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iiiU'iiiiiiiiiirini
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I R. E. POST & CO-,
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'JZ No. 12t North Fourth street,
^"r ST. LOUIS,
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■ya,/7 7.
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SELL SUTER
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. ICONOGRAPHIC
ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF
SCIENCE, LITERATURE, AND ART.
8T8TBKATICALLT ABRANOID
BY
J • G • H£ CK •
TBAirSLATED FROM THB &WB.MAV, WITH ADDITIONS,
AND EDITED BT
SPENCER F. BAIRD, A.M., M.D.,
raOFBSSOR OF NATDBAL SCIENCES IN DICKINSON OOLLEOB, CARUSLB, FA«
ILLUSTRATED BY FIVE HUNDRED STEEL PLATES,
OONTAININO TTPWABDS OF TWELYE THOUSAND ENORATINOS.
IN FOUR VOLUMES.
VOL II:
BOTANY, ZOOLOGY, ANTHROPOLOGY,
AND
SURGERY.
NEW YORK: 1851.
RUDOLPH GARR1GÜE, PUBLISHER,
S BARCLAY STRKBT (A8TOR HOUSE).
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T
EInteked according to Act of Congre«, in the year 1849, by
RUDOLPH GARRIGUE,
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of New Yoik.
^
tl-
USmitoart. N T.
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CONTENTS OF BOTANY.
[The
refer to the bottom peglAg of the teit.]
Imtroduotiok, . . . .
1
L Elementary Organs of Plants, . . . • .
2
1. Cellular Tissue, ......
2
2. Vascular Tissue, ......
4
n. Compound Organs of Plants, .....
6
1. Organs of Nutrition, .....
6
1. The General Integument, . . . • •
6
2. Descending Stem or Root, ....
8
3. Ascending Axis or the Stem, ....
. 10
4. Leaves and the Appendages, ....
. 16
2. Organs of Reproduction, .....
. 22
a. General Considerations, .....
. 22
h. The Flower and it» Appendages, ....
. 24
e. Fertilization, ......
. 82
d. The Fruit, ......
. 83
e. The Seed, ......
. 86
/. Reproductive Organs of Flowerless Plants, .
. 87
General Considerations with respect to Plants, ....
. 88
A The Chemical Constituents of Plants, ....
. 38
B. Products and Secretions of Plants, ....
. 89
a The Circulation and Elaboration of Fluids in Plants, .
. 41
On the Geography of Plants, ......
. 42
A. Plants growing in Water, whether Salt or Fresh,
. 42
B. Land Plants which root in the Earth and grow in the Atmosphere,
43
C, Plants growing in Special Localities, ....
44
Horizontal Range of Vegetation, .....
. 4»
A. Torrid Zone, . . . . .
. 4»
B. Temperate Zone, . . .
. 4»
(7. Frigid Zone, ......
. 48
Vertical Range of Plants, . . .
49
Systematic Botany, or the Claasification of Plants, . - . ,
52
lannsean System, ........
52
Jussieu^s System, .••.•••«
54
Endlicher's System, ...•••••
55
De CandoUe's System
56
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W CONTENTS.
»AM
hotukj.—{C(mHnued.)
Section A. Ciyptogamou8 Plant», .
67
Class 1. Aootyledones,
67
Sub-Class 1. Amphigam«, .
57
" 2. JEtheogam«, .
61
Section B, Phanerogamous Plants,
66
» Class 2. Monoootyledones,
. 66
Sub-Class 1. Glamaceffi,
67
" 2. Petaloide«,
72
" 3. Dictyogen«,
86
Class d. Dicotyledones,
87
Sub-Class 1. Monochlamyde»,
. 87
** 2. CoroMor»,
. Ill
«* 3. CalydfloKB,
. 143
<* 4. ThalamiflowB, .
. 178
CONTENTS OF TIE PLATES (I. Not. §4— 7S)
BOTANY.
[Inclading the translatkm of German word« asd phraaee on pi. 7S.]
^•, The leferences for explanations of the subjects are to the bottom paging of the text.
PLATE 54.
Figs. i-15. Jossiea's Classification of
Plants, types of classes, 54
" 16. Ustilago eegetum, ... 60
" 17. Uredo phaeeoli, ... 60
" 18. Tuber cibarium, truffle, 60
** 19. Bovista gigantea, ... 60
** 20. Morchelia esculents, morel, bO
" 21. Polyporus perennis, ... 60
** QSia. Boletus umbellatus, 60
** ^6. Boletus edulis, edible mush-
room, .... 60
** 23. Hydnum auriscalpium, 60
*' 24. Cantharellus cibarius, 60
'* 25. Agaricus fimetarius, ... 60
" 26. Agaricus campestris, champignon, 60
** 27. Agaricus procerus, ... 60
" 28. Agaricus muscarius, toadstool, . 60
" 29. Cladonia pyxidaU, . .61
" 30. Parmelia parietina, ... 61
" 31. Cetraria islandica, Iceland moss, 61
" 32. Rochella tinctoria, ... 61
« 33. Usnea florida, .... 61
" 34. a, Conferva bombycina; 6, C.
rivulaiis ; e,C. flaccida ; d,
C. glomerata, ... 58
" 85. Spherococcus coronopifolius, . 58
«« 36. Laminaria digiUU, ... 59
** 37. Laminaria saccharina, 59
" 38. Fuctts vesicuiosus, .59
•* 39. Spagnum acutifolinm, Peat-moss, 63
PLATB 54 — {Continued.)
Fig. 40. Polytrichnm juniperinum, . . 63
" 41. Climacium dendroides, 63
*' 42. Anthoceros punctatus, 62
" 43. Gymnoscyphus repens, . 62
« 44. Marchantia polymorpha, . 62
« 45. Pilularia globulifera, ... 64
" 46. Salvinia natans, ... 64
- 47. Marsilea quadiifolia, 64
" 48. Ceterach l^tophylla, . 66
'* 49a. Polypodium vulgare, . 65
" 496. Ceterach officinarum, . . 66
" 50. Aspidium filix mas, ... 65
" 51. Asplenium trichomanes, . 65
** 52. Scolopendrium officinarum, 65
" 53. Lomaria spicans, ... 65
** 54. Adiantum capillus veoeris, 65
** 55. Osmunds regalis, ... 65
" 56. Botrychium lunaris, ... 65
" 57. OphioglosBum vulgatum, . 65
'* 58. Lycopodium clavatum, . 64
'* 59. Equisetom Umosumt 66
PLATB 55.
Fig. 1. Potamogeton natans, . . 73
" 2. Arum maculatum, wake robin, 74
" 3. Zosters marina, ... 73
" 4. Acorus calamus, ... 73
'« 5. Typha latifolia, cat-tail, . 73
** 6. Eriophorum angustifolinm, 72
** 7. Cyperus officinalis, ... 72
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CONTENTa.
PLATB 55— (Cvnftimeif.)
fig. 8. Saechanmi officinale, sugar cane,
•« 9. Oryza aathra, rice,
** 10. Bambuaa anmdiDacea, bamboo-
cane, ....
Centre figure: Mnsa sapientum, banana tree
(German : Banana oder Fei-
genbaum),
rLAT£56.
Fig. 1. Cocoa nneiiera, cocoa palm,
** 9. Phoenix dactylifera, date palm,
*< 3. Sagus farinifera, sago palm,
«* 4. Cycas circinalis, sago tree,
" 5. Dracena braziliensis, .
** 6. Aloe arborescens,
" 7. Areca catechu, areca palm, .
" 8. Zamia elliptica, .
" 9. Papyrus antiquomm, .
PLATE 57.
fig. 1. Dracena draco, dragon's blood,
" 2. Luxula piloea, woodmsh, .
'* 3. Coromelyna tuberose,
" 4. Colchicum autumnale,
** 5. Veratrum album, sneezewort,
** 6. Fritillaria imperialis, crown im-
perial, ....
** 7. Erythronium dens cams, dog's
tooth, ....
** 8. Agave americana, century plant,
** 9. Phormium tenax. New Zealand
flax, ....
" 10. Scilla maritima, squill,
PLATE 58, 59.
Fig. 1. Amaryllis formosissima, daflbdil
lily.
** 3. Narcissus pseudo-narcissus, daffo-
dil,
** 3. Crocus satiTus, saflron,
** 4. Iris germanica, iris, .
** 5. Musa paradisiaca, plantain,
" 6. Curcuma zedoaria, turmeric,
** 7. Zingiber officinale, ginger,
" 8. Vanilla aromatioa, Tanilla,
*< 9. Nymphasa lotus,
** 10. Aristolochia clematis, birthwort,
'* 11. Aristolochia sipho, Dutchman's
pipe, ....
** 13. Aristolochia serpentaria, Virginia
snake root,
*' 13. Eleagnns angustifolia,
** 14. Daphne mezereum, mezereon, .
" 15. Camphora officinarum, camphor
tree, ....
" 16. Cinnamomum zeylanicum, cinna-
mon tree, ....
'< 17. Laurus notttlis, victor's laurel, .
** 18. Cinnamomum cassia, cassia tree,
PLATE 60, 61.
Fig. 1. Proteaspeeiofla,sogar-bnafa,
** 3. Banksia serrau, ...
" 3. Myristica moschata, nntmeg,
" 4. Rbeum pahnatum, rhubarb,
** 5. Beta vulgarii, conunon bee^
" 6. Celosia cristata, cock's comb, .
" 7. Plantagomiyor, common plantain,
« 8. Ifoal&longifolia, . .
70
83
77
77
77
88
79
79
77
88
73
79
77
75
78
79
80
80
81
80
79
81
81
83
83
83
84
84
85
199
103
103
103
105
104
107
107
107
107
105
105
106
108
110
110
111
111
Plate 60, Sl-^iContmued.)
Fig. 9. Plumbago europsa, toothwort, . 118
" 10. AnagalÜs arvensis, pimpernel, . 113
<* 11. Dodecatheon integrifolium, Ame-
rican cowslip, . .113
<* 13. Cyclamen europtBum, sow-bread, 113
" 13. Lysimachia vulgaris, loose-striie, 1 13
" 14. Veronica officinalis, speedwell, . 117
" 15. Pedicularis palustris, lousewort, . 117
" 16. Lathma squamaria, tooth-wort, 1 17
PLATE 63.
Fig. 1. Ruellia formosa, . .114
'* 3. Acanthus mollis, bear's claw, . 114
" 3. Olea europaea, olive, . 136
" 4. Jasminum officinale, . . 136
" 5. Vitex agnus castus, . .114
" 6. Betonica officinalis, betony, . 115
" 7. Galeopsis tetrahit, hemp nettle, . 115
« 8. Digitalis purpurea, purple fox-
glove, .... 116
" 9. Calceolaria corymbose, slipper-
wort, .116
*' 10. Verbascum thapsus, mullein, 116
" 11. Nicotiana tabacum, tobacco, 118
PLATE 63.
Fig. 1. Hyoscyamus niger, henbane, 118
*' 3. Datura stramonium, jimson weed, 118
" 3. Atropa belladonna, belladonna, . 118
** 4. Solanum dulcamara, climbing
nightshade, .118
** 5. Capsicum annuum, cayenne
pepper, .... 118
" 6. Borago officinalis, borage, 119
" 7. Exogonium purga, jalap plant, . 15M)
'* 8. Polemonium coeruleum, Jacob's
ladder, .... 131
*' 9. Jacaranda tomentosa, 123
** 10. Bignonia leucoxylon, 133
" 11. Gentianapneumonanthe, common
gentian, .... 123
" 13. Spigeha marilandica, pinkroot, . 133
" 13. Nerium oleander, oleander, 134
PLATE 64.
Fig. 1. Cynanchum vincetoxicum, celan-
dine, .135
** 3. ^Asclepias corouti, swallowwort, 135
« 3. Mimnsops dissecU, . .137
** 4. Styrax benzoin, b^zoin tree, 139
** 5. Ledum palustre, marsh tea, 131
** 6. Erica filamentosa, cape heath, . 131
" 7. Campanula trachelium, . 133
" 8. Lobelia fulgens, .133
" 9. Lactuca virosa, poison lettuce, . 139
" 10. Cynara soolymus, artichoke, 139
*' 11. Carthamus tinctorius, safflower, 139
« 13. Serratnla tinctoria, saw wort, . 139
" 13. Tanacetom vulgare, tansy, . 139
PLATE 65.
Fig. 1. Artemisia abeinthnm, wonn-
wood 139
** 3. Dipeacus ihllonum, caidoon, . 140
" 3. RuUa tinctoria, madder, . 143
" 4. Coflfea arabica, coffee, . 143
" 5. Lonicera caprifolium, woodbine, 143
^ 6. Aralia nodicaulis, sarsaparilla. . 144
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Tl
CONTENTS.
R«.
7
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8
«
9
M
10.
«(
11.
««
12.
R«.
1.
«
2
u
3
ti
4.
ti
5.
it
6.
t€
7.
«
8.
ii
9,
u
10.
«(
11.
<«
12.
«
13.
M
14.
M
15.
FLATE 65 — {Contimud.)
(Enanthe fistalosa, dead tongue,
Cicuta virosa, water hemlock, .
^thosa cynapium, fool's pareley,
Cherophyllom temuium, cow
parsley, ....
Conium maculatom, hemlock, .
Slum latifoliom, water parsley, .
FI<ATE 66.
Clematifl erecU, creeping climber.
Anemone hortensis, garden ane-
mone, ....
Polsatilla fratensis, pasque flower,
Ranunculus acris, crowfoot,
Adonis vemalis, bird's eye,
Helleborus niger, black hellebore,
Aquilegia vulgaris, columbine, .
Aconitum stoerkianum, helmet
flower, ....
Papaver somniferum, poppy,
Chelidonium majus, celancÜne, .
Sinapis alba, white mustard,
Capparis spinosa, caper plant, .
Reseda luteola, dyer's rocket, .
Paullinia pinnata, paulinia,
JEseulus pavia, small buckeye, .
147
147
147
147
147
147
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
198
198
197
195
195
181
181
PLATE 67.
white
Fig. 1. Acer pseudo-platanus,
maple, .... 182
<« 2. Malpighia urens, . . .183
«* 3. Hypericum perforatum, . .185
•• 4. Garcinia cambogia, . . . 184
«* 5. Citrus medica, citron, . . 185
" 6. Thea chinensis, tea plant, . . 186
•* 7. Swietenia mahogoni, mahogany
tree, .... 180
•* 8. Vitis vinifera, wine grape, . .179
** 9. Geranium sanguineum, cranes-
bÜl. .... 178
** 10. Oxalis acetocella, wood-sorrel, 177
" 11. Gossipium herbaceum, cotton
plant, . .190
«« 12. Theobroma cacao, cacao tree, . 178
PLATE 68.
Fig. 1. Magnolia grandiflora, ^ . . 201
** 2. niicium anisatum, sur anise, « . 201
** 3. Anona squamosa, anona, . 201
«« 4. Cocculus lacunosus, . . 200
** 5. Berberis vulgaris, barberry, . 200
«« 6. Tilia grandiflora, lime tree, . 187
" 7. Bixa orellana, amotto tree, . 194
«* 8. Helianlhemum vulgaris, . .194
** 9. Guaiacum officinale, . .175
** 10. Diptamus albus, white dituny, . 175
" 11. Dianthus caryophyllus, carnation 191
** 12. Saponaria officinalis, soapwort, . 191
** 13. Camellia japonica, camelia, . 186
PLATE 69.
Fig. 1. Sedum acre, stone crop, . .151
«« 2. Saxifraga granulaU, stone-break, . 149
** 3. Cereus hexagonus, six-edged
cactus, . . . .150
<< 4. Tamarix germanica, tamarisk, . 192
* 5. Mesembryanthemnm mbrocinc-
tum, fig-marigold, . . 151
Fig. 6.
" 7.
« 8.
" 9.
«« 10.
" 11.
" 12.
13.
Fig.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Fig. 1.
" 2.
" 3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Fig.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13
PLATE 69— (Crattmteil.)
OElaothera biennis, evening prim-
rose, ....
Epilobium angustifolium, willow-
herb, ....
Santalum myrtifolium,
Melaleuca cajeput, cajeput tree, .
Melaleuca fiilgens, fiery cajeput,
Eugenia pimenta, allspice,
Caryophyllus aromaticus, clove-
tree, ....
Melastoma malabathricum,
PLATE 70.
Lythrum salicaria, ,
Mespilus germanicus, medlar, .
Rosa moscata, musk rose,
Potentilla anserina, silver weed.
Amygdalus communis, sweet
almond, ....
Acacia vera, gum arabic tree, .
Cassia lanceolaU, senna,
Tamarindus indica, tamarind
tree. ....
Haematoxylon campechianum,
logwood,
Coronilla varia, sicklewort,
Phaseolus vulgaris, kidney bean,
Genista tinctoria, dyer's green-
wood, ....
Indigofora anil, anil, .
Glycyrrhiza glabra, .
PLATE 71.
Anacardium occidentale, cashew
nut,
Rhus cotinus, smoke tree, .
Pistacia terebinthus, turpentine
tree,
Juglans regia, English walnut, .
Euonymus europeeus, spindle tree.
Ilex aquifolium, European holly,
Rhamnus catharticus, buckthorn.
Euphorbia cypariseias, wolfs milk.
Euphorbia officinarum, spurge, .
Siphonia elastica, caoutchouc
tree, ....
Cucumis citruUus, water melon,
Momordica balsamina, balsam
apple, ....
Bryonia alba, white bryony,
Carica papaya, West India paw-
paw, ....
Cucumis melo, ....
PLATE 72. ,
Ficus carica, fig tree,
Artocarpus incisa, breadfruit.
Moms nigra, black mulberry.
Hamulus lupulus, hops.
Cannabis sativa, hemp.
Piper nigrum, black pepper,
Castanea vesca, chestnut, .
Quercus tinctoria, black oak,
Liquidambar styraciflua, sweet
gumj . . . .
Taxus baccaU, European yew, .
Juniperus communis, common
juniper, ....
CupresBus eempervirens, Euro-
pean cypress, .
i. Larix oedros, European oedar, .
157
157
102
158
158
158
158
159
161
165
164
164
165
168
169
169
169
168
168
168
168
168
170
170
170
91
172
128
171
100
100
100
155
156
756
155
155
98
98
98
98
96
94
93
90
90
90
90
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CONTENTS.
VB
TULTB 73.
Fig. 1. BoUnical chart, ... 51
•* 3. Chart of the Chinese and Indian
cotton region, ... 51
" 3. Chart of the .^jnerican region of
the sogar cane, cofl^, dbc. 51
" 4. Chart of the vertical distrilmtion
of plants in Asia, . 51
** 5. The same of America, 52
" 6. The same of Europe, ... 52
" 7. The same of the Canary Islands, 52
** .8. The same of the (ngid zone of
Enrope, .... 52
OLOSSART.
JEgypten, Egypt.
Aleuten, Aleutian Islands.
Algerien, Algeria.
Amaxonenstntnif Amazon Riyer.
Anden Gebirge, the Andes.
Arubioi, Arabia.
Aral S., Lake Aral
Aaien, Aria.
AtlasUitcher Ocean, Atlantic Ocean.
Auetralient Australia.
Axoritche In., the Azores.
Bahama In,, Bahama Islands.
Baumwolle, Cotton.
Bfmin In., Bonin Islands.
Braeilien, Brazil.
CaUfomien, California.
Canarische In., Canary Islands.
Cap der guten Hoffnung, Cape of Good Hope.
Cap Horn, Cape Horn.
Cap Verdiscke In., Cape Verde Islands.
Caraibiechee M, Caribbean Sea.
Carolinen In., Caroline Islands.
Caapischee M., Caspian Sea.
Chinawalder, Bathbark forests.
Deutechland, Germany.
Falklande In., Falkland Islands.
Feuerland, Terra del Fuego.
Frankreich, France.
FreundechaftM In., Friendly Islands.
GaUopagoe In., Gallopagos Islands.
Gerste u. Hafer, barley and oats.
Gewürznelken, cloves.
Grönland, Greenland.
Groeebritannien, Great Britain.
Grosser oder Stiller Ocean, Pacific Ocean.
Haheseh, Habesh,
Himmalaifa Geb., Himmalaya Mountains.
/. Island, Iceland.
[. Karsfta oder Sachalin, Island of Karaita or
Sachalin.
OL08SART — (Continusd.)
Indisches Meer, Indian Ocean.
Irland, Ireland.
Kqffee, coffee.
Kaschnür, Cashmere,
Kurilen, Kurile Islands.
Ladronen In., Marian Islands.
Mais, Indian com.
Malediven In., Maldive Islands.
Mandschurei, Manchooria.
Marafion od. Amazonenstrom, Amazon Riyer.
Marianen od. Ladronen In., Marian Islands.
Mb. V. Mexico, Gulf of Mexico.
Mendana*s Arch., Mendana's Archipelago.
Mittel Amer, Central America.
Mittelländisches Meer, Mediterranean Sea.
Mongolei, Mongolia.
Moskau, Moscow.
Muscaibaum, nutmeg tree.
N. Gran., New Grenada.
Neufundland, Newfoundland.
Neu Guinea, New Guinea.
Neu Seeland, New Zealand.
Nord Amerika, North America.
Norwegen, Norway.
Nubien, Nubia.
Ost Indien, East India.
Patagonien, Patagonia.
Pf^er, pepper.
Reis, rice.
Roggen, rye.
Russisches Amerika, Russian America.
Russland, Russia.
Sandwichs In., Sandwich Islands.
Schiffer In., Navigators' Islands.
Schwarzes M., Black Sea.
Schweden, Sweden.
Sibirien, Siberia.
Sklaven S , Slave Lake.
S^nien, Spain.
Sttd Amerika, South America.
Thee, tea.
Toisen, toises, (lt.=6 feet.)
Türkei, Turkey.
Vanille, vanilla.
Vereinigte Staaten, Uniled States.
Vulc. V. Aconcagua, Volcano of Aconcagua.
Weitzen, wheat.
West Indien, West Indies.
Wüste Sahara, Desert of Sahara.
Wüste Schamo oder Gobi, Desert of Shamo or
Gobi.
Zeichenerklärung für fig. 1,2, u. 3., EzplanatioD
of the marks in figs. 1, 2, and 3.
Zimmt, cinnamon.
Zucker, sugar.
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CONTENTS OF ZOOLOGY.
[The nnnlMii idbr to tbe bottoo ptftog of tbe t«it]
General Introduction,
Descriptive Zoology,
A. Evertebrata,
Class Porifera,
Class Infusoria,
Division I. Radiata,
Class 1. Colenterata,
** 2. Zoophyta,
*^ 3. Echinodennata,
Class Helminthes,
Division IL Mollusca,
Class 1. Acephala,
" 2. Gastropoda,
" 3. Cephalopoda,
Division HL Articulata,
Class 1. Annelida,
" 2. Cirrhopoda,
" 3. Crustacea,
" 4. Arachnida,
" 5. Myriapoda,
" 6. Insecta,
B, Vertebrata,
Class I. Pisces, Fishes,
Classification of Fishes,
Descriptive Enumeration of Fishes,
Class n. Reptilia, Reptiles, .
Sub-Class 1. Reptilia nuda. Naked Reptiles,
Order 1. Batrachia, Batradiians,
Sub-Class 2. Reptilia squamata. Scaly Reptiles,
Order 2. Ophidia, Serpents,
^ 3. Sauria, lizards,
"^ 4. Chelonia, Tortoises,
Class in. Aves, Birds,
Classification of Birds,
205
220
220
220
221
229
230
237
241
246
253
256
279
295
299
300
305
306
322
334
334
401
401
404
410
448
453
453
465
466
475
490
494
497
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CONTENTS.
iz
»AM
Desoripüye Zoology — {Continued.)
Order L Aocipitres, Ri4>acioi]8 Birds,
. 499
«* n. Passeres, Perching Birds,
. 519
Suborder 1. Rssirostres, SplitrbiUed Birds,
. 520
'' 2. Tenuirostres, Slender-billed Birds,
. 530
♦* 3. Dentirostres, Tooth-billed Birds,
. 539
" 4. Conirostres, Cone-billed Birds,
. 554
Order TTT. Scansores, Climbing Birds,
. 565
** IV. Columb«, Pigeons and Doves, .
. 571
" V. Gallin», Fowls,
. 573
*• VL Struthiones, Ostriches, .
. 580
« Vn. GralliB, Waders,
. 582
^ VIII. Anseres, Swimming Birds,
. 587
Class IV. Mammalia, Mammals,
. 5V
Classification of Manmials,
• 602
Ordw 1. Edentata, Mammals without Front Teeth,
• 607
Group 1. Monotremata,
. 607
" 2. Edentata proper.
. 609
" 8. Tardigrada, .
. 612
Order 2. Marsupialia, Mammak with a Pouch,
. 615
Group 1. Herbivora, .
. 616
" 2. Insectivora, .
. 620
^ 3. Carnivora,
• 021
Order 3. Cetacea, Cetaceans,
. 623
•* 4. Herbivora, Vegetable Eaters,
• 633
Group 1. Sirenidia, Sirens,
. 633
** 2. Trichechid«, Wabruses,
. 636
" 3. Pachydermata, Pachyderms, .
• 638
^ 4. Ruminantia, Ruminants,
. 649
♦* 5. Rodentia, Gnawers, .
. 659
Order 5. Insectivora, Insect Eaters,
. 676
** 6. Cheiroptera, Bats,
• 679
Group 1. Carnivora or Insectivora,
• 680
** 2. Frugivora, .
. 683
Order 7. Carnivora, Rapacious Mammah, •
. 684
Group 1. Pinnipedia, Seals,
. 684
" 2. Unguiculata, With Claws, .
. 686
Order 8. Quadrumana, Monkeys,
. 695
Geographical Distribution of Mammals, .
. 702
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CORTEHTS OF THE PLATES (I. Hot. 74—101, lOSfi— U8)
TO
ZOOLOGY.
[IncradiDf GkMMry to pUto 109 ».]
^•^ The lefeieaces for explanations of the subjects are to the bottom pafl^g of the text.
Fig.
PLATE 74.
PLATB 74— (Omltiweii.)
Classification.
Fig. 50. Raja, ray.
. 217
1. Monas, animalcule, .
. 213
" 51. Acipenser, sturgeon, .
. 217
2. Monocerca, do.
. 213
** 52. Ortiiagoriscus, moon fidi.
. 218
3. Spongia, sponge,
. 213
« 53. Hippocampus, sea horse.
. 218
4. Hydra, naked polypi.
. 213
" 54. Anguilla, eel, .
. 218
5. Diphies, medusa.
. 214
** 55. Pleuronectes, sole, .
. 218
6. Velella, nautilus.
. 214
** 56. Merlangus, whiting, .
. 218
7. Sipunculus, tube worm.
214, 246
" 57. Cyprinus, chub.
. 21S
8. Holothuria, sea jelly.
. 214
" 58. Xiphias, swordfish, .
. 218
9. Ligula, strapworm, .
. 214
^< 59. Salamandra, salamander, .
. 218
10. Nemertes, cordworm.
. 214, 353
" 60. Rana, frog.
. 218
11. Botryllus, eea grape.
. 214
" 61. Vipera, viper, .
. 218
12. Oatrea, oyster, .
. 214
" 62. Boa, boa constrictor, .
. 218
13. Chiton, sea cockroach.
. 214
" 63. Anguis, adder, .
. 218
14. Fissurella, fissure shell.
. 214
" 64. Ophisaurus,
. 218
15. Vermelus, worm shell.
. 214
" 65. Chirotes, .
. 218
16. Strombus, screw shell.
. 214
" 66, 67. Chalcides, .
. 218
17. Carina, keel shell, .
. 214
" 68. Bipes, .
. 218
18. Bulla, wood digger, .
. 214
" 69. Anolis, .
. 218
19. Phyllidium, leaf shell.
. 214,284
*« 70. Scincus, .
. 218
20. Tritoniura, triton.
. 214,283
'* 71. Tilicua, .
. 218
21. Limnsus. mud shell, .
. 214
" 72. Chameeleo, chameleon.
. 218
22. Clio, whale louse, .
. 215
" 73, Ftyodactylus, .
. 218
23. Octopus, polypus.
. 215
« 74. BasUiscus, basilisk, .
. 218
24. Hirudo, leech, .
. 215
'* 75. Iguana, guana, .
. 218
25. Aphrodite, sea mouse.
. 215
•* 76. Draco, dragon, .
. 218
26. Amphitrite,
. 215
" 77. Agama, .
. 218
27. Anatifa, duck muscle.
. 215
" 78. Stcliio, stellion.
. 218
28. Cancer, crab, .
. 216
*' 79. Lacerta, lizard.
. 218
29. Squilla, shrimp,
. 216
" 80. Tejus,
. 218
30. Talitnis, sea flea.
. 216
" 81. Crocodilus, crocodile,
. 218
31. Cyamus, whale louse.
. 216
^ 82. Flesiosaurus, .
. 218
32. Oniscus, cheslip.
. 216
" 83. Ichthyosaurus, .
. 218
33. Cyclops, water flea, .
. 216
" 84. Chelonia, eea tortoise.
. 218
34. Caligus, fish loose, .
. 216
•* 85. Testudo, land tortoise.
. 219
35. Aranea, spider.
. 216
" 86. Anas, duck,
. 219
36. Chelifer. . .
. 216
" 87. Sula,dodo,
. 219
37. Scolopendra,
. 217
" 88. Felecanus, pelican, .
. 219
38. Lepisma, book worm.
. 217
" 89. Frocellaria, petrel, .
. 219
39. Fediculus, louse.
. 217
" 90. Fodiceps, diver.
. 219
40. Pulex, flea.
. 217
'* 91. FhflBnicopterus, flamingo.
. 219
41. Carabus, ground beetle.
. 217
" 92. Rallus, water rail, .
. 219
42. Forficula, earwig, .
. 217
" 93. Scolopax, snipe.
. 219
43. Cimex, bedbug,
. 217
" 94. Ardea, heron, .
. 219
44. Xibellula, dragon fly.
. 217
" 95. Grus, crane.
. 219
45. TenUiredo, tailed wasp, .
. 217
" 96. Otis, bustard, .
. 219
46. Vanessa, butterfly, .
. 217
" 97. Struthio, ostrich.
. 219
47. Stomoxys, autunm fly.
. 217
" 98. Gallus, cock, .
. 219
48. Petromyion, lampereel.
. 217
" 99. Crax, curaasow.
. 319
49. Squalus, shark,
. 217
" 100. Columba, pigeon.
. 819
Digitized by V.
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Rg.
OONTENm
PLATS lAr-iC^ntuMed,]
Täam
. 101. PffltUcu«, parrot.
. 219
Figs
. 28,
102. Picu«, woodpecker, .
. 219
"
30.
103. Buceros, rhinoceros bird.
. 219
ti
31.
104. Meropp, bee-eater, .
. 219
**
32.
105. Situ, nut-pecker.
. 219
it
33.
106. Alauda^lark, .
. 219
u
34.
107. Cypaelus, sea swallow.
. 219
"
35.
108. Pica, magpie, .
. 219
tt
36.
109. Otus, owl,
. 219
u
37.
110. Vultur, vulture.
. 219
"
38.
111. Mil vus, kite, .
. 219
"
39.
112. Balaena, whale.
. 219
u
40.
113. Cervus, deer, .
. 219
u
41.
114. Bos, ox, .
. 219
tt
42.
115. Camelus, camel,
. 219
tt
43.
116. Equus, horse, .
. 219
i(
44.
117. Sus, hog.
. 219
tt
45.
118. Elephas, elephant, .
. 219
ft
46.
119. Omithorhynchos, duekbille
dpU-
tt
47.
typus.
. 919
tt
48.
120. Manis, pangolin«
. 219
tt
49.
121. Bradypus, sloth.
. 919
tt
50.
122. Lepus, rabbit, .
. 919
ft
51.
123. Sciurus, squirrel«
. 919
tt
52.
124. Castor, beaver, .
. 919
tt
53.
125. Mus, mouse, .
. 919
tt
54.
126. Didelphys, kangaroo.
. 919
tt
55.
127. Phoca, seal, .
. 919
It
56.
128. Mustela, marten.
. 919
**
57.
129. Viverra, civet, .
. 919
tt
58.
130. Felis, cat.
. 919
tt
59.
131. Hyaena, hyena.
. 919
tt
60.
132. Canis, dog.
. 919
tt
61.
133. Ursus, bear.
. 919
tt
62.
134. Erinaceus, hedgehog.
. 219
tt
63.
135. VespertiUo, bat.
. 219
It
64.
136. Pteropus, rousset.
. 219
tt
65.
137. Lemur, maki, . . • .
. 219
tt
66.
138. Hapale, ouistiti.
. 219
tt
67.
139. Simla, monkey.
. 219
tt
68.
140. Homo, man, .
. 219
tt
69.
PLATE 75.
tt
tt
70.
71.
1. Monas lens.
. 227
tt
72.
2. Proteus diffluens.
. 228
tt
73.
3. Bursaria vesiculosa, .
. 228
tt
74.
4. Cryptomonas ovata, .
. 228
«*
75.
5. Trachelocerca olor, .
. 228
tt
76.
6. Trachelocerca viridis.
. 229
tt
77.
7. Vibrio anguillula.
. 227
tt
78.
8. Cyclidium glaucoma.
. 228
"
79.
9. Paramecium compreasam« .
. 229
tt
80.
10. Chilodon cucuUatus, .
. 228
tt
81.
11. Gonium pectorale, .
. 227
tt
82.
12. Buisaria truncatella, .
. 228
tt
83.
13. Urocentrum turbo.
. 228
tt
84.
14. Trichodina cometa, .
. 228
u
85.
15. Vol vox globator.
. 227
tt
86.
16. Rotifer vulgaris,
229,308
tt
87.
17. Opercularia articulata.
. 228
tt
88.
18. Stentor mylleri,
. 228
tt
89.
19. MelicerU ringeos.
. 229
tt
90.
20. Carcheshmi polypiniun, .
. 228
tt
91.
21. Hydra grisea, .
. 231
u
92.
22. Hydra iusca, .
. 231
tt
93.
23. Hydra viridis, .
. 231
"
94.
24. Virgularla juncea.
. 241
It
95.
25. Pennatula granulosa.
. 240
It
96.
26. Pennatula phosphorea.
• 240
It
97.
27. Pranatnla grisea.
. 941
It
98.
FLATS 75'-{Continu4d.)
29. Tubularia coronata.
. 231
Sortularia polyzonalis.
. 231
Sertularia falcaU, .
. 231
Thuaria thuia, .
. 231
Sertularia abietina, .
. 231
Sertularia operculata.
. 231
Corallina rubens.
. 221
Flabellaria opuntia, .
. 221
Penecillus penccillus.
. 221
Corallina officinalis, .
. 221
Tubularia sultana, . «
. 231
Tubularia campanularia.
. 231
Acetabulum mediierraneuna
i, . 231
Tubularia indivisa, .
. . 231
Flustra foliacea.
. 258
Spongia fistularij?.
. . 221
Spongia officinalis, .
. 220
Alcyonium ficiforme.
. . 241
Aicyonium palmatum.
. 241
Gorgonia flabcUum, .
. 241
Gorgonia verrucosa, .
. 241
Gorgonia cerataphyta,
. 241
Antipathes spiralis, .
. 240
Coralium nobile.
. 241
Isis hippuris.
. 241
Flustra, .
. 258
Pocillopora polymorpha.
. 240
Retepora, .
. 258
Eschara, . . .
. 258
Oculina vitginea, ' .
. 240
Oculina gemmasccns.
. 240
Madrepora prolifera, .
. 240
Porites porites, .
. 240
Astrea aetroites.
. 239
Explanaria anana«, .
. 240
Meandrina labyrinthica,
. 239
Fungia lungite^.
. 239
Tubipora musica.
. 241
Teredo navali?.
. 263
Sabella ventilabrum, .
. 305
Vermetus lumbricalis,
. 289
Scrpula glomerata, .
. 304
A^pcrgillum javanum.
256, 264
Serpula arenaria.
. 304
Dentalium elephantinum.
. 286
Dentalium poUtum, .
. 286
Dentalium entalis.
, 286
Patella granatina.
. 285
Patella saccharina, .
. 2b5
Calyptrsea sinensis, .
. 2i?6
Patella laciniosa.
. 285
Fissurella graeca.
. 2tl5
Ancylus lacustris.
. 294
Emarginula fissura, .
. 285
Pileopas hungarica (Troch
id«), 289
Nerilina crepidularia.
. 290
Patella vulgata,
. 285
Haliotis tuberculata, .
. 289
Neritina fluvialilis, .
. 290
Natica canrena,
. 293
Sigaretus haliotideus.
. 292
Melania amanila.
. 287
Limnea auricularia, .
. 294
Limnea stagnalis,
. 294
Bulimus decollatus fasciatui
J, . 295
Bulimus decollatus albus, .
. 295
Paludina vivipara,
. 287
Janthina ianthina,
. 289
Helix nemoralis.
. 995
Helix pomathia.
. 995
Digitized by V
ZooqI
li
CONTENTS.
PASB
9ämm
FLATS 7S-^Continued.)
PLATE 76 — {Omtimud,)
'Ig. 99. Turbo nautileus.
. 289
Rg
41. Hemicardium cardissB
, • .277
" 100. ClauflUia perversa, .
. 295
«1
42. Cardium echinatum, .
. 277
" 101. Scalaria dathruB,
. 287
«
43. Cyclas, .
. 277
" 102. Scalaria scalaris.
. 287
M
44. Tellina radiata,
. 278
" 103. Turbo cochlus, .
. 289
M
45. Solen vagina, .
. 263
" 104. Delphinula delphinus,
. 289
W
46. Solen siliqua, .
. 263
" 105: Telescopium indicator,
. 288
U
47. Unio complanatus,
. 272
" 106. Trochufl solaris.
. 289
M
48. Mya pictorum, .
. 262
" 107. TrochuB magus.
. 289
"
49. Pholas pusillus.
. 263
" 108. Solarium perspectivum,
. 289
«
50. Pholas dactylus,
. 263
" 109. Certthium vertagus, .
. 288
«
51. Pollicipes mitella,
. 305
" 110. Pleuroloma babylonia,
. 290
«<
52. Lepas anatifa, .
. 305
" 111. Murex ramosa, .
. 290
«
63. Coronula,
. 306
" 112. Murex haustellum, .
. 290
"
54. Balanus psittacus.
. 306
" 113. Murex tribulus, .
. 290
«<
55. Chiton squamosus.
. 285
" 114. Strombus lentiginosus.
. 291
«
56 Holopus rangii,
. 242
" J 15. Pterocera chiragra, .
. 291
U
57. Encrinus radiatus.
. 242
•' 116. Rostellaria rectirostris,
. 291
u
58. Pentacrinus osteria,
. 242
" 117. Terebra maculaU, .
. 292
«
59. Oreaster turritus.
. 243
" 118. Purpura lapillus.
. 290
w
60. Aeterias aurantiaca,
. 243
" 119. Harpa Tentricosa.
. 291
«<
61. Astrogonium granulai
«, . .243
« 120. Baccinum undatum, .
. 290
M
62. Ophiolepis scolopendr
ina, . . 243
" 121. Casaidoria echinophora, ,
. 291
«
63. Astrophyton caput me
dusiB, . 243
« 122. Oliva ispidula, .
. 292
«
64. Ophiurus asterias,
. 243
*« 123. Mitra episcopalia.
. 292
M
65. Stellonia rubens.
. 243
" 124. Mitra papalis, .
. 292
«4
66. Solaster papposa.
. 243
" 125. Oliva porphyria.
. 292
it
67. Spatangus purpureus.
. 245
" 126. Oliva maura, .
. 292
4«
68. Clypeaster rosacea, .
. 245
U
69. Echinus cidaris.
. 245
• PLATE 76.
«
70. Cidaris diadema,
. 245
Ig. 1. Auricula mide.
. 295
«<
71. Cidaris esculentus.
. 245
" 2. Ovula volva, .
. 292
f<
72. Lucemaria quadricon
lis, . .239
« 3. Bulla physis, .
. 284
"
73. Thaumantias cymbalc
>ide«, . 234
" 4. Ovula ovum, .
. 292
<(
74. Aurelia aurita, .
. 234
" 5. Cypraea moneta,
. 292
f<
75. Octopus octopodius, .
. 296
" 6. Cypraea mauritiana, .
. 292
M
76. Loligo loligo, .
. 298
** 7. Cypnea arabica,
. 292
M
77. Sepia officinalis.
. 298
" 8. Conus aurantiacus, .
. 291
*t
78. Clio(»boreaÜ8, .
. 281
" 9. Conus summus,
. 291
«
79. Scyllaea pelagica (Tri
tonüdae), . 273
" 10. Conus cedo nulli,
. 291
U
80. Lernsea branchialis.
. 308
" 11. Conus textilUs, .
. 291
"
81. LemaBa cyprinacea.
. 308
" 12. Conus marmoreus, .
. 291
«
82. Torebella conchilega.
. 305
** 13. Spirula spirula, .
. 298
((
83. Porpita nuda, .
. 234
" 14. Nautilus beceari.
. 299
««
84. Velella spirans,
. 234
" 15. Nautilus calcar,
. 299
«
85. Cucumaria frondosa.
. 246
" 16. Nautilus pompilius, .
. 298
" 17. Argonaut« argo.
. 297
PLATE 77
^* 18. Pinna obeliscus.
. 270
« 19. Pinna rudis,
. 271
Rg
1. Physalia physaUs,
. 234
" 20. Avicula margaritifera,
. 267
2. Thetis fimbria, .
. 283
" 21. Mytilus cygneus.
. 270
«(
3. Salpa maxima, .
. 259
. . 251
" 22. Mytilus bidens, .
. 270
M
4. Pedicellaria,
" 23. Terebrata caput eerpentis.
. 259
«(
5. Actinia undata.
. 238
<' 24. Crania craniolaris, .
. 259
U
6. Actinia senilis, .
. 238
" 25. Ostrea cristigalli.
. 265
"
7. Ascidia lepadiformis.
. 258
" 26. Malleus malleus.
. 267
tt
8. Ascidia venosa, .
. 258
" 27. Peoten corallinus,
. 260
««
9. Nais serpentina.
. 302
" 28. Pecten pallium ducale,
. 266
«
10. Nais proboscidea,
. 301
" 29. Pecten maximus,
. 266
«
11. Phyllodoce stellifera.
. 303
'* 30. Pema ephippium.
. 267
«
12. Nereis tubicola,
. 303
" 31. Area senilis, .
. 271
"
13. Amphitrite reniformis,
. 305
" 32. Area noie.
. 271
«
14. Spio filicomis, .
. 303
" 33. Tridacna gigas,
. 276
"
15. Aphrodite aouleaU,
. 303
" 34. Isocardia corallina, .
. 277
tt
16. Doris papulosa.
. 283
" 35. Spondylus gaederopus,
. 267
tt
17. Doris argo.
. 283
" 36. Venus mercenaria.
. 278
tt
18. Aplysia depilans,
. 284
*• 37. Cytherea dione.
. 279
tt
19. Limax agrestis.
. 295
** 38. Donax rugosa, .
. 278
tt
20. Limax empiricorum,
. 295
<' 39. Donax scripta, .
. . 278
tt
21. Limax fuscus, .
. 295
«< 40. Mactra BolidisBima, .
. 262
t
22. Malacol^ella grosBa
Digitizec
, . . 301
ibyGoOQ
CONTENTS.
zm
Fig.
PLATE n—iConUnued.)
PLATE n-iConiinued.)
93. Nephelis octooulata (Hinidi-
Fig
. 92, 93. Empide, .
. 397
riid«). . .
. 300
u
94. Anopheles bifiircatus.
. 397
5U. Clepnna complanata.
. 301
«1
95. Culex nemorosus.
. 397
25. Haemopis vorax,
. 301
u
96. Culex pipiens, .
. 397
26. Hirado officinalis.
. 301
$i
97. Tabanus tropicus.
. 397
27. SipuDculus saccatus, .
. 246
u
98. Tabanus bovinus.
. 397
28. SipuDcnlus nudus,
. 246
«
99—109. Muscide,
. 398
29. Echinococcus veterinorum
suis, . 248
u
110. Clitellaria ephipiMum,
. 397
30. Cysticercus cellulose.
. 249
**
111. VoluceUa peliucens, .
. 398
31. Tenia cateniformis, .
. 249
tt
112. Sceva pyrastri.
. 398
32. Bothiiocephalus latus.
. 249
u
113. Crysotoxum vespiformis,
. 398
33. Tenia solium, .
. 249
u
114. Eristalis tenax, .
. 398
34. Ligula cingulum,
. 249
"
115. Helophilus pendulus, .
. 398
35. Planaria corauta.
. 250
tt
116. Leptia rermUeo,
. 398
36. Distoma hepaticum, .
. 250
"
117. Stratiomys chameleon,
. 397
37. Lumbricus variegatus.
. 302
"
118. Chironomus plumosus,
. 397
38. Lumbricus terrestris, .
. 302
tt
119. Anisomera nigra.
. 397
39. Echinorhynohus gigas.
. 251
tt
120. Ctenophora elegans, .
. 397
40. Trichocephalus dispar.
. 251
tt
121. Psychoda phalenoidee,
. 397
41. Ascaris lumbricoides.
. 251
tt
122. Mycetophila cericea, .
. 397
42. Ozyuris vermicolaris.
. 251
tt
123. Bibiomarci,
. 397
43. Filaria medinensis, .
. 252
tt
124. Mycetophüa mirabilis.
. 397
44. Lumbricus aquaticos,
. 302
tt
125. Cephalemyia ovis, .
. 399
45. Filaria papulosa, .
46. Argas fischen, .
. 252
"
126, 127. Gasterophilus equi.
. 399
. 328
tt
128. (Estrus tarandi, .
. 399
47. Argas savignii, .
. 328
tt
129. CEstrus bovis, .
- 399
48. Ghelifer beauYoiaü, .
. 329
PLATE 78.
49. Galeodes phalangium.
. 329
50. Galeodes araneoidee, .
. 329
Fig
. 1, 2. Cancerine, .
. 322
51. Scorpio europeus, .
. 330
tt
3. Thalamita natator, .
. 322
52. Buthusafer,
. 330
tt
4. Gecarcinus lateralis, .
. 321
53. Epeira imperialis.
. 332
tt
5. Gelasimus annulipee, .
. 321
54. Tetragnatha argyra, .
. 334
tt
6. Qcypoda arenaria.
. 321
55. Theridion denticulatum,
. 333
tt
7. Phüyra scabriuscula, .
. 321
56. Arsyroneta aquatica,
57a. UToborus walcnerius.
. 333
tt
8. Dorippe eima, .
. 321
. 334
"
9. Ranina eerrata,
. 321
S7b. Gasteracantha armata.
. 333
tt
10. Pagurus diogenes.
. 321
58. Mygale ayicularia, .
. 332
tt
11. Palinurus guttatus, .
. 320
59. Epeira diadema.
. 332
tt
12. Scyllarus equinoctialis.
. 320
60. Pallene brevirostris (Pyc
nogo-
tt
13. Stenopus hispidus,
. 320
nide), . .
. 325
tt
14. Callianaaea uncinata.
. 320
61. Chelifer cancroides, ,
. 329
"
15 Squilla maculata.
. 318
62. Phalangium opilio, .
. 329
tt
16. Gonodactyl us sty lifer.
. 318
63. Phalangium egyptiacum,
. 329
tt
17. Phyllosoma stylicomis.
. 318
64. Hydrachna abstergens,
. 328
tt
18. Orchestia fischeri.
. 318
65. Hydrachna despicieus,
. 328
tt
19. Ancylomera hunteri, .
. 319
66. Ixodes annulatus.
. 327
*t
20. Cymadocea armata, .
. 316
67. Ixodes americanus, .
. 327
tt
21. Spheroma serratum, .
. 316
68. 8arcoptes scabiei.
. 326
"
22. Porcellio granulatus, .
. 317
69. Gamasus coleopterorum, .
. 327
tt
23. Caprella acuminifera.
. 317
70. Acaras siro.
. 326
tt
24. Cyamus ovalls
. 317
71. Ixodes orbiculatus, .
. 327
tt
25. Aprus cancriformis, .
. 313
72. Pulex penetrans.
. 352
tt
26. BranchipuB pisciformis,
. 313
73. Pulex irritans, .
. 352
tt
27. Cyclops communis, .
. 311
74, 75. Nirmide, .
. 351
«
28. Pbyllophora comuU,
. 311
76. Phthirius pubis, .
. 351
tt
29. Ergasilus sieboldi, .
. 311
77. Pediculus capitis.
. 351
tt
30. Lemea polycolpus, .
. 309
78. Podura nivicola.
. 349
tt
31. Achtheres percarum, .
. 310
79. Podura villosa, .
. 349
tt
32. Pycnogonum litterale.
. 325
80. Smynthurus fimetarius.
. 349
tt
33. Nymphon gracile,
. 325
81,84. Machilus polypoda.
. 350
"
34. Limullus moluccanus,
. 315
82,83. Lepiama sacchaiina.
. 350
tt
35. Nemesia cellicola, .
. 333
84. See 8k
tt
36. Segestria perfida.
. 333
85. Melophagus ovis,
. 400
tt
37. Lycosa tarentula.
. 333
86. Hippobosca equina, .
. . 400
(f
38. Lycosa melanogaster.
. 333
87. Bombylius major.
. 397
tt
39. HersilUcaudata,
. 333
88. Dioctria ater, .
. 397
tt
40. Chersis savinii, .
. 333
89. Aiiltts cabroniformis.
. 397
tt
41. Salticus formicanus, .
. 333
90. Conope maerocephala.
. 398
tt
42. Eripus heterogaster, .
. 333
91. Stomojds calcitrans, .
. 398
. tt
43. Arcys lanceolarius, .
Digitized bv
. 333
G0O5
MV
CONTENTS.
PLATE IS— {Continued.)
Fig. 44. Latrodectufl malmignatus,
** 45. Nyssa timida, .
" 46. Tegenaria domestica,
" 47. Lachesis perreraa,
*' 48. Uloborus walcnserius,
" 49. Argyroneta aquatica.
. 333
333,334
. 333
. 334
. 334
. 333
PLATE 79.
Fig.
1. Mutilla enropaea,
3. Apterogjma occidentalism
3 — 9. FonnicidsB,
10. Bombus lapidarius,
11. Bombus muse orum,
12. Megachile eementariaj
13. Bombus terrestris,
14. Xylocopa violacea,
15. Nomada variegata,
16. Eucera longicornis,
17. Megachile centuncularis,
18. Apis mellifica, .
19. Vespa maculata,
20. Polistes paritum,
21. Vespa vulgaris, .
22. Veepa crabro, .
23. Leucospis doreigera,
24. Chrysis cyanea,
25. Chrysis aurata, .
26. Chrysis ignita, .
27. Pömpilus ccBruIeus,
28. Pompilus Tiaticus,
29. Crabro cribrarius,
30. PelopaBus spirifex,
31. Aromophila sabulosa,
32,33,36-^9. IchneumonidsB,
34, 35. Chalcididae,
36—39. See 32.
40. Rhyssa persuasoria (Ichneumo<
nidse),
41. Urocems spectrum, .
42. Urocerus gigas,
43. Lophyrus juniperi,
44. Nematus capresB,
45. Cimbex americana, .
46. TenthredinidflB, .
47. Cimbex variabilis,
48—53. Cinipidae, .
54. Mantispa pagana,
55. RaphidÜa op^opsis, .
56. Termes fatalis, .
57. Bittacus tipularia,
58. Panorpa communis, .
59. Ascalaphus barbarus,
60. Myrmeleon libelluloides,
61. Myrmeleon formicarius,
62 — 64. HermerobiidflB, .
65. Hydropsyche plumosa,
66. Phryganea striata,
67. Perla bicaudata,
68. limnophilus rhombica,
69. Phryganea grandis, .
70—72. EphemeridiB,
73. Agrion puella, .
74. Calepteryx virgo,
75. Libellula depressa,
76. .^Ischna grandis,
77. Pterophorus pentadactyla,
78. Coccyx resinosa,
79. Carpocapsa pomonella,
80. Hercyna paliotalis, .
81. Tinea granella.
378
378
378
380
380
380
380
380
380
380
380
380
379
380
380
380
376
376
376
376
377
377
376
377
377
375
376
375
375
375
375
375
375
374
375
375
372
372
370
372
372
372
372
372
372
373
373
371
373
373
371
472
372
372
372
383
384
384
384
383
386,
387,
PLATE 79 — (Continued.)
Fig. 82. Plutella xylostella, ... 383
** 83. Gallerea cereana, . . 383
" 84. Tinea pellionella, ... 383
" 85. Lemmatophila salicella, . 383
" 86. Hyponomeuta evonymella, . 383
" 87. Hyponomeuta pedella, . 383
" 88. Hypena rostralis, . . 384
" 89. Botys verticalis, ... 384
'* 90. Sciaphila Hterata, ... 384
" 91. Tortrix viridana, ... 384
*' 92. Halias prasinana, . . 384
" 93—102. GeometiidaB, ... 384
" 103—123, 129, 136. Noctuidie, 384, 385
" 124. Callimorpha jacobfBflB, . 385
" 125. Arctia fuliginosa, . .385
" 126. Arctia matronuia, . . 385
" 127. Arctia dominula, . . 385
" 128. Pygaera bucephala, ... 385
u ]29. See 103.
« 130—135, 137—151. Bombycid«,
** 136. See 103.
PLATE 80.
Fig. 1. Lasiocampa quercus,
'* 2. Dendrolimus pini,
" 3. Odonestis potatoria,
" 4 — 7. Bombycidae,
" 8. Zygaena filipendula,
** 9. Sesia fuciformis,
'* 10—21. Sphingidae,
" 23. Hesperia malvarum,
" 23—50. Papilionidae,
" 51. Thrips phisapus,
*' 52. Lecanium illicis,
" 53. Lecanium hesperidum,
** 54. Coccus cacti, .
" 55. Psylla alni,
" 56. Dorthesia urticea,
" 57,59. AphidaB,
*' 58. Chermesulmi, .
" 59. See 57.
** 60. P)rrrhocoris apterus,
" 61. Coryzus hyoscyami,
" 62. Cydnus biguttatus,
" 63. Pentatoma juniperinus,
** 64. Pentatoma baccanim,
" 65. Acanthosoma haemorrhoidalis,
" 66. Cimex rufipes, .
" 67. Acanthia lectularia,
" 68. Raoatra linearis,
" 69. Nepa cinerea, .
** 70. Neucoris cimicoidee,
" 71. Belostoma grandis,
'* 72. Corixa striata, .
" 73. Notonecto glauca,
** 74. Aphrophora epumaria,
" 75. Cicada fraxini, .
** 76. Fulgora candelaria,
** 77. Fulgoria latemaria,
« 78. (Edipoda stridula,
" 79. (Edipoda caerulescens,
" 80. (Edipoda migratoria,
" 81. Acridium cristatum,
" 82—85. Locustidae,
" 86—88. GryllidaB, .
" 89. Phyllium siccifolium,
" 90. Mantis religiosa,
** 91. Empusa gongylodee,
** 92. Csrphocrana gigas,
** 93. Blatta Orientalis,
385
385
385
385
386
387
387
388
388
370
390
390
389
390
390
390
390
393
393
393
393
393
392
.391
391
391
391
391
391
390
390
390
390
370
370
370
370
369
369
368
368
367
Digitized by
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CONTENTS.
XT
PLATB 81.
Upper Divinofu
Fig. 1 — 3. ForfieulidaB,
« 4_6. Brachelytra,
** 7. Meloe proscarabseos, .
** 8. LyUa vesicatoiia,
" 9. Blaps mortisaga,
<* 10. Tenebrio molitor^
" 11—16. Carabid», .
" 17. Dyticus marginaliB,
*' 18. Hydrophilufl piceus,
M 19—31. MordelUde,
" 32. Buprestis maiiana,
" fi3. Euchroma gigas,
«* 34. Buprestis chiysoBtigma,
" 35. ElaphruB riparius (Carabidse),
" 36—39. Ci9mdela, .
« 30—33. Elateridae, .
" 34. Malachius SBneus,
" 3&— 3«. CanthaiiB, .
** 39. Lycua saDguineus.
** 40. Pyrochroa coccioea,
*« 41,43. LampyridsB,
** 43. Necydalis csruiea.
<< 44—61. Longiconiia,
« 63—64. Clerida, .
« 65—76. RhiDcophora,
« 77—79. Bnichus.
« 80—101. Trimera, .
" 103, 103. Nitidulide,
" 104. SUpha thoracica,
" 105, 106. Necrophorus,
*• 107, 108. Anthrenus,
" 109. Bynrhufl pilula (Byrrhidae),
*« 110. Gyrinus natator,
** 111. Ptinuafur.
" 113. Anobitun pertinaz,
*' 113. Apate capucinus.
*< 114. HylesinuB piniperda.
" 115, 116. BostrichuB,
" 117, 118. Dennestes,
" 119—123. Hister, .
" 134. Lucaous, .
" 135—137. Cetoniadae,
'« 138—131. MeloloDthidse,
*• 133, 136—144. Scarabaeid«,
« 133—135. Aphodüde,
" 136—144. See 133.
- 145—148. Dynastide,
Lower Divieion.
Fig. 1. Aloaa Tolgaris, shad,
** 3. Clapea harengoa, herring, .
*' 3. Engrauliseocrasicholua, anchovy,
" 4. Hfl^gola aprattna, sprat, .
*' 5. ThsrmaUns Tolgaria, greyling, .
** 6. Cobitia foaalis, mudfish,
** 7. Exogloflsum barbatula, ground-
ling, ....
" 8. Rhombus Tulgaris, biill,
« 9. Platessa flesus, fluke, .
•* 10. Zeus faber, dory,
" 11. Lota vulgaris, burbot,
" 12. Trachinus draco, sea cat, .
** 13. Xiphias gladius, swordfish,
" 14. Amodytes tobianus, sand-eel.
'^ 15. Syngnathtts ophidion, sea serpent,
" 16. Syngnathus acus, sea-needle,
^ 17. Pegasus draco, sea-dragon,
** 18. Lnmpua anglomm, lump sucker.
367
359
363
363
364
364
357
357
358
363
363
362
362
357
357
362
362
363
363
362
365
362
364
366
359
359
359
359
360
111
363
345
359
360
360
360
360
360
360
360
413
413
413
413
416
430
430
434
423
431
433
426
430
436
436
437
433
PLATB Sl'-iCMiinued.)
Fig. 19. Diodon punctatus, sticklebag, .
** 20. Tetraodon lagocephalus, star
beUy, ....
" 21. Centrisous scolopaz, trumpet fish,
** 22. Aluteree mouoceros, unicorn fish,
•* 23. Lophius piscatorius, widegap, .
** 24. Acipenser ruthenus, caviar stur-
geon, ....
" 25. Acipenser sturio, sturgeon .
« 26. Sphyma malleus, hammer-headed
shark, ....
" 27. Spinax acanthias, thorn-hound, .
" 28. Petromyzon fiuviatilis, lamprey,
" 29. Sepa chalcides, bronze colored
lizard, ....
** 30. Scincus cyanurus, ecink, .
*' 31. Plestiodon aldrovandil,
« 32. Triton cristatuin, eft, .
" 33. Draco dandini, flying dragon, .
" 34. Rana temporaria, yellow frog, .
*♦ 35. Hyla viridis, tree or green frog, .
** 36. Bufo calamita, toad, .
" 37. Bombinator igneus, gliBtering
toad, ....
" 38. Pelobatus fusous, water toad,
*' 39. Teetudo geometries, tortoise,
'* 40. Testudo grsca, mosaic tortoise,
" 41. Cistudo enropsa, European tor-
toise, ....
** 42. Emya picta, terrapin, .
** 43. SphiargLB coiiacea, leather turtle,
FLATS 82.
Fig. T. Aqudophorus cataphractus,
pogge, ....
** 2. Pristis antiquorum, saw fish,
'< 3. Esoz lucius, pike,
*« 4. Perca fluviatili?, perch,
*' 5. Anguilla vulgaris, eel,
** 6. Gasterosteus aculeatus, stickle-
back, ....
" 7. Salmo fario, salmon trout,
" 8. Holocanthus tricolor, tricolor, .
** 9. Sjmanceia horrida, dragon's head,
" 10. Labraz lupus, base, .
" 11. Solea vulgaris, sole, .
« 13. Platessa limanda, dab.
436
436
433
435
434
443
443
445
446
411
477
477
477
460
483
463
463
464
463
483
491
491
492
493
493
427
446
417
434
411
437
415
433
437
425
434
433
PLATE 83.
Fig. 1. Holocentrum longiphme, red
perch, .... 436
« 3. Aeanthurus gemmatus, gem fish, 433
*< 3. Amphacanthus coralUnus, coral
perch, .... 433
** 4. Sphymna epeH, barracuda pike, . 436
" 5. Scorpasnasoropha, dragon's head, 437
** 6. Naucrates ductor, pilot fish, . 431
" 7. Trigla lyra, piper, . . 426
*' 8. Thynnus vulgaris, tunny, . . 430
** 9. Scomber vulgaris, mackerel, . 430
*' 10. Acerina comua, rufie, . 436
** 11. Cepola rubescens, band fish, . 433
*' 13. Dactylopterus volitans, flying
fish, 426
PLATE 84.
Fig. 1. Carcharius venis, shark, . . 445
** 3. Coryphflsna hippuris, dolphin, . 431
'* 3. Echineis remora, sucking fish, . 434
<* 4. Chondrostoma nasus, broad snout, 418
Digitized by
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m
CONTENTS.
PLATB 84— (OMlltlMMlI.)
Fig. 5. Cottns gobio, bullhead,
** 6. Gobio flaviatiliB, grealing, .
** 7. Alburoos lueidiis, bleak, .
" 8. AcaDthurns chirurgua, lancet-
tail,
** 9. ChetodoQ auiiga, angel, .
** 10. Barbua vulgaris, barbel,
" 11. C3rprinu8 caipio, carp,
" 13. Tinea Tulgaris, tench,
** 13. Anabas Bcandens, climbing perch,
PLATE 85.
Fig. 1. Morrfaua vulgaris, codfish,
** 3. MerlanguB vulgaris, whiting,
" 3. Raia batis, skate,
** 4. Trachinus vividus, weever,
*' 5. Blennius vivipanis, gufier, .
** 6. Ophiocephalus striatus, ophidion,
" 7. Mullus barbatus. mullet, .
'* 8. Dipterodon capensis, Cape-dipter-
odon, ....
" 9. Amphiprion bifasciatos, amphi*
prion, ....
** 10. Seolopaides vosmari
" 11. Trach3rpteru8 i^ole, trachyp-
terns, ....
" IS. Cyprinus auratos, gold-fish,
Fig. 1. Deirodon nasutus, green snake, .
" 3. Tropidonotus natrix, ringed snake,
" 3. Trigonocephalus lanceoiatus, cop-
perhead, ....
" 4. Naia tripudians, cobra di capello,
** 5. Boa constrictor, ....
** 6. Phrynosoma comuta, homed frog,
PLATE 87.
Fig. 1. Anguis fragilis, slow worm,
" 3. Vipera berus, viper,
** 3. Cerastes comutus, homed viper, .
" 4. Xiphoeoma caninum, dog boa,
" 5. Crotalus horridus, rattieoiake, .
" 6. S^e chalcides, scink, .
FLATE88.
Fig. 1. Siren lacertina, siren, .
" 3. Necturus lateralis, water-pni^y, .
<* 3. Chameleo vulgaris, chamsBleon, .
" 4. Platydactylus guttatus, gecko, .
" 5. Uroplatus fimbriatus, flat headed
salamander,
" 6. Lophyrus fiircata, lophyrus,
" 7. Crocodilus lucins, alligator,
*' 8. Crocodilus vulgaris, croco(üle, .
437
419
418
433
433
419
419
419
439
433
433
447
436
434
439
436
433
433
433
419
475
474
471
471
473
483
476
471
471
473
470
477
456
456
483
484
485
483
487
487
PLATE 89.
fig. 1. Salamandra maculata, salaman-
der,
" 3. Triton toBniatum, brook salaman-
der,
'* 3. Draco dandini, flying dragon,
'* 4. Scincus officinalis, scink,
" 5. Basiliscus mitratus, barilisk,
'* 6. Iguana tuberculata, suana, .
" 7. I^certa viridis, lizard,
PLATE 90.
Fig. 1. Bufo viridis, green toad, . 464
" 3. Engystoma ovale, 8. Amer. toad, 464
<« 3. Daotelythra oapenas, Ciqpe toad, . 464
460
460
483
477
483
483
481
PLATE 90— (Cmttimetf.)
Fig. 4. Pipa americana, Guiana toad, . 464
" 5. Rana esculenta, frog, . 463
" 6. Hyla viridis, tree or green frog, . 463
** 7. Achrochordus javanica, Java
snake, .473
*' 8. Platurus laticaudis, India water
snake, .... 471
** 9. Elape corallinus, coral snake, . 474
•* 10. Typhline cuvierii, blind scink, . 477
" 1 1. Chelonia mydas, green turtle, . 493
*' 13. Cistudo europsBS, land tortoise, . 493
" 13. Teetudo geometrica, India tor-
toise, .491
PLATE 91.
Fig. 1. Podiceps ciistatus, crested grebe, 591
" 3. Podiceps minor, little grebe, . 591
** 3. Colymbus glacialis, loon, . .591
** 4. Sterna nigra, sooty tern, . 593
" 5. Laras eburoeus, ivory gull, . 593
" 6. Pelecanus crispus, hairy pelican, 594
** 7. Cygnus olor, mute swan, . . 589
" 8. Cygnus ferus, hooper swan, 589
'< 9. Oidemia americana, scoter, . 590
<* 10. Anas crecca, teal, . .590
** 11. Procellaria capensis. Cape pigeon, 593
<' 13. Diomedia exulans, white alba-
tross, .... 593
*' 13. Aptenodytes patagomca, Patago-
nian penguin, 593
♦' 14. Fratercula arctica, puflin, . . 591
*' 15. Alca torda, razor-tdlled auk, 591
PLATE 93.
Tig. I. Carbo cormoranus, cormorant, . 595
** 3. Eudytee cristatus, crested pen-
guin, .... 593
" 3. Tachypetes aquilus, frigate peli-
can, .... 595
** 4. Phaeton aethereus, tropic bird, . 593
*' 5. Plotus anhinga, snake bird, 594
" 6. Sula bassana, booby, . 595
*' 7. Anser segetum, bean goose, 588
" 8. Anas boschas, mallaiS, . 590
*' 9. Anas galericulata, mandarin
duck, .... 590
" 10. Merges cucullatus, hooded mer-
ganser, .... 591
" 11. Laras argentatns, herring gull, . 593
" 13. Sterna hkundo, sea swallow, . 593
PLATE 93.
Fig. 1. Charadius aüratus, plover, . . 583
» 3. Vanellus cristatus, lapwing, . 583
" 3. Gras cinerea, crane, . . 583
*• 4. Platalea leucorrhodia, roseate
spoon-bill, . 584
" 5. Ardea purpurea, purple heron, . 584
" 6. Egretta candidissima, snowy
heron, .... 584
" 7. Ciconia alba, white stork, . 584
« 8. Gallinago major, snipe, . . 586
** 9. Limosa rafa, rafous god wit, 585
« 10. Recurvirostra avocetta, avocet, . 585
" 11. Phanicopterus raber, scariet
flamingo, .... 588
" 12. Ardea ralloides, pigmy heron, . 584
PLATE 94.
Fig. 1. Strathio camolus, oeUioh, . . 581
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CONTENTS.
XT»
Fig. 9. Otb Urda, great bustard, . . 581
*' 3. Otis tetraz, smaller bastard, . 581
" 4. Balearica pavonina, crowned
crane, .... 583
** 5. Botaums stellaris, bittern, . . 584
•* 6. Ibis alba, white ibis, ... 585
•* 7. Namenius arcuatus, curlew, . 585
** 6. Totanus calidris, sandpiper, . 586
" 9. Parra indlca. Indian jacana, . 587
«* 10. Folioa americana, coot, . 587
•• 11. Porphyrio hyacinthinus, hyacinth
gallinuJe, .... 587
" 13. Heliomis surinamenais, son bird, 591
" 13. Totanns ochropus, green sand-
piper, .... 586
PLATE 95.
Fig. 1. Casuariasgaleatos, casBowaiy, . 581
** S. Palamedea cornata, homed
screamer, .... 586
" 3. Ibis ciistatuB, crested ibis, . . 585
*' 4. Tringa rufeecens, rufous sand-
piper, .... 586
** 5. Glareola torqnata, pratincole, . 582
« 6. Himantopus albicollis, stilt, . 585
<* 7. Cinclus inteipras, tumstone, . 583
•* 8. Rallus aqualicus, dusky rail, . 587
** 9. Rallus crez, com crake, . 587
« 10 — 11. Gallus domesticus, common
fowl, .... 577
" 12. Meleagris galloparo, tnrkey, . 577
•< 13. Numida meleagris, guinea fowl, 578
** 14. Pterocles alchaU, desert grouse, 580
<< 15. Tumiz dactylisonans, quail, . 579
PLATE 96.
Fig. 1. Tetrao urogallus, cock of the
woods, .... 579
" 2. Tetrao tetrix, moor cock, . . 580
•< 3. Perdix chierea, grey partridge, . 578
" 4. Perdix mbra, red partridge, . 578
- 5. Pavo cristatus, peacock, . . 575
** 6. Phasianus colchicus, pheasant, . 576
*< 7. Phasianuspictus, golden pheasant, 576
** 8. Argus gigantens, argus pheasant, 576
" 9. Tragopan hastingsii, golden
breasted homed pheasant, . 576
•* 10. Crax mbra, red curassow, . . 574
" 11. Lophortyx califomicus, California
partridge, . .579
" 12. Columba livia, rock pigeon, . 572
<' 13. Columba cenas, blue-backed dove, 572
•* 14. Goura omenta, ground pigeon, , 573
** 15. Columba turtur, turtle dove, . 572
PLATE p7.
Fig. 1. Cacatua solphurea, yellow-erest-
ed cockatoo, . . 567
«* 2. Psittacus erythacus, grey African
parrot .... 566
** 3. Palsomis noalaccensis, Malacca
parrot, .... 566
" 4. Paleorois alexandri, redheaded
parrot, .... 566
" 5. Psittacus melanocephalna, black-
headed parrot, . . 567
•* 6. Trogon curacui, curocui, . . 527
« 7. Trogon viridis, green curacui, . 527
** 8. Bucco maerorfaynchus, puff-bird, • 527
••* 9. Monasa tranquilla, S. Amer.
pttff-biid) . .527
PLATE 97— (Cbnttntrtfct.)
Fig. 10. Capito Tiridiauranthius, green and
orange barbet, . 567
** 11. Pogonias sulcirostris, grooved-
bill barbet, ... 567
« 12. Pteroglossus aracari, long-tailed
aracari, .... 565
" 13. Ramphastns tucanus, largebiUed
toucan, .... 565
pr^TE 98.
Fig. 1. Platycercus viridis, green parrot, 666
*' 2. Ara ararauna, blue and yellow
maccaw, .... 566
«* 3. Ara militaris, military maccaw» 566
" 4. Lorius domicellus, I017, . . 566
" 5. Picus villosus, hairy woodpecker, 567
" 6. Pkuscayennensis, Cayenne wood-
pecker, .... 567
" 7. Gecinus viridis, green wood-
pecker, .... 568
" 8. Picus major, large wookpecker, 567
" 9. Yunx torquilla, wry neck, . . 567
" 10. Pica caudata, magpie, 556
** 11. Corvus monedula, jackdaw, . 555
** 12. Corvus corax, raven, . 555
** 13. Corvus comix, hooded crow, . 555
PLATE 99:
Fig. 1, 3. Garmlus glandarias, jay, . 544
** 2. Nucifraga caiyocatactus, nut-
cracker, .... 556
«* 3. See Fig, 1.
" 4. Paradisea minor, bird of paradise, 531
'< 5. Paradisea regia, king paradise
bird, .... 531
" 6. Paradisea superfoa, supert) para-
dise bird, .... 531
** 7. Paradisea sexsetaoea, ax shafted
paradise bird, . . 531
<* 8. Trochilus moecht^ ruby topaz
hummmg bird, 538
« 9a. Trochilus i>matu8, magnificent
hunmiing bird, 533
** 96. Trochilus colubris, humming bird, 533
•* 10. Trochilus deialandii, De La-
lande's humming bird, . 533
** 11. Trochilus minimus, anaUest
humming turd, . 533
" 12. Trochilus crisUtns, crested
humming bird, . . 533
« 13. Trochilus maorouras, swallow
tailed humming bird, . 538
** 14. Buphaga afiicana, beefeater, . 558
" 15. Stumella ludoviciana, American
larii, 558
" 16. Icterus baltimore, Baltimore
oriole, .... 559
PLATE 100.
Fig. 1. Stumus vulgaris, starling, . . 558
" 2. Loxia pity opaittacus, parrot cross-
bill, 568
" 3. Coccothraustes vulgaris, haw-
finch, . . .560
<< 4ah. Fringilla canaria, canary bird, 561
** 5. FringiUa cannabina, red poll, . 561
** 6. Fringilla domestics, house-spar-
row, .... 561
<' 7. Sylvia Mppolais, willow wren» 541
** 8. Oriolus galbula, oriole, . 547
" 9. Merala vulgaris, blackbird, . 546
•* 10. Menil« sazatUis, rock thniafa, . 546
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ZVIU
CONTENTS.
PLATE KiO^Coniintud.)
Fig. 11. Pastor roseuBy roae colored star-
Hng. ....
** 12. Menila viscivorus, miaeel thrush,
** 13. Merula iliaca» redwing,
" 14. Merula musica, song thrush,
PLATE 101.
Fig. 1. Trochilus granatinus, garnet
humming bird, .
" 2. Pyrrhula europea, bullfinch,
" 3. Spermophila craasirostris, thick-
billed finch,
" 4. Coccothraustes chloris, green
finch, ....
" 5. Fringilla eenegala, Senegal finch,
" 6. Fringilla amaduya, nmaduvat, .
" 7. Vidua regia, king widow bird, .
" 8. Vidua erythrorhynchuB, red-billed
widow bird,
'* 9. Carduelis spinus, siskin,
" 10. Carduelis elegans, goldfinch,
** 11. Calliste tatao, seven-colored tana-
ger, ....
** 12. Fringilla ccBlebs, chafiinch,
** 13. Emberiza hortulana, ortolan,
** 14. Emberiza schceniculus, reed bun-
ting, ....
" 15. Emberiza citrinella, yellow-
hammer, . ' .
** 16. Rupicola aurantia, cock of the
rock, ....
" 17. Mnscicapa grisola, grey fly-
catcher, ....
*' 18. Muscicapa albicollis, white-
necked flycatcher,
" 19. Muscicapa regia, king of the fly-
catchers, ....
** 20. Ampelis camifex, scarlet-crested
chatterer, ....
" 21. Ampelis cortinga, banded chat-
terer, ....
PLATE 102.
Pig. 1
It
3.
t€
3.
€€
4.
t€
5.
tt
6.
U
7.
ft
8.
tt
9.
tt
10.
tt
12.
a
13.
tt
14.
tt
15.
tt
16.
tt
17.
tt
18.
tt
19.
*t
20.
Trochilus albicollis, white-necked
humming bird, .
Certhia familiaris, brown creeper,
ParuB criatatus, crested tit,
Parus major, titmouse,
Alauda calandria, field lark,
Alauda cristata, crested lark,
Alauda arrensis, skylark, .
Acanthiza campestris, hedge war-
bler
Cereba cyanea, blue creeper,
11. Phcßnicura, redstarts, .
Phoenicura suecica, blue throated
Swedish redstart,
Er3rthaca rubecula, robin, .
Menura superba, lyre bird,
Dicrurus forficatus, fork -tailed
droDgo, ....
Cracticus yarius, black and
white shrike,
Vauga cunrirostris, hooked-bill
shrike, ....
Laniarius barbams, Barbary
shrike, ....
Laniarius collurio, red-backed
shrike, .
XifttiiaFwiM exubitor, butcher bird.
558
546
546
546
533
563
563
560
561
561
560
560
561
561
561
561
562
562
562
551
550
550
550
552
552
534
536
544
544
562
562
562
543
532
541
541
541
538
552
553
552
553
553
553
PLATE 103.
Fig. I. Buoeros erythrorhynehus, red-
billed hombill,
" 2. Buceros rhinoceros, rhinoceros
hombill, ....
'* 3. Halcyon atricapilla, black capped
kingfisher,
" 4. Ceryle jayanicus, Jaya kingfisher,
" 5. Alcido ispida, common king-
fisher, ....
" 6. Caprimulgus europseus, goat-
sucker, ....
" 7. Hirundo rustics, swallow, ,
** 8. Cypaelus melba, black martin, .
" 9. Tyrannus seyerus, Cayenne fly-
catcher, ....
*' 10. Milyulus forficatus. South Amer.
flycatcher,
" 11. Parus ater, pine tit, .
** 12. Regulus auricapillus, golden
crested wren,
" 13. Philomela luscinia, nightingale, .
" 14. Curruca hortensis, garden warb-
ler,
" 15. Curruca atricapilla, blackcap
warbler, ....
" 16. Phoenicura ruticilla, common
redstart,
*' 17. Motacilla boarula, grey wagtail,
** 18. Sazicola oenanthe, wheatear,
PLATE 104.
Fig. 1. Strix flammea, European bam
owl, ....
** 2. Otus brachyotus, short eared owl,
'* 3. Otus wilsonianus, long-eared
owl, ....
" 4. Bubo maximus, grand duke,
** 5. Falco peregrinus, wandering
falcon, ....
" 6. Falco 0B?alon, merlin,
" 7. Milyus regalis, kite, .
" 8. Buteo vulgaris, common buzzard,
" 9. Gyps fulyus, griffin vulture,
" 10, Sarcoramphus papa, king vulture,
" 11. Sarcoramphus grjrphus, condor, .
PLATE 105.
Fig. 1. Aquila chrysaetos, golden eagle,
'* 2. Archibutco niger, black buzzard, .
" 3. Pandion oasifragiis, osprey, .
" 4. Haliaetus albicilla, sea eagle,
" 5. Astur palnmbarius, goshawk,
" 6. Accipiter nisus, sparrow hawk, .
" 7. Falco sdbutes, hobby, .
'* 8. Falco alaudarius, kestril.
564
564
528
529
528
524
522
523
549
549
543
541
539
541
541
541
545
541
515
515
515
517
505
506
510
507
501
503
502
507
507
509
508
511
511
506
506
PLATE 105, b.
Chart of the migrations of fishes and birds
(Weltkarte in Mercator'a Projection zur
Uebersicht der jährlichen Wanderungen
der haupteächlichsten Gattungen der
FiBcke und Vögel), .... 497
AUuien In., Aleutian Islands.
Amazonenetrom, Amazon River.
Arabien, Arabia.
ArabiMchei M., Arabian Sea.
Atien, Asia.
AtUmtiseher Ocetm, Atlantio Ooean.
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CONTENTa
liz
QjjossAKt^Ooniinued.)
Bekfing$9tra89e, Behring's Straits.
Bßffint Meer, Baffin's Bay. *
CaUfornieH, California.
Canaritcke In., Canary Islands.
Cap der guten Hoffntatg, Cape of Good Hope.
Cti}9tadt, Capetown.
Cqi Verds In., Cape Verde Islands.
Catfritekea Meer, Caspian Sea.
Dtmau, Danube.
FeUen Geb., Rocky Moontains.
Fen»ter9ckwalben, Domestio swallows.
Feuerland, Terra del Fnego.
Freundtekafte In., Friendly Islands.
GetelUehaftt In., Society Islands.
Gr. Baren See, Great Bear Lake.
Grönland, Greenland.
Groa^nritannien, Great Britain.
Groeeer Ocean, Pacific.
Häringe, Herrings.
Hudaone Meer, Hudson's Bay.
/. MelvilU, Melville Island.
Indieekes Meer, Indian Ocean.
Liaeahon, Lisbon.
Makrelen, Mackerel.
Meerh. o. Bengalen, Bay of Bengal.
Meerb. v. Mexico, Bay of Mexico.
Mongolei, l)||ongolia.
Neuaeeland, New Zealand.
iVett Sibirien, New Siberia.
Nord Amerika, North America.
NördUehea Eiameer, Arctic Sea.
Patagonien, Patagonia.
Saben u. Kraken, Ravens and crows.
Bauchachwalben, Bam swallows.
Buaaiack Amerika, Russian America.
Sekifer In., Navigators' Islands.
Schleiereulen, Bam owls.
Sehwarzea Meer, Black Sea.
Sibirien, Siberia.
Sklavenaee, Slave Lake.
Staare u. Amaeln, Starlings and blackbirds.
Siid Amerika, South America.
Uferaeh^palben, Bank swallows.
Vereinigte Staaten, United States.
Veraammlunga- u. Abzugapunkt, Place of meet*
ing and departure.
Wachteln, Quails.
Waraekau, Warsaw.
Weat Indien, West Indies.
Wien, Vienna.
Wiiate Sahara, Desert of Sahara.
Zeichenerklärung, Explanation of the marks.
PLATE 106.
Fig. 1.
Greenland
Pig.
Balena mysticetns,
whale, ....
8, 3. Physeter macrocephalus, eperm
whale,
4. Delphinos delphis, dolphin,
FLATS 107.
1, 2. Cervns elaphus, stag,
3. Cervus dama, fallow «ker,
4. Cervus capreolos, roebuck,
5. Lepas timidus, hare, .
6. Lepas cuniculus, rabit,
7. 8. Bos tanrus, common ox,
9. Ovis aries, sheep,
10. Capra hircus, goat, .
11. Sehinis volgaris, sqoine].
697
654
655
653
661
661
658
657
656
676
PLATB 108.
Fig. 1. Camelus bactiianus, two-humped
camel, .... 651
" 2. Camelus dromedarius, dromedary, 651
" 3. Camelopardahs girafa, giraife, 651
" 4. Moschus moschifems, musk, 652
" 5. Antilope dorcas, gazelle, . 655
" 6. Antilope redunca, antUope of
Senegal, . .655
PLATE 109,
Fig. 1. Bison americanus, buffalo, 657
*< 2. Bos bubalus, Indian buffalo, . 658
" 3. Rupicapra tragus, chamois, 656
'* 4. Antilope scripta. Cape-elk, 655
" 5. Auchenia alpaca, paco, 651
** 6. Auchenia lama, lama, 651
" 7. Auchenia vicunna, vicunna, 651
** 8, 9. Tarandus furcifer, reindeer, . 654
'* 10. Cervus alces, eland, . . 654
" 11. Siberian horse, .... 648
PLATE 110.
Fig. 1. Equus zebra, zebra, . 648
** 2. £!quu8 aainus, ass, 648
" 3. £Iquus mulus, mule, . 648
« 4. Equus caballus, horse, 647
" 5. Norman team horse, . . 648
" 6. Arabian mare and colt, 647
" 7. Arabian sUllion, ... 647
PLATE 111.
Fig. 1. Tapir indicus, tapir, . . 642
** 2. Hyrax syriacus, daman, . 644
" 3. Dicotyle labiatus, peccary, . . 645
" 4. Porcus babyrussa, Asiatic hog, . 646
" 5. Sus domesticus, domestic hog, . 645
" 6. Sub scropha, wild hog, 645
" 7. Phacochoeras lethiopicus, wart
hog, .... 646
" 8. Hippopotamus amphibius, hippo-
potanras, .... 640
** 9. Elephas indicus, Indian elephant, 643
PLATE 112.
Fig. 1. Oroithorhynchus anatinus, duck*
billed platypus, ... 608
" 2. Echidna aeuleata, porcupine ant-
eater, .... 608
" 3. Manis pentadactyla, pangolin, . 609
" 4. Myrmecophaga didactyla, two-
toed ant-eater, . . .610
'* 5. Myrmecophaga jubata, great ant-
eater, ..... 610
" 6. Chlamydophorus truncatus. Chili
armadillo, . .611
** 7. Dasypus sexcinctus, eix-giidled
armadillo, . . .611
« 8. Dasypus novemcinctns, nine-
girdled armadillo, .611
" 9. Bradypus didactylus, sloth, . 614
" 10. Bradypus tridactylus, ai, . 614
" lla&. Halmaturas laniger, rufous
kangaroo, . 617
<' 12a5. Halmaturas dorsalis, ashy kan-
garoo, .617
** 13. Didelphjrsmurimi, Brazilian opos-
sum, .... 622
*i 14. Dkielphys Virginian«, Virginia
opossum 622
« 15. Nasoa nifa, brown ooati, . . 687
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zz
CONTENTS.
Fig.
Rg.
FLAT! 113.
1. ChinehilU lanigera, chinchilla, .
2a. Cavia cobaya, Guinea pig,
2b. Lagomys alpinus, pika, .
3a. CeiQolabes villosus, Brazil
porcupine,
3b. See 16 ^mistake of the engra-
ver*»).
4. Hystriz cristatus, European por-
cupine, ....
5. Halaroys cafier, Cape jerboa,
6. Mu8 sylvaticas, field mouae,
7. Mu8 rattuB,. black rat,
8. Mua muflculus, common mome,
9. Ciicetus vulgaris, hamster,
10. Myoxus glis, dormouse,
11. Arctom}^ alpinus, marmot,
12, 13. Pteromys yolucella, flying
squirrel, ....
14. SciurusoarolinensiB, grey squirrel,
15. Sciunis mazimus, Malabar squir-
rel,
16. Lutra vulgaris, European otter, .
17. Talpa europea, European mole,
18. ErinaceuB europeus, European
hedgehog,
PLATE 114.
1. Castor fiber americanus, beaver, .
2. Phoca vitulina, seal, .
3. Trichechus rosmarus, walrus,
4. Felis domesticus, cat,
5. Felis domesticus angorensis.
Angora cat,
6. Hysena striata, striped hyena, .
7. Canis aureus, jackal,
8. Canis lupus, wolf,
9. Cams famiUaiis pastoreus, shep-
herd's dog,
10. Lutra canadensis, Canada otter,
11. Ursus maritimus, white polar
bear, ....
FLATS 115.
Fig.
1. Felis leo, lion, .
9. Felis tigris, tiger,
'< 3. Felis leopardus, leopard,
** 4. Felis onca, jaguar,
" 5. Felis pardus, panther, .
*< 6. Lynx europeus, lynx, .
FLATS 116.
1. Vulpes fulvus, red fox,
2. Meles vulgaris, badger,
3. Mustela martes, marten,
Rg.
662
660
664
665
670
669
669
668
669
671
673
672
676
673
690
677
679
671
684
637
695
695
694
693
690
686
695
695
695
695
695
687
FLATS 116— (C0fl(tlltC0<f.)
Fig. 4. Mustela foina, beech marten, . 689
* ** 5. Mustela putorius, polecat, . . 689
** 6. Putorius furo, ferret, ... 689
" 7. Putorius vulgaris, weasel, . 689
" 8. Putorius erminea, ermine, . 689
« 9. Ursus arctos, brown bear, . . 686
" 10. Ursus americanus, black bear, . 686
« 11. Canis familiaiissibericus, Siberian
dog, .... 693
" 12. Canis familiaris, domestic dog, . 692
« 13. Canis familiaris molossus, bull 692
dog, .... 692
** 14. Canis iamiliariB lqx>rarius, grey-
hound, .... 692
" 15. Cams &miliariB normanus, chase
dog, .... 693
" 16. Canis faniiiiaris vertagus, badger
dog, . .693
FLATS 117.
Fig. 1. Galeopithecus rufus, flying lemur, 697
" 2. Plecotus timorieneis, long-eared
• bat, 681
** 3. Vespertilio noctula, common bat, 682
** 4. Vespertilio serotinus, sorotine bat, 682
" 5. Vespertilio murinus, European
bat, 682
** 6. Rhinolophus ferrum equinum,
horse-shoe bat, . . . 681
" 7. Megaderma lyra, broadwinged
bat, 681
" 8. Vampyrus spectrum, vampire, . 681
" 9. Pteropus vulgaris, rouseette, 683
'* 10. Otolicnus senegalensis, galago, . 697
" 11. Lemur pusillus, fox-nosed maki, 697
" 12. Lemur macao, maki, 697
** 13. Cynocephalus maimon, mandrill, 700
" 14. Cercopithecus diana, holoway, . 701
'< 15. Hylobates agiUs, agile gibbon, . 701
FLATS 118.
Fig. 1. Rhinocerus indicus, Indian rhino-
ceros, .... 641
** 2, 3. Cebus capueinus, capucin, 699
" 4. Macacus cynomolgus, hare-
lipped monkey, 700
" 5. Cercopithecus ruber, patras, 701
** 6. Cercopithecus griseus, grey patras, 701
" 7. Macacus silenus, maned maca-
que, 700
" 8. C3mocephalus sphinx, baboon, . 700
" 9. Inuus ecaudatus, Baibary ape, . 700
'* 10. Troglodytes niger, chimpanse, . 701
<* 11. Pitbecus satyms, orang ontang, . 701
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CONTENTS
ANTHEOPOLOGY AND SURGERY.
[Tha
ntw to Uw bottom PHlnf of the ttzt.]
GnriBAL CONSIDSRATIONS, . . . . •
1. Poeation of Man in Organic Nature,
2. Varieties of Mankind, ....
8. Internal Structure aud Vital Phenomena of Man, .
4. Constituente and Elementary Tmne of the Human Body,
5. Arrangement of Special Systematic Anatomy,
L Anatomy of the Bones and Ligaments (Osteology and Syndesmolc^),
1. Articulations of the Human Skdeton,
2. Bones of the Head,
A, Bones of the Cranium,
B, Bones of the Face,
C General Considerations respecting the Head,
8. Special Anatomy of the Spine,
A, Bones of the Trunk, .
B. Articulations and Ligaments of the Spine,
4. Spedal Anatomy of the Thorax, .
A, Bones of the Thorax, .
B, Articulations and ligaments of the Thorax,
6. Spedal Anatomy of the Superior Extremities,
A, Bones of the Superior Extremities,
B. Articulations and Ligaments of the Superior Extremities,
6. Special Anatomy of the Inferior Extremities,
A Bones of the Inferior Extremities,
B. Articulations and Ligaments of the Inferior ExtremitieB,
IL The Mu8^ or the Myology of the Human Fhime,
1. General Anatomy of the Muscles,
2. Anatomy of the Fasci», .
8. Spedal Anatomy of the Muscles,
A. Muscles of the Head, .
B. Muscles of the Neck, .
C. Muscles, of the Anterior and lateral Parts of the Thcnrax.
D. Muscles of the Back, .
£. Muscles of the Abdomen and Pelvis,
jP. Muadee of the Superior Extremities,
707
707
708
715
715
716
717
717
719
719
723
726
728
728
730
782
732
733
734
734
737
740
740
746
760
760
762
766
766
768
761
768
766
769
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xxü CONTENTS.
Myology — ( Continited.)
'-
G. Muscleä of the Inferior Extremities,
. 775
m. The Vascular System (Angeiology),
. 782
1. Special Anatomy of the Heart,
. 783
2. Special Anatomy of the Arteries, .
. 786
A The Arch of the Aorta,
. 787
jB. The Carotid Arteries,
. 788
C, The Subclavian Arteries and their Continuations,
. 791
D, Thoracic Aorta, . . . •
. 795
a. Abdominal Aorta, ....
. 796
F. Hiac Arteries, ....
. 798
3. The Veins, .....
. 801
A. Veins of the Head and Neck, .
. 802
JB, Veins of the Superior Extremities,
. 805
C. Veins of the Inferior Extremities,
. 806
4. The Portal System, ....
. 807
5. The Lymphatics, .....
. 808
rV. The Nervous System (Neurology),
. 810
1. General Considerations, ....
. 810
2. Anatomy of the Brain, ....
. 813
A. Membranes of the Brain and Spinal Cord,
. 813
JB. The Spinal Cord, ....
. 816
C. The Encephalon, ....
. 818
3. Psychological Relations of the Brain,
. 825
A, Phrenological System of Gall and Spurzheim, .
. 826
JB. The more modem Methods of Cranioscopical Invest
ligation, . 830
4. Anatomy of the Nerves, ....
. 833
A. Cerebral Nerves, ....
. 833
JB. Spinal Nerves, . • . .
. 837
C. Sympathetic System, ....
. 844
V. Organs of Swise, .....
. 851
1. Anatomy of the Integuments,
. 851
2. Anatomy of the Nose, or Organ of Smell, .
. 856
8. Anatomy of the Ear, or Organ of Hearing, .
. 859
Au External Ear, .
. 860
JB. Middle Ear, . . .
. . .861
C. Internal Ear, .....
. 863
4. Anatomy of the Eye, or Organ of Vision, .
. 867
A. Appendages of the Eye not directly concerned in V
ision, . 867
JB. The Eye-ball, ....
. 874
VI. Organs of Respiration and Voice,
. 882
1. The Larynx, .....
. 882
2. The Trachea, ....
. 884
3. The Lungs, . • • • •
. 885
4. The Function of Respiration,
' . 887
VU. Organs of Digestion (Splanchnology), • • •
. 889
1. Organs of Mastication and D^lutition,
. 890
2. Organs of Asfiimilation, ....
. 898
Vin. Urinary Organs, . . . . •
. 906
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CONTENTS.
XXUl
Timm
Suigery, ......••• 909
1. Blood Letting, ........ 909
2. Sewing up of Wounds, or Sutura Cnienti, • .911
3. Aneurism, .....••. 912
4. Trepanning, ....••.. 914
5. Operations on the Eye, ...•••. 916
6. Hare-lip, ....••.. 918
1. Cleft Palate, . . . . . . . .919
8. Odontalgia, ........ 920
9. Restoration of Lost Parts, ....•• 920
10. Extirpation of Portions of the Tongue, . . • • . 922
11. (Esophagotomy, . . \ . . . . 922
12. Amputation, ........ 923
13. Fractures, ........ 925
14. Calculus, . . . • • . . . 925
CONTENTS OF THE PllTES (L Noi. 119— MO)
ANTHROPOLOGY AND SURGERY.
^dading the tmulatton of the Oermaa words on |riate 119.]
«*« The references for explanations of the subjects are to the bottom paging of the text.
PLATE 119.
1—^. VarietioB of Mankind, . .714
10—13. Facial angles, . .714
Centre figure. Chart of the five races of Blumen-
bach.
GLOSSARY.
I.
n.
KmUuuiiche oder Weisse Raee, Caucasian
or White Race.
Mongolische odor Gelbe Bace, Mongolian or
Yellow Race,
in. äthiopische oder Schwarze Race, Ethio-
pian or Black Race.
IV. Amerikanische oder Kupferfarbige Race,
American or Copper-colored Race,
v. Maiaiifisehe oder OUvenfarbige Race, Malay
or 01i?e-ooIored Race.
F. I his 4. Grundzüge (Tifpus) der Kaukasi-
schsH Race, Figs. 1—4. Types of
the Caucasian Race.
Figur 5. Grundzüge der Mongolischen Race,
Flg. 5. Type of the Mongolian
Race.
Figwr 6. Grundzüge der äthiopischen Race,
Fig. 6. Type of the Ethiopian
Race.
F, 7, 8. Grundzüge der Kupferfarbigen Race,
Pigs. 7, 8. Type of the Copper-
colored Race.
GLOSSARY — {Continued.)
Figur 9. Grundzüge der Olivenfarbigen Race,
Fig 9. Type of the OÜTOHioloied
Race.
Afghanen, Afghans.
Algonkiren, Algonkins.
Araber, Arabs.
Azteken, Azteks.
Berbern, Berbers.
Birmanen, Birmane.
Bucharen, Bucharians.
Caffem, Caffi^.
Califomier, Califomians.
Canadier, Canadians.
Caraiben, Caribbeans.
Gelten, Celts.
Chaldäer, Chaldeans.
Chinesen, Chinese.
Cinbebaesen, Cinbebassee.
Colombier, Colombians.
Elevten, Aleutians.
Eskimos, Esquimaux.
Ethiopier, EUiiopians.
FeUatas, Fellauh.
Finnen, Finns.
Germanen, Grermans.
Gothen, Goths.
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OLOSSAKY — (Continued.)
HinduM, Hindoos.
Hottentotten, Hottentots.
Iberier, Iberians.
Jakuten, Yacoots.
Japanesen, Japanese.
Jukaghiren, Youkaghirs.
Kalmücken, Calnracks.
Kamtsckadulen, Kamskadalee.
Kaukaner, Caucasians.
Kirghieen, Kirghese.
Koriälen, Koreans.
Kosaken, Cossacks.
Kriks, Creek Indians.
Lappen, Laplanders.
Letten, Lethonians.
Madagassen, Madagassees.
Mandschus, Manchoos.
Mauren, Moors.
Mongolen, Mongols.
Neger, Negroes.
Negritos, Negritoes.
I{euseeländer, New Zealanders.
Osagen, Osagee.
Ostnanen, Osmanli.
Ostiaken, Ostiaks.
Patagonen, Patagonians.
Felasger, Pelasgians.
Perser, Persians.
Samojeden, Samoeids.
i^ttt«, Sioux Indians.
Sloven, Slavonians.
Suyten, Soyetes.
Tibetaner, Thibetans.
Tschucktschen, Tchoukches.
Tungusen, Tungus.
Wbgmlen, Vogub.
PLATE 120.
Figs. I— SI. Illustrating the psychological
relations of the brain (Phre-
nology), .
PLATE 131.
Figs. 1—19. The bones of the head,
PLATE 123.
Rgs. 1 — 31. Anatomy of the bones,
PLATE 123.
Figs. 1 — 50. Anatomy of the bones,
PLATE 124.
Figs. 1 — 14. Anatomy of the ligaments,
<* 15—17. Anatomy of the muscles.
rjuam
PLATE 135.
pw«
Figs. 1—18.
" 19,30.
Anatomy of the ligaHMDts, .
Anatomy of the muscles,
PLATE 136.
717
750
Figs. 1—19.
" 20,21.
Anatomy of the ligaments, .
Anatomy of the muscles,
PLATE 137.
717
750
Figs. 1—15.
Anatomy of the muscles,
PLATE 138.
750
Figs. 1—19.
Anatomy of the muscles,
PLATE 129.
750
Figs. 1—22.
«23—26.
« 27—30.
" 31^38.
Anatomy of the fasciie.
Organs of mastication and
deglutition,
Organs of respiration and
voice. ....
PLATE 130.
752
851
890
889
Rgs. 1—21.
Anatomy of the organs of
digestion, ....
PLATE 131.
889
Figs. 1-45.
Anatomy of the eye, .
PLATE 132.
867
Figs. 1—25.
" 26-45.
Anatomy of the ear, .
Anatomy of the nose, .
PLATE 133.
859
856
Figs. 1—13.
Anatomy of the yaseular
system, ....
PLATE 134.
782
Figs. 1—13.
Anatomy of the vascular sys-
tem
PLATE 135.
789
I
Figs. 1—17.
Anatomy of the vascular sys-
tem, ....
PLATE 136.
782
. 835
Figs. 1—16.
Anatomy of the yascnlar sys-
tem, ....
782
. 719
PLATE 137.
Figs. 1—21.
Anatomy of the brain and
nerves, ....
810
. 717
PLATE 138.
Figs. 1—14.
Anatomy of the nerves.
810
. 717
PLATE 139.
Figs. 1^35.
Various surgical operations, .
909
. 717
PLATE 140.
. 750
Figs. 1—90.
Various surgical instruments.
909
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BOTANY .
Platbs 64 — 73.
Introduction.
Botany makes us acquainted with plants, or the vegetable kingdom.
Plants are organized productions of nature, possessing neither sensation nor
voluntary motion.
The vital actions of the plant have for their object, solely, the nourishment
of the individual and the continuation of the species. In animals, on the
other hand, life is exhibited in a more complicated manner : since we not
only find actions occur which are directed to some special purpose, or
produced by some inward impulse, but the faculty of sensation here presents
itself for the first time ; that is, the power of bringing home to consciousness
by means of the senses, the impressions of the external world. Hence we
term the animal animate, the plant inanimate ; and for the same reason the
functions of nutrition and reproduction possessed by both plants and
animals are said to be expressions of the vegetable, while those of sensation
and voluntary motion peculiar to the animal, belong to the animal life.
The motions of the so-called sensitive plants, as the clover {Hedysai^m •
gyrans), Venus Fly-trap {Dioncea muscipula), various mimosas {Mimosa
pudica, sensitiva, and others), are not spontaneous or innate, but rather
dependent on external influences, or else are the result of purely mechanical
operations, as exemplified in the bursting of seed capsules. Even if in the
above-mentioned movements of plants, as well as in the sleep of plants and
similar phenomena, it be impossible to deny a certain sensibility to light, air,
cold, heat, &c., yet we need never confound such manifestations of vitality
with the conscious perceptions of the animal.
Striking as is the difference between a plant and an animal, as seen in the
higher organisms of both kingdoms, yet individual cases do occur in which
the line of distinction is very difficult to draw ; where the entire structure
is so simple, that the same object has been referred now to one kingdom»
and now to another. It must also be noted, that this difficulty of separation
lies not between the highest plant and the lowest animal, but between the
lowest of these ; the distinctions and distance widening between the two as
we ascend in the scale of structure.
Essentials to the Existence of Plants.
Plants in general require for their existence : 1, a soil into which they
may root, and from which they may derive certain materials necessary to
lOOKOORAPHIO BNOTOLOP.ADIA.- -VOL. II. 1 1
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2 BOTANY.
their growth ; 2, water, through which, as a dissolving medium, all the
substances derived from the soil are introduced into the plant ; 3, atmo-
spheric air, from which the plant absorbs carbonic acid by day, fixing
its carbon, and exhaling the oxygen ; 4, light, which facilitates the reception
of nutriment, operates in respiration and in the coloration of the different
parts of the plant, and in part causes the sleep of plants; 5, heat,
co-operating with light in the last result, and in causing the imbibition of
liquid food, and likewise influencing germination and the periodical growth
of plants. Electricity has long been known as influencing the growth of
plants, but the precise nature and extent of its action are not satisfactorily
established, although numerous experiments have been made on the subject.
I. ELEMENTARY ORGANS OF PLANTS.
, 1. Cellular Tissue.
Cellular Tissue is the elementary material found in all plants, and in all
parts of the plant. As the name indicates, it is composed of an aggregation
of cells of different shapes. The single cell, when isolated, is spherical or
spheroidal, the shape, however, varying considerably when aggregated.
Some special names for differently shaped aggregated cells, are as follows ;
1. Parenchyma, cells of dodecahedral character, and whose transverse
section is subhexagonal. The term has been applied to cellular tissue in
general. 2. Sphcerenchyma, spherical cells. 3. Merenchyma, spheroidal
cells. 4. Ovenchyma, oval cells, — very common in herbaceous plants, ö.
Conenchyma, conical cells, as in some hairs. 6. Columnar tissue, divided
into Cylindrenchyma, where the cells are cylindrical, and Prisme7tchym<L
where they are prismatic. This, when compressed, becomes Muriform,
and when depressed, Pinenchyma, 7. Prosenchyma, fusiform or spindle-
shaped cells, as in bark and wood. 8. Colpenchyma, sinuous or waved
cells. 9. Cladenchyma, branched cells, as in some hairs. 10. Actinenchyma,
stellate or radiating cells. 11. Dasdalenchyma, entangled, branched, and
tabular cells.
The size of cells varies greatly, not only in different plants, but in
different parts of the same plant. The largest are about j\ of an inch in
diameter ; the more usual size, however, is jijg, sometimes tAt- Each cell
is originally isolated with a completely investing wall, which, however, in
some rare instances, is observed to be perforated. The passage of liquids
in and out of the single cell is performed by endosmosis. The anatomy of
the cell itself and. the probable mode of reproduction will be referred to
hereafter. Although cells have each a distinct wall, so that when two come
in contact they are separated by a double partition, yet this, on the one
hand, may appear to be single, and on the other, may become entirely
absorbed, so as to form a continuous cavity. There may, at times, be a
lateral communication between contiguous series of cells. Single cells, such
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BOTANY. 3
as the spores of certain aquatic plants, may have ciliee or fine hairs, by
means of which they can execute a progressive motion through the water.
Under such circumstances, they have often been considered and described
as infusorial animalcula.
Pitted Tissue (Bothrenchyma) is a modification of cellular tissue caused
by the unequal deposit of the thickening matter in the wall of the cell,
leaving thinner portions, which, when viewed by transmitted light, appear
like pores or pits. A spiral thread or fibre is sometimes found coiled up in
the inside of the true cell wall, which, when the latter is dissolved, uncoils
and exhibits itself in its true character. Such cells, called spiral cells
(Inenchyma), are frequent in the orchidaceous and cactaceous plants. This
fibre varies from jAv to -nmnr of an inch in diameter, and is solid, with a
cross-section of various shape. The coils of the spire are sometimes
broken up and recombined in various ways, so as to appejar as rings,
reticulations, bars, or dots, thus producing annular, reticulated, scalariform,
or dotted cells.
Cells are sometimes aggregated so closely together as to leave no visible
interspaces, the tissue being then termed perfect Parenchyma, Imperfect
Parenchyma is where the cells touch at certain points only, leaving intervals,
which, when regular and continuous, are called intercellular passages or
canals ; when irregular and limited, intercellular spaces or Lacunce. A
division of cellular tissue is sometimes made into Parenchyma, where the
cells fit together by plane faces, as in the pith and outer bark, and
Prosenchyma, where the cells are fusiform, this being confined to the inner
bark and wood. The mode in which the combination of cells is effected,
varies under different circumstances ; sometimes they are simply approxi-
mated and fused together, sometimes united by an intercellular matter
which, in sea weeds, forms a considerable part of the bulk of the plant.
The external investment of the cell is composed of an unazotized
primary matter, termed cellulose. This is lined by an originally mucilaginous
matter containing nitrogen, called Protoplasm, and inside of this is the
Cytoblastema. A weak solution of iodine applied to the young cell causes
the protoplasm to turn brown and leave the cellulose. The tissue is further
modified by the addition of various matters, the most important of which is
Sclerogen or Lignine applied on the inside, the substance to which wood
owes its hardness. This consists of C35, H24, OlO, and may be dissolved
by hot nitric acid. In all cell deposits there is a more or less tendency to a
spiral arrangement.
Each cell will be found to contain, at one period of its existence, a small
body called a nucleus, this often embracing one or two minute dots called
nucleoli. This nucleus may either lie free in the cell, or be attached bv
threads, or fastened directly to the cell wall. Some recent authorities of
great weight, however, deny the existence of a primordial nucleus in every
cell.
In addition to the carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, found
universally as the constituents of the cell, there are other materials more
variable in their appearance and amount, as Sulphur, Phosphorus, Potash,
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4 BOTANY.
Soda, Limey Alumina, Magnesia, Silica, and Iron; more rarely Iodine,
Chlorine, Copper, Bromine, and Manganese. These will be subsequently
referred to more at length. Starch is included in the cells of all plants at
some period of their existence, and forms one of the most important distinc-
tive characters between the animal and vegetable tissues. Crystals also, or
Raphides of various shapes and characters are found in the interior of cells,
either lying loose or suspended from the walls. Sometimes there will be a
single large crystal in a cell, and again several may be inclosed together.
They abound in certain plants, as Cacti, to such an extent, as to exceed in
weight the other constituents of the tissue. The raphides are all formed by
the action of organic acids, as phosphoric, oxalic, &c.
Jelly is another occasional element of cells. This is hard and horny
when dry, slowly soluble in water, and unacted on by iodine. It sometimes
fills particular cells, as in the stems of some Cacti. It is to this substance
that carrageen moss and other plants owe their gelatinous propei*ties.
Chlorophylle, the green coloring matter of plants, and Chromule, the
coloring matter not green, are additional contents of cells.
Various and quite conflicting opinions have been propounded by difierent
eminent vegetable physiologists as to the development (Cytogenesis) and
functions of cells. Perhaps the more generally received opinion is, that in
the blastema, or primordial matter, the nucleus, which is itself a minute cell,
is first formed, and exerting a directing influence upon the inclosing matter,
causes it to assume a cell-shape. With the absorption of new matter from
the blastema the nucleoli increase in size and finally separate, each one
forming around itself new cells, which, enlarging, burst the original cell.
The new cells contain nucleated nuclei, by means of which the same
operation is repeated, the increase taking place in a determinate direction.
This constitutes the endogenous theory of cell development. The exogenous
theory supposes an influence to be exerted by a cell on the surrounding
matter, resulting in the addition or aggregation of new matter. This view
does not require the existence of a nucleus. According to others, again, the
old cell becomes separated by a constriction, or a projecting partition, into
two cells, each of which may or may not include a nucleus. This is the
merismatic or fissiparous theory. Many attribute to electric currents,
produced by the various chemical actions, the influences which cause the
different cell phenomena. The development of cells sometimes takes place
v/ith extraordinary rapidity, especially in the Fungi. Thus, in Bovista
gigantea, they have been supposed to be produced at the rate of sixty-six
millions in a minute.
2. Vascui^ar Tissue.
Vascular Tissue, or Angienchyma, consists of tubes whose length
greatly exceeds their breadth. They may be formed of membrane only,
or of membrane variously modified. Woody fibre, or ligneous tissue
(Pleurenchyma), consists of tubes or elongated cells, of a fusiform or
spindle-shape, with the walls greatly thickened by sclerogenous deposits.
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BOTANY. 5
These overlap each other, and are so combined as to give great strength
and firmness to the plant. It differs from simple cellular tissue in its
cyUndrical and elongated form. The term Prosenchyma is properly
applied to short fusiform cellular tissue. Woody tissue is found in wood,
in the inner bark, and in the skeleton of the leaf, and may be separated
from the other portions of the plant by maceration. It is thus that flax,
hemp, and linen (all of them forms of ligneous fibre) are obtained. Cotton,
on the other hand, consists of elongated cells or hairs, which collapse on
drying, and twist spirally, as seen under the microscope, this constituting an
excellent test to distinguish the latter from the former. Common pleuren-
chyma presents no markings ; in glandular, on the other hand, the tubes
exhibit discoid depressions on the outside of the wall. The depressions of
two contiguous tubes are generally opposite to each other, and thus inclose
a doubly convex lenticular space. In some cases there is a secondary
depression in the bottom of the primary, which, when viewed by transmitted
light, appears as a light circle inside of a darker one. This glandular or
punctated woody tissue is exhibited in all the Coniferse, and serves as an
excellent microscopical character for fossil woods.
FiBRo-VAScuLAR TissuB {Trachenchymo) consists of tapering membranous
tubes, and having either a spiral fibre inclosed, or else markings of rings,
dots, or bars, arranged in a more or less spiral form. This tissue occurs
especially in the medullary sheath, and in the veins of the leaves. True
Spiral Vessels (Spiroidea) exhibit themselves as elongated tubes, over-
lapping at the conical extremities, with a spiral fibre on the inside, not on
the outside, as has been erroneously stated. The thin outer membrane
consists of pure cellulose. The point where two successive spiral vessels
overlap is sometimes absorbed, so as to present a free communication. The
internal fibre is generally single ; more rarely a greater number, as from two
to twenty, are combined, so as to present a band constituting Pkiotrachece.
The spiral generally turns from right to left. The coils may be separated
or united : this union among each other, and to the sides of the vessel, may
be so close as to constitute closed tracheae.
Spurious Tracheae, or ducts, are vessels in which the internal spiral is
broken up and variously modified. A principal variety is the annular,
where the broken coils are combined into rings, which may be horizontal or
oblique, simple or branched, contiguous or remote. In reticulated vessels
separate fibres run into each other on the walls of the tube ; when the fibre
is broken up into short pieces which adhere to the walls, the vessel becomes
dotted. In scalariform vessels the pieces of the fibre are shorter, and passing
transversely, and nearly parallel across the vessel, present an appearance
not unlike that of the rounds of a ladder. Such vessels are generally
prismatic, as in Ferns, the angles being unmarked.
In Vasiform Tissue ' (Bothrenchyma, or Taphrenchyma) the vessels
exhibit an appearance of pores on the surface. These vessels consist of
cylinders, more or less elongated, in which the thickening matter is so
deposited as to leave part of the membrane uncovered, thus causing the
porous or pitted appearance.
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6 BOTANY.
Laticipbroub Tissue, or Cinenchyma, consists of long homc^neous
tubes, branching and anastomosing like the blood-vessels of animals. Their
walls exhibit no markings, but vary in thickness. They contain and
conduct a granular liquid matter called latex, which, at first transparent,
subsequently becomes variously colored. Physiologists differ as to the
origin of these vessels, some supposing them to be formed by linearly
arranged cells, whose walls are absorbed at the extremities, so as to form a
continuous tube in which the latex subsequently flows ; while others, again,
maintain that the current is first established in the intercellular spaces, and
that the inclosing wall is formed afterwards.
There are no elementary forms of tissue other than those already
mentioned, the rest -being simple modifications of the above. The various
air vessels, cysts, reservoirs of secreted matter, &c., are either intercellular
spaces, or cells filled with air or with peculiar secretions. The air cells are
seen in peculiar modifications in the stems of many water plants and grasses.
II. COMPOUND ORGANS OF PLANTS.
I. Organs of Nutrition or Vegetation.
1. The General Integument.
By the term General Integument, is meant the external cellular covering
of the plant, composed, in most cases, of two layers, the cuticle and
qi)idermis.
The Superficial Pellicle, or Cuticle, is a very thin continuous membrane
spread over the epidermis, and investing all parts except the stomata, down
whose cavity, however, it sometimes dips, forming a very delicate lining.
Some physiologists, with Mohl at their head, do not admit this as a separate
membrane from the epidermis, supposing it to consist of the external coat
of the cell thus separated from the protoplasm ; others, again, suppose it to
be a secretion from the cell, which, forming first on the inside, transudes to
the outer surface. The epidermis, which lies subjacent to the cuticle, is
found on all parts of the plant exposed to air excepting the stigma. In parts
habitually submerged it is replaced by a simple cuticle. The epidermis is
composed of cells, generally tabular, and arranged in a greater or less
number of layers, these cells being bounded by flexuous or straight lines,
containing either a colorless liquid or other substances, as resinous matter,
wax, silica, carbonate of lime, &c. The stomata are openings between
some of the cells of the epidermis, by which a communication is established
between the air and the subjacent parts. They generally consist of two
semilunar cells, surrounding an oval slit, as lips inclose the mouth. They
open and close according to the greater or less amount of moisture in the
atmosphere. The stomata communicate with intercellular spaces, lined by
the above-mentioned prolongations of the cuticle, called cistomata.
6
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BOTANY.
Stomata occur on all portions of the plant, especially in the green parts.
They rarely exist in the Cellulares or in pale parasites, and never in roots
and etiolated plants. The number varies greatly in different portions of the
same plant, being, however, greatest on the under side of leaves exposed to
tJie air, and yet sometimes entirely wanting on the upper surfaces. In
floating leaves the stomata only occur on the upper surface. The
following table exhibits the number of stomata to the square inch on the
leaves of several plants:
Plants.
Upper Side.
Under Side.
Plants.
Upper Side.
Under Side.
Mistletoe . . .
Tradescantia . .
Rheum palmatum
Crinum amabile .
Aloe
Clove Pink . .
200
2000
1000
20,000
25,000
38,500
200
2000
40,000
20,000
20,000
38,500
Yucca . .
Mezereon .
Paeony . .
Vine . . .
Lilac . . .
Holly . . .
40,000
none
none
none
none
none
40,000
4000
13,000
13,600
160,000
63,000
Various processes are seen at times on the surface of the epidermis by
the outward enlargement or projection of some cells. When these are
more considerably elongated they constitute hairs (pili or villi) , and are
covered by the cuticle as by a sheath. They are either lymphatic or
glandular, the latter distended at the base or apex, to receive certain
secretions. In respect to position, hairs are erect or oblique, or else lie flat
along the surface (adpressed) ; when attached by their middle, they are
peltate. They may be composed of a single cell, which is either simple^
forked, or branched ; or else of several cells, which are either placed end
to end, as in moniliform hairs, or united laterally into a compound cone,
compound hairs, or branched. When several hairs proceed from a common
centre, they are said to be stellate or radiated. These, when close pressed
together, so as to form a discoid expansion, constitute a scale or scurf (lepis) ;
the surface is then said to be lepidote. This character is well seen in
Hippophae. A chaffy substance, surrounding the base of the leaves of ferns,
consisting of elongated flattened cells, is constituted by ramenta or
ramentaceous hairs: a similar substance in palms is called reticulum or
matttUa, Prickles (aculei) are hardened hairs, connected solely with the
epidermis. These differ from thorns, which are stunted branches, and
are connected with the wood. Setce are bristles or stiff hairs ; the surfaces
on which they occur are said to be setose or setaceous.
Hairs, in regard to their form, are clavate, or club-shaped, when they
expand gradually from the base to the apex, or are thickened at the apex ;
when there is a distinct rounded head, they are capitate ; when they have
slight projections on the surface, they are scabrous; hooked or uncinate,
when with a hook at the apex turned downwards ; barbed or glochidiate,
with two or more hooks around the apex ; peltate, when attached solely in
the middle ; ciliate, when surrounding the margin of leaves.
Hairs are found on various parts of plants, even in the interior, and
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8 BOTANY.
different names are given to surfaces, according to the degree to which
hairs are developed, as well as according to the nature of the hairs them-
selves. Thus, a surface is glabrous, when there are no hairs whatever ;
pilose or hairy, when such exist ; villous, when the hairs are long, weak,
and often oblique ; sericeous, when the hairs are long and adpressed, with a
silky lustre; hispid (hirtus), when the hairs are long and stiff, but not
adpressed ; hirsute, when they are long, but neither stiff nor adpressed ;
velvety (yelutinus), when there is a dense covering of short down, like
velvet ; tomentose, when the surface is covered with crisp, rather rigid
entangled hairs, like cotton, forming a kind of felt ; woolly, when the hairs
are long and matted, like wool ; bearded or stupose, when the hair occurs in
small tufts.
As glandular hairs differ in nothing but form from true glands, we shall
consider both together. A gland is a cavity in the epidermis, with
variously shaped walls, usually inclosing a peculiar secretion. When
supported on a stem, glands are petiolate, stipitate, or stalked; when
without this, they become sessile. Stalked glands, or glandular hairs, are
composed either of a single cell, dilated at the apex, or of several combined.
The gland is sometimes situated at the base of the hair; which is perforated
to receive the secretion, as in the common nettle. Here the apex is closed
by a solid cap, which breaks off at the slightest touch, leaving the poison to
pass into the wound.
Glands sometimes occur as secreting cells surrounding a pit or depression.
These communicate with the surface by means of a canal. Sometimes only
the apex of the gland comes to the surface, at others it is entirely below ; in
this latter case the gland is vesicular. Warts (verrucce) are collections of
thickened cells on the surface of plants, containing various matters.
Lenticels are cellular projections on the surface of bark, arising from its
inner portion.
The object of the epidermis and its appendages is to protect the plant
from noxious influences, whether atmospheric, meteorological, or animal.
Thus, in dry climates it is very thick, and coated with a waxy secretion, to
prevent the loss of water. The stomata permit the escape of fluid from the
interior, and exhibit a compensating contrivance, by which, when the plant
is distended with liquid, they are opened to their utmost, closing more and
more with the loss of moisture. A communication is kept up between the
air and inner bark by means of lenticels, which thus perform the functions
of stomata. The young roots are produced from them under certain
circumstances. Some hairs occurring on the stile of flowers are called
collecting hairs, from the office they possess in taking up the pollen. In
many hairs, especially in those of Tradescantia or spider wort, a circulation
of fluids may readily be seen to take place, called Cyclosis,
2. Descending Stem or Root.
The truly compound organs of the plant are the axis and its appendages,
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the epidermis and its appendages being merely the general investment
The axis consists of a root and a steniy growing generally in diametrically
opposite directions. The axis is produced by the development of a spore,
an embryo, or a leaf-bud, in two OK>osite directions. A spore is a young
plant produced in the interior of another, without any agency of sexes, and
having no determinate point of growth. An embryo is a young plant
produced by the agency of sexes, and situated within a seed, having a
determinate point or points of growth. A leaf-bud is a J^oung plant
produced without the agency of sexes, inclosed within rudimentary leaves or
scales, and developed on the outside of a stem. The spore and embryo
propagate the species in the person of distinct individuals ; the leaf-bud
propagates the species in the form of an aggregation of individuals. When
the vital action of either spore, embryo, or bud, is excited, development
takes place upwards, downwards, and laterally or horizontally ; in the first
case causing an elongation of stem, in the second of root, in the third
producing an increase in thickness.
The rooty or descending axis, is distinguished from the stem by the
absence of normal buds and of stomata ; in exogens there is generally no
pith, although a medullary system is present. The objects of the root are
twofold: to fix the plant firmly in the earth, and to absorb nutritious
substances from the soil. Although roots are generally subterranean, they
may sometimes be aerial. Such roots occur in epiphytes, or air plants, as
also in species of Ficus, well shown in the Indian Banyan. In this case
they are called adventitious, or abnormal. Green-colored aerial roots
contain stomata. In certain parasites, as the Dodder or Cuscuta, roots are
sometimes produced in the form of suckers, which enter the cellular tissue
of the plant preyed upon. Roots exposed for a long time to the air,
sometimes lose their fibrils and develope abnormal buds.
The form of roots varies exceedingly with the manner in which the axis
descends and branches. When this central axis goes deep into the ground,
tapering towards the apex, and without dividing, a tap root is produced.
When this tap root becomes somewhat shortened, and at the same time
succulent, it constitutes the conical root, as in the carrot ; when there is a
slight rounding at both extremities, instead of a straight outline, the root is
fusiform, as in the radish ; when the axis is much shortened in proportion
to the thickest diameter, we have the napiform root of the turnip ; if the
root end abruptly, as if bitten oflf, it is called prcemorse ; it may also be
twisted.
When the descending axis is very short, and at once divides into a
number of nearly equal thin fibrils, the root is fibrous, as in many grasses ;
when these fibrils are short and succulent, the root is fasciculated ; when
the fasciculi are uniform and arranged like coral, the root is coralline ;
when some of the fibrils are developed in the form of starchy tubercles, the
root is tubercular ; it is nodulose when the fibrils enlarge in certain parts
only ; moniliform when the enlargement is at regular intervals, and of
nearly equal size, like a string of beads. The root may also be annulated,
when divided by constrictions into partial rings ; placentiform, when
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10 BOTANY.
expanded like a cake ; testiculate, when there are two large tubermd roots
of nearly equal size.
3. Ascending Axis, or the Stem.
The stem is the part of the plant usually exposed above the ground, and
bearing the leaves and flowers ; it is produced by the successive development
of leaf buds in a longitudinal and lateral direction. The stem bears difierent
names, according to the character of the plant. Thus, in ordinary herbaceous
plants, it is called caulis ; in the case of trees, truncus ; in shrubs, caudex ;
in grasses, culm; in palms and ferns, stipe. When a distinct stem is present,
the plant is called caulescent, when it is absent acaulescent. True stems are
sometimes absent in certain plants, which consist merely of expansions of
cellular tissue, in the form of aggregations of cells. Such are called Thai"
logens, or Thallophytes, and are represented by Chara, Conferva, and Alga.
' Stems, although more generally firm and erect, are sometimes weak, and
either lie prostrate (procumbent stems), or climb like the ivy by means of
suckers (scandent), or twist round other plants (volvbile). The direction of
the twist may be either from right to left, as in Convolvulus, or from
left to right, as in the Honeysuckle. Some plants exhibit both directions
alternately. The twining plants have generally herbaceous stems ; some,
however, are woody, as the Clematis, Vine, Honeysuckle, &c., whose
stems are called Sarmenta. Woody climbers are very common in
tropical climates, where they are called Lianas. In some cases, the lateral
extension exceeds the longitudinal, as in Testudinaria and some Cacti.
There are certain points along stems, at which leaf buds and branches
appear ; these are called nodes, and generally occur symmetrically. The
spaces between the nodes are called intemodes. A branch is but the
development of a leaf bud from one of the nodes. Spines are abortive
branches, and, in many cases, by change of culture, may be developed into
leaf or fruit bearing branches.
When the stem is woody and continues to increase indefinitely, we have
either trees or shrubs ; trees when there is but one stem, shrubs when there
are several stems, mostly of equal size, springing up tc^ther from the ground.
A division of the shrub is sometimes made into the true shrub (frutez), where
there is a short stem ; under shrub {suffruiex), where this is hardly evident ;
and low shrub (dumus), where the whole plant is low and spreading, the
branches springing up together as a multitude of stems at or near the
ground. The equivalent terms are arborescent, fruticose, suffruticose, and
dumose.
The transverse section of the stem, though generally circular, may be
oval or even bounded by straight lines and angles. The various terms
applied sue, terete; half -terete; compressed; piano-compressed; two-edged;
acute-angled; obtuse-angled ; triangular ; quadrangular; quinquangular ;
octangular; multangular; triquetrous, &c., whose significance is suffi-
ciently evident, with the exception, perhaps, of the last, which refers to a
stem with three concave faces.
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BOTANY, 11
The stem does not always stand in the air (aerial) ; it is sometimes below
ground (subterranean). The latter are sometimes called roots ; true roots,
however, differ from these, in never possessing scales (rudimentary leaves)
or nodes, from which may be developed eyes (rudimentary buds). The
crown of the root is a shortened stem, often partly subterranean, and
remaining in some plants after the upper portions have withered. This it is
which constitutes the persistent portion of the ascending axis of the
perennial plant. Here the internodes are very short, and the nodes crowd
so closely together, that there appears to be no stem. A rhizome or root-
stock is a stem running along the surface of the ground, paiiially covered
with soil, and sending out leaf buds from the upper side, and roots from the
lower. This is seen in ferns, iris, &c. A pseudo-bulb is an enlarged bulbose
aerial stem, and is succulent, sometimes with numerous spiral cells and
vessels, and a thick epidermis. A soboles is a creeping subterranean stem,
sending roots trom one part, and leaf buds from another. A tuber is
produced by a swelling of the internodes, caused generally by a deposit of
starchy matter, as in the potatoe. The eyes of the potatoe are the leaf buds
on the abbreviated and highly expanded stem. A corm is a solid
underground stem, which, of a roundish form, neither creeps nor roots, and
is invested by series of imbricated scales, as in the tulip. It developes a
second corm to one side, which feeds on the first and destroys it, itself to be
devoured in turn by a successor.
Stems, with respect to their structure, are either exogenous, endogenous,
or acrogenous. Exogenous stems (exogens) are those which increase
indefinitely by layers applied to the outside. Stems are endogenous
(endogens) when the bundles of vascular tissue are produced in definite
fasciculi, and converge towards the interior, all additions being made in the
interior. In the acrogenous stem (acrogens) the vascular bundles are all
developed simultaneously, and not in succession, the elongation of the stem
depending on the union of the basis of the leaves or the petioles, and the
extension of the growing point or summit. In addition to the above, we
have thallogenous plants (thallogens) where there is simple elongation or
dilatation, without leaf buds or leaves, and dictyogens, where the stem has the
structure of endogens, and the roots nearly that of exogens, as in Smilax.
We shall now refer to these more particularly ; premising, however, that
there are modifications of the embryo which run parallel to those of the
stem, the exogen having a germ with two seed lobes or cotyledons (hence
dicotyledonous) ; the endogen, one with but a single cotyledon (monocotyle-
donous) ; and no lobe whatever in the acrogen (acotyledonous).
In the exogenous or dicotyledonous stem, we have the type of most trees
of temperate climates, embracing both a cellular and vasoiüar system. The
cellular system includes the outer bark, the medullary rays, and the pith ; the
vascular the inner bark, the woody layers, and the medullary sheath. In
the earlier stages of growth the young exogen is almost entirely cellular ;
after a time, however, we perceive wedge-shaped bundles, edges of which
point towards a common centre, arranged around a central cellular mass
called pith, which is connected with the outer bark by means of cellular
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12 BOTANY.
processes called medullary rays. At first the pith is large, and occupies a
large proportion of the plant ; the medullary rays, also, are of considerable
thickness ; subsequently, by the increase of the old wedges and the
development of new ones between them, the medullary rays become more
restricted. Such is the structure of a young shoot during the first year.
At the end of the second year, the shoot is found to have increased in
diameter by the formation of a zone of vessels consisting of porous and
woody tissue, and a zone of fibrous bark, the medullary rays being continued
from within outwards, the number of such zones increasing year after
year.
Taking up the components of a stem in proper succession, we begin with
a more particular examination of the pith. This, the central portion,
consists of cellular tissue, the cells, often hexagonal, diminishing towards
the circumference. Pith is at first of a greenish color, and full of fluid ;
subsequently this disappears, leaving a light colored, spongy, dry mass«
Sometimes in drying, it separates into regular cavities, as in the Walnut
and Jessamine ; in this case it is said to be discoid or disciform. More
frequently the cavities, when they exist at all, are of irregular shape.
Occasionally there are vessels in the pith ; sometimes, also, regular deposits.
The elder exhibits an abundant pith ; rice paper consists of sections of pith,
the exact origin of which is, however, still undecided ; some ascribe it to a
species of iEschymomene. The object of the pith is to furnish nourishment
to the young buds, for which purpose it is often filled with dextrine or
starch, convertible into sugar by the process of vegetation. When the
woody circle of the first year is complete, the pith remains stationary as to
size ever afterwards.
The medullary sheath consists of fibro- vascular or spiral vessels imme-
diately including the pith, projections of which pass through this sheath into
the medullary rays. A few woody fibres are usually intermingled with the
spiral vessels. This sheath is in direct communication with the leaf buds
and the veins of the leaves, and carries up oxygen liberated by the
decomposition of carbonic acid or of water, conducting it into the leaves.
Woody Layers. During the first year, the vascular cylinder consists of
an internal layer of spiral vessels forming the medullary sheath, and
external bundles of porous and ligneous vessels. Subsequently, the layer of
spiral vessels is not repeated, but concentric zones of porous vessels and of
pieurenchyma are formed, constituting, in the tree, the woody circles.
Exogenous plants are sometimes termed cyclogens, from their exhibiting
these concentric circles. A transverse section of a branch or trunk of a
tree usually shows these concentric circles very clearly, each one of which
is generally supposed to represent the growth of a year. The circle of largo
pores usually seen to separate contiguous layers, is composed of the mouths
of porous vessels. The distinctness, as well as the size of these circles, varies
in different plants, and even in diflferent parts of the same section. Neither
is the number of rings in a cross-section to be taken as an indication of the
true age of a tree, since there is good reason for supposing that two and
even more rings may be formed in a single year, while one ring may occupy
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BOTANY. 13
two years in its formation. The rule is liable to fewer exceptions in the
trees of temperate climates, where there are well defined periods of heat and
cold alternating once in the year. Not only the size but the texture of the
woody layers varies in different parts of the same cross-section. The vessels,
at first open and admitting a ready passage to the juices of the plant,
ultimately become thickened and possibly entirely filled by the deposit of
hard matter. It is this which constitutes the distinction between duramen
or heart-wood, and alburnum or sap-wood, the latter being exterior to the
former, lighter colored, and less compact. In some trees, as Tilia, the
chestnut, and others, no such distinction is readily evident. The thicker the
tree the greater is the proportion of heart- wood in the cross section. It is
the heart- wood that constitutes the most useful portion of timber, owing to
its greater strength and less tendency to decay.
The cambium is a layer of semifluid matter which marks the separation
between the wood and the bark. This is an organizable mucilage, and
firom it new elementary organs are formed, whether these consist of vascular
or of cellular tissue.
The bark (cortex) lies external to the wood, and like it, consists of several
layers. At first it is cellular, like pith ; subsequently it becomes more or
less altered by secondary deposits. While composed of a cellular and
vascular system, like the wood, the position and relative proportion of the
elements vary in the two. In the bark the cellular system is external and
much developed ; in the wood it is internal and restricted. The cellular
portion consists of an external layer of epidermis, already described, then
one of epiphloeum, within which is the mesophloeum ; the vascular portion
of the internal layer is called liber, endophloeum, or true bark.
The endophloeum, or liber, is composed of pleurenchyma, mixed with
laticiferous vessels and cellular tissue, resting on the alburnum. The tubes
of the pleurenchyma are often thickened by deposits of secondary matter in
concentric cylinders, thus acquiring a considerable degree of tenacity, as in
the Lace tree, the Linden, the Paper mulberry, &c.* The mesophloeum
lies immediately outside of the liber, and consists of polyhedral cells, usually
containing chlorophylle, sometimes raphides. The epiphloeum is the outer
covering of the bark, the epidermis excepted, which is often absent, and
consists of cubical or tabular cells, without chlorophylle ; the elongation of
these cells is horizontal, thus difiering from the cells of mesophloeum.
Usually of a single layer of cells, epiphloeum sometimes exhibits several, as
in the bark of the cork tree, or the cork of commerce.
The increase of bark takes place in a manner directly opposite to that of
the wood. In the latter, new layers are developed on the outside of the old
ones ; in the former, on the inside of the several portions. Thus the outer
layers of bark become distended, and if elastic, retain their continuity, as in
the beech ; if not elastic, they either become fissured and crumbled off, or
they exfoliate in patches, as in some species of Hickory, Birch, and
Button wood. An incision in the wood of a tree is deepened with increasing
age ; if in the bark, it gradually becomes shallower and shallower, finally
disappearing.
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14 BOTANY.
The medullary rays, or plates, or the silver grain of carpenters, keep up
a communication between the bark and the pith, these being generally
separated by vascular layers. They consist of cellular tissue, which has
been gradually compressed, so as to give a muriform appearance to the cells.
The space they occupy, at first large, is diminished more and more with
increasing age. A transverse section of a woody stem presents the
appearance of narrow lines running from the centre to the circumference.
A longitudinal section shows that these rays are not laminae continuous
from one end to the other, but are broken up by the intervention of woody
fibres.
We have thus described the normal character of the exogenous stem.
There are, however, certain anomalous appearances in certain plants, which
are not readily reducible to rule. In place of the concentric arrangement
of the vascular layers, there are sometimes only a few rows of wedge-shaped
bundles, and additions made by the interposition of new bundles, just as in
the young herbaceous normal stem ; sometimes these vascular bundles are
arranged in zones. Again, in some cases the separating layers are cellular,
not fibrous ; sometimes the woody layers are arranged in a very irregular
manner. In some Bignonias the layers are divided into four wedge-shaped
portions, probably by an introversion of the liber. In Paullinia a central
woody mass is sometimes surrounded by others likewise cylindrical. In
some Malpighiacese, the outer surface, instead of being cylindrical, exhibits
very irregular lobes and indentations.
The stems of endogenous plants present many features different from
those which we have found to exist in exogens, and especially in that there
is no absolute or visible distinction into pith, medullary rays, wood, and
bark. There is an intermixture of bundles of fibro- vascular tissue among a
mass of cellular tissue, the whole overlaid by a zone of denser cellular and
woody tissue, inseparable from the stem. In the young plant the centre of
the stem is occupied entirely by cells, around which the vessels are grouped,
increasing in numbAr towards the circumference. The central cells are
sometimes ruptured and absorbed, leaving a cavity; more generally,
however, they are persistent, becoming gradually encroached upon by the
increasing vascular system. The external layer of the endogenous plant
occupying the place of bark, and known as false hark, is a dense layer of
cellular tissue, into which the lower ends of the vascular fibres dip, losing
their vascularity as soon as they reach it.
The opinion originally entertained that the new layers of vascular fibres
were developed inside the old ones, and pushed these out towards the cortical
envelope, appears not to be strictly correct, as, although at first they are
thus internal, yet, subsequently, they curve outwards^ to run into the
exterior, as already mentioned. After all, the true distinction between
exogenous and endogenous stems consists in this : in the former, the woody
or vascular layers increase indefinitely at their periphery; in the latter,
they are arrested in lateral growth at a definite epoch. When it is one
terminal bud alone of an endogen that developes, the stem may be truly
cylindrical ; when several develope, however, the stem will be conical. A
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BOTANY. 15
single terminal bud, as that just referred to, an example of which is to be
found in the Palm, is called a phyllophor, or phyllogen. From this bud are
developed the leaves with which the vascular bundles are connected,
forming, as it were, their roots ; when the leaves of one bud decay another
is produced in the centre, the bases of the leaves, as they die and fall off,
leaving a scar on the stem. There is no way of determining the age of an
endogen, a palm for instance, by examining a cross-section, since there are
no rings of growth ; an approximation may, however, be found from the
known length of the tree, elongation proceeding pretty uniformly, and at a
determinate rate for different species. Occasionally there are several
terminal buds, which may cause a dichotomization or branching of the
plant ; in many, however, there is but a single one, whose decapitation is
followed by the death of the tree.
The third kind of stem, the acrogenous, or acotykdonous, is, in general
appearance, not unlike that of most endogens, in being unbranched, of
nearly uniform diameter, and bearing a tuft of leaves at the summit ; the
internal structure, however, always furnishes a ready means of distinction. .
Acrogens are rarely arborescent ; a good illustration is, however, to be found
in the Tree Fern, the stem of which is called a rachis or stipe. A trans-
verse section exhibits a circle of vascular tissue, composed of masses of
various forms and size, near the circumference ; the centre is either hollow
or formed of cellular tissue. On the outside of the vascular circle there are
cells covered by a cellular integument, representing an epidermis, often very
compact, and formed originally of the bases of the leaves. The vascular
bundles are all formed simultaneously, and their number depends upon that
of the individual leaves or petioles. Although the acrogen is said to grow
only from the top, yet, strictly speaking, there is a slight increase in
diameter, as is shown in the separation of the rhomboidal leaf-scars, which
originally were in contact. These scars, or cicatrices, are generally
arranged in spiral series around the stem, which always carries their traces.
In thallogenSy which are simple expansions of cellular substance, some-
times in definite directions, sometimes in all directions, there is no axis
whatever, nothing but threads woven together or separate, or else cells,
lobes, plates, or enlargements of various kinds.
A few words as to the functions of the different parts of the stem must
conclude this portion of our subject. The office of the pith, as already
mentioned, is to convey nourishment to the young plant. By means of the
medullary sheath a connexion is kept up between the central parts of the
stem and the leaves, by means of spiral vessels, part of whose object may
be the transmission of air. The medullary rays preserve a communication
between the bark and the pith, and are directly connected with the
formation of leaf buds and the matter of the cambium. The bark protects
the tender wood, conveys the elaborated sap downwards from the leaves,
and is the medium in which many of the secretions are deposited. By
means of the vascular bundles the crude sap is conveyed from the roots to
the leaves. In woody fibre these bundles become ultimately choked up
by the secondary deposits.
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4. Leaves and the Appendages.
A leaf is a symmetrical lateral expansion of the bark, and is intimately
connected with the internal part of the internal axis. Leaves, at first, are
mere projections of cellular tissue, closely united to each other; subsequently
they enlarge with the addition of vascular tissue, and finally subsume a
l^ermanent form and position along the axis. Whenever a leaf-bud is
formed, a leaf is also ; this, if not entirely developed, is at least rudimentary.
Two essential modifications of the leaf have been observed according as the
medium of existence is air or water.
In aerial leaves we have a skeletal vascular tissue in the form of veins,
ribs, or nerves, the interspaces filled up by cellular tissue in the shape of
parenchyma, the whole invested by epidermis. The vascular system is
continuous with that of the stem ; the vessels from the interior of the stem
spread out on the surface, the more external in the former appearing on the
inferior face of the latter. This is well illustrated by the fact, that in the
upper part of the leaf we find spiral vessels and woody fibre, in the lower
there are laticiferous vessels and fibres like those of liber. The vascular
system is distributed in the form of simple or branching veins.
The epidermis generally difiers on the two sides of the leaf. Thus, it is
on the under face that the stomata are found in largest quantity, sometimes
exclusively ; hairs also are of much more frequent occurrence. In leaves
floating on the surface of water the stomata are superior. The parenchyma
of the leaf is that cellular tissue filling up the interspaces of the vascular
fibre. Other names are diachyma and mesophyllum. This parenchyma
exhibits two series of cells, different in form and arrangement.
Submerged leaves, or those developed under water, exhibit many points
of difference from aerial leaves. There is here no fibro- vascular system,
but merely an aggregation of cells, which sometimes simulate veins. There
is no true epidermis, nor are there any stomata. Sometimes there is only
a net-work of filamentoid cells, the interspaces not filled with parenchyma.
Such leaves are called fenestrate.
The ordinary leaf in its fullest form consists of an expanded flat portion,
called the blade, or laminar merühal ; of a narrower portion, called stalk,
petiole, or petiolary merithal, which is continuous with the midrib; and
sometimes of a portion at the base of the petiole, forming a sheath or vagina ;
the latter, again, may be developed in the form of small leaves, called
stipules. When a leaf has a distinct stalk, it is said to be petiolate ; when
there is no stalk, it is called sessile. When sessile leaves embrace the stem
they are said to be amplexicauL The portion of the leaves next to the stem
is the base, the opposite extremity is the apex. The surfaces of the leaves
are called the pagince ; the edges or margin, the circumscription. The usual
position of the leaf is horizontal ; sometimes it is vertical, or else between the
two positions. The upper angle, formed by the petiole with the stem, is the
axilla ; anything arising from that part is axillary. The petiole is some-
times articulated with the stem, leaving a scar on the latter when it falls ;
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BOTANY. 17
in other cases it is continuous with the stem. When leaves fall off annually,
or about the same time, they are called deciduous ; when they remain for
several years, or only fall singly through the year, they are evergreen, '
By the venation or nervation of a leaf is meant the distribution of ttie
fibro-vascular bundles in it. This may be traced in most cases, but
instances occur, as in sea- weeds and other submerged plants, where true
veins do not exist ; such are said to be veinless. There is generally a more
or less central vein larger than the rest, called the midrib, giving off lateral
veins {primary veins), which either end within the margin, or else go
entirely out to the edge. Smaller veins, given off by the midribs, are called
costal, these giving origin to veinlets. Sometimes, instead of one central
midrib, there are several large ribs diverging from the part where the
petiole enters the blade. These give off secondary veins, which, in turn,
furnish tertiary, all apparently anastomosing, and giving a reticulated
appearance to the surface of the leaf. Such leaves are called reticulated,
or net veined. Parallel veined leaves are those in which there is a central
rib, giving off a single series of well defined veins, parallel to each other ; or
else there are several ribs which run from base to apex, nearly parallel to
the edge of the leaf or to each other. Leaves of this kind are of usual
occurrence in endogenous plants.
Leaves are either simple or compound. The simple leaf has but one
articulation with the stem, and the incisions in the margin do not reach the
midrib. The compound leaf has other articulations beyond that with the
stem, or consists of leaflets separately attached to the petiole. All leaves at
first are simple, and the nature of the compound character is intimately
connected with the venation.
A simple leaf is equal or oblique, according as the midrib bisects the blade
symmetrically or not. Should the margin be even, without divisions, the
leaf is entire. When the projections are more or less irregular and pointed,
the leaf is dentate ; when arranged regularly, and like the teeth of a saw,
we have a serrate leaf; crenate, when the serrations are rounded. Should
the indentations of the margin extend about half-way to the midrib, the
leaf is cleft {fidus), the segments are fissures. A continuation of the
division to the midrib gives us a partite leaf, with partitions for the
segments.
Should the divisions occur in a feather- veined leaf, this becomes pinnatifid
when the divisions extend about to the middle, and are rather broad ;
pectinate, when they are narrow, like the teeth of a comb. Should the
incisions extend to the midrib, the leaf becomes pinnatipartite. These
primary divisions may again be subdivided, forming a bipinnatifid, or
bipinnatipartite leaf; tripinnatifid indicates a still further subdivision. A
pinnatifid leaf is runcinate when the divisions are sub-triangular, with the
extremities pointed slightly backwards, as in the Dandelion. When the
apex consists of a large rounded lobe, and the somewhat rounded divisions
become gradually less and less towards the base, the leaf is lyrate. It is
panduriform when, with a rounded apex, there is a concavity on each side,
like that of a violin.
ICONOGRAPHIC ENCTCLOP.«DIA. VOL. II. 2 17
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In a simple leaf, with radiating venation, we have lobes or clefts when
the incisions extend about half-way to the base, a prefix being added to
indicate the number, as three-lobed or trifid, many-lobed or multifid, &c. A
leaf is palmate when the leaf is cleft only partly, so as to resemble a palm
with short fingers ; it is digitate when the divisions are deeper, and five in
number, like long fingers ; it is dissected when there are numerous narrow
.divisions extending nearly up to the base. A pedate, or pedatifid leaf, is one
in which there are three primary divisions with two lateral, somewhat like
the foot and toes of a bird.
In all the cases just considered the petiole is in the plane of the leaf.
The petiole may, however, meet the leaf at an angle either right or acute.
When the stalk is inserted into the middle of a tolerably entire leaf, this is
orbicular in shape, and peltate in respect to the petiole ; the term peltate is
also applied to cases where the stalk is inserted within the continuous
margin.
When a leaf is very narrow, with the edges parallel, as in the Pines, it is
10 II 12
13
14
15
16
17
18 19 20 21
Variout Formt of Leavet,
acicular or linear {fig, I). When the veins diverge, those in the middle
longest, and the margin tapering gently to either end, the leaf is lanceolate
{fig- 2). Should the ends be rounded, we may have a rounded {fig. 3),
elliptical {fig, 4), oval {fig. 5), or oblong {fig. 6) leaf When the veins at
the base are longest the leaf is ovate or egg-shaped {fig, 7), and obovaU
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BOTANY. 19
when those at the apex are longest. Leaves also are cuneate or wedge-
shaped (ßg, 8), spathulate {fig, 9), subulate {fig. 10) ; acuminate, or drawn
out mto a point of greater or less extent {fig, 11) ; mucronate, with the free
extremity of the mid-rib projecting from the margin {fig, 12).
When the parenchyma is deficient at the apex, so as to form two rounded
lobes, the leaf is obcordate; when the deficiency is very slight, it is
emarginate ; when the apex is merely flattened or slightly indented, the
leaf is retuse {fig, 13). If the apex appear as if cut off, so that the margin
is straight or obtusely angled, the leaf is truncate {fig, 14). A leaf is
cordate when the petiole enters a base having a rounded emargination
{fig, 15), and kidney-shaped or reniform when the apex also is rounded
{fig. 16). When the lobes are prolonged downwards and acutely, the leaf
is sagittate {fig, 17) ; hastate, when they proceed at right angles. When
the veins of leaves spread out in more than one plane, and by the develop-
ment of parenchyma a succulent leaf is produced, we may have conical,
ensiform or sword-like, prismatic, acinaciform or scymeter-shaped {fig. 18),
and dolabriform or axe-shaped leaves {fig. 19). The margin of the leaf
may be wavy, undulated, or crisped, when it is puckered from a superabun-
dance of cellular tissue. There are numerous other shapes of leaves,
although these and their binary combinations are the most important ; the
rest will readily suggest themselves.
Compound leaves are leaves in which the divisions pass down to the
midrib, so as to subdivide the leaf into smaller and distinct leaves, called
leaflets. The midrib or petiole thus appears like a branch with so many
distinct leaves, each articulated to it. When the compound leaf dies, it is
generally the primary petiole that falls off, carrying with it all those
secondary to it. Leaflets, like leaves, may be either sessile or supported on
a distinct stem, called a petioluU,
A feather- veined compound leaf is said to be pinncUe {fig, 20) when each
one of the primary veins forms the midrib of a leaflet ; bipinnate {fig. 21)
when the secondaiy veins are midribs, and are articulated to the primary ;
tripinnate or decompound when the tertiary veins stand in the same relation
to distinct leaflets ; a leaf still fiirther divided is supradecompound, ^
When a pinnate leaf has one pair of leaflets, it is unijugate ; two,
bijugate ; many pairs, multijugate. When a pinnate leaf ends in a pair of
pinnse, it is equally or abruptly pinnate {pari-pinnate) : a single terminal
leaflet furnishes an unequally pinnate {impari-pinnate) leaf. When the
leaflets are not directly opposite to each other, the leaf is alternately
pinnate : it is impari-pinnate when the pinnae are of unequal size.
In leaves with radiating venation, and in which each vein forms the
midrib of a separate leaflet, we have a temate leaf with three leaflets ;
quatemate with four; quinate with five, &c. Should the parenchyma
connecting three ribs of a temate leaf subdivide, so that each of these forms
the midrib of a new leaflet, the compound leaf is bitemate ; another such
subdivision gives a,^ritemate leaf, &c.
The petiole, or that part of the leaf which unites the blade with the stem,
consists of one or more bundles of vascular tissue, with a varying amount
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20 BOTANY.
of parenchyma; the manner in which the vessels enter the leaf, and their
connexion with the stem, has already been referred to. Where the petiole
joins the stem, there is generally a constriction, and immediately external
to this, a swelling out, of cellular tissue. At other times the petiole is not
thus articulated, but either is a continuation of the stem or embraces it.
When articulated leaves drop, there is left a cicatrix or scar, which in
many cases is permanent. The petiole varies both in length and strength.
A compressed petiole, as in the Aspen, renders a leaf more sensitive to
slight currents of wind. A phyllodium is a petiole compressed and
extended vertically, so as sometimes to supply the place of a leaf.
Sometimes the petiole of a leaf runs out into a tendril or cirrhus ; more
frequently there is no blade whatever to such a petiole.
A stipule is a membranous expansion or other process found on each side
of the base of a petiole. When attached to a leaflet, it is called a stipel.
Plants with stipules are stipulate ; without them, exstipulate. No definite
shape can be assigned to the stipule, its only characteristic being the
position above mentioned.
Occasionally there are anomalous forms of petiole and leaf, which merit
some special consideration. The true leaf is sometimes entirely absent,
and its place supplied by phyllodia or by stipules. Scales frequently replace
leaves, of which indeed they are to be considered as abortions. Several
leaves sometimes unite together, forming a connate leaf; when the basal
lobes of a leaf are united around the stem, it is perfoliate ; when the
laminae of a leaf run down and are united to the stem, it is decurrent. The
vascular bundles and parenchyma are sometimes separated or arranged so
as to inclose cavities, as in the tubular or fistular leaf of the onion, as also
in the ascidia or pitchers of such plants as Sarracenia or Nepenthes.
• Leaves occupy definite situations on the plant, and have special names in
different positions. When they arise from the crown of the root, they are
radical ; those on the stem are cauline ; on the branches, ramal ; on flower
stalks, floraL The leaves first developed are seminal; those appearing
subsequently, primordial.
The%rrangement of the leaves on the axis follows in definite order, and is
called phyllotaxis. Normally, the nodes from which the leaves spring are
ranged in a regular spiral round the stem. The internode between several
nodes, may, however, be suppressed, so as to exhibit several nodes at the
same height on the stem. When two leaves are thus produced, at the same
level and on different sides of the stem, they are opposite ; when more than
two, verticillate or whorled. The imaginary line connecting the bases of
one pair of opposite leaves often crosses rectangularly the corresponding
line of the next pair ; the pairs are then said to decussate.
When a single leaf is produced at a node, and each node is separated
from the next by an internode, the leaves are alternate. When, in a spiral
series of alternate leaves, one leaf is immediately below the third above it,
the arrangement is distichous : when it is the fourth Which stands in this
relation, tristichous. In this spiral arrangement, there are two elements, the
number of coils or turns of the spiral before one leaf is found to come
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BOTANr. 21
immediately above another, and the number of leaves arranged along this
interval of the spiral. The relation of the two is usually expressed by a
firaction whose numerator indicates the number of turns, and the denomi-
nator the number of leaves. Thus, a phyllotaxis of | indicates that one
leaf is immediately in a line below the 6th above it, or that there are 5
leaves in the series and 2 turns of the spiral. The generating spiral may
run from left to right, or from right to left, both being occasionaUy found in
the branches and stem of a plant ; when it is the same throughout the plant,
the arrangement is homodromous ; when different in the branches from the
stem, heterodromous. Sometimes the phenomena are such as to give rise to
the supposition oftwo generating spirals at the same time, as in certain opposite
and verticillate leaves. The final cause of this spiral arrangement is to enable
all the leaves to have a nearly equal exposure to light, and thus prevent
anything abnormal in the growth of the plant, this being in great measure
determined by the leaves.
The buds which are seen to form at different parts of the stem are of two
kinds, leaf buds and flower buds, the former producing leaves, the latter
flowers. The leaf buds consist of rudimentary leaves inclosing a growing
vital point, which lengthens upwards or from the point of attachment. The
flower buds consist of rudimentary leaves inclosing a f^ed or stationary
vital point.
The leaf bud, to which we shall here confine our attention, is, in external
appearance, a collection of scales (rudimentary leaves) arranged one above
the other in an imbricated manner. The centre or growing point which
they inclose is cellular matter coated with a thin stratum of spiral vessels,
the two answering to the pith and medullary sheath of exogens. By the
growth of the leaf bud, branches are formed, such of the scales as are alive
changing into leaves with the advancement of vegetation, and the evolution
of the branch not slightly resembling the drawing out of the joints of a
spyglass. Leaf buds are formed in the axils of previously formed leaves ;
they may be terminal or lateral. The leaf buds may be made to grow on
other plants than those from which they were originally developed, as in the
process called budding. They may even detach themselves spontaneously
from the axils of leaves, and germinate when p4anted in the ground. The
tree may, in fact, be considered as an assemblage of leaf buds or phytons,
which send out stems and leaves in one direction, and fibres in the
other. In temperate climates the leaf buds are produced during autumn
and winter, and protected from injury by the external scales (themselves
rudimentary leaves), and occasionally by an additional downy or resinous
investment.
The manner in which the leaves are arranged in the bud is called their
vernation^ gemmation, or prcefoliation. This is constant for the same species.
The leaves may be either placed in simple apposition, or folded or rolled up in
various modes. In the accompanying figures, a-g represent vertical
sections ; A-n are horizontal. The dot represents the axis.
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22 BOTANY.
a h e d e f g
% i v)
I m
The vernation then may be reclinate {a) ; circinate (g) ; candupKcaU
(b) ; plicate or plaited (c) ; convolute or supervolute (d) ; involute (e) ;
ri' volute {/). With regard to the combination of leaves in a bud, they may
be valvate {h) ; imbricated^ twisted, or spiral (i) ; induplicate (i, /) ; equitant
(m) ; half-equilant or obvolute (n).
In some plants with a shortened axis, the lateral buds produce long
branches* Such are the runners of the strawberry.
A leaf bud may be subterranean as well as aerial. Some plants, as
asparagus, wilh a perennial subterranean stem, have this terminated by a
bud, which, elongating, makes its appearance above the ground, and finally
developes aerial branches, leaves, and flowers. The young shoot of this
character is called a turio. The potatoe is a thickened stem with leaf buds
which may develope both aerial and subterranean branches : the former
decay annually ; the latter, as tubers, remain in the soil. A bulb is a
subterranean bud. A corm (see p. 11) is an elongated bud with the scales
reduced to thin membranes. Bulbs and corms contain a supply of starch
and other matters for the sustenance of the young plant.
2. Organs of Reproduction.
The reproductive organs are to be found in the flower, the most important
parts of which are the stamens and pistils. When these organs are
conspicuous and definite, the plant is called phanerogamous ; when they are
concealed or unconspicuous, cryptogamous. Exogens and endogens belong
to the former, acrogens and thallogens to the latter. The flower, however,
in all its parts, is to be considered only as modified leaves.
The arrangement of the flowers in the axis is known as inflorescence or
anthotaxis. The anatomical distinction between the leaf and the flower
bu(* has already been referred to. The flower bud, like the leaf bud, is
produced in the angle of leaves, here called bracts or floral leaves. The
genera] axi^ along which the flowers or their buds are arranged is called the
rachis ; the stiilk supporting a flower is the peduncle ; peduncles lateral or
secondary to this are called pedicels, A flower provided with a stalk is
pedunculate or pedicellate ; if without one, sessile. A more philosophical
distinction is mto primary floral axis (rachis), secondary axis (peduncles),
tertiary axi» (pedicels), &c.
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BOTANY. 23
The pedwncle is variously formed, experiencing greater modifications than
the petiole. Sometimes the axis is shortened, so as to exhibit a flattened
form, with flowers scattered over the surface. Here it becomes a receptach,
phoranthium, or cUmanthium, Sometimes the peduncle is abortive, and
becomes converted into a tendril ; at others, it is expanded and hollowed
out at the apex. The extremity of the peduncle is the thalamus, or
torus.
Inflorescence is of two kinds ; one where the lower flowers on the stem
are produced first, the other Vhere they are last to appear. In the first
kind of inflorescence, called indefinite, or axillary, the axis continues to grow
and to develope new leaf buds, the upper being always less advanced than
the lower ; or, if the axis be shortened, so that the peduncles stand crowded
together, the central flowers are less advanced than the external. The
expansion of the flower is thus centripetal.
The simplest form of indefinite inflorescence is, where single flowers are
produced in the axils of the ordinary leaves. The difierent subdivisions and
their relative lengths give rise to a great variety of terms. When the
primary peduncle is elongated, and gives oflf nearly equal pedicels, each
bearing a flower, we have a raceme, as in the currant, and a panicle when
the pedicels of the raceme are themselves branched. If the central
peduncles of a dense panicle are longest, a thyrse is produced. A corytn^
is where the lower pedicels on a peduncle are elongated, so that all the
flowers on the difierent pedicels are nearly in one plane ; the corymb may
be simple or compound, the secondary axis again subdividing in the latter
case. When the pedicels are very short or absent, so as to render the
flowers sessile, a spike is produced ; this, when producing unsexual flowers,
as in the willow, becomes an amentum, or catkin. It may also be succulent
or pulpy, with the flowers invested by a sheathing bract or spathe, as in
Arum ; it is then called a spadix. A spike bearing female flowers only, and
covered with scales, is either a strobilu^, as in the hop, or a cone, as in the
pine.
When the primary axis is depressed, instead of being elongated, other
forms are exhibited. Should the pedicels all spring from nearly the same
point on the axis, we have an umbel ; when numerous flowers are placed
on a nearly flat receptacle, and either sessile or nearly so, a capiiulum,
anthodium, or caUUhium is formed, as in the dandelion ; when the surface b
more convex this is called a glomerule. A receptacle may be concave, and
inclose the flowers, as it were ; such an arrangement is called a
kypardioJium, and is seen in the fig.
In definite inflorescence, where the flower buds are all terminal, tfhe
main axis is first terminated by a blossom which terminates its growth.
This gives a solitary terminal flower, as in the Tulip. Further development
can take place only by the production of axillary branches, which can
spring firom the primary peduncle only when it is furnished with bracts, from
whose axils they may arise. The order of flowering is therefore firom the
apex downwards, or descending (the reverse of the indefinite forms) ;
centrifugal, or firom the centre outwards, if the blossoms are (m a level
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24 BOTANY.
centrifugally. The simplest form is that of a single terminal flower. We
may suppose a leaf to be developed on each side of the flower, in each of
whose axils a new bud is produced, which, in turn, may each form the
centre of a tertiary development, &c. Each flower may be the centre of a
system of three or more instead of two. If we suppose the leaves above-
mentioned to be reduced to bracts, the whole forms a single inflorescence,
called a cyme, this being called dichotomous or trichotomous, according to
the character of the subdivisions. Occasionally, in dichotomous divisions,
the flowers t^re developed on one side only* from which results a peculiar
curvature of the cyme, which is here called helicoidal, or gyrate.
As already remarked, the flower, except when terminal, always arises in
the axil of a leaf, called the bract. Leaves which arise along the floral axis
are called bracteoleSy or bractlets. The true bract may be variously modified
as to color, shape, &c. At the base of the general umbel, in umbelliferous
plants» there is a whorl of bracts, termed the general involucre, that at the
base of the smaller umbels being called the partial involucre or involuceL
The cup of the acorn is produced by the union of many whorls of bracts.
A sheathing bract inclosing one or more flowers is called a spathe. The
outer sterile bracts in grasses are called glumes.
b. The Flower and its Appendages,
The flower consists of whorled leaves placed on an axis, the internodes
of which are not developed. This shortened axis is the thalamus, or torus.
There are usually four of such whorls : first, an outer one called the calyx ;
next, the corolla; then, the stamens ; and innermost of all, the pistil, or
pistih^ Each of these whorls consists, normally, of several parts. The
plant is called dichlamydeous, when the two outer whorls or the floral
envelopes are present ; monochlamydeous, when one only exists ;
achhimydetms, when neither is present. In most instances the cal3rx and
corolla, when present, are readily detected ; in cases of doubt as to the
true character of the envelope, or when there is no convenient distinction
between the two, the term perianth, or perigone, may be employed.
Should but one envelope be present, it is always the calyx.
The manner in which the floral envelopes are folded together is known
as the (Estivation, or prcefloration. This is valvate, when the elements are
so arraniied as to constitute a circle without the overlapping of the edges.
ShJhld the edges of the parts be turned outwards, the aestivation is
reduplicate ; if inwards, induplicate. When each part of the whorl overlaps
the one next to it on one side, and is in turn overlapped by the part on the
other side, the aestivation is twisted or contorted. Sometimes the elements
of the whorls, instead of being nearly in the same plane, stand at different
heights, caiisinEf an zmftnca^ee? aestivation. Should the parts envelope each
other completely, a convolute aestivation is produced. Vexillary aestivation
is where one part, the vexillum of a, papilionaceous flower, envelopes all the
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BOTANY. 26
rest; carinary, where the carina performs a similar office. Calyx and
corolla sometimes exhibit different aestivation.
The Calyx is the external envelope of the flower, and consists of whorled
leaves, called sepals. These may either be separate, forming a polysepalous
calyx, or united, to constitute a gamosepalous, or monosepalous calyx. The
sepals are usually green, sometimes colored, rarely stalked; in shape, they
are generally oval or oblong. As to direction, they are erects refiezed^
patulous^ or divergent (spreading outwards), and connivent or arched
inwards. A tHsepalous calyx has three divisions : a pentasepalous, five.
&c.
In a gamosepalous calyx the degrees of adhesion between the elementary
parts may vary firom very slight to complete. The divisions may be simple
teeth, or they may extend as fissures towards the base. A trißd calyx is
one in which three parts are united by about the lower half of the margins ;
a tripartite is one where only the lower part of the edges is so united.
The calyx may also be quadrifid, quadripartite, quinquifid, quinquepartite,
&c. The adhesion is sometimes irregular, some parts uniting to a greater
extent than others ; in this manner may be formed a two-lipped or labiate
calyx, which becomes ringent when the upper lip is arched. The part
formed by the union of the sepals is called the tube ; the free upper portion,
the limb.
Occasionally a flower is provided with a double calyx, the outer of which
is called epicalyz, or calicle. The calyx, again, may degenerate, so as to
become dry, scaly, and glumaceous ; or it may be obsolete or marginate,
existing only as a mere rim. In some families, as Dipsaceae, the tube of the
calyx adheres to the pistil, and the limb is developed in the form of hairs,
Cdlled pappus. The pappus is either simple (pilose) or feathery (plumose).
When the calyx falls off before the flower expands, it is caducous ; or if the
corolla accompany it, deciduous. Sometimes the tube of the calyx is
united to the pistil, and enlarges with it to form part of the fruit, as in the
apple. A persistent calyx, which increases after flowering, is called
accrescent; it may, again, remain withered or marcescent, or become inflated
or vesicular.
Corolla. The corolla is that more or less colored inner floral envelope
between the calyx and the stamens. The free subdivisions, which are
generally disposed in one or more whorls, are called petals. A petal
frequently exhibits two parts ; a claw or unguis, a narrowed part by which
attachment is made to the axis, and a broad expanded portion above this,
called the lamina, or limb. When there is no claw the petal is sessile.
Petals, in their modifications, exhibit a considerable resemblance^ to
ordinary leaves, in having the margin either entire or indented. A single
petal may be bipartite or bifid, &c. When a petal is folded like a boat, it is
cymbiform^ or navicular; cochleariform, when resembling the bowl of a
spoon. When a petal is prolonged backwards, in the form of a spur, it is
calcarate. When the spur is very short and rounded the petal is gibbous.
When but a single petal is present, the rest being abortive, the flower is
unipetalous ; two, three, four, five, &c., petals constitute a di-, tri-, tetra-, or
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26 BOTANY.
penta-petalous corolla. A corolla, with more than one separate petal, is
known generally as polypetalous ; it is gamopetalous or monopetalous when
the petals are united. The adhesion extends, in greater or less degree, from
the base to the apex. When the petals are similar and equal in size, the
corolla is regular; otherwise, irregular. In monopetalous corollse, the
claws or inferior parts of the petals are usually united into a tube, crowned
by the limb, as in the calyx; the two portions are separated by the
throat
In REGULAR POLYPETALOUS coroUas we have the rosaceaus, with five
spreading petals, without claws, and arranged as in the strawberry; the
caryophyllaceous, with five petals, with long, narrow, tapering claws, as in
the pink ; the alsinaceous, where the claws are broader, with distinct spaces
between the petals ; cruciform, having four, often unguiculate petals, placed
opposite to each other, as in a cross (seen in the Crucifer»).
Among IRREGULAR POLYPETALOUS corollas the most striking is the
papilionaceous, usually with five petals, one superior (or posterior) and
larger than the rest, called the vexillum ; two lateral, called dice ; and two
inferior (or anterior), partly or entirely covered by the al», often united
into a single piece, called the carina, or keel.
Regular Gamopetalous Corollas. These are campanulaie, or bell-
shaped; infundibuliform, or funnel-shaped; hypocrateriform, or sahrer-
shaped, where there is a straight tube, surmounted by a flat spreading limb ;
tubular, with a long cylindrical tube, apparently continuous with the limb ;
rotate, where the tube is very short, and the limb spreading.
Irregular Gamopetalous Corollas. Conspicuous among these is the
labiate corolla, having two divisions of the limb, in the form of labia or
lips, the upper lip usually composed of two pieces, the lower of three, and
separated by a hiatus. The parts of the cal)rx follow the reverse order.
When the upper lip of a labiate corolla is much arched, and the lips
separated by a distinct gap, it is called ringent. When the lower lip is
pressed against the upper, so as to leave a mere rictus between them, the
corolla is personate or masked ; the projecting portion of the lower lip is
called the palate. When a tubular corolla is split up, so as to form a
strap-like process on one side, with several tooth-like projections at the
apex, it becomes ligulate, or strap-shaped.
What are sometimes called nectaries in flowers, are most generally mere
modifications of the corolla or stamens. Sometimes they are constituted
by the separation of a layer from the inner side of a petal, which may be
known by their being opposite to the segments of the latter. This process
is called unlining, or deduplication.
The calyx and corolla, as just considered, constitute merely the external
envelopes of the flower, and may be absent without vitiating the fertility of
the plant. The essential organs of reproduction are the stamens and the
pistil. The latter, as the female organ, includes the ovary in which the
seeds are to be produced, while the former, supplying the functions of a
male, furnish a seminal matter to fertilize the ovules of the pistil. The
production of a perfect and reproducing seed requires that both be present
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When both (»rgans are found in the same flower, this is hermaphrodite ; it is
unUextud, or diclinous, if but one of the two be present. A flower bearing
stamens alone, is staminiferous ; and pistiUiferous, when only the pistil is
present. The absence of one of the organs is due to abortion or non-
development. When the same plant, with unisexual flowers, embraces both
kinds, it is moncpciotis ; if the two sets of organs are borne on difierent
individuals, the species is diascious.
The stamens which arise within the petals and in one or more whorls, on
the thalamus, constitute, when taken together, the androecxwn or male
apparatus. Their normal position is below the whorl on the pistil ; they are
then hypogynous, and without adhesion to the walls of the calyx. When
united to the petals, they are epipetalous. If attached to the sides of the
calyx, they become perigynous ; and if united both with the surface of the
calyx and of the ovary, they are epigynous. These are important terms
in classification. Plants bear the general title of thalamifiorcB when the
parts of the corolla and androecium are independent of each other, and all
the whorls inserted directly upon the torus. They are caiyciflorce when the
petals are separate, and the stamens inserted directly on the calyx;
corolliflorcB when the united petals bear the stamens.
The number of stamens varies from one to many hundreds, arranged in
a variable number of whorls. When there is but one whorl, the stamens
are usually equal in number to the sepals or petals, and are arranged
opposite to the former, and alternate with the latter ; the flower is then
' isostemonous. When the stamens are unequal in number to the sepals or
petals, the flower is anisostemonous. When there are twice as many
stamens as sepals or petals, the flower is diplostemonous ; if more than this,
polystemonous. The number of stamens is generally an e;xact multiple of
the number of floral envelopes. By an arrest of development in which the
number of stamens is less than that of sepals or petals, the flower is
meiostemonous.
When the number of stamens is less than 20, they are called definite,
and the flower is oligandrous ; over this number they are indefinite or
polyandrous, and are marked 00. The number of definite stamens is
indicated by prefixing the Greek numeral to androtis ; thus a flower with
one stamen is monandrous ; with two, diandrous ; three, triandrous ; four,
tetrandrous ; five, pentandrous ; six, hexandrous ; seven, heptandrous ; eight,
octandrous ; nine, enneandrous ; ten, decandrous, &c.
A stamen consists of two parts, one contracted and thread-like, answering
to the petiole of the leaf, and called the filament ; the other, a broader
portion, representing the blade of the leaf, and called the anther, which
contains a powdery matter termed pollen. The anther is the essential male
organ. When there is no filament, the anther is sessile. The filament may
vary much from its usual thread-like form. It sometimes puts on a petaloid
appearance ; is occasionally subulate or awl-shaped, and again, clavate or
club-shaped. When the filament is bent or jointed it is geniculate.
Certain appendages are sometimes seen at the bases of filaments which are
then said to be appendiculate or strumose. The filaments occasionally
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adhere to a greater or less extent ; sometimes this takes between an entire
whorl, so as to form a tube ; the stamens are then monadelphous. They
are diadelphous when forming two bundles, triadelphous when united into
three, and polyadelphous when grouped into a greater number. Filaments
are sometimes united with the pistil to form a columna or column, as in
Asclepias. The column is called gynostemiuniy and the flowers are said to
be gynandrous.
The Anther corresponds to the blade of the leaf, and consists of lobes
with cavities inclosing a fine powder called pollen, which, when mature, is
discharged by an aperture. The covering of the anther is double ; the outer
is called exothecium, the inner endothecium. The anther usually possesses
two lobes, corresponding to the two halves of the leaf; in each lobe there
are generally two cavities separated by the septum. The connective
divides the two lobes. An anther with four persistent cavities is called
quadrilocular or tetrathecal. When, as is more generally the case, the
septa are absorbed, the anther becomes hilocular or dWiecaL Sometimes
there is but one cavity, constituting the unilocular or monotJiecal anther.
The form of the anther lobes varies much in different plants*; more usually
they are oval or elliptical. The part of the anther to which the filament is
attached is called the back, the opposite being the face. The division
between the lobes is marked on the face of the anther by a groove or
furrow, and on the face there is usually a suture, along which the pollen is
discharged. When the filament appears to be continued along the back of ^
the anther, this is adnate or adherent ; innate or erect when it ends at the
base. A versatile anther is one which is not fixed immovably to the
filament. Sometimes the connective is more or less horizontal, and bears a
lobe of the anther at each end ; it is then said to be distractile. The
opening of anthers to discharge the pollen is their dehiscence. This may be
either longitudinal or transverse. In circumscissile dehiscence, the entire
apex of the anther comes off to permit the escape of the pollen. An anther
is introrse when it opens on the surface next to the centre of the flower, and
extrorse when the contrary takes place. A stamen sometimes degenerates
and becomes sterile from the absence of a proper anther ; such are called
staminodia, and may present various appearances, as scales, leaves, petals, &c.
We have already refen*ed to the adhesion of the filaments of the stamen
leaving the anthers free. These in turn may be attached without involving
any connexion between the filaments. In this case the flower is said to be
syngenesious or synantherous. Stamens whose length does not exceed that
of the tube of the corolla are said to be included; they are exserted when
of greater length.
Although the stamens are usually of the same length, yet it often happens
that one or more is longer than the rest. Flowers are didynamous when, of
four stamens, two are long and two are short. When there are two pairs
of long stamens separated by a pair of shorter, the flower is tetradynamous.
A stamen is said to be declinate when it bends to one side.
Pollen, or the powdery matter discharged from the anther, consists of
small independent cells which have been developed in the anther by the
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fissiparous division of an original cell called the pollen utricle. The pollen
grains fall out either singly or united in definite number ; sometimes the
entire mass is combined by viscid matter into conglomerations called
pollinia. Such is the case in Orchidacese: here each mass has a
prolongation or stalk called a caudicle, which sometimes adheres to a
prolongation at the base of the anther called rostellum, by means of a viscid
matter termed retinaculum. The part of the column in Orchids where the
stamens are situated, is sometimes termed clinandrium.
The mature pollen grain has an external covering called extine, and one
internal, intine. Within these coverings is contained a granular semifluid
matter termed *fovilla, and composed of small spherical granules sometimes
77^xr of an inch in diameter, together with larger corpuscules which are
said to exhibit apparently spontaneous movements. The pollen grains
themselves vary from ^l^r to ^iir of an inch in diameter, and exhibit highly
diversified forms. This form is much altered by the application of moisture.
This, when applied to one side, causes the intine to project outwards and
form what is called a pollen tube.
Cryptogamic plants exhibit certain organs, supposed by some to represent
slamens, and known as antheridia or pollinaria. These are closed sacs,
developed in various parts of the plant, either at the surface or concealed
in its tissue. The contents of antheridia consist of utricles inclosing
peculiar bodies which have been termed phytoxoa, and exhibit active
movements at certain periods of existence, when they have been taken for
infusorial animalcula.
The Disk. By this term is to be understood whatever intervenes between
the stamens and the pistil. The forms under which it is presented are those
of hairs, scales, glands, &c., often containing saccharine matter, and
forming a so called nectary. The disk may be formed by the degeneration
and transformation of the stamens.
The Pistil occupies the centre of the flower, being surrounded by the
stamens and floral envelopes. It constitutes the innermost whorl, and is the
female organ of the plant, which, after flowering, is changed into the fruit,
and contains the seeds. Sometimes it is called the gynascium. It consists
essentially of two parts, the ovary or germen, and the stigma, which is either
sessile (seated immediately upon the ovary) or elevated on a stalk called the
style. The pistil, like the other organs, consists of one or more modified
leaves called carpels. A pistil consisting of a single carpel is simple ;
otherwise, compound. Each carpel has its special ovary, style (when
present), and stigma, and is formed by a folded leaf whose upper surface is
turned inwards towards the axis, the lower outwards ; one or more buds
called ovules being developed at the margin. The ovary then represents the
limb or lamina of the leaf. The style is generally cylindrical in form,
and is traversed by a narrow canal, in which there are some loose
projecting cells forming the conducting tissue, as also elongated tubes at
the period of fecundation. The stigma is a continuation of the cellular
tissue in the centre of the style, and may be either terminal or lateral ;
in the Orchidaceae it is placed on a part of the column called the
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30 BOTANY.
gynixus. The individual carpels composing a pistil may be arranged like
leaves, either in a whorl, or along a spiral. When they remain separate
and distinct, the pistil is apocarpous ; when the carpels are all united, the
pistil is syncarpous; when the union of the carpels takes place by the
ovaries alone, leaving the styles and stigmas free, the pistil is gcnnogastrous,
and the ovary compound. The number of parts in a syncarpous pistil may
be determined by the external venation, the grooves on the outside, and the
internal divisions of the ovary. When the grooves between the carpels are
deep, the ovary is said to be lobed. The carpels, although generally sessile,
are sometimes petioled and elevated above the surrounding whorls. The
union of these petioles constitutes a stipitate pistil ; or when thickened and
somewhat succulent, a gynophore, or thecaphore; when the axis is
produced beyond the ovaries, and the styles are united to it, we have a
carpophore.
The ovules are developed on the inner side of the carpel, where the two
edges of the carpellary leaf unite. The attachment to the edge, according
to some authors, but doubted by others, is effected by vascular tissue, which
traverses the carpel and sends off a branch to each ovule. At the same
place there is a development of cellular tissue connected with the conducting
tissue of the style and with the stigma. The union of these two tissues
constitutes the placenta or projection to which the ovules are attached ;
those who restrict this term to the individual branch of each ovule, style it
the placentary, or the pisiillary cord. The placenta marks the ventral or
iniur suture of the carpel, the outer or dorsal suture corresponding to the
midrib of the carpellary leaf. The placenta is formed on each margin or
edge of the carpel, and hence it is essentially double, although sometimes
appearing single; in an apocarpous pistil there are generally separate
placentas on each margin. In the syncarpous, however, the edges of
contiguous carpels unite to form a single septum or dissepiment. When the
dissepiments extend to the centre or axis, the ovary is divided into cavities,
ceUsy or loculaments ; it may be bilocular, trilocular, quadrilocular, &c., as
there are two, three, four, or more cells corresponding to as many carpels.
In these cases the marginal placentas meet in the axis, and unite so as to
form a central one. This kind of placentation is, perhaps improperly,
termed axile. When the dissepiments do not extend to the centre, but
merely form a projecting partition, the ovary is unilocular, and the placenta
parietal. Sometimes the placent» are not connected with the walls of the
ovary, but form a column, standing free in the centre ; in this case we have
a/ree central placenta. In some rare cases the phenomena of placentation
are such as to lead us to suppose that the placentae are not marginal, or on
the edges of the carpellary leaves, but rather axile, that is, prolongations of
the axis, the ovules being lateral buds, and the carpels verticillate leaves
united together around the axis.
Divisions in ovaries, not formed by the edges of contiguous carpels, are
called spurious dissepiments. These, when horizontal, are V&rmoAphragmata,
The prolongation of the edges of the placentae in a replum sometimes
subdivides the ovary.
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The ovary may be either free in the centre o[ the flower, or it may be
adherent, especially to the calyx. When this is united throughout it
becomes superior, the ovary itself being inferior. When the union takes
place but in part, the ovary is half inferior, and the calyx half superior.
The Style, which proceeds from the summit of the carpel, may be
considered as the upward prolongation of this, and hence called apicilar.
The carpellary leaf may be so folded that the style appears to proceed from
the side of the ovary ; in this case it is lateral, and basilar when proceeding
from the base. When the ovaries are grouped around a central prolongation
of the torus, continuous with a united columnar style, the arrangement is
termed a gynobase. The style, although usually smooth, may be coated
with hairs, termed collecting hairs, which aid in distributing the pollen.
When the styles of a syncarpous pistil are united completely into a single
one, this is said to be simple ; when the union is only partial, the style is
bifid, trißd, &c. ; and bipartite, tripartite, &c., when the union extends but
a short distance above the apex of the ovary. A style which falls off after
fertilization is said to be deciduous, otherwise it is persistent.
The Stigma terminates the style, and is usually in direct communication
with the placenta. Its position may be either terminal or lateral. It
consists of loose cellular tissue, and secretes a viscid matter which retains
the pollen, and causes it to protrude tubes. A stigma which is divided by
one or more grooves may be bilobed, trilobed, &c., or bilamellar, trilamellar,
&c., according as the partial divisions are rounded or flattened. The form
of the stigma varies considerably.
In Cryptogamous Plants there are organs termed pistillidia, supposed to
perform the functions of pistils, which consist of hollow cavities, termed
sporangia, or thecce, and containing the equivalents of ovules, termed spores.
The sporangia may be immersed in the body of the plant, or supported on
stalks, termed setce.
The Ovule is attached to the placenta, and is destined to produce the
future plant. Although usually embraced within an ovary, in some cases
it has no proper covering, then called n^ked. A partial inclosing by the
carpellary leaves renders the ovules seminude. The ovule may be attached
to the placenta, either directly, when it is sessile, or by the intervention of
a prolongation of the latter, itrmeA funiculus, umbilical cord, or podosperm.
The placenta is sometimes called the trophosperm. The part by which the
ovule is attached to the placenta is known as the base or hilum, the opposite
extremity being the apex. The ovule consists of a cellular mass, termed
the nucleus, inclosing a cavity in which the embryo is suspended by a
thread-Eke cellular process, caUed suspensor, and attached to the summit
of the nucleus. In some cases the cavity is lined by an epithelial
membrane, which constitutes the emhryo-sac, containing the amnios, a
mucilaginous fluid in which the embryo forms. The nucleus itself may be
either naked or enveloped in one or two coverings ; when two are present
the outer is called primine, the inner, secundine. These integuments leave
an opening at the apex of the nucleus composed of two apertures ; the one
in the primine, called exostome, the other in the secundine, termed endost^me.
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32 BOTANY.
The foramen of the ovule is also called micropyle. The nucleus and
integument are united at the base of the ovule by a cellulo-vascular
membrane, called chalaza. The hilum indicates the organic base of the
ovule, the foramen marking the apex. The primine, secundine, and nucleus,
are always united together at some point of their surface. When this union
takes place at the base of the ovule, as in its embryonic condition, this is said
to be orthotropaly or atropal When the ovule is curved downwards, so as
to approach the placenta, it is camptotropal ; when curved downwards, and
grown to the lower half, anatropal ; when attached by the middle, so that
the foramen is at one end, and the base at the other, it is campylotropal, or
amphitropal ; when shaped like a horse-shoe, lycotropal; when anatropal,
with the raphe half loose, semianatropaL By raphe is meant the vascular
connexion between the base of the ovule and the base of the nucleus, in
cases where these two bases do not coincide as they do in the orthotropal
ovules.
An ovule is said to be ascending when attached to a parietal placenta,
with the apex directed upwards. It may hang from an apicilar placenta at
the summit of the ovary, and be inverted or pendulous; or it may be
suspended from a parietal placenta near the summit. When two ovules in
the same cell are placed side by side, they are collateral, and their relative
positions may otherwise vary.
c. Fertilization.
The fertilization of a flower usually results from the action of pollen upon
the stigma, which in some manner causes the development of an embryo
within the nucleus. Authors disagree as to the precise manner in which
this action is exerted. The theory most generally adopted is, that the pollen
grains falling on the stigma are detained there, and soon exhibit a protrusion
of the inner coat, or inline, in the shape of a tube, which penetrates the
stigmas, and passes down through the style, ultimately to reach the embryo.
The result of this action is the formation of a vital point (a single cell),
which ultimately becomes the embryo, and from which a new plant may be
produced by exposure to the proper conditions. Sometimes more than one
embryo may be developed in the same ovule. The embryo derives the
material of its growth from the surrounding tissues, and the whole series of
phenomena is attended by the evolution of heat, which sometimes is quite
conspicuous. Authorities disagree as to whether or not the geiminal
vesicle exists in the embryo-sac before the application of the fovilla. In
some cryptogamous plants the vital spores are discharged from their
envelope without any apparent union of cells of two different sexual
characters : in the Confervse and Diatomaceee, however, there is a union of
the contents of two different cells, by means of tubes, which are protruded
from one into the other. This process, called conjugation, results in the
production of germinating bodies. When the pollen of one species of plant
fertilizes the ovule of another species, the result is a hybrid. These,
however, are of rare occurrence in nature.
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d. The Fruit.
Various changes occur in the flower after fertilization, the principal of
which consist in the enlargement of the ovary, which becomes the pericarp,
and within this the development of the ovules into seeds containing the
embryo. The other portions of the flower generally dry up and fall off,
although some may be persistent. The term fruit, in all strictness, only
applies to the mature ovary, with its contents; although it sometimes
includes other parts, as the bracts and floral envelopes. The anatomy of
the fruit much resembles that of the ovary The pericarp usually consists
of three layers : the external or epicarp, the middle or mesocarp, and the
internal or endocarp. In such fruits as the peach the mesocarp becomes
much developed, forming the fleshy pulp, and hence called sarcocarp ; while
the endocarp, thickened by woody matter, constitutes the putamen, or stone.
The part of the pericarp attached to the peduncle is termed the base, that
where the style or stigma existed being the apex. When the style remains
in a hardened form the fruit is apiculate. As in the carpel, so in the ripe
fruit, the ventral suture consists of the edges united towards the axis, the
dorsal suture corresponding to the midrib. When the sutures are united so
firmly as not to give way when the fruit is ripe, this is said to be
indehiscent; dehiscent, when either suture opens. Indehiscent fruits are
either dry, as in the nut, or fleshy, as in the cherry and apple. When the
pericarp is closely incorporated with the seed the fruit is pseudo-spermous.
When fruits, composed of single carpels, open only by the sutures, the
dehiscence is said to be sutural ; when composed of several carpels, the
valves may separate through the dissepiments, and give rise to a septicidal
dehiscence. When the valves separate, so as to leave the placentae in the
centre, these may form a single column, called columella. When dehiscence
takes place along the dorsal sutures, and the separating valves carry the
septa with them, the dehiscence is loculicidal; it is septifragal when the
septa separate from the valves, and remain attached to the centre. The
separation of the valves may take place from above downwards, or the
reverse. In Umbelliferse the two carpels separate from the lower part of
the axis, but remain attached to a prolongation of it, called a carpophore,
or podocarp. In the Siliqua, or fruit of the Cruciferae, the valves separate
from the base, leaving a central replum.
Fruits may also open transversely, the dehiscence, in this case, being
circumscissik. Dehiscence, again, may be effected by partial openings in
the pericarp, called pores, which may be variously situated.
Fruits may be formed by one flower, or by several combined. In the
former case they are either apocarpous, with one mature carpel, or
dialycarpous, with several separate free carpels. In the latter case they
are said to be syncarpous. An anthocarpous or multiple fruit is formed
when the bracts and floral envelopes are combined with the ovaries of a
syncarpous fruit.
Apocarpous fruits, then, are formed of one or several free carpels, and may
KONOORAPHIO BNOTOLOPiBDIA.— VOL. IL. 3 88
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34 BOTANY.
be either dry or succulent, according as the pericarp remains more or less
foliaceous in structure, or becomes fleshy or pulpy. Fruits which open
when ripe to discharge the seeds are dehiscent; otherwise they are
indehiscent. An indehiscent apocarpous fruit may contain but one seed,
and is then monospermous. The achcBnium is a dry monospermous firuit,
the pericarp of which is closely applied to the fruit, but separable from it
It may be solitary (single) or aggregate (several achaenia placed on a
common receptacle). The aggregate achsenia of the rose are known as the
cynarrhodum. Achsenia are caudate when the styles remain attached.
The fruit of Compositse, sometimes called cypsela, is an achaenium united to
the tube of the calyx. When the pericarp is thin, and surrounds the seed
like a bladder, the achaenium becomes a utricle. When the pericarp is
extended in the form of a winged appendage, the achaenium becomes a
samara. When the pericarp is inseparably united with the seed the fruit
becomes a caryopsis. The nut is a one-celled fruit, with a hardened
pericarp, surrounded by bracts at the base, as on the hazelnut, which,
besides, b enveloped by leafy appendages, forming the husk or hull. The
drupe is a succulent fruit, the pericarp consisting of epicarp, mesocarp,
and endocarp, and when mature containing a single seed, as in the
peach.
Dehiscent Apocarpous fruits may consist either of a few seeds only
(oligospermous), or the seeds may be numerous {polyspermous). The first
fruit to be mentioned under this head is the follicle, which is a mature
carpel, containing several seeds, and opening by the ventral suture. The
legume, or pod, is a solitary, simple carpel, dehiscing by the ventral" and
dorsal suture, the seeds being borne on the former. Sometimes the legume
is contracted at intervals, including each seed in a separate cell, which
separates from its neighbor when ripe. This constitutes the lomentum.
Indehiscent Syncarpous Fruits. The berry (bacca) is a succulent
fruit, in which the seeds are immersed in a pulpy mass, formed by the
placentas, as in the gooseberry. The pepo, or peponida, as in the pumpkin
or melon, is composed of about three carpels, forming a three-celled
indehiscent fruit with parietal placentae. The hesperidium, seen in the
orange, is a berry having a pericarp separable into an epicarp, an endocarp^
and a sarcocarp, the endocarp sending prolongations inwards, forming
triangular divisions in which pulpy cells are developed, so as to surround
the seeds. The balausta has the seeds arranged irregularly on the backs of
the cells, with the carpels inclosed within a tough rind. The pome is a
fleshy fruit, with the calyx adherent, and in connexion with the epicarp and
mesocarp, forming a thick cellular edible mass ; the endocarp forms separate
horny cells, inclosing the seeds ; e. g. the apple.
Dehiscent Syncarpous Fruits. By capsule is meant all dry syncarpous
fruits opening by valves or pores. When the capsule opens by a lid it is
called a pyxidium. The siliqiui consists of two carpels fastened together,
the placentae of which are parietal and separate from the valves, remainii^
in the form of a replum, and connected by a membraneous expansion«
When the fruit is long and narrow, it is called a siliqua ; when short and
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broad, silicula. When the replum, which consists of two lamelte, exhibits
perforations, it is called fenestrate.
Multiple, or anthocarpous fruits, are those in which the floral envelopes,
with the ovaries of several flowers, are united into one. Among these may
be mentioned the sorosis, a multiple fruit, formed by an united spike of
flowers which becomes succulent. Thus the pineapple is composed of
numerous ovaries, floral envelopes, and bracts, united into one succulent
mass. The synconus is an anthocarpous fruit, in which the axis or
extremity of the peduncle is hollowed, so as to bear numerous flowers, as in
the fig. The strohilus is a fruit-bearing spike, more or less elongated,
covered with scales, each one representing separate flowers, with two seeds
at the base. These scales may be thin and membraneous, as in the hop, or
they may be thickened, as in the pine. In the juniper they become fleshy,
and are so incorporated as to form a globular fruit, like a berry, sometimes
termed a galbtUus,
. e. Of the Seed.
The seed is the fertilized ovule arrived at maturity by the development
of the embryo. Seeds are usually contained in a seed vessel, or pericarp,
and hence called angiospermous ; some few, however, are without any
pericarpal covering, or are gymnospermous, and when the covering is only
partial the seed is seminude. Each seed consists of several distinct
elements, like the ovule, being composed of nucleus and integuments. It is
only rarely that all the membranes of the ovule are visible in the seed, the
embryo-sac often becoming absorbed or incorporated with the cellular
tissue of the nucleus. More usually the seed consists of the embryo and
two coverings. The general covering of the seed is termed spermoderm,
consisting of two parts, an external membrane, called episperm, or testa, and
an internal membrane, the endopleura. When the secundine remains
distinct in the seed, it forms the mesosperm ; or when fleshy, the sarcospeim,
or sarcoderm. When the embryo- sac remains distinct from the nucleus in
the seeds, it forms a covering to which the name of mteüus has been given.
Sometimes there is an additional covering to the seed, resulting from an
expansion of the funiculus or placenta after fertilization, and covering the
foramen, termed the arillus ; when the expansion proceeds from the
uncovered foramen, we have an arillode, as seen in the bright scarlet
coverings of the seeds of Euonymus. Certain cellular bodies produced on
the testa at various points, and in no way connected with fertilization, are
known as stropkioles, or caruncles. As in the ovule, the point where the
funiculus is attached to the seed is termed the hilum, or umbilicus. The
foramen of the ovule becomes the micropyle of the seed with the exostome
and endostome ; it is to this part that the root of the embryo is directed.
A small process or valve which overlies the micropyle of the bean is
termed embryotega. The vessels from the placenta, after passing through
the fiiniciilus, enter the seed either at a point of the hilum, called the
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omphalode, or else pass under the external integument in the form of a
raphe to the chalaza, when this is not coincident with the hilum. The
terms, orthotropal, campylotropal, anatropal, face, back, &c., already
explained under the head of the ovule, apply equally to the seed.
As the embryo increases in size, it causes an absorption of cellular matter
from the embryo sac and nucleus, to such an extent as sometimes to reduce
these to the condition of a thin integument, in which case the seed consists
of embryo and integuments alone. A peculiar substance, termed albumen,
is frequently formed around the embryo, which, when developed within the
embryo-sac alone, is known as endospermic albumen, or endosperm; and
when within the cells of the nucleus alone, perispermic albumen, or
perisperm. Sometimes both kinds occur in the same seed : when the
embryo occupies the whole seed, this is exalbuminous ; albuminous, when
there is a separate deposit of albumen. The object of the albumen is to
supply food to the embryo at the period of germination. It varies much in
its nature, heAng farinaceous, or mealy, consisting of starchy cells, as in the
grains ; fleshy, or cartilaginous, as in the cocoa-nut ; and homy, as in some
palms, and in coffee. When the cellular ^tissue combines with the
albuminous matter so completely as to form but one substance, the albumen
is solid ; ruminated, when a portion of the tissue remains unconverted,
causing a mottled appearance, as in the nutmeg. The albumen consists,
chemically, of oily matter, starch, and nitrogenized compounds.
The embryo consists of cotyledons, or rudimentary leaves ; the plumule,
or gemmule, which repj'esents the ascending axis ; the radicle, or the germ
of the descending axis ; and the point of union of the two, or the collum.
The part intervening between the collar and cotyledons is the caulicule, or
tigelle. The embryo varies in its structure in different divisions of the
vegetable kingdom. Thus, in acrogens and thallogens it continues to be a
cell or spore, with granular matter in the interior, without any cotyledons ;
hence such plants are said to be acotyledonous. In endogens and exogens,
on the other hand, there is a distinct separation of parts in the embryo, the
former having, however, but one cotyledon (monocotyledonous), the latter
two (dicotyledonous). In the spore of the acotyledonous plant germination
takes place in any part of the surface. Sometimes spores are united in
definite numbers by a cellular covering, called perispore, or sporidium ; the
tetraspore of the Algae consists of four spores thus united.
The first part formed in the embryo is the axis, having one of its
extremities turned towards the suspensor, and indicating the point whence
the radicle is to proceed ; the other end pointing in the opposite direction,
and answering to the stem. From the point where the cotyledons are
united to the axis a bud is developed (as from the axils of leaves) ; this
contains the rudiments of the true or primordial leaves of the plant, and is
known as the gemmule, or plumule. This bud may usually be seen lying
within the cotyledons. In the monocotyledon the gemmule is usually
inclosed by the mostly cylindrical cotyledon at its lower portion. The form
of the dicotyledonous embryo varies considerably, but is always distin-
guishable from the monocotyledonous by a division at the cotyledonary
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extremity. The cotyledons, however, are not always of the same size, and
the union between the two may be so intimate as to give rise to the pseudo-
monocotyledonous embryo. Sometimes there are more than two cotyledons,
ana plants in which this occurs are sometimes termed polycotyhdonous.
Cotyledons are usually entire and sessile. Sometimes, however, they
become lohed as in the walnut, petiolate, or auriculate. Like leaves in the
buds, cotyledons may either be applied directly to each other, or else folded
in various ways, becoming conduplicate, reclinate, convolute, circinate, &c.
The radicle may be either straight or curved, the difference in this
respect characterizing certain divisions of plants. Thus, in Cruciferae the
division Pleurorhizeae exhibits the cotyledons applied by their faces, with the
radicle folded along their edges, so as to be lateral; the cotyledons are then
accumbent. In Notorhizae the dorsal radicle is folded on the back of the
incumbent cotyledons, these being applied to each other by their face. In
Orthoploce» the cotyledons are conduplicate, and the radicle included
between their folds.
With respect to the perisperm, the embryo is internal or intrarius when
inclosed by this on all sides, excepting the radicular extremity ; when lying
outside of the perisperm, and only coming in contact with it at certain
points, the embryo is external or extrarius. When the embryo follows the
direction of the axis of the seed, it is axile or axial, and may be either
internal or external. When the embryo is not in the direction of the axis,
it is abaxiaL When, as in some campylotropous ovules, the embryo is
curved and external to the perisperm, it is peripherical.
Although the radicle is usually turned towards the micropyle, and the
cotyledons to the chalaza, yet the former may be directed to one side of the
nucleus, and the embryo is then excentric. The position of the embryo in
different seeds varies. In an orthotropal seed the embryo is antitropal, the
radicle pointing to the apex of the seed; if the nucleus be inverted or
antitropal, the embryo will be erect or orthotropal. In curved seeds the
embryo is folded, so that the extremities are approximated, hence called
amphitropah
When a seed begins to germinate, the embryo first lengthens its radicle,
then its caulicle, and afterwards sends the plumule upwards, in the form of
a stem and leaves. The radicle extends downwards, either directly from
the base of the embryo, or after having previously ruptured the integument
of the base. Plants with the first character are said to be exorhizal; with
the second, endorhizal. The former is most common in dicotyledons ; the
latter, in monocotyledons. In most plants^ the cotyledons are gradually
raised to the surface by the growth of the caulicle, after which they
become green and act as leaves; sometimes, however, the cotyledons
remain inclosed within the testa.
/. Reproductive Organs of Flowerless Plants,
We have already adverted in brief terms to many of the peculiarities of
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the reproductive organs of cryptogamous plants, and now propose to
combine these under one general head, with the addition of some points
hitherto omitted. In the case of Ferns, reproduction is effected by means
of spores, inclosed in cases named theccB, which often form in clusters or
sori on the under side of the leaves, or beneath the epidermis. This latter,
when including the thecae, is called the indusium. The thecae, or spore
cases, have frequently a stalk passing up one side, aftd disappearing on the
other ; the point where this is attached is called the annulus.
Urn Mosses are increased by spores contained within an urn, placed at
the apex of a seta or stalk, bearing on the summit a loose hood, called a
calyptra, and closed by a lid or operculum. At the base of the spore case
is sometimes found a tumor or struma, or an equal expansion, termed
apophysis. The inside of the thecee has a central axis, or columella ; and
the orifice beneath the operculum is closed by teeth-like processes, or a
men^brane called peristome.
Lichens are cellular expansions, consisting of a thallus, or combination
of stems and leaves, upon which appear shields or apothecia. These are
the reproductive organs, and consist of a margin inclosing a kernel or
nucleus, in which are imbedded tubes containing sporules, and termed
asci.
In the highest forms of Fungals there are two kinds of organs : one,
cystidia, conical naked elevations ; the other, basidia, also conical elevations,
but bearing spores on their apex.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS WITH RESPECT TO PLANTS
A. The Chemical Constituents of Plants.
Plants are composed of certain chemical elements, which are combined
in various ways, so as to form either organic or inorganic compounds.
The former are composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, with
a certain proportion of sulphur, or phosphorus ; the latter consist of various
metallic bases, combined with metalloids and acids. Water is a chief
constituent of plants, the amount being determinable with approximate
accuracy, by drying the plant at a heat slightly exceeding that of boiling
water, and estimating the loss of weight. When the plant is burned the
organic constituents disappear, and the inorganic are left in the form of
binary or ternary compounds. *
Carbon is the most abundant constituent of the plant, forming a greater
proportion of its mass than any other. When vegetable matter is heated
without exposure to air, the carbon is left in the form of charcoal, of a black
color and porous texture, retaining much of the original volume and shape.
It exists in great quantity in the soil, but requires to be converted into
carbonic acid before it can be taken up by the plant. Most of the carbon
of the plant is derived from the decomposition of the carbonic acid of the
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atmosphere by means of the leaves. Thus the plant decomposes carbonic
acid, assimilates the carbon, and liberates the oxygen ; an animal, on the
other hand, deprives the air of its oxygen, and liberates carbonic acid.
Oxygen is next in importance to carbon. It is usually found in combination
with hydrogen, forming water. Nitrogen is less an universal constituent
than the other, being chiefly found in the younger parts and the seeds.
These four elements occur as binary compounds in water and oily matters;
as ternary in starch, gum, sugar, and cellulose ; and as quaternary in gluten,
caseine, albumen, and fibrine. The latter compounds have for their base a
substance known as proteine (C**, H", N', O"), with the addition of certain
proportions of sulphur and phosphorus.
The principal inorganic constituents of plafits are formed of combinations
of chlorine, iodine, bromine, sulphur, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, calcium,
magnesium, aluminum, silicon, iron, manganese, and copper.
Silica abounds in grasses giving firmness to the stem. It is sometimes
found aggregated in the joints of the bamboo as tabasheer. Lime is found
in all plants, in some existing in large quantity. It occurs as a carbonate
on the surface of some plants. Soda and Potash are also of constant
occurrence. Plants growing near the sea exhibit a preponderance of soda,
while those that are inland abound most in potash. Iron and Manganese
are found in small quantity ; Copper has been detected in coffee.
B. Products and Secretions op Plants.
Having thus very briefly mentioned the principal elements found in
plants, we proceed next to a summary of their most important compounds.
The first to be mentioned is starch, which is stored up to serve as nourish-
ment either to the developed plant or to the embryo. Its chemical
composition is C", H", O*". Starch may be deposited in seeds, roots, stems,
receptacles, &c. Sometimes starch is associated with poisonous or acrid
juices. Inuline is a substance analogous to starch, and found in Elecampane
and other plants ; lichenine, another variety, is found in Cetraria islandica,
or Iceland moss. The action of sulphuric acid, or of malt, on starch, or long
boiling in water; results in the production of a soluble substance, called
dextrine, and is one of the stages through which starch passes to become
sugar.
Gum (C", H", O") is another substance found abundantly in the vegetable
kingdom, and is one of the forms through which organic matter passes
during the growth of plants. There are two forms of gum : one soluble in
water (arabine or mucilage), the other only swelling up into a gelatinous
mass (bassorine, cerasine, and pec tine). Arahine is known familiarly as
gum arable ; combined with cerasine it is found in the gum of the cherry
andi^lum tree. Mucilage is present in many plants, as in the mallows and
in linseed. Bassorine forms the chief part of gum tragacanth. Pectine is
obtained from pulpy fruits,, as the apple and pear. It forms a jelly with
water, and when dried resembles isinglass or gelatine.
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Sugar occurs in many species of plants, and appears under three
principal forms: cane sugar, grape sugar, and mannite. Cane sugar,
C", H', O* + 2H0, is obtained from many plants, as sugar cane, beet root,
sugar maple, birch, &c. It is soluble in about one third of its weight of water,
and insoluble in pure alcohol. Grape sugar, or glucose, C", H*', O" + 2H0,
IS found in grape and other juices. It can be prepared from starch or cane
sugar by boiling in dilute sulphuric acid. Mannite, C", H^ O*, the chief
ingredient of manna, a substance derived from several species of ash, differs
from the others in not undergoing the vinous fermentation. It is also found
in the juices of celery, mushrooms, &c.
LiGNiNE occurs abundantly in woody fibre, and is distinguished from
cellulose in being soluble in strong nitric acid, forming oxalic acid. Its
formula is C**, H**, O*'. All these substances are readily convertible into
each other. Some other ternary compounds of this character are salicine,
found in the willows, and phloridzine, obtained from the bark of the roots
of the apple, &c.
There are other vegetable products which differ from these last in the
presence of nitrogen. Thus gluten is that part of wheat flour which
remains after the removal of the starch. Vegetable fibrins is obtained by
treating the glutinous part of wheat with ether. Vegetable caseine, or
legumine, is found in oily seeds, and in leguminous plants. Vegetable albumen
occurs as a soluble substance with caseine. It coagulates at a temperature
of 140° to 160° F., and is not precipitated by acetic acid. The base of all
these substances is proteine (C**, H", N*, O"). Fibrine is proteine
+ S + PA. Albumen is proteine +S" + PA. Caseine is proteine + S.
Emulsine, or synaptase, is found in almonds; and in bitter almonds is
associated with a substance called amygdaline. Diastase is a modification
of gluten, obtained from malt, and developed generally during the
germination of plants. It facilitates the conversion of starch into dextrine,
and thence into sugar.
Fixed Oils occur in the cells and intercellular spaces of various parts of
the plant. They are known by their greasing paper permanently. The
principal are linseed oil, olive oil, and certain solid oils, as palm oil, shea
butter, and vegetable tallow. These all contain a large amount of Stearine.
Vegetable Wax is a peculiar fatty matter found in the stem and fruit of
some plants. On the exterior of fruits it constitutes their bloom, as in the
grape and plums. Chlorophylle is allied to wax in character, being soluble
in ether and alcohol, and insoluble in water.
Volatile, or Essential Oils, are procured from such plants as contain
them by distillation in water, and are known as essences; they do not grease
paper permanently. Usually they are ready formed ; sometimes, however,
they are produced by a kind of fermentation. Some essential oils consist
of carbon and hydrogen, as oil of turpentine, oil of juniper, oil of lemons,
&c. A second set contain oxygen in addition, as oil of cinnamon, ott% of
roses, oils of peppermint, of caraway, and of cloves. Sulphur enters into
the composition of a third set, which are distinguished by a peculiar
pungent, and sometimes alliaceous smell, as oils of garlic, of onion, of
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assafoßtida, &c. Camphor is a solid oil, consisting of carbon, oxygen, and
hydrogen.
Resins. These are either Hquid or soHd. The liquid are balsam of Tola,
of Peru, of copaiva, Canada balsam, &c. The solid are rosin, elemi,
sandarac, guiacum, labdanum, dragon's blood, storax, benzoin, copal, lac,
&c.
Caoutchouc is found associated with essential oil and resins in the milky
juices of plants. It is procured from various species of Ficus, Urceola,
Siphonia, &c. Gutta Percha is obtained from a species of Isonandra, found
in Singapore and Borneo.
Organic Acids occur in great variety in vegetable juices. Thus citric
acid b found in the fruit of the orange, the lemon, lime, &c. ; tartaric, in
the grape ; malic, in the apple ; tannic, in oak bark and nut-galls ; gallic,
in the seeds of mango; meconic, in the juice of the poppy; kinic, in Cinchona;
hydrocyanic, in the laurel ; oxalic, in Oxalis ; &c.
Alkaloids, or vegetable alkalies, are nitr(^enized compounds, found in
Hving plants, and generally containing their active principles. They occur
usually in combination with organic acids. Quinine and cinchonine are
derived from Cinchona or Peruvian bark ; morphine, narcotine, codeine,
thebaine, and narceine, from the poppy; solanine, from the potatoe and
other species of Solanum; veratrine, from hellebore; aconitine, from
Aconitum ; strychnine and brucine, from nux vomica ; atropine, from bella-
donna; piperine, from Piper; emetine, from ipecacuanha; caffeine, from
coffee, tea, and Paraguay tea ; theobromine, from the cacao ; &c.
Coloring Matters are obtained from plants, either directly or by means
of a species of fermentation. Yellow coloring matters are procured from
Curcuma longa as turmeric, from the gamboge plant as gamboge, from the
stigmata of Crocus sativa as saffron, &c. ; also from Reseda luteola (Weld)
and from some lichens. The principal reds are alkanet from Anchusa;
dragon's blood from Dracaena ; madder from Rubia tinctorum ; l(^wood from
Haematoxylon ; Brazil-wood from Csesalpinia; carthamine from Carthamus;
archil and litmus from Roccella tinctoria, one of the lichens. The principal
Wuc is indigo, from various species of Indigofera.
C. The Circulation and Elaboration op Fluids in Plants.
The entrance of liquid matter into the plant is effected mainly through
the roots. The extremities of these are covered by a very delicate
membrane, which permits the imbibition of liquids with great rapidity.
The matter thus absorbed by the roots consists of water holding various
matters, chiefly inorganic, in solution ; and this is carried up, partly by
capillary attraction, partly by endosmosis. This ascending sap passes up
through the vessels and cells of the stem, and thence into the leaves, where
it is elaborated and returned as descending sap through the bark, a small
portion reaching the roots, there to be excreted, or else stored up for
purposes of future nutrition. Gaseous matters are also taken up by the
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roots and circulated along with the sap ; these consist mainly of air, oxygen,
and carbonic acid. In the course of this ascent slight changes take place
in the sap, the most important, however, being reserved for the leaves to
effect. Here the sap is exposed to the influence of light and air, by means
of which carbon and hydrogen are fixed, oxygen and watery vapor given
off. The sap thus becomes denser and more fitted to the purposes for which
it is destined. After this elaboration it commences its descent, passing
through the bark, and transmitted laterally through the cells o( the medullary
rays. The descending sap, or latex, is sometimes clear and transparent, at
other times it is milky or otherwise colored. In this are contained the
peculiar products of the plant which are deposited in various situations. A
mucilaginous deposit between the bark and the wood results in the formation
of an external layer to the latter, and an internal to the former. Starch and
gum are deposited in the cells of the new layer of alburnum or sap wood,
which, in the spring of the year, may be converted into sugar, and by
solution in the ascending sap impart to this its sweetness.
ON THE GEOGRAPHY OF PLANTS.
Plants are foimd distributed all over the surface of the earth, wherever
heat, air, and moisture co-exist ; and the warmer and moister the country,
the more vigorous and varied the vegetation. The same soil, however, is
not equally favorable to all plants ; this is mainly owing to the fact, that
different species require different inorganic ingredients, as well as different
amounts of heat, light, and moisture. The mean temperature of a place
exerts great influence upon its vegetation, and as this temperature is
affected to a certain extent by the latitude and longitude, it becomes possible
to establish an intimate relation between geographical localities and
particular forms of plants. Besides the geographical arrangement of plants,
we may also have a physical grouping, according to the physical features
of the soil in which they are found. Thus plants may grow in water, salt
or fi*esh, they may be found in sandy soils, in meadows, in vegetable mould,
under trees, or on other plants, and even on animals. Recent discoveries
of the highest interest, by Dr. Leidy of Philadelphia, have shown that the
occurrence of entophyta in animals is perfectly normal. The following
arrangement by Balfour, exhibits the general features of a division of plants,
according to their station.
A. Plants Growing in Water, whether Salt or Fresh.
1. Marine Plants, such as sea- weeds, Lavers, &c., which are either buried
in the ocean or float on its surface ; also, such plants as Ruppia and Zostera.
In the Sargasso Sea there are floating meadows of Sargassum bacciferumr-^
gulf- weed. This sea extends firom 22® to 36® north latitude, and from 25*
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to 45^ west longitade from Greenwich, and extends over 40,000 square
miles.
2. Maritime, or Saline Plants, These are plants which grow on the
border of the sea, or of salt lakes, and require salt for nourishment, as
SaKcomia, glasswort, Salsola, saltwort, Anabasis. Such plants are often
called Halophytes. Under this head may be included littoral and shore
plants, such as Armeria, sea-pink, Glatix, and Samolus,
8. Aquatic Plants, growing in fresh water, either stagnant or running,
as Sagittaria, arrowhead, Nymphasa, water-lily, Potamogeton, pond-weed,
Subularia, awlwort, Utrictdaria, bladderwort, Stratiotes, water-soldier,
Lemna, duck-weed, Pistia, Confervce, OsciUatoricB, and Ranunculus
fluviatilis. Some of these root in the soil, and appear above the surface
of the water ; others root in the soil, and remain submerged ; while a few
swim freely on the surface without rooting below.
4. Amphibious Plants, living in ground which is generally submerged,
but occasionally dry, as Ranunculus aquatilis and sceleratus. Polygonum
amphibium, Nasturtium amphibium. The form of the plants varies
according to the degree of moisture. Some of these, as Limosella aquatica,
grow in places which are inundated at certain periods of the year ; others,
such as Rhizophoras, mangroves, and Avicennias, form forests at the
mouths of muddy rivers in tropical countries.
B. Land Plants which Root in the Earth and Grow in thb
Atmosphere.
5. Sand Plants; as Carex arenaria, Ammophila arenaria, Elymus
arenarius, and Calamagrostis arenaria, which tend to fix the loose sand.
Plantago arenaria, Hemiaria glabra, Sedum acre,
6. Chalk Plants ; plants growing in calcareous soils, as some species of
Ophrys, Orchis, and Cypripedium,
7. Meadow and Pasture Plants ; as some species of Lotus, bird's-foot
trefoil, a great number of grasses and trefoils, the daisy, dandelion, and
buttercups.
8. Plants Found in Cultivated Ground, In this division are included
many plants which have been introduced by man along with grain, as
Centaurea cyanus, com blue-bottle, Sinapis arvensis, common wild
mustard, Agrostemma, corncockle, several species of Veronica and
Euphorbia, Lolium temulentum. Convolvulus arvensis, Cichorium intybus ;
also plants growing in fallow ground, as Rumex acetosella, Carduus nutans,
Echium vulgare, Artemisia campestris, and Androsace septentrionalis. In
this division garden weeds are included; such as Groundsel, Chickweed,
Lamium amplexicaule, Chenopodium vulgare and viride,
9. Rock or Wall Plants ; Saxifrages, Wall-flower, Linaria cymbalaria,
Draba muralis, species of Sisymbrium and Sedum, Asplenium^ Ruta muraria,
and some lichens and mosses.
10. Plants Found on Rubbish Heaps, especially connected with old
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buildings. Some of these seem to select the habitations of man and animals,
on account of certain nitrogenous and inorganic matters which enter into
their composition. Among them may be noticed Nettles, Pellitory, Docks,
Borage, Henbane, Xanthium. Here also have been placed some plants
immediately connected with the habitation of man, such as Racodium
cellarCy a fungus found on wine casks; Conferva fenestralis, an alga
produced on window-panes; and Conferva dendrita, one developed on
paper. Some plants, as Sempervivum tectorum^ select the roofs of houses.
11. Plants Growing in Vegetable Mould, such as bog-plants, or those
growing on wet soil, so soft that it yields to the foot, but rises again ; and
marsh plants, growing in wet soil, which sinks under the foot and does not
rise. To the former class belong such plants as Pinguicula alpina and
Primula farinosa ; to the latter, such as Menyanthes, Comarum, Bidens
cemua,
12. Forest Plants, including trees which live in society, as the Oak, the
Beech, Firs, dtc, and the plants which grow under their shelter, as the
greater part of the European Orchises, some species of Carex and Orohanche.
Some plants especially grow in pine and fir- woods, as Linncea borealis and
some Pyrolas.
13. Plants of Sterile Places, found in barren rocks, by road-sides. This
is a heterogeneous class, and contains many plants of uncertain character.
Under it are included the plants of uncultivated grounds, as those found on
moors, where Calluna vulgaris, common heath, and various Heaths,
Juniper, Andromeda, and some species of Polytrichum occur.
14. Plants of the thickets or hedges, comprehending the small shrubs
which constitute the hedge or thicket, as the Hawthorn and Sweet-brier ;
and the herbaceous plants which grow at the foot of these shrubs, as Adoxa,
Wood Sorrel, Violets; and those which climb among their numerous
branches, as Bryony, Black Bryony, Honeysuckle, Traveller's Joy, and
some species of Lathyrus,
15. Plants of the Mountains, which De Candolle proposes to divide into
two sections : 1. Those which grow on Alpine mountains, the summits of
which are covered with perpetual snow, and where, during the heat of
summer, there is a continual and abundant flow of moisture, as numerous
Saxifrages, Gentians, Primroses, and Rhododendrons. 2. Those inhabiting
mountains on which the snow disappears during summer, as several species
of Snap-dragon, among others the Alpine Snap-dragon. Umbelliferous
plants, chiefly belonging to the genus Seseli, meadow Saxifrage, Labiate
plants, &c.
C. Plants Growing in Special Localities.
16. Parasitic Plants, which derive their nourishment from other
vegetables, and which, consequently, may be found in all the preceding
situations ; as the Mistletoe, species of Orohanche, Cuscuta (Dodder),
Loranthus, Rafflesia, and numerous Fungi.
17. Pseudo-parasitic Plants, or Epiphytes, which live upon dead
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vegetables, as Lichens, Mosses. &c., or upon the bark of living vegetables,
but do not derive much nourishment from them, as Epidendrum, AerideSy
and other orchids, as well as Tiüandiia, Bromelia, Pothos, and other air
plants.
18. Subterranean Plants, or those which live under the ground, or in
mines and caves almost entirely excluded from the light, as Bysstis,
Truffles, and some other cryptogamic plants.
19. Plants which Vegetate in Hot Springs, the temperature of which
ranges from 80° to 150° of Fahrenheit's thermometer, as Vitex Agnus-
castus, and several cryptogamoüs plants, as Ulva thermalis, the hot-spring
Laver.
20. Plants which are Developed in Artificial Infusions or Liquors, as
various kinds of Mucor, causing mouldiness.
21. Plants Growing jon Living Animals, as species of Sphceria and
Sarcinula, and various other Fungi and Algae.
22. Plants growing on certain kinds of decaying animal matter, such as
species of Onygena, found on the hoofs of horses, feathers of birds, &c.,
some species of Fungi, which grow only on the dung of animals, and certain
species of Splachnum.
There are certain forms of plants which, while occurring within definite
limits, impart a peculiar character. Meyen, in his Grundriss der Pflanzen-
geographic, establishes twenty groups as especially characteristic of the
regions in which they occur. They are as follows :
1. Gramineous, or Grassy Form. This is illustrated in northern
countries by meadows and pastures. The cereal grains also have a great
influence on the aspect of countries. Under this form are included
Cyperaceae, Restiaceae, and Juncaceae. In the torrid zone some arborescent
forms occur, as Bamboo ; and along with these are associated Sugar-cane
and Rice. Barley is an extra tropical form, while Carex extends to cold
regions.
2. Scitamineous Form. This includes the Ginger, Arrowroot, and
Plantain family, some of which attain a large size. They contribute to give
a character to the torrid zone.
3. Pandanus, or Screto-pine Form. A tropical form illustrated by
Screw-pines and Dracaenas.
4. Pine-Apple Form, Illustrated by the Bromeliaceae of warm climates.
5. The Agave, or American Aloe Form. Chiefly tropical and subtropical.
6. The Palm Form. Under this are included also the Cycadaceous
family. They give a character to the hotter regions of the globe. Some
of the palms are social, as the Date and Cocoa-nut. Chamcerops humilis
represents this form in Europe.
7. Filical, or Fern Form. True Ferns, in an especial manner, aflect the
landscape in tropical and warm regions.
8. Mimosa Form. This includes Leguminous plants in general. The
finely cut foliage of some has a resemblance to Ferns. Modifications of this
form occur both in warm and cold regions. Acacias, in New Holland, give
a peculiar feature to the landscape.
4A
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46 BOTANT.
9. Coniferous Form. The Abietine» are charaoteristic of northern
regions, and Cupressineae of southern.
10. The Protea, Epacris, and Erica Forms. These forms supply the
place of Coniferae in the southern hemisphere ; the Protea and Epacris
forms occurring in Australasia, and the Erica form at the Cape of Gk>od
Hope.
11. Myrtle Form. Some of these, such as Melaleuca and Eucalyptus,
characterize New Holland scenery ; others, as Gruavas, are tropical.
12. Forms of Dicotyledonous Trees. Some, with broad and tender
leaves, as Birch, Alder, Poplar, Oak, Lime, Elm, Beech, and Horse-chestnut,
giving a character to the physiognomy of the colder half of temperate
climates ; while others, with thick, leathery, and showy leaves, as Olives
and Laurels, are characteristic of warmer climates ; and a third division,
with large, beautiful leaves, Cecropia, Artocarpus, and Astrapaea, abound in
the hottest climates.
13. Cactus Form. This form is developed chiefly in America, especially
in Brazil.
14. Form of Succulent Plants. Seen in the Mesembryaceae of South
Africa.
15. Lily Form. This includes Liliaceae, Amaryllidaceae, and Iridaceae.
Modifications of this form occur in warm and temperate climates.
16. Forms of Lianas, or Climbing-Plants. These forms are chiefly
tropical, and are illustrated by Passion-flowers, Paullinias, Aristolochias, and
Bauhinias.
17. Pothos Form. This is a tropical form, and is illustrated by various
species of Araceae.
18. Orchideous Form. This is seen in the splendid Epiphytes of warm
climates. Terrestrial species chiefly occur in cold zones.
19. The Moss Form.
20. The Lichen Form. Both these forms characterize cold regions
chiefly.
In treating of the geographical arrangement of plants, we may consider
them under two points of view ; ßrst, as respects the horizontal or latitude
arrangement; and second, in respect to the vertical range. The mean
temperature of the earth diminishes as we travel from the equator towards
either pole, as also in ascending to the top of a high mountain from its
base ; so that there is a certain parallelism between the horizontal range of
mean temperature and the vertical. The same is the case in plants, as we
shall find that the same mean temperature, whether we attain this by a
horizontal or by a vertical progression, is characterized by the same
vegetable features.
Considering, in the first place, the horizontal range of vegetation, we find
the following to be the divisions of Meyen, the latest authority on the
subject : —
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A. Torrid Zone.
1. Equatorial Zone. Oo — 15°. Mean annual temperature 78j^ —
82 J^ F., chaiacterized by the greatest size and variety of forms, with the most
brilliant colors and exquisite odors, primitive forests with gigantic trees,
and climbing plants. The characteristic forms are Palms, Bananas,
Arborescent Grasses, Pandanus, Scitaminese, Orchids, Lianas, and Epiphytes ;
also, plants belonging to Cedrelaceae, Sapindaceee, Caesalpinese, Malvace»,
Anonacese, Anacardise, Artocarpeae, Lecythidaceae, Malpighiaceae, &c.
2. The Tropical Zone. 150—23^. Mean temperature 73^0— 78foF.
Summer temperature SOJ^® — 86° ; winter temperature in the eastern coast
countries 59°. Palms, Musacese, Scytamineae, Meliaceae, Arborescent
Ferns, Orchidaceae, Araceae, and Lianas. Plains with Melastomaceae and
gentians in the New World. Forests of mangrove and figs in the Old
World.
B. Temperate Zone.
3. Subtropical Zone. 23^ — 34°. Mean temperature 62i° — 71io;
mean summer temperature 73^° — 82^° : winters mild and vegetation green
throughout the year.
Northern hemisphere. Old World : Pancratia, Dracaenae, Bananas,
Palms {Crucifera thebaica, Phasnix dactylifera, Chamcerops humilis),
Ficus sycamorus, Cordia, Cissus, Capparis, Melia, Camellia, Euphorbiaceae,
Pistacia, Bauhinia. New World : Arborescent grasses, Tillandsia on Pinus,
Taxodium, Quercus, Populus, Laurus sassafras, Myrica, Diosphjrros,
Magnolia, Liriodendron, Calycanthus, and climbing Bignonias.
Southern hemisphere. New Holland : Anthistiria australis and
Polygonum junceum. Forests of Eucalyptus, Cycadeae, Xanthorrhea,
Callitris, Casuarina, Proteaceae, Dilleniaceae, Papilionaceae and Mimosas,
Terrestrial Orchideae, Stylidia and Goodenia. South Africa: Cycadeae,
Restiaceae, Juncaceae, Irideae, Compositae, Erica, Podocarpus elongatus, with
Asclepiadeae and Bryonia, Mesembryanthemum and Epiphytes. La Plata :
shrubs with leathery leaves ; woody Compositae, Oestrum, Colletia, Fuchsia,
Myrtles, and Papilionaceae embraced by Mutisia, Bignoniaceae, Cuscuta,
and Loasaceae. Abundant in Loranthaceae, Cactaceae, Liliaceae, and
arborescent grasses.
4. Warmer Temperate Zone. 34° — 45°. Mean temperature 53^"" — 62i°.
Summer temperature in North America 77°; in Europe 75J^ — 68''; in
eastern Asia, 82 J®. Winter temperature in America 44^** — 32i°; in
Europe 60° — 34|° ; in eastern Asia 26i°.
Northern hemisphere. Evergreen trees with vines, Bignonias, and spinous
roses, Quercus, Fagus, Castanea, Platanus, Laurus, Fraxinus, Acer, Juglans,
Myrtus, Gleditschia, Vaccinium, Viburnum tinus, Arbutus uredo and
andrachne, Smilaceae, Aster, Solidago, Labiatae, Cistineae, Caryophylleae.
Meadows are of rarer occurrence.
Southern hemisphere. New Zealand: Cordyline australis, Phormium
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48 BOTANY.
tenax, Areca sapida, &c. Van Diemen's Land and New Holland : Proteaceae,
Epacrideae, Leptospermeae. Chili and Buenos Ayres: Fagus, Laurelia.
Persea, Weinmannia, Coriaria, Myrtus, &c.
5. Colder Temperate Zone. 45® — 58° of latitude. Mean temperature
43° — 53^'' F. ; minimum summer temperature on the west coast 564^ ; in
the interior of the continent 68° ; minimum winter temperature in the
interior of Europe 14°.
Northern hemisphere ; Europe : Corylus, Viburnum, extended green
meadows ; great heaths covered with Calluna vulgaris. Turf with Juniperus,
Andromeda polifolia Siud Ledum palustre ; rich in Umbelliferee and Cruciferae.
Asia: Anabasis, Salsola, Chenopodium, Atriplex, Statice, Artemisia, Gentiana,
Cucubaliis tatarica, GlycyrrhizsL, America: Abietineae,Sisyrinchium,Dodeca-
theon, Panax horridum, Rubus odoratus and spectahilis, Sorbus and Crataegus.
Southern hemisphere. Evergreen forests of Fagus antarctica and
betuloides, with Wintera aromatica, Podocarpus. Here and there, no trees
(Falkland islands and east side of the Straits of Magellan), but instead,
shrubby growths of considerable extent of Andromeda, Arbutus, Empetrum,
and Rubus, 4-5 feet high. Extensive meadows of Agrosiis magellanica
and ccBspitosa, Aira flexuosa, Avena redolens and phleoides, Festuca magel-
lanica and erecta, Carex and Juncus. Moors of Sphagnum acutifolium, with
Marchantia polymorpha, Azolla magellanica, Lomaria, Callitriche vema,
Gunnera, Statica armeria, Galium aparine, Pinguicula alpina, Lysimachia
repenSy Ranunculus lapponicus, Caltha appendiculata and sagittata, with
Fuchsia and Sanguisorba.
6. The Subarctic Zone. 58° — 66° of latitude. Mean temperature 39J° —
43° F. ; summer temperature in the New World 66i° ; in the Old, 60|^ —
68°. Winter temperature of western Europe 14°, of the interior of
Russia 14° — 10i°. Vegetation very similar through Scandinavia, Siberia,
Kamtschatka, Northern America, Iceland, and the Faroe Islands. Pines,
Firs, Larches, Birches, and Willows predominate ; characteristic growths
are Cetraria islandica, Trichostomum lanuginosum and canescens.
Meadows of Agrostis, Poa and Aira, Valeriana, Hieracium aurantiacum,
Digitalis purpurea, Stachys, Swertia, Lysimachia, Trientalis, Calluna
vulgaris. Erica cinerea, Bunium, Ribes, Chrysoplenium, Berberis, Hypericum,
Prunus padua, Rosa, Trifolium.
The South Subantarctic Zone (New Shetland) has the polar character.
C, Frigid Zone.
7. The Arctic Zone. This extends from the Arctic circle 66** to 72°.
Mean temperature 28i° — 32°, and towards the eastern and continental
portions far below thfe. This constitutes the limit of arboreal vegetation
and of cultivated plants. Characteristic growths common to both continents
are Gyrophora, Cenomyce rangiferina, Polytrichum, Aira ccespitosa and
flexuosa, Pinus sylvestris and ahies, Betula nana and glandulosa, Alnus
glutinosa, Populus iremula, Salix, Diapensia, Comus suecica, Azalea»
Andromeda, Vaccinum, Rubus chamcemorus and Sorbus aucuparia.
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BOTANY. 49
a The Polar Zone. This includes all lands from 72^ to the pole. The
mean temperature of one point in this zone Melville island, is 1|°. In the
Old World the mean temperature is 16i^. Summer temperature of the
New World 37^°, of the Old 384°. , Winter temperature 28° in the New
and 2J° in the Old. Spitzbergen, Greenland, the coast of Baffin's Bay,
Melville Island, Northern Siberia, and Nova Zembla, exhibit the same
species with few exceptions. Trees and shrubs wanting. Small turfy
plants with creeping roots. Poor in genera, species, and individuals.
Characteristic genera are Phippsia, Colpodium, Dupontia, Pleuropogon,
Eriophorum, Juncus, Salix, Pedicularis, Andromeda, Pyrola, Saxifraga,
Cochlearia, Cardamine, Parry a, Platypetalum, Eutrema, Papaver, Ranunculus,
Silene, Potentilla, and Dryas. Few Monocotyledons, and these not above
the grass type. Almost total destitution of Apetala and Monopetala.
Vertical Range op Plants.
The relation between altitude and vegetation is best seen in ascending
high mountains in tropical regions, where all gradations, from the heat of
the Torrid Zone to the cold of the Arctic regions, may be passed through in
regular succession. We quote a striking illustration of this circumstance
from Humboldt: —
" In the burning plains, scarce raised above the level of the southern
ocean, we find Bananas, Cycadaceae, and Palrtis, in the greatest luxuriance ;
after them, shaded by the lofty sides of the valleys in the Andes, Tree
Ferns ; next in succession, bedewed by cool misty clouds. Cinchonas appear.
When lofty trees cease, we come to Aralias, Thibaudias, and myrtle-leaved
Andromedas; these are succeeded by Bejarias abounding in resin, and
forming a purple belt around the mountains. In the stormy regions of the
Paramos, the more lofty plants and showy flowering herbs disappear, and
are succeeded by large meadows covered with grasses, on which the Llama
feeds. We now reach the bare trachyte rocks, on which the lowest tribes
of plants flourish. Parmelias, Lecidias, and Leprarias, with their many-
colored sporules, form the flora of this inhospitable zone. Patches of
recently fallen snow now begin to cover the last efibrts of vegetable life,
and then the line of eternal snow begins.
" On the mountains ctf temperate regions the variety is rather less, but the
change is not less striking. We begin to ascend the Alps, for instance, in
the midst of warm vineyards, and pass through a succession of oaks, sweet
chestnuts, and beeches, till we gain the elevation of the more hardy pines
and stunted birches, and tread on pastures fringed by borders of perpetual
snow. At the elevation of 1950 feet, the vine disappears ; and 1000 feet
higher, the sweet chestnuts cease to grow ; 1000 feet further, and the oak is
unable to maintain itself; the birch ceases to grow at an elevation of 4680,
and the spruce fir at the height of 5900 feet, beyond which no tree appears.
The Rhododendron ferrugineum (the Rose of the Alps) then covers immense
tracts to the height of 7480 feet, and Salix herbacea creeps 200 or 300 feet
lOONOGRAPHIO BNCTCLOPiEDIA. — VOL. II. 4 4^
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50 BOTANY.
higher, accompanied by a few Saxifrages, Grentians, and Grasses, while
Lichens and Mosses struggle up to the imperishable barrier of perpetual
snow."
Some authors establish five regions of mountain vegetation, including 1,
the region of Lowland cultivation ; 2, Region of woods ; 3, Region of
shrubs ; 4, Region of grasses ; and 5, Region of Cryptc^amous plants. A
more elaborate classification by Meyen is as follows :
1. Region of Palms aiid Bananas.
to 1900 feet high. Temperature 80^° to 86° F. Corresponds to the
equatorial zone.
Forests of Mangrove at the sea coasts, and at the mouths of rivers.
Arborescent grasses covering extensive tracts, dense forests of fig trees,
Toumefortia, Dodonea, Barringtonia, Mimosa, &c., overtopped by palms,
Musaceae, and Scitamineae.
2. Region of Tree Ferns and Ficus.
1900 to 3800 feet high. Temperature 74° F. Corresponds to the tropic
zone.
Arborescent ferns from 20 to 30 feet high, Cinchonacese, Artocarpus, and
Ficus, with Reed Palms, and Passiflorae. The undergrowth of Acanthaceae,
Tiliaceae, Euphorbiaceae, mixed with Aroideae and Piperaceae.
3. Region of the Myrtles and Laurels.
3800 to 6700 feet high. 68° to 69.8"* F. Corresponds to the subtropical
zone.
Dicotyledonous trees, with glossy leaves, shrubby ferns, Quercus,
Liquidambar, Laurineae, Proteaceae, Rubiaceae, Erica, Styrax, Sapindaceae,
Malpighiaceae, Melastoma, Myrtus, Eugenia, Eucalyptus, Acacia.
4. Region of Evergreen Dicotyledonous Trees.
5700 to 7600 feet high. Temperature, 62.6® F. Corresponding to the
warmer temperate zone.
Quercus, Laurineae, Melastomaceae, M}rrtaceae, Colletia, Cactaceae.
5. Region of Deciduous Dicotyledonous Trees.
7600 to 9600 feet high. Temperature, 57.2"* F. Corresponding to the
colder temperate zone.
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Forests of Oak, Beech, and Maple, with Ternstroemia, Euphorbiaceae, and
Melastomaceae, many Coniferse.
6. Region of AhUtinecB.
9500 to 11,400 feet high. Temperature, 51.8"^ F. Corresponds to the
subarctic zone.
In the Peruvian Andes, instead of Conifer» there occur Escadoniae,
Wintera granatensis, and Andromed», with Swertia. In the Mexican
plateaus, in addition to the Abietinese, there are forests of Oak and Yucca,
Tillandsia and Cactacese, with Stevia arenaria, Ranunculus, and Astragalus.
7. Region of Alpine Shrubs, or of Rhododendronna.
11,400 to 13,300 feet high. Temperature, 44.6'' F. Corresponds to the
arctic zone.
No trees, only shrubs; Rhododendrons, Astragalus, Befaria, Cactus,
Calceolaria.
8. Region of Alpine Plants. ,
13,300 to 15,200 feet high. Temperature, 37^° to 39^^ F. Correspomls
to the polar zone.
In the northern Cordilleras, Compositae, Mimulus, Calceolaria, Sida,
Lupinus ; in the southern, Lecidea geographica, grasses, Plantago, Gentiana,
Befaria, MuUinsia, Epilobium. In the mountains of Java, Valeriana,
Gentiana, Viola, Ranunculus, Potentilla, Draba, Primula, Salix, Astragalus,
Phyteuma, &c.
PL 73, fig. 1, presents a general view of those cultivated plants,, which
furnish the principal articles of food and medicine : the various Cerealia,
Cacao, Sugar, Coffee, Tea, Cinnamon, Pepper, Nutmeg, Vanilla, Clove,
Cotton, and Peruvian Bark. Fig, 2 is a more detailed exhibition of the
Chinese and East Indian region of cotton, tea-plant, cinnamon tree, pepper,
&c. Fig. 3 is a special chart of the region of the sugar-cane, coffee, and
cacao tree, of tea, vanilla, &c., in the West Indies and South America.
The remaining four figures present to us the vertical distribution of plants.
Fig. 4 represents this distribution in the temperate zone of Asia. From the
foot of the Himalayas to the middle of the region, between 3 and 4, no snow
occurs ; and up to a point half-way between 4 and 5, the snow vanishes
before the rainy season, and the tropical herbaceous plants cease to exist.
Oaks are found at 4. Rhododendrons at 6, &c. At a height from 1 to a
region beiween B and 4, we find first the dwarf palm, higher up the long-
leaved fig, Shorea robusta, and finally oaks. Between C and D is the region
of sugar plantations ; between D and E, that of the Deodara Cedar ; between
E and F are found wheat, walnut, and almond trees, &c. ; between F and
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52 BOTANY.
G, the white Birch, Juniper, &c. ; and above all, at G, there occurs Genista
versicolor. Fig. 5 represents the distribution of American plants. Thus
the palm is found up to A; arborescent ferns to B; the grape to C;
cinnamon to D ; oaks and the Mexican alder to E ; Pinus occidentalis to
F ; maize to G (probable snow line of Aconcagua) ; barley to H. On the
eastern side, Pinus occidentalis at F, and the Mexican alder and oaks at G.
Fig. 6 illustrates the temperate zone of Europe ; the grape, chestnut, and
walnut, up to A ; to B, oaks, white birch, red birch ; to C, Pinus picea and
abies ; to D, Alnus viridis and Rhododendron ; to E, Salix herbacea ; F to
G, Pinus rubra ; to H, oaks ; and the chestnut, the grape, &c., down to the
foot again. Fig. 1 refers to the Canary Islands : to A, Palms ; to B,
Cerealia and the grape ; to C, Laurel trees ; to D, Pinus canariensis ; to E,
Spartium rubiginosum ; and to F, a species of Viola. T\g. 8 shows the
distribution of plants in the frigid zone of Europe : Pinus sylvestris to A ;
the white birch to B ; and to C, salix herbacea and lanata.
SYSTEMATIC BOTANY, OR THE CLASSIFICATION OF
PLANTS.
It does not come within the scope of the present work to give a history
of the rise and progress of the science of Botany, nor to enumerate the
various systems of classification which have been propounded. We will
merely state that such systems are either artificial or natural. The most
important artificial system is that of Linnaeus, which, better perhaps than
any other system, aifords an index to the genera. The objection to this
and to other artificial systems is, that genera and species of very different
character are necessarily brought together, while their affinities and truly
essential characters may be wholly opposite. Up to a comparatively recent
period the system of Linnaeus almost exclusively prevailed ; few botanists of
the present day, however, make any other use of it than that of a key or
index. In this system twenty-three classes are founded on the number,
relative lengths, position, and connexion of the stamens ; the orders in these
classes depending on the number of styles, the nature of the fruit,
occasionally the number of stamens, and the perfection of the flowers. The
twenty-fourth class includes plants with inconspicuous flowers. The
following is a tabular view of the system as analysed by Balfour.
Tabular View of the Classes of the Linncean System.
A. Phaherogamia (Flowers present) :
I. Stamens and Pistil in every flower.
1. Stamens free.
a. Stamens of equal length, or not differing in certain proportionB :
Class T. Monandria with one stamen.
** n. Diandria " two stamens.
« m. Triandria " three "
« IV. Tetrandria « four «
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BOTANY. 53
Claas V. Pentandiia with üve stamens.
« VL Hexandria
six «
« Vn. Heptandria «
seven **
« Vm. Octandria «
eight «
" DC Enneandria «
nine *
« X. Decandria «
ten «
•< XI. Dodecandria «<
12tol9 «
« Xn. Icoaandria «
20 or more ** inserted on calyx.
« XUl. Polyandria
20 or more** ** ** receptacle.
5. Stamens of different lengths:
Chws XIV. Didynamia «
two short and two long stamens.
XV. Tetradynamia «
two short and fonr long
3. Stsmens onited.
& By filaments:
Ckus XVL Monadelphia <«
stamens in one bundle.
« XVn. Diadelphia
** in two bundles.
« XVUL Polyadelphia «
*« in more than two bundles.
A. By anthers (compound flowers) :
Class XIX. Syngenesis «
** united by anthers.
«* XX. Gynandria «
** and pistil on a column.
n. Stamens and pistil in different flowers.
Class XXL MonoBcia.
3. On different plants :
Class XXILDicecia.
IIL Stamens and pistils in the same or in different flowers, on the same or on d£Bferent
plants:
Class X?(lll. Polygamia.
B. Cbtptooamia (flowers absent) :
Class XXIV. Cryptogamia.
Tabular View of the Obdees of the Linrusan System.
A. Classes I to XIIL subdivide into :
Order 1. Monogynia with one
** 2. Digynia
*• 3. Tiigynia
** 4. Tetragynia
** Ö. Pentagynia
** 6. Hexagynia
** 7. Heptagjmia
•* 8. Octogynia
** 9. Enneagynia
** 10. Decagynia
•* 11. Dodecagynia
** 12. Polygynia
B. Class XrV. subdivides into :
Order 1. Gymnospermia with the fruit formed by four Achsenia.
** 2. Angiospermia u u u ^^ two-celled capsule with many seeds.
C. Class XV. subdivides into:
Order 1. Siliculosa: fruit, a Silicula.
** 2. Siliquosa: fruit, a Sillqua.
D. Classes XVL to XVIIL subdivide hito :
Orders: Triandria. Tetrandiia, Deeandria, &«., according to the number of
stamens.
one
freestyle.
two
** styles.
three
« tt
four
tt tt
five
tt tt
six
M tt
seven
tt tt
eight
tt tt
nine
tt tt
ten
tt tt
12tol9
tt tt
20 or more** «*
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64
BOTANY.
E. Class XDL sabdivides into :
Order 1. Polygamia aoqualis: florets all hermaphrodite.
** 2. ** saperflua : florets of the disk hermaphrodite, those of the
ray pistillifnoas and fertile.
** 3. ^ frustranea: florets of the disk hermaphrodite, those of the
ray neuter.
<* 4. ** necessaria: florets of the disk staminiferons, those of the
ray pistilliferons.
<* 6. ** segregata: each floret having a separate involucre.
** 6. Monogamia. Anthers united, flowers not compound.
F. Classes XX. to XXH subdivide into :
Orders : Monandria, Diandria, &«., according to the number of stamens.
G. Class XXHL subdivides into :
Order 1. Monoecia : Hermaphrodite, staminiferons, and pistiUiferouB flowers on
the same plant
** 2. DioBcia : the same on two plants.
**• 8. Triflscia: the same on three plants.
H. Class XXIV. subdivides into :
Order 1. Pilioes: Ferns.
** 2. Musci: Mosses.
** 3. Hepatic®: liverworts.
^ 4. Lichenes: lichens.
** Ö. Algae: Seaweeds.
^ 6. Fungi: Mushrooms.
The object in the natural system is to combine those plants which are
allied in essentia] points of structure. Every natural method is, however,
to a certain extent artificial, and it will be impossible to construct a perfect
natural system until all the plants of the globe are known. The first natural
system of much special value was that of Jussieu, published in 1789. This
includes one hundred natural orders or groups of genera, the whole arranged
under fifteen classes, as follows :
Natural System according to Jussieu.
CItM
L
ACOTTLEDONES,
' f Mono-hypogyrm (Stamens hypogynous), H
MoNOOOTTLEDORES, < Mono^p&rigifTks ( ** perigynous), .... HL
{^Mono-^pigynoi (
epigynous),
IV.
DXOOTTLEDORES,
Monoclines
(flowers united)
r Epistamine» (Stamens epigynous) V.
Apetalse < Peri8tamine«e( ** perigynous) VI.
(No petals) (^ Hypostamine» ( ** hypogynous) VIL
"HypoooroUsB (Corolla hypogynous) VIIL
PericoroUffi ( ** perigynous) IX.
Monopetal»
(Petals united)
EpicorollflB
IIa epIgynoQs)
J!;p]
(CorolL
Synanther»
(anthers onlted)
Corisanther»
(anthers free)
TEpipetalse (petals epigynous).
Polypetalae { PenpetalsB ( " perigynous).
(Petals distinct) (^Hypopetal» ( ** hypogynous).
54
, Didines (flowers unisexual or without a perianth)
Digitized by
X
XL
xn.
.XIII.
XIV.
. XV.
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BOTANY. 56
The philosophical system of Endlicher divides plants into two regions
and five sections, as follows :
Natural System according to Endlicher.
Region I. Thallophyta (frond plant). No opposition of stem and root.
No spiral vessels, and no sexual organs. Propagated by spores.
Section 1. Protophyta. Developed without soil ; deriving nourishment
all around ; fructification indefinite.
Section 2. Hysterophyta. Developed on decaying organisms ; nourished
internally from a matrix ; all the organs appearing at once, and
perishing in a definite manner.
Region II. Cormophyta. Opposition of stem and root. Spiral vessels and
sexual organs distinct in the more perfect.
Section 3. Acrobrya. Stem increasing by the apex, the lower part
being unchanged, and only conveying fluids.
Cohort 1. Anoph3rta. No spiral vessels. Both sexes present.
Spores free within spore-cases.
Cohort 2. Protophyta. Bundles of vesseb more or less perfect.
No male organs. Spores free within one or many-celled spore-
cases.
Cohort 3. Hysterophyta. Both sexes perfect. Seeds without an
embryo, consisting of many spores. Parasitic.
Section 4. Amphibrya. Stem increasing at the circumference.
Vegetation peripherical.
Section 5. Acramphibrya. Stem increasing both by apex and circum-
ference. Vegetation peripherico-terminal.
Cohort 1. Gymnospermse. Ovules naked, receiving the fecundating
matter directly at the micn^yle.
Cohort 2. Apetalae. Perigone either wanting or rudimentary or
simple, calycine or colored, free or adherent to the ovary.
Cohort 3. GamopetalflB. Perigone double ; outer calycine, inner
corolline ; gamopetalous, rarely wanting by abortion.
Cohort 4. Dialypetalse. Perigone double; outer calycine, parts
distinct or united, free or attached to the oviuy ; inner coralline,
parts distinct or very rarely cohering by means of the base of
the stamens ; insertion hypogynous, perigynous, or e{»gynous ;
sometimes abortive.
Under these sections are enumerated 279 natural orders, grouped under
sixty-one classes.
The arrangement which we have selected to be the basis of our
classification is that of De CandoUe, as modified by certain more recent
authors.
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66 BOTANY.
Natural System according to Db Candollb.
A. Cryptogamoüs or Cellular Flowerless Plants.
Class 1. Acotyledons or AcrogencR,
Sub-Class 1. Amphigamflß, Thallogense, or Cellulares: entirely cellular.
" 2. JEtheogamae, or Cormogenae : having vascular tissue.
B. Phanerogamous or Vascular Flowering Plants.
Class 2. Monocotyledons^ or Endogenes.
Sub-Class 1. Glumaceae. Floral envelopes imbricated, leaves parallel-
veined.
" 2. Petaloideae or Florideae. Floral envelopes, verticillate
leaves, parallel veined.
a. Unisexual, often achlamydeous.
b. Hermaphrodite, ovary free.
c. Hermaphrodite, ovary adherent.
•• 3. Dictyogenae. Floral envelopes verticillate, leaves reticulated.
Class 3. Dicotyledones or Exogenes.
Havinff a f Sub-Class 1. Monochlamyde». A calyx only, or none,
single I a Gymnosperm». Seeds naked, ) p^^^cSe
penanth, . I o. AngiospernuB. Seeds m an ovary, ' ofJuasieu.
2. Corolliflora. Petals united, bearing the stamens, | ^^^u^euT ^^
Having Calyx
and Corolla
Dichlamyde».
3. CalyciflorsB. Petals distinct, stamens perigynous >Polypetal» of
4. ThalamiflorsB. *« «« ** hypogynous J Jussien. •
Before proceeding to the more particular consideration of the orders of
the system, we shall make a brief reference to the more usual symbols and
abbreviations as used in botanical descriptions.
The authorities for genera and species are given by adding the abbre-
viated name of the botanist who described them. Thus, Veronica L. is
the genus Veronica as defined by Linnaeus ; Veronica arvensis L. is a
certain species of Veronica, defined by the same author ; Oxytropis DC. is
the genus as defined by De Candolle. It is usual in descriptive works to»
give a list of the authors, and the symbols for their names. The abbre-
viation V. s. sp.y means vidi siccam spontaneam, or that the author has seen
a dried wild specimen of the plant ; u. s. c. means vidi siccam culiam, or
that he has seen a dried cultivated specimen ; v. v. s. means vidi vivam
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spontaneam, or that he has seen a living wild specimen ; while v, v. c. means
vidi vivam culttan, or that the author has seen a living cultivated specimen.
The asterisk prefixed to a name (*L), indicates that there is a good
description at the reference given to the work ; while the dagger (fL),
implies some doubt or uncertainty. The point of admiration (! DC), marks
that an authentic specimen has been seen, from the author named ; and the
point of interrogation (?) indicates doubts as to the correctnebs of genus,
species, &c., according as it is placed after the name of the one or
other. 0, o, (y, or A, annual ; «, ©0, @, or B, biennial ; 4, A, or P, perennial ;
^, or Sh., shrub; ), twining to the left; (, twining to the right; «, her-
maphrodite ; 6, male ; 9, female ; 6 — 9, monoecious, or the male and female
on one plant : 6 : 9, dioecious, or the male and female on different plants ;
M or «, means indefinite in number.
Section A. Cryptogamoüb Plants.
Class 1. Äcotyledones, Juss. Acrogens cmd ThaUogens, Lindl.
The plants belonging to this class are in some instances composed entirely
of cellular tissue ; in other instances, both cells and vessels are present.
The mascular tissue in the higher orders consists partly of closed spiral and
scalariform vessels. Many of them have no true stem nor leaves. The
woody stem, when present, consists of vascular bundles, which increase in
an acrogenous manner. The stem of tree-ferns (which illustrates this
class) is unbranched, more or less uniformly cylindrical, hollow in the
interior, and marked by the scars of the leaves. Stomata occur in the
epidermis of the higher divisions. Leaves, when present, have frequently
no true venation ; at other times the venation is forked. There are no
flowers, and no distinct stamens nor pistils. Reproduction takes place in
some cases apparently by the union of cells of different kinds (antheridia
and pistillidia), by means of which germinating bodies called spores are
formed. In other cases it is difllicult to trace this process of fertilization.
The spore may be considered as a cellular embryo which has no cotyledons,
and germinates firom any part of its surface, being heterorhizaL
Sub-class 1. AmpkiganuB, ThaUogenes, or Cellulares,
Acotyledons composed entirely of cellular tissue, having no distinct axis,
nor leaves, nor stomata, propagated by means of spores which are often
inclosed in asci.
Ordee 1. Alg^e, the Sea- weed Family. Cellular plants found both in salt
and in fresh water. Fronds composed of variously formed, often elongated
cells, which are either simple or branched filaments, continuous or articu-
lated, separate or combined in diflferent ways, so as to constitute fronds of
diflferent kinds. Ghrowth takes place by the division of cells, or by cellular
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prolongations, in the form of lateral branches. Reproductive oi^;an8 consist
of spores, which are contained in mother-cells or perispores» or sporocarps.
These are sometimes congregated together in receptacles of different sorts.
The spores occasionally divide into three or four cells, constituting
tetraspores. In addition to spores or sporocarps, there are sometimes
round, or clavate, or filamentous cellular bodies present, to which some give
the name of antheridia. In some of the simplest Algae, the whole plant is
concerned in producing new individuals by division of the parent cells into
two or four. In others there is a union of two filaments, and a passage of
certain granular particles (endochrome) firom the one to the other, ending
in the formation of the spore. This process is termed conjugation, and is
one of great interest. It has been observed in some of the Confervace<B
and DiatomacecB, In certain cases, the terminal cell of the filament is that
in which a spore is formed without any conjugation, and in these cases the
spore is frequently provided with ciliary processes, which exhibit for a time
spontaneous movements ; hence called zoospores. In the higher Algae, the
sporocarps containing Jwo, four, or more reproductive cellules, are united
tc^ether in conceptacles along with filaments containing phytozoa, and
called antheridia. In CharacecB there are two distinct organs of
reproduction.
Sub-order 1. DiatomacecB: inhabiting still waters and moist places;
fronds consisting of frustula or fragments, which are either angular or
cylindrical, often silicious and brittle (non-silicious in Desmidieae), united
by a gelatinous sort of substance ; propagated by the division of parent
cells into two halves, which become more or less completely detached, and
form new individuals. Conjugation also takes place in some instances, in
the same way as in the Confervaceae.
Sub-order 2. Confervaceae: aquatic plants often of a green color,
consisting of one or more cells of a rounded or cylindrical form, united
together so as to form an articulated or flat frond. They increase by the
merismatic division of cells. Reproduction effected by spores which are
formed in the interior of the cells by a change in the arrangement of the
granular matter, or by the union of filaments of different plants, a process
of conjugation by which granular matter passes from one to the other.
PL 54, ßg, 84, Or-d ; a, Conferva bombycina ; 6, C. rivularis in various
states : c, C. flaccida and d, C. glomerata.
Sub-order 3. FloridecB, or Ceramiacece : rose or purple-colored sea-
weeds, with fronds formed of a single row of articulated cells, or of several
rows of cells combined into a flat expansion ; organs of reproduction consist
of sporocarps or perispores, intermixed with clavate filaments called
antheridia. The sporocarps contain cells or spores often divided into four
(tetraspores), and inclosed in conceptacles of various kinds.
Sub-order 4. Fucacece, or sea- weeds, the sea-wrack tribe : usually growing
in salt water : frond consisting of cells which are often united by gelatinous
matter, and which sometimes form a broad expansion (a membranous
thallus), supported on a stalk ; organs of reproduction consist of spcnrocarps
and antheridia, contained in ccmceptacles opening externally, which are
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united in club-shaped expansions ^r receptacles, situated at the end or
margins of the fronds. In germinating, the nucleus bursts the episp<Mre or
outer covering of the spore, and sends out filamentous processes. PI, 64^
ßg. 36, Laminaria digitata ; ßg, 37, L. saccharina with cellular tissue and
fruit. Fucus vesiculosus {ßg. 38).
Stib-order 5. Charace^e : water plants formed of parallel tubes, which ai-e
sometimes incrusted with carbonate of lime ; reproductive organs are of
two kinds : a, a round red globule consisting of eight valves which inclose
cells of different kinds, containing granular matter and peculiar spiral
filaments or phy tozoa ; 6, an oval nucule formed by a large central cell or
^re, with five elongated cells wound spirally round it, surmounted by five
teeth. Some consider the globule as an antheridium, and as equivalent to
an anther.
Qkdkb 2. Fungi, the Mushroom Family. The plants belonging to this
order consist of cells, sometimes round, sometimes elongated, in the form of
filaments, either placed closely together, or separated. They are variable
in their consistence, being soft or hard, fibrous or gelatinous, fleshy or
leathery. They never contain green gonidia, like Lichens, and they rarely
grow in water. There exists a vegetative system, called spawn or
mycelium, formed of elongated, simple, or articulated filaments, concealed
within the matrix, or expanded over its surface, from which varied forms
of fructification proceed. The mycelium occurs either in a filamentous, a
membranous, a tubercular, or a pulpy form. The reproductive organs
consist of spores or spherical cells (usually four, or some multiple of four),,
which are either attached to the cellular tissue, and supported often on
simple or branched filamentous processes, called sporophores or basidia ; oi
are contained in thecse, cystidia, or asci, accompanied by bodies called
antheridia, or paraphyses ; in the latter case the term sporidia is sometimes
applied to the spores. The sporophores sometimes end in delicate cells,
bearing the spores, and called sterigmata. In the Agarics, or Mushrooms»
which are among the best known fungi, there is observed first a roundish
jMrotuberance on the mycelium. This swelling is called the volva, or
wrapper, and it gradually enlarges, containing in its interior what appears
afterwards as the agaric, with its reproductive bodies. When the volva is
ruptured the fully-formed agaric is seen, consisting of an upper rounded
portion, called the pileus, or cap, supported on a stalk or stipes. On its
under surface is situated the hymenium, or the part where the spores are
produced, covered at first by a thin membrane, called a veil (indusium or
velum), which is ultimately ruptured ; and when the rupture takes place at
the edge of the pileus, an annulus or ring is left on the stipes. The
hymenium, or the part on which the organs of reproduction are placed,
consists in tbe agaric of cellular plates, lamellae, or gills, radiating from the
centre. In other genera of fungi it consists of tubes or solid columns, or
fleshy or gelatinous matter. Sometimes the hymenium is on the upper
surface of the fungus. Cellular plants, often growing on decaying organic
matter, generally very transient, and presenting various colors, and found in
all parts of the world.
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The plants of this order are remarkable as esculents, as poiscmoos
substances, and as causing great injury to animal and vegetable tissues. It
is among these that we find the various mushrooms, some known as
furnishing an excellent article of food, others as highly poisonous. It is
difficult to indicate any good character by which to distinguish the former
from the latter, other than that they generally grow solitary in dry pastures,
are rarely high colored, generally white or brownish, seldom show scales,
and have brittle flesh. The various moulds which occur on animal or
vegetable substances belong to this order. Some fungi are produced on
living animals.
Svh'Order 1. Phycomycetes : Thallus floccose, spores surrounded by a
vesicular veil, or sporangium. The principal genera are Phycomyces and
Mucor.
Sub-order 2. Ascomycetes : Sporidia (spores), contained often in sets of
eight in asci or tubes. This sub-order includes the Truffle, Tuber cibarium
{pi M, fig. 18).
Sub-order 3. Hyphomycetes : Thallus floccose, spores naked, often septate.
Sub-order 4. Coniomycetes : Flocci of the fruit obsolete or mere peduncles,
spores single, oflen partitioned, and on more or less distinct sporophores.
The principal genera in this sub-order are Ustilago and Uredo, the latter
causing the well known smut and brand. PL My fig. 16, Ustilago segetum ;
fig. 17, Uredo phaseoli.
Sub-order 6. Gasteromycetes : Hymenium inclosed in a membrane
(peridium), spores as in the next sub-order. A species of Bovista one of
the principal genera. B. gigantea {pL 54, fig. 19) is remarkable for its
great size and for the rapidity of its growth ; having been known to increase
in a single night from the size of a pea to that of a melon. PL 54, fig. 20,
represents Morchella esculenta, an edible fungus which is prepared in large
quantities in some parts of Europe, by cutting into pieces and drying in
ovens.
Sub-order 6. Hymenomycetes : Hymenium naked, spores in sets of four,
and borne on distinct sporophores. Hydnum auriscalpium and squamatum
(pL 54, fig. 23). Polyporus perennis {pL 54, fig. 21). A species of
Polyporus, P. destructor, is one of those Fungi which cause the dry rot
Boletus umbellatus {pL 54, fig. 22«) ; B. edulis (fig. 22*) ; Cantharellus
cibarius (fig. 24) ; Agaricus fimetarius (fig. 25) ; A. campestris and
squarrosus (fig. 26) ; A. procerus (fig. 27) ; and A. muscarius (fig. 28).
The genus Agaricus contains a great number of species, and includes some
that are highly poisonous, as well as others that are perfectly harmless.
The common mushroom belongs here.
Order 3. Lichbnes, the Lichen Family. Plants forming a thallus, which
is either foliaceous, crustaceous, or pulverulent, these difierent forms
depending on the mode in which the cells are developed and combined.
The reproductive organs appear on the frond in the form of protuberances
of various kinds, consisting of an outer layer of thick- walled roundish cells,
more dense than the tissue of the thallus, and of a difierent color ; and
of an internal medullary layer of paraphyses and sporangia, lying
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perpendicularly to the outer layer. The fructification gradually projects
more and more from the surface, and either remains co^^ered with the
outer layer, or bursts through it. When it remains closed, there is a nucleus
in the centre. When the fructification bursts through the cortical or outer
layer, it expands in the form of shield-like disks, called apothecia or
patellse, or linear expansions called lirellae. Sometimes the cortical matter
forms a border round the fructification, at other times it grows up in the
form of a stalk, so as to give rise to a podetium. The young thee® (asci)
contain spores, varpng from four to eight, or from twelve to sixteen.
Occasionally, the spores are in sets of two. Separated cells of the medullary
layer, of a green color, called gonidia, or gongyli, are considered as another
kind of reproductive organ. There is much uncertainty as to the real
character of the spherical or sub-spherical green bodies called gonidia, which
are characteristic of true lichens. When separated from the parent structure,
they are capable of forming new plants. Lichens are found in all quarters
of the globe, adhering to stones, rocks, trees, &c. During their entire
growth, they appear to be capable of deriving most of their nourishment
from the atmosphere. They have the power of acting on hard rocks, so as
to disintegrate them in process of time, and many of them contain much
inorganic matter in their composition. They all grow in the air ; none are
found submersed.
Sub-order 1. ConiothalamecB : pulverulent lichens; shields open, without
a nacleus, cavity filled with free spores.
Suh-order 2. IdiothalamecB : shields closed at first, opening afterwards,
containing free spores in a nucleus composed of the gelatinous remains of
the paraphytes and sporangia.
Sub-order 3. Gasterothalamece : shields either closed always, or opening
by bursting through the cortical layer of the thallus, the nucleus containing
the deliquescing or shrivelled sporangia.
Sub-order 4. Hymenothalamece : shields open, discoid permanent, nucleus
bearing the sporangia on its surface.
The economical value of some lichens is considerable. Cetraria islandica
(pL 54, fig. 31), or Iceland Moss, contains a nutritious substance called lichenin.
Cladonia rangiferina furnishes the principal winter food of the Reindeer.
Fig, 29 represents Cladonia pyxidata and verticillata. Parmelia parietina
(pL 54, fig. 30) contains a yellow coloring matter called parietin. Rocella
tinctoria {fig. 32) furnishes part of the archil of commerce. Fig. 33
represents Usnea florida. The tripe de roche, a nutritious lichen found in
the Arctic regions of America, belongs to the genus Gyrophora«
Sub-class 2. ^theogamtB or Cormogence.
Ordee 4. HBPATioiE, the Liverwort Family. Plants having an axis
which either bears cellular leaves or is leafless, and is bordered by a
membranous expansion or thallus. Stomata are found in the epidermis of
some. The reproductive organs are : 1. Antheridia, which are either
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imbedded in the frond, or situated on rounded, sessile, and stalked receptacles.
2. Pistillidia, either inclosed in involucres and solitary, or occurring at the
edge of the frond, or on the lower side of stalked peltate expansions.
Thecae or developed pistillidia, having no operculum, opening irregularly, or
by four valves. Spores often mixed with spiral filaments called elaters.
Heterorhizal in germination. Terrestrial plants found in damp places, or
inhabiting water ; some having a moss-like appearance. They are natives
both of cold and warm climates, and are generally distributed over the
globe.
Sub-order 1. JuTigermanniece, or scale mosses. Frondose or foliaceous
plants, terrestrial or on trees. Capsule dehiscent lengthwise into four valves.
Jungermannia, the principal genus, is represented by many species:
Gymnoscyphus, one of the true JungermanniesB, is represented in
pi. 64, ßg. 43, by G. repens.
Sub-order 2. Marchantiece. Frondose and terrestrial; perennial, growing
in wet places, with the fertile receptacle raised on a peduncle, capitate or
radiate, bearing pendent calyptrate capsules from the under side, which
open variously, not four-valved. Elaters with two spiral fibres. Ex.
Marchantia polymorpha {pL 54^ ßg, 44), very common in shaded, moist
places.
Sub-order 3. Anthocerotece, Terrestrial frondose annuals with the fruit
protruded from the upper side of the frond ; perianth none. Capsule pod-
like, single or double- valved, with a free central columella. Elaters none
or imperfect. Ex. Anthoceros punctatus {pL 54, ßg. 42), found on wet
slopes and the sides of ditches throughout the United States.
Sub-order 4. Ricciece, Mostly frondose floating little annuals, with both
kinds of flowers, and the fruit immersed in the frond. No involucre,
perianth, nor elaters. Capsule bursting irregularly. Ex. Riccia.
Sub-order 5. Monoclea. Fruit, solitary capsular, opening laterally by a
longitudinal slit. Elaters, mixed with spores. Vegetation, foliaceous or
frondiform. Ex. Monoclea,
Ordek 5. Musci, Mosses, Plants having a distinct axis of growth, often
giving off branches or innovations ; no vascular system. Leaves miiiute
and imbricated, entire or serrated, sometimes with condensed cells, in the
form of ribs or nerves. Reproductive organs of two kinds : 1. Antheridia,
cylindrical or fusiform stalked bags, containing powdery matter and
phytozoa, and mixed with empty jointed filaments or paraphyses. 2. Urn-
shaped pistillidia, inclosed at first within a calyptra, which is ultimately
carried up with them, leaving often a sheath round the bottom of the firuit
stalk. These pistillidia finally become the thecae, or spore-cases, supported
on a stalk or seta, which has leaves at its base, called perichaetial leaves;
on removal of the calyptra the theca is found to consist of a case with an
operculum or lid, which, when it falls off, shows the mouth of the urn, either
naked or crowned with a peristome, consisting of one or more rows of teeth
(in number foui', or a multiple of four), distinct or united in various ways.
In the centre of the theca is a columella, and the bag formed between it
and the parietes of the theca contains spherical cells, called spores, each of
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BOTANY. 63
which divides into four small spores, or sporules, the germinating bodies.
In some cases the operculum remains persistent, and the theca opens by
four valves. At the base of the theca there is occasionally a fleshy
protuberance at one side, called a struma ; or a swelling of the seta, called
an i^physis. The calyptra is sometimes split on one side (dimidiate), at
other times it is entire or split into short clefts all around its base
(mitriform). Between the teeth of the peristome and the edge of the theca
an elastic ring or annulus is formed, and occasionally a horizontal septum or
epiphragm extends across the mouth of the thecae. The set» are sometimes
twisted, and so are the teeth of the peristome. Mosses are either erect or
creeping, terrestrial or aquatic plants, found in all moist countries, extending
from the Arctic to the Antarctic regions. They abound most in temperate
climates. They are among the first plants which appear on newly fcH'med
islands.
Mosses have been divided into Pleurocarpi, those in which the fruit is
lateral, and Acrocarpi, where the fruit is terminal. The principal North
American sub-orders are : Fontinalece, HypnacecB, Leskeacece, Neckeracece,
PterogonacecBy BryacecB, MeesiacecB, Bartramiacece, Buxbaumiace€B,
PolytrichacetB, FissidentecB, Leucobryacece, DicranacecB, Trichostomacece,
TetraphidecB, OrthotriceacecBy EncalyptecB, GrimmiaceeB, Weissiacete,
Splackn€u:e€B, PunariacetBy Pottiacers, Ch/mnostomacecBy SphctgnacecB,
AndrcBocecBy and Phascacea, Illustrations of one or two species of these
sub-orders are furnished by our figures. PL 54, ßg. 41, represents
Climacium dendroides, one of the Hypnace« found in woods on the
ground. Sphagnum acutifolium, or Peat-moss (ßg, 89). This genus
furnishes most of the peat found in peat bogs, and employed for various
purposes.
Ordee 6. LYcopoDiACBiB, the Club Moss Family. Stems creeping, or
corms; annular vessels in the axis. Leaves imbricated, more or less
setaceous, sometimes subulate. Thecae axillary and sessile, one to
three celled, opening by valves or indehiscent ; often of two kinds, one
round, reniform, or crescentic, cont$Lining minute powdery matter, and
called by some antheridia, though perhaps erroneously ; the other, of a
rDundish tetrahedral form, inclosing a cell which produces four spores
capable of germinating ; the spores are considered by some as equivalent
to ovules, and the mother-cell as an ovary or oophoridium. In Isoetet,
the two kinds of reproductive bodies are imbedfied in the substance of the
base of the leaf. They are moss-like plants, intermediate between fem&
and mosses, and in some respect allifed to coniferous plants. They abound
in warm, moist, insular climates. There are six genera, and about 200
species. Examples : Lycopodium, Selaginella, Isoetes.
Some of the Lycopodiums are emetic and cathartic. The powdery
matter in the thecae is inflammable, and has been used as a substitute for
sulphur, under the name of Lycopode, or vegetable brimstone. It is also
employed to cover pills, so as to prevent their being acted upon by
moisture. Lycopodium squamatum, a Brazilian, and L. lepidophyllum, a
Mexican species, coil up into a ball during the dry season, and unroll
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64 BOTANY.
during the wet season. Lycopodium dayatum, or common club-moss
{pi 54,ßg. 58).
Order 7. Marsileacejs, or RnizocARPEiB, the Pepperwort Family.
Stem wanting, or a rhizome. Leaves often stalked, with the lamina
divided into three or more wedge-shaped pieces. Sometimes the lamina
is abortive ; vernation circinate. Reproductive organs near the root,
or along the petiole, inclosed in an involucre; these organs are of two
kinds: 1. Stalked or sessile clustered membranous sacs, containing
minute granules, which some consider as pollen: hence the bodies are
called anthers. 2. Membranous sacs, containing cells which divide into
four, one only of which is developed as a germinating body ; the sacs
have been called ovule-sacs, and the single developed cell is considered
by some as an ovule which is impregnated by the so-called pollen. The
thee» are the bodies from which germination proceeds, creeping or
floating plants, found in ditches and pools in various parts of the world»
more especially in temperate climates. They are not put to any inq>ortant
use. There are four genera, and upwards of twenty species. Examples :
Marsilea, Pilularia, Salvinia. Marsilea quadrifolia (pL 54, ßg. 47) ;
Pilularia globulifera {fig. 45) ; Salvinia natans {pL 54, fig. 46).
Order 8. Filices, or Ferns. Stem a rhizome, which creeps along or
under the surface of the ground, emitting descending roots and ascending
fronds (leaves), or which rises into the air so as to form an acrogenous
trunk. This trunk (stipe) is of nearly uniform diameter, is hollow in the
interior, marked on the hard outer rind by the scars (cicatrices) of the
leaves, and contains vascular bundles of woody, dotted, and scalariform
vessels, which are inclosed in hard plates, and are arranged in an irregular
manner. Sometimes the trunk is dichotomous. The outer fibrous
covering is formed by the bases of the leaves, and is thicker at the lower
than at the upper part of the stem. The leaves (fronds) have a circinate
(gyrate) vernation ; their veins are generally of equal thickness, and either
simple or dividing in a forked manner, or somewhat reticulated, and
occasionally stomata occur. Reproductive organs consisting of spore-
cases (thecae, sporangia), which arise from the veins on the under surface
of the fronds, or from their margin. Spore-cases either stalked, with the
pedicel passing round them in the form of an elastic ring, or sessile and
destitute of a ring. The thecae sometimes arise from the surface of the
frond, while at other times they spring from below, having a cuticular
covering in the form of an indusium or involucre. The clusters of thecse
are called sori. The margin of the frond sometimes is folded so as to cover
the thecae, and at times the whole frond is converted into clusters of
thee«. Certain cellular papillae, on the margin or upper surface of the
fronds, have been considered by some as antheridia, each of the cells
containing a spiral fibre. Link and others state, that among the young
thecas (pistillidia) filamentous bodies occur, which are equivalent to
stamens. Ferns are elegant, leafy plants, occurring chiefly in moist
insular climates, and abounding in the tropical islands. In mild and warm
climates they occur in the form of large ti-ee-ferns, fifty to sixty feet
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BOTANY. 65
high, which give a peculiar character to the landscape. The theca of
ferns has been looked upon as a modified leaf, having the same gyrate or
circinate development as the frond. Leaves have occasionally been
produced in place of thecae. Ferns having the thecae on the back of the
frond, and ftumished with an elastic ring or band, are called dorsiferous
and annulate ; while those having no thecal ring are exannulate.
Few of the ferns are used medicinally. They are in general demulcent
and astringent. Some yield food. The rhizome of Lasirea Filix mas,
Male-shield-fem, has been used as a vermifuge, especially in c&ses of
tape-worm. It contains starch, gum, saccharine matter, tannin, green
fixed oil, and resin. Its properties are ascribed to the fixed oil. The
rhizome has been used for tanning, and its ashes contain much carbonate
of potash. The sjnrup called capillaire, and certain pectoral mixtures, are
prepared from AdiajUum pedatum and A. Capillus Veneris, The rhizome
of Pteris esadenta is used as food in Australia, and that of Marattia alata
in the Sandwich Islands. Many other species of Ferns are esculent. The
stems and leaf-stalks of Ferns are often covered with scales and with
woody matter. One (Davalia canariensis) is called Hare's-foot Fern on
this account ; and another (Aspidium Baromez) receives the name of
Scythian, or Tartarian-lamb, because, when prepared in a particular way,
it resembles that animal.
Sub-order 1, DatKBece. Thee® united in masses, exannulate, opening
irregularly by a central cleft. Ex. Danaea.
Sub-order 2. Ophioglossece, Thecae collected into a spike, formed at the
edges of an altered frond, distinct, exannulate, two-valved. Examples,
Ophioglossum, Botrychium. Ophioglossum vulgatum {pL 54, fig, 67),
very rare in the United States, Botrychium lunaria {fig. 56).
Stib-order 3. Osmundece, Thecae dorsal, or forming a separate stalked
mass (an altered frond), distinct, with a terminal or dorsal ring, more or
less incomplete, bursting lengthwise by a regular slit. Examples :
Osmunda, or flowering fern, O. regalis {pi. ^,fig. 55).
Sub-order 4. Hymenophylkce. Thecee marginal or dorsal, nearly sessile,
distinct, annulate, ring horizontal, complete, sometimes oblique, bursting
lengthwise. Examples : Hymenophyllum, Trichomanes, Lygodium.
Sub-order 5. Polypodinece, or true Ferns. Thecae on the back of the
frond, pedicellate or sessile, distinct, annulate, ring vertical, usually
incomplete, bursting irregularly and transversely. Aspidium filix mas
{pi, 54, fig, 50) : a, a frond ; 6, rhizoma ; c, part of a frond, with sori ;
d^ the indusium; e and/, closed and open thecae. Adiantum capillus
veneris {fig, 54 a) ; &, portion of the frond with sori ; c, opened theca.
Lomaria spicans {pL 54, fig, 53) : a, a fertile, and 6, a sterile frond ; c, a
portion of a frond, with sori ; d and e, thecae. Asplenium trichomanes
{fig, 51 a) ; b an opened theca. Scolopendriunv officinarum {fig. 52) ;
a, a frond ; fr, a section magnified, showing two longitudinal sori ; c, an
opened theca. This species is found in the western part of New York.
Polypodium vulgare {fig. 49*) ; a, frond ; 6, rhizoma, with a frond stalk ;
c, portion of frond magnified ; rf, magnified sorus ; e, theca ; /, the same
ICONOURAPHIC ■NCTCLOPifiDIA. — VOL. U. 5 66
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66 BOTANY.
burst open. This species is common in the United States. Ceteraob
ofBcinarum {fig. 49*) ; C leptophylla {fig. 48).
Order 9. EauisETAOEiE, Horse tails. Stem striated, hollow, usually
branched, containing much silica in its composition, articulated, the
joints being separate, and surrounded by a membranous toothed sheath.
There are no true leaves, green-colored branches having a straight
vernation, occupying their place. The cuticle exhibits a longitudinal
series of stomata. A spiral structure is observed in some of the vessels.
Reproductive organs collected into cones ; spore-cases (thee® or sporangia)
attached to the lower surface of peltate polygonal scales, and opening by
an internal longitudinal fissure ; spores in the form of rounded cells,
surrounded by two elastic club-shaped, hygrometric filaments, or elaters.
Plants, with simple or branched stems, the branches being jointed and
placed in whorls at the articulations of the stem, each whorl consisting of
as many branches as there are teeth in the sheath. Found in ditches,
lakes, and rivers, in various parts of the world.
From the quantity of silicic acid contained in them, some of the species
of Equisetum are used in polishing woods and in scouring utensils. The
spiral filaments which surround their spores are interesting objects under
the microscope, exhibiting marked movements according to the moisture
or dryness of the atmosphere around them. The stomata are arranged in
lines on the cuticle. In Equisetum hyemah, often called Dutch rushes,
the silicious stomatic apparatus is well seen after the action of nitric acid
on the stem. There are regular rows of tubercles of a silicious nature, in
each of which is a transverse fissure, and at the bottom of the fissure a
stoma is placed, with its opening at right angles to that of the tubercle.
Each portion of the stoma has a pectinated (comb-like) appearance. The
distinctions between the species of Equisetum are founded on the nature
of the fertile and barren stems, the number of stri» or furrows, and the
number of teeth at the articulations.
There is but a single genus Equisetum, represented in North America
by numerous species. One of these is Equisetum hyemale ; another is
E. limosum {pi. M^fig, 59).
Section B. Phanerogamous Plants.
Class 2. Monocotyledones, Juss. Endogena, D.C. Amphibrya^ Endl.
In this great class the plants have a cellular and vascular system, the
latter consisting partly of elastic spiral vessels. The woody stem is usually
more or less cylindrical, simple, and unbranched. There is no true
separable bark, no concentric zones, and no true pith. The voood is
endogenous, i.e. increases by additions which first tend towards the centre»
and then curve outwards in an interlacing manner towards the circum-
ference, where much hard ligneous matter is deposited, so as to make the
exterior the hardest part. The development of the stem usually takes
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BOTANY. 67
I^ace by a single central and terminal bud ; occasionally lateral buds are
produced, and at times the stem is hollow. The leaves are parallel- veined,
except in the sub-cla^s Dictyogens, where a kind of reticulation is visible.
The parts of the flower are arranged in a ternary manner, and they are
often petaloid, sometimes scaly or glumaceous. The ovules are contained
in an ovary, and are fertilized by the application of the pollen to the
stigma. The embryo has one cotyledon, and the germination is
endorhizal.
Sub-class 1. Ghmacece.
Flowers glumaceous, consisting of bracts or scales, which are imbricated,
and not arranged in true whorls. Leaves with parallel veins.
Order 10. GRAMiNEiE, the grass family. Flowers usually «, sometimes
unisexual, or polygamous ; one, two, or more (some occasionally abortive),
are attached to a common axis, and inclosed within bracts, the whole
together forming a locusta or spikelet The outer imbricated bracts are
called glumes ; they are usually two, sometimes one, rarely wanting, and
often unequal. They are either awned (aristate) or awnless (muticous).
The bracts inclosed within the glumes are called pale» or glumellae ; they
immediately inclose the stamens, are usually two, the lower being simple,
and the upper being formed of two, united by their margins. The
innermost set of bracts consists of two or three hypogynous scales
(squamute, glumellulse, or lodiculae), which are either distinct or
combined, and are sometimes wanting. Stamens hypogjmous, from one to
six, or more ; anthers dithecal, versatile. Ovary simple ; ovule ascending,
anatropal ; styles, two or three, sometimes united ; stigmas feathery or
hairy. Fruit a caryopsis. Seed incorporated with the pericarp ; embryo
lenticular, lying on one side of the farinaceous albumen, near its base;
endorhizal in germination. Herbaceous plants, with cylindrical, hollow,
and jointed stems, called culms ; alternate leaves, with a split sheath and a
membranous expansion at the junction of the petiole and blade, called a
ligule, the collections of flowers (locusts) being arranged in spikes,
racems, or panicles.
Grasses are found in all quarters of the globe, and are said to form about
^ part of known plants. In tropical regions they sometimes assume the
appearance of trees. They generally grow in great quantity together, so
as to receive the name of social plants. The order has been divided into
numerous sections, founded on the number of flowers in a spikelet, their
hermaphrodite, unisexual, or polygamous nature, the number and form of
the difierent sets of bracts, and the nature of their fruit.
This is one of the most important orders in the vegetable kingdom,
whether we regard it as supplying food for man, or herbage for animals.
To the former division belong the nutritious cereal grains, as wheat
(TH^tcKjn), Oats (-Atena), Barley (Hordeum), Rye (Secale), Rice {Oryxa),
Maize {Zed), Guinea-corn and Millet (Sorghum and Panicum) ; to the
latter the various pasture grasses, as Rye-grass (Lolium), Timothy-grass
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68 BOTANY.
(Phleum), Meadow-grass (Poa), Cock's-foot-grass (Dactylis), Sweet-
vernal-grass (Anthoxanthum)y Fescue {Festuca)y Dog's-tail-grass {Cyno-
gurus), &c. The grains of many other grasses are used for food.
Zixania aquatica supplies a kind of rice, in the North-western States ;
Setaria germanica yields German millet ; Panicum miliaceum gives a
kind of millet in India, and Ändropogon sorghum is known as Durra,
an Indian grain. Phalaris canariensis is the source of the common
canary-seed. The cereal grains have been so extensively distributed by
man, that all traces of their native country are lost. They seem to be in
many instances examples of permanent varieties or races kept up by
cultivation. Their grain, or caryopsis, contains a large amount of starch
and gluten. Their grasses used for fodder in some parts of the world
attain a large size, such as Anthistiria australis, the Kangaroo-grass
of New Holland, Tripsacum dactyloides, the Gama-grass of Mexico, and
Dactylis ccBspitosa, the Tussac-grass of the Falkland Islands. Some of
these are five or six feet in height, and are, nevertheless, sufliciently
delicate to be used as food for animals. The Tussac has been introduced
into England, and thrives well in peaty soils within the influence of
the sea-spray. It promises to be a valuable grass in the Hebrides of
Scotland.
Sugar is a valuable product obtained from many grasses. It has been
produced in Italy from Sorghum saccharatum, Sweet Sorgho; in China,
from Saccharum sinense ; in Brazil, from Gynerium saccharoides ; in the
West Indies, from Sacchainim violaceum ; and in many other parts of the
world, from S. officinarum. The two last are commonly known as sugar-
cane, and they are generally considered as varieties of a single species,
Saccharum officinainimy which is now widely spread over various parts of
the world. Six or eight pounds of the saccharine juice of the plant furnish
one pound of raw sugar. The recent discoveries of Melsens and others,
however, promise a much greater yield than this.
Tribe 1. Andropogonece. Spikelets bifloral : inferior flower always
incomplete. Paleae more delicate than the glumes, most often transparent.
This tribe is of great interest from containing the genus Saccharum, or
sugar-cane, the principal species of which, S. officinale, is shown on
pL 55, fig. 8. Here the figures, a to c, represent the entire plant in various
stages; d to gy pieces of the stalk; and A, the flowers; lA, three spikelets
with a single flower below. Species of Sorghum furnish broom com (Ä
saccharatum), guinea corn (S. cernuum), and Indian millet {S. vulgare).
Tribe 2. RotballiacecB. Spikelets, uni- or bi-floral, rarely trifloral, lodged
in an excavation of the axis or rachis, sometimes solitary, sometimes
geminate ; the one pedicillate, the other subsessile. One flower in all the
bifloral spikelets (either superior or inferior) very often incomplete.
Glumes one or two, occasionally none, most generally coriaceous. Palese
membranaceous, rarely bearded. Styles one or two, sometimes very short,
or none. Rachis more generally articulated.
Tribe 3. Hordeacece, Spikelets, several- (rarely one-) flowered, sessile on
opposite sides of a zig-zag, channelled and toothed, sometimes jointed
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rachis, forming a solitary spike. Glumes horizontal, often side by side in
the same plane, sometimes deficient. P^e®, either pointless or Üie lower
sometimes tipped with a straight awn or bristle.
The principal genera are Hordeum, Secale, Triticum. Hordeum vulgare
and disticum constitute common barley. Rye is Secale cereale, and the
common wheat is Triticum vulgare.
Tribe 4. Festucace€B, Spikelets several- (few- or many-) flowered, panicled,
the uppermost flower often imperfect or abortive. Pale« pointless, or the
lower sometimes tipped with a straight (not twisted nor deeply dorsal) awn
or bristle. Stamens one to three. Squamul» two.
The common cheat, or chess, Bromus secalinus, belongs to this tribe.
Also, the orchard-grass, Dactylis glomerata; Rattlesuake-grass, Glyceria
canadensis ; meadow or spear grass, Poa annua and pratensis ; Blue grass,
or Wire grass, Poa compressa. False red- top grass, Poa serotina ; Fescue
grass, Festuca elatior and pratensis. The bamboo, Bambusa arundinacea,
is represented in pL 55, ßg, 10.
Tribe 5. Avenacete. Spikelets two, several-flowered, panicled, the
terminal flower mostly imperfect Glumes and pale», thin and mem-
branaceous, or chartaceous, the lower palea bearing a twisted or bent awn
on the back. Stamens three. Squamul» two.
The common oat, Avena sativa, the skinless oat, A. nuda, and the Hair-
grass, Aira c®spitosa and flexuosa, belong to this tribe.
TVibe 6. ChhridecB. Spikelets (rarely one-flowered) usually several-
flowered, with the upper flowers imperfect, disposed in one-sided spikes.
Griiunes persistent, the upper one looking outward. Rachis or 2jas
jointless. Spikes usually racemed or digitate. Stamens two or three.
Here belong the Cord grass, Spartina cynosuroides, and other well-known
species of Spartina; the crab grass, Eleusine indica, and the Bermuda
grass, Cynodon dactylon.
Tribe 7. Pcq)pophore€B. Spikelets two, many-flowered. Superior flowers
abortive. Two glumes and two pale®, membranaceo-herbaceous. Lower
palea. three, multifid, the divisions subulate awned. The principal genera
are Amphipogon, Diplopogon, Triraphis, Pappophorum, Cottea, &c.
Tribe 8. Arundinacece. Spikelets sometimes unifloral with or Without
the pedicel of a superior flower, sometimes multifloral. Flowers most
frequently covered or surrounded at their base with long, soft hairs, two
glumes and two membranaceo-herbaceous palesB, the glumes often equal or
superior to the flowers in length, the inferior palea awned or pointless.
Plants generally elevated.
Tribe 9. Agrostidece. Spikelets flowered, perfect, sometimes with the
abortive pedicel or rudiment of a second flower above, panicled, or the
panicle sometimes contracted into a dense cylindrical spike or head.
Stamens not more than three.
Here belong the fox-tail grasses, Alopecurus ; Timothy grass, or Herds'
grass of New England, Phleum pratense ; Rush grass, Vilfa ; Bent grass,
Agrostis ; Red-top, or Herds' grass of Pennsylvania, A. vulgaris ; &c.
Tribe 10. Panicem. Spikelets two-flowered ; inferior flower incomplete.
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70 BOTANY,
Glomes more delicate than the paleee, pale» more or less coriaceous or
chartaceous, most frequently awnless; the lower concave. Caryopsis
compressed parallel with the emlnryo.
Tribe 11. PhalaridecB (of Kunth). Spikelets hermaphrodite, polygamous,
rarely monoecious, sometimes one-flowered, with or without the rudiment
of another superior flower ; sometimes two-flowered, the two flowers
hermaphrodite or male ; sometimes two- or three-flowered, terminal flower
fertile, the others incomplete. Glumes most generally equal. Paleae or
glumelles often lustrous, and hardened with the fruit. Styles or stigmata
most generally elongated.
The principal genera are Alopecurus, Phleum, Holcus, Phalaris,
Anthoxanthus, Crypsis, &c. Zea mays or Indian com likewise belongs to
this tribe.
Tribe 12. Oryxece: the Rice Tribe. Spikelets unifloral, glumes
frequently wanting, or two to three floral; one or two lower flowers
unipaleaceous, neutral ; the terminal flower fertile. Palese stiffly chartaceous;
stamens one to six.
It is in this tribe that we find the genus Oryza, one species of which, O.
sativa, furnishes the rice of commerce. This is represented in ph 55, fig.
9, where a to c exhibit an entire plant cut into three parts ; d is the mountain
rice, by some considered as a separate species under the name of O.
montana ; c, the flower ; /, two grains of the mountain rice ; g, a caryopsis
of the common rice ; A to A, hulled grains ; /, a caryopsis of the common
rice. The original abode of the rice plant is to be found in Southern Asia,
thence having been transplanted to various parts of the globe. There are
three varieties of rice known in commerce : 1, the Egyptian rice, white and
coarse grained, often mixed with salt to keep off insects ; 2, the American
rice, principally from the Carolinas, like the preceding, but clearer, and
preferred above all the other varieties ; 3, the Italian rice, generally shorter
and thicker than the rest, with furrowed grains. Other genera are Leersia
and Zizania, the latter furnishing the wild rice of the northern lakes (L.
aquatica).
Order 2. CYPERACEiE, the Sedge Family. Flowers hermaphrodite or
unisexual, generally without a perianth. Each flower furnished with a
solitary bract (glume or scale). These bracts are imbricated upon a common
axis, and the lowermost are often empty. Occasionally they inclose two ot
three opposite membranous bracts or glumes. (In the female flower of
Carex, the two inner bracts receive the name of Perigynium.) Stamens
hypogynous, definite, one to twelve ; anthers dithecal, innate. Ovary one-
celled, often surrounded by hypogynous bristles (setse), which are probably
abortive filaments ; ovule erect, anatropal ; style single, two- to three-clefi ;
stigmas undivided, sometimes bifid. Fruit a crustaceous or bony achsBnium
or nut ; embryo lenticular, inclosed within the base of fleshy or farinaceous
albumen; plumule inconspicuous. Grass-like herbs with fibrous roots.
Their stems are solid, often without joints, sometimes creeping, frequently
angular. The leaves are narrow, and their sheaths are entire, not slit.
They are found in all quarters of the globe, and in various locaUties, from
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BOTANY. 71
the sand on the sea-shore to the tops of the mountain. Many of them occui
in marshy ground.
None of the plants of the order possess important medicinal qualities.
The creeping stems of Carez arenaria, ditticha, and hirta, are diaphoretic
and demulcent, and have been used in medicine under the name of German
Sarsaparilla. Papyrus antiquorum is the Papyrus of the Nile, the cellular
tissue of which was used in the manufacture of paper. The species of
Eriophorum are called cotton-grass, on account of the woolly-like substimce
which is attached to the base of the ovary. Some species of Cyperus have
tubers at the lower part of their stems, which are used as food. The roots
of Cypei'us longus have been used as bitter and tonic remedies, while those
of C odoraius are aromatic. Some species of Scirpiis are used for making
chair bottoms. Some of the Carices, with their creeping stems, tend to
bind together the loose sand on the sea-shore.
IVibe 1. Caricea. Flowers monoecious in the same (andrc^ynous) or
separate spikes, sometimes dicBcious ; proper perianth none. Achenium
inclosed in a sac (composed of two united inner scales, perigynium),
lenticular or triangular. The most important genus in this tribe is Carex,
represented by a vast number of species.
Tribe 2. Elynem. Flowers mono-diclinous, perigone none or multi-
setaceous, setce glabrous or soft ; caryopsis trigonal, bearing on its summit
the base of the style which there forms a kind of rostrum or beak.
Examples: Trilepis, Elyna, hobresia. '
Tribe 3. Sckrie^R, Flowers moncecious ; the fertile spikes one-flowered,
the staminate several-flowered. Example : Selena or nut rush.
Tiibe 4. Rhynchosporea. Flowers hermaphrodite or polygamous, few or
one-flowered : perigone provided with stifi* setfie, ciliated or fdumose ;
caryopsis cartilaginous or crustaceous. There are two sub-tribes, one of
which has Rhynchospora for its type, the other Schoenus.
Tribe 5. Cladieat. Flowers hermaphrodite, perigone none; caryopsis
bony, thick, very hard, often expanded at the summit, naked or surmounted
by the base of the style. Ex. Ciadium, Lamprocarya, &c.
Tribe 6. Chrysitric/tea. Flowers androgynous, monocarpous : perigone
proper, without a disk; caryopsis crustaceous, globular, wrinkled at the
summit. Ex. Chrysithrix and Lepironia.
Tribe 7. Hypolytre^B. Flowers perfect : the scales, many-ranked, each
covering a flower provided with its own (one to four) proper scale-like
bractlets. True perianth none. Examples : Lipocarpha, Platylepis, Hemi-
carpha, Diplasia.
Tribe 8. Fuirenea. Flowers perfect : the scales many-ranked (regularly
imbricated on all sides), each covering a naked flower. Perianth, chiefly
double, viz. of three ovate scale-like sepals on claws, alternating with three
small bristles. There are three sub- tribes : 1, Melanocranideae ; 2. Hemi-
chlaene® ; and 3, Ficinieae. Fuirena is the type of the latter.
Tribe 9. Scirpece, Flowers perfect : the scales regularly several-ranked,
all, or all but the lowest, covering a naked flower. Perianth of bristles, or
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72 BOTANY.
hairs, or none. Ex. Isolepis, Scirpus, Eriophorum ; Eriophomm aogusti«
folium {pL 55, ßg. 6), a, flower, 6, fruit.
Tribe 10. CyperecB. Flowers hermaphroilite, few or many: generally
from one- to three-flowered ; perigone rarely present, setaceous ; caryopsis
crustaceous, compressed, sometimes mucronate, rarely cuspidate. The
most celebrated species of this tribe is the Papjnrus antiquorum, or the plant
furnishing the papyrus of the ancients (pi M,fig. 9). Another well-known
genus is Cyperus. C. officinalis (pL 55, fig. 7), a, the lower part of the
stalk ; b, the upper part ; c, a scale ; d, the reproductive apparatus.
Sub-class 2. Petaloidea.
Flowers having usually a perianth consisting either of verticillate leaves,
which may sometimes be separated into calyx and corolla, and are o(ien
colored (petaloid), or of a few whorled scales. Occasionally the perianth is
abortive.
a. Flowers Incomplete, often Uniseocualy without a Proper Perianth, or
with a Few Verticillate Scaks.
Order 12. RESTiACEiE, or* Eriocaulonacea, the Restia, or Cord-Rush
Family. Flowers frequently unisexual, perianth glumaceous, sometimes
none. Stamens definite, perigynous when two or three in number opposite
the inner glumes ; anthers usually one-celled. Ovary one or more celled,
sometimes composed of several carpels ; ovules solitary, pendulous ; styles
and stigmas two or more. Fruit capsular, or nucumentaceous. Seeds
pendulous : embryo lenticular, outside mealy albumen, remote from the
hilum. Herbs or undershrubs, with narrow, simple leaves, or none, naked
or sheathed columns, and spiked or capitate bracteated flowers. They are
found chiefly in America and New Holland. They have few properties of
importance. The tough, wiry stems of Willdenovia teres, and some
RestiaSy are used for making baskets and brooms. Eriocaulon septangulare
is a native of Britain and of North America.
Order 18. NAiADACEiE, or PoTAMEiE, the Naias, or Pondweed Family.
Flowers hermaphrodite or unisexual. Perianth of two or four herbaceous
or scaly pieces, often deciduous, sometimes none. Stamens definite,
hypogynous. Ovary free, of one or more carpels ; ovule solitary ; style one
or none ; stigma entire, rarely two- to three-parted. Fruit dry, one-celled,
usually indehiscent. Seed solitary, erect, or pendulous, exalbuminous ;
embryo straight or curved, usually with a lateral slit for the plumule ; radicle
large. Plants living in fresh and in salt water, having cellular leaves with
parallel veins and inconspicuous flowers. They are found in various parts
of the world. They have no properties of importance. Zostera marina is
used in the dried state for stufling mattresses, and has been recommended for
hospitals. There are nineteen known genera, and upwards of seventy
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BOTANY. 78
species. Ex. Naias, Zanniohellia, PotanK^ton, Ruppia, iZostera, all of
which have North American representatives.
Potamogeton ruUans, or common pondweed, is abundant along the shores
of still waters (pL 55, fig. 1), a, the plant; b, a flower; c, a sepal seen
from behind ; d, the same with the stamen from the inside ; e, the four
pistils ; /, a fruit ; g, longitudinal section of the same. Zostera marina
{fig. 3), a, a plant reduced ; b, the upper part of a fertile branch ; c, an
opened spatha with the inclosed spadix ; d, the lower part of a fruit-bearing
spadix in the spatha ; e, an anther from behind ; /, ovary ; g, ovary opened,
showing the seed ; A, the seed ; i, section of the seed showing the embryo.
Ormsr 14. AmoiBBiE, the Arum Family. Flowers generally unisexual,
rarely bisexual, inclosed within a spatha, and usually on a spadix, having
male flowers at its upper part, female below, and abortive flowers between
them. Perianth either 0, or in the » flowers rudimentary and scaly.
Staunens definite or 00, hypogynous ; anthers extrorse. Ovary free, one- to
three- or more-celled ; ovules solitary or numerous ; style short or ; stigma
simple. Fmit succulent or dry, indehiscent, uni-or pluri-locular ; seeds one
or several ; embryo in the axis of fleshy or mealy albumen, sometimes Math
a lateral cleft for the pkimule ; radicle usually next the hilum. Herbaceous
or shrubby plants, often with tubes or creeping rhizomes, leaves sheathing
at the base, and having parallel or branching veins. They occur in dry and
marshy places, and in lakes in various parts of the world, abounding in the
tropics.
This order has been variously subdivided ; the most convenient division
for our purpose, however, is into four sub-orders.
Sub-order I. Pistieae {Lemnacece) or Duckweeds. Flowers 6 « nakßd,
inclosed in a spatha without a spadix, ovary one-celled, ovules two or more^
fruit membranous or capsular. Examples : Pistia, and Lemna or
duckweed.
Sub-order 2. Äcore<x. Flowers » having usually a scaly perianth,
arranged on a spathaceous spadix, ovules one or more, fruit a berry.
Examples : Symplocarpus (S. foetidus or skunk cabbage) ; Orontium (O.
aquaticum, never wet, or (Jolden club) ; and Acorus. A species of this latter
genus, Acorus calamus, found both in Europe and America, furnishes the
calamus or sweet flag, so much sought after by boys, and a favorite food of
the muskrat (Fiber zibethicus). This species of Acorus is shown in pi. 55,
fig. 4 ; a, an entire plant ; b, a spadix ; c, a flower from above ; d, the same
from below ; e, an unripe fruit ; /, the same in vertical* and g in transverse
section ; A, a leaf cut across (right hand of the plate).
Sub-order 3. Typhineae (Typhaceae). Bulrushes or Cat-tails. Marsh
herbs, with nerved and linear sessile leaves, and monoecious flowers op a
spadix or in heads, destitute of proper floral envelopes. Fruit nut-like when
ripe, one-seeded. Seed suspended, anatropous; the embryo straight in
copious albumen. There are but two genera, Sparganium and Typha.
Typha latifolia is the common cat-tail of the swamps {pi. 55, fig. 5) ; a, the
spadix with its spatha ; ft, a cross-section of the male spadix ; c, a male
flower.
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Sub'Order 4. ArinetB, Naked flowers with a spadix and spatha, 6 t ,
anthers sessile, ovules several, fruit succulent, seeds pulpy, Arum triphyUum
is the well known Indian Turnip ; A. maculatum, or the European Wake
Robin, is represented in pL 55, fig. 2 ; fl, the entire plant ; b, the spadix with
its flowers ; c, anther ; rf, the disk ; e, an ovary ; /, the lower part of the
spadix with fruit ; g, one of the fruit cut transversely ; i, a seed in longi-
tudinal section. Other genera are Peltandra, Calla, Collocasia, Calladiunu
Order 1 5. Pandan ace a or Screw Pines. Flowers unisexual or polygamous,
covering the whole of the spadix. Perianth 0, or a few scales. Male
flowers : stamens numerous ; filaments with single anthers, which are two- to
four-celled. Female flowers : Ovaries one-celled, united in parcels ; ovules
solitary or numerous, anatropal ; stigmas sessile, equal to the carpels in
number. Fruit either fibrous drupes collected into parcels, or berries.
Seeds solitary in the drupes, numerous in the berries ; emlnryo at the base
of fleshy albumen ; radicle next the hilum. Trees or bushes, sometimes
with adventitious roots, long, imbricated, amplexicaul leaves, usually with
spiny margins and backs. Natives of tropical regions.
The flowers of some of the plants are fragrant, and their seeds are
sometimes used as food. The juice has in some instances astringent
properties. The species of Pandanus are remarkable for their aerial roots,
with large cup-like spongioles. These roots are sent out regularly from all
parts of their stems, and appear like artificial props. Their spermoderm has
numerous raphides. Their leaves are arranged in a spiral manner in three
rows, and in their aspect they have some resemblance to those of the pine-
apple, hence the name screw-pine. Pandanus candelabra is the ohandetier-
tree of Guinea, and is so called on account of its mode of branching.
This order is divisible into two sub-orders.
Sub-order 1. CyclanthetB, with fan-shaped or pinnate leaves. Flowers most
generally provided with a perianth. Examples : Carludovica, Cyclanthus»
Nipa, Wettinia.
Sub-order 2. Eupandanece. Leaves simple or undivided, perianth none.
Examples: Pandanus, Freycinetia.
6. Perianth free, Ovary superior, Flowers ustuilly hermaphrodite.
Order 16. Butomacea, the Flowering-rush Family. Perianth of six
parts, in two verticils ; outer usually herbaceous ; inner petaloid. Stamens
definite, or 00, hypogynous. Ovaries three, six, or more, distinct or united,
one-celled; ovules 00; stigmas simple, as many as the carpels. Fruit
consisting of several follicles, which are either distinct and beaked, or
combined. Seeds 00, minute, attached to the whole inner surface of the
pericarp, exalbuminous ; embryo often curved like a horse-shoe ; radicle
next the hilum. Aquatic plants, often lactescent, with parallel-veined
leaves, and frequently umbellate flowers. They are chiefly found in
northern countries, and some of them have acrid and bitter properties. The
principal genera are Butomus, Limnocharis, and Hydrocleis.
Order 17. ALisMAOEiS, the Water-plantain Family. Perianth in six
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divincmfl und two verticils ; outer whoii usually herbaceous ; inner usually
petaknd; sometimes the perianth is wanting. Stamens definite or 00,
hypogynotts ; anthers introrse or extrorse. Ovaries, three, six, or more,
distinct or united ; ovules erect or ascending, solitary or in pairs. Styles
and stigmas equal to the number of carpels. Fruit of several dry,
indehiscent carpidia. Seeds from one to two in each carpel, exaibuniinous,
embryo straight, or curved like a horse-shoe ; radicle next the hilum.
Plants growing in flowing or stagnant water, usually with a creeping
rhizome, parallel-veined leaves, and hermaphrodite or unisexual flowers.
Natives both of tropical and temperate regions.
Sub-order 1. JuncaginecB, Calyx and corolla colored alike ^;reenish).
Seed anatropous, with a straight embryo. Leaves petiole-like, without a
blade. Examples : Triglochin, Scheuchzeria.
Sub'Order 3. Alismea. Calix green and persistent. Corolla white and
deciduous. Seed campylotropous ; embryo bent double, or hook-shaped.
Leaves commonly furnished with a blade. Examples: Alisma, or water-
plantain, Echinidorus, and Sagittaria. Sagittaria variabilis (sagittifolia)
is distributed throughout North America ; the rhizomes are used as food by
the Oregon Indians.
Order 18. CoMMELTNAcsiE, the Spider-wort Family. Perianth in two
verticils ; outer (calyx) herbaceous and tripartite ; inner (corolla) petaloid,
tripartite, or trifid. Stamens six or fewer hypc^ynous, some of them
occasionally abortive or deformed ; anthers introrse. Ovary three-celled ;
ovules few in each cell; style one; stigma one. Fruit a two- or
three-celled, two- or three-valved capsule, with loculicidal dehiscence.
Seeds often in pairs, with a lateral or linear hilum ; embryo pulley-shaped,
antitropal in a cavity of fleshy albumen, remote from the hilum. Herbs
with flat narrow leaves, which are usually sheathing at the base. Natives
chiefly of warm climates. Some have fleshy rhizomes, which are used
for food.
Examples : Mayaca, Tradescantia (T. virginica, or spider-wort), and
Commelyna. C. tuberosa, from Mexico {pL 67, fig. 8), a, the stalk
with leaves and flowers ; 6, the tuberous root; c, the calyx with the
stamens and pistil ; d and e, stamens ; /, the pistil ; g, the stigma.
Order 19. PALMiE, the Palm Family. Flowers bisexual, or unisexual, or
polygamous. Perianth six-parted, in a double row; three outer (calyx)
fleshy, or leathery and persistent; three inner (corolla) often larger, and
sometimes deeply connate. Stamens six, rarely three, sometimes 00,
inserted into the base of the perianth. Ovary free, one- or three-celled,
usually composed of three carpels, which are more or less completely
united ; ovules from one to three. Fruit drupaceous, or nut-like, oi
baccate, often with a fibrous covering. Seed with cartilaginous or homy
albumen, which is oflten ruminate, or furnished with a central or lateral
cavity ; embryo small, cylindrical, or flat in a cavity of the albumen, remote
from the hilum. Arborescent plants, with simple, rarely branched trunks,
marked with the scars of the leaves, which are terminal, pinnate, or fan-
shaped, with plicate vernation, and parallel simple veins, and often spiny
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petioles. Flowers on a terminal, often branched spadix, inclosed in a ooe-
or many-valved spatha. Natives of tropical regions chiefly, and imparting
to them much of their botanical physiognomy. Most of them have
unbranched stems, attaining sometimes a height of 180 feet, and sendiiq;
out clusters of large leaves, from the axils of which bunches of flowers
proceed. Although the flowers are small, still the inflorescence, taken
collectively, has often a most imposing aspect. Humboldt describes their
efiect on the landscape in glowing colors, and Martins has illustrated the
order by splendid delineations. Linnaeus called them the Princes of the
vegetable kingdom. Lindley states that there are seventy-three known
genera, and four hundred species ; but this estimate probably falls short of
the total amount, for much still remains to be done in the elucidation of the
species. They have been divided by Martins into various tribes, depending
chiefly on the nature of the ovary, ovules, and fruit ; and sections are formed
according as the leaves are pinnate or flabelliform, and the stems are spiny
or not
The species of this order are eminent not only for their beauty but for
their utility. Distributed over the tropical portions of the entire globe, they
in many cases form the entire dependence of whole tribes. Every portion
of these plants is applied to some important end ; water-pipes are made of
the hollow trunks, while those that are more solid furnish an excellent
building material of great strength. Canes, umbrella and fan handles, and
numerous other articles, are made of palm-wood. The density of palm-
wood varies greatly, the lightest being that of the Date Palm (0.3063), and
the heaviest that of Astrocaryum murumuru (1.1380). The progress of age
canses the deposit of large quantities of starch in the form of fine powder
in the trunks of some palms. This, the sago of commerce, is obtained
chiefly from the species of Metroxylon, as also of Caryota, Borassus, Arenga,
Phoenix, &c. The juice of many Palms contains a large quantity of sugar
(Jagery) which may be collected for economical purposes, or else used in
the manufacture of various arracks and other intoxicatiüg liquors. A
substance called Toddy is obtained from the spathes of Cocos nucifera, of
medicinal value in tropical constipation.
The leaves of the large palms are used in covering houses, the petioles
for various purposes. The fruit of various species is an important article of
alimentation ; the date is derived from Phoenix dactylifera ; the common
cocoa-nut from Cocos nucifera; the double cocoa-nut from Lodoioea
seychellarum. The fruit of certain species furnishes palm oil, that from
Elais guineensis being distinguished from the rest by the presence of palmic
acid. Medicinal substances are, catechu from the betel nut or fruit of Areca
catechu (to be distinguished from the true catechu, which is derived from a
species of Mimosa) ; dragon's blood from Calamus draco ; bdellium from
Hyphaene thebaica. Wax also is furnished by several species, occurring in
the form of a thin coating on the leaves or trunk. The principal wax
producing palm is Copemica cerifera, a Brazilian species yielding the
camauba wax. Others are Ceroxylon andicola, Ceratolobus glaucescens,
&c. Finally, the fibres of some species yield valuable textile materials, and
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die hard albumen of the fruit of Phytelef^as macrocarpa, known as vegetable
ivory, is used for the same purposes as true ivory.
The tribes into which the Family of Palmse is divided are : 1. Ärecinea.
Examples : Euterpe, Oreodoxa, Areca, Morenia, Iriartia, Caryota, &c. 2.
LepidocaryinecB, of two subdivisions, one with pinnate leaves embracing
Calamus, Sagus, Metroxylon, &c., the other with the leaves fan-shaped,
Mauritia and Lepidocaryum. 8. Borassine<s ; {a, Leaves pinnate) Borassus,
Lodoicea, Latania, Douma, &c. ; (ft, leaves flabelliform) Vouay, Iguanura,
Greonoma, &c. 4. Coryphinece ; sub-tribe a. SahalirietSy Corypha, Brahea,
Copemicia, Sabal, Chamaerops, &c. ; sub-tribe b. P/usnicinecB. Examples :
Phoenix. 5. Cocoinece. Examples: Desmoncus, Guilielma, Acrocomia,
Astrocarjrum, Attalea, Elieis, Cocos, Maximiliana, Syagrus, &c.
PL 66, fig, 2. Phoenix dactylifera or date palm : a, spadix ; 6, male
flowers ; c, female flowers ; d (e in the plate), a single female flower ; e,
anther ; /, a male flower ; g, the three pistils ; A, the fruit ; i, a section of fruit.
PL ö6,fig, 1. Cocos nucifera or cocoa-nut; a, pinnula; 6, portion of the
spadix in its spatha ; c, portion of the spadix ; d, the nut ; e, the same in
longitudinal sections excepting the nucleus ; /, g, h, various parts of the fruit ;
t. the germ ; *-«, various parts of the flowers.
PL 56, fig. 7. Areca catechu, or areca palm. Fig. 8. The sago palm,
Sagus farinifera ; a, a portion of the spadix ; b, a fruit in its natural position ;
c and d, the fruit in transverse and longitudinal secticms ; e and /, male
flowers ; g^-m, female flowers.
OsDEK 20. JuNCACBA, the Rushes. Perianth six-parted, more or less
glumaceous. Stamens six, inserted into the base of the segments, sometimes
three, and opposite the outer segments; anthers two-celled, introrse.
Ovary one- to three-celled ; ovules 1, 3, or many in each cell, anatropal ;
style one ; stigmas generally three, sometimes one. Fruit a three-valved
capsule, with loculicidal dehiscence, sometimes indehiscent. Seeds with the
testa neither black nor crustaceous ; embryo very minute, near the hilum,
within fleshy or cartilaginous albumen. Herbs, with fasciculated or fibrous
roots, hollow, grooved, or flat leaves, with parallel veins. They are natives
chiefly of the colder regions of the globe. Many species of Juncus are
used for making the bottoms of chairs, mats, &c., and the central cellular
tissue forms the wicks of candles. There are fourteen known genera, and
upwards of two hundred species. Examples : Juncus, Luzula, Narthecium,
Astelia.
Luzula pilosa or wood rush {pL 57, fig, 2), an American species ; a, the
plant in two pieces ; 6, an open flower ; c, the fruit ; d, the fruit q)ened
showing the seeds ; e, a single seed.
Ord£r21. Xyridaoeä, the Yellow-eyed Grass Family. Perianth six-parted,
in two verticils ; the outer glumaceous, the inner petaloid. Stamens six,
three fertile, inserted into the claws of the inner perianth ; anthers extrorse.
Ovary single, one-celled ; ovules 00, orthotropal, attached to parietal
placentas ; style trifid ; stigmas obtuse, multifid or undivided. Fruit a one-
celled, three-valved capsule. Seeds numerous ; embryo on the outside of
mea!y albumen, remote from the hilum. Herbs, having a sedge-like aspect,
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with radical leaves, equitant and sheathing at the base, and scaly heads of
flowers. Natives chiefly of tropical regions, having no important properties
There are about six genera and seventy species. Examfdes : Xyris
Abolboda, Philydrum. Four or five species of the typical germs Xyris are
known in the United States.
Order 22. PoNTSDERiACEiS, the Pond-weed Family. Perianth tubular,
colored, six-parted, more or less irregular ; «estivation circinate. Stamens
three to six, perigynous ; anthers introrse ; ovary free, or slightly adherent,
three-celled ; ovules numerous, anatropal ; style one ; stigma simple. Fruit
a three-celled, three- valved capsule, with loculicidal dehiscence. Seeds 00,
attached to a central axis ; testa membranous ; hilum small ; embryo
straight, in the axis of somewhat mealy albumen ; radicle next the hilum.
Aquatic or marsh plants with sheathing, parallel- veined leaves, which are
sometimes cordate or sagittate, and have inflated petioles. The flowers are
spathaceous. They are natives of North and South America, East Indies,
and Africa. Their properties are unimportant. There are six genera,
according to Lindley, and thirty species. The principal genera of the
United States are Pontederia, Heteranthera, SchoUera, and Syena.
Order 23. Gillibsiacejs, the Grilliesia Family. Perianth six-parted,
sometimes five-parted by cohesion of two of the pieces, in a double row ;
the outer, petaloid and herbaceous ; the inner, smaller and more colored ;
estivation twisted. Stamens in a double series ; outer whorl sterile, in the
form of a six-toothed urceolate body, or of scale-like bodies, one of which
forms a sort of labellum ; inner whorl of six stamens, of which three are
sometimes sterile. Ovary superior, three-celled ; style one ; stigma simple.
Fruit a three-celled, three-valved capsule, with loculicidal dehiscence-.
Seeds numerous, attached to the axis ; spermoderm black and brittle ;
embryo curved in the midst of fleshy albumen. Herbs with tunicated bulbs,
grass-like leaves, and umbellate spathaceous flowers. Natives of Chili.
Examples : Gilliesia, Miersia.
Order 24, Melanthacbjs, the Colchicum Family. Perianth petaloid, in
six pieces, which are sometimes slightly coherent, usually involute in
estivation. Stamens six ; anthers extrorse. Ovary three-celled ; ovules
numerous ; style three-parted ; stigmas three, undivided. Fruit a three-
celled capsule, with septicidal or loculicidal dehiscence. Seeds with a mem-
branous spermoderm ; albumen dense, fleshy ; embryo very minute. Plants
with bulbs, tubers, or fibrous roots, having parallel- veined leaves, sheathing
at the base. The flowers are sometimes polygamous. They are natives of
various parts of the globe, but are most abundant in northern countries.
Sub-order 1. UvnlarietB, Bell worts. Perianth early deciduous, sepals
distinct, petaloid. Styles united into one at the base or throughout. Fruit
a three-celled few-seeded berry or loculicidal pod. Stems from small
perennial root stocks and fibrous roots, forking, bearing ovate or lanceolate,
membranaceous, sessile or clasping leaves, and perfect flowers ; peduncles
solitary or one-flowered. Examples : Uvularia, Prosartes, Streptopus.
Sub-order 2. ColchiceiB. Rhizome bulbous, dehiscence of pod septicidal.
Of the typical genus Colchicum, the European species, C. autumnale (pL
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BOTANY. 79
S7ffig. 4), known as Meadow saffiron or autumnal crocus, has important
medicinal properties. The various parts of the plant referred to by the
letters will be readily intelligible.
Suborder 3. Melanthie^B. Perianth mostly persistent or withering away ;
the sepals distinct, or the claws rarely united. Styles three, separate.
Fruit a three-celled, three-partible or septicidal pod. Flowers frequently
unisexual. Rhizome fibrous. The most important genera are Melanthium,
Veratrum, Helonias, Tofieldia, &c. Cevadilla, an important medicinal
substance, is obtained from Helonias officinalis, and Veratrum sabadilla.
Veratrum album furnishes the white hellebore of the ancients; this, with some
other species of Veratrum, yields veratrine. PL 51, fig. 5, Veratrum album.
Order 25. LiLiACEis, the Lily Family. Flowers usually bisexual.
Perianth colored, in two rows, regular, with six divisions. Stamens six,
perigynous, inserted into the segments of the perianth ; anthers introrse.
Ovary free, three-celled ; ovules 00 ; style one ; stigma simple or three-
lobed. Fruit three-celled, either succulent or dry and capsular. Seeds
numerous, packed one above the other in one or two rows ; embryo in the
axis of fleshy albumen. Herbs, shrubs, or trees, with bulbs, or tubers, or
arborescent stems, or rhizomes ; leaves not articulated, usually narrow,
with parallel veins. They are found both in temperate and tropical
climates. In warm regions some of them are arborescent, as in the case of
Drac®na ; others are very succulent, as species of Aloe.
Sub-order 1. Äphyllanthece, Habit rush-like ; with membranous imbri-
cated bracts. The species of the sub-order characterize the vegetation of
New South Wales.
Sub-order 2. Ahinece or Aloes tribe. Stem usually developed, arborescent,
leaves succulent. Examples : Sanseviera, Aloe, and Yucca. The drug
called Aloes is the thickened jui^e of various species of Aloe, as A.
vulgaris, spicata, socotrina, &c Ph 66, fig, 6, a-d. Aloe arborescens.
Svb'Order 3. AsparagecB. Fruit a few-seeded berry, two- to three-celled ;
seeds amphitropous, orthotropous, or anatropous. Stem usually fully
developed, arborescent, in some cases branched, leaves often coriaceous and
permanent Examples : Asparagus, Dracaena, Smilacina, Clintonia, &c.
PL bl.fig. 1, Dracaena draco, a species of Draceena from the East Indies,
from which dragon's blood is obtained ; a, a very old tree ; t, extremity of
a branch with flowers ; c, a flower on a larger scale ; rf, expanded flowers ;
«, a stamen ; /, pistil ; gy branch with fruit; A, a seed ; i, vertical section of
do. A species from Brazil, D. brasiliensis. is figured on pL 56, fig. 5, o^-e.
Sub-order 4. ConvallarietB, Lily of the valley tribe. Stem developed as
a rhizome or tuber. Ex. Convallaria.
Sub-order 5. Anthericece. Not bulbous, roots fascicled, or fibrous, leaves
not coriaceous, nor persistent. Examples : Asphodelus, Anthericum.
Sub-order 6. Scillece, Bulbous, with the testa black and brittle. Scape
simple. Perianth six-sepalled or six-parted. Examples: Ornithogalum,
Scilla, Allium. The bulb of Scilla esculenta or Squamash, is eaten by the
Western Indians. Allium sativum is garlic ; A. cepa the onion.
Sub-order 7. Hermerocallidece. Bulbous plants, with a tubular perianth ;
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80 BOTANY.
testa pale and soft. Examples : Hemerocallis and Phormium. A species
of this latter genus, P. tenax, famishes the New Zealand flax, eminent for
its strength of fibre {pL 57, fig. 9, a-<i).
Sub-order 8. Tulipece. Fruit a many-seeded, three-celled, loculicidal pod.
Seeds anatropous. Perianth six-leaved; segments scarcely adherent in a
tube ; testa pale and soft. Examples : Tulipa, Lilium, Erythronium,
Methonica, Fritillaria. Many species of this sub-order are remarkable for
their beauty, as the Tulip, the Lily, Crown Imperial, &c. Erythronium
dens-canis a European species {pi. ffl.fig. 7, a to e). Fritillaria imperialis
or Crown Imperial (/?/. fsTt.fig, 6, o-^).
c. Perianth Adherent ; Ovary Inferior ; Flowers usually Herwtaphrodite.
Order 26. Bromeliacea, the Pineapple Family. Perianth tubular,
six-divided, in two verticils ; outer whorl (calyx) persistent, more or less
adherent to the ovary ; inner petaloid, marcescent or deciduous, with
imbricated »estivation. Stamens six, inserted into the base of the segments
of the perianth ; anthers introrse. Ovary either free or partially adherent,
three-celled ; ovules 00, anatropal ; style single ; stigma three-lobed or
entire, often twisted. Fruit capsular or succulent, three-celled. Seeds 00 ;
embryo minute, curved or straight, lying in the base of mealy albumen ;
radicle next the hilum. Stemless or short-stemmed plants, with rigid,
channelled leaves, which are often spiny at the margin, and are covered
with scurfy matter. Natives chiefly of the warm parts of America.
The plants of this order are all more or less epiphytic, or able to grow
without attachment to the soil. Tillandsia usneoides, or Spanish moss, is
found along the southern coast of the united States, growing or suspended
from trees, in large quantities. T. utriculata collects water in the hollowed
bases of its leaves. The well-known Pineapple (Ananassa sativa) belongs
here. The tribes are four.
TTnbe 1. AnanassecB. Ovary inferior, fruit fleshy, stamens six. Examples :
Ananassa, Bromelia, iEchmea, Billbergia, Hohenbergia.
Tribe 2. VelloziecB. Ovary inferior, fruit capsular, stamens six or more.
Examples : Barbacenia, Vellosia.
Tribe 3. PitcairniecB. Ovary semi-inferior. Examples : Brocchinia,
Pitcairnia.
Tribe 4. TillandsiecB. Ovary free. Examples : Tillandsia, Bonapartea,
Navia, Pourretia, Cottenorfia, &c.
Order 27. HvpoxiDACEiE, the Hypoxis Family. Perianth petaloid,
superior ; usually six-parted, regular ; stamens six, inserted into the base of
the segments of the perianth ; filaments distinct ; anthers introrse. Ovary
inferior ; three-celled ; ovules numerous, amphitropal ; style simple ; stigma
three-lobed. Fruit indehiscent, sometimes succulent, one-, two-, three-
celled. Seeds 00, with a lateral hilum and a beaked caruncle ; testa black
and crustaceous ; embryo straight, in the axis of fleshy albumen ; radicle
remote from the hilum. Herbaceous and usually stemless plants, with
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BOTANY. 81
tuberous and fibrous roots, radical plaited leaves, and simple or branched
scapes. Natives of warm countries. Some have bitter roots, others have
edible tubers. There are four known genera, including sixty species.
Examples: Hjrpoxis, Curculigo.
The common American Hypoxis erecta belongs to this order, which i*
«lot retained by Dr. Gray.
Order 28. Amaryllidaceä, the Amaryllis Family. Perianth petaloid,
regular, six-cleft, the outer segment overlapping the inner. Stamens six,
inserted in the perianth, sometimes cohering by the dilated bases, and
forming a kind of cup ; occasionally there are additional sterile stamens,
which sometimes form a corona above the tube of the perianth ; anthers
introrse. Ovary inferior, three-celled ; ovules 00, anatropal ; style one ;
stigma three-lobed. Fruit either a three-celled, three-valved capsule, with
loculicidal dehiscence, or baccate. Seed with a thin or thick, or black and
brittle spermoderm ; albumen fleshy ; embryo nearly straight ; radicle next
the hilum. Usually bulbous plants, sometimes with fibrous roots ; leaves
ensiform, with parallel veins ; flowers spathaceous ; stem sometimes woody
and tall. Natives chiefly of the Cape of Good Hope. But species are found
in Europe, East and West Indies, America, and Australia.
Tribe 1. AgavecBy with fibrous roots, both segments of the perianth alike.
Examples : Fourcroya, Agave, Doryanthes, Bravoa, &c. The most
remarkable species of Agaveae, is Agava americana (hundred year aloe,
century plant, &c). The trivial name is derived from the old idea that
inflorescence took place but once in a century. This species found wild in
wwmier America, furnishes the pulque of the Mexicans. A small species,
A. virginica, is found in the Southern States.
Agave americana (/>/. 57, fig. 8, a-d). Fig. 8, c, represents the fruit of
A. lurida.
Tribe 2. AlstrcemeriecB. Fibrous roots, outer segment of the perianth
difierent in form from the inner. Example : Alstroemeria.
TVibe 3. Narcissece. Bulbous : flowers with a corona. Ex. Narcissus.
The daffodil, a prominent species of Narcissus (N. pseudo-narcissus), is
represent^ in pi. 58, 59, fig. 2, a-c. Other species are N. poeticus, the
narcissus^ N. jonquilla, the jonquil ; &c.
Tribe 4. AmarylkcB. Bulbous : flowers without a corona. Ex. Amaryllis,
A. atamasca is a North American species; A. formosissima, a South
American {pi. 58, 59, fig. 1).
Order 29. HiEMODORACEiE, the Bloodwort Family. Herbs with fibrous
roots, usually equitant leaves, and perfect three- or six-androus regular
flowers, which are woolly or scurfy outside, the tube of the six-lobed
perianth coherent with the whole surface, or with merely the lower part of
the three-celled ovary. Anthers introrse: style single, sometimes three-
partible. Pod crowned, or inclosed by the persistent perianth: three-celled,
loculicidal, three- to many-seeded. Embryo small, in hard or fleshy albumen.
Examples : Haemodonmi, Lachnanthes, Lophiola, Aletris, &c.
Order 80. BuRMANNiACEiE, the Burmannia Family. Perianth colored,
tubular, six-cleft, the three outer segments (calyx) often keeled at the back,
lOOKOORAPHIO BNCTCLOPiBDIA. — VOL. II. 6 81
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the three inner (petals) minute. Stamens three, inserted in the tube of the
perianth, opposite its inner segments, sometimes with three alternating
sterile filaments; anthers dithecal, opening transversely, with a fleshy
connective. Ovary inferior, either one- or three-celled, in the latter case
the cells opposite the outer segments of the perianth ; ovules, 00 ; style,
simple ; stigmas, three. Fruit, a one- or three-celled, three- valved capsule,
crowned by the persistent perianth. Seeds 00, minute, striated Herbs, with
radical leaves and bisexual flowers. Natives of moist grassy places in
tropical regions. They have no properties of importance. There are
about ten known genera and thirty-five species. Examples: Burmannia,
Apteria, Apostasia.
Ordee 31. Ikidaceje:, the Iris Family. Perianth adherent, six-parted,
colored, in two, often unequal whorls. Stamens three, epigynous, opposite
the outer segments of the perianth; filaments distinct or monadelphous ;
anthers two-celled, extrorse. Ovary inferior, three-celled ; ovules numerous,
anatropal; style one; stigmas three, often petaloid, sometimes bilabiate.
Fruit, a three-celled, three- valved capsule, with loculicidal dehiscence.
Seeds numerous ; embryo inclosed in homy or fleshy albumen ; radicle next
the hilum. Herbs, rarely undershrubs, with rhizomes or underground corms,
having their leaves often equitant or distichous, and their flowers
spathaceous. Natives chiefly of warm and temperate regions. They
abound at the Cape of Good Hope. There are fifty-three known genera, and
five hundred and fifty species. Examples: Iris, Sisyrinchium, Witsenia,
Gladiolus, Ixia, Crocus.
Certain plants of this order have an economical value. Orris-root is
obtained from Iris florentina. The roasted seeds of I. pseudacorus have
been used as a substitute for cofiee. Safiron consists of the stigmata of
Crocus sativus, a species originally from Asia Minor, now extensively
spread. Numerous species of Iris occur in North America ; Sisjrrinchium
or Blue-eyed grass also belongs here.
PL 58. 59, fg, 4, a-i. Iris germanica, an European species. PI 58, ßg. 3,
Crocus sativus.
Order 32. Musace^e, the Banana Family. Perianth six-cleft^dherent,
petaloid, in two whorls, more or less irregular. Stamens six, inserted on
the middle of the segments of the perianth, some usually abortive ; anthers
linear, dithecal, introrse, often with a membranous petaloid crest. Ovary
inferior, three-celled; ovules numerous, anatropal; style simple; stigma
usually three-lobed. Fruit, either a three-celled capsule, with loculicidal
dehiscence, or succulent and indehiscent. Seeds sometimes surrounded by
hairs; testa usually crustaceous; embryo erect in the axis of mealy
albumen ; radicle touching the hilum. Plants without true aerial stems, or
nearly so, having shoots proceeding from subterranean root-stocks, which
form spurious stems, composed of the sheathing leaf-stalks. Veins in the
limb of the leaf parallel, and proceeding in a curved manner from the
midrib to the margin. Flowers bursting through spathas. Natives of warm
and tropical regions : there are five known genera and twenty-one species.
Examples : Musa, Strelitzia, Ravenala, Heliconia.
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Plalits of this order are highly important. The Banana fruit, which
constitutes the chief food of certain inhabitants of tropical climates, is
obtained from Musa sapientum and M. cavendishii. M. paradisaica furnishes
the plantain ; M. textilis yields a fine textile fibre.
PL 58, 50, ßg. 5, Musa paradisaica ; a-e, various parts of the plant ; /•
cross-section of the ovary ; g, ripe fruit ; A, cross-section of ditta
Order 33. MARANTACEiB, the Arrow-root Family. Perianth superior, in
two whorls ; outer (calyx) three-lobed, short ; inner (corolla) tubular,
elongated, three-parted, segments nearly equal. Stamens in two whorls ;
outer sterile, petaloid, irregular, resembling a tubular trifid corolla, with one
of the lateral segments different from the others ; inner petaloid, two sterile,
and one lateral fertile ; filament of the latter petaloid, entire or two-lobed ;
anther on the margin of the filament, one-celled, dehiscing longitudinally.
Ovary three-celled, rarely one-celled ; ovules solitary and erect, or numerous
and attached to the axis, style petaloid or swollen ; stigma either the naked
apex of the style, or hollow, hooded, and incurved. Fruit a three-celled
capsule, or baccate, one-celled and one-seeded. Seeds round, without
arillus ; embryo straight, in hard, somewhat floury albumen, without a
vitellus ; radicle lying against the hilum. Herbaceous plants, with tuberous
rhizomes, and leaves and flowers similar to those of the Ginger family.
They are natives of tropical regions. There are six genera, including 160
species. Examples : Maranta, Canna, Phrynium.
The West Indian arrow-root is obtained from the tuberous roots of
Maranta arundinacea. The seeds of Canna indica are known as Indian
shot.
Order 34. ZiNGiBERACEis or SciTAMiNEiE, the Ginger Family. Perianth
superior, in two whorls ; outer (calyx) tubular, three-lobed, short ; inner
(corolla) tubular, elongated, three-parted, segments nearly equal. Stamens
in two whorls ; outer sterile, petaloid, having the appearance of a three-
parted coroUine whorl, with the intermediate segment (labellum) larger than
the rest, and often three-lobed, sometimes the lateral segments are incon-
spicuous or nearly abortive ; inner stamens three, the two lateral being
abortive, .the intermediate one opposite the labellum, fertile ; filament not
petaloid, often prolonged beyond the anther ; anther two-celled, dehiscing
longitudinally. Ovary 4iree-celled, or imperfectly so; ovules several,
anatropal,* attached to a placenta in the axis ; style filiform ; stigma dilated,
hollow. Fruit usually a three-celled capsule, sometimes baccate. Seeds
roundish or angular, sometimes with an arillus ; embr}'o inclosed in a
vitellus (the remains of the embryo-sac), surrounded by farinaceous albumen,
which is deficient near the hilum. Herbs, with a creeping rhizome, and
simple sheathing leaves, having parallel veins proceeding from the midrib to
the margin. The flowers arise from membranous spathaceous bracts.
Natives of tropical countries. Twenty-nine genera and 247 species.
Examples : Zingiber, Curcuma, Amomum, Hedychium, Renealmia.
The ginger of commerce is derived from the rhizomes of Zingiber
ofllcinale growing in the East and West Indies. Preserved ginger consists
of the younger rhizomata. Curcuma longa and zedoaria furnish turmeric, a
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well-known yellow dye. Cardamom seeds come from various species of
Amomum and Elettaria.
Zingiber officinale (pi 68, 59, ßg. 7); a, the entire plant; 6, c, pieces
of the rhizoma; 1-6, various parts of the flower; 7-11, do. of the fruit.
Curcuma zedoaria (pL 58, ßg. 6), 1-5, rhizoma; a-c, various parts of the
plant.
Order 35. ORCHiDACEiB, the Orchis Family. Flowers bisexual. Perianth
adherent, herbaceous, or colored, with a six-partite limb, the segments being
arranged in two rows ; exterior row, called the calyx (although Lindley
says it is more properly the corolla, the true calyx or calyculus being
usually abortive), consisting of three segments (rarely two by adhesion), the
odd one of which is often next the axis by a twisting of the ovary ; interior
row, called the corolla (regarded by Lindley as petaloid stamens), consisting
usually of three segments (very rarely one), the odd one of which is called
the labellum or lip. This labellum frequently difiers from the other divisions
of the perianth, assuming remarkable forms, being lobed, spurred at the base,
or furnished with peculiar appendages, which are sometimes derived from
the stigma. It is sometimes divided by contraction, so as to exhibit three
distinct portions, the lowest being the hypochilium ; the middle, mesochilium ;
and the upper, the epichilium. Stamens three, epigynous, united in a central
column along with the style ; the two lateral stamens are usually abortive,
the central one opposite the odd exterior segment being fertile; but at
times the two lateral are fertile, and the central one is abortive ; anthers
one-, two-, four-celled ; pollen powdery or cohering in definite or indefinite
waxy masses (pollinia), which often adhere by a caudicle to a gland
connected with the beak (rostellum) of the stigma. This gland is sometimes
naked, at other times in a sac or pouch (bursicula). Ovary adherent, one-
celled, composed of six carpels, of which three only are placentiferous
(Lindley) ; style incorporated with the column (gynostemium, pistil, and
stamen) ; stigmas a viscid hollow space in front of the column, communi-
cating directly with the ovary by an open canal. The upper part of the
united stigmas is often extended into a beak-like process (rostellum).
Placentas three, parietal. Fruit a capsule, opening by three or six valves,
rarely fleshy, and indehiscent. Seeds 00, very minute, with a loose
reticulated spermoderm, exalbuminous ; embryo ^olid, fleshy ; large radicle
next the hilum. Perennial herbs or shrubs, with fibrous or tubercular roots,
either no stem or a pseudo-bulb, entire parallel- veined often sheathing leaves,
and generally showy, attractive flowers. Sometimes buds are produced on
the margins of the leaves. They are natives of almost all parts of the
world, but they abound in moist tropical regions. They are not found in the
Arctic regions, nor in very dry climates. Some are terrestrial, and others
are epiphytic. The former are commonly seen in temperate climates, the
latter in warm regions.
The plants of this order are well distinguished by the peculiar forms of
their flowers, their remarkable lip, gynandrous stamens, and pollen masses.
Their flowers often resemble insects, as butterflies, moths, bees, flies, and
spiders ; or birds, as doves and eagles ; or reptiles, as snakes, lizards, and
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BOTANY. 86
frogs. The colors and spots on the perianth sometimes give the appearance
of the skins of quadrupeds, as the leopard and tiger. These resemblances
are often indicated in the generic and specific names. The labellum, in
some instances, displays peculiar irritability.
Tribe 1. Cypripediece, Pollen pulpy granular. Fertile antheis two,
with a dilated petal-like body (the third stamen) between them. Example :
Cypripedium, or Ladies' slipper, of which various American species exist.
Tribe 3. Neottiece, Pollen powdery, in numerous minute and angled
loosely cohering grains (forming two or four masses). Anther more or less
parallel, with the stigma or column erect. This tribe includes the following
sub-tribes: Cranichidem, ListeridecB, Spiranihidece, PhysuridecB, Diuridece,
and Thelymitridece. Examples : Cranichis, Acroea ; Listera, Neottia ;
Speranthes ; Goodyera ; Diuris ; Epiblema.
Tribe 3. Arethusce. Pollen, as in the last. Anther terminal, forming a
lid over the stigma. Sepals and petals mostly erect or converging. Sub-
tribes: Limnodoride€B, AcianthidecB, Cakyide<s, Pogonidece, Gastrodidece,
and Vanillidem. Examples: Chlorea, Microtis; Acianthus, Corybas;
Caleya; Pogonia, Arethusa, Calopogon; Gastrodia; Vanilla. The fleshy
pods of Vanilla planifolia and V. claviculata furnish the vanilla of the
confectioner.
Tribe 4. OphrydetB. Pollen cohering in very numerous grains, which are
collected on a cobweb-like tissue into two large masses, and affixed to the
glands of the stigma. Flower ringent : lips with a spur at the base beneath.
Sub-tribes : SerapiadetB, Satyriadecs, Crymnadenidece, Holothrichidece,
DisidecB, Corycidece. Examples : Orchis, Ophrys, Pachites, Gymnadenis^
Platanthera, Holothrix ; Disa, Forficaria ; Corycium, Arnottia.
Tribe 5. Vandece. Pollen cohering in definite (two or four) waxy
masses, furnished with an elastic prolongation (caudicle). Sub- tribes:
Sarcanthidete, Cryptochilidece, Brassidece, PachyphyllidecB, MaxillaridecBy
CatasetidecB, Notylide€e, lonopsidem, and Calanthidece,
Tribe 6. EpidendrecB, Pollen coherent, in definite waxy masses,
furnished with a caudicle: anther terminal, opercular. Epiphytic or
terrestrial plants. Sub-tribes: C(Blogynide€e, Isochilide<s, Lceliadea, and
BlelidecB.
Tribe 7. Malaxidece, Pollen cohering in definite (four) waxy masses,
without any connecting tissue or caudicle. Sub-tribes : Pleurothallidece^
LiparidecB, Dendrobidece, and Corallorhizidece, Examples: Microstylis,
Liparis, Corallorhiza, Aplectrum.
PL 58, 59, ßg, 8, Vanilla aromatica, or Vanilla.
Order 36. HYDROcHARiDACEiG, the Frog-bit Family. Flowers spathaceous,
unisexual, rarely e. Perianth with a six-partite limb, the three outer
segments herbaceous and equivalent to the calyx, the three inner petaloid
and equivalent to the corolla. Stamens definite or indefinite, epigynous.
Ovary adherent, one- or many-celled ; ovules 00, anatropal, frequently
attached to parietal placentas; stigmas three to six. Fruit dry or
succulent, indehiscent, uni- or pluri-locular. Seeds numerous, exalbuminous ;
embryo straight, radicle remote from the hilum. Floating or aquatic plants,
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86 BOTANY.
with paralleUveined leaves, sometimes spiny. Chiefly found in Europe,
Asia, and North America. The plants of this order are not remarkable for
their properties. Some are mucilaginous and astringent. Valüsneria
spiralis is a dioecious plant, the male flowers of which, at the time of
flowering, are said to be detached from the mud of the water in which they
grow, and to float on the surface. At the same time the female flower
developes a long, spiral peduncle, by means of which it reaches the surface
of the water, so as to allow the application of the pollen. The canvas-back
duck (Aythya vallisneria) derives its specific name from feeding on this
plant, known in the Chesapeake Bay as the celery grass.
This order has been divided into two sections: Stratiotece, with. a many-
celled ovary, and VallisneriecB, ovary one-celled. Examples : Limnobium,
Udora, Vallisneria.
Sub-class 8. Dictyogence,
Leaves reticulated, often articulated with the stem, branches having the
usual structure of Endogens, rhizomes or underground stems having the
woody matter disposed in a compact circle, or in wedges containing central
cellular tissue, and often showing medullary processes.
Order 37. TRiLLiACE-fi, the Trillium Family. Flowers usually bisexual.
Perianth in six, sometimes eight divisions, colored or herbaceous. Stamens
six, eight, or ten; filaments subulate; anthers linear, with a prolonged
connective. Ovary free, three-, four-, or five-celled; styles as many,
distinct ; ovules 00, anatropal. Fruit succulent, three-, four-, or five-celled.
Seeds 00 ; embryo minute, in fleshy albumen. Natives of the temperate
parts of Europe, Asia, and America. Some of them are mdte or less acrid,
others are narcotic. The rhizome of Trillium cemuum is used as an
emetic. Paris quadrifolia. Herb Paris, is narcotic. There are about ten
known genera, and upwards of sixty species. Examples : Trillium, Paris,
Medeola.
Order 38. SMiLACEiB, the Greenbrier Family. Flowers bisexual or
polygamous. Perianth petaloid, six-parted. Stamens six, inserted into the
base of the perianth, rarely hypogynous. Ovary free, three-celled ; cells
uni- or multi-ovulate ; ovules orthotropal ; styles usually three-cleft ; stigmas
three. Fruit globular and succulent. Seeds with fleshy, cartilaginous
albumen ; embryo very small ; usually distant from the hilum. Herbs or
undershrubs, often climbing, with netted-veined leaves. Natives of the
temperate and tropical regions of Asia and America. There are four or
five known genera, and upwards of 120 species. Examples : Smilax,
Philesia.
The Sarsaparilla of commerce is derived from the roots of various species
of Smilax, the best article being furnished by S. ofiicinalis, a native of
Columbia ; a poor substitute is found in the S. pseudo-china of the United
States. The so-called wild sarsaparilla of the United States belongs to the
genus Aralia. The tangled thickets of Greenbriers, so common in this
country, are constituted by various species of Smilax.
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Qedbr 39. DkOBcoRSAoiJB, the Yam Tribe. Flowers unisexual. Perianth
six-divided, adherent. &. Stamens six, inserted into the base of the perianth ;
anthers introrse, with longitudinal dehiscence. ?. Ovary inferior, three-
celled ; ovules one to two, anatropal ; style bifid ; stigmas undivided.
Fruit a compressed trilocular capsule ; with two cells, sometimes abortive,
occasionally fleshy and indehiscent. Seeds compressed, winged or wingless,
in the succulent fruit ovate ; embryo small, near the hilum, lying in a large
cavitj' of cartilaginous albumen. Twining shrubs, with large epigeal or
hypogeal tubers, alternate, sometimes opposite, reticulated leaves, and small,
spiked, bracteated flowers. Natives chiefly of tropical countries ; a few
only found in temperate regions. There are six genera according to
Lindley, and 110 species. Examples: Dioscorea, Tamus, Elephantopus.
The Yam, a tropical substitute for the potatoe, is the tuber of several
species of Dioscorea.
Class 3. DicotyledoTies and Ezogence, Juss. and D.C. Acramphibrya, Endl.
This is the largest class in the vegetable kingdom. The plants included
under it have a cellular and vascular system, the latter consisting partly of
elastic spiral vessels. The stem is more or less conical, and exhibits wood
and true bark. The wood is exogenous, i.e. increases by additions at the
periphery, the hardest part being internal. It is arranged in concentric
circles. Pith exists in the centre, and from it diverge medullary rays.
The bark is separable, and increases by additions on the inside. The
epidermis is furnished with stomata. The leaves are reticulated, usually
articulated to the stem. The flowers are formed upon a quinary or quater-
nary type, and have stamens and pistils. The ovules are either inclosed in
a pericarp, and fertilized by the application of the pollen to the stigma, or
they are naked, and fertilized by the direct action of the pollen. The
embryo has two or more opposite cotyledons, and is exorhizal in germination.
Sub-class 1. MonochlamydecB.
Corolla wanting ; a calyx or a simple perianth present ; flowers some-
times achlamydeous. This sub-class includes the Apetalous orders of
Jussieu, and many of his Diclinous irregular orders. It corresponds to the
Apetal® and Gymnosperm» of Endlicher.
Section A. Chfmnospermce.
Monochlamydeous or Achlamydeous plants, with an exogenous structure
as regards their stems and organs of vegetation, but difiering from Exogens,
in having naked ovules, which are fertilized by the direct application of
the pollen to the foramen, without the intervention of stigma, style, and
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ovary. TJieir woody tissue is marked by the presence of disks. They are
included in Lindley's class of Gymnogens, and Endlicher's Gymnospermous
division of Acramphibrya.
Order 40. CYCADACEiB, the Cycas Family. Flowers unisexual. Males
collected into cones, the scales bearing on their lower surface one-celled
anthers, which are united often in sets of two, three, or four. Females
consisting of naked ovules, placed at the base of flat scales, or beneath
peltate ones, or seated on the margins of altered leaves. Seeds hard and
nut*like, sometimes with an external spongy coat; embryo one or two,
suspended in a central cavity ; albumen fleshy or mealy ; cotyledons unequal ;
radicle superior, having a long cord-like prolongation by which the embryo
is suspended. Trees or shrubs, with cylindrical trunks, usually simple,
sometimes dichotomous, marked with the scars of the leaves, and in many
respects having the aspect of palms. The internal structure is more or lee»
distinctly that of dicotyledons. Pitted tissue and spiral vessels occur. The
leaves are pinnate, and their vernation is circinate, thus resembling ferns.
The plants of this order are found in the temperate and warm regions of
America and Asia, as well as at the Cape of Good Hope. There are six
genera, according to Lindley, and forty-five species. Examples : Cycas,
Zamia, Encephalartos, Macrozamia, Dion.
Some species of this order furnish an impure sago flrom the stem ; the
fruit of others is eaten, roasted like chestnuts. The family is interesting,
from having fossil representatives. Cycas circinalis {pL 56, ßg, 4) ; Zamia
elliptica {ßg. 8).
Order 41. CoNiFSRiE, the Pine Family. It includes the orders Pinace®,
Taxaceae, and Gnetaceae of Lindley. Flowers unisexual. Male flowers
monandrous or monadelphous ; stamens collected in a deciduous amentum,
about a common rachis ; anthers one-, two-, or many-lobed, with longitu-
dinal dehiscence, often terminated by a scaly crest. Female flowers in
cones, sometimes solitary ; ovary none, its place being supplied by the flat
scales of the cones, arising from the axil of membranous bracts ; ovules
naked, usually in pairs on the face of the scales, inverted or erect ; style ;
stigma 0. Fruit a cone, or a solitary naked seed. Seed with a hard
crustaceous integument, sometimes winged, embryo in the midst of fleshy
oily albumen ; sometimes more than one embryo ; cotyledons two, or many
and verticiliate ; radicle next the apex of the seed, organically connected
with the albumen. Trees or shrubs, with branched, usually resinous trunks,
the wood marked with circular disks, the leaves usually narrow, rigid or
acerose, entire, sometimes fascicled, and with a scaly sheath at their base.
They are found in various parts of the world, both in cold and hot regions.
They abound in the temperate regions of Europe and America, and many
occur in Australia. Four genera of Conifer®, Araucaria, Phyllocladus,
Microcachrys, and Arthrotaxis, are peculiar to the southern hemisphere.
The following attain their maximum to the south of the tropics : Callitris,
Podocarpus, and Dacrydium. Dammara has one species in each hemisphere.
Sub-order 1. OnetacetB, the Joint-fir Tribe ; male flowers with a perianth ;
anthers uni-, or quadrilocular, opening by a short deft; ovules with a
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BOTANr 89
prcjeeting process formed from the intimate covering of the nucleus ; seed
«olitary ; embryo with a long spirally-twisted funiculus ; stems jointed ;
zones of wood, often separated by marked cellular circles. Examples :
Gnetum, Ephedra.
Sub-order 2. TaxinecB, the Yew Tribe ; anthers usually bilocular» with
longitudinal dehiscence ; fertile flowers, solitary, terminsd ; ^\x\e solitary,
sessile in the centre of a fleshy disk, when in fruit forming a sort of drupe ;
embryo dicotyledonous. Examples ; Taxus, Torreya, Cephalotaxus,
Podocarpus, Dacrydium, Phyllocladus, Gingko. North American represen-
tatives : Torreya and Taxus (Taxus canadensis).
Sub-order 8. CupresHnecB, the Cypress Tribe. Ovules erect ; fruit an
indurated cone or fleshy, with the scales connecte# forming a galbulus ;
embryo di-, or poly-cotyledonous. Examples ; Thuya, Taxodium, Juniperus,
Cupressus, Cryptomeria, Thuyopsis, Callitris, Widdringtonia. North
American genera are : Thuya (T. occidentalis or arbor vitae), Cupressus (C,
thyoides, white cedar), Ta^todium (T. distiohum, bald cypress), and Juniperus
(J. communis, Juniper, and J. virginiana. Red cedar).
Sub-order 4, Abietinece, the true Pines. Fertile flowers, in cones with
one or two inverted ovules at the base of each scale ; embryo in the axis of
fleshy or oily albumen, di-, or poly-cotyledonous.
Div, 1. DammariecB, Scales one or many-seeded. Seeds free ; anthers
bi-, tri-, or multilocular. Examples : Dammara, Cunninghamia, Arthrotaxis,
none North American.
Div. 2. AraucarietB, Scales one-seeded, seed adnate to the scale, and
not separating from it; anthers multilocular. Examples: Araucaria,
Eutassa, Altingia. None North American.
Div^ 3. AbietecB, Scales two-seeded, seeds adnate to the scale and at
length separating from it ; anthers bilocular. There are three prominent
subdivisions: a. Scales without an apophysis, leaves fasciculated. Examples:
Larix (leaves flat, annual) ; Cedrus (leaves tetragonal, perennial), ft.
Scales without an apophysis, leaves solitary. Examples : Tsuga (scales
persistent, leaves flat) ; Picea (scales persistent, leaves tetragonal) ; Abies
(scales deciduous, leaves flat), c. Scales with a thickened apophysis, which
is either entire or dimidiate. Examples : Pinus (leaves in twos, threes,
fours, or fives). North American representatives : Larix (L. americana,
Tamarack), Abies (A. balsamea, balsam fir ; A. canadensis, Hemlock
spruce ; A. alba, White spruce ; A. nigra. Black or Double spruce, &c.) ;
Piniis (P. strobus, white pine; P. mitis, yellow pine; P. rigida. Pitch
pine, &c.).
The Coniferae form an extensive element in the forest features of many
portions of the globe. Nevertheless, the different genera are rather
restricted in their distribution. Thus Abies, Larix, Pinus, Taxus, Torreya,
and Cupressus, are entirely confined to the northern hemisphere, few indeed
being found in tropical latitudes, except at considerable elevations,
Juniperus and Thuya are quite generally distributed. Cryptomeria and
Thuyopsis are natives of Japan ; Callitris, with a sin^ exception, of
Australia ; Widdringtonia is South African, and Taxodium» N<h11|
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American. Araucaria is confined to South America, Eutassa and Arthro-
taxis to Australia, Cunninghamia to China, Dammara to New Zealand and
the adjacent islands, Sciadopitys to Japan. Of the Taxineae, Taxus and
Torreya have already been assigned to the northern hemisphere, where they
are found on both continents. Cephalotaxus and Gingko belong to the
eastern extreSnity of Asia, Phyllocladus to Australia, Dacrydium to the
islands of Asia, and Podocarpus to various parts of the globe.
The economical value of the Coniferae is very great Many species
furnish timber of the first quality, as also turpentine, rosin, tar, pitch, &c.
Canada Balsam is the exuded and inspissated juice of Abies balsamea and
fraseri, known as Balsam firs. Callitris quadrivalvis supplies Sandarach or
pounce ; Abies excelABL or Norway spruce, the Burgundy pitch or Frank-
incense. The oil firom the berries of Juniper gives the peculiar flavor to
Holland gin. The wood of lead pencils is derived from Juniperus
bermudianus. The Gopher wood of Scripture is probably the cypress of
modem times (Cupressus sempervirens). Many trees of this order furnish
timber of extraordinary durability. The seeds of various species form a
pleasant article of food.
Taxus baccata or common European Yew {pL 12, ßg. 10) ; a, a branch
with male flowers; b, male catkin with the anterior part of the scales
removed ; c, connective covering the anther cells ; c, a branch with female
flowers ; /, one-flowered male catkin ; g, the same two-flowered ; h, a
female flower ; i, a section of the same ; k, single flowered female catkin ;
/, the flower separate ; m, branch with fruit ; n and o, fruit.
Juniperus communis, common Juniper (European) (pL 72, ßg. 11) ; a,
branch with fruit ; 6, portion of a branch with male flowers ; c, do. with
female flowers ; d, male catkin ; c, anther cells with their covering ; /, the
three female flowers ; g, transverse section of the carpophore ; A, two
flowers with their carpophores, the one in vertical section ; i, section of the
berry ; A, a seed ; /, vertical section of do. Pinus picea, the stone Pine
(European) (pi. 72, fig, 14) ; a, branch with male catkins ; b, a strobile; c,
carpellary scale with its two seeds.
Larix cedrus, European cedar (pi, 72, fig, 13) ; a, branch with a male
catkin ; b, the two anther cells ; c, extremity of a branch with a female
catkin ; d, scale with the two female flowers ; e, carpellary scale with the
two seeds ; /, vertical section of the seed.
Cupressus sempervirens, European cypress (pi. 72, fig, 12) ; a, branch
with male and female catkin ; b, male catkins ; c, bracts with the anther
filaments ; d, female catkins ; e and /, female flowers ; g-l, various stages
of fruit and seeds.
Section B. AngiospemuB,
Monochlamydeous or achlamydeous plants having their seeds contained
in an ovary and fertilized by the action of the pollen on a stigma. It
corresponds to the Apetalous division of Endlicher's Acramphibrya.
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Obder 42. Garry ACBifE, the Garrya Family. Flowers unisexual, amen-
taceous. Male flowers, perianth of four parts, stamens four, alternate
with the segments of the perianth. Female flowers, perianth superior, two-
toothed ; ovary unilocular ; ovules two ; pendulous on short funiculi ;
styles two. Fruit baccate, indehiscent. Seeds two ; embryo minute, at the
base of fleshy albumen. North American shrubs, with opposite, exstipulate
leaves. The male plants of Garrya elliptica are commonly cultivated in
shrubberies, and are prized for their peculiar silky catkins. Lindley
associates with this order the Helwingiacese, which agree in their unisexual
flowers, adherent fruit, pendulous ovules, minute embryo, at the base of the
solid albumen. There are two known genera, and six species. Example :
Garrya.
Order 43. Juglandace^, the Walnut Family. Flowers unisexual.
Male flowers amentaceous: perianth membranous, oblique; irregularly-
lobed, with a scaly bract. Stamens definite or 00 : filaments short, free ;
anthers dithecal, erect. Female flowers in terminal clusters, or in loose
racemes, with separate or united bracts: perianth, single or double, the
outer three- or five-parted, inner, when present, in minute separate pieces.
Ovary adherent to the perianth, one-celled; ovule solitary, erect, ortho-
tropal; styles one or two, very short; stigmas two or four, fringed or
sessile discoid, and four-lobed. Fruit a drupe, sometimes with an adherent
involucre ; endocarp bony, two-valved, or valveless, two- or four-celled at
the base, and one-celled at the apex, with partial dissepiments. Seed
exalbuminous, two- or four-lobed, with a membranaceous testa; embryo
large ; cotyledons fleshy, oily, and sinuous ; radicle superior. Trees with
alternate, pinnated leaves, having neither dots nor stipules. Examples :
Juglans, Carya, Engelhardtia, and Pterocarya. •
The plants of this family are chiefly North American, where they are
represented by one genus (Carya) peculiar to the country, and another
(Juglans) which possesses one European species. The finit of Carya,
known as hickory nuts, shell barks. Pecan nuts, &c., is highly prized as an
article of food, while the timber is of exceedingly great value. The Walnut
and Butternut, or white Walnut, belong to the genus Juglans ; the wood of
the former species is hardly surpassed as a beautiful material for cabinet
ware. The bark of Juglans cinerea, or butternut, is a valuable medicinal
agent.
Juglans regia, English walnut (European) (/>/. 71, fig. 4) ; a, branch with
male catkins and female flowers ; ft, male flowers on a scale ; c, a male
flower enlarged ; rf, female flower ; c, vertical section of ditto ; /, fruit with
part of the hull removed ; g, longitudinal section.
Order 44. Amentacba, the Catkin Family. Flowers unisexual. Male
flowers capitate or in catkins (amenta), sometimes with a membranous
perianth. Female flowers, clustered, solitary, or in catkins. Stamens varying
from one to twenty, distinct or monadelphous ; anthers dithecal. Ovary
usually simple; stigmas one or more. Fruit membranous, or bony, or
drupaceous, indehiscent or dehiscent. Seeds solitary or numerous, erect or
pendulous, usually exalbuminous; embryo straight or curved; radicle mostly
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superior. Trees or shrubs with alternate, stipulate, or exstipulate leaves.
Natives chiefly of temperate climates. The order has been divided into thp
following sub^orders :
Sub-order 1. Cupultferts, the Oak Family. Trees or shrubs with
alternate and simple straight-veined leaves, deciduous stipules, and
monoecious flowers ;^ the sterile in catkins (aments or capitate clustered in
the Beech), the fertile solitary or clustered, furnished with an involucre
which forms a cup or covering to the one-celled, one-seeded nut. Ovary,
two- or seven-celled, with one or two pendulous anatropous ovules in each
cell, but all the cells and ovules, except one, disappearing in the fruit.
Calyx adherent to the ovary, the minute teeth crowning its summit. Seed
with no albumen, filled with the embryo ; cotyledons very thick and fleshy;
radicle short, superior. Examples: Quercus, Castanea, Fagus, Corylus,
Carpinus, Ostrya, Lithocarpus. All of these, with the exception of the last,
have North American species. In oaks (Quercus) North America is
especially rich, the northern and middle States alone possessing twenty
species, not to mention numerous others peculiar to the south and west of
the continent. Some of the southern species, as the Live Oak (Q. virens),
have evergreen leaves. Of Castanea there are three species in the united
States : the common Chestnut (C. vesca), the Chincapin (C. pumila), and a
still smaller species, C. nana. The common American Beech is Fagus
ferrugineus. There are also the Hazelnut (Corylus americana and rostrata),
the Hornbeam (Carpinus americana), and the Ironwood (Ostrya virginica),
Sub'Order 2. Platane^s, the Plane Tribe. Flowers in globose catkins;
stamen one, with scales; ovary, one-celled; style, thick and subulate;
ovules, solitary or in pairs; suspended, orthotropal: fruit consisting of
i compressed clavate nuts, terminated by a recurved style: seeds one or two,
pendulous, albuminous: radicle, inferior; leaves palmate or toothed, and
stipulate. Natives chiefly of temperate regions. The principal genus in
this family is Platanus, represented in the Old World by P. orientalis, the
Plane treej and in the New by P. occidentalis, Button- wood, or Sycamore.
Suh'Ord^r 3. Balsamifluce, the Sweet-Gum Tribe. Flowers with
verticillate bracts or minute scales ; anthers, numerous ; ovary, two-celled ;
ovules 00, amphitropal: fruit consisting of two-celled capsules, united
together, so as to form a hard cone: seeds usually numerous, winged,
albuminous ; radicle superior ; leaves stipulate. Balsamic trees natives of
tropical and warm regions. The characteristic genus of this family is
Liquidambar, embracing three species, two Asiatic and one North American.
The latter, L. styraciflua, or sweet-gum, is abundant in the south-eastern
portion of the continent.
Sub-order 4. Betulinea, the Birch Tribe. Flowers with bracts which are
sometimes verticillate: ovary, two-celled; ovules solitary, pendulous,
aaatropal : fruit membranous, indehiscent, forming a sort of cone ; seeds
pendulous, radicle superior, leaves with deciduous stipules. Natives of
temperate and cold regions in Europe, Asia, and America, and extending
to arctic and antarctic regions. Examples : Betula and Alnus. Of Betula,
or birch, there are numerous species in North America ; the most important
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of th^to is B. papyracea, paper or oanoe birch, from whose bark the
northern and western Indians and hunters manufacture their canoes. The
genus Alnus, or Alder, is of little economical importance.
Sub-order 5. CasuarinecB, the Beefwood Tribe. Flowers with bracts ;
stamen one ; ovary one-celled ; ovules one to two ; fruit consisting of
winged acheenia, collected into a cone; seed erect; radicle superior.
Australian trees or shrubs, with filiform branches, bearing membranous
toothed sheaths in place of leaves.
Sub-order 6. Mt/ricece, the Myrtle Tribe. Achlamydeous flowers;
stamens two to eight in the axil of a scale ; ovary one-celled, with hypo^
gynous scales ; ovule solitary, erect, orthotropal ; fruit drupaceous, often
with a waxy secretion, and with fleshy adherent scales ; radicle superior.
Natives both of temperate and tropical regions, and found in North and
South America, in India, and at the Cape of Good Hope. North American
genera, Myrica and Comptonia. Examples : Myrica gale, Sweet gale or Bog
myrtle ; M. cerifera, wax myrtle ; and Comptonia asplenifolia or sweet fern
Sub-order 7. Salicinece, the Willow Tribe. Dioecious trees or shrubs
with both kinds of flowers in catkins, one under each bract, entirely
destitute of calyx or corolla ; the fruit a one-celled and two-valved pod,
containing numerous seeds clothed with a long silky down. Ovary one*
celled or imperfectly two-celled ; styles two, very short, or more or less
united, each with a two-lobed stigma. Seeds ascending, anatropous, without
albumen. Cotyledons flattened ; leaves alternate, undivided, with scale-like
and deciduous, or leaf-like and persistent stipules. Wood soft and light,
bark bitter. The genera Salix and Populus, known respectively as Willows
and Poplars, have numerous North American species, although none of
sufficient importance to require special mention. They are of little value
as timber trees, owing to the soft and spongy texture of their wood ; the
charcoal, however, is in much request by gunpowder manufacturers.
Quercus tinctoria. Black oak, is a North American tree from which the
yellow dye, Quercitron, is obtained. See pL 72, ßg, 8 ; a, branch with fruit ;
b, a leaf; c, represents a female flower of the Cork oak (Q. suber),
Castanea vesca or Chestnut (European variety). PL 72, fig, 7 ; a,
branch with male and female flowers ; 6, a nut ; c, the same in the partly
removed hull.
Liquidambar styraciflua. Sweet Gum (North American). PL 12, fig, 9 ; a,
branch with leaves and flowers ; ft, anther ; c, pistil ; <^he fruit ; c, open
pod ; /, ovary ; g, dissepiment with the seeds ; A, a single seed.
Order 45. Piperace-ä, the Pepper Family. Flowers e. Perianth 0,
flowers supported on a bract. Stamens two, three, or six, arranged on one
side or all round the ovary ; anthers one- or two-celled, with or without a
fleshy connective; pollen roundish, smooth. Ovary solitary, free, one-
celled; ovule solitary, erect, orthotropal; stigma simple, sessile, rather
oblique. Fruit somewhat fleshy, indehiscent, unilocular. Seed erect;
embryo in a fleshy vitellus outside the albumen, and at the apex of the seed.
Shrubs or herbs, with articulated stems, opposite (sometimes alternate by
abortion of one of the pair of leaves), or verticillate, exstipulate or stipulate
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leaves, and spiked or racemose flowers. Natives of the hottest quarters of
the globe. Common in South America and India. The wood is often
arranged in wedges, with medullary rays, but without concentric zones.
There are twenty-one known genera, and upwards of six hundred species.
Examples : Piper, Artanthe, Peperomia.
The plants of this order have pungent, acrid, and aromatic properties.
Most of them contain an acrid resin, and a peculiar principle called piperine.
Black pepper is the dried unripe fruit of Piper nigrum, and white pepper
the ripe fruit deprived of its outer covering. Cubeba officinalis, a Javan
plant, furnishes Cubeb pepper. The Kava of the South Sea Islands is the
root of Piper methysticum, and is employed in preparing an intoxicating
beverage. The Betel leaf from Piper betle, is chewed in the East with the
Areca nut.
Piper nigrum, Black pepper (East Indies) {pL 72, fig. 6) ; a, a branch with
flowers and fruit ; b, portion of a catkin magnified : c, portion of the same
dried and magnified ; d, berry ; c-/, section of the fruit ; g, embryo ; h,
anther; /, unripe berry dried and constituting black pepper; k, white
pepper.
Order 46. SAURURACEiE, the Lizard's-tail Family . Flowers bisexual Perianth
0, a scale or bract supporting the flowers. Stamens three to six, clavate,
hypogynous, persistent; filaments slender; anthers two-celled, continuous
with the filament, with a thick connective separating the lobes, dehiscence
longitudinal. Ovaries three to four, distinct, with one ascending orthotropal
ovule, and a sessile recurved stigma, or united so as to form a three- to
four-celled pistil, with several ovules and three to four stigmas. Fruit
either consisting of four fleshy indehiscent nuts, or a one-, three-, or four-
celled capsule, dehiscing at the apex, and containing a few ascending
seeds. Seeds with a membranous spermoderm ; embryo minute, lying in a
fleshy vitellus, outside of hard mealy albumen, at the apex of the seed.
Herbs growing in marshy places, with alternate stipulate leaves, and spiked
flowers. Natives of North America, India, and China. Their properties
are said to be acrid. There are four known genera, according to Lindley,
and seven species. Examples: Saururus, Houttuynia. The species
Saururus cernuus or Lizard*s-tail, represents the family in the United
States.
Order 47. Chloranthaceä, the Chloranthus Family. Flowers bisexual
or unisexual, witj^ a supporting scale. Perianth 0, stamens definite, lateral,
and if more than one, connate; anthers monothecal, with longitudinal
dehiscence, each adnate to a fleshy connective. Ovary uniloculir;
ovule solitary, pendulous, orthotropal ; stigma sessile, simple. Fruit
drupaceous, indehiscent. Seed pendulous ; embryo minute, at the apex of
fleshy albumen ; cotyledons divaricate ; radicle inferior, remote from the
hilum. Herbs or undershrubs, with jointed stems, opposite, simple, stipulate
leaves, sheathing petioles, and spiked flowers. Natives of the warm regions
of India and America. Some of them, as Chloranthus oflicinalis, are
aromatic and fragrant, and have been used as stimulants and tonics.
Examples : Hedyosmium, Ascarina, Chloranthus.
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Oedxe 48. LAcistCMAcsifi, the Lacistema Famfly. Flowers polygamous.
Perianth in several narrow divisions, covered by an enlarged bract«
Stamens one, hypogynous ; anther having two cells, which are separated by
a thick, two-lobed connective, and which dehisce transversely. Disk fleshy.
Ovary superior, one-celled; ovules several, anatropal, attached to two or
three parietal placentas; stigmas two or three, nearly sessile. Fruit a
unilocular, two- or three- valved capsule, with loculicidal dehiscence. Seed
usually by abortion, solitary, suspended, with a fleshy arillus ; spermoderm
crustaceous ; embryo in fleshy albumen ; cotyledons flat ; radicle cylindrical,
superior. Small trees or shrubs, with simple, alternate, exstipulate leaves,
and amentaceous flowers. They are natives of the warm parts of America.
Their properties are unknown. There are two genera and six species.
Example : Lacistema.
Order 49. Atherospermacea, the Plume-Nutmeg Family. Flowers
unisexual. Perianth tubular, divided at the top into several segments, in
two rows, the inner often petaloid, and accompanied in the female flowers
with a few scales. Male flowers : stamens 00, inserted in the bottom of the
perianth ; filaments, with scales at the base ; anthers two-celled, with
valvular dehiscence. Female flowers : ovaries, usually 00 ; ovule solitary,
erect ; style simple, lateral, or basilar ; stigmas, simple. In some flowers,
though rarely, stamens and pistils are found, and in that case the stamens
are fewer, and arise from the orifice of the perianth. Fruit consisting of
achsenia, with persistent, ultimately feathery styles, inclosed within the tube
of the perianth. Seed solitary, erect ; embryo small, at the base of soft,
fleshy albumen ; radicle inferior. Trees with opposite exstipulate leaves,
fo|pd in Australia, and in some parts of South America. They are
generally fragrant. There are three known genera and four species,
according to Lindley. Examples : Atherosperma, Laurelia.
Order 50. MoMMiACEiE, the Monimia Family. Flowers unisexual.
Perianth somewhat globose, in one or more rows, divided at the border.
Male flowers : stamens indefinite, covering the whole intesor of the
perianth ; filaments, often with two scales at the base ; anthers dithecal,
with longitudinal dehiscence. Female flowers : ovaries several, superior,
inclosed within the tube of the perianth, each with one style and one
stigma; ovule solitary, pendulous, anatropal. Fruit consisting of several
achsenia, inclosed within the enlarged perianth. Seed pendulous : embryo,
at the end of copious fleshy albumen ; radicle superior. . Trees or shrubs,
with opposite, exstipulate leaves. They are natives chiefly of South
America and Australia. The bark and leaves are aromatic and fragrant.
The succulent fruit of some is eaten. There are eight known genera and
about forty species. Examples : Monimia, Boldoa.
Order 51. Stil agin acejb, the Stilago Family. Flowers unisexual.
Perianth two-, three-, or five- parted. Male flowers : stamens two or inpre,
arising from a swollen receptacle ; filaments, capillary ; anthers innate, two-
lobed, with a fleshy connective, and vertical cells opening transversely.
Female flowers : ovary free, one- or two-celled ; ovules two, anatropal ;
stigma sessile, three- to five-toothed. Fruit drupaceous. Seed solitary,
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suspended ; embryo, in fleshy albumen ; cotyledons, leafy ; radicle, supeHor.
Trees or shrubs, with alternate, stipulate leaves. Natives chiefly of the
East Indies. Some yield edible fruits, others are used as potherbs. The
position of this order in the natural system is obscure. Lindley places it in
the Urtical alliance, others consider it as allied to Amentaceee. There are
three known genera and about twenty species. Examples: Stilago,
Antidesma.
Order 52. Podostbmacbä, the Podostemon Family. Flowers naked, or
with a more or less perfect perianth, bursting through an irregularly
lacerated spatha. Stamens hypogynous, definite or indefinite, distinct or
monadelphous ; anthers dithecal, with longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary free,
two- or three-celled ; ovules numerous, anatropal, attached to a fleshy
central placenta ; styles or stigmas, two or three. Fruit slightly pedicellate,
capsular, two- or three- valved. Seeds 00; embryo exalbuminous, ortho-
tropal. Herbaceous, branched, floating plants, with capillary, or linear, or
lacerated, or minute and imbricated leaves. Natives chiefly of South
America, and of the islands to the east of Africa. There are nine known
genera and twenty-five species, according to Lindley. Examples : Podo-
stemon, Lacis.
Order 53. Ceratophyllaceje, the Homwort Family. Flowers unisexual.
Perianth inferior, ten- or twelve-parted. Male flowers : stamens, twelve
to twenty ; anthers sessile, bilocular. Female flowers : ovary free, one-
celled ; ovule solitary, pendulous, orthotropal ; style filiform, oblique ; stigma
simple. Fruit, a one-celled indehiscent nut, terminated by the hardened
style. Seed solitary, pendulous, exalbuminous : cotyledons two, but apparently
four; radicle inferior. Aquatic submersed herbs, with verticillate le^es
cut into filiform lobes. They are found in ditches in various parts of
Europe, Asia, and America. Of the single genus Ceratophyllum, North
America possesses a single species.
Order 54. Urticaceä, the Nettle Family. Flowers unisexual,
hermaphrodite, or polygamous, scattered or collected into catkins or heads.
Perianth usually divided. Stamens definite, inserted into the perianth;
filaments, sometimes curved in aestivation. Ovary free, rarely coherent,
one- or two-celled ; ovule solitary, erect, or suspended ; stigmas one or two,
simple or bifid. Fruit an indehiscent nut, surrounded by the persistent
pericarp, or a samara, or a syconus, or a sorosis. Seed solitary, erect,
suspended or pendulous, albuminous or exalbuminous ; embryo straight, or
curved, or spiral ; radicle superior. Herbs, shrubs, or trees, with alternate,
stipulate leaves, which are usually hispid or scabrous. This order has been
divided into the following sub-orders:
Sub-order 1. Artocarpece, the Bread Fruit Tribe. Trees or shrubs, with
leaves often rough ; filaments generally erect in aestivation ; fruit often a
sorosis ; seed erect or pendulous, albuminous ; embryo straight ; juice
milky. Natives of tropical regions. The typical genus of this sub-order is
Artocarpus, one species of which, A. incisa, furnishes the bread fruit, so
valuable to the inhabitants of tropical regions. All parts of the tree are
applied to some valuable purpose. Some of the Artocarpese furnish a
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palatable mUky juice, as in the Cow-tree of Demerara (Galactodendron
atile). The celebrated Bohun-upas poison of Java is obtained from
Antiaris tozicaria.
Sub-order 2. MorecB, the Mulberry Tribe. Trees or shrubs, with milky
or yellow juice, alternate leaves with deciduous stipules convolute in the
bud, and the flowers spiked on (or inclosed in) a receptacle, becoming
succulent in fruit. Styles or stigmas two. Seed amphitropoils, with a
curved embryo in copious albumen. Natives of temperate and tropical
regions. The principal plants of this tribe are the figs and the mulberries.
The common fig is the fruit of Ficus carica. F. indica is the well known
Banyan tree of India, and F. religiosa the Pippul tree of the same country.
Large quantities of caoutchouc are derived from F. elastica. F. sycamorus
is probably the sycamore of the Scriptures. The genus Moms has numerous
representatives, only one of wl^h is indigenous to the United States.
This is M. rubra or the red mulberry. M. nigra or the European black
mulberry is the sycamine of the Bible. Morus alba or white mulberry (of
which M. multicaulis is a variety), the favorite food of the silkworm, is
partly naturalized in the United States. The Paper mulberry (Broussonetia
papyrifera), in some favor in this country as a shade tree, is so called from
the fact of a kind of paper being made from the inner bark, in its native
country, Japan. Maclura aurantiaca, the Osage Orange, or Bois d'arc of
the South West, is used for hedges. Fustic is obtained from Maclura
tinctoria.
Sub-order 3. Ulnuice^B, the Elm Tribe. Rough-leaved trees or shrubs ;
filaments erect in aestivation ; fruit one- to two-celled, samaroid or
drupaceous ; seed pendulous, usually exalbuminous ; embryo straight or
curved ; juice watery. Natives of the northern and mountainous parts of
Europe, Asia, and America. This tribe is represented in the United States
by the genera Ulmus and Celtis. The slippery or red Elm is Ulmus fulva,
well known for its mucilaginous bark. Celtis crassifolia, Hackberry or sugai
berry, is a tree which sometimes attains to a large size.
Sub-order 4. Cannabine€ef the Hemp Tribe. Herbs with watery juice,
mostly opposite stipulated leaves, and dioecious flowers, the sterile racemed
or panicled. Styles two. Seeds orthotropous. Embryo curved without
albumen. Occur chiefly in temperate regions. Examples : Humulus and
Cannabis. Humulus lupulus, the common Hop, is indigenous both in
Europe anc^ America. The hemp fibre is obtained from Cannabis sativa.
A variety called C. indica is used in India to produce intoxication. The
Haschisch of the Arabians consists of the dried tops and other tender parts
of this variety.
Sub-order 5. Urtice€B, the true Nettle Tribe. Rough-leaved plants, often
with stinging hairs, filaments elastic, and curved in aestivation ; fruit an
indehiscent nut ; seed erect, albuminous ; embryo straight ; juice watery.
They are widely scattered over the globe, and many of them follow the
footsteps of man in his migrations. The principal representatives of this
fiunily in the United States are Urtica, Pilea, Boehmeria, Parietaria. Many
species of Urtica, as U. urens or common nettle, have stinging hairs. Some
ICOirOORAPBIO XNCTCLOPiVDIA. — VOU II. 7 97
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«pecies, as U. cannabina and tenacissima, afibrd e ccelleat fibres for cordage.
Urtica is found of great size in some countries, U. gigantea (Australia)
having been known to reach a diameter of from eighteen to twenty-six feet
The Chinese grass cloth is the product of Boehmeria nivea. Parietaria
pennsylvanica is the plant known as Pellitory.
Artocarpus incisa or Bread Fruit (South Sea Islands and tropical
countries in general) {pi, 72, ßg, 2) ; a, branch with flowers, leaves, and
fruit ; 6, male flower ; c, three female flowers, the central one in vertical
section ; d, section of female capitulum.
Ficus carica, the Fig {pL 72, fig, 1) ; a, branch with figs; 6, vertical
section of the torus ; c, a male, d a female flower ; e, an unripe fruit ; /, a
ripe fruit ; g, a vertical section of the seed.
Moms nigra, black mulberry (European) (pL 72, fig, 8) ; a, a branch
with fruit ; 6, a male flower ; c, a femaM^flower ; </, fruit ; e, the syconus ;
/, the pericarp ; g, the seed.
Cannabis sativa. Hemp (pL 72, fig. 5) ; «, top of the stalk with male
flowers ; b, a male flower ; c, a filament ; d, transverse section of the
anther ; e, pollen grains (6-e magnified) ; /, female flower ; g, pistil
magnified ; h, female flower magnified ; i, dried pericarp ; k, the same
magnified ; /, a nut without the hull ; m, magnified ; n, cross-section ; o,
vertical section.
Humulus lupulus, the Hop {pi. If 2, fig. 4). A, branch with male
flowers ; B, branch with female catkins ; C, a strobile ; a, male flower ; 6,
female flower ; c-e, rachis with glands, the two lowest scales and one female
flower, the rest removed ; /, four female flowers ; g, ovary and pistil ; A,
fruit magnified ; i, fruit inclosed by perianth ; *-/, other states of fruit.
Order 55. EuPHORBiACEiB, the Spurge Family. Flowers unisexual,
sometimes inclosed within an involucre. Perianth lobed, inferior, with
various glandular or petaloid, scaly, internal appendages ; sometimes the
flowers are naked. Male flowers: stamens definite or 00, distinct ox
monadelphous, or polyadelphous ; anthers bilocular, sometimes with porous
dehiscence. Female flowers; ovary free, sessile or stalked, one-, two-,
three-, or many-celled ; ovules solitary or twin, suspended ; styles equal in
number to the cells, distinct or combined, sometimes ; stigmas several, or
one with several lobes. Fruit usually tricoccous, with the cocci separating
in an elastic manner, and opening by two valves, or indehiscent and fleshy
Seeds solitary or in pairs, suspended, often arillate ; embryo« inclosed in
fleshy albumen ; cotyledons flat ; radicle superior. Trees, shrubs, and
herbs, often abounding in ^crid milk, with opposite or alternate, often
stipulate leaves, sometimes none. Some look on this order as apetalous,
with a tendency lo develope a corolla, while others consider it polypetalous,
with a tendency to have the corolla suppressed. In European plants of the
order there are usually no petals present, but in those of tropical countries
the corolla is frequently well marked. In the Eufrfiorbias of Britain there
is an evident involucre, surrounding a number of achlamydeous male and
female flowers, which by Linnaeus were looked upon as merely stamens and
pistils, and hence the plants were put by him in Dodecandria in place of
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Moncecia« The flowers in Euphorbiace» vary much in the number of
their parts. Sometimes the general peduncle or rachis becomes flattened
and leaflike. The inflorescence is occasionally amentaceous, as in the
division Scepace», which is separated, as a distinct but not fully defined
order, by Lindley. The plants of the order abound in warm regions,
especially in Equinoctial America, where they occur as trees or bushes, or
lactescent herbs, and often present the appearance of Cactuses, from which
their milky juice at once distinguishes them. They are also found in North
America and in Europe. There are about 192 genera arranged in ^ix sub-
orders, and over 2500 species.
TVibe 1. EuphorhiecB^ true Euphorbias. Cells one-seeded. Flowers
of the two sexes united in a common involucre, resembling a single flower,
naked, a single female with many males. Examples : Euphorbia, &c.
Tribe 2. Stillingiecs. Cells one-seeded. Flowers naked or apetalous in
amentaceous spikes : one or many in the axil of an often biglandular bract ;
the males two- to ten-androus. Examples: Stillingia, Styloceras, Hura,
Hippomane, &c.
Tribe 3. Acalyphece. Cells one-seeded. Flowers apetalous, caljnc
valvular in the bud, arranged in clusters along a spike, more rarely in
racemes. Examples : Acalypha, Tragia, &c.
Tribe 4. Crotonece. Cells one-seeded. Flowers apetalous, calyx valvular,
or imbricated in the bud, disposed in fascicles, spikes, racemes, or panicles.
Examples : Crotonopsis, Siphonia, Croton, &c.
Tribe 5. PhyllanthecB, Cells two-seeded. Flowers most generally
apetalous, with the calyx imbricated in the bud, solitary or combined in
clusters or axillary fascicles. Stamens two to five, rarely more, inserted
on the torus in the centre of the flower, firee or united. Examples :
Phyllanthus, &c.
Tribe 6. Buxece, Cells two-seeded. Flowers usually apetalous, with the
calyx imbricated in the bud, arranged in clusters or axillary fascicles, more
rarely in racemes or spikes. Stamens four to six, inserted around a central
rudimentary pistil. Examples : Buxus, Savia, &c.
The plants of the order Euphorbiacese are acrid and poisonous, this
property residing chiefly in their milky juices. That of some species of
Euphorbia is collected for medicinal purposes. Valuable oils are also
obtained from this order. Thus castor oil is expressed from the seeds of
Ricinus communis, a plant which, herbaceous in temperate climates, is a
tree in its native locality, India. The seeds of Croton tiglium furnish
Croton oil. The fatty matter obtained from the seeds of Stillingia sebifera,
the Chinese Tallow tree, is used in making candles. Cascarilla is the bark
of Croton eleutheria and other species. The boxwood in such request by
wood engravers is obtained from Buxus sempervirens. The Cassava, or
Manioc flower, is a starchy matter (Tapioca), obtained by grinding up the
root of Manihot utilissima, and washing this well with water. The juice is
highly poisonous, although the washed pulp is both harmless and palatable.
The juice of Siphonia elastica contains much caoutchouc, and furnishes
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most of 'that India-rubber which comes in bottles. Gum-lac is derived firoiA
Aleurites laccifera, a Ceylon plant.
Euphorbia officinarum, Spurge, Central and South Africa (pL ll,fig- 9).
Euphorbia cyparissias, Central Europe (/>/. 71, fig. 8) : a and ft, flowers
of natural size and magnified ; c, pistil ; d and e, fruit of natural size and
magnified.
Siphonia elastica, caoutchouc tree, South America {pi 11 y fig* 10) : A,
branch with flowers ; a, a flower ; ft, vertical section of ditto ; c, ovary in
cross-sctetion ; d, ovary ; e, the ripe fruit.
Order 56. Empetrace-«, the Crowberry Family. Flohvers unisexual.
Perianth bud-like, consisting of persistent imbricated scales, in two or four
alternating rows, the inner row often petaloid. Male flowers : stamens
two or three, equal in number to the scales in each row, and alternating
with the innermost, hypc^nous ; anthers roundish, dithecal, with longitu-
dinal dehiscence. Female flowers: ovary free, seated on a fleshy disk,
three- to six- or nine-celled ; ovules solitary, anatropal, ascending ; style
one; stigma with as many radii as there are ovarian cells. Fruit, a
nuculanium, seated within the persistent perianth. Seeds solitary in each
nucule, ascending ; embryo, in the axis of fleshy albumen ; radicle inferior.
Heath-like shrubs, with alternate or somewhat verticillate, evergreen,
exstipulate leaves. They inhabit chiefly Europe and North America. The
fruit of some is slightly acid. Empetrum nigrum, the black Crowberry, is
common on the mountainous and northern parts of Europe, and the United
States. The fruit is watery, and very slightly acid and astringent. Lindley
notices four genera and four species. Examples: Empetrum, Corema.
Both these genera have North American representatives.
Order 57. DATiscACEiE, the Datisca Family. Flowers unisexual. Male
flowers : perianth three- or four-divided. Stamens three to seven ; anthers
linear, membranous, dithecal, with longitudinal dehiscence. Female
flowers : perianth adherent, three- or four-toothed. Ovary inferior,
unilocular ; ovules 00, anatropal, attached to three or four parietal placentas ;
styles, as many as the placentas. Fruit, a one-celled capsule, opening at the
apex. Seeds 00, strophiolate, with a reticulated spermoderm ; albumen ;
embryo straight ; cotyledons very short ; radicle pointing to the hilum.
Herbaceous branched plants or trees, with alternate, exstipulate leaves.
They are scattered over North America, various parts of Asia, and the
south-eastern part of Europe. Some of the plants are said to be bitter, and
others of them have purgative qualities. Lindley mentions three genera
and four species. Examples : Datisca, Tetrameles.
Order 58. Rhizanthe^, the Rhizogen Family. Flowers usually monoe-
cious or dioecious, sometimes « . Perianth more or less perfect, superior,
trimerous, tetramerous, or pentamerous ; sometimes obsolete or 0. Stamens
united, often in a fleshy column, to which the anthers cohere, dithecal,
extrorse, opening longitudinally or by pores. Ovary inferior, one- or two-
celled ; ovules definite or 00. Fruit indehiscent, pulpy, usually unilocular.
Seeds, sometimes solitary and pendulous, at other times 00, and attached to
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parietal placentas ; embryo albuminous or exalbuminous. Leafleai, scaly,
parasitic plants, having a fungus-like appearance. They are never green,
but assume a brown, yellow, or purple color. They are composed chiefly
of cellular tissue, with a few scalariform and spiral vessels. They are often
stemless, and sometimes are furnished with a creeping rhizome. In their
mode of decay they resemble Fungi. Their seeds present a peculiar
appearance, resembling spores rather than true seeds. The nature of their
embryo is undetermined, and their place in the natural system is still
doubtful. Lindley has placed them in a separate class, intermediate
between Thallogens and Endogens. They have been divided by him into
three distinct orders: 1. Balanophorace<B^ male flowers pedicellate;
stamens, one to three ; filaments and anthers, both united ; ovule solitary,
pendulous; fruit, monospermous. 2. CytinacecB, flowers in spikes;
perianth, three- to six-lobe(i; anthers sessile on a column, dehiscing by
slits ; ovules 00, attached to parietal placentas ; fruit, polyspermous. 3.
ReffiesiacecBy flowers sessile, solitary ; perianth, five-lobed, with calli in its
throat; anthers attached to a column, dehiscing by pores; ovules 00
attached to parietal placentas; fruit polyspermous. They are natives
chiefly of tropical countries, but some extend into temperate climates.
They are found in the East Indies, South America, Cape of Good Hope,
and the south of Europe. Lindley enumerates twenty-one genera and fifty-
three species. Examples : Balanophora, Cynomorium, Cytinus, Rafflesia.
Species of Rafflesia exhibit the largest flowers known, the perianth being
sometimes three feet in diameter, and capable of holding six quarts of liquid.
They are all parasitic.
OsDEa Ö9. NfiPENTHACBiE, the Pitcher-plant Family. Flowers dicBcious.
Perianth four-parted, inferior ; sestivation imbricated. Male flowers :
stamens united in a sdid central column ; anthers about sixteen, forming a
spherical bead, extrorse, and with longitudinal dehiscence. Female flowers :
ovary free, four-cornered, four-celled ; ovules 00 ; stigma sessile. Fruit a
four-celled, four-valved capsule, with loculicidal dehiscence. Seeds 00,
ascending, very minute, fusiform, with a loose testa : nucleus less than the
seed, suspended by the chalaza ; embryo in the midst of fleshy albumen ;
cotyledons f^ano-convex ; radicle pointing to the hilum. Herbs, or half-
shrubby i^ants, with alternate leaves, slightly sheathing at the base, having
a foliaceous petiole, which forms an ascidium at its extremity, and the
lamina in the form of a lid. Natives of swampy ground in the East Indies
and China. They have no known properties. The pitchers have been found
to contain a solution of binoxalate of potash. Spiral vessels aboimd in all
parts of the pitcher plants ; and the woody bundles are without concentric
zones. Lindley gives one genus, and six species. Example : Nepenthes.
OaD£a 60. AaisTOLocHiACBiS, the Birthwort Family. Perianth adherent,
tubular, three-cleft, regular, or sometimes very irregular ; aestivation valvate
or induplicate. Stamens six to twelve, epigynous, distinct or gynandrous.
Ovary inferior, three- to six-celled ; ovules 00, anatropal, horizontal ; style
nmple» short ; stigmas radiating, three to six. Fruit dry or succulent, three-
to nx«celled. Seeds numerous ; embryo very minute, at the base <^ fleshy
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102 BOTANY.
albumen ; cotyledons inconspicuous ; radicle next the hüum. Herbs or
shrubs, often climbing, with alternate, simple, often stipulate leaves, and
solitary axillary flowers. Found in abundance in the warm regions of
South America, and growing also in the temperate and cold regions of
Europe, Asia, and America. There are eight known genera and 130 species.
Examples : Asarum, Aristolochia, Heterotropa.
Asarabacca of the Pharmacopoeia consists of the dried leaves of Asarum
europseum. A. canadense is known as wild ginger. Aristolochia serpentaria
or Virginia snake root, is a valuable medicine. It is to be distinguished
from the seneca snake root, Polygala senega. Aristolochia sipho, a well-
known North American plant, is called Dutchman's pipe, from the grotesque
similitude of its leaves. Species of this genus were formerly considered
efficacious in certain uterine affections. The flowers of some Aristolochias
are remarkable for their size and beauty. «
Aristolochia clematitis, Birthwort, a highly poisonous species of central
Europe. PL 58, 59, ßg, 10 : a, rhizome, with the lower part of the stem ;
b, upper part of the plant ; c, flower enlarged, partly in section ; d, cross-
section of the flower ; e, do. of ovary ; /, seed vessel in longitudinal section ;
g, a seed ; h and i, do. in transverse and longitudinal sections ; A, embryo
magnified.
A. serpentaria, Virginia snake root (pL 58, 59, ßg. 12) ; a, the entire
plant ; b, a seed.
A. sipho, Dutchman's pipe, United States {pL 58, 59, ßg. 11).
Order 61. Santalace^e, the Sandalwood Family. Herbs, shrubs, or
trees, with entire leaves ; the four- to five-cleft calyx valvate in the bud, its
tube coherent with the one-celled ovary, which contains two to four ovules
(consisting of a cellular nucleus, destitute of any proper integument)
susperiHed from the apex of a stalk-like free central placenta which rises
from the base of the cell, but the (indehiscent) fruit always one-seeded.
Embryo small, at the apex of copious albumen ; radicle directed upwards ;
cotyledons cylindrical. Stamens equal in number to the lobes of the calyx,
and inserted opposite them into the edge of the fleshy disk at their base.
Style one. Found in Europe, Asia, America, and New Holland.
Sandalwood, a highly fragrant wood, is derived from Santalum album and
other Indian and Polynesian species. North American species of this
family are Comandra umbellata (Toad Flax) and Pyrularia oleifera or
Buffalo nut, common in the southern United States. Santalum myrtif<[^um,
sandalwood (Java) (pL 66, ßg. 8).
Order 62. NTssACEiE, the Tupelo Family. This differs from the
Santalaceae in the solitary ovule suspended from the top of the cell. This
family is represented in the United States by the sole genus Nyssa, composed
of trees remarkable for the adhesion of their fibres, it being almost impossible
to split a block of the wood. The naves of carriage wheels are usually made
of the wood of Nyssa multiflora, or Gum tree. Southern species are known
as Tupelo, Ogeechee lime, &c., the latter term, however, being applied more
correctly to the fruit, which is in great request as a preserve.
Order 63. HoMALiACEiE, the Homalia Family. Perianth funnel*shi^)ed,
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with five to fifteen divisions, and having usually alternating petaloid
segments, and glands or scales in front of the outer divisions. Stamens
perig3mous, either single or in parcels of three or six, alternating with the
outer divisions of the perianth; anthers dithecal, with longitudinal
dehiscence. Ovary partly adherent to the tube of the perianth, one-celled ;
ovules numerous, anatropal, pendulous, attached to two, three, or five
parietal placentas ; styles three to five, simple, filiform, or subulate. Fruit
either baccate or capsular. Seeds small, ovate ; embryo in the axis of
fleshy albumen ; cotyledons leafy ; radicle superior. Trees or shrubs with
alternate leaves, having deciduous stipules. It contains tropical plants,
which do not possess any important properties. Lindley mentions eight
genera, including thirty species. Examples : Homalium, Nisa.
Okder 64. SAMTDACEiS, the Samyda Family. Perianth four- to five-
divided, usually colored inside ; aestivation somewhat imbricate. Stamens
inserted into the tube of the perianth, two, three, or four times as many as
its divisions, either all fertile, or the alternate ones sterile, shorter, and
firinged ; filaments monadelphous at the base ; anthers erect, ovate, two-
celled. Ovary firee, one-celled ; ovules 00, attached to parietal placentas,
semi-anatropal ; style one, filiform ; stigma capitate or slightly lobed. Fruit
a coriaceous, unilocular, three- to five-valved capsule, partially dehiscent.
Seeds 00, fixed irregularly on the pulpy inner surface of the valves, with
a fleshy arillus, and a hollowed hilum ; embryo large, in the midst of oily or
fleshy albumen ; cotyledons ovate, foliaceous ; radicle pointing to the
extremity remote firom the hilum. Trees or shrubs, with alternate, simple,
stipulate leaves, usually having pellucid, round, or linear markings. Natives
of tropical regions, chiefly in America. There are five known genera, and
eighty species. Examples : Samyda, Casearia.
Order 65. CnAiLLETiACEiE, the Chailletia Family. Perianth five-parted,
with an incurved valvate aestivation. Stamens inserted into the base of the
perianth, five inner fertile opposite the segments of the perianth, five outer
sterile, petaloid, usually with glands at their base ; anthers ovate, versatile,
dithecal. Ovary free, two- to three-celled ; ovules twin, pendulous ; styles
two to three, distinct or combined ; stigmas capitate or obscurely two-
lobed. Fruit dry, one-, two-, or three-celled. Seeds solitary, pendulous,
exalbuminous ; embryo thick ; cotyledons fleshy ; radicle superior. Trees
or shrubs, with alternate, stipulate leaves, and axillary peduncles, often
cohering to the petiole. They are natives of the warm parts of Africa and
South America. The fruit of Chailletia toxicaria is said to be poisonous.
There are four genera, and ten species known. Examples: Chailletia,
Tapura.
Order 66. AauiLARiACE^, the Aquilaria Family. Perianth coriaceous,
imbricate or tubular, limb four- to five-lobed ; aestivation imbricate.
Stamens usually ten fertile, alternating with ten sterile, in the form of
petaloid scales, sometimes eight or five ; filaments inserted into the orifice
of the perianth, often united ; anthers dithecal, with longitudinal dehiscence.
Ovary free, ovate, compressed, two-celled ; ovules two, suspended, anatropal ;
stigma usually sessile, large and simple. Fruit a pjrriform, sessile, or
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stipitate two^vaWed capsule, or drupaceous and iudehiscont. Seeds two»
one on each placenta ; pendulous ; albumen ; cotyledons fleshy ; hemi*
spherical ; radicle straight, superior. Trees, with alternate or opposite,
entire, stalked, and exstipulate leaves. Thej are natives of the trcqucal
regions of Asia. There are six genera noticed, including ten species.
Examples : Aquilaria, Gyrinopsis.
Order 67. TnYMELiEACEiE, the Mezereum Family, Perianth tubular,
colored, four-, rarely five-cleft, inferior ; occasionally with scales in its
orifice; aestivation imbricate. Stamens perigynous, definite, often eight,
sometimes four or two, and then opposite the segments of the perianth ;
anthers dithecal, with longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary free, one-celled;
ovule suspended, anatropal ; style one ; stigma undivided. Fruit either
nut-like or drupaceous. Seed solitary, pendulous ; albumen 0, or thin and
fleshy ; embryo straight ; cotyledons plano-convex, or somewhat lobed and
shrivelled ; radicle superior. Shrubby, rarely herbaceous plants, with
alternate, or opposite, entire, exstipulate leaves. Natives of various parts
of the world, both in warm and temperate regions. There are two sections
of the order : 1. Daphne«, with hermaphrodite or rarely unisexual flowers,
and plano-convex cotyledons. 2. HernandiesB, with polygamous flowers,
and lobed and shrivelled cotyledons. Lindley enumerates thirty-eight
genera, including three hundred species. Examples : Daphne (Thymelsea),
Passerina, Pimelea, Gnidia, Lagetta, Exocarpus, Hemandia, Inocarpus, Dirca.
The inner bark of Lagetta lintearia exhibits a beautifully reticulated
appearance, whence its name Lacebark. The fibrous bark of Dirca
palustris is very tough, and is used by the Indians for thongs. This species,
known as Leather wood and Wicopy, represents the only North American
genus of the family.
Daphne mezereum, the Mezereon, Europe and Northern Asia {pL 68, 59,
fig, 14) ; a, a branch with flowers ; b, perianth laid open ; c, stamen ; d,
section of ovary ; e, a branch with leaves and fruit ; /, fruit in longitudinal
section ; g, embryo ; h (to the right of 14*), seed.
Order 68. PENiEACEiE, the Sarcocol Family. Perianth colored, salver-
shaped, with a four-lobed limb, and with two or more bracts at its base,
persistent. Stamens perigynous, either four or eight, alternate with the
lobes of the perianth ; anthers dithecal, introrse. Ovary superior, four-
celled ; ovules usually in pairs, collateral, anatropal, ascending or suspended ;
style simple ; stigmas four. Fruit a four-celled, four-valved capsule. Seed
erect or pendulous ;. testa brittle ; hilum with a fungus-like aril ; nucleus a
fleshy mass, without distinction of albumen or embryo. Shrubs, Math
opposite, entire, exstipulate leaves. They are found at the Cape of Good'
Hope. They have no known properties of importance. The gum-resin
called Sarcocol is said to be produced on the perianth of Pensea ^surcocoUa,
and other species. There are two sections of this order: 1. Pensee»,
aestivation valvate, stamens four, connective fleshy, ovules ascending. 3.
Geissolomese, aestivation imbricate, stamens eight, connective not fleshy,
ovules suspended There are three known genera, and twenty-one speciei.
Examples : Penaea, Geissoloma.
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Ordxr 60. Eljiaonaoe^, the (^easier Family^ Flowers usually unisexual,
rarely hermaphrodite. Male flowers amentaceous, with two to four leaves
farming the perianth ; stamens three, four, or eight ; anthers nearly sessile,
dithecal, introrse, and dehiscing longitudinally. In the female and
hermaphrodite flowers, perianth tubular, persistent, with an entire or two- to
four-toothed limb. Disk fleshy. Ovary superior, one-celled ; ovule solitary,
ascending, on a short funiculus, anatropal; style short; stigma simple,
subulate, glandular. Fruit a crustaceous achsenium, inclosed within the
enlarged succulent perianth. Seed ascending; embryo straight, sur-
rounded by thin fleshy albumen; cotyledons fleshy; radicle inferior.
Trees or shrubs, with alternate or opposite entire exstipulate leaves, which
are often covered with scurfy scales. They are found .in all parts of the
northern hemisphere. Examples : Hippophae,Elfieagnus, Shepherdia. Of
this latter genus there are two species in the United States : S. canadensis,
and S. argentea or Bufialo berry, furnishing a {feasant acid fruit.
Elseagnus angustifolia. Oleaster (Europe and Asia) {pL 58, 59, fg, 18) ;
a, flowering branch ; 6, flower with an abortive pistil, and displayed or laid
open ; c, anther ; d, a fertile flower displayed ; e, pistil ; /, vertical section
of the tube of the perianth and of the pistil ; g, a ripe fruit ; h, vertical
section of do. ; i, a leaf showing the scurfy stellated hairs ; k, a scurf scale
much magnified.
Oedeb 70. PmoTEACBiB, the Protea Family. Perianth more or less
deeply four-divided ; aestivation valvate. Stamens perigynous, four (one
sometimes sterile), opposite the segments of the perianth ; anthers dithecal,
with longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary single, superior, unilocular ; ovules
single or in pairs, anatropal or amphitropal ; style simple ; stigma undivided,
discoid. Fruit dehiscent or indehiscent. Seed exalbuminous, sometimes
winged ; embryo stnight, cotyledons two or more ; radicle inferior, next the
hilum. Shrubs or small trees, with hard, dry, opposite, or alternate,
exstipulate leaves. They are natives principally of Australia and the Cape
of Good Hope. The order has been divided into two sections : 1.
Nucumentace», with nucumentaceous indehiscent fruit. 2. Folliculares,
with follicular dehiscent fruit. Lindley mentions forty-four genera, including
650 species. Examples: Protea, Persoonia, Grevillea, Hakea, Banksia,
Dryandra.
The plants of this order exhibit great diversity of appearance, and are in
much request as ornamental shrubs. The fruit Guevina avellana yields the
Chilian nut, called Avellano.
Protea speciosa, Sugar-bush, Cape of Grood Hope {pi. 60, 61,^. 1):
head of flowers.
Banksia serrata. New Holland {pL 60, 61, ßg. 2) : a, the cone of
flowers ; fr, a flower ; c, follicle.
Oeobe 71. Myristioace2b, the Nutmeg Family. Flowers unisexual :
perianth trifid» rarely quadrifid, in the female deciduous; SBstivation valvate.
Stamens, three to twelve; filaments combined into a cylinder; anthers
united or distinct, dithecal, extrorse, dehiscing longitudinally. Ovary free,
composed of one or more carpels, unilocular; ovule solitary, erect, anatropal;
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106 BOTANY.
style very short ; stigma somewhat lobed. Fruit succulent, one«ceUed, two«
valved. Seed solitary, usually covered by a laciniated arillus; embryo
small, orthotropal, at the base of ruminate albumen ; cotyledons foliaceous ;
radicle inferior. Trees with alternate, exstipulate, entire, not dotted
leaves. Natives of the tropical regions of Asia and America. There
are five known genera, and between thirty and forty species. Example :
Myristica.
The most important genus of this order is Myristica, from which the
nutmeg is obtained. The principal species, M. moschata, is a native of the
Moluccas, but cultivated in many tropical countries. The fruit is a drupe,
opening by two valves when ripe, and exhibiting a reticulated arillus, known
as mace. Within this is a hard shell, enveloping the kernel or nutmeg.
One tree will sometimes yield six pounds of nutmeg. Nutmeg butter or
fat is a concrete oil obtained by expressing the fruit.
Myristica moschata, nutmeg (pL 60, 61, fig. 3) : a, a branch with fruit ;
b, ditto, with flowers ; m, the seed ; Ä, vertical section ; A, ditto, with the
embryo; i, cross-section.
Order 72. Lauracejs, the Laurel or Bay Family. Perianth, with four
or six divisions, which are usually in two rows, the limb sometimes obsolete;
aestivation imbricate. Stamens perigynous, definite, often twice as many
as the divisions of the perianth, and arranged usually in two rows, those of
the inner row (often three) being frequently sterile (staminodia), while
those of the outer (often six in number) are fertile ; if the inner stamens are
fertile they are extrorse, while the outer are introrse ; filaments of the inner
row, often with glands at their base ; anthers, two- to four-celled, cells
opening by longitudinal valves. Ovary superior, unilocular ; ovule solitary,
pendulous ; style simple ; stigma obtuse. Fruit baccate or drupaceous,
naked or covered by the enlarged perianth, peduncle of the fruit- sometimes
becoming fleshy. Seed solitary, pendulous ; albumen ; embryo inverted ;
cotyledons large, plano-convex, peltate near the base ; radicle very short,
superior; plumule conspicuous. Trees with exstipulate, alternate, rarely
opposite leaves ; sometimes twining, parasitic, and leafless herbs or under-
shrubs. They are natives chiefly of the tropical regions of Asia and
America. Few are found in Africa. The order has been divided into two
sub-orders : 1. Laureae, true Laurels, trees with leaves. 2. Cassytheae,
Dodder-laurels, climbing parasitic plants, without leaves.
The more elaborate arrangement of this family by Nees d'Esenbeck,
gives the following sub-orders : 1. CinnamomecB, Example: Cinnamomum.
2. CamphorecB. Example : Camphora. 3. PhasbetB. Example : Phoebe.
4. PersecB, Example : Persea. 5. Crypiocaryets. Examples : Crypto-
carya, Adenostcmon. 6. AcrodiclidiecB, Example : Aydendron. 7.
NectandrecB. Example : Nectandra. 8. DicypelliecB, Example : Peta-
lanthera. 9. OreodaphnecB, Example : Oreodaphne. 10. Flaviflores,
Examples: Sassafras, Benzoin. 11. Tetrantherece. Examples: Laums,
Tetranthera. 12. DaphnidiecB, Example: Daphnidium. 13. Cassytke^B,
Example : Cassytha.
Plants of this family yield many products of importance. Camphor is a
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8<did vdatile oil, sublimed from the distillation of the wood of Camphora
officinarum, a native of China and Japan. The cinnamon of commerce is
the dried, inner bark from the young twigs of Cinnamomum zeylanicum,
ind^^nous in Ceylon. The ripe fruit yields an oil, known as cinnamon
suet, and camphor is distilled from the roots. Cassia bark and buds are
frumished by C. cassia. The Avocado, or the alligator's pear, is the fruit
of Persea gratissima. Bebeeru-bark is obtained from Nectandra rodioei, a
native of British Guiana. Its timber is used in ship-building, under the
name of Green-heart Well-known inhabitants of North America are
Sassafras officinale (Laurus sassafras) or sassafras, and Benzoin odorifenmi
(L. benzoin) or spice-bush. The Victor's Laurel of the ancients is the
Laurus nobilis.
Camphora officinarum (L. camphora), the camphor- tree {pL 58, 59, fig.
15, a-^),
Cinnamomum zeylanicum (L. cinnamomum), the cinnamon tree {pL 58,
59, fig, 16) ; c, bark ; d, structure of the bark ; e, perianth externally ; /,
the same externally ; g, stamen ; A, pistil ; t, fruit ; k, sexual apparatus ; 4
stamen. Fig. 16, 6, bark of C. cassia.
Laurus nobilis, the Victor's Laurel (Mediterranean coast) (pi 59, 60, fig,
17) ; a, branch with flowers ; b, umbel with male flowers ; c, female flowers ;
dy fruit ; e, male flowers magnified ; /, stamen ; g, do. with two- to three«
lobed valves ; A, female flower magnified ; t, fruit partly in section ; A, a
cotyledon.
Oeder 73. Beooniacejb, the Begonia Family. Flowers unisexual.
Perianth colored, having usually four diwsions in the male flowers, and five
or eight in the female, some being smaller than others ; aestivation imbricate.
Stamens 00, distinct, or united into a solid column ; anthers collected in a
head, dithecal, with a thick connective, and longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary
adherent to the tube of the perianth, winged, three-celled, with three
placentas meeting in the axis ; ovules 00, anatropal ; stigmas three, sessile,
two-lobed, somewhat spirally twisted. Fruit a membranous, triangular,
winged capsule, dehiscing below in a loculicidal manner. Seeds 00,
minute ; testa thin and reticulated ; albumen ; embryo oblong ; radicle
next the hilum. Semi-succulent herbaceous plants and undershrubs, with
alternate oblique leaves, having large scarious stipules. They are some-
times called Elephant's ear, from the form of the leaves. They are natives
of warm countries, as the East and West Indies, and South America. The
stomkta on the lower side of the leaves of many of the species of Begonia
are arranged in clusters, and exhibit a beautiful appearance under the
microscope. There are three genera and 159 known species. Example :
Begonia. Plants of this genus are favorites with American horticulturists.
Okdek 74. PoLYGONACEiB, the Buckwheat Family. Perianth inferior,
divided, often colored; aestivation imbricate. Stamens definite, inserted
into the bottom of the perianth; anthers with longitudinal dehiscence.
Ovary free, usually formed by three carpels, unilocular; ovule solitary,
orthotropal ; styles and stigmas equal to the carpels in number. Fruit a
nut, usually triangular, naked or covered by the persistent perianth. Seed
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108 BOTANY.
erect; albumen farinaceous; embryo anatrqpal, generally on one side,
sometimes in the axis of the albumen ; radicle superior. Herbaceous, rarely
shrubby plants, with alternate, stipulate, or exstipulate leaves, and often
unisexual flowers. They are found in almost all parts of the world, more
especially in the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. They grow
in fields, waste grounds, ditches, mountains, &c. The order has been
divided into two tribes: 1. Polygone», with loose flowers, embryo usually
abaxial, ochreate stipules. 2. Eriogone», with involucrate flowers, embryo
axial, leaves generally exstipulate. Lindley enumerates twenty-nine
genera, including 490 species. Examples : Polygonum, Rumex, Rheum,
Eriogonum.
The species of the typical genus Polygonum are inconspicuous in
appearance, and generally stigmatized as worthless weeds. A common
species growing in damp yards and other localities, is called smart-weed
(P. hydropiper) from its intense acridity. It is said to drive away the small
red ant when laid in places infested by this animal. Some species, as P.
sagittatum, form almost impenetrable growths in meadows, on account of
the sharp-toothed prickles along the angular stem and leaves. The common
Buckwheat, Fagopjrrum esculentum, is, in all probability, a native of North-
western China, and was not known in Europe before the sixteenth century.
Species of Rumex form the sheep sorrel of (dd fields. The most important
genus is Rheum or Rhubarb, the root rhubarb being furnished by many
species indigenous to Siberia, Thibet, Northern China, and the Himalaya
Mountains. Rheum compactum and rhaponticum have acid petioles, in
much request for making pies. •
Rheum palmatum. Rhubarb {pi. 60, 61, fig. 4) ; a, the root; i, the stem;
c-/, flowers and fruit in diflferent states.
Order 75. PHYTOLAccACEiB, the Pokeweed Family. Perianth four- to five-
partite. Stamens usually perigynous, indefinite, or equal to the segments of
the perianth, and alternate with them. Ovary of one or several carpels,
distinct or combined ; ovule one in each carpel, ascending or erect ; styles
equal to the carpels in number, terminal or lateral ; stigmas simple or
divided. Fruit fleshy and dry, indehiscent, sometimes samaroid. Seeds
solitary, erect or ascending ; embryo straight or curved ; albumen mealy or
; radicle next the hilum. Undershrubs or herbs, with alternate, entire
leaves, which are often dotted. They are natives both of tropical and warm
countries, and are found in America, Asia, and Africa.
Svb'Order 1. Petiveriacece. Cotyledons convolute. Leaves stipuled.
Tropical America.
Tribe 1. PeiiveriecB. Embryo straight or slightly curved, perisperm none
or much reduced. Examples : Sequieria, Petiveria.
Tribe 2. RivinetB. Embryo annular, inclosing a mealy perisperm.
Examples : Mohlana, Rivina.
Sub'Order 2. PhytollaccinecB. Seeds ascending, cotyledons plane, kaves
exstipulate.
Tribe 3. Lime€B, Testa of membranous grains. South Afncaa plants.
Examples : Limeum, Gaudinia, &c.
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Tribe 4. PhyiolaccecB. Testa of crustaceous grains. Plants seldom extra-
tropical. Examples: Phytolacca, Ercilla, Giesekia, Microtea, &c. The
most important North American plant of this family is Phytolacca decandra
or Pokeberry. The young shoots are boiled as greens, and the rich purple
juice of the berries has been used as red ink, and also in the colorati<m of
wines. The ashes of the young plants contain a large amount of potash.
Order 76. Chsnopodiacea or Antriplicbs, the Goosefbot Family.
Perianth deeply divided, sometimes tubular at the base, persistent, without
bracts ; aestivation imbricate. Stamens inserted into the base of the perianth
or hypogynous, opposite to its segments, and equal to them in number, or
fewer. Ovary single, superior, or sometimes cohering to the«tube of the
perianth, one-celled ; ovule solitary, attached to the base of the cell ; style
two- to four-divided; stigmas simple. Fruit membranous, indehiscent,
inclosed in the calyx, sometimes fleshy. Seed erect or resupinate ; embryo
curved, round farinaceous albumen, often like a horse-shoe, or spiral, or
doubled together without albumen ; radicle next the hilum. Herbs or
undershrubs, with alternate, sometimes opposite, exstipulate leaves, and
hermaphrodite or unisexual flowers. They are found in almost all parts of
the world, but do not abound in the tropics. Most of the plants are incon-
spicuous weeds. There are sixty-seven known genera, and 372 species.
Moquin Tandon has divided this family into seven tribes, arranged under
two sub-orders, the first, with the embryo curved round the albumen
(Cyclolobece) ; the other with a spiral embryo and no albumen (Spirolobese).
A, CychlohecB.
Tribe 1. Anserinem. Stem unjointed, with membranous flat leaves.
Flowers hermaphrodite, all of the same form. Pericarp free. Seed with
two integuments, the outer usually crustaceous. Examples : Chenopodium,
Beta, Ambrina, Blitum, &c.
Tribe 2. Spinaciea. Stem like the last. Flowers polygamous or
diclinous ; males difierent from the females, or the calyx often reduced to
two valves with the fruit compressed, most oflten free. Seed with a single
or double integument. Examples : Atriplex, Spinacia, Obione, Acnida, &c.
Tribe 8. CamphorosmecB, Stem and leaves generally like the last, the
leaves rarely fleshy and semicylindrical. Flowers hermaphrodite or
polygamous. Pericarp free. Tegument of the seed simple. Examples :
Kochia, Camphorosma, &c.
Tribe 4. Corisperme€B. Stem unjointed, with coriaceous, flat, linear
leaves. Flowers hermaphrodite, all of the same form. Pericarp adherent.
Seed embraced by a simple integument which is compounded with the
pericarp. Examples: Anthochlamys, Corispermum.
Tribe 5. 8alicomie<B, Stem jointed, often leafless. Flowers hermajrfiro-
dite, all of the same form, lodged in cavities of the rachis or in the
articulations. Pericarp free or adherent. Seed with one or two
integuments. Example: Salicomia.
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110 BOTAHT.
B. SpirolobecR.
Tribe 6. SvxBdinecB. Stem unjointed, with leaves usually fleshy and
vermicular. Flowers hermaphrodite, all similar. Pericarp free, rarely
adherent. Seed with two integuments, the outer crustaceous. Embryo
coiled in a flat spiral. Examples : Suaeda, Schangina, dec.
Tribe 7. ScUsolecB. Stem jointed or not, with leaves usually cylindrical
and fleshy. Flowers hermaphrodite, similar. Pericarp thin, scarcely free.
Tegument of the seed simple and membranous. Embryo in a helicoid or
conical spirml. Examples : Salsola, Kali, Brachylepis.
Some prominent American genera are Salsola, Suseda, Salicomia»
Chenopodium, &c. The ashes of many species furnish carbonate of soda,
especially Salsola, Salicornia, and Kochia. The mustard seed of Scripture
is Salvadora persica. The common beet. Beta vulgaris, indigenous along
the coast of the Mediterranean, belongs to this family ; as also Spinacia
deracea or Spinach, and the Peruvian quinoa, Chenopodium quinoa.
The American Chenopodiums are known as Lamb's quarter and
Goose-foot.
Beta vulgaris, common Beet {pL 60, 61, fig, 5) ; d, root With a radical
leaf ; 6, a group of flowers ; c, a fruit.
Order 77. AMARANTHACEiB, the Amaranth Family. Perianth three- to
five-partite, hypogynous, scarious, persistent, usually with two bractlets at
the base. Stame.ns hypogynous, either five and opposite the segments of
the perianth, or double that number, distinct, or united, sometimes partly
abortive ; anthers either dithecal or monothecal. Ovary superior, single,
one-celled ; ovules solitary or several, amphitropal, hanging from a free
central funiculus ; style one or ; stigma simple or compound. Fruit a
utricle or a caryopsis, rarely baccate. Seeds lentiform, pendulous ; testa
crustaceous ; embryo peripherical ; albumen farinaceous ; radicle next the
hilum. Herbs and shrubs, with simple, opposite, or alternate exstipulate
leaves; flowers in heads or spikes, usually hermaphrodite. They are
natives of tropical and temperate regions. There are thirty-eight known
genera, and 282 species. Examples : Amaranthus, Achyranthes, Celosia,
Deeringia, Gomphrena.
The plants of this family are of little economical importance ; the leaves
of some species furnish a great amount of mucilage. Three fourths of all
the species are tropical, most of them American. Iresine and Amaranthus
are North American representatives. A. hypochondriacus is a common
garden flower, known as Prince's feather. Celosia cristata or Cock's comb, a
native of China, is frequently cultivated for purposes of ornament.
Celosia cristata. Cock's comb {pL 60, 61, fig, 6) ; c, a flower magnified.
Order 78. NvcTAGiNACEiE, the Marvel of Peru Family. Perianth
tubular, colored, contracted in the middle, becoming indurated at the base ;
limb entire, or toothed and deciduous; aestivation plicate. Stamens
definite, hypogynous ; anthers dithecal. Ovary superior, one-celled ; ovule
solitary, erect ; style one ; stigma one. Fruit a caryopsis^ inclosed witbio
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the enlai^ed persistent tube of the perianth. Embryo peripherica! ; albumen
farinaceous; cotyledons foliaceous; radicle inferior. Herbs, shrubs» or
trees, with opposite, often unequal, sometimes alternate leaves, imd
involucrate flowers. They are natives principally of warm regions,
lindley notices fourteen genera, including one hundred species. Examples :
Mirabilis (Nyctago), Boerhaavia, Pisonia.
The plants of this order have purgative qualities. Mirabilis jalapa was
at one time considered to be the true Jalap plant. Some species of this
genus are known as Four-o'clocks, from their blossoming at nearly that
hour of the afternoon.
Mirabilis longifolia (Mexico) (pL 60, 61, jl^. 8) ; a, upper part of the plant ;
fc, stamens and pistil at the bottom of the perianth ; e, ovary ; d, filament ; c,
upper part of the style with the stigma ; /, nut ; g, vertical section ; h,
embryo.
8ub- Class 2. CoroUiflorcs.
Calyx and corolla present ; petals united, bearing the stamens. This
sub-class includes the Monopetalae of Jussieu, and the Gamopetal» of
Endlicher.
Order 79. Plantaginacejs, the Plantain Family. Calyx four-parted,
persistent; aestivation imbricate. Corolla monopetalous, hypogynous,
scarious, persistent, with a four-parted limb. Stamens four, inserted into
the corolla, and alternate with its segments ; filaments long, filiform, folded
inwards in the bud; anthers dithecal, versatile. Disk inconspicuous.
Ovary free, two- to four-celled ; ovules solitary, or in pairs, or 00 ; style
simple, capillary ; stigma hispid, simple, rarely bifid. Fruit an operculate
capsule, inclosed within the persistent corolla. Seeds sessile, peltate, or
erect ; spermoderm mucilaginous ; embryo in the axis of fleshy albumen,
transverse ; radicle inferior. Herbs, which are often stemless, with radical
ribbed leaves, and spiked hermaphrodite flowers, or solitary unisexual ones.
The species are chiefly found in temperate and cool regions. There are
three genera noticed by Lindley, including 130 species. Examples :
Plantago, Littorella.
The genus Plantago or plantain is represented by several species in the
United States, one of which (P. major), like the hive bee, appears to
accompany man in all his migrations.
Plantago major, common plantain, cosmopolite {pL 60, 61, fig, 7) : a, the
entire plant ; 6, a flower ; c, the corolla tube opened ; rf, the pistil ; e, the
pericarp ; /, the same opened ; g, a seed ; A, transverse section of ditto.
Order 80. Plumbaginace^, the Leadwort Family. Calyx tubular,
persistent, sometimes colored ; aestivation plaited. Corolla monopetalous,
or pentapetalous, regular. Stamens five, hypogynous when the corolla is
gamopetalous, attached to the base of the petals when they are separate.
Ovary free, one-celled ; ovule solitary, pendulous from a funiculus which
arises from the bottom of the cell ; styles five, seldom three or four, each
beaiing a subulate stigma. Fruit a utricle. Seed pendulous ; spermoderm
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112 BOTANY.
8iRi{rfe ; embryo straight, in the axis of mealy albumen ; radicle superior.
Herbs or undershrubs, with alternate or fasciculate exstipulate leaves»
somewhat sheathing at the base; flowers panicled or capitate. They
inhabit the sea-shore and salt marshes, chiefly in temperate regions. There
are two sections of this order: 1. PlumbaginesB, with a synpetalous
corolla and connate styles. 2. Staticeee, with a pentapetalous corolla and
distinct styles. Lindley mentions eight genera and one hundred and sixty
species. Examples : Plumbago, Statice, Armeria.
Plumbago europea, Toothwort, Southern Europe (pL 60, 61, ßg. 9) : a,
upper part of the plant ; b, portion of a leaf magnified ; c, calyx magnified ;
df section of flower tube ; e, stamens and pistil ; /, anther magnified ; g.
section of the ovary showing the ovule with its long funiculus.
Order 81. PRiMULACEiE, the Primrose Family. Calyx rarely four-cleft,
inferior, or half superior, regular persistent. Corolla monopetalous, hypo«
gynous, rarely perigynous, with the limb five- rarely four-cleft, sometimes
0. Stamens inserted on the corolla, equal in number and opposite to its
segments. Ovary free, rarely adherent to the base of the calyx, one-celled ;
ovules 00, amphitropal ; style one ; stigma capitate. Fruit a capsule,
opening with valves, or with a lid. Seeds numerous, peltate, attached to a
free central placenta ; embryo straight, inclosed within fleshy albumen, and
lying across the hilum. Herbaceous plants, with leaves usually opposite,
and frequently radical, exstipulate ; flowers on simple or umbellate scapes.
They are natives chiefly of temperate and cold regions in the northern
hemisphere ; some occur in elevated situations in warm countries.
Sub'Order 1. Primulea, Pod entirely free from the calyx, opening by
valves. Examples : Primula, Dodecatheon, Trientalis, Lysimachia, Cycla-
men, &c.
Sub-order 2. AnagalHde<B, Pod free from the cal)rx, opening all round
by a transverse line, the top falling oflfby a lid. Examples : Anagallis.
Sub-order 8. Samolece, Pod half adherent to the calyx. Example:
Samolus.
Sub-order 4. Hoitonie<B. Pod opening by valves. Seeds fixed by the
base, anatropous. Example : Hottonia.
All the genera above enumerated are found in the United States, except
Cyclamen. This is known in Europe as sow-bread, on account or the
partiality shown to the tuberoid, partly subterraneous stems, by hogs. The
cowslip and the primrose are respectively Primula veris and vulgaris ; the
oxlip, P. elatior.
Anagallis arvensis, Pimpernel, indigenous in Europe, introduced into
America {pi 60, 61, fig, 10): ö, the plant; i, the calyx magnified; c,
portion of the corolla magnified ; d, stamen ; e, pistil ; /, pod, showing the
manner of opening ; gj a seed magnified ; A, transverse section of ditto.
Lysimachia vulgaris, Loose-strife, Europe (pL 60, 61, fig, 13) : a, branch
with flowers ; 6, extremity of calyx-lobe magnified ; c, stamens ; d, capsule
in the calyx ; e, a seed ; / and g, transverse and longitudinal section of
Jitto.
Cyclamen europaeum, Sow-bread {pi. 60, 61,^. 12): a, the plant; h,
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BOTANY. 113
calyx and pistil ; c, a portion of the corolla, with two stamens ; d, a stamen
magnified ; e, cross-section of the anther ; /, vertical section of the ovary ;
g, pericarp ; h, a seed magnified.
Dodecatheon integrifolium, American cowslip, United States (/>/. 60, 61,
fig, 11) : a, lower part of the plant; b, scape; c, stamens separated; d,
pistil ; e, fruit.
Order 82. LENTiBULARiACEiE, the Bladder- wort Family. Caljrx inferior,
divided, persistent. Corolla monopetalous, Jiypogynous, irregular, bilabiate,
usually spurred. Stamens two, inserted into the base of the corolla, and
included ; anthers monothecal, sometimes contracted m the middle. Ovary
free, composed of two carpellary leaves, unilocular ; ovules 00, anatropal ;
placenta free, central; style one, very short; stigma bilamellar. Fruit a
one>celled capsule, dehiscing transversely, or by an apicilar cleft. Seeds
numerous, minute, exalbuminous ; embryo sometimes undivided ; radicle
next the hilum. Aquatic or marsh herbaceous plants, with radical leaves,
which are sometimes compound, and bear little bladders or ampullsB.
Flowers often on scapes. They are found in all parts of the world, and
abound in the tropics. Lindley enumerates four genera, including one
hundred and seventy-three species. Examples : Utricularia, Pinguicula.
Order 83. AcANXHACEiB, the Acanthus Family. Caljrx with four or five
divisions, equal or unequal, occasionally multifid, or entire and obsolete,
persistent. Corolla monopetalous, hypogynous, usually irregular, with the
limb ringent or bilabiate, or rarely unilabiate, sometimes nearly equal,
deciduous. Stamens inserted opi the corolla, usually two, sometimes four,
didynamous, the shorter ones being occasionally sterile; anthers one- or
two-celled, with longitudinal dehiscence. Disk glandular. Ovary free,
two-celled ; placentas adhering to the axis ; ovules two or more in each
cell, curved ; style one ; stigma two-lobed, rarely entire. Fruit a two-
celled capsule, dehiscing by two elastic valves, in a loculicidal manner.
Seeds two or many in each cell, sometimes solitary, roundish, attached to
hard, persistent, hooked or subulate, ascending processes of the placenta ;
testa loose ; albumen : embryo curved or straight ; cotyledons large,
leafy ; radicle cylindrical, next the hilum. Herbaceous plants or shrubs,
with opposite, exstipulate, siniple leaves, and bracteated flowers, two or
three large leafy bracts accompanying each flower. They abound in
tropical regions. The order has been divided into three tribes by Nees
d'Esenbeck, as follows : —
2'ribe 1. ThuTibergiea : placental processes, in the form of a hard cup
supporting the seed. Example : Thunbergia.
Tribe 2. NekoniecB : placental processes contracted into a papilla,
bearing the small and pitted seed. Example : Nelsonia.
Tribe 3. Echmatacanthi. Placental processes hooked. Of this tribe
there are seven sections. 1. Hygrophiles. Example: Hygrophila. 2<
RuelliecB. Examples : Dipteracanthus, Ruellia. 3. BarleriecB, Example :
Barleria. 4. AcanthecB, Example: Blepharis. 5. JusticiecB. Example:
Justicia. 6. DichpterecB. Example: Blechum. 7. Andrographidem,
lOONOQRAPHIO ENOTCLOPuSDIA. — VOL, II. 8 113
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114 BOTANY.
Example: Erianthera. Prominent genera of the United States are
Dianthera and Dipteracantbus. There are about 105 genera, and 750
species in the entire family, according to Lindley.
Acanthus mollis, Bear's claw (Southern Europe) (pi 62, fig. 2) ; a, portion
of the flower, showing the stamens and the two lateral bracts ; b, anther ;
c, pistil ; d, seed vessel ; e, section of the seed.
Ruellia formosa (pi, 62, fig. 1) ; a, calyx ; &, pistil.
Order 84. VERBBNACBiS, the Yervain Family. Calyx tubular, persistent,
inferior. Corolla monopetalous, tubular, hypogynous, deciduous, limb
usually irregular; aestivation imbricated. Stamens usually four, didy-
namous, rarely equal, sometimes two. Ovary free, two- to four-celled;
ovules usually four, erect or pendulous, anatropal or amphitropal; style
one, terminal ; stigma bifid or entire. Fruit nucamentaceous or baccate,
composed of two or four achsenia united. Seeds one to four ; albumen
or fleshy ; embryo straight ; radicle either inferior or superior. Trees or
shrubs, rarely herbs, with opposite or alternate exstipulate leaves. The
order has been divided into three sub-orders: — 1. MyoporinecB, anthers
two-celled, seed pendulous, radicle superior ; natives of the southern parts
of America and Africa, and of Australia, 2. VerhenecB, anthers two-celled,
seed erect, radicle inferior; natives both of the tropical and temperate
regions of America, and found also in Asia and Europe. 3. Selaginea,
anthers one-celled, seed pendulous, radicle superior ; natives chiefly of the
Cape of Good Hope, but some are European. There are seventy-five
known genera, and upwards of 770 species. Examples : Myoporum,
Avicennia, Verbena, Vitex, Tectona, Selago, Globularia.
Some American representatives of this family are Verbena, Phryma, and
Lippia. The fragrant Verbena of horticulturists is the Aloysia citriodora.
Tectona grandis furnishes the teak wood of India.
Vitex agnus castus (Europe) {pi, 62, fig, 5, a-i).
Order 85. Labiatjb, the Mint Family. Caljrx tubular, inferior, regular
or bilabiate, persistent. Corolla monopetalous, hypogynous, bilabiate;
upper lip entire or bifid, lower three-lobed. Stamens four, didynamous,
sometimes two by abortion, inserted into the corolla, and alternate with
the lobes of the lower lip ; anthers two-cellecj, or one-celled by abortion, or
by absorption of the septum ; connective sometimes large and distractile.
Disk fleshy. Ovary free, deeply four-lobed ; ovules four ; style one, basilar ;
stigma bifid, usually acute. Fruit consisting of one to four achsenia,
inclosed within the persistent calyx. Seeds erect ; albumen either 0, or in
small quantity ; embryo erect ; cotyledons flat ; radicle inferior. Herbs
or undershrubs, with tetragonal stems, opposite exstipulate leaves, and
cymose inflorescence, the flower being often in verticillasters. Linnaeus
looked upon the fruit as naked seeds, and hence included many of the
plants in the order Gymnospermia of his Didynamous class. They are
natives chiefly of temperate regions. Lindley mentions 125 genera,
including 2,350 species.
Tribe \, OcimoidecB, Stamens declined. Ex. : Lavandula.
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Tribe 2. MenthoidecB, Stamens straight or diverging. Tube of the
corolla hardly exceeding the calyx, with four or five nearly equal divisions.
Ex. : Isanthus, Mentha, Lycopus.
Tribe 3. Monardece, Stamens ascending; the superior, abortive, or
synantherous ; the inferior with linear anthers united or halved. Ex. : Salvia,
Monarda, Blephilia.
Tribe 4. Satureinece, Stamens straight, diverging or slightly ascending ;
the inferior longest. Anthers not bifid. Tube of the corolla without the
ring, scarcely exceeding the calyx and the imbricated bracts; the limb
slightly bilabiate, with flat divisions. Ex. : Cunila, Thymus, Origanum, &c.
Tribe 5. MelissinecB, Stamens ascending ; the inferior longest. Corolla
bilabiate with flat divisions (upper lip rarely arched). Calyx generally
traversed by thirteen nervures, bilabiate. Ex. : Hedeoma, Melissa, &c.
Tribe 6. Scutellarinets, Stamens ascending ; the inferior longest. Corolla
bilabiate ; upper lip arched. Upper lip of the calyx entire or truncate. Ex. :
Prunella, Scutellaria.
Tribe 7. Prostaniherece, Stamens diverging or ascending, the lower
longest or abortive. Anthers often dimidiate. Corolla with the tube short,
campanulate above, the flat divisions disposed nearly in two lips. Achasnia
coriaceous, reticulated, with the style persistent. Plants entirely Austra-
lasian. Ex. : Chilodia, &c.
Tribe 8. Nepetece, Superior stamens projecting most. Ex. : Lophanthus,
Nepeta, Dracocephalum, Cedronella.
Tribe 9. Stachydece. Stamens ascending, the inferior longest. Corolla
bilabiate. Calyx not thirteen nerved. Achaenia dry, almost smooth. Ex. :
Synandra, Lamium, Galeopsis, Stachys, Betonica, Ballota, &c.
Tribe 10. PrasiecB, Stamens ascending, the inferior the longest. Corolla
bilabiate. Achsenia fleshy. Ex. : Prasium, &c.
Tribe 1 1. Ajugordece. Stamens ascending, projecting considerably beyond
the upper lip, which is very short, or bifid, or declined ; achaenia with
reticulated furrows. Ex. : Teucrium, Trichostema.
Most of the genera adduced above represent this order in the United
States. Plants of the order LabiatSB are generally fi*agrant and aromatic,
none of them poisonous or injurious. Various species of Mentha or Mint
yield volatile oils. Peppermint is M. piperita ; Spearmint, M. viridis ; and
Pennyroyal, M. pulegium. Lavender is obtained from various species of
Lavandula, one of which (S. latifolia) furnishes oil of spike. Sweet
marjoram is Origanum majorana ; hoarhound, Marrubium vulgare ; thyme,
a species of Thymus ; savory, of Satureia ; sage, of Salvia ; basil, of
Ocymum. The patchouli perfume is derived from Pogostemon patchouli.
Galeopsis tetrahit. Hemp-nettle (United States and Europe) {pL 62, fig.
7) : a, calyx; b and c, corolla; d, fruit calyx; c, a nut.
Betonica ofiicinalis (Europe) {pi 62, fig. 6). The various figures to all
of which 6 is attached need no special explanation.
Order 86. ScROPHULARiACEiE, the Figwort Family. Calyx divided into
four or five parts, unequal, persistent, inferior. Corolla monopetalous, more
or less irregular and büabiate, or personate, sometimes spurred or saccate
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at the base ; estivation imbricate. In the bad, trie flowers are regular.
Stamens usually 4, didynamous, rarely 5, sometimes 2 ; anthers bilocular or
unilocular by abortion or adhesion. Ovary free, two-celled ; ovules usually
0Ö ; style simple ; stigma two-lobed, rarely entire. Fruit capsular, rarely
fleshy, dicarpellary, two-celled, two- to four-valved, opening by septicidal
or loculicidal dehiscence, rarely by pores or lids, the dissepiments becoming
finally loose in the centre. Placentas attached to the dissepiment, and
sometimes in the mature fruit becoming central. Seeds definite or 00;
embryo straight or slightly curved, included within fleshy albumen. Herbs,
undershrubs, or shrubs, with opposite, whorled, or alternate leaves. They
are found generally distributed over the globe, both in cold and warm
regions. The order has been divided by Bentham into three sections :
Sub-order 1. SalpiglossidecB, Segments of the corolla equal with
induplicate or bilabiate aestivation, the bilobed lip external. Inflorescence
centrifugal. This suborder contains but a single tribe — 1. Salpiglossece.
Examples : Duboisia, Schizanthus. Principally South American.
Sub-order 2. Antin^hinidece. Corolla bilabiate, the bilobed lip external.
Inflorescence centripetal or compound. Tribe 2. Calceolariece, Example:
Calceolaria. Tribe 3. Verbascecß. Examples : Verbascum, Celsia. THbe
4. HemimeridecB. Examples : Alonsia, Colpias, i&c. Tribe 5. Antirrhiniece,
Examples: Linaria, Antirrhinum. Tribes. Chelonece, Examples: Chelone,
Collinsia, Pentstemon, Scrophularia. Tribe 7. Escobediece, Examples:
Alectra, Escobedia, &c. Tribe 8. Oratiolece, Examples : Diplacus,
Conobaea, Gratiola, Ilysanthus, Hemianthus, Herpestis.
Sub-order 3. Rhinanthidece, Corolla bilabiate, the bilobed lip never
exterior in CBstivation. Inflorescence centripetal or compound. Tribe 9.
SibthorpiecB. Examples : Sibthorpia, Limosella. Tribe 10. Buddkiea.
Example: Bryodes. Tribe II. Digitalecs. Examples: Digitalis, Synthyris.
Tribe 12. VeronicecB, Example : Veronica. Tribe 13. Buchnerea,
Example : Buchnera. Tribe 14. Oerardiece. Examples : Seymeria,
Gerardia. TVibe 15. Euphrasiece. Examples : Castilleja, Schwalbea,
Euphresia, Rhinanthus, Pedicularis, Melampyrum.
Most of the above-mentioned genera have North American representa-
tives. The entire order, according to Lindley, contains 176 -genera and
1814 species. Some plants of the order are poisonous. The most important
medicinal species is Digitalis purpurea, or Fox-glove. The common
Mullein (Verbascum thapsus) has been introduced into America fit)m
Europe, as also Linaria vulgaris, Toad-flax, an abundant yellow weed.
Calceolaria corymbosa, Slipperwort (Chili) (pi, 62, fig. 9) ; c, calyx ; d,
vertical section of flower.
Digitalis purpurea, purple Fox-glove (Europe) {pi. 62, fig. 8) ; A,
extremity of stalk; B, central portion of do. ; a, inside of the flower (in.
part) magnified, with the stamens ; b and c, anthers ; d, calyx with pistil ; e,
seed vessel ; /, do. burst open ; g, do. in cross-section ; A, placenta ; t, seed ;
Ar, a seed magnified ; / and m, sections of do.
Verbascum thapsus, Mullein (Europe) (pi. 62, fig. 10) ; 6, calyx; c, corolla
with the five stamens ; d, smooth stamen ; e, hairy stamen.
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Pedicularis palustris, Lousewort (Europe) (pL 60, 61, ßg. 15) ; a, upper
part of the plant ; b, root ; c, lower lip of the corolla ; d, section of the
corolla with the stamens ; e, pistil.
Veronica officinalis, Speedwell (central Europe) {pL 60, 6l,ßg. 14).
Oeobr 87. Orobanchea, the Broom-rape Family. Calyx divided,
persistent, inferior. Corolla monopetalous, hypogynous, irregular, usually
bilabiate, persistent ; aestivation imbricated. Stamens fom*, didynamous.
Disk fleshy. Ovary free, one-celled, composed of two carpels which stand
fore and aft, with two or more parietal placentas ; ovules 00 ; style one ;
stigma two-lobed, each of the lobes belong half to each carpel. Fruit
capsular, inclosed within the withered corolla, one-celled, two-valved. Seeds
00, minute ; embryo very minute, at one end of fleshy albumen. Herbaceous
parasitical plants, having scales in place of leaves. They are natives of
Europe, more especially the southern parts, and of Asia, North America,
and the Cape of Good Hope. Lindley gives twelve genera, and 116 species.
Examples : Orobanche, Lathrsea, Epiphegus, Conopholis, Aphyllon.
The plants of this order are generally destitute of green foliage, with
lurid yellowish or brownish scales instead. They are mostly parasitic on
the roots of various other species.
Lathrsea squamaria (Europe) {pi. 60, 61, fig. 16); upper and lower
part of the plant ; a and 6, calyx ; c, corolla ; d, anthers ; e, pistil ; /,
pericarp, &c.
Order 88. Solanace-ä, the Nightshade Family. Calyx inferior, five-,
rarely four-partite, persistent. Corolla monoj^alous, hypogynous, with the
limb five-, rarely four-cleft, regular, or soirowhat unequal, deciduous ;
aestivation plicate or imbricated. Stamens inserted on the corolla, equal in
number to the corolUne segments, and alternate with them ; anthers with
longitudinal or porous dehiscence. Ovary usually two-celled, sometimes
four-, five-, or many-celled ; ovules indefinite ; style continuous ; stigma
simple. Fruit with two, four, or more cells, rarely unilocular; either a
capsule dehiscing in a septicidal or circumscissile manner, and having a
double dissepiment parallel to the valves, or a berry with the placentas
adhering to the dissepiment, or a nuculanium with five or more nucules.
Seeds 00; embryo straight or curved, often excentric, lying in fleshy
albumen ; radicle next the hilum. Herbs or shrubs, with alternate leaves.
Natives of most parts of the world, but abundant in the tropics. The
order has been divided into two sections, which are not, however, well
defined.
Ä. Curvembryece.
(Embryo curved, with semi-cylindrical cotyledons.)
Tribe 1. NicotiatuB. Capsule bilocular, separating into two valves by
septicidal dehiscence. Examples : Nicotiana, Petunia.
Tribe 2. DaiurecB. Capsule or berry incompletely four-locular. Example .
Datura.
Tribe 3. Hyoscyamece. Capsule bilocular, opening by a circular slii.
Example : Hyoscyamus.
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Tribe 4. SolanetB. Beny two-celled or more, or fruit dry, indehiscent.
Examples : Nicandra, Physalis, Solanum, Lycopersicum, Atropa, Capsicum,
Mandragora, &c.
ß. Rectemhryea.
(Embryo straight, cotyledons foliaceous.)
Tribe 5. Cestrinea, Berry bilocular. Example : Cestrum.
Tribe 6. Ye8tie<B, Capsule bilocular. Examples : Yestia, Sessea.
Of the entire order, there are about sixty-six genera and 950 species.
Many of these occur in the Americas. The general qualities of Solanaoee
are narcotic, which, when developed to a great degree, impart highly
poisonous properties. Some of these are Solanum dulcamara (Bittersweet),
Atropa belladonna (Belladonna), Hyoscyamus niger (Henbane), Datura
stramonium (Jimson weed), Nicotiana tabacum (Tobacco.) The most
important plant of this order is the potatoe (Solanum tuberosum). This
invaluable tuber is indigenous to the South American Cordilleras, whence
it was brought to Europe, and ultimately distributed all over the world.
It is now cultivated in Europe as far north as Hammerfest in Lapland,
lat. 71°., and in the Faroes, as ako in the lower plateaus of India, in China,
Japan, Australasia, and New Holland. The precise period of its introduction
into Europe is unknown, towards the end of the sixteenth century in all
probability ; it was first carried from Virginia to Ireland in 1686. Other
species of Solanum (S. meloj^na, and ovigerum) furnish the Melongena
or egg plant. The Tomato iFthe fruit of Lycopersicum esculentum. As
already mentioned, species of Nicotiana furnish tobacco. The one generally
cultivated in the United States is N. tabacum ; the best Havannah cigars
are made from N. repanda. Syrian, Turkish, and Persian tobacco are
furnished by difierent species. The mandrake of English authors is the
forked root of Mandragora officinalis. The Cayenne peppers or Chillies are
derived from species of Capsicum.
Hyoscyamus niger. Henbane (Europe) {pL 63, fig. 1) ; a, the corolla
opened and reduced ; 6, pistil ; c, pericarp ; d, cross-seqtion of do. ; e, a
seed.
Nicotiana tabacum. Tobacco {pi 62, fig. 11) ; A, top of the plant ; B,
an inferior and C a superior leaf; a, an opened flower ; i, capsule ; d, do.
burst ; c, a cross-section of do.
Datura stramonium, Jimson weed (corruption of Jamestown weed)
(East Indies) (pi. 63, fig. 2) ; a, corolla opened ; 6, pistil ; c, cross-section
of the pod ; d, a seed magnified.
Atropa belladonna. Belladonna (Europe) {pi. 68, fi^. 3) ; a, expanded
corolla ; fr, anther ; c, pistil ; d, stigma magnified ; e, fruit ; /, cross-section
of do. ; gy seed ; A, vertical section of do.
Solanum dulcamara, Climbing nightshade (Europe) {pi. 6S,fig. 4).
Capsicum annuum, Cayenne pepper (South America) {pi. 63, fig. 5).
Ordbr 89. BoRAGiNACEiE, the Borage Family. Calyx persistent, four- to
fiv^-divided. Corolla gamopetalous, hypogynous, usually regular, five-,
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raredy four-cleft ; arativation imbricated. Stamens inserted on the corolla,
equal in number to its s^^ents, and alternate with them. Ovary usually
foor-lobed, quadrilocular ; ovules four, each attached to the lowest point of
the cavity, amphitropal ; style simple, basilar (terminal in Ehretieae and
Holiotropiese) ; stigma simple or bifid. Fruit consisting of two to four
distinct achsenia (succulent and consolidated in Ehretieae). Seed exalbu-
minous, or with thin albumen ; radicle superior ; cotyledons plano-convex.
Herbs, shrubs, or trees, with terete stems, alternate rough, exstipulate
leaves, and flowers generally in scorpioidal (gyrate) cymes. On account of
the asperities in the leaves, the plants have sometimes been called
Asperifoliee.
Sub-order 1. Ehretie<B. Style terminal. Almost entirely tropical. Tribe
1. Tour7iefortie€B. Seeds with a perisperm. Examples: Ehretia, Toume-
fortia, &c. Tribe 2. Heliotropece. Seeds without perisperm. Examples :
Heliotropium, Schleidenia.
Sub-order 2. Boragvnea, Style gynobasic. No perisperm. Inhabitants
of temperate regions. Tribe 3. AnchusetB. Carpels adnate to the receptacle.
Examples : Onosmodium, Echium, Lycopsis, Symphytum, Mertensia,
Lithospermum, Myosotis, &c. Tribe 4. Cynoglossea. Carpels adnate to
the base of the style. Examples : Cynoglossum, Echinospermum.
The genera adduced of the two last tribes all have North American
species. There are in the entire order about 67 genera and 200 species.
Some species of Heliotropium are eminent for their fragrance. Alkanet
root, which yields reddish-brown dye, is the product of Anchusa tinctoria.
Myosotis palustris is the Forget-me-not Mertensia (Pulmonaria) virginica,
or Lungwort, is one of our earliest spring flowers.
Borago oflScinalis, Borage, Europe and Asia {pL 63, fig. 6) ; a, calyx
with pistil; 6, division of corolla with stamen; c, one of the scaly
appendages of the corolla ; d, a stamen ; e, ditto from before ; /, the nutlets ;
gy one of these magnified.
Obder 90. CoRDiACEiE, the Cordia Family. Caljrx four- or five-toothed,
inferior. Corolla monopetalous, four- or five-cleft, regular. Stamens
inserted on the corolla, alternate with its segments ; anthers versatile.
Ovary free, four- to eight-celled; ovules solitary, pendulous, anatropal;
style continuous; stigma four- to eight-cleft. Fruit drupaceous, four- to
eight-celled. Seed exalbuminous, pendulous from the apex of the cell by a
long funiculus, upon which it is turned back ; radicle superior ; cotyledons
plaited longitudinally. Trees with alternate, rough, exstipulate leaves, and
panicled flowers. They are chiefly natives of warm countries. Some
yield edible fruits ; their bark is occasionally bitter, tonic, and astriDgent,
and their wood is used for various economical purposes. The succulent
mucilaginous fruits of Cordia myxa, and sebestena, receive the name of
Sebesten Plums. There are 1 1 genera enumerated by Lindley, including
180 species. Examples : Cordia, Varronia.
Order 91. CoNVOLVULACEiB, the Convolvulus Family. Calyx five-
divided, persistent, imbricated, often bracteated. Corolla monopetalous,
hypogynous, deciduous, regular ; limb five-lobed, with a plaited or imbricated
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sestivation; tube sometimes with scales, ahernate with the lobes of tfie
limb. Stamens five, inserted in the base of the corolla, and alternate with
its lobes. Disk annular, hypc^nous. Ovary free, two- to four-celled,
raroiy by abortion one-celled; ovules definite, erect, when more than one,
collateral ; style one, usually bifid, rarely two ; stigmas obtuse or acute.
Fruit succulent or capsular, one- to four-celled, with septifragal and
septicidal, or circumscissile dehiscence. Seeds albuminous ; embryo curved
or spiral ; cotyledons corrugated or inconspicuous ; radicle inferior. Herbs
or shrubs, usually twining, sometimes parasitical, often with a milky juice,
and with alternate, undivided, or lobed, exstipulate leaves, rarely leafless.
They occur chiefly in tropical and temperate regions. The order has been
divided into two sub-orders :
Sub-order 1. Convo/vufe^B, true Bindweeds, leafy plants, with the corolline
tube not scaly, embryo curved, cotyledons conspicuous.
Sub-order 2. Cuscutece, Dodders, leafless parasites, having scales on the
corolline tube, embryo spiral and filiform, cotyledons inconspicuous. There
are forty-five genera and upwards of 700 species. Examples : Calystegia,
Convolvulus, Ipomoea, Exogonium, Dichondra, Cuscuta.
This order contains plants of considerable economical importance. Jalap
is obtained from Exogonium purga (Convolvulus jalapa) a native of Mexico ;
Convolvulus scammonia yields scammony. The root of Batatas edulis
(Convolvulus batatas) is known as the sweet potatoe.
Exogonium purga, Jalap plant, Mexico (pi. 63, ßg. 7) ; a, pistil ; ft,
capsule ; c, a seed.
Order 92. Hydrophyllace>e, the Water-leaf Family. Herbs, commonly
hairy, with mostly alternate and cut-lobed leaves, regular five-merous and
five-androus flowers, as in the Borage Family, but the ovary ovoid and
entire, one-celled, with two parietal few- or many-ovuled placentas, which
usually project into the cell, and often line it like an interior pod. Style
two-cleft above. Pod globular, two-valved, few-seeded. Seeds reticulated
or pitted, amphitropous, with a minute embryo in cartilaginous albumen.
Flowers chiefly blue or white, in one-sided cymes or racemes, which are
coiled from the apex when young; pedicels bractless. Examples:
Hydrophyllum, Phacelia, Eutoca. All North American.
Order 93. Diapbnsiace>e, Mountain-box Family. Dwarf and tufted,
somewhat shrubby plants (only two in number), with small and evergreen
heath-like foliage, the fruit agreeing with Polemoniaceae, as do the flowers,
except in the following points, viz. Calyx of five separate and strongly
imbricated persistent sepals, like the bracts. Stamens five, inserted in the
very sinuses of the bell-shaped corolla ; filaments short and flat ; anthers
opening transversely across the cells on the inside. Style single, stigma
minutely three-lobed. Examples : Diapensia and Pyxidanthera, both low,
evergreen shrubs. Diapensia lapponica is found in the Alpine summits of
Mounts Washington, andMarcy or Tahawus.
Order 94. Polemoniace js, the Phlox Family. Calyx inferior, five-divided,
persistent, sometimes irregular. Corolla regular, rarely irregular, five-lobed.
Stamens five, inserted on the middle of the tube of the corolla, and alternate
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with its segments ; pollen often blue. Disk lobed : ovary free, three-celled ;
OToles anatropal or amphitropal ; style simple ; stigma trifid. Fruit, a
three-celled, three-valved capsule, with septifragal dehiscence. Seeds
angular, or oval, or winged, often enveloped in mucus, containing spiral
threads, ascending in a single or a double row ; embryo straight, in the axis
of a fleshy or horny albumen ; cotyledons foliaceous, elliptical, or cordate;
radicle inferior, next the hilum. Herbaceous or cUmbing plants, with
opposite or alternate, simple or compound leaves. They inhabit temperate
countries chiefly, and they abound in the north-western part of America.
There are 17 genera enumerated by Lindley, including 104 species.
Examples : Polemonium, Phlox, Cobsea.
Polemonium cceruleum, Jacob's Ladder, Europe {pi. 63, ßg. 8) ; a, the
corolla expanded ; 6, calyx ; c, pistil ; d, capsule ; e, cross-section of ditto ;
/, a seed.
Oeder 95. BiGNONiACEiE, the Bignonia Family. Calyx divided or entire,
sometimes spathaceous. Corolla monopetalous, hypogynous, usually
irregular, four- or five-lobed. Stamens five and unequal, or four and
didynamous, some of them occasionally sterile ; anthers bilocular. Disk
annular or glandular. Ovary superior, one- or two-celled, each cell being
often spuriously divided ; ovules indefinite ; style one ; stigma bilamellar, or
two- to four-cleft, or entire. Fruit, a two-celled (sometimes spuriously four-
celled) and two-valved capsule, occasionally succulent. Placentas, parietal,
sometimes extending to the centre, and forming a spurious dissepiment,
which finally separates, bearing the seeds. Seeds winged or wingless, often
fiat and compressed, exalbuminous ; embryo straight; radicle next the
hilum. Trees, shrubs, or herbs, with opposite, rarely alternate, exstipulate
leaves. They abound generally in tropical regions, but some of them are
widely distributed. The order has been divided into four sub-orders :
Sub-order 1. BignoniecB, capsule two-valved, two-celled, sometimes
spuriously four-celled, with a dissepiment parallel or contrary to the valves,
at length free, bearing the seeds, which are transverse, compressed, and
winged.
Sub-order 2. Cyrtandrece (Didymocarpese), fruit succulent or capsular,
or siliquose and two-valved ; seeds small, ovate, or cylindrical, suspended,
apterous, sometimes comose.
Sub-order 3. Crescentiece, firuit woody and melon-shaped, inclosing
large seeds which are immersed in the pulp of the placentas.
Sub-order 4. Pedaliece, fruit drupaceous, rarely capsular and two-
valved, spuriously many-celled; seeds few, large, and apterous, pendu-
lous, erect, or transverse. These are reckoned separate orders by
many. There are upwards of one hundred known genera and
about 650 species. Examples : Bignonia, Tecoma, Catalpa, Spathodea,
Eccremocarpus, Cyrtandra, Didymocarpus, Crescentia, Pedalium, Sesamum,
Martynia.
The Bignonia Family embraces many species of great beauty. The
most conspicuous North American forms are Tecoma (T. radicans, or
Trumpet Creeper) and Catalpa (C. bignonioides, Catalpa, or Catawba tree),
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both well-known plants, the former a climber, conspicuous for its showy
crimson flowers, the latter a tree with large heart-shaped leaves.
Jacaranda tomentosa, Mexico (pL 63, ßg, 9).
Bignonia leucoxylon, Antilles (pL 63, ßg. 10) ; a, the calyx ; b, portion
of the corolla tube laid open ; c, pistil ; d, side of the stigma.
Order 96. Gentianacba, the Gentian Family. Calyx gamosepalotu^
usually five-divided, sometimes four-, six-, eight-, or ten-divided, persistent.
Corolla gamopetalous, hypogynous, usually regular and marcescent; limb
sometimes fringed, divided into as many lobes as the calyx; aestivation
plaited or imbricate-twisted. Stamens inserted upon the corolla, alternate
with its segments, and equal to them in number, some of them occasionally
abortive. Ovary composed of two carpels, unilocular, or partially bilocular;
ovules 00, anatropal ; style one, continuous ; stigmas, one or two. Fruit,
capsular or baccate, one-celled, usually bivalvular, with septicidal, or rarely
loculicidal dehiscence. Seeds 00, small ; embryo straight, minute, in the
axis of soft, fleshy albumen ; radicle next the hilum. Herbs, seldom shrubs,
with opposite, rarely alternate, entire or divided, exstipulate leaves, which
are often three- to five-ribbed. The plants of the order are distributed
generally over the globe, inhabiting both cold and warm regions. They
are rare in arctic and antarctic islands. They exhibit great varieties of
colors, and many are highly prized for their beauty.
Sub-order 1. Gentianece, Lobes of the corolla, twisted to the right in
the bud, with the folds at the sinuses, when present, plaited. Leaves almost
always opposite or whorled, entire, those of the stem sessile. Tribe L
Chironiece, Anthers without connective, with the cells opening by a slit,
abbreviated into a pore. Examples: Chironia, Lapithea, &c. Tribe 2.
Chhrece, A connective. Style distinct, caducous. Examples : Sabbatia,
Erythrsea, &c. Tribe 3. Lisianthece, A connective. Style persistent,
distinct from the double or simple stigmata. Tropical plants, almost
exclusively American. Examples : Pagcea, Prepusa, &c. Tribe 4.
Swertiece. A connective. Stigmata sessile or confluent with the persistent
style. Plants inhabiting northern latitudes or the summits of mountains.
Examples : Gentiana, Bartonia, Halenia, Frasera.
Sub-order 2. Menyanthidece. Lobes of the corolla valvate in the bud,
with the edges turned inwards. Stem-leaves alternate, petioled. Seed
coat hard or bony. Plants growing in wet places. Examples: Menyanthes,
Limnanthemum.
Sub-order 3. Obolariece, Lobes of the corolla imbricated in the bud.
Leaves opposite, sessile. Ovules covering the whole inner surface of the
ovary. Example: Obolaria.
Lindley assigns 60 genera and about 450 species to the order
(Jentianaceae. Most of the genera indicated above have North American
representatives.
(Jentiana pneumonanthe, common gentian, Europe {pL 63, fig, 11):
a, calyx; 6, corolla displayed; c, capsule; d, a seed magnified; e,
seed.
Oeder 97. LooANiACBÄ. Calyx, four- or five-leaved, with aestivation
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fmlnricate or combined with valvate. Corolla hypogynoos, with the limb
four- or five-fid, the division similarly valvate or imbricated. Stamens
inserted on the tube of the corolla, equal and alternate, ch* reduced to one.
Anthers introrse, bilocular, opening longitudinally. Ovary free, of two
cells, sometimes subdivided, each into two others, by the reflexion of their
walls, each inclosing one or more ovules fixed at the internal angle,
ascending, or more frequently peltate. Style simple, terminated by an
undivided, or more rarely, bilobed stigma. Fruit fleshy or capsular, with
septicidal dehiscence, rarely septifragal. Seeds often winged or peltate,
presenting in the axis of a fleshy or cartilaginous perisperm, an embryo
with plano-convex, or foliaceous cotyledons, the cylindrical radicle turned
towards the hilum, or parallel to it. Species almost entirely tropical.
Trees or shrubs, rarely herbs, distinguished from the Apocyaneae by their
watery juice, and the stipules which usually unite the petioles of the
opposite and simple leaves. Flowers solitary in the axils of these leaves, or
grouped in corymbs, in axillary or terminal panicles.
Sub-order 1. StrychnecB. iEstivation of corolla valvate; fruit, a two- or
three-celled berry or capsule, seeds peltate, embryo rather large. Examples :
Strychnos, Curare, ^c.
Sub-order 2. Loganiece. iEstivation of corolla convolute ; fruit a
bilocular capsule or nuculanium, seeds peltate, sometimes winged.
Examples: Logania, Gelsemium.
Sub-order 3. Spigeliece. iEstivation of corolla valvate ; fruit a didymous
capsule, seeds apterous, embryo small, cotyledons inconspicuous. Examples:
Spigelia, Coelostylis, Mitreola.
The plants of this order embrace the most virulent poisons known. One
of these, Strychnos nux-vomica, a tree found on the coasts of Malabar and
Coromandel, has for its seeds the deadly nux-vomica. The fruit is much
like an orange, the seeds being embedded in a mucilaginous pulp. Two
alkaloids are obtained from the nux-vomica, strychnine and brucine,
occurring in combination with igasuric or strychnic acid. Strychnine is
also found in other species of Strychnos. The poison, called tieuti, used
by the Malays to envenom their daggers and creases, is obtained from
Strychnos tieute. The wourali, or ourari, with which the South American
Indians poison their arrows, likewise owes its properties to strychnine.
False angustura bark is obtained from the nux-vomica tree. Less than a
grain of strychnine has been known to kill a dog. This poison is used to
advantage in North America, for killing wolves and other wild animals, by
spreading it on pieces of meat laid in accessible and frequented places.
Spigelia marilandica, or Pink-root, is employed as a vermifuge.
Spigelia marilandica. Pink-root United States (pL 63, ßg. 12).
Order 98. Apocyanacejb, the Dogbane Family. Calyx usually five-
partite, persistent. Corolla hypogynous, gamopetalous, regular, usually
five-lobed, deciduous ; sestivation contorted, twisting in some cases to the
right, in others to the left. Stamens five, inserted on the corolla, alternate
with its segments; filaments distinct; anthers two-celled, dehiscing
longitudinally ; poUen granular, globose, or three-lobed, immediately applied
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to the stigma. Ovaries two, and each unilocular, or one and bilocular;
ovules 00 ; styles two or one ; stigma one, with a contraction in the middle.
Fruit follicular or capsular, or drupaceous or baccate, double or single.
Seeds 00, rarely definite, usually pendulous ; albumen cartilaginous, or
fleshy, rarely ; embryo foliaceous ; radicle turned towards the hilum.
Trees or shrubs, usually lactescent, with entire, generally opposite,
exstipulate leaves, with interpetiolary cilia or glands. They are chiefly
found in tropical regions. Lindley enumerates 100 genera, including 566
species.
Sub-order 1. CarissecB, Ovary single, bilocular, or unilocular, with
placentas parietal and corresponding to the suture of the carpels. Fruit
baccate, very rarely capsular. Example : Carissa.
Sub-order 2. Ophiozykce, Ovary double, fruit drupaceous. Examples :
Ophioxylon, Cerbera.
Sub-order 3. Euapocyanece. Ovary double. Fruit follicular; follicles
often fleshy or pulpy. Tribe 1. Plumeriece. Seeds without hairs, often
peltate. Examples: Hunteria, Tabernaemontana, &c. Tribe2. AhtoniecB,
Follicles coriaceous ; seeds peltate, ciliate ; cilise elongated, forming a kind
of coma at the two ends of the seeds. Example : ^Istonia. Tribe 8.
EchitecB, Follicles coriaceous or membranous, distinct or rarely united so
as to constitute a single capsule. Seeds comatose towards the hilum or
point of attachment. Examples : Apocynum, Nerium.
Sub-order 4. Wrightiece. Seeds comatose at the apex. Example:
Wrightia,
The sole representative of this order in the northern part of North
America is the genus Apocynum or dogbane, supposed to be poisonous to
dogs. Many plants of the order are poisonous, although a few yield edible
fruits. The Tanghin poison of Madagascar is obtained from the seeds of
Tanginia venenata. Even the common Oleander (Nerium) is poisonous.
Species of Urceola and Vahea supply caoutchouc. The juice of Taber-
naemontana utilis, the Cow tree of Demerara, is used as milk.
Nerium oleander, Oleander (Europe and Asia) (pi, 63, ßg. 13) ; a,
anther ; b, pistil ; c, a seed.
Order 99. AscLEPiADACEiE, the Milkweed Family. Calyx five-divided,
persistent. Corolla synpetalous (monopetalous), hypogynous, regular, five-
lobed, deciduous; aestivation imbricate, rarely valvate. Stamens five,
inserted into the base of the corolla, and alternate with its segments;
filaments usually combined so as to form a tube ; staminal tube rarely naked
behind, generally furnished with a corona (crown) of variously-formed
leaves, which are either distinct or connate. Anthers bilocular, each cell
sometimes spuriously divided ; pollen, when the anther dehisces, cohering
in masses (pollinia), which are either as numerous as the cells, or are
confluent in pairs, and adhere to the five stigmatic processes, either in sets
of two or four, or singly. Ovaries two ; ovules 00 ; styles two, closely
approaching each other, often very short ; stigma common in both styles,
dilated, quinquangular ; the angles furnished with cartilaginous corpuscles
which retain the pollinia, or with glands. Fruit consisting of two fdlicles
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(iometimes only one by abortion), having a placenta on the ventral suture.
Seeds 00, imbricate, pendulous, usually comose (hairy) at the hilum;
albumen thin ; embryo straight ; cotyledons leafy ; radicle superior.
Shrubs, or occasionally herbs, usually with milky juice, and often twining.
The leaves are usually opposite, sometimes alternate or verticillate, with
interpetiolary cilia in place of stipules. The gynostegium, staminal crown
or peculiar hooded (cucuUate) appendages, prolonged from the tube of the
filaments, which occur in many of the plants of this order, give a peculiar
ibpect to their flowers. They inhabit chiefly warm and tropical regions,
but many species extend to northern climates. Many succulent species are
found in the south of Africa. Lindley enumerates 141 genera, including
910 species.
Tribe 1. Ceropegiece, Pollinia upright. Examples : Ceropegia, Hoya,
Stapelia. Tribe 2. Gonolobe<B, Pollinia horizontal. Example : Gonolobus.
Tribe 3. Oxypetakce, Pollinia pendent, supported by winged processes, with
a lateral spur. Example : Calostigma. Tribe 4. Äsclepiece, Pollinia
pendent. Examples : Asclepias, Acerates, Euslenia. Tribe 5. Periplocece.
Pollinia granular. Granules four-lobed. Example: Periploca. Tribe 6.
SecamonecB, Anther|^four-locular, pollinia twenty applied by fours to the
summit of the corpuscles. Example : Secamone.
The milky juice with which plants of this order abound, is usually bitter
and acrid, sometimes mild, as in the Cow plant of Ceylon, Gymnema
lactiferum. The wax plant of greenhouses (Hoya carnosa) derives its
name from the peculiar appearance of the flowers. The stapelias are
remarkable for the odor of the blossoms, which resembles that of rotten flesh.
Flesh flies, it is said, are deceived to such an extent by the smell, as to
deposit their eggs on the plant. The most conspicuous species of the
United States is Asclepias comuti (A. syriaca) known as silk or milk weed,
a plant of some economical value. In certain districts of Europe, as in
Silesia, it is cultivated on a large scale. The stem is rotted like hemp, and
yields a strong fibre ; the long silky hairs attached to the seeds are spun into
various fabrics with silk or cotton, or else used in pillows as a substitute for
down. Sugar has been extracted from the flowers, and the juice contains
an abundance of caoutchouc. The hairs of the seeds, when properly pre-
pared, afibrd an excellent gun-cotton, much superior to that from true cotton.
Cynanchum vincetoxicum (Europe) {pi. 64, fig. 1) ; ö, flower branch ;
6, natural size of the flower ; c, process of the stigma ; rf, section of the
ovary ; «, pollen mass ; /, pistil ; g, seed vessels ; A, seed ; t, vertical section
of do.
Asclepias comuti (A. syriaca). Milkweed (United States) (pi 64, fig. 2) ;
a, group of flowers ; b, corona ; c, the calyx ; d, stamina ; c, segments of
corona exhibiting some of the pollinia; /, two attached pollen masses
magnified ; g, section of the seed vessel ; h, a seed ; f, vertical section
of do.
Order 100. Oleacbä, the Olive Family. Flowers », sometimes 4».
Calyx gamosepalous, divided, persistent. Corolla gamopetalous, hypogynous,
four-deft, sometimes of four petals which are connected in pairs by means
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of the filaments, sometimes ; eestivation somewhat valvate. Stamens two
(rarely four), alternate with the coroUine segments ; anthers dithecal, with
longitudinal dehiscence. Disk 0. Ovary free, two-celled ; ovules in pairs,
collateral or pendulous; style one, or 0; stigma entire or bifid. Fruit
drupaceous, baccate or capsular, sometimes samaroid. Seeds often by
abortion solitary ; albumen dense, fleshy, abundant ; emlnyo straight, about
half the length of the albumen ; cotyledons leafy ; radicle superior. Trete
or shrubs, with opposite leaves, which are either simple or compound.
Found chiefly in temperate regions. They occur in North America, Asia,
Europe, and New Holland. There are two sections of the order: 1. Oto»,
with a drupaceous or berried fruit. 2. Fraxinece, with a samaroid (winged)
fruit. Lindley mentions twenty-four genera, including 180 species.
Examples : Olea, Ligustrum, Chionanthus, Fraxinus, Syringa.
The most important plant of this order is the olive, Olea europaea, whose
fruit yields olive oil by expression. The best oil comes from Provence and
Florence. Castile soap is made from olive oil and soda. Potash and oil
make a soft soap. A species (Olea americana) indigenous in the southern
United States, is called devilwood. The so-called flowers of tea are, in
part, the blossoms of Olet fragrans, a Chinese species.^ The Lilac, Syringa
vulgaris, and the Privet, Ligustrum vulgare, belong to this order, and are
both naturalized in some parts of the United States. Chionanthus or the
Fringe tree is a very ornamental American species. The timber of
Fraxinus or the ash, is highly valuable.
Olea europsea, ihe Olive (Europe) (pi. 62, ßg, 3) ; a, a flower branch
reduced ; b, a flower ; c, pistil ; rf, vertical section of do. ; c, do. of fruit ;
/ and g, sections of the nut ; A, embryo.
Order 101. Jasminace^, the Jessamine Family. Flowers 9, calyx five-
to eight-divided or toothed, persistent. Cordla monopetalous, hyp<^ynou8,
regular, salver-shaped, five- to eight-divided ; aestivation twisted or valvate.
Stamens two, inserted on the corolla, included; anthers bilocular, with
longitudinal dehiscence. Disk 0. Ovary free, two-celled ; ovules erect,
anatropal, one to four in each cell ; style one ; stigma two-lobed. Fruit a
double berry, or a pyxidium, or a two-valved capsule. Seeds usually
solitary, rarely in pairs, albuminous or exalbuminous ; embryo straight;
radicle inferior. Shrubs, often with twining stems, and opposite or alternate,
pinnate leaves. They abound chiefly in the tropical parts of India. They
have frequently fragrant flowers which yield oils, and their leaves and roots
are sometimes bitter. There are five genera and one hundred speqies.
Examples : Jasminum, Nyctanthes, Bolivaria. Species of Jessamine
(Jasminum) have become naturalized in the Southern States.
Jasminum officinale (Southern Asia) (pL 62, fig. 4) ; a, calyx ; 6, corolla
displayed.
Order 102. Mtrsinace^, the Myrsine Family. Flowers hermaphrodite
or occasionally unisexual. Calyx four- to five-cleft, persistent. Corolla
monopetalous, hypogynous, four- to five-cleft, equal. Stamens four to five,
inserted into the corolla, and opposite to its segments ; filaments distinct,
rarely united, sometimes 0, occasionally five sterile petaloid altematüag
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BOTANY. 127
ones ; anthers sagittate, erect, bilocular, with longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary
free or slightly adherent, unilocular ; ovules definite or indefinite, campylo-
tropal, immersed in a free central placenta ; style single ; stigma simple or
lobed. Fruit fleshy, one- or many-seeded. Seeds angular or roundish, with
a concave hilum, and a membranous spermoderm ; albumen homy ; embryo
usually curved, often heterotropal ; cotyledons short ; radicle horizontal
when the seed is solitary, inferior when there are several seeds. Trees,
shrubs, or undershnibs, with alternate or opposite, coriaceous, exstipulate
leaves. They are much restricted as regards their geographical limits, and
they are said to abound chiefly in islands with an equable temperature.
They are found in Africa, Asia, and America. Little is known regarding
their properties. Theophrasta jussiaei is a prickly-leaved shrub, which is
called Coco in St. Domingo. Its seeds are eatable, and a kind of bread is
made from them. The Ardisias are prized for the beauty of their foliage.
There are thirty-one known genera, and 325 species. Examples : Myrsine,
Ardisia, Msesa, Jacquinia.
Order 103. SAPOTACEiS, the Sapodilla Family. Flowers hermaphrodite.
Calyx regular, with five, sometimes four to eight divisions, persistent;
«estivation valvate or imbricate. Corolla moiaopetalous, hypogynous,
deciduous, regular, its lobes equal to, rarely twice or thrice as many as,
those of the calyx. Stamens inserted on the corolla, definite, distinct ;
fertile ones as many as, rarely more than, the segments of the calyx, with
which they alternate ; sterile ones alternating with the fertile ones, rarely
wanting. Disk 0. Ovary firee, plurilocular ; ovules solitary, anatropal,
ascending or pendulous ; style one ; stigma simple, sometimes lobed. Fruit
fleshy, plurilocular, or by abortion unilocular. Seeds nut-like, solitary;
testa bony and shining, with a long scar on its inner face ; embryo large,
erect, white ; albumen usually fleshy ; sometimes ; cotyledons in the
albuminous seeds, foliaceous, in the exalbuminous, fleshy ; radicle straight or
slightly curved, pointing to the hilum. Lactescent trees or shrubs, with
alternate, exstipulate, entire, coriaceous leaves. They are natives chiefly
of the tropical parts of India, Africa, and America. The number of known
genera noticed by Lindley is twenty-one, species 212. Examples : Isonandra,
Achras, &c.
Some species of this family furnish fruit of great excellence, as the
Sappodilla plum, and naseberry in the West Indies from species of Achras.
Shea butter is probably derived from Bassia parkii. The most important
product is Gutta Percha, the concrete juice of Isonandra gutta and perhaps
of other species, found in Singapore, Borneo, and Malacca. This substance
is rapidly coming into use for a vast variety of purposes, being very tough,
softening readily by the heat of boiling water, and sufficiently elastic at
ordinary temperatures without being extensible like caoutchouc.
Mimusops dissecta (Manilla) {pL 64, fig. 3) ; a, flower branch with the
leaves removed ; 6, flower opened ; c, anther ; rf, a fruit branch ; e, a seed.
Order 104. AaniFOLiACEiE or iLiciNEiE, the Holly Family. Sepals four
to six ; aestivation imbricated. Corolla monopetalous, hypogynous, four to
six-parted; aestivation imbricate. Stamens inserted into the corolla,
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128 BOTANY.
alternate with its segments, and equal to them in number ; filaments straiglit ;
anthers adnate, bilocular, introrse. Disk 0. Ovary free, fleshy, somewhat
truncate, two- to six-celled ; ovules solitary, anatropal, pendulous from a
cup-shaped funiculus ; stigma nearly sessile, lobed. Fruit fleshy, indehiscent,
with two to six monospermous nucules, and hence it is sometimes called a
nuculanium. Seed suspended ; albumen large, fleshy ; emoryo small, lying
next the hilum ; cotyledons small ; radicle superior. Evergreen trees or
shrubs, with alternate or opposite, coriaceous, simple, exstipulate leaves.
They are found in various parts of the world, as in Europe, North and
South America, and Africa. Lindley enumerates eleven genera, including
110 species. Examples : Ilex, Prinos, Nemopanthes.
All the above-mentioned genera are North American. The American
Holly, Ilex opaca, has less glossy leaves and less brilliant berries than the
European, I. aquifolium. The leaves of Ilex paraguayensis constitute the
Yerba mat^ or Paraguay tea.
Ilex aquifolium, European Holly {pi. 71, ßg, 6) ; a-g.
Order 105. EeENACEiE, the Ebony Family. Flowers hermaphrodite or
unisexual. Calyx three- to seven-divided, nearly equal, persistent Corolla
gamopetalous, regular, deciduous ; somewhat coriaceous ; limb three- to
seven-divided; sBstivation imbricated. Stamens either attached to the
corolla or hypogynous, two or four times as many as the coroUine segments,
rarely equal to them in number, and then alternate with them ; filaments
usually in two rows, the inner row having smaller anthers ; anthers erect,
lanceolate, bilocular, with longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary free, sessile,
plurilocular; ovules one to two in each cell, pendulous; style divided,
rarely simple ; stigmas bifid or simple. Fruit fleshy, round or oval, the
pericarp sometimes opening regularly. Seeds few; testa membranous;
embryo straight, nearly in the axis of cartilaginous albumen ; cotyledons
leafy ; radicle taper, next the hilum. Trees or shrubs, not lactescent, with
alternate, exstipulate, coriaceous leaves. They are chiefly found in tropical
regions, and many species are met with in India. The plants are in general
remarkable for the hardness and durability of their wood. Some yield
edible fruit. Diospyros ebenus, and other African and Asiatic species,
supply Ebony, which is the black duramen of the tree. Other species of
Diospyros furnish Ironwood. Diospyros virginiana, the Persimmon, yields
a fruit which is astringent when green, but becomes sweet and eatable
when ripe, especially after being acted on by frost. D. kahi is the Keg-fig
of Japan, the fruit of which resembles a plum. Lindley notices nine
genera, including 160 species. Examples : Diospyros, Royena, Maba.
Order 106. STYRACACEiE, the Storax Family. Calyx persistent, with an
entire or a five- or four-divided limb. Corolla gamopetalous, regular,
inserted in the calyx ; sestivation imbricated or valvate. Stamens definite
or 00, attached to the corolline tube, of unequal length ; filaments often
slightly united at their base in one or more parcels ; anthers innate, dithecal,
introrse. Ovary either free or cohering more or less to the calycine tube,
two- to five-celled, the septa occasionally deficient towards the centre;
ovules, two to four in each cell, or 00, pendulous, sometimes the upper onM
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ascending; style simple; stigma simple. Fruit inclosed in the cal)T[,
drupaceous, usually unilocular by abortion. Seeds usually solitary, erect,
or suspended ; embryo slender, in the axis of fleshy albumen ; cotyledons
flat, foliaceous ; radicle long, pointing to the hilum. Trees or shrubs, with
alternate, exstipulate leaves, and frequently stellate hairs. They are
«chiefly natives of warm countries. There are two sections : 1. StyracecB,
with a more or less valvate sBstivation of the corolla, and long anthers. 2.
SymplocecBy with a quincuncial corolßne aestivation, and roundish anthers.
Lindley gives 6 genera, including 115 species. Examples: Styrax, Halesia,
Symplocos.
Storax, a well-known balsamic, resinous substance, is the concrete juice
of Styrax officinale, a native of the Mediterranean region. Styrax benzoin,
a tree growing in Sumatra and Borneo, furnishes gum benzoin. North
American representatives are species of Halesia or Snow-drop tree, found
in the southern States.
Styrax benzoin (pi, 64, ßg. 4) ; ä, a flowering branch ; 6, a flower ; c,
ditto exposed ; d, anthers ; e, the pistil ; /, section of ovary ; g, fruit ; A,
portion of the pericarp removed, showing the stone ; i, the stone with the
upper portion removed ; k, section of seed.
Ordeji 107. CoLUMELLiACEiE, the Columellia Family. Calyx superior,
quinquepartite. Corolla rotate, inserted into the calyx, five- to eight-parted ;
aestivation imbricate. Stamens two, inserted in the throat of the corolla ;
anthers roundish, three-lobed, extrorse, each consisting of six linear, sinuous
ceils, arranged in pairs, dehiscing longitudinally, and attached to a three-
lobed, fleshy connective. Disk fleshy, perigynous. Ovary adhering to the
calycine tube, two-celled ; ovules 00 ; style simple, smooth ; stigma capitate,
two-lobed. Fruit, a bilocular, bivalvular capsule, with both septicidal and
loculicidal dehiscence. Seeds 00; testa smooth and coriaceous; embryo
straight, in the axis of fleshy albumen ; cotyledons oval, obtuse ; radicle
long, pointing to the hilum. Ever^een shrubs or trees, with opposite,
entire, exstipulate leaves, and solitary yellow flowers. Natives of Mexico
and Peru. Their properties unknown. There is one genus mentioned,
including three species. Example : Columellia.
Order 108. EpACRiDACEiE, the Epacris Family. Calyx five-, rarely four-
parted, often colored, persistent. Corolla inserted at the base of the calyx,
or hypogynous, deciduous or marcescent, monopetalous, sometimes separable
into five petals ; limb with five, rarely four equal divisions, sometimes by
the cohesion of the segments bursting transversely ; aestivation imbricated
or valvate. Stamens inserted with or on the corolla, equal in number to,
and alternate with its segments, rarely fewer ; anthers one-celled, without
appendages, opening longitudinally ; pollen round, or formed of three united
grains, attached to a single central receptacle. Ovary sessile, free,
plurilocular, rarely unilocular, surrounded by scales at the base ; ovules
solitary or 00; style one; stigma simple, sometimes toothed. Fruit
drupaceous, baccate, or capsular. Seeds albuminous; embryo slender, in
the axis of fleshy albumen, and about half its length. Shrubs or small trees,
with alternate, rarely opposite, exstipulate leaves, which are sometimes half-
lOONOORAPHIO BNCYCLOPiBDIA. — VOL, II. 9 129
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130 BOTANY.
amplexicaul at the base. They are allied to Ericaceae, and seem to occupy
the place of heaths in Australia. They are distinguished from heaths by
the structure of their anthers. They are cultivated for the beauty of their
flowers. In some cases they yield edible fruits. One of the plants called
Native Currant in Australia is Leucopogon richei. The order has been
divided into two sections: 1. EpacrecB, polyspermous. 2, Stypheliea,
monospermous. There are 30 known genera and 320 species, according
to Lindley. Examples : Epacris, ' Sprengelia^ Styphelia, Leucopc^on,
Lissanthe.
Order 109. VACciNiACEiE, the Cranberry Family. Calyx superior, entire,
four- to six-lobed. Corolla monopetalous, four- to six-lobed ; aestivation
imbricated. Stamens distinct, eight to twelve, inserted into an epigynous
disk; anthers bilocular, with two horn-like cells, dehiscing by pores.
Ovary inferior, four- or five-celled ; ovules 00 ; style simple ; stigma simple.
Fruit succulent, crowned by the persistent limb of the calyx. Seeds one or
many in each cell, minute ; embryo straight, in the axis of fleshy albumen ;
cotyledons very short ; radicle long, inferior. Shrubby plants, with
Internate, undivided, exstipulate leaves. They are closely allied to
Ericaceae, and differ from that order chiefly in their adherent (inferior)
ovary. They are natives of temperate regions, and some of them are marsh
jdants. Some are astringent, others yield sub-acid edible fruits. Cranberries
are produced by Vaccinium oxycoccus (Oxycoccus palustris of some
authors) and V. macrocarpum. Examples : Vaccinium, Gaylussaccia,
Chiogenes. The American Huckleberries, Bilberries, Deerberries, &c., are
furnished by various species of Vaccinium, and of Gaylussaccia.
Order 110. Ericace^, the Heath Family. Calyx, four- or five-cleft,
nearly equal, persistent. Corolla inserted at the base of the calyx, or
hypogynous, monopetalous, four- or five-cleft, sometimes tetra- or pentape-
talous, regular or irregular, often marcescent; aestivation imbricated.
Stamens definite, equal in number to the segments of the corolla, or twice
as many, inserted with the corolla, and either free from it or attached to its
base ; anthers two-celled ; cells hard and dry, bifid, usually having
appendages at the base or apex, dehiscing by apicilar pores or clefts.
Ovary free, surrounded at the base by a disk or scales, plurilocular ; ovules
00, attached to a central placenta ; style one, straight ; stigma one, undivided
or toothed. Fruit capsular or baccate, many-celled, with loculicidal or
septicidal dehiscence. Seeds 00, minute ; embryo cylindrical, in the axis
of fleshy albumen; radicle next the hilum. Shrubs, undersiirubs, or
herbaceous plants, with evergreen, often rigid, entire, verticillate, or opposite,
exstipulate loaves. The order contains many beautiful and showy plants,
which abound at the Cape of Good Hope, and which are also found in
Europe, North and South America, and Asia. The order has been divided
into the following sub-orders :
Sub-order 1. Ericinece. Calyx free from the ovary. Corolla monope-
talous, or rarely nearly or entirely polypetalous. Seed-coat close and thin,
rarely loose and cellular. Tribe 1. Salaxidece, Corolla persistent ; cells
one-ovuled ; anthers unarmed ; buds naked. Example : Salaxis. Tribe 2.
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EricetB. Cells many-seeded. Examples : Erica, Calluna. Tribe 8«
ArbutecB, Fruit, a berry or drupe. Examples : Arbutus, Arctostaphylos.
Trt6e 4. Androntedece. Fruit, a pod, opening loculicidally. Examples :
Gautiera, Epigeea, Andromeda, Clethra. Tribe 6. Rhodorece. Fruit, a
pod, opening septicidally. Examples: Rhodora, Azalea, Rhododendron,
Kalmia, Loiseleuria, Ledum, Lelij|phyllum.
Sub-order 2. Pyrokce. Calyx free from the ovary; petals distinct, or
nearly so ; seeds with a very loose and cellular covering, much larger than
the nucleus ; mostly herbaceous, with evergreen foliage. Examples: Pyrola,
Chimaphila, Moneses.
Sub'Order 3. Monotropea, Flowers nearly as in sub-orders one and two^
seeds as in three. Entirely destitute of green foliage, with the aspect of
Beech drops. Examples : Pterospora, Hypopitys, Monotropa.
The entire order includes about 52 genera and 880 species, many of
which are North American. The true heaths are, however, entirely
wanting in this continent. The heather of England is composed of Calluna
vulgaris. The Rhododendrons, Azaleas, and Kalmias, of North America,
are among her most showy plants. Kalmia latifolia, or common Laurel, is
said to be poisonous to sheep, but not to deer and pheasants (Tetrao
umbellus). Well authenticated cases exist of poisonous effects produced
by eating these birds after they had devoured Laurel-buds. Gautiera
procumbens, Tea-berry, or Wintergreen, is used to flavor candies and
syrups. Chimaphila umbellata, or Pipsissiwa, has medicinal properties.
Monotropa uniflora, or Indian pipe, is a singular plant, entirely white and
fleshy, found in damp, rich woods.
Erica filamentosa, Cape Heath, Cape of Good Hope {pL 64, fig. 6) ; «, a
flowering branch ; 6, anther magnified ; c, pistil magnified.
Ledum palustre. Marsh Tea, Northern Europe and America (pL 64, fig, 5) ;
a, a flowering branch ; 6, portion of lower surface of leaf magnified ; c,
calyx and sexual apparatus ; d^ stamen magnified ; e, the stigma ; /, open
capsule magnified ; g, cross-section of ditto ; A, seeds on the placenta ; t,
a seed magnified.
OfiDER in. GESNEBACEiB, the Gcsncra Family. Calyx partially adherent
five-partite ; aestivation valvate. Corolla monopetalous, tubular, more oi
less irregular, five-lobed ; aestivation imbricated. Stamens four, didynamous»
with the rudiment of a fifth, rarely two ; anthers dithecal, with a thick
swollen connective. Ovary partly free, unilocular, formed by two carpels
with parietal placentas, which are two-lobed ; ovules indefinite, anatropal ;
style continuous with the ovary ; stigma capitate, concave, glandular or
annular. Disk surrounding the base of the ovary. Fruit capsulate or
succulent, one-celled, more or less adherent. Seeds 00, minute ; testa thin,
finely and obliquely veined ; embryo erect in the axis of fleshy albumen ;
radicle pointing to the hilum. Herbs or shrubs, often springing from scaly
tubers, with opposite or whorled, rugose, exstipulate leaves, and showy
flowers. They are found principally in the warmer regions of America,
and are interesting chiefly on account of their beauty, for they do not appear
to possess any important qualities. There are twenty-two known genera
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and upwards of 120 species. Examples : Gesnera, Coiumnea, Gloxinia,
Achimenes.
Order 112. LoBELiACEiC, the Lobelia Family. Calyx superior, five-lobed
or entire. Corolla gamopetalous, inserted on the calyx, irregular, more or
less deeply five-cleft. Stamens five, attached to the calyx, alternate with
the segments of the corolla ; anthers ^^ohering ; pollen oval. Ovary
inferior, one- to three-celled ; ovules 00, attached either to central or
parietal placentae ; style glabrous, with a fringe of hairs below the stigma.
Fruit a one- or more-celled capsule, with apicilar dehiscence. Seeds
numerous ; embryo straight, in the axis of fleshy albumen ; radicle pointing
to the hilum. Lactescent herbs or shrubs, with alternate, exstipulate leaves.
They are found both in temperate and warm countries. There are twenty-
seven known genera and 375 species. Examples : Lobelia, Siphocampylus,
Clintonia.
Acridity characterizes the order to a greater or less extent. Lobelia
mflata, or Indian tobacco, is a remedy in great favor with a certain class of
practitioners. Other species also, as L. siphilitica, are considered eflicacious
in some diseases.
Lobelia fulgens (Mexico) (pL 64, fig. 8) ; a, upper part of the plant;
bf stamens expanded and magnified ; c, stamens with the anthers cut across ;
d, stamens and pistil ; e, stigma.
Order 112. CAMPANULACEiE, the Hare-bell Family. Calyx superior,
usually five-lobed, sometimes three- to eight-lobed, persistent. Corolla
gamopetalous, inserted into the top of the calyx, usually five-lobed, some-
times three- to eight-lobed, regular, marcescent ; sBstivation valvate.
Stamens inserted into the calyx, alternating with the coroUine lobes, and
equal to them in number ; anthers bilocular, free ; pollen spherical. Ovary
more or less completely inferior, composed of two or more carpels ; ovules
indefinite ; style simple, covered with collecting hairs ; stigma naked,
simple, or with as many lobes as there are ovarian cells. Fruit capsular,
crowned with the withered calyx and corolla, dehiscing in a loculicidal
manner by lateral apertures, or by valves at the apex. Seeds 00 ; attached
to a central placenta ; embryo straight, in the axis of fleshy albumen ;
radicle pointing to the hilum. Lactescent herbs or undershrubs, with
alternate, rarely opposite, exstipulate leaves. The hairs on the style are
said to be retractile, and seem to be connected with the application of the
pollen. The flowers in most instances are blue. They are natives chiefly
of northern and temperate regions. They abound in the alpine regions of
Europe and Asia, and are also frequent in North America. Alphonse De
CandoUe states, that the species whose capsule dehisces by lateral fissures
are natives of the northern hemisphere, while those with apicilar dehiscence
are principally found in the southern hemisphere. The milky juice found in
the plants of this order has acrid properties. Lindley enumerates twenty-
eight genera, including five hundred species. Examples : Campanula,
Phyteuma, Jasione.
Campanula trachelium. Hare-bell (Europe) (pi 64, fig. 7) ; a, upper
portion of the plant ; b, sexual apparatus ; c, separated stamens ; d, stamen ;
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BOTANY. 133
e, a seed-vessel ; /, cross-section of do. ; g, the seed ; A, do. magnified ; i,
section of do.
Order 113. Sttlidiace^, the Style wort Family. Calyx adherent,
persistent, with two to six divisions, bilabiate, or regular. Corolla ganio-
petalous, falling off late, limb usually irregular, five- to six-partite, segments
with a central vein ; sBstivatioti imbricated. Stamens two ; filaments
united with the style into a longitudinal column ; anthers didymous, rarely
simple, lying over the stigma ; pollen simple, globose, or angular. Ovary
cohering with the calyx, bilocular, or by contraction of the dissepiment
unilocular, often surmounted by one gland in front, or by two opposite ones ;
ovules anatropal ; style one ; stigma entire or bifid. Fruit a bivalvular,
bilocular, or spuriously unilocular capsule, with septicidal dehiscence.
Seeds 00, small, erect ; embryo minute, inclosed in fleshy, somewhat oily
albumen. Non-lactescent herbs or undershrubs, with alternate, scattered,
or somewhat verticillate, entire, exstipulate leaves. They are well distin-
guished by their gynandrous structure. The column formed by the union
of the filaments and style possesses, in the species of the genus Stylidium,
a peculiar irritability. The plants are principally natives of marshy places
in New Holland. Some are found at the southern point of South America.
There are five known genera, and 121 species. Examples : Stylidium,
Forstera.
Order 114. GooDENiAcSiE, the Goodenia Family. Calyx persistent,
usually equal, with three to five divisions, sometimes obsolete. Corolla
inserted into the calyx, monopetalous, more or less irregular, marcescent or
deciduous ; its tube split at the back, and sometimes separable into five
pieces, when the calyx only coheres with the base of the ovary ; its limb
five-partite, uni- or bilabiate, the thin part of the segments being at the
edges, which are folded inwards in aestivation. Stamens five, distinct,
inserted with, but free from, the corolla, and alternate with its segments :
anthers not articulated with the filaments, distinct or cohering, bilocular.
Math longitudinal dehiscence; pollen grains either separate or united in
fours. Ovary more or less united to the calycftie tube, one-, two-, or four-
celled, sometimes with a gland at its base ; ovules definite or 00, attached
to a central, often free, placenta ; style one, simple, rarely divided ; stigma
fleshy, undivided or two-lobed, surrounded by a cup-like indusium. Fruit a
one-, two-, or four-celled capsule, or drupaceous or nut-like. Seeds definite
or indefinite, with a thickened, often hard testa ; embryo straight, in fleshy
albumen ; cotyledons leafy ; radicle inferior. Herbs, rarely shrubs, not
lactescent, with scattered, exstipulate, usually alternate leaves, and distinct,
never capitate flowers. They are found chiefly in Australia, and in the
South Sea Islands. The order is divided into two sub-orders.
Sub-order 1. GoodenietBy with dehiscent capsular fruit, and numerous seeds.
Sub-order 2. SccBvolece, with indehiscent, drupaceous, or nut-like fruit, and
seeds solitary, or two in each cell. There are fourteen known genera,
according to Lindley, and about 150 species. Examples : Goodenia, Velleia,
Leschenaultia, Scaevola, Dampiera.
Order 115. Brünoniacea, the Brunonia Family. Calyx persistent, five-
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134 BOTANY.
partite, with bracts at the base. Corolla inserted at the base of the calyx,
monopetalous, nearly regular, withering; limb five-parted, having central
veins in its segments, which divide at the top into two recurrent marginal
veins ; aestivation valvate. Stamens five, inserted with, but free from, the
corolla, alternating with its segments ; anthers articulated with the short
filaments, dithecal, introrse, dehiscing longitudinally. Ovary free, unilocular ;
ovule solitary, erect, anatropal; style single; stigma inclosed in a two-
valved cup or indusium. Fruit a utricle, inclosed in the hardened calycine
tube. Seed solitary, erect, exalbuminous ; embryo straight; cotyledons
fleshy ; plano-convex ; radicle minute, inferior. Stemless herbaceous plants,
with radical, exstipulate leaves, and capitate flowers, supported on scapes,
and surrounded by an involucre of enlarged bracts. Natives of New
Holland. Their properties are unknown. The order contains as yet only
one genus and nine species. Example : Brunonia.
Order 116. CoMPosiTiE, Syngenesia of Linn. Flowers collected into a
dense head (compound flowers of the older authors) upon a common
receptacle, surrounded by an involucre. Tube of the calyx coherent with
the ovary, and undistinguishable from it ; the limb (called pappus) composed
of bristles, or scales, &c., or very rarely foliaceous, often wanting or reduced
to a margin. Corolla composed of mostly five united petals ; either ligulate
or tubular, in the latter case with a valvate aestivation ; the tube generally
furnished with five nerves (or more properly ten united in pairs), which
extend from the base to the sinuses, where they divide, a branch coursing
along or near each margin to the apex of the lobes. Stamens as many as
the lobes of the corolla and alternate with them : the filaments (distinct or
united above) inserted into the tube ; anthers linear, coherent by their
margins into a cylinder (syngenesious). Ovary one-celled, containing a
single er^ct anatropous ovule ; style (usually undivided in the sterile
flowers) two-cleft ; the lobes or branches (incorrectly called stigmas) various
in form, mostly flattish within, often furnished with collecting hairs ; the
proper stigmas occupying their inner margins, in the form of glandular,
slightly prominent lines, ftuit an indehiscent, dry, one-seeded pericarp
(achaenium), crowned with the limb of the calyx or pappus. Seed destitute
of albumen. Radicle short ; cotyledons flat or plano-convex. Herbs,
rarely shrubs or trees (forming about one tenth of phanerogamous vegetation) ;
with alternate or opposite, sometimes divided or lobed, exstipulate leaves.
Branches often corymbose, terminated by the heads, the central ones earliest
developed. Flowers in each head expanding successively from the margin
(or lower portion) to the centre or apex, either all of the same color
(homochromous), or the marginal ones different from those of the disk
(heterochromous), the latter in this case almost always yellow; either
perfect, polygamous, or diclinous.
This order is both one of the largest and one of the most natural in the
vegetable kingdom. The plants are generally distributed over the surface
of the globe, and all of the tribes have North American representatives.
Generally herbaceous in northern regions, they become at times shrubby
and even arborescent in warm climates. The number of known genera
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amounts to upwards of 1000, including 9500 species, and forming about
one tenth of all the known species. Various subdivisions have been
proposed by different authors ; those by Linnaeus into Polygamia sequalis,
superflua, frustranea, necessaria, and segregata, will be found explained on
page 54. The sub-orders more usually followed by modem authors are
those of De CandoUe, as follows : 1. TubuKßorce. Corolla of the perfect
flowers tubular, and regularly five- (rarely three- to four-) lobed or toothed.
2. LahiatiflorcB. Corolla of the perfect flower bilabiate. 3. LiguliflortB.
Flowers all perfect and ligulate. (The genera marked with an asterisk
are North American.)
Sub-order 1. Tubuliflora.
Tribe 1. Vemoniace^B. Style of the perfect flowers cylindraceous ; the
branches usually elongated and subulate, hispid throughout ; the stigmatic
lines not extending beyond their middle.
Sub-tribe 1. Vemoniece, Heads discoid, homogamous. Division 1.
EuvemoniecB. a, Ethuliese. Example : Ethulia. 6, Heterocomese. Examples :
•Stokesia, *Vernonia. c, Albertinie». Example : Albertinia. Division 2.
^EkphantopecB. Example : Elephantopus. Division 3. Rolandrece.
Example : Gundelia. Division 4. Bojeriece, Example : Synchodendron.
Sub-tribe 2. Pectidece. Heads radiate, heterogamous. Division 1. Liabect.
Example : *Xanthisma. Division 2. Eupectidece, Examples : ^Pectis,
Pectidopsis.
Tribe 2. Eupatoriacece, Style of the perfect flowers cylindraceous :
the branches elongated, obtuse, or clavate, externally puberulent or papillose
towards the summit, the stigmatic lines obscure, terminating near their
middle.
Sub-tribe 1. Eupatoriece. Heads discoid, homogamous. Division 1. Alomiece.
Ex. : Orsinia. Division 2. Ageratece. Ex. : *CoBlestina, • Ageratum, *Sclero-
lepsis. Division 3. Adenostyle<B, Ex. : ^Liatris, ^Kunia, ^Eupatorium.
Sub-tribe 2. Tussilaginece, Heads with the flowers heterogamous or
dioecious. Division 1. Petasitece» Examples: *Nardosmia, *Adenocaulon.
Division 2. Eutussilaginece, Example : *Tussilago.
Tribe 3. Asteroidece, Style of the perfect flowers cylindraceous : the
branches linear, externally flattish, minutely and equally pubescent above,
stigmatic lines prominent, extending about to the origin of the exterior
pubescence.
Sub-tribe 1. Asterinece, Heads heterogamous and radiate, or homo-
gamous. Receptacle seldom chaffy. Anthers not caudate. Leaves
alternate. Division I, Amelliece. a, Euamellese. Example: Amellus. b,
Heterothalame». Example: Heterothalamus. Division 2. Asterece, a,
Euastereae. Examples : *Galatella, * Aster. 6, Diplopappece. Example :
♦Diplopappus. c, Erigere®. Example: *Erigeron. rf, Heteropappeas.
Examples : *Chfietopappa, *Boltonia. e, Belliese. Example : Bellium. /,
Bellide». Examples : *Bellis, *Aphanostephus. Division 3. Chrysocomem.
a, Gymnospermeee. Example : *Gymnosperma. 6, Achyrideae. Example :
•Amphiachyris. c, Heterothec®. Example: *Bradburia. d, Psiadie«,
Erato. e^ Chrysopsideae. Example: Chrysopsis. / Solidagineae
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136 BOTANY.
Example: ^Solidago. Division 4. Solenogynea. Example: Lepto-
thamnus.
Sub-tribe 2. Baccharide€B. Heads dioecious, or heterc^amous, never
radiate; pistillate flowers tubular, slender, or filiform, in several series.
Receptacle not chaffy. Anthers not caudate. Division 1. Conyze<B, a,
Sphceranthes. Example : Athroisma. b, Grangeine». Example : Grangea.
c, Euconyze®. Example: *Conyza. d, Eubaccharideae. Example:
•Baccharis.
Sub-tribe 3. Tarchonanthe€e, Heads dioecious, or heterc^amous, never
radiate ; pistillate flowers, tubular and very slender, mostly in several series.
Anthers caudate. Division 1. Eutarchonanthe€e, Example: Tarchonan-
thus. Division 2. Plucheinece, Example : •Pluchea, •Micropus.
Sub-tribe 4. InuhtB, Heads heterogamous and radiate, or homogamous
and discoid, never dioecious. Receptacle not chafiy. Anthers caudate.
Leaves alternate. Division 1. Euirtukte. Example: *Inula. Division 2.
CtesulinecB, Example: Csesula.
Sub-tribe 5. Bupthalmece. Example : Bupthalmum.
Sub-tribe 6. Eclyptecs. Heads heterogamous, radiate. Receptacle
chafiy. Anthers not caudate. Pappus toothed, or awned, or none. Leaves
opposite. Examples : *Borrichia, *Eclipta.
Tribe 4. Senecionidetx. Style of the perfect flowers cylindraceous }. the
branches linear, truncate at the summit, and penicillate, or often produced
into a conical or elongated hispid appendage; the stigmatic lines rather
broad and prominent, extending to the commencement of the appendage or
hairy portion.
Sub-tribe I. Melampodinece, Flowers all unisexual : the staminate and
pistillate either occupying the same or different heads, in the same or
different individuals. Anthers not caudate. Pappus never of bristles.
Division L Euzeniece. Example : Euxenia. Division 2. Milleriecs,
Example: *Blennosperma. Division 3. Silphiece, Examples: *Silphium,
*EngeImannia. Division 4. Melampodiece; Example: *Melampodium.
Division 5. Ambrosiece. Examples : *Ambrosia, *Xanthium. Division 6.
IvecB. Example: *Iva. Division 7. Partheniecs, Example: *Parthe-
nium.
Sub-tribe 2. Helianthece, Heads heterogamous and radiate, or homoga-
mous and discoid. Receptacle partly or entirely chaffy. Pappus none, or
coroniform, or awned, or of few squamellae. Anthers blackish, not caudate.
Leaves often opposite. Division 1. Heliopsidece, Example: *Heliopsis.
Division 2. Rudbeckiece. Example : *Rudbeckia. Division 3. Coreop*
sidecB, Example : *Coreopsis. Division 4. Bidentidecs, Example :
*Bidens. Division 5. Verbesinecs, Example : *Spilanthe8.
Sub-tribe 3. Flaveriece, Heads one-, few-flowered, densely aggregated,
heterogamous. Leaves opposite. Example: *Flaveria.
Sub-tribe 4. Ta^etinece, Heads heterogamous and radiate, or homoga»
mous and discoid. Receptacle not chafiy. Pappus awned or setose.
Involucre, with the scales in a single series, and mostly united, dotted, like
the opposite leaves, with large pellucid glands. Division L Tageiea.
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BOTANY. 137
Examples : ^Dysodia, *RiddeUia. Division 2. Poropkyllece. Exain]de :
Porophyllum.
Sub-tribe 5. HeleniecB, Heads mostly heterogamous. Pappus of several
or nomerous scarious, chafiy scales» in a single series, distinct, rarely none.
Leaves mostly alternate (chiefly American). Division 1. GaiUardiecB. a,
Eugaillardie®. Example : *GailIardia. b, Euhelenieae. Example :
*Hymenopappus. Division 2. GalinsogecB. a, EugalinsogesB. Example :
*Marshallia. b, Sphenogyne®. Example : Ursinia. Division 3. Madiecs.
Example : *Callichroa. Division 4. Baldwiniea, Example : *Actino-
spermum.
Svb'tribe 6. Anthemidecs, Heads mostly heterogamous. Pappus none
or coroniformr, rarely squamellate. Anthers not caudate. Branches of the
style truncate and bearded at the apex, rarely terminated by a short cone.
Leaves mostly alternate. Division 1. EuanthemidecB. Examples :
*Anthemis, *Achillea. Division 2. Chrysanthemecs, Example : *Monolopia.
Division 8. CotukcB. Example: *Aromia. Division 4. Äthanasie€e.
Example : Athanasia. Division 5. ArtemisiecB. Examples : *Tanacetum,
♦Artemisia. Division 6. Hippiece. Example : *Soliva. Division 7.
Eriocephak<B. Example : Eriocephalus.
Sub-tribe 7. Crnaphalie<B, Heads homogamous and discoid, rarely
heterogamous. Anthers caudate. Pappus of capillary or setaceous bristles,
rarely none. Leaves mostly alternate. Division 1. Angianthece. Example:
Hyalolepis. Division 2. Cassiniece. Example: Cassinia. Division 3.
HelichrysecB. Examples : *Gnaphalium, *Filago. Division 4. Seriphiece.
Example : Seriphium. Division 5. Antennariece, Example : *Antennaria.
Division 6. Leyserrecs. Example : Athrixia, Division 7. RelhaniecB.
Example : Carpesium.
Sub-tribe 8. Senecionece. Heads homogamous or heterogamous, discoid
or radiate. Anthers not caudate. Pappus of capillary bristles, or very
rarely wantin|^ in the exterior flowers. Leaves alternate. Division L
NeurokenecB, Example : Neurolaena. Division 2. Erechtitece. Example :
♦Erechtites. Division 3. Eusenecionec^. Example : *Cacalia, ♦Senecio.
Division 4. Balbisiece. Example : Balbisia.
Trü>e 6. Cynarece, Style of the perfect flowers nodose-thickened, and
often penicillate at the summit ; the stigmatic lines not prominent, reaching
to and confluent at the summit of the externally puberulent branches.
Sub-tribe I. CaZencfv/ace^e (none North American). Division I. Calendulecs,
Example : Calendula. Division 2. Osteospermecs. Example : Osteospermum.
Division 3. OthonnecB. Examples : Heteractis.
Sub-tribe 2. -Arctortefec» (none North American). Division 1. Arctotece.
Example: Arctotis. Division % Gorteriece. Example: Cullumia.
Sub-tribe 3. Echinopsidece (none North American). Example :
Acantholepis.
Sub-tribe 4. Cardopatem (none North American). Example: Cardopatium.
Sub-tribe 5. Xerantheme<B (none North American). Example :
Cbaidinia.
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138 BOTANY.
Sub-tribe 6. CarHniecR. ' Heads discoid, homogamous. Anthers caudate*
Pappus mostly plumose. Example : Saussurea.
Sub-tribe 7. Centauriece. Heads discoid; the marginal flowers mostly
neutral, usually much larger than the others. Pappus never plumose,
sometimes wanting. Example : *Centaurea, *Cnicus.
Sub-tribe 8. CarthamecB (none North American). Example : Carthamus.
Sub-tribe 9. Silybece (none North American). Example : Silybum.
Sub-tribe 10. Carduinece, Heads discoid, homogamous, sometimes
dioecious. Anthers slightly or not at all caudate. Pappus of plumose or
scabrous bristles. Examples : *Cirsium, ^Carduus, * Lappa.
Sub- tribe 11. Serratulce (none North American). Example: Serratula.
Sub-order 2. LABiATiFLORiE.
Tribe 6. Mutisiacete, Style of the perfect flowers cylindraceous or some-
what nodose above : the branches obtuse or truncate, externally very convex»
and minutely pubescent above. Only one North American genus (Chaptalia).
Sub-tribe 1. Mutisiece (none North American). Division 1. B€tma-
desiets. Example : Schlechtendalia. Division 2. Eumutisie€e, Example :
Mutisia.
Sub-tribe 2. Leriece, Example : *Chaptalia.
Sub-tribe 3. Facelidece (none North American). Example : Facelis.
Tribe 7. Nassauviacece. Style of the perfect flowers not nodose,
thickened above : the branches linear, rather long, truncate, penicillate at
the summit. Only one North American genus (Acourtia),
Sub-tribe I. Poly achy ridecB. Example: Polyachyrus.
Sub-tribe 2. Nassauviece. Example : Caloptilium.
Sub-tribe 3. Trixidece. Example : *Acourtia.
Sub-order 3. LicuLiFLORiE.
Tribe 8. Cichoracece, Style cylindraceous above : the branches rather
long and obtuse, equally pubescent, the stigmatic lines terminating below
their middle. Plants with a milky juice. Leaves alternate^
Sub-tribe 1. Scolymece (none North American). Example : Scolymus.
Sub-tribe 2. Lampsanece. Pappus none. Receptacle not chafiy. Ex«
amples : ♦Lampsana, *Apogon.
Sub-tribe 3. Hyoseridece, Pappus wholly or partly chafiy or squamellate.
Receptacle not chafiy. Example : *Cichorium.
Sub-tribe 4. HypocJuBridece (none North American). Example :
Oreophila.
Suh-tribe 5. Scorzonerece, Pappus setose or plumose. Receptacle not
chafiy. Examples : *Leontodon, *Rafinesquia.
Sub-tribe 6. Lactucece. Pappus capillary, not plumose. Receptacle not
chafiy. Examples : *Hieracium, •Taraxacum, *Lactuca.
Of the 1000 genera indicated above, as embraced in this vast order, 200
are found in North America, or one fifth of the whole. Nearly all the sub-
tribes, and most of the divisions indicated above, have representatives in
this country. Of the entire order Labiatiflorae, however, there are but two
genera, the rest being principally found on the western coast of South
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America. In conclusion, we can but briefly name such plants as are
conspicuous for their economical qualities. Cynara cardunculus, the
^ardoon ; C. scolymus, the Artichoke ; Carthamus tinctorius, SaiSower.
Anthemis nobilis, Chamomile ; Inula helenium, Elecampane ; Artemiiria
absinthum, Wormwood. Moxas are formed from the woolly leaves of the
Chinese Artemisia moxa. A. dracunculus is Tarragon ; Tanacetum vulgare,
Tansy ; Helianthus, Sunflower ; Cichorium intybus. Succory or Chicory ;
Taraxacum dens-leonis, Dandelion ; Lactuca sativa, Lettuce ; Tragopogon
porrifolius, Salsify or Oyster plant.
Lactuca virosa, Poison Lettuce, Europe (/>/. 64, fig. 9) ; a, a flower ; 6,
ditto magnified ; d, pistil ; e, achsenium ; /, ditto magnified ; g, hair of
pappus magnified ; A, cross-section ; and t, longitudinal ditto of achsenium.
Carthamus tinctorius, Safflower, East Indies (/^. 64, fig. 11); a, upper
part ; 6, sepal from the interior ; c, an inner involucral leaf; d, a flower ; «,
the anthers separated ; /, a pappus hair magnified ; g, achsenium without
the pappus.
Cynara scolymus, the Artichoke, Europe {pi. M, fig. 10); a, a flower;
J, the fruit without pappus.
Serratula tinctoria (pi. 64, fig. 12) ; A, the upper, B, the lower part of
the plant ; a, involucral scale ; b, hermaphrodite flower ; c, stigma ; d,
achaenium ; e, cross-section of ditto ; A, a female flower.
Tanacetum vulgare. Tansy, Europe (pi. 64, fig. 13) ; a, involucral scale ;
6, anthers; c, ray, and d, disk flowers; c, pistil; /, achaenium; g, cross-
section of ditto.
Artemisia absinthum. Wormwood, Europe (pi. 65, fig. 1) ; a, a lower
leaf; b, flowering branch; c, receptacle with a disk and ray flower still
standing; d, ray flower; e, disk flower ;/, stigma ; g, achaenium; A, ditto
in cross-section.
Order 117. CALvcERACEiE, the Calycera Family. Calyx superior, with a
limb of five unequal segments. Corolla regular, infundibuliform, with a
long, slender tub^, and a five-lobed limb, the lobes having each three
principal veins. Stamens five, attached to the tube of the corolla, with as
many alternating glands below them; filaments monadelphous ; anthers
partially united. Ovary inferior, one-celled ; ovule solitary, pendulous ;
style single, smooth ; stigma capitate. Fruit an achaenium, crowned by the
rigid spiny segments of the calyx, sometimes covered with papillae, which
emit spiral tubes when placed in water. Seed solitary, pendulous ; embryo
in the axis of fleshy albumen ; radicle superior. Herbaceous plants, with
alternate, exstipulate leaves, and sessile capitate flowers, surrounded by an
involucre. They inhabit South America. Their properties are unknown.
There are five known genera, according to Lindley, and ten species.
Examples : Calycera, Boopis.
Order 118. Dipsaceä, the Teazel Family. Calyx superior, with an
entire or toothed, or pappose limb. Corolla gamopetalous, tubular, inserted
on the calycine tube, with an oblique four- or five-lobed limb ; aestivation
imbricated. Stamens four, attached to the tube of the corolla, and alternate
with its lobes ; anthers dithecal, distinct. Ovary cohering with the tube of
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the calyx, either closely or only at the apex, unilocular; ovule solitary,
pendulous, anatropal ; style filiform ; stigma simple. Fruit dry, indehiscent,
crowned by the limb of the calyx, covered by an epicalyx, or involucellum,
one-celled. Seed solitary, pendulous, albuminous; embryo straight; radide
superior. Herbs or undershrubs, with opposite or verticillate leaves, and
capitate or verticillate flowers, surrounded by a many-leaved involucre.
They are found in the south of Europe, the Levant, and at the Cape of
Grood Hope. None in North America. The properties of the order are
unimportant. The heads of Dipsacus fullonum. Fuller's Teazel, on account
of their spiny bracts, are used in dressing cloth. Lindley mentions six
genera, including one hundred and fifty species. Examples : Morina,
Scabiosa, Dipsacus.
Dipsacus fullonum, tlfe Teazel, Europe {pL 65, fig. 2) : a, a flowering
branch ; 6, vertical section of the head ; c, a flower ; d, ditto opened ; e,
stigma ; /, achienium ; g and A, sections of ditto.
Order 119. VALERiANACEiE, the Valerian Family. Calyx superior, its
limb being either membranous or pappose. Corolla gamopetalous, inserted
into the top of the ovary, tubular, three-, four-, to five-lobed, sometimes
gibbous or spurred at the base. Stamens one to five, adherent to the
corolla and alternate with its lobes. Ovary inferior, one- to three-celled ;
ovule solitary, pendulous, style filiform ; stigmas one to three. Fruit dry,
indehiscent, crowned with the limb of the calyx, one-celled, in consequence
of two cells being abortive. Seed solitary, pendulous, exalbuminous ;
embryo straight ; radicle superior. Herbs, with opposite, exstipulate leaves,
and cymose inflorescence. They are found in temperate climates. Lindley
gives twelve genera, and 185 species.
The only North American genera are Valeriana, Plectritis, and Fedia.
The root of Valeriana oflicinalis fiimishes the medicinal valerian ; this
substance produces a species of intoxication in cats. Nardostachys
jatamansi is the nardos or spikenard of the ancients.
Order 120. RuBiACEiE, the Madder and Cinchona Famjly. Tube of the
calyx adherent to the ovary, rarely partly, or almost completely free ; the
limb mostly four- to five-cleft or toothed, sometimes obsolete. Corolla
inserted upon the summit of the calyx-tube, composed of as many united
petals as there are lobes of the calyx, valvate, imbricate, or somewhat
contorted in eestivations. Stamens inserted into the tube of the corolla,
equal in number and alternate with its lobes (or very rarely fewer) ; anthers
introrse. Ovary two- (rarely three-, several-) celled, with one, or many
ovules in each cell; style single or partly divided; stigmas distinct or
concrete. Fruit capsular, drupaceous, baccate, or separated into indehiscent
carpels. Seeds anatropous or amphitropous, solitary, few, or numerous in
each cell. Embryo straight or slightly curved, in the axis or at the
extremity of copious densely fleshy or homy albumen. Trees, shrubs, or
herbs, with opposite, or rarely verticillate, entire leaves. Stipules between
the petioles, sometimes simulating the leaves. Flowers regular. Inflorescence
▼arious.
Sub-order 1. CoFFSACEiB. Cells one- to two-seeded.
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Tribe 1. Opercularie<B. Flowers close pressed in a capitulum, in which
they are united by their unilocular one-seeded ovaries. Fruit dehiscent.
Herbs or undershrubs of Australia. Example : Pomax.
Ttnbe 2. Galiece, or StellatcB, Ovary with two one-seeded cells. Carpels
indehiscent, dry or iSeshy, separating from each other at maturity. Whorls
of straight leaves, of which two opposite ones alone carry buds in their
axils, the others perhaps transformed stipules. Herbs or undershrubs of
temperate and cold climates. Examples : ^Galium, Kubia.
Tribe 3. AnthospertruB. Flowers distinct. Ovary with two one-seeded
cells. Carpels indehiscent, dry, separating at maturity. Stipules small,
petiolar. Herbs or undershrubs of the Cape, of the Canaries, very rarely
of Australia. Example : Anthospermum.
Tribe 4. SpermacocecB, Flowers distinct. Ovaries of two to four cells,
one- to two-seeded. Carpels dry or fleshy, never loculicidal, dehiscent or
not. .Estivation of the corolla valvate. Stipules membranaceous at the base,
usually with several bristles at the apex. Sub-tribe 1. Euspermacocece.
Examples: *Spermacoce, *Borreria, *Diodia. Sub-tribe 2. PtUorie<B,
Example : *Ernodia. Sub-tribe 3. Cephalanthece, Example : *Cephalanthu8.
Tribe 5. Psycotriece. Flowers distinct. Ovary of two one-seeded cells.
Fruit fleshy, with two nucules. Perisperm homy. Stipules interpetiolar,
distinct or connate. Trees or shrubs of tropical or juxtatropical regions,
especially American. Examples : *Chiococca, *Psycotria, Cofiea.
Tribe 6. PcKderiece, Flowers distinct. Ovary of two one-seeded cells,
Fruit of two compressed shells which become detached from the calyx, and
remain suspended by a filiform axis. Lianas of intertropical regions.
Example : Lecontea.
Tribe 7. Guettardea, Flowers distinct or combined together. Ovary of
two or more one-seeded cells. Drupe with the like number of nucules.
Albumen fleshy. Stipules axillar or interpetiolar, connate. Trees or shrubs
of tropical regions. Sub-tribe 1. Morindece. Example : *Morinda. Sub-
tribe 2. MitchellecB. Example: *Mitchella. Sub-tribe 3. Eugv^ttardece,
Example : *Guettarda, *Erithalis.
Tribe 8. CordieriecB. Flowers distinct or separate. Ovary of two to
five one-seeded cells. Fruit a berry. Perisperm fleshy. Stipules interpetiolar,
large, and adnate. Shrubs of tropical regions. Example : Cordiera.
SuB-oRDER 2. CiNCHONACEiE. Cclls many-sccdcd.
Tribe 9. Hameliece. Berry many-celled. Cells many-seeded. Example :
♦Hamelia.
Tribe 10. Iserliece. Fruit drupaceous, with many nucules. Ex.: Isertia.
Tribe 11. Hedyotidea, Fruit capsular, seeds not winged. Example:
Hedyotis.
Tribe 12. Cinchonece. Fruit capsular. Seeds winged. Example :
*Pickneya, *Exostemma, Cinchona.
Tribe 13. Gardeniece. Berry one- to two-locular. Seeds not winged.
Example : Sarcocephalus, Catesboea.
The entire order, as at present composed, embraces 280 genera (sixteen
North American) and upwards of 2800 species. The most important
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medicinal species are those belonging to the sub-order Cinchonaoeas.
Peruvian bark is furnished by various species (about twelve) of Cinchona.
It owes its efficacy to two alkaloids, Cinchonia and Quina. The bark of
Pinckneya pubens has properties somewhat similar to that of true Cinchonas.
Ipecacuanha is the root of CephsBÜs ipecacuanha, a Brazilian plant. The
coffee plant, Coffea arabica, likewise belongs to this order. It is originally
a native of Arabia and the borders of Abyssinia. Kubia tinctoria yields
madder, a very valuable dye.
Rubia tinctoria, madder (pL 65, fig. 8) ; a, the root ; 6, a flowering
branch ; c, d,f, flowers ; e, pistil ; gt anthers.
Cofiea arabica, cofiee {pL 66, fig, 4) ; a, a branch with flowers and
fruit ; 6, pistil ; c, flower expanded ; d, fruit ; e, do. with part of the hull
removed, showing the two seeds ; /, a seed ; gy cross-section.
Order 121. CAPRiFOLiACEiE, the Honeysuckle Family. Tube of the calyx
adherent to the ovary ; the limb five- (rarely four-) cleft or toothed.
Corolla tubular, or sometimes rotate; the lobes imbricate in «estivation.
Stamens equal in number and alternate with the lobes of the corolla (or
rarely one of them deficient), and inserted into the tube ; anthers introrse,
versatile. Ovary three- (rarely four- to five-) celled, with one to several
pendulous ovules in each cell ; style filiform, with a somewhat capitate
stigma ; or wanting, and the oblong stigmas three to five. Fruit baccate,
fleshy, or sometimes dry (rarely capsular), often one-celled by abortion.
Seeds anatropous. Embryo in the axis of fleshy albumen. Shrubs, or
rarely herbaceous plants, with opposite exstipulate leaves. Inflorescence
various. Chiefly found in the northern parts of Europe, Asia, and
America.
Sub-order 1. Lonicerece, Corolla tubular; the limb sometimes irregular.
Style filiform. Raphe on the outer side of the ovule. Tribe 1. Caprifoliece.
Fruit baccate, sometimes nearly dry. Testa of the seed crustaceous or
coriaceous. Examples : *Linn6ea, ♦Symphoricarpus, *Lonicera, *Dieryillea.
TVibe 2. Triostece, Fruit drupaceous ; endocarp bony. Testa of the seed
membranaceous. Example: *Triosteum.
Sub-order 2. SambucetB, Corolla regular, rotate, or rarely somewhat
tubular. Stigmas three to five, nearly sessile. Endocarp of the fruit
crustaceous or coriaceous. Testa of the seed membranaceous, the raphe
occupying the inner side. Examples : *Sambucus, *Viburnum.
Lindley assigns fourteen genera and 220 species to this family, of which
eight genera and thirty-seven species are North American; of these,
twelve are species of Viburnum, and fifteen of Lonicera. The snow-berry,
a common ornamental shrub, is Symphoricarpus racemosus. The Elder
(Sambucus), Honeysuckle (Lonicera), are well known plants. Linnsea
borealis is a charming species found in the north of the United States and
of Europe.
Lonicera caprifolium, Honeysuckle (Europe) {pL 65, fig, 6) ; a, a
flowering branch ; 6, a flower expanded ; c, anther ; d, pistil ; e, fruit ; /,
sections of do. ; g, a seed.
Order 122. LoRANTHACEiE, the Mistletoe Family. Perianth in the
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Qnisexttal flowers sometimes none, or often simple (calyx), adnate to the
ovary in the fertile flowers, three- to five-cleft in the sterile flowers ; in the
perfect flowers double, viz. calyx adnate to the ovary ; the limb entire or
denticulate, or often obsolete. Corolla of three to four or eight petals,
either distinct, or more or less coherent in a tube, inserted into the
epigynous disk ; aestivation valvate. Stamens equal in number Mdth the
petals and opposite them, or as many as the segments of the calyx, and
inserted upon them when the perianth is simple. Ovary one-celled, with a
single suspended ovule ; style simple, or none. Fruit baccate, one-celled,
one-seeded. Seed anatropous ; the membranous testa often adhering to the
walls of the fruit. Embryo in a superficial cavity of the fleshy albumen ;
radicle clavate, often exserted ; cotyledons obtuse, sometimes connate.
Parasitical, half-shrubby, evergreen plants, with dichotomous stems. Leaves
mostly opposite, fleshy or coriaceous, almost veinless ; sometimes reduced
to scales or entirely wanting. Stipules none. Flowers unisexual and
small (whitish or greenish yellow), or perfect and very showy.
Many of the plants are tropical, and hang from the trunks and branches
of trees ; others occur in temperate regions. Lindley gives 23 genera and
412 species, of which two genera, Viscum and Arceuthobium, with three
species, are North American. Viscum album is the mistletoe of English
writers.
Sub'dass 3. Calyciflor<B.
In this division are included the polypetalous orders of Jussieu, in which
the stamens are not hypogynous, as well as some diclinous orders. A calyx
and corolla are present ; in other words, the plants are dichlamydeous, the
petals are distinct, and the stamens are attached to the calyx, being thus
more or less perigynous. This sub-class, along with ThalamifloreB, com-
prises the Dialypetalse of Endlicher. De Candolle included in this division
gamopetalous plants, in which the ovary is inferior.
Order 123. CoRNACEiE, the Dogwood Family. Calix, four-lobed. Petals
four, oblong, broad at the base, regular, inserted into the upper part of the
calycine tube ; aestivation valvate. Stamens four, inserted along with the
petals, and alternate with them ; anthers dithecal. Ovary adherent to the
tube of the calyx, two-celled, crowned by a disk ; ovules solitary, pendulous,
anatropal ; style filiform ; stigma simple. Fruit fleshy, crowned by the
limb of the calyx, two-celled, rarely one-celled by abortion ; endocarp bony.
Seeds solitary, pendulous; embryo straight, long in the axis of fleshy
albumen; radicle superior, shorter than the oblong cotyledons. Trees,
shrubs^or herbs, with opposite, very rarely alternate, exstipulale leaves, and
capita", umbellate, or corymbose flowers. They inhabit the temperate
climates of Europe, Asia, and America. The most prominent North
American species of this family is Cornus florida, or the Dog wood, a showy
member of our forests. Lindley enumerates nine genera and forty species,
of which but one genus (Cornus), with eleven species, belongs to North
America.
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Order 124. ÄRALtACEiE, the GiDseng Family. Calyx entire or toothed.
Petals definite, two- to five- or ten-deciduous, occasionally 0; aestivation
valvate. Stamens, as many as the petals, or twice as many, inserted
below the margin of an epigynous disk. Ovary adherent to the tube of
the calyx, two- or more-celled ; ovules solitary, pendulous, anatropal ; styles,
two or more, distinct or connate ; stigmas simple. Fruit usually succulent,
two- to fifteen-celled, covered by the calycine limb. Seeds solitary,
pendulous, adhering to the endocarp ; albumen fleshy ; embryo small ;
radicle pointing to the hilum. Trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants, with
alternate, exstipulate leaves, and umbellate or capitate flowers. They are
found both in tropical and in cold regions. Lindley enumerates 21 genera,
including 160 species. Examples: Aralia, Panax, Adoxa, Hedera. The
fiist three genera, with eight species, are the only North American.
The plants of this order are allied to Umbellifer», but do not possess
poisonous qualities to any very marked degree. A species of Panax yields
the Ginseng of the Chinese, for which a North American species, P.
quinquefolium, serves as a substitute. An arborescent species, P. horridum,
forms almost impenetrable thickets in Oregon. Aralia nudicaulis is used
in the United States under the name of Sarsaparilla. The Ivy, Hedera
helix, belongs to this order.
Aralia nudicaulis, Sarsaparilla (not the true). United States (pL 65,ßg. 6) :
a, a compound leaf; b, flower branch; c, a flower-bud ; d, an open flower;
e, petal ;./, pistil ; g, cross-section of ovary ; A, ripe berry ; i, seed.
Order 125. UMBELLiFERiE, the Umbelliferous Family. Calyx adherent
to the ovary; the limb very small, five- toothed, or entire. Petals five,
inserted on the outside of the epigynous disk, usually inflexed at the point,
the inflexed portion cohering with the lamina ; aestivation somewhat
imbricate, or rarely valvate. Stamens five, alternate with the petals,
inflexed in aestivation ; anthers ovate, introrse. Ovary composed of two
(very rarely more) united carpels, invested with the coherent calyx, two-
celled, with a solitary suspended ovule in each cell : styles two, their bases
dilated and thickened into a fleshy body (stylopodium), which covers the
top of the ovary ; stigmas simple. Fruit consisting of two dry carpels
(often termed mericarps), which adhere by their faces (commissure) to a
common axis (carpophore), at length separating from each other, and
suspended from the summit of the carpophore, each carpel indehiscent,
marked with five longitudinal primary ribs, one opposite each petal and
each stamen, and often with five alternating secondary ones ; in the
substance of the pericarp are usually several longitudinal canals or
receptacles (vittce), filled with a colored aromatic oil or turpentine, which
ai% commonly lodged in the spaces (intervals) between the ry}s, but
sometimes opposite them. Seed anatropous, usually coherent "th the
carpel, rarely loose. Embryo minute at the base of the copious homy
albumen. Herbs, or rarely suflfrutescent plants : the stems usually fistular
and furrowed. Leaves alternate (or very rarely opposite), usually pinnately
or ternately divided ; the petioles mostly dilated and sheathing at the base
Flowers in umbels, usually with an involucre.
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This extensive order is divided by De Candolle into three sub-orders :
Orthospermce, having the inner face of the seed and albumen plane, neither
convolute nor involute ; Campy lospemuB^ albumen with a longitudinal
groove internally, or the margins involute ; and CaslospermcB, albumen
involute at the base and apex.
Sub-order 1. ORTHosPERMiE.
Tribe 1. HydrocotylecB. Fruit laterally compressed: carpels convex or
(rarely) acute on the back ; primary ribs five, sometimes obsolete ; the lateral
ones either marginal or on the face of the commissure ; the intermediate
ones most prominent ; secondary ribs sometimes persistent and filiform,
sometimes almost or entirely wanting. Vittae very seldom present. Seed
flattish on the face. Umbels simple or imperfectly compound. Mostly
tropical. Examples : *Hydrocotyle, *Bowlesia, Centella.
Tribe 2. Mulinece, Carpels contracted at the commissure, flattened on
the back, five-jugate, forming a quadrangular fruit. The species are
mostly inhabitants of extra- tropical South America. Examples: Bolax,
Huanaca.
Tribe 3. SaniculecB. Transverse section of the fruit somewhat orbicular.
Carpels with five equal primary and no secondary ribs, or covered with
scales or prickles, when the ribs are obliterated. Vittae none, or numerous
when the fruit is prickly. Seed flattish on the face. Umbels fascicled oi
capitate, simple, or somewhat irregularly compound. Mostly American,
between 35° N. L. and 45° S. L. Examples : *SanicuIa, *Eryngium,
Astrantia.
Tribe 4. Amminece. Fruit evidently compressed laterally, and usually
somewhat didymous. Carpels with five equal filiform and sometimes
slightly winged primary ribs ; the lateral ones marginal ; secondary ribs
none. Vittae various. Seed gibbously convex on the back, and flattish on
the face, or terete. Umbels perfectly compound. Mostly inhabitants of
the temperate regions of both continents. Examples : *Ammi, *Cicuta,
*Sium, Carum.
Tribe 5. SeselinecB. Transverse section of the fruit orbicular or nearly
so. Carpels with filiform or winged ribs, of which the lateral ones are
mai^nal, and either equal to or a little broader than the others. Intervals
with one or more vittae, very rarely without any. Seed somewhat teretely
convex on the back, flattish on the face. Umbels perfectly compound.
Distribution of the species as in the preceding tribe. Examples : *Thapsium,
♦Conioselinum, Lichtensteinia.
Tribe 6. Pachypleurece, Carpels compressed, lentiform, five-jugate, with
thick equal ribs. Inhabitants of Central Asia, South Africa, and the
Mediterranean region. Example: Krubera.
Tribe 7. Angelicece, Fruit dorsally compressed, with a double winged
margin. Carpels with the three dorsal ribs filiform or winged ; the lateral
ones dilated and forming the winged margins. Seed convex on the back,
flattish on the face. Umbels compound. Mostly inhabit central and
northern Europe : a few foimd in Northern America and Asia. Examples :
^Apgelica, *Archangelica, Selinum.
'cONOORAPHIO ENOTCLOPiEDIA. — ^VOL. n. 10 145
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146 BOTANY.
Tribe 8. Peucedanece, Fruit more or less compressed dorsally, surrounded
with a single dilated entire smooth margin, which is flattened or slightly
convex, but not thickened at the edge. Carpels with five filiform or rarely
winged ribs, of which the lateral ones are contiguous to the dilated margin
or united with it. Seed flattened, or convex on the back. Rare in
western Europe, northern America, and the Canaries ; more abundant in
Jiorthern India and South Africa. Examples : *Peucedanum, *Pastinaca,
Anethum.
Tribe 9. Silerinece. Fruit multijugate, the ribs but little elevated,
especially the secondary ; carpels compressed externally. Inhabit central
Europe and northern Asia. Examples : Siler, Galbanum.
Tribe 10. Cuminece, Fruit contracted at the sides. Carpels with five
primary filiform ribs, of which the lateral ones are marginal ; and four
more prominent secondary ones; all of them wingless. Seed straight,
flattish on the face. Umbels compound. Found in Mediterranean
Europe and in North America. Examples : *Trepocarpus, Cuminum.
Tribe 11. Thapsiece. Fruit either dorsally compressed or nearly terete.
Carpels with five filiform, often bristly, primary ribs, of which the lateral
ones are placed on the face of the commissure : secondary ribs four ; the
dorsal ones filiform and the lateral ones winged ; or all of them winged
(hence the fruit is either eight- winged, or only two- winged on each side).
Seed flattish, or somewhat teretely convex, plane on the face. Umbels
compound. Central Europe and north-western America. Examples;
♦Laserpitium, Thapsia.
Tribe 12. Daucinece. Fruit lenticularly compressed on the back, or
somewhat terete. Carpels with five filiform bristly primary ribs, of which
the latter are placed on the flat commissure ; and four more prominent
prickly secondary ones, the prickles distinct or united into a wing. Seed
flattened or convex on the back, flattish on the face. Umbels compound.
Southern Europe and Asia, northern Africa, extra-tropical America.
Examples : Artedia, Daucus.
Sub-order 2. CAMPYLOSPERMEiB.
Tribe 13. ElceoselinetB, Fruit cylindrical, multijugate ; primary ribs
filiform, the lateral secondary alate. Species Mediterranean, a single one
Mexican. Example : Elseoselinum, Margotia.
Tribe 14. Caucalinece. Fruit laterally contracted or somewhat terete.
Carpels with five primary bristly or prickly ribs, of which the lateral ones
are in the commissure ; secondary ribs four, more prominent and prickly,
or sometimes obliterated by the copious prickles filling the entire intervals.
Seed involute, or with the margin inflexed. Umbels compound. Distri-
bution as in Daucine» ; one North American species. Examples :
♦Caucalis, Torilis.
Tribe 15. Scandicinece, Fruit compressed or contracted laterally, usually
rostrate. Carpels with five equal filiform or winged ribs, of which the
lateral ones are marginal ; all of them sometimes obliterated at the base
and only conspicuous at the apex. Seed teretely convex, either furrowed
on the face or involute. Umbels compound. Central and south^
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Europe, Asia, and America. Examples : ChoBrophyllum, ^Giycosma,
Tauschia.
Tribe 16. SmymiecB, Fruit turgid, mostly laterally compressed or
contracted. Carpels with five ribs ; the lateral ones marginal or placed
opposite the margin, sometimes nearly obliterated. Seed involute, or
Silicate on the face. Umbels compound. Abundant in eastern Europe
and Asia ; rare in northern and tropical America. Examples : Conium,
♦Cynapium, Anosmia.
Sub-order 8. CcELosPERMEiE.
Tribe 17. Coriandrece, Fruit globose, or the carpels sub-globose and didy-
mous ; primary ribs of each carpel five, depressed and flexuous, or nearly
obsolete ; the secondary ones four, more prominent : all wingless. Umbels
compound. Mediterranean Europe and Asia ; North America. Examples *
♦Atrema, *Erigenia, Corion.
Many of the Umbellifer« are valuable for various purposes. Some are
esculents, as Daucus carota, the carrot; Pastinaca sativa, the parsnip;
Apium graveolens, celery; Petroselinum sativum, parsley, <fec. The
roots of Arracacha esculentum, a native of Grenada, may serve as a
substitute for the potatoe. Some species yield foetid resins, as assafoetida,
from Ferula assafoetida, a native of Persia. Caraway seeds are the fruit of
Carum carui ; coriander seeds, of Coriandrum sativum. Many are highly
poisonous, as Conium maculatum. Water Hemlock.
Lindley enumerates 267 genera, embracing 1600 species. Of these, fifty
genera and about 140 species are North American.
Chaerophyllum temulum, Europe {pi. 66, fig, 10) ; a, a lower leaf; fc,
lower part of the stem ; c, a flower branch ; d, a flower ; c, the fruit.
Conium maculatum. Hemlock, Europe {pL 65, fig. 11) ; a, cross-section
of stem ; by flowering branch with flowers and fruit ; c, involucre ; (2, flower ;
c, pistil ; /, fruit ; g, cross-section of achsenium.
Cicuta virosa. Water Hemlock, or Cow-bane, Europe {pi. 65, fig. 8) ; a,
vertical section of the root ; 6, flower branch ; c, flower ; d, pistil ; e,
achaenia ; /, cross-section of ditto ; g, vertical section of achsenium.
-^thusa cynapium. Fool's Parsley, Europe {^. 65, fig. 9) ; a, cross-
section of the stem ; 6, branch with flowers and fruit ; c, flower ; d, achaenia.
CEnanthe fistulosa. Dead Tongue, Europe {pi. 65, fig. 7) ; a, the entire
plant ; 6, c, flowers ; d, pistil ; e, involucre ; /, anther ; g-l, fruit.
Sium latifolium. Water Parsley, Europe and Northern America
{pi. 65, fig, 12) ; a, flowering branch ; 6, a lower leaf; c, flower ; d, pistil ;
e, fruit ; /-A, achaenium with longitudinal and transverse sections of ditto.
Order 126. HAMAMELiDACEiE, the Witch-hazel Family. Calyx four- or
five-lobed or truncate. Petals four or five or 0, inserted on the calyx,
alternating with the calycine segments. Stamens twice as many as the
petals, in two rows, one of which alternates with the petals and is fertile,
the other is opposite to them and sterile ; anthers bilocular, introrse. Ovary
adherent, two-celled; ovules solitary or several (in Bucklandia and
Sedgwickia), pendulous or suspended ; styles two. Fruit, a two-celled, two-
valved capsule, opening by loculicidal dehiscence. Seeds pendulous ;
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embryo straight, in the axis of a fleshy albumen ; cotyledons leafy ; radicle
superior. Shrubs or small trees, with alternate, petiolate, feather-veined,
and stipulate leaves, and small axillary, bracteated, often unisexual flowers.
They are found in various parts of Asia, Africa, ahd America. There are
ten genera, with fifteen species. Of these North America possesses two
genera and two species.
^ribe 1. Hamamelece, Stamens eight to ten, of which the alternate ones
are alone fertile ; filaments very short. Ovules solitary in each cell.
Examples : *Hamamelis (H. virginica. Witch-hazel, U. S.), Trichochladus.
Tribe 2. Pother gilliece. Apetalous. Stamens somewhat indefinite; all
fertile ; filaments very long. Ovules one, solitary in each cell. Examples :
*Fothergilla, Parrotia.
Tribe 3. Bucklandiece. Cells with several ovules. Examples: Buck-
landia, Sedgwickia.
Order 127. BRUNiACEiE, the Brunia Family. Calyx five-cleft ; aestivation
imbricated. Petals inserted in the throat of the calyx, and alternate with
its segments. Stamens alternate with the petals arising from them, or from
a disk surrounding the ovary ; anthers introrse, two-celled, with longitudinal
dehiscence. Ovary usually adherent to the tube of the calyx, and one- to
three-celled ; ovules anatropal, suspended, one or two in each cell ; style
simple or bifid; stigmas one to three. Fruit either bicoccous and two-
celled, or indehiscent and one-celled, crowned by the persistent calyx.
Seeds solitary or in pairs, suspended, sometimes with a short arillus ; embryo
minute, at the base of fleshy albumen ; cotyledons short and fleshy ; radicle
conical, next the hilum. Branched, heath-like shrubs, with small, imbricated,
rigid, and entire leaves, and small, often capitate flowers. They are natives
principally of the Cape of Good Hope, and have no important properties.
There are fifteen known genera, according to Lindley, and sixty-five species
Examples : Brunia, Slaavia, Ophiria.
Ordqr 128. SAxiPRAGACEiE, the Saxifrage Family. Calyx superior, or
more or less inferior ; sepals usually five, more or less cohering at the base.
Petals usually five, perigynous, alternate with the lobes of the calyx, rarely
0. Stamens perigynouSj|^ve to ten or *, in one or more rows; anthers
bilocular, with longitudinal or porous dehiscence. Disk often present,
either annular or scaly. Ovary more or less completely united to the tube
of the calyx, consisting usually of two carpels, cohering by their face, but
distinct and diverging at the apex; -styles as many as the carpels, distinct
or combined; stigmas capitate or clavate. Placentas marginal (basal or
apicilar), rarely central. Fruit generally a one- or two-celled capsule, the
cells dehiscing at the ventral suture, and often divaricating when ripe.
Seeds usually*, rarely definite; spermoderm often reticulated; embryo
small, in the axis of fleshy albumen ; radicle pointing to the hilum. Shrubs,
or trees, or herbs, with alternate or opposite, usually exstipulate leaves.
They are generally natives of temperate climates, and some of them
characterize alpine districts. The order has been divided into the following
sub-orders :
Sub-order 1. Saxifragece, Petals five or 0; stamens five to ten; ovary
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more or less adherent ; styles usually two> and distinct ; herbs with alternate,
usually exstipulate leaves. Examples : *Saxifraga, *Heuchera, *Mitella.
Sub-order 2. EscalloniecB, Petals and stamens five; ovary inferior;
style simple; albumen oily. Evergreen shrubs, v^ith alternate, simple,
exstipulate leaves, found in the temperate regions of South America (one
species, Itea virginica, North America), often at great elevations.
Examples : Escallonia, ^Itea.
Sub-order 3. Hydrangece, Petals four to six ; stamens eight to twelve,
or * ; anthers sometimes biporose ; ovary more or less inferior ; styles two
to five, usually distinct. Shrubs with opposite, sometimes whorled,
exstipulate leaves ; flowers frequently cymose, with the exterior flower
sterile and dilated. Found chiefly in the temperate parts of Asia and
America. Examples : *Hydrangea, *Decumaria.
Sub-order 4. Cunoniacece. Petals four to five, or ; stamens eight to
ten, or * ; ovary half inferior ; styles two, distinct or combined : trees or
shrubs with opposite leaves, having interpetiolary stipules. Natives of
South America, East Indies, ' South Africa, and Australia. Example :
Codia.
The entire order contains fifty-seven genera and upwards of nine hundred
species. North America has fifteen genera and ninety species (Saxifraga
alone has forty-six). Saxifraga granulata, Europe {pL 69, fig, 2) ; fl,
tubers ; 6, upper part of the plant ; c, coronal scale ; d, sexual apparatus ; c,
calyx with capsule ; /, vertical section of ditto ; g-h, seeds.
Order 129. PfliLADELPHACEiE, the Mock Orange Family. Calyx, with a
four- to ten-divided, persistent limb. Petals alternate with the divisions of
the calyx, and equal to them in number ; aestivation convolute. Stamens
« (rarely ten), in one or two rows, arising from the orifice of the calyx.
Ovary adherent to the tube of the calyx ; styles distinct or united into one ;
stigmas four to ten; ovules«, attached to a central placenta. Fruit, a
four- to ten-celled capsule, free above. Seeds », scobiform, subulate,
smooth, pendulous, with a loose membranous arillus; albumen fleshy;
embryo straight, about as long as the albumen ; cotyledons flat ; radicle
next the hilum, obtuse. Shrubs with deciduous, opposite, exstipulate leaves,
without dots ; flowers usually in trichotomous cymes. They are natives of
the south of Europe, of North America, Japan, and India. They have no
marked properties. The flowers of Philadelphus coronarius, Syringo, have
a peculiar sweetish odor, which, to some persons, is overpowering and
disagreeable. Of the single genus Philadelphus five species are found in
North America.
Order 130. GROssuLACEiE or Ribesiacejs, the Gooseberry Family.
Calyx four- to five-cleft, regular, colored. Petals minute, perigynous, equal
in number to the segments of the calyx, and alternate with them. Stamens
four to five, alternate with the petals, and inserted into the throat of the
calyx ; filaments short ; anthers dithecal. Ovary unilocular, adherent to
the tube of the calyx ; ovules <*, anatropal, attached to two opposite parietal
placentas; style single, two- to four-cleft. Fruit a one-celled berry,
crowned with the remains of the flower. Seeds «, immersed in pulp, and
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150 BOTANY.
attached to the placentas by long thread-like funiculi ; spermoderm gelatinous
externally ; albumen horny ; embryo straight, minute ; radicle pointing to
the hilum. Shrubs with alternate lobed leaves, having a plicate vernation.
They are natives of temperate regions, and are found in Europe, Asia, and
America. Many yield edible fruits, which sometimes contain malic acid.
The various kinds of Gooseberry {Ribes grossularia), and Currant {Ribes
rubrum and nigrum) belong to this order. It contains two or three genera,
and nearly one hundred species. Examples : Ribes, Robsonia. The
family is represented in North America by the genus Ribes with twenty-
eight species.
Order 181. Cactaceä, the Cactus Family. Sepals numerous, usually
», and confounded with the petals ; adherent to the ovary. Petals numerous,
usually indefinite, sometimes irregular, inserted at the orifice of the calyx.
Stamens indefinite, cohering more or less with the petals and sepals;
filaments long, filiform ; anthers ovate, versatile. Ovary fleshy, inferior,
unilocular; style filiform ; stigmas numerous; ovules *, attached to parietal
placentas equal in number to the stigmas. Fruit succulent, one-celled.
Seeds «, parietal, or, after losing their adhesion to the placenta, nestling in
pulp, ovate or obovate ; albumen ; embryo straight, curved, or spiral ;
cotyledons thick, leafy, sometimes nearly obsolete; radicle thick, obtuse,
next the hilum. Succulent shrubs, with peculiar angular or flattened stems,
having the woody matter often arranged in wedges. Leaves usually
absent ; when present, fleshy, smooth, entire, or spinous. Flowers sessile,
ifometimes showy. They grow in hot, dry, and exposed places, and are
natives chiefly of the tropical parts of America. Some grow rapidly on the
lava in volcanic countries. There are sixteen known genera, and about
eight hundred species. Examples : *Opuntia, *Mammillaria, *Echinocactus,
♦Cereus, &c. These genera, with numerous species, represent the order in
(extra-Mexican) North America.
The plants of this order are remarkable for their succulence, for the great
development of their cellular tissue, and for the anomalous forms of their
stems, which sometimes are of great size. Opuntia vulgaris or prickly
pear yields an agreeable fruit. The Night Blooming Cereus (Cereus
grandiflorus) expands its large fragrant flowers only about ten p.m., which
become withered before morning.
Cereus hexagonus (pi. 69, fig, 3) ; 6, spines magnified.
Order 132. FicoiDEiE or MESEMBRVANTHACEiE, the Ficoid or Mesem-
bryanthemum Family. Sepals definite, usually five, but varying from four to
eight, more or less combined at the base, adherent to the ovary or distinct
firom it, equal or unequal ; SBstivation valvate or imbricate. Petals indefinite,
colored, sometimes 0. Stamens perigynous, distinct, definite, or indefinite ;
anthers oblong, incumbent. Ovary usually plurilocular ; stigmas several,
distinct ; ovules 00, anatropal or amphitropal, attached by cords to the
placenta, which is either central or parietal. Fruit a many-celled capsule,
opening in a stellate or circumscissile manner at the apex, or an indehiscent
nut. Seeds 00, rarely definite or even solitary ; embryo curved or spiral
on the outside of mealy albumen ; radicle next the hilum. Herbaceous ot
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BOTANY. 161
shrubby succulent plants, with opposite or alternate ;»imple leaves. They
are found in warm regions chiefly. The greater part of them grow at the
Cape of Good Hope. The order has been divided into three sections: 1.
Mesembryeae, numerous conspicuous petals, plurilocular capsule, with
stellate dehiscence. 2. Tetragonieae, petals 0, fruit woody and indehiscent.
3. Sesuvece, petals 0, capsule with circumscissile dehiscence. There are
sixteen known genera, and 440 species. Examples : M esembryanthemum,
Tetragonia, Aizoon, Sesuvium. No species of this order are fiative to
North America. Mesembryanthemum crystallinum is often cultivated in
green-houses under the name of ice-plant, so called from the peculiar
appearance of the leaves.
Mesembryanthemum rubrocinctum (pi. 69, ßg. 5).
Order 133. CRAssuLACEiE, the House-leek Family. Sepals three to
twenty, more or less united at the base. Petals equal to the sepals in
number, inserted in the bottom of the calyx, either distinct, or cohering in
a gamop^talous corolla. Stamens inserted with the petals, either equal to
them in number, and alternate with them, or twice as many, those opposite
the petals being shortest ; sometimes one or two rows of abortive stamens ;
filaments distinct or united, subulate ; anthers bilocular, dehiscing longi-
tudinally or transversely. Abortive stamens or scales (sometimes obsolete),
at the base of each carpel. Carpels equal in number to the petals and
opposite to them, one-celled, sometimes consolidated; styles several or
combined ; stigmas pointed or four-cornered ; ovules 00, or definite,
anatropal. Fruit consisting of several follicles, dehiscing by the ventral
suture, sometimes by the dorsal suture. Seeds variable in number ; embryo
straight, in the midst of fleshy albumen ; radicle pointing to the hilum.
Herbaceous plants or shrubs, often succulent, with simple, entire, or pinna-
tifid, exstipulate leaves. They are found in the driest situations, as on
rocks, walls, and sandy plains, in various parts of the world.
Tribe 1. Crassukce. Carpels (follicles) distinct ; dehiscent by the inner
suture. Sub-tribe 1. Isostemones. Stamens equal in number to the petals.
Section a. Eucrassuleae. Examples : *Tillfiea, Crassula. Section b.
Roche». Example : Rochea. Sub-tribe 2. Diplostemones. Stamens twice
as many as the petals. Section a. Umbilicese. Example: *Echeveria.
Section b. Sedeae. Examples : *Sedum, Sempervirum.
Tribe 2. Diamorphece. Carpels more or less united, dehiscent by the
separation of the dorsal portion. Examples : *Diamorpha, *Penthorum.
Some of the plants of this order are acrid, as Sedum acre ; Sempervivum
tectorum is known as the House-leek. There are five genera, with twenty
species, in North America.
Sedum acre. Stone crop, Europe (pi 69, ßg. 1) ; a, the plant ; ft, a
flower ; c, the five carpels ; rf, one of the same ; e, /, seeds ; g, leaves.
Order 134. SuRiANACEiE. Sepals five, persistent; aestivation twisted,
imbricated. Petals five, alternate with the sepals, distinct, inserted into the
bottom of the calyx. Stamens five, alternate with the petals, sometimes with
five alternating ones, that are occasionally abortive, all inserted with the
petals; filaments persistent, distinct, subulate firom a broad base, hairy
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162 BOTANY.
below ; anthers two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Torus fleshy, filling up
the bottom of the calyx, supporting the ovaries on its middle and the petals
and stamens on its margin. Ovaries five, opposite to the petals, distinct,
each with a long style arising from the inner angle near the base ; ovules
in pairs, collateral, erect, straight, with the foramen at the opposite
extremity from the hilum {id est, orthotropus). Fruit of five coriaceous,
pyriform, indehiscent carpels. Seeds solitary, uncinate, attached to the base
of the carpels ; albumen none. Embryo of the same shape as the seed ;
radicle as long os the cotyledons, at the opposite end from the hilum;
cotyledons oblong, fleshy, incumbent. Sea side shrubs. Leaves simple,
oblong-spatulate, thickish, pubescent, crowded at the apices of the branches,
exstipulate. Flowers yellow, bracteate, somewhat terminal. Suriana, the
sole genus, is represented in Florida by S. maritima.
Order 135. PARONYCHiACEiE, the Knotwort Family. Sepals four to five,
distinct or cohering. Petals perigynous, between the divisions of the calyx,
usually inconspicuous, sometimes 0. Stamens usually perigyno«s, some-
times hypogynous, opposite to the sepals when equal to them in number,
some of them occasionally wanting ; filaments distinct, rarely united ;
anthers bilocular. Ovary superior, with one or more ovules ; styles two to
three, distinct or combined. Fruit unilocular, either a utricle covered by
the calyx, or a three- valved capsule. Seeds either numerous, attached to a
free central placenta, or solitary and pendulous from a long funiculus
arising from the base of the fruit. Embryo more or less curved, on one
side of farinaceous albumen, or surrounding it. Herbaceous or somewhat
shrubby plants, with opposite or alternate, sometimes setaceous and
clustered leaves, which are either exstipulate or have scarious stipules.
Found in barren places in various parts of Europe, Asia, and North
America. They have no known properties of importance. The order has
been divided into two sections: 1. Illecebrese, with the embryo lying on
one side of the albumen, and stipulate leaves. 2. ScleranthesB, with a
peripherical embryo, and exstipulate leaves. There are twenty-eight known
genera, and nearly 120 species. Examples : *Paronychia, Illecebrum,
♦Polycarpon, Corrigiola, Scleranthus.
Order 136. PoRTULACACEiE, the Purslane Family. Sepals two, cohering
at the base. Petals usually five, rarely wanting, distinct or cohering at the
base, sometimes hypogynous. Stamens usually perigynous, variable in
number, all fertile, opposite the petals when of the same number ; filaments
distinct ; anthers versatile, bilocular, with longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary
free or partially adherent, one-celled, formed by three united carpels ; style
single or ; stigmas several. Fruit capsular, one-celled, opening by
circumscissile dehiscence, or by three valves, occasionally monospermous
or indehiscent. Seeds numerous or definite, or solitary, attached to a
central placenta ; albumen farinaceous ; embryo peripherical ; radicle long.
Succulent shrubs or herbs, with alternate, seldom opposite, entire, exstipulate
leaves, often having hairs in their axils. They are found in various parts
of the world, chiefly, however, in South America and at the Cape of Good
Hope. They have a great affinity to Caryophyllace«, from which they are
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BOTANY. 163
chiefly distinguished by their bisepalous calyx, perigynous stamens, and
transversely dehiscent capsule. Examples : *Portulaca, Talinum, ♦Calan-
drinia, ♦Claytonia, ♦Montia, ♦Calyptridium. These embrace all the North
American genera, with twenty-six species. The entire order includes
twelve genera, and 184 species.
OsDEB 137. TuBNERACEiE, the Tumcra Family. Calyx with five equal
lobes ; estivation imbricated. Petals five, perigynous, equal ; aestivation
twisted. Stamens five, perigynous, alternating with the petals ; filaments
distinct; anthers dithecal, innate, oblong. Ovary free, one-celled, with
three parietal placentas ; ovules « , anatropal ; style more or less cohering,
or forked; stigmas multifid. Fruit a one-celled, three-valved capsule,
dehiscing only half way down, in a loculicidal manner. Seeds crustaceous,
reticulated, arillate on one side ; embryo slightly curved, in the midst of
fleshy albumen ; cotyledons plano-convex ; radicle pointing to the hilum.
Herbaceous or somewhat shrubby plants, occasionally with stellate
pubescence, having alternate, exstipulate leaves, and frequently two glands
at the apex of the petiole. They are natives of the West Indies and
South America. They are not put to any important use. Lindley gives
two genera, including sixty species. Examples : *Turnera, Piriqueta.
Tumera cistoides, a Florida species, is our sole representative.
Order 138. PAssiFLORACEiE, the Passion-flower Family. Sepals five,
combined below into a more or less elongated tube. Petals five, perigynous,
often with filamentous or annular processes on their inside, which appear
to be an altered whorl or whorls of petals, occasionally wanting, imbricated
in aestivation. Stamens five, monadelphous, surrounding the gynophore
when present, rarely *, usually with processes firom the thalamus, interposed
between them and the petals ; anthers dithecal, extrorse, versatile, dehiscing
longitudinally ; pollen grains sometimes bursting by opercula. Ovary one-
celled, often with a gynophore ; ovules anatropal, * ; styles three ; stigmas
dilated. Fruit often stipulate, one-celled, sometimes three-valved, opening
by loculicidal dehiscence, or succulent and indehiscent. Seeds *, attached
to parietal placentas, arillate, or strophiolate ; spermoderm brittle and
sculptured ; embryo straight in the midst of this fleshy albumen ; radicle
pointing to the hilum. Herbs or shrubs, often climbing, with alternate, stipulate
or exstipulate leaves. The order has been divided into three sub-orders.
Sub-order I. Paropsiece, plants not climbing, with a sessile ovary, arillate
seeds, and exstipulate leaves.
Sub-order 2. Passiflorece, climbing plants with a stalked ovary, arillate
seeds, stipulate leaves, and glandular petioles.
Sub-order 3. Maksherbiece, plants not climbing, with a stalked ovary,
style below the apex of the ovary, strophiolate seeds, and exstipulate leaves.
They are natives chiefly of warm climates, and are found in America, the
East and West Indies. There are fourteen known genera, and 215 species.
Examples : Paropsia, Smeathmannia, *Passiflora, Tacsonia, Malesherbia.
Passiflora with four species represents this order in North America.
The name passion-flower was given on account of a fancied resemblance
to the appearances presented on 'Mount Calvary. In the five anthers, a
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i64 BOTANY*
resemblance was seen to the wounds of Christ ; the triple style represented
the three nails on the cross ; the central gynophore was the pillar of the
cross ; and the filamentous processes, the rays of light around the Savior's
head, or the crown of thorns. Some species, as Passiflora edulis or
Grenadilla, yield a pleasant fruit.
Order 139. BELvisiACEiE, the Belvisia Family. Calyx gamosepalous,
persistent, limb divided into five thick ovate segments ; sestivation valvatc.
Petals inserted in the tube of the calyx, united more or less, and forming
three verticils, the innermost of which may be considered as an altered
staminal row ; the outer petaline verticil consists of five plaited lobes, each
of which is seven-toothed, and has seven feathered ribs; the second
petaline verticil is cut into a number of narrow segments ; while the third
is an inconspicuous cup-like ring, with its edge minutely divided. Stamens
«, united at their base so as to be monadelphous, or unequally polyadelphous ;
filaments curved inwards ; anthers dithecal, oblong. Ovary surrounded by
a fleshy disk, and adherent to the tube of the calyx, five-celled ; ovules two
in each cell, attached to a central placenta, nucleus curved ; style five-
angled ; stigma broad, flat, pentagonal. Fruit a large, fleshy, rounded berry,
crowned by the lobes of the calyx. Seeds large, kidney-shaped ; cotyledons
plano-convex ; radicle and plumule immersed in their substance. Shrubs,
with alternate, simple, coriaceous, exstipulate leaves ; and axillary flowers
often in sets of three. They are tropical, chiefly African. Some of them
are used as astringents. Their place in the natural system is not well
determined; some placing the order next Passifloraceae, others near
SymplocaceoB, and Lindley recognising its affinity to Rhizophoraceae. There
are two genera, and four species. Ex. : Belvisia (Napoleona), Asteranthos.
Order 140. PAPAYACEiE, the Carica Family. Calyx minute, five-toothed.
Corolla monopetalous, inserted into' the base of the calyx ; in the male,
tubular and five-lobed ; in the female, divided nearly to the base into five
segments. In the section Pangiese the sepals and petals are distinct
Stamens ten, inserted into the throat of the corolla; anthers bilocular,
introrse, innate, dehiscing longitudinally. Ovary free, one-celled ; ovules
indefinite, attached to five parietal placentas ; stigma five-lobed, lacerated.
Fruit usually succulent and indehiscent, sometimes capsular and dehiscent,
one-celled. Seeds *, enveloped in a loose mucous coat, parietal ; spermo-
derm brittle, pitted ; embryo in the axis of fleshy albumen ; cotyledons flat ;
radicle slender, turned towards the hilum. Trees or shrubs, not branching,
with alternate lobed leaves, supported on long slender petioles, and with
unisexual flowers. They are found in South America and in other warm
countries. One of the most important plants of the order is Carica
papaya, the Papaw tree, which yields an acrid milky juice, and an edible
fruit. The tree is said to have the property of rendering meat tender. The
order has been divided into three sections : 1. Carice», corolla mono-
petalous, fruit succulent and indehiscent. 2. Modeccese, corolla monopetalous,
fruit capsular and dehiscent. 3. Pangieae, corolla polypetalous. There are
eleven known genera, including twenty-nine species. Examples : Carici^
Modecca, Pangium.
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Carica papaya, the West Indian Papaw (pi 71, ßg. 14) ; a, the tree with
the fruit ; ft, male flower ; c, section of do. ; d, stamen ; e, abortive pistil of
the male flower ; /, a female flower ; g, pistil ; h, cross-section of the fruit ;
i, a seed ; *, partial section of do. ; /, embryo.
Ordek 141. CucuRBiTACEJS, the Cucumber Family. Calyx five- (rarely
six-) toothed ; the limb sometimes obsolete. Petab five (rarely six),
distinct, or commonly more or less united with each other and coherent
with the calyx, very cellular and often marked with reticulated veins.
Stamens five, sometimes distinct, commonly united in three parcels (two
and two, and one separate) so as to appear like three stamens only, rarely
three and diadelphous ; filaments of each set sometimes connate ; anthers
usually long and sinuous, or variously contorted or folded, two-celled,
adnate, extrorse, commonly more or less connate. Ovary coherent with
the tube of the calyx, usually of three (rarely of two or four) united
carpels, sometimes one-celled by the obliteration of the partitions, or often
with each carpel spuriously two-celled by the introflexion of the placenta
fi-om the axis until it reaches the dorsal suture. Fruit fleshy or juicy, rarely
membranous, usually a pepo. Seeds anatropous, compressed, often
enveloped by a juicy or dry and membranous arillus ; the testa coriaceous ;
albumen none. Embryo straight ; cotyledons foliaceous, palmately veined.
Herbs with succulent stems, climbing by means of tendrils (which are
transformed stipules, according to St. Hilaire). Leaves alternate, palmately
veined. Flowers axillary, monoecious or dioecious, or rarely perfect.
Suh'Order 1. Nandirhobece. Tendrils axillar. Three distinct styles.
Three hollow cells, with many seeds ascending from the base. Example :
Fevillea.
Sub-order 2. Cucurbitece, Tendrils lateral. Styles united. Cells full,
with a parietal insertion of the seeds. Section 1. Coniandreae. Example:
Coniandre. Section 2. Melothrieae. Example : *Melothria. Section 3.
Bryonieae. Examples : *Bryonia, Citrullus, ♦Momordica, *Lagenaria.
Section 4. Cucumerinese. Examples : Cucumis, Cucurbita. Section 5.
Telfaireae. Example : Telfairia. Section 6. Cyclanthereae. Example :
Cyclanthera.
Sub-order 3. Sicyoidece. Tendrils lateral. A single cell with a single
ovule suspended from the summit. Example : ♦Sicyos.
Some of the plants of this order are medicinal, others aflTord a pleasant
fruit. Cucurbita citrullus is the water-melon. The pulp of the fruit of
Citrullus colocynthis is known in the pharmacopoeia as colocynth. The
calibash or bottle gourd is the fruit of Lagenaria vulgaris. Elaterin is the
active principle contained in the fruit of Momordica elaterium, or squirting
cucumber. The cucumber, the pumpkin, the squash, and the vegetable
marrow all belong to this order. There are about sixty-six genera, with
three hundred species in all, of which seven genera and nine species belong
to North America.
Cucumis citrullus. Water-melon (Asia) (pi 71, ßg. 11); a, flowering
branch ; h, flower ; c-rf, stamens ; e, stigma ; /, cross-section of fruit ; ^-t,
embryo.
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Momordica balsaminea, Balsam apple (East Indies) {pL 71, fig. 12) ; a,
branch with flowers and fruit ; 6, male flower ; c, do. without corolla ; rf,
female flower ; e, cross-section of the young fruit ; /, the fruit burst open ;
g, a seed ; Ä, do. without the testa ; t, cross-section of do.
Bryonia alba (Europe) (pi. 71, fig. 13) ; A, branch with male, B, do. with
female flowers ; C, root ; a, male flower ; ft, do. expanded ; c-d, stamens ;
e, female flower ; /, do. with the corolla cut away ; g, stigma ; A, fruit ; t,
cross-section of do. ; k, seed.
Order 142. LoASACEiE, the Chili Nettle Family. Calyx four- or five-
parted, persistent, spreading in aestivation. Petals five, cucullate, epigynous,
alternate with the segments of the cal)TC, sometimes with an inner row of
five, which are either similar to the outer or dissimilar ; aestivation inflexed,
valvate, or twisted. Stamens <* in several rows, distinct, or polyadelphous,
each parcel being opposite the outer petals ; filaments subulate, unequal, the
outer ones often sterile. Ovary inferior, one-celled, with parietal placentas ;
ovules anatropal ; styles combined into one ; stigma one or several. Fruit
capsular, or succulent, one-celled. Seeds without an arillus; embryo
straight, in the axis of fleshy albumen; cotyledons small, flat; embryo
pointing to the hilum. Herbaceous plants, hispid with stinging hairs,
having opposite or alternate exstipulate leaves, and axillary one-flowered
peduncles. They are American plants, chiefly distinguished for their
stinging qualities, and hence the name of Chili Nettle. There are fifteen
genera enumerated by Lindley, including seventy species. Examples:
Loasa, *Mentzelia, Gronovia, *Cevallia. In North America there are of
this order, Mentzelia with twelve, and Cevallia with one species.
Order 143. HALORAGACEiE, the Mares-tail Family. Calyx with a minute
limb, which is either three- or four-divided or entire ; it is sometimes
reduced to a mere rim. Petals epigynous or 0. Stamens epigynous, equal
in number to the petals, or twice as many, rarely fewer ; when the petals
are wanting, stamens often one or two. Ovary cohering with the tube of
the calyx, with one or more cells, sometimes tetragonal or compressed.
Style 0, what is frequently called the styles being the papulose stijymas,
which are equal in number to the cells; ovules pendulous, anatropal.
Fruit dry, indehiscent, membranous or bony, with one or more cells. Seed
solitary or in pairs, pendulous ; albumen fleshy or thin ; embryo straight, or
slightly curved, in the axis of the albumen ; cotyledons minute ; radicle
superior, long. Herbs, or undershrubs, often aquatic, with large air
cavities, having alternate, opposite, or whorled leaves, and axillary, sessile
flowers, which are occasionally unisexual. They are found in ditches and
lakes in various parts of the world. They have no properties of
importance. There are eight known genera, and about seventy species.
Examples : *Hippuris, Myriophyllum, Haloragis, Callitriche, *Proserpinaca.
North American species twelve.
Order 144. Onagrace-«, the Evening Primrose Family. Calyx tubular,
the limb having usually four, sometimes two, three, or six divisions, which
cohere in various ways; aestivation valvate. Petals usually equal in
number to the calycine segments, regular (rarely irregular), inserted into
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BOTANY. IST
the tube of the calyx , aestivation twisted. Stamens usually four or eight
(rarely one or two), epigynous ; filaments distinct ; pollen triangular,
usually cohering by threads. Ovary two- to four-celled, adherent, usually
with an epigynous disk ; style filiform ; stigma capitate or four-lobed ;
ovules indefinite, rarely definite, anatropal. Fruit succulent or capsular,
dehiscent or indehiscent, one,- two,- to four-celled. Seeds usually *,
exalbuminous ; embryo straight, with a long slender radicle pointing to the
hilum, and short cotyledons. Herbs or shrubs, with alternate or opposite,
simple, not dotted leaves, and with the parts of the flower usually
tetranerous. They inhabit chiefly temperate regions, and are found
abundantly in Europe, Asia, and America, and sparingly in Africa.
Tribe 1. Jussieuece. Calyx divided immediately above the ovary.
Number of stamens equal to, or double that of the petals. Fruit capsular,
with septicidal dehiscence, many seeded. Cotyledons straight. Examples :
*Jussieua, *Ludwigia.
Tribe 2. Onagrece, Calyx with the tube more or less elongated.
Number of stamens double that of petals. Fruit capsular with loculicidal
dehiscence, many seeded. Cotyledons straight. Examples : ♦Oenothera,
♦Gayophytum, *Epilobium.
Tribe 3. Gaurece, Calyx with the tube elongated. Number of stamens
double that of petals. Fruit indehiscent, nucumentaceous, one- to four-
seeded. Cotyledons twisted. Examples : *Gaura, *Stenosiphon.
Tribe 4. Fuchsiece. Calyx with the tube elongated. Number of
stamens double that of petals. Fruit fleshy. Cotyledons straight.
Example: Fuchsia.
Tribe 5. Lopeziece, Tube of calyx elongated. Petals four or more.
Stamens two or one. Fruit capsular, many seeded, with loculicidal
dehiscence. Example: Lopezia.
Tribe 6. Circaece, Calyx divided into two segments immediately above
the ovary : petals two ; stamens two. Fruit indehiscent, two-locular, two-
seeded. Examples: Circcea.
Of the above order there are about 30 genera and 450 species. North
America has 12 genera and 117 species. Among the more prominent
species is Oenothera biennis, the Evening Primrose.
Oenothera biennis, Evening Primrose, United States {pi. 69, fig, 6) ; fl,
a flowering branch ; 6, calyx ; c, stamen ; d, vertical section of calyx tube ;
«, burst capsule ; /, cross-section of do. ; g, seed.
Epilobium angustifolium. Willow-herb (Europe) {pi. 89, fig. 7) ; ö, a
flower branch ; 6, calyx with style and a stamen ; c, burst capsule ; d, a seed.
Order 145. MYRTACEiE, the Myrtle Family. Calyx four-, five-, six- to
eight-cleft, the limb sometimes cohering at the apex, and falling off* like a
lid ; aestivation valvate. Petals attached to the calyx, alternating with its
segments, and equal to them in number, with a quincuncial aestivation,
rarely 0. Stamens inserted with the petals, twice as many as the petals, or
• ; filaments distinct, or united in one or more parcels, curved inwards in
the bud ; anthers ovate, dithecal, with longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary
adherent to the tube of the calyx, one- to six-celled ; style and stigma
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168 BOTANY.
simple ; ovules anatropal, pendulous, or erect. Fruit dry or fleshy, dehiscent
or indehiscent. Seeds usually «, attached to a central placenta; mostly
exalbuminous ; embryo straight or curved; cotyledons distinct, or con-
solidated with the radicle, which is next the hilum. Trees or shrubs, with
opposite, rarely alternate leaves, which are usually entire and dotted, and
frequently have an intramarginal vein. They are natives chiefly of warm
countries, as South America and the East Indies. Many, however, are
found in more temperate regions. Some of the genera are peculiar to
Australia. The order has been divided into the following sub-orders :
Sub' order 1. ChamcBlaudece, heath-like plants, with a one-celled ovary
and capsule, and opposite dotted leaves.
Sub-order 2. LeptospermecB, having a plurilocular capsule, and opposite
and alternate, usually dotted leaves.
Sub-order 3. Myrtece, having a baccate fruit, distinct stamens, opposite
dotted leaves.
Sub-order 4. BarringtoniecB, having a fleshy, one-celled fruit, monadelphous
stamens, albuminous seeds, opposite or verticillate leaves, not dotted.
Sub-order 5. LecythidetB, having a plurilocular woody capsule, which either
remains closed or opens by a lid, monadelphous stamens, alternate, not dotted
leaves.
Several of these sub-orders are made separate orders by Lindley and
others. There are 77 known genera, and upwards of 1400 species.
Examples: Chamaelaucium, Calytrix, Leptospermum, Melaleuca, Metrosi-
deros, Eucalyptus, Myrtus, Psidium, Eugenia, Caryophyllus, Barringtonia,
Gustavia, Lecythis, Bertholletia. No species has yet been described from
North America, although some probably are to be found in Florida.
Those plants of this order, with pellucid dots in the leaves, yield a
volatile oil. Some furnish edible fruits. The clove of commerce is the
flower-bud of Caryophyllus aromaticus, originally from the Moluccas.
Allspice, or Pimento, is the dried berry of Eugenia pimenta, indigenous to
the West Indies and to Mexico. Psidium pyriferum yields the guava.
Punica granatum, the Pomegranate, is a well known ornamental species.
Cream or Brazil nuts are derived from Bertholletia excelsa. Sugar from
Eucalyptus, natives of New Holland, has recently excited the attention of
chemists. Cajeput oil is derived from species of Melaleuca.
Caryophyllus aromaticus, the Clove Tree {pL 69, fig, 12) ; ö, flowering
branch ; 6, flowers without ; c, ditto with stamens ; d, anther ; c, calyx ; /, g^
buds ; A-Ä, fruit ; /-n, the seed.
Melaleuca cajeput, the Cajeput Tree, Borneo, &c. {pi, 69, fig, 9) ; a, a
flowering .branch ; 6, flower in vertical section ; c, calyx; d, e, fruit.
Melaleuca fulgens. New Holland {pi. 69, fig, 10) ; a, a bundle of
filaments, with three petals and the pistil ; &, pistil.
Eugenia pimenta, Allspice, West Indies {pi. 69, fig, 11) ; a, a flower; 6,
ditto magnified ; c, calyx with pistil ; d, pistil with stamens ; e and g^
berries ; /, a twig with berries ; Ä, vertical section ; f-Ä, seeds.
Order 146. Melastomace-«, the Melastoma Family. Calyx with four,
five, or six divisions, which are more or less deep, or are sometimes united
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BOTANY. 169
and separate from the tube like a lid. Petals equal to the segments of the
calyx, perigynous, aestivation twisted. Stamens equal in number to the
petals, and alternate with them, usually with intermediate sterile ones;
filaments curved downwards in the young state ; anthers long, often beaked,
bilocular, dehiscing by two terminal pores, or longitudinally. Ovary more
or less adherent to the calyx, plurilocular ; ovules usually 00 ; style one :
stigma simple, either capitate or minute. Fruit plurilocular, either capsular,
with loculicidal dehiscence, or succulent, combined with the calyx and
indehiscent. Seeds «, minute, attached to central placentas, exalbuminous;
embryo, straight or curved ; cotyledons sometimes unequal, flat, or
convolute. Trees, shrubs, or herbs, with opposite, undivided, usually
entire, often three- to nine-ribbed leaves, not dotted. They are found
chiefly in warm climates. Many are natives of America and India. There
are no unwholesome plants in the order, and the succulent fruit of several
species is edible. A slight degree of astringency pervades all the plants of
the order, and hence some are used medicinally, in cases of diarrhoea. The
name Melastoma is derived from the circumstance that the fruit of some
dyes the lips black.
Tribe 1. Lavoisieriece. Anthers opening by one or two pores. Ovary
free, usually smooth at the summit. Fruit capsular. Seeds straight, ovoid,
or angular. Species all American (none in North America). Example :
Meriania.
Tribe 2. Rhexiece. Anthers opening by a single pore. Ovary free,
usually smooth at the summit. Fruit capsular. Seeds reniform. Species
all American (Rhexia, with eight species, the only North American).
Example : *Rhexia.
Tribe 3. Osbeckiece, Anthers opening by a single pore. Ovary free or
adherent, usually surmounted by setae, or scales. Fruit capsular or fleshy.
Seeds reniform. Old and New World. Example : Osbeckia.
Tribe 4. Miconiece, Anthers opening by one or two pores. Ovary
adherent. Fruit fleshy. Seeds straight. Plants mostly American.
Example : Cidemia.
Tribe 5. Charianthece. Anthers opening by longitudinal slits. Ovary
adherent. Fruit generally fleshy. Seeds straight. Plants American or
Asiatic. Example: Astronia.
Lindley gives 118 genera and 1200 species as belonging to this order.
Melastoma malabathricum, Malabar (pL 69, ßg. 13).
Order 147. CoMBRETACEiE, the Myrobalan Family. Cal3rx four- or five-
lobed, lobes deciduous. Petals arising from the orifice of the calyx,
alternate with the lobes, or wanting. Stamens epigynous, twice as many
as the lobes of the calyx, rarely equal in number, or thrice as many;
filaments distinct, subulate ; anthers dithecal, dehiscing longitudinally, or by
recurved valves. Ovary adherent to the tube of the calyx, unilocular:
ovules two to four, pendulous ; style one ; stigma simple. Fruit succulent
or nut-like, inferior, unilocular, indehiscent, often winged. Seed solitary,
pendulous, exalbuminous; cotyledons leafy, usually convolute, sometimes
plicate ; radicle turned towards the hilum. Trees or shrubs, with alternate
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1<M) BOTANY.
or opposite, exstipulate, entire leaves. They are natives of the tropical
regions of Asia, Africa, and America. The general property of the order is
astringency. Many are used for tanning, and some for dying. The fruit
of Terminalia belerica, and of T. chebula, under the name of Myrobalans,
is used as an astringent. The seeds of Terminalia catappa are eaten like
almonds. The order has been divided into three sub-orders :
Sitb'Order 1. Terminalie€B, petals 0, cotyledons convolute.
Sub-order 2, Combretets, petals present, cotyledons plicate.
Sub-order 3. Gyrocarpea, petals 0, cotyledons convolute, anthers dehiscing
by recurved valves.
There are 22 genera enumerated by Lindley, including 200 species.
Examples : * Terminalia, Combretum, Gyrocarpus, *Conocarpus. The order
is represented in Florida by Conocarpus erecta, and Terminalia catappa.
Order 148. VocHYsiACBiB, the Vochysia Family. Sepals four to five,
united at the base, unequal, the upper one largest and spurred ; aestivation
imbricated. Petals one, two, three, or five, alternate with the divisions of
the calyx, and inserted into its base, unequal. Stamens one to five, opposite
to, or alternate with the petals, perigynous, one having an ovate, fertile,
four-celled anther, the rest being sterile. Ovary free, or partially adherent
to the calyx, three-celled; ovules solitary or in pairs, rarely numerous,
amphitropal or anatropal ; style and stigma one. Fruit a triquetrous, three*
celled and three-valved capsule, usually with loculicidal dehiscence. Seeds
usually one to two in each cell^ erect, exalbuminous, attached to a central
placenta ; embryo straight ; cotyledons large and leafy ; radicle short and
superior. Trees or shrubs, with opposite, entire, exstipulate leaves. They
inhabit the warmer parts of America. Their properties are little known.
There are eight genera enumerated, including fifty-one species. Examples;
Vochysia, Qualea.
Order 149. RHizoPHORACBiE, the Mangrove Family. Calyx adherent,
four- to twelve-lobed ; aestivation valvate, or sometimes calyptriform.
Petals arising from the calyx, alternate with the lobes, and equal to them in
number. Stamens inserted with the petals, twice or thrice their number ;
filaments distinct, subulate ; anthers erect. Ovary two-, three-, to four-
celled ; ovules two or more in each cell, anatropal. Fruit indehiscent
adherent to the cal3rx, and crowned by it, unilocular, monospermous. Seed
solitary, pendulous, exalbuminous; cotyledons flat; radicle long, piercing
the fruit. Trees or shrubs, with simple opposite leaves, and deciduous
interpetiolary stipules. They are found on the muddy shores of the tropics.
There are five genera, and twenty species known. Examples : ♦Rhizophora,
Kandelia.
Rhizophora mangle or the Mangrove, forms thickets along the muddy
shores of the ocean in Florida, sending out adventitious shoots. The embryo
germinates while still within the pericarp.
Order 150. LvTHRACEiE, the Willow Strife Family. Calyx tubular,
lobed, the lobes sometimes with intermediate lobes or teeth, aestivation
valvate. Petals alternate with the primary lobes of the calyx, very
deciduous, sometimes 0. Stamens in.serted into the tube of the calyx a
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BOTANY. 161
little below the petals, equal in number to them, or two, three, or four times
as many ; anthers adnate, dithecal, introrse, with longitudinal dehiscence.
Ovary superior, two- to six-celled ; ovules numerous, anatropal ; style
filiform ; stigma usually capitate. Fruit a dehiscent membranous capsule,
surrounded by the calyx but not adherent to it, sometimes one-celled by the
obliteration of the dissepiment». Seeds numerous, small, apterous or
winged, exalbuminous, attached to a central placenta; embryo straight;
cotyledons flat and foliaceous ; radicle next the hilum. Herbs and shrubs,
with branches which are usually tetragonal, and with opposite, rarely
alternate, entire, exstipulate leaves without glands. They are natives of
Europe, North and South America, and India. The order is divided into
two sub-orders :
Sub-order 1. Lythrece, with apterous (wingless) seeds.
Sub-order 2. LagerstromiecB, with winged seeds.
Lindiey gives thirty-five genera, including three hundred species.
Examples : *Lythrum, ♦Cuphea, Lagerstromia.
Lythrum salicaria, the Willow Strife, is found in all quarters of the
globe. Lawsonia inermis furnishes the Henna of the Arabians, a substance
used in imparting an orange color. North American genera five, with ten
species.
Lythrum salicaria {pi 70, ßg, 1); A, lower part ; B, upper part; a,
portion of flower displayed ; b, an anther ; c-^, fruit ; f-gy seed.
Order 151. CALYCANTHACEiE, the Calycanthus Family. Sepals and
petals confounded, indefinite, combined in a fleshy tube ; eestivation imbri-
cated. Stamens •, perigynous; anthers adnate, extrorse, with longitudinal
dehiscence. Ovaries several, one-celled, adhering to the tube of the calyx ;
ovules solitary or two, one above the other, anatropal ; style terminal.
Fruit consisting of achaenia, inclosed in the fleshy tube of the calyx. Seed
exalbuminous; embryo straight; cotyledons convolute; radicle inferior.
Shrubs, with square stems, consisting of a central woody mass, with foui
smaller ones around ; leaves opposite, simple, scabrous, exstipulate. They
are natives of North America and Japan.
The genera are *Calycanthus and Chimonanthus, with six species.
Calycanthus *floridus is the so-called shrub of gardens, well known for the
sweet scented flowers caUed Shrubs. A second species is found in
California.
Order 152. RosACEiE, the Rose Family. Calyx four- to five-lobed, the
fifth lobe superior. Petals as many as the divisions of the calyx, often five,
sometimes wanting, perigynous, generally regular ; eestivation quincuncial.
Stamens inserted with the petals, definite or indefinite ; filaments incurved
in eestivation ; anthers bilocular, dehiscing longitudinally. Ovaries superior,
either solitary or several, unilocular, sometimes uniting so as to form a
many-celled pistil ; ovules one, two, or more, anatropal, suspended, rarely
erect ; styles lateral ; stigmas usually simple. Fruit either acheenia or
drupes, or follicles or pomes. Seeds erect or inverted, usually exalbuminous ;
embryo straight, with the radicle next the hilum, and leafy or fleshy
cotyledons. Herbaceous plants, or shrubs, or trees, with simple orr
ICONOORAPHIC BNCTCLOPiKDIA. — VOU II. 11 161
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162 BOTANY.
compound, alternate, stipulate leaves, and the flowers sometimes unisexual
They are found chiefly in the cold and temperate climates of the northern
hemisphere. Some are found on high mountains within the tropics, and a
few occur in warm regions.
Sub-order 1. Pomem. Calyx campanulate or urcedate, more or less
globose in fruit, when it becomes extremely thick and juicy, including and
cohering with the ovaries. Ovaries two to five, or sometimes solitary,
mostly coherent with each other, with two collateral ascending ovules;
styles terminal, sometimes coherent ; stigma simple or emarginate. Fruit a
pome one- to five-celled ; the cells sometimes spuriously divided by the
inflexion of the dorsal suture. Seeds one to two in each carpel (many in
Cydonia). Trees or shrubs (confined to temperate climates), with simple
or sometimes pinnate leaves, which, except in Cotoneaster, do not contain
hydrocyanic acid. Fruit usually eatable. Examples : ♦Pyrus, Cydonia,
♦Amelanchier, ♦Cratflcgus, *Photinia, *Peraphyllum, &c. This sub-order
includes some of our most important fruit, as the apple, the pear, d&c.
All the cultivated varieties of apple are derived from Pyrus malus,
those of the pear from P. communis. The principal North American
species is P. coronaria, the wild crab apple, a small tree with very fragrant
flowers. The different thorns mostly belong to Crataegus, of which North
America has seventeen species. The Service or June berry, Amelanchier
canadensis, blooms early in spring before the leaves put out, and at a
distance looks like a mass of snow. Cydonia vulgaris, the Quince, was
originally a native of Crete.
Sub-order 2. Rosacece proper. Tribe 1. RosetB. Calyx urceolate; the
tube contracted at the mouth, at length fleshy or baccate, including the
numerous distinct ovaries ; the segments somewhat spirally imbricated
in aestivation. Carpels (achaenia) one-seeded and indehiscent, crustaceous,
hairy, with two suspended ovules, one above the other, inserted on the
whole inner surface of the thickened torus or disk which lines the tube of
the calyx ; styles terminal or nearly so, somewhat exserted, distinct, or
connate above, rather persistent. Shrubby and prickly plants, with pinnate
leaves, rarely reduced to a single leaflet, and mostly adnate stipules.
Examples : *Rosa, Hultemia, Lowea. The principal genus in this sub-order
is Rosa, which includes the various species of Rose. Of the genus there
are eleven species and upwards, native to North America. The varieties
of Scotch roses are derived from R. spinosissima ; those of the dog-rose
from R. canina. The cabbage rose, R. centifolia, with its varieties, R.
damascena, the Damask rose, R. moschata, the musk-rose, &c., are used in
the preparation of Rose water and Otto of Roses. It is said that 100,000
roses, the produce of 10,000 bushels of Rosa damascena, yield but 180
grains of the attar or otto.
Tribe 2. NeureadecB, Calyx united to the carpels, the tube short, the
limb divided into five lobes. Petals five. Stamens twice this number.
Ten carpels coherent with the calyx, each containing suspended, an ovule ;
surmounted by five to ten styles ; separating at maturity by their anterior
face, which opens by the corresponding suture, remaining attached by the
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BOTANY. 16«
back to the tube of the calyx. The species are all from temperate North
and South Africa, herbaceous, with leaves once or twice pinnatifid.
Examples : Neurada, Grielum.
Tribe 8. DryadecB. Divisions of the calyx five, rarely four or more, the
aestivation usually valvate, often doubled by an exterior calicle produced by
the coherence of the calycinal stipules. Petals of the same number with
the divisions of the calyx, sometimes 0. Stamens definite or indefinite.
Carpels often numerous, sometimes reduced in number, borne on a central,
more or less projecting, receptacle ; free, with a terminal style, or more
frequently lateral, each containing one or two ovules, upright or suspended,
and subsequently a like number of dry or fleshy achaenia. Trees or shrubs,
with leaves compound, digitate, or pinnate, rarely simple. Inhabitants of
temperate regions for the most part ; some found at great elevations.
Sub-tribe 1. Dalibardece. No calicle. Stamens indefinite. Carpels
numerous, with the styles terminal. Radicle superior. Examples : "^Dali-
barda, *Rubus. The latter genus includes the various species of
Raspberry and Blackberry, of which there are twenty-three North American
species.
Sub-tribe 2. Fragariece. Calyx calicled, with valvate aestivation.
Stamens indefinite. Carpels numerous, with the styles lateral. Radicle
superior. Examples: *Fragaria, *Potentilla. The former genus includes
the strawberries, of which two species are indigenous to the United States.
One of these is P. vesca, the cultivated species, introduced into gardens,
from Europe, nevertheless wild in the Northern States. The other is F.
virginiana, the common wild strawberry. The two are readily distinguished
by the fruit. The latter has the achaenia (" seeds") completely embedded in
the deeply-pitted pulp ; in the former they stand out.
Sub-tribe 3. ChamcerhodecB, Calyx, with or without calicle, aestivation
valvate. Stamens five to ten. Number of carpels the same, or a little
greater, the styles nearly or quite lateral. Radicle superior. Examples :
'^Horkelia, "^Sibbaldia, *Chamaerhodos.
Sub-tribe 4. Sanguisorbece. Calyx with valvate or imbricate aestivation,
with or without calicle, hardening and closing above the ripe carpel.
Corolla mostly none. Stamens one to fifteen. Carpels two, rarely more.
Styles terminal or lateral. Radicle superior. Examples: '^Agrimonia,
*Sanguisorbia.
Sub-tribe 5. CercocarpecR, Calyx without a calicle, aestivation imbricated.
Petals five or 0. Stamens numerous. Carpel single, with the style
terminal. Radicle inferior. Examples : *Cercocarpus, *Purshia.
Sub-tribe 6. Eudryadeae. Calyx with valvate aestivation, with or without
cdicle. Stamens numerous. Carpels numerous, with the styles terminal.
Radicle inferior. Examples : *Geum, *Dryas, *Waldsteinia.
Tribe 4. Spirceacece, Limb of the calyx with five divisions, more or less
deep, aestivation imbricate, more rarely valvate. Petals of the same
number. Stamens indefinite. Carpels five, more rarely reduced to two,
and even one, free, verticillate, styles usually terminal, containing one, two,
or more ovules, suspended or ascending, becoming of the same number of
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follicles. Trees or shrubs, more rarely herbs, with simple or compound
leaves : the flowers white, yellow, or red, solitary or grouped in definite or
indefinite inflorescence. They contain astringent principles, together with
resin and volatile oil.
Sub-tribe 1. Spirece, Seeds Dot winged. Inhabitants of the northern
hemisphere, north of the tropic of Cancer. Examples : *Spir8ea, *GiIlenia,
*Nuttallia.
Sub-tribe 2. Quiltajece. Seeds winged. Inhabitants of tropical and
South America. Example : Lindleya.
Sub-order 3. Amygdalece, Calyx five-partite, with imbricate aestivation.
Petals five. Stamens numerous or indefinite. Carpel single, with style
entirely or nearly terminal, containing two suspended collateral ovules,
becoming one drupe. Seed with a membranaceous integument. Trees
and shrubs, with the branches sometimes spined ; leaves simple, often
bi-glandular ; flowers white or rose colored, disposed in racemes, corymbs, or
panicles, often developed before the leaves. Most of the species natives of
the north temperate zone, some inhabit Asia or tropical America, none
found in the southern hemisphere beyond the tropics. Many of the species
generally distributed by cultivation. The bark yields gum; the leaves,
bark, and the kernels of many species contain hydrocyanic acid. Examples:
Pygeum, Amygdalus, Persica, *Prunus. Amygdalus communis, the Almond
tree, grows native in Barbary and Eastern Asia. Of two principal varieties,
one (dulcis) furnishes the Sweet and the other (amara) the Bitter almond.
Sweet Almonds come from Valencia, and Malaga, Bitter from Mogadore.
The Peach (Persica vulgaris), a native of Persia, has fruit of two kinds.
Freestone and Clingstone; in the latter the pulp is adherent to the stone when
ripe. The Apricot, Armeriaca vulgaris, is also Asiatic. Prunus domestica
furnishes the difierent varieties of plum, one of which, when dried, occurs in
commerce as prunes. Several species of plum are indigenous to the
United States. The leaves of P. spinosa, the Sloe, are used to adulterate
tea. Cherries are the fruit of Prunus (Cerasus) avium. The poisonous
laurel of Europe is P. (Cerasus) laurocerasus.
Sub-order 4. Chrysobalanece. Calyx free from the ovary, or cohering
on one side with its base. Petals and the (somewhat definite or indefinite)
stamens more or less irregular in size and position. Ovary solitary, with
two collateral, erect ovules, the style arising from its base. Fruit a drupe.
Seed with a membranous integument. Trees or shrubs with simple,
glandless, entire leaves; flowers more or less irregular in racemes or
corymbs. Mostly natives of tropical America and Africa, rare in Asia.
Example : *Chrysobalanus. The fruit of C. icaco is the Cocoa plum of
Florida and the West Indies.
The entire order embraces about 82 genera and 1000 species, of which
30 genera and about 200 species are North American.
Potentilla anserina, Silver Weed, Europe and N. America {pL 70, fig. 4) ;
a, the plant ; ft, the flower ; c, calyx with the sexual apparatus ; d, calyx
from beneath ; e, anther.
Rosa moschata. Musk Rose, North Africa and South Asia {pL 70, fig. 3).
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Mespilus germanica, Medlar (pi. 70, ßg. 2) ; cz, a flowering branch; b,
firuit ; c, seed.
Amygdalus communis (var. dulcis), Sweet Almond (pL 70, fig. 5) ; A,
branch with flowers ; B, ditto with fruit ; a, flower ; ft, calyx ; c, petal ; d,
pistil ; e, fruit with the hull in vertical section ; /, nut ; g, h, seed or kernel ;
1, vertical section ; a, /, bases of leaves.
Order 153. MoRiNOACEiE, the Moringa Family. Calyx five-partite;
aestivation slightly imbricated. Petals five, rather unequal, upper one
ascending. Stamens eight or ten, perigynous ; filaments slightly petaloid,
callous, and hairy at the base; anthers simple, one-celled, with a thick
convex connective. Disk lining the tube of the calyx. Ovary superior,
stipitate, one-celled ; ovules anatropal, attached to parietal placentas ; style
filiform ; stigma simple. Fruit a pod-like capsule, one-celled, three-valved,
opening by loculicidal dehiscence. Seeds numerous, half buried in the
spongy substance of the valves, sometimes winged, exalbuminous ; embryo
with a superior, straight, small radicle, and fleshy cotyledons. Trees with
bi- or tri-pinnate, stipulate leaves, natives of the East Indies and Arabia.
Some of them are pungent and aromatic. The seeds of Moringa pterygo-
sperma, Horse-radish tree, are winged, and are called Ben-nuts. From
them is procured a fluid oil, used by watch-makers, and called Oil of
Ben. The root is pungent and stimulant, and resembles Horse-radish
in its taste. Lindley mentions one genus and four species. Example:
Moringa.
Order 154. LEGUMiNosiB, the Pea Family. Calyx five-partite, toothed,
or cleft, with the odd segment anterior; segments often unequal and
variously combined. Petals five, or by abortion four, three, two, one, or 0,
inserted into the base of the calyx, sometimes equal, but usually unequal,
often papilionaceous, with the odd petal superior. Stamens definite or
indefinite, usually perigynous, distinct, or monadelphous or diadelphous or
rarely triadelphous ; anthers bilocular, versatile. Ovary superior, one-
celled, consisting usually of a solitary carpel, sometimes of two to five ;
ovules one or many ; style simple, proceeding from the upper or ventral
suture ; stigma simple. Fruit a legume, or a drupe. Seeds solitary or
several, sometimes arillate, often curved; embryo usually exalbuminous,
straight, or with the radicle bent upon the edges of the cotyledons, which
are either epigeal or hypogeal in germination, and leafy (Phyllolobae) or
fleshy (Sarcolobee). Herbaceous plants, shrubs, or trees, with alternate,
usually compound leaves, having two stipules at the base of the petiole, and
two at the base of each leaflet in the pinnate leaves. Pedicels usually
articulated. The flowers are frequently papilionaceous, and the fruit is
commonly leguminous, and by the presence of one or other of these
characters the order may be recognised. The order now embraces 467
genera and 6500 species, of which North America has about seventy
genera, and 450 species.
Sub'Order 1. Papilionacea, Sepals imbricated (or sometimes slightly
valvate) in aestivation. Corolla papilionaceous or more or less irregular,
rarely wanting. Stamens ten, or occasionally fewer, inserted with the
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petals into the bottom of the calyx, or perigynous. Radicle bent back upon
the edge of the cotyledons, or straight. Leaves simple or simply compound
(in CassiesB sometimes bipinnate). Flowers usually perfect.
Tribe 1. Podalyriece, Ten free stamens. Legume bivalve, very rarely
indehiscent, and then shorter than the calyx. Cotyledons foliaceous in
germination, the radicle curved on their commissure. Leaves one- to
three-foliated, very rarely imparipinnate. 1. PodalyriecB, Examples:
♦Pickeringia, *Scolobus, *Baptisia. 2. Pultenece, Example: Burtonia.
3. Mirheliece. Example: Mirbelia.
Tribe 2. LotecB. Ten stamens monadelphous or diadelphous. Legume
bivalve, continuous (without articulations). Cotyledons foliaceous in
germination, radicle curved. Leaves one-, to three-, or many-foliated, often
paripinnate. 1. Genistece, Examples : Genista, *Lupinus. 2. Trifolien,
Examples: *Trifolium, *Melilotus, Medicago. 3. Galegece. Examples:
♦Amorpha, *Glycyrrhiza, *Psoralea, *Indigofera, *Robinia. 4. Astragalea.
Examples : *Astragalus, *Phaca.
Tribe 3. Yiciece. Ten diadelphous stamens. Legume bivalve, continuous.
Cotyledons thick, remaining underground in germination, radicle inflexed.
Leaves often paripinnate, with the petiole prolonged into a bristle or tendril.
Examples : *Vicia, *Lathyrus, Cicer.
Tribe 4. Hedysarece, Ten stamens mon- or di- adelphous. Legume
lomentaceous. Cotyledons foliaceous, radicle curved. Leaves one- to
three- foliated, or imparipinnate, often stipellate. L Coronillece. Example;
Coronilla. 2. Hedysarece, Examples : *Hedysarum, Arachis. 3. Alhagece,
Example : Nissolia.
Tribe 5. Phaseolece. Ten monadelphous stamens. Legume bivalve,
continuous, or interrupted by successive constrictions without articulation.
Cotyledons thick, hypogean or epigean, radicle curved. Leaves of three
leaflets, rarely of many pairs, often stipellate. L Clitoriece. Example ;
♦Clitoria. 2. Kennedy ece. Example : Physolobium. 3. Glycinece. Example :
♦Galactia, Glycine. 4. Dioclece. Example : Bionia. 5. ErythrinetB.
Examples : Mucunna, *Erythrina. 6. Wistariece, Examples : *Wistaria.
•Apios. 7. Euphaseolece. Examples : *Phaseolus, *Dolichos, ♦Vigna. 8.
Cajanece, Example : Fagelia. 9. Rhynchosiece. Examples : *Rhynchosia,
♦Pitchera. 10. Abrinece. Example : Abrus.
Tribe 6. Dalbergiece. Ten stamens, mon- or di- adelphous. Legume
indehiscent, often interrupted by constrictions. Cotyledons thick, fleshy ;
radicle curved, more rarely straight. Leaves pinnate, leaflets often alternate,
more rarely reduced to one. Example : Cyclolobium.
Tribe 7. Sophorece, Ten, more rarely nine to eight free stamens.
Legume indehiscent or bivalve. Cotyledons foliaceous or a little thick ;
radicle recurved or straight. Leaves imparipinnate or simple. Examples .
♦Sophora, *Cercis, *Cladrastis.
Many plants of the sub-order Papilionaceae, have beautiful showy flowers,
as Erythrina, Lathyrus, &c. Trifolium pratense, the common red clover,
and all the clovers, peas, beans, vetches, &c., belong here. Liquorice is
furnished by Glycyrrhiza glabra, a native of southern Europe. Species of
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Astragalus yield gum tragacanth. This is especially obtained from A.
verus, a native of Persia and Asia Minor. Myroxylon peruifenim furnishes
Balsam of Peru ; M. toluiferum, Balsam of Tolu. African Kino is produced
from Pterocarpus erinaceus. Cowitch consists of the hairs of Mucuna
pruriens. Species of Indigofera, as I. tinctoria and coerulea, yield indigo.
Red sandalwood is obtained from Pterocarpus santalinus. Tonga beans are
derived from Dipterix odorata. The peculiar flavor of Sapsago cheese is
owing to the flowers and seeds of a species of Melilotus. Arachis hypogsa
produces its legumes under ground, which are known as ground nuts.
Erythrina monosperma yields gumlac. The wood of Robinia pseudo-acacia,
or the Locust tree of the United States, is in much request for fence posts,
&c., on account of its great durability.
Sub-order 2. CcasalpiniecB, Flowers irregular, but not papilionaceous,
petals spreading, imbricated in «estivation, upper one interior. Seeds
without albumen, embryo often straight. Stems arborescent or shrubby,
sometimes climbing. Leaves simple, or more frequently compound, and
often bipinnate.
Tribe L LeptolobiecB» Calyx usually campanulate, five-fid. Petals five,
somewhat unequal. Ten fertile stamens, somewhat unequal, declined or
divergent Support of the ovary free. Leaves pari- or imparl- pinnate
(not bipinnate) ; leaflets tending to alternation. Example : Haematoxylon.
Tribe 2. Euccesalpiniece. Calyx five-fid, or more frequently five-partite.
Petals five, somewhat unequal. Ten fertile stamens, somewhat declined.
Support of the ovary free. Leaves bipinnate. Examples : "Oaesalpinia,
*6uilandina, *Gleditschia, *Gymnocladus.
Tribe 3. CassiecB, Calyx five-partite. Petals five. Stamens ten or less,
scarcely perigynous, some of them often deformed or wanting. Anthers
large, oblong or quadrangular, opening by a pore at the apex, more rarely
by a pore at the base. Support of the ovary free. Leaves paripinnate,
more rarely with somewhat alternating leaflets, with a terminal one.
Examples : *Cassia, Senna.
Tribe 4. Stoartxiea. Calyx with valvate dehiscence, sometimes bursting
irregularly, sometimes divided to the base in four to five nearly equal
segments. Petals five or less ; sometimes reduced to one, or entirely
absent. Stamens indefinite, more or less numerous, slightly or considerably
unequal, inserted with the petals on the receptacle, or else distinctly (but
rarely) on the calyx. Leaves imparipinnate ; leaflets numerous or solitary.
Bractlets mostly wanting. Example : Swartzia.
Tribe 5. Amherstiece, Calyx tubular inferiorly and persistent ; divisions
four to five, concave, imbricated, reflexed or caducous. Petals five or less,
reduced sometimes to one. Stamens ten or more, or less, all, or sometimes
one only, very long and folded in the bud. Support of the ovary most
generally united on one side with the tube of the calyx. Leaves pari-
rarely impari-pinnate. Example : Tamarindus.
Tribe 6. BauhiniecB. Calyx tubular inferiorly, persistent, the divisions
sometimes short and dentiform, sometimes elongated and valvate. Petals
five. Stamens ten or less. Support of the ovary free or united. Leaves
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compound, of a single pair of leaflets, which are distinct, or else united
by their borders, more rarely reduced to a single leaflet. Example:
Bauhinia.
Tribe 7. CynometrecB. Calyx four- to five-partite, the divisions imbricated,
reflexed, or flowering. Petals four to five, nearly equal, more rarely 0.
Support of the ovary free, extremely short. Ovule single or double.
Leaves compound, of one or more pairs of leaflets often tendmg to alter-
nation, with or without a terminal leaflet. Example : Copaifera.
Tribe 8. Dimorphandrece. Calyx campanulate, regular, five-toothed.
Five petals almost equal. Stamens five, fertile, nearly equal, alternating
with an equal number of sterile ones. Leaves singly or doubly pinnate.
Example: Mora.
Some species of Csesalpinieae have medicinal properties, as the Cassias,
from which senna is derived. Tamarindus indicus, or the Tamarind tree,
has a fruit with a laxative pulp. Ceratonia siliqua is the carob tree or
Locust tree, the firuit of which is supposed to have supplied St. John in the
wilderness. The Brazil wood of commerce is derived from Ceesalpinia
braziliensis. Haematoxylon campeachianum furnishes logwood. Balsam
of Copaiva is derived from various species of Copaifera. The seeds of
Gymnocladus canadensis or cofiee tree of the Western States, are some-
times roasted and used as a substitute for cofiee. Gleditschia triacanthos is
the Honey locust of the middle and southern States, conspicuous for its
numerous sharp spines.
Sub-order 3. Mimosece, Sepals and petals valvate in aestivation, regular;
the latter hypogynous, distinct, or more or less united. Stamens as many
as the petals, or very numerous (five to two hundred), hypogynous or inserted
into the base of the corolla. Embryo straight. Leaves paripinnate or
bipinnate. Flowers most frequently polygamous.
Tribe L Parkiece, ^Estivation of the calyx and corolla imbricated.
Examples : Erythrophlceum, Parkia.
Tribe 2. AcaciecB, ^Estivation of calyx and corolla valvate. Examples :
♦Algarobia, *Mimosa, ♦Acacia. Species of Acacia furnish various gums, as
Gum arabib. Gum Senegal, Barbary gum, &c. The pinnate leaves of
Mimosa sensitiva and pudica display a peculiar irritability when touched,
and are hence called sensitive plants.
Glycyrrhiza glabra. Liquorice wood (Southern Europe) {pL 70, fig, 14); a^g,
Phaseolus vulgaris (Europe) {pL 70, fig. 11).
Indigofera anil, Indigo (East Indies) {pL 70, fig. 13) ; a, firuit and flower
bearing branch ; b, a flower of the natural size ; c, anthers ; d-e, legumes ;
/, seed.
Genista tinctoria (Europe) {pi. 70, fig. 12) ; /, the stigma. The remaining
figures are easily recognisable.
Coronilla varia (Europe) {pi. 70, fig. 10) ; a, flowering branch ; 6, calyx;
c, vexillum ; d, ala ; c, carina ; /, stamens ; g, stigma ; A, legume ; i, ditto
opened ; Ä-/, seed.
Acacia vera. Gum arabic tree (Northern Africa) {pi. 70, fig. 6) ; the
difierent figures will readily be understood.
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Cassia lanoeolata, Senna (Upper Egypt and Nubia) (pi 70, ßg. 7) ;
flowering branch, half opened legume and seed.
Tamarindus indica, Tamarind tree (South Asia and central iVfrica) (pi
70, fig. 8) ; a, flowering branch ; b, sexual apparatus ; c, calyx and ovary
in cross-section ; d^ legume, partly in section ; e, seed.
Hsematoxylon campechianum, Lc^^ood (central America) (pi 70,
fig- 0) ; a, flowering branch ; b, cross-section of the young wood ; c,
flower ; d, do. from beneath ; c, portion of a flower with pistil, two stamens,
a petal, and a sepal ;/, sexual apparatus of natural size ; ^-t, buds ; k, a legume.
Order 155. Connabacea, the Connarus Family. Flowers bisexual,
rarely unisexual. Calyx five-partite, regular, persistent ; «estivation imbricate
or valvate. Petals five, inserted at the base of the calyx. Stamens twice
as many as the petals, inserted with them, and doubtfully hypogynous ;
filaments united at the base. Ovary consisting of one or more separate
carpels, each having a terminal style, and a dilated stigma ; ovules in pairs,
collateral, ascending, orthotropal. Fruit follicular, dehiscing along the
ventral suture. Seeds solitary or in pairs, erect, with or without albumen,
sometimes arillate ; embryo with a superior radicle, remote from the hilum,
and cotyledons, which are either fleshy or leafy. Trees or shrubs, with
compound, alternate, exstipulate leaves, which are not dotted. They are
tropical plants, some of which have febrifuge properties. Omphalobium
lamberti is said to furnish Zebrawood. This order, as well as the orders
Anacardiaceae and Amyridaceae, are by many considered truly hypogynous,
and as belonging to Thalamiflorse. Lindley notices five genera, and forty-
one species. Examples : Connarus, Omphalobium, Cnestis.
Order 156. AMYRiDACEiS, the Amyris Family. Flowers usually bisexual,
sometimes unisexual by abortion. Caljrx persistent, regular or nearly so,
with two to five divisions. Petals three to five, inserted at the base of the
calyx ; sstivation valvate or imbricated. Stamens twice or four times as
many as the petals, perigynous. Disk covering the base of the calyx, often
in a ring-like manner. Ovary superior, sessile, one- to five-celled ; ovules
in pairs, anatropal, pendulous or suspended ; style one or none ; stigma
simple or lobed, sometimes capitate. Fruit dry, one to five-celled, inde-
hiscent, or its epicarp splitting into valves. Seeds solitary, exalbuminous,
with a superior radicle next the hilum, and cotyledons, which are fleshy or
wrinkled. Trees or shrubs, abounding in resin, with opposite or alternate
compound leaves, which are frequently stipulate and dotted. They are
natives of tropical regions. There are two sub-orders :
Svb-order 1. AmyridecB, with an unilocular ovary.
Sub-order 2. BurserecB^ with a two- to five-celled ovary. Some look
upon the stamens of Amyridese as truly hypogynous, and consider the order
as allied to AurantiacesB.
Lindley gives twenty-two genera, and forty-five species. Examples :
'Amyris, Boswellia, Bursera, Balsamodendron. Amyris floridana is the
sole North American representative.
Various balsamic and resinous substances are obtained from plants of this
order. One of these is gum elemi. Olibanum, or the true Frankincense, is
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a product of Boswellia serrata, a large Indian tree. Balsamodendron myrrha,
a native of Abyssinia, supplies myrrh ; other species yield Bdellium, and
B. gileadense, Balm of Gilead.
Order 157. Anacardiacbje, the Cashew-nut Family. Flowers usually
unisexual. Calyx usually small and persistent, with five, or sometimes
three, four, or seven divisions. Petals equal in number to the calycine
divisions, perigynous, sometimes ; imbricated in SBstivation. Stamens
either equal to the petals in number, and alternate with them, or twice as
many or more ; filaments distinct or cohering at the base, usually perigynous.
Disk fleshy, annular, or cup-shaped, sometimes inconspicuous. Ovary
single, rarely five or six, free or adhering to the calyx, one-celled ; ovule
solitary, attached by a funiculus to the bottom, or along the side of the cell ;
styles one to three, occasionally four ; stigmas one to three or four. Fruit
usually drupaceous and indehiscent. Seed ascending or frequently
pendulous, from the adherence of the funiculus to the angle of the cell,
exalbuminous ; radicle inferior or superior, sometimes curved suddenly
back ; cotyledons thick, fleshy, or leafy. Trees or shrubs, with a resinous,
often caustic juice, and alternate leaves without dots. The order is a sub-
division of the TerebinthacesB of Jussieu. The plants inhabit chiefly the
tropical parts of America, Africa, and India ; some, however, are found in
Europe. There are forty-one known genera and ninety-five species.
Examples : Anacardium, Rhus, M angifera, Spondias.
Many species possess a caustic and poisonous juice. Some furnish edible
fruit. The Cashew-nut is obtained from Anacardium occidentale. The
Pistacia-nut is the fruit of Pistacia vera, cultivated in the south of Europe.
P. terebinthus supplies Chian turpentine, and P. lentiscus, the substance
called mastic. Some species of Rhus, found in the United States, as R.
toxicodendron, poison oak and poison vine, and R. venenata, known as
poison or swamp sumach, are much to be dreaded by persons of particular
constitutions, simple contact in many cases producing severe inflammation
of the skin. Some (not very well authenticated) instances are on record,
where simple proximity, with the wind blowing through the plant on an
individual, has caused the characteristic affection of the skin. Some
persons are able to handle these poisonous species of Rhus with impunity.
R. aromatica has highly fragrant leaves. R. typhina, copallina, and glabra,
are harmless North American species, known as sumachs, whose leaves and
young shoots, with those of R. coriaria, a European species, furnish the
tanner's sumach. Some species of the order supply varnishes. Japan
Lacquer is the juice of Stagmaria verniciflua ; Sylhet varnish, that of
Semecarpus anacardium.
Rhus cotinus, the Smoke tree. Southern Europe (pi. 71, ßg, 2) ; a, a
flowering branch ; 6, a flower magnified ; c, ditto without the petals ; d, an
anther ; c, /, fruit.
Anacardium occidentale. Cashew-nut, West Indies (pL 71, Jig. 1); a,
branch with flowers and fruit ; 6, flower ; c, calyx ; d, staminal tube ; e,
ditto laid open ; /, pistil ; g, cross-section of the nut.
Pistacia terebinthus. Turpentine tree, Mediterranean coast (/>/. 71,^. 8);
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«, flowering branch; b, male flower; c, anther; ^.female flowers; e, pistil;
/, fruit ; g, section of ditto.
Order 158. Rhamnace^ the Buckthorn Family. Calyx four- or five-
cleft, valvate in aestivation. Petals distinct, hooded, or convolute, inserted
into the throat of the calyx, sometimes 0. Stamens definite, opposite the
petals. Disk large, fleshy, flat, or urceolate. Ovary superior or half
superior, two-, three-, or four-celled ; ovules solitary, erect, anatropal.
Fruit fleshy and indehiscent, or dry and separating into three parts. Seeds
erect ; albumen fleshy, rarely ; embryo about as long as the seed, with a
short inferior radicle, and large flat cotyledons. Trees or shrubs, often
spiny, with simple, alternate, rarely opposite leaves, and minute stipules.
They are generally distributed over the globe, and are found both in
temperate and tropical regions. There are 43 genera and 250 species
enumerated. Of these four genera and thirty-four species are cited as
North American by Torrey and Gray.
Tribe 1. Paliurece. Shrubs of the Old World with alternate leaves.
Fruit semi-adherent, dry, crowned by a transversely circular wing.
Example: Ventilago.
Tribe 2. Franguk^B. Trees or shrubs spread over the temperate zones ;
with alternate leaves. Fruit without wings, free or semi-adherent, fleshy
or capsular, with the shell indehiscent or opening by an internal fissure.
Examples : *Berchemia, *Sageretia, *Rhamnus, *Ceanothus.
Tribe 3. Pomaderrece. Unarmed Australian shrubs with alternate leaves.
Fruit wingless, capsular, the shell opening by an introrse perforation, covered
by a mennbrane. Example : Trymalium.
Tribe 4. ColletiecB. Shrubs of temperate South America, the branches
terminated by a spine, leaves decussate, sometimes almost none. Fruit
wingless, free. Example: Colletia.
Tribe 5. Phylicece. Shrubs of the Cape and of extra- tropical Australia;
unarmed, leaves alternate. Fruit wingless, adherent, and crowned by the
calyx, capsular. Example : Spyridium.
Tribe 6. GouaniecB, Lianas or herbs of the tropics, or of South Africa ;
unarmed. Fruit adherent, separating by shells usually winged longi-
tudinally on the back, opening by an internal fissure. Example:
Helinus.
Rhamnus catharticus or the Buckthorn, naturalized in the United States,
is sometimes used medicinally. The greenish juice, when mixed with lime
and evaporated to dryness, forms the color called sap green. French berries
used in dyeing yellow are obtained from R. infectorius. Various species are
native in North America. Jujube is the fruit of Zizyphus jujuba. The
Lotus of the ancients is a second species, Z. lotus. The leaves of Ceanolhus
americanus were used in the revolutionary war as a substitute for tea.
Rhamnus catharticus. Buckthorn (Europe) {pL 11, fig ^ 7) ; ö, a flowering
branch ; ft, a male ; c, a female flower ; rf, a fruit ; e, ditto with part of the
flesh removed ; /, the seed ; g, do. in cross-section.
Order 159. STAPH¥LBACBiB, the Bladder-nut Family. Sepals five, united
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at the base, colored, imbricated in sestivatioD. Petals five, alternate with an
imbricated «estivation. Stamens five, alternate with the petals. Disk large
and urceolate. Ovary two- to three-celled, superior; ovules usually
ascending ; styles two to three, cohering at the base. Fruit membranous
or fleshy, indehiscent, or opening internally, often partly abortive. Seeds
anatropal, roundish, truncated at the hilum, with a bony testa ; albumen
generally ; embryo straight, with thick cotyledons and a small inferior
radicle. Shrubs, with opposite, pinnate leaves, having stipules and stipels.
The plants are irregularly scattered over the globe, and are found in
Europe, America, and Asia. Some of them appear to be subacrid, while
others are bitter and astringent. The species of Staphylea receive the
name of Bladder-nut, on account of their inflated bladder-like pericarp.
They are cultivated as handsome shrubs. Three known genera are
enumerated, and fourteen species. Example : *Staphylea. Staphylea
trifolia, or Bladder-nut, represents this order in America.
Order 160. CELASTRACEiE, the Spindle- tree Family. Sepals four to five,
imbricated in aestivation. Petals four to five, with a broad base, and an
imbricated aestivation, rarely wanting. Stamens alternate with the petals ;
anthers erect. Disk large, flat, and expanded, surrounding the ovary, to
which it adheres. Ovary superior, two- to five-celled ; ovules ascending,
one or numerous, attached to the axis by a short funiculus. Fruit either a
two- to five-celled capsule, with loculicidal dehiscence, or drupaceous.
Seeds one or many in each cell, anatropal, usually ascending, and sometimes
arillate ; albumen fleshy ; embryo straight, with flat cotyledons and a short
radicle. Small trees or shrubs, with simple, alternate, rarely opposite leaves,
and small deciduous stipules. They inhabit the warm parts of Europe,
North America, and Asia, and many are found at the Cape of Good Hope.
The order contains twenty-four known genera, and 260 species. It has
been divided into two tribes: 1. Euonymeae, with capsular fruit. 2.
Elaeodendreee, with drupaceous fruit. Examples : *Celastrus, *Euonymus,
♦Oreophila, Eleeodendron. Some authors include the last order with
Celastraceae, as a sub-order. In North America there are three genera
(Euonymus Celastrus, and Oreophila), with five species. Euonymus
americanus is called burning bush, from the bright scarlet arillodes and
crimson capsules.
Euonymusy europaeus, Spindle tree (Europe) (pi. 71, ßg. 5) ; a, flowering
branch ; ft, flower ; c, fruit ; d, seed ; e, vertical section of do.
Order 161. SxACKHOusiACEiE, the Stackhousia Family. Calyx five-cleft,
equal, with an inflated tube. Petals five, equal, inserted at the top of the
tube of the calyx, claws of the petals united, limb narrow and stellate.
Stamens five, unequal, attached to the tube of the calyx. Ovary superior,
three- to five-celled, cells partially distinct ; ovules solitary, erect ; styles
three to five, sometimes united at the base ; stigmas simple. Fruit consisting
of three to five indehiscent pieces, which are sometimes winged, and are
attached to a central persistent column. Seeds anatropal ; embryo long,
erect, in the axis of fleshy albumen. Shrubs with simple, entire, alternate,
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stipulate leaves, found in New Holland, and not possessing any marked
properties. Lindley notices two genera and ten species. Example :
Stackhousia.
Sub-class 4. Thalamißorce.
Calyx and corolla present ; petals distinct, inserted into the thalamus or
receptacle ; stamens hypogynous. This includes the hypogynous polypetalous
orders of Jussieu, and a diclinous order (Menispermaceee). Sometimes the
petals are abortive, and it is then difficult to determine whether the plant
belongs to this sub-class, or to Monochlamydeae.
Order 162. Coriariacea, the Coriaria Family. Flowers unisexual.
Calyx campanulate, five-parted; aestivation imbricate. Petals alternate
with the calycine segments, very small, fleshy, with a keel on the internal
surface. Stamens ten ; filaments filiform, distinct ; anthers dithecal, oblong.
Ovary composed usually of five carpels, attached to a thickened receptacle
or gynobase, five-celled ; ovules solitary, pendulous ; style ; stigmas five,
long and glandular. Fruit, consisting of five monospermous, indehiscent,
crustaceous carpels, inclosed by the enlarged petals. Seeds pendulous,
anatropal, exalbuminous ; embryo nearly straight ; cotyledons fleshy ;
radicle short and blunt. Shrubs with opposite squ^e branches, opposite,
simple, ribbed leaves, and scaly buds. They are found in small numbers in
the south of Europe, South America, India, and New Zealand. Some
of them are poisonous. Eight species of the single genus Coriaria are
known.
Order 163. OcHNACEiE, the Ochna Family. Sepals five, persistent,
imbricated in «estivation. Petals equal to, or twice as many as the sepals,
deciduous, spreading, imbricated in aestivation. Stamens five, opposite the
sepals, or ten, or indefinite ; filaments persistent, attached to a hypogynous
disk ; anthers bilocular, innate, opening by pores, or longitudinally. Carpels
as many as the petals, seated on an enlarged gynobase (thecaphore) ; ovule
erect or pendulous, styles united into one. Fruit gynobasic, consisting of
several succulent, indehiscent, monospermous carpels. Seeds anatropal,
usually exalbuminous ; embryo straight ; radicle short ; cotyledons thick.
Undershrubs or trees, with alternate, simple, stipulate leaves, and pedicels
articulated in the middle. They grow in tropical countries, and are
remarkable for the large succulent prolongation of the receptacle to which
the carpels are attached. They are generally bitter, and some of them are
used as tonics. Lindley enumerates six genera, comprehending eighty-two
species. Examples : Ochna, Gomphia, *Castela. This order is represented
in North America by a single species, Castela nicholsonii.
Order 164. SiMARUBACEiE, the Quassia and Simaruba Family. Flowers
usually hermaphrodite. Calyx in four or five divisions; aestivation
imbricated. Petals four or five, spreading or connivent into a kind of tube ;
aestivation twisted. Stamens twice as many as the petals ; filaments
arising from scales. Ovary four- or five-lobed, four- or five-celled, supported
on a gynophore ; ovules solitary ; style simple ; stigma four- or five-lobed.
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Fruit indehiscent, consisting of four or five drupes, arranged round a
common receptacle. Seeds anatropal, pendulous ; embryo exalbuminous.
Trees or shrubs, with exstipulate, alternate, usually compound leaves,
without dots. They are found in the tropical parts of America, Asia, and
Africa. Lindley gives ten genera and thirty-five species. Examples:
Simaruba, Quassia, Picraena. All the plants of this order are intensely
bitter. Quassia of commerce is obtained firom Quassia amara, a Surinam
shrub, and from Picraena excelsa, a native of the West Indies. It is
sometimes used illegally by brewers as a substitute for hops.
Order 165. ZANTHoxTLACEiE, the Zanthoxylon Family. Flowers
unisexual. Calyx in three, four, or five segments, with imbricated
oestivation. Petals the same* in number, rarely 0» usually larger than the
calyx ; aestivation imbricated or convolute. Stamens as many, or twice aa
many as the petals, not developed in the female flowers. Ovary consisting
of as many carpels as there are petals (sometimes fewer), the carpels being
either completely or partially united; ovules two, rarely four, in each
carpel ; styles more or less combined. Fruit baccate or membranous,
sometimes of two to five cells, sometimes of several drupes, or two-valved
capsules, of which the fleshy sarcocarp is partly separable from the
endocarp. Seeds solitary or in pairs, pendulous; embryo lying within
fleshy albumen ; radicle superior ; cotyledons ovate, flat. Trees or shrubs,
with exstipulate, alternate, or opposite leaves, having pellucid dots. They
exist chiefly in the tropical parts of America. Lindley enumerates 20
genera, including 110 species. The North American genera are Zan-
thoxylum, Ptelea, and Pitavia, with five species. Z. americanus, known as
prickly ash, or toothache tree, has an aromatic pungency in the leaves,
bark, and berries.
Order 166. RuTACEiE, the Rue Family. Calyx having four or five
segments, with an imbricated aestivation. Petals alternate with the
divisions of the calyx, distinct, or cohering below into a spurious gamope-
talous corolla, rarely wanting ; aestivation either contorted or valvate.
Stamens equal in number to the petals, or twice or thrice as many (rarely
fewer by abortion or non-development), usually hypogynous, but in some
instances perigynous. Between the stamens and ovary there is a more or
less cup-shaped disk, which is either free or united to the calyx. Ovary
sessile or supported on a gynophore, its carpels equal to the petals in
number, or fewer ; ovules two, rarely four or fewer in each carpel ; styles
adherent above ; stigma simple or dilated. Fruit capsular, its parts either
combined completely or partially ; seeds solitary or in pairs, albuminous or
exalbuminous ; embryo with a superior radicle. Trees or shrubs, with
exstipulate, opposite, or alternate leaves, usually covered with pellucid,
resinous dots, and hermaphrodite flowers. The order has been sub-divided
into two sub-orders :
Sub-order 1. RutecB, with albuminous seeds, and the fruit, with sarcocarp
and endocarp combined.
Sub-order 2. Diosmece, with exalbuminous seeds and a two-valved endo-
carp, which dehisces at the base, and when the fruit is ripe separates firom
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BOTANY. 176
« two-valved sarcocarp. Ruteee are found chiefly in the southern part of
the temperate zone, as in the south of Europe, while Diosmeae abound at the
Cape of Grood Hope and in New HoUand. The recently discovered
Rutosma texensis is the sole representative of the Rutese in America.
Lindley mentions 48 genera and 400 species. Examples : Ruta, Dictamnus,
Diosma, B||osma, Correa, Boronia, ^Rutosma.
Dictamnus albus (pi, OS, ßg. 10); a, b, a flower branch and leaf; c,
stamen ; d, pistil ; e, burst capsule ; /, half of the capsule with the endocarp
separated ; g, endocarp with the seed ; h, a seed. ^
Order 167. ZvooPHTLLACEiB, the Guaiacum Family. Calyx four- or five-
parted, with convolute aestivation. Petals alternate with the calycine
segments, with imbricated aestivation. Stamens twice as many as the
petals ; filaments dilated at the base, usually arising from scales. Ovary
simple, four- or five-celled; divisions occasionally formed by spurious
dissepiments. Ovules two or more in each cell, usually pendulous ; style
simple, four- or five-furrowed ; stigma sigiple, or four- or five-lobed. Fruit
capsular, or rarely fleshy, with four or five angles or wings, four- or five-
valved, either opening by loculicidal dehiscence, or indehiscent. Seeds
few, usually with whitish albumen, sometimes exalbuminous ; embryo green,
with foliaceous cotyledons, and a superior radicle. Herbs, shrubs, or trees,
with opposite, stipulate, usually compound leaves, which are not dolled, and
hermaphrodite flowers. They occur in various parts of the world, chiefly
in warm extratropical regions, as in the south of Europe, America, Africa,
and India. The order has been divided into two sections ; 1. Zygophylleae,
having albuminous seeds. 2. Tribule«, having exalbuminous seeds.
Lindley mentions seven genera, comprising one hundred species. Examples :
Zygophyllum, Guaiacum, Tribulus, *KallstroBma. The order is represented
in North America by Kallstroema maxima alone. Jussieu includes the last
four orders as sub-orders, under one general order, Zygophyllaceae. The
wood of Guaiacum oflicinale, a West Indian tree, is known as lignum vitae.
This species yields a resinous matter, known as Gum guaiac.
Guaiacum ofiicinale (pL 68, ßg. 9) ; a, flowering branch; b, anthers; c,
|HStil : d, an ovule magnified ; e, fruit.
Order 168. BRsxiACEiE, the Brexia Family. Calyx small, persistent, of
five coherent sepals, with an imbricated SBStivation. Petals five, with
twisted sestivation. Stamens five, alternate with the petals, arising from a
narrow cup or disk, which is toothed between each stamen ; anthers
bilocular, erect, opening longitudinally and introrsely. Ovary five-celled ;
ovules numerous, in two rows ; placentas central ; style one ; stigma simple.
Fruit drupaceous, five-celled, many-seeded. Seeds having two distinct
coverings, anatropal ; embryo straight ; radicle cylindrical ; cotyledons
ovate, obtuse. Trees with coriaceous, alternate leaves, having small
deciduous stipules. They exist principally in Madagascar. Lindley
associates some perigynous genera with Brexia, and places the order near
Saxifragace«. He enumerates four genera, including six species.
Example: Brexia.
Order 169. PiTTospoRACBiB, the Pittosporum Family. Sepals four or five»
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176 BOTANY.
deciduous, distinct, or partially united ; aestivation imbricated. Petals four or
five, sometimes slightly cohering, with imbricated aestivation. Stamens five,
distinct, alternate with the petals. Ovary single, two- to five-celled ; style,
one ; stigmas two to five, equal in number to the placentas. Fruit capsular or
berried, with many-seeded cells, which are sometimes incomplete;
dehiscence loculicidal. Seeds often enveloped in a glutinou^r resinous
pulp, anatropal, with a minute embryo lying in fleshy albumen; radicle
long; cotyledons very short. Trees or shrubs, with simple, alternate,
exstipulate leaves aad flowers, occasionally polygamous. They are found
chiefly in Australia. Many of them are resinous, and, in some instances,
the berries are eaten. Lindley mentions twelve genera, including seventy-
eight species. Examples : Pittosporum, Billardiera, Solly a.
Order 170. TROPiEOLACEiE, the Indian Cress Family. Sepals usually
five, the upper spurred; aestivation slightly imbricate. Petals often five,
hypogynous, more or less unequal, sometimes abortive ; aestivation convo-
lute. Stamens eight or ten, seldom fewer, free, almost perigjmous ; anthers
bilocular, innate. Ovary triquetrous, composed of three to five carpels,
with a single style, and three to five acute stigmas ; ovules solitary, often
pendulous. Fruit indehiscent, usually composed of three pieces. Seeds
exalbuminous, with a large embryo, which has thick, often united cotyledons,
and a radicle next the hilum. Herbaceous trailing or twining plants,
having a delicate texture, with alternate, exstipulate leaves, and axillary,
often gay flowers. They are extensively cultivated on account of their
showy yellow, orange, scarlet, and occasionally blue flowers. They have
more or less pungency in their fruit, which is used as a cress. The unripe
fruit of Tropaeolum majus, common Indian cress, has been pickled and used
as capers. Their roots are sometimes eaten. Lindley includes Limnantheae
in this order, and enumerates six genera, including forty-four species.
Example: Tropaeolum.
Order 171. OxALiDACEiE, the Wood-Sorrel Family. Sepals five, equal,
sometimes cohering slightly at the base, persistent, imbricate in aestivation
Petals five, equal, unguiculate, hypogynous, with a twisted aestivation.
Stamens ten, more or less monadelphous, in two rows ; those opposite the
petals being longer than those in the outer row ; anthers erect, bilocular.
Ovary usually quinquelocular ; styles filiform, distinct ; stigmas capitate
or slightly bifid. Fruit capsular, membranous or fleshy, usually five-celled,
and when dehiscent five- to ten-valved. Seeds few, anatropal, albuminous,
attached to a central placenta, sometimes with a peculiar elastic integument ;
embryo straight, as long as the fleshy albumen, with a long radicle and leafy
cotyledons. Herbs, undershrubs, or trees, with alternate, rarely opposite
compound (occasionally simple) leaves, which are generally without stipules.
They are found in the hot as well as the temperate parts of the world, and
are abundant in North America and at the Cape of Good Hope. In some
cases phyllodia, or winged petioles, occupy the place of leaves. There are
about six known genera, and upwards of 320 species. Examples : Oxalis,
Averrhoa, Hugonia. Five species of Oxalis represent this order in North
America. One of the species, O. acetosella, has an acid taste derived firom
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BOTANY. 177
the binoxalate of potassa which it contains. Some species yield tubers
which have been used as substitutes for potatoes.
Oxalis aceioseila, Wood Sorrel (Europe and America) (pL 67, fig, 10) ;
a, plant with the rhizome ; b, petal ; c, stamens ; d, capsule ; e, do. burst ;
/, cross-section ; g-h, seed.
O&DBR 172. BALSAMiNACEiE, the Balsam Family. Sepals five, irregular,
deciduous, the two inner and upper connate, colored, the lower (odd) sepal
spurred ; SBStivation imbricated. Petals alternate with the sepals, usually
four, in consequence of one being abortive, often more or less irregularly
united ; aestivation convolute. Stamens five. Ovary five-celled ; ovules
usually numerous ; stigma sessile, more or less five-lobed. Fruit a five-
celled capsule, opening septifragally, by five elastic valves. Seeds usually
numerous, suspended, exalbuminous, with a straight embryo, and radicle
next the hilum. Succulent herbaceous plants with watery juice, having
simple, opposite, or alternate, exstipulate leaves, and axillary irregular
flowers. They inhabit chiefly the East Indies, and are remarkable for the
force with which the seed vessels open when ripe. The valves give way
on account of the exosmose which goes on in the cells, and they then curl
up in a peculiar manner. They have usually showy flowers, but their
properties are unimportant. Lindley mentions two genera, including 110
species. Examples : *Impatiens, Hydrocera. The sole North American
representatives are two species of Impatiens, known as glass weed, and
considered by some of the Indian tribes as eflicacious in the bite of rattle-
snakes.
Order 173. LiNACEiE, the Flax Family. Sepals three, four, or five,
persistent, with an imbricated aestivation. Petals three, four, or five,
fugitive, *ünguiculate, hypogynous, with a twisted aestivation. Stamens
equal to the petals and alternate with them (with intermediate teeth or
abortive stamens), arising from a hypogynous annular disk ; anthers ovate,
erect. Ovary with as many cells and styles as sepals, seldom fewer ;
stigmas capitate ; ovules anatropal, pendulous. Fruit a plurilocular capsule,
pointed generally with the indurated base of the styles ; each loculament or
cell more or less completely divided by a spurious dissepiment, arising from
the dorsal suture, and opening by two valves at the apex. Seeds solitary
in each spurious cell, compressed, pendulous ; albumen usually in small
quantity, sometimes ; embryo straight ; cotyledons flat ; radicle next the
hilum. Annual and perennial plants, with exstipulate, simple, entire leaves,
which are usually alternate. They are scattered over the globe, but are
said to be most abundant in Europe, and in .the North of Africa. By some
authors the order is associated with Geraniaceae, from which it difiers in its
unbeaked fruit and exstipulate leaves, as well as the absence of joints in the
stem. There are three genera mentioned by Lindley, comprising ninety
species. Examples : Linum, Radiola. There are six North American
species of Linum. The principal plant of the order is Linum usitatissimum,
or the Flax plant. Flax is the woody fibre procured from the inner bark of
the stalk, by steeping and stripping off" the outer bark. When worked up
it forms the various linen fabrics. Mummy cloth is made of linen, as is
ICONOOBAFHIC BNCYOLOPiBDIA.— VOL. II. 12 111
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178 BOTANY.
well shown by its microscopical structure. The integument of the seed is
mucilaginous, and the cotyledons yield linseed oil by expression.
Linum usitatissimum, Flax (Egypt originally) {pL 68, fig. 13); a,
flowering branch ; 6, sepal ; c, sexual apparatus ; d, petal ; c,/, seed.
Order 174. GERANiACEiB, the Cranesbill Family. Sepals five, persistent,
more or less unequal, one sometimes spurred at the base; aestivation
imbricated. Petals five (or by abortion four), unguiculate, with contorted
aestivation. Stamens monadelphous, hypogynous, twice or thrice as many as
the petals, some occasionally abortive. Ovary of five carpels, placed round
an elongated axis ; ovules pendulous, solitary ; styles five, cohering round
the axis. Fruit formed of five one-seeded cocci, terminated each by an
indurated style, which curls upwards, carrying the coccus or pericarp with
it. Seeds exalbuminous, solitary, with a curved folded embryo, and leafy,
convolute, and plaited cotyledons. Herbs or shrubs with simple, stipulate
leaves, which are either opposite, or alternate with peduncles opposite to
them. They are distributed over various parts of the world. The species
of Pelargonium abound at the Cape of Good Hope. Lindley mentions four
genera, including, after separating hybrids, about five hundred species.
Examples : Geranium, Pelargonium. North America possesses two genera
(Geranium and Erodium), with eight species. The geraniums of the horti-
culturist in their different varieties, all belong to Pelargonium.
Geranium sanguineum, Cranesbill (Europe) {pi. 67, fig, 9) ; a, a flower
branch ; b, flower bud ; c, petal of natural size ; d, fruit ; e, seed.
Order 175. ViTACEiE, the Vine Family. Calyx small, nearly entire.
Petals four to five, sometimes cohering above, inserted outside an annular
hypogynous disk ; aestivation valvate. Stamens four to five, opposite to the
petals, inserted on the disk ; filaments free, or united at the base ; anthers
ovate, versatile. Ovary two- to six-celled ; ovules erect, anatropal ; style
one, very short ; stigma simple. Fruit pulpy and globular, not united to the
calyx, sometimes one-celled by abortion. Seeds one to four or five, erect,
with an osseous spermoderm, horny albumen, and an erect embryo.
Climbing shrubs, having the lower leaves opposite, the upper ones alternate.
Flowers in racemes, which are often opposite the leaves ; floral peduncles
sometimes becoming cirrhose. They inhabit the milder as well as the
hotter parts of both hemispheres, and abound in the West Indies. There
are seven genera and 260 species. Examples : * Vitis, *Cissus, *Ampelopsis.
Of this limited order. North America possesses the three genera
enumerated above, with nine species. Ampelopsis quinquefolia is a well
known climbing shrub, called «American ivy or Virginian creeper, which
runs along fences and up trees, and is capable of adhering to the sides of
houses and walls by expansions of the extremities of the tendrils
Owing to its rapid growth and intrinsic beauty, it is in much request as an
ornamental plant. The leaves in autumn acquire the deepest crimson tint
of any American species. It is perfectly innocuous, although looked on with
suspicion on account of a general resemblance to the poison vine (Rhus
radicans), from which it may always be readily distinguished by the leaflets
occurring in groups of fives and not of threes as in the latter species. The
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BOTANY. 179
most important plants of the order are the various species of Vitis or Vine,
of which there are five species in the United States. One of these, Vitis
labrusca or the Fox grape of the northern States, is probably the progenitor
of the varieties known as the Isabella, the Catawba, and others. Vitis
vulpina the Fox grape of the South, affords a pleasant fruit, and has probably
some cultivated varieties. The remaining North American species are of
little value. The native abode of the typical vine, Vitis vinifera, is not
known in its whole extent. It occurs wild in many parts of Europe, Asia,
and Africa, yet many localities of the kind may have been originally
supplied by plants which had been introduced from other places. Most
authors fix the original seat of this important species in the old Cyrenaica,
in the country between the Black and Caspian Seas. Here the vine attains
to a diameter of three to six inches, and mounts to the tops of the highest
trees. Omitting as unsuited to this part of our work, the details of wine
manufacture, we shall proceed to mention some of the principal varieties of
this liquor as it occurs in commerce.
Wines are distinguished in the first place into white and red. The white
are more or less yellow or brown, becoming darker by age ; the red derive
their color from the skins of the grapes, which are allowed to remain in
contact with the juice for a certain length of time. Of the Rhenish wines
the Asmannshauser is red, the Johannisberger, the Markobrunner, and the
Hochheimer, are white. The Leistenwein, Steinwein, Calmuth, Würzburger,
and Werthheimer, come from Franconia. The Melnicker comes from
Bohemia, Moselle from Trier and Coblentz : the Affenthaler from Baden.
The principal Hungarian wines are the Tokay, Menesch, Oedenburger , and
Ofen. The principal French wines are the white and red Bordeaux :
Medoc, Graves, and Burgundy : the champagnes, especially the foaming,
from Silleray, Epernay, &c. The Spanish wines are mostly yellowish
brown, or red, and sweet, as Sherry, Malaga, Benicarlo, &c. Port is a
highly prized Portuguese wine ; Madeira wine, and the Constantia from the
Cape of Good Hope, are much esteemed. Italian and Greek wines are
generally excellent, but rarely occur in commerce.
Vitis vinifera, wine grape (pL 67, ßg, 8) ; a, a branch with flowers and
tendrils ; 6, a bunch of grapes ; c, ovary ; d, sexual apparatus ; e, a perfect
flower ; /, cross-section of ovary ; g, pistil ; A, section of ovary ; i-A:, seed.
Obder 176. Cedrelace^, the Mahogany Family. Calyx four- to five-
cleft, with imbricated aestivation. Petals four to five, with imbricated
aestivation. Stamens eight to ten, united below into a tube, sometimes
distinct, inserted into a hypogynous annular disk ; anthers bilocular,
acuminated, with longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary usually four- or five-
celled ; ovules anatropal, pendulous ; style simple ; stigma peltate. Fruit a
capsule opening septifragally. Seeds winged ; albumen thin or ; embryo
straight, erect ; cotyledons fleshy. Trees with alternate, pinnate, exstipulate
leaves. They are found in the tropical parts of America and Asia.
Lindley enumerates nine genera, including twenty-five species. Examples :
Cedrela, *Swietenia. This order includes as its most important species,
the mahogany tree, Swietenia mahogoni, a native of the West Indies and
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of central America, and probably of Florida. Most of the mahogany wood
of commerce comes from the bay of Honduras, and is brought in logs. One
of the largest logs ever exported was seventeen feet long, fifty-seven inches
broad, and sixty-four inches thick, weighing 30,000lbs.
Swietenia mahogoni, Mahogany tree (pL 67, fig. 7) ; a, a flowering
branch ; 6, corolla with staminal tube ; c, the latter expanded ; d, anther ;
e, pistil ; /, cross-section of ovary ; g, capsule ; A, ditto opened ; i, a winged seed.
Order 177. MELiACEiE, the Melia Family. Sepals four to five, more or
less united, with an imbricated eestivation. Petals four to five, hypögynous,
sometimes cohering at the base, with a valvate or imbricated sestivation.
Stamens equal in number to the petals, or two, three, or four times as many;
filaments combined in a long tube ; anthers sessile within the orifice of the
tube. Disk often large and cup-shaped. Ovary single, plurilocular, the
cells often equal in number to the petals ; ovules usually anatropal, one to
two in each cell ; style one ; stigmas distinct or united. Fruit baccate,
drupaceous or capsular, multilocular or by abortion unilocular, when valves
are present opening by loculicidal dehiscence. Seeds not winged ; albumen
usually absent ; embryo straight, with leafy cotyledons. Trees or shrubs
with alternate (occasionally opposite), exstipulate, simple, or pinnate leaves.
They are chiefly found in the tropical parts of America and Asia. Tribe
1. MeliecB. Embryo in a perisperm. Leaflets often dentated. Example:
Melia. Tribe 2. Trichiliece, Embryo without perisperm. Leaflets very
entire. Example : Trichilia.
Of the entire order there are about forty genera and 160 species. There
are none North American. Melia azedarach, however, is naturalized in the
southern States. It is there known as the Pride of China.
Order 178. RnizoBOLACEiE, the Souari-Nut Family. Sepals five, more or
less combined ; aestivation imbricated. Petals usually five, unequal, thickish.
Stamens indefinite, slightly monadelphous, arising from a hypogynous disk,
in a double row of which the inner is often abortive ; anthers roundish,
with longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary four- to five-celled ; ovules solitary,
semi-anatropal ; styles as many as the cells of the ovary ; stigmas simple.
Fruit formed of several indehi scent, one-celled, one-seeded nuts, with a
thick double endocarp. Seeds reniform, exalbuminous, with the funiculus
dilated into a spongy excrescence ; embryo with a very large radicle, which
constitutes nearly the whole of the kernel ; cotyledons small, lying in a
furrow of the radicle. Trees with opposite, palmately compound, coriaceous,
exstipulate leaves. They grow in the warm forests of South America.
Some of them furnish oil, others yield edible nuts. Souari nuts are the
produce of Caryocar butyrosum (Pekea butyrosa). Lindley notices two
genera and eight species. Examples : Caryocar, Anthodiscus.
Order 179. SAPiNDACEiE. Flowers usually polygamous. Sepals four to
five, distinct or nearly so, imbricated in aestivation. Petals as many as the
sepals and alternate with them, or fewer by the abortion of one (sometimes
entirely wanting), inserted outside the hypogynous disk (or row of glands)
which occupies the bottom of the calyx ; the inside either naked or hairy,
glandular or furnished with a petaloid scale. Stamens eight or ten, rarely
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fewer or more numerous, inserted either on the disk or between the glands
and the ovary ; filaments distinct or very slightly united at the base ;
anthers introrse (the pistil of the staminate flowers either rudimentary or
entirely wanting). Ovary composed of three (rarely two to five) united
carpels ; styles partly or completely united ; ovules solitary in each cell ;
erect or ascending; sometimes two, the upper one ascending, the lower
suspended; rarely three or more. Fruit two- to three-celled, capsular,
vesicular, or samaroid, or frequently fleshy and indehiscent. Seeds one to
three in each cdl, usually arilled, without albumen. Embr)^o rarely straight ;
the cotyledons usually incumbent on the radicle, or spirally convolute,
sometimes combined into a thick mass. Trees or tendril-bearing shrubs or
herbs. Leaves alternate, usually compound and exstipulate, often marked
with pellucid lines or dots. Flowers small. Tribe 1. Sapindece, Ovary
with one ovule in each cell. Embryo curved or rarely straight. Examples :
*Cardiospermum, ^Sapindus, Paullinia. Tribe 2. Dodonceacece. Ovary with
two to three (rarely more) ovules in each cell. Embryo spirally convolute.
Example : ^Dodonasa.
The entire order embraces nearly sixty genera ; of which three, with aa
many species, are North American. The fruit of Sapindus saponaria,
known in the West Indies as Soap berries, supplies a substitute for soap.
Paullinia pinnata (South America) {pi. ßß, fig, 14) ; a-d.
Ordee 180. HippocASTANEACEiE, the Horse-Chestnut Family. Sepals
five, usually united into a campanulate or tubular five-toothed calyx;
Aestivation imbricated. Petals five, or four by the suppression of the
inferior one, commonly unequal and irregular, unguiculate, hypogynous.
Stamens six to eight, commonly seven, distinct, unequal, inserted upon the
hypogynous disk ; anthers oval, versatile. Ovary roundish, composed of
three united carpels, three-celled, with two collateral ovules in each cell ;
style filiform, acute. Fruit subglobose, coriaceous, three- (or frequently by
suppression one- to two-) celled, two- to three-valved, with loculicidal
dehiscence. Seeds solitary or very few, large, with a smooth or shining
testa, and a broad pale hilum, somewhat campylotropous, with no albumen.
Cotyledons very thick and fleshy, gibbous, cohering, remaining under ground
in germination ; radicle conical, curved ; plumule large, two-leaved. Trees
or shrubs. Leaves opposite (in Ungnodia alternate), exstipulate, compound ;
leaflets serrate. Flowers showy ; pedicels articulated. This order, composed
of the three genera Aesculus, Pavia, and Ungnodia, is North American,
excepting a single species. Aesculus hippocastaneum, from Thibet. Native
species of Aesculus are known in the United States as Buckeyes. The
powdered seeds of A. pavia may be used like Cocculus indicus, to stupefy
fish. The root also may be used as a substitute for soap in washing woollen
cloths.
Aesculus pavia. Small Buckeye (United States) {pi 66, fig. 15) ; a, a
flowering branch ; 6, upper and lower petals ; c, vertical section of ovary ;
d^ fruit
Order 181. Aceraceä, the Maple Family. Calyx divided into fivC;
rarely into four or nine parts, with an imbricated aestivation. Petals equal
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182 BOTANY.
in number to the lobes of the calyx, with which they alternate ; rarely
wanting. Stamens generally eight, inserted on a hypogynous disk. Ovary
free, two-lobed, two-celled ; ovules in pairs ; amphitropal, pendulous ; style
one ; stigmas two. Fruit, a samara, composed of two winged carpels, each
one-celled, with one to two seeds. Seeds erect, exalbuminous ; embryo
curved, with foliaceous cotyledons, and the radicle next the hilum. Trees
with opposite, simple, lobed or palmate, exstipulate leaves. Flowers often
polygamous. They are confined chiefly to the temperate parts of Europe,
Asia, and North America. They yield a saccharine sap, from which sugar
is sometimes manufactured. Acer saccharinum is the Sugar Maple of
America. Acer pseudo-platanus, the Sycamore or Great Maple (the Plane-
tree of Scotland), acts well as a shelter or break-wind in exposed places, as
near the sea. Its sap is slightly saccharine. Its wood is used in machinery
and for charcoal. The leaves are often covered with black spots, caused
by the attack of a fungus, Xyloma or Rytisma acerinum. There are three
known genera, and sixty species. Examples : Acer, Negundo, Dobinea.
Of these genera, the two first with thirteen species are N^rth American.
Acer pseudo-platanus (Europe) (/>/. 67, fig, 1) ; a, a flowering branch ;
6, a male ; c, female flower ; d, the winged fruit ; c, the seed.
Order 182. MALPiGHiACEiE, the Malpighia Family. Sepals five, slightly
united, persistent, often glandular at the base; aestivation imbricated.
Petals five, unguiculate, with convolute aestivation. Stamens usually ten,
often monadelphous ; anthers roundish, with a projecting process from the
connective. Ovary formed by three (rarely two or four) carpels, more or
less combined ; ovules solitary, with a long pendulous cord ; styles three,
distinct or united. Fruit dry or fleshy, sometimes winged. Seeds solitary,
orthotropal, suspended, exalbuminous ; embryo straight or curved in various
ways ; cotyledons foliaceous or thickish. Trees or shrubs, sometimes
climbing, with simple, opposite, or very rarely alternate, stipulate leaves
Without dots. Hairs, when present, peltate. Flowers either perfect or
unisexual. They are inhabitants of tropical countries chiefly, and a great
number of them are found in South America. Lindley notices forty-two
genera, including 555 species.
Section A. Diplostemones, Number of stamens always double that of
petals, some of them occasionally sterile. Styles usually two to three. The
same number of ovaries united. Flowers of one form only.
Tribe 1. Malpighiece, Fruit wingless. Example: Malpighia.
Tribe 2. Banisteriece. Carpels provided with wings, the dorsal solely of
most developed. Example : Lophopterys.
Tribe 3. Hircece. Carpels winged ; the marginal solely or most developed.
Example : Molina.
Section B. Meiostemones, The whole or part of the altemipetalous
stamens wanting. Style single by the abortion of two others. Ovaries
distinct. Flowers of two different forms on the same plant.
Tribe 4. GaudichaudiecB. Carpels with or without wings. Example:
Gaudichaudia.
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Malpighia urens (South America and West Indies) {pi 67, ßg. 2) ; a,
flowering branch ; b, calyx ; c, petal ; d, stamens and pistil.
Order 183. ERTTHRoxYLACEiE, the Erythroxylon Family. Sepals five,
united at the base, persistent ; sestivation imbricated. Petals five, hypo-
gynous, broad and with a small scale at the base» slightly contorted in
«estivation. Stamens ten, monadelphous ; anthers erect ; bilocular, with
longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary three-celled, two of which are sometimes
abortive ; styles three, distinct, or united ; stigmas three ; ovule single,
pendulous. Fruit a one-seeded drupe. Seed angular, anatropal ; embryo
in the axis of firm albumen, rarely exalbuminous ; cotyledons linear, flat, and
leafy. Shrubs or trees with alternate stipulate leaves. Flowers arising
from numerous, imbricated, scale-like bracts. Found chiefly in the West
Indies and South America. The plants of the order have tonic, purgative,
and narcotic qualities. The leaves of Erythroxylon coca are used in Peru
as a stimulant Uke opium. Some yield a dye. There are two or three
known genera, and about eighty species. Examples : Erythroxylon,
Sethia.
Order 184. Hippocrateacea, the Hippocratea Family. Sepals five,
very small, united up to the middle, persistent, with an imbricated aestivation.
Petals five, with an imbricated aestivation. Stamens three, monadelphous ;
the united filaments forming a tube or a disk-like cup round the ovary ;
anthers with transverse dehiscence. Ovary free,, trilocular ; style one ;
stigmas one to three. Fruit consisting either of three samaroid carpels, or
fleshy and one- to three-celled. Seeds definite, about four in each cell,
attached to a central placenta, exalbuminous, anatropal, with a straight
embryo, and flat, somewhat fleshy cotyledons. Arborescent or climbing
shrubs, with opposite, simple, somewhat coriaceous leaves, having small
deciduous stipules. They are found principally in South America ; a few
are natives of Africa and the East Indies. The fruit of some is eatable.
Lindley mentions six genera, comprehending eighty-six species. Examples :
Hippocratea, Salacia.
Order 185. M ARcoRAAviAOEiE, the Marcgravia Family. Sepals two to
seven, usually coriaceous and persistent; aestivation imbricated. Corolla
hypogynous, of five petals, or gamopetalous, calyptriform, entire or torn at
the point. Stamens usually 00, very rarely five, hypogynous ; filaments
dilated at the base ; anthers long, erect, introrse. Ovary single, unilocular ;
style one ; stigma often capitate. Fruit coriaceous, indehiscent, or dehiscing
by valves in a loculicidal manner, the placentas being parietal and forming
spurious dissepiments. Seeds indefinite, minute, in a pulp, anatropal,
exalbuminous ; embryo straight. Trees and shrubs, with alternate, simple,
entire, coriaceous, and exstipulate leaves. Flowers furnished occasionally
with bracts, which are folded and united so as to form ascidia. They occur
chiefly in the warmer parts of America. Their properties are scarcely
known. There are four genera mentioned, and twenty-six species.
Examples : Marcgraavia, Norantea.
Order 186. Güttiperä, or CLusiACEiE, the Gamboge Family. Sepals two
to six, or eight, usually persistent, round, frequently unequal and colored ;
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184 BOTANY.
«stivation imbricated. Petals hypogynous, equal to, or a multiple of, the
sepals. Stamens hypogynous, usually 00, rarely definite, free, or variously
united at the base ; filaments unequal in length ; anthers adnate, introrse
or extrorse, sometimes very small, occasionally unilocular, and sometimes
with porous or circumscissile dehiscence. Thalamus, forming a fleshy
sometimes five-lobed disk. Ovary solitary, one- or many-celled; ovules
either solitary and erect, or ascending and numerous, and attached to
central placentas ; style or very short ; stigmas eltate or radiate. Fruit
dry or fleshy, one- or many-celled, one- or many-seeded, either with
septicidal dehiscence or indehiscent. Seeds definite, anatropal, orthotropal,
in a pulp, apterous, and often arillate, with a thin and membranous
spermoderm ; albumen ; embryo straight ; cotyledons usually cohering.
Trees or shrubs, sometimes parasitical, with exstipulate, opposite,
coriaceous, entire leaves, having a strong midrib, and lateral veins running
directly to the margin. Flowers articulated with the peduncle, often
unisexual by abortion. They are natives of tropical regions, more
especially of South America. Lindley enumerates 30 genera, including
160 species. Tribe 1. Clusiece. Ovary many-celled, one- or many-seeded.
Fruit capsular. Example : *Clusia. Tribe 2. Moronobece, Ovary many-
celled, the cells many-seeded. Fruit fleshy, indehiscent. Example : Chrysopia.
Tribe 3. GarciniecB. Ovary many-celled, the cells one-seeded. Fruit
fleshy. Examples : Mammea, Garcinea, Cambogia. Tribe 4. CalophylkcB.
Cells of ovary two, with two seeds, or one cell with one to three seeds.
Fruit capsular or drupaceous. Example : M esua.
Garcinia cambogia, a Malabar tree, furnishes gamboge. 6. mangostena
supplies the East Indian Mangosteen fruit. The Mammee apple of South
America is derived from Mammea americana. A species of Clusia is found
in Florida.
Carcinia cambogia, the Gamboge tree {pi. 67, ßg. 4) ; a, a flowering
branch ; i, the fruit ; c, cross-section ; d, flower ; e, pistil in section ; /, a
seed.
Order 187. Hypericacejb, the St. John's Wort Family. Sepals four or
five, separate or united, persistent, usually with glandular dots, unequal;
aestivation imbricated. Petals four or five, oblique, often with black dots ;
aestivation contorted. Stamens hypogynous, *, generally polyadelphous,
very rarely ten, and monadelphous or distinct ; filaments filiiform ; anthers
bilocular, with longitudinal dehiscence ; carpels two to five, united round a
central or basal placenta ; styles the same in number as the carpels, usually
separate; stigmas capitate or simple. Fruit either fleshy or capsular,
multilocular and multivalvular, rarely unilocular. Seeds usually 00, minute,
anatropal, usually exalbuminous ; embryo usually straight. Herbaceous
plants, shrubs, or trees* with exstipulate, entire leaves, which are usually
opposite and dotted. Flowers often yellow. They are distributed very
generally over all parts of the globe, are found in elevated and low, dry and
damp situations. They yield a resinous colored juice, which has purgative
properties, and resembles gamboge. Lindley places Pamassia in this order.
There are 15 known genera, and about 270 species. North America has
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BOTANY. 186
three genera and thirty-three species. Tribe 1. Hypericece, No glands
between the stamens. Examples : *Hypericum, *Ascyrum. Tribe 2.
ElodetB. Glands or scales alternating with the groups of stamens.
Example: *Elodea.
Hypericum perforatum is the noxious yellow flowered plant, called St.
John's Wort, and common in old fields and pastures.
Hypericum perforatum {ph 67, fig, 8) ; a, flowering branch ; 6, calyx ;
c, fruit ; d, lower half of a leaf magnified.
Order 188. Aurantiacejb, the Orange Family. Calyx urceolate or
campanulate, short, three- to five-toothed, withering. Petals three to five,
broad at the base, sometimes slightly coherent; aestivation imbricated.
Stamens equal in number to, or a multiple of, the petals ; filaments flattened
at the base, distinct or combined into one or more parcels ; anthers erect.
Thalamus enlarged in the form of a hypc^nous disk, to which the petals
and stamens are attached. Ovary free, multilocular ; style one; stigma
thickish, somewhat divided. Fruit a hesperidium, having a spongy,
separable rind, and pulpy, separable cells. Seeds anatropal, attached to the
axis, solitary or several, usually pendulous, having the chalaza and raphe
usually well marked ; perisperm ; embryo straight ; cotyledons thick and
fleshy. Trees or shrubs, usually conspicuous for their beauty, with
dtemate, often compound leaves, which are articulated with a usually
winged petiole. They abound in the East Indies. There are twenty
genera and nearly one hundred species enumerated. Tribe 1. Limonece.
Stamens twice as many as the petals. One ovule only, or two collateral.
Example : ^Limonia. Tribe 2. Clausenece. Stamens twice as many as the
petals. Ovules two, superimposed. Example : Marraya. Tribe 3. Citrece.
Stamens double or multiple the petals in number. Ovules many, in two
series. Examples : Feronia, Citrus.
Plants of this order are characterized by having receptacles of volatile oil
in almost every part. It includes the Orange, Lemon, Lime, Citron,
Shaddock, &c. Citrus vulgaris yields the bitter or Seville orange. Sweet
oranges are derived from Citrus aurantium. The best come from the
Azores. A single tree has been known to produce 20,000 oranges. Citrus
limonum supplies the Lemon ; C. medica, the Citron ; C. limetta, the Lime ;
C. decumana, the Shaddock. Oil of Bergamot is the volatile oil from the
rind of the Bergamot, a variety of the Lime. Extensive groves of Orange
trees are found in East Florida, south of latitude 20^ 30'.
Citrus medica, the Citron (/>/. 67, fi^. 6) ; a, a flowering branch ; 6,
stamens ; c, a single bundle of stamens ; (f, anther ; e, pistil ; /, cross-section
of fruit ; g. A, seed.
Order 189. OLACACSiE, the Olax Family. Calyx small, gamosepalous,
entire or toothed, often becoming finally large and fleshy; aestivation
imbricated. Petals three to six, hypogynous, free, or adhering in pairs by
means of the stamens ; aestivation valvate. Stamens hypogynous, some
fertile, others sterile ; the former three to ten, alternate with the petals, the
latter opposite to the petals ; filaments compressed ; anthers innate,
bilocular, with longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary one« to three- or four-celled;
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ovules one to three, pendulous from a central placenta; style filiform;
stigma simple. Fruit fleshy, indehiscent, often surrounded by the enlarged
calyx, unilocular, monospermal. Seed anatropal, pendulous; albumen
copious, fleshy; embryo small, at the base of the albumeuv Trees or
shrubs, with simple, alternate, exstipulate leaves, which are, however,
sometimes abortive. They are chiefly tropical or sub-tropical. Little is
known in regard to their properties. There are twenty-four genera and
fifty-three species enumerated. Examples : Olax, Opilia.
Order 190. TERNSTRCBMiACEiE, the Tea Family. Sepals five or seven,
concave, coriaceous, deciduous, the innermost often the largest ; aestivation
imbricated. Petals five, six, or nine, often combined at the base. Stamens
indefinite, hypogynous ; filaments free, or united at the base in one or more
parcels ; anthers versatile or adnate, dehiscing longitudinally. Ovary
muitilocular ; styles two to seven. Fruit either a capsule, two- to seven-
celled, opening by valves, or coriaceous and indehiscent. Seeds attached
to the axis, few and large ; albumen 0, or in very small quantity ; embryo
straight, or bent, or folded back ; radicle next the hilum ; cotyledons very
large, often containing oil. Trees or shrubs, with alternate, coriaceous,
exstipulate leaves, which are sometimes dotted. They abound in South
America, and many occur in India, while others inhabit China and North
America. There are 33 genera and 130 species enumerated. Examples :
Ternstroemia, *Gordonia, Camellia, Thea, *Stuartia.
Species of Thea (T. viridis and bohea) furnish most of the Chinese teas.
It is a matter of some uncertainty whether black and green teas are derived
from different species or not. Green teas contain more essential oil and
tannin than black. The principal varieties of the former are Twankay,
Young Hyson, Hyson, Gunpowder, and Imperial ; the latter include Bohea,
Congou, Souchong, Oolong, and Pekoe. Perfume is communicated to teas
by the flowers of Olea fragrans, Cloranthus inconspicuus, and Aglaia
odorata. The highly ornamental Camellia japonica is a member of the
order.
Thea chinensis. Tea plant (/?/. 67, fig, 6) ; a, 6, c, three varieties ; d,
pistil and one stamen ; e, /, g, ovary.
Camellia japonica (Japan) (/>/. 68, fig, 14) ; a, branch with a flower ; 6,
two stamens ; c, pistil ; rf, cross-section of capsule ; e, section of seed.
Order 191. Chlänacejs. Involucre one- to two-flowered, persistent
Sepals three, small. Petals five to six, hypogynous, sometimes combined at
the base, where they are broader. Stamens ten, or indefinite ; filaments
cohering at the base, and united to the base of the petals ; anthers roundish»
free or united, bilocular. Ovary single, trilocular; style one, filiform;
stigma trifid. Capsule three-celled, or by abortion one-celled. Seeds
solitary or numerous, suspended, attached to a central placenta ; embryo in
the axis of fleshy or horny albumen ; cotyledons leafy, undulated. Trees
or shrubs, with alternate stipulate leaves, found in Madagascar. Their
properties are unknown. There are four genera enumerated, including
probably about eight or ten species. Examples : Sarcolsena, LeptolsBna.
Order 192. DiPXEROCARPApBiE, the Sumatra Camphor Family. Calyx
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tubular, five-Iobed, unequal, naked, persistent, and afterwards enlarged, with
an imbricated eestivation. Petals h}rpogynous, sessile, often combined at
the base, with a twisted aestivation. Stamens indefinite, hypogynous ;
filaments dilated at the base, either distinct or irregularly cohering ; anthers
innate, bilocular, subulate, opening by terminal fissures. Torus not enlarged
in a disk-like manner. Ovary superior, three-celled ; ovules in pairs,
pendulous ; style and stigma simple. Fruit coriaceous, unilocular by
abortion, three- valved or indehiscent, surrounded by the calyx, which is
prolonged in the form of long wing-like lobes. Seed solitary, exalbuminous ;
cotyledons often twisted and crumpled; radicle superior. Trees with
alternate leaves, having an involute vernation, and deciduous convolute
stipules. They are found in India. There are about eight known
genera, including forty-eight species. Examples : Dipterocarpus, Vateria,
Dryobalanops.
Order 103. TiLiACEiE, the Linden Family. Sepals four to five, with a
valvate aestivation. Petals four to five, entire, rarely wanting. Stamens
hypogynous, free, or united by the enlarged border of the stalk of the pistil,
usually <e ; anthers two-celled, dehiscing longitudinally or by pores,
occasionally some abortive. Disk often large and glandular. Ovary
solitary, formed by the union of two to ten carpels ; style one ; stigmas as
many as the carpels. Fruit dry or pulpy, either multilocular with numerous
seeds, or by abortion unilocular and one-seeded. Seeds anatropal ; embryo
erect in the axis of fleshy albumen, with flat, leafy cotyledons. Trees or
shrubs, rarely herbaceous plants, with alternate stipulate leaves. They are
found chiefly in tropical regions, only a small number inhabiting northern
countries. The order has been divided into two sections: 1. Tilieae, with
entire petals or 0, and anthers dehiscing longitudinally. 2. Elaeocarpeae,
with lacerated petals, and anthers opening at the apex. Lindley enumerates
thirty-five genera, including 350 species. Examples : *Tilia, •Corchorus,
Grewia, Aristotelia, Elaeocarpus. Five species of the two first-named genera
are the North American representatives. Species of Tilia are known as
Linden or Lime trees. Russian mats are made from the inner bark of the
Tilia europaea.
Tilia grandiflora, Lime tree or Linden (pi. 68, fig, 6) ; a-A.
Order 194. BYTTNERiACEiE, the Chocolate Family. Calyx- four to five-
lobed, valvate in aestivation. Petals four to five or 0, often elongated at the
apex, with a twisted or induplicate aestivation. Stamens hypogynous,
either equal in number to the petals, or some multiple of them, more or less
monadelphous, some of them sterile ; anthers bilocular, introrse. Ovary
free, composed usually of four to ten carpels arranged round a central
column ; styles terminal, as many as the carpels, free or united ; ovules two
in each loculament. Fruit capsular, either with loculicidal dehiscence, or
the carpels separating from each other. Seeds anatropal, often winged ;
embryo straight or curved, lying usually in fleshy albumen ; cotyledons
either plaited or rolled up spirally. Trees, shrubs, or undershrubs, with
alternate leaves, having either deciduous stipules or 0, and stellate or forked
hairs. They abound in tropical climates. Lindley enumerates forty-five
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genera, embracing four hundred species. Tribe 1. Lasiopetakce. Calyx
petaloid. Petals reduced to short scales or 0. Five anthers bearing
filaments, alternating with an equal number of abortive ones. Embryo
straight with foliaceous cotyledons, in a thick perisperm. Species Australa-
sian. Example : Seringia. Tribe 2. ByttneriecB. Petals concave or
vaulted, often prolonged at the apex into a liguliform appendage. Staminal
tube divided superiorly into ten strips alternately sterile and carrying one
to three anthers. Embryo with cotyledons sometimes foliaceous in a thick
albumen, sometimes folded or convolute without perisperm. Species belong
to both worlds. Example : Theobroma, Telfairia. Tribe 3. Hermannieeß,
Petals flat. Five monadelphous fertile stamens. Embryo with foliaceous
cotyledons, straight or arched in a fleshy albumen. Plants common to both
continents, especially abundant in South Africa. Example : *Melochia,
Waltheria. Tribe 4. Dombeyacece. Petals flat. Stamens fifteen to forty,
those opposite the petals usually sterile and liguliform. Embryo with
foliaceous cotyledons, often bifid and folded, in a thin perisperm. Example :
Kydia. Tribe 5. EriolceniecB. Petals flat. Stamens numerous, all anther
bearing, united into one column. Embryo with the cotyledons folded,
bilobed, in a fleshy perisperm. Species Asiatic. Example : Schillera.
The only North American representatives of the order are Melochia
pyramidata and Hermannia texana, found in Texas. The most conspicuous
species is the Chocolate tree, Theobroma cacao. Chocolate consists of the
roasted and ground beans mixed with sugar, arnotto, vanilla, and cinnamon.
Butter of cacao is a fatty oil obtained by expression from the seed.
Theobroma cacao, the Cacao or Chocolate tree (South America) (pi
67, fig. 12) ; a, a flower branch and a branch with fruit ; 6, vertical section
of the latter; c, flower; rf, stamen ; c, staminal tube; /, pistil; ^, lower
stamens ; A-/, seeds.
Order 195. STERcuLiACE-fi, the Sterculia and Silk-cotton Family. Calyx
of five, more or less united, sepals, often surrounded by an involucre;
aestivation usually valvate. Petals five or none, hypogynous, aestivation
twisted. Stamens usually * ; their filaments variously united ; anthers two-
celled, extrorse. Pistil of five (rarely) three carpels, either distinct or
cohering ; styles equal in number to the carpels, free or cohering ; ovules
orthotropal or anatropal. Fruit capsular, usually with five cells, or follicular
or succulent. Seeds often with a woolly covering ; with a fleshy or oily
perisperm (rarely 0), and either a straight or a curved embryo ; cotyledons
leafy or thick, plaited or rolled round the plumule. Trees or shrubs, with
alternate leaves, which are either simple or compound, deciduous stipules»
and often a stellate pubescence. They are distinguished from Malvaceae
by their dithecal extrorse anthers. They inhabit warm climates.
Sub-order 1. Adansoniece. Flowers hermaphrodite. Anthers one-locular
(sometimes geminate). Fruit sessile, most often with loculicidal dehiscence,
rarely indehiscent. Perisperm usually almost wanting. Leaves digitate or
palmate. Examples : Adansonia, Bombax, Cheirostemon, Montezuma.
Sub'Order 2. Helicterece. Flowers hermaphrodite. Anthers two-locular
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(evident in the bud). Fruit stipitate. Perisperm fleshy and thick. Leaves
simple. Example: Helicteres.
Sub-order 3. Sterculiece. Flowers unisexual. Leaves simple or palmate.
Example : Cola.
There are thirty-four genera and 125 species, none of which are North
American. Adansonia digitata, the Baobab or Monkey bread of Senegal, is
one of the largest of known trees, a diameter of thirty feet having been
observed. Adanson incorrectly estimated the age of this individual at
5000 years. The height is not in proportion to the diameter. Cheirostemon
platanoides is the Mexican Hand plant, so called on account of the five
peculiarly curved anthers, resembling claws. The silky hairs of Bombax
ceiba, the silk-cotton tree, are used in stuffing cushions.
Order 196. MALVACEiE, the Mallow Family. Sepals five, rarely three or
four, more or less cohering at the base, with a valvate aestivation, often
bearing an external calyx (epicalyx) or involucre. Petals equal in number
to the sepals; aestivation twisted. Stamens 00, hypogynous, all perfect;
filaments monadelphous or polyadelphous ; anthers monothecal, reniform,
with transverse dehiscence. Ovary formed by the union of several carpels
round a common axis, either distinct or cohering ; styles as many as the
carpels, united or free. Fruit capsular or baccate ; carpels one- or many-
seeded, sometimes closely united, at other times separate or separable ;
dehiscence loculicidal or septicidal. Seeds amphitropal or semi-anatropal ;
albumen 0, or in very small quantity ; embryo curved ; cotyledons twisted
or doubled. Herbaceous plants, trees, or shrubs, with alternate stipulate
leaves, more or less divided, and often with stellate hairs. They are found
chiefly in tropical countries and in the warm parts of the Temperate Zone.
Tribe 1. Malopece. Carpels indefinite, crowned together in a five-lobed
or amorphous head, uniovulate. Radicle inferior. None North American.
Example : Malope.
Tribe 2. Malvece. Carpels as many as the stigmas (five to twenty or
more), uniovulate or pauciovulate, disposed in a ring around a central axis,
from which they at length separate. Column antheriferous at the summit.
Sub-tribe 1. Eumalvece, Style stigmatose down the inner face. Carpels
uniovulate, numerous. Ovule peritropous, ascending. Examples : *Malva.
*Callirrhöe, *NapfiBa. Sub-tribe 2. Sidece. Stigmas terminal, capitate.
Carpels uniovulate. Example: *Sida. Sub-tribe 3. Abutilece. Carpels
three- to nine-ovulate, not bilocellate, somewhat two-valved, scarcely
separating from the axis. Example : *AbutiIon.
Tribe 3. Urenece, Carpels or cells of the ovary half as many as the
stigmas (viz. five, the stigmas ten), uniovulate. Radicle inferior. Examples ;
Urena, *Malachra.
Tribe 4. Hibiscece, Carpels as many as the stigmas, three to ten (usually
five), combined into a loculicidal few- or many-seeded (or rarely indehiscent)
capsule ; the dissepiments borne on the middle of the valves. Column
antheriferous for a great part of its length, naked and five-toothed at the
apex. Examples : ^Hibiscus, Gossypium, Abelmoschus.
Lindley enumerates 37 genera with 1000 species. North America hai
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190 BOTANY.
eleven genera and fifty- three species. All the species yield mucilage iü
large quantity, and none are poisonous. The Hollyhock, Althcea rosea, is
an ornamental plant, as are many other species. The Sun-hemp of India
is derived from Hibiscus esculentus. Okra, a substance much used in
soups, is the fruit of Abelmoschus esculentus. Various species of Gossypium
furnish cotton, which consists of the hairs surrounding the seed. These,
when dry, exhibit to the microscope a peculiar twisted appearance, by
which they are readily recognised. The Sea Island, New Orleans, and
Georgia cottons, considered the best, are obtained from G. barbadense. G.
acuminatum furnishes the South American cotton ; G. arboreum, the Indian
tree cotton ; G. nanking, nankeen cotton. The nankeen color is said to be
imparted by the fruit of Acacia arabica.
Gossypium herbaceum. Cotton plant (pL 67, fig, 11); a, a flowering
branch, and a (to the right hand), a flower ; b, capsule with the calyx ; c,
capsule ; d, germs ; e, cross-section of the capsules ; /, seeds with the cotton
hairs ; g-m, seeds with the embryo.
Order 197. ViviANiACEiE, the Viviania Family. Sepals five, united.
Petals five, hypogynous, unguiculate, persistent, with twisted aestivation.
Stamens ten, hypogynous ; filaments free ; anthers bilocular, opening
longitudinally. Ovary free, three-celled; stigmas three. Capsule three-
celled, three- valved, loculicidal; seeds, two in each cell, with a curved
embryo lying in fleshy albumen. Herbaceous or suffruticose plants, with
opposite or verticillate exstipulate leaves. Natives of South America,
having no properties of importance. Genera four, species fifteen.
Examples : Viviania, Caesarea.
Order 198. CARvoPHYLLACEiE, the Chickweed Family. Sepals four or
five, firee, or united in a tube, persistent. Petals four to five, hypogynous,
unguiculate, often bifid or bipartite, occasionally 0. Stamens usually
double the number of the petals, or, if equal, usually alternate with them ;
filaments subulate, sometimes united ; anthers innate, bilocular, dehiscence
longitudinal. Ovary single, often stalked or supported on a -gynophore
composed of two to five carpels, which are usually united by their edges,
but sometimes the edges are turned inwards, so as to form partial
dissepiments; stigmas two to five, with papillae on their inner surface.
Capsule unilocular, or imperfectly bi-quinquelocular, two- to five-valved,
opening either by valves, or more commonly by twice as many teeth as
stigmas ; placenta in the axis of the fruit. Seeds usually 00, amphitropal,
with mealy albumen, and a peripherical embryo. Herbs, sometimes
suffruticose plants, with opposite, entire, exstipulate, sometimes connate
leaves, and usually cymose inflorescence. They inhabit chiefly temperate
and cold regions. Lindley mentions 53 genera and 1055 species, of which
11 genera and upwards of 100 species belong to the United States.
Sub-order 1. AhinecB, Sepals nearly or quite distinct. Petals sessile.
Examples : *MoIlugo, *Arenaria, *SteIlaria, ♦Cerastium.
Sub-order 2. Siknece. Sepals united into a cylindrical tube. Petals
unguiculate. Examples : 'Silene, *Lychnis, *Saponaria, *Dianthus.
Some authors separate a third sub-order, Molugineae, from Alsineae, with
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the sepals alternate with the stamens, when isostemonous, instead of
opposite, as in the restricted Alsineae. Some plants of the order are
poisonous. A prominent species is Dianthus caryophyllus, or Carnation, in
its different varieties.
Dianthus caryophyllus, Carnation (p/. 68, fig. 11) ; a, b.
Saponaria officinaJis, Soapwort (pL 68, fig. 12) ; a, a flowering branch ;
b, pistil and petal ; c, pistil ; d, capsule ; e-^g, seed.
Order 198. ELATiNACEiE, the Water-pepper Family. Sepals three to
five, free, or slightly coherent at the base. Petals alternate with the sepals,
hypogynous. Stamens hypogynous, equal to, or twice as many as, the
petals. Ovary tri-quinquelocular ; styles three to five; stigmas capitate.
Fruit capsular, three- to five-celled, three- to five-valved, loculicidal;
placenta central. Seeds 00, exalbuminous, anatropal ; embryo cylindrical
and slightly curved. Annual marsh plants, with hollow creeping stems,
and opposite stipulate leaves. They are found in all parts of the globe.
Some of them have acridity, and hence the name Water-pepper. Genera
six and species twenty-two, according to Lindley. Examples : *Elatine,
Bergia. Elatine with two species are North American.
Order 199. Frankeniace^e, the Frankenia Family. Sepals four or five,
cohering into a tube, persistent. Petals four to five, alternate with the
sepals, hypogynous. Stamens hypogynous, equal in number to the petals,
and alternate with them, sometimes more numerous ; anthers bilocular, with
longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary unilocular, with parietal placentas ; style
filiform, often trifid. Fruit a one-celled, usually three-valved capsule, with
septicidal dehiscence. Seeds very minute, numerous, anatropal ; embryo
straight, in the axis of fleshy albumen. Herbs or undershrubs, with opposite,
exstipulate leaves. They are found chiefly in the southern parts of Europe,
in western America, and in the north of Europe. They are said to have
mucilaginous and slightly aromatic properties. Genera four, species twenty-
four. Example : *Frankenia. F. grandifolia, a Califomian plant, is North
American.
Order 200. TAMARicACEiE, the Tamarisk Family. Calyx four- or five-
partite, persistent, with imbricated aestivation. Petals four to five,
hypogynous, or perhaps inserted at the base of the calyx, marcescent, with
imbricated aestivation. Stamens hypogynous, free, or monadelphous, equal
to the petals in number, or twice as many ; anthers dithecal, introrse, with
longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary unilocular; styles three. Fruit a three-
valved, one-celled capsule, with loculicidal dehiscence. Seeds numerous,
anatropal, erect or ascending, comose ; albumen ; embryo straight, with
the radicle next the hilum. Shrubs or herbs, with alternate scale-like
leaves, and racemose or spiked flowers. They abound in the Mediterranean
region, and are confined chiefly to the eastern half of the northern
hemisphere. Many are found in the vicinity of the sea. They have a
bitter astringent bark, and some of them yield a quantity of sulphate of
soda when burned. The saccharine substance called Mount Sinai Manna
is yielded by Tamarix mannifera. Lindley mentions three genera, com-
prising forty-three known species. Examples : Tamarix, Myricaria.
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Tamarix germanica, Tamarisk {pi, 69, fig, 4) ; a, flowering branch; h
flower ; c, sexual apparatus ; rf, staminal tube displayed ; e, anther ; /, petal ;
gy pistil ; Ä, the fruit in the calyx ; i, a single fruit ; k, vertical section of
ditto.
Order 201. TREMANDRACEiE, the Porewort Family. Sepals four or five,
slightly coherent, deciduous with a valvate aestivation. Petals four or five,
deciduous, with an involute aestivation. Stamens hypogynous, distinct,
eight to ten, two before each petal ; anthers di- or tetra-thecal, with porous
dehiscence. Ovary bilocular, with one to three pendulous ovules in each
cell ; style one ; stigmas one or two. Fruit a two-celled, two-valved
capsule, with loculicidal dehiscence. Seeds anatropal, pendulous, with a
caruncula at the apex ; embryo cylindrical, straight, in the axis of fleshy
albumen. Heath-like shrubs, with hairs usually glandular, alternate, or
verticillate exstipulate leaves, and solitary, axillary, one-flowered pedicels.
They are natives of New Holland. Nothing is known regarding their
properties. Lindley mentions three genera including sixteen species. Ex-
amples : Tetratheca, Tremandra.
Order 202. PoLYGALACEiE, the Milkwort Family. Sepals five, very
irregular, distinct ; three exterior, of which one is superior and two inferior ;
two interior, usually petaloid, lateral ; aestivation imbricated. Petals
hypogynous, unequal, usually three, of which one is anterior, and larger
than the rest, and two are alternate with the upper and lateral sepals;
sometimes there are five petals, two of them very minute ; the anterior
petal, called the keel., is often crested. Stamens hypogynous, eight, mona-
delphous or diadelphous ; anthers clavate, usually one-celled, and having
porous dehiscence. Ovary mostly bilocular ; ovules solitary, rarely two ;
style simple, curved ; stigma simple. Fruit dehiscing in a loculicidal
manner, or indehiscent. Seeds pendulous, anatropal, strophiolate at the
hilum ; albumen fleshy ; embryo straight. Shrubs or herbs with alternate
or opposite exstipulate leaves. They are found in all quarters of the globe.
Lindley mentions nineteen genera, including 495 species. Examples:
♦Polygala, Securidaca, *Krameria, Xantophyllum. Of these genera Polygala
with twenty-four species, and Krameria with four, are natives of North
America. Some authors place Krameria and Xantophyllum in a separate
sub-order (Kramerieae). Plants of the order Polygalaceae have some
resemblance to Papilionaceae, but 'may be distinguished by the odd petal
being inferior and the sepal superior. Polygala senega, the Seneca snake
root, is a plant of various medicinal applications.
Order 203. ÜRosERACEiE, the Sundew Family. Sepals five, j>ersistent,
equal, sometimes united at the base, imbricated in aestivation. Petals five,
alternate with the sepals, nearly or quite hypogynous, marcescent. Stamens
distinct, marcescent, usually as many as the petals and alternate with them,
rarely two to three times as many ; filaments capillary or flattened ; anthers
extrorse or innate ; cells distinct, or somewhat connivent above, opening
longitudinally, or rarely by a terminal pore. Ovary composed of two to
five united carpels, one-celled ; placentas parietal, or filling the base of the
cell ; styles two to five, usually distinct or united at the base merely, each
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two-parted or multifid and pencil-shaped; sometimes all united into one.
Capsule two- to five-valved, loculicidal, with the valves placentiferous in the
middle, or indehiscent with the placenta at the base, many- (rarely few-)
seeded. Seeds anatropous ; testa sometimes arilliform. Embryo short, at
the base of cartilaginous or fleshy albumen. Herbs, or rarely suffrutescent
plants (growing in wet places or swamps). Leaves alternate or crowded,
entire, commonly furnished with glandular hairs, with a circinate vernation
(except Dionsea) ; stipules none, or in the form of a tuft or fringe of
scarious hairs at the base of the petioles. There are eight genera, with
about ninety species, of which three genera and thirteen species are North
American. Tribe I. DroserecB. Seeds with albumen. Styles one or many.
All the stamens fertile. Examples : *Drosera, *Dion8ea. Tribe 2.
PamasnecB. No albumen. Stigmata sessile. Some of the stamens sterile.
No glandular hairs. Example : "^Pamassia. The most remarkable species
of the order is Dionsea muscipula or Venus' Fly-trap, a plant only found
within a limited district in North and South Carolina. The two halves of
the leaf are articulated on the midrib, and have a fringe of stiff hairs which
interlace when the leaf is folded. Each half is furnished with two or three
irritable hairs, which, when touched by an insect, cause the sudden closing
of the leaf and the consequent impalement or imprisonment of the intruder.
Species of Parnassia are known as Grass of Parnassus.
Order 204. VioLACEiE, the Violet Family. Sepals five, persistent, usuaUy
elongated at the base, aestivation imbricated. Petals five, hypogynous,
equal or unequal, generally withering, aestivation obliquely convolute.
Stamens five, alternate with the petals, sometimes opposite to them, inserted
on a hypogynous torus ; anthers dithecal, introrse, often cohering, with a
prolonged connective sometimes spurred ; filaments dilated, two of them in
the irregular flowers having an appendage at their base. Ovary unilocular,
with many (rarely one) anatropal ovules; style single, usually declinate,
with an oblique hooded stigma. Fruit a three-valved capsule, dehiscence
loculicidal, placentas on the middle of the valves. Seeds 00 or definite ;
embryo straight, erect, in the axis of a fleshy perisperm. Herbs or shrubs,
with alternate, rarely opposite, leaves, having persistent stipules, and an
involute vernation. They are natives of Europe, Asia, and America. The
herbaceous species inhabit chiefly the temperate parts of the northern
hemisphere, while the shrubby species are found in South America and
India. They have been divided into two sub-orders :
Sub-order 1. Violece, with irregular flowers.
Svh'Order 2. Ahodeiea, with regular flowers. There are fourteen known
genera, and 315 species. Examples : ♦Viola, *Ionidium, Alsodeia, *Solea.
North America possesses three genera, and about forty species. Viola
tricolor is the origin of the varieties of Pansy and Heart's Ease.
Order 205. CisTACEiE, the Rock-Rose Family. Sepals usually five,
persistent, unequal, the three inner with contorted aestivation. Petals five,
caducous, hypogynous, aestivation corrugated, and twisted in an opposite
direction to that of the sepals. Stamens usually 00, free, hypogynous ;
anthers two-celled, adnate. Ovary s)mcarpous, one- or many-celled ; style
ICOHOORAPfflC BNOTCLOPiEDIA. — ^VOL. II. 13 198
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194 BOTANY.
single ; stigma simple. Fruit capsular, three-, five-, to ten-valved, either
one-celled or imperfectly five- to ten-celled, with loculicidal dehiscence.
Seeds usually indefinite ; embryo inverted, either spiral or curved, in the
midst of mealy albumen ; radicle remote from the hilum. Shrubs or
herbaceous plants with entire, opposite or alternate, stipulate or exstipulate
leaves. They inhabit chiefly the southern regions of Europe, and the
North of Africa. Some of the species are remarkable for the irritability
of their stamens. Many of them yield a resinous balsamic juice, which
imparts viscidity to the branches. The resinous matter called ladanum or
labdanum, is yielded by Cistus creticus. Of the seven genera and 185
species which are assigned to Cistacece, North America has twelve species,
«und three genera.
Helianthemum vulgare (Europe) (pL 68, ßg, 8) ; b, the red flowering
variety.
Order 206. FLAcoüRTiACEiE, the Arnotto Family. Sepals four to seven,
slightly cohering. Petals equal to and alternating with the sepals, or
wanting. Stamens hypogynous, equal in number to the petals, or some
multiple of them. Ovary roundish, sessile, or slightly stalked ; style either
none or filiform ; stigmas several, more or less distinct ; ovules attached to
parietal placentas, which sometimes branch all over the inner surface of the
valves. Fruit one-celled, containing a thin pulp, either fleshy and inde-
hiscent, or capsular with four or five valves. Seeds numerous, enveloped
in a covering formed by the withered pulp ; albumen fleshy, somewhat oily ;
embryo axile, straight ; radicle turned towards the hilum ; cotyledons flat,
foliaceous. Shrubs or small trees, with alternate, simple, usually exstipulate
leaves, which are often dotted. The plants are chiefly natives of the
warmest parts of the East and West Indies, and of Africa.
Sub-order 1. Flacourtianece, Placentas ramifying over the inner surface
of the fruit. Tribe 1. Flacourtiece, Fruit dehiscent. Example : Flacourtia.
Tribe 2. Erythrospermece, Fruit indehiscent. Example : Erythrospermum.
Sub-order 2. Bizacece. Placentas narrow and running in lines along the
parietes. Tribe 3. Bixiece, Fruit dehiscent. Flowers hermaphrodite.
Example : Bixa. Tribe 4. CarpotrochecB. Fruit indehiscent. Flowers
often unisexual. Example : Carpotroche.
The entire order embraces thirty-one genera and eighty-five species, none
of them North American. The most important is Bixa orellana, the plant
yielding arnotto. This is the reddish pulp surrounding the seeds, and is
used to color cheese, and for various red dyes.
Bixa orellana, Arnotto tree (South America) (pi. 68, ßg, 7) ; a, a
flowering branch ; ft, anther ; c, pistil : d, e, capsule in vertical and cross-
section ; /, burst capsule.
Order 207. RESEDACEiE, the Mignionette Family. Calyx many-parted.
Petals four to six, unequal, entire, or lacerated, in the latter case consisting
of a broad scale-like claw, with a much-divided limb. Stamens ten to
twenty-four, hypogynous, attached to a glandular torus ; filaments variously
united ; anthers bilocular, innate, with longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary
sessile, three-lobed, one-celled, multiovular, with three to six parietal
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placentas ; stigmas three. Fruit either a uuilocular, many-seeded capsule,
opening at the apex, so as to render the seeds seminude, or three to six few-
seeded follicles. Seeds reniform, usually exalbuminous ; embryo curved ;
radicle superior ; cotyledons fleshy. Herbaceous plants, rarely shrubs, with
alternate, entire, or divided leaves, having gland-like stipules. They
inhabit chiefly Europe and the adjoining parts of Asia. A few are found in
the north of India and south of Africa. The uses of the order are unim-
portant. Reseda luteola, Weld, yields a yellow dye. Reseda odorata is
the fragrant Mignonette. The Mignonette is rendered suf&uticose by
preventing the development of its blossoms. This is the origin of the tree
Mignonette, which is much cultivated in France. There are six known
genera and forty-one species, according to Lindley. Example : Reseda.
Ellimia ruderalis of California appears to be the only American represen-
tative.
Reseda luteola, Weld, or Dyer's rocket, Europe {pL 66, fig. 13) ; a, 6,
flowers and leaf; c, flower ; e, capsule ; /, seed ; g, flower from above.
Order 208. Capparidaceä, the Caper Family. Sepals four, often more
or less cohering. Petals four, sometimes 0, cruciate, usually unguiculate
and unequal. Stamens h}rpogynous, four to six, or 00, but in general some
high multiple of four, placed in an elongated hemispherical and often
glandular torus. Ovary usually stalked ; style filiform, sometimes ;
ovules curved. Fruit unilocular, siliquseform, and dehiscent, or fleshy and
indehiscent, rarely monospermous, usually with two polyspermous placentas. .
Seeds generally reniform and exalbuminous ; embryo curved ; cotyledons
foliaceous, flattish. Herbs, shrubs, sometimes trees, with alternate, stalked,
undivided, or palmate leaves, which are either exstipulate or have spines at
their base. They are found chiefly in warm countries, and are abundant
in Africa. There are 28 genera and 340 species. Six genera and eleven
species are natives of North America. Tribe 1. CkomecB, Fruit capsular.
Examples : ♦Oleome, ♦Polanisia. Tribe 2. Capparece. Fruit fleshy.
Example : Capparis. Not found in North America.
The flower buds of Capparis spinosa, a native of the south of Europe,
furnish Capers. This plant is supposed to be the Hyssop of the
Scriptures.
Capparis spinosa. Caper plant {pi. Qß, fig. 12) ; a, flowering branch ; 6,
capsule ; c, cross-section of ditto ; d, seed.
Order 209. Crüciferä, the Cruciferous, or Creswort Family. Brassi-
cace® of Lindley. Sepals four, deciduous, the two latter ones gibbous at
the base. Petals four, hypogynous, alternating with the sepals, deciduous,
cruciate. Stamens six, tetradynamous, two shorter, solitary, opposite the
lateral sepals, occasionally toothed ; four longer, opposite the anterior and
posterior sepals, generally free, sometimes partially united and furnished
with a tooth on the inside ; anthers bilocular, introrse. Torus with green
glands between the petals and stamens and ovary. Ovary superior, with
parietal placentas, which meet in the middle, forming a spurious dissepiment
or replum ; stigmas two, opposite the placentas, or anterior and posterior.
Fruit a siliqua, or a silicula, rarely one-celled and indehiscent, usually
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spuriously two-celled and dehiscing by two valves, which separate from the
replum, one- or many-seeded. Seeds campylotropous, pendulous, attached
in a single row by a funiculus to each side of the placentas ; perisperm
none ; embryo with the radicle folded upon the cotyledons which are next
the placenta. Herbaceous plants, seldom undershrubs, with alternate leaves,
and yellow or white, rarely purple flowers, without bracts. This order is
well distinguished by having tetradynamous stamens. Most of the plants
belonging to the order are European. The species, however, are found
scattered all over the world.
Sub-order 1. Pkurorhizece. Cotyledons accumbent. Radicle lateral.
Tribe 1. ArabidetB. Siliquose. Cotyledons plane, parallel with the straight
septum, linear. Examples : *Cheiranthus, *Nasturtium, *Arabis. Tribe 2.
AlyssinecB, Silicules separating in two plane or concave valves.
Cotyledons plane, parallel with the large and oval septum. Example:
*Draba. Tribe 3. Thlaspidece. Silicules separating in two navicular
valves. Cotyledons plane, perpendicular to the straight septum. Example :
♦Thlaspi. Tribe 4. Euclidece, Silicula indehiscent. Cotyledons plane,
parallel with the septum, which is sometimes wanting. Example : Euclidium.
Tribe 5. Anastaticece, Silicula longitudinally dehiscent, crossed by many
transverse septa. Cotyledons plane, parallel with the septum. Example :
Morettia. Tribe 6. Cakilinece. Silicula lomentaceous. Cotyledons
plane, parallel with the septum, when present Example : Cakile.
Sub-order 2. Notorhizece, Cotyledons incumbent ; radicle dorsal. Tribe
7. Sisymbriece, Siliquose. Cotyledons plane, perpendicular to the septum.
Example: *Sisymbrium. Tribe 8. Camelinece. Silicula separating into
two concave valves. Cotyledons perpendicular to the elliptic septum,
broader than high. Example : ♦Camelina. Tribe 9. Lepidinece, Silicula
separating into two navicular valves. Cotyledons parallel with the straight
septum. Example: *Lepidium. Tribe 10. Isatidece, Silicula indehiscent,
one-locular, one-seeded. Examples: *Thysanocarpus, Isatis. Tribe 11.
AnchoniecB, Siliqua or silicula lomentaceous. Example : Morisia.
Sub-order 3. OrtlioplocecB. Cotyledons conduplicate ; radicle dorsal.
Tribe 12. BrassicecB. Siliquose. Examples: Brassica, Sinapis. Tribe 13.
VellecB, Silicula separating into two concave valves. Septum eUiptic.
Example: Vella Tribe 14. Psychinece, Silicula separating into two
navicular valves. Septum straight. Example : Schouwia. Tribe 15.
Zillece, Silicula indehiscent, with one or two one-seeded cells. Example :
Zilla. Tribe 16. Raphanecs. Siliqua or silicula lomentaceous, the joints
one- or few-seeded. Example : Raphanus.
Sub-order 4. Spirolobece. Cotyledons twice folded; radicle dorsal.
Tribe 17. Buniadece. Silicula indehiscent, divided into four one-seeded
cells by one longitudinal and one transverse septum. Example : Bunias.
Tribe 18. Erucariece. Silicula lomentaceous, the lower joint two-celled,
the upper one-celled. Example : Erucaria.
Sub-order 5. Diplecolobece, Cotyledons three times folded; radicle
dorsal. Tribe 19. Senebieriece, Silicula didymous, of two one-seeded
cells. Example : Senebieria. Tribe 20. Subulariece. Silicula separating
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into two vtdves, septum elliptical» cells many-seeded. Example : Subularia.
Tribe 21. Heliophile<B. SUicula elongated or oval, separating into two
plane valves ; septum straight or oval, cells many-seeded. Example :
Heliophila.
The entire order includes about 173 genera, with 1600 species. Of these
40 genera and 240 ^cies are North American. There are no truly
poisonous plants; in the order, the characteristics lying in the possession of
anti-scorbutic and stimulant properties, with some acridity. Brassica
oleracea is the stock from which all the varieties of cabbage are derived.
B. rapa is the common turnip ; B. campestris, the Swedish turnip. Sea-
kale is Crambe maritima. The seeds of Sinapis nigra furnish table mustard ;
and of S. alba, white mustard. The Horse-radish is Cochlearia (Armoracia)
rustica; Isatis tinctoria furnisher Woad; I. indigotica, Chinese Indigo.
The Radish and Cress also belong here.
Sinapis alba. White Mustard {pL 66, fig, 11) ; a, 6, leaf, flowers, and
fruit ; c, sexual apparatus ; d, siliqua ; e, ditto opened ; /, g, seed.
i OsLDBM, 210. FuM ARiACEjs, the Fumitory Family. Sepals two, deciduous.
Petals four, cruciate ; one or both of the two outer gibbous at the base, the
two inner cohering at the apex. Stamens hypogynous, usually six,
diadelphous ; anther of middle stamen of each parcel bilocular, outer ones
unilocular. Ovary free, one-celled; style filiform; stigma with two or
more points; ovules amphitropal. Fruit either an achaenium, or a two-
valved, two-seeded capsule, or a many-seeded siliqua. Seeds crested;
albumen fleshy; embryo minute, excentric. Herbaceous plants, with a
watery juice» and alternate, multifid leaves. Although at the first sight
very unlike the Poppy family, the Fumitories resemble this order in their
deciduous sepals, in their seeds, and in many cases in their fruit. The two
outer iinilocolar stamens of each parcel may be considered as forming one
perfect stamen, thus making the whole number four. Thc^ are found
chiefly in northern temperate latitudes. They are said to be bitter and
diaphoretic in their properties. Lindley notices 15 genera, including 110
spooies. . Nocth America has four genera and twelve species. Tribe 1.
Cffpydalem, Fmit siliquose, dehiscent, many-seeded. Examples : *Diely tra,
^Adlumia, *Corydalis. Tribe 2. Fumariece, Fruit siliculose, indehiscent,
monyrseeded. Example: Fumaria.
., Adlumia oirrhosa is the Alleghany vine of American gardens. Species
of Dielytra are vulgarly known as Dutchman's Breeches.
Qapbr 210. PAPAVERACEiE, the Poppy Family. Sepals two, deciduous.
Petals hypogynous, usually four, cruciate, sometimes a multiple of four,
r^^ular^ rarely wanting. Stamens hypogynous, usually 00, sometimes a
multiple, of four ; anthers dithecal, innate. Ovary solitary ; style short or
none ; stigmas two, or many and radicating ; ovules 00, anatropal. Fruit
unilocular, either siliquasform with two, or capsular with several parietal
placentas. Seeds numerous; albumen between fleshy and oily; embryo
tninute, at the base of the albumen, with plano-convex cotyledons. Herbs
or.skrabs» usually with milky or colored juice, having alternate exstipulate
leaves, and long one-flowered peduncles. The plants belonging to this
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198 BOTANY.
order are chiefly European. The species, however, are found scattered
over tropical America, Asia, China, New Holland, Cape of Good Hope, &c.
Lindley mentions eighteen known genera, and 130 species. North America
has eleven genera, including sixteen species.
Tribe 1. Argemonece, Juice milky, colored. Sub-tribe 1. Bocconieee.
Petals none, or not wrinkled in the bud. Examples: *Sanguinaria,
Bocconia. Sub-tribe 2. Papaverece. Petals large, wrinkled in the bud.
Examples : Chelidonium, ♦Argemone, *Papaver.
Tribe 2. Eschschohziece. Juice watery. Sub-tribe 8. Hunemanniea.
Capsule bivalve. Examples : Eschscholtzia, ♦Dendromecon. Sub-tribe 4.
PlatystemonecB, Examples : Platystemon, *Meconella.
Opium is the concrete milky juice from the unripe capsules of Papaver
somniferum, or Poppy and its varieties. This plant is indigenous in
western Asia, but has become extensively distributed in other parts of the
world. The principal active principle of opium is morphia : others are
codeine and narcotine, with meconic and sulphuric acid. Sanguinaria
canadensis. Blood root or Puccoon, is well known for the red color of its
juice.
Papaver somniferum, Poppy {ph W, fig. 9) ; a, a flowering branch; 6,
bud, a sepal removed ; c, pistil ; d, capsule opened at the side ; «, seed
magnified ; /, seed of natural size ; g, stamen.
Chelidonium majus, Celandine (Europe) {pL W, fig, 10) ; a, fc, flower
and fruit branch ; c, bud ; rf, flower ; c, stamen ; /, pistil ; g^ capsule.
Order 212. SARRACENiACEiS, the Sidesaddle-flower Family. Sepals five,
persistent, imbricated in SBstivation, often with coherent bracts outside.
Petals five, hypogynous, concave ; occasionally the corolla is absent, and
the calyx consists of four to six segments. Stamens 00 ; anthers adnate^
dithecal, introrse, with longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary free, tri-
quinquelocular ; style single ; stigma persistent, either a truncated point, or
large and peltate with five angles ; ovules anatropal. Capsule three- to five-
celled, with loculicidal dehiscence. Seeds very numerous, small, attached
to large placentas which project from the axis into the cavity of the cells ;
albumen copious ; embryo cylindrical, lying at th^ base of the seed ; radicle
pointing to the hilum. Herbaceous plants, found in boggy places, having
radical leaves, the petioles of which are folded, and cohere so as to form
ascidia or hollow tubes. Scapes one- or more-flowered. The plants are
found in North America and Guiana. Their properties are not known
Lindley enumerates two genera, including seven species. Examples:
Sarracenia, Heliamphora. All of these are North American, excepting
Heliamphora with one species, found in Guiana at considerable elevations.
Sarracenia purpurea is the Sidesaddle flower of the northern States.
Order 213. NELUMBiACEiB, the Water- Bean Family. Sepals four to five.
Petals numerous, in many rows. Stamens indefinite, in several rows;
filaments petaloid ; anthers adnate, introrse, opening by a double longi-
tudinal cleft. Torus large, fleshy, elevated, inclosing in hollows of its
surface numerous carpels. Nuts numerous, inserted, but loose, into the
depressions of the torus. Seeds one to two ; perisperm none ; embryo
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inclosed in a vitellus, large with two fleshy cotyledons. Aquatic herbs»
with showy flowers, peltate floating leaves, and prostrate rootstocks, found
in the temperate and tropical regions of the Old and New Worlds. Lindley
enumerates one genus, including three species. Example : Nelumbium.
North America possesses one species, Nelumbium luteum, found in ponds
and lakes of the southern and western States, more rarely in the middle and
eastern. The floating leaves are sometimes one to two feet in diameter.
The tubers, when boiled, furnish an agreeable food somewhat like the
potatoe, and are gathered by some Indian tribes.
Order 214. NYMPHiEACEiE, the Water Lily Family. Sepals usually four,
sometimes compounded with the petals. Petals numerous, often passing
gradually into stamens. Stamens indefinite, inserted above the petals into
the torus ; filaments petaloid ; anthers adnate ; introrse, opening by two
longitudinal clefts. Torus large, fleshy, surrounding the ovary more or less.
Ovary multilocular, many-seeded, with radiating stigmas ; numerous
anatropal ovules. Fruit many-celled, indehiscent. Seeds very numerous,
attached to spongy dissepiments ; albumen farinaceous ; embryo small,
inclosed in a fleshy vitellus, and situated at the base of the perisperm.
Aquatic plants, with peltate or cordate fleshy leaves, and a rootstock or
stem which extends itself into the mud at the bottom of the water. Lindley
enumerates five genera, comprehending fifty species. Examples : *Nymph8ea,
*Nuphar, Victoria, Euryale. Nymphaea odorata is the white Water Lily
found in various parts of the United States. Nuphar advena is the common
Splatter-Dock. There are two other species in North America, one more
northern, the other more southern. Schomburgh has recently discovered a
new genus Victoria in Guiana, the flowers of which are a foot in diameter,
the leaves from four to six and a half feet.
Nymphaea lotus (Egypt) (pL 58, 59, ßg. 9).
Order 215. Cabombace^, the Water Shield Family. Sepals three to
four. Petals three to four, alternate with the sepals. Stamens hypogynous,
arising from an inconspicuous torus, two or three times the number of the
petals ; anthers linear, introrse, continuous with the filament. Carpels two
or more ; stigma simple ; ovules orthotropal. Fruit indehiscent, tipped with
the indurated styles, containing one or two pendulous seeds. Embryo small,
inclosed in a vitellus (the sac of the amnios), and placed at the base of a
fleshy perisperm. American aquatic plants, with floating peltate leaves.
Lindley mentions two genera, including three species. Examples : Cabomba,
*Brasenia. Of the two known genera, Cabomba has two species in Guiana
and one in the southern United States. Brasenia with one species (B.
peltata) is found in North America, and possibly in New Holland.
Order 216. BERBERiDACEiE, the Barberry Family. Sepals three, four, to
six, deciduous, in a double row. Petals hypogynous, equal in number to the
sepals, and opposite to them, or twice as many, often having an appendage
at the base on the inside. Stamens equal in number to the petals, and
opposite to them ; anthers adnate, bilocular (dithecal), each of the loculi
opening by a valve from the bottom to the top. Carpel solitary, unilocular,
containing two to twelve anatropal ovules ; style sometimes lateral ; stigma
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200 BOTANY.
orbicular. Fruit baccate or capsular, indehiscent. Albumen fleshy or
homy ; embryo straight, sometimes large. Shrubs or herbaceous perennial
plants, with alternate, compound, exstipulate leaves. The true leaves are
often changed into spines. Found chiefly in the mountainous parts of the
temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. Tribe 1. Berberidem
Embryo in the axis, and occupying nearly the whole length of the albumen.
Shrubs. Example : *Berberis. Tribe 2. NandinecB. Embryo minute at
the base of the albumen, often oblique with respect to the hilum. Perennial
herbs. Examples: *Leontice, *Podophyllum.
Lindley enumerates twelve genera with one hundred species, of which
seven genera with eleven species belong to North America. Berberis
vulgaris and canadensis constitute the Barberry plant, known for the acidity
of the fruit, which is caused by the presence of oxalic acid. Podophyllum
peltatum is the May-apple.
Berberis vulgaris. Barberry (Europe) (pL 68, ßg. 5) ; a, flowering branch ;
6, a flower ; c, calyx and pistil ; d, stamens ; c, berry ; /, longitudinal section
of a berry ; g, the seed.
Order 217. Menispermacejs, the Moon-Seed Family. Flowers usually
unisexual (often dioecious). Sepals and petals similar in appearance, in one
or several rows, three or four in each row, hypogynous, deciduous. Stamens
monadelphous, or occasionally free ; anthers adnate, extrorse. Carpels
solitary or numerous, distinct or partially coherent, unilocular ; ovule
solitary, curved. Fruit a succulent, one-seeded, oblique or lunate drupe.
Embryo curved or peripherical ; radicle superior ; albumen fleshy, sometimes
wanting. The plants of this order are sarmentaceous or twining shrubs,
with alternate leaves, and very small flowers. The wood is frequently
arranged in wedges, and hence the order was at one time put under the
division called Homogens by Lindley. The order is common in the tropical
parts of Asia and America. There are twenty-three known genera,
including 202 species. Examples : ^Menispermum, Cissampelos, ^'Cocculus.
Two genera with three species represent this order in North America.
The Cocculus indicus of the shops is the fruit of Anamirta cocculus.
Although highly poisonous, it is employed by some brewers to give
bitterness to porter. It is also used to intoxicate and capture fish.
Order 218. ANONACEis, the Custard- Apple Family. Sepals three or four,
persistent, often partially cohering. Petals six, hypogynous, in two rows,
coriaceous, with a valvate aestivation. Stamens indefinite (very rarely
definite) ; anthers adnate, extrorse, with a large four-cornered connective.
Carpels usually numerous, separate or cohering slightly, rarely definite;
ovules anatropal, solitary or several, erect or ascending. Fruit succulent
or dry, the carpels being one- or many-seeded, and either distinct or united
into a fleshy mass ; spermoderm brittle ; embryo minute, at the base of a
ruminated perisperm. Trees or shrubs, with alternate, simple, exstipulate
leaves, found usually in tropical countries. Lindley enumerates 20 genera,
including 300 species. Examples: Anona, Uvaria, Gualteria, ^Asimina.
There are four species of Asimina in the United States. One of these, A.
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BOTANY. 201
tribola, is the Papaw of the western and middle States. Anona cherimolia
furnishes the Cherimoyer of Peru. The lancewood in so much request for
carriages, fishing-rods, &c., is furnished by Duguetia quitarensis, a native
of Guiana.
Anona squamosa, Anona, West Indies (pi. 68, ßg, 3) ; a, flowering
branch ; b, receptacle ; c, stamen ; d, fruit in SQption ; e, seed ; /, ditto in
section.
Order 219. MAONOLiAOEiS, the Magnolia Family. Sepals two to six,
usually deciduous. Petals two to thirty, hypogynous, often in several rows.
Stamens indefinite, distinct, hypogynous ; anthers adnate, dehiscing longi-
tudinally. Carpels numerous, one-celled, arranged upon a more or less
elevated receptacle; ovules anatropal, suspended, or ascending; styles
short. Fruit consisting of numerous distinct or partially coherent carpels,
which are either dehiscent or indehiscent, sometimes samaroid. Seeds,
when ripe, often hang suspended from the carpels by a long, slender cord ;
embryo minute, at the base of a fleshy perisperm. Trees and shrubs, with
alternate coriaceous leaves, and deciduous convolute stipules. They
abound in North America, and some species occur in South America,
China, Japan, New Holland, and New Zealand.
Sub-order 1. Magnoliece. Carpels spicate on the elongated torus.
Anthers long. Scales of the leaf-bud formed of convolute stipules.
Examples : Talauma, ^Magnolia, ^Liriodendron, Michelia.
Sub-order 2. lUicietB, Carpels in a single whorl, anthers short. Leaves
with transparent dots. Examples : Tasmannia, Drimys, *Illicium.
Sub-order 3. SchizandrecB. Flowers monoecious, or dioecious. Pistils
imbricated, spicate, or capitate. Stamens in a cluster, monadelphous, or
distinct. Stipules none. Leaves entire or toothed. Stems often
sarmentose. Mucilaginous, the seeds aromatic. Examples: Sphaero-
stemma, *Schizandra.
The order, according to Lindley, contains eleven genera and sixty-five
species, of which three genera and ten species are North American. The
Magnolias belong principally to the United States and to China. Magnolia
grandiflora has flowers six to eight inches in diameter. M. macrophylla
has leaves from one to three feet in length. The Cucumber tree of the
middle States is M. acuminata. M. glauca is a small species found in wet
places along the Atlantic coast, and possessing very fragrant white flowers.
Winter's bark is obtained from Drimys winteri, or aromatica, brought from
the Strait of Magellan, in 1579, by Captain Winter. Liriodendron
tulipiferum is the American Tulip tree, or Poplar, which furnishes the
valuable cabinet wood, known as poplar. (The wood of Populus, or the
true Poplar, is unfit for manufacturing purposes.) Several species of
niicium or Anise are found in the United States.
niicium anisatum, Star Anise, China and Japan (pi. 68, ßg, 2) ; a,
flowering branch ; b, flower from above ; c, pistil and stamens ; d, stamens ;
0, pistil ; /, seed vessels ; g, seed.
Magnolia grandiflora, United States (pi. 68, ßg. 1); a, leaves and
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202
BOTANY.
flower ; b, a capsule burst, and a seed hanging out ^
Order 220. DiLLENiACEis, the Dillenia Fa*-
Petals five, deciduous, in a single row.
either distinct or combined into bun^*'
apex ; anthers adnate, iikrorse, w'
definite, more or less distinct, w*
ovules ascending. Fruit of tv
carpels, which are either di»'
each carpel, or only two, '
embryo straight^ minute, ^
order are trees, shriiV
coriaceous, or rough '
and the warm parr
some of tlie speci*^
including 200 '
Auatralasiaa ^
with rounds
Example
Or or
frequ
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BOTANY. 203
by abortion. Herbs or undershmbs. Examples: ♦Actaea, ♦Cimifuga,
Xanthorrhiza, ^Paeonia.
The entire order embraces 41 genera with 1000 species, of which 20
genera and about 140 species are North American. Some species are more
or less poisonous. Aconitum napellus, or Monkshood, contains aconite. A.
ferox furnishes the well-known East Indian poison, called Bikh. The seeds
of Delphinium, or Larkspur, are used in some sections of country for
destroying vermin on the heads of children.
Pulsatilla pratensis, Europe (pL 66, ßg, 3) ; a, plant without tne root ;
b, stamens ; c, receptacle with the fruit ; d, section of the fruit.
Anemone hortensis, Garden Anemone, Europe (pL 66, ßg. 2).
Clematis erecta, Europe (pi. 66, ßg. 1) ; a, stamens ; b, acluenium ; c,
stamen ; d, achsenia together.
Adonis vemalis, Europe (pi, 66, ßg, 5) ; a, flower branch ; b, a pistil ;
c, receptacle ; d, fruit.
Ranunculus acris, Europe {pL 66, ßg. 4) ; a, b, flowers, leaf, and fruit;
c, fruit.
Helleborus niger. Black Hellebore, Europe (pi 66, ßg. 6) ; a, b, leaf and
flower; c, receptacle with nectaries, pistils, and one stamen, the rest
removed ; d, seed vessel ; e-g, seeds.
Aconitum stoerkianum, Europe (pL 66, ßg. 8) ; a, b, flower branch with
leaves ; c, vertical section of flowers ; d, stamen ; e, capsule ; /, seed ; g,
root.
Aquilegia vulgaris. Columbine, Europe (pi 66, ßg. 7); a, root leaf; 6
flower branch; c, cauline leaf; d, pistils and stamens, only three of the
latter remaining; e, section of fruit; /, g, seeds.
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ZOOLOGY.
k. ^ Plates 74-118.
V.
V
General Introduction.
Zoology is a systematic exposition of animals according to their external
and internal structure, and the functions of their organs. The internal
structure can be frequently inferred from the external characters ; we may,
for example, determine the aliment of an animal, and the structure of the
digestive organs, by examining the teeth. This is, however, not sufficient
in all cases, so that it becomes necessary also to examine the internal parts,
because the relation between animals depends upon the entire organization ;
and this being well ascertained, the functions of the various organs can
generally be determined without much difficulty.
From the earliest period it was found necessary to group those animals
together which were observed to have certain natural characters in common.
We find, upon inquiry, that the endeavors to arrange animals systematically
have taken two principal directions, which have been named natural and
artificial classification. The former has in view the classification of animals
upon the greater or less perfection of the various organs, among which
those connected with the circulation and oxygenation of the blood,
locomotion, and digestion, hold a prominent place ; the latter depends upon
a character or habit arbitrarily chosen, and independent of others. A
character, however, which may be regarded as unessential by one observer,
will be considered as of the greatest importance by another. In the earlier
stages of science, when the number of known species was comparatively
small, artificial methods were popular, because they were considered easy
of acquisition : now, however, it is found that they are calculated to give
superficial ideas ; and that to present the condition of zoological science in
its true light, a more philosophical system must be made use of.
Aristotle, whose great mind was master of many sciences, both moral and
physical, and whose works had an authority in Europe for many centuries,
second only to that of the sacred Scriptures, takes precedence, in point of
time, as the first systematic zoological observer. Born at Stagira, in the
year 383 before Christ, he became the instructor of Alexander the Great,
who formed a large collection of animals to enable him to pursue his investi-
gations. As a history of zoological systems forms no part of the plan of
this work, only a short outline of the most important periods will be
given.
Abistotle divides animals into such as have blood, and such as are
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2 ZOOLOGY.
without it. The former comprehends the (A) Vertebrata, and the latter
the (B) EvERTEBRATA of later authors. These are subdivided as follows :
Animals which are Viviparous, ...
•
Mammalia
« « « Oviparous,
with four feet,
-
Reptiles.
with two feet and wings,
-
Birds.
without feet,
.
Serpents.
with fins, ...
-
Fishes.
B.
Animals without shells, Worms.
*' with a soft shell, Crabs.
" with a calcareous shell, .... Snails.
" with an articulate body, - - - Insects.
Pliny the elder, nearly four hundred years later, compiled an extensive
work on natural history, but without offering a system, or adding any
original matter of scientific value, although the large collections of living
animals in Rome must have afibrded him many facilities for study.
Galen paid more attention to the internal structure than to the formation
of a system ; and from his time, A.D. 200, to the fifteenth century, nothing
was done of any account.
Belon, the reviver of natural history in modem times, was born in 1517,
and after travelling three years in Europe, Egypt, Greece, and Asia Minor,
at the expense of the bishops of Mans and Clermont, and the cardinals of
Toumon and Lorraine, he returned to Paris in 1550 with a large collection,
when he published his works.
RoNDELETius, a mcdical professor at Montpellier, published a work in
1554, on Ichthyology ; and another appeared in the same year, upon the same
subject, by Salviani, a Roman physician.
Conrad Gesner, a physician bom at Zurich, in 1516, published an
extensive history of animals in 1585.
Aldrovandi, a professor of Bologna, born in 1525, was the author of
fourteen folio volumes, published between 1599 and 1640.
Moüffet's Theatrum insectorum, the earliest English zoological work,
was published in 1634. Most of the authors of this period repeated the
fables of Pliny, or were deceived by those who sold factitious curiosities, a
remnant of which still remains in the occasional appearance of a stufied
mermaid or impossible fossil. It was not until the appearance of Linnseus
that natural science was placed upon a permanent basis. Born in Sweden,
in 1707, he was at first intended for the Church, but subsequently studied
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INTRODUCTION, 3
medicine, safiering much from destitution during the period of his studies.
In 1732, the University of Upsal sent him upon his celebrated Lapland
tour. After this he taught mineralc^, and in 1735 took his medical
degree.
LiNNiBus, whose great mind embraced the three kingdoms of nature,
established the artificial method ; since he indicated and arranged animals,
plants, and minerals, by means of a few characteristics, enabling every
naturalist to find a special name for each animal — a method which should
as much as possible serve as a complete catalogue, convenient for ascer-
taining the names of known species, or of intercalating such as might be
unknown. His classification is briefly as follows :
1. Animals whose heart has two ventricles and two auricles ; blood wann
and red.
Viviparous. Mammalia. Oviparous. Aves (Birds).
2. Animals whose heart has one ventricle and one auricle ; blood cold
and red.
With lungs. Amphibia (Reptiles). With gills. Pisces (Fishes).
8. Animals with one Ventricle and no auricle; blood cold and yellowish.
With antennae. Insecta (Insects). With tentacles. Vermbs
(Worms).
The Linnsean Vermes included Intestina, Mollusca (not those of later
authors), Testacea, Zoophyta, and Infusoria.
The impulse which Linnaeus gave to the study of nature resulted in large
collections formed in exotic regions chiefly by his disciples, among whom
were Thunberg, Forskol, Sparrman, Hasselquist, and Osbeck ; and as these
collections contained many species which could not be properly arranged
according to his system, the want of a more natural one was soon felt, and
this was finally supplied by the immortal Cuvier, who laid the foundation of
a natural classification in a deep study of the entire structure of the animal
firame ; showing, for example, how the characters of an unknown fossil
animal might be determined from a few bones.
CüviER was bom in 1769, at Montböillard, on the Alaine, in France, then
belonging to the house of Wörtemberg ; and died in 1832, aged sixty-three.
The national museum at Paris, the first in Europe, was the chief scene of
his triumphs. He divides animals into Vertebrata and Invertebrata,
separating the first into Mammalia or beasts ; Ave$ or birds ; Reptilia or
reptiles ; and Pisces or fishes. The Invertebrata he separates into Mollusca
or shellfish ; Articulata or insects, &c. ; and Radiaia, including starfish and
some heterogeneous materials.
The most recent mode of determining the relative station of animals, is
that employed by Aoassiz, founded upon the development of the young from
the ovum ; a mode which, in the hands of this distinguished professor, has
in some cases furnished more certain results than the consideration even of
the nervous system.
Zoology is distinguished as general and special. The former compares
the internal and external structure of animals, not only to understand the
phenomena of animal growth and life, but also to unravel the laws
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4 ZOOLOGY.
according to which the organs are developed from the lowest to the highest
classes, which associates it with comparative anatomy and physiology ; the
latter compares individual animals with each other to determine the
peculiarities of individual species, treating of their character and habits.
The attempt has been frequently made to arrange animals in a regular
scale from the lowest to the highest, under the impression that each animal
must have an equal, a higher, or a lower oi^anization when compared with
others. This might be the case if there were only one set of organs ; but
as there are many, an animal may have a simple organization in one, and a
complicated one in another. Thus by their organs of locomotion and general
economy, insects would be placed above moUusca, whilst the latter are
allied to the higher orders by their circulation. One proposes to arrange
animals in a series of parallel lines, whilst another thinks that their affinities
will be best shown by arranging them in a circle. The entire organism
being moved through the .nervous system, this has more recently received a
great share of attention ; and, although it has proved satisfactory to a
certain extent, it is at times difficult to make safe deductions from variations
in the details. Under these circumstances, there af e to be found those who,
like Dum^ril and Swainson, think that external characters are sufficient for
the classification of animals, as it is through these that they are placed in
communication with external nature. Blainville makes the external organs
the basis of his twenty-five divisions ; considering their position, the skin
and its appendages, and the structure and uses of the limbs.
There are many important affinities between plants and animals, as we
have already mentioned in the introduction to Botany. One of the most
important of these has been discovered in modern times, by means of the
improved microscope. Thus it has been shown that the structure and
growth, as well in animals as in plants, is due to cells. There are, besides,
other points of similarity, which will be stated further on.
It is still doubtful whether certain organisms belong to plants or animals,
there being grounds upon each side of the question. Some animal pro-
ductions, as corals, were at an early day regarded as plants ; whilst certain
vegetable productions have, until a recent period, been considered animals,
and indeed some are still considered such. These doubtful organisms are
to be found chiefly among the low and minute forms which require a
microscope for their investigation. In the case of sponges, strong argu-
ments have been brought forward upon both sides, by acute observers who
have examined them in a living state^ for the sponge of commerce is a
mere skeleton.
At first view, animals and plants would seem to be sufficiently separated
by the respiration ; as the former breathe and assimilate oxygen and expel
carbonic acid gas, whilst in the latter this operation is reversed. This
view of a contrary action is, however, not strictly correct, because in
animals respiration must continue without intermission, whilst plants breathe
inwards by day and outwards by night. Leaves and spiral vessels are the
breathing organs of plants ; gills, trachea, and lungs, those of animals.
With regard to nutrition, animals and plants are nourished by extraneous
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materials suitable to their organization, which are taken up and distributed
by vessels, which do not correspond, however, except that those of plants
may be considered similar to the alimentary canal of animals. In certain
plants, as in Chelidonium and Yallisneria, a kind of circulation has been
observed.
A still greater relation appears in the propagation of animals and plants,
which frequently takes place in both kingdoms by means of spontaneous
division, and the growth of the separating shoots or buds, as in the case of
the creeping roots, and the shoots of many plants ; and also in some animals,
where numerous stems united by a common base, give rise to others
which become separated and commence an independent existence, as in the
polypi. The spontaneous division of the infusoria belongs to this mode of
reproduction. Plant and animal eggs can also be brought into comparison
with each other, if the lower orders of both be taken for this purpose. The
phenomena of vegetable life which are also present in the animal kingdom,
may be stated as follows :
1. The ability of individual portions when detached to grow and live
independently, and even to originate others. Many plants can be increased
by cuttings, and it is well known that pieces cut from fresh water polypi
will grow and form perfect individuals.
2. As plants always produce new shoots, so in the corals are similar parts
produced ; and as a tree placed with its top in the ground may produce
leaves and blossoms from the upturned roots, so the base of a sertularia
may become the head by producing young polyps.
3. The formation of buds happens in both kingdoms, of which the polypi
again afford examples.
4. In plants we also find traces of irritability, like the movements of the
mustard plant when touched. Animals and plants are both subject to
sleeping and waking.
5. Plants and animals undergo metamorphosis, and sustain malformation
and disease, which sooner or later result in death, after which both are subject
to fernnentation and putrefaction.
6. Plants and animals, and their organs, are developed gradually according
to a certain plan. As the root and stem are formed out of the seed, and the
leaves from the cotyledons, until at length the flower and its component
parts are produced, so we find the several organs of the animal body to be
formed from the membrane of the yolk.
7. As there are plants which live but a few days, or even hours, like
many fungi, so there are animals, as the ephemera. Most plants, like most
insects, live but a single summer. On the other hand, plants as well as
animals may attain a very great age, and examples are not rare of trees a
thousand years old. Animals also become very old, although it is difficult
to arrive at any certain conclusion upon this point. There is reason to
believe that the crevish or river crab (Astacus) lives about twenty years ;
the honey bee ten years ; the pike several centuries ; carps and eels a century ;
crocodiles and tortoises, whose growth continues during a long period,
probably attain a very great age; a, toad was watched in a house for thirty-
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6 ZOOLOGY.
six years ; chickens live from twenty to thirty years ; parrots, ravens, and
swans, from eighty to one hundred ; a goose lived to near one hundred ;
an ass thirty-six ; and a horse sixty. The colossal mammalia may live
several centuries.
8. Plants and animals are subject to hybernation, a phenomenon which
we find especially in the polar and temperate zones, partly on account of
the absence of the necessary heat, the deficiency of the means of subsistence,
but also on account of a peculiar organization. In this condition plants
lose their leaves and animals fall into a continued death-like sleep, concealed
in holes and caves. All the functions are limited to their minimum. In
hot regions we find a corresponding summer repose in animals and plants,
connected with the great heat and aridity of the season. Then many
tropical plants shed their leaves ; crocodiles lie in the mud apparently dead ;
land shells close their aperture by a diaphragm ; and certain freshwater
species bury themselves at the bottom of ponds which become desiccated,
until the return of the rainy season calls them to renewed life.
9. Plants, like animals, exhibit, under certain circumstances, great
tenacity of life. Seeds of plants can preserve their germinating power for
a long time, that of beans lasting one hundred years or more. An onion
found in the hand of an Egyptian mummy germinated after an interval of
not less than two thousand years, and the same thing happened with some
cereal grains. The eggs of infusoria seem to afibrd a parallel in the animal
kingdom. The examples cited of living toads found imbedded in solid
stone have not been sufficiently well authenticated to be admitted as facts,
nor have the species thus said to be found ever been described or named.
10. Plants and animals become degenerate, as in the case of cultivated
vegetables, which are sometimes quite unlike their original species.
11. There are living plants and animals which are capable of giving
fight in the dark, as some of the former which grow in subterranean
passages, certain roots, and the blossoms of certain orange-flowered plants.
Many animals, as the medusas and fireflies, emit a phosphorescent light ;
and it is well known that decaying animal and vegetable matter is luminous
under certain circumstances.
But notwithstanding the various relations between plants and animals,
there are still essential difierences which it is suflScient merely to allude to
here. The most essential distinction lies in the free will of the animal, and
the power to make use of it in voluntary motion ; and the presence of
nervous matter to convey sensation. A mouth, muscles, bones, and organs
of sense, are not present in any plant. Animal heat, electricity, and art
have no parallel among vegetables.
Instinct is peculiar to animals, like that of migration, defence, the
constructions of bees and wasps, the expeditions of war and to make slaves
which ants undertake, &c. Instinctive actions are not taught, although a
permanent habit may become an instinct. The young duck swims at once,
the young snapping turtle bites when taken from the egg, and a harmless
serpent without fang or rattle will vibrate its tail like a rattlesnake,
producing a similar sound among dry leaves. The brain of the yoimg is
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INTRODUCTION. 7
modelled upon that of the adult, and where the scale of ideas is limited,
they must be as essentially hereditary as the external form.* An English
writer endeavors to found a distinction between instinct and reason, by
citing the case of a young animal, as a monkey, being terrified by one of
its natural enemies, as a large serpent, wiien seen for the first time, which
would not be the case with a young human being. Nevertheless, if man
were for ages subject to be devoured by a large reptile, watching and
caution would at length become habitual, and be transmitted as an instinct.
The brain of the young is not necessarily that of the adult, but that of the
adult at an earlier stage. So a quality or habit is not always transmissible
firom a parent to its immediate ofi*spring, but it may appear in a more
distant descendant, by a kind of " alternation of generations." Colonel
Hamilton Smith considers the spotted horse as an original Asiatic race
with which the ordinary breeds were sometimes crossed, and he thus
accounts for the occasional appearance of examples of it. The original
race is mild and intelligent, which is one reason for its frequent use in
equestrian exhibitions.
One of the most important inquiries in the history of animals and plants,
is that which relates to their distribution. That of the latter has been
treated of under Botany ; and as regards animals, our contracted space
limits us to the following general view.
There are both aquatic and terrestrial animals, the number of which may
perhaps be equal ; but there are also species which can live both in water
and on land, as many of the amphibia, and some other vertebrata. Some
aquatic animals live partly in fresh, and some in salt water ; but there are
others which leave the sea to spawn in the fresh water, as the salmon.
In the sea itself there are several regions depending upon the depth. Some
marine animals live near or at the surface, others upon the bottom, in some
cases within certain limits as to depth. Many land and sea animals live
only as parasites upon or within others. Some species have a peculiar
parasite, while others support several kinds.
Zoogeography, or the geographical distribution of animals, teaches the
circumstances and positions under which animals occur, both as regards
individual species, genera, or larger groups. The chief circumstances
which seem to control animal distribution, are temperature, elevation, and
natural barriers ; whence it results that not only the continents, but much
smaller regions, have their peculiar fauna. In proceeding from the tropics,
species will be found to diminish rapidly. Some animals are circumscribed
within very narrow limits, being confined to a single locality, as the curious
reptile genus Amblyrhynchus to the Galapagos islands, or the Aurochs
(Bison priscus) to a single forest in Russia. The genus Bradypus (sibth)
and Dasypus (armadillo), Auchenia (llama), are confined to South Amftica ;
the Marsupialia (possum, &c.) to America and Australia, and the Zebras to
Africa. Others are more widely spread, as the dogs, bats, mice, &c.
♦ Theae views are favorable to the doctrine of innate ideas, which is generally opposed by
q^ecolative reaaoners.
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8 ZOOLOGY.
Libellula (pi 74, fig, 44) ferruginea occurs from Spain to Java. Peltis
pusilla, a coleopterous insect, inhabits China, Madagascar, and Brazil.
The brightest colored and the larger forms of animal life are generally
found in the warmer zones, as the large crocodiles and gigantic serpents
among reptiles, and the lions and tigers among cats. There are, however,
some exceptions, as some of the largest whales inhabit cold climates, whilst
the American mastodon was larger than any recent elephant.
Man exercises considerable influence upon the distribution of animals.
Cultivation, and the removal of forests, together with hunting and fishing
upon a large scale, drive them to other localities, and reduce their numbers ;
whilst steam navigation causes certain species of fish to leave rivers in
other respects well adapted to them. For his own use, man transports
various domestic animals, some of which, like the horse and ox in South
America, have formed large wild herds. Goats and dogs occur similarly in
certain islands. Some animals have been so long domesticated, that the
original stock is unknown, if it still exists, as in the case of the cat and
camel.
The animal kingdom is usually separated into two large sections by the
presence or absence of an internal skeleton ; a separation, however, which
is not natural, as the two sections are not of equal value, as will appear
when we speak of the divisions. The essential part of such a skeleton is
the spine, composed of a series of vertebrae, whence the animals provided
with it are named Vertebrata ; and those without it Evertebrata or
Invertebrate animals. The latter section is much the richest ia genera and
species ; it is separated into three great divisions (the Vertebrata forming
another) and many minor groups; and, from the diflüculty which they
present, there still remains a good deal of uncertainty in the classification
of certain portions. The following sketch, together with pL 74, represents
the orders according to the classification of Cuvier somewhat modified, and
generally in inverse order.
Instead of an internal skeleton, many of the evertebrate animals are
provided with a kind of external skeleton for the protection of the inner
soft parts. The chief distinction between them and the Vertebrata lies in
the nervous system, which is not developed as a brain and spinal marrow,
but as a nervous ring round the CESophagus, or as a double cord, with bead-
like swellings at various intervals, as if the brain were divided into diflferent
centres of vitality, giving rise to various nerves. Hence, in dividing an
insect into several parts, each seems to have nearly the same amount of
vitality. Cuvier divides this section into three divisions, which are named
Radiata, Mollusca, and Articulata.
The Radiata are named from the arrangement of the parts around an
axis %omewhat as in plants, whence they are also called Zoophyta. The
Mollusca or soft animals, which include the shellfish, are characterized by
the soft pulpy and slimy nature of the body, which is inclosed in a kind of
mantle ; they are generally without regular limbs, and some are without a
head. Their power of locomotion is generally limited, and some are
altogether sedentary. The Articulata are distinguished by a ringed or
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INTRODüCnON. 9
jointed body and limbs, the external part being the hardest, and partaking
of the nature of «n external skeleton. They are generally provided with
well developed limbs, and are able to fly, run, and swim, with great facility.
A few are without limbs. This division includes insects ; Crustacea, or
crabs ; Arachnida, or spiders ; and Annelida, or ringed worms.
Division I. Radiata.
Class 1. Infusoria.
This class includes animals so minute that many of them cannot be seen
with the naked eye. They are named from being found in infusions of
organic matter. They are generally provided with vibrilke, or vibratile
organs, also named cilia, which resemble a minute fringe of hairs, which
are constantly in motion, causing either locomotion of the animalcula, or
currents of water, which bring their food within their reach.
Ohder 1. PoLTOASTRicA {Homogenea, Cuvier), to which has been attri-
buted a compound stomach, resembling a bunch of grapes, whence the
name applied by Ehrenberg, who made the supposed discovery. The
genus Monas (pL 74, fig, 1) is an organized globule which moves by
rotation. Some authors think they are not animals, but the seeds of Algae.
The smaller kinds are only from one to two thousandths of a line in length,
so that a drop of water may contain half as many individuals as there are
Jiuman beings upon the earth, or five hundred millions of them.
Order 2. Rotifbra, in which the action of the vibrillae is supposed to
resemble a wheel in motion. They are now removed to the lowest position
among the Crustacea. PL 74, fig, 2, Monocerca.
Class 2. Zoophyta.
This includes the abundant order of the coral animals, the naked Polypi
(fig, 4), of which the freshwater species are the best known. The sponges
(/>/. 74, fi^, 3) have also been placed here. The classification given here
(that of />/. 74) is not followed in the subsequent pages.
Order 1. Corallina. PL 75, figs, 58, <fcc.
" 2. Gelatinosa. PL 74, fig. 4, Hydra.
" 3. Actinia. PL 77, figs, 5, 6.
Class 3. AcalephcB.
This class includes the Medusae, Sea Jellies, Sea Nettles, &c. PL 76,
fig. 74, Aurelia.
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10 ZOOLOGY.
Order 1. Htdrobtatica. PL 74, fig. 5, Diphies.
" 2. AcALBPHiA. Medusa. PL 74, fig. 6, VekUa.
Class 4. Echinodermata.
Radiated animals with a hard integument, like those on pL 76, figs. 60
to 71. Some have and some are without locomotive organs.
Order 1. Epedicellata. PL 74, fig. 7, Sipunculus,
" 2. Pedicellata. PL74,fig.S,Holothuria,Asterias, Echinus, See.
Class 5. Intestina.
In this class (excluding the Annelida) Cuvier placed the intestinal womu;
and others which bear some resemblance to them, but which are not
confined to the internal parts of animals.
Order 1. Entozoa {Cavitaria, Cuvier). PL 74, fig. 9, Ligula.
" 2. Sterelmintha (Parenchymata, Cuvier). Fig. 10, Nemertes.
Division II. Mollusca.
Class I. Acephala,
This class has no proper head, the mouth opening immediately into the
anterior part of the body. The gills are suspended upon each side of the
body. The Tunicata are without an external shell ; the Conchifera have a
bivalve shell.
Order 1. Tunicata. PL 74, fig. 11, BotryUus. PL 77, fig. 8, Salpa.
" 2. CoNCHiPERA. PL 74, fig. 12, Ostrea. See also pL 7^, figs. 25-50.
Class 2. Gastropoda.
In this class locomotion is effected by means of a fleshy disk, called a
foot, upon the lower surface of the body. The orders are distributed
according to the structure of the branchiae. This class is abundant in
species, and includes the greater part of the univalve shells.
Order 1. Cyclobranchiata. PL 74, fig. 13, Chiton,
" 2. SouTiBRANCHiATA. " " 14, Fissurella.
" 3. TuBULiBRANCHiATA. " " 15, Vermctus.
" 4. Ctbnobranchiata. " " 16, Strombus.
" 5. Heteropoda. " " 17, Carinaria.
" 6. Tectibranchiata. " " 18, Bulla.
" 7. Inferobranchiata. " " 19, Phyllidium.
" 8. NiJDiBRANCHiATA. " " 20, TrUonium.
" 9. PuLMONATA. " " 21, Jdmnca.
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Class 3. Pteropoda,
In this class the organs of locomotion are a pair of fleshy, wing«like fins
at the sides of the neck. It includes but one order. PL 74, fig. 22, Clio.
Class 4. Cephalopoda.
The body is formed like a sack, the head is surrounded with long arms,
used for prehension and locomotion; the eyes are large, and the mouth
armed with a strong beak. There is but one order in the class.
PI 74, fig. 23, Octopus. PI. 76, figs. 16, 17, 75, 76, 77.
Division III. Articulata.
Class 1. Annelida.
Worms with cold red blood, the body lengthened and divided into rings,
of which the first forms the head. Articulated feet are never present, but
many of the genera are provided with stiff* movable bristles. Nearly all
live in water ; the Lumbricus (earth-worm) is, however, an exception.
Some live in tubes which they form in the bottom, some form them out of
agglutinated particles of sand, and others secrete a kind of shell. Some of
these, on account of the shell, have been thoughtlessly classified with the
Mollusca.
Obdisr 1. Abranchiata. pi. 74, fig. 24, Hirudo (leech).
" 2. DoRsiBRANCHiATA. " " 25, Apkrodüe.
" 3. TüBiooLA. *• " 26, Amphitrite.
Class 2. Cirr/wpoda.
This class was formerly included in the Mollusca, on account of the shell;
its affinities are, however, with the Crustacea. They are attached to stones,
corals, crabs, shells, the bottoms of ships, whales, and marine tortoises.
PL 74, fig. 27, and pL 76, fig. 52, Anatifa. PL 76, fig. 54, Balanus.
Class 3. Crustacea.
This class includes the articulata with articidate feet, which breathe by
means of gills. Their circulation is double. There are two pair of
antennae, and never less than five pair of feet, and there are frequentl^f
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12 ZOOLOGY.
more. The integument is more or less hard, the eyes are either sessile or
elevated upon movable pedicles, as in the two highest orders. The
situation and form of the gills, the position of the head and tail, the structure
and number of the feet and parts of the mouth, afford characters for their
classification.
Order 1. Trilobita.
" 2. PcEciLOPODA. PL 74, ßg. 34, Cdligus (parasitic).
" 3. Branchiopoda. " " 33, Cyclops (waterflea).
" 4. IsopoDA. " " 32, Oniscus.
" 5. LiEMODiPODA. *' "31, CyamuB (whalelouse).
" 6. Amphipoda. " " 30, TalUrus.
" 7. Stomatopoda. " " 29, Squilla,
" 8. Decapoda. " " 28, Cancer.
Class 4. Ärachnida.
This class is provided with articulate limbs, and includes spiders, mites,
and scorpions. They differ from insects in wanting antennae, in having
simple eyes, and in having the head coalescing with the thorax, and forming
the cephalothorax. The feet are generally eight in number, being but six
in insects ; they are not subject to a metamoi*phosis, but moult the skin
instead. The Pulmonaria (spiders and scorpions) breathe by a kind of
hings, or pulmonobranchiae ; the Trachearia (including the mites and some
Miiall aquatic species) by tracheae, as in insects. Most of the Arachnida
are predaceous in their habits.
Order 1. Pulmonaria. PI. 74, ßg. 35, Aranea.
" 2. Trachbaria. " " 36, Chelifer.
Class 5. Insecta.
Insects have articulated feet, a dorsal vessel instead of a heart, and they
breathe through lateral spiracles, connected with two principal tracheae.
Some insects are apterous and some winged, the number of wings being
either two or four. The four wings are of a similar texture in some, and
of a different texture in others. In the Coleoptera the posterior pair alone
are used in flight, the anterior pair being converted into covers for their
protection whilst at rest. The number of feet is six, except in the
vermiform centipedes and millipedes (Myriapoda), which have characters
intermediate to the true insects and the annelida; and, indeed, they are
regarded by some as a distinct class. Insects undergo a more or less
complete metamorphosis, which, in the Myriapoda, is confined to an
mcrease of the number of segments and feet. Insects do not grow in this
perfect state, having attained their full volume previous to their final
transformation.
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Oaobr 1. Mtriapoda. PL 74, ßg. 37» Scolopendra.
" 2. Thysanura. " " 38, Lepisma.
" 3. Parabita. " " 39, Pediculus.
" 4. SucTORiA. " « 40, Pukx.
" 5. CoLEOPTBRA. " " 41, Carobus.
" 6. Orthoptbra. " " 42, Forficula.
" 7. Hemiptbra. " " 43, Cimex.
" 8. Nburoptbra. " " 44, Libellula.
" 9. Hymbnoptbra. ** " 45, Tentht'edo.
" 10. Lbpidoptbra. " " 46, Vanessa.
" 11. DiPTERA. •' " 47, Stomoxys.
Division IV. Vertebrata.
The Vertebrate Division of the animal kingdom, as has been already
remarked, includes animals with an internal articulated skeleton or
framework, capable of growth, supplied with blood-vessels and nerves, and
serving for the support of the soft parts ; and it is here that animals of the
greatest size are found. The body is divided into head, trunk, and organs
of locomotion, and the nervous system has attained its greatest concentration
in a single brain or nervous centre. The group of Vertebrata having the
same value as the previous Divisions, it is unnatural to consider it as
balancing the Evertebrata conjointly, and on this account it will be here
considered as a division including the following classes.
Class 1. Pisces.
In all fishes the blood is oxygenated by means of gills, which are
supported by a bony framework, named the branchial arches, which
generally amount to four. The external structure is adapted for inhabiting
and moving through the water. The air-bladder, although not concerned
in breathing, is really the homologue of the lungs in the higher classes. It
is not present in all fishes.
Fishes are divided into two series, according as the skeleton is
cartilaginous or osseous. In the former the organization is low, the ribs
are rudimentary, and in the lowest form the spine is a continuous line of
cartilage not yet divided into vertebrae. The orders of cartilaginous or
chondropterygeous fishes are as follows :
Order 1. Cyclobtomata. PI. 74, ßg. 48, Petromyxon, lampereel.
" 2. Sblachii. '' '' 49, Squalus, shark.
" 3. Sturionbs. " " Ö1, Äcipenser, sturgeon.
The osseous fishes, which are much the most numerous, are distributed
in the following orders :
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14 ZOOLOGY.
Order 1. Plectognathi. PI. 14, fig. 52, Orthagoriscus.
" 2. LoPHOBRANOHii. *' " 53, Hippocompus.
" 3. Apodes. " " 54, Anguilla^ eel.
" 4. SuBBRACHiATA. " " 56, Pkurouectes; 56,Merla7igus.
" 5. Abdominales. " " Ö7, Cyprinus, chub.
" 6. Acanthoptertgil " " 58, Xiphias, swordfish.
Class 2. Reptilia.
Reptiles are cold-blooded vertebrata, which breathe by means of lungs,
or lungs and gills. The heart is composed of a large ventricle with which
the two auricles communicate. The ventricle receives venous blood from
the system through the right auricle, and oxygenated blood from the lungs
through the left one, so that both pure and impure blood are mixed in the
ventricle, previous to being sent through the system, a portion passing
through the lungs. This peculiarity of the circulation accounts for these
animals being cold-blooded, since in the animals with warm blood, one of
the two ventricles transmits unmixed oxygenated blood to the system.
The brain of reptiles is small, and exercises less influence upon the
system than in the higher classes, since they can live a considerable time
when it is removed. The body is naked or covered with scales, but these
are unlike those of fishes. The first order is named Bairachia by Cuvier,
and Amphibia by other authors, on account of their adaptation to breathing
both air and water at the same time, or at different periods of their life. In
some of the amphibia the gills are permanent (Gnesiobranchiata), and in
others they disappear (Agnesiobranchiata).
Order 1. Batrachia. PL 74, figs, 59, Salamandra; 60, Rana.
« 2. Ophidia. " " 61, Vipera; 62, Boa.
" 3. Sauria. " " 63, Anguis ; 64, Ophisaurus ; 65,
Chirotes ; 66, 67, Chalcides ; 68, Bipes ; 69, Anolis ; 70,
Scincus ; 71, Tilicua ; 72, ChamtBleo ; 73, Ptyodactylus ;
74, Basiliscus ; 75, Iguana ; 76, Draco / 77, Agama ; 78,
Stellio ; 79, Lacerta ; 80, Tejus ; 81, Crocodilus ; 82,
Plesiosaurus ; 83, Ichthyosaurus,
Order 4. Chelonidea. PI 14, figs, 84, Chelonia; 85, Testudo,
Class 3. Aües.
Birds are oviparous vertebrata, with warm blood and a double circulation,
clothed with feathers, and provided with two feet and two wings. The air
has access to various parts of the body, which diminishes their specific
gravity, and assists them in flight. Of all the classes of animals this is the
most strictly defined ; and its characters are more uniform, and have
fewer exceptions, on which account the classification presents some
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INTRODUCTION. 16
difficulties. The chief characters used for this purpose are furnished by
the bill and feet
Order 1. Palmipedes. Pi 74, fgs. 86, Anas ; 87, Sula ; 88, Pelecanus ;
89, ProceUaria ; 90, Podiceps.
Order 2. Grallm. PL lA, figs, 91, Phcsnicopterus ; 92, Rallus; 93,
Scohpaz ; 94, Ardea ; 95, Grus ; 96, Otis ; 97, Struthio.
Order 3. Gallinacea. PL 74, ^^5. 98, Gallus ; 99, Crax: 100,
Order 4. Sgansores. P/. 47, figs. 101, PsUtacus ; 102, Pict«.
" 5. Passeres. " " 103, Buceros ; 104, Meraps ; 105,
Si«a; 106, Alauda; 107, Oypselus ; 108, Pica.
Order 6. Accipitres. P/. 74, ^^«. 109, Otus ; 110, VuUur ; 111,
C/a55 4. Mammalia,
The young are produced alive in this class, which differs from all others
in nourishing the young with milk secreted by the mammary glands.
The thorax and abdomen are separated by a diaphragm composed of
muscles, which is used in respiration. Man, by his physical characters, stands
at the head of this class ; although from his moral attributes some naturalists
have denied him a place in the animal kingdom.
Order 1. Get ace a. PL 74, fig, 112, Balisna.
" 2. RuMiNANTiA. a, Cervidm; fig, ll3, Cervus,
b, Bovidae ; fig. 114, Bos.
c, Camelidae ; fig. 115, Camelus.
** 3. Pachtdermata. a, Solipeda; fig. 116, Equus,
b, Snidm; fig. 117, Sus.
c, Proboscidea;^^. 118, Ekphas,
** 4. Monotrbmata. Fig. 119, Omithorhynchus.
« 5. Edentata. Fig. 120, Manis. Fig. 121, Bradypus.
^ 6. RoDENTiA. Fig. 122, Lepus. Fig. 123, Sciurus. Fig. 124,
Castor. Fig. 125, Mus.
" ' 7. Carnivora. Fig. 126, Didelphis (possum). Fig. 127, Phoca
(seal). Fig. 128, Mustela (weasel). Fig. 129, Viverra
(ferret). Fig. 130, Felis (cat). Fig. 131, fiycwia. -R^.
132, Canis (dog). -FY^. 133, Ursus (bear).
" 8. Insectivora. Fig. 134, Erinaceus.
" 9. Chiroptera. J^'^. 135, Vespertilio (bat), i^^. 136, Pteropus.
*' 10. QüADRUMANA. i^^. 137, Ii^Tiur. Pig^. 138, Hapale. Fig, 139,
" 11. BiMANA. P^. 140, Homo,
The order and classification which we propose to adopt, will be found to
differ somewhat from the system given above, which b essentially that of
Cuvier.
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16 ZOOLOGT.
DESCRIPTIVE ZOOLOGY.
Class Porifera.
If sponges belong to the animal kingdom, they stand at the lowest point,
where they will constitute a class to which Grant's name Porifera may be
applied. In the living sponges the water is imbibed through the smaller
pores, and flows out of the larger ones in a regular stream. They exhibit
no sensation when pierced, torn, burnt, or acted upon by acids, so that they
are exceeded in sensitiveness by many plants.
Dujardin considers that he has proved them to be groups of animals. In
placing a fragment of living sponge under the microscope, it was found to
shape itself into rounded masses, the edges of which changed their form
continually ; and small bits moved by contracting and expanding.
Johnston, in his History of British Zoophytes, classes sponges with plants,
on the ground that they are permanently fixed, not irritable, their move-
ments involuntary, a stomach wanting, and from their resembling the
cryptogamia in taking their form from the object to which they are
attached.
Mr. Hogg states that sponges have no tentacles, vibrillae, mouth,
oesophagus, stomach, gizzard, alimentary canal, intestine, anus, Ovaria, ova,
muscles, nerves, ganglia, irritability, palpitation, nor sensation. " Surely,
then, we cannot any longer esteem these natural substances to be individual
animals, or even groups of animals, in which not one organ or a single
function or property peculiar to an animal can be detected."
Sponges are usually marine, although there are a few species which are
found in streams and stagnant water. They have a loose texture, covered
and penetrated by a jelly-like substance ; and they are perforated with
numerous passages. The gelatinous substance seems alone to be present in
the young, the fibrous substance appearing at a later period.
The species of spongia are numerous, about 150 kinds being described by
Lamarck. The best known is Spongia officinalis {pi 75, ßg. 45). It is
found attached to rocks and stones in the Mediterranean, particularly about
the Greek islands, where they are collected by divers. Its reproduction is
so rapid, that it may be collected in the same place after an interval of two
years. The younger specimens are the most sought after, on account of
their greater delicacy. Formerly burnt sponge was used in domestic
medical practice for goitre, its action depending upon the presence of
iodine.
The form of sponges is subject to an endless variety, and even the same
■pecies varies to a great degree, apparently with the locality ; so that it is
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DransoEiA. 17
difficult to classify them properly. They are principally made up of
irregular, globular, fan-shaped, palmate, branched, cup-shaped, funnel-shaped
(often of great size), tubular, leaf-shaped, or ragged forms, which either
surround other objects, or rise upon a short pedicle. The cup-shaped
S, usitaHssima, and the trumpet-shaped S, tubceformis, are from the
American seas. The former is an article of commerce. S, fistularis (pi,
75, ßg. 44) is a large brown species, with fine and very flexible fibres, from
the American seas.
Notwithstanding the investigations of zealous inquirers, polyps have not
been found in sponges. A number of observers who have watched their
growth from the commencement, first observed the gelatinous substance,
and afterwards the filamentous matter in it, which may be regarded as a
skeleton. The growth of sponges is quite different from that of corals, as
might be expected from the absence of poljrps. Some regard the circulation
of water through sponges as a kind of breathing process, a view which is
inadmissible. With respect to their propagation, but little is satisfactorily
known. According to Olivi, small oval bodies are found in the jelly-like
mass, especially in autumn, which have been too hastily named eggs.
Sponges contain calcareous or silicious spicula, in which they resemble
certain plants. They may be detected by burning a piece of sponge and
placing some of the ashes beneath a microscope. These spicula are
uniform in each species; so that they are useful in affording specific
characters.
The chief peculiarities of marine sponges are also found in the fresh
water species, as Spongilla lacustris ; S, fluviatilis ; and S, friabilis,
which inhabit swamps and running streams. The three named species,
however, constitute probably but one, at different stages of growth.
The following genera are placed here, because, according to Milne
Edwards, they have no polyps (new edition of Lamarck, vol. 2, p. 208,
520, 522). Some of the best authorities place them among plants.
Penecillus penecillus, Linn. (pi. 75, flg. 37), resembles a hair pencil, and
the stem has a whitish calcareous crust (American seas). Flabellaria
apuntia, Linn. (fi^. 30) (American seas). Acetabulum mediterraneum (fig.
41). Corallina officinalis, Linn, (pi, 75, fig. 38), white, reddish, or green,
four inches long. C, rubens (fig. 35) (Mediterranean). These delicate
bodies were long supposed to partake of the animal nature of the true
corals ; but the structure is now considered to be nearer that of the algae.
Pedicellaria, Müller (pi. 75, fig. 4), is a portion of an Echinus,
Class Infusosia.
These minute animals have been observed and studied only since the
discovery and improvement of the microscope. Several species were
known in ancient times, because they occurred in such numbers as to
discolor the water green or red, in the latter case giving it the appearance
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18 ZOOLOGT.
of blood; but no one anticipated this discoloration (which was regarded as a
mark of divine displeasure) to be due to animals.
Leeuwenhoek, in 1675, first observed the infusoria, in standing rain water,
without being fully convinced of their animal nature. Subsequently, in
pursuing some medical inquiries into the nature of the material which gives
its pungency to pepper, he made an infusion of this substance, which he was
afterwards astonished to find swarming with animals. They were subse-
quently found in infusions of other vegetables, and in those of animal and
metallic substances ; and although it has been found that infusions are not
essential to their production, they still retain the name of Infusoria. They
are also called Protozoa, because they were supposed to constitute the first
appearance of animal life. In the year 1701, Leeuwenhoek discovered that
Rotifera, from the sediment which had been dried for a year in the gutter
of a roof, could be revived. From this date, notwithstanding the number
of observers, no one seemed disposed to investigate the internal structure
of these minute objects, until the researches of Ehrenberg showed that they
are provided with at least a mouth and a digestive cavity.
The larger species of Infusoria attain the size of a tenth of aline or more.
The body is gelatinous and naked, but some are protected by a coriaceous,
calcareous, or silicious defence ; and as these mineral materials remain after
the death of the animal, they are sometimes so abundant as to form entire
geological formations. Some Infusoria have the body covered with minute
sandy particles ; others have only a shield upon the back ; others again
have the entire body inclosed in a case with one or more openings. When
a defence is present, it is usually in a single piece, although there are some
composed of more.
The Infusoria are usually colorless and translucent, but some are green,
some yellow, and a few red ; and when these colored species are very
abundant, they give the water a discolored appearance. The shape is
globular, oval, fusiform, cylindrical, vermiform, or irregular ; and some are
continually varying their form, so that the same individual might be mis-
taken for several distinct species. This is especially the case in the genus
Proteus, which has derived its name from the sudden and great variation of
form the same individual assumes under the eye of the observer. A head,
neck, and tail, are usually distinguishable, and in some one end is very
long, giving the animal a fanciful resemblance to a swan. The tail is
sometimes used as a foot, and in some species is capable of being extended
like the tube of a telescope. There are various external appendages like
spines or bristles, but the most usual of these are the vibrillcB, which are
used in locomotion, and to draw the food within reach by forming a kind
of minute whirlpool in the water. In the Rotifera (which are really
Crustacea) the vibrillse are arranged in two circles at the anterior extremity;
and when they are in action, some observers fancy that they resemble
wheels in a state of rotation, whence the name of rotifera.
The BaccilaricB (now regarded as plants) are united together side by
side in ribbon-like bands. B, paradoxa is a very interesting species, which
may be compared to a ruler ; but as many individuab rest side by side like
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INFUSORIA. 19
rulers upon a table, they may form a square or parallelogram.
The motion is peculiar, each single body (the edges remaining in
a line) being capable of sliding rapidly along the one with which
it is in contact ; so that when those upon one side have extended
themselves, the whole may resemble a flag attached to a pole, as
in the diagram.
The Gaillonellce (plants) are united end to end, forming a
chain. In the genus Meridion the individual parts or frustules are
wedge-shaped, so that when placed edge to edge they form an arch, or even
a circle or spiral. In Micrasterias the interior is divided into many cells.
Isthmia has an end fixed, and forms rows, the parts being in contact at
different angles by a small isthmus.
All the animal Infusoria seem to be provided with a mouth, which is
generally terminal, but sometimes placed near the middle of the body. The
vent is not always present, or at least has not been discovered in all, so that
it is possible that the undigested portion of the food may be rejected from
the mouth, as in the Polypi. Where it has been observed, the vent was
near the mouth ; or upon the abdomen ; or at the posterior extremity,
above or below. The breathing organs, where they have been observed,
appear as simple openings. The organs of motion are the tail, foot, bristles,
vibrillaB, &c.
The organs of sense, as far as known, are those of feeling (of which the
«SDOut, and perhaps the bristles, are the organs), and perhaps vision, although
Dujardin doubts the existence of the latter. The organs supposed to be
eyes are dark red or black stigmas situated anteriorly upon the upper side,
and Ehrenberg thinks that a glandular body beneath them performs the
(unction of an optic nerve. Most of the polygastrica have a single stigma,
Distigma has two ; some of the Rotifera (crustacea) two, three, four, or
/nore, arranged in two clusters, as in Theorus ; in a semicircle, as in
Cyclogena ; or upon pedicles (like those of land snails) as in Otoglena, It
is uncertain whether the structure of these eye-like spots resembles that of
^ny of the animals above them ; or whether their vision, if they possess
this sense, is more than sufficient to distinguish light from darkness. Indeed,
a perfect vision would scarcely be of much use to them, as they are said
lot to sleep, but to be as active in darkness as in light.
The internal organization of these singular animals is not less interesting
<Jian their exterior form ; and indeed it may be considered the more sur-
prising, when their size, in comparison with that of the larger animals, is
taken into consideration. Their movements are extremely multifarious,
and for all these there is an appropriate system of muscles. These may be
observed running in various directions, the most interesting being those
which keep up the unceasing play of the vibrillae. But these organs are
not confined to this class, vibrillae being found externally and internally in
many of the higher animals.
In the Polygastrica Ehrenberg represents a long curved intestine with
numerous globular bodies suspended to it somewhat like grapes, from the
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20 ZOOLOGY.
mouth to the vent, which he regards as so many stomachs. This view
passed undisputed for a considerable time ; for although other observers
failed to detect the connexion between the supposed stomachs and intestine,
the failure was attributed to want of skill in microscopic manipulation.
Ultimately this structure was doubted, although Pouchet reaffirmed it in
1848, and among others, Professor Rymer Jones expresses his doubts as
follows :
" In carnivorous animalcules which devour other species, we might expect,
were these the stomachs, that the prey would at once be conveyed into one
or other of these cavities ; yet, setting aside the difficulty which must mani-
festly occur in lodging large animalcules in these microscopic sacs, and
having recourse to the result of actual experience, we have never in a single
instance seen an animalcule, when swallowed, placed in such a position, but
have repeatedly traced the prey into what seemed a cavity excavated in the
general parenchyma of the body.
" In the second place, the sacculi have no appearance of being peduncu-
lated, and consequently in a certain degree fixed in definite positions. . .
So far from their having any appearance of connexion with a central canal,
they are in continual circulation, moving slowly upwards along one side of
the body, and in the opposite direction down the other, changing, moreover,
their relative positions with each other, and resembling in every respect the
colored granules visible in the gelatinous parenchyma of the hydra.
" With respect to the central canal, we have not in any instance been
able to detect it . . . much less the branches represented as leading from it
to the vesicles or stomachs, as they are called. Even the circumstances
attending the prehension of food would lead us to imagine a different
structure ; witness, for example, the changes of form which Enchelis pupa
undergoes when taking prey almost equal to itself in bulk. Such a capability
of taking in and digesting a prey so disproportionate, would, in itself, go far
to prove that the minute sacculi were not stomachs ; as it evidently cannot
be in one of these that digestion is accomplished." — General Outline of the
Animal Kingdom, 1841.
The observations of Dujardin (Hist. nat. des Zooph. Infusoires, 184lf
confirm those of Jones. He thinks that they do not lay eggs.
Many of Ehrenberg's discoveries were made by infusing indigo or carmine
in the water in which he kept Infusoria, and this being swallowed, marked
the limits of the internal cavity. He did not detect the liver, spleen, or
organs of circulation and respiration ; but there are two organs in the gullet
supposed to be analogous to salivary glands.
All Infusoria live in the water, some being confined to fresh, and others
to salt water ; but there are others which inhabit both. Some swim about
almost continually, some attach themselves at will to plants or animals, and
others are attached to particular animals, as to the Cyclops or waterflea, the
freshwater Polypus ; and even upon or within other Infusoria. One species
is found in the rectum of frogs, and another (Paramecium compressum) in
the intestines of the earthworm. Agassiz has observed the eggs of Planaria
producing a species of " Paramecium'' which was consequently an immature
condition of that animal. All the attempts of Ehrenberg to detect Infusoria
as inhabitants of the air have failed.
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INFUSORIA. 21
The modes of locomotion in the Infusoria are various. Some swim by
means of the vibrillae ; some, like the monads, revolve like a globe on its
axis ; others roll upon their transverse axis ; others glide along with a regulat
motion like the snails ; and others like the leech.
The reproduction of the Infusoria takes place by means of spontaneous
division; by budding, which is the least common; and perhaps by the
ordinary mode of generation, although this is denied by Dujardin, who
affirms that there are no males ; and indeed, no indications of sexual instinct
have been observed among them. The first mode of reproduction occurs
in the so-called Polygastrica, and takes place either transversely or longi-
tudinally, each half forming an independent animal. The division is not
always complete, and in this case the two parts remain attached to each
other. Some present a singular peculiarity, in which the soft part alone of
the animal is divided, whilst the harder parts or armor remain undivided, as
in Ophrydium versatile^ which often divides itself to the extent of millions,
whilst the gelatinous exterior remains entire, although it increases in size.
In others the protection is corhpletely divided, whilst the animals remain
more or less closely united. The division in pedunculated genera does not
generally extend beyond the pedicle, which, in case the divisions are
numerous, resembles the trunk of a small tree. This remarkable mode of
reproduction by division proceeds with such rapidity under favorable
circumstances, that a single animal may give rise to a million of descendants
in the course of eight or ten days.
The sudden and unaccountable appearance of Infusoria, especially in
closed vessels, was once attributed to spontaneous or equivocal generation,
a theory which still has its defenders, although it appears to be pretty well
ascertained that such a hypothesis is not necessary. We may readily
imagine that the inconceivably minute eggs of such creatures (or of those
of which these animalcula are the imperfect condition) can be raised into
the air with vapor and transported in all directions, penetrating wherever
the air itself finds access.
The vital power of some species (and of the crustaceous Rotifera) is so
great that they can survive with so little moisture as to be considered dry,
exhibiting no signs of vitality until moistened with a drop of water, when
they resume their active life. Doyere found that they may be completely
dried in sand, in the dry air, or in a vacuum, and be revived by placing
them in water. When placed in water at the temperature of 50^ Centigrade
(= 126° F.) they were killed, but would revive if the temperature did not
exceed 45° or 48** Cent. Some species are said to occur naturally in warm
springs whose temperature equals 40° or 50° Cent. ; whilst some species are
not destroyed by being frozen. Ehrenberg found Infusoria in materials taken
from floating masses of ice, and in sea water from a depth of 1100 to 1600
feet, brought by Captain Ross from the regions towards the south pole,
between the latitude of 63® and 78®, where the temperature must have been
very low, and the light much reduced at such a depth. •
The extent of certain geological strata made up of the solid parts of the
Infusoria is extraordinary, when the minuteness of the aggregated particles
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22 ZOOLOGY.
18 considered ; some of the silicious shields being so smaU, that» according to
Ehrenberg, one hundred millions weigh but a grain. They are found in
flint, semiopal, bog iron ore, ochre, tripoli (and other polishing minerak
which owe their action to the shields of silicious species), mountain meal,
a clay which is eaten in Lapland, and another variety in South America,
but which probably merely fills the stomach without affording nourishment
Sometimes these remains form a stone sufficiently light to float in water, and
strong enough to .be employed in building. In Lüneburg and about Berlin,
the infusorial strata are as much as twenty feet deep and twenty miles in
extent. Infusorial strata have been discovered by William B. Rogers upon
the Rappahannoc river at Stratford cliffs, on the Potomac, and on James
River below City Point ; and in other parts of Virginia. These deposits
belong to the miocene formation.
The extent of the artificial group Infusoria will probably be much reduced
as researches are continued. Kützing has separated the BacilUCria and
DiatomecB as Algce, and he considers Gaillonella ferruginea to be a
conferva. He thinks some of these organisms have both a vegetable and
an animal nature, and that in such simple forms the distinction between
animal and vegetable does not exist.
The observations of Unger, Flotow, Thuret, and C. Th. Siebold, have
thrown doubts upon the animal nature of other Infusoria of the genera
Enchelys, Chlamidomonas, Chilomonas, Chaetoglena, and others. These
researches seem to show that the spores of Algae are locomotive by means
of vibrillae, although Unger and Bory would contend that these supposed
spores are animal in their nature, but convertible into plants.
Agassiz considers many of the Infusoria to be the larvae of worms, &c.,
and he seems disposed to suppress the entire class by distributing its
members among the other classes of animal and vegetable nature. There
is reason to believe that supposed species of Leucophra and Difflugia are
immature Alcyonellae. Nevertheless, it would be premature to give up the
entire class until a greater number of the more distinct forms are
ascertained to be larvae, because, whilst we admit that individual species
may have been described under several distinct names, the number of
infusorial species seems too great for the comparatively small number of
worms, &c., likely to be derived from them.
The name Infusoria is adopted here on account of the heterogeneous
contents of the division ; but if future observation renders it probable that
the removal of portions will still leave a distinct group, incapable of union
with other classes, these may take the more appropriate name of Protoztm,
sometimes applied to the entire group ; and its symbol, to extend the views
of Agassiz, will be a circle.
Professor J. W. Bayley of the Military Academy, West Point, is the chief
American authority upon the Infusoria. Most of his papers may be
consulted in the American Journal of Science.
W# now proceed to the consideration of the species figured in the atlas.
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INFÜSOMA. 2S
Anentera (without intestines).
Montis lens, Muller (/>/. lb, fig, 1), is about j^ik of a line long. The line
used in Natural History is the twelfth part of a French inch.
Vibrio anguillula {pi. lb, fig. 7). This active species, which bears some
resemblance to an eel, is found in vinegar and in sour paste, and can be
revived after having been desiccated. It is by some placed among the
worms, while Dr. Joseph Leidy, a distinguished comparative anatomist of
Philadelphia, thinks their nature may be vegetable. His remarks, some-
what condensed, are as follows :
" Even those moving filamentary bodies belonging to the genus Vibrio, I
am inclined to think, are of the character of algous vegetation. Their
movement is no objection to this opinion, for much higher confervae, as the
Oscillatorias, are endowed with inherent power of movement, not very
unlike that of the Vibrio. . . In the stomach and small intestine of the
toad, Bufo americanus, there exist simple, delicate, filamentary bodies. One
is exceedingly minute, forms a single spiral, is endowed with a power of
rapid movement, and appears to be the Spirillum undula of Ehrenberg ; the
second is an exceedingly minute, straight, and short filament, with a
movement actively mofecular in character, and is probably the Vibrio
lineola of the same author ; the third consists of straight, motionless
filaments, measuring j^j inch long, by tt.Vtt broad ; some were, how-
ever, twice, or even thrice this length, but then I could always detect
one or two articulations, and these, in all their characters, excepting want
of movement, resemble the Vibrio. In the rectum of the same animal, the
same filamentary bodies are found, with myriads of Bodo intestinalis ; but
the third species, or longest of the filamentary bodies, have increased
immensely m number, and now possess the movement peculiar to the
Vibrio lineola, which, however, does not appear to be voluntary, but
reactionary ; they bend and pursue a straight course, until they meet with
some obstacle, when they instantly move in the opposite direction, either
extremity forward. But it must not be understood that these facts militate
against the hypothesis of the production of contagious diseases through the
gjency of Cryptogamia. It is well established that there are microscopic
rytc^amia capable of producing and transmitting disease, as in the case of
the Muscardine, &c." — Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sei. for October, 1849.
Vibrio tritici, which infests wheat, has been revived by moisture after
being in a dry condition for six years.
Gonium pectorale (pi. 75, fig. 11, enlarged) is an interesting species,
resembling a table-shaped mass, in which there are about sixteen green
animalcula. When abundant they give a green color to the water.
Volvox globator (fig. 15, enlarged) was discovered by Leeuwenhoek in 1698,
and is abundant in stagnant water. It is globular, of a pale-green color,
and from one third to a sixth of a line in diameter. The surface is finely
reticulated and provided with vibrillae, by means of which it advances
slowly through the water with a revolving motion. The Volvox is
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54 ZOOLOGT-
sufficiently transparent to allow six or eight smaller bodies of the same
nature, but of a darker-green color, to be seen moving freely about the
interior, which are the young ; and even these, towards the period of their
exclusion, contain another set of germs. The rupture of the exterior of the
large body sets the small ones free.
Bursaria vesiculosa (fig, 3) lives in the rectum of frogs ; it is oval, and
the margin is provided with vibrillae : size one twentieth of a line.
Proteus diffluens (the genus has also been named Amasba) (fig. 2),
seldom exceeds one twenty-fourth of a line in size. It resembles a mass of
translucent jelly, which is continually changing its form from rounded to
linear or cordate, sometimes projecting parts of the margin in various
directions, so as to present a most varied outline.
Cyclidium glaucoma (fig, 8) is remarkable for its peculiar motion, which
resembles that of the genus Gyrinus, a waterbug, which swims rapidly in
circles on the surface of the water.
Trichodina cometa (fig, 14) is one twenty-fourth of a line long, and lives
as a parasite upon the fresh-water polyps (fig. 21), of which it gnaws the
arms, causing death.
Urocentrum turbo (fig, 13) has an oval-triangular, translucent body, and
a stem about one third of its length. Length from one thirty-sixth to one
twenty-fourth of a line. Found among duck- weed.
Carchesium polypinum (fig, 20) has a bell-shaped body, mounted upon a
slender, spiral, branched stem, formed by incomplete division. Found
among aquatic plants.
Enterodela (with the intestines evident).
Opercularia articulata (pi, 75, fig, 17) is composed of a stout-branched
stem, two or three lines long, each of which supports a bell-shaped body,
which is subject to variations in shape. It attaches itself to water insects,
and is sometimes so abundant upon them as to present the appearance of a
covering of mould.
Stentor mylleri (fig, 18) inhabits aquatic plants ; when extended, it is
shaped like a trumpet or funnel, but when contracted, it exhibits the form
represented in the plate. Its length varies according to the amount of its
contraction, from one tenth to one half a line.
Cryptomonas ovata (fig, 4) is a lengthened green body, one forty-eighth
of a line long, provided with a delicate shield.
Bursaria truncateUa (fig, 12) is somewhat egg-shaped, with one end
deeply excavated : one fourth to one third of a line long.
Chilodon cucullatus (fig, 10) is somewhat lengthened, flat, and rounded,
with a small projection in front. Common in stagnant water.
Trachelocerca olor (fig, ö) takes its trivial name from the distant
resemblance it bears to a swan. It lives among duck-weed and conferva,
and is from one twenty-fourth to one twentieth of a line long.
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RADIATA. 26
Trachelocerca viridis {fig, 6) is more rare than the preceding, and
inhabits the same places. It takes its trivial name from the green germs
within it.
Paramecium compressum (fig. 9), already alluded to, is from one twentieth
to one twenty-fourth of a line long, and is probably an early stage of Planaria.
The structure of the two next species figured among the Infusoria shows
that they are Crustacea. The first is Rotifer vulgaris {pi. Ih, fig. 16),
remarkable for the two circles of vibrillee already referred to, and for the
posterior forceps by which it attaches itself Melicerta ringens {fig. 19)
can withdraw itself into an external case ; it lives in society, and has the
vibrillse distributed in four divisions.
Division I. Radiata.
The radiated division of the animal kingdom, in the arrangement of
Agassiz, and to a certain extent, in that of Milne Edwards, includes all
those forms in which the radiated structure is more or less evident, as in
the Zoophyta, the Medusae, and the Echinodermata. In Cuvier's arrange-
ment, the Zoophyta (under which term he includes all the Radiata) are a
heterogeneous assemblage of radiated forms, Epizoic Crustacea, Intestinal
Worms, and Infusoria.
" In a general point of view, we may, however, compare further, all
radiated animals, when we shall find that they really constitute a natural,
well circumscribed group in the animal kingdom, agreeing in all important
points of their structure, bein^ strictly constructed upon the same plan,
although the three classes whicn we refer to this great department differ in
the manner in which the plan is carried out. ' — Agassiz's Lectures on
Etnh-yology, Boston, 1849. P. 43.
The Radiata are distributed into three classes, Colenterata, Zoophyta,
and Echinodermata. The first includes the Acalephse or Medusae, to which
the Hydroida are added ; the second the Zoophyta, excluding the Hydroida ;
and the third the Echinodermata.
The Hydroida have been usually placed in the class Zoophyta, although
in the development of some of the families in which it has been observed,
they present characters indicating a great affinity with the Acalephae, which
in their turn have been regarded as an individual class. In dismembering
the Zoophyta to unite the Hydroida and Acalephae, we may either apply the
name of the latter to the united group, or choose a distinct one. The latter
course is preferable, being least likely to cause confusion, and we have
accordingly adopted the name proposed by Fry and Leuckart. The necessity
of this union is insisted upon by Forbes in his British Naked-eyed Medusae,
p. 82 ; and in Agassiz's Lectures on Embryology, p. 44.
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26 ZOOLOGY.
Class 1. Colenterata,
This class contains the orders Hydroida, Pulmonigrada, Ciliograda,
Cirrigrada, Physograda, and Diphyida, all of which (excepting the first)
constitute the Acalephae of Cuvier. For the sake of uniformity in the
nomenclature, we here propose the name Systoligrada, instead of Diphyida,
the locomotion being similar to that of the Pulmonigrada.
Order 1. Hydroioa. The order Hydroida contains animals, some ot
which have, and some have not a corallum, or the stony material named
coral. This does not constitute an essential distinction here, or among the
Zoophyta, because the condition of the hard material is different in different
genera, being sometimes merely indicated by the presence of calcareous
granules scattered through the body.
In the Hydroida the internal cavity is tubular and simple, apd the order
includes the four families, Hydridae, Sertularidse, Campanularidie, and
Tubularidae.
The HydridcBy of which the fresh water polypus is a familiar example,
occur in America as well as in Europe. It forms the genus Hydra^ and
is a soft naked polyp {pi, 75, figs, 21-23) found attached to plants in
stagnant water, and increasing by lateral buds, as represented in figs, 22,
23 ; but unlike some Zoophyta, the young thus produced become detached
when they attain a certain size. The internal cavity of the young is for
some time continuous with that of the parent, so that the nourishment taken
by the latter can be digested by both. Finally the young gets arms of its
own, the cavity closes below, and the new animal becomes detached and
commences an independent life. This mode of increase takes place in
summer. Trembley, by watching an individual, found that it produced
forty-five young in two months.
This genus was discovered in Europe by Trembley, in the year 1739, and
we have observed it here. It attaches itself by the base to plants, rubbish,
or even aquatic insects. These animals move somewhat in the manner of
a leech» by stretching out the body and attaching the arms to an object,
then drawing up and attaching the base, and so on in succession. When
placed in a glass of water, they are said to pass from the shade into the
light. The figures represent them about the natural size, so that they can
be pretty readily detected with the naked eye. When disturbed, the arms
and body are contracted into a small compass. The arms are used to catch
their prey, which consists of minute Crustacea, and other animal food. The
body is usually sufiiciently translucent to allow the contents of the internal
cavity to be seen.
The structure of the Hydra is of the simplest kind, being limited to the
tubular body and its single aperture for the admission and exclusion of food ;
and the margin of this opening is fringed with from six to eighteen very
elastic, flexible, and thread-like arms.
Under a high magnifying power, the arms of Hydra are seen to be studded
with hemispherical projections, which resemble a bunch of grapes when
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RADIATA. 27
Ihey are drawn together by the contraction of the arms. Most of these
projections support a short hair, some are armed with a thorn, and others
support a very long hair ending with a spur composed of several thorns
around a pear-shaped mass. See the last edition of the Rdgne Animal,
Zoophytes, pi. 64.
It is evident that the Hydr», like the Medusae or sea nettles, have a
stinging power, judging from the manner in which their prey is paralysed
when seized. Worms which will live and move for some time when cut
into fragments, die instantly when seized by a Hydra ; and if a worm which
has been seized is taken from the animal before it is swallowed, it does not
revive. When a minute animal comes within reach of one of the arms, it
is seized and swallowed, and this sometimes happens to young fishes.
They sometimes even swallow each other, but the swallowed individual is
cast out again unhurt. The uniformity of structure is proved by the fact
that if the animal is turned inside out, the food can be digested by what was
once the outside.
The genus Hydra has been named after the fabulous monster of antiquity
bearing the same name, because parts cut away will be reproduced ; and
under favorable circumstances, when an individual is divided into several
parts, each part will become a perfect animal. It is probable that Hydra
grisea {pi. 75, fig. 21), H. fusca (fig. 22), and H. viridis (fig. 23), are
varieties of but a single species.
The order Hydroida, according to Mr. Dana, contains the following
families :
1. Hydrid<B. Not coralligenous.
2. SertularidcB. Coralla corneous. Sertularia ahietina (pi. 75, fig. 33).
S. polyzonalis (fig. 30). S. operculata (fig. 34). Planularia falcata (fig.
31). Thuiaria thuia (fig. 32), all European.
" In a single specimen of Plumularia angulosa collected by the author in
the East Indies, there are about 12,000 polyps to each plumose branch ; and,
as the whole zoophyte, three feet long, bears these plumes on an average
every half inch, on opposite sides, the whole number of polyps is not short
of eight millions ; all the offspring of a single germ, and produced by
successive budding." — Dana.
3. CampanularidcB. Coralla corneous, calicles pedicillate.
4. TuhularidcB. Coralla tubular and corneous. Tuhulaina indivisa (pL
15, fig. 42) (Atlantic and Mediterranean), attached to stones in deep water.
T. corrmata (pi. 75, fig. 29) (Northern seas). Stem one third of a line in
diameter. In this genus the tentacles are not retractile.
The remaining orders of the class Colenterata were called Acalephse by
Cuvier, from the Greek word axaXij(pti a nettle, from the stinging quality
which many of these animals possess. Blainville gave them the expressive
name of Arachnoderma, from agayym a cobweb, and ^fiwx the skin, from the
extreme tenuity of the tissues. They are also termed Medusae, sea-nettles,
stang-fishes, sea-jellies, and jelly-fish. They are found floating in all seas,
particularly those of the tropics ; their size varies from one sixth of a line to
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28 ZOOLOGY.
two feet, and the weight of large ones reaches fifty or sixty pounds. Yet
this great mass is composed almost entirely of water, which pervades the
tissues, and these are of such extreme tenuity that the weight of one of
these masses is reduced by desiccation to grains instead of pounds.
The more familiar forms belong to the Pulmonigrada, also termed Disco-
phora, which may be compared to an expanded umbrella, or to a mushroom,
the alternate contraction and expansion of which enable the body to move
through the water with the convex or upper surface foremost ; a mode of
progression which has afforded a name to the order, from its resemblance
to the action of lungs.
The beauty of many of these animals equals anything in organic nature ;
the colors are prismatic or entirely wanting, and in the latter case, the
gelatinous transparent body resembles a mass of colorless liquid gum, which
can only be distinguished by its motions from the water which surrounds it.
" When in a jar or basin they are often very difficult to distinguish, but
by placing the vessel in the sun, we see their shadows floating over the sides
and bottom like the shadows of flitting clouds on a landscape. These soon
guide us to the creatures themselves, and before long we distinguish their
ocelli and colored reproductive organs." — Forbes,
The disk forming the greater part of the body varies from hemispherical
to flattened discoidal, and is sometimes lengthened into a conical or sub-
cylindrical form. The central portion is thickest, and the inferior surface
is concave. The margin is either entire, or fringed with tentacles, which
vary greatly in length, number, and form. Some of these tentacles have a
colored spot at their base called an ocellus, and upon this Forbes has divided
the Discophora into two groups ; namely, the Steganophihalmata (covered
eyes), in which the ocelli are protected by membranous lobes, and the
Gymnophthalmata (naked eyes), in which the ocelli are not protected. The
former are more highly organized than the latter, and in most of the genera
the sexes are not united in the same individual. Agassiz has discovered a
nervous ring around the mouth, with branches extending to the ocelli ; an
arrangement which resembles that in the Echinodermata. Ehrenberg had
made a less distinct announcement, and Dr. Grant announced the discovery
of a nervous system in Beroe, in the year 1833.
From the centre of the concavity of the disk arises the peduncle, which
varies much in size and shape, in some genera forming a considerable
portion of the animal, and in others being reduced to a slender extensile and
contractile tube, at the extremity of which the mouth is situated. The
cavity of the peduncle, or its base, is the stomach, whence branches are sent
towards the disk, around the margin of which there is a canal connecting
with them. These radiating gastro-vascular branches vary in number
from four to twelve or more. In the naked-eyed genera they are seldom
branched ; and when they are, the branches run to the marginal canal, as
m the genus Wilsia* (Forbes, Monog. of the British Naked-eyed Medusas
* Named after Dr. Will, who wrote on this sabjeoi
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RADIATA. 29
London, 1848, pi 1, fig 1). The same structure occurs in Berenice (Cuv.
Rdgne An. Zooph., pi, öB^fig. !•). In the covered-eyed group, the branches,
after extending about two thirds the distance towards the edge anasto-
mose around the margin in a broad and close vascular net- work (beautifully
exhibited in Milne Edwards' figure of Rhizostoma, R. An. pL 50).
The position of the generative system is variable in this class. In general
both sexes seem to be united in the same individual.
When the ocelli are present, the sense of sight is probably sufficient to
enable the animal to distinguish between light and darkness, and the sense
of hearing may also be present. Their food is furnished by small marine
animals, among which the Crustacea fill a prominent place. The sense of
feeling is probably most developed in the palpi, the tentacles, and the arms,
arising from the centre, and surrounding the mouth or pedicle.
The stinging quality is not universal in the Medusae, being apparently
confined to a few of the higher forms. Bathers sometimes suflTer severely
by coming in contact with the larger species, whose long tentacles and arms
are sometimes entangled around the limbs, and cast ofi* by the animal,
leaving the sufferer to disengage himself from these unwelcome appendages
at his leisure. The stinging property is supposed to be confined to an
external coat of mucus, which the animal can cast off.
The luminousness of the sea is due chiefly to multitudes of acalephse.
" At one time, the evening serene and delightful, a pleasant breeze just
filling the sails, and the bow of the vessel throwing the water to each side,
as it gracefully parts the yielding waves, all round the ship, far as the eye
can reach, may be seen mnumerable bright spots of light rising to the
surface, and again disappearing, like a host of small stars dancing and
sparkling on the bosom of the sea. At another time, the night dark and
lowering, a fresh breeze urging the ship rapidly onwards through her
pathless track, upon looking over the stern, in addition to the smaller specks
just now mentioned, large globes of living fire may be seen dancing in the
smooth water in the wake of the rudder ; now, at a great depth, shining
through the water, then rising rapidly to the surface, they may be seen, as
they reach the top of the wave, flashing a bright spark of light, sufficient
almost to dazzle the eyes of the beholder ; and now, again, they may be
traced floating majestically along, till they gradually disappear in the
darkness of the water in the distance. At other times, again, when light
rain is falling, or, perhaps, previously to the rain coming on, when a light
nimbose cloud is overspreading the skv, upon the water being agitated by
the ship passing through it, a beautiful general luminousness is diffused all
round, bright enough to illuminate the wnole ship's side, and the lower large
sails ; and it is no unusual occurrence to have the appearance so bright,
that a person with little difficulty, and near the surface of the water, might
be enabled to read a book by its aid. . . It is in warmer regions and
more southerly latitudes that this phenomenon attains its greatest degree
of brilliancy and beauty." — W. Baird, On the Luminousness of the &a,
with figures, Mag, Nat, Hist, 1830, vol. 3, p. 308 ; vol. 4, p. 500. See
also vol. 6, pp. 314-319.
Luminous acaleph» occur upon the coast of the United States, and they
may be observed on a night passage in a steamboat in Long Island Sound.
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30 ZOOLOGY.
The light is usually produced under exciting circumstances, or when the
animal is disturbed, and all parts do not produce light Spailanzani found
that in cutting off the margin for about half an inch, the latter remained
phosphorescent, which was not the case with the disk.
Order 2. Pulmonigrada. The following species of this order are figured:
Thaumantias cymhaloidea (pi. 76, fig, 73), Northern Seas. Aurelia aurita,
Linn. (fig. 74), Northern Seas ; six to ten or eleven inches in diameter.
In this genus the mouth is surrounded with four arms, and the central
peduncle is wanting. This species has a bluish disk, fringed with
slender tentacles, and having eight marginal ocelli, which are black, with a
red point above. Beneath there are four long fringed central arms, with
the mouth between them. Sometimes the margin of the arms contains eggs.
The ovaries, however, have their openings between the base of each pair
of arms ; there are four of them shaped like a horse-shoe, and of a purple
color, which renders them visible from above, as seen in the figure.
Order 3. Ciliograda. This order (also named Ctenophora by
Eschscholtz) is named from its organs of motion, which consist of a series
of flat phosphorescent vibrillae, arranged longitudinally upon the surface of
the body, along the eight ribs, and by the action of which progression is
effected. These vibrillae are arranged with their flat surfaces nearly in
contact, and they are raised slowly and struck rapidly. Some authors
suppose them to subserve the purpose of gills as well as organs of locomotion.
The genus Beroe, which is a good example, varies in form from globular to
cylindrical, but a little compressed. The cavity beneath is very large, and
the animal moves with the mouth foremost. In addition to the mouth there
is an excretory orifice. Cestum veneris has a ribbon-shaped body, the two
margins of which are fringed with beautifully colored phosphorescent
vibrillfiB, which at night give the animal the appearance of a band of flame,
as it moves through the water. It attains the length of three or four
feet.
Order 4. Cirrigrada. The form is discoidal, and there is an internal
subcartilaginous discoidal skeleton, which distinguishes them from the
Pulmonigrada. In Porpiia (pi. 16, fig. 83) the margin is fringed with
stout claviform tentacles, provided with three ranges of pedunculated
glands or suckers. The stomachal pedicle is large, and surrounded by
numerous tentaculiform cirri, by means of which locomotion is efiected.
These bear some resemblance to the tentacles of the Actiniae, to which
Blainville thinks the order has some aflSnities. In Velella (F. spirans,
Forsk., pi. 76, fig. 84), besides an oval cartilaginous skeleton, there is a
vertical process arising from it which supports a crest-like membrane.
Order 5. Physoorada. This order was called Hydrostatic Acalephae by
Cuvier, a designation which, like the proper name, points to a peculiarity
of structure, namely, the support of the body by one or more air-vessels,
which cause the animal to float. Physalia physalis, Linn. (pi. 77, fig, 1),
possesses stinging qualities ; it inhabits the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic,
and is known to sailors as the Portuguese man-of-war. The air-vessel is
very large, and has a small i^rture at each end, from which the air can be
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RADIATA.
31
expelled when the animal wishes to sink. It is probable that this may be
aooomplished to a certain extent by the muscular power of the air-vessel.
Blainville thinks that this order (which wants the radiated character), with
Beroe and Diphyes, may be allied to the Mollusca, and in the year 1836 he
proposed for them the name MalacHnozoaria, under the impression that
they constitute an intermediate division.
Okder 6. Ststoligrada. The name Diphyida is derived from that of the
genus Diphyes, in allusion to its double nature, each animal being composed
of two somewhat conical pieces, the point of one being inserted a short
distance into the larger end of the other, and retained by a very slight
attachment. See the Penny Cyclopaedia for an extended account, illustrated
with figures, of this and the preceding orders.
Of
Sars, a distinguished naturalist of Norway, discovered in 1836 that some
of the Acalephae resemble the Zoophyta, in having a gemmiparous
reproduction. He observed certain projections from the base of the pedicle
(or exterior of the stomach), which proved to be budding young, attached
by the upper or outside portion of their disk. These young resemble the
adult in all essential particulars, and, like the
Hydrae, they have an independent action
previous to their separation from the parent.
This is represented at a, in the annexed figure
of Lizia octopunctata of Sars (an animal about
one fourth of an inch long), as given by Forbes.
The species is named from the eight black
ocelli, four of which are large, and towards
these the gastric vessels are directed. In
Sarsia prolifera, Forbes, the gemmation
takes place at the base of the exterior
tentacles.
We come now to describe a mode of generation which has no parallel in
the higher animal forms, and to which the Meausae and some other animals
are subject. This mode is termed Alternation of generations by the
Danish naturalist, Steenstrup, who has the credit of generalizing the facts
upon which the theory is founded, and of which he is in part the discoverer.
An English translation of his work on the subject, by George Busk, was
published by the Ray Society in 1845, entitled, " On the Alternation of
Generations ; or the Propagation and Development of Animals through
Alternate Generations : a peculiar form of fostering the young in the lower
classes of animals." Besides this author, the chief observers in this curious
branch of science are Chamisso, who published observations on the Salpae
in 1819 ; Sars, on the Medusaa, between 1828 and 1841 ; Siebold and
Lov^n in 1837; ai[id Van Beneden in 1844-7. (See the Cyclop, of Anat.
and Phys., Art. Polypifera)
This phenomenon is described by Steenstrup as that of '< an animal
producing an ofifspring, which at no time resembles its parent, but which,
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ZOOLOGY.
on the other hand, itself brings forth a progeny, which returns in its form
and nature to the parent animal, so that the maternal animal does not meet
with its resemblance in its own brood, but in its descendants of the second,
third, or fourth degree or generation ; and this always takes place in the
different animals which exhibit the phenomenon in a determinate generation,
or with the intervention of a determinate number of generations. This
remarkable precedence of one or more generations, whose function it is, as
it were, to prepare the way for the later succeeding generation of animals,
destined to attain a higher degree of perfection, and which are developed
into the form of the mother, and propagate the species by means of ova,
can, I believe, be demonstrated in not a few instances in the animal
kingdom."
3 4 5 6
When a medusa, as Aurelia aurita (pi. 76, fig. 74), produces an egg, the
progeny resembles an animalcule (Diagram, fig. 1), which moves in the
direction of the arrow by means of vibrillae. The anterior extremity has a
round sucker (but not a mouth), by means of which, after several changes
of form, it attaches itself to some extraneous object (Diagram, ^^. 2). The
changes still continue, the two projections at the free end are extended, a
mouth is formed in the centre, and a second pair of projections arises
between the first. About the fifth or sixth day the four tentacles have become
longer, and the body quadrate, and the animal now constitutes the supposed
perfect genus, Scyphistoma (Diagram, fig. 3), of Sars. In the next place,
four additional tentacles arise between the four earlier ones, and this
production continues until the number equals twenty-eight or thirty, and by
this time the animal resembles a polyp.
In the subsequent changes an entirely new phenomenon is observable.
The free extremity of the body begins to show indications of a division into
segments, of which one is shown in Diagram, fig. 4 ; the length and
number of segments increase, the body becomes cylindrical, and is now
about a line in diameter (its original size being that of a grain of sand), the
upper margin of the segments becomes free and divided into lobes
(Diagram, ^^. 5), capable of independent motion, when the form constitutes
the supposed genus, Strohila, of Sars, named from its resemblance to the
cones of a pine tree.
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EADIATA. 33
Finally, the union between the segments is more and more reduced, until
they separate like a pile of hemispherical cups, as in Diagram,^^. 6, when
they are seen to be separate animals in an inverted position ; in fact, the
young or larvee of Aurelia (pL 76, fig. 74). These larvae (constituting the
supposed genus Ephyra) are about a line in width, and continue growing
and passing through such a change as to give it the structure of the adult,
which it acquires when about an inch in size. It is not precisely known
what becomes of the polypiform head of the Strobila (Diagram, fig. ö), but
the base is said to produce a new set.
It appears from these facts that the animal (Diagram, fig. 1) hatched
from the egg of a medusa, does not become a free medusa, but a kind of
polyp, Scaphistoma strobila, which does not produce its like, but from
which medusae are developed. The poljrpoid nurse, as it has been termed,
is uniformly an undeveloped female, whilst of the resulting medusae, some
are male and some female. The nurse, like the adult medusa, has the
power of increase by budding.
The annexed fig. 1 represents an
individual of the presumptive genus
Coryne, placed in the family Tubu-
laridae (p. 27). The head is a six-
armed hydroid, beneath which are
four quadrate, bell-shaped bodies,
which are not organs, but distinct
^ ^ ^ individuals of an entirely different
form from the hydroid. In the concavity of each is suspended a quadrate
stomach, as shown in fig. 2. These bodies have an independent motion,
sucking the water in, and throwing it out like the Medusae. They finally
detach themselves, and swim freely like medusae, to which they bear a close
resemblance. Steenstrup, who observed this species in Iceland, found
larger individuals {fig. 3), which he considers the adult medusaform of the
former, in which one of the angles bears a lobed organ and two threads,
which he regards as female generative organs. Steenstrup regards Coryne
as " a previous generation of preparative nurses, which are so far asexual,
inasmuch as that their generative organs are not developed."
Forbes describes two minute British species allied to fig. 3, under the
generic name of Steenstrupia, suggesting that they may be a stage in the
history of some hydroid form.
Class 2. Zoophyta.
The Zoophyta are chiefly marine ; some species are sedentary and others
free ; some live as single independent animals, and others are collected
together in large colonies, the base of the stems being united. Some are
without a hard support, others secrete a stony skeleton, which is named
coral (coRALLUM, COR ALL A in the plural).
The corallum is not usually external like the shell in the Mollusca, as is
popularly supposed, but an internal secretion " entirely concealed," in the
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words of Dana, " within the polyp, as oompletely as the skull of an animal
beneath its fleshy covering. All corals are more or less cellular« and
through these cellules the animal tissues extend." In some, however, the
coral is exposed, as when the increase takes place by a terminal secretion
upon a separate stem, when the apex alone is living, and as the stem
increases in length the part below dies. This increase above and death
below are common in most corals, and to this the great masses of coral are
attributable. According to Dana, a solid dome of Astraea, twelve feet in
diameter, has a living exterior of only a half or three fourths of an inch in
thickness.
The classification adopted here is chiefly that of James D. Dana, as
given in his magnificent work on Zoophytes, the result of his labors in the
United States Exploring Expedition. The characters of the families are in
most cases condensed from the same work.
The Order Actinoida includes not only the flower-shaped genera, like
Actinia (pi 77, figs, 5, 6), which do not secrete a coral, but also numerous
coralligenous genera. The name of this order, from the Greek axrtv, a
ray, is in allusion to the radiated arrangement of the tentacles, which,
when expanded, in many cases resemble the petals of a flower. When
contracted this resemblance disappears, and the mass may be compared to
a lemon in shape. Lesueur has described a species {Ä, marginata) from
Massachusetts Bay. (Jour. Acad. Nat. Sei. i. 172.)
The Actiniae are found in the sea, attached to stones, submerged timber,
&c. They have the power of detaching themselves and floating, and
of creeping slowly upon their flat base, at the rate of about two inches in
an hour. The texture of the exterior is either fleshy or coriaceous, the
surface slimy, smooth, or tuberculous, and very sensitive. The mouth is
simple, and fringed by the tentacles. These organs being tubular, they are
expanded by having water forced into them, and when they contract, the
water is ejected through a minute terminal perforation. The tentacles of
some species resemble the Acalephae in having a stinging power.
The interior of the Actiniae is taken up with the stomach, which is a
simple sac, of which the mouth is the opening, and extending nearly to the
base of the animal, where it communicates with the visceral cavity,
occupying the space between the stomach and the exterior wall. The
cavity is provided with a series of vertical muscular partitions, more or
less perfect, which extend from the exterior wall to the stomach, so that a
transverse section of the animal would resemble a wheel, of which the nave
would represent the stomach, and the spokes the visceral partitions.
The Actiniae feed upon fish, crabs, shell-fish, &c., the shells and other
indigestible parts being ejected from the mouth after a period of ten or
twelve hours. A large individual sometimes accidentally swallows a smaller
one, but the latter is usually cast out unharmed, as in the case of the
Hydra. The objects swallowed are sometimes as large as the Actinia
itself in a state of repose. The following account is given in G. Johnston's
excellent History of British Zoophytes.
'' I had once brought me a specimen of Act gemmacea, that might have
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RADIATA. 35
been originally two inches in diameter, and that had somehow contrived to
swallow a valve of Pecten maximus of the size of an ordinary saucer. The
shell, fixed within the stomach, was so placed as to divide it completely
into two halves, so that the body, stretched tensely over, had become thin
and flattened like a pancake. All communication between the inferior
portion of the stomach and the mouth was, of course, prevented ; yet,
instead of emaciating and dving of an atrophy, the animal had availed itself
of what undoubtedly had been a very untoward accident, to increase its
enjoyments and its chances of double fare. A new mouth, furnished with
two rows of numerous tentacula, was opened upon what had been the base,
and led to the under stomach ; the individual had, indeed, become a sort of
Siamese twin, but with greater intimacy and extent in its unions !"
The Actiniae are hermaphrodite ; the reproduction is both by division and
by eggs ; and the eggs or young (as the case may be) are ejected through
the mouth, or rarely, by a kind of abortion, through the tentacles, according
to Contarini. The young do not differ essentially from the adult, the chief
difierence being in the small number of their tentacles.
The Actiniae reproduce lost parts, especially the tentacles, with great
facility ; and when the body is cut into two, three, or even four parts, each
may survive and become a complete animal. If the section is horizontal,
the lower part acquires a new mouth and tentacles, and the upper part a
new base, although in one instance the latter produced a second mouth, so
that food was taken at both extremities of the new animal. These
experiments indicate that the base has the greatest vital power. (See
Contarini, Trat, delle Auinie, &c., Agassiz's Lectures, and Johnston's Zooph.)
Actiniae will survive after being placed in water hot enough to blister the
skin, and they may be frozen and thawed with impunity, but immersion for
a few minutes in fresh water kills them.
The order Actinoida contains the sub-orders Actinaria and Alcyonaria,
and the families, according to Dana, are as follows :
Sub-order 1. Actinaria.
Often coralligenous, cells lamelliradiate.
Tribe 1. As^rcsacea,
Many tentacles in imperfect series ; coralla calcareous, with multiradiate
cells, with the lamellae extending beyond the cells.
Fam, 1. ActinidcB. Not coralligenous, usually attached, but sometimes
floating in the sea. Actinia {pi 11 y figs. 5, 8). Lucemaria {pi 16, fig. 72).
(Johnst. Zooph., p. 228. R. An. pi 63, with anatomical details.)
Fam. 2. AstrcncUß, Coralla calcareous, tentacles marginal, coralla with
excavate cells, stars circumscribed. Astrea astroites {pi 75, fig. 62).
Meandrina lahyrinthica, Linn, {pi l^,fig. 64) ; hemispherical, with long
winding lines : American seas.
Fam. 3. Fungidm. Disks not circumscribed, tentacles scattered, short,
or obsolete ; simple or aggregate-gemmate ; when aggregate the disks are
confluent ; surface of the coralla stellate, without proper cells. Fungia
fungites, Linn, {pi 75, fig. 65), has a circular coral, with radiating
lamellae, like the under surface of some mushrooms ; beneath granulated,
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36^ ZOOLOGY.
A common species from the Indian Ocean and Red Sea. In this genus the
corallum is formed by a single polyp, which covers it beneath as well as
above. The tentacles are scattered, and when touched, are withdrawn
between the lamellae.
Tribe 2. Caryophyllacea,
Tentacles numerous, in two series ; coralla calcareous, cells multiradiate,
interstitial surface not lamello-striate. The fourth family is not coralligenous.
Fam, 1. Ct/athophyllidcB, Interior middle of each corallum usually
transversely or obliquely cellular.
Fam. 2. Caryophyllidce. Tentacles crowded and long, mouths far
exserted ; interior of the corallum not transversely cellular, rays of the cells
more than twelve. Oculina virginea, Linn. (pi. 75, fig, ö8). White,
eighteen inches high, East and West Indies and the Mediterranean. O.
gemmascens (pL 75, fig. ö9). White, eight inches high.
Fam. 3. Gemmiporidce. Tentacles short and marginal, in two or three
series ; disk broad, somewhat convex ; coralla porous, calicles with a thick
margin. ? Explanaria ananas {pL 75, fig. 63).
Fafn. 4. Zoanthidce. Exterior subcoriaceous, tentacles short and
marginal, in two or three series.
Tribe 3. Madreporacea.
Tentacles in a single series, seldom more than twelve, sometimes obsolete;
coralla calcaieous, cells small, six- to twelve-rayed, or obsolete ; interstitial
surface not lamello-striate.
Fam. 1. MadreporidcB. Tentacles twelve; cells deep, extending to the
centre of the corallum. Madrepora prolifera {pi. 75, fig. 60).
Fam. 2 Favositidce. Tentacles twelve ; lime secreted periodically at
base, so that the interior of the corallum is septate, rarely solid. Pocillopora
polymoipha (pi. 75, fig. 55). (Lamarck, 2, 311.) Red Sea.
Fam. 3. Poritidce. Tentacles rarely more than twelve ; base forming
porous calcareous secretions beneath ; coralla finely porous, cells shallow,
rays indistinct. Pontes porites, Linn. (P. clavaria, Blainv.) (pi. 75,
fig. 61). American and Indian seas.
Tribe 4. Antipathacea.
Animals six-tentaculate, base forming corneous secretions.
Fam. 1. AntipathidcB. Animals fleshy, enveloping a corneous spinulous
axis. Antipathes spiralis (pi. 75, fig. 51) ; stem entire, long, and spiral,
about as thick as a quill, and attaining a length of sixteen feet. Indian
Ocean.
Sub-order 2. Alctonaria.
Eight-tentaculate ; tentacles papillose, apex of the papillae perforate;
often coralligenous.
Tribe 1. Alcyonacea.
Fam. 1. Pennatulid<B. Free, or with the base sunk in the mud.
Pennaiula phosphorea, Linn. (pi. 75, fig. 26). Bears some resemblance
to a quill. It is found in the European seas, and emits a pale-blue
phosphorescent light when disturbed. P. granulosa, ham. (fig. 25), and
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RADIATA. 37
P. grisea, Esper (ßg. 27), inhabit the Mediterranean; Virgularia juncea,
Esper (ßg. 24), Europe.
Farn. 2. AlcyonidcB, Fleshy, with calcareous granules, Alcyonium
ßciforme (pL 75, ßg. 46), size and shape of a fig, and of a yellowish-
brown color ; and A. palmatum (ßg. 47), stem divided irregularly, some-
what like a hand ; pale-red. Mediterranean.
Fam, 3. Comularidce. With corneous tubular coralla.
Fam. 4. TubiporidcB. With calcareous tubular coralla. Tubipora
musica {pi 75, jig. 66) is of a fine red color, the body green. Indian seas.
Fam. 5. GorgonidcB. With basal epidermic secretions. Gorgonia
flahellum {pi. 75, ßg. 48). Reticulate, branches inwardly compressed;
three feet long. Warm seas of India and America. G. vetTucosa, Linn.
{pi. 75, ßg. 49). Atlantic, six to twelve inches. G. ceratophyta {ßg. 50),
Mediterranean. Isis hippuris, Linn, {ßg- 53) ; stem jointed and strong,
branches dichotomous. East Indies. Coralium nobile, Linn. {pi. 75,
ßg. 52), is branched, one foot high, varies from a fine deep-red to a rose
color, or white with a reddish tinge. It admits of a fine polish, and is
much used for light ornamental work. When fresh, the exterior is fleshy
and polypiferous, which, in drying, forms a crust with scattered cellules.
The forms of the corals which most of the zoophyta secrete, are extremely
varied ; representing various plants and mosses, variously shaped vessels,
domes, obelisks, radiated disks, leaves, &c. ; and the size of the coral mass
varies from a few lines to twelve or even twenty feet. The large masses
have commenced in a single animal, from the successive budding of which,
the whole has resulted.
" Calculating the number of polyps that are united in a single Astraea dom>)
of twelve feet diameter, each covering a square half inch, we find it
exceeding 100,000; and in a Porites of the same dimensions, in which the
animals are under a line in breadth, the number exceeds five and a half
millions. There are here, consequently, five and a half millions of mouths
and stomachs to a single zoophyte, contributing together to the growth of
the mass, by eating, and growing, and budding, and connected with one
another by their lateral tissues and an imperfect cellular or lacunal com-
munication." — Dana, p. 60.
In those cases where single polyps occupy the extremity of dead branching
stems, there is no union of the soft parts of dififerent individuals.
Class 3. Echinodermata.
The Echinodermata, which are all marine, and include what are popularly
termed star-fish, sea eggs, &c., are the most highly organized class in the
radiated division of the animal kingdom. The bodies of some are raised upon
a pedicle, the base of which is fixed to a single place ; others are without a
pedicle, and move freely and slowly along the bottom. Some of the latter
are provided with a multitude of sucker-like feet, which, in Asterias
aurantiaca, amount to 840, according to Tiedemann. Some are provided
with eye dots, which, in Asterias, &c., are situated at the extremity of the
rays ; and where the nervous system has been detected, it forms a circle
ICONOORAPHIC BNOTCLOPiBDIl.— VOL, 11. 16 241
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88 ZOOLOGY.
around the (Bsophagus,with branches to the rays, &c. The mouth is armed
with hard bony teeth, enabling the animal to live upon Crustacea and shell
fish. Some live at the bottom of the sea on the surface of the rock, and
others burrow in the sand.
The integument of some of the members of this class is sustained by a
calcareous skeleton, which incloses the viscera and supports movable spines
varying much in size and shape. The skeleton is composed of pieces which
are often joined together like polygonal stones in a pavement. These
plates, the spines, and the entire skeletons, are very abundant in various
geological formations, in which they are preserved in great perfection.
The class contains the orders Crinoideq, Asteridea, Echinidea, Holothuri-
dea, to which some add another for the reception of Siponculus, Echiurus,
&c., constituting the apodous Echinodermata of Cuvier.
Order 1. Crinoidea. This order is almost extinct, but is found plentifully
in a fossil state in the older rocks. These remains consist of the solid
calcareous skeleton, of which the chief parts are the stem, the body, and
the arms. The body is oval or cup-shaped, protecting the internal soft
parts, and made up of numerous plates, of which the variations in number
and form afford generic characters. The arms are five or more in number,
simple or branched, fringed with lateral articulated appendages, and placed
around the upper margin of the body, the mouth being situated between
them. When the arms are closed, some species resemble a lily, whence the
trivial name of Encrinus liUiformis. The vent is distinct and lateral.
The central solid part of the stem has been compared to the bones in
a lizard's tail, being made up of a column of disks, which are either circular,
polygonal, or star-shaped. The stem is often provided with articulated
simple lateral branches, which, like the arms, are filled with calcareous
joints, many thousand of which are contained in the remains of a single
animal. The disks of the stem have a perforation through them, which
admits of their being strung like beads ; and, according to Dr. Buckland,
they were used for rosaries in ancient times. In northern England they are
called St. Cuthbert's beads ; and before their nature was known, they were
named Entrochites in books.
Pentacrinus asteria, Linn. (P. caputmeduscB, Miller) (pL 76, fig. 58), is
a recent species from the West Indies, of which a specimen is in the British
Museum, the Paris Museum, that of the Geological Society of London, and
that of the London College of Surgeons. (This and other species of the
order are figured in the Penny Cyc. ix. 390, and in the new edition of the
Regne Animal). Encrinus radiatus (fig. 57).
Pentacrinus europeBus, Thompson, a minute animal found on the coast of
Ireland, is now considered by this author to be the pedunculated young of
Comatula, a starfish somewhat like pL 76, fig. 62. This confirms one of
the views of Agassiz (Lectures, p. 13), that the earlier fossil animals often
resemble the embryonic or immature forms of the more recent periods.
Holopus rangii, Orbigny {pi 76, fig. 56) (Mag. de Zool. 1837, pL 3) is
a recent genus from Martinique.
Order 2. Asteridea. In this order the supporting stem is wanting, and
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RADIATA. 39
the animal has the power of locomotion, sometimes by means of the
armd, and sometimes with the aid of the sucker-like feet. The arms in
some genera are provided with numerous lateral filaments, and in some
cases they divide into branches. The genus Astrophyton (named also
EuryaU and Chrgonocephalus) {pi 76, fig, 63), is remarkable for its
five dichotomizing arms sending off branches, and terminating in a multi-
tude of curled filaments, which, it is said, may amount to eight thousand in
a single individual.
The genus Ophiura {pi. 76, fig. 64) is named from the resemblance
which its long and slender arms bear to the tail of a serpent, not only in
form, but in the numerous bony pieces of which they are composed,
and which are not unlike the scales of a serpent. The arms are very
flexible; and by giving them an undulating motion, the animal can
swim to a certain degree. On each side of the base of the arms is an
opening which is the outlet of the ovaries, of which there are ten. Several
species inhabit the coast of the United States. In Ophiolepis {fig, 62), a
genus allied to Ophiura, the disk is entire, with smooth plates. In both
genera the arms have movable spines, which in some species are appressed,
and in others projecting. The species figured, O. scolopendrina, is found
near the Isle of France. In these genera the mouth is in the centre of the
ventral surface, and from it are continued five grooves, through which a
few sucker-like feet are projected. The mouth is armed with a strong
osseous apparatus for masticating food. The arms, when broken off, can
be reproduced. PL 76, fig, 61, represents Astrogonium granuläre of the
seas of northern Europe. In this genus the rays are not so well developed
as in Aster ias {fig, 60), which gives it a pentagonal figure.
Or taster turritus {pi, 76, fig, 59) attains a length of ten inches, and
inhabits the Indian Ocean.
Solaster is distinguished by an increased number of rays ; S. papposus
{pi, 76, fig. 66) is a foot in diameter.
Stellonia ruhens {fig. 65) attains a foot in size, and is so abundant in the
seas of Europe as to be spread over the soil as a manure.
Asterias {fig. 60) has the rays so much enlarged that there is room in
the concavity of each for two extensions or appendages of the stomach,
with an ovary between them, and a liver ; which is not the case in the
slender rayed genera like Ophiums. Moreover, the size of the rays renders
them less flexible, and badly fitted for locomotion ; but as a compensation,
they are pierced along their inferior surface (between short transverse bones
arranged in series on each side of a deep central groove) with a multitude
of ambulacral perforations, through which the feet already mentioned project,
and which enable the animal to crawl up a surface as smooth as glass, and
also assist in holding its prey. The sucker-like feet are connected
within the aperture through which they project, with a globular vesicle
filled with water, by the hydrostatic action of which the suckers ai'e extended
or withdrawn. Each vesicle is connectedly a small tube with a canal
which traverses each ray, starting firom a circular canal around the
oesophagus.
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40 ZOOLOGY.
" This apparatus communicates with another tube which penetrates from
the dorsal surface downwards, having its opening shut by a perforated plate
called the madreporic body, which in starfishes is always seen in the angle
between two of the rays ; so that we have here an hydraulic apparatus of
a very complicated nature." (Agassiz.) Through this series of vessels the
water flows in both directions, either downwards through the upper aper-
ture, or upwards through the tubular feet; subserving in its course the
functions of locomotion and respiration. The water which fills the general
cavity is admitted through the numerous minute perforations of the exterior.
" The heart is placed along the calcareous tube which arises from the
madreporic body, and the blood-vessels form circular rings around the
entrance of the stomach, from which and to which the radiating arteries
and veins move." (Agassiz's Lectures, and his Letter to Humboldt in 1847.)
There are also movable spines upon the lower surface which assist in
locomotion.
When food is taken, the animal bends its rays towards the mouth, so as
to form a cup-shaped cavity, when the food is gradually moved to the
mouth. There is no vent distinct from the mouth. The rays, when lost
by accident, can be reproduced, and it is asserted that if a ray with part of
the mouth be detached, it will form a new animal. The stomach is central,
and sends ofi" two branching divisions or caeca in each ray. There is an
English law which imposes a fine upon fishermen who do not kill a species
of Asterias which is said to destroy oysters.
Agassiz has discovered that starfish, after their eggs are laid, take them
up and retain them below the mouth between their suckers ; and when they
are forcibly removed to some distance, the animal will approach and take
them up again, showing a remarkable instinct in so low an animal.
We pass from Asterias {pL 76, fig, 60), through the pentagonal form
Astrogonium {fig. 61) to Agassiz* genus Culcita, which resembles the last
somewhat in shape, except that the five sides are convex instead of concave,
so that the outline is more nearly circular, approximating the circular and
oval forms of the next family.
Order 3. Echinidea. This order includes the oval or circular bodies
known as sea-eggs, sea-urchins {pursin in French), the skeleton of which is
a calcareous crust composed of twenty equal or unequal rows of polygonal
plates pierced by various pores. The mouth is beneath, and armed or
unarmed, central or sub-terminal ; the vent is distinct, and varies in position,
being formed beneath and above, and when beneath, marginal or towards
the centre. The generative pores are four or five, placed around the summit.
When the animal dies, the integument (including the spines with which
it is covered, and which present much variety in form and size) is soon
lost, leaving the calcareous shell which protects the interior soft parts. The
integument of the calcareous portion not only secretes the shell, but extends
in a thin layer over the solid spines, which are thus formed layer by layer
as the animal increases in siz^
The circular form of these animals might at first induce an observer to
doubt their afl&nity with the more star-shaped Asieridea, but if the rays of
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RADIATA. 41
the latter are supposed to be shortened, and the concavity between them
filled up, the approximation will appear when the correspondence of the
organs is considered.
The plates of an Echinus (pL 76, fig. 69) run in vertical rows, two of
which are wide and two narrow alternately ; the wide pair have tubercles
which support the larger spines ; and the narrow ones have vertical rows
of minute perforations which form the ambulacra, and allow the passage of
the sucker-like feet which, in addition to the spines, are concerned in locomo-
tion, and perhaps in passing water to the respiratory organs which lie beneath.
The mouth of the Echini is armed with five jaws working together by
means of a complicated piece of mechanism, and which have been com-
pared by Aristotle to a lantern, hence called the lantern of Aristotle.
Among the chief authorities upon this department are Lamarck, Blain*
ville, Delle Chiaje, Goldfuss, Desmoulins, J. Müller, Sars, Milne Edwards,
Dufoss6, Duvernoy, Klein, Gray, and especially Agassiz.
The forms in this order are very various, from the flat and discoidal
Scutella, which is flat beneath and but slightly convex above, to the sub-
globular Echinus and elevated Galerites, which is considerably higher than
wide. Some have the ambulacra disposed in oval or elliptic lines upon the
upper surface, resembling the four or five petals of a spreading flower.
According to Duvernoy, in the Echinidae in which the rosette is formed, a
series of branchiae (instead of feet) are passed through these perforations, in
addition to the internal branchiae ; and in consonance with this view, he
divides the Echinidae into two sections : the Exobranchia, with external
branchiae (including forms like Clypeaster, Cassidulus, and Spatangus) ; and
the Homopoda for the remainder (including forms like Cidaris and Galerites).
Echinus, and other genera with large spines, are found on the bottom of
the sea, whilst the ScutellcB, which have short bristly spines, burrow in s^nd.
Spatangus {pi. 76, fig. 67) and its allies have the mouth armed and
placed towards the anterior end ; the vent posterior, and placed upon the
upper or lower surface ; the shell thin in texture, lengthened, and gibbous ;
ovarian pores four.
Clypeaster (fig. 68), and the allied genera, have the mouth central, or
nearly so, and the vent near the posterior margin, and upon the upper or
lower surface, according to the genus.
Echinus {pi. 76, fig. 69), and Cidaris {figs. 70, 71), have a subglobular
shell and two kinds of spines, the larger of which are supported upon large
tubercles. The mouth is central beneath, and the vent in the apex.
The tendency to take an oblong form in Spatangus and Ananchytes, and
the mouth being placed near the opposite extremities of the body, indicate
an approach to the next order.
Order 4. Holothüridea. The animals composing this order have an
elongated worm-like form, and the shell has disappeared, although some
earthy matter is deposited around the mouth. In Holothuria and the allied
genera the body is very contractile ; the skin is irritable and has numerous
mucous-secreting pores, and perforations for the passage of the sucker-like
feet, which are either generally distributed, or arranged in five rows repre-
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42 ZOOLOGY.
senting the ambulacra, or confined to the middle portion of the ventral
surface. The mouth is fringed with branching tentacles capable of being
withdrawn ; the vent is at the opposite extremity of the body ; and the entire
animal bears a striking resemblance to a cucumber, whence it is called by
sailors the sea-cowcumber, and one of the genera bears the name of
Cucumaria (C. frondosa, pi. 76, fig, 85). They are extensively collected
about the islands and reefs of the Eastern oceans as a culinary delicacy for
the Chinese markets.
Captain Flinders mentions a Malay fleet of sixty vessels and one thousand
men, as forming an expedition to fish for these animals.
*' The object was a certain marine animal called trepang ; of this they
gave me two dried specimens, and it proved to be the beche-de-mer or sea-
cucumber, which we had first seen on the reefs of the east coast, and had
afterwards hauled on shore so plentifully with the seine, especially in Caledon
Bay. They cot the trepang by diving, in from three to eight fathoms
water ; and where it is abundant, a man will bring up eicht or ten at a time.
The animal is split down one side, boiled, and pressed with a weight of
stones ; then stretched ppen with slips of bamboo, dried in the sun, and
afterwards in smoke, when it is fit to be put away in bags, but requires
frequent exposure to the sun. A thousand trepangs make a picol^ of about
125 Dutch pounds ; and one hundred picols is a cargo for a prow."
Obder 5. SiPUNCULiDEA. Thcsc are sometimes included in the order
Holothuridea, with which they agree in the tentacles, the intestinal canal, and
circulatory system, although they want the tubular feet. Sipunculns {pi, 74,
fig, 7, and pL 11, figs. 27, 28). According to Quatrefages the anatomy of
Echiurus indicates an affinity both to the chaetopodous annelida and to
Holothuria, giving it characteristics of distinct types. Some authors, as
Blainville and Gervais, place these animals among the Annelida.
Class Helminthes.
The classification of the various forms of worms has been attended with
difficulties, some of which still remain, notwithstanding the efforts of
distinguished naturalists to ascertain their characteristics. The worms,
whose body is composed of a series of rings, as in the leech and earth-worm,
and whose nervous system is composed of a line of ganglia, united by a
double nervous cord, as in insects, form with these the division Articulata,
of which they constitute the class Annelida.
After excluding the Annelida from the class of worms, there still remain
many forms, both aquatic, and living in the interior of other animals, to
which the term Helminthes is restricted. Here the annulate structure has
disappeared, and the median nervous system has been separated into two
distinct branches, usually arising from a large ganglion anteriorly, or two
ganglia united by a transverse branch. From the characteristics which
these animals afford, it is difficult to decide whether they belong to the
radiate or articulate division of the animal scale, or, as is probable, form an
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HELMINTHES. 43
inter-class with characters common to both. Milne Edwards, Gervais, and
Agassiz, think they form a common type with the Articulata, thus uniting
all the worms in one division» The latter disposes of the diflferences in the
nervous system, by considering them essentially the same, the two distinct
or bilateral threads (and sets of ganglia, where they exist) being approximated
to form a single series. The genus Malacobdella has certain intermediate
characters, which render it difficult to place, the nerves being separated, the
intestine simple, and the sexes separate. It is about an inch long, white,
translucent like Planaria, and has a posterior sucker. It is marine, and
lives as a parasite in the mantle of the molluscous genera Mya and Venus
Blanchard thinks it forms a distinct type of worms, as the generative organs
alone have an affinity with those of the Annelida ; and Duvemoy places it
among the Trematoda.
On the other hand, the Helminthes may be regarded as a two-rayed animal
(a view taken in part by Duvernoy), allied to the Radiata by this very
nervous system, which, in Tristoma (R. An. pL 36), forms a complete
circle, which may be compared with that of the Radiata. The digestive
system of this animal and of Planaria, bears an analogy to that of the
Radiata, even the more typical forms, for in the Echinidea it has already
departed from the radiated type. In some Planarise (R. An. pL S7, fig. !•)
the gastro-vascular ramification forms a complete net- work, which has its
counterpart in Rhizostoma (R. An. pi. 50).
We lay no stress upon the absence of the articulate structure in most
Helminthes, because it is wanting in some of the Epizoa, which, although
sometimes arranged with the Radiata, belong to the Crustacea. The
articulate appearance of Taenia arises from the fact, that each joint is to a
certain extent a single individual, affi)rding an analogy with the Radiata,
which is strengthened by the transverse nutrient tubes.
Cuvier, Duvernoy, and others, place the Helminthes among the Radiata.
The classification of the latter, in 1848, is as follows, the vernacular
names (which have no authority in science) being replaced by systematic
ones.
Class Helminthes, comprising the three sub-classes, Helminthophyta,
Parenchymata, and Cavitaria.
SuB-cLAss I. Helminthophyta.
Animals simple or compound ; form ribbon-shaped, a double alimentary
canal, no vent. Including the two orders Cystica (from Kystis, a bladder)
and Cestoidea (from Kestos, a band).
a. Cystica, with one family :
1. Hydatid».
b. Cestoidea, with three families :
1. Cysticercid«.
2. Ligulidae.
3. Tseniidse.
SüB-CLASS II. PaRENCHTMATA«
Form flattened, rarely cylindrical, nervous system bi-radiate ; a bifurcated
or branched alimentary sac. It includes the two orders and families :
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44 ZOOLOGY.
1. Trematoda.
2. Planariid».
Sub-class III. Cavitaria.
Having a visceral cavity, the nervous system bi-radiated. Composed of
four orders, the first having a visceral cavity instead of an intestine, the
remaining three with two openings at the alimentary canal, at opposite
extremities.
fl. Enterodela* with one family.
1. Acanthocephala.
6. Enterodela cylindrica [Nematoidea, Rudolphi], two families :
1. Ascaridae.
2. Gordiidae.
c. Enterodela plicata [Acanthotheca, Diesing'\, a single family and
parasitic genus :
1. Linguatulidse.
d. Enterodela tcenioida, one family :
1. Nemertidae.
The greater part of the Helminthes live in various parts of other animals,
deprived of light, with little occasion for locomotive powers, and governed
by circumstances of great uniformity, so that we need not be surprised at
the simplicity of structure in individual genera, although they present a
considerable amount of variation in the aggregate. From the mode of
their occurrence within other animals, they have been termed Entozoa, in
which certain external species are included. In some cases the same
species is found in waters as well as in the interior of animals. There is
scarcely an animal, whether terrestrial or aquatic, which does not nourish
some of these parasites, and but few of the latter infest several distinct
species. They have been found in beasts, birds, reptiles, fishes, insects,
moUusca, and even in the acalephse.
These entozoa are found, according to the species, in various parts of
the bodies they infest, as the intestines, brain, bronchise, liver, kidneys,
muscles, blood, and bones.
I. Helminthophtta.
a. Cystica,
These are named from the resemblance of the posterior part of the body
to a bladder, a part which is filled with fluid {pi. 77, ßg, 29). This is
fibrous and sensitive, at times as large as an egg, and it sometimes forms
part of several individuals. In Coenurus the head or heads are each
attached to a short neck ; they are sub-globular, crowned with hooks, and
have suckers arranged around the convexity, to enable it to attach itself
to the substance whence it derives its nourishment. It lives in the brain
and spinal nerve of sheep, and more rarely in the brain of oxen, destroying
parts of it, and giving rise to a fatal disease, called by the expressive name
of " staggers," from its chief symptom.
In Echinococcus (called Acephalocyste by the French) there is no head
* This name is inadmissible, having been previonsly used by Ehrenberg^ in the Infusoria,
p. 24
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HELHINTflES. 45
oatside of the kyst, the animals being restricted to its inside. It occurs in
the liver, spleen, and other parts, and is not exclusively confined to man.
6. Cestoidea.
Cysticercus is found in man as well as in animals, between the tissues of
the muscles, sometimes penetrating to the eye-ball, the heart, and the brain.
The form is that of the Cystica (with which it is usually and perhaps
correctly placed), whilst in some other respects it approaches the Cestoidea.
What is called " measles" in hogs arises from an abundance of enkysted
worms {Cysticercus cellulosce, pL 77, ßg. 30), which have been found
occupying as much space as the brain in these animals, and causing
<y>nvuIsions and death.
The intestinal worms of the genus Ligula (L, cingulum, pL 77, ßg. 34)
are flat, ribbon-shaped, without articulations, marked with a longitudinal
stria, and also transversely striate. They live in birds, and especially in
fishes. The species figured is from one to five feet long, and is found in the
Cyprinus hrama of Europe. This worm is said to be eaten in some parts
of Italy. Bothrimonus sturionis infests the American Acipenser oxyrhyn-
chus. It is not articulated, it has a longitudinal impressed line above and
below, with numerous raised points along it, those beneath having a pore.
The head is sub-globular, with a double sucker.
The genus Bothriocephalus (named from bothroSy a groove, and kephak,
the head) is a long, flat, jointed worm, with a longitudinal groove upon each
side of the sub-qiAdrate head, distinguishing it from Tcenia, or the true
tape-worm. It is also distinguished by having the segments much wider
than long, and the openings from the ovaries are beneath, and not lateral.
The genus infests birds, fishes, and reptiles ; and one species, B, latus
(pL 77, ßg. 32), infests man in Russia, Switzerland, and some other parts
of Europe.
The common tape-worm, Tcenia solium (pi. 77, ßg. 33), is composed of
flat, sub-quadrate articulations, which are very small and fragile for some
distance from the head, so much so that this part is rarely obtained perfect,
and the small head was for a long period unknown. The head is globular
and provided with four terminal suckers, arranged in a square around the
mouth. The alimentary canal is double, being composed of an intestine
running along each side of the body, with a transverse canal connecting
the opposite sides at the beginning of each segment, giving the interstices
the appearance of a ladder. The centre of each segment is occupied by
distinct generative organs of both sexes, which have their outlet in a lateral
pore, alternately upon the right and left side of the segments. As each
segment is capable of producing a large number of eggs, it is difficult to
conceive why the animals should be comparatively so few in number.
This species attains a length of twenty feet or more, and a single one is
dsually confined to a single individual, although as many as twenty have
been found together. Tcenia cateniformis (fig. 31) is about an inch long,
and infests the cat.
II. Parbnchymata.
These are soft contractile bodies, without any appearance of division
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46 ZOOLOGY.
into rings, and bearing some resemblance to a leech, but sometimes so short
as to be circular.
1. The Trematoda are internal monoicous parasites, having an anterior,
suctorial opening, and one or more suctorial disks of attachment, which
afford generic characters. Distoma (or Fasciola) hepaticum (pL 77, ßg. 36),
which is a good example, is about an inch long, infests the gall-bladder,
liver, and rarely the neighboring veins in man, sheep, oxen, deer, gazelles,
camels, goats, horses, and hares. In sheep it is the cause of the fatal
disease named rot. The severe winter of 1841-2 in Germany, was
followed by the death of many deer, which were found to be much infested
with Distoma. ^
Fresh- water snails of the genera Planorbis and Limnea are infested by a
minute animal, with a globular body and slender tail, resembling a tadpole,
and forming the supposed genus Cercaria, of which two American species
were published in 1840, the motions of which are similar to those of their
European analogues, the tail being rapidly thrown into the shape of an S,
and easily detached.* Steenstrup has in some measure cleared up the
history of the Cercariae, which are the larvae of Trematoda. After
swimming about freely for some time, they attach themselves to the outside
of the snail, and settle in the mucus of the exterior, maintaming
themselves by an abdominal sucker, and in the course of their
movements losing the tail, a loss which gives them somewhat the
appearance of a Distoma. They now enter the pupa state, in which they
remain for some months without apparent change. They afterwards
acquire spines anteriorly, and such individuals were found within the snail.
C. Th. Siebold thinks the Distoma is finally developed in the water-fowls
which swallow the snails, an analogous fact having been observed by
Creplin, who found a species in a stickleback fish, and also in water-fowls.
2. The PlanariidcB contain a number of small leech-like animals, found
both in fresh and salt water, which glide along like a snail over solid objects,
or, passing up an object to the surface, they creep along this with the back
downwards, and the belly attached to a thin film of water. The single
opening to the ramifications of the stomach is usually about the centre of the
inferior surface ; and whatever is taken through this that is indigestible, is
subsequently rejected by sucking in a quantity of water, and ejecting the
whole together.
Planaria {Planocera) comuta {pi. 77, fig. 85) has two horn-like
extensions anteriorly. P. (DendroccBlum) gracilis, Hald. 1840, is three
fourths of an inch long, and one tenth broad, fuliginous, veined with black ;
* C. hyalocauda, Hold. Body dark brown, or blackish, about as long as the tail ; tail
transparent, tapering, and suddenly diminished at its junction with the body. Just visible to
the naked eye. Parasitic upon Pbysa heterostropha. Susquehanna.
C bUineaia. Perfectly white. Microscopic characters : Head and tail translucent ; body
with two dark longifudinal lines, which have a tendency to connect, so as to form a circle
when the animal contracts ; there is a light posterior circular spot occasionally visible, the
tail is shorter than the extended body, and is not contracted at the base. Exceedingly
numerous upon specimens of Limnea calascopiimif collected at Camden on the Delaware.
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HELMINTHES. 47
(^long, suddenly tapering to a point posteriorly ; sides nearly parallel ; head
truncate in front ; neck narrowed, eye-dots two, on the narrow part, oblong
and white, with a black dot upon the internal margin ; ventral opening less
than one third the entire length from the posterior extremity. It inhabits
springs in Eastern Pennsylvania, and feeds upon animal matter. When cut
in two, each part becomes an entire animal.
III. Cavitaria.
a. Enterodela.
1. The Äcanthocephala, which are placed with the Parenchymata by
Cuvier, are composed of round worms represented by the genus
Echinorhynchus, the chief character of which is a straight, round, retractile
trunk, armed with rows of recurved tooth-like hooks, which retain it in
place when thrust into the intestines. A small pore is sometimes
observable at the end of this trunk, but it is probable that nourishment is
absorbed by its entire surface. A vascular tube runs longitudinally on
each side, and is lost towards the posterior extremity. These noxious
animals seem not to have been found in man, although numerous species
infest vertebrate animals. They sometimes bore through the intestines, and
pass into the cavity of the abdomen, and into other parts of the body.
Echinorhynchus gigas {pL 77, ßg. 39) is from three to fifteen inches long,
and infests hogs, especially such as are confined to be fattened.
b. Enterodela cylindrica,
1. The Ascaridce include various» genera of internal parasites, of which
the genus Ascaris is among the best known, and contains slender, round
worms, tapering towards both ends. The head is provided with three little
valves, between which the mouth is placed. The intestine is straight, the
vent terminal, and the nervous system bilateral. Ascaris lumbricoides
{pL 11 y fig» 41) takes its trivial name from its general resemblance to a
lumbricus, or earth-worm. It is white, from six to twelve or fifteen inches
long, and the female is larger and more abundant than the male. It infests
the small intestines of man, and is frequently fatal to children, in which it
sometimes penetrates to the stomach, and even to the mouth. As many as
five hundred have been ejected by a child in the course of eight days.
It is sometimes discharged from abscesses in the abdomen, and it has
rarely been passed from the bladder. This species infests the hog and the
ox, and an allied one (once considered the same) is found in the horse.
Owen, some years ago, calculated the number of eggs in a female of this
species to exceed sixty millions. Gluge and Mandl found eggs of an
Ascaris, without the animal, in the lungs of frogs, supposed to be introduced
with the air.
Oxyuris vermicularis, Linn. (pi. 11, fig. 42), is half an inch long,
cylindrical, with the posterior portion subulate. It infests the large
intestines of children.
Trichocephalus dispar {fig, 40) is found with the preceding species, and
differs in having the anterior extremity attenuated like a thread, and
resembling the lash of a whip, of which the posterior end would be the stock.
It is one or two inches long, of which the thick part occupies about a third
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48 ZOOLOGY.
2. GordiidcB. The genus Filaria is long, slender, thread-like, and smooth,
with a somewhat rigid texture, and many species are found in various
animals, including insects and mollusca. Filaria medinensis {pL 17, ßg. 43),
the guinea worm, infests the muscles and subcutaneous tissues, chiefly of
the lower limbs, in Arabia, Upper Egypt, West Africa, and the West
Indies. It is sometimes located about the eye, and beneath the tongue ; and
occasionally it makes its way to the surface of the body, causing a sore,
from which it may be extracted if a little is withdrawn daily, care being
taken not to break it, as in that case the inclosed part remains and causes
inflammation, which may render amputation necessary. A sailor, who
frequently met Africans on shipboard with sores caused by the worm, had
been on shore in West Africa for three hours barefoot, having himself a
small sore on the thigh at the time. He arrived in England in October,
1843 ; and in the middle of the subsequent May a sore appeared on the left
instep, which finally opened and disclosed part of a white worm, about the
size of a violin string, of which five inches were cut off. This was succeeded
by violent inflammation and suppuration upon the foot and leg, until the
remaining two feet and a half of the worm came away. On the 23d of May
another sore appeared upon the left fore-arm, disclosing a second filaria,
which was gradually and carefully removed in fourteen days, and found to
be thirty-two inches long. A third could then be felt under the integument
of the right foot. This species attains a length of six feet, and is said to be
sometimes seen swimming in the water -of the countries it inhabits.
Filaria papulosa {fig. 45) is found in the abdomen, chest, and eyes of
the horse. Dr. Charles A. Lee gives a figure of it in the Am, J. Sei,, 1840,
vol. xxxiv. p. 279. He states that it is from one to seven inches long, and
one third of a line in diameter. The specimen seen by him seems to have
grown from half an inch to about four inches in four months.
FHlaria phalangii {pi, 77, fig, 62) has been found in Phalangium
cornutum.
FHlaria lycoscB, Hald. Pale-reddish when recent ; flavous when dried by
heat ; rigid, smooth, and shining, slightly tapering towards one end ; about
five inches long, and one millimetre in diameter at the largest end. Found
in Eastern Pennsylvania, in a specimen apparently of Lycosa scutulata^
Hentz, ten lines long, and, when the size of the spider is considered, a
remarkably large species. The specimen being much contorted, and one
end still within the spider, the precise length could not be determined.
jFY^. 43 might pass for a representation of it, and the spider is a little larger
than fig, 37» in pi 78.
The genus Gordius is found free in water, or as an internal parasite.
Gordius aquations is found under all these circumstances, as it has been
ascertained to infest insects. These worms resemble a thin thread or
stout hair, and being seen in running water, or in puddles along roads,
particularly after rain (see Mag, Nat, Hist., 1836, pp. 9, 241-2, 855), they
are popularly supposed to be metamorphosed horse-hairs. They are male
and female, oviparous, and have a more complicated organization than their
external simplicity might be supposed to indicate.
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MOLLUSCA. 49
•
c. Enterodela plicata.
1. The LinguatulidcB are internal parasites infesting various organs ; they
are flattened and tapering posteriorly, and rugose transversely. In
Linguatula the anterior extremity is armed with a few recurved spines.
rf. Enterodela tcenioida.
1. Nemertidce. The principal genus is Nemertes, Cuvier (pL 14, ßg, 10),
an extremely long and soft marine worm, of a flattened form, the anterior
extremity slender, and the posterior one ending with a broad attaching disk.
It approaches Hirudo in its mouth and vascular system. It lives buried in
the sand, and is said to feed on shell-fish.
Division II. Mollusca.
The Mollusca, or Malacozoa (soft animals), constitute one of the great
Divisions of the animal kingdom. Except the shell, which is not always
present, these animals have nothing in the nature of bones ; and they want
the ringed structure and jointed members of the Articulata. The body
is soft, the integument slimy, and generally without epidermis, and in the
testaceous species capable of secreting a shell. The alimentary canal has
an opening at each end, and the circulating system is more or less complete.
The eyes of univalve mollusca are generally situated upon or near the
tentacles ; those of bivalves upon the edge of the mantle, as in Pecten
(pL 76, ßgs. 27, 29) ; or on the posterior portion which forms the siphons,
as in Unio {pi, 76, fig, 47).
From the great number, variety, and beauty of the shells of so large a
portion of the Mollusca, the study of these, under the name of Conchology,
attracted! attention at an early period, when a cabinet of shells was pften
regarded in the same light as a casket of jewels, and great sums were paid
for rare and handsome species ; and, indeed, this interest still maintains its
ground, there being shells, the price of which is one or two hundred dollars
at the present day.
It was at length discovered that little of natural classification and the
habits of this class could be known, without a study of the entire animal ; so
that Conchology finally became merged into Malacology. There is,
however, no impropriety in the use of the former term in an enlarged sense,
if it be considered to include the study of those animals which are usually
provided with a calcareous shell.
Some of the older conchologists, guided by the shell alone, included
radiated forms, like Echinus, in this division ; and even at the present day,
the cirrhopoda {pi. Iß, figs. 51-54) and some of the annelida, which have a
hard exterior tube, are sometimes described in books avowedly devoted to
mollusca. On the other hand, whilst all " shells," whether secreted by the
mollusca or the articulata, were classed together, true mollusca, when
unprovided with a shell, were often placed among worms and annelida.
The term (Vermes) Mollusca was used by Linnsus in 1758, in a wide
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50 ZOOLOQT.
•
sense, as it included radiata, like Actinia, Medusa, and Echinus ; Crustacea
like Lernaea, as well as Ascidia, Limaz, and the Cephalopoda, and even
some annelida ; whilst his order (Vermes) Testacea included most of the
univalve and bivalve shell-fish. The '' class Mollusca" of Lamarck, follows
his class Conchifera, and includes the five " orders," as he terms them, of
Pteropoda, Gastropoda (excluding the spiral univalves), Trachelipoda
(including the spiral univalves), Cephalopoda, and Heteropoda. Pallas and
Cuvier were the first to use the term Mollusca in its modem sense ; and the
latter, in 1798, recognised three sections, subsequently provided with the
systematic names of Cephalopoda, Gastropoda, and Acephala. The term
Mollusca having by these means acquired a somewhat indefinite meaning,
Blainville proposed that of Malacozoa, which is the preferable term, if the
term Malacology sfpersedes that of Conchology.
The shell of the Malacozoa can have one, two, or more pieces ; it may
be external or internal, and it varies much in size, being in some cases
capable of containing all the soft parts, with room to spare, and in others a
mere excrescence upon some part of the animal. It is secreted by the
mantle, a fold of the integument which appears as a flap, lining the shell in
bivalves, and a continuation of it appears as a collar around the neck, and
lining the aperture of the shell in the spiral univalves. In the order
Tunicata the body is inclosed in a kind of coriaceous purse instead of a shell.
The mantle usually secretes two kinds of material, the nacre, or pearly
portion of the shell, and the epidermis, or periostraca ; but in some genera
the latter is absent, as in Oliva (pL 75, figs. 122, 125, 126) and Cypr<sa
{pi. 16, figs. 5-7), in ^hich the wide mantle is turned up on each side, so
as to inclose the shell. When the shell is broken by accident, the crevice
is closed by layers of nacre ; and if a pebble gets into the shell by accident,
and cannot be got rid of, it is covered in like manner. When the nacre
or "mother-of-pearl" is of a fine quality, the tubercular masses which arise
from injuries have a peculiar lustre, which causes them to be admired under
the name of pearls. Shells are often found repaired, which had been
crushed and distorted to such an extent as to lead one to believe it scarcely
possible for an animal to survive after so much mutilation.
The varied spots and lines which ornament so many marine shells, are
distributed by the periodical action and inaction of the secreting process.
The species of the genus Conus, although covered by a thick epidermis, are
usually marked with bands, spots, and reticulations of brilliant colors, which
make them a favorite ornament to collections. The epidermis, however,
should not be removed, or it should at least be preserved upon a specimen
of each species, as it varies considerably according to the species. The
former unscientific custom of polishing such shells as have a homely
exterior is now discontinued.
The microscopic structure of shells presents many curious features, which
have been thoroughly studied by Carpenter, who has illustrated the subject
with figures. In some shells the structure resembles that of minerals, and
seems to be formed of minute crystals of carbonate of lime, or of fibres
resembling arragonite.
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MOLLUSCA, 61
In ihe genus Argonauta (pl, 76, ßg. 17) the ends of two of the arms are
greatly dilated, and these dilations clasp the shell upon each side, which
seems to be formed by a secretion from their inner surface.
In some of the naked land-snails, like pl, 77, fig. 21, a small thin shell
may be taken out of the back, and the cuttle-fish has a corresponding
internal shell, known as cuttle-bone, which is more complex, having a hard,
rough surface above, and a series of close-set, thin, parallel plates beneath.
The lower end terminates in a point which corresponds to those fossil
organic remains of cephalopoda, named Belemnites.
In bivalve shells the mantle is slightly attached to the shell, in some
degree parallel with its margin, and at a little distance from it ; but this line
of attachment, which is named the pallial impression, varies considerably
in its course in different families, and through this variation affords
distinctive characters. The mantle, or projections from it, secretes the
spines, rugosities, and other appendages, by which the shell is varied.
Sometimes the deposition of the shell goes on smoothly, when a thickening
of the margin, a varix, or a row of spines will be secreted, to be followed
by a smooth space, and this alternation takes place as long as the animal
grows. See pL lb, figs, 101-104, 111, 119. Univalve shells are usually
strengthened by having the margin of the aperture thickened, and as this
is added from time to time, the shell may acquire a ribbed appearance, as
in figs, 101, 102. In other cases, as in fig, 91, the old lip is absorbed
before a new growth is started, so that the shell remains smooth.
Sometimes the margin is not formed until the animal attains its full growth.
The oblique deposition of calcareous matter in spiral univalves gives
them an elongated form, as in pl, 75, fig. 1 17, and when less oblique, the
shell is more robust {fig, 98). In forms like Patella'(fig, 77) the calcareous
deposit extends in equal degrees ; but if the increase is more abundant upon
one side, the spine is curved, as in fig, 81. When the aperture is lateral,
and the shell has little or no obliquity, the forms seen in pl, 76, figs, 2, 4,
7, 11, are the result.
In spirivalve shells the solid axis is named the columella, and a muscle is
attached to it which connects the animal with the shell, and enables it to
retire within it. The columella is often marked with prominent folds and
tooth-like' projections, which afford generic characters. The anterior
extremity of the mantle is elongated in some genera, and the edges brought
in contact, so as to form a slender tube, through which water passes to the
gills ; and as this siphon secretes calcareous matter, the shell takes the
rostrated form, as in pl, 75, figs, 109-112.
Spiral shells are usually dextral, increasing towards the right, in which
they resemble an ordinary screw ; but there are a few genera, exceptional
species, and varieties of dextral species, which are sinistral {pl, lb, fig, 100).
A bivalve shell is considered sinistral when the projecting points at the
hinge, named teeth (which present a certain degree of uniformity in each
species), are changed so that the modification which belongs to the one
side normally is found upon the other.
Some of the spirivalves, when the animal retires into the shell, as in fig.
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88, close the aperture by an operculum attached to the posterior and upper
part of the foot. It is sometimes smaller than the aperture, and can be
drawn in some distance ; in other cases it fits the aperture exactly. In
texture it is either thin and horny, or thick and shelly, sometimes increasing
obliquely or spirally, by deposition upon one side, and at other times
enlarging concentrically, but always taking the shape of the aperture. In
the genus Hipponyx the anomaly is presented of the operculum being
attached to the rocks upon which the animal is found. In dry seasons the
land-snails protect themselves by a temporary operculum, formed by a
slimy secretion, which hardens, and thus closes the aperture.
Most bivalves, as the name implies, are composed of two valves
(pL 76, figs, 32-34), united by a ligament upon the back ; but some of these
have accessory pieces (fig, 49), which are not of sufficient importance to
remove them from their class. Even the anomalous form, Aspergillum
{pi. 75, fig. 71), belongs to the Bivalves or Conchifera; for, although it is a
shelly tube, pierced at the anterior extremity like a pepper-box, an
examination will disclose a small open bivalve shell, solidly imbedded in the
shelly material of the tube. This is roughly represented near the upper end
of the figure, although the artist probably did not recognise its true character.
The nervous system of the Malacozoa is not symmetrical, as in the
Articulata, nor radiated, as in the Radiata, but the ganglia are distributed
unsymmetrically from the brain, or chief ganglion, situated above the
oesophagus.
The Malacozoa are divisible into three sub-divisions or classes, the lowest
containing the Acephala {pi 76, fig, 34, &c.), named Acephalophora by
Blainville ; the next the Gastropoda {fig. 1, &c.), named Paracephalophora
by Blainville, and including the Pteropoda, according to this author ; and
the highest the Cephalopoda {pi 76, figs, 16, 17, 75-77).
Class 1. Acephala.
This class contains the four orders Bryozoa, Tunicata, Brachiopoda, and
Conchifera. The sections, here named orders, are by some naturalists
considered to be classes, which they sub-divide into orders of a diflferent
value. Indeed, it is extremely difficult to construct groups which shall have
the same value under the same name, in diflferent departments of Zoology ;
and there is no special rule which can be followed in all cases.
Milne Edwards, observing that the Bryozoa, which had previously been
confounded with the Zoophyta, bear certain near relations to the Tunicata,
united the two in a sub-division of the true moUusca, and Cuvier had
previously shown that the Tunicata are related to the Conchifera.
Dujardin gives to the group of Bryozoa the same value among the MoUusca
that he assigns to the Conchifera and Brachiopoda. Agassiz also unites
them to the Acephala, of which he considers them to be the lowest order,
corresponding to the Foraminifera, to which he assigns the lowest place
among the Gastropoda. In fact, the Bryozoa have much resemblance to
the MoUusca in their alimentary canal, which is quite diflferent from that of
the Zoophyta.
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MOLLUSCA. 53
Order 1. Bryozoa. This name was imposed by Ehrenberg, who was
one of the first to demonstrate the true nature of them. They are small
animals, aggregated in great numbers, like coralligenous zoophytes, having
a distinct stomach and an intestine curved upon itself, with an outlet near
the mouth. An analogy with the Cephalopoda is apparent in the tentacles
which surround the mouth, and which are covered with vibrill». These
vibrillae cause currents of water which bring the animalcula within reach,
which serve as food. The tube into which the animal withdraws varies in
texture, being membranous, homy, fibro-gelatinous, or calcareous. This
tube corresponds to the outer tunic of the Tunicata, in being in organic
connexion with the interior parts, even the calcareous matter of the harder
kinds being deposited throughout the membranous tissues. Each tube is in
contact with its neighbors, sometimes to the number of many thousands.
Dr. Farre thus describes the tube or cell in the Vesicularidae : " The
transparent horny cell which closely embraces the body of the animal, is
nearly unyielding in its lower two thirds, but terminates above by a flexible
portion, which sei-ves to protect the upper part of the body when the whole
is expanded, in which state it is of the same diameter as the rest of the cell,
but, when the animal retracts, is folded up, and drawn in after it, and
completely closes the mouth of the cell. The flexible part consists of two
portions, the lower half being a simple continuation of the rest of the cell,
the upper consisting of a row of delicate bristle-shaped processes or sets,
which are arranged parallel with each other around the top of the cell, and
are prevented separating beyond a certain distance by a membrane of
excessive tenuity, which surrounds and connects the whole. This mode of
termination of the cell is one of constant occurrence, as will be described
in other species, and is evidently a provision for allowing of the freest
possible motion of the upper part of the body in its expanded state, to which
it affords at the same time support and protection." — Phil. Trans., 1837,
p. 393.
Johnston thus describes the habits of some of these animals : " Let
us now suppose that the polypes are in a state of extrusion, and fully
expanded, all the cilia in play, and the water whirling in rapid streams up
and down the opposite sides of the tentacula, carrying with them nutriment
and the breath of life. All is quietness and security around, and the little
creatures are evidently in a state of happiness and enjoyment ; no one who
has witnessed the microscope scene (the myriads of the little flosculous
heads that pullulate and blossom over the entire polypidom, as thickly
peopled as the swarming hive) can have any doubt of this, especially when
he remarks the acuteness and vivacities of their sensibilities and actions ; for,
under his eye, one will ever and anon suddenly sink out of view, hide itself
within the cell, again on a sudden emerge and expand, or, it may be, lay
itself down in repose and concealment, until digestion has freed it from a
state of repletion, or forgetfulness has removed the alarm of an enemy.
These positions are assumed with such rapidity, that the eye cannot trace
the steps of the process, and large glasses and minute skill are required to
reveal to us its mechanism." — Brit. Zooph. p. 241.
ICOVOORAPHIC XNCTCLOPiBDIA. — ^VOL. 11. 17 267
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64 ZOOLOGY.
Excellent figures of this group are given by Milne Edwards, in the
illustrated edition of the Regne Animal, and by Johnston. The following
genera of Escharidae are figured on pi. 75 : Fltistra (fig. 54), Retepara
(fig. 56), and Eschar a (fig. 57). The following classification is that of
Johnston :
♦Natives of the Sea. Tentacula forming a perfect circle. Polypiaria
infundibulatiy P. (Jervais. Fams. 1 to 6.
♦•Lacustrine. Tentacula in the form of a horse-shoe. Polypiaria
hippocrepia, P. Gervais. Fam. 7.
Fam. 1. Vesicularidas. Corneous, fistular, confervoid; cells vesicular,
deciduous, not operculate. Vesicularia, Serialaria, Valkeria, Baverbancia.
Fam. 2. CrisiadcB. Calcareous, branched, confervoid, jointed ; cells
linked together in series, distinct, tubular, or elliptical, with a terminal or
subterminal aperture ; no operculum. Crisia, Notamia, Hippothoa,
Anguinaria.
Fam. 3. TuhuliporidcB. Calcareous, variable in shape, never confervoid;
cells tubular, round, rising from a base and projecting, aperture terminal
and non-operculate. Tubulipora, Discopora.
Fam. 4. CellepoHd<B. Calcareous, lobed, ramous, or crustaceous ; cells
in quincunx, utricular, in juxta-position, with a contracted terminal aperture.
Cellepora, Lepralia, Membranipora.
Fam. 5. Escharidce. Calcareous or membranous, variable ; cells usually
in quincunx, oblong, pentagonal, or hexagonal, conjunct, immersed, or
horizontal to the plane of axis, with a subterminal or lateral, and commonly
operculate aperture. Flustra, Cellularia, Acamarchis, Farcimia, Retepora,
Eschara.
Fam. 6. Alcyonidults. Polypidoms sponge-like, polymorphous; cells
irregular in disposition, immersed and concealed, with a contractile non-
operculate aperture. Alcyonidium, Cliona.
Fam. 1. Limniades. Polypidoms fleshy, spongy or corneous, polymor-
phous ; animals in tubes with angular or round orifices, closed when they
recede. Cristatella, Plumatella.
Order 2. Tunicata. These animals, especially Ascidia (pi. 77 , figs. 7, 8)
and its allied forms, may be compared to bivalve moHusca or conchifera,
in which the margins of the mantle are united so as to form a sac, in
which two openings are left, one for alimentation and respiration, and the
other for excretion. The mantle is of a tough coriaceous or cartilaginous
texture, and is endowed with contractility. Cellulose, which is almost
exclusively found in plants, has been ascertained to enter into the
composition of the Tunicata. A current is made to flow over the branchice
by the action of the vibrillae, and the contractions and expansions of the
body remove the water.
The Tunicata have no external organs of locomotion, so that they float
about at random, or are fixed to rocks, sea-weed, or other extraneous
bodies. Some species are agglutinated together in masses, or in long
chains, but there is no organic connexion between them.
This order includes three families represented by the genera Salpa,
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Ascidia, and Pyrosoma. Salpa (pL 77, ßg. 3) forms long lines of aggre-
gated individuals. These animals were first distinctly noticed ii) 1756, and
named Thalia in Brown's History of Jamaica, and in 1775 Forskal applied
the name of Salpa. The mantle is transparent, and is provided with
tubercular suckers, by means of which the bodies adhere together. The
aggregated individuals produce young which are free, and which are unlike
the parent; and these free individuals produce a brood of aggregated
individuals, thus presenting an example of alternate generation. This
discovery was published by Chamisso in 1830. These animals abound in
the warm seas, swimming at various depths, commonly with the back
downwards, and coming to the surface in calm weather. Their power of
locomotion is slight, the only means being the ejection of water which has
oeen used in respiration. (See Agassiz's Lect Embryol., p. 91.) Pyrosoma
includes compound, gelatinous, and nearly transparent animals, remarkable
for their brilliant phosphorescence.
Order 3. Brachiopoda. '* The Brachiopoda ought to be combined with
Lamellibranchia, having the same structure, and differing only in secondary
modifications." (Agassiz.) This order includes bivalve mollusca, named from
having a long, spiral, fleshy, arm-like, fringed organ on each side of the
mouth, used in securing food, and generally capable of being extended and
withdrawn into the shell, and when large it is rolled into a spiral. In the
genus Spirifer, which is scarcely more than a Productus, these organs are
preserved in a mineralized state. The mouth is provided with fleshy lips,
and is situated between the arms. The mantle itself subserves the purposes
of respiration, a peculiarity which is recorded in thfe name Palliobranchiata,
given to them by Blainville.
The shell is often adhering, either directly, as in Crania {pi. 76, fig. 24),
or by means of muscles, as in Terebrattda {fig. 23), in which the muscles
pass through a perforation in the beak of the left valve. This genus
has a curious framework within the shell. The species figured, T. capvi-
serpentis, Linn., and T.psittacea, Gmelin, are found upon both sides of the
North Atlantic. (See Gould, Invertebrata of Massachusetts, pp. 141, 142.)
It has been maintained that in this order, the valves, instead of being
right and left, are dorsal and ventral, the large or perforated one being
dorsal. Professor Agassiz {Moules de MoUusques, p. 14) thinks this view
is founded upon a false interpretation of the anatomy, and that the
Brachiopoda do not present this anomaly. He considers the larger valve
as that of the left side, as in Ostrea and Anomia, but whilst the left valve
is perforated in Terebratyla, Anomia has the perforation in the right. The
descriptions of some conchologists being founded upon the opinion that
there is kn absence of orientation in the valves of this order, must be read
with care or they will not be understood.
In the genus Lingula the two valves are so much alike that it is difficult
to decide upon their mutual relations. In this genus there is a long pedicle, but
probably not for attachment to extraneous bodies, as the species live buried
in the sand.
Order 4. Conchifera. This order contains most of the bivalve shells,
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including some with accessory pieces. From the laminated form of the
gills, two ^f which usually hang like a curtain on each side, between the
mantle and the body, they are named Lamellibranchia by Blainville.
In the Conchifera the back of the animal is under the hinge of the shell ;
and when the shell is removed, the heart may be observed in some families
beating at the anterior part of the back. Beneath this, at the anterior
extremity, is a simple opening constituting the appendages named labial
palpi, the vibrilte of which cause currents, which bring nourishment
within reach.
Upon comparing the shell of an oyster with that of a freshwater mussel, a
discolored impression will be found near the centre of the former, and two
impressions in the latter, situated towards each end. These are the
muscular impressions, serving for the attachment of the adductor muscles,
which draw the valves together ; and when they are relaxed the shell is
opened by the elasticity of the dorsal ligament, which may be either
external or internal.
Some conchifera remain permanently fixed, like the oyster, which is
attached by its left valve. Others, as Pinna (pi 76, ßg, 18), are attached
by a bunch of fibres, named the hyssus, which is secreted by the foot.
Some can swim by alternately opening and closing the valves, of which
Pecten {figs. 27-9) aflTords an example ; whilst others move by means of a
foot, which enables them to burrow in the mud, or move along in the sand.
The foot is situated below the mouth ; and when present, the mantle must
be open to allow it to pass. See pi. 76, fig. 50, left-hand end.
Posteriorly the mantle has two openings, one above the other, forming
siphons for respiration and excretion. These are sometimes made merely
by the partial contact of the ends of the mantle, which may project but
little, although at other times it extends and forms long perfect tubes
(fig. 50). The inferior tube is named the branchial siphon, and is used in
Ijreathing ; the upper one is the anal siphon, and serves for the excretions.
The curve in the pallial impression is caused by the displacement of the
mantle, to aflford room for the retracted siphons when their size is
considerable.
The hinge is usually provided with projections of calcareous matter,
named teeth from their shape ; and those of one valve are fitted into
corresponding vacancies or depressions in the other. These present so
many modifications that they have been made a principal character in the
construction of genera. Those situated under the beak of the shell are
termed cardinal teeth ; and those anterior and posterior to these the lateral
teeth, a badly selected term, all the teeth being equally lateral. Indeed, the
hump of a dromedary, or the dorsal fin of a fish, might as well be termed
" lateral." This misapplication arose when the length of a bivalve mollusc
from the mouth towards the vent was named its breadth, an4 Lamarck, Say,
and others, named that end " posterior" at which the mouth is situated, and
which precedes in locomotion. A few minutes devoted to observation^and
dissection of the animal would have prevented this error, which must be
borne in mind in reading the descriptions of these authors, or they cannot
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MOLLUSCA. 67
be understood. In some genera, as Area {pi 76, fig. 32), the teeth are
alike, and form a crenulated line along the dorsal margin of the shell.
In the seventh volume of the Nouv. M6m. de la Soc. Helv6t. des Sc. Nat.,
Professor Agassiz has proposed an improved nomenclature for the armature
of the hinge in Venus and the allied forms, but which may be extended to
other families. The annexed diagram represents the relative positions and
Accessory. .
Lunular. . .
Cardinal.. .
Ligamentary.
Lunular.
Cardinal
Ligamentary.
names of the teeth, the upper part representing the anterior part of the shell,
its back being towards the observer, and the right valve upon the right
hand. The presence of the accessory tooth in the left valve distinguishes
the genus Cytherea from Venus. The same name is applied to a tooth
and its corresponding cavity in the opposite valve.
Most of the Conchifera are marine, living attached, half buried, or
entirely buried in the sand or mud, some at the bottom of a perforation
from a few inches to several feet deep. Others perforate wood, and some
rocks ; and as they increase in size, enlarge the prison which they are
never to quit, receiving their nourishment through the opening by which
they entered.
The Conchifera may be divided into several tribes, named Rudista,
Inclusa, and Elatobranchia. The first of these, Rudista, is doubtful as a
separate section, being composed of bivalve shells, the lower one of which
is adherent, and the upper raised in a conical form ; but their true nature
and position in the animal scale have not been determined, and they occur
only in a fossil state. Some authors place them near Chama in the
Elatobranchia ; others think them Brachiopoda, and even Tunicata ; and
others elevate them to the rank of a distinct order. Some of these bivalves
were at one time believed to present the chambered structure of Orthoceras,
and they have on this account been incorrectly referred to the Cephalopoda
by some authors. This was the case with Hippurites, one of the principal
genera, which was placed near Belemnites. In Hippurites there is, indeed,
an imitation of a chambered structure, but it has an analogy to that
observed in certain species of Ostrea, when the shell is sawed in two across
the foliated layers, the siphon of the Cephalopoda having no existence.
Tribe Inclusa.
The members of this tribe, although inclosed in bivalve shells, resemble
the Tunicata in having the margins of the mantle closed for about three
fourths of its circumference. The more typical forms have the shell
gaping, and a long double siphon posteriorly, which cannot be entirely
withdrawn.
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Fam, 1. MactridcB. Hinge with an erect V-shaped tooth, ligament
internal. The genus Mactra, Linn. {pL 76, ßg. 40), includes sub-trigonal
shells which are slightly gaping ; hinge with a concave tooth to receive the
ligament ; two additional striated teeth near the hinge. This genus
contains shells which sometimes attain a considerable size. M. soiidissima,
Chemnitz (Gould, Invertebrata of Massachusetts, p. 51), of the United
States coast, is sometimes found six inches long and four in height. In this
family the foot passes through an opening in the mantle, and the two
siphons, although distinct, are inclosed in a common integument. Some
authors place this family among the Elatobranchia. Lutraria lineata. Say,
American Conchology (/>/. 9). L. plicatella, Lamarck, vol. vi. p. 93.
Fam, 2. Myidce, This family is differently divided by different authors,
some including the two groups of which Osteodesma and Solemya are the
types, whilst others believe that these should form distinct families. In
Mya the shell is gaping, and there is a broad spoon-shaped tooth projecting
from the hinge to the opposite valve, where there is a cavity to receive it.
The labial palpi are long, stout, and pointed. The mantle is closed, except
a small anterior opening for the passage of a slender foot, and the ordinary
openings for the siphons, which are very long, and inclosed in a common
envelope. This genus buries itself in the sand, with the exception of the
end of the siphons. Mya arenaria, which has a shell three or four inches
long, inhabits both sides of the Atlantic, between high and low water-mark.
It is extensively used in New England as food, under the name of clam,
a name which is applied to Venus mercenaria in the middle States. The
genus Corbula forms part of the restricted family of Myadae.
In the opinion of some authors, Osteodesma and the allied genera Lyonsia,
Periploma, Thracia, and Anatina, form a family, although the aggregate of
these genera seems to have no higher rank than that of a sub-family.
Some of the shells are of an extremely delicate texture; these have no
cardinal teeth, and there is an ossiculum or accessory bone forming part
of the mechanism of the hinge, upon which Deshayes has founded the
family name Osteodesmacea. Mya norvegica was at first the type both of
Lyonsia, Turton, 1822, and Osteodesma. Deshayes, 1885, but the latter
author subsequently admitted Lyonsia, and applied his own term to a
different group. Couthouy's paper in the third volume of the Boston
Journal of Natural History, and (mould's Invertebrata of Massachusetts, may
be consulted upon these genera.
Fam. 8. Solemyidce. The genus Solemya is by some considered as
forming a distinct family, whilst by others it is placed in the family of the
Solenidae. Some of its characters are very distinct ; the branchiae are thick,
and single upon each side, and they are divided so as to resemble those of
Crustacea. The foot is truncated and shaped like a sucking disk ; the
posterior half of the mantle is closed, the siphons are short, and the
periostraoa of the shell projects in a flap, far beyond the calcareous
portion.
Fam. 4. SaxicavidcB. This family includes Saxicava and Byssomia.
The first contains small species and secretes a byssus. The cardinal teeth
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are obsolete, th« ligament is external, and the shell gaping. The shell presents
many distorted varieties, and some species excavate cavities in rocks. Some
authors unite this family to the Lithophaga, among the Elatobranchia.
Fam. 5. PandoridcB, A small family formed of the single genus Pandora,
which has only a single branchia on each side. The shells are small,
pearly within, the valves unequal, the ligament interior, the siphons short,
the hinge with two diverging teeth in the right or flat valve, and two
corresponding impressions in the left, which is convex.. P, trilineata, Say,
{American Concholagy, pi, 2), inhabits the American coast from Maine to
Florida. This genus is by some placed with the Solenidae, and by others
with the Myidee.
Fam, 6. Soknidce, This family is composed of the genera Solen
(pL 76, ßgs. 45-6), Solecurtus, Glycimeris, Panopaea, and Pholadomya.
The ligament is external, the shell gaping at both ends, and the foot is long
and fleshy, and is passed out of the anterior extremity. The genus Solen
lives in holes several feet deep, in which it passes up and down by means
of its foot, and with such rapidity that it is difficult to take. Fishermen
take them for bait by suddenly thrusting a barbed spear into their retreat,
but if they are not struck at once they descend beyond reach. The genus
Glycimeris is remarkable for having the body so large in proportion to the
shell, that the latter is unable to inclose it. G. siliqua, the only species of the
genus, as now restricted, inhabits the.banks of Newfoundland, and the shell
is usually got from the stomachs of cod-fish. Panopaea is a genus including
species mostly of a large size, few in number, and occurring recent and fossil.
P. arctica inhabits the banks of Newfoundland, and about eight fossil species
have been named from the tertiary formations of the United States.
Fam, 7. PholadidcB, This family contains various genera, which live in
perforations which they make in rocks, wood, or clay, each being a prisoner
for life in a cell of its own construction. In Pholas {pi. 76, figs. 49, 50)
the shell is widely gaping, and provided with accessory pieces at the hinge
{fig, 49), and the foot is shaped like a sucker. Pholas dactylus {fig. 50)
is used as food. A few fossil species are found in the tertiary formations
of Europe and America. The genus Teredo is placed by some authors in
the next family, Tubicolay on account of its form ; but Deshayes thinks the
characters of the animal require that it should be placed here. Teredo
navalis {pL 75, fi^. 67), which is so destructive to timber and shipping
when not protected, appears as a long, sinuous, calcareous tube, lining
perforations in wood, and if one of these be followed to its lower end, the
valves of the shell will be found. The shell is thick, and so short as to be
annular, having a single adductor muscle, and the posterior extremity of the
tube is open. According to Laurent, when the young Teredo escapes from
the egg, it swims about by means of vibrill». At first the body is inclosed
in the shell proper, and the little animal can move about with the aid of a
long linguiform foot. After spending about twenty-four hours in swimming
and moving about upon submarine objects, it attaches itself to wood,
making a depression in which it locates itself, and excretes a mucous mass
which covers it, but allowing a passage for the siphons. The young animal
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is soon after able to commence perforating. The transparent shell of the
embryo soon disappears, and is replaced by the permanent one. In boring,
the wood is generally entered across the grain, but afterwards the animals
turn in the direction of the fibres, though they are subject to be continually
turned from their course by each other, the wood being perfectly honey-
combed by their number, and often in the course of a year.
Fam. 8. Tubicola. The name indicates the tubular form of the external
protection in this family. The tube is secreted by the mantle, and its
continuation covering the siphons. In Aspergillum {pi, lb, fig, 71) both
valves form part of the tube ; in Clavagella the valves are placed within a
short tube, one of them being attached ; and in Gastrochcena the shell is
not attached, but inclosed in a tube. The mantle is open in front for the
passage of a little foot, the siphon and branchiae are usually long, and the
palpi are small. These shell-fish inhabit clay, sand, or cavities in stone or
wood, pierced by themselves.
The genus Aspergillum was first correctly figured in 1685, by Lister, one
of the fathers of conchology ; but it was many years before its true
approximate place was known, since it required much sagacity to detect a
bivalve shell under the form of a tube. We accordingly find it placed at
one time among univalve genera, and at another with the Annelida which
form tubes, and Linnaeus placed it with Dentalium. The happy idea
of Aspergillum being a true bivalve is 4ue to De Roissy, and is a remarkable
example of the detection of natural afiinities. A parallel example appears
in the Planorhis cornuarietis which, to all appearance, was referred to its
proper genus, but which Sowerby referred to Ampullaria, with none of
which did it seem to be allied ; but the subsequent discovery of the animal
proved his reasoning to be correct, although strongly opposed at the time.
The structure of Clavagella is quite anomalous, the valve of the right side
forming part of the inside of the tube, and the left valve being free. The
anatomy is essentially that of a bivalve mollusc, and shows an affinity with
Aspergillum. It is provided with a small foot.
The genus Gastrochcena, Spengler, 1783 (or FHstulana, Lam., 1801), is a
boring shell, sometimes found in calcareous rocks, and sometimes in sand,
secreting, besides its proper shell, a separate exterior tube ; and, as the shell
may be accidentally found without the tube, after the death of the animal,
an error was committed in describing the shell alone as one genus, and the
tube and shell together as another, namely, Fistulana ; an error which
Deshayes was the first to correct, and he accordingly suppresses the latter
name. Shell symmetrical, and widely gaping anteriorly, without cardinal
teeth, a ligament posteriorly, pallial impression deeply sinuated, foot small,
and secreting a byssus. The following species are found in the tertiary
strata of the United States. Gastrochcena ligula, H. C. Lea, Am, PhU.
Trans., vol. ix. 6?. larva, Conrad (Fistulana), Am, J, Sei,, 1846, p. 218.
G, elongata, Desh., Conrad, Nat. Inst, Washington,
Tribe Elatobranchia,
This tribe includes the great mass of Conchifera, after separating the
preceding one. With very few exceptions, the Inclusa have two adductor
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MOLLUSCA. 61
muscles, and although the same character is possessed by most of the
Elatobranchia, a large portion of them have but one, so that, the whole are
divided by this character into two sections, thus :
§ Monomyaria, with one adductor muscle.
§§ Dimyaria, with two adductor muscles.
This character, although of much importance, is not applicable in every
case, because a classification that would adhere to it strictly, would
sometimes unite dissimilar groups and separate allied ones, as far as the
other characters are concerned. The first section includes the five
families : 1. Anomiidae ; 2. Placunidae ; 3. Ostreidae ; 4. Pectinid» ; 5.
Aviculidae.
Fam, 1. AnomiidcB. The genus Anomia has a principal central adductor
muscle, but besides this it has two approximate, one passing towards the
perforation at the apex of the smaller (and in position the lower) valve,
where it is attached to a shelly plug, shaped like a short, flat-headed rivet,
and inserted in the aperture, its exterior flattened surface being attached to
extraneous bodies. The ovary terminates between the membranes of the
mantle upon the right side, where the eggs are stored before they are
ejected, an anomaly presented by no other conchifer, but which, with some
other characters, indicates an afiinity with Brachiopoda. On thi^ account
Deshayes thinks that this family forms a distinct group, which should stand
between the Brachiopoda and the Conchifera. In Anomia the margins of
the mantle are entirely disunited ; the shell is very irregular, orbicular, the
free or larger valve convex, and the lower one concave or flat, and taking
the form of extraneous bodies, to which it is attached. This causes the
shell to oflfer many varieties, and the species to be of difficult determination.
The aperture in the perforated valve is only a deep sinus, narrowed at the
margin, with the shell projecting upon one side, and forming an ossiculum
with a flattened surface of articulation, which enters and is attached to the
concavity of the opposite valve by an internal ligament. This family is
allied to the next by Broderip's genus, Placunanomia, which has a notch in
the side of the lower valve, presenting an analogy with that in Pedum, a
genus of Pectinid®.
Fam. 2. Placunidce. This family is represented by the genus Placuna,
the shell of which (the only part known) is allied to Anomia and Ostrea.
It is imperforate, free, inclined to circular, thin, and foliaceous in texture,
translucent, and the valves are so flat that but little room is left for the
animal, which must consequently be very thin. In one valve there is a V-
shaped tooth, and in the other a corresponding depression ; ligament marginal.
This and the preceding family are by some included in the Ostreidae.
Fam. 3. OstreicUs. The genus Ostrea {pL 76, ßg, 25, O. cristigalli)
well known as an article of food, is widely distributed in various parts of
the world, and has been in request from a remote period. The shell is
inequivalve and irregular, the ligament partly internal and partly external,
and the left and larger valve is usually attached to extraneous bodies. On
the western coast of Africa, where the branches of certain aquatic trees
bang in the water at high tide, the oysters affix themselves to these
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62 ZOOLOGY.
branches, where they may be seen suspended at low tide. There are four
lanceolate labial palpi; and the branchisB, two upon each side, are
conspicuous objects when the shell is opened. The very large liver is
recognised by its dark color, which causes it to be indistinctly seen through
the translucent integuments. There is no appearance of a rudimentary
foot, but eyes have been detected.
The ancient Romans were very fond of oysters, and soon discovered
those of Britain to be superior to their own, and imported them in winter
packed in snow, and in such a manner as to prevent the valves from
opening, a mode still practised when oysters are to be transported a
considerable distance. Previous to this period Sergius Aurata had invented
and practised the art of breeding oysters in artificial beds, turning his art to
great profit. This is still practised in the Mediterranean, where ponds are
used, into which the sea enters at high tide. About Naples oysters attach
themselves to sticks, and here numerous poles are stuck into the bottom,
and when the oysters which become affixed to them have acquired a
sufficient size to be taken, they are collected by withdrawing the poles.
Oysters attain a marketable size in four or five years, although not yet fully
grown, large individuals being considered less delicate than those of a
medium size. Those are most highly esteemed which have grown in the
mouths of rivers, where the water is less saline, and it is probable that their
food varies according to the locality. Oysters feed upon infusoria; and
when certain green kinds are abundant, they impart a green color to the
animal, a color which is often incorrectly attributed to some mineral
substance. The extent to which oysters are consumed would exterminate
them in accessible localities were they not veiy prolific. A single oyster
may eject 50,000 or 60,000 eggs in a year, commencing in the spring and
continuing through the summer.
Deshayes does not think the genera Gryphced, Lamarck, and Exogyra,
Say, are sufficiently distinct from Ostrea ; whilst Von Buch, the celebrated
geologist, insists that they are founded upon good characters. The former
author is inclined to look for variations in the soft parts of allied genera,
although in such the shell usually presents the more prominent generic and
specific characters. Variations in the shell are as important among the
Mollusca as in the teeth and horns of the Mammalia, or the bill and feathers
of birds ; and, although a species may be found which associates it with two
genera, this is not sufficient evidence that the two should be united.
According to Deshayes, Ostrea passes by insensible gradations into
Exogyra, and this, by equally gradual steps, returns to Ostrea, so that in
his opinion the species of the three form but one natural genus.
Fam. 4. PectinidcB. In Pecten {pL 76, figs. 27 to 29), the chief genus
of the family, the shell is regular, toothless, inequivalve, eared at the hinge
margin; ligament entirely internal, and placed in a triangular depression ;
surface often covered with ribs. Mouth with deeply cut lips and a pair of
palpi on each side ; mantle disunited, margin with numerous cilia, having
eyes between them ; branchiae sub-divided into separate parallel filaments ;
foot small and dilated, a byssus sometimes present The genus Pecten is
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widely distributed in a recent and fossil state, and is not confined to any
particular country or climate.
These shells are free, and live upon a surface of mud or sand, from a
trifling depth to twenty fathoms, and they are fished up as an article of food.
They present several distinct forms, and many of them possess great beauty.
Pecten pleuronectes is named after the generic name of the flounder,
because one side is dark colored, and the other white. P. jacobaeus was
formerly worn by pilgrims who had visited the Holy Land. P. quinque-
costatus occurs fossil in the cretaceous deposits of Europe and America,
and there are numerous species belonging to the tertiary formations of the
United States. Lima, a genus of free shells, is allied to Pecten.
Spondylus {pL 76, ßg. 35) is a genus of attached, rough or spiny, and
usually heavy and finely colored shells, allied to Pecten and Ostrea. There
are two strong teeth in each valve, and a depression for the ligament.
Hinnites is allied to Pecten and Spondylus, and possesses the peculiarity of
being free until it attains a certain size, when it becomes permanently aflSxed.
Fam. 5. AviculidcB, This family includes the shells fron> which most of
the pearls of commerce are obtained. They are allied to the two preceding
families, and most of the genera are byssiferous, with pearly shells. The large
well known shell {pL 76, fig. 20), which sometimes attains a size of ten
inches, produces the finest oriental pearls, as well as most of the mother-of-
pearl which is used in the arts. It forms the genus Mekagrina, Lamarck,
although it is now considered not to be distinct from Avicula, and it is thero
fore named jimctt/amar^anVi/era, Linn. It inhabits the Indian seas. Avicula,
according to the celebrated anatomist Poli, has the mantle unclosed, and
firinged with tentacular appendages. The foot is small and secretes a byssus.
The genus Malleus (ilf. malleus, Linn., pi 76, fig, 26) is remarkable for
having the hinge margin extended in some species in the antero-posterior
direction. The shell is very irregular, the foot secretes a byssus, and the
mantle has a fringe of small tentacles. Pema {fig. 30) has an irregular
shell, hinge straight, with a row of transverse furrows for the insertion of
the ligament. The byssus passes through a gaping vacancy in the front
of the shell. The genera Malleus, Pema, Vulsella, Crenatula, Catillus
Inoceramus, and some others, are placed by some authors in a distinct
family, Malleidce.
Pearls are secreted upon the inside of the shell, or in folds of the mantle,
the latter being the most regular ; and as their quality depends upon that
of the nacre, those shells which have this of a fine quality produce the best
pearls. The pearls of common oysters are rough concretions of no
commercial value, and similar concretions are sometimes formed by univalve
species, the mantle of which has, of course, the power of secreting the
calcareous matter of the shell. Although pearls are formed out of the same
material as the shell, a bead turned out of the latter has not their peculiar
lustre, because the arrangement of the material is diflerent, the successive
layers being plane in the shell and spherical in the pearl. On this account
shaping an irregular pearl does not alter its lustre. Irregular pearls are
sometimes worn without being shaped, when the form is agreeable. Pear-
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shaped ones have a proper form for ear-jewels, and are highly esteemed.
Being composed of carbonate of lime and albumen, pearls are subject to be
soiled by the acid in sweat.
Artificial pearls, with a perfect lustre, are made by lining bubbles of very
thin glass with the silvery material which lines the scales of freshwater fish,
of the genus Leuciscus. This is introduced in suspension, in a liquid, and
when dry, wax is introduced to give strength and solidity.
Pearl fisheries are conducted at many places in various parts of the
world, but the chief are in the east. Among the most important are
those of the Persian Gulf, and the coasts of Coromandel, Ceylon, and
Japan. The Persian Gulf has been a favorite locality from a remote period.
Panama and the coast of Columbia were good localities formerly. A round
and perfect pearl, as large as a pigeon's egg, belonging to Philip II. of Spain,
and worth • 150,000, was taken at the Island of St. Margarita, on the north
coast of South America ; and Tavernier bought one from Catifa, in Arabia
(an ancient locality), for £110,000.
About $450,000 are annually produced by the fisheries at the Bahrein
Islands in the Persian Gulf, which are fished in June and July. At Ceylon
the fishing extends from February to the beginning of April, but the fishing
days rarely exceed thirty, from many causes. There are various holidays
kept by the members of diflferent castes and religions among the divers. A
black race from the coast of India profess the Catholic faith, and do not
fish on Sunday ; and other days are kept as holidays by the heterogeneous
population. Storms also interfere with the fishing.
The beds of pearl shells lie at a depth of six or eight fathoms, and the
fishing is done by divers who are able to remain under water from a
minute to a minute and a half, or even longer. Indeed, the earlier writers
upon the subject assert that a diver might remain submerged one fourth
or half an hour, but this is an exaggeration.
Pearls from freshwater mussels were sent from Perth to Liondon between
the years 1761 and 1764, to the amount of £10,000, but the fisheries were
soon exhausted. A pearl weighing thirty-three grains was taken at this
locality. The price of these pearls varied from ten to thirty-six shillings
an ounce.
The pearl fisheries of Ceylon formerly employed 50,000 or 60,000 men at
sea or on shore. Captain Percival, in his account of the island, describes the
mode of proceeding. The shore, deserted at other times, presents during
the fishing season a busy scene made up of people of various colors
and countries; fishers, merchants, brokers, jewellers, speculators in shells
before they are opened, and conjurors who are well paid to perform incan-
tations to prevent the sharks from attacking the divers. The chief locality
is oflf the coast of Condatchy, twenty miles at sea. The right of fishing is
sold every season by the government to the highest bidder for each of the
localities into which the bank is divided, and the purchaser is generally a
black merchant. The same spot is not allowed to be fished again for three
or four years, and the shell is supposed to arrive at maturity in seven years.
At the firing of a signal gun at ten o'clock at night, the fleet of boats
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sets out with the land-breeze, reaching the banks in time to commence
fishing at sunrise, and starting on its return with the sea-breeze about
noon. A gun is fired when the fleet is seen from the shore, to acquaint the
owners with the fact. The shells are placed upon mats in pits, and buried
until the animal is rotted and become dry, when the shells are easily opened
and the pearls readily found.
Each boat has twenty men and a pilot. Of these ten are divers and ten
boatmen, who row and assist the divers. Five dive at a time, and when
these come up the other five go down, which gives them time to recover
for each successive dive. The boat has five stones, of which each diver
takes one to accelerate his descent, and this is attached to a distinct rope,
to be drawn up at leisure. These men use their toes with great facility in
picking up small objects from the ground, and when one of them is ready to
descend he catches the rope which holds the stone with the toes of the right
foot, his network bag with those of the left, and the rope which is to draw
him up with his right hand, the other hand being employed to close his
nostrils. When he reaches the bottom the bag is hung round his neck, and
he commences filling it as rapidly as possible, returning in the course of
about two minutes, first making a signal with the rope in his right hand. A
diver may make forty or fifty plunges in a day, and bring up one hundred
shells each time. This takes place in water from thirty to fifty feet deep ;
and as the pressure must diminish the volume of air in the lungs, the water
must enter the nostrils to a greater or less distance. In consequence of
this, when the diver emerges, water, and often blood, are discharged from the
mouth, nostrils, and ears. Captain Percival states further, that there are
divers who can remain under water four or five, and in one case six
minutes. Some oiled their bodies and stuflfed their ears and nostrils before
descending, but this practice was not general.
The Greek divers were celebrated in ancient times, and they seem to
have preserved their skill up to the present day. Like those of the Indian
seas, they are taught to dive from childhood. Dr. Lefevre, a French navy
surgeon, gives an interesting account of them, having been present wheu
they were employed in recovering property from the vessels sunk at the
battle of Navarino. The water was from one hundred to one hundred and
twenty feet deep, and yet the divers not only reached the outside of the
vessels, tearing oflT the copper, &c., but they entered the hold and brought
out small objects, such as pistols, Turkish pipes, &c. When ready to
descend, the Greeks seat themselves upon the edge of the boat, with their
elbows upon their knees, and breathe rapidly with short inspirations, making
the sign of the cross at intervals. Finally, they take a deep inspiration,
and plunge headforemost, having a small rope attached to the thumb of the
right hand, by which they may be drawn up when they dive deep.
Dr. Lefevre, at three diflTerent times, carefully noted the time that the
divers remained under water, and with the following result : Out of
fourteen divers, the shortest period of submersion was fifty seconds ; two
remained sixty-five ; among the longest, two remained under ninety,
one ninety-four, one ninety-five, and one ninety-eight, the average being
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seventy-six seconds. When the divers emerge, the face is strongly injected,
and they often bleed freely from the nose, and sometimes from the ears and
eyes. They dive three or four times in an hour, and upon emerging, they
put on thick woollen cloaks. The sea is sufficiently clear to enable divers
to see objects at the depth to which they go.
The Phocidfie (seals) remain fifteen minutes under water, having not only
large lungs, but an adapting peculiarity in the circulation. In a state of
inaction they can remain much longer, and when on land as much as two
minutes sometimes elapses between each inspiration. According to
Frederic Cuvier, the seals in the Paris collection sometimes slept with the
head under water for an hour at a time, a period which exceeds that of a
harpooned whale. In the case of the whale, however, there is great
muscular action, which requires more oxygen than a state of repose
demands.
§§ Dimyaria.
The second section, Dimyaria, of the tribe Elatobranchia, includes the
two sub-sections, *Mytilacea and **Cardiacea, the first of which includes
the four families, 1. Mytilidee ; 2. Arcidee ; 3. Unionidae ; 4. Carditidae.
Fam, I. MytilidcB. This family includes the genera Mytilus {pL 76,
fig, 22) and several allied genera, and Pinna (figs. 18, 19). These
animals have a linguiform foot, which secretes a byssus by which they are
attached to rocks, the byssus being at first applied by the foot. The shell
is equivalve, but very inequilateral, so that the umbones or beaks, which are
usually situated about the middle of the back, are here placed at or near
the anterior extremity of the shell. In Mytilus the lobes of the mantle are
disunited, except at a single point posteriorly, which separates the anal
siphon. The anterior adductor muscle is much smaller than the posterior
one. Lithodomus is a sub-cylindrical bivalve, which, in its young state, is
suspended to rocks by a byssus ; but it subsequently perforates the rocks,
and lives in a cavity but little larger than the shell, and then the byssus
disappears.
The genus Mytilus is used for food, under the name of mussel. Mytilus
chores, which is found at Chiloe and other parts of the western coast of
South America, attains a length of seven or eight inches ; and as the animal
is as large as the egg of a goose, and of a fine flavor, it is much esteemed.
The favorite mode of cooking it is to make a fire upon flat stones in a pit,
and when these are sufficiently heated, the fire and ashes are removed and
the shell-fish deposited, and covered, first with leaves, &c., and then with
clay. This mode of cooking is practised on the coast of Australia, and in
the islands of the Pacific.
The common mussel, Mytilus edulis, is easily taken, as it lives in shallow
water, and even between high and low water, upon both sides of the north
Atlantic. The shell is smooth, and of a blue or violet color. This species
is poisonous to some constitutions, perhaps one in a hundred, and it is
possible that this quality depends somewhat upon the season. An emetic,
followed by castor oil, is recommended when bad symptoms arise from
eating this shell-fish. The symptoms appear in one or two hours, and they
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are either internal inflammation, eruption, or resembling a catarrh or
asthma, sometimes terminating fatally.
The genus Pinna has a somewhat triangular sl>pll, pointed anteriorly, and
it includes several species which attain to a great size, as P. rtidis
(pL 76, ßg. 19), which is a foot and a half long. The byssus of several
species is fine and silky, and six inches or more in length. It is manufac«
tured at Palermo and parts of Italy into gloves, stockings, and other small
articles of dress, which are expensive, and kept as curiosities. The mollusc
is eaten, and it produces small amber colored pearls.
From a remote period various fables have been current about the pinna
and certain small crabs which are found in the shell, as in mussels,
oysters, and other shell-fish. When the pinna opens its shell, the cuttle-
fish, it is said, " rushes upon her like a lion, and would always devour her
but for another animal whom she protects in her shell, and from whom in
return she receives very important services." When the crab goes out and
sees the cuttle-fish approaching, it "returns with the utmost speed and
anxiety" to the pinna, " who, being thus warned of the danger, shuts her
doors and keeps out the enemy." Pliny's story has been often repeated,
according to which small fishes enter the shell to feast upon the animal,
which does not regard their nibbles until the pinnoteres or pinnophylax
gives it a bite, which causes it to close the shell, and thus to kill the fish,
some of which is given to the crab as a reward for its watchfulness. Even
in the present day similar fables are still recorded by careless compilers.
Fam, 2. ArcidcB, The genus Area (pi. 76, ßgs. 31, 32) has a byssus in
some species ; the foot is split, the mantle is open, and the anomaly of two
hearts is presented. The hinge margin has a row of numerous teeth, which
fit between those of the opposite valve. The shell is rather thick, elongated,
oblique, and has the beaks distant. Some species, as A. tortuosa, are
curiously curved. In Pectunculus the shell is more nearly circular in
outline, and the line of the teeth partakes of the curvature of the shell. In
Nucula the lines of the teeth before and behind the beaks form an angle
with each other.
The tertiary beds of the United States contain about thirty described
species of Area, and about the same number of Pectunculus. The genus
Trigonia is by some authors made the representative of a distinct family,
which is objectexl to by Deshayes and Agassiz. A single living species, T.
pectinata, inhabits the seas of Australia. The fossil species are numerous,
and extend from the Lias to the Cretaceous group. A single tertiary
species occurs in Bolivia. The genus has been illustrated in a masterly
manner by Agassiz in his Etudes critiques sur les Mollusques fossiles:
Neuchatel, 1840. Trigonia thoracica (Morton's Synopsis, &c. p. 65,
pi. 15, fig. 13) is from the cretaceous formation of the United States.
Fam. 3. UnionidcB, To this family the name of Nayades was given by
Lamarck, but it is now usually restricted to an order of plants. It includes
the greater part of the freshwater bivalve shells, which are so abundant in
the waters of the United States, where they surpass, in number and variety
of species, those of any other country. They usually live in sand or mud,
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ploughing furrows in their course, the ventral half of the shell being generally
sunk in the bottom, which gives it a vertical position. Some inhabit gravel
bars ; and as it is difficult for them to progress through such an unyielding
material, these species seldom change their place. A few species, as the
genus Mycetopus, live in perforations made apparently with the foot, which
has a peculiar development. The species of Unio, when left dry by the
fall of the rivers, bury themselves in the moist sand. Unio (Truncilla)
triqueter, a shell much likepL 76, fig. 38, where we have observed it in the
Ohio, does not take the more or less horizontal position of those like
pi. 76, figs. 21, 47, but the anterior extremity is sunk diagonally into the
mud or gravel, so as to bring the posterior truncation level with the
bottom.
The shell is composed of nacre, and varies from little more than the
thickness of paper to half an inch, or more, according to the species. It is
covered with a periostraca, usually colored with various tints of yellow,
green, or brown, sometimes ornamented with markings or radiating lines
of a different color, among which green upon a yellowish ground is the
most frequent. The surface is plain, as in the species inhabiting the rivers
of the Atlantic coast of the United States, or with undulations or knotty
projections, as in those of the tributaries of the Mississippi. Two species,
Unio spinosus, Lea, from Georgia, and U. coHinus, Conrad, from Virginia,
have a few spines upon the shell. The beaks, being the oldest part, and
the most exposed to the action of abrading agents, are subject to be worn
off, and to such an extent that the younger portion in some cases disappears,
and is replaced by successive secretions of shelly matter from the mantle.
This renders it difficult to refer young and old shells to the same species.
On this account no cabinet can be deemed complete without series
indicating the gradual changes and variations in size, and other charac-
teristics to which individual species are subject.
The variation in external character is extremely great in this family,
where the same species will, in some instances, vary more than distinct
species, which present more uniform characteristics. The variations of
Unio complanatus (one of which is well represented in pi. 76, fig. 47) are
so great that not less than fifty specimens are required to illustrate it
properly.
The Unionidae inhabit the rivers and ponds in Europe, Asia, Africa,
Australia, both Americas, and particularly those of the United States.
Their distribution here has not been as thoroughly studied as it deserves to
be, but the following facts may be stated: The species inhabiting the
rivers of the Atlantic coast (excepting U. viridis, which is found in
Kentucky, and U. cariosus, which has been taken in White River, Indiana)
do not occur in the tributaries of the Mississippi. A few western species,
as U. alatus, siliquoideus, ventricosus, and pressus, have found their way
through New York, as far east as Lake Champlain. U. rectus is found on
the southern border of Lake Superior, in Lake Champlain, the Ohio and
Alabama rivers, presenting a wide range. U. complanatus, although it
seems not to be found in the tributaries of the Mississippi, occurs in some
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of the streams of the southern shore of Lake Superior, and thus belongs to
the basin of the St. Lawrence : it is found in Maine, and probably in every
river as far south as the Savannah. Species are found in east Tennessee, as
U. intermedins and subtentus, which are not found in Kentucky or the
States on the south ; and Louisiana has species not found beyond its limits.
Unio plicatus and siliquoideus (the latter found in Lake Champlain, and the
former above Pittsburgh, and in Grand river, Michigan) are found as far
towards the southwest as San Antonio in southern Texas. U. lanceolatus
has no greater range than from Tar river, in North Carolina, to the James
and Rappahannoc in Virginia ; and U. collinus, subplanus, and constrictus,
seem not to extend beyond James river.
The following table exhibits the distribution of some of the species of the
Atlantic rivers, from the Connecticut to the James. Asterisks under the name
of a river denote the presence of a species in it, and dots indicate where
it has not been found. The three first on the list extend into Maine :
Connecticut, Hudson, Delaware, Susquehanna, Potomac, James.
U.complanatus, ### *** *** #*# •** **#
radiatus,
ochraceus,
cariosus.
heterodon,
nasutus,
viridis,
**# ##* *#* #*« *#* •••
### *## ##* ••• *## *«*
#•* *#* •** ** #«* ***
#*# ••• ##* ••• #** •••
*«« *## ##* ••• **# ***
••• ### *#* #•* *«* *•#
The Unionidae admit of being divided into three sub-families : Unionince,
IridinincB, and Etheriince,
Sub'fam, I. ünionince. The labial palpi are four; the foot is large and
linguiform ; the mantle is not united, and the posterior siphons are not tubular,
being formed by the mere contact of its posterior margin on each side, but
leaving two openings. The extremity scarcely extends beyond the shell ; it
is papillate, and provided with eyes which have the power of distinguishing
light from darkness, as the siphons are suddenly withdrawn when a shadow
is cast upon them. Some genera of this sub-family present no distinctive
characters by which an Unio or an Anodonta, &c., can be distinguished
without the shell, and on this account some authors insist that a character
is worthless in the shell if unaccompanied by some distinction of the soft
parts ; and forgetting that the shell is part of the animal as the bill is part
of a bird, they insist upon having two characters instead of one.
In the genus Unio there are two cardinal teeth in each valve anteriorly,
and a lamellar tooth posteriorly in the right valve, fitting between two in the
left one.
Anodonta has the hinge margin without teeth, and the shell is usually
thin in texture.
Alasmodonta has cardinal teeth, but no lamellar teeth. Say founded this
genus in 1818, and it was named Margaritana by Schumacher, in a work,
the title-page of which bears the date of 1817. " The priority of this date
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would lead me to adopt the name given by that author, did it not appear
that the work was not published for several years after it was printed.
It was not known to the naturalists of this country, France, Grermany, or
England, until the year 1824." (Say's Am. Conchology.) Swainson uses
both names, restricting Schumacher's to the Margaritifera {pi, 76,ßg. 47)
of Europe, and Say's to the form A. undulata.
StrophiluSy Rafinesque, 1820 (Pseudodon, Gould, 1844, Proceed. Bost
Soc. p. 160, with four species) has a small swelling instead of regular
cardinal teeth, and the soft parts differ in having the young, after they leave
the ovaries, deposited transversely in the exterior branchiae, instead of being
in vertical folds, as in most of the species. In Diplasma of the same
author, founded on some shells from Hindostan, there are anterior as well
as posterior lamellar teeth, and these are double in the right valve anterioriy,
and in the left posteriorly.
Rafinesque, in the "Continuation" of his Monograph of the Bivalve
Shells of the river Ohio, institutes a genus, Loncosilla, for a solenoid sheU,
brought by Dr. Burrough from the river Jellinghy, in Bengal. Rafinesque
considered it to be allied to Anodonta, on account of its fluviatile habits,
but the characters of the shell are such as to induce us to coincide with
Dr. Burrough in believing it to be essentially a solen. The shell is less
than an inch long, "somewhat swelled, both ends rounded, and a little
gaping, back horizontal ; outside and inside smooth and whitish."
Lamarck considered these mollusca to be hermaphrodite ; and the
dissections of competent anatomists, such as Neuwyler and Van Beneden,
confirm this view.
Dr. J. P. Kirtland of Cleveland, well known as a successful cultivator of
natural science, announced, in the twenty-sixth volume of Silliman's
Journal, his ability to distinguish the sexes by the shell alone in this sub-
family. It is well known that the shells of many (although not all) species
present individuals which are more full at the base posteriorly, and these
were assumed to be females, the enlargement of the shell being, as it was
thought, required for the gravid branchiae. Some species, as Unio viridis,
may be gravid without exhibiting any change of external form. If some
individuals remain barren, and others prolific through a course of
years, it is possible that the weight of the gravid branchiae may cause the
soft parts to descend and bring with them the shell-secreting mantle, which
may account for the enlargement without recourse to the theory of separate
sexes, which are not found in the allied families. But this explanation will
hardly account for the second form in Unio velum or U. flexuosus, or for
the extraordinary transverse diameter (as in Unio siliquoideus) which is
sometimes assumed in addition to the more common posterior enlargement
Dr. Kirtland has discovered the presence of a line which he compares to
a byssus (Silliman's Jour., 1840, vol. xxxix. p. 166), by which the young of
various species of Unio attach themselves to extraneous objects, a character
which indicates an affinity with the Arcidae and M ytilidae, with which they
have other affinities.
The genus Caslalia, from the rivers of South America, is allied to Area
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and Trigonia in form, and to the latter by some affinity in the teeth. It was
placed next to Trigonia by Lamarck, but an examination of the mollusc
shows that it is allied to Unio, and the same remark applies to Hyria. The
propriety of making a single genus of all these is doubtful, genera being thus
made to depend upon the number of species, because the more numerous
these are, the more links will there be between dissimilar forms. If Castalia
and Unio were distinct genera when the number of species was small, they
are still distinct, and the generic basis established by Deshayes in malacology
and Temminck in ornithology untenable. (Desh. in Lam. Animaux sans
Vert^bres, 6,523.) Some might extend these views to species, and deny
specific distinctions in those genera which have many species, and this has
been done by Lamarck in Cerithium, but he is consistent in extending his
views to specie^n general.
Some have gone so far as to assert that the family of Unionidae contains
not only a single genus but a single species. Without inquiring how the
term species is to be limited, we feel confident that most of the Uniones can
be determined specifically, as well as most genera of conchifera. The
spines of Unio spinosus and U. collinus are often lost with age, and yet
there is no difficulty in distinguishing them. U. trapezoides was confounded
by Lamarck with one or two other species, yet no great knowledge is requisite
to distinguish it. Deshayes doubts the distinctness of Unio lanceolatus, yet a
very slight examination is sufficient to show that it is different from all
others. Unio subtentus, viridis, cylindricus, heterodon, and a host besides
without prominent characters, can always be distinguished.
Siib'fam, 2. Iridinince, This sub-family contains some shells which have a
great resemblance to Anodonta, and others which have teeth upon the hinge
margin much as in Area, and which are represented by the transverse
elevations upon the teeth of Castalia. Iridina is generally elongated, and
differs from the Unioninae in having the mantle closed posteriorly, the
siphons tubular, short, unequal, and without the retractor muscles of the
marine genera with long siphons. Iridina blainvilliana, Lea (Anodonta or
Columba, Am. Phil. Tr. v. 77, fig. 36) may be an exception, because the
unusual curve in the pallial impression indicates a considerable power to
retract the siphons.
The genus Iridina was established by Lamarck upon I. exotica (also
named nilotica and elongata) in which the hinge is smooth, but acquires
granulations with age, when it conforms to Lamarck's characters. It is
also named Spatha, Lea, 1837, and Calliscapha, Swainson, 1840.
The genus Pleiodon was founded by Conrad, in 1834 (J. Acad. Nat. Sei.,
vol. vii. p. 178, pi. 13, P. ovata^ Swainson), for a shell from Liberia in which
the teeth " are alternately inserted, a generic character widely differing from
Iridina, which is simply crenulated or tuberculated on the margin of the
hinge." The teeth are further compared with those of Area and Nucula.
In a specimen now before us there is a flat internal ligament at the anterior
internal extremity of the teeth.
Sub'fam, 3. Etheriince. The genus Etheria presents an irregular and very
variable sheU, without teeth, and somewhat resembling that of Ostrea, and
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although it is attached (indifferently by either valve), it is provided with a large
foot. Before the mollusc was known, it was placed near Chama, but its affinities
are with the Unionidae ; it resembles Iridina in having the extremity of the
branchiae united by a small connexion forming the superior siphon. The shell
is nacreous, covered with a periostraca, and formed like some species of Ostrea,
with laminated cavities, which are so large that the shell is proportionally
lighter than that of any other species. They inhabit the Nile from the first
cataract upwards, and the Senegal two hundred leagues from its mouth ; and
Dr. Goheen brought several imperfect specimens from the upper St. Paul's
in Liberia, several hundred miles from the sea. Several species are known.
The genus Mulleria is said to be founded upon young specimens of Etheria.
Fam, 5. CarditidcB. In Cardita the mantle is united for a short space
posteriorly, forming a short anal siphon. It has three or f<yr pair of trun-
cated palpi ; the shell is suborbicular or transverse, generally ribbed, and
the two cardinal teeth are oblique. This genus occurs plentifully in a fossil
state.
** Cardiacea,
The sub-section Cardiacea of the section Dimyaria contains the families :
1, Chamidae; 2, Tridacnidae; 3, Cardiidae ; 4, Cycladidae; 5, Tellinidae ; 6,
Lucinidae ; 7, Veneridae ; 8, Crassatellidae. In these the mantle is closed
posteriorly, and the siphons are united or distinct.
Fam, 1. ChamidcB. This family includes Chama, Diceras (somewhat
doubtful as a distinct genus), and Cleidothaerus. In Chama the shell is
irregular, spinous or rough, and attached, with the valves unequal and the
umbones involute. The hinge has an oblique stout tooth fitting into an
opposite cavity. * The species present many varieties, chiefly from taking
the form of the bodies to which they affix themselves. Cleidothaerus
resembles Chama, but is remarkable for having an internal accessory piece
held by a portion of the ligament.
Fam. 2. TridacnidcB. This family is represented by the genus Tridacna,
which includes the largest species bf shell known, Tridacna gigas {pi. 76,
fig, 33). The position of the animal in the shell differs from that of most
bivalves, as the foot passes through an opening in the lunule upon the closed
or hinge margin of the shell ; to effect which the position of the animal is
changed so as to bring the open foot of the mantle above. The mantle is
nearly closed, leaving a small anal aperture, a large branchial one, and a
third corresponding to the lunule, for the foot, which is large and byssiferous.
The anterior adductor muscle is obsolete, or confounded with the large
posterior one, the two being very close together, forming a single
impression.
The shell of Tridacna gigas is said to attain a length of three or four
feet, and a weight of 300 pounds. The French name them beniliers, from
the use made of them in the Catholic churches to contain holy water. The
significant name of the genus was applied by the ancients to certain
oriental oysters, which were so large as to require three bites in eating them.
The mollusc of Hippopus resembles that of Tridacna ; and although the
shell has no opening, this part varies much in size among the species of
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Tridacna, so that the two genera are now usually united. It may be
remarked that the lunule of Hippopus is not entirely closed.
Fam. 3. Cardiidce. In this family the siphons are very short. In
Cardium (C echinatum, pL 76, fig. 42) the foot is long, slender, and bent
forwards at an angle in the middle, and with the aid of it the mollusc can
leap with considerable force. The species live buried in sand and mud
Cardium edule is eaten extensively in Europe. It is so abundant in the
North Sea that shiploads are raked up and taken to Holland and other
places to be burnt into lime, and a good locality will furnish 200 or 800
cargoes. Hemicardium cardissa (pi, 76, fig. 41).
Isocardia (I. cor., pi. 76, fig. 34) has a subglobular shell, with the promi-
nent umbones curved or contorted. The species figured inhabits the Medi-
terranean and the coast of Ireland.
Fam. 4. . CycladidcB. This family includes certain freshwater genera
which have a general resemblance to marine forms, as Cardium, Tellina, and
Venus. They have generally a smooth olivaceous periostraca.
Cyclas {pi, 46, fig. 43) is a genus of small subglobular shells from one
eighth to one half an inch or more in size, inhabiting ponds and streams,
sometimes upon the bottom and sometimes beneath it. The foot is long and
tongue-shaped, the mouth closed posteriorly, and there are two retractile
siphons. Besides the small diverging cardinal teeth, there are short anterior
and posterior lamellar teeth. When kept in vessels of water, it is said that
they can traverse the surface with the aid of the foot, the body being sus-
pended beneath.
Pisidium is allied to Cyclas, but it is more wedge-shaped, and there is
but one siphon. P. dubium, Say (Cyclas) Gould, Invert, of Mass. p. 75,
fig. 56 ; P. abditum, Hald., 1841 ; Proc. Acad. N. S. i. 53, has a strap-
shaped foot covered with vibrillae, and considerably longer than the shell ;
and it can be extended, attached, and the body drawn up. The animal
advances in this manner over the bottom of a smooth dish, being sometimes
vertical and sometimes throwing itself upon one or the other side. The
longer or wedge-shaped end of the shell goes foremost and is anterior ; and
although the foot is chiefly extended in this direction, it can be turned back-
wards, and indeed, its flexibility is such as to allow it to be extended in any
direction. The shell is one eighth of an inch long, pale yellow, the lines of
growth very fine, the cardinal teeth indistinct, and the lamellar teeth robust.
Lives in springs beneath the mud. The siphon is scarcely protruded
beyond the margin of the shell, as it is in most species of Cyclas. Imma-
ture young are found within them, as in Cyclas.
Cyrena is a genus containing much larger and heavier shells than Cyclas,
and chiefly confined to the fresh waters of warm climates. Cyrena
carolinensis and Rangia cyrenoides (or Gnathodon cuneatus) are found in
the southern United States both recent and fossil. The latter has some
affinities with Mactra.
Megadesma is represented by a single species (reclusa, Chemnitz;
paradoxa, Born ; radiata, Lamarck), about three inches long, thick in
texture, of a triangular form, green with violet rays, the inside white
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74 ZOOLOGY.
clouded with violet, and the pallial impression curved. The older authors
placed it .under Venus and Tellina. It inhabits Junk river and other
rivers of west Africa near the mouth.*
Glaucomya of Gray belongs here. Mr. Cuming found it living in the
fresh waters of the Philippines, and it occurs fossil in the freshwater forma-
tions of Paris. It was at first confounded with Venus.
Fam, 5. TellinidcB (also named Nymphacea). In this family the cardinal
and accessory teeth are well developed, the shells are seldom covered with
a periostraca, the mantle is margined with very sensitive tentacular
appendages, and closed posteriorly, the siphons are exserted, and the pallial
impression has a deep sinus.
Donax {pi. 76, ßgs, 38, 39) has a wedge-shaped shell, truncated upon
the posterior slope, making this extremity unusually short. Some authors,
as Swainson, have mistaken the posterior for the anterior extremity,
although the short ligament and the curve in the pallial impression should
have prevented such an error. Donax is a genus of handsome and usually
small shells, abundant in individuals, and living vertically in the mud at a
trifling depth of water. A few species are found in tertiary formations.
Capsa includes shells allied to Donax, but without aacessory teeth.
Tellina {pi. 76, ßg, 44) is a genus of handsome and usually elongated
shells with a fine nacre, often polished and radiated externally, and in some
cases rough. The recent species are numerous, and there are a considerable
number of fossil species in the tertiary of Europe and America.
Blainville places Amphidesma as a section of Lucina; Latreille considers
it the representative of a family ; and Deshayes thinks it has characters
intermediate to Mactra and Tellina, to the latter of which he surmises that
the unknown animal is allied.
Fam, 6. Lucinidce. This family is sometimes united to the Tellinid».
Lucina presents some important distinguishing characters. The shell is
suborbicular, white or pale colored ; the labial palpi are absent, the branchice
of each side are united so as to appear single, although separable; the foot
is vermiform, and there is a single anal siphon capable of being turned
within itself like the finger of a glove. The branchial siphon is reduced
to a simple perforation. The genus has numerous species recent, and fossil
in the tertiary formations.
Fam, 7. Veneridce. This family contains the extensive genera Fenitf
{pi 76, fig, 36) and Cytherea {fig. 37), and also Arthemis of Poli. The
species of Venus and Cytherea being numerous, the accessory tooth which
distinguishes the latter is found more or less developed, and as it is at times
reduced to a mere vestige, Deshayes is inclined to consider the genus as
* Magadesma of Bowditch was probably published in his treatise on Conohology. It was
named G<üaOiea by Bruguidres, a name which had been already used. Sowerby called it
Potamophiki, and De Roissy Egeria^ a name which occurs three times in Entomology, being
instituted by Dumeril in 1806, Fabricins in 1808, and Desvoidy in 1830. Leach used it in
1816 in the Crustacea, and Lea in 1833 in the Mollusca. The constant use of Agassiz* impor-
tant and laborious Nomeicclator Zoologicus (containing 33,000 names of genera, &o.) can
lone prevent such confusion.
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MOLLUSCA. 75
not well fonnded. It is adopted by most concholc^ists, although rejected
by Linnaeus, Cuvier, and Blainville.
This family contains some of the most beautiful forms and finely colored
species, both in tint and pattern, among bivalve shells. There are upwards
of 150 living species, and the fossil species are also numerous, and chiefly
found in the tertiary strata. There have been about sixty tertiary species
named from the formations of the United States. Venus mercenaria is an
inhabitant of both coasts of the North Atlantic, and is used for food. In the
markets of Philadelphia it bears the name of clam, and in Boston that of
cwahog. The colored margin of the shell was used by the aborigines in
the manufacture of their wampum. Cytherea dione {pi. 76, ßg. 37) is
remarkable for its longitudinal sulcations, and the double rows of long
spines posteriorly.
Fam. 8. CmssatellidcB. This family is represented by the genus
Crassatella, the mollusc of which being unknown, its affinities are doubtful.
There are about twenty recent species known, and a considerable number
of fossil ones, chiefly tertiary, but also cretaceous. Some authors place the
genus Astarte (also called Crassina) here, but Deshayes thinks the mollusc
(which is unknown) has an affinity with Venus.
ClcLSS 2. Gastropoda,
This class includes most moUusca with univalve shells, whether spiral or
not, as well as species without a shell. The head, absent in the Acephala, is
here present ; and on «its presence Blainville's appellation of Paracephalophora
is founded, a character which is of more importance than the foot.
Order 1. Polythalamia. This, the first systematic name applied to these
animals, was proposed by Soldani, 1789. More recently they have been
studied by D'Orbigny, who is the chief authority upon them, and by
Dujardin. The original name is defective, and both these authors have
conferred French names upon them, in contempt of those rules which keep
nomenclature pure and uniform, names which are of no more account than
the German name Bauchfuszler instead of gasteropoda ; and should the
systematic name be adopted subsequently to such a vernacular one, and be
a translation of it, the author of the latter cannot be quoted for the sys-
tematic name.
These animals have been also named Foraminifera and Rhizophoda.
Their classification is difficult. Their shell bears a distant resemblance to
that of certain cephalopoda, and on this account they were for a considerable
period referred to this class. D'Orbigny considers them as a distinct class
between the Echinodermata and Zoophyta, and Dujardin regards them as
acalephae, and as allied to infusorial forms like Amiba and Difflugia. Agassiz
regards them as the lowest form of the gasteropodous mollusca, and we
place them provisionally here, although they seem to have neither head nor
foot, two important organs in this class. The apparent want of viscera
indicates a position below that of the Bryozoa, and although the locomotive
organs may be assumed as giving them a higher position, these are probably
merely a modification of the tentacles.
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76 ZOOLOGY.
These animals are microscopic, glutinous, and translucent, but tinted with
bluish, reddish, brown, or yellow, the tints being uniform in each species.
The soft parts are inclosed in a calcareous (rarely cartilaginous) shell,
fitted to the varied outline of the body, and presenting numerous variations
in form, affording characters for genera and higher groups. It has one or
more openings, or numerous pores, which allow egress to certain filaments
used as organs of locomotion. These can be extended to six times the
diameter of the body, and they recall the allied organs in the Echinodennata
and Cirrigrada. They are ramified like the branches of a tree, and have
the power of secreting calcareous matter upon the outside of the shell, in
which they resemble the extensions of the mantle in some orders. The
characteristic name Rhizopoda of authors, has been drawn from these
filaments.
The Polythalamia inhabit most seas, and they are so abundant that
D'Orblgny calculated that an ounce of sand from the Antilles contained
3,840,000 individuals. The same author informs us that these little beings
from a sixth to half a millimetre long, are more abundant than the minute
Crustacea, or the infusoria whose shields form the tripoli of commerce.
Banks are formed by them dangerous to navigation ; they obstruct bays and
straits, of which the celebrated harbor of Alexandria is an example ; and
with the coralligenous zoophyta they form reefs and islands.
In a fossil condition they are no less conspicuous. In Russia calcareous
beds are formed by a single species of Fusulina, and various species enter
largely into the composition of chalk and certain tertiary formations. They
are so abundant as in some cases to amount to 3,000,000,000 in a cubic
metre ; and the city of Paris and the surrounding towns are almost built of
them, so abundant are they in the materials used. Dr. Buckland makes
the following remarks : " Nummulites are so called from their resemblance to
a piece of money ; they vary in size from that of a crown piece [!] to
microscopic littleness, and occupy an important place in the history of fossil
shells, on account of the prodigious extent to which they are accumulated
in the later members of the secondary, and in many of the tertiary strata.
They are often piled on each other nearly in as close contact as the grains
in a heap of corn. In this state they form a considerable portion of the
entire bulk of many extensive mountains, e,g, in the tertiary limestones of
Verona and Monte Boica, and in secondary strata of the cretaceous forma-
tion in the Alps, Carpathians, and Pyrenees. Some of the pyramids and
the sphinx of Egypt are composed of limestone loaded with nummulites.
It is impossible to see such mountain masses of the remains of a single
family of shells thus added to the solid materials of the globe, without
recollecting that each individual shell once held an important place within
the body of a living animal; and thus recalling our imagination to those
distant epochs when the waters of the ocean which then covered Europe were
filled with floating swarms of these extinct molluscs, thick as the countless
myriads of Beroe and Clio horealis that now crowd the waters of the
polar seas. Lamarck, in his observations on Miliola, remarks that these
verv minute animals have had much more influence on the masses which
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MOLLUSCA. 77
compose the surface or exterior crust of our globe than the remains of
elephants, hippopotami, and whales/'
Viewing this group as a class, D'Orbigny divides it into six orders, each
of which, excepting the first, is subdivided into two families. Of the recent
species, 68 genera and 900 species are known, more than half of which
belong to the warm seas. D*Orbigny's opinion of their classification is as
follows : Though less complicated in their organization than many zoophy ta,
they have not a' common life, nor are they aggregated like them, whilst
their locomotive powers and testaceous envelope place them much higher.
On the other hand, they are in all respects less complete than the echifp-
dermata ; and judging from the radiation of their filaments, the position of
the foraminifera is in Cuvier's radiated division, between the Echinodermata
and the Zoophyta, as a distinct class.
Order 2. Pteropoda. This order takes its name from two large
expansions, one on each side anteriorly, which are analogous to the wings
of a butterfly both in appearance and action, being used in locomotion.
This order was considered by Lamarck and Cuvier to form a distinct class,
but Blainville and other distinguished naturalists are of opinion that its
contents are essentially gasteropoda. Some species, as Clio horealis ( pi, 76,
fig. 78, one inch long), are naked ; others, as Hyalcaa, are provided with a
delicate shell. These molluscs are monoicous, and swim about in the sea
without the power of creeping or attaching themselves to solid bodies.
This order \50ntains the families HyalceidcB, Clioidce, and Phillirhotdce,
In Hyalaea the branchiae are composed of pectiniform transverse laminae or
leePDes* a character which would afibrd a name for the order in consonance
with those of the allied orders, because Cuvier's name, Heteropoda, apper-
tains to the group as a class.
Fam. L Hyalceidce. The shell of Hyalaea has a delicate texture and
curious form, bearing a distant resemblance to that of Terebratula, to
which the genus was at one time referred. The shell which covers the
abdomen is translucent, subglobular, and has the appearance of a bivalve in
which the two valves unite in a single piece without a hinge. The mollusc
has two stout tentacles and two lips, and the wing-like expansions are placed
near the mouth. They live in the high seas, seldom approaching the shores,
flapping themselves along with great facility, and descending when dis-
turbed. Being extremely abundant where they occur, they are devoured
in great numbers by whales and other animals. Cleodora and Limacina
are other genera.
Fam. 2. ClioidoB. Clio has six retractile tentacles in two groups, and a
rudimentary foot. Clio borealis is abundant in the north polar regions,
where it is eaten by whales and fishes.
Fam. 3. PkiUirhotdcB. The head of Phylliroe is lengthened, and bears
two tentacles, the snout is retractile, and the body is gelatinous and trans-
parent, very much compressed laterally, and provided with a caudal fin.
According to Peron and Lesueur the branchiae are internal, and in the form
* The group which Latreille named PhyUobranchia^ had already been provided with a
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of grsnular cords, but Quoy and Gaimard couM not detect these organs.
Some authors place this family among the Caryobranchia.
Order 3. Caryobranchia. The body is gelatinous, transparent, and
capable of being enlarged by absorbing water. The head is proboscidiform ;
the foot is long, compressed, or vertical, provided with a little sucker, and
used as a fin in swimming. The animal is usually inverted in the water,
the foot being above. The branchiae are pectinated, and arranged around
a nucleus, whence ther name of the order. Some of the Heteropoda of
Lamarck belong here. The order has the additional half Latin and half
dKeek hybrid name Nucleohranckia, which is inadmissible.
Fam, L AtiantidtB, The genus Atlanta has an extremely delicate,
vitreous, transparent shell, shaped like planorbis, with the aperture trumpet-
shaped, with one side deeply excised, and having a closely fitting operculum,
of the same texture as the shell, the spire projecting from one side. The
mollusc is spiral and compressed, the foot large, compressed, and provided
with a small sucker above. Eyes two, behind the tentacles. This genus
is found far at sea, swimming with great facility, and sinking when not in
action. Deshayes thinks the fossil genus Bellerophon is allied to this genus
in its natural affinities.
Fam, 2. CarinariidcB, The shell of Carinaria is extremely delicate,
and much smaller than the animal {pL 74, ßg. 17, on the right hand below).
Its resemblance in form, and in having a single chamber, induced some
authors formerly to place it near Argonauta (pi. 76, ßg. 17) with which
the animal has no affinity. The mollusc is gelatinous, transparent, and
rough ; the eyes two, situated at the base of the tentacles. The heart and
branchiae are contained in the shell, and opposite to this is the compressed
foot (or ventral fin), the posterior extremity being provided with another
fin. The Carinarise are found at sea, and are supposed to feed upon minute
Crustacea. They can attach themselves to floating bodies with the aid of
the sucker upon the foot.
Fam, 3. PterotracheidcB. This family is allied to the preceding one, but
the tentacles and shell are wanting. The former are reduced to tubercles
(or entirely absent) with the eyes on the outside of their base. A mem-
brane supplies the place of the shell of Carinaria. Pterotrachea (also named
Firola) is the principal genus. The habits are identical with those of
Carinaria.
Fam, 4. PterosomidcB. Composed of the genus Pterosoma, in which the
body is cylindrical, surrounded horizontally with a broad marginal mem-
brane used in swimming. Neither tentacles nor branchiae were observed.
P. plana is nine centimetres long, and inhabits the sea between the
Moluccas and New Guinea.
Order 4. Gtmnobranchia (also known by the hybrid term of NudU
branchia). The members of this family are without a shell or a branchial
cavity, the oi*gans of respiration are in the form of external appendages
upon the back, and their distribution and shape afford characters for the
families. The embryonic young have a shell, and they remind us somewhat
of Atlanta. These animals are monoicous ; they have a large flat disc (x
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MOLLUSCA. 79
foot to move upon, and their food is eiüier vegetable or animal, some pre-
ferring one kind and some another.
Fam. 1. DorididcB, In this family the branchial plumes surround the
yent in the form of a flower, situated upon the upper surface towards the
posterior extremity {pi 77, figs, 16, 17). The upper part is composed of
a kind of large mantle, the jaws are corneous, the tentacles four in number,
two dorsal and two labial. The dorsal tentacles and the branchiae are
sometimes retractile. •
DorU includes many species whose brilliant coloring renders them con-
spicuous objects. The dorsal tentacles have transverse ridges variously
disposed in the different species ; the branchiae are subdivided in a regular
manner, but not uniformly in the different species. The eggs are deposited
to the number of several thousand in a ribbon-shaped mass attached by its
edge to extraneous objects, and wound in a spiral, varying from one to five
or more turns. These animals live upon stones and marine plants ; they
move very slowly, and are not much addicted to locomotion. The length
varies from about half an inch to six or seven inches.
Fam, 2. TritoniidcB. In this family there is a membranous veil or
expansion in front, above the mouth {pi 77, fig. 2) ; the branchi® are in
two longitudinal rows, and laminated, plumose, or papillate ; two dorsal
retractile tentacles. Tritonia {pi 74, fig. 20), Tethys {pi 77, fig. 2).
Fam, 3. EolididxB, " Branchiae papillose or branched, arranged on the
sides of the back ; stomach simple." (Alder and Hancock.) These authors
divide this family into two sub-families, MaHbmruB and Eolidina, to
which GlaucincB may be added. The first contains the genus Dendronotus,
of which D. arborescens, Müller, is found upon both sides of the North
Atlantic. It is beautifully figured from specimens taken at Boston, by Mr.
Couthouy, in the Bost. Jour. Nat. Hist., vol. v. Dr. Gould compares its
branchiae to some fifteen or twenty widely and numerously branched plants.
See his Invertebrata of Massachusetts, pp. 4-7, for descriptions of various
species in this order.
In Eolis the branchiae are elongated papillae resembling short cords
arranged in longitudinal rows, and sometimes so numerous as to cover the
back entirely. Eolis saimonäcea of Couthouy has about a hundred of them.
They are frequently tinted with several bright colors, when they add much
to the beauty of the various species.
Glaucus has the branchiae (which are used in swimming) in symmetrical
pairs upon each side, each being a wing-like projection, with the margin
fringed with numerous filaments. There are three or four pair, according
to the species, the anterior being the largest, and the remaining ones
becoming gradually smaller. Deshayes doubts whether these organs are
branchiae, since they are cast off by the animal when disturbed ; and
indeed Couthouy expresses the same doubt in the case of Eolis, from which
they can be cast off, and, when cut off, the animal does not seem to suffer
much. He regards them as accessory to the general surface in the operation
of oxygenating the system. The papillae in one species dissected by Alder
and Hancock contain a hepatic gland in the middle, and a circulation of
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80 ZOOLOGY.
blood towards the margin. The surface is covered with vibrill«, so that
they must be used in breathing, although the general surface may be
adapted to this function.
Fam, 4. Plachobranchidce, Founded upon the single genus Placho-
hranchus of Van Hasselt. The body has broad lateral expansions used as
swimming organs, and these, and also the back, are covered with branchial
lamellae. The expansions can be turned upwards, and their margins made
to meet over the bafk. P. ocellatus, two inches long, was found at
Java.
Order 5. Crypsibranchia (also known by the inadmissible name of
Tectibranchia), The branchiae are unsymmetrical, composed of leaves
more or less divided, and they are covered by the upturned mantle. These
animals are monoicous, and are comprised in the two families Aplysiida
and BullidcB,
Aplysia {pL 77, ßg. 18) was named lepus marinus by the ancient authors,
and many fables entered into its history. The shape is not much unlike
that of a naked snail, but the body is larger posteriorly. There are two
pair of tentacles, the anterior ones being the largest, and of such a form (in
connexion with that of the body) as to suggest the name of sea hare for the
animal. The branchiae are in a cavity protected by an operculum
containing a thin corneous body, which is a rudimentary shell, and
have their parietes composed of interlaced fibres ; they are pierced with
numerous small holes through which the blood may escape into the stomach,
and the vascular system receive the liquid products of digestion.
The species of Aplysia are found upon the coasts of continents and
islands at no great depth, some crawling upon rocks or hiding in their
. crevices ; others hiding in the mud or sand, but with the branchial siphon
exposed. Their food is marine plants or animals. The shell in the different
species varies in texture, some approaching the solid shell of Dolabellay and
the change is so gradual, that Rang, the chief authority upon these genera,
considers the latter genus merely a section of Aplysia.
Fam, 2. Bullidce. The chief genera of this family are the allied Bulla,
with the shell external ; and Bullaea with the shell internal. In Bulla (B,
physis, pi, 76, fig, 3) the tentacles are wanting, the shell is thin in texture,
subglobular, more or less completely enrolled, and having the aperture the
entire length of the shell.
Order 6. Hypobranchia (also incorrectly named Inferohranchia), This
order is named from the position of the branchiae under the margin of the
mantle. It contains three families, represented by the genera Phyllidia,
Pleurobranchus, and Umbrella.
Fam, 1. PhyllidiidcB, Diphyllidia (pi. 74, fig, 19) is oblong oval, with
a coriaceous rough integument, forming a prominent lateral border. The
branchiae surround the body, and are in the form of transverse lamellae ; there
are four tentacles, two of which are superior and retractile.
Fam. 2. Pleurobranchidce, In Pleurobranchus the branchiae resemble a
fringe formed of laminae, on each side of a medial branch placed in a groove
upon the right side between the mantle and foot. The animal is shaped
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like a slug (Limaz) or naked snail ; and it has a small internal flat thin shell,
and four tentacles.
Fam. 3. Umbrellida, This family is monoicous; the branchiae are
foliaceous, and disposed in a long line upon the right side. Umbrella has a
discoidal, external, dorsal shell, bearing some resemblance to that of a very
flat Patella ; a very large foot, and four tentacles. Some authors consider
this family as a distinct order under the name of Pomatobranchia.
Order 7. Cyclobranchia. In this order the branchiae, as the name
indicates, are arranged in a circle around the body above the foot. It
contains the two families PaiellidcB and ChitonidcB, both of which are
monoicous, and have a long tongue armed with teeth. Blainville named
this order Cervicobranchia, from an erroneous opinion that the organs
generally received as branchiae are merely membranous plaits without the
function of branchiae, which he supposed should be looked for in a sac
above the neck.
Fam, 1. PaUllidcB. The genus Patella {pi 75, figs. 76, 77, 79) has a
simple conical shell with an oval or circular base ; inside with a submar-
ginal cicatrix open in front. The shell covers the animal like an inverted
cup. The animal is monoicous, creeping slowly upon a large foot, with which
it can adhere with great tenacity to rocks. Some species seem not to move,
except perhaps at long intervals, as they are found in depressions which
they have formed in the rocks, and which correspond to the outline of the
shell.
Fam, 2. Chitonidce, The shell of Chiton {pi Iß, fig. 55) differs so
much from that of Patella, that its position among the Mollusca was for a
long time doubtful. An examination of the animals of both genera at length
proved them to belong to allied families. The shell is oval, and divided
transversely into eight pieces resting upon the back of the animal, with the
lateral portions united by a coriaceous border. Thus constructed, the Chitons
have the power of bending themselves together. The tentacles and eyes
are wanting, but the former are replaced by a veil. Their habits are similar
to those of Patella. In Chitonellus the animal is long and narrow, and the
border of the shell extends so far upon the back that the dorsal plates are
reduced to a small size.
Order 8. Aspidobranchia (also incorrectly named Scutibranchia). In
this order the shell is allied to that of Patella in form, but it is emarginate,
or perforate. The order is divided into the two families Fissurellidre and
Calyptr{Bid€B,
Fam, 1. FHssurellid€B. The shell of Fissurella, with the perforation
through the apex, bears a distant resemblance to a key-hole scutcheon, and,
excepting the perforation, resembles that of a Patella; but it is often too
small to cover the animal. The perforation admits water to the branchiae,
and allows the faecal matter to be excluded. There are two pectinated
branchiae in a cavity at the anterior part of the back ; and two tentacles,
with the eyes at their external base. Fissurella grceca {pi 75, fig. 80).
Emarginula {fig. 82) differs from Fissurella in having the aperture
which admits water to the branchiae removed to the anterior margin of the
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82 ZOOLOGT.
shell, where it forms a notch ; and the apex of the shell is directed back-
wards, whilst in Fissurella it turns forwards.
Fam, 2. CalyptrceicUß. The shell of Caljrptrsea is patelliform or trochi-
form» irregular, somewhat conical, with the apex rather posterior. Towards
the apex of the inside there is a plate which is sometimes funnel-shaped, and
sometimes like the vertical half of a funnel. In other species it forms a
spiral, which approximates the shell to that of the spirivalve genera. The
animal is not spiral, the two tentacles are large and triangular, having the
eyes upon an enlargement of the external side ; the branchial cavity is
large and oblique, and the branchiae are pectinated, filamentous, and
exsertile. Calyptrcea sinensis (pL 75, fig. 78).
Crepidula has an ovate or oblong shell, generally convex above, the
internal cavity divided some distance by a shelly diaphragm which
represents the plate in Calyptrsea, and above which the viscera are placed.
The animals of these two genera are alike, and the shells of some species
present intermediate characters, so that it is difficult to tell to which of the
two genera they should be referred. The Crepidul® are sedentary, seating
themselves upon stones, or upon each other, and adapting the margin of
their shells to the irregularities of the object upon which they place
themselves.
Order 9. Nematobranchia (or Cirrhohranchia). The genus Den^a/fum
{pi. 1 by figs. 73-75) was for a longtime believed to belong to the Annellida,
until dissection proved it to be a mollusc. The shell is a long, slender, and
slightly curved cone, open at both ends, and sometimes ribbed or striate
externally, as in D. elephantinum (fig. 78). The convex part of the shell
corresponds to the back of the mollusc. The branchiae are composed of
numerous extensible filaments forming a bundle upon each side of the neck,
and it is probable that the branchiae can be used to convey food to the
mouth. The vent is at the posterior or smaller end of the shell, the lips are
scolloped into a number of palpiform projections, and the ordinary tentacles
and eyes are absent. The animal lives vertically in the sand with the head
downwards. There are some shells which closely resemble those of
Dentalium, and which were classed with them until it was ascertained that
their animal is an annellid. They form the genus Ditrupa.
Order 10. Ctenobranchia (also named Pectinibranchia). This is an
extensive order of dioicous spirivalve mollusca, in which the branchiae are
pectinated, one or two in number, and placed in a large cavity above the
neck ; the tongue is armed with numerous teeth, the tentacles and eyes are
usually two in number, and the aperture is usually closed by an operculum.
Most of the families are marine, but some inhabit fi*esh water. The families
are as follows : 1, Melaniidae ; 2, Cerithiidae ; 8, Vermetidae ; 4, Trochidae;
5, Pyramidellidae ; 6, Buccinidae ; 7, Purpuridae ; 8, Strombidae ; 9, Conidae ;
10, Cypraeidae ; 11, Volutidae; 12, Sigaretidae.
Fam. 1. Melaniidce. Menke's corresponding family named Turbinea is
inapplicable, because in its various modifications it is used for the family to
which Turbo belongs, by Lamarck and Deshayes, and by Blainville for a
family of Polythalamia. Some of the genera of this family inhabit the sea,
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MOLLUSCA. 83
and others the fresh waters. The mantle is simple, without fringe or siphon ;
the head ends in a short trunk, and the food is vegetable, chiefly decaying
algae. The family contains a number of sub-families, the limits of which
are not well ascertained. Melania amarula (pL 75, fig. 90).
Littorina is a genus of small marine shells which inhabit the coasts.
L, tenebrosa, which inhabits both sides of the North Atlantic, leaves the
water for hours, climbing up the grass of the salt meadows. According to
Dr. Gould, it may be found " at a considerable distance from any water."
He remarks, also, that " it lives a week or more after being removed from
the water." The species vary very much in their specific characters.
Planaxis and Eulima are placed in this family, as well as Turritella (a shell
much like pi. 75, fig. 117, but with the aperture entire), but as the mantle
is stated to be scolloped, it seems to be more nearly allied to the CerithiidsB.
The mantle of Scalaria {pi. 75, fig. 101, S. clathrus; fig. 102, S. scalaris)
not having been described, its place remains doubtful, although it probably
comes near to Turritella.
Paludina is a genus of freshwater shells of a subglobular or conical form,
usually covered with a greenish periostraca, and sometimes ornamented
with bands, as in pi. 75, fig. 95, which represents the shell of P. vivipara
of Europe and the United States, but the animal is incorrectly drawn, so as
to resemble a land snail. The foot is a large, flat body, with the sides parallel,
truncated in front and rounded behind ; the tentacles subulate, not annu-
lated, and bearing the eyes upon an enlargement of their external side.
Paludina decisa is about half an inch long, of a fine green color, and is
widely distributed in the United States. The animal is figured in the
Freshwater Univalve Mollusca of the United States.
Amnicola resembles a minute Paludina in the form of the shell, but the
operculum is subspiral, and not concentric as in that genus.
Vahaia is a genus of small shells much like Amnicola, but the aperture
is circular and the operculum concentric. The branchisB are exserted, and
in the form of a minute plume. An exserted organ like a single thread is
supposed to be an accessory branchia.
Paludina, Valvata, and AmpullaHa, form Lamarck's family Penstomata ;
and Cuvier and Swainson plated them under a division of which Turbo is
the type.
Melania is the type of the sub- family MelaniinaB, which includes a number
of genera, among which are Melania, Melanopsis, Pirena, and Anculosa.
In Melania the shell is solid, turreted, with a greenish or blackish
periostraca, the aperture elliptical, the external margin sharp, and the
operculum corneous and subspiral. The species live upon calcareous
rocks, or upon the ordinary bottom of the rivers, especially in those
of the United States. The zoological characters of the genus are
given in the American Journal of Science, 1841, vol. xli. p. 21.
Leptoxis (or Anculosa) is allied to Melania, but the shell is shorter. The
animal attaches itself to rocks where the current is very rapid, and it seldom
moves from its position. The history of this genus is given in Chenu's
Illustrations Conchyologiques, where it is illustrated by 170 figures. The
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genus seems to be confined to the rivers of North America. Rafinesque's
generic name Leptoxis was published two years before Say's Anculosa,
Some authors suppose the former to be a genus of Physidee, but the
question is settled by some manuscript drawings of the former author, which
represent the shell, tentacles, arid operculum of Anculosa.
Melanopsis is allied to Anculosa, and the species seem to be confined to
Europe. It is probable that the few described species of European Melania
belong in reality to Melanopsis.
Say's Melania armigera (and also Lea's M. duttonana and M. Catenoides),
belongs to Rafinesque's genus Pleurocera, in which there is a short straight
canal anteriorly, and when this canal is lengthened as in Fusus, the genus
lo of Lea is the result. Strepotna of Rafinesque (or Ceriphasia of Swain-
son) are slightly diflferent forms, in which the aperture and the vertical plane
formed by the anterior portion of the whirls, bear some resemblance to the
same parts in Cerithium telescopium.
Fusus fluvialis of Say is the type of /o, and as it would be an anomaly
to find a genus so decidedly marine as Fusus inhabiting fresh waters, it
becomes a matter of interest to know the animal of the American shell. This
was observed in 1841, in its native waters in Holston, Powel's, and Clinch
rivers, in eastern Tennessee, by Halderman, who made a drawing of the living
animal. Its characters and habits are not those of Fusus, but of Melania
proper, as distinguished from Leptoxis ; for although it inhabits the rapids
as well as quiet water, in both cases it avoids the current by seeking shelter
beneath shelving rocks, or in hollows or crevices in them. The head is
large, and with the tentacles much exposed ; the foot is as large as in
Melania ; the coloration is the same (black lines upon an orange ground) :
the operculum is subspiral as in Melania, the mantle extends into the canal of
the shell, but does not form a closed siphon ; the vent is upon the right side ;
the mouth is a longitudinal slit ; the eyes (which are sensitive to the light)
are upon a short enlargement of the outer base of the tentacles, which may
be a little longer than in Melania, and they are not visibly annulated.
It differs from Fusus, and resembles Melania in living upon vegetable food ;
and it moves along in a sluggish manner, moving the head from side to side
upon the bottom. lo spinosa and /. tenebrosa are merely varieties of /.
fluvialis. The spinose individuals are much the most abundant, although
the species is rare when compared with various species of Melania.
Quoy and Gaimard, to whom the science of Malacology is indebted for a
knowledge of the animals of many shells, have figured a number of species
as belonging to Melania, the shells of which cannot be distinguished from
those of that genus, whilst in the figures the mantle is represented as
scolloped. Similar species were drawn in the course of the United States
Exploring Expedition. These species must be placed in the family
Cerithiidae.
Fam, 2f Cerithiidce, The genus Cerithium {pi. 75, flgs. 105-109) are
remarkable for the great number of species both recent and fossil (tertiary)
which it contains. The animal has the general character of Melania,
except that the mantle is scolloped.
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MOLLUSCA. 85
The number of species and varieties being so great in this genus, Lamarck
was led to doubt the permanency of species, and he judged that those which
seemed better established in other cases, would present equal uncertainty
were their number greatly increased.
Fam, 3. Vermetidce. The genus Vermeius (F. lumbricalis, pi. 75, ßg.
60) has a loosely and irregularly coiled shell affixed by its posterior
extremity. As the animal enlarges it increases the size of the shell, and
moves forward in it, cutting off the empty posterior portion by a diaphragm
from time to time. The animal is much like that of Turbo or Delphinula,
the foot (as there is no locomotion) is obsolete, the posterior portion being
adapted to support a thin operculum which closes the aperture. There are two
tentacles, with the eyes at their base externally. There is a single branchia.
Cuvier placed this genus, with Magilus and Siliquaria, in a distinct order
named Tubulibranchia, In the genus Magilus the young has an ordinary
short ventricose turbinated shell (having a distant resemblance to pi. 75,
ßg. 91). We have seen, in the case of Aspergillum (p. 60), how a bivalve
shell can take the form of a tubular one ; and Magilus is an example of the
same thing in a spirivalve one. The animal inhabits cavities in living coral,
and to prevent being buried by the growth of the surrounding material, it has
the power of forming a tube, the margin of which it builds up as the coral
increases, so that the aperture retains the level of the general surface. The
tube thus attains five or six times the length of the original shell, and it assumes
various curves and irregularities, depending upon the growth of the coral.
Fam. 4. TrochidiB. The members of this family are herbivorous, and
most of them have the mantle or foot ornamented with tentacular appendages.
The shell of Trochus is short and conical, solid, and nacreous. The genera
Trochus {T. solaris, pi. 75, ßg. 106; T. magus, ßg. 107; Turbo, ßg.
103) Monodonto and Delphinula {D. delphinus, ßg. 104) are nearly allied,
and the animals do not differ. In Solarium {S. perspectivum, pi. 75, ßg.
108), the shell and animal differ, the head not being proboscidiform.
Janthina ianthina (pi. 75, ßg. 96) is the type of a sub-family, distin-
guished by the possession of an apparatus which enables the animal to float
at the surface of the sea. The name is derived from the Greek word for
violet, the shells of all the species being of this color. The shell is trochoidal
and very fragile, having the right side of the aperture sharp, and often
notched. The animal has a large proboscidiform head, two tentacles, and
eyes ; the mantle with an expansion said to be used in swimming ; the foot
with an appendage or float formed of a great number of air-vesicles. This
appendage can be cast off and renewed. The latter process was observed
by Dr. Reynell Coates, who describes it as being formed by inclosing a
bubble of air in a cavity formed by contracting the margin of the foot,
which then secretes a covering for it. The ^^s are attached to the under
surface of the float, and subsequently cast off with it. This animal was
first described and figured by Fabius Columna, in 1616.
In Haliotis (H. iuberculaia, pi. 75, ßg. 86), the shell is ear-shaped, much
depressed, very short and flat, the aperture longer than wide, and as large
as the base of the shell, left side with a sub-marginal row of perforations ;
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nacre very brilliant and iridescent. As the animal increases in size a new
hole is formed in the shell, and the oldest one is closed. The head is
proboscidiform, with two long tentacles, each with an oculiferous peduncle ;
foot large, provided above with a double membrane scolloped into leaflets of a
very ornamental character. The water is admitted to the branchisB through
the holes in the shell, which also allow certain filamentous appendages of the
mantle to protrude through them. There are two pectinated branchiae. The
gjinus Stomatia is allied to Haliotis, but the shell has no perforations. This
sub-family was included by Cuvier among the Aspidobranchia, but Deshayes
assigns good reasons for placing it among the Ctenobranchia.
Neritina (iV. ßuviatilis, pL 76, fig, 87) is a genus of small sub-globular
or oval fluviatile shells, with a semi-circular aperture closed by a calcareous
operculum. The two tentacles are long, and each is accompanied by a
short secondary tentacle, with an eye upon its summit.
Fam. 5. PyramidellidcB. This is a small family, composed of the genera
Pyramidella and Tomatella.
Fam. 6. Buccinidce. In BtLccinum {B. undatum, pi. 75, fig. 120), the
foot is narrow, the head small, continued in a proboscis, with two tentacles,
each having an exterior oculiferous peduncle; siphon protruding; sexes
distinct, the male with a long exterior organ from the right side of the neck ;
shell oblong-oval, with a notch anteriorly. The species figured inhabits both
sides of the North Atlantic. The genus has numerous species, both recent
and fossil. Nassa and Eburna belong to this family. Ebuma glabrata is
an Ancillaria, and Deshayes thinks the remaining species of Ebuma should
be merged into Buccinum.
Fam. 7. Purpuridce. This marine family is mostly carnivorous ; the
water is taken to the branchiae through a siphon, which passes out of the
notch or canal at the anterior part of the shell. The eyes and tentacles are
two in number, and the proboscis is well developed. The operculum is thin,
and much smaller than the aperture, to allow the animal to withdraw some
distance within the shell. Cancellaria is placed in this family, although it has
no operculum, and lives upon vegetable food. The animal resembles Purpura.
Purpura lapillus {pi. 75, fig. 118) is about an inch long, and abundant
on rocky coasts on both sides of the Atlantic.
Pleurotoma {P. babylonia, pi. 75, fig. 110) is a genus with an elongated
spire, a straight canal, and a narrow notch posteriorly in the right lip of the
shell, corresponding to a notch in the mantle. The species of this genus
are numerous, amounting to over a hundred of recent, and more than this
number of fossil tertiary species. There have been nearly fifty species
described from the tertiary formations of the United States.
Murez {M. ramosa, pL 75, fig. Ill; M. haustellum, fig. 112; M.
tribuluSf fig. 113). Rondeletius and Aldrovandi have treated of this
and some allied genera. The genus murex of Linnsus was founded in
1758, but Rondeletius had named several of the species purpura, under
the belief of their being the purpurea of Pliny, which were supposed to
furnish the purple of the Tyrians. The shell named Murex by Pliny and
Rondeletius, belongs to the modem genus Strombus. Murex is a genus of
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MOLLUSCA. 87
rough shells, witji ridges, spines, or tubercles, which are secreted periodi-
cally, in three or four rows around the shell. The right maipn of the
mantle is divided into lobes, the irregularities of which account for those
of the shell in the different species. There are about 170 recent and 130
tertiary fossil species known.
Harpa (H. ventricosa, pL Ib^fig. 119) is a genus of finely formed ribbed
shells of brilliant colors, and a polished exterior. The foot is very large,
and without an operculum. Ten species are described in Lamarck. The
genus occurs fossil in the Paris basin.
Cassidaria (C echinophora, pi. 76, fig, 121). This genus contains a few
recent and fossil species. The animal is like that of Cassis, in which the
foot is longer than the shell, the head proboscidiform, with a projecting
rostrum and mouth from its extremity.
Fustts is a genus of marine shells, thickest in the middle, and tapering
towards both ends ; the animal with a small head, ending in two short
tentacles, the eyes at their external base, but not upon a peduncle or
thickening of the tentacle, thus differing from Murex and Purpura, but
allied to Turbinella and Fasciolaria. The head has a terminal slit, whence
the rostrum issues, and the nucleus of the operculum is terminal.
Fam, 8. StrombidcB, In this family the right margin of the aperture is
dilated, corresponding to the width of the mantle, but this character is not
present in the immature shell, so that a young Strombus (pL 76, fig, 1 14)
might be mistaken for a Conus (pi, 76, fig. 11). The head is proboscidi-
form, with a vertical slit from which a long rostrum is extended; the
tentacles are large, divided at the end, and the truncated extremity of the
larger external branch bears the large eyes, which have a variously colored
iris and a cornea, which have not been observed in any of the allied
families. They live on coral banks at no great depth, and some species
attain to a considerable size. The locomotion differs from that of most
gastropoda, being effected by leaping, for which purpose the operculum
(which has a peculiar shape) is applied to the ground. Strombus lentigi-
nosus (pi, 15, fig. 114). S. gigas of the Antilles is eight or ten inches
long, and remarkable for the fine peach blossom tint of the aperture. The
shell is used to ornament grottoes and gardens, and by sawing off the apex
it is converted into a rude trumpet. Pterocera {P, chiragra, pi, 75, fig.
115) differs from Strombus in having the adult shell digitated, and the struc-
ture of the mantle corresponding with it. Rostellaria (R, rectirostris, fig. 116).
Fam. 9. Conidce, The shell of the genus Conus {pi. 76, figs. 8-12) is
obconical, involute, and has a short spire and a narrow aperture as long as
the body whirl ; and the exteiior is covered with a periostraca. The genus
includes many beautiful and highly prized species. Linnaeus described 35
species, Brugui^res 146, Lamarck 181, increased to 219 in the last edition
of 1845, exclusive of 23 European fossil species. At present there are
probably 300 recent species known. The head is proboscidiform, the eyes
are upon the middle of the tentacles, the foot is long and very narrow,
having a corneous sub-spiral operculum, so small in comparison with the
aperture, that it cannot serve to close the shell. The mantle is scanty (in
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which it diiTers from the next family), and prolonged ii^ a siphon, which
extends a little beyond the shell. The animal is carnivorous, and the tongue
is armed with hooked teeth. *
Fam. 10. CyprcBidcB (or Involuta). In this family there is neither
operculum nor periostraca, the shell is rolled upon itself nearly as in Conus,
but some are rolled upon a cylindrical instead of a conical axis, so that there
is no spire exposed. The shells are very beautiful and highly polished, the
mantle being so wide that its sides can be turned over the back of the shell,
where it secretes the ornamental layer of the shell. The point of union of
the margins of the mantle is often indicated by a discolored line upon the
back of the shell.
Cyprcea {C. monetae pL 76. fig. 5 ; C, mauritiana, fig. 6 ; C arabica,
fig. 7), has the mantle edged with tentacular filaments, and when they are
turned over the back, the shell is hidden. The aperture is long and narrow,
each side denticulated, and the external margin turned in. C. moneta is
used as money in western Africa.
Ovula (O. ovum, pL 76, fig. 4 ; O. volva, fig. 2), as the name indicates, is
shaped somewhat like an egg, with the ends attenuated, and the inner
margin of the aperture without denticulations. The animal resembles that
of Cyprsea.
Oliva (O. ispidula, pi. 75, fig. 122 ; O. porphyria, fig. 125 ; O. maura,
fig. 126) has the head very small, and the tentacles united at the base.
These resemble somewhat the same organs in Strombus, being divided, and
having a terminal eye upon one of the branches. O. porphyria is the
largest and handsomest species of the genus, being four or more inches long,
of a pale brownish purple, marked with numerous zigzag angular lines, and
having the anterior extremity violet. It inhabits the coast of South America.
Fam. 11. VolutidcB. In this carnivorous family there are usually distinct
folds upon the columella. Voluta is a genus of large and handsome, generally
inoperculate shells, with a wide aperture notched in frdnt, and the apex
rounded. A part of the shell has sometimes the appearance of being
varnished, which indicates the extent to which it is covered by the mantle.
The animal cannot entirely enter the shell, the head is proboscidiform, and
the tentacles are short, with the eyes at their external base.
Mitra {M. episcopalis, pL 75, fig. 123; M. papalis, fig. 124) is a genus
of handsome shells extremely rich in species, there being about 250 recent
and 100 fossil species known. The animal is very dull in its movements,
the head small and V-shaped, on account of the projection of the slender
tentacles. These have the eyes upon an external peduncle. In Mitra
episcopalis (shell white with red spots), the rostrum is once and a half
times the length of the shell, exceeding that of any other genus. This
enables it to attack its prey at some distance.
Terebra {T. maculata, pi. 75, fig. 117) has the foot (which bears an
o|)ercu]um) but little longer than the last whirl of the shell, a proboscidiform
head, tentacles and eyes in the usual form, and the siphon projecting beyond
the shell. There are upwards of a hundred recent species known.
Fam. 12. SigarelidcB. Sigaretus {S. haliotideus, pi. 75, fig. 89) is a
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MOLLUSCA. 89
genus in which the shell is somewhat ear-shaped, and the foot very large
and thick, nearly hiding the shell, which is sunk into it. The tentacles are
flat and triangular, but unaccompanied by eyes. Although the animal is
too large to enter the shell, it is provided with an operculum. Natica (N.
canrena, pi. 75, ßg. 88) is carnivorous like the preceding genus, and like
it, has no siphon. It has a large foot (four or five times the length of the
shell) bearing an operculum. The head is terminated by a pair of lips from
which a rostrum can be protruded.
Order 11. Pneumonobranchia. This order includes all the spirivalve
and naked mollusca, whether inhabiting land or water, in which the branchiae,
without being proper lungs, are adapted for breathing air, so that the species
which inhabit the water are obliged to come to the surface from time to
time to breathe air. They seem all to be phytophagous. The order includes
eight families.
Fam. 1. AtnpullariidtB. The genus AmpuUaria has a globular shell
several inches in size, which is generally covered with a green periostraca,
and is provided with a closely fitting concentric operculum, which is in
some cases corneous, and in others shelly. With Paludina and Valvata it
forms one of Lamarck's families, named Peristomata by Reeve. The North
American species is figured with the animal in the monograph already
quoted. The head is proboscidiform, the extremity cleft, leaving a conical
branch half an inch long on each side, and these are used as palpi. The
mouth is purse-shaped, the tentacles slender, tapering, and more than an
inch long, the eyes borne upon a secondary tubercle at the base externally.
The shell is without a notch, yet there is a siphon an inch long which is
formed by an extension of the mantle folded into a tube. This is brought
to the surface of the water and air drawn through it, and often expelled
from it in bubbles when beneath the surface. Guilding describes a shorter
siphon upon the right si Je. The animal lives in the rice swamps of Georgia,
feeding upon living plants. Living mostly in the intertropical regions of
both hemispheres, where the waters frequently disappear in the dry season,
AmpuUaria has the power of becoming torpid beneath the mud until the
return of the wet season. Some specimens sent from Egypt to France
were thrown into water to clean them, and the next day they were found
moving about. Deshayes dissected some of these, and found pectinated
branchiae, which would place the genus near Paludina, and he describes a
large cavity, to which he assigns the function of holding a store of water to
be supplied to the branchiae during the period of torpidity. This may be
correct ; although a further examination will probably show that this cavity
is adapted to breathe air, and on this account we place it in the present
order. Planorbis hicarinatus (and probably its entire family) hybemates
at the bottom of streams with the air cavity filled. The ability to breathe
air and water by means of distinct organs is not anomalous, as it appears in
certain reptiles. The sexes are separate.
Fam, 2. Amphibolidce. The genus Amphibola (also named AmpuUacera)
has a sub-spiral corneous operculum, and is formed upon a New Zealand
shell formerly considered to be an AmpuUaria. It was found to breathe air
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by Quoy and Gaimard, who found it abundantly in very shallow brackish
water. It has a large head ending in two lobes, is without tentacles, and
the eyes are placed flat upon the head. The pulmonary cavity is large, in
which it resembles that of AmpuUaria. The sexes are united in the same
individual. Two species are known, Ä. avellana and Ä. fragilis.
Fam, 3. Cycloslomidce, The genus Cyclostoma is monoicous ; it has a
turbinated shell with a circular aperture, and, unlike most land snails, it has
a paucispiral operculum. The head is proboscidiform, the tentacles two, with
the eyes at their external base ; and the foot is composed of two longitudinal
parts which are advanced alternately. Other species have a concentric oper-
culum, and in these the foot has* the ordinary construction. Cuvier and Deshayes
consider the mode of respiration less important than the general structure,
and they areconsequently of the opinion that the affinities of this family are
with the Trochidae. The species are numerous, amounting to nearly 200.
Helicina may be considered the type of a sub-family. It has an oblique
aperture, and a closely fitting operculum which is not sub-spiral, but
increases from one of the sides or angles.
Fam, 4. PhysidcB, This family is composed of certain genera of inoper-
culate fragile uniformly colored shells, inhabiting quiet fresh waters, coming
to the surface to breathe, and creeping along it with the back downwards
by means of the vibrillae which cover the foot as well as the two tentacles
and other parts. Many eggs are deposited together in a glairy mass. The
breathing aperture is at the external side, and is opened from time to time
to take in a supply of air. In Physa the shell is turbinated, sinistral, the
mantle large, with a digitated margin turned upon the shell, and the foot
long and pointed posteriorly. The tentacles are filiform, and the eyes are
situated upon the head near their internal base. Planorhis {pL 77, ßg, 99)
has a discoidal shell, with the turns visible on both sides. The mantle is
simple, the foot rather small, and the tentacles and eyes as in Physa. In
Limnea (L. stagnalis, pL 75, fig, 92), the shell is dextral, turbinated, and
generally larger than in the allied genera ; the tentacles are triangular, and
the eyes situated at their anterior base. Ancylus is a genus of little patelli-
form shells, the position of which in the systems has been a subject of much
dispute, some contending that they belong here, and others to the Hypo-
branchia. The animal is not essentially different from Limnea, and it is
possible that some species breathe air, and others water. Some authors
have asserted that they come to the surface to breathe air, but this has
never been observed in the American species, some of which are found
beneath stones, in dead bivalve shells, and under other circumstances, which
would render it difficult for them to reach the surface and descend again.
But as free air may not be considered necessary to these animals, they
may be placed among the Physads, especially as a species of Physa inhabit-
ing beneath shelving rocks in rapid water is found at the mouth of the
Nolachucky river, Tennessee, in such a position that it could not breathe
air. It is probable that a small variety of Physa heterostropha inhabiting
springs seldom or never breathes air. It has been ascertained that frogs
kept under water can oxygenate the system through the skin, and the
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MOLLUSCA. 91
Physadse may have the same power. The passage to the next family seems
to be through Gray's genus Chilina, which is a Limnea with folds upon the
columella.
Fam. 6. ÄuriculidtB. In this monoicous family there are two tentacles,
and the eyes are at their external and posterior base. Some species inhabit
land, and others plants near the sea, and salt water marshes. Auricula midcs
{pi. 76, fig. 1) is the largest species of the genus, being four inches long,
and of a solid texture.
Fam, 7. HelidcUe. This family includes most of the numerous species
of land snails with an external spirivalve shell. All breathe free air, are
monoicous and inoperculate, and have two large tentacles, with an eye upon
the apex, capable of being retracted by being turned within itself. Besides
these, there is an inferior and smaller pair of tentacles present in most cases,
although in some of the minute species they have not been detected. Most
of the land shells of Europe and North America belong to Helix, a very
extensive genus, containing upwards of 500 species from various parts of
the globe, including the islands of the Pacific, all the continents, high
mountains, and cold climates, although the lai^er species are intertropical.
They vary in size from about a tenth of an inch to four inches. The
shells vary much in form ; the aperture is sometimes reduced to a narrow
fissure, or armed with teeth, in such a manner as to lead one to think it
impossible for the animal to get out or in. They hybernate under ground,
closing the aperture with a temporary operculum. Among the genera may
be mentioned Bulimus (pL 75, figs. 93, 94), Clausilia (fig. 100), which has
a peculiar operculum attached to the shell within the aperture, Pupa,
StreptaxiSy &c. Their food is fresh or decaying vegetable matter, and some
feed upon fungi. The large European species are cooked and eaten, and
the Romans fattened them for the table.
Fam. 6. LimacicUs. This family includes the naked snails without a
turbinated shell, but some of them have an internal shell, or a small external
one which is little more than an appendage. The head, tentacles, organization,
habits, and food, do not difier essentially from those of the preceding family.
The genus Limax {pi. 75, figs. 19-21) is destructive to the plants cultivated
by the farmer and gardener in Europe, and new modes of destroying them
are continually sought after. The species which occur in North America
have not yet proved injurious, and the same remark applies to the snails,
which are troublesome to gardeners in Europe. The body of Limax is
very contractile, but when moving on its lower surface or foot, it is rather
slender, thickest in the middle, and tapering towards the extremity. Upon
the back is a kind of fleshy shield, beneath which the head can be drawn.
Class 3. Cephalopoda.
This class was named Malakia by Aristotle, and Mollia by Pliny. It
includes certain dioicous marine mollusca, which have the feet or arms
around the mouth at the extremity of the head. The body is soft, the
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mantle closed beneath according to most authors, but above according to
Rang. Most of them have three hearts. The mouth is armed with strong
mandibles much like those of a parrot, adapted for crushing the shells of
Crustacea and moUusca, and the tongue is armed with pointed horny teeth.
The eyes are either pedunculated or level with the surface, and they have
the sense of vision fully developed. They have also an organ of hearing.
The arms are usually cotyligerous, or studded with suckers like cupping
glasses, which enable them to hold fish and other living prey. The Greeks,
in naming these sucking cups, made use of the word kotylus (in compo-
sition), whence the English name cuitle-fisk is derived. The cotyls are
sometimes armed within with curved hooks, which assist in holding and
destroying the prey. Onychoteuthis has a pair of arms much longer than
the rest, the terminal expansion of which is studded with rows of hooks, but
the power is increased by a simple sucker on each wrist (as it may be called),
which are applied together to keep the extremities of the arms in contact
There is a fleshy infundibulum or funnel opening before the neck, and
serving as an outlet for the faeces and water from the branchiae. The water
ejected from the branchial sac through the funnel is a principal agent in
locomotion, by means of which the animal can move backwards with great
swiftness. Inspiration and expiration are regular in these animals. " The
first is effected," says Dr. Coldstream, " by a gradual dilatation of the sac in
every direction, but particularly at the sides, accompanied by a subsidence
of the lateral valves, collapse of the walls of the funnel, and a rush of water
through the lateral openings into the sac. Inspiration being completed, the
lateral valves are closed, the sac is gradually contracted, the funnel erected
and dilated, and the water expelled through it with great force in a con-
tinuous stream.'' An Octopus with a sac four inches long was found to
respire ten times in a minute.
The Cephalopoda are either naked, or provided with an external shell. Some
of the former are brilliantly colored, red, purple, or bluish, and they are remark-
able for the rapidity and extent to which the colors change. In habits they are
rapacious and active, moving continually, and some of them shoot through the
water like an arrow.
Agassiz thinks that in this order the Nautilidae are the lowest, and Sepiadse
the highest. We will here follow the classification of D'Orbigny, according
to which the class is divided into two orders, Acetahulifera and Tentaculu
fera, the former being subdivided into two tribes, Octopoda and Decapoda,*
containing seven families conjointly. As the name implies, the Acetahulifera
are provided with cotyls, and the head is distinct, characters which do not
exist in the Tentaculifera ; and the former have two, and the latter four
branchiae, whence Owen's names of Dihranchiata and Tetrahranchiata.
Trile Octocera,
Fam. 1. OctopidtB, The genus Octopus (O. octopodiusy Linn. {Sepia) pi.
76, ßg. 75) is the polypus of the ancients, whence the French name poulpe
* A name pre-occnpied among the Crnstacea, and on this aoconnt we employ the terms
Octocera and Decacera^ uaoally attributed to Blainville.
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is derived. The body is obtuse posterioriy, with fins (fin-like expansions),
and the interior dorsal shell is wanting. As the name implies, it has eight
arms. The species figured attains a length of two feet and a half, including
the arms, which constitute considerably the longest portion. It creeps upon
the ground with the mouth downwards, drawing itself along by means of
the circle of arms ; or leaving the bottom, it swims backwards by flapping
the fleshy disk from which the arms arise. It is provided with an ink bag.
The eyes can be covered with the surrounding skin, in the manner of an
eyelid. There are two complicated branchiae somewhat like a fern leaf,
through which the blood is forced, by a heart at the base of each ; a third
heart, near the bottom of the cavity, receives the oxygenated blood, and dis-
tributes it through the body. It is eaten on the shores of the Mediterranean.
Argonauta {A, argo, Linn., pi. 76, fig. 17), six or seven inches long, has
a closely rolled involuted shell without partitions, laterally compressed,
tuberculate, very thin, white, translucent, with the last turn including the
rest. This is the Nautilus of the ancient authors, who were acquainted
with A, argo, the Mediterranean species, about the sailing of which so many
fables have been related, as in the following lines from the " Pelican Island."
<* Light as a flake of foam upon the wind,
Keel upwards from the deep emerged a shell,
Shaped like the moon ere half her horn is filled ;
Fraught with young life, it righted as it rose,
And moved at will along tlie yielding water.
The native pilot of this little bark,
Put out a tier of oars on either side,
Spread to the wafüng breeze a twofold sau,
And mounted up and glided down the billow
In happy freedom, pleased to feel the air,
And wander in the luxury of light."
For a long time naturalists considered the maker of the shell of Argonauta
to be unknown, believing the inhabitant found in it to be a parasite, like
the crabs which take possession of the empty shells of the spiri valve
moUusca ; and they were led to this belief, by the fact that there is no
muscular attachment between the animal and the shell, presenting a
peculiarity which is unique among the mollusca. The animal has eight
arms, two of which have wide expansions at the extremity, which are
applied one to each side of the shell, which is in fact secreted by their
internal surface ; and should it be intentionally broken, the damage is
repaired by the same organs in ten or twelve days, a proof that the shell
belongs to no other animal. It creeps upon the bottom with the shell
above, or shoots through the water backwards by means of the funnel, with
the narrow part of the shell in advance, and the arms extended like a
rudder. When it retires within the shell the expansions of the clasping
arms are partly withdrawn, leaving a little of the anterior portion of the
shell uncovered ; consequently, they are never extended as sails, as many
fabulous accounts would lead us to believe. See the Mag. Nat. Hist., 1839,
pp. 421 and 521 ; 1840, pp. 8 and 57.
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Tribe Decacera.
Fam. 2. SepiidcB. Sepia {pi. 76, fig, 77) has the body surrounded by a
narrow fin ; and of the ten arms, two are 'pedunculated and longer than the
rest. A light friable oblong-oval and spongy shell, usually named " cuttle-
bone," is contained within the back. The contents of the ink-bag in this
animal are dried and used by painters under the name of sepia.
Fam. 3. Loligidce. Loligo {L. loligo, Linn., pi. 76, fig. 76) has the body
slender, with lateral fins, the shell thin, horny, and translucent ; two
pedunculated arms longer than the rest, and the eyes are without a lid, but
covered with a transparent membrane. Its motion backwards through the
water by means of its funnel, is extremely rapid, and it sometimes throws
itself out of the water, or upon land. The species are much used for food«
especially in China.
Fam. 4. Loligopsidce. Loligopsis has a slow motion, the shell is
corneous, the body slender and translucent, and has few muscles.
Fam. 5. Teuthididce. Onychoteuihis (already referred to) has a corneous
internal shell, a slender body, with a triangular fin upon each side posteriorly,
uniting upon the back.
Fam. 6. Belemnitidce. Shell corneous, conical, largest anteriorly, and
containing a series of chambers, posteriorly pierced by a siphuncle, and
inserted in a hard case or belemnon, which is generally pointed posteriorly.
The family is extinct, but its remains are abundant in a fossil state in the
oolitic and cretaceous formations.
Fam. 7. Spirulidce. The genus Spirula {S. spirula,pl. 76, fig. 13) is the only
one in the family, and until recently it contained but a single described species.
The shell is a thin open spiral (not twisted longitudinally as represented in the
figure), with numerous partitions concave externally, through which a small
ventral siphuncle runs. The shell is internal, at the posterior extremity of the
body. There are ten arms, of which two are larger than the rest. The
common species inhabits the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and although the
shell is common, the animal is very rare, and requires further examination.
The second order, Tentaculifera, contains two families : Nautilidce, and
AmmonitidcB.
Fam. 1. NautilidcB. In the genus Nautilus (N. pompilius, Linn., pi. 76,
fig' IÖ), the shell is spiral, many-chambered, the partitions transverse,
concave externally, their margins simple ; a central siphuncle passing
through them ; the whirls in contact, the last enveloping the preceding ones.
Nautilus pompilius is the best known species ; the shell is nacreous, orna-
mented with irregular reddish bands, the umbilicus closed. It is six or
eight inches in diameter, and inhabits the Indian and Pacific Oceans. A
second species is known, N. umbilicalus, which is much rarer than the
former, and has the centre of each side widely umbilicate, so that the
whirls can be counted. The history of the order is taken from N.
pompilius. The animal is contained in the last open chamber of the shell ;
it has a pediform appendage for creeping, and when it walks upon the
bottom, the aperture is downwards. The jaws are like a reversed parrot
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bill, the mouth is surrounded with numerous tentacles retractile into separate
sheaths, and disposed in eight groups corresponding to the arms of Octopus.
They are surrounded by a kiiid of hood, which serves to protect the animal
when withdrawn into the shell. The two eyes are large and prominent,
the heart single, with a ventricle and auricle, and inclosed in a large
pericardium which is connected with the siphuncle. The siphon or funnel,
which is ventral, corresponds to the part of the shell furthest from the
centre, that is, the external lip. The fossils named rhyncholites, are the
beaks of various species of Nautilus and Ammonites, Several other genera,
with the shell both curved and straight, belong to this family, and among
the latter is the fossil genus Orthoceras, of Breyn (not of Lamarck), of the
older formations.
Fam, 2. AmmonitidcB (pi. 76, ßgs, 14, 15). In this family the shell is
spiral in the same plane, curved^ or straight, with the siphuncle at the
dorsal margin. The partitions which divide its chambers are irregular, with
the margins digitated or foliated, often in a singular and beautiful manner.
All the species are extinct, and they are found from the older fossiliferous
formations to the cretaceous strata. This and the preceding family are
represented at the present day by the two living species of Nautilus, and
four of Spirula, a mere remnant of the profusion of species of chambered
shells which lived in the ancient seas. Upwards of 300 species of the
genus Ammonites have been described or indicated ; and although it is
probable that many of these belong to varieties and young individuals, with
every allowance, the genus is very extensive.
Division III. Articulata.
The Articulata are named from having the various parts of the body and
limbs articulated to each other. The nervous system is composed of
ganglions united by a double cord, and there is usually a kind of exterior
skeleton composed of a series of rings protecting the interior parts, and
serving as points of attachment for muscles. In some cases respiration is
effected by means of branchiae, and in others by tracheae or air tubes.
When limbs are present, there are never fewer than six.
Authors upon the Articulata are not agreed upon the number and extent
of the classes into which they should be distributed, but they will be treated
of in detail, nearly as they are given in pages 11, 12, according to which
the classes are five, namely 1, Annelida; 2, Cirrhopoda ; 3, Crustacea; 4,
Arachnida ; 5, Insecta. The three last of these formed the Insecta of
Linnaeus, a term which some modern writers wish to maintain according to
its original extent ; and when this is done, the restricted class of insects
must have a distinct name ; as Ptilota (winged insects), applied by
Aristotle, and Condylopa, applied by Latreille. The Myriapoda will form
the fifth, and the Insecta the sixth class, in the succeeding pages.
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Class 1. Annelida.
The Annelida or ChcBtopoda are generally recognisable by a soft body, a
lengthened annulated form, red blood, and the nervous system central,
ganglionic, and distinct. The rings of the body are of a membranous
consistency, and never corneous as in insects, or calcareous as in the
Crustacea. They are generally numerous, the length of the animal depending
to some extent upon the number of rings, which vary from twenty or thirty
to more than five hundred. When very numerous, the number is not
uniform in the same species. The head is usually distinct, and often
provided with two or four eyes, and in some cases with a variable number
of tentacles and cirri, but the last are not confined to the head. The sides
are generally furnished with bunches of bristles and fleshy projections
arranged in a line and used in locomotion ; and although they are called
feet, articulate limbs are never present. The lateral bristles in some cases
aflbrd a means of defence, and they vary much in character, some being
simple, and others barbed in a variety of ways, presenting uniform characters
which are useful in classification, and must be studied by those who wish to
be well acquainted with the class. Their forms have been classified and
named by Savigny. The alimentary canal is complete, extending fi-om end
to end. Most of the annelida are marine, some being free, whilst others
construct a tube of calcareous matter, and of agglutinated particles of sand,
fragments of shells, or other objects. Cuvier divides the class into three
orders, named Abranchia, Dorsibranchia, and Tubicol^ ; but as the
names of orders should be taken from the same part, the last one is here
replaced by the term Cephalobranchia.*
Order 1. Abranchia. The animals of this order are without branchiae,
respiration being efiected by means of the skin. Cuvier supposed certain
lateral pores to be respirato 
