  The  smallest 
towers  were  120  feet  in  height,  34  feet  wide,  and  usually  of  10  stories  :  while 
the  largest  were  240  feet  high,  47  feet  wide,  and  had  20  stories.  To  this 
class  belonged  the  tower  of  which  Demetrius  Poliorcetes  made  use  at  the  siege 
of  Rhodes  (pL  B5,ßg,  4),  constructed  by  the  Athenian  architect  Epimachus. 
This  machine  rested  upon  eight  wheels  on  each  side  and  could  be  moved 
from  within,  while  a  separate  body  of  workmen  assisted  on  the  rear  side 
without.  The  wheels  had  all  of  them  trendies  (antistrepta),  so  that  the 
tower  could  be  moved  sideways  and  obliquely.  At  greater  distances  from 
the  wall,  the  towers  were  moved  by  means  of  ropes  and  pulleys  with  wind- 
lasses, as  our  engraving  shows.  Every  story  had  openings  or  windows, 
out  of  which  beams  or  stones  were  shot,  but  these  windows  were  filled  with 
bags  of  skin  stuffed  with  wool  and  only  opened  to  shoot  through  them. 
Frequently  the  towers  were  provided  also  with  exterior  galleries,  for  bow- 
men  and  slingers,  and  on  the  ground-floor,  or  higher,  battering-rams  were 
placed  to  destroy  the  walls  {pL  B5,ßg.  5).  Invariably  the«e  towers  tapered 
off  as  they  went  up,  and  a  drawbridge  was  always  required  to  bring  the 
troops  who  manned  them  upon  the  wall,  as  in^^.  4.  Within  the  tower  was 
usually  a  vat  for  water,  in  order  to  flood  at  once  any  part  which  might 
be  set  on  fire  by  the  fire-missiles  of  the  foe.  Sometimes  the  towers  were 
not  placed  upon  wheels,  but  moved  by  means  of  rollers,  as  that  which  Julius 
Caesar  employed  at  the  siege  of  Namuronum  (Namur).  Usually  the  towers 
were  hung,  from  top  to  bottom,  with  wet  hides,  as  soon  as  they  came 
within  range  of  the  enemy's  missiles,  or  with  covers  of  goats'  hair,  to 
preserve  them  from  fire  and  to  deaden  the  force  of  blows  from  the  hostile 
shot. 

Movable  towers  were  used  in  later  times  also,  and  fig.  6  represents  such 
a  tower  of  the  twelfth  century ;  it  is  surrounded  on  the  summit  by  a 
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breast- work,  the  battlements  of  which  formed  embrasures  for  the  projectiles 
then  in  use,  some  of  which  we  shall  again  refer  to  hereafter.  At  the  siege 
of  Jerusalem  by  the  Crusaders,  the  most  important  results  were  obtained  by 
means  of  these  towers.  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  as  William  of  Tyre  relates, 
had  three  great  movable  towers  built,  whose  front  side,  from  the  first  story 
up,  was  double,  so  that  when  the  tower  reached  the  outer  edge  of  the  ditch, 
this  front  side  formed  a  drawbridge  long  enough  to  reach  across,  was  let 
down  by  ropes,  fell  on  the  hostile  wall,  and  by  its  great  width  enabled 
a  strong  force  to  throw  themselves  upon  the  defenders  of  the  rampart, 
supported  by  those  stationed  upon  the  platform  of  the  tower  (pi.  ZA^fig.  24). 
Only  by  means  of  these  three  toWers  Jerusalem  fell,  on  the  15th  July,  1099, 
after  a  siege  of  one  month,  into  the  hands  of  the  Crusaders. 

d.  Implements  op  Defence.  As  soon  as  it  became  requisite  to  carry  on 
works  of  long  duration,  entrenchments,  &c.,  within  the  range  of  the  enemy's 
missiles,  means  were  sought  to  protect  the  laborers  while  thus  employed. 
The  simplest  defensive  implements  here  were  blinds,  walls  about  six  or 
eight  feet  high  and  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  long.  These  screens  were  either 
straight  or  round.  The  straight  ones  {pL  83,  fig.  17)  consisted  of  two 
frames  of  timber-work,  between  which  bundles  of  twigs  (fascines)  or  sand 
bags  were  placed  ;  they  were  supported  by  trestles  on  rollers,  and  moved 
by  men  or  by  horses  according  to  their  size,  backwards  or  forwards  as  the 
workmen  receded  or  advanced.  The  round  blinds  (Jig.  18)  consisted  also 
of  frames,  but  with  curved  foot  and  cap  pieces,  and  the  field  of  the  frame 
was  set  with  thick  planks  or  logs,  in  firont  of  which,  fenders  of  hide 
stuffed  with  wool  or  sand  were  hung,  rendering  the  enemy's  missiles  inef- 
fectual. These  blinds  were  on  rollers  also,  so  that  they  might  be  moved 
when  necessary. 

To  protect  the  workmen  in  wall-breaching,  so  that  they  should  not  be 
crushed  by  stones  and  beams  hurled  down  upon  them,  the  implements  called 
tortoises  were  employed,  structures  which  were  covered  at  the  sides  and 
top.  For  the  rolling  ram  these  structures  were  simple  sheds  {fig.  15)  stand- 
ing on  rollers,  and  moved  by  the  persons  inside  up  against  the  wall ;  then 
the  frame  for  the  ram  was  laid  upon  the  floor  of  this  shed.  The  tortoise 
for  the  swinging  ram,  however,  was  made  much  higher  in  front  {fi^.  16), 
as  it  had  to  protect  also  the  lofty  firame  from  which  the  ram  was  suspended. 
On  the  front  side,  and  particularly  on  the  roof,  the  tortoise  was  always  hung 
with  skins  and  hair  covers,  and  these  covers  wetted  as  often  as  possible,  to 
render  ineffectual  the  enemy's  efibrts  to  set  the  machines  on  fire.  The 
troops  themselves,  in  the  assault,  formed  also  a  species  of  tortoise,  for  pro- 
tection against  the  stones  and  other  missiles  hurled  firom  above  {pi.  25,  fig.  1 1 ) 
by  holding  their  great  shields  over  their  heads,  in  such  manner  that  the 
edges  overlapped  each  other  some  six  or  eight  inches  or  more,  thus  forming 
a  kind  of  storm-roof,  of  such  strength,  indeed,  that  often  a  second  column, 
and  sometimes  a  third,  was  supported  upon  it,  and  thus  the  wall  or  a  high- 
lying  breach  was  mounted.  Such  tortoises  were  used  also  where  the  ram 
was  applied  in  its  simplest  form  {fig.  8),  hung  merely  firom  a  simple  frame 
which  leaned  against  the  wall. 

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Other  implements,  employed  by  the  besieged  in  defence,  were  those  called 
the  tongs  and  the  crow. 

The  tongs  or  forceps  {fig,  9)  were  double  shears,  which  were  let  down 
from  the  wall  by  a  rope,  and  which  as  soon  as  this  struck  the  ram,  opened 
and  grasped  it,  when  the  head  was  pulled  upwards  and  the  ram  thus  rendered 
useless.  The  simple  crow  was  a  frame,  like  that  for  the  draw-basket  {pL 
35,  fig,  10),  but  having  at  the  point  one  or  more  hooks.  It  stood  upon 
the  terreplein  behind  the  wall,  and  when  the  foe  attacked  it  was  swung 
downwards  into  the  thick  masses,  catching  in  its  hooks  one  or  more  persons, 
who  were  thus  drawn  upwards,  and  either  made  prisoners  or  dashed  to  the 
ground.  The  double  crow  was  a  stand  with  two  arms,  to  which  a  long 
beam  was  attached  horizontally,  so  that  it  could  be  let  down  upon  the  hostile 
ram,  and  thus  by  destroying  its  balance  render  it  ineffectual. 


The  Middle  Ages. 

The  earlier  period  of  the  Middle  Ages,  immediately  following  the  times 
of  Antiquity,  shows  us,  in  general,  the  same  arms  and  implements  then  in 
use  which  we  have  already  described,  yet  we  find  them  constantly  more 
and  more  improved  by  art,  and,  above  all,  rendered  more  movable.  The 
projectile  engines,  in  the  main,  were  the  same;  yet  the  catapults  had 
already  undergone  an  important  alteration  ;  the  wooden  arms,  represented  in 
pL  SSyfig.  baa,  having  been  exchanged  for  steel  (pi.  34, fig.  1),  which  were 
fastened  into  the  frame,  and  by  their  great  spring  power  could  work  more 
effectually  than  the  arms  stretched  by  the  twisted  rope.  These  so-called 
springels  were  afterwards  altered,  by  welding  the  two  spring  arms  into  a 
middle  piece,  and  thus  making  a  complete  bow.  The  setting  was  effected 
by  raising  the  upper  part  of  the  stock,  which  moved  on  a  pivot,  until  the 
lever  of  the  trigger  caught  over  the  string,  when  the  trigger  was  pressed 
down,  and  then  the  stock  depressed  until  it  came  into  its  place,  when  the 
arrow  was  laid  on,  and  discharged  by  loosing  the  trigger-catch.  These 
springels  were  subsequently  made  still  smaller  and  more  portable,  and 
became  the  cross-bow,  of  which  we  have  already  spoken.  A  simple  kind 
of  springel  is  represented  at  fig.  2.  To  a  post  having  notches  on  one  side 
a  brace  is  attached,  resting  in  one  or  the  other  of  the  notches,  and  held 
by  a  pliable  band,  so  that  the  arrow  which  lies  upon  the  post  and  on  this 
brace,  can  have  its  point  depressed  or  elevated  by  setting  the  latter  in 
a  lower  or  higher  notch.  Behind  the  post  a  strong  spring  of  wood  or 
steel  is  fastened,  at  the  bottom,  and  set  by  drawing  the  upper  end  down- 
wards and  backwards  by  means  of  a  winch,  so  that  when  this  upper  end  is 
let  loose,  the  spring  flies  up  and  strikes  with  great  violence  against  the 
arrow,  thus  driving  it  forth.  Such  springels  drive  arrows  of  six  to  eight 
feet  in  length,  and  of  considerable  weight,  to  several  hundred  paces'  dis- 
tance. 

With  the  invention  of  gunpowder  the  whole  warfare  changed,  and  an 
entirely  new  weapon  came  into  use,  the  firearm,  which,  being  ^ective  at 
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great  distances,  very  soon  completely  superseded  all  projectile  engines 
before  employed.  It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  the  firearm 
received  at  once  the  form  in  which  we  find  it  at  present.  At  first  they 
dreaded  the  enormous  force  of  the  powder,  whose  limits  they  knew  not,  and 
believing  it  impossible  that  tubes  so  thin  as  the  barrel  of  a  musket  could 
offer  sufficient  resistance,  they  employed  only  great  pieces,  and  made  these 
of  unwieldy  strength.  After  Berthold  Schwarz  had  observed  accidentally  in 
1280  the  explosive  force  of  powder,  of  which  the  composition  had  been 
made  known  by  Roger  Bacon  as  early  as  1219,  it  soon  began  to  be 
employed  for  military  purposes,  and  already,  in  1328,  they  had  cannon  in 
France.  These  first  cannon  were  called  Bombards  {pL  34,  ßgs.  18,  19), 
or,  when  very  short,  and  with  a  very  wide  mouth,  mortars  {figs.  15,  22). 
Bombards  were  at  first  of  wood,  bound  with  iron  hoops,  and  lay  upon  a 
roller-carriage  {fig.  19) ;  then  they  were  lined  with  iron-plate,  strengthened 
with  bars  of  iron  running  lengthwise  the  barrel,  and  bound  with  iron  hoops. 
But,  as  even  this  could  furnish  no  abiding  resistance  to  the  force  of  the  powder, 
they  constructed  them  entirely  of  forged  iron,  of  cast  iron,  and  at  last  cast 
them  of  bronze.  Gustavus  Adolphus,  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  had  very 
light  pieces  constructed  of  iron  plate,  strengthened  with  bands  and  bound 
with  hoops  of  iron,  and  covered  with  leather,  whence  arose  the  fable  of  the 
king's  leathern  cannon.  Mortars  were  made  at  first  of  wooden  staves,  like 
casks  {ßg.  15),  and  fixed  immovable  upon  the  bed,  as  even  now,  at  sieges, 
stone  mortars  are  made,  by  hooping  casks  with  iron,  burying  them  in  the 
earth,  and  kindling  the  charge  from  the  muzzle.  The  bombards  lay  either 
upon  fixed  beds  {fig.  17),  upon  roller-carriages  {fig.  19),  or,  after  they  were 
made  by  casting,  and  became  less  unwieldy,  upon  a  kind  of  frame  especially 
for  that  purpose,  which  permitted  changes  in  their  elevation  {fig.  18).  All 
these  bombards  or  mortars  shot  only  stone  balls  or  fragments  of  iron,  and 
not  until  the  year  1400  were  iron  balls  used.  Sforza  had,  before  Piacenza, 
in  1447,  three  bombards;  each  of  which  discharged,  in  the  twenty-four 
hours,  sixty  stone  balls,  and  with  which,  in  thirty  days,  he  battered  down 
two  towers  and  the  wall  between  them.  In  the  year  1553,  stone  balls  were 
still  employed.  The  first  bronze  cannon  were  cast  in  1418,  and  they  have 
still,  at  Toulouse,  a  cannon  cast  in  1438,  which  throws  a  seven-pound  ball, 
and  weighs  1,356  pounds  (our  present  six-pounders  weigh,  on  the  average, 
900  pounds).  Cannon  were  made  at  first  disproportionately  strong  at  the 
breech,  as  the  45-pound  battering-gun  represented  on  pi.  S4,fig.  20,  shows. 
Subsequently  the  pieces  were  made  weaker  and  disproportionately  long, 
from  a  belief  that  the  longer  the  gun  the  more  effective  and  certain  was  the 
shot.  About  this  time  also  the  movable  carriage  (the  stock  carriage)  (ßg. 
21)  was  invented,  by  which  the  gun  could  be  aimed  in  any  direction,  and  on 
which  it  could  more  easily  be  served  and  transported.  In  this  manner  a  kind 
of  field-artillery  was  formed,  of  as  small  calibre  even  as  two  pounds,  and 
with  iron  balls ;  while  the  huge  wide-mouthed  cannon,  throwing  stone  balls, 
were  used  for  sieges  as  late  as  the  sixteenth  century.  It  had  been  found 
out  meanwhile  that  for  stone  balls  a  less  charge  was  required,  and  that  this 
was  most  effective  when  closely  confined ;  whereupon,  the  part  in  which  the 

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116  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

charge  was  placed  was  made  of  smaller  diameter  (fig,  16).  From  these 
stone-pieces  was  derived  the  form  of  the  mortar  and  the  chambered  guns  of 
modern  times,  the  ancient  ones  having  in  section  {fig.  22)  a  regularly  curved 
bore,  diminishing  uniformly  from  muzzle  to  breech.  For  bursting  gates,  &c., 
the  petard  was  used  {fig.  23),  as  soon  as  it  was  found  out  that  powder,  when 
exploded,  took  effect  in  all  directions  alike,  and  gave,  therefore,  a  recoil. 
Such  a  petard  consisted  of  a  thick  plank,  the  madrier,  which  was  secured 
fast  to  the  gate  it  was  desired  to  burst,  and  to  this  plank  a  metal  pot,  closed 
on  all  sides  and  very  thick,  was  attached,  and  filled  with  powder ;  a  slow 
match,  communicating  with  this  powder,  gave  time,  during  its  combustion, 
for  the  person  lighting  the  match  to  escape  before  the  explosion,  the  whole 
force  of  which  being  directed  by  the  thick  metal  pot  against  the  gate,  burst 
that  open.     Such  petards  are  still  used. 

After  the  superiority  of  firearms  to  all  other  projectile  engines  came  to  be 
generally  understood,  the  desire  became  active  to  construct  them  of  such 
weight  and  dimensions  that  they  should  be  portable  and  manageable  by  the 
single  individual.  This  was  effected  only  by  degrees,  and  the  first  step  was 
to  make  cannon  of  very  small  proportions  and  very  long,  but  still  requiring 
a  light  carriage ;  these  were  called  wall-pieces  or  culverines  {fig.  6  a).  The 
great  length  of  the  bore  and  the  unwieldiness  of  the  carriage  suggested  the 
idea  of  loading  these  wall-pieces  from  behind.  The  first  contrivance  for 
this  purpose  was  a  breech-plate,  which  was  screwed  on  after  the  charge  was 
inserted  {fig.  6  ft),  and  the  gun  fired  by  means  of  a  red-hot  wire  run  through 
an  orifice  in  this  plate.  This  operation,  however,  consumed  too  much  time; 
the  touch-hole  was  contrived,  and  in  the  breech-plate  itself  a  breech-screw 
was  inserted,  which  could  be  screwed  in  after  the  loading  was  completed 
{fig.  6  d).  Finally  the  tube  and  breech  were  made  of  one  piece,  and  an 
opening  cut  through  the  upper  part  of  the  tube ;  through  this  opening  the 
charge  was  introduced,  and  it  was  then  closed  by  means  of  a  strong  grooved 
iron  plug,  in  which  was  the  touch-hole  {fig.  6  c)  and  the  piece  discharged. 
All  these  contrivances,  however,  accomplished  their  purposes  so  ineflfec- 
tually,  and  were  so  insecure  and  destructible,  that  they  were  soon  laid  aside, 
and  instead  the  piece  made  lighter  and  shorter.  The  first  improvement  in 
this  way  is  the  swivel-gun,  or  field-hackbut  {fig.  7),  which  was  a  kind  of 
light  field-piece,  but  was  principally  used  on  the  walls  of  fortresses,  and  in 
other  permanent  positions.  As  our  representation  shows,  the  stand  was  a 
tripod  which  could  be  raised  or  lowered,  and  on  the  head  of  which  a  fork 
held  the  gun  near  the  centre,  while  its  breech  was  supported  upon  an  arm 
which  was  movable  around  the  tripod,  and  had  at  the  extremity  a  directing 
screw.  The  part  of  the  tube  which  held  the  charge  was  greatly  strength- 
ened to  endure  the  force  of  the  powder,  to  secure  the  gunner,  and  to  throw 
the  whole  power  upon  the  ball.  To  make  the  direction  and  the  aim  more 
certain,  a  sight  was  fixed  upon  this  reinforcement,  which  was  brought  in 
line  with  the  head  on  the  muzzle  and  the  object  to  be  hit. 

The  next  step  in  the  improvement  of  firearms  was  the  removal  of  the 
piece  from  the  fixed  stand,  and  the  first  attempt  of  this  kind  was  the  arque- 
bus {fig.  9).  This  had,  instead  of  the  carriage,  a  rather  massive  stock 
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MnJTARY  ENGINES.  117 

with  a  batt  behind,  by  which  it  was  laid  to  the  shoulder,  and  in  front  an 
off-set,  by  which  it  could  be  caught  against  the  wall  or  a  post,  so  as  to 
break  the  recoil.  The  touch-hole  was  at  the  side,  instead  of  above  as 
before,  and  to  secure  the  priming  from  falling  off  the  pan  was  placed  below 
it.  The  firing  was  effected  by  means  of  a  match.  As,  however,  proper 
supports  were  not  always  to  be  found,  and  it  was  desired  to  render  the  gun 
still  more  portable  and  effective  for  field  service,  the  stock  was  made  yet 
lighter  {fig.  8),  the  butt  more  suitably  formed,  and  the  ramrod  inserted  in 
the  stock.  The  point  of  support  for  this  still  very  heavy  weapon,  was  fur- 
nished by  a  fork  at  the  end  of  a  staff  shod  with  iron,  which  the  musketeer, 
for  these  weapons  were  called  muskets,  always  carried  with  him  and  set  up 
in  the  earth  whenever  he  wished  to  use  his  piece.  The  touch-hole  and 
pan  were  on  the  left  side,  so  that  the  musketeer,  while  he  held  the  weapon 
in  its  rest  against  the  shoulder  with  the  right  hand,  could  fire  it  with  the 
match  held  in  his  left.  The  next  improvement  was  the  invention  of  the 
lock.  The  musket  had  lieen  so  much  lightened  that  the  musketeer  could 
use  it,  held  in  both  hands,  without  the  prop  or  rest  {fig.  10) ;  but  as  he  could 
not  manage  the  match  with  his  left  hand,  since  that  was  required  in  taking 
aim,  it  became  necessary  to  attach  it  to  the  piece  itself.  For  this  purpose 
the  touch-hole  was  brought  once  more  to  the  right  hand  side,  and  a  match 
so  placed  near  it,  that  with  the  right  hand  it  could  be  conveniently  pressed 
down  into  the  pan.  The  most  ancient  match-lock  is  represented  {pi  34, 
fig.  11).  The  match-holder  turned  upon  a  pin  in  the  lock-plate,  and  had 
below  a  prolongation  which  formed  the  trigger,  and  which  when  pressed 
downwards  by  the  thumb  of  the  right  hand  brought  the  match  into  the 
priming.  A  small  spring  pressed  the  match  back  again  when  the  priming 
was  kindled.  Afterwards  the  lock  was  differently  formed  {fig.  12),  a  simple 
slide  being  introduced,  which  caught  on  an  off-set  on  the  match-holder  and 
moved  it  so  as  to  bring  the  match  into  the  priming  or  push  it  back.  Mean- 
while the  match  was  perceived  to  be  very  imperfectly  adapted  to  the  pur- 
pose for  which  it  was  here  employed,  for  if  it  was  not  withdrawn  quick 
enough  after  firing,  or  if  its  position  was  not  exactly  right,  the  blast  of  the 
priming,  with  that  from  the  touch-hole,  would  blow  off  the  coal  and  thus 
extinguish  the  match.  This  difiiculty  led  to  the  invention  of  the  fire-lock. 
The  first  attempt  of  this  kind  was  the  wheel-lock  {fig.  18),  which  was  sug- 
gested  by  the  fact  that  flint  and  steel  struck  rapidly  and  forcibly  tc^ether 
would  give  out  sparks  capable  of  igniting  gunpowder.  A  steel  disk  was 
added  to  the  lock,  which  was  connected  with  a  spring  in  such  a  manner, 
that  when  the  spring  was  set  and  the  tri^er  pressed  the  disk  made  a  sud- 
den and  rapid  revolution ;  a  flint  was  now  applied  by  means  of  an  addition 
for  that  purpose,  the  cock,  so  that  it  could  be  pressed  against  the  steel  disk 
at  pleasure.  The  moment  the  lock  was  set  in  action  the  flint  struck  off 
small  fragments  from  the  iron  disk,  which,  being  heated  red-hot  by  the  fric- 
tion, fell  into  the  priming  and  kindled  it.  An  improvement  on  thb  lock 
was  made  {fig.  14)  by  not  connecting  the  disk  immediately  with  the  spring, 
but  by  means  of  a  chain,  so  that  the  spring  could  open  further,  and  the  disk 
performing  a  whole  instead  of  half  a  revolution,  was  thus  longer  in  contact 

ICOVOORAPHIO  XNCTOLOPiBDIA. — ^VOU  III.  88  593 


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118  MHJTABT  SCSENCOB. 

with  the  flint,  and  thereby  the  firing  rendered  more  oertam.  The  disk 
at  the  same  time  placed  higher,  and  was  thus  less  liable  to  become  foul  from 
the  burning  of  the  powder.  The  cock  also  was  provided  with  a  spring, 
which,  when  the  flint  was  once  brou^t  in  contact  with  the  disk,  kept  it  there 
firmly  during  the  whole  revolution.  The  trigger  was  easily  arranged,  but 
the  disk  was  wound  up  by  a  particular  key  for  that  purpose. 


Modern  Timbb. 

The  more  evident  became  the  great  advantages  to  be  derived  from  the 
use  of  artillery  in  the  field,  and  that  to  employ  it  th^e  efiectually  it  must 
have  the  utmost  possible  lightness  and  mobility,  the  more  entirely  were  the 
former  enormous  calibres  abandoned  (for  the  eariier  cannon  threw  56,  48, 
and  36  pounds  of  iron),  and  a  lighter  artillery  created,  in  which  the  loss  of 
weight  in  the  shot  was  compensated  by  greatelt  rapidity  in  the  shooting. 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  Louis  XIV.,  Frederick  IL,  who  created  the  flying 
artillery ;  Napoleon,  who  by  the  employment  of  artillery  in  lai^  masses 
decided  his  battles ;  are  names  which  designate  whole  epochs,  at  once  in  the 
history  of  war  and  artillery. 

1.  ÄrtüUry  and  Carri€tges, 

At  present  the  artillery  in  common  use  is  composed  of  cannon,  howitzers, 
and  mortars,  which  difier  from  each  other  in  outward  appearance  and  still 
more  in  internal  form.  Cannon  have  a  length  of  from  16  to  20  times  the 
diameter  of  their  ball  or  their  calibre ;  howitzers  are  from  4^  to  6,  and  mor- 
tars from  3  to  4  calibres  in  length.  From  cannon,  balls  are  thrown  in  a 
direction  nearly  horizontal ;  from  howitzers,  shells,  at  a  smaU  angle ;  and 
from  mortars,  bombs,  at  a  great  elevation.  The  internal  form  of  mortars 
and  howitzers  differs  from  that  of  cannon  by  their  being  made  with  a 
chamber,  that  is  a  part  smaller  than  the  bore  of  the  gun,  in  which  the  com- 
paratively small  charge  is  placed  {pi  36,  figs,  19,  20,  24,  26,  28).  In 
modem  times  it  has  been  discovered  that  howitzers  can  be  used  without 
chambers  also  with  equal  eflect.  Particular  kinds  of  gun  are  the  unicorns, 
schuvalofls,  and  carronades,  of  which  we  shall  speak  hereafter. 

a.  Cannon.  Cannon  are  distinguished  from  each  other  by  the  weight  of 
the  ball  which  they  throw,  and  these  are,  1-,  3-,  4-,  6-,  8-,  12-,  and  24- 
pounders.  The  inner  cavity  of  the  gun  (Jig.  \A,ttbcd)  is  called  the  bore, 
and  at  the  part  where  the  charge  rests,  the  base  or  breech  cd^iiys  more  or 
less  rounded.  The  hinder  part  of  the  cylinder,  a  b  c  d,  is  called  the  first  rein- 
force ;  the  middle  part,  c  d  i  f,  which  contains  the  dolphins  and  the  trunnion 
L  t/,  the  second  reinforce ;  e  f  o  h,  the  chase  ;  g  h  i  k,  the  muzde  with  the 
mouth.  The  thickness  of  metal  decreases  from  the  breech  to  the  moutb, 
firom  one  calibre  to  half  a  calibre,  and  this  diminution  is  by  stages ;  each 
reinforce  is  connected  with  the  adjoining  by  some  architectural  member 
which  is  called  a  frieze  (moulding),  and  distinguished  according  to  its 
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MILTTAEY  ENGINEß.  il9 

positicm,  as  a  base  moulding,  &c.  The  form  of  a  truQcated  cone  is  also 
given  to  guns  {ßg,  3).  Behind  the  first  reinforce  the  gun  receives  a  rein- 
forcement which  is  called  the  cascable,  with  its  knob  and  neck,  the  latteir 
serving  to  facilitate  the  handling  of  the  gun.  PL  36  shows  the  different 
cannon  of  the  principal  powers,  arranged  according  to  their  calibres,  and 
the  scale  which  is  annexed  gives  the  me^ns  of  learning  all  the  details  of  the 
ordinary  construction.  Fig.  2  shows  a  Bavarian  3-pounder.  Of  6-poundö^, 
the  Saxon  is  shown  in  fig.  8  ;  the  Prussian,  fig.  4  ;  the  Austrian,  fig.  5 ; 
the  Russian,  fig.  6 ;  the  French,  fig.  1 ;  the  English,  fig.  8.  Fig.  9  is  a 
Spanish  8-pounder ;  ^^.  10,  a  French.  Fig.  11  a  Prussian,  and  fig.  12  an 
Austrian  12-pounder.  .  Fig.  13  a  short  French,  and  fig.  14  a  Russian  24- 
pounder.  And  of  the  balls,  fig.  38  shows  a  24,  fig.  39  a  12^  fig.  40  an  8« 
and^.  41  a  6-pound  ball. 

The  weight  of  guns  is  usually  in  the  proportion  of  150  pounds  to  each 
pound  of  ball  for  light,  and  200  pounds  for  heavy  guns,  with  a  charge  of 
from  7  to  ^  the  weight  of  the  ball.  Field  guns  are  from  16  to  21  calibres 
in  length,  siege  and  garrison  guns  as  much  as  24  calibres. 

Near  the  end  of  the  bore  is  placed  the  vent  (fig.  14/),  sometimes  perpendi- 
cular, sometimes  obliqi^e  to  the  axis.  The  base-astragal  (or  ring)  and  muzzle 
give  the  points  of  direction,  by  means  of  which  the  gun,  which  is  movable 
upon  the  trunnions  in  the  carriage,  can  be  brought  in  line  with  the  object 
aimed  at.  As  the  thickness  of  metal  is  materially  less  at  the  muzzle  than 
at  the  breech,  the  moulding  on  the  muzzle,  or  swell  of  the  muzzle,  is  of  con- 
siderable height,  and  upon  it  a  small  knob  of  metal  (the  dispart)  is  fixed,  in 
line  with  a  notch  cut  in  the  base-ring,  and  at  such  a  level,  that,  when  this 
knob,  the  notch  on  the  ring,  and  the  point  of  aim  are  in  the  same  line,  the 
shot  will,  at  a  certain  known  distance,  800  paces,  for  example,  for  6-pounders, 
exactly  hit  the  point  aimed  at.  For  greater  distances  a  greater  eleva- 
tion must,  of  course,  be  taken,  i.  e.  the  breech-sight  must  be  depressed 
with  respect  to  the  dispart,  the  degrees  of  variance  from  a  due  level 
being  regulated  by  means  of  a  movable  piece  (fig.  32)  set  upon  the 
base-ring.  This  is  cut  qut  at  frc  to  fit  the  ring,  and  pierced  with  holes  at 
every  quarter  of  an  inch.  The  scale  a  d  shows  the  distances  to  which  the 
holes  correspond,  so  that  by  looking  through  the  proper  hole  and  bringing 
the  dispart  (fore  sight)  in  line  with  it  and  the  object,  the  ball  will  strike  at 
the  distance  required.  More  recently  this  hausse  (movable  sight)  has  been 
let  in  to  the  base-ring  {fig.  33)  and  the  breech-sight  set  upon  it,  so  that  by 
sliding  up  the  stem  of  the  hausse  according  to  the  distance,  for  a  6-pounder 
at  1000  paces  one  inch  for  instance,  and  there  clamping  it  by  means  of  a 
screw,  aim  can  be  taken  more  conveniently  than  when  it  merely  stands 
loose  upon  the  base-ring.  The  piece  is  discixarged  by  applying  the  match 
to  the  vent,  yet  fire-locks  have  been  applied  {pi.  S6,fig,  34),  with  cock  a, 
and  battery  ft,  and  in  modem  times  percussion-locks.  Both  are  sprung  by 
means  of  a  cord. 

An  uncommon  species  of  gun  is  shown  at^.  1,  viz.  the  1-pounder  cannon 
of  Bemay,  a  newly  invented  hand-gun  which  requires  no  carriage.  Upon 
a  light  stand)  b,  rests  the  lever,  d  g,  which  serves  for  handling  the  gun 

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120  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

and  is  held  under  the  arm  by  means  of  the  handle,  g.  The  piece  itself  does 
not  weigh  quite  one  cwt.,  and  the  recoil  is  broken  by  the  interposition  of  a 
strong  bent  spring,  like  the  spring  of  a  carriage,  at  rfc,  by  which  the  shock 
is  received  and  paralysed,  while  the  band,  a,  which  connects  the  neck  of  the 
cascable  with  the  lever,  slides  to  and  fro  in  the  slit,  ef.  The  Count  von 
Bäckeburg  had  invented,  indeed,  in  the  preceding  century,  for  the  mountain 
warfare  in  Spain,  a  1 -pounder  cannon,  which  could  be  fired  without  unlim- 
bering  {pi  38,  figs.  4,  5). 

ft.  Howitzers.  Howitzers  are  distinguished  either  by  the  weight  of  a 
stone  ball  which  fills  their  bore,  or  by  the  diameter  of  the  iron  shell  which 
belongs  to  them,  the  howitz,  which  usually,  however^  although  it  is  hollow, 
weighs  as  much  again  as  the  solid  stone  ball.  Thus,  for  example,  a  5^  inch 
howitzer  throws  a  howitz  which  weighs  from  14  to  15  pounds,  and  is  ^ 
inches  in  diameter.  The  solid  stone  ball,  however,  which  would  fill  the 
bore,  weighs  only  7  pounds,  so  that  the  expressions  7-pound  howitzer  and 
5|  inch  howitzer  imply  the  same  thing.  This  double  method  of  nomen- 
clature holds  also  for  mortars,  the  50-pound  mortar,  for  instance,  holding 
a  50-pound  stone  ball,  which  has  a  diameter  of  12  inches,  so  that  a  50-pound 
or  12-inch  mortar  throws  a  bomb  of  about  100  pounds'  weight  of  iron. 

The  external  parts  of  the  howitzer  resemble  those  of  the  cannon  and 
receive  the  same  names,  but  the  bore  has  a  different  form.  This  is  shown 
most  plainly  by  the  dotted  line  in  pi  36,  fig.  24.  As  the  charge  is  very 
small  in  comparison  with  the  size  of  the  shot,  it  has  been  compressed  into  a 
small  space  and  a  chamber  made  for  it  in  the  breech,  terminating  in 
a  hemisphere.  The  forward  part  of  the  bore,  the  chase,  receives  the  shell 
in  loading,  unites  with  the  chamber  by  a  segment  of  a  sphere,  and  is 
called  the  seat  of  the  shell  (kettle).  From  thence  to  the  mouth  the  bore 
is  cylindrical,  and  is  called  the  "vacant  cylinder."  The  chamber  is 
cylindrical,  the  seat  sometimes  conical.  On  the  second  reinforce  are  the 
dolphins  and  trunnions.  The  lengtli  of  the  howitzer  is  determined  by  the 
length  of  the  human  arm,  as  the  charge  and  shell  are  placed  in  the  chamber 
and  seat  by  hand,  and  the  fuse  must  be  adjusted  in  the  same  manner  there. 
Accordingly  the  7-pound  howitzer  is,  in  general,  about  six  calibres,  the 
10-pounder  about  five  and  a  half  calibres  in  length.  As  to  the  weight  of 
the  howitzer,  the  proportion  usually  given  is  50  pounds  of  metal  for  each 
pound  of  iron  in  the  shell,  whence  Üie  7-pound  howitzer  will  weigh  50  times 
15,  or  750  pounds.  PI  36  shows  various  forms  of  howitzer.  Fig,  19  is  a 
Bavarian,  ^^.  20,  an  Austrian,  ^g^.  21,  a  Prussian  7-pound  howitzer ;  fig.  22, 
a  French  6-inch,  ^^.  23,  an  English  5^-inch,  and  fig.  24,  an  English  8-.inch 
howitzer.  jF^g".  37  is  the  section  of  a  shell  or  howitz ;  fig.  36,  a  Paixhans 
howitz ;  and^^.  35,  a  fire-ball.  These  last  are  strong  spherical  frames  with 
iron  ribs,  which  are  filled  with  combustible  matter  and  wrapped  in  tow 
cloth ;  they  serve  to  set  buildings,  &c.,  on  fire  when  thrown  among  them. 
In  order  to  light  up  the  country  at  night,  balls  of  this  kind  are  thrown  filled 
with  clear,  white-burning  light-composition. 

A  particular  species  of  howitzer  is  the  unicorn  (fig.  15),  used  by  the 
Russians,  and  of  various  calibres,  but  mostly  10-  and  20-pounders.  They 
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MILITARY  ENGINES.  121 

have  only  one  dolphin,  whence  their  name.  They  are,  however,  from  ten 
to  eleven  calibres  in  length,  whence  they  shoot  with  more  accuracy  than 
the  others,  and  have  no  cylindrical  chamber,  but  run  conical  from  the 
beginning  of  the  seat.  The  vent  runs  in  obliquely,  and  the  base  mouldings 
are  cut  off  on  the  under  side.  Another  kind  of  howitzer  was  invented  by  the 
Russian  General  Count  Schuvaloff  in  1746,  and  called  from  him  Schuvaloffs, 
of  which  fig.  1Ö  is  the  side  view  and  fig.  17  the  horizontal  section. 
The  bore,  instead  of  a  cylinder,  was  an  oval  with  the  long  axis  hori- 
zontal, and  was  designed  for  giving  a  greater  lateral  spread  to  grape 
shot  than  usual.  They  were  kept  a  secret,  and  were,  therefore,  not 
oval  at  the  muzzle,  but  rounded,  so  as  to  appear  externally  like  any  other 
howitzer.  They  did  not,  however,  produce  the  expected  effects,  and  were 
soon  abandoned.  Other  powers  had  long  howitzers  also,  the  so  called  shell- 
pieces,  as,  for  example,  the  Saxons,  and  these  with  the  Russian  unicorns 
suggested  to  the  French  Colonel  of  Marine  Artillery,  Paixhans,  the  idea  of  his 
bomb-cannon.  This  is  a  kind  of  very  long  howitzer  (fig.  18)  with  conical 
chamber,  which  exists  in  various  calibres  (our  plate  shows  an  8-inch). 
From  these  solid  shot  as  well  as  shells  can  be  fired.  Their  fire  is  more 
certain  than  that  of  the  common  howitzer,  and  their  effect  very  great. 
They  were  first  employed  at  the  siege  of  Antwerp,  where  also  Paixhans' 
great  mortar,  constructed  upon  similar  principles,  was  used. 

c.  Mortars.  Mortars  are  in  all  respects  very  similar  to  howitzers,  save 
that  their  trunnions,  since  they  are  only  designed  to  discharge  shot  at  a  very 
great  elevation,  are  not  in  the  middle,  but  quite  at  the  hinder  end ;  there  are 
some,  indeed,  which  have,  instead  of  trunnions,  only  a  cast  foot,  and  which 
can,  therefore,  be  fired  only  at  one  angle.  Internally  the  mortar  is  divided 
like  the  howitzer,  but  the  chambers  have  many  different  forms.  The  com- 
mon chambers  are  the  cylindrical  {pi.  36,  fig.  25)  and  the  conical  (fig.  29), 
but  there  are  some  pear-shaped,  the  narrowest  part  in  front,  and  some 
spherical.  The  two  last,  however,  being  ineffective,  are  jat  present  very 
rare.  Externally  the  mortar  is  divided  (fig.  30)  into  the  breech  I,  with  the 
trunnions  G  H,  the  reinforce  G  H  E  F,  the  second  reinforce  E  F  C  D,  and 
the  muzzle  A  B  C  D.  On  the  second  reinforce  stand  the  handles  or 
dolphins.  Mortars  are  shorter  than  howitzers,  usually  not  more  than  three 
calibres  long,  in  order  that  the  bomb  may  be  introduced  conveniently. 
The  mortar  of  Paixhans,  however,  was  very  much  longer,  to  give  a  greater 
range.  In  the  weight  of  mortars  the  proportion  is  usually  15  to  20  pounds 
of  metal  in  the  piece  to  each  pound  in  bomb,  so  that  a  80-pound  mortar 
weighs  60  times  15,  or  60  times  20,  t.  e.  900  or  1200  pounds.  Fig.  25  shows 
a  Prussian  50-pound  mortar ;  fig.  26,  an  Austrian  30-pounder ;  fig.  27,  the 
same  after  Vega's  construction,  with  conical  chamber  and  the  trunnions 
a  little  advanced ;  fig,  28,  the  French  10-inch  mortar  ;  fig.  29,  the  Gomer 
mortar  with  flat  conical  chamber  and  trunnions  E  C  on  the  second 
reinforce ;  fig.  80,  an  English  mortar. 

d.  Cannon  and  Howitzer  Carriages.  The  frame  upon  which  the  piece 
is  placed  for  use  and  for  transportation  is  called  its  carriage ;  the  gun  is 
attached  to  it  by  means  of  the  trunnions,  and  it  is  fitted  also  with  all  the 

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122  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

implements  requisite  for  the  service  of  the  piece.  For  cannon  and  howitzers 
the  carriages  have  throughout  the  same  form,  and  consist,  in  most  anmes, 
of  two  cheeks,  A  A  (pL  37,  ßgs.  1,  4),  which  are  formed  partly  in  straight 
and  partly  in  curved  lines,  and  broad  at  the  foremost  end,  the  "  breast,"  and 
growing  narrower  as  they  run  back  terminate  in  a  curve,  the  "  trail,"  so 
that  they  may  glide  more  easily  over  the  ground  in  the  recoil.  Besides  the 
axle-tree,  these  cheeks  are  held  together  by  several  transoms,  of  which  the 
foremost  is  called  the  breast-transom ;  then  comes  the  centre-transom,  and 
last  the  trail-transom,  in  which  is  the  "  pintle-hole"  (fig.  6,  the  dotted  line 
at  b),  and  the  rings,  a  a,  for  the  insertion  of  handspikes,  to  move  and  guide 
the  trail.  Previously  there  had  been  a  fourth  transom,  behind  the  axle,  the 
travelling-transom,  upon  which  the  breech  was  let  down  when  the  piece 
was  being  transported.  The  cheeks  are  plated  all  round  with  iron  bands, 
to  secure  them  from  splitting  and  give  them  more  solidity,  and  through  the 
transoms  run  screw-bolts,  to  keep  the  cheeks  together.  For  the  trunnions 
there  are  iron  trunnion-plates,  which  are  closed  with  iron  trunnion  caps, 
fastened  with  key-bolts.  Between  the  cheeks  is  the  directing  or  elevation 
apparatus,  of  which  we  shall  speak  below.  The  English  at  present,  and  also 
the  French,  have  the  stock-trail,  or  block-carriage.  In  this  the  carriage 
proper  {pi  37,  fig.  18)  is  a  beam,  A,  to  which  in  front  two  short  cheek 
pieces,  B,  are  secured  for  receiving  the  trunnions.  As  the  trail-transom  is 
here  wanting,  and  the  trail  itself  is  very  narrow,  a  strong  iron  ring  is  secured 
to  it  {fig.  1,  B)  through  which  the  pintle-bolt  passes  when  limbered  up. 

Fig.  I  shows  the  side-view,  fig.  4  the  upper-view,  of  a  Bavarian  field- 
piece.  A  is  the  cheeks ;  B  is  the  trail-transom,  which  has  here  no  pintle- 
hole,  but  a  pintle-ring;  C,  the  two  handspikes  for  direction,  which  are 
attached  with  a  hinge,  and  when  not  in  use  turned  back  between  the  cheeks, 
or  else  laid  in  two  rings  for  the  purpose  on  the  transom  {fig'4).  The  ram- 
mer, a,  with  the  sponge,  c,  on  a  staff,  b  {fig.  81);  the  worm,  c,  with  spindle, 
a,  and  screw,  6,  for  drawing  the  charge  {fig.  32)  ;  and  the  "  tire-sabot,"  a, 
with  the  toothed  ladle,  6,  for  adjusting  the  ball  in  the  bore  {fig.  33),  are  all, 
when  not  in  use,  attached  to  the  carriage  by  iron  fittings  for  that  purpose. 
E,  fig>  1,  is  the  elevating-screw;  F,  a  ring  for  hooking  on  the  water  or  tar 
bucket,  and  the  bricoles.  Fig.  6  is  a  Bavarian  seven-pound  howitzer,  with 
cheeks  partly  removed,  A ;  B  is  the  store  bed,  C  the  elevating  screw,  D  the 
centre-transom  with  the  female  screw,  E  hooks  for  implements  and  for  the 
bricoles ;  a  a  rings  for  the  handspikes  {figs.  29,  30  ö,  with  6,  hooks  for  hanging 
them  on  the  cheeks),  the  dotted  lines  near  6  mark  out  the  pintle-hole,  and  at 
one  end  of  the  same  plate  is  a  hook  for  the  bricoles  in  moving  backwards ; 
c,  hooks  for  sponge,  handspikes,  &c. ;  rf,  draw-bolts,  //,  keys  for  the  cap- 
squares.  T^g.  10  is  a  French  twelve-pounder,  with  block-carriage,  newest 
pattern.  A,  trail  block  ;  B,  attached  cheeks ;  C,  implements  of  service ;  D, 
water  bucket ;  E,  locking  plate ;  F,  coiled  prolonge ;  G,  elevating  screw. 
F^g.  18,  French  twenty-four  pounder,  heavy  field  gun,  on  block-carriage  : 
A,  trail  block ;  B,  cheeks ;  C,  elevating-screw ;  D,  lifting-bar,  for  limbering 
up ;  E,  drag-chain. 

Between  the  cheeks,  or  on  the  axle-tree  of  the  field-carriage,  is  placed  a 
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MUITART  ENQINEa  123 

small  chest  for  implements  and  a  ftw  rounds  of  fixed  ammunition,  ball  and 
grape.  Garrison  carriages  are  not  designed  to  be  moved  any  great  distance; 
they  can  be,  therefore,  and  for  heavy  calibres  of  garrison  guns  must  be,  very 
much  stronger  and  heavier.  For  the  same  reason  they  require  either  no 
wheels  at  all  or  very  small  ones.  The  simplest  garrison  carriage  is  the 
rampart-carriage  of  Gribeauval  {pL  88,  ßg.  1).  It  consists  of  two  strong 
cheeks  connected  by  the  bolts  q,  d,  A,  and  can  be  moved  backwards  and 
forwards  on  the  platform,  on  the  block- wheels  r  9,  by  handspikes  in  the 
rings  and  hooks,  A,  Z.  These  carriages  are  so  low  that  the  piece  on  its 
trunnions  only  just  clears  the  sole  of  the  embrasure.  To  fire  ''  en  bachette/' 
however  (that  is  over  the  crest  of  the  rampart,  without  embrasures,  so  that 
the  piece  ranges  freely  in  all  directions  over  the  superior  slope),  a  higher 
carriage  is  used,  the  travelling  garrison-carriage  of  Gribeauval  {fl.  37,  jig. 
11,  is  the  side-view,  fig.  12,  the  rear  view,  and  jig.  13  is  the  carriage  placed 
upon  the  platform- wagon  for  transportation).  A  is  the  cheeks,  made  up  of 
the  three  blocks  ahc,  scarped  together  and  connected  by  bolts  and  tran- 
soms ;  B,  the  elevating  screw ;  C,  a  support  in  which  the  block- wheel,  D, 
runs  upon  a  separate  beam,  H,  of  the  chassis  I,  its  track  sloping  upwards  as 
it  gives  back,  to  diminish  the  recoil ;  E  is  a  bar  for  moving  the  piece  back- 
wards and  forwards ;  K,  the  fore  wheels,  with  thick  tires,  G,  and  the  axle  Q. 
For  transportation,  a  long  beam,  L,  with  a  pintle-hole,  is  inserted  into  the 
carriage  and  put  over  the  pintle-bolt,  M,  of  the  limber,  O,  of  the  platform- 
wagon,  so  that  the  wheels,  P,  make  the  fore  wheels  of  the  carriage.  The 
chassis  upon  which  the  carriage  runs  behind  the  embrasure  consists  of  two 
side-sills,  two  head-sills,  and  a  middle-sill,  H,  for  the  truck- wheel,  D ;  it  is 
moved  from  one  side  to  the  other  on  the  platform,  as  the  direction  requires. 
Of  similar  construction  is  the  French  iron  coast-carriage  (Jig,  16).  Foi 
this  there  lies,  behind  the  breastwork,  a  small  platform,  A  B,  upon  which  in 
rear  is  the  curved  piece  C,  for  the  truck- wheel,  G,  to  traverse  on,  and  in 
front  a  broad  sill,  D,  for  the  fore  wheel,  M.  The  traversing  platform  (chas- 
sis), E,  revolves  around  a  bolt  in  the  front  part  of  the  {datform,  A.  This 
traversing  platform  has  a  groove  on  each  side  in  front,  in  which  the  cheeks 
of  the  carriage  proper  can  slide  back  for  the  recoil ;  it  is  itself  made  to  tra- 
verse by  means  of  the  beam,  F.  The  carriage  consists  of  the  u[Hrights,  H, 
which  are  united  to  the  bed,  K,  by  means  of  the  brace,  I,  and  which  sup- 
port the  trunnion  beds.  L  is  the  elevating-screw.  Another  garrison-carriage 
for  use  in  casemates  is  the  invention  of  Montalembert  {Jig.  14,  side,  fig.  15, 
upper  view).  The  chassis,  A,  is  higher  behind  to  check  the  recoil,  and  tra- 
verses upon  a  circular  platform  by  means  of  the  truck-wheel,  B,  and  upon 
the  sleeper,  E,  by  means  of  the  lever,  I ;  the  low  cheeks,  D,  run  by  means 
of  the  truck-wheels,  C,  and  a  small  wheel  lying  under  the  beam,  6,  back- 
wards and  forwards  upon  the  chassis,  A  ;  H  is  a  transom  near  the  wedge 
of  the  elevating-screw.  The  truck- wheel,  C,  is  shown  in/>/.  2n,fig.  21,  and 
it  is  seen  in  what  manner  it  is  made  up  of  six  wedges,  a,  held  together  by 
the  tire,  ft ;  at  c  is  a  racket- wheel,  which  is  caught  by  a  panel  on  the  car- 
riage, so  that,  after  recoiling,  the  piece  is  kept  stationary  until  it  can  be 
loaded.     For  the  service  of  the  piece  the  rampart  sponge  and  the  rammer, 

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124  MTLITARY  SCIENCES. 

with  a  handle  bent  backwards  {fig,  34  d),  and  connected  with  the  staff  by 
the  mounting,  c,  are  employed.  For  fortifications  where  it  is  necessary  to 
fire  downwards,  as  in  Gibraltar  for  instance,  the  depression  carriage  of 
Köhler  is  employed  (pi.  38,  fig,  2,  side  view,  fig,  8,  from  above).  Upon  the 
platform,//,  which  can  be  moved  sideways  by  means  of  rollers,  A,  runs,  on 
four  wheels,  g  g,  the  carriage  proper,  whose  lower  frame  is  bevelled  off  in 
front,  and  has  two  arches,  i,  in  rear,  by  means  of  which  the  upper  frame,  ee, 
which  is  also  bevelled  off  in  front  at  d,  can  be  set  at  any  angle.  Upon  the 
upper  frame  lie  the  cheeks,  ab  I,  on  which  the  piece,  c,  rests  upon  its  tnm- 
nions,  and  which  are  bound  together  by  two  cross-pieces  and  bolts  into  a 
frame ;  the  whole  is  of  iron. 

A  peculiar  carriage  was  invented  by  Count  von  Bückeburg  already  men- 
tioned, for  the  one-pound  amusette,  which  can  be  fired  from  without  unlim- 
bering  (fig.  4,  side  view,  fig,  5,  view  from  above).  Upon  the  high  edges  rest 
the  two  beams,  a  b,  bound  together  into  a  frame,  between  which  are  the 
bench,  c,  and  stand,  d,  for  the  artillerists,  and  upon  which  the  platform,  ef, 
lies.  Upon  this  are  the  low  cheeks,  g  A,  with  the  transoms,  i  and  n ;  on 
these  cheeks  the  trunnions  rest.  Upon  the  front  carriage,  o,  which  is  a 
limber  with  a  pintle  for  the  pintle-ring  on  the  lower  frame,  stands  an  ammu- 
nition chest,  n. 

e.  Mortar  Carriaob  or  Bed.  For  mortars  which  have  their  trunnions 
on  the  second  reinforce,  the  so  called  hanging  mortars,  the  carriage  con- 
gists  of  two  cheeks  connected  together  by  bolts  and  transoms.  After  the 
inefficiency  of  this  construction  was  perceived  in  various  armies,  and 
instead  of  the  hanging,  the  standing  mortar  was  introduced,  the  carriage 
consisted  only  of  a  short  massive  block  of  oak  wood,  or  of  two  or  three 
very  thick  oak  planks,  screwed  together  by  means  of  strong  iron  bolts 
passing  through  them  and  secured  by  surrounding  bands.  Upon  this  bed 
is  hollowed  out  the  place  for  trunnion  beds  and  for  the  foot  of  the  mortar. 
PI,  87,  fig,  8,  is  a  Prussian  50-pound  mortar  upon  its  bed.  A,  which  is  com- 
posed of  two  very  thick  planks  and  three  very  short  transoms.  Besides  the 
two  bolts,  aa,  the  four  bolts  which  pass  through  the  iron  band  serve  to 
hold  the  bed  together.  The  lower  corners  of  the  bed  are  notched  in  and 
rounded,  to  permit  of  handspikes  being  thrust  under  for  moving  it  upon  the 
platform,  and  there  are  also  hooks,  bb,  to  be  made  use  of  in  curving  the  bed 
sideways,  or  to  secure  it  in  transportation  ;  B,  are  the  trunnion  plates  and 
cap  squares,  which  are  fastened  round  the  trunnions  by  key  bolts ;  c  and  d 
are  quoins  for  elevating  the  mortar.  Fig,  17  is  a  French  mortar  on  its 
bed,  which  consists  of  two  thick  cheeks  of  cast  iron.  A,  set  upon  the  wooden 
sleepers,  B,  and  firmly  united  by  means  of  transoms  and  bolts ;  the  pins, 
aa,  of  which  there  are  four,  are  employed  in  giving  the  direction  and 
securing  the  mortar  ;  B  are  the  cap  squares,  and  C  is  the  quoin.  Fig,  7  is 
the  side  view  of  an  Austrian  80-pound  mortar,  after  Vega's  construction : 
A  is  a  bed  composed  of  three  oak  blocks  united  by  screw  bolts,  and  having 
iron  studs  at  the  angles  for  giving  the  direction  and  moving  the  piece. 
Upon  this  bed,  two  low  iron  cheeks,  B,  are  fastened  by  means  of  bolts,  and 
form  the  trunnion  beds,  which  are  closed  by  the  cap  squares,  F.  On  the 
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MILITARY  ENGINES.  126 

trunnion,  D,  of  the  mortar,  an  index  is  fixed,  which  shows,  upon  a  circular 
scale  attached  to  the  bed,  the  angle  of  elevation;  a,  is  the  pivot  bolt  for  the 
stool  bed,  b ;  and  c,  the  dir.ecting  screw,  the  head  of  which  fits  into  the  stool 
bed,  6,  while  the  female  screw  in  which  it  plays  lies  in  a  movable  transom 
between  the  low  cheeks.  Fig.  22  is  a  side  view  of  the  stool  bed  :  a,  is  the 
socket  for  the  spherical  head  of  the  directing  screw ;  h,  the  cushion  for  the 
mortars ;  and  c,  the  hole  for  the  pivot  bolt. 

A  peculiar  kind  of  mortar  bed  is  that  for  the  sea  mortar  {pi,  88,  fig.  6, 
side  view ;  fig.  7,  upper  view ;  fig.  8,  cross  section  on  the  half  scale).  These 
beds  are  composed  of  two  layers  of  oak  beams,  jf)f  and  ee^  each  pair  breaking 
joints  and  bound  together  with  the  belts,  gh  and  i.  The  studs,  ff  (fig.  7), 
serve  for  giving  the  side  direction.  Upon  this  bed  lies  the  iron  sole  plate» 
which,  by  means  of  screw  bolts  through  the  disk,  x,  and  by  the  screws  of 
the  rings,  ekno  (which  are  for  securing  the  mortar  by  ropes),  is  fastened  to 
the  bed  proper.  In  this  sole  plate  the  trunnion  beds  are  sunk,  and  the  cap 
squares,  m,  secured  upon  them  by  key  bolts.  The  sole  plate  and  bed  are 
hollowed  out  at  t,  for  the  mortar  and  quoin.  The  whole  bed  stands,  by 
means  of  a  groove,  upon  the  circular  iron  platform,  aft,  and  is  so  connected 
with  this  by  the  pivot  bolts,  d  (figs.  7  and  9),  that  both  can  revolve  around 
it  for  the  side  direction.  The  pivot  bolt  is  secured  into  one  of  the  beams 
of  the  ship. 

/.  The  Elevating  Screw.  With  cannon  and  howitzers,  the  muzzle 
must  be  movable  through  a  curve  of  ten  or  fifteen  degrees,  in  order  to  give 
the  necessary  elevation  or  depression  for  the  aim ;  for  mortars,  the  eleva- 
tion  amounts  even  to  sixty  degrees.  To  effect  these  movemtots  with  the 
requisite  accuracy  and  rapidity,  the  elevating  screw  is  employed.  The 
most  simple  means  of  accomplishing  the  purpose  is  by  the  quoin  or  wedge, 
which  was  formerly  used  for  cannon  and  howitzers  by  moving  it  in  or  out 
under  the  base-ring.  At  present  this  is  used  only  for  mortars  (pi.  37,  fig.  8), 
and  for  them  three  are  employed.  Under  15**  elevation,  the  mortar  lies 
upon  the  bed  ;  the  first  quoin  gives  25^,  the  second,  80^,  and  thus  with  the 
third  45**  or  60°  can  be  given.  The  screw  quoin  is  better,  indeed,  as  it 
admits  of  more  accuracy  in  the  elevation;  but  this,  on  account  of  its  slaw- 
ness,  is  used  only  for  garrison  pieces.  Fig.  25  shows  the  section  of  such  a 
quoin :  a,  is  the  wedge  upon  which  the  base-ring  rests ;  6,  is  the  stool  bed 
lying  between  the  bed  cheeks,  upon  a  groove  in  which  the  wedge  moves  by 
means  of  the  screw,  d,  which  works  in  the  female  screw,  c,  firmly  fixed  in 
the  stool  bed.  The  quoin  of  the  Montalembert  carriage  is  similar  to  this» 
save  that  the  screw  in  it  is  fixed  and  the  female  screw  set  in  the  wedge» 
which  is  thus  moved  to  and  fro  by  turning  the  screw  (fig.  26,  side  view  of 
this  quoin  ;  fig.  27,  longitudinal  section ;  fig.  28,  firont  view).  A,  is  the 
quoin ;  B,  the  screw,  which  is  turned  by  the  winch,  C ;  to  the  quoin  the 
plate,  D,  is  fastened,  which  holds  the  thread  of  the  female  screw,  and  is 
opened  when  the  screw  is  to  be  taken  out.  Another  kind  of  elevating 
apparatus  is  that  with  a  windlass  (fig.  20),  which  was  used  for  the  Saxon 
park  cannon.  The  stool  bed,  B,  which  moves  between  the  carriage  cheeks, 
AA»  has  two  wings»  aa,  in  front»  by  which  it  is  attached  to  the  trunnions» 

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126  MILITABT  SGIENCES. 

and  behind,  running  downwards,  two  studs,  to  whieh  the  chains,  DD,  are 
made  fast,  which,  by  turning  the  winch,  E,  are  wound  upon  the  roller,  C, 
just  in  front  of  the  middle  transom,  F,  and  thus  the  stool  bed  with  the 
breech  of  the  piece  resting  upon  it,  is  either  raised  or  lowered.  Instead  of 
the  studs,  curved  racks  have  been  used,  and  pinions  placed  on  the  axle,  C, 
thus  avoiding  the  use  of  the  chains.  On  the  windlass  there  is  always  a 
racket  wheel  and  parol  to  hold  the  direction. 

The  best  and  simplest  elevating  apparatus  is  the  elevating  screw  (pi.  37, 
fig.  23).  The  stool  bed  revolves  upon  bolts  in  the  carriage  at  g,  and  has 
beneath  an  iron  groove  plate,  e,  under  which  the  screw  head,  d,  catches. 
This  screw  is  turned  by  the  wrench,  bb,  and  works  in  the  female  screw,  a, 
which  is  placed  in  an  iron  transom  for  that  purpose,  revolving  on  sockets  in 
the  carriage  cheeks  (fig,  24).  Fig.  6  shows  clearly  the  whole  arrange- 
ment. A  variety  of  this  apparatus  is  where  the  female  screw  has  arms 
and  lies  loose  upon  the  pierced  transom ;  in  this  case  the  nut  is« turned» 
while  in  the  other  it  is  the  screw.  The  elevating  screw  of  the  Bavarian 
8-pounder  (figs.  1  and  5)  is  similarly  constructed,  but  has  no  stool  bed  (as 
indeed  is  the  case  at  present  with  the  French  artillery) ;  the  head  of  the 
screw  passes  through  the  knob  of  the  cascable,  and  is  turned  by  the 
winch,  a ;  the  female  screw  is  at  &,  and  movable  upon  the  carriage  cheeks. 

g.  The  Limber.  To  move  a  piece  of  artillery  from  one  place  to  another, 
two  more  wheels  must  be  added  to  the  two  upon  which  it  stands.  This  is 
done  by  means  of  the  limber  or  front  carriage.  There  are  limbers  without, 
and  limbers  with  boxes.  The  first  consists  only  of  an  axle,  upon  which 
lies  a  bolstef,  bearing  a  pintle  bolt  (fig.  13  mno),  over  which  tl^e  trail  of 
the  piece  is  hung.  In  front  is  the  pole  with  its  parts.  Limbers  wi^  boxes 
serve  for  the  transportation  at  the  same  time  of  the  most  necessary  muni- 
tions and  of  some  of  the  gunners.  In  general,  the  limber  forms  a  common 
fore  carriage,  with  all  its  parts,  on  which  stands  in  rear  a  bolster  with  the 
pintle  bolt,  and  in  front,  upon  the  axle,  the  limber  box.  In  the  position  of 
the  pintle  bolt  there  are  some  variations.  In  the  Prussian  artillery  and 
several  others,  the  pintle  is  a  straight  conical  bolt,  and  the  pintle  hole  larger 
above  than  below.  In  pieces  on  the  plan  of  the  Bavarian  Col  Zoller 
(pi.  38,  centre  figure),  the  pintle  is  the  same,  but  the  sweep  bar  of  the 
limber  falls  away,  and  the  pintle  hole  is  peculiarly  constructed,  so  as  to  give 
the  greatest  freedom  of  motion  in  the  junction  of  the  limber  and  carriage 
for  overcoming  difiUculties  of  ground.  For  pieces  with  the  block  carriage, 
instead  of  the  pintle  hole  a  hook  is  requisite  (pi.  37,  fig.  19  a),  in  which 
the  ring  of  the  trail  is  hung.  With  respect  to  the  limber  box,  there  are 
also  great  difierences,  as  we  shall  see  in  the  descriptions  of  single  limbers. 
Fig.  2  shows  the  limber  of  a  Bavarian  3-pounder  from  the  side,  and  fig.  3, 
from  the  rear :  E,  is  the  perch  with  the  sweep  bar,  bb,  and  the  shaft, 
between  the  arms  of  which  lies  the  pole ;  A  is  the  axle-tree  body,  with  the 
two  wooden  arms,  BB,  which  at  aa  are  cased  with  iron,  and  on  which  ran 
the  wheels,  G ;  6  is  the  pintle,  over  which  the  ring,  B,  of  the  carriage  is 
hung  (fig.  1).  Upon  the  axle  and  the  shaft  stands  the  limber  box,  F,  which 
at  D  is  cushioned,  and  forms  a  seat  for  two  artillerists,  for  whom  a  bac^ 
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MILITARY  ENGINES.  127 

and  arms,  dd,  are  attached  to  the  supports,  cc.  The  casihioned  seat  is  at  the 
same  time  the  cover  of  the  limber  box,  in  which  the  most  necessary  muni- 
tions are  carried  ;  at  C  stands  another  box  for  implements.  The  English 
limber  {fig.  19)  has  no  sweep  bar,  and  the  pintle  hook,  a,  is  on  the  axle*tree 
bed.  The  axle,  DD,  is  of  iron,  and  the  wheels,  CC,  are  as  high  as  those  of 
the  carriage  (5  feet).  Instead  of  one  large  limber  box  there  are  here  two 
smaller  ones,  AA,  which  are  not  screwed  down  upon  the  bed,  but  only 
lashed  to  it  firmly,  whereby  great  facility  is  given  for  the  renewal  of  muni- 
tions. PI,  36,  fig,  31,  shows  an  English  6-pounder  field-piece,  limbered  up 
and  completely  equipped.  The  gun  boxes  stand  here  upon  the  axle-tree 
of  the  piece.  The  French  limber  {ph  BS,  fig,  10)  has  likewise  for  block  car- 
riages no  sweep  bar,  but  only  a  pintle  hook,  otherwise  a  limber  bolster  and 
pintle  bolt.  The  limber  box  occupies  the  whole  breadth  between  the 
wheels,  and  has  high  handles  at  each  end,  which  serve  also  for  the  artil- 
lerists  to  hold  on  by. 

A.  Wagons.  For  the  transportation  of  mortars  and  24-pound  guns,  as 
these  cannot  be  transported  upon  their  carriages,  the  gun-wt^n  (chariot 
äport  corps)  is  employed.  For  cannon  these  have  only  three  sleepers  on 
the  frame,  under  the  muzzle,  trunnions,  and  breech,  the  middle  one  having 
trunnion  beds  closed  with  cap  squares ;  the  piece  is  lashed  besides.  Small 
mortars  remain  on  their  beds,  and  two  of  them  are  transported  on  the 
wagon ;  the  large  mortar  requires  a  wagon  to  itself.  PI,  87,  fig,  9,  is  a 
gun- wagon  for  a  Saxon  30-pound  mortar.  Upon  the  common,  stout  wagon, 
A,  with  four  wheels,  C,  lies  the  frame,  B,  upon  which,  over  the  hind-axle- 
tree,  the  mortar  bed,  D,  is  fast  lashed.  For  the  mortar,  E,  wooden  trun- 
nion beds  are  fitted,  which  are  closed  with  cap  squares ;  the  mortar  itself 
is  also  strongly  lashed. 

Ammunition  wagons  (caissons)  serve  for  the  transportation  of  a  certain 
quantity  of  munitions,  and  each  piece  has  one,  each  howitzer  two  of  these, 
belonging  to  it.  For  most  artillery  this  species  of  wagon  is  constructed  as 
shown  in  pi,  38,  where  JJ^.  11  is  the  side  yiew,  fig,  12  the  upper  view,  and 
fig.  13,  the  rear  view  of  a  French  4-pounder  caisson.  The  fore  wagon,  B, 
consists  of  the  guides,  mm,  with  the  sweep-bar,  »,  the  pole,  r,  and  the  axle, 
/,  bearing  the  bolster,  6,  for  the  frame,  a  d,  which  rests  on  the  hind  axle,  y, 
by  means  of  the  bolster,  L,  and  the  axle-tree  bed,  e.  Fore  and  hind  wagon 
are  connected  by  the  perch.  From  the  frame  hangs  the  drag-chain,  c  c. 
Upon  the  shaft  rests  the  splinter-bar  with  the  swingle-trees,  p.  The  wheels, 
gh  and  D,  run  upon  iron  arms.  On  the  frame-tie,  d,  and  in  a  loop,  z, 
under  the  bolster,  rests  the  axle  arm,  x,  on  which  a  spare  wheel  is  carried. 
Upon  the  frame  is  secured,  by  bolls,  q,  the  ammunition  chest.  A,  the  cover 
of  which  is  lined  with  iron  plates.  Entrenching  tools  and  other  materiel 
are  transported  in  wagons  of  the  same  kind.  Entirely  similar  to  these 
caissons  is  the  battery  wagon.  The  new  French  caissons  (pi,  38,  fig,  14, 
side  view,  fig,  15,  rear  view,  fig,  16,  upper  view  of  the  fore  wagon)  are 
designed  for  the  transportation  of  men  also.  The  fore  wagcm  is  in  all 
respects  like  a  limber,  and  is  connected  with  the  hind  wagon  by  means  of  a 
perch  without  a  sweep-bar  and  shaft,  upon  which  stand  two  chests  in  all 

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128  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

respects  similar  to  the  limber  boxes,  so  that  no  transference  of  ammanition* 
from  caissons  to  limber  box  is  necessary,  but  the  full  box  is  exchanged  for 
the  emptied  one  on  the  limber.  A  spare  wheel  is  carried  on  the  hind  axle, 
as  in  the  other  caisson.  The  battery  and  store  wagons  (fig.  17)  are  chests 
with  flat  covers,  resting  on  a  frame  which  stands  on  the  bed  of  the  hind 
axle,  and  has  a  body  bolt  by  which  it  is  attached  to  the  fore  wagon. 

The  wagon  for  the  transportation  of  bridge  equipage  {fig.  20,  side  view, 
fig.  21,  upper  view)  consists  of  a  fore  wagon  with  chandelier  and  under- 
running  wheels,  and  a  hind  wagon,  Z.  The  frame,  a  a,  is  connected  by  the 
trunnions,  h h,  and  bears  the  four  sleepers,  cccc,  upon  which  the  pontoon  is 
lashed  by  means  of  the  rope,  dc,  after  it  is  run  up  from  behind  over  the 
roller,  W.  The  winches  by  which  the  roller,  W,  is  turned  are  at  p  ;  the 
draw-ropes  winding  on  it  at  the  same  time,  while  the  back  part  of  the 
wagon  is  supported  by  the  prop,  S,  dropped  into  the  position,  k.  On  the 
frame  is  also  the  drag  chain  and  shoe,  e.  The  fore  wagon  has,  over 
the  axle-tree  bed,  the  riding  bolster,  P,  which,  by  means  of  the  guides, 
g  g,  upon  which  lies  the  sweep-bar,  tt,  and  the  ties,  h  h,  is  connected  with 
the  pole,  Y. 

The  travelling  forge  serves  to  make  small  repairs  and  to  do  horse-shoeing 
at  the  time  and  place  required.  The  Prussian  travelling  forge  {fig.  18) 
has  the  under  carriage  of  the  caisson.  Upon  the  forward  axle  stands  the 
coal  and  tool  box,  upon  the  hinder  the  hearth  with  the  back  and  nozzle,  in 
front  of  which  is  the  bellows.  The  anvil  is  placed  on  the  ground.  The 
French  travelling  forge  {pi.  88,  fig.  19)  has,  on  the  frame  of  the  battery  or 
park  wagon,  the  coal  box  over  the  forward  axle-tree,  over  the  hind  the  bel- 
lows, and  in  rear  of  all  a  tool  box.  The  anvil  stands  on  the  hearth  for 
transportation,  and  is  taken  down  for  work. 

For  moving  artillery  short  distances  close  to  the  surface  of  the  earth  the 
devil  carriage  is  used.  The  simplest  {fig.  22)  is  an  axle-tree  bed,  a,  with 
the  guides,  /m,-  between  which  one  simple  pole,  with  rings  for  fasten- 
ing draw-ropes,  is  secured.  In  use,  the  devil  carriage  is  brought  over  the 
gun,  the  pole  raised,  and  the  trunnions  of  the  piece  made  fast  to  the  bolster, 
then  the  pole  is  brought  down  to  the  ground  and  the  cascable  made  fast  to 
it.  If  now  the  pole  is  raised  to  the  draught  height,  the  piece  will  clear  the 
ground  about  6  inches,  and  can  easily  be  transported.  The  compound 
devil  carriage  (fig.  23)  has  a  screw,  on  which  works  a  cross  yoke  with 
hooks,  to  which,  when  depressed  as  much  as  possible,  the  load  is  fastened, 
and  then  by  turning  the  screw  raised  with  little  effort. 

2.  Fabrication  of  Artillery  and  Projectiles^  Balls  and  Bombs. 

Since  the  earliest  and  rudest  construction  of  artillery,  at  the  period  of  its 
first  introduction,  was  given  up,  it  has  been  produced  only  by  casting,  for 
the  attempts  in  modem  times  to  forge  guns  have  thus  far  led  to  no  practical 
results.  At  first  the  piece  was  cast  hollow,  over  the  core,  or  rod  covered 
with  clay  to  the  size  of  the  bore,  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  finished  mould 
and  taken  out  after  the  casting.  It  was  soon  perceived,  however,  that  the 
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FABRICATION  OF  ARTILLERY.  129 

interior  surface  of  the  bore  thus  obtained  was  always  of  a  somewhat  spongy 
texture,  never  exactly  straight  and  cylindrical ;  and  finally  that  the  piece 
itself  was  injured  by  the  iron  anchor  of  the  core  rod,  which  remained 
imbedded  in  the  breech.  Meanwhile  the  methods  of  working  in  metal  had 
improved,  particularly  the  art  of  boring;  the  plan  of  hollow  casting  for 
guns  was,  therefore,  entirely  laid  aside,  all  guns  were  cast  solid  and  after- 
wards bored  out  to  the  proper  calibre,  whereby  not  only  was  the  best 
metal  brought  into  the  region  of  the  bore,  but  a  piece  was  obtained  which 
shot  more  truly  and  lasted  longer.  In  the  moiüding  itself  two  methods 
were  followed  :  the  loam  moulding  and  the  dry  sand  moulding,  the  last  of 
which  is  more  and  more  used.  The  metal  of  which  guns  are  cast  is  either 
bronze,  a  mixture  of  10  parts  copper  and  1  part  tin,  or  refined  and  repeat- 
edly melted  iron. 

a.  Loam  Moulding.  This  is  so  called  because  a  mixture  of  loam  and 
horse-dung  is  used  to  form  the  mould.  For  each  mould  the  pattern  must 
first  be  produced.  This  is  done  by  laying  a  core  stafif  on  two  trestles  and 
winding  it  round  with  tow  and  old  rope,  keeping  it  all  the  while  revolving, 
until  the  overlaying  has  nearly  the  shape  and  dimensions  of  the  gun,  which 
is  judged  of  by  a  pattern  board,  laid  before  the  workman,  in  which  the  pro- 
file of  the  gun  is  cut  out.  Then  a  layer  of  mould  stuff  is  put  on  and  dried, 
and  so  a  succession  of  layers,  which,  however,  are  made  finer  and  finer, 
until  at  last  they  consist  purely  of  washed  clay  and  water,  wherewith  a 
mould  board,  plated  with  iron,  is  used,  in  order  to  get  the  mouldings  and 
other  parts  exact  and  true  by  turning  them  off  against  them.  Each  layer 
must  be  perfectly  dry,  wherefore  a  moderate  coal  fire  is  kept  constantly 
going  under  the  cylinder.  The  last  layer  is  coated  with  a  paste  of  loam» 
and  over  this  a  coat  of  wax  dissolved  in  oil  of  turpentine  is  laid,  and  the 
pattern  turned.  Then  the  trunnions  and  dolphins,  mounted  in  wax,  are  put 
on  and  the  pattern  is  complete.  Upon  this  the  mould  proper  is  made,  the 
first  layer  of  washed  loam  and  clay  and  coarser  stuff  being  employed  by 
degrees.  PL  SQ^fig.  26,  shows  the  art  and  manner  of  forming  the  pattern 
mould  for  a  50-pound  mortar  which  corresponds  with  the  above  described, 
with  the  distinction  only,  that  they  are  formed  standing,  and  that  instead  of 
the  woolded  core  the  rough  mould  is  built  up.  That  is,  a  circular  hearth, 
q,  is  built,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  the  bed,  e,  for  the  mould  spindle,  and 
then  the  rough  form  of  the  pattern  is  begun  with  a  round  layer  of  bricks,  «, 
in  which  air-holes  are  left ;  on  this  a  cupola-shaped  structure,  p,  having  nearly 
the  form  of  the  mortar  when  standing  on  its  muzzle,  is  erected  of  tiles 
cemented  with  loam.  On  the  top  is  a  tube,  p,  for  the  core  spindle.  The 
whole  stands  near  a  wall,  to  which  the  turning  apparatus  is  attached.  This 
consists  of  horizontal  arms,  c,  which  are  fastened  to  the  wall  by  means  of 
ties,/,  and  run  together  in  the  middle,  b.  An  oblique  tie,  d,  also  fastened 
to  the  wall  at  /,  runs  likewise  to  the  point  of  junction,  which  thus  forms 
the  vertex  of  an  immovable  triangle.  From  this  point  to  the  bed,  e,  in  the 
hearth  runs  the  spindle,  a,  whose  upper  end  {ßg.  27)  lies  in  the  collar,  ft, 
and  is  regulated  by  the  fly-screw,  g.  About  this  spindle  the  mould  board, 
k  k,  is  turned,  being  suspended  from  the  frame,  h,  which  is  attached  to  the 

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130  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

collars,  m  m,  and  held  in  its  plaoe  by  the  oblique  tie,  /.  The  frame»  K  bas 
numerous  holes,  i  i,  by  which  the  mould  board  can  be  placed  as  desired, 
and  the  oblique  tie  has  slits,  $  s,  corresponding  to  the  slit,  k",  in  the  mould 
board,  so  that  it  may  be  set  by  means  of  the  screw,  L  The  height  at  which 
the  frame,  A,  is  placed  is  regulated  by  a  collar  at  o.  The  screws,  n,  serve 
to  fix  it.  The  pattern  being  completed  upon  this  turning  machine,  trun- 
nions and  dolphins  are  put  on,  and  the  mould  itself  is  made.  During  the 
process  a  gentle  coal  fire  is  kept  constantly  burning  inside  the  cupola.  PI 
^^9  fig'  ^>  shows  the  completed  numld,  the  different  layers  being  taken  off 
in  parts  to  exhibit  the  structure.  Beneath  the  mould  proper,  z,  we  see  an 
addition ;  this  is  the  dead-head,  and  gives  afterwards  in  the  casting  an  over- 
plus of  metal,  by  means  of  which  that  contained  in  the  mould  is  rendered- 
more  compact;  in  the  boring  process  it  is  cut  off.  At  the  top  we  see 
another  addition;  this  is  designed  to  hold  the  mortar,  /y,  in  the  turning 
machine,  and  is  likewise  cut  off.  As  to  the  layers  in  the  mould,  there 
comes  first  a  coat  of  fine  loam  paste,  p,  then  three  coarser  layei's  of  mould 
loam,  y,  then  an  armature  of  iron  bands  perpendicular  and  horizontal,  lo, 
and  finally  the  outermost  layer  of  coarse  mould  loam,  v.  When  the  mould  is 
finished  and  dry  the  pattern  is  broken  to  pieces  within  it  and  taken  out  by 
fragments,  the  trunnions  and  dolphins  melted  out,  and  the  mould  is  then 
ready  for  casting. 

J.  Dry  Sand  Moulding.  With  very  different  celerity  and  exactne^ 
goes  on  the  modern  process  of  dry  sand  moulding,  first  introduced  by  Gene- 
ral Guillemin  at  Li^e.  In  this  a  patter^  of  metal  is  employed,  which  is 
divided  in  such  a  manner  that  the  different  pieces  which  compose  it  can  be 
easily  taken  out  from  the  finished  mould.  Fig.  5  shows  the  section  of  a 
moulded  6-pounder  gun,  and  it  is  perceived  that  the  pattern  consists :  I,  of 
a  solid,  conical  piece  of  wood.  A,  mounted  with  rings,  n,  and  furnished  with 
a  ring-bolt,  h ;  2,  of  a  pattern  for  the  muzzle  m  n,  with  the  muzzle  mouldings 
171  and  /,  which  can  be  taken  off;  3,  of  a  pattern,  o,  for  the  chase  with  its 
movable  rings  and  the  draw-hooks,  xx;  4,  of  a  pattern  q  for  the  second 
reinforce,  with  the  trunnion  patterns/?/?  screwed  on :  5,  of  a  pattern  for  the 
breech,  s  t,  with  the  base  mouldings  and  the  draw-hooks,  zz;  6,  of  a  pattern 
for  the  cascable,  u,  which  can  be  united  with  the  pattern  7,  for  the  knob  of 
the  cascable  and  the  turning-head  v,  by  means  of  a  screw-bolt,  w.  To  each 
of  these  seven  patterns  belongs  a  mould-box  also,  although  single  pieces  of 
the  patterns  project  into  other  mould-boxes.  These  mould-boxes  are  seen 
in  fig,  4,  under  the  letters  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,.H ;  the  mould-box  D  has  besides 
the  side  boxes  E  E'  for  the  trunnions.  The  mould-boxes  consist  always  of 
two  exactly  equal  shells,  which  are  of  greater  diameter  than  the  pattern  by 
the  sand  thickness  of  the  mould,  and  are  provided  with  longitudinal  and 
cross  flanges,  to  connect  the  shells  with  each  other  and  the  mould-boxes 
together  into  a  whole,  by  means  of  the  key-bolts,  adb.  Each  mouM-box 
has  handles,//,  for  lifting  it  by  the  crane.  Internally  the  walls  of  the  mould- 
boxes  are  provided,  according  to  fig,  7,  with  depressions,  in  order  that  the 
mould-stuff,  when  rammed  in,  may  hold  faster.  The  moulding  process  is  as 
follows :  First,  the  box  G  is  placed  with  the  broad  side  upon  a  bed,  -whidi 
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FABRICATION  OF  ARTlLLEEfT.  131 

has  marks  for  the  right  position  of  the  pattern,  u,  and  this  is  completely 
moulded,  wliile  the  pattern  v  is  united  with  it,  and  the  layer  of  mould-stuff, 
composed  of  one  part  powdered  coke  and  five  parts  of  pit  sand  containing 
clay  moistened  with  water,  in  which  horse-dung,  coke,  sand,  and  pipe-clay 
are  contained,  is  strongly  rammed  in  all  around,  finally  smoothed  off  accu- 
rately  at  the  joints,  and  dusted  over  with  a  layer  of  powdered  charcoal. 
Then  the  mould-box  H  is  set  on  and  the  pattern  v  moulded,  while  the  two 
ears  which  are  represented  in  ßgs.  9, 10,  and  11,  are  shoved  upon  the  pattern 
of  the  turning-head,  the  sand-layer  H'  formed,  smoothed  off,  and  closed  with 
the  plate  c.  Then  the  completed  part  of  the  mould  is  set  on  the  plate  c, 
and,  one  after  the  other,  the  boxes  F,  D,  C,  B,  and  A  are  moulded,  whereby 
the  layers  F',  D',  C,  E',  B',  and  A'  are  obtained.  The  moulding  of  the 
trunnions,  pp,  is  done  from  the  side,  and  the  mould  is  closed  by  the  plates  ee. 
Fig.  22  shows  the  cross-section  of  the  mould  on  the  line  A  B,  ßg,  5,  and 
here  are  seen  the  screws  by  which  the  trunnion  patterns  are  fastened  to  the 
main  patterns.  The  withdrawal  of  the  patterns  is  done  from  above  down- 
wards. First,  the  box  A  is  loosened  and  taken  off,  which  from  the  coating 
of  coal-dust  on  the  joints  can  be  done  easily.  The  pattern»  h,  of  the  dead- 
head, is  taken  out  from  above,  the  pattern  b  from  below,  and  the  inner  face 
of  the  mould  is  then  examined  and  touched  up  where  necessary.  For  this 
purpose  the  spcetulas,  ßgs,  20  and  21,  the  little  trowels,  ßgs.  12  and  13,  the 
small  disks,  JJ^s.  14, 15,  and  16,  and  the  larger  oval  disk3,ßgs.  17, 18,  and  19, 
are  employed.  The  boxes  B  and  C  are  easily  freed  from  their  patterns,  but 
D  contains  the  trunnion  patterns.  These  are  loosened  from  the  main 
pattern  by  taking  out  the  connecting  screws,  when  the»  main  pattern  can 
easily  be  withdrawn,  and  afterwards  the  trunnion  patterns  are  drawn  into 
the  inside  of  the  mould  and  so  removed.  The  boxes  P  and  G,  again,  are 
easily  freed,  and  at  H  remain,  where  the  pattern  v  is  removed,  the  two  ears 
fast  in  the  mould.  These  have,  however  {ßg.  9),  a  small  screw-thread  in 
them,  and  by  screwing  a  small  spindle  (ßg.  8)  into  this,  they  can  easily  be 
pulled  into  the  inside  of  the  mould  and  so  removed.  If  now  the  separate 
mould-boxes  are  well  powdered  and  properly  placed  together  again,  the 
mould  is  ready  for  the  casting.  Fig.  24  shows  the  section  of  the  mould  of 
a  60-pound  mortar  with  the  patterns  in  ;  ßg.  25,  a  cross  section  through  the 
centre  of  the  trunnions,  to  show  how  the  trunnion  patterns  are  taken  out ; 
ßg.  23,  a  view  of  the  complete  mould.  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  are  the  mould- 
boxes  ;  A',  B',  C,  D',  GG,  the  patterns ;  E'  and  F',  the  layers  of  mould-stuff 
in  the  trunnion  moulds ;  a,  6,  c,  d,  e,  are  key-bolts  and  wedges  for  fastening 
the  mould-boxes  together ;  g,  the  plate  with  bolts  on  the  trunnion  mould ; 
/,  the  handles  on  the  mould-boxes ;  A,  the  draw-hooks  on  the  patterns  for 
taking  them  from  the  mould;  ft,  the  movable  ring  put  on  to  form  the 
muzzle  moulding,  which  is  taken  off  separately  in  drawing  the  patterns ; 
k  k,  are  the  screws  which  hold  the  dolphin  patterns  and  which  are  unscrewed 
in  order  to  take  them  out ;  /  /,  are  screws  which  hold  the  trunnion  patterns 
during  the  moulding  of  the  main  pattern ;  n  is  the  screw  for  the  turning- 
head,  to  take  it  out  more  conveniently.  After  what  has  been  already  said 
of  the  moulding  process  and  the  manner  of  withdrawing  the  patterns  from 

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132  MILITARY  SCIENCES 

the  mould,  nothing  more  is  required  on  these  subjects  here,  save  a  few* 
words  of  explanation  with  respect  to  the  manner  of  withdrawing  the 
trunnion  patterns.  In  moulding  the  trunnions,  cylinders  are  at  the  same 
time  imbedded  in  the  sand  layers  E  and  F,  at  the  centre  of  the  trunnion 
pattern  forming  the  hollows  u  u.  The  trunnion  patterns  have  holes,  m,  with 
screw  threads,  one  larger,  one  smaller.  If  now,  after  the  screws  /  /  are 
taken  out,  the  chamber  pattern  is  withdrawn,  then  a  plate,  t,  with  a  hole  in 
it,  is  brought  in  front  of  the  trunnion  pattern  at  E  and  a  spindle  o,  of  which 
there  are  two,  fitting  the  large  and  small  screw-thread ;  the  one  now  referred 
to,  being  the  smallest,  is  thrust  through  u  and  the  trunnion  pattern  6,  and 
screwed  into  the  thread  in  the  opposite  pattern,  F ;  the  spindle,  o,  has  a 
screw  cut  upon  its  opposite  extremity  also,  on  which  works  a  wrench,  r; 
by  turning  this  wrench  the  spindle  is  drawn  directly  backwards,  and  thus 
the  pattern  F,  into  which  its  end  is  screwed,  is  drawn  out  from  its  mouM. 
In  exactly  similar  manner  the  other  trunnion  pattern  is  withdrawn,  and 
then,  in  the  retouching  of  the  mould,  the  holes  u  u  are  filled  up  and  the 
stopping-plates,  pp,  screwed  on.  The  prepared  mould  is  now  carried  to  the 
pit  of  the  foundry  for  casting,  where  it  is  either  rammed  in  sand,  or  screwed 
fast  upon  a  bed  for  that  purpose  and  held  by  ties  and  braces. 

c.  The  Foundry  and  the  Casting.  The  casting  of  cannon  is  made  from 
the  flame  or  reverberatory  furnace,  as  it  is  called,  whenever  gun-raetal,  a 
mixture  of  copper  and  tin,  is  employed  ;  and  from  the  cupola  furnace  when 
iron  guns  are  to  be  cast.  In  the  former  cast  the  metal  flows  from  the  tap-hole 
in  the  hearth,  upon  which  it  was  melted  by  the  reverberated  flame,  into  the 
mould,  which  is  placed  perpendicularly  in  the  pit  immediately  in  front  of 
the  furnace.  In  the  second  case,  however,  the  melted  iron  is  drawn  from 
the  furnace  in  great  kettle-shaped  ladles  and  poured  into  the  mould ;  yet 
casting  in  iron  could  be  practised  from  blast  furnaces  adapted  for  the 
purpose,  or  even  from  peculiarly  constructed  reverberatory  furnaces.  Iron 
guns  are  cast  at  iron- works,  where  all  the  necessary  apparatus  for  moulding, 
boring,  and  turning  are  already  on  hand;  for  bronze  guns,  however,  a 
particular  casting-house  is  constructed  in  the  place  where  the  artillery  work- 
shops are  located,  provided  with  all  the  requisite  apparatus  and  the  machinery 
for  boring  and  turning.  PL  ^9yfig.  1,  is  the  longitudinal  section  along  the 
line  XY  in  the  ground-plan  (fig.  2)  of  a  casting-house  or  cannon  foundry, 
and  fig.  3  is  the  cross  section  of  the  same,  through  its  principal  spaces. 
A  is  the  foundry  proper  and  space  for  moulding  the  guns ;  B,  the  room  for 
small  mouldings,  with  a  pot  furnace  for  lesser  castings.  C  is  a  large  hearth 
sloping  to  the  tap-hole ;  D,  a  smaller  one,  to  be  used  when  only  one  or  two 
guns  are  to  be  cast ;  if  both  are  used  at  once,  from  eight  to  ten  guns  can 
be  cast  at  the  same  time.  E  is  the  pit ;  F,  a  drying  oven  for  loam  casting ; 
G,  the  platform  scales  for  weighing  the  metal  and  the  guns  when  finished ; 
H,  the  great  crane,  turning  on  a  pivot,  for  moving  heavy  masses  in  the 
moulding  process  and  for  setting  in  the  mould ;  I,  the  smithy ;  K,  pattern 
room  and  dwelling  of  the  director ;  L,  furnace  space ;  a,  steps  to  the  ash- 
pit ;  b  h'  b",  pipe  for  leading  the  air  blast  to  the  furnaces ;  c,  drain  to  carry 
off  water  from  the  pit ;  d,  wells ;  e,  drain  from  the  moulding-room  ;f,  drain 
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FABRICATION  OF  ARTILLERY.  133 

pipe;  g,  pot  furnabe;   A,  chimney;  i,  fire-bridge;  A,  sole;  /,  ash-hole, 
m  m\  stoke-holes ;  n,  flue ;  o,  conduit. 

The  gun  after  casting  is  taken  from  the  mould,  and  then  is  usually  bored 
and  turned  at  the  same  time,  if  the  boring  machine,  as  is  now  generally  the 
case,  is  horizontal.  When  the  boring  is  vertical,  the  turning  is  done  after- 
wards. Previous  to  boring  and  turning,  however,  a  bolt  of  hammered 
copper  is  screwed  in  where  the  touch-hole  is  to  be.  When  the  piece  is 
bored  and  turned,  the  trunnions  are  turned  separately,  the  part  between  the 
trunnions  and  the  dolphins  worked  off  with  files  and  rasps,  and  finally  the 
vent  bored  out.  Before  it  is  used  the  piece  is  subjected  to  the  most  pareful 
proof. 

d.  Casting  Projectiles.  Solid  shot,  case  shot,  and  shells,  are  cast  at 
iron  works  from  white  forge-iroq.  Formerly  iron  moulds  were  used  for 
these,  also ;  but  they  had  the  effect  of  making  the  balls  too  hard  on  the  sur- 
face, whereby  the  bore  of  the  gun  was  injured.  At  present,  therefore,  pro- 
jec tiles  are  cast  in  sand,  in  mould-boxes. 

The  casting  of  solid  balls  is  the  most  simple.   The  patterns  for  this  purpose 
are  of  brass,  very  exactly  turned,  made  in  two  halves,  and  fitting  into  each 
other  by  a  groove.     One  half  has  a  pin  screwed  into  it,  which  forms  the 
hole  by  which  the  metal  is  poured  in  at  the  casting.     PI  39,  fig.  31,  shows 
the  manner  of  moulding.     The  mould  (flask)  consists  of  the  mould  boxes 
{fig-  29  shows  two  such  boxes,  standing  one  upon  the  other),  which  are 
secured  together  by  key-bolts.   In  moulding,  the  grooved  half  of  the  pattern, 
a,  in  this  case  a  24-pound  ball,  is  set  upon  the  mould-board  s  s,  and  the  tap- 
hole  pin,  c,  screwed  in ;  then  the  mould-box  is  placed  with  its  key-bolts  in 
the  holes  made  for  them,  and  the  half  ball  moulded  by  the  sand  layer  B  ;  the 
mould  is  then  turned  over,  the  mould-board  taken  off,  the  second  half-ball 
set  on,  the  second  mould-box  placed,  and  the  mould  made  in  the  same  way ; 
then  the  mould  is  turned,  the  pin  screwed  out,  the  mould-box  opened,  and 
both  patterns  taken  out,  when  it  is  again  closed,  and  is  then  ready  for  cast- 
ing.     Smaller  balls,  as  6-pound  and  case-shot,  are  moulded  four  or  more  in 
one  box.   Fig.  30  shows  one  part  of  a  mould-box  for  four  6-pound  balls,  and 
fig.  29  the  two  boxes,  one  on  the  other.     A  is  the  upper  box,  B  the  lower 
box ;  a  a  are  the  patterns ;  ft,  the  jet  hole,  lying  in  the  centre ;  d  d,  the  jet 
channels,  which  are  cut  in  when  the  mould  is  finished;  cc  are  small  pipes, 
air-vents,  to  let  the  air  pass  out  when  the  mould  is  filled ;  e  e,  the  key-bolts. 
The  mould  of  the  hollow  shot  is  more  complicated,  because  the  internal 
cavity  of  these  must  be  formed  by  a  core,  which  remains  in  the  mould  dur- 
ing  the  casting  and  is  removed  afterwards  ;  and  because,  also,  for  the  larger, 
a  pair  of  ears  must  be  cast  in,  for  the  shell-hooks  to  catch  hold  of  in  trans- 
portation.    Fig.  82  shows  the  two  mould-boxes  for  a  shell  or  bomb,  with 
the  patterns  belonging  to  them  as  placed  for  moulding.     A  is  the  lower 
mould-box ;  q,  a  plug,  by  means  of  which  the  fuse-hole  is  formed,  and  which 
is  replaced  afterwards  by  the  core-spindle ;  a  is  the  pattern,  upon  which  are  * 
a  pair  of  ears,  to  form  the  sockets  for  those  of  the  shell ;  B  is  the  upper 
mould-box ;  a,  the  pattern,  with  the  jet-hole  ft,  and  the  air- vent  c,  for  the 
escape  of  the  gas  which  is  generated.    For  hollow  shot  it  is  preferable  to 

lOONOORAPHIO   BNCTOLOPiBDIA. — ^VOL.   lU.  89  OOQ 


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134  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

have  the  metal  run  into  the  mould  at  the  side,  so  that  the  core  be  not  dis- 
turbed in  its  position  by  the  metal  falling  perpendicularly  upon  it.  FHg.  33 
shows  the  upper  view  of  the  lower  mould-box :  a  is  the  pattern ;  g,  the 
thumb-screw  nut  of  the  screw  which  holds  the  pattern  of  the  fuse-hole  plug, 
and  which  is  loosened  in  withdrawing  the  patterns ;  A  is  the  sand  bed  of 
the  mould  ;  m,  hooks  for  lifting  the  mould-box.  The  core  is  formed  either 
of  sand  or  loam.  PL  39,  fig.  34,  shows  the  perpendicular  section  of  both 
mould-boxes,  with  the  loam-core  in  place,  for  a  shell  or  bomb;  fig.  36  is  the 
side  view  of  the  two  mould-boxes ;  fig,  35,  the  upper  view  of  the  finished 
mould  ;  fig,  37,  under  view  of  the  same  :  Ais  the  upper,  B  the  lower  mould- 
box  ;  a  is  the  cavity  which  is  to  be  filled  with  metal ;  J,  the  jet  hole  ;  c  are 
key-bolts,  :|o  hold  the  mould-boxes ;  €,  air-'vents ;  /,  key-bolts,  to  hold  the 
core-spindle,  k,  immovable  in  the  bridge  n ;  g,  ears  set  in  the  mould,  for  the 
shell-hooks ;  the  holes  for  the  ears  are  made  by  small  clay  cylinders  inserted 
in  the  mould.  The  ears  are  of  wrought  iron,  and  the  ends  reach  into  the 
internal  cavity,  where  they  are  afterwards  imbedded  in  the  metal,  k,  core- 
spindle  of  wood  or  sheet  iron  and  covered  with  a  thin  coat  of  loam,  bored 
diagonally  through  lengthwise,  to  permit  the  gas  to  escape  from  the  core. 
The<Jore,  i,  consists  of  spun  hay,  which  is  wound  firmly  upon  the  spindle, 
and  covered  with  several  coats  of  loam,  then  turned  at  the  core  bench 
according  to  the  pattern,  and  well  dried;  /,  bolt  to  secure  the  perfectly 
accurate  placing  of  the  halves  of  the  mould  ;  m,  hooks  for  handling.  The 
sand-cores,  which  are  better  and  now  more  used  than  the  loam  cores,  are 
struck  in  a  mould  with  three  parts.  Fig.  40  shows  one  of  the  two  like  parts 
a,  which,  united  by  the  third,  the  cap/>  (JJ^.41),are  closed,  and  their  inter- 
nal cavity  becomes  exactly  the  size  of  the  core ;  o  is  the  handle  for  taking 
off*  the  cap.  Fig.  38  is  a  view,  fig.  39  a  section  of  a  X5ore-spindle :  A,  the 
shaft ;  /,  the  hole  for  the  fixing-key  ;  k,  the  holes  bored  for  air* vents.  To 
strike  the  sand-»core,  the  stuff  for  which  consists  of  a  mixture  of  sand,  loam, 
and  powdered  cinders  or  coke,  the  two  parts  a  (fig,  40)  are  brought  into  a 
moulding-bench  {fig.  42,  upper  view,  fig.  43,  longitudinal  profile,  fig.  44, 
half  cross-section).  Upon  the  mould  box  r  the  core- spindle  k  is  made  fast 
by  the  key/,  the  half-moulds,  «,  set  on  and  pressed  together  by  means  of  the 
cheeks  C  C  and  the  screws  D  D,  then  a  couple  of  wires,  e,  are  laid  in  to  form 
the  air  vents,  and  the  core  rammed  solid  with  the  mould-stufi";  the  cap  p,  set 
on  by  the  handle  o,  and  struck  to  make  the  foot  of  the  core  firm.  When  now 
the  mould  is  opened  the  core  can  be  taken  out,  dried,  and  set  in  the  finished 
mould.  For  fire-bembs,  which  have  three  fire-holes,  a  {fig.  45,  section,^. 
46,  view  of  a  fire-bomb),  the  sockets  for  the  clay  cylinders,  which  are  to 
form  the  core  of  these  holes,  are  formed  at  the  same  time  with  the  mould. 
Fig.  47  shows  the  two  mould-boxes,  A  and  B,  for  fire-bombs,  with  the  pat- 
tern placed  in  them ;  fig.  48,  the  upper  view  of  the  lower  mould-box  A ; 
fig.  49,  the  vertical  sections  of  both  mould-boxes,  with  the  core  in  its  place ; 
fig.  50,  the  lower  mould-box,  with  the  section  of  the  core ;  a  is  the  pattern, 
having  beneath  the  spindle  q,  by  which  the  fuse-hole  is  formed  ;  in  the  mid- 
dle is  the  projection,  r,  by  which  the  bed  for  the  hollow  clay  cylinder,  s,  is 
formed,  running  a  piece  into  the  mould  sand,  and  reaching  to  the  core  ;  i  is 
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MILITARY  PYROTECONY.  135 

the  core ;  c,  the  jet  hole ;  e  e,  the  key-bolts  for  locking  the  mould  ;  and  /, 
key-bolt  for  the  core-spindle. 

3.     Military  Pyrotechny. 

The  manufacture  of  cartridges  of  all  kinds,  and  of  fireworks  generally, 
especially  of  fire  and  light  balls  and  rockets  for  military  purposes,  is  the 
object  of  a  particular  art,  that  of  Military  Pyrotechny,  the  basis  of  which  is, 
of  course,  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder,  since  from  this,  in  its  various 
forms  and  with  different  additions,  the  above  named  articles  are  all  pro- 
duced. 

a.  Gunpowder.  Gunpowder  is  a  mixture  of  sulphur,  saltpetre,  and  char- 
coal.  The  roll-sulphur  is  pulverized,  and  the  saltpetre  likewise.  The  char- 
coal, from  soft  but  not  gummy  woods  (linden,  alder,  poplar,  &c.),  is  also 
powdered  fine  by  a  particular  apparatus.  The  proportion  of  the  ingredients 
is  various ;  a  medium  (Prussian  military  powder)  is  75  parts  saltpetre,  12i 
sulphur,  and  I2J^  charcoal.  The  materials  are  first  mixed  dry.  This  is 
done  in  a  mixing  barrel,  ft  6,  divided  by  partitions,  I  {pL  40,  fig.  5,  cross- 
section,^^.  6,  longitudinal  section),  which  is  turned  by  the  crank  a,  and  set 
on  the  inside  with  laths,  c  ;  the  trap  d  serves  to  fill  and  empty  it.  The 
material  when  well  mixed  is  brought  to  the  mill,  which  is  either  a  rolling  or 
stamping-mill.  The  latter  is  the  most  simple;/^.  1  gives  a  view, fig,  2  the 
section  of  one.  In  a  block,  D,  the  pots  or  pits  G  G  G  are  hollowed  out,  in 
which  the  lower  surface  is  made  of  hard  heart  wood,  and  which  are  nar- 
rower above  than  below,  so  that  the  stuff  continually  falls  back  upon  itself 
In  each  of  these  run  two  stamps,  E  E,  shod  with  bronze,  which  are  lifted 
alternately  by  cams,  a,  on  the  cylinder  A,  lying  on  the  frame  F,  which  cylinder 
is  set  in  motion  by  some  power  applied  to  the  cog-wheels  B  and  C.  The 
rolling-mill  {fig,  3,  side  view,  ^.  4,  upper  view)  has  a  marble  bed-stone,  A,  on 
which  rests  the  bed,  a,  for  the  vertical  shaft  B,  of  which  6  is  the  upper  bed, 
and  which  is  turned  by  the  bevel-wheels  Q,  on  the  shaft  S,  working  into  the 
bevel-wheel  P.  This  vertical  shaft  carries  the  runner-axle  D,  which  by  an 
arrangement  at  d  can  be  set  higher  or  lower,  and  on  this  revolves  the  mar- 
ble runner,  EE,  which  by  means  of  the  wedge  arrangement  dd,  and  the 
plates  t  and  x,  is  pressed  against  the  end,  m,  of  the  axle,  and  runs  round  with 
it.  The  standing  shaft  carries  at  the  same  time  the  two  frames  Fand  G  for 
lifting  and  dropping  the  three  crutches,  H,  I,  K',  which  serve  to  bring  the 
material  constantly  from  the  centre  and  edge  under  the  path  of  the  runner. 
The  lever  arrangement,  L,  whose  point  of  support  is  at  c,  raises  or  lowers 
the  supports  m  for  K,  i  for  J,  and  /?/?  and  q  for  H.  N  is  the  border  (curb) 
of  the  bed-stone ;  M,  a  trap  for  removing  the  finished  material  fi"om  the 
stone  by  means  of  the  curved  crutch,  H.  The  well  mingled  mass  is  moist- 
ened with  water,  brought  to  one  or  the  other  of  these  mills,  and  then  more 
intimately  and  perfectly  mixed  and  worked  together.  Thus  mixed  it  is 
taken  to  the  plate-mill  {fig.  7),  where  it  is  converted  into  cakes  of  one 
and  a  half  to  two  lines  in  thickness.  In  the  frame  A  lie  the  rollers  B 
(turned  by  means  of  the  cog-wheels  D  and  I),  E,  and  F,  connected  by  an 

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136  IflLITAEY  SCIENCES. 

endless  band.  For  the  roller  B  there  is  an  endless  band,  6,  which  is 
stretched  by  the  roller  C.  The  powder  mass,  still  in  its  half-moist  state,  is 
shaken  through  the  hopper  H,  and  pressed  between  the  rollers  B  and  £  into 
cakes,  which  fall  by  fragments  into  the  receiver  K.  These  powder  cakes 
are  then  grained.  The  graining-sieve  {fig,  9)  consists  of  as  many  sieves, 
set  one  within  the  other,  with  exactly  pierced  parchment  floors,  as  there  are 
kinds  of  powder  to  be  produced.  Here,  B,  C,  and  D  are  the  sieves.  The 
mass  is  placed  in  D,  loaded  with  a  leaden  disk,  E,  and  by  the  motion  of  the 
sieve  the  powder  is  formed  according  to  the  size  of  the  holes.  The  dust 
falls  through  the  finest  sieve  into  the  chest  A,  and  is  then  worked  anew. 
The  very  sharp-grained  powders  are  good  for  military  purposes,  but  for 
hunting  the  powder  is  glazed  in  the  glazing-casks.  These  casks  {fi^.  10  C) 
are  set  one  behind  the  other  on  a  shaft  in  the  frame  F,  and  made  to  revolve, 
at  first  slowly  then  more  rapidly,  by  the  driving  wheels  A  and  B ;  inside 
they  have  laths,  against  which  the  grains  strike  and  thus  smoothe  each  other. 
If  the  powder  is  to  be  polished  at  the  same  time,  lead  balls  are  mingled 
with  the  mass.  A  particular  process  for  making  powder  with  perfectly 
round  grains  is  that  of  Champy  {fig.  8).  Here  the  mass  is  brought  dry  to 
the  barrel  A,  whose  shaft,  a,  turns  in  the  frame  g ;  by  the  pipe  d  a  jet  of 
water  is  thrown  upon  the  mass,  through  a  very  finely  pierced  rose;  the 
grains  form  themselves,  and  by  motion  become,  avalanche-like,  perfectly 
spherical.  The  cock  c  shuts  ofi'  the  water,  and  the  trap  e  gives  access  to 
the  barrel.  The  powder,  when  finished,  is  dried  in  heated  drying-rooms, 
and  then  proved.  For  proving,  the  vertical  eprouvette  is  very  commonly 
used  {pi  ^Oyfig'  11) ;  the  proof-charge  is  placed  in  the  small  mortar  a,  and 
upon  it  the  foot  of  the  notched  staff  6,  which  is  loaded  at  the  top,  rf,  and 
passes  through  the  cross-piece,/,  of  the  frame,  e  e.  If  the  charge  is  now  fired 
the  staff  b  is  driven  up  and  retained  at  the  greatest  height  it  reaches  by 
pawls  on  the  cross-piece,  which  catch  in  the  notches ;  the  strength  of  the 
powder  is  judged  by  the  relative  height  to  which  the  staff  is  driven,  a  nor- 
mal powder  being  taken  as  the  standard.  Another  proof  is  that  with  the 
eprouvette  mortar  {fig,  12),  from  which  three  discharges  are  made  with  the 
standard  powder,  three  with  the  powder  to  be  proved,  and  the  strength 
determined  by  the  average  effect  of  these  discharges.  The  proved  powder 
is  placed,  in  barrels  containing  one  cwt.  each,  in  the  powder  magazine. 
The  field  magazines  {fig.  13,  ground  plan,  fig.  14,  longitudinal  section  along 
A'  B\fig.  15,  cross  section  along  C  D')  in  batteries,  &c.,  are  partly  sunk  in 
the  earth  at  F ;  a  sloping  passage,  6,  leads  down  to  this,  and  a  small  ditch,  H, 
serves  to  collect  all  the  moisture,  with  a  view  to  which  the  floor  of  the 
magazine  slightly  slopes  towards  it.  The  magazine  is  closed  in,  all  around, 
with  filled  gabions,  E  E ;  on  the  top  of  which  is  a  layer  of  fascines,  D  ;  then 
comes  a  row  of  air-holes,  C ;  and  a  plank  cover,  above  which  is  another  row 
of  fascines,  and  then  a  layer  of  earth,  A.  The  door  is  always  turned  away 
from  the  enemy.  The  permanent  magazines  {fig,  16,  ground  plan,  fig,  17, 
cross  section,  ^g*.  18,  ground  plan  on  a  larger  scale,  ^^.  19,  longitudinal  sec- 
tion on  the  same)  are  massive  bomb-proof  structures,  G,  surrounded  with 
rampart  and  ditch.  G  is  the  building,  F  the  space  with  the  rampart,  A  the 
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MILITARY  PYROTECHNY.  137 

breastwork,  E  the  banquette,  B  the  exterior  slope,  C  the  ditch,  D  the  glacis, 
and  H'  a  bridge  over  the  ditch.  The  internal  space  of  the  magazine  is 
divided  into  the  magazine  proper,  6,  and  the  ante-room,  H.  In  the  walls  of 
the  magazine  are  air-holes,  and  (z,&,  and  c,  show  the  different  forms  of  these, 
a  and  b  being  so  arranged  that  no  fire  can  penetrate  through  them.  I  are 
wooden  frames,  on  to  which  the  powder-barrels  are  rolled  over  woollen 
covers,  and  where  they  are  laid  upon  covers  of  the  same.  In  peace,  a  roof- 
frame,  L,  rests  upon  the  magazine ;  in  war,  this  is  filled  with  earth. 

6.  Musket  and  Cannon  Cartridges.  For  service-firing,  powder  is  made 
up  into  cartridges,  either  musket  or  cannon.  These  cartridges  contain 
usually,  along  with  the  powder,  the  ball  also ;  for  chambered  gun^  alone  is 
the  charge  separate,  and  these  are  often  loaded  with  the  ladle  or  the  measure. 

Musket  cartridges  consist  of  a  piece  of  paper  (pi.  40,  ßg,  20),  one  side 
of  which,  that  it  may  wind  more  closely,  is  cut  obliquely ;  this  leaf,  a,  is 
rolled  about  a  former,  b  {fig,  21),  the  ball  d  set  in,  and  the  throat  c  choked 
with  a  tie  of  linen  thread,  and  struck  down  upon  the  ball.  Then  the  car- 
tridge is  filled  and  pinched  together  at  the  top  {fig.  22).  For  cannon  car- 
tridges, bags  are  made  of  flannel  or  parchment ;  at  present,  flannel  is  used 
almost  entirely.  For  marking  out  the  form  upon  the  piece  of  stuflf,  the 
pattern  board  a  a'  {fig.  23)  is  used,  and  a  second,  which  reaches  only  to  the 
line  b  b',  for  the  seam :  there  are  also  half-pattern  boards,  when  the  stufi*  is 
laid  double.  Each  calibre  has  its  own  pattern  board.  The  length  of  the 
cartridge  depends  upon  its  being  designed  to  hold  the  ball  or  not.  When 
the  bag  is  sewed  with  the  back-stitch,  turned,  and  felled,  the  sabot  a  {fig. 
24),  which  has  a  groove,  b,  is  set  in,  the  ball  c  is  placed  in  the  sabot,  and 
then  the  head  g  tied,  after  which  the  tie  h  is  made  in  the  groove  g  with  a 
firework  knot ;  e  is  the  charge  of  powder.  Often  the  ball,  c  {fig,  25),  is 
fastened  to  the  sabot,  a,  by  two  strips  of  tin,  crossing  each  other  at  right 
angles ;  then  the  bag  is  made  shorter,  and  fastened,  at  A,  with  a  firework 
knot  to  the  sabot  groove.  The  first  cartridges  are  best.  Grape  shot  can 
be  shaken  in  over  a  sabot  in  a  longer  bag,  the  bag  tied  to  a  head  above  and 
the  ball  space  netted  with  twine ;  they  are  usually,  however,  put  into  tin 
boxes  {fig,  27,  section,  ^^.  28,  view).  Over  the  charge,  a,  comes  a  sabot,  b, 
with  the  groove  c,  and  on  this  sabot  the  case  d  (black  for  large  balls,  red  for 
small)  is  nailed,  which  has  first  the  iron  culot  e,  then  the  ball  /,  and  finally 
a  bottom,  g,  over  which  the  tin  case  is  bent;  at  c  the  case  is  united  to  the 
bag  by  a  firework  knot. 

c.  FiBE  AND  Light  Balls.  Fire-balls  are  used  to  set  buildings,  &c.,  on 
fire,  and  light-balls  to  discover  the  movements  and  workmen  of  the  enemy 
at  night.  Both  are  made  in  the  same  manner,  only  the  filling  is  diflferent. 
There  belong  to  them  an  iron  skeleton,  the  carcass  {fig.  29),  which  is 
covered  with  a  canvas  bag,  filled  warm  and  formed,  a  fuse  driven  into  the 
upper  orifice,  the  sack  tied  fast  to  the  same,  and  the  slack  turned  back  into 
the  carcass  {fig.  80).  The  fire-ball  composition  consists  of  thirty  parts 
coarse  powder,  ten  pitch,  ten  rosin,  five  colophon,  two  tallow,  and  one  part 
tow.  The  light  ball  composition  is  of  one  part  meal  powder,  ten  parts  salt- 
petre, four  and  a  half  sulphur,  and  one  part  antimony. 

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138  MILTTABT  SCIENCiS. 

d.  Signal  Rockets.  To  communicate  signals  at  great  distances  rocketf 
are  employed,  which  are  made  of  various  dimensions.  The  largest  of  these, 
having  the  calibre  of  a  one-pound  iron  ball,  mount  to  the  height  of  5,500  ft. 
The  rocket  composition  consists  of  a  mixture  of  meal  powder  and  charcoal, 
which  is  rammed  in  such  a  manner  into  a  case  made  up  of  paper  rolled 
together  and  pasted,  that  a  central  cavity  is  left  through  the  whole  length. 
To  make  the  rocket  case,  sheets  of  paper  (a  one-pound  rocket  requires  about 
sixteen  sheets  of  writing-paper)  are  rolled  upon  an  exactly  calibred  wooden 
staff,  the  "  former ;"  then,  at  a  short  distance  from  the  end,  broken  in  and 
choked  {pL^O,ßg.  8,  at  h),  so  that  there  still  remains  an  opening  into  the 
case,  the  fuse-hole,  and  then  tied.  To  fill  this  case  with  composition  a 
rocket-mould  is  used  (fig.  31,  section) ;  this  consists  of  a  foot,  a,  with  the 
neck  a',  upon  which  is  the  knob  and  spindle  d,  by  which  the  bore  of  the 
rocket  is  formed.  The  mould  proper,  b  ft,  is  fastened  to  the  neck  by  means  of 
the  pin  e.  In  this  mould  the  case  is  placed,  and  driven  by  means  of  the  former 
^  (ßg'  3%  section)  upon  the  spindle,  so  that  the  hollow  b,  of  the  former,  cc^ 
receives  the  spindle,  whereupon  a  light  blow  is  given  with  the  mallet  (ßg. 
37),  forcing  the  case  down  upon  the  knob,  and  forming  the  vault  (C,ßg,  41). 
Then  some  composition  is  poured  in,  and  rammed  firm  with  the  rammer  a 
(ßg.  33),  the  hollow  of  which,  b,  receives  the  spindle.  As  the  case  filk 
higher  and  higher,  rammers  are  used  with  a  shorter  cavity  (figs,  34  and  35) 
and  lastly  the  solid  rammer  (fig.  36),  with  which  a  short  part,  the  sdid  por- 
tion, is  driven.  When  the  rocket  is  so  far  completed,  it  is  taken  from  the 
mould  (fig.  38,  a,  rocket ;  A,  choke  ;  b,  solid  part),  and  at  /  a  somewhat 
larger  chamber,  i,  placed  upon  it,  in  which  some  grain  powder  (the  bursting 
charge)  and  a  light-ball,  are  put,  and  the  whole  then  terminated  by  the 
pointed  cap,  g.  Such  a  rocket  is  now  fastened  to  the  slick  k  (fig,  39),  by 
the  ties  h  and  A',  that  it  may  mount  in  a  straight  line.  This  stick  is  seven 
times  the  length  of  the  case,  with  which  it  must,  when  balanced  a  few 
inches  from  the  mouth,  be  in  equilibrium ;  a  is  the  rocket,  i  the  pot>  g  the 
cap.  In  the  vault  is  placed  the  priming  for  lighting  the  charge,  and  the 
rocket,  with  the  mouth  free,  is  then  hung  upon  a  nail.  If  the  rocket  is  not 
to  throw  a  fire-ball,  but  only  to  make  a  report,  then  a  petard  is  placed  in 
the  pot.  This  is  made  strongly  of  tin  plate,  and  filled  with  powder.  If  the 
light  signal  is  to  fall  slowly,  it  is  furnished  with  a  parachute  (fig.  40).  In 
the  pot  is  then  placed  a  tin  light  box,  a,  bored  with  holes,  and  provided  with 
the  four  small  wires,  cccc,  to  which  the  parachute  is  fastened,  all  this 
being  placed  in  the  pointed  cap,  and  unfolded  by  the  explosion. 

e.  CoNOREVE  Rockets.  Great  attention  has  been  attracted,  for  a  long 
time,  to  the  rockets  invented  by  the  English  Colonel  Congreve,  with  which 
powerful  efiects  were  attained,  although  they  have,  perhaps,  been  somewhat 
exaggerated.  For  a  length  of  time  they  were  kept  secret,  but  are  now 
introduced  into  almost  all  artillery.  The  composition  consists  of  saltpetre, 
sulphur,  and  meal  powder,  in  various  proportions,  according  to  the  size  of 
the  rocket.  The  largest  have  20  parts  saltpetre  to  1  part  sulphur  and 
1  meal  powder.  Many  other  substances,  such  as  chlorate,  &c.,  formerly 
added,  are  now  laid  aside,  having  been  found  to  produce  but  insignificant 

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MILITARY  PYROTECHNY.  139 

effects  and  greatly  to  increase  the  danger  of  preparation.  The  most  that 
18  done  is  to  moisten  the  composition  with  oil  of  turpentine.  The  case 
of  the  Congreve  rocket  is  made  of  sheet  iron,  and  in  the  pot  incendiary 
composition  is  placed;  the  cap  is  made  very  strong,  as  the  rocket  is  to 
serve  as  a  projectile  at  the  same  time.  PL  40,ßg.  41,  shows  a  Congreve 
rocket,  and  it  will  be  perceived  that  externally  it  difiers  but  little  from  the 
signal  rocket ;  it  is,  however,  much  larger,  from  two  lo  three  inches  in  dia« 
meter.  A,  the  rocket ;  B, composition;  C,  vault ;  D,  iocendiary  composition 
with  bursting-charge ;  B,  cap ;  P  F,  choke-tie ;  G,  stick.  Fig.  42  is  a  Congreve 
rocket,  as  made  at  Vincennes,  after  Bem's  method.  BE  is  the  rocket 
proper,  of  sheet  iron,  with  the  composition  ;  BE,  the  choke-tie  for  the  stick, 
F ;  C  is  the  pot,  filJed  with  incendiary  composition  and  pierced  with  holes ; 
D,  a  barbed  head  on  the  cap,  to  hold  the  rocket  fast  when  it  strikes.  Fig  AS 
is  a  rocket  after  Congreve's  last  pattern.  This  is  put  upon  the  stick,  C,  by 
means  of  a  wrought-iron  shoe,  B,  which  carries  the  priming-vault,  A 
{ßg,  45  shows  this  part  in  section,  fig,  44,  the  lower  view,  where  the  six 
holes  are  seen,  through  which  the  blaze  of  the  composition  streams  out). 
D  is  the  rocket  proper  and  E  the  pot,  with  the  incendiary  composition  and  the 
flame  holes  running  out  into  a  sharp  conical  bead.  FHg.  46  shows  the  shoe, 
B,  with  the  screw  for  the  priming-vault,  A.  The  French  Colonel  Brulard 
constructed  the  rocket  now  used  in  the  French  artiller}%  shown  in  fig.  47, 
which  represents  the  case.  AB,  BC,  CD  are  three  compositions  of  various 
strength ;  then  follows  a  layer  of  clay,  dba,  through  which  a  fuse,/,  goes 
into  the  pot  of  the  rocket ;  at  a  a  the  case  is  closed  with  strong  iron  plate. 
FHg,  49  shows  the  outer  view  of  the  case ;  fig.  48,  the  pot,  having  a  burst- 
ing-charge in  the  centre,  which,  kindled  by  the  fuse  /  (fig.  47),  bursts  the 
pot  and  hurls  around  its  loading  of  hand-grenades  and  musket-balls.  To 
make  sure  that  the  bursting-charge  is  set  off,  even  if  the  rocket  is  by  any 
accident  extinguished,  and  that  it  is  lighted  at  the  moment  when  the  rocket 
reaches  its  destination,  the  plan  of  setting  it  off  by  percussion  has  been 
devised  {fig.  50).  In  the  iron  case  of  the  rocket,  d,  which  has  underneath, 
in  the  bottom  cc,  several  flame  holes,  ee,  an  iron  plate,  iA,  is  fixed  at 
top,  at  a  h,  and  over  the  plate  a  cylindrical  pot,  containing  a  hand-grenade 
and  bursting-charge,  is  securely  screwed.  The  pot  itself  has  three  flame- 
holes  in  the  part  towards  A.  A  is  a  box  of  cast  iron,  which  is  fastened  to  the 
rocket-case  and  loaded  with  a  bursting-charge  and  incendiary  composition. 
At  A  is  a  firing-rod,  of  iron,  which  stands  upon  a  ball,  n,  of  fulminating 
mercury.  The  instant  the  rocket  strikes  any  object,  the  rod  A  is  driven 
down  upon  the  ball,  causing  it  to  explode,  thus  firing  the  whole  charge  of 
the  pot  and  producing  the  effect.  F^g.  51  is  the  floor  of  the  rocket  with 
the  flame-holes.  Fig.  52  is  a  Congreve  rocket  which  is  fired  without  stick, 
the  screw-thread  wound  around  it  on  the  outside  being  designed  to  give  it 
a  regular  motion  of  revolution  and  thus  direct  its  flight.  Fig.  53  is  a  Con- 
greve rocket  which  scatters  hand-grenades  in  its  flight.  R  is  the  rocket 
proper,  whose  floor  at  T  T  has  flame-holes,  and  whose  filling  is  at  Z.  U  is 
part  of  a  case  which  is  screwed  on,  serving  instead  of  a  stick,  and  in  the 
iron  envelope  of  which  small  hand-grenades,  Y,  are  inserted,  with  a  bursting- 

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140  MILITART  SCIBWCES. 

charge.    At  the  instant  when  the  rocket  is  lighted  the  stick»  U,  is  kindled 
also,  and  the  hand-grenades  are  thrown  out,  one  after  another,  as  it  flies. 

To  give  the  rockets  a  specific  direction  various  apparatus  are  employed ; 
ßg.  54  shows  one  variety.  Here  is  a  tube,  to  which,  as  soon  as  the  rocket 
is  placed  in  it,  the  base  cylinder,  R  X  T  V,  is  screwed  fast,  whose  floor  has 
a  round  orifice,  U,  for  the  stick  of  the  rocket ;  e  e  are  four  cuts  in  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  cylinder,  and  above  these  is  a  ring-formed  groove.  When 
the  rocket  is  placed  in  the  tube,  the  ring  Imvr  is  slipped  over  the  stick  o 
{fig.  55  gives  a  view  of  this  ring  with  the  flanges  /,  m,  n,  p),  its  flanges 
shoved  through  the  cuts  e  e  and  then  turned,  so  as  to  ca>tch  in  the  groove, 
whereby  the  tube  is  closed  below ;  r «  are  small  pipes  for  the  priming. 
Fig.  56  is  a  rocket  wagon :  upon  the  under-frame,  A,  lies  a  bed,  B,  upon 
which  stands  the  chest,  C,  in  which  are  kept  the  rockets  without  stick. 
The  sticks  are  fastened  upon  the  bed  and  only  att^iched  to  the  rockets  as 
wanted  for  use.  E  is  the  principal  trestle,  with  the  socket  G,  for  the  rocket 
fl,  for  which  a  graduated  curve,  F,  gives  the  elevation.  The  stick  J  rests 
upon  the  second  upright  D,  in  which  a  slide,  K,  is  movable  for  the  support 
of  the  stick.  Fig.  bl  is  the  upper  part  of  Congreve's  rocket- wagon  :  upon 
the  beam  D  slides,  by  means  of  the  roller  6,  the  bed  A,  on  which,  at  B,  is 
a  hinge-joint,  receiving  the  tube  E  H,  which  is  fastened  at  F,  and  can  be 
set  higher  or  lower  by  means  of  the  movable  brace,  C ;  in  this  tube  the 
rocket  stick  is  inserted. 


E.    SCIENCE  OF  FORTIFICATION. 

The  Science  of  Fortification  teaches  so  to  prepare  any  point  of  ground  by 
artificial  means  that  upon  it  a  small  number  of  persons  can  maintain  them- 
selves against  the  attacks  of  a  superior  force.  The  point  in  question  may 
be  fortified  only  for  a  short  time,  or  it  may  be  desired  to  prepare  it,  in  time 
of  peace  even,  to  sustain  a  regular  siege ;  and  according  to  these  different 
objects  fortification  is  divided  into  temporary  or  field  fortification,  and  fixed 
or  permanent  fortification.  The  art  of  fortification  has  been  practised  ever 
since  the  weak  have  had  to  defend  themselves  against  the  strong,  and  we 
may  divide  it,  for  our  consideration,  into  three  periods. 


Antiquity. 

The  first  attempts  to  build  stone  walls  were  rude ;  the  stones  were  piled 
one  upon  another,  just  as  they  were  found,  and  the  interstices  of  the  larger 
filled  up  with  smaller  ones.  Soon  they  progressed  so  fai*  as  at  least  to  hew 
the  front  of  the  stone  and  give  the  wall  an  even  exterior.  Gates  and  open* 
ings  in  such  walls  were  at  first  very  simply  made,  and  pL  ^%fig.  2,  gives  a 
picture  not  only  of  the  oldest  Cyclopean  wall  of  Tiryns,  but  shows  also  how 
the  gate  openings  were  covered  only  with  one  larger  stone.  These  open- 
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FORTIFICATION.  141 

ings  must,  of  course,  be  ver}-  parrow,  for  the  arch  had  not  then  been  invented, 
and  the  ways  which  were  devised  to  widen  these  passages  are  shown  in  the 
gates  BXßgs,  3  and  4,  which,  although  they  approach  the  shape  of  the  arch, 
have  yet  nothing  of  its  peculiar  principle  of  support. 

In  process  of  time  the  stones  came  to  be  hewed  rectangularly,  and  thus 
the  wall  not  only  attained  a  more  pleasing  appearance,  but  gained  very 
much  in  strength  and  solidity.  Fig.  I  shows  the  first  beginning  of  such 
walls  and  the  advance  made  in  the  gate  openings.  The  most  ancient 
example  of  bound  masonry  which  has  come  down  to  us  is  in  the  walls  of  the 
city  of  MycenaB,  founded  by  Perseus  (now  the  hamlet  Charvati),  These 
walls  were,  like  those  of  Tiryns,  from  twenty  to  twenty-four  feet  thick 
(ßg,  5).  In  these  walls  is  found  also  the  Gate  of  the  Lions,  with  the  oldest 
example  of  stone-carving,  brought  to  light  in  1842 ;  it  is  represented  in 
our  view.  The  gate  is  five  paces  wide,  and  the  large  slabs  of  the  floor 
show  wheel-marks  ;  above  it  is  narrower,  and  behind  it,  as  well  as  in 
several  places  in  the  wall,  passages  are  found,  covered  with  blocks  of  stone 
leaning  gable-wise  against  each  other.  Upon  the  wall  are  traces  of 
battlements. 

Very  soon  it  was  perceived  that  a  long  line  of  wall  offered  an  inefficient 
defence,  and  towers  were  added  to  this  wall,  which  projected  forwards  from 
it,  and  thus  enabled  its  defenders  to  get  at  the  enemy  at  its  foot.  The  walls 
of  Mycenae,  indeed,  show  a  tower  of  this  kind,  but  the  arrangement  is  seen  in 
greater  perfection  in  the  walls  of  the  city  of  Messene,  founded  by  Epami- 
nondas,  349  years  before  Christ.  PL  42,  fig.  6,  shows  a  portion  of  the  city 
wall  with  such  a  tower ;  fig,  9  gives  the  ground  plan  of  the  same,  and  it  is 
seen  that  the  walls  were  only  faced  with  hewn  stone  and  filled  up  within 
with  rubbish.  This  construction  is  shown  still  more  plainly  in  the  horizontal 
section  through  the  window  of  the  tower  {fig.  7).  Semicircular  towers, 
also,  supposed  to  be  of  this  same  period,  are  found ;  fig.  8  gives  the  ground 
plan  of  such  a  one,  said  to  have  been  discovered  at  Sipylos.  Fig.  12  gives 
the  ground  plan  of  a  portion  of  the  walls  of  Babylon,  showing  a  peculiar 
construction  of  the  hewn  stone  facing  with  loop  holes,  and^^.  13  is  the 
elevation  of  a  gate  with  its  defensive  towers.  In  all  these  constructions 
the  straight  line  alone  prevails,  while  the  walls  of  Assos  in  the  ancient 
Troas  (now  Bairam)  present  already  traces  of  arch.  Fig.  14  shows  the 
ground  plan  for  part  of  these  walls,  with  indications  of  their  peculiar  con- 
struction, and  exhibits  also  the  manner  in  which  the  defence  of  the  gate 
was  especially  provided  for,  it  being  placed  back  between  two  towers,  and 
thus  the  approach  to  it  narrowed.  Fig.  15  gives  the  elevation  of  the  gate 
with  its  two  towers. 

An  already  much  improved  construction  is  displayed  in  the  walls  which 
connected  the  Acropolis  of  Athens  with  the  harbor  of  the  Piraaus.  These 
walls  (pi.  43,  fig.  1,  elevation, ^^.  2,  ground  plan,^^.  5,  section  of  a  tower, 
fig,  8,  ground-plan  of  the  upper  story  of  a  tower,  fig,  4,  vertical  section 
through  the  wall)  were  laid  out  in  straight  lines,  and  received  .their  flank 
defence  by  means  of  the  towers  which  were  carried  up  above  the  wall. 
The  upper  surface  of  the  wall,  25  feet  in  breadth,  had  on  the  outside 

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142  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

machicolated  battlements,  and  on  the  inside  a  raised  breastwork ;  the 
towers  had  several  stories,  divided  from  each  other  by  layers  of  beams  and 
connected  by  steps.  The  towers  were  so  arranged  also  a»  to  afford  the 
only  access  to  the  top  of  the  wall. 

The  walls  of  the  ancient  Falerii,  in  Etruria,  which  so  long  resisted  the 
Romans,  and  was  first  subjected  241  years  before  Christ,  present  the  earliest 
example  of  the  true  arch  construction  in  the  gates  {pL  42,^.  16),  which 
were  flanked  by  two  square  towers.  The  key-stone  of  the  arch  is  orna- 
mented with  ä  man's  head.  The  wall  itself  is  so  entirely  destroyed  that 
of  the  construction  of  the  battlements,  6lc.,  not  a  trace  remains. 

Far  more  perfect  is  the  construction  of  the  arch  shown  in  the  three 
entrances  of  the  Porta  Veneris  of  Spello,  in  Umbria.  This  gate,  of  which 
ßg,  10  is  the  plan  and^^.  11  the  elevation,  displays  besides  more  architec- 
tural decoration. 

Of  great  interest  are  the  walls  of  Pompeii,  as  affording  already  an  exam- 
ple of  a  double  and  even  a  triple  defence.  PI.  43,  ßg,  10,  gives  a  per- 
spective view  of  part  of  these  walls,  as  restored,  for  upon  the  exca- 
vation of  this  city,  which,  as  is  well  known,  was  buried  during  an  eruption 
of  Vesuvius,  79  b.  c,  by  a  shower  of  ashes,  they  appeared  as  shown  in  fig. 
13.  Fig.  11  is  a  horizontal  section  of  the  whole  structure  just  above  the 
surface  of  the  earth  ;  ßg.  12,  a  similar  section  through  the  upper  story  of  a 
tower ;  ßg.  14,  a  vertical  section  through  the  wall ;  ßg.  15,  the  same 
through  a  flanking  tower.  The  lower  part  of  these  walls  belongs  to  the 
most  ancient  constructions  of  this  kind,  and  here  for  the  first  time  water 
conduits  appear ;  these,  however,  as  well  as  the  second  row  of  machicoles 
above,  and  the  terrace  arrangements  upon  the  towers,  belong  to  a  later 
period,  that  of  the  wars  between  Ceesar  and  Pompey.  PL  42,ßg.  18,  is  a 
view  of  the  gate  of  Pompeii  which  lies  in  the  direction  of  the  ancient  Nola, 
whence  it  took  its  name.  This  gate,  which  is  restored  in  our  repre- 
sentation, was  found  completely  destroyed  in  its  upper  part ;  the  arch  con- 
struction, however,  was  unmistakable. 

The  walls  of  ancient  Rome,  dating,  from  the  age  of  Aurelian,  form 
still  a  part  of  the  environment  of  Rome,  and  are  remarkable  for  being 
built  of  brick,  whereas  all  the  structures  hitherto  mentioned  have  been 
of  stone.  PI.  43,  ßg.  6,  gives  a  view  of  the  Capitoline  hill  with  its 
defences  at  the  time  of  ancient  Rome.  Here  also  curtains  of  wall, 
straight  on  the  outer  side,  alternate  with  towers  (ßg.  7)  ;  on  the  inside, 
however,  the  construction  is  different.  Fig.  8  gives  a  perspective  view  erf" 
the  inside  of  the  wall,  and  ßg.  9  the  horizontal  cross-section,  about  seven 
feet  from  the  earth.  From  the  views  here  given,  and  from  the  vertical 
section  through  the  wall  (pi.  42,  ßg.  19),  it  is  seen  that  the  rear  part  of  the 
same  formed  what  was  called  a  cavata,  a  vaulted  passage,  open  on  one 
side,  which  was  raised  above  the  footway,  and  to  which  access  was  foand 
through  the  towers,  while  above  this  covered  gallery  the  wall  appears 
terrace-formed.  The  towers,  of  which  pi.  42,  ßg.  20,  shows  the  vertical 
section,  overtopped  the  walls  considerably,  and  preserved  by  means  of  loop- 
holes, a  defence  in  line  with  the  battlements  upon  these,  while  they  had  a 
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FORTIFICATION.  143 

seöond  higher  up  on  their  terraces.  Fig.  17  is  a  representation  of  the 
Appian  Gate,  which  is  remarkable  as  having  certainly  formed  part  of  the 
most  ancient  fortification,  since  the  lower  portions  of  the  tower  and  the  wall 
are  constructed  of  hewn  stone.  The  superstructure,  with  the  machicolis,  is 
of  brick,  and  was  built  in  the  age  of  Aurelian  ;  while  the  two  towers,  semicir- 
cular in  front,  but  square  within  and  behind,  date  unquestionably  from  the 
earlier  middle  ages. 

As  to  the  temporary  fortification  of  the  ancients,  their  field  intrench- 
ments,  it  was  very  simple,  owing  to  the  mode  of  their  warfare.  Their 
field  fortification  was  confined  mostly  to  the  intrenchment  of  their  camps, 
and  we  have  seen  already  that  this  intrenchment  consisted  merely  of  a 
breastwork  thrown  up  of  earth,  and  secured  with  an  abattis.  In  a  camp, 
however,  which  was  to  be  occupied  for  some  time,  a  permanent  camp  as  it 
was  called,  the  intrenchment  was  made  more  enduring,  and  so  arranged 
that  the  encamped  force  could  resist  a  violent  assault,  or  even  sustain  a 
short  siege.  The  fortifications  of  such  a  camp  {pi,  41,  fig.  1)  had  then  much 
similarity  to  those  of  a  city,  consisting  also  of  long  walls  broken  at  intervals 
by  flanking  towers.  The  walls,  with  their  battlements,  were  low,  however, 
and  rested  upon  a  mound  of  earth.  At  the  junction  of  the  mound  and  the 
wall,  to  render  the  scaling  of  the  last  more  diflicult,  was  set  a  palisade 
of  sharp  stakes  connected  by  cross  beams,  and  a  similar  palisade  was 
placed  at  the  foot,  so  that  the  assailants,  before  they  could  approach  to  scale 
the  wall,  were  exposed  for  some  time  to  the  missiles  of  the  defenders.  At 
the  distance  of  100  paces  from  the  rampart,  another  smaller  breastwork 
was  carried  around  the  camp;  the  space  between  the  two  was  thickly 
set  with  caltrops  {pt.  51,  jßg.  64).  The  towers  were  of  the  same 
height  as  the  rampart,  and  were  used  as  stations  for  the  projectile  engines ; 
wherefore  the  terreplein,  which  ran  in  rear  of  the  rampart,  was  made 
wider  behind  them.  The  winter  camps  were  more  solidly  constructed,  and 
formed  as  it  were  little  cities.  They  were  designed  mostly  for  protecting 
the  frontiers,  and  were  provided  with  lofty  stone  watch-towers,  which 
served  at  the  same  time  for  magazines  and  as  dwellings  for  the  guard 
cohorts  (pi.  35,  fig.  1).  These  watch-towers  were  no  further  distant  from 
each  other  than  the  range  of  distinct  vision,  and  were  protected  by  rows 
of  palisades  and  abattis.  Signals  were  given  from  them  at  night  by  torches 
and  fire,  and  during  the  day  by  smoke,  the  meaning  of  the  signals  being 
agreed  upon  beforehand. 


The  Middle  Ages. 

Fortification  in  the  Middle  Ages  varied  in  general  very  little  from  that 
of  antiquity.  The  predominant  activity  of  the  higher  and  feudal  nobility, 
while  the  burgher  class  in  the  cities  were  even  more  and  more  estranged 
from  the  profession  of  arms,  caused  the  cities  to  remain  open,  or  protected 
at  least  only  by  a  simple  wall,  while  fortification  proper  was  confined  to  the 
castles  of  the  knights  and  the  citadels  erected  for  the  defence  of  the  cities. 

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144  MILITART  SGIENOES. 

The  military  engineers  of  the  middle  ages,  like  our  own,  were  required 
to  solve  the  problem,  so  to  arrange  their  works  that  they  should  mutually 
defend  each  other ;  whence  it  followed  that  the  interior  works  must  com- 
mand the  exterior.  Accordingly  the  fortifications  of  the  middle  ages 
consisted  usually  of  a  ditch  surrounding  the  whole  place,  of  a  closed  circum- 
scribing wall,  and  a  place  of  retreat,  in  which  the  garrison  could  defend 
themselves  even  when  the  wall  was  in  possession  of  the  enemy.  In  the 
cities,  whenever  these  were  walled,  there  was  a  citadel  for  this  purpose ;  ia 
the  castles,  a  tower,  which  was  stronger  than  the  rest,  and  independent  of 
the  other  parts  of  the  fortification. 

In  the  fortification  of  the  middle  ages,  which  we  must  study  in  biu^s  and 
castles,  the  following  objects  are  to  be  considered : 

a.  Ditches.  The  most  ancient  ditches  were  simple  excavations  without 
revetment,  at  least  on  the  outer  side  {pL  44,  fig,  I  •),  for  on  the  inner  the 
vertically  rising  wall  made  the  wall  of  the  ditch.  The  outer  side  of  the 
ditch,  the  counterscarp,  took  the  natural  slope  of  the  earth,  and  not  until 
later  was  this  also  made  steep  and  revetted  with  masonry.  Wherever  it 
was  possible,  the  ditches  were  filled  with  water,  but  frequently  there  was  in 
the  middle  of  the  floor  of  the  main  ditch  a  narrower  ditch,  the  cunette, 
which  alone  was  filled  with  water,  while  the  rest  of  the  ditch  was  dry  (Jig.l  ^). 
The  dry  ditches  were  always  thickly  set  with  caltrops  {pi,  51,  fig.  64). 

b.  Bridges.  The  passage  over  the  ditch  was  by  bridges,  or  rarely  by 
dikes  crossing  it.  The  most  ancient  bridges  were  simple  ;  very  soon,  how- 
ever, wide  drawbridges  were  constructed,  in  which  one  part  was  fixed  and 
one  movable,  so  that  it  could  be  hoisted  up.  PL  44,  fig.  12,  shows  the 
drawbridge  of  St.  John's  gate  at  Provins,  from  without ;  fig.  13,  from 
within.  The  draw  part  was  attached  by  chains  to  two  long  beams,  which 
reached  back  inside  of  the  gate,  were  pulled  down  at  that  end,  and  thus 
raised  up  at  the  other,  carrying  the  draw  with  them.  If  the  draw  was 
very  light,  for  foot  passengers  alone,  it  was  constructed  as  in  fig,  11.  If, 
on  the  contrary,  the  river  was  very  broad,  and  the  bridge  of  stone,  there 
were  usually  one  or  more  towers  in  the  centre  to  afiford  a  multifold  and 
enduring  defence.  PL  46,  fig.  1,  shows  a  bridge  thus  secured  at  Sutri  in 
Italy. 

c.  Outworks.  To  cover  the  bridge,  a  small  fortification  was  erected  on 
the  opposite  bank,  frequently  only  a  breastwork  with  palisades,  sometimes, 
especially  when  a  remote  point  of  importance  was  to  be  secured,  a  sepa- 
rate tower,  which  was  connected  with  the  main  work  by  a  subterranean  or 
other  covered  passage.  PL  44,  fig.  14,  shows  the  ground  plan  of  such  a 
fortification  (bridge-head)  lying  opposite  the  bridge  of  Vincennes ;  Ji^.  15 
gives  the  elevation  also.  PL  46,  fig.  11,  is  the  ground  plan  of  the  old 
Louvre,  where  at  F,  such  a  bridge-head  and  detached  work  may  be  seen. 

d.  Gates.  The  gates  of  old  fortifications  are  almost  always  placed  in  a 
very  thick  walls  and  flanked  by  two  towers,  so  that  the  entrance  could  be 
more  readily  defended.  Often  the  gate  is  double,  and  between  the  two 
there  will  be  found  a  court  inclosed  by  walls.  The  old  gate  of  San 
Vincente  in  Spain  (fig.  2)  shows  such  a  court,  and  the  gallery  which  am* 

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FORTIFICATION.  146 

nects  tbe  towers  is  likewise  devoted  to  defence.  The  round  building 
{fig-  3),  which  represents  the  gate  at  Brussels  (towards  Namur),  has  also 
an  inner  court  for  defence.  In  n^ost  cases  there  will  be  found,  besides 
the  main  gate,  a  small  gate  for  foot  passengers  {pi  44,  fig$.  12  and  13). 
Between  the  two  main  gates  there  was  yet  another  means  of  defence, 
namely,  a  grating  of  strong  iron  bars  or  oak  beams  (portcullis,  j9/.  46,  ßg.  4, 
view ;  ßg.  5,  plan),  which  was  usually  kept  hoisted  (by  means  of  a  wind- 
lass), and  dropped  only  at  the  moment  of  need.  This  grate,  B,  lay  between 
the  two  gateways,  A  and  B,  in  a  groove  in  the  wall  of  the  two  gate  towers, 
DD.  Then  double  portcullises  were  found,  as  the  groove  in  the  section 
ßg.  1  shows.  Fig.  6  shows  the  inner  view  of  this  gate,  with  the  wicket 
which  led  upon  the  tower  and  to  the  machinery  of  the  portcullis. 

e.  Towers.  The  long  lines  of  fortification  were  flanked  by  towers,  and 
important  points  of  the  works  were  also  strengthened  by  such  towers ;  they 
were  of  various  forms,  sometimes  rectangular  and  vertical,  as  the  towera 
of  Narbonne,  with  small  watch-towers  at  the  comers  (pi.  4&,ßg.  3),  round, 
oval,  conical,  pyramidal,  triangular,  with  the  corners  cut  oflf,  and  battle- 
ments like  the  tower  of  Beaucaire  (ßg.  2) ;  this  last  when  they  were  at 
very  salient  angles.  Frequently  they  were  strengthened  by  buttresses 
running  from  bottom  to  top,  as  in  the  tower  of  Vez  (ßg.  4). 

/.  Battlements,  Turrets.  The  crest  of  the  wall  was  set  with  a  kind 
of  stone  shield,  the  battlements,  behind  which  the  defenders  found  shelter 
from  the  hostile  missiles,  and  which  were  in  use  as  early  as  the  time  of 
Homer.  The  battlements  received  the  greatest  variety  of  forms,  and  were 
always  wider  than  the  intervals  between  them.  They  were  either  square 
above  (ßg.  6),  or  pointed,  or  round  (ßg.  7),  or  crenellated  (ßg.  9),  or  pyra- 
midical  (ßg.  8),  or  furnished  with  a  little  sloping  roof,  as  in  the  Palace  of 
Justice  at  Paris  (ßg.  10). 

g.  Machicoulis.  Windows  and  turrets  were  furnished  also  with  certain 
defences  to  gall  the  foe  at  the  foot  of  the  wall.  For  this  purpose  there  lay 
above  the  windows  and  gates  small  projections  (machicoulis),  with  openings 
in  their  floors  (pi.  44, ßg.  10,  of  the  Hotel  de  Sens  at  Paris),  through  which 
stones,  melted  lead,  hot  pitch,  or  the  like,  could  be  dropped  upon  the 
assailants.  The  advantage  of  such  contrivances  was  very  soon  perceived, 
and  the  whole  wall  was  provided  with  similar  openings.  The  crest  of  the 
wall  in  the  old  Bastile  displays  this  arrangement ;  pi.  45,  ßg.  12,  B,  are  the 
battlements :  A,  is  one  of  those  openings,  which,  as  is  seen,  went  from  the 
crest  of  the  wall  through  the  cornice ;  in  time  of  peace  they  were  closed 
with  grates.  Fig.  13  shows  the  whole  arrangement  more  clearly  in  section  : 
A  is  the  wall ;  C,  the  battlement ;  and  B,  the  moucharaby  or  machicoulis, 
which  goes  through  the  cornice,  D.  The  walls  of  Avignon  (ßg.  14)  and 
>f  the  castle  of  Mehun  (ßg.  11),  &c.,  had  similar  arrangements. 

h.  Platforms.  The  towers  had,  above  the  battlements,  either  conical 
or  pyramidal  roofs,  or  they  were  covered  at  top  with  a  flat  platform.  For 
the  protection  of  the  watchmen  stationed  upon  them,  there  were  little 
turrets  at  the  corners  (pi.  44,  ßg.  4) ;  and  to  shelter  the  steps  from  the  rain 
a  tower  was  erected  over  the  stairway,  the  lantern  (ßg.  7). 

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146  MILITARY  SCffiNCEa 

t.  Windows,  Loopholes.  The  windows  and  loopholes  in  the  old  walls 
and  towers  are  generally  very  narrow,  and  the  first  lay  so  high  (pi.  44, 
fig,  8)  that  they  could  not  easily  be  scaled.  The  loopholes  are  very  narrow 
at  the  outer  side,  and  grow  wider  inwards.  Their  forms  are  various. 
PL  46,  figs.  12-19,  give  the  most  common,  some  of  which  are  also  shown 
on  pL  45,  figs.  6  and  14.  The  loopholes  were  so  constructed,  moreover, 
that  even  the  balls  or  bolts  which  struck  in  them  could  not  penetrate  into 
the  interior  of  the  room  or  tower.  PI.  46,  figs.  20  and  21,  show  the  sec- 
tion of  such  loopholes :  AB,  is  the  opening  of  the  loophole  in  the  wall ; 
CA  is  a  small  vault,  against  which  the  ball  or  bolt  coming  from  below,  as 
from  D,  for  example,  must*  strike  and  rebound,  instead  of  passing  into  the 
interior. 

k.  Fortress  Towers,  Donjons.  The  interior  of  a  burgh  or  fortress  was 
usually,  as  has  already  been  mentioned,  protected  by  a  particular  work,  the 
redoubt.  The  fortress-towers,  donjons  as  they  were  called,  either  formed 
part  of  the  enceinte  itself  or  lay  entirely  isolated,  as  in  the  former  castle  of 
Vincennes  (pi.  4Ayfig.  14,  plan  ;  fig.  16,  perspective  view).  Where  these 
towers  are  extensive  enough,  they  have  also  a  redoubt  in  and  for  themselves. 
The  walls  of  these  donjons  are  of  extraordinary  thickness,  and,  not  to 
diminish  the  interior  space,  the  stairs  are  usually  either  in  a  tower  by  them- 
selves, or  wholly  or  in  part  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall  of  the  main  tower. 
The  tower  of  Montlhery  {fig.  5,  ground  plan,  fig.  6,  view  of  the  stairs) 
affords  a  good  illustration  of  this.  A  is  the  interior  hexagonal  space  of  the 
very  thick  tower.  The  stairs  are  carried  up,  at  first,  in  a  separate  tower 
B,  and  pass  from  that,  by  means  of  a  strait  gallery  in  the  staircase,  into  the 
wall  of  the  tower.  The  walls  have  loopholes,  which  light  at  the  same  time 
the  interior  of  the  tower  and  the  staircase.  In  order  to  bring  large  objects 
on  to  the  tower,  there  were  trap-doors  in  every  story.  The  ground-floors 
served  as  magazines,  and  could  be  reached  only  from  the  interior  of  the 
tower.  The  windows  of  the  various  stories  were  not  one  over  the  other, 
and,  from  the  great  thickness  of  the  walls,  the  recesses  of  these  windows 
made  little  rooms  by  themselves,  which  had  stone  seats  {fig.  8).  Some- 
times very  peculiar  constructions  are  found  in  these  donjons.  An  instance 
of  this  is  the  tower  of  Clansayes,  in  the  Department  of  Dr6me,  which  has 
a  different  shape  in  every  story  {fig.  2).  The  ground-floor,  designated  by 
A  in  our  plan,  forms  a  square  with  a  pilaster  buttress  on  each  side.  The 
loopholes  present  a  more  complicated  than  effective  system.  The  middle 
story,  of  which  B  is  the  plan,  forms  a  regular  octagon,  resting  upon  arches 
turned  in  the  wall.  The  third  story,  finally,  is  a  perfect  square  with  rounded 
ancles. 

i.  Subterranean  Space.  Most  castles,  and  particularly  the  donjons, 
had  a  greater  or  less  extent  of  subterranean  space,  which  was  devoted  to 
various  uses.  It  was  occupied  generally  for  prisons  or  magazines ;  some- 
times there  were  long  galleries  running  underneath  the  ditches  and  having 
an  exit  far  out  in  the  open  field,  which  were  designed  to  afford  means  of 
communication  for  the  garrison  with  the  world  outside,  when  the  fortress 
was  beleaguered.  PL  44,  fig.  9,  represents  a  magazine  under  the  donj<Hi 
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FORTIFICATION.  147 

of  Yiviers.  A  particular  species  of  dungeons  were  the  so  called  oubliettes, 
into  which  prisoners  condemned  to  die  of  hunger  were  thrown.  One  of  the 
best  preserved  specimens  of  these  is  afforded  by  the  tower  of  Chinon  {fig,  8, 
in  section).  The  door  A  leads  immediately  into  the  oubliette ;  about  ten 
feet  above  the  door  are  traces  of  beams,  on  which,  doubtless,  was  a  floor 
with  a  trap.     The  object  of  the  oblique  piece  C  C  is  not  easy  to  discover. 

m.  Fortresses.  We  shall  give  here,  by  a  few  examples,  all  the  difierent 
parts  of  a  fortress  or  castle-fort  in  connexion,  and  for  this  purpose  we  select 
the  Old  Louvre  at  Paris,  of  which  pi.  46,  fig.  11,  represents  the  ground  plan. 
A  is  a  round  tower,  the  donjon  standing  isdated  in  the  middle  of  the  court. 
B  are  drawbridges,  leading  over  the  ditches  in  front  of  the  three  gates. 
C  are  defensive  towers,  of  which  the  four  at  the  corners  project  considerably 
beyond  the  face  of  the  wall,  that  they  may  better  flank  the  straight  lines 
(curtains).  D  are  the  dwellings,  which  lie  in  the  curtains.  E  is  the  castle 
chapel,  and  F  detached  works  beyond  the  ditch.  The  now  destroyed 
Bastile  in  Paris,  of  which  fig.  9  is  the  ground  plan,  fig.  8,  a  view,  and 
fig.  10,  a  section,  formed  nearly  a  parallelogram,  which  was  defended  by 
eight  towers.  A,  cylindrical  upon  conical  foundations,  flanking  the  curtains, 
B,  whose  battlements  and  other  defensive  arrangements  we  have  already 
mentioned.  Over  the  ditch  H  leads  the  drawbridge  G  to  the  only  entrance 
of  the  fortress.  The  two  courts  C  and  D  were  separated  by  the  middle 
building,  £,  which  contained  the  dwelling  of  the  commandant  and  the 
barracks.  F  were  guard-rooms,  &c.,  for  the  garrison.  The  towers,  vaulted 
within,  were  divided  into  stories,  the  floors  of  which  were  double,  to  prevent 
all  communication  bet^reen  the  stories.  Under  some  of  the  towers  oubliettes 
were  placed.  PL  44,  fig.  16,  gives  a  view  of  the  Castle  of  Rheinstein, 
belonging  to  the  Prince  of  Prussia,  restored  in  the  spirit  of  the  middle 
ages. 

A  remarkable  defensive  fortification  is  the  Wall  of  China,  represented  in 
pi  45,  fig.  1,  which  is,  according  to  some  authorities,  600,  according  to 
others,  1200  miles  in  length,  20  feet  high,  25  feet  thick  at  bottom  and  10  at 
top,  and  erected  between  China  proper  and  Mongolia  and  Tungusia  as  a 
security  against  hostile  inroads.  It  passes  over  mountains,  valleys,  and  rivers, 
and  at  regular  intervals  a  tower  is  erected.  Later  travellers  state  that  its 
dimensions  as  given  above  are  much  exaggerated ;  that  though  in  some 
portions  well  built,  in  many  parts  it  was  little  better  than  a  low  mud  wall, 
and  that  it  is  now  in  a  very  dilapidated  condition.  This  wall  was  commenced 
247  to  210  years  before  Christ  by  the  Emperor  Tsching- Whang,  and  con- 
sisted at  first  of  detached  portions,  which  were  united  into  a  whole  not  earlier 
than  the  fifteenth  century. 


Modern  Times, 

The  art  of  fortification  has  in  modem  times  made  very  great  advances, 
the  works  especially  of  Erard  Bar  le  Due,  Sturm,  Rimpler,  above  all  the 
improvements  of  Yauban»  Cohom,  and  later,  of  Carnot,  Virgin,  Cormon- 

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148.  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

taigne,  and  Montalembert,  have  brought  this  branch  of  military  science  to 
a  very  high  degree  of  perfection 

1.  FHeld  Fortification. 

The  object  of  every  fortification  is  so  to  surround  a  spot  with  obstacles, 
that  a  division  of  troops  occupying  the  same  may  defend  themselves  with 
advantage  against  superior  numbers.  If  only  the  passing  movements  of  an 
army  are  to  be  thus  supported,  the  fortifications  are  but  simple.  A  fuiida* 
mental  principle  is,  that  every  point  of  the  work  shall  be  swept  by  two  fires, 
ä  direct  and  a  cross  or  flanking  fire,  taking  the  enemy  on  the  side ;  the 
distance,  therefore,  from  one  flanking  point  to  another  must  never  exceed 
good  musket  range,  that  is,  from  300  to  480  feet. 

Field  works  are  divided  into  three  classes :  open  works,  closed  works, 
and  fortified  lines. 

a.  Open  Works.  All  works  not  entirely  inclosed  by  their  parapet  are 
said  to  be  open.  They  are,  according  to  their  form,  I,  simple  redans  or 
tenailles,  which  consist  of  the  straight  lines  of  fire  (faces)  meeting  each  other 
under  a  greater  or  less  angle,  sometimes  broken  and  furnished  with  flanks. 
If  it  is  desired  to  protect  the  salient  by  a  cross-fire,  the  flanks  are  broken 
to  the  front  {pi  47,  ßg.  5).  The  redan  bab  has  the  flanks  cd^  which 
defend  the  dead-angle  in  front  of  the  salient  a  hy  h  cross-fire.  The  flanks 
must  never  be  more  than  half  musket-shot  distance  from  the  salient  angle, 
and  must  stand  perpendicularly  to  the  face  on  which  they  belong.  If  the 
ground  is  too  extended  for  a  simple  redan,  it  is  then  doubled  {pi.  ^l^fig.  6, 
gabag)y  and  here  also  the  flanks  bdc  can  be  broken  to  the  front.  Such 
double  iredans  are  called  swallow-tails,  and  double  swallow-tails  when  there 
are  three  salient  and  two  re-entering  angles  {fig,  7),  in  which  case  the 
flanks  are  still  broken  forward.  The  salient  angles  must  not  be  less  than  60^, 
the  re-entering  not  less  than  90^.  If  the  extent  of  the  space  to  be  defended 
or  other  local  circumstances  render  it  requisite,  a  system  of  tenailles  is 
employed  {fig,  9) ;  the  side  of  the  polygon  must  not,  however,  exceed  180 
feet.  When  a  longer  polygon  side  than  this  is  to  be  defended,  a  a  {fig.  10), 
it  is  broken  repeatedly  and  a  bastion  constructed  upon  it.  For  this  purp)ose 
the  triangle  a aa  ia  constructed,  from  the  two  new  and  the  old  polygon 
sides,  and  in  the  centre  c  of  the  new  polygon  side  the  perpendicular  c  6  is 
erected,  which  for  the  square  is  J,  for  the  pentagon  i^,  and  for  the  hexagon, 
&c.,  i  of  the  side  in  length.  Through  all  the  points  a  and  6,  undetermined 
lines,  a  x,  are  (Jrawn,  and  a  d  made  equal  to  •  a  a,  by  which  the  faces  of  the 
bastion  are  given.  From  d  perpendiculars  are  let  fsdl  upon  a  x^  thus  obtain- 
ing the  flanks  of  the  bastion,  and  if  now  the  extremities  of  the  opposite 
flanks  are  united  by  straight  lines,  the  curtains,  we  have  the  complete  trace 
of  the  bastioned  front. 

b.  Inclosed  Works.  If  the  point  to  be  defended  is  exposed  to  attack 
on  all  sides,  the  defences  must  then  surround  it,  thus  forming  an  inclosed 
work.  The  dimensions  of  such  works,  and  consequently  the  length  of  their 
polygon  sides,  depend  upon  the  strength  of  the  assigned  garrison,  ai^d 

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FORTIFICATION.  149 

whether  they  are  to  be  provided  with  artillery.  Inclosed  works  are  either 
those  whose  polygon  sides  are  straight  sides,  redoubts,  or  flanked  works, 
whose  polygon  sides  are  therefore  broken  field-forts.  Redoubts  may  be 
triangular,  square,  or  polygonal,  but  with  the  number  of  sides  increases 
also  the  number  of  dead-angles  (which  cannot  be  defended),  and  therefore 
redoubts  with  more  than  four  sides  are  unserviceable.  The  side  of  a 
redoubt  which  is  to  be  defended  only  by  infantry,  must  not  inclose  more 
than  96  feet,  and  then  a  garrison  of  360  to  390  men  is  required.  If  defended 
by  artillery,  from  12  to  18  feet  are  reckoned  along  the  crest  for  every 
piece.  In  estimating  the  interior  space  of  a  redoubt,  nine  square  feet  are 
reckoned  for  each  man,  and  for  each  gun  360  square  feet.  Redoubts  ar^ 
never  constructed  with  sides  of  less  than  42  feet 

Field  forts  may  be  regular  or  irregular.  The  regular  are  :  star  forts,  and 
forts  with  half  or  with  whole  bastions.  &ar  forts  are  redoubts  having 
their  side  once  broken,  so  that  they  have  only  salient  and  re-entering 
angles  and  no  flanks ;  they  have  usually  from  8  to  12  points.  A  star  fort, 
if  it  have  not  more  than  twelve  sides,  is  laid  out  by  drawing  a  polygon  of 
the  given  number  of  sides,  in  such  a  manner  that  these  sides,  b  b  {fig.  36), 
are  of  the  length  which  is  to  be  given  to  the  faces  of  the  work.  Then 
upon  each  polygon  side  construct  an  equilateral  triangle,  baby  and  the  line 
of  fire  is  completed.  If,  however,  the  position  of  the  ground  determines  the 
salient  angles  of  the  star  fort,  then  in  the  centre  of  the  sides  of  the  polygon 
uniting  the  vertices  of  the  salient  angles,  perpendiculars  are  erected,  which 
are  made  |  the  length  of  their  sides,  and  upon  the  points  thus  obtained  the 
faces  are  drawn. 

Forts  with  half  bastions  are  laid  out  as  follows :  If  a  triangle  is  to  be 
defended  with  half  bastions  {pi.  47,  fig.  11),  draw  a  triangle,  ///,  whose 
sides  have  collectively  |  the  length  of  the  total  line  of  fire  (on  which  the 
defenders  stand),  prolong  the  sides,///,  of  this  triangle  towards  a,  so  that 
fa  =  \ff.  Lay  oflffrom/to  e,  a  distance  equal  to  ^//,  and  erect,  at  e,  a 
perpendicular,  which  intersects  the  line  af  at  d,  and  completes  the  half 
bastion,  a  d  being  the  face,  de  the  flank,  and  e  a  the  curtain.  If  a  square  is 
to  be  half  bastioned  {fig,  12),  erect  in  the  middle,  c,  of  the  polygon  side,  a  a, 
the  perpendicular,  cb  =  \  aa,  draw  the  lines  bcx,  lay  off,  upon  these  lines 
of  defence,  the  parts  ad=^  aa^  and  let  fall  from  d  the  perpendiculars,  de^ 
upon  the  corresponding  lines  of  defence ;  g  h,  are  the  lines  of  direction  of 
the  defenders'  fire.  The  polygon  side  of  a  square  with  half  bastion  may  be 
240  to  600  feet,  and  the  polygon  is  the  stronger  the  more  sides  it  has. 

Forts  with  whole  bastions  belong  rather  to  permanent  fortifications.  To 
construct  them,  erect  in  the  centre,  c,  of  the  polygon  side,  a  a  {fig.  13),  a 
perpendicular,  c  b,  which  for  the  square  must  be  |,  for  the  pentagon  |,  and 
for  the  hexagon,  &c.,  },  of  the  length  of  the  polygon  side.  Then  draw 
firom  a,  through  the  points  b,  the  lines  abx,  make  ad  =  ^  aa,  and  let  fall 
from  d,  the  perpendiculars  de,  upon  the  corresponding  lines  of  defence, 
when  ee  are  the  curtains,  de  the  flanks,  and  da  the  faces  of  the  work. 
The  curtain,  which  in  the  front,  A,  is  straight,  may  be  broken  outwards 
as  in  the  front;  C,  once,  or  twice  as  in  the  front,  B,  where //=  ^ee.    By 

ICOHOaRAPHIC  INOYCLOPilDU. — vou  m.  40  626 


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150  MILITART  SGIENGES. 

the  last  construction  an  effective  fire  is  obtained  in  front  c^  the  faces  firom 
the  line  e/. 

c.  Fortified  Lines.  When  the  ground  to  be  defended  has  a  great 
extent  in  one  direction  this  long  line  must  be  intrenched.  This  may  be 
done  by  lines  without  or  by  lines  with  flanks,  forming  salient  and  re-entering 
angles.  Merely  straight  or  curved  lines  not  flanked  present  a  very  poor 
defence,  wherefore  they  are  broken,  like  the  teeth  of  a  saw  (en  cremaiUlire), 
by  which  they  are  flanked  towards  one  side.  Let  it  be  the  line  N  {pi  47, 
fig.  1)  which  is  to  be  defended ;  it  is  first  divided  into  lengths  of  360  or 
140  feet,  according  as  a  single  defence,  as  at  A,  or  a  double  one,  as  at  B,  is 
ffesired.  Then  at  d,  perpendiculars  are  erected,  da  =  48  feet,  and  the 
lines  b  a  drawn,  upon  which,  at  a,  the  perpendiculars,  b  a,  are  erected  as 
flanks.  Cremailli^res  have,  however,  many  disadvantages,  and  it  is  prefer- 
able, therefore,  to  break  the  l^g  lines  by  simple  redans  {fig.  2^).  The 
lengths,  dd,  amount  to  720  feet,  the  perpendiculars,  da,  are  130  feet,  and 
the  half  gorge  of  the  redan,  (f  6,  is  90  feet.  Here,  however,  the  defence  is 
good  only  before  Y,  and  in  front  of  a  lies  a  dead  angle.  It  is  better,  there- 
fore, to  make  dd  only  480  feet  (fig.  2*),  while  da  and  db  maintain  the 
same  dimensions  as  above,  whereby  not  only  X  but  the  angles  in  front  of  a 
are  defended.  A  still  better  defence  is  obtained  by  the  arrangement  on  the 
line  M  N  (fig.  3),  where  the  curtains  lying  between  the  redans,  bdyba,  are 
broken  to  the  front,  a  perpendicular,  c  6  =  180  feet,  being  erected  at  c, 
upon  the  lines  constructed  as  in  fig.  2\  and  the  new  faces,  cb  and  6c, 
drawn.  Is  the  time  so  limited  that  redans  cannot  be  constructed  the  line 
MN  (fig.  4)  is  broken  only  into  salient  and  re-entering  angles,  db,dbdy 
by  means  of  the  perpendiculars,  cb=  ISO  feet,  where  dd  is  720  feet 
Here,  however,  dead  angles  are  made  at  X.  Wherever  time  and  ground 
permit  the  bastioned  line,  that  is  always  the  most  advantageous  arrange- 
ment (fig.  8),  but  the  distance  between  the  salients  must  be  at  least  ^K) 
feet  and  not  over  720.  To  fortify  the  line  M  N  in  this  manner,  at  the 
centre,  c,  of  the  polygon  side,  a  a,  the  perpendicular,  c  =  {•  a  a,  is  erected, 
the  lines,  abx, drawn,  the  faces,  ah  =  ^aa,  laid  off,  and  the  flanks  hm;  let 
fall  the  perpendiculars  upon  the  lines  of  defence,  abx;  then  mm  are  the 
curtains,  which  can  likewise  be  broken  forward,  as  in  the  front  B,  or  even 
twice,  as  at  Y,  in  the  front  C.  For  the  straight  curtains,  as  at  D,  the 
ditches  must  be  dug  out  at  c  P  F  and  at  cO,  else  the  shot  coming  from  OP 
and  F  will  not  effectually  sweep  the  salient,  X. 

d.  The  Profile.  The  chief  part  in  fortification  is  the  breastwork,  dc 
ba  fa  (fig.  21),  which  is  to  protect  the  defenders  from  the  l)ostile  shot. 
Its  thickness  is  regulated  by  the  penetration  of  balls  into  earth,  and  against 
musket  balls  must  be  not  less  than  three  feet,  but  against  12-pounder  balls 
as  much  as  12  to  14  feet.  The  exterior  slope, /a,  is  regulated  acc<Nrding  to 
the  consistency  of  the  earth,  the  steeper  it  can.be  the  better.  In  fixmt 
of  the  breastwork  lies  the  ditch,  and  its  profile  Z  is  governed  by  the 
profile  Y,  as  it  is  to  furnish  the  material  for  the  embankment ;  it  is  den- 
rable,  however,  to  give  it  depth  rather  than  breadth.  The  slopes  may 
be  steep^.  as  they  are  cut  in  the  solid  earth.  The  outer  slope  is  called  the 
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FORTIFICATION.  l53 

counterscarp,  the  inner  the  scarp.  Between  the  breastwork  and  the  scarp 
an  off-set  is  left  {fig, 22 ad)  called  the  berme.  The  slopes  must  be  revetted 
whenever  possible,  either  with  sods  or  with  fascines,  wicker-work,  gabions 
or  boards  (fig.  21,/>p),  or  with  trunks  of  trees  (fig,  22,pp).  To  secure  the 
slope, /g"  (fig.  23),  against  being  mounted,  it  can  be  palisaded,  by  setting 
trunks  of  trees,  w,  10  to  12  inches  in  diameter  and  10  to  12  feet  long,  4  to  5 
feet  in  the  earth,  at  g,  and  sharpening  them  at  the  top.  Trunks  of  trees  may 
may  be  also  set  obliquely  in  the  berme  space,  as  ^y  at  r  (fig.  23).  These 
are  called  fraises,  and  are  secured  above  by  a  transvere  sill,  t.  The  inte- 
rior slope  of  the  breastwork  (ab,  fig.  21)  is  very  steep  (12  to  18  inches)  iq 
order  that  the  soldier  may  get  near  enough  to  the  crest,  af.  The  banquette 
for  the  defenders,  b  c,  is  regulated  in  breadth  according  to  the  number  of  ranks 
it  is  to  contain,  and  varies  ifrom  3  to  7  feet  (figs.  21,  22,  28, 24).  Its  slope, 
dc,  is  regulated  according  to  the  elevation, -and  where  the  rampart  is  very 
high  is  made  in  steps  (fig.  22).  If  the  work  is  to  contain  cannon  and  the 
banquette  is  not  wide  enough  to  receive  them,  an  especial  banquette  (bar- 
bette) is  constructed  for  that  purpose,  provided  with  ramps.  Figs.  29 — 34 
show  such  barbettes.  Fig.  29  is  a  simple  barbette,  X,  upon  a  face  or 
flank.  Fig.  30,  a  ramp  for  mounting  the  terre-plein  or  broad  banquette. 
The  axis  of  the  ramp,  top  v,  is  perpendicular  to  the  line  of  fire.  Fig.  31  is 
a  narrow  barbette  for  three  pieces,  Y  X  Y,  in  the  salient  of  a  bastion,  which 
is  cut  off  at  M?  t?  /  tp  and  «?  t>  a  a  are  the  platforms  for  the  guns.  Fig.  32  is 
a  wide  barbette,  for  three  platforms,  w  v  and  tp,  for  the  pieces,  X  and  y,  in 
the  bastion  salient.  Fig,  33  is  a  narrow  barbette  for  one  platform,  to  v,  for 
a  single  piece,  X,  in  the  salient.  Fig.  34  is  a  wide  barbette,  for  one  piece, 
X,  for  side  defence,  in  the  salient ;  vto  is  the  pau  couple  of  the  salient,  b  z, 
for  infantry.  If  the  barbettes  are  not  high  enough  to  permit  the  pieces 
to  fire  over  the  crest  of  the  breastwork,  af  (fig.  23,  to  fire  en  bar- 
bette), then  embrasures  must  be  cut  for  them  which  are  wider  in  front  than 
in  rear,  and  are  either  direct  or  oblique  on  the  line  of  fire.  The  inner 
openings  of  embrasures  are  blinded,  either  by  hurdles  set  before  them  or  by 
a  shutter,  A  (pi.  4n,  fig.  35),  where  two  posts,  g"^,  with  a  cross  tie,  m,  are 
secured  into  the  parapet  on  which  the  shutter.  A,  hangs  by  hinges  and  sta- 
ples, X.  The  sides  of  embrasures,  called  their  cheeks,  are  revetted,  either 
with  fascines  or  gabions.  The  superior  slope  of  the  parapet,  af  (fig.  24), 
is  so  drawn  that  its  prolongation  strikes  the  surface  at  the  point  t,  unless 
there  is  upon  the  counterscarp  a  second  parapet,  i  kp  g,  for  defence,  when 
the  prolongation  of  the  superior  slope  must  strike  the  point/?.  The  space 
between  the  counterscarp  and  the  parapet,  ikpg,  is  called  the  covered  way. 

If  circumstances  require  that  a  work  be  so  placed  that  from  neighboring 
points  it  can  be  overlooked  and  fired  into  (commanded),  then  traverses 
tkil  (fig.  36)  are  constructed  in  the  interior.  The  passages  e  e  are  covered 
by  small  mounds  of  earth  (tambours)  z.  Such  tambours  are  placed  also 
before  the  entrances  of  works.    Over  the  ditches  light  bridges,  y,  are  carried. 

e.  Internal  Defences.  In  great  works  there  are  other  interior  defences 
constructed,  by  means  of  which  the  garrison  can  maintain  themselves  for  a 
time,  even  after  the  main  work  has  been  carried.     Such  works  are  called 

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152  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

redoubts;  and  these  likewise  may  be  either  inclosed  or  open  redoubts« 
They  must  always  be  large  enough  to  contain  two  thirds  of  the  garrison, 
and  their  form  is  governed  by  that  of  the  main  work.  In  inclosed  works 
the  redoubts  are  so  placed  {fig,  25)  that  their  fire  will  principally  sweep  the 
dead-angles  of  the  main  work,  as  upon  these  points,  which  have  only  a 
secondary  defence,  the  attack  is  chiefly  directed.  In  open  works,  those 
especially  which  are  so  frequently  thrown  up  to  cover  the  passage  of  a  river, 
the  redoubts  {fig.  26)  are  also  constructed  with  fixed  parapets,  according  to 
the  importance  of  the  main  work ;  and  a  second  redoubt,  of  palisades,  is  in 
such  cases  often  added.  If  the  works  are  less  permanently  constructed,  the 
redoubts  are  made  only  of  palisades  {fig,  27),  or  of  felled  trees  (abattis),  or 
the  so-called  Spanish  riders  (chevaux  de  frise,  ^^.  28),  beams,  through 
which,  in  all  directions,  long  stakes  shod  with  iron  at  the  points  are  thrust 
To  obtain  in  permanent  works  a  better  defence  for  the  ditch,  a  subterranean 
block-house  {fig,  47)  is  constructed  in  the  counterscarp  of  the  salients, 
under  the  parapet /e  d  {fig,  46,  F,  section,  and  fig.  47  view),  into  which  is 
a  subterranean  entrance  from  D,  by  the  gallery  6.  X  Y  is  the  line  of  the 
horizon,  b  a  the  prolongation  of  the  superior  slope  of  the  parapet  In  slight 
works,  a  ditch-defence  is  obtained  by  setting  the  palisades  w  {fig.  23)  a 
small  distance  from  the  scarp,  and  arranging  them  with  loopholes. 

/.  Defensive  Means  which  aee  Part  op  the  Works  themselves.  The 
covered  way  is  the  space  dd  from  the  edge  of  the  counterscarp  {pi.  47^  fig. 
86,  front  K  K)  to  the  breastwork  which  is  thrown  up  in  the  open  field,  and 
affords  a  low  defence.  This  construction  is  found  only  in  large  forts ;  for 
small  ones  only  a  simple  embankment  is  thrown  up,  the  glacis  to  to  {fig.  36, 
front  H  H).  The  covered  way  is  from  eight  to  ten  feet  in  width.  To  pro- 
tect the  garrison  from  being  taken  in  flank  by  the  fire  of  the  enemy  (enfi- 
laded), cross-dikes  (traverses)  are  thrown  up  on  the  long  lines  u  u  {ßg.  36 
front  L  L).  To  strengthen  the  covered  way,  places  of  arms  are  established 
in  the  re-entering  angles  dd  and  h;  in  the  salients  they  are  found  ready 
formed  at  drf  and  v ;  they  must  also  be  covered  by  traverses.  The  traverses 
lie  close  to  the  counterscarp,  and  are  notched  in  the  parapet  of  the  covered 
way  for  the  passage  around  them.  Even  where  there  is  only  a  glacis  places 
of  arms  are  sometimes  established  in  the  re-entering  angles  q  q  {fig.  36, 
front  H  H) ;  these  serve,  however,  principally  as  mustering  places  for  sal- 
lies,  and  are  sunk  in  the  natural  earth.  If  it  is  desired  to  strengthen  the 
defence  still  more,  a  second  glacis  is  thrown  up,  xx  {fig.  36,  G  X),  which, 
however,  must  be  commanded  by  the  first,  and  therefore  renders  a  higher 
parapet  necessary. 

Where  it  is  possible  the  ditches  should  be  provided  with  water,  which, 
when  the  ground  is  swampy,  is  carried  to  its  place  by  collecting  ditches. 
At  the  foot  of  the  glacis  and  in  the  dry  ditches  irons  de  hup  are  dug,  holes 
of  eight  to  ten  feet  deep,  running  down  to  a  point,  in  which  a  sharp  stake 
is  set.  Palisades,  also,  and  abattis  are  good  defences  at  the  foot  of  the 
glacis  and  in  the  dry  ditches,  as  they  detain  the  assailants  within  the  range 
of  fire.  The  chevaux  de  frise,  already  mentioned  in  treating  of  redoubts, 
caltrops,  and  small  thickly  set  stakes,  driven  firmly  into  the  ground  upon  the 
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FORTIFICATIOK  153 

glacis,  also  effect  this  object ;  and  fougasses,  a  kind  of  mine  which  we  shall 
soon  describe,  serve  to  destroy  the  assailing  foe. 

g.  Defilement.  In  the  disposition  of  fortifications  care  must  be  taken 
that  they  are  not  so  placed  as  to  be  looked  into  from  any  adjacent  heights. 
By  exact  measurements,  therefore,  the  command  must  be  determined,  and 
the  parapet  made  so  high  that  it  cannot  be  looked  over,  when  the  work  is 
said  to  be  "  defiled"  or  "  defiladed  ;'*  or  else  traverses  are  thrown  up,  or  such 
commanding  heights  as  it  is  impossible  to  defile  from  are  included  within 
the  circuit  of  the  works.  The  method  of  defilement  is  as  follows.:  Let  it  be 
the  redoubt  mnop  (pi  47, ßg,  14)  which  is  to  be  defiled  from  the  heights 
ABB,  the  first  step  is  to  establish  the  plane  of  defilement,  vt  (figs.  15,  16), 
so  that  it  shall  pass  four  feet  six  inches  above  the  highest  of  the  points 
ABB,  and  through  a  point  Z,  four  feet  nine  inches  above  the  plain  at  the 
foot  of  the  glacis.  In  this  plane  v  t,  the  crest  of  the  ramparts  n  and  p  (fig. 
15)  must  lie.  These  ramparts,  however,  would  be  very  lofty,  and  yet  not 
cover  the  defenders  upon  the  lines  mp  and  p  o  (fig.  14),  but,  by  having 
recourse  to  a  traverse  m  o,  the  height  of  the  breastwork  can  be  determined 
by  the  plane  of  the  defilement  vp  (fig.  16),  which  gives  the  angle  p  com- 
mand over  the  ground  Z.  By  the  traverse,  m,  the  defenders  at  p  are 
secured,  while  those  at  n  are  protected  by  the  defilement  itself.  The  dike 
at  D  (fig.  14)  is  only  to  be  considered  when  it  is  so  high  as  to  command  p, 
in  which  case  a  new  plane  of  defilement,  and  also  the  traverse  which  must 
then  protect  n,  are  to  be  determined.  Thus  cases  may  arise  where  even 
two  traverses  are  requisite. 

A.  Construction  op  Various  Works  in  Fortification.  As  soon  as  the 
disposition  of  the  work  is  determined,  it  is  traced  upon  the  ground  after  the 
plans,  staked  out,  and  then  profiled.  This  last  is  done  by  setting  up  on  all 
the  lines  profiles  of  laths  (pi.  47,  fig.  18)  and  strips  of  board,  for  which  the 
profile  given  in^^.  17  is  the  original.  To  effect  this,  the  distances  vq,  q  o, 
oh,  hk,  and  k m,  are  staked  off,  and  at  each  of  these  points  strips  of  board, 
longer  or  shorter  as  required,  are  driven  into  the  ground ;  on  these  strips  the 
proper  heights  are  laid  off,  and  then  the  slopes  are  given  by  cross  laths,  d  c, 
cb,  ba,  and  /r,  tacked  to  the  strips.  After  the  accuracy  of  the  profile  is 
ascertained  by  measurement  of  the  lengths  ef  and  x  y,  the  crest  of  the  para- 
pet is  indicated  by  a  stretched  cord.  During  the  construction,  one  third  of 
the  force  is  detailed  to  cover  the  work ;  of  the  remainder,  three  sevenths 
are  stationed  in  the  ditch  (figs.  19,  20),  two  of  which  sevenths,  provided 
with  shovels,  dig  at  K,  while  the  other  seventh,  at  L,  loosen  the  earth  with 
picks.  The  shovellers,  K,  throw  the  earth  into  the  berme,  r  s.  Two  sevenths 
of  the  force  are  stationed  with  shovels  upon  the  berme  at  M  N,  to  send  the 
thrown-up  earth  backwards,  and  the  remaining  two  sevenths  stand  at  O  and 
P,  upon  the  parapet.  Half  of  these,  O,  have  rammers ;  the  others,  shovels 
and  spades;  and  both  spread  the  earth  upon  the  parapet  and  form  the  slopes. 
If  the  parapet  is  very  high,  and  the  ditches,  therefore,  very  deep,  they  work 
in  two  stages,  by  cutting  a  step  along  the  counterscarp,  as  at  x  and  y 
(fig.  19). 

i.  Block-Houses.    As  block-houses  are  very  effective  for  the  interior 

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154  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

redoubts  of  open  and  inclosed  works,  which  we  have  repeatedly  mentionad, 
we  devote  some  separate  drawings  to  their  illustration.  Fig.  53  shows  the 
section,  fig,  52  the  y'levf^fig.  51  a  part  of  the  ground  plan  of  a  small  block- 
house, and  fig.  49  the  view,^^.  50  the  section  of  the  block-house  in  fig.  44. 
Upon  piles,  driven  into  the  earth,  sills  are  laid,  and  upon  these  the  walls  are 
formed  of  trunks  of  trees  from  ten  to  twelve  inches  thick,  placed  dose 
together,  side  by  side,  and  loopholed.  The  entrance  is  on  the  side  roost 
remote  from  the  enemy.  Inside  there  are  two  or  three  rows  of  posts, 
according. to  the  depth  of  the  block-house,  which  support  the  roof-frame 
joists,  on  which  is  then  laid  a  double  layer  of  beams,  crossing  each  other  in 
close  contact,  and  projecting  on  all  sides  over  the  inclosing  walls.  Upon 
these  beams  comes  a  layer  of  earth  to  render  the  building  bomb-proof. 
Inside,  wooden  bunks  are  placed  for  the  accommodation  of  the  garrison. 

Fig.  42  shows  a  front  of  attack  in  a  bastioned  line,  with  a  block-house  as 
redoubt.  The  plaoe-of-arms  of  the  covered  way,  in  the  re-entering  angle, 
is  rounded,  and  the  faces  of  the  covered  way  cremailliered.  J^.  44  b  a 
lunette,  having  its  gorge  closed  with  palisades  and  with  a  block-house  there, 
as  redoubt.  The  salient  angle  of  the  counterscarp  contains  a  subterranean 
block-house  for  the  defence  of  the  ditch.  Fig.  43  is  a  profile  through  the 
face  of  ^^.  42,  and  fig.  45  the  profile  through  the  face  of /^.  44.  In  both, 
the  disposition  of  a  subterranean  powder  magazine  is  indicated.  FHgs.  46 
and  47  show  the  profile  and  elevation  of  the  block-house  for  defence  of  the 
ditch,  with  the  subterranean  passage  leading  to  it,  and  fig.  40  is  the  pro&le 
through  the  bridge,  fig.  42,  with  passage  (postern),/,  through  and  under  the 
parapet  to  the  covered  way,  *.  Fig.  37  represents  the  interior  arrange- 
ment of  a  principal  fort.  Under  the  platform,  A,  in  the  re-entering  angles 
of  the  four  posts,  lie  the  powder  magazines,  P.  In  the  interior  space  of  the 
work  is  the  bomb-proof  block-house,  B,  for  the  garrison,  and  within  it  the 
kitchen,  K.  Fig,  39  gives  a  profile  through  the  broken  line,  ik,  fig.  37, 
from  which  the  internal  arrangement  of  the  block-house  is  to  be  seen. 
Fig,  38  is  a  profile,  along  GH,  through  the  block-house  and  the  powder 
magazine.  Fig.  40  is  the  bridge  and  entrance  postern,  in  section,  along 
the  line,  sk,  in  fig.  37,  and  fig.  41,  a  section  of  the  kitchen  along  gg^ 
fig.  37. 

k.  Powder  Magazines.  Powder  magazines,  always  subterranean,  are 
disposed  too  under  that  part  of  the  rampart  least  exposed  to  attack,  as  in 
pi,  47,  fig.  44.  They  are  made  dry  by  means  of  frame  pieces  and  board 
revetments.  Fig.  48  shows  the  ground  plan  of  a  small,  and  fig.  55,  of  a 
large  powder  magazine.  Fig.  56  gives  the  section  of  ^^.  48,  and  fig.  54 
that  of  ^^.  55.  It  will  be  perceived  that  the  entrance  does  not  lead  imme- 
diately into  the  magazine  from  without,  but  that,  by  means  of  a  gallery 
disposed  for  that  purpose,  it  is  secured  against  the  direct  fires  of  the  enemy. 
The  height  of  the  interior  under  the  frame-piece  is  six  feet. 

2.  Permanent  Fortification. 

The  old  manner  of  fortifying  by  means  of  long  straight  lines  with  towers 
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FORTIFICATION.  155 

flanking  them,  was  first  abandoned  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  it  is 
believed  that  the  Italians  were  the  first  to  substitute  bastions  in  place  of 
towers.  The  works  of  earlier  military  engineers  were  improved  upon  by 
Yauban,  and  his  system  again  by  Cormontaigne  in  1716. 

Before  we  proceed  further,  we  must  explain  some  technical  terms  which 
have  not  been  employed  in  treating  of  field  fortification.  The  foundation 
of  every  fortification  is  the  regular  or  irregular  polygon,  which  is  drawn 
around  the  place  to  be  fortified,  and  whose  side  must  not  be  greater  than 
the  effective  range  of  small  arms,  as  otherwise  the  flanking  will  be  insuf- 
ficient. By  the  breaking  of  these  polygon  sides  into  any  figure  soever 
arises  the  system  of  fortification.  The  exterior  polygon  is  that  which  is 
drawn  through  the  vertices  of  the  salient  angles;  the  interior  polygon 
unites  the  vertices  of  the  re-entering  angles.  The  line  which  bisects  an 
angle  is  its  capital,  and  the  portion  of  the  fortification  lying  between  two 
adjacent  capitals  is  called  a  front  of  attack.  The  construction  must  take 
place  always  according  to  the  exterior  polygon,  as  otherwise*  it  could  not 
be  determined  where  the  bastion  points  fall.  The  angles  made  by  the 
faces  are  called  bastion  salients;  angles  which  the  faces  make  with  the 
flanks  are  shoulder  angles,  and  the  angles  of  the  curtains  and  flanks  are 
flank  or  curtain  angles.  If  a  part  of  the  flank  projects  forward,  to  cover 
the  rest  lying  back  of  it,  this  forms  an  orillon.  The  line  from  one  flank  to 
the  opposite  bastion  salient  is  called  the  line  of  defence,  and  its  length  must 
not  exceed  the  effective  range  of  small  arms.  The  rampart  immediately 
surrounding  the  place  to  be  fortified  is  called  the  enceinte,  or  body  of  the 
place,  and  the  line  along  which  the  defenders  stand  is  the  magistral.  All 
works  lying  in  front  of  the  enceinte,  but  within  the  covered  way,  are  called 
outworks ;  if  outside  of  the  latter  they  are  detached  works. 

The  chief  part  of  every  fortification  is  the  rampart,  which  consists  of  the 
parapet  and  the  terreplein  lying  behind  it,  on  which  the  artillery  and 
defenders  find  room  for  position  and  movement  The  breadth  of  this  was 
formerly  taken  at  24  feet,  but  in  later  times  it  has  gone  up  even  to  42  feet. 
The  thickness  of  the  parapets  proper  must  be  from  18  to  20  feet,  their 
height  7|  feet,  and  their  slopes  governed  by  the  natural  fall  of  the  earth  ; 
in  bad  soil  they  must  be  even  greater  (U  of  the  height).  The  communica- 
tion between  the  terreplein  and  the  interior  of  the  place  is  secured  by 
means  of  ramps  (pi.  48,  ßg.  42),  which  are  cut  in  the  slope  of  the  terre- 
plein. Of  the  outworks,  the  ditch  which  surrounds  every  fortified  place  is 
the  first.  The  ditch  may  be  either  dry  or  wet;  there  are  dry  ditches, 
however,  which  can  at  times  be  put  under  water.  If  the  bottom  of  a  dry 
ditch  is  moist,  a  canal  is  established  in  the  middle  of  it,  the  cunette,  to 
carry  ofi*  the  water,  and  over  this  small  bridges  are  laid.  Ditches  which 
can  be  inundated  obtain  their  water  usually  from  some  river  running  by 
the  place,  and  are  then  provided  with  sluices.  These  are  stone  dams 
(Batardeaux),  which  run  across  the  ditch,  and  have  a  sluice  in  the  centre, 
placed  in  a  tower  which  is  accessible  only  from  the  fortification.  JFY^.  39 
is  the  elevation  of  such  a  sluice-tower ;  J^.  40,  the  section  of  another ;  and 
fig.  41,  the  arched  passage  for  the  water.    In  the  ditch  lies,  in  front  of  the 

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156  MILITARY  SGIENGES. 

curtain,  the  tenaillci  and  in  front  of  this  the  demi-lune  or  ravelin»  the  con- 
struction of  which  will  be  given  in  describing  the  different  systems. 
While  the  ravelins  were  made  very  small,  works  similar  to  tenailles  were 
placed  in  front  of  them,  running  parallel  to  their  faces,  and  strengthening 
them.  In  the  same  manner  a  work  called  the  couvre-face,  counter-guard, 
or  bastion  shield,  was  run  parallel  to  and  lower  than  the  bastion.  Of  this 
more  will  be  said  hereafter.  Works  often  employed  in  the  earlier  systems 
are  the  horn  works  and  crown  works.  One  front  of  attack,  as  it  is  called, 
forms  a  horn  work ;  a  crown  work  consists  of  two  such  fronts.  Both  may 
lie  either  before  the  ravelin  or  in  front  of  a  bastion,  and  are  then  carried 
back  to  the  main  work  by  long  flanks.  Fig.  5  shows  a  horn  work  in  front 
of  a  bastion,  fig.  8  one  in  front  of  a  ravelin  :  H  and  I  are  the  long  flanks, 
which  must  be  defended  from  the  main  work.  Figs,  6, 7,  are  a  crown  work 
before  a  bastion ;  figs.  11  to  16,  the  same  before  a  demi-lune :  G  is  here 
one  of  the  connecting  flanks.  Detached  works  are  independent  forts  for 
the  defence  of  single  points  which  cannot  be  brought  within  the  region  of 
the  enceinte  or  the  outworks,  and  yet  must  be  defended.  They  are  dis- 
posed after  the  manner  of  star  forts  or  as  open  works  (Lunettes),  and 
communicate  with  the  main  work  by  means  of  a  covered  way.  With 
respect  to  the  various  systems  of  fortification  according  to  which  works  have 
been  disposed  since  the  16th  century,  the  principal  of  these  are  as  follows  : 

1.  Gerhard  von  Herzogenbusch  (Erard  Bar  le  Due)  was  the  first  who 
established  fixed  rules  for  fortification.  In  his  system  {pL  48,  fig,  6), 
the  half  bastion  angle  at  A  and  B  is  45^,  and  by  setting  this  off  in  the 
capital  for  the  polygon  side,  ah,  the  lines  of  defence,  a/*  and  bd,SLTe  obtained. 
Bisecting  now  the  angle  of  the  half  bastion,  and  drawing  the  lines  ag  and 
bh,  these  intersect  the  lines  of  defence  in  d  and  /,  from  which  points  the 
perpendiculars,  fe  and  cd,  are  let  fall  upon  the  faces,  and  these  form  the 
flanks,  DD,  which  are  connected  by  the  curtain,  C.  To  draw  the  ditches, 
F,  describe,  from  a  and  b  as  centres,  circles  having  the  length  of  the  flank 
for  radius,  draw  tangents  to  them  from  the  shoulder  angles  c  and  e,  which 
intersect  at  E,  where,  in  the  covered  way,  a  place  of  arms  is  disposed. 
This  system  has  sometimes  orillons,  as,  for  example,  at  Amiens. 

2.  Marolais,  a  Dutch  engineer,  constructed  his  system  {fig.  7)  for  a  hex- 
agon, in  the  following  manner,  ab  being  the  polygon  side.  The  angle  of 
the  half  bastion  being  fixed  by  Marolais  at  40°,  make  the  angles  abh  and 
kab  =  20°,  and  draw  the  lines  of  defence,  af  and  bf,  which  intersect  at  e. 
The  length  of  the  faces  ag  and  bi  is  288  feet,  and  from  the  points  g  and  t 
perpendiculars,  dk  and  ch,  are  drawn  to  the  polygon  side,  ab.  From  the 
points  g  and  i,  set  off,  on  these  perpendiculars  produced  indefinitely  towards 
h  and  k,  angles  of  55°,  and  join  the  points  where  the  lines  defining  these 
angles  intersect  the  capitals,  by  a  line ;  this  last  parallel  to  the  polygon  side, 
will  determine  the  length  of  the  flanks  and  form  the  curtain.  Ditches  and 
places  of  arms  are  constructed  as  by  Bar  le  Due.  Marolais  usually  placed 
in  the  ditch,  which  was  then  made  wider,  a  faussebraye  (or  lower  rampart), 
which,  below  the  main  work  and  parallel  with  it,  ran  round  the  whole 
enceinte. 

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FORTIFICATION.  157 

3.  The  Chevalier  De  Ville,  who  lived  under  Louis  XIII.,  improved  the 
earlier  methods,  and  fixed  all  bastion  angles  at  90°.  De  Ville  constructed 
his  system  upon  the  interior  polygon,  and  made  the  length  of  the  flank 
equal  to  the  half  gorge  of  the  bastion  {ßg.  5).  For  this  he  divided  the 
polygon  side  into  six  equal  parts,  one  part  on  each  extremity  being  the 
demi-gorge  of  the  bastion,  AA,  and  the  other  four  parts  the  curtain,  C. 
By  erecting  perpendiculars  at  the  two  first  points  of  division,  he  obtained 
the  position  of  his  flanks,  BB,  which  he  made  equal  to  the  demi-gorge,  and 
thus  determined  the  shoulder  points,  A;  and  c.  From  these  he  laid  ofi*  upon 
the  prolonged  capitals,  angles  of  45°,  and  thus  obtained  the  points  a  and  ft, 
through  which  and  the  shoulder  points  he  drew  the  lines  of  the  faces,  which 
intersect  at  m.  To  construct  the  orillon,  he  divided  the  flank  into  three 
equal  parts,  and  drew,  through  the  second  points  of  division,  i  and  J,  and 
the  points  a  and  6,  the  lines  ah  and  he,  which  intersect  at  /.  Setting  ofi* 
now,  from  d  and  i  towards  e  and  A,  f  of  the  flank,  and  drawing,  parallel  to 
the  flanks,  the  lines  ef  and  gh,  the  orillon  was  completed.  De  Ville,  however, 
did  not  do  away  with  the  front  part  of  the  flank,  but  only  established  it  some- 
what deeper  than  the  drawn  back  flank,  whereby  he  obtained  a  double  flank- 
ing. The  ditch,  p,  was  constructed  as  before  mentioned,  but  De  Ville  made  it 
pass  round  the  place-of-arms,  D,  also,  which  he  somewhat  enlarged  and  called 
a  ravelin  (demi-lune),  opq,  whereby  he  obtained  yet  another  small  place-of- 
arms,  n,  in  the  salient  angle.  In  the  three  systems  hitherto  described,  all 
the  flanks  have  the  fault  of  giving  a  too  oblique  defence  of  the  ditch. 

4.  Count  Pagan  divided  his  fortifications  into  great,  medium,  and  small. 
For  the  medium  {pi,  48,  fig.  8),  the  polygon  side  a  b  was  1080  feel.  This 
was  bisected  in  c,  a  perpendicular  erected  at  that  point,  erf  =  180  feet,  and 
the  lines  of  defence  bdo  and  a  dp  are  drawn.  The  faces  b  h  and  af  of 
the  bastions  A  and  B  were  made  330  ft.  and  dm  and  dn  each  192  ft.  long. 
Drawing,  then,  h  m  and  /n,  we  have  the  flanks  and  the  curtain  C.  Pagan 
arranged  three  flanks,  one  behind  the  other,  the  foremost,  im  and  gn,  slightly 
elevated  above  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  the  middle.  A;  and  /,  at  the  half 
height,  and  the  last  at  the  full  height  of  the  bastions.  The  length  of  the 
orillons  A  i  and  fg  he  determined,  after  De  Ville,  by  the  lines  b  g  and  a  f, 
intersecting  each  other  at  e,  and  the  curtain  received,  the  breaks  n  o  and 
mp  to  make  the  second  flanks  longer.  Sometimes  there  was  disposed  in 
the  bastions  A  and  B  an  elevated  parapet  otq  and prs,  called  the  cavalier. 
F  is  the  place  of  arms,  and  G  the  glacis. 

5.  Vauban's  first  system  (fig.  1)  is  applied  upon  a  polygon  side,  a  6,  of 
600  to  1080  feet.  Jn  the  centre  of  this  the  perpendicular  cd  is  erected, 
made  for  the  square  =-|  a  ft,  for  the  pentagon  = }  a  ft,  for  the  hexagon,  &c., 
=  I  a  ft,  and  the  lines  of  defence  ft  k  and  a  I  drawn  through  d,  a,  and  ft. 
The  faces  a  e  and  ft  A  are  made  =  f  a  ft,  and  from  a  and  ft  as  centres,  circles 
described  with  ft  e  and  af  as  radii :  where  these  cut  the  opposite  lines  of 
defence  (at  k  and  I)  are  the  flank  points ;  the  flanks,  e  k  and  //,  and  the 
curtdn  C  can  now  be  drawn.  Vauban  also  made  orillons,  but  gave  them 
only  one  third  the  length  of  the  flank.  The  first  outwork  which  Vauban 
added  was  the  tenaille,  which  he  established  at  18  and  60  feet  distance 

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158  MÜJTART  SOIENpES. 

from  the  curtain  and  flanks,  and  parallel  to  these,  the  flanks  of  the  tenaüle 
being  cut  off  by  the  lines  of  defence.  Hereby  arose  a  new  curtain,  D,  and 
two  half  bastions,  E  F,  in  the  ditch,  lower  than  the  main  work«  Subse- 
quently Vauban  convinced  himself  that  flanks  were  inadmissible,  and  gave 
the  tenaille  merely  two  faces  in  the  prolongation  of  the  lines  of  defence, 
intersecting  at  d,  placing  a  very  short  curtain  between  them.  To  the 
ravelin,  G,  Vauban  gave  greater  extension,  making  the  faces  m  q  and  mp  = 
f  to  f  of  ah,  and  drawing  them  from  the  points  t  and  A,  which  are  30,  60,  or 
even  90  feet  from  the  shoulder  angles  e  and  /.  Afterwards  he  gave 
the  demilune  flanks,  as  in  pi,  48,  figs,  2  and  3,  which,  however,  proved 
unserviceable.  The  gorge  of  the  ravelin  was  determined,  at  first,  by 
the  prolongation  of  the  counterscarp,  afterwards,  however,  as  it  was  exposed 
to  the  enemy's  fire,  cut  off,  as  in^^.  2,  and  in  the  interior  a  redoubt  disposed 
{fi^s,  2  and  3),  which  lay  so  high  that  its  line  of  fire  fell  upon  the  ban- 
quette of  the  ravelin.  The  ditch  {fig,  1)  received  in  front  of  the  bastion 
salients  90  to  96  feet  breadth  and  was  aligned  upon  the  shoulder  points, 
whereby  the  gorge  of  the  ravelin  was  determined  in  g.  The  ditch  of  the 
demilune  received  at  09  and  pn  from  72  to  80  feet  breadth,  and  ran 
parallel  to  its  faces.  At  r,  when  the  ditch  was  dry,  ran  traverses  for 
defence.  The  covered  way  he  improved  by  defending  the  long  lines,  I,  I, 
from  the  place  of  arms,  H,  by  means  of  the  traverses  ss,  also  by  enlarging 
it  and  the  glacis. 

Still  more  improved  were  the  later  systems  of  Vauban,  viz.  6,  that  at 
Landau  {fig,  2)  and  7,  at  Breisach  {fig,  3).  For  Landau  {fig,  2)  the 
construotion  upon  the  polygon  side  aft  by  means  of  the  perpendicular  cd, 
is  the  same  as  before ;  but  between  the  bastions  A  and  B  there  lies  no 
curtain,  the  tenaille,  C,  is  advanced  to  the  point  of  intersection,  d,  and 
lies  on  the  same  level  with  the  bastion ;  the  faces,  qp  and  q  o,  of  the 
ravelin  with  flanks,  6,  are  aligned  upon  the  much  advanced  points  m  and  n» 
and  a  redoubt,  H,  added ;  the  places-of-arms,  K  and  L,  made  as  large  as 
possible,  the  line,  I,  defended  by  several  traverses  and  secured  from  enfilade, 
and  the  glacis  thrown  very  far  forward.  Elevated  behind  the  front  of  attack 
proper  lie  the  bastion  towers,  F  F,  forming  redoubts,  and  where  the  pro- 
longation of  the  line  of  defence  strikes  these,  is  formed  a  second,  retired 
polygon  side,  fe,  upon  which,  by  means  of  the  perpendiculars,  g  E,  &c.,  a 
new  front  of  attack,  ehklif,  with  two  half  bastions,  D,  and  a  curtain,  £,  is 
constructed.  For  the  fortifications  of  Breisach  {fig,  3),  A  are  the  bastions, 
B  the  tenaille,  a  6  is  the  polygon  side,  c  d  the  perpendicular.  The  faces, 
0  p,  of  the  ravelin,  F,  which  has  a  double  redoubt,  6,  are  aligned  upon  the 
points/ and  c,  and  the  flanks  tolerably  long.  The  bastion  towers,  EE,  are 
made  much  smaller,  whereby  the  second  front  of  attack,  ghiklmn,  obtains 
a  greater  extension,  and  the  bctstions,  C  C,  as  well  as  the  curtain,  D,  receive 
a  better  defence.  H  is  a  large  re-entering,  and  I  a  salient  place-of-anns. 
The  place  K  is  contracted  by  the  adjacent  homwork.     L  is  a  lai^  glacis. 

We  have  given,  in  pi,  48,  various  details  of  Vauban's  systems,  most  of 
which  are  found  usually  in  those  of  others,  or  may  be  applied  to  them. 
Bastions  may  be  either  hollow  or  solid  ;  in  the  hollow  bastion  the  interior 
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FORTIFICATION.  199 

space  is  empty,  and  behind  the  parapet  is  an  elevated  terreplein.  Then  the 
revetment  wall  {fig.  83),  which  rises  from  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  to  the 
bottom  of  the  parapet,  and  is  terminated  above  by  a  projecting  coping,  has 
buttresses  on  the  inner  side  {fig.  21,  horizontal  section  through  the  revet- 
ment wall,  abc  defg),  and  in  rear  of  the  same  runs  a  subterranean  gallery 
for  mines,  the  magistral  gallery,  which  gives  access  to  the  system  of  defen- 
sive mines,  of  which  we  shall  say  more  hereafter.  If  the  interior  space  of 
the  bastion  is  filled  with  earth,  it  is  called  a  solid  or  full  bastion ;  it  has  then 
usually  an  additional  raised  work,  the  cavalier,  and  is  provided  with  bomb- 
proof vaults  (casemates).  JPV^.  19  gives  the  horizontal  section  of  such  a 
bastion,  abcdefg,  having  casemates  in  its  interior  space,  of  which  fig,  20 
shows  the  vertical  section  along  the  line  ec  {fig,  19,  seen  from  the  gorge). 
The  exit  from  the  front  of  attack  is  always  established  in  the  centre  of  the 
curtain  and  is  subterranean,  being  carried  by  a  vaulted  passage  under  the 
parapet.  Fig,  22  shows  such  a  passage  (sally-port,  postern) :  a  a  is  the 
revetment  wall  of  the  main  rampart ;  b  are  the  side  walls,  and  c,  the  but- 
tresses for  strengthening  the  wall;  d,  a  separate  vault  for  muster-place. 
Fig.  23  shows  the  longitudinal,  and  fig,  24,  the  cross-section  of  such  a 
postern.  Underneath  this,  usually,  a  drain  is  carried  to  lead  off  water. 
F^g.  34  is  a  longitudinal  section  through  the  front  of  attack  {fig.  1) :  A  is 
the  terreplein ;  C,  the  curtain  with  the  attached  bastion ;  E,  the  tenaille ; 
F,  the  main  ditch ;  6,  the  terreplein  of  the  ravelin,  whose  parapet  is  H ; 
J  is  the  ditch  of  the  ravelin,  and  N,  the  covered  way  with  the  glacis. 
R  are  the  scarp  and  counterscarp  revetment- walls ;  I  and  6,  their  slopes. 
The  inscribed  numbers  are  the  measurements  in  feet. 

8.  The  system  of  Vauban  has  been  still  improved  upon  by  the  French  engi- 
neer Cormontaigne ;  his  system  remained  for  a  long  while,  down  to  the  time  of 
Carnot  and  Montalembert,  the  favorite  one,  and  many  places  were  fortified  by 
it.  The  enceinte,  aeg hfb  {pi.  48,  fig.  4),  Cormontaigne  draws,  for  the  bas- 
tions, A  A,  and  the  curtain,  B,  in  the  same  manner  as  Vauban,  with  the  differ- 
ence only  that  the  flanks  are  perpendicular  upon  the  lines  of  defence.  To 
construct  the  ravelin,  lay  off,  from  the  point  where  the  counterscarps  of  the 
main  ditches  intersect  {fig.  1  g),  360  feet  on  the  perpendicular  bisecting 
the  curtain  to  C,  and  there  is  the  salient  of  the  ravelin,  whose  faces  are 
aligned  upon  the  points  A;  and  t,  which  are  advanced  90  feet  from  the 
shoulder-points.  In  the  ditches  of  the  ravelin  are  placed  the  traverses,  K. 
The  redoubt,  c,  of  the  ravelin  runs  parallel  with  the  main  work  36  feet  from 
it  and  receives  flanks,  D,  which  command  the  somewhat  lower  part,  L,  of 
the  main  work.  E  is  a  covered  way,  from  the  tenaille,  F,  to  the  redoubt 
of  the  ravelin.  The  salient  places-of-arms  of  the  covered  way  are  defended 
by  traverses,  and  in  the  re-entering,  H,  the  redoubts,  I,  are  established. 
The  glacis,  M,  is  shorter  than  in  Vauban's  system. 

9.  The  system  of  Count  Cohorn,  a  renowned  engineer  living  in  Holland 
at  the  time  of  Vauban,  is  of  great  value,  especially  for  countries  abounding 
in  water.  One  of  his  fronts  is  represented  in  fig,  10.  It  is  constructed  on 
the  interior  polygon,  its  sides,  A  A,  containing,  for  the  hexagon,  900  feet. 
The  demi-gorges,  A  /  and  A  A,  are  ^  the  polygon  side,  and  the  capitals,  A  D 

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160  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

and  A  c,  are  450  feet  long.  From  the  points  c  and  D  the  lines  of  defence 
are  drawn  to  k  and  I,  and,  with  cA:  as  radius,  the  arcs  kH  and  /G 
described,  from  c  and  D,  which  form  the  flanks  (usually  drawn  straight, 
however),  and  determine  the  shoulder-points,  at  the  same  time,  at  G  and  H ; 
the  curtain  is  then  k  L  In  front  of  this  lies  a  species  of  tenaille,  which 
Cohorn  called  the  low  curtain,  and  which  is  drawn  by  describing  from  c 
and  D,  with  a  radius  of  840  feet,  the  arcs  o  E  and  p  F  between  the  lines 
of  defence,  and  thus  obtaining  the  flanks  ;  the  faces,  FH  and  EG,  are  then 
determined  necessarily,  and  the  curtain,  o  N/>,  is  broken  in  the  direction  of 
the  lines  of  defence.  In  the  shoulder  angles  of  the  bastion,  Cohorn  placed 
casemated  orillons,  the  details  of  which  are  shown  in  fig,  25  :  '•  *• '  are  the 
casemates,  and  at  A  z  and  %  y  are  loopholes  and  embrasures  for  the  defence 
of  the  ditch  \  aaa  are  vaulted  buttresses.  The  orillon  has  its  own  small 
wet  ditch,  F,  which  is  filled  from  the  main  ditch  and  over  which  lead  the 
bridges,  A  z,  to  the  orillon,  and  g  s,  to  the  dry  ditch  of  the  lower  face  and 
curtain.  The  parts  of  the  enceinte  hitherto  described  (fig,  10)  form  the 
lower  work,  only  the  curtain,  Ik,  lies  on  a  level  with  the  (presently  to  be 
described)  upper  work.  To  obtain  this,  describe,  between  the  lines  of 
defence,  from  c  and  D  as  centres,  the  upper  flanks  S  M  and  R  L,  with  a 
radius  which  is  obtained  by  drawing  a  line  parallel  to  the  face  of  the  bastion 
and  124  feet  from  it ;  the  point  where  this  intersects  the  opposite  line  of 
defence  determines  the  radius  C  S  or  DR ;  afterwards  the  curtain  receives 
the  breaks,  k  U  and  /  T,  in  the  direction  of  the  lines  of  defence  ;  the  terre- 
plein  between  the  upper  and  lower  fronts  is  dry,  only  in  front  of  the  low 
flanks  and  the  orillons  is  the  ditch  wet.  In  the  terreplein,  palisades  are  set 
before  the  faces.  The  ditch  runs  with  a  breadth  of  144  feet  parallel  with 
the  faces  of  the  enceinte.  To  draw  the  ravelin  W,  lay  off*,  from  the  point 
where  the  counterscarps  of  the  main  ditch  intersect,  330  feet  towards  W ; 
then,  on  each  side  of  the  capital,  lay  off*  an  angle  of  35^  which  determines 
the  direction  of  the  ravelin  faces ;  they  are  produced  to  the  counterscarp. 
Within  the  ravelin  lies  the  redoubt  XYZ,  parallel  to  it  at  136  feet  distance. 
In  the  terreplein  of  the  redoubt  a  second  redoubt  is  formed  of  palisades ;  in 
the  dry  ditch,  also,  in  front  of  the  redoubt,  palisades  are  placed.  D'  is  a 
salient  place-of-arms  of  the  covered  way ;  A',  a  re-entering ;  and  these  are 
defended  in  a  peculiar  manner,  first,  by  the  traverses,  C',  and  a  double 
glacis,  and  again  by  the  palisaded  redoubts,  B'  (cofires).  Cohorn  has 
permitted  some  changes  here  and  there  in  this  system,  so  that  a  second  and 
third  system  are  recognised,  but  these  changes  are  not  important. 

10.  Herbert,  the  engineer  of  Duke  Charles  Alexander  of  Wirteroburg, 
has,  in  his  system  {pi.  48,  fig.  9),  retained  the  bastions,  but  introduced 
extensively  crenelled  galleries  (galleries  with  loopholes).  In  the  interior 
of  the  bastions.  A,  are  found  the  redoubts,  B,  provided  with  crenelled  galleries 
having  earthen  parapets  above,  which  are  separated  from  the  broken  cur- 
tain, nop,  serving  for  casernes,  and  likewise  casemated,  loopholed,  and 
having  an  earthen  parapet  above.  The  curtain  is  flanked  by  two  redoubts, 
q  q,  casemated,  and  covered  with  earthen  parapets.  The  bastion  orillons 
of  the  enceinte,  bfega,  lie  somewhat  higher  than  these  redoubts,  are  case- 
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FORTIFICATION.  161 

mated,  and  have  earthen  parapets.  The  bastions  themselves  have  still  a 
redoubt,  m,  in  front  of  which  lies  the  ditch,  A;  /.  The  flanks,  r  and  s,  lie 
amphitheatrically  one  above  the  other.  The  ravelin,  z,  is  arranged  like  the 
bastion,  and  has,  at  c,  a  blockhouse  for  the  cTefence  of  the  ditch.  In  front 
of  the  faces  of  the  enceinte  lie  bastion  shields,  couvre-faces,  with  simple 
earthen  parapets,  in  whose  re-entering  angles  lie  the  lunettes,  x,  with  the 
blockhouses,  udt;  open  to  the  ditch,  yy*  and  y',  are  blockhouses  and 
traverses  for  the  defence  of  the  ditch. 

11.  Montalembert,  at  last,  entirely  rejected  the  bastioned  trac6,  and 
instead  of  this  has  directed  against  all  the  fronts  of  attack  a  powerful  fire  of 
small  arms  from  several  covered  stories.  His  first  system  was  designed  for 
simplicity,  and  exhibited  {ßg.  11)  only  two  long  faces,  A  B,  between  which 
the  curtain,  C,  was  broken  bastion-like,  and  had  in  front  a  kind  of  ravelin, 
D;  E  and  F  were  the  places-of-arms  of  the  covered- way.  The  second 
system  {fig.  12)  has  the  enceinte,  aeg hfb,  constructed  by  means  of  the 
polygon  side,  a  ft,  and  the  perpendicular,  c  d,  after  Cormontaigne ;  but  the 
curtain,  C,  is  separated  and  forms  a  bomb-proof,  casemated  caserne,  which 
is  either  bastion-like  as  at  D,  or  as  at  E  leans  against  a  tower  redoubt  Fig. 
35  is  a  view  of  one  half  of  one  of  Montalembert's  towers.  Fig.  36,  the 
vertical  section  of  the  same.  Fig.  37,  the  ground  plan  of  one  quadrant  at 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  and^^.  38,  of  the  same  through  one  of  the  stories. 
The  bastions,  B  {fig.  12),  have  redoubts,  A.  The  ravelin,  F,  is  in  its 
form,  Imnopq,  and  its  points  of  alignment,  k  and  f,  constructed  after 
Vauban's  second  manner,  and  has  a  first  redoubt,  6,  and  a  second,  H.  The 
third  and  most  complete  system  of  Montalembert  is  shown,  for  a  regular 
square,  in  fig.  13,  in  the  right  half  without  the  parapets.  The  sides  of 
the  square  are  drawn  back  in  the  centre,  and  here  are  found  the  casemated 
ravelin.  A,  of  three  stories,  arranged  above  for  open  defence  within  and 
without.  To  these  adjoin,  next  to  the  ditch,  a  crenelled,  two  story,  case- 
mated  wall,  ab,  then  an  earthen  rampart,  I,  then  a  crenelled  wall,  cdc^  and 
behind  this  a  tower,  E,  and  last  comes  a  third  crenelled  v^My/gß  in  two 
stories.  In  the  ditch  lie  four  covered  casemated  caponnieres,  G,  of  three 
stories,  with  27  cannon.  Beyond  the  ditch  lies  an  earthen  rampart, 
hikih,  surounding  the  whole,  with  a  free  standing  crenelled  wall  in  front 
of  \i,  Imnm  /,  which  is  casemated  in  the  re-entering  angles,  mnm,  and  has 
there  the  entrances,  o.  In  front  of  G  are  found  raised  casemated  faces,  p  q. 
In  the  re-entering  angles  of  the  earthen  rampart,  Imnml,  are  built 
lunettes,  H,  of  earth  with  casemated  flanks,  I.  The  lunettes  have  redoubts. 
A,  in  the  form  of  free  standing  walls.  Finally,  a  general  covered-way,  r  s 
tuvutrs,  with  the  glacis,  covers  the  whole  fortification.  FHg.  17  shows 
the  profile  of  this  fortification,  along  the  line,  L  M,  of  the  ground  plan,  and 
fig.  18  along  R  S,  wherefrom  the  interior  arrangement  of  the  works  can 
easily  be  perceived.    X  is  the  head  of  the  tower  at  H  in  the  ground  plan. 

12.  The  system  of  Carnot  {fig.  15)  consists  of  a  general  enceinte  formed 
by  a  great  wall,  b  ace  ab,  without  any  revetment  of  earth,  made  up  of  a 
series  of  redans,  whose  flanked  angles,  6,  lie  600  feet  from  one  another,  and 
whose  faces,  a  ft,  form  right  angles  with  the  flanks,  a  c.     The  wall  is  26  feet 

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162  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

high,  9  feet  thick,  and  crenelled  in  two  stories,  save  on  the  flanks,  which 
have  embrasures  and  mortar  casemates.  Thirty-six  feet  from  this  wall  is 
the  foot  of  the  enceinte  proper,  m  m,  which  is  composed  of  bastions  and 
curtains,  covers  the  enceinte,  B,  and  has  in  front  of  it  the  wall, pqrf,  Q 
feet  thick,  and  24  feet  high,  crenelled  in  one  story,  which  is  united  with  the 
above  mentioned  curtain  by  defensive  casernes,  A,  having  earthen  parapets 
above.  In  front  of  the  curtain  lies  the  tenaille,  1 1,  whose  faces  are  360  feet 
long.  In  the  re-entering  angle  of  this  is  a  ditch  caponniere,  and  at  ^  are 
passages  in  the  flanks.  Between  the  couvre-faces,  I,  is  erected  the  cavalier, 
L,  and  in  front  of  this  lies  the  ravelin,  H,  for  sallies  and  to  cover  the  couvre- 
faces.  The  profile  {pi  48,^.  32)  along  N  M,  shows  the  general  enceinte 
with  the  earthen  rampart,  B,  the  enceinte  wall,  C,  the  tenaille,  e,  and  the 
ditch  caponniere,  vw.  Fig.  31  is  a  profile  along  O  P,  and  shows  the  cava- 
lier, L,  the  demi-lune,  H,  and  the  glacis,  which  slopes  towards  the  works 
{en  corUrepente) ;  the  profile,  ^^g".  30,  is  along  the  line,  Q  R,  and  shows  the 
bastion,  h,  the  wall,  q,  the  couvre-face,  J,  and  the  glacis. 

13.  The  system  of  Dufour  (ßg,  16)  is  based  in  general  upon  the  bastion 
system.  The  enceinte,  aeghfb,  of  bastions,  A  B,  and  curtains,  C,  is  con- 
structed by  means  of  the  polygon  side,  a  b,  and  the  perpendicular,  c  d,  and 
has  in  front  of  the  tenaille,  E,,a  caponniere,  D,  for  communication  with  the 
ravelin,  whose  faces  are  constructed  as  by  Cormontaigne.  In  the  salient 
angle  of  the  ravelin  is  found  a  cavalier,  F,  for  protection  against  enfilade. 
The  ravelin  has  besides  the  cut-offs  6  and  H,  which  serve  for  defence  of 
the  ditch  as  well  as  for  redoubts  to  the  places-of-arms,  I  and  K.  The 
ravelin  faces  consist  of  an  earthen  rampart,  the  flanks  of  crenelled  walls, 
the  covered- way  of  the  ravelin  has  four  traverses. 

14.  The  system  of  the  engineer  Chasseloup  (ßg,  14)  has  chiefly  in  view 
the  protection  of  the  defenders  at  every  moment  against  the  effects  of  the 
hostile  fires,  and  contains  much  covered  space.  His  polygon  side  has  1800 
feet.  The  main  enceinte,  ah  cd  deb  a,  is  bastioned,  and  has  its  faces,  a  6  c, 
broken,  that  they  may  not  be  ricocheted.  For  the  protection  of  the  advanced 
works  there  are,  in  the  great  bastions,  casemated  cavaliers,  c.  The  branches 
of  the  covered-way  have  such  a  direction,  that  by  means  of  these  several 
direct  fires  are  brought  upon  the  capital,  and  in  the  places-of-arms  of  the 
covered- way  are  established  bomb-proof  redoubts,  A,  covered  with  earth. 
To  reach  the  covered-way  more  conveniently,  ramps,  r,  are  placed  at  the 
necessary  points.  The  salient  angle,  D,  of  the  ravelin,  is  the  apex  of  an 
equilateral  triangle,  the  ground  lines  of  which  are  determined  by  two 
points,  on  the  bastion  faces,  291  feet  distant  from  the  shoulder  angles.  The 
ravelin  faces,  made  up  of  coupures  (cut-offs),  as  well  as  the  faces  of  the 
redoubt,  E,  run  parallel  to  the  lines  of  this  triangle.  The  redoubt,  E,  is  a 
casemated  lunette,  covered  with  an  earthen  parapet,  of  one  story,  save  in 
the  gorge,  where  it  has  two,  and  separated  firom  the  enceinte  by  the  glacis, 
W.  The  main  work  in  Chasseloup's  system  is  the  work  F,  which  possesses 
great  capacities  for  defence.  The  faces  are  covered  by  the  glacis,  and  the 
flanks  by  the  caponnieres,  P ;  it  is  unassailable  from  a  distance,  and  first 
becomes  effective  when  the  enemy  has  arrived  upon  the  glaois,  W.    Chaa> 

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ATTAOE  AND  DEFENCK  163 

ieloup  has  protected  all  parts  of  the  enceinte  where  breaches  can  be  estab- 
lished by  vaulted  buttresses  and  magistral  galleries.  To  prevent  the  enemy 
from  making  the  passage  of  the  ditch  in  the  direction  of  the  breach 
towards  the  faces,  Chasseloup  has  provided  the  great  bastions  with  the 
cavaliers,  C,  which  must  be  separately  taken.  The  elevated  casemates,  k, 
first  become  effective  when  these  cavaliers  are  attacked,  and  in  conse- 
quence of  this  fire  and  that  from  the  cavalier,  c\  the  enemy  is  compelled  to 
make  a  lodgment  on  the  breach,  which  is  swept  from  c' ;  c\  with  the  case- 
mate, gf  supports  c\  and  covers  the  exit  h.  At  e  are  bomb-proof  sheds,  for 
the  pieces  from  c'  when  not  in  use  ;  /are  vaulted  casernes  for  the  protec- 
tion of  the  ditch  and  of  the  exit  PL  48,  fig.  28,  shows  a  profile  along  the 
line,  N  O,  through  the  main  enceinte  and  the  tenaille.  Figs.  26  and  27 
show  two  profiles,  along  the  lines  6  H  and  K  I,  of  the  redoubt  of  the  demi- 
lune, and^.  20  a  profile  along  the  line,  L  M,  of  the  redoubt  of  thö  places- 
of-arms  of  the  covered-way  and  the  attacked  traverses.  Alessandria  in 
Italy  is  fortified  upon  Chasseloup's  system. 


F.  ATTACK  AND  DEFENCE  OF  FORTIFIED  PLACES. 

In  ancient  times,  when  the  art  of  fortification  was  yet  in  its  infancy  and 
when  all  siege  engines  were  exceedingly  inefficient,  a  siege  was  a  most 
tedious  affair ;  instances  are  not  wanting  where  one  has  lasted  even  for  many 
years.  A  cursory  survey  of  the  ancient  method  of  carrying  on  a  siege 
may  here  precede  our  passage  to  modem  times.  The  fortification  to  be 
besieged  was  shut  in  on  all  sides,  to  cut  off  its  communications  and  means 
of  subsistence ;  for  this  purpose  it  was  surrounded  with  double  walls  of  cir- 
cumvallation,  between  which  the  besieging  army  encamped,  and  by  means 
of  which  it  was  defended,  as  well  from  the  assaults  of  the  garrison  as  from 
exterior  attacks.  PI  41,  fig.  2,  shows  the  circumvallation  which  Scipio 
established  when  he  besieged  the  city  of  Numantia,  secured  by  its  position 
upon  a  mountain  from  storm.  If,  on  the  contrary,  a  fortress  was  to  be 
stormed,  it  was  then  approached,  much  as  at  the  present  time,  by  means  of 
trenches.  Fig.  3  gives  a  representation  of  Ceesar's  siege  of  Massilia ;  here 
stone  siege  towers  {pL  S5,fig.  2)  were  first  built,  which  served  at  once  for 
guard  and  watch  towers  and  for  casernes.  From  these  the  fortress  was 
gradually  approached  by  means  of  covered  communications  {fig.  7  A),  and 
with  palisades  and  mounds  of  earth  (B),  a  parallel  was  established  as  at 
present.  The  ditch  being  attained  the  tortoises  (C)  went  forward,  by 
means  of  which  the  ditch  was  filled  up  and  a  dike  constructed  for  bringing 
up  not  only  the  battering-ram  but  the  movable  siege  towers  to  the  foot  of 
the  wall,  and  for  the  passage  of  the  besiegers  to  the  assault  of  the  breach. 
All  works  were  carried  on,  before  the  completion  of  the  galleries  of  commu- 
nication and  the  parallel,  under  cover  of  the  movable  screens,  DD.  In  the 
Middle  Ages  also  this  method  of  siege  was  practised,  but  then  many  subter- 
ranean galleries  were  wrought,  which  must  have  been  of  great  dimensions, 
for  we  blow  that  in  the  fifteenth  century  single  combats  on  horseback  were 

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164  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

carried  on  in  such  mine  galleries,  as  for  instance  the  one  between  King 
Henry  V .  of  England  and  the  Sire  de  Barbazan,  commandant  of  Melon,  in 
the  year  1420. 

In  our  own  times  the  reduction  of  a  fortified  place  may  be  effected  either 
by  blockade  or  investment,  by  surprise,  by  an  unexpected  open  attack,  by 
bombardment,  or,  finally,  by  a  regular  siege.  What  is  meant  by  the  four 
first  methods  is  explained  by  their  names ;  we  have  to  do,  therefore,  only 
with  the  last. 


1.  Attack  of  Fortified  Places. 

If  a  fortress  is  to  be  formally  invested,  it  is  first  surrounded,  to  cut  off  all 
succor  and  assistance,  with  a  line  of  circumvallation,  established  at  about 
two  miles  distant,  and  constructed  according  to  the  rules  of  fortification ; 
or  at  least  all  roads  running  to  the  place  are  taken  possession  of,  and  all 
the  adjacent  villages  and  important  localities.  At  the  same  time,  depots 
for  artillery  and  siege  material,  magazines,  &c.,  are  established.  From  this 
line  of  circumvallation,  or  from  the  occupied  points,  approaches  are  now 
made,  by  means  of  ditches  of  communication  (boyaux),  upon  the  prolonga- 
tion of  the  capitals  of  the  front  destined  to  attack  {pL  40,  fig.  1),  which 
ditches  run  in  zigzag,  so  as  not  to  be  enfiladed  from  the  place.  When 
within  1800  feet  of  the  fortress,  that  is,  near  the  foot  of  the  glacis,  a  trench 
is  established,  the  first  parallel,  which  surrounds  the  whole  front  to  be 
attacked.  The  first  parallel  serves  as  a  place  of  assemblage  for  artillery 
and  infantry,  and  for  the  location  of  those  batteries  from  which  curved 
fires  are  to  be  given,  that  is,  for  the  enfilade  and  ricochet,  and  for  the 
mortar  batteries.  These  batteries  should  enfilade,  not  only  the  long  lines 
of  the  front  attacked,  but  also  the  curtains  of  the  adjacent  fronts.  Not  to 
interfere  with  the  communications,  the  batteries  are  established,  not  in,  but 
before  or  behind  the  parallel.  From  the  first  parallel  approaches  are  again 
continued  by  boyaux  in  zigzag  still  upon  the  lines  of  the  capitals,  until  a 
distance  of  about  900  feet  from  the  covered-way  is  attained,  when  the 
second  parallel  is  established,  which,  as  well  as  the  first,  must  be  secured 
from  attack  at  the  extremities.  In  this  parallel,  which  serves  properly  only 
as  a  place  for  rest  and  assemblage,  batteries  are  seldom  established,  at  most 
some  elevated  counter-batteries,  and  especially  mortar  batteries.  StiQ 
approaching,  by  means  of  the  boyaux  {pL  49,  fig,  3  rfd),  the  third  parallel, 
gg,  is  established  near  the  salients  of  the  covered-way,  and  in  this  are 
placed  the  counter-batteries,  x.  Between  the  second  and  third  parallels,  a 
half  parallel  is  usually  established  {figs,  2  and  4),  which  incloses  the  bastion 
of  the  attacked  front,  and  serves  to  cover  the  further  advance  of  the  boyaux 
by  a  fire  of  small  arms,  or  to  attack  with  the  fire  of  artillery  points  which 
could  not  be  properly  reached  from  the  second  parallel.  When  approaches 
are  continued  from  the  third  parallel,  upon  the  line  of  the  capitals,  against 
the  salients  of  the  covered- way,  high  masses  of  earth  are  thrown  up  on  the 
right  and  left  of  the  line  of  the  capitals,  the  trench  cavaliers  (Jig.  3  hw)^  by 
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ATTAGK  AND  DEFENCE.  165 

means  of  which  the  besiegers  can  look  into  the  places-of-arms  of  the 
covered- way.  The  sahen ts  being  reached,  the  crowning  of  the  covered^way 
is  established,  parallel  to  the  crest  of  the  same,  and  here  the  breaching 
batteries  are  placed  (ßg,  2),  by  means  of  which  the  revetment  wall  of  the 
front  of  attack,  the  salients,  L,  of  the  ravelin,  the  two  bastion  salients,  A  A, 
and  the  two  shoulder  angles,  BB,  are  sought  to  be  destroyed.  The  covered 
way  being  cleared  of  the  enemy,  subterranean  galleries,  mn  and  wn  {fig,  3), 
are  dug,  leading  out  from  the  crown  to  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  or  to  the 
level  of  the  water  in  it,  and  the  descent  into  the  ditch  is  begun,  from  which 
the  passage  of  the  ditch  is  effected,  either  by  a  covered- way,  or  by  means 
of  a  dyke  or  a  bridge.  The  breach  being  reached,  a  lodjgment  is  effected 
upon  it,  and  from  thence  upon  the  different  works  to  be  taken. 

1.  Works  of  the  Trenches.  The  lines  by  means  of  which  a  siege 
is  carried  on  must,  as  they  are  constructed  under  fire  of  the  *enemy,  be 
very  hastily  made.  The  slopes  towards  the  foe  remain  unworked;  the 
interior  ones,  however,  must  be  very  steep,  wherefore  they  are  supported 
usually  by  gabions.  The  trenches  nearest  the  fortification  are  called  saps, 
0>f  which  there  are  various  kinds.  1.  The  Uncovered  sap  is  a  simple  ditch, 
3  feet  deep  and  18  feet  wide,  having,  on  the  side  towards  the  enemy,  a 
parapet  with  a  banquette.  2.  The  Flying  sap  is  carried  on  under  cover 
of  gabions,  3  feet  high  and  2  feet  in  diameter,  placed  by  the  laborers  imme- 
diately along  the  trace.  Upon  the  gabions,  fascines  or  sand-bags  are 
placed,  until  the  parapet  is  ^  feet  high.  The  ditches  are  3  feet  deep,  and 
9  feet  wide  at  the  bottom.  A  banquette,  1  foot  wide,  is  constructed. 
3.  The  Half  sap  has  no  banquette,  and  there  are  only  gabions,  filled  with 
earth,  sap- fagots,  or  sand-bags.  4.  The  Full  sap.  For  this,  each  sapper 
brigade  consists  of  four  men.  The  first  rolls  before  him  a  sap-gabion,  A 
(pL  48,  fig,  5,  view  and  ground  plan),  sets  up  the  gabions  x,  side  by  side, 
towards  the  fortification,  and  digs  the  ditch,  y,  1^  feet  wide  and  1^  deep ; 
the  succeeding  sappers  deepen  and  widen  the  ditch  each  6  inches,  and 
place  between  the  gabions  sap-fagots,  p.  Ordinary  laborers  then  complete 
the  ditch  to  3  feet  deep  and  18  feet  wide  and  place  the  fascines,  %.  5.  The 
Old  sap  {fig.  6)  is  also  cut  in  steps  by  four  sappers  following  each  other ; 
its  ditch  is  4  feet  deep  and  6  feet  wide ;  the  earth  is  employed  for  the 
parapet,  B.  When  tfie  old  sap  is  employed  to  cut  into  the  parapet  of  a 
hostile  work,  the  ditch  is  made  only  half  as  wide,  and  at  the  foot  of  its 
parapet  two  sand-bags,  z,  are  laid  one  upon  the  other,  for  a  banquette.  A 
blind  of  fascines  is  also  established  upon  the  parapet.  6.  The  Covered  sap 
{fig.  7)  consists  of  two  full  saps.  A,  running  parallel  to  each  other  at  4 
feet  distance,  over  which,  after  the  masses  of  earth,  M,  are  thrown  out,  a 
cover  of  beams,  k,  is  laid,  and  thereupon  fascines  and  sand-bags,  and, 
finally,  a  layer  of  earth,  D.  7.  The  Single  traverse  sap  {fig.  8)  is  a  full 
sap,  A,  which  advances,  not  in  a  direct  line,  but  in  rectangular  or  snake- 
like turns.  It  is  constructed  like  the  full  sap,  but  as  it  is  usually  employed 
for  crowning  the  covered-way,  the  traverses,  k,  are  placed  in  it.  At  the 
securest  points  are  made  ramps,  z,  in  the  rearmost  slope  of  the  trench. 
8.  The  Double  traverse  sap  {fig.  9)  consists  of  two  single  ones,  running 

lOONOORAPHIO  BNOrCLOP.SDIA. — ^VOL.  m.  41  641 


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166  lOUTABT  SCIENCES. 

parallel  to  each  other  at  4  feet  distant  It  is  10  feet  wide  at  the  bottom, 
and  is  employed  in  advancing  upon  the  ci^itals  of  the  work.  The  double 
sap  being  completed,  ordinary  laborers  throw  out  the  intervening  mass  of  4 
feet  thickness  of  earth.  0.  The  direct  doubk  sap,  or  dovble  sap  with  tam- 
bour traverses  {fig.  10),  consists  of  two  single  traverse  saps,  the  parapets 
of  which  are  turned  outwards,  and  which  run  parallel  to  each  other^  12 
feet  apart.  At  fixed  points,  A,  the  one  sap  turns  at  right  angles  to  the 
right,  the  other  to  the  left,  and  then  to  the  left  and  right  twice,  until  they 
again  come  together,  and  so  on ;  thus  arise  the  24  feet  traverses,  B,  which 
cover  the  passage,  C.  The  masses  of  earth,  6,  are  thrown  out  afterwards. 
These  saps  go  out  from  the  third  parallel  upon  the  salients  of  the  covered- 
way. 

If  the  ground  is  unfavorible  for  the  sap,  various  means  must  be  applied. 
Thus,  a,  on  rocky  ground,  where  there  is  only  one  foot  of  earth  (pL  48, 
fig.  11),  from  two  to  three  rows  of  gabions  are  set  up,  one  foot  from  the 
trace,  and  filled  with  the  earth  which  is  at  hand.  If  necessary,  the  parapet 
is  heightened  by  the  fascines,  yy,  and  the  banquette  made  of  sand-bags,  z, 
or  several  rows  of  gabions,  x  (fig.  12),  are  placed  one  on  the  other,  and  the^ 
banquette,  z,  made  of  fascines,  b.  Upon  naked  rock  (fig.  18)  the  materials 
for  filling  must  all  be  brought.  Several  rows  of  gabions,  x,  are  set  up  and 
filled  with  sand-bags,  y,  with  which  also  the  parapet  is  completed,  and  a 
banquette,  z,  made.  If,  on  such  ground,  a  sap  is  to  be  carried  forward 
under  fire  of  the  enemy's  small  arms  (fig.  14),  then  the  blind.  A,  is  set  up 
before  the  commencement  of  the  work,  and  only  under  its  cover  is  the 
parapet,  B,  to  be  ^constructed  of  gabions,  a;,  and  fascines,  and  of  the  earth 
brought  from  the  rear.  c.  On  marshy  ground  (fig.  15),  if  at  a  distance  from 
the  place,  a  dyke,  aft,  is  constructed  of  water-fascines  laid  crossing  each 
other,  and  the  required  earth  taken  from  the  ditches,  qq.  The  parapet,  x, 
is  6  feet  high,  of  fascines  with  earth,  and  the  banquette,  z,  of  fascines  or 
sand-bags.  If  the  work  is  under  fire  (fig.  16),  a  dyke,-afr,  is  made,  like  a 
sap,  behind  a  roUing  gabion,  and  as  soon  as  it  is  completed  the  parapet  is 
constructed  of  three  rows  of  gabions,  x,  and  an  upper  row,  y,  but  the  ban- 
quette is  made  of  sand-bags,  z.  If  the  soil  is  only  swampy  in  parts,  the 
communications  may  be  preserved  over  these  by  means  of  wooden  trestles, 
m  (fig.  17*,  firont  view,  fig.  17*,  side  view),  which  are  pressed  down  into 
the  soft  earth,  bridged  over,  and  covered  by  the  blind  A.  d.  Upon  over- 
flowed ground,  the  construction  is  as  in  fig.  15  ;  but  when  water  is  found 
at  the  depth  of  two  feet,  the  parapet  is  built  of  earth,  x  (fig.  18),  taken  from 
the  ditches,  qq,  run  in  front  and  rear.  When  this  work  is  done  under  fire 
(fig.  19),  the  blind.  A,  is  «et  up  in  front,  and  the  parapet,  x,  is  made,  either 
of  gabions  or  fascines  entirely,  or  earth  is  thrown  up  in  aid  from  a  ditch 
run  in  the  rear. 

2.  Works  of  the  Third  Parallel.  The  third  parallel,  gg  (fig.  3),  being 
completed,  approaches  are  pushed  forward  by  the  direct  double  sap,  y,  and» 
on  arriving  within  about  one  hundred  feet  of  the  places-of-arms  of  the 
covered-way,  curved  trenches,  oo,  are  carried  to  the  right  and  left,  from  the 
corners  m  m^  until  they  reach  the  prolongation  of  the  faces  of  the  covered- 
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ATTACK  AND  DEFENCE.  167 

way,  and  here  are  erected  the  trench  cavaliers,  hikw.  To  build  these  on 
the  scarp  of  the  sap-ditch,  q  (ßg.  20),  a  gabion,  b,  is  set  and  filled  with  earth, 
then  the  ditch  is  widened  for  the  parapet,  one  or  two  rows  of  gabions,  c,  are 
placed,  and  upon  these  the  gabions  d,  which  are  covered  with  fascines,  and 
thus  the  parapet  carried  still  higher.  The  banquette  is  made  with  two  or 
three  steps  of  fascines  or  sand-bags,  k.  After  completion  of  the  trench 
cavaliers,  At  A;  (pL  49,  fig.  3),  two  saps  are  carried  out,  from  o  towards  x, 
16  to  24  feet  from  the  crest  of  the  covered- way,  and  the  crowning  of  the 
covered-way  is  constructed  with  the  traverses  b.  While  the  breaching 
batteries  are  here  disposed  and  executed,  the  descent  into  the  ditch  is 
begun,  which  goes,  in  dry  ditches,  to  the  bottom ;  in  wet,  to  the  level  of  the 
water.  It  may  either  be  covered,  and  formed  in  steps,  or  covered  and  an 
inclined  plane,  or  open.  When  there  is  a  good  loamy  soil,  the  first  con- 
struction is  chosen  {fig.  21) ;  the  angle  of  descent  is  determined  according 
to  the  horizontal  distance,  A  b,  from  the  point  a,  and  the  height  of  the  coun- 
terscarp-revetment, K,  at  AD,  allowance  being  made  for  the  horizontal 
piece,  D  m,  to  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  and  the  number  of  steps  is  fixed. 
.  Then,  in  the  lodgment,  Q,  the  slope,  Q  s,  is  excavated,  so  that  when  it 
comes  to  the  slope,  X,  it  is  three  feet  below  the  line  A  Z,  and  now  begins 
the  excavation  of  the  descent,  which  is  made  seven  feet  high,  and  five  feet 
wide.  The  commencement  is  made  by  setting  up  a  frame,  cgwg  (fig.  22), 
as  soon  as  the  excavation  has  been  carried  one  foot.  Then  it  is  dug  two 
and  a  half  feet  further,  and  the  second  frame,  A,  set  fourteen  inches  deeper. 
The  two  are  connected  by  laths,  d.  Then  two-inch  planks,  y,  are  driven  in 
behind  and  over  the  frame,  until  the  whole  gallery  is  sheathed.  The  con- 
struction is  continued  in  this  manner,  forming  the  steps,  cop,  until  the 
point  m  is  reached,  whence  the  passage  is  horizontal ;  the  revetment  wall, 
K,  is  broken  through  and  supported  by  stones.  The  descent  after  the 
second  manner  is  made  open.  For  this  purpose  a  blind  {fig.  24)  is  used, 
which  consists  of  two  side-pieces,  x,  and  the  transoms,  y  and  z.  In  the 
oblique  excavation,  which  goes  on  constantly  behind  a  traverse  (fig.  23), 
the  earth  is  thrown  to  the  sides;  as  soon  as  it  has  advanced  about  twelve 
feet,  the  blinds  {fig.  24)  are  placed,  and  over  across  these  the  roof  beams,  b 
(fig.  25),  which  have  notches  at  rr.  Upon  these  come  three  rows  of  fas- 
cines, crossing  each  other,  and  then  three  feet  of  earth.  The  revetment- 
wall  being  reached  in  one  or  the  other  manner,  the  passage  of  the  ditch  is 
commenced,  which  for  dry  ditches  is  simple.  In  wet  ditches  a  dike  is  con- 
structed {fig.  23),  by  throwing  in  stone,  D,  and  laying  water-fascines,  gko, 
secured  by  pickets  of  the  breadth  required,  and  two  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  water.  The  completed  portion  of  the  dike  is  covered  by  a  parapet  of 
gabions,  sand- bags,  and  fascines,  xRvz,  If,  instead  of  a  dike,  it  is  prefer- 
red to  construct  a  floating  bridge  {fig.  26,  view,  j^.  27,  ground-plan),  then 
hurdles,  a,  of  fascines  are  first  laid  to  the  breadth  required  ;  crosswise  upon 
these,  a  second  layer,  g,  and  then  the  third  hurdle  layer,  A.  Upon  these 
come  two  beds  of  sleepers  and  stretchers,  crossing  each  other,  x  y  and  wop, 
the  fields  of  which  are  filled  up  with  brushwood,  and  upon  this  is  laid  a  bed 
of  fascines,  k.    It  is  covered  by  a  parapet,  R  V,  as  in  the  case  just  described. 

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168  MZLITART  SCIENCWL 

3.  Construction  of  Batteries.  For  the  building  of  the  requisite  batteries 
and  the  work  of  the  trenches,  various  imfriements  and  materiab  are  required, 
which  are  represented  on  pi  50.  To  these  belong  the  tracing-line  (fig.  7), 
the  mason's  level  (fig.  8),  the  square  (fig.  0),  the  plummet  (fig.  10),  the 
mattock  (fig.  11),  the  spade  (fig.  12),  the  hand-rammer  (fig.  18),  the  two- 
man-rammer  (fig.  14),  and  the  scraper  (fig.  15)  for  levelling  the  slopes. 
Gabions  (fig.  18)  are  made  by  setting  up  the  requisite  number  of  stakes,  in 
a  circle  of  the  proper  dimensions,  in  the  earth,  and  then  interweaving  them 
with  flexible  twigs  (fig.  16  ^  view,  fig.  10  \  ground  plan).  Sometimes  in 
the  weaving,  wooden  circles  (fig.  17  •)  are  intermingled,  whereby  the  work 
goes  on  more  rapidly.  The  basket  being  finished,  the  upper  layer  is  boond 
with  withes  (fig.  17^),  so  that  the  basket-work  may  not  come  out.  Every 
gabion  has  two  anchors  (fig.  19)  to  fasten  it  in  the  earth.  Fascines  (fig. 
23^)  are  made  upon  a  fascine-horse  (fig.  20),  of  slender  and  straight  brush- 
wood, fifteen  feet  long  and  one  foot  in  diameter,  and  bound  at  every  fifteen 
inches  with  withes.  For  this  purpose  they  are  choked  upon  the  choking- 
frame  (fig.  21)  by  means  of  the  fascine-choker  (fig.  22),  and  tied  imme- 
diately, close  to  the  choke.  Sap-fagots  (fig.  28 ")  are  only  three  feet  long ; 
at  a  and  b  they  are  tied,  and  a  picket-stake  is  thrust  through  them.  Sand- 
bags are  of  canvas,  and  filled  with  sand ;  are  one  or  two  feet  long,  and  one 
foot  thick  ;  they  are  of  various  fcMrms  (fig.  24*'^  «aAfig.  25). 

Siege  batteries  divide  into  first  and  second  batteries.  The  first  are  to 
silence  the  enemy's  fire,  and  destroy  his  means  of  defence ;  the  last  are  to 
eflect  breaches.  If  the  front  of  a  battery  forms  various  salient  and  re-enter- 
ing angles,  it  is  called  an  indented  battery,  or  battery  en  cremaill^re,  A  B 
(fig.  46) ;  but  if  part  of  the  battery,  A  B  (fig.  47),  s^y/gh,  must  lie  further 
back  than  t  A,  it  becomes  a  broken  battery.  Is  the  ground  boggy,  and  a 
battery  to  be  established  behind  the  dike  A  (fig.  2),  then  the  wooden  bar- 
bette, ab,  is  constructed,  and  we  have  a  scafibld  battery.  Masked  batteries 
are  those  whose  embrasures  are  first  opened  when  their  fire  commences. 
If  the  ground  rises  terrace-formed,  and  upon  the  higher  part,  a  b  (fig.  1), 
some  pieces  are  placed,  such  a  battery  is  said  to  be  in  tiers.  If  the  terre- 
plein,  a  b  (fig.  87),  forms  the  floor  of  the  battery,  it  is  a  horizontal ;  but  if 
its  floor  lies  below  that,  it  is  a  sunken  battery  (fig.  88) ;  and  a  raised  bat- 
tery when  its  pieces  stand  higher  than  the  horizon.  A  battery  which  stands 
perpendicularly  opposite  the  point  fired  upon  is  a  direct,  every  other  an 
oblique  battery.  The  pieces  stand  in  the  batteries  from  12  to  18  feet  distant 
from  each  other,  and  there  must  be  from  eight  to  ten  feet  clei^r  space  in 
rear  of  them.  In  the  breaching  batteries,  however,  the  pieces  stand  closer. 
The  thickness  of  the  parapet  is,  according  to  the  consistency  of  the  earth, 
from  twelve  to  twenty  feet,  and  its  height  for  horizontal  batteries  from  six 
to  eight  feet.  The  embrasures  are  either  half  or  wholly  cut  out.  PL  50 
figs.  26  and  27,  are  wholly  cut  out ;  fig.  88  shows  one  half  cut  out,  the  sole» 
if,  meeting  the  superior  slope  at  /,  and  the  wedge,  x,  not  being  removed. 
The  ricochet  and  howitzer  batteries  receive  such  embrasures,  as  they  fire 
only  in  high  curves.  The  earth  for  the  batteries  is  obtained  from  the 
ditches,  U  (fig.  30),  excavated  in  their  front  and  rear.  Is  a  battery  so 
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ATTACK  AND  DEFENCE.  169 

(daced  that  it  can  be  enfiladed  from  the  fortress,  then  its  flank  is  covered  by 
an  epaulement,  or  else  broken  and  mounted  with  guns.  If  the  battery  is  not 
in  the  parallel,  it  must  be  united  with  it  by  ditches  of  communication  (N) ; 
if  in  it,  then  a  ditch  of  communication  is  carried  round  in  the  rear  (N,  fig. 
82).  All  pieces  stand  in  the  batteries  upon  wooden  platforms.  These  plat- 
forms (fig.  29,  side  view,  right ;  upper  view,  left)  consist  of  three  sleepers, 
AAA,  upon  which  the  platform  planks,  fff,  are  bolted  down ;  a  sleeper,  «, 
being  substituted  for  the  last,  to  check  the  recoil.  For  the  safe  preservation 
of  the  ammunition,  bomb-proof  powder-magazines  are  constructed  within 
batteries  (D,  fitg,  30),  large  enough  to  contain  the  supply  requisite  for  one 
day's  service.  In  mortar  and  howitzer  batteries,  a  separate  place,  E,  is 
excavated  for  the  shells  and  howitzes.  All  these  magazines  are  connected 
by  galleries  (f  A)  with  the  interior  of  the  battery. 

Before  the  actual  construction  of  a  battery  can  be  commenced,  its  location 
in  the  parallel  must  be  determined,  its  position  above  or  below  the  horizon, 
the  direction  of  its  axis  of  fire,  the  number  and  kind  of  its  pieces,  and  the 
circumstances  under  which  it  is  to  be  built,  as  well  as  the  materials  which 
are  to  be  employed.  The  earth  is  obtained  usually  from  ditches  practised 
in  front  and  rear  of  the  battery ;  as,  however,  most  of  the  slopes  require  to 
be  steeper  than  the  natural  slope  of  the  earth,  a  revetment  must  be  given  to 
them.  For  this  purpose,  fascines  and  gabions  are  employed.  Fig,  28  gives 
the  interior  view  of  a  horizontal  counter-battery,  which  is  revetted  to  the 
level  of  the  embrasure  soles  with  fascines.  These  fascines  are  fastened 
against  the  parapet,  as  shown  in  the  section  {fig^.  26,  27),  by  means  of 
anchors  firom  two  to  five  feet  long,  and  anchor-stakes,  which  must  extend 
so  far  into  the  parapet  as  to  be  within  the  natural  slope  of  the  earth.  The 
right  half  of  fig,  28  shows  the  fascine  revetment  continued  to  the  superior 
slope  of  the  parapet,  while  on  the  left  this  revetment  is  effected  by  means 
of  gabions,  which  must  also  be  anchored,  as  shown  in  fig.  19.  The  sole  of 
embrasures  is  never  revetted,  but  their  sides  (cheeks)  may  be  revetted  either 
with  fascines  {fig*  26)  or  hurdles  {fig,  27).  We  will  now  describe  some 
particular  kinds  of  battery,  and  give  the  details  of  their  construction. 

To  construct  a  horizontal  breach  or  counter-battery  under  the  grape  and 
musketry  fire  of  the  enemy,  the  method  of  procedure  is  as  follows :  Let  the 
battery  (/?/.  50,  fig,  42,  ground  plan,  fig,  43,  section)  be  destined  for  four 
12-pounders :  the  front,  GH,  according  to  the  line  of  direction,  RL,  being 
oblique  to,  and  120  feet  distant  from,  the  second  parallel.  From  the  two 
points,  A,  in  the  parallel,  W,  the  full  saps,  n  6  and  n  H,  are  carried  in  the 
directions  G  and  H ;  the  sappers  then  proceed  parallel  with  R  L  to  /)p, 
inclosing  a  space  large  enough  to  yield  earth  for  the  battery ;  then  the  sap- 
pers approach  each  other  from  the  two  opposite  points,  until  the  sap,  jo»//,  is 
completed ;  and  at  GH  a  flying  sap  is  thrown  up  to  determine  the  fire  line. 
The  axes  of  the  embrasures  are  then  staked  out,  the  breadth,  66,  of  the  bar- 
bettes, A,  marked  off;  between  them  the  ditches,  itio,  running  towards  W, 
and  on  the  outside  of  the  two  outer  pieces  the  twelve-feet  wide  ditches,  tt^ 
running  in  the  same  direction,  are  dug  out.  Having  arrived  at  /  and  o,  36 
feet  firom  GH,  the  whole  maai  of  earth,  U,  lying  in  rear  of  the  battery,  is 

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170  MILITARY  SCIENCEa 

dug  down  three  feet,  and  applied  to  the  formation  of  the  breastwork.  Meia« 
while  other  workmen  establish  between  the  barbettes,  A  and  6H,  a  sap 
with  gabions,  z,  which,  filled  with  earth,  afterwards  support  the  sleepers  of 
the  platforms.  The  ramps,  B,  are  also  dug,  and  the  mass  of  earth,  U,  three 
feet  deep,  in  front  of  the  battery,  is  thrown  up  on  the  parapet  In  rear  of 
the  battery,  two  magazines,  D,  are  established.  The  line  of  direction  of  an 
embrasure,  when  the  parapet  is  completed,  is  determined,  under  the  hostile 
fire,  as  shown  on  pL  49,  fig.  36.  To  the  laths,  ab,  the  rods,  ac  and  bd^  are 
fastened,  the  laths  laid  upon  the  superior  slope,  in  rear,  exactly  on  the  mid- 
dle line  of  the  embrasure,  and  by  n>oving  the  foremost  end  of  the  rod»  hd, 
sighted  into  line,  this  line  is  prolonged  backwards  by  sighting-in  the  stakes, 
ef.  The  direction  of  the  cheeks  (pi  öO,fig,  8),  ce  and  df,  is  obtained  by 
laying  off  upon  the  prolonged  line  of  direction,  ab,  from  seven  to  eight  feet, 
and  digging  out  the  cheeks  in  the  prolongation  of  gc  and  gd.  If  the  line  of 
direction  of  an  already  completed  embrasure  is  to  be  changed,  a  new  line 
of  direction  is  first  determined,  and  then  either  the  embrasure  alone  is 
merely  moved  (fig.  4),  or  the  parapet  is  cut  into,  or  an  c^et  made  upon  it 
(figs,  5, 6).  A  horizontal  battery  in  the  parallel,  built  out  of  the  range  of  the 
enemy's  fire,  is  shown  in^^.  44,  which  gives  the  ground  plan,  and^.  45» 
which  presents  the  section.  W  is  the  parallel,  GH  the  fire  line,  A  the  battery 
platforms,  U  the  ditches,  N  the  ditch  of  communication  in  rear  of  the  battery, 
BCE  are  entrances,  D  the  magazines.  Of  a  horizontal  battery  in  rear  of  the 
parallel  (fig,  40  shows  the  ground  flan,  fig.  41  the  section).  W  is  the  paral* 
lei,  GH  the  parapet,  UU  the  ditches  of  communication,  which  are  protected 
by  the  parapets,  M ;  D  are  the  magazines,  Y  the  ditches ;  the  piece,  NO,  of 
the  parapet  of  the  parallel,  is  cut  out  and  covered  by  the  barbettes,  PP. 
J^g*  32  gives  an  example  of  a  sunken  battery  in  the  parallel.  It  is  for  three 
12-pounders  and  one  mortar.  GH  is  the  parapet  (with  embrasures  accord- 
ing to  fig.  33,  tf ) ;  B  is  a  traverse,  which  separates  the  mortar  from  the 
cannon ;  N  the  ditches  of  communication,  and  D  the  magazines.  J^.  38 
is  the  ground  plan,  fig.  30,  the  section  of  a  sunken  battery,  oUique  in  front 
of  or  behind  the  parallel.  The  signification  of  the  letters  is  the  same  as  in 
the  preceding  figure.  GI  is  a  piece  of  the  parapet,  which  is  raised  higher  to 
cover  the  battery.  The  arrangement  of  the  elevated  battery  is  shown  by 
the  ground  plans  (figs.  34,  36),  and  the  sections  (figs.  35,  37).  Here,  a 
piece  of  the  parapet  on  the  side  towards  the  hostile  fire  must  always  be 
carried  up  at  the  same  time  for  a  cover.  In  figs.  34  and  35,  the  pieces  fire 
en  barbette ;  in  figs.  36  and  37,  through  embrasures.  Fig.  31  is  a  rear 
view  of  a  battery  of  24-pounders  before  the  Algerine  fortress  of  CcHistantine, 


2.    Dbfbnce  of  Fortipibd  Places. 

So  soon  as  the  front  of  attack  is  known,  it  is  properly  armed,  and  embr^ 

sures  are  everywhere  cut,  when  the  construction  of  service  magazines,  for 

daily  use,  is  at  once  proceeded  to.    Fig.  48  shows  the  arrangement  of  such 

a  magazine,  on  a  dry  bottom.    The  timber- work  is  composed  of  the  sleepen, 

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PIONEER  AND  PONTOON  SERVICK  171 

a,  the  posts,  ft,  the  oross-pieoes,  g,  and  the  string-pieces,  c,  the  lining  of  the 
boards,  e,  and  the  pieces,  d.  Upon  the  string-pieces,  c,  and  the  roof-beams, 
q,  the  fascines,  hh,  a  bed  of  loam,  /,  and  finally  a  bed  of  common  earth,  IL 
The  roof  is  braced  by  the  strutts,  m,  which  are  mortised  into  the  sleepers,  n, 
and  the  whole  structure  is  protected  by  the  embankment,  m,  against  the 
hostile  shot.  If  the  bottom  is  moist,  a  foundation  is  requisite  according  to 
ßg,  49.  The  gates  are  all  barricaded ;  bomb-proof  barracks  are  built ;  and 
all  the  parapets  of  the  covered- way  made  accessible  by  means  of  sally-ladders, 
A  (ßg.  50),  supported  upon  posts,  x.  The  next  step  is  the  arrangement  of 
cut-oflTs  in  the  attacked  bastions,  ravelins,  and  places-of-arms.  If  the  bas- 
tions are  hollow,  it  is  best  to  close  the  gorges  by  a  straight  line,  but  for  full 
bastions  the  proper  cut-offs  are  shown  in  pL  49,  ßgs,  28,  29,  30,  and  31; 
in  the  demi-lune  a  redoubt.  A,  is  placed  (ßg,  32),  with  flanks,  pq,  and  in  the 
faces  the  coupures,  vwx.  The  branches  of  the  covered-way  are  strength«* 
ened  by  the  double  palisades,  to  (ßg,  33),  between  the  traverses,  P  and  V. 
Fig.  34  gives  the  ground  plan  of  a  wooden  tambour  in  the  salient  place-of- 
arms ;  ßg.  35,  its  section.  The  interior  space,  p,  of  the  tambour  is  so  nar* 
row,  that  shells  falling  upon  the  roof-screen,  to,  roll  over  the  counterscarp 
into  the  ditch. 


G.    PIONEER  AND  PONTOON  SERVICE. 

1.  Mines. 

Thus  far  we  have  treated  only  of  attack  and  defence  above  ground  ;  but 
there  is  a  subterranean  warfare  also,  carried  on  by  means  of  mines,  and 
this  is  the  duty  of  the  corps  of  sappers  and  miners  or  pioneers,  and  its  rules 
form  a  separate  departmer  \  of  engineering.  If  gunpowder  be  inclosed  in 
mason-work,  earth,  or  rock,  and  then  fired,  the  explosion  drives  away  ail 
the  parts  which  can  yield.  Such  an  arrangement,  so  prepared  as  to  be  fired 
at  any  instant,  is  called  a  mine ;  the  inclosure  containing  tne  powder  is  the 
chamber,  but  the  chamber  itself  when  filled  is  the  oven  (foumeau).  Mines 
are  employed  to  blow  up  the  walls  of  the  fortification,  the  works  of  the 
besiegers,  and  in  case  of  necessity  part  of  their  troops.  In  the  practice  of 
mining,  a  shaft  is  first  sunk,  and  from  its  bottom  a  gallery,  the  mine-gallery, 
carried  out  to  the  spot  where  the  fourneau  of  the  mine  is  to  be  placed.  To 
sink  a  shaft,  a  curb  {pi.  ^l,ßg.  5),  abed,  whose  cross-pieces  lap  eighteen 
inches  over  each  other,  is  first  sunk ;  the  excavation  continues  until  the 
second  curb,  ab  (fig.  6),  is  laid,  and  then  boards,  a  (fig.  4),  are  thrust  down 
between  the  curbs  and  the  earth.  Between  the  boards,  a,  and  the  second 
curb  come  wedges,  and  the  two  curbs  are  connected  by  strips,  b.  The 
excavation  is  now  continued  to  the  third  curb,  cased,  and  so  on  till  the 
shaft  is  deep  enough.  The  curbs  are  placed  four  or  five  feet  from  eaoh 
other,  the  two  last,  however,  being  always  the  height  of  the  intended  gallerj 
apart.    The  side  of  the  shaft,  when  this  is  to  lead  out,  is  not  cased,  but  the 

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172  MILITARY  SCIENCES. 

first  frame,  c  {fig.  9),  (chassis)  is  placed  in  the  earth.    The  eTCavation  is 
now  carried  horizontally,  placing  new  chassis,  c/,  every  two  or  three  feet, 
and  casing  with  boards  as  in  the  shaft,  but  only  on  three  sides.     For  earth 
of  very  loose  consistence  the  chassis  abc  {fig.  7)  is  employed,  which  is  put 
together  in  the  gallery  in  the  manner  shown  at  a  c  {fig.  8).     If  the  excava- 
tion is  carried  from  the  surface  of  the  earth  to  the  depth  designed  for  the 
bottom  of  the  gallery,  this  is  called  working  the  gallery  above  ground  {pi.  51, 
figs.  1, 2,  3).     Then  strong  beams,  a  {fig.  1),  are  laid  across  the  space,  and 
sunk  in  the  ground,  so  that  they  extend  on  each  side  three  feet  beyond  the 
side  of  the  gallery,  the  breadth  of  which  is  determined  by  the  beams,  6,  laid 
upon  these.     These  squares  being  dug  out  four  feet  deep,  a  new  propping 
is  formed  by  means  of  the  pieces  c  and  d  (figs.  1,  2),  which  are  mortised 
into  the  short  pieces  e  {fig.  2),  at  five  feet  distance  from  each  other,  boards 
having  first  been  driven  in  behind  b  and  e.     The  strips.  A,  keep  the  pieces 
at  the  same  distance.  Fig.  3  shows  the  cross-section  of  the  gallery.   The  exca- 
vation being  completed,  the  frame  for  a  wooden  gallery  is  set  up,  or  a  gallery 
is  built  of  mason- work.    At  the  extremity  of  a  mine  gallery,  a  b  (fig.  1 1),  the 
chamber.  A,  is  hollowed  in  the  side  wall,  6(f,  so  that  it  stands  six  inches  from 
the  top  wall ;  if  the  gallery  has  a  fall,  bd  must  be  levelled.     The  size  of  the 
chamber  is  governed  by  that  of  the  box,  gfc  d  {fig.  12),  which  it  is  to  con- 
tain, and  which  is  filled  through  the  vacant  space  a  bfg.    The  box  gfc  d  is 
partly  sunk  in  the  floor  h  i.    The  saucisson,  a  tube  one  inch  in  diameter  made 
of  canvas  filled  with  powder  {a,  fig.  10),  lies  in  the  wooden  fuse-case,  bcde^ 
secured  by  the  slings,  g,  and  passes  at  e  {fig.  12)  into  the  powder-box,  where 
it  is  fast  nailed.  The  powder-box  being  filled,  is  tamped  in  the  following  man- 
ner.   The  vacant  space,  A  {fig.  14),  above  the  box,  B,  is  filled  with  pieces  of 
wood  ;  in  front  of  this  powder-box  2-inch  plank,  6,  are  laid  over  one  another 
to  the  roof,  c  c,  cased  with  the  boards,  a,  braced  by  the  pieces,  d,  and  then 
the  vacant  space  filled  with  stone.    The  part  of  the  tamping,  cccc  {fig.  27), 
being  completed,  the  gallery  along  Cc  is  tamped  with  stone  or  sand-bags, 
strengthened  every  six  feet  by  pieces  of  wood,  e.     When  the  mine  is  to  be 
fired,  the  end  of  the  saucisson  is  nailed  upon  a  board,  cut  open,  and  set  oflT 
by  a  piece  of  lighted  tinder.   For  this  purpose  the  box-trap  {fig.  15)  is  used. 
Upon  its  slide.  A,  lies  the  tinder,  b,  which,  when  the  slide  is  drawn  out,  falls 
and  kindles  the  powder  at  c.     If  a  number  of  fourneaux  are  to  be  fired  at 
the  same  time,  for  instance  ten  Yourneaux,  A  {fig.  16),  the  saucissons  are 
laid  as  shown  in  that  figure.     If  saucissons  are  led  from  the  fourneaux  only 
to  the  main  gallery  {ßg.  17),  at  each  entrance  by  a  small  gallery,  a  block,  A 
{figs.  17  and  18),  with  a  ring,  x,  and  at  the  turn  of  the  gallery,  the  block 
B  {figs.  17  and  19),  with  the  roller  y,  are  fixed,  and  then  a  cord,  soaked  in 
linseed  oil,  led  through  the  rings  and  over  the  roller  ;  by  means  of  this  cord 
the  slides  of  all  the  box-traps  in^^.  16  can  be  drawn  at  once.     The  charge 
of  a  mine  is  regulated  according  to  the  efiect  desired  from  it.     When  a 
mine,  a  {pi.  51,  fig.  20),  is  fired  in  firm  ground,  it  first  lifts  the  earth  above 
It  in  a  gentle  hill  {fig.  33)  ;  this  hill  being  raised  so  far  that  its  boundary 
extends  to  the  margin  of  the  crater  of  explosion,  hhhh  {fig.  20),  flame  and 
smoke  break  out,  and  then  follows  the  explosion;  a  part  of  the  earth  is 
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PIONEER  AND  PONTOON  SERVICR  17S 

thrown  towards  X,  the  other  is  pressed  into  the  side  walls,  h.  The  line  a  o 
is  called  the  line  of  least  resistance,  gckcg  is  the  sphere  of  action,  and  hh 
the  crater  of  the  mine,  of  which  the  upper  surface  is  called  the  surface  of 
explosion,  its  circumference  the  circle  of  rupture,  the  lines  o  h  radii  of  the 
crater,  and  the  lines  ha  radii  of  explosion.  The  sphere  of  action  extends 
to  m  and  n,  where  the  earth  is  loosened.     Towards  g  the  effect  is  less. 

In  a  properly  loaded  mine  {ßg.  20),  the  radius,  oh,  of  the  surface  of 
explosion  is  equal  to  the  line  of  least  resistance,  ao.  If  a  gallery,  mn 
{ßg'  25),  lies  If  times  the  line  of  least  resistance  from  a  properly  loaded 
mine,  it  is  sufficient,  to  avoid  any  impression,  that  it  be  removed  to  double 
that  line  by  propping  it  with  wood.  If  the  diameter  of  the  circle  of  explo- 
sion is  greater  than  twice  the  line  of  least  resistance,  the  mine  is  said  to  be 
overcharged  ;  if  less,  it  is  undercharged.  If  the  craters  of  two  mines,  c  dfg 
and  hgik  (ßg,  22),  overlap,  they  must,  if  they  do  not  lie  so  near  that 
their  spheres  of  activity,  trs,  pass  into  each  other,  receive  a  stronger 
charge  to  produce  the  ordinary  <y*ater.  Fig,  23  shows  four  mines  whose 
circles  of  explosion  overlap.  Fougasses  are  made  by  digging  pits  from 
eight  to  ten  feet  deep,  and  placing  in  them  well  pitched  wooden  boxes» 
loaded  with  powder,  bombs,  and  grenades,  and  provided  with  saucissona. 
These  mines,  A  (ßg,  28),  are  used  against  the  saps  along  the  capitals  ;  the 
fougasses,  B,  are  to  destroy  part  of  the  crowning  of  the  covered- way ;  the 
mines,  C,  are  directed  against  the  lodgment  in  the  re-enterii%  place-of-arms ; 
the  mines,  D,  defend  the  foot  of  the  breach ;  the  mines,  E,  are  to  destroy 
the  hostile  lodgments  in  the  interior  of  bastion  or  ravelin.  When  time  is 
lacking,  fougasses  can  be  established  as  at  F>  and  are  then  called  rosaries. 
Where  saucissons  cross  each  other,  as  at  m,  they  are  laid  one  under  the 
other,  being  sunk  at  m  and  brought  up  again  by  other  shafts  at  n  and  p. 
Fig,  31  shows  the  effect  of  a  mine  in  solid  mason- work;  ßg.  32,  upon  a 
vault ;  ßg.  34,  as  globe  of  compression  against  a  gallery. 


2.    SUBTERBANEAN  WaRFARB. 

As  the  approaches  of  the  assailants  are  made  usually  only  along  the 
capitals,  the  gallery  mp  (ßg.  13),  running,  forward  from  the  foot  of  the 
counterscarp,  is  the  only  one  established  at  first ;  it  is  regarded  as  a  listening 
gallery,  but  fourneaux  are  placed  in  it  also.  Subsequently  small  galleries, 
ab  and  cd,  are  run  across  through  this ;  finally,  for  the  purpose  of  blowing 
up  the  breach  and  counter-batteries,  the  crosses  eff  and  the  galleries  mlnm 
are  established,  from  which  the  new  crosses,  egg  and  ehh,  can'  be  thrown  out 
The  gallery  m / nm  is  called  the  magistral  gallery.  Frequently,  also,  several 
rows  of  mines  are  established,  one  above  the  other  (pi,  51,  fig.  26),  D  E  F, 
so  as  to  explode  them  in  succession.  In  order  to  extend  the  circle  of 
efficiency  of  the  counter-mines  further  than,  from  want  of  air,  it  can  bo 
carried  by  the  listening  galleries,  the  gallery  CCCC  (fig.  29)  is  con- 
structed, parallel  with  the  magistral  gallery  6G06,  and  called  the  envelop- 
ing gallery.    From  this  the  enemy's  fourth  parallel  is  blown  into  the  air* 

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174  MILITARY  SCIKNCE8. 

The  two  are  connected  by  the  galleries  DD.  Stilt  another  enveloping 
gallery  may  be  thrown  forward.  The  listening  galleries,  HH,  run  further 
out  into  the  country,  and  from  them  are  thrown  out,  according  to  circum« 
stances,  the  foumeaux,  abc.  The  gallery  of  communication,  E,  along  the 
capital,  is  called  the  capital-gallery.  Fig.  30  shows  a  complete  system  of 
mines  for  a  front  of  attack. 


8.   Pontoon  Servicet. 

The  object  of  pontoon  service  is  to  effect  the  passage  of  armies  over 
rivers.  As  the  building  of  bridges  upon  trestles  and  piles  is  generally  under- 
stood, we  shall  occupy  ourselves  here  only  with  the  construction  of  bridges 
of  boats,  or  pontoon  bridges.  The  boats  or  pontoons  are  made  either  of  copper 
or  iron  plate,  or  of  wood  sheathed  with  iron.  A  pontoon  ( ßgs,  44-49)  consists 
of  the  body,  BC,  the  stem,  AB,  and  the  stern,  CD,  and  is  30  feet  long,  5  feet 
9  inches  wide  above  and  3  feet  8  inches  below  in  the  centre,  sharpened  to 
both  ends.  The  height  is  in  the  middle  2  feet  6  inches,  at  the  stem  3  feet, 
and  at  the  stem  2  feet  10  inches.  E  is  the  floor,  F,  the  two  sides;  a  are  the 
flooring-boards,  b,  the  side-boards.  Small  pieces,  ddefghik,  serve  to  hold 
the  pontoon  together,  and  it  is  provided  also  with  the  requisite  iron  platings. 
Fig,  44  shows  tire  side  view ;  ßg.  45,  the  upper  view ;  ßg.  46,  the  longitudinal 
section  ;  ßg,  47,  the  front  view ;  ßg.  48,  the  cross-section,  and  ßg.  49,  the 
rear  view  of  a  wooden  pontoon  whose  weight  is  16  cwt.  The  pontoneer 
implements  for  the  service  of  the  pontoon  are :  the  pontoon  kedge  (ßg,  35), 
a  three-fluked  anchor,  usually  four  feet  long ;  the  steering-oar  (ßg.  37),  widi 
a  sixteen  feet  long  handle,  a,  the  blade,  6,  and,  when  the  rudder  rests  upon 
the  wale,  the  reinforcement,  a  (ßg,  36) ;  the  puUing-oar  (ßg,  38)  is  only 
ten  feet  long,  in  other  respects  like  the  steering-oar,  save  that  the  blade,  b, 
is  rounded ;  the  paddle  (ßg.  39)  is  only  five  feet  long,  and  the  handle,  a, 
and  blade,  6,  are  in  one  piece ;  at  one  end  is  the  crutch,  c,  and  at  the  other 
the  iron  mounting,  d;  the  boat  hooks  (Jigs,  40  and  41)  serve  to  hold  the 
pontoon  fast  to  any  object. 

To  throw  a  pontoon  bridge,  the  first  step  is  to  lay  the  ground  sills,  whose 
upper  surface  must  lie  one  foot  seven  inches  above  the  level  of  the  water. 
Then  the  first  pontoon  on  each  side  is  placed  in  the  proper  direction,  and 
the  five  bridge-sleepers  are  laid  upon  these  and  the  ground  sills,  when  the 
pontoon  is  again  exactly  aligned  and  firmly  anchored.  Then  the  chesses  are 
stretched,  but  not  so  far  as  to  interfere  with  the  laying  of  the  second  set  of 
sleepers.  The  two  next  pontoons  are  then  properly  placed,  the  sleepers  laid, 
and  so  on  until  the  bridge  is  completed.  The  pontoons  are  attached  to  each 
other  by  cross-ropes.  Fig,  52  shows  the  upper  view  of  a  pontoon  bridge» 
with  the  ordmary  span,  and  ßg.  53,  one  with  a  greater  span,  for  riven 
having  little  current,  or  where  but  light  weights  are  to  be  passed  over.  In 
the  bridge  with  the  greater  space,  the  string-pieces  rest  only  on  three  gun- 
wales  in  two  pontoons.  To  efiect  this,  a  scaffold  (ßg.  51)  of  five  cross-beam^ 
a,  the  same  thickness  as  the  string-pieces,  and  6  feet  6  inches  long,  and  two 
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PIONEER  AND  PONTOON  SERVICK  176 

tie-beams  from  5  to  6  inches  thick,  is  laid  over  the  pontoon,  and  the  bridge 
sleepers  are  laid  only  upon  this  scaffold.  If  the  bridge  with  ordinary  span 
is  to  remain  standing  for  some  time,  then  in  each  pontoon  a  trestle,  A 
{fig.  50),  is  placed,  of  which  the  cross-piece  stands  three  inches  higher 
than  the  gunwale  of  the  pontoon,  so  that  the  string-pieces  rest  upon  the 
trestles. 

Fig,  42  shows  a  movable  foot  bridge.  Each  trestle  consists  of  two  feet, 
F  {fig.  48  shows  their  ground  plan),  with  four  cross  sleepers,  a,  four 
strutts,  ft,  and  four  posts,  c.  To  place  the  head,  d,  upon  which  the  bridge 
floor  rests,  at  any  required  height,  the  posts,  c,  are  bored  with  holes  at 
every  foot,  to  receive  iron  bolts,  which  pass  also  through  iron  plating  on 
the  ends  of  the  heads.  The  string-pieces  of  the  foot  bridge  are  seventeen 
feet  long  by  five  or  six  inches  through ;  the  planks  are  seventeen  feet  long» 
six  inches  broad,  and  two  and  a  half  inches  thick. 


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NAVAL    SCIENCES. 

Plates  VI.  1—32. 


I.  HISTORY  OF  NAVIGATION. 


Navigation,  or  the  art  of  crossing  water,  is  so  old  that  we  know  not 
who  was  its  inventor.  We  find  its  application  in  the  mythical  ages.  It  is 
made  use  of  by  the  poets,  and  every  nation  claims  the  invention  of  it  as  its 
own.  The  Greeks  ascribed  it  to  their  Minerva ;  the  Romans,  to  Neptune ; 
the  Chinese,  to  Hoang-Ti ;  while,  in  fact,  it  is  the  social  impulse  of  man, 
his  necessity,  his  desire  of  gain,  to  which  we  owe  the  art  that  brings 
together  the  most  distant  parts  of  the  world.  In  the  first  instance,  pro- 
bably, vessels  were  confined  to  rivers.  It  was  not  until  a  later  period  that 
coasting  voyages  were  attempted  on  the  sea  with  rafts,  which  are  now 
used  for  the  transportation  of  passengers  and  merchandise.  The  first 
mention  of  a  boat  is  found  in  Sanchoniathon,  where  Ausos  hollows  out 
the  branch  of  a  tree  with  fire,  and  in  this  frail  vessel  commits  himself  to 
the  sea. 


1.  Navigation  op  the  Ancients. 

The  desire  to  carry  more  than  one  or  two  persons  in  the  same  boat,  led 
to  the  construction  of  larger  vessels.  If  we  may  credit  Pliny  and  Pollux,  the 
first  vessels  of  this  kind  were  made  of  light  wicker-work,  and  covered  with 
skins.  The  idea  afterwards  occurred  of  using  bent  wood  instead  of  wicker- 
work,  and  boards  fitted  to  each  other  instead  of  skins.  The  boat  was  first 
propelled  by  poles,  and  subsequently  by  oars  (pi  2,  ßg,  16) ;  the  rudder 
(ßg.  15)  was  invented  by  Typhis,  the  steersman  of  the  Argo.  The  oldest 
ships  could  sail  in  either  direction,  and  had  rudders  at  both  ends.  Sails 
were  invented  by  the  Samothracians.  The  Greeks  and  Pliny  ascribe  them 
to  iGolus,  Daedalus,  and  Icarus.  The.  anchors  were  very  unlike  those  of 
the  present  day.  In  Homer's  time,  large  stones  were  sunk  in  the  water  by 
ropes  in  order  to  hold  the  ship.  Anchors  were  invented  at  a  later  date  in 
Ancyra,  the  ancient  Tectosagis.  They  at  first  consisted  of  large  wooden 
pipes,  filled  up  with  melted  lead,  and  having  a  fluke  at  the  lower  end. 

The  later  form  of  the  anchor  {pi.  2,  ßgs.  13,  14)  seems  to  have  been  the 
invention  of  Anacharsis  the  Scythian.    Ballast  was  first  introduced  by 

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2  NAVAL  SCIENCES. 

Diomedes  at  Troy.  The  sounding-line  is  mentioned  in  the  New  Testanoent 
(Acts  27)  as  something  in  common  use.  Eveiy  ship  was  under  the  protec- 
tion of  a  god,  with  whose  image  it  was  decorated.  Other  emblems  were  used 
at  a  later  period  :  dragons,  serpents,  and  so  forth,  from  which  at  length  the 
ships  took  their  name.  It  was  an  old  custom  to  steer  by  the  heavenly  bodies, 
following  the  sun  by  day  and  the  fixed  stars  by  night.  The  ancients  for 
some  time  had  no  knowledge  of  the  pole-star,  but  steered  by  the  Great 
Bear,  which  constellation  in  almost  all  oriental  histories  is  symbolized  by  an 
animal,  as  among  the  Arabians  and  Persians  by  a  bull. 

1.  Parts  of  Ships.  The  oldest  and  best  known  vessel  of  the  ancients 
was  Noah's  Ark.  This  indicates  a  great  progress  in  the  art  of  ship-building, 
of  which  we  have  no  previous  historical  accounts.  The  Bible  describes 
this  structure  as  300  cubits  in  length,  50  cubits  in  breadth,  and  80  cubits 
in  height ;  a  proportion  (1:2::  10  nearly)  which  we  often  find  in  modem 
ships  of  war. 

The  most  ancient  boats,  composed  of  a  single  piece  of  wood,  appear  to 
have  resembled  those  now  in  use  on  the  Tigris,  Euphrates,  and  other  rivers 
of  the  East.  PL  2,  fig.  2  is  a  Phcenician  boat  of  that  kind,  to  which  we  shall 
presently  recur.  In  sea-going  vessels,  the  hull  was  usually  parallel  with  the 
surface  of  the  water,  the  prow  and  stern,  however,  curving  upwards.  The 
hull  was  built  on  a  keel,  to  which,  as  now,  the  curved  or  knee  timbers  were 
fastened.  Along  the  side  was  a  row  of  square  holes,  columbares  {fig.  17), 
for  the  oars.  The  prow  consisted  of  two  parts :  1.  A  continuation  of  the 
keel  {pi  I,  fig.  \\\pl  2,  fig.  8),  which  served  as  a  cutwater.  PL  1, 
fig.  12,  shows  an  ancient  ship,  after  a  drawing  from  Herculaneum.  The 
fiag-staflf  is  at  the  stem.  2.  The  stem  {rostrum,  embolus),  which  at  first  was 
found  only  in  ships  of  war,  but  afterwards  in  merchant  vessels.  F^s,  3 
and  4  represent  such  rostra,  which  at  first  were  nothing  but  strong  beams 
covered  in  front  with  metallic  plates,  and  serving  the  same  purposes  as 
battering  rams  in  the  military  service.  Afterwards  the  prow  was  con- 
structed of  planks  hewn  to  a  point,  or  with  the  metallic  covering  in  the 
shape  of  a  ram's  head.  Finally,  two  or  three  points  were  used  instead  of 
one  {figs.  9  and  14).  Figs.  3  and  4,  and  pL  2,  fig.  18,  show  only  the  part 
of  the  prow  above  waten  PL  1,  fig.  10,  gives  the  most  simple  form.  As 
a  defence  against  the  prows  of  the  enemy,  stout  beams  projected  from  the 
ship,  as  in  figs.  11  and  12.  The  stem  was  usually  provided  with  one  or 
two  openings,  called  the  ship's  eyes  {fig.  11),  through  which  the  ropes  were 
passed  on  landing.  The  poop  was  higher  than  the  prow,  and  more  richly 
adorned.  In  many  ships  there  was  here  a  kind  of  tent,  from  which  the 
commander  gave  his  orders  to  the  crew  {pL  2,  figs.  4,  6,  and  7).  This  was 
sometimes  placed  at  the  prow. 

Among  the  more  ornamental  parts  was  the  aplustre,  a  piece  of  carred 
wood  at  the  stern,  usually  in  the  form  of  a  pendent  bunch  of  feathers 
{fig.  6).  The  ship's  lantern  was*  sometimes  hung  on  this,  or  a  small  sail, 
to  show  the  direction  of  the  wind.  PL  1,  fig.  5,  shows  the  most  common 
form  of  the  aplustre ;  but  it  was  often  found  as  in  figs.  1 1  and  12.  The 
possession  of  the  aplustre  decided  the  possession  of  the  ship,  and  it  was 
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HISTORY  OF  NAVIGATION.  3 

tised  as  the  signal  of  victory.  If  an  apbistre  was  placed  on  the  prow,  it 
generally  had  the  shape  of  a  swan's  neck  {figs.  6  and  7),  though  the  form 
varied  (figs.  1  and  2),  and  served  to  fasten  the  ropes  on  landing.  The 
flag-staff  was  at  the  stem,  and  bore  the  flag  inscribed  with  the  emblems  of 
the  ship  (figs.  12  and  13,  and  pi  2,  figs,  7  and  10). 

At  the  prow  was  the  figure-head,  the  symbol  from  which  the  ship  took 
its  naipe.  This  was  a  boar's  head  (pi.  1,  figs,  3  and  4),  a  dog's  head 
(fig.  10),  or  some  other  image.    The  tutelar  god  was  usually  at  the  stern. 

The  vessel  was  propelled  by  oars  (pi  2,  fig.  16),  which  were  made  of 
tough  wood,  in  one  piece,  and  plated  with  iron.  The  size  of  the  vessel  was 
determined  by  their  number.  The  rudders  or  steering  oars  were  shorter, 
but  of  greater  breadth  (pi  2,  fig.  15),  and  fitted  into  holes  prepared  for 
them  in  the  sides  of  the  ship  (pi  1,  figs.  11  and  l%pl  %  fig-  7).  Some- 
times  the  rudder  was  worked  on  the  side  (figs.  6  and  11).  A  handle 
(ansa)  was  generally  attached  to  the  upper  end  (pi  I,  figs.  11  and  12). 
The  anchor  originally  had  only  one  fluke  (pi  2,  fig.  14 ')  attached  to  a 
heavy  shank.  It  afterwards  received  the  shape,  ^^.  14,  and  finally  as  in 
fig.  13,  with  a  ring  above  for  the  cable,  and  one  below  for  the  buoy.  The 
ancient  anchors  sometimes  had  three  or  four  flukes.  The  masts  of  vessels 
were  at  first  low,  and  made  to  lift  out.  There  was  usually  but  one  in  the 
middle  of  the  ship  (figs.  1  and  9),  afterwards  a  second  mast  was  rigged 
near  the  stem.  The  masts  of  war  vessels  were  fitted  up  with  a  sort  of 
basket  containing  slingers  and  archers  (pi  1,  figs.  13).  The  ropes  were 
of  flax,  hemp,  palm-leaves,  or  papyrus ;  but  the  saik  were  of  an  inconve* 
nient  shape,  and  seldom  more  than  one  in  a  ship.  They  were  both  square 
alid  triangular,  among  the  Romans  generally  triangular.  At  first  they  were 
constructed  of  rushes ;  afterwards  they  were  woven,  and  colored  black  or 
red,  as  a  token  of  mourning,  victory,  or  the  like.  A  second  sail,  usually 
triangular,  was  sometimes  used  at  the  prow,  similar  to  the  modern  spritsaiL 
The  various  forms  and  uses  of  the  sails  are  shown  in  pis.  1  and  2. 

The  usual  materials  for  ships  were  the  wood  of  the  pine  and  fir.  The 
Egyptians  and  Phcenicians  built  them  of  cedar.  Iron  nails  were  at  first 
used,  then  copper,  and  the  seams  were  caulked  with  rushes,  tow,  and  hemp, 
and  payed  over  with  wax  or  a  compound  of  melted  wax  and  rosin.  The 
planks  were  put  on  in  double  thicknesses  and  covered  with  leaden  plates. 

2.  Kinds  of  Ships.  The  ancients  had :  1.  Row-vessels  and  sail-vessels. 
Merchantmen  were  usually  sail-ships.  Men-of-war  used  sails  only  on  the 
voyage,  but  in  action  the  ship  was  moved  by  oars.  2.  Covered  and  open 
vessels.  Merchantmen  had  no  deck,  and  when  they  used  oars  only  one 
row  of  them ;  but  ships  of  war  had  a  deck,  which  was  also  the  place  for 
action.  There  were,  however,  some  ships  of  war  without  a  deck,  and  in 
that  case  they  had  only  one  bank  of  oars.  The  decked  vessels  often  had 
two  or  three  banks  of  oars,  and  as  many  decks  one  over  the  other.  3. 
Long  and  round  vessels.  Merchantmen  were  usually  oval,  but  men-of  war 
were  always  longer.  The  long  vessels  were  of  different  burdens;  the 
lighter  kind  were  always  open,  and  were  used  by  pirates. 

We  come  now  to  a  point  which  is  not  yet  settled  among  the  learned, 

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4  NAVAL  SOIENOES. 

namely,  the  banks  of  oars  in  a  vessel.  The  old  writers  speak  of  ships  with 
two,  three,  five,  and  even  forty  banks  of  oars,  which  they  called  biremes^ 
triremes,  quinqtieremes,  &c.  The  pictures  in  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum,  the 
bas-reliefs  on  Trajan's  pillar,  and  other  monuments  represent  these  banks 
of  oars  on  the  outside,  but  not  the  interior  arrangement  of  a  ship.  But  we 
do  not  know  how  the  sides  could  be  high  enough  for  so  many  banks ;  nor,  if 
this  were  possible,  how  such  long  oars  could  be  managed.  It  woujd  take 
too  much  time  to  investigate  this  subject  thoroughly  here,  but  we  are  of 
opinion  that  the  banks  of  oars  were  arranged  one  after  another  like  a 
ladder,  corresponding  with  the  representations  that  still  remain.  PL  l,ßg* 
13,  shows  a  ship  with  three  banks  of  oars  (trireme).  jPY^.  14,  a  man-of- 
war  with  four  banks  (quadrireme).  The  rowers  themselves  were  divided 
into  three  classes,  upper,  middle,  and  lower,  and  these  sat  regularly  one 
above  the  other,  the  upper  according  to  Thucydides  receiving  higher 
wages,  because  they  used  longer  and  heavier  oars.  An  arrangement  sug- 
gested by  another  writer  is  shown  in  pi  2,  ßg,  7.  According  to  this  the 
difierent  sets  of  rowers  are  placed  at  gradually  ascending  distances,  the 
upper  at  F,  the  middle  at  6,  and  the  lower  at  H. 

Among  the  means  of  defence,  besides  the  rostrum,  we  may  enumerate : 
a.  The  breastwork,  behind  which  the  men  protected  themselves  from  the 
enemy's  archers  and  slingers  (pL  1,  ßg.  10).  b.  The  tower.  This  was 
found  only  on  the  largest  ships  of  war,  and  was  occupied  by  archers,  sling- 
ers, and  engines  for  throwing  missiles  (ßg.  10).  These  towers  were  made 
of  wood.  Some  ships  had  eight  of  them.  When  it  was  desired  to  erect 
them  of  unusual  height  and  strength  two  vessels  were  joined  together, 
c.  The  baskets  on  the  masts  were  found  only  in  ships  of  war,  rarely  in 
merchantmen,  d.  The  dolphin  was  used  by  the  Greeks  as  an  oflfensive 
weapon.  It  consisted  of  a  heavy,  brazen  dolphin ;  suspended  on  a  yard  and 
thrown  from  above,  it  would  beat  in  the  enemy's  deck  or  sink  his  boats. 
e.  The  movable  ram,  similar  to  the  military  battering  ram,  and  used  against 
the  enemy's  breastwork.  /.  The  grappling  irons  were  long  rods  with  iron 
hooks,  used  in  boarding  the  enemy's  vessel.  PI.  2,  fig.  7,  represents  a 
Roman  ship  of  war.  A.  The  stem.  B.  The  flag-staff.  C.  The  com- 
mander's seat.  D.  The  rudder.  E.  The  keel.  F.  The  upper  bank  of 
rowers.  6.  The  middle.  H.  The  lower.  I.  The  prow.  K.  The  aplustre. 
L.  The  simple  rostrum.  M.  The  three-pointed  rostrum.  N.  The  breast- 
work.   O.  The  oar.     P.  The  ship's  eye. 

Ships  of  war  were  manned  partly  with  rowers  and  partly  with  fighting 
men.  A  quinquereme  carried  120  fighting  men  and  300  rowers,  of  whom 
the  last  were  generally  slaves.  They  had  no  special  places  for  sleeping, 
but  lay  in  the  open  air,  the  rowers  on  their  benches.  The  commanders 
shared  all  the  hardships  of  the  crew.  The  dress  was  a  light  tunic,  and 
afterwards  a  woollen  overcoat.  The  manceuvres  of  the  ship  were  performed 
by  the  rowers,  after  the  measure  of  a  song,  or  the  music  of  the  flute  and 
harp.  Merchant  ships  always  sailed  in  company,  partly  to  guard  against 
storms,  partly  against  pirates.  A  well  built  ship  sailed  about  one  hun- 
dred miles  in  the  twenty-four  hours.  Shipwrecks  were  so  common  that 
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mSTORY  OF  NAVIGATION.  6 

almost  every  third  vessel  was  lost.  Pilotage  was  in  use  among  the 
Romans. 

A  large  sum  was  expended  by  some  of  the  ancient  rulers  for  the  building 
of  show  ships.  Thus  a  ship  was  constructed  by  the  orders  of  Hiero  of 
Syracuse  (264  b.  c.)  with  flower  gardens,  canals,  eight  large  towers,  and  an 
engine  for  throwing  stones  of  300  pounds*  weight  and  arrows  twelve  yards 
long.  Archimedes  was  required  to  exert  all  his  mechanical  skill  to  float 
this  vessel.  PL  1,  fig,  8,  gives  a  representation  of  this  ship,  which  was 
sent  by  Hiero  to  King  Ptolemy  II.,  as  it  was  too  large  for  every  harbor 
but  Alexandria.  Ptolemy  IV.  had  two  ships  built  in  the  roads  of  Alexan- 
dria, one  of  which  was  560  feet  long,  76  feet  broad,  96  feet  high  at  the 
stem,  and  112  at  the  stern.  This  ship  was  guided  by  four  oars  60  feet  in 
length.  The  upper  bank  of  oars  was  76  feet  long,  with  melted  lead  in 
the  handles  as  a  counterpoise.  Four  thousand  rowers  were  required  to 
propel  this  vessel,  which  carried  in  addition  400  sailors  and  2850  fighting 
men.  PL  2,  fig,  11,  represents  this  ship.  The  other  ship  was  590  feet 
in  length,  60  feet  in  breadth,  and  80  in  height,  containing  numerous  sleep- 
ing rooms  and  banqueting  halls,  magnificently  adorned  with  gold  and  ivory. 
A  double  gallery  was  extended  along  the  outside.  The  show  ship  in 
which  Queen  Cleopatra  (30  b.  c.)  visited  Antony  in  Cilicia  (pL  2,  fig,  10), 
had  a  gilded  stern,  oars  inlaid  with  silver,  and  sails  woven  with  purple. 
Delicious  music  accompanied  the  stroke  of  the  oars,  and  a  band  of  beautiful 
maidens  clad  as  Graces  stood  at  the  rudder  and  managed  the  ropes.  Cleo- 
patra herself  reposed  on  a  splendid  couch  beneath  a  golden  canopy,  while 
she  was  fanned  by  boys  who  personated  Cupid. 

3.  Marine  Affairs  of  Different  Nations,  a.  The  Phcenicians,  This 
nation,  which  first  inhabited  ancient  Palestine,  then  the  coasts  of  the  Red 
Sea,  and  finally  settled  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  was  the 
first  that  we  find  spoken  of  as  addicted  to  navigation.  About  the  year  of 
the  world  2560  the  Phoenicians  had  colonies  on  almost  all  the  islands  of  the 
Greek  Archipelago,  and  1250  years  before  Christ  they  made  the  first  attempt 
to  pass  through  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar.  Soon  after  they  had  colonies  on 
the  west  coast  of  Spain,  and  it  was  the  Phoenicians  who  changed  the 
original  coast  navigation  into  the  actual  navigation  of  the  sea,  steering 
their  course  by  the  stars.  Their  polar  star  was  not  the  same  as  that  of  the 
present  day,  according  to  Flamsteed  and  Bode  being  the  star  ^  in  the 
shoulder  of  the  Little  Bear. 

The  Phoenician  ships  of  war  were  sharp  pointed  at  both  ends,  and  moved 
by  from  20  to  60  rowers.  They  were  attended  on  their  voyages  by 
several  transports.  In  general  they  bore  the  name  of  Argos.  They  had 
several  banks  of  oars,  sometimes  amounting  to  twenty.  The  merchant 
vessels  were  round,  the  smallest  of  them  being  of  very  simple  construction 
(fig.  2).  Afterwards  when  their  size  was  increased  and  they  were  used  as 
transports  they  were  made  longer  and  more  rounded  at  the  ends  (pL  I,  fig,  1). 
These  were  called  lihumcB  or  three-oared  gauli.  The  increased  size  of  the 
vessels  and  the  use  of  sails  soon  introduced  an  improved  mode  of  ship- 
building, and  the  merchantmen  took  the  form  as  in  pL  I,  fig,  2.     They 

lOOVOORAPHIO  SHOTCLOPiKDIA. — ^VOL.  in.  42  65? 


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6  NAVAL  SCIENCES. 

were  manned  with  from  12  to  24  sailors,  and  a  suitable  number  of  rowers. 
The  sails  were  not  used  to  the  best  advantage,  for  the  art  of  trimming  them 
to  a  side  wind  was  not  yet  known.  The  voyages  were  accordingly  very 
tedious  when  they  did  not  fall  in  the  time  of  the  trade  winds.  In  the  days 
of  King  Solomon  the  Phoenicians  were  known  as  the  most  important  sea- 
faring people,  and  no  great  maritime  enterprise  was  undertaken  without 
their  aid.  The  rowers  were  seated  in  a  large  inclosure  on  the  sides  of  the 
ship,  from  15  to  20  on  each  side.  This  had  the  appearance  of  floating  on 
the  water.  The  masts  were  made  to  lift  out ;  the  sails  were  strengthened 
with  rushes  and  the  bark  of  trees  ;  but  the  rigging  was  in  the  highest  degree 
imperfect. 

With  the  founding  of  Carthage  (890  B.  C.)  the  decline  of  Tyre  com- 
menced. This  had  been  the  principal  state  of  the  Phoenicians.  The  Car- 
thaginians paid  great  attention  to  the  improvement  of  navigation,  and  their 
fleet  for  the  invasion  of  Sicily  consisted  of  two  hundred  men-of-war  and  one 
thousand  transports. 

6.  The  Egyptians.  Egypt,  although  the  cradle  of  the  arts  and  sciences, 
was  at  first  far  behind  the  Phoenicians  in  respect  to  navigation.  This  was, 
in  part,  owing  to  the  religious  ideas  of  the  inhabitants.  They  had  si^ch  a 
hatred  of  the  sea,  that  the  priests  did  not  eat  either  salt  or  fish ;  and  as  a 
portion  of  the  people  were  engaged  in  navigation,  they  were  considered  as 
a  degraded  caste.  Another  cause  of  the  neglect  of  navigation  was  the  want 
of  ship-timber.  The  first  navigation  of  the  Egyptians  was  accordingly  con- 
fined to  rivers.  They  used  only  vessels  made  of  the  wood  of  the  acanthus 
and  tamarisk.  Herodotus  gives  us  the  first  account  of  Egyptian  boats. 
They  had  a  rudder  at  the  stem,  a  mast  of  acanthus  wood,  and  sails  of  papy- 
rus (pL  2ffig,  1).  These  Nile  boats  were  in  use  in  the  time  of  the  Ronians. 
Some  were  made  of  wicker-work,  covered  with  skins,  and  abound  with 
painting  and  other  embellishments.  The  importance  of  the  river  navigation 
may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  the  granite  block  which  covered  the 
altar  in  the  temple  of  Latona,  at  Butus,  measuring  240  cubic  feet,  was 
transported  by  water.  The  antipathy  of  the  people  to  the  sea  was  first 
overcome  by  Sesostris.  He  constructed  a  fleet  of  four  hundred  sail  for  the 
purpose  of  conquest ;  from  that  time  the  art  of  navigation  made  great  pro- 
gress in  Egypt.  Although  the  Egyptians  in  1856  b.  c.  led  a  colony  to  Greece 
under  ^achus  in  Phoenician  vessels,  in  1582  b.  c.  Cecrops  sailed  to  Greece 
in  Egyptian  vessels,  and  there  established  the  fortress  Cecropia,  afterwards 
Athens.  The  largest  Egyptian  ship  of  that  day  was  built  by  the  Phoenicians ; 
this  was  a  transport  of  fifty  oars,  which,  1475  b.  c,  brought  Danaus  to  the 
coasts  of  Argolis,  where  he  founded  a  colony.  During  the  reign  of  Ptolemy, 
after  the  death  of  Alexander,  who  had  delivered  Egypt  from  the  Persian 
dominion,  a  new  era  commenced  for  Egyptian  navigation.  The  first  enter- 
prise of  this  kind  undertaken  by  Ptolemy  Lagus  was  the  enlargement  of  the 
harbor  of  Alexandria,  by  connecting  the  island  of  Pharos  with  the  main 
land  by  a  dike.  Here  he  placed  the  first  light-house,  as  a  beacon  for  ships ; 
this  stood  on  the  eastern  point  of  the  island,  and  was  completed  by  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus :  it  consisted  of  four  stories ;  it  was  built  of  white  marble,  and 
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HISTORY  OF  NAVIGATION.  7 

was  surrounded  with  galleries  resting  on  pillars ;  the  total  height  of  this 
building  was  four  hundred  feet ;  the  lower  story  formed  a  square,  of  which 
each  side  was  over  one  thousand  feet  in  breadth.  PL  2,  fig,  19,  gives  a 
view  of  the  light-house,  and  figs,  19',  19  ^  show  the  ground  plan  of  the  dif- 
ferent stories.  Under  the  Ptolemies,  also,  the  two  large  ships  of  which  we 
have  already  spoken,  were  built.  But  however  great  the  eminence  which 
Egypt  at  first  attained  under  this  dynasty,  it  afterwards  sank  to  an  equally 
low  depth ;  and  when  under  Ptolemy  XII.,  Julius  Caesar  burned  an  Egyptian 
fleet  of  110  sail,  on  the  open  sea,  and  sacked  Alexandria  and  Cairo,  the 
Egyptian  marine,  which  had  flourished  for  two  thousand  years,  was  left 
almost  without  a  trace  on  the  records  of  history. 

c.  The,  Cfreeks,  The  Phoenicians,  whose  navigation  was  more  than  four 
hundred  years  old  at  that  time,  brought  a  colony  to  Greece  under  Inachus 
in  the  year  1856  b.  c.  ;  but  when,  three  hundred  years  later,  the  colony 
under  Cecrops  arrived  thither,  the  people  were  found  in  a  savage  state, 
living  in  caves,  and  suflTering  under  the  yoke  of  the  pirates.  The  first  thing 
necessary,  therefore,  was  to  establish  navigation,  in  order  to  act  against 
these  enemies.  Connected  with  this  were  certain  relations  of  trade,  which 
was  still  in  such  a  rude  condition  that  as  late  as  seven  hundred  years 
after  Abraham  only  barter  was  known  in  Greece.  The  inhabitants  on 
the  southwest  coast  of  Attica  were  the  first  who  engaged  in  navigation,  and 
the  most  ancient  voyage  authenticated  by  history  was  the  Argonautic 
expedition  to  Colchis,  for  which  Jason,  probably  1200  b.  c,  constructed 
a  vessel  of  a  much  larger  size  than  had  hitherto  been  known  in  Greece. 
After  the  Argonautic  expedition,  the  Greeks  engaged  more  extensively  in 
navigation.  In  eighty  years  the  siege  of  Troy  took  place,  with  a  fleet  of 
1,186  ships  ;  the  largest  carrying  120,  and  the  smallest  50  men.  The  first 
ships  of  the  Greeks  seem  to  have  had  no  keels  ;  Homer  makes  no  allusion  to 
any,  and  all  the  Greek  vessels  of  that  age  were  large  barques,  with  a  single 
bank  of  oars,  as  shown  in  pL  2,  fig,  3.  They  were  usually  round,  and  the 
stem  and  stern  were  so  elevated  that  the  ship  almost  looked  like  the  moon 
in  the  last  quarter ;  afterwards  the  stern  only  was  raised  so  high  {fig,  4). 
The  Pfataeans  introduced  the  use  of  two  steering-oars.  The  oldest  vessels, 
which  were  entirely  open,  were  called  aphracti  ;  the  round  half-decked 
ships  were  called  kataphracti.  They  had  willow  guards  at  the  side  to  break 
the  force  of  the  waves ;  only  one  mast  was  used,  which  could  be  taken  out 
at  pleasure  ;  the  mast  bore  one  or  more  sails,  which  were  moved  by  ropes. 
These  at  first  were  made  of  bark,  but  afterwards  of  skins ;  four  such  ropes 
at  the  prow  and  the  stern  held  the  mast.  The  ships  were  often  painted  in 
encaustic  with  lively  colors,  which  helped  to  preserve  them. 

The  Greek  trading  vessels  had  a  wide  bottom ;  their  length  was  only  three 
times  their  breadth,  while  the  shipf  of  war,  on  the  contrary,  were  long  and 
pointed,  with  usually  not  more  than  twenty  rowers  on  a  bench,  the  Greeks 
being  skilful  in  the  use  of  sails  on  the  high  seas.  The  ships  were  drawn 
ashore  to  winter,  and  were  often  conveyed  considerable  distances  by  land. 
The  merchantmen  generally  had  two  banks  of  oars  ;  some  had  two  banks 
at  the  stem,  and  only  one  at  the  prow,  the  prow  being  made  narrower  on 

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that  account.  In  the  time  of  the  Apostles  very  long  vessels  were  in  use, 
with  two  decks  at  the  stern ;  there  was  also  a  midship-deck,  with  a  room 
for  offering  sacrifices.  At  the  end  of  the  bowsprit,  in  the  forward  part  of 
the  ship,  was  a  short  mast  with  a  sail,  behind  which  ran  a  small  gallerj, 
from  which  the  orders  were  given  to  the  crew.  The  Greek  ships  were 
adapted  for  sails  as  well  as  oars ;  they  were  usually  triremes,  as  in  fig.  6, 
although  there  were  sail- vessels  with  one  bank  of  oars  {fig,  4).  These 
galliots  were  afterwards  less  curved,  longer,  and  with  two  banks  of  oars 

{fig-  5). 

The  first  ships  were  no  doubt  constructed  without  keel-beams,  but  these 
were  used  at  a  later  period.  The  ship's  bottom  was  fastened  to  the  beam 
on  both  sides  with  strong  planks ;  this  was  the  place  for  the  ballast ;  next 
to  this  was  the  hold,  which  was  divided  off  by  the  timber  knees  attached  to 
the  keel.  The  oar  benches  were  on  each  side,  the  oars  passing  through 
openings  in  the  ship ;  above  the  oar-benches  was  a  gallery  for  passengers. 
The  prow,  the  stern,  and  the  sides  were  often  richly  ornamented  with 
carved  work ;  the  stern  was  rounder  than  the  prow,  was  built  higher,  and 
was  fitted  up  with  an  arched  canopy,  under  which  sat  the  steersman.  The 
steering-oar  was  at  the  stern ;  the  larger  class  of  ships  had  two,  Which 
passed  out  of  a  kind  of  square  box  at  the  sides,  in  which  was  a  round  hole. 
Rudders  similar  to  those  now  in  use  were  not  known  until  a  later  period. 
The  mainsail  was  attached  to  the  mast ;  a  sail  at  the  stern  often  served  to 
increase  the  speed,  and  a  smaller  one  was  sometimes  raised  at  the  prow ; 
a  topsail  was  in  use  at  the  time  of  the  Apostles.  If  the  vessel  had  more 
than  one  mast,  the  mainmast  was  amidships.  Besides  the  usual  ships  of  war, 
the  Greeks  had  vessels  for  transporting  horses,  and  others  for  reconnoitring, 
whose  breadth  was  only  one  ninth  of  their  length  ;  these  carried  few  men, 
but  were  of  great  speed.  There  were  boats  of  different  sizes,  which  com- 
municated between  the  vessels  of  a  fleet.  The  largest  Greek  ship  was  that 
which  the  city  of  Heraclea  sent  to  the  aid  of  King  Ptolemy  Ceraunos ;  this 
had  800  oars  and  1,200  marines. 

rf.  The  Romans,  The  Romans  were  confined  for  a  long  time  to  a  rude 
coasting  navigation,  which  scarcely  extended  beyond  the  neighboring 
island  of  Sicily ;  even  their  first  larger  voyages  were  performed  in  hired 
vessels,  until  after  the  first  Punic  war.  At  that  time  they  suddenly  resolved 
to  create  a  fleet  of  their  own,  and  they  accomplished  this  with  incredible 
rapidity :  within  two  months  they  built  a  fleet  of  120  vessels,  with  which 
Caius  Duilius  risked  an  engagement,  and  came  off  victorious.  This  victory 
was  celebrated  by  the  erection  of  a  monumental  column  in  the  forum  at  Rome 
(pl-  ^f  fig*  ^^)»  which  was  ornamented  with  the  beaks  of  the  conquered 
vessels.  Similar  monuments  succeeded  this  columna  rostrata,  which  was 
erected  a.  u.  c.  494,  although  the  Romans^obtained  no  other  victory  so  signal. 
The  Roman  ships  must  evidently  have  been  built  on  the  Greek  and 
Phoenician  models.  The  merchantmen  were  mostly  sailing  vessels ;  the  ships 
of  war  had  both  sails  and  oars :  and  we  again  meet  with  the  Greek  biremes, 
triremes,  and  so  forth.  The  largest  and  most  usual  men-of-war  were  quin- 
queremes,  but  there  were  also  light  vessels  with  a  bank  on  each  side,  which 
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HISTORY  OF  NAVIGATION.  9 

were  often  employed  for  reconnoitring;  smaller  vessels,  called  cymbce, 
were  used  for  quick  transportation.  The  vessels  of  war  were  manned  with 
cowers  and  marines,  Roman  citizens  of  the  lower  class.  A  quinquereme 
counted  four  hundred  rowers.  The  sea-captain  directed  the  affairs  of  the 
ship,  but  the  soldiers  had  their  own  commander.  The  admiral's  ship  was 
designated  in  the  day  by  a  flag,  and  in  the  night  by  lanterns.  PL  1,  figs. 
11  and  12,  represent  smaller  Roman  triremes,  as  they  are  found  on  the  bas- 
relief  of  Trajan's  pillar.  Fig.  13  is  a  large  trireme,  ^§^.  14,  a  quadrireme. 
The  principal  difference  between  the  ships  of  the  Romans  and  those  of  the 
Greeks  and  Phoenicians  consisted  in  the  greater  length  of  the  former,  which 
admitted  two  masts  in  the  larger  vessels.  The  masts  were  usually  provided 
with  baskets,  containing  slingers  and  archers. 

Before  leaving  the  subject  of  ancient  navigation,  we  must  briefly  describe 
the  method  of  naval  warfare,  and  of  manoeuvring  ships  at  sea.  The  crew 
were  summoned  on  board  by  a  signal  from  the  trumpet.  First  came  the 
rowers,  and  then  the  marines ;  the  crew  of  the  transports  came  last. 
Before  sailing,  sacrifices  were  offered,  and  also  after  returning  from  the 
voyage.  During  an  engagement,  no  use  was  made  of  the  sails,  and  the  ship 
was  moved  only  by  the  oars.  In  the  order  of  battle,  the  largest  ships  took 
the  centre,  the  light  ships  took  the  wings,  and  others  formed  a  reserve. 
The  ships  were  generally  drawn  up  in  the  form  of  a  half-moon,  but  some- 
times in  that  of  a  wedge  or  circle.  The  admiral  sailed  through  the  fleet  in 
a  light  vessel,  exhorting  the  men  to  courage.  The  sails  were  then  furled, 
and  everything  made  ready  for  action,  for  which  the  signal  was  given  by  a 
red  flag  from  the  admiral's  ship.  The  signal  for  attack  was  then  sounded 
on  the  trumpet,  the  ships  were  driven  against  each  other,  the  slingers  and 
archers  took  deadly  aim  at  the  crew  of  the  enemy,  and  the  rowers 
endeavored  to  destroy  the  opposing  vessels  with  the  beaks  of  their  own. 
If  this  did  not  succeed,  grappling  irons  were  thrown  out,  the  vessels  were 
drawn  together,  and  the  action  became  a  personal  conflict.  It  was  often 
attempted  to  fire  the  enemy's  ships,  either  by  fire-ships  or  by  throwing 
earthen  vessels  filled  with  burning  pitch  and  sulphur.  FL  1,  fig.  16,  repre- 
sents a  sea  fight.  The  victorious  ships  returned  home,  adorned  with  flowers 
and  laurels. 

The  warlike  spirit  of  the  Romans  was  cherished  in  their  games  and 
amusements.  Sea  fights  were  exhibited  in  time  of  peace,  and  were  called 
Naumachia.  These  were  introduced  by  Julius  Caesar.  The  circus  was  so 
arranged  by  Maximus  that  it  could  be  filled  with  water  to  a  considerable 
depth.  Ships  were  built  on  the  arena,  the  water  let  in,  and  a  regular  battle 
fought  by  slaves  and  prisoners,  by  whom  the  vessels  were  manned.  These 
mock  engagements  often  resultCNd  in  dreadful  slaughter  on  both  sides.  At 
a  later  period,  they  were  fought  on  the  larger  lakes,  or  artificial  lakes  were 
prepared  for  their  representation.  An  amphitheatre  for  this  purpose  was 
erected  by  Domitian,  of  which  pL  2,  fig.  12,  gives  a  sketch.  This  structure 
was  elliptical,  1300  feet  long,  200  feet  broad,  and  had  room  for  the  manoeu- 
vres of  80  triremes  and  a  great  number  of  smaller  ves^ls.  The  avenues  to 
the  building  were  richly  ornamented ;  the  arena  was  placed  under  water 

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10  NAVAL  SCIENCES. 

by  means  of  subterranean  canals,  so  that  it  could  be  quickly  dried  for  the 
exhibition  of  the  gladiatorial  contests.  The  last  spectacle  of  this  kind  was 
given  by  Aurelian  in  honor  of  the  victory  over  Queen  Zenobia. 


2.  Navigation  of  tbb  Middle  Agbs. 

During  the  period  which  we  call  the  Middle  Ages,  that  is,  from  the  fall 
of  the  Western  Empire  and  the  succeeding  centuries,  the  results  of  naviga- 
tion were  very  insignificant,  smce  it  shared  in  the  general  depression  of 
science  and  art  at  that  time.  The  most  important  naval  enterprise  was 
the  expedition  of  Belisarius  against  the  Vandals  in  538,  with  a  fleet  of  500 
sail,  15,000  warriors,  and  20,000  sailors.  Triremes  had  then  gone  out  of 
use,  and  there  was  no  convoy  for  the  army  but  92  light  brigantines,  which 
could  not  resist  a  serious  attack. 

1  Anglo-Saxons,  Normans,  and  English.  Meantime,  the  northern 
nations  of  Europe  appear  on  the  theatre  of  history,  and  the  first  maritime 
expedition  of  which  we  have  any  account  was  the  voyage  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  to  Britain  under  Hengist  and  Horsa,  a.d.  449.  This  was  performed 
in  light,  frail  vessels,  with  keels  of  light  timber,  and  sides  of  wicker-work, 
laid  over  with  skins.  The  vessels  in  which  the  Normans  undertook  their 
piratical  expeditions  in  the  seventh  century  were  of  little  better  construc- 
tion. The  Grecian  and  Imperial  navy  at  that  time  consisted  of  galleys 
with  two  banks  of  twenty-five  oars  on  each  side,  making  one  hundred  oars 
in  the  whole. 

From  the  ninth  century,  England  was  the  most  important  maritime 
nation.  Alfred  the  Great,  who  was  in  conflict  with  the  Normans  and 
Danes,  effected  such  great  improvements  in  her  navigation,  that  in  the 
year  897  her  ships  were  without  an  equal  in  any  nation.  They  were 
built  as  galleys,  with  from  forty  to  sixty  rowers  on  each  side,  while  William 
of  Normandy,  in  his  expedition  against  England  in  1066,  which,  after  the 
battle  of  Hastings,  gave  him  the  name  of  Conqueror,  used  only  vessels 
(pL  If  fig.  15)  of  such  diminutive  size,  that  they  could  carry  no  more  than 
twenty  armed  men  besides  the  rowers. 

A  great  impulse  was  given  to  navigation  in  the  middle  ages  by  the 
crusades,  and  the  frequent  wars  of  the  English,  French,  and  Spanish.  In 
the  battle  of  Sluys,  1339,  the  French  fleet  consisted  of  400  vessels,  among 
which  were  120  large  ships.  The  number  of  men  who  fell  in  this  battle  is 
variously  stated  from  10,000  to  80,000,  firom  which  we  may  infer  the  magni- 
tude of  the  ships  engaged.  The  construction  of  vessels  at  that  period  is  shown 
from  the  remains  of  tapestry,  and  from  pictures  in  ancient  muiuscripts. 
The  English  ships  were  not  so  long  as  those  of  the  Normans.  The  stem 
and  stern  were  quite  sharp,  beak-like,  and  of  equal  height.  They  were 
ornamented  with  dragons'  heads,  and  the  stern  often  had  two  projections 
in  the  shape  of  wings.  The  steering  oar  was  managed  at  the  side.  The 
mast  was  amidships,  and  the  rowers  worked  standing.  The  anchor  was 
very  large,  with  a  stock.  The  Norman  vessels  were  sharper  and  higher 
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HISTORY  OF  NAVIGATION.  11 

in  the  prow  than  in  the  stern.  The  steering  oar  was  of  the  Greek  fashion, 
with  a  handle.  The  mast  stood  more  towards  the  prow,  and  bore  sails  and 
a  flag  with  the  Norman  arms.  The  war  barques  from  the  year  1377  were 
almost  round,  with  a  regular  keel.  They  had  a  kind  of  wall  or  breastwork 
fore  and  aft,  the  sails  were  stitched,  and  the  mast,  stayed  by  a  rope,  stood 
amidships.  A  war  ship  of  the  same  time  was  high  in  the  sides,  rather  short 
and  round,  with  a  quarter-deck  forward ;  a  rudder,  similar  to  the  modern 
rudder,  at  the  stem ;  the  mast  with  shrouds  and  a  basket.  The  galleys  had 
a  similar  construction,  but  were  less  round  forward ;  they  had  no  mast, 
but  houses  on  each  side  for  the  rowers.  At  the  stern  was  a  kind  of  tent. 
The  war  ships  had  seldom  more  than  one  mast.  This  consisted  of  a  single 
piece ;  the  square  sails  were  attached  above  to  a  yard,  which,  when  the 
sail  was  not  used,  was  let  down  to  the  deck.  The  planks  of  the  ships  lapped 
over  each  other  like  a  weather-boarding,  and  were  not  caulked. 

Under  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  navigation  assumed  a  new  form,  and 
during  his  reign  (1485-1509)  the  permanent  English  marine  was  founded. 
We  have  representations  of  the  ships  constructed  at  that  time.  They 
carried  cannon,  for  which  Deschanges  of  Brest  invented  port-holes  in  the 
year  1500.  One  of  these  vessels  was  called  The  Harry  Chrace  ä  Dieu,  or 
The  Great  Harry  (pi  4,  ßg,  2).  The  quarter-deck,  which  we  have 
already  mentioned,  here  formed  a  regular  deck  and  forecastle,  bearing  two 
batteries,  one  over  the  other,  the  lower  consisting  of  5-pounders,  the  upper 
of  4-pounders  and  2-pounder8.  The  lower  side  batteries  had  culverins 
(18-pounders),  and  the  upper,  demi-culverins  (0-pounders).  All  had  port- 
holes, but  the  guns  in  the  forecastle  were  discharged  from  round  ship's-eyes, 
and  had  no  side  bearing.  Aft,  near  the  rudder,  were  24-pounders  or  32- 
pounders,  to  fire  on  the  enemy  during  a  retreat.  The  ship  had  four  masts, 
or  with  the  bowsprit,  five,  all  of  which  were  in  one  piece ;  they  had«  two 
baskets  and  double  topsails.  The  rising  was  very  simple.  The  ship  was 
of  1000  tons  burden,  and  carried  120  cannon.  The  carac  built  by 
Francis  I.  was  of  the  same  magnitude,  and  had  100  cannon.  The  Save- 
reign  of  ike  Seas,  built  by  James  I.  (pL  3,  fig,  4),  shows  the  first  artificial 
lengthening  of  the  mast  by  the  addition  of  a  topmast.  This  vessel  was  128 
feet  long,  48  feet  broad,  and  carried  106  heavy  cannon.  The  construction 
of  this  ship  resembles  that  of  the  present  day  ;  the  misshapen  high  castles 
have  disappeared,  although  the  sharp  projection  of  the  prow  reminds  us 
of  the  beak  of  the  ancient  ships ;  the  sails  have  increased  in  number ;  the 
rigging  is  more  artificial ;  and  the  position  of  the  masts  is  favorable  to  rapid 
and  secure  sailing.  The  sail  under  the  bowsprit  is  worthy  of  notice.  This 
was  first  used  on  The  Harry  Grace  ä  Dieu,  and  was  the  origin  of  the 
present  jib. 

2.  Spaniards  and  Portuguese.  The  Spanish  marine  was  of  a  good 
deal  of  consequence  at  that  time.  The  Spaniards  built  for  their  great 
voyages  of  discovery  a  number  of  galleys,  with  six  or  seven  decks,  and 
from  1800  to  2000  tons  burden.  The  Portuguese  built  for  the  East'  India 
trade  large  galleys  called  caracs  {pL  4,  fig.  1)  which  were  moved  by  sails 
and  oars,  and  instead  of  a  rudder  at  the  stern  had  two  large  oars  with 

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12  NAVAL  SCIENCBS. 

broad  blades.  The  rowers  sat  on  cross-pieces,  looking  to  the  outside, 
sometimes  with  a  row  of  twelve  men  on  each  side.  The  great  Spanish 
Armada,  which  sailed  to  England  under  the  Duke  of  Medina  Sidonia  in 
1588,  consisted  principally  of  ships  of  war,  as  represented  in  pi,  3,  ßg.  3, 
few  of  which  carried  over  30  guns,  and  which  were  for  the  most  part 
moved  both  by  sails  and  oars.  The  number  of  regular  ships  of  war  was 
24 ;  there  was  one  large  galley  from  Naples,  and  four  Portuguese  galleys, 
which  were  manned  with  2088  galley  slaves  for  the  oars  and  900  marines. 
In  addition  to  these  two  fleets,  the  Armada  had  eight  separate  squadrons, 
amounting  in  the  whole  to  59,120  tons  burden,  and  carrying  2765  guns. 
They  were  manned  with  7865  sailors  and  20,671  marines,  while  the  English 
fleet  was  composed  of  only  181  vessels,  of  which  only  34  could  be  regarded 
as  ships  of  war,  the  remainder  having  no  vessel  over  200  tons.  The 
whole  fleet  amounted  to  31,985  tons,  with  17,472  men.  The  Spanish  fleet, 
in  which  with  the  rest  of  the  company  were  669  monks  and  a  number  of 
women,  set  sail  May  29,  1588.  The  admiral's  ship  had  a  castle  with 
towers ;  all  the  masts  were  wound  with  thick  ropes,  to  break  the  force  of  a 
cannon  ball ;  and  the  sides  of  the  ship  were  so  solid  that  no  ball  could 
pierce  through  them.  Of  this  powerful  fleet,  not  a  ship  reached  England. 
During  a  calm  night,  the  English  commander  sent  eight  fire-ships  into  the 
midst  of  the  fleet,  joined  battle  in  the  morning,  and  in  a  few  hours,  gained  a 
decided  victory.  The  retreating  Spanish  fleet  became  a  prey  to  the  winds 
and  waves,  so  that  only  53  ships  succeeded  in  reaching  Spain  in  a  most 
distressed  condition.  The  Spanish  navy  has  never  since  attained  so  high 
a  point.  The  Portuguese  marine,  which  in  the  16th  and  17th  centuries 
formed  an  important  mercantile  fleet,  is  now  insignificant. 

3.  Genoese  and  Venetians.  The  naval  power  of  the  Genoese  and 
Venetians  was  of  great  importance  in  the  middle  ages.  In  the  year  1100 
the  Genoese  placed  ships  of  war  at  the  service  of  King  Baldwin  of 
Jerusalem  ;  but  in  the  succeeding  centuries  the  marine  gradually  declined, 
until  it  became  wholly  insignificant,  when  Genoa  was  reduced  to  the 
dominion  of  France  and  afterwards  of  Milan.  In  the  ninth  century  Venice 
was  in  possession  of  the  whole  coasting  trade  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  which  it 
secured  by  a  navy  of  considerable  magnitude.  In  the  struggle  for  Pope 
Alexander  III.,  30  Venetian  galleys  fought  against  75  galleys  of  the  Emperor 
Frederick,  and  gained  the  victory  under  the  Doge  Sebastiane  Ziani,  in  1177. 
From  that  time  date  the  so  called  supremacy  and  marriage  of  the  Doge 
with  the  Adriatic  Sea  and  the  famous  voyage  in  the  Bucentaur.  At  the  end 
of  jthe  fourteenth  century,  Venice  possessed  a  fleet  of  3000  merchantmen, 
of  which  300  were  of  700  tons  burden.  The  fleet  was  manned  with  about 
25,000  sailors,  protected  by  45  galleys  with  11,000  marines.  In  the  fifteenth 
century,  the  naval  arsenal  at  Venice  employed  16,000  laborers,  and  had 
36,000  seamen.  A  kind  of  vessel  which  came  into  general  use  at  that  time, 
and  which  properly  forms  the  transition  from  the  triremes  of  antiquity  to  the 
ships  of  modern  times,  was  the  galley.  This  was  usually  from  130  to  140  feel 
long,  and  from  16  to  20  broad.  PL  3,  fig.  6,  gives  a  front  view  of  this 
vessel.  They  were  somewhat  smaller  than  the  galleys  constmcted  by  Badoaro 
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fflSTORY  OF  NAVIGATION.  18 

in  the  year  1560.  In  the  thirteenth  century,  galleys  were  the  only  vessels 
of  war  employed  on  the  Mediterranean ;  in  the  fourteenth  century  they 
were  divided  into  three  classes,  and  in  the  sixteenth  century  appear  to  have 
passed  beyond  the  Mediterranean ;  but  in  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century  they  went  out  of  general  use,  being  now  employed  only  as  coasting 
vessels.  The  galleys  had  twenty-five  oars  on  each  side,  which  were  moved 
together  by  beams  moving  with  them.  The  benches,  on  which  five  men 
sat  for  every  oar,  were  built  on  the  outside  of  the  vessel.  A  passage  ran 
through  the  middle  of  the  galley,  which  served  for  the  protection  of  the 
cargo  and  the  quarters  of  the  men,  and  through  which  the  captain  passed 
back  and  forth.  The  whole  was  protected  from  the  rays  of  the  sun  by  a 
sort  of  tent.  Five  guns  usually  stood  on  the  prow  (pL  B^fig.  2),  and  on 
the  side,  several  swivels  and  swans'-necks.  At  the  stern  (pL  4,ßg.  3)  were 
the  emblem  and  name  of  the  galley,  with  the  captain's  state-room,  and 
usually  Several  six-pounders.  Tlie  galleys  carried  two  masts  of  moderate 
height  with  triangular  sails,  the  largest  of  which  was  unfurled  only  in  a 
light  wind.  There  was  sometimes  also  a  small  mizen-mast.  The  principal 
galley  was  called  the  reale;  the  next,  the  patron  or  captain.  Small  galleys 
of  from  sixteen  to  twenty  oars  were  called  demUgalleys,  and  those  with 
broad  sterns  bastards.  The  convoys  had  a  complete  military  organization, 
the  commander  holding  a  council  of  war  with  the  captain  and  officers  of 
the  galleys.  The  most  exact  directions  were  given  with  regard  to  lading 
and  manning  the  vessels.  Thus,  for  example,  the  vessels  of  the  convoy 
destined  to  Flanders  must  be  manned  with  200  free  seamen,  among  whom 
were  180  rowers  and  12  archers.  The  freight  must  not  exceed  140  tons, 
60  tons  being  articles  of  merchandise.  At  times  of  pressing  danger,  30 
archers  were  taken  instead  of  12.  Since  Venice  has  belonged  to  the 
Lombardo- Venetian  kingdom,  and  with  that  to  Austria,  her  marine  hat 
been  absorbed  in  the  Austrian. 

4.  Scandinavians  and  Russians.  The  northern  nations  of  Europe, 
especially  the  Scandinavians,  were  skilful  navigators  as  early  as  the 
fourth  century.  In  the  sixth  century  we  have  accounts  of  the  sea-kings 
(Vikings),  who  dwelt  on  the  headlands  and  followed  piracy.  In  the  year 
872,  Ingulf  and  Hjorleif  and  several  other  noble  Normans  fled  from  the 
tyranny  of  King  Harold  Harfagger  to  Iceland,  which  was  then  almost 
uninhabited,  but  in  925  the  population  amounted  to  80,000,  who  lived  in  a 
well  organized  state  and  gained  their  support  partly  by  commerce  and  partly 
by  piracy.  The  discovery  of  America  has  been  ascribed  to  them  by  Danish 
antiquarians,  with  a  show  of  proof  found  in  some  alleged  Runic  inscriptions 
on  ancient  monumental  stones  in  Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut,  but 
their  arguments  seem  to  be  destitute  of  all  historical  validity. 

5.  Netherlandeäb.  The  navigation  of  the  Netherlands  was  of  great 
importance  in  the  middle  ages.  Their  various  commercial  relations 
demanded  a  large  mercantile  marine,  together  with  a  powerful  navy  for  its 
protection.  The  Dutch  marine,  accordingly,  during  a  part  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  was  the  largest  in  Europe.  Hence  great  attention  was  paid 
to  the  art  of  ship-building.    In  consequence  the  Dutch  ships  were  of  a 

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14  NAVAL  SCDENCBS. 

superior  character,  and  some  of  the  best  specimens  of  naval  architecture 
are  of  Dutch  origin.  We  shall  describe  their  peculiarities  in  another  place. 
We  find  in  the  early  naval  registers  of  Holland  ships  of  90,  92,  and  94  guns, 
but  we  are  struck  with  their  comparatively  small  number  of  men.  The 
admiral's  ship  Unie  of  94  guns  had  only  550  men ;  the  rear  admiral's  ship 
Zeeland  of  90  guns  only  425  men  ;  and  the  ship  of  the  line  Westfriesland 
of  88  guns  only  470  men.  In  the  war  between  Holland  and  France  and 
between  Spain  and  France,  in  which  Holland  lent  her  aid  to  Spain,  Holland 
had  70  ships  of  the  line  and  80  frigates  in  active  service.  Among  them 
were  14  ships  of  from  84  to  94  guns,  17  of  from  68  to  76  guns,  19  erf  from 
60  to  54  guns,  the  remainder  with  54  guns,  and  the  frigates  with  from  30 
to  40  guns.  In  this  war  the  Dutch  admirals  Van  Tromp  and  De  Ruyter 
gained  immortal  renown.  A  peculiar  branch  of  the  Dutch  navigation  was 
the  herring  fishery,  for  which  this  country  in  the  middle  ages  had  almost 
a  monopoly.  The  Dutch  first  engaged  in  this  fishery  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  13th  century,  Edward  III.  of  England  having  given  them  permission  in 
1295  to  take  herring  on  the  English  coast.  Wilhelm  Beukelszoon  brought 
the  art  of  pickling  herring  to  perfection  in  1397.  In  1644,  Holland  equipped 
1054  herring  smacks.  These  were  round  both  in  the  stem  and  stern  ;  they 
had  otily  one  mast  and  one  large  sail,  except  a  triangular  stay-sail  and 
another  light  sail  on  a  small  mizen-mast.  They  carried  from  350  to  500 
barrels  of  herrings.  They  were  manned  by  about  fifteen  sailors.  The 
Dutch  also  engaged  in  the  whale  fishery  and  fitted  out  voyages  to  Green- 
land. The  Greenland  Company,  established  in  1614,  however,  had  such 
ill-success  that  they  surrendered  their  charter  in  1651. 

6.  The  French.  France  also  assumed  an  important  place  among  sea- 
faring nations  in  the  middle  ages.  Her  marine  was  derived  directly  from 
tne  Greeks,  for  Massilia,  now  Marseilles,  was  a  Greek  colony  and  a  power- 
ful rival  of  Carthage.  Marseilles  was  most  distinguished  in  the  time  of  the 
crusades.  It  was  her  vessels  that  bore  the  crusaders  and  pilgrims  to  Pales- 
tine. The  business  was  reduced  to  a  perfect  system.  On  an  average,  from 
6000  to  7000  pilgrims  were  carried  annually.  The  master  of  the  vessel 
bound  himself  by  an  oath  to  care  for  the  pilgrims,  whether  sick  or  well, 
alive  or  dead.  Each  pilgrim  was  guaranteed  a  space  for  sleeping  six  feet 
wide,  seven  feet  long,  and  twenty  inches  high.  Every  ship  was  obliged  to 
be  armed,  and  with  a  sufficient  force  to  repel  the  attacks  of  an  enemy. 
Another  landing-place  was  Aigues  Mortes,  which,  now  several  miles  from 
the  sea,  at  that  time  had  a  good  harbor.  For  a  long  time  navigation  made 
little  progress  on  the  north-west  coast  of  France.  In  1513  a  commercial 
marine  of  some  importance  was  established  at  the  port  of  Harfleur.  PL  4, 
ßg,  4,  shows  the  arrangement  of  the  oars  and  sails  in  the  gallejrs  during 
the  reign  of  King  Francis  I.  The  construction  of  ships  of  war  improved 
with  the  improvements  of  the  merchant  vessels,  and  (as  shown  in  pL  3, 
fig,  1)  they  received  a  more  convenient,  symmetrical,  and  elegant  form. 
But  the  French' navy  was  raised  to  a  formidable  d^ree  of  ppwer  under  Col- 
bert, the  celebrated  minister  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  at  the  battle  of  the  Hi^^, 
May  31,  1692,  it  had  a  decided  supremacy  over  the  maritime  force  of  every 
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HISTORY  OF  NAVIGATION.  15 

other  nation.  At  the  commencement  of  that  year,  it  numbered  not  less  than 
101  ships  of  the  line,  8  of  which  carried  from  100  to  108  guns,  and  all  of 
them  remarkably  well  manned.  The  Soldi  Royal  {pL  B^ßg.  5),  of  108  guns, 
had  1000  men;  the  Foudroyant,  of  110  guns,  had  900  men;  and  the 
MerveiUeuz  had  850  men.  The  number  of  frigates,  bomb-ships,  and  so 
forth,  corresponded  with  that  of  the  ships  of  the  line.  In  order  to  keep  the 
fleet  in  constant  action,  Louis  XIY .  kept  up  an  almost  uninterrupted  naval 
warfare  with  Algiers,  Tunis  and  Tripoli,  (Jenoa,  and  so  forth.  The  harbors 
of  Toulon  and  Brest  were  placed  in  the  most  excellent  condition  at  a  great 
expense,  and  a  new  harbor  formed  at  Rochefort.  Dunkirk  and  Havre  de 
Grace  were  also  at  that  time  important  naval  ports.  The  sea-service  then 
employed  60,000  men,  but  the  commercial  marine  in  1664  numbered  only 
2868  vessels,  of  which  only  19  were  of  from  300  to  400  tons  burden.  In 
the  year  1843,  France  had  15,025  merchantmen,  amounting  to  647,107  tons. 
As  a  contrast  to  the  Sohil  Royal,  we  have  represented  {fig.  7)  the  ship  of 
the  line  Ocean,  carrying  108  guns,  built  under  Louis  XVI. 

7.  The  Germans.  The  German  navy,  small  as  it  now  is,  held  an 
important  position  in  the  middle  ages,  although  the  geographical  situation 
of  Germany,  whose  coasts  are  washed  only  by  inland  seas,  seems  to  assign 
it  only  a  subordinate  place. 

In  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries  the  German  trade  was  mostly  domestic, 
although  the  Rhinelanders  pursued  some  traffic  with  the  Scandinavians  and 
with  England.  Dragawitt  was  a  commercial  port  in  Holstein  in  the  year 
789.  Rorich  was  a  celebrated  trading  city  at  that  time  on  the  site  of  the 
modem  Rostock,  and  was  afterwards  destroyed  by  the  Danes.  Lethira, 
which  was  destroyed  by  Otto  I.,  was  the  modem  Stargard.  Lübeck  was  built 
by  King  Wilzen  Liuby,  destroyed  in  1139  by  the  Russians,  and  rebuilt  in 
1 144  by  Adolphus  II.  of  Holstein-Schaumburg,  at  a  little  distance  from  its 
former  location.  In  830  Stettin  was  also  a  place  of  considerable  com- 
merce, and  Vineta,  on  the  island  of  Usedom,  in  the  ninth  century  was  one 
of  the  largest  cities  of  Europe,  maintaining  mercantile  relations  with 
Greece,  Asia  Minor,  Tartary,  China,  and  India.  The  harbor  could  contain 
300  ships.  In  the  eleventh  century  the  city  was  buried  in  the  sea  by  a 
sinking  of  the  earth,  but  in  the  sixteenth  century  the  ruins  of  buildings  and 
towers  could  be  seen  at  low  water. 

German  commerce  received  a  powerful  impulse  at  the  time  of  the 
crusades,  and  this  circumstance,  together  with  the  piracies  that  were  com- 
mitted by  the  inhabitants  of  the  coast  on  the  North  Sea,  exerted  an  import- 
ant influence  on  the  development  of  navigation.  At  that  time,  especially 
while  the  Emperor  Henry  lY.  was  under  the  Papal  ban,  the  administration 
of  justice  had  almost  entirely  ceased,  and  the  cities  leagued  together  for 
mutual  protection.  The  first  of  these  alliances  was  the  league  of  the 
Rhenish  cities,  of  which  Cologne  was  the  centre.  This  was  followed  by 
the  Suabian  league,  which  was  important  in  relation  to  the  navigation  of 
the  Danube  and  the  trade  with  the  Levant,  and  afterwards  by  the  Hanseatic 
league,  which  embraced  North  Germany,  including  the  territory  conquered 
firom  the  Vandals  east  of  the  Elbe  and  Oder.     At  first  this  league  included 

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only  14  cities,  but  in  the  14th  century  the  number  had  increased  to  77. 
After  the  Hanseatic  league  had  exerted  a  favorable  influence  for  a  full  cen« 
tury,  its  supremacy  was  shaken  and  its  privileged  trade  with  foreign  coun- 
tries destroyed  by  the  increase  of  trade  in  the  interior  of  Germany,  and  the 
growing  power  and  industry  of  the  States,  in  which  it  had  its  last  deposi- 
tories. Finally,  even  its  name  disappeared  from  history,  and  at  this  time 
the  title  of  Hanseatic  cities  is  borne  only  by  Hamburgh,  Lübeck,  and 
Bremen. 

The  commercial  confederation  of  the  Hanse  had  the  natural  consequence 
of  improving  the  navigation  of  Germany.  In  the  eleventh  century  a  fleet 
sailed  from  Cologne  to  England ;  in  1247,  300  ships  were  equipped  for  the 
crusades  at  Cologne;  and  Lübeck  at  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century 
was  the  mistress  of  the  Northern  seas.  Her  fleet  fought  the  battle  ojf 
Travemünde  with  the  Danish  King  Waldemar  II.  in  1235,  which  termi- 
nated in  the  total  defeat  of  the  Danes.  The  ^Hanse  towns  conquered 
Copenhagen  four  times,  and  in  the  year  1248  despatched  their  fleet  of  280 
ships,  with  12,800  men,  against  King  Erich  VII.  of  Denmark.  During  the 
period  from  1563  to  1570  they  sent  19  ships  to  the  aid  of  Frederick  II.  of 
Denmark  against  Erich  XIY.  of  Sweden. 


3.  Navigation  of  Modern  Times. 

We  shall  describe  the  characteristics  of  modern  navigation  in  the  tech- 
nical portion  of  this  work.  At  present,  before  closing  our  historical  survey, 
we  will  give  a  brief  view  of  the  navies  of  difierent  powers  and  their  condi- 
tion within  the  last  few  years. 

The  Russian  Navt,  according  to  recent  oflicial  returns,  consists  of  56 
ships  of  the  line,  with  from  74  to  120  guns  each;  48  frigates,  with  from  40 
to  60  guns,  and  a  proportional  number  of  corvettes,  cutters,  and  steamers. 

The  Swedish  Navy  is  composed  of  21  ships  of  the  line,  of  which  only 
ten  are  in  commission ;  8  frigates,  8  corvettes  and  cutters,  2  steamers,  and 
247  gunboats.  The  last  form  the  guard-fleet  for  the  harbors.  Norway  has 
only  a  coasting-fleet  of  117  gunboats. 

The  Naval  Force  of  Great*  Britain,  according  to  an  official  document 
presented  to  the  United  States  in  1846,  by  Mr.  Bancroft,  the  Secretary  of 
the  Navy,  consisted  of  vessels  in  commission^  as  follows :  17  ships  of  the 
line,  with  1570  guns;  32  frigates,  with  1146  guns;  71  sloops,  brigs,  and 
bombs,  with  856  guns ;  33  schooners,  cutters,  tenders,  and  ketches,  with 
66  guns  ;  6  steam  frigates,  with  60  guns  ;  54  steam  sloops,  with  270  guns ; 
21  steam  packets,  with  42  guns  ;  9  other  steamers,  with  18  guns;  5  trans- 
port and  troop  ships,  with  70  guns  ;  84  receiving  ships,  coast-guards,  and  other 
non-efiective  vessels,  with  485  guns,  making  a  total  of  332  vessels  and  4538 
guns.  At  that  time  100  vessels  of  war  were  on  the  stocks,  intended  for 
3161  guns ;  and  204  vessels  were  in  ordinary,  with  9033  guns.  During 
the  Continental  war,  the  seamen  in  the  British  service  amounted  to  140,000; 
there  were  20,000  to  30,000  marines ;  160  ships  of  the  line,  and  150  frigates , 
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HISTORY  OF  NAVIGATION.  17 

but  before  the  close  of  the  war  the  force  was  considerably  reduced.  In 
1815  a  still  further  reduction  was  effected  by  Parliament;  and  in  1817  the 
number  of  seamen  was  reduced  to  13,000  and  of  marines  to  6,000.  An 
increase  was  subsequently  ordered,  and  in  1881  there  were  22,000  seamen 
and  10,000  marines.  The  pay  of  this  force,  at  £2  12^.  a  month,  amounted 
to  £1,081,000  sterling ;  and  their  support,  at  £l  9^.  a  month,  cost  £603,000. 
This  added  to  the  expense  of  magazines,  improvements,  and  so  forth,  makes 
the  annual  sum  of  two  miHion  pounds  sterling,  without  reckoning  the  out- 
lay for  pensions  and  half-pay,  or  for  building,  repairs,  and  construction  of 
harbors,  so  that  the  annual  charges  for  the  navy  are  not  less  than  four  and 
a  half  millions.  The  commercial  navy  of  England  in  1843  consisted  of 
24,500  vessels  and  160,000  seamen,  with  an  aggregate  value  computed  at 
twenty-six  and  a  half  millions  sterling. 

Th£  Dutch  Navy  consists  of  15  ships  of  the  line,  of  from  54  to  84  guns ; 
20  frigates,  21  corvettes,  and  26  other  vessels  of  war.  It  has  in  addition 
13  steamships,  of  7  to  8  guns  each,  and  165  gunboats.  The  colonial 
marine  in  India,  in  1845,  was  composed  of  21  vessels,  including  one  frigate 
of  48  guns,  and  two  iron  steamers  of  11  guns. 

The  Dajvtsh  Navy  contains  6  ships  of  the  line,  with  from  66  to  84  guns ; 
8  frigates,  of  from  40  to  48  guns ;  4  corvettes,  of  from  20  to  26  guns ;  1 
barque,  of  14  guns  ;  5  brigs,  of  12-16  guns ;  3  schooners,  of  6  guns  ;  3  Cut- 
ters, with  six  guns  and  2  falconets ;  23  bomb-sloops ;  17  bomb-gunboats ; 
139  common  gunboats ,  1  steamship  of  200  horse-power,  with  2  sixty  pound 
mo)  tars  and  6  24-pounders ;  and  1  steamship  of  80  horse-power,  with  2 
18-pounder  swivel  guns. 

The  German  Navy,  established  in  1848,  as  yet  only  contains  5  frigates, 
3  of  which  are  steamers ;  6  steam  corvettes ;  and  26  gunboats ;  and  there 
is  hardly  any  chance  of  its  increase,  or  even  maintenance,  if  the  people  do 
not  realize  the  combination  of  the  many  small  and  weak  German  states 
into  one  single  state,  or  a  confederation  with  a  central  government,  as  the 
only  executive  for  foreign  affairs. 

The  French  Navy  consists  of  25  ships  of  the  line,  37  frigates,  30  cor- 
vettes, 44  brigs,  43  small  armed  vessels,  and  32  transports.  Of  steam 
vessels,  it  has  1  ship  of  the  line,  with  80  guns,  of  960  horse-power ;  20 
frigates,  of  from  450  to  650  horse-power ;  27  corvettes,  of  from  220  to  450 
horse-power ;  and  57  smaller  steamers  of  different  powers. 

The  Portuguese  Navy  numbers  40  vessels,  with  940  guns,  including  2 
ships  of  the  line,  with  80  guns ;  6  frigates ;  8  corvettes ;  1  steamship,  and 
so  forth. 

The  Spanish  Navy  is  now  greatly  reduced.  Of  2  ships  of  the  line,  4 
frigates,  and  18  smaller  vessels,  which  were  in  commission  in  1834,  the 
greater  part  are  unfit  for  service,  and  most  of  the  naval  officers  are  old  and 
worn  out.  The  naval  departments  are  discontinued,  the  General  Marine 
Office  only  existing  at  Cadiz.  In  1802  Spain  had  68  ships  of  the  line  and 
40  frigates. 

The  Sardinian  Navy  has  5  frigates,  with  60  guns;  2  corvettes,  6 
smaller  vessels,  12  gunboats,  and  1  steamship. 

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Tuscany  has  a  small  navy  of  3  schooners  and  2  gunboats.  The  navy 
of  the  Pope  consists  of  2  frigates  and  4  smaller  vessels. 

The  Neapolitan  Nav¥  numbers  12  vessels,  including  1  ship  of  the  line, 
with  84  guns ;  3  frigates,  and  4  corvettes. 

The  Austrian  Navy  has  8  ships  of  the  line,  8  frigates,  4  corvettes,  0 
cutters,  7  schooners,  and  several  steamers  and  smaller  vessels. 

The  Turkish  Navy  consists  of  10  ships  of  the  line  in  commission  and  5 
not  in  commission;  15  frigates,  3  steamships,  and  several  corvettes  and 
other  vessels. 

The  Egyptian  Navy  at  present  has  not  more  than  3  ships  of  the  line,  1 
frigate,  1  corvette,  and  2  cutters. 

The  Navy  of  the  United  States  consists  of  11  ships  of  the  line,  with 
860  guns ;  1  razee,  of  54  guns ;  12  first  class  frigates,  with  528  guns ;  2 
second  class  frigates,  with  72  guns;  22  sloops  of  war,  with  418  guns;  4 
brigs,  with  40  guns  ;  5  schooners,  15  steamers,  and  5  storeships  and  brigs. 

The  Brazilian  Navy  has  90  vessels,  including  1  ship  of  the  line,  3 
frigates,  and  4  corvettes. 


4.  Navigation  of  Non-European  Nations. 

With  the  exception  of  the  civilized  portion  of  the  American  continent, 
navigation  out  of  Europe  is  in  a  low  degree  of  advancement,  corresponding 
with  the  general  want  of  culture  of  those  nations,  and  the  recent  period  at 
which  they  have  come  in  contact  with  Europe.  Like  every  branch  of 
human  knowledge,  navigation  has  been  neglected  by  those  nations  whose 
geographical  position  has  isolated  them  from  mutual  intercourse  with 
cultivated  nations.  A  more  intimate  commerce  with  Europe  is  followed 
by  the  introduction  of  European  navigation,  so  that  a  strictly  national 
marine  has  no  chance  of  existence. 

Among  the  nations  out  of  Europe  the  Asiatics  and  Africans  have  always 
shared  to  a  certain  degree  in  European  cultivation,  and  hence  the  art  of 
navigation  has  made  some  progress  among  them,  although  the  influence  of 
the  European  marine  predominates.  The  only  exception  to  this  is  found 
in  China.  The  Chinese,  a  people  in  many  respects  so  enigmatical  and 
mysterious,  have  marked  out  their  own  path  of  cultivation,  in  which  for 
many  thousand  years  they  have  attained  a  degree  of  refinement,  of  which 
we  have  scarcely  a  conception.  For  an  incredible  period  they  have  pos- 
sessed most  modem  inventions,  but  the  Chinese  wall  which  has  conceded 
from  us  their  progress,  has  also  until  within  a  few  years  shut  them  out 
from  European  civilization,  so  that  they  have  remained  in  the  same  posi- 
tion which  they  have  occupied  for  centuries.  But  the  extensive  marine  of 
China  is  so  far  behind  the  European,  that  the  Chinese  junk  Kay-Ying, 
which  was  lately  purchased  by  the  English  and  taken  to  London,  was  the 
first  ship  which  had  ever  ventured  beyond  the  track  of  their  wide  coasting 
navigation,  a  Chinese  voyage  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  being  an 
extraordinary  occurrence. 
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HISTORY  OF  NAVIGATION.  19 

1,  Afbioa.  Until  the  seventh  century  this  portion  of  the  world  was 
almost  «wholly  unknown,  and  as  regards  the  principal  part  of  its  interior  is 
still  in  the  same  condition.  The  first  descriptions  of  this  interesting  coun- 
try are  given  by  Herodotus.  The  region  bordering  on  the  Red  Sea  and 
the  Persian  Gulf,  and  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  has  no  special 
interest  in  connexion  with  our  subject,  since  its  navigation  has  become 
entirely  absorbed  in  the  European.  We  shall  accordingly  confine  our- 
selves to  the  east  and  west  coasts  of  Africa. 

The  fishing-boats  of  Mocha,  in  the  Straits  of  Babelmandel,  are  about  24 
feet  long,  with  16  feet  in  the  keel,  forming  a  long  and  pointed  oval ;  the 
mast  is  scarcely  12  feet  high  ;  the  sail  is  nearly  square,  and  the  oars  are  of 
great  length,  with  pear-shaped  paddles  two  feet  wide.  The  fishing-boats  in 
the  bay  of  Maskate  are  of  a  very  difierent  construction.  They  have  a  flat 
bottom,  with  so  slight  a  curve,  that  its  outline  is  nearly  in  the  form  of  a 
trapezium.  They  have  no  knee-timbers,  and  their  planks  are  bent  by  fire, 
lapping  over  each  other,  and  fastened  to  the  floor  with  bands  and  clamps, 
forming  a  kind  of  seam.  At  the  stern  there  is  a  rudder,  reaching  two  feet 
under  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  and  managed  with  two  ropes.  The  mast  is 
20  feet  high,  and  carries  a  square  sail  on  the  yard.  The  freight  boats  are 
rounder,  being  five  feet  high  in  the  sides,  and  the  planks  consist  of  several 
diflferent  pieces ;  the  bottom  rises  pretty  sharp  both  at  stem  and  stern  ;  the 
rudder  does  not  pass  below  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  and  is  moved  with  a 
small  bar.  These  boats  have  short  knee-timbers,  and  are  without  sails. 
The  large  fishing-boats  are  about  45  feet  in  length  and  14  in  breadth ;  the 
bottom  is  somewhat  curved ;  the  frame  is  in  the  shape  of  a  crescent,  and  is 
secured  by  crooked  timbers  fastened  to  the  bottom  of  the  keel ;  the  mast 
stands  forward ;  it  is  36  feet  high,  and  can  be  taken  down ;  the  rudder  goes 
five  feet  under  the  keel ;  the  sail  is  four-cornered,  oblique,  and  spread  to  the 
wind  by  a  long  yard,  and  a  sort  of  bowsprit  which  projects  to  a  great  dis- 
tance ;  the  boats  have  a  small  forward  and  after-deck.  The  smaller  coasters 
of  Maskate  resemble  the  freight  boats,  except  the  greatest  breadth  is  towards 
the  stern,  and  the  mast  is  50  feet  high,  with  a  yard  and  an  ^bjique  four-cor- 
nered sail.  This  vessel  has  a  complete  deck.  The  larger  class  of  coasters 
have  an  elevated  side  and  a  cabin,  and  a  small  mast  besides  the  mainmast. 
There  is  an  ornament  on  the  prow  resembling  the  aplustre  of  the  ancients. 
The  largest  coasters  of  all  are  constructed  like  our  smaller  trading  vessels, 
but  run  very  obliquely  forward  on  a  short  keel ;  the  mainmast  is  fixed,  while 
a  second  is  put  up  only  occasionally.  The  whole  vessel  is  about  75  feet 
long,  14  feet  high,  and  16  feet  wide  in  the  centre.  In  the  gulf  of  Cutch  there 
are  coasters  not  over  50  feet  long,  but  20  feet  wide,  and  nearly  oval  in  shape. 
They  have  a  very  high  sharp  keel,  and  rise  abruptly  both  at  stem  and  stern. 
They  have  a  high  poop-cabin,  with  three  divisions  and  windows.  On  both 
sides  of  the  gangway  there  is  a  framework  three  feet  high,  over  which  is 
drawn  a  covering  for  the  protection  of  the  cargo.  The  vessel  is  propelled 
both  by  oars  and  sails. 

South  of  Maskate  is  the  coast  of  Mozambique,  with  the  island  of  Mada- 
gascar and  the  neighboring  Seychelles  islands.    Except  European  vessels, 

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20  NAVAL  SCIENCES. 

the  principal  craft  in  this  quarter  are  pirogues ;  these  are  very  light  vessels 
about  24  feet  long  and  2^  feet  wide,  sharper  at  the  stem  than  at  the  stem, 
and  carrying  some  six  men.  The  freight  boats  running  between  Madagas- 
car and  the  Seychelles  islands  are  broad,  round  at  stem  and  stern,  nearly  in 
the  shape  of  an  almond,  about  25  feet  long,  and  5  or  6  wide.  They  are 
built  of  the  Indian  teak  wood,  which  is  bent  over  a  fire.  The  larger  pirogues 
of  the  Seychelles  and  Masquerines  are  from  28  to  30  feet  long,  and  3  feet 
wide,  resembling  in  appearance  our  fishing  boats;  they  have  one  mast, 
standing  a  little  aft  of  the  midships,  with  a  square  sail.  All  the  vessels  on 
the  east  coast  of  Africa  are  of  this  description ;  but  on  the  west  coast,  at  the 
island  of  Groree,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Senegal,  the  pirogues  have  a  peculiar 
construction.  They  are  from  20  to  30  feet  in  length,  3  feet  in  breadth,  and 
sharp  at  stem  and  stern ;  the  prow  is  higher  than  the  stern  ;  the  keel  runs 
the  whole  length  of  the  vessel  in  a  moderate  curve,  from  which  segments 
are  cut  ofi*  below  at  both  ends,  forming  a  sort  of  knob ;  the  shape  trans- 
versely is  like  a  sack,  the  keel  not  sharply  projecting,  but  gradually  rounded. 
The  mast  stands  obliquely,  somewhat  forward  of  the  midships,  with  a  wide, 
but  short  square  sail. 

2.  Asia.  Our  description  of  the  navigation  of  Asia  will  exclude  the 
blands  of  Sumatra,  Java,  the  Celebes,  Borneo,  and  the  Philippines,  since 
these  now  belong  to  Oceanica,  the  fifth  division  of  the  world. 

The  Asiatic  navigation,  in  general,  is  far  more  advanced  than  that  of 
the  other  non-European  nations.  This  is  owing  to  the  intimate  connexion 
which  this  part  of  the  world  has  always  sustained  with  Europe. 

Among  the  vessels  on  the  west  coast  of  India,  the  coast  of  Malabar,  the 
most  remarkable  are  the  patamars.  These  have  a  very  peculiar  keel, 
which  runs  into  a  sharp  curve  from  the  prow,  and  in  the  district  of  Bom- 
bay the  curve  even  extends  to  the  stern.  But,  in  general,  the  keel  goes 
firom  the  stern  to  directly  under  the  mast,  and  then  takes  a  curve  of  three 
feet  in  ten,  the  prow  sloping  oflf  in  a  straight  line  about  fourteen  feet  in 
twenty-seven.  The  stern  is  oblique  to  the  surface  of  the  water ;  the  whole 
vessel  is  aboi4  seventy  feet  long,  and  the  keel  thirty  feet.  The  mast 
stands  very  oblique,  towards  the  stern,  and  at  one  fifth  of  the  distance 
firom  the  stern  is  a  short  mizen-mast.  The  vessel  is  eighteen  feet  in 
breadth  at  two  thirds  the  distance  from  stem  to  stern,  with  a  nearly 
flat  bottom,  but  round  in  the  side.  They  are  drawn  up  on  land  so  far 
to  take  in  cargo,  that  at  ebb  tide  they  are  left  high  and  dry.  The  planks 
are  notched  in  the  direction  of  their  thickness,  and  fastened  with  long 
nails  driven  over  the  seams,  which  are  still  further  secured  with  cross- 
pieces. 

The  freight  boats  of  Calcutta  are  of  a  similar  construction,  their  greatest 
breadth  being  forward,  with  a  straight  bottom.  The  length  of  the  straight 
part  of  the  keel  is  only  about  fifteen  feet  less  than  that  of  the  whole  veaseL 
The  bulwarks  are  very  slender,  but  the  interior  work  is  of  an  arched  form, 
supported  by  strong  posts.  The  gangway  is  a  kind  of  gallery  running 
round  the  vessel  at  the  height  of  two  or  three  feet.  The  vessel  has  a  main- 
mast and  a  mizen-mast,  both  low,  and  very  oblique  to  the  prow.  There  is 
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fflSTORY  OF  NAVIGATION.  21 

bIso  a  sort  of  bowsprit,  which  is  only  occasionally  rigged,  allowing  the  use 
of  a  small  jib.     The  vessel  admits  of  a  complete  deck. 

The  fishing  boats  on  this  coast,  and  northwards  as  far  as  Bombay,  are 
sharp  in  the  prow,  round  in  the  stem,  and  shaped  like  an  almond.  The 
larger  boats  carry  a  mast  like  the  patamars.  The  flat  boats  of  this  district 
are  thirty  feet  long,  four  feet  broad,  and  three  feet  deep,  with  a  curved 
bottom  of  two  feet  in  breadth,  to  which  the  sides  are  attached  at  a  sharp 
angle,  running  into  a  curve  of  sixty  degrees  both  at  stem  and  stern.  The 
pirogues  which  are  used  on  the  rivers  for  the  transportation  of  rice,  are 
from  thirty-eight  to  forty  feet  long,  and  only  three  feet  broad,  without  keel, 
and  nearly  round  in  the  sides.  As  soon  as  they  are  loaded,  they  are 
covered  with  an  arched  deck,  extending  the  whole  length  of  the  vessel,  and 
raised  at  the  stern  where  the  steersman  sits  like  the  boot  of  a  carriage,  so 
that  he  sits  under  cover. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Goa  we  find  panianys,  which,  with  the  exception  of  a 
straight  keel,  resemble  the  above-mentioned  patamars  in  construction,  but 
are  of  a  smaller  size.  When  they  are  intended  to  carry  timber  they  are 
built  on  a  somewhat  different  model,  the  keel  being  curved,  and  the  sides 
rounding.  The  length  is  sixty  feet,  and  the  greatest  breadth  eighteen  feet ; 
the  stern  is  finished  after  the  European  fashion ;  precisely  at  midships 
stands  the  main-mast,  and  a  smaller  mizen-mast  half  way  between  the 
centre  and  stem.  A  deck  is  carried  to  this  mast,  forming  a  cabin.  The 
lines  in  these  vessels  are  all  curved,  even  in  the  gangways,  while  as  a 
general  rule  straight  lines  prevail.  The  pirogues  also  in  this  district  are 
worthy  of  notice.  The  largest  are  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  feet  in  length, 
fifteen  in  breadth,  coming  to  a  uniform  point  at  stem  and  stern,  forming 
two  equal  segments  of  a  circle.  Their  depth  does  not  exceed  three  feet ; 
their  sides  form  an  ellipse,  somewhat  cut  down  at  the  upper  surface,  the 
planks  being  laid  perpendicularly.  The  body  of  the  vessel  is  composed  of 
curved  planks,  parallel  to  each  other,  and  strengthened  with  ribs.  The  oar 
benches  are  all  forward.  The  rudder  is  arranged  like  that  of  our  fishing 
boats.  A  square  sail  is  attached  to  the  mast,  which  stands  towards  the 
prow.  The  small  pirogues  of  Goa  have  their  side  planks  placed,  not  per- 
pendicular, but  oblique,  bulging  out  towards  the  top.  They  are  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  feet  long  and  three  feet  wide.  In  order  to  prevent  swamping 
in  a  rough  sea,  they  are  furnished  with  what  is  called  a  balance  frame. 
Two  bars  from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  long  are  placed  across  each  side,  and 
fastened  to  planks  extending  with  their  whole  length  over  the  sides  of  the 
vessel.  The  four  ends  of  these  bars  are  connected  two  by  two  with  beams 
which  lie  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  by  which  the  breadth  of  the  vessel  is 
so  much  increased  that  it  cannot  upset.  Many  pirogues  have  this  arrange- 
ment only  on  the  leeward  side,  and  then  the  lay  of  the  balance  frame 
changes  with  the  wind.  These  pirogues  often  also  have  a  mast.  PL  6, 
ßg,  10,  shows  the  balance  frame  in  a  small  vessel,  and  ßg.  9,  in  a  larger 
one.  We  shall  again  return  to  these  vessels,  which  more  properly  belong 
to  the  lagoons  of  Manilla. 

Among  the  smaller  vessels  of  Cochin-China,  we  may  notice  the  bandars, 

XOONOGBAPHIC   ENCYCLOPEDIA. — VOL.    lU.  43  678 


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es  K  AV  AL  eaSSfSOBB. 

m  kind  of  fishing  boat  thirty  feet  long  and  four  feet  broad,  the  keel  runniiig 
in  a  very  flat  elliptical  line,  and  the  prow  and  stem  tenninataag  in  oma* 
«ental  work,  which  is  a  characteristic  of  aloKist  all  the  vessels  of  the 
Malabar  coast  The  sides  are  shaped  somewhat  like  the  Goa  piroguei. 
The  bandars  have  a  rudder,  and  a  mast  of  bamboo  wood,  at  about  one 
third  of  the  distance  from  the  stem  to  the  prow.  The  sail  is  square,  made 
of  netting,  stretched  by  a  cross-piece  <^  bamboo,  and  managed  by  a  rope  at 
the  bottom. 

The  larger  coasting  vessels  of  this  region,  which  aare  chiefly  used  for  the 
transportation  of  teak  wood,  are  constnu^ed  like  the  p^mamys  and  pata- 
mars^  though  the  sides  have  a  diflbrent  shape.  They  have  a  steam  castle, 
like  the  panianys,  but  also  have  a  similar  coostroction  on  the  prow,  so  thod 
the  side,  which  is  about  thirty  feet  long,  takes  about  four  or  five  foet  deeper 
water,  making  it  more  convenient  to  put  the  cargo  on  board.  AUfaoogfa 
of  coosideraUe  size,  they  are  for  the  n^sC  part  propelled  only  by  oars. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Travancore  on  the  Malalütr  coast,  there  is  a  remark- 
able kind  of  boat  called  prnmioHj  from  thhrty  to  sixty  feet  long,  but  only 
three  foet  broad.  Their  sides  form  a  very  flat  curve,  terminating  in  sharp 
points,  which  are  richly  ornamented  with  carved  work.  These  boats  «re 
used  principidly  in  the  rice  trade. 

Ceylon  and  the  Coromandel  coast  also  have  their  peculiar  vessds.  The 
pirogues  were  the  first  in  winch  the  system  of  balance  frames  was  adopted. 
The  most  remarkable  of  these  are  the  madel-pavoacoas  and  the  anjeelas  of 
Colombo.  The  former  are  very  broad  pirogues,  with  almost  entirely  flat  bot- 
toms, about  four  feet  in  width,  the  planks  fastened  with  clamps  and  knee-thn- 
bers.  The  bottom,  as  in  our  vessels,  rises  at  the  stem  and  stem,  and  the  boat 
is  generally  covered  with  a  rounding  deck.  The  anjeela  is  a  double  pirc^oe, 
formed  of  two  common  pirc^es  connected,  with  a  space  of  four  feel 
between  them,  covered  with  a  deek,  on  which  is  a  semicircular  pavilkm  six 
or  seven  feet  high,  and  from  ten  to  twelve  feet  long.  A  large  coasting 
vessel  in  this  region  is  called  the  cUmi.  This  is  from  sixty  to  sixty-five  feeft 
in  length  and  from  nineteen  to  tw«ity  feet  in  breadth.  A  vertical  section 
forms  a  semi-ellipse  ;  they  have  an  arched  deck,  giving  a  space  below  nine 
or  ten  feet  high  in  the  centre.  The  hull  is  planked,  with  covered  joints ; 
the  planks  are  fastened  by  cross-bands  to  the  knee-timbers,  and  the  vessd 
is  sharper  in  the  stern  than  in  the  stem.  The  keel  has  a  peculiar  shape, 
it  being  quite  straight  below,  but  meeting  the  bow  in  a  sharp  corre, 
and  entering  its  fore  part  to  a  considerable  depth.  It  runs  back  to  ifae 
stern,  continuing  straight  for  some  length,  and  after  the  bulge  of  the  bnU 
turns  up  in  a  moderate  curve.  The  rudder  is  like  the  ihiropean.  TIr 
donis  have  a  balance  frame,  two  masts,  and  a  short  bowsprit.  They  hav« 
wooden  anchors,  resembling  those  of  the  Malays  {pL  5^  fig.  11).  Them 
are  also  donis  without  balance  frames,  which  are  constracted  more  like 
European  vessels.  (See  pi.  6,  figs,  7  and  8).  The  catamaran  is  a  very  peca- 
liar  vessel  of  this  r^ion,  being  a  kind  of  raft  for  communicating  between 
the  islands  and  the  Asiatic  continent.  In  Ceylon  they  are  made  of  three 
beams  and  in  Coringui  of  five,  which  are  so  hewn  as  to  be  longest  in  the 
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HISTORY  OP  NAVIGATION.  23 

<3e&tre  when  placed  side  by  side.  They  are  cat  off  blunt  in  the  forward 
part,  making  a  kind  of  beak  of  three  beams,  connected  by  joints.  The 
beams  are  placed  so  as  to  form  an  arch  underneath,  the  centre  beam 
making  a  sort  of  ked.  The  catamarans  are  propelled  by  oars,  a  broad  oar 
serving  as  rudder.  They  sometimes  have  a  short  mast  with  a  triangidar 
sail.  Of  the  strangest  construction  are  the  Coringui  boats,  which  are 
shaped  like  a  shoe.  These  are  entirely  closed  up,  with  the  exception  of  a 
circular  opening  in  the  upper  part,  and  rounded  off  forward,  where  they  are 
neariy  as  broad  as  at  the  stern,  which  terminates  in  a  blunt  extremity. 
The  bottom  of  these  boats,  which  are  eighteen  or  twenty  feet  long,  five  feet 
broad,  and  three  feet  deep,  is  almost  entirely  flat,  the  «ides  slopii^  upwards 
like  a  bell,  and  becoming  narrower  at  the  top.  These  vessels  often  have  a 
mast  with  a  square  sail. 

The  vessels  of  Bengal  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ganges  have  a  peculiar  con- 
struction. The  emalleat  are  the  dingki,  equally  pointed  at  both  sided,  about 
twenty-five  feet  long  and  six  feet  broad,  wi^  a  cabin.  The  transverse  section 
is  semi-elliptical ;  the  planks  are  curved,  fitted  to  each  other,  and  fastened 
with  iron  clamps.  Of  a  larger  size,  though  of  a  similar  form,  and  more 
skilfully  constructed,  are  the  bauleaks,  which  are  rounded  off  at  the  stern, 
and  have  a  mast  towards  the  prow.  The  cabin  is  covered  with  a  flat 
roof;  it  is  of  conriderable  height,  and  is  furnished  with  windows.  The  däk 
or  mail  boats  on  the  Ganges  have  a  curved  keel,  and  in  the  general  outlines 
of  their  construction  resemble  the  large  European  boats.  A  deck  runs  the 
whole  length  of  the  boat,  with  an  awning  to  protect  it  from  the  weather. 
They  are  propelled  by  men  who  stand  at  the  oar.  The  tow  boats  are  of  a 
similar  shape,  though  the  keel  is  straight,  and  the  stem  somewhat  rounded 
off.  They  are  also  prqpelled  by  standing  rowers.  The  däk  are  from  forty 
to  forty-eight  feet  long,  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  broad,  and  from  five 
to  seven  feet  deep.  The  tow  boats  are  rather  larger.  The  patUeh  is  a 
large  transport  vessel,  from  fifty  to  sixty  feet  long,  and  from  fourteen  to 
sixteen  broad.  The  planks  are  fastened  with  wooden  nails  to  the  knee- 
timbers,  and  a  row  of  cross-beams  passes  under  the  top  plank.  There  is  a 
deck,  on  which  a  platform  is  constructed,  seven  or  eight  feet  high,  where 
the  crew  perform  their  duties.  The  frame  on  which  this  platform  is 
erected  is  covered  with  matting  for  about  half  its  height,  and  thence  a 
common  roof  of  rice-straw  runs  under  the  platform.  The  gable  ends  of  this 
building,  which  occupies  three  fourths  of  the  length  of  the  vessel,  are 
closed.  When  the  vessel  is  propelled  by  oars,  the  rowers  either  work 
together  forward,  or  are  distributed  at  the  sides.  If  there  is  a  mast,  they 
are  above  on  the  platform.  The  rudder  is  in  the  shape  of  an  oblique  tri- 
angle, with  a  base  of  about  ten  feet,  and  four  feet  in  height,  so  hung  by  ropes 
that  it  can  be  moved  up  and  down  in  the  water.  It  is  not  placed  on  the 
continuation  of  the  keel,  but  rather  on  one  side.  The  pansways  in  Calcutta 
and  Cutwa  are  long  vessels  propelled  by  oars,  with  ten  or  twelve  men. 
They  have  a  cabin,  and  now  and  then  a  mast.  The  rudder  is  usually  a 
paddle,  but  sometimes  constructed  like  that  of  the  patUek. 

The  Birman  EUnpire  has  a  not  insignificant  marine  of  500  men-of-war, 

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24  NAVAL  SCIENCES. 

which  form  a  transition  between  the  vessels  which  we  have  described  in 
the  Bay  of  Bengal,  and  those  of  European  construction,  although  they  are 
generally  propelled  by  oars.  Their  length  is  from  eighty  to  one  hundred 
feet ;  they  usually  have  eighty  rowers,  thirty  musketeers,  and  a  cannon. 
We  may  here  notice  the  small  vessels  with  which  the  Irrawaddy  River  is 
alive  ;  for  instance,  the  rice  boats,  forty-eight  feet  long  and  five  feet  broad. 
They  have  a  short  deck  at  both  ends  for  the  oars,  but  in  the  centre  a  tent- 
shaped  roof  of  rice-straw.  The  pirogues  in  use  here  are  forty  feet  long, 
three  or  three  and  a  half  feet  broad,  and  hardly  two  feet  deep.  The  stem 
and  stern  are  greatly  elongated,  and  they  commonly  have  a  cabin.  The 
most  remarkable  are  the  rangoon  pirogues,  the  transverse  section  of  which  is 
in  the  form  of  a  slightly  compressed  semicircle.  The  sides  are  considerably 
higher  at  the  stern  than  at  the  prow.  These  pirogues  are  constructed  out 
of  a  single  piece  of  wood,  and  only  slightly  hollowed  in  the  centre.  They 
are  on*e  and  a  half  feet  liigh,  eighty  feet  long,  and  six  feet  broad.  Seen 
from  above,  they  look  precisely  like  a  fish  lying  on  the  water. 

In  the  peninsula  of  Malacca,  the  original  construction  has  been  almost 
entirely  superseded  by  the  European  model.  PL  5,  fig.  12,  is  a  sampan- 
pucatt,  at  anchor  and  with  sails.  These  vessels  are  usually  propelled  by 
oars.  When  it  is  wished  occasionally  to  take  advantage  of  the  wind,  small 
masts  are  put  up  in  different  parts  of  the  vessel,  carrying  each  a  square 
sail.  They  are  constructed  almost  entirely  like  the  Bengal  banleaks 
which  we  have  already  described,  though  they  are  sometimes  built  with 
an  arrangement  like  the  patikh,  but  lower,  and  often  merely  in  the  form 
of  a  tent.  The  pind-jejah  {fig.  18)  are  smaller  vessels,  of  a  similar  con- 
struction, which  have  only  a  tent-shaped  cabin  at  the  stem.  The  sail  is 
the  main  reliance  in  these  vessels,  the  oars  being  used  only  as  an  additional 
help,  and  hence  they  have  a  permanent  mast  of  bamboo,  placed  at  about 
one  third  the  length  from  the  stem  to  the  stem,  and  also  a  kind  of  bowsprit. 
In  the  Straits  of  Malacca,  a  communication  is  kept  up  with  Sumatra  by  a 
kind  of  coasting  vessel  (pL  6,  fig.  8),  which  is  built  on  a  narrow  keel  and 
bottom,  projecting  at  the  sides,  and  mnning  off  almost  square  at  the  stem 
and  stern.  They  are  covered,  like  a  tent,  with  matting,  and  are  usually 
propelled  by  oars,  although  they  have  a  main-mast  for  a  sail,  and  a  mizen- 
mast  of  nearly  equal  height. 

As  we  approach  the  eastem  coast  of  Asia,  the  vessels  assume  more  of  the 
adventurous  form  of  the  Chinese,  and  in  the  Gulf  of  Siam  we  find  those 
which  are  very  similar  to  the  Chinese  junks.  We  will  only  allude  to  these 
at  present,  as  we  shall  have  to  speak  of  them  again.  Of  a  similar  construc- 
tion are  the  vessels  of  Cochin-China.  We  must  here  notice,  however,  the 
gay-you,  a  kind  of  fishing  boat  in  the  bay  of  Touranne.  These  are  fifty 
feet  long  in  the  centre,  with  only  a  breadth  of  six  feet,  and  are  sharps 
forward  than  at  the  stern,  where  they  rise  to  a  great  height.  The  section  is 
a  regular  half  decagon,  one  side  of  which  forms  the  flat  bottom  of  the  vessel. 
The  planks  are  fastened  with  wooden  clamps,  and  hdlow  wooden  wedges 
placed  over  the  joints,  overlapping  each  other  like  the  European  ridge-tiles, 
and  secured  with  wicker-work.  Beams  are  extended  through  the  two  c^posite 
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HISTORY  OF  NAVIGATION.  2i 

topmost  planks,  to  support  the  deck,  and  at  the  same  time  to  keep  the  vessel 
in  shape.  The  rudder  passes  before  the  stern-post  through  the  bottom  of 
the  vessel,  and  can  be  raised  up  and  down,  as  occasion  requires.  These 
vessels  have  from  one  to  three  masts  with  oblique  square  sails,  and  to  keep 
them  from  upsetting,  a  sort  of  balance  frame,  consisting  of  a  long  boom,  with 
a  weight  suspended  at  the  end,  which  can  be  drawn  out  and  in  by  a  rope, 
and  its  action  thus  regulated.  If  the  weight  proves  to  be  insufficient,  the 
sailor  gets  upon  the  boom  himself.  The  coasting  vessels  of  Cochin-China 
(pL  6,  ßg.  7)  do  not  vary  much  in  their  construction  from  those  now 
described. 

We  will  now  consider  the  marine  of  China  and  Japan.  In  respect  to 
the  form  and  construction  of  their  vessels,  we  find  that  they  are  not 
adapted  for  long  sea  voyages,  on  which  account  the  voyage  of  the  junk 
Kay-Ying  to  London  was  an  extraordinary  event  in  the  history  of  the 
Chinese  marine.  But  it  was  this  junk  from  which  we  first  obtained  an 
accurate  idea  of  Chinese  naval  architecture.  We  find  many  features  in  the 
vessels  of  China  and  Japan,  exactly  resembling  the  ancient  Greek  con- 
struction ;  for  instance,  the  ship's  eyes,  which  are  placed  in  every  vessel 
of  considerable  size,  the  Chinese  seriously  believing  that  the  ship  sees  with 
them,  as  is  proved  by  one  of  their  old  proverbs.  The  freight  ships  are  for 
the  most  part  from  forty-eight  to  fifty  feet  in  length  and  ten  feet  in  breadth, 
with  a  semicircular  section,  furnished  with  a  deck  and  cabin,  sharp  at  the 
bows,  rounded  at  the  stern,  and  often  flat.  The  mast  is  usually  from 
forty-five  to  fifty  feet  high,  and  stands  about  one  third  of  the  ship's 
length  towards  the  prow.  Near  it  is  the  windlass.  The  anchor  itself 
is  of  iron  wood ;  it  has  two  arms,  which  are  without  flukes ;  the  stock 
consists  of  a  bunch  of  bamboo  rods,  and  is  placed  near  the  arms.  The 
rudder  has  the  shape  of  a  banner,  and  can  be  moved  up  and  down  by  a 
windlass  worked  by  fifteen  or  twenty  men.  All  the  wood-work  is  coarse, 
the  timbers  are  seldom  hewn,  the  Chinese  regarding  this  as  a  needless 
expense ;  while  on  the  other  hand,  they  paint  their  ships  with  the  most 
extravagant  colors.  The  form  and  adjustment  of  the  sails  are  shown  in 
pL  5,  figs,  3,  4,  and  5,  which  represent  Chinese  coasters  under  sail.  The 
reader  must  not  be  deceived  by  the  port-holes,  and  take  these  vessels  for 
ships  of  war.    The  port-holes  are  only  painted,  in  order  to  excite  alarm. 

The  junk  is  a  peculiar  kind  of  Chinese  vessel  (ßg.  8),  forming  a  medium 
between  merchant-men  and  ships  of  war.  The  first  accurate  knowledge 
of  these  was  furnished  by  the  junk  already  alluded  to,  called  Kay-Ying, 
which  made  a  voyage  to  Europe.  This  junk  resembles  in  general  the  one 
represented  in  ßg.  8.  The  flat  surface  of  the  stem,  which  is  open,  was 
closed  in  that,  and  painted  with  the  figure  of  a  large  bird,  like  the  eagle. 
The  junk  Kay-Ying  is  from  700  to  800  tons  burden,  160  feet  long,  33  feet 
broad,  and  16  feet  in  the  hold.  The  entire  vessel  is  built  of  the  best  teak 
wood,  and  the  planks  are  joined  together  before  the  insertion  of  the  ribs. 
It  has  three  masts  of  oak  timber,  the  lai^st  of  which  is  90  feet  long  in  one 
piece.  The  rigging  is  strikingly  defective.  The  sails  are  made  of  mats, 
which  are  run  through  with  strong  bamboo  rods  at  the  distance  of  every 

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26  NAVAL  SCIENCaS. 

three  feet,  aiui  are  hoisted  by  an  immense  rope.  The  maiBsaii  is  of  ▼eiy 
large  dimensioDs,  and  weighs  more  than  nine  Ions,  ft  takes  the  whole  erew 
two  hours  to  unfurl  it.  The  rudder  weighs  about  eight  tons.  The  anchor, 
which  k  made  of  bamboo  and  iron  wood,  weighs  9700  pounds.  The  bow 
and  stem  are  of  a  most  extraordinary  height,  the  former  being  thirty  feet 
and  the  latter  forty-five  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  water.  It  has 
neither  keel,  bowsprit,  nor  shrouds.  There  are  four  galleries^  one  above 
the  other.  As  there  is  no  kelson,  the  mast  does  not  rest  ob  the  keel,  but 
the  mainmast  terminates  four  feet  from  the  bottom  of  the  ship,  where  it  is 
secured  with  ropes.  The  ribs,  as  has  been  stated,  are  not  inserted  «Dtil 
after  the  completion  of  the  plank-work,  which  is  fSastened  with  rtrong 
spikes.  As  soon  as  the  ribs  were  attached,  two  large  and  stovt  beams  or 
braces  were  fostened  above  and  below  the  deck  with  clamps,  serving  to 
hold  the  other  beams  in  their  place.  The  deck  timbers  are  curved,  aad  m 
platform  is  built  over  them,  which  secures  them  from  shocks.  The  mmbs 
between  the  planks  are  caulked  with  a  kind  of  cement,  consistnig  of  b«rat 
and  pounded  oyster  shells  and  oil,  and  made  water-tight  The  gunwak  b 
very  broad,  so  that  the  sailors  can  pass  outside  upon  it ;  the  wales  projeet 
about  three  feet.  The  saloon  in  the  interior  of  the  ship  is  adorned  with 
great  magnificence,  though  in  Chinese  taste  ;  it  is  thirty-two  feet  in  length, 
twenty-eight  feet  in  breadth,  and  fifteen  and  a  hatf  feet  in  height.  The 
vessel  is  furnished  with  three  large  wooden  reservoirs,  each  of  which  holds 
about  eight  thousand  gallons  of  water. 

The  Chinese  and  Japanese  ships  of  war,  with  their  deficiency  in  rigging 
and  the  awkwardness  of  the  seamen  in  the  use  of  sails,  must  evidently  be 
propelled  only  by  oars,  as  the  general  rule.  The  small  size  of  these  veeeds 
is  made  up  by  their  number.  There  is  a  countless  host  of  snoh  tsar- 
peniske$  as  are  represented  in  pi.  5,  ßg.  3,  which  are  entirely  propelled  by 
oars,  while  that  shown  in  fig.  3  has  all  its  inconvenient  sails  nnforied.  The 
construction  of  these  penUhes,  which  differ  considerably  from  the  original 
Chinese  model,  shows  that  the  Chhiese  were  not  Uind  to  the  advantages  of 
English  ship-building. 

A  peculiar  kind  of  vessel  is  used  in  China  and  Japan,  when  it  is  required 
to  transport  light  articles,  which  take  up  a  good  cfeal  of  room.  Tbeae 
vessels  still  tnore  nearly  resemble  the  European  constmction,  but  on  their 
sides  are  very  low  ;  they  have  a  scafiold  twelve  or  fourteen  feet  high  on 
each  side,  made  of  stout  bamboo  rods,  and  covered  with  thick  matting.  A 
semicircular  or  saddle-shaped  roof  is  on  the  t<^.  PI.  6,  fig.  1,  is  a  Macao 
vessel  constructed  on  a  similar  plan,  but  with  the  roc^  supported  by  the 
side  planks,  and  made  use  of  only  when  the  sailors  wish  to  guard  themselves 
against  the  weather.  The  Manilla  coasters  {fig.  %)  give  «i  idea  of  this 
mode  of  building. 

Of  a  more  original  fashion  are  the  bcurks  or  gondolas,  which  are  used  by 
the  Chinese  and  Japanese  in  their  pleasure  voyages,  especially  during  their 
great  festivals.  It  is  needless,  however,  to  describe  them  more  particularlj, 
as  a  good  idea  of  their  construction  can  be  obtained  from  pi.  &,figs.  6  and  7. 
Before  the  present  regulation  of  trade  between  Europe  and  China,  while 
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HISTORY  OF  NAVIGATION.  27 

Cbma  was  almost  hermetically  sealed  against  other  nations,  and  Europeans 
only  occasionally  obtained  entrance  into  the  cities  and  islands  of  the  empire, 
there  were  few  European  commercial  settlements,  and  traders  were  obliged 
to  remain  in  the  places  prescribed  to  them.  Hence  sprang  up  the  so  called 
factories.  These  were  generally  situated  on  harbors,  or  at  least  on  basins 
where  the  vessels  of  both  parties  could  lie  at  anchor  and  unload  their 
cargoes.  PL  5,  fig.  1,  represents  the  European  factory  at  the  Canton 
harbor. 

8.  Amirioa.  Before  the  discovery  of  America  by  the  Europeans,  the 
navigation  of  the  natives  was  almost  entirely  confined  to  rivers.  The  small, 
imperfect  vessels  which  were  originally  used  by  the  Indians  have  now  almost 
entirely  disappeared.  The  canoes  which  they  constructed  were  made  of 
large  trunks  of  trees»  hollowed  out  partly  by  stone  axes  and  partly  by 
file.  With  their  simple  ioats  they  passed  up  and  down  their  streams,  and 
often  glided  over  waterfalls  of  very  considerable  magnitude.  A  specimen 
of  their  navigation  may  be  found  in  the  jangadas  now  in  use  on  the  coast 
of  Pemambuco,  and  which  often  excite  the  astonishment  of  travellers. 
They  generally  consist  of  three  trunks  of  trees,  slightly  hewn,  12  or  15  feet 
long,  6  or  10  inches  thick,  and  joined  together  with  three  cross  timbers. 
One  of  these  has  a  hole  to  contain  the  mast,  which  carries  the  sail.  Upon 
the  float  there  is  a  small  bench  two  feet  high,  on  which  the  steersman  sits 
protected  from  the  water.  A  bag  of  manioc  and  a  bottle  of  fresh  water 
hang  upon  the  mast.  Each  vessel  has  two  or  three  men.  If  the  wind  bears 
too  hard  upon  the  vessel,  the  sailors  cling  to  the  opposite  side  so  as  to 
preserve  the  balance.  If  the  vessel  upsets,  which  very  seldom  happens,  the 
nen  place  a  board  underneath  between  two  beams,  which  serves  both  as  keel 
and  to  prevent  leeway ;  they  remove  the  masts  and  bench,  placing  both  on 
the  new  platform,  and  thus  pursue  the  voyage  as  if  no  accident  had  taken 
place.  These  jangadin  sail  closer  to  the  wind  than  keel  vessels,  and  with 
great  rapidity,  often  making  ten  miles  an  hour.  Nearly  all  the  coasting 
trade  in  articles  which  are  not  damaged  by  getting  wet  is  carried  on  by 
means  of  these  vessels,  and  they  are  frequently  out  sixty  miles  in  the  open 
sea.     A  Newfoundland  fishing-boat  is  shown  in  pi.  15,  fig,  1. 

4.  OcBANicA.  There  now  remains,  in  our  survey  of  the  non-European 
marine,  the  portion  of  the  world  which  modem  geographers  include  under 
the  name  Oceanica,  composing  the  Archipelago  of  the  great  ocean  between 
Asia  and  America.  We  shall  follow  the  celebrated  traveller  and  geographer 
Domeny  de  Rienzi  in  our  division  of  this  important  portion  of  the  world. 
According  to  him,  Oceanica  is  divided  into  the  following  clusters  of  islands. 
1.  The  country  of  the  Malays,  or  West  Oceanica,  the  so-called  Indian  Archi- 
pelago, with  the  island  of  Borneo  in  the  centre.  2.  North  Oceanica,  from 
the  Tropic  of  Cancer  to  the  fortieth  degree  of  latitude,  on  the  west  to  the 
island  of  Borodino,  and  on  the  east  to  167^  W.  longitude.  3.  Polynesia, 
with  the  West  Guidin  Islands,  Neville,  the  Caroline,  Pelew,  and  Mariner's 
Islands,  Cocal,  the  Sandwich  Islands,  extending  to  the  south  of  New  Zea- 
land ;  west  to  the  island  of  Ticopia»  and  east  to  the  island  of  Sala  y  Gomez. 
4.  Central  Oceanica,  with  New  Guinea,  the  Papuan  Islands,  and  the  islands 

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28  NAVAL  SCDSNCBB. 

inhabited  by  blacks  in  the  east  and  south-east.  5.  South  Oceanica,  with 
Australia,  Van  Diemen's  Land,  New  Caledonia,  Ac. 

a,    Vi^EST  OcEANICA,  OR    THE  CoUNTRY    OF   THE   MaLATS.       The  close  OOll- 

nexion  which  has  always  existed  between  the  country  of  the  Malays  and 
the  neighboring  continent  of  Asia,  enables  us  to  consider  the  navigation  of 
the  two  nations  also  in  connexion.  The  vessels  from  the  Straits  of  Malacca 
are  here  of  interest,  especially  the  little  pirogues  which  are  known  under  the 
name  of  toucangs.  These  have  departed  from  the  usual  form  of  pir<^;nes, 
being  shorter  and  broader,  sometimes  having  a  slightly  curved  keel,  and 
sometimes  one  entirely  straight;  they  have  square  sails  joined  tc^eth^ 
with  rice-straw,  and  rolled  up  when  not  in  use ;  the  rudder  rests  on  a  small 
platform  in  the  stern  of  the  boat ;  the  oars  are  rhomboidal,  or  in  the  shape 
of  a  myrtle  leaf  Freight  ships  of  a  larger  size  are  propelled  partly  by  sails 
and  partly  by  oars.  W'e  have  already  mentioned  the  vessels  (pL  6,  ßg.  3) 
which  form  the  principal  communication  between  Sumatra  and  the  Malacca 
peninsula;  to  this  class  also  belong  the  large  coasters  of  the  Maldives  (pL  5^ 
fig.  9),  which,  in  their  construction  and  the  arrangement  of  the  masts,  resem- 
ble the  European  cutters.  At  Sumatra  we  find  a  peculiar  kind  of  pir<^ue, 
called  pulo-rajahs,  which  are  28  feet  long,  5  feet  broad,  and  hewn  out  from 
one  piece,  in  the  shape  of  a  trough,  their  sides  being  raised  through  nearly 
their  whole  length  by  wicker-work,  the  upper  part  of  which  is  kept  in  its 
place  by  beams ;  the  oars  are  hung  on  small  trestles,  and  the  rudder  works 
in  a  singularly  shaped  box  at  the  side  of  the  stern.  These  pirogues  have  a 
mast  with  a  straight  square  sail.  The  proas  of  Achem  in  Sumatra  are 
coasters  which  can  also  be  equipped  for  longer  voyages.  They  He  deep  in 
the  water,  and  their  section  forms  a  perpendicular  semi-ellipse.  They  are 
45  feet  long  and  0  feet  broad,  with  three  masts,  of  which  the  two  after  masts 
stand  very  near  the  stern.  A  sort  of  bowsprit  is  held  in  its  place  by  three 
ropes,  on  which  a  jib  is  rigged  ;  the  keel  forms  a  very  long  semi-ellipse ;  the 
vessel  is  blunt  in  the  stern,  and  has  a  rudder  on  each  side ;  it  is  provided 
with  a  convenient  deck,  and  is  nine  or  ten  feet  deep  in  the  hold ;  the  masts 
stand  on  supports  of  a  peculiar  arrangement ;  the  sides  are  sometimes  raised 
with  trellis- work  two  or  three  feet  high  through  their  whole  length ;  the 
rigging  is  more  ample  than  in  Asiatic  vessels  generally. 

The  Java  pirogues  are  long  and  slender  to  an  extraordinary  degree, 
consisting  of  hollow  trunks  of  trees,  and  their  outline  forming  the  larger 
segment  of  a  perpendicular  ellipse.  They  usually  have  two  masts  with 
triangular  sails,  and  always  double  balance  frames;  the  rudder  is  supported 
at  the  stern  on  a  trestle.  One  of  the  Java  coasters  is  represented  on 
pi  6,  fig.  6t  which  shows  the  difference  of  these  vessels  from  our  own  in  the 
form  of  the  keel  and  the  arrangement  of  the  masts.  The  rudder  is  here,  as 
in  almost  all  Malay  vessels,  set  at  the  side  of  the  stern-post,  and  is  simply  a 
very  long  oar.  The  construction  of  the  Malay  vessels,  and  the  arrangement 
of  their  sides  and  deck,  are  shown  in  pi  5,  fig.  10,  which  represents  a  coaster 
drawn  up  on  the  land  ;fig.  11  is  a  Malay  anchor.  These  anchors  are  of  oak ; 
instead  of  the  stock  in  use  with  us  they  have  a  bundle  of  bamboo  rods,  placed, 
however,  on  the  arms ;  still  European  anchors  are  often  used.  The 
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HISTORY  OF  NAVIGATION.  Q» 

in  fig,  10  is  called  a  kuguar.  It  carries  three  masts,  with  a  straight  square 
sail,  and  a  bowsprit  with  a  jib.  The  masts  are  all  in  one  piece.  The  freight 
ships  in  the  roads  of  Sourabaya  are  very  long,  slender,  and  shallow ;  their 
transverse  section  is  almost  semicircular ;  they  are  moved  partly  by  stand- 
ing rowers  and  partly  by  large  oblique  square  sails  on  very  low  masts.  The 
long  rudder  is  fixed  at  the  side  of  the  stern-post.  The  deck  is  covered  with 
a  projecting  roof  of  rice-straw.  The  prao-pend-jalengs  are  a  kind  of  small 
freight  boat,  one  of  which  is  represented  as  drawn  ashore  (pL  5,  ßg,  14). 
These  boats  have  a  peculiar  arrangement  for  stretching  their  triangular 
sail. 

In  the  Archipelago  of  the  Moluccas,  formed  by  the  Banda  and  Gilolo 
groups  of  islands,  the  coasting  vessels  of  Amboyna  (pi  6,  fig.  5)  possess  an 
uncommon  interest,  as  they  combine  the  nautical  construction  of  the  Malay 
vessels  with  an  arrangement  of  the  masts  and  rigging  very  similar  to  the 
European.  A  sort  of  platform  is  erected  above  deck,  forming  a  second 
deck,  under  which  the  cargo  and  crew  find  a  good  shelter.  There  are  also 
the  coasting  vessels  represented  in  fig.  4,  which  have  a  sort  of  cabin  on  the 
regular  Malay  frame,  while  the  forward  part  of  the  vessel  is  protected  from 
the  rays  of  the  sun  by  a  tent-like  awning.  The  only  mast  stands  near  the 
stern. 

The  Manado  caracores,  on  the  island  of  Celebes,  are  a  kind  of  row-boat, 
used  for  the  transportation  of  goods.  On  the  sides  of  the  boat,  which  has  a 
curved  elliptical  keel  with  very  high  ends,  there  are  long  beams  supporting 
galleries  on  their  forward  end,  which  is  provided  with  holes,  like  the  colum- 
baria of  the  ancient  ships.  The  rowers  are  seated  on  this  structure,  with 
their  oars  passing  through  the  holes.  The  galleries  are  narrower  forward 
than  aft  The  vessel  itself  is  covered  with  a  roof.  These  vessels,  which 
are  either  the  model  or  an  imitation  of  the  caracores  of  the  middle  ages, 
have  also  anchors  of  a  peculiar  form,  like  a  disk,  with  a  double  quadrangular 
pyramid  passing  through  it,  to  the  end  of  which  the  cable  is  attached.  The 
rowers  also  sometimes  stand  on  the  galleries,  and  in  that  case  each  boat  has 
but  one,  and  at  the  same  time  carries  a  mast  (fig.  14).  Another  kind  of 
Celebes  coaster  is  shown  in  fig.  13,  in  which  less  account  is  made  of  the 
rowers,  as  they  have  two  masts. 

In  the  Manilla  lagoons,  and  in  the  Philippine  islands  generally,  we  usually 
find  very  narrow  vessels,  and  for  that  reason  the  balance  frames  are  employed 
not  only  with  pirogues,  but  also  with  larger  vessels,  as  the  coasters  (figs.  9 
and  11);  they  have  at  all  events  a  broader  or  less  projecting  platform 
(fig,  12),  in  order  to  guard  against  upsetting.  All  these  coasters  are  sailing 
vessels,  and  usually  have  two  masts,  each  of  which  is  made  of  only  one 
piece.  The  sails  are  square  and  very  clumsy,  being  made  of  mats  like  the 
Chinese.  They  almost  without  exception  have  flat  bottoms  and  blunt 
sterns.  Each  ship  has  two  rudders.  The  passenger  boats  of  Caviteh  have 
open  pavilionsj  with  platforms,  over  which  a  tent  is  extended. 

b.  North  Ooeanica,  Polynesia,  and  Central  Oceanica.  On  the  islands 
forming  these  three  divisions  of  Oceanica,  the  skill  with  which  the  natives 
construct  their  pirogues  and  corocoras,  or  war-boats,  is  carried  to  the  high- 

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80  NAVAL  SCIENGE& 

ett  degree  of  pOTfection.  Pirognes,  with  one  or  two  btlanee  firameo,  sailiiig 
with  ^eat  ease  and  swiftness,  and  adapted  to  coast  navigation  and  quiet 
seas,  are  in  general  use  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  Marian  and  Caroline 
islands,  and  in  fact  among  all  the  Polynesians.  The  people  of  the  Cardine 
islands,  especially  of  the  Guliai  groups,  are  the  most  skilfid  and  fearless 
mariners  of  Oceanica.  Their  pirogues  are  the  swiftest  and  most  complete 
known.  These  islanders  divide  the  points  of  the  compass  precisely  in  the 
manner  which  prevailed  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  from  Alexander  to 
Claudius.  At  the  other  extremity  of  Polynesia  the  natives  use  large  double 
pirogues,  in  the  management  of  which  they  exhibit  quite  skilful  seamanship. 
The  New  Zealanders  have  splendid  war  pirogues,  without  balance  frames, 
but  they  never  go  out  of  sight  of  land,  like  the  islanders  just  mentioned»  who 
steer  by  the  stars.  These  pirogues,  which  have  awakened  the  admiration  of 
all  European  seamen,  have  until  recently  been  the  objects  on  which  the 
natives  bestowed  all  their  industry  and  skill  The  simplest  pirogues,  hol- 
lowed out  from  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  may  be  found  in  many  other  places,  but 
the  double  pirogues,  or  those  fitted  to  each  other  in  pairs,  cannot  be  found 
in  so  great  perfection  among  any  other  people.  In  Tahiti  and  the  island 
of  Pomotoo,  there  are  similar  double  pirogues,  which  are  adapted  to  long 
trips,  carrying  a  supply  of  provisions  for  the  sailors,  who  live  in  a  wooden 
box  erected  over  the  boat  The  hull  of  each  of  the  two  pirogues  is  covered 
with  planks  nicely  fitted  together,  carefully  caulked,  and  protected  with  a 
water-proof  cement  The  rudder  is  remarkable  for  its  ingenious  mechanism. 
These  pirogues  were  formerly  ornamented  with  carved  wood-work,  which 
is  seen  at  present  in  the  slender  vessels  of  the  New  Zealanders.  They  are 
everywhere  alike,  being  the  remains  of  the  traditional  art  which  these 
people  have  preserved.  Their  excdlent  finish  is  surprising,  when  we 
consider  the  rudeness  of  the  tools  with  which  they  are  constructed. 
The  double  pirogues  are  in  use  in  Tahiti  and  the  neighboring  groups  of 
islands,  in  the  Sandwich  islands,  and  tlie  Marquesas.  They  are  not  found 
in  New  Zealand,  as  the  nature  of  the  bays  of  that  island  requires  light  ves- 
sels ;  yet  it  would  seem  as  if  they  had  been  used  there  also.  All  the  New 
Zealand  vessels  have  on  their  elevated  prows  a  hideous  head«  with  the 
tongue  protruding,  this  being  regarded  as  an  emblem  of  war  and  glory. 
The  stern  terminates  in  an  image  four  feet  high,  rejMresenting  a  god  and 
endless  circles.    This  is  evidently  symbolic. 


SHIP  BUILDING. 

1.  Thboektioal  Part. 

The  art  of  ship-buiMing,  in  all  its  departmants,  depends  on  the  laws  of 

physics,  especially  of  statics  and  dynamics.     We  must  hence  consider  the 

points  of  mathematical  and  mechanical  science  which  relate  to  this  subject 

before  commencing  the  description  of  its  practical  elenaents.    The  capacity 

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SHIP  BUILDING.  31 

of  a  body  to  mistain  itself  wholly  on  the  sur&ee  of  the  water,  or  to  ^k  paar* 
tialiy,  k  determined  by  the  difference  between  the  weight  of  the  body  and  of 
the  quantity  of  water  which  it  displaces ;  this  difierence,  uoder  all  circumr 
stances,  must  be  kept  as  great  as  possible. 

1.  DsTBiBirNATioN  OF  THE  Wbioht.  Wc  must  first  ascertain  the  entire 
weight  of  the  vessel,  as  this  is  the  basis  of  all  subsequent  calculations ;  but 
a  vessel  contains  such  a  variety  of  parts,  and  they  are  so  irregular,  that  this 
calculation  is  subject  to  great  difficulties.  In  the  calculation  of  irregular 
surfaces  and  solids  we  have  several  approximate  methods,  where  stnot 
accuracy  is  impracticable.  For  instance,  we  take  a  given  axis  of  the  body 
as  the  line  of  abscissas,  and  erect  upon  it  ordinates  at  equal  distances  fron 
each  other,  and  the  exactness  of  the  calculation  will  be  in  proportion  to  the 
number  of  ordinates.  From  these  abscissas  and  ordinates  Atwood  determiaed 
the  cubic  contents  of  an  irregular  body  by  the  formula  (S  +  2P  4-  SQ)  V  —  ^» 
8  representing  the  sum  of  the  first  and  last  ordinates,  P  the  sum  of  the 
fourth,  seventh,  and  tenth,  &c.,  ordinates,  Q  the  sum  of  the  second,  third, fifth, 
sixth,  eighth,  and  ninth  ordinates,  and  i  the  magnitude  of  the  equal  abscissas. 
We  thus  obtain  the  area  of  any  number  of  sections  taken  at  pleasure,  from 
which  we  may  easily  calculate  the  cubic  contents. 

2.  Displacement  of  the  Water.  We  know  from  hydrostatics  that  every 
floating  body,  whatever  be  its  figure,  displaces  a  portion  of  the  fluid  of  a 
weight  precisely  equal  to  its  own ;  hence,  we  may  determine  the  weight  of 
a  ship  by  ascertaining  the  weight  of  the  water  which  it  displaces.  This  is 
a  simple  calculation,  as  we  have  only  to  determine  the  number  of  cubic  feet 
in  the  part  under  water,  its  figure  and  dimensions  being  given ;  but  the  dis- 
placement of  the  water  by  a  vessel  varies  with  the  height  of  the  water-line ; 
the  lowest  water-line  gives  the  minimum,  that  is  to  say,  the  weight  of  the 
ship  when  she  is  launched ;  while  the  highest  gives  the  maximum,  or  the 
weight  of  the  ship  after  she  is  fully  equipped  for  service,  and  with  her  cargo 
on  board.  The  determination  of  this  displacement  is  a  problem  of  great  im- 
portance. The  form  of  the  ship,  after  it  is  finished,  may  certainly  aid  the 
builder  in  the  solution,  but  there  are  often  cases  in  which  we  are  obliged  to 
go  back  to  first  principles,  and  then  the  calculation  becomes  quite  compli- 
cated. An  approximate  method  has  been  proposed  by  Bouguer,  who  takes 
the  body  of  the  ship  as  a  semi-spheroid,  which  figure  it  in  fact  resembles 
n)ore  than  any  other ;  now,  since  the  contents  of  a  spheroid  are  equal  to  H 
of  the  contents  of  the  circumscribed  parallelopipedon,  he  assumes  that  we 
shall  obtain  the  displacement  by  Uking  the  parallelopipedon  formed  by  the  three 
dimensions  of  the  ship  under  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  formula  given 
above  applied  to  the  body  of  a  ship  renders  a  result  so  exact,  that  in  ships 
of  3,000  to  4,000  tons  the  discrepancy  will  amount  to  scarcely  half  a  ton.  We 
must  have  the  ground  plan  and  elevation  of  a  ship  in  order  to  determine  the 
displacement  {pi.  7,  fig-  1).  Let  ABCD  be  the  elevation  of  a  ship,  and  WW 
the  water-line,  for  which  the  displacement  is  to  be  ascertained.  Take  the 
points  E  and  F  in  this  line  at  the  distance  of  several  feet  from  the  stem  and 
stern-post,  and  divide  the  line  EF  into  several  parts  at  pleasure,  using  an 
odd  number,  however,  or  a  multiple  of  8  +  1 ;  through  the  points  of  division 

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»2  NAVAL  SCIENCES. 

draw  the  perpendiculars  1.1,  2.2,  3.3,  to  28.28,  and  the  ship  will  be  divided 
into  a  certain  number  of  equal  vertical  parts.  Now,  let  OPO  {fig.  2)  be  a 
section  of  the  ship,  in  which  the  lines  1.1,  2.2,  3.3,  4.4,  represent  transverse 
sections  to  the  outside  of  the  ship,  at  the  different  heights  1,  2,  3,  4,  of  the 
sketch  {fig.  1),  observing  that  at  the  right  of  our  drawing  the  sections  are 
forward  of  the  centre  of  the  ship's  profile,  and  at  the  left  are  abaft  the 
same.  Divide  the  height  under  the  water-line,  WW  {fig.  1),  into  feet, 
draw  horizontal  lines  through  the  points  of  division,  so  that  the  ship's  body 
will  be  divided  into  a  number  of  equal  horizontal  parts,  corresponding  to 
the  division  in  the  section  {fig.  2).  Measure  half  the  breadth  on  the  differ- 
ent horizontal  lines,  according  to  the  scale  of  the  ship,  and  it  will  give  the 
value  of  the  numbers  required  in  the  calculation.  This  half  breadth  may 
also  be  found  by  the  plan  of  the  water-line  {fig.  3) ;  double  the  results  thos 
obtained,  and  it  will  give  the  displacement  for  the  portion  of  the  ship's  body 
between  E  and  F  {fig.  1).  For  the  portions  forward  of  Ffand  abaft  Ee  the 
calculation  can  be  easily  made,  and  the  results  added  to  those  obtained  before. 
In  determining  the  displacement,  some  inches  must  always  be  added  when  the 
ship  is  at  anchor  in  rough  water  or  at  flood  tide,  or  under  a  press  of  sail  at 
sea.  This  is  on  the  principle  that  a  particle  of  water  which  is  in  motion, 
and  reaches  the  surface  of  a  body,  no  longer  exercises  its  pressure  on  all 
sides,  but  strives  to  escape  in  the  direction  of  its  motion,  and  hence  its 
vertical  pressure  against  the  body  is  diminished,  which  must  accordingly 
sink  deeper  than  when  the  water  is  quiet.  The  pressure  of  a  particle  cS 
water  in  motion  is  in  proportion  to  its  depth  below  the  surface,  less  the 
depth  proceeding  from  the  velocity  in  the  direction  of  the  motion.  This  is 
shown  by  an  experiment  of  Romme.  He  took  two  tubes  {fig.  4),  one 
straight,  ab,  the  other  bent,  cde ;  both  were  open,  and  so  wide  that  they 
could  admit  the  float  gf,  the  lower  end  of  which  was  cork  and  the  upper  a 
graduated  rod.  These  tubes  were  first  immersed  in  standing  water,  the 
float  was  inserted,  and  the  degree  of  immersion  noted  on  the  scale ;  they 
were  then  placed  in  running  water  flowing  in  the  direction  Ai,  the  bend  of 
the  tube,  cde,  lying  with  the  stream,  when  it  appeared  that  the  float  was  im- 
mersed one  inch  deeper.  When  the  bend  of  the  tube  was  held  against  the 
stream,  the  float  rose  an  inch  higher  than  in  standing  water.  Upon  mea- 
suring the  velocity  of  the  water,  it  was  found  to  be  seventy  feet  in  thirty 
seconds ;  and  according  to  the  velocity,  the  water  must  have  risen  or  fallen 
in  the  tube  about  1  inch  1  line. 

As  salt  water  has  a  greater  specific  gravity  than  fresh,  a  ship  sinks  deeper 
in  the  latter,  making  a  difference  of  about  six  inches  in  a  ship  of  the  line  <^ 
120  guns. 

3.  Centre  of  Gravity.  It  is  important  to  ascertain  the  ceiUre  of  gravity,  not 
only  of  the  part  of  the  ship  displacing  the  water,  but  also  of  the  whole  body  of 
the  ship,  since  the  sailing  of  the  ship  depends  on  the  right  position  of  this. 
The  method  of  determining  the  gravity  of  each  is  explained  in  Statics,  and  we 
need  add  nothing  to  what  has  been  said  above.  In  like  manner,  when  we 
wish  to  determine  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  immersed  portion,  we  must 
find  also  that  of  the  part  above  the  water,  it  being  necessary  that  they  bodi 
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SHIP  BÜILDINO.  35 

should  lie  in  the  same  transverse  plane  for  the  ship  to  sail  well.  If  it 
appears  from  calculation  that  this  is  not  the  case,  the  necessary  changes 
must  be  introduced. 

4.  Stability.  The  stability  of  the  vessel  may  be  regarded  in  two  points 
of  view :  first,  the  hydrostatic,  when  the  floating  body  is  at  rest ;  secondly, 
the  hydrodynamic,  when  it  is  in  motion.  A  parallelopipedon  whose  specific 
gravity  is  not  more  than  0.211  will  always  float  with  one  surface  out  of 
water,  but  as  the  specific  gravity  increases  the  surface  inclines,  so  that  with 
the  specific  gravity  of  0.75  the  diagonal  of  the  body  lies  in  the  water-line, 
and  it  then  always  turns  in  the  water.  This  proposition  is  of  great  import- 
ance to  the  ship-builder,  as  it  afifects  the  form  of  the  ship's  body. 

It  is  evident  that  the  resultant  of  the  force  exercised  by  the  water  in  order 
to  sustain  a  ship,  and  to  counteract  its  tendency  to  fall  on  the  side,  operates 
through  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  immersed  part,  and  that  the  direction  of 
this  force  is  perpendicular  to  the  surface  of  the  water.  Hence,  when  the 
ship  tends  to  fall  over,  the  force  of  the  water  strives  to  restore  it  to  its  place, 
and  the  amount  ^f  this  force  measures  the  degree  of  stability.  Whenever 
a  ship  assumes  the  direction  represented  in  pL  7,  fig.  5,  a  prismatic  body, 
E,  emerges  from  the  water,  while  another,  I,  must  be  immersed.  Both 
these  portions,  dissimilar  as  they  may  be  in  the  form  of  the  ship,  are  neces- 
sarily of  equal  weight,  since  the  eflfect  of  their  pressure  is  the  same,  and 
their  line  of  intersection,  S,  must  be  straight,  and  at  the  same  time  parallel  to 
the  axis  of  rotation  which  passes  through  the  centre  of  gravity  G.  Let  ab  be 
the  line  which  separates  the  immersed  portion  from  the  portion  not  immersed, 
G  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  whole  ship,  F  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the 
immersed  part  when  the  ship  stands  upright,  and  Q  the  same  point 
when  the  ship  inclines  to  the  side.  Now  suppose  QTVM  drawn  perpendi- 
cularly  through  Q,  the  lines  FT  and  GV  through  F  and  G,  perpendicular  to 
QM,  and  through  G  the  line  GO  parallel  to  QM,  intersecting  FT  in  O. 
Now,  since  in  the  inclination  of  the  ship  the  volume  E  is  taken  away  and 
the  volume  I  added,  and  since  the  contents  of  every  volume  are  supposed  to 
be  combined  at  its  centre  of  gravity,  it  follows  that  the  volume  E  will 
appear  transferred  to  I ;  and  calling  the  horizontal  distance  of  the  centre  of 
gravity  y,  we  have  the  momentum  yE  or  yG  proceeding  from  the  transference 
of  E.  Now,  when  the  ship  inclines  at  the  angle  ASa,  or  the  equal  angle 
FGO,  the  water  must  act  upwards  in  the  direction  of  the  line  QM,  and  in  pro- 
portion to  the  weight  of  the  ship  or  its  pressure,  which  we  will  call  D ;  and 
the  force  which  is  to  restore  the  ship  to  an  upright  position,  or  rather  turn 
it  around  the  axis  passing  through  the  point  G,  is,  according  to  Attwood, 
DxGV  =  DxFT— Dx  FO,  and  since  D  x  FT,  the  horizontal  momentum 
produced  by  the  transference  of  E  to  I,  is  equal  to  the  momentum  of  E, 
that  is,  equal  to  yl,  we  have  D  x  GV  =  yl  — D  x  F0=  yl  —  D  x  FG  x 
sin,  FGrO.  Now  putting  i  for  FG,  and  8  for  sin.  FGO,  the  angle  of  inclina- 
tion, we  have  the  formula  for  determining  the  stability  of  the  vessel,  D  X  GV 
=  yl  —  jyis.  The  simple  inspection  of  figs.  6  and  7,  where  A  and  B  repre- 
sent two  ships  with  equal  water  lines  and  equal  centres  of  gravity  both  of 
the  whole  and  of  the  immersed  parts  will  show,  that  if  the  side  lines  of  one  ship 

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M  VAVAL  8CIENGES. 

under  and  over  the  water  form  receding  angles,  and  in  the  other  salieot  anglet, 
both  being  equally  acted  on  by  wind  and  sails,  one  ship  will  have  tl^  greatest 
security  and  the  other  be  exposed  to  the  greatest  danger,  although  the  formula 
for  stability  gives  the  same  value  in  both  cases.  It  hence  appears  that  this 
formula  must  be  used  with  great  caution  and  judgment.  The  actual  stability 
must  be  determined  from  the  given  formula,  since  in  most  cases  the  two 
bodies  E  and  I  are  not  actually  equal,  and  their  line  of  intersection  would  lie 
to  the  wind  side  of  the  water-line.  Hence  an  eccentricity  of  from  ^^  to  ^ 
of  a  foot  has  been  assumed  in  the  transverse  section  of  the  ship  for  the  liae 
of  intersection  of  these  two  surfoces.  We  must,  therefore,  calculate  the 
contents  of  the  two  bodies,  whose  transverse  section  is  a  mixed  triangle,  one 
side  of  which  may  be  regarded  without  error  as  a  part  of  a  parabola. 
Having  oompleted  this  calculation,  we  must  oalcuUte  the  true  contents  of 
the  parts  imaaersed  and  emerged  by  the  inclination,  according  to  the 
proper  formulas,  and  if  it  should  appear  that  they  are  unequal,  we  most 
take  another  point  until  we  obtain  this  equality.  Supposing  that  we  have 
at  length  obtained  the  position  of  the  true  inclined  wate|(-line,  we  can  pro- 
ceed to  calculate  the  stability  by  the  formula/WZ<fe+/iosu22; — Dis. 
The  integral  of  the  function  WZdx  is  obtained  by  the  above  mentioned 
sectors ;  the  different  values  of  Z  and  x  are  obtained  by  calculation,  and 
the  values  of  W  and  w  are  found  by  the  following  method.  Let  SBD 
{pL  1,fig'  8)  be  one  of  the  sectors,  SD  the  straight,  and  SB  the  inclined 
water-line.  The  line  DB  divides  the  sector  into  a  triangle  and  the  adja- 
cent parabolic  surface.  Bisect  BD  at  E,  draw  EG  perpendicular  to  BS, 
and  take  EF  =  f  of  this  line.  From  E  and  F  drop  the  perpendiculars 
EG  and  FH  on  SB,  and  |  SG  will  be  the  distance  of  the  centre  of  gravity 
of  the  triangle  SDB  from  the  point  S,  measured  on  the  surface  of  the 
water,  and  SH  the  distance  of  the  same  point  to  the  centre  of  gravity  of  tbe 
curved  suiface  DCB.  Hence  the  formula  |  SG  .  SBD  .  SH  .  BCD  gives 
the  value  of  WZ  for  this  sector,  and  applying  the  formula  for  tbe  equi- 
distant ordinates  (see  §  1,  p.  31),  we  determine  the  integral  of/WZdx.  We 
make  use  of  the  same  process  to  obtain  the  integral  oifwzdx.  As  regards 
the  function  Di^,  the  displacement  D  has  been  already  calculated,  and  s  the 
assumed  angle  of  inclination  and  the  element  a,  which  depends  on  the  tme 
position  of  the  centre  of  gravity,  can  only  be  found  by  calculation  or  experi- 
ment with  a  ship  of  precisely  similar  construction.  We  can  hence  determine 
the  true  measure  of  the  stability  by  the  formula  D.GV=/WZdr4.yztM2r—D». 
A  simple  method  of  finding  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  ship's  body  has  been 
given  by'Abethell,  who  takes  his  data  from  docking  the  vessel,  wtucb  ot 
course  is  done  at  high  water,  the  water  passing  off  with  the  ebb  tide,  and  then 
the  dock-gates  are  closed.  He  takes  the  time  when  the  extremity  of  the 
keel  touches  the  foundation  of  the  dock,  as  the  water  passes  off.  From  that 
time  the  water  gradually  leaves  the  after  part  of  the  ship,  while  tbe  bows 
are  immersed  to  a  greater  depth,  and  an  equilibrium  takes  place  between 
the  total  weight  of  the  ship  and  the  pressure  of  the  water  upon  the  immeraed 
portion,  until  the  moment  when  the  ship  is  supported^  at  both  ends«  Dmii^ 
tthis  time  tbe  ship  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  lever  of  the  second  kind,  the  iulaaapi 


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€f  which  n  flie  point  where  the  keel  touches  the  foundation  of  the  dock, 
while  the  power  and  weight,  that  is,  the  weight  of  the  iminersed  part  and 
of  the  ship's  body  act  in  the  perpendiculars  which  pass  through  the  centre 
of  gravity.  All  the  magnitudes,  save  the  distance  of  the  perpeodiculars  through 
the  cent!«  of  gravity,  are  known  or  may  be  readily  calculated.  If  we  now 
take  AN  {pi.  7,ßg.  9)  as  the  natural  water-line,  and  KL  the  temporary  water- 
line,  where  the  keel  first  touches  the  foundation,  we  draw  QH  through  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  the  vohwie  KFML,  perpendicular  to  KL,  and  FG  parallel 
to  QH.  If,  then,  D  be  the  usual  pressure»  d  that  of  KFML,  and  6H  rr  (, 
draw  SEO  parallel  to  QH  at  the  distance  6E  from  G  =  ^^  it  will  pass  as 
well  as  PBO  through  O,  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  ship,  when  we  have  tt» 
neoessary  points  for  determining  the  distance,  PBO  being  perpendicular  to  AN. 

5.  Thi  Masts  akd  Sails.  Theory  has  hitherto  accomplished  little  in 
determining  the  length  and  proportions  of  masts.  We  must,  then,  take 
experience  as  our  guicto.  The  position  of  the  masts  exercises  an  important 
influence  on  the  qualities  of  a  ship,  a  difference  in  them  often  improving 
the  action  of  the  whole  vessel  Not  less  important  in  the  art  of  ship-building 
is  the  form  of  the  sails,  for  however  perfect  may  be  the  construction  of  the 
ship's  body,  without  a  correct  position  of  the  masts  and  the  right  number 
of  well-shaped  and  well-fitted  sails,  the  desired  object  will  never  be  attained. 
The  wind  drives  the  vessel  forward  while  it  fills  the  sails ;  they  should, 
therefore,  be  as  laj^e  as  possible,  though  there  are  limits  which  cannot  be 
exceeded  without  danger.  We  shall  presently  consider  the  dimensions, 
positions,  and  different  kinds  of  masts  and  sails.  The  centre  of  gravity  is 
a  matter  of  importance  also  in  sails.  jPV^.  16  represents  the  centre  of 
gravity  and  the  form  of  the  various  sails  in  a  ship.  The  centre  of  gravity 
is  marked  by  the  sign  e.  C  is  the  centre  of  force  of  the  whole  system, 
and  D  the  line  of  draught 

6.  Stowage,  Rolling,  Pitching,  and  Falling  or  a  Ship.  An  important 
point  in  the  construction  of  a  ship  is  the  stowage,  or  the  distribution  of  the 
burden  in  the  hold.  We  have  many  examples  showing  that  a  ship  built  on 
the  best  model  sails  much  worse  than  an  inferior  vessel,  because  it  is  not 
well  stowed.  The  main  point  in  stowage  is  to  bring  the  centre  of  gravity 
as  low  as  possible,  so  that  the  ship  may  resist  the  action  of  the  wind  on  the 
sails  with  the  greatest  possible  uniformity. 

All  the  calculations  of  equilibrium  which  we  have  thus  far  presented  are 
disturbed  by  the  action  of  the  winds  and  sea,  and  hence  new  mechanical 
conditions  must  come  into  play.  These  produce  certain  motions  of  the 
vessel  which  may  exert  a  very  unfavorable  influence  not  only  on  its  sail- 
ing,  but  on  its  firmness  in  general.  Among  these  motions  is  the  rolling, 
when  the  ship  constantly  inclines  from  one  side  to  the  other.  This  is  pro- 
duced either  by  the  shock  of  a  wave  against  the  side  of  the  ship,  when  it 
takes  place  above  the  centre  of  gravity,  or  by  the  motion  of  the  waves 
among  each  other.  PI.  7,  ßg,  19 :  let  ADB  be  the  transverse  section  of 
a  ship,  AB  the  water-line,  £  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  whole  ship,  and  6 
the  point  where  the  surface  of  the  water  would  intersect  the  perpendiculars 
through  the  centre  of  the  laden  ship,  and  BH  the  direction  dT  the  force 

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36  NAVAL  SCIENCES. 

which  brings  the  ship  into  the  position  ab.  The  force  which  produces  this 
inclination  is  represented  by  the  line  EH,  and  the  force  which  tends  to  restore 
the  ship  by  the  line  EG.  These  forces,  which  act  in  opposite  directions,  pro- 
duce the  rolling,  and  the  effect  of  the  acting  power  is  EH  +  EG.  In  regard 
to  the  motion  of  the  waves,  the  rolling  must  commence  as  soon  as  a  wave 
rises  to  one  side  of  a  ship  and  falls  on  the  other.  The  inclination  of  the 
side  of  a  wave  gradually  increases  from  its  horizontal  position  to  its  greatest 
height,  and  conversely,  thus  gradually  increasing  the  force  which  tends  to 
turn  the  ship  around  its  horizontal  axis ;  and  long  before  the  roll  has  reached 
its  proper  height,  it  is  met  by  a  wave  from  the  opposite  side,  which  destroys 
its  effect  and  prevents  a  further  bending  over  of  the  ship.  The  axis  of 
rotation  here  spoken  of  has  been  thus  far  considered  as  at  rest ;  this,  how- 
ever, is  far  from  being  the  case ;  instead  of  remaining  at  the  same  height, 
it  rises  or  falls,  or  in  fact,  as  often  occurs,  is  at  rest.  It  is  found,  for 
instance,  that  when  there  is  a  tendency  for  a  greater  part  of  the  ship's  body 
to  sink  on  one  side  than  to  rise  on  the  other,  the  axis  of  rotation  must  be 
elevated  during  the  motion.  In  this  case  rolling  begins  and  the  ship  is 
raised,  while  it  lies  on  the  side,  and  falls  when  it  recovers  itself.  The 
opposite  effect  is  produced  when  a  smaller  portion  of  the  ship's  body  is 
immersed  than  that  which  tends  to  rise  on  the  other  side.  The  occurrence 
and  the  extent  of  this  motion  depend  on  the  position  of  the  centre  of 
gravity  and  on  the  form  of  the  ship's  sides  between  wind  and  water.  Let 
us  investigate  the  case  when  the  sides  of  the  ship  are  parallel  with  the  plane 
of  the  masts.  PL  7,  figs.  20,  21,  22:  let  AB  be  the  water-line  when  the 
ship  is  upright,  ab  the  position  of  this  line  when  the  ship  is  inclined  10^ 
and  G  the  centre  of  gravity,  which  in  the  upright  position  is  situated  in 
both  lines,  but  above  the  surface  of  the  water  in  fig.  22,  and  below  it 
in  ßg.  21,  then  in  the  first  position,  when  immersion  and  emersion  are 
equal,  the  ship  in  turning  will  neither  rise  nor  fall ;  in  fig.  21,  when  the 
immersion  is  greater  than  the  emersion,  it  must  rise,  and  in  fig.  22,  when 
the  reverse  takes  place,  it  must  fall.  But  when  the  sides  of  the  ship  diverge 
above  the  water-line,  the  axis  of  rotation  (fig.  20),  instead  of  being  at  rest,  wül 
rise,  as  in  this  case  the  immersion  is  increased.  In ^^.21,  the  immersion  will 
increase  still  more,  and  the  axis,  accordingly,  will  rise  still  more,  and  in  fig.  22, 
the  immersion  will  also  increase,  and  the  ship  will  fall  only  in  a  slight  degree. 
But  when,  in  the  opposite  case,  the  sides  of  the  ship  diverge  under  the 
water-line,  and  above  it  are  parallel  with  the  plane  of  the  mast,  the  ship 
(fig.  20)  will  fall  as  it  turns,  the  rising  of  the  ship  (fig.  21)  will  be  corrected, 
and  the  falling  (fig.  22)  increased.  It  hence  appears  that  whenever  the 
equality  between  immersion  and  emersion  is  essentially  impaired,  the  shock 
to  the  ship  in  violent  pitching  must  be  great  and  dangerous.  In  order  to 
avoid  this  serious  difficulty,  the  actual  position  of  the  centre  of  grayity  of 
the  ship  must  be  calculated,  and  such  changes  made  in  the  ship's  body  that 
when  the  ship  turns  on  its  axis,  which  passes  through  the  centre  of  gravity, 
the  immersion  and  emersion  may  remain  equal.  The  motions  of  rolling 
will  be  free  from  all  dangerous  shocks  whenever  the  ship's  centre  of  grarity 
lies  in  or  near  the  plane  of  the  water-level. 
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SHIP  BUILDING.  87 

Another  kind  of  rolling,  namely  that  in  the  idirection  of  the  axis  of  the 
ship,  is  pitching,  in  which  the  bow  of  the  ship  rises  and  falls.  A  wave 
meeting  the  ship  raises  the  bow,  which  falls  again  as  soon  as  the  wave  has 
passed,  and  this  action  is  repeated  with  every  new  wave.  If  a  ship  is  close 
to  the  wind,  it  often  happens  that  when  a  wave  has  passed  the  forward  part, 
the  bows  fall  rapidly  and  only  rise  with  difficulty  at  the  approach  of  the 
next  wave ;  in  this  case  the  ship  is  said  to  pitch  {pi,  21,  fig,  2).  When  a 
wave  has  passed  the  forward  part  of  the  ship  and  arrived  towards  the 
centre,  a  considerable  portion  of  the  ship's  body  is  without  support.  This 
portion  falls  upon  the  surface  of  the  water  with  a  considerable  degree  of 
force,  composed  of  the  product  of  the  weight  of  the  whole  forward  part  and 
the  length  of  the  unsupported  part.  Sometimes  this  motion  takes  place  at 
the  stem,  and  then  the  ship  is  said  to  fall.  Both  cases  are  equally  unplea- 
sant in  their  effects,  as  they  diminish  the  rapidity  of  sailing  and  expose  the 
ship  to  great  danger.  The  defects  which  the  ship-builder  has  fallen  into 
in  this  respect  may  often  be  partially  remedied  by  experienced  seamen,  if 
they  take  great  care  in  the  stowage  and  place  the  greatest  weight  in  the 
centre  of  the  ship. 

7.  Fastening  the  Body  of  the  Ship.  We  know  from  common  experi- 
ence how  difficult  it  is,  even  in  the  most  simple  carpentry,  to  preserve  the 
shape  of  a  building,  and  we  are  hence  obliged  to  use  a  variety  of  braces  and 
supports.  But  in  ship-building  the  preservation  of  the  form  is  far  more 
important  and  more  difficult,  as  the  greatest  danger  would  arise  if  the 
ship  on  leaving  the  stocks  should  become  loose  in  the  different  parts  and 
not  retain  its  prescribed  form.  We  have  examples  of  such  accidents.  In 
ship-building  especially  theory  and  practice  must  go  together.  It  is  not 
only  the  violence  of  storms  which  tends  to  disturb  the  form  of  the  vessel, 
but  the  pressure  of  the  water  even  when  quiet,  which  properly  sustains  the 
ship,  exercises  a  similar  force.  If  we  draw  a  straight  line  from  the  stem  to 
the  stem  of  the  ship,  while  she  is  still  on  the  stocks,  this  line  will  often  be 
deflected  some  five  or  six  inches  as  soon  as  the  ship  touches  the  water. 
This  is  owing  to  want  of  precision  in  the  work.  Whole  planks  and  con- 
necting pieces  are  often  forced  out  of  place  and  broken.  The  length  of  a 
seventy-four  is  170  feet  or  more,  and  only  a  slight  knowledge  of  the  strength 
of  materials  will  show  that  in  so  great  a  length  the  strongest  timber  must 
bend  under  its  own  weight,  and  a  change  of  form,  therefore,  is  almost  unavoid- 
able. Seppings,  one  of  the  best  English  ship-builders,  has  endeavored  to 
avoid  this  difficulty  by  the  plan  of  oblique  bands.  We  know  that  a  mere 
quadrangle  can  never  be  firmly  put  together,  but  that  the  simplest  lattice- 
work must  have  an  oblique  band,  in  order  to  hold  its  shape.  If  we  compare 
pl'  7,  fig.  5,  which  represents  the  old  system  of  ship-building,  with  fig,  6, 
which  indicates  the  main  principles  of  the  new,  we  shall  perceive  that  the 
advantages  of  Seppings*s  plan  are  in  proportion  to  the  lengths  which  we  have 
to  deal  with.  The  efiect  of  the  triangular  system  is  to  give  the  pressure  in 
the  direction  of  the  fibres  of  the  timber,  while  in  the  rectangular  system  the 
strain  comes  across  the  grain.  PL  d,fig,  1,  shows  an  interior  view  of  the 
side  of  a  seventy-four  according  to  Seppings's  system,  where  tlu  diagonal 

ICONOORAPHIC   INCTOLOPiBDIA. — VOL.  III.  44  689 


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38  NAVAL  J9CIENGES. 

pieces  diverge  from  the  ol^r  timbers  at  an  angle  usually  of  45^.  In  the 
forward  part  of  the  ship,  these  diagonals  run  in  a  different  direction  from 
those  in  the  rest  of  the  vessel,  and  are  at  a  distance  of  six  or  seven  feet  or 
more  from  each  other.  Their  upper  ends  rest  against  the  horizontal  frame 
of  the  beams  of  the  gun-deck,  while  their  lower  ends  are  supported  by  the 
first  planks  of  the  kelson,  except  in  the  centre,  where  they  meet  the  planks 
lying  on  each  side  of  the  kelson  in  order  to  receive  a  part  of  the  pressure 
of  the  main-mast,  which  always  bears  hard  upon  the  keel,  and  often  with 
injurious  effects.  Other  timbers  are  placed  in  each  direction  upon  the  joints 
of  the  frame  timbers,  and  connected  with  the  knees  and  ribs,  so  as  to  form 
an  entire  system  of  immovable  rhomboidal  parts.  A  beam  is  placed  in  each 
division,  in  an  opposite  direction  to  the  inclination  of  the  diagonals,  dividing 
the  rhomboids  into  two  equal  parts,  and  according  to  Seppings  these  beams 
are  like  the  key-stone  of  an  arch  to  the  diagonals.  This  arch-like  arrange- 
ment of  the  diagonal  timbers  not  only  prevents  any  change  in  the  direction  of 
the  length,  but  also  presents  a  resistance  to  the  outward  pressure  from  below. 

The  beam- work  in  the  new  system  is  constructed  almost  precisely  like 
that  of  the  old,  except  amidships,  where  the  greatest  strength  is  required, 
and  where  Seppings  introduces  two  additional  timbers.  They  are  all  laid 
in  the  inside,  either  on  planks  or  frames,  which  are  designated  by  E  in^.  2. 
They  are  connected  together  at  different  lengths  by  dovetails  or  round 
pins,  so  that  they  form  a  resistance  to  the  longitudinal  pressure.  In  pL  9, 
ßgs,  1  and  2,  A  is  the  kelson,  with  the  additional  beams ;  B,  the  diagonal 
timbers;  C,  the  lengthwise  pieces;  D,  their  braces;  E,  the  inside  frame, 
supporting  the  upper  part  of  the  diagonals;  F,  supports  for  the  braces 
between  the  port-holes ;  6,  braces ;  H,  blocks  under  the  supporting  planks 
and  frames  for  the  iron  knees,  of  which  we  have  a  front  view  in^^.  3.  In 
the  old  system,  the  deck  planks  formed  nothing  but  platforms ;  but  in  the 
new  system  {ßg.  5),  with  the  exception  of  the  forecastle,  round-house,  and 
quarter-deck,  they  are  laid  diagonally,  giving  an  additional  support ;  ßg.  4 
shows  the  construction  of  a  ship's  stern  on  Seppings*s  plan,  with  all  the 
braces  and  necessary  iron-work.  The  helm-port-transom  is  here  left  out, 
which  formerly  was  one  of  the  heaviest  and  most  unmanageable  timbers  in 
a  ship. 

If  we  examine  more  closely  the  principles  of  Seppings's  system,  which  is 
now  adopted  in  the  British  navy,  we  arrive  at  the  following  result.  Through 
the  point  at  which  the  supporting  forces  act,  draw  a  line  representing  the 
direction  and  magnitude  of  the  draught  power,  and  taking  this  as  the  diago- 
nal of  a  parallelogram,  the  sides  of  which  are  parallel  to  the  supporting 
forces,  draw  through  the  point  from  which  the  supporting  forces  act  a  line 
parallel  to  the  former ;  then  all  parts  of  the  connexion  on  the  same  side  of 
the  draught-line  will  be  in  a  state  of  pressure,  while  those  on  the  opposite 
side  are  in  a  state  of  tension.  The  first  object  of  the  diagonals  is  to  pre- 
vent the  timbers  from  bending.  If  we  regard  AF  {pL  7,ßgs.  25,  26)  as  the 
neutral  line  from  which  the  curvature  extends  to  both  sides,  it  is  evident 
that  nothing  but  the  construction  shown  in  ßg,  25  can  prevent  it,  for  since 
A  in  this  figure  is  supposed  to  be  one  of  the  neutral  points  of  the  system,  it 
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SfflP  BUILDING.  39 

must  be  considered  as  firm,  and  the  inclination  to  curvature  which  tends  to 
displace  the  points  H,C,6,  andB,  as  well  as  the  action  on  the  supports 
AC  and  AB,  according  to  the  weight  applied,  will  operate  to  stretch  the 
timlyrs,  which  can  be  prevented  only  by  the  application  of  these  bands. 
But  the  action  of  the  bands  is  entirely  in  the  direction  of  their  length,  and 
hence  tends  to  prevent  any  change  of  form,  so  that  the  force  which  tends  to 
displace  the  point  C,  is  removed  by  the  resistance  of  the  brace,  AC,  and  of 
the  band  to  the  firm  point  F,  and  thus  an  additional  strength  is  given  also  to 
the  point  E  ;  the  action  -of  the  force  which  tends  to  displace  the  point  H, 
in  common  with  C,  is  set  aside  by  the  firmness  of  the  long  internal  timber 
AH,  and  the  resistance  of  the  band  HF ;  so  that  if  the  materials  are  sound, 
no  displacement  or  change  of  form  can  take  place.  If  we  now  consider  the 
opposite  construction  (pL  7,  fig.  26),  it  appears  from  what  has  been  said, 
that  the  braces,  AC  and  AB,  are  exposed  to  a  pressure ;  and  since  the  point, 
A,  according  to  the  supposition,  is  neutral,  and  therefore  firm,  the  pressure 
must  bear  upon  the  point  C,  and  produce  a  curvature.  But  the  tendency  to 
press  upon  the  point  C  is  not  set  aside  by  the  action  of  the  band  FE,  and 
consequently,  since  the  point  F,  according  to  the  supposition,  is  firm,  the 
tendency  to  extension  in  the  brace  must  press  upon  the  point,  and  still 
more,  consequently,  upon  the  point  C.  The  point  E,  thus  acted  on,  must 
communicate  its  own  inclination  to  the  band  EH,  and  produce  a  sinking  at 
the  point  H.  Every  part  of  the  framework,  from  C  to  H,  is  thus  subjected 
to  pressure,  and  a  change  in  the  form  of  the  ship  must  be  the  eflfect. 

According  to  Dupin,  the  main  principles  in  regard  to  the  curvature  of 
vessels  are  the  following.  1.  If  a  vertical  plane  divides  the  ship  into  two 
parts,  so  that  the  weight  of  each  part  is  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  water 
which  it  displaces,  then  the  elements  of  these  parts  in  respect  to  this  plane, 
that  is  to  say,  the  tendency  to  curvature,  will  be  either  a  maximum  or  a 
minimum.  2.  This  inclination  will  be  a  maximum»  when  the  infinitely 
small  part  which  lies  on  the  plane  of  the  element  is  directly  opposite  to  the 
plane  of  the  total  element.  3.  The  inclination  will  be  a  minimum,  when 
the  element  on  the  plane  acts  parallel  to  the  total  element.  Let  the  lines 
AO  (fig.  27)  coincide  with  the  surface  of  the  water,  the  diflferent  sections 
AC,  CE.  EG,  GH,  HK,  KM,  and  MO  lying  in  the  same.  On  some  of  these 
segments  take  the  triangular  surfaces  which  represent  the  diflference  between 
the  weight  of  the  transverse  sections  and  their  pressure  on  the  water.  On 
the  segment  AC  =  49,  the  right-angled  triangle  =  -f-72  will  lie  under  the 
water-line,  because  the  weight  exceeds  the  pressure ;  on  CE  =  20,  the  equi- 
lateral triangle  CDE  =  — 108,  stands  above  the  water-line,  because  here 
the  pressure  exceeds  the  weight ;  on  EG  =  50  stands  the  triangle  EFG  = 
-1-118 ;  GH  =  6,6  is  too  small  to  be  taken  into  account ;  on  HK  =  13.4  is 
the  right-angled  triangle  HIK  =  — 119,  and  finally  on  KM  and  MO  =  17*ö 
and  19.5,  the  triangles  IKM  and  NOM=— 115  and  +192.  Now  add 
together  the  lines,  and  we  have  176  feet  as  the  length  of  the  ship,  and  fot* 
the  sum  of  the  dififerences  +  37,  so  that  37  tons  must  be  removed  from  the 
forward  part  of  the  ship  on  account  of  the  pressure,  in  order  to  set  aside 
the  tendency  to  curvature. 

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40  NAVAL  8CIENOE8. 

A  curvature  often  appears  in  the  keel,  which  is  someiiities  bent  more 
than  two  feet  in  the  centre.  Since  such  deflections  take  place»  we  must 
find  the  means  of  guarding  against  them.  This  must  be  effected  in  a 
manner  to  interfere  as  little  as  possible  with  the  stowage,  PL  7,ßgs.  2g  and 
29,  show  such  an  arrangement,  in  which  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  the 
same  space  will  also  hold  a  certain  number  of  water-casks.  Fig,  28  b«the 
transrerse  section  ;  fig,  29,  the  longitudinal  section  ;  a,  the  firame  timbers ; 
b,  the  cross-pieces ;  c,  the  beams  over  the  kelson ;  d,  the  floor  timbers ; 
e,  the  filling  between  the  cross-pieces,  the  floor  timbers  and  their  frames ; 
/,  frames  under  the  deck-beams,  consisting  of  two  thicknesses  bolted  together 
in  order  to  give  the  necessary  firmness ;  g,  upright  supports ;  and  A,  diagonal 
braces  and  bands.  All  the  parts  must  be  secured  in  the  best  manner  to  the 
original  body  of  the  ship. 

8.  Pbow  and  Stern.  The  most  ancient  nations  ornamented  the  prows 
and  stems  .of  their  vessels  with  rich  and  often  with  very  clumsy  work, 
of  which  we  find  some  specimens  in  the  middle  ages.  But  in  the  year 
1796  the  fashion  of  clumsy  ornaments  on  the  prow  was  set  aside  in 
England,  and  galleries  and  carved  work  on  the  stern  were  also  dispensed 
with.  In  1811  the  plan  proposed  by  Seppings  of  making  the  prow  round 
was  introduced,  and  in  1816  the  same  shape  was  adopted  for  the  stem. 
This  secured  the  stem  against  the  beating  of  the  waves  and  the  shot  of  the 
enemy,  while  it  also  gave  occasion  to  apply  new  means  both  of  attack  and 
defence.  The  gain  in  point  of  mechanical  strength  by  this  arrangement  is 
evident  from  a  glance  at  figs,  3tf*  and  31\  and  a  proof  of  the  advantage  in 
an  engagement  is  shown  in  figs,  32  and  33,  which  represent  the  stems  of 
the  frigates  Boadicea  and  Hamadryad.  In  J^,  32,  there  are  spaces  at 
A  where  the  guns  do  not  range  at  all,  which  is  not  the  case  in  ßg,  33. 
Fig.  30*  shows  the  interior  perspective  view  of  a  straight  stem,  and 
ßg,  31  •  that  of  a  roijnd  stem. 


2.  Practical  Part. 
Ä.  Ship  Carpentry, 

After  the  plan  of  the  ship  has  been  drawn  by  the  naval  architect  acconl- 
ing  to  theoretical  principles,  it  belongs  to  the  ship  carpenter  to  execute  the 
model,  which  also  demands  the  co-operation  of  numerous  other  mechanics. 
Small  and  flat  vessels  are  always  built  without  any  special  arrangements, 
but  for  large  ones  places  constmcted  for  the  purpose  are  required,  as  the 
so  called  dock-yards,  lying  near  the  water.  Stocks  made  of  oak  Uocks 
are  used  for  the  foundation,  with  their  surfaces  lying  oblique  to  the  water. 

1.  The  Frame.  The  building  of  a  ship  properly  commences  by  layii^ 
the  keel  on  the  stocks.  This  is  a  beam  composed  of  several  pieces,  which 
forms  the  foundation  of  the  vessel,  and  receives  the  whole  length  of  its  uoder 
portion.  Its  height  is  made  greater  than  its  breadth  (1^  lines  to  a  foot  of  tbe 
ship's  length ;  and  lOj  lines  broad  to  an  inch  in  height)  in  order  to  guani 
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SHIP  BUILDING.  41 

ligainst  leeway  and  to  increase  its  capacity  for  bearing  weight.  The  stem 
and  stem-posts  are  mortised  to  each  end  of  the  keel  at  obtuse  angles.  The 
former  consists  of  one  or  more  pieces  of  curved  timber,  of  equal  strength 
with  the  keel.  Behind  this  is  placed  the  apron,  which  is  of  equal  breadth, 
and  one  third  thicker.  A  knee  passes  under  it  to  secure  it  with  greater 
strength  to  the  keel.  The  stern-post  stands  inclining  back  from  the  keel, 
in  its  mortise  called  the  heel.  Its  thickness  equals  that  of  the  keel ;  its 
breadth  increases  towards  the  lower  end  five  lines  for  every  inch  in 
height,  and  lessens  about  one  eighth  at  the  top.  It  also  has  an  apron,  with 
a  knee.  In  large  ships  there  is  another  post  on  the  outside,  which  receives 
the  sockets  for  the  rudder  pintles.  The  stern-post  must  have  great 
strength,  as  it  bears  the  rudder  and  the  beams  which  form  the  stem-frame. 
The  principal  timbers  in  this  are  the  transoms  and  fashion-pieces.  The 
transoms  are  placed  crosswise  of  the  stem-post,  to  which  they  are  bolted. 
Their  ends  are  fastened  to  the  transom  knees.  The  fashion-pieces  are 
similar  to  the  transoms,  but  shorter,  and  also  bolted  to  the  stem-post  and 
the  transom  knees.  Besides  these  are  the  braces  between  the  bottom  of 
the  stern  and  the  transoms.  As  soon  as  the  stem  and  stem-posts  are 
erected,  a  rope  is  stretched  from  one  to  the  other,  perpendicularly  over 
the  keel,  in  order  to  guide  the  carpenter  in  the  symmetrical  construction  of 
the  remainder  of  the  vessel.  The  inside  timbers  (the  bow  timbers  and 
quarter  timbers),  consisting  of  several  pieces,  are  then  placed  at  certain 
distances  on  each  side  of  the  keel.  The  form  of  these  timbers,  which  make 
an  arch  of  more  or  less  curvature,  together  with  the  position  of  the  stem 
and  stem  posts,  determines  the  shape  of  the  ship's  body.  These  timbers  are 
either  placed  directly  on  the  keel,  or  on  planks  with  which  it  is  covered.  A 
strong  piece  of  timber,  called  the  kelson,  is  placed  over  the  ends  of  the  tim- 
bers resting  on  the  keel,  and  bolted  to  them  and  the  keel.  These  timbers 
are  protected  by  thin  ribbons  of  wood,  running  the  whole  length  of  the 
vessel,  which  are  removed  when  the  vessel  is  planked.  PL  S,  fig,  1,  repre- 
sent«  a  ship  of  the  line  on  the  stocks. 

The  deck  timbers  are  then  placed  across  the  ship,  which  not  only  support 
the  deck  planks,  but  also  hold  together  both  sides  of  the  ship. 

All  the  parts  of  the  frame  are  made  of  oak  timber,  and  are  fastened  with 
iron  or  copper  bolts  and  nails.  In  the  East  Indies  teak-wood  and  oak 
are  used,  and  in  South  America  and  other  warm  countries  mahogany  and 
cedar.  In  Sweden  and  Norway  fir  timber  is  also  used,  but  this  is  wholly 
unfit  for  ships  of  war,  since  it  is  splintered  by  gun-shot,  which  is  not  the 
case  with  oak  timber,  a  cannon  ball  passing  through  that  making  a  round  hole. 

2.  Plankino.  When  the  frame  is  completed,  the  main  or  outside  planks, 
which  form  the  covering  of  the  vessel,  are  laid  on  the  ribs  throughout  its 
whole  length.  These  form  the  principal  connexion  between  the  different 
parts,  and  protect  the  vessel  from  the  pouring  in  of  the  water.  The  bottom 
planks  are  grooved  to  the  keel ;  the  ends  of  the  fore  and  aft  planks  are 
attached  to  the  stem  and  stem-posts  in  the  same  manner,  but  are  connected 
with  each  other  only  by  close  joints.  The  narrow  space  between  two  planks 
is  called  a  seam,  and  is  caulked  with  oakum  and  coated  with  hot  pitch  {pi  8, 

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4Ö  NAVAL  SCIENCE8. 

fig,  8).  After  the  vessel  is  caulked,  the  remaining  pitch  is  scraped  off.  When 
subsequently  the  caulking  is  repeated  on  the  water,  it  is  burnt  off  (p/.  8,^.  4). 
The  planks  are  fastened  with  strong  nails,  and  also  with  screw-bolts.  The 
cross  seams  are  made  to  come  on  good  timbers,  and  the  different  courses 
must  be  jointed  at  least  five  feet  apart.  In  ships  of  war,  the  cross  seams  must 
not  come  over  or  under  the  port-holes.  The  thickness  of  the  outside  planks 
varies.  The  bark-planks,  which  go  round  the  body  of  the  vessel  like  a  belt 
and  form  a  projection,  are  twice  as  thick  as  the  others.  Large  ships  of  war 
have  several  courses  of  these  planks.  The  planks  on  the  bow  and  under  the 
chain-plates  are  as  strong  also,  the  rest  are  weaker.  In  large  ships,  the 
outside  planks  are  four  and  a  half  inches  thick,  and  in  small  vessels  never 
under  two  inches.  The  planks  on  the  bow  are  warped  by  fire.  The  sides 
of  the  ship  are  also  covered  with  planks  inside.  Sometimes  a  course  is  here 
and  there  left  open,  in  order  to  give  the  air  access  to  the  timbers.  In  ships 
of  war,  the  French  have  found  an  advantage  in  filling  the  space  between  the 
planks  with  cotton,  in  order  to  weaken  the  force  of  cannon  balls. 

The  planking  being  finished,  the  next  step  is  to  construct  the  decks. 
The  larger  class  of  ships  have  several  decks.  In  ships  of  war  only  those 
which  carry  guns  receive  that  name.  The  rest  have  different  names,  for 
example,  forecastle,  orlop,  quarter-deck,  and  so  forth.  The  decks  are  com- 
posed  of  timbers  lying  crosswise,  and  planks  placed  over  them  lengthwise. 
The  beam  ends  rest  on  a  frame  of  strong  timbers  which  run  from  the 
stem  to  the  transoms,  close  to  the  ribs.  At  the  head  they  are  joined  to  the 
side-timbers  with  wooden  or  iron  knees.  In  the  centre,  the  beanis  are 
supported  by  upright  posts.  Their  distance  from  each  other  depends  <m 
the  position  of  the  masts  and  hatchways.  Half-beams  are  added  when  they 
stand  too  far  apart.  The  largest  beam  lies  amidships,  and  is  called  the 
sail-beam  or  the  main-beam.  The  beams  of  the  lower  deck  are  shorter 
than  those  of  the  upper,  as  men-of-war  have  the  heaviest  cannon  on  the 
lower  deck,  and  in  general  all  the  heavy  parts  must  be  placed  as  low  as 
possible.  The  decks  are  slightly  raised  in  the  centre,  so  that  the  water 
may  run  off  at  the  sides,  passing  through  the  scuppers,  which  are  small  holes 
lined  with  lead.  The  decks  also  sink  a  little  fore  and  aft  towards  the 
scuppers  which  are  at  each  end. 

3.  Finishing  of  the  Construction.  After  the  carpenters  have  completed 
the  decks,  they  proceed  to  construct  the  hatchways,  the  ladders,  the  roast 
steps,  the  chain-wales,  the  pumps,  the  capstan,  the  railings,  and  the  hawser- 
holes,  and  if  the  vessel  is  a  man-of-war,  the  port-holes.  The  haichwaj^ 
are  square  openings,  like  trap-doors»  leading  from  one  deck  to  another. 
Ships  of  war  have  five  or  six  hatchways ;  merchantmen  usually  have  three, 
the  main  hatchway  and  the  fore  and  aft  hatchways.  The  main  hatchway 
lies  forward  of  the  main-mast,  the  fore  hatchway  aft  of  the  fore-mast,  and 
the  aft  hatchway  abaft  of  the  main-mast.  There  is  also  an  opening  at  the 
mizen-mast,  but  this  is  called  the  door,  and  the  sky-light  of  the  cabin.  In 
order  to  prevent  the  water  from  running  through  the  hatchways  into  the 
ship,  they  are  surrounded  by  a  frame  six  inches  high  (the  coamings),  and 
covered  with  caps  and  tarred  sailcloth,  tarpaulin ;  when  they  are  open  a 
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SHIP  BUILDING.  43 

wooden  grate  is  placed  over  them.  In  ships  of  war,  nearly  all  the  hatch- 
ways are  provided  with  convenient  ladders,  but  in  merchantmen  only  those 
which  lead  into  the  cabin  and  forecastle.  The  ship  is  reached  from  the 
water  by  ladders,  called  accommodation  ladders,  extending  at  the  forward 
end  of  the  quarter  deck  from  the  water  to  the  sides.  One  is  on  the  star- 
board side  and  another  on  the  larboard.  (If  one  stands  at  the  stem  of  a 
ship  and  looks  forward,  the  side  on  the  right  of  the  mast  is  called  the  star- 
board, and  on  the  left  the  larboard).  The  accommodation  ladders  are  of 
different  kinds ;  those  on  the  starboard  side  are  used  only  by  the  officers  and 
visitors.  In  ships  of  war  there  is  a  broad  wooden  ladder  held  obliquely  by 
supports,  and  for  the  sole  use  of  the  captain  and  superior  officers;  the 
ladder  ropes  are  covered  with  red  or  green  cloth.  Besides  these  there  are 
state  ladders,  with  iron  railings  and  landings,  used  when  the  ship  is  visited 
by  admirals  or  royal  personages ;  ladies  and  invalids  are  drawn  up  on  the 
deck  in  an  arm  chair,  which  is  raised  by  a  tackle  attached  to  the  main-yard. 

The  mast  steps  are  blocks  of  stout  timber,  surrounding  the  heel  of  the 
mast ;  those  for  the  foremast  and  mainmast  are  on  the  kelson,  and  those  for 
the  mizen-mast  on  the  beams  of  the  lower  deck. 

The  chain-wales  are  strong  planks  bolted  edgeways  against  the  sides  of  a 
vessel,  abreast  or  abaft  of  the  masts,  and  serving  to  keep  the  shrouds  from 
the  sides  of  the  vessel ;  they  are  fastened  above  and  below  with  knees, 
clamps,  and  chains,  to  the  planks  and  timbers. 

The  shiip's pumps  {pi.  I0,fig.  10)  stand  near  the  mainmast  and  abut  below 
between  the  timbers,  where  the  water  which  finds  its  way  into  the  ship  is  col- 
lected. In  large  ships  of  war  they  do  not  rise  above  the  lower  deck ;  together 
with  the  masts,  they  are  surrounded  by  a  case  of  strong  boards  to  protect 
them  from  injury.  A  is  the  pump-stock ;  B,  the  upper  barrel ;  C,  the  upper 
box,  and  D,  the  lower  box,  both  with  suction  and  pressure  valves ;  £  is  the 
support  for  the  handle ;  and  6,  the  upper  case,  with  a  spout.  Merchantmen 
usually  have  only  two  pumps  on  each  side ;  men-of-war  from  two  to  four, 
according  to  their  size.  Chain  pumps  are  used  in  the  British  navy,  which 
are  worked  with  wheels  or  drums,  and  have  been  found  very  effective. 

The  capstan  {pi  9,  fig.  26)  is  a  windlass  to  heave  up  the  anchor,  or  to  raise 
other  heavy  burdens ;  it  consists  of  an  upright  shaft,  in  the  shape  of  a  trun- 
cated cone,  around  which  the  rope  which  lifts  the  burden  is  wound ;  in  the 
upper  part  there  are  square  holes,  into  which  the  sailors  thrust  the  hand- 
spikes in  order  to  turn  the  capstan  ;  at  some  distance  below  there  are 
notches,  in  which  are  placed  iron  pawls,  to  prevent  a  recoil.  Large  ships 
of  war  have  capstans  with  internal  wheel-work ;  such  vessels  have  three 
capstans.  The  main  capstan  is  placed  on  the  lower  deck,  abaft  the  main- 
mast, and  its  shaft  extends  to  the  kelson;  above,  it  passes  through  the 
beams  of  the  upper  deck,  forming  a  second  capstan,  which  increases  the 
power  of  the  lower  one.  The  forward  capstan  stands  on  the  upper  deck, 
between  the  mainmast  and  the  foremast,  and  the  other  capstan  on  the 
forecastle. 

The  common  windlass  {pi.  10, ßg.  11)  is  used  in  merchantmen ;  it  stands 
on  the  forecastle,  between  the  foremast  and  the  prow,  extending  horizontally 

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44  NAVAL  SCIENCES. 

across  the  vessel.  It  consists  of  an  octagonal  axis,  C»  which,  at  the  socket  A» 
is  made  round ;  the  heads  are  octagonal,  and  have  holes  for  the  handspikes ; 
aft  of  the  windlass  is  the  post,  G,  on  which  also  the  ship's  bell  is  bung, 
bearing  the  tooth- work  {fig,  12),  with  the  pawls,  oo,  and  the  support,  A. 
A  tooth- work  wheel,  c  {fig,  13),  is  attached  to  the  windlass,  C,  in  which 
catch  the  pawls,  aa  (fig.  12).  But  if  the  windlass  is  to  remain  at  rest, 
it  is  secured  by  the  large  wheel  {fig,  12),  which  is  moved  by  the  sup- 
port, h. 

All  the  parts  of  the  deck  which  are  in  the  open  air  are  surrounded  on  the 
outside  border  by  an  inclosure,  consisting  principally  of  the  bultoarks^ 
which  are  a  continuation  of  the  timbers  lined  with  planks,  and  covered 
with  a  plank  on  the  top.  The  bulwarks  are  usually  from  three  to  four  feet 
high ;  the  almost  semicircular  part  surrounding  the  bow,  the  arch  of  the 
forecastle,  is  the  highest.  The  railings  are  covered  with  thin  boards, 
which  in  some  places  are  made  to  turn  on  hinges,  especially  at  the  part 
of  the  deck  on  both  sides  of  the  bow  and  main  hatchways ;  in  ships  of 
war,  the  gangways.  In  small  merchant  vessels  there  is  no  railing,  and 
a  bar  or  small  rope  is  used  instead.  The  bulwarks  in  ships  of  war  are 
differently  arranged,  and  higher  throughout,  at  the  quarter-deck  being 
from  five  to  six  feet  high.  The  railing  is  made  of  double  iron  posts, 
with  holes  at  the  upper  end,  through  which  a  strong  rope  is  drawn  ; 
from  this  rope  a  net-work  of  small  cords  is  fastened  to  the  bulwarks  on 
both  sides,  between  which,  during  the  daytime  and  when  preparing  for 
battle,  the  hammocks  of  the  crew  are  stowed  and  covered  with  tar- 
paulin. 

The  hawse-holes  are  round  holes  in  the  bow,  near  the  stem,  for  the 
cables ;  they  are  lined  with  lead  or  copper,  so  that  the  water  cannot  pene- 
trate to  the  timbers  of  the  ship  {pi  12,  fig,  3,  L).  Behind  the  hawse-holes 
is  a  trough  in  which  the  water  dropping  from  the  cable  is  collected,  and 
passed  off  through  the  scuppers. 

The  port-holes  are  embrasures  in  the  sides  of  a  vessel  through  which  the 
cannon  are  pointed ;  they  are  surrounded  by  a  frame  of  strong  posts, 
consisting  of  upper,  lower,  and  side  supporters,  and  are  closed  with  shutters, 
called  port-lids,  hung  on  hinges,  and  drawn  up  by  a  rope  inside. 

Besides  the  parts  of  the  ship  now  described,  there  are  others  arranged  at 
the  same  time ;  for  example,  the  cat-heads,  being  two  beams,  with  light 
carved  work,  which  project  over  the  bow  on  the  right  and  left  of  the  fore- 
castle ;  the  outer  part  has  metallic  disks  on  the  forward  end;  the  inner  goes 
down  to  a  deck  beam,  to  which  it  is  bolted.  They  are  used,  after  the 
anchor  has  been  heaved  up  above  the  water  by  the  windlass,  to  suspend  it 
clear  of  the  ship  and  ready  to  be  dropped. 

The  arrangements  for  belaying  the  running  rigging  ore  of  different  kinds. 
There  are  belaying-pins,  cross-pieces,  cleats,  and  others«  Belaying^pims 
are  iron  or  wooden  pins,  placed  in  the  rail  at  the  roast  or  at  the  side. 
Cross-pieces  are  distributed  along  the  bulwarks,  consisting  of  two  vertical 
and  two  horizontal  pieces ;  the  upper  ends  of  the  head-pieces  are  sonoelimes 
at  a  distance  from  the  rail,  and  spread  apart  from  each  other»  so  that  the 
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SHIP  BUILDING.  45 

fore  and  main  jeers  and  other  large  ropes  may  be  made  fast  to  them« 
Cleats  are  small  pieces  of  wood  with  two  diverging  arms,  which  are  nailed 
to  the  railing  or  to  the  masts. 

The  last  work  on  the  ship  before  lannohing  is  the  completion  of  the  stem, 
with  its  ornamental  parts,  the  arrangement  of  the  stem  and  quarter  galleries 
and  of  the  ship's  head,  the  sheathing  of  the  ship's  bottom  with  copper,  and 
painting  the  ship.  The  stern  is  the  most  ornamental  part  of  the  ship,  and  is 
often  decorated  with  carving.  The  name  of  the  ship  is  inscribed  under  the 
cabin  windows ;  on  the  tafirail  over  the  stem  is  the  flag-staff  for  the  naticmal 
colors.     Ships  of  war  have  here  the  large  lantern. 

Galleries  are  found  only  in  men-of-war  and  large  merchantmen.  The 
quarter-galleries  pass  round  on  the  side  of  the  cabin,  with  which  they  are 
connected  by  a  door ;  they  are  generally  closed  in  ;  the  larboard  gallery  has 
a  water-closet,  and  the  starboard  other  conveniences.  Two-deckers  have 
two  galleries  over  each  other ;  the  upper  one  is  generally  open.  The  stem- 
gallery  is  a  walk  four  or  five  feet  in  breadth,  running  before  the  cabin  win- 
dows, and  communicating  with  the  cabin  by  a  glass  door.  Three-deckers 
have  two  such  galleries. 

The  ship's  heady  like  the  beak  of  the  ancient  vessels,  forms  a  projection 
on  the  bow,  consisting  of  several  pieces  and  connecting  with  the  stem. 
It  aids  the  ship  to  cut  the  water,  and  gives  greater  firmness  to  the  bowsprit 
by  rigging ;  but  its  great  use  is  to  enable  the  ship  to  lie  close  to  the  wind ; 
and  as  it  is  embellished  with  carved  work,  it  forms  an  ornament  to  the 
vessel.  It  has  a  gallery  with  railings,  the  floor  of  which  usually  consists  of 
lattice-work.  The  washing  of  the  ship  and  the  butcher's  work  are  done 
here. 

The  coppering  of  the  ship's  bottom  consists  of  plates  of  the  thickness  of 
sheet-iron,  nailed  to  the  planks  with  copper  spikes ;  it  reaches  only  from  the 
bottom  to  the  water-line.  It  serves  to  protect  the  vessel  from  worms, 
barnacles,  and  sea-weed.  The  ship  is  painted  as  soon  as  the  coppering  is 
completed  ;  the  usual  color  is  black,  but  the  ornamental  parts  are  touched 
off  with  yellow  or  white.  All  the  other  work  is  done  after  the  vessel  is 
launched.  Launching  is  an  occasion  of  great  ceremony  {pi,  S,fig,  2)  ;  the 
ship  either  slides  down  on  a  cradle,  or  directly  on  the  stocks.  The  ship 
is  dressed  with  flags  and  banners,  and  the  oflicers,  invited  guests,  and 
numerous  strangers  are  on  board ;  and  as  soon  as  the  last  prop  is  knocked 
away,  and  the  rope  which  holds  the  ship  on  the  stocks  is  cat  free,  the 
crowd  of  people  on  the  deck,  with  their  motions,  cause  the  ship  to  quiver^ 
and  she  begins  to  glide  slowly  at  first,  and  then  with  a  rapidly  accelerated 
motion.  All  the  timbers  of  the  ship  crack ;  the  keel  is  so  heated  by 
the  friction  that  it  takes  fire,  and  water  must  be  poured  on.  As  soon  as  the 
ship  touches  the  water  she  makes  a  plunge,  but  soon  rises,  and  shoots  fbr# 
ward  in  the  water. 

The  first  thing  after  the  vessel  is  launched  is  to  ship  Xhb  rudder.  This 
is  hung  by  strong  hooks,  called  pintles,  to  the  stem-post,  and  swings 
like  a  door  on  hinges.  It  is  made  of  oak  timber  of  equal  strength 
with  the   stem-post,  and  passing  down  to  the  same  depth.      On    the 

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46  NAVAL  SOKNCBB. 

back  of  the  lower  part  there  is  another  piece  of  timber,  shaped  like  a  wedge, 
with  the  point  turned  upwards.  To  this  is  attached  a  third  piece  of  similar 
form.  They  both  reach  only  to  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  upper  part 
of  the  timber  passes  through  the  helm-port.  There  is  a  square  hole  in  the 
rudder-head,  through  which  the  tiller  passes  which  turns  the  rudder.  As 
the  tiller  exerts  a  great  power,  it  cannot  be  worked  by  hand.  Two  ropes 
are,  therefore,  attached  to  its  forward  end,  running  on  blocks  along  the  two 
sides  of  the  ship.  These  are  called  tiller-ropes.  They  pass  in  opposite 
directions  over  an  upright  wheel,  with  hand-spokes.  As  the  wheel  is 
turned,  one  rope  winds,  while  the  other  unwinds.  The  rudder  is  thus  moved 
without  difficulty,  and  its  position  can  be  ascertained  every  moment  by  the 
tiller  rope.  In  large  ships  of  war,  double  wheels  are  in  use  (pi  ^Itfig.  2). 
4.  Rules  for  Ship-Builoino  according  to  SBPPiNos's  System.  All 
the  timber  should  be  thoroughly  seasoned.  The  tenons  of  the  timbers 
in  the  largest  ships  should  never  be  less  than  three  inches  thick.  Where 
timbers  are  to  be  joined  together,  at  least  two  1^-inch  bolts  must  be  used. 
If  seams  should  appear,  on  account  of  the  timber  not  being  thoroughly 
seasoned,  they  must  be  closed  up  with  great  care.  It  must  also  be  provided 
that  every  seam  should  lie  higher  on  the  outside  than  on  the  inside,  so  that 
if  the  water  should  get  in,  it  may  flow  off  towards  the  inside  of  the  ship. 
Seams  of  more  than  three  inches  in  width  are  to  be  filled  with  pieces  of 
timber  consisting  of  old  oak,  and  altogether  free  from  sap-wood.  The 
fibres  must  run  parallel  with  those  of  the  timbers  which  are  to  be  closed. 
Seams  of  less  than  three  inches  in  width  are  filled  with  double  wedges, 
driven  at  the  same  time  on  the  outside  and  the  inside  of  the  ship.  The 
front  of  these  pieces  while  drying  must  be  dressed  with  oil  and  tar ;  for  this 
purpose,  small  holes  are  often  bored  in  their  head  and  oil  poured  in.  PL  9, 
fig.  6,  shows  a  seam  closed  up  at  A,  an  opening  of  less  than  three  inches 
at  B,  and  an  opening  of  more  than  three  inches  at  C.  D  is  a  filling  with 
wedges,  the  fronts  of  which  are  both  inside  and  outside  ;  E  is  a  usual  filling 
where  the  fronts  appear  above  and  below ;  F  are  seams  which  must  be 
caulked.  All  the  planks  are  to  be  fastened  to  cross-pieces,  as  in^.  7,  their 
joinings  being  made  to  correspond.  The  clamps  are  secured  to  the  firaone- 
work  in  the  same  manner,  with  the  addition  of  vertical  bolts,  as  in  fi^.  8. 
In  order  to  bring  the  diagonal  timbers  as  near  as  possible  to  the  supporters 
under  the  frame-pieces  of  the  gun-deck,  a  comer  of  six  inches  may  be  taken 
firom  the  bottom  of  the  beam  of  the  upper  course,  as  in  fig.  9.  If  frame- 
pieces  for  the  upper  deck  of  sufficient  breadth  are  not  to  be  procured,  we 
need  not  hesitate  to  join  the  sides  of  the  timbers,  so  as  to  form  a  wedge- 
shaped  piece  connected  by  double  notches,  as  in^^.  10.  In  order  to  avoid 
the  accumulation  of  water  on  the  upper  side  of  the  water-ways,  they  must 
spread  in  from  the  timbers  so  as  to  lie  deeper  than  the  connecting  pieces, 
as  in^^.  11.  The  joinings  of  the  water-ways  must  be  so  arranged  that 
they  will  fall  on  the  centre  of  the  kelson,  and  that  the  descending  part  of 
the  channel  below  the  joining  shall  be  in  the  direction  of  the  side  of  the 
beam,  as  in  fig,  12.  The  diagonal  seams  under  the  water-ways  must  be 
thoroughly  caulked,  for  which  purpose  the  curved  iron  stoppers  are  used. 
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«mp  BUILDINÖ.  47 

afi  shown  \nßg,  13.  A  plan  of  convenient  oross^bolting  is  shown  in^^.  14« 
Here  especially  no  unseasoned  timber  is  to  be  used.  Fig,  27  shows  a  longi« 
tudinal  section  of  an  English  120-gun  ship ;  ßgs.  18, 19,  plans.  The  mannei' 
in  which  merchant  ships  are  built  is  by  no  means  suited  to  the  present 
demands  of  ships  of  war.  The  joinings  of  their  timbers  and  frames  and  the 
arrangement  of  their  materials  are  of  such  a  character,  that  while  one  half 
forms  a  kind  of  arch,  the  other  half  and  the  connecting  pieces  are  only 
loosely  put  together,  and  are  secured  by  the  planks  instead  of  giving  to 
them  a  firm  support,  as  they  should  do.  Such  vessels  can  never  have  the 
same  stability  as  if  all  the  parts  were  connected  in  the  manner  of  an  arch, 
according  to  the  plan  proposed  by  Seppings. 

There  is  a  great  defect  in  the  manner  hitherto  adopted  of  joining  the 
separate  parts  of  the  same  timber.  This  is  usually  done  by  the  addition 
of  a  third  piece,  a,  shaped  like  a  wedge  {pi,  9,  fig,  20).  More  than  550 
such  pieces  are  used  in  a  74-gun  ship,  and  no  fewer  in  an  East  India 
merchantman  of  1200  tons.  On  thoroughly  overhauling  a  vessel  for 
repairs,  not  one  of  all  these  pieces  is  found  to  be  in  good  order,  and 
they,  moreover,  will  be  found  to  have  damaged  the  timbers  to  which 
they  are  applied.  Besides,  the  timbers  cannot  be  bent  sufficiently  with- 
out  destroying  their  fibres.  There  is  a  great  loss  of  material  also  by 
cutting  off  the  comers  of  the  timbers  which  are  to  be  connected  by  the 
wedge-piece.  No  doubt,  these  pieces  were  first  made  use  of  when  none  but 
too  short  or  imperfect  timber  was  to  be  had  {fig.  21) ;  but  the  requisite 
curvature  can  be  obtained  by  a  peculiar  arrangement  without  such  a  great 
loss  of  material.  The  frames  of  merchantmen,  before  they  are  joined  together» 
are  partly  shown  in  fig.  24,  and  too  often,  in  consequence  of  bad  work,  the 
parts  are  often  not  accurately  fitted  to  each  other,  nor  to  the  timbers  with 
which  they  are  connected.  There  are,  moreover,  many  defects  in  the  con- 
nexion with  the  keel.  In  order  to  obviate  all  these  difficulties,  Seppings 
proposed  the  combination  {figs.  22  and  23),  in  which  the  connecting 
timbers  are  a  little  shorter  and  not  so  much  bent,  nor  so  much  cut  through 
the  fibres.  The  connexion  is  also  made  firmer  by  using  a  pin  (I)  instead 
of  the  wedge-piece.  Another  advantage,  finally,  is  that  when  the  ship 
grounds  the  timbers  give  the  whole  structure  more  firmness  and  support,  as 
is  shown  by  the  dotted  line  at  the  bottom  of  ^^.  23.  In  regard  to  the 
general  security  of  the  arrangement,  it  will  be  seen  from  fi^s,  25  and  15 
that  the  timbers  regularly  cross  the  keel,  and  that  the  frames  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  lower  deck  at  K  compose  a  firm  ship's  body,  while  only  a  few  courses 
of  planks,  L,  are  applied  at  the  joining  of  the  timbers  in  order  to  give 
greater  strength  at  these  places.  The  other  inside  courses  of  planks  may 
be  left  out,  and  instead  of  them  double  upright  pales  placed  between  the 
planks  and  the  timbers,  as  at  M.  This  gives  more  room  for  stowage. 
Water-ways,  N,  between  the  planks  conduct  the  water  to  the  pumps,  which 
now  reach  the  water  themselves,  and  hence  there  may  be  standing  water 
in  the  space,  as  all  the  gutters  can  be  easily  cleaned.  The  timbers  which 
(as  in  ph  9,  fig.  25)  are  fastened  directly  to  the  sides  require  no  knees,  or 
only  very  small  iron  ones.    Fig.  16  shows,  in  the  part  P,  the  old  system  of 

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48  NAVAL  SCIENCEa. 

fastening  the  beams  to  the  stern-post  by  transoms,  and  in  the  part  Q» 
the  new  system  with  curved  timbers,  which  do  away  with  the  need  of 
transoms. 

B,  Outfit  of  the  Ship. 

The  outfit  of  a  ship  includes  all  those  parts  not  immediately  belonging  to 
the  ship's  body,  but  which  are  necessary  to  the  service  and  action  of  the 
ship.  Among  them  we  reckon  the  spars,  the  rigging  and  tackles,  and  the 
sails.  By  spars  we  understand  masts,  yards,  booms,  gafis,  and  all  the  small 
pieces  used  to  support  the  rigging  and  sails.  The  rigging  comprises  all  the 
ropes  employed  for  the  support  of  the  masts,  the  management  of  the  sails, 
and  other  uses  on  ship-board,  with  the  exception  of  the  largest  and  most 
important,  namely  the  cables,  which  are  reckoned  with  the  equipment, 
«3  they  always  go  with  the  anchors.  The  tackles  include  all  the  blocks 
(rollers  or  pulleys)  through  which  the  running  rigging  passes,  to  add  to  the 
purchase. 

In  describing  these  various  subjects,  we  will  take  as  the  model  the  French 
ship  of  the  line  (pi  II,  fig*  1)>  carrying  120  guns,  and  205  feet  in  length  and 
54^  in  breadth,  the  large  ships  of  war  being  the  most  complete  in  this 
respect,  and  containing  everything  which  in  smaller  vessels  is  either  not 
found  at  all  or  only  to  a  limited  extent.  We  would  premise,  in  general,  that 
all  the  fixtures  which  have  the  same  object,  or  nearly  the  same  arrange- 
ment, are  called  by  the  same  name,  and  are  distinguished  from  one  another 
only  by  the  special  name  of  that  part  to  which  they  are  chiefly  appro- 
priated. 

1.  Thb  Spars.  The  frame  to  which  the  rigging  is  attached,  and  by 
which  the  sails  are  secured  and  held  firm,  consists  of  what  are  called  spars. 
These  are  in  proportion  to  the  breadth  of  beam  or  to  some  other  part  of 
the  ship,  so  that  a  practised  eye  can  determine  the  size  of  a  large  ship  from 
a  single  piece.  Of  the  spars,  the  masts  are  the  most  important,  and  of  these 
the  main-mast  takes  the  lead,  as  it  gives  the  scale  for  the  rest.  The  masts, 
like  all  the  spars,  in  general,  are  made  of  pine  or  fir.  As  no  single  tree  is 
often  found  suflicient  for  the  length  and  thickness  required  in  the  masts  of 
men-of-war,  they  are  composed  of  different  pieces.  A  method  of  construct- 
ing masts  has  recently  been  introduced  by  Seppings,  which  has  the  advan- 
tage of  great  simplicity  and  of  using  shorter  and  weaker  timber  than  was 
required  by  the  old  plan.  According  to  this  arrangement,  the  largest  piece 
for  a  main-mast  is  only  40  feet  long  and  10  inches  thick,  whereas  formerly 
timbers  were  used  84  feet  long  and  22^  inches  thick,  a  mast  costing  96,500 
for  an  84  gun-ship,  while  the  cost  now  is  not  much  over  $1,600.  The  new 
method«  moreover,  on  account  of  its  extreme  simplicity,  admits  of  repair  with 
for  greater  facility.  PL  7,ßgs.  10-17,  show  the  construction  of  the  masts 
on  Seppings's  system ;  ßg.  10  is  the  side  view ;  ßg.  11,  the  front  view  of  a 
main-  mast.  Fig.  12  is  a  horizontal  section  between  A  and  B  in  ßg.  10, 
showing  the  equal  and  parallel  arrangement  of  the  different  parts  which 
compose  the  mast.  The  section  (ßg.  13)  shows  the  application  of  the 
wooden  bolts  ia  the  centre-piece,  and  ßg.  14,  the  same  in  the  end  pieces. 
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RIGGING,  <bo.  49 

Fig.  15  shows  the  arraDgement  of  the  bolts  lengthwise.  Fig.  16  exhibits 
the  mast,  and  fig.  17  is  a  screw-ring,  for  binding  the  different  parts  together. 
To  secure  an  equaUty.of  force  on  both  ends  of  the  halves  composing 
this  ring  when  screwed  together,  little  pieces  of  soft  wood  are  placed 
between  the  lips. 

When  the  mast  is  put  together,  the  faces  of  the  different  parts  are  joined 
by  pins  of  three  inches  in  dianoeter  and  six  inches  long  {fig.  U),  and  the 
four  centre-pieces  which  form  the  spindle  of  the  mast  are  fastened  together 
diagonally  by  wooden  bolts,  ed  {figs.  13, 15),  an  inch  and  a  half  thick,  and 
at  two  feet  distance  from  each  other.  Every  couple  of  the  outside  pieces 
is  fastened  at  ih  at  distances  of  two  feet  {fig.  18)  with  bolts,  one  and 
three-quarter  inches  thick.  The  whole  mast  is  then  nailed  at  a,  h,  and  c 
(figs.  13,  15),  with  spikes,  one  and  five-eighth  inches  thick,  and  at  least 
one  foot  apart.  At  the  ends  of  the  masts  {fig.  14)  iron  bolts,  seven  eighths 
of  an  inch  thick,  are  used  instead  of  the  tree-nails,  ih  {fig.  13).  The  main- 
yards,  as  well  as  the  masts,  are  composed  of  separate  pieces ;  this  does  not 
diminish  their  firmness ;  on  the  contrary,  their  elasticity  is  thus  increased. 
In  order  to  put  a  mast  into  its  plaoe  a  scaffold  is  built  on  the  upper  deck» 
usually  composed  of  two  strong  beams  erected  opposite  each  other,  and  their 
ends  meeting  at  the  top ;  these  are  supported  by  stout  ropes  on  all  sides. 
The  mast  is  drawn  up  by  a  powerful  tackle,  and  passed  through  the  deck  to 
its  step  on  the  kelson.  One  mast  being  raised,  there  is  less  difficulty  with 
the  rest.  In  many  ship-yards  there  are  permanent  machines  for  raising 
by  means  of  which  the  operation  is  performed  with  great  ease  {pi.  31, 

fig'S)' 

The  different  spars  are  the  following : 

The  main-mast  {pL  9,  fig.  27  H),  standing  not  in  the  centre  of  the  ship,  but 
towards  the  stern,  at  the  distance  from  amidships  of  7^  or  8  lines  to  each 
foot  of  length  ;  in  the  present  case,  therefore,  about  10  feet  8  inches.  It  does 
not  stand  perpendicularly,  but  inclining  backwards,  in  order  to  give  more 
room  forward  to  the  sails,  and  to  diminish  their  pressure  on  the  bow.  Its 
length  is  twice  the  breadth  added  to  the  depth  of  the  ship  (132  feet),  and  in 
frigates  rather  more.  The  greatest  diameter  is  three  inches  for  every  ten 
feet  in  length  (3^  feet).  Everything  pertaining  to  this  mast  receives  the 
epithet  main.  The  pieces  around  the  spindle  {pi.  II,  fig.  4  a,  and  fig.  5  c) 
constitute  the  mast-casing. 

The  main-top  {fig.  1  N).  Although  the  tops  are  not  spars,  yet,  as  they 
are  to  closely  connected  with  them,  they  must  be  described  in  this  plaoe. 
These  are  scaffolds  around  the  upper  part  of  the  masts,  O,  consisting  of  four 
beams,  called  trestle-trees,  covered  with  boards.  Two  of  these  timbers,  cc 
{fig.  6),  are  placed  lengthwise  on  each  side  of  the  mast,  supported  by 
cheeks,  b  {figs.  4, 6) ;  the  two  others,  dd,  pass  over  these,  crossing  them  fore 
and  aft  of  the  mast.  On  the  trestle-trees  a  platform  is  erected,  with  holes 
for  the  rigging,  the  forward  edge  being  curved  and  the  after  edge  straight. 
It  is  surrounded  by  a  railing  with  a  covering  of  tarpaulin  or  network. 
The  tops  serve  to  support  the  top-mast  rigging,  and  to  hold  the  men  who 
keep  watch  in  them,  or  who  have  work  to  do  there  {pL  25,  fig.  6).     They 

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50  NAVAL  SCIENCBS. 

were  once  often  used  during  an  engagement  for  the  discharge  of  small  arms, 
but  this  practice  is  now  generally  discontinued. 

The  cap,  P  {pL  11,  figs,  1,  bee,  ^g),  is  a  strogg  thick  block  of  wood» 
connected  with  the  top  of  the  mast  by  a  square  tenon,  c  {fig.  4)  ;  the  for- 
ward end  has  a  round  hole,  through  which  passes  the  foot  of  the  topmast,  d 
(pi  Ihfig.  6,  and  e,fig.  6). 

The  main-top-mast  is  the  first  prolongation  of  the  main-mast,  and  is  one  and 
a  half  times  the  breadth  of  the  ship  in  length  (61  feet  6  inches).  Its  thickness 
follows  the  proportion  of  the  mast.  This  mast  is  secured  partly  by  the  cap, 
and  partly  by  the  trestle-trees  and  fid,  a  block  of  wood  placed  through  a 
hole  in  the  heel,  and  resting  on  the  trestle-trees,  which  prevents  the  mast 
from  sliding  down.  At  the  heel  of  the  top-mast  is  the  top-block,  through 
which  the  top-rope  is  rove  in  raising  or  lowering  the  mast 

The  main-top-mast  cross-trees,  Q  (fig.  1),  form  a  light  frame  of  four 
pieces  of  timber  placed  across  the  head  of  the  top-mast,  but  without  any 
top.     Everything  above  these  cross-trees  is  called  top-gallant  and  royoL 

The  main-top-gallant-mast  is  the  second  prolongation  of  the  main-mast, 
arranged  in  the  same  manner  as  the  main-top-mast,  and  measuring  three 
fifths  of  its  length  (48  feet).  Ships  of  war  usually  carry  top-gallant-masts 
of  difierent  lengths,  which  can  be  changed  according  to  the  weather.  To 
the  shorter  one  only  one  top-gallant-sail  is  attached ;  but  the  longer  one, 
which  is  nearly  as  long  as  the  top-mast,  bears  two  sails,  one  over  the  other, 
the  top-gallant-sail,  g,  and  the  royal,  ^'. 

The  main-truck,  R  (fig,  1),  is  a  circular  piece  of  wood  on  the  head  of  the 
top-gallant-mast,  fitted  with  a  sheave,  to  draw  up  flags  and  signals.  The 
general  term  head  is  applied  to  the  upper  end  of  the  masts  and  top-masts, 
reaching  from  the  trestle-trees  to  the  cap,  and  from  the  joining  of  the  top- 
gallant-mast to  the  truck.  The  entire  mast,  with  the  long  top-gallant-mast, 
is  248  feet  in  length. 

The  main-yard  (fig.  3dd).  The  term  yard  is  applied  to  the  spars  which 
are  hung  across  the  masts  with  rigging,  and  to  which  the  sails  are  attached. 
The  length  of  the  main-yard  is  twice  and  one-quarter  the  ship's  breadth 
(122  feet  4  inches)  ;  the  thickness  is  2^  inches  for  every  ten  feet  in  length  ; 
the  diameter  in  this  case,  therefore,  is  2  feet  three  inches,  decreasing  about 
one  third  at  both  ends,  dd. 

The  main-top-saiUyard  is  /^  of  the  main-yard  (85  feet  7  inches) ;  the 
main-top-gallant-yard  is  ^  of  the  ship's  breadth  (43  feet  G  inches) ;  and  the 
main-royal-yard  \  of  the  ship's  breadth  (27  feet  2  inches). 

The  fore-mast,  6  (pL  9,  fig.  27),  stands  at  about  one  tenth  of  the  ship's 
length  aft  of  the  stem  (20  feet  6  inches) ;  its  length  is  nine  tenths  of  the 
main-mast  (118  feet  10  inches) ;  the  thickness  is  in  the  same  proportion  to 
the  length  as  in  the  main-mast.  In  the  top  and  the  other  arrangements 
the  same  system  is  employed,  all  the  parts  being  designated  by  the  term/of «, 
as  fore-top,  fore-sail,  &c.  The  fore-top-mast  is  one  tenth  shorter  than  the 
main-top-mast  (72  feet  long,  and  1  foot  10  inches  thick).  The  fore-tap- 
gallant-mast,  the  second  prolongation  of  the  fore-mast,  is  five  sevenths  of 
the  ship's  breadth  (80  feet).  The  fore-yard  is  double  the  ship's  breadth 
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RIGGING,  Ac.  61 

(106  feet  10  inches  long,  and  2  feet  thick).  The  fore-top-saiUyard  is  once 
and  one  third  the  ship'^  breadth  (72  feet  6  inches  long,  and  1  foot  8f  inches 
thick).  The  fore-top-gallant-yard  is  seven  tenths  of  the  ship's  breadth 
(86  feet  long,  and  9^  inches  thick),  and  the  fore-royal-yard  is  in  the  same 
proportion  to  the  fore-top-gallant-yard  as  the  main-royal-yard  to  the  main- 
top-gallant-yard (28  feet  long,  and  ^  inches  thick). 

The  mizen-mast  (pi.  9,  ßg,  99  F)  stands  two  thirds  of  the  ship's  breadth 
from  the  stem-post  (36  feet  8  inches).  It  reaches  only  the  first  deck,  where 
its  heel  is  fastened,  while  the  two  other  masts  touch  the  kelson!  All  the 
parts  connected  with  it  have  the  name  mixen  applied  to  them.  The  breadth 
of  the  ship  added  to  twice  its  depth  gives  the  length  of  this  mast  (100  feet 

5  inches  long,  and  two  feet  6  inches  thick).  The  mizen-top  has  the  same 
relation  to  this  mast  as  in  the  two  others.  The  mizen-top-mast  is  the  first 
prolongation  of  the  mizen-mast,  its  length  being  equal  to  the  ship's  breadth 
(  54  feet  long,  and  1  foot  8^  inches  thick).  The  mizen-top-gallant-mast  is  the 
second  prolongation  of  the  mizen-mast,  but  is  not  used  in  all  ships,  and  in 
that  case  the  mizen-top-mast  is  lengthened  out  one  third,  and  bears  the 
mizen-truck.  The  length  of  the  mizen-top-gallant-mast  is  equal  to  one  half 
of  the  ship's  breadth  (27  feet  long,  and  7  inches  thick).  The  spanker-gaff 
is  a  yard  twice  the  ship's  breadth  in  length  (108  feet  10  inches).  At  the 
lower  end  it  is  three  quarters  of  the  thickness  of  the  fore-yard,  and  one  half 
its  thickness  at  the  upper  end,  and  has  the  same  length ;  hence  the  lower 
end  is  1  foot  6  inches  thick,  the  upper  end  1  foot.  It  does  not  hang  crosswise 
or  horizontally  like  the  other  yards,  but  fore  and  aft ;  the  thickest  end  is  for- 
ward, and  the  other  raised  to  the  height  of  half  the  mizen-top-mast.  It  is 
secured  to  this  mast  under  the  cross-jack-yard.  This  yard  bears  no  sail,  and 
serves  only  to  turn  the  mizen-top-sail,  and  stretch  its  lower  ends.  The  length 
of  the  cross-jack-yard  is  one  third  the  breadth  of  the  ship  (72  feet  6  inches 
long),  like  the  fore-top-sail-yard,  but  its  thickness  is  one  quarter  less,  being 
only  1  foot  4  inches.  The  mizen-top-saiUyard  has  the  length  of  the  ship's 
breadth  (54  feet,  5  inches),  and  the  mizen-top-gallant-yard,  which  as  well  as 
the  mizen-royal-yard,  is  not  used  in  all  vessels,  is  only  two  thirds  as  long  as 
the  mizen-top-sail-yard  (36  feet  inches  long,  and  6  inches  thick). 

The  bowsprit  is  the  mast  which  inclines  over  the  bow  of  the  ship,  making 
an  angle  of  30°  or  33°  with  the  water-line.  The  step  on  which  it  rests  is  a 
piece  of  wood  on  the  first  deck,  about  one  foot  from  the  fore-mast.  The 
part  projecting  over  the  bow  is  equal  to  the  ship's  breadth  in  length  (54  feet 

6  inches),  but  the  entire  mast  is  about  one  fifth  longer,  making  65  feet  i« 
the  whole.  Its  greatest  thickness  is  a  mean  between  that  of  the  main-mast 
and  of  the  fore- mast  (3  feet  3  inches).  The  forward  end  tapers  off  about 
one  sixth,  and  has  a  cap. 

The  jib-boom  is  the  prolongation  of  the  bowsprit,  and  can  be  moved  back 
and  forth  through  the  cap.  The  length  of  the  jib-boom  is  equal  to  the  ship's 
breadth  (54  feet  6  inches),  and  its  thickness  is  equal  to  one  forty-eighth  of  its 
length  (1  foot  1  inch). 

The  spritsail-yard  is  fastened  on  the  bowsprit  at  about  two  thirds  of  its 
length,  and  has  the  same  dimensions  as  the  fore- top-sail -yard.    There  is 

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62  NAVAL  SCIENCES. 

sometimes  also  a  second  yard  at  the  jib-boom,  which  corresponds  m  siae 
with  the  main-top-gallant-yard. 

The  flagstaff  is  the  pole  which  bears  the  great  national  flag ;  it  stands 
in  a  cap  at  the  centre  of  the  tafirail,  inclining  back  in  the  direction  of  the 
stern-post  On  its  truck  there  is  a  sheave  for  the  line  by  which  the  flag  is 
hoisted  and  lowered.  The  flag-stafi*  is  one  eighth  longer,  bat  one  fifth  less 
in  diameter,  than  the  main-top-gallant-yaiff. 

The /orc-^g^-*fq^  stands  on  the  cap  of  the  bowsprit,  and  is  four  fifths  of 
the  length,  and  three  fourths  of  the  thickness  of  the  jib-boom.  The  top  of 
the  staff  has  a  truck  with  a  sheave  to  hoist  the  flag  {pi.  26,  fig.  1).  In  oxne 
recent  times  the  main  flag-stafi*  has  been  set  aside  for  various  other  arrange- 
ments, and  the  flag  is  raised  by  a  tackle  at  the  peak. 

Besides  the  spars  already  mentioned  there  are  several  others;  for  example, 
the  studding'Sail-yarcb,  used  to  lengthen  the  yards  for  the  addition  of  stud- 
ding sails,  studding  booms,  &c. ;  but  as  they  are  only  used  in  a  light  wind, 
they  are  generally  kept  with  the  spare  spars. 

2.  Rigging  and  Tackles.  The  rigging  and  tackles  are  so  closely  coo- 
nected,  that  it  will  be  more  convenient  to  describe  them  together.  By 
tackle- work  we  understand  the  blocks  and  fixtures  through  which  the  rigging 
is  rove,  and  on  which  it  is  fastened. 

A  block  (pulley)  is  a  mechanical  contrivance  which  is  used  in  various 
ways  on  ship-board,  consisting  of  a  shell  or  outside,  one  or  more  sheaves 
or  wheels,  on  which  the  rope  turns,  and  a  pin  or  axle,  for  the  sheave. 
The  diameter  of  the  sheave  is  six  times  its  thickness,  and  this  varies  with 
the  size  of  the  rope  for  which  it  is  grooved  on  the  circumference.  In  the 
centre  of  each  of  the  outer  sides  of  the  block  is  a  groove,  around  which 
passes  a  short  rope,  called  a  strap,  or  an  iron  band  with  a  hook.  The  blocks 
have  a  variety  of  names.  Mortised  blocks  are  made  of  a  single  block  of 
wood,  mortised  out  to  receive  a  sheave.  All  blocks  are  single,  douUe, 
triple,  or  fourfold,  according  to  the  number  of  sheaves  contained  within  the 
shell.  There  are  some  blocks  which  have  no  sheaves,  used  to  receive  the 
ends  of  ropes,  as  hearts,  bulVs-eyes,  dead-eyes,  &c.  Fig.  14  *  is  a  single 
strap-block,^^.  13  a  threefold  cat-block,  ^^.  15^  a  fourfold  tackle-block, 
fig.  11a  block  for  the  arm  of  the  main-yard,  fig.  14**  a  top-mast  dead>eye ; 
fig.  16  a  block  with  a  swivel-hook ;  ^.  12  a  strapped  twin  block,  and  JS^.  15^ 
a  tail-block. 

If  a  rope  turn  on  only  one  sheave,  so  that  the  weight  is  at  one  end  and 
the  power  at  the  other,  the  purchase  is  called  a  whip.  Two  single  blocks 
form  a  gun-tackle  purchase  ;  a  single  and  a  double  block  form  a  luff-tackk 
purchase  ;  fig.  8  is  a  lufi*-tackle  connected  with  a  runner,  which  is  a  rope 
rove  through  a  single  block,  hooked  to  a  thimble  in  the  eye  of  a  pennant; 
fig.  9  represents  a  winding-tackle  rove  in  threefold  blocks. 

The  tackles  have  different  names,  according  to  their  place  or  their  ser- 
vice. PL  22,  fig.  6,  shows  the  davits  with  a  Ufting-tackk  drawing  up  a  piece 
of  cannon.  The  quarter-tackles  hang  on  each  side  of  the  mast,  and  together 
vnth  the  yard-arm  tackles  serve  to  hoist  up  boats,  provisions,  and  other 
heavy  articles.  The  yard-arm  tackles  are  fastened  to  the  yard-arms,  and 
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wed  only  to  lift  articles  on  or  over  board.  All  the  masts  have  quarter- 
tackles,  and  all  the  lower  yards  yard-arm  tackles.  There  are  still  many 
other  kinds  of  tackles.  The  removal  of  all  the  tackles,  and  consequently 
of  all  the  sails  and  ropes,  is  called  unrigging ;  the  fitting  of  the  same  is 
^gi^  f  (ind  the  mechanic  who  performs  this  service  is  a  rigger. 

The  ropes,  in  regard  to  their  length  and  thickness,  are  subject  to  deter- 
minate rules,  of  which  we  have  a  very  accurate  theory.  The  first  principle 
in  calculating  their  dimensions  is,  that  a  cubic  inch  of  every  rope  either  in 
a  large  or  small  ship  should  bear  an  equal  strain.  The  thickness  of  the 
rope  is  not  measured  by  the  diameter,  but  by  the  circumference.  The 
ropes  are  made  in  a  rope-walk  {pL  S,ßg,  5)  of  hemp,  and  on  the  coasts  of 
the  Mediterranean  of  the  bark  of  the  fig-tree  and  of  the  spikenard  plant.  The 
most  slender  ropes  are  called  lines,  and  consist  of  six,  nine,  twelve,  and 
fifteen  yarns.  The  thicker  ropes  are  called  hawsers,  and  consist  of  at  least 
eighteen  yarns.  The  strands,  usually  three,  are  laid  simply,  for  which 
reason  all  rope-work  of  this  kind  has  been  called  hawser-laid.  The  larger 
ropes  are  composed  of  nine  strands,  or  of  three  common  ropes  made  into 
o^e.  Ropes  of  this  kind  are  called  cable-laid.  The  whole  rigging  is  divided 
into  standing  and  running,  and  into  upper  and  lower.  The  standing  rig' 
ging  is  fastened  at  both  ends  of  the  Fopes,  and  must  be  made  firm  in  order 
not  to  stretch.  The  running  rigging  passes  through  blocks,  and  has  a 
standing  part  where  one  end  is  made  fast  to  some  fixed  point.  The  upper 
rigging  is  above  the  top,  and  does  not  run  down  to  the  deck.  The  lower 
is  managed  on  the  deck.  The  difierent  ropes  are  represented  on  pi.  11, 
ßg.  1,  to  which  figure  the  numbers  in  the  following  description  refer.  The 
parts  which  belong  to  the  standing  rigging  are  designated  by  an  asterisk. 

The  main  rigging  (shrouds)*  All  the  masts  have  shrouds  on  the  right 
and  left,  which  serve  to  secure  them,  and  at  the  same  time,  by  means  of 
cross  lines,  called  ratlines,  form  ladders,  reaching  to  the  mast  heads.  The 
shrouds  are  composed  of  more  or  fewer  ropes,  according  to  the  size  of  the 
ship,  and  their  position  on  the  main,  fore,  or  mizen-mast.  The  length  of  the 
ropes  is  twice  and  an  eighth  that  of  the  mast  to  which  they  belong.  The 
middle  of  the  rope  passes  round  the  head  of  the  mast,  and  the  ends  lead 
down,  on  the  same  side  of  the  ship,  to  the  chain- wales  or  tops,  where  they 
are  made  fast  to  certain  blocks,  called  dead-eyes.  Small  ropes,  called  lan- 
yards, are  rove  through  the  shroud-dead-eyes  and  through  the  futtock-dead- 
eyes  (those  that  are  secured  to  the  timbers  below  the  chain-wales),  and  are 
drawn  Uut  by  a  tackle,  serving  to  stretch  the  shrouds.  PI.  23,  fig.  4,  pi.  8, 
fig.B,  and/?/.  12, fig.  3,  show  the  manner  of  fastening  the  shrouds.  PI.  11. 
fig.  7,  shows  the  dead-eyes,  ab,  with  the  lanyards  for  stretching  the  shrouds. 
The  main  rigging  of  the  ship  consists  of  six  double  ropes,  each  280^  feet 
long  and  11  inches  thick  (fig.  1).  The  thickness  is  obtained  by  dividing 
the  ship's  breadth  into  five  parts,  and  for  every  foot  in  one  of  these  parts 
idlowing  a  thickness  of  one  inch. 

The  futtock  shrouds*  consist  of  six  short  ropes,  passing  obliquely  under 
the  top,  to  hold  the  shrouds  of  the  topmast,  and  fastened  at  one  end  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  main  rigging,  from  which  they  run  to  the  edge  of  the  top, 

JC050ORAPHI0   ENCTCL0PÄDIA. — VOU    HI.  45  70ö 


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64  NATAL  SOEBNOBa 

where  thej  are  joined  to  the  top  dead-eyes.  These  are  not  secured  by 
chain  links,  like  the  futtock  dead-eyes  (pi,  U,  fig.  7),  but  by  short  iron 
ties,  as  in  fig.  14  b.  One  end  of  these  ties  passes  through  the  border  of 
the  top  and  holds  the  dead-eyes  for  stretching  the  topmast  rigging,  and 
at  the  other  end  is  a  hole  for  the  futtock-shrouds-rope.  The  top-mast  shrouds 
also  are  furnished  with  ratlines  and  are  used  as  ladders.  The  thickness  is 
one  third  less  than  that  of  the  main  rigging,  and  consequently  is  7|r  inches. 

The  main  stay*  is  a  strong  rope,  leading  forward,  used  to  support  the 
main-mast.  Its  length  (l^H  feet)  is  equal  to  twice  the  distance  from  the 
stem  to  the  mizen-mast,  and  its  thickness  (22  inches)  is  double  that  of  the 
shrouds.  This  rope  passes  from  the  foot  of  the  fore-mast  to  the  bottom  of 
the  main-top.  Small  ropes  in  the  shape  of  a  fan,  called  crowds  feet,  run  from 
the  upper  end  of  the  main-stay  to  the  top,  preventing  the  foot  of  the  topsaO 
from  rubbing  against  the  top.   The  main-stay  is  stretched  by  means  of  blocks. 

The  main  preventer  stay*  runs  parallel  with  the  mdn-stay,  above  it,  and 
serving  as  a  support.  It  has  the  same  length  and  thickness  as  the  maio 
shrouds. 

The  main  jeers  {fig,  1  '*)  are  two  ropes,  serving  to  raise  the  main-yard. 
They  are  rove  through  the  blocks  which  are  fastened  at  the  head  of  the 
mast  and  at  the  centre  of  the  top.  The  length  of  the  smaller  rope  is  three 
times  the  ship's  breadth  (162^  feet),  and  its  thickness  is  half  an  inch  more 
than  that  of  the  mizen  shrouds.  The  other  rope  is  as  long  as  the  lei^th 
and  breadth  of  the  ship  taken  together  (259  feet  5  inches)  and  is  thicker  by 
\\  inches  than  the  main  shrouds  (12i). 

The  main  lifts  (fig.  1  **).  The  lifts  are  ropes  attached  to  the  yard  arms, 
to  support  and  move  the  yard.  The  main-lifts  (those  belonging  to  the 
main-yard)  are  as  long  as  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  ship  (259  feet 
5  inches).  Fig,  3  shows  the  main-yard  with  its  jeers :  aa,  are  the  lift 
blocks ;  bb,  the  lifts  ;  cc,  the  straps  of  the  jeers'  blocks  ;  ddy  the  main-yard ; 
dy  d,  the  yard-arms :  ee,  the  arm-pieces ;  g,  the  rigging  at  the  mast-bead ; 
ff,  the  jeers'  blocks ;  AA,  the  futtock-shrouds ;  ü,  the  jeers'  runners ;  kk,  the 
lift-blocks  under  the  cap.  The  studding-sail-boom-rings  are  also  fastened 
on  the  yard-arms.  Pi  10,  fig.  4,  shows  the  topsail-yard  with  its  lifts  and 
the  sail  stretched. 

The  main  braces  (pi  11,  fig.  1 ").  Braces  are  ropes  by  which  the  yards 
are  turned.  Each  brace  of  the  main-yard  is  one  and  a  half  times  the 
ship's  length  (807^  feet). 

The  main  backstays,*  The  back-stays  are  intended  to  support  the  masts 
from  aft,  which  the  shrouds  are  too  far  forward  to  effect.  They  must  be 
long  and  stout  The  length  of  the  main  backstays  is  equal  to  the  length  and 
twice  the  breadth  of  the  ship  (314  feet  10  inches  long  and  11  inches  thick). 

The  main-top'gallant  backstays*  belong  to  the  main-top-gallant  mast,  and 
are  twice  the  length  of  the  ship. 

The  main-top-mast  shrouds*  support  the  top-mast  on  the  right  and  left. 
They  consist  of  six  ropes  on  a  side,  which  are  2^  times  the  length  of  the 
top-mast  (173  feet  4  inches),  and  of  about  one  third  less  thickness  than  die 
main  shrouds  (7f  inches). 
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RIGGINe,  Ac.  56 

The  main-topmast  stay*  supports  the  topmast  from  forward,  and  runs 
from  the  fore-top  to  the  main-top-gallant  cross-trees,  205  feet  long,  and 
11  inches  thick.  The  tnain-top-masl  preventer-stay*  runs  over  or  under 
the  stay,  and  parallel  with  it. 

The  main-top  halliard  is  the  rope  which  hoists  the  top-sail.  The  length 
of  this  doubled  rope  is  2^  times  the  length  of  the  ship  (462|  feet).  Ships 
of  less  than  60  guns  have  only  single  top-sail  halliards. 

The  main-top-rope  is  a  strong  rope  for  raising  or  lowering  the  top-mast. 
Its  length  is  six  times  the  ship's  breadth  (325  feet),  and  its  thickness  is  half 
an  inch  less  than  that  of  the  shrouds. 

The  main  topsail  lifts  support  the  main-topsail-yard  in  a  horizontal  posi- 
tion.     Each  of  them  is  1 J  times  the  length  of  the  ship  (273  feet). 

The  main-topsail-braces  {fig.  1")  serve  to  turn  the  main-topsail-yard, 
and  are  1^  times  the  length  of  the  ship  (307|  feet). 

The  main-top-gallant  shrouds*  consists  of  two-fold  ropes,  but  frequently, 
as  in  the  present  case,  without  ratlines. 

The  main-top-gallant  stay*  is  one  third  larger  than  the  main-top  stay, 
and  runs  from  the  cross-trees  of  the  foremast  to  the  middle  of  the  top- 
gallant mast. 

The  main-top-gaüant-sail  halliard,  to  raise  the  top-gaUant-sail,  is  1^  times 
the  length  of  the  ship  (307^^  feet). 

The  main-top-gallant  lifts  are  each  double  in  length  to  the  ship's  breadth, 
and  are  rigged  in  the  centre  of  the  top-gallant  mast. 

The  main-top-gallant  braces  (fig,  1  •*)  turn  the  top-gallant  yards,  and  are 
each  307^  feet  long. 

The  main-royal  lifts  are  rigged  under  the  truck  of  the  topmast,  and  are 
one  third  shorter  than  the  top-gallant  lifts,  each  of  them  72  feet  2  inches  in 
length. 

The  main-royal  braces  are  of  the  same  length  as  the  top-gallant  braces, 
but  not  so  thick  by  one  fifth.  They  are  seldom  made  use  of,  as  the  royd 
turns  at  the  same  time  with  the  top-gallant  sail. 

The  main  guy  is  a  strong  rope  passing  from  the  head  of  the  main- 
mast to  that  of  the  foremast,  supporting  the  main  or  hoisting  tackle.  Its 
length  is  1|  times  the  ship's  breadth  (81  feet  3  inches),  and  its  thickness 
1 1  inches.  There  are  also  quarter  tackles  arranged  in  the  same  manner, 
at  each  side  of  the  mainmast  and  of  the  foremast.  On  each  side  of  the  main 
yard  and  of  the  fore-yard  there  is  a  yard  tackle,  whose  guy  is  84  feet 
3  inches  in  length  and  4|  inches  in  thickness.  The  quarter  tackles  and 
yard  tackle  are  usually  connected  with  each  other,  the  load  being  raised 
perpendicularly  by  the  quarter  tackle,  and  then  brought  overboard  by  the 
yard  tackle,  and  vice  versa. 

The  following  ropes  are  fastened  directly  to  the  sails,  serving  to  enlarge 
or  diminish  the  surfaces  exposed  to  the  wind. 

The  main  tacks  {pi,  II,  fig,  1')  are  ropes  attached  to  the  end  of  the 
mainsail,  in  order  to  haul  it  forward  and  down  to  the  deck.  Each  of  them 
19  3|  times  the  ship's  breadth  in  length  (190  feet  5  inches),  and  three 
fourths  of  the  thickness  of  the  .hrouds.     The  foresail  is  also  furnished 

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56  NAVAL  WararCBS. 

with  tacks  {fig,  1  **)>  but  in  the  upper  sails  their  i^ce  ia  supptiad  bj  the 
iiheeta. 

The  main  sheets  (fig.  1 0  ^^  fastened  to  the  two  lower  ends  of  the  bbH, 
and  serve  to  haul  it  aft.  Their  length  is  equal  to  the  length  and  twice 
the  breadth  of  the  ship  (318  feet  10  inches).  The  foresail,  also,  has  such 
sheets  (*•). 

The  main  bowlines  (")  are  attached  to  the  leeches  of  the  mainsail,  to 
stretch  them  forward  to  the  wind.     The  foresail  has  bowlines  (**),  and  all 

the  yard  sails  ('••"•  ^^'^O- 

The  main  clewgamets  (*).  Clewgamets  are  ropes  by  which  the  clews  of 
the  lower  square  sails  are  drawn  up  so  that  they  hang  from  their  yards  like 
curtains,  and  can  be  furled  and  made  &st. 

The  clewlines  are  the  ropes  by  which  the  clews  of  the  upper  sails  are 
drawn  up  to  the  yard.  The  clewgamets  of  the  mainsail  are  of  the  same 
'angth  as  the  lifts.  They  are  applied  behind  the  sails.  The  clewlines  are 
divided  into  huntlines  ('"),  which  draw  upon  the  centre  of  the  sail,  the  leeck^ 
lines,  on  the  sides,  and  the  hetween-lines^  between  those  two  points«  Their 
length  is  one  eighth  less  than  the  length  of  the  ship  (182  feet).  The  main- 
mast has  also  the  clewlines  of  the  main  topsail,  ** ;  its  huntlines,  '^ ;  the 
clewlines  of  the  main  top-gallant  sail,  '* ;  its  sheets,  ■* ;  its  jeers,  ** ;  and  the 
jeers  of  the  main  lop-gallant  sail,  ",  and  its  sheets,  ". 

The  reef  lines  are  short  ropes  passing  through  the  holes  in  the  reef  bands, 
projecting  alike  on  both  sides  of  the  sail.  They  serve  to  shorten  the  sail 
(pL  2difig.  3,  where  the  sailors  are  reefing  a  topsail,  shows  these  reef  lines). 
The  reef  tackle  is  used  to  draw  up  the  part  of  the  sail  which  is  to  be  reefed, 
and  consists  of  a  rope  280  feet  long. 

The  following  ropes,  pertaining  to  the  fore  and  mizen  masts,  have,  in 
general,  the  same  object  as  those  of  the  main-mast,  differing  only  in  size, 
and  consequently  we  shall  merely  briefly  enumerate  them,  still  referring  to 
pL  Ihfig.  1. 

The /ore  shrotids*  have  only  eight  ropes.  The  fore  fuUock  shrowis*  have 
five  on  each  side.  The /or«  stay*  goes  to  the  bowsprit.  The /ore /ircreiilcr 
stay*  stands  above  it.  The  fore  jeers.  The  fore  lifts^.  The  fore  braces^. 
The  fore  backstays*  one  eighth  shorter  than  the  main  backstays.  The 
fore  top-gallant  backstays.*  The  fore  topmast  shrouds*  with  five  rope& 
The  foretop  futtock-shroud  ropes*  two  on  each  side.  The /ore  top-gtiUani- 
mast  shrouds*  have  two  ropes  on  each  side.  The  fore  topmast  stay.*  The 
foretopsail  halliards.  The  foretop  rope.  The  fore  topsail  lifts,  ",  are 
18  feet  shorter  than  the  main  topsail  lifts.  The /ore  topsail  braces,  *•.  The 
fore  top-gallant  stay.*  The  fore  top-gallant  halliards.  The  fore  U^^gaUant 
lifts,  **.  The  fore  top-gallant  braces,  *\  The  fore  royal  braces.  The  clew- 
lines, "'  *•*  *•* ".  The  fore  top-gallant  jeers, ".  The  fore  royal  jeers,  *•.  The 
fore  top-gallant  sheets, ".  The  fore  royal  sheets,  *•.  The  bunllines,  ",  **. 
The  tie  of  the  fore  topsail. 

The  mizen  shrouds*  consist  of  five  ropes.  The  mizen  fuitock  shrouds,* 
three  ix>pes.  The  mizen  stay*  runs  to  the  mainmast.  The  mizen  jeers* 
The  mizen  braces,  '\    The  mizen  Itfts,  ".     The  backstays*  of  the  mizen 


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RIGOING,  <fec.  67 

topmast*  and  the  mizen  top-gallant  mast*  The  mixen  topmast  shrouds* 
consist  of  three  ropes.  The  mixen  top-gallant  futtock  shrouds*  of  two  ropes 
on  each  side.  The  mixen  topmast  stay*  The  mixen  braces,  ••.  The  mixen 
top-gallant  shrouds*  two  ropes.  The  mixen  top-gallant  mast  stay*  The 
mixen  top-gallant  lifts,  •*.  The  mixen  top-gallant  braces,  ••.  The  mixen-top^ 
sail  sheets,  •• ;  the  clew-lines,  ^ ;  bowlines,  *• ;  buntlines,  ".  The  jeers  of  the 
mixen  top-gallant  yard,  •' ;  the  sheets,  •* ;  clewlines,  ** ;  bowlines,  *\  The 
mixen  topsail  tie,  **.  The  jeers  of  the  mizen  top-gallant  sail,  ** ;  its  sheets,  *^ ; 
clewlines,  ".  The  spanker  vangs,  ",  serve  to  turn  the  gaff  to  the  wind. 
The  gaff  halliard,  '*,  raises  or  lowers  the  gaff.  The  lift  of  the  spanker,  •• ; 
the  sheets,  " ;  and  clewgameis,  ^•.  Only  the  main-sail,  the  fore-sail,  the  two 
topsails,  and  the  mizen-top-sail  have  reef-tackles,  '•,  reef-lines,  and  edge^ 
Knes, ".     The  flags  and  streamers,  '*. 

The  bowsprit  has  the  following  rigging.  The  bow  stays*  are  formed  of 
ropes  passing  from  the  end  of  the  bowsprit  and  the  jib-boom  to  the  bows, 
where  they  are  fastened.  They  secure  the  sides  of  the  bowsprit.  The 
running  stays*  are  two  ropes  passing  over  the  bowsprit  from  the  cap  to  the 
forecastle,  where  they  are  fastened,  forming  a  sort  of  baluster  on  each  side  of 
the  bow.  The  bobstay  is  a  strong  rope,  double  and  triple  in  large  men-of-war, 
which  fastens  the  bowsprit  to  the  stem ;  its  length  is  equal  to  the  breadth 
and  half  the  depth  of  the  ship  {66  feet  5  inches).  The  lifts  of  the  sprit-sail 
yard, ',  are  equal  in  length  to  the  breadth  and  half  length  of  the  ship  (156 
feet  11  inches).  The  sprit-sail  braces  are  equal  to  the  length  and  twice 
the  breadth  of  the  ship  (318  feet  10  inches).  The  tacks  tyf  the  jib  \  its 
sheets  *,  and  its  jeers  *,  complete  the  rigging  of  the  bowsprit. 

The  staysails  have  three  ropes :  the  halliards,  for  drawing  them  up ;  the 
downhaul,  the  use  of  which  is  denoted  by  its  name ;  and  the  sheets,  to 
stretch  the  lower  corner  right  or  left. 

The  foot  ropes,  or  horses,  extend  along  the  yards  and  bowsprit,  on  which 
the  men  stand  when  reefing  or  furling.     PL  2S,  fig.  8. 

8.  The  Sails.  The  object  of  the  sails  is  to  receive  the  wind  and  thus 
propel  the  ship.  Their  arrangement  now  forms  a  system  of  great  ingenuity, 
giving  the  appropriate  position  to  them,  in  all  cases,  with  rapidity  and 
certainty.  They  are  made  of  very  thick  hempen  cloth,  manufactured  for 
the  purpose,  with  three  different  degrees  of  strength,  so  that  the  strongest 
may  be  used  for  the  lower  sails.  Indeed,  the  upper  sails  are  sometimes 
made  of  linen  or  cotton.  A  sail  is  composed  of  several  breadths  of  sail 
cloth,  sewed  lengthwise  with  strong  tarred  sail-yarn.  Tlie  whole  work  is 
done  on  the  sail-bench,  by  a  part  of  the  ship's  company,  called  sailmakers, 
as  in  pL  8,  fig.  6.  The  borders  of  the  sail,  called  leeches,  at  the  sides  are 
surrounded  with  a  fine,  light-spun  rope,  called  bolt-rope.  At  the  corners, 
and  wherever  ropes  are  attached  for  stretching  the  sails,  small  iron  rings 
are  inserted.  A  row  of  holes  is  made  on  the  head  of  the  sails,  through 
which  short  lines  are  passed,  bending  the  sail  to  the  yard.  Here,  and 
wherever  holes  are  made  for  reef-lines,  the  sail-cloth  is  doubled.  The 
side  of  the  siül  towards  the  stern  of  the  ship  is  called  the  inner  side.  In  order 
to  fasten  the  yards,  rings  of  rope  with  knobs  are  used  {pL  II,  fig.  80). 

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5d  NAVAL  SOIENCSB. 

The  size,  form,  and  position  of  the  sails  vary  to  a  great  degree«  The 
yard-saiU  are  the  most  common  and  the  most  important ;  they  are  hung 
upon  the  yards,  and  form  a  quadrangle  which  is  somewhat  smaller  above 
than  below.  Next  to  these  are  the  staysails,  which  form  an  irregular 
quadrangle  almost  in  the  shape  of  a  triangle.  They  are  drawn  up  and 
down  on  the  stays  by  small  rope-rings  or  wooden  hoops.  A  large  ship-of- 
war  often  carries  thirty-eight  sails,  and  sometimes  more,  but  they  are  never 
all  unfurled  together,  as  in  that  case  one  would  interfere  with  another. 

The  main-sail  (pi,  1 1,  fig.  1  a)  is  07  feet  wide  at  the  foot,  03  feet  10  inches 
at  the  head,  and  45  feet  6  inches  high,  and  contains  4305  square  feet.  The 
main  topsail^  d,  is  06  feet  wide  at  the  foot,  60  feet  0  inches  at  the  head, 
60  feet  0  inches  high,  and  contains  4750  square  feet.  The  main  tap-gallani 
sail,  g  (also  pi  10,  fig.  4),  is  63  feet  3  inches  wide  at  the  foot,  43  feet  6  inches 
at  the  head,  32  feet  6  inches^  in  height,  and  contains  3761  square  feet.  The 
main  royal  {pL  II, fig.  Ij)  bears  the  same  proportion  to  the  top-gallant  sail 
,  as  that  does  to  the  topsail.  Sometimes  two  small  staysails  in  addition  are 
attached  to  each  side  of  the  masts.  The  main  staysail  is  triangular  and 
hangs  upon  the  main  stay.  The  main-top  staysail  is  carried  over  the  former 
on  the  main-topmast  stay.  The  main  top-gallant  staysail  is  smaller  than 
the  former.  The  main-top  studding-sails  are  fastened  to  the  studding^-saä 
booms  on  each  side  of  the  vessel,  which  are  extended  from  the  two  arms  o[ 
the  main  yard.  The  main  top-gallant  sttidding-sails  are  hung  to  the  yard 
on  each  side  of  the  main  top-gallant  sail,  their  lower  ends  being  secured  to 
the  main-topmast  studding-sail-booms.  In  very  calm  weather,  water-saib 
are  stretched  under  the  maintop-studding-sails.  They  are  seldom  used»  as 
they  take  the  wind  out  of  the  fore-studding-sails. 

The  foresail  {pi  II,  fig.  1  b)  is  81  feet  broad  at  the  foot,  78  feet  6  inches 
at  the  head,  40  feet  high,  and  has  3210  square  feet.  It  is  arranged  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  yard  sails  on  the  main  mast.  The  fore  topsail  (e)  is 
82  feet  broad  at  the  foot,  51  feet  6  inches  at  the  head,  53  feet  6  inches  high, 
and  has  3577  square  feet.  The /ore  top-gallant  sail  {A)  is  54  feet  9  inches 
wide  at  the  foot,  38  feet  6  inches  at  the  head,  28  feet  8  inches  high,  and  has 
1343  square  feet.  The  fore  royal  (Ar)  is  smaller  than  the  former;  the  fore 
staysail  (n)  is  triangular ;  the  jib  (m)  is  somewhat  smaller ;  the  flying  jib 
(o)  is  hung  on  the  stay  passing  down  from  the  foretop  cross-trees.  On  the 
foremast,  there  are  also  the  fore  studding-sails,  the  fore  topmast  studding- 
sails,  and  the  fore  top-gallant  studding-sails.  The  sprüsail  is  stretched 
under  the  bowsprit  on  the  spritsail  yard,  its  sheets  being  secured  on  the 
fore  quarters. 

The  mizen-sail,  c,  is  a  gaflfsail,  called  the  spanker,  62  feet  6  inches  broad 
at  the  foot,  47  feet  at  the  top,  forward  32  feet  6  inches  high,  and  aft  63  feet 
6  inches  high,  and  has  2,457  square  feet.  This  sail  was  formerly  made 
broader,  but  thus  being  awkward  to  manage,  its  size  was  reduced.  The 
mizen  Utp-sail,  f,  is  63  feet  6  inches  broad  at  the  foot,  41  feet  0  inches  at 
the  head,  43  feet  6  inches  high,  and  has  2,300  square  feet.  The  mixen  tap^ 
gallant-sail,  i,  is  43  feet  2  inches  broad  at  the  foot,  32  feet  6  inches  broad 
at  the  head,  22  feet  high,  and  has  836  square  feet.  The  mixen  rojfml^  L 
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RIQOINa,  kv.  59 

The  mizen  studding^^saib  are  fastened  to  the  mizen  yard-arms.  The 
mi^en  gaf-sait,  on  the  top-mast,  is  similar  to  the  spanker,  but  is  seldom 
used. 

Besides  the  parts  already  described,  we  find  in  (pL  II,  ßg.  I),  A,  the 
boat  hanging  to  the  scantles ;  A  A,  the  small  boat ;  BB,  the  stern  galleries ; 
C,  the  rudder ;  B,  the  hammocks  between  the  nettings ;  F,  the  first  battery ; 
G,  the  second  battery ;  H,  the  third  battery ;  I,  the  entrance  port ;  K,  the 
davits,  with  anchors ;  LL,  the  hawse-holes,  with  the  chain-cables ;  M,  the 
life-buoy ;  T,  the  national  flag ;  UUU,  straps  or  hangers,  with  rings  on  the 
top,  to  which  the  lower  yards  are  hung. 

d.  Flags  and  Pbnnants.  In  the  outfit  of  a  ship  we  reckon  the  ßags^ 
pennants,  signals,  and  streamers,  which  are  made  of  a  thin  woollen  stufi* 
called  bunting.  Flags  are  long  quadrangular  banners,  which  are  drawn  up 
at  the  peak  of  the  gaflf,  or  at  the  mast-head,  with  the  shorter  sides  perpen- 
dicular. One  side  is  bound  with  linen,  and  has  a  small  rope  attached  to  it 
with  a  loop,  to  which  is  fastened  the  line  for  hoisting  the  flag.  The  flags  of 
men-of-war  are  at  least  from  four  to  five  yards  high,  and  about  six  yards 
long.  Each  nation  has  its  own  flag,  which  is  displayed  at  the  peak  of  the 
gafi*,  while  a  smaller  one,  called  the  jack,  waves  on  a  jack-staff  erected  at 
the  end  of  the  bowsprit.  The  flag  at  the  mast-head  is  a  sign  that  the  admi- 
ral is  on  board.  His  flag  is  displayed  at  the  main  top-galiant-mast.  The 
vice-admiral  carries  his  flag  at  the  fore  top-gallant-mast,  and  the  rear-admi- 
ral at  the  head  of  the  mizen  top-gallant-mast.  But  if  they  have  the  com- 
mand of  a  particular  squadron,  their  flags  are  then  displayed  on  the  top  of 
the  main-mast.  When  the  admiral  enters  upon  his  command,  his  flag  is 
hoisted  {pi  24,  ßg,  3)  with  great  ceremony,  accompanied  with  salutes  of 
cannon  and  martial  music ;  all  the  vessels  in  the  harbor  display  their  colors, 
and  fire  salutes  to  the  admiral's  flag.  When  the  king  or  emperor  is  on 
board,  the  royal  standard  is  displayed  firom  the  head  of  the  main  top-gallant- 
mast. 

The  pennants  form  a  triangle,  the  length  of  which  is  equal  to  that  of  the 
flag,  but  the  breadth  not  quite  half  the  height  of  the  flag.  Pennants  are  of 
two  kinds.  The  first  {ph  10,  fig.  8)  has  its  smaller  end  slit  up  about  two 
thirds  of  its  length  ;  the  others  run  to  a  point  {fig.  9).  The  last  are  hoisted 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  flags  ;  the  first  are  fastened  at  the  broad  end  to 
an  inch-stafl*,  which  is  connected  by  a  loop  to  the  line.  The  broad  pennant 
is  the  sign  of  a  commodore  or  captain  who  is  in  command  of  a  special 
squadron. 

A  streamer  {fig.  3,  at  the  mast-head)  is  six  inches  broad  at  the  larger 
end,  and  is  fastened  to  a  staff*  at  the  mast-head.  It  is  divided  at  about  one 
third  of  its  length  from  the  small  end,  and  in  large  ships  is  15  or  20  yards 
long,  and  sometimes  more.  The  streamer  displayed  at  the  top  of  the  main- 
mast is  the  sign  that  the  captain  is  in  command  of  the  ship. 

The  vane  (fig.  7)  is  very  small  and  of  different  lengths.  It  is  stretched 
at  one  end  on  a  piece  of  wood,  which  turns  on  an  iron  spindle,  showing  the 
direction  of  the  wind.  Vanes  are  used  chiefly  by  merchantmen.  Ships  of 
\(rar  carry  not  only  their  own  flags,  but  those  of  other  nations ;  and  in  war 

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W  NAVAL  SCIfilf CSS. 

merchantmen  do  the  same,  in  order  to  deceive  the  enemy.  On  coming  into 
port,  a  ship  displays  its  flag  at  the  peak  (jd,  ^,  fig.  3).  A  coikqiiered  ship 
of  war  surrenders  by  striking  its  flag  {fig,  4).  When  a  general  salute  is 
given  all  the  sails  are  furled,  the  flags  are  displayed,  and  the  sailors  are 
paraded  on  the  yards ;  at  the  same  time  a  salute  is  fired  by  the  cannon. 
PL  25,  fig.  1,  is  an  English  ship  of  the  line  of  120  guns.  On  occasions 
of  ceremony,  the  ships  are  dressed  with  flags.  Fig.  2  is  a  French  ship  of 
the  line  of  120  guns.  Flags  are  hung  on  all  the  masts,  stays,  shrouds,  and 
other  rigging.  Etiquette  is  here  observed  in  the  disposition  of  the  flags  and 
pennants,  the  place  of  each  being  determined  by  the  relation  with  the  power 
which  it  represents.  The  flag  of  the  royal  house  is  placed  at  the  bead  of 
the  main-top-gallant-mast,  and  that  of  friendly  powers  at  the  heads  of  the 
fore  and  mizen-top-gallant-masts.  The  more  unfriendly  the  relations  with 
foreign  states,  the  lower  is  the  position  of  their  flags.  The  least  honorable 
place  of  all  is  over  the  cutwater.  The  flags  in  pi.  13  are  designated  by 
colors  on  the  lower  border  of  the  plate.  The  names  of  the  countries  to 
which  they  respectively  belong  will  be  found  in  the  Table  of  Contents. 

C.   Equipment  of  Ships, 

The  equipment  of  a  ship  includes  a  great  variety  of  articles  which,  though 
necessary  to  its  service,  are  not  comprised  in  its  construction. 

a.  The  Anchors.  One  of  the  most  important  parts  of  the  equipment  of 
a  ship  is  the  anchor,  with  its  cabk,  serving  to  hold  the  ship  in  the  same 
place,  so  that  it  can  be  moved  neither  by  the  wind,  the  waves,  nor  the  tide. 
PL  10,  figs.  14  to  29,  shows  a  variety  of  difierent  anchors  and  their  separate 
parts.  The  anchor  is  a  large  iron  instrument,  which  consists  chiefly  of  a 
shank,  and  two  arms  which  terminate  in  fiukes.  One  of  these  (fig.  20),  as 
soon  as  the  anchor  touches,  strikes  into  the  ground,  and,  by  means  of  the 
cable  connecting  the  ship  with  the  anchor,  the  ship  is  held  fast. 

The  parts  of  the  anchor  are  the  shank,  A  (fig.  19),  the  length  of  which, 
in  proportion  to  its  thickness,  is  as  18  or  16  to  1.  The  arms,  DD,  are  two 
books  which  project  in  opposite  directions  from  the  lower  end  of  the  shank, 
called  the  crown,  e  (fig.  14).  The  fiukes  or  palms  are  broad  tpianguiar 
pieces,  pointed  at  the  ends,  which  are  forged  into  the  extremities  of  the 
arms,  and  well  adapted  to  take  hold  of  the  bottom.  The  ring,  G,  which 
passes  through  the  eye,  E,  serves  to  hold  the  cable.  The  stock,  A  (fig.  18), 
consists  of  two  beams  of  wood  joined  together  by  iron  bands  and  rivets, 
inclosing  the  shank,  B,  below  the  ring,  C,  and  standing  at  right  angles  to 
the  plane  of  the  arms.  In  constructing  the  anchor,  the  shank  was  for- 
merly forged  out  of  a  single  piece  ;  later  rods  of  iron  were  wekled  together 
(fig.  17,  section) ;  and  finally  it  received  the  form  as  in  C  (fig  16),  the 
projections,  a  and  b,  being  added,  and  the  hole  for  the  ring  made  at  A, 
Places  were  arranged  for  the  arms,  which  were  forged  separately,  and  then 
welded  on.  In  this  process  three  fires  were  necessary,  one  for  the  shank, 
and  one  for  each  arm ;  the  forging  was  done  on  an  anvil  with  an  octagonal 
hole,  through  which  the  arms  were  passed  in  order  to  give  the  anchor  the  shape 
as  in  fig.  14.  The  piece,  C  (fig.  15),  was  added  to  the  arm^  B,  and  the  fluke, 
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EQUIPMENT.  61 

A,  to  each  arm.  According  to  the  modem  fashion,  the  arms  of  the  anchor 
have  nearly  a  crescent  form  (ßg.  19) ;  the  shank  is  forged  of  such  a  length, 
that  it  can  be  split  and  turned  at  H  and  B  to  each  side,  in  order  to  form  the 
upper  surface  of  the  arms ;  an  iron  wedge  is  then  inserted  at  the  crown, 
and  a  band  laid  on,  which  forms  the  lower  surface  of  the  arms,  D.  After 
all  is  welded  together,  the  flukes,  C,  are  attached.  The  stock  serves  to 
prevent  the  anchor  from  falling  on  the  flat  side,  in  which  case  the  flukes 
would  not  sink  into  the  ground,  nor  gain  any  hoM.  It  also  serves  to  turn 
the  anchor  if  it  falls  flat,  as  the  waves  and  the  draught  of  the  cable  will 
turn  the  stock,  which,  being  lighter  than  the  water,  and  presenting  a  broad 
surface  to  it,  will  always  remain  partially  floating,  and  the  draught  of  the 
cable  will  then  force  the  flukes  into  the  ground. 

The  weight  of  the  anchor  is  determined  by  the  size  of  the  ship.  Each 
ship  has  several  anchors.  A  ship  of  the  line  of  120  guns  {pL  II, ßg.  1)  has 
four  anchors  of  9000  pounds'  weight,  one  of  8000,  two  of  2700,  one  of  2500, 
and  one  of  1200.  They  all  have  their  place  at  the  forward  part  of  the  ship, 
partly  on  the  outside.  The  sheet  anchor  is  the  heaviest,  and  is  only  used 
in  case  of  a  storm.  A  smaller  sheet  anchor  is  stowed  on  the  lower 
<leck  and  is  only  used  on  great  emergencies.  The  next  is  the  how  anchor, 
which  lies  on  the  larboard  side  of  the  bows.  T10 stream  anchor  is  on  the 
starboard  side.  The  hedges  are  used  chiefly  for  warping  a  vessel  from  one 
place  to  another  in  a  harbor  or  river.  Besides  these  there  are  small  anchors 
with  three  or  four  arms  (pi.  10,  ßg,  26),  called  grapnels.  Pig.  27  is  Stuart's 
grapnel.  They  are  used  to  secure  boats.  There  is  another  kind  called 
grappling  irons  {fig.  28),  used  with  a  chain  instead  of  a  rope,  and  serving 
to  grapple  with  an  enemy's  vessel  and  for  other  purposes. 

The  different  uses  to  which  anchors  are  applied  give  rise  to  a  variety 
of  expressions.  For  example,  when  the  anchorite  is  bad,  a  second 
anchor  is  connected  with  the  first,  this  arrangement  being  termed  hack' 
ing  the  anchor  (fig.  29).  Of  the  two  anchors  with  which  a  ship  is 
moored,  one  is  called  the  shore  anchor  and  the  other  the  sea  anchor.  We 
have  also  the  flood  or  the  ebb,  the  toeather  or  the  lee  anchors,  according  to 
their  position.  In  order  to  ascertain  the  exact  place  where  the  anchor  lies, 
a  rope  is  attached  to  the  ring,  before  casting  anchor,  with  a  floating  block 
of  wood,  called  a  buoy,  at  the  other  end.  Pieces  of  cork  (pi.  16,  fig.  32) 
and  casks  (fig.  31)  laid  over  with  ropes  are  also  used  for  buoys.  A  pecu- 
liar kind  of  anchor,  called  from  its  shape  the  mushroom  anchor,  is  shown 
in  fig.  33.  It  has  neither  arms  nor  flukes,  but  a  trencher  .formed  foot, 
sharply  curving  upwards.  It  also  has  no  stock,  as  the  foot,  A,  is  always 
ready  to  take  hold,  and  is  so  heavy  that  the  shank,  B,  never  turns 
over  to  the  ground.  In  harbors  and  roads,  permanent  anchors  are  used,  to 
which  the  ships  are  fastened  instead  of  casting  their  own  anchors.  The 
forked  anchors  (fig.  21)  are  used  for  this  purpose.  They  consist  of  a  short 
«hank.  A,  with  the  ring,  B,  for  the  cable,  and  two  parallel  arms,  C  and  C. 
Fig.  22  is  a  shovel  anchor,  the  shank  of  which  has  the  stock,  D,  and  the 
ring,  C,  at  one  end,  and  the  broad,  heavy  shovel,  A,  at  the  other.  The 
hhrge  hook-anchor  (fig.  29)  serves  to  hold  several  small  vessels.     It  has 

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62  NAYAL  acmSCER. 

the  fluke  D,  with  which  it  strikes  deep  into  the  grmmd,  the  knpb  A,  and 
the  holes  B  and  C,  for  making  fast  the  caUe.  The  blocks  (fig.  24  and 
fig,  25),  the  last  with  a  notch  for  the  fluke,  are  used  to  lay  over  the  fluke 
after  the  anchor  has  been  sunk,  and  to  hold  it  down.  To  the  cables  of 
such  permanent  anchors  are  fastened  large  buoys,  to  which  the  vessels  are 
moored. 

The  ropes  for  the  anchors  are  called  cables,  and  take  their  name  from 
the  anchors  with  which  they  are  used,  as  the  sheei-cables,  bower-cables^ 
stream-cables,  and  so  forth.  Besides  these  there  are  two  spare  cables.  The 
cables  are  made  of  the  same  materials  and  in  the  same  manner  as  the  coin- 
mon  ropes,  and  as  they  have  to  hold  such  a  great  burden  often  against  an 
immense  pressure,  are  constructed  of  an  extraordinary  thickness.  They 
are  composed  of  three  smaller  ropes,  of  three  strands  each,  and  sometimes 
of  four  ropes.  They  often  have  a  hollow  space  in  the  centre,  called  the 
leart,  filled  with  a  light-spun  rope.  The  thickness  of  the  caUe  is  half  an 
inch  for  each  foot  of  the  ship's  breadth,  consequently  in  pi.  11,  fig.  I,  27^ 
inches.  The  length  is  usually  from  120  to  löO  fathoms,  and  they  are  gene- 
rally double  the  weight  of  the  anchor  to  which  they  are  attached.  If  a 
longer  cable  is  used,  it  is  made  by  splicing;  two  ropes  together  {pi.  I0,ßg.  30). 
[n  the  first  half  of  the  figure  the  splicing  is  finished,  in  the  other  the  work 
is  going  on,  the  strands  not  being  braided  in.  The  cables  for  kedges  are 
125  fathoms  in  length,  and  often  only  120.  This  last  measure  is  called  a 
cable's  length,  and  is  used  to  measure  short  distances  at  sea.  As  the  cable 
is  not  wound  on  the  capstan  or  windlass,  small  ropes  called  messengers 
(pi.  U,fig>  15  c)  are  attached  to  it,  which  pass  round  the  windlass,  and 
the  cable  is  thus  drawn  in  without  bending. 

Instead  of  hempen  cables,  chain  caUes  are  now  extensively  used.  The 
ship,  fig.  1,  has  two  chain  cables  of  180  fathoms,  four  rope  cables  of  120 
fathoms,  two  smaller  ones  of  the  same  length,  and  two  three-stranded 
hawsers  also  of  the  same  length. 

The  Ship's  Boats.  Every  ship  is  provided  with  a  number  of  boats  of 
different  sizes,  which  are  used  for  such  services  as  cannot  be  performed  by 
the  ship  itself,  on  account  of  its  size  and  weight  or  the  shallowness  of  the 
water.  The  boats  are  distinguished  from  those  in  common  use  on  inland  rivers 
by  not  having  broad  and  flat  bottoms,  but  a  sharp  keel  with  side  timbers 
arranged  ship-fashion.  An  iron  ring  is  attached  to  the  stem  and  prow,  to 
which  is  hung  the  tackle  for  hoisting  or  lowering.  They  are  propelled 
by  oars,  but  can  also  be  fitted  up  with  masts  and  sails.  Each  boat  has 
from  four  to  sixteen  cross-benches,  according  to  its  size,  for  the  rowers. 
Except  those  which  are  used  to  fasten  the  sails,  and  which  are  secured 
with  iron  bands,  the  benches  are  loose,  and  are  removed  to  take  in  lading. 
At  every  bench  are  two  thole-pins  for  the  oars,  called  row-locks.  The 
smaller  boats  are  called  pawls.  The  smaller  merchantmen  have  only  a 
long-boat,  a  yawl,  and  the  captain's  gig  or  jolly  boat.  The  sails  are  finre 
and  aft  sails  (pi.  10,  fig.  0),  standing  at  two  thirds  the  distance  from  the 
prow.  A  staysail  is  also  sometimes  used,  and  a  jib  rigged  on  a  boom. 
The  boats  are  used  in  heaving  the  anchor.  The  buoy  rope  of  the  anchor 
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EQUIPMENT.  ^ 

is  passed  through  a  pulley  on  the  prow  of  the  boat,  and  wHh  a  tackle 
hooked  to  the  ring  at  the  stem»  is  drawn  in,  or  wound  up  by  a  small  wind- 
lass on  the  bow,  until  the  anchor  is  loose,  when  it  is  hove  up  by  the  capstan 
of  the  ship.  The  Portuguese  and  Spaniards  have  a  kind  of  boat  different 
from  those  in  common  use,  which  is  sharper  forward  and  broader  in  the  stem. 
The  yawl  is  lighter  and  narrower  than  the  long  boat,  and  when  it  is  used 
with  sails  has  two  masts  with  spritsails  (fig,  5).  It  is  employed  to  bring  the 
crew  on  board  and  for  other  light  work.  The  captain's  gig  is  still  lighter, 
and  is  built  in  an  ornamental  style.  During  the  voyage  the  long-boat  is  kept 
on  deck,  over  the  main  hatch,  where  it  rests  on  boat-chocks.  The  yawl  is 
placed  in  it.  The  captain's  gig  hangs  at  the  stem  on  the  outside,  on  two 
davits  fitted  with  tackles.  Large  men-of-war  have  six  or  eight  or  more  boats 
and  cutters  of  different  kinds.  Among  them  is  the  captain's  barge,  or  if  there 
is  an  admiral  the  admiral's  barge,  each  with  eight  or  ten  oar  benches. 
They  are  not  the  largest  boats,  but  are  built  in  a  superior  style.  A  man- 
of-war's  boats  usually  have  fore  and  aft  sails  or  spritsails,  but  are  sometimes 
fully  rigged,  like  a  lugger  or  schooner.  PL  4,  fig,  7,  is  the  cutter  of  a 
French  frigate ;  fig.  8,  the  cutter  of  a  French  ship  of  the  line ;  and  fig.  9, 
the  cutter  of  an  English  ship  of  the  line. 

3.  Thb  Guns.  All  ships  of  war  carry  guns  of  greater  or  less  weight ; 
merchantmen,  also,  usually  have  two  or  three,  and  they  should  by  all  mesms 
have  one  at  least  for  firing  signals  of  distress.  The  heavy  guns  of  a  man- 
of-war  consist  of  cannon,  carronades,  swivels,  and  mortars.  The  cannon 
are,  for  the  most  part,  of  a  very  heavy  calibre.  (In  regard  to  the  form  of 
guns,  the  necessary  information  will  be  found  in  Military  Sciences,  p.  118» 
or  p.  594  of  this  vol.)  Those  of  the  heaviest  calibre  are  the  most  common. 
Large  men-of-war  have  SO-pounders,  24-poander8,  IS-pounders,  and,  rarely, 
48-pounders  ;  but  recently  48-  and  56-pounder  Paixhans  have  been  intro- 
duced. Although  the  guns  of  a  ship  are  similar  to  those  of  the  land  artillery, 
their  carriages  are  very  different.  Their  form  and  constraction  are  shown 
in  pL  21,  figs.  4,  5,  and  pi.  22,  figs.  3,  4.  The  carriages  consist  of  two 
strong  oak  beams,  called  the  cheeks,  standing  on  two  axle-trees  with  block- 
wheels,  called  trucks,  of  which  the  fore  wheels  are  somewhat  the  higher. 
The  cheeks  are  connected  by  a  cross-piece  which  is  cut  out  above,  so  that 
the  muzzle  of  the  gun  can  be  lowered.  The  cheeks  are  hekl  together  by 
numerous  key-bolts.  A  ring-bolt  is  attached  to  the  outside  of  each  cheek 
for  the  breech-rope  of  the  cannon,  and  two  eye-bolts  for  the  side  tackle. 
Grooves  are  cut  in  the  upper  part  of  the  cheeks,  to  which  the  trunnions 
of  the  cannon  are  fastened  with  spring-bdts.  The  notches  on  the  hind  end 
of  the  cheeks  serve  as  props  for  the  handspikes  when  the  cannon  is  to  be 
pointed.  At  the  centre  of  the  hind  axle-tree  is  an  eye-bolt  for  the  traiB 
tackle. 

The  gun-carriages  in  the  French  navy  have  a  foundation  frame  consist- 
ing of  two  timbers,  at  the  hind  end  of  which  is  a  ring  to  which  the  train- 
tackle  is  attached.  The  breech-rope  does  not  pass  through  the  ring-bolts 
in  the  cheeks,  so  that  it  can  be  laid  bade  upon  the  breech  of  the  gun,  but 
through  two  holes  in  the  cheeks.    The  French,  moreover,  use  the  standing- 

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64  NAVAL  SCIENOES. 

carriage,  which  has  no  wheels  (pL  22,  ßg.  B),  but  is  made  of  two  thick 
frames  bolted  together,  and  with  grooves  for  the  trunnions.  The  gun  is 
pointed  by  means  of  a  screw,  instead  of  quoins.  On  the  cheeks  are  two 
ring-bolts  to  which  the  breech-ropo  is  fastened,  thus  greatly  diminishing 
the  recoil.  In  galleys,  feluccas,  gun-boats,  and  other  small  vesseb,  which 
are  propelled  by  oars,  the  arrangement  is  different,  as  these  can  always  be 
so  tamed  as  to  bring  the  object  fired  at  within  range. 

The  weight  of  a  ship's  guns  and  their  carriages  is  as  follows :  iron  48- 
pounders,  9000  pounds ;  brass  do.,  7000  pounds ;  36-pounders,  7450  and 
6660  pounds  ;  24-pounders,  5382  and  4846.  The  carriage  of  a  48-pounder 
weighs  1500  pounds ;  of  a  d6-pounder,  1200  to  1800  pounds ;  of  a  24-pounder, 
900  to  1000  pounds;  and  of  an  18-pounder,  740  to  800  pounds.  A  48- 
pounder  is  served  by  16  men ;  a  d6-pounder  by  14  men ;  a  24-pounder  by 
10  men  ;  and  an  18-pounder  by  9  men. 

The  guns  of  a  man-of-war  usually  project  from  the  port-holes  about  two 
thirds  of  their  length,  the  carriage  touching  the  side,  but  in  stormy  weather 
they  are  drawn  back  and  the  port-hoies  are  closed.  This  is  more  particu- 
larly the  case  with  the  guns  of  the  lower  deck.  The  guns  are  moved  by 
different  ropes  :  the  breech-rope,  the  train-tackle,  and  the  side-tackle.  The 
breech-rope  is  a  short  rope,  either  laid  around  the  breech  of  the  gun  or 
drawn  through  a  hole  in  it,  then  drawn  through  the  rings  on  th^  cheeks 
of  the  carriage,  and  hooked  at  the  ends  into  strong  rings  on  the  ship's 
tide.  It  serves  to  prevent  too  great  a  recoil  after  the  discharge  of  the  gun, 
and  also  to  keep  it  from  rolling  back  when  the  wind  beats  the  ship  towards 
the  opposite  side.  It  must  be  long  enough  for  the  gun  to  be  drawn  so  far  back 
that  its  mouth  will  be  two  feet  from  the  ship's  side,  for  the  sake  of  loading 
it  conveniently.  When  the  cannon  is  in  the  port-hole,  the  breech-rope  is 
laid  upon  both  sides  of  it,  and  bound  with  cable  yam.  The  train-tackles 
(pL  10,  fig.  1"0  are  used  to  draw  the  gun  backwards.  One  of  its  blocks  is 
fastened  at  the  centre  of  the  hind  axle-tree,  and  the  other  to  a  ring  attached 
to  the  deck.  (Juns  of  a  large  calibre  have  a  double  tackle  (fig.  2  •^.  The 
tide-tackle  is  used  to  draw  the  cannon  to  the  ship's  side,  and  to  project  their 
muzzles  through  the  port-holes.  It  is  hooked  to  the  rings  of  the  two 
cheeks  of  the  carriage,  and  to  those  on  each  side  of  the  port-hdes  {pi.  22, 
fig.  A).  For  pointing  and  elevating  the  guns  handspikes  are  used,  and  for 
the  side  direction,  crow-bars  with  claws.  If  there  are  no  elevating  screws, 
two  quoins  are  made  use  of.  When  not  in  action,  the  guns  must  be 
securely  fastened,  as,  if  they  get  loose  during  the  rolling  of  the  ship,  they  do 
much  damage,  and  may  in  some  cases  cause  the  loss  of  the  vessel.  In  order 
to  secure  the  heavy  cannon  on  the  lower  .deck,  they  are  drawn  back  and 
the  quoins  taken  out,  which  raises  their  muzzles  to  the  upper  part  of  the 
port-hole ;  a  rope  is  placed  round  these,  by  which  they  are  secured  to  a 
ring  over  the  port-hole  ;  the  train  tackles  are  hooked  to  the  same  ring,  and 
to  a  strop  which  passes  round  the  breech,  and  drawn  taut ;  the  side-ropes 
«re  also  drawn  taut,  and  the  remainiitg  part  of  them  wound  round  the 
breech  and  through  the  ring  on  the  ship's  side;  they  are  then  fastened 
together  before  the  gun-earriage  with  another  rope,  and  finally  a  wedge  is 


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BQUIPMENT.  66 

placed  under  the  hind  wheels.  A  thick  rope  is  also  extended  along  the 
whole  inner  side  of  the  ship  through  strong  rings,  which  are  on  the  deck 
between  the  guns,  passing  over  the  hooks  on  each  side  of  the  port-holes^ 
and  behind  around  the  carriages,  on  which  it  is  stretched  taut  at  both  ends. 

The  guns  are  shotted  with  s,  rammer  (pL  II,  fig.  36),  consisting  of  a  stout 
rope's  end,  with  a  swab  at  one  end  for  sponging  the  gun,  and  at  the  other  a 
thick  wooden  knob.  There  are  also  rammers  and  swabs  with  wooden 
stocks  {pi.  II,  fig.  33),  and  each  in  a  separate  piece;  but  those  of  ropes' 
ends  are  more  convenient.  Figs,  37,  38  are  the  worms  for  extracting  a 
bail  from  the  cannon.  The  first  is  like  that  used  for  a  musket ;  the  second 
serves  also  to  clean  the  barrel.  The  gun-ladle  {fig,  30)  is  used  when  the 
cannon  is  loaded  with  loose  powder  instead  of  cartridges,  to  convey  the 
powder  to  the  butt-end  of  the  barrel.  The  cartridges  are  woollen  bags 
filled  with  powder,  and  often  also  containing  a  ball  (see  Military  Pyrotechny, 
p.  135,  or  p.  611  of  this  volume).  They  are  kept  in  a  wooden  chest  on  the 
deck,  called  the  cartridge-chest.  The  ball  is  prevented  from  rolling  forwards 
by  wadding  of  tow  or  untwisted  rope.  The  cartridges  are  pierced  with  a 
priming-wire,  to  enable  the  priming  to  reach  the  powder.  This  is  contained 
in  the  powder-horn  {fig,  45),  which  is  borne  by  one  of  the  men  during  an 
action,  and  is  usually  hung  over  the  port- hole  {pi.  22,  fig.  4).  Quick  matches 
are  often  used  in  firing,  and  in  that  case  the  powder-horn  is  filled  with  pul- 
verized gunpowder.  When  the  guns  are  fitted  with  percussion  locks  the 
powder-horn  is  of  course  unnecessary,  as  well  as  the  matches.  The  apron 
is  a  leaden  plate  placed  over  the  vent  of  the  loaded  cannon,  and  is  removed 
only  at  the  moment  of  firing.  Except  during  an  engagement  the  vent  is  plug- 
ged up  with  tow,  and  the  apron  bound  down  upon  it ;  when  percussion  locks 
are  used,  a  case  is  placed  over  the  lock  instead  of  the  apron.  As  the  guns 
become  very  much  heated  by  continued  firing,  a  cooler  filled  with  cold  water 
stands  by  the  side  of  each,  to  cool  down  the  inside  of  the  barrel  with  a  swab, 
and  the  outside  with  a  mop  made  of  twisted  ropes.  An  instrument  called 
the  visitor  {pi,  II,  fig.  40)  is  used  to  inspect  the  inside  of  the  barrel ;  it  con- 
sists of  the  rod,  a,  with  a  trigger  and  the  ring,  cc,  which  is  attached  to  a  second 
rod,  6,  over  the  first.  If  the  instrument  is  pushed  into  the  barrel  without 
the  ring  the  trigger  springs  into  the  cavity,  if  any  exists ;  the  ring  is  next 
inserted  as  far  as  possible  without  force,  and  then,  without  displacing  the 
ring,  the  instrument  is  withdrawn,  and  thus  the  depth  of  the  cavity  may  be 
ascertained. 

In  shooting,  balls  are  generally  used  in  cannon ;  these  are  the  most  effec- 
tive ;  canister  shot  and  grape  shot  are  also  used  for  various  purposes.  The 
balls  are  kept  partly  in  the  shot-room  near  the  pump-well,  and  partly  on  the 
shot-rack  {pL  21,  fig.  5)  formed  of  slips  of  wood  on  the  right  and  left  of  the 
cannon.  Caninter-shot  are  small  balls  several  of  which  are  fired  at  the 
same  time  (see  Military  Pyrotechny).  They  are  generally  inclosed  in  bags 
of  strong  ticking,  like  grape-shot,  with  a  circular  wooden  bottom  {pi.  11, 
figs.  48,  40).  Besides  this  kind  of  shot  there  are  chain-shot  {fig.  41^),  bar^ 
shot  {fig.  41*),  bolt-shot  {fig.  42),  club-shot  {fig.  43),  sliding-shot  {fig.  44), 
which  are  intended  chiefly  to  destroy  the  rigging  and  sails  of  the  enemy ; 

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M  NAVAL  SOUMCBS. 

they  are,  however,  little  used,  as,  on  account  of  their  irregular  shape,  they 
cannot  be  fired  with  accuracy,  and  seldom  hit  the  mark.  PL  21,  ßg.  5, 
shows  a  starboard  battery  furnished  with  guns,  as  it  appears  when  the  ship 
is  cleared  in  day-time ;  ßg.  4  shows  a  starboard  battery,  at  night,  when  the 
sailors  are  asleep  in  their  hammocks,  which  in  the  daytime  are  stowed  away 
in  the  netting  (fig,  8,  right  hand  above). 

Carronades  are  a  kind  of  ordnance  which  take  their  name  from  the  Carron 
iron- works  in  Scotland,  where  they  were  first  made.  They  were  first  used  by 
the  British  navy  in  the  revolutionary  war  with  North  America.  The  carron- 
ades have  a  chamber  for  the  powder  like  mortars.  They  discharge  larger 
shot  than  the  common  cannon,  which  are  much  longer  and  heavier,  and 
carry  further  with  a  more  certain  aim.  They  are  now  used  but  seldom,  as 
Paixhans'  mortars  are  far  superior.  (See  Projectiles,  in  Military  Sciences.) 
They  are  of  various  sizes  and  calibres.  A  68-pounder  weighs  3600  to  3900 
pounds ;  a  44-pounder  weighs  2227  pounds ;  a  32-pounder,  1714;  and  there 
are  also  24-pounders,  18-pounders,  and  12-pounder8.  Carronades  (pL  22. 
ßg.  3)  have  a  projection  at  the  breech,  through  which  a  stout  bolt  passes,  and 
on  this  the  barrel  is  moved  up  and  down.  The  breech  tackle  is  ri^ed  through 
a  kind  of  ring  in  its  upper  part,  and  the  direction  given  by  means  of  a  screw. 
The  carriage  turns  with  its  frame  upon  a  heavy  bolt  passing  through  the 
frame  and  the  beam  of  the  deck,  and  consequently  carronades  suffer  no 
recoil,  and  do  not  require  train-tackle  or  side-tackle.  On  account  of  the 
shortness  of  the  tube,  it  can  be  loaded  on  the  outside  of  the  port-hole. 
Fig.  3  shows  a  carronade  on  the  middle  deck  ;  pi.  21,  ßg.  1,  is  the  aft  star- 
board carronade  battery,  with  the  ofllcer  on  duty.  Fig.  3  shows  the  middle 
deck  on  the  starboard  side,  with  the  main  hatch,  the  long  boat  standing  on 
the  boat-chocks,  the  carronade  battery,  and  the  hammocks  stowed  in  the 
nettings  under  the  netting  sails. 

Swivels  are  small  1^  to  2  pound  cannon  with  a  movable  frame  con- 
sisting of  a  thick  wooden  beam,  to  the  upper  part  of  which  a  pair  of  cheeks 
are  attached,  which  support  the  trunnions  of  the  gun.  The  beam  passes 
through  a  round  hole  in  a  timber  fastened  on  the  ship's  side,  and  stands  in 
an  iron  box  on  the  deck.  Small  swivels  are  called  sioans*  necks,  because 
they  are  hung  to  a  strong  curved  iron  fork.  They  are  usually  loaded  with 
several  musket  balls  and  small  shot.  Blunderbusses  are  guns  of  a  wide  bore; 
which  discharge  grenades.  Swans'-necks  and  blunderbusses  are  used  on 
the  lops.  Other  weapons  are  muskets,  pistols,  pikes,  hangers,  and  pole-iuces. 
Hangers  are  adapted  both  to  cut  and  thrust ;  they  are  short,  similar  to  cut- 
lasses, and  usually  without  a  sheath.  Pole-axes  are  like  the  common  axe  in 
front,  but  on  the  other  side  they  have  a  stout  point,  three  or  four  inches 
long(p/.  lhßg.20). 

Mortars  are  used  on  board  ship  for  projectiles.  These,  with  their  blocks, 
have  been  already  described  under  the  head  of  Military  Sciences.  The  mor- 
tars stand  on  the  fore  quarters  of  the  upper  deck  ;  the  deck  beams  must  be 
strongly  propped  up  for  them,  as  they  exercise  a  great  downward  pressure 
when  they  are  discharged.  Roding  proposes  tlmt  mortars  should  be  fdacad 
on  a  strong  floor  of  rope-work,  the  elasticity  of  which  would  diminish  the 
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»^ÜIPMENT.  67 

pressure.  The  bombs  which  are  thrown  from  mortars  {fig.  46,  view ;  fig.  47, 
section),  are  hollow  iron  balls  filled  with  powder,  with  an  opening  on  the  top 
in  which  the  wooden  fuse  filled  with  a  slow  match  is  placed.  As  soon  as 
the  mortar  is  discharged,  the  fuse  takes  fire,  and  continues  to  burn  until  the 
bomb  falls.  By  that  time  it  has  kindled  the  charge  of  the  bomb,  which  then 
explodes  with  great  violence,  destroying  everything  within  its  reach. 

Men-of-war  have  great  occasion  for  gunpowder,  which,  besides  being  used 
in  action,  is  wanted  for  salutes  and  exercises,  as  well  as  for  burning  in  the 
hold  to  purify  the  air.  Merchant-ships  also  generally  carry  a  considerable 
quantity  of  powder.  In  ships  of  war  the  powder  is  kept  in  a  close  apart- 
ment, called  the  magazine,  of  which  ships  of  more  than  60  guns  have  two. 
They  are  situated  forward  and  aft,  in  the  lowest  part  of  the  hold,  and  con- 
sequently deep  under  water,  where  they  are  usually  safe  from  damage  by 
cannon-balls  and  other  accidents  of  the  kind.  They  are  separated  by  parti- 
tions from  the  other  parts  of  the  ship,  the  walls  being  often  covered  with 
sheet  lead.  They  are  lighted  by  a  lantern,  which  stands  in  a  basin  lined  with 
lead  and  filled  with  water.  The  sides  are  of  horn  and  surrounded  with  a  wire 
netting.  The  light  is  let  in  through  an  opening  in  the  side.  The  powder 
is  kept  partly  loose  in  kegs,  and  partly  in  cartridges  and  canisters.  The 
door  is  constantly  locked,  and  no  one  but  the  master-at-arms  has  the  key. 
In  merchant  vessels  the  powder  is  kept  in  the  run,  the  after  part  of  the 
hold,  and  is  under  the  charge  of  the  mate. 

4.  Provisioning  the  Ship.  The  provisioning  of  a  ship,  in  regard  to 
quantity,  is  determined  by  the  number  of  its  crew,  the  length  of  the  voyage, 
the  climate  and  productions  of  the  country  to  which  it  is  to  sail,  and  also 
by  its  facilities  for  keeping  its  stores  without  injury.  Delays  during  the 
voyage  must  always  be  taken  into  account,  and  consequently  a  supply  of 
provisions  must  be  secured  for  a  longer  time  than  the  estimated  length 
of  the  voyage.  Even  for  the  shortest  voyage,  provisions  should  be  taken 
for  not  less  than  three  months.  Especially  there  must  be  a  sufficient  supply 
of  fresh  water,  biscuit,  dry  vegetables,  salt  meat,  and  dried  and  salted  fish. 
The  quality  of  the  provisions  depends  on  the  habits  of  the  sailors.  The 
English,  for  example,  have  fine  wheaten  biscuit,  of  excellent  taste,  while 
the  biscuit  of  the  Dutch  is  made  of  crushed  rye,  coarse  and  black  as 
peat-turf;  the  English  sailors  are  supplied  with  beer,  butter,  and  plenty  of 
meat ;  the  Dutch,  the  Germans,  and  other  northern  nations,  use  a  great 
deal  of  beer  and  butter  and  less  meat,  but,  on  the  contrar}',  more  flour  and 
vegetables,  as  well  as  dried  fish.  Among  the  southern  nations,  wine  is  dealt 
out  every  day,  but  instead  of  butter  they  make  use  of  anchovies,  cheese, 
oKve  oil,  and  onions.  The  officers,  both  of  men-of-war  and  merchantmen, 
have  better  fare,  including  poultry  and  milk,  and  also  good  wines  and 
spirits.  The  fresh  water  is  kept  in  large  oaken  casks  with  iron  hoops 
standing  in  the  hold.  As  fresh  water  is  one  of  the  prime  necessaries  of 
life  and  is  very  precious  at  sea,  great  care  is  taken  for  its  preservation 
and  economical  expenditure.  In  men-of-war  it  is  under  the  charge  of  an 
officer,  and  in  merchantmen  of  the  mate,  who  alone  have  the  key  of  the 
water-room.    The  rest  of  the  provisions  are  kept  in  sacks,  chests,  atkl 

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68  NAVAL  SCIENCES. 

barrels,  and  are  under  the  charge  of  the  steward.  la  ooerchantmen  they 
are  kept  in  the  run,  in  care  of  the  mate. 

5.  Other  Necbssaribb  on  Shipboard.  In  men-of-war  a  special  supply 
of  provisions  is  laid  in  for  the  sick,  as  well  as  a  store  of  medicines,  surgical 
instruments,  &c.,  under  the  charge  of  a  head  surgeon  and  several  surgeon's 
mates.  A  room  with  windows  on  the  fore  part  of  the  upper  deck  is  usually 
provided  in  English  ships  of  the  line  for  the  reception  of  the  sick,  called 
the  sick  bay.  Large  fleets  and  squadrons  have  special  hospital  ships,  for 
the  accommodation  of  the  sick  whose  diseases  are  dangerous.  Merchant- 
men have  no  systematic  arrangements  for  the  sick,  and  only  East  India 
vessels  and  the  largest  packet  ships  carry  a  physician.  But  every  captain 
has  a  small  chest  of  medicines,  with  a  book  of  directions  for  their  use,  and 
he  thus  takes  the  place  of  the  physician  in  case  of  need. 

In  long  voyages  a  supply  of  linen  and  clothing  is  taken  in,  in  order  to 
furnish  the  sailors,  if  necessary.  This,  however,  depends  on  the  pleasure 
of  the  captain,  and,  strictly  speaking,  does  not  belong  to  the  equipment. 

An>ong  important  parts  of  the  equipment,  we  have  finally  to  mention  the 
various  instruments  and  apparatus  necessary  to  direct  the  course  of  the 
ship.  The  compass  resembles  the  common  surveyor's  compass,  but  is  hung 
in  a  peculiar  frame  called  gimbals^  so  that  the  needle  and  the  circle  of 
degrees  shall  always  be  as  nearly  horizontal  as  possible.  The  log  {pL  23, 
fig.  6)  serves  to  measure  the  velocity  of  a  vessel  through  the  water.  It  is 
a  three-cornered  piece  of  board  called  the  chip,  to  which  the  logline,  running 
upon  a  reel,  is  attached  by  three  legs,  two  of  which  are  knotted  through  a 
hole  in  two  comers,  while  the  third  draws  out  at  pleasure.  When  the  log 
is  thrown  into  the  water,  it  stands  almost  perpendicular,  and  at  that 
moment  a  half-minute  glass  is  turned.  As  soon  as  the  glass  has  run  out, 
the  line,  which  is  marked  off  into  proportional  spaces,  called  knots^  and 
running  freely,  is  suddenly  stopped  ;  the  loose  leg  then  draws  out,  and  the 
log  floats  flat  on  the  water,  and  presenting  no  further  resistance  is  drawn 
on  board ;  the  number  of  knots  is  counted ;  and  they  each  being  in  the 
same  proportion  to  a  mile  that  a  half  minute  is  to  an  hour  (1-120),  the 
velocity  of  the  ship  is  easily  determined.  The  lead  is  a  heavy  weight 
attached  to  a  line,  in  order  to  measure  the  depth  of  the  sea  in  certain  places. 
When  the  lead  is  to  be  thrown  (ßg.  4),  the  ship  is  either  hove  to  or  her  way 
is  slacked,  and  three  men  standing  on  the  chain-wales  heave  out  the  lead. 
When  the  line  ceases  to  run,  it  shows  that  the  bottom  is  reached,  and  the 
number  of  fathoms  which  the  line  has  run  ofi*is  then  counted.  There  are  also 
the  quadrants  and  sextants,  for  taking  the  altitudes  of  the  sun  and  stars,  and 
ascertaining  the  longitude  and  latitude.  With  these  are  included  the  chrono- 
meters,  some  of  which  keep  such  good  time  that  they  lose  scarcely  a  second 
in  a  voyage  round  the  world.  Charts,  telescopes,  barometers,  qteaking^trum- 
pets,  &c.,  are  among  the  necessary  articles.  We  may  mention,  finally,  the 
difierent  kinds  of  implements  employed  in  various  kinds  of  work  on  ship, 
board,  such  as  the  axe  {pi  11,  fig.  19)  ;  the  hatchet  {fig.  25) ;  the  horse-bit 
{fig.  23),  for  cutting  straight  grooves ;  the  adze  {fig.  24),  for  cutting  curved 
grooves ;  the  scraper  {fig.  21)  and  the  doubkscraper  {fig,  22),  to  clean  the 
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DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  SHIPS.  6^ 

planks  and  seams ;  the  cauUnng-tooh  {figs.  26, 27),  for  driving  in  the  oakom ; 
the  caulking  malkts  (figs.  31, 32,  32  ft)  ;  the  pitch  ladks  (figs.  17, 18)  ;  the 
tar-brush  (fig.  33) ;  and  the  callipers  (fig.  34),  used  to  measure  the  circum- 
ference of  the  different  spars  and  bolts. 


3.  The  Different  Kinds  of  Ships. 

In  common  parlance,  every  vessel  that  sails  on  the  high  seas,  or  perhaps 
only  navigates  a  river,  is  called  a  ship ;  but  seamen  make  nicer  distinctions, 
and  give  that  name  only  to  vessels  with  three  masts  and  square  sails.  It  is 
not  easy  to  divide  vessels  into  exact  classes,  as  the  purposes  for  which  they 
are  intended,  their  size  and  construction,  the  arrangement  of  their  masts 
and  rigging,  their  armament,  &c.,  establish  differences,  which  are  again  set 
aside  in  particular  cases  by  the  combination  of  different  qualities.  The 
best  method  probably  is  to  classify  vessels  according  to  the  purposes  for 
which  they  are  designed,  although  in  that  case  the  same  form  will  recur  in 
different  divisions. 

In  the  external  figure  of  a  ship  we  distinguish  the  parts  above  water  and 
those  below  water;  the  first  are  called  the  casing,  the  second  the  fioor. 
The  form  of  the  floor  is  determined  by  the  puri>ose  of  the  ship.  A  ship  of 
war  must  have  the  lowest  guns  at  least  four  feet  above  the  highest  water- 
line  ;  it  must  sail  and  steer  well ;  it  must  carry  numerous  sails ;  it  must  not 
roll  nor  pitch  much,  nor  make  much  lee-way.  A  merchantman  must  sail  and 
steer  well,  carry  many  sails,  lie  easy  on  the  water,  contain  a  large  cargo, 
and  require  only  a  small  crew.  It  is  difficult  to  unite  these  qualities,  some 
of  them  demanding  a  broad,  others  a  narrow  vessel.  Narrow  vessels  are 
rapid  sailers ;  they  make  but  little  lee-way,  but  are  contracted  for  room, 
and  are  apt  to  pitch.  Broad  ships  give  more  space,  and  if  the  keel  is  sharp 
and  deep,  can  carry  much  heavier  sail,  as  the  masts  can  be  made  a  foot 
higher  for  every  inch  in  depth  of  the  keel  below  the  planking ;  but  if  the 
keel  is  flat,  they  pitch  and  make  great  lee- way.  The  English  make  the 
greatest  breadth  of  the  ship  towards  the  bow,  believing  that  in  that  case  she 
sails  better  and  minds  the  helm  more  readily ;  yet  it  has  been  shown  by 
experiments  in  France  that  it  is  best  to  have  the  greatest  breadth  amid- 
ships. 

The  most  important  points  in  the  construction  of  a  ship  are  firmness  and 
durability ;  all  its  parts,  therefore,  must  not  only  possess  the  requisite  sounds 
ness  and  strength,  but  must  be  so  closely  connected  with  each  other,  as  to 
be  able  to  resist  the  combined  force  of  the  sea  and  the  wind. 

The  objects  of  the  voyages,  their  duration,  and  the  climate  of  the  coun- 
tries visited,  have  an  influence  on  the  size  and  construction  of  the  vessel ; 
we  have,  consequently,  according  to  the  sise,  ships  of  such  a  number  of 
cannon ;  of  so  many  tons ;  of  the  first,  second,  and  third  class,  and  the  like ; 
and  according  to  the  construction,  frigates,  cutters,  galleys,  &c.,  and  steam- 
boats. Accoiding  to  the  objects  of  the  voyages,  we  have  ships  of  war, 
transport  ships,  merchant  ships,  riave  ships,  mail  ships,  privateers,  and  others. 

ICOVOeRAPHIO  XKCTOLC^iEDIA. — VOL.  m.  46  7S1 


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TO  NAVAL  SCaEETGES. 

Ä.    Skips  of  War. 

The  length  of  a  ship  of  war  is  determined  by  taking  the  number  of  gmis 
in  the  lower  battery,  adding  the  length  of  their  port-holes  (2  feet  1 1  inches 
for  each  36-pounder)  and  the  number  of  spaces  between  (7  feet  8  inches  for 
36-pounders),  allowing  two  and  a  half  of  these  spaces  for  the  stem  and 
prow,  and  we  have  the  whole  length  of  the  ship  from  stem  to  stern.  A  ship 
carrying  sixteen  32-pounders  in  each  battery  must  consequently  be  about 
187  feet  in  length.  Although  the  spaces  between  the  port-holes  are  sooie- 
times  less,  the  length  of  such  a  ship  never  falls  short  of  182  feet. 

For  the  breadth  of  a  ship  (that  is,  the  length  of  its  main  beam),  some  take 
the  mean  between  a  third  and  a  fourth  of  its  length,  in  this  case  50  to  54 
feet ;  others  take  3  inches  3  lines  to  every  foot  of  length,  making  the  breadth 
from  48  feet  5  inches  to  50  feet  6  inches. 

The  hold  (the  depth  of  the  ship)  goes  from  the  lower  side  of  the  main 
beam  to  the  upper  part  of  the  keel ;  it  is  larger  at  the  stern  than  at  the  stem. 
In  ships  of  war  of  forty-six  or  more  guns,  the  depth  of  the  hold  is  eqaal  to 
half  the  breadth  of  the  ship,  and  in  frigates  is  somewhat  greater. 

For  the  angle  of  the  stem-piece  we  take  the  eighth  part  of  the  ship's  length, 
and  for  that  of  the  stern  post  -^  of  the  same  dimension ;  that  is,  22f  to  20|, 
and  5^  to  6  feet.  This  determines  the  length  of  the  keel.  Ship-builders 
are  not  fully  agreed  on  this  point,  however,  some  preferring  to  make  the 
stem-piece  almost  perpendicular,  and  the  stern-post  wholly  perpendicular. 
For  the  height  of  the  stem-piece,  some  builders  take  one  quarter  of  the 
ship's  length,  others  from  one  tenth  to  one  twelfth,  the  stem-post  being 
about  one  fortieth  shorter. 

The  length  of  the  main  transom  is  two  thirds  of  the  ship's  breadth ;  H  is 
placed  at  a  height  equal  to  the  depth  of  hold  and  the  elevation  of  the  lower 
deck.  No  exact  rules  can  be  given  for  the  form  and  position  of  the  ship's 
timbers.  Vessels  of  a  sharp  build,  in  which  the  timbers  make  a  large  spring 
from  the  keel  before  bulging,  draw  more  water  than  flat-built  vessels,  and 
hence  present  more  resistance  and  make  less  lee-way.  The  latter,  on  the 
contrary,  have  less  draught  and  are  broader  in  the  hold,  which  is  an  advan- 
tage in  la3ring  the  lower  gun-deck.  The  position  of  the  main  or  middle 
timber,  which  determines  the  greatest  breadth  of  the  ship,  is  a  controverted 
point  among  ship-builders,  some  placing  it  further  forwards,  and  others  near 
to  the  midships ;  the  last  is  preferable,  as  it  diminishes  the  burden  towards 
the  stern.  The  timbers  at  the  stem  and  stern  are  drawn  nearer  to  each 
other,  contracting  the  hold  in  those  parts  of  the  ship :  this  is  done  at  the 
stem  in  order  that  the  ship  may  cut  the  water  with  more  facility,  and  at 
the  stern  for  the  advantage  of  steering.  The  timbers  are  also  somewhat 
contracted  at  the  upper  ends  (forming  the  bulge  of  the  ship's  sides)  in  order 
to  break  the  force  of  the  water  and  to  bring  the  greatest  burden  bdow,  to 
say  nothing  of  other  advantages.  The  breadth  and  the  curve  of  the  stem 
are  according  to  the  taste  of  the  builder. 

Ships  of  war  are  divided  according  to  their  size  into  classes,  of  which 
there  are  properly  only  three,  the  smaller  vessels  being  called  frigates^ 
722 


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DIFEEMNT  KINDS  OF  SHIPS.  7J: 

oorvettes,  brigs,  cutters,  sloops,  &c.  The  English,  however,  reckon  six 
classes,  the  Dutch  seven,  and  the  French  five.  In  England,  ships  of  the 
first  class  number  850  to  900  men,  100  to  130  guns,  178  to  200  feet  in 
length,  and  2000  to  3200  tons  burden.  They  descend  in  proportion  until  we 
come  to  the  sixth  class,  which  have  150  to  200  men,  20  to  32  guns,  88  to  120 
feet  in  length,  and  400  to  680  tons  burden.  It  is  more  common,  however, 
to  designate  ships  by  the  number  of  their  guns.  Ships  which  carry  64  guns 
and  upwards  are  called  ships  of  the  line  {pi.  25,  ßg.  2),  because  they  form 
the  line  of  battle  in  a  naval  action  (pi,  29,ßg.  3),  and  at  sea  always  sail  ia 
a  line  before  or  abreast  of  each  other.  If  they  have  three  decks,  they  are 
called  three-deckers  ;  the  others  are  called  two-deckers,  PL  14,  fig.  5,  is  a 
French  ship  of  the  line  of  the  second  class.  Frigates  are  the  nM)st  rapid 
and  easy  sailers  of  all  ships.  Fig.  4  is  a  French  frigate  of  60  guns,  and 
pi.  10,  fig.  3,  is  one  of  the  latest  construction.  The  build  of  frigates  and 
their  outfit  serve  as  models  for  ships  of  the  line  and  other  men-of-war, 
which  are  said  to  be  frigate-built.  In  fact,  two-deckers  and  three-deckers 
are  nothing  but  frigates  with  one  or  two  additional  stories  and  larger  masts, 
although  their  masts  and  sails  are  smaller  in  proportion  than  those  of  frigates. 

The  interior  arrangement  of  ships  of  war  difiers  in  different  countries,  but 
it  may  be  reduced  to  three  principal  methods,  the  English,  the  French,  and 
the  Dutch,  as  other  countries  merely  copy  one  or  the  other  of  them,  with  more 
or  less  modifications.  Ships  of  war  of  90  or  more  guns  are  built  with  three 
decks,  and  those  of  50  to  80  guns  with  two  decks,  besides  those  which  are 
not  furnished  with  guns  or  only  partially.  Frigates  and  smaller  ships  have 
only  one  gun-deck  and  no  poop  deck.  The  gun-decks  are  numbered  from 
below,  and  are  also  called  lower,  middle^  and  main  or  upper  decks.  Each  deck 
between  the  main  deck  and  the  hold  is  called  a  between-deck.  The  deck 
is  divided  lengthwise  into  the  fore-deck,  midships-deck,  and  after-deck. 
The  lower  deck  carries  the  heaviest  guns,  in  three-deckers  mostly  36- 
pounders,  and  rarely  48-pounders  or  56-pounders.  The  middle  deck  carries 
24-pounders  and  18-pounders,  the  main  deck  12-pounders.  On  the  fore- 
castle and  quarter-deck  are  6-  and  8-pounders.  Two-deckers  have  light 
guns  throughout,  from  24-pounder8  to  4-  and  6-pounders.  We  will  give  a 
more  detailed  description  of  a  Dutch  and  a  French  two-decker,  as  it  is 
easy  to  apply  the  description  to  a  three-decker  or  a  frigate,  by  supposing 
one  deck  added  or  taken  away.  PI.  9,  fig.  27,  represents  the  longitudinal 
section,  and  pi.  10,  fig.  1,  the  upper  view  of  the  lower  gun-deck  ;  fig.  2,  the 
view  from  above  of  the  poop,  the  quarter-deck,  the  gangways,  as  well  as  the 
upper  part  of  the  middle  deck  of  a  Dutch  two-decker  of  74  guns.  Although 
many  parts  of  the  main  deck  are  concealed  by  the  forecastle,  the  quarter- 
deck, and  the  poop,  we  have  designated  their  place  by  numbers. 

The  holdj  A  (pL  9,  fig.  27),  is  the  space  between  the  keel  and  the  lower 
gun-deck.  It  ia  divided  into  the  lower  hold  and  the  upper  hold,  which  are 
separated  from  each  other  by  the  orlop,  a  light  deck  near  the  water  line. 
On  this  deck  are  the  steps  for  the  heel  of  the  mizen-mast  and  for  the 
gudgeon  of  the  forward  capstan  *' ;  the  lower  ends  of  the  bitts  "  are  also 
fastened  here     Th^  lower  officers  and  mechanics  have  their  berths  on  this 

72« 


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72  NAVAL  SCIENCES. 

deck,  though  they  have  no  fixed  position  on  it.  The  greater  part  of  it  k 
kept  empty,  in  order  to  stow  away  articles  on  it  during  an  engagencient 
which  would  otherwise  be  in  the  way.  The  space  beiow  the  oriop  is,  as  it 
were,  the  cellar  of  the  ship,  and  contains  many  rooms  of  varioos  kinds.  We 
here  see  the  keel ';  it  is  altogether  140  feet  long.  The  kebon*  parallel  with  the 
keel.  Between  these  pass  the  ship's  timbers,  which  set  into  grooves  in  the 
kelson  two  inches  deep.  The  spaces  between  them  are  filled  with  blocks 
called  dead-wood.  The  kelson  serves  to  support  the  heel  of  the  masts  aod 
of  the  main  capstan.  The  run*  where  the  ammunition  is  kept  The  three 
bread-rooms*  are  lined  with  tin,  for  the  better  preservation  of  the  biscait 
The  after  magazine*  contains  chests  filled  with  cartridges  and  kegs  of  powder ; 
and  in  order  to  lose  no  room,  firewood  is  stowed  in  the  vacant  spaces.  The 
room  is  lighted  with  the  powder-lantern.*  The  afier-hold^  is  floored  with 
boards  laid  on  the  ballast,  forming  a  sort  of  orlop,  and  contains  barrels  of  beer, 
salt  meat,  and  the  like,  the  spaces  being  filled  with  firewood.  The  captmn^s 
wine  hold'  is  on  the  starboard  side  and  is  separated  by  a  partiticm  from 
the  cheese-rooms*  on  the  larboard.  There  are  avenues  running  between 
the  partitions  and  around  and  through  them.  The  steward's  room,^^  where 
he  keeps  the  provisions  for  daily  use  and  distributes  them  to  the  galley 
and  to  the  men.  The  water-cistern  "  is  a  vessel  with  a  cock  to  supply  Ü» 
lower  hold  with  fresh  water,  after  the  spoiled  water  has  been  pumped  out 
It  is  useful  to  the  portion  of  the  ship  which  remains  under  water  to  keep  it 
full  of  water  to  a  certain  height  on  the  inside.  The  pump  well.^*  The  shot- 
lockers  ^*  are  places  on  each  side  of  the  pump  well  for  keeping  cannon  balls. 
The  cable-room^*  contains  the  cables,  disposed  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to 
disturb  the  equilibrium  of  the  ship.  The  floor  is  grated  for  the  water 
to  drop  from  the  ropes  into  the  lower  hold.  The  main-hoW*  Orlops  arc 
erected  here  (as  at  ^)  over  the  ballast.  On  these  are  placed  the  water-casks, 
over  them  the  beer  barrels,  and  then  smaller  barrels  of  provisions.  The 
carpenter's  timber  is  stowed  in  this  room.  At  about  half  the  height  of  the 
room  is  an  orlop  with  the  berths  of  the  sailing-master  and  of  the  boatswain 
and  his  mates.  During  an  engagement  the  chests  of  the  sailors  are  placed 
here,  and  are  so  arranged  that  the  wounded  can  be  laid  upon  them,  whUe 
their  wounds  are  dressed  by  the  sui^eon.  This  is  called  the  cock-pit.  The 
forward  provision  chests^'';  the  sailroom^\  where  are  kept  all  the  spare  sails, 
and  when  in  port  those  belonging  to  daily  use.  Here  also  are  peusages' 
at  the  centre  and  the  sides.  In  the  middle  one  are  hung  the  cartridge- 
boxes  and  powder-horns.  Here  is  a  second  cistern**  and  a  second  magm- 
zincy^^  similar  to  the  first.  The  forward  run"  is  the  most  forward  part  of 
the  hold,  containing  the  spare  ropes  and  rigging.  A  light  is  kept  here  day 
and  night  and  a  watchman. 

The  lower  deck,  also  the  first  deck,  B,  carries  fourteen  86-pounders  on 
each  side.  The  places  between  serve  for  the  quarters  of  the  sailors  and 
marines,  where  their  effects  are  kept,  and  where  at  night  their  hammocks 
are  hung.  PL  21,  fig,  4,  night  time  ;  fig.  6,  day  time.  PI  10,  fig.  1,  and 
pi.  21,  fig.  5,  show  the  position  and  in  part  the  fastening  of  the  guns.  The 
after  part  of  the  lower  deck  contains  the  room  of  the  msuter-at-arms,"^  pL 
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DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  SHIPS.  73 

9»  fig'  ^>  extending  from  the  stern  almost  to  the  mizen-mast»  where  it  is 
separated  by  a  thin  partition  covered  with  linen,  which  in  time  of  action 
b  removed.  Here  are  the  quarters  of  the  midshipmen,  the  clerk,  the 
surgeon,  the  chaplain,  and  others,  and  also,  according  to  the  room,  some 
of  the  officers  of  marines.  In  this  room,  which  is  often  partitioned  off  into 
several  smaller  rooms,  we  observe  the  tiller^*'  passing  along  the  deck  with 
the  tiUer  rope,  which  runs  on  both  sides  and  then  back  to  the  centre, 
going  through  each  deck  to  the  wheel*^'  on  the  quarter-deck.  The  run 
hatch  "'  ["],*  where  the  master-at-arms  keeps  his  stores.  The  bread  room 
hatch  *•'  ["].  The  passage  hatch  "'  ['^,  which,  as  the  hatch  to  the  after 
powder  magazine  is  in  the  centre  passage,  is  covered  with  lead  and  fastened 
with  a  padlock.  The  hatch  to  the  steward's  room  **'  ["]  leads  to  the  wine 
hold,  to  the  cheese  room,  and  to  the  after  lantern.  The  main  capstan  '*'  [**]. 
This  shows  also  the  mode  of  drawing  in  the  cable  by  the  messenger.  This 
rope  (pi.  11,  fig,  15  c)  is  from  9  to  12  inches  thick,  the  ends  connected 
tc^ther  (as  at  bed),  forming  a  ring.  Knots,  a,  are  made  in  it  at  the  dis- 
tance of  every  five  feet.  When  the  cable  is  to  be  hauled  in,  a  few  turns 
of  the  messenger  are  taken  round  the  capstan,  the  remainder  being  stretched 
to  the  bow  and  attached  to  the  cable  near  the  knots  by  little  flat  ropes  called 
nippers,  with  which  the  sailors  take  a  few  turns  round  both  cable  and 
messenger,  keeping  hold  of  the  ends,  walking  along  near  the  cable  as  it  is 
wound  on,  and  releasing  the  nipped  cable  when  they  have  reached  the 
hatchway  {pL  9,  fig.  27  '•'  [•*].  The  cable  then  descends  into  the  hold 
whilst  the  messenger  is  being  kept  winding  around  the  capstan,  the  unwound 
part,  of  course,  returning  to  the  bow,  where  the  same  operation  is  recom- 
menced, and  so  on,  until  the  whole  cable  is  brought  on  board.  The  hatch 
to  the  after  room  ***'  [*•]  leads  also  to  the  after  shot-locker  and  the  cable 
room.  On  each  side  of  the  hatch  are  two  stout  rollers,  on  which  the  messen- 
ger runs.  The  pumps  "'  [**]  discharge  the  water  into  gutters  which  carry  it 
to  the  scuppers.  The  main  hatch^**  ["]  leads  into  the  main  hold  and  serves 
to  let  down  the  barrels  with  which  it  is  stowed.  The  blacksmith's  shop  •'  ["] 
with  a  small  anvil,  and  a  movable  hearth  with  bellows.  The  floor  is  covered 
with  sheet  iron.  The  blacksmith's  shop  is  also  often  contiguous  to  the 
galley.  Th^  forward  capstan  "  ["].  The /oru?ard  hatch  "  ["]  leads  into  the 
forward  part  of  the  main  hold.  The  sheet  anchor  is  laid  here,  one  ai'm  of 
which  reaches  down  the  hatch.  The  bitts "  ["],  to  which  the  cable  is 
fastened.  The  hatch  to  the  forward  passages  **'  ["]  and  the  hatch  to  the 
forward  run  *•"  ["].  The  water  troughs  '*'  [••],  which  receive  and  lead  off 
the  water  which  comes  into  the  ship  when  the  anchor  is  hove  up.  The 
hawser  holes  "'  [**],  through  which  the  cable  passes. 

The  upper ^  or  second  deck,  C.  Although  the  poops,  the  quarter  deck,  and  the 
forecastle  are  all  over  this  deck,  it  is  called  the  upper  deck,  because  those 
parts  are  regarded  as  separate  appendages.  This  deck,  especially  with  the 
English,  is  now  entirely  built  over,  but  as  the  erections  have  no  broadsides 
of  guns  they  do  not  receive  the  name  of  decks.    The  parts  have  the  same 

*  The  figures  in  bndcets  [  ]  refer  to  pL  \%ßg9, 1,  2. 

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74  NAVAL  SCIENCES. 

names  as  before ;  the  forward  part  is  called  the  forecastle,  the  after  part 
the  quarter  deck,  and  the  passages  on  each  side  at  the  centre  the  gang- 
ways. In  the  deck  here  represented  we  find  the  cabin**  [**].  called  the 
lower  or  main  cabin.  It  resembles  an  elegant  parlor,  receiving  its  light 
through  glass  windows  in  the  stern.  In  time  of  action,  these  are  replaced 
by  frames  covered  with  fine  painted  wire.  The  port-holes  on  this  part  of 
the  deck  are  also  furnished  with  windows.  On  each  side  of  the  entrance 
to  the  cabin  is  a  small  room  for  keeping  eatables  and  other  stores. 

The  forward  wall  and  the  side  partitions  in  general  are  movable  and 
consist  of  lattice  frames  covered  with  linen,  and  are  taken  down  on  the 
commencement  of  an  action.     In  English  men-of-war  these  partitions  are 
often  of  wood,  but  so  constructed  as  to  be  easily  removed.     The  cabin  is 
finished  in  a  style  of  great  elegance  and  tastefully  painted,  and  even  the 
cannon  have  such  a  splendid  exterior  that  one  is  tempted  to  regard  them  as 
martial  ornaments.     There  is  sometimes  a  diflTerence  in  the  arrangement, 
as  after  the  upper  cabin  is  finished  the  admiral  or  other  high  dignitary  on 
board  takes  his  choice,  and  the  remaining  one  is  partitioned  off  as  quarters 
for  the  officers  or  their  personal  suite.     The  sleeping  room  of  the  com- 
mander-in-chief" ["],  if  he  has  his  quarters  in  the  main  cabin,  is  between 
that  and  the  second  cabin.    The  church  "  [**]  is  a  large  room  running  across 
the  deck,  which  is  separated  by  a  sail-cloth  curtain  from  the  poop  and  the 
other  portions  of  the  deck.  Divine  service  is  held  in  this  room,  and  at  the  same 
time  it  is  used  as  an  armory  and  as  a  mess-room  for  the  oflScers.    A  hatch  to 
the  lower  deck  "*  [**].    This  is  only  made  use  of  during  a  battle.     The  upper 
capstan*''  [**]  serves  as  a  support  for  the  main  capstan,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected.   The  stairs  to  the  quarter  deck  "  ["J.    The  after  hatch  ~  [*'].     The 
main  cross-pieces  ••  ["].    When  the  ship  is  at  sea,  some  spare  spars  are  placed, 
one  end  on  the  cross-piece  of  the  belaying  pins  and  the  other  on  the  fonte- 
castle,  while  other  spars  are  laid  crosswise  with  their  ends  on  the  gangways, 
forming  a  frame  for  the  long  boat  and  some  of  the  cutters.     The  maim 
hatch  *^  I**],  through  which  all  barrels  and  other  parts  of  the  ship's  lading  are 
lowered  into  the  hold.    A  hatch  with  two  ladders  **  [^],  leading  to  the  lower 
deck.    The  forwat'd  hatch  •*  ["]  is  over  that  of  the  lower  deck,  so  that  each 
leads  to  the  forward  part  of  the  hold.    The  caboose  or  galley"'  [••]  is  a  «aoall 
room  under   the   forecastle,  containing   apparatus  for  cooking,   provided 
with  a  hearth,  an  oven,  frying-pans,  &c.     The  carpenter's  shop  *'  ["]  con- 
tains also  the  berths  for  the  carpenter  and  his  mates.     The  cook's  berth  [••J. 

The  quarter-deck,  D,  carries  six  8-pounders  on  each  side,  and  is  the  place 
where  the  ofl[icers,  midshipmen,  and  sailors  keep  watch  {pl'2l,ßg.  1).  The 
cabin  in  the  after  part  {pi.  9,  ßg,  27")  ["]  is  arranged  like  the  lower  cabin, 
but  is  superior  to  it  in  some  respects.  In  addition  to  the  side  galleries  it  has 
also  a  stern  gallery.  From  the  cabin  door  the  whole  service  of  the  ship  can 
be  seen  at  once.  The  cabin  is  lighted  through  a  glass  door  in  the  after  part 
and  through  the  port-holes  ("). 

The  deck  over  the  cabin  is  called  the  poop-deck,  from  which  lyo  ladders 
(pi.  2lj  fig.  1,  and  pi.  10,  fig.  2)  lead  to  the  quarter-deck.    The  '  '^epers  1 

are  stationed  on  the  poop-deck,  with  the  chest  of  signal^i^     ^^      -cad    is-j 
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DIFFBRENT  KINDS  OF  8HIP8.  75 

thrown  from  the  fore  chain- wales,  but  haded  up  and  examined  on  the  poop 
deck  {pL  23, ßg.  4),  and  the  nautical  observations  are  here  taken;  it  for- 
merly carried  cannon,  but  now  it  has  only  swivels.    The  deck  runs  from  the 
tafTrail  to  the  mizen-mast,  where  it  has  a  railing,  which  projects  four  or  five 
feet  over  the  cabin,  resting  there  on  posts. 

Under  this  projection  is  the  wheel  (pL  9,  ßg.  27  ")  [*•].  It  is  about  nine 
feet  in  diameter,  with  an  axle  of  fifteen  inches  {pi  2l,ßg.  2). 

The  binnack  is  before  the  wheel.  This  is  a  wooden  box  with  three 
sliding  partitions;  in  the  middle  division  is  a  lamp  hanging  on  gimbals,  and 
in  each  of  the  contiguous  divisions  a  compass,  which  is  lighted  by  the  lamp. 
Here  also  are  kept  the  hour-glasses,  the  half-minute-glasses  for  the  log,  the 
spy-glasses,  and  the  copper  speaking-trumpets.  No  iron  must  be  used  about 
the  binnacle.     ^ 

The  deck-light  of  the  church  "  ["]  is  partly  covered  with  a  grating 
and  partly  with  windows,  forming  a  lantern  with  oblique  sides ;  in  rain  and 
storms  it  is  covered  with  a  tarpaulin. 

The  accommodaiion^adders  **  [*']  are  on  the  outside  of  the  ship  from  the 
forward  jwirt  of  the  quarter-deck  to  the  surface  of  the  water ;  they  have 
ropes  on  each  side,  which,  fastened  at  the  top  to  iron  bolts,  serve  as  balusters. 

The  gangways  *•  ["]  on  each  side  of  the  ship  connect  the  quarter-deck  with 
the  forecastle. 

The  forecastle,  E,  carries  three  8-pounders  on  each  side.  Two  ladders 
*^  [*']  lead  from  the  after  part  of  the  forecastle  to  the  main  deck ;  between 
the  forecastle  and  the  main  deck  is  the  ship's  hell  **  [*^],  which  is  rung 
from  the  main  deck;  the  chimneys  "  ["]  of  each  galley  have  movable 
p^ts,  to  prevent  the  return  of  the  smoke ;  the  fore-cross-pieces  ••  [•^,  for 
the  running  rigging  of  the  fore-mast ;  the  davits  **  [*^,  to  hold  the  anchor 
when  it  is  about  to  be  cast,  and  to  bring  it  up  when  it  is  hove  ;  the  kevels 
^  [*']  are  stout  cleats  on  the  sides  of  the  ship,  for  belaying  the  large  ropes. 

As  we  have  described  the  Dutch  ship  of  war  at  length,  we  need  not 
enter  into  details  with  regard  to  the  French  ship,  which  is  the  same  in  all 
essential  points,  differing  only  in  certain  arrangements,  which  are  shown 
mpL  12.  Fig.  1  is  the  main-forward-deck,  ßg,  2  the  after-deck,  and  ßg.  3 
a  lengthwise  view  of  a  French  two-decker,  with  a  portion  of  the  planking 
removed.  For  the  sake  of  still  greater  clearness,  we  have  given  on  pi  22, 
ßg.  1,  an  external  view  of  the  forward  part  of  a  French  frigate,  ßg.  2  the 
after  part  We  have  only  to  add  one  story,  and  we  have  a  two-decker. 
In  pi  I2,ßgs.  1, 2, 3,  AA  are  boats  hanging  at  their  scantlets ;  BB,  the  stern- 
galleries  ;  C,  the  rudder ;  D,  the  poop ;  E,  the  hammocks ;  F,  the  first  bat- 
tery ;  G,  the  second  battery ;  H,  the  third  (half)  battery ;  K,  the  davits, 
with  the  anchor ;  LL,  the  hawse  holes,  with  the  cables ;  N,  the  top ;  \  sail- 
ors on  the  main  top ;  ',  men  drying  the  sails ;  *,  hoisting  the  signal  flags ; 
*,  tarring  the  bowsprit ;  *,  lowering  the  water-casks  through  the  main  hatch ; 
',  the  surgeon  examining  the  sick ;  \  the  captain's  cabin ; ',  the  dining-room ; 
',  the  galley;  **,  midshipmen's  cabin  (see  also  pi  21,  ßg.  6) ;  ",  the  sailors' 
quarters ;  ",  drilling  at  the  guns ;  ",  oflScers'  cabin ;  ",  oflSoers'  mess-room ; 
^,  hospital ;  '*,  drilling  the  marines  ;  ",  the  sailors  at  dinner ;  '',  repairing 

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76  NAVAL  SdENCB. 

the  sails ;  '*,  provision-room ;  **,  sick-room ;  ",  small  boat ;  '*,  sail  and  ri^ng- 
room ;  ",  prison  (see  also  pL  25,  ßg,  8) ;  •*,  shot  and  rij^ng-room ;  **,  wine 
and  spirits-room ;  ",  powder  magazine ;  ",  tackle^oom ;  ••,  general  store- 
room ;  '•,  cattle-stalls ;  ",  fodder-room. 

Frigates  {pi.  14,  ßg.  4,  and  pi.  10,  fig.  3)  take  the  first  rank  after  ship« 
of  the  line,  and  are  built  on  a  similar  plan.  They  have  three  masts,  with 
the  same  kind  of  sails,  quarter-galleries  and  head,  with  forecastle  and  quar- 
ter-deck, but  no  poop,  and  only  one  gun-deck.  They  formerly  carried  as 
many  guns  on  the  forecastle  and  quarter-deck  as  on  the  main-deck,  but 
now  they  are  made  longer  in  preference,  in  order  to  have  the  cannon 
mostly  in  one  battery.  There  are  frigates  of  from  twenty  to  sixty  guns ; 
those  with  over  thirty  are  caUed  heavy  frigates.  Frigates  must  sail  rapidly 
and  near  the  wind,  but  at  the  same  time  be  able  to  bear  the  sea  in  a  strong 
windy  as  they  are  used  chiefly  as  cruisers,  sailing  in  all  directions  to  watch 
the  motions  of  the  enemy,  to  clear  the  sea,  to  convoy  merchantmen  in  time 
of  war,  or  to  bring  prizes  into  port.  In  a  general  engagement  they  take  no 
direct  part,  as  they  could  not  stand  long  against  a  ship  of  the  line.  They 
consequently  take  position  behind  the  line,  and  form  a  second  row,  protect- 
ing the  transport  and  hospital  ships,  and  coming  to  the  aid  of  the  ships  of 
the  line  at  the  orders  of  the  admiral.  Some  of  them  are  deputed  merely  to 
communicate  signals  from  the  admiral's  ship  during  the  battle,  and  artf 
hence  called  repeating  frigates.  After  an  engagement  the  frigates  take  in 
tow  those  ships  of  the  line  which  are  so  disabled  that  they  cannot  sail,  and, 
in  short,  they  perform  an  endless  variety  of  duties,  and  may  be  called  the 
light  troops  of  the  sea  service. 

Next  to  the  frigates  come  sloops-of-war,  also  three-masted,  but  sometimes 
with  only  two  masts,  built  like  fr^tes,  and  carrying  only  from  fourteen  to 
eighteen  guns.  The  two-masters  have  only  the  main-mast  and  the  fore- 
mast, each  of  them  somewhat  longer  in  proportion  than  those  of  frigates,  in 
order  to  supply  the  place  of  the  mizen-mast.  The  try-sail  is  attached 
to  the  main-mast  by  a  gaff;  it  is  broader  at  the  foot  than  at  the  head,  and  is 
stretched  by  a  sheet.  Instead  of  the  main-mast  it  is  sometimes  hung  to  the 
inow-mast,  a  spar  fastened  between  the  trestle-trees,  and  is  hence  called 
a  snow-sail.  Merchantmen  with  masts  of  this  kind  are  called  snows. 
Sloops  of  war  are  very  easy  and  rapid  sailers ;  they  are  used  to  convey 
orders,  for  cruising,  and  for  blockading  harbors  in  which  there  are  no 
ships  of  war.  PI.  14,  fig.  8,  is  a  three-masted  sloop  of  war,  frigate  built,  of 
twenty-two  guns. 

A  brig  or  brigantine  closely  resembles  a  two-masted  sloop,  for  which  it  is 
often  mistaken.  The  difference  consists  in  the  mizen-sail,  which  in  a  brig 
is  not  a  gaff-sail  but  a  boom-sail  {pi.  10,  fig.  6),  attached  by  a  boom  to  the 
main-mast.  As  the  boom  projects  over  the  stern,  and  must  be  turned,  there 
is  no  flag-staff,  and  the  flag  is  drawn  up  by  the  flag  line  to  the  gaflT-arm,  an 
arrangement  prevailing  in  all  vessels  which  have  boom-sails.  A  brig 
has  no  forecastle  or  poop-deck  ;  it  has  from  fourteen  to  twenty-two  guns. 
PI.  17,  fig.  4,  is  a  Swedish  20-gun  brig  of  war,  sailing  close  to  the  wind ; 
fig.  5,  an  English  20-gun  brig,  laid-to.  The  object  of  this  manosuvre 
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DIFFEHBNT  KINDS  OP  SHIPS.  77 

19  to  deaden  the  ship's  course  in  an  instant,  and  it  is  performed  by  bringing 
one  half  of  the  sail  to  the  wind,  and  bracing  the  others  aback.  Two 
signal  flags  ave  flying  at  the  fore  topsail  yard-arm  in  our  figure. 

Cutters^  another  kind  of  vessel  of  war,  have  an  entirely  diflerent  build, 
and  are  adapted  to  make  their  way  through  the  water  with  the  utmost 
rapidity«  They  are  rather  long ;  the  stem  is  small,  and  sits  deep  in  the 
water ;  the  prow  stands  perpendicular,  and  has  no  head.  A  cutter  at  the 
most  is  100  feet  long,  32  feet  wide,  and  eighteen  feet  deep,  of  180  to  860 
tons  burden,  and  carrying  from  6  to  6  light  guns,  usually  0-  or  8-pounders; 
they  have  only  one  mast,  very  high  and  inclining  towards  the  stem.  In 
small  cutters  the  mast  is  of  one  piece ;  in  those  of  a  larger  size  there  is  a 
top-mast  and  cross-trees,  but  no  top ;  the  bowsprit  lies  horizontally.  A  cutter 
has  a  boom-sail,  a  top-sail,  a  top-gallant-sail,  several  stay-sails,  and  some- 
times also  a  royal ;  a  studding-sail  and  a  spanker  may  also  be  used.  They 
are  employed  as  coast  guards,  and  to  carry  orders.  PI.  VI,  fig.  3,  shows  an 
English  war  cutter  close  to  the  wind.  The  cutters  in  the  merchant  service 
must  carry  other  sails.  A  smaller  kind  of  cutter  carries  from  four  to  eight 
light  guns. 

Schooners  are  built  like  cutters,  but  have  two  masts.  The  fore-mast 
carries  a  gafi*-sail,  and  the  main-mast  a  boom-sail  of  considerable  height 
Both  masts  have  stay-sails,  and  also  top-gallant-sails.  There  are  several 
stay-sails  on  the  bowsprit,  and  a  fore-stay-sail  on  the  fore-mast.  As  the 
stay-sails  have  no  efiect  when  the  vessel  is  directly  before  the  wind,  a 
square  fore-sail  is  then  set,  which  in  such  cases  is  also  used  in  sloops  and 
cutters.  A  schooner  carries  from  four  to  eight  light  guns.  A  variety  of 
manoeuvres  by  these  vessels  is  shown  on  pi  29, fig.  1. 

A  gallioi  is  a  medium  between  the  brig  and  the  schooner,  which  is  now 
in  common  use  in  the  navy  of  some  countries.  Its  sails  are  adapted  to 
take  the  greatest  advantage  of  the  wind,  and  this  circumstance,  as  well  as 
the  great  simplicity  of  the  rigging,  makes  it  a  favorite  when  light  guns  are 
to  be  used,  and  when  the  burden  is  under  four  hundred  tons.  They  gene- 
rally carry  from  ten  to  twenty  Irght  guns,  and  are  built  in  every  variety  of 
fashion.  The  common  galliot  has  a  yard  on  the  main-mast,  and  also  on  the 
fore-mast.  The  brig-galliot  has  on  the  fore-mast  the  fore-yard,  fore  topsail 
yard,  and  fore  topgallant-sail  yard  like  a  brig,  but  its  main-mast  is  galliot- 
rigged.  Both  masts  have  boom-sails,  and  the  fore-mast  has  two  stay-sails. 
PL  16,  fig.2,  is  a  Dutch  brig-galliot,  drying  sail.  There  is  sometimes  also 
a  royal  (/>/.  11^,  fig.  9).  PL  l^,fig.  1,  shows  one  galliot  with  only  a  yard  at 
the  fore-mast 

A  lugger  is  a  small  vessel  used  for  carrying  orders  and  the  like.  It  has 
two  masts  with  topmasts  standing  in  iron  rings.  The  four  sails  carried  on 
these  masts  are  fastened  to  yards.  The  bowsprit  can  be  extended  at  plea- 
sure, and  carry  two  or  three  stay-sails.  A  short  mast  stands  on  the  stern, 
serving  also  as  a  flagstaff,  to  which  a  spanker  can  be  attached.  Fig.  3  is 
an  English  lugger  giving  signals. 

We  most  also  here  make  mention  of  gaBeyt,  although  they  properiy  belong 
to  the  middle  ages.    They  are  still  used  to  some  extent  in  France,  Spain,  and 

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78  NAVAL  SCIENCB3. 

Portugal,  and  the  coast  guard  of  Swedon  consists  of  a  kiod  of  small  htf 
galleys.  The  galleys  alluded  to  in  the  public  joumab  are  properly  nothing  but 
ships  of  war  which  have  become  unfit  for  sea  service,  and  being  unrigged 
are  used  for  pnson-ships  {pL  I4,ßg>  6).  Similar  to  the  galleys,  but  smaller, 
are  the  feluccas,  used  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea  (pi.  4,  fig.  11,  is  a  fdnoca 
drawn  up  on  the  land),  which  are  usually  52  feet  long  and  12  feet  broad. 
They  are  used  both  with  sails  and  oars.  They  serve  for  the  most  part  as 
coasters,  and  are  furnished  only  with  some  very  light  guns  or  with  several 
swivels.  Usually  they  have  12  rowers  on  each  side.  The  feluccas  have 
two  masts,  projecting  forward  from  8^  to  5^  and  carrying  lateen  sails. 
There  are  twelve  openings  on  the  deck  for  the  rowers,  who  do  not  sit  on 
benches  but  on  the  inclosures  around  these  openings,  and  resting  their  feet 
on  blocks  inside  the  gunwale.  The  planks  which  form  the  sides  project  at 
the  stern,  and  are  connected  by  a  board  bearing  the  name  of  the  craft.  The 
helmsman  sits  at  the  end  of  this  extension,  as  the  tiller  turns  on  the  out- 
side, on  account  of  the  captain's  tent  which  occupies  the  stern. 

Xebecs  (pi,  15,  fig.  5),  used  in  the  Mediterranean,  are  long,  narrow, 
and  sharp-built  vessels,  serving  principally  as  cruisers.  The  smallest 
xebecs  have  12  guns,  and  the  largest  40.  They  carry  three  masts ;  the 
fore-mast  inclines  forward,  and  the  misen-mast  has  a  small  yard,  to  which 
a  square  sail  can  be  attached.  The  masts  have  no  topmasts,  but  only 
shrouds,  and  carry  lateen  sails.  The  gaff  is  composed  of  two  pieces  and 
is  longer  than  the  mast  tree.  The  rigging  for  the  sails  is  very  simple, 
*yet  these  vessels  sail  with  great  rapidity.  The  prow  forms  a  projecting 
beak,  which  takes  the  place  of  the  bowsprit.  The  stern  also  projects  and 
has  a  tent  for  the  captain. 

Qunhoats  are  built  in  a  different  fashion  in  almost  every  country.  They 
have  all,  however,  strong,  flat  bottoms,  as  they  must  keep  close  to  the  land« 
in  order  to  attack  fortified  places,  to  convoy  coasters,  or  to  land  troops. 
Although  they  can  present  no  resistance  to  large  ships  of  war  on  the  open 
sea,  they  can  give  them  great  annoyance  near  the  shore,  as  they  can  run 
in  and  out  of  places  which  the  ship  cannot  enter,,  on  account  of  the  greats 
draught.  The  small  boats  almost  always  hit  the  ship,  while  she  usually  fires 
over  them.  They  seldom  carry  more  than  4  or  6  guns,  which  fire  from  the 
bow  and  the  stern ;  they  have  only  one  mast,  with  a  boom  sail  or  gaff  sail  and  a 
stay-sail;  pi.  17,  fig>  1,  shows  a  Spanish  halancella  converted  into  a  gun- 
boat. 

Bomb  ketches  are  vessels  of  medium  size,  carrying  two  mortars  on  the  bow 
in  order  to  bombard  cities  and  harbors.  They  must  often  operate  near  the 
shore,  and  are  consequently  built  with  broad  and  rather  flat  bottoms  and 
with  great  strength  (pi.  4,  fig.  10),  in  order  to  bear  the  recoil  of  the  mortars. 
They  carry  a  main-mast  and  a  mizen-mast,  with  yard-sails  and  stay-sails. 
The  fore-stay-sails  are  very  large  in  proportion  to  the  others,  as  the  main- 
mast to  which  they  are  attached  stands  aft  of  midships  in  order  to  give 
room  to  the  battery  on  the  bow.  When  the  mortars  are  to  be  discharged, 
all  the  rigging  is  taken  down  from  the  mast,  and  only  the  fore-stay  remains 
in  its  place,  and  it  is«  therefore,  made  of  iron.  Bemdes  the  mortars,  the 
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DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  SHIPa  7d 

bomb-ketches  each  cany  6  light  guns  aft  of  the  main-mast.  The  EngKsh 
also  have  three-masted  bomb-ships  and  the  so  called  kits  for  the  same 
purpose,  with  a  main-mast  and  mizen-mast,  yard  sails  and  stay-sails,  and 
also  gaflf  sails  and  jibs. 

The  fire  ships,  which  are  used  to  burn  the  vessels  of  an  enemy,  have  no 
peculiar  construction,  but  are  old  vessels  no  longer  fit  for  sailing,  which  are 
entirely  filled  inside  with  pitch,  sulphur,  gunpowder,  and  other  combustible 
materials,  the  rigging  being  also  covered  with  tar,  or  sulphur  and  pitch 
united  together.  Everything  is  connected  by  trains  of  gunpowder,  so  that 
as  soon  as  the  priming  is  kindled  the  whole  vessel  is  instantly  on  fire. 
When  a  fire-ship  is  to  be  attached  to  a  vessel,  it  is  brought  to  the  wind« 
ward  side  ;  grappling-irons  are  fastened  on  the  yards  in  order  to  catch  into 
the  enemy's  rigging ;  they  are  also  thrown  upon  his  decks  and  their  chains 
drawn  tight ;  the  priming  is  then  kindled,  and  the  men  make  their  escape. 
Instead  of  fire-ships,  Congreve  rockets  are  now  generally  used.  (See  Mili- 
tary Pyrotechny.) 

Among  ships  of  war  are  also  included  war  steamers,  which  we  will  pass 
over  for  the  present,  as  we  shall  devote  a  section  to  steam-vessels,  in  which 
we  shall  recur  to  the  use  of  the  steam-engine  in  men-of-war.  We  must 
here,  however,  consider  one  or  two  other  kinds  of  vessels,  which  are  not, 
indeed,  directly  ships  of  war,  as  they  carry  no  guns,  but  are  still  made  use 
of  in  naval  warfare. 

Among  these  are  transport  ships,  used  for  carrying  troops,  horses,  and 
other  munitions  of  war  from  one  port  to  another,  or  to  the  stations  of 
men-of-war.  Every  fleet  has  a  number  of  these  ships  attached  to  it,  which 
carry  a  supply  of  sails,  rigging,  powder  and  ball,  provisions,  &c.,  in  order 
to  make  good  any  deficiency.  Transports  are  built  frigate-fashion,  but 
are  not  equipped  as  men-of-war.  During  an  action  they  are  stationed  in 
the  rear  of  the  line,  at  a  distance.  They,  however,  sometimes  have  a 
certain  number  of  guns  and  men,  so  that  at  least  they  can  defend  them- 
selves if  attacked  by  smaller  vessels.  The  interiors  of  these  vessels  are 
constructed  in  different  modes,  according  to  the  purposes  for  which  they 
are  intended,  either  to  transport  troops,  horses,  luggage,  freight,  artillery,  or 
provisions. 

Hospital' ships  are  generally  old  frigates  or  ships  of  the  line  past  service« 
the  decks  of  which  are  converted  into  wards  of  different  sizes  for  the  sick, 
and  rooms  for  the  physicians,  surgeons,  and  nurses,  together  with  an  apothe* 
cary's  shop.  Each  division  of  the  fleet  has  one  or  more  hospital-ships,  as 
only  patients  with  a  slight  sickness  are  kept  on  board  the  man-of-war  and 
the  wounded  only  receive  their  first  dressings  in  the  cock-pit. 

Prison-ships  have  the  same  general  arrangement,  though  the  rooms  used 
for  the  confinement  of  prisoners  are  smaller  and  stronger,  and  there  are 
also  rooms  for  work  and  for  religious  service.  The  overseers  and  officers 
have  their  quarters  in  the  cabin.  There  are  also  prison-ships  in  harbors, 
and  these  are  entirely  unri^^ed  and  covered  in.  Pi  14,  fig.  6,  is  an  English 
ship  of  the  line  of  the  first  class,  unrigged,  and  converted  into  a  prison-ship. 
It  might  also  be  used  as  an  hospital-ship. 

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to  NAVAL  8CIENCEB. 

PHvaieers  are  men-of-war  of  every  de«cription,  not  exceeding  light  frigates 
in  size.  They  are  fitted  out  in  time  of  war  by  private  persons,  in  order  to 
attack  the  enemy's  merchantmen  and  to  destroy  his  commerce.  They  receive 
a  commission,  called  a  letter  of  marque,  from  the  government,  with  which 
they  share  their  prizes.  The  vessel  captured  must  be  brought  into  a  port 
and  there  condemned  by  the  court  of  admiralty,  before  the  privateer  can 
claim  her  as  his  property.  Privateers  should  be  swift  sailers,  in  order 
to  overtake  their  prizes  and  to  escape  the  enemy's  cruisers.  Schocmers, 
luggers,  and  brigs  are  employed  as  privateers,  but  their  masts  and  sails 
are  larger  in  proportion  than  those  of  other  ships  of  war,  and  in  a  calm 
they  also  make  use  of  oars,  which  pass  through  small  openings  between 
the  port-holes. 

B,  Merchant  Vessels. 

Those  vessels  which  are  built  exclusively  for  the  merchant  service  are 
called  merchantmen.  The  guns  which  they  usually  carry  are  so  light  thai 
they  need  not  be  taken  into  account.  It  is  the  main  object  in  merchant 
vessels  to  gain  an  abundance  of  stowage-room  for  the  freight,  tc^ther  with 
the  necessary  accommodations  for  the  crew,  which  we  may  add  should  be 
as  small  in  number  as  possible.  The  spare  rigging  and  sails  are  mostly  kept 
in  the  forward  part  of  the  vessel,  as  this  space  is  so  much  occupied  by  the 
fore-mast  and  windlass  bitts  that  it  is  not  adapted  to  the  stowage  of  freight 
The  different  parts  of  the  merchant  vessel  are  less  exact  in  their  propor- 
tions than  in  ships  of  war,  and  their  construction  often  varies  essentially 
in  the  same  country.  The  smidler  vessels  do  not  compare  with  the  larger 
ones  in  swiftness  of  sailing,  though  they  are  more  pliable.  They  can, 
indeed,  be  built  to  sail  as  well  as  the  larger  ones,  but  in  that  case  they  must 
be  built  broader  in  proportion,  in  order  to  carry  more  sail,  consequently 
they  require  a  larger  crew,  so  that  the  advantage  is  again  lost.  We  have 
just  stated  the  properties  of  a  good  merchantman.  In  order  to  secure  these 
it  must  be  very  broad  in  proportion  to  its  length,  deep  in  the  hold,  and 
with  a  flat  bottom  ;  but  then  it  will  not  sail  rapidly,  nor  close  to  the  wind, 
and  the  less  as  it  is  laden  heavily  and  has  a  great  depth  of  draught.  For 
a  ship  to  sail  well,  close  to  the  wind,  making  small  leeway,  and  easily 
managed  in  a  rough  sea,  it  must  be  able  to  take  on  much  sail,  and  conse- 
quently must  be  stiff  in  the  timbers ;  it  must  be  of  good  breadth  of  beam, 
with  a  sharp  bottom,  and  on  account  of  the  large  sails  and  anchors  in  that 
case,  must  be  manned  with  a  numerous  crew.  If  a  smaQ  crew  is  to  be 
employed,  the  vessel  must  have  small  sails  and  anchors,  and  hence  must  be 
of  a  narrow  build ;  but  it  can  then  carry  little  freight.  These  various 
qualities,  it  is  evident,  are  for  the  most  part  inconsistent  with  each  other, 
and  on  that  account  the  main  proportions  of  merchantmen  differ,  according 
as  they  are  designed  for  different  objects. 

The  burden  of  merchantmen  is  measured  by  tons.    A  ton  weight  is  equal 

to  20  cwt.  dead  weight.     But  as  both  capacity  of  carriage  with  regard  to 

weight  and  room  for  stowage  have  to  be  taken  into  consideration,  the  ship 

is  usually  measured  by  the  latter,  and  a  ton  of  measurement  is  equal  to 

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DIFFEEBBPT  KINDS  (MF  SHIPS.  81 

40  oubio  feet)  bywhich  standard  light  goods  are  shipped,  whilst  dead  weight» 
with  which  the  ship  cannot  be  fully  laden  without  sinking,  is  reckoned  by 
tons'  weight,  according  to  the  ship's  capacity  of  burden. 

There  is  a  great  variety  in  the  kinds  of  merchantmen,  but  they  are  all 
more  simple  in  their  construction  than  ships  of  war.  Those  of  the  largest 
size  have  a  deck  below  the  main  deck,  called  the  between-deck^  in  the  forward 
part  of  which  is  the  cable-room,  where  the  cables  and  the  spare  rigging  are 
kept.  The  cabin,  which  is  usually  furnished  with  considerable  elegance,  is 
at  the  stem.  This  contains  the  sleeping  berths  for  the  captain  and  mates. 
In  the  run,  under  the  cabin,  is  a  saiUroom^  where  the  sails  are  kept,  and 
the  stewards  room,  for  provisions.  In  merchant  vessels  the  galley  (kitchen) 
is  on  the  deck,  abaft  the  fore-mast  or  between  the  main  and  fore  hatches. 
The  crew  have  their  berths  under  the  forecastle.  When  the  forward  hold 
of  the  ship  is  divided  off  by  a  partition,  the  space  is  called  ihi^  forward  run, 
and  serves  as  a  store-room  for  fresh  water,  firewood,  coal,  &c.  Vessels  of 
a  smaller  size  have  no  between-deok,  and  the  whole  interior  space  is  occu« 
pied  for  stowage,  except  a  small  portion  at  the  stern,  which  is  partitioned 
off  for  the  cabin.  For  the  crew  and  luggage  there  is  a  place  constructed 
on  the  deck  abaft  the  main-mast,  containing  the  galley,  the  steward's  room, 
and  the  sailors'  berths.  The  cables  and  spare  rigging  are  kept  on  the  deck, 
covered  with  tarpaulin.  As  regards  the  external  construction  and  ri^ng, 
merchantmen  are  classified  as  ships,  barques,  brigs,  schooners,  sloops,  cutters, 
luggers,  &c. 

FulUrigged  skips  have  three  masts  with  square  sails.  They  are  of 
sharp  construction,  with  a  head  and  sometimes  galleries.  PL26,ßgs.  9 ab, 
represent  French  ships  of  this  kind  under  sail.  PL  15,  fig.  1,  shows  the 
after  part  of  a  French  merchantman,  with  a  shark  being  drawn  in  at  the 
stern.  Vessels  of  this  kind  measure  from  800  to  1000  tons,  and  sometimes 
more.  The  East  Indiamen,  intended  for  long  voyages,  carry  8  or  10  small 
guns  on  each  side  of  the  between  deck.  In  the  middle  of  this  deck  places 
are  partitioned  off  for  the  sails,  the  spare  ri^ng,  and  the  ship's  stores. 
The  spaces  between  the  guns  form  the  quarters  of  the  crew,  who  often 
number  from  80  to  100  men.  The  galley  is  forward  in  the  bow.  The 
cabin  is  often  splendidly  fitted  up. 

Brigs  {pL  15,  fig.  11)  are  very  favorite  merchant  vessels,  as  they  have 
two  masts  with  square  sails  and  can  be  managed  by  few  men. 

Pinks  {pi.  16,  fig.  6)  are  used  principally  in  the  Mediterranean,  though 
less  common  now  than  formerly.  They  have  three  masts,  the  two  forward 
ones  being  made  out  of  one  piece.  They  have  lateen  sails.  A  projecting 
beak  takes  the  place  of  the  bowsprit.  The  sails  are  awkwardly  arranged. 
In  a  high  wind  ^square  sails  must  be  hoisted,  in  order  that  the  vessel 
may  stand  the  sea.  The  fore-mast  is  particularly  inconvenient,  as  it 
inclines  forward  to  an  excessive  degree.  In  the  North  Sea  and  the  Baltic 
the  name  pink  is  applied  to  three-masted  merchantmen,  which  difier 
from  barks  only  in  being  higher  built,  sharper  below,  and  narrower  in  the 
stern. 

Barques  are  three-masters,  square-rigged  on  the  fore  and  main  masts,  but 

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89  NAVAL  SdENOSB. 

with  gaff-sails  on  the  mizen.  Fig.  10  represents  a  barque  with  her  saik 
loose ;  pL  16,  ßg.  4,  one  at  anchor,  taking  in  freight.  By  a  barque  in  the 
Mediterranean  is  understood  a  short,  full-built  ship,  with  the  greatest  breadth 
forward.  The  main-mast  is  in  one  piece,  but  high,  and  fitted  with  a  main- 
sail, a  top-sail,  and  a  stay-sail ;  the  mizen-mast  is  in  the  common  form,  with 
top-mast  and  top-sail.  The  fore-mast  inclines  forward  and  carries  a  lateen- 
sail.    A  beak  takes  the  place  of  the  bowsprit. 

Galliots  are  two-masted.  They  carry  masts  and  sails  like  brigs,  only  the 
fore-mast  is  the  highest.    Fig.  8  shows  a  galliot  under  sail. 

Howkers,  when  they  are  three-  or  two-masters,  are  similar  to  the  galliots, 
but  have  a  head  forward.  They  usually  carry  a  main-mast  and  a  mizen- 
mast.  They  have  a  main-sail,  and  often  a  top-sail  and  top-gallant-saiL 
There  is  a  fore-stay  forward  with  a  jib,  and  often  a  flying-jib  on  the  jib- 
boom.  These  vessels  are  in  use  among  the  Dutch,  the  Danes,  and  the 
Swedes. 

Cutters  are  rather  flat,  round  at  stem  and  stem,  and  have  a  main-mast 
and  mizen-mast  {pi  16,  ßg.  1).  The  mizen-mast,  and  sometimes  also  the 
main-mast,  carries  a  gaff-sail  with  a  bonnet,  which  in  good  weather  is  laced 
to  the  lower  part  of  the  sail,  in  order  to  increase  its  area.  They  are  virtu- 
ally only  two-masted  sail-boats. 

A  kind  of  vessel,  called  a  tub,  is  used  in  the  North  Sea  and  the  Baltic, 
fitted  with  lee-boards,  in  order  to  prevent  too  great  lee-way  with  a  side 
wind.  These  lee-boards  are  made  of  thick  planks  plated  with  iron,  with 
about  twice  the  length  of  the  vessel's  depth,  and  the  breadth  equal  to  half 
the  length.  They  are  in  the  shape  of  a  butterfly's  wing.  They  are  attached 
to  the  sides  of  the  vessel,  where  they  turn  on  a  head-bolt,  and  when  in  use 
hang  like  a  sword  on  the  side.  There  is  one  on  each  side  of  the  ship, 
and  when  it  sails  near  the  wind,  the  lee-board  is  hung  perpendicularly  in 
the  water  on  the  lee-side,  enabling  the  ship  to  make  more  resistance  to  the 
wind  and  thus  diminishing  the  lee-way.  When  their  use  is  no  longer 
required,  they  are  drawn  back  by  a  tackle  to  the  sides  of  the  ship. 

Schooners  have  two  masts,  with  gaff-,  boom-,  and  stay-sails.  If  they 
carry  a  sail  between  the  mast-head  and  the  gaff,  they  are  called  U^saä 
schooners. 

Hermaphrodite  brigs  {pL  lß,ßg.  2)  are  two-masted  vessels,  brig-rigged 
forward  and  topsail-schooner-rigged  abaft. 

C  Ships  for  Special  Purposes. 

Certain  vessels,  which,  strictly  speaking,  belong  to  the  class  of  mer- 
chantmen, are  yet  built  for  special  purposes,  and  consequently  have 
a  peculiar  construction,  sometimes  in  the  exterior  b^t  always  in  the 
interior. 

Among  these  we  may  reckon  the  ßshermen,  merchant  vessels,  but  pro- 
vided with  the  necessary  apparatus,  boats,  and  other  arrangements  for 
fishing.  Whale-ships  {fig.  4)  are  built  for  the  pursuit  of  whales  in  the 
Northern  Ocean,  the  South  Sea,  and  on  the  north-west  coast  of  the  Pacific. 
They  are  usually  three-masters,  and  built  with  great  strength,  in  order  to 
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DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  SHIPS.  83 

resist  the  ice.  They  are  well  supplied  with  spare  boats  as  a  provisioa 
against  the  numerous  casualties  to  which  they  are  exposed. 

Large  three-masters,  called  ^«^,  are  built  in  Hdland  and  Hamburg  for 
the  whale  fishery,  round  at  stem  and  stem,  and  very  flat  throughout.  The 
masts  are  short  in  proportion,  and  the  ships  sail  too  slow  for  merchantmen. 
In  the  South  Sea,  as  it  is  a  great  distance  to  the  fisheries,  fast-sailing  vessels 
are  used,  carrying  presses  and  kettles,  in  order  to  press  out  the  blubber  on 
the  spot.  For  the  herring  fishery  a  kind  of  vessel  is  used  called  a  buss^ 
which  has  a  main-mast  with  a  main-sail,  a  top-sail,  a  stay-sail,  and  a  mizen- 
mast  with  a  half  mizen-sail.  The  nets  for  taking  the  herring  are  dragged 
by  the  ship,  and  when  filled  are  brought  in  by  the  windlass. 

Coasting  vesseb  are  used  for  the  coast  fisheries  as  well  as  for  the  coast- 
ing trade,  for  which  latter  purpose  they  are  built  lighter,  and  rigged  for 
rapid  sailing.  For  the  fisheries  they  are  built  heavier,  in  order  to  stand 
a  rough  sea.  PL  15,  ßg.  4,  is  a  French  coaster  fitted  out  as  a  fisherman. 
Smaller  vessels  are  cMed  fishing-smacks.  Fig*  2  is  a  Havre  de  Grace  vessel 
of  this  kind.  Fig.  8  is  a  vessel  used  in  the  Mediterranean  as  a  coaster, 
and  sometimes  for  longer  freighting  voyages,  as  they  are  of  a  good  size  and 
are  well  rigged.  PI.  11,  fig.  2,  is  the  forward  part  of  a  Normandy  fishing- 
smack.    PL  l&,fig*  1,  is  a  Newfoundland  fisherman. 

Slave  ships  {fig.  11)  are  vessels  which  purchase  slaves  on  the  coast  of 
Africa  in  order  to  sell  them  again  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  especially  in 
the  West  Indies  and  South  America.  They  are  usually  brigs  and  schooners ; 
they  must  be  fast  sailers,  and  therefore  have  large  masts  and  sails.  They 
must  also  be  of  a  broad  build,  for  the  sake  of  room  in  the  hold.  As  much 
has  been  done  by  the  English  to  prevent  the  slave  trade,  recourse  is  often 
had  to  the  most  cruel  measures  in  order  to  carry  as  many  slaves  as  possible 
in  one  vessel,  and  at  the  same  time  to  conceal  the  real  character  of  the 
freight.  The  forward  and  after  part  of  the  hold  is  consequently  used  for 
the  stowage  of  goods,  while  the  slaves  are  packed  together  amidships  in 
crowded  masses.  The  decks  are  divided  by  planks  at  half  their  height  into 
two  layers,  so  that  two  tiers  of  slaves  can  sit  and  lie  over  each  other  in  the 
same  part  of  the  deck,  for  standing  is  impossible.  The  French  brig  Vigilante 
was  captured,  in  1622,  with  345  slaves  in  the  middle  hold,  part  of  them  lying 
down  and  a  part  sitting,  like  the  Turks,  with  their  legs  folded  under  them. 
They  were  all  chained  together  in  couples,  and  also  chained  to  the  ship  in 
rows,  the  chain  passing  through  a  ring  in  their  iron  collars. 

Emigrant  ships  {pi.  16,  fig.  5)  are  merchantmen  which,  with  the  recent 
increase  of  emigration,  are  arranged  with  special  reference  to  this  object. 
They  are  for  the  most  part  three-deckers.  The  principal  object  being  to 
transport  passengers,  and  the  carrying  of  freight  being  incidental  whenever 
the  number  of  emigrants  leaves  any  spare  room,  the  between-deck  is  divided 
into  small  berths,  and  the  cabin  fitted  up  with  more  or  less  comfortable 
state  rooms,  for  which  the  richer  class  of  passengers  are  willing  to  pay 
a  higher  fare. 


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84  NAVAL  SdENCfflS, 

D.     Iron  Ships. 

The  increasing  use  of  iron,  and  the  obvious  advantages  growing  out  of 
it,  have  suggested  the  idea  of  constructing  iron  ships.  The  first  suocessfbl 
experiment  was  made  with  river  navigation;  but  soon  iron  sea-going  vessels 
were  built ;  and  in  1820  the  first  iron  steamship,  whose  parts  were  con- 
structed at  Birmingham,  made  the  voyage  between  England  and  France. 
Iron  men-of-war  are  now  built  200  feet  in  length.  These  vessels  possess 
the  advantage  of  lightness,  and  also,  as  the  carpentry  work  is  superseded  by 
narrow  iron  ties,  of  a  greater  amount  of  room ;  they  moreover  last  longer 
without  repairing,  the  one  mentioned  above  having  run  some  thirty  yean 
with  scarcely  any  repairs  being  found  necessary.  Iron  has  great  advantages 
for  screw  propellers,  as  these  must  be  built  very  sharp  towards  the  stem  for 
the  best  effect,  and  an  iron  stem-post  three  inches  thick  will  answer,  while 
one  of  timber  must  be  at  least  a  foot  in  breadth. 

In  iron  ships  the  keel  and  ribs  are  made  of  iron;  the  different  parts  of  the 
keel  are  connected  with  each  other  and  with  the  stemson  and  stem  by 
flat  bands  15  to  18  inches  long,  which  are  strongly  riveted  together,  and 
joined  to  the  adjacent  plates  at  half  their  length ;  the  ribs  are  curved  over 
iron  models  of  one  inch  in  breadth  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  corres- 
t>onding  with  the  draught-jdan ;  and  then  the  plates  are  laid  upon  them  in 
courses,  and  bored  with  holes  to  match.  In  vessds  of  large  and  medium 
size  the  ribs  usually  consist  of  two  or  three  pieces,  the  floor-piece  and  two 
top-pieces,  which  are  joined  together  in  the  centre  of  the  plates  by  iron 
bands.  When  one  of  the  ribs  is  so  far  completed  it  is  fastened  to  its  place 
on  the  keel,  and  temporarily  attached  to  the  deck-frame  by  a  band.  Each 
plate  is  joined  to  the  rib  by  four  rivets,  two  in  the  centre  and  one  at  each 
seam.  These  last  it  has  in  common  with  the  adjoining  plates.  The 
plating  commences  as  soon  as  the  ribs  are  connected  with  each  other  and 
with  the  stemson  and  stem.  The  plates  are  bent  into  form  over  a 
cast-iron  model ;  they  are  first  heated,  and  then  beaten  into  shape  by 
large  wooden  beetles.  Up  to  the  water-line  the  plates  are  half  an  inch 
thick,  and  above  rather  lighter ;  they  lap  over  each  other,  and  are  riveted 
at  the  joibts.  Sometimes,  when  a  degree  of  el^ance  in  the  construction  is 
required,  they  do  not  lap  over  each  other,  but  meet  square  at  the  ends,  being 
joined  on  the  inside  by  iron  bands,  and  in  that  case  they  receive  a  doubk 
riveting.  The  plates  are  fastened  together  in  the  same  manner  in  the  length- 
wise direction  of  the  ship ;  they  are  also  sometimes  double  riveted  when  they 
lap  over  each  other,  and  in  that  case,  according  to  Fairbaim,  are  15  per  cent 
stronger.  The  keel-plates  and  the  wale-plates  are  at  least  double  riveted. 
The  deck  is  sometimes  made  of  iron  plates  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick ;  it  is 
thus  on  the  whole  more  durable,  but  not  so  convenient  for  the  crew,  as  they 
are  apt  to  slip  when  there  is  water  on  the  deck.  Iron  vessels  oudast  three  or 
four  times  those  made  of  timber,  provided  they  are  kept  in  good  order  and  free 
from  rust.  The  plates  between  wind  and  water  sufier  the  most»  and  most 
often  be  painted  anew.  PI.  \l,fig'  2,  represents  the  battery  of  an  iron  steam 
propeller,  this  mode  of  construction  being  now  applied  to  men-of-war. 


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DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  SHIPS.  85 

E.     Steamships. 

When  steam  power  is  used  instead  of  sails  to  propel  a  vessel,  it  is  called 
a  steamship,  steamer,  or  steamboat.  Soon  after  the  invention  of  the  steam- 
engine,  the  idea  occurred  of  applying  it  to  navigation ;  but  it  was  not  until 
the  year  1807  that  Fulton  built  the  first  steamboat.  This  was  used  on  the 
Hudson  river.  In  1813  the  first  steamboat  was  seen  on  the  Thames,  and 
soon  they  were  brought  into  use^on  the  North  Sea  and  the  Baltic,  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  Atlantic  coasts.  Steam  navigation  between  America 
and  Europe  was  introduced  at  a  much  later  period,  after  having  for  a  long 
time  been  pronounced  impossible. 

As  just  stated,  the  steam-engine  is  the  moving  power  in  steamships, 
sails  being  only  occasionally  used  as  an  additional  force,  in  order  to  save 
fuel.  In  steamships  the  engine  is  arranged  either  to  drive  paddle  wheels  or 
an  Archimedean  screw,  the  vessel  being  propelled  by  each  of  these  moving 
powers.  The  engine  generally  differs  little  from  those  in  common  use, 
except  that,  on  account  of  the  limited  space,  the  working-beam  is  either 
omitted  or  placed  in  a  low  part  of  the  engine.  As  we  have  ahready  described 
the  different  parts  of  the  steam-engine  (see  Mechanics,  in  Vol.  I.)  we  will  here 
merely  give  an  account  of  some  of  the  best  steam-engines  that  have  been 
constructed  for  ships.  PL  IS,  figs,  1  to  9,  represent  a  steam-engine  of  160 
horse-power,  consisting  of  two  connected  engines  working  on  a  common 
crank-axle,  the  ends  of  which  carry  two  paddle-wheels,  the  axle  passing 
through  the  whole  breadth  of  the  ship.  Fig,  1  represents  the  two  engines, 
the  larboard  engine  in  a  front  view,  and  the  starboard  one  in  a  section 
through  the  regulating  cylinder ;  the  air-pump,  the  condenser,  and  its  pipes 
are  left  out  for  the  sake  of  greater  clearness ;  fig,  2  is  a  horizontal  section 
of  the  regulating  cylinder,  and  fig,  3  a  vertical  section  of  the  same ;  figs,  4, 
5,  and  6,  are  the  details  of  a  cylindrical  sliding- valve  ;  fig.  7  is  a  side  view 
of  the  larboard  engine,  with  a  vertical  section  of  a  part  of  the  deck ;  fig.  7 ', 
and^^.  7^  are  details  of  the  regulation  for  the  injection  of  steam  ;  fig.  8  is 
a  half  horizontal  section  of  the  larboard  engine,  in  the  direction  of  the  line 
1,  2,  in^^.  7 ;  fig»  9  is  a  half  view  from  above  of  the  same  engine ;  A  is  the 
steam  cylinder,  in  the  chamber  of  which,  A^  the  air-tight  and  steam-tight 
piston-rod  moves  up  and  down,  being  secured  in  a  perpendicular  direction 
at  the  top  by  the  plate,  J,  which  rests  on  the  supports,  J'.  The  piston-head, 
G',  raises  one  end  of  the  lever,  6,  which  moves  at  the  other  end  on  the 
pillar,  H.  In  order  that  the  piston-head,  and  the  lever,  G,  may  follow  the 
perpendicular  direction  of  the  piston,  the  cross-bar,  I,  is  applied,  which  turns 
around  the  gudgeon,  ^',  on  the  plate,  J,  and  moves  on  the  lever  at  f;  from 
the  lever,  G,  the  double  connecting-rod,  K,  moving  on  the  gudgeon,  K', 
passes  to  the  working-beam,  L,  which  moves  on  the  gudgeon,  K";  the  work- 
ing beam  plays  on  the  point  h'\  and  at  the  gudgeon,  K',  is  a  third  connecting- 
rod,  M,  which  runs  to  the  crank,  N,  of  the  main  axle,  and  causes  the  paddle- 
wheels  to  revolve.  The  lever,  G,  consists  of  two  separate  pieces,  which 
are  fastened  together  by  the  bolts,  g  ;  the  main  axle,  O,  rests  on  four 
bearers,  P',  which  oscillate  on  four  iron  pillars,  P,  with  gudgeons  at  each 

ICONOQRAPHIC   BNCTCLOPÜDIA. — VOL.  III.  47  737 


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86  NAVAL  SCIENCES. 

end,  of  which  the  upper  ones  are  connected  with  the  bearers  of  the  axle, 
while  the  lower  ones  rest  on  firm  supports  on  the  floor.  In  this  way  the 
axle  is  made  to  admit,  to  a  certain  extent,  of  alterations  in  the  construction 
of  the  vessel.  The  two  inside  pillars  are  connected  by  the  piece  P",  and  the 
inside  bearers  of  the  axle  by  the  braces,  P'",  while  between  the  ship's 
beams,  adjacent  to  the  engine,  braces,  p",  are  inserted  with  the  disks,  t'. 
The  supply  of  steam  in  the  cylinder,  A,  is  efiected  by  means  of  the  regulat- 
ing cylinder,  B  and  B',  into  which  the  steam  passes  through  the  pipe>  a", 
with  the  valve,  a.  The  connexion  between  the  regulating  cylinders  and 
the  cylinder.  A,  is  shown  in  pi.  18,  ßg.  2,  in  the  direction  of  the  transverse 
line  1-2,  in  fig,  3 ;  and  in  the  direction  of  the  transverse  line  3-4,  in 
fig.  2.  The  regulating  cylinders  have  sliding  valves,  of  which  the  details 
may  be  seen  in  figs.  4,  5,  and  6,  the  valve-rod,  c,  being  connected  with 
the  regulating  apparatus  of  the  whole  engine.  This  apparatus  is  con- 
structed as  follows  :  On  the  axle,  O,  is  placed  the  eccentric,  Q^  from  which 
the  sliding-rod,  Q",  extends  to  the  crank-bearing,  i ;  this  bearing  supports 
on  its  axis  the  lever,  kj  which  is  joined  by  the  connecting-rod,  l^  to  the 
angular  lever,  mn ;  this  turns  on  the  gudgeon,  n\  raising  and  lowering  the 
valve-rod,  c,  at  a  calculated  rate  of  velocity ;  the  range  of  this  movement  is 
determined  by  the  situation  of  the  arrangement  f'i''i'".  An  additional  slid- 
ing lever,  k\  is  placed  on  the  crank-axle,  k,  the  difierent  positions  of  which 
are  shown  in^^.  7  a,  BXiAfig.  7  h.  This  lever  moves  the  sliding  rod,  / ,  and  by 
means  of  this  and  the  leverage,  o'  V I" k"'j" k' l"p',  the  steam  is  brought 
into  the  condenser,  E,  and  its  admission  regulated ;  the  cold  water  is  injected 
by  the  pump,  Z,  the  supply-pipe  of  which  is  U,  and  the  piston-rod,  V,  con- 
nected  with  the  working-beam,  L ;  the  admission  of  the  water  is  regulated 
by  the  apparatus,  L';  the  pipe,  D',  conducts  the  water  into  the  condensing- 
trough,  D ;  the  injection  is  regulated  by  a  valve,  which  can  be  regulated  on 
the  disk,  D'";  the  condensed  water  is  raised  to  S  by  the  hot- water  pump,  E,  the 
piston-rod  of  which  is  moved  by  the  lever,  g\  of  the  working-beam,  L,  and 
returns  through  S'  and  S^^  to  the  boiler.  Fig.  13  represents  a  self-acting 
exhausting  apparatus  in  section,  and^^.  14  in  outline  \figs.  11,  12, 15,  details 
of  the  stop-cocks.  A  is  the  chamber,  with  the  two  valves,  a,  6,  which  act 
on  the  pipes,  C  and  B ;  of  these,  a  is  a  hand- valve  and  b  the  self-acting 
valve.  Both  valve-rods  pass  air-tight  into  stuffing-boxes  on  the  upper  part 
of  the  chest.  D  and  B'  are  water-pipes,  and  E  the  stop-cock.  Oq  the 
valve-rod  of  b  is  a  ring,  connecting  it  with  the  two-armed  lever,  G,  which 
turns  on  /;  ^  is  a  weight,  which  balances  the  ball,  S'.  As  soon  as  the  air 
is  rarefied  in  H,  the  piston,  h\  falls  in  the  pipe ;  the  weight,  g,  is  raised  at 
the  same  time  with  the  valve,  6,  and  the  exhaustion  is  efieoted  ;  j(;  is  a  pipe 
communicating  with  the  supply-pipe,  A,  and  the  atmosphere. 

PL  1^  fig.  1,  represents  a  longitudinal  section,  and  pi.  18,  jf^.  10,  a  side 
view  of  the  engine  of  450  horse-power  belonging  to  the  steamship  Albatross. 
In  the  following  description  the  letters  in  brackets  refer  to  pi.  18,  ßg.  10. 
A  is  the  steam-cylinder,  into  which  the  steam  is  conducted  by  the  regulating 
cylinder  B,  partly  over  and  partly  under  the  piston,  and  then  into  the  coo- 
denser.  C  is  the  bed-plate  of  the  engine,  and  D  the  condenser  lying  under- 
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DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  SHIPS.  87 

neath.  The  cylinder  A  is  surrounded  by  a  jacket,  A',  in  order  to  prevent 
the  cooling  of  the  steam.  A  constant  body  of  steam  circulates  around  the 
cylinder,  passing  off  as  it  becomes  condensed  into  water.  The  upper  cap  of 
the  cylinder  A*  has  a  lubricator,  s.  In  the  steam  cylinder  is  the  piston,  P, 
with  the  metallic  casing,  F',  and  at  the  piston  head,  G'  [C],  a  connecting-rod 
[B]  passes  to  the  working-beam  G  [E'j,  and  moves  it  up  and  down  on  its 
pivot,  /  [E].  The  cross-piece  I  [D]  is  attached  to  the  first  connecting-rod, 
moving  the  lever  HA  in  the  different  positions  V  and  P,  to  which  is  hung  the 
piston-rod,  K,  for  the  air-pump.  At  the  other  arm  of  G,  in  L  [E"],  is  the  con- 
necting-rod,  M  [L],  which,  in  the  positions  L^  and  L'  of  the  working-beam  G, 
turns  the  crank  gudgeon  N  [L],  and  thus  puts  in  motion  the  axis  of  the  paddle- 
wheels  O  [M].  On  the  axis,  O,  is  the  eccentric,  Q  [M'],  and  also  a 
second  eccentric  in  the  opposite  direction.  This  eccentric,  Q  [M'],  acts 
by  a  sliding  rod,  Q'  [N],  on  the  regulating  lever,  m  [N'],  with  a  movable 
counterpoise,  and  by  the  regulating  lever  [P]  on  the  sliding  rod,  J  [J], 
of  the  regulating  valve,  B,  in  the  cylinder,  B.  Fl  Id,  figs,  19,20, 21,  shows 
the  position  of  the  different  regulating  levers  and  valves  for  the  admission 
of  steam  over  the  piston ;  and  figs,  25,  26,  27,  for  the  escape  of  the  steam 
into  the  condenser.  The  letters  are  the  same  as  on  the  parts  Represented 
in^^.  1.  On  the  working-beam  G  [E],  at  [F],  is  hung  the  sliding-rod  for 
the  piston-rod  [Q]  of  the  piston,  R,  of  the  hot- water  pump,  E,  which 
through  the  valve,  R',  raises  the  water  from  the  condenser,  D,  through  o' 
to  S,  whence  it  returns  through  S'  to  the  boiler.  The  piston-rod  with 
its  head  [G]  passes  through  the  stuffing-box,  T.  P  is  the  frame  of  the 
engine. 

The  marine  engine  is  fed  from  a  boiler  in  the  same  manner  as  those 
used  on  land.  Steamships  are  furnished  with  from  four  to  six  boilers. 
PI,  19,  figs.  12-15,  represents  a  common  boiler,  one  belonging  to  the  French 
steamship  Tancred,  Fig.  12  is  a  front  view  ;  fig.  13,  a  transverse  section  ; 
fig.  14,  a  longitudinal  section ;  Siudfig.  15,  a  horizontal  .section.  The  same 
letters  in  each  of  the  figures  refer  to  the  same  parts.  A,  A',  A",  are  portions 
of  the  boiler,  which  is  heated  by  the  grates,  B.  From  these  the  flame  passes 
through  the  chamber,  C,  and  the  flues,  D,  which  run  in  different  directions 
around  the  boiler,  the  smoke  escaping  by  the  chimney,  F.  The  steam 
collects  in  the  chamber,  G,  whence  it  raises  the  valve,  efgg",  and  passes 
through  the  pipe,  J,  as  soon  as  it  has  sufficient  force  to  raise  the  valve,  I. 
The  pipe  H  is  the  steam-pipe  which  conducts  the  steam  to  the  engine. 
K  is  the  man-hole  for  cleaning  the  boiler.  The  pipes,  L,  L',  L",  which  are 
shut  by  the  cocks,  M,  communicate  with  the  atmosphere  by  the  pipe  b. 
The  apparatus  OPR  is  connected  on  one  side  with  the  cold-water  pump, 
and  on  the  other  side  with  the  conducting  pipes  of  the  condenser,  in  order 
to  supply  the  boiler  with  water.  Of  late  the  tubular  boilers,  which  have 
heretofore  been  used  only  for  locomotives,  have  been  introduced  success- 
fully into  steamships.  Figs.  16-18  represent  a  tubular  boiler  for  an  engine 
of  450  horse-power,  belonging  to  the  English  frigate  Phenix.  Fig.  16  is 
the  front  view  and  transverse  section ;  fig.  17,  the  longitudinal  section ; 
sndfig.  18,  the  view  of  one  half  from  above.    A  is  the  water  chamber ; 

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88  NAVAL  SCIENCES. 

B,  the  steam  chamber ;  D,  the  furnaces  with  the  grates,  6 ;  and  the  ash* 
pans,  which  are  shut  by  the  doors,  e.  The  flame  passes  through  F,  behind 
the  tubes,  then  through  them,  when  it  heats  the  water,  which  also  surrounds 
all  the  heated  tubes,  converting  it  into  steam,  and  finally  passes  through  the 
front  flue,  I,  into  the  chimney,  C.  The  valves,  a,  give  access  to  the  tubes, 
for  the  purpose  of  repairing  them,  and  the  state  of  the  fire  may  be  ascer- 
tained by  the  sliders,  6,  b',  h";  c  and  d  are  gauges  showing  the  height  of  the 
water.  It  will  be  perceived  that  here  are  two  boilers,  adjacent  to  each 
other,  with  a  common  chimney. 

The  earliest  method  of  propelling  steamships,  and  the  most  usual  to  the 
present  day,  is  by  paddle-wheels.  PI,  18,  fig.  20,  shows  a  longitudinal  sec- 
tion ;  fig,  21,  the  upper  part  of  the  deck  and  the  lower  half  of  the  frame ;  and 
fig.  22,  the  vertical  cross-section  of  such  a  steamship.  In  the  middle  of  the 
ship,  at  F,  is  the  engine,  which,  by  its  motion  on  the  crank  a,  turns  the 
axis  A,  as  we  have  seen  above  in  the  description  of  the  steam-engine.  On 
each,  end  of  this  axis.  A,  are  two  large  paddle-wheels,  C,  which  by  their 
revolution  act  as  oars  and  propel  the  ship.  The  boilers  are  at  E,  and  D  is 
the  sheet  iron  chimney.  O  is  the  engineer's  room,  and  G6  are  the  wheel- 
houses.  The  paddle-wheels  are  from  11  to  35  feet  in  diameter,  and  from 
3  to  12  feet  in  breadth.  Their  frames  are  of  wrought  iron ;  the  floats  are 
of  wood,  standing  obliquely  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  in  order  to  avoid 
the  tremendous  noise  when  the  wheel  strikes,  and  to  diminish  the  lo^  of 
power  which  always  takes  place  at  that  time.  The  wheels  sink  about  the 
breadth  of  their  paddles  into  the  water.  In  order  to  take  advantage  of  a 
favorable  wind,  steamships  are  fitted  out  with  masts  and  a  pretty  complete 
set  of  sails,  consisting  both  of  yard-sails  and  gafi*-sails.  The  bowsprit 
carries  a  jib  and  stay-sail. 

The  first  war-steamer  was  built  in  America  in  1814.  It  was  bomb-prooC 
five  feet  thick  in  the  sides,  in  order  the  better  to  resist  the  shot  of  the 
enemy,  and  consisted  of  two  vessels  connected  together,  one  of  which  had 
the  furnace  and  boiler  and  the  other  the  steam-engine.  Between  the  two 
was  the  paddle-wheel.  It  also  carried  masts.  The  main-deck  bore  32 
18-pounder  carronades,  the  balls  for  which  were  heated  in  the  furnace.  It 
had  an  apparatus  by  which  sixty  casks  of  hot  water  could  be  thrown  upon 
an  enemy  who  should  attempt  to  board.  PL  17,  fig»  6,  represents  a  French 
steam-frigate  with  three  masts,  and  which  in  case  of  necessity  can  be 
propelled  altogether  by  sails.  PI.  16,  fig.  6,  is  the  Bremen  steamboat 
Chitenberg,  plying  between  Bremen  and  Bremen-haven,  and  carrying  no 
sails.  Fig.  7  is  the  American  steamer  Washington,  built  in  New  York  in 
1846-7.  The  deck  of  this  ship  measures  230  feet.  Its  tonnage  is  2000  tons 
carpenters'  measure.  The  keel  is  16  inches  square.  The  frame  is  of  white 
oak.  The  main-mast  is  80  feet  high  and  28  inches  in  diameter,  the  fore- 
mast 78  feet  high  and  25  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  mizen-mast  76  feet 
high  and  21  inches  in  diameter.  The  bowsprit  is  45  feet  long,  and  the  jib> 
boom  24  feet.  The  ship  has  two  engines  with  72-inch  cylinders  and  10  feet 
stroke.  The  frame,  the  axis,  and  the  working-beam  are  of  wrought-iron. 
The  wheels  are  30  feet  in  diameter.  Each  of  the  boilers  is  36  feet  long 
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DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  SHIPS.  89 

and  15  broad,  and  weighs  43  tons.  They  are  tested  at  a  pressure  of  thirty 
pounds  to  the  square  inch.  The  ship  can  make  from  8  to  10  miles  an 
hour  without  sails.  The  first  cabin  accommodates  142  passengers,  and  is 
fitted  up  with  great  elegance.  The  main  saloon  is  85  feet  long  and  22  feet 
broad.  There  are  also  a  barber's  shop  and  smoking-rooms.  The  galley 
contains  575  square  feet  of  surface  and  cooks  for  400  persons.  There  is  a 
second  cabin.  In  the  lower  hold  there  are  large  iron  cisterns,  from  which 
water  can  be  carried  to  any  part  of  the  vessel  by  force  pumps.  The 
hold  has  375  tons  of  stowage-room  for  merchandise.  A  special  room  is 
appropriated  to  the  mail.  The  Washington,  although  long  since  super- 
seded both  in  swiftness  and  elegance  by  other  ocean  steamers,  deserves 
to  be  recorded  as  the  pioneer  of  American  Trans-Atlantic  steam  navi- 
gation. 

It  may  be  desirable  under  certain  circumstances  for  one  of  the  paddle- 
wheels  to  work  while  the  other  stands  still ;  but  as  the  axis  with  its  crank 
is  of  one  piece,  such  an  arrangement  of  the  wheels  would  be  impossible.  A 
special  apparatus  has  consequently  been  invented,  and  is  shown  in  pL  18, 
ßgs.  16  to  19.  Pig.  16  is  a  side  view,  ßg.  17  a  cross-beam  of  the  appa- 
ratus,^^. 19  a  front  view ;  sndfig.  18  a'  view  from  above  after  the  removal 
of  the  upper  cap.  The  axis,  O,  the  crank,  N,  and  the  cross-beam,  M',  on 
each  side  are  of  one  piece,  and  to  the  cross-piece  is  attached  the  connect- 
ing-rod, M,  which,  when  moved  by  the  engine,  puts  this  part  of  the  axis  in 
motion.  The  place  of  the  second  crank  is  supplied  by  the  apparatus.  A 
cross-beam,  M,  is  placed  on  a  gudgeon  resting  on  the  screw-block,  F, 
which  is  covered  by  the  plate,  C,  through  which  the  screw,  V,  passes,  in 
order  to  secure  the  gudgeon,  M' ;  //,  are  two  screws,  which  tighten  or 
loosen  the  band,  B ;  the  block,  F,  has  cogs  underneath,  so  that  when  the 
band,  B,  is  drawn  tight  it  catches  into  the  teeth  of  the  disk,  N,  and  makes 
it  revolve  with  it.  As  the  disk,  N,  and  the  axis,  O,  are  concentric,  this 
disk,  as  well  as  the  axis,  O',  of  the  paddle-wheel,  which  is  connected  with 
it,  must  revolve  at  the  same  time  with  O.  But  if  the  band,  B,  is  loosened 
by  the  screws,  //,  the  disk,  N,  slides  and  becomes  out  of  gear  with  F,  and 
consequently  only  the  block,  F,  moves  with  the  axis,  O,  while  O  stands 
still,  until  the  screws,  //,  and  hence  the  band,  B,  are  tightened,  and  the 
disk,  N,  is  again  brought  into  gear  with  P. 

We  will  now  consider  those  steamships  which  have  Archimedean  screws, 
or  simply  the  screw-propellers,  which  have  recently  come  into  frequent  use, 
though  it  is  not  more  than  nine  or  ten  years  since  the  first  experiments  with 
them  were  made. 

It  was  desired  to  simplify  the  propelling  apparatus  of  a  ship  as  far  as  it 
could  be  done  without  diminishing  the  velocity,  to  avoid  the  risk  of  break- 
ing the  paddle-wheels,  and  to  protect  the  motor  of  the  vessel  in  men-of-war 
firom  the  enemy's  fire,  by  which  the  wheel-houses  were  easily  destroyed : 
the  Archimedean  screw  fulfils  all  these  conditions.  As  early  as  1768  it  was 
proposed  by  Paucton,  a  French  mathematician,  to  propel  a  vessel  by  means 
of  the  Archimedean  screw,  but  he  was  only  laughed  at.  This  did  not  pre- 
vent Delisle,  an  engineer  in  France,  from  entertaining  the  same  plan  in 

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90  NAVAL  SCIENCES. 

1823.  He  suggested  the  application  of  the  Archimedean  screw  to  the 
marine  steam-engines,  but  obtained  no  success ;  until  at  last  the  idea  was 
carried  into  effect  in  England  by  Ericson  and  Smith.  The  earliest  screws 
were  constructed  on  the  plan  shown  in  pL  19,  fig.  28.  They  were  simple 
Archimedean  screws,  only  one  thread  winding  around  the  axis;  afterwards 
two  threads  were  made  use  of  {fig.  29),  forming  a  double  screw.  The 
steam  propeller  Archimedes,  in  England,  had  a  screw  of  the  first  kind.  At 
a  later  period  the  plan  was  adopted  of  removing  the  inner  parts  of  the 
screw  which  greatly  increased  the  lee- way,  and  employing  only  segments 
of  the  screw.  Meantime  Ericson  had  applied  three  strong  arms  to  the  axis 
of  the  screw,  in  the  direction  of  the  threads ;  six  curved  segments  were  then 
bolted  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  screw,  which  taken  tc^ether  formed  nearly 
a  whole  circumference  of  the  axis.  The  mean  angle  of  inclination  is  45^. 
The  method  adopted  in  the  galliot  Napoleon  (which  is  shown  as  seen  from 
above  in  fig.  2 ;  fig.  3,  in  longitudinal  section;  whilst  fig.  4  represents  the 
stern  parts,  with  the  screw)  is  a  combination  of  Ericson's  system  and  of  the 
screw  (fig.  28),  the  segments,  of  which  there  are  three,  contracting  to  a  con- 
siderable  degree  on  the  inside,  and  joining  the  axis  by  a  wave  line,  which  is 
well  adapted  to  cut  the  water  to  advantage,  without  causing  too  much  lee- 
way. Fig.  5  shows  the  construction  of  the  wooden  model  for  the  four-bladed 
screw,  first  employed  in  the  galliot  Napokon.  Two  double-armed  fans»  C, 
of  wood  were  attached  to  the  axle,  A,  and  spreading  out  from  66'  6',  and 
aa}a^.  The  segments  or  blades  of  the  screw  are  thus  formed,  and  are 
afterwards  completed  by  the  addition  of  the  surfaces  B,  B*,  B',  B",  curved 
from  the  side;  these  segments  are  seen  at  a^Vc^d\  abed,  a*b*c^d\  and 
a  Vc*  d*.  The  three-bladed  screw  {fig.  6)  was  subsequently  adopted,  of 
which  a  front  view  is  shown  in  fig.  1.  Here  the  blades  B,  B\  B*,  are 
placed  on  the  axis.  A,  with  the  surrounding  lines,  abcd^  a^b^c^d\  and 
ä'  b*  c*  d*.  The  form  which  nature  gives  to  aquatic  animals  was  closely 
studied  by  George  Rennie,  who  noticed  that  it  expands  towards  the  hinder 
end,  like  the  tail  of  a  fish  for  instance,  while  the  other  parts  almost  all  run 
together  in  a  point.  Following  this  law,  he  gave  his  screw  a  conical  form, 
making  the  surface  an  inclined  plane  which  winds  around  a  cone,  so  that 
the  threads  should  be  tangents  to  its  surface.  PI.  19,  fig.  8,  is  a  side  view 
of  a  conical  screw,  with  the  continuous  blades,  ee  ;  fig.  9  is  a  front  view ; 
fig.  10  is  a  side  view  of  such  a  conical  screw,  with  separate  blades,  ee;  and 
fig.  11a  front  view  of  the  same.  Fig.  30  is  a  view  from  above  of  Smith's 
propeller,  which  is  intended  as  a  substitute  for  the  Archimedean  screw,  and 
fig.  31  is  a  side  view  of  the  same.  Around  the  axis,  n,  is  a  disk,  to  which 
the  bearers,  mm,  are  attached,  each  couple  of  which  supports  a  platform, 
like  the  steps  in  a  treadmill. 

In  the  section  of  the  galliot  Napoleon  {fig.  2),  A  is  the  bowsprit,  B  the 
head,  C  the  cabin  for  the  crew,  D  the  boatswain's  cabin,  E  the  forenoast, 
F  the  stairs  to  the  cabin  for  the  forward  deck  passengers,  6  the  cabin, 
H  the  prison,  I  the  steam  chimney,  J  the  boiler,  K  the  main-mast,  L  the 
steam  engine,  M  stairs  to  the  engine,  N  fly-wheel  and  pinions  for  the  axis 
of  the  screw,  O  engineer's  cabin,  P  oflicers'  and  passengers'  cabin,  R  oabio 
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UAJSmNQ  OF  SHIPS.  91 

stairs,  Q  mizen^mast,  S  die  captain's  cabin,  T  luggage  room  and  coal  room, 
'  catheads,  *  forge,  *  port-holes,  S  (on  the  stem)  boat-davits,  •  rudder,  ^  the 
screw,  •  the  axis.  In  fig.  8,  the  view  from  above,  A  is  the  bowsprit,  B  the 
head,  C  the  capstan,  D  covering  of  the  cabin  stairs  for  the  crew,  E  forge, 
F  the  fore-mast,  G  stairs  for  the  forward-deck  passengers,  H  sky-light  to 
the  forward-cabin,  I  prison,  J  galley,  K  funnel,  L  the  main-mast,  M  roof 
of  the  engine-room,  N  stairs  to  the  same,  O  covering  over  the  fly-wheel, 
P  sky-light  for  the  engineers'  cabin,  Q  sky-light  for  the  ofllicers'  cabin, 
R  the  mizen-mast,  S  stairs  to  the  officers'  cabin,  T  sky-light  to  the  captain's 
cabin,  U  poop,  '  catheads,  *  port-holes,  •  chain  pump,  *  coal-room,  *  feeding 
pump,  •  rudder,  *  boat-davits. 

The  dimensions  of  this  galliot  are  as  follows  :  Length  of  deck,  155^  feet ; 
breadth  of  beam,  28  feet;  depth  of  draught,  11  feet  10  inches.  The  engine 
is  of  120  horse-power ;  diameter  of  the  screw,  7  feet  6f  inches ,  length, 
8  feet  6i  inches.  The  masts  carry  gaff-sails  for  the  most  part.  PL  17, 
fig.  2,  is  a  French  iron  steam  battery,  with  an  Archimedean  screw;  it 
carries  thirty-two  eighteen-pounders,  and  is  of  a  round  build  at  stem  and 
stern ;  it  has  two  masts,  the  forward  one  with  a  main-sail,  top-sail,  top- 
gallant-sail, and  also  a  stay-sail,  while  the  after-mast  has  only  a  half  mizen- 
sail  and  a  try-sail. 


Manning  of  Ships. 

We  include  in  the  manning  of  a  ship  all  persons  who  take  any  part  in  its 
management.  A  degree  of  subordination  is  carried  into  effect  in  a  fleet 
which  is  not  known  in  the  land  service;  but  this  subordination  is  necessary, 
inasmuch  as  not  only  the  safety  of  the  ship,  but  the  lives  of  the  whole  crew 
and  passengers  often  depend  on  the  act  of  a  single  sailor,  or  on  his  negli- 
gence or  disobedience  of  orders. 

Ä.     The  War  Marine. 

The  manning  of  ships  of  war  is  usually  arranged  according  to  a  fixed 
system.  We  will  first  consider  this,  referring  chiefly  to  the  organization  of 
the  French  and  English  navies. 

In  France,  the  sailors  are  taken  from  among  the  conscripts,  and  are 
obliged  to  pass  through  a  certain  course.  They  first  become  sailors  of  the 
third  class,  and  in  six  or  eight  months  can  be  promoted  to  the  higher  classes 
on  the  nomination  of  an  officer.  A  sailor  of  the  first  class  {pi.  20,  fig.  17, 
a  sailor  in  parade-dress;  fig.  18,  one  in  working-dress)  can  become  a 
quatre-maitre,  with  the  rank  of  a  corporal,  or  second  maitre  (fig.  16),  with 
the  rank  of  a  sergeant,  or  finally  premier  maitre,  or  boatswain  (fig.  15). 
The  mechanics,  caulkers,  smiths,  carpenters,  &c.,  can  only  obtain  the 
rank  of  sergeant-major.  Every  one  who  is  not  accustomed  to  the  naval 
service  is  struck  with  the  difference  which  prevails  between  the  two  ends 
of  the  upper-deck.  Forward  of  the  fore-mast,  on  the  forecastle,  is  the 
general  rendezvous  of  the  sailors ;  while  abaft  the  same,  especially  near 

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fi2  NAVAL  SOEBarOBBL 

the  poop,  access  is  permitted  only  to  the  officers  {pL  21«  ßg.  S),  except 

on  duty. 

The  career  of  a  naval  officer  is  open  to  every  one.  Pupils  are 
received  into  the  service,  when  those  who  distinguish  themselves  are  sent 
to  a  naval  school,  which  in  France  is  on  board  a  ship  appropriated  to  that 
purpose,  in  the  harbor  of  Brest.  Upon  entering  on  actual  service,  after 
passing  an  examination,  the  pupil  becomes  a  cadet  of  the  second  class  and 
receives  a  uniform.  Once  on  board,  the  service  commences.  Ten  or 
twelve  cadets  have  a  state  room  (pL  21,  fig.  6)  assigned  to  them,  which 
becomes  the  scene  of  their  studies,  their  recreations,  and  their  rest  The 
cadets  on  board  are  divided  among  the  officers  of  the  different  watches. 
The  officer  of  the  watch  is  distinguished  by  his  complete  uniform  and  arms 
{pi.  2],  fig,  1),  which  he  must  wear  during  his  watch.  His  position  is  on 
the  quarter-deck  of  a  frigate  and  on  the  poop  of  a  ship  of  the  line.  He  has 
an  eye  upon  everything  which  is  to  be  done  in  the  ship,  during  his  time  on 
deck.  If  a  boat  is  to  be  got  out,  he  gives  the  order  by  calling  its  name, 
"  Long  boat !"  "  First  cutter !"  &c.  The  boatswain's  mate,  who  is  con- 
stantly stationed  at  the  foot  of  the  main-mast,  gives  a  shrill  whistle,  the 
sailors  spring  to,  and  in  less  than  five  minutes  the  orders  are  executed 
(pL  2Sf  fig.  5).  The  boatswain's  mate  reports  to  the  officer  of  the  watch, 
who  calls  the  cadet  on  duty,  gives  him  the  necessary  instructions,  receives 
his  report  on  his  return,  and  issues  further  orders. 

After  a  cadet  has  served  two  years  in  every  branch  of  practical  seaman- 
ship, he  becomes  a  cadet  of  the  first  class  {pL  20,  fig'  14),  with  the  rank  of 
a  second  lieutenant  in  the  land  service.  The  promotion  of  the  cadet  to  the 
next  rank  is  a  more  important  one,  as  it  classes  him  among  the  ofiicers 
of  the  ship,  with  the  rank  of  a  first  lieutenant  in  the  army,  and  a  separate 
room  {pi.  20,  fig.  5).  The  officers,  second  lieutenants,  and  first  lieutenants 
{fig.  4,  a  French  lieutenant ;  fig.  13,  an  English  lieutenant),  the  last  with 
the  rank  of  a  captain  in  the  army,  have  a  separate  table.  A  lieutenant  can 
command  a  transport  ship  and  a  steamboat.  Corvettes  and  brigs  are  under 
the  command  of  a  corvette  captain,  and  frigates  and  ships  of  the  line  under 
the  command  of  a  captain  {fig.  3,  a  French  captain ;  fig.  12,  an  English 
captain),  with  the  rank  of  a  colonel  in  the  army.  A  division  of  several  sail 
is  commanded  by  a  rear-admiral,  ranking  as  a  brigadier-general,  while  the 
vice-admiral  {fig.  2,  a  French  vice-admiral ;  fig.  11,  an  English  commodore), 
ranking  as  a  lieutenant-general,  commands  a  squadron  or  a  small  fleet« 
which  may  run  up  even  to  the  number  of  fifteen  ships  of  the  line.  The 
highest  advancement  in  the  navy  is  the  rank  of  admiral  {fig.  1),  who  in 
France  has  the  rank  of  a  field-marshal. 

In  England,  below  the  admiral  is  the  vice-admiral,  who  commands  the 
second  division  of  the  fleet,  and  the  rear-admiral,  commanding  the  third  divi- 
sion. The  vice-admiral  carries  his  flag  on  the  fore-mast,  and  the  admiral  at 
%he  main-mast.  In  England,  moreover,  the  admirals  are  distinguished  by  their 
red,  blue,  or  white  flags,  according  to  their  station  in  the  English  navy.  FL  20^ 
fig.  6,  is  a  Russian  vice-admiral  of  the  regular  n^yy,  figs.  7, 8,  Russian  officers 
of  the  Finnish  navy,  and^g'^.  9  and  10,  Russian  officers  of  the  marine  guards. 
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MANNING  OF  SHIPS.  98 

The  sailors  are  organized  into  watches,  something  resembling  the  com- 
panies of  the  army,  consisting  of  a  lieutenant,  answering  to  a  captain  of  the 
land  service ;  several  naval  ensigns  as  first  lieutenants  and  cadets  of  the  first 
class  as  second  lieutenants ;  two  mates  for  the  sails,  one  for  the  guns  and 
one  for  the  ship's  course  ;  eight  quarter-masters,  four  of  them  for  the  sails, 
two  for  the  guns,  one  for  the  carpentry,  and  one  for  the  caulking;  and 
finally,  of  one  hundred  meh.  Any  naval  oflScer  may,  in  cases  of  necessity, 
be  required  to  take  the  command,  and  incredible  achievements  have  some- 
times been  performed  by  young  men  whom  the  casualties  of  the  service  have 
placed  in  situations  of  responsibility.  In  illustration  we  have  represented  an 
engagement  of  a  weak  brig  of  16  18-pounder  carronades,  compelling  another 
brig  of  superior  force,  having  22  32-pounders,  to  strike  her  flag  (/?/.  25,ßg,  4). 

As  soon  as  the  men  are  on  board,  the  oflScers  must  assign  to  them  their 
respective  stations  for  every  emergency.  The  order  of  battle  comes 
first.  This  is  the  basis  of  the  whole  organization,  and  it  is  no  easy  thing 
to  find  just  the  right  men  for  every  post.  This  order  is  constantly  prac- 
tised. At  any  time  of  the  day  or  night,  the  drum  may  beat  to  quarters,  and 
every  man  be  summoned  to  his  station.  The  most  active  and  skilful  sailors 
are  selected  for  duty  on  the  tops  (topmen,pL  2b, fig,  6)  ;  they  are  intrusted  with 
the  most  diflScuIt  part  of  the  management  of  the  sails  and  ropes  ;  they  often 
swing  on  the  mast-head  or  yard-arms,  in  order  to  arrange  a  rope  or  block, 
or  sit  during  an  engagement  on  a  yard,  to  watch  the  motions  of  the  enemy 
(/?/.  23,  fig.  2),  while  fhe  ship  is  so  tossed  about  by  the  storm  that  the  green 
hand  at  sea  has  to  cling  to  everything  which  he  can  grasp  in  order  to  keep 
on  his  legs.  * 

The  boatswain  of  a  ship  of  the  line  or  a  frigate  must  be  a  perfect  seaman, 
presenting  a  model  to  the  whole  crew.  He  has  in  his  charge  the  whole 
rigging  of  the  ship,  the  anchors,  cables,  and  buoys,  and  all  damage  which 
they  receive  must  be  repaired  under  his  direction.  The  sailing-master's 
mate  and  his  men  are  stationed  near  the  poop  on  the  quarter-deck.  The 
sailing-master,  under  the  superintendence  of  his  superior  oflScer,  issues  orders 
to  his  mate,  who  transmits  them  through  the  boatswain,  boatswain's  mates, 
and  quarter-masters,  to  the  sailors  and  boys.  The  wheel  stands  under  the 
poop  (pi,  21,  fig.  2).  As  soon  as  the  squadrons  have  come  together,  the 
signal  flags  are  got  in  readiness,  and  the  national  flag  is  hoisted  with  all 
the  honors  at  the  mast-head  (pL  24,  fig.  3).  The  hour-glass  is  in  charge 
of  the  sailing-master,  who  has  the  command  of  the  wheel.  His  mate  stands 
at  his  side,  to  assist  in  case  of  need.  Certain  sailors  at  the  wheel,  under 
the  command  of  a  cadet  or  quarter-master,  have  the  care  of  the  flag,  seeing 
that  it  constantly  waves  and  is  not  struck  except  by  orders  from  the  com- 
mander. 

The  rest  of  the  crew,  who  are  not  fit  for  more  important  services,  keep 
the  deck  clean,  under  the  direction  of  the  boatswain's  mate  (pi.  23,  fig.  7), 
or  they  indulge  in  amusements,  among  which  is  card-piajring,  which  is 
followed  up  without  restraint  in  every  place  that  can  be  found.  This  is 
also  a  favorite  recreation  during  the  watch,  the  deck  at  the  foot  of  the  long 
boat  furnishing  a  card  table  (pi  25,  fig.  7). 

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94  NAVAL  SCIENCEa 

There  are  not  wanting  on  board  ship  greater  or  less  offences,  msabordi- 
nation,  rAutinies,  and  the  like.  The  laws  of  discipline  in  the  fleet  are  accord- 
ingly very  severe,  corporal  punishment  being  almost  the  only  resource  of  the 
officers  in  most  navies.  The  commander  of  the  ship  has  the  power  of  life  and 
death,  and  whenever  a  crime  or  a  serious  violation  of  orders  takes  place,  a 
court-martial  is  convened  {pi.  24,  ßg,  1).  The  session  of  officers  for  this  pur- 
pose is  held  on  the  quarter-deck.  The  accused  is  brought  forward  without 
fetters,  and  the  charge  is  presented,  while  the  crew  crowd  around  the  spot 
After  the  fact  is  established,  the  court  enters  into  secret  session,  and  each 
of  the  judges,  beginning  with  the  youngest,  gives  his  opinion.  In  most 
cases  the  punishment  is  flogging  with  a  rope's  end  ;  the  English  use  the 
cat-o'-nine-tails,  a  rope  whip  with  nine  lashes,  the  ends  of  which  are  inter- 
woven with  musket  balls.  Keel-hauling  (Jig,  2),  which  has  now  been  dis- 
continued in  nearly  every  navy,  is  purely  a  seaman's  punishment  When 
it  is  to  be  inflicted,  a  special  flag  is  hoisted,  and  a  gun  is  fired  as  a  signal  to 
the  other  ships  of  the  fleet,  which  thereupon  get  out  their  boats  and  surround 
the  ship  in  a  semicircle.  The  delinquent  is  then  taken  under  the  main- 
yard,  and  his  feet  are  loaded  with  a  30-pound  cannon  ball.  The  master-at- 
arms  then  reads  the  sentence,  and  the  criminal  is  suddenly  drawn  up  by  a 
side  tackle  attached  to  the  main  yard.  The  rope  is  then  slacked,  and  he 
is  plunged  with  frightful  velocity  into  the  sea  and  then  drawn  under  the 
keel.  This  operation  is  repeated  two  or  three  times,  according  to  the  strength 
of  the  prisoner.  In  the  Dutch  navy  this  punishment  is  equivalent  to 
death.  Smaller  ofiences  are  punished  by  stopping  the  rations,  espe- 
cially spirits,  for  three  or  four  days,  or  by  confinement  in  irons  {pL  25, 
ßg,  8).  In  the  last  punishment,  the  sailors  are  taken  from  arrest  to 
their  watch,  and  then  brought  back.  Extra  watches  are  also  inflicted 
as  punishments. 

While  a  man-of-war  is  in  port,  a  regular  and  often  an  unexpected  visit  is 
made  by  the  port-guard,  in  order  to  examine  whether  everything  is  right  on 
board  the  ship  (p/.  22,  fig.  5).  The  boat,  in  such  cases,  is  commanded  by 
a  port-officer,  and  as  soon  as  it  approaches  the  ship  it  must  be  hailed  by  the 
guard,  to  whom  the  reply  "  Watch-boat"  is  given. 

The  artillery  is  so  far  subject  to  the  direction  of  the  commander  of  the 
ship  that  he  has  a  speaking  tube,  the  mouth-piece  of  which  is  under  bk 
control,  the  tube  leading  below  the  deck,  through  which  he  issues  his  orders. 
One  man  for  every  gun,  during  action,  carries  shot  and  cartridges  from  the 
hold  {fig.  4).  Non-combatants  are  generally  selected  for  this  duty.  A 
very  important  point,  which  must  be  attended  to  at  the  commencement  of 
a  battle,  is  the  condition  of  the  pumps.  It  must  be  seen  that  they  are  in 
order  and  properly  manned  to  pump  out  the  water  which  enters  through 
the  shot  holes.  The  fire-engine  must  also  be  looked  after.  The  head 
caulker  attends  to  all  these  points,  and  on  the  first  summons  to  quarters 
takes  his  place  at  the  pumps.  He  takes  care  that  twisted  plugs  of  hemp, 
ropes,  sheet  lead,  nails,  and  plugs  wound  round  with  tow  and  dipped  in 
tallow,  are  ready  to  stop  up  the  shot-holes  which  are  made  at  the  water 
line.  For  this  purpose  slings  are  provided  {pL  2S,fig.  1),  by  which  men 
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MANAGEMENT  OF  SHIPS.  98 

are  let  down  to  close  up  any  such  boles,  and  to  put  in  a  fresh  caulking.  If  the 
ship  draws  so  much  water  that  it  cannot  be  controlled  by  the  pumf>s,  it  is  the 
duty  of  the  chief  caulker  to  give  private  notice  of  the  fact  to  the  commander. 

B,  Manning  of  Merchant  Vessels, 

In  merchant  vessels  the  discipline  is  by  no  means  as  strict  as  in  men-of- 
war,  as  there  is  no  military  organization  to  be  preserved,  nor  is  there  such 
a  large  number  of  men  to  be  kept  in  order.  The  captain  has  the  chief 
authority.  Everything  is  governed  by  his  orders,  and  he  possesses  the  full 
power  of  punishment.  The  first  mate  takes  his  place  in  all  cases  when  the 
captain  is  prevented  from  being  at  his  post.  It  is  his  duty  to  communicate 
the  orders  of  the  captain  and  see  that  they  are  obeyed.  There  is  also  a 
second  mate  and  a  third  mate,  who  strictly  oversee  the  men,  take  charge 
of  the  boats  on  landing,  superintend  weighing  and  casting  the  anchor,  and, 
in  short,  provide  {q§  the  exact  performance  of  all  the  duties  of  the  vessel. 
The  sailors,  owing  to  their  limited  number,  which  in  merchant  vessels  is 
always  reduced  to  the  lowest  figure,  perform  in  common  the  various  duties 
which  are  required  at  sea,  since  they  would  be  too  weak  were  they  divided 
into  separate  classes  with  special  duties. 


Management  of  Ships. 

Ä.  Management  of  Separate  Ships, 

1.  Navigation  in  General.  The  ocean  is  not  everywhere  the  same,  nor 
is  it  the  wind  alone  which  changes  its  aspect.  The  different  portions  of  the 
sea,  the  sky  which  is  reflected  in  it,  its  natural  qualities  and  phenomena, 
have  their  peculiar  characteristics,  which  are  not  without  influence  on  the 
navigation  in  different  seas.  The  icebergs  which  float  in  the  polar  latitudes 
prevent  us  from  reaching  the  poles.  In  those  regions,  calms  and  storms,  fine 
weather  and  tempests,  alternate  with  each  other  in  a  single  day.  Paring 
the  summer,  as  it  appears  in  these  ungenial  climates,  the  atmosphere  is 
warm  and  pleasant  in  a  calm ;  but  the  north  wind  rises,  and  an  icy  coldness 
takes  the  place  of  the  mild  air.  The  moving  ice  stretches  its  long  furrows 
through  the  waves,  and  stares  in  strange  and  grotesque  forms  towards  the 
sky.  When  these  mountains  of  ice  approach  each  other,  they  form  a  circle, 
within  which  the  sea  is  quiet  as  in  a  harbor,  while  on  the  outside  the  waves 
are  raging  with  increased  violence.  A  ship  inclosed  in  such  a  basin  of  ice 
(pi.  26,  fig.  3)  lies  as  securely  as  in  the  best  harbor,  but  woe  to  it  when  the 
circle  suddenly  breaks  up ! 

In  the  temperate  climates  the  sea  is  kept  in  constant  motion  by  the 
changing  winds.  The  waves  from  the  north-west  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
exercise  their  uniform  rocking  influence  on  ships  sailing  towards  the  Azores 
until  they  come  into  the  latitude  of  the  trade  winds  between  the  tropics. 
These  are  disturbed  only  by  the  equatorial  currents,  which  separate  the 
north-east  trade  winds  of  our  hemisphere  from  the  south-east  trade  winds 
of  the  southern  hemisphere.     Long  days  pass  by  without  the  surface  of  the 

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96  NAVAL  SCIENCES. 

ocean  being  ruffled  by  the  slightest  wind;  the  ship,  with  all  its  sails 
unfurled,  seems  to  rest  upon  the  waves  {pL  26,  fig.  4) ;  when  often,  as  if  by 
a  freak  of  Neptune,  a  stormy  wind  springs  up  from  the  black  clouds  which 
rise  from  the  sea,  and  the  masts  are  broken,  the  sails  are  shivered,  and  the 
rigging  is  torn  in  pieces. 

The  mariner  who  wishes  to  navigate  the  ocean  must  be  acquainted  with 
all  its  peculiar  features.  For  this  purpose  he  makes  use  of  charts»  which 
point  out  the  reefs  which  he  must  avoid  and  the  course  which  he  is  to 
follow.  When  he  is  once  at  sea,  the  compass  is  his  only  guide.  This  alone 
can  tell  him  the  direction  which  he  is  to  keep,  when  nothing  but  sky  and 
water  are  before  him.  It  is  well  known  that  the  point  of  the  magnetic 
needle  always  turns  to  the  north,  whatever  be  the  direction  of  the  ship,  and 
consequently  enables  the  mariner  to  ascertain  its  true  position  on  the  ocean. 
For  this  purpose,  a  thin  plate  of  isinglass  is  cemented  under  the  needle, 
turning  with  it  about  its  centre.  This  circular  plajg,  like  all  circles,  is 
divided  into  360  degrees.  If,  then,  the  deviation  of  the  line  of  direction 
necessary  for  the  voyage  from  the  meridian  line  is  measured  by  means 
of  a  circle  divided  in  the  same  manner  on  the  chart,  the  ship  can  easily 
be  so  turned,  that  its  line  of  direction  shall  deviate  the  same  number  of 
degrees  from  the  meridian,  and  it  will  thus  reach  its  object  without  any 
other  guide.  In  order  to  facilitate  the  observation  of  the  compass,  the 
circle  is  again  divided  into  thirty-two  parts,  called  points  of  the  compass. 
These  thirty-two  points  are  named  as  follows.  The  four  cardinal  points 
are  called  north,  east,  south,  and  west.  Between  these  are  four  others, 
Dorth-east,  south-east,  &c.  Between  these  eight  points  are  eight  others, 
north-north-east,  east-north-east,  &c.,  and  between  these  sixteen  are  six- 
teen more,  north  by  west,  east  by  south,  &c.,  completing  the  full  number 
thirty-two.  These  last  are  again  subdivided  into  fourths,  for  greater  pre- 
cision of  steering,  and  designated  thus  :  North  ^  east,  north-west  by  north 
^  north,  and  so  on.  The  mariner  has  also  his  hour-book,  giving  the  true 
position  of  the  stars  for  every  hour,  the  artificial  horizon,  and  the  sextant, 
which  enable  him,  according  to  the  angle  which  the  vessel  makes  with  the 
stars  and  the  horizon,  to  ascertain  her  place  when  he  can  get  a  good  obser- 
vation of  the  sun  or  of  a  star,  as  he  can  thus  ascertain  the  true  time  of  the 
spot  where  he  is  and  calculate  his  position  by  the  difference  of  time  from 
his  home  or  from  Greenwich.  For  this  purpose  he  has  the  most  accurate 
watches  and  chronometers,  some  of  the  latter  keeping  time  with  so  much 
precision  that  they  do  not  lose  a  minute  in  a  voyage  round  the  world. 
When  he  can  get  no  astronomical  observation  on  account  of  cloudy  weather, 
he  calculates  his  position  by  the  speed  of  his  ship,  measured  hourly  by  the 
log,  and  by  the  mean  direction  in  which  he  has  steered.  This  is  called 
dead  reckoning,  and  is  necessarily  less  accurate,  as  the  influence  of  currents 
and  of  leeway  can  only  be  conjectured. 

2.  Practical  Navigation.     Practical  Navigation,  which  we  are  now  to 

consider,  teaches  the  use  of  the  sails  and  rudder,  on  every  occasion,  so  as  to 

produce  the  suitable  motion,  speed,  and  direction  of  the  ship,  in  order  to  reach 

the  end  of  her  voyage.   For  this  purpose  we  first  have  recourse  to  the  rudder. 

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MAKAGEBIENT  OF  SHIPS.  97 

Whenever  the  tiller,  and  consequently  the  rudder,  is  placed  in  the  same 
direction  as  the  keel,  no  effect  is  produced ;  but  if,  while  the  ship  is  moving 
forward,  the  tiller  is  turned  to  starboard,  the  rudder  moves  to  larboard,  and 
the  water  striking  on  the  ship  acts  on  the  rudder,  and  brings  the  stem  to 
starboard,  while  the  bow  is  carried  to  larboard,  and  conversely  ;  if,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  ship  is  moving  backwards,  and  the  tiller  is  turned  to  star- 
board, the  water  strikes  the  ship  from  behind,  driving  the  rudder  which 
stands  to  larboard  before  it,  and  hence  sends  the  stern  to  larboard  and  the 
bow  to  starboard,  and  conversely. 

In  order  to  explain  the  action  of  the  sails,  we  premise  the  following : 
Suppose  a  weather-cock  standing  on  its  spindle  during  a  calm,  in  any 
direction  you  please  ;  for  instance,  the  broad  end  to  the  west.  Let  a  south 
wind  now  blow  gently  ;  it  will  turn  the  broad  end  before  it,  until  it  comes 
into  the  same  direction  with  the  wind.  But  if  the  rod  had  passed  through 
the  middle  of  the  vane,  making  the  parts  on  each  side  equal,  the  wind  could 
produce  no  effect,  its.pressure  being  equal  on  both  ends,  and  the  vane  would 
remain  at  rest.  Let  a  ship  be  imagined  to  be  such  a  vane,  and  the  rod 
supposed  to  pass  perpendicularly  through  the  centre  of  gravity,  D  (pL  7, 
ßg.  18).  Now  let  a  three-masted  ship  be  turned  with  its  bow  towards  the 
west,  and  the  wind  blowing  from  the  south,  or  on  the  larboard,  we  call  this 
the  windward  or  weather  side,  and  the  other  the  leeward  side.  If  a  square 
sail  is  now  hoisted  at  the  fore-mast,  the  lower  weather  clew  stretched  with 
the  tack,  the  lee  clew  with  the  sheet,  the  starboard  (lee)  braces  holding  the 
yard  in  the  direction  of  the  sheet,  the  vessel  is  said  to  be  on  the  larboard 
tack,  and  the  sail  has  the  double  effect  of  turning  the  ship  to  leeward  on  the 
supposed  axis,  D,  and  at  the  same  time  of  driving  it  forward  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  keel.  Let  a  jib  now  be  raised  on  the  jib-boom,  with  its  tack 
fastened  to  the  end  of  the  boom,  and  the  sheet  drawn  aft,  a  great  power  is 
applied  to  turn  the  ship  to  the  leeward,  as  the  jib  is  further  from  the  line  D, 
and  consequently  forms  a  longer  arm  of  the  lever.  All  the  sails  which  are 
placed  forward  of  the  centre  of  gravity,  or  of  the  line  D,  will  exercise  this 
power  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  according  to  their  position ;  that  is  to  say, 
all  the  forward  sails  have  a  tendency  to  make  the  ship  fall  off,  or  turn  before 
the  wind  to  the  leeward.  If  we  now  suppose  a  square  mizen-sail  stretched 
forward  with  the  larboard  tacks  and  aft  with  the  starboard  sheets,  this  sail 
will  turn  the  ship  to  the  starboard,  and  of  course  to  the  leeward,  and  at  the 
same  time  drive  her  forward ;  but  the  bow  is  thus  made  to  stand  to  wind- 
ward, and  the  ship  is  said  to  luff,  or  go  to  windward.  All  the  aft  sails, 
therefore,  drive  the  vessel  towards  the  wind.  If  both  mizen-mast  and  fore- 
mast sails  are  set,  each  acting  with  the  same  power,  they  each  drive  the 
vessel  forwards  ;  for,  since  the  force  on  both  sides  of  the  axis,  D,  is  equal,  no 
turning  either  of  stem  or  stern  can  take  place.  If  the  mainsail  alone  is 
raised,  the  tack  being  forward  of  the  axis,  D,  and  the  sheet  abaft  of  the  same 
line,  the  ship  is  likewise  driven  forward  without  turning.  If  the  fore-sail  is 
braced  aback  with  the  larboard  or  weather  braces,  while  the  leeward  tack 
is  stretched  forward,  and  the  weather  sheet  aft,  the  action  of  the  sail  is  to 
make  the  bow  rapidly  fall  off  to  the  leeward,  while  at  the  same  time  it  drives 

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the  ship  backwards  in  the  direction  of  the  keel.  As  the  sail  lies  against  the 
mast,  with  its  forward  surface  exposed  to  the  wind,  it  must  have  a  contrary 
effect  to  that  which  takes  place  when  it  is  filled,  and  as  the  wind  now  comes 
from  forward,  while  the  sail  is  braced  aback,  the  sail  has  a  greater  power  to 
drire  the  ship  to  leeward.  If  the  mizen-sail  is  braced  aback  it  drives  the 
ship  backwards,  but  turns  the  stern  to  leeward,  so  that  the  ship  luffs.  PL  26, 
fig.  10,  shows  vessels  which  luff,  or  bear  to  windward. 

So  much  for  the  first  principles  of  navigating  a  vessel ;  we  will  now  pre- 
sent some  cases  of  their  practical  application.  Let  us  suppose  a  ship  with 
all  the  sails  furled  (fig,  5).  The  object  is  to  loosen  the  sails ;  the  sailors 
are  on  deck ;  the  commander  gives  his  directions  to  the  second  ofiScer,  who 
gives  the  order  (if,  for  instance,  the  topsail  is  to  be  unfurled),  "Set  top- 
sails r  The  top-men  then  run  up  the  shrouds,  stretch  out  on  the  foot- 
ropes,  leaning  the  body  against  the  yard,  cast  off  the  gaskets,  and  sing  out, 
"  All  clear  r  when  the  order,  '*  Loose  !"  is  given,  and  in  a  moment  the  ship 
is  covered  with  a  cloud  of  canvas,  behind  which  the  sailors  disappear,  run- 
ning down  the  shrouds.  On  deck  the  ends  of  the  sail  are  stretched  to  the 
main  or  fore-yard  by  the  topsail  sheets ;  then  the  topsail-yard  is  hoisted  to 
the  topmast-head  by  the  halliards  ;  and  finally,  its  arms  set  in  the  required 
direction  by  the  topsail  braces.  This  manoeuvre  is  performed  when  the 
sails  are  to  be  set,  or  merely  stretched  in  order  to  be  dried.  Fig.  2  shows 
a  ship  of  war  with  a  part  of  its  sails  loosened  for  drying. 

Tripping  the  anchor  and  bringing  the  sails  to  the  wind  is  called  getting 
under  weigh.  When  the  anchor  is  to  be  weighed  a  boat  is  sent  out  to  the 
buoy,  and  with  a  small  windlass  raises  the  anchor  from  the  ground ;  it  is 
then  hove  up  under  the  davits  by  the  capstan  and  secured  to  the  bow. 
Meantime  the  sails  are  set  on  the  general  order,  "  Stand  by  to  make  sail !  " 
(pL  26, fig.  6).  The  orders  now  follow  "  Loose  the  top-sail!  "  and  "  Loose 
the  top'gallant'Sail  I "  &c.,  on  which  the  clew-lines  are  overhauled,  the 
tacks  and  sheets  made  fast  to  the  clews,  the  yards  drawn  up  by  their  lifts,  and 
the  sails  stretched  as  much  as  possible.  At  the  same  time  the  yards  are 
braced  at  right  angles  with  the  ship's  axis,  and  so  directed  that  the  ship,  as 
soon  as  it  is  free  from  the  anchor,  may  turn  round  and  take  the  wind  in  its 
sails.  Fig.  1  represents  a  ship  which  has  turned,  with  its  larboard  braces 
forward  and  its  starboard  braces  aft.  On  the  order,  "Haul  taut  star- 
board fore-braces,*'  the  yards  of  the  foremast  are  made  parallel  with  the 
main  yards,  and  the  ship  now  takes  the  wind  in  her  sails.  PL  27,  fig.  1, 
shows  two  ships  which  have  got  free  from  the  anchor  and  have  just  set 
sail,  the  one  to  the  left  not  having  yet  braced  up. 

It  is  surprising  to  many  persons  when  they  see  two  ships  on  the  same 
river,  or  the  same  sea,  and  making  use  of  the  same  wind,  yet  sailing  in 
opposite  directions,  one  to  the  right  and  the  other  to  the  left  We  will  here 
explain  this  operation,  which  is  called  sailing  on  a  half  wind.  We  will 
assume  that  a  ship,  with  a  north  wind,  is  to  sail  towards  the  east,  and  in 
that  case  the  wind  stands  precisely  at  right  angles,  or  eight  points,  with  the 
direction  of  the  keel.  Let  the  ship  fall  off  these  eight  points,  and  head  with 
the  bow  to  the  east,  the  yards  being  braced  in  the  diagonal  between  the 
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MANAGEMENT  OF  SHIPS.  99 

direction  of  the  wind  and  the  direction  of  the  keel,  or  making  an  angle  of 
four  points  with  the  keel.  Under  these  circumstances  the  sails  take  the  wind, 
and  drive  the  ship  forward  in  an  oblique  direction,  making  great  lee- way  ; 
but  the  great  length  of  the  ship,  and  the  water  which  presses  against  its 
immersed  portion,  offer  a  continued  resistance,  while  the  curvature  and 
the  slender  shape  of  the  bow  permit  the  ship  to  cut  the  water  with  more 
ease  in  the  direction  of  the  keel,  and  thus  the  lee-way  is  diminished  and  the 
headway  increased.  It  is  now  evident  that  with  the  same  wind,  the  yards 
being  braced  four  points  in  the  opposite  direction,  the  ship  can  also  sail 
towards  the  west.  PL  26,  ßgs.  8a,  86,  represent  two  ships  which  move 
in  opposite  directions.  If  the  direction  of  the  wind  is  not  at  right  angles 
with  the  direction  of  the  ship,  but  at  some  angle  either  greater  or  less,  the 
yards  in  that  case  are  not  braced  in  the  diagonal,  but  at  an  angle  corres- 
ponding with  the  direction  of  the  wind,  and  the  ship  sails  more  or  less  close 
to  the  wind.  If  the  wind  blows  from  the  left  hand,  or  the  larboard  side, 
the  ship  is  said  to  sail  on  the  larboard  tack ;  that  is,  the  larboard  tacks  draw 
down  the  clews  of  the  sails  so  that  they  may  catch  the  wind  :  the  contrary 
is  called  sailing  on  the  starboard  tack.  In  order  to  change  from  one  tack 
to  another,  or  to  take  the  wind  from  one  to  another  side,  the  ship  must  be 
turned  (pi  26,  ßgs,  9a,  9b),  For  example,  if  you  are  sailing  with  a  north 
wind  towards  the  east-north-east  on  the  larboard  tack,  or  west-north-west 
on  the  starboard  tack,  the  ship  can  be  turned  either  before  the  wind  or  up 
into  the  wind.  The  former  manner  of  turning  is  less  desirable,  because  it 
occasions  great  leeway,  as  the  ship  before  the  wind  makes  considerable 
headway  before  it  can  be  luffed  up  on  the  other  tack.  The  method  usually 
adopted  of  going  about  is,  therefore,  that  of  running  the  ship  through  the 
wind.  The  helm  is  put  hard  a-lee,  and  consequently  the  ship  is  brought 
up  to  the  wind  and  gradually  into  it,  so  that  the  sails  catch  it  forward, 
when  instantly  all  the  braces  and  the  lower  sheets  and  tacks  are  loosened, 
and  the  yards  swing  round,  taking  the  wind  from  ahead.  Before  the  pro- 
gress of  the  vessel,  however,  can  be  fairly  checked  they  are  braced  round 
on  the  other  tack,  whilst  the  helm  is  brought  amidships  and  gradually 
sharp  down  the  other  side  of  the  ship,  to  prevent  the  vessel  from  going 
further  through  the  wind  than  just  to  fill  the  sails  on  the  new  tack.  Good 
sailers  in  this  manoeuvre  hardly  lose  two  ship's  lengths  in  leeway. 

If  a  storm  arises  by  which  the  sails  are  exposed  to  danger,  it  is  necessary 
to  reef  them,  slacking  the  tacks  and  sheets,  and  hauling  in  the  clew-lines 
and  leech-lines  (fig,  11).  At  the  same  time  the  sailors  man  the  yards, 
standing  on  the  foot  ropes  (pi  23,  fig,  3),  take  in  the  sails,  and  fasten  the 
reef-lines,  thus  diminishing  the  area  of  the  sail.  PL  27,  fig.  4,  represents  a 
ship  in  heavy  weather  under  close  reefed  topsails. 

Ships  sailing  with  a  side  wind  have  to  take  great  care,  especially  when 
they  are  struck  in  squalls  by  the  wind.  If  a  ship  in  that  case  goes  under 
full  sail,  the  moment  may  come  in  which  all  the  sails  hang  loose  and  flap 
in  the  wind,  while  the  next  moment  the  sudden  force  of  the  wind  either 
lays  the  ship  on  her  side,  so  that  the  yards  and  spars  dip  into  the  water, 
or  the  sails  are  split,  and  the  braces,  tacks,  and  sheets  are  snapped  asunder. 

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In  such  cases  it  is  prudent  to  reef  the  larger  sails  by  degrees,  and  to 
furl  the  smaller  ones  altogether.  PL  26,  fig.  12,  is  a  ship  of  war  under 
such  circumstances,  with  only  the  main  topsail,  the  mizen  sail,  and  the 
jib  unfurled,  while  all  the  rest  have  been  secured.  A  storm,  moreover» 
arising  from  these  side  winds  combines  with  the  violence  of  the  waves 
{pi.  21,  fig,  5),  and  often  lays  the  ship  on  one  side,  so  that  it  seems  impos- 
sible for  it  to  be  righted.  But  a  storm  on  the  open  sea  is  less  dangerous 
than  in  the  vicinity  of  the  shore,  when  only  too  often  cliffs  and  breakers, 
which  the  most  practised  seaman  cannot  avoid  in  a  storm,  make  a  total 
wreck  of  the  vessel.  Still  more  terrible  than  a  storm  is  a  fire  on  board 
ship,  as  it  is  only  in  rare  cases  and  when  it  is  early  discovered  that  it  can 
be  extinguished,  and  everything  is  irretrievably  lost  unless  the  boats  can  be 
got  out  in  season.  A  ship  on  fire  usually  burns  down  tot  the  water-line 
{pL  24,  fig,  4,  shows  the  burning  of  the  ship  of  the  line  Trocadero)^  when 
the  keel  falls  off,  or  the  ship  bursts  open  with  the  heat  and  sinks,  or  finally 
the  powder  magazine  takes  fire  and  blows  everything  to  pieces. 

B,  MancRuvres  of  Fleets, 

The  purpose  of  naval  tactics,  or  the  manoeuvres  of  fleets,  is  to  keep  the  fleet 
always  in  the  position  in  which  it  can  first  secure  its  own  safety,  and  then« 
under  all  circumstances,  to  annoy  and,  if  possible,  to  conquer  the  enemy.  The 
best  sailing  order  is  represented  in  pi,  28,  fig,  1.  The  fleet  is  divided  into 
three  columns,  sailing  parallel  with  the  line  which  it  is  to  take  in  battle. 
The  windward  column,  under  the  command  of  the  vice-admiral,  usually 
forms  the  van-guard  ;  the  leeward  column,  under  the  command  of  the  rear- 
admiral,  forms  the  rear-guard ;  although  circumstances  often  render  a 
change  in  this  order  necessary.  If  the  fleet  is  very  large  {fig.  2),  each 
column  is  broken  into  two,  making  six  in  the  whole.  The  admiral^s  ship 
then  moves  before  the  centre  of  the  two  columns  belonging  to  each.  The 
determination  of  the  distance  between  the  columns  is  always  a  matter  of 
importance.  The  length  of  the  column  being  known,  if  {fig.  3)  the  perpen- 
dicular CH,  equal  to  CF,  is  raised  on  the  column  OF,  the  points  F  and  G 
connected,  and  FH  taken  equal  to  FC,  then  6H  will  be  the  right  distance 
of  the  columns.  (By  mistake  of  the  engraver  the  letter  H  is  omitted  in  the 
figure ;  it  belongs  at  the  intersection  of  FG  and  AE.)  This  is  evident 
when  we  look  at  the  first  ship,  C,  and  the  last  ship,  E,  standing  equally  close 
to  the  wind,  to  which  the  line  CE  is  perpendicular.  An  approximate  pro- 
portion for  the  distance  is  five  twelfths  of  the  length  of  the  column. 

The  distance  between  two  ships  varies  from  forty  to  one  hundred 
fathoms.  In  pi,  28,  fig,  4,  AB  and  A'B'  are  two  rows  of  hostile  ships  of 
the  line  drawn  up  in  order  of  battle ;  CD  and  C'D'  are  frigates  and  fire- 
ships,  the  last  stationed  on  the  wings  or  centre  and  protected  by  frigates  on 
the  bow  and  stern.  The  last  lines  are  so  arranged  that  they  lie  to  the 
windward  if  the  enemy  is  to  leeward,  and  conversely.  In  the  rear  of  these 
are  two  more  lines,  EF  and  ET',  formed  by  the  hospital  ships,  transport 
ships,  &c.  PL  29,  fig,  3,  shows  a  division  of  a  fleet  in  the  line  of  battle. 
Fig,  2  is  a  steamship,  employed  to  carry  messages  from  one  line  to  another. 
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MANAGEMENT  OF  BEEPS.  101 

Frigates  were  formerly  used  for  this  purpose.  Stemuships,  however,  on 
account  of  their  swiftness  and  ability  to  move  in  any  direction,  are  far 
more  convenient.  Fig.  4  represents  the  moment  of  battle.  At  a  are 
seen  the  two  battle  lines,  and  at  b  the  grappling  between  two  hostile  fri- 
gates. 

The  order  of  retreat  is  shown  in  pL  28,  fig,  5,  although  in  fact  this  is 
usually  governed  by  circumstances.  The  fleet  is  here  formed  in  two  lines, 
AB  and  BC,  forming  an  obtuse  angle,  the  vertex  of  which  is  made  by 
the  admiral's  ship  in  the  centre  of  the  fleet.  The  frigates,  fireships,  &c., 
form  two  other  lines,  EF  and  FG,  to  the  leeward  of  the  former. 

It  is  important  to  know  the  difierent  methods  by  which  manoeuvres  can 
be  performed  in  one  and  the  same  sailing  order,  without  breaking  it.  We 
cannot  here  consider  the  subject  at  length,  but  must  be  content  with  repre- 
senting the  movements  by  figures,  with  a  few  words  in  explanation. 
Figs.  6  and  7  show  two  methods,  by  which  columns  can  sail  both  by  day 
and  night  without  disturbing  their  ranks.  Fig.  8,  the  columns  turn  before 
the  wind.  Fig.  9,  the  columns  sail  in  two  difierent  directions  close  to  the 
wind.  Fig.  10,  manoeuvre  by  which  the  centre  column  is  changed  into 
the  windward  column.  J^^.  11,  change  of  the  windward  column  into  the 
leeward  column.  Fig.  12,  change  of  the  centre  column  into  the  leeward 
column.  Fig.  13,  manoeuvre  of  the  windward  column  in  order  to  sail 
to  the  leeward.  Fig.  14,  manoeuvre  of  the  leeward  column  in  order  to 
advance  to  the  leeward. 

When  the  admiral  has  ordered  a  ship  to  a  certain  position,  it  is  the  duty 
of  the  commander  of  the  ship  to  obey  the  orders  promptly,  and  to  make 
good  the  position  required,  cost  what  it  may.  For  this  purpose,  the  so 
called  ship's  square  has  been  invented  (fig.  15).  Let  the  figure  be  the 
ground-plan  of  a  ship,  EF  a  portion  of  the  longitudinal  axis  lying  over  the 
keel,  and  ABCD  a  square  in  which  the  line  EF  passes  through  the  inter- 
section of  the  two  diagonals,  then  will  the  angles  D6E  and  C6E  be  each 
equal  to  135^,  and  these  will  be  the  two  courses  in  which  the  ship  sails 
close  to  the  wind.  If  now  these  angles  are  bisected  by  the  lines  6H  and 
GI,  these  lines  will  indicate  the  direction  of  the  wind  on  the  taltks.  Hence, 
if  a  ship  in  the  direction  EF  sails  on  the  starboard  tack,  its  course  by  the 
wind  will  be  on  the  semi-diagonal  GD,  and  if  it  sails  on  the  larboard  tack 
in  the  direction  EF,  its  course  will  be  on  the  semi-diagonal  CG.  Applying 
this  result  to  a  fleet,  which  sails  in  three  columns,  the  front  coinciding  with 
the  direction  of  the  wind  (fig.  16),  it  follows  that  all  the  ships  must  sail 
parallel  with  each  other  and  the  line  drawn  through  the  main-masts  of 
three  ships  (one  of  each  column)  will,  in  like  manner,  be  parallel  with 
the  front  line.  If  we  now  place  the  ship's  square  around  the  centre  ship, 
the  coinciding  ships  in  the  columns,  as  respects  the  tacks  and  the  winds, 
will  lie  in  the  direction  GH  and  GI,  while  the  ships  of  each  column  with 
their  longitudinal  axes  lie  in  FE  or  parallel  with  it. 

The  ships  sometimes  by  accident  fall  out  of  the  line,  and  it  is  important  to 
restore  the  line  of  battle  immediately.  The  chief  rule  in  this  case  is  for  the 
ship  which  was  at  the  head  of  the  line  to  pass  to  leeward  behind  the  front, 

lOOHOORAPHIO  BNCTCL0P.SDIA. — ^VOL.  lU.  48  7d8 


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102  NAVAL  SCIENCES. 

and  taking  the  wind  in  the  proper  sails,  to  return  into  the  line.  The  other 
ships  following  this,  set  their  sails,  according  to  the  distance,  in  order  to 
come  into  the  direction  of  the  first  ship.  Fig,  17  shows  the  position,  when 
it  is  desired  to  change  the  line  of  battle  without  forming  the  ships  into 
columns.  This  is  effected  by  turning  all  the  ships  at  the  same  time,  while 
the  last  takes  the  wind  on  the  other  tack,  and  remains  in  its  place,  the  other 
ships  falling  off  two  points,  and  sailing  on  until  they  come  into  the  direction 
of  the  stationary  ship.  The  last  ship  by  this  evolution  takes  the  place  of 
the  first,  and  the  left  wing  of  the  right.  But  if  the  first  order  is  to  be 
preserved,  the  first  ship  veers  round  in  its  place  and  strikes  out  the  course 
of  the  new  line,  on  which  it  sails  forward,  while  the  other  ships,  one 
after  another,  veer  round  in  the  same  place  and  follow  the  direction  of  the 
first. 

A  very  beautiful  manoeuvre  is  the  change  from  one  order  of  sailing  to 
another.  We  will  here  illustrate  two  cases.  Suppose  that  it  is  required 
to  change  the  sailing  order  into  the  line  of  battle  in  the  same  direction, 
while  the  lee  column  remains  as  it  was  {pi.  28,  fig.  18).  In  this  case  the 
lee  column  keeps  as  close  as  possible  to  the  wind,  the  centre  column  falb 
off  two  points,  and  passes  to  the  head  of  the  new  centre  column,  while 
the  windward  column  veers  at  once  in  its  position,  and  with  seven  points 
of  wind  sails  to  its  new  station  on  the  wing.  A  second  case,  when  the 
line  is  formed  from  the  sailing  order  in  another  direction,  is  represented 
in^^.  19.  Here  the  windward  column  commences  the  manceuvre,  turn- 
ing about  in  column  into  the  new  line,  while  the  centre  and  lee  columns 
remain  stationary»  until  they  also  sail  into  the  new  line,  and  then  tacking, 
complete  the  new  line  of  battle. 

The  manoeuvre  of  forming  columns  from  the  order  of  battle  is  shown  in 
fig,  20.  The  right  wing  here  forms  the  lee  column,  and  the  first  ship  tacks, 
the  others  of  the  same  column  following.  The  first  ship  of  the  centre 
which  is  now  to  form  the  windward  column,  proceeds  with  its  column 
in  the  line  of  battle  until  it  arrives  at  the  point  where  it  can  tack  into  the 
new  direction ;  it  then  leads  its  column  into  the  right  line,  and  at  the  proper 
distance,  wliile  the  left  wing,  which  is  to  form  the  centre  column,  follows 
the  windward  column  to  the  point  where  the  first  ship  tacks  and  leads  its 
column  into  the  open  space.  Fig.  21  shows  the  same  manoeuvre,  where 
the  columns  are  to  be  formed  on  another  point. 

In  our  examples  hitherto,  we  have  supposed  that  during  the  manoeurres 
the  wind  remains  unchanged.  If  the  wind  shifts  ahead,  it  is  diflicult  to 
restore  the  order  of  battle,  especially  if  the  enemy's  fleet  is  in  sight  If  the 
wind  comes  from  one  up  to  six  points  ahead,  and  it  is  desired  to  restore  the 
order  on  the  same  point,  each  ship,  after  it  has  fallen  off,  adds  a  few  points, 
with  the  exception  of  the  foremost,  which  diminishes  the  same  number. 
The  number  of  these  points  is  ascertained  by  deducting  from  eight 
points  half  the  points  by  which  the  wind  has  shifted ;  for  example,  if  the 
wind  shifts  5  points  forward,  b^  points  must  be  added  to  the  course. 
As  soon  as  the  first  ship  falls  off  and  begins  to  sail  in  the  new  line,  the 
second  and  the  rest  follow,  until  the  whole  lie  close  to  the  wind  in  the  new  line- 
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malNagk^nt  of  ships.  103 

Fig,  92  shows  this  manoeuvre.  The  4^st  example  which  we  will  here  give 
is  that  of  changing  a  battle  line  into  a  retreat  line  with  the  wind  ahead 
(pL  2S,ßg.  23).  After  the  fleet  has  fallen  ofi*,  the  first  ship  goes  four  points 
free,  while  the  others  keep  close  to  the  wind,  each  following  exactly  in  the 
wake  of  its  leader.  When  the  first  ship  of  the  centre  column  arrives  at  its 
turning  point,  that  is,  in  the  wake  of  the  second  ship  before  it,  it  tacks  and 
the  ships  of  its  column  follow.  The  lee  column  is  formed  in  the  same 
manner. 

As  an  example  of  the  manoeuvres  of  a  naval  battle,  we  will  describe  in 
ßgs.  24-33  the  principal  points  of  the  engagement  between  the  English 
and  French  near  the  islands  of  Martinique  and  Guadaloupe,  which  was 
fought  April  8-12,  1782. 

On  the  8th  of  April,  the  cruisers  before  Port^Royal  Bay  at  Martinique 
brought  intelligence  that  the  French  fleet  with  several  transport  ships 
was  under  weigh.  The  British  fleet,  which  lay  to  the  northward  of  Cross- 
Islet-Bay,  near  the  west  point  of  Martinique,  instantly  set  sail  and  pursued 
the  enemy  with  an  east-north-east  wind,  guided  by  his  night  signals  through 
the  whole  night,  until  morning,  when  the  Valiant  discovered  the  enemy. 
Fig,  24  shows  the  English  fleet  at  2  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  April  9th, 
when  it  fell  in  with  the  French  fleet,  F,  at  Martinique.  At  half-past  5  the 
signal  for  battle  was  given,  and  the  line  of  battle  formed.  6  shows  the 
position  of  the  French  fleet  at  5  o'clock,  on  the  starboard  tack,  in  order  to 
go  with  the  wind  into  the  channel  between  Martinique  and  Guadaloupe. 
A  single  ship,  H,  stands  so  far  to  leeward  that  it  must  have  been  taken,  if 
the  wind  had  not  been  unfavorable  to  the  English.  Fig,  25  shows  the 
van-guard.  A,  of  the  British  fleet,  which  was  engaged  in  close  action  with 
the  centre  of  the  French  fleet  from  9  to  10  o'clock.  The  centre  and  the 
rear-guard  of  the  English  fleet  lay  at  B,  under  Dominica.  F  is  the  position 
of  the  French,  some  of  whose  ships  did  not  come  into  the  line,  because  they 
did  not  catch  the  wind.  It  may  be  seen  from  ßg,  26  how  A,  the  centre  of 
the  British  fleet,  gained  the  wind  and  joined  the  van-guard,  B,  about  noon. 
The  rear-guard,  which  lay  under  the  wind  at  C,  formed  in  the  line,  D,  and 
a  second  cannonade  ensued  of  about  one  and  three-quarter  hours.  F  is  the 
position  of  the  French,  who  kept  at  a  great  distance,  thinking  that  the  shot 
of  the  English  would  not  reach  them.  Afterwards  they  put  the  head  of  the 
fleet  in  the  position  HH.  G  is  the  fleet  of  transport  ships.  Fig,  27  shows  at  A 
the  British  fleet  on  the  morning  of  April  11,  with  two  ships,  G,  of  the  French, 
which  had  been  chased  into  Bas-Terre  in  Guadaloupe  and  destroyed.  Two 
others  were  soon  found  at  H,  near  Dominica.  A  general  chase  was  then 
ordered,  as  four  French  vessels,  at  I,  were  still  seen  from  the  mast-head  of 
the  Formidable,  Lord  Rodney's  ship.  The  French  admiral,  Count  de  Grasse, 
gave  chase  to  the  Agamemnon  and  some  other  ships  at  B,  in  order  to  secure 
his  ships  at  H,  but  without  success.  We  come  now  to  the  events  of  April  12. 
At  6  o'clock  in  the  morning,  the  English  fleet  {pi,  28,  ßg,  28)  had  changed 
its  position  from  B  to  A,  taking  advantage  of  the  wind  which  blew  from  W. 
The  French  fleet  was  discovered  in  some  confusion  at  F.  One  of  the  ships 
lay  quite  to  leeward  at  G.    It  had  lost  its  bowsprit,  the  fore-mast  was  lying 

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104  NAVAL  SGIBNOBB, 

aerod»  the  deck,  and  the  ship  was  jf  tow  by  a  frigate.  The  wind  had 
veered  round  to  Z.  The  Monarch  and  the  Valiant  made  an  attack 
on  these  ships,  while  Count  de  Grasse  hastened  to  their  aid  at  H.  At 
4  or  5  o'clock  the  van-guard  of  the  English  was  at  D,  and  as  it  was 
supposed  that  Count  de  Grasse  had  come  too  far  to  leeward  to  avoid 
an  engagement,  the  Monarch  and  the  VaKant  were  recalled  into  the  line. 
The  French,  who  perceived  their  position,  took  the  larboard  tack,  hoping 
that  as  the  wind  had  veered  to  Y,  they  might  regain  their  former  point 
beyond  the  reach  of  the  English  guns,  especially  as  the  rest  of  the  fleet 
were  gathering  round  them.  The  lines  A  and  F  (ßg,  29)  show  the  position 
of  both  fleets  at  half-past  seven  in  the  morning,  when  the  Marlborough,  the 
first  ship  of  the  English,  had  reached  the  fifth  ship  of  the  French  fleet. 
The  signal  for  closing  the  line  and  joining  battle  was  now  given.  The 
effect  of  this  manoeuvre  was  to  throw  the  ships  on  both  sides  in  the  positioe 
represented  in^^.  30,  where  each  French  ship  stood  opposite  to  an  English 
one,  with  a  vigorous  interchange  of  shots.  The  French  fleet  at  F  had 
gained  the  weather-gage  of  the  enemy;  the  British  admiral's  ship,  the 
Formidable,  was  within  half  musket-shot  of  the  fourth  French  ship ;  a  hot 
fire  was  kept  up  along  the  whole  line,  until  a  space  appeared  in  the  French 
line  making  a  breach  possible,  separating  the  van-guard  from  the  rear,  and 
compelling  the  first  ship  of  the  French  rear  to  go  to  leeward  towards  GL 
Fig,  SI  :  A  is  the  Formidable,  the  British  admiral's  ship ;  F,  the  Vilk  de 
Paris,  which  bore  the  flag  of  Count  de  Grasse  ;  B,  the  English  van- 
guard, lying  opposite  the  cut-off*  part  of  the  French  line ;  H,  the  last  ^ip 
of  the  French  van.  In  ßg,  82,  we  see  the  Formidable,  the  Namur,  and 
the  Drake  making  a  hot  fire  at  A,  B,  and  C,  on  the  first  three  ships  of  the 
French  rear-guard,  which  effected  a  retreat  to  G.  F  is  the  French  van- 
guard, which  in  two  divisions  attacked  the  English  line,  while  the  centre 
column  sailed  to  the  westward  towards  H.  As  soon  as  the  French  van 
had  passed  the  English  line,  it  separated  into  two  divisions,  one  of 
which,  the  centre  division,  consisting  of  six  ships,  sailed  westward  towards 
H  {pi.  28,  ßg.  33),  while  the  other,  with  twelve  or  thirteen  ships,  sailed 
to  the  south-south-west,  towards  F,  with  Count  de  Grasse.  A  is  Lord 
Rodney's  ship  with  a  part  of  the  centre  in  pursuit  of  the  enemy's  van- 
guard, and  B  is  the  British  rear-guard  performing  the  same  manoBUvre. 
Count  de  Grasse  now  attempted  to  unite  with  his  southern  division,  F 
{ßg.  34),  and  form  a  new  line  of  battle.  This,  of  course,  modified  the 
plan  of  the  English  fleet,  which  pressed  down  towards  AB,  upon  which 
the  French  tacked  away  in  the  direction  of  I.  The  centre  division  of  the 
French,  H,  now  attempted  to  follow  the  division  G.  Fig.  35  finally  shows 
the  south  division  about  6  o'clock.  The  English  had  overtaken  it ;  and 
it  turned  to  the  northwards,  when  it  was  inclosed  by  the  British  fleet,  A. 
Count  de  Grasse  then  struck  his  flag,  and  five  French  ships,  F,  were 
taken.  The  ships  H  reached  those  lying  at  G,  and  with  them  eflfected 
their  retreat. 


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MANAGEMENT  OF  SHIPS.  105 

C  SignaU. 

For  communication  between  ships  at  sea  from  a  distance  beyond  the  range 
of  the  speaking  trumpet,  or  for  private  interchange  of  notices,  advice, 
questions,  or  orders  even  within  that  range,  a  system  of  signals  has  been 
devised  which  is  equally  simple  and  perfect.  It  consists  of  ten  different 
small  flags  of  easily  distinguishable  colors  and  designs.  Each  of  these  flags 
has  the  value  of  a  figure,  the  ten  representing  1-9  and  0.  With  these  flags 
any  number  can  be  expressed,  they  being  drawn  up  at  the  mast  head  one 
above  the  other,  the  lowest  representing  units,  the  next  tens,  the  third 
hundreds,  and  the  uppermost  thousands.  The  necessity  of  quickly  changing 
signals  prevents  the  use  at  the  mast  head  of  more  than  four  number-flags 
at  a  time,  as  a  greater  number  would  easily  get  entangled  in  the  rigging, 
and  would  also  occupy  so  much  room  as  to  hide  the  lower  flag  behind  the 
upper  sails.  The  number  of  signals  is  therefore  limited  to  9999.  In 
order  to  do  away  with  the  restraint  of  this  limit,  however,  the  system  has 
been  enlarged  by  introducing  small  pennants  of  various  descriptions  above 
the  number-flags,  giving  to  the  numbers  shown  under  each  of  the  pennants 
a  different  signification.  As  an  example  we  will  suppose  a  white  pennant 
over  the  number-flags  to  have  been  adopted  for  general  orders  and  a  red 
one  for  inquiries  of  all  kinds.  The  number  1357  under  a  white  pennant 
would  then  perhaps  convey  the  order  "Prepare  for  action,"  whilst  the 
same  number  under  a  red  pennant  is  perhaps  the  question,  "  Is  there  any 
Ice  in  these  parts  ?"  It  is  evident  that  this  method  admits  of  an  unlimited 
number  of  communications.  The  value  of  the  numbers  is  preconcerted  and 
recorded  in  signal-books  which  are  kept  on  board  of  every  ship  belonging 
to  the  same  fleet  or  nation.  Besides  those  signal-books  that  are  published 
and  therefore  accessible  to  everybody  there  are  also  private  signals  given 
under  special  pennants,  or  in  a  special  place  of  the  rigging,  the  import  of 
which  is  only  known  to  the  first  and  second  in  command,  and  which  are 
recorded  in  the  private  signal-books,  of  which  there  are  two  kinds;  the  one 
adopted  for  all  cases  of  secret  communication  between  the  higher  officers  of 
a  fleet ;  the  other  prepared  for  a  specific  occasion  and  only  referring  to  the 
emergencies  of  that  one  expedition.  In  time  of  action  all  orders  of  moment 
emanate  from  the  admiral's  vessel,  which  mostly  occupies  the  centre  of  the 
line  of  battle.  In  order  that  the  signals  given  by  the  admiral  may  be  at 
once  known  to  the  whole  fleet,  repeating  frigates  are  stationed  in  the  rear 
of  the  line,  whose  duty  it  is  to  repeat  the  signals  of  the  admiral  as  fast  as 
they  appear,  the  positions  of  these  frigates  being  so  taken  that  all  the  vessels 
of  the  line  can  see  one  or  the  other. 

In  the  merchant  service  the  same  system  is  adopted  for  the  exchange 
of  names,  destination,  position,  &c.,  and  a  very  extensive  series  of  questions 
and  answers  relating  to  marine  affairs  has  been  prepared  and  published  in  a 
signal-book  by  Captain  Marryat,  which  is  now  found  on  board  of  nearly 
every  merchant  vessel. 

For  communications  at  night  a  similar  system  of  signals  has  been  adopted 
consisting  of  lanterns  of  various  colors  and  displayed  in  various  combinations 

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106  NAVAL  SCIENCES. 

and  positions  in  the  ship,  either  on  deck,  in  the  shrouds,  in  the  tops,  or  at 
the  peak.  The  signal  of  a  wish  to  communicate  at  night  is  given  by 
rockets  or  Bengal  lights.  A  ship  signalizing  with  flags  isr  rejn^esented  in 
pL  26,  ßg.  1 ;  night  signals  in  pi.  26,  fig.  5,  a,  b,  c. 


Harbors,  Naval  Arsenals,  and  Lioht-Housbb. 

Ä.  Harbors. 

In  order  to  furnish  a  safe  berth  for  vessels  when  they  are  not  at  sea,  for 
the  purpose  of  taking  in  or  discharging  their  freight,  a  place  is  necessary 
where  they  can  find  a  good  anchorage  and  a  secure  protection  from  storms. 
Such  places  on  the  sea-coast  are  called  harbors.  A  good  harbor  must  have 
a  situation  suitable  for  its  objects,  whether  intended  for  men-of-war  or  for 
merchant  vessels.  This  is  the  first  requisite.  It  must,  in  the  next  place, 
be  entirely  protected  from  storms  by  the  adjacent  coast.  Lastly,  it  must 
possess  a  sound,  tenacious  bottom  of  clay  or  mud.  A  sand  bottom  also  may 
be  used,  but  a  rocky  one  is  wholly  impracticable.  If  a  harbor  gets  stopped 
up  with  sand,  it  must  be  dredged,  for  which  purpose  two  different  kinds  of 
machines  are  used.  One  is  the  common  dredging  machine  (pi.  Bl,fig.  6) 
which  is  most  serviceable  on  flat  and  gravelly  bottoms.  It  consists  of  a 
flat-bottomed  boat,  which  is  towed  by  a  vessel  to  the  place  where  it  is  to 
be  used.  The  tow-ropes  run  on  a  windlass,  so  that  the  position  of  the  boat 
can  be  changed  without  tacking  the  ship.  The  main  part  of  the  machine 
is  a  large  wheel,  with  a  rope  winding  on  its  axis,  by  which  the  dredging- 
box  is  raised.  This  is  fastened  to  a  long  handle,  which  also  rests  on  the 
axis  of  the  wheel.  As  the  rope  unwinds,  the  dredging-box  sinks  to  the 
ground,  taking  a  part  of  the  bottom  as  it  is  drawn  away.  It  is  then  brought 
to  the  surface  of  the  water  by  the  further  revolution  of  the  wheel,  its  con- 
tents are  discharged  into  a  boat,  and  the  same  process  is  repeated.  A  far 
more  efiective  machine  is  the  steam-dredger,  of  which  pi.  80,  fig.  8,  ex- 
hibits a  view  seen  from  above,  and  fig.  9  a  longitudinal  section.  The 
foundation  of  this  also  is  a  flat-bottomed  boat,  in  which  is  the  steam-bcüler 
Ä,  with  the  safety-valve  C,  and  the  chimney  D.  The  steam  passes  firom 
the  boiler  to  the  engine  B,  which  by  means  of  a  fly-wheel  b,  and  diflbrent 
cog-wheels,  turns  the  axis  m.  At  the  end  of  the  axis,  a  mitre-wheel 
moves  the  wheel  F,  on  the  pentagonal  axis  of  which  the  bucket-chain  FF 
revolves,  bringing  the  sand  to  the  surface,  where  it  is  discharged  into  the 
mud-scow  G.  By  means  of  the  chain  t,  which  passes  over  the  beam  o,  of 
the  windlass  g,  the  bucket-chain  can  be  raised  or  lowered  by  the  pulley  p. 
Artificial  harbors  like  those  of  Dunkirk  and  Toulon  {pi.  22,  fig.  2)  require 
extensive  and  costly  works,  as  the  whole  system  of  dams  which  inclose  the 
harbor  must  be  erected  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  As  scarcely  any  use 
can  be  made  of  sails  in  harbor,  vessels  are  towed  to  the  spot  where  they 
are  to  cast  anchor  (pL  30,  fig.  2).  In  the  vicinity  of  a  harbor  is  usually 
found. 


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HABBOBS^  fta  J07 

B.  The  Roadstead. 

This  is  a  place  of  anchorage  where  vessels  may  lie  at  anchor  more  or 
less  protected  from  storms,  for  the  purpose  of  discharging  or  of  taking  in 
a  portion  of  their  freight.  A  roadstead  is  either  inclosed  or  open  (pL  31, 
ßg.  1,  where  a  division  of  a  fleet  is  lying  at  anchor) ;  in  the  latter  case  it  is 
only  a  good  landing,  but  affords  no  protection  to  ships,  except  a  conve- 
nient anchorage.  An  inclosed  roadstead  (ßg.  2)  is  so  surrounded  by 
the  land  and  the  adjacent  heights,  that  it  protects  vessels  from  the  ocean 
winds. 

C.  Docks. 

A  deep  basin  is  usually  made  on  one  side  of  a  harbor,  or  in  large  rivers, 
which  is  filled  with  water  by  means  of  sluice  gates,  and  is  then  again  laid 
dry  by  means  of  special  sluices  on  the  sides.  Ships  are  sometimes  taken 
into  these  docks,  for  loading  and  unloading ;  but  they  are  most  generally 
brought  in  to  be  repaired.  The  docks  are  so  arranged,  that  they  are  of  equal 
height  with  the  low- water  mark,  so  that  the  ship  can  be  taken  in  and  out 
at  flood-tide.  This  kind  of  docks  is  called  wet  docks.  Dry-docks  are  those 
mentioned  above,  which  can  be  laid  dry  by  means  of  special  sluice  gates. 
PL  32,  ßg.  9,  shows  a  section  of  the  Dundee  Dry-dock.  Fig,  10  is  a 
view  of  one  half  seen  from  above.  Pig.  11  is  one  half  the  transverse  sec- 
tion at  the  end,  sxidßg.  12  one  half  of  the  transverse  section  near  the  sluice 
gate,  a  is  the  dock,  b  the  stairs  leading  to  the  bottom,  c  the  sluice-chocks, 
d  the  gate,  e  the  floor,  the  forward  floor,  g  and  h  locks  for  letting  the  water 
off  and  on,  t  and  k  openings  to  the  sluice  gates. 

Fig,  11  shows  the  blocks  on  which  the  staging  for  the  ships  is  placed. 
PL  80,  ßg.  I,  shows  the  dry  dock  in  Toulon  harbor.  In  it  are  two  ships 
building.  Another  construction  is  shown  in  the  Prince's  Docks  at  Liver- 
pool, of  which  pL  32,  ßg.  3,  shows  a  transverse  section  of  the  chamber, 
ßg.  4  a  transverse  section  near  the  mouth  of  the  sluice,  ^^.  5,  the  profile  of 
the  western  wall,  and  ßg.  6  the  profile  of  the  same  wall  near  the  sluice- 
mouth.  Fig.  7  is  the  profile  of  the  wall  of  the  London  dock.  It  is  lined 
with  iron.  Fig.  1  is  the  ground  plan  of  the  West-India  docks  in  London 
They  are  wet  docks,  intended  only  for  loading  and  unloading  vessels.  On 
their  account  store-rooms  are  built  in  their  vicinity.  The  South  docks  and 
Timber  docks  are  used  for  repairs.  Harbors  and  docks,  where  they  adjoin 
the  water,  are  provided  with  quays,  up  to  which  the  ships  can  be  brought. 
These  quays  are  of  considerable  height,  with  deep  sides,  and  are  usually 
built  of  stone.    Fig.  6  shows  the  profile  of  the  Mersey  quay  in  Liverpool. 

D.  Ship  Yards  and  Machines. 

A  good  harbor  is  usually  provided  with  ship  yards,  places  where  new 
ships  can  be  built  on  the  stocks,  and  old  ones  brought  in  for  repairs. 
In  a  ship  yard,  there  are  toays,  which  are  dry  at  ebb-tide  {pL  SO,ßg.  3), 
on  which  the  ship  is  placed  by  the  tide  or  by  machines,  when  it  can  be  laid 
on  its  side,  and  new  coppered  or  caulked  and  graved  (ßg.  4).     There  are 

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108  NAVAL  BOSSSatS. 

also  stocks  (pi  Zl,fig.  5),  on  which  new  ships  are  built.  These  are  after- 
wards covered  over  with  an  arched  roof,  which  protects  them  from  the 
weather.  Fig.  3  shows  a  crane  for  setting  masts.  This  maohine  is  some- 
times movable,  and  in  that  case  placed  on  a  scow.  Fig.  4  shows  a  pile- 
driving  machine,  for  the  purpose  of  driving  posts  and  pile-bottoms  into 
different  places  in  the  harbor. 

E.  Arsenals. 

Navy  yards,  or  harbors  for  men  of  war,  always  have  an  arsenal,  where 
the  equipments  of  ships  are  kept  and  also  manufactured.  Here  are  found 
cannons,  balls,  bombs,  anchors,  and  so  forth.  There  are  also  a  forge  for 
anchors,  a  cannon  foundry,  an  iron  foundry,  a  rope  walk,  a  sail-maker's  loft, 
and  in  short,  all  the  mechanics'  shops  in  which  the  utensils  of  a  ship  are 
made. 

F.  Diving  Bells. 

A  very  useful  apparatus,  the  diving  bell,  is  also  kept  in  harbors  and  road- 
steads. It  is  well  known  that  when  a  bell  is  immersed  in  the  water,  the 
presence  of  the  air  inside  counteracts  the  power  of  the  water,  so  that 
if  the  bell  is  of  sufficient  size,  one  or  more  men  can  descend  in  it  to  the 
bottom  of  the  sea,  and  there  pursue  their  labors  (pi.  30,  fig.  6).  For  this 
purpose,  a  frame  with  a  strong  tackle  is  fitted  on  a  boat,  by  which  the  beU 
is  suspended.  This  is  then  let  down  with  men  in  it,  who  remain  at  the 
bottom  until  they  give  a  signal  to  be  drawn  up.  They  take  ropes  and 
chains  with  then),  which  are  attached  to  any  object  which  they  wish  to  save 
and  this  is  drawn  up  together  with  the  bell  (fig.  1).  In  order  to  supply 
the  men  with  fresh  air,  leather  hose  pass  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  pro- 
vided with  valves.  Bv  means  of  them  the  bad  air  is  discharged,  and  fresh 
air  supplied. 

O.  Observatories. 

Observatories,  with  signal-lights  for  night  use,  are  erected  for  the  purpose 
of  seeing  ships  as  they  come  into  the  harbor,  and  of  noticing  everything 
which  may  occur  on  the  water  and  of  reporting  arrivals  by  signals  (/>/.  4» 
fig.  8).  PL  81,  fig.  2,  and  pi.  80,  in  the  lower  corner  at  the  right,  show 
several  of  these  observatories. 

H.  Light-Houses. 

Many  dangerous  points  are  found  on  coasts,  where  sailors  who  are 
not  acquainted  with  the  locality,  or  who  have  no  pilot  on  board  to  take 
them  over  the  dangerous  places,  are  very  liable  to  suffer  shipwreck.  These 
points  are  designated  by  signals.  High  towers  are  erected,  in  which  lights 
are  kept  burning  all  night.  Light-houses  are  also  built  at  the  entrance  of 
harbors  (pi.  4,  fig.  6).  In  the  earlier  ages,  fires  were  made  use  of  as  signals; 
but  at  the  present  day,  lamps,  provided  with  reflecting  apparatus  on  a  hrgb 
scale,  are  employed.  As  this  light  might  be  easily  mistaken  for  a  star,  they 
are  so  arranged  that  the  light  is  shown  only  at  intervals,  or  periodically 
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HABBOBS^  iso.  109 

changes  its  odor.  There  are :  1.  lAgkt-hou^s  voUh  stoHanary,  iniermitHi^ 
ügtis.  The  Trieste  light-house  is  one  of  these.  PL  92,  fig.  13,  is  a  front 
view  of  this  light-honse ;  fig.  14»  a  vertioal  section.  The  lower  part  of  the 
tower  is  a  casemated  fortificatiom,  for  the  protection  of  the  harbor.  FHg.  16 
shows  the  ground  plan  of  the  basement»  in  the  direction  of  the  line  AB ; 
fig.  1 6,  that  of  the  casemates  in  the  direction  of  the  line  AB  in^.  14.  The 
lighting  apparatus  is  represented  in^^.  17 :  P9p\p*  are  frames  for  the  station- 
ary lamps,  in  a  lantern  provided  with  glass  windows.  On  the  stationary  post  k 
is  a  frame,  bnno,  resembling  an  umbrella,  to  which  is  attached  a  perpendicular 
screen  q,  covering  one  half  of  the  inside  of  the  tower.  This  frame  is  made 
to  revolve  by  the  wheels  abed  and  fghi,  which  are  moved  by  clock-work, 
so  that  the  screen,  q,  at  one  time  leaves  the  lamps  free  and  then  again  con- 
ceals them.  2.  Light-houses  with  revolving,  intermitting  lights.  The  Bell 
Rock  light-house,  which  was  erected  in  1611  on  one  of  the  most  dangerous 
rocks  near  Dundee,  is  of  this  kind.  Fig.  16  is  a  vertical  section.  The  tower 
is  washed  by  the  waves,  and  the  entrance,  consequently,  is  above  the  range 
of  the  breakers  at  B ;  A,  C,  D,  and  £  are  the  different  stories  of  the  light-house, 
in  which  the  keepers  live.  At  H  is  the  watch-room ;  6  is  the  lantern ;  K  is 
a  flag-staff,  on  which  a  signal  flag  is  raised  in  the  day-time.  The  lighting 
apparatus  consists  of  an  upright  axle,  which  is  turned  by  means  of  the  clock-« 
work  F,  and  turns  with  it  a  frame,  of  which  one  half  is  a  semi-cylindrical 
screen,  plated  on  the  inside,  and  highly  polished,  while  the  other  half  bears 
seven  large  and  brilliant  Argand  lamps.  As  the  axis  revolves,  the  dark 
side  of  the  screen  and  the  burning  lamps  are  presented  alternately.  3.  Lights 
houses  with  revolving,  intermitting,  colored  lights.  Of  this  kind  is  the  Cor- 
douan  light-house  at  the  mouth  of  the  Garonne  {fig.  23).  The  polyzonal 
lenses,  I,  invented  by  Fresnel  are  here  used,  by  which  nearly  all  the  rays 
of  light  are  thrown  in  parallel  lines,  while  those  which  fall  above  and  below 
are  also  thrown  into  parallel  lines  by  the  parabolic  reflectors  H  and  K. 
The  apparatus  consists  of  eight  lenses,  in  the  focus  of  which  is  a  large 
Argand  lamp,  four  inches  in  diameter,  with  its  chimney,  L.  Four  of  these 
lenses  are  shaded  green.  The  whole  apparatus,  with  its  foot,  D,  stands  on 
the  plate  of  the  column,  B,  supported  by  the  wheels,  g.  Above  g  is  the 
cog-wheel  /,  in  which  plays  the  pinion,  e,  of  the  clock-work,  E,  which  is 
moved  by  the  axis  d;  frc  is  a  regulator  with  arms  and  conical  pendulum. 

The  necessity  of  erecting  light-houses  in  distant  places,  where  skilful  work- 
men and  the  requisite  building  materials  are  not  to  be  had,  has  suggested  to 
the  English  the  idea  of  iron  light-houses,  which  can  be  taken  in  separate  pieces 
to  their  places  of  destination  and  there  put  together.  PI.  92,  fig.  19,  repre- 
sents a  section  of  an  iron  light-house  constructed  in  London  a  few  years 
since  for  the  Bermuda  Islands.  The  foundation  up  to  the  first  story  is 
built  of  stone,  although  the  iron  work  commences  in  this  portion  of  the 
building.  In  the  second  story  the  wall  is  much  lighter,  and  is  plated  with 
iron  plates  on  both  sides.  From  the  third  story  upwards  iron  plates  only 
are  used,  which  are  shown  in  their  upright  joints  {fig.  21)  and  in  their 
horizontal  ones  {fig.  20).  They  are  fastened  with  cast-iron  flanges  on  the 
inside  by  strong  iron  screws.     The  stairs,  floors,  window  frames,  and 


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110  NAVAL  SCIENOEa 

lanterns  are  all  of  cast-iron.  C  is  the  clock-work ;  D,  the  luting  appara- 
tus ;  and  E,  a  lightning-rod.  The  tower  was  erected  without  any  scaffiM- 
ing.  On  the  floor  of  each  story  {fig.  522)  a  projecting  derrick,  d,  was 
arranged,  with  a  windlass  at  its  foot,  a.  The  rope  of  this,  ft,  passed  around 
a  pulley,  c,  and  raised  the  plate  e,  which  was  steadied  below  by  a  guy,  /. 
A  considerable  number  of  these  light-houses  have  been  eroded  with 
success. 


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INDEX    TO    GEOGRAPHY. 


[the  nmnben  refer  to  the  top  paflog  of  the  text] 


AvTSSiKU,  or  Habesch,  religioD»  form  of  govern- 
ment, and  principal  divisions  of,  104. 

Aehaia,  provinces  and  towns  of,  28»  29. 

Admiralty  islands,  the,  120. 

Afghanistan,  area  of,  different  races  inhabiting, 
and  provinces  of,  96. 

Africa,  extent,  boundaries,  area,  &c.,  of,  13,  101, 
102  ;  seas,  gulfs,  bays,  &c.,  of,  ib. ;  currents  of 
the  African  seas,  ib. ;  mountains  of,  14 ;  capes 
of,  ib. ;  plains  and  deserts  of,  ib. ;  rivers  of,  14, 
15 ;  lakes  of,  15  ;  hdands  of,  ib.,  and  106,  107  ; 
explanation  of  physical  chart  of,  9,  15 ;  tribes 
and  settlements  on  the  west  and  east  coasts  of, 
104,  105  ;  the  highlands  of,  106. 

Africa,  the  diocese  of,  subdivisions  and  principal 
towns  of,  at  the  time  of  Constantino  the  Great, 
26. 

Agra,  99. 

Ajan,  inhabitants  and  principal  towns  of,  105. 

Alexander  the  Great,  summary  of  the  career  and 
extent  of  the  kingdom  of,  24. 

Algiers,  area,  population,  and  principal  towns  of, 
103. 

Alleghany  mountains,  the,  17. 

Alps,  die  different  ranges  of  the,  and  heights  of  the 
principal  peaks  of,  5,  56,  57. 

America,  physical  chart  of,  9  ;  extent,  boundaries, 
area  of,  &c.,  15,  16, 107  ;  seas,  bays,  and  gulfe 
of,  16 ;  currents  on  the  coast  of,  ib. ;  mountains 
of,  16-18 ;  capes,  plains,  and  rivers  of,  18,  19  ; 
lakes  and  islands  of,  19  ;  special  survey  of  the 
northern  continent,  108--113 ;  of  the  southern 
continent,  115-118. 

Amirantes,  the,  or  Admiralty  islands,  107. 

Amsterdam,  general  descriptioa  and  topography 
of,  165-167. 

Anam,  100. 

Ancients,  the,  geographical  knowledge  of,  21. 

Ancona,  general  description  and  topography  of, 
170,  171. 

Andaman  islands,  the,  101. 

Angola,  105. 

Anhalt- Bemberg,  the  duchy  of,  88. 

Anhalt-Dessau,  the  duchy  of,  88. 

Anhalt- Kothen,  the  duchy  of,  88. 

Antarctic  ocean,  the,  3. 

Antigua,  114. 

AntiUes,  the  great,  113  ;  the  lesser,  114. 

Antwerp,  general  description  and  topography  of, 
163-165. 

Apennines,  the,  highest  points  of,  5. 

Aquitania,  extent  of  the  kingdom  of,  33. 

Arabia,  divisions  of  by  Ptolemieus,  32;  area 
and  population  of,  95 ;  principal  districts  of,  ib. 

Arctic  ocean,  the,  3. 

Argentine  republic,  the,  117. 

Armenia,  94. 

Ana,  extent,  boundaries,  area,  &c.,  of,  10;  the 
seas  of,  ib. ;  the  mountains  of,  10,  11 ;  capes 
and  promontories  of,  11 ;  plains  and  deserts  of. 


ib. ;  rivers  of,  12 ;  islands  of,  ib. ;  explanation 
of  the  physical  chart  of,  9,  12,  13 ;  various 
races  of,  and  prevailing  religions  in,  93. 

Asia,  the  diocese  of,  provinces  and  towns  of,  in 
the  time  of  Constantino,  30. 

Assam,  100. 

Atlantic  Ocean,  the,  3  ;  principal  indentations  o^ 
on  the  coast  of  Europe,  4;  on  the  coast  of 
America,  16. 

Aude,  99.  / 

Australasia,  position  and  area  of  the  islands  com- 
posing, 19,  20 ;  mountains,  capes,  and  rivers  of, 
20. 

Australia,  or  New  Holland,  area,  population,  and 
principal  settlements  in,  118,  119:  a^jaoent 
islands,  120. 

Austraaa,  extent  of  the  kingdom  of,  33. 

Austria,  situation,  boundaries,  and  area  of,  79; 
principal  mountains  of,  79,  80 ;  rivers  of,  80 ; 
principal  productions  of,  ib. ;  population  of,  and 
races  composing,  ib. ;  religion  and  state  of  edu- 
cation in,  ib. ;  form  of  government,  revenues, 
army  and  navy  of,  &c.,  80,  81 ;  principal  divi- 
sions of,  with  the  chief  cities,  81 ;  raibroads  in, 
89,90. 

Ava,  or  Burmah,  100. 

Azores,  the,  49. 

Baden,  the  grand  duchy  of,  86 ;  railroads  in,  89. 

Baffin's  bay,  and  lands  adjoining,  108. 

Bahamas,  the,  115. 

Balearic  islands,  the,  52. 

Balkan,  the,  principal  spurs  of,  5. 

Banda  OrienUl,  the,  118. 

Barbadoes,  114. 

Barbary,  area  and  population  of,  102. 

Barcelona,  general  description  and  topography  of, 
160, 161. 

Bavaria,  the  kingdom  of,  86;  railroads  in,  89, 
90. 

Bays,  the  principal  of  Europe,  4 ;  of  Asia,  10 ;  of 
Africa,  13  ;  of  America,  16. 

Bechuanas,  the  106. 

Belgium,  extent  and  boundaries  of,  58 ;  moun- 
tains and  rivers  of,  ib. ;  natural  products  of,  ib. ; 
population,  language,  and  manu^tures  of,  59 ; 
state  of  reUgion  and  education  in,  ib. ;  form  of 
government,  revenues,  and  army  and  navy  of, 
ib. ;  provinces  of,  with  their  chief  cities  and 
inhabiUnts,  ib. ;  railroads  in,  92. 

Beludchistan,  area  and  population  of,  96;  pro- 
vinces of,  97. 

Bengal,  99. 

Benguela,  105. 

BerUn,  general  description  and  topography  o( 
140-143. 

Bermuda  islands,  the,  109. 

Bohemia,  the  kingdom  of,  81. 

Bohemian  mountains,  the,  6. 

Bolivia,  die  lepoblic  o(  116, 117. 

768 


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BomUy,  99. 

Borneo,  the  island  of,  101. 

BoqeminB,  the,  or  Buahmen,  106. 

Bourbon,  the  island  of,  107. 

Brandenburg,  83. 

Brazil,  the  empire  of,  area,  population,  and  form 

of  government  of,  116. 
Bremen,  the  free  town  of,  89. 
Britannia,  subdivimona  of,  in  the  time  of  Conatan- 

tine  the  Great,  28. 
Brunswick,  the  duchy  of,  87 ;  railroad«  in,  90. 
Buchara,  or  Bokhara,  96. 
Boehaiia,  Great,  96. 
Baenos  Ajrrea,  117. 
Bukowina,  81. 
Burgundf,  political  condition  o^  ftt  the  time  of 

Clovis,  33. 
Bunnah,  or  Ava,  100. 
Butan,  or  Bhotan,  98. 

Calcutta,  99. 

Canada,  area,  population,  form  of  goTemment, 

and  principal  towns  of^  109. 
Canary  islands,  the,  53. 
Cape  Breton,  109. 
C«pe  of  Good  Hope»  tbe^  extent,  aabdirinona,  md 

population  of,  106. 
Cape  de  Verde  islands,  the,  107. 
Capes,  the  principal,  of  Europe,  6 ;  of  Asia,  1 1 ; 

of  Afriea»  14 ;  of  America,  18 ;  of  Australasia, 

SO. 
Caribbean  islands,  the,  114. 
CariBthia,  the  duchy  of,  81. 
Carolines,  the,  or  New  Philippines,  130. 
Caipathisin  mountains,  dirisions  and  highest  peaks 

Caucasus,  the,  72,  94. 

Celebes,  101. 

Ceylon,  the  island  of,  lOl. 

Cevennes,  the,  6. 

Cterleniagne,  general  data  concerning  the  history 

and  formation  of  the  empire  o{,  32-34. 
Chili,  the  republic  of,  117. 
China,  area   of,  97;    population,  religion,   and 

government  o^  ib. ;  provinces  of,  ib. ;  tributaiy 

provinces  and  lands  under  the  protection  of, 

98. 
Chokand,  96. 

CtMcia,  divifioBS  and  principal  towaa  of^  31. 
Cieplatina,  118. 
Cochin  China,  100. 

Comorin,  the,  or  Comoro  islands,  107. 
Compass,  the  Greek,  24. 
Congo,  105. 
Constantine  the  Great,  extent  of  the  Roman  empire 

under,  with  an  enumeration  of  the  different  pro- 

▼inces  and  towns,  fU^9^. 
Constantinople,  general  daseription  and  topogra- 
phy of,  133*135. 
Cook's  islands,  121. 
Copenhagen,  general  description  and  topography 

of,  161,  162. 
Cordilleras,  the,  16. 
Cosu  Rica,  113. 
Crainia,  the  duchy  of,  81. 
Croatia,  81. 
Crusadea,  the,  outtine  of  the  geographical  histoiy 

of,  39-42. 
Cuba,  area  and  population  of,  113,  114. 
Currents,  oceanic,  on  the  coast  of  £kirope,  4,  5 ; 

on  the  coast  of  Africa,  13,  14;  of  America, 

16. 
1U 


Dada,  divisioBs  of,  in  the  time  of  Conalantiiie,  29. 

Dahnatia,  81. 

Deccan,  the,  99. 

Denmark,  extent,  area,  and  boundaiies  o^  65; 
bays  and  straits  of,  fli. ;  climate  oi,  iK ;  pro- 
ducts of,  65,  66;  population  of^  66;  state  of 
religion  and  education  in,  ib. ;  form  of  govern- 
meet,  revenues,  and  army  and  navy  of,  ib.; 
islands,  appendages,  and  foreign  posseesionB  of, 
ib. ;  railroads  in,  92. 

Deserts,  the,  of  Asia,  11 ;  of  Africa,  14. 

Dominica,  or  Dominique,  114. 

Earth,  the,  ahape,  dimenaons,  and  other  mathe- 
matical data  respecting,  1-3;  superficial  con- 
tents of,  3 ;  the  principal  oceans  of,  and  their 
areas,  3,  4 ;  principal  divisiona  of  the  land  e( 
and  their  areas,  4 ;  various  ideas  of  the  ancient 
geographers  respecting,  21-24. 

East  India  islands,  Uie,  100, 101. 

East  Indiea.    See  Hindostan. 

E^cuador,  the  repubUc  of^  115. 

Egypt,  provinces  and  towns  of,  in  the  tiuM  of 
Constantine,  30,  31 ;  area  and  popolatioo  of, 
102;  religion,  government,  and  pimcipal  dis- 
tricts of,  ib. 

England,  extent  of,  61 ;  mountains  of^  61,  62 ; 
rivers  and  canaU  of,  62 ;  climate,  and  nataral 
and  manufactured  products  of,  62,  63 ;  state  of 
education,  principal  seminaries  of  leaning  in, 
dtc.,  63;  form  of  government,  revenues,  and 
army  and  navy  of,  ib. ;  countiea  and  chief  towas 
of,  63,  64 ;  foreign  possessions  and  colonies  of, 
65. 

Eratosthenes,  of  Cyrene,  the  first  to  place  geogra- 
phy on  a  systematic  basis,  22. 

Europe,  extent,  boundaries,  area,  Slc.,  of,  4  ;  pria- 
cipal  indentations  of  the  coast  of,  ib. ;  oceanie 
currents  on  the  coast  of,  4, 5 ;  principal  moantaks 
of,  5, 6 ;  promontories  and  capes  of,  6 ;  T&Ueys, 
plains,  and  lowlands  of,  6,  7  ;  principal  riven 
of,  7,  8 ;  principal  lakes  of,  8 ;  laiigest  isiands 
of,  ib. ;  explanation  of  the  physical  chart  of,  8, 
9  ;  political  divisions  and  summary  of  the  his- 
tory of  the  principal  countries  of,  at  various 
epochs  during  the  middle  ages»  32  et  seq. ;  divi- 
fions  of,  as  they  were  constituted  before  the 
French  Revolution,  42-48 ;  various  races  inha- 
biting at  the  present  day,  48 :  present  political 
divisions  of  ib. ;  the  railroads  of  central,  89-93 ; 
plana  of  tiie  principal  citiea  of,  123-172. 

Falkland  islands,  tiie,  118. 

Faroer,  the,  or  Faroe  islands,  66. 

Fejee  islands,  the,  12L 

Fez,  area,  population,  form  of  govenimeat,  and 
principal  towns  of,  103. 

Finnland,  71. 

Florence,  general  description  and  topography  of, 
168-170. 

France,  extent  and  boundaiies  of,  53;  geoerü 
nature  of  the  surface  and  chief  mountain  sys- 
tems and  piateaua  of,  ib. ;  rivers  of,  with  tbieir 
tributaries,  53,  54;  clhnate  and  natural  and 
industrial  products  of,  ib. ;  population  and  races 
o^  ib. ;  prevailing  religion  and  state  of  educa- 
tion in,  55 ;  political  condition,  revenues,  and 
army  and  navy  of,  ib. ;  departments  of,  vrhh 
their  capital?,  55,  56;  foreign  poaBeasona  of, 
56 ;  railroads  in,  91,  92. 

Frankfurt  on  the  Main,  the  free  town  of,  89 ;  rul- 
RMda  in,  89, 90. 


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Franks,  the,  eaily  hiBtory  of  iIm  eniiiire  of,  89. 

Frimnl,  81. 

Frieodly  islands,  the,  121. 

Gmlicia,  the  kingdom  of,  81 ;  railroads  in,  93, 

GalUa,  sabdhriflionB  and  principal  towns  of,  in  the 
time  of  Gonsuntine  the  Great,  26,  27. 

Gaul,  condition  of,  during  the  time  of  Clo?is,  S3. 

Geographers,  early  Greek,  21  et  seq. 

Geography,  subdivided  into  mathematical,  physi- 
cal, and  civil,  1 ;  general,  special,  and  histori- 
cal, ib. ;  brief  enumeration  of  important  hcf 
respecting  mathematical,  1-3 ;  physical,  3 ; 
historical,  21  ;  of  ancient  times,  ib. ;  of  the 
middle  ages,  32 ;  of  modem  times,  42 ;  special 
or  political,  48. 

OenoMny,  boundaries  and  aiea  of,  84 ;  principal 
mountains,  rivers,  and  lakes  of,  ib. ;  climate  of, 
ib. ;  products  of,  85 ;  population  and  religion 
of,  ib. ;  state  of  education  in,  ib. ;  politioai  re- 
lations of,  ib. ;  individual  states  of,  86-89 ;  raU- 
roads  in,  89. 

Ghauts,  the,  10. 

Goa,  100. 

Great  Britain,  extent  of,  61 ;  mountams  and  rivers 
of,  6,  61,  CS) ;  number  and  various  races  of  the 
inhabitants  of,  62,  63  ;  number  of  miles  of  rail- 
road in,  89.  And  see  England,  Scotland,  Ire- 
land, and  Wales. 

Greece,  provinces  and  towns  of,  in  the  time  of 
Constantino,  28,  29  ;  extent  and  boundaries  of, 
74  ;  mountains,  rivers,  climate,  and  products  o^ 
ib. ;  population  of,  ib. ;  form  of  government  oi, 
74,  75 ;  divisions  of,  75. 

GreenUnd,  inhabitants  of,  and  settlements  in,  108. 

Grenada,  114. 

Grenadillas,  the,  a  small  group  of  islands  in  the 
West  Indies,  114. 

Guadaloupe,  114. 

Guatemala,  113. 

Guiana,  or  Guyana,  British,  Netheriaodish,  and 
French,  115,  116. 

Guinea,  upper  and  lower,  principal  tribes  and  set- 
tlements in,  104,  105. 

Guinea  islands,  the,  107. 

Gulfs,  the  principal,  of  finrope,  4 ;  of  Aaa,  10 ; 
of  Africa,  13  ;  of  America,  16. 

Guzerat,  sUte  of,  100. 

Habesch,  or  Abyssinia,  104. 

HaBmus,  the  range  of,  5. 

Haiti,  the  island  of,  114. 

Hamburg,  the  free  town  of,  89. 

Hanover,  the  kingdom  of,  86 ;  railroads  in,  90. 

Hellas,  provinces  and  towns  of,  in  the  time  of 
ConBUntioe,  28,  29. 

Herodotus,  of  Halicamassus,  the  true  father  of 
ancient  geography,  21 ;  the  world  as  described 
by,  21,  22. 

He^se,  the  electorate  of,  86 ;  railroads  in,  90. 

Hesse  Dannstadt,  the  grand  duchy  o^  86 ;  rail- 
roads in,  89,  90. 

Hesse- Hombui^  the  Landgrafschaft  of,  89. 

Hessian  mountains,  the,  6. 

Himalaya  nMNintains,  the,  10.  . 

Hindostan,  area  and  physical  divisions  of,  98, 99 ; 
inhabitants  of,  their  number  and  races,  See., 
99 ;  English  and  French  possesaons  in,  99, 
100. 

Hispania,  provinces  and  towns  of,  in  the  time  of 
Constantino  the  Great,  27, 98. 

Hispaniola,  114. 


Historical  geography,  91 ;  historical  aorvesr  of 
the  various  changes  of  the  several  political 
divisions  of  Europe  from  the  eariiest  times, 
21-39. 

Hohenzollem-Hechingen,  the  principality  of,  88. 

Hohenzollem-Sigmaringen,  the  principality  of, 
88. 

Holkar,  sUte  of  the,  100. 

Holstein,  the  grand  duchy  of,  66,  86;  railroads 
in,  91. 

Homer,  extent  of  his  geographical  knowledge, 
21. 

Honduras,  113. 

Hottentots,  the,  106. 

Hudson's  bay  territory,  the,  108. 

Hungary,  the  kingdom  of,  81 ;  railroads  in,  99. 

Hyderabad,  or  the  Deccan,  99. 

Iceland,  66. 

Icy  sea,  the,  4. 

Ulyria,  subdivisions  and  principal  towns  of,  at  the 
time  of  Constantino  the  Great,  25, 5^ 

Illyricum,  provinces  and  principal  towns  of,  in  tks 
time  of  Constantine  the  Great,  98. 

India.    See  Hindostan. 

Indian  ocean,  the,  3. 

Ionian  islands,  the,  75. 

Ireland,  area  of,  64;  provinces  and  coonties  of, 
ib. 

Islands,  the  principal,  of  Europe,  8 ;  of  Asia,  12 ; 
of  Africa,  15;  of  America,  19;  composing 
Australia  and  Polynesia,  20,  21. 

Italy,  principal  divisions,  provinces,  and  towns  of, 
as  arranged  in  the  time  of  ConsUntine  the 
Gfoat,  26 ;  extent  and  bowidariesof,  75 ;  moon- 
tain  ranges  of,  75,  76 ;  principal  rivers  of,  76 ; 
climate  and  products  of,  ib. ;  population  of,  ib. ; 
state  of  education,  dtc.,  in,  77 ;  railroads  in, 
92, 93 ;  political  subdivisions  of,  see  vnder  their 
respective  heads. 

Jamaica,  the  island  o^  114. 

Japan,  area,  population,  religion,  and  form  of 

government  of,  98 ;  principal  islands  of,  ib. 
Java,  the  uland  of,  101. 
Jura,  Uie,  6. 

Kabulistan,  or  Afghanistan,'96. 

KamtschaÜLa,  94. 

Khiwa,96. 

Kborasan,96. 

Korea,  98. 

Labrador,  108. 

Laccadives,  the,  100. 

Ladrones,  the,  or  Mariaimes,  120. 

Lakes,  the  principal,  of  Europe,  8 ;  of  Asia,  19 

of  Africa,  15 ;  of  America,  19. 
Latitude,  parallels  of,  2. 
Lauenburg,  the  duchy  of,  66, 86. 
Leghorn,  general  description  and  topography  of, 

167, 168. 
Leuca  or  lenga,  the  Gallic,  length  of  the,  98. 
lichtensCein,  the  principality  of,  88. 
Lippe,  the  principality  of,  ^. 
Lisbon,  general  description  and  topography  o( 

148-150. 
Loango,  105. 

Lombardo- Venetian  kingdom,  81. 
London,  general  desoii^ion  and  topography  of» 

123-127. 
Longitude,  meridians  of,  9. 

766 


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IXVMX,  TO  «IMRAPnri 


Lord  MolgraTe'f  ardupeltgo,  191. 

Lowlands,  the  inost  important,  of  Ekiroper  6,  7. 

Labeck,  the  free  town  of,  89. 

Luxemburg  with  Limburg,  the  grand  duchy  of, 

87. 

Madagascar,  the  island  of,  107. 

Madeiras,  the,  107. 

Madras,  99. 

Madrid,  general  description  and  topography  of, 

157-159. 
Mah^  islands,  the,  or  Sechelles,  107. 
Mahratu  sute,  the,  99. 
Malacca,  the  peninsula  of,  100. 
Maldives,  the,  100,  101. 
Malu,  and  thd  adjacent  ialanda,  79. 
Manilla,  101. 

Mariannes,  the,  or  Ladrones,  120. 
Marquesas  islands,  the,  121. 
Martinique,  114. 
Mascarene  islands,  the,  107. 
Mauritius,  the,  107. 

Measures  of  length,  explanation  of  Tarions,  23. 
Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  the  grand  duchy  of,  87  ; 

railroads  in,  91. 
Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  the  grand  duchy  of,  87. 
Mendana's  archipelago,  121. 
Meridians,  2. 
Mesopotamia,  31,  32. 
Mexico,  the  republic  of,  area  and  population  of, 

112;   states  and  territories  comprising,   112, 

113. 
Middle  ages,  the,  principal  divisions  of  Europe  at 

different  epochs  during,  32  et  seq. 
Milan,  general  description  and  topography  of, 

155-157. 
Mile,  Roman,  length  of  the,  23. 
Mindanao,  or  Magindanao,  101 
Modena,  the  duchy  of,  position  and  extent  of,  and 

the  districts  comprising,  77,  78;  general  de- 
scription and  topography  of,  171,  172. 
Moluccas,  the,  or  Spice  islands,  101. 
Montenegro,  the  territory  of,  74. 
Montevideo,  118. 

Moravia,  the  marcgravedom  of,  81. 
Merea,  the,  or  the  Pdopoanesus,  75. 
Morocco,  area,  population,  form  of  government, 

and  principal  towns  of,  103. 
Mosquito  Indians,  the,  113. 
Mountains,  principal  ranges  of,  in  Europe,  5,  6 ; 

in  Asia,  10,  11 ;  in  Africa,  14;  in  America, 

16-18  ;  in  Australasia,  20. 
Mozambique,  105,  106. 
Mysore,  99. 

Nagpur,  99. 

Naples,  the  kingdom  of,  principal  divisions  of,  79  ; 
general  description  and  topography  of,  150-152. 

Nassau,  the  duchy  of,  87  ;  railroads  in,  90. 

Natolia,  or  Anadoli,  94. 

Nepaul,  100. 

Netherlands,  the,  extent  and  boundaries  of,  59 ; 
nature  of  the  surface  of,  59, 60 ;  rivers  of,  60 ;  cli- 
mate of,  ib. ;  population  of,  ib. ;  form  of  govern- 
ment, revenues,  and  array  and  navy  of,  60,  61 ; 
divisions  of,  with  the  principal  cities  and  their  in- 
habitants, 61 ;  colonies  of,  ib. ;  railroads  in,  92 

Neustria,  extent  of  the  kingdom  of,  33. 

New  Britain,  108,  120. 

New  Brunswick,  the  province  of,  109. 

New  Caledonia,  120. 

New  Georgian  islands,  the,  120. 
766 


New  Greoadb,  the  VBpdbtte  o(  115. 

New  Guinea,  120. 

New  Hebrides,  the,  120. 

New  Holland,  or  Australia,  20,  118,  119. 

New  Philippines,  the,  or  CaroUnes,  120. 

New  Zealand,  and  adjacent  islands,  121,  122. 

Newfoundland,  109. 

Nicaragua,  113. 

Nicobar  islands,  the,  101. 

Norway.    See  Scandinavia. 

Nova  Scotia,  the  province  of,  109. 

Nubia,  extent  and  population  €»f,  103. 

Oldenburg,  the  grand  duchy  of,  87. 
Oreg«n,  112. 

Pacific  ocean,  the,  3 ;  principal  indentatioiiB  oC 
on  the  coast  of  America,  16. 

Palestina,  districts  and  promineot  towns  of,  3L 

Palliser  islands,  121. 

Panama,  the  isthmus  of,  113. 

Papal  states,  the,  area,  form  of  govermneiit,  rev« 
nues,  and  principal  subdivisions  of,  78. 

Paraguay,  the  republic  of,  117. 

Parasang,  Persian,  length  of  the,  23. 

Paris,  general  description  and  topography  of, 
127-133. 

Parma,  the  duchy  of,  extent  of,  and  the  diacndi 
comprising,  77. 

Patagonia,  118. 

Pelew  islands,  the,  120. 

Peloponnesus,  the,  or  the  Morea,  75. 

Persia,  position  and  area  oC  94 ;  religion  and  fonn 
of  government  of,  ib. ;  provinces  ot,  95. 

Peru,  the  republic  of,  116. 

Philippines,  the,  101. 

Phosnicia,  principal  towns  of,  31. 

Physical  chart  of  Europe,  explanation  of^  8,  9 ;  of 
AsU,  9,  12,  13 ;  of  Africa,  9,  15 ;  of  Ame- 
rica, 9. 

Pitcaim's  island,  121. 

Plains,  the  most  important,  of  Europe,  6,  7 ;  of 
Asia,  11;  of  Afoca,  14;  of  America,  17. 

Planography,  123. 

Poland,  71,  72  ;  railroads  in,  93. 

Polynesia,  principal  islands  compoäng,  20,  21. 

Pomerania,  83. 

Pondicherry,  100. 

Pontus,  provinces  and  towns  of,  in  the  time  of 
Constantine,  29,  30. 

Porto  Rico,  114. 

Portugal,  extent  and  boundaries  of,  48,49  ;  nature 
of  the  surface  and  principal  mountains  o(,  49 ; 
chief  rivers  of,  with  their  tributaries,  ib. ;  pro- 
ducts, population,  form  of  government,  reveooe, 
and  army  and  navy  of,  ib. ;  provinces  and  prin- 
cipal cities  of,  with  their  population,  50 ;  idandi 
and  colonies  belonging  to,  ib. 

Posen,  83. 

Prince  Edward's  island,  109. 

Prussia,  position,  boundaries,  and  area  o^  82; 
mountains  and  rivers  of,  ib. ;  prodnctioos  o(, 
ib. ;  population  of,  and  predominant  races,  82, 
83 :  state  of  religion  and  education  in,  83 ;  form 
of  government,  revenues,  and  military  strength 
of,  ib. ;  provinces  and  chief  towns  of,  83,  64 ; 
railroads  in,  90. 

Ptolemieus,  C,  peculiarities  of  the  geognphical 
system  of,  23. 

Pu^jaub,  the,  99. 

Pyrenees,  the,  length,  hei^t,  priadpftl  peaks  oC 
4dc.,5. 


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Queen  Chailotte  islands,  190. 
Qoito,  115. 

Railroads,  the,  of  central  Eorope,  89-83. 

Reass,  the  principality  of,  88. 

Rhenish  monntains,  the,  6. 

Rhine,  province  of  the,  83. 

Rio  de  la  Plata,  the  United  States  of  the,  117. 

Rivers,  the  principal,  of  Eorope,  7,  8 ;  of  Asia, 
11 ;  of  Africa,  14,  15 ;  of  America,  18, 19 ;  of 
Australasia,  20. 

Rocky  mountains,  the,  17. 

Rome,  general  description  and  topogn4>hy  of, 
152-154. 

Roman  empire,  subdivisions,  dioceses,  provinces, 
and  principal  towns  of,  as  it  existed  under  Con- 
stantine  the  Great,  24^2 ;  downfall  of,  32. 

Russia,  extent,  area,  and  boundaries  of,  69 ;  moun- 
tain  ranges  of,  ib. ;  principal  riven  and  lakes 
of,  69,  70 ;  climate  and  producta  of,  70 ;  popu- 
lation of,  and  various  races  inhabiting,  ib. ;  re- 
ligion, education,  and  principal  occupations  of 
the  Russians,  70,  71 ;  form  of  government,  71 ; 
political  divisions  and  dependencies  of,  71,  72 ; 
railroads  in,  93 ;  Russia  in  Asia,  94 ;  Russia  in 
America,  108,  109. 

Sahara,  the,  or  great  desert,  and  ita  principal 

oases,  103. 
Salzburg,  the  duchy  of,  81. 
Samoa,  the,  or  Sailor's  group  of  islands,  121. 
San  Marino,  the  republic  of,  position,  population, 

and  area,  Sec,  of,  78. 
Sandwich  islands,  the,  122. 
Saragossa,  general  description  and  topography  of, 

159,  160. 
Sardinia,  the  kingdom  of,  extent,  form  of  govern«- 

ment,  divisions,  and  principal  towns  of,  77. 
Satarah,  100. 

Saxe- Altenburg,  the  duchy  of,  88. 
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  the  duchy  of,  87. 
Saxe-Meiningen,  the  duchy  of,  87. 
Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach,  the  grand  duchy  of,  87. 
Saxony,  the  kingdom  of,  83,  86 ;  railroads  in,  90. 
Scandinavia,  extent,  area,  and  boundaries  of,  67  ; 

mountains,  rivers,  lakes,  dec,  of,  ib.,  and  see  p. 

6 ;  climate  of,  ib. ;  producta  of,  ib. ;  population 

of,  68 ;  stata  of  religion  and  education  in,  ib. ; 

political  condition,  revenues,  and  army  and  navy 

of,  ib. ;  subdivisions  of,  68,  69. 
Schaumbnrg-Lippe,  the  principality  of,  88. 
Schleswig,  the  duchy  of,  66. 
SchcBuos,  the  Egjrptian,  length  of  the,  23. 
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt,  the  principality  of,  88. 
Schwarzburg-Sondenhausen,  the  principality  of, 

88. 
Scinde,  the  district  of,  99. 
Scotland,  area  and  population  of,  64 ;  geographi- 
cal and  political  divisions  of,  ib. 
Seas,  the  principal,  of  Europe,  4 ;  of  Asia,  10 ; 

of  America,  16. 
Sechelles,  the,  or  Mah^  island^  107. 
Senegambia,  principal  tribes  and  settlementa  on 

the  coast  of,  104. 
Siam,  100. 
Siberia,  72,  94. 
Sicily,  the  kingdom  of,  population  and  principal 

divisions  of,  79. 
Siebenbürgen,  the  grand  principality  of,  81. 
Sierra  Leone,  district  of,  104. 
Silesia,  the  duchy  of,  81,  83. 
Singapore,  100. 


Slavonia,  81. 

Society  islands,  the,  121. 

Socotora,  the  island  of,  106,  107. 

Solomon's  islands,  120. 

Soudan,  estimated  area  of,  and  principal  king- 
doms as  far  as  known,  105. 

Spain,  extent  and  boundaries  of,  50 ;  nature  of  the 
surface  and  principal  mountains  of,  5,  50,  51 ; 
chief  rivers  of,  with  their  branches^  51 ;  climato 
and  producta  of,  ib. ;  population,  ib. ;  form  of 
government,  51,  52;  revenues  and  army  and 
navy,  52 ;  provinces  and  principal  cities  of,  with 
their  population,  52,  53  ;  colonies  of,  53. 

Spitabergen,  the  islands  of,  108. 

St.  Domingo,  114. 

St.  Helena,  the  island  of,  107. 

St  Petersburg,  general  description  and  topography 
of,  135-138. 

St.  Vincent,  114. 

Stadium,  length  of  the,  23. 

Stockholm,  general  description  and  topography 
of,  162, 163. 

Strabo,  map  of  the  world  according  to,  described, 
22,23. 

Styria,  the  duchy  of,  81. 

Sulu  islands,  the,  101. 

Sunda  islands,  the  101. 

Sweden.    See  Scandinavia. 

Switzerland,  extent  and  boundaries  of,  56 ;  moun- 
tain system  of,  with  the  principal  peaks,  56, 57  ; 
rivers  and  lakes  of,  57 ;  climate  and  producta 
of,  ib. ;  population,  religion,  and  political  con- 
dition of,  ib. ;  areas  of  the  several  cantons  of, 
with  their  chief  towns  and  their  several  popu- 
lations, 57,  58 ;  railroads  in,  92. 

Syria,  provinces  and  towns  of,  in  the  time  of  Con- 
stantine,  31 ;  modem,  94. 

Tartary,  96. 

Terra  del  Fuego,  118. 

Thibet,  98. 

Thracia,  provinces  and  towns  of,  in  the  time  of 
Constantine,  29. 

Tobago,  114. 

Tonga  islands,  the  121. 

Tonquin,  100. 

Travancore,  100. 

Trinidad,  114. 

Tripoli,  area,  population,  and  dependencies  of, 
102. 

Tristan  d'Acunha,  107. 

Tunis,  area,  population,  and  principal  towns  of, 
102. 

Turkestan,  or  Turan,  or  Tartary,  96. 

Turkey,  extent  and  boundaries  of,  72 ;  mountains 
of,  ib. ;  rivers  of,  72,  73  ;  climate  and  principal 
products  of,  73 ;  population  and  form  of  go- 
vernment, ib. ;  eyalets  or  provinces  and  vassal 
States  of,  73,  74;  Turkey  in  Asia,  74,  94; 
islands  belonging  to,  94. 

Tuscany,  the  grand  duchy  of,  position,  area,  form 
of  government,  and  principal  divisions  of,  78. 

Two  Sicilies,  the  kingdom  of  the,  population, 
area,  form  of  government,  dec,  of,  78,  79; 
principal  divisions  of,  with  their  chief  cities, 
&c.,  79. 

Tyrol,  the,  81. 

Ukraine,  the,  71. 

United  States,  the,  of  America,  extant,  bounda- 
ries, and  area  of,  109,  110;  population,  reli- 
gious denominations,  and  form  of  government 

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of,  110 ;  area»  popnlaÜOD,  and  chkl  towaa  of 
each  of  the  separate  atatae  compoang  the 
Union,  111,  112. 

Uraguay,  118. 

Ural  monntakM^  the,  10. 

Valleyi^  the  most  important  of  Europe»  S,  7. 

Van  Diemen's  Land,  ISO. 

Veneamela,  the  republic  o^  115. 

Vienna,  general  deacription  and  topography  of, 

143-148. 
Virgin  ialanda,  the,  114. 
Vorariberg,  81. 


Waldeck,  the  prinoipaity  i^  8& 

Wales,  area,  population,  and  countiea  oC  €4. 

Warsaw,  general  description  and  topo^aphy  of, 

138, 139. 
West  Indies,  the,  statistics  of  the  principal  idanda 

so  designated,  113. 
Wes4>halia,  83. 

Wind  easd,  the,  or  eorapasa  of  the  Gneke,  94. 
Wurtembuig,  the  kingdom  oC  86  -,  railrcNMls  iB,89. 

Yucatan,  113. 

SSanguebar,  or  Ztuabu,  lOSu 


768 


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INDEX  TO  HISTORY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 


[The  nninben  refer  to  the  top  pagliif  of  the  text] 


Aar,  the»  female  coetnme  in  the  valley  of,  137. 

Ababdeh,  the,  a  tribe  of  the  Bisheiin,  331. 

Abaaiane,  the,  131,  167, 170,  171. 

Abaseides,  the  family  of  the,  55. 

Abhd  and  Ahbits,  negro  tribes,  343. 

Abipones,  the,  374. 

Abyssinians,  the,  various  tribes  of,  339 ;  debased 

moral  condition  of,  ib. ;  general  account  of  the 

condition  of,  330. 
Acanucunus,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  339. 
Achaia    and    the  Achsans,   15;    the    Aehean 

league,  18. 
Adareb,  the,  a  tribe  of  the  Bißherin,  331. 
Adrian,  emperor  of  Rome,  40. 
.£dui,  the,  13. 
^olians,  the,  15. 

^tolia,  15 ;  the  iGtolian  league,  18. 
Afttas,  the,  387,  397. 
Afghans,  the,  various  tribes  of,  304 ;  habits,  Slc., 

of,  304,  305. 
Africa,  general  remarks  upon  the  climate  and 

population  of,  336;  particular  survey  of  the 

inhabitants  of,  336  et  seq. 
Agolegmetes,  the,  a  tribe  of  Esquimaux,  351. 
Agows,  the,  339. 
Aimara  nation,  the,  369 
Akooches,  the,  131. 
Akooshahs,  the,  170. 
Akraes,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  339. 
Alba  Longa,  founding  of,  38. 
Albert  I.,  emperor  of  Germany,  76  ;  his  contests 

with  the  Swiss,  ib. ;  Albert  II.,  78. 
Alcantara,  the,  an  order  of  knights,  108. 
Alcantarines,  the,  or  the  most  austere  Francis- 
cans, 104. 
Aleoutee,  the,  168. 
Aleutes,  or  Aleutians,  the,  or  inhabitants  of  the 

Aleutian  islands,  137,  181,  351. 
Alexander  the  Great,  conquest  of  Egypt  by,  5 ; 

invasion  of  Persia  by,  18. 
AJexians,  the,  or  Cell  brethren,  106. 
Alfred  the  Great,  king  of  England,  73. 
Alfuras,  the,  387. 

Algonkins,  the,  enumeration  of  the  numerous  na- 
tions and  tribes  belonging  to,  357. 
Altenburg,  the  inhabitants  of,  143-145. 
Ama-Kosa,  Ama-Ponda,  Ama-Temba,  and  Ama- 

Zula,  the  four  nations  into  which  the  Cailres 

are  divided,  345. 
Amasis,  flourishing  condition  of  Egypt  under,  4. 
Amazirghs,  the,  a  Berber  tribe,  333. 
Amboynas,  the  inhabitants  of  the,  396. 
Ambrosian  monks  or  nuns,  the,  106. 
America,  discovery  of,  83;  general  obfiervations 

on  the  climate  and  productions  of,  348, 349 ; 

general  characteristics  of  the  natives  of,  349 ; 

detailed  account  of  the  several  nations  and 

tribes  both  m  North  and  South,  350  et  seq. ; 

condition  of  the  negro  race  in,  383-384. 
Ana»e,  the,  an  Arab  tribe,  303. 

IC050ORAPHIC   KKOYCLOPiBDlA. — VOL.   Ul, 


Ancus  Martins,  39. 

Andakies,  tiie,  368. 

Ando-Peruvians,  the,  367,  368. 

Andreas  of  Hungary,  crusade  under,  131. 

Angelioals,  the,  an  order  of  nuns,  105. 

Angli,  the,  a  Suevian  tribe,  63. 

Anglo-Saxons,  the,  outline  of  the  early  history  of, 
63. 

Angora,  the  battle  of,  between  Biyazet  and  Ta- 
merlane, 85. 

Annunciation,  the  nuns  of  the,  105. 

Antalcidas,  the  treaty  of,  17. 

Antisans,  the,  a  South  American  stock,  367, 370. 

Antoninus,  Marcus  Aurelius,  emperor  of  Rome, 
40  ;  state  of  the  empire  under,  40, 41. 

Antoninus  Pius,  emperor  of  Rome,  40. 

Apolistas,  the,  370. 

Apulians,  the,  190. 

Arabia,  origin  of  the  inhabitants  of,  10 ;  the  im* 
portance  of,  at  the  time  of  Mahomed,  55 ;  pre- 
oninence  of,  86. 

Arabs,  the,  habits,  costume,  &c.,  of  the  various 
tribes  of,  136,  300-304. 

Araucanians,  the,  367 ;  division  of,  into  two  groups, 
370  ;  warlike  habits  of,  371 ;  manners  and  cus- 
toms of,  ib. 

Arcadia,  15. 

Arcadius,  emperor  of  the  east,  49. 

Archons,  the,  magistrates  at  Athens,  30. 

Ardrah,  the,  a  negro  dialect,  339. 

Areopagus,  the  court  of,  30. 

Argentina,  state  of  the  population  in,  381,  383. 

Argolis,  15. 

Ariovistus,  a  leader  of  the  Marcomanni,  13. 

Armenia,  extent  of  ancient,  11. 

Armenian  church,  doctrines  of  the,  101. 

Armenians,  the,  131, 167. 

Arminius,  defeat  of  the  Ronums  by,  under  Varot, 
40. 

Armorial  bearings,  various  forms  and  characters 
of,  with  their  significations,  93  et  seq. 

Amauts,  the,  130. 

Arnold  of  Winkelried,  noble  devotion  of,  at  the 
batUe  of  Sembach,  76,  77. 

Amulph,  duke  of  Carinthia,  68. 

Arvemi,  the,  13. 

Ashantees,  the,  139,  334,  338.  339. 

Asia,  brief  outline  of  the  nations  of,  with  respect 
to  their  position,  dialects,  and  religion,  196, 197 ; 
particular  survey  of  the  inhabitants  of,  197  et 
seq. 

Assokko,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  336. 

Assyrians,  the,  our  knowledge  of,  mainly  derived 
from  monuments,  8. 

Atacama  nation,  the,  370. 

Athapascas,  the,  enumeration  of  the  tribes  of,  ac- 
cording to  Gallatin,  356,  357. 

Athens,  15;  under  Piidstratus  and  EKpparchus, 
16;  under  Pericles,  17;  displaced  from  her 
pre-eminence  by  the  Peloponnesian  war,  ib. ; 

49  769 


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INDEX  TO   HI8T0BT  AND   ITHNOLOOT. 


for  tffet  deprived  of  her  tibertke  by  the  Romane, 
18 ;  Constitution  of,  19,  20 ;  domestic  habits  of 
the  Athenians,  20,  21 ;  the  Athenian  currency, 
21 ;  BUte  of  education  in,  22,  23 ;  style  of 
living  among  the  Athenians,  24, 25 ;  marriage 
ceremonies,  25 ;  funeral  rites,  ib. 

Atahe,  the,  a  negro  dialect,  239. 

Attica,  15. 

Aubrac,  the  knightly  order  of,  108. 

Aucas,  the,  or  Araucanians,  2T0. 

Augustine,  St.,  monasteries  and  nunneries  of  the 
order  of,  103. 

Augustus,  emperor  of  Rome,  39 ;  his  conquests 
and  character  of  his  government,  ib, 

Anrunci,  the,  27. 

Ausonians,  the,  27. 

Australia,  the  races  of,  125;  the  Australians, 
301-303. 

Austria,  general  characteristics  of  the  inhabitants 
of,  148, 149 ;  difference  between  the  Upper  and 
Lower  Austrians,  ib. 

Aut08-da-f%,  the,  of  the  Inquisition,  114, 115. 

Avari,  the,  131, 170. 

Avignon,  long  residence  of  the  papal  court  at,  81. 

Avis,  the  knightly  order  o(,  108. 

Asrmoris,  the,  a  South  American  tribe,  276,  377. 

Ayos,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  241. 

Babylonians,  the,  our  knowledge  of,  mainly  de- 
rived from  monuments,  8. 

Baden,  characteristics  and  oostumes  of  the  people 
of,  133,  134. 

Bagas,  or  Bagous,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  238. 

Bagdad,  splendor  of  the  caliphate  of,  under  Al 
Mansur  and  other  caliphs,  73. 

Bajazet,  the  victories  of,  83,  84;  conquered  by 
Tamerlane,  84. 

Balantes,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  238. 

Baldwin  I.,  brother  of  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  119. 

Balians,  the,  286,  287. 

Bambarras,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  236. 

Bambouk,  a  section  of  the  Mandingo  country, 
236  ;  the  Bamboukee  dialect,  ib. 

Banyones,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  238. 

Bargou,  a  district  near  Bomou,  241. 

Baraabites,  the,  a  religious  society,  105. 

Bartholomaeans,  the,  a  religious  society,  105. 

Basares,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  238. 

Bashkirs,  the,  131,  167,  179,  180. 

Basques,  the,  131, 195. 

Bassas,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  238. 

Bassians,  the,  170. 

Battas,  the,  of  Sumatra,  287. 

Bavarians,  phjrsical  peculiarities  of,  134 ;  descrip- 
tion of  various  characteristic  costumes  of,  134, 
135. 

Bodies,  the,  a  section  of  the  Bomouese,  241. 

Bedouins,  the,  126, 200. 202 ;  religion,  habits,  &c., 
of,  202,  203. 

Bedsha,  the,  or  Bega,  231. 

Beghanneee,  or  Begharmi,  the  a  negro  tribe,  242. 

Begos,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  242. 

Beguins,  the  society  of,  105. 

Belgians,  the,  195. 

Beluchis,  the,  or  Beludshis,  204. 

Benedictines,  the,  102. 

Benguela  language,  the,  related  to  the  Bunda, 
243. 

Beni-Khaled,  Beni-Kiab,  Beni-Lam,  and  Beoi- 
Szaher,  tribes  of  Arabs,  203. 

Beni-Mozab,  the,  233. 

Benines,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  239. 
770 


Beri)en,  the,  127 ;  territory  belongiiig  to,  and  t». 

rious  tribes  of,  233. 
Berdurani,  the,  204. 
Bemardines,  the,  103. 

Besannen,  defeat  of  Ariovistus  at,  by  Caesar,  13. 
Beshuanas,  or  Bichuanas,  the,  a  tribe  in  the  inte- 
rior of  AMca,  246. 
Beüüehemites,  the,  a  religious  society,  106. 
Biafare,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  238. 
Bibi,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  239. 
Biddomah,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  242. 
Binzimbas,  the,  287. 
Bisearies,  the,  a  Berber  tribe,  233. 
Bisherin,  the,  or  Biscarijin,  a  tribe  bordeanf  on 

Abyssinia,  231. 
Bissagoes,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  238. 
Böhmer- Wald,  the  inhabitants  of  tbe,  148. 
Boeotia,  15. 

Bohemia,  the  Hnsnte  war  in,  78. 
Bohemians,  the,  cooast  of  difierent  ttoeka,  146 ; 

characteristic  costumes  of,  147, 148. 
Booloms,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  238. 
Bootiyahs,  the,  221. 
Borneo,  the  inhabitants  of,  288. 
Bomouese,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  240, 241. 

Bororas,  the,  an  African  tribe,  246. 

Botocudos,  the,  a  South  American  tribe,  276, 277. 

Boughuis,  the,  inhabitants  of  Celebes,  ^6. 

Boussa  negroes,  the,  129 ;  description  of  the  king 
of  Boussa,  by  Lander,  241. 

Brahmins,  the,  205. 

Brahus,  the,  204. 

Brazilians,  the,  costume,  mannera,  dte.,  of,  979, 
280. 

Bregenz,  female  costume  at,  152. 

Brethren,  or  Hospitallers,  the,  and  BroChrm  of  the 
Swor^,  108. 

Bretons,  the,  131,  195. 

Brigittines,  the,  an  oider  of  monka,  104. 

Britain,  first  discovered  by  the  Phosmcians,  IS. 

Britons,  the  ancient,  sketch  of,  59,  60. 

Bruno,  St.,  the  founder  of  the  Cartfauaans,  ltt3. 

Brunswick  and  Brunswick-Lüneberg,  charaete» 
tic  costumes  of  the  inhabitants  of,  138. 

Bnitus,  Lucius  Junius,  30. 

Bratos,  the  murderer  of  Cesar,  38. 

Bucharians,  the,  131. 

Bullons,  the,  a  tribe  on  the  Guinea  coast,  234. 

Bunda,  the,  a  dialect  q>oken  in  Angola,  243. 

Buntakees,  the,  129. 

Bunzlau,  costume  of  the  inhabitants  of,  148. 

Buratee,  the,  or  Bratski,  168,  182. 

Burgundy,  the  dukes  of,  considerable  iraportanee 
acquired  by,  in  France  daring  the  middle  ages, 
79. 

Bushmen,  the,  a  South  African  tribe,  245. 

Byzantium,  deplorable  condition  of  the  gorcfii- 
ment  at,  from  802  to  1078,  72. 

Cabijis,  the,  277. 

Cabyles,  the,  127. 

Cacanucas,  the,  268. 

Caddoes,  the,  and  other  Indian  tribes  west  of  the 
Missiseippi,  259. 

Cesar,  Julius,  victories  of,  over  die  Mareomanni, 
Usipiti,  and  Tenchtheri,  13 ;  his  wars  in  Gaal 
and  Gennany,  36 ;  his  struggle  with  Pompey, 
36,  37  ;  chosen  dicUtorand  Imperator,  37 ;  bis 
murder,  38 ;  state  of  anarchy  socceeding  bis 
death,  ib. 

Cesarines,  the,  a  religious  society,  104. 

Caffiee,  the,  244, 245. 


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Cairo»  aege  of,  by  the  Hungarians  under  Andreaa, 

131. 
Calabrians,  the,  27. 

Calatrava,  the,  an  order  of  knights,  108. 
Calbra,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  239. 
Caledonians,  the,  early  hintory,  &c.,  of,  61. 
California  Indians,  the,  129,  262. 
Caligala,  Caius,  the  Roman  emperor,  40. 
Caiiztines,  the,  a  moderate  section  of  the  Hussites, 

78. 
Calmaldnensians,  the,  an  order  of  monks,  103. 
Calmues,  the,  131 ;   physical  characteristics  of, 

127 ;  various  hordes  of,  176 ;  physical  appear- 
ance, dress,  manners  and  customs,  habitations, 

&c.,  of,  177,  178. 
Camacans,  the,  277. 
Camacons,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  239. 
Camanches,  the,  262. 
CambjTses,  subjugation  of  Egypt  by,  4,  5. 
Campos  dos  Parecis,  Indian  tribes  of  Uie,  277. 
Canarins,  the,  277. 
Canichanas,  the,  274. 
Capet,  Hugh,  the  founder  of  his  line,  ascends  the 

throne  of  France,  67 ;  rule  of  the  descendants 

of,  78,  79. 
Capochos,  Caposhos,  or  Capozos,  the,  277. 
Capuchins,  the,  an  order  of  the  Franciscans,  104. 
Caribs,  the,  274. 

Carinthians,  the,  national  costume  of,  151. 
Carloman,  the  brother  of  Charlemagne,  63. 
Carmelites,  the,  an  order  of  monks,  104. 
Camiolans,  the,  151. 

Caroline  Islands,  the,  inhabitants  of,  288,  289. 
Carrousel,  the,  a  substitute  for  the  tournament  in 

Fnince,  92. 
Carthage,  wars  between,  and  Rome,  32-^ ;  final 

destruction  of,  35. 
Carthaginians,  origin  of  the,  10. 
Carthusians,  the,  103. 
Carver,  description  of  funeral  ceremonies  among 

the  Sioux  Indians  by,  259,  260. 
Casimir  the  Great,  king  of  Poland,  83. 
Cassino,  Mt.,  the  congregation  of,  103. 
Caste,  gradations  of,  arising  from  color,  266. 
Castile  and  Arragon,  the  two  leading  houses  in 

Spain,  82. 
Catacombs,  the,  of  the  Egyptians,  6 ;  sculptures 

and  paintings  on,  7 ;  of  Italy,  52. 
Catiline,  the  conspiracy  of,  36. 
Caucasian  race,  the,  physical  characteristics  of, 

1SJ5 ;  three  great  divisions  of,  170. 
Caupeses,  the,  277. 
Cayuvavas,  the,  274. 

Celeetines,  the,  an  order  of  monks,  103, 104. 
Cellites,  the,  or  Cell  brethren,  106. 
Celtiberians,  the,  11. 
Celts,the,9,  11,  131. 
Censors,  the,  duty  of,  44. 
Census,  regulations  respecting  the  Roman,  44. 
Central  America  or  Guatemala,  266, 267. 
Ceramicus,  the,  the  common  place  of  burial  among 

the  Athenians,  26. 
Chabun,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  242. 
Chango  nation,  the,  270. 
Chanos,  Uie,  370. 
Chapacnras,  the,  274. 
Charity,  the  brothers  and  sisters  of,  105. 
Charlemagne,  or  Charles  the  Great,  early  history 

of,  ^ ;  assumes  the  sole  government  of  the 

emigre,  ib. ;  crowned  king  of  Lombardy,  lb. ; 

subdues  the  Saxons,  63,  64;  conquers  Spam, 

64 ;  crowned  Roman  emperor,  65 ;  the  clodng 


jrears  of  his  reign,  ib. ;  the  descendants  of,  in 
France,  Germany,  and  Italy,  65-68. 

Charles  the  Bald,  birth  of,  66 ;  the  French  throne 
occupied  by  his  family  down  to  the  tenth  cen- 
tury,  67. 

Charles  IV.,  emperor  of  Germany,  77. 

Chamia  Indians,  the,  128,  274,  278. 

Cheops,  one  of  the  successors  of  Sesostris,  4. 

Chephren,  one  of  the  successors  of  Sesostris,  4. 

Chilenos,  tiie,  270. 

Chinese,  the,  9 ;  phjracal  characteristics  of,  127, 
211;  costume  of,  211,  212;  domestic  habits, 
dwellings,  language  of,  &c.,  212,  213  ;  govern- 
ment of,  213, 214 ;  stationary  condition  of,  214, 
215 ;  ceremonies  and  duties  of  politeness  among, 
215,  216 ;  rights  of  the  emperor,  216 ;  qualifi- 
cations required  for  the  civil  service,  ib. ;  display 
made  by  officials  in  public,  216,  217 ;  laws  of, 
217 ;  constitution  and  uniform  of  the  army,  217, 
218 ;  agriculture,  and  cultivation  and  prepara- 
tion of  tea,  218-220 ;  silk  and  cotton  manufac- 
tures, porcelain,  and  lacquered  work,  220; 
schools  of  medicine,  ib. ;  festivals,  220,  221 ; 
principal  diversions  of,  221. 

Chiquitos,  the.  South  American  tribes,  267,  274. 

Chivalry,  the  age  of,  88. 

Choeos,  the,268. 

Chonians,  the,  27. 

Chongaches,  the,  a  tribe  of  Esquimaux,  251. 

Choshontes,  the,  176. 

Chosroes  Parvis,  the  last  great  prince  of  the  Per- 
sian empire,  55. 

Christianity  proclaimed  in  Rome  as  the  religion 
of  the  state,  a.  d.  323,  41 ;  gradual  progress  of, 
in  Europe,  100. 

Church,  power  of  the,  in  the  middle  ages,  109, 
110. 

Cicero,  exposes  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline,  36. 

Cid,  the,  conquests  of,  72. 

Cimbri,  the,  invasion  of  the  Roman  territory  by, 
13  ;  anciently  inhabited  Denmark,  62. 

Circassians,  the,  131,  167, 170, 171 ;  manners  and 
customs,  drees,  habitations,  occupations,  6lc^ 
of,  171-174. 

Circensian  games,  the,  51. 

Circus  Maximus,  the,  50. 

Circus  riding,  prevalence  of  the  taste  for,  156, 157. 

Cistertians,  the,  103. 

CiUras,  the,  268. 

Clarentinee,  the,  a  religious  society,  104. 

Clarissa,  St.,  the  nuns  of,  105. 

Claudius,  emperor  of  Rome,  40. 

Cleomenes,  the  war  of,  18. 

Clergy,  influence  of,  in  the  middle  ages,  100. 

Clovis,  founds  the  monarchy  of  the  Franks,  54. 

Clugnyacensians,  the,  an  order  of  monks,  103. 

Cnidus,  defeat  of  the  Spartans  at,  17. 

Cocolies,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  238. 

Coins,  the,  of  the  Greeks,  21 ;  of  the  Romans, 
their  relative  proportions  and  value,  46, 47 

Collatinus,  30. 

Colonna,  the  honse  of,  81. 

Columbivi,  the  discovery  of  America  by,  82. 

Comitia,  the,  of  the  Romans,  43. 

Commodus,  decaying  condition  of  the  Roman 
empire  under,  41. 

Congo  negroes,  numerous  small  tribes  of,  242; 
general  characteristics  of,  243. 

Conrad,  duke  of  Franconia,  chosen  king  of  Ger- 
many in  911,  68 ;  Conrad  II.  emperor  of  Ger- 
many, 70 ;  Conrad  HI.,  sketch  of  the  crusade 
under,  in  1147, 130. 

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INDSZ  TO   HI8TORT  AHD  RHHOLOGT. 


Constance,  the  treaty  of,  in  1183, 74 ;  the  eouDcU 
of,  in  1415,  77. 

Conatantioe,  emperor  of  Rome,  41. 

Constantinople,  condition  of,  under  Justinian  the 
Great,  54,  55;  siege  and  capture  of,  by  the 
Turks,  85. 

Consuls,  when  instituted  at  Rome,  30 ;  power  of 
the,  44 ;  insignia  of,  ib. 

Conventuales,  the,  or  the  shod  Franciscans,  104. 

Copts,  the,  232. 

Corabecas,  the,  274. 

Corannas,  the,  a  South  African  tiibe^345. 

Cordeliers,  the,  104. 

Cordilleras,  the,  remarks  on  the  journey  across, 
282. 

CoreaoB,  the,  127  ;  physical  appearance  and  habits 
of,  2^  ;  costume,  employments  of,  ice.,  223. 

Coriolanus,  the  story  of,  31,  32. 

Coroados,  the,  a  South  American  tribe,  276. 

Coronea,  the  battle  of,  17. 

Coropos,  the,  a  South  American  tribe,  275,  276. 

Corvinus,  Matthias,  prosperous  condition  of  Hun* 
gary  under  the  reign  of,  84 

Cosmo  de  Medici,  glorious  career  of,  81. 

Cossacks,  the  Don,  physical  characteristics  of, 
126 ;  character,  condition,  Slc,  of,  168,  169. 

Costume,  national.  See  the  respective  nations 
and  tribes. 

Covarecas,  the,  274. 

Creoles,  the,  and  other  terms  significant  of  caste, 
266 ;  in  Brazü  and  Peni,  279-281. 

Cross,  knights  of  the,  108. 

Crow  Indians,  the,  129. 

Crowns,  description  of  the  principal  European, 
96,  97. 

Crusade,  undertaken  by  Frederic  11.,  emperor  of 
Germany,  in  1228,  75. 

Crusades,  the,  origin  and  object  of,  116, 117  ;  first 
active  development  of  the  crusading  spirit  under 
Pope  Urban  II.,  117;  the  crusade  under  Peter 
of  Amiens  and  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  117-119 — 
under  Conrad  III.  and  Louis  VII.,  120 ;  the 
crusade  of  children  and  other  crusades,  120-122. 

Cumbriea,  the,  an  ancient  African  tribe,  241. 

Cuudinamarcans,  the,  Indian  tribes  of  South  Ame- 
rica, 267. 

Curanco,  the,  a  dialect  of  the  Mandingoee,  236. 

Curaves,  the,  274. 

Currency,  the  Athenian,  a  model  for  that  of  the 
surrounding  states,  21 ;  the  Roman,  46,  47. 

Curucanecas,  the,  274. 

Curuminacas,  the,  274. 

Cusco,  the  inhabitants  of^  269. 

Cuvier,  distribution  of  the  different  stocks  of  man- 
kind according  to,  125. 

Cymri,  the,  131. 

Cynocephalae,  defeat  of  the  Macedonians  at,  18. 

Czeches,  the,  146. 

Dachau,  female  costume  in,  135. 

Daeians,  the,  11. 

Dageous,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  242. 

Dahera,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  242. 

Dahomes,  or  Dahomians,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  234, 

239. 
Dalecarlians,  the,  characteristics  of,  158. 
Damani,  the,  204. 
Damaras,  the,  246. 
Damietta,  attacks  on,  during  the  crusades,  121, 

122. 
Danes,  the,  expulsion    of,  from  England,  72; 

sketch  of  the  charmcter  of,  160. 
772 


Dankali,.  the,  an  African  tribe,  246. 

Dar  Eseleh.  a  district  near  Bomou,  241. 

Dauniaos,  the,  27. 

Dead,  the,  ceremonies  attending  the  boiial  of, 
among  the  ancient  Germans,  15;  among  the 
Greelu,  26 ;  among  the  Romans,  51, 52  ;  among 
the  Persians,  200 ;  among  the  Hindoos,  207 ; 
among  the  Sioux  Indians,  259,  260. 

Deier,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  242. 

Deification,  practice  of,  among  the  Romans,  59. 

Delphic,  the,  or  Pythian  games,  22. 

Demerara,  the  inhabitants  of,  278. 

Denkas,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  242. 

Denmark,  the  residence  of  the  ancient  Cimbfi,  G2 ; 
in  the  middle  ages,  82,  83. 

Derbets,  the,  176. 

Desiderius,  king  of  Lombardy,  defeated  by  Charle- 
magne, 63. 

Deucalion,  15. 

Deys,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  238. 

Dictator,  the  Roman,  power  of,  44,  45. 

Dokos,  the,  an  African  tribe,  246. 

Domeny  de  Rienzi,  outline  of  the  nations  of  Ooea- 
nia  according  to,  285-288. 

Domitian,  emperor  of  Rome,  40. 

Dorians,  the,  15,  16. 

Draco,  the  Athenian  lawgiver,  16. 

Drusus,  campaign  of,  against  the  Geimans,  39. 

Dshebalis,  the,  127. 

Dshidda,  the  inhaMtanU  of,  201,  202. 

Durani,  the,  204. 

Dutch,the,  character  of,  195 ;  costume  of,  195, 196. 

Dyaks,  the,  286. 

Eboes,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  239. 

Education,  state  of,  among  the  Athenians,  22,23. 

Edward  I.,  king  of  England,  80. 

Egypt,  early  history  o^  to  the  battle  of  Actinm, 
4,  5 ;  internal  condition  o^  under  the  reign  of 
Sesostris,  5 ;  the  priesthood  and  religions  rites, 
ib. ;  embalming,  5,  6 ;  the  pyramids  and 
sphinxes,  6 ;  catacombs,  6,  7 ;  the  inhabitants 
of,  231 ;  their  phjrsical  appearance  and  costome, 
232 ;  their  general  character,  233. 

Egyptians,  the,  origin  of,  3 ;  religion  of  the  an- 
cient, 5 ;  dress  and  household  furniture  ol^  7 ; 
diversions  and  employments  of,  8. 

Elea,  15. 

Embalming,  the  prooese  of,  5,  6. 

Endamenians,  the,  287,  288. 

Engecrakenong,  or  Botocudoe,  a  South  American 
tribe,  276. 

England,  condition  of,  from  the  time  of  Alfried  to 
the  Norman  invasion,  72;  termination  of  the 
Norman  dynasty  in,  80 ;  brief  sketch  of  tbe 
principal  sovereigns  of,  from  the  rise  of  the 
Plantagenet  dynasty  to  the  hoose  of  Stuart,  ib. 

English,  the,  general  character  of,  161,  16S2. 

Epaminondas,  17. 

Ephori,  the,  a  class  of  magistrates  in  Sparta,  19. 

EpiruB,  15. 

Equilibrists,  feats  of  the,  156. 

Erfurt,  peasant  costumes  at,  142. 

Esieps,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  238. 

Esquimaux,  the,  128, 250  ;  various  tribes  and  dia- 
lects of,  251,  252. 

Esthes,  the,  131. 

Ethiopians,  the,  3, 4, 10,  229, 231,  333. 

Ethnology  of  the  present  day,  introdnctoiy  re- 
marks on,  123;  classification  and  phyaeal 
characteristics  of  the  principal  races  of  man- 
kind, 123-130 ;  principal  European  stoclta,  190, 


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131 ;  description  of  chartcteristic  manners  and 
costumes  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  various  coun- 
tries of  Europe,  ldS-196 ;  of  Asia,  196-236 ; 
of  Africa,  236-248  ;  of  North  and  South  Ame- 
rica, 248-284 ;  of  Oceania,  285-^03. 

Etruscans,  the,  27. 

Europe,  summary  of  the  history  and  condition  of, 
during  the  middle  ages,  53-123  ;  condition  of, 
at  the  time  of  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire, 
53, 54 ;  vast  incursions  of  barbarians,  54 ;  civil 
condition  of  the  inhabitants  of,  during  the  mid- 
dle ages,  87,  88  ;  gradual  progress  of  Christian- 
ity in,  100 ;  description  of  the  different  stocks 
of  the  people  of,  130,  131 ;  particular  descrip- 
tions of  the  people  of  the  various  nations  of, 
132  et  seq. 

Evangelists,  the,  an  order  of  ecclesiastics,  104. 

Evo,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  239. 

Eyeoes,  the,  129,241. 

Ezegiah  dialect,  the,  spoken  among  the  Berbers, 
233. 

Fabius  Maximus,  33. 

Falcon  Indians,  the,  278. 

Fantees,  the,  129. 

Feejees,  the,  301. 

Fehlahin,  the.  200,  201. 

Felashah,  the,  229. 

Felloops,  the,  or  Feloops,  a  negro  tribe,  238. 

Ferdinand  II.  of  Arragon,  82. 

Fertits,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  242. 

Fetishes,  the,  of  the  negroes,  244. 

Feuillans,  the,  an  order  of  monks,  103. 

Fezzanians,  the,  varieties  of  hue  among,  230; 
physical  appearance,  language,  occupation,  cos- 
tame,  dLC,  of,  231. 

Fihs,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  238. 

Iilngulanes,  the,  287. 

Finns,  the,  131,  158, 167. 

Flemings,  the,  195. 

Florence,  sketch  of  the  history  of,  81. 

Florida,  the  Indian  tribes  of,  258. 

Folgies,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  238. 

Fontenay,  battle  at,  between  Lothaire  and  his 
younger  brothers,  66. 

Foolahs,  Foulahs,  or  Fellatahs,  various  tribes  of, 
234,  235;  great  influence  of,  235;  warlike 
character  of,  ib. ;  religion,  domestic  habits, 
costume,  &c.,  of,  ib. 

Foolies,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  238. 

Förster,  description  of  the  inhabitants  of  Terra 
del  Fuego  by,  272. 

Fowries,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  242. 

Foys,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  239. 

France,  internal  troubles  of,  under  the  successors 
of  Charlemagne,  67 ;  rule  of  the  family  of  Ca- 
pet in,  78,  79  ;  importance  of  the  house  of  Bur- 
gundy in,  79 ;  summary  of  the  history  of,  from 
987  to  1483,  78-80 ;  national  characteristics  of 
the  inhabiunts  of,  193  ;  varieties  of  habits  and 
character  in  different  sections  of,  193,  194; 
costume,  194 ;  various  races  in,  195. 

Franciscans,  the,  an  order  of  monks,  104. 

Francomans,  the,  134,  142. 

Franks,  the,  monarchy  of,  founded  by  Clovis,  54 ; 
extent  of  the  territory  of,  60;  sketch  of  the 
history  of,  ib. 

Fratieelü,  the,  a  religious  society,  104. 

Fratres  minores,  the,  104. 

Frederick  I.  Barbarossa  of  Germany,  73,  74; 
Frederick  I),  of  Germany,  glorious  reign  of, 
75 ;  Fnderiek  IV.  emperor  of  Germany,  78. 


Freemasons,  sketch  of  the  history  of,  109. 
Friars,  the  begging,  or  the  Mendicants,  104. 
Friendly  Islands,  the,  account  of  the  inhabitants 

of,  300,  301. 
Frontevrault,  the  order  of,  103. 
FuUheim,  curious  bridal  costumes  at,  134. 
Fungi,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  242. 
Furlani,  the,  151. 
Furtwangen,  characteristic  costume  at,  133. 

Galba,  emperor  of  Rome,  40. 

Gallas,  the,  an  Abyssinian  tribe,  229,  246. 

Gallatin,  the  tribes  of  the  Athapasca  Indians  ac- 
cording to,  256,  257. 

Gamants,  the,  229. 

Gambretti,  Peter,  the  Congregation  of,  104. 

Gascons,  the,  195. 

Gauchos,  the,  281. 

Gauls,  the,  9, 11,  12. 

Gebbee,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  238. 

Genoa,  rapid  rise  of,  81  ;  subdued  by  Venice,  ib. ; 
the  Genoese,  189. 

Genseric,  king  of  the  Alani,  58. 

Georgians,  the,  168 ;  local  position  and  various 
tribes  of,  174,  175  ;  general  character,  habits, 
employments,  &c.,  of,  175,  176. 

Gepidffi,  the,  general  account  of,  57. 

German  knights,  the,  or  Order  of  Lords,  108. 

Germanicus,  successes  of,  against  the  Germans,  40. 

Germans,  the  ancient,  an  aboriginal  race,  12; 
leading  tribes  of,  ib. ;  first  grand  historical 
movement  of,  12,  13 ;  physical  conformation, 
prevailing  characteristics,  manner  of  life,  social 
arrangements,  government,  and  religion  of,  14, 
15. 

Germany,  state  of,  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  39 ; 
attempts  of  the  Romans  to  subdue  Uie  inhabit- 
ants of,  39,  40;  condition  of,  under  the  suc- 
cessors of  Charlemagne,  68 ;  sicetch  of  the  his- 
tory of,  to  the  extinction  of  the  Franconio-Salian 
house  in  1125,  68-72;  history  of,  under  the 
monarchs  of  the  house  of  Hohenstaufeo,  73-76  ; 
history  of,  from  1273  to  1493,  76-78  ;  general 
characteristics  of  the  inhabitants  of,  132 ;  par- 
ticular description  of  several  German  stocks  of 
people,  132  et  seq. ;  the  North  Germans,  138 ; 
the  middle  Germans,  139,  140 ;  mental  and 
physical  condition  of  the  inhabitants  of,  153, 
154. 

Gets,  the,  descendants  of  the  Scythians,  11. 

Gez,  the,  a  nation  of  South  American  Indians, 
277,  278. 

Ghibelines,  origin  of  the  name,  73. 

Ghüshi,  the,  204. 

Ghiomas,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  338. 

Gieos,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  238. 

Gladiators,  the,  of  Rome,  50,  51. 

Goahiros,  the,  a  South  American  tribe,  ftGQ. 

Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  history  of  the  crusade  under, 
118,  119. 

Goitacas,  the,  a  South  American  tribe,  276. 

Gold  Coast,  the,  domestic  habits,  physical  confor- 
mation, character,  &c.,  of  the  inhabitants  of, 
236-238. 

Gooba,  the  inhabitants  of,  a  civilized  race  of  ne- 
groes, 334. 

G^  Hope,  the  cape  of,  discovered  by  the  Porto* 
gnese,  83. 

Gorahs,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  5138. 

Gotha,  varieties  of  costume  in,  143. 

Groths,  the,  general  account  of,  56. 

Gottseheers,  the,  151. 

IIB 


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Gottahmlk,  one  of  the  leaden  in  the  fiiBt  oroBade, 
118. 

Gouberies,  the,  a  oegro  tribe,  340. 

Goyaz,  Indian  tribee  in  the  province  of,  277. 

Graeco-Latinic  stock,  the,  130. 

Grammontenfliana,  the,  an  order  of  monka,  103. 

Gratian,  emperor  of  Rome,  41. 

Great  Britain,  sketch  of  the  leading  features  of  the 
principal  race«  inhabiting,  160-163. 
jece,  ancient,  colonized  by  the  Pelasgians,  15  ; 
grand  natural  divisions  of,  ib. ;  heroic  age  of, 
16 ;  suprenoacy  of  Athens  and  Sparta  over  the 
rest  of,  ib. ;  diseensiona  among  the  difieient 
states  of,  17;  overthrow  of  Athens,  ib. ;  the 
war  of  Corinth,  ib. ;  the  Theban  war,  ib. ;  the 
war  with  M acedon,  18  ;  subjugation  of,  by  the 
Romans,  ib. ;  conquest  of,  by  the  Turks,  84, 
85  ;  extent  of  modem,  187  ;  character  of  the 
present  inhabitants,  ib. ;  language,  ib. ;  costume 
of  the  Greeks,  187,  lt<8;  occupations,  188. 

Greek  church,  leading  doctrines  of  the,  101. 

Greeks,  the  ancient,  various  tribes  of,  15  ;  charac- 
teristics of,  16;  caused  of  the  degeneration  of, 
17  ;  social  arrangements  and  internal  relations 
of,  duiing  the  heroic  ages,  18, 19  ;  currency  of, 
31  ;  manners  and  customs  and  character  of, 
31-26 ;  dwellings  and  household  furniture  of, 
24,  35;  phy.ical  characteristics  of  the,  125, 
126. 

Greenlanders,  the,  127,  252,  253. 

Gregory  VII.,  ambitious  det^igns  of,  70 ;  his  treat- 
ment of  Henry  IV.  of  Germany,  70,  71. 

Greybo9,  the,  a  negro  trit>e,  23a. 

Guagiros,  the,  or  Guajires,  268. 

Guaimies,  the,  268. 

Guajifl,  the,  377. 

Guanacas,  the,  368. 

Guarani-Caribbean  stock,  the,  or  the  aborigines 
of  Braiil,  Guiana,  and  Venezuela,  367. 

Guarania,  the,  a  large  and  powerful  nation  of 
South  America,  374  ;  manners  and  customs  of, 
dtc,  375. 

Guatemala,  the  republic  of,  366,  367. 

Guayaquil,  the  inhabitants  of,  379. 

Guaycouros,  the,  374. 

Gudamakari,  the,  175. 

Guelpha,  origin  of  the  name,  73 ;  league  of  the, 
74. 

Guiana,  habits  of  the  inhabitants  of,  378,  379. 

Guianas,  the,  a  South  American  tribe,  375. 

Guido,  duke  of  Spoleto,  a  competitor  for  the 
crown  of  Italy,  68. 

Guilolies,  the,  387. 

Guinea  negroes,  the,  139. 

Gunpowder,  change  in  the  art  of  warfare  in  con- 
sequence of  the  invention  of,  88. 

Gymnastic  exercises,  description  of  the  ordinary, 
154-156. 

Gypsies,  the,  131. 

Habbesb,  the,  or  Abysnnians,  339. 

Hadharebe,  the,  a  tribe  of  the  Bisherin,  331. 

Haiti,  present  condition  of,  383. 

Halle,  on  the  Saale,  the  castle  of,  built  by  Char- 
lemagne, 65. 

Hannibal,  career  of,  33,  34. 

Hauenstein,  characteristic  costume  at,  133. 

Haussans,  or  Houssans,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  340. 

Hawaians,  the,  account  of,  389-^1. 

HeUas,  15. 

Henry,  duke,  of  Saxony,  succeeds  Conrad  on  the 
German  throne,  68  ;  character  of  his  reign,  ib. 
774 


Henry  the  Lion,  king  of  BaTiria,  73,  74. 

Henry  III.,  flonrishing  condition  of  Gennnny 
under  the  reign  of,  70;  Henry  IV.,  interaal- 
dissensions  of  Germany  during  the  minority  of^ 
70  ;  his  humiliation  by  the  pope,  70,  71 ;  Ticis- 
sitndes  of  the  latter  years  of  his  reign,  71 ; 
Henry  V.,  troubles  of  his  reign,  72 ;  H&arj  VL 
of  Germany,  74. 

Henry  II.  and  UI.  kings  of  England,  80. 

Heraclide,  the,  16. 

Heraldry,  origin  and  nature  of  the  science  of,  93 ; . 
brief  description  of  the  principal  featnres  a(  ar- 
morial bearings,  with  especial  reference  to  the 
crowna  and  other  insignia  of  rank  of  Eoiopean 
nations,  93-100. 

Hermiones,  the,  an  ancient  German  tribe,  13. 

Herali,  the,  sketch  of  the  history,  mannecSy  wad 
customs  of,  59. 

Hessians,  description  of  the  ancient  and  modem, 
135,  136 ;  oharaoteristic  costumes  of  the,  136, 
137. 

Hildebrand,  or  Pope  Gregory  VII.,  70. 

Hindoos,  the,  131 ;  physical  conformation  and 
moral  character  of,  117,  305;  the  difiisreot 
castes  of,  ib. ;  domestic  habits,  amnsements, 
costume,  dec,  of,  ib. ;  literature  and  science 
among,  306,  307 ;  sacrifices  and  funeral  cere- 
monies of,  307  ;  marriage  rites  among,  307,306 ; 
religious  festivals  and  ceremonies  of,  208-210. 

History,  introductory  remarks  upon,  1 ;  scope  and 
sources  of,  ib  ;  principal  departmenta  azül  sob- 
divisions  of,  3 ;  of  the  ancient  worid,  1-53  ;  of 
the  middle  ages,  53-133. 

Hobenstaufeo,  sketch  of  the  reigns  of  the  monarcfai 
of  the  house  of,  73  et  seq. 

Holsteiners,  the,  occupations  and  costumes  of, 
139. 

Holy  Ghost,  the  knightly  order  of  the,  108. 

Hondos,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  338. 

Honkadon,  a  section  of  the  Mandingo  coontry, 
336. 

Honorius,  emperor  of  the  west,  43. 

Horas,  the,  a  tribe  inhabiting  Madagascar,  S47. 

Hospital  monks  and  nuns,  the,  105. 

Hottentoto,  the,  139, 130, 345,346. 

Houssa,  the  inhabitanU  of,  a  civilized  race  of  ne- 
groes, 334. 

Huaimies,  the,  368. 

Humoky,  the,  or  Esquimaux  proper,  350. 

Hungarians,  the,  131. 

Hungary,  state  of,  during  the  middle  ages,  84. 

Huns,  the,  inroads  of,  on  the  Roman  empire,  41 ; 
physical  peculiarities  and  general  charactenatioa 
of,  60, 61 ;  various  theories  on  their  origin,  61. 

Hussite  war,  the,  in  Bohemia,  78. 

Ibbedos,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  341. 
Iberians,  the,  13, 131. 
Iboes,  or  Ibuee,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  339. 
Idibas,  the,368. 
Igan,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  339. 
Igolotes,the,387,397. 
Igorrotes,  the,  387. 

Ilauta,  the,  or  nomadic  tribes  of  Peoia,  199 
myrians,the,37, 150. 
Inieritians,  the,  168. 

Immaculate  Conception,  the  nuns  of  the,  105. 
Inagevones,  the,  an  ancient  German  tnbe,  13. 
Inca  nation,  the,  268. 
India,  the  ancient  inhabitanta  of,  9. 
Indians,  the,  of  North  America,  physieal  confor- 
mation and  habita  and  oustoms  <^,  138, 9!f3-855 ; 


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INDIZ  TO   BISTORT  AND   KTHVOLOOT. 


vn 


descriptioD  of  fanerml  ceremoDSee  of,  5^,  360 ; 
diyidon  of,  aocording  to  the  analogy  of  Ian* 
guage,  255  et  aeq. ;  the  tribes  of  the  North-weet 
coast,  255,  356 ;  the  Northern  Indiana  and  ad- 
joining tribes,  356,  357  ;  the  tribes  formerly  in- 
habiting the  northern  and  eastern  diviMons  of 
the  present  United  Sutes,  357,  358-- the  south- 
em  portions,  ib.  ;  the  Florida  nations,  258 ; 
the  Western  Indians,  359-361 ;  the  Oregon 
tribes  and  Indians  of  the  Pacific  coast,  361 ;  the 
California  Indians,  362 ;  the  Mexican  Inchans, 
363  et  seq. 

Indians,  the,  of  South  America,  physical  charac- 
teristics of,  138 ;  three  great  classes  of,  with 
their  subdiTisions,  367;  the  Ando-Pemvians, 
Pampans,  and  Goarani-Caribbean  stock,  ib. ; 
the  Cnndinamarcans,  or  Indians  of  New  Gre- 
nada, and  related  tribes,  367,  368 ;  the  Peru- 
vian nations,  368-370 ;  the  Araucanian  tribes 
and  inhabitants  of  Terra  del  Fuego,  370-373 ; 
the  Pampans,  mcluding  the  Patagonians,  Chi- 
quitos,  Guaranis,  dco.,  373-375 ;  other  tribes 
found  in  Brazil  and  Guiana,  375-^78. 

Inez  de  Castro,  83. 

Inniong,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  339. 

Innocent  III.,  eiforts  of,  to  extend  his  power, 
74,  75 ;  establishment  of  the  Inquisition  by, 
110. 

Innsbruck,  the  inhabitants  of,  153. 

Inquisition,  the,  original  limited  powers  of,  110 ; 
extent  to  which  it  spread  over  Europe,  110, 
111  ;  chief  objects  of  its  fury,  111,  113 ;  great 
powers  of,  1 13 ;  treatment  of  the  prisoners  of, 
113,  113;  the  three  degrees  of  torture,  113, 
114;  the  burning  at  the  stake,  114,  115;  gra- 
dual decline  and  final  abolition  of,  116. 

Intas,  the,  129,  338. 

lonians,  the,  15 

Irish,  the,  character  of,  163. 

Iroquois,  the,  difierent  tribes  of,  357,  358. 

Isabella  of  CasUle,  83. 

Isinis,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  338. 

Istevoues,  the,  an  ancient  German  tribe,  13. 

Isthmian  games,  the,  33. 

Istriani,  the,  151. 

lulones,  the,  387. 

luly,  enumeration  of  the  most  prominent  of  the 
original  settlers  of,  37  ;  condition  of,  under  the 
successors  of  Charlemagne,  68 ;  distracted 
condition  of,  in  the  latter  portion  of  the  middle 
ages,  80 ;  general  survey  of  the  character  of 
the  lulians,  188 ;  sketch  of  the  inhabitants  of 
several  states  of,  189-191. 

Itenei«,  the,  274. 

Itonamas,  the,  374. 

Jacobins,  the,  an  order  of  ecclesiastics,  104. 

Jalofifi,  the,  or  Jolofies,  a  powerful  negro  tribe, 
334,336. 

Jallonkas,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  336. 

Japanese,  the,  ph3raical  appearance  and  social  and 
domestic  habits  of,  334,  335 ;  occupations  of, 
335 ;  state  of  science  and  art  among,  govern- 
ment, laws,  &«.,  of,  ib. 

Jarriba,  or  Eyeo,  the  kingdom  of,  341. 

Javanese,  the,  386. 

Jerome  of  Prague,  78. 

Jerome,  St.,  of  Spain,  of  Flesole,  and  of  the  Ob- 
servance, hermits  of,  104. 

Jeromites,  the,  104. 

Jerusalem,  siege  of,  by  the  crosaden  under  God- 
firey  de  Boniilon,  119. 


Jeiides,  the,  or  devil  worshippers,  197. 

Jeeuates,  the,  an  order  of  monks,  104. 

Jesuits,  the,  105. 

Jewish  chronicles,  the,  their  account  of  the  early 
ages  of  the  world,  3,  3. 

Jews,  the,  131. 

Jinnee,  a  city  of  the  Kissuree,  339. 

Joan  of  Arc,  79. 

John  (Lackland),  king  of  England,  80. 

John  XXII.,  pope,  his  quarrels  with  Louis  of  Ba- 
varia, 77. 

Joust  or  tournament,  the,  laws  and  ceremonies  of, 
90-93. 

Jovian,  emperor  of  Rome,  41. 

Judicial  combat,  laws  of  the,  93. 

Julian,  emperor  of  Rome,  41 

Kabardes,  the,  or  Kabardines,  171. 

Kabyles,  the,  333. 

Kadiaoks,  the,  a  tribe  of  Esquimaux,  351. 

Kafl^  or  Kafirs,  the,  344,  345. 

Kakunda,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  341. 

Kalingos,  the,  387. 

Kamichatkans,  the,  137, 168, 181. 

Kangas,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  338. 

Kanowry,  a  local  name  for  the  Bomouese,  341. 

Karabulaks,  the,  170. 

Karakalpaks,  the,  167. 

Karoos,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  338. 

Karsti,  the,  151. 

Kart-uhli,  the,  175. 

Kasi-Kumucs,  the,  131, 170. 

Kassouhs,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  338. 

Keahs,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  338. 

Kiatee,  the,  a  tribe  of  Esquimaux,  351. 

Kirghiis,  the,  divided  into  three  hordes,  178, 179 ; 
personal  appearance,  costume,  occupation,  dus., 
of,  179. 

Kirghiz  Teloites,  the,  167. 

Kisäs,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  338. 

KisBures,  the,  a  civilized  and  intelligent  negro 
tribe,  339 ;  domestic  habits,  costume,  and  go- 
vernment of,  339, 340. 

Kistes,  the,  167, 170. 

Knighthood,  account  of  the  order  of,  in  the  mid- 
dle ages,  88,  89  ;  ceremonies  attending  the  ad- 
noission  of  a  candidate,  89,  90 ;  the  principal 
spiritual  orders  of,  106. 

Knights,  the  order  of,  among  the  ancient  Romans, 
43. 

Knights  templan,  the  order  of,  suppreoed  in 
France,  79. 

Koldagi,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  343. 

Koloehes,  the,  or  Indians  of  the  North-west  coast 
of  North  America,  enumeration  of  the  different 
tribes  of,  355,  356. 

Koniages,  the,  a  tribe  of  Esquimaux,  351. 

Koorahs,  the,  131. 

Koriahs,  the,  168, 181. 

Koulitshi,  the,  170. 

Kroohs,  or  Kroomen,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  338. 

Kshatiias,  the,  a  Hindoo  caste,  305. 

Kullas,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  343. 

Kumans,  the,  131. 

Kurds,  the,  divided  into  two  clawes,  197 ;  their 
religion,  general  character,  and  costume,  197, 
198. 

Kuriies,  the,  168. 

Kuskokwimers,  the,  a  tribe  of  FisquimaiUL,  351. 


La  Trappe,  the  monks  of,  103. 
Laeonia,  15. 


116 


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IKBIX  TO  HISTORY  AKD  BTHH0L06T. 


LapIanderB,  the,  or  Lapp«»  131 ;  general  deeerip- 
tion  of,  158 ;  characteristics  of  the  principal 
tribes  or  subdivisions  of,  159,  160. 

Lasi,  the,  175. 

Latins,  the,  27. 

Latinus,  king  of  Latium,  38. 

Lazarists,  the,  a  religious  society,  105. 

Leer,  a  flourishing  town  on  the  Leda,  139. 

Leip»ic,  removal  of  the  university  Irom  Prague  to, 
77. 

Lenguas,  the,  374. 

Leo  III.,  pope,  crowns  Charlemagne  Roman  em- 
peror, 65. 

Lc^hi,  Lesghians,  or  Lesghinee,  the,  167,  170. 

Lewis,  clas^cation  of  the  Oregon  Indians  ac- 
cording to,  261. 

Libumii,  the,  151. 

Limbas,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  238. 

Llipi,  the,  or  Atacama  nation,  270. 

Lords,  the  order  of,  or  German  knights,  108. 

Lothaire,  son  and  co-regent  with  Louis  the  De- 
bonnaire,  65 ;  succeeds  him  on  the  throne,  66 ; 
events  of  his  reign,  ib. 

Lothaire,  duke  of  Saxony,  elected  emperor  of 
Germany,  73. 

Louis  of  Bavaria,  elected  emperor  of  Germany  in 
1322,  77. 

Louis  the  Debonnaire,  son  and  successor  of  Char- 
lemagne, 65  ;  troubles  of  his  reign,  66. 

Louis,  emperor  of  Germany,  67  ;  Louis  the  child, 
68. 

Louis  v.,  condition  of  France  in  the  time  of,  67 ; 
Louis  VI.,  VII.,  and  IX.,  of  France,  78  ;  Louis 
XI.,  79,  80 ;  Louis  IX.,  of  France,  benignant 
sway  of,  121 ;  crusade  under,  122. 

Lncanians,  the,  27. 

Ludi  Circenses,  50 ;  L.  Gladiatorii,  50,  51 ;  L. 
Scenici,  51. 

Lycurgus,  the  Spartan  lawgiver,  16,  19. 

Macarouga,  the,  a  tribe  bordering  on  the  Bichua- 

nas,  246. 
Macedonia,  15  ;  wars  between,  and  Rome,  34. 
Macedonians,  the,  spring  into  note  under  Philip, 

18. 
Machakans,  the,  277. 
Macrobians,  the,  10. 
Macuanis,  the,  a  South  American  tribe,  275, 

276. 
Madagascar,  general  account  of  the  habits,  d&c, 

of  Uie  inhabitants  of,  247 ;  their  language,  re- 
ligion, &c.,  248. 
Madshow3rin,  Mondshus,  or  Mongas,  a  tribe  on 

the  east  coast  of  Africa,  246. 
Mafumo,  Ma-Puta,  and  Mattoll,  tribes  on  the 

east  coast  of  Africa,  246. 
Magdalena,  the  nuns  of,  105. 
Magdeburg,  the  castle  of,  erected  by  Charlemagne, 

65. 
Magimeters,  the,  a  tribe   of   E^squimauz,  251, 

252. 
Magistratus,  application  of  the  term,  44. 
Magna  Charta,  the,  obtained  from  King  John  of 

England,  80. 
Magyars,  the,  131. 

Mahomed,  founder  of  the  empire  of  Arabia,  55. 
MalaUs,  the,  277. 
Malays,  the,  210,  285,  286. 
Malayria,  or  West  Oceania,  385. 
Malpushes,  the,  a  tribe  inhabiting  Madagascar, 

347. 
Maltese,  the,  131. 
776 


Mambares,  the,  377. 

Mambriacas,  the,  277. 

Mamertinee,  the,  32. 

Mandarans,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  343. 

Mandingoes,  the,  a  wealthy,  educated,  and  infln- 
eutitfi  negro  tribe,  235  ;  state  of  industry  among, 
235,  236 ;  their  various  dialects,  236. 

Mangouries,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  242. 

Mangriee,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  238. 

Mankind,  the  early  history  of,  according  to  the 
Jewish  chronicles,  2,  3. 

Mannus,  an  ancestor  of  the  ancient  GermaoSt 
12. 

Maquas,  or  Makwanos,  the,  a  tribe  on  the  east 
coast  of  Africa,  246. 

Maranhao,  Indian  tribes  in  the  province  of,  278. 

Maravis,  a  tribe  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa, 
246. 

Marcomanni,  the,  13 ;  invasion  of  Italy  by,  40, 
41  ;  sketch  of  the  history  of,  58. 

Marian  Islands,  the,  account  of  the  inhabitants  of, 
298^00. 

Marius,  the  career  of,  35. 

Maronites,  the,  doctrine  of,  101. 

Maropas,  the,  270. 

Marriage  ceremonies  among  the  Greeks,  25,  36: 
among  the  Romans,  49,  50 ;  of  the  Persians, 
200  ;  among  the  Hindoos,  207,  308. 

Marseilles,  defeat  of  the  Romans  at,  by  the  Teu- 
tons, 13. 

Marsians,  the,  27. 

MaUguayos,  the,  274. 

Mathurines,  the,  the  religious  order  of,  104. 

Mato  Grosso,  Indian  tribes  in  the  province  ci, 
277. 

Maturares,  the,  277. 

Mauritania,  10. 

Maurus,  St ,  the  Congregation  of,  103. 

Mavali,  the,  an  Arab  tribe,  203. 

Maximilian  I.  of  Germany,  79. 

Mazimbas,  the,  a  tribe  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa, 
246. 

Mbayos,  the,  374. 

Mbocobis,  the,  274. 

Mecca,  mixed  population  of,  301 ;  costnmea  of 
the  different  classes,  202. 

Medes,  the,  our  knowledge  of,  mainly  demed 
from  monuments,  8. 

Medici,  the  family  of,  81. 

Melanesia,  285. 

Memba  Molua,  a  negro  tribe,  243. 

Mendicants,  the,  or  begging  friars,  104. 

Mennonites,  the,  doctrine  of,  101. 

Meroö,  the  ancient,  10. 

Mercy,  the  order  of,  104. 

Measapii,  the,  27. 

Messenia,  15 ;  conquest  of,  by  Sparta,  16. 

Mestizoe-,  266. 

Mexico,  the  Indian  tribes  of,  262,  263  ;  princtpal 
languages  of  the  nations  of  the  plateau  of, 
263  ;  characteri8tics  and  habits  of  the  Mexican 
Indians,  263,  264 ;  present  condition  of  the 
inhabitants  of,  264,  265;  ancient  religion  o^ 
265 ;  various  grades  of  the  popolation  oi,  ae- 
cording  to  race,  266. 

Micronesia,  or  North  Oceania,  285. 

Middle  ages,  the,  history  of,  53-133  ;  civil  coodi 
tion  of  the  inhabitants  of  Europe  daring,  87 
88 ;  influence  of  ihe  clergy  in,  100. 

Milan,  the  chief  princes  of,  &Si. 

Mingrelians,  the,  168. 

Minimes,  the,  a  religious  society,  104. 


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INBKZ   TO   HISTORY   AKB   ETBNOLOGT. 


Minofites,  the,  104. 

Miaeny,  the,  an  Arab  tribe,  203. 

Missions,  priests  of  the  order  of,  106. 

Mizdshegi,  or  Mizchegis,  the,  131,  170. 

Mlomoi,  the,  a  tribe  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa, 
346. 

Mnichempani,  a  tribe  on  the  east  coast  of  Afiica, 
246. 

Mobba,  a  district  near  Bomou,  241. 

Mocetenes,  the,  270. 

Mohammed  II.,  the  conquests  of,  85. 

Mohammedans,  the,  expulsion  of,  from  Spain, 
82. 

Mokko,  or  Mokos,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  239. 

Möisen,  battle  of,  between  Rudolph  of  Suabia 
and  Henry  IV.  of  Germany,  71. 

Monachism,  the  system  of,  101,  102;  reformed 
by  St.  Benedict,  102 ;  enumeration  of  the  prin- 
cipal religious  associations,  102-106. 

Mongolian  race,  the,  physical  characteiistics  of, 
123. 

Mongols,  the,  conquest  of  Russia  by,  84;  ex- 
pelled by  I  wan  III.,  ib. ;  rise  of  the  power  of, 
85 ;  conquests  and  extensive  dominions  of^  86  ; 
in  Further  India,  210. 

Monomoezi,  an  African  tribe,  246. 

Montesik,  the,  an  Arab  tribe,  203. 

Moors,  the,  200,  226 ;  physical  appearance  and 
costume  of,  227 ;  social  habits  and  disposition 
of.  228. 

Morduines,  the,  167. 

Morgarten,  the  battle  of,  76. 

Morgetians,  the,  27. 

Moslems,  the,  232. 

Mosquito  Indians,  the,  266. 

Mouwiza,  the,  an  African  tribe,  246. 

Movimas,  the,  274. 

Moxos,  the.  South  American  tribes,  267,  274. 

Mozabis,  the,  a  Berber  tribe,  23^. 

Mozambique,  the  inhabitants  of,  244. 

Mozcas,  the,  or  Muyscas,  267. 

Mtshauva,  the,  a  tribe  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa, 
246. 

Mucamango  and  Mutshiva,  African  tribes,  246. 

Muiscas,  the,  a  tribe  inhabiting  New  Grenada, 
267. 

Mumboe,  the,  a  savage  tribe  on  the  east  coast  of 
Africa,  246. 

Mummies,  the,  of  the  Egyptians,  6. 

Murten,  the  battle  of,  79. 

Mycerinus,  one  of  the  successors  of  Sesostiis,  4. 

Naefels,  the  battle  of,  76. 

Nalez,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  238. 

Namaquas,  the,  a  South  African  tribe,  245. 

Nancy,  the  battle  of,  79. 

Naples,  becomes  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Arragon, 

81. 
Natubes,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  238. 
Navigators'  islands,  the,  inhabitants  of,  301. 
Neapoliuns,  the,  190.  . 
Necho,  king  of  Egypt,  conquests  of,  4. 
Negrillos,  the,  287. 
Negro  race,  the,  physical  characteristica  of,  123, 

124.  129. 
Negroes,  remarks  on.  233,  234;  sketch  of  the 

principal  negro  tribes,  234  et  seq. ;  peculiarities 

observed  in  the  negroes  generally,  243,  244; 

remarks  on  the  condition  of,  in  North  and 

South  America,  282-284. 
Nemean  games,  the,  22. 
Nequitos,  the,  287, 297. 


Nero,  emperor  of  Rome,  40. 

Nerva,  emperor  of  Rome,  40. 

Netherlands,  the  inhabitants  of  the,  193. 

New  Guinea,  the  inhabitants  of,  288. 

New  Hollanders,  the,  general  account  of,  301- 

303. 
New  Philippine  islands,  the,  inhabitants  of,  288, 

289. 
New  Zealanders,  the,  general  account  of,  291- 

294. 
Neyvas,  the,  268. 
NicflBa.  the  battle  of,  119. 
Niederklee,  costume  of  female  reapers  in,  137. 
Norland,  158. 
Noreia,  defeat  of  the  Romans  at,  by  the  Teutons, 

12. 
Normans,  the,  subdued    by  Charlemagne,  65; 

predatory  incursions  of,  in  Italy,  England,  and 

Germany,  67 ;  incursions  of,  in  Europe,  72 ; 

termination  of  the  dynasty  of,  in  England, 

80. 
Norway,  sketch  of  the  history  of,  during  the  mid- 
dle ages,  83. 
Norwegians,  the,  character  of,  157. 
Notre- Dame,  nuns  of  the  order  of,  106. 
Nubas,  the,  a  collection  of  negro  tribes,  242. 
Nubians,  the,  10. 
Numa  Pompilius,  29. 
Numidia,  10. 
Nuns,  the  societies  of,  102 ;  enumeration  of  the 

principal  associations  of,  105,  106. 

Obsequies,  funeral.    See  Sepulture. 
Obeervantines,    the,  or    organized    Franciscans, 

104. 
Oceania,  the  nations  of,  284  et  seq. ;  divisions  of, 

285. 
Octavianus.  Augustus,  early  career  of,  38, 39 ;  be- 
comes emperor,  39. 
Odenwald,  the  inhabitants  of  the,  133. 
Odin,  invasion  of  Denmark  by,  62. 
(Enotrians,  the,  27. 

Okyous,  or  Oyos,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  241. 
Olipes,  or  Atacama  nation,  the,  270. 
Olympic  games,  the.  22 ;  attempt  of  Childebert  I. 

to  revive  them,  156. 
Omuns,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  239. 
Orang-Karbec,  Uie.  287. 
Oratorium,  the  priests  of  the,  105. 
Oregon  Indians,  the,  families  and  tribes  of,  261, 

262. 
Orinoco,  the,  Indian  tribes  in  the  vicinity  of, 

278. 
Orsini,  the  house  of  the,  81. 
Osage  Indians,  the,  128. 
Oshin,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  238. 
Osmanlis,  the,  183. 
Osmanni,  the,  131. 
Ossetes,  die,  131,  167,  170. 
Ostiaks,  tiie,  127,  167,  182. 
Ostracism,  the  system  of,  16.  t 

Ostrogoths,  the,  41,  56. 
Otahiti,  the  inhabitants  of,  294-296. 
Otho,  emperor  of  Rome,  40. 
Otto  I.,  emperor  of  Germany,  principal  events  of 

his  reign,  69 ;  Otto  II.  and  lU.,  ib. ;  Otto  IV., 

74,  75. 
Ottokar  I ,  king  of  Bohemia,  74 ;  Ottokar  U., 

76. 
Otukes,  the,  or  Otuqnis,  274. 


Facaguaras,  the,  274. 


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INDEX  TO   HIBTORT  AND   BTHNOLOOT» 


Paderborn,  eoaodl  or  diet  held  at,  by  Chade- 

magne,  64. 
Paes,  the,  368. 

Pahely,  the,  an  Arab  tribe,  303. 
Paiconecas,  the,  274. 

Pali  language,  a  hieratic  dialect  in  Siam,  324. 
Pampane,  the,  267,  272  et  aeq. 
Paniames,  the,  277. 

Pantshes,  the,  a  South  American  tribe,  268. 
Papaa,  the,  a  negro  dialect,  239. 
Papels,  the,  a  tribe  on  the  Guinea  coast,  234, 

238. 
Papuans,  the,  129,  287. 
Para,  Indian  tribes  in  the  proyince  of,  278. 
Parecifl,  the,  277. 

Pariahs,  the,  a  Hindoo  caste,  205,  206. 
Parliament,  the  first,  held  in  the  reign  of  Henry 

HI.,  80. 
Parthia,  poation  of,  11 ;  the  Parthians,  ib. 
Paaseyriaos,  the,  costome  of,  152. 
Patachos,  the,  277. 
Patagonians,  the,  273. 
PaUns,  the,  or  PiUns,  204. 
Patricians  and  plebeians,  feuds  between  the,  in 

the  early  years  of  the  Roman  republic,  31, 

32. 
Pawnees,  the,  and  Indian  tribes  included  among, 

261. 
Payaguas,  the,  274. 
Pelaagians,  the,  27. 
Pehgnians,  the,  27. 
Pelopidae,  the,  16. 
Peloponnesus,  the,  15;  the  Peloponnesian  war, 

17. 
Pelzuenches,  the,  270. 
Penitence,  the  nuns  of,  105. 
Permians,  the,  167. 
Persans,  the  ancient,  8 ;  physcal  peculiarities  of 

the  ancient  and  modem,  126,  198;  costume 

and  domestic  habits  of,  198,  199 ;  divided  into 

four  classes,  199 ;  religion  of,  ib .;  penal  code 

of,  199,  200 ;  marriage  and  funeral  ceremonies 

of,  200. 
Peruvians,  the  ancient  and  modern,  267-269, 280, 

281. 
Pesherays,  the,  or  inhabitants  of  Terra  del  Fuego, 

272. 
Peter  of  Amiens,  sketch  of  the  crusade  voder,  117, 

118. 
Peucetians,  the,  27. 

Peucini,  the,  an  ancient  German  tribe,  12. 
Pharsalia,  battle  of;  37. 
Philip  L,  king  of  Macedon,  18. 
Philip  the  Fair,  king  of  France,  78,  79. 
Philippines,  the,  inhabitants  of,  296-298. 
Phocis,  15. 

Phrygians,  the  ancient,  8,  9. 
Piabu,  Indian  tribes  in  the  province  of,  278. 
Piarists,  the,  a  religious  society,  105. 
Picenians,  the,  27. 
Picts,  the,  or  Caledonians,  61. 
Piedmontese,  the,  189. 
Pilsen,  characteristic  costumes  at,  147. 
Pisa,  the  decline  of,  81. 
Poland,  union  of  the  various  dependencies  of, 

under  the  names  of  Great  and  Little  Poland, 

83. 
Pplyneeia,  285 ;  the  PolyiMdsians,  286. 
Pompey,  struggle  between,  and  Csssar,  36,  37. 
Poolias,  the,  a  subdivision  of  Pariahs,  206. 
Poor  Volunteers  of  Flanders,  a  religious  society, 

106. 
118 


Poisenna,  king  of  Clnsiom,  30, 31. 

Port  Royal,  the  Congregation  of,  103. 

Portugal,  acquires  its  independeoee  from  SpaiD„ 
72 ;  brief  sketch  of  the  history  of,  82 ;  early 
voyages  of  jthe  PorUiguese,  ib. ;  character  and 
costume  of  the  Portuguese,  192,  193. 

Pouquina  language,  the,,  a  Peruvian  dialect,  270. 

Praemonstrants,  the,  an  order  of  monks,  103. 

Praetors,  the  consuls  originally  so  naooed,  44. 

Prague,  removal  of  the  univeraty  from,  \»  Leip- 
sic,  77. 

Prussia,  conversion  of,,  to  Christianity,  83 ;  eoa- 
tume  of  the  inhabitants  of  Rhenish  Praasia, 
137. 

PsammeticiiB,  the  restorer  of  the  Egyptian  mo- 
narchy, 4. 

Pshawi,  the,  175. 

Ptolemy,  accession  of,  to  the  throne  of  Egypt  om 
the  death  of  Alexander,  5. 

Puelches,  the,274. 

Punic  wars,  the,  32-^. 

Puris,  the,  a  South  American  tribe,  275. 

Pushtanneh,  the,  204. 

Puys,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  238. 

Pyramids,  the,  of  Egypt,  6. 

Pythian  games,  the,  22. 

Quadi,  the,  sketch  of  the  history  of,  58,  59. 
Quaqnas,  the,  a  South  American  tribe,  268. 
Quaquas,  or  Quaques,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  129, 

238. 
Queahs,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  238. 
Quichpacs,  the,  a  tribe  of  Esquimaux,  251. 
Quichuas,  the,  268. 
Quilligies,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  238. 
Quito,  the  Indian  women  of,  269  ;  deseri|ytioii  of 

the  inhabitants  of,  279. 
Quoies,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  238. 

Radshas,  the,  a  Hindoo  caste,  205. 

Recollecti,  the,  an  order  of  Franciscanfl,  104. 

Reformat!,  the,  or  austere  Franciscans,  104. 

Religion,  three  grand  forms  of,  during  the  middls 
ages,  53. 

Remus,  the  story  of,  28. 

Reutlingen,  rustic  costumes  at,  133,  134. 

Richard  Cosur-de-Lion,  king  of  Rnfrl^i^^  80, 120, 
121. 

Rienzi,  attempt  of,  to  establisli  a  r^mblie,  81. 

Riesengebirge,  the  inhabitants  of,  145. 

Rio  Negro,  Indian  tribes  in  the  vicinity  of  the, 
278. 

Rodrigo  Diaz,  Count  of  Bivar,  72. 

Roland,  death  of,  one  of  Charlemagne's  imiglrt«^ 
64. 

Roman  Catholic  church,  the,  leading  doctrines 
of,  100,  101 ;  official  costomee  of  the  cleisy 
of,  101. 

Romans,  the,  division  of,  into  freemen  and  sUves^ 
42 ;  civil  privileges  of,  42, 43 ;  the  aoemblies 
of,  styled  Comitia,  43  ;  legislative  bodies  aad 
executive  offioers  among,  43-^;  summary  of 
the  principal  characteristics  of,  45,  46;  hos- 
bandry,  mechanics,  manufr^turea,  and  trade 
among,  46 ;  the  currency  of,  46,  47 ;  training 
of  the  youth  among,  47  ;  general  style  of  dres 
of;  47,  48 ;  dwellings  of;  48 ;  style  of  living 
among,  48,  49 ;  marriage  ceremonies  among, 
50, 51 ;  festivals  of,  51 ;  rites  of  samltore  amona. 
51, 52.  ^ 

Rome,  territory  of,  invaded  by  the  German  tribss, 
12,  13 ;  early  history  of,  28;  under  ~ 


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nimx  TO  HiffroBT  Aim  xTBHOLoer. 


and  the  kings»  38-30 ;  gradaal  increaie  io  the 
power  of,  in  8pite  of  internal  disBensions  and 
the  hoatiJity  <xf  neigfaboring  nation«,  30-^; 
first,  second,  and  third  Punic  wan,  3^-35 ;  the 
Social  war,  35;  conspiracy  of  Catiline,  36; 
ander  Cssar,  36,  37  ;  under  the  emperors,  39- 
42;  laws,  institutions,  manners,,  and  customs 
of  the  Romans,  42-63  ;  condition  of  the  Roman 
empire  at  the  time  of  dirision  into  east  and 
west,  53 ;  ravages  of  various  savage  tribes,  53, 
54. 

Romulus,  the  story  of^  28,  29. 

Ronqueles,  the,  270. 

Roses,  the  wars  of  the  white  and  red,  80. 

Rudolph  of  Hapeburg,  elected  emperor  of  Ger- 
many, 76. 

Rudolph  of  Snabia,  rebellion  of,  against  Henry 
IV.  of  Germany,  71. 

Rungas,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  242. 

Russia,  conquest  of,  by  the  Mongols,  84. 

Rusnans,  the,  physical  appearance  o(^  163;  na- 
tional costume  of  the  different  classes  of,  163, 
164;  style  of  the  villages  and  dwellings  of, 
164 ;  hospitality  of,  ib. ;  sc>cial  habits  of,  165 ; 
ideas  of,  concerning  theft,  ib. ;  ordinary  food 
and  drink,  165, 166 ;  principal  festivals  of,  166, 
167  ;  principal  divisions  of,  167 ;  inhabitants 
of  Asiatic  Russia,  167,  168  et  seq. 

Sabelles,  the,  27. 

Sabines,  the,  27 ;  war  between,  and  the  Romans, 

29. 
Sabujos,  the,  277. 
Saladin,  the  sulun,  120. 
Salentinians,  the,  27. 
Salesians,  the,  an  order  of  nuns,  105. 
Salzburg,  the  people  of,  149. 
Sami,  the,  a  name  given  to  themselves  by  the 

Laplanders,  156. 
Samnites,  the,  27. 

Samoyedes,  the,  127,  128, 131,  168, 183. 
Samucua,  the,  274. 

Sandwich  Islanders,  the,  account  of,  289-291. 
Sangars,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  238. 
Sanscrit  stock,  the,  physical  characteristics  of, 

126. 
Saracolets,  Serakhalehs,  or  Serrawallies,  a  negro 

tribe,  236. 
Saravecas,  the,  274. 
Sardes,  the,  189,  190. 
Sardinia,  the  monarchy  of,  189 ;  the  inhabitants 

of,  189.  190. 
Sarmatians,  the,  9. 
Saskachawans,  the,  and   Indian   tribes  included 

among,  261. 
Saterland,  the  people  of,  139. 
Satodon,  a  section  of  the  Mandingo  country, 

236. 
Savoy,  a  dependency  of  Burgundy,  afterwards  an 

independent  power,  81. 
Saxe-Altenburg,  characteristic  costumes   of  the 

peasantry  of,  143,  144 ;  their  manners  and  cus- 
toms, 145,  146. 
Saxons,  the,  protracted  contest  of,  with  Charle- 
magne, 63,  64 ;  embrace  the  Christian  religion, 

64. 
Saxony,  the  inhabitants  of,  140 ;  their  dialect,  ib. ; 

physical  characteristics  and  costumes  of  several 

of  the  races  inhabiting,  140-142. 
Scandinavians,  the,  districts  inhabited  by,  157. 
Schlier,  Lake,  male  costume  in  the  vicinity  of, 

135. 


8ofarambei|(,  charaoteiiitie  coatuind  at»  133* 

Scotch,  the,  general  character  of,  161, 162. 

ScythiaiM,  the,  9,  11. 

Sek,  the  peace  of,  between  the  Saxons  and  Char- 
lemagne, 65. 

Serabach,  the  battle  of,  76. 

Sembritians,  the,  10. 

Semites,  the,  131. 

Senaar,  the  modern  kingdom  of,  10. 

Senate,  the  Roman,  constitution  and  prerogativeB 
of,  43,  44 ;  insigAia  of  the  senators,  44. 

Sepulture,  riles  of,  among  the  ancient  Germaoa, 
15 ;  among  the  Athenians  and  Spartans,  26 ; 
among  the  Romans,  51,  52. 

Sequani,  the,  13. 

Serreras,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  236. 

Serrites,  the,  an  order  of  monks,  103. 

Servius  Tullius,  29. 

Seeostris,  the  conquests  of,  4 ;  the  internal  condi- 
tion of  Egypt  under,  5-8. 

Sewemowzes,  the,  a  tribe  of  Eaquimaut,  251. 

Sforza,  the  house  of,  in  Milan,  82. 

Shangallas,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  229, 242. 

Shell ooohes,  or  Shillooks,  the,  an  Afnoan  tnbe, 
233,242. 

Shobo,  the,  an  Abyssinian  tribe,  229,  246. 

Shoshonees,  the,  or  Camanches,  262. 

Shouas,  a  name  given  to  the  Arabs  in  Bomoo» 
241. 

Showi,  the,  a  Berber  tribe,  233. 

Siamese,  the,  general  description  of,  223. 

Sianpis,  the,  progenitors  of  the  Coreans,  222. 

Sicilian  Vespers,  the,  80,  81. 

Sicilians,  the,  190,  191. 

Sicily,  invaded  by  the  Romans  under  Marcellua, 
34 ;  revolt  of,  from  France,  80,  81. 

Siculi,  the,  27. 

Sierranes,  the,  or  Mountaineers,  a  name  given  to 
the  Patagonians  by  the  Spaniards,  273. 

Silesia,  the  races  inhabiting,  145 ;  extent  of,  ib. ; 
costumes  and  other  peculiarities  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of;  145,  146. 

Sioux,  the,  tribes  included  among,  259-261 ;  fit* 
neral  ceremonies  among,  259,  260. 

Sisters,  the  Black,  or  Alezian  nuns,  106. 

Skiold,  king  of  Denmark,  62. 

Slaves,  condition  of,  among  the  Romans,  42. 

Slavonians,  the  Bohemian,  146. 

Slavonic  slock,  the,  131. 

Soccolanti,  the,  or  barefoot  Franoisoans,  104. 

Social  war  in  Italy,  the,  35. 

Societies,  religious,  of  the  middle  ages,  101-106 ; 
secular,  106-108 ;  secret,  108,  109. 

Society,  the,  of  the  Blessed  Jesus,  106. 

Society  islands,  the,  inhabitants  of,  284-986, 301. 

Sofala,  the  inhabiUnts  of,  244. 

Sokko,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  236. 

Solimani,  the,  204. 

Solon,  the  Athenian  lawgiver,  16, 19. 

Somaakians,  the,  a  religious  society,  105. 

Sonunona-Kadom,  a  name  for  Buddha  imoBf 
the  Siamese,  224. 

Soongores,  the,  176. 

Soosoos,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  238. 

Sorgous,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  240. 

Soudan,  the  inhabiUnts  of,  239,  240. 

Souhaili,  or  Sowahili,  the,  a  tribe  on  the  etat 
coast  of  Africa,  246. 

Sonlimas,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  234,  238. 

Spain,  invasion  and  conquest  of,  by  Charlemagne, 
64  ;  conte^^ts  of,  with  the  Arabs,  72 ;  union  of 
the  houses  of  Castile  and  Arragon,  82 ;  histonr 

119 


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IKDKZ  TO   BISTORT  AND  BTHKOLOOT. 


of  the  rise,  prognm,  powers,  6lc.,  of  the  Inqm- 
BiüoD  in,  110-116. 

Spaoiardfl,  the,  general  character  of,  191 ;  cos- 
tame  of,  191,  192 ;  national  dances  and  popu- 
lar amusements  of,  192. 

Sparta,  15 ;  conquest  of  Measenia  by,  16 ;  obtains 
the  supremacy  in  Greece  after  the  Peloponne- 
sian  war,  17;  war  with  Persia,  Corinth,  and 
Thebes,  ib. ;  constitution  of,  19 ;  domestic  ha- 
bits of  the  Spartans,  20,  23,  24,  26. 

Sphinxes,  the,  of  Egypt,  6. 

Spirituales,  the,  a  religious  society,  104. 

St.  James  of  the  Sword,  an  order  of  knights,  108. 

St.  John,  the  knights  of,  their  origin  and  sketch 
of  the  history  of  the  order,  107. 

St.  Marjr's  Visiution,  the  order  of,  106. 

St.  Stephen,  the  knights  of,  108. 

Sutee  of  the  Church,  the,  190. 

Steinlach  valley,  description  of  female  costume 
in,  134. 

Striebd,  the,  or  Strolzi,  a  Russian  militia,  167. 

Stuart,  the  house  of,  80. 

Styrians,  the,  consist  of  two  stocks,  149 ;  general 
characteristics,  habits,  and  costumes  of,  150. 

Suani,  the,  175. 

Suaves,  the,  127. 

Sudras,  the,  or  Shuders,  a  Hindoo  caste,  205. 

Suevi,  the,  many  tribes  included  under,  56  ;  gene- 
ral account  of,  ib. 

SueTian  Union,  the,  13. 

Sumali,  the,  an  African  tribe,  246. 

Sweden,  the  kingdom  of,  in  the  middle  ages, 
83. 

Swedes,  the,  character  and  condition  of,  157. 

Swiss  Confederation,  the,  formation  of,  76. 

Switzerland,  gallant  resistance  of  the  Swiss  to 
Albert  I.,  king  of  Germany,  76 ;  intermixture 
of  tribes  in,  at  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire, 
153  ;  character  and  religion  of  the  inhabitants, 
ib. 

Sylla,  the  career  of,  35,  36. 

Sylveetrinians,  the,  an  order  of  monks,  103. 

Syracuse,  capture  of,  by  the  Romans,  34. 

Syrians,  the  ancient,  8. 

Taborites,  the,  a  fanatical  section  of  the  Hussites, 
78. 

Tacanas,  the,  270. 

Tadshiks,  the,  aborigines  of  Persia,  198. 

Tai,  the,  an  Arab  tribe,  203. 

Takele,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  242. 

Tamazirgt,  the,  a  Berber  tribe,  233. 

Tamerlane,  prince  of  the  Mongols,  85,  86. 

Tapiis,  the,  274. 

Targamosians,  the,  175. 

Tarquinius  Superbus,  29. 

Tartars,  the,  127,  167,  169. 

Tassilo,  duke  of  Bavaria,  rebellion  of,  against 
Charlemagne,  64. 

Tcheremisses,  the,  131, 167. 

Tchouktches,  the,  168,  181. 

Tchuwaches,  the,  131,  167. 

Tea,  method  of  cultivating  and  preparing,  era- 
ployed  by  the  Chinese,  218-220. 

Tehuelches,  the,  or  Patagonians,  273. 

Temby,  the,  a  tribe  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa, 
246. 

Templars,  the  order  of  Knights,  107,  108. 

Tenchtheri,  the,  13. 

Tergia  dialect,  the,  spoken  among  the  Berbers, 
233. 

Tematies,  the,  287. 
780 


Terra  del  Foego,  aceoimt  of  the  inhahitiim  of, 
272. 

Tertiarians,  the,  their  position  with  respeet  to  tbe 
religious  associations,  106. 

Teutons,  the,  invasion  of  the  Roman  territoiy  by, 
12. 

Theatinians,  the,  a  religious  society,  105. 

Thebes,  war  between,  and  Sparta,  17. 

Theodoflius,  last  emperor  of  the  united  RomiQ 
empire,  42. 

Thessaly,  15. 

Thuringians,  the,  manners,  customs,  and  dnsB  o( 
141,  142. 

Tiberias,  the  battle  of,  120. 

Tiberius,  the  successor  of  Augustus,  40. 

TibeUns,  the,  or  Thibetans,  genial  deseriptioo 
of,  221,  222. 

Tilubunkoee,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  236. 

Timanaes,  the,  268. 

Timbuctoo,  a  city  of  the  Kiasares,  240. 

Timmanies,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  236, 238. 

Timmes,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  238. 

Titus,  emperor  of  Rome,  40. 

Tobas,  the,  274. 

Toga,  the,  of  the  Romans,  48. 

Tongans,  the,  300. 

Torgots,  the,  176. 

Touradashas,  the,  supposed  to  belong  to  the  Dyik 
stock,  286. 

Tournament,  the,  laws  and  ceremonies  of,  90-91 

Trajan,  emperor  of  Rome,  40. 

Tribunes  of  the  people,  45. 

Trinitarians,  the,  the  religious  order  of,  104. 

Triumvirate,  formation  of  a,  by  Cesar,  36. 

Troglodytes,  the,  10. 

Tschudes,  the,  131. 

Tshetries,  the,  a  Hindoo  caste,  205. 

Tshetshentzee,  the,  170. 

Tuariks,  the»  an  African  tribe,  233,  240 

Tudor  family,  the,  80. 

Tuisco,  the,  the  prime  ancestor  of  the  aneieBt 
Germans,  12. 

TuUus  Hostilius,  29. 

Tungouses,  the,  168,  182. 

Tungusians,  the,  127. 

Tunic,  the  Roman,  48. 

Tupi,  the,  or  Caribe,  274. 

Tupinambas,  the,  or  eastern  Gnaranis,  275. 

Turkey,  area  of,  and  various  races  inbtbttme, 
183  ;  religion  and  form  of  government  of,  ib. ; 
administration  of  the  government  of,  184;  do- 
mestic habits  of  the  Turks,  184,  185;  trades 
and  occupations,  185  ;  costume,  185, 186;  re- 
ligious festivals,  186. 

Turkomans,  the,  origin  and  general  character  ci 
131,  180. 

Turks,  the,  131 ;  esublishment  of,  in  Europe,  85 ; 
a  hybrid  people,  126 ;  physical  characteristies 
of,  ib. 

Tuscans,  the,  190. 

Tyroleee,  the,  national  costumes  of,  152 ;  geoenl 
character  of,  153. 

Ubii,  the,  13. 
Udi,  the,  131. 

Ugasbenies,  the,  a  tribe  of  Elsquimanx,  251. 
Ujapas,  the,  277. 

Ulm,  costume  of  peasants  at,  134,  135. 
Umbrians,  the,  27. 
United  SUtes  of  America,  the,  249. 
Uuivenities,  dates  of  the  foundation  of  the  piino* 
pal  European,  87. 


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INDRZ   TO   HISTORY   AND   ETHNOLOOT. 


xm 


Urabas,  the,  inhabitants  of  Danen,  268. 

Uralians,  the,  131. 

Urban,  St.,  the  nans  of,  105. 

Urban  II.,  commencement  of  the  cnisades  under» 

117. 
Ursoia,  St.,  the  nuns  of,  105. 
Usbeks,  the,  210,311. 
Usipiti,  the,  13. 

Vaishis,  Vaishias,  or  Vassiers,  the,  a    Hindoo 

caste,  205. 
Valentinian  I.  and  IL,  emperors  of  Rome,  41. 
Valhalla,  the,  of  the  Germans,  15. 
Vallombrosa,  monks  of  the  order  of,  106. 
Vandals,  the,  general  survey  of  the  history  of,  57, 

58. 
Varus,  defeat  of,  by  the  Germans,  40. 
Vasco  de  Gama,  8^. 
Vases,  Etruscan,  material,  &c.,  of,  25. 
Verdun,  the  treaty  of,  making  an  apportionment 

of  the  empire  of  Charlemagne,  66,  67. 
Vespasian,  emperor  of  Rome,  40. 
Veteres,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  238. 
Vierlanders,  the,  occupation  of,  138 ;  costumes 

of,  138,  139. 
Vindili,  the,  an  ancient  German  tribe,  12. 
Virgin  Mary,  knights  of  the,  108. 
Visconti,  the  family  of  the,  82. 
Visigoths,  the,  42,  56. 
Visitantcases,  the,  a  religious  society,  106. 
Visitationis  Beatie  MarisB  congregatio,  106. 
Vitellius,  emperor  of  Rome,  40. 
Volscians,  the,  27. 

Wadai,  or  Wadey,  a  district  near  Bomou,  241 . 
Wadreag,  Wagela,  or  Wurgela,  the  inhabitants 

of,  233. 
Wales,  the  conquest  of,  by  Edward  I.,  80. 
Walloons,  the,  195. 

Walofs,  the,  or  Wolofe,  a  negro  tribe,  236. 
Wambungo,  the,  an  African  tribe,  246. 


Waregers,  the,  a  tribe  of  the  Normans,  72. 

Watiaks,  the,  131. 

Watshe,  the,  a  negro  dialect,  239. 

Wawa,  a  negro  tribe,  241. 

Welsh,  the,  characteristics  of,  161. 

Wenceslaus  III.  of  Germany,  77. 

Wendee,the,  141,149, 151. 

West  Indies,  the,  283. 

Widah,  the,  a  negro  dialect,  239. 

Wilsii,  the,  a  Slavonic  tribe,  defeated  by  Charle- 
magne, 65. 

Wirtemberg,  characteristics  and  various  costumes 
of  the  inhabitants  of,  132-134. 

Wittekind,  a  leader  of  the  Saxons,  his  conversion 
to  Christianity,  64. 

WoguU,  the,  131,  167. 

Word-become-Flesh,  nuns  of  the  order  of,  106. 

Wotiaks,  the,  167. 

Wrangel,  Admiral,  enumeration  of  the  Indian 
tribes  of  the  North-west  Coast  according  to, 
255,  256. 

Wuld-Ali,  the,  an  Arab  tribe,  203. 

Wurgelans,  the,  a  Berber  tribe,  233. 

Yakoutee,  the,  167,  181, 182. 

York  and  Lancaster,  the  wars  of  the  houses  of, 
80. 

Yunka-Mochica  language,  the,  a  Peruvian  dia- 
lect, 270. 

Yuraccars,  the,  270. 

Zambales,  the,  287. 

Zapes,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  238. 

Zaque,  the  kingdom  of,  267. 

Zeghawas,  the,  a  negro  tribe,  242. 

Zigeuni,  the,  131. 

ZUl,  inhabiunts  of  the  valley  of,  152. 

Zimbas,  the,  a  tribe  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa, 

246. 
Zingaroos,  the,  an  Indian  gipsy  stock,  208. 
Zuavee,  the,  233. 


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INDEX  TO  MILITARY    SCIENCES. 


[The  Buriien  leAr  to  the  top  peglBC  of  the  text] 


Abatt»,  152. 

Acceofli»  the,  of  the  legion,  16, 17. 

Alexander  the  Great,  &neral  prooeoion  of,  14. 

Ammunition  and  artiilery  wagons,  137,  12B. 

Anastrophe,  the,  a  moTement  of  the  phalanx,  11. 

Angles,  diflerent  denominations  of,  in  fortifica- 
tions, 155. 

Anglo-Danes  and  Anglo-Saxons,  the,  arms  of,  30. 

Anhalt- Kothen  and  Anhalt- Dessau,  honorary 
badges  for  military  service  in,  100, 101. 

Antistomes,  an  arrangement  of  the  phalanx,  13. 

Argyraspides,  the,  of  Alexander,  11. 

Armenians,  arms  of  the  ancient,  6. 

Armorer,  the  art  of  the»  in  high  repate  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  33. 

Arms,  the,  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  3 ;  of  the 
Medea  and  Persians,  and  the  Asiatic  tribes  aux- 
iliary to  them,  5-7 ;  of  the  Greeks,  8-10 ;  of 
the  Romans,  17-19 ;  of  the  Samnites,  Etrus- 
cans, Gauls,  and  Franks,  19 ;  of  the  Germans, 
Anglo-Saxons,  Anglo-Danes,  and  Britons,  20 ; 
description  of  many  varieties  of,  in  use  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  33-41.  For  the  arms  of  troops 
in  modem  times  see  the  account  of  the  armies 
of  the  respective  countries,  and  pp.  63-66. 

Army,  constitution  of  the  ancient  Egyptian,  2-4 ; 
the  PhoBuioian,  4 ;  the  Carthaginian,  4,  5 ;  the 
Median  and  Persian,  5-7  ;  the  Macedonian  and 
Gnecian,  7-14 ;  the  Roman,  14-30 ;  the  Ger- 
man, of  the  Middle  Ages,  31-33  ;  the  Prussian, 
45-50 ;  üie  Austrian,  50-53  ;  Uie  French,  53- 
56 ;  Üie  Belgian,  56,  57  ;  Uie  English,  57-60 ; 
Uie  Tmrkish,  60-63. 

Army-bann,  the,  nature  of  the  war  service  so 
called,  among  the  Germans  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
31. 

Arquebus,  the,  116. 

Arrian,  order  of  batUe  of,  against  the  Alani,  25. 

Arrows,  various  forms  of,  for  the  crossbow,  34. 

Artillery,  first  placed  on  a  formidable  footing 
by  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  44 ;  the  artillery 
drill,  86,  87  ;  account  of  the  different  kinds  of, 
and  their  appendages,  in  conunon  use  at  the 
present  day,  118-128  ;  fabrication  of,  128  et  seq. 

Assos,  the  walls  of,  141. 

AUiens,  tiie  walls  of,  141,  142. 

Atuck  of  fortified  places,  164 ;  investment,  ib. ; 
works  of  Uie  trenches,  165,  166 ;  of  Uie  Uiird 
parallel,  166,  167;  construction  of  batteries, 
168-170. 

Austria,  the  array  of,  general  account  of  its  orga- 
nization, strength,  dec,  50-53  ;  orders  and  o^er 
honorary  badges  for  military  service  in,  89-91. 

Babylon,  the  walls  of,  141. 

Baden,  grand  duchy  of,  honorary  badges  for  mili- 
tary service  in,  96. 

Badges  of  Honor.    See  Orders. 

Balista,  the  ancient,  first  constmcted  on  a  small 
scale  by  Uie  GeooeM,  33, 34. 


Balliste,  diflerent  kinds  of,  109, 110. 
Balls,  meUiod  of  casting,  133, 134. 
Banquette,  the,  151. 

Bar  le  Due,  Erard,  his  system  of  fortification,  156. 
Barbettes,  151. 

Basket,  the  draw,  a  military  machine  of  the  an- 
cients, 111. 
Bastille,  the  Old,  at  Paris,  147. 
Bastion,  construction  of  a,  148 ;   half  bastions, 

149 ;  Uie  bastion  shield,  156 ;  hollow  and  solid 

bastions,  158, 159. 
Batardeaux,  or  stone  dams,  155. 
Batteries,  materials  required  in  the  construction  ot, 

168 ;  aege  batteries,  ib. ;  various  kinds  of,  and 

methods  of  constructing,  168-172. 
BatUe-axe,  the,  36,  37. 
BatUements,  145. 
Bavaria,  orders  and  other  honorary  badges  for 

military  service  in,  93,  94. 
Bayonet,  the,  difierent  forms  of,  64 ;  combat  with 

Uie  lance  and  bayonet,  77,  78. 
Belgium,  the  army  of,  general  .account  of  its  or^ 

ganization,  strength,  Slc,  56,  57 ;   honorary 

badge  for  military  service  in,  106. 
Belts,  65. 
Berme,  the,  151. 
Bisarm,  the,  a  weapon  used  in  the  Middle  Ages, 

35. 
Blinds,  defensive  constructions  among  the  an- 
cients, 113. 
Block-houses,  153,  154. 
Boar's  head,  the,  an  order  of  batUe  among  the 

Greeks,  13. 
Bomb-cannon,  the,  of  Paixhans,  121. 
Bombards,  a  name  given  to  the  first  cannon  con* 

structed,  115. 
Bombs,  method  of  casting,  133,  134. 
Bow,  the,  various  forms  of,  among  the  Greeks,  9 ; 

long  in  repute  among  the  Scandinavians  and 

Normans,  33. 
Boyaux,  or  ditches  of  communication,  164. 
Brazil,  honorary  badge  for  military  service  in,  108. 
Breastwork,  the,  of  a  fortification,  150. 
Breisach,  the  fortifications  of,  by  Vauban,  158. 
Bridges,  construction  of,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  144 ; 

pontoon  and  movable  foot-bridges,  174,  175. 
Britons,  the,  arms  of,  20. 
Brulard  rocket,  the,  139. 
Brunswick,  orders  and  other  honorary  badges  for 

military  service  in,  99,  100. 

Cesar,  Julius,  mancBuvre  of,  at  Ruspina,  28. 
Camp,  method  of  arranging  a,  among  the  Ro* 

mans,  22,  26. 
Camps,  general  form  and  arrangement  of  modem, 

87-89  ;  fortification  of,  among  the  ancients,  143. 
Canns,  ontline  of  the  mancBuvres  at  the  battle  of, 

30. 
Cannon,  description  of  the  earliest  constructed, 

1 15 ;  gradual  improvements  in,  1 15, 1 16 ;  enor- 

783 


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INDBZ  TO   laUTART  S0IIN0E8. 


moos  calibree  of  the  first  cannon  abandoned, 
118  ;  detailed  description  of,  as  nsed  at  the  pre- 
sent day,  118-120;  carriages  for,  131-124; 
elevating  apparatus  for,  125,  126;  the  limber 
or  front  carriage,  126,  127  ;  wagons  for  heavy 
cannon,  127 ;  the  travelling  forge,  128 ;  the 
devil -carriage,  ib. ;  fabrication  of,  128  et  seq. ; 
cartridges  for,  137. 

Capiul,  meaning  of  the  term,  with  reference  to 
fortifications,  155. 

Carbine,  the  cavalry,  64. 

Carcass,  the  137. 

Camot,  his  system  of  fortification,  161,  162. 

Carriages,  gun,  the  earliest  constructed,  115  ;  can- 
non and  howitzer,  of  the  present  day,  121-124 ; 
the  mortar  carriage  or  bed,  124,  125 ;  the  lim- 
ber or  front  carriage,  126,  127. 

Carthaginians,  the,  military  system  of,  4, 5 ;  order 
ofbaitleof,  21. 

Cartridges,  musket  and  cannon,  137. 

Casemates,  159. 

Casernes,  162. 

Castles,  the,  of  the  Middle  Ages,  description  of 
the  principal  parts  of  the  fortification  of,  144- 
146. 

Castrametation  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  4 ;  of 
the  Romans,  25,  26  ;  of  modern  times,  87-89. 

CaUphraeti,  application  of  the  term,  39. 

Catapult,  difierent  kinds  of,  109,  110;  improve- 
ments on  the,  in  the  early  period  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  114. 

Cavalier,  4he,  or  elevated  parapet,  157 ;  the  trench 
cavaliers,  164. 

Cavalry,  the,  of  the  Athenians,  8 ;  of  the  Greek 
phalanx,  11  ;  of  the  Roman  legion,  17 ;  pre- 
dominance of,  in  the  feudal  armies,  33  ;  organi- 
zation of,  into  regiments,  by  the  Emperor 
Charles  V.,  44.  For  description  of  modem,  see 
the  respective  conntriea. 

Celeres,  the,  a  body-guard  of  the  Roman  kings,  14. 

Centurions,  the,  of  the  legion,  15. 

Chariots,  the  war,  of  the  Greeks,  8. 

Chasseloup,  his  system  of  fortification,  162,  163. 

Chevaux  de  frise,  152. 

Chiliarch,  an  officer's  grade  in  the  Persian  army, 
5 ;  in  the  Greek,  10. 

Chiliarchy,  the  command  of  a  chiliarch,  10. 

China,  the  wall  of,  147. 

Circumvallation,  lines  of,  164. 

Clubs,  various  forma  of,  used  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  37. 

Cohom,  his  system  of  fortification,  159. 

Cohort,  the,  a  sabdiviaon  of  the  legion,  16. 

Colors,  the,  of  modem  armies,  65,  66. 

Column,  the,  formation  of,  83-85. 

Columns,  triumphal,  of  the  Romans,  22. 

Congreve  rockets,  138-140. 

Consuls,  the  Roman,  15. 

Contubemium,  the,  a  subdivision  of  the  legion,  25. 

Cormontaigne,  his  system  of  fortification,  159. 

Counter-guard,  the,  or  couvre-face,  156. 

Counterscarp,  the,  151. 

Couvre-face,  the,  156. 

Covered  way,  the,  151. 

Cremailli^ree,  150. 

Crossbow,  the,  difierent  forms  of,  34 ;  dress  of  the 
crossbow-men,  ib. 

Crown  works,  156. 

Crowns,  different  kinds  of,  given  as  military  re- 
wards among  the  Romans,  21,  22. 

Cuirass,  the  Grecian,  10 ;  the  Roman,  18 ;   the 
German,  38,  39 ;  the  modem,  65. 
784 


Cnlverines  or  wall-pieces,  116. 
Cunette,  the,  a  narrow  ditch,  144,  155'. 
Curtains,  148. 
Cyclopean  wall,  the,  of  Tlryns,  140. 

Dacians,  arms  of  the  ancient,  6. 

Dagger,  the,  of  the  Middle  Ages,  36,  37. 

De  Ville,  the  Chevalier,  his  system  of  JFortificatioBv 
157. 

Decadarch,  the  commander  of  a  decas,  10. 

Decani,  or  decurions,  15. 

Decas,  a  subdivision  in  the  Greek  army,  10. 

Decorations,  military.     See  Orders. 

Decury,  a  minor  subdivision  of  the  legion,  16. 

Defence  of  fortified  places,  170,  171. 

Defilement,  the  method  of,  153. 

Definitions  of  technical  terms  relating  to  fortifica- 
tion, 155. 

Demi-lune,  a,  157. 

Denmark,  honorary  badges  for  military  service  in« 
107,  108. 

Dicutor,  a  Roknan,  15. 

Diphalangia,  an  arrangement  of  the  phalanx,  13. 

Diplasiasmus,  or  duplication  of  the  phalanx,  12. 

Disembarkation  of  troops,  89. 

Ditch,  the,  150,  155. 

Ditches,  constmction  of,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  144. 

Djerid,  the,  a  game  played  by  the  Turkish  caTalrr, 
61. 

Donjons,  146. 

Drawbridges,  144. 

Drill,  the,  of  soldiers,  or  training  in  rank  and  file, 
78,  79  ;  difierent  facings,  79  ;  changes  of  firont, 
80, 81 ;  various  methods  of  putting  divisions  of 
troops  in  march,  81-83  ;  formation  of  a  column, 
83-85 ;  the  echelon  order,  85, 86 ;  the  artilleiy 
driU,  86,  87. 

Droms,  65. 

Dufour,  his  system  of  fortification,  162. 

Dussac,  the,  or  duaseg,  a  weapon  foimerlf  used 
by  the  Bohemians,  36. 

Echelon  order,  the,  85,  86. 

Egypt,  the  military  system  of,  2 ;  arms  and  ma> 
ncBuvres  of  the  Egyptian  army,  3 ;  castrameta- 
tion, 4. 

Ekperiq)a8mus,  the,  a  movement  of  the  phalanx, 
12. 

Elephantarchy,  an,  11. 

Elevating  apparatus  for  artillery,  125,  126. 

Elinga,  description  of  the  action  at,  between  Seipio 
and  Hasdrubal,  29 

Embolon,  the,  an  order  of  batUe  among  the  Greeks, 
13. 

Embrasures,  construction  of,  151. 

Enceinte,  the,  or  body  of  a  fortress,  155. 

Engines,  military,  109 ;  projectile  enginee  of  an- 
tiquity, 109,  110;  battering  engines,  110,  11! ; 
machines  of  transport,  HI,  112 ;  implements  of 
defence,  113,  114;  of  Uie  Middle  Ages,  114- 
118;  of  modem  times,  see  Artillery  and  Can- 
non. 

England,  the  aimy  of,  general  aeeonnt  of  its  or- 
ganization, strength,  Ilc,  57-60. 

Entaxis,  a  movement  of  the  phaluix,  12. 

Epagogue,  an  order  of  march  among  the  Greeks» 
13. 

Ephipparohy,  the,  of  the  Greek  cavalry,  11. 

Epilarchy,  a  division  of  the  Greek  cavalry,  11. 

EpiBtates,  the,  of  the  phalanx,  11. 

Epistropbe,  the,  a  movement  of  the  phalanx,  11. 

Epiugma,  the,  a  division  of  the  phaknx,  11. 


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£|»itazif,  iht,  19. 

Epitherarch,  an,  11. 

EpizenagU,  the,  a  division  of  the  phalanx,  11. 

Epizygarchy,  an,  11. 

Equites,  the,  or  equestrian  order,  17. 

Etruscans,  the,  arms  of,  19. 

Facings,  the  different,  79. 

Falerii,  the  walls  of,  ]42. 

Fascines,  113, 168. 

Fauesebraye,  the,  or  lower  rampart,  156. 

Fencing,  difierent  forms  of  the  implements  used  in, 
and  explanation  of  the  different  thrusts,  parades, 
&c.,  70-76  ;  fencing  with  the  curved  sabre,  76. 

Ferentarii,  the,  a  class  of  light  troops,  16, 17. 

Feudal  service,  the,  in  Germany,  39. 

Field-hackbut,  the,  or  swivel-gun,  116. 

Field  works,  148. 

Firearms,  description  of  the  earliest  constmeted, 
and  historical  survey  of  the  gradual  improve- 
ments in,  115-118. 

Fire-balls,  120, 137. 

Fire-lock,  the,  117. 

Flail,  the,  a  weapon  used  by  the  Husätes,  37. 

Forceps,  the,  an  implement  employed  in  sieges  by 
the  ancients,  114. 

Forceps,  the,  or  reversed  wedge,  13. 

Forge,  the  travelling,  128. 

Fortification,  the  science  of,  140 ;  rudeness  of  the 
attempt^  at,  in  the  early  ages  of  the  world,  140, 
141 ;  gradual  improvements  in,  exemplified  in 
the  walls  of  Messene,  Athens,  Fompeü,  and 
Rome,  141,  142;  temporary  fortifications  of 
the  ancients,  143 ;  of  the  middle  ages,  143-147 ; 
of  modem  times,  147 ;  three  classes  of  field 
fortification,  148 ;  open  works,  ib. ;  inclosed 
works,  ib. ;  fortified  lines,  150 ;  the  profile, 
150,  151 ;  internal  defences,  151, 152 ;  defen- 
sive means  which  are  part  of  the  works  them- 
selves, 152 ;  defilement,  153 ;  construction  of 
various  works,  ib. ;  block-houses,  153,  154 ; 
powder  magazines,  154 ;  permanent  fortification, 
ib. ;  technical  terms,  155 ;  description  of  the  prin- 
cipal systems  of,  according  to  which  works  have 
been  disposed  since  the  16th  century,  156-163. 

Fortress,  description  of  the  different  parts  of  a, 
147 ;  account  of  the  principal  systems  of  con- 
structing, 156-163 ;  details  of  the  attack  and 
defence  of,  163-171. 

Fortress-towers,  146. 

Forts,  difierent  kinds  of,  and  methods  of  con- 
structing them,  149. 

Fougaases,  173. 

Foundry,  the  cannon,  and  method  of  casting  can- 
non and  projectiles,  139-134. 

Foumeau,  the,  or  oven  of  a  mine,  171. 

Fraises,  151. 

France,  the  army  of,  general  account  of  its  orga- 
nization, strength,  &,c.,  53-56  ;  honorary  badges 
for  military  service  in,  101. 

Franks,  the,  arms  of,  19. 

Front,  changes  of,  80,  81. 

Front  of  attack,  the,  definition  of  the  term,  155. 

Gabions,  method  of  making,  168. 

Galleries,  subterranean,  in  old  fortifications,  146, 
147 ;  crenelled,  160. 

Gallery,  the  mine,  171 ;  the  magistral,  173  ;  lis- 
tening and  other  galleries,  173,  174. 

Gate  openings  in  ancient  walls,  141 ;  the  Gate  of 
the  Lions  at  Mycene,  141 ;  the  early  arch  con- 
struction in  g^tes»  1^. 
lOONOORAFHIO    SNOTOLOPiSDIA. — ^VOL. 


Gates,  the,  of  old  fortifications,  144, 145. 

Gauls,  the,  arms  of,  19. 

Gauntlets,  description  of,  40. 

Genoese,  the,  the  first  to  construct  the  ancient 
balista  on  a  small  scale,  33,  34. 

Germans,  the  ancient,  arms  of,  20 ;  war  customs 
of,  23 ;  change  of  internal  relations  among,  oc- 
casioned by  their  permanent  establishment  in 
fixed  localities,  31 ;  the  army-bann,  ib. ;  the 
feudal  system,  32 ;  origin  of  the  paid  service, 
ib. ;  the  mercenaries,  ib. ;  maintenance  of  the 
troops,  ib. ;  the  conunander-in-chief  and  other 
officers,  ib. ;  little  skill  exhibited  in  war- 
fare, ib. ;  predominance  of  cavalry,  33  ;  treat- 
ment of  prisoners,  ib. ;  high  degree  of  excel- 
lence exhibited  in  the  armorer's  art  during  the 
middle  ages,  and  principal  offensive  and  de- 
fensive weapons,  33-40;  pomp  a^i  costliness 
of  the  garb  of  the  soldiery  in  the  ume  of  Maxi- 
milian, 41 ;  the  last  tournament,  42 ;  constitu- 
tion of  the  soldiery  in  the  15th  century,  15, 16  ; 
administration  of  justice,  43 ;  tumultuous  on- 
slaught of,  in  battles,  ib. ;  the  cavalry  service, 
44 ;  artillery  first  placed  on  a  formidable  foot- 
ing by  the  emperor  Maximilian,  ib. 

Gisarm,  the,  a  weapon  used  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
35. 

Glacis,  tiie,  152. 

Grape  shot,  137. 

Great  Britain,  honorary  badges  for  military  service 
in,  101,  102. 

Greece,  the  military  system  of,  7 ;  composition  of 
the  army,  8 ;  arms  of  the  Gre^,  8-10 ;  de- 
tailed account  of  the  army  organization,  10, 11 ; 
various  movements  and  orders  of  battle  of  the 
troops,  11-13;  sepulchral  rites,  14;  honorary 
badge  for  military  service  in,  105,  106. 

Gunpowder,  efiect  of  the  invention  of,  in  altering 
the  sjrstem  of  warfare,  44,  45,  114,  115 ;  the 
manufacture  of,  135, 136. 

Gymnastics,  description  of  the  principal  exeroiBes 
of  military,  66-70. 

Halberd,  the,  a  species  of  weapon,  35. 

Hanover,  honorary  badges  for  military  service  in, 
94,95. 

Harmatarchy,  a,  11. 

Hastati,  the,  of  the  legion,  15. 

Hauberk,  the,  or  ring  cuirass,  39. 

Hegemon,  a  Greek  military  officer,  11. 

Hekatontarchy,  the,  a  division  of  the  Greek  army, 
10, 11. 

Helmet,  the  Grecian,  9 ;  the  Roman,  18 ;  rarioas 
forms  and  decorations  of,  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
38 ;  various  kinds  of,  used  in  modem  times,  65. 

Herbort,  his  system  of  fortification,  160,  161. 

Herzogenbusch,  Gerhard  von,  his  S3r8tem  of  forti- 
fication, 156. 

Hesse,  the  electorate  and  the  grand  duchy  of,  ho- 
norary badges  for  military  service  in,  97. 

Hipparchy,  the,  of  the  Greek  cavalry,  11. 

Hoplites,  the,  or  heavy-armed  infentry  of  the 
Greeks,  8. 

Horn  works,  156. 

Howitzer,  description  of  various  kinds  of,  now  in 
use,  120,  121 ;  howitzer  carriages,  121-194. 

Hypotaxis,  a  movement  of  the  phalanx,  13. 

Ilarch,  an,  11. 

He,  the,  a  subdivision  of  the  Grecian  cavalry,  11. 
Imperator,  or  Roman  commander-in-chief,  15. 
Infantry,  the,  of  the  Greeks,  8 ;  of  the  Romans, 
III.  60  786 


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15,  16;  fbimatioB,  iatamml  oii^tnixalioii,  Isw 
usage,  and  custom  of  war  of  tha  first  regular 
European,  43-^.    For  deaeription  of  modem 
infantiy,  aea  the  req)eetive  coantiiea. 
Jntrenchments,  field,  of  the  anoients,  143. 

JaTellns,  the,  of  the  Romana,  17. 

Jugurtha,  raamsuTre  of  Marina  against, -27,  98. 

Kerarch,  a  Greek  military  officer,  11. 
Keratarehy,  a,  11. 
Klisis,  the,  or  quarter-wheel,  11. 
Knapsaeka,  65. 

Koilembolon,  the,  an  order  of  battle  among  the 
Greeka,  13. 

Lance,  the,  Tarious  fonna  of,  among  the  Greeks, 
8,  9 ;  difieient  fonns  of,  in  the  Middle  Agea, 
34,  35 ;  in  modem  times,  64. 

Lance  exeroise,  the,  76,  77;  eombat  widi  the 
lance  and  bayonet,  77,  78. 

Landau,  the  fortificationa  of,  by  Vaoban,  158. 

Landsknechta,  the,  49 ;  drill  and  discipline  of,  43. 

Lantem,  the,  in  old  fortificationa,  145. 

Legatee,  the,  of  the  Roman  legion,  15. 

Legion,  the  Roman,  mmibecs,  composition,  4m.» 
of,  15 ;  subdivisions  of,  16 ;  auxiliariea  and  light 
troops  attached  to,  ib. ;  the  field-musie  and  le- 
gionary cavalry,  17 ;  dress  and  arasa,  17-19  ; 
order  of  battle  and  modes  of  attack  of,  21,  34- 
30 ;  re-organization  of,  under  Caesar,  94,  95  ; 
alterationa  in,  under  Augustus  and  Tn^an,  95 ; 
description  of  a  eamp,  95, 26 ;  orders  of  march, 
96etaeq. 

Leucaspidei,  the,  of  Alexander,  11. 

Lictor,  the  Roman,  16. 

Light-balls,  compoation  of,  137. 

Lirfkber,  the,  or  front  carriage,  126,  197. 

Line  of  defence,  the,  155. 

Lines,  fortified,  150 ;  of  cireumvallatioB,  164. 

Loam  moulding,  199. 

Lochagos,  a  Greek  military  officer,  10. 

Lochos,  the,  or  file  of  the  Greek  army,  10. 

Loopholes,  various  forms  of,  146. 

Louvre,  the  old,  at  Paria,  147. 

Lunette,  a,  154,  156. 

Mace,  the,  36,  37. 

Macedonia,  the  military  systam  of,  7. 

Machicoulis,  145. 

>f  agaanea,  powder,  136, 137,  154. 

Magistral,  the,  155. 

Mail-armor,  the,  of  the  Germans  and  kindred  na- 
tions, 38,  39 ;  great  magnificence  displayed  in, 

.    40. 

Mallet,  the,  a  weapon  of  the  Middle  Agea,  37. 

Maniple,  a  aubdivision  of  the  infimtry  of  a  legion, 
16. 

Harch,  the  manner  or  paoe  of,  79 ;  variooa  ordeia 
of,  81-83. 

Marius,  manoBuvre  of,  against  Jugurtha,  97. 

Marolais,  his  system  of  fortification,  156. 

Massilia,  the  siege  of,  163. 

Matchlock,  the  ancient,  117. 

Mecklenburg,  honorary  badge  for  military  aerviee 
in,  100. 

Medals,  nuHtanr»  and  other  badgea.    See  Orders. 

Medes,  the  ancient,  military  system  of,  5-7. 

Merarch,  a  Greek  military  officer,  11. 

Messeoe,  the  walls  of,  141. 

Metabole,  the,  or  half  wheel,  11. 

.Metellus,  mancsuvre  of,  againat  Juguitiia,  97. 
786 


Middle  Agea,  warfare  of  the.    See  Gtnna^r. 
Mines,  method  of  constructing,  171-173. 
Montalembert,  his  system  of  fortification,  161. 
Morgenstern,  the,  a  weapon  used  in  the  Middle 

Agea,  36,  37. 
Mortars,  the  earliest  conatmcted,  115 ;  deaenpdon 

of,  191 ;  carriage  or  bed  for,  124, 195. 
Moulding,  the,  of  cannon,  129-139 ;  of  pn^jeetB«^ 

133, 134. 
Musical  instruments  of  modem  amiea,  65. 
Musket,  the,  difierent  kinds  of,  64 ;  various  focne 

of  eonatroetion  of,  in  the  Buddie  Afts,  117, 118. 
Mycens,  the  walla  of;  141. 
Myiiarcfa,  a  Penian  mifitary  offiaer,  5k 
Mysians,  anna  of  the  ancient,  6. 

Nassau,  honoiaty  badga  for  noilitaiy  aonriee  m, 

100. 
NeAarhinda,  the,  honorary  badge  for  wlkiif 

aerviee  in,  107. 
Numantia,  the  siege  of,  163. 

Oldenburg,  honorary  badge  for  BBlitary  aicfiee  ii, 
100. 

Onager,  a  name  for  the  balhata,  109. 

Orders  and  Badges  of  Honor  given  for  nuUlirj 
senrices,  in  Austria,  89-91 ;  in  Prusna,  91-J0; 
in  Bavaria,  93,  94 ;  in  Saxony,  94 ;  in  Hast- 
ver,  94,  95;  in  Wirtembui^,  95,  96;  k  lb 
grand  duohy  of  Baden,  96 ;  in  the  el«Blonto  of 
Hesse,  97 ;  in  the  grand  dochy  of  Hesn^ib.; 
in  Saxe- Weimar  Eiaenach,  97,  98 ;  ia  SuK- 
Coburg  Gotha,  98 ;  in  Saxe-Altenbiirg, ib.;  in 
Saxe-Meiningen,  ib. ;  in  Saxe-Hildbuighuno 
and  Saxe-Gotha  Alteoburg,  99  ;  in  Bruasviek, 
99,  100 ;  in  Nasaan,  100 ;  in  MeckleDbaig,ik; 
in  Oldenburg,  ib. ;  in  Anhält- Kothen,  100, 101 ; 
in  Anhalt-Dessau,  101 ;  in  Franoe,  ib. ;  in 
Great  Britain,  101,  109;  in  Ruasia,  108,103; 
in  Turiiey,  103 ;  in  PersU,  103,  104;  in  Spm, 
104;  in  Portugal, ib. ;  in  the  Two  Sicilies, ib.; 
in  Sardinia,  105 ;  in  the  Papal  States,  ib. ;  in 
Tuscany,  ib. ;  in  Greece,  105, 106 ;  in  Belgin, 
106 ;  in  Sweden,  106,  107 ;  in  the  K«lkv- 
landa,  107;  in  Denmark,  107,  108;  in  fin- 
zU,  108. 

Orillon,  the,  definition  of  the  tenn,  155. 

Oubliettea,  th^  of  old  fortreasea,  147. 

Outworks,  144, 155. 

Pagan,  Count,  hia  system  of  fortification,  157. 
Paixhans,  the  bomb-cannon  and  aaortar  of^  ISL 
Papal  States,  the,  honorary  badge  for  raiktüy 

service  in,  105. 
Paragogue,  an  order  of  marah  among  the  Gnflbi 

13. 
Parallels,  the  first,  second,  and  third,  oanstnctioa 

of,  164, 166;  worka  of  the  thiid  parallel, lIS, 

167. 
ParasUtes,  the,  of  the  phalanx,  11. 
Parembole,  a  movement  of  the  phalanx,  19. 
Parthians,  arms  of  the  andent,  6. 
Partisan,  the,  a  wpedtm  of  weapoo,  35. 
Peltastes,  the,  a  division  of  the  Greek  infaetrr,  S, 

11. 
Pempadaroh,  the  commander  of  a  pen^si,  10. 
Pempas,  a  subdiviäon  in  the  Greek  amy,  10. 
Pentacoaiarch,  an  ofiioer's  grade  m  lbs  Gwk 

army,  10. 
Pentekontarehy,  the,  a  diviaon  of  the  phalanx,  U. 
Perispaamua,  the,  a  movement  of  the  phalanx,  1^ 
Peraia,  honorary  badga  for  militaif -aerviee  in,  103. 


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PeniaiiB,  the  ancient,  militanr  ssretem  «(  5 ;  «om- 
poiitioo  and  weapons  of  the  airay,  6-7. 

PeUrd,  the,  116. 

Phalangaroh,  a  Greek  BiUlary  officer,  11. 

Phalanx,  the  Greek,  organization  o^  10,  11 ; 
movements  and  various  formations  of,  11-13; 
divided  into  three  linee  by  the  Romans»  15. 

PhcBnicians,  the,  BÜkary  system  of,  4. 

Phrygians,  arms  of  the  ancient,  7. 

Pilani,  the,  of  the  legion,  15. 

Pioneer  service,  171. 

Pistol,  the  cavalry,  65. 

Places  of  arms,  152. 

Plaision,  the,  an  arrangement  of  the  phalanx,  IS. 

Plate  armor,  39. 

Platforms,  in  old  fortifications,  145. 

Platoon,  a,  79. 

Plinthion,  the,  an  arrangement  of  the  phalanx,  13. 

Polygon,  the,  the  founcUtton  of  every  fortifieation, 
155. 

Pompeii,  the  walls  of,  149. 

Pontoon  service,  174. 

PortcnlUs,  the,  145. 

Portugal,  honorary  badge  for  mifitary  service  in, 
104. 

Powder  magazines,  136,  137, 154. 

Pretors,  the,  15. 

Prefect,  the,  of  the  legion,  16. 

Primipil,  the,  of  the  legion,  US.  > 

Princeps,  the,  of  the  legion,  35. 

Principee,  the,  of  the  legion,  15. 

Prisoners,  treatment  of,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  33. 

ProjectUes,  science  of,  109. 

Prokazis,  a  movement  of  the  phalanx.  Id. 

Protazis,  the,  13. 

ProtosUtes,  the,  of  the  phalanx,  11. 

Prussia,  the  army  of,  general  account  of  its  orga- 
nization, strength,  dec.,  45-50 ;  orders  and  other 
honorary  badges  for  military  service  in,  91-^3. 

Peilagia,  the,  a  division  of  the  phalanz,  11. 

Psilites,  the,  or  light-armed  infantiy  of  the 
Greeks,  8. 

Punishments,  military,  among  the  Romans,  93. 

Pyroteohny,  mitiUry,  135-140. 

Quom,  the  screw,  195. 

Ram,  the  battering,  111. 

Rampart,  the,  155. 

Ramps,  151,  155. 

Rank  and  file,  training  in,  79. 

Rapiers,  or  swords  k  I'estoc,  36. 

Ravelins,  156. 

Redans,  simple  and  double,  148. 

Redoubts,  forms  and  sizes  of,  149, 151,  159. 

Regiment,  meaning  of  the  term,  in  the  15th  cen- 
tury, 49. 

Rewaids,  military,  among  the  Romans,  91-93. 
For  modem,  see  Orders. 

Rhombus,  the,  an  order  of  battle  among  the 
Greeks,  14. 

Rifle,  the  light  infantry,  65. 

Ring-cuirasi,  the,  or  hauberk,  39. 

Rockets,  signal,  138 ;  Congreve,  138-140 ;  Bru- 
lard,  139. 

Romans,  the,  early  military  system  of,  defective, 
14 ;  improvements  made  by,  in  the  Grecian  or- 
der of  battle,  15 ;  the  constitution  of  the  le- 
gion, 15, 16 ;  the  imperator,  or  general-in-chief, 
and  other  officers,  15;  the  light  troops,  16; 
the  field-music,  17  ;  the  legionary  cavalry,  ib. ; 
dress  and  anas  of  the  troops,  17-91 ;  order  of 


battle  of  the  legk»,  91 ;  mflftwy  tewards  and 
pukteneots,  91^93  ;  the  order  of  battle,  melhod 
of  encampment,  and  army  movements  of,  93- 
98 ;  various  methods  of  attack,  98-30. 

Rome,  the  walls  of,  149, 143. 

Rorarü,  the,  of  the  legion,  16, 17. 

Rosaries,  a  kind  of  ibngassee,  173. 

Ruspina,-  manceovre  of  Julius  Cssar  at,  98. 

Russia,  honorary  badges  for  military  service  in, 
109,  103. 

Sabres,  difibieat  kinds  o(  now  in  use,  63,  64. 

Saddles,  various  forms  of,  used  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  40. 

Sahs,  the,  or  sax,  a  weapon  used  by  the  Saxons, 
36. 

Sanudtes,  the,  arms  of,  19. 

Sand  roouldtog,  130-139. 

Sandbags,  168. 

Sap,  the  difiereot  kinds  of,  16S,  166. 

Sap-fagots,  168. 

Sardfaiia,  honorary  badge  for  military  servfee  in, 
105. 

Sarissa,  the,  or  lanoe  vsed  by  the  Greek  phalanx,  8. 

Saucisson,  the,  179. 

Saxe- Altenbuig,  honerary  badges  for  miUtaiy  ser- 
vice in,  98. 

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  honorary  badges  for  military 
service  in,  98. 

Saxe-Hildburghausen  and  Saze-Gotha-Altenbvrg, 
honorary  badges  for  military  service  in,  99. 

Saze-Meiningen,  honorary  badge  for  military  ser- 
vice in,  98. 

Saze-Weiroar-Eieenach,  honorary  badges  for  mi- 
litary service  in,  97,  98. 

Saxons,  the,  arms  of,  90. 

Saxony,  honorary  badges  for  military  service  in, 
94. 

Scarp,  the,  151. 

Schovaloff,  a  kind  of  howitzer,  191. 

Scorpion,  the  smalleM  kind  of  oaupolt,  109. 

Screw,  the  elevating,  195, 196. 

Scythians,  arms  of  the  ancient,  6. 

Section  of  a  platoon,  79. 

Sepulchral  rites  among  the  Greeks,  example  of, 
on  a  grand  scale,  14. 

Shell-pieceB,  or  long  howitzers,  191. 

Shells,  method  of  casting,  133, 134. 

Shield,  the  Grecian,  10 ;  the  Roman,  18 ;  varioas 
forms  of,  used  in  the  Middle  Ages,  37,  38. 

Shot,  solid  and  hollow,  method  of  casting,  133, 
134. 

Sickle,  the,  a  form  of  dagger  used  by  the  Bohe- 
mians, 36. 

Sieges,  method  of  conducting,  in  ancient  times  and 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  163, 164 ;  in  modem  times, 
164  et  seq. 

Signa,  the,  of  the  Roman  infantry,  15. 

Signals,  nodlitary,  apparatus  for  transmitting,  138- 
140. 

Slings,  the,  and  slingers  of  the  ancients,  9,  16. 

Spain,  honorary  badges  for  military  service  in,  104. 

Spanish  riders,  or  cbevaux  de  frise,  159. 

Spear  or  lance,  the  Grecian,  8 ;  the  Roman,  18 ; 
difierent  forms  of  the,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  34, 35. 

Spello,  in  Umbria,  the  gates  at,  149. 

Springels,  description  of  diflbreot  kinds  of,  114. 

Spurs,  a  Grcrman  invention,  40. 

Standards,  the,  of  the  Roman  Itfion,  15 ;  of  mo- 
dem armies,  65,  66. 

Strategos,  a  Greek  military  officer,  11. 

Styphoe,  the,  a  diviaon  of  the  |dialanx,  11. 

7« 


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tKDBX  TO  JCOITJLBT  80ISV018. 


Swallow-UÜB  or  donble  redani,  148. 

Sweden,  honorary  badges  for  military 
106. 

Swivel-gan,  the,  or  field-haokbat,  116. 

Sword,  the,  various  forms  of,  among  the  Greeks, 
9 ;  the  Roman,  17 ;  description  of  various  forms 
of,  used  in  the  middle  ages,  35 ;  description  of 
difiereut  kinds  of,  used  in  modem  times,  63. 

Syntagmatarch,  a  Greek  military  officer,  10. 

Syrians,  arms  of  the  ancient,  6. 

Systasis,  the,  a  division  of  the  phalanx,  11. 

Systremma,  the,  a  division  of  the  phalanx,  11. 

Syxygarohy,  a,  11. 

Tactics,  account  of  the  principal  evolutions,  78-87. 

Tamboun,  151. 

Tarentinarchy,  the,  of  the  Greek  cavalry,  11. 

Technical  terms  relating  to  fortification,  155. 

Telarch,  a  Greek  military  officer,  11. 

Tenailles,  or  simple  redans,  148. 

Tents,  87. 

Terreplein,  the,  155. 

Therarch,  a,  11. 

Thracians,  arms  of  the  ancient,  6. 

Tiryns,  the  walls  of,  140. 

Tolos,  the,  of  the  Greek  cavalry,  11. 

Tomsk,  the,  a  game  played  by  the  Turkish  in- 
fantry, 61. 

Tongs,  the,  an  implement  employed  in  sieges  by 
the  ancients,  114. 

Tortoises,  different  kinds  of,  among  the  ancients, 
113. 

Tournament,  the  last,  42. 

Towers,  movable,  construction  of,  among  the  an- 
cients, 1 12 ;  used  in  the  Middle  Ages,  1 12, 1 13  ; 
the,  of  old  fortifications,  145. 

Traverses,  151. 

Trench  cavaliers,  the,  164. 

Trenches,  works  of  the,  165, 166. 

Triarii,  the,  of  the  legion,  15. 

Tribunes,  the  Roman,  15. 

Triumph,  conditions  entitling  a  Roman  general  to 
the  honors  of  a,  22 ;  description  of  the  proces- 
sion, 23. 

Trons  de  loup,  152. 

Turkey,  the  army  of,  general  account  of  its  orga- 
nization, strength,  d^.,  60-63 ;  honorary  badges 
for  military  service  in,  103. 

Toima,  the,  11, 17. 


TnneU,  145. 

Tuscany,  honorary  badge  for  military  lerTioe  in, 

105. 
Two  Sicilies,  the,  honorary  badge  for  militaiy 

service  in,  104. 

Ulamoe,  the,  of  the  Spaitans,  13. 

Unicom,  the,  a  species  of  howitxer  naed  by  the 

Russians,  120,  121. 
Urages,  the,  of  the  phalanx,  11. 

Vauban,  his  difibrent  systems  of  fortification,  157- 
159. 

Vegetius,  eight  modes  of  atUck  among  the  Ro- 
mans described  by,  28,  29. 

Velites,  the,  or  light  troops  of  the  Romans»  15, 17. 

Vexilla,  the,  of  üiq  Roman  cavalry,  15. 

Wagons,  artillery  and  ammunition,  127,  128 ;  for 
bridge  equipage,  128 ;  the  devil-carriage,  ib. 

Wall-pieces  or  culverinee,  116. 

Walls,  rudeness  of  the  primitive  attempts  at  the 
construction  of,  140 ;  the  walls  of  Tiryns  and 
Mycenc,  140, 141 ;  and  of  various  other  ancieot 
cities,  showing  a  gradual  improvement  in  con- 
struction, 141,  142. 

War,  introductory  observations  on  the  subieet 
of,  1. 

Warfare,  sketch  of  the  Egyptian  system  of,  %A ; 
the  PhoBnioian,  4 ;  the  Carthaginian,  4,  5  ;  the 
Median  and  Persian  sjrstem,  5-7 ;  the  Macedo- 
nian and  Grecian,  7-14 ;  the  Roman,  14-30 ; 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  30-44 ;  of  modem  timei^ 
44  et  seq. ;  subterranean,  173, 174. 

Windows,  the,  in  old  fortifications,  146. 

WirtembOTg,  orders  and  other  honorary  badges  for 
military  service  in,  95,  96. 

Works,  open  and  incloeed,  148 ;  detached,  155, 
156 ;  hom  and  crown  works,  156. 

Xenagia,  the,  a  division  of  the  phalanx,  11. 

Yataghan,  the,  64. 

Yoke,  the,  punishment  of  passing  under,  among 
the  Romans,  23. 

Zama,  order  of  battle  of  the  Roman  army  at,  21. 
Zoarch,  a,  11. 
Zygarchy,  a,  11. 


988 


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INDEX    TO    NAVAL    SCIENCES. 


(The  nmnWrs  tttn  to  the  top  paging  of  the  text] 


Africa,  state  of  navigation  on  the  east  and  west 
coasts  of,  19,  20. 

Amboyna,  coasting  vessels  of,  29. 

America,  state  of  navigation  among  the  natives 
of,  at  the  time  of  its  discovery,  27. 

Anchors,  various  fonns  and  parts  of,  60,  61 ;  dif- 
ferent kinds  of,  61 ;  different  names  applied  to, 
according  to  their  different  uses,  ib.;  cables 
used  for,  62. 

Anglo-Saxons,  first  maritime  expedition  of,  10. 

Anjeela,  the,  of  Ceylon,  22. 

Aplustre,  the,  or  carved  work  at  the  stem  of  an- 
cient ships,  2,  3. 

Ark,  the,  of  Noah,  2. 

Armada,  the  Spanish,  12. 

Armament,  the,  of  a  man-of-war,  63-67. 

Arsenals,  108. 

Asia,  description  of  the  state  of  navigation  m  the 
principal  countries  of,  20-27. 

Austria,  the  navy  of,  18. 

Backstays,  the  main  and  other,  54  et  seq. 

Bandars,  the,  of  Coohin-China,  21,  22. 

Barques,  81,  82. 

Bauleahs,  the,  of  the  Ganges,  23. 

Belaying-pins,  44. 

Bengal,  various  kinds  of  small  craft  used  in  the 
waters  of,  23. 

Bermuda,  iron  lighthouse  at,  109, 110. 

Between-lines,  the,  56. 

Binnacle,  the,  75. 

Birman  empire,  the  marine  of,  23,  24 ;  rice-boats 
and  pirogues  on  the  Irrawaddy  river,  24. 

Blocks,  or  pulle3rs,  different  kinds  of,  52. 

Boats,  the,  of  the  ancients,  2 ;  different  kinds  of, 
in  use  by  ships  of  the  present  day,  62,  63. 

Bobsuy,  the,  57. 

Bomb  ketches,  78,  79. 

Bowlines,  the,  56. 

Bowsprit,  the,  51 ;  the  rigging  of,  57. 

Braces,  the  main  and  other,  54  et  seq. 

Brazil,  the  navy  of,  18. 

Brig-of-war,  a,  or  brigantine,  76. 

Brigs  (merchant),  81 ;  hermaphrodite,  82. 

Boll's  eyes,  52. 

Bulwarks,  the,  44. 

Bunting,  59. 

Buntlines,  the,  56. 

Bvoys,  61. 

Buss,  a  species  of  vessel  osed  in  the  herring  fish- 
ery, 83. 

Cables,  sheet,  bower,  stream,  &c.,  62. 

Calcutta,  the  ireight  boats  of,  20 ;  the  fishing-boats 

and  flat-boats  of,  21 ;  the  pansways  of,  23. 
Cap,  the,  of  the  mast,  50. 
Capstan,  the,  43. 

Caracs,  the,  of  the  Portuguese^  11. 
Carronades,  66. 
Cat-heads,  the,  44. 


Catamaran,  the,  of  Ceylon,  22. 

Caulking,  41,  42. 

Celebes,  the  island  of,  peculiar  boats  used  in,  29« 

Ceylon,  various  descriptions  of  small  craft  used  ill 

the  waters  of,  22,  23. 
Chain-wales,  the,  43. 
China,  backward  condition  of  the  marine  in,  18  ; 

description  of  Chinese  merchantmen  and  shipf 

of  war,  25,  26 ;  small  craft,  26, 27. 
Cleats,  45. 

Cleopatra,  Queen,  a  q>lendid  ship  belonging  to,  5. 
Clewgamets,  the,  56. 
Clewlines,  the,  56. 
Coasters,  the,  of  the  gulf  of  Cntch  and  Maskate^ 

19. 
Coasting  vessels,  83. 
Cochin-China,  the  bandan  and  coasting  Te«elf 

of,  21,  22,  24,  25. 
Compass,  the,  68  ;  the  points  of,  96. 
Coppering,  the  ship's,  45. 
Coringui  boats,  the,  23. 
Corocoras,  the,  of  the  South  Sea  islanders,  29» 

30. 
Crew,  the,  organization  of,  91-95. 
Cross-jack-yard,  the,  51. 
Cross-pieces,  44. 
Cross-trees,  the,  50. 
Crow's  feet,  54. 

Cutch,  the  gulf  of.  coasters  in,  19. 
Cutter,  a  war,  how  rigged,  77  ;  a  merchant,  83L 

Däk,  the,  or  mail  boats  on  the  Ganges,  23. 

Dead-eyes,  52,  53. 

Dead-reckoning,  96. 

Decks,  the,  construction  of,  42 ;  minute  account 

of  the  special  arrangements  and  appropriation 

of  the  several   parts  of,  in  men-of-war,  72* 

76. 
Denmark,  the  navy  of,  17. 
Dinghi,  the,  of  the  Ganges,  23. 
Diving  bells,  108. 
Docks,  dry  and  wet,  107. 
Domitian,  amphitheatre  erected  by,  for  the  p«ir- 

pose  of  exhibiting  sea-fights,  9. 
Doni,  the,  of  Ceylon,  22. 
Downhaul,  the,  57. 
Dredging,  method  of,  106. 
Dupin,  main  principles  in  regard  to  the  curvatnro 

of  vessels  according  to,  39. 
Dutch,  the,  state  of  navigation  and  ship-building 

among,  in  the  seventeenth  century,  13, 14. 

Egypt,  the  navy  of,  18. 

Egyptians,  the  ancient,  sute  of  navigation  amovig, 
6,7. 

Emigrant  ships,  83. 

England,  the  navy  of,  16,  17. 

English,  the,  improvements  effected  by,  in  shipf 
and  navigation  in  the  ninth  century,  10 ;  a  per- 
manent marine  founded  in  the  reign  of  Ueory 

789 


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nVVSX  TO   NAVAL  SOORIOIS. 


Vm.,  11 ;  large  TeMelfl  constnicted  about  that 
time,  ib. 

Feluccas  (war),  78. 

Fid,  the,  50. 

Fire  ships,  79. 

Fishing-boats,  the,  of  Maakate  and  Mocha,  19 ; 
of  Calcutta,  21. 

Flags,  different  kinds  of,  59  ;  signals  and  ceremo- 
nies connected  with  the  use  of,  59,  60, 105. 

Flagsufls,  the,  52. 

Flat-boats,  the,  of  India,  31. 

Fleets,  manceurres  of,  100-104. 

Flute,  a  three-masted  vessel,  83. 

Foot  ropes,  the,  or  horses,  57. 

Frame,  the,  of  a  ship,  construction  of,  40,  41. 

France,  state  of  navigation  in,  and  maritime  power 
of,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  14,  15 ;  present  state 
of  the  navy  of,  17. 

Frigates,  thdr  axe,  uses,  ice.,  76. 

Galleries,  stem  and  quarter,  45. 

Galleys,  the  English,  in  the  9th  century,  10 ;  de- 
scription of  the,  employed  in  the  Mediterranean 
in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries,  12, 
13  ;  modem,  77,  78. 

Oalliot,  war,  how  rigged,  77 ;  merchant,  82. 

Ganges,  the,  small  craft  peculiar  to,  23. 

Gay-you,  the,  a  species  of  boat  used  on  the  south- 
eastern coast  of  Asia,  24,  25. 

Genoese,  the,  naval  power  of,  m  the  Middle  Agee, 
12. 

Germany,  trade  and  commerce  of,  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  15 ;  effects  of  the  Hanseatic  league  upon 

•  the  navigation  of,  16 ;  present  state  of  the  navy 
of,  17. 

Goa,  the  paniaaya  nd  pirogues  of,  21. 

Grapnels,  61. 

Grappling  irons,  61. 

Great  Britain,  the  navy  of,  16,  17. 

Greeks,  the,  state  of  navigation  among,  7 ;  form 
and  construction  of  the  ships  of,  7,  8. 

Gfmboats,  78. 

Guns,  various  kinds  of,  on  board  ships  of  war,  63  ; 
their  carriages,  tackles,  and  apparatus  for  load- 
ing and  firing,  63-65 ;  various  kinds  of  shot, 
65. 

Guy,  the  main,  55. 

Halliards,  the  main-top  and  other,  55  et  seq. 

Hanseatic  league,  the,  15,  16. 

Harbor,  requisites  of  a  good,  106. 

Harry  Grace  k  Dien,  the,  a  large  ship  constnicted 

in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.,  11. 
Hatchways,  the,  42. 
Hawse-holes,  the,  44. 
Hawsers,  53. 

Head,  the,  of  the  ship,  use  of,  45. 
Hearts.  52. 

Hiero  of  Syracuse,  immense  ship  built  by,  5. 
Hold,  the,  how  arranged  in  men-of-war,  71,  72. 
Holland,  naval  power  of,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  14 ; 

at  the  present  time,  17. 
Horses,  the,  or  foot  ropes,  57. 
Hospital-ships,  79. 

Howker,  a  kind  of  vessel  used  in  the  tiorth  of 
'    Europe,  82. 

Iron  ships,  construction  of,  84  ;  iron  lightfaonsee, 
109. 

Jack,  the,  a  snail  flag  at  the  end  of  the  bowsprit, 
59. 
790 


Jangadas,  the,  of  Pernarobaeo,  27. 

Japan,  tfe»  marine  of,  25;  freight  ddps,  jvnka, 

and  meo-of-war  of,  25,  26 ;  small  craft  of,  96^ 

27. 
Java,  the  pirogaes  and  coastera  of,  t8. 
Jeen,  the  main  and  other,  54  et  seq. 
Jib-boom,  the,  51. 
Jtmk,  description  of  a  Chinese,  25»  96. 

Kedges,  61. 

Keel,  the,  proportions  of,  39. 

Keel-hauling,  94. 

Ketches,  bomb,  78,  79. 

Kuguar,  the,  of  the  Malays,  29. 

Ladders,  aeeonmiodation,  49. 

Lanyards,  53. 

Launching,  ceremony  of,  45. 

Lead,  heaving  the,  68. 

Leech-lines,  the,  56. 

Letter  of  marque,  a  commiarion  gireo  to  a  priva- 
teer, 80. 

Lifts,  the  main  and  other,  54  et  seq. 

Lighthouse,  the  first,  erected  by  Ptolemy  hagm, 
6, 7 ;  various  kinds  of,  and  noiethods  of  li^^i^ 
108-110. 

Lines,  53. 

Log,  the,  casting  of,  68. 

Lugger  (war),  77. 

Madagascar,  the  pirogues  of,  20. 

Madel-pavoacoa,  the,  of  Ceylon,  29. 

Magazine,  the,  of  a  ship,  67. 

Main-truck,  the,  50. 

Malabar,  the  patamare  of,  520. 

Malacca,  small  craft  used  in  the  vratars  o^24^ 

28. 
Malays,  the,  construction  of  the  Tesssls  o^  96^ 

29. 
Maldives,  the,  coasters  of,  28. 
Manilla,  description  of  vessels  found  at,  99. 
Manning,  the,  of  ships,  91-95. 
MancBuvres,  description  of  various  naval,  10(^ 

104. 
Maskate,  the  fishing-boats  and  coasters  of,  19. 
Mast-steps,  the,  43. 
Masts,  the,  construction  of,  48,  49 ;  deseripti« 

of,  and  of  the  diflerent  parts,  49^-^. 
Men-of-war,  general  proportions  of,  70 ;  divided 

into  several  classes,  70,  71 ;  minute  desex^tioa 

of  the  intemal  arrangements  and  external  fom 

of  many  dififerent  kinda  of,  71-80 ;  manning  o^ 

91-95. 
Merchantmen,  general  observations  on  the  ecm- 

struction  and  internal  arrangements  of,  80, 61 ; 

diflerent  descriptions  of,  81,  89;  manning  cf, 

95. 
Messengers,  small  ropes  so  called,  69. 
Mocha,  the  fishing-boats  of,  19. 
Moluccas,  the,  coasting  veoels  in,  99. 
MorUrs,  66,  67. 

Naples,  the  navy  of,  18. 

Napoleon,  the  galliot,  description  of^  90,  91. 

Naumachia,  the,  of  the  Romans,  9. 

Navies,  the,  of  the  principal  powen,  conditioD  of, 
at  the  present  time,  16-18. 

Navigation,  general  remarks  upon,  1 ;  state  oi,  ia 
the  earliest  ages  of  the  world,  1,2;  state  oi, 
among  the  Phosnicians,  5— among  the  Egyp- 
tians, 6 — among  the  Greeks,  7 — among  the 
Romans,  8 ;  of  Uie  Mkklie  Afes,  10— of  tha 


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UDBZ  TO  VAYAL  BOIMKOWM. 


iil 


Anglo-SAXOMft  NoitoanB,  and  Eo|^,  10, 11 
—of  the  Spaniaids  and  Poriugueee,  11,  13— of 
the  Genoese  and  Veoetians,  12,  13— of  the 
Scandinavians  and  Ruiaiana,  13— of  the  Ne- 
therlandere,  13,  14— of  the  French,  14,  15— of 
the  Grennans,  15,  16 ;  of  modem  times,  16— of 
Non-European  nations,  18-30— on  the  east  and 
west  coasts  of  Ainca,  19,  20— of  Asia,  30-S7 

.  —of  the  aborigines  of  America«  27 — of  Oce»- 
nica,  27-^0 ;  navigation  in  general,  95,  96 ; 
practical  navigation,  9&-100. 

Netherlands,  the,  powerfiü  marine  of,  in  the  Bfid- 
dle  Ages,  13. 

New  Zealanders,  the,  the  war  pirogues  of,  30. 

Normans,  the,  state  of  navigation  among,  10; 
construction  of  their  vessels,  10, 11. 

Ckn,  anmngeiBent  of,  in  the  venels  of  the  «■- 

cients,  4. 
Observatories,  106. 
Officers,  naval,  92,  93. 
Outfit,  the,  of  a  ship,  48-60. 

Paddle-wheels,  construction  of,  88,  89. 
Pamban,  the,  a  kind  of  vessel  used  on  the  Malabar 

coast,  22. 
Panianya,  the,  of  Goa,  21. 
Pansways,  the,  of  Calcutta,  23. 
Patamars,  the,  of  Malabar,  20. 
Patileh,  the»  or  transport  v«Mel  on  the  Ganges, 

23. 
Peniehes,  the,  of  the  Chinese  and  Japanese,  26. 
Pennants,  59. 

Pemambuco,  the  jangadas  of,  27. 
Pharos,  lighthouse  on  the  island  o^  encted  by 

Ptolemy  Lagus,  6,  7. 
Philippine  islands,  the,  description  of  veasda  foaad 

at,  29. 
Phcenicians,  the,  state  of  navigation  among,  and 

description  of  their  ships,  56. 
Pind-jejab,  the,  of  Malacca,  24. 
Pink,  a  species  of  vessel  used  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean, 81. 
Pirogues,  the,  of  Madagascar  and  the  Seychelles, 

20  ;  of  Goree,  ib. ;  of  India,  21 ;  of  Goa,  ib.  ; 

the  double,  of  Ceylon,  22 ;  on  the  Irrawaddy 

river,  24 ;  of  Malacca,  Sumatra,  and  Java,  28 ; 

of  the  South  Sea  islanders,  29,  30. 
Planking,  the,  of  a  ship,  41,  42. 
Port-holes,  the,  44. 
Portugal,  the  marine  of,  during  the  middle  ages, 

11 ;  the  navy  of,  at  the  present  day,  17. 
Powder  magazine,  the,  of  a  ship,  67. 
Prao-pend-jalengs,  the,  a  q>ecies  of  Malay  freight 

boat,  29. 
Prison-ships,  79. 
Privateers,  80. 
Proas,  the,  of  Sumatra,  28. 
Provisioning,  the,  of  a  ship,  67,  68. 
Prow,  the,  of  ancient  ships,  2. 
Ptolemy  IV.,  immense  ship  built  by,  5. 
Ptolemy  Lagus,  first  lighthouse  erected  by,  on  the 

island  of  Pharos,  6,  7. 
Pulley,  a,  or  block,  52. 
Pulo-rajahs,  the,  of  Sumatra,  28. 
Pumps,  the  ship's,  43. 
Punishments,  naval,  94. 
Purchase,  gun-tackle  and  luff-tackle,  52. 

Railings,  the,  44. 
Ratlines,  the,  53. 
Reef-lines,  the,  56. 


Rigging,  the,  dewriptioa  of  the  cBffereiit  parts  of, 
52-57. 

Roadsteads,  inclosed  and  open,  107. 

Rodney,  Lord,  description  of  the  mancBovree  in 
his  action  with  the  French  in  the  West  Indies, 
103,  104. 

Romans,  the,  state  of  navigation  among,  and  ge- 
neral construction  o(  the  ahq»  of,  8,  9 ;  the 
Namnachia  of,  9. 

Rope,  the  main-top,  55. 

Ropes,  difierent  dimensions  and  varieties  of,  53. 

Rudder,  the,  45,  46 ;  use  of,  97. 

Ruimer,  a,  52. 

Russia,  the  navy  of,  16. 

Sails,  the,  material  and  make  of,  57 ;  descriptioo 
of,  their  positions,  and  the  dimensions  of  th« 
principal,  58 ;  explanation  of  the  action  of,  97« 
99. 

Sampan-pucatt,  the,  of  Malacca,  24. 

Sardiiiia,  the  navy  of,  17. 

Scandinavians,  the,  state  of  navigation  among, 
13. 

Schooner  (war),  how  rigged,  77 ;  merchant,  82. 

Screw-propellers,  89-91. 

Seams,  precautions  to  be  observed  with  reqieet  to, 
46. 

Seppings,  the  improvements  of,  in  ship-building, 
37-39 ;  rules  for  ship-boilding  according  to  the 
system  of,  46-48 ;  his  method  of  constructing 
masts,  48. 

Sheets,  the  mafai  and  other,  56. 

Ship,  the,  frame  of,  40,  41 ;  the  planking,  41,  42 ; 
the  finishing  of  the  construction  of,  42--46  ;  de- 
scription of  the  spars,  48-^52;  rigging  and 
Uckles  of,  5^-^7 ;  the  sails,  57-59 ;  flags  and 
pennants,  59,  60;  the  anchors,  60-62;  the 
boats,  62,  63 ;  the  guns  and  ammunition,  63- 
67  ;  the  provisioning,  67, 68 ;  minor  necefisaries 
and  Instrumente  and  apparatus  usually  supplied 
in  fitting  out  a  ship,  68,  69. 

Ship-building,  the  art  of,  30  ;  determination  of  the 
weight  of  the  vessel,  31 ;  displacement  of  the 
water,  31,  32 ;  centre  of  gravity,  32,  33  ;  sta- 
bility of  the  vessel,  33-35 ;  theory  of  the  masts 
and  sails,  35 ;  stowage,  rolling,  pitching,  and 
falling  of  a  ship,  35-37  ;  fastening  the  body  of 
the  ship,  37-40 ;  the  prow  and  stem,  40 ;  ship- 
carpentry,  40-48 ;  rules  for,  according  to  Sep- 
pings's  system,  46-48. 

Ship-yards  and  machines,  107,  108. 

Ships,  description  of  the  principal  parts  of,  and  of 
the  different  kinds  in  use  among  the  ancients, 
2,  3 — means  of  defence  of,  4 ;  a  Roman  war- 
ship, ib. ;  show-ships  built  by  Hiero,  Ptolemy, 
and  Cleopatra,  5;  description  of  the,  of  the 
Phoenicians,  5,  6 — of  the  Egyptians,  6,  7 — of 
the  Greeks,  7,  8 — of  the  Romans,  8,  9— of  the 
Anglo-Saxons,  Normans,  and  English,  10, 11 — 
of  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  11,  12 — of  the  Genoese  and  Venetians, 
12,  13— of  tiie  Dutch,  13,  14— of  the  French, 
14,  15 ;  various  forms  of,  according  to  the  pur- 
poses for  which  they  are  intended,  69  ;  minute 
description  of  the  external  form  and  internal 
arrangements  of  many  different  kinds  of  ships 
of  war,  70-80;  various  kinds  of  merchant 
ships,  80-82 ;  whale  ships,  coasting  vessels, 
slave  ships,  and  emigrant  ships,  82,  83 ;  iron 
ships,  84 ;  steamships,  85-91 ;  the  manning  of, 
91-95 ;  management  of  separate  ships,  95-100 ; 
manoBuvres  of  fleets,  100-104. 

791 


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INDBX  TO   NAVAL  BOIBKOM. 


Shot,  Tarious  kinda  of,  used  by  meD-of-war,  65. 

Shrouds,  the,  53  et  aeq. 

Sick  bay,  the,  68. 

Signals,  system  of,  105, 106. 

Slave  ^ps,  83. 

Sloops-of-war,  peculiarities  in  the  rig  of,  76. 

Snows,  76. 

Sourabaya,  the  freight  ships  of,  29. 

Sovereign  of  the  Seas,  the,  a  large  ship  constructed 

by  James  T  ,  "' 
Spain,  the  manii«-  ui,  m  lia   middle  ages,  11 ;  the 

Spanish  Armada,  12  ;  present  state  of  the  navy 

of,  17. 
Spanker,  lh(?,  or  mizen-sail,  58. 
Spanker-gaff,  the»  51. 
Spars,  the,  of  a  ship,  48-52. 
Stays,  the  main  and  other,  54  et  aeq. 
Staysails,  the,  57,  58. 
Steam-engines,   marine,  deecription    of   several, 

85-88. 
Steamrthips,  description  of  dilferent  kinds  of,  85- 

91  ;  methuds  of  propelling,  88,  89. 
Steps,  the  mast,  43. 
Stem,  the,  the  most  ornamental  part  of  the  ship. 

Streamers,  59. 

Sumatra,  the  pulo-rajahs  and  proaa  of,  28. 

Swans'  necks,  66. 

Sweden,  the  navy  of,  16. 

Swivels,  66. 

Tackles,  the  different  kinda  of,  52,  53,  55 ;  the 

gun,  64. 
Tacks,  the  main,  55,  56. 
Tactics,  naval,  100-104. 
Tahiti,  the  pirogues  o(  30 
TiUer,  the,  46. 


Tools,  rarions  kinds  of,  need  on  iliipboard,  68, 

69. 
Tope,  the,  construction  and  use  of,  49. 
Toucangs,  the,  of  Malacca,  28. 
Transport  ships,  79. 
Travancore,  the  pamban  of,  22. 
Trestle-trees,  Uie,  49. 

Triremes,  the,  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  8,  9. 
Tub,  a  kind  of  vessel  used  in  the  north  of  Ea- 

rope,  82. 
Turkey,  the  navy  of,  18. 
Tuscany,  the  navy  of,  18. 

United  States,  the,  navy  of,  18. 

Vyuoe,  the,  59. 

Yangs,  the  spanker,  57. 

Venice,  state  of  the  marine  of,  in  the  Bftiddle 

Ages,  12, 13. 
Vessels,  construction  of,  and  their  principal  pails 

in  the  earliest  ages  of  the  world,  1-3.    See 

Ships  and  Ship-building. 
Vikings,  the,  or  sea-kings,  13. 

War-steamer,  the  first,  built  in  America,  88. 
Wariare,  naval,  method  of  conducting,  among  the 

ancients,  9 ;  manoeuvres  of  modem  ileec^  100^ 

104. 
Washington,  the  American  mail-steam»,  B8, 69. 
Weapons,  various  descriptions  of,  used  at  «»,66. 
Whale-ships,  82,  83. 
Whip  purchase,  a,  52. 
Windlass,  the,  43,  44. 

Xebecs  (war),  78. 

Yaids,  the,  50^2. 


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