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ICONOGRAPHIC
ENCYCLOPADIA

SCIENCH, LITERATURE, AND ART.

SYSTEMATICALLY ARRANGED

1G. Se:

TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN, WITH ADDITIONS,

AND EDITED BY

SPENCER F. BAIRD, A.M., M.D,

PROFESSOR OF NATURAL SCIENCES IN DICKINSON COLLEGE, CARLISLE, PA.

ILLUSTRATED BY FIVE HUNDRED STEEL PLATES,

CONTAINING UPWARDS OF TWELVE THOUSAND ENGRAVINGS.

i’ FOUR VOLUMES.

VOb. Oy :

ARCHITECTURE,
MYTHOLOGY, THE FINE ARTS,
TECHNOLOGY.

aU Wo WORK: 1962.

RUDOLPH GARRIGUE, PUBLISHER,
2 BARCLAY STREET (ASTOR HOUSE).

ENreren, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1 84

RUDOLPH GARRIGUE,

in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court for the Southern -

ete: Ss
eet BA a
448 ieee es leh

R Graig , Printer and Stereotyper,

112 Fultonst, NY. —

+ - $ a id.
; er eS ne Pen er ee Ses |

CONTENTS

eee Pel Tbe EUR

[The numbers refer to the bottom paging of the text.]

I. Ancient Architecture, , | ; : ; ‘
1. Ancient Hindoo Pteaiidetané : : ,
2. Egyptian Architecture, . : ;
3. Assyrian, Median, Babylonian, Soa Peso dhetinantisre -
4, Grecian Architecture, : :

7.
8

9.
10.

1. Genera] Considerations, : - °
2. Special Description of Grecian eiriceame

. Pheenician or Syrian Architecture,
. Roman Architecture to the Time of out eae the Gre

A. The Period of the Kings,
B. The Period of the Republic, . : :
C. The Period of the Emperors, . : : :

The Orders, ; :

. Monuments of the Gauls std ae (Cats, ; .
Chinese Architecture, : : : : -
American Architecture, 2

If. The Architecture of the Middle Ages,

The Period from Constantine the Great to the 11th Genin,
A. The Romanesque Style, : :
B. The Byzantine Style,
C. The Gothic and Lombardic Styles,
D. The Arabian or Moorish Style,
E. Modern Persian and Indian Styles,

2. The Period from the 11th to the 16th Century, or - the nets of

Art, including the Pointed-Arch nary

3. The Period of the Renaissance,

II. Modern Architecture, : ; ‘ é : ‘
1. Churches and Chapels, . ‘ : . °
A. Italy, : - ° ° ° :
B. France, ‘ : - . : .
C. Germany, . ; ‘ . . °
D. England, . : . ° . °
E. Russia, : ; - . ° :
2. Castles and Palaces, : : : . °
A. Italy, : : : ° 5 :

106
115
118
124
124
124
131
14]
142
146

147
174
180
182
182
191
196
198
199
201
201

CONTENTS.

Modern Architecture—( Continued.)

“ce

“ec

“ce

PAGE

B. France, ; : : . - 204
Fo. Belgium and Holland, ; ‘ ° . . 207
D. Great Britain, ; . ; : : . 2a
8. Theatres, 3 : ; : . 2o7
4, Museums, ; . A é ; . 208
5. City and Council Tacs. Government Buildings, : . 202
6. Exchanges, , . 200
7. Universities, ‘ , 211
8. Assembly Houses, : ; . 212
9. Watch-Houses, Custom Honses Excise Houses, . : 212
10. Honorary Monuments, p . . 2h
11. Halls and Bazaars, 3 ? . 25
12. Prisons, . : é ; : . ag
13. Bridges, . : ; : . ae 2 |
CONTENTS OF THE PLATES (VIL 1—60)
TO
*, The references for explanations of the subjects are to the bottom paging of the text.
PAGE PAGE
PLATE 1. PLATE 4—(Continued.)
1. Rock temple of Mavalipuram, 3 | Fig. 6. Temple on the island of Phile, . 5
2. Pagoda at Chalembaram, 3| “« 7. Rock-cut tombs of Silsilis, 7
3. Pagoda at Tretshengur, i « 8. Entrance to the temple of shame
4, Pagoda near Benares, , : at Denderah, 15
5. Interior of the temple of Indra, . 2
6, 7. Grotto temples, ; 2 PEATE, S.
Cy Figs. 1-6. ga a Apollinopolis :
1. Temple of Kailasa near Ellora, . 2 de! teat, ea a line OF Carnak, 192
2. Temple of Indra Sabah at Ellora, 1 « 8-11. Details from the same, . 12
3. Interior of the grotto temple on « 12. Catacombs at Thebes, : 10
the island of Elephanta, _ 2 « 13,14. Catacombs of Alexandria, 16
4. Interior of the temple of Wisua
Karmah at Ellora, : 1 PLATE 6.
PLATE 3. Fig A ee in a if
Figs. 1,2. Sculptures from Nineveh, 19 . Ba ak aah 7a? eo
8 3-11. Fragments from Persepolis, 9] 3. Section ofa pyramid at Memphis, 17
1 eth of Nakekaciehin 91 « 4, Pyramid at Assur in Rabie 16
13-15. Hindoo pillars 94| “ 5. Colossi at Thebes, 9
ps ** | «. 6, The Sphinx of Gizeh, 17
PLATE 4. « 7. Hall of the palace at Carmak, 12
1. Temple of Antzopolis, 16 « 8, Entrance into the palace ofLuxor, 11
2. Theatre in Antinoe, . 7) iG « 9, Propylea on the island of Phile, 5
3. Ruins of Apollinopolis Magna, ; if 7
4. Temple of Carnak, thule ae
5a. Temple of Tentyra, . 15 | Figs. 1-24. Illustrating general conside-
5b. Temple at Latopolis, 8 rations on architecture, 22-32

CONTENTS.

PLATE 8,
Fig. 1. The Acropolis of Tiryns,
« 9. Section of the same, .
« 3,4. The Grottoes of Gorneto,
« 5. The Gate of the Lions at Mycene,
« 6. Section through the same, . ;
«© 7. Entrance of the Treasury of
Atreus at Mycene, 4
« 8. Section of the same, .
« 9-1]. Plan and sections of the Gi-
ganteja on the Island of
Gozzo,

PLATE 9.

View of ancient Athens,
. Western front of the Parthenon,
. The temple of Theseus,
. The Tower of the Winds, .

6 4

5
sicrates, .

6. Temple of Segesta in ‘Sicily,

PLATE 10.

. 1,2. Temple of Jupiter at Olympia,
3-5. Temple of Theseus, ?

« 6. Eastern front of the Parthenon,

«7. Plan of the Parthenon,

« 8,9. Temple of Minerva Polins, Page a

«« 10-12. The Odeon in Athens, . i

13, 14." Dorie portico, . :

*« 15. Temple on the Ilissus,

« 16. The temple of Diana in Eleusis, .

« 17. Temple of Cybele in Sardis,

gentum,

« 20,21. Temple at Pzestum,

& 22, 23. Temple at Euxomus in Tonia,

«94-97, Temples at Pestum, :

PLATE 11.
Fig. 1. The Acropolis of Athens,

« 2. Temple of Jupiter Olympius in
Athens, elevation,

«3. Ditto, plan’,

« 4. Ditto, section,

« 5. Temple of Minerva Polias, Erech-
theus, and the Hall of the
Ny mph Pandrosos in Athens
(restored view),

« 6. Longitudinal section of the Par-

thenon in Athens,

pes 7, Oy Temple of Castor Ga Pollux

in Rome, .

« 9-12. Temple of Faustina in Rome,

« 13. Plan of the temple of Cybele in
Sardis, :

« 14, Plan of the temple of Concordia
in Agrigentum,

« 15. Plan of the temple of Teno in
Agrigentum, 3

* 16,17. Plans of Doric temples ; in Se-
linuntie,

« 18. Plan of the temple of Ceres in
Pestum, .

- «© 19. Plan of the temple of Minerva; in

Sunium,

« 206. Plan of the temple of f Apollo at
Basse,

PLATE 12.
Figs. 1,2. Temple of Diana at Ephesus, .

. The Choragian monument of Ly-

PAGE

33
33
36
34
34

34
34

37
43
38
39

40
52

46
38
43
43
43
41
4]
40
45
A7

51
50
48
ol

42
38)

39
39

Vv
PAGE
PLATE 12—(Continued.)

Figs. 3,4. Temple of Apollo at Miletus, 48
« 5,6. Temple of Bacchus 4 Teos, 50
« 7,8. Temple of Diana in Magnesia, 49
« 9. Ruins of the temple of Neptune

at Pestum, . 50
« 10,11. Temple of Jupiter at Selinun-
tie, . . ae
« 12. Temple of the Sun i in ‘Palmyra, a is
« 13,14. Temple of Nemesis at Rham-
nus, A : : ae Fi
“« 15,16. TempleofPortumnus at Ostia, 92
« 17. Temple of Jupiter in Rome, 62
PLATE 13.

Fig. 1. Ruins of Baalbec, 55

« 9, Plan of the temple of the Sun at
Baalbec, 5a

« 3. Plan of the temple of Tapiter at
Baalbee, Ss
« 4,5. Temple of Concordia i in Rome, 72

« 6. Plan of the temple of the Sun in
Palmyra, . 53

« 7. Plan of the temple of Mars in
* “Rome; : %

« 8. Plan of the temple of Portumnus
in Ostia, 92

« 9. Plan of the temple of Serapis in
al Pozzuoli, 92

« 10. Plan of the temple of Augustus
in Pompeii, . : 80

« 11. Plan of the Rotunda on the Via
Prenestina in Rome, Sie

« 12. Plan of the temple of Theseus in
Athens, 38

“« 138Plan“of the temple of Fupiter in
/®gina, 5 45
« 14,15. Portico of Metellus, 62, 66
“«< 16,17. Forum of Nerva, . we. 3)

ee 18-22ab. Mausoleum at Halicarnas-
sus, ; 48

PLATE 14,

Fig. 1. The Forum Romanum, ™% 63
« 2. Amphitheatre of Flavius, 65, 78
« 3. Half ground plan of the Coli-

seum, 65, 78
« 4. Section of the ‘Amphitheatre at
Verona, . 78
« 5. Section of the Amphitheatre at
Nismes, F : i Poke
PLATE 15.
Figs. 1,2. Temple of Neptunein Pestum, 50
« 3-5. Temple of Jupiter at Olympia, 46
Bee Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus
in Rome, . 4 a) Weil
« 8. Temple of the Sun in Rome, 93

« 9. Plan of the Temple of Quirinus
in Rome, Se oe,
« 10,11. Maison Quarrée in a Nismes, aye 74

ee ES) 1S. Temple of Honor and Virtue
in Rome, 73

« 14. Plan of the temple of Ceres at
Pestum, 50

« 15. Plan of the temple of Jupiter in in
Forli, 82

e 16. Pian of the temple of Pietas in
Rome, 61

« 17. Plan of the temple of Janus in
Rome, 61

PLATE 15—(Continued.)
Fig. 18. Plan of the temple of Spes in

PAGE

61
> Place c the temple of Minerva i in
Syracuse, 51
PLATE 16.
Figs. 1-6. Temple of Venus and Rome
in Rome, 86
« 7,8. Temple of F ortuna Virilis in
Rome, . . “ee
« 9-12. Temple of Vesta i in Tivoli; 73
« 13. Ruins of the temple of Jupiter at
Baalbec, 55
« 14, Plan of the temple of J upiter
Olympius in Athens, 39
« 15. Plan of the temple of the Sun in
Rome, 93
« 16. Plan of the temple of the Sun in
Baalbec, . 55
«“ 17. Plan of the temple of i spiter Ne-
meus near Corinth, 46
« 18. Plan of the temple of Minerva at
Priene, , 48
« 19. Plan of the temple of Diana at
Eleusis, AT
« 20. Plan of the temple of Jupiter at
Ostia, . 76
« Q]. Plan of the temple = Minerva i:
Assisi, : ee i:
« 92, Plan of a temple at Palmyra, 54
« 93. Plan of the temple of Nemesis at
Rhamnus, . 47
« 94. Plan of the temple of Hercules at
Cori, . 73
« 925. Plan of the temple of Augustus
at Pola, 75
« 96. Plan of a temple at Selinuntiz, hE Be
« 97. Plan of a temple at Palmyra, 54 |
« 98. Plan of the temple of Fortune in
Pompeii, . 80
« 99. Plan of the chapel of “Mercury in in
Pompeii, . 81
x 30. iinet the chapel of Isis in Pom-
80
se Dk ise of ‘the temple of ZEsculapius
in Pompeii, . 80
« 32. Plan of the temple of Nike Apte-
ros in Athens, 32
« 33. Plan of the temple of Themis at
Rhamnus, . ele |
« 34. Plan of a temple at Selinuntia, Sy
« 35. Plan of the temple of Diana in
Eleusis, 5 45
« 36. Plan of an Ionic temple at Athens, AQ
« 37. Plan of the temple of Jupiter at
Pompeii, 80
« 38. Plan of a temple of the Sybil in in
Tivoli, 73
PLATE 17.
Figs. 1-3. The Odeon of Pericles at
Athens, . Al
« 4-7. The Pantheon in Rome, -,, 0g
« 8-13. The island of the Tiber, with
its temple and bridges, 61, 67
« 44, The bridge of Aimiliusin Rome, 67
« 15. The bridge of Senatorsin Rome, 68
« 16ab. Triumphal arch at Xaintes, 83

“ 17ab. The arch of Gabius in Verona, 83, 93 |

CONTENTS.

PLATE 17—(Continued.)
Fig. 18ab. Trajan’s triumphal arch at An-

PAGE

cona, . 86
« 19ab. Trajan’ 8 triumphal arch at Be-
neventum, 85
=< oe Triumphal arch of Septimius Se-
verus in Rome, . 90
« 21. Constantine’s triumphal arch in
Rome, 96
em 22ab. Pedestals at Palmyra; 54
s« 23ab. The tomb of the Horatii near
Albano, . : a
PLATE 18.
Figs. 1-7. Hadrian’s mausoleumin Rome, 86
« 8,9. The Trophzon of ea
near 'Torbia, 74
«“ 10. Sepulchre of Septimius Severus i in
Rome, 91
<« lie Trajan’ s triumphal arch in
Beneventum, 85
« 13,14. Constantine’s triumphal arch
in Rome,. 96
« 15,16. Triumphal arch of Marius i in
Orange, . 83
“ 17,18. Triumphal arch of Titus in
Rome, 83
« 19ab. Gate of Verona, 93
« 20,21. Triumphal arch of Angusts
at Pola, 2 83
«22,23. Gate of Mylasa, . A8
“4 24-30. Trajan’s column in Rome, 84
«31-36. Column of Marcus Aurelius
in Rome, . 89
PLATE 19. ;
Fig. 1. Doric capital from Pestum, 24, 50
« 2. Ditto, from Delos, 24, 47
« 3. Ditto, from Pestum, . ‘ 24, 50
« 4, Ditto, from Albano, . 84, 95, 100
« 5. Ditto, from Rome, : x 12
« 6ab. Ionic capitals from Athens, 25,44
« 7,8. Ditto, from Rome,. . 22,09, 102
(ae) Corinthian capital from
Athens, . 25, 29, 103
« 10. Ditto, from Athens, . 25, 40, 103
« 1. Ditto, from Rome, oo, 11, te
« 12. Ditto, from Rome, . 25, 63, 103
« 13. Ditto, fom Rome,’ . 25, 28, 70, 103
« 14, Composite capital from Albano, 104
« 15. Ditto, from Rome, 94, 104
« 16,17. Attic base from Athens, 44
«“ 18. Corinthian base from Athens, 40,44
« 19. Ditto, from Tivoli, x
« 90. Ditto, from Rome, 63
« 921. Ditto, from Rome, . i
oe Ornamented base from Nismes, 28, 103
« 93. Ditto, from Rome, : . 103
<2. Crowning flower from Athens, 40
« 925,26. OrnamentedshaftsfromRome, 103
« 27. Architrave soffit from Rome, 29,77
« 28. Ditto, from Rome, 29, 83
« 29. Frieze from Palmyra, a oo
« 30. A Persian, . ee
“« 3h, A Caryatide, 25, 44
« 39.33. Terminal statues (Herme) 30
ae 34-38. Antefixe, : 30
PLATE 20.
Fig. 1. Tuscan order, 98, 99
« 2. Dorie order, 99

CONTENTS. Vii
PAGE PAGE
PLATE 20—(Continued.) PLATE 25.
3. Ionic order, 99 Figs. 1-11. Details of Chinese houses, 116
4. Corinthian order, 99 12. Chinese ceiling, . % 117
5. Composite order, 99 « 13. Chinese window, 116
6. Tuscan column srrangement with « 14,15. Chinese roofs, 116
arches, : eae « 16. Dwelling of a mandarin, It]
7. Tuscan pedestal, 99 “ 17. Porcelain tower near Pekin, ay)
8. Doric entablature, 25, 28, an, 50, 100 « 18,19. Pagoda at Ho-nang, ey)
9. Details of the Doric omen. 24, 101 « 20. Entrance to the temple of Confu-
10-13. Illustrating the reduction and cius in T'sing-hai, 117
torsion of columns, . 104,105
14. Scotia of the Attic base, . 27,29, 104 PLATE 26.
14a. A Corinthian door, . 106 | Fig. 1. Bridge in the district of Tlascala, 120
15. Doric door, 106 « 2. Temple at Xochicalco, 120
16-19. Balusters, 104 « 3. Pyramid of Teotihuacan, 121
9] « 4. Thehouse ofthe rulerin Yucatan, 123
ae « 5ab. Details from the same, 123
1. Tuscan column arrangement, 99 « 6. Pyramid of Tuzapan, 121
2. Doric entablature, 100 « 7, Pyramid of Papantla, 119
3. Dorie column arrangement, 100 «* §. Fragment from the front of the
4. Ionic capital, 101 Temple of the Two ronan
5. Ionic column arrangement, 101 in Uxmal, : _ 499
6. Corinthian capital, 102
7. Corinthian column arrangement, 102 PLATE 27.
8. Composite capital, 104 Fig. 1. Plan of St. Marcelline’s church
9. Arrangement of Composite co- ene eh 194
lumns, 103) « 9% Plan of St. Martin’s: church in
PLATE 22. at ae 125
. ec 8S) Plan ‘oPthe church of Parenzo, 125
# ae ee cee ; ee « 4. Plan of St. Paul’s before the walls
3. Doric capital and entablature, 100 sy of Rome, 125, 128
4. Tonic base and pedestal, 102 5. Plan of St, Peter’s basilica in
5. Ionic capital and entablature, 102 Rome, 129
6. Corinthian base and pedestal, 102 « 6. Plan of the basilica Santa Maria P
7. Corinthian capital and entabla- Maggiore in Rome, 125, 139
ture} . 102 « 7. Plan of the church of the eh
8. Composite base and pedestal 103 _ Cross, Jerusalem, 130
9. Composite capital and entabla- 8-13. The basilica St. Lorenzo in
ture 103 Rome, 129
; « 14, Church of St. Acnes near
PLATE 23. Rome, pet gal 25,130
1. Tuscan arcade, . 99 « 15. Basilica of St. Stephen i in Rome, 125
2.3. Doric arcades, 100 « 16. Romanesque basilica, > #26
4,5. Ionic arcades, 102 “ 17. St. Clement’s basilica in Rome, 126, 128
6, 7. Corinthian arcades, 102 * 18. Rear view of a basilica, . 126
8,9. Composite arcades, 103 « 19, 20. Ciborium and choir of St. Cle-
ment’s in Rome, 127, 128
PLATE 24, « 21-24. Baptisteries, . 137
1. Men-hir in Bretagne, . 108} “ 25-27. Baptismal fonts, 127
2. Half Dolmen of Kerland, 108 « 28. Baptistery in Cividale, 127
3. Dolmen of Trie, 109 « 29. Baptistery in the basilica of St.
4, Double Doliien of the (land of Agnes i in Rome, . 127
Anglesea, 110 « 30. Cloister in St. Paul’s basilica be-
5. Trilith at St. Nazaire, 108, 109 fore Rome, . 126
6. Druid altar near Gleder. Tt
ig Rocking stone near West Hoadley, 112 PLATE 28,
8. Rocking stone of Perros-Guyrech, 112/| Fig. 1. Panhagia Nicodimo in Athens, 131
9. Covered way in Morbihan, 110 « 2. Church of Samara in Greece, 131
10. Dolmen of Locmariaquer, . 109 « 3,4. St. Sophia’s in Constantinople, 133
11. Grotto near Esse, : ; 110 « 5-12. The church of Theotokus in
12. Grotto des Fées near Tours, 110 Constantinople, . 135
13,14. The witches’ grotto near « 13,14. Details of the Panhagia Nico-
Saumur, . : 109 dimo, . 133
15. Mound at Salisbury, : 113 © 15: St. Jebus Church i in Paitin, 142
16. Galleries in a mound near Pomie, me ie « 16. Chureh in Trani, : = abot
17. Section of a mound in the Ork- « 17. St. Castor’s church i in Coblentz, . 149
neys, 114 «“ 18. Mausoleum of Theodoric in Ra-
18. Pierced stone near Duneau and venna, 141
Gallic Tomb, 111, 114 « 19. Capital from the Turkish baths in
19. Cromiech from the Orkneys, 115 Constantinople, . : - 133

CONTENTS.

PAGE

PLATE 29.

Figs. 1-8. St. Vital’s church in Ravenna, 136
«9-17. The Catholicon in Athens, 136
« 18. Plan of St. Sophia’s in Constan-

tinople, ; of pod 4.
« 19. Plan of the mosque ‘Achmed in
Constantinople, » WlSy
PLATE 30.

Figs. 1,2. St. Peter’s basilica in Rome, . 129
« . 3-5. Cathedral of Pisa, . ». 138
« 6, 7. St. Mark’s church in Venice, . 134
« 8. Court of the mosque of Osman in

Constantinople, . : . W145
“ — Q9ab. Cathedral of Bonn, 139, 142, 149
* 10,11. Ruins of a Latin basilica near
Athens, 131
« 12. Plan of the church of Geant, 131
“ 13. Side portal of St. Nicodemus’ s
church in Athens, } 132
«“ 14. Choir of St. Theotokus’s ci
in Constantinople, 132
«15-23. Details from Byzantine edi-
fices, « 132, 188
“94, Plan of the church of St. oe :
in Rome, 130
«© 25. Plan of the basilica in Tyre, 131
PLATE 31.

Fig. 1. Interior of the mosque of Cordova, 143

«2. Interior of the hall Maksourah
in the mosque of Cordova, . 143

« 3. Interior of the chapel Zancaron
in Seville, 145

« 4, Entrance of the villa El Genera:
life in Granada, . 145

« 5. Court of the mosque El = Moyed in in
Cairo, 146

PLATE 32.

Fig. 1. The Court of the Lions in Alham-
bra 144
« Q-19. Details om Aten, 5 les
« 13. The Golden Hall in (Mita brs ~ villa
« 14. The Hall of the Two Sisters, 144

« 15. The mosque at Cordova, am
dinal section, sone 2S)
« 16-25. Details from the same, 143

« 26. Mosque of Ebn Touloun in Cairo,
longitudinal section, 145
« 97-33. Details from the same, . 145

PLATE 33.

Fig. 1. Plan of the mosque at Cordova,. 143
« 9-4. Details from the same, 143
« 5, Plan of the mosque of Ebn Wot

loun at Cairo, ; a> AAS
« 6. Court in the same, . 145
« 7. Plan of the mosque of El- Moyed
in Cairo, 146
« 8. Mausoleum at Bedjapur, 146
« 9. Kutub Minar near Delhi, 146
« 10. The Antler Tower in Ispahan, 146
«11-20. The abbey of Lorsch, 140
« 21-26. Basilica St. Saba at Rome, 130
PLATE 34,
Figs. 1-39. Details illustrating the ar-
chitecture of the Middle
Ages, . . 147-160
« 40. The vibe deal of f Cologne a as it is
to be, . 163

PAGE
PLATE 35.
Fig. 1. Plan of the church St. Germain
de Prés, . sat
«2. ~Cross-arms of a transept, 148
“ 3. Portal of Notre Dame la Grand
in Poitiers, . 148
“« 4-15. Details illustrating the ar-
chitecture of the Middle
Ages, . : 147-160
. © 16,17. The minster of Freyburg, 160
PLATE 36.
Figs. 1-41. Details illustrating the ar-
chitecture of the Middle
Ages, . i . 147-160
« 42, The minster of Strasburg, . 161
PEATE (7.
Figs. 1-22. Details illustrating the ar-

eae, of the Middle
Age . 147-160
eS Ae aes of St. Michael and

St. Gudula in Brussels, 166
« 24, The cathedral of Antwerp, 166
« 25. Interior of St. pce: ehureh
in Vienna, 165
PLATE 38.
Figs. 1-19. Details illustrating the ar-
chitecture of the Middle
Ages, 147-160
« 20. The minster at York, : . 2
«© 21. Interior of the cathedral of Milan, 170
«22. The cathedral of Burgos, 171
PLATE 39.
Figs. 1-44. Details illustrating the ar-
chitecture of the Middle
Ages, . 147-160
« 45. The cathedral of Rouen, 168
PLATE 40.

Fig. 1. Plan of Notre Dame in Paris, 167
«2. Plan of the cathedral at Milan, 169
« 3-39. Details illustrating the ar-

chitecture of the Middle
Ages, : 147-160
« AQ. Interior of Notre Dame in Paris, 167

PLATE 41.

Figs. 1-12. Details from the cathedral of
Cologne, . . 164
« 13,14. Cathedral of Magdebure, 166

«15. Interior of the Collegiate church
in Manchester, 173

« 16. Interior of the chuaroh of St. Singon
at Palermo, 171
“« 17. Interior of Melrose abbey, . : .
« 18. Cryptunder the abbey of St. Denis, 168

PLATE 42.

Fig. 1. The church of St. Zacharias in
Venice, é 174

« 2-5. The church of Notre Demon in
Vetheuil, . 180

« 6-14. Church near ie charter- ‘house
near Pavia, 177
« 15-18. The royal sane in Voniees . 176

«“ 19. Portal of the Ecole des Beaux
Arts in Paris, : 179

crn Triumphal arch of Alphonso ,
in Naples, ‘ 178

Figs.

“cc

Figs.

Figs.
€6
“

CONTENTS.
PAGE
PLATE 43. PLATE 48.
1-3. Church of the Redeemer in Figs. 1,2. St. Magdalene’s church in
Venice, P 175 Parisi.) on t é
4-16. Chureh of St. Francis j in Pe- « 3-5. The Pantheon in Paris, ,
rugiags.| 178 « 6. Plan of Notre Dame de Lorette
#. Plan. of i church of St. Zacha- insParis,.)
rias in Venice, . 174 FF rls Sau Dae @ayncen onan at iPdis-
18,19. Monument of the Doge Ven- dam
dramini in Venice, . 176 « 9, The church of St. Tenatius in
20-22. Monument of Louis XII. in Rome, : ; : ;
St. Denis, 179 “« 10,11. The church of San Carlo alle
23. Capital from the triumphal arch Quattro Fontane in Rome,
of Alfonso I. in Naples, 178 « 12. The bell tower of Palermo, :
PLATE 44. PLATE 49,
1-4, St. Peter’s in Rome, 184 | Figs. 1-3. St. Paul’s church in London, .
PLATE 405. «A, 5. Chureh of St. Sulpice in Paris,
1,2. The church Della Superga in « 6. Plan of Santa Maria del Fiore in
Brain syieiex 190 Florence,
3,4. The church of the Assumption «7. Interior of the ehureh of All
in Genoa, 189 Saints in Munich,
5. The basilica in Vicenza, 188 s¢ 8. Interior of the church in Faubourg
6. The church of Santa Maria del Au in Munich, , .
Fiore in Florence, 182 eure SO.
7-9. oe ips Obes in 184 Mie, 1 ae: Oe the Invalides’ church in
10. The church delle Figlie in Venice, 188 if
11. The church of Trevignano, 188 : Se of St. Louis i a n Munich, .
Ke . Werder church in Berlin, :
PLATE 46. « 4. The chapel of St. Ferdinand at
1. Interior of St. Magdalene’s church Sablonville, ;
im Pang?!) 195 «5. The church Santa Maria della
2. The church of Notre Dame de Vittoria in Rome,
Lorette in Paris, . 188 « 6,7. The church della Consolazione
3,4. The church of St. Gervais and in Todi, . ‘
St. Protais in Paris, . 191 « 8. Ground plan of a church ‘ in the
5. The church of St. Paul and St. form of a Latin cross, .
Louis in Paris, . 191 « 9. Plan of the church San "Andrea
6,7. The church of Mary Magda- in Mantua, .
lene at Bridgenorth, . 188 “10-12. The chapel of the Knights of
8. All Saints church in Munich, 196 Malta in St. Petersburg, .
9. The basilica St. Boniface in «13. The clock tower in Venice,
Munich, . 197
10. The church of San Giorgio Mag- PLATE Ol,
giore in Venice, . 187 | Figs. 1-4. The palace of Caserta near
11. The chureh of St. Francesco de Naples,
la Vigna in Venice, 188 « 5, Court of the Palazzo Saoli in
12. The church of San Pietro in Genoa, :
Montorio in Rome, 184 « — 6. Plan of the palace of Laeken,
13, 14. Chapel at Fresnes, 192 «; 7. Plan of the country seat of the
15. Plan of he basilica Bibiana in duke of Argyle in Scotland,
Rom 131 « 8-13. Markets, :
16. Plan of the church of St. Agnes
in Rome, . : 97, 130 PLATE 92.
17. Plan of the basilica Talia t inRome, 131] Figs. 1,2. The Louvre in Paris, ,
18. Plan of the church St. Cosmo e «© 3. The papal Cancelleria in Rome,
Damiano, . 131 « 4, The papal palace in Rome,
19, 20. Church Madonna degli An- « 5. The Palazzo Paolo in Rome,
geliin Rome, . 189 « 6. The Palazzo Sora in Rome,
21,22. The church of St. Cyriacus « 7. The Palazzo Sacchetti in Rome,
in Ancona, ila « 8. The Villa Medici in Rome,
eanewan « 9. The Palazzo Giraud in Rome,
: ; ; “ 10a—c. The Casa Silvestri in Rome, .
1-6. The Hotel des Invalides in © 11. Ground plan of an antique Roman
Paris, 192 building,
7,8. St. Isaac’s church in St. Pe-
tersburg, . 200 PLATE 93.
9-11. The church of the Sorbonne Fig. 1. The palace of the Tuileries in
in Paris, . 192 Faris, .
12-14. The church of the Assumption « 2,3. The navy department i in Paris,
in Paris, . 193 « 4, The Luxembourg palace in Paris,

PAGE

206

CONTENTS.

PLATE 53—(Continued.)

PAGE

Fig. 5. The palace of Laeken, . 207
6. Plan of the kc in Mu-
nich, . 209
7-9. The ‘column of the Place
Vendome in Paris, 214
10a6, 11. The column of J uly in Paris, 214
12,13. The bell tower in Rome, 183
PLATE 54,
1. The palace of Versailles, 206
2. The battle gallery in the same, . 206
3. The Palazzo Doria Tursi in Ge-
noa,’<7 203
4, The Fontana Pabiina in Romp: . 204
5. The fountain of Marius, 204
6-9. Doors from Roman palaces, 204
PLATE 90.
. 1,2. The Walhalla at Ratisbon, 215
‘ 3ab. Candelabra from the same, 215
4-6. The royal residence in Amster-
dam, . 207
7. The city hall at ‘Maestricht, 209
8,9. The town hall in Neuenburg,. 210
PLATE 56.
1. The Capitol at Washington, 210
2. The Glyptothek in Munich, 209
3. The edifice for exhibitions in
Munich, . 209
4. The Exchange in New York, 211
5-7. The Exchange in Paris,. 210,211
8,9. Plans of the Exchange oA Ghent, 210
10. The University of Ghent, 211
11. The Exchange in London, 211
PLATE 57.
1. The triumphal arch in Paris, Das
2,3. The Paris observatory, . 211
4, The theatre at Dresden, - 208
5,6. The theatre in St. Petersburg, 208
7. St. Charles theatre in New Or-
leans, . - 208

PLATE 57—(Continued.)

Fig. 8. The Custom-house in New York,

9. Plan of the Palazzo del Te in
Mantua, c

10-12. Casino in Liége, .
13. The museum in Cassel,
14. Old Exchange in Amsterdam,
15ab. Plans of earavansaries, F
16ab,17. Watchhouses, . 3
18. Plan of the prison in Aix, .

PLATE 58.

. J-4. Grain hall in Paris,
5-7. Market of St. Germain in Paris,
8. The market at Pavia,
9,10. The Magdalene market in
Paris,
11. Plan of the market in Baal
12,13. The Almeidan at Ispahan,

PLATE 59.

. 1-14. The prison at Halle,

15. Plan of the prison of Newgate in
London, .
16-18. Plans of Baeence in Ghent,
Milan, and Amsterdam,

PLATE 60.

1,2. Bridge over the Rialtoin i

fo8 8, Bridge at Ispahan, .

7. Bridge of Gignac,

8-10. Bridges at Paris, . :
11. Waterloo bridge in London,
12. Bridge of St. Maizence,

13. Bridge of Kosen, ;
14. Bridge of Zwetau, . "
15. Bridge over the Taff,

16. Bridge over the Melfa,

17. Bridge of the Ticino,.

18. Bridge near Lyons,

19, 20. Chinese bridges,

21. Bridge of Toledo, .

22, The bridge of Colebrookdale,

PAGE

213

202
212
208
211
212
213
217

215
216
216

216
216
217

217
217
217

218
220
218
218
219
218
219
219
219
218
218
219
220
219
219

CONTENTS

MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

[The numbers refer to the bottom paging of the text.]

Introduction, . ‘ 4 pre : 4 3 s

Polytheism, . f : : : . ° :
Non-Classic Bile ity’ : : ; :
I, The Religious Systems of Tidy : . °
1. Mythology and Worship of the Hindaea! ;
2. The Religion of Buddha, or Buddhism,
3. Lamaism, . : : : : °
4, Chinese Mythology, . . : ‘
5. Japanese Mythology, . - - . °

6. Javanese Mythology, .
II. The Religion of the Ancient Bains (Pasecism) :
III. Egyptian Mythology, ;
. 1. Introduction, .
2. Special Mythology,
IV. Mythology of the Babylonians, ecient sel Ponds
V. Northern Mythology, - : ;
1. Scandinavian Mythology,
2. German Mythology, .
3. Slavono-Vendic Mythology,
VI. Mythology of the Gauls,
VII. Mythology of the Mexicans,
Classic Antiquity, .
I. The Religious Siratenit of ne Greeks,
Ges eecnic: and Theogonies, or the Origin of the World i of the
Gods, : ;

1. Superior or Olympic Gaus

2. Gods of the Lower World, : s :

3. The Inferior Gods, . ‘ 5 ‘ : -

4, Subordinate or Ministering Deities, . : . -

5. Aerial Gods or Winds, ¢ ‘ : é :

6. Gods of the Water, - : ;

7. Gods of the Mountains, Benasts and F ‘elds, : P ;

8. Goddesses of Time, . : - ‘e ;

9. The Charites, or Graces, s " : ‘ ‘
10. The Muses, . ; : : . A .

CONTENTS.

Polytheism—( Continued.)

11. Nocturnal Deities, .

12. The Heroes, . ‘
13. The Giants, . :
14. The Pygmies, .

15. Sacred Animals, :
16. The Genii,

Theology and Worship of the Gros,

II. The Religious System of the Romans,
1. The Gods of the First Order, .
A. The Twelve Superior Gods,

B. The Eight Inferior Gods,

2. The Gods of the Second Order,

A. Deities of the Social Feelings,
B
C. Deities of Time, .
D. River Gods, :
E
F. The Lares,
lag : : i
. The Mosaic Belgie
4 Christianity,
3. Mahomedanism,

MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

*, The references for explanations of the subjects are to the bottom paging of the text.

CONTENTS OF THE PLATES (VIL. Nos. 1—30)

PAGE

PLATE 1.
la. Vishnu the Creator, . : .* 224
1b. Brahm wrapped in the Maya, . 224
9. The Maya as Bhavani, . ee
3. Brahma, the creative power, . 224
4. Birth of Brahma, ; : ., BA
5. Siva, the destroying tae ot En
6. The Trimurti, , | BoA, 230
7. The Lingam, 994, 229, 230
8. The Hindoo symbol of wisdom,. 224
9. The figure Om or Aum, . Bas.
10. The Hindoo symbol of creation, 224
11. Pracnti, . . 224
12. The tortoise supporting the world, 224
13. The seven celestial spheres, . 224
14. Siva Mahadeva, ; 3 = B29

Fig.

24.

PLATE 1—(Continued.)

. Parvati,
, Lakshmi or ee

. Siva as Rudra, .

. Vishnu as man-lion, :

. Surya, the god of the sun, .

. Camadeva or Camos,

. Ganges, Jamuna, and Saraswadi,
. The giant Garuda,

. The giant Ravana,

Buddhistiec altar-piece, :
25-28. Buddhistic temple implements,

. Deities of Happy Conditions and Virtues, .

. Gods of the Mountains, Forests, ira F ielda:

PLATE 2.

1. The Trimurti,
2. Vishnu and Siva,

PAGE

350
351
363
363
363
364
364
867
369
369
375
376
376
376
377
378
878
379
381
381
382
383

PAGE

230
227
229
227
230
231
231
231
227
236
235

224
228

30,31. Abraxas Gems,

CONTENTS. xiii
PAGE PAGE
PLATE 2—(Continued.) PLATE 6—(Continued.)

3. Vishnu as a fish, 226 | Figs.16,17. Necklaces of the chief iieet

4. Vishnu as a tortoise, . 226 of the Tensja, .

5. Vishnu as a boar, 227 « 18-23. Javanese idols, 245

6. Vishnu as a dwarf, 227 7

7. Vishnu as Parasu Rama, 227 ; eee

8. Siva, 99g | Figs. 1,2. Persian processions, 7 . 249

9, Vishnu, : 998 ey. Persian Magi, . ‘ . 249
10. Vishnu as Krishna, . 998 « 4. Median high priest and Feruer, 246, 249
11. The nymphs of the Milk Boas 998 « 5. Persian fire worship and Feruer, 247, 249
12. Vishnu as Kaninki or Katki, 228 “« 6. Worship of the sun, . . 249
13. Siva as Hermaphrodite, 999| “ 7,8. The priest kings, 249
14. Siva on the giant Muyelagin, 299, 930| “ _9. Sacrifice by Mithras, . 248
15. Brahma and Saravadi, 226 « 10,11. Mythic animals, 250
16. Buddha, 933 - 12ab. Persian coin, . 250
17. Buddha-Surya, . ‘ 933 « 13. The celebration of the Darun, 249
18. The Hindoo solar system, . : 231 « 14. Idols of Afghanistan, 248
19. Mythic camel, 931 « 15-17. Abraxas Gems, 268
20. Hindoo penitents, « a282
21-24. Hindoo sacrificial utensils, i, 7233 Bie, 1. mpyieen tial iv eh 960
25-30. Mongolian idols, . 239 ep Pape Niescemie Bie. ® "960

PLATE. 3. « 3-5. Sacred ships, 260, 261
« 6. Egyptian Amun 253
. 1-5. Hindoo idols, BAT |Cas,, Stl ;

6. Vishnu on the giant Garuda, 228 s “f ee ia ’ Par oe.

7. Indian idol of Astrachan, .. 231 E. lr eo aes Gea i

Bi, Badal: ; 933 S Athor with the dove, . 254

BoA. Brakes, 939 « 10. Isis upon a lotus, 257
10-12. Hindoo ascetics, ps2 |. Hy ee ao!
13-20. Idols of Lamaism, Pela Gales ee =
21. Mongolian Lama, 938 13. Isis Eg lS we 297
99. Tartar Lama, . aise. fe ee eet ee oe

a . Osiris upon a cow,
93. Funeral of the Dalai eam. 239 bc BiG | Ost wathl the omeee, O56
PLATE 4, « 17. Amun, Isis, and Osiris, 255

1. Allegorical pillar from Barolli, . 232] “ 18. Hermes as Ibis,. 298

2. Chinese god of immortality, 940| “ 19. Horus, . 252

3,4. Chinese idols, 941 | “ 20. The bull Apis, 253

5. Worship at Honan, 241 « 21. Typhon, 251

6. Chinese bonzes, . 941| “ 22. Ailures, 259

7-13. Japanese idols, 244 «« 93. Serapis as the sun, 256
14.15. Japanese house gods, Q44 « 94. Serapis and the seven planets, 256
Temple of Nitsirin at Honrensi,. 235 « 25. Harpocrates, 258

Temple at Foocoosaizi, 935 « Q6ab. Sacred jugs, . 961
iol Buddhistie temple implements, 935| “ 27a—-c. Egyptian mete idols, 259
33-36. Buddhistic votive tablets, 936| “ 28. The Sistrum, 257

« 99. The sacred patel: 959
PLATE 5. « 30. The Egyptian zodiac, 265

1. Worship of Fo in Canton, 241 « 31. Priests and priestesses of Isis, 262

2,3. Japanese idols, . 244

4. Temple of Miro j in J apan, 943 PLATE 9.

5-10. Japanese idols, 944 | Fig. 1. Kneph, . 255
11. Chapel of the Sane Givon, 243 « 2. Isis nursing Osiris, 257
12,13. The two Inan, 243 «© 3. Isis nursing Horus, 257
14-17. The four Sea 943 «« 4. Osiris as a lion, . 256
18-36. Japanese temple Tice. 944| “ 95. Osiris asa bull, . 256
37,38. Japanese monks, . 945 « 6. Anubis, Hermes, or Thot, ¢ .eeee58
39, 40. Buddhistic priests, 935 « 7. Anubis and Isis, . . e252
41. Blind monk of Japan, 945 « 8, Anubis, Canop, and Horas, 252
42. Japanese nun and lay sister, 245 <u) Do The wolf, . 2959

ce 1.0) “Whe tribunal of the dead, 267
PLATE 6, « 11-14. Head-dresses of - Egyptian
1-3. Japanese idols, 944 idols, ;

"4. Chief priest of the Tengja, . é 935| “« 15,16. Sacred jugs, . : 261

5. Priest of the same, : 935 « 17-19. Egyptian family ‘doles ; 259

6. High priest of Japan, . 243 « 90,21. Egyptian mathioe animals, 259

7, 8. Buddhistiec priests, . 235 « 99. A sphinx, . 260

9. Chinese procession, 949 « 93. The Sistrum, 257
10. Chinese fanatic, 242 « 94-98. Sacred vessels, 261
11. Japanese procession, . F 245 « 99, Mystic procession, 265
12-15. Japanese temple utensils, 244 a 268

Fig.

PLATE 10.
1. Head of Isis,

CONTENTS.

PAGE

PLATE 13—(Continued.)

257 Fig. 8. Aske and Emla, the first human

PAGE

2. Isis Pharia, 257 beings, 274
3,4. Statues of Isis, 257, 258 « 9. Radegast, . : 290
5, 6. Serapis and Isis, . See « 10. Sieba, soddess of love, 291
7. Statue of Serapis, . S56 - di. Podaga, 290
8. Serapis on his throne, . 256) “ 12ab. Perkunust, 290
9. Isis nursing Horus, . got « 13. Nemisa, 291
10,11. Statues of Osiris, . , Se « 14a. Sarmatian ial, 291
12,13. Statues of Anubis, - 258 « 146. Silesian idol, 291
14. Statue of Harpocrates, .. 958 « 15,16. Northern idols, 291
15. Harpocrates on a ram, =: } 258 “ 17,18. Gallic Jupiter, ; 295
16. The Nile, . ~ 260 « 19. Gallic Vulcan, . - . 295
17. The Nile key, - 260 « 20. Gallic Mereury, 284
18. Kneph as Agathodemon, a5 « 21. Hereules Saxanus, 295
19-22. Votive hands, 263 « 22. Gallic Diana, 295
23,24. Sphinxes, . 260 « 23. Mercury, Abelio, Vulean, Ceres,
25. The flower of the lotus, 260 and Minerva, 294, 295, 296
26-31. Egyptian priests, . 262 « 24,25. Druid and Druidess, . 296
32-34. Egyptian priestesses, 262 « 26. Annual search for the mistletoe,. 297
35. Sacrifice to Isis, 261
PLATE 14.
PLATE 11. Figs. 1-7. Mexican idols, 301
1. Assyrian sacrifice, 269 « 8. Fragment of Aztek writing, 303
2. Syrian idol, . 269 « Q9ab. Mexican priestess, 303
3. The goddess Astarte,. 269 « 10. The Mexican year, 304
A, Phenician Deities, é . BA « 11. The Mexican almanac, 303
5. Pheenician procession of the gods, 271 « 12. Mexican altar top, 301
6. Odin, Thor, ick? Tyr, and «13. Mexican sacrifice, 301
Loke, . 210,210,019, 281 « 14-19. Idols of Guatemala, 301
7-16), Gdn, : : - B76 « 20. Altar with idols, . ool
llab. Norwegian idol, 281 « 21-24. Sacrificial vessels of Guate-
12. Ziselbog, 291 mala, . c 301
13. Ipabog, 291 « 95-28. Idols of Yucatan, 301
14, 15. Slavonic idols, 291 « 99. Sacrificial vase from Yucatan, 301
16. Nehalennia, 284 « 30,31. Abraxas Gems, 268
17,18. Runie stones, 276
19. Runiec calendar, oo OG PLATE Lo.
20. Chinese worship, 241,242| Figs. 1,2. Statues of Janus, . , . 368
“ Qab. Heads of Janus, . ¢ 68375
PLATE 12, « 3. Saturnus, g 5 : . 369
1. Frigga, 277 « 4, Opis or Ops, 368
2. Braga, ati | « 5. Jupiter as Deus pater, 370
3. Idunna, 278 « 7, Herm 314
4. Freya, ; a ee “3 8. Hestia, 319
5. Heimdall, . eee <9. Mesta; 375
6. The tree Yegedrasill and the <<, a. Which, 374
Norns, : 3745281, 282 « 11. Apollo, 327
7. The Valkyre, > bese « 12. Tages, ; 368
8. Triglav, : ; 291 *. <3, Mars the advancing, 5 aie
9. Svantevit, . : 290 « «14, Bellona, : 372
10. Radegast, . 290 scgal U5 Hermes, 323
11. Prove, 290 « 16. Ancharia, . 368
12. Siebog, 291 « 17. Aphrodite (Venus), 320
13. Shvaixtix,. 290 « 18. Vertumnus, 379
14, Nirthus or Hertha, 287 *« 19. Pomona, 379
15. Flyntz, E 291 « 20. Voltumna, 368
16. Magusanus, 294 « 2lab. Fortuna, 377
17. Alemanic idol, . 288 sc .99ab. Vejovis, . 368
18. Germanic religious ceremony, 299 «© 23. Asclepios (ZEsculapius), 341
19. Venus Anadyomene, . 295 « 24. Tyrrhenian Heracles, 359
20. The Gallic Isis, . 295 « 9Q4ab. Sacred coin, . 366
« 95. The shield dance of the Sali, 372
visi ak « -Q6ab. Demeter (Ceres), 316
1. Odin the supreme, 275 | «« Q27ab. Demeter and Zeus, . 316
2. Thor the thunderer, 276
3. Freyr, god of the sun, 279 PLATE 16.
4, Freya with her maids, 280 | Fig. 1. Faunus, 378
5. Njord, god of winds, . 279 « 2. Nemesis, 342
6. Tyr, god of battle fields, . 276 « ~ 3. Proserpine, 376
7. Hermode the messenger, O77 « . 4, The genius of death, . 351

CONTENTS. xv
PAGE PAGE
PLATE 16—(Continued.) PLATE 19—( Continued.)

Figs. 5,6. Two heroes, . 363 | Fi ig. 5. The muse Erato, 349
« 7-9. Lares, 379 6,7. Flora, . 379
« 10. Eon, 306 « 8. Fortuna, 5a
« 11,12. Cronos, 307 < §. A.naiad, 345
« 13. Cronos and ene 307 « 10. Genii, 364
« 14. Rhea, 309 “11. The Seasons, 377
« 15. Atys, Y 309 $2. "Tritons, 344
“ 16ab. Attributes of Atys,. 310 “ 13. Bacchanalia, : 366
«“ 17. The goat Amalthea, . 307 « 14. Priestess of Bacchus, . 367
« 18. Jupiter Axur, 368 « 15,16. Priestesses of Ceres, 375
« 19. Zeus Ammon, . : d s ‘Shl « 17,18. Grecian priest and priestess, . 367
« 20. The Olympian Zeus, . 311 © 19,20: Altars, ‘ . 365
«* 21. Zeus the Supreme, 311 « 21-47. Sacrificial utensils, 365
« 22. Zeus with the eagle, . 311 20
s© 23. Hera suckling Ares, . 314 ; ayia '

« 94. Bonus Eventus, . 377| Fig. 1. Argos guarding Io, 312
« 95. Ceres Catagusa, 375 «2. Leda and the swan, 313
« 26. Diana Lucifera, ; 374| “ 3,4. The Dioscuri, 359
« 97-33ab. Grecian sacrificial vessels,. 365| “ 5. Leto (Latona), . 313, 327
« 34. The Augures, : - 380 “6. Lunus, 376
i FE Apollo and Marsyas, 328

PLATE 17. ‘* 8. Aurora, 377

Fig. 1. Nux or Night, 350 « 9. Artemis Locheia, 330
«2. Celus, 329 « 10. Diana Lucifera, . 374
“fF 3. Rhea, 309 “ 11. Artemis Soleia, 330
« 4, Jupiter Axur, 368 « 12. Juno Sospita, 371
« 5. Zeus Hellenios, . 311 « 13. Helios, 328
- ee Jupiter receiving the homage of « 14. Artemis (Diana), 329

the gods, : E - 369 « 15. Artemis and her nymphs, 331
« % 8. Zeus as warrior, 311 « 15. Mountain nymphs, 347
« 9. Pelasgian Zeus, . : 311 % U7. Niobe, . 331
« 10. Zeus carrying off Europa, . 313 < 18: Amphion, . 331
«« il. Birth of Athene (Minerva), 313 « 19. Hermes the messenger, 324
© 12. Jupiter Conservator, . 370} “ 20. Hermes Agonios, 324
** 13. Pelasgian Hera, 314 « 21. Zeus with the eagle, . 341
« 14-17. Juno, . 370 « 22. Europa and the bull, . 313
« 18-21. Ares (Mars), 322| “ 23 The Panathenean festival at
« 22. Mars Pacificus, . 312 Athens, : : « 366
+ 20. Victoria (Nike), 377
« 94, Ganymede, 342 PLATE 21.
a eps, Hebe, : . 342 | Fig. 1. Artemis of Ephesus, 330
ae 16. Apollo and Daphne, : 328 « 2. Artemis Tauropolos, . 330
« 27. Sibylla, : : 380 « 3. Artemis Selene, 329
« 28. Apollo’s raven, . 397, 363 «<4, Hebe, 342
« 29. A sacrificial knife, 365 a a 5a . 342
« 30. The Delphian oracle, 367 « 6. Death of the children of Niobe, , oe

« 7. Nereus, 343

; PLATE 18. « 8. Palemon,. 344

Fig. 1. Zeus, 311| « 9. Nereid, 342
« 2. Zeus conquering ‘the Titans, 308 « 10. Taras, 315
«© 3. Europa on the bull, 313 f<- Tl... Peseidont*. 315
« 4. Zeus on the centaur, . 311 « 12. Poseidon and Pallas Athene, 316
“5. Ares and Aphrodite, . 321 « 13. Hippocamp, ! 345
« 6-8. Genii of Mars, 372| « 14. River god and naiad, . 345
«© 9. Nymph of Artemis, 329} “ 15ab. Nilus (the Nile), . 378
« 10. The Dioscuri, 355 | “ 16ab. Tibris (the Tiber), . 378
* 11. Poseidon, Amphitrite, and Eros, 332} “ 17-19. Sirens, r ‘ 361
« 12. Bacchanalian genii, 341] « 20. Artemis and Orion, 331
« 13. Dionysos gees). 337 « 21. Menade, 347
« 14. Apollo, 326 | “ 22. Hermes (Mercury), 324
« 15. Ariadne, 5 340
“ 16. Demeter (Ceres), 316 PLATE 22.

« 17-24. Roman sacrificial implements, 380 | Fig. 1. Hylas carried off ve seta 345
«« 25. The assembly of the gods, . 333 « 2. Nereids, 343

Cuenta 16 cf . By A Triton, . ‘ 344
; Set o 4. Pelasgian Poseidon, 315

Fig. 1. The twelve planet gods, 332 «« 5,6. Statues of Poseidon, 315
« 2. Zeus, Hermes, and ima 332 “« 7, 7a. Neptune, 4 371
ae Pallas Athene, . 317 “ 8. Hippocamp, . 345
«« 4, Ceres (Demeter), 375 | “ 9. Melicertes (Palemon), 344

xvi

PLATE 22—(Continued.)

ig. 10. Thetis,

11. Hebe, ¢ ;

12-15. The winds, .

16. Boreas bearing off Oreithyia
17. Hades (Pluto), .

18ab. Proserpine (Persephone),
19. Sacrifice to Neptune, .

PLATE 23.

Hades (Pluto), .
Zeus Ammon,
Hades (Pluto), . :
Poseidon and Amymone, .
5ab. Nemesis, :

6. Hypnos (Sleep),

7. Thanatos (Death),

8, 9. Hypnos (Sleep),
10. The genius of sleep, . :
11, 12. Persephone (Proserpine),
13. Hecate,

Hee fer

14, Erinnyes or Eumenides, 308, 349,

15. Prometheus,

16. Pandora, .

17. The Dreams,

18. Demeter and Triptolemus, .
19. Dionysos nursed by nymphs,

20. Triumph of Poseidon and can

trite, .
21, 22. Tritons,
PLATE 24,
1. Pelasgian Demeter,
2. Bust of ae
3. Ceres,
A, Persephone,

5. Procession of Dionysos and Ati-

adne, .

6. Triptolemus,

7. Birth of Dionysos,

8. Leucothea,

9. The sacred lion,

10ab. The sacred serpent,
11. Dionysus and Faunus,
12, 13. Dionysos,

14. Ariadne, :

15. Indian Dionysos,

16. Pan and Olympos,
17ab. Pan and the ae”
18. Silenos, :
19. Hygeia, . ‘
20. Hephestos (Vulcan), :
21. Telesphorus,

22,23. Hermes (Mercury),
24, Charon,

25. Sisyphos, Lapithe, and Tantalos,

PLATE 25.

1. Faunus and a Bacchante,
2, 3. Lan,

4,5. Dionysos, :

6. Dionysos of Naxos, .

7. The Dionysian mysteries,
8. Apollo and Marsyas, .

9. Marsyas and tesa”
10-12. Silenos,

13. Priapos,

14-18. Heracles,

19a. Persephone,

19b. Dionysos Zagreus,

20. Hephestos (Vulcan), .
21. Mount Parnassos,

CONTENTS.
PAGE PaGB
PLATE 26.
344| Fig. 1. The nine Muses, 349
342 « 2. The muse Calliope, 349
343 « 3. The muse Clio,. : 349
343 «4, The muse Polyhymnia, 349
334| “ 5. The muse Euterpe, 349
334 “ 6ab. The muse Urania, 349
371 « 7. The muse Thalia, 349
«< 8. Mnemosyne, 349
_ 334 re 69a. Flora, ae 379
311 « 96. Vestal virgin, . 375
; 334 « 10a. Aurora, 377
315 £105, Medusa, t 353
349 “« 11. Apollo and the Hours, 328
350 « 12. Dionysos as god of the sun, 339
351 PLATE 27.
350 | Fig. 1. Artemis (Diana), 329
351 « 2. Hermes (Mercury), 323
334 « 3. A herma, . f . 325
330 « 4, Hermes the Eloquent, 324
351 «5. Hermes with the tortoise, . 324
352 « 6. Vesta, : . 315
352| « 7-14. Pallas Athene (Minerva), 317, 375
351 *« 15. The Delphian Apollo, . 326
317 « 16. Antinous, . ; on
338 | “ 17-25a. Aphrodite (Venus), 320, 373
« 956. Mars and Ilia, . ; ome
315 « 96. Aphrodite as goddess of matri-
344 mony, ‘ 321
« 27. Mars the ‘Avenger, : e. 372
316 « 28. Athene, Asclepios, and Hyseia, . 332
316 « 29. Asclepios and Hygeia, . 342
375 « 30. Venus Victrix, : 374.
335 « 31. Birth of Aphrodite, 321
PLATE 28.
340} Bios. 1-4. Apollo,. . 326
317 « 5. Dionysos and Apollo, 339
338 « 6. Bust of Athene (Minerva), . 317
338 « 7-12. Hermes (Mercury), 323
363 «13. SSilenos, . 346
364| « 14-18, Aphrodite (Venus), 320, 373
339 | « 19-21. The Graces, 348, 376
339 | « 99. Hermaphrodites, . 345
340 | « 93, Hymen, 376
339 « 24. Asclepios, . 34]
346 « 25. Melicertes (Palemon), 344
346 « 26. The sacred bull of wee 363
346 « 27. Sacrifice to Mars, 313
Ae PLATE 29.
. 342) Fig. 1. Ariadne, 340
a 373 « 2, Dionysian orgies, 366
364 « 3-6. Eros (Amor), ; . 335
365 | “ 7-10. Amor and Psyche, 337,376
«“ 11. Statue of Psyche, . aoe
« 12. The Graces, 348
378 | « 13. The Hours, 347
345 « 14, Fides, ait
337 eee Ay, aig 376
339 | « 16. Pietas, 377
366 oo 17; Pudor or Pudicitia, Eire
328 « 18. Concordia, 377
328 « 19. Bonus Eventus, . 376
346 « 90. Spes, 377
347 « 91, Astrea, ait
355 « 99. A centaur, 312
334 « 93. Sacrifice in Rome, 379
339
319 PLATE 30.
350| Fig. 1. Roman pontifex maximus, 380

CONTENTS. Xvii

PAGE PAGE
PLATE 30—(Continued.) PLATE 30—(Continued.)

2. Roman augur, . 380 Fig. 15. Seylla,:. : : . 361
3. Guardian of the Sibylline books, 380 16. The nymph Circe, : ‘ . 361
4. Priest of Jupiter, : 380 « 17. Minotaur, . : E ; . 340
5. Vestal virgin, . ‘ ‘ » 375 « 18ab. Sphinxes, ' ‘ : . 360
6. Victimarius, . P ‘ . 380 « 19. A centaur, ; s yon?
7. The Suovetaurilia, . : oo « 20. Cidipous slaying the sphinx, » o0U
8. Sacrificial tripod, ‘ ‘ . 380 « 21-23. Giants, 363
9. Sacrificial horn, 4 : . 380 S4: Allegorical represen’ tion of Atlas, 354
10. Gorgons, . : . : « aoe «25, 26. Bellerophon, ; . 354
11,12. Perseus, . ‘ F . 852 « 27,28. Amazons, . ; : . Sao
13ab. Medusa, ; ' « Bao «<< 29. Pygmies, . 2 A i aes

14, Charybdis, . F ; » ool « 30,31. Pallor, Pavor, é P > ae

CONTENTS

Dea dN ACE TS

[The numbers refer to the bottom paging of the text.]

Introduction,
i, Sculpture or the Plastic ike,
i. Non-Classic Antiquity,
A. The Hindoos,
B. The Medes and Persians,
C. The Babylonians and Phcenicians,
D. The Egyptians,
EK. The Etruscans,
2. Classic Antiquity, .
A. The Greeks, .
B. The Romans, :
. Of the Subjects of the Plastic Act i in Antiquity
A. Mythological Subjects,
B. Subjects from Human Life, .
4, The Middle Ages,
A. From the Decline of the Pits tk in ‘ie Third Conia
down to the Thirteenth Century,
B. From the Revival of Art in the Thirteenth a the ees
Century,
5. Modern Times,
A. Italy,
B. France,
C. Germany,
D. England and Dotan
II. Painting, . ;
A. Aaeility., ;
A. The Egyptians,
B. The Etruscans,
C. The Greeks and Romans,
2. The Middle Ages and Modern Times,
A. From the Introduction of the acai ign dae to
Cimabue (d. 1300), ; ; ‘ ;
B. From Cimabue to the Latest Times, .
1. Italy, : : :
a. The Roman Schoak : : :

- 3896

PAGE

385
388
388
388
389
390
391
395

396
409
412
413
426
428

428

433
439
439
441
444
448
451
451
452
458
455
461

461
463
464
464

CONTENTS.
Paintine—( Continued.)

b. The Florentine School, . : : : :
c. The Venetian School, . ‘

d. The Bolognese, Lombard, and N eapoliietn Bdhedl
2. Spain, ? : : ‘ : ;
3. France, . : : : ‘ : :

4, Germany, . : ° : . :
5. The Netherlands, . ; ; : ‘ :
6. England, . : ; : . : :

7, America, . i : ; .

3. Theory of the Art of Pig rine : : - .
A. Morphology or Doctrine of Forms, . : ° °
B. Pictorial Perspective, : : : ane °
C. Drawing of the Human Figure, : : : :

D. Composition, . : ; :

E. Illumination, ; : :
F, The Various as of Feftiiine: : . : :
4, Graphics, . Pike ° : .
A. Engraving Stamps ati cis - : : :
B. Wood-Engraving, . : - . . .
C. Engraving in Metals, : : : : .
D. Hyalography, : - ‘ : , :

E. Lithography, ‘ : - : :

Ill. Music and the Drama, i 3 : : ; ,
1. Music, . é é : : : 2
A. Ancient Riese: : : 2 ; ; :
B. The Middle Ages, . . : ° : .
C. Modern Times, ' ‘ : : : .
D. Recent Times, 3 , 3 : : .
2. The Dramatic Art, ‘ F ; : :
The Buildings, . : é : . ° °

*, The references for explanations of the subjects are to the bottom paging of the text.

Ompow wo =

CONTENTS OF THE PLATES (IX. Nos, 1—26)

Perea Pt eh en eee

PAGE

PLATE 1. PLATE 1—(Continued.)
. Bas-relief from the ruins of Perse- Figs. 7,8. Etruscan bas-reliefs, :
polis, . 389 | “ 9-11. Grecian sculptures of the se-
. Trimurti, from the “temple of cond period, : ‘
Elephanta, . : : . 389 «© 12. Bas-relief from Selinuntiz, .
. Bas-relief from Ellora, : « ooo « 13,14. Bas-reliefs from Xanthus,
. Bas-relief from Kenneri, . . aOp
. Bust from Aging, . . . 399 PLATE 2.

. Mask from Selinuntie, . . 398° Figs. 1-9. Egyptian statues, .

PAGE
395
399

398
399

393

xx CONTENTS.

PAGE PAGE a
PLATE 2—(Continued.} : PLATE 6—(Continued.) |
Fig.10. Facade of the temple of Hathor Fig. 5. Hercules with the boy agg
at Ipsambul, : ; . 492 on his arm, in Rome, . 424
« 11,12. Phenician grave-stones, s eR «6, Boy wrestling with a goose, . 428
« 13. Numidian half-bust, . : . £390 « 7. Laocoon, in the Vatican, . . 406
“« 14. StatueofLakshmifromBengalore, 389 «8. Statue of Meleager,in Rome, . 425
«15. Statue from Isura, . 4 , 389
«“ 16-19. Persian sculptures, . . _ 390 PLATE 7.
3 Fig. 1. Pietas Mlilitaris, bas-relief in
: Se Rome, A429
Fig. 1. Hercules’s combat with Anteus, 424 « AO. bo! Godt oration soatseTtaeeeie
«© 2. Aphrodite and Ares (Venus and life, bas-relief in the Vatican, 431 \
Mars), , -* Ali « 3. Statue of a bishop, by Agostino
vo.yine reclining Hermaphrodite, 405, 421 and Angelo de Senis, . 435
« 4. Pallas, in the Villa Albani, - Alb <A Sign of St Pevecube Martyr,
« 5. Pallas with the serpent, . . 416 by Giovanni Balducci, . 435
« 6. The Farnese Flora, . . - 423 « 5-8. Four Caryatides from _ this
« 7. The wounded Amazon of Ctesi- shrine, ‘i A35
laus, . : - 404, 426 « 9. Bust from a fountain at Siena, by
«8. The dancing Hours, , : eo? Jacopo della Quercia, . A435
« 9. Fragment of the frieze of the « 10. Bust of an apostle, by ‘Andrea
Parthenon, . : » 4025427 Verocchio, . 436
« 10. Fragment from the ees * 11. St.John the Baptist, by Donatello, 436
Museum, . 400 « 12. St. George, by Donatello, . . 436
« 11, Bas-relief from a tripod- stand in « 13. Holy Virgin, by Giovannida Pisa, 434
Dresden, . . . 400 « 14. Apollo and Daphne, by Lorenzo
«12-17. Grecian portrait- -busts, . A07, 426 Bernini, . 439
« 18-20. Grecian animal heads, : . A403 « 15. The Angel of the Aree cual
« 21. The Gonzaga cameo, ‘ . 408 by Francesco Mocchi, . . 438
«22-26. Grecian coins, . . . 401 « 16. Perseus, by Benvenuto Cellini, . 438
PLATE 4. cae 6 tee by Giovanni da Bo- a
Fig. 1. Phidias’s statue of Pallas in the « 78 Bae detaced 4 Satyr, by Michael
Parthenon in Athens, . 402,416 Angelo, 437
« 2. The Medicean Venus, . 408,418 be ‘ :
« 3. The Venus of Melos,, . . 418 19. Moses, by Michael Angelo, - 437

« 4. TheVenusofthe DresdenMuseum, 418 jen Moming one agi: =

« 5. The Venus Victrix from Capua,. 417 Angelo, . 437
« 6. The Capitoline Venus, ; nen PLATE 8.

«7, Diana the Huntress in Paris, =. 415| Fig. 1. The Three Graces with the Um,

« 8. Statue of Sallustia Barbara Ur- ere etin ee He

bana with Eros, in Rome, 411,420! « The Fettered Slave, by Michael

2
« 9. Statue of Julia Soemis in Rome, 411 Angelo, . A37
« 10. Sleep as a boy, in Dresden, . 422 ce i3. | Phe Penitent Magdalene, by oo
PLATE 0. nova, . {aay
Fig. 1,2. The Eames ion ha . 405. re qs = ae by aoa yen
« 3. The Torso Belvedere, : ~ 424) a
« 4. The Borghese Gladiator, . PAD et ae Apollo tae 450
« 5. The Dying Gladiator, e ettar 407, 427 « 7, Statue of Cmenmeaie! by Chandet, 442
BEG: The Pallas from Velletri, . . A416 « 8 Dancing Neapolitan, by Duret, . 442
« 7. Cupid and Psyche, : - 411, 420 Oe Siaine of Spartacus, by Fogatier, 442
“ 8. Venus ones in the bath, ee « 10. The Maid of Orleans, by the
« 9. Statue o onis, : : : a:
* 10. Statue of Dionysus, in Paris, iy ARB Dace ee ae
« 11. Statue of Bacchus, in Dresden, . 419 PLATE 9.
« 12. Statue of Cincinnatus in Paris, . 425] Fic. 1. Statue of Hebe, by Canova, . 441
« 13. Boy extracting a thorn from his « Q. Cupid and Psyche, by Canova, . 441
foot,in Rome, . . - 428 « 3. The Three Graces, by Canova, 421, 441
« 4, Statue of Venus, by Thorwaldsen, 450
PLATE 6. « 5, The Three Graces, by Thorwald-
Fig. 1. Statue of Antinous of Belvedere, 411,418 sen, . 491,450
« 2. The Apollo of Belvedere, . . 415| « 6, Achilles and Briseis, bas-relief by
« 3. Statue of a Faun, ; ; ~ | 428 Thorwaldsen, . 450
« 4, Statue of Germanicus, from the « 7-11. Fragments from the Proces-
15th century; by oversight sion of Alexander, bas-re-
not mentioned in the text ; it lief by Thorwaldsen, . 449

belongs to the period of the
revival of art, but the sculp- PLATE 10.

tor is not known. It is pte- Fig. 1. Statue of Admiral SS e
served in the Louvre in Paris. Roguier, . 443

“ec

“ce

“<<

“e

Figs.

CONTENTS.

PLATE 10—(Continued.)

PAGE

PLATE 13—(Continued.)

XXxi

PAGE

2. Statue of Bayard, by Montour, . 443| Fig. 9. The Pythian Apollo,. . 460
3. Statue of Du Guesclin, by Bridan, 443 « 10. The Delphian Apollo, 460, 461
4, Statue of the great Condé, by “« 11,12. Nymphs, from the Baths of
Jean David, 443 Constantine, . 461
5. Statue of Mozart, by Sbiwen- « 13,14. Amorettes, from the same, 461
thaler, 2 448 « 15..Ceiling from the sepulchre of the
5ab. Bas-reliefs from the pedestal of Naso family, . 460
the last-named monument, “« 16. Masks, mosaic in the Vatican, 458
by Schwanthaler, 448 «“. 17. Doves, mosaic in the Capitoline
6. Statue of Margrave Frederick, by Museum, : . 458
Schwanthaler, 448 « 18. Relief-mosaic in Rome, . 458
7. Ino with the boy Bacchus, by « 19-22. Mosaic pavement, 458, 461
Dumont, . 442
8. Leda and the Swan, by Seurre ison
jeune, 449| Fi igs. 1-3. Grecian vase-paintings, A457
9. Statue of Bavaria, ae Rauch, 447 <4. Wall- rei te from the sepulchre
10. Statue of Felicitas publica, by of the Naso family, . 460
Biaveh: 4AT “Bab. ee paintings of the 8th ie
century, .
sa a Marshal Saxe, by 449 « 6. Mosaic from the Villa Albani, A458
12. Monument to Robert Burns in “7. Mosaic from St. John’s in the
Edinburgh, . 447 Lateran, 462
« 8. Fragment from Trajan’s co-
PLATE 11. lumn, . 411, 462
1. Statue of Otto the Illustrious, by 6 9. Mosaic oan Sasmeniae: 462
Schwanthaler, 447| «< 10. Mosaic from St. John’s in the
2. Statue of Ludwig the Bavarian, Lateran, 462
by Schwanthaler, : AAT |< Ai Maganic dram E lorencd, 463
3. Statue of Gutenberg, by Jean «* 12. Mosaic from St. Peter’s in Rome, 462
David, F 443
4, Statue of Gutenberg, by Thor- BLE aS:
waldsen, . . 444,451| Fig. 1. School of Athens, by Raphael, A466
5, 6. Bas-reliefs from the pedestal of 2. Madonna and Child, by Leonardo
the last-named monument, da Vinci, 472
by Thorwaldsen, . A451 «, 3. Ecce Homo, by Ludovico Cardi, A476
re Biahue, of Schiller, by Thorwald- « 4. St. Mark, by Fra Bartolomeo, . 473
451 Sa din) Mat SUA Francis, by Guido Reni, 490
8,9. Bae alles from the pedestal of « 6. The Entombment of Christ, ad
the last-named monument, Caravaggio, 489
by Thorwaldsen, . 451 «7. Mary Magdalen and ‘St. F rancis
10. Statue of General Kleber, by Ph. of Assisi by the body of Christ,
Gross, A A442 by Annibale Caracci, . 488
11. Monument to the Duchess of «8. Joseph and Potiphar’s wife, by
Saxe-Teschen, by Canova, . 441 Carlo Cignani, 493
12. The Death of Epaminondas, eae «9. Praying Madonna, by Sassofer-
relief by Jean David, 443 rato, . 469
13. Bellona, bas-relief by Chinard, . 442| “ LO. Madonna, by Guido Reni, . 490
14. Monument to Dugald Stewart in “ 11, St. John the Baptist, by Guido
Edinburgh, . : ; 447 Reni, . 490
erare AS rene. Galathea, by Ludovieo Caracei, . 487
el Msi niticum, oatectia ce: 453 13. Pluto, by Agostino Caracci, 487
3-7. Etrusean vase-paintings, . 454 PLATE 16.
8,9. Wall- “paintings from Pom- Fig. 1. St. Cecilia, by Raphael, . . 466
peii, 458, 460 «2. Madonna and Child, by Raphael, 466
10. Monochrome from Hereulaneunt 460| “ 3,4. Fresco paintings by Raphael, . 466
11. Achilles and Briseis, from Pour « 5. The Distribution of the Holy Ro-
peli, . 459 saries, by Carlo Maratti, 469
12. Achilles at Scyros, from Pompeii, 459} “ 6. Venus and Vulcan, by Giulio Ro-
13, 14. Wall-paintings from the baths mano, . 467
of Titus, . E . A60 «7. Madonna, by Annibale Caracci, . 488
PLATE 13. « 8. Descent from the Cross, by An-
Ane drea del Sarto, 474
1-4. Etruscan ee - Add « 9. Polyhymnia and Erato, by Pietro
5. Theseus, wall-painting from Her- dae 469. 477
ealesicurn, A60 Naas a VUortona, - ae
fo . Euterpe and Urania, es Pietro da
6. Narcissus, wall- -painting "from C 469, 477
Herculaneum, . 460 oak ;
7. The Aldobrandini wedding, 459 PLATE 17.
8. Fresco painting from the villa Figs. lab, 2ab, Fresco paintings, Py Ra-
Pamfili, : 459 phael, . 466

xxii CONTENTS.
PAGE PAGE
PLATE 17—(Continued.) PLATE 22—(Continued.)
Fig. 3. Raphael’s portrait, by himself, . 467] Fig. 6. Reppin a with line en-
«© 4. The Adulteress before Christ, by gra - 650
Tintoretto, . 482 i, ee pam OF holding the grave, 551
« 5. The' Dying Magdalen, by Rusti- « Ta. Engraver’s easel, . 551
chino, . 476 “8a. Engraver’s hand-vice, 550
« 6. Holy Family, by Francesco, Al- « 9. Manipulation of cutting stones, . 547
bano, . . -491 «9a. Engraver’s oil-rubber, 551
«7. Charity, by Andrea del Sarto, A474 «10,11. Tampons, or dabbers, . 550
« 8. Madonna, by Murillo, 495 s¢© 12. Common ruler, . 5 : 551
- §69. Vandyk’s portrait, by himself, 515 “ 13. Parallel ruler, .. abt
*« 10. Passage of the poesia = ‘Le- “ 14,15. Scrapers, 991, 558
brun, . « 16. Burnisher, . : - . “Sat
* 17. Rocking- tool or cradle, 552
araentnli “18. Roulette, 552
Fig. 1. Madonna and the Fathers of the ea Scratcher, . : 552
Church, by Raphael, 466| « 90-92. Etching needles, . 551
« 2. The Virgin Mary, by Fra Bartolo- « 93-96. Gravers, $ 550
meo, . A473 ee 27. Callipers,. : 551
« 3. Christ crowned ‘with. thorns, by « 98ab. Improved callipers, 551
Titian, A479 « 29,30. Punches, - Sb
> as Andromeda, by Francesco F urini, 477 « 2138. Engraver’s anvil ara hammer, 551
« 5. Offering brought to A%sculapius, « 33. Lines made by the cradle, . 552
. by Guérin, . 502} « 34. Reducing frame, 550
«© 6. Guido Reni’s portrait, ‘by himself, A491 « 35. Frame for correctly observing
« 7. Assumption of St. Mary, by Ru- curves on busts, &c., . 551
bens, . ais « 36-38. Hands for engraving stamps, 547
« . 8) Porraitot Rubens, by himself, 515
« 9. The Adoration of the Shepherds Nee
by Van der Werff, 517 | Alphabets of various aed. for the use
« 10. Youth with the Drinking-cup, 516 a engravers, 593
“ 11. Guitar-player, by Netscher, 516 x The values of the letters in 1 English charac.
“ 12. The Adoration of the Magi, 511 ters are placed opposite them. It will suf-
« 13. Endymion, by Girodet-Trioson, . 502 fice here to give the list of the languages
« 14. Belisarius, by Frangois Pascal whose superscriptions are in German. The
Gérard, ~ i ; c= UNL only words that may require explanation

PLATE 19.
Illustrations of the Theory of the Art of Drawing.

Figs. 1-12. The eye, 535
13-15. The nose, 535

« 16-19. The mouth, . 535
«< 20-27. The ear, 536
« 28-31. The feet, 537
« 32-39. The hands, . 537
« 40-45. Pictorial perspective, 530

PLATE 20.
Illustrations of the Theory of the Art of Drawing.

Figs. 1-10. The head, : 536
« 41-14. The entire body, . 538
« 15,16. Artistical Anatomy, 526
“ 17-21. The hands, . 537

PLATE 21.
Illustrations of the Theory of the Art of Drawing.

Figs. 1-11. Auxiliary lines, 537
12-15. Proportions of the human

body, 538

« 16,17. Proportions of the human face, 536
** 18. Antique torso, : = ge
“« 19-21. Antique heads, 537

PLATE 22.
Illustrations of the Graphic Arts.

Fig. 1. Etching on soft ground, 552
« 2. Etching, . 550
« 3. Etching finished with the graver, 550
< 4 Mezzotinto, f 550
« 5, Aquatint engraving, . 550

are: Kehlhauch, guttural aspiration; Kurz,
short; Lang, long; Werth, value; Zahl-
werth, numerical value; and Benennung,
name.

The alphabets are: 1. Japanese; 2. Tamul,
3. Bugic (Malay); 4. Persian arrow-headed
characters; 5. Hebrew; 6. Samaritan; 7.
Pehlvi (Parthian); 8. Armenian; 9. Ancient
Greek ; 10. Modern Greek; 11. Coptic; 12.
Gothic ; 13. Etruscan; 14. Anglo-Saxon ; 15.
Runic.

PLATE 24,

Alphabets for engravers (continued): 1. Magadha
(older Sanscrit); 2. Sanscrit; 3. Tibetan; 4.
Arabic ; 5. Ethiopian; 6. Syriac; 7. Zend;
8. Mongolian ; 9. Russian; 10. Wallachian ;
11. Serbian.

GLOSSARY.

Bemerkungen, Observations; these are: * Jerr
adds to the force of the preceding consonant ;
** Jehr softens the preceding consonant ;
*** The Serbian language is printed with
Russian type, with the addition of Jerr and
Jehr.

Interpuctionszeichen der Zendschrift, Punctua-
tion marks of the Zend language.

PLATE 20.
Figs. 1-33. Details illustrating the construc-
tion of theatrical buildings, 569-579
PLATE 26.

Figs. 1-45. Details illustrating the construc-
tion of theatrical buildings, 569-579

CONTENTS

Poe oen NO LAs i. an

[The numbers refer to the bottom paging of the text.]

Introduction, ;
I. Means of eauieniersoi

1. Construction of Roads,

A. Streets in Cities,

B. Roads, ‘ Me
C. Tunnels, Ds : ,
D. Railroads, ; : Z
2. Bridge building, -. ‘ : :
A. Stone Bridges, - ° : °
B. Wooden Bridges, . . : :
C. Iron Bridges, ? te : .
3. Inland Navigation, ‘s ” : °
A. Dams, ; ie : 3 :
B. Canals, ‘ - é : :
C. Locks, : tus via ;
~D. Aqueduets, . : ‘ wee ‘
E. Canal Bridges, = ° ° ‘
II. Windlasses and Cranes, . ; . 2
I. Hydraulic Engines, ; - : : :
1, Pumps, -. . “¢ : .
2. The Hydraulic Ram:
3. Fire Engines, : ; - ° °
FV: Mills, : 5 ‘ :
1. Vertical Water When ; : : °

2. Horizontal Water Wheels,
3. Grinding Mills,
VY. Cotton Manufacture,
1. Picking, Scutching, and Saipias Machines,

2. The Drawing Frame,

3. The Roving Frame, .

4, Completion of the Roving, : .

5. The Mule and Mule Spinning, : ‘ :
6. The Singing and ace of “il : °
7. Weaving, . ; :
8. Finishing and ea ligt . . ° :

Woollen Manufacture, , ° ° :

PAGE

581
582
582
583
586
588
591
616
617
620
622
626
627
628
631
634
636
637
639
639
641
644
649
649
651
652
654
655
661
663
667
669
676
676
679
680

XXIV

VI. Coining, .

1. Metallic Nouba: : ‘

CONTENTS.

2. Paper Money,

¥ ia Mining, .

Introduction, . =

omodrwronor WW Fe

. Experimental Works,
. Mining for Ore,

. Mining at the Surface,
. Drifts or Levels,

. Sinking of Shafts, .

. Working the Mines,
. Ventilation of Mines, :
. Transport of Ores to the Surface,

. Drainage of Mines,
VIII. Metallurgy,

1. General Pr ae of Ore es,

2. Roasting, .

3. Furnaces, .

4, Chemical Metallnee pate Apparat
5. Working Iron,

TX. Agriculture,

1. Tillage,

Ate

The Soil,

B. Agricultural Tools,

2. Li

Smdowpd eee

. Grain Crops, .
- Root and Fruit Crops,
Underground Drains,

Double Crops,
Flax,

Cider,

e Stock,

The Horse,

. Neat Cattle, .

. The Sheep, . .

. The Hog,

. The Silkworm,

. The Honey Bee,

X. Hunting and Fishing,
1. Hunting, .
A. Aids in Hating:
B. Practical Hunting,

Shooting, Trapping, “2

2. Fishing,
A. Freshwater wows 5

Marine Fishing,

PaGE

681
681
685
686
686
687
690
693
695.
701
704
706
708
709
711
711
712
712
716
T17
719
are
719
721
723
125
125
726
727
727
728
728
729
731
731
732
733
135
735
736
737
738
742
742
743

CONTENTS OF THE PLATES (X. Nos. 1—35)

Perio NY iOe TL Oa Fs

*, The references for explanations of the subjects are to the bottom paging of the text.

PAGE
PLATE l.
Figs. 1-27. Illustrating the construction of
streets and roads, 583-588
« 28-34. I}lustrating the Thames tun-

nel in London, 589
PLATE 2.

Figs. 1-54. Illustrating the construction of

railroads, . 594-603
PLATE 3.
Figs. 1-29. Illustrating the construction of
railroads, 594-603
« 30. The Leipsic station of the Saxon
and Bavarian railroad, . 603
PLATE 4.
Figs. 1-6. Illustrating the motive power
on railroads, . 603-611
« 7-15. Illustrating the construction of
inclined planes, 612-614
PLATE 9.
Figs. 1-8. Illustrating Stephenson’s loco-
motive with variable ex-
pansion, 2. GOF
« 9-928. Illustrating the scnesoecs
of tenders and railroad

cars, 606-611
* 29. Interior of the Duke of Bruns-
wick’s ear on the Brunswick

railroad, : 610
«30. Interior of @aeed Natori: car
on the London and Dover

railroad, 610

PLATE 6.

Figs. 1-10. Illustrating the construc-
tion of atmospheric rail- ;
roads, 614-616

PLATE 7.

Figs. 1-23. Illustrating the construction of

stone bridges, 617-620
PLATE 8.

Figs. 1-45. Illustrating the construction of

wooden bridges, 620-622
PLATE 9.

Figs. 1-33. Illustrating the construction of

iron bridges, 622-626

mn) PAGER
PLATE 10.
1-28. Illustrating the construction of
canals and dams, 627-637
Fig. 29. View of a chain of locks on the
Rideau canal near Bytown in
Canada, 631, 632

Figs.

PLATE 11.
Figs. 1-5. Details from the rai

canal in France, 629
«6-8. The Cesse Aqueduct, . 634
« 9-11. The Croton San of New

York, . 637
«12-18. Locks and weirs, 631-634

PLATE 12.

Figs. 1-12. Illustrating the construction of
windlasses and cranes, 637-639

PLATE 13.

Fig. 1. A lift pump, 639
« 2. A forcing pump, , 640
«3-6. Stephenson’s double action

pump,. 640
«© 7-9. Pump used in P thes mine Huel-
goet in siamo a ; 641
« 10-12. Letestu’s pump, 641
« 13,14. Jordan’s hydraulic ram in
Clausthal, , 643

« 15-21. Reichenbach’s hydraulic ram

in the saltworks at Illfang
in Bavaria, : - GS

PLATE 14.

Figs. 1,2. The simplest construction of a
fire-engine, . 645
« 3,4. Portable fire-engine, 645
« 5,6. Pontifex’s fire-engine, 645
« 7-10. Repsold’s fire-engine, 646
« 11-15. Letestu’s fire-engine, 645

« 16-21. Common double-action fire-
engine, 646
« 22,23. Bramah’s fire- -engine, 646, 647
« 94 Steam fire- -engine, . 647

« 25-29. Apparatus to save persons
and property at fires, 648

PLATE 15,

Figs. 1-18. Illustrating the construction of

vertical water-wheels, 649-651

« 19-29. Illustrating the construction of
horizontal water-wheels, 651, 652

XXVi CONTENTS.

PAGE VALUF,

Figs, 1-15. Illustrating the construction Fig. 8. Belgian gold lion of 1790, . $9 00
of an Americar grinding- ‘ 9. Danish Species Ducat, . 2 35
mill, . 652-654| «« 10. Danish double Frederic dor of
1828, : : 7 90
PLATE 17, « 11. Austrian ducat of 1826, 295
Figs. 1,2. Cotton gin, ‘ 655 « 12. Bavarian ducat of 1821, 225
« 3-5a. Wolf or willow, . 655 « 13. Hamburg ducat of 1818, : 2 40
«© 6. Spreading machine, 657 « 14. Ducat of Electoral Saxony of
«© 7. Lap-machine, . 5 : . boi 1797, . 2 2p
« 8-16. Carders and carding ma- « 15. Ducat of Canton of Berne, 2°15
chines, 658-661 « 16. Carl d’or of the duchy of Bruns-
“ 17-20. Drawing frame, 661 wick, 1799, 4 00
« 21-24. Roving frame, 663 « 17. Hanoverian double pistole, 1829, 7 90
« 18. Wilhelm d’or of the Electorate
PLATE 18. of Hesse, 1829, . 4 00
Figs. 1-7. Danforth’s tube roving-frame,. 663 « 19. Royal Prussian double Frederick
« 8-16. Self-acting mule, . : . 669 d’or, 1800, ‘ 0°
“ 17-19. Washing-kettle, 680 « 20. Royal Prussian Frederick Wor,
« 20,21. Wringing-machine, 680 1822, ; 3 90
« 92-94. Scales for weighing yarn, 676 « 21. Royal Wirtemberg Frederic Wor,
* 95,26. Starching and steam dnying 1810, 3 90
apparatus, ° 680 « 622. Sixteen fain piece or pistole :
« 27-29. Press for packing yarn, 676 of the Helvetie Republic,
« 30-33. Woollen willow, . 680 1800, 4 25
« 23. Five guilder piece « or imperial
PLATE 19. ducat of the grand duchy of
Fig. 1. Beaming for handweaving, 676 Baden, 1827, 2 35
« 2 3. Warping-mill, 676 « 24. Ten euilder piece or Caroline of
« 4. Simplest loom, . 677 . the grand duchy of Hesse,
« 5-7. Power-loom, . 677 1826, 4 50
« 8 9. Shuttle,. 678 « 25. Royal guinea of Great Britain,
“ 10,11. Jaw-temples, 679 1801, z 5 00
« 12,13. Singing-oven, 679
« 14,15. Wash-wheel, 679 PLATE 22.
“ 16-19. Gassing-machine, . 676 Coins or Various Nations:
« 20. Arrangement of spools, 676 : ’ : :
« 91. Lever of a power-loom, 678 | With their approximate values ; an appendix
« 992. Batten of a power-loom, 678 | to the article on coining, pp. 681-685.
Seen) jy Bish Ub, ee of George IIL, oi
Figs. 1,2. Casting-machine of mints, 682 « 9 English ‘third Gla " guines Bee
je De Rolling mill of mints, 682 George III., 1797, 1 75
«5,6. Cireular shears, 683 «3. English sovereign of Queen Vie-
« 7-9. Flattening-mill, ; 682 toria, 1845, ; A 85
* 10-14. Drawing machine of mints, 682 cc a hiptenchil eats qd’ rio fibieies xVT,
« 15,16. Coin-punch, : 683 1797, See
“ 17-20. Milling machine, . 683 | « 5. Napoleon d’or, ‘1813, : 3 85
“ 21-37. Stamping-machines, 684] « 6. Italian double Napoleon dor,
1814, ‘ 6 50
PLATE 21, é 7, French Louis @or of Louis
Fig. 1. Stamping machine of the mint . XVIII., 1818, 3 80
in Rio Janeiro, 685 « 8. French twenty fate piece, Louis
Philippe, 1831, 3 85
Coins oF Various Nations: « 9. French forty frane piece, 1848, . 7 70
With their approximate values; an ap-| — 10. hae Dats Ligurian oe
pendix to the article on the art of| ., i Var a ee - 6 40
coining, pp. 681-685. 11. ollan ucat, 1827, 2 00
neers « 2. Netherland five ouilder piece,
« 2. Persian gold piece of Imam 1827, : 2 00
Riza, : ; oe es « 13. Netherland ten guilder ‘piece,
rors. Bast India Rupee Zodiac, 5 G6 20 1825, 4A 00
« 4, Gold piece of the East India « 14. Milan zechino, Joseph II. , 1784, 2 25
Company, . 4 90 « 15. Maltese single Louis dor, 1782, 3175
« 5. Gold piece of the Dutch East « 16. Neapolitan twenty lire piece,
India Company, ; . 490 Joachim Napoleon, 1813, . 3 75
« 6. Double gold sovereign of Bra- « 17. United States half-eagle of 1798, 5 00
bant of 1800, . 13 00 « 18. Roman zechin of Pius VI.,
“« 7, Gold Sovereign of Brabant of 1783, 2 95
1796, : . 650, « 19. Double Romana of Pius VIL, 7 70

PLATE 16,

PLATE 21—(Continued.)

“

“ec

“cc

Fig.

21. Piedmontese Doppia nuova of
Charles Emanuel, 1797, 7 80
22. Polish ducat, 1791, . : ee 6)
23. Portuguese dobrao, 1725,. te as)
24. Portugalese, 1800, . ‘ 5 40
25. Crusado nuovo of MarialL., 1790, 2 60
96. Russian ducat of Paul L., 1801, 4 00
27. Russian imperial of Catharine
II., 1766, (eV
28. Saadinian cold piece of 20 lire
nuove, 1827, 3 30
29. Swedish ducat of Charles XIIL.,
1810, , > 2 00
30. Sicilian double ances 1752, 8 00
31. Spanish quadruple, 1801, . 2 £600
32. Tuscan ruspone of Ferdinand
III., 1798, ; 6 40
Sa. Turkish zermahubzechino of Se-
tan fir, 1 45
34. Sequin or zechino. of Selim
‘1 : : : it hcl
35. Venetian zechino, oy 2 20
36. Venetian gold ducat, 3 30
PLATE 23. ite
1. Exterior view of the mines of Fa-
lun in Sweden, 710
2. Exterior view of the mines of
Persberg in Sweden, 710
3. Coal strata of oncbeups: 687
4. Coal strata of Newcastle-upon-
Tyne, . , 687
5-7. Slate quarries near ‘Angers, 693
8-11. Apparatus for blasting, . 692
12,13. Boring apparatus, 689
14-35. Miners’ tools, 690-711
36. Interior view of a coal mine at
Neweastle-upon-Tyne, 687
PLATE 24,
Figs. 1-32. Illustrating the construction of
levels and shafts, . 695-704
33, 34. Illustrating the ventilation of
mines, : 707
35. Exhausting engine, . : 107
36-39. Modes of descent and ascent
in mines, . 709
40-43. Miners at work, 705
PLATE 25.
1. Interior view of the mines of Pers-
berg in Sweden, : 710
2. Interior view of the mines of Fa- a-
lun in Sweden, 710
3,4. Sections of mines, . 705
5. Two coal seams, 705
6-9. Apparatus for boring, 689
10. Mining by fire, . 693
11-26. Illustrating the construction of
levels and shafts, 695-704
27-35. Miners’ tools for slate mines, 693
PLATE 26.
1. Interior view of the salt mines of
Wieliczka, . F 711 |
2 Interior of the millstone quarry at
Niedermendig, 710
3-5. Interior plans of mines, . 705

CONTENTS.

VALUE.
PLATE 22—(Continued.)

. Seudo d’oro of the Roman re-
public, 1798,

PLATE 26—(Continued.)
Figs. 6-10. Illustrating the ventilation of

XXVli

PAGE

mines, 707

« 11. Breathing tube, . 708
ce 12. Davy’s ‘and Dumesnil’ S safety

lamps, 708

« 13-15. Anemometer, 707

« 16-28. Means of transport of 01 ores, 708

« 29-34. Hydraulic ram at Huelgoet, . 710

PLATE 27.

Figs. 1-7. Open furnaces, 713
« 8-14. Stack furnaces, 713
« 15. Puddling furnace, 713
« 16. Gold amalgam mill, 716
ton EZ 1S: “ones tior handling cruci-

bles, F 716

« 19. Interior of a blast furnace house, 714

« 20. Tuyere chambers, 714

« 21. Stamping mill, . 712
PLATE 28,

Figs. 1,2. Stack furnaces, 714, 715
«« 3. Reverberatory furnace, 715
« 4-8. Crucible furnaces, . 715
< 9,40) Tongs: “tor handling — ceruci-

bles, : 716
«11. Heating chamber for hot- blast, 717
« 12-22. Rollers for the final prepara:
tion of iron, 718
PLATE 29.

Figs. 1-17. Various ploughs, . 722
« 18-23. Various harrows, . toe
« 24-26. Drags and rollers, 723
« 27-36. Sowing and planting ma-

chines, 2 723
« 37,38. Winnowing machine, d 724
«39. Grain shock, 723
« 40. Grain crusher, 724
« 41. Straw cutter, 724
« 42. Machine for cleaning ‘flax, . 727
« 43. Machine for washing potatoes, 731
« 44, Plan and elevation of a farmhouse
with barn and stables at-
tached ; given as an appendix
to the article on agriculture.
PLATE 30.
Figs. 1-7. Illustrating the management
of double crops, 726
« 8-23. Agricultural tools, . $26
«© 24. Thermometer used to indicate the
temperature of heaps in which
root crops are stored, 725
« 95,26. Grain stacks, 724
“ 27,28. Clover frames, 725
« 29,30. Llustrating underground drain-
age, ea tt26
« 31. Stack of roots or fruits, : 725
« 32-34. Barns and threshing-floors, 724
«© 35-39. Apparatus for drying fruit, 725
« 40,41. Grain kilns, . : 724
a” Agr as. Dairy ; 730
44 45: Plax brake: 727
« 46. English churn, . 430
« A7-49. Apparatus for making cider, a pled
: PLATE 31,

Figs. 1-8. Neat cattle, . é : » 29

« 9-13. Sheep, . . ; (3

CONTENTS.

PLATE 31—(Continued.)

Figs. 14-17.
« 18-47.

Figs. 1-10.
« 11-13.
« 14-37.

«38-57.

Hogs, . -
The horse, .
PLATE 32.

The economy of neat cattle, .
Sheep-folds, a : :
The management of silk-

worms, . 2 . ,
The management of honey-

PAGE PAGE
PLATE 33.

731 | Figs. 1-56. Illustrating the art of hunt-

728 ing, : ! . tase
PLATE 34.

= Figs. 1-8. Illustrating fresh water fish-

732

ing, é ; : . 42

« 9-14, Illustrating marine fishing, . 743
PLATE 35.

733 | Figs. 1-3. Illustrating marine fishing, . 743

Leon rrTec LURE

Priates 1—60.

I: ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE.
1. ANCIENT HINDOO ARCHITECTURE.

Hinpoo AxcuirecturE, probably the most ancient that exhibits regular
architectonical mouldings, is remarkable for its well defined character, for the
distinct ground-plan of its temples, and for three different orders of pillars.
As its leading features arose from the peculiarities of climate and situation,
it has rarely been introduced into any other country.

Impressed with the idea that the worship of an eternal religion should be
conducted in imperishable temples, and in order to insure their being both
airy and cool, the Hindoos constructed and excavated these edifices in the
rocks. The temples at Tintali, Dasavatara, and the grotto palace of Siva,
_ near Ellora, number among the most ancient. They are all constructed in
the following manner.

The entire temple being under ground, the ceilings are supported by pillars
of three different sizes and forms, of various thicknesses, and more or less
finished and elaborated. Some temples are so deep below the surface as to
require two tiers of pillars, one above the other, as in the grotto temple of
Indra Sabah at Ellora (pl. 2, jig. 2). All these pillars are entirely different
from those in the Nubian or Egyptian temples. The temples receive no
light except through the openings infront. The large pillars, or those of the
first order, are square and plain, and from three to five and a half diameters
in height. A few small fillets form a kind of base, and a fillet on the top
constitutes a capital, upon which rests a sort of cornice, divided into three
stripes, running from pillar to pillar. The higher pillars are of an octagonal
form. Their base is composed of regular mouldings, and they have caps
consisting of a fillet and torus, similar to the astragal of the Doric order, and
probably its prototype, as it is supposed that the construction was introduced
into the island of Crete from India, where the Indian cap was rounded
to suit the round column. Similar pillars are found in the interior of the
temple of Vishnu Karmah (jig. 4), and as supporters of the ceiling of
the Kailasa, as well as in the grotto temple of Indra Sabah, near Ellora.
This remarkable palace is 247 feet long, by 150 feet wide; and its height in
the clear, divided by two tiers of pillars, is 47 feet. Some of the walls are

ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOP.£DIA.—-YOL, IY. 1 1

2 ARCHITECTURE.

supported by elephants cut out of very hard stone. The exterior is orna-
mented with sculptures (jig. 2). The elephant near the pagoda-like building
in the centre of the drawing, is called /ravat, and is dedicated to the Indian
god of the heavens.

The pillars of the second order have a very high base (pedestal), and a
square cap. Specimens of this order are met with in the upper tier of the
grotto temple of Indra (jig. 2); of Vishnu Karmah (jig. 4); and Rabana
(pl. 3, Jig. 15).

The pillars of the third order have a base composed of regular mouldings
and a round cap formed of a double torus, divided by a fillet. Above the
cap is an echinus, similar to the Doric cap; and above that, a small slab
which supports the cornice. In some instances the base has no mouldings
(pl. 1, figs. 6,7). The columns in front of the Indra temple (pi. 2, jig. 2),
the grotto temple on the island of Elephanta (pl. 1, jig.7; pl. 2, fig. 3),
the interior of the temple of Indra (jig. 5), and the grotto temple at
Parashua Rama (pl. 3, fig. 14), present the best specimens of these pillars.

According to the different forms of pillars, Hindoo Architecture, in general,
is divided into several periods, characterized in the following manner: Ist,
The plain style. 2d, The decorative style. 3d, The elegant style. 4th,
The meretricious style: The buildings of Tintali He Dasavatara, near Ellora,
and the pyramidal temple (Pagoda) Visvisor, near Benares (pl. 1, fig. 4), a
buddhistic building, belong to the first period. For the mythological history
of these buildings the reader is referred to the division Mythology of this
work,

The grotto temple of Siva and the temple of Vishnu Karmah (the
heavenly architect), both at Ellora, are specimens of the style of the second

erlod.
: The Indra temple at Ellora, and the grotto temple on the island Elephanta,
belong to the third period.

Temples, the outer walls of which are decorated in an architectonical style,
belong to the same period, as for instance the grotto temple of Kailasa,
near Ellora. This temple (pl. 2, fig. 1) dedicated to the god Indra, is con-
sidered the finest architectural monument in Ellora. It is wrought out of
a single piece of rock without any joints, and consists of three different
portions: 1st, The entrance-hall with two wings. 2d, The chapel of Nundi.
3d, The main temple.

The entrance-hall, which begins at the termination of the exterior court-
yard, is wrought in the form of a screen with two wings. It is located on the
west side, at the lowest part of the hill, which varies from 47 feet to 104 feet
in height. The excavation is 247 feet long, by 150 feet wide. The space
outside the entrance is 88 feet long, by 138 feet wide. This hall is
adorned with pilasters. The interior contains five different rooms, three of
which are situated one behind the other, and form a passage to which two
large rooms are attached, one on each side; all three rooms are decorated
with sculptures. Staircases lead to the upper floor, which has windows on
both sides. This floor, by means of a bridge cut in the rocks, communicates
with the temple of Nundi (the bull of Siva), which forms a square of 16 feet on

ARCHITECTURE. 3

each side. A door in the rear wall opens upon a second bridge 21 feet by 23,
leading to the main temple, which is 90 feet high. The main temple
entrance is formed by a portico with two porches leading to a peristyle,
which communicates by staircases with the lower court-yard. The peristyle
is 18 feet long, by 15 feet 2 inches wide, and,17 feet high. Four steps lead
to the main temple hall, 61 feet long by 55 feet wide, and 17 feet 10 inches
high. The ceiling of this hall is supported by 16 pillars. Two porches, one
on each side of the hall, mark the approach to bridges forming a con-
nexion with the main rock, in which the private rooms of the priests were
built. Opposite the main entrance another portico leads to the sanctuary,
which contains the statues of Indra and of Lingam; small doors on both
sides of this portico open on a terrace surrounding the sanctuary, and
communicating with five square chapels of different sizes, two of them
projecting on the sides, and three in the rear of the temple. The height of
the temple above the terrace is 50 feet. The court-yard which surrounds the
temple contains a peristyle of pillars, in some places in two tiers. Near
the bridge which leads from the entrance hall to the temple of Nundi are
two colossal elephants, probably the leaders of those placed in the lower
temple, apparently supporting it. Behind the elephants, ten feet from
the smaller temple, stand two obelisks, 38 feet high, and 7 feet wide at
the top, by 11 feet at the base; they are supposed to have supported
lions.

Aurungzebe attempted to destroy these temples, by surrounding them with
fire, and causing water to be poured on the glowing rocks; but the injury
inflicted was only partial, and in some parts even the paintings on the walls
have not been affected. Almost all temples of this description are cut out of
a single rock. The most remarkable are at Mavalipuram, in the province of
Mysore (pl.1, fig. 1), called the seven pagodas, the smallest of which, decorated
inside and outside with inscriptions illegible even to the Brahmins, is 24 feet
high by 12 feet wide. To the second pagoda is attached a gallery formed
by two tiers of columns. The columns in one tier rest upon bases composed
of lions lying upon a double plinth, and the caps are formed by equestrian
statues which support the architrave. These pagodas are estimated by the
Bramins to be 4800 years old.

The fourth period is that of the pagodas, when no more rock-cut temples
were constructed. The pagodas are overloaded with orfiaments and
grotesque sculptures, and are remarkable for their arrangement, as well
as for the highly elaborated metallic work attached to them. The most
important are found at Chalembaram in the kingdom of Tanjore, and at
Madura or Tretshengur. Those in Tanjore form the entrance-portico to
the large temple district of Chalembaram, dedicated to the god Vishnu.

Below the largest pagoda (pl. 1, fig. 2) is acolonnade of slender columns,
in which is placed a statue of the bull Nundi, consecrated to Vishnu, cut
out of a single block of stone (monolith). Another monolithic statue of the
bull Nundi is found before a small tower-like temple near the pagoda of
Madura or Tretshengur (pl. 1, fig. 3), which was cut in the quarry of Tanjore,
about 60 miles distant; itis 16 feet long, and is estimated to weigh about

4. ARCHITECTURE.

a hundred tons. The lower story of the pagodas is constructed of granite
blocks, the upper story of burnt bricks. As a specimen of the elaborate
sculptures of these buildings the trimmings of a window of the large
pagoda are represented on pil. 3, fig. 13.

For the better understanding of the ancient Hindoo temple architecture we
annex a general description of the temple district of Chalembaram.

A quadrangle of 1230 feet by 960 feet is surrounded by a double brick
wall 30 feet high and 7 feet thick, faced with freestone slabs, which forms
the perebolus or inclosure of the whole of the temple buildings. Each side
has an entrance, a pagoda (pil. 1, jig. 3) constituting the pylon (gateway).
The pylon or pagoda is constructed of stone for about 30 feet of its height,
the remaining 120 feet being built of brickwork, anchored with copper
clamps, and plastered with cement. The ornaments of the brickwork
on the upper part are in better preservation than those cut in the stone.

‘The pagoda forms a passage to the court of the temples. On each
side of this passage stands a column, resting upon a base moulded into
the figure of a lion, the capitals of which are connected by a stone chain,
cut out of the same piece with the columns, composed of 29 movable links,
each 32 inches in circumference; and consequently, the block from which
the two columns and the chain were cut, must have been about 60 feet
long. There is a staircase in the pagoda leading to the top.

About one third of the court of the temples is portioned off by a wall into
a quadrangular space, which contains three dark cells connected together, the
stone ceilings of which are supported by pillars, all decorated with sculptures.
The largest cell contains an image of Vishnu, to whom it is consecrated. In
front of this smaller court is situated the pool of purification, where both
sexes bathe.

The main temple, with a portico bordered on either side by three rows of
columns, six in each row, which are covered by sculptures, and whose
capitals are very similar to the ancient Ionic, which were probably
borrowed from them, is located on the right hand side in the fore part of
the court-yard, and surrounded by various colonnades. It is composed of
the pronaos or ante-nave, the main nave, and the sanctuary, which contains
a picture of the bull Nundi, and also a statue of Parvati, the consort of
Vishnu. The situation of this statue gives rise to the supposition that this
temple was ¢onsecrated to that goddess. On the left of the temple is a
colonnade of 100 columns, covered with a stone ceiling, leading to a
small dark building on the opposite side, designed for the use of the
priests. At the left of the pool of purification stands the temple of
eternity, surrounded by 1000 monolithic columns 30 feet high, with a
ceiling partly of stone, partly of cemented bricks. This colonnade, one of
the most remarkable constructions in existence, is 360 feet long by 210 feet
wide, and offered to the three thousand priests, who passed here almost
all their time, a cool and airy promenade at all hours of the day and night.
The temple itself is small. It contains an antenmave and a main nave,
with a plain altar covered with gold leaf. The inscriptions upon the walls
are unintelligible, even to the Brahmins.

“ARCHITECTURE. Oo

-~ There is much difference of opinion as to the age of the ancient Hindoo
‘buildings. A careful examination of the different theories on the subject
inclines us to place it at about 2500 years before Christ.

2. EGyptTiAN ARCHITECTURE.

Eeyrt, which, from the time of Sesostris, 1700 years B. C. to the Persian
war, about 600 B.C., extended over Bactria, Aithiopia, Abyssinia, and Lybia,
offers the most remarkable and important monuments for the study of the
history of architecture, in her very numerous temples, palaces, pyramids,
obelisks, and hypogea (under-ground buildings); and Herodotus, Diodorus
Siculus, Pausanias, and Strabo certainly do her no more than justice in
declaring that she surpasses all the nations of the earth in the eg
and grandeur of her architectural monuments.

The style of architecture known as the Egyptian originated in the Siartin
districts of Aithiopia and in Nubia, and was introduced to the lower
districts of the river Nile by Egyptian colonists who migrated from Meroe
under the command of some priests, and settled below the last cataract.
The temple of Jupiter Ammon, between Thebes (the ancient metropolis) and
Fezzan, the obelisks near Axum, and others, are evidences of the correctness
of this statement. Pococke, Burkhardt, Beechey, Belzoni, and Gau are the —
best authorities on the history of Egyptian architecture.

The island of Phils, about three miles from the city of Syene, above the
last cataract of the Nile, which is here about 15,000 feet wide, is about 1156
feet long by 404 feet wide, and surrounded by a wharf built of square blocks.
It contains the mausoleum of Osiris, a congeries of temples disposed according
to the form of the island, which is shaped somewhat like the portion of a
gun-stock from the butt-end to the place of insertion of the barrel, the smaller
end pointing up the stream. At the southern extremity is situated a
smaller temple, to which a large court-yard is attached, surrounded by por-
ticoes leading to the two first pylons or propylea (large temple entrances be-
tween tower-like buildings of considerable height) (pl. 6, jig. 9). These propy-
lzea lead to the fore court of the temple of Osiris. On the west side of this
court stands another temple, on the east the dwellings of the priests, and
towards the north are the second propylea (jig. 9, a perspective view
of the fore court and the surrounding buildings). The second propyleon
leads to a smaller yard, which, surrounded on three sides by porticoes, forms
the fore hall of the temple of Osiris. Pl. 4, jig. 6 presents a perspective view
of the hall, with the entrance to the large temple. Theseveral parts of this
series of temples differ considerably, not only in dimensions and proportions,
but also in form and details.

The columns of the southern temple, the smallest monuments of Egyptian
architecture, are not over 15 feet high, by 2 feet 3 inches in diameter. The
capitals support cubes ornamented by four heads of Isis in relief, one on
each side. The western temple is surrounded by a portico on all four sides.

6 ARCHITECTURE.

The porticoes were covered, and had a pillar at each corer, with 19
columns between each of them. The Grecian porticoes being similarly
arranged, were probably borrowed from these. |

Near the southern temple commences a wall, in front of which runs a
portico 228 feet long, formed by 32 columns richly ornamented with sculp-
tures. On the opposite side of the fore court (the western) is a similar but
shorter portico of 16 columns, which are 16 feet high, the proportion between
the diameter and the height being as one tosix. The capitals are ornamented
with palm leaves, and the ceilings and the main cornice are covered with
hieroglyphies. At the northern end of the fore yard are two lions ina
recumbent position, cut out of red granite, and behind them stand two
obelisks of the same material, decorated with hieroglyphics. These obelisks
are immediately in front of the first propylea, which are 118 feet long by 50
feet high. The hieroglyphics, composed of figures 21 feet high, are ent in a
recess, so that the most prominent parts do not project beyond the surface
of the propyleum. Besides the western temple, the most recent of them all,
which was built 2500 years before Christ, there is in front of the priests’
dwelling, on the eastern side of the second court-yard, a portico of 10 columns
(pl. 6, fig. 9, and pl. 4, fig. 6) 28 feet 8 inches in height, and 13 feet in
circumference. These columns, together with the ceiling and cornice, are
decorated with hieroglyphics, and the capitals with designs derived from
the foliation of plants. The portico is lighted by a skylight. The main
temple of Osiris is divided into several compartments of about 19 feet in
height. At the extremity of the temple is the sanctuary, with the statue
and tomb of Osiris. The slabs in the ceiling are 15 to 16 feet long, by 3 to
41 feet in thickness and width, and of about 17 tons weight each.

The very remarkable sculptures of this temple show that the Jewish law-
giver, who was conversant with the forms of the Egyptian religion, to a certain
extent adopted its symbols in the Mosaic system. These hieroglyphics
represent the cherubim, the ark of the covenant, the vessel in which Osiris
came to Egypt, and the table with the sacred candlesticks and the show-
bread.

Besides the above-mentioned temples, the island of Phils contains on the
east side of the temple of Osiris the ruins of another temple, the columns
of which measure 40 feet, or more than any other upon the island. The
eubes between the capitals and the architraves are remarkable for their
height, which is more than a diameter of the column, a proportion greater
than in any other monument. Among the ruins of a smaller temple on the
south side of the island columns are found not more than 11 feet in height.
All the aforesaid temples are built of a kind of whitish sandstone, which is
almost as durable as granite, although the rocks of the island itself are
composed of red granite.

A portico of four columns and a few walls, all richly decorated with very
elaborate sculptures, are the only marks of the spot once occupied by the
city of Syene. The island of Elephantine contains the ruins of two temples,
both of the same style of architecture. The one to the south is still in very
good condition (pl. 4, jig. 1); it was consecrated to Kneph, the good spirit.

ARCHITECTURE. 7

Pi. 5, fig. 1, represents the plan of the large temple of Apollinopolis Magna
(Edfou) on the left bank of the Nile, between Syene and Esneh, which, before
the French expedition, was almost unknown. This temple was consecrated
to Horus or Arueris, the Egyptian Apollo. /%g. 2 shows the longitudinal
section, c k; jig. 3, the elevation of the propylea, aa; fig. 4, a section
through the fore court, with a view of the fore hall or pronaos; jig.6, caps
and cornice from the long portico, e,; jig. 6, the central part of the entablature
in the elevation of the pronaos. °

The entire edifice consists of: 1. An inclosure whose front side is formed
by the propyleum, @ @ ,with the entrance, c, in front of which the two obelisks,
b, 6, are erected. 2. The peristyle or the first fore-court, d, with the porticoes,
é,e; the court has the appearance of a staircase of twelve steps, so as to make
each succeeding column shorter than the other by the height of a step. 3.
The pronaos, 7, with six columns in the first row, and eighteen columns
all together, all very beautiful; here commences the main wall of the
temple, which is constructed with buttresses, and between it and the outer
wall on each side are small side courts, 77. 4. The fore hall of the temple,
g, with twelve columns, which through the passage way, 4, communicates
with the rooms of the priests, and with the staircases. 5. The sanctuary,
2, behind which different other rooms are located.

The length of the temple is 484 feet, the front of the propylea 212 feet, and
the front of the main temple 145 feet. The circumference of the large coleman
is 20 feet, that of the capitals 37 feet. The length of the temple by itself is 300
feet, the width of the propyleea 150; their height is 75 feet, the depth 24. The
width of the fore-court, d, in the clear is 75 feet, exactly equal to the width of
the pronaos, 7, and consequently all the proportions harmonize. The length of
the temple is eight times the height of the pronaos, four times the height of
the propyleea, and twice their width. All the different apartments are lighted
by skylights. The two stories of the propylzea are furnished with inner stair-
cases, and are lighted by openings in the wall and in the ceiling. Grooves
are cut in the front walls of the propyleea to receive the triumphal flagstafts.

All the walls, outer as well as inner, all the columns and entablatures, and
almost all the ceilings, are covered with highly elaborate symbolic sculptures
and hieroglyphics, which are still in very good condition. Some of the
capitals in the form of vases, decorated with palm leaves and date branches,
are of uncommon beauty, and are symmetrically arranged. From the striking
resemblance of the leaves and volutes to the Corinthian capitals, we might
not unreasonably suppose the latter to have been modelled after them.

Near this large temple is located a smaller one consecrated to Typhon, the
evil spirit, not more than 74 feet long, 45 feet wide, and 233 high. One
of the ornamental sculptures shows that at the time when the temple was
building the summer solstice was in the sign of Leo; the temple, therefore,
must have been erected about 2500 years before Christ.

On the island of Masuniah, about six miles below Apollinopolis, are
situated the famous rock-cut tombs of Silsilis (pl. 4, fig. 7), constructed on
the same principle as the Persian tombs. They form very deep grottoes,
to which architectural fronts are attached. In these grottoes are found two

8: ARCHITECTURE;

large inscriptions cut in the rock, and set in a frame of hieroglyphics, repre-
senting the different labors of agriculture, fishing, hunting, the vintage,
and cattle breeding, and therefore of some interest for the study of Egyptian
manners and habits (See History: Plates, Division N, pl. 1, jigs. 2-10).
One of the grottoes is 24 feet long by 124 feet wide, with an arched ceiling.
There is another group of temples at Latopolis (Esneh). PU. 4, fig. 5b, shows

half the elevation of the pronaos of that temple which is in the best preser-
vation. The pronaos is a hall with 24 columns ; those in the first row, up to
about half their height, are connected by walls. A somewhat narrower temple
situated behind this hall, is surrounded by acolonnade of 29 columns, with
massive pillars in the corners. The lintels are 21 to 25 feet long by 6 feet
wide. All the walls, the ceilings, and the columns are decorated with sculp-.
tures relating chiefly to Osiris. A little more to the north is another temple,
but in a rather bad condition. According to the representation of the zodiac
on the ruins, the temples at Latopolis must have been erected 2600 years
before Christ.

_ Opposite Latopolis, at Contralatopolis, is a temple, the columns of which
are 19 feet high by three feet in diameter. Near Hermonthis (Ermeut) are
the ruins of a temple which was erected about 2000 years before Christ, of
materials previously used in another temple, a fact proved by the appear-
ance of the ashlars, which contain fragments of hieroglyphic inscriptions,
having been cut down from larger blocks of stone.

_ The city: of Thebes, the ancient Diospolis Magna, was situated upon both
banks of the Nile, and surrounded by a wall 60 feet thick, furnished with
100 gates. Here are found a large number of edifices important for
the study of architecture. In giving a description of the most celebrated of
them, we first notice the ruins of a very large racecourse (hippodromus)
which extended 75,000 feet in length by 8000 feet in width, and was
surrounded by a brick wall. It covered about 6,250,000 square fathoms,
and therefore was about seven times as large as the Champ de Mars at
Paris. There was a second racecourse of 5232 feet by 3234 on the op-
posite bank, the right bank of the Nile. The ruins of the palace of
Sesostris, and of several temples and other buildings, are situated on the
left bank of the river.

_ In the palace of Sesostris, erected about 1700 years before Christ, are three
large courts, two of them surrounded by colonnades. The first propyleum
is 192 feet long, 27 feet deep, and 66 feet high, and contains several rooms.
Its vast entrance leads to an extensive court, bounded on two sides by galle-
ries, and on the others by the first and second propylea. The northern gal-
Jery, which is roofed over, is composed of seven square pillars, six feet thick,
with statues of Osiris before them 23 feet high; the southern gallery also
has a ceiling, and is formed by eight round columns. The second propyleum
leads to the second court-yard, which is furnished with galleries on three sides.
-On the eastern side are eight columns, and opposite each column stands a
square pillar with a statue of Osiris in front of it. Behind the gallery is a door
communicating with the third court, which is separated from the preceding by
.awall. The third court-yard, which was probably surrounded by the dwelling

ARCHITECTURE. 9

of the king and the royal family, is completely destroyed. A door in the south
side of the gallery most likely led to a second building. The columns (pi. 5,
Jig. 8), the walls, and the ceiling are covered with hieroglyphics and sculp-
tures, representing the famous expeditions by land and sea of Sesostris, the
Egyptian hero, and introducing very often the statue of himself, sometimes
riding in his triumphal car, at others slaying his enemies with arrows; but
the most remarkable are the representations of a sea-fight, in which the foe are
represented as Indians, whilst in the battle scenes on land they are depicted
with beards, and therefore are intended to represent Persians. The
bas-reliefs in the peristyle represent the triumphal expedition of Sesos-
tris to Arabia, after his numerous victories, as related by Diodorus Siculus.

_ The world-famed palace of Memnon at Thebes, called the Memnonium,
or, by the Romans, Temple of Serapis, one of the most wonderful monuments
of the ancient world, has been so effectually destroyed by time, that, not-
withstanding repeated investigations, not a‘single portion of the building
itself has been discovered. Still, the colossal statues between the palace of
Sesostris and the mausoleum of Osymandias corroborate so far Strabo’s
description of it, as to remove any doubt that the acacia wood near Medinet
Abou occupies the site of the ancient Memnonium.

The colossi of Tamy and Shamy are the most attractive of a large number
of fragments of colossi in the acacia wood, numerous enough to decorate all
the squares of alarge city. Twoof them, the northern and the southern, are
represented on pl. 6, fig. 5. Almostall these colossi are formed of limestone
or sandstone, granite, or breccia, a material which the Egyptians alone
have ever been able to work into statues. The northern of these two
colossi, which were probably the largest statues in the Memnoniun, is
covered with hieroglyphics and with inscriptions in Latin and Greek, pro-
claiming that the colossus at sunrise emitted asound somewhat like the
breaking string of a harp or a guitar. Cambyses caused this statue to be
overthrown and destroyed, for the purpose of examining its internal
construction, and of finding out whether the reputed sounds were not a
deception practised upon the people by the priests. It is not improbable
that the effect of the sun upon the stone was so powerful as to cause a vibra-
tion of its surface. Similar sounds are said to have been noticed by the
French engineers in the granite apartments of the palace at Carnak. The
mutilated portion of the colossus was rebuilt by five courses of sandstone,
and the ancient head replaced upon it by the Romans. The statue and
base were 48+13—61 feet high, and weighed about 750 tons. The
southern colossus, also somewhat defaced, is formed of a single block of
breccia, and between its legs are placed three smaller statues.

The mausoleum of Osymandias is another monument worthy of mention,
as it contained 16 colossal statues of Osiris, 29 feet 24 inches high, and the
statue of Osymandias represented in a sitting position, 53 feet 10 inches
high, several feet higher than the largest of the Memnon statues. It was
‘ut out of rose-colored granite, contained about 11,965 cubic feet, and
‘weighed about 1,000 tons. After standing for 2000 years, in the
year 523 3. c. this statue was thrown down by Cambyses. Opposite to

10 ARCHITECTURE.

this was another smaller statue, likewise in a sitting position, which, according —
to Diodorus Siculus, represented the mother of Osymandias. The second
peristyle of the building contains columns of 35 feet 9 inches in height, by
7 feet 6 inches diameter, modelled in a higher style than those in the palace
of Sesostris, though the latter was built 800 years after the former. In the
second court was a statue of black granite, with a beautiful rose-colored.
granite head, all in one piece 22 feet high. The head is at present in the
British Museum. The bas-reliefs on the exterior walls represent battle-scenes,
war-chariots, and attacks upon the enemy’s position, who retreats swimming -
to his reserve on the opposite bank of a river.

Besides the monuments on the left bank of the Nile already mentioned,
there were about forty royal tombs, catacombs, or hypogea, only twelve
of which can be entered at the present day. They were rock-cut, and are
highly interesting on account of their bas-reliefs and fresco paintings. The
tombs themselves are generally ranged in different tiers, one above the
other; the lowest are usually the most elegant, while those in the upper
tiers are very plain. PJ. 5, fig. 12, shows a ground-plan of one of the
largest. In front of the entrance are large fore-courts, which communicate
by galleries with the extensive apartments, the largest of which is about
600 feet long, entirely rock-cut. The walls and ceilings are decorated with
sculpture-work and fresco paintings, representing vases, furniture, musical
instruments (flutes, harps, lyres, &c.) of the most elegant forms, girls dancing
to the music of the harp, hunting and fishing scenes, rural occupations,
naval scenes, vintage, weighing of goods, a large dinner party seated at a
well supplied table, and a court of death. One of the catacombs contains
a representation of a royal throne, which most minutely corresponds with
the description of that of king Solomon given in 1 Kings x. 19, 20, which was
therefore in all likelihood copied from the Egyptian throne. On one of the
ceilings a zodiac is painted, by the position of the sun in which it is inferred
that the temple was built 1700 years before Christ. Some of the catacombs
contain fragments of arches. Atthe present time they are almost destroyed,
and the mummies, divested of their coffins, he mingled promiscuously
together.

It seems to be not out of place here to correct a very prevalent error
respecting the art of fresco painting. The term fresco painting, an ancient
Egyptian invention, meansa painting produced by a chemical preparation
of the mortar before and at the time of putting it on the walls, so that it
may be affected neither by atmospheric influence nor time, and that the
painting executed ages ago may appear as fresh in color and as correct in
outline as if done but yesterday. It has nothing at all to do with the object
represented or with the beauty of the design, as shown by the great variety in
the above mentioned representations. The art of fresco painting is entirely lost
to the moderns, and the attempts made in different parts of Europe to rediscover
it, sometimes at extrayagant outlay, particularly in Munich and in Berlin,
have, after several years’ experiments, turned out entire failures. It is either
simply ridiculous and a proof of ignorance, or an intentional fraud on the
public, to dignify by the name of fresco the common water color or oil

ARCHITECTURE. 11

painting, such as covers the walls and ceilings of our theatres and other
public buildings, whatever may be the subject they represent.

On the right bank of the Nile we see the ruins of a palace near the village
of Luxor (El-Kusr), standing close to the river upon a platform about nine
feet above the surrounding ground, about 2200 feet in length, by 1100 in
breadth, and fenced in with brickwork. The ruins consist of a large number
of columns, the circumference of some of which is 18 or 19 feet, and that of
others about 30 feet, 9 inches. Three obelisks, and the extensive propylea
represented on pl. 6, jig. 8, indicate a royal palace. In front of the palace
was a double row of colossal sphinxes, about 200 in number, which led to
the temple, the ruins of which are near the village of Carnak. This avenue
of sphinxes is terminated by two obelisks, which, afew years ago, were still
standing; they are of unequal dimensions, but both are monoliths of the
red granite of Syene. The one on the left hand side, without the point (which
is 7 feet long), is 77 feet 73 inches high, its base being about 6 feet 34 inches in
width. The other, without the point of about 4 feet, is 72 feet 64 inches high,
with a base of the same dimensions as the first; it weighs about 352,276 lbs.
The bases on which the obelisks were placed were of different heights, for
the purpose of equalizing the general height of the shafts. The form of
these obelisks shows the thorough knowledge of optical effect possessed by
the Egyptians. The plane surface of a very slender body, when exposed to
a bright sun, appears to be rounded towards the edges. To avoid this, they
gave the surfaces a convexity of 15 lines, and this had the effect of making
them seem flat, for otherwise one of the edges would have appeared like
one half of a cylinder, very bright, and the other entirely dark.

The viceroy of Egypt, Mahomed Ali, presented the two above mentioned
obelisks to the king of France. The westerly one was taken down by M.
Lebas in the year 1833, and transported to Paris, where it has been erected
in the Place de la Concorde. The labors attending the removal began as
early as 1829, and the whole work thus took four years. A very interesting
model of the progress of the work in all its stages is preserved in the Naval
Museum in Paris. The remaining obelisk is intended for the city of Mar-
seilles. Behind the obelisks there were formerly two colossal statues of red
and black granite intermixed; but both these monoliths have been destroyed.
They were about 42 feet 3 inches high. Between the propylea, which are
75 feet high, a doorway of 52 feet 4 inches in height leads to a large court
yard surrounded by a peristyle. The propyleum is decorated with bas-
reliefs, representing warlike scenes. In the court-yard are located the
houses of the village of Luxor, the yard being about 169 by 138 feet, with
a covered colonnade of 76 columns, 27 feet 74 inches high. The second pro-
pyleeum opens to the roof of that colonnade, where the inhabitants were wont
- to pass the night under tents. The passage from this court to the third pro-
pyleum is by a gallery of 14 columns remarkable for their height and thick-
ness, being 10 feet 6 inches in diameter by 62 feet 7 inches inheight. They
are composed of stone rings filled up inside with bricks, mortar, and cement,
with capitals 16 feet 117 inches at the top by 10 feet 94 inches below, and
shaped like an inverted bell. The architrave is composed of stone blocks,

12 ARCHITECTURE.

each 18 feet in length. The third propyleum opened into a court with a
double peristyle of 44 columns in four rows, connected with a portico of 32
columns, to which the side building is attached. The several courts do not lie
in a line, the first forming with the large gallery an angle of 3° 9’, which cir-
cumstance would indicate that the different parts of the building were origi-
nally separate, and afterwards connected by the above mentioned colonnade
of 14 columns. This palace, according to Diodorus Siculus, was built by
king Busiris about 3100 years before Christ.

The village of Carnak, to the north-east of Luxor, contains the most —
extensive and magnificent ruins in the Thebaid, and even in the whole of
Egypt. Of these, the palace of Carnak, the plan of which is represented
on pl. 5, fig. 7, is the most extensive. P1.4, jig. 4, gives a view of the first
court with the second propyleum ; pl. 6, fig. 7, the large hall. This palace,
which was situated about 2400 feet from the Nile, was surrounded by a
wall 7052 feet long and 30 feet thick, one half of which still exists; the
dimensions of the bricks are 12, 6, and 5 inches. From the first propyleum,
or from that side of the palace that faced the Nile, there were two rows of
sphinxes forming an avenue to the river. Two of the sphinxes are still in
‘existence; they have the body of a lion and the head of a ram, and a sym-
bolical cover enveloping the chest and back. They are placed upon a plinth
12 feet by 34 feet, and 7 inches high, which rests upon a base 10 feet high,
and finished with a cima recta. The front, or the propyleum of the palace,
is 847 feet 104 inches long, and 154 feet high. The sculptures upon it are
unfinished, and mere rough sketches. In each wing of the propyleum are
eight windows in two rows, which correspond with four perpendicular recesses
to receive the triumphal poles, like those at the temple on the island of
Philz. In front of the ruins of the entrance are the remains of two colossi
in a sitting position, similar to those at the palace of Luxor. The entrance,
20 feet wide, was 60 feet in the clear, and 80 feet high to the top of the
cornice, and was closed by bronze folding doors. In the interior of the
propyleum staircases led to the different stories, which contained several
rooms. This colossal propyleeum leads to the fore yard (pl. 5, fig. 7 f°), 315
feet 5 inches by 252 feet, with a row of columns on the south and north
sides. The latter row, consisting of 18 columns, is in comparatively good
preservation, and in connexion with the wall behind it, forms a colonnade
covered with stone slabs. The entablature rests upon cubes, which are
placed upon the capitals. These columns, represented in pl. 4, fig. 4, on
the left, are 6 feet, 1 inch, and 103 lines in diameter, and 27 feet, 8 inches,
52 lines in height. The distance between them is somewhat less than the
diameter. No bas-reliefs have been found, and the colonnade appears to
have been left in an unfinished state. The southern colonnade, eight feet
wide, is divided by a building (pl. 5, jig. 7, g) which was probably a temple,
a view of which is given in pl. 4, fig. 4, to the right. The frieze of this
gallery contains two rows of hieroglyphics. In the centre of this court there
were two rows of colossal columns, each consisting of six. These have all
been prostrated, except the last but one in the southern row, but the shafts
are not broken. The rows were 42 feet apart. The columns, the most

ARCHITECTURE. 13

slender in Egypt, except those at Phil, are composed of single pieces, each
1 foot, 10 inches high; the full height is 65 feet, 83 inches, with a diameter
of 9 feet, 2 inches. The greatest width of the capitals is 15 feet, 4 inches,
84 lines, their circumference being 46 feet, 2 inches. The shaft and the
cube upon the capital are covered with hieroglyphics. Whether the space
between the two rows of columns was covered, and if so, whether the ceiling
was formed by beams of cedar or by a tent (velariwm), is a question that
has not yet been decided. The French writers are of opinion that statues
of the gods were placed upon the columns, and that they did not support
any ceiling at all. Thetemple (pi. 5, jig. 7g), a portion of the large palace,
projects into the court f, 36 feet, and had a propyleum 67 feet, 11 inches
long, which is very much dilapidated. The central line of the temple is not
strictly perpendicular to that of the palace, from which it has been inferred
to be of greater antiquity, an opinion which is supported by the fact that
the temple is completely finished and covered with hieroglyphics, which
are found in no other part of this court. The fore-court has a peristyle,
with statues of Osiris in front of the columns; and the court leads to the
pronaos, the ceiling of which is supported by eight columns ranged in two
rows. This temple, which was probably the private chapel of the palace, is
160 feet long by 65 feet wide. The large court, / contains the ruins of the
second propyleum, in front of which were two granite statues. The southern
one of these, a monolith, is still in existence: it is 21 feet high, and repre-
sented in the act of walking. Seven steps lead to the entrance of the propy-
leeum, which was 20 feet wide, 63 feet, 5 inches high in the clear, and 91 feet to
the top of the cornice. It is the largest in the world ; the folding-doors were
of bronze. The propyleum is nearly destroyed; nothing remains of it but
the doorposts, which are decorated with bas-reliefs representing Horus, the
symbol of the fructifying sun, and with paintings, the colors of which may
still be traced.

The saloon or hall, e, 307 feet, 10 inches long, by 154 feet, 5 inches wide,
_ the ceiling of which is supported by 1384 columns, is the most astonishing
and magnificent edifice of ancient Egypt. It has three divisions. The
centre is formed by 12 columns 66 feet high without the entablature, by 11
feet in diameter, the capitals being 10 feet high, 21 feet in diameter, and 64
feet in circumference. All these columns remain entire. The two lateral
divisions contain 61 columns each, 40 feet, 6 inches in height, and 8 feet, 6
inches in diameter. The row of smaller columns nearest to the larger ones
supports a stone wall with six openings, protected by stone lattice-work,
through which the hall is lighted. The ceilings are constructed of stone
slabs, almost all of which are 28 feet long, 8 feet wide, and 4 feet thick,
weighing about 65 tons each. The architraves are 24 feet long, and 6 feet
thick. The shafts of the columns are constructed of courses each 3 feet, 2
inches high, and each course is composed of four pieces, all of them covered
with hieroglyphics and symbolical sculptures in recesses. Pl. 5, fig. 11,
represents one of the capitals of the large columns; pi. 6, fig. 7, the central
portion of the hall, with the view into the second court. PU. 5, jig. 9, shows
another style of capital found in this palace. The capitals of the 122 smaller

14 ARCHITECTURE.

columns are similar to the column of Medinet-Abou (pi. 5, jig. 8), but larger.
The ruins of this temple most distinctly show that the stones used in the
construction of the palace of Carnak had formed portions of some other
building, another proof that long before the erection of those buildings, the
ruins of which are now before us, other and similar edifices had been built
in Egypt, and destroyed by time.

This hall led to the third propyleeum, decorated with symbolic hieroglyphies
and bas-reliefs. The entrance door of this propyleum, 49 feet high, leads to a
corridor, jig. 7, @ a, which runs round the interior rear part of the monument. —
Close to the entrance are seen two obelisks of red granite, whose bases are
about 5 feet, 7 inches above the present floor, their entire height being 61 feet.
They probably measured 70 feet in height from the original floor; their tops
are 3 feet in width, by 9 feet in height. The northern has been prostrated and
broken, while the southern is still in good condition. Behind these obelisks is
the fourth propyleeum, which contained a square fore-hall, leading into a gal-
lery, d, d, about 80 feet long, by 58 feet wide,with a double row of pillars,
at the base of which statues of Osiris are standing. In this room two
obelisks were placed, which were among the largest in Egypt, and both
monoliths of granite. The southern one is lying broken, whilst the northern
one remains in tolerably good condition. It stands 73 feet, 7 inches, 9 lines
high, above the rubbish, its entire height being 91 feet, 10 mches. At the
base it is 8 feet, 1 inch thick, and where it projects from the rubbish, 7 feet,
72 inches. It isthe highest obelisk of the ten still existing in Egypt, and
its weight is about 375 tons. |

From the above-mentioned galleries a fore hall of about 18 feet by 37
feet, 6 inches, leads to a dilapidated wall with granite door jambs, probably
the ruins of a small propyleum. ‘Two doors lead to two different halls, the
walls of which are decorated with highly elaborated symbolic sculptures. In
front of the sanctuary (fig. 7,c) were two truncated obelisks (steles), 7 feet, 7
inches high, which probably served as pedestals for busts. A door between
them leads to the granite apartments, the walls of which are covered with
well finished and painted bas-relief, frequently representing Horus, the son
of Osiris and Isis. The blue color is still quite fresh and brilliant. The
ceiling, constructed of granite and sandstone blocks, is decorated with yellow
stars, with red centres on an azure ground. ‘To some of these granite apart-
ments small chambers were attached, decorated with sculptures representing
the inauguration of kings by the priests, and sometimes the sacred boat. It
is generally supposed that none but the kings and priests were admitted into
these chambers. In the granite apartments the French engineers frequently
noticed sounds similar to those attributed to the statue of Memnon; they
always seemed to originate from the granite ceiling, which probably vibrated
in consequence of the sudden changes of temperature, the nights being very
cold, and the days exceedingly hot. About 500 feet behind the granite
apartments are found some more ruins (fig. 7, 6), which probably constituted
a portion of the palace. They form a hall, the centre ceiling of which rests
on 20 columns arranged in two rows, which are surrounded by a peristyle
supporting a lower ceiling; the whole being a miniature copy of the large

ARCHITECTURE. 15

hall (pl. 5, ig. 7 e), probably the room in which the inhabitants of the palace
held their meetings. Behind this is another hall, 88 feet long by 49 feet
wide, the columns of which are remarkable on account of their 16 flutes, and
probably gave the idea of the Doric column. Besides these mentioned above,
the palace contained a number of smaller rooms. According to Herodotus
and Diodorus Siculus, this palace was built at the time of king Busiris I.
that is, about 4500 B. c.

Several other ruins are situated at the southern and northern ends of the
inclosure of the palace, but they consist of little more than a few woman-
headed sphinxes with the bodies of lions, the number of which originally
amounted to about 60; among them the largest in the Thebaid (See History,
Plates, Division IV. pl. 3, jig. 32).

The ruins of Tentyra, or Denderah, which occupy an area of 2800 feet
by 2400, and contain the northern temple, the temple dedicated to Typhon
(Typhonium), the large temple, and the southern temple, are classed among
the most elegant specimens of Egyptian architecture. The northern temple,
not over 50 feet by 34, is peripteral, with 14 columns, and has not been com-
pleted. The Typhonium, a temple dedicated to the evil principle, also perip-
teral, is 105 feet by 55 feet, and similar to the temple at Edfou. Leaves of the
lotus and other plants ornament the capitals, whose cubes show on all four
sides the image of atyphon, enveloped in lotus leaves. Another Typhonium
of great interest is situated on the mountain of Barkal. It is partly excavated
in the rock, and contains two rooms. In the first, or pronaos, next to the pro-
pyleeum, the architrave is supported by four rows of pillars, four in each row;
in front of each pillar is a statue of the god Typhon, supporting a kind of
cushion, upon which the architrave rests. PU. 4, jig. 8, shows a perspective
view of the interior of this pronaos.

The large temple of Tentyra was 245 feet long, by 128 feet wide, and 55
feet high. The entrance door is 154 feet wide, and the ceiling of the portico
(pl. 4, fig.5 a) rests upon 24 columns ranged in four rows, the capitals of
which are composed of four heads of Isis, which support a cube, on the
faces of which temples are represented (pl.5, fig.10.) The colossal head is
partly hidden by a drapery painted with longitudinal stripes, exhibiting lotus
leaves and pearls. The sculptures upon the cube represent offerings to Isis,
who is nursing her son Horus. All the columns are covered with hiero-
glyphics. The door jambs, like the building itself of sandstone, are framed
in by the centre columns; the head-piece over the door is of granite. The
walls of the portico are inclined on each side, to the extent of 103 feet. The
rear portion, or the main temple, is about ten feet lower than the portico.
It contains a ceiling painted with yellow stars on a blue ground; and also
the famous zodiac, explained in the mythological part of this work. This
zodiac is cut in stone; it begins with the lion, and ends with the scarabzeus
in place of the crab, the constellations ranged around it. On the ceiling of
the portico, are similar decorations executed in painting. The two corner
pulars on the front (pl. 4, fig. 5 a), are ornamented with four rows of bas-
reliefs representing the offerings of gifts to Osiris and Isis, the former of
whom is represented sometimes with the head of a boar, sometimes with

16 ARCHITECTURE.

that of a sparrow-hawk, or of a falcon. On the inside of these pillars are
figures 15 feet high; and from each side-wall of the temple project the heads
and half the length of the bodies of three lions. The wall between the front
columns is ornamented with bas-reliefs representing offerings to Isis. In
one of the rooms are sculptures relating to the death and resurrection of
Osiris, probably a symbolical allegory of the decay of vegetation in the dry
season, and its renewal after the inundation of the Nile.

Upon the terrace of the main temple stands another smaller temple, a
circumstance unique in Egypt; its columns are copies on a smaller scale of
those of the main temple.

_ The southern temple of Tentyra presents nothing of particular interest.
Judging from the zodiac, the monuments of Tentyra were built about 2500
years before Christ.

Two colonnades, which are scarcely accessible, mark the site of the ruins ~
of Abydos, where Memnon had a palace, and Osiris a temple. They are
ornamented with sculptures, and the ceilings are painted with yellow stars”
upon an azure ground. Further down the river we find the ruins of Ante-
opolis, composed of a large temple, with its inclosure, and on the west a
temple with a quay-wall towards the Nile. Pl. 4, fig.1, represents the ruins
of the large temple of Antzopolis. The portico of 18 columns, ranged in
three rows, was 135 feet long and 45 feet high. The ruins, which are in a
very dilapidated state, are situated in a date grove; and the capitals of the
columns are ornamented with date leaves. One hundred and eighty feet
distant from the portico is a monolith temple of limestone, 154 feet high.
According to a Greek inscription upon the architrave, the temple was rebuilt
by Antoninus and Verus.

On the ruins of the ancient Besa the emperor Trajan erected a city, which
in honor of his friend Antinous he called Antinopolis or Antinoe; and the
ruins of this city being therefore of a more recent date, present some of the
characteristics of Grecian and Roman architecture. The remains of the
theatre contain Corinthian columns (pl. 4, jig. 2). Below Antinoe, near
Sandah and Beni Hassan, are rock-cut tombs, one of them containing fluted
columns, 33 feet thick and 7 diameters in height, with 15 flutings,
undoubtedly of ancient Egyptian origin. ,

The catacombs of Alexandria (pl. 5, fig. 13 a plan, and jig. 14 a section
of the catacombs) contain eight Doric columns, which support the arched
ceiling of the centre room, to which the four mausolea are attached.

The pyramids deserve the name of eternal abodes of the deceased as well
as the rock-cuttombs. These structures are of Egyptian origin, although they
are met with in India and in Nubia, for instance near Assur (pil. 6, jig. 4),
and even in Egypt they have only been erected in the district of Fayum,
and in the tract of the Libyan mountains, which is at present occupied by
the villages of Gizeh, Sakkarah, Dashour, Megduneh, and El Metanjeh,
near the ancient Memphis and Busiris. Of late it has been surmised that
they were intended for astronomical purposes, as the direction of the differ-
ent passages in the interior has been observed to correspond with certain
astronomical lines.

ARCHITECTURE. 1?

King Meeris seems to have been the first to erect buildings in pyramidal
form; for on digging the lake which is called after his name, he built some
large structures of this kind in the very middle of it (pl. 6, jig. 1). Much later,
about 1000 s.c., Cheops built the largest pyramid near Memphis, the present
Gizeh ; the second was built by his brother Chephrenes; the third by Myceri-
nus, son of Cheops; and Asychis, his successor, erected the fourth. These, to-
gether with three smaller pyramids dedicated to the queens of the above-men-
tioned kings, and to the daughter of Cheops, are known as the group of Gizeh
(fig. 2). The pyramids at Sakkarah and in the other places were built about
the same time with the others. In the neighborhood of the group of Gizeh
is situated the far-famed colossal Sphinx (jig. 6). ig. 3 shows a section of
the largest pyramid at Memphis. The pyramids were constructed either of
bricks or of stone. The fourth pyramid, and those in the lake Maris,
belong to the former class, and have been almost destroyed; the latter,
which was originally 240 feet high, being now not more than 180. The
majority of them were constructed of limestone, which was found in the
vicinity, or of Trojan or Ethiopian granite. Some of them exhibit pieces of
yellow andred marble. With very few exceptions, the edges of the pyramids
are directed towards the four quarters of the heavens. The proportion
between the extension of the base and the height seems to have been strictly
regulated; the line from the base to the top is not alwaysstraight, being in
some instances curved, in others broken by terraces of different heights ;
the one near Sakkarah having six terraces of equal height. Some of them
run to a point at the apex, while the tops of others are formed by platforms
of different sizes. The dimensions of the pyramids are also equally various.
According to the report of Girard, the pyramid of Cheops was 699 feet, 9
inches long at the base, and 425 feet, 9 inches high; the pyramid of
Chephrenes, 655 feet base, by 398 feet in height; those of Sakkarah are a
little smaller. |

Herodotus informs us that it required the labor of 100,000 men during
ten years to construct the embankment for the transportation of the stone
blocks to the pyramid of Cheops, and afterwards the same number during
twenty years to erect the pyramid itself. The latter operation was conducted
by first building one terrace, and then raising all the materials for the next one,
up tothis; the angles between the terraces being filled up, and the surface of
the pyramid smoothed afterwards. The construction of the large pyramid of
Memphis (jig. 6, view, jig. 3, section) is as follows: The first course of stones
rests upon the main rock, and was imbedded in it to the depth of seven or eight
inches. The rock was then cut so as to form a plinth, five feet high, which is
100 feet above high water of the Nile. Above the first course of stones are
twenty others cut into steps 94 inches wide to one foot rise. The two unper-
most courses have been destroyed; and the whole height, plinth and top
included, is nearly 450 feet, the base being 716 feet in length. Each block
is fitted into the adjoining one without the least irregularity, the lower stone
receiving in a groove two inches deep, a projection of the upper one
of the same size. The four angles of this pyramid point exactly to the four
quarters of the globe, a thing not easily done even at the present day; it

ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOPZDIA.—VOL, IY. 2 17

18 ARCHITECTURE.

establishes, however, one remarkable fact, viz. that during the thousands
of years which have elapsed since the erection of this pyramid, the position
of the axis of the earth has undergone no change whatever.

The entrance to the pyramid is at present on the north-eastern side, upon
the 25th course, and about 45 feet above the base. It is represented on pi.
6, jig. 3. Having been closed with brickwork it was only accidentally
discovered. A gallery sloping downwards, leads to a passage 3 feet, 5 inches
in width and height, and 102 feet long, the entrance to which was blocked
up by a large piece of granite which could not be removed, but a passage
has been made around it. At the extreme end of this gallery is a platform,
and on the right hand side a well cut in the rock, about 200 feet deep, but
without water, even as low as 50 feet below the level of the Nile. Its
extreme depth has, however, not been reached. At this floor a level passage
branches off, about 118 feet in length, which leads first to a room called
the queen’s apartment, which is 17 feet 10 inches in length, by 16 feet, 1
inch wide, and empty; second, to another gallery, 125 feet long, 25 feet
high, and 64 feet wide. On each side of this are benches 21 inches high
by 19 inches wide, and at the end is another platform, communicating with
another opening, 3 feet, 3 inches wide, 4 feet, 5 inches high, and 7 feet, 10
inches long, forming the entrance to the upper room of the king, which is
32 feet wide, 16 feet long, 18 feet high, and covered with polished granite,
the southern side being the longest. At the western end is the granite
sarcophagus, 7 feet, 1 inch long, 3 feet, 1 inch wide, 3 feet, 6 inches high.
It is empty, and les due north and south; the lid is wanting.

Near this pyramid is situated a figure of the Sphinx (pl. 6, fig. 6). It is
cut from the rock on which it stands, and is still connected withit. Its height
to the back is about 40 feet, and it was necessary to remove masses of rock
to lower the surrounding ground, in order to exhibit its full dimensions.
The figure is 117 feet long; the circumference of the headis 91 feet, the
height from the belly to the top of the head 51 feet. There is an opening
in the head in which the head-dress was fastened. The French, during the
expedition to Egypt, after removing the surrounding sand by which it was
covered up to the neck, discovered an opening between the fore legs of the
figure, which soon proved to be a regular entrance, communicating by sub-
terraneous passages cut through the rocks with the large pyramid. This
accounts for there being no outer entrance to the pyramid, and for the
different branches of the afore-mentioned galleries being secured by blocks
of stone from the opposite side. At the same time also, it proves that the
ancient Arabian authors were not mistaken in asserting that the different
galleries and wells in the pyramid communicated with an entrance through
an opening in the figure of the sphinx.

From this short account of the remains of ancient Egyptian architecture
an idea may be derived of the state of civilization of the nation which created
it. Our highest admiration is due to the noble monuments of the talent,
industry, and perseverance of a people, who maintained for hundreds and
thousands of years an imposing style of architecture, uncorrupted and un-
changed, and to whom the other nations are indebted for the transmission

18 ,

ARCHITECTURE. 19

of the written alphabet, and for many valuable principles and ascertained
facts in Geometry and Astronomy. It cannot be a matter of wonder that
such a people should have spread its dominion over a vast territory, and
have important colonies on the Euphrates, in Greece, and in other countries,
and that its genius should have influenced the most talented and eminent
men of ancient Greece.

3. AssyriAN, Mepran, Bapytontan, AND Prrstan ARCHITECTURE.

The city of Nineveh, situated on the banks of the river Euphrates, was
the metropolis of the kingdom of Assyria, which originally comprised the
tract of country bordering on the rivers Euphrates and Tigris. But the
Medes and Babylonians afterwards declared themselves independent, and
formed two new kingdoms. ‘The chief city of the former was Ecbatana, of
the latter, Babylon. After the destruction of Nineveh and the incorporation
of the kingdom of Assyria with that of the Medes (600 s. c.), the kingdoms
of Babylon and Media were continually contending with each other, until
they were both conquered by the Persians, under Cyrus, the founder of the
great Persian Empire.

Nineveh, which almost exclusively furnishes the materials for the study of
the architecture of the Assyrians, has only within a very short time been
excavated from the rubbish by which it had been covered for ages. Accord-
ing to Herodotus, it was built in the form of a quadrangle, which was 40
geographical miles in length, by 13 miles in breadth. It was inclosed by
a wall wide enough for three chariots to drive abreast, 100 feet high, and
containing 1500 fortified towers of 200 feet in height. This wall was
probably built of sun-dried bricks, since the conquest of the city was rendered
possible by the destruction of a large portion, in consequence of an inunda-
tion of the Euphrates. The most important remains brought to light by the
latest excavations are some colossal sculptures from the royal palace (pl. 8,
Jigs. Land 2).

Ecbatana, the metropolis of Media, and the summer residence of the
Persian nas, was built by Dejoces qi 00 B. c., upon a hill which was forti-
fied by seven terraces or walls of mason-work, chet with battlements painted
of a different color. Alexander the Great, according to lian, when his
friend Hepheestion had died at Ecbatana, ered itiee walls to be pulled
down.

Our knowledge of the history of Babylon is not quite so scanty as that
of Assyria; still we are acquainted with but few buildings except those of
the city of Babylon, a city whose erection is due to several sovereigns, and
particularly to the two queens Semiramis and Nitocris. It was situated in
a fertile plain on the Euphrates, and formed a square of 81 square miles,
giving a circumference of 36 miles, surrounded by a wall, which according
to Pliny was 200 feet high, and according to Strabo 32 feet wide, though
others assert that it was 400 feet high by 50 feet in width. The two faces
of the wall were of bricks laid in bitumen, thirty bricks thick, and strength-

20 ARCHITECTURE.

ened by buttresses ; the space between being filled up with bundles of reeds
compacted by bitumen. This wall has been mentioned by us under the head
of Military Sciences (Fortification), and a view and section of it given in
illustration. (See Plates, Division V. pl. 42, jigs. 12 and 13.) It had 100
entrances with metal gates, jambs, and lintels. There was a second wall
inside the other. The river Euphrates divided the city into two parts, which
were connected by several bridges, constructed of beams resting upon stone
piers. The buildings were generally three or four stories high, and the
streets crossed each other at right angles. The royal palace is situated on
one bank of the river, and the temple of Belus on the other. The hanging
gardens formed part of the palace grounds. They were erected by Nebu-
chadnezzar for his queen, who, as a native of Media, had a predilection for
mountains. These gardens were laid out in a series of terraces constituting
a hill 75 feet high and 1600 feet in circumference. The terraces were
supported by walls 22 feet thick, and 10 feet apart, which were covered with
stone plates 16 feet long, and 4 feet thick. Upon these plates was first laid
a coating of bitumen, followed successively by alayer of bitumen and reeds,
a double course of bricks in mortar, and finally a sheet of lead. The soil
was then spread upon this substratum, of the proper thickness for the pro-
posed plantations. The spaces between the walls formed large rooms for
festal occasions, and were lighted from the projecting terraces. On the
top was a reservoir, the water for which was drawn from the Euphrates by
means of a hydraulic machine, and carried in pipes to all the different parts
of the grounds.. There was even a sufficient supply for a few fountains.
The height of each terrace was 124 feet, and the width 64 feet.

_ The temple of Belus formed a square of about 600 feet in length, in the
centre of which was erected a tower 300 feet square. This tower was com-
posed of eight stories, and a staircase was led up on the outside. The upper-
most story contained the temple hall, where a maiden favored by the god
nightly slept. In the lowest story was another hall, in which stood a colossal
statue of Jupiter 24 feet high, of massive gold. The throne with its steps,
and the table before it, were likewise of pure gold. An altar of gold and
another of stone were placed in front of thetemple. These treasures were all
taken away by Xerxes.

The principal feature of Babylonian architecture is its bold, massive
character, and colossal dimensions. The water works of the Babylonians,
too, were second in importance only to those of the Egyptians. Their fortifica-
tions are really surprising. The temple of Belus was as large as any of the pyra-
mids, though not so difficult to construct, as it was built of bricks. The
outer walls of the Babylonian buildings were either coated with bitumen
and painted, or the surface of the bricks was glazed. Only a few works,
chiefly the dams and sluices on the Tigris, were constructed of stone blocks,
on account of the great distance they had to be carried. The arch was not
known to the Babylonians. In cases where a frame ceiling could not be
erected, they had recourse to immense stone slabs. Metal was frequently
used, particularly for doors and jambs.

The Persians, who, before the time of Cyrus, were a people of inferior

ARCHITECTURE. 21

cultivation, and dependent on the Median kings, began to acquire a know-
ledge of the fine arts after they had invaded northern and western Africa
and Egypt. Cambyses, together with the treasures which he carried home
from Egypt, brought Egyptian artists to Persia, to build the royal palaces
at Persepolis, Susa, and in Media. But no actual improvements in the arts
were made in Persia; and they remained in the same condition in which
they were when Cambyses and Darius first introduced them. Almost all
the artists of Persia were foreigners.

The buildings of Ecbatana were mostly of brick laid in bitumen; marble
or other valuable stones were used for columns and floors.

Pasargada was the most ancient fortress of the Persian kings, and Cam-
byses ordered the corpse of Cyrus to be brought thither, and an expensive
mausoleum to be erected over it. The substructure was a square of stone
blocks, accessible by seven marble steps; the main building was erected of
timber and bricks. In the interior were the golden coffin of Cyrus, his
golden bedstead covered with rich carpets, and a table of gold with the
royal garments and arms. The building still exists, and is called the
mausoleum of the mother of Solomon. It is 43 feet long, 387 feet wide, and
42 feet high. It is quadrangular, and has a gable roof.

The city of Persepolis was magnificent both in plan and in execution.
Pl. 3, fig. 11, shows a portion of the royal palace. It was surrounded by
three walls, the first 832 feet high furnished with battlements, the third 120
feet high, and built of stone. It inclosed a quadrangle, on the eastern side
of which was the rock with the royal tombs, which had no proper entrance,
being cut in the rock; the corpses were elevated by machinery, and thus
deposited in their appropriate places. On one side of these ruins, which
are about six miles from the ruins of Shehel-Minar, are fragments of two
porticoes which stood at right angles to each other, and formed an entrance
to a larger flight of stairs leading to another portico, composed of a double
row of six pairs of columns, behind which was situated a spacious court-yard
surrounded by colonnades. The two first-mentioned porticoes had colossal
pillars on either side, at the foot of which stood the fabulous animals
which are represented on pl. 3, figs. 9 and 10. F%g. 9 somewhat resembles
the Egyptian sphinx, but in Persia the head of a priest was substituted for
that of afemale. /%g. 10 was probably intended for a horse or unicorn,
which is frequently mentioned in the Persian mythology. Between the
two pillars were four double columns, the bases of which are shown in jigs.
7 and 8. The capitals were formed as in jig. 5, surmounted by horses
(jig. 6), which supported the entablature in the manner represented in jig.
12, where unicorns replace the horses. The capitals of the second portico
were plain (jigs. 3 and 4). The porticoes had ceilings of stone-slabs.

The fronts of the royal tombs, known as the ruins of Nakshi Rustam,
were built of a hard dark stone, in large blocks, very closely jointed ;
and the columns were of white marble. Figures in bas-relief, with inscrip-
tions in arrow-head writing, decorate the walls. /%g. 12 shows the elevation
of one of these tombs, the entrances of which were blocked up after the
corpse had been deposited. It has not yet been ascertained whether there

22 ARCHITECTURE.

was any means of access by an inner passage. The figures upon the walls
represent, besides mythological animals, long arrays of warriors making war
upon lions, unicorns, &c., evidently under the command of the king, whose
likeness is often introduced. The tomb in jig. 12 is that of Darius. It
exhibits a high, splendid scaffolding, supported by curiously-shaped figures
of the unicorn, and between them two tiers of telamons, or pilasters shaped
like men, supporting a weight on their raised hands. Two priests on duty
stand at the foot of the scaffolding, and guards are drawn up on each side.
Upon the scaffolding is the altar with the sacred fire, in front of which,
elevated by a few steps, stands a figure with one hand leaning upon a bow.
The other hand is upraised, and the face gazing towards the fire. Above,
between the hearth and the worshipper, is a soaring figure, only half visible,
which in the right hand holds a wreath, whilst the left is lifted as if in bene-
diction. Behind it is seena globe suspended over the fire. The figure
with the bow represents the king under the protection and in sight of the
divine beings, Oromasdes and Mythras, worshipping the sacred fire.

Persian Architecture bears traces of its Egyptian origin throughout ;
in the selection of building sites, in the style of ornaments of the door caps,
the decoration of the walls, in the character of the sculptures, in the inferiority
of their drawing, and in the practice of representing the person of the king
always taller than all the others. After Darius had invited Grecian artists
to Persia, the monuments of that and of the following ages frequently bear
traces of Grecian designs. The best proof of this is the elevation of the
mausoleum of Darius, and all its details.

4. Grecian ARCHITECTURE.
1. General Considerations.

The first structures devised by man for protection against the weather
were huts half sunk in the ground, with the upper part formed by posts
covered with earth and leaves on the outside, and on the inside with the
skins of the animals which had supplied food for the inhabitants of these
structures (pl. 7, fig. 1). The inconveniences of these primitive dwellings
soon became manifest; they not only did not afford sufficient accommodation
for the increase of families, but they offered very indifferent shelter from
wind and rain. To remedy these disadvantages was the next step, and the
enlargement of the capacity of these structures led to the use of more sub-
stantial materials. Instead of posts they took whole trunks of trees,. and
entirely inclosed the site of the intended building, placing them close together
either in a horizontal or perpendicular position. Other trees were put over
these to form a ceiling, and thus originated log houses. From the great
consumption of wood it soon became necessary to observe economy in its
use, and the perpendicular logs began to be separated by intervals, connected
only by horizontal pieces. A similar change was made with those on which
the roof rested. The latter were afterwards covered with boards and earth,

ARCHITECTURE. 23.

and the openings between the perpendiculars were closed with a mixture
of earth and loam (pl. 7, fig. 2). Such a building was not impervious to
water. In order to obviate the leaks in the roof, a triangular frame was
constructed, to which the boards of the ceiling were attached (fig. 3 a). A
structure of the above description, notwithstanding its rudeness in a scientific
point of view, contains all the different parts of a modern building, viz. a
roof composed of rafters, a tier of beams, and posts or supports underneath.
Partly in order to protect the lower portion of the posts from the effects of
rain, &c., partly from a taste for ornament, the idea was conceived of sur-
rounding the lower part with a few extra boards, or else of setting the post
on a support prepared for the purpose, instead of fixing it in the ground;
and thus the base of the column originated. On the other hand, top pieces
were laid upon the posts for the better support of the top cross-beams (the
architrave of later buildings), and these top pieces were the germs of the
abacus, or the blocks surmounting the capitals of columns. To protect the
ends of the beams against the rain a board was fastened to them, in which
little gutters were cut to allow the water to run off; thus arose the trzglyphs.
The spaces between the different beams were also filled up, and hence
originated the frzeze. Finally, to carry the water running from the roof
clear of the beams, the rafters were made to project beyond the uprights,
and a board was fastened to them, which formed that portion of an entabla-
ture aiterwards called the cornice. Pl. 7, jig. 3 b, exhibits a skeleton of such
a building.

The above-described mixture of earth and loam used to fill up the intervals
between the different uprights, was soon found to be too frail to protect
the inhabitants from the weather, or from the attacks of wild beasts, much
less from the assaults of their human foes. They were therefore obliged to
seek some other material, and they very early began to make use of stones,
which were found almost everywhere in large quantities. The use of this
new material being once commenced, in a remarkably short time people
' began to employ it not only for their dwellings, but also for marking the
divisions of lands ; and not only did they manage stones that were easily
portable, but large blocks of extraordinary dimensions. Their walls, which
were put together without any cement whatever, are known as Cyclopean
constructions, and to this day they command our admiration and surprise.
Almost all the earliest strongholds were surrounded by such walls, the
strength and durability of which are evidenced at Tiryns, and several other
places. Ata later period the interstices between the larger blocks were
filled up with smaller stones, and gradually the stones were hewn square,
and good workman-like walls, like those at Messene, were constructed. The
entrances at this period were mostly pyramidiform, and in some we can
trace rudiments of towers of defence. This form of construction passed
through various phases of development into the regular bound masonry,
or construction with rectangular blocks of stone; but for the substructure
polygonal blocks, or rectangular ones with bevelled edges, were retained
through almost all periods. The bound masonry was in time superseded by
brick-work. We find, then, in ancient times the following manners of con-

24 ARCHITECTURE,

struction: 1. The irregular work, opus encertum (pl. 7, fig. 7), constructed of
stones of various shapes, but of about the same size, and cemented with
mortar. 2. The flat square work, opus guadratum (fig. 8) of the Greeks,
where the surfaces of all the stones are of equal size, and rectangular. 3. The
facetted square work, as in the forum of Augustus (fig. 9), and in the tabu-
larium (jig. 10), where the faces of the square blocks project, the edges being
bevelled off; the jointsare thussunk in. 4. The net-work, opus reticulatum
(jig. 6), where only the corner blocks are set horizontally, all the others
being laid diagonally. 5. Brick-work in even -courses, opus zsodomum

(fig. 11), where all the courses are of the same thickness. 6. Brick-work in

uneven courses, opus pseudisodomum (fig. 12), where thick and thin
courses alternate.

In constructing very thick walls, the two outer faces only were laid sym-

metrically, the space between being filled up with mortar and small stones ;
such walls were called filled walls, emplecton, and of these there were three
different kinds: 1. Where the two faces (fig. 18 aa) are built without any
connexion, and the space, B, between them is filled up. 2. Where the
bricks in the faces are laid alternately as headers and stretchers (jig. 14,
upper part), the latter thus affording a firmer connexion of the two faces, by
projecting into the rubbish between them (jig. 14, lower part). 3. Where
some of the bricks are stretched through both faces of the wall. Walls of
this description are even constructed nowadays, but they ought always to
be considered as very inferior work.

Tue Cotumy. After the walls were built of stone, the wooden posts of
course soon gave way to stone pillars. These were at first short, and there-
fore in a single piece; but it soon became necessary to have them longer
than single stones could conveniently be procured, in consequence of the
increased height of the buildings, and they were then constructed of several
disks (tambours) placed one onthe other. The quadrangular pillar, however,
in no long time must have become offensive to the eye accustomed to the
circular forms of trees, and the stones were rounded to form the column.
After a time, the upper part of the column, or more properly the block
which was placed on the top to afford a better bearing for the beams, was
moulded into an oval or convex shape, the echinus (pl. 19, fig. 1). To form
a more tasteful connexion betweeen the column and the echinus, a few hori-
zontal stripes were made in the lower part of the top piece (pl. 20, jig. 9,
left lower diagram), and another stripe was afterwards cut in some inches
below, and so the neck of the column was formed. The mouldings of the
stripes and of the echinus itself are sometimes a little different, as shown in
the several Doric capitals (pl. 19, figs. 1, 2, 3). To give the column greater
strength and stability, it was made wider at the foot than at the neck and
capital, and to make it appear lighter it was channelled with perpendicular
stripes, and hence the origin of the flutes. These flutes were sometimes put
close to each other (pl. 19, fig. 1), or a small ridge was left between them
(fig. 7). Sometimes the shaft was left plain (jigs. 4), and at a later period
the column itself was decorated with foliated work (jig. 25, 26). Some of
the Doric columns have flutes of a few inches in length close below the

—— ee

ARCHITECTURE. 20

neck, and others of the same length at the foot, the remainder of the shafi
being left plain (pl. 19, fig. 2). Columns of this description, when first met
with, were considered unfinished, but after they had been observed on monu-
ments under circumstances which absolutely excluded the idea of an un-
finished column, the opinion was established that they were purposely so
formed, and these columns were called mantled columns. The introduction of
human figures as supports of the entablature, instead of columns, was made
at a later period, in order to convey the idea of the submission of the nations
conquered by the Greeks, namely, the inhabitants of Caria and Persia.
Hence the figures which represent females are called Caryatides (jig. 31),
while the male figures are denominated Persians (jig. 80), and when naked
Telamons. Buildings constructed with figures instead of columns are styled
stalagmatic. In all the foregoing kinds of columns, which belong to the
Doric order, the base of the column neither projects, nor is it moulded or
decorated at all, the column standing immediately upon the ground (p/. 20,
jig. 8).

The second kind of Grecian capital is the lonic (pl. 7, fig. 22). It is
more chaste and elegant than the former, and different accounts are given
of its origin. Some think that as the capital is the head of the column, the
volutes on both sides of the echinus are intended to represent the ringlets of
an Ionian maiden; while others are of opinion, that some builder having
casually placed a piece of bark between the echinus and the abacus, which
upon drying became curled into a pleasing shape, this addition was after-
wards imitated in stone (pl. 21, jig. 4). The profile (pl. 7, fig. 24) shows
how the two volutes are connected by a kind of cushion; the echinus is
small, and decorated with serpents’ eggs (pl. 19, jig. 7). Columns of a very
rich and elaborated character have a decorated neck below the volutes
called hypotrachelium (pl. 19, fig. 6, a, b, and pl. 7, fig. 24). The Ionic
column, being more slender than the Doric, always has a base.

The third class of Grecian capitals isthe Corinthian. It is said, that Calli-
machus, a sculptor of Corinth, on observing some acanthus leaves which had
grown up round a basket that had been left upon a grave, and had bent over
after reaching the top (pl. 7, jig. 5), was so delighted with the beauty of the
picture that he imitated it in stone for a capital, which became the prototype
of the Corinthian capital. Egyptian monuments, however, show capitals
so similar in shape to the Corinthian, and certainly much older, that it is
probable that the Greeks did not invent what they found ready at hand to
imitate; the more so as they brought most of their information from Egypt in
colonizing their country. The Corinthian capital admits of a great variety of
decoration (pl. 19, jigs. 9-13), and there are scarcely two buildings of that
order without some difference in the capitals.

The base of the Corinthian order is the same as that of the Ionic, but the
column itself is more slender. The top of the shaft is always smaller in
diameter than its lower part. In some cases the reduction is effected in a
straight line from the base to the cap. Optical considerations have, however,
led to the better plan of either giving to the lower part of the shaft, up to
about one third of the height, an uniform diameter, the reduction then

26 ARCHITECTURE.

commencing, and being continued from thence upwards (pl. 20, jig. 10);
or of giving it the largest diameter at the height of the human eye, and
reducing it from this point both upwards and downwards (fig.11). The
greatest diameter of columns of the latter description is called the swell
(entasis). ,

The columns are placed either on single stone cubes, or on a continuous
plinth (stylobates). The space between the columns is styled the columnar
distance, and varies very much. Different terms are applied to the various
distances. If the space between the columns be equal to 4 diameters they
are said to be placed distantly (aryostylos); if the space be equal to 3
diameters, widely (dzastylos); if 24 diameters, beautifully (ewstylos); if 2

diameters, closely (szstylos); and if only 14 diameters they are said to be

thickly placed (picnostylos). As a general rule the two corner columns are
for optical reasons placed somewhat nearer together than the others of the
same row. Another contrivance, intended to correct an optical delusion
with regard to colonnades, is mentioned by Vitruvius by the name of scamzlla
empares. According to this author on ancient Roman architecture, a row of
columns standing on a substructure would, when viewed from a distance,
appear convex, and elevated at both ends, and this effect would be averted
by the scamillz. Unfortunately, all the drawings which might have illus-
trated the works of Vitruvius have been lost, and as, moreover, the ancient
Roman buildings exhibit no architectonic moulding which seems to serve
the purpose ascribed to the scamllc by Vitruvius, his commentators are
greatly at variance in their explanations of the idea he means to convey.
Most of these learned men agree in this, that the scamdllus was a distinct
moulding, which being placed above and below the column, would make it
appear to recede. Some columns found among the ruins of the theatre at
Laodicea seem to corroborate the correctness of this view. Pl. 7, fig. 19,
shows one in connexion with the substructure and architrave, and jigs. 20,
a, 6, one of a different order on a larger scale. We see here at a and B
small mouldings inserted above the top of the capital and under the foot of
the base. The latter is slightly higher on one side, producing the impression
of a slight inclination in the column; the upper one has a similar excess of
body on the opposite side, apparently levelling the slanting surface of the
capital, and supporting the entablature with its full surface. But other
authors say, that these small mouldings had no other object than to relieve
the mouldings proper of the base and capital. Still others maintain that
Vitruvius originally wrote camillum and not scamillus, and that he applied
it to the columnar distances, which were to decrease as they receded from
centre, and in proportion with them the pannels in the substructure (camlla)
were to be reduced in size (jig. 15). One commentator, Bertanus, is of
opinion that a moulding introduced in the base (jig. 16, c) would produce
the effect ascribed to the scamilli impares ; and another, Placentius, follows
this view, but places the moulding as in fig. 17, p. Both make the mouldings
a little higher at one of the sides. Blanconius, finally, explains seamili
impares as applied to the inequality of the side walls of the flights of steps
leading to the colonnade, and supposes that the first ought to be the highest
26

————— rl

ARCHITECTURE. 27

(fig. 18, @), whilst the following gradually become smaller to the top of the
flight.

It would appear that none of all these views are entirely satisfactory. A
better explanation of the whole subject seems to be afforded by the latest
discoveries in re-surveying the Parthenon and the temple of Theseus in
Athens. It was there found that the steps upon which the columns rest are
slightly convex towards the centre, both in front and on the top, and the
different blocks of which the columns are composed are not put together in
horizontal joints, but are a little out of level so as to give the columns a
slight inward inclination. The upper surface of the top block is again
placed in exact level, in order to offer support to the architrave. This
arrangement seems to serve the same optical purpose as the slight convexity
of the surface noticed in the Egyptian obelisks.

The object of architectural mouldings generally is, either to separate the large
masses of a building, or to form a connexion between the several distinct
parts, and to protect by their projection the plane surfaces and recesses of
the buildings. The mouldings are either straight or curved. Among the
former we distinguish: 1. The fascza or stripe, a continuous even surface
projecting from the main surface, and whose height must not exceed 4 to $
diameter of a column. 2. The tenza or fillet, similar to the fascia, but only
half its height. 38. The guadra or socle, which is very narrow, and is called
the swperciliwm or slab, if it is at the uppermost moulding, or the cover.
4. The face or slanting plane, which connects two perpendicular surfaces in
a diagonal line.

The curved mouldings exhibit a greater variety, viz. 1. The torus or cushion,
which is nearly a semi-cylinder, somewhat pressed out at the lower edge.
2. The echinus or ovolo, which exhibits a curved outline nearly the reverse
of the torus, being more swelled at the upper edge. It is an independent.
supporting member, whilst the torus serves as an assistant to other mouldings.
3. The guadrans or cavetto, whose outline is a quarter of a circle. 4. The
astragalus or bead, which is a very narrow moulding of a semicircular out-
line, and generally serves to separate the capital from the main column.
5. The striw or flutes, which are concave mouldings, whose outlines are
segments of a circle, rarely a semicircle; they are wrought in columns or
pillars, connecting the bases and capitals; on columns they are generally
narrower at the top; sometimes the flutes are separated by ridges (sériges).
6. The cymatium doricwm or wave, whose profile is a concave quadrant ;
it is applied either erect or reversed; in the former case, the curve projects
from the main surface, whilst in the latter it recedes. 7. The trochylus or
scotia, similar to the last, but not exactly a quadrant, being composed of
two different segments (pl. 20, fig.14). Itis applied both erect and reversed.
8. The apophygis or quirked moulding, a small acute channel or recess
used between mouldings; the reverse, or the projection, is called apothesis.
9. The cyma lesbicum, or bell moulding, a combination of a concave and a
convex quadrant; it is applied erect or reversed; in the former case the
upper half projects, in the latter it recedes.

The different mouldings were in earlier times decorated with painted

28 ARCHITECTURE.

ornaments and this is even sometimes done at the present day, but at the
flourishing age of the art bas-reliefs superseded the painting, and in all
edifices of true merit bas-relief are still retained.

The columns are among the most important architectonic pieces, and as
we have seen, generally composed of the base, the shaft, and the capital.
The Doric column is without base, and is only placed on a plinth. For all
the other orders, the Attic and Ionic bases are employed. The Attic base
(pl. 19, jig. 22) is composed of a plinth, a torus, a scotia, a socle, and
a second torus. The Ionic base (pl. 22, jig. 4) has a plinth, a scotia,
and several dividing beads and fillets, a second scotia, a slab, and a
torus.

The shaft, and the Doric and Ionic capitals have been described already.

The Corinthian capital (pl. 19, fig. 18) is generally composed of two main
parts. The first is the calathus or cup, whose ornaments present three
different tiers: 1, eight acanthus leaves; 2, eight acanthus leaves with their
stems (cawlicolz); 3, four volutes with acanthus buds and leaves. The
second main part of the capital is the abacus or top piece, whose mouldings
are the wave and the erect bell. It has projecting, truncated corners, and
its receding sides are ornamented with flowers. This refers, of course, only

to the general type of the Corinthian capital, for its ornaments are infinitely

varied.

The pillar (pela) differs from the column in its connexion with the wall,
on account of which it has often been identified with it, though on the other
hand, the pillar has many relations to the column, being often placed in the
same row, for the same purpose of supporting the architrave or entablature.
It receives similar decorations, particularly in the capital and base, some-
times even the reduction of size towards the top and the entasis. We dis-
tinguish the following kinds of pillars: 1. Pillars standing free on all sides.
2. Pillars which strengthen the corners of a wall (ante). 3. Pillars which
stand in place of door jambs (postes). 4. Pillars which project from the
wall, either tomark the beginning of an adjoining colonnade, or merely to
break the simplicity of the wall; these are termed pilasters (parastates).
5. Buttresses (anterides). 6. Short pillars, which serve as pedestals for
columns (stybolate) (pl. 20, jigs. 1-5).

The pillar is composed of a foot (spera), a shaft or cube (truncus), and of
a capital (metopon), which is always somewhat lighter than the capital of
the corresponding columns, with which its ornaments are generally in
keeping.

The wall is the continuation of the pillar, and of course deviates still more
from the characteristic features of the columns, because its object is not
only to support, but also to inclose. Yet, like the pillar, it often receives a
base and kind of capital, the cornice. Low walls occur partly as fences, in
part as pedestals for the main walls, in which case they are called ashlers.
Substructures of greater height and richer finish are termed stereobates or
stylobate. They exhibit a distinct base, cube, and cornice (pl. 7, fig. 20, 5).

Flights of steps are frequently introduced for the same purpose, to raise
the building above the ground (pi. 20, fig. 8). If the steps are more than

ARCHITECTURE. 29

twelve inches in height, substeps are introduced in order to afford easier
access ( pl. 15, fig. 1).

The trimmings and decorations of doors and windows in the walls corres-
pond with the entablature of the different orders. Thus we have 1, Doric
doors, whose jambs and lintels are cymatewm doricum, and astragalus mould-
ings, whilst the cornice has in addition an echinus moulding with considerable
projections. 2. Ionic doors, having jambs and lintels similar to the Ionic
architrave, divided in stripes (corde), and trimmed with an astragalus
moulding (pl. 20, jig. 14). The lintel is surmounted by a cornice (hyper-
thyrum) resting upon two consols, ancones or parotydes. 3. The Attic door,
similar to the Doric, with the addition of the Ionic stripes. The windows
are surrounded and decorated with similar trimmings, generally somewhat
simpler.

The entablature connects the supporting parts of the building with those
which cover the same, and consists of three parts: 1. The main beam or
architrave (epistyliwm). The Doric architrave is smooth (jig. 8), surmounted
by a fillet whose face is divided by triglyphs, which pierce a socle (regula),
ending in drops (guttw). The Ionic architrave (pl. 7, fig. 24) generally is
composed of three stripes (fascze), surmounted by a cornice of mouldings.
Sometimes its lower surface between the columns is decorated with deep
pannels and other ornaments (p/. 19, jigs. 27, 28). 2. The frieze (zoé),
which connects the different beams resting upon the architrave. The Doric
frieze (pl. 20, fig. 8) is composed of triglyphs, which represent the ends of the
beams, being laid on every column, and over the columnar distances. The
triglyphs exhibit three ridges, separated by two deep grooves, and bordered
by two smaller ones, the whole surmounted by a small capital. The spaces
between the triglyphs are termed panels (metopes), which are generally
smooth, but sometimes ornamented with bas-reliefs. The Ionic and Co-
rinthian friezes (pl. 7, jig. 24) are quite plain, and finished with wave mould-
ings. Ifthey are decorated with metal or stone ornaments they are termed
zophorus. 3. The cornice (corona) is composed of the projecting mouldings
which form part of the roof. The Doric cornice (pl. 20, jig. 8) is formed
by a Doric cyma, the corona projecting considerably, and containing the
ends of the roofing boards (mutulz) with the heads of the nails, and is
finished with a second cyma, and an erect bell moulding. The Ionic cornice
(pl. 7, fig. 21) shows a fillet with dentals, sometimes also quite plain (fig. 24);
above the dentals is a wave moulding, followed by the corona, which termi-
nates in a slab and erect bell moulding. The Corinthian cornice (pi. 22,
jig. 7) is similar to the Ionic, differing only in having small consols (mtu?)
as bearers of the corona, which are composed of volutes and acanthus leaves.
In all the different cornices great simplicity of decoration, and comparatively
great height and projection, denote a great age of the monuments, whilst
buildings of a later period show less projection, narrower surfaces, and
frequently very elaborate decorations.

The plain ceiling, formed by a stone resting on the walls, occurs only in
buildings of the very simplest description. The ceilings of temples and

palaces were divided into deep panels (Jacunara), adopted from the archi-
29

30 ARCHITECTURE.

tecture in wood, where they were often inlaid with gold and ivory. The
wooden ceiling consisted of the beams resting upon the architrave, of the
narrower and jointed cross beams, and of the caps covering the spaces
between the cross beams. The same construction is imitated in stone, but
in the latter material the different parts are usually wrought in one block.

The roofs of private dwellings were either flat, or pitched from the
centre towards all sides, like a tent. Public buildings, particularly temples,
had gables on the narrower sides of the building (pl. 7, figs. 21, front, 22,
side view, 23, upper view in part). In Grecian buildings the height of the
gable was about one eighth of the width of the building, in Roman buildings
rather more. The gable or frontispiece (fasteguwm) is composed of the
gable field, tympanum ( fig. 21 4), which is frequently ornamented with statues
and bas-reliefs, and of the cornice with the corona B, and the cymac. The
cornice of the gable is the continuation of the main cornice of the building,
but isrun up over the top of the gable, instead of being continued on a
level with the long cornice, which would place it at the base of the gable field,
in a straight line. The corners and the top of the gable are decorated with
masks (pl. 19, fig. 38) or flowers, or with pedestals for statues, both at the.
top (pl. 7, fig. 21, ©), and at the sides (jig.7, D,p). The slope of the roof is
covered with flat marble slabs (jigs. 22, 23, m), whose long edges form project-
ingridges. These are placed close together, and the joints covered with semi-
cylinders of marble, clay, or bronze, whose lower extremities terminate in
handsome front tiles, antefize (pl. 19, figs. 34-37). Similar ones are some-
times placed on the gable cornice. The water is conducted from the roof by
small gutters piercing the cornice in different places, the outer openings
being in some of the ornaments as inF (pl. T, figs. 22, 23), whilst the others,
@, remain solid.

Having thus examined the various component parts of buildings, we now
proceed to notice the different classes of edifices. They are first divided
into those erected for the effect of their exterior, and those built with a view
to certain advantages to be derived from their interior. Of the former we
may again distinguish two kinds, those that are monuments in themselves
deriving aid from pictures or inscriptions, and those that serve as substruc-
tures for other more emblematic works of art.

The simplest monuments of the former kind belong to the period in
which architecture and sculpture were still identical, and which is repre-
sented by the herma (pl 19, jigs. 32, 33, the latter a terminal statue of
Janus). Next in order are the tombs, frequently of chaste architectural
forms, bearing inscriptions and bas-reliefs, and the horizontal tombstones.
The second kind includes such single columns as were employed even in
the most ancient Grecian temples, in order to give a prominence to the
images, and the honorary columns which supported either the statues of
distinguished men, or caldrons, tripods, &e.

Among the structures erected for the sake of the area they circumscribe
belong inclosures of every description, walls of cities, castles, sacred grounds,
and places of public meetings. The addition of a roof over the inclosure
makes it a house.

ARCHITECTURE. 31

The simplest house is the temple, at first only intended as a place for the
safe keeping and protection of the image of the deity. The prominent
character of the temple proper is the mysterious or awe-inspiring, and
therefore it never had windows. The next thing was to give it a form,
which would afford both protection and airiness, and for this purpose por-
ticoes and colonnades were added. At a later period the centre portion of
the roof over the inner temple was left open, which gave the interior a more
roomy appearance. Formerly it had no other light than through the door.

According to their different modes of construction the following temples
are distinguished with regard to various points.

1. With regard to the position of the columns; a. The temples in Antissa,

with pillars under the corners of the gables, and columns between them
{ pl. 16, fig. 33); b. The prostylos, temples with a portico in front (fig. 27);
ce. The amphiprostylos, with a portico in front and rear (fig. 36); d. The
peripteros, temples with a colonnade all round the building (jig. 26); ¢. The
pseudoperipteros, temples with portico in front and rear, but half columns
along the side walls (pl. 15, fig. 11); f£ The dzpteros, temples sur-
rounded by two colonnades (pl. 12, jig. 4); g. The psewdodipteros, a tem-
ple with one colonnade round all the four sides, the distance between the
columns and main walls twice the distance between the columns (pi. 12,
Jig. 8).
_ 2. With regard to the number of columns in front. a. Tetrastylos, tem-
ples with four columns (pl. 16, figs. 36, 38) ; 6. Hewastylos, with six columns
(pl. 15, fig. 19); ¢. Octastylos, with eight columns (pl. 16, fig. 16); d. Deca-
stylos, with ten columns (pl. 16, jigs. 8, 14); e. Dodecastylos, with twelve
columns (pl. 16, fig. 15).

3. With regard tothe distance between the columns, as described before
(p. 26).

There are also circular temples, among which we distinguish: a. The
monopteros, whose columns are connected merely by railings (pl. 13, jig. 9);
b. The peripteros, with a colonnade all round (pl. 16, figs. 9,12); c. The
pseudoperypteros, where the colonnade is only designated by half columns
on the wall (pl. 9, fig. 5). Besides these there are circular and hexagonal
temples with one or more halls (pl. 9, fig. 43 pl. 18, jig. 11).

The different parts of a temple are the substructure with the steps
(suggestus), and the temple proper, sometimes twice repeated in the same
building (pl. 16, fig. 3). The latter generally exhibits, a. The place for the
statue, sometimes surrounded by a railing (pl. 12, fig. 2; pl. 16, fig. 14); 6.
The space which is left unroofed (pl. 11, jig. 8, where it is surrounded by
the innermost columns); ¢. Colonnades in the interior of the temple some-
what elevated above the main floor, stow (pl. 15, jig. 2); d. The sanctuary
(adyton), sometimes wanting (pl. 11, fig. 17, towards the rear); ¢. The fore
hall (pronaos), the space between the front columns and the front wall
(pl. 12, fig. 6); f. A similar space in the rear of the temple, opzsthodomos
(fig. 8); g. The colonnade, pteroma (jig. 11); A. Attached to colonnades
or porticoes (pl. 10, fig. 9, c), occurring only seldom.

A numerous class of ancient buildings are the amphitheatres (agones),
31

32 ARCHITECTURE.

open spaces surrounded by many gradually rising rows of seats. They
were erected for the spectators at public games or combats. The theatres
proper had the stage attached on one side of the circular area.

The odeons were erected for similar purposes with the theatres, but their
stages were not so spacious, as only few persons acted on the same. The
odeons had mostly permanent roofs, whilst the theatres were covered with
large sun tents (velarza) as a protection against the sun and the dust.

The stadva, or racecourses, were of an elliptical form, and contained lists
between whichythe horses ran, and a column (meta) ee the winning
point. They were surrounded by an amphitheatre for the spectators. The
hippodromes were similar structures arranged for chariot races.

The halls (stow) belong to the same class of buildings. They were erected
for public meetings and business purposes, and were large inclosures pro-
tected against the sun and rain by a roof resting upon columns. Sometimes
the cahmnne were connected by walls, and had three or five parallel colon-
nades (naves), the lateral ones often aes double tiers of columns, so as to
form upper galleries; the front space was termed the chalcidicum ; the rear,
sometimes of a semicircular shape, the tribunal. These pailgien were the
prototypes of the Roman baszlzea.

The gymnasia, or therm, may also be classed here, the former being halls
or inclosures for physical exercises, the latter for bathing purposes.

The tombs, or mausoleums, were erected with a view to the preservation of
the body or the ashes of the departed, or as monuments in honor of their
memory. The rock-cut tombs were almost exclusively intended for the
former purpose, though sometimes a frontispiece invited public attention
to the same. In Greece and her colonies in Lower Italy the chambers were
usually wrought in the shape of a coffin (sarcophagus). The monumental
tombs frequently also contained a chamber for the corpse of the deceased.
The most appropriate form for the combination of the sepulchre and monu-
ments is that of a pyramid or of a tower-like building. The idea of the
terrace-like monuments was probably derived from the shape of the funeral
pile. Honorary monuments were analogous structures, but without any
reference to the reception of bodies. They were erected for the purpose of
receiving an image or emblematic group either into a niche or under a roof
resting on columns.

The triumphal arches combine in an ingenious manner the two objects
of commemorating victories and of affording prominent places for the
statues of the heroes.

2. Special Description of Grecian Structures.

1. Cyctopran Structures. Almost all the cities in Greece were originally
built on mountains, the natural defence of which was increased by thick
walls around the cities. In time the increase of population made it necessary
to extend the cities beyond the wall, and they were gradually grouped round
the foot of the mountain, which, with its fortified walls, became the citadel
of the city, and was called Acropolis. It served also to preserve in safety

_—— =

ARCHITECTURE. 33

the most valuable property of the city, the treasure, the archives, &c.; and
the temples of the tutelar deities were erected there for greater ado
Numerous ruins show that almost every city had its acropolis. The oldest
of them are known as the Cyclopean or Pelasgian walls. The number of
cities known to have had such walls is nearly 400.

The ruins of the acropolis of Tiryns are among the most gigantic works
of the kind in ancient Greece. The city of Tiryns, at present Paleeo-Anapli,
was situated in Argolis, near Nauplia, in a valley called after the hill
upon which the acropolis was located, whose walls are the only remaining
fragments of the place, which according to historical sources was erected by
Tiryns the son of Argos, 1740 8. c., and was destroyed by the Argives 468 B. c.
and the inhabitants carried to Argos. According to Pausanias the walls
were constructed of rough stones, of so large dimensions that the smallest of
them could not be moved by a yoke of oxen. The acropolis (pl. 8, jig. 1, plan;
Jig. 2, view of the line ad in jig. 1) was situated upon a long rock not more
than 30 feet high, and lying due south andnorth. The walls surround aspace
200 feet in length, by 60 feet in width. They are from 19 to 224 feet thick,
built in straight lines, and their highest points are still upwards of 40 feet
in height. The blocks are 10 to 13 feet long, by 4 feet thick, and are put
in as they came from the quarry. The original height of the walls was
probably 55 feet. Some blocks are found inside, which are more carefully
trimmed than the rest; they probably formed part of the entrances, which,
according to Gell, were three. The eastern one is still in tolerably good
preservation, and has a tower 22 feet wide, and at present of the same height,
whose walls are constructed in a similar manner. The gateway is 154 feet
high, the lintel about 103 feet long. It is probable that it had a front orna-
ment, as there are two stones lying near the gate, which together form a
triangle; whether they have been sculptured cannot be ascertained, as the
one is very much decayed, and the other lying with its face to the ground.
The gate swung on centre pivots secured in the sill and lintel. Inside
the wall are two galleries whose ceiling is formed by two rows of stone
blocks leaning against each other at an angle of 45 degrees. These galleries
have window-like openings, which probably communicated with some
detached construction, of which remains are traceable near them. The
ceiling of the galleries is undoubtedly the oldest specimen of such a construc-
tion as yet discovered in Greece, and probably the first rude attempt at the
arch.

Vast ruins of Cyclopean monuments are also found in the acropolis of
Mycene, at present Karvati, in the Morea, erected about 1700 B.c. It formed
an irregular triangle along the outlines of a hill. The walls are not all con-
structed in the same manner, nor probably at the same time. Some parts
are built of rectangular blocks, the joints of several courses placed in per-
pendicular lines above each other; other parts of irregularly polygonal
blocks ; and again others, particularly those parts near the entrances, of regu-
lar blocks in good binding. The acropolis had three entrances. The first and
smallest was formed by two immense stone blocks leaning against each other.
The second and larger one was constructed of two upright massive jambs,

ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOPZDIA.—VOL, IV. 3 33

34 ARCHITECTURE.

supporting a huge block as a lintel. The third was the renowned Gate of
the Lions (pl. 8, jig. 5, front elevation; fig. 6, section through the middle
of the gateway), which formed the main entrance to the city. The door
jambs are about 16 feet high, and the width under the lintel is about 9} feet;
the lintel itself is one block 14 feet long, 6 feet high, and 4 feet wide. Over
the entrance is a bas-relief sculptured on one triangular block 10 feet long,
9 feet high, 54 feet thick, of very hard, fine-grained, grey limestone. It
represents a half round column, shaped somewhat like the Doric, but thinner
below than above, and with a capital upon which are placed four rounded
bodies, apparently supporting a second abacus. On either side of the
column are erect beasts, considered to be lions, though the tails are unlike
those of lions, and the heads are wanting. The emblematic import of this
bas-relief has not yet been determined. Similar allegories are found in Persian
sculptures and coins, where the column appears to be the altar of the sacred
fire, attended either by men or lions. The lion was the symbol of the god
Mithras, and his priests were termed lions. As there undoubtedly existed
a lively intercourse between the Persians and Spartans, and as the latter in
remote times worshipped the sun, or its symbol the fire, it may with some
probability be supposed that the four rounded bodies on the column were
intended to represent the ends of logs, and the supposed second: abacus the
side view of another log, thus indicating a sacrificatory fire, whose flame
must have been destroyed with the heads of the lions. The whole would
thus have represented the altar of the deity of the sun, which was worshipped
at Mycene. The Gate of the Lions probably dates from the time when the
city was rebuilt by Perseus (1400 . c.), and the bas-relief is the oldest known
ornament of Grecian sculpture, dating from the heroic age before the Trojan
war.

The treasury buildings deserve especial mention in this place, as we first
meet with them im Greece. They served to receive either the public treasure,
or the wealth of a prince, or the sacred vessels of a temple. Agamedes
and Trophonius erected such a building for king Hyrieus at Orchomenus,
where the treasury of Minyas was also located. That of Atreus in Mycenze
is however the most remarkable (pl. 8, fig. 7, view of the entrance, fig. 8,
section of the building). The chamber for the treasure is cut in the rock,
and has a fore-hall of circular form executed in bound masonry, and arched
like a bee-hive, which is entered by a long passage between two cyclopean
walls. Its location is not far from the acropolis, surrounded by ruins of
different buildings, with circular ground-plans and parabolically arched ceil-
ings. The passage to it is about 19 feet wide and 59 feet long; the entrance 8
feet in width at the top, and 10 feet at the bottom, by 20 feet in height. The
entrance is built of regularly cut stone blocks from a breccia quarry in the
neighborhood. The most remarkable part of the entrance is the lintel,
which is formed by two huge blocks, the lower of which is 25 feet long, 20 feet
wide, and 4 feet thick, and extends within the arch. The second block, almost
completely covered with earth, is probably of thesame dimensions. Blocks
as large as these have never been found in the walls of buildings, except in
the ruins*of Baalbek. Over the lintel there is a triangular opening, which

ARCHITECTURE. 30

may once have contained a bas-relief similar to that of the Gate of the Lions,
or perhaps was only introduced for the sake of ventilation, and with the
intention to relieve the pressure on the lintel. The construction of the circular
room is remarkable, consisting of many horizontal rows of stones placed
above each other, in circles of gradually reduced diameters, whilst. their
inner surfaces are smoothed off to form a parabolic line (pl. 8, fig.8). The
diameter of the floor is 48 feet, the height 387 feet, 2 inches. The walls
have probably been decorated with bronze panels, as there are numerous
bronze nails among the rubbish, and here and there holes drilled in the
walls, and in the joints between the stones. The rock-cut chamber is at the
right hand side from the entrance ; it is rectangular, 27 feet, 10 inches long,
23 feet, 6 inches wide, and a little over 12 feet high. Some fragments of
marble ornaments found in the passage which leads to the main building
have induced some persons to suppose them the decorations of the entrance
door, and Donaldson has tried to put them together and restore them; but
the style of these ornaments proves beyond doubt that they belong to a more
‘recent period than the exquisite simplicity of style of the building itself.
They therefore probably formed part of some other building in ancient
Mycene.

To the period of Pelasgian and Cyclopean structures belongs also a tem-
ple on the island of Gozzo, known as the Giganteja, or the tower of the
giants. It was first described in 1836 by Count de la Marmora, and is one
of the most important structures of the numerous ones wrought by the
Pheenicians when they introduced their religion into Greece, Sardinia, Malta,
Spain, and the Balearic Islands. We have illustrated it on pl. 8, where
jig. 10 represents the ground plan, jig. 9 a section corresponding to the
line F c in fig. 10, and jig. 11 a section corresponding to the line ur
in jig. 10. i

The two temples, jig. 10, a and B, are surrounded by an immense wall
constructed of irregular blocks of stone, partly upright, in part horizontal.
Each temple is formed. by five somewhat irregular semicircles opening in
a centre nave; both have only one elevation with the entrances = and p.
The inside walls, as well as the floors, were covered with stone slabs, some of
which are still in their places atx. Similar flagstones of elliptical shape are
lying in front of the entrance o, at r. The depth of the larger temple,
Fe, is 78 feet, its greatest width, ur, 70 feet, and in Kt, it is 49 feet wide.
In the first hall of the temple, on the right hand side of the entrance, stand
several upright stone blocks, which surround the sanctuary, to which a few
steps lead, the first of which is semicircular, and has had a railing, of
which traces are left. Between the two steps at a, is a vacant space which
was occupied by the sacred threshold, which must not be troddenupon. The
background of this hall is covered with large stone plates. Here ascends
the sanctuary. b, composed of upright stones, surmounted by horizontal stone
slabs, and containing in the centre a conical stone, the symbol of Venus of
Paphos, to whom the temple was consecrated. The corner stone is intended
to represent the creative power, Phallus, or Lingam of the Indians. The
division of this hall at x, opposite the former, contains the ruins of a very

36 ARCHITECTURE.

large altar, behind which is the reservoir intended for the sacred ablutions,
particularly the washing of the feet.

The second or main hall is separated from the first by a passage lined with
stone slabs. It is one step above the former, and the floor is entirely
covered with stone slabs. The right hand side of the hall at 1, is shut off
by a breast-work containing the altar, d, near which a few low stone slabs,
e, are placed upright, in such a position as to suggest their having supported
a table top. Behind these stones the holes f f are cut out in the walls,
which even at present retain the marks of fire. They were probably the
places where the small sacred cakes were baked. At /, is a small reservoir,
probably for the water with which the dough was prepared; and near it a
long stone, with the form of a fish wrought on it. The opposite side of the
hall at #, contains the sanctuary, g, partitioned off by large upright stones
with tables between them. The background is lined with small cells, which,
according to the stamp of a coin of the times of Antoninus, representing
similar cells in the temple of Venus, must have served as nestling places
for sacred doves.

The posterior portion of the hall, at a, is the most elevated, and contains
nothing but a few fragments of stone. This was probably the location of
the statues of the goddess Astarte of the Pheenicians, the prototype of the
Grecian Venus Urania, to whom the temple was consecrated.

The second smaller temple, 8, is of similar form with the large one, but
destitute of any kind of exterior finish, except the altar at m, of a single
stone. At isa pile of bones and broken pottery, from which it may be
inferred that the remains of the victims were deposited in this part of the
temple, which is separated from the rest of the temple by the wall, J.
Neither of these temples appears ever to have had a roof, and they agree in this
respect with the temple of Venus at Paphos, and all other temples where
the religious rites bore any relation to Sabeism. But there are in many
places holes in the stones in which perhaps masts were placed to support
a suntent, the regulating strings of which may have been fastened in other
holes near by. :

The necropolis (city of sepulchres) of the ancient Etruscan city of Tarquinii
deserves to be mentiond here, as its construction took place in the Cyclopean
period. The subterranean chambers in the neighborhood of Corneto are
the only remains of this place which we have mentioned in the historical
part of this work, giving a view of it in Plates, Division IV. pl. 11, fig. 1.
It was situated on a hill, and the sepulchres were marked by circular struc-
tures above-ground supporting a conical mound of earth. The interior of
the sepulchres was frequently decorated with sculptures and paintings.
Several of these chambers are in good preservation, and are known as the
grottoes of Corneto (pl. 8, figs. 8, 4). hice

2. TEMPLES AND DIFFERENT oTHER Butnprnes. The increased civilization
and wealth of the Greeks, together with the abundance of superior materials,
and the assistance of Phoenician and Egyptian mechanics and artists, at an
early period induced them to construct the buildings erected in honor of
their tutelary deities exclusively of stone.

ARCHITECTURE. 37

The oldest Grecian temples were built inthe Doric order. In our descrip-
tion of the Grecian monuments we shall follow the reports of Pausanias,
whose annotations were made on a journey undertaken for the special pur-
pose of examining works of art (4. p. 174), at a period when Athens was
still in its full splendor. A view of its probable features at that time is
given in pl. 9, fg. 1, where a A represents the acropolis ( with a the Parthe-
non, or the temple of Pallas Athene, 0, the statue of Pallas Athene, ¢c, the
temple of Erechtheus, d, the propyleea); B, the Museum with the monument
of Philopappus; c, the Areopagus; p, the Pnyx; &, the theatre of Bacchus;
F, the Prytaneum; a, the Odeon; u, the temple of Jupiter Olympius; 1, the
‘tower of Andronicus Cyrrhestes, or the tower of the winds; x, the temple
of Theseus ; 1, the road to the Pyreeus. |

The Pyrzeus was the port of Athens. Its entrance was ornamented with
two lions, and it contained five public halls, a large market surrounded by
colonnades, several temples, and a theatre. The road to Athens lay between
two enormous walls, running all the way from the city to the port, a distance
of five miles. .

Entering the city from this road, the first building near the gate was the
Pompejon, the starting point of the religious processions. Near this edifice
was an equestrian statue by Praxiteles. At a short distance from the Pom-
pejon stood the temple of Ceres, which contained the statues of Proserpine,
Ceres, and of the youthful Bacchus. Two colonnades led from the Pompejon
to the part of the city called Ceramicus. There were several similar colon-
nades in Athens which were necessary for public places of resort. Near
one of the colonnades at the Pompejon were several temples, the gymnasium
of Mercury, and the house of Polytion, surrounded by an inclosure, where
the Eleusinian mysteries were practised by several of the wealthy citizens
of Athens. Next stood a small building which contained bas-reliefs of burnt
clay, among which was prominent the festival of the Athenian king
Amphyction. On the right hand side, near the end of the colonnade, in the
district of Ceramicus, was the Royal Basilica, where the second archon of
Athens held his court of justice, and where the Areopagus sometimes met.
The name Basilica is derived from basileus, the king. This building was a
peripteros, with porticoes in front and in the rear. The bas-relief in the
gable represent the victory of Theseus over the pirate Skyron, and the rape
of Cephalus by Aurora. At the entrance of the hall stood the bronze
statue of Pindar, with a tiara around his head, a book on his knees, and a
lyre in his hand. |

Not far from the Royal Basilica were two remarkable buildings, to the
right the temple of Apollo containing a picture of Apollo by Euphranor,
and two statues of Apollo by Leochares and Calamis; and to the left the
hall of Jupiter was situated, probably built with three rows of columns
and walls placed inside the two outer rows of columns.

In the same district was the temple of Cybele, with astatue of the goddess
by Phidias, and the House of the 500 Senators, with numerous statues and
paintings. The square to the right near the Royal Basilica was surrounded
by terminal statues with inscriptions at their base, containing either com-

38 ARCHITECTURE.

memorations of great and gallant deeds of the Greeks, or admonitions to
wisdom and virtue. |

Next to the House of the Senate stood the Tholus, a circular building
surrounded by plantain trees, in which the officiating magistrates took their
meals, and offered the regulated sacrifices. Among different others it con-
tained the silver statues of Cecrops and of Pandion, in front of which the
first archon held his court of justice. After the Tholus came the temple of
Ares (Mars), with the statues of Mars, Pallas Athene, Venus by Aleamenes,
another Venus by Locrus, and others. Thestreet leading from the Tholus
to the market terminated in a hall lmed with terminal statues, formed by
several porticoes, and known as the Hall of the Herme. The inscriptions
on the statues proclaimed the gratitude of the state towards the common
soldiers. )

In the rear of the Tholus was the Pnyx, where the large assemblies were
held. Near it was the Lnneacrounos or fountain with nine jets, the only
public fountain of Athens; and beyond it, the temples of Ceres and Proser-
pine, and of Triptolemus, the deified founder of the Eleusinian mysteries.
The former contained the statue of Ceres, and the latter that of Epimenides.
Near the Eleusinium was the temple of Eucleia, or the Temple of Glory,
erected with the booty made in the battle of Marathon, and containing a
statue of Venus in Parian marble by Phidias.

Opposite the House of the Senate, in the market and adjoining the Royal
Basilica, was the temple of Vulcan, containing statues of Vulcan and of
Pallas Athene. Near tothe Hall of the Herme was the Stoic Hall, in which
philosophy was taught. In front of its portico were the bronze statues of
Solon and Seleucus, and that of Mercury ornamented the entrance. The
interior was decorated with paintings representing battles, the combats of
the Amazons, &c. The north side of the market was occupied by the
temple of Venus Urania and that of Alacus. On the market square itself
was the altar of friendship, and a few other monuments of little importance.

North of the temple of AXacus was the temple of Theseus, the ruins of
which still remain in tolerably good condition, whilst the location of the
other monuments previously mentioned, with the exception of the Pnyx,
can only be conjectured from literary sources. The Temple of Theseus as
it is at present, is represented in pl.9, jig. 8, whilst pl. 10, jigs. 3 and 4,
give views of its restored front, the latter for the sake of comparison reduced
to the scale of the other elevations on this plate; and pl. 10, jig. 5, shows
the plan. This Doric temple has columns all round, six in front, and thirteen
on each side, the corner columns being counted twice, which is always done
in giving the number of columns of different sides, as they appear on two.
The temple is 104 feet long by 45 feet wide. The pronaos and posticum
are formed by the extension of the side walls, and two columns stand between
the corner pillars. The entire temple is built of white marble, the founda-
tion of large blocks of limestone. The gable of the pronaos has been deco-
rated with sculptures which have disappeared, but the frieze inside the
pronaos still contains representations of several groups of combatants and
spectators; and the frieze in the posticum the combat of Theseus and the

ARCHITECTURE. 39.

Lapithe. Theten metopes of the front porticoshow ten labors of Hercules,
and the four adjoining ones on either side, the labors of Theseus. The temple
proper is 54 feet long, by 19 feet, 2 inches wide. The temple was erected
ten years after the battle of Salamis, after the son of Miltiades had collected
the bones of Theseus on the island of Scyros, and had triumphantly carried
them to Athens. At present the temple of Theseus is used as a church of
St. George, for which reason probably it is so well kept.

Not far from the temple of Theseus, opposite the Stoic Hall, was the gym-
nasium, erected by ordersof Ptolemeeus, and containing the statues of Juba
and Chrysippus, and a spacious court-yard surrounded with colonnades.
Opposite the gymnasium, in rear of the Stoic Hall, was the temple of the
Dioscuri, the entrance of which was decorated with the statues of Castor and
Pollux, whilst on each side were those of their sons with their horses. The
interior was decorated with paintings by Polygnotus and Micon, repre-
senting the wedding of the sons of the Dioscuri with the daughters of
Leucippus and the embarkation of Jason and his heroes for Colchis.

Near this temple was the district consecrated to Aglauros, with a temple
of this nymph. Then came the Prytaneum, where the written laws of Solon
were preserved, and citizens who had distinguished themselves in the service
of the state were entertained at public expense. It contained the statues of
Vesta, of Peace, as well as of Miltiades, Themistocles, and other celebrated men.
Opposite these different buildings were the portico of Hadrian, the vegetable
market surrounded by a wall and double porticoes, and in the rear of the
latter the Tower of the Winds (pl. 9, fig. 4, plan and elevation; pl. 19, fig. 9,
capital from the portico),

The Tower of the Winds is an eight-sided marble building, whose faces are
turned exactly towards the octants of the heavens, each containing a bas-relief
allegory of one of the eight winds known to the Greeks. The tower carries
a conical roof, on the top of which stood a bronze Triton serving as a vane.
Below the bas-reliefs are as many sundials calculated to suit the correspond-
ing points of the compass, which are considered by Delambre ta be the
most remarkable remains of the practical gnomonics of the ancients. The
building originally had two entrances, one towards the north-east and the
other towards the north-west, each of them ornamented with a portico of
two columns. Stuart, when first surveying the building, after removing all
the rubbish, discovered on the floor traces of a clepsydra, or water-clock, as
described by Vitruvius, which was probably fed by a brook passing close
to the tower, and which to this day is called Clepsydra. The water reservoir
is located in the round house attached to the main building, The interior
of the tower is divided into four different stories, which probably had floors
for the door to rest upon. The decorations of the interior are of the Doric
order; those of the exterior of the Corinthian.

‘Towards the south-east of the street of the Tripods, which began at the
Prytaneum, are the ruins of the arch of Hadrian, forming one corner of a peri-
bolus supposed by some archeeologists to be portions of the temple of Jupiter
Olympius, whilst others take them for the Pantheon of Hadrian. Of the
temple of Jupiter Olympius, p/. 12, 7i9. 2, gives the plan; jig.3, the elevation ;

40 ARCHITECTURE.

and pl. 11, fig. 4, the section, drawn according to the designs of the cele
brated architect, Luigi Canina. The temple was a dipteros dekastylos of the

Corinthian order, with twenty columns. The interior contained two tiers of
columns, one above the other, and was a hypethros, for the roof was open
above the statue of Jupiter. Besides the porticoes, the temple had a pronaos
formed by four Corinthian columns. The building was erected and the
statues of gold and ivory put up by Hadrian. The pronaos contained four
statues of Hadrian, and the peribolus, 2300 feet in circumference, was orna-
mented with statues which had been supplied by different cities, each con-
tributing one. Another temple of Jupiter Olympius, of the Doric order,
had formerly occupied the same spot, whose columns, after its destruction,
were carried to Rome by Sylla, and erected in the temple of Jupiter Capi-
tolinus, which was destroyed by fire. For the new temple Hadrian ordered
the Roman architect Cossutius to adopt the Corinthian order, which was not
generally introduced into Greece before the year 395 B.c. Of the 112 columns
16 are still standing. The length of the temple on the upper stair was 354
feet, by 141 feet in width. The columns had 6} feet diameter, and were
over 60 feet high; and like the rest of the building, were of Pentelican
marble.

Towards the north-east of this temple were the statue of the Pythian
Apollo, and a temple of the Delphian Apollo. East of the Olympzon, a
gate in the city wall led to the district of the gardens watered by the Ilissus,
on the left bank of which was the temple of Boreas. North-east of the
latter, near the spring of Callirhoé, was a small Ionic temple, which some
suppose to be that of Diana Agrotera, whilst others think it to be that of
Ceres or of Triptolemus. It is represented on pi. 16, fig. 36, plan, and pi.
10, fig. 15, elevation. A few ruins of jt still exist. It belongs to the Ionic
order, but its proportions, notwithstanding their beauty, deviate considerably
from those usually met with. The temple was an amphiprostylos tetrastylos,
and built of Pentelican marble.

The Stadium of Herodes Atticus, built of marble, was also located on the |

ieft bank of the Ilissus, as well as a small temple of Hercules ; and a little more
to the east a temple of Venus, with a statue of the goddess. Opposite the
latter, on the right bank of the Ilissus, was the Lyceum, containing large
places for exercise, with 100 columns from Lybia.

The most remarkable of the monuments in the street of tripods is the cho-
ragian monument of Lysicrates, sometimes called the Lantern of Demosthe-
nes. This is one of the most graceful of ancient architectural monuments.
‘Its elevation is represented on pl. 9, fig. 5, whilst details are given on pl. 19,
viz. a capital (fig. 10), a base (jig. 18), and the restored dome with the cele-
brated three-cornered flower that supported the tripod (fig. 24). This
building, far famed in architectural history, is but 13 feet, 11 inches high,
and has not more than 5 feet, 4 inches inside diameter. It was constructed
as follows: Six marble slabs of equal size were placed close together to form
a hollow cylinder. Along the upright joints semicircular cavities were
wrought, just wide enough to receive Corinthian columns which were placed
in them with great accuracy, one half projecting beyond the surface of the

ARCHITECTURE. 41

cylinder; an entablature and a dome to cover it completed the building.
Between the capitals of the columns are tripods in bas-relief, and the frieze
is ornamented with a bas-relief representing the history of Bacchus, who
conquered the Tyrrhenian pirates, and changed them into dolphins. The
flutes of the columns terminate in leaves, an arrangement entirely unique.
The recess at the neck of the columns has probably been filled by an astra-
galus of bronze or gold. The roof is of one single block of marble, admirably
wrought so as to appear covered with tiles of the shape of olive leaves. The
crowning flower is of a beautiful model, and terminates in three volutes of
great elegance. Other volutes on the roof have probably served to carry
some ornaments on which the corners of the large flower must have rested.
In our restoration (pl. 19, jig. 24) we have adopted dolphins, to correspond
with the frieze; others have introduced satyrs.

Behind this eee was the Odeon of Pericles (pl. 17, jig. 1, eleva-
tion; jig. 2, section; jig. 3, plan). It was of the Doric order, aioe with
32 stone ae eas the peribolus. The masts of the Basia ships
taken in war were used as rafters in the roof, which had the form of a
tent. According to Diodorus, the building was of an oval shape, with
an open portico (pl. 10, jig. 10, front; jig. 11, side view; jig. 12, plan).
During the Mithridatian war it was either destroyed by fire or pulled down
by the order of Aristion, the Mithridatian commander, to facilitate the ap-
proach to the Acropolis. It was rebuilt, by the order of Ariobarzanes, by
Caius and Marius, sons of Caius Stallius. On certain days the.Odeon was
used as a grain market.

The Theatre of Bacchus, located at the southeastern foct of the Acropolis,
stood so near to the latter that the seats were partly cut in the rocks. This
theatre was built by Themistocles, and afterwards the interior was decorated
with portraits and statues of different poets. In the rock of the Acropolis,
at the height of the top of the roof of the theatre, was the choragian monu-
ment of Thrasyllus and Thrassicles cut out in shape of a niche or a grotto,
and adjoining it another niche containing a tripod, upon which were repre-
sented Apollo and Diana murdering the children of Niobe. Adjoining the
theatre was the temple of Bacchus Limneeus, the oldest temple of this god
at Athens. Its peribolus inclosed still another temple, that of Bacchus
Eleutheros, whose statue was of gold and ivory.

On the southern slope of the rock of the Acropolis were the mausoleum
of Talus, who was killed by Deedalus, and the temple of #sculapius, con-
taining the statues of Aisculapius and of his children, besides several beau-
tiful paintings. |

The Odeon of Regilla, located at the southern foot of the rock of the Acro-
polis, was built 150 years z.c., by Herodes Atticus, in honor of his wife
Regilla. Eumenicus added a colonnade to it, which connected it with the
theatre of Bacchus. It was of white marble.

South of the Stoic Hall, and southeast of the Pnyx, were the Areopagus
and the temple of the Eumenides, situated upon a hill commanding the view
of the seashore over the roof of the Pnyx. Near this place is a Doric portico

(gl. 10, fig. 18, elevation ; Sg: 14, plan) supposed to have been the entrance
4]

42 ARCHITECTURE.

of the Agora or vegetable market, from an inscription on the same men-
tioning the names of two superintendents of the market, and another con-
taining a proclamation of Hadrian regulating the sale of oil and the duties
to be levied on importations.

After having thus mentioned the various buildings alluded to by ancient
writers as being in the city of Athens itself, we now proceed to the edifices
on the Acropolis, the citadel of Athens, among which we find the best pre-
served monuments of Grecian antiquity; whilst those in the city proper have
been entirely destroyed, with the exception of the few whose ruins we have
noticed more in detail. 3

The Acropolis of Athens (pl. 11, fig. 1), according to historical traditions,
was planned and executed by the Pelasgians, who were masters in the art
and science of fortification in ancient times. It was a citadel which by
strong walls was well secured against any hostile attack, and inclosed a
sacred place filled with a number of temples and adorned with the noblest
and most exquisite productions of art. It was, in fact, the sanctuary of
Athens, where the Panathenzean festivals were celebrated, and the deposi-
tory of the public archives and the state treasure.

Pausanias, the best author on Athens, has left us descriptions of all the
luxury and beauty condensed upon comparatively so small a spot, which
are indeed astonishing. He mentions the temples of Diana, of Venus, of
Minerva Polias, of Erechtheus and Nike Apteros, and of the Parthenon.
Of all these glorious structures nothing has been preserved but the ruins of
the propylea of the Parthenon, of the temples of Minerva Polias and
Erechtheus, and the Hall of the Nymph Pandrosos; but they suffice to bear
evidence to the grandeur and beauty of the monuments in the time of their
glory. Large flights of steps on the western slope of the mountain, orna-
mented with two equestrian statues upon pedestals, led to the main entrance
of the citadel, which was built in the purest style of the Doric order, and is
far-famed under the name of the Propylea. This magnificent structure,
undoubtedly one of the most characteristic monuments of the time when
Athens was in her prime, was commenced 437 B.c., and completed in the
exceedingly short time of five years, according to the designs and under the
superintendence of Mnesicles.

FP. 11, jig. 1, shows a perspective view of the edifice, which is composed
of the main or centre building, with projecting wings, forming three sides of
a quadrangle. The centre building, with its six columns, offers five en-
trances to the interior of the Acropolis. The side building to the right
forms a portico to the Doric temple of Nike Apteros (the wingless Victory),
of which pl. 16, jig. 32, gives the plan, whilst pl. 11, jig. 1, has a view of it
near the right hand pedestal. The left side building contained in one of the
interior apartments the famous paintings of Polygnotus. The portico in the
rear, facing the interior of the Acropolis, was similar to that in front, both
of them being of the Doric order, whilst the vestibule has Ionic columns,
but without a base. Only very recently the discovery of a very carefully
constructed inclined plane leading to the Acropolis has decided the question
whether chariots had entered it, which had been supposed on account of the

ARCHITECTURE. 43

greater distance between the two centre columns, and on the strength of the
representations of chariots in the bas-reliefs of the Panathensean games on
the frieze. The marble beams which formed the ceiling were 17 to 18 feet
long, and of sufficient thickness to receive deep panels, which were orna-
mented and painted. The depth of the building from the front to the rear
wall was 43 feet, to which the posticum, of 18 feet in depth, was attached.
The wings, or side buildings, had temple fronts of three columns between
pillars, and were constructed, like the main building, of Pentelican marble.
The columns of the propyleum are 27 feet high; those of the side buildings
are 18 feet high by 3 feet in diameter.

The Parthenon, dedicated to Pallas Athene, was one of the largest and
most magnificent temples in Greece, for the illustration of which we refer to
pl. 9, fig. 2, western front; pl. 10, fig. 6, eastern front; and pi. 11, fig. 6,
longitudinal section. It was in excellent preservation as late as the year
1676, when it was visited by Wheler and Spoon, but in the following year,
when the Venetians bombarded Athens, a shell penetrated to the ammuni-
tion of the Turks, kept in the temple, and the explosion that followed did
great damage to the edifice. The sculptures of the gable and frieze have
been taken away by the English, and are now in the collections of the Bri-
tish Museum.

The temple is a peripteros with 8 columns in front and 17 at the sides,
and a hypethros with its interior columns in double tiers. The porticoes
had two rows of columns each. The temple was built by Ictinos and Calli-
crates (470 B.c.), and is 227 feet 7 inches in length, by a width of 101 feet
1 inch. It presented the peculiarity that the usual corner pillars of the
second row of columns in the porticoes are substituted by columns. The
outer columns are 35 feet, 5 inches high, by 6 feet, 1 inch in diameter; those
on the corners are 2 inches thicker.

In ancient times the Parthenon was called Hecatompedon, because it had
exactly 100 feet front, according to Roman measure. The width of the cella
in the rear was 623 feet by a length of 98 feet 7 inches; the length of the
vestibule was 43 feet 10 inches, and the total height of the temple 65 feet.
The cella contained a magnificent statue of Minerva by Phidias, made of
the costliest materials, chiefly gold and ivory. The two gable fields were
also richly adorned with sculptures, which, as late as 1683, were in tolerably
good preservation, when the French ambassador at the Porte, Nointel, caused
them to be drawn accurately by a Dutch artist, whose drawings have been
consulted in the various attempts made at restoring the groups in recent
times. The groups in the western gable fields had reference to the birth of
Pallas Athene, whilst those of the eastern represented her contest with Nep-
tune about the sway of the land. The panels in the external Doric entabla-
ture contained 92 bas-reliefs representing the wars of the Lapithee and the
Centaurs, and the frieze around the cella and vestibule, which was upwards
of 500 feet in length, bore sculptures representing the Panatheneean games.

Another remarkable group on the platform of the Acropolis is formed by
the temples of Minerva Polias and Erechtheus, and the hall of the nymph
Pandrosos. /7. 10, fig. 8, gives a view, and jig. 9 the plan of this group,

44 ARCHITECTURE.

whilst pl. 11, jig. 5, is an attempt at a restoration of the same. For details
we refer to pl. 7, fig. 24, the columnar order; pi. 19, jig. 6 a, capital from
the portico of the temple of Minerva Polias; jig. 6 6, capital from the por-
tico of the temple of Erechtheus ; jig. 17, base from the former ; jig. 18, base
from the latter; jig. 81, caryatide from the hall of the nymph Pandrosos.

This group was erected during the Peloponnesian war, probably 409 B.c.,
but took fire only three years later. Its eastern side is formed by the temple
of Erechtheus, with a portico of 6 columns, 21 feet, 8 inches high, fluted,
and with decorated necks. The portico leads into the cella (pl. 10, fig. 9 6),
which is 70 feet 6 inches in length by 32 feet 4 inches in width. It con-
tained the salt spring, and the altars of Neptune, Vulcan, and the hero
Butes. The rear of this curious group was formed by the temple of Minerva
Polias, whose cella is at a (fig. 9). Its portico has 4 columns 24 feet high,
facing north. In the rear of the cella is the hall of the nymph Pandrosos
(jig. 9 ¢), which, in place of columns, had 6 beautiful caryatides supporting
the entablature, one of which was carried off by Lord Elgin. It has
been replaced by a pillar of bricks bearing the stigmatizing inscription:
“This is the work of Lord Elgin.” ‘The capitals of the four columns form-
ing the portico are larger, more richly ornamented, better executed, and
altogether in a superior style to the other capitals of the group. The
columns have a considerable swelling. Behind this portico a beautiful
doorway with consols and entablature has been dug up, all of white marble.

The interior of the Erechtheum was also decorated with sculptures and
paintings. Near the entrance stood the three altars which we have men-
tioned, and which were highly finished works of art. The walls were
adorned with pictures. The division of the group consecrated to Minerva
Polias contained a wooden statue of Mercury, an offering of Cecrops; a
folding chair, wrought by Deedalus and offered to the gods as a useful in-
vention ; the sword of Mardonius, suspended on the wall; and the statue of
= in front of which was the eternal lamp, an ofc of Calera
the allezed inventor of the Corinthian capital.

Besides the afore-mentioned monuments in the city and upon the Acro-
polis, there are the ruins of the aqueduct of Hadrian, consisting of a few
columns and one arch at the foot of the mount Anchesmus; the tombs of.
Thrasybulus who overthrew the government of the thirty tyrants, of Pericles,
Chabrias, Phormion, Harmodius, Aristogiton, and of many combatants at
Marathon.

A large road called the Sacred Way, about 500 stadia long, led to the
city of Eleusis. On both sides of this road so large a number of tombs,
mausoleums, and columns had been erected during the flourishing time of
Greece, that Polemon wrote an extensive work on them. At present,
the site of the road even is not perfectly known, and no traces whatever
are left of the palace of Crocon, or of the temple with the statues of Apollo,
Ceres, and Minerva. Eleusis at present contains the ruins of four build-
ings, viz. the propylea, the temple of Diana, the mystic portico, and
the temple of Ceres. The propylea formed part of the peribolus which
surrounded the temples, to which only the initiated were admitted, a regu-

ARCHITECTURE. 45

lation particularly enforced at the temple of Ceres. They forma portico of
six Doric columns of 5 feet and half an inch in diameter, which leads to
the vestibule of six Ionic columns in two rows, which is followed by four
pillars standing free, and inside by six Doric columns. The front gable
field was decorated with a priest’s head surrounded by a ring.

The temple of Diana Propylea (pl. 10, fig. 16, elevation; pl. 16, fig. 35,
plan) is accessible by six steps, the uppermost of which is 69 feet, 8 inches
long. The temple is of the Doric order, with corner pillars and two columns
of 2 feet, 7 inches diameter. The stone blocks of the ceiling, like the rest
of the building of white marble, are 83 feet long by 8 feet wide, and 2 feet,
6 inches thick, each of them weighing about 11 tons. The cornice and
gable tops had front tiles. The building is very much dilapidated.

The Mystic Portico, where those about to be initiated in the Eleusinian
mysteries had to undergo certain ceremonies, is of the Ionic order, and con-
tains near the door two pilasters, with Corinthian capitals of uncommon
beauty. This hall formed the vestibule of the temple of Ceres and Proser-
pine, one of the most remarkable ancient buildings, which, however, was
totally destroyed by Alaric. The temple had a portico of twelve Doric
mantled columns of 63 feet in diameter. The fore hall is 38 feet deep, the
corner pillars projecting so far as to indicate the existence of a second row
of ten columns. The temple was a prostylos, and according to Vitruvius
the fore hall only was added to the main building by Demetrius Phalereus,
whilst the latter was built by Ictinus, 439 B. c. -

All the monuments at Megara and Corinth, to which Pausanias even
alludes as being much injured by time, are totally destroyed. On the isle
of A’gina, which at an early period was considerably advanced in civiliza-
tion, many once celebrated monuments had already disappeared at the time
of Pausanias. The most splendid building on the island at that time was
the temple of Jupiter Panhellenius, some of the ruins of which are still exist-
ing. The ground-plan of this temple (pl. 18, fig. 12) shows that it had
been a peripteros of six columns in front, and twelve at the sides. It was
of the Doric order, hypeethral in construction, and with two rows of
columns in the interior. The gable field was decorated with sculptures
which have been carried to Munich. The proportions of this monument are
excellent, and the mouldings of the capitals and the entablature of a bolder
character than those of the temples of Minerva and Theseus at Athens.

Two Doric columns of the temple of Venus, situated near the harbor,
are all that remains of a number of other temples formerly known on
Aigina. The Aigina theatre was considered to be of a very superior style,
and was of larger dimensions than that at Epidaurus.

Argos, a city in the district of Argolis, was the residence of the famous
sculptors Polycletus, Praxiteles, and others, who by the master-pieces of
their art ornamented its temples, among which were those of Jupiter Soter,
Juno, Bacchus, Apollo Lycius, and Venus; and the temple of Minerva
located upon the acropolis, which also contained a treasury of Atreus similar
to that at Mycene. All these buildings, together with a large number of
magnificent tombs, are entirely destroyed, a few columns of the Doric order

46 ARCHITECTURE.

and of rather slender proportions of the temple of Jupiter Nemzeus, between —
Argos and Oorinth, being the only traces left of them. Of this temple, pl.
16, jig. 17, and pl. 18, fig. 18, show the plan, the latter figure with the
omission of the three columns between the corner pillars of the pronaos. A few
other ruins near Argos are supposed to be those of a theatre, of the palace of
Agamemnon, and of an aqueduct. About four miles from Argos near
Mount Euboia was the temple of Juno, famous for its beautiful sculptures,
those in the gable fields being representations of the birth of Jupiter, the
war of the gods and the giants, and the Trojan war. The statue of Juno in ~
the temple was of gold and ivory.

At Bassee, near Phigalia, was the temple of Apollo Epicureus, one: of
the most remarkable monuments of Greece, and especially of the Pelopon-
nesus. This temple, built by Ictinus in the time of Phidias, was 125: feet
long, by 47 feet wide, with six Doric columns of 3 feet, 7 inches diameter,
and 19 feet, 6 inches high in front, and of 13 columns of the same size on
the sides (pl. 11, fig. 10, ground plan). The interior of the cella contained
ten Ionic columns in two rows, with capitals remarkable on account of the
volutes being placed diagonally, and therefore presenting four equal faces,
instead of the usual two. Between the two last columns, opposite the
entrance, was one Corinthian column. These 11 columns supported a frieze
of more than 100 feet in length, by 2 feet, 14 inch high, decorated. with
representations of the war of the Centaurs and Lapithee, and of the Greeks
and Amazons. ‘This master-piece of sculpture is now in the British Museum.
The walls and columns of this temple were built of limestone, but the roof
was constructed of marble.

Among many ruins at Olympia, are those of the temple of Jupiter, which
the Eleans caused to be built in the year 450 B. c. by Libon from the booty
gained in their wars (pl. 10, jig. 1, front elevation ; jig. 2, longitudinal section ;
pl. 15, fig. 8, half front; jig. 4, half lateral section of the pronaos; jig. 5,
lateral section of the cella and porticoes). The outer walls of this temple
were plastered with stucco ~, of an inch thick, and the roof, which was
reached by winding stairs, was covered with Pentelican marble. On each
front there were two rows of six Doric columns each, and 17 on each side 6 feet
in diameter. Inside were two rows of columns placed in two tiers, and the
temple was hypeethral. The length of the temple, which numbers among
the largest in Greece, was 218 feet, by 94 feet in width, and 64 feet in height.
The side walls were painted by Panzenus, brother of Phidias, but the gable
fields are decorated with haut-reliefs. Those of the front by Pzeonius repre-
sented Pelops and CEnomaus preparing for a chariot race in presence of
Jupiter; whilst those of the rear by Alcmenes, exhibited the combat of
the Centaurs and Lapithe at the wedding of Pirithous. The doors of the
temple were of bronze, decorated with representations of the labors of
Hercules. The architrave contained 21 gilded bucklers, a donation of
Mummius the Roman general, after his victory over Corinth.

Several monuments in Attica are worthy of special notice. On a plateau
about 300 feet above the level of the sea, near Rhamnus, 60 stadia from
Marathon, are the ruins of two temples inclosed by a peribolus; the largest

ARCHITECTURE. 47

consecrated to Nemesis, the smaller to Themis. The former (pl. 12, fig. 18,
front; fig. 14, and pl. 16, fig. 23, ground plans) was a peripteros with six
Doric mantled columns in front, and twelve on the sides. The members of
the entablature show marks of painted ornaments. The height of the build-
ing was 70 feet, 5 inches, by a width of 32 feet, 10 inches; the diameter
of the columns, which were 13 feet, 1 inch high, was 2 feet, 44 inch; the
entablature was 4 feet, 4 incheshigh. The ceiling and roof are constructed in
a superior style, and their ruins are very instructive with regard to the
rules by which the ancients connected stone blocks. Seven columns of the
temple and one of the pronaos are still in good condition, and the three
steps of the substructure show that the columns were placed over quadran-
gular grooves several inches deep, and probably intended to receive metal
plates. The temple of Themis (pl. 16, jig. 33, plan) had two Doric columns
between the corner pillars, and was 32 feet, 3 inches long, by 20 feet, 10
inches wide. It was erected at the time of Pericles, and destroyed by the
Persians.

At Sunium are two remarkable ruins, the one the remains of the temple
of Minerva Sunias, and the other of its propyleea, which are very similar
to those of the temple of Diana at Eleusis. Both these monuments
are of the Doric order, and very carefully constructed of white marble.
Of the temple there remain nine columns of the western side, three of the
eastern, and the corner pillars and two columns of the pronaos. It had six
columns in front, and 13 at the sides. Of the interior no traces are left,
and it is therefore not well ascertained whether the vestibule inserted in our
ground plan (pl. 16, jig. 19) from the plan of the Parthenon, really existed.

We now proceed to the Grecian monuments in Asia Minor, commencing
with the island of Delos, where we find the ruins of the temple of Apollo
built of Parian marble, of which nothing remains but three Doric mantled
columns of 3 feet, 1 inch diameter, and 18 feet, 8 inches high, with an
entablature of 5 feet, 93 inches (pl. 19, fig. 2, a capital). A few fluted
Doric columns of a portico ascribed to Philip of Macedonia on the strength
of an inscription on the same, are found near this temple. They are 19
feet, 4 inches high, by 2 feet, 11 inches diameter. The flutes descend only
to within six feet from the ground, the lower part of the shafts being polygons
with smooth faces. The capitals have but very little projection, and an
almost straight echinus. Near this place are also some ruins of square
pillars, the capitals of which are formed by the heads and shoulders of four
oxen, in the manner of the horse capitals in the monument of Nakshi
Rustam (pl. 8, jig. 6).

Sardis, the metropolis of Lydia, at the foot of Mount Tmolos, contains the
ruins of the temple of Cybele. This temple, of the Ionic order, was a dip-
teros, but with three rows of columns in front (pl. 10, fig. 17, elevation ; pl.
11, jig. 13, plan).

Of all the monuments of Mylasa, a place eighteen hundred years ago
remarkable for its numerous temples, colonnades, and buildings of every de-
scription, nothing remains but a Corinthian column without the capital,

erected in honor of the sovereign of Caria, and the ruins of a temple dedi-
47

48 ARCHITECTURE.

cated to Rome and Augustus and of a beautiful gate of the Corinthian order
(pl. 18, fig. 22, view ; fig. 23, plan.) About a mile from the city are the ruins
of a mausoleum of a very inferior style. The corners are formed by square
pillars between which a couple of slender pillars are placed, with half
columns attached to them inside and outside. The Corinthian columns and
pillars are fluted on the two upper thirds and plain below. The substruc-
ture supports over a panelled ceiling a pedestal composed of steps, which
probably once supported a statue. The frieze is convex.

Halicarnassus, situated on a safe and extensive harbor, the native pli
of Herodotus, Sateened the temples of Mercury, Venus, and Mars, and the
marble-faced royal palace. In the centre of the city was the mausoleum
erected in honor of the memory of King Mausolus, by his disconsolate
widow Artemisia (pl. 13, jig. 19, elevation; jig. 20, side view; fig. 21,
section; jig. 18, ground plan). : The building is outirely, destroyed. Sonia
of the cabanas and sculptures of it were probably used in the construc-
tion of the royal palace. Our illustrations have been made from a medal
(jig. 22, a, 6), whose obverse showed the portrait of Artemisia, the reverse
the mausoleum, and from ancient descriptions. The mausoleum, erected
353 B. c., was 140 feet high, and 411 feet in circumference. The substruc-
ture supported 36 Ionic columns, crowned with a rich entablature. The
roof was formed by a series of steps, whose top supported the triumphal
chariot with four horses, by Phytio. The four sides of the substructure
were decorated with sculptures by Braxis, Leocharis, Timotheus, and Scopas,
who, after the death of Artemisia, completed them without remuneration
for the sake of their own reputation and fame. The building was destroyed
by Alexander 334 x. c. during the siege of Halicarnassus.

Pl. 10, fig. 22, shows the elevation, and jig. 23, the plan Gn which, by
mistake, two pola of the sides and the ye have been oniteted)
of a beautiful Corinthian temple at Euxomus in Ionia. The temple,
probably erected in the time of Hadrian or Antonine, had six columns in
front and eleven on the sides, with magnificent capitals and bases.

The temple of Apollo Didymeeus, one of the largest in Greece, was located
near the city of Miletus, on the cape Branchide. It was of the Ionic order,
hypethral, with ten columns in front and two rows of 21 columns on each
side (pl. 12, jig. 3, front elevation; jig. 4, plan). The columns were 6 feet,
3 inches in diameter, and 63 feet, 1 inch high; the height of the entabla-
ture was 7 feet, 42 inches. The capitals of the pillars are ornamented
with bas-reliefs, and the capital of the only remaining Corinthian column is
one of the most beautiful in existence, and has been frequently imitated.
The whole length of the temple was 295 feet, 9 inches, by a width of 156
feet, 7 inches.

At Priene, on the right bank of the river Meander, are the ruins of the
temple of Minerva Polias, built by Pythins under Alexander, 334 B. c. (pl.
16, jig. 18, plan). It was an amphiprostylos peripteros of the Ionic order,
with 6 columns in front and 11 on each side; 122 feet, 54 inches long, by
64 feet, 3 inches wide, exclusive of the three steps. The columns were 4 feet,
8 inches in diameter, by 36 feet, 11 inches in height.

ARCHITECTURE. 49

The magnificent temple of Diana in Magnesia (pl. 12, jig. 7, elevation ;
Jig. 8, ground plan), which, according to Strabo, was the largest of all tem-
ples in Asia except the temple of Ephesus, was of the Ionic order, with
8 columns in front and 15 at the sides. No trace of it is left, and
our illustrations are derived from the descriptions of Strabo and Vitru-
vius.

Of the temple of Diana at Ephesus, renowned as the most exquisite build-
ing in Asia, only a few ruins of the substructure are left. From ancient
descriptions we have gleaned the details given in our illustrations (pl. 12,
Jig. 1, elevation; jig. 2, plan). The temple was destroyed five different
times and as often rebuilt. After the fifth destruction the Greeks resolved
to erect the costly building of which we here give the outline. The plans
were made by Ctesiphon of Gnossus on the island of Crete, who here first
introduced the Ionic order, whose capital he had probably seen in the tem-
ple of Chalembaram in India. The construction was commenced by Theo-
dorus, towards the end of the seventh century 8B. c., who made a firm ground
by piles, the natural ground being swampy and unsafe. After the death of
Ctesiphon, the building was continued consecutively by Melagenes, Deme-
trius, and Pzonius, who finally completed it 480 z.c., the whole work
having occupied 220 years. According to Vitruvius the temple was a dip-
teros with 8 columns in front; 425 feet long, by 220 feet wide, and hype-
thral. It had 127 columns, donations of the Asiatic kings, the largest of
which were 60 feet high, by 73 feet in diameter. On the day when Alex-
ander was born Herostratus set fire to the temple, of which, however, only
the cedar roof could be consumed; but the heat converted the marble
columns in the cella into lime. Fourteen years later the restoration was
commenced, about the manner of which there is a great diversity of opinion
among archeologists. From the reports of Vitruvius it would appear that
the old plan was followed, and as he names a group of 36 columns which
are also mentioned by Pliny, some authors are of opinion that these must
have been in the cella, forming two double rows of 9 pairs or 18 columns
on either side. This would leave 91 for the outside. Now Vitruvius gives
8 columns at the front and 17 at the sides, which makes 84, the temple
being a dipteros; then there are mentioned 4 in the pronaos and 2 in the
posticum, making the number of the columns outside the cella 90; and as
the last single column can be assigned to no special place, archeologists sur-
mise that there was a mistake in the ancient manuscripts, and that the number
of columns in the building was written CX X VIL. by mistake for CX XVI.
We cannot admit the probability of such a conclusion, as it is based upon
the presumption that two authors have made the same error. The
view of the distinguished archeologist, Luigi Canina, appears much more
likely, and from his disposition of the columns our drawing has been made.
According to him the new temple had 10 columns in front, 19 at the sides,
4 both in the pronaos and posticum, 8 on either side of the cella, with 3 at
the lower end behind the sanctuary between them, which brings in exactly
127 columns, without violating any rule of architecture.

The northern barbarians under Rapsa completely destroyed this mag-

ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOPZDIA.—VOL, IY. = AQ

50 ARCHITECTURE.

nificent edifice, 262 a.p., and carried a number of the columns to Constan- —
tinople. : | -

Besides the temple of Diana, Ephesus contains the ruins of a temple of
the Corinthian order, the foundation walls of an extensive theatre, and three
lower and six upper arches of an aqueduct erected by Tiberius. About four
miles northwest of Ephesus was Teos, the native place of Anacreon, with a
temple of Bacchus (pl. 12, jig. 5, plan; fig. 6, elevation). It is of the Ionic
order; the columns 8 feet, 3; inches in diameter, by 25 feet in height, and
all the proportions and details of a superior character and style. The tem-—
ple was built 400 B.c., by Hermogenes.

Grecian architecture was at an early period introduced by emigrants
into the colonies in the southern districts of Italy and the island of
Sicily. Though the exact time of its introduction has not been determined,
it is quite certain that elegant Grecian structures were in existence at
Sybaris as early as 740 8.c., and that in the fifth century s.c., Grecian
architecture was generally adopted in the erection of temples, theatres, and
halls. Of all the ruins of purely Greek structures those of Peestum, a city
founded about 520 B.c. by the Sybarites, who had been driven from their
country by the Crotoniats, are in the best state of preservation. The most
remarkable among them is the temple of Neptune, known as the large tem-
ple at Peestum (pl. 12, fig. 9, view of the ruins; pl. 10, fig. 20, pl. 15, fig. 1,
restored elevation ; jig. 2, and pl. 10, jig. 21, ground plan; pl. 20, fig. 8, the
columnar order; pl.19, jig. 1, a capital). The temple forms a parallelogram
of 155 feet length, by a width of 75, with a portico of 36 Doric columns all
round, which is approached by three steps. In the interior there are two
rows of columns surmounted by architraves only, which must formerly have
supported a second tier of columns, and it is therefore supposed that the
temple was hypeethral. It had 6 columns in front and 14 at the sides,
those near the corners being a little thicker and placed closer than the
others, but all without any swelling. The architraves in the interior are
connected with the wall of the cella by stone beams which must have sup-
ported the floor of the galleries, which were approached by stairs in the
pronaos. The walls of the cella have only the height of the architraves on
the lower columns, and it appears that they must have been surmounted by
some contrivance for admitting light into the cella, similar to that of the
hall at Carnak (p. 13). Some writers are of opinion that this upper side-
light is exactly what the Greeks termed hypeethros, and that they therefore
derived the latter from Egypt.

The temple of Ceres, known as the smaller temple at Peestum (p/. 11,
Jig. 18, pl. 15, fig. 14), has 6 columns in front and rear, and 13 on each side.
The columns of the peristyle are still standing, whilst in the pronaos only
the bases and part of the shafts are left. The second row of columns is ele-
vated one step above the first, and is one step lower than the two rows in
the rear. These columns are the only Doric ones with 24 flutes instead of
20. The capital (pl. 19, fig. 3) differs from the ordinary Doric in the con-
struction of the neck. The columns of the pronaos are the only Grecian
Doric columns with a base.

ARCHITECTURE. 51

The Basilica of Peestum was also of the Doric order, with capitals like
those in the temple of Ceres, but with considerably sailed shafts. The
building (pl. 10, jig. 24, elevation; jig. 25, plan) was 160 feet in length, by
75 in width, and had 9 anes in front and rear, and 18 on the sides. In
the interior, opposite to the third columns of the front and sides, are two
pillars, with three columns between them, and it is probable that there
was a similar arrangement in the rear. The walls marked in the plan
probably supported upper rows of columns. In the centre was another row.
The whole was thus divided into four naves between five rows of columns,
which were connected by beams resting on the outside entablature, and
supporting the roof. The building was probably used as a market hall, like
the Stoa at Athens.

The Island of Sicily had at one time still more remarkable monuments of
architecture than Greece itself, but in consequence of the wars of the Carthagi-
nians and the Romans, during which many of them were entirely destroyed,
only few and unimportant ruins have been preserved to the present time.
At Syracuse are the ruins of the mausoleum of Archimedes, a few rock-cut
stairs of a theatre, and twelve Doric columns of 64 feet in siaielgead which
formed part of the magnificent temple of Minerva (pl. 15, fig. 19, plan), and
are introduced in the new cathedral. The doors of the temple were of
bronze, inlaid with gold and ivory. A number of excellent paintings be-
longing to the temple were carried to Rome by Verres.

The city of Agrigentum, the largest on the island next to Syracuse, con-
tained a temple of Minerva, located on the plateau of the rock at the foot
of which the city lay, of which no traces are left. There are considerable
remains of a Doric temple of Juno Lucina, which was erected on a plinth
10 feet high, and had 6 columns in front and rear, and 13 on each side.
This temple contained one of the best works of Zeuxis, a picture of Juno.

Another temple has been almost entirely preserved. It was consecrated
to Concordia, situated on a hill covered with trees of the aloé family, built
of a bright yellow limestone upon a substructure of six steps. It is one of
the most beautiful Grecian monuments, exhibiting exquisite proportions ( pl.
10, fig. 18, elevation; jig. 19 and pl. 11, fig. 14, plan).

The ee of Adsculapius, Hercules, and Jupiter, have almost entirely
disappeared. The latter temple, also called the Temple of the Giants, was
340 feet in length, by 160 feet in width, and 120 feet in height. It was a
pseudodipteros, and the columns were 66 feet high, by 9 feet in diameter.
There were eight in front and rear, placed at distances of one diameter.
The flutes were so wide and deep that a man could find room in their
recess. Fragments of colossal statues have been found, which apparently
supported some part of the building. They probably stood on half side-
walls of the cella, with the architrave resting on them, thus forming openings
to admit light into the interior. The temple, erected 420 B.c., was de-
stroyed by an earthquake, and its materials were used for the fe of the
harbor.

. The colossal ruins at Selinuntize, the present Pillori, are very remarkable,

and unmistakably of Grecian origin. The place was sacked by Hannibal,
51

52 ARCHITECTURE.

and earthquakes have completed the work of destruction. Its largest tem-

ple was that of Jupiter Olympius (pi. 12, fig. 10, elevation ; jig. 11, plan).
It was a pseudodipteros of the Doric order, with g columns in front and 17
at the sides, 48 feet, 7 inches high, by 10 feet in diameter. It was a hype-
thral building, 311 feet long, by 158 feet in width, and stood on an isolated
hill in the plain of Selinuntiz, upon a substructure on which two other
Doric temples were also erected. The first of the latter (pl. 11, jig. 16,
plan) is very much dilapidated. Its proportions were 216 feet, by 94, and
its fluted columns were 32 feet high, by a diameter of 6 feet, 7 inches. The
other (fig. 17, plan) was 174 long, and had columns of 5 feet, 6 inches in
diameter. Both these temples had columns all round, the former being a
pseudodipteros, with two rows of columns in the pronaos, separated by a
double columnar distance.

On the acropolis are three Doric penipterar temples, the smallest of which
(pl. 16, jig. 21, plan) is the southernmost. Between it and the next towards
the north there is a small Ionic temple of only 16 feet front, with a portico
of four columns. It has the peculiarity of having its pure Ionic columns
surmounted by a Doric entablature, whose architrave, instead of the three
Ionic stripes, exhibits two painted ornamental stripes, the third being re-
placed by the tenia with the drops. The triglyph capitals, as well as the
panels and the cyma of the cornice, are painted.

The rival city of Selinuntiz was Segeste, the ally of Athens by which
she was assisted in her unfortunate expedition against Syracuse. According
to Cicero, her founder was Aineas, to whom one of her temples was conse-
crated. The only traces of the former splendor of this city are the ruins of
a theatre, of the cisterns, and of a temple before the city attributed by some
to Venus, by others to Diana. This temple, a view of which in its present
condition is given on pl. 9, jig. 6, is in tolerably good preservation, except
the roof. It has Doric mantled columns, 6 in front and rear, and 14 at the
sides, placed on a substructure of three steps. Its proportions are 177 feet,
by 74. The walls are executed in bound masonry of tufa. Each column
consists of 12 or 13 stone rings, and is 31 feet high, by a diameter of 6 feet,
7 inches.

It is a remarkable fact that all the remains of ancient buildings i in Sicily
are of Grecian origin. All the temples, except the smallest in Selinuntiz,
are of the Doric order, and have capitals as bold and prominent as the oldest
ruins in Greece. The most recent monuments date from 400 B.c., and the
two temples of Jupiter at Agrigentum and Selinuntiz have columns of a
greater diameter than any temple in Greece.

In conclusion of this account of Grecian architecture we offer, from the
illustrations given, and the short explanations of the same, the following
general remarks :

1. The order principally adopted in Grecian buildings was the Doric,
which was brought to the highest perfection of noble simplicity and
exquisite proportions by the Greeks. The fluted columns, which were
introduced into Greece from Egypt, are of older date than the smooth or
mantled column.

ARCHITECTURE. 53

' 2. The Greeks borrowed from the Egyptians the form of these temples
and the method of surrounding them with columns, but added to the Egyp-
tian entablature the frieze and the peculiar cornice, as well as the roof and
gable.

3. The Doric order was ever faithfully adhered to by the Sicilian and
Italian Greeks. The Ionic order was first introduced in the seventh century
B.C., in the temple of No cascuae it was introduced into Greece in the begin-
ning of the 5th century B.c.: after 410 B.c., no new Doric buildings were
erected in Ionia, and none 5 Attica and eps eet after the middle of
the 4th century B. c.

4, The Corinthian order occurs in no ancient building in Greece in the

manner observed in Palmyra, Baalbec, and Rome. The comparatively few
capitals of the Corinthian form met with in single buildings constitute no
distinct order; the Corinthian capital was therefore, in all probability, not:
invented by the Greeks.
- 5. The Grecian style of architecture adhered, even in the most magnifi-
cently decorated buildings, invariably to a noble Stee The ornaments
were masterpieces of painting or sculpture, which shared their claim to the
attention of the beholder with no gaudy embellishments.

6. The exterior of the Grecian temple had no decorative ornaments;
everything is based upon constructive architectural necessity ; the mouldings
of the cornice had a bold and beautiful profile.

7. The Grecian architects knew how to increase the effect of their build-

ings by erecting them in groups in the same place, or on or near a hill,
producing, as it were, architectural pictures.
_ 8. A careful survey and examination of the remains of Grecian monu-
ments shows that the Grecian architects, in their designs for entire buildings
as well as for details, never strictly followed monotonous rules, but preferred
a well regulated variation, and understood how to make a tasteful choice be-
tween the largest and smallest proportions.

5. PHa@nicIAN on SyRIAN ARCHITECTURE.

The ruins of buildings at Palmyra and Baalbec are the only specimens of
Syrian architecture which offer any chance for the study of the art of that
country, all the remarkable and magnificent buildings which, according to
the narratives in the Bible and the poems of Homer, existed in the cities of
Tyre and Sidon, having entirely vanished from the surface of the earth, and
no excavations ee as yet been made.

Turning our attention first to the ruins of Palmyra, we find as the most
prominent those of the Temple of the Sun (pl. 12, fig. 12, view, includmg
part of the peribolus; pl. 13, fig. 6, plan). It was poriomded by a spacious
court whose outer wall was lined with colonnades and had window-like open-
ings. In the middle it had a double portico with gables and a highly

decorative cornice (pl. 19, fig. 29, fragment). The temple itself had 8 Co-
53

54 —=Ci«‘: ARCHITECTURE.

rinthian columns at the short sides and 15 on the eastern long side, whilst
the western had only 12, and two strong pillars between which lay the en-
trance, a remarkable difference from the Grecian temples, which always had
the entrance on the shorter side. These pillars had half columns at the fore
corners and at the sides. The substructure of the temple is formed by nine
steps. The columns are of the Corinthian order, 51 feet high, by a diameter
of 4 feet, 8 inches, and placed on cubes. From the Attic base up to the
height of 5 feet, the shafts exhibit convex beads, and from this height up-
wards to the capitals they are fluted. Each short wall had two Ionic half
columns on the outside. The entablature is very rich, the frieze decorated
with genii and garlands of flowers. The cella is 122 feet by 39, has a highly
finished door on the long side, and eight windows; at both ends winding
stairs lead to the roof. The ceiling above the two altars is richly decorated
with sculptures, including a zodiac and deities in hexagonal panels, among
which are Baal, Cronos or Moloch, Baaltis, Melcarthos, Adon, Mercury, and
Astarte, corresponding to the Grecian deities Zeus, Artemis, Pluto, Helios,
Poseidon, Hermes, and Here.

* About 1440 feet from the northern corner of the peribolus are the ruins
of a triumphal monument composed of three arches, the two smaller ones of
which open into covered colonnades, 16 feet wide, and 4000 feet long, with
a street between them of 37 feet inwidth. The columns are 3 feet, 3 inches
thick, 28 feet high, and support a very rich entablature. The ceiling was
composed of stone blocks, 20 feet in length. Judging from the remaining
columns and their distances, the total number of columns must have been
1450. Nearly in the middle of the street between the colonnades are four
large pedestals which formerly supported groups of sculptures (pl. 17,
fig. 22 a, plan; jig. 22 6, elevation of one pedestal). At this place a cireus
of 10,000 feet in length abuts on the colonnades; this was also surrounded
by columns, all of which, however, are lying in ruins. The colonnades end
at a monument, by some considered to be a temple of Neptune, by others a
mausoleum (pl. 16, jig. 27, plan). Its entrance was guarded by two winged
genii, each soaring on a sphere. The six columns in front are of the Co-
rinthian order and smooth, 2 feet, 11 inches thick, by 27 feet, 4 inches in
height, placed on cubes of 2 feet, 11 inches, and supporting a gable, whilst
they form a portico. The altar in the rear of the cella was surrounded by
four columns supporting the richly decorated ceiling.

Beyond the circus are the ruins of five small Corinthian temples and of
two other buildings. Between the Temple of the Sun and the opening of
the colonnades is a single Corinthian column, 54 feet high and 5; feet thick,
and another, 60 feet high, stands to the right of the colonnade. Both
once supported statues. Near by is still another monolithic granite column
98 feet high, and at a short distance from it the ruins of the peristyle of a
temple. West of the temple of Neptune are several important ruins,
among which are those of a large palace, probably the palace of Odonatus,
consort of Zenobia, or perhaps the assembly house of the city authorities.
To the right of the colonnades is a small but beautiful temple (pl. 16, jig.
22, plan). It has smooth Corinthian columns, 28 feet high, and 3 feet,

ARCHITECTURE. 55>

1 inch thick, with the Attic base, which appears to have been generally:
adopted in Palmyra. The portico has 4 columns in front and 2 at the sides ;
the cella 4 corner pilasters; it is only 30 feet long, and has two windows,
which, like those of the Temple of the Sun, prove that the ancients did not
always avoid side-light in their temples.

In Heliopolis, or Baalbec, as in Palmyra, the most important ruins are
those of the Temple of the Sun (pl. 13, jig. 2, plan). It consists of four
large divisions, of a total length of 940 feet. The first division consists of a
flight of steps, and the adjoining portico of 12 Corinthian columns, 42 feet,
8 inches high, and 4 feet, 3 inches thick, and beautifully moulded. Above
the entablature was a low wall with bottom and top cornices, probably a
later addition to replace a destroyed gable. The portico has two side halls
and two gates in the rear wall. The second division is a hexagonal struc-
ture inclosing a large open court. Five sides of this building, including the
one in the rear of the portico, formed as many halls, bounded towards the
court by Corinthian columns, 26 feet high, and 2 feet, 9 inches thick, placed
on isolated pedestals, 5 feet, 6 inches high. The halls were 60 feet long, by
a width of 22 feet, and their side and rear walls were lined with two tiers of
columns, the upper ones connected in pairs by gables. Between these halls
were nine other smaller apartments, which, like the halls, may have been
occupied by the priests. The court is 193 feet wide, and at present filled
with ruins. The third division of the monument is a large quadrangular
open court, 350 feet long, by 336 feet in width, three of whose sides, including
that adjoining the hexagonal court, are formed by eight halls, 58 feet long,
22 feet wide, and 36 feet high, together with four semicircular and several
smaller quadrangular apartments. In front of each hall stood four smooth
Corinthian columns, 28 feet high, and two similar ones in front of each
semicircular apartment. These 40 columns were exactly like those of the
first court. The interiors of the halls exhibit similar double tiers of columns
along the walls with the first halls, connected in pairs alternately by triangu-
lar and arched gables. The columns are 10 feet high, and the halls contain
the total number of 352. In each niche formed by two connected columns
was placed either an altar or a statue. Each of the semicircular apartments
had five niches, decorated with pilasters supporting columns also connected
in pairs by gables. They contained 40 such columns. In the rear of this
court was the temple proper, the fourth division of the grand monument.
It was 268 feet long, by 146 in width, and its peristyle was approached by
several steps. It had 10 columns in front and rear, and 19 at the sides, of
72 feet, 5 inches in height, by a diameter of 7 feet. The gable and the
cella are entirely destroyed. The buildings of the two first divisions stand
‘over vaulted subterranean apartments, 23 feet high.

Another very remarkable monument in Baalbec is the temple of Baal or
Jupiter, situated by the side of the quadrangular court of the Temple of the
‘Sun, and of which we have given several illustrations (pl. 13, jig. 1, view;
jig. 3, and pl. 16, jig. 16, plan; jig. 13, view of the interior through the
large gate). This temple is a peripteros with two rows of 8 columns in
front, one row in the rear, and 15 at the sides. They are of the Corinthian

56 ARCHITECTURE.

order, 62 feet high, by a diameter of 6 feet, 5 inches, and placed on plinths
2 feet high. The portico has a gable, and is approached by a flight of steps
17 feet high, or one seventh of the entire height of the temple. The second
row of columns is only 56 feet high, and fluted. “The columns of the peri-
style are richly and tastefully ornamented, and the frieze has a very peculiar
decoration. The spaces between the centres of the columns are divided into
five parts, each with a foliated consol standing on the cymatium of the archi-
trave, and supporting busts of animals, on which rests the cornice of the roof.
These busts are connected by festoons of flowers. In the interior of the cella
are at each side 6 fluted half columns, one quarter column, and one pilaster.
Between the half columns are arches forming niches and supporting two
small columns surmounted by a projecting gable, between which there were
probably statues. The gate of the temple is of a bold profile, and, like the
ceilings of the portico and pronaos, very richly decorated. The ceiling of
the cella was arched with splendidly ornamented braces. The proportions
of the cella are 114 feet, by 70, and it has no windows.

Besides the described monuments, Baalbec contains the ruins of a round
temple, 32 feet in the clear, surrounded by six Corinthian columns, 29 feet
high, and erected on a substructure 12 feet in height. In the interior it
had a double tier of 14 Ionian columns below and 14 Corinthian above,
and a number of small round and triangular gables. There are also some
huge ruins, probably belonging to an ancient building of the Tuscan order,
judging from an isolated granite column 60 feet high, 5 feet, 6 inches thick,
smooth, and composed of 18 pieces, near the Temple of the Sun, and some
enormous blocks of stone near it, which lie on a wall 20 feet high, and
whose extraordinary proportions are 60—70 feet length, by a width and
thickness of 12—14 feet.

_ We have, in conclusion, to add a few remarks on the period when the
structures at Baalbec were probably erected, and by whom. According to
the Bible (2 Chron. viii. 4, and 1 Kings ix. 18), a city was built by Solomon
on the site of the present ruins of Palmyra about 1011 B.c., which, according
to Flavius Josephus, was surrounded by a wall. The name of this city was
Tadmor (city of palms), and on account of its favorable location between
Jerusalem, Tyre, Sidon, and Babylon, it soon became an important emporium
of commerce, and must have been a splendid place when it was sacked by
Nebuchadnezzar 600 8. c., together with Jerusalem and Tyre. From this
time forward New Tyre, the former port of Old Tyre, must have made
rapid progress in wealth and civilization by the concentration of the world’s
commerce. Herodotus found there as early as the fifth century B. c. a tem-
ple of Melcarthos or Hercules, containing a statue of gold, and another of
emerald. Tadmor is not mentioned again by ancient writers. It occurs
again as Palmyra under the Seleucides (successors of Seleucus Nicator),
about the middle of the third century B.c.; and it is probable that the
buildings of Palmyra were erected before this time. At all events, it was
before the conquest of Palmyra by Pompey (63 B. c.), for the inscriptions
on the building are Palmyrenian. At the beginning of the first century
p. c. Palmyra was a rich and influential place, whose alliance was coveted
56

ARCHITECTURE. 57

by the Romans, and as late as 260 a. p. it is mentioned as an important city.
It is therefore very probable that the monuments at Palmyra belong to the
second and third centuries B. c.

Baalbec was also founded by Solomon (1 Kings ix. 18), and called
Baalath. In the year 59 a. p. when Crassus plundered the Temple of the
Sun it was a renowned building, and Baalbec existed still in its full splendor
under Augustus, when it was called Julia Augusta. Herodotus mentions
the columns at Baalbec as surpassing all other known columns in height,
and since the buildings still standing are of a more recent date, it is probable
that he refers to the building of which we suppose the single Tuscan
column to be a remnant. The magnificent structures of Baalbec must,
however, have existed for centuries before the incursions of the Romans,
for if they had built them their historians would have chronicled the fact.

But the proof that the monuments in Syria were built by native architects,
and that their style was original and not copied from Roman patterns, can
be furnished architectonically as well as historically, and in our account of
the Roman Monuments we shall moreover prove that the Romans never
had any original style of architecture of their own. Our arguments for the
originality of the Syriac monuments are the following: 1. All temples of the
Greeks and Romans had the entrance on the shorter side; the Temple of the
Sun at Palmyra had it on the long side. 2. All Roman temples are but slightly
longer than broad; those at Palmyra and Baalbec had a length of more than
double their breadth. 3. The ornaments on the friezes, &c., in Syria are so
peculiar as to vary materially from the Roman, and contain mystic emblems
belonging to an ante-Roman period; for instance, the personification of
Baal and winged genii, which do not occur on any Grecian or Roman
building of that period. 4. The abaci of all the Corinthian capitals of
Palmyra have truncated corners, whilst in all the buildings erected during
the reign of Hadrian we find sharp-pointed corners on the abacus ; after the
conquest of Syria by Pompey Roman buildings show also the truncated
abacus, which must therefore have been introduced from Syria. 5. The
same may be said with regard to the modillions in the cornice, which do
not occur in Roman buildings until after the conquest of Syria. 6. The
Syriac columns are generally higher than the Grecian or Roman. 7. The
grandeur of the Syriac monuments so far surpasses that of the Roman that
the 846 columns of Baalbee and the 2000 and more of Palmyra (of from
492-70 feet in height) would have sufficed to furnish all the known public
buildings of ancient Rome. How insignificant does not the largest Roman tem-
ple appear in comparison with the smaller temple of Baalbec? Can it be
supposed that the Romans should have erected such edifices in a foreign
country in preference to their own capital? 8. The rich ornaments on the
windew-frames, door-jambs and lintels, and the small round or triangular
gables over windows and doors, do not occur in Roman buildings until after
the conquest of Syria, where they had then existed for centuries in the
wealthy city of Tyre. And finally, the placing of statues on consoles
attached to the shafts of columns was not introduced either in Greece or in
Rome until after that period.

58 ARCHITECTURE.

~ All these facts must suggest the conviction that the Romans had no part

in the erection of the buildings of Palmyra and Baalbec, and that they were
not executed by the Seleucides is evident by a glance at the cities of Seleucns,
Antiocha, and Damascus, which only contain fragments of small columns.
The magnificent edifices of Syria are not therefore copies of Roman build-
ings, but in many respects their prototypes, and it is not unlikely that the
Corinthian style of architecture originated in Pheenicia.

6. Roman ARCHITECTURE TO THE Time oF CoNSTANTINE THE GREAT.

. The higher architectonic art was introduced into Italy from foreign coun-
tries, especially into Etruria by Pheenician colonists, and into the southern
parts by Grecian settlers ; and as both these people at first practised the art
in the manner of their respective countries, we find in the oldest Italian
monuments the Doric and Tuscan orders separately, but at a later period
an amalgamation or rather mixture of the two. This is clearly perceptible
in the plans of temples. The Tuscan temple is nearly an exact square, the
Grecian a quadrangle with a length about double its breadth. The Etruscans
introduced into Italy the art of arching, which they had learned from the
Pheenicians, and as early as the 6th century B. c. arched the Cloaca Maxima,
when in Greece no trace of a regular vault wasas yet found. We shall con-
sider the ancient architecture of Rome in three periods: that of the kings,
of the republic, and of the emperors.

A. The Period of the Kings.

Of the oldest edifices of central Italy few or no traces are left; and, though
the city of Aigille, in the neighborhood of Rome, in the time of the first
Roman kings, formed a state of as much consequence as Rome itself, and the
Tyrrhenians at that age were renowned for their skill in naval affairs as well
as for the comfort of their dwellings, we are so completely without reliable
information about their structures that with regard to the oldest Italian archi-
tectural history we can consider only the edifices of Rome. This unimportant
colony had under the three first kings gradually risen to be a large city, so that
Ancus Marcius, the fourth king, was compelled, on account of the increase
of the population, to extend the confines of the city beyond the Tiber, so as
to include the Aventine and Janiculan hills, which he furnished with walls
and entrenchments, and connected with the city by a wooden bridge. He
also founded the port of Ostia, extended the temple of Jupiter Feretrius,
which Romulus had built, and caused the first prisons to be built in the
quarries, leaving their completion to Servius Tullius. Remains of these
prisons are still found in the neighborhood of the Forum, but they are of a
more recent restoration of the same. The older Tarquin improved the walls
of the city, founded the Forum for public assemblies of the mass of the peo-
ple, and the large racecourse (Circus Mazximus), besides beginning the work
of the great system of sewers. He caused the top of the Tarpeian rock to

ARCHITECTURE. 59

be smoothed for the erection of the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, the foun-
dation of which was made by him. His successor, Servius Tullius, added
the Quirinal and Viminal hills to the city, and enlarged the district of the
Esquiline. The walls and entrenchments which he completed remained
unaltered until the latest times, as the city, after his day, was enlarged only
by suburbs. He also erected on the Aventine hill a temple of Diana, de-
signed as a sanctuary common to the allied cities of Latium, as was the
temple of Diana at Ephesus to the allied cities of Asia. No trace of it is
left, and it must have been vastly inferior to the magnificent edifice of Cte-
siphon. Two other temples are attributed to him, viz. that of Bona Fortuna
in the Forum Boarium, and that of Fortuna Virilis on the bank of the
Tiber. A restoration of the latter, probably made under one of the later
emperors, still exists (pl. 16, fig. 7, front; jig. 8, plan; pl. 19, fig. 7, a capi-
tal). It is a pseudoperipteros with four Ionic columns in front, a portico
of two columns, and five half columns at the sides. The columns are 25
feet, 5 inches high, by a diameter of 2 feet, 11 inches, and are made of
travertine marble, whilst the walls are of tufa. They have 20 flutes, but
their capitals, with concave faces between the volutes, look less graceful
than the chaste Grecian capitals of the same order. The temple with the
entablature has had a plastering of marble dust, of which traces are percep-
tible. The temple of Jupiter Capitolinus was not continued under Servius
Tullius. It was again taken up by Tarquinius Superbus, who, however,
was banished before its completion, which was finally accomplished in
the third year of the republic, when it was consecrated by the consul Pul-
villus. It was destroyed by fire 415 years later, during the consulate of
L. Scipio and C. Norbanus. It stood on a high substructure, and had 800
feet in circumference, the difference between its length and breadth being
only 15 feet. ‘The southern or principal front had three rows, the other sides
two rows of distantly placed columns. The entablature was of wood. It
was of the Tuscan order, with proportions in altitude like the Doric. Its
three naves were consecrated respectively to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva.
Tarquinius Superbus built also, with the assistance of the 47 cities of Latium,
a temple on the Alban mountain, in which sacrifices were offered down
to the latest time of heathenism. Only a few blocks of tufa are left to
mark its site.

B. The Period of the Republic.

The banishment of the kings took place in the 244th year of the city, or
509 s.c. The first years of the republic were marked by considerable
architectural improvements. On the road from the Forum to the Capi-
tol a temple of Saturn was erected, which for several centuries was used as
the state treasury. Soon after, the dictator Posthumius erected two tem-
ples dedicated to Ceres and to Castor and Pollux, 482 8.c. The latter was
located near the Forum and the temple of Vesta, and was rebuilt by the
emperor Augustus. The former stood above the circus, on the slope of the
‘Aventine hill, and was dedicated, besides, to Ceres, Bacchus and Proser-

———— ioe —

60 ARCHITECTURE.

pine. Both temples were built by Damophilus and Gorgasus, the first Gre-
cian architects in Rome.

It will be appropriate to insert here a few remarks on the —— style
of architecture, which about this period was introduced into Rome by
Etruscan architects, and adopted in all the principal buildings. The
columnar proportions were similar to the Doric, 5 or 6 diameters in height,
the difference being in the columnar distances, which with the Tuscans were
much wider, on account of their constructing the entablature of wood, mostly
without any frieze, the rafters being cut off slantingly and covered with a
board. To their columns they gave a round plinth and a very simple capi-
tal. The ornaments were of burnt clay. At.a later date the Romans
adopted the nobler Doric style, and the Tuscan was only retained in central
Italy. The style of the Doric monuments in Rome was long that which we
have mentioned in our description of the monuments of Pestum, whilst in
Greece it had already been materially improved.

In the year 434 3. c., the Villa Publica was built at Rome for the adminis-
trative assemblies, aa in the year 480 B.c., the temple of Apollo was con-
secrated. Next pillows the very eee work of connecting the Alban
lake, which occupies an extinct crater, with the city, by an aqueduct
7500 feet long, 7 to 8 feet high, and 5 feet wide, which is still in use. After
the conquest of Veii, 395 B.c., the tutelar goddess Juno of this city was
transported to Beme; and a taal built on the Aventine hill to receive the
statue.

Up to this time the city and state of Rome had always been fortunate in
war; but in the year 378 B.c., it was conquered by the Gauls and laid in
ashes, with the exception of a few temples. As early as one year later, it
was already rebuilt, but without any regular plan, and partly of sun-dried
bricks, on solid substructures. In the year 365 B.c., when the people had
obtained the right of electing a consul from among themselves, and all in-
ternal feuds had been discontinued, the temple of Concordia was built on the
slope of the Capitoline hill, of whose later restoration eight granite columns,
surmounted by the entablature, still exist. The walls of the city were also
renewed in solid bound masonry, and in the year 328 B.c., the lists of the
Circus Maximus were built.

With few exceptions, none of the buildings previous to this time had any
of the grand features of Grecian architecture. During the next centuries
the principal works consisted of highways, bridges, and waterworks, and it
was not until the 7th century of the city, about 50 B.c., that greater efforts
were made in magnificent architecture. The buildings of the republic, down
to that period, belong to five different classes, and we mention them accord-
ingly.

1. Temrres. The piety which characterized the Romans of the earlier
ages was still unabated in the present. Religious feeling was evinced on all
occasions. Every victory or success in peaceable pursuits was attributed to
the mercy of the gods; every defeat or failure to their wrath. Numerous
vows were made and kept of erecting temples, partly from motives of grati-
tude, in part of atonement. When at a later date the philosophy of the

ARCHITECTURE. 61

Greeks had become naturalized in Rome, the simple works of piety were
superseded by the products of the love of splendor and of vanity in the times
of Marius and Sylla, of Pompey and Julius Cesar. In the year 301 3.c.,
Babulsus dedicated a temple to the goddess Salus, which was renowned for
the pictures on its walls by Fabius Pictor, which were preserved to the time
of the emperor Claudius. The temple of Bellona, erected 295 3B. c., by
Appius Claudius, was also renowned for beautiful paintings and sculptures.
During the next three years were erected the temples of Jupiter Victor,
Victoria, and Venus; the latter built by Fabius Gurges with the money
collected from several matrons as fine for committing adultery.

In the year 290 z.c. the temple of Asculapius was erected on the island
of the Tiber. With a view to avert the calamity of the plague a ship had
been sent to Epidaurus, which brought home the genius of this god in
the shape of a serpent. In commemoration of this expedition the entire
island was girdled with bound masonry in the shape of a ship; of
this wall there are still ruins to be seen. The island was connected
with the city by two bridges, the Pons Fabrica and Pons Cestu. Pl.
17, jig. 8, gives a sectional view of the island, with the temple and its
portico as last rebuilt, the obelisk erected by Augustus (the top at jig. 8 a),
and the two bridges. The temple of Asculapius was of the Doric order,
with 6 columns in front. The bridge of Fabricius (jig. 9, view; fig. 11,
section), erected 62 B.c., by that consul, and rebuilt, 1680 a.p., by Pope
Innocent XI., is 233 feet long, 20 feet wide, and consists of one large and
two small arches of bound masonry. The bridge of Cestius (jig. 10, view;
jig. 12, section), erected in the year 35 B.c., is 165 feet, by 30, and had two
arches of 72 feet span, with three small arched openings in the piers. ig.
13 exhibits a coin from the time of Antoninus Pius, representing part of the
bridge of Cestius and of the buildings on the island. The foreground is
occupied by the god of the river Tiber, and the symbol of Atsculapius, the
serpent which was worshipped in his temple.

About this time Duilius and Attilius erected in the Forum Olitorium,
near the theatre of Marcellus, three small temples, dedicated respectively to
Pietas, Spes, and Janus. The first (pl. 15, fig. 16, plan) was a Doric perip-
teros; the second (fig. 18, plan) was of the Ionic order, with smooth columns
on three sides and pilasters in the rear; and the temple of Janus (jig. 17,
plan), which some archeologists attribute to Juno Matuta or Sospia, was an
Tonic peripteros with two rows of columns both in front and rear. These
three temples placed close together on an elevation of three steps show that
the ancients sometimes grossly violated the laws of symmetry, the Doric
temple being much smaller than the two Ionic, of which, again, the one
on the right hand was smaller than that on the left. The details exhibit the
same diversity both in appearance and proportions. The columns of the
Doric temple were 2 feet, 4 inches thick, by a height of 7.65 diameters; the
smooth columns of the smaller Ionic temple were 2 feet, 10 inches, 5 lines,
and 9 diameters high; and the fluted columns of the larger Ionic temple
were 3 feet thick, by a height of 9.21 diameters.

To this period belong also the temples of Tempestas, consecrated by
61

—— ee eee

62 ARCHITECTURE,

Caius Corn. Scipio; of Venus Erycina, by Fabius Maximus; of Concordia)
on the capitol; of Libertas on the Aventine hill; and a temple of Honor.
and Virtue at the Porta Capena, with two cellas, and decorated with many
works of art which Marius had brought from Syracuse. This temple was
of the Doric order, and had 6 columns in front and rear and 11 at the sides
placed only at one diameter’s distance from the walls. The temple of,
Hercules and the Muses in the Circus Flaminius, consecrated by Fulvius
Nobilius, was decorated with the statues of the deities carried away from.
Greece. | toi

The comparative smallness of the temples of Rome in this period is,
evinced by the circumstance that Fulvius Flaccus, 171 8. c., intending to
erect a temple of Fortuna Equestris, which should be larger than any other
temple in Rome, proposed to take for its roof half the marble tiles of the tem-
ple of Juno on the Lacinian promontory, but was refused them by the people.

Quintus Metellus was the first to favor magnificent architecture. With the
booty of his victorious Macedonian campaign, 147 B. c., he erected a temple to
Jupiter Stator, and one to Juno, the first temples of marble in Rome. They
stood near together on a spacious place surrounded by a peribolus with a
portico, which was later restored by Augustus, and is, therefore, sometimes
quoted as the portico of Octavia, but oftener, and with more propriety, by
its older name of Portico of Metellus. In illustration of these edifices we
have given a front view of the portico (pl. 18, fig. 14), a ground plan of the
entire group (jig. 15), and a plan of the temple of Jupiter a little larger
(pl. 12, fig. 17). The portico, a (pl. 18, fig. 14), consists of two rows of
fluted Corinthian columns, 36 feet, 6} inches high, 3 feet, 44 inches thick,
and placed at distances of 1} diameters. Each row consists of four columns
and two pilasters, on which rests the gable. The front and rear pilasters
are connected by walls containing the gates to the right and left colonnades
which had a front of 10 columns each, the whole front being 100 feet. The
temples of Jupiter and Juno were at c and p respectively, whilst in the
rear was the school of Octavia. The interior of both,temples was profusely
ornamented with works of art by the greatest masters, among which were
Praxiteles, Polycles, and Dionysius. The first structure which Metellus
caused to be erected by the Grecian architects, Saurus (lizard) and Batrachos
(frog), has Ionic columns; the restoration made under Augustus by the
architect Hermodorus was of the Corinthian order. It is said that the first
architects had worked without remuneration in the hope of being permitted
to perpetuate their names by an inscription on the temple, but that this
honor was refused them; when they introduced on the bases of the columns
a sculptured lizard and frog in order thus to hand their names down to
posterity. When the temples were completed and nothing remained but to
erect the statues of Jupiter and Juno, these statues were misplaced by
mistake, so that the temple with the statue of Jupiter was decorated with
emblems relating to Juno, and that of Juno with emblems having reference
to Jupiter. The mistake, being regarded as the will of the gods, was not
rectified. The temple of Jupiter was a peripteros, that of Juno a pseudo-
peripteros.

ARCHITECTURE. 63

Three columns of another temple of Jupiter Stator on the Forum Romanum
are still in good preservation on what is now the Campo Vaccino or cattle
market (pl. 14, jig. 1°, view; pl. 19, jig. 12, capital; jig. 20, base).
They are 4 feet, 5 inches, 9 lines in diameter, by a height of 45 feet, 33
inches. Some archeologists deny the fact of there having been two temples
of Jupiter Stator, and attribute these columns to a colonnade of Caligula
which connected the Capitol and Palatine hills; others again call them
remains of the temple of Castor and Pollux.

An important building of this period is the temple of Mars in the Circus
Flaminius, which must not be confounded with that of Mars Ultor, erected
at a later date by Augustus. Marius also, after his victory over the Cimbri
and Teutons, erected another temple of Honor and Virtue, which was a
peripteros without posticum, of. beautiful proportions, but of poor ma-
terial.

The temple of Jupiter Capitolinus was destroyed by fire, 187 3. o.,
probably the work of incendiaries, and Sylla immediately commenced
rebuilding it, by order of the oracle, of the same form, but with the addition
of the marble columns which he had brought from Athens, having taken
them from the temple of Jupiter Olympius which was in course of construc-
tion by Pisistratus. He -had the roof made of gilt bronze plates. Five
years after the fire the new temple was consecrated by Lutatius Catulus,
whose name shone on it until the second destruction by fire under
Vespasian.

Pompey built in the Circus Maximus a temple near his own theatre, and
dedicated it to Venus Victrix, whilst Julius Cesar, during his third
consulate, erected in his own forum a temple to Venus Genetrix, an offering
which he had vowed before the battle of Pharsalia.

2. Maxrxets, Basmicas, Curtz. The public squares (fora) were of two
kinds, such as served for meetings of the people for the transaction of the
affairs of state, as the great Lorum Romanum and the markets or sales
places proper, as the Forum Boarium or cattle market, and the Forum
Olitarvwm, or oil and vegetable market. Marcus Fulvius Nobilius.caused a
market to be erected outside the Porta Trigemina, which was surrounded
by colonnades and served for the sale of the goods that arrived on the
Tiber, and another between the cattle and vegetable markets which served
as a market for fish and other provisions. The Horuwm Julium, built by
Julius Cesar, was much more important. It was built with the booty of
the Gallic war, and about three millions of dollars were expended for the
acquisition of private property alone to gain the necessary space. It contained,
among other buildings, the above mentioned temple of Venus Genetrix
and the Basilica Julia, uncompleted. Of the Forum Romanum as
it is at present we have given a perspective view (pl. 14, jig. 1),
which shows how few traces are left of its former splendor. The Forum
is now called the Campo Vaccino, or cattle field. Of the objects which
stand there the most important are: *, The Triumphal Arch of
Septimius Severus; *, The Church of St. Adrian; *, The Temple of Anto-

ninus and Faustina (now the Church of St. Lorenzo); the Via Sacra, or Sacred
63

——_—_--

64 ARCHITECTURE.

Way, is the centre of our view; *, The Temple of Remus; °, The Temple of
Peace; *, The Church of Santa Francesca; ’, The Temple of Venus and
Rome; *, The Coliseum; °, The Triumphal Arch of Constantine; *°, Tri-
umphal Arch of Titus; ", The Farnesian Gardens; “, Santa Maria, the
Liberator, and opposite, the Temple of Castor and Pollux; “, Temple of
Jupiter Stator; “, The Curia; *, Temple of Romulus; “, Temple of
Fortune; ", Temple of Jupiter Tonans; “, The Column of Phocas;
*, Temple of Concord. We shall hereafter have an opportunity of speak-
ing of most of these buildings.

United with the Forum was the Curia, where the Senate assembled.
Upon the Roman Forum there was also one (pl. 14, jig. 1“) originating with
Tullus Hostilius, and hence called Curia Hostilia. This curia was rebuilt by
Sylla, but was burnt some years afterwards by the populace. M. Aimilius
Lepidus demolished another building on the same spot, also bearing the name
of Sylla, and Julius Cesar built upon its site the Curia Julia, which, how-
ever, Augustus completed and adorned with fine works of art. Pompey
built another curia outside the city and near his theatre; and it was here
that the Senate met on the day that Cesar was murdered and fell at the
very feet of Pompey’s statue.

According to Vitruvius, the Basilicas should also be placed upon the
market-place. They served partly as courts of justice, partly as exchanges
for merchants. The style of arrangement the Romans took from the Greeks.
In Athens the building in which the archon sat in judgment, under the
name of basileus or king, was called the stoa of the basileus, or briefly Ba-
silica; hence the name. M. Porcius Cato was the first, who, 183 years
B.c., began such a building. This Basilica Porcia lay near the ecuria of the
great Forum, was burned with it 52 years B.o., and was never rebuilt.
Fulvius Nobilior built the Basilica Fulvia, by the stalls of the money-
changers, on whose site a much more magnificent building was afterwards
erected. Besides these, there were also in Rome the Basilica Sempronia,
built by Tiberius Sempronius, to make room for which the dwelling-house
of Scipio Africanus was demolished ; the Basilica Opimia, Basilica Amilia,
then the Regia, which Pompey built near his theatre. The finest, however,
was the Basilica Pauli, which Atmilius Paulus erected upon the site of the
Basilica Fulvia, with columns of Phrygian marble.

The basilicas claim our especial attention, because from them was derived
the form of the Christian church. Thus the Basilica Fulvia or Pauli is now
the church of St. Porcia, and the basilica of Sempronius is the church of
St. George in Velabrum. The Roman basilicas formed a quadrangle, whose
breadth was not more than the half, and not less than a third of the length,
if the situation permitted. At the end of the length of the building, addi-
tions (calcidica) were built, in which were chambers where refreshments
were served. Generally, the basilica stood upon the south side of the forum.
The basilicas were distinguished from the hypethral temples in this, that
they had no exterior columns, but a covered vestibule in front, in the back
of which shafts or pillars were placed. In the interior of such a building
were two or four rows of columns, and in the rear an elevation or tribunal,

ARCHITECTURE. 65

which was separated by a railing, and probably intended for the peculiar
seat of the praetor. The columns, with the half columns against the walls,
supported the roof in most basilicas. In some, however, there was a wall,
pierced with windows, over the columns. The church of St. Paul outside
the walls, St. Mary in Trastavere, St. Peter in Vincoli, give the best idea
of the form and means of illumination of such basilicas. In front of the
basilicas there were no porticoes reaching to the roof; and where columns
were used, they were low, and formed the facade of the vestibule, which
had no gable. There were often two tiers of columns in the basilicas, one
over the other, with raised galleries.

8. Bumpives ror Pustic Amusement. At this period the buildings for
public amusement were much enlarged. We reckon here the theatres, am-
phitheatres, the naumachia, and the circus. The plays were at first of reli-
gious origin ; later they were regarded as methods of gaining popular favor,
and became objects of the most extravagant expenditure and magnificence.
The first play took place in Rome in the year 460 B.c., when, during a long,
lingering pestilence, actors were summoned from Etruria to propitiate the
gods. Earlier, there had been only combats in the circus. The actors
amused the people with comical gestures and leaps, to the sound of flutes.
Then verses were intermingled, and so gradually arose a kind of song-play,
called Satyra. Livius Andronicus first connected the whole by a continuous
story, which he caused to be sung with appropriate action, and hence arose
the dialogue. Aimilius Lepidus built the first theatre, 178 years B.c., yet
the sturdy Romans were so opposed to it that it was destroyed, as it was
held unmanly to enjoy one’s self in a sitting posture.

In the year 75 B. c. there was a convenient and even splendid theatre,
erected with a velarium, or sun tent, to shield the spectators from the sun.
The theatre which Scaurus, stepson of Sylla, erected 57 years B. c., seated 80,000
people. Curio, 48 years B. c., built two wooden theatres close together,
which turned on pivots. During the day they were turned away from each
other and plays were performed in both; then, with all the spectators they
were turned together and formed one amphitheatre, in which combats took
place. Modern mechanics will hardly credit this story; but so great was
the zeal to win popular favor by something striking and wonderful, that in
Pompey’s theatre water was made to run down the aisles between the seats,
in order to refresh spectators during the heat of summer. Behind the stage
was a hall of columns to which the audience might retreat on occasion of a
sudden shower. Julius Cesar also began the construction of a huge amphi-
theatre of stone, which Augustus completed, and dedicated to the memory
of his nephew Marcellus, son of his beloved sister Octavia. PJ. 14, jig.
2, represents the amphitheatre of Flavius, the coliseum, partly in section,
and jig. 3 half the ground plan, with the ground level on the right, and the
staircases upon the left. We shall presently return to this theatre.

The Naumachia were built like the amphitheatres, and contained so much
water that ships could float and sail in them. Under the head of Naval
Sciences we have spoken of these structures, and have there also represented
such a Naumachia (Division VI. pl. 2, fig. 12).

ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOPZDIA.—VOL. IV. oO 65

66 ARCHITECTURE.

The games of the circus were practised in Rome from the earliest times,
and the great circus, in the time of Tarquin, was already an important build-
ing. The second structure of this kind was the Circus Flaminius, and then
the circus of Flora, between the Quirinal and Pincian hills. The building
received its essential alteration, however, in the great circus of Julius Cesar.
It was extended in length so that it was 33 stadia long, and 400 feet broad.
It was surrounded by a canal of water 10 feet deep. The lower story had
stone; the upper, wooden seats. Three sides were appropriated to the spec-
tators, of which it accommodated 150,000. The fourth contained the inclo-
sures for the horses. In the historical division of this work we have treated
of the circus games, and there also (Division IV., p/. 14) the reader will find
illustrations of the various objects appertaining to it, with sketches of the
elevation, ground plan, and section of the circus of Nero. %

4. SEPpuLcHRAL AND Honorary Monuments. Monuments of honor were
either porticoes, single pillars, or triumphal arches. The porticoes were not
alone united with public buildings, but were often independent structures,
and very agreeable resorts under the beautiful and burning sky of Italy.
They were richly adorned, and statues, bas-reliefs, and paintings were placed
inthem. Garden retreats, groves, and fountains were often in the neighbor-
hood. Even at this period there were many such buildings, but there were
more under the emperors.

In the year 191 8.c., Amilius Lepidus and Atmilius Paulus built two
colonnades, one outside the gate Trigemina, on the Tiber, the other beyond
the gate Fontinalis, towards the field of Mars (Campus Martius), as far as
the altar of Mars. COneius Octavius erected a famous double colonnade in
honor of his triumph and the capture of Perseus in Samothrace. This colon-
nade, between the Flaminian circus and the theatre of Pompey, was magni-
ficently restored by Augustus. The colonnade which Metellus Macedonicus
built around the temple of Jupiter and Juno, is represented in elevation
in pl. 13, fig. 14, and the ground plan after the restoration of Augustus,
in fig. 15. Minutius, as proconsul, also built, from the booty of his vic-
tory over the Scordisci, a colonnade, which he named from himself, and
which attracted attention even under the emperors. Q. Lutatius Catulus
built one upon the Palatine hill, on occasion of his victory over the Cimbri,
close by the house of Cicero, after whose banishment it was destroyed
together with the house. Pompey also built a noble colonnade by his
theatre, with garden walks.

Memorial columns are also of considerable antiquity. The first was the
Columna rostrata, erected in honor of C. Duilius in the year 260 B.c., after
his naval victory over the Carthaginians. (See Division VI, pl. 2, jig.
25.) It was of white marble. The people erected a column of Numidian
marble, 20 feet high, to Julius Cesar, with the inscription, ‘To the Father
of his Country.” A colwmna rostrata, with anchors, was erected to Octavia-
nus Ceesar, in honor of his naval victories over Sextus Pompeius, on the sum-
mit of which stood the golden statue of the conqueror.

Triumphal arches were also honorary memorials. Upon these the statues
of the victors were placed. Lucius Stertinius, in the year 195 B.c., erected

ARCHITECTURE. 67

two such arches, with gilded statues, from the Spanish spoils, one upon the
Forum Boarium, the other near the great circus. Six years afterwards, Scipio
Africanus the elder built a similar one upon the Capitol; and Fabius Maxi-
mus, after his victory over the Allobrogi, the Fabian arch on the Via Sacra,
near the old Regia. More frequent and more magnificent were these arches
under the emperors, and under the head of the Empire we shall return to
this subject.

Ancient as is the custom of sepulchral monuments, we shall here mention
only the tomb of the Horatii, pl. 17, fig. 23°, plan; fig. 23°, elevation.
This tomb is situated near Albano, and is called the Tomb of the Horatii
and Curiatii, although some antiquarians reject the tradition, as it does not
strictly harmonize with the historical descriptions, exhibiting truncated cones
instead of pyramids. ‘They refer the tomb to the last days of the republic.
By this time, however, the use of splendid tombs was very common.
They were erected upon all the great highways; yet very few remain
except those at Pompeii. To these belongs the tomb of Scipio, which was
situated upon the Appian Way by the Porta Capena; later, however, under
Aurelius, it was included within the circuit of the city walls. In the year
1782, the subterranean portion was again disinterred. It seems to differ very
little from that of the catacombs, of which we have given a description and
a drawing in the historical part of this work. (See plates, Division IV., pl.
19, fg. 11.) The most important relic found in it was the sarcophagus of
Scipio Barbatus, who was consul in the year 297 B.c. Upon this sarcopha-
gus the oldest specimen of the Doric and Ionic order that we have in Rome
is grayed in relief. The most sumptuous, and in the important parts the
best preserved tomb of this time, is that of Cecilia Metella, the wife of Cras-
sus. Itis situated on the Appian Way, and consists of a round tower, which
is built upon a square substructure. The mass of the tower consists of
little square quarry stones, and externally it is neatly covered with huge
ashlers of travertine. Round the upper part runs a simple cornice mould-
ing, and underneath a frieze, adorned with heads of bulls and clusters
of fruit. Under that is the tablet with the inscription. An arched
entrance opens into the interior, which is contracted conically and arched
flatly, and contained a sarcophagus, which is now in the Farnese
palace.

5. Briers. The Romans, as we have already mentioned, were very
good hydraulic architects, and their bridges, which have descended to our
time, are remarkable not alone for their tasteful design and their fine style,
but for the quality of the material and their careful and exemplary finish in
the slightest details. We had already, in the description of the island of the
Tiber and the temple of A¢sculapius, opportunity of mentioning the two
bridges of Fabricius and Cestius, and gave there (pl. 17, jigs. 9-13) de-
tailed drawings of them. To these we now add the bridge of Amilius (pi.
17, jig. 14), at present known as the Ponte Molle. This bridge was also
called Pons Sublicius, Pons Herculis, Pons Lepidi, Pons Sacer, and was
the oldest originally wooden bridge of Rome, founded by Ancus Marcius, in
the year 638 B.c. It led from the Aventine into the valley below the Janicu-

68 ARCHITECTURE.

lum, and, falling into decay, was rebuilt of marble by the consul Avmilius
Lepidus, 32 years s.c. One hundred years later, it was injured by the
Tiber, and restored by Tiberius and by Antoninus Pius. But in the year
791 of the Christian era, it fell in entirely. Some of its piles are yet visible
in the Tiber. Jig. 15 represents a part of the Bridge of Senators. It led
from the Roman Forum towards the Janiculum, and was the first stone bridge
in Rome. It was built in the 127th year of our era, by Marcus Fulvius
Flaccus. It was 500 feet long, 40 feet broad, and was destroyed in the year
1598. Only three arches. remain, known ie the name of Ponte Sotto. |
Before its destruction it was ealled! Ponte Santa Maria Egiziaca.

C. The Period of the Emperors.

The present epoch embraces the history of architecture in Rome under
the Roman emperors, up to the decline of art under Constantine the Great.
The theatre of art is now mainly Rome and Rome alone. Rome is its cen-
tre. The chief structures were erected, and whatever was done in the pro-
vinces received its impulse and reward from the emperor. So long as the
empire was powerful, art maintained itself at the highest point. Its decline
dates from the two Antonines, and then is more striking in the spiritual
than physical regard. Colossal works yet arose, but no longer in the spirit
of the epochs of Augustus, Trajan, and Hadrian. The technicality of art
held its ground, but already the spirit was visibly declinmg. Of all the
greatness of the Augustan age, nothing but the appearance remained in that
of Constantine, and in nothing was decay so evident as in works of art.

We shall now proceed to mention the architectural enterprises of the
various emperors, and begin with

1. Aveustus. The battle of Actium, 31 years B. c., determined the univer-
sal dominion of Octavius Cesar, who assumed, later, the name of Augustus.
The Roman rule, enormously extended, could no longer exist as a republic.
A series of civil struggles preceded the momentous change, and showed that
weary mankind could rest and refresh itself only under the rule of one man.
Augustus exercised with moderation the power that had fallen to him, and
under him Rome enjoyed a repose and prosperity which were unknown to
the earlier Romans. During his reign of 43 years peace was disturbed only
at a distance, and there were few military troubles. Augustus improved
this peace and his great resources to adorn the metropolis, encouraging
all his friends to a similar occupation.

We have already mentioned the buildings erected before the empire by
Augustus and his friend M. Agrippa, his son-in-law and heir.

When Octavianus Cesar returned victorious from Egypt, 30 years B. c., the
senate and the people erected to him a gate of honor at Brundusium, where
ne landed, and a second upon the Roman forum. <A year afterwards he
dedicated the Curia Julia and the temple (the Heroon) of Julius Cesar.
Some hold the columns yet standing upon the Forum, which we, with
others, have attributed to the temple of Jupiter Stator, to be the remains of
this temple. Besides the Curia Julia the unfinished Basilica Julia was

ARCHITECTURE. 69

completed by Augustus, and as it was soon afterwards again destroyed by
fire, it was once more rebuilt and adorned with a chalcidicum. After Au-
gustus had erected a temple to Apollo upon the Palatine, inclosing a Greek
and Latin library, and a wooden stadium upon the field of Mars in the
Grecian style, he commenced the restoration of the old, falling temples; of
these restorations, if we may credit the Ancyranian inscription, there were
not less than eighty-two.

In the same year that Augustus built the stately temple of Apollo upon
the Palatine, he laid the foundation of a mausoleum for himself and his
family. It was built in the shape of a hill, upon a foundation of white mar-
ble, covered with evergreen trees, and upon the summit stood the statue of
the emperor. In the interior of this artificial hill were compartments and
chambers intended as burial-places for the household. The innermost of the
four circular walls of which the skeleton of the building was formed, as in
the gardens of Semiramis, is fallen, thereby discovering a round space large
enough to form a ring for modern bull-fights. Before the building was a
kind of propyleeum, in which hung brazen tablets inscribed with the memo-
rabilia of the emperor. These tablets have disappeared, but a copy of them
is preserved in Ancyra in Asia, which we have just mentioned as the An-
cyranian inscription. In the year 21 B.c. also took place the dedication of
the Temple of Jupiter Tonans, of which we have already spoken, and
which was raised upon the spot where the lightning struck a slave who was
bearing a light before the emperor.

The three remaining columns of this temple belong to the portico; but
they are too much laden with ornament for the Augustan age, and the re-
maining letters on the frieze, ES TIT U E R, belong to the word rest
twerunt, and indicate a reconstruction of the temple under Septimius Seve-
rus, who always joined his son’s name with his own, and hence the plural.
restetuerunt.

In the year 15 s.c. Augustus commenced one of his chief undertakings,
the temple of Quirinus upon the Quirinal. It had 76 Doric columns, and
as Augustus died afterwards in his 76th year it gave rise to a superstitious
feeling in connexion with it. Yet a Doric dipteros having 8 columns in
front and 15 in length, required this number of pillars, and was consequently
symmetrical, as our ground plan shows (pl. 15, fig. 9). In the year 12 B.c.
Augustus dedicated the theatre commenced by Julius Oxsar, but only then
completed, and which he called, in honor of the dead son of his sister Octa-
via, the theatre of Marcellus, of which there are still important remains.
The theatre contained 30,000 seats, and was consequently somewhat smaller
than that of Pompey, which held 40,000 spectators. In this theatre the use
of the dental ornament in the Doric entablature is remarkable, and does not
occur before. The diameter of the orchestra is 180 feet, 4 inches, and the
height of the wall 98 feet, 10 inches. Here are also the Doric half columns
which gave the suggestion for the Doric order of Vignola and Daviler
(pl. 23, fig. 2). Of the remains of the porch of Octavia, founded by
Augustus (for the protection, possibly, of the spectators in the neighboring

theatre of Marcellus from the rain), we have already spoken (p. 62).
69

70 ARCHITECTURE.

Augustus erected also two obelisks, which he had ordered to be brought
from Heliopolis in Egypt in the year 9 3B. c.; the one consecrated to
the sun and Osiris, in the Circus Maximus, in the midst of the spina, and
the other, executed under Sesostris, upon the Campus Martius. The mathe-
matician Manilius put them up, and as the obelisk of Sesostris was to serve
as a dial-plate, a stone pavement was laid around it, upon which the shadow
was indicated. Both obelisks still stand. Pope Sixtus V. took the one from
the circus and erected it upon the Piazza del Popolo. Pope Pius VI. di-

rected the architect Antinori to erect that from the Campus Martius upor

Monte Citorio. The hieroglyphics upon the first have been deciphered by
the famous archeologist Professor Seyfarth of Leipsie.

To the greater and more splendid works of Augustus belongs the forum
named from him, with the temple of Mars the Avenger which he built upon
it, but which must not be confounded with a kind of chapel to Mars the
bash which Augustus built upon the Capitoline hill, and in which the
Parthian trophies were deposited. We give a ground plan of this hypeethral
temple (pl. 13, jig. 7), of which 3 beautiful columns yet remain on the
right wing. Their diameter is 5 feet, 6 inches, but the leaves in the capital
have too little projection. A pilaster with convex capitals, some remains
of masonry of the roof, and the cornice, of which, however, the moulding is
gone, have come down to us.

Among the restorations of iinibrasii we must mention the temple of the
Capitoline Divinities, the theatre of Pompey, the Lupercal (shrine of Pan),
the temples of the Lares, of Minerva, of Juno Regina, and the vestibule of
the goddess Liberty upon the Aventine, as well as a great number of larger
or smaller water-works, naumachia, &c., &e.

Augustus not only adorned Rome with beautiful buildings himself, but
he exhorted his friends to do the same. Among the most important of
those which rose from his example and exhortation are the Septa Julia, built
by Menenius Agrippa, in which the popular assemblies according to races
were held; the porch of Neptune, in commemoration of naval triumphs;
the Baths, and the Pantheon.

The Pantheon, the most beautiful building in Rome, throwing out what
was added subsequently to Augustus, is the finest and best preserved monu-
ment of antiquity in the world. It was built under the republic, without
the exquisite portico, which was added by Augustus and Agrippa. 7. 17,
jig. 4, gives the view of the building deprived of its later and injurious ad-
ditions; jig. 5, the lateral section; jig. 6, the inner perspective; jig. 7,
the ground plan. PJ. 19, jig. 13, is the representation of a capital from
the portico, and jig. 21, a base from the portico. Agrippa dedicated this
temple to all the gods, especially, however, to Jupiter Ultor and Cybele.
Afterwards the portico was injured by lightning, but was restored under
Severus and Marcus Aurelius. Pope Boniface IV. consecrated the
temple as a Christian church. Urban VIII. elevated some columns
that had fallen, but, alas! took away the beautiful bronze ornaments,
and melted them into cannon, and into the tasteless altar of St. Peter’s;
and at last the two execrable towers were built upon the roof by

ARCHITECTURE. 71

Bernini. Clement IX. disfigured the portico by the railing, 14 feet high,
between the columns.

The chief building of the Pantheon forms a complete circle, whose dia-
meter is 153 feet, and 133 feet in the clear. The exterior has three
grand divisions, with freestone cornices. The foundation is of white
marble, the rest of the building is brick. Upon the chief wall rests the
dome, covered with lead, and on the outside diminishing stepwise to-
wards the apex. The height of the steps is 27 feet. The dome has at
top a round opening 373 feet wide, with a bronze cornice, the means
of illumination of the interior. The original facade, before the portico was
built, had 4 pillars, upon which rested a great gable, which is now partly
concealed by the gable of the portico. The colonnade added by Agrippa
consists of 16 smooth Corinthian columns 44 feet, 1 inch in height. Hight
of them stand in the front row (pl. 17, fig. 7). The corner columns are 4
feet, 8 inches in diameter, the middle 4 feet, 6 inches. The shafts of the
columns are sculptured of a single block of granite; the capitals, bases, and
the cornices are of white marble. The sides of the front and rear gables run
parallel, and the cornice of the gable fields rests on consoles. The tympa-
num had sculptures, probably in bronze relief. Under the portico in the
middle is the single door of the Pantheon. There is a bronze grating in the
upper part of the door to admit light into the interior of the edifice. There
are bronze rosettes in the little panels of the door. On its side are two large
niches built of brick covered with stucco, as high as the door (36 feet,
1% inches), in which formerly stood the statues of Augustus and Agrippa.
The latter is now in the palace Giustiniani in Venice. Agrippa’s ashes lay
in a fine sarcophagus which stood afterwards in one of the niches. It now
contains the body of Pope Clement XII., and stands in the church of St.
John Lateran.

The height of the interior of the Pantheon is equal to its diameter. There
are two great side arches, supported upon 4 of the 14 columns which support
the main cornice. One of these arches is in the further end, and under it
once stood the statue of Jupiter; the other springs over the entrance. Be-
sides these there are smaller chapels in the circumference of the interior ;
two form semicircles, the rest long quadrangles. Every chapel has pilasters
upon the side, before which stand Corinthian columns wrought of yellow-
veined marble, 3 feet, 4 inches in diameter, and 32 feet, 5} inches high.
The shafts are each sculptured out of a single block, and the flutings are
filled below with beads. Between the chapels stand eight altars. Each
altar is formed of 2 little Corinthian columns 44 inches through with their
entablature, cut in the style of the order which is still visible on the arch of
Constantine, with a gable over it. The gables are alternately semi-
circular and triangular, the whole apparently imitated from the niches of
the temples of Palmyra. The columns, partly of marble, partly of porphyry,
partly of polished granite, stand upon high plinths. Behind each altar
in the wall are empty semicircular chambers, which are repeated at every
story. Doors lead to the lower ones, steps to the middle, doors again to the
upper. These chambers serve for the saving of masonry, for the drying and

72 ARCHITECTURE.

airing of the walls, and for the diminishing of the pressure upon the foundation.
The inside of the walls is covered entirely with marble. One half of the height
consists of the dome and the other of the vertical wall, constructed partly of

brick vaults, and Yorming arches over the architrave of the lower columns. |

In the interior there are two dissimilar divisions; the under part consists
of the columns above described and of the arches that interrupt their
entablature. The upper part is a kind of upper story in which 14 openings,
with handsome mouldings, are pierced, which let the side light fall upon the

niches beneath. To interrupt the flatness of the surface there were formerly —

pilasters of porphyry, serpentine, and yellow marble placed against it, which
were removed by order of Pope Benedict XIV. and replaced by paintings.

The cupola contains 4 rows of 28 deep panels, upon whose ground there
were formerly bronze rosettes which Constantine IL. despatched with several
statues to Constantinople. But the ship was wrecked. In order to carry
off the rain that enters through the opening in the dome, the floor, which
is a mosaic of marble and other stones, inclines towards the centre where
there is an escape for the water, which flows into a branch of the Cloaca
Maxima and thence to the Tiber. When the Tiber rises, however, the floor
of the Pantheon is overflowed by the inundation.

Formerly the entablature of the portico was of brass, and the whole build-
ing was covered with gilded bronze plates in the form of tiles. Urban VIIL,
however, replaced the bronze beams with wood and the tiles with a
leaden roof, and melted the metal, as we have already stated. The baths of
Agrippa were situated immediately behind the Pantheon, and pl. 17,
jig. 7, shows a part of its ground plan. The ground plan of a Rotunda’on
the’ Appian way and that of one on the Via Prenestina, are precisely like
that of the Pantheon, although on a much smaller scale (pl. 13, jig. 11).

Among the other important buildings of Agrippa were a great aqueduct,
the colonnades of Europa, and the Diribitorium, which, however, he did
not complete. The latter building was used as a place of popular
assembly at elections, for the distribution of alms to the needy citizens and
of pay to the soldiers and was the lar gest building ever included under
one roof, for it had ae of 100 feet in length and 14 feet in thickness.
When the building fell into decay, no one would undertake its recon-
struction.

Besides Agrippa, other friends of Augustus distinguished themselves by
their buildings: Statilius Taurus, who built an amphitheatre, then the
only one in Rome; Marcius Philippus, who restored the temple of Hercules
and the Muses; Cornificius, who erected a temple to Diana; Asinius
Pollio, who founded the first public library in Rome, in the hall of freedom
built by him; Munatius Plancus, who restored the temple of Saturn, the
treasury of Rome; and Balbus, who built a stone theatre upon the Campus
Martius. Among these, too, must be named Tiberius, afterwards Emperor.
He restored the temple of Castor and Pollux, and the temple of Concordia
originally erected: by Furius Camillus. This temple (pl. 13, jig. 4,
elevation; fig. 5, plan), stood with its back to the Roman Forum, and
near the temple of Jupiter Tonans, of which three columns yet remain.

a
xo oe

ARCHITECTURE. 73

It was a prostylos with six Corinthian granite columns, with marble
capitals and bases; and there were two windows and a door on the long side.
Altogether the ground plan of this temple indicates a very peculiar
construction and different from all hitherto in use.

To this time, also, belongs the building of the renowned pyramid of
Cestius, and the so called Temple of Honor and Virtue above the fountain
of Egeria, and termed by some also a temple of Bacchus and the Muses.
#1. 15, fig. 12, shows the elevation, and jig. 13 the longitudinal section
of this temple, which is now the Church of St. Urban alla Caffarella.
This structure has in front 4 columns, separated from each other by the
space of 3} diameters. They are of the Corinthian style, with imperfect
capitals, 2 feet 4 inches in diameter, 22 feet high, supporting a
miserable brick wall with a gable at the top. The portico is now walled up,
and arranged with windows and buttresses. The ceiling of the interior is a
cylindrical vault, covered with stucco and disposed in octagonal panels.
It rests upon a finely ornamented frieze, and the brick walls of the inside
are divided by pilasters. For the rest, it seems as if the temple, as it now
stands, had been built of ancient materials, but was not itself of ancient
times.

Thus far we have only considered the architecture of the period in the
city. We turn now to the works outside the city.

First we refer to Tivoli, the charm of whose landscape made it much
sought as a country retreat. Here were the country seats of the illustrious
Romans, and there yet exist considerable traces of the villa of Meecenas.
Quinctilius Varro, too, had here a villa of which some foundation walls and
vaults yet remain. Here were the villas of Horace and Propertius, and
there are relics of the superb country house of Plautius still to be seen. In
the town itself there are two temples built next each other above the falls
of the river Anio. Theone is a round peripteros of which the greater
number of columns, and the walls of the cella, with the door and one of the
windows, as well as the substructure, remain. This temple is supposed to
have been sacred to Vesta, and pl. 16, figs. 9 and 11, give general views of
it. Lg. 10 gives a section, and jig. 12 the ground plan. It is in the
Corinthian style, and the columns, whose bases are seen in pl. 19, fig. 19,
are of travertine covered with stucco. The cella is built of volcanic
stone in irregular work (opus incertum, p. 24). The other standing
by it is a little prostylos pseudoperipteros in the Ionic style, and is regarded
as a temple of the Tiburtine Sybil, contemporaneous in structure with the
other. PJ. 16, fig. 38, gives its ground plan. Of the great temple of the
Tiber, consecrated to Hercules, and in whose halls Augustus often sat in
judgment, there are some remains in the chief church of the town. Of the
antiquities of Przeneste there are only a few remains of the Forum and of
the basilica belonging to it.

In Cori, the old Cora, an ancient mountain town in Latium, there are the
remains of two temples besides those of the Cyclopean walls. Of the one
dedicated to the Dioscuri there yet exist two remarkable Corinthian
columns; of the other, known under the name of the Temple of Hercules,

74 ARCHITECTURE.

of which we have given the ground plan, pl. 16, fig. 24, the columns of the -
portico, with the entablature and the door, and a part of the cella, are yet
visible. The style is Doric, but its rules are not sufficiently followed to
allow the temple to be quoted as a good example of that style.

In Pozzuoli the chief church is built upon the ruins of a temple of which
several Corinthian columns remain. Near the city there are also the ruins
of a round temple which was a monopteros, and dedicated to Jupiter
Serapis. 7. 18, jig. 99, shows the ground plan. The bases of the 16
pillars of the temple are yet standing, and three of the so called Cipollino ©
marble columns of the quadrangular peribolus which surrounded the temple.
There are also at Gaeta the ruins of the monument of Munatius Plancus,
and at Naples the Tomb of Virgil and ruins of the temple of the
Dioscuri.

Turning towards upper Italy we find besides the ruins of the bridges and
of the arch of Augustus at Norni, a beautiful temple of Minerva in Assisi,
now the church Maria della Minerva. It is asix columned prostylos of the
Corinthian style, of which pl. 16, fig. 21, gives the ground plan. In Fano,
the old Finestri, Vitruvius built a characteristic basilica, of which
unhappily there are no remains, and which cannot be drawn after his
description (22b. v. cap. 1), although Barbaro, Canina, Marini, and others
have attempted it.

In Nismes, a provincial town of Augustus, there is, among other remains,
a well preserved temple, dedicated by Augustus to the two sons of M.
Agrippa, Caius and Lucius. This temple, of which pl. 15, jig. 10, gives a
general view, and jig. 11 the ground plan, is a prostylos pseudoperipteros,
with six columns in front and: half columns around the cella. The building
is very handsome, of the Corinthian style, and now known under the name
Maison Quarrée. At the foot of the Alps, near Torbia, there is the nucleus
of a monument which was dedicated to Augustus, and known as the
Tropheon of Augustus. From Pliny’s description, Canina undertook
its restoration, of which pl. 18, jig. 8, gives the elevation, and jig. 9, the
ground plan.

By means of Roman conquests a better knowledge of art began now to
diffuse itself over the countries adjacent to the Danube and the Rhine.
Formerly those lands had neither cities nor boroughs. Each family lived
alone on its own premises, and building with brick or quarried stone was
equally unknown. Under Augustus, however, things assumed another
aspect, and cities and villages arose along the Danube and the Rhine, and
many important hydraulic works were undertaken. It is uncertain how far
the limits of the Romans extended beyond the Rhine, and what was the
precise direction of the stake-ditches that separated the Roman possessions
from free Germany. Probably Nuremberg lay within the line, for its
castle tower seems to be altogether Roman. Many cities, especially
smaller ones, such as Rottweil and Villingen, indicate in their plans the
form of the Roman camp with remains of towers and walls. Of Roman
buildings, however, there are very few except at Treves and the Baths
of Badenweiler; yet recently many more have been brought to light.

ARCHITECTURE. 75

Further down the Danube two triumphal arches were erected in honor of
Tiberius, remains of one of which exist at St. Petronell in lower Austria
At Pola in Istria there are, among other remains of which we shall hereafter
speak, those of a temple, of which pl. 16, fig. 25, gives the ground plan.
It was a prostylos of the Corinthian order with plain columns, and, accord-
ing to the inscription upon the architrave, dedicated to the goddess Roma,
and to Augustus. The columns are 2 feet, 7} inches diameter, and 27 feet, 5
inches high.

2. Trsertus. As long as Augustus lived and Livia had some influence
upon the dark mind of her son, he did not show himself indifferent to the
higher aims of art. As ruler, however, he completed no fine building in
Rome; and the single one which he undertook, the Temple of Augustus, he
left uncompleted during his reign of 25 years, so that it was only first
dedicated under Caligula. On the other hand he completed many restora-
tions commenced by Augustus, or of buildings which had been burned.
In the year 23 3. c., Tiberius, at the instigation of Sejanus, caused the
Pretorian Camp to be built for the Body Guard, which measure, by the
tumultuous spirit of the Pretorians inclining them constantly to revolt,
proved dangerous to the Emperors. There exist some remains of this
structure which Consfantine destroyed. Among the buildings outside Rome
we mention only the unfortunate theatre at Fideneenear Rome. The archi-
tect Attilins, a freedman, had undertaken to build a wooden theatre in
which spectacles should be exhibited for money. The Theatre fell during a
representation, and injured 30,000 men, of whom, according to Suetonius,
20,000 died.

3. CaziguLta. The reign of this emperor was very short, but much too
long for the happiness of mankind. Little was accomplished in building,
for the extravagant plans of the emperor were left half finished. Under
him, however, the temple of Augustus, commenced by Tiberius in Rome,
was completed, and the restoration of the theatre of Pompey. The Palatine
house, the usual residence of the emperors, was extended to the great
Forum, so that the temple of Castor and Pollux formed the vestibule.
Pi. 11, fig. 7, gives the general view, jig. 8, the ground plan of this temple.
It was of the Corinthian order, and had 8 granite columns in front and 13
on the sides. The arrangement of the portico and of the pronaos is peculiar.
In this temple, placing himself between the heavenly twins, the emperor
received divine honors as Jupiter Latiaris. He built an especial temple to
his own divinity, in which stood his statue, which was daily clothed as the
emperor was dressed that day.

He commenced also a great aqueduct, which was afterwards com-
‘ pleted by Claudius. The building of an amphitheatre upon the Campus
Martius was soon relinquished. He began to build a circus upon
the Vatican. He proposed to restore the temple of Apollo Didymeus
at Miletus, and to cut through the isthmus of Corinth; but these
plans were no more realized than that of building a city upon the highest
pass of the Alps.

4. Cravptus. The buildings of this emperor are more distinguished for their
75

-—- weer

76 ARCHITECTURE.

size and usefulness than for their number. Among them the Port of Ostia,
the draining of the Fucinian lake, and the completion of the aqueduct com-
menced by Caligula, are to be mentioned. The building of the harbor of
Ostia was, even at that time of enormous expenditures, one of the most
enormous. <A huge basin was hollowed out of the solid earth and surrounded
by a wall of freestone. This was connected by a canal with the sea and
with the Tiber, and at last an outer harbor was built into the sea by means
of two piers. In order to protect the harbor from the sand and the piers
from the waves, an artificial island was built, a large vessel loaded with sand |
and stone being sunk in the sea. Upon this island a lighthouse was
erected. At this time, the temple of Jupiter Patulcius of Ostia, which had
been struck by lightning in the year 200 B. c., was restored. PJ. 16, fig. 20,
gives the ground plan of this temple, of which there are very few remains ;
sufficient, however, to show that it was of the Corinthian order and very
richly ornamented. The cornice is remarkable, and in the interior the
cella had Corinthian pilasters with very ornate capitals. The aqueduct,
mentioned before, was 184 miles long, 144 of which were subterranean. This
was united in the neighborhood of Rome with a second, 248 miles long,
partly subterraneous, partly resting upon arches and substructures, leading
from the Anio, whose troubled waters were first clarified in a peculiar reser-
voir. The united aqueduct extended then upon arches, some 109 feet
in height, to the walls of Rome. 30,000 men labored for 11 years upon
the draining of the Fucinian lake, and it was designed to use the area of the
lake for cultivation. When the canal was ended, a great naval battle took
place upon the lake. Then the Emperor and the people repaired to a great
banquet held upon a scaffolding erected in the lake. The sluices were
opened, and before the banquet was ended the lake was drained. After-
wards the sluices became stopped up by neglect, and the lake exists at the
present day as under Claudius, but it would cost scarcely half a million to
restore the old work completely. In the reign of Claudius also, that the
soldiers might not be idle, they dug a canal 92 miles long between the
Meuse and the Rhine.

5. Nero. Under this emperor the art of building was carried to a point
hitherto unattained, yet posterity can show no traces of the works of this
emperor. His first building was a wooden amphitheatre upon the Campus
Martius, and in the year 62 a. p. the emperor erected the gymnasium
called after him, and the adjacent baths, now more generally known as the
Alexandrinian baths, as Alexander Severus restored them. Never, how-
ever, was the zeal for building so intense as with Nero, who, in order to
obtain the space adequate to his house, and at the same time to rebuild the
city more magnificently, caused it tobeset onfire. Of the 14 districts of the ,
city three were entirely destroyed, and seven were more or less injured.
The fire raged nine days, and immense pecuniary loss as well as the de-
struction of treasures of art was the consequence. For the rebuilding the
emperor removed the rubbish, and made ample indemnification, but intro-
duced a very severe building law. The rubbish was devoted to filling
up the swamps of Ostia; and Monte Testaccio, which yet remains, is a rubbish

ARCHITECTURE. 77

hill of this period. The ships in port were obliged to load with the rubbisu
as a return freight. To this period also belongs the beginning of the so-
called golden house of Nero, of which Severus and Celer were the architect
and builder. It is difficult to form a just idea of the magnificence of this
house, which embraced corn fields, meadows, vineyards, forests, and fish
ponds, and in which stood the colossal iron statue of Nero 120 feet high.
The interior of the building glowed with gold and precious stones, and
there were banqueting halls, with ivory tables wound with flowers, and
with ceilings pierced like sieves, in order to shower odors upon the guests.
When Nero dedicated the completed house he said, “ That he had at length
a home fit for a human being to live in.” The statuary Zenodorus cast the
colossus of Nero.

With Nero ended the Augustan family, and the emperors Galba, Otho,
and Vitellius reigned too short a time to complete any important works.
So much the more, however, was accomplished under the three next
emperors of the family of Flavius.

6. Vuspastan. The first great undertaking of this emperor in building was
the often-projected re-construction of the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, which
was once more burned, and this time in the struggles of the followers of
Vitellius with those of Flavius. Vespasian commenced the work with great zeal.
He put his own hand to the work, in order to encourage the laborers, and
the corner-stone was laid with great pomp. For the rest, according to the
decrees of the augurs the new temple should in no manner differ from the
old, except in the little greater height of the columns. But the building
was not destined to remain a long time, for it was again burned under Titus,
and, as we shall presently see, was rebuilt by Domitian. The golden house
of Nero was for the greater part destroyed, and the remainder much changed.
A second important building was the temple of Peace, whose form, how-
ever, differed materially from that formerly in use. According to the
remains it was long in form, with a wide nave in the middle supported by
eight Corinthian marble columns 5 feet, 8 inches, 3 lines in thickness, and about
57 feet, 1Linches high. Atthe sides were three deep spaces like chapels, and
in the front-wall of the great aisle was the large niche for the temple
statue. The temple, besides its chief entrance from the Coliseum, had also
aside passage towards the modern street. We find more of the basilica
form in this temple, and to such an extent, that these remains are sometimes
called the Basilica of Constantine, which however they are not. A very
beautiful architrave soffit of this temple is given in pl. 19, fig.27. Bramante,
in his first plan of St. Peter’s, placed the Pantheon upon the Temple of Peace.

In the interior of this temple rare works of art, and valuable objects of
all kinds, even the state treasury and the money of private individuals were
kept, sothat when it was burned in the time of Commodus the loss was
incalculable. One of the colossal columns yet remains, and stands upon
the place Santa Maria Maggiore. The height of the temple from the floor
to the top of the arch was 112 feet, and this is probably the first instance
of the great cross arch. This temple is also called the Temple of the Ceesars,

from which we represent a capital (jig. 11).
17

78 ARCHITECTURE.

In the year 72 a. p. Vespasian began the colossal amphitheatre of Flavian,
known by the name of the Coliseum, of which we have given a general view
and section in pl. 14, fig. 2, and in fig. 8, the half ground plan. The build-
ing was completed by Titus, and occupied only afew years. The ground
shape of this theatre is elliptical. The longer diameter is more than 600 feet,
the shorter more than 500. Eighty small arcades on the circumference led to
two galleries on the ground floor, parallel with the outer circumference. The
public passed by 24 passages which led to the first places, into two other
concentric galleries, before which were the podia for the senators, vestals, —
ambassadors, &c. and behind which were the seats for the knights. These
places occupied the first twelve rows of seats, and those of the knights the
next 17. The populace ascended to the third story upon the numerous stair-
cases of the various galleries, and in the fourth or highest story sat the
freedmen, servants, and women of pleasure. They reached their places by
a staircase over the arches of the gallery of the second story. There were
broad entrances from the sides and ends of the area to the first places, and
to the box of the emperor, which was distinguished by an elaborate projec-
tion. The arrangements for seats formed a ring of 60 feet in thickness, and
provided accommodation for 87,000 people. The area left in the centre served
for the combats of beasts and gladiators, &c. The exterior ornament con-
sisted of three tiers of 80 arcades, the first Doric, the second Ionic, the third
Corinthian. The upper story formed an attic with Corinthian pilasters
and 40 windows. Between every two pilasters were three consoles, conse-
quently 240 in all, each one of which bore a bronze support which passed
through the cornice, and which altogether held the pulleys upon which the
velarium was drawn. In the various arcades stood statues, chariots, &c.
Plate 14 jig. 4, shows a section of the amphitheatre at Verona, and jig. 5
that of the amphitheatre of Nismes, from a comparison with which it
will be seen how gigantic a building the Coliseum was. The amphitheatre
of Nismes, which was oval, was somewhat over 400 feet in length, and over
300 feet in breadth.

Besides architectural works Vespasian did much for the highways, and
the Flaminian way, which embraces an archway through the rock Petra per-
tusa (Pierre pertuis of modern times) 1000 feet long, was completed the
year of his death.

7. Trrus. During the reign of this emperor more was destroyed than was
rebuilt. For, in the 79th year of our era, occurred the memorable eruption
of Vesuvius, which laid waste the surrounding country, and shook the
entire city, and shortly after a fire broke out in Rome that destroyed the
finest and fairest part of the city, the buildings of Nero in the Campus
Martius, the Temple of Isis, the Baths, &c., and also injured the Pantheon,
and the Porch of Octavia. It was not until his successor that the loss
was replaced.

As the destruction of the Campanian cities occurred in the reign of Titus,
this seems the proper place to speak of the present condition of the excavated
towns of Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Stabize. Ofthe last very little has been
hitherto discovered. In Herculaneum the excavation was undertaken with

ARCHITECTURE. 79

zeal and diligence, and the result was the discovery of a great mass of antiquities
ofall kinds. Butas the city was buried under a great accumulation of lava and
a new city was built over it, the work could only advance as in a mine, by
shafts, and for this reason the work is nearly discontinued, because it required
a disproportionate sum of money to forward it. The theatre has been entirely
laid bare, and it is evident from that that Herculaneum was by no means
a little provincial town. This theatre offers the best study of the theatre-
building of the ancients.

The excavation of Pompeii was much easier and more convenient, for
there was no overflow of lava here, and the town hes buried only under
ashes and little stones, a few feet beneath a vineyard. Here buildings,
streets, and places have been restored to the light, and therefore all available
funds are devoted to the excavation, which constantly progresses with more
or less diligence, so that a very tolerable conception of the structure and
arrangement ‘of an ancient city is now possible. The town, although
not small, was only a provincial town of the third degree, but had all the
buildings necessary to the business and amusement of a city, except that
they are on a smaller scale than those of which we find traces in the large
cities. The private houses also are lower and smaller than in a great town.
They are of one story only, and evidently adapted to a single family. Only
a very few of the recovered houses have two stories arranged with terraces.

A wanderer through the city discovers many buildings, chiefly public
buildings, which at the time of the volcanic eruption were in process of
building, and Tacitus relates that Pompeii was almost destroyed by an
earthquake a little before its final catastrophe. According to Seneca, this
event preceded the final one by sixteen years, and hence we find most of
the private houses restored, but with only one story to provide against
similar misfortunes. The rebuilding of the public edifices progressed more
slowly, yet the amphitheatre was entirely completed, although the other
’ theatres and the forum with its adjacent buildings were not so. Few of the
streets are broad enough to allow the passage of a carriage, but they are
well paved, and have elevated side walks. At the corners of the streets are
fountains. Quite as carefully paved and provided with side walks are the
streets outside the city, and upon these streets were the family sepulchral
monuments. We have treated of the city walls of Pompeii, illustrating
them in detail under the head of Military Sciences (Fortification) ; see Plates,
Division V., pl. 43, jigs.10-15. The sole remaining gate has three entrances;
the middle one for carriages, and one on each side for foot passengers.

The dwelling houses are built together, but without communication with
each other, and the main walls in common. Upon entering you pass into a
court, small or large, generally surrounded by a colonnade, and with the
sleeping rooms, sitting rooms, and kitchen opening upon it. It is all small
but tasteful, with pavements of marble and mosaic. The walls and columns
are covered with a coating of chalk and marble dust, smooth as glass, with a
surface colored in fresco, upon which are laid the water colors. When
treating of the Fine Arts we shall return to these wall paintings. In two
bakeries the ovens are yet standing ; they were heated from below.

80 ARCHITECTURE.

Of the public buildings the amphitheatre is the most striking. It could —

easily accommodate 12,000 men, and the rows of seats are made of volcanic
tufa. Of the two theatres that lay near each other, one was covered and
served as an odeon; the large one was in process of building. The steps of
white marble were not all placed, and the wall work of the stage was not yet
plastered. The forum was in the same incomplete state, and was to have
had two colonnades one above the other. The pedestals of the statues, the
equestrian also, were ready, but there were no statues. On the long side

of the forum were three small buildings almost like basilicas, destined for

the sessions of the municipality. On the opposite side was the euria with
the archives, and a kind of pulpit standing in the open air. Here also was
the comitium, where the magisterial electoral assemblies were held.

The administration of public affairs must not go on without the close
superintendence of the gods, and hence there was no want of temples in the
vicinity of the forum. In the neighborhood, and only separated by the
street from the comitium, lay a long court surrounded with walls, on the
side of which ran a colonnade. In the midst of the court upon a lofty flight
of steps a small temple, whose ground plan, pi. 16, fig. 37, shows that it was
a prostylos hypeethros. This temple was dedicated to Jupiter, as the frag-
ment of a very beautiful statue of Jupiter found in the vicinity leads us to
suspect. Before the temple stands a large sacrificial altar. This temple

was not fully restored, yet there were beautiful paintings on the wall. Upon ~

the opposite side of the forum were two small temples, one dedicated to
Venus, the other to Fortuna. Both were of the Corinthian order, and we
give the ground plan of the temple of Fortuna, pl. 16, jig. 28. Near the
forum was the hospital of Augustus, in the court of which was a round or
rather polygonal monopteros dedicated to Augustus. PU. 13, 7g. 10, shows the
ground plan of this little temple. We must finally mention three temples,
or rather chapels, which stood tolerably near one of the long sides of the
forum. The most important is the temple of Aisculapius (pl. 16, fig. 31,
shows the ground plan), which is hemmed in by other buildings, but has a
porch with two columns towards the street. The temple itself is a Doric
prostylos with four columns in front, and a fine sacrificial altar stands before
it. The chapel of Isis (jig. 30) stands with the long side towards the street,
from which it is separated by the walls of the porch. A colonnade of the
Doric order surrounds the porch, in the corner of which stands a little
building destined for the use of those who had charge of the temple, and
who took care that no improper person penetrated to the mysteries of the
goddess. Others suppose this small building to have been designed for
beasts, as was the custom in all Egyptian temples. Here the Ibis might
have been kept, a bird sacred to Isis. This bird is an important figure in
two paintings representing the religious habits of the Egyptians, which
were taken from the walls of this temple of Isis. The sacrificial offerings
might have been kept there, which were brought and consumed upon the
platform by the ibis, and with which a kind of augury was connected. In
the court itself there were several altars, and the temple is a prostylos of
four columns, and the middle space between the columns is the largest, as
80

ARCHITECTURE. 81

thence the staircase led to the upper part of the building. The temple has
an opisthodomos in the interior, and two wings with paintings.

The chapel of Mercury (jig. 29) forms no rectangle, as the street runs
slantingly against the long side, and the short sides are parallel with the
street. The temple itself has a fore-court inclosed by walls adorned with
pilasters and a colonnade in front, and is a Corinthian prostylos with four
columns, standing upon a high substructure accessible from the rear. In
the court stands a large sacrificial altar. The columns of all the temples
hitherto mentioned are fluted and very tastefully adorned.

To this brief survey of the ancient buildings in Pompeii, we add some
general remarks upon the style there prevalent. In technical architecture
there is little worthy of note. The walls, even of the largest buildings, are
mostly of quarry stone, seldom of brick, and scarcely at all of freestone.
Often the columns are of mason work, sometimes of great blocks of limestone,
which is quarried in the neighborhood, and sometimes of marble, which is,
however, oftener used for doorframes, thresholds, facing of the walls and
floors. The rough cast is very carefully made and smoothed. The walls are
mostly painted. The roofs are generally beam: arches rarely occur. There
are not many specimens of the more elaborate style of architecture; the
buildings are generally simple. Excepting the temples the columns are
almost all Doric or Tuscan. The only ornaments that occur are parts of the
marble pilasters carved with winding plants and insects of remarkable
execution.

We return to Rome and to the works of the successor of Titus.

8. Domitian. This unworthy brother of Titus busied himself a great deal
with building, and restored almost all the buildings that had suffered by the
fire under Titus. Among these was the temple of the Capitoline gods.
This temple, which Domitian erected with great magnificence, was based
upon a quadrangular substructure of freestone, with truncated corners, upon
the Capitoline hill, and this octagonal platform (pl. 15, jig. 7) is surrounded
by a high wall, on the inside of which statues and columns were erected.
Towards the south was a Corinthian portico of eight columns in two rows,
closed behind by four great pillars, forming three passages, and to which was
joined in the interior of the vestibule a back portico of four smooth Corinthian
columns. Near the steps of the platform were two smaller temples, the
object of which is unknown. Upon the platform itself, arose, upon an
elevation of three steps, the temple of the Capitoline divinities, of a peculiar
arrangement. It was properly an immense hall of columns with a back
wall, and under the roof of this hall lay, towards the rear, the temples of
Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, which had walls in common, and of which the
temple of Jupiter Capitolinus was the middle one (jig.6). The hall had six
Corinthian columns of Pentelican marble, which were brought, already
sculptured, from Athens. They were very beautifully proportioned, but it
had been forgotten that, owing to the unusual columnar distances of the
Capitoline (84, 5, and 7 diameters) the columns should have been larger,
so that when they were erected they seemed scant. The hall had in front
three rows of columns, one behind the other, which corresponded in columnar

ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOPADIA.—VOL, IY. 6 81

82 ARCHITECTURE.

distances with the temples lying behind. Then came a fourth row in the
line of the ante of Jupiter’s temple, a fifth in that of the antee of the temples
of Juno and Minerva, and on each side another column, and finally the
corner pillars of the rear wall.

The temple of Jupiter had, inside, double tiers of columns, twelve below
and six above, or a hypeethral order. Along the side walls were, on the
outside, auxiliary altars; and upon the platform, on the outside of the hall,
several pedestals with groups of sculptures and two little temples or chapels,
the one four-sided, the other round. How great the splendor of this structure —
must have been may be surmised from the fact that the gilding alone cost
more than 12,000 Attic talents (about twenty millions of dollars), as
Plutarch, se ee and Martial assure us.

be this, Baaiien built a Stadium, an Odeon, and a Naumachia, for
which a lake was formed from the Tiber and circularly walled. We have
treated this building among the Naval Sciences, and have given a repre-
sentation of it in Plates, Division VI. pl. 2, fig. 12. Domitian also enlarged
the temple of Jupiter, built by Livia, the wife of Augustus, in Forli, or the old
Forum Livii on the Amilian way, of which we have given the ground plan
in pl. 15, fig. 15, and which forms a Corinthian amphiprostylos peripteros,
with six columns in front and 11 at the sides, entirely in the old Greek style.

To the great works of Domitian belongs the plan of a great Forum with
the temple of Minervaand alittle temple of Janus. This forum was finished,
however, by his successor, Nerva, and is thence called from him. It is known
also, however, as the Forum of Domitian; or, from the temple of Minerva,
Forum Palladium; or, because it was a thoroughfare, Forum Transitorium
or Pervium. Pl. 13, fig. 17, gives the ground plan, and jig. 16 the lateral
section with a view of the temple of Minerva. The Forum was protected
upon both sides with a wall crowned with an attic and adorned with
Corinthian columns. The front side forms a fivefold passage which, on the
inside, has.a portico with four columns.

The rear side includes the temple of Minerva, and thesis were arched
gateways upon both sides. There are still remains a the walls and columns,
and also of the reliefs of the attic, in which Minerva was represented instruct-
ing virgins in female tasks. The temple of Minerva was a beautiful Corin-
thian prostylos with six white marble columns in front; the cella, behind,
was semicircularly closed, and on the long side-walls there were columns
with a richly ornamented frieze. The little temple of Janus was a singular
building, of which the form may yet be seen in the middle of the Forum.
It was completely quadrate, and had on each side four high Corinthian
columns whose middle distances were, however, much wider than those
on the sides. These twelve columns supported a rich entablature, with
an attic which formed a platform upon which stood a bust of Janus
with four heads. This entire structure, however, was only a canopy
over the temple proper, which was inclosed in walls only half as high
as the eight columns between which they stood. These walls sup-
ported a cornice and attic, which again formed a platform under the
before-mentioned canopy. On each side between the middle columns

ARCHITECTURE. 83

was a door opening into a portico of two little Corinthian columns with a
gable over them, whose roof rested against the attic.

The triumphal arches and arches of honor were among the architectural
works that rose to prominence under the government of Domitian. He
erected many of them in all parts of the city, and adorned them very richly.
To this time, also, belongs a triumphal arch decreed by the senate and
Roman people to Titus on occasion of his taking Jerusalem. The greater
part of this work yet remains, and p/. 18, jig. 17, gives a view of it; jig. 18,
its ground plan. That this arch was erected after the death of Titus appears
from the inscription which calls the emperor “the deified;” and the
middle of the spring of the arch is sculptured in half raised work with his
apotheosis, where he sits upon an eagle. This bas-relief, and above all the
sculptures of this arch, indicate an exquisite style; but the architecture is
less praiseworthy, overloaded as it is with ornament. This arch is the
most ancient monument in the composite style, on which over the usual
Corinthian capital the Ionic volutes appear. Of this time also is the no less
simple than beautiful triumphal arch upon the bridge of Santonum, the
modern Xaintes on the Charente in France, where there are many other
Roman remains: pl. 17, fig. 16, a and 0, give the general view and ground
plan of this arch. Whether also the arch of Gabius in Verona, near Castello
Vecchio, which we have represented in elevation and ground plan, pi. 17,
jig. 17 @ and 6, belongs to this or a later period, perhaps that of the
emperor Gallienus, which its mediocre architecture induces us to suspect,
must remain uncertain, as neither the family of Gabius nor the name of the
architect L. Vitruvius Cerdo is mentioned elsewhere. We must also
mention here a very richly adorned triumphal arch which was erected in
honor of Marius in Arausio, the modern Orange in the department of
Vaucluse in France, of which pl. 18, fig. 15, gives the general view, and
jig. 16, the ground plan. The arrangement of the gables upon the sides,
and of the sculptured panels between the four gables, is peculiar. The
sculptures are neatly done and in a good style. Arausio is distinguished for
its antiquities, particularly for its amphitheatre, the only entire one remain-
ing in Europe. There was formerly a little hamlet in the interior of this
building, which the Department of Vaucluse purchased and removed, and
left the theatre unincumbered. ‘The arch of Augustus at Pola (jig. 20,
general view, jig. 21, ground plan) is remarkable for a simply beautiful form,
and was built either under Domitian or his predecessor.

But Domitian did not lavish the wealth of his kingdom only upon public
buildings. He did much for his private edifices, and especially for the
Capitoline house and the villain Albano. The Basilica was adorned with
great splendor. The rarest stones were used; the richest ornaments were
everywhere lavished so that even the smallest architrave soffits were
garnished with costly fillings (pl. 19, jig. 28). The hall was arched with
unusual loftiness and represented the starry heavens. Domitian expended
no less upon his estate in Albano, where he gave great plays, and even
invited the whole senate thither. The ruins of this villa are yet visible

between castle Gondolfo and the lake of Albano, and there are yet very
83

84 ARCHITECTURE.

beautiful remains of the various orders, among others the fine Doric order _
of which jig. 4 shows the capital, and which, to all appearance, served
Vignola afterwards as the type of his Roman Doric style. We shall return
to this order. |

9. Nerva. After the long peaceful reign of Augustus which was so foster-
ing to the development of art, the palmiest art-days of the Roman empire
were those which fell in the reigns of Nerva to Commodus, the unworthy
son of Marcus Aurelius, that is from the year 96 to 180 of the Christian
era; and art took in this time its highest sweep, to fall so much the more
quickly. Nerva was too old when he ascended the throne, and reigned too
short a time to complete any important edifices, and we have already
spoken of the completion and dedication of the Forum begun by Domitian.

10. Trasan. Although no buildings illustrated the first years of Trajan’s
reign, yet they increased afterwards so rapidly that Constantine the Great
was accustomed to call Trajan the wall plant (Herba parietaria), because his
name was so universally engraved upon the buildings he had erected.
Trajan’s first great work was the enlargement of the Circus Maximus, which
then held 260,000 spectators, but afterwards, according to Publius Victor,
could contain 385,000 people. Trajan wished that the Roman people should
have place in the circus, and he extended the circus, which was then 41
stadia (2300 paces) long, that he might increase the number of seats.
Other important buildings were the Baths and the Odeon, of which
Apollodorus was the architect. New temples and halls were not built in
his reign, and his works of this kind were limited to restorations.

Trajan’s greatest work in the city was the forum, named from him, a work
which has always excited universal wonder. The great triumphal column
erected to the emperor by the senate and the people, yet remains, and
recently the ground around it has been excavated, and a great number of
granite pillars as well as fragments of statuary and architectural details have
been brought to light, and again erected upon their old sites. But in
this excavation the whole extent of the old forum has not been revealed, and
remains still undetermined. In order to obtain the requisite space, Trajan
had a part of the Quirinal hill removed and the space levelled as deep as
the height of the column in the middle of the forum. The buildings which
adorned this forum, were the column in its midst, the Basilica Ulpia, the
Libraries, the Triumphal Arches, the Temple of Trajan, and the Colonnades
leading directly across the place.

Like all the Roman forums, it was a long quadrangle. The column is a
magnificent relic of Roman greatness. Pl. 18, figs. 24 to 30, are devoted
to its representation; jig. 24 gives the general view, jig. 28 is the bronze
statue of the emperor, which stood upon the summit, where now that of the
Apostle Peter stands (23 feet in height); fig. 25, is the section of the column
with the staircase; jig. 26, is a horizontal section through the founda-
tion; jig. 27, the same through the shaft; fig. 29, is a Roman coin, upon
which the column is represented; jig. 30, a perspective view with Trajan’s
Temple to the right. Including base and capital the column is 92
feet high, the substructure on which it rests is 17 feet. high, and the round

ARCHITECTURE. 85

support for the statue is 13 feet high, so that the height of the whole monu-
ment with the statue is 145 feet. In the interior there are 185 steps; the
staircase is illuminated by holes cut in the circumference, expanding inwards.

The lower diameter of the column is a little over 11, and the upper
10 feet. It is constructed of huge blocks of white marble, which were
originally united by brass clamps. Every block fills out the full circle of
the column, and the steps are wrought into them, which form the winding
staircase. The square foundation is composed of similar masses, with the
door on the south side, from which the steps conveniently wind. Upon the
flat surface of the capital is a spacious walk around the base that supports
the statue.

The sides of the foundation are garnished with a beautiful top cornice and
base moulding raised flat, adorned with weapons of war; the torus or bolster
of the Doric base forms a laurel wreath. Around the shaft of the column
the sculptures ascend to the summit and present the wars of Trajan with the
Dacians. In proportion to the height and its distance from the spectator, the
upper figures are increased in size according to optical laws. Notwithstanding
this, from the good arrangement of its reduction, the effect of the shaft is very
pleasing. Theunpleasing partis the consideration of details. The execution,
although skilful, is studied only with great trouble because the eye is wearied
by the increasing distance, and the examiner, in contemplating the column,
must constantly move round and round it. The wonder is, that the work is
so well preserved, as in the Middle Ages the bronze clamps were torn from it.

Of the other works of this emperor, we must mention the bridge he built
over the Danube. It consisted of 20 piles of freestone, each one of which,
without the foundation, was 150 feet high and 60 feet broad. The spaces
between the piles, or the spring of the bridge arches, was about 170 feet.
By the so-called iron gate between Servia and Wallachia, remains of astone
bridge have been discovered, supposed to be this bridge of Trajan, but
erroneously, for they do not correspond with the description by Dio Cassius.
They probably belonged to the bridge built afterwards by Constantine.

Trajan built also the road through the Pontine marshes, and the fine road
from Beneventum to Brundusium. A Triumphal Arch erected to the
emperor in Beneventum in the 114th year of our erais yet standing. PJ. 18,
Jig. 11, gives a view of this ruin ; jig. 12, and pl. 17, fig. 19°, the ground plan ;
jig. 19°, gives the elevation of this arch, which is commonly called the
Golden Gate. It is of Parian marble, and is completely preserved. Its
height is something over 80 feet, its breadth half as much, and its depth 19
feet. The opening of the arch is about 17 feet, and on each side there are
two columns of the Composite order directly against the wall. The columns
are something over 19 feet high, and rest upon a stylobate running under
all of them. Architrave, frieze, and cornice are in the best harmony, and
the Attic bases of the columns are remarkably well profiled. The reliefs
between the columns represent events from the emperor’s life. In the
archivolts are Victories with crowns and banners. The frieze is adorned
with a triumphal procession in half raised work; and the attic shows on
both sides of the inscription remarkably fine bas-reliefs.

86 ARCHITECTURE.

Trajan did much also for hydraulic architecture, by enriching the already
noble system of aqueducts. He built two harbors upon the Italian shore;
the one was at Ancona, upon the Adriatic sea, where the marble arch upon
the harbor dam still exists. /%g. 18*, is the general view of it; jig. 18°, the
ground plan.

This arch, whether viewed as a whole or in detail, is very beautiful,
although the shoulder-pieces of the cornice and of the attic are not in the best
style. The two keystones of the arch joined by a female head, are very fine.

11. Haprian. The activity in art of Trajan’s successor, Hadrian,
surpassed all previous efforts. Building in the provinces was prosecuted
with no less zeal than in the capital. Hadrian was not only a friend of art,
but he pursued its practice with almost more passion than became a prince.
He drew, like King Louis I. of Bavaria, the plans of buildings, which he
had executed, and was much displeased if the architects found fault with
them. This was the case with the double temple of Venus at Rome, and
which the emperor had sketched and laid the drawing before Apollodorus.
When this artist saw that the sitting figures were so large in proportion to the
little temple that they could not stand up, and ventured to say so, Hadrian
caused him to be executed, as Dio Cassius relates. This double temple of
Venus and Rome was one of the most important, not only of those which
Hadrian undertook, but of all which adorned the city. PU. 16, fig. 1, gives
the section through the colonnade with the view of the temple; jig. 2,
the longitudinal section; jig. 3, the ground plan of the whole; jig. 4, shows
a fragment from the left corner of the gable of the portico; and jigs.5 and 6
are views of the temple upon Roman coins.

The most recent excavations, under the auspices of the: papal govern-
ment, show that the two temples were surrounded by columns, which
were to the number of twenty on the long side, of a fine Corinthian
style, and on the short side ten, from which the temple would appear
to have been a pseudodipteros decastylos. The temple itself was also
surrounded by a court, inclosed with colonnades, and the whole rested
upon massive substructures, higher towards the amphitheatre than
towards the forum where the ground lay higher. The columns around
the temple were of white marble, and the brickwork of the walls was
faced with the same. The colonnade of the peribolus was of grey granite,
with ceilings of gilded brass, which Pope Honorius J. removed to roof
St. Peter’s. The arrangement of the double cella of this temple appears
so clearly from the ground plan and sections that we shall not here
further enlarge upon it.

Hadrian, by the architect Decrianus, removed the Neronian sun-colossus
to another spot, and effected it by twenty-four elephants drawing it in an
upright posture. The emperor also built an athenzeum in which orators and
poets might exercise themselves in Latin and Greek, and speak in
public.

One of Hadrian’s great buildings was his Mausoleum on the right bank
of the Tiber, now called the castle of St. Angelo. Pl. 18, jig. 1, is the
general view of this building as it originally appeared, although all its

86
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ARCHITECTURE. 87

ornaments and even the marble slabs that faced the foundation have
disappeared, since the building was made a fortress. 72g. 2 is a
horizontal section above the foundation; jig. 3, a similar one through the
lower part of the circular superstructure; jig. 4 through the first columnar
superstructure, and jig. 5 through the second; jigs. 6 and 7, are vertical
sections of the building itself, which is connected with the bridge of St.
Angelo.

The lower part of this Mausoleum formed a square of which the sides
were 250 feet long and 572 feet high. Upon this stands a round structure
whose diameter is 2012 feet. The columns were 32 feet, 5 inches high, the
entablature 82 feet, and upon this second part stood a third circular building
of less diameter. Under the covered colonnade, in the intercolumniations,
bronze and marble statues were placed. History relates that Belisarius,
besieged in this place by the Gauls (and it is still the citadel of Rome),
threw many of these statues down upon the enemy. A flower crowned the
apex of the monument. Others assert that the statue of Hadrian in a
chariot with four horses abreast. stood there. The flower, or rather the cone
of fir, is eleven feet high, and still exists, standing in a niche of the Vati-
can fronting the garden. Twenty-four fluted Corinthian columns, which
belonged to the first perizonium, were, in Constantine’s time, when the
building began to decay, taken away and built into the church of San Paolo
fuori le mure. The places for the sarcophagus and the funeral urns of the
deceased of the imperial family, were partly in the vault of the square
substructure, partly in the great hall that occupies the middle part of the
building. A staircase in the wall of the tower led to the upper platform
of the monument, upon which the roof was stretched in the form of a tent.
Other authorities remove the roof and set upon the platform a little round
temple of Hadrian, and say that the 24 columns in the Church of St. Paul
formed the peripteros of the temple. There is one passage in Herodian
which favors this idea, speaking of the urn of Septimius Severus which was
placed in a temple upon the mausoleum of Hadrian, where reposed the
remains of Marcus and other friends of Hadrian.

Hadrian’s Villa Tiburtina (Tivoli) was thirty miles in circumference, and
contained buildings for which the imperial recollections of travel supplied
names, as the Lyceum, the Academy, the Prytaneum, the Poekile, the
Canopus, &c. There was also a vale of Tempe, and a Hades. The ruins
are constantly explored, and new antiquities brought to light. In the
middle ages two huge limekilns stood here, that did nothing but convert the
marble remains into lime. The walls, robbed of their facing, revealed the
network (retzculatum) and brick-work very neatly executed, and many cast
vaults made of little stones and lime.

Hadrian’s architectural achievements in the provinces, and especially in
Athens, were very great. The arch of honor yet standing shows their
character. This had on one side the inscription, ‘‘ This is Athens, the old
city of Theseus,” and on the other, “This is the city of Hadrian, and not
of Theseus.” On this side of the arch lay that part of the city which
Hadrian had adorned and almost rebuilt. We have already mentioned

88 ARCHITECTURE.

how entirely the emperor achieved his purpose, in our reference to the —

restoration of the temples of the Olympian Jupiter by Cossutius, of that of
Jupiter Panhellenius, and of Juno. Hadrian built also a great deal in Egypt,
where he founded the town of Antinoe.

12. Antoninus Pius. The peaceful aspect of affvae which distinguished
the government of Hadrian continued through that of Antoninus, which was
among the happiest reigns of the Roman saris The culminating period
of art had been passed, but still it was a favorable season, and already

when consul the emperor had erected several important buildings. One of ~

his first undertakings after becoming emperor was honoring his predecessor
by the erection of a temple against the will of the senate, in the villa of
Cicero at Puteoli, where Hadrian died. Then he restored the Grecostasis,
where the foreign embassies were received, and the amphitheatre, and com-
pleted the building of the mausoleum of Hadrian, and the restoration of the
Pantheon, which had suffered by fire. The emperor had aspecial regard for
AXsculapius, whose shrine of pilgrimage at Epidaurus he especially favored,
and erected there baths, and a common sanctuary for Hygeia, A’sculapius, and
the Egyptian Apollo, and a hospital and lying-in retreat for the inhabitants.
He also restored the temple of Aisculapius upon the island of the Tiber (see
page 61), and gave to the island itself that ship-form which it still retains
in the circumference of its stone walls.

There yet remains in Rome a monument, which according to the inscrip-
tion was dedicated to the deified oe and his spouse Faustina, but
which, we believe, was erected while he yet lived. Faustina died in the
third year of her husband’s reign, and the senate built a temple to her, an
honor which they accorded also to Antoninus upon his death. They erected,
however, no separate temple, but they removed the ornaments from the
frieze of the temple of Faustina, which bore upon the architrave the name
of the empress, and replaced them with the name of Antoninus. Plate 11,
jig. 9, gives the general view of this temple; jig. 10 is the ground plan, and
pl. 11, figs. 11 and 12, are two Roman coins, upon which occur representations
of the temple. The columns of the portico of this temple, which yet remain,
are not fluted, and are built of green and mottled marble. The profiles
upon this monument are beautiful, the execution careful, and the reduction
of the columns is in a straight line. There were six columns in front and
three on the sides. The foundation is 15 feet high, and has 21 steps; the
columns are 4 feet, 6 inches in diameter, and 43 feet, 8; inches high.
The monument itself is now mostly built into the church of San Lorenzo
in Miranda, and was in the 7th century a Christian basilica. The walls
were built of tufa, and were formerly faced with marble.

13. Marcus Avretius, L. Verus, Commopus. The prolonged reign of
Marcus Aurelius, a man remarkable in every respect, who took L. Verus
as his colleague, offers little for remark in the history of architecture;
either because his government was disturbed. by many misfortunes, or
because the Stoic philosophy to which the emperor attached himself
engrossed his attention to the detriment of art. He was not deficient in
knowledge of the subject, for he was himself a painter. Aurelius and Verus

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ARCHITECTURE. 89

dedicated to their father Antoninus a memorial column of one huge granite
block upon a pedestal of white marble. The bronze statue of the deified
emperor stood upon the summit. During the middle ages the column which
stood upon the Campus Martius fell, and remained buried in rubbish until
it was discovered by chance. The attempt was made to erect it again, but
by an unhappy chance the cables took fire, the column again fell, and
was broken into many pieces. The pedestal is now in the Museum Pio
Clementino. Lucius Verus built himself a magnificent villa not far from
Rome on the Via Claudia, where many marble remains have been excavated.
To this time also belong many fine structures which a private citizen,
Herodes Atticus, the teacher of Verus, erected, and which we have already
partly enumerated during our glance at Athens (page 41).

But if Marcus Aurelius in his own person achieved little in architecture,
there were a multitude of monuments erected in his honor. Inthe 17th
century there yet stood in Rome a triumphal arch of this emperor, which
was destroyed because it narrowed the Corso. The sculptures taken from it,
representing the victory of Marcus Aurelius over the Marcomanni, are now
in the capitol. The second monument is the great triumphal column where-
upon, as on the column of Trajan, the campaigns of the emperor against
the Marcomanni and Quadi are represented. Upon the summit stood the
statue of the emperor, which has been since replaced by that of the apostle
Paul. Pl. 18, fig. 31, gives the general view of this column; jig. 32, its
section; jig. 34, the statue which formerly stood upon it; jig. 33, the
horizontal section through the column; jig. 35 * and ° are coins upon which
the column occurs; and jig. 36, is the perspective view of the place
upon which it stands, with the adjacent temple of Marcus Aurelius, which
had 8 Corinthian columns in front and 11 on the sides, and of which 11
columns and a part of the cella remain. The frieze is smooth and convex,
and the whole indicates an already declining art. So also the column
which is 15 feet thick below, and with the statue is 176 feet high,
although of great importance to history, is yet not to be compared with its
type, the column of Trajan; for it is not nearly so well cut, and its sculptures
are of a much inferior style.

The last mentioned monuments belong to the reign of Commodus, the
unworthy son of Marcus Aurelius, and are almost the only ones of that
time. Even these were not wholly finished during his reign.

Let us revert now, upon the threshold of declining art, to the architectural
achievements from Augustus to Antoninus. They are certainly greater than
those of any other age, nor could any other government than imperial Rome
have performed them. The colossal was the order of the day. The most
costly material was collected from every quarter, and no limits were pre-
scribed to the architect, except such as his own genius and will imposed.
Temples of great size and magnificence, and of new forms, were erected ;
and the fora were adorned with basilicas, temples, memorial columns, and
libraries. To the Julian period the Augustan soon associated itself, then
that of Domitian, and at last the splendid era of Trajan. Rome had its

coliseum, and the ruins of similar buildings meet the eye frequently in other
89

90 ARCHITECTURE.

regions, as in Capua, Pozzuoli, Pola, Verona, Nismes. The baths were
a species of building not seen before. Marcus Agrippa gave the example;
then followed the splendid works of Nero, Titus, the Suranian of Trajan,
and the Cleandrian under Commodus. Rome had public colonnades earlier,
but they did not approach in beauty to those of Agrippa, Augustus, or Nero.
In respect of palaces we can hardly mention the Palatine of Domitian
with the golden house of Nero; and the villas of Tiberius at Capri,
Domitian’s Albanum, Trajan’s villa, the Lorium of Antonine, appear
insignificant in comparison with Hadrian’s sumptuous villa at Tivoli.

We must add to these, the sepulchral monuments and memorial arches.
Triumphal and memorial arches, even temples, are now more common in
Rome and in the provinces, and are adorned upon all sides with the most
costly bas-reliefs. Memorial columns rise on every hand, and surpass even
the obelisks in height. Augustus and Caligula imported the last from
Egypt, and even Constantine had one brought to Rome. Yet, near the
columus of Trajan and of Marcus Aurelius, they lose all importance. If
we now include the roads and bridges in and about Rome and the provinces,
we shall have an idea of the grandeur of art during this period.

There was abundance of the best material, and a great number of buildings,
the style in most of which was masterly, yet less in the Doric and Jonic
than in the splendid Corinthian capitals. There was, however, no lack of
empirics who obtruded everywhere, and treated art arbitrarily. The rage
for novelty was also dangerous to architecture, and names like Severus,
Celer, and Apollodorus are of rare occurrence at any period. Among the
emperors who fostered art, Hadrian deserves the first place ; and his reign, in
the history of art, marks the era of the last efforts towards the sublime.

14. Sepriius Severus. The disturbances consequent upon the assassina-
tion of Commodus interrupted every architectural enterprise. Pertinax and
his three successors were only apparitions upon the theatre of universal
empire, until Septimius Severus at length assumed the government, and as a
warrior and educated man, undertook many works of importance for the
improvement of the city. He was also engaged in restorations. To his
larger works belongs avery large temple of Bacchus and Hercules, of whose
site, however, no trace remains. But there are two monuments in honor of
this emperor and of his fortunate Oriental campaigns. The largest is a
triumphal arch which the people and the senate dedicated to the em-
peror and to his sons, 203 a.p. Pl. 17, jig. 20, shows the section of this
work. It lies opposite the Capitoline hill, and was built of blocks of
Pentelican marble without cement. It is entirely preserved, although
it has often suffered from fire. The whole height is about 56 feet, the
breadth 72 feet, and the depth about 22 feet. It has three openings, of
which the middle is the largest, and on each side stand four fluted columns
of the Composite order, disengaged, and with pilasters behind them.
These columns are 2 feet, 10 inches in diameter, and rest upon pedestals
which on three sides have bas-reliefs representing captive enemies. The
entablature, which is supported by the columns, formerly bore statues
in the same manner as the arch of Constantine (pl. 17, fig. 21). The

ARCHITECTURE. G1

-archivolts are in a pure and handsome style. The middle arch is 38 feet high

by 22 feet span. The little arches are 23 feet high and about 10} wide.
The arches have beautiful deep panels with rosettes. The three arches
communicate with each other through little doors which are also arched.
The keystones of the great arch are adorned with armed warriors, and
the archivolts with Genii of Glory with trophies; those of the smaller ones
with Victories with palm branches. Over the little arches there is between
the columns, first a frieze with a triumphal procession, and over that
bas-reliefs with many figures representing battle scenes, indifferently exe-
cuted. Here the decline of art that distinguished this period is very
evident. There are no bas-reliefs upon the great frieze or the attic. In
the interior of the arch is a staircase leading to a platform, upon which,
formerly, was a triumphal chariot with six horses abreast, upon which
stood statues of Septimius Severus, Caracalla, and Geta. The money changers
and traders erected a little triumphal arch in honor of the emperor
‘serving as an entrance to the Forum Boarium. Here Severus was represented
with his wife Julia, and his sons Caracalla and Geta sacrificing. But later,
after Caracalla had murdered his brother Geta, he carried his hatred to the
degree of removing his figure from this bas-relief.

An important building of the emperor Septimius Severus was the Septi-
zonium, of which pl. 18, fig. 10, gives the general view. The emperor erected
it as a family sepulchre on the Appian Way. His funeral urn was not, how-
ever, placed here, but in the tomb of the Antonines, 2. e. of Hadrian, but
the body of Geta was buried here. Nothing remains of this building, but
Martianus has left a description of it, from the extensive ruins existing in
histime. There were seven tiers of columns one over the other, but according
to others there were only three stories with seven rows of columns.

Sixtus V. took a great many yellow marble columns from this monument
for St. Peter’s. It seems asif the vision of the Tower of Baal at Babylon
had floated before the minds of the builders of this monument, and of
Hadrian’s mausoleum.

Septimius Severus built also a great number of splendid dwelling-houses,
which he presented to his friends. One of these houses was called the
Palace of the Parthians, and another the Lateran. The Pantheon, the Porch
of Octavia, and the temple of Jupiter Tonans, were repaired by him.

15. Caracatta. Upon the buildings which bear the name of Septimius
Severus appears also that of his son Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Pius, for
he received the name Caracalla from the tabard which he wore, and which
he enjoined his soldiers to wear. To the buildings which he independ-
ently erected belong préeminently the baths, whose walls yet remain, and which
bear witness to the extent of the undertaking, which seems to have surpassed
all similar ones. The masonry is of brick, and looks as in its best days.
The vaults are all cast work, made, however, not of tufa but of pumice ; and
are firm and light, for which reason they do not weigh heavily upon
their supports. Some of them were so flat that it was supposed they had a
metal support within. They now lie in rubbish, and it is evident that there
‘was no metal, but that they held by their own lightness. The excavated

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92 ARCHITECTURE.

remains indicate the magnificence of these baths. Eight huge granite
columns have been discovered, which supported the great hall, and of
which one now stands in Florence, upon the Piazza Trinita. Here also
were found the two marble reservoirs that now adorn the fountains upon the
Piazza Farnese in Rome. From here toocame the Farnese Hercules, the
Flora, and the well known group of the Farnese Bull.

Caracalla was much devoted to the Egyptian worship, for which reason
Isis and Serapis, which had formerly only a shrine, were now elevated to the
dignity of several temples; and to this time also belongs the restoration of the
temple of Serapis in Pozzuoli, of which we have already spoken (page 74),
and of which pl. 13, jig. 9, gives the ground plan.

16. Hetiogapatus. We should no more have mentioned this emperor
than we did Macrinus and his son, if he had not committed the folly of
making the Syrian god Helagabal the Roman national god, and of erecting
to him a temple and a chapel, and if he had not built a hall of council for
women, in which they were to deliberate on matters of female dress and
other frivolities. The hall was situated upon the Quirinal, and the remains of
the walls are yet visible in the garden of the Palace Colonna. The emperor
also restored the amphitheatre that had suffered from fire.

17. Atexanper Srvervs. This emperor loved the arts and sciences, and
was himself versed in mathematics and painting. He erected rooms for scien-
tific lectures, and paid teachers especially for them. The forum of Nerva
(pl. 18, figs. 16 and 17) he adorned with the statue of the deified emperor,
and in his private chapel (Lararium) he had a separate room for the portraits
of such men as were famous for their writings or life. Here were Virgil,
Cicero, Apollonius of Tyana, Abraham, and Christ. The latter he reckoned
among the gods, and intended to build him a temple. He restored the
theatre of Marcellus, the great circus, and the amphitheatre; and he com-
pleted the stoa in the baths of Caracalla. An important building of this
emperor was the Basilica Alexandrina, in the neighhorhood of the Campus
Martius. It was 100 feet broad and 1000 feet long, and rested entirely
upon columns, and seems, therefore, to have been a stoa. This emperor
erected at Ostia a round temple (pl. 12, fig. 15, general view ; jig. 16, section)
to Portumnus, the tutelar god of harbors. This temple was a beautiful
peripteros, surrounded by 24 Corinthian columns, and is the first in which
the architrave and entablature are superseded by arches, and vaults and
where, consequently, the colonnade has no straight ceiling. The masonry
is brick, and has been faced with marble; the dome finely vaulted and
garnished with very beautiful ornaments, but not cassetted.

18. Tue Emperors rrom Maximus to Gatiienvs. The emperors that
follow had, by the general short duration of their reigns, little inclination to
busy themselves with the arts, which consequently fell more and more into
decay. For this reason we shall include in one period the interval between the
years 235 and 261 of our era, as the buildings then erected are neither im-
portant nor of great architectural value. Properly, Gordianus was the only
one who built at all. He erected his family palace and then his villa on the
Pranestine Way, in which was a colonnade which had 200 columns, of which

ARCHITECTURE. 93

50 were of Carian, 50 of Claudian, 50 of Synnadian, and 50 of Numidian
marble, and every one of these consisted of a single block. Also three
basilicas, each with 100 columns, were in this villa, and the baths yielded in
magnificence only to those of Rome.

19. Gaxirenus. Under the feeble Gallienus full confusion broke over the

Roman empire. The border inhabitants rose, whilst in the interior strife of
long duration commenced between the commanders of the legions. At this
time also the temple of Diana at Ephesus fell into decay, which, since its
restoration in the time of Alexander the Great, had for 600 years excited the
wonder of the world. It was plundered and burned by the Goths. In Rome
there were very few and unimportant buildings completed under this emperor,
whose chief ambition was to be agreat poet. In Verona, however, there are
some monuments which we must refer to this time. The first isa city gate,
with two arches surmounted by two stories, each consisting of six arched win-
dows. The second story is adorned with columns which are fluted in a spiral
form, of which style this is the first example. The third story has pilasters
which stand upon projecting consoles, also a new style. According to the
inscription upon the gate, it was erected at the same time with the city
walls, 265 A. D., of which, however, there are few remains (/. 18, jigs. 1°,
elevation ; jig. 19°, plan.) The other monuments are also gates, somewhat
similar to that described, but adorned with columns, and in an inferior
style. To this time also belongs the arch of Gabius in Verona, of which
we have already spoken (page 81), and of which pl. 17, fig. 17°, and®, give
the elevation and ground plan.
* 20. Crauprius Goruicus. This empéror reigned too short a time to build
anything, but he reigned so well that almost all the cities aimed at perpetuat-
ing his memory by gates of honor. The senate of Rome placed his golden
statue, ten feet high, before the temple of the Capitoline divinities, and a
silver statue of the emperor weighing 1500 pounds upon the tribune of
the Forum.

21. Avrerian. This emperor acted energetically and reduced the border
population to tranquillity; yet the feeling of the weakness of the metropolis
was so great that it was the first care of the emperor to surround it with
strong walls. We have treated of these walls among Military Sciences (Vol.
II. p. 618). See Plates Division V., pl. 43, figs. 6—9, and pl. 42, jigs.
19, 20.

The chief building which this emperor erected in Rome was the temple
of the deity of the Sun, whose temple in Palmyra he had restored, when
his soldiers had injured and plundered the building, proving also in Rome
the honor in which he held this god. He placed in this temple besides
the statue of the Sun, that of Belus also, and probably the temple was
arranged in the interior like that of Palmyra. PJ. 15, fig.8, shows the outer
view, and pl. 16, jig. 15, the ground plan of the Temple of the Sun in
Rome. According to P. Victor, this temple lay in the 7th district, which in-
cluded a part of the Quirinal hill. The modern topographers of Rome may
therefore be right in asserting that the remains of the rich marble entablature
found in the gardens of the Colonna in Rome belong to this temple.

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94 ARCHITECTURE.

The temple was not accessible upon all sides, being built with its back
against another building, as the remains of walls and substructures show,
which Serlio and Palladio saw, but of which nothing more now remains.
The plan of the temple cannot be given with certainty. Our drawings
are made according to Palladio’s report, who saw the most of it and drew a
restoration of it, and according to the idea of Canina. The temple itself
stood in a great court, whose rear side was formed by the above men-
tioned walls of other buildings. On both sides were walls with semi-
circular niches with statues, and a similar wall inclosed the front side until
the Baths of Constantine were erected there. The temple is a pseudo-
dipteros with three rows of columns in front of the cella, of which the fore-
most had 12, the two others only 6 columns standing behind the first,
third, and fifth columns of the front on both sides of the door. This
arrangement is unusual, and indicates a considerable decline of art. In the
interior the temple was a hypethros, for Vitruvius states that all temples

which are dedicated to the Sun must admit the sunlight from above. As
the great height of the temple necessitated two tiers of columns one over

the other, galleries were built on both sides which extended round upon the
fore and rear walls. These galleries were ascended by means of staircases in
the vestibule of the temple. It is probable that the acroteria at the top of
the gable was adorned with the statue of Helios in his chariot drawn by the
horses of the sun.

22. Tacitus, Prozsus to DiocreTian. Tacitus was too old and reigned too
short a time to undertake any great works, but he prosecuted the work of
the Forum of Ostia, commenced by ‘Aurelian, and sent thither, at his own
expense, one hundred columns of Numidian marble, 23 feet long. Upon
the site of his own house in Rome he erected baths, and sold his property
in Mauritania in order to improve, with the proceeds, the Capitoline temple.
Probus undertook the construction of several highways and hydraulic
works, upon which he employed the legions that they might not be idle
in time of peace. This, however, was the occasion of his death; for the
soldiers who did not wish to work, slew the emperor, and afterwards
erected a monument in his honor.

Of the emperors who succeeded Probus we have nothing to remark until
the reign of Diocletian, who was a prince no less valiant than active, and
completed important buildings in Rome, Milan, Carthage, and Nicomedia.
Of Diocletian’s architectural activity the most striking proofs are the Baths
in Rome, the Villa of Salona, and the column in Alexandria. The Baths
of Diocletian were only commenced by that emperor and were com-
pleted under Constantine and Galerius, but were nevertheless named from
their founder. The ruins of this structure are very extensive, and give a
better idea of the style of these magnificent buildings than the ruins of the
Baths of Caracalla. The great circular hall, xystus, as the middle point of
the edifice, has yet the eight great granite columns which supported the
cross-vault, and of which we have shown the beautiful Composite capitals
in pl. 19, fig. 15. This hall now forms one of the most beautiful of the
Roman churches, viz. Madonna degli Angeli alle Ccrtosa (pl. 46, fig. 19,

ARCHITECTURE. 95

ground plan, and jig. 24 section). There are yet visible the main entrance
with the rooms where bathers undressed, the various bath halls, and
the site of the swimming pond. In the outer circumference, the site of the
theatre, two libraries and two round temples, one of which was dedicated
to Mercury and the other to Hercules, are still discernible. Here, too,
belongs the Doric capital which we have represented in pl.19, fig. 4. One
of the temples with its dome remains, and serves for a church. Diocletian
erected a hall, which he called Jovia, in the neighborhood of the theatre
of Pompey.

Quite as considerable as the ruins of the baths are those of the villa
of the emperor at Spalatro, the old Salona, whither the emperor with-
drew on his abdication, to repose after his reign of twenty-five years.
It is evident from the extent and arrangement of these ruins that not a body-
guard merely surrounded the emperor in his philosophical retreat, but a large
retinue, for a great part of the building seems to have been adapted for
dependants. There are also the remains of a Pantheon and of a tem-
ple of Jupiter as well as a chapel of -Aésculapius. The halls and
large and small rooms, the arcades, basilicas, baths, and all the arrange-
ments which the conveniences of an imperial palace demand, are very
multifarious.

But size and splendor could not supply the want of a high art, whose
decline the buildings of Diocletian all evince. Not only were the columns
set upon pedestals, but even upon projecting consoles ; and instead of straight
architraves there are everywhere arches. The order is almost entirely the
Corinthian or the Composite, overloaded with ornaments, while the capitals
are thin, stiff, and graceless. The proportions are defective everywhere,
the cornices being too high, the friezes convex, and the architraves
having only two fillets and a clumsy cyma. The doors are broad and
low, and are almost crushed by heavy pediments upon great consoles.
Everything is arbitrary, and every law of art seems forgotten. As in
Palmyra and Baalbec exuberance and extravagance prevail, so the buildings
of Gallienus and of Diocletian indicate the weakness and poverty of age.
In place of a beautiful architectural art, there is a miserable empiricism.

23. CoNSTANTINE AND His Famiry. We now approach the point which
we regard as the limit of the architecture of genuine antiquity. Constantine
is still a conspicuous figure in the history ofthe world. In battle he was no less
fortunate than brave; and when after a protracted contest with his rivals he
found himself at the head of his kingdom, he consecrated the last ten years
of his life exclusively to internal affairs. Yet we can here consider his
activity only in so far as it is necessary to the knowledge of the state of art
of his time, and briefly mention what was accomplished with regard to it
under him and his immediate successors.

When Constantine, after the death of Constantius in the year 306
A. D., assumed the command in Gaul, and had secured the borders
against invasion from that direction, he marched against the internal foes, and
the decisive battle near Rome made him master of the metropolis. The fine
arch in Rome is still the witness of this triumph. It was decreed to him by

Se ME OT

the Senate and the people, and is the only monument among the buildings of
Rome attributable with certainty to the time of Constantine. But in faet
no monument is so well adapted as this to show the melancholy state into
which architecture and the plastic arts had then fallen. PJ. 18, jig. 13,
gives the elevation; jig. 14, the ground plan, and pl. 17, jig. 21, the
section of this arch. The monuments of earlier emperors, with their orna-
ments, furnished the material. The main proportions of the structure,
which on the whole are yet very beautiful, were apparently taken from
another triumphal arch, as well as most of the bas-reliefs, and the statues
placed over the columns. The great bulk of the work is of marble. The
work of the columns indicates the time of Hadrian, the statues and bas-
reliefs are of the time of Trajan, Hadrian, and Antonine; only the strips
under the round bas-reliefs bear sculptures which have reference to
Constantine and the conquest of Rome. Besides these, the Victories in the
archivolts and on the pedestals of the columns belong to that time.

All these sculptures, however, at once impress the spectator with the decline
of art; and the incorrect proportions and clumsy execution of the cornices
have the same effect. At the same time, Constantine dedicated the basilica
named after him, which his predecessor Maxentius had begun to build; and
he likewise adorned the circus and built the baths which bear his name.

To this time also belongs, to judge from the architecture, the monument
existing in Treves called the Porta Nigra, which probably belonged to the
fortifications, and was perhaps the residence of the commander of the fortress.
The monument of the Secundians near Igel, not far from Treves and the
Rhine Bridge of Cologne, of which the remains are visible at low tide be-
tween Cologne and Deutz, as well as the bridge over the Danube (probably
its remains are near the Iron Gate, see page 84), were all buildings by
Constantine. His great undertaking, however, was the foundation of anew
residential city, whose progress he fostered so cordially, that the new Rome
(which name it long bore in common with the name Constantinopolis)
was ready for dedication in the 25th year of his reign, 330 A. D.

Constantine comprehended the tendencies of his age, and the dangers that
had long threatened the kingdom were not concealed from him. Only some
great reform could avail against them, and the emperor was obliged to
oppose a new city to the overgrown metropolis, and thus as it were reduce
the queen of cities to the rank of other cities. A new form of government
was connected with this change, and Constantine introduced it by separating
the municipal power which the general had hitherto exercised in the pro-
vinces from the military, appointing special officials for every part of the
civil administration, and confining the generals to the army. In the same
way the emperor struck at the power of the Roman senate, taking with
him into the new residence many of the most distinguished families, and
giving them positions there, forming a court, offices, and titles, and so creating
an. aristocracy dependent upon himself alone. Finally, the emperor, induced
by the great number of converts to the Christian religion, in order to obtain
a new support, put himself at the head of the movement, and by his
countenance controlled the councils of the church.

96 ARCHITECTURE.

ARCHITECTURE. 97

Architectonically the new Rome was only a phantom of the old. The
magnificence of the latter was the fruit of many years of the prime of
the empire and of art. In Constantine’s time the latter had declined. The
colossus of the empire yet stood, but the springs of vitality were dried up.
The emperor consequently, to build anew, was obliged to destroy the old.
The tolerance of the Christian religion was proclaimed, and the old system
fell, and with it fell all of artistic greatness and glory which the people had
hitherto achieved, to serve as material for the new order. Only the techni-
cality remained, and this was poor and awkward. Originally, the new
city was to have been placed between Troas and Ilium, and the ground was
even surveyed, and the marking out of the walls commenced, when
the emperor altered his plan and chose the much more eligible site of
Byzantium, where he had the further advantage that Byzantium was already
a city, needing only improvements. Thus it could after a few years com-
pete with Rome.

Although the building of many Christian churches is ascribed to Constan-
tine, yet the real number must be very small; for on the one hand, Con-
stantine did not adopt the Christian religion until he was quite old, and
on the other hand, all the churches contained columns from the heathen
temples, and the yet vigorous power of the priests would not then have
allowed free play to such vandalism, and the destruction of the buildings.
But that Constantine’s immediate successors, and even members of his own
family, executed such works, appears from the church of St. Agnes, which
Constantine’s daughter, Constantia, built. It is a three-aisled basilica (pl.
27, fig. 14, view; pl. 46, jig. 16, ground plan) of beautiful proportions but
built of fragments, having columns of the Composite and Corinthian orders,
and of various kinds of marble. Instead of straight architraves, arches are
everywhere employed. At this time also was built the mausoleum of Helena,
the sister of Constantine, on the Nomentanian Way. It was a circular
edifice in the form of the Pantheon, with seven niches in the interior, and
a vestibule of four columns. In this mausoleum was the beautiful porphyry
sarcophagus, with bas-reliefs representing fighting horsemen and captive
barbarians, which now stands in the museum Pio Clementino. Some author-
ities ascribe this sarcophagus not to Helena the sister, but to Helena the
mother of Constantine. Ammianus Marcellinus, however, tells us that a
sarcophagus adorned with wreaths of plants, figures of children representing
genii, a peacock, and a lamb, was found in a circular edifice like the former,
which contained the grave of Constantine’s mother. Pius VI. had the
sarcophagus brought to the Museum of the Vatican.

7. Tue Orpers.

Before we proceed to the architectural history of the middle ages,
it will be necessary to say a few words upon the five orders of columns.
As we remarked in our sketch of the architecture under the Roman emperors,
all rules had fallen into oblivion with the decline of art towards the
close of that period. The buildings of the period betray an uncertainty

ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOPZDIA.—VOL. Iv. 7 97

;

98 ARCHITECTURE.

in the choice of columns, cornices, and ornaments, and too often the most —
unfitting details are united to a whole which seems then only a patchwork,
in which all harmonious arrangement is wanting. The artists felt this when
art gradually awoke from its long sleep, and they perceived the need of
again investigating the old rules of art. They had no other material upon
which to base their researches than the remains of those ancient buildings
that were then in tolerable preservation, and we hence find such artists as _
Raphael and Michel Angelo zealously busying themselves to form their taste
upon the antique monuments, and to measure and draw their details. They -
were afterwards imitated by such architects as Palladio, Serlio, Alberti,
Scamozzi, and Vignola, and so gradually arose from the study of the old
monuments the five orders, the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and
Roman or Composite. But as those artists did not extend their re-
searches beyond Italy, we might even say beyond the immediate pre-
cincts of Rome, we find in them references only to the Roman style of
building, and the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders of the Greeks are
altogether disregarded.

Although the organization of the orders as such is truly the work of the
age of the Renaissance, and although the results of the investigations of
Vignola, as well as of his co-laborers. Palladio, Serlio, and Scamozzi,
who lived in the 16th century, ought to be mentioned in their chronological
order, yet it seems proper to consider the various orders in this place,
as they appear to have been the result of the profound study of the architec-
tural remains of Roman antiquity.

Although the various orders as they were classified by these four archi-
tects often differ materially, according to the artistic knowledge and taste of
the designer, or according to his predilection for a special monument, yet
in the following remarks we shall confine ourselves to the orders of Vignola.
They have for centuries, by universal consent, taken precedence of those
of the other authorities, and were even the only ones considered classic
by architects, until a better acquaintance with the architecture of ancient
Greece proved the existence of something higher in art than Roman
architecture.

To an order belongs, 1, the column, with its base and capital; 2, the
entablature, consisting of architrave, frieze, and cornice; 3, the pedestal ;
4, the parts necessary to the arches between the columns, that is, the
impost with its cornice, the arch with its mouldings, and the inter-
columniation. We shall describe these various parts in each of the orders.
The measure of which we avail ourselves in the account of the single
parts of the orders is the modulus, that is, half the diameter of the
lower part of the column, an absolute measure, inasmuch as it may
be employed upon every column, whether large or small, provided its
lower diameter be known. The module of the order may be found
when the whole height has been determined. Thus, for example, the
Tuscan column has in height 14 modules, and with pedestal and enta-
blature 21 modules, 9 parts (pl. 20, jig. 1). We remark here that the
module is divided, according to Vignola, into 12 parts, and each part into

ARCHITECTURE. 99

4 minutes. Other architects divide the module into 24, even into 30
parts; Wiebeking, for instance, into 50 minutes. We, however, follow the
division of Vignola. If then we know that a Tuscan order to be employed
is 21 feet, 9 inches, in height, the module will be —1 foot, and the lower
diameter of the column be = 2 feet. If the order is 43 feet, 6 inches high,
then the module will be — 2 feet, and the lower diameter — 4 feet, from
which the module measure may be derived for all details. The Doric
column is 16 modules, and the whole order (pl. 20, jig. 2) 25 modules, 4
parts in height. The Ionic order (jg. 3) is 28 modules, 6 parts, the column
alone 18 modules. The Corinthian order (jig. 4) as well as the Roman or
Composite (jig. 5) is 32 modules, the columns alone 20 modules in height.

1. Tue Tuscan Orprr. The Tuscan order is that which the Etruscans
employed in their buildings, and although, as we have already remarked,
there were many buildings of this style in Rome, yet no traces of them have
come down to us. Vignola was thus obliged to create his Tuscan order,
although he cleaves to the slightest trace of it in the works of Vitruvius.
Pil. 21, fig. 1, represents the Tuscan column arrangement, and we see from
the accompanying numbers that the shaft of the column has 12 modules,
base and capital 1 module, and the entablature one fourth of the whole height,
consequently 44 modules. This relative height of the entablature Vignola
adopts in all his orders. PU. 20, fig. 6, shows the column arrangement with
arches, according to which the breadth of the arches between the imposts is
53 modules, and the height of the keystone of the arch is 1 module, whereby
the point of commencement of the impost cornice, a (fig. 7), and the archi-
volt 6, are readily determined. PJ. 23, jig. 1, gives the Tuscan arrange-
ment of arches with pedestals to the columns, where the distance from centre
to centre of the columns is 12% modules, but the span of the arch 82
modules. ‘Thereby, the breadth of the imposts is given ; so is their height,
since the archivolt of the arch —1 module. PJ. 22, jig. 1, shows the
detailed construction of the Tuscan capital and entablature, where the
architrave, a, is — 1 module; the frieze,b,—1 module, 2 parts; and the
cornice, ¢, — 1 module, 2 parts high. pb, is the under view of the cornice;
B, the capital of the column co, 1 module high, of which & is the under view.
These details determine the reduction of the column as being from 2
modules to 1 module, 7 parts. The numbers in the figure show the various
heights and projections. PJ. 20, jig. 7, shows, in A, the upper view of the
half column, and of the pedestal; in 3B, the impost with its cornice, a,
and the archivolt, 6. At a is the view of the pedestal and of the base,
with their heights and projections accurately represented. The Tus-
can order has the character of simplicity. It has been employed, among
other architects, by Le Brosse, in the Palais Luxemburg, by Le Mercier upon
the Palais Royal in Paris, and by Mansard in the Orangery at Versailles.

2. THe Doric Orper. Vignola composed two Doric orders, one with
dentals, the other with modillions, which harmonize with each other in
the important points, and differ much in detail. For the first style Vignola
seems to have taken the Doric order of the theatre of Marcellus in Rome as
his type; whilst the other was founded upon the remains discovered at

100 ARCHITECTURE.

Albano. The Doric order has its difficulties, on account of the placing of —

the triglyphs in the frieze, for which reason it is not adapted to all columnar
distances, as in many the relation of the metopes to the triglyphs would be
untrue. The placing of the columns and the entablature respectively, are
shown in pl. 21, jig. 3, where it appears that in this case, the columns
from centre to centre must have distances of 74 modules if the metopes and
triglyphs are to be true. In the arrangement of columns with arches (pl.
28, jig. 2), the distance must be 10 modules, so that, as 1 triglyph and

1 metope require a space of 23 modules, 2 triglyphs and 2 metopes may.

find place; and in the same way in the arrangement of columns upon
pedestals, and with arches, the distance must be 15 modules to accom-
modate 2 more triglyphs, and 2 more metopes. l. 21, jig. 2, gives the
details of the entablature, capital, and of the upper part of the shaft of the
column of the dental style, in which the reduction of the column to 1 module,
8 parts, may be seen; and the remaining measures to the complete draw-
ing of this order may be partly read, and partly calculated from the
adjoining scale. a is the under view of the half column and of the half
capital, whence it may be seen that the abacus is square and the echinus
round. In B is presented the under view of the entablature, with the
ornament of the under view of the corona. Pl. 22, jig. 3, on the
other hand, represents the entablature, and the upper part of the
column of the Doric order of the modillion style. Here, instead of the
dental, the arrangement of the modillion style is evident, and more plainly
in the under view a. The measurements are here also sufficiently indicated,
so that we need not enlarge upon them. /%g. 2 represents the Doric
basis and the Doric pedestal in the front view, and below, the half upper
view of the same. In a, there is a part of the impost, with its
cornice, and the archivolt, one module broad, which, reckoning from
without inwards, consists of a supercilium, a torus, a socle, and two
stripes. The Doric order of the dental style is especially adapted for
external decoration, on account of the strength of the profile, and of the
broad projection of the corona, through which the rain water is carried clear
of the building; and on the other hand the modillion style is peculiarly
adapted to vestibules, galleries, halls, &. PU. 19, fig. 4, shows the capital
of the order of Albano, and jig. 5, that of the Baths of Diocletian at Rome,
which Scamozzi has taken as the model of his Doric order. Many builders
have employed the Doric order without the triglyphs, because in many cases
it is almost impossible to obtain a proper distribution of them. So, for
example, Bramante in the palace of the Cancelleria in Rome, Raphael in the
Chigi Palace, and Bernini in the great colonnade before St. Peter’s in Rome,
have omitted the triglyphs; and, it would indeed have been very difficult
for Bernini to have made a correct disposition of them, since the columns on
the exterior have wider distances than those of the interior, on account of the
circular form of the colonnade. The arrangement of Michael Angelo on
the Farnesian Palace, that of Scamozzi on the new Procurate in Venice,
and that of Palladio on the basilica in Vicenza, are very regular.

In pl. 20, fig. 8, we have given an example of the Greek Doric order,

100

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al

ARCHITECTURE. 101

with the entablature and the upper part of the shaft of the column, its under
part with the steps upon which the columns stand, which have no base;
next a section through the entablature, and in a the under view of the
corona, showing that there are modillions over the metopes, which the
Roman Doric order did not have. /7%7g. 9 shows in B the foot and
in A the capital of the pilaster, in c the construction of the neck of the
column, in p that of the flutings, in © the columnar distance, and on the
lower left the construction of the astragal on the under part of the echinus.

3. Tar Ionic Orper. Upon the whole this is one of the most graceful
of the orders notwithstanding many irregularities in the capitals, owing
to its two different aspects, and which often make it a very difficult order to
employ. The two different aspects of the capital arise from the peculiar
position of the volutes, which are only seen in front and rear, whilst the
sides exhibit the cushions connecting them. It was particularly disagree-
able in the corner columns, the sides being freely exposed to view. The
Greeks tried to obviate the difficulty by placing the volutes diagonally,
thus making them appear in the front views of two different sides. This,
however, is only a poor expedient, as it causes an irregularity, and it is
therefore preferable to substitute corner pillars for columns, and to give them
caps of four equal sides. fl. 21, jig. 5, shows the simple Ionic style,
exhibiting the rule that the whole order with the entablature should have
224 modules, of which the column with its base and the capital have 18.
fig. 4 shows the complete construction for the capital, and below on the
left the arrangement of the eye, in order to construct the spiral of the volute
of regular arcs only. To accomplish this, the position and size of the eye
of the volute must first be ascertained in accordance with the measures
given in jig. 3. Next draw the perpendicular a, zB, and the horizontal line
c, D, through the centre of the eye, construct the square a, c, B, D, and
bisect its sides by the perpendiculars 1,3, and 2,4. Divide each of these
lines into six equal parts, 1,2,3,..... 12. “Prolong the line 4, 1, to the
little disk in fig. 4, and make this the centre of the volute. Then place one
leg of the compasses in 1 and construct a quadrant from the centre of the
volute to the prolongation of the line 1, 2; then construct from 2 with the
new radius a quadrant to the prolongation of the line 2, 3; next the
quadrants from 3 to 4, and from 4 to 5, always changing the radius accord-
ing to the distance from the centre of the volute. To obtain the second
spiral, proceed in the same manner, constructing the quadrants 5,6; 6, 7;
7, 8; 8, 9, always changing the radius as before. The third spiral is finally
determined by the quadrants 9, 10; 10, 11; 11, 12, and 12 to the top of the
capital, constructed with their appropriate radii. The greatest accuracy is
required to avoid corners, and to end the volute with the proper curve.
The second or parallel spiral is determined in the same manner from the
points lying one third of the distance 1-5, towards the interior from the
former centres of construction.

The Ionic capital contains the following mouldings (jig. 4), a supercilium,
k, a foliated cyma, 2, the socle of the volute, A, a scotia, g, an ovolo with
the decorative serpents’ eggs, serpents’ tongues and arrow heads /f, a bead,

101

102 ARCHITECTURE.

e, and a socle,d. The flutes, a, are separated by the ridges, b. Pl. 22,
fig. 5, shows the entablature and the capital of the Jonic order, the latter
from the front and side, and in half under view. /%7g. 4, gives the Ionie
pedestal and base of the column. Under A is the impost with its cornice
and the archivolt, which is 94 parts broad, and consists of a slab, cornice,
and two stripes. PU. 23, jig. 4, shows the Ionic arch-arrangement, being

34 modules span, to 10$ modules of clear columnar distance. 7g. 5,
shows the same order with pedestals, where the span is eleven modules,
by an intercolumniation of thirteen modules. All the measures are given —
in the drawing. The Ionic capital allows various ornaments ; pl. 19, fig. 7,
shows the simple capital of the Temple of Fortuna Virilis in Rome; jig. 8,
represents an [onic capital from the villa Borghese, in which sphinxes
are arranged as ornaments in a very peculiar manner.

4, Tae Cortntoian OrpER. We have already aimed to show in the course
of this treatise that the Corinthian order was no especial order among the
Greeks, but that the Ionic entablature was placed upon capitals adorned in
the Egyptian style; that the order was not invented in Rome, and that it
is most probably of Phcenician origin. In pl. 21, fig. 7, we have the
simple Corinthian arrangement of columns, whence it appears that the
intercolumniation is 42 modules in the clear, while the column with base
and capital has 20 modules, the shaft alone 163, and the base one. The
entire order is 25 modules high, as here, too, Vignola has followed his
principle of giving one fourth of the height of the column to the entabla-
ture. In the Corinthian arches (pl. 23, jig. 6), the span is nine modules,
and the columnar distance between the centres of the columns is twelve
modules. The height of the impost is found by deducting from the height
of the column half the span and 1 module from the archivolt. When the
columns are placed on pedestals, the span is 12 modules, by a distance of
16 modules, the breadth of the imposts being self-evident and their height
as before. The entablature and capital with the upper part of the shafts
of this order are given in pl. 22, fig. 7, with the requisite facilities for
calculating the proportions. a is the under view of the corona with the
modillions. /%g. 6 gives the Corinthian pedestal and base, with the upper
view of half these parts ; at a is the impost cornice with the archivolt, show-
ing its mouldings, which in this order are usually decorated very richly.

The construction of the Corinthian capital we have endeavored to
illustrate in p/. 21, fig. 6, where the right side gives the profile of the eup
and leaves, whilst the left is a perspective view of the entire decoration. A
is the under view of a diagonal half of the capital, exhibiting in the same
manner the profile and perspective. The breadth of the ground plan is
determined by a square whose diagonal — 4 modules. On the sides of the
square construct equilateral triangles. The concavity of the abacus is then
determined by the arch constructed from the apex of such a triangle with
one of its sides for radius. The distribution of the leaves and other orna-
ments is seen from the ground plan; their respective heights and curves are
given in the scaie near the elevation ; and finally, the projection of the leaves
and volutes, is determined by a straight line drawn from the astragal to

102

ARCHITECTURE. 103

the point of the abacus, which must touch the extreme points of projection
of all these parts. The single parts of the capital are as follows: a, cyma
of the abacus, the truncated corners are termed the horns of the abacus ; 8,
slab of the abacus ; c, volute; d, pedicle with small leaves ; ¢, large leaves ;
J, small leaves resting on the astragal.

The Corinthian capital admits of multifarious decorations, and we meet with
ornaments of olive leaves, laurel leaves, parsley, acanthus, palm-leaves, and
even of ostrich feathers. Various kinds of Corinthian capitals are shown on
pl. 19: fig. 9, from the Tower of the Winds; jg. 10, from the monument of
Lysicrates in Athens ; jig. 11, from the Palace of the Cesars, or the Temple of
Peace; jig. 12, from that of Jupiter Stator; and jg. 13, from the portico
of the Pantheon in Rome. The base also is richly ornamented. Some-
times the flutings do not extend to the foot of the shaft, but the latter is sur-
rounded below by a rich ornament. PJ. 19 shows examples of this.
Fig. 22 is the foot of a column from the Baths in Nismes, and jig. 23, the
richly decorated foot of a column from the Basilica St. Praxeas in Rome,
executed, however, in a style which we will not advocate, as it borders on
the meretricious and does not harmonize with the slenderness of the shaft.

5. Tae Composire Orper. It was long a question whether the Composite ,
order should be regarded as a peculiar one, distinctly different from the
Corinthian, or whether, as was the case with the Ionic and Corinthian orders
of the Greeks, both had the same entablature, and were only distinguished
from each other by the capitals. Palladio and Scamozzi, however, classed
those monuments which had that peculiar capital differing so essentially
from the various Corinthian capitals, and which had originated in a com-
bination of the Ionic and Corinthian orders, as a peculiar order, which
they called the “‘ Roman,” and which later received the much more expres-
sive title “‘ Composite,” or combined order, and these architects invented
also an entablature peculiar to it. Vignola has, beyond dispute, succeeded
best in seizing the real character of the Composite order, and in giving it a
regularity or peculiarity more prominent than that which his predeces-
sors had allotted to it. The chief dimensions, that is, the heights of the
columns and capitals, the height of the entablature in its chief parts, the
intercolumniations, and the arcades, agree entirely with the Corinthian order.
On the other hand the proportions and arrangements of the single members
and their decoration in many places are very different, as an attentive
consideration of the drawings will show. Pl. 21, fig. 9, shows the simple
arrangement of the columns in this order; pl. 23, jig. 8, the columnar
arrangement of the same with arches; and jig. 9, the columnar arrangement
upon pedestals and with arches. Pl. 22, fig. 8, gives the view of the
pedestals and of the lower part of the shaft of this order, with a half
upper view of the same parts, and at A, the impost cornice and the
archivolt of the arch, which, considered from without inwards, consists of
a supercilium, cyma, cavetto, socle, stripe, bell-moulding, and a fillet.
Pl. 22, fig. 9, shows the capital and the upper part of the shaft with indi-
cations of the reduction and the entablature, of whose cornice the under
view is given in A. It will be seen from the drawing that the Composite

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104 ARCHITECTURE.

order has no modillions ; but on the other hand the remaining members,
with the exception of the height of the corona, are much more boldly pro-
filed, especially the dentals. The construction of the Composite capital is
illustrated in pl. 21, fig. 8. The ground plan, A, and the elevation are
drawn according to the accompanying measures in the manner described
with regard to the Corinthian capital. The sole difference is this, that
instead of the flower stalk with the little leaves and volutes, large volutes
are here employed as in the [onic capital, having their groove, border, and
the echinus, with the serpent’s eggs and tongues or arrow heads between
them. The projection of the rows of leaves and of the volutes upon the
capital is determined by the oblique line from the astragal to the horn of
the abacus. The leaves thereby obtain a much inferior projection, as, on
account of the height of the volutes, the leaf-coronals must be lower, for
which reason the Composite capital often appears heavy and overladen.
The frieze of this order, and indeed a great many of the members, admit
of a rich decoration, and the capitals especially have at all times been
fancifully ornamented. As examples of such capitals we give in pl. 19,
jig. 15, the Composite capital from the great hall of the Baths of Diocletian,
and jig. 14, a capital from the church San Pietro in Albano. The con-
struction of the attic base, and the scotia belonging to it, which are employed
in this order, are represented in pl. 20, jigs. 138 and 14.

6. Tue Batusters. The Balustrades, or Balusters, which were sometimes
introduced between the columns, or in the attics of the new buildings, were
constructed simply or richly according to the orders, and for the sake of
completeness we have included the balusters according to Vignola in our
illustrations, although they are now very rarely or never introduced. The
design for the balusters must include that for the pedestal, which consists of
the plinth extending under the balusters, of the cubes supplying the places
of balusters, and of the cornice extending over all the balusters. P/. 20,
jig. 19, are balusters and pedestals for the Tuscan order, in which the
latter receive decorations of rustic work or bossage. /%g. 17 is a baluster
for the Doric order; jig. 18 for the Ionic; and jig. 19, for the Corinthian
and Composite. It will be seen that the balusters and pedestals agree with
the orders in the symmetry, slimness, and richness of the members. At
present iron balusters are much more common than those of heavy stone,
as in the former greater lightness and more elegance are attained.

7. Repucrion anp Torsion or THE SHAFT oF THE Cotumy. Columns are
reduced in various ways. Although in the majority, and the most beau-
tiful of antique monuments, this reduction is achieved by a straight line
from the foot to the neck, yet there are many such buildings in which this
is not the case, but whose columns are either cylindrical for a certain dis-
tance upwards, and then begin to diminish, or in which the greatest strength
is not at the base but a little way up the column, which is there somewhat
swelled. We will here mention the two most usual ways of drawing the
reduction. When the height of the column and its diameters at the base
and the capital have been determined, make the column (fig. 10) cylin-
drical up to a third of its height, construct a semicircle upon the diameter

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ARCHITECTURE, 105

of the column, and let fall a perpendicular line from the top of the shaft
upon this diameter, which will intersect the semicircle in some point;
divide the arc thus obtained into any number of equal parts, and the upper
two thirds of the shaft into as many equal horizontal stripes. If, then, perpen-
diculars are erected on the various points of the arc, and prolonged until
they strike the horizontal lines in the shaft, the points of intersection will
mark the diameters of the reduced stripes. The other kind of reduction
is that of a swelling of the column, that is, a reduction upwards and down-
wards. After the proper diameter of the column (jig. 11) and the height of
the column are determined, give this diameter to the shaft at one third
of its height, and erect at its extremities perpendiculars extending to the
base and to the astragal. Prolong the diameter at one third the height,
sideways, giving it the length of two thirds the height, and half a diameter.
Connect the highest and lowest points of the shaft, by straight lines, with
the end of the prolonged diameter. From the axis of the shaft mark off on
these lines half the length of a diameter, when the points thus obtained will
be those of the upper and lower reductions. From the apex of the triangle
formed by the two lines and the axis of the shaft, lines may then be drawn at
will to any number of points on the axis, and semi-diameters marked off on
the same, when all the points thus obtained will he in the curve of reduc-
tion. The French architect; Blondel, regards the first conchoid of Nico-
medes as the curve of reduction, and gives an instrument to draw this
conchoid.

The twisted columns found in the altar of St. Peter’s at Rome, in the church
Val de Grace in Paris, and elsewhere, can only be regarded as abortive
creations of a sickly fancy, and as exhibitions of a vicious style. In the former
the chevalier Bernini sinned against good taste, and Le Duc imitated him
in the latter. We give here the construction of such columns in order to
show what trouble is taken to accomplish a paltry result (pl. 20, jig. 12).
To draw the twisted column you must first make the ground plan (fig.
13) where the smaller circle indicates the cylinder of the column. Divide
this circle into eight parts, and from all the points draw parallels-with the
axis of the column. The axis of the column you divide by horizontals into
as many times eight parts as the column has twists (generally six, conse-
quently into forty-eight parts). The points of intersection of these lines and
of those which were drawn parallel with the axis from the smaller circle will
then mark the course of a twisted line, which rests upon the small cylinder.
From the points thus obtained mark off half the diameter of the column
outwards, when the terminal points of these horizontals will mark the exterior
contour of the spiral.

8. Doors anp Winpows. We have already stated (p. 29) that the doors
and windows must harmonize with the cornices and members of the order,
and for this reason Vignola has sketched especial doors for each order,
although their form and size are always dependent upon the general relations
and particularly upon the size of the building itself. The Tuscan door is
very simple, twice as high as broad, and framed with a cavetto and socle,

while the lintel, whose upper surface is curved, and the jambs are adorned
105

? a ee

106 ARCHITECTURE.

with rustic work. By rustic work we understand that kind of free-
stone masonry in which the several courses of the stones are distinctly
marked by sunk joints or grooves, either chamfered or otherwise cut.
The faces admit of great variety of treatment; and, quite contrary to
what its name literally imports, the rustic work is frequently made to show
the very reverse of careless rudeness, namely, studied ornamentation by
means of highly finished moulded joints; and even when the faces are
vermiculated, or otherwise made rough, it is apparent that it is done pur-
posely or artificially, especially when the vermiculation appears in panels —
surrounded by smooth borders.

Vignola gives the same proportions to the Doric door as to the Tuscan, but
lays it ina smooth wall and gives it a richer frame adorned with two stripes.
Larger and especially magnificent doors are laid between columns, and
receive a completed Doric entablature, surmounted sometimes by a balcony
railing in place of an attic. As an example of such a door Vignola adduces
the gateway which he drew for the Palace of the Cancellaria for Cardinal
Farnese in Rome (pl. 20, jig. 15). This palace was of stones which were
taken partly from the Coliseum, partly from the Arch of Gordianus, and
was built by Bramante for Cardinal Rafael Riario, but completed by
Vignola. Gates must always bear the character of the buildings to which
they belong. The door for the Jonic order has a richer frame and a cornice
similar to the Ionic entablature, and resting on consoles (hyperthyrum).
A very beautiful example of such doors in ancient times is the newly
discovered door of the Erectheum upon the Acropolis of Athens. The
Corinthian and Composite orders have doors which are richly adorned and
finished with a cornice with modillions. The height is rather more than
double the breadth. An example of this door is that of the church San
Lorenzo in Damaso at Rome (jig. 14). This church, also, Bramante under-
took at the instance of the Cardinal Riario, but Misnle complaint it, for
which reason the doors were designed by him.

The windows have the same proportions as the doors, inasmuch as, with few
exceptions, they are twice as high as broad. If they are arched above, their
height exceeds double the breadth, but not by the full height of the arch.
The windows have also frames which agree with the style of the building,
and cornices sometimes resting upon consoles. Formerly they had triangular
or arched gables over this cornice, but that error is now avoided. Sometimes
the windows receive lower cornices with mouldings, and often resting on
consoles.

8. Monuments or THE GavLs AND Britons (Oxwts).

We come now to a series of monuments, which, while the antiquities of
Egypt, Greece, and Rome were studied with an untiring zeal, remained
unnoticed and unknown; partly, perhaps, because they lay so near, and in
part because they had no ee: value. We mean the monuments of our own
ancestors, the Druidical and Celtic remains, which strongly remind us of
the Cyclopean remains of Greece. The Celtic, Druidical, Gallic, and British

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ARCHITECTURE. 107

monuments consist mainly of single or several blocks of stone, put together
with rude strength, and bear witness of the time when all finer cultivation
was unknown to the people who erected them. From them to the period of
an enlightened architecture there is one immense bound, for there was no
gradual advance among those people who received from the Romans and
other strangers who came and settled among them their culture and art, all
complete. If, then, we wish to examine the style of building peculiar to
these people, we must go back to the most remote antiquity, and begin with
single stones.

The use of rough stones as monuments is traceable to the earliest times,
but they had a lofty purpose, for among more than one people they were
honored as the symbol of the divinity. In almost all countries of the world
such idol-stones are found, which were the objects of the worship of the
early races of those lands. The north, especially, abounds in them. Eng-
land, Scotland, the Hebrides and the Orkneys, Germany, Hungary, Sweden,
Denmark, Russia, Siberia as far as Kamtschatka, offer specimens of them,
as well as Tartary, Thrace, Greece, China, and the coasts of Africa. Even
in the new world they occur.

The Celtic monuments, so far as we know them, seem to have all served
either for worship or sepulture. Only a very few appear to have been
devoted to domestic purposes, and we shall presently endeavor to
discover the intent of a number of them.

A chronological order in the description of these monuments might be
difficult to follow, for though some savans have sought to do this, yet they
have no authority for their work, and the only point that can be taken for
granted is, that none of these monuments were erected after the invasion of the
Romans into those countries. All are of Druidical origin, and the Drnuidical
worship was everywhere suppressed by the religion of the conquerors. Of
course these remarks do not apply to the mounds, for they were nothing
but burial-places, at which there was no further worship than that of
memory. In our description we must necessarily employ the Celtic names,
so long as no other nomenclature exists, except our translation of these
names.

1. Men-nir or Pevtvans. An upright perpendicular stone, standing by
itself, consecrated to prayer or to remembrance, was called men-hir (long
stone) or peulvan (stone pillar), or finally, men-sash (straight stone). In
England it is called stone-henge, from stone and henged or hung up, floating;
and this generic name is now the peculiar title of the greatest Celtic
monument in England, situated in Wiltshire. The men-hir, the simplest
and the most numerous of the Celtic monuments, seem to have had very
various purposes. Merely human purposes they subserved in only two ways,
as boundary stones, and as monuments of great recollections. In religious
ways the men-hir served partly as symbols of the divinity, partly as monu-
ments upon the graves of heroes, for three or four men-hir indicated the grave
of a chieftain. The excavations among the sepulchral monuments reveal
bones, weapons, boars’ tusks, antlers of deer, &c. If the men-hir was only

the memorial of some important event, there are only weapons there; if
| 107

108 ARCHITECTURE.

there is nothing found, it was only a boundary stone. Very often there are
popular interpretations of the intent of the monuments. Thus, the men-hir
of Guenezan in France, is called men-cam (the stone of crime); that of
Brenantes near Plouaret, bren-an-tec’h (princes’ flight). Often the whole
region where it stands has a special name, as ker-brezel (place of victory),
ker-laouenan (place of joy), &c. &e.

The height of the men-hir varies between 9 and 30 feet, and sometimes
the thinner part of the stone stands in the earth. One of the largest men-
hir lies in ruins near the great dolmen which is known by the name of the
Merchant’s Table, and of which we shall presently say something more.
This men-hir was once 65 feet long, and there are few Egyptian obelisks
of greater length. Men-hir are sometimes discovered with inscriptions
upon them, as, for example, that near Joinville, which bears the Roman
inscription, ““ VIROMARUS ISTATILI F” (Viromar, son of Istatilus), or
with huge sculptures, as on the Maiden Stone near the town of Brecknock,
in Wales, which represent the figures of a man and a woman. These
ornaments, however, are unquestionably of a later date, as the original
men-hir were wholly constructed of rough stones. When Christianity
gradually supplanted Druidism these monuments were zealously destroyed,
and there are yet extant old edicts of the kings Chilperich, Childebert (554),
Edgar of England (967), whereby all who did not assist in the destruction of the
idolatrous stones were threatened with slavery andthescourge. Afterwards,
they were wiser, and instead of destroying these stones before which the
people were accustomed to pray, they consecrated them to the true God.
And they even erected new stones, upon which, as on the men-hir on the
Judgment-hill of Carnac in Bretagne (pl. 24, jig. 1), they engraved the
form of the cross, or they shaped the stones themselves into the cross, or
wrought Christian sculptures upon the old men-hir that yet remained.
Very probably the wayside shrines, so common in Southern Germany and
all Catholic countries, arose from the men-hir.

2. DormeNn or Totmen, Triziras. Dolmen (raised stone, devil’s table,
witches’ table) are monuments which consist of several stones, and which
support one or more flat ones like the top of a table. The word dolmen
is Celtic, and consists of man (stone) and taol (table), which afterwards was
corrupted into tol or doll.

The Dolmen are of three forms. The simplest are those which we will
distinguish by the name Half Dolmen, and which seem to be incomplete.
They consist of a long stone with one end upon the ground while the other
is supported by an upright stone. An example is the Half Dolmen of -
Kerland near Carnac (jig. 2), upon which a cross was erected when it was
changed into aChristian monument. Sometimes the Half Dolmen are only
apparently so because the other supporting stone has fallen. Generally the
flat top is 10—12 feet long, 5—7 feet high, and 2—3 feet thick. The
supporting stones are seldom more than 3 feet high; if they are higher the
monument is called Lichaven or Trilith. These monuments are rare. A
very beautiful specimen is in the neighborhood of St. Nazaire (department
of the lower Loire), consisting of a single stone, 3.26 metres long, 1.64

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ARCHITECTURE. 109

metres broad, and 0.34 metres thick, whose supports are 2.27 metres high
(fig. 5). Strabo mentions in his Egyptian journey, Triliths dedicated to
Mercury. ,

The real Dolmen may be either simple or complicated. The simple
Dolmen consists of four stones, three of which form a rectangular grotto of
which the fourth side is open, and upon which the fourth stone forms the
ceiling. Of this kind is the Dolmen of Trie (pl. 24, jig. 3), in which, in the
rear stone, there is a circular hole of which we have no explanation. The
top is usually 18—20 feet in length, 12—14 in breadth, and 1}—3 feet in
thickness.

Besides these there are Dolmen which consist of a greater number of stones,
of which several stand upright and support the top, while others simply
serve to fill up the intervening space. Sometimes the top itself consists
of several stones. One of the finest of this kind is the Dolmen of Locmaria-
quer in Bretagne (fig. 10), known by the names of Caxsar’s table, table of
the merchants, and Dolvarchant. The top is more than 25 feet long, 13
feet broad, and 3 feet thick, and rests upon only three of the numerous
stones that formed the wall, and of which some are pushed aside. This
Dolmen stands east and west. In England also there are many such Dolmen,
especially in the southern counties, and there are some there which are
closed up on all sides.

If we return to the original intention of such Dolmen, we should find it,
without doubt, to be religious, even if we did not find some of them men-
tioned by old authors as “‘ Sanctuaries of Mercury.” ‘Tacitus says, speaking
of Anglesea, the centre of Druidism in England, that in those forests there
were altars upon which the blood of captives was burned or rather evaporated,
and the Dolmen are such Celtic altars, for upon the majority of them there
is a circular depression in which, probably, the blood of the victim was
received and. thence flowed away through a groove. In Cornwall there is
still such a slab 35 feet in length, 19 feet in breadth, and 15 feet in thickness,
which is laid over two natural rocks, and in which there are several such
depressions, the largest of which is more than 6 feet in diameter. Some
have supposed these depressions to be the work of chance, but more than two
hundred monuments of the kind remain, and it is not likely that the same
chance would have affected all of them.

3. CovErED Ways. Covered ways, witches’ grottoes, witches’ rocks, are
properly nothing more than large Dolmen, and are classed by antiquarians
with them. These passages are frequently not of the same breadth for the
whole distance, but are broader at one end than at the other, and many seem
like passages leading to a square or circular hall, in which is a kind of sub-
division into three or four compartments. The most remarkable monument
of this kind, as weli for its preservation as its size, and the immense blocks
of which its walls consist, is the famous Witch’s Grotto in the neighbor-
hood of Saumur, on the road to Bagneux. P1. 24, fig. 13, gives the exterior,
and jig. 14 the interiur view. The monument is well preserved and sur-
rounded with trees. The entrance of the grotto, which, however, is now
closed by a door, lies toward the south-east, and is formed by two stones

109

110 ARCHITECTURE.

standing the usual width of a door apart. These stones, as well as all those
which serve to support the upper slabs, are about 7 feet high, and their
thickness varies from 7 inches to 1 foot 9 inches. The exterior breadth of
the monument is nearly 15 feet, and the long sides are each composed of
four stones, together about 52 feet in length. In the rear a single stone 21
feet long, extending far beyond both side walls, forms the end. All the
stones, excepting the two front ones, which form the door and stand per-
pendicularly, are inclined inwards at"€he top. The ceiling consists of four
stones, the largest of which is 22 feet long, 19 feet broad, and 3 feet thick.
This slab is rent lengthwise, and is supported by an upright stone in the
centre. Near Essé, a place not far from Rennes, is a similar grotto, which
is more than 57 feet long and is divided into two chambers. J/g. 11 repre-
sents the exterior view. Of the two chambers one is much the smaller and
serves as a kind of vestibule, and is about 133 feet long and 8 feet broad,
entirely open in front and lying towards the south-east. A passage between
two stones leads into the chief grotto, which is broader than the first room,
being 11 feet in front and 12 in the rear. On one of the walls, which is
only a continuation of the wall of the first room, the stones project on the
inside, forming as it were small chapels. The rear wall of the grotto con-
sists of a single stone, and the ceiling of nine slabs, some of which are six
feet thick.

Near Tours is a similar monument called the Grotte des Fées, and repre-
sented in jig. 12. The entrance is towards the west, and the grotto is
inclosed by 12 rough stones. One fourth of its length is partitioned off by
an upright stone, leaving only a passage or door free, and thus a kind of
vestibule is formed. The top consists of three stones, the middle one
of which is 6 feet thick, that is twice as thick as the other two. The whole
length of the monument is 224 feet, its breadth 11 feet, and its height inside
7% and on the outside on the centre top slab 133 feet. Although rough, the
stones are more carefully joined than was generally the case with such
monuments. There are similar grottoes in France and England; for
instance, near Locmariaquer, near Ville-Genvin, and upon the island of
Anglesea ; also in the province of Minster in Prussia.

A very peculiar monument, somewhat resembling the covered ways,
is the double dolmen in a wood upon the island of Anglesea (pl. 24, fig. 4).
Two slightly inclined dolmen stand close behind each other, one resting upon
four, the other upon three supports. The top of the larger is about 14 feet
long, 12 feet broad, and 24 feet thick. The largest supporting stones are
about 5 feet high. There is also a very rare monument in the department
of Morbihan, bearing the same relation to the covered ways as the half dol-
men to the dolmen. It consists (fig. 9) of a row of upright stones, against
which another row leans obliquely, and the monument thus appears like
a row of half dolmen placed closely together.

Much has been said of the object of these covered ways, and it has not
yet been explained. The simplest and most natural idea seems to be, that
the piatforms of these ways, like that of the dolmen, were devoted to sacri-
fices celebrated in the presence of the people, while the covered room under-

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ARCHITECTURE. 111

neath served for the celebration of mysteries, which only the initiated
were allowed to witness. They may also have served as dwellings for the
priests, as would appear from their subdivision into chambers.

4, Natura Arrars. We have considered the dolmen and the covered
ways as sacrificial altars, but there were still others which were arranged
with less labor, for nature herself erected them. Greater or smaller blocks
of stone that lay upon the ground, either brought by men’s hands or found
there, were consecrated to the gods of the Druids, and used as sacrificial
altars. Such is the Druid altar between Brelevenez and Cleder (Finis-
terre) (jig. 6), which is nothing but a great stone of 216 cubic feet in size
and brought to the spot by men. Upon its top is a square basin of some 14
inches in breadth and 4 inches in depth, made with a chisel, or some similar
instrument. From this basin a conduit leads obliquely off on one side.
Upon the rim of the basin some runes are cut. Near the stone stands one
of the rude stone crosses by which the first Christians consecrated these
altars to obliterate the remembrance of the bloody gods of their ancestors.
In England there are many such natural altars.

5. Prercep Srones. In France and more frequently in England, and
especially in Wales and Cornwall, there are large upright stone slabs
which are bored through from one side to the other. They are sup-
posed to have been connected with the Druidical worship. Healing
power is also said to have been attributed to them, the diseased limb
having been put through the hole, amid mysterious ceremonies, with a
sonfident anticipation of cure. A similar superstition in France lends
force to this hypothesis, and recently such a stone was removed because
the peasants were so credulous that they thrust their ailing legs and arms
through the hole and firmly believed that they would be healed. There
is a similar stone near Duneau in the neighborhood of Conerets, in the
department of Sarthe, and we have represented it in pl. 24, fig. 18, at the
left. The stone is about 10 feet high, 6 feet broad, and 3 feet thick, and a
bough of a neighboring tree has now pushed itself through the hole.

6. Rocxtye Srones. The rocking stones must be classed among the
most remarkable of the Celtic monuments. They are found in many
places both in France and England. As their name implies, these monu-
ments consist of huge stones which stand resting on a point in such a
manner, either upon the ground or upon other stones, that the slightest
touch puts them in motion. As this phenomenon may readily arise from
natural causes, it would be wrong to suppose all such stones Druidical
monuments. Thus the famous rocking stone near Huelgoet (Finisterre)
is certainly nothing else than a rock fallen upon another and happening to
balance there. Still in many instances it is impossible to deny the human
agency.

The question as to the object of these rocking stones is answered very
variously, but unsatisfactorily. One writer thinks that they were arranged
with such care and skill only to show how much was then known of the laws
of equilibrium. Perhaps these stones, floating as it were in the air, were to

represent the world in space, or were a symbol of the power which moves
111

112 ARCHITECTURE.

the universe so easily, or a symbol of the vitality that pervades the universe.
Dulaur finds some affinity between these stones and those carried about by
the Romish priests during drought to attract rain, holding that the stones
were moved with a view to occasion favorable weather or to drive away
magic. Baudoin makes of them the test of female virtue, because the
stones in many parts of Bretagne, for instance near Jaudet, are called
Roc’h-were’het (Roche aux vierges). Only the true and chaste could put
the stone in motion.

These rocking monoliths are found in all parts of France and England.
The largest is that of Perros-Guyrech (Cote du Nord), being about 43 feet
long and broad, and 21 feet high (pl. 24, jig. 8). The surface is flattened
by nature and has a kind of hollowing, from which a channel is chiselied,
so that it seems as if this enigmatical stone may have served as a Dolmen.
The balance is so delicate that a single man can easily move this mass of
rock, weighing not less than 1,000,000 pounds. In Bretagne there are
several such stones; for instance, near Autun where a granite block, with
an egg-shaped top, stands upon another granite block, in such a manner
that it moves with the lightest touch. We cannot here mention all, but
must not omit that near West Hoadley in the county of Sussex (jig. 7),
which is about 22 feet high. It has a pyramidal base which rests upon a
granite rock, and it is very easily moved. It is computed at 500 tons in
weight.

7. Mounps. We have before mentioned that the simplest sepulchral
monument was the upright stone (Men-hir), but distinguished persons
received more important monuments. In the most ancient times no other
than material greatness was recognised; immense mounds were, therefore,
erected as sepulchral remembrances to great men, and the largest pyramids
are perhaps nothing but mounds in their highest perfection. This custom
of erecting mounds is traced to the earliest times. Herodotus and Homer
often mention them, and the Germans of the present day are familiar with the
Giants’ graves, which popular tradition designates as the graves of a Titanic
race of men who lived thousands of years ago. The Etrurian graves also,
the grottoes of Corneto (p. 36, pl. 8, figs. 3 and 4, and Division IV. pl.
11, fig. 1), are nothing but such mounds, as we shall presently describe,
but walled with stone. Pallas found the mounds in the north of Asia
among the Tschuwashi, Ostiaks, Baltyri, and Samoyedes. Baron Tott found
them in Tartary ; Volney in the Pashalic of Aleppo as high as 90 feet;
Bertram among the savages in Florida. In all parts of America, even
among the Botocudi and in French Guyana, the dead are even now buried
in an upright posture with their arms, and huge mounds erected over the
graves. The Celts called the mounds, if they were constructed of heaped
up stones, Galgals (from gal, a stone), and the Britons Cairns.

The dimensions of the mounds are very various, for there are some of
immense size, and again others scarcely three feet in height. The round
mounds have an almost semi-spherical form, and of this kind are most of
the mounds in England, generally surrounded with a little ditch. The
broad mound is similar to the round, but with the horizontal diameter much

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greater, for there are those mentioned, not over 18 feet high, whose
diameters are 90, 150, and even 220 feet. The oblong mound resembles the
long in shape, and the long diameter is often three to five times greater
than the short. There are rarely many of the oblong mounds in a line, but
often an oblong one surrounded by several smaller round ones. The broad
and oblong mounds are often galgals, and contain covered galleries leading
to tomb-chambers. The little conical mounds were formerly very common
in England, but have now mostly disappeared under the ploughshare, and
they are, therefore, now only found in the uncultivated districts. Their
diameter is rarely more than 30 feet, and they are often surrounded by a
little ditch. )

The twin mounds consist of two mounds in close contact, and possibly
inclosed two persons who had been intimate friends. The bell-shaped
mounds are found in the neighborhood of Stonehenge, and are probably of
more recent date than the others w+ have mentioned. The mounds, however,
must not be confounded with the artificial hills, which were often thrown up
to mark the position of boundaries or places of execution, and which were
distinguished by being always flattened upon the summit.

The mounds occur partly single, partly in groups. The former are the
more common. To these belong, for instance, the mound of Salisbury in
Wiltshire (pl. 24, jig.15). It is of great dimensions, and is considered to
be the grave ofa king. Its circumference near the ground is 2300 feet, and
its perpendicular height about 190 feet. The great number of mounds
which surround it at. some distance, are supposed to be the graves of
important persons buried in the vicinity of the king. The largest mound
in France is in the neighborhood of Sarzeau (Morbihan), near the sea, and
is known under the name of Butte de Tumiac. It is about 100 feet high,
and 400 feet in circumference; it is entirely overgrown with shrubbery,
and serves the mariners as a landmark, as it can be discerned far at sea.
Near Locmariaquer there is an oblong stone mound. The MontSt. Michel,
too, near Carnac (Morbihan) is nothing but a mound erected upona platean,
upon whose summit a chapel is built, dedicated to the archangel.

Near Pornic, in the department of the Lower Loire, there are several
mounds situated in the middle of a plain. One of them has on the north-
east side an opening leading to two low galleries of from 2 to 4% feet in
width, by a height of about 5 feet. Their length has not yet been traced
beyond 7 feet. The diameter of the mound itself, which is a galgal of quartz
and calcareous slate, is 75 to 80 feet. Of the other mounds, one has been
entirely dug through, and is therefore the most interesting of the group.
In it are likewise found the entrances of two galleries (jig. 16) consisting of
large rough stones, and forming several spacious halls in the interior of the
mound.

In digging up a mound near Fontenay le Marmion, the galleries were
found closed above with quarried stones, but the rooms in the interior
empty. After digging through a layer of clay, however, which formed the
floor, a mass of human bones was discovered, some of which showed traces
of fire, whilst others were entirely uninjured. There were found ten

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114 ARCHITECTURE.

different graves, each of which had its gallery leading to a round space
which had been the place of burial. There were no objects of metal found
in the mounds, but a hatchet of stone, and a number of vases of black earth
of peculiar form, and apparently made by hand alone without the assistance
of a potter’s wheel, from which their extreme age may be inferred. In
other mounds also, hatchets of flint have been found together with vases of
burnt clay (some of them containing well preserved nuts and acorns), small
cutting instruments of stone, spoons made of burnt clay or of shells, a dish
exhibiting rude drawings, boars’ tusks, &c., but nowhere objects of metal.

In the Orkney islands some remarkable mounds have been examined,
and only in the Orkneys, have mounds been found that contained two
tiers of tombs. 72g. 17 gives the section of such a mound containing
five tombs irregularly distributed throughout the mound, and having no
connexion with each other. The mounds of the Orkneys are the only ones
in which objects of metal, combs, glass beads, armlets, arms, &c., have
been found.

The Gallic tombs of common people deserve especial mention in this
place. They consist of an area inclosed by four upright stone slabs, never
sunk more than three feet under the surface of the ground, and covered with
a rough block. They are sometimes found by hundreds in a limited area,
and such a spot is called Carneilloux (from carn, flesh chamber). They
are met with frequently both ‘n Bretagne and in England. The remains
found in the same are generally surrounded by similar objects with those
found in the mounds, and indicate the Celtic period. The architect, Gau,
author of a large work on Nubia, found in 1839 a Gallic mound in the
neighborhood of Gisors, in the department of Eure, consisting of six rough
stones, leaned against each other in pairs, and forming a kind of gable roof
over six skeletons (fig. 18, right hand).

8. Sacrep InctosurEs (Cromiecus). It is well known that the Greeks
and Romans consecrated certain spots to the gods, setting them apart by
inclosures. A similar custom is observed among the Celts, and according to
Tacitus such places were held in such awe, that except the priest nobody
dared enter them otherwise than with bound hands, this being considered
as indicative of reverence to the Deity.

These inclosures were of multifarious forms, often very irregular; the
most important ones are circular, and termed Cromlechs. They are among
the most interesting Druidical monuments.

The inclosures were generally formed by earth walls, surrounded by a
ditch. That of Kermurier (Morbihan) is of the shape of a horse-shoe, the
opening closed by a straight line. One of the largest is near Begars (Cote
du Nord). It forms an ellipse with a long axis of 3000 feet, running north
and south. The semicircle at the northern end contains 12 huge stone
blocks, 7 others lying along the axis. At the opposite extremity stands a
men-hir, 25 feet high.

The cromlechs, or Druidical circles, which sometimes have been called
astronomical circles, but without any reason, are bounded by upright stones.
In France they are of rarer occurrence than the dolmen and men-hirs,

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ARCHITECTURE. 115

whilst in the British Islands they are more frequent. 7g. 19 represents
one from the Orkney islands, somewhat over 300 feet in diameter, very well
preserved, and also interesting on account of its picturesque situation. In
the centre of the cromlechs was a men-hir as symbol of the Deity to which
the inclosure was consecrated, and which was worshipped by the people.
Sometimes dolmen are found near the sacred inclosures, but never within
the same, as the sanctuary must not be desecrated by the blood of the
victims.

Cromlechs have also been found in Germany. One of them situated near
Helmstadt, in Brunswick, is very remarkable. It has in the centre a men-
hir standing between two triliths, which arrangement seems to corroborate
the view that the triliths were merely dedicatory, not sacrificial altars,
since, as we have seen, dolmen proper never occur within the circle of the
inclosure. In Switzerland, where no other Druidical monuments are found,
a cromlech occurs in the picturesque district of Hasli.

In England there are two monuments of this kind, but more complicated
in character. The more important one is Stonehenge, in Wiltshire. It
consists of a double inclosure of upright stones about 28 feet high and 7
feet broad. These stones are rudely hewn into quadrangular form, and
surmounted by a kind of architrave of more carefully wrought stones
mortised on their supports. The outer circle is about 190 feet in diameter.
Within the double inclosure are two others of elliptical form, open on one
side and containing each a men-hir standing alone in the centre. There
can be no doubt that the group was a cromlech dedicated to some
powerful deity, although some archeologists designate it as the ruin of
some substructure.

It will be proper to insert here, before passing to the period of the Middle
Ages, some remarks on the architecture of China and America, neither of
which can be grouped in any of the chronological periods of architecture,
the former having had no ancient, and the latter having no modern architec-
ture of its own, as will appear from our sketch of the monuments of these
countries.

9. CarnesE ARCHITECTURE.

China is essentially the country of stagnation. Hundreds of inventions,
made by other people in later centuries, have been known to the
Chinese often for thousands of years; but at a certain point of develop-
ment their progress has been arrested, and they have been gradually
distanced by the development of the rest of the world so as now to
be very far behind the general civilization. Their architecture of the
present day is exactly what it has been time out of mind, and this
suggested the foregoing remark that they had no ancient architecture, as it
is identical with the modern in every characteristic. The great Chinese
wall bears witness to the early progress of art in China, whilst at the
same time, in a measure, it is the cause of its arrest, since it is a barrier

against the introduction of foreign improvement as well as against the
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116 ARCHITECTURE.

diffusion of the valuable part of Chinese knowledge through the rest of the
world. For the description of this wall we refer to the division of this
work devoted to military sciences, where it has been treated of under the
head of Fortification. It was commenced about 270 years B. c., and shows
in its gates the construction of regular semicircular vaults made of wedge-
shaped stones carefully jointed. Much of it is executed in bound
masonry, and this kind of construction is also found in the walls of cities
in the interior, and in the palaces of the grandees, whilst the great mass of
the buildings in the country are chiefly made of sun-dried bricks or of
bamboo cane. With regard to the shape of the Chinese buildings, they
have with characteristic stability preserved the tent form of the nomadic
ages, which is met with in all descriptions of edifices: temples, palaces, and
common dwellings.

The combination of framework in China is very simple. The ridge of
the roof rests generally only on a couple of posts overtopped by a beam
which supports other posts with a cross-beam, this arrangement being
repeated until the requisite height is attained. Bamboo canes bent into
the curve of the tent, recurved below, supply the place of rafters, and are
connected by their cross-laths, which support the light glazed tiles. The
latter are grey for common dwellings, green for princely residences, and
yellow for the edifices of the emperor. The corners and ridges of the
buildings are adorned partly with large foliated decorations, in part with
fabulous animals among which the dragon is most prominent. Similar
ornaments are placed on the ends of the architraves where they pierce
through the wooden columns (pl. 25, jigs. 6,7). Under the entablature
and between the columns there are generally trellised friezes (jigs. 14, 15,
showing at the same time the form of the roofs with the pavilions usually
placed on the same). The gaudiest colors are used in the decorations of
all buildings, especially green and gold. Yellow paint occurs only on
imperial buildings, this color being interdicted to all but the emperor.

The ground plan of the buildings (jigs. 1, 2) is generally so arranged
that the street fronts are occupied by shops. Next follow the rooms of the
family, mostly spacious halls, the Chinese being of a very sociable disposi-
tion, especially the female sex. The houses have no windows to the street,
but always several large courts in the interior similar to those of the ancient
Greek and Roman buildings, with which the Chinese structures have many
surprising affinities in point of arrangement. The houses are generally
inhabited by only one family, and are mostly only one story high. If there is
a second story, it is placed some distance back from the front and has a piazza
with columns before it, and a richly carved wooden railing like those repre-
sented in figs. 8—11. The columns placed in the yards, as well as those that
support the far projecting roofs, have no reduction. Their bases are more
or less ornamental (figs. 5—7), but they have no capitals, their tops being
concealed in the roof.. 7g. 3 gives the elevation, and jig. 4 the section of a
Chinese house which exhibits the curious circular doors used even in the
interior of the houses. The windows are generally fancifully carved and
rather small (jig. 13). The walls have frequently trellis work, which

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ARCHITECTURE. 117

assists in ventilation, thus counterbalancing the smallness of the windows.
The ceilings are panelled (jig. 12) and gaudily painted and gilded.

ig. 16 gives a view of the rich dwelling of a mandarin. It is situated
in Tong-Chow, and known as the Pavilion of the Star of Hope. It consists
of three distinct buildings of magnificent workmanship, two of which are
entirely open halls lying in front of the house, and forming, as it were,
porticoes to the same. The roofs are all of different shapes and tastefully
carved. The whole is surrounded by rich terraces and gardens. The
interior corresponds in magnificence with the exterior, and is especially
rich in carved and inlaid work. It is divided into two parts by a corridor
filled with beautiful flowers and separating the rooms of the owner from
those of the women. All sleeping rooms are in the upper story, which
opens upon a terrace surrounded with a carved railing also decorated
with flowers. The effect of the villa and its grounds is said to be truly
enchanting.

Of public buildings the pagodas deserve special notice. Jig. 18 gives
the ground plan, and jig. 19 the section of the large pagoda at Ho-Nang, the
southern part of Canton. It is 572 feet in length by a breadth of 360 feet,
and is used as a temple, a market, a tavern, and a hospital. The buildings
in the circumference connected by colonnades contain the various apart-
ments used for secular purposes, whilst the three edifices in the centre
contain the temple and the dwellings for the priests. In the arrangements
of the ground plan affinities to the Greek and still more to the Egyptian
style cf building are perceptible.

With the exception of Christian churches, which are not tolerated, we
find in China temples for the public worship of almost all known religions:
for instance of the religion of Confucius, Buddha, Mahomed, of the Hebrews,
&ec. Exteriorly the different temples are almost all alike, and they vary
only in their interior arrangement. /7%g. 20 represents the entrance of a
magnificent temple of Confucius in Tsing-Hai in the province of Tshe-Kiang.
This temple is one of the most frequented. The entrance represented in
our figure leads to the sanctuary which, like all similar places in China,
serves two purposes, first that of worship, and next of occasional residence
for imperial officers or of distinguished travellers, who never omit to bestow
upon the temple a donation in accordance with their rank or wealth.
They also give presents to the priests, as they receive no salaries from the
emperor, who only pays the priests of his household, leaving the others to
the care of the devout. |

One of the most renowned edifices of China is the porcelain tower of the
Temple of Gratitude, near the city of Pekin, which was built by order of
the emperor Yung-Lo. According to the report of the missionary P.
Lecomte it has a substructure of brick forming a large platform, surrounded
by a railing of rough marble, and accessible from all sides by flights of ten
or twelve steps. The hall serving as temple has a depth of 100 feet, and
rests on a plinth of marble one foot thick, and projecting two feet on all
sides. The front has several pillars and a gallery; the roof is covered with

green tiles. The woodwork in the interior consists of innumerable small
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118 ARCHITECTURE.

pieces joined together without any regular system, which is considered a
merit by the Chinese, and is painted. The aspect of the forest of posts,
pillar, beams, and ties, is indeed surprising; whilst it is evident that the
waste of work originated only in the ignorance of the Chinese of the noble
simplicity in construction and decoration which gives our modern buildings
their strength and beauty. The principal hall is lighted through the large
door on the east side. The tower standing at the side of the hall is octa-
gonal, with a diameter of about 40 feet. Above the first story it has a glazed
roof resting on columns, and having an elegant gallery. The whole consists
of nine stories, divided by small roofs projecting under the windows about
3 feet, and gradually less towards the top. They have no galleries or

columns. The walls of the tower are 12 feet in thickness below, gradually

reduced to 8 feet at the top, and are faced with porcelain slabs, which have
suffered considerably from rain and dust. The stairs in the interior are
narrow and uncomfortable, the steps being very high. The stories are
divided by strong beams supporting floors. The tower has thus nine cham-
bers, whose walls are covered with the fantastic painting so characteristic
of Chinese art. In the upper stories they have numerous small niches, in
which idols are placed, which produce a singular effect. The walls seem
to be faced with slabs of burnt clay, with bas-reliefs, and gilded throughout.
The first story is higher than the others, which are all alike in height. The
steps are 190 in number, each being 10 inches high. The whole height of
the tower, including the substructure and the bell-shaped roof of the ninth
story, is somewhat over 200 feet. The roof is very ornamental, and pierced
by a mast, which commences in the eighth story and projects 30 feet above
the top. It is surrounded by an iron spiral, wound at some distance from
the wood, and its highest extremity carries a large gilded ball.

This structure is one of the strongest and most ingeniously executed
among this kind of edifices, which are found in all parts of China, and
known by the name of Ta.

10. American ARCHITECTURE.

We have stated above that America has no modern architecture of her
own. This view is based upon the examination of the monuments of a
peculiar kind found in Central America and Mexico, and belonging to a
much earlier period than the discovery of America, and probably dating
even further back than the Christian era. The buildings erected on this
continent at a later period and in our days bear no affinity whatever to the
style of those monuments, but belong essentially to the European schools of
art, modified to suit the convenience or taste of the builders. The monn-
ments of antiquity must therefore be regarded as the only representatives
of American architecture proper, and are therefore the only ones that claim
our attention in this place, whilst we shall hereafter have occasion to mention
several important edifices erected on this continent in modern times. A few
stones with alleged Runic inscriptions found in the northern part of the
United States (Rhode Island and Connecticut) have been designated by

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ARCHITECTURE. 119

autiquarians as the remains of buildings erected by the Danes, who had
discovered America long before Columbus; but as this allegation is as yet
totally without historical proof, and these stones without any architectural
interest, they will not come within the province of our sketch.

When the Spaniards conquered Mexico they found a certain degree
of civilization among the aborigines, which was the more surprising as it
had been developed by no previous intercourse with other people. The
division of labor was found to be carried to an incredible extent in the
mechanic and finer arts. The artists as well as the craftsmen finished only
a certain part of the work, and beyond its completion they had no knowledge
whatever. They supplied by consummate skill and perseverance in their
proper spheres the deficiency of their rude tools.

The civil and religious architecture of the aborigines is only known from
the descriptions of the conquerors, since the few remains of the same afford
too little scope for investigation at the present day. The dwellings of the
poor were made of pebbles or sun-dried bricks, and covered by a net on
which aloe leaves were fastened like tiles. The houses had only one room;
only in the towns some were found that had two rooms anda bathing room.

The dwellings of the more wealthy were of a very porous red freestone
laid in mortar, and had flat roofs with terraces. The palaces of the kings
and the temples were of similar form, only larger.

The art of architecture had reached a good degree of development among
the people of the plateau of Anahuac, and thence spread to the Aztecs, and
other tribes with whom the Spaniards came into contact, and whom they
found thoroughly acquainted with the arts of erecting perpendicular walls,
of dressing stones, and of constructing vaults, whilst their aqueducts which
supplied Tenochtitlan with drinking water, their dams, dykes, and highroads,
sometimes carried through lakes, bore testimony to their practical skill.

The oldest edifices of which remains are still extant are the two pyramids
of San Juan de Teotihuacan, in the valley of Mexico, known by the names
of Sunand Moon. They were the prototypes of the great temple of Tenoch-
titlan. Their tops are accessible by immense flights of stairs of hewn stones,
and there are still found fragments of altars which had their places there.
These pyramids face the quarters of the heavens, and were formerly sur-
rounded by several hundred smaller ones 90 to 120 feet in height, which
were grouped all around the pyramids, and had streets between them
leading to the faces of the large pyramids. The smaller pyramids were
dedicated to the stars, and probably contained the tombs of the chieftains
of the different tribes.

About sixty years ago the pyramid of Papantla (pl. 26, jig. 7) was dis-
covered by chance in a dense forest near the pyramids of theSun and Moon,
which covers the slope of the Cordilleras, near the Gulf of Mexico. The
aborigines had zealously kept the secret of the location of this pyramid,
being very reluctant to discover the objects of their religious worship to
the curiosity of the whites. This teocali (temple) is the highest as yet
known, and consists of admirably hewn and jointed freestone. The struc-
ture, which has seven stories and is accessible by two flights of stairs, is

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120 ARCHITECTURE.

entirely covered with hieroglyphics. In all the stories are found qua-
drangular niches symmetrically arranged, and numbering in the aggregate,
according to Alexander von Humboldt, 318, corresponding with the number
of single signs constituting the calendar of the Toltecs.

The most important monument of the district of Anahuac is, however, the
pyramid of Cholula, situated on a plateau 6700 feet above the level of the sea,
and facing exactly the four quarters of the heavens. Its summit is accessible
from all four sides, and its general arrangements have many affinities to those
of the Egyptian pyramids. It is nine feet higher than the pyramid of Gizeh,
and nearly twice as high as that of Cheops. It contained spacious vaults
which served as burial-places, and on its platform, which measured 1050
square feet, stood in the times of the Aztecs an altar dedicated to the air,
which the Spaniards replaced by the church Nuestra Dama de los Remedios,
probably occupying a higher site than any other church.

A very curious monument is a temple at Xochicalco, near the town of
Quernavaca, which is at the same time a kind of fortress (fig. 2). It con-
sists of a natural rock, 360 feet high, wrought by hand into a tolerably
accurate pyramidal shape, and surrounded by a ditch, thus forming a
redoubt, or a fortified temple. Its summit has an area of about 2500 square
feet, and is surrounded by a wall for the protection of the defenders. The
regularity of the construction of this wall of porphyry is highly spoken of
by travellers, as well as the clearness of the bas-reliefs which decorate it.
Among the figures represented in the latter are crocodiles, and, what is
very curious, human figures in the sitting posture of the East with crossed
legs. Each figure covers several stones whose joints are so carefully closed
as not to disturb the surfaces of the sculptures in the least.

The -question whether there is any connexion between the Mexican
pyramids and those of Egypt has not yet been decided. It is characteristic
in the former that they always appear as huge substructures for temples or
altars. The latter were always placed in the highest possible spots by the
Mexicans, and where they did not find natural rocks in which they could eut
stairs to gain access to the summit, they constructed artificial pyramids.

Traces of a well developed ancient architecture are also found in the dis-
trict of Tlascala, situated between the territories of Mexico, Cholula, and
Huexotzinco. The aborigines of this district had surrounded their capital
with walls, and erected a thoroughly fortified camp, for which the nature of
the ground afforded the best facilities. Its western extremity was closed by
a deep ditch and high walls. On the eastern side was a wall of twenty-five
miles in length, whilst the northern side was effectively protected by a
number of strong positions in the chain of the Cordilleras. Within this
inclosure the people asserted their independence from Mexico and wor-
shipped the sun, whilst all around them a sanguinary worship had already
been introduced. /%g.1 gives the view of a bridge across the ditch which
lay in the line of defence, from which it appears that the Tlascalans had
only an imperfect knowledge of the art of constructing vaults, and that their
method of construction was similar to that of the Cyclopean walls, which
is the primitive architecture of all nations.

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ARCHITECTURE. 121

Among the oldest architectural remains of Mexico are the two pyramids
of Teotihuacan (fig. 8) and of Tuzapan (fig. 6). In the neighborhood
of these were twenty other such temples, of which but few traces are
left. The former is erected on a quadrangular artificial rock with flights
of stairs on all sides Jeading to the Cyclopean substructure of twelve
steps which supported the temple proper. In the latter was found an
idol of bronze; another of a large emerald, representing the god of war
of the aborigines; and an image of the sun wrought of gold with rays of
mother of pearl, with its mouth open and set with human teeth. On the
platform were found several other idols made partly of jasper or porphyry,
in part of wood, plaster, or colored stones. The second temple (jig. 6) was
larger and higher than the former, and its pyramid constructed with great
regularity of blocks of freestone. It was approached by only one flight of
stairs remarkable for having distinct cheeks. In the sanctuary of this
temple, which had an elaborate front, Don Martin d’ Urfua found, in the
year 1697, a bag suspended from a rope and containing bones. On his
inquiry about them he was told that these were the bones of the favorite
horse of Cortez, who, when returning to Mexico, after receiving the oath of
allegiance of the inhabitants, had left his sick favorite to the care of the
king of the tribe. The horse died, and the Indians, who feared that on the
return of Cortez they would be held responsible for this calamity, made the
bones of the horse the object of religious worship.

Another temple was dedicated to the king and his descendants, and
its pyramid served as a burial-place for the latter. There were other
temples, one of which belonged to the priests, the others to private
individuals.

A description of the palace of Utatlan will give an idea of the arrange-
ment of the royal residences as found by the Spaniards in Guatemala. It
betrays a degree of civilization which would be incredible but for the
unanimous testimony of eye-witnesses. The city of Utatlan lay on a platean,
whose declivities formed a natural ditch around the whole of its precincts,
and it was only accessible by two narrow ways. In the centre of the city
was the residence of the king surrounded by the palaces of the great. The
number of inhabitants was so considerable that the king could oppose 72,000
warriors to the Spaniards. Among the edifices of the city, the seminary
was remarkable, in which 6000 youths were lodged, clothed, and educated
at the expense of the state by sixty teachers appointed for the purpose.
The city was defended by two large royal castles capable of accommodating
large garrisons, and by the residential palace, which was more magnificent
than the one of Montezuma in Tenochtitlan, and that of the Inca of Cuzco.
Its front lay due east and west, and was 376 steps in length, whilst both sides
had 728 steps in depth. It was built of stones of various colors, and exhibited
beautiful proportions. The interior was divided into seven subdivisions. The
first was occupied by the body-guards of the king, consisting of archers and
lancers. The second afforded residences to the princes and relatives of the
king, who were there sumptuously provided for as long as they remained
unmarried. The third division was the residence of the king himself, which

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122 ARCHITECTURE.

also contained the state treasury, the arsenal, and the offices of state. The
fourth and fifth divisions were occupied by the wives of the king, every one
having her own apartments, baths, garden, and every imaginable comfort.
The sixth and seventh divisions were allotted respectively to the royal
princes and princesses. No palace of modern times in any civilized country
would bear a comparison with the sumptuous magnificence of this residence
of the king of a comparatively savage nation.

Near Onieies) on the frontier of Yucatan, the ruins of Palenque are of
especial interest. The ruins of the palace, e which several walls are still
standing, are not the only ones found there, but there are also ruins of a
number of private houses from which the ground plan and interior arrange-
ment of such buildings with these people can be seen, their extreme age
notwithstanding. The disposition of the plans to these buildings, the
sculptures, the painting, of which sufficient remains are left for investigation,
and the grand forms and proportions exhibited throughout, force upon the
beholder the conviction that these people were deficient neither in civiliza-
tion nor in practical skill.

Of equal interest with the ruins of Palenque are those of Uxmal in Yucatan.
They are the remains of a city which was once 16 miles in circumference,
and are in better preservation than the ruins of Palenque. Thé name of
this city cannot be given with certainty. It is supposed, however, to be the
ancient Majapan. Among its ruins is one called the Dwarf’s House, situated
onthe platform of a pyramid 224 feet in length and 120 feet broad, and
containing three rooms. Its exterior is entirely covered with sculptures, which
are both tastefully grouped and skilfully executed. Among the decorations
are leopards’ heads, foliated work, and a variety of rich panels; and the
joints of the masonry are so admirably fitted that they in no instance
mar the effect of the sculptures, although the figures often extend over four
or five stones, the building being erected, like all American monuments,
of much smaller blocks than were employed by the Egyptians in their
edifices. |

Another building is said to have been the residence of the virgins of the
sun, and is therefore even now termed the House of the Nuns. It is situ-
ated on an artificial substructure 15 feet in height, and occupies a plot of
ground 80 feet square. The principal entrance is wide, and leads into a

spacious court. The walls of the buildings, both exteriorly and interiorly,

are covered with sculptures, the interior being, however, much the richer in
decoration. /%g. 8 shows part of the front facing the court, and exhibits
the proportions of the cornices which were introduced in American

architecture. The lower part of the front is smooth, the upper very rich

in well executed sculptures, among which are full length figures drawn with
ease and well proportioned. The middle of the front has two colossal
intertwined serpents, whose heads rest on the centre cornice, and which
have caused the occasional designation of the building as the Temple of the
Two Serpents.

The house of the Tortoise probably destroyed by an earthquake, and the
House of the Pigeons, the one named from its shape, the other from

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ARCHITECTURE. 123

numerous recesses in the front, deserve a passing notice, on account of the
quaintness of their exterior, whilst their details are uninteresting.

The most important among the ruins is that of the residence of the
sovereign, besides being in the best state of preservation. It stands on two
pyramids placed one upon the other. The lower one is 600 steps in length
and breadth, and has a platform planted with trees, and having several
buildings on it. At the south-east corner of this platform there is a row
of 18 small cylindrical pillars, occupying a space of about 100 feet in length.
They are about 4 feet in height, by 18 inches in diameter, and their form
seems to indicate that columns were not unknown to the people of
those countries. On this platform rises the pyramid represented in jig. 4,
on whose summit is the edifice termed the House of the Ruler, which is
much in the same condition in which it was left by its former occupants.
It is entirely of stone, without any ornament up to the main cornice. The
latter, however, is decorated with surpassing richness, as may be inferred
from our jig. 5, which represents the corner of the same, whilst jig. 55
gives the figure contained in the ornament on a somewhat larger scale.
The proportions of this building exhibit a degree of symmetrical grandeur
so thoroughly in accordance with the strictest rules of art, that it becomes
difficult to credit that this is the work of a nation to whom the greatest
ignorance in matters of art is usually attributed. Intelligent and veracious
travellers class the ruins of Uxmal with the very best monuments of Egypt.
A remarkable circumstance in the House of the Ruler is the fact, that whilst
the whole structure is of stone, all the lintels are of iron wood 8 to 9 feet long,
18 to 20 inches broad, and 12 to 14 feet thick, and that they have been
burdened unhesitatingly with the weight of a wall 12 to 16 feet high, and 4
feet thick. The only probable explanation of this circumstance is, that the
wood has been introduced as a great curiosity of immense costliness, owing
to its scarcity, and the difficulty attending its transportation to the spot.
The floors and ceilings are constructed of quadrangular stone slabs. No
trace of arching is found, and the interior of the rooms is entirely without
decoration. An ornament often repeated in the sculptures of the cornice is
a death’s head, with large extended wings and projecting teeth (jig. 5, top).
It is two feet broad, and anchored in the wall. Another prominent feature
of the cornice is the mosaic-like sculpture visible at a (fig. 5), whose effect
is very pleasing.

The opinions as to the period when these monuments were probably
erected vary greatly. Lord Kingsborough dates the civilization of Central
America from an alleged migration of the Jews before the Egyptian
captivity. Dupaix holds the American monuments to be antediluvian.
Stephens considers them to be of comparatively recent date, that is to say,
little before the Christian era. Waldeck, however, is of opinion that the
civilization of Guatemala which called forth these monuments is much more
remote than the settlement of the Aztecs in Anahuac, and, indeed, the
oldest traditions of the aborigines make mention of these structures, which
therefore perhaps may be contemporary with those of Egypt.

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124 ARCHITECTURE.

Il. THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES.

In the history of the arts the middle ages comprise the period which
begins with the introduction of the Christian religion, and ends with the
second decline of art, or with the time when architecture had sunk so far
below the point of development to which it had risen in the 13th and 14th
centuries, that in the 16th century a complete regeneration of art
(renaissance) became yecessary, in order to réestablish in the features of
architecture a pure taste, which would make the buildings expressive of a
revived sense of beauty. This period may conveniently be divided into two
sections, the first embracing the time from Constantine the Great down to
the 11th century ; the second from that date down to the 16th century. We
will introduce our descriptions of the prominent buildings of both sections
by short historical sketches, tracing the progress of art in each.

1. Toe Prriop From ConsTANTINE THE GREAT To THE 11TH CENTURY.

The first Christians, it is well known, were the objects of the most violent
persecutions, and accordingly held their religious meetings clandestinely,
in the catacombs and” similar secluded places, or they made places of
worship of grottoes, which they widened or lined with walls. These sub-
terranean churches were termed crypts. Constantine gave countenance to
the new religion by embracing it himself, and henceforth it was publicly
professed, and consequently a new era in architecture commenced, that of
the Christian churches. At first it was very much under the influence of
Roman architecture, which had already declined considerably. This was
especially the case with that branch of the art which prevailed in the west-
em part of the empire, Italy, Germany, France, &c., which was termed
the style of the basilicas, or Latin or Romanesque architecture. The other
branch originated in Constantinople, from the more oriental development
of the Roman style, and was that peculiar and characteristic style known as
the modern Greek or the Byzantine architecture. We shall examine the
peculiarities of both these styles, adducing some prominent buildings of
each as examples.

A. The Romanesque Style.

Having already stated the origin of the basilicas and the changes in their
form and use since their introduction into Italy, from Greece, it remains for
us now to examine the details a little more closely, showing at the same
time how the heathen structures were adapted to the Christian worship.

1. Tuk Grounp Pian. Great irregularity prevailed for a long time with
regard to the plans of basilicas. Constantine erected in Rome, Constanti-
nople, and in Palestine, basilicas of all forms, round, polygonal, rectangular.
An example of the last form is the church of St. Marcelline in Rome (pi.
27, fig. 1). Sometimes the plans showed a combination of several figures.

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ARCHITECTURE. 125

There are several examples of quadrangular basilicas with perfectly
circular sanctuaries attached, for instance St. Martin’s church in Tours (jig.
2), built by Perpetuus. When the rites of the Christian worship had been
established, the rectangle was found the most convenient form for the
basilica and was generally adopted in the west. It is shown in the ground
plan of the basilica Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome (fig. 6). The side
aisles were reserved for female worshippers, and were made accessible by
special doors in front, placed at the sides of the main entrance leading to the
principal nave, which ended in a semicircular choir similar to the tribunal
of the heathen basilica. Behind the altar was a bench for the priests. In
some basilicas similar choirs were attached to the side aisles, for instance in
the church of Parenzo in Istria (jig. 3). The side choirs were closed by
drapery, and served as receptacles for the vessels and books of the church.
By degrees they were made of larger dimensions and became the treasuries
and libraries of the churches.

Although this form of the basilicas answered all practical purposes,
further changes were made in the course of time from various motives. First
the sanctuary was separated from the rest of the church by a wall, parallel
to which another was laid near the middle of the church. This was the
first germ of the transepts and of the cross form which prevailed in the
plans of churches for the succeeding centuries. It is illustrated by the plan of
St. Paul’s before the walls of Rome (jig. 4). The cross walls were inter-
rupted by wide arches affording a free communication between all parts of
the building. The church had in front a vestibule with columns, where the
congregation assembled before the ceremonies, and where penitents and
sinners waited the permission of entering the church. Such vestibules were
also attached to the circular basilicas as in St. Stephen’s in Rome (jig. 15).

The earliest Christian churches, especially those built by Constantine in
Rome, had their entrance on the east side, the altar at the western extre-
mity, the officiating priest looking towards the east when turned to the
congregation. This arrangement was afterwards exactly reversed, and all
the churches almost without any exception have their entrances at the
western end, and the altar at the eastern.

2. Tur Etevation. The first churches had mostly the outward appear-
ance of the Roman buildings of the age, and were probably very simply
decorated. Afterwards they were adorned with mosaic work, gilding, marble
‘fronts, and excellent sculptures. The outer wall of the central nave was usual-
ly carried much higher than the side aisles, and supported a gable roof with
a rather simple cornice. The sides of the roof rested on the side walls with
windows, through which the principal nave was lighted. In the gable was
a circular opening, the eye, for admitting air under the roof. The place of
the eye was afterwards taken up by mosaic work introduced in the gables.
Sometimes there was no gable, the slope of the roof being laid in front, as
in the church San Lorenzo before Rome (jig. 9). The gable form is shown
in the view of St. Agnes’ basilica near Rome (jig. 14).

The principal front below the gable or sloping roof was mostly decorated
with mosaic compositions representing Christ, the Holy Virgin, the

125

126 ARCHITECTURE.

Apostles, and even entire miracles. The front wall in the vestibule was
subdivided by the main and side entrances, and its face also decorated with
mosaic or painting. .

The vestibule of the Romanesque church is a kind of portico, extendin
before the entire width of the front, and resting on columns, with antique
bases, and shafts either smooth or with very narrow spiral flutings. The
capitals are either Ionic or Corinthian, but vary occasionally from the
original forms of those orders. The capitals are connected in pairs by
architraves supporting a continuous frieze and cornice, the former often
decorated with a mosaic of differently shaded marble, red and green por-
phyry, &c., whilst the latter is too gaudily set with modillions and foliation in
a poorstyle. The vestibule has astraight slanting roof resting with its lower
side on the cornice, whilst the upper is lodged in the wall of the basilica.
The doors leading into the naves have generally very rich frames relieving
materially the paintings on the walls between them. Sometimes a narrow
portico supplies the place of the vestibule, as in St. Clement’s basilica in
Rome (jig. 17), when the door leading into the interior is always of sur-
passing splendor. In some basilicas there is neither this portico nor the
vestibule which we have described, but a cross wall at a short distance
from the front wall cuts off a piece of the interior, thus forming a species of
inner vestibule which communicates with the main and side naves by three
openings closed only with drapery.

The side fronts of most Romanesque basilicas offer few interesting points
except the manner of construction, the roofs of the side aisles, and their
connexion with the transept (jig. 16). The sides of the basilicas have
usually a row of windows, with round arches above. In southern countries
‘the place of windows is often supplied in the frames by thin slabs of marble
pierced with circular or lozenge-shaped holes closed with glass (jigs. 12, 18).

The rear view of the basilica (jig. 18) exhibits usually one or more semi-
circular attached buildings, the inclosures of the choirs. The central is
always the largest, and has richer cornices. Windows occur but very
rarely in the choirs. If the basilica has no transept the rear wall is profiled
like the front, but if it is a cross basilica the roof line of the side aisles is
horizontal (pl. 21, jig. 24). The semicircular choirs have conical roofs
attached to the rear wall of the basilica.

3. Tue Lytertor. The oldest Christian basilicas had naves of different
sizes, separated by two or four rows of columns parallel to the side walls.
They were for a long time close imitations of the Roman heathen basilicas.
In some the straight architrave is supplanted by arches, in others combined
with them. In the latter case the side aisles have two stories, the
upper one being formed by a gallery, as in that of San Lorenzo in
Rome (jig. 10). This gallery was reserved for women, and had its own
entrance from outside the basilica. Above were the windows through
which the church was lighted. Towards the choir the walls had arched
openings (fig. 11). The round wall of the choir being lower than the nave
ample room was afforded in the straight rear wall for mosaic and paintings.
The side walls above the galleries were also decorated in this manner. The

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ARCHITECTURE. 127

floors were inlaid with stone plates of various colors, and an excellent effect
was attained by grouping the marble, granite, and porphyry plates in rich
patterns. .

The roof of the basilica was of simple, double, or triple suspension frame-
work, according to the size of the main nave, and often without wainscoting,
so that the rafters were visible in the interior. They were therefore painted
with great elegance.

The altar in the oldest basilicas was of the shape of a quadrangular
sarcophagus, emblematic of the holy sepulchre. The attributes of Chris-
tianity, the alpha and omega, labarum, palm tree, cross, &c., were among
the decorative sculptures of the altar. In basilicas dedicated to sainted
martyrs their remains were deposited in the altars, which also received a
niche in which a relic of the martyr was placed.

Sometimes subterranean chapels were constructed under the altars, and
adorned with the richest embellishments. They were approached by steps
from the interior of the basilica. At the four corners of the altar stood
columns which supported an entablature and ceiling, forming a canopy over
the altar. This canopy was termed ciborium. Pl. 27, fig. 19, shows that
in the basilica San-Clemente in Rome, and under it the entrance to the
subterranean chapel. 3

The part of the basilica lying in front of the sanctuary was set apart by
low partitions of richly carved wood or marble, and sometimes raised several
steps above the level of the naves. This was the choir, or high choir, which
had benches of wood or marble, and a pulpit. /%g. 20 represents the
high choir of San Clemente.

In some of the basilicas there is erected a small distinct building dedicated
to the ceremony of baptism, and termed baptistery; more frequently, how-
ever, these buildings were erected in front of the main entrances of basilicas.
They were of various forms (jigs. 21-24). They contained in the centre a
deep basin or pool, usually corresponding in form with the ground plan of
the building, and the baptismal rite was performed by immersion, amid invo-
cations of St. John the Baptist. Subterranean conduits supplied and drained
the pool. Sometimes it was surrounded with columns, which supported the
ceiling, as in that of St. Agnes in Rome (jig. 29). Afterwards the baptisteries
were united with the basilicas themselves, and then occupied the head of
the side aisle, set apart by a railing and a portico, as in the basilica in
Cividale, of whose baptistery jig. 28 gives a view. The ceremony of total
immersion ceased after the baptistery had become part of the church proper.
Baptismal fonts were then introduced, of which jigs. 25-27 give the most
usual forms. They were large enough for several persons to be baptized
standing at the same time. ‘The smaller baptismal fonts were not introduced
until several hundred years later, when immersion had been altogether set
aside.

4. DescrirTion oF sOME RomANESQUE Basmicas. The oldest basilica
built by Constantine in Rome is St. John Lateran. It had the Roman
form and four rows of antique columns in the interior. These beautiful

Tonic columns have disappeared under casings of pilasters made in the
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128 ARCHITECTURE.

eighteenth century by Borronini, who also marred the noble simplicity of the
building by introducing a number of inferior ornaments, gables and the
like. The valuable Romanesque structure was thus changed into a chureh
in the most corrupt Italian style.

The church of St. Clement, whose portico (jig. 17), ciborium (fig. 19),
and choir (jig. 20), we have noticed, is located on the way from the Coliseum
to the Lateran. It is remarkable for having still the original arrangements
given to it when it was erected in the fourth century. In front of it is a
quadrangular court surrounded by colonnades with cross-vaulted ceilings.
The court contains sixteen Ionic granite columns and four pillars. The ~
church has three aisles separated by two rows of antique columns connected
by arches and by two pillars. The semicircular ends of the side aisles form
chapels, one of which is decorated with paintings by Masaccio. The centre
terminates with the semicircular sanctuary containing the altar and seats for
the bishop and priests. The ground plan of the church is simple. The aisles
are different in width, which is not in strict accordance with good taste.
Nevertheless the effect of the church is very good in spite of the dissimi-
larity of the capitals ; and the only real disturbance of the symmetry arises
from the two unsightly pillars introduced by Fontana in the seventeenth
century. The floors are in mosaic of various kinds of marble, and the walls
have beautiful fresco paintings.

St. Paul’s basilica before Rome, on the way to Ostia, is among the finest
and largest churches in the Romanesque style (jig. 4, plan; jig. 30, per-
spective view of part of the cloister). It was erected in the years 386-395,
and has no court like St. Clement’s. It has five aisles formed by four rows
of twenty Corinthian columns. Those of the two middle rows are fluted
and from 31 feet, 9 inches, to 32 feet, 42 inches high, by diameters from 3
feet 3 to 3 feet 4 inches; the columns in the outer rows are smooth and 27
feet high. The intercolumniations are of three diameters, and the columns

‘formerly belonged to some ancient monuments, probably the mausoleum

of Hadrian. A few of them only are newer. The inequality of the
heights is counterbalanced by unequal cubes. The columns of each row
are connected by arches on which rests a wall with round-arched windows,
those of the centre row being placed higher than those of the sides. The
fresco paintings of the square panels under the windows have been destroyed
by damp. The transept is nearly at the end of the church, and is
divided into two parts by Ionic columns and pillars with small altars in
front. The main altar is in the semicircular sanctuary. The interior, which
was consumed by fire about twenty years ago, was of admirable effect, and
the method of lighting it was excellent. It was based upon the Egyptian
plan (pl. 6, fig. 7) of admitting the light through an aperture over the door.
The cloister (jig. 30) is almost square, being 121 feet by 101. It has
several doors to the court and fine arcades placed on low walls with well
profiled cornices. The long sides are divided into five, the short into four
sections, by pilasters serving as supports for the cross-vault ceilings of the
divisions. Between every two pillars are five pairs of small columns stand-
ing behind each other and connected by semicircular arches which are
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ARCHITECTURE. 129

surmounted by the main cornice. The columns have Corinthian capitals ;
the two shafts nearest the pillars are smooth, the two next ornamental in
various ways, and the centre pair have twisted or braided shafts.

A remarkable basilica was St.. Peter’s, built in 326 by order of Constantine
on the spot now occupied by the new St. Peter’s, and destroyed in the
sixteenth century (pl. 27, fig. 5, ground plan; pl. 30, fig. 1, section through
the court with the front elevation ; fig. 2, lateral section). The ground plan
is in the shape of a Latin cross, and the building lay in the rear of a large
court surrounded by columns and pillars forming covered colonnades. The
church had five naves, each with its own entrance from the colonnade. The
rows of columns inclosing the main nave were 33 feet in height, by 3 feet,
4 inches in diameter; those of the side aisles were 27 feet, 4 inches high,
and 2 feet, 10 inches thick. The rear wall was interrupted by the semi-
circular sanctuary with the main altar. One end of the transept served as
library, the other as depository for the sacred vessels. The length of the
church, excluding the sanctuary, was 287 feet; with it, 321 feet. The
centre aisle was 75 feet wide, the side aisles 30 feet, and the outer aisles 26
feet; the transept was 265 feet in length. The interior contained ninety-
two columns, probably all from the mausoleum of Hadrian. The two rows
of columns in the centre had straight architraves on which stood walls with
windows 8 feet, 8 inches high, by 7 feet, 6 inches wide, and arched above
in a full semicircle. The heights of the various naves were 884 feet for the
- centre, 53 feet for the sides, and 43 feet for the outer aisles. The roof of
the centre aisles was covered with gilded Corinthian bronze, those of the
side aisles with tiles. The ceiling over the choir was arched and decorated
with mosaic and painting. The other ceilings were of inlaid woodwork
or wainscoting, and were first repaired in 602. The principal entrance had
bronze doors from the temple of Salomo. The gable front of the church
was decorated with mosaic in 827. Pope Anacletes II. despoiled the -
basilica of its treasures in 1130, and it was finally taken down in 1503,
under the superintendence of Bramante.

The basilica San Lorenzo, before the gates of Rome, on the Tiburtine way
(pl. 27, jig. 8, plan; jig. 9, elevation; jig. 10, longitudinal section of the
choir; jig. 11, lateral section; jigs. 12, 138, windows), was erected under
Constantine, whilst the choir was added by Pope Hadrian, 772-791. This
choir was enlarged in 1475, by Rosalini, by order of Pope Sixtus IV. The
entire building comprises the fore court, the principal and side aisles, the
choir with two side aisles, and the sanctuary with the altar. The main nave
has two rows of eleven granite columns of the Ionic order, surrounded by a
straight architrave and cornice which supports a second tier of columns,
connected by arches which are surmounted by the wall with the windows.
The lower columns are smooth, and were very probably taken from the
ancient portico of Octavia. They are among the finest in Rome; their
reduction is in a straight line from base to capital, both of which are very
carefully wrought. The sides of the high choir have each five antique
Corinthian columns fluted and of exquisite workmanship. Their capitals
are connected by fragments of ancient architraves, friezes, and cornices,

ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOP£PIA.—VOL, IV. 9 129

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130 ARCHITECTURE,

carefully grouped into a new entablature which is surmounted by five thin
Corinthian columns with arches and wall like those of the main nave. The
ceilings of the basilica are flat and decorated in a rich style; that of the
semicircular sanctuary is conically arched. The altar has at its corners
four smooth Corinthian porphyry columns with a frieze and cornice support-
ing a dome. The portico in front of the basilica has light Ionic columns,
spirally fluted.

The church of St. Agnes was also built during the reign of Constantine,
and is situated before the gates of Rome (jig. 14, view; pl. 30, fig. 24, plan ;
pl. 46, fig. 16, plan, including the new ele), In ae principal nave it
has two tiers of antique columns, seven in each row, the upper ones forming
galleries. The columns ‘have different heights and unequal bases, and are
connected by arches. Two of the columns have ropelike flutings, 140 in
number, and probably date from the fourth century. The comparison of
the old and new plans will show that no alterations have been made in this
basilica save the addition of the chapels.

The basilica Santa Maria Maggiore (pl. 27, fig. 6, plan) was built in 352,
probably with materials taken from the temple of Juno Lacinia. It was
modernized, though to little advantage, by Cosmo, Pietro di Cortona, and
Rainaldi, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The interior has
two rows of eighteen antique Ionic columns connected by an entablature
with two large consoles. The altar had four columns around it, two of
which have been removed by one of the restorers in order to attain a large
opening, which is arched and interrupts the entablature, the arch resting on
two coupled columns on either side. Behind these are pilasters, supporting
others whose capitals are connected by arches. The wooden panelled
ceiling rests on the entablature of the upper Corinthian pilaster. The choir
terminates in agpentagon, and is arched above. ‘The front is very deficient
in taste, and dates from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

The church of the Holy Cross in Jerusalem (jig. 7, plan) was erected in
the fourth century as a Christian basilica, restored in 1144, and finally spoiled
by Gregori in the seventeenth century, who caused the beautiful Ionic
columns to be cased in pilasters. The portico of this basilica has eight
columns from which three doors, a, 6, a, lead into the court c, which is
flanked by colonnades. Three doors lead from this court into a hall, p,
behind which lies the baptistery with columns on three sides, and in the
centre the font, ¢. The fourth side is occupied by three doors leading into
the basilica, r, which has five naves, the principal one ending in a semi-
circular sanctuary lined with small columns and containing the altar, g.

The basilica St. Saba, before St. Paul’s gate in Rome, was erected in the
fourth century (pl. 33, fig. 21, plan; jig. 22, plan of the choir, showing the
stairs to the altar; jig. 23, front view; jig. 24, rear view; jigs. 25, 26, details
from the mosaics of the principal entrance). The three naves of the church
are of equal height, being formed by two tiers of seven columns, the lower
ones supporting della over the side aisles. Two of the twenty-eight
columns are of iid two of red porphyry, the rest of Parian marble; all
entiqne. The init was added in 770; its decorations and materials are

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ARCHITECTURE. 131

also antique. The story over the portico, which is very much out of place, is
of later date. The sanctuary and the two chapels, containing the library
and the sacred vessels, are semicircular and roofed with tiles.

The basilica Bibiana, erected in: 365, has been modernized, and thereby
despoiled of its characteristics, by Bernini. Its ground plan is given in pl.
46, fig. 15. It contained sixteen columns, arranged in two rows and two tiers.

The plan of the basilica, which was changed into the church San Cosmo
e Damiano (jig. 18), is curious for the division of the side aisles into small
chapels by pilasters and columns. /%g. 17 gives the plan of the Roman
Basilica Julia, now San Grisogno, remarkable for a pure Doric portico of
four columns.

The basilica erected by bishop Pamfili in Tyre, in the fourth century,
resembles that of San Cosmo, in having chambers or chapels in the side
aisles (pl. 30, jig. 25, plan), but is unique in having a court all round. It
is contemporary with a Latin basilica near Athens, the ruins of which we
have given in front and rear views in jigs. 10 and 11.

B. Byzantine Style.

The Eastern churches were mostly of a square, round, or polygonal form.
Of the latter form a beautiful example is found in St. Vital’s church in
Ravenna (pl. 29, fig. 1). The characteristic difference between the Byzan-
tine and the Romanesque styles is that the former always had a cupola,
whilst the latter, even the buildings whose form was round, had flat roofs
of carpentry. The type of the Byzantine style is given in the plan of St.
Sophia’s church in Constantinople (jig. 18), constructed by Isidorus of
Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles, by order of the emperor Justinian. It has
many oriental characteristics which were copied in all the later buildings of
this school, both in the East and in Italy,Germany, and France. The proof
that St. Sophia’s church is the prototype of the Byzantine ground plan is
found in the various plans of other churches, of which we enumerate the
church of Navarino in Greece (pl. 30, jig. 12), Panhagia Nicodimo in
Athens (pl. 28, jig. 1), and the Catholicon or the Cathedral of Athens
(pl. 29, fig. 9). Others will be adduced hereafter.

Before passing to the description of Byzantine fronts we must mention
some peculiarities of this style. In it freestone and bricks are often used
together, the latter laid both in horizontal and in vertical lines, so as to
form frames round panels of freestone. Great variety of decoration is
attained in this manner, enhanced by the application of moulded, curved,
and Y-shaped bricks. Another peculiarity of this style is, that the slope
of the roof seldom appears to view, the top of the building being generally
a straight line, surmounted by a cupola over the central rotunda, and some-
times by smaller domes at the sides, marking the points of connexion
between the vestibule and the side aisles in large buildings. A curious
Byzantine edifice is the church of Samara in Greece (pl. 28, fig. 2).

The large Byzantine cupolas rest either on cylindrical substructures or on
the roof itself, and have numerous circular openings or windows through

which the spherical vaults are lighted. The tiles are generally flat like the
131

ee ee Sa liad

132 ARCHITECTURE.

Roman, and joined in the Grecian manner, by semi-cylinders placed on the
joint ridges, but the e-shaped tiles are also met with overlapping each
other, and therefore without the peculiar Grecian semi-cylinders. The
domes are frequently covered with lead plates. The gallery usually found
in the first story of Byzantine churches is indicated exteriorly by a row of
windows, or by small arcades. This arrangement was also adopted in
the pointed-arch style of architecture when it superseded the Byzantine.
The Byzantine semicircular arches over the windows are either entirely of
brick, or of brick and freestone in alternate wedges. The doors are usually
set in thin stone or marble frames with cornices. Arches constructed over
the lintels serve to relieve the latter of the weight of the upper wall.
They are sometimes of horse-shoe form instead of semicircular. The mould-
ings of the lintel cornice are peculiar, consisting of a socle of considerable
projection over a projecting quirked moulding (apothesis), followed by an
astragal with two very narrow socles, and finally a broad stripe. Below
this is a rectangular deep recess with an astragal running round the door
opening. 1. 30, fig. 16, exhibits this bold profile, which was the prototype
of the similar one applied in the pointed arch style.

The side fronts of the Byzantine churches are almost exactly like those of
the Romanesque. Projecting entrances frequently mark the extremities
of the transepts, as in St. Nicodemus’ church in Athens (fig. 13). The rear
wall, which is horizontally closed above, is interrupted by one or three
sanctuaries which are either round or quadrangular, and have one or two rows
of niches, in newer buildings superseded by windows. The latter are either
simple or coupled, when they are called twin windows. The window arches
rest on small columns placed at the salient angles of the window recesses,
as in the choir of St. Theotokus in Constantinople (jig. 14). The vestibule
in Byzantine buildings is always arched, sometimes with a dome as indicated
in the ground plan (jg. 12), and framework is never visible in the ceiling.
The vestibule is not very deep, but occupies the full width of the church,
and is usually decorated with paintings or mosaic work. One or more doors
of similar construction with the main entrance lead into the church proper.
The rear wall of the vestibule has sometimes, besides these doors, windows,
placed there for the better airing of the church, with window-sills formed
of highly sculptured marble slabs. The interior has one or more domes
decorated with paintings and mosaic. The principal one is over the point
of intersection of the main nave and transept, and isnever wanting. If
there are more than one, the second and third, of smaller size, are placed
over the arms of the transept, the fourth over the sanctuary, and the fifth
over the front part of the main nave. The parts of the church that are left
without cupolas receive cross-vault ceilings instead. The weight of the
cupola is sustained by four corner pillars, being divided between them
by ribs of vaults ascending from their cornices to the pendentive or lower
circumference of the dome, which they support. This construction was
invented by the Byzantians. It is either simple, forming a warped
surface of twofold curvature; or hollow, like the upper part of a niche, the
curve being that of a cone; or finally, complicated, being composed of a

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ARCHITECTURE. 133

number of small vaults placed over one another. The latter is the construc-
tion usually employed by the Arabians. The corner pillars are connected
in pairs by large semicircular arches, whose archivolts support the circle
forming the foot of the dome. The pillars and vaults are covered with
painting and mosaic, and in important churches they are frequently faced
with marble like the walls. In smaller churches the domes are sometimes
placed on marble columns instead of pillars; the former are, however, not
calculated to sustain the weight of large cupolas.

The altar of the Byzantine churches is a cube or a cylinder of marble, or
some other stone, and has no substructure like the Romanesque. Its perpen-
dicular sides are covered with drapery, embroidered with the Gtecian cross
and the symbol of trinity. The ciborium is like the Romanesque, being a
cupola resting on four columns and four arches. In front of the altar is a
sacred inclosure, having two door wings with the sign of the cross.

The details in the Byzantine buildings are in a great measure borrowed
from the ancient Greek architecture. The basilicas therefore contain
numerous columns of marble, Greek or Roman capitals, architraves, and
cornices, bearing evidence of the Athenian or Ephesian sculptor. But when
available fragments became scarce the Byzantine artists were compelled to.
produce original works in accordance with the massive forms of their
basilicas. They then made their own heavy capital, which resembles the
Corinthian divested of its foliated ornaments, and with its cup pressed into
quadrangular shape. This nearly cubic mass received only a few ornaments
in raised foliation. PU. 30, jig. 14, a capital, and jig. 23, base, from
St. Vital in Ravenna; jigs. 21, 22, base and cap from the Turkish baths in
Constantinople, from which is also the capital, pl. 28, jig. 19; pl. 30, jigs.
19, 20, base and cap from St. Miniato in France; jig. 18, a, 6, base and cap
from St. Michael’s in Pavia, exhibiting fantastic figures in place of foliated
work, are examples of Byzantine details, which were much imitated in Italy,
on the Rhine, in Normandy, and in England, where they were frequently
employed in the 11th century. The decorations on the Corinthian entabla-
ture and cornice underwent similar changes, the mouldings being replaced
by a few inclined planes, which were embellished with sculptures, painting,
or mosaic ( pl. 28, fig. 13, cornice from the Panhagia Nicodimo, in Athens).
The sculptures on the Byzantine ornamental work are broad and heavy,
exhibiting frequently strings of pearls and festoons apparently set with
precious stones. The foliated work is very boldly profiled, the leaves
generally terminating in points (jig. 14).

The first church executed in this style was the church of the Holy
Sepulchre in Jerusalem, which is described in the historical part of this
work, and illustrated in Plates, Division IV., pl. 39, figs. 4-6, where we
have also mentioned St. Mary’s church on Mount Moriah, and the church
of Bethlehem (jigs. 1, 2). Byzantine architecture was therefore first
‘introduced into Palestine in the middle of the fourth century.

When the old church of St. Sophia in Constantinople was destroyed
during a riot, Justinian resolved to replace it by a new edifice intended to
exceed all existing churches in size, boldness, and splendor. This work was

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134 ARCHITECTURE.

finished within the short space of four years. The eastern dome was
destroyed twenty years later, in consequence of an earthquake, but was
quickly rebuilt, and the church consecrated for the second time by Justinian
in the thirty-sixth year of his reign, and has now stood for 1200 years a
great monument to its enlightened projector.

This grand edifice (pl. 29, jig. 18, plan; pl. 28, jig. 3, view; jig. 4,
section) covers an area of 2524 square toises, three fourteenths being
occupied by walls and pillars. In front of the church is a court with colon-
nades having sixteen columns in breadth and five in depth. The front of
the building is occupied by the principal entrance and twelve niches, and
forms the réar boundary of the court, which is 188 feet broad and 90 feet in
depth. The portico has five doors leading into the vestibule, from which
the interior of the church is approached by nine doors. The central nave is
158 feet wide, and closed above by one entire and two half cupolas of the
same diameter. The summit of the central dome is 189 feet from the floor.
This dome has twenty semicircular windows, and rests on four pillars, 36
feet high and 18 to 24 feet thick, and on six columns of Egyptian granite
standing between the pillars. The entire building is 352 feet long, by 306
feet in breadth. The sanctuary is raised a few steps above the floor, and
forms a semicircle of 48 feet in diameter. Between the sanctuary and the
principal nave were the seats of the emperor and patriarch, each on its own
side. The great pillars are of freestone firmly anchored with iron. The
weight of the domes was made as light as possible by employing in their
construction pumice and light bricks from Rhodes. The rest of the masonry
is of burnt bricks. The interior is faced with marble, jasper, and porphyry,
but the costly material exhibits only indifferent workmanship. Many of
the capitals are very tasteless in form and decoration. In some places the
facings of costly stones are interrupted by panels of mosaic work in which
gold foil is extensively used. Many of the columns used in the building
were donations, among which are conspicuous eight porphyry columns from
Aurelian’s Temple of the Sun, sent to Constantinople by a Roman matron,
and eight of green porphyry sent by the authorities of Ephesus. The total
cost of St. Sophia is computed as having exceeded five millions of dollars.
Besides this church Justinian caused twenty-five others to be built in Con
stantinople, some of them only little inferior in size.

St. Mark’s in Venice (pl. 30, jig. 6, plan; jig. 7, view) was commenced
in the eleventh century by order of the Doge Orceolo, and the construction
was continued by the Doges Contarini and Selvi. It occupies the site of
the old church, destroyed by fire in 976. In the year 1071 it was so far
completed that the facing with marble and mosaic could be commenced.
Its front and the arrangement of the cupolas in the interior show many
affinities to St. Sophia’s in Constantinople. It is connected with the palace
of the Doges by colonnades exhibiting Byzantine, Moorish, and pointed
arches. The church differs from St. Sophia’s in the following particulars.
The latter has one full and two half cupolas besides four smaller half cupolas
attached to the walls of the principal nave, and forming the ceilings over its
four corners at about two thirds the height of the two half cupolas that

134 :

ARCHITECTURE. 135

form its ends. St. Mark’s has five complete domes, surmounted by pear-
shaped turrets on their summits. The front of St. Sophia has simple but-
tresses, whilst St. Mark’s has sixty-six Corinthian columns 13 feet high, on
pedestals, grouped perspectively around five entrances of different sizes and
surmounted by bold arches. St. Sophia’s has no such gateways. The
cupolas in St. Mark’s are constructed of timber and coated inside and outside.
This construction was adopted in order to attain the greatest possible light-
ness, the edifice being erected on piles. It also allowed the construction of
very light walls, those under the cupolas being only 3 feet thick; the walls
of the circumference 4 feet; the pillars dividing the gateways, however, are
14 feet thick. The faces between the arches in the front are decorated with
mosaic work. The main arch over the centre entrance supports four bronze
horses of Greek workmanship, whilst its archivolt exhibits the pictures
of the prophets distributed in festoons of leaves. The doors are of bronze,
and were cast in Venice in the fourteenth century. Those of the main
entrance are said to have been cast by Grecian artists, and were carried away
from the church of St. Sophia in Constantinople after the conquest of that
city by the Venetians. The perspective gateways form porticoes before the
doors, and are decorated like the interior of the domes with mosaic work.
The altar stands on four antique columns of yellowish marble in the semi-
circular sanctuary. It is separated from the nave of the church by a
railing supporting the statues of St. Mary and the twelve Apostles, made
by the brothers Giacobelli in the fourteenth century. The church contains
a number of other remarkable statues. The doors of the vestry, cast in 1576
by Sansovino, and exhibiting several haut-relief figures, are real master-
pieces. |

The church of St. Theotokus in Constantinople (pl. 28, fig. 5, view ; jig. 6,
lateral section ; jig. 7, plan; jigs. 8-15, details), has greater architectural
affinities to that of St. Mark than of St. Sophia. It was probably erected
under Justinian. The principal entrance is on the west side, and is approach-
ed by adouble flier. The portico extends some distance back on both sides
of the naves, and is lighted by two windows, each of three arched divisions,
formed by two columns between three sculptured marble panels. In
this portico are a number of columns, evidently antique. Both extremities
of the portico have entrances to the side porticoes. The northern one has
two columns and leads into the baptistery. A door on the south side of
this room leads into a vestibule situated between the front portico and the
naves, and having three doors leading into the three naves, three others
opening into the front portico, and one opposite the entrance from the
baptistery, which leads into the south portico. The church proper forms an
exact square, but its middle nave is much wider than the side ones. The
centre is surmounted by a dome resting on four columns. The vestibule
. and portico have four other cupolas. The sanctuary is separated from the
_ principal nave by two thick pillars, and communicates by doors with the
two vestries, which have also doors to the side aisles. On the south side
of the church a second side aisle is attached, which has its separate entrance

from without and communicates with the church proper by three arches
135

136 | ARCHITECTURE.

resting on two columns and the corresponding corner pillars. The distri-
bution of the windows in the principal front is peculiar and clearly illus-
trated in jig. 5. It will also be seen from this figure that the front has no
main cornice, but only a curved line over the arches of the windows, whilst
it is finished above by the three cupolas over the portico, overtopped in the
centre by the dome of the central nave. The construction of the cupolas
over the portico is seen from the section (fig. 6). The other cupolas are
constructed on the same plan.

The Catholicon, the Cathedral of Athens (pl. 29, jig. 9, plan; jig. 10,
front view ; jig. 11, rear view ; jigs. 12-17, details), is one me the few pale:
ings which. have esoaped destruction in the war of independence. It was
probably built in the tenth century, for the gables indicate a peculiar appli-
cation of framework which was foreign to the earlier Byzantine style, and
betray Italian influence. Its form is a rectangle, whose length exceeds its
breadth by one half. The first third is occupied by the vestibule. The church
proper has three naves having semicircular apsides with narrow windows.
The sanctuary alone projects on the rear of the building in form of a semi-
hexagon. There are three entrances to the church, on the south, west, and
north sides. The entire building is of white marble. The door in the main
front, which is approached by two steps, has a straight lintel, but over it a
richly moulded arch inclosing a sculptured panel. Several quadrangular
panels on both sides of this arch exhibit bas-reliefs, in which lions occur,
probably alluding to Venice. The whole is surmounted by a rich frieze
and cornice which separate the lower part of the edifice from the gabled
roof of the portico, whose front or gable field is richly decorated with
sculptures. The rear has two oblique cornices imitating the front gable
and surmounting the sloping roof of the sanctuary. The dome over the
main nave has eight windows, with eight paintings between them repre-
senting eight apostles. Over these are eight angels in medallions, and the
centre is occupied by a colossal picture of Christ. The walls of the
interior were decorated with paintings, of which in many places traces are
still perceptible.

A remarkable church in point of construction is St. Vital’s in Ravenna
( pl. 29, fig. 1, plan; jig. 2, interior view; jig. 3, longitudinal section ; jigs.
4-8, ani It was ed in the year 547, ee a plan sent from the
east, but whose designer is unknown. It is ascribed to Justinian, on
account of the repeated occurrence of the name Julian, who was the
treasurer of this emperor. The ground plan of the church proper is a
regular octagon, with attached rectangular portico, J, bounded on either
end by a circular turret, K K, containing the stairs leading to the upper
galleries. This portico has been supplanted by a modern one (jig. 1 H),
lying obliquely to the axis of the church. In the rear the original arrange-
ment is preserved, the rectangular attachment containing the sanctuary, F,
with a semicircular apsis, the vestries on both sides, and also round
turrets at the ends, containing entrances from without. The centre of the
church is surrounded by eight massive pillars supporting the cupola.
Between them, except at E, where the view of the sanctuary is left free, are

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ARCHITECTURE. 137

triple arches, resting on pairs:of columns and supporting the ceilings of the
side buildings (ewedre), which, on account of the octagonal shape of the
church, do not form regular aisles. From two of these exedree the sanctuary
is approached through the arches GG. Over the exedre are the galleries,
which again are bounded by columns resting on the lower ones. In the
- construction of the cupola (jig. 4) great lightness has been attained by the
use of earthen vases (amphore, jig. 46), in rearing the vault. They are
placed vertically over, or rather in, each other, the points of the upper ones
being placed in the necks of those in the row below. This arrangement
is continued to the top of the windows. From thence upwards they are
- placed horizontally in a continuous spiral line to the top of the dome, which
is surmounted by a light framework supporting the sloping roof. The
interior of the church is rich in decorative sculpture and painting. The
columns are peculiar for having no bases, whilst their capitals (figs. 6, 7)
are formed by two truncated reversed pyramids placed one above the other
and having decorated faces. On several of them occur the cyphers of the
Bishop Neo and of the Treasurer Julian.

Pi. 29, fig. 19, represents the ground plan of the mosque Achmed, in
Eeaciintmople, sniping a ea, application of columns and domes both
in the interior of the building and on its different outer walls, as well as in
the spacious fore-court. When the Byzantine style came more generally
into use in the west it experienced some important changes. A greater
simplicity was introduced in the ground plan, and the front was made to
terminate in a triangular roof, sloping on both sides. This was not a gable
proper, as no cornice separated the main wall from its top, forming the
regular gable field. The church of Trani, in the kingdom of Naples ( ae 28,
jig. 16), exhibits this arrangement, with the variation of having two fae
dinate lower roofs in the same style. At the same time it is a fair example
of the meagreness with which the fronts were decorated in the 11th century.
On the other hand, this was the period of the introduction of towers in the
construction of churches. The church of Trani has probably the oldest
known tower. It is very simple, and like the towers of that time generally,
much less high than those of the subsequent German style. This church
may, however, be regarded as the connecting link between the Byzantine
and German styles, as it exhibits both round and pointed arches.

Pisa contains three remarkable buildings in the Byzantine style: the
cathedral, the leaning tower, and the baptistery. The last was not built
before the twelfth century, and therefore belongs to another period of archi-
tecture; but being strictly in the Byzantine style, we include it here. It
is a circular building of white marble, 115 feet in diameter, and 172 feet
high. Three steps surround it, supporting twenty rather tasteless columns
in three-fourth outline on pedestals. They have capitals with the Roman
combination of volutes and foliation, and below them the necks have still
other foliated ornaments. The shafts stand 2} diameters apart, and are
connected by elliptical arches, on which rests a poorly moulded entablature
supporting 60 columns, again connected by elliptical arches. High gables
are placed on every pair of these arches. The gable fields are decorated

137

138 ARCHITECTURE.

with bas-reliefs, and their peaks with busts aad statues. The structure is
crowned with a peculiar imbricated dome. The interior of the baptistery
contains some fine statues by Nicolas of Pisa, the regenerator of sculpture:
in that period. |

The cathedral of Pisa (pl. 30, fig. 3, plan; jig. 4, western elevation ; fig.5, .
perspective view) was designed by Buschetto. Its erection was commenced in |
1063 by Dulichio, and it was built with the booty made by the Pisansin Sicily. ‘
Its front has three entrances with horizontal lintels, lying between columns.
with antique capitals, but with shafts of inferior proportions. It is inclosed
between high corner pillars. On these and the six columns abut the springs.
of six semicircular arches, on which rests a horizontal cornice, support-
ing two corner pillars and eighteen columns between them, having Roman
capitals and square abaci. These are connected by 19 elliptical arches,
with a straight cornice over them. On the latter stand in the centre ten
columns, connected by elliptical arches with another straight cornice, whilst on:
either side there are four columns, decreasing in height towards the corners,.
and surmounted by oblique cornices. On the cornice over the centre stand
nine columns, connected by elliptical arches, on which is the fourth straight
cornice supporting the gable, which is adorned with columns of various
heights. On the peak of the gable is a statue of St. Mary ; the aeroteria
support two angels and the lower corner pillars two apostles or saints.

The sides of the cathedral have very nearly the same arrangement, anly
that pilasters take the place of columns. Over the second tier of pilasters
are an architrave and cornite, whence the slopes of the roofs over the side
aisles rise to the higher walls of the centre nave, in which their upper ends
are lodged. The highest part of the side walls of the centre nave is deco-
rated with half columns, connected by elliptical arches, and having closed
windows, with semicircular tops, between them. The rear of the chureh
has three tiers of pilasters. The intersection of the nave and transept is
surmounted by a high, egg-shaped cupola, with a ball at its top. The total
number of columns in the structure is 450, of which 208 are in the interior.
Many of them have been taken from antique monuments; among others,
24 Corinthian granite columns, which are supposed to have belonged to the
baths of Hadrian.

The renowned leaning tower of Pisa stands in the south-east angle
formed by the transept and sanctuary of the cathedral. Its construction
was commenced in 1074, by the German architect, Wilhelm, of Innsbruck.
Its diameter is 50 feet, including the wall. Its total height is 170 feet.
It consists of eight stories, exhibiting on the outside 267 small columns,
arranged in eight tiers. They have poor capitals, and are connected by
elliptical arches, surmounted by rather narrow cornices, surrounding the
tower between the different tiers of columns. The entire structure is of
white marble. Its inclination is very considerable, the summit being 123
feet out of plumb-line. It has not yet been satisfactorily decided whether
the obliquity of the tower lay in the intention of the architect or arose from
‘the tower having settled on one side. Some strongly favor the former view,
holding, as the tradition relates, that the architect, who was deformed,

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ARCHITECTURE. 139

and therefore had intentionally built this tower oblique. An inscription is
said to have been found in the tower, running thus: Walhelmus, Ginipon-
tanus, obliquus, obliqui vindex (Wilhelm, of Innsbruck, the deformed, vindi-
cates deformity). Wiebeking, however, who has carefully surveyed the
entire structure, is of opinion that its obliquity is owing to the ground’s
having given way, and that a counterpoise had been attained by filling
part of the interior with a mass of earth.

We will now examine a few buildings of the Byzantine style in Germany,
showing the changes it there underwent, and its gradual approximation to
the German style.

The cathedral of Bonn (pl. 30, jig. 9a, plan; jig. 96, perspective view
from north-east) is a remarkable building of this class. It is said to have
been originally built by order of Helena, mother of Constantine, and dedi-
cated by her to the martyrs Cassius ‘and Florentius,in the year 319. The
present structure, which bears traces of the old arrangement in several
parts, especially on the south side of the choir, was commenced in the
eleventh century, and the central spire was finished in 1177 by Gerhard
von Sayn. The ground plan forms a long quadrangle divided into three
unequal naves. The eastern extremity is beeapicd by a long choir, a semi-
circular sanctuary, and two attached spires. The transept below the choir
is short, and terminates in polygons at both ends. The octagon at the point
of meceeeLion of nave and transept designates the position of the principal
spire, which contains the belfry. The principal entrance, at the western
end of the church, is flanked by two small round spires. The interior of
this cathedral exhibits uncommon boldness. Its outlines are of unparalleled
purity; the arrangement of tiers upon tiers of columns and arches is
exceedingly graceful. The spires are perfectly proportioned and governed
by the bold centre spire. These combined merits make the cathedral of
Bonn an object of universal admiration. The semicircular wall of the
sanctuary has under its cornice, which rests on consoles, a beautiful gallery
formed by arches. Under it are the large windows through which the choir
is lighted. Under the choir is acrypt. The sides of the naves have pointed
arches, whilst the spires and the polygonal walls of the transept exhibit the
true By zantine round arches, surmounted by cornices between the tiers ae
columns.

The effect of the interior is not less striking. The naves have round-
arched ceilings resting on thick pillars and on the side walls. The thick-
ness of the pillars is disguised by two tiers of columns placed in front of
them. Those of the lower tier are connected by round arches, the upper
ones by pointed and divided arches. The imposing effect of the church is
owing to the coldness of the stonework rather than to decoration, in which
the cathedral is much less rich than the Italian buildings of the same
period. Its principal features are pertectly Byzantine, especially the
arrangements of columns over one another. The mixed application of
round and pointed arches, though attempted with surprising skill, and
pleasing in effect, shows a want of unity in the construction which would

seriously disturb the excellence of the building, were it not counterbalanced
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140 ARCHITECTURE.

by the exquisite taste with which the interior decorations have been intro-
duced at a later period.

St. Castor’s church, in Coblentz (pl. 28, jig. 17), was founded in the 10th
century, in the ere” style. In 1888 the choir was added in the
German style. The church proper is divided into three naves. The central
one is 30 feet wide from centre to centre of the pillars, and had originally
a wooden ceiling. The cross-vault ceiling was not introduced before 1298.
The side aisles are only 13 feet wide, and have cross-vault ceilings of porous
tufa. The length of the centre nave in the clear is 148 feet ; its height, to
the keystone, 39 feet. At the sides of the lower end of the choir are two
old towers, 95 feet high.

A very interesting building is the hall of the Abbey of Leas in Hesse-
Darmstadt (pl. 33, fig. 11, plan; jig. 12, elevation; jig. 13, joaetentiieed
section; jig. 14, eaptal of ine interior cohen jig. 15, apie and base of
the exterior columns ; jig. 16, details from the pilasters in the upper story ;
jig. 17, main cornice; jig. 18, middle cornice; jig. 19, impost cornice ;
jig. 20, ornament of the inner arch).

This hall formed the entrance to the court of the abbey which was
destroyed by fire in 1090. It is now used as a chapel. It is 33 feet long,
24 feet broad, and 25 feet high, and has two stories. The lower story has
on both sides (east and west) arcades of three round arches, with two
columns between them and two at the ends. These columns have Ionic
bases, and capitals resembling very much the ancient Composite order. The
acanthus leaves are rather rudely wrought. On the capitals are square
slabs. ‘The middle cornice resting on these pillars has foliated decoration
and a pearl moulding which strongly remind us of the cornices of the
ancients. Its upper socle is a little inclined to produce a boldly marked
shade. The front of the upper story has ten finted pilasters supporting
nine isosceles archivolts, forming pediment shaped ornaments. These orna-
ments never occur in the South of Europe, but are frequent in England,
being among the characteristics of the Anglo-Saxon style of architecture.
The capitals of the pilasters are formed by two rows of eggs and two
volutes. They are a clumsy imitation of the Ionic capital. All the cornices,
columns, and pilasters are of hard, white freestone; the walls are inlaid
with lozenge-shaped plates of red and white marble. The windows in the
second story, which are round-arched, cannot have been made at the same
time with the rest of the building, but must have been added when it was
arranged for a chapel. At the same time, probably, the eastern arches were
closed and the altar placed against the wall, with two columns and an arch
as decoration. The round tower at the southern end of the hall is of more
recent date, and was evidently only built in order to place in it the staircase
leading to the tribune in the interior of the hall.

The Abbey of Lorsch was founded in 764, under Pipin, by the Benedic-
tine abbot, Gundeland, and was consecrated in 774, in presence of Charle-
magne, his consort Hildegarda, and his sons Charles and Pipin. The style
in which the hall is built corresponds perfectly with this minute in the
chronicles of Lorsch. It is therefore greatly surprising that the distin-

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ARCHITECTURE. 141

guished archzeologists, Kugler and Schnaase, give the period of its construe-
tion as being in the twelfth century, whilst not a single detail, far less the
plan of the hall, corresponds with the style of the latter period.

C. Gothic and Lombardic Styles.

1. Gormic Styte. About the middle of the fifth century when the Byzan-
tine style was prevailing in Constantinople and the East, and the Romanesque
the most frequent in Rome and the west, a new style was introduced in
Northern Italy under King Theodoric, the Gothic, which must not be
confounded with the old German style which is often misnamed Gothic.
Theodoric was passionately fond of the arts and lavish in his expenditures
for their development. He devoted large sums annually to the preservation
of the ancient Roman monuments, especially the aqueducts and the amphi-
theatre. During his reign a great number of buildings were erected in
Naples, Pavia, Spoleto, Verona, and Ravenna. In the last town there are
still ruins of the palace of Theodoric which testify to an economy in out-
ward decoration, quite uncommon in that period in other countries. The
mausoleum of Theodoric in Ravenna (pl. 28, jig. 18), built in the sixth
century and still existing as the St. Mary’s round church; the front of the
Franciscan convent, believed to be part of the palace; the baptistery and
other buildings of the fifth, sixth, and seventh centuries show the peculiari-
ties of the Gothic style proper. These consist in very strong walls; in
columns and pillars of good proportions but with capitals decorated with
other foliation than the antique orders; in Roman leading ideas and the
exclusive application of the semicircular arch and semi-cylindrical vault.

The mausoleum of Theodoric was built by order of Queen Amalasunta.
It is of Istrian marble, and its details may serve as a good illustration of
the Gothic style. Its cupola is of a single block of marble, 34 feet in
diameter. Twelve projections were left on the exterior of the cupola, to
which the ropes were fastened for lifting this monolith. They appear in the
elevation like so many small garret windows. The parts of the exterior are
well arranged, the doors well profiled and ornamented. The lower part,
containing the sepulchre, is filled up with earth.

Only a limited number of buildings in the Gothic style have been pre-
served. They all prove that this style equally approaches the ancient
Roman and the Romanesque. Triangular gables, such as were peculiar in
the Byzantine and German styles, never occur in the Gothic, which there-
fore cannot be confounded with either.

The Visigothic style is sufficiently independent to claim a special notice.
It occurs chiefly in Spain. The principal church of Tarragona and one of
the gates of Barcelona are good examples. The Visigothic style in which
the walls are frequently interrupted by round or polygonal towers came
into requisition when, in the times of club-law, strength in building was
particularly desirable. It therefore was termed the castle style by the
Franks and Normans, who frequently erected buildings in this style. We
have treated more largely of this style in the part of this work relating to

Military Sciences when noticing the fortification of the middle ages, and
141

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142 ARCHITECTURE.

given as examples the Bastille in Paris (Plates, Division V., pil. 46, figs.
8-10), the tower of Montlhery (Div. V., pl. 44, figs. 5, 6), and the castle of -
Vincennes (Div. V., pl. 44, figs. 14, 15).

2. Tue Lomparpic Styte. The buildings erected by the Lombards in
Italy, in the 7th and 8th centuries, principally churches, are in their main
features Byzantine ; but for several peculiarities they have been grouped by
themselves, and constitute the monuments of the Lombardic style. Their
characteristics are the following: 1. Very small semicireularly arched
windows. 2. Small arched niches, separated by thin pillars under the
slopes of the gable, as in St. John’s church in Pavia (pl. 28, jig. 15), ©
which is the best example of the Lombardic style. 4. Half or three fourths
columns at the entrances, grouped so as to form perspective gateways. The
columns of the two sides are connected above by semicircular arches. Their
bases, shafts, and capitals are decorated with rude foliated work or symbolie
figures, whilst the Byzantine capital in a measure approaches the Corin-
thian. The columns in the interior have generally rude cubic capitals sup-
porting the arches. 5. The frequent spiral arrangement of the foliated
decoration on the shafts. 6. The rude sculptures, frequently satirical repre-
sentations of the abuses of priestcraft. These are found mostly in the
entrances. 7. Festoons, wrought in stone, under the main cornices and
under those marking the different stories of the churches or towers. 8. The
invariably pyramidal spires on the towers.

The Lombardic style has been frequently adopted in the churches of
Germany. In attempting to classify the buildings of the middle ages,
however, and to group them in the various styles, the duration of the con-
struction must be taken into account and allowance made for additions to
the original plans, since the later architects did not generally aim at uni-

formity by following the style of the original designer, but frequently

adopted the taste of their own period. Thus the cathedral of Bonn (pl. 31,
jig. 9b), which we have considered among the Byzantine buildings modi-
fied in their introduction into Germany, has been adorned with the festoons
and the pyramidal spires peculiar to the Lombardic styles, in contradis-
tinction from the Byzantine.

D. The Arabian or Moorish Style.

When the Arabians, after conquering Africa, 665-689, penetrated into
Spain in 710, they introduced in the interior of their edifices a richness in
mosaic work, slender columns, inlaid floors, and magnificent ceilings, which
far surpassed that of all other decorations of that age. Their rich architec-
ture chiefly flourished in the 7th and 8th centuries in Bagdad, Cairo, Alex-
andria, Fez, Cordova, and Barcelona. It reached its climax in the palace of
Alhambra, near Granada, of which we shall presently speak. Originally
the Arabian edifices must have been wholly destitute of splendor, as is seen
from the Kaaba at Mecca, built 100 z. c., which is quite plain.

The Arabian or Moorish style, as it is usually termed, is entirely peculiar,
differing from all other known styles. Among its prominent features are:
1. The horseshoe-shaped arches, which generally occur exclusively, but

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ARCHITECTURE. 143

sometimes in connexion with semicircular arches, and in a few buildings
even surmounted by such. The latter arrangement is of exquisite effect,
being exceedingly picturesque, and it is remarkable that it has never been
imitated in other styles of building. 2. The Moorish columns, employed
in great numbers, are remarkably slender. Their capitals are sometimes
antique, but generally of a peculiar shape, best described as two truncated
pyramids placed on each other, the upper one inverted, somewhat like an
hour-glass. 3. The walls and niches are richly inlaid with peculiar orna-
ments and sentences from the Koran, sometimes in stucco and frequently
even in precious stones. The ornaments are painted with gaudy colors,
chiefly purple, azure, and gold. 4. The floors are of colored marble plates,
laid in elaborate patterns. 5. The vaults and arches exhibit frequently
lattice-work, through which the buildings are lighted. 6. The entablature,
consisting a but = members, is. always boldly projecting. 7. The height
in the clear of the Moorish buildings is generally limited; on the other
hand they cover extensive areas. The mosque at Gbciosa for instance,
which is only 35 feet high in the clear, is 620 feet long. 8. The cupolas,
which frequently occur in the Moorish buildings, are mostly bulbiform.

Among the numerous edifices of the Moorish style, we mention the
following as the most interesting :

The mosque at Cordova, commenced during the caliphate of Abdorrha-
man, in 787, and finished under his son, is remarkable for the number of
columns it contains. 2. 33, jig. 1, gives its ground plan; pl. 31, jigs. 1,
2, interior views; pl. 32, jig. 15, a longitudinal section; jigs. 16 a6, and
pl. 33, jigs. 2, 3, details of the columns, the two first reminding vividly of
the antique; jig. 4, a fragment of the principal cornice in the interior ;
pl. 32, figs. 17-25, ornaments. In the ground plan, the lighter shaded parts
are the additions made by the successors of Abdorrhaman. AA is the
original mosque, A the addition made by Almansor, B the forecourt. The
wall in the rear of the chapel, e, and the hall Maksourah, a, which is inter-
rupted by the entrance to the sanctuary, is termed JZihrab. Such a wall is
found in ali mosques. It is always placed at that side of the mosque which
lies in the direction of Mecca, so that the devout look in that direction
during their prayers. This wall is always the richest in decoration. The
apartments d@ and ¢ are other chapels. The section (pl. 32, jig. 15) is in the
line ec A of the ground plan. The interior view (pl. 31, jig. 1) is taken
from the east side, the hall Maksourah appearing in the pioaraihl to the
right ; fig: 2 gives the interior view of this hall.

The mosque forms a quadrangle 620 feet by 440. The forecourt occu-
pies 210 feet of the length. The building proper is therefore 410 feet deep
by 440 feet in width. It had originally 21 doors, of which only five are
left. They were coated with richly ornamented bronze plates. The 18
pillars of the front towards the court are surmounted by Moorish arches.
The breadth of the building is divided into 19 aisles, 14 feet wide in the
clear, partly extending through the entire depth, in part only a limited dis-
tance. According to Murphy, the edifice contains 850 columns of granite,
porphyry, jasper, and various kinds of marble, among which are many that

143

144 ARCHITECTURE.

were carried away from Roman and Carthaginian buildings. The columns
are only 18 inches thick, and not much above 12 feet high. The arches
sprung from front to rear are Moorish; those from side to side, resting on
the capitals of the columns, are of the same form, but their springings are
laid against pillars which rise between them from the capitals of the
columns, and are six to eight feet high, terminating in cubic capitals, on
which rest somewhat depressed Romanesque arches which connect them.
The spaces between the upper and lower arches are left open. The effect
produced by this extensive lattice-work between. the arches and the ceiling
is very pleasant. The arches of the hall Maksourah (pl. 31, fig. 2) are still
more complicated and their effect grander i in proportion. Their construction
is more easily illustrated than described ; a eee at our figure will give a
clear idea of their surpassing splendor.

When the Moors lost the supremacy in Spain, the mosque was made a
Christian church, but remained unaltered until 1528, when several altera-
tions were made in the interior, executed in the German style, and totally
destroying the harmony of the whole. The chapels, especially, which we
have mentioned are in grievous discordance with the leading features of the
ground plan.

The greatest architectural work of the Moors is the palace Alhambra,
built by order of Mahomed Abu-Abdallah, in the beginning of the 13th
century, near the city of Granada. This edifice is situated on a hill by —
itself; its various component parts covering an area of 2300 feet by 600.
The exterior is rather plain. The buildings are approached by a Grecian
gate, erected by the Emperor Charles V. The inner gate is known as the
Gate of Justice, having formerly been the place where minor litigations
were adjusted. Above this gate a colossal hand is wrought symbolical of
judicature. Some have thought it and the key over another gate to have
been intended for a magic spell whieh was to insure perpetuity to the palace.
These gates lead into an open space with a tasteful palace erected by
Charles V. Thence a simple gate leads into the palace of the Moorish
princes, Alhambra proper. The first court, that of Aleerba, is paved with
white marble. In its centre is a reservoir, 130 feet by 30, surrounded by
rose trees and containing gold fishes. Thence an arcade leads into the
court of the lions (pl. 32, jig. 1), named from twelve Hons which support
the alabaster reservoir of a magnificent fountain in the centre of the court.
The splendid halls surrounding this court afford the best facilities for study-
ing the details of the Moorish style, of which we have represented a number
in jigs. 2-12. Only the sides towards the court have white marble arches ;
the ceilings are of wood, flat, and gorgeously decorated. One of the halls
exhibits rich inlaid eee bens Damascus, and designs ornamented with
inlaid work of lapis lazuli. Among the many Me of the palace, the
hall of the ambassadors, or the solden hall (jig. 13), and the hall of the
two sisters (fig. 14), are the most attractive. The latter takes its name from
two marble columns found there, which are exactly alike, even to the most
minute parts of the decoration. All the apartments of the palace and all
its courts and gardens are provided with good water by special water-works.

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ARCHITECTURE. 145

On another hill opposite Alhambra is El Generalife, a villa of the .
Moorish Kings, with beautiful gardens. Its entrance (pl. 31, jig. 4)
exhibits the peculiar arches used in this villa. They have the height of the
horse-shoe arches, but are closed above with the true arc of the Romanesque
style, only with the addition of the Moorish ornaments. The capitals of
the columns are of the true Moorish form, resembling hour-glasses in shape.
The villa is surrounded by pleasure groves, with numerous fountains.

In Alcagar, the citadel of Seville, there are several Moorish remains, of
which we mention the chapel Zancaron, an interior view of which is given
in jig. 3. This building evidently belongs to a much later period than
Alhambra, as it has German pointed arches besides the Moorish horse-shoe,
and numerous ornamental details borrowed from the German style.

In Constantinople the forecourt of the mosque of Osman is a remarkable
Moorish structure. The mosque itself is a more recent building, dating
only from the last century, whilst the court (pl. 30, fig. 8) which forms the
avenue to it is probably 800 years old. It is in the purest Moorish style,
although the columns, which are somewhat thicker than usual in Moorish
buildings, have clearly been taken from ancient Roman buildings, their clumsy
capitals notwithstanding. The construction of the cupolas over the single
vaults is very curious, the ribs of the vaults only being executed rising from
the side arches and forming the transition from the quadrangular to the
circular form, their upper extremities carrying a circular cornice and a low
drum with windows, surmounted by the low cupola, which has the form of
a small spherical segment.

In Egypt there are several interesting Moorish edifices, from which we
select as examples the two mosques of Ebn Touloun and of El Moyed, both
in Cairo. The former was built in the 9th century, by Ahmed Abn Touloun,
governor of Egypt. It is peculiar for having no other columns than two at the
K blah (direction of the eyes : therefore sanctuary). Ahmed’s first plan had
been to excel all older mosques in splendor. He accordingly ordered more
than 300 columns to be placed in the forecourt alone. On learning that
all Egypt could not furnish this number of columns except by despoiling
all the ancient monuments and the Christian churches of theirs, he changed
his design, and ordered his architect to build the mosque entirely without
columns. This mosque is known by the name Djama ben Touloun. In
illustration of the same we have given in pi. 33, jig. 5, the ground plan ;
jig. 6, perspective view of the court; pl. 32, jig. 26, longitudinal section
along the line ¢d of the plan (B being the upper part of the minaret or
steeple A); jigs. 27, 28, windows ; jig. 29, one of the niches between the
windows ; jigs. 30 a), 31, friezes from the interior ; figs. 32, 33, the capitals
of the columns of the Azbiah in the wall Mihrab. The ground plan forms
a square of 280 feet; on three sides there are two rows of quadrangular
pillars; on the south side A, five rows. The entire building, in which
Moorish and pointed arches occur in tasteful connexion, is of brick, coated
with stucco, and partly painted, partly inlaid. The wall W/Arad especially
is richly inlaid with ivory, and has numerous inlaid inscriptions in the
Kufic character.

ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOP£DIA.—VOL, Iv. 10 145

146 ARCHITECTURE.

The mosque of El Moyed was built in 1415, by the Sultan Abou el Nasse
Sheikh Mahmoudy, with the cognomen Melek el Moyed, after his release
from captivity with the Emir Mentach. Pl. 33, fig. '7, represents its ground
plan; pl. 31, jig. 5, the interior view of the court. The mosque forms a
square of about 300 feet. Its court is entirely surrounded by colonnades,
the east and west sides forming two naves each, the north side three, and the
south side four. On this side the mehrab is at b ; c is the mimbar, or pulpit ;
the tribune of the Ahatzb or leader of prayers, with the desks ¢e for read-
ing the Koran. At the east end of these naves, in g, is the sepulchre of
Sultan el Moyed; and at the west end, in 7, that of his family. Ath are |
the magnificent doors leading to the adjoining Bazar of Soukaryeh, 2 the
passages to the adjoining school and the stairs to the top of the edifice.
Before the northern side of the court is a kind of portico, ; at its western
extremity the sinks 7, and connected with it by a passage the public baths,
m. In the centre of the court, at 7, is the fountain, surmounted by a tent,
unlike the fountain of the Djama ebn Touloun, which has a cupola. The
total effect of the edifice is very grand; it is one of the finest monuments
of Moorish architecture in the 15th century. The archivolts are com-
posed of red and white stones alternating. The columns, which are all
antique, are of different heights, the differences being counterbalanced by
unequal pedestals. The ceilings are of wood, panelled and covered with
ornaments, which are all painted in bright colors. As usual, the mzhrab is
the most luxuriously decorated. Its splendor is really astonishing.

E. Modern Persian and Indian Styles.

The modern Persian and Indian styles of architecture are peculiar in
various points. The roofs of the dwelling-houses consist of very flat-arched
terraces, coated with a durable cement. All mosques and sepulchres, on the
contrary, have very high artificially vaulted domes. The form of the arches
employed in these styles for doors and windows and in ornaments, is very
curious. It resembles the bottom of a ship turned with the keel upwards.
It is the same form that occurred under the name ass’s-back arch in German
architecture, towards its decline, and occurs in a number of buildings in
France and England.

Among the edifices in the Indian style is the Antler Tower, in Ispahan
( pl. 33, fig. 10), whose surface is covered with skulls of deer. The colon-
nade exhibits the curious Persian arches which we have just mentioned.

The Mausoleum of Ibrahim Adil Shah, at Bedjapur (7g. 8), shows the
bulbiform cupolas which were placed both on buildings of great diameters
and on minarets. The Persians were so far advanced in the construction
of domes that they arched their smaller cupolas entirely without scaf
folding.

Near Delhi is a peculiar tower, Kutub Minar (fig. 9), attached to a
mausoleum. It is nearly 200 feet high ‘and entirely of red granite. Exte-
riorly it is covered with ornaments, and divided into five stories by far-
projecting cornices. The interior is occupied by a spiral staircase, leading
to its summit.

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ARCHITECTURE. 147

2. Taz Periop rrom THe 11TH To Tue 16ra CENTURY, OR TO THE
Deciinn or Art.

Although the Byzantine and kindred styles of architecture, as we have
seen, originated in the first portion of the middle ages, yet a number of
buildings in these styles were erected during the second. The character-
istic style of this period, however, is the pownted-arch style. We will devote
a few cursory remarks to its peculiarities before entering upon a more
minute examination of its principal monuments. For greater clearness we
shall separate the various component parts of the churches, and consider
each by itself, noticing first that the ground plan was gradually perfected
and received a more symmetrical and constant form.

1. Tae Apsis on Sanctuary. The churches of the 11th and 12th
centuries terminate in a semicircular apses, like the basilicas (pl. 34, fig. 1),
connected by a semi-conic dome with the main building. It is, however,
generally lower than the latter, whilst its floor is elevated by several steps.
In the middle or at the lower end of the apsis stood the altar. Behind it,
near the rear wall, was the bishop’s throne, which was occupied by this
functionary and his two deacons. Sometimes the apsis was triangular, as
in the church of Vaison (jig. 2); quadrangular, as in the church of Amans
(jig. 4); or polygonal, as in the cathedral of Carpentras (jig. 3); yet its
interior was almost always round. At first this part of the church had no
windows. They were afterwards introduced, but generally in uneven num-
bers. In many very old churches the altar was placed against the rear
wall, when the bishop’s throne was south of it.

2. Tue Hien Cuore. This occupied the space between the apsis and the
transept. It was originally intended for the accommodation of the singers
and inferior clergy. Its roof was usually lower than that of the nave,
but higher than that of the apsis. The choir was usually separated
from the main nave by a railing and the desk at which the Gospel was
read.

3. Tue Marty Nave is the principal part of the church, forming, in an
architectural point of view, the nucleus around which all the other parts are
grouped, and against which they lean. It is therefore the most lofty. It is
the place where the worshippers attend service.

4. Tue Sipe Auszes are parallel to the main nave, and are only separated
from it by rows of pillars or columns. In the basilicas they were cut short
by a wall at the base of the apsis; in the Byzantine churches they had sub-
ordinate apsides of their own, used as vestry, library, &c.; but in the
pointed-arch style they extend far back, encircling the choir and apsis of
the main nave, and forming the gallery of the choir, which in many cases
has attached chapels at every arch, as in the cathedral of Magdeburg
(pl. 41, fig. i) and the church St. Germain de Pres in Paris (pl. 35, fig. 1).
Examples are, however, found of pointed-arch churches and chapels without
any side aisles; ¢.g. St. John’s church in Beauvais (pl. 34, jig. 5). On the
other hand, the side aisles of very large churches are divided by pillars or

147

148 ARCHITECTURE.

columns into two parts, so that the entire building apparently has five aisles,
as Notre Dame in Paris ( pl. 40, fig. 1).

5. Tae Transept is a transverse nave intersecting the main nave mi: side
aisles at right angles at the foot of the choir, and extending more or less
beyond the outer wails of the side aisles, as in the basilicas, thus giving the
church the form of a cross. The two projections were termed the cross-
arms. At their extremities subordinate altars were placed. Small churches
and chapels were often without a transept; very large ones had sometimes
two, which gave them the form of the archiepiscopal cross, or the cross of
Lorrain (pl. 34, fig. 6). When the arms of the transept are as long as the
main nave, the church forms the Greek cross (fig. T); most commonly the
main nave is much longer. The church then forms the Latin cross (fig. 8).
In some churches the high choir with the apsis is longer than the main nave.
The form of such churches is termed an inverted cross.

6. Tae Portats. The oldest churches had only one entrance leading into
the forecourt. Since the courts were abandoned the principal front portal has
taken their place (pl. 35, jig. 3, the portal of Notre Dame la Grande, in
Poitiers). The portal is usually on the west side opposite the sanctuary.
Sometimes, however, the church has two apsides at opposite ends of the
main nave. In such cases the portal is in one of the cross arms, whilst
there are subordinate entrances on both sides of the lower apsis, as in the

cathedral of Treves (pl. 34, jig. 14), which is either occupied by a subordi-

nate altar or serves as a baptistery. The grand portal is, in all edifices of
the middle ages, the part which received the greatest display of magnifi-
cence ; yet the subordinate ones added greatly to the splendor of the other
facades.

7. Tae Forenart anp VestipvuLte. Originally the vestibules were fore-
halls properly so-called. They were attached to the churches, and served
to protect penitents against the inclemency of the weather without their
entering the church itself. Gradually this use was set aside and the size of
the forehalls much reduced until they were entirely done away with, or
rather supplanted by the vestibules. Of these there are two kinds, the
exterior and the interior. The former are usually constructed in imitation
of the antique portico, as in the basilica of St. Vincent in Rome (jig. 13).
The interior vestibules are sometimes in form of a rotunda with a cupola, as
in the Temple in Paris (fig. 9). This is an imitation of the church of the
Holy Sepuichre in Jerusalem, which is found also in several Romanesque
churches. Vestibules are also naturally afforded by the areas of the sub-
structures of the towers or spires, examples of which are found in St. Rade-
gund’s church in Poitiers (pl. 34, jig. 10), in the minster of Freiburg
(pl. 35, fig. 16 A), and others. When there are two towers or spires, the
space between them is roofed in and forms the vestibule, as in the church
of Monreal in Sicily (pl. 34, jig. 11), the cathedral of Magdeburg (pi. 41,
jig. 16), &c. A vestibule may also be obtained by placing the door some
distance back behind the mass of the portal, as in the cathedral of Rheims
( pl. 34, fig. 12).

Another kind of vestibule occurred in the middle ages, attached to the

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ARCHITECTURE. 149

churches, though answering secular purposes. Such were the halls of the
judges or magistrates, where decrees of the courts and ordinances were
made public. These were decorated with some peculiar ornaments, often
lions, as in St. Zeno’s church in Venice (pl. 35, fig. 4). Hence arose the
formula in documents of that age “ datum iter leones” (given between the
lions). Sometimes the magisterial hall, instead of being at the side of the
portal, formed part of the same, and then was a vestibule in the proper
sense of the term.

There were also in some churches fortified fore-halls, with battlements
and loopholes, or with projections over the gates, in the manner of the
machicolis which we have described in another part of this work (see Mili-
tary Sciences, p. 145, or Vol. IJ. p. 621). Such halls, which were designed
for an occasional defence of the churches, are represented in pl. 34,
Jigs. 15-17, and pl. 35, fig.5.

Ornamental fore-halls mostly projected considerably from the facades
(jig. 6), or the front walls were exceedingly thick, so as to afford space for
such halls in the solid masonry. Halls of the latter kind are found in
some of the buildings which we shall presently describe, and will then be
referred to more in detail. In some cases the fore-halls were merely light
attachments, affording shelter against the weather (pl. 34, jig. 18), or even
mere penthouses.

8. Tae Towers anv Srires. Church towers were from the first designed
to afford lofty places for the bells, by whose sound, from the very introduc-
tion of Christianity, the devout were summoned to worship. They were
first added to the Roman basilicas when they were made Christian churches.
At first they stood detached from the churches ; and in Italy and Germany
there are still several such detached towers (Campaniles). Subsequently
the towers were made to serve still another purpose, namely, of indicating
from a distance to the wanderer the site of the church. Hence their
increased height, which also served to afford greater scope for the decora-
tion of the edifices. In the churches of the 12th and 13th centuries, the
bell tower or spire is mostly placed over the middle of the church, where
the transept and nave intersect each other, as in Notre Dame in Dijon
(pl. 34, jig. 20) and the cathedral of Bonn (pi. 30, fig.9b). Very large
cathedrals have often seven or eight spires; but generally only three, when
the two principal ones are placed at the sides of the main portal, and
usually a smaller one over the middle of the church.

9. Tue Vesrry is always situated near the high choir. It is less a
subordinate part of the church than an addition to it. In many of the
older churches it has not been considered at all in the original plan, and
has afterwards been added, either by cutting off part of a side aisle, or
by erecting a special apsis for it at the angle of the main apsis and a side
aisle.

10. Tue Exterior. The outer walls of churches and other buildings of
the different centuries of this period were subject to a great many and
important changes. We find on the one hand plain, hard-smoothed walls,

and again, those that were decorated in the highest degree of splendor,
i49

150 ARCHITECTURE.

even to overloading. The ornament, therefore, is no essential part of the
pointed-arch style, but assumes its characteristics in accordance with its
rules. The walls that are not held perfectly plain in their larger masses
exhibit embellishments of various kinds. They are then usually divided
into panels by mouldings or straight members, and these panels orna-
mented with braided work (pl. 34, jig. 21), scales (jig. 22), or checkered
work (jig. 23). The walls are, however, also found interrupted by pilasters,
or by flat recesses or niches arched above, or with true or imitation lattice-
work. Such arches were often subdivided into smaller ones, whose form cor-
responds with that of the larger arch, and which jointly rest on a column, as
in the Byzantine window (jig. 24). The filling over the column is then
usually pierced, the openings corresponding in shape with the style of the
arches, and being three or four lobed (jig. 25). Similar apertures are also
employed for ventilating in other places ; or, when decoration only is aimed
at, superseded by mere recesses of the same shape. The arches often appear
intertwined, their springings resting on alternate columns or pilasters (jigs.
26-28, round and pointed arches, with imitation lattice-work).

Special attention is claimed by the columns, pillars, and mitres (or joints)
of arches, or arched recesses or niches. Columns are distinguished from
pillars and pilasters by their having capitals, and usually also bases. A
medium between the two kinds of supports is represented by the columnar
pillars (jig. 29), which are always short and clumsy, and instead of capitals
have only an astragal and slab at the top, and frequently only one or the
other. A column is said to be incomplete if it has not a distinct base, shaft,
and capital, that is to say if one or two of these parts are absent. Thus the
base and part of the shaft may be wanting. When the latter is the case,
as in half-columns, the lower end of the shaft rests on a console (jig. 30), or
on a foliated knob (fig. 32); or the shaft is truncated, 7. e. eut off horizon-
tally or obliquely (jig. 31). The last mode of construction was frequently
not the intention of the first designer, but the absent part was subse-
quently removed by truncation, in order to gain space or light.

The various forms of the outline of columns are illustrated on pl. 34,
namely : round (jig. 84); with an obtuse projection (fig. 8346); with an
acute projection (jig. 33c¢); elliptical (jig. 33d); square (jig. 34e), the
outline of a pillar; rectangular against a wall, the form of a pilaster (fig.
34 7); and polygonal (fig. 33 9).

The bases either rest immediately on the ground or floor, or are elevated
by plinths or pedestals. They are either composed of mouldings or deco-
rated with animal figures (pl. 35, jig. 7), with single heads of animals
(jig. 8), or with foliation.

The various forms of shafts are shown in jig. 10 as club-shaped (a),
swelled (4), baluster-shaped (c), cylindrical (d), and conic (e); their group-
ing is illustrated in fig. 11, viz. simple (a), crossed (6), braided (c), broken
(7), knotted (e), and divided by rings (f/f). The different decorations of
shafts are represented in jig. 12, viz. fluted (@), deep fluted 6), spirally
fluted (ce), lozenged (7), facetted (e), crimped (7), with chevrons (g), with
steps (A), with scales (2), and with beads (£). Sometimes shafts are also

150

' ARCHITECTURE. 151

decorated with vines or climbing figures. They are even at times supplanted
by human or fabulous figures (pl. 36 , fig-1). The columns of the architecture
of the middle ages are, however, not subject to strict rules like those of
ancient times, and those piichwandd according to the columnar orders. The
columns of the first centuries of the middle ages are indeed clumsy, but as
architecture gradually rose from its dejection, they were very much
improved, and in the prime of the German style they were of admirable
slenderness, their real thickness being skilfully disguised by mouldings and
ogees.

The capitals in the middle ages, and especially in the German or pointed-
arch style, are of the most varied forms. In their decorations the freest
scope is left to the taste or fancy of the architect or sculptor. We have
selected a number of examples showing the different forms occurring in
remarkable edifices (pl. 387). They may be conveniently designated as
follows : cylindrical, continuation of the shaft with ornaments (jigs. 1, 2) ;
cubic, with rounded lower corners (jigs. 8, 4) ; strictly cubic (fig. 5) ; coni-
cal (jig. 6); heart-shaped (jig. 7); inverted truncated pyramid (jig. 8) ;
cup-shaped (jig. 9) ; knob-shaped (fig. 10) ; prismatic bell-shaped (fg. 11);
funnel-shaped (jigs. 12, 13); cubic, with an astragal below (jig. 14); and
boat-shaped (jig. 15). The decorations consisted either of sculpture or of
painting, or of both combined. Smooth capitals were mostly painted ;
there are even instances on record when very excellent sculpture in capitals
was filled up with mortar and smoothed over in order to gain a surface for
painted ornaments. Not unfrequently most exquisite sculptured work has
been discovered on capitals that were thus plastered up. The sculptures of
this period represent either the human figure or subjects from the animal
and vegetable kingdoms, or the various human pursuits. The human figure
appears at first only as a mask on the abacus (pl. 35, jig. 13) ; afterwards
in half length in foliation (pl. 37, fig. 16). Entire historical representations
are also sometimes met with on capitals (pl. 87, fig. 17) ; or clerical pro-
cessions (jig. 16) ; or symbolic groups, whose import it is frequently difficult
to determine (pl. 35, fig. 14). Again, the ornaments may be mere freaks
of fancy. Among them are groups representing human vices, or abuse of
clerical power, and their imagined punishments.

Among the decorations from the animal kingdom, few are taken from
among the animals of the country; they are generally representations of
foreign or even fabulous animals which are supporting the abacus (pl. 37,
Jig. 19).

Decorations from the vegetable kingdom are the most frequent, including
leaves, flowers, and fruits. These belong usually to the vegetation of the
country, rarely to foreign countries; where they are not of the indigenous
vegetation they are mostly fantastic. The most common decorations of
this kind represent the foliation of water plants (jig. 20), which also occur
combined with acanthus stems (jig. 22) or with other leaves, and set with
pearls (jig. 21). Indigenous plants were first generally adopted in the
13th century. Among those most frequently met with are the ivy (pi. 38,
Jig. 2); the wild vine (jig. 3); the grape vine (jig. 4) ; the cinque-foil and

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152 ARCHITECTURE. ’

the oak (jig. 5); and even the cabbage (jig. 6). One of the prettiest
fantastic foliated capitals is composed of long, many-lobed leaves, over-
lapping at the top, and forming small volutes. Among the flowers met
with on capitals the principal ones are the rose (jigs. 7, 8) and a fantastic
flower (jig. 9). Small capitals of the 13th century have usually projecting
foliated volutes at the corners, to which in the 14th century a row of leaves
was added (jig. 14). In the 15th century the foliated decorations were
meagre and stiff, but in the 16th century they again approached the forms |
of classic antiquity. The capitals of the 11th century appear nearly all
smooth, with here and there a few rudely hewn pedicles. In the 12th
century they are of a more elegant style and of a nobler form. In the 18th
century, the decline of art is perceptible also in the capitals, which are
overloaded with leaves and knobs (jig. 10). In the 14th century the
capitals have two rows of deeply lobed leaves, and the abacus is round or
polygonal instead of quadrangular. In the 16th century, finally, the capitals
are entirely without gracefulness or richness. The Corinthian abacus
(jig. 11) was changed considerably, and finally made so thick, that it
appeared to crush the capital instead of decorating it.

Apertures or interruptions in the walls, whether they be windows, doors,
or only niches or recesses, are closed above in various ways; either by two
straight oblique lines, the sides of a triangle, meeting over the centre of the
aperture (jig. 12), or by gradually narrowing courses of stone, a straight
line forming the top (fig. 14), or by a curved line or arch. An arch need
not be complete; the one-sided or ascending arch is on the contrary very
frequent in the German style, employed to connect a lower outer wall with
a higher uninterrupted inner wall (jig. 13), and serving instead of a buttress
tothe latter. Complete arches appear in the middle ages in a great variety
of forms. If the arch be a true arc, z. e. described from a single centre, it
can have four different shapes: 1. Less than a semicircle, or the flat arch
(jig. 15). 2. A full semicircle, or the Romanesque arch (jig. 16). 3. More
than a semicircle, or the Moorish arch (fig. 17). 4. A semicircle whose
eentre lies above the level of the imposts, or the overtopped arch (pl. 36,
jig. 2). The centre may be often considerably above that level when, for
instance, the arches of intercolumniations or apertures of different width
are to have their keystones in a horizontal line without giving up the strictly
semicircular arch. The overtopping will then be in proportion to the
decrease in width. A variety of the semicircular arch is the trefoil arch,
which is formed by three semicircles intersecting each other and producing
two points (pl. 38, jig. 18). This construction is very frequent in Ger-
many and England. The three first named varieties of the semicircular arch
appear together in the 11th century, the fourth exclusively in the 12th,
whilst the trefoil arch is represented at all times from the 11th to the 16th
century.

The simple pointed arch, the characteristic one of the present period, is of
seven different forms, five of which belong to the 12th century, two
exclusively to the 15th. The first and oldest form is composed of two ares
whose centres are but slightly removed to both sides from the centre of the

152

ARCHITECTURE. 153

intercolumniation (J. 38, fig. 19). Immediately afterwards appeared the
second form, which is very high and pointed, the centres of the component
arcs lying far beyond the sides of the arch (pl. 36, fig.3). The next form is
that of the most beautiful and regular pointed arches. It is called the
equilateral arch, the centres of the arcs being in the springings of the arch
(jig. 4). The fourth form is the lancehead arch, which is constructed from
the same centres, but the arcs are extended below through the level
of the centres (jig. 5). The fifth form is the overtopped arch, whose
curves are also described from the same centres as in the two last, whilst
the extensions below their levels are in straight lines (jig. 6). This arch is
employed in the same cases as the overtopped semicircular arch. The two
forms belonging to the 15th century are: 1. The prolonged pointed arch
(jig. 7°). The curves forming the sides of this arch are composed of two
arcs, the lower one described from the opposite springing as centre; the
upper one from a centre a little distant from the centre of the intercolumni-
ation. 2. The counter arch, whose arcs are below the level of their centres,
each of which is on the same side of the arch as the are to which it belongs
(fig. 8). This arch occurs frequently in English architecture. The trefoil
arch occurs also in the pointed style in the 11th and 12th centuries; after-
wards much corrupted ; and in the 15th century in England and France in
the flowing or flamboyant style.

The ass’s-back arch, which is called Tudor arch when it is very flat, has
sides composed of two arcs, but differs from the prolonged pointed arch in
this, that the centre of the upper arc is above the arch as in the counter
arch, whilst that of the lower is below the arch, and the entire side conse-
quently a wave line (jig. 9).

The basket arch (fig. 76), which is a frequent form of our day, appears
very flat in the middle ages, especially in France and England; more
rarely in Germany, and then only in private dwellings. An example of
this latter form is given in jfig.10. It is not to be confounded with the
horizontal top with rounded corners (jig. 11), which is no arch proper, the
corners only describing arcs of a very short radius. In the time of the
renaissance (revival of architecture) pointed arches gradually disappear,
superseded by flat, elliptical, and semicircular arches.

The decoration of the archivolts consists either in the introduction of stone
of different colors (fig. 12), which was the prevalent manner of the Moorish
and Byzantine styles; or they are moulded (jig. 18); or the stone wedges
project more or less (jig. 14). An English mode of constructing the archi-
volt is curious, having a zigzag or toothed ornament (fig. 15). There are
also lobed archivolts (jig. 16) or counter lobed (jig. 17). The latter were
developed in the 15th century so as to exhibit the trefoil arch on a small
seale (fig. 18) by prolonging and notching the points between the counter
lobes.

The archivolt of the pointed arch was at first entirely simple, and at
most received an astragal for decoration. Afterwards it was covered with
mouldings, with a view of disguising their true dimensions, and giving
them a lighter appearance. The first decorative construction was the com-

153

154 ARCHITECTURE.

bination of a socle, a scotia, and an astragal in front and behind, the two
astragals lying close together (jig. 19). Subsequently a thin ridge was
inserted between the two astragals (jig. 20), and finally the archivolts were
profiled like the girt arches and cross-vault ridges (fig. 21).

The girt arches and cross-vault ridges always abut obliquely on their
imposts. Owing to their limited width which never exceeds 8 inches, they
are very simply profiled, mostly with sharp-edged astragals} scotias, and
socles. The rich mouldings were all laid in the archivolt, which was
sometimes very elaborately decorated (jig. 23). This degree of embellish-
ment was the result of gradual improvement from the simple astragal
(jig. 24); the twisted astragal (jig. 25); the wave line astragal (fig. 26);
the zigzag astragal (jig. 28); the chevron (fig. 27); and combinations of
two or more of these various forms. Such were the counter chevrons
(jig. 29), and all the different ornaments which we have represented in jigs.
30-40. The keystone at the point of intersection of the various vaults
constituting a cross-vault was frequently made to project some distance
below the plane of the vaults, and decorated with great splendor (pl. 40,
jig. 39).

All these decorations reached their highest-point of perfection in the 13th
century. They were then mostly borrowed from indigenous plants. The
archivolts were often interrupted by trefoil arches and their upper edges
decorated with erect foliage. In the 14th century the general jejuneness
and monotony in decoration also affected the architectural mouldings; and
in the 15th century the tasteful distribution of ornaments over the entire
buildings was discontinued to make room for a meretricious decoration of
single parts. Henceforth ornaments appear only on the outside of arches,
doors, windows, and on the gables which were entirely covered. In these
places and on the edges of the spires, decorative appendices, more or less
tasteful, were made, consisting of leaves (pl. 39, jig. 1), flowers, dogs’ heads,
animal and human figures, &c.

Entablatures proper are not found in the pointed-arch style owing to the
peculiar mode of construction which left no room for them. In the interior,
only a cornice under the windows was retained, which varied in profile
according to the individual taste of the architect. Some are found that
approach the classic ages in noble simplicity. We have selected as an
example a cornice from the cathedral at Avignon (jig. 2). On the exterior,
cornices are more frequently employed as well at the gables as in the real
or imitation interruptions that decorated the walls. These cornices were
often supported by cornices (pi. 36, fig. 41) the shape of which was entirely
matter of fancy; they are found from the simplest cubes to the most
elaborate representations of animal or human figures. The cornices were
also varied to suit personal taste and were sometimes exceedingly rich.
This effect was, however, attained by introducing a greater number of
members in the mouldings, rather than by a deviation from the simplicity
which marks the style of decorating the cornices in this period (pi. 39,
jig.3). The recesses between pilasters were also closed above with two ormore
small arches resting on small consoles (jig. 4), which often had the form of

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ARCHITECTURE. 155

human or animal heads or figures (jig. 5). In the absence of consoles the
cornices of the small arches were made to run uninterruptedly around the
points between the arches, which in that case usually terminated in a flower.

In some churches horizontal decorations are found above the cornice,
taking as it were the place of the architrave. They are either composed of
burnt bricks exhibiting trefoil or quatrefoil recesses (jig. 6); or inscriptions
chronicling some events or invoking the blessing of God upon the building ;
or else foliated work (fig. 7). These ornaments were also poorer in the 15th
century (jig. 8); and in the 16th century they were frequently displaced by
more or less happy attempts at imitating the antique entablature (jig. 9).

In the gables the arch decorations on consoles follow the slopes of the
roof. The axis of the arch is perpendicular either to the slope (jig. 10) or
to the horizon (jig. 11). The latter is considered better taste.

The roof commences over the cornice. It is either flat, or dome shaped,
or a ridge roof. The decorations at the upper walls are different for the
different kinds of roof. In the 13th and 14th centuries a gallery running all
round the church was placed immediately below the roof. This gallery
had a latticed or a decorated stone railing (jig. 18). Such were also placed
at the edges of flat roofs. A similar latticed wall was also often placed as
a decoration along the ridge of the roof, at first rather rude (jig. 12) but
later more elegant, and in the 13th century superseded by gilt metal of
elaborate workmanship (pl. 40, jig. 3). The edges of the roof frequently
rested on consoles (pl. 39, jig. 14). This was especially the case with spire
roofs which ascended very steeply. The decorations of the gables in the
11th and 12th centuries have still some affinities with the antique (pi. 40,
jig. 5). In the succeeding century they are more like the earlier Byzantine
(pl. 39, fig. 16), but in the prime of German architecture they are very
tasteful (fig. 15). In this period little pyramidal turrets were placed at the
foot of the gables on both sides.

The rain-gutters were arranged very cleverly in the middle ages and
carefully lined with lead. Their spouts projected from the eaves in the
shape of human or animal figures (pl. 40, jig. 4). Over them were the
railings which we have mentioned, and which frequently were adorned
with most beautiful circular rosettes or with lattice-work in the shape of
trefoil arches over perpendicular compartments (pl. 39, fig. 17). These
railings are always in accordance with the taste of their periods, so that a
practised eye can from them determine the time when an edifice was
finished. In some cases there are battlements with turrets at the corners
(pl. 40, fiy. 6) or machicolis (figs. 7, 8) instead of railings.

The walls were mostly very high and long, and especially in the prime
of middle age architecture so thin that it became necessary to give them an
outward support, partly in order to give them strength in proportion to
their dimensions, in part to enable them to withstand the lateral pressure
of the interior vaults. Buttresses were, therefore, employed as early as the
Byzantine period. In the pointed-arch style buttresses and ascending
arches were brought to the highest state of perfection. The first buttresses
had but very little projection from the wall. They appeared almost like

155

156 ARCHITECTURE.

pilasters (pl. 34, figs. 35, 86) and at the corners like half-columns (pi. 39,
jig. 18). These reinforcements of the wall generally were carried up as
high as the base of the cornice, and this height was retained even after they
were considered as distinct architectural members, and received a greater
projection (pl. 34, fig. 37). They were sometimes made round with a little
conical roof (pl. 40, jig. 10), or connected at the top by arches (pl. 39,
jig. 20). As church architecture advanced and the height of the vaults in
the interior was increased, the projection of the buttresses increased in
proportion; but as the pressure in the upper parts was gradually less, the
buttresses were made of steps of different projections (jig. 19). When sub-
sequently gracefulness in the appearance of the edifices received greater
attention cornices were laid round the buttresses; and they received little
gables (pl. 34, jig. 38) sometimes with ridge-roofs (pl. 39, jig. 22). A still
more increased height of the nave led to another and stronger reinforcement
of the walls. The side aisles, which were usually much lower, were girt
with buttresses strong enough for the walls of the main nave. These
buttresses were carried up considerably higher than the walls of the side
aisles, and one or more one-sided or ascending arches were sprung from them
against the wall of the main nave (jig. 21).

The decoration of the buttress consisted of columns at the corners, and the
main cornices led around them (fig. 23). Above the cornice was placed a
solid quadrangular pillar with imitation lattice-work, gables, and pyramidal
point (jigs. 24, 26). The less projecting buttresses received only a ridge-
roof whose gable was decorated (fig. 25). Heavy buttresses, decreasing
stepwise, had the facade of every step decorated with imitation lattice-work
which gave them a lighter appearance (jig. 27). Their tops were then
surmounted with solid pillars, whose front gables were supported by two
small columns forming a niche between them in which a statue was placed.
Sometimes, especially in England, a statue only was placed on the top of
the buttress (jig. 28). Sometimes the buttresses had niches with gables
from below upwards, this decoration being principally used on buttresses of
towers (fig. 29). At the time of the renaissance all this elegant splendor
disappeared, superseded at first by the rigid forms of the transition style,
and then by the reversed consoles and other clumsy supports of the worst
Italian style (jig. 30). In England polygonal buttresses are frequently
met with surmounted by turrets with battlements, against which the ascend-
ing arches rest (fig. 31).

The windows that interrupt the walls of a church are either straight above,
or arched, or entirely round. Their sides may be rectangular (pl. 40, jig. 11)
or outwardly and inwardly oblique (fig. 12), or only inwardly oblique
(fig. 13). The old basilicas have no windows in the apsis. At a later
period the apsis had one or more, but always an odd number of windows.
An even number only exceptionally occurs at a very late period. ‘The
great windows are properly a number of smaller ones packed into one
frame, three or more lancet-windows being placed beside each other, and
one or more foil or rosette windows above them or between their heads in
order to fill out the arched cell of the vaulting, which then necessarily gave

156

ARCHITECTURE. 157

the whole group an arched outline; and this was indicated by an arched
drip-mould or label. It then became desirable to lighten the irregular.
shaped masses of stone left between the perforations, and this was done
by piercing these masses or spandrils, and reducing the solid frame of each
foil or rosette to an equal thickness all round, as if several such frames or
rings were packed into one great arched opening, which henceforth was
regarded as one window instead of several.

The oldest windows are generally round-arched and more or less simple,
as shown in pl. 39, jigs. 82-36. Coupled windows (jig. 37) occur only in
the first centuries of the middle ages. Among the earliest packed windows
were those represented in pl. 40, jig. 9, consisting of three round-arched
windows, the central one of greater width, with a common arch sprung
over them all. The first round windows are of the same age, and occur
between the heads of two coupled windows (pl. 34, jig. 25), but never
alone. At a later period large rosette windows occur alone in the principal
facades of churches, divided by little columns set around the centre like
wheel spokes, and connected by round or trefoil arches (pl. 39, fig. 88). In
the pointed-arch style the rosette window is always surmounted by an arch,
or at least a drip-mould.

The improvement of the windows in the pointed style was as gradual as
that in the Romanesque and Byzantine. We first find them small and
simple (pl. 40, jig. 14); then coupled (jig. 15); next coupled with a perfo-
rated foil rosette between their heads (jig. 16); then the same arrangement
packed into a common arch resting on columns (pl. 39, fig. 40). The
desire for greater ornament made the windows more and more complicated,
and designing the patterns for windows became a special art, the art of
tracery. One centre mullion not being found sufficient to admit of many
variations of design, three, five, and even seven were introduced. The
mullions are usually perpendicular up to the level of the springings of the
arch, where they diverge into arches, curves, and flowing lines, enriched
with foliations. Pl. 40, fig. 17, gives an example of a window with three
mullions; pl. 39, fig. 41, with five; and jig. 42 with seven. The division
of the heads of the arches in these examples is strictly geometrical ; the
principal groups are separate, and each has its own appropriate subdivisions
and ornaments.

The strictly geometrical tracery was in the 15th century superseded by
the less beautiful but more lively English leaf tracery (pl. 40, fig. 20), and
‘tthe still more lively French flamboyant tracery (jigs. 18,19; and pl. 39,
jig. 39). According to Garbett’s Principles of Design in Architecture, the
difference between the flamboyant and the English leaf tracery is, that
while the upper ends of the English loops or leaves are round or simply
pointed, 7. e. with final angles, the upper ends in France terminate, like the
lower, in angles of contact (those formed by two curves that have a common
tangent). It was necessary to the leafy effect that the lower angles should
be tangential, but to the flame-like effect that the upper ones should be so,
even if the lower were finite; and hence some examples of flamboyant
tracery turned upside down form a kind of leaf tracery.

157

158 ARCHITECTURE.

The English, however, adopted still another method which was less con-
ducive to the aspiring expression, and which conducted them to a style less
rich and certainly less varied than any of the other After-Gothic styles.
This style is called the perpendicular. Erroneously supposing that an
abundance of vertical lines would increase the Gothic character, the English
were led to convert all the flowing lines of the window tracery into vertical
ones, to omit the capitals of nearly all the smaller shafts or shaftlets, thus
converting what had been blank arcades into mere panels, and then to mul-
tiply, diminish, and extend these panels with endless repetitions of vertical
lines over every part of the interior, and in florid buildings even of the
exterior. Examples cf this style are given in pl. 39, jig. 43, and pl. 40,
Jigs. 21, 22.

Rectangular windows occur only in dwelling-houses or below pointed-.
arch windows, except in some cases in the period from the 13th to the 15th
century, where they take the place of the gallery near the roof. The older
quadrangular windows have highly ornamental jambs and lintels under
arches (fig. 23). When they are very wide the lintel is supported by a
column in the centre (jig. 24), or the upper courses of the side walls project
under the lintel, thus approaching the flat arch (jig. 25) ; when their width
is greater than their height, they are divided by mullions connected by
trefoil arches under the straight lintel (jig. 26).

A curious combination of the Romanesque and pointed arch is produced
by two Romanesque arcades intertwined, which at their intersections pro-
duce pointed arches (jig. 27) which are perforated for windows, and have
a very pleasing effect. Windows of this kind were of frequent occurrence
in the 12th century, but in the subsequent centuries their places were occu-
pied by apparent perforations in the pointed arches.

Rosette windows occur as late as the 15th century, but their strictly cir-
cular form was gradually abandoned for convex-sided triangles (jig. 28) or
polygons, with strictly geometrical divisions. Such windows of the purest
taste are very numerous in Germany.

In the pointed-arch style of architecture doorways are striking and
important features, indicating in the character of the mouldings and orna-
ments the style and period of the edifice. They are located either in the
centre of the more or less decorated facade, or in some other point of the
exterior wall. Only the former claim our special attention, the latter being
generally very subordinate in character. The principal doorway of a church
is always of the character of its windows, except in some cases where the
erection has been of very long duration, when occasionally a later architect
has been sufficiently deficient in good taste to vary the style with a view to
satisfy his own fancy or the taste of his own period. The doorways are
mostly perspective portals, deep enough to form forehalls, as we have
already seen (p. 148). If the portal is very wide it is subdivided by a
pilar in the centre (pl. 39, jig. 44), which is mostly adorned with the
statue of the tutelary saint of the church. The door wings seldom reach to
the top of the arch, but end mostly in a horizontal line at the height of its
springings, the head of the arch receiving a packed window or merely an

158

ARCHITECTURE. 159

indication of one in a profusion of sculpture. The greatest splendor of
decoration prevails in the portals of the pointed-arch churches, as may be
seen in the views of entire churches represented on pls. 34-39 and 41, of
which we shall presently examine the details. The character of the sculp-
tures found in and on the churches of this period will be described in that
division of this work which is devoted to the Fine Arts.

As in the Romanesque style the apsis was the characteristic part of the
church more or less decorated (pl. 40, jigs. 29, 30), so in the pointed-arch
style are the bell towers or spires. Their lower portion is usually a square
elongated vertical building, or tower proper, which at a certain height
passes into a circular or polygonal form, thence tapering off to a point, and
forming a spire or steeple. In the absence of the tapering part they are
called towers, otherwise spires or steeples. The bells are usually hung at
the upper extremity of the tower below the commencement of the pyramidal
part, and their position is exteriorly marked by the belfry window or other
aperture for the escape of the sound. One of the oldest structures of this
kind is the spire of St. Ainay’s church in Lyons (pl. 40, jig. 31). A beauti-
ful example of towers proper is afforded in the cathedral of York (pl. 38,
jig. 20). Among the spires various kinds are distinguished according to
their shape. Among them are the pyramdal, whose reduction to a point
is step-wise, as in the Minster of Strasburg (pl. 36, jig. 42); the arrow-
headed, whose reduction is in straight lines from the substructure to the
point (pl. 34, fig. 39; and pl. 40, fig. 33); the needle-shaped, whose square
substructure abruptly contracts into an octagon, the spire rising thence like
the arrow-headed (pl. 40, jig. 35); the dome-shaped, whose corners are con-
vex lines (fig. 34). Gable towers have no steeples, but framework roofs with
two or four gables, and covered with tiles or slate (jig. 36). In conclusion
we mention the arch towers which occur frequently on village churches.
They are solid structures with several arched perforations in one of which the
bell is hung (fig. 37).

The decoration of the towers in the 11th and 12th centuries consisted
mostly of arcades arranged in different tiers above each other, and exhibit-
ing principally the round arch. If the width of the arches was very great
it was subdivided by subordinate arcades. The ornaments of the arches
and their imposts, columns, consoles, archivolts, &c., were often exceedingly
rich and always remarkable for unity of style to the minutest details. In
the thirteenth century the round arches gave way for the pointed, and the
towers had only one tier of arcades of great height, with deep perspective
archivolts decorated with columns. In this century we find the first pyra-
midal stone roofs on towers, multifariously perforated with rosettes and
foils. In the fourteenth century the mullions of the belfry windows are
reduced to one, and the spaces filled out with sound-boards (pl. 40, jig. 32).
On the other hand new decorations are introduced on the columns, arches,
and gutter-spouts, giving the towers a much richer appearance. In the 15th
century towers commence to be built of several stories of gradually reduced
circumference, and richly decorated with buttresses, ascending arches,
crowning flowers, &c., and harmonizing in surpassing splendor with the

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160 ARCHITECTURE.

style of the churches to which they belong. 7g. 38. represents the upper
part of such a tower. The workmanship is exquisite, but the arrangement
of the ornaments already denotes a grievous deviation from a natural perfec-
tion, as is more clearly seen from jig. 386 representing a massive turret
placed on a very slender column.

The pointed-arch style is generally designated as the Gothicstyle. With
much more truth and propriety it might be called the German style as has
been proposed by Goethe, for it originated in Germany and: has in its
characteristics nothing in common with the older styles that we have
examined in the preceding pages, and least of all with the real Gothic style
which originated in Italy during the supremacy of the Goths in that
country under Theodoric. The prominent original features of the German
style are: 1. The construction of cross-vaults whose ribs alone are of free-
stone, grouped in the greatest variety of forms, the spaces between them
being filled up with bricks not more than four to eight inches in size.
2. The pointed arch over windows and doors. 3. The connexion of pillars
and columns in the interior by pointed arches. 4. The extremely high
naves and remarkably slender columns and pillars that support their cross-
vault ceilings. 5. The profusely decorated perspective portals. 6. The highly
finished perforated work in the high spires. 7. The proportionately thin
walls of exquisite masonry, strengthened by buttresses at the points of
lateral pressure of interior vaults.

The oldest monuments of this style date from the 10th century, and are
found in the very heart of Germany between the Elster and Saale Rivers,
near the Elbe, where it would be absurd to suppose Romanesque, Byzan-
tine, or Moorish influence, when the vast tracts of land that separate their
site from the homes of these latter styles remained entirely unaffected, and
had no buildings in the so-called Goruic, properly German pointed arch
style until a century later. The fact that the church of St. Peter and St.
Paul in Zeitz, dedicated in the year 974; the cathedral of Meissen, com-
menced in 948; the cathedral of Merseburg, commenced in 968, and others
which are in the purest pointed-arch style, are much older than any edifice
of this style in France, England, Italy, and even in the rest of Germany,
seems conclusively to prove that the pointed-arch style was invented and
first employed in Saxony. It is therefore purely German, and it is a mis-
nomer to call it Gothic.

Having thus given an outline of the progress and development of Archi-
tecture during the period of the pointed-arch style we offer in conclusion a
short description of the most prominent of its monuments.

1. Tue Miyster or Freypure iy Bapen. (Pl. 35, fig. 16, plan; jig. 17,
view). This remarkable church was commenced in the year 1122. Its ©
construction was prosecuted with great zeal on the part of the princes and
citizens, the latter mortgaging their property in order to raise money for
the church. In the year 1146 it was so far completed that Bernard de
Clairvaux could preach in it and exhort the people to join in the crusade.
The edifice then, however, only comprised the tower a, the nave B, with
the side aisles c c, and the transept p, to the small tower d. The spire

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ARCHITECTURE. 161

was finished in the 13th century. The choir 5, with the gallery Fr, was
commenced in 1314, and finished in 1513 by John Niesenberger of Gratz.
Erwin von Steinbach, the architect of the Minster of Strasburg, was also
for some time engaged in superintending the Freyburg building. The
transept appears to be the oldest part of the church since it exhibits a
mixture of the Byzantine and German styles, whilst the rest of the building
is in the purest German style. The width of the nave is 27 feet, that of
the side aisles 20 feet. The ceilings are simple cross-vaults resting on
columns 7 feet thick. The walls without the buttresses are only 6 feet
thick. The choir is closed on three sides and has cross-vault ceilings with
very artificially distributed ribs. Its length is 157 feet; that of the nave
175 feet. The facade has a beautiful perspective portal (1), 30 feet in
width, lying between pillars of 8 feet thickness and 13 feet projection, and
profusely decorated with columns, arches, and a gable with fine sculptures.
The fore hall a is also rich in architectural ornaments and sculptures. The
inner doorway (2) has a central pillar decorated with a statue of St. Mary.
The vault of the fore hall is 42 feet high. The tower is square up to the
first gallery; thence twelve-cornered; and finally eight-cornered up to the
base of the pyramid which is six-sided and rises, without nucleus and with
beautifully perforated walls, a pattern of the most exquisite architectural
construction. Its extreme height including the substructure is 3724 feet.
The height of the nave is 823 feet, and the choir has the same height, but
it appears higher exteriorly as it is elevated by a number of steps above
the floor of the nave. A number of chapels, ¢, are grouped around the
choir. The cross-arms have each a portal. surmounted by perforated pyra-
mids, and the richly decorated buttresses of the side aisles are connected
with the upper wall of the main nave by ascending arches which strengthen
it. The south side is very rich in sculptures, and all the windows contain
emost beautiful glass paintings. The pulpit is of stone, and a masterpiece
of sculpture by George Kempt.

2. Tae Minster or Strassure (pl. 36, fig. 42, view from northwest).
This edifice is one of the most precious monuments of German architec-
ture. The entire structure is of a hard white freestone, slightly tinged
with red. Its extreme length is 343 feet 4 inches, in the clear 314 feet. It.
has three aisles of an aggregate width in the clear of 114 feet, 6 inches.
The transept is 173 feet, 8 inches long, by a width of 44 feet, 7 inches.
The nave is 42 feet, 4 inches wide, and 95 feet, 5 inches high. The twelve
clustered pillars which separate it from the side aisles have a thickness of
7 feet, 4 inches; their inner cylinder is 5 feet, 3 inches in diameter. The
side aisles are 24 feet, 11 inches wide, by a height of 43 feet. The tower
facade is 159 feet, 6 inches wide. The side walls are only 3 feet, 8 inches
thick, with buttresses 4 feet, 4 inches broad, and projecting 8 feet, 6 inches.
There are two side chapels, 51 and 56 feet in length, attached to the side
aisles. These chapels have artificially distributed vaulting ribs, whilst the
other ceilings are simple cross-vaults with caps 8-9 inches thick. The
western side of the interior has beautiful German ornaments among which
two rosettes are prominent, the one with apparent perforations, the other a

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162 ARCHITECTURE.

true lattice window 51 feet in diameter. The intersection of the nave and
transept is surmounted by a dome. ‘The choir, which belongs to the oldest
part of the church, has been restored in inferior style. This oldest portion,
which embraces also the cross-arms with the exception of the northern
portal, which is of later date, is built in the Byzantine style. Under the
choir is a subterranean church, and 21 feet below the latter is the founda-
tion sole of the minster, being a layer of clay 3 feet thick on closely driven
piles. Near one of the chapels is a small court containing a stone cube
with the epitaphs of Erwin von Steinbach (d. 1318), the architect of the
spire and of his wife and son. The tower was commenced in 1277. Its
height to the platform where the warder lodges, is 205 feet from the floor
of the church. Thence rises the northern tower. The southern was never
built. This part of the structure is a quadrangle with truncated corners, 113
feet, 6 inches high, and containing the belfry and spiral stairs. From its top
rises the spire proper, a pyramid 121 feet, 6 inches high. The total height
of this spire is, therefore, 442 feet. It is the highest finished spire in
Europe. The spires for the cathedral of Cologne were designed to be 532
feet high, that of the minster of Ulm 452 feet, 6 inches, but they were not com-
pleted. The upper pyramid of the Strasburg spire is octagonal and reduced
stepwise to a point. It is of the most exquisite workmanship, and built
according to the highest principles of stone-dressing. The gallery below
the cross forms a sort of crown to the spire. The spire was executed under
the superintendence of the architect John Hitz, and its every detail com-
mands the admiration of architects in point of construction.

The southern portal is in the Byzantine style. It is decorated with
sculptures representing figures from the Old and New Testaments and
others distinguished by tasteful composition and beautiful execution. They
are newer than the portal itself, and are principally works of Sabina von
Steinbach, daughter of the architect. This portal formed the conclusion of*
the oldest portion of the church, which was all finished in the year 1002.
The outer walls of the new naves were finished by bishop Wernher in 1028.
It is in the pointed-arch style of much lower dimensions than were after-
wards in vogue. The vaulting of the nave and side aisles was not com-
pleted before 1050. Erwin von Steinbach constructed the ascending arches
to the walls of the main nave and built the tower to the height of the ridge
of the nave. After his death his son John carried it up to the platform.
He was followed by John Hiltz of Cologne, who commenced the northern
spire and built a piece of the southern, which was subsequently taken down.
Conrad Frankenberger was the next architect. He worked at the northern
spire for the first four or five years of the 15th century. Finally John Hiiltz,
grandson of the above mentioned Hiltz, finished the pyramid in the year
1439. The stone pulpit is of exquisite workmanship and was wrought by
Hammerer in the year 1485.

3. Tur Catneprat or Corogne. No building has been so much discussed
in public prints and special books as the cathedral of Cologne. It has the
greatest claim to the special attention of architects, on the one hand by the
merit of its grand and harmonious ground plan, and on the other because

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ARCHITECTURE. 163

its architectural forms and ornaments are so many witnesses of the prime
of the pointed-arch style. Pl. 34, jig. 40, gives a view of this building as
it is intended to be when completed. Six hundred years have elapsed
since it was commenced, but no part of the grand structure is entirely
finished. In the beginning of the present century many of the finished
parts showed serious marks of decay, and it became a point of pride in all
the German nation to prevent the ruin of this cathedral, and if possible to
complete it. In 1824 the Prussian government decreed an annual contri-
bution of $10,000; a light cathedral tax was created, to which every man
had to bring his mite ; extensive private collections were made, and nume-
rous presents and bequests sent to the cathedral. The king of Bavaria set
the example of having certain parts of the building finished at his own
expense, and several other princes and associations followed it. The work
was then commenced in good earnest, and has been carried on ever since.
The restoration of dilapidated parts and the new parts are being made
strictly in the spirit and according to the designs of the first architect.
Fortunately the original plans still exist, so that no room has been left for
mistakes by erroneous conclusions. But the astonishing elaboration of
ornament makes progress very slow. There is hardly a stone laid in the
building that has not on one or more of its faces highly finished stone-
dresser’s or sculptor’s work. The progress of decay has, however, been
effectually arrested, and considerable work has been done towards the
perfection of the cross-arms with their magnificent portals. The side aisles
have been furnished with painted-glass windows of the highest artistic
value, presents of the king of Bavaria, representing the birth of Christ, the
Evangelists, and other subjects illustrating the Scriptures. The main front
where the two spires are to be reared is still pretty much in its dilapidated
condition. The northern tower is only 10 or 15 feet out of the ground; the
grand portal between the two towers is not even commenced; and only the
southern tower is carried up two stories and a half to about the height of
the projected peak of the centre gable, which is to have the height of the
main nave. On this tower stands the token of Cologne, a huge unwieldy
wooden crane, used for raising the blocks of stone to their proper places.
In the course of centuries the inhabitants of Cologne had become so
strongly attached to this crane, that they replaced the old time-worn one in
1826 by a new one, at an expense of nearly $20,000, although the final com-
pletion of the edifice would have been much more furthered had this sum
been judiciously expended in some other part of the building. The entrance
to the church, at present, is through the side portal in this tower leading
into the southern side aisle.

The construction of the church was commenced in the year 1248, wher
the archbishop Conrad of Hochstedten laid the corner-stone on the eve of
St. Mary’s day. The plans are ascribed by some to Gerhard of St. Trond,
who appears in the accounts as a master stone-cutter: by others, to
Albertus Magnus, Dominican monk, and subsequently bishop of Ratisbon.
The latter conjecture seems to have the greater probability, for the tho-

roughly digested plans would appear to be beyond the conception of a
163

164 ARCHITECTURE.

mere stone-cutter, whilst Albertus Magnus is known to have been the
designer of the magnificent cathedral in Ratisbon. Archbishop Conrad
died in 1261, and the city of Cologne was under the curse of the papal
anathema as a number of years. The construction was therefore inter-
rupted until 1305, when it was taken up again. In 1320 the choir was
consecrated for church service. Since then down to 1824 very little has
been done to the edifice, which thus has been exposed for five hundred
years in an unfinished state to the inclemency of a wet climate. As it
stands now, it might be completed in a comparatively short space of time,
if there were unity of action and a wise concentration of means; but the
political state of Germany, weakened as it is both in moral and material
strength, leaves very little room for hope that more will be done hereafter
than has been done for the last twenty years; and, although the pious
spirit in which the work is conducted commands the most unqualified
appreciation, the rate of progress excludes all belief of its ever being
brought to an end.

In the arrangement of the ground plan the number of sEvEN seems to
have constituted the leading idea. Seven columns line each side of the
main and side entrances. Seven pedestals for statues are on either side of
the fore-hall. The southern tower has fourteen corner canopies. Seven
pairs of columns on either side separate the fine aisle of the church to the
foot of the high choir. The latter contains also seven pairs of columns, and
is surrounded by seven chapels. The entire church has jifty-siw free
columns and twenty-eight pilasters. All the dimensions are also resolvable
by the number of seven. The height in the clear of the high choir is 161
feet, equal to that of the width of the church. The western portal is 231
feet wide, equal to the projected height of the gable. The projected height
of the spire is 532 feet, equal to the entire length of the church, including
the buttresses and the fliers. The height of the side aisles in the clear is
70 feet; the width of the cross-arms, which have three aisles, 105 feet ; the
depth a the fore-hall 56 feet, &c. It would probably be easy to trace the

combination of seven into a most minute details of the ornaments. These
are arranged in the purest taste, and executed with surpassing skill. We
have copied a number of them on pl. 41; jigs. 1-4 are capitals from the
columns placed in front of the principal pillars; jig. 5, a capital from a
pilaster ; jigs. 6-8, ornaments from different galleries; jigs. 9, 10, medal-
lions from keystones of vaults; jigs. 11, 12, water-spouts. The walls of the
side aisles are 4 feet 8 inches thick, and reinforced by buttresses of 11 feet pro-
jection by 8 feet breadth. According to the plans, double ascending arches
are to be sprung from these buttresses to the higher walls of the main nave,
which are to be erected on the pointed arches connecting the main pillars
lining the nave. The entire church covers an area of 69,000 square feet.
In size it is the ninth Christian church. It is to St. Peter’s in Rome as
1: 2.866. Its foundations are more than 40 feet deep. At present, about
one third of the masonry is completed, if we include the projected spires in
the calculation.

4. Sr. SrepHen’s Caurcn ty Vienna. The first Duke of Austria, Henry

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ARCHITECTURE. 165

Jasomirgott, laid the corner stone of St. Stephen’s church in the year 1144
or 1147 (the chronicle being illegible) on the site of an old chapel. The
design was made by Bishop Reginbert, of Passau, and the construction
conducted by the architect Octavianus Wolzner, of Cracow. Of the origi-
nal edifice nothing remains but the walls of the central nave and the
western facade, with the gigantic portal in the Romanesque style. All the
lower part of the western front shows the perfect Romanesque style, whilst
the pyramids of the towers exhibit the beginnings of the pointed-arch style.
In the years 1258 and 1275 the church suffered considerably by conflagra-
tions, but was repaired as early as 1278, when the Emperor Rudolph L, of
Tapsburg, celebrated in it his thanksgiving for his victory over Ottokar of
Bohemia. The re-edification and enlargement of the church in the pure
pointed-arch style was completed by Anthony Pilgram, in 1313, by the
designs of Bishop Peter of Passau, or rather of Parson Bernhard Bram-
beck, who subsequently became Bishop of Passau. The vaults of the nave
and side aisles, as they now stand (pl. 37, jig. 25), date only from 1574;
the previous ones had no artificial ribs. The high choir was finished in
1339, by Duke Albert, with money raised by a tax of two cents on every
subject. The designs for the spires on the cross-arms were made by the
architect Hauser, of Kloster-Neuburg. A second Anthony Pilgram con-
ducted the building in 1400, and completed the southern spire in 1433.
The northern tower was in 1511 carried to the height of the church roof
(1454 feet) by John Buxbaum. In 1514 the spire was struck by lightning,
and inclined considerably to one side. It was righted in five years by the
architect Leonhardt. Subsequently it settled again about three feet to the
north-east. In the years 1839-1842 about 70 feet of its top were taken
down, re-erected perpendicularly, and crowned with a gigantic flower,
embossed of sheet iron. Its extreme height is 428 feet 8 inches. The
length of the church is 321 feet. The main nave between the pillars, which
are 8 feet thick, is 29 feet wide; the side aisles 25 feet. The height in the
clear of the central vaults varies from 76 to 85 feet. Its area is 46,866
square feet. It is to St. Peter’s in Rome as 1: 4.14. The spire is one of
the most daring structures, its height being to its area as 9.5: 1, and its
lower walls only 8 feet 10 inches thick. The foundations of the church are
said to rest on huge subterranean vaults five stories deep, the three lowest
of which are never opened, whilst the two uppermost ones serve as sepul-
chral vaults, in which bodies do not decay but dry up. The corpses are
deposited in chambers between pillars, which are walled up as soon as they
are filled. Between these chambers galleries lead to the imperial vault in
the centre, where since Ferdinand IJ. the intestines of the royal family are
deposited in copper urns, their hearts being deposited in the chapel of
Loretto, in St. Augustin’s church, and their bodies in the church of the
Capuchins.

5. Tae Caruepran or Macprsure. This edifice was commenced as
early as 963 by Emperor Otho I, in the favorite city of his empress Edith,
who was also buried in this church. This cathedral was a masterpiece of

architecture in the pure Byzantine style. It was entirely destroyed by fire
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166 ARCHITECTURE.

in 1207, nothing remaining but the walls of the high choir, which were
made use of in the re-edification which had commenced already in 1208,
after the designs of the architect Bohnensack. P41. 41, fig. 13, represents its
ground plan, jig. 14 gives a front view of the edifice from the north-west
side. It is in the purest German pointed-arch style. It was finished in
little over 150 years, being consecrated in the year 1363. Its length in the
clear is 288 feet. The vaults of the main nave, which rest on 22 columns
connected by pointed arches, are 106 feet high, those of the side aisles 30
feet 8 inches. The choir contains several statues and porphyry columns
said to have been sent from Italy, and to have belonged to the old building.
The church is one of the finest edifices in northern Germany, and of high
value for the study of the architecture of the middle ages, being one of the
few works of those times that are entirely finished. It suffered to some
extent during the several sieges of Magdeburg in the Thirty Years’ War,
when especially the southern spire lost its crowning flower and suffered
considerable damage to its terior decoration. In the year 1826 it was
repaired by order of the King of Prussia, strictly in the style of the first
design, and the church has now a noble appearance both exteriorly and
interiorly. The facade of the towers, with the magnificent portal between
them, is admirably composed. The fore hall contains the bronze monument
to Archbishop Ernest of Magdeburg, cast by Peter Vischer of Nurnberg,
when the archbishop was still in life. At the beginning of the northern
cross-arm is a remarkable parabolic vault with borizontal joints, constructed
very much like the treasury of Atreus in Mycene (p. 34 and pil. 8, jig. 8).
In the transept is a beautiful chapel forming half a dodecagon, whose flat
ceiling rests on perforated girt arches.

6. Tae Caurca or St. Micnarn anp St. Guputa my BrussELts was com-
menced in 1047 and enlarged in 1295. It is built throughout in the purest
German style. Pl. 37, jig. 23, gives the western view of the church. It
has three portals leading into the three aisles, the central one of which is
130 feet high and 34 feet wide, its vaults resting on 12 round columns four
feet in diameter, in front of which stand the statues of the twelve apostles.
The side aisles are 50 feet high and 20 feet 6 inches wide, ineluding the
chapels. The choir is about 86 feet high and lined with round columns.
Over the intersection of the nave and transept is a pointed wooden spire.
The upper walls of the main nave rest on the pointed arches that connect
the columns, and are secured from without by double rows of ascending
arches, sprung from the outer buttresses over the side aisles. The choir has
no such ascending arches, being much lower than the nave. The choir is
ornamented by ten broad windows, more than 50 feet high, and decorated
with highly finished glass-paintings. It has also 20 attached chapels.
The interior of the church is magnificent. The main front, however, is
incomplete, the towers having been left without their spires, and although
of the same height, both unfinished at the top.

7. Taz CaTHepraL or Antwerp (pl. 37, jig. 24, western view) was first
built in the 13th century, and dedicated to the Virgin Mary. It was
destroyed by a conflagration, only the choir and the facade of the towers

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ARCHITECTURE. 167

being saved. The new nave was built in 1422 by John Amel on the old
foundation. It is 490 feet long, 228 feet broad, and 154 feet in the clear,
and is one of the most beautiful structures in the Netherlands. The vault
over the intersection of the nave and transept supports a beautiful dome
with a wooden cap. The new choir was not commenced before 1521, when
Charles V. laid the corner stone. The portal and the northern spire were
finished in the year 1518, whilst the construction of the southern tower was
interrupted as early as 1515. The northern spire is 447 feet high, with a
cross of 15 feet in height, and is by many preferred to the spire of the
Minster of Strasburg. The unity of style in the latter gives it, however, a
decidedly greater merit, the upper part of the spire of Antwerp deviating
from the pure pointed-arch construction. Upon the whole the western
facade exhibits too much of the meretricious ornament of the 16th century to
be ranked with the Minster of Strasburg, whose entire ornaments are purely
constructive and therefore true.

The ground plan of the cathedral of Antwerp is in the form of the Latin
eross. The width of the church is divided into seven aisles, the central one
of which is 31 feet in the clear. Its pillars are 5 feet 6 inches thick. The
first side aisles north and south are 19 feet wide, with pillars 3 feet 74
inches thick; the second ones are 12 feet 2 inches wide, with pillars of 5 feet.
1 inch in diameter, on which rest also the vaults of the northernmost aisle,
21 feet 8 inches wide, and of the southernmost aisle which is 27 feet wide.

8. THe OCatTueprat or Notre Dame in Paris, dedicated to the Virgin |
Mary, is one of the most remarkable edifices in France both in point of
design and of execution. Its corner stone was laid in the year 1163 by
Pope Alexander III., and the choir with its gallery was finished as early as
1177. Inthe year 1183 the vaults of the main nave were closed and the
main altar was dedicated; and three years later the choir was devoted to
public worship. So far the church is in the Romanesque style, and the
Romanesque pedestals for the columns in the naves and transept indicate
that these parts were commenced by the same builders.

At the time of St. Louis’s advent to the throne of France (1226) the nave
and side aisle were already considerably advanced. The two towers, how-
ever, and the middle building which they flank, belong to the last quarter of
the 13th century. The southern portal was commenced in the year 1257,
together with the northern and the chapels around the choir. The entire
process of construction lasted 170 years.

The ground plan of this cathedral is given in pl. 40, fig. 1, and jig. 40 is
an interior view of the same. It is in the form of a Latin cross, and has
five aisles whose vaults rest on seventy-five columns. Its length is 390 feet
by a width of 144, and a height in the clear of 102 feet. It has two square
towers, which are only 204 feet high, having flat roofs at the height where
the pyramidal spires ought to have commenced. The columns in the centre
aisles are surmounted by pointed and those of the choir by round arches,
on which rest the upper walls of the main nave. These walls are inter-
rupted by the arcades opening from the galleries over the inner side aisles.
‘The windows through which the main nave is lighted are above these gal-

167

168 ARCHITECTURE.

leries. The church has the total number of one hundred and thirteen
large side windows, and three large rosettes over the three western portals.
The greater proportion of these windows are adorned with fine glass-
paintings.

9. Toe Appry or St. Denis. The church of St. Genevieve belonging to
the Abbey of St. Denis was built in the Byzantine style in the year 628-630.
It fell down in 1160. It was re-erected in the pointed-arch style by Abbot
Suger in the years 1251-1281, who had designed the plans himself, being
an expert in all the fine arts. The crypt under the old choir, which is the
sepulchre of the Kings of France, was retained unchanged (pl. 41, jig. 18).
It is in pure Byzantine style, its vaults resting partly on thick columns, in
part on square pillars. At the time of the first French revolution it contained
the remains of twenty-five kings, ten queens, and eighty-four princes and —
princesses, which were disturbed by the mob and buried in the neighboring
churchyard. Louis X VIII. caused the chapel to be re-consecrated. In his
restoration of the monuments, the old statues were laid on the corners of the
sarcophagi instead of being left standing near them as before. The upper
church is not very remarkable, and does not claim special notice more than
a thousand other buildings in the same style.

10. Tae Carueprat or Roven. Another remarkable church in France
is the Cathedral of Notre Dame at Rouen, also called the church of St.
Ouen from the bishop of the same name. Plate 39, fig. 45, gives the view
of the chief portal, with the market-place in front. It is built in the Ger-
man style and is cruciform. Its extreme length is 390 feet, the inner 366,
that of the transept 162, the breadth of the main aisle 27 feet 9 inches
between the clustered columns, which are 6 feet 7 inches to 7 feet 4 inches
thick, and stand 9 feet 7 inches apart. The width of the middle space
between the four chief pillars, which are 12 feet 6 inches thick, is 21 feet
4% inches. The fourteen round columns of the choir are 34 feet thick and
36 feet high, and the height of the main aisle and the choir is 84 feet; that
ef its gallery and of the side aisles is 52 feet. In the nave there are two
rows of arcades, one above another, although there is but one side aisle on
each side, and a side gallery stands also in the choir under the high
windows.

On the western front, which has three portals perspectively arranged,
and which is ornamented with fine sculptures, and whose middle portal is
crowned with a handsome gable, stand two towers 230 feet high. Over the
middle portal is a great rosette, which is represented in fig. 39, and contains
very handsome painted glass. Formerly the church had another tower
over the cross, which was destroyed by fire in the year 1822. It was
replaced by an iron spire 276 feet high. The transept has two portals.
The southern one is perspectively arranged and ig crowned with a pointed,
pierced gable, over which is a great rosette, over which again stands a gable
which leans against the buttresses. The northern portal has two buttresses
in the form of towers, and also a rosette crowned with a beautiful gable.

Besides these three great rosettes, the church has 130 windows, of which,
however, only those in the high choir and in one chapel have painted glass.

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ARCHITECTURE. 169

From the exterior buttresses, ending in tasteful pyramids, ascending arches
are sprung to the buttresses of the main aisle, the prolongation of the
clustered columns of the interior. These buttresses rise with their rich
pyramids above half the height of the roof. Galleries extend around the
roof.

In Rouen the Gospel was first preached in the year 260, by the English
missionary, Melon, and in 270 a church was erected upon the site of the
present cathedral. It was renewed in the year 400 and beautified in the
middle of the 7th century by the Bishop St. Ouen, but was destroyed by the
Normans. When their Duke, however, was baptized he rebuilt the church,
which the son of the third Duke, Robert, Archbishop of Rouen, enlarged.
The side aisles were added in 1050 and completed in 1063. Inthe year 1200,
when Rouen was destroyed by fire, the church also suffered, and only the
under part of the walls remained standing, upon which the present church
was erected in the pointed-arch style. The western front was commenced
in the 13th century. The architect of the three portals was a German,
Ingeram, who also enlarged the eastern chapel, and in 1280 erected the
perforated gable over the portals. The northern portal was completed in
1478, and three years afterwards the court before it, which exhibits much
of the Arabian form. The upper part of the northern tower was built in
1468--77, the southern 1496-1507.

11. Tue Carueprat or Mrian. No building indicates more clearly than
the Milan cathedral the position occupied in Italy by the Germans during
the middle ages. The sketch was made by Henry Arter of Gemiind, who
had gone to Bologna and was there called Enrico da Gamondia. His son,
Peter Arter, under the name of Pietro da Bologna, directed the building
of St. Vitus’s church in Prague, and his father sketched the plan for the
Minster in Ulm. Upon the site of the present Milan cathedral stood a
splendid church, with a bell tower 448 feet high, which Frederick I. caused
to be destroyed. In 1386 the corner-stone of a new church was laid under
Galeazzo Visconti; but it was too small, and in place of it, in 1391, the
building was commenced from the sketch of Henry of Gemiind. When
Henry returned to Germany, Italians were elected architects; but as the
work reached the dome and the pyramids, the Italians were again at fault,
and Duke Galeazzo Maria Sforza wrote in 1486 to the building guild of
Strasburg for a German architect. Hans Niesenberger, of Gratz, who since
1471 had superintended the building of the Freyburg Minster, went to
Milan, accompanied by his son John and German workmen. He appeared
there under the name of Grovanni da Gratz, Ingenere di Allemania. He
arranged matters there and returned to Germany, while Francesco di
Giorgia da Siena, Antonio Omodeo, and Jacopo Dalzebono undertook the
execution of the German design. Besides those already mentioned, the
following Germans had assisted in the work: John Anex von Fernach,
Ulrich von Frisingen from Ulm, and Jacob Cova from Bruges. The cathe
dral itself was only gradually completed, and after a great number of archi-
tects had worked upon it, the point upon the pyramid over the dome was
finally placed by Francesco Croce in 1762-72. On the 16th of August,

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£70 ARCHITECTURE,

1806, the architect Amati received the command of the Emperor Napoleon
to complete the facade and to cover the cathedral itself with white marble.
It is not entirely completed even now.

Pil. 40, fig. 2, shows the ground plan, and pl. 38, jig. 21, the interior of
this magnificent church. The length of the interior between the walls is
448 feet 6 inches, the wall of the choir is 6 feet, and with the piers 12 feet
thick. The thickness of the front wall is 15 feet 8 inches, consequently the
whole length is 476 feet 2 inches. The length of the transept is 283 feet,
and the inner length of the nave 175 feet. Measured between the columns
the main aisle is 52 feet 4 inches, and each of the side aisles 21 feet 7
inches. Of the 52 round columns in the interior of the church, 48 are
7 feet 6 inches through, and the middle ones 8 feet 7 inches. The height
of the nave is 147 feet 9 inches, consequently 3 feet 9 inches greater than
the height of St. Peter’s, and it is the highest aisle in any existing church.
The height of the inner side aisles is 97 feet, and that of the outer ones 75
feet 4inches. The ribs of the vaults are of marble and are 8-12 inches thick ;
the caps are vaulted in brickwork and are 3-6 inches thick. The construc-
tion of the dome over the middle of the church is very remarkable. It
rests upon the four middle piers and the arches uniting them, and is raised
201 feet 6 inches over the floor of the church. The lantern placed upon it
is 84 feet high, and upon this rests the spire or the pyramid of 92 feet in
height, upon which stands the statue of the Madonna, 12 feet high, so that
the whole is 339 feet 6 inches high. This dome is 54 feet broad, 43 feet
10 inches high, and forms an oval with eight principal ribbed arches,
whose caps are walled in brick. The exterior is richly ornamented with
pyramids and pillars, many of which support statues. The cathedral
was to have had portals in the cross-arms, but little chapels were introduced
instead.

The western facade has five doors, of which the middle one is 15 feet 4

inches broad and 30 feet 8 inches high. The doors and the windows over
them are arranged by Pellegrini in the Italian taste. Besides these,
there are three large windows in the old German style on this facade.
Between the doors and upon the corners, there are richly ornamented
buttresses, which are crowned by pyramidal pillars reaching 66 feet above
the eaves of the roof. Of these there are several hundred upon the church.
The number of statues is estimated by some as high as 4500, and 3000 is
certainly not an exaggerated estimate.
_ The effect of the interior is in the highest degree superb and won-
derful, not only from the great size, but from the loftiness of the nave, the
beautiful and naturally warm colors of the material, and the soft illumina-
tion through the great painted windows. The 52 clustered columns of the
interior were to have had their capitals crowned with statues, but the figures
are completed upon a few only, as our view shows.

The roof is striking ; for in place of the former tile roofing, white marble
slabs 14 to two inches thick have been laid upon little flat vaults, avoiding
the necessity of rafters, and in fact there is no wood used in the building.
The plates of the roof are jointed with a very compact water-proof cement.

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ARCHITECTURE. 171

The cathedral has a crypt, which is 45 feet in diameter and 15 feet high,
and is lighted from the church through openings in the vault.

12. Tae Cuvurcu or Sr. Cyriacus my Ancona. As a specimen of this
period, even if not of the purely pointed-arch style, we must mention the
church of St. Cyriacus in Ancona, of which pl. 46, jig. 21, gives the ground
plan, and jig. 22 the section. This church was commenced in the 11th
century, and the ground plan forms a Grecian cross whose whole length is
155 feet, but the length of the transept extends, on account of the two
apsides, to 182 feet. The central nave is 22 feet 6 inches wide, and 45
feet high; the whole church is 59 feet broad, but the transept only
57 feet. The height of the dome is 78 feet. The building itself is of
the Byzantine style, and was completed about the year 1290 by Mar-
chiano, a pupil of Arnolfo da Lapo. Many of the interior columns
have antique Ionic capitals as pedestals, and their own capitals are of
a meagre Corinthian style. Under both apsides there are little crypts.
The points between the ribs of the dome are very peculiar, containing small
arcades.

13. Tae Cuurce or THE Convent or St. Simon in Patermo. The capital
of Sicily is rich in remarkable monuments of the middle ages, which,
almost without exception, offer a peculiar blending of the Moorish with the
German pointed-arch styles. From this fact some have ascribed the origin
of the German style to the Moorish, but certainly very incorrectly, as all
the buildings which show this mixed style date from the 14th and 15th
centuries, and are consequently of much later date than the origin of the
German style in Saxony. The blending of the two styles is perceptible,
especially in the ornaments, many of which, as for example the Palatinal
Chapel (built in the 15th century), are copied from the highly characteristic
ornaments of Alhambra in Granada. On the other hand, it is shown in
the overtopped pointed arches, which are not set upon clustered columns,
but upon slender pillars whose capitals are rather projecting, whilst the
vaults themselves are dome-shaped, rarely cross-vaults.

The arches, as well as the vaults, are rich with glowing paintings, often
upon a gold ground, as are found also in Alhambra. The walls also are
richly ornamented with stucco. In illustration we present an interior view
of the church of St. Simon in Palermo (pl. 41, jig. 16). This church was
built in the year 1449, and is distinguished by the beauty of its marble
columns and the richness of its paintings.

14. Tue Carueprat or Burcos. This cathedral, of which pl. 38, fig. 22,
represents the western view, is distinguished by its construction and the
history of its erection. It was built by Ferdinand IIL, consequently in the
first half of the 13th century, on the site of a mosque erected by Abdor-
haman in 1014. Its length is 800 feet, and that of the transepts 212 feet.
It is entirely in the German style, and divided into three aisles, the
main aisle being supported by ascending arches, sprung from the side
buttresses. The cross-arms have portals with large, finely ornamented
rosettes, over which stands a gallery, between two buttresses crowned with
pyramidal pillars. Upon the intersection of the transept with the nave

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172 ARCHITECTURE.

stands an octagonal tower in the old German style, surrounded with pyra-
midal pillars. The western fagade has on each side a tower 300 feet high,
with perforated spires. These spires are formed by 8 ridges meeting under
the balls, which are ornamented by crowning flowers, and they are bound
together by 24 horizontal ribs, at various distances from each other. In
respect of construction, these pyramids are most like the towers in Freyburg, _
in Baden, and those of the church of St. Mary in Esslingen, but they are very
inferior in composition and elaboration. In the panels formed by these ribs
stone cross-joints are introduced. The portal is perspectively arranged, and
there is a round window over it, under a pointed arch. A round window
is introduced below the spires on éach side of the towers, which resembles
the windows of some of the old Rhenish churches, the Baad cathedral for
instance. These towers were built soon after 1442 by the architect John
of Cologne and his son Simon, whom the bishop had taken with him from
their native country. Under Charles V. the transept of the church was
repaired. The same two German architects built the charter-house Mira-
flores near Burgos.

15. Taz Minster at York. After the modern St. Paul’s churchin London,
of which we shall presently speak, York Minster is the largest of English
churches. Pl. 38, fig. 20, gives a view of its western front. With its three
aisles and the transept divided into as many, it forms a Grecian cross.
The exterior length from west to east is 578 feet. The central nave is
43 feet, 6 inches wide, between the clustered columns, which are 7 feet,
3 inches thick, and 27 feet high, and stand at distances of 20 feet. The side
aisles are 20 feet, 6 inches wide. The cylinders of the two clustered
columns supporting the towers, are 9 feet, 6 inches thick. The four great
piers bearing the middle tower, which are surrounded by 27 half and
three quarter columns, are 21 feet, 7 inches thick, and stand in the transept
at distances of 27 feet. This transept is 45 feet wide, and its side aisles
20 feet. The choir is 44 feet, 6 inches wide between the piers, which
are 7 feet, 9 inches thick. The thickness of the side walls is 4 feet, 9
inches, and the buttresses project from 6 to 9 feet long, and are 4 to 5 feet
broad. The height of the nave is 92 feet, 6 inches, that of the side aisles
48 feet. The middle tower over the cross is 198 feet high from the church
floor, and its walls are 6 feet, 9 inches thick. The light falls through its
windows into the centre of the transept. The front towers, or the two
westerly ones, are 172 feet high from the church floor to the highest
gallery. The pyramidal pillars upon them, eight upon each tower, are 24
feet high. The great buttresses of the towers project 10 feet before the
walls, and are 79 feet high. The walls are 8 feet thick. The point of
the gable over the door is 35 feet, that of the front chief gable 100 feet,
and the pyramids upon it 119 feet over the floor of the church. The main
portal is 24 feet high, and 13 feet, 6 inches wide. The whole church
is built of freestone and quarry-stone. A gallery extends quite round
the church on the upper part of the side aisles and another around the
eaves.

Beneath the choir is a crypt 40 feet long and 385 feet wide, divided

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ARCHITECTURE. 173

into three parts by six columns 8 feet high. The cube-formed capitals of
the columns support strong cross-vaults.

The history of the building of this church is the following. In 627, when
Edwin, the Saxon king in Northumberland, was baptized at the instance
of his wife Ethelburga, a wooden chapel was erected here, which was
replaced in the year 642 by a stone church dedicated to the apostle Paul,
but this was destroyed by Benda, the king of the Mercians. In 741 the
bishop Alcuin built a new church upon this site and the building was
already important. In 1069 it was injured by fire, and, scarcely rebuilt,
was again in 1134 once more destroyed in the same manner. Archbishop
Thurstan, therefore, built a new church in the Byzantine style, of which the
erypt still exists. In the year 1227, the southern transept with a beautiful
round window and portico was erected. John le Romayne, treasurer of the
church, built the northern belfry and that upon the intersection of the aisles
in 1260, and his son of the same name, who was bishop, laid the corner-
stone for the main building and the tower facade in 1291. As all these
parts were built in the German style Archbishop Thoresby, in 1361, had
the choir rebuilt so that the church became symmetrical. The Arch-
deacon of the church, Walter Skirlan, was the architect of this work,
and expended much money upon it. The church was completed in the
year 1405. It was much injured by fire several years ago, but it has since
been thoroughly repaired.

16. Tae CotteciaTe Caurcu at Mancusster. In no country of Europe
in which buildings of the German style have been erected, has the artificial
construction of vaults been carried to such a perfection, or executed with
such taste as in England, in which occur almost exclusively the involutions
of geometrical figures. The artificial vaults first occur in the last quarter
of the 138th century, and they have been made the supports of a new
English style. But as they exhibit no characteristic difference from the
German style, appearing within the limits and construction of the pointed-
arch style as ornaments of the vaults, such a classification cannot be
admitted. On the other hand there are also buildings in England where
vaults are constructed not according to the geometrical figures, but with
ribs laid according to curves, with numerous subordinate ribs which are
nothing but decorations. Several such ribs are united in one knot and
recurve, being ornamented either with a hanging keystone or a kind of
little temple, or human and animal figures. Often, however, these vaults
are made so flat that the ribs seem like an imitation of the artistic wood-
work with which the English roofed their large halls. The Collegiate
-ehurch in Manchester is an example of this roofing. It was commenced in
1400. Pl. 41, jig. 15, represents the interior view. The ceiling of the
choir is composed of such almost flat stone arches, while the main building
shows the wooden construction unchanged. This building exhibits upon
the whole a blending of the pointed-arch style with the flat ceiling which
is characteristic in many other English churches. This building is also a
good example of the English flowing pointed-arch style, even if there are

occasional traces of the Tudor and ass’s-back arches.
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174 ARCHITECTURE.

17. Metrosr Aspry tn Scortanp. This building was founded by David I.
of Scotland in 1136, and is one of the most imposing monastic ruins and
one of the most beautiful specimens of German architecture in Scotland.
Walter Scott has introduced it in his romance, “The Monastery.” Won-
derful are the richness and the harmony of details, in which all the original
sharpness remains. PU. 41, jig. 17, represents the interior, which is,
however, far removed from the original noble simplicity of the German
architecture, and in which the columns are certainly too heavy for the
elegant detail of the arches.

3. Tur PERtop oF THE RENAISSANCE.

In the beginning of the 15th century many Italian architects recognised
the beauty of the monuments of a classical antiquity, forgotten for centuries.
For although then, much more than now, the most imposing remains lay
under their eyes, yet they were so filled with the spirit of the new style,
that not only did the old fail to impress, but there were enough voices to
declare that they were the relics of a barbarous art. Nevertheless the
sentiment of genuine beauty gradually prevailed, and the necessity was
experienced of cultivating acquaintance by sufficient attention, with the
ancient Roman buildings, and especially of studying the ornaments of a
classical antiquity. Thence it came that, inspired by the genius of order
and harmony, Giovanni da Pisa placed regular pilasters upon the Campo
Santo; that the younger Masaccio introduced three regular orders of
columns, one over the other, upon the belfry of Santa Chiara in Naples;
and that Orgagna, in the Loggia Lanzi; Alberti, Michelozzi Majano, and
Brunelleschi in Florence, Mantua, Venice, and Rome, for the facades of
churches and palaces, chose cornices for doors and windows, which were
conceived from the remains of old Roman buildings, and introduced colon-
nades in the regular orders. Yet occasionally a blending of the German
style with the antique is perceptible, and although the impression is not
agreeable, yet it is easy to recognise in it the struggle for a timely and
gradual progress, which, however, is here nothing but a return to the
true beauty which the ancient architects had already seen and honored.

Whilst in Germany and the Netherlands the domestic style, that of the
pointed-arch, still reigned supreme, and, so far as concerns monumental
architecture, was exclusively employed, in Italy and France the influence of
the first-mentioned studies began to be felt ; and this beam of the beautiful era
of art is known as “ the Renaissance” or revival of old art, which disappear-
ed again only too soon, and left the field to a poor, overloaded, and grotesque
style. We will now consider a few of the buildings of the Renaissance.

Beginning with Italy, where the effects of the regeneration were first felt,
we will glance at the principal cities in which monuments from that period
remain.

1. Ventce. The church of St. Zacharias, of which pl. 42, fig. 1, gives the
view, and pl. 43, fig. 17, the ground plan, is, as a work of the Renaissance,

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ARCHITECTURE. 175

and both in respect to the construction and decoration, one of the most remark-
able buildings of Venice. Its architecture is rather peculiar than beautiful,
but it offers in the general and in detail so many singularities that we have
selected it for our plate in preference to many contemporary buildings.

The ground plan of this church is simple, and finely illustrative of the
type which the church buildings of this period present. It consists of the
main aisle and the side aisles, the choir with its gallery and the chapels in
place of the old apsis. One of these chapels is wanting, and in its place is
the entrance to the side aisle of the church. The main nave has double the
breadth of the side aisles, from which it is separated by three arches on
either side. The arches rest upon very peculiarly formed columns with
very high pedestals, short shafts, and Corinthian or Composite capitals. The
two first vaults of the main aisle are cross-vaults; the third, next the high
choir, passes into a dome. The girt arches have little or no projection
from the vault cappings. The third vault takes the place of the transept.
The end of the choir forms half a decagon (in the German churches it is
generally a semi-octagon), and departs materially in that from the form of the
old Basilicas, whose apsis was round. ‘This circular form appears in the
interior, and beautiful mosaics are here introduced as well as in the vaults
of the choir. This whole arrangement, viewed from the entrance, offers a
very effective aspect, and it is impossible not to wonder at the skill with
which the regularity of the Romanesque style is united with the charming
grace of the pointed-arch style, for there are everywhere pointed arches,
although the coupled windows are in the Romanesque style. The church
has only few and unimportant sculptures.

If we turn to the facade of this church, it may serve as a type of the
manifold changes which the church style of building experienced during
the Renaissance. It must be conceded that the whole arrangement of the
facade has something unusual, even ungainly, which is rare in buildings of |
this period, and it would be difficult in this arrangement to recognise
Palladio. But yet, by its great magnificence and the effect of various kinds
of marble, as by the skilful distribution of the sculptures, it makes a charm-
ing impression. The sculptures of the columns and pilasters, and the
cornices which are carried across the latter, produce an effect similar to that
of the buttresses of the immediately preceding period; while the straight
entablature divided into architrave, frieze, and cornice, as well as the
arrangement of the columns and pilasters in tiers above each other, recall
again the Roman architecture. Least pardonable are the little columns
with which the round gable is adorned, for as the projection and height of
the entablature necessary to the effect of the whole are almost equal to
half the height of its columns, they appear as an i ae ea ornament,
not as an ieaeiottal part of the feade itself.

The Venetian architect Martino Lombardo, in the years 1450-57, renewed
the church which was originally built in 870-80, just after it had been
injured by fire. The dome is brick below and wood above.

The Church of the Redeemer upon the Giudecea, of which pl. 43, jiy.
1, shows the exterior view, fig. 3, the ground plan, and jig. 2, the longitudi-

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176 ARCHITECTURE.

nal section, was commenced by Palladio in the year 1576. It consists of

a nave 92 feet long and 36 feet broad, flanked by very richly decorated

chapels. Its transept or the cross-arms terminate in semicircular niches or
apsides. The three-quarter columns upon the facade and the Roman
capitals are of burnt clay. Next the dome stand two small pyramidal

towers. The walls supporting this dome are only 4 feet 6 inches thick. The

half columns in the interior of the church have beautiful Corinthian capitals
after those of the Pantheon at Rome. Altogether the general impression of

the church recalls that of the Pantheon. The arrangement of the three
gables above and behind each other can hardly be counted a beauty,
especially as the great attic weakens the effect of the principal gable. The
placing of the gables behind each other, as in the Pantheon at Rome, was
there a necessity because the portico was added to a portal already com-.
pleted. But in the design of a new fagade that should have been avoided,

especially when the gables must all lie nearly in the same plane, and can-
not be placed at greater distances one behind another.

The Library upon the Piazzetta is another notable building illustrative of
this period of Venice. The library was formerly kept there, but it is
now devoted to the residence of the viceroy and is called Palazzo Regio.
Pl. 42, fig. 15, is the view of one side of it, jig. 16 represents the upper
order of columns and the entablature, and jigs. 17 and 18 are two of the
statues which adorn the attic of the building. The facade represented is
the one towards St. Mark’s Place. The palace itself was built in 1536 from
a drawing of Sansovino’s, and completed by Scamozzi. The lower story is
elevated three steps above the Piazzetta. The front is formed by 21 arches
resting upon Doric half columns standing against pillars. On the sides there
are three arches. The main story has Ionic half columns, and the windows
on the sides fluted Ionic columns. At the side of every arch victories are
carved in relief, and upon the ground story masculine allegorical figures.
The key-stones of the arches are well executed masks. The frieze is dispro-
portionately high and heavy, and has oval windows. The vaulted ceiling
of the former library hall is painted finely in fresco by several masters.

In the church of St. John and St. Paul in Venice is the monument of
the Doge Andreas Vendramini, who, after a short and not famous reign,
died in 1478, and we mention it here because in few contemporary monu-
ments is the effort to reach the antique so clear and striking as in this.
Pl. 43, fig. 18, gives the general view, and jig. 19 the ground plan in half
the size of the view. The monument has a double substructure. The cube
of the first is richly adorned with arabesques, while the second appears to
be the pedestal proper of the columns resting upon it, and contains the
epitaph. The Corinthian columns, with attic bases, are 10 diameters in
height, and stand one diameter from the wall. The four Corinthian pilas-
ters are adorned upon the shafts with ornamented panels, and inclose two
niches upon the sides, in which stand two very profane images, apparently
of Bacchus and Venus, represented as Adam and Eve. Near this stands a
pair of statues upon pedestals representing Roman generals. The middle
niche contains the sarcophagus of the Doge ornamented with eagles, near

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ARCHITECTURE. 177

which stand three statues with torches. The pedestal of the Sarcophagus is
adorned in front and on the sides by seven statues which are intended for the
Virtues, but look like Muses. Over the entablature which rests upon the
Corinthian columns a high attic rises with a semicircular niche, in which St.
John is represented leading the Doge to the Madonna and the child. At the
side stands another Roman general or marshal, perhaps intended for St.
Paul before his conversion. Upon both sides of the semicircular niche are
reliefs which represent a kneeling angel and a praying female figure. How
the crown of the whole is to be reconciled with the rest it is difficult to say.
This crown represents two angels, terminating below like two sea-horses.
They hold a wreath in which stands a boy with an apple. Over the crown
is an urn, from which rises a flame. However beautiful the design and
execution of this monument may be, it lacks the seriousness and above all
the spiritual sentiment of a sepulchral monument.

2. Pavia. A highly remarkable building, which if not designed and
begun in this period, yet then received its magnificent facade, is the church
near the charter-house in Pavia. Giovanni Galeazzo, who had poisoned
his uncle, and was made duke by the German Emperor in 1395, doubt-
less hoped to atone for his crime by building this church near the charter-
house, Fhich had been built in 1376 under Galeazzo Visconti. Enrico of
Gamondia (Henry of Gemiind, of whom we have already spoken) made
the plan, and the work was commenced in 1396, but the fagade was
arranged by the painter and architect Ambrogio Fossano in 1473; but
unhappily overloaded with ornament it does not correspond to the large
style of the interior. PJ. 42, jig. 6, represents the view of this church ;
jigs. 7 and 8, Corinthian capitals of pilasters; jigs. 9 and 10, niches in
which these capitals occur, and in them statues of the Apostle Paul and of
St. Veronica; jigs. 11-14 a, consoles for statues; and jig. 146, a medallion
with a portrait of Galeazzo. The church forms a Latin cross, occupies an
area of 25,370 square feet (consequently 4 of the space of St. Peter’s), has
three aisles, and many chapels. The width of the main aisle between the
clustered columns, which are 73 feet thick, is 26 feet. The side aisles are
10 feet between the pillars and the wall, and the side chapels are of the
same depth. The main nave is 69 feet high, and to the key-stone of the
dome over the intersection of the aisles is 107 feet. The main girt arches
are pointed, but the side arches round. The arches of the vault over the
choir are painted in ultramarine and have golden stars. The remaining
vaults are also painted. The walls of the church are of brick, but the
facade is ashlered with marble. Upon the buttresses of the side walls are
little perforated towers. ‘The choir terminates in an apsis. upon which
stands a colonnade gallery, whilst at the sides are two strong square but-
tresses adorned with little towers, and similar ones stand at the apsides and
in the corners of the transept. Before the side walls of the main building
are vaulted arcades resting upon little columns behind the towers, and: form-
ing a gallery, and a similar arcade runs around the church under the roof,
appearing even upon the front facade. The various galleries one above
another, the pyramidal reduction of the dome, the red natural color of the

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178 ARCHITECTURE.

brick wall and ornaments, contrasting with the yellow tone of the marble
facade, produce a fine effect. The fagade formerly had points, which have
been removed. It is very rich in sculptures, containing 44 statues, 60
medallions, and many bas-reliefs. 3

3. Peruera. In Perugia there are important buildings of every period
of architecture, from the Roman arch down to the corrupt Italian style,
and even the German style may there be met with in all its purity. Of
the time of the Renaissance we shall mention the church of St. Francis,
built from a design of Michelozzi. Pl. 48, jig. 4, represents the facade of
this church ; jigs. 5, 6, 7, give the capitals of the pilasters in the statue-
niches of the portal ; jig. 8, a detail from the consoles which support the
four great statue-niches upon the facade; jig. 9, one of the medallions
under the lower statue-niches; jigs. 10-12, ornamental panels ; jig. 13
represents the foot and crown-cornice of the socle of the facade; jig. 14, a
console of the lower niches; and jigs. 15 and 16, two of the patterns of
the marble pavement in the interior of the church. The inside of the
church is ornamented with beautiful paintings, and its fine architecture
‘makes an agreeable impression upon the spectator.

4. Narres. Among the many superb buildings in Naples, of which we
will only mention the Cathedral of St. Januarius, no one more clefirly indi-
cates the character of the period which we are now considering, than the
triumphal arch erected to king Alfonso IV. of Arragon (Alfonso I. in
Naples) upon his triumphal entry in 1445 into Castel Nuovo, and whose
facade is represented in pl. 42, fig. 20. Pl. 43, jig. 23, is the capital, of the
lower Corinthian order, drawn on a larger scale. A part of this facade is
the work of Pietro di Martino, a Milanese architect and sculptor (d. 1470),
who was rewarded by being knighted by king Alfonso himself. The build-
ing, entirely of marble, is rich in ornaments, statues, and bas-reliefs. The
most remarkable of the last, in the attic over the entrance-arch, represents
the triumphal procession of the king; and the arrangement of this proces
sion, in combination with the niches over the entablature, is remarkable
The three statues which crown the summit are those of St. Michael, St.
Antonio Abbate, and St. Sebastian. They are supplementary, placed
here under the government of the viceroy Don Pietro di Toledo, and are
works of the Neapolitan sculptor, Giovanni Merlano da Nola. This tri-
umphal arch is so much the more remarkable, as it is the only structure of
this kind that remains to us from that period.

From Italy reawakening art soon found its way to France, especially as
King Francis I. not only brought the choicest works from Italy to France,
but assembled the most illustrious Italian artists at his court, employing
them abundantly, and heaping gold and honor upon them. Hence there
are many fine monuments in France which belong to this period, and which
we shall consider in the order of the principal cities.

1. Paris. Among the distinguished persons who in the 16th century
generously furthered art, the Cardinal George d’Amboise, archbishop of
Rouen, and Minister of Louis XII., occupies an eminent place. He built,

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ARCHITECTURE. 179

among other things, the palace of Gaillon upon the Seine, one of the most
beautiful buildings of this period. In the 12th century there was already a
country seat upon the site, but it was destroyed in the 13th by the troops of
the Duke of Bedford. In the year 1505 the new building was commenced,
but only completed in the middle of the century ; and although no expense
was regarded in its construction, Colbert afterwards knew how to lavish
millions more upon it. In the Revolution it was again destroyed. Alex-
ander Lenoir succeeded in saving a part of the fagade. He had it taken
off with the greatest care and brought to Paris piece by piece, when he had
it again erected in the court of the old convent of the Petits Augustins, of
which he had made a museum of antiquities. The building is now the Ecole
des Beaux Arts, and the fagade stands inthesame place. PU. 42, fig. 19, gives
a view of it. Formerly Jean Joconde was supposed to have been the archi-
tect, but it is now properly credited to William Penault and Collin Byard.

In the royal sepulchre of St. Denis, of which we have already spoken
(page 168), the monument of. king Louis XII. and his wife Anna of Bre--
tagne was distinguished among the other magnificent monuments. PI. 43,
Jig. 20, gives the side view; jig. 21, the east; and jig. 22, the west side of
it. This monument was made at Tours in 1518 by Jean Juste, the sculptor
of king Francis [., and then brought to St. Denis. The statues of the
apostles and of the cardinal virtues were, however, added afterwards by
Paul Pontius Trebatti. The work is of white Italian marble, and repre-
sents upon a substructure of black marble, a kind of canopy upon pillars,
under which the bodies of the king and queen lie upon a cup-shaped sarco-
phagus as naked corpses, while upon the platform both appear in full attire
kneeling in prayer. The substructure has plates of white marble, with
bas-reliefs, which represent the Italian campaign of Louis XIL., the battle
of Agnadel, and the entry into Genoa. The arabesques that ornament the
pilasters are in general poor, although overloaded with motivos of all kinds,
which are ludicrously confused. Against the pilasters stand the imposts
which support the semicircular arches, whose key-stones are richly adorned,
and in whose corners are figures of Genii of Glory. The capitals are
carefully, and some even tastefully, ornamented. The ornaments upon the
corners suggest the volutes of the Composite capitals. The frieze of the
Corinthian entablature contains the epitaph. There are 20 statues upon
the monument, including: 1. The two portrait-statues of the king and queen.
2. The same as they lie in the tomb, the head bent slightly backwards
and resting upon a handkerchief, the hands crossed. The artist has here
represented death in its most ghastly form, for the worms appear in the
incisions made for embalming. 38. On the four corners stood formerly the
four cardinal virtues, Valor, Justice, Temperance, and Wisdom. These
statues are now removed, and stand at the entrance of the choir. 4. The
twelve apostles. The last sixteen figures are heavy and mannered, and
badly designed. The heads are wanting in nobility, with one exception ;
and while John has a frightfully long neck, Philip looks remarkably
vulgar, so that these figures together are very ludicrous. They are the

work of Paul Pontius Trebatti.
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180 ARCHITECTURE.

2. Verueuit. The church of Notre Dame in Vetheuil (the old Vethe-
lium near Mantes) is of three epochs. The choir was built by Henry II.
of England. The tower is of the 14th century, built by command of Joanna
of Evreaux, the third wife of Charles the Fair. The vestry, the western por-
tal, and the transept, date from the time of Francis I. The western portal,
of which plate 42, fig. 2, gives a view, and whose ground plan is represented
in fig. 4, has on both sides a pair of wing walls, which excepting a pierced
baluster, are devoid of decoration, and are even without windows. It pro-
jects somewhat, has a pair of stair-towers on the sides, and is divided into
three stories. The lower story is the highest, and is almost as high as the
wing walls. It has a door, divided by a central pillar into two gates, with
low vaulted ceilings. Before the pillar stands upon a column whose base
and capital are given in jig. 3a and 36 the statue of Christian Love under a
canopy ; over the gates are semicircular niches. The projection of the
tower is also ornamented with niches, whose canopies instead of ending in
pyramidal points bear a kind of dome in -the style of the Renaissance.
The lower story is divided by a Doric entablature with triglyphs and modil-
lions, over which is a low gable with an unrecognisable bas-relief. There
are no statues in the niches. The second story has two somewhat projecting
wings with corner columns upon a small plinth connected by a railing over
the above-mentioned gable. The middle part has two rather narrow
windows upon whose sides are two medallions with sculptures. .The win-
dows are semicircularly closed, and have also medallions with heads which
the Renaissance introduced in abundance, a style which is now again
pursued with great earnestness. From the imposts of the window arches
rise little Ionic pilasters, which support the cornice which extends over the
projecting wings, and is ornamented with Jacob’s shells. The third story is
almost entirely like the second, but is still simpler. The projecting wings
support small octagonal towers with corner columns, and with tile-covered
domes which have a peculiarly formed point. The three-cornered pro-
jections at the bottom of these towers are decorated with vases. The
crowning of the middle part forms a fronton in the shape of a true are,
upon which, in a very remarkable manner, balls are introduced as orna-
ments, which much disfigure it. The fronton is surrounded by a cross.
P1. 42, fig. 5, shows the ground plan of the southern portal. It is peculiar,
as it forms a hall receding into the church.

Ill. MODERN ARCHITECTURE.

In our examination of the architecture of antiquity and of the middle
ages, we have based our divisions partly on the manner of single races, and
partly upon peculiar styles, because as the original architecture of a people
is determined by their manner of life, by their character, by the land they
inhabit, and its climate, and takes from all these influences its peculiar
character which must remain for a long time unchanged, owing to the

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ARCHITECTURE. 18]

limited intercourse among different people of old, we could speak very dis-
tinctively, e. g. of an Egyptian and a Grecian architecture, without danger
of meeting the same or even similar characteristics in both. This is some
what true also of the middle ages. Nations were much more separated then
than now, and peculiar styles were formed with very distinguishable charac-
teristics. Religion and increasing trade, however, united the European
nations more closely. The fact that in the middle ages the monks were
mostly the architects of their own churches, led to the introduction of the
different styles from one part of Europe to another. Hence we see buildings
of the same style in very different places. Yet the original type of the style
was generally closely followed, and if we occasionally find a mixture of
styles in churches and other large buildings, it originates as we have
already observed from the long duration of their construction extending
through the periods when important changes in taste or manner influenced
the several architects, who in succession had charge of the progressing
edifices.

In the architectural history of modern times, however, the relations of
things are different. After the beneficial influence of refinement in archi-
tecture had lasted for some time after the Renaissance, attention was
exclusively directed to the old monuments of ancient architecture, and the
imitation of these was attempted. But while such men as Michael Angelo
and Raphael and their contemporaries wisely recommended the study of the
noblest ancient monuments as a means of improvement of the public taste,
persons of an ill-advised zeal devoted themselves blindly to the study of the
relics of that period of antiquity when architecture was already declining,
and when excessive ornaments rather than noble forms were resorted to for
effect, such as broken gables over doors and windows, and similar absurdi-
ties which had no architectonic truth or necessity whatever. Hence arose
the new, and from that the corrupt [talian style. But as Italy was the tra-
ditional land of art, these defects were all carefully copied everywhere, and
the corrupt style spread, receiving occasional additions, especially in France,
which tended to make it if possible still more abominable. From this
period date those architectural monstrosities which are found in all parts of
Europe, and enjoy the little flattering epithet of the guewe style. It was
reserved for the most recent times to supplant this awkward taste. Greater
knowledge of Grecian and other remains, and zealous study of them, led to
the rejection of all fantastic and superfluous ornaments; graceless forms
disappeared, and a closer investigation of technicalities and manners of con-
struction did away with much of the former clumsiness. But with this
disappeared the nationality of style, and all forms were adopted promiscu-
ously, modified according to the special purposes of edifices. Hence many
modern cities contain specimens of the styles of architecture of almost all
people and all times. In considering modern buildings, we can therefore
no longer follow our old divisions of styles, for no style is consistently
employed in any place. We have preferred to classify them according to
their different purposes, and describe the edifices of the same class in ethno-

graphical order. The reader will thus be able to form an idea of the
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182 ARCHITECTURE.

architectural taste and progress of the several nations. We have included
in the list several buildings which according to their plans belong to an
earlier period, but were finished, rebuilt, or decorated in the present; for
instance such churches as Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence.

1. CuurcHES AND CHAPELS.

A. Italy.

The number of churches built in Italy during the last three centuries is
astonishing, and an adequate descriptjon of them would fill volumes. We
have, therefore, selected some of them as representatives of the changes
and progress of the artin Italy, and will describe them in chronological |
order.

1. Sawra Marta pet Fiore in Fiorence. To the largest buildings of the
new Greek style belongs this church, or the cathedral of Florence, which
was commenced in 1298 upon the site where the old church Santa Reparata
had stood. Although some regard Arnolfo di Cambio de Cola as the
architect, yet Vasari has proved that Arnolfo da Lapo, a German, made the
design of the church, of which pl. 49, fig. 6, gives the ground plan, and pl.
45, fig. 6, the rear view. The ground plan forms a Latin cross, and con-
sists of a middle aisle, two low side aisles, the choir under the dome, and
the transept which intersects the choir. After Arnolfo’s death the work
advanced slowly and under the following architects: Giotto da Vespignano,
Taddeo Gaddi, Andrea Orsagna, Filippo di Lorenzo, Brunelleschi, who
added the no less artistic than beautiful dome, and finally Baecio di Agnolo,
from 1547-74, who completed it. Arnolfo da Lapo had neither left
sufficient drawings for the dome nor for the centring ; consequently in the
beginning of the 15th century, when it was necessary to vault the domes,
no one knew how to do it. Brunelleschi made sketches for the work, but
was unheeded until in 1420 he was elected architect. He completed this
gigantic work in 14 years (1434) and began also in 1437 the lantern,
which was not completed until 1456, twelve years after his death. ;

The middle aisle is 50 feet broad between the pillars, and the side aisles
27 feet. The pillars are 8 feet thick; the side walls the same thickness.
The whole length of the church is 448 feet, and the middle aisle is 129 feet
high. The height of the pillars to the commencement of the connecting
arches is 46 feet, to the commencement of the cross-vault 91 feet, to the
vertex of the connecting arches 79 feet. The pillars and vaults are of hard
grey sandstone. The exterior is faced with white, black, and green marble
in panels, and around the roof of the dome runs a very beautiful marble
gallery. The octagonal cupola is raised over the middle of the cross 264
feet above the church floor. Its own height is 99 feet, 6 imches, and its
diameter is 139 feet. The summit of the cross upon the lantern is 361 feet
above the floor. The area occupied by the building is 83,988 square feet, and
is to that of St. Peter’s as 1: 2.31. The whole cathedral and the cupola are
accessible by stairs, and in two main pillars there are vestries. The floor is

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paved with colored marble after designs by San Gallo, Michael Angelo, and
Baccio d’ Agnolo. The western facade was formerly in the Byzantine
style and ornamented with twenty-four statues; but Benedetto Ugaccioni,
the overseer of the church, had the madness, in 1586, to employ the lower
classes during the famine in tearing it down. Later a new facade was
commenced by Salvani, but it was so bad that what was finished was taken
down, and finally a tasteless painted front in the corrupt Italian style was
introduced, which still exists, bearing witness to the disgrace of the time
and disfiguring the beautiful church.

2. Saw Anprea In Mantua. This church was designed by Leo Battista
Alberti, born in Florence in the year 1398, whose best work is the palace
Rucellai in Florence, and its erection commenced in the year of his death,
1572. It is not yet entirely completed. Pl. 50, jig. 9, shows its ground
plan. It forms a Latin cross and has a dome over the intersection of the
nave and transept. In the main building, which is covered with a casetted
cylindrical vault, the pilasters which support the cornice are apparently
coupled, so that instead of side aisles, larger and smaller side chapels are
formed. The choir-termination is formed by two intersecting semicircles.
There is a crypt added in modern times by the architect Salucci, and whose
flat vaults rest upon 8 columns. The present, but still unfinished, fagade
is by Juvara. It lacks yet the vestibule and one tower, only one being com-
pleted.

3. Tae Crock Tower in Venice. The place of St. Mark in Venice is
surrounded, as are few places in the world, with a great number of beautiful
and time-hallowed buildings, almost all of historical interest. To these
belongs the clock tower (Zorre del orologio), which stands in immediate
contact with the palace of the procurators. The middle part, which was
built in 1496 by Pietro Lombardo, is 92 feet high; the wings were added
in 1500 by Carlo Rainaldi of Reggio, and are 75 feet high. In the third story
is the great clock of Venice, the lower story is occupied by stores, and the
rest of the building by dwellings. In the lower story the facade consists
of a large arch and several pilasters, next which stand little Corinthian
columns upon high pedestals.

4. Tur Bett Tower or Paterno is of a similar plan, but smaller. It
was built almost at the same time. Pl. 48, fig. 12, gives the view. The
middle part, with many openings, gives the otherwise well designed facade
a certain heaviness ; and the singularly formed dome, with its far projecting
balusters unpleasantly dividing it, makes a peculiar impression.

5. Tar Bert Tower 1n Rome, near the Basilica St. Maria in Cosmedino,
was built in the 12th century, upon the remains of a temple of Ceres and
Proserpine. PJ. 53, jig. 12, gives the view, jig. 13 the section, of this
tower. It is about 120 feet high and only 15 feet square. The lower part,
about 32 feet high, is without opening, and there are two Corinthian columns
within its walls from the old temple of Ceres (fig. 13). This substructure
supports 7 stories, the two lowest of which have 2 and the upper 3 arched
windows. ‘The three lowest stories have pillars of brick-work, the upper
little columns of marble, with handsome marble capitals. The exterior is

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184 ARCHITECTURE.

inlaid in several places with plates of porphyry, and the cornices, which
separate the stories, have modillions of white marble.

6. THe Cuurce San Pierro iv Monrtorto In Rome. In the year when
Brunelleschi died (1444), one of the greatest architects of his time, Bra-
mante Lazzari, was born in Castello Durante, near Urbino. He studied
with great zeal the architecture of the old monuments, and his buildings,
which are many, although he began late, show the fruits of these studies.
One of his most beautiful works is the church San Pietro in Montorio in
Rome, one of the smallest but finest of architectural achievements. PJ. 45,
jig. 7, gives the ground plan, jig. 8 the front view, and jig. 9 the section of
this church, which occupies the centre of the cloister of the convent of San
Pietro, in Montorio, and under which there is yet a round chapel dedicated
to the apostle. Bramante built this church in the year 1502, and it was the
first sacred building departing from the old Basilica type ever erected in
Rome. Sixteen beautiful Doric columns form the peristyle, each of a
single granite block. The attic appears perhaps a little too high, but the
whole makes a fine impression.

The principal church of San Pietro in Montorio is not to be confounded
with this smaller one. The larger one stands upon the Janiculine hill in
Rome, and to it belongs the cloister in which Bramante’s church was built.
It is a very old church and consists of an aisle with a choir apsis and
side chapels, and is roofed over in part with two cross-vaults. This church
received a new facade in 1475, designed by Baccio Pintetti. PU. 46, jig.
12, represents it. It has a door with a straight lintel, 6 feet 3 inches broad
and 12 feet high.

4. Tae Cuurcu betta ConsotazionE In Topi. In 1505, a few years
after the commencement of the above mentioned church, Bramante began
the church della Consolazione before the walls of the little city of Todi, in
the Duchy of Spoleto. PJ. 50, jig. 6, shows the front view, and jig. 7, the
section of this church, whose ground plan forms a square, upon each side
of which a semicircle is attached, forming a Greek cross. Each one of these
semicircles is covered with a half dome, and over the middle of the centre
space is a drum, over which stands the chief dome. The art with which
the architect has adapted the height of the various colonnades to each other,
- and the harmony of all the lines, as well within as on the exterior of the
church, deserve attention.

8. Sr. Prerer’s iv Rome. The work which immortalizes the name of
Bramante is St. Peter’s church in Rome; and although he did not complete
it, and even his design was not entirely followed, yet it was he who first
advanced the bold idea of setting the pantheon upon a basilica, and thus
accomplishing a work unapproached in grandeur. St. Peter’s church, of which
pl. 44, fig. 1, gives the entire ground plan, jig. 2 the horizontal section of
the three domes, jig. 4 the geometrical side view of the church proper, and
fig. 3 the perspective view of the whole edifice, is remarkable in respect to
the sums lavished upon it and the means adopted for raising those sums,
which was the famous selling of indulgences. Perhaps without the selling
of indulgences Luther would never have been compelled to protest publicly,

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ARCHITECTURE. 185

and the reformation might have been retarded if Bramante’s simple plan
had been adopted which he had sketched for a church upon the site of the
old basilica, San Pietro, as his design did not require the immense sums
that were afterwards expended in the erection of modern St. Peter’s.

Pope Nicholas V. was the first who thought of building a new church
(when the old one was considered decaying), and he caused Rosellini to
draw a design, which was not followed and was lost. Seven popes after
Nicholas permitted the matter to rest, until Julius II. revived it. Among
many plans that of Bramante was selected. According to him the church
was to consist of three aisles in the form of a Latin cross, with three
entrances to them, under a portico of 36 columns, unhappily at unequal
distances. The pillars of the interior were to have had niches, and the four
chief pillars to have supported a dome of 127 feet in width and 67 feet in
height from the drum, which was to have been a circular wall 32 feet high
and 12 feet thick, surrounded by 48 disengaged Corinthian columns 3 feet
thick. The dome, finally, was to have been surmounted by a lantern 94 feet
high.

On the 18th of April, 1506, the corner-stone of one of the chief pillars
was laid by the pope, after the old basilica had been removed in injudicious
hurry, and only a single one of its exquisite mosaics, that still exists in the
present church, had been saved. Bramante, who must have foreseen an
alteration of his plan after his death, aimed at having at least the dome
retained, and so only the main pillars were constructed. But in spite of
the great zeal with which he pursued the work, they were only completed
to the main cornice with their arches at the time of his death in 1514.
When Leo X. ascended the papal throne, Giuliano di San Gallo, Fra Gio-
condo of Venice, and Raphael of Urbino, Bramante’s nephew, who had his
drawings, were named as commissioners of the building. San Gallo soon
returned to Venice, Fra Giocondo died, and Raphael continued the work
alone, strengthened the foundations and the pillars themselves which had
proved too weak, but died in 1520. After him Balthasar Peruzzi was
architect, and made a new plan by which the church would have formed a
Greek cross, but would have become of inferior effect. Around the great
dome four smaller ones were to have been placed; the three great apsides
which Bramante had already arranged, and which still remain, Peruzzi
retained. This poor plan was only commenced, however, when Pope Paul
III. appointed Antonio San Gallo, the nephew of Giuliano, as the assistant
of Peruzzi, and he soon after the death of Peruzzi presented his own plan
in a model made by Labacco, in which the form of the Latin cross was
restored. This plan was rejected, and San Gallo died of vexation in 1546.
Thus the work had advanced for forty years without any plan, when
Michael Angelo Buonarotti drew a new design, and Paul III., who had
called him to Rome, appointed him sole architect. Michael Angelo
approached again the form of the Greek cross, and according to his plan
the church was built as far as where in our ground plan (jig. 1) stands the
first row of pillars in the main building, so that the ground plan was a

square, with a fore-hall and three semicircles attached. Here, at the great
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186 ARCHITECTURE.

division, the building was to end, and a double portico of 10 and 4
columns was added. This plan was accepted as unalterable by an apostolic
brief. Lorenzetto served as superintendent under Michael Angelo, who
conducted the work for seventeen years without remuneration. In the
year 1557 Michael Angelo had completed the great vaults under the drum
which was to bear the dome, and made the model of the dome, but this
was not begun until twenty-four years after his death, which occurred the
15th February, 1564. Pirro Ligorio succeeded Michael Angelo, but he
did little, and Vignolo followed, with strict orders not to deviate a hair’s
breadth from the plans of Michael Angelo. By him are the two side domes
(jig. 3), and he faced the exterior wall with ashlers. After Vignola’s death
in 1573, Gregory XIII. intrusted the work to Giacomo della Porta, who
completed the building to the above-mentioned limits of Michael Angelo’s
plan, after which only the dome, but that the most difficult part of all,
remained to be executed. Sixtus V. now named the Chevalier Domenico
_ Fontana as architect, whose son Carlo Fontana designed the centring.
It consisted of eight suspension pieces uniting in the centre, and of beams
jointed one above the other, over which the sixteen chief ribs of the vault
were to be constructed simultaneously, all being kept at equal heights.
On the 15th July, 1588, the work commenced with 600 laborers working in
turns day and night, under the superintendence of Domenico Fontana, and
twenty-two months later, on the 14th March, 1590, the pope himself laid
the last consecrated stone in this vault.

Meanwhile some fissures showed themselves in the vault of the dome,
and its fall was feared. But Carlo Fontana showed the baselessness of such
fears, and a great counsel of architects and mathematicians that was
summoned in 1742 on the strength of similar apprehensions, decided that
there was no reason to fear a fall, yet by Poleni’s advice it was coneluded
for greater safety to place five girdles around the dome. This was accom-
plished in 1747 by Vanvitelli, and since then no new precautions for security
have been necessary. To return to the earlier history, the crypt under the
middle of the church, to which access is had from the interior, was enlarged
by Domenico Fontana, who also introduced additional light.

As Michael Angelo’s plan ended at the point indicated above, and as it
was feared that the interior might be too small for the immense throng that
would assemble for the Year of Jubilee and the coronation of the Pope,
Paul V. resolved to enlarge it. Maderno accomplished this by designing
the remainder of the edifice including the portal of travertine. The five doors
leading into the church are covered with bronze plates with costly bas-relieis.
The middle one, with representations from the lives of the apostles Peter
and Paul, was cast in 1430 by Antonio Filareto for the old church. The
fifth door is walled up and is called the holy, because it is only opened once
every year of jubilee.

Until the year 1660 the church had no adequate avenue, and among
many new and old plans Pope Alexander VII. chose the colonnade of
Bernini shown in our ground plan (jig. 1). In order to complete it, it was
necessary to remove many buildings, and among them the house of Raphael,

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ARCHITECTURE. 187

built by Bramante. On the 25th August, 1660, the corner-stone of these
colonnades was laid, which are 1056 feet long and in the long axis of the
ellipse 738 feet wide. The inner colonnades of the elliptical hall stand 524
feet apart, and the colonnade wings consist of four rows of Dorie columns,
41 feet in height, numbering 956, which support an entablature without
triglyphs (see page 100), 9 feet 6 iehes high, surmounted by a balustrade
6 feet high, adorned with 96 statues, 9 fest, 6 inches high. The diameters
of the fear rows of columns, bobinniin with the innermost, are respectively
5 feet 3 inches, 5 feet 6 inches, 6 feet, and 6 feet 3 inches, so that the rules
of perspective and optics are regarded. In the middle of the place inclosed
by the wings stands an obelisk 124 feet high, erected in 1556, and at some
distance towards both sides are two great fountains. The flight of steps before
the church (Scala regia) is the largest in the world, for the outermost steps
are 620 feet long. It will be found interesting to consider more particularly
the dimensions of this temple, which is paved with marble of various colors.

Its length (jig. 1) is 657 feet, 4 inches. The length in the clear of the
middle aisle is 565 feet, 6 inches; that of the transept 415 feet. The width
of the middle aisle is 78 feet; that of the cross-arms 73 feet, 10 inches.
The inner width of the dome is 125 feet, the thickness of the principal
girths at the lower edge is 4 feet and at the lantern 3 feet, those of the
outer cupola are 3 feet thick below and 2 feet above, and the thickness of
the four principal pillars in the shorter diagonal is 55 feet, in the larger
78 feet. The smallest thickness of the outer wall is 26 feet. The height of
the middle aisle is 144 feet, and the thickness of its principal girths is 3 feet,
6 inches. The four pairs of decorative pilasters are 78 feet high and 8 feet
broad. From the pavement to the opening of the lantern is a height of
310 feet, 10 inches, and to the upper part of the cap of the lantern 363 feet,
6 inches. The diameter of the little domes of Vignola is 38 feet, 3 inches,
and their height above the drum is 21 feet. Their openings are 192 feet
above the floor. The church covers an area of 199,926 square feet, of
which 52,218 square feet are occupied by the masonry, which consequently
covers more than a third. If five square feet are reckoned to a person, the
church and its fore halls can hold almost 29,000 persons. The church has
the high altar not towards the east, which is very remarkable, but towards
the west. ‘Towers were to have been erected on the facade of the building,
and Bernini had improved the plan of Maderno and Fernambosco and the
work was begun. They were to have been 164 feet, 6 inches high, but as
it appeared that the foundations of the church would not bear them and as
the walls began to crack, the completed part was removed in 1647.

9. Tue Cuurcu San Giorcio Maceiore in Venice. Wenow come to the
period of one of the most famous architects of the 16th century, Andrea
Palladio of Vicenza (born 1508, died 1580), who gathered his knowledge
from the works of Vitruvius and Alberti, and was practically instructed by
Trissino. His finest works are in Rome, in Venice, and in his native city.
In 1556 Palladio began the church San Giorgio Maggiore upon the island
of Giudecea in Venice, of which pl. 46, jig. 10, gives a view, and its interior
was completed in 1579. The first church upon this site had three aisles,

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188 ARCHITECTURE.

and its old brick bell tower stands yet at the side of the present choir.
Palladio gave his plan the form of a Latin cross with a gabled projection
consisting of four half columns. The cross-arms are rounded off and a dome
rises on the cross. The three-quarter columns of the facade crowned with
Roman capitals, are 5 feet thick and 54 feet high, and stand upon high
pedestals and are intersected by the cornices of the corner pilasters which
are lower. The church is as little an example of a beautiful style as the
facade of the church of Trevignano (pl. 45, jig. 11), which has a similar
ground plan but three aisles of equal height, for which reason the facade,
from the unimportant character of the front attachment, appears jejune
while it crushes the latter by its weight. Much better is the facade of the
Church delle Figlie in Venice (jig. 10), which, by the two well harmonized
arrangements of halfcolumns and pilasters and the graceful gable over
them, has a good effect.

10. Tae Cuurcy or St. Francesco pELLA Viena in Venice. This church
was first erected by Martin da Pisa in the 13th century, and was so ruinous
in the 16th century, that in 1534 it was renewed from a design of Sanso-
vino. Palladio changed it somewhat and made the facade ( pl. 46, jig. 11).
It consists of large and small Corinthian columns of marble, and has a semi-
circular window. On the sides of the main-aisle, which is 49 feet 3 inches
wide, are chapels with very beautiful bas-reliefs. There is in this church
the same impropriety as in the facade of the church San Giorgio Maggiore,
yet the mouldings of the high pedestal of the half column are better
combined. The intersection of the columns by the cornice of the lower
order is, however, not to be justified. Palladio found many imitators in
France and England. The church of Mary Magdalen at Bridgenorth,
of which jig. 7 gives the elevation and jig. 6 the ground plan, and the
church Notre Dame de Lorette in Paris, a view of which is given in jig. 2,
and the ground plan in pl. 48, jig. 6, are entirely modelled upon the best
works of Palladio. .

11. Tae Basmica iy Vicenza. In his 30th year, after completing the public
palace I] Castillo in Udine, and the villa of his master Trissino, Palladio
undertook a work of great importance. The magistracy of his native city
had requested designs from three architects for the reconstruction of the
council house or the so called Basilica, and as Palladio’s gained the prize
the work was intrusted to him. Pl. 45, jig. 5, gives a view of this edifice.
The old building was to be surrounded upon three sides with colonnades of
hard stone. The columns and pilasters are of marble, the walls of brick.
The length of the largest side is 395 feet. Of the ten principal pillars, those
on the corner had three columns, the middle ones had eaeh one half column
of the Doric order. Between them stand four coupled, small Tuscan columns,
with an entablature connecting them with the small pilasters of the princi-
pal pillars. Over these four columns an arch is sprung reaching almost to
the architrave of the Doric order. The story above is of the Ionic order,
and disposed in the same way. Over the corner columns stand statues upon
pedestals, connected by a railing. Over the eight middle columns is an
attic with round windows, over which is a roof constructed of rafters and

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ARCHITECTURE. 189

covered with lead. Its ribs are 9 to 10 feet apart. The arcades have cross-
vaults.

12. Toe Caurch Maponna pecirt Anertt at Rome is a work of
Michael Angelo, built of a part of the remains of the Baths of Diocletian
(pl. 46, fig. 19, ground plan, and fig. 20, lateral section). Its ground plan
is in great part determined by the position of the ruins, for the great hall of
the baths forms the chief part of the church. The eight antique granite
columns, 43 feet 6 inches high, have Corinthian and Roman capitals, but the
fine old door of the hall is walled up. Before this a handsome dome rises
over the fore-church, between which and the church proper is a vestibule
with four columns. Battista Soria has not much improved the church by
his additions. It is roofed with heavy old cross-vaults. Its dimensions are
336 feet length, 308 feet breadth, and 84 feet height. Adjoining the
church, also in the ruins of the baths, is the cloister surrounded with one
hundred columns, and designed by Michael Angelo.

13. Tae Cuurce or THE Assumption iv Genoa. Galeazzo Alessi (born
in Perugia in 1500, died in 1572) was for Genoa what Bramante was to
Rome, Palladio and Sansovino for Venice, and Ammanato for Florence.
He beautified the city in every direction. He built the Church of the
Assumption (pl. 45, jig. 3, plan; jig. 4, elevation). This church is by no
means one of the largest, but one of the best monuments, and of complete
unity in all its proportions. Its ground plan forms a regular square of 150
feet, with a small addition about 20 feet deep for the high choir where the
altar stands. The middle of this square is surmounted by adome of 40 feet
diameter, resting upon four massive pillars. The interior of the church
forms a Greek cross, so that this church may be regarded as the completion
upon a small scale of Michael Angelo’s plan of St. Peter’s. The exterior of
the dome consists of the drum, composed of arches and massive masonry,
and adorned with Corinthian pilasters, and of the overtopped dome whose
lantern has a semi-spherical cap. The effect of this dome, which is 180 feet
high, is in perfect harmony with that of the portal.

14. Toe Cuurcn Santa Marta pextia Virrorta iv Roms. Among the
architects who helped to originate the corrupt Italian style which at the
end of the 16th century extended from one end of Italy to the other, and
overloaded the facades with pilasters, gables, and niches, must be reckoned
Giamb. Soria, who built the facade of the church Maria della Vittoria at
Rome (pl. 50, jig. 5, elevation). This church was erected at the expense
of Cardinal Scipio Borghese in gratitude for the ancient statue of the Her-
maphrodite found in digging the foundations of the church, and presented
to him. So fair a gift deserved a fairer recognition than this hideous
facade. The church was commenced in 1605 under Paul V., and the interior
was ornamented by Maderno with pilasters of Sicilian alabaster, with gilded
statues, and paintings of Guercino and Guido Reni. The pavement is
marble.

15. Taz Cxuurce or Sr. Ienatrus iv Rome. Alessandro Algardi (born
1602, died 1654) was, like his pupil Baratta, both sculptor and architect,

and his peculiar gift was the arrangement of irregular places and fountains.
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190 ARCHITECTURE.

Many buildings of his are extant, but they are all in the corrupt Italian
style. Among these is the fagade of the church of St. Ignatius in Rome
( pl. 48, fig. 9), whose front projections, double tiers of pilasters one above
the other, and poor frontons, make it an example of utter tastelessness.
The church was begun in 1626 at the expense of Cardinal Ludovisi, from
the design of Father Grassi or of Domenichino, and was completed in
1685. Father Pozzo crowned the work by furnishing the church with
singularly tasteless altars. Its length is 140 feet, and it is 103 feet high.
In the interior there are coupled fluted Corinthian pilasters standing in
front of the pillars of the nave, with a complete entablature, and above that
an attic, with tasteless work in stucco.

16. Tae Caurcy San Carto ALLE QuatTrro FonTane in Rome. Among
all the architects of the 17th century, Francesco Borromini (born 1599, died
1667) contributed most largely to the disgrace of architecture. Originally
a sculptor, he studied architecture with Maderno. His works are remark-
able for showing how far a favored artist can possibly go astray. He hated
regularity, and crammed his facades with broken entablatures, pilasters,
semi-columns, niches, senseless ornaments, and door and window pediments
of every imaginable form. Notwithstanding this, his works were engraved
on copper as specimens of beautiful architecture, and so greatly assisted the
corruption of art throughout Europe. The above-mentioned church, built
by him in 1640 (pl. 48, jig. 10, ground plan; jig. 11, the facade) proves
the truth of our assertion. This mixture of straight, convex, and concave
lines, of semi-columns above each other, of niches and sculptures, of scroll
cornices and reversed consoles, indicates only the taste of an architect who
degraded his art to the level of a joiner’s craft, and found pleasure in doing
precisely the reverse of what others did. The interior of the church is, as
the ground plan shows, formed of irregular, crooked lines, and contains 16
Corinthian three-quarter columns, 22 feet high.

17. Tae Cuurcu peLia Superea in Turi (pl. 45, jig. 1, plan; jig. 2,
elevation). One of the best pupils of the architect Carlo Fontana, whose
ability we have already observed in St. Peter’s, was Filippo Ivara (born
1685, died 1755), of whose beautiful buildings a great number still remain.
The most beautiful is doubtless the seminary and church della Superga,
upon a height near Turin. From this point a broad view of country is
commanded. Here in 1706 Victor Amadeus and Prince Eugene projected
the plan of defence for Turin, and Victor Amadeus vowed, should he be
victorious, to erect there a splendid temple to God. After the liberation
of Piedmont, Ivara began the building in 1715. It was finished in the
year 1735. The plan cannot be over-praised. It covers an area of about
500 feet in length and 300 in breadth, and forms a symmetrical quadrangle.
The building of the seminary is very skilfully joined to the church. The
interior has a court of 150 feet in length, with two tiers of colonnades, and
around this dwellings are distributed. The outer plan of the church is
united with the common passage by a more than semicircular part, before
which stands a portico of columns, four across the front and three in depth.
To it are joined two retreating facades, which are adorned with Corinthian

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ARCHITECTURE. 191

pilasters, and unite on both sides with the convent, while they constitute
~part of the church facade. Upon each wing is a bell-tower, which skilfully
relieves the mass of the dome. Inside, the more than semicircular part
changes into a polygon which forms the circumference of the dome, whose
support are the pillars of the arcades and the divisions which contain the
chapels, ranged all round. The choir and the high altar occupy a prolon-
gation of the space occupied by the church. The whole combination is
admirably conceived. The inner height of the dome is 150 feet, the outer
165, and with the lantern 200 feet. Its inner diameter is 56, the exterior
80 feet. It belongs to the first domes of the second rank.

B. France.

In France the same general proportions were observed as in Italy, for
France has always followed the Italian school in the fine arts, and has
done very little of itself. But it has very skilfully adopted and developed
the styles of its neighbors.

1. Tae Cuurce or Sts. Gervais anp Prorais in Paris. This church
claims notice here solely on account of its facade (pl. 46, jig. 3), for the
building itself was founded in 558, and renewed in the German style in
1212, probably by Montereaux. When it was again repaired in 1581, the
hanging keystones of the vaults were added, for such a construction was
not usual in the 13th century, but was introduced later in England. The
middle aisle is 24 feet broad and 80 feet high, and is remarkabie for having
galleries, which were of rare occurrence in the middle ages. The facade
represented by us was added in 1616 by Jacques de Brosse, and completed
in 1621. It is 82 feet broad and 132 feet high. Beneath it is finished with
four disengaged and four half columns of the Doric order, and a heavy
attic over the entablature of this order, above which are eight fluted half
columns of the Ionic order, with niches between them, and the window
divided by a centre column. Over this again there is a heavy attic, above
which is the upper building, with four Corinthian half columns, an entabla-
ture, and a gable, whose outline is anare. P/. 46, jig. 4, gives the ground
plan of the portal; jig.4a@ and jig. 4), the Doric; and jigs. 4¢ and d, the
Ionic order. In the last, the convex frieze over the low architrave has a
bad effect.

2. Tue Caurcu or St. Paci anv St. Lovisty Paris. Formerly the Jesuits
had only an establishment for the reception of novices in Paris; but the
Cardinal de Bourbon, uncle of Henry IV., gave them ground for the erection
of a church, of which Louis XIII. laid the corner-stone on the 10th March,
1627. The Jesuit Francois Derrand designed the plan and directed the build-
ing. Pl. 46, fig. 5, is the facade of this church, which was begun at the ex-
pense of Cardinal Richelieu in 1634, and finished in 1641. The fagade, the
most important part of the church, consists of three orders, above each other.
The two lower are Corinthian and the upper one is Roman. The arms of
Richelieu were formerly displayed upon a round gable over the main door.
He consecrated the church and said the first mass in it. The middle story
has upon its middle space an ornament of elliptical form, that contains the

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192 ARCHITECTURE.

cypher of the Jesuits in a flood of rays, and on the right and left are niches
with the statues of Ignatius Loyola and Francis Xavier. In the upper
story, which has only four columns, stands, in a niche, the statue of St.
Louis. In former times (and our copy is from Derrand’s drawing) the
facade was overloaded with ornaments, which are now removed, and the
effect, although not in the best style, is much improved.

3. Tue Horer pes Invatmes in Paris. One of the most famous French
architects next to Mansard was Liberal Bruant, who lived in the 17th and
18th centuries (born in 1640). The Hotel des Invalides is among his best
buildings. Of its church, pl. 47, fig. 1, gives the ground plan, fg. 2 the
view, jig. 3 the section, fig. 4 the ground plan of the dome, and jigs. 5 and
6 details of the arch soffits, whilst pl. 50, jig. 1, represents the interior.
The facade of the entire building, which consists of five courts, is 615 feet
long. In the rear of the middle and largest court which is surrounded by
a gallery of double arcades, is the portal of the church, which now contains
the ashes of Napoleon. The facade of the Invalide-house itself has arcades
below and three stories above. In the middle a large arch crowns the
portal. Upon the great court are 4 eating-halls, each 138 feet long, 33 feet
wide, and 31 feet high. Louis XIII. founded the building in 1634 accord-
ing to another plan, but the erection was interrupted, and Louis XIV. had
it built from Bruant’s plan in 1670. The chureh designed by that architect
is not to be confounded with the later addition, but embraced only the
part a (pl. 47, fig. 1), with the two round vestries ¢ ¢. It consists of a
fore hall and three aisles of which the middle one is 38 feet, the side ones
only 9 feet, 6 inches wide. Upon these side aisles rests the gallery. Onut-
side of the vestibule stand six pairs of Dorie and over them as many
Corinthian columns, coupled. Between the vestries, ¢c, is the oval division d,
with the richly decorated altar 6. The height of the aisles is 85 feet, and
over the altar is yet a wooden dome 15 feet high.

Thence you enter the cathedral proper e, whose Corinthian columns
(4 feet thick and 36 feet high), with the pillars which are finished with
Corinthian pilasters, support the drum of the dome which is 73 feet wide
inside. The dome itself is of wood, and its highest point is 210 feet from
the church floor. The dome begins 68 feet above the gable of the fagade.
Its form is handsome, and its height to the breadth is as 5 to 3. It is
gilded and upon it stands a lantern crowned with a cross, 275 feet above the
floor, and surrounded with Corinthian columns. The cathedral was begun by
Hardouin Mansard and finished by de Cotte. It oceupies an area of 30,132
square feet, and with the old church the whole amounts to 43,896 square feet,
and is to St. Peter’s as 1: 4.55. The cathedral is much like the chapel at
Fresnes built by Cotte, of which pl. 46, jig. 18, gives the ground plan, and
jig. 14asection. It consists of a fore church and a square that supports the
dome, which is accompanied by three half domes over the niches.

4. Tae Cuurcu or THE Sorsonne In Paris. Jacques Lemercier, who
died poor in 1660 as first architect of the king (a fact of rare occurrence),
bailt a great deal. His most important work was the church and college
of the Sorbonne, finished under Richelieu in 1653 (pl. 47, jig. 9, ground

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ARCHITECTURE. 193.

plan, jig. 10, side view, jig. 11, lateral section). It forms a rectangle 150.
feet long and 72 feet, 6inches broad. Its dome, 38 feet wide, divides it into
2 equal halves. The middle aisle is 31 feet wide and 51 feet high. The
cap of the dome ends at a height of 103 feet from the church floor, with
an opening 6 feet wide. It rests upon walls 3 feet, 8 inches thick. Upon
this wooden dome stands a lantern 32 feet high. The whole exterior height
is 148 feet. Although the church belongs to the corrupt Italian style, it is
yet one of the best conceptions of that time, and if the portal, instead of the
heavy attic, had a gable, little could be said against the front.

5. Tas Cuurcu or THE Assumption In Paris. A building of the better
Italian style and among the most beautiful in Paris is the Church of the
Assumption, built by Charles Errard (born at Nantes in 1606, died 1698),
which was commenced in 1670 (pl. 47, jig. 12, ground plan, jig. 13, view,
and jig. 14, section). The church was completed within six years and is a
round building, finished upon one side with a portico of disengaged columns
and covered with a dome 63 feet, 3 inches in diameter, equal to that of the
church. It is only to be regretted that the drum of the dome is too high,
and the substructure seems, therefore, too low, although the perspective
naturally mitigates this effect. This would still more be the case if the
substructure was either broader or the drum somewhat contracted. In the
front row of the portico stand six Corinthian columns, 28 feet, 6 inches
high, the middle ones at 2, the rest at 14 diameters distance. Behind each
corner column stands a column at 14 diameters distance from it and 1
diameter from the front pillar. The dome is of wood and its highest point
is 150 feet from the floor of the church. It is well cassetted and rests upon
ten pair of coupled Corinthian pilasters, surmounted by a complete entabla-
ture, upon which the drum of the dome stands, on an attic.

6. Tae Cuurcu or Sr. Surpice mv Paris. After Notre Dame and Ste.
Genevieve, St. Sulpice is the largest church in Paris. It is in the
Faubourg St. Germain and is upon the site where St. Peter’s chapel stood
in 1211, whose crypt was again employed when the architect Gamarre
projected a new and larger church. This church was found inadequate to
the wants of the congregation, and Le Veau, therefore, made a new design,
for whose execution the corner stone was laid in 1655. After Le Veau’s
death the work was prosecuted by Gillard, and Oppenoord finished the side
aisles, the transept, and the northern side portal. From 17380 the architect
Servandoni continued the work and undertook, from his own drawing, the
completion of the principal facade (pl. 49, jig. 4, ground plan, jig. 5, eleva-
tion). But he could not complete the towers, which were to be 220 feet
high. After his death, in 1777, Chagrin altered the plan again, by bring-
ing the octagonal towers planned by Maclaurin into harmony with the
facade; but he did not complete them.

The length of the church is 360 feet, the width 150 feet, and its ground
plan is similar to that of Notre Dame. The middle aisle, like the
side aisles, is 110 feet high. The pillars are 6 feet thick and stand 18
feet apart. The connecting arches begin 27 feet above the floor. The
transept, of the same width, is surmounted by a vaulted dome 28 feet high

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194 ARCHITECTURE.

at its intersection with the nave. In the rear of the choir gallery, which is
68 feet high, is the oval chapel of the Holy Virgin, 35 feet deep, 44 feet
long, and 78 feet high, and surrounded with a wooden dome. The facade,
which is 174 feet broad and executed after Servandoni’s plan, has below
four pairs of disengaged and four pairs of three-quarter columns of the
Doric order. The former are 5 feet, 6 inches thick, and 43 feet high. Ser-
vandoni had introduced a gable between the bases of the towers, which
was struck by lightning in 1770, and then removed.

7. Tae PanrHEon, oR THE CuuRcH or St. GENEVIEVE IN Paris. With the
erection of this church arose a new epoch in the architecture of France, as
the corrupt Italian style was deserted and the forms of the antique were
again introduced. The honor of this work belongs to Jacques Germain
Soufflot (born at Irancy in 1714), who had studied in Rome. Whilst he
was building the theatre in Lyons he went to Paris and was there named
Director General of Public Buildings. The above-mentioned church was
to be built at this time and Soufflot’s plan was accepted, and in 1756 the
corner stone of the church was laid. PP. 48, jig. 3, shows the ground
plan, jig. 4 the view, and jig. 5 the lateral section of the church. King
Chlodovig had once built a church upon the same spot which was renewed
in the 12th century, but in 1483 was ruined by lightning and finally
replaced by the present building. | |

The form of the present church is a Greek cross formed of four aisles
uniting under the dome. This at least was the wish of Soufflot, but the
priests wished a lengthening of the choir and the main aisle. For this pur-
pose pillar-arcades were introduced, which do not harmonize well with the
columns. The desired two towers were also added in the rear of the nave,
but they were afterwards removed. The beginning of the middle aisle forms
a kind of fore hall, ovally vaulted, and with two tribunes. A third is over
the entrance. The columns in the main aisle are 37 feet 8 inches high, and
their axes are 14 feet apart. The diameter is 3 feet 6 inches, and the
entablature. one fifth of the height of the columns. The inner length to the
wall of the niche is 282 feet, that of the transept 236 feet, and the inner
width is 99 feet 4 inches. The middle aisle is 39 feet 6 inches wide, the
side aisles only 9 feet 6 inches. The dome is 62 feet in diameter. The
masonry: occupies scarcely the 7th part of the whole area of the church,
which is 52,992 square feet. It is very heavily taxed; for while the square
foot of the pillars in St. Peter’s sustains 21,910 pounds, and in St. Paul’s
church of London 36,059 pounds, the weight on the square foot in the Pan-
theon is 48,687 pounds. Each of the four principal pillars is 24 feet long
and 14 feet 6 inches broad. They are connected by four large arches of
43 feet 2 inches span, and whose vertices are 69 feet 4 inches above the
floor of the church. From them to the opening of the cap of the inner
dome’ there is a height of 186 feet, 232 feet to the opening of the lantern
in the third vault, and 258 feet to the top of the lantern. When the inner
cap of the vault was finished in 1781, the pillars showed some cracks,
Nevertheless the building was continued after a suspension of four years,
occasioned by Soufflot’s death, in 1782, with the erection of the peristyle of

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ARCHITECTURE, 195

36 columns around the drum. In 1788 the cupola proper was begun, and’
in 1790 the lantern was erected. On the 25th of August Quatremére de
Quincy received the order to change the church into a mausoleum for those
who had merited well of the country, and the church was called Pantheon.
First the windows were all walled up and only those in the vault retained,
by which the light was improved, as the church had been too light. The
belfries were then removed, and all garlands, reliefs, and whatever indicated
the church, were taken away. By the concussion occasioned by 200
laborers working without intermission more cracks appeared in the pillars
and neighboring columns. Mondelet, who had prosecuted the building
after Soufflot’s death, investigated these, and found that they were partly
attributable to the poor materials and partly to the reckless workmanship in
the pillars. It was now intended to strengthen the pillars, as those of the
crypt which supported them allowed their being made thicker. But the
relatives of Soufflot protested against this alteration of his plan, and
Rondelet finally conquered the difficulty by exchanging the poor stones and
those that were improperly laid for good ones ; and since then the Pantheon,
which by Rondelet again was altered to a chureh, has required no further
repairs.

8. Tae Mapeterne at Paris. One of the most important modern build-
ings in Paris is St. Magdalen’s church. In this the form of the ancient
temples is entirely restored, and there is no trace of tower or cupola.,, P72.
48, jig. 1, is the ground plan, jig. 2 the exterior perspective view, and pi.
46, jig. 1, the inner perspective view.

In the 15th century a chapel stood on its site, which was replaced by a
church in 1660. About 1763 it was deemed necessary for the adornment
of the city to build a large church in its place, and the architect Coutant
d’Yvry drew a plan, a Greek cross with a dome, of which only a little was
executed. In 1777 Couture made a new plan, also a Greek cross with a
dome, peristyle, &c. But it was rejected, and the revolution intervened.
At length in 1804 the government determined to erect, not a church, but a
temple to the fame of the French nation, and the plan of the architect
Vignon received the preference, after long consultations of various com.
mittees. The building has a substructure 12 feet high, to whose platform
ascends on each narrow side an open flight of 32 steps. Forty-eight Corin-
thian columns form a grand peristyle around the building, eight columns in
the front and rear and eighteen at the sides. The front portico contains
four more placed behind the second and third front columns on each side.
The building therefore is an octastylos peripteros, according to the classi-
fication of Vitruvius. The intercolumniations are 11 feet 8 inches, the
diameter of the columns is 6 feet, and their height 58 feet 6 inches. The
peristyle is 12 feet 3 inches broad, and the main wall is 6 feet thick. The
breadth of the building is 138 feet ; its length, without the steps, is 321 feet ;
and it covers an area of 44,298 square feet. In the interior are on each
side four Corinthian columns 2 feet thick, for which the entablature is
broken, and upon which rest the girt arches which support cassetted vaults

with Bey ughis, the only means of light save the door, which is 15 feet
195

196 ARCHITECTURE.

broad. Each of the Corinthian columns mentioned stands upon a pedestal
which rests against pillars ornamented with pilasters. Under each arch
stand two pair of Ionic columns, and between these four columns, which
are placed upon stylobates, stand two pillars, in front of which are two
Ionic columns supporting an entablature and a gable. In the interior of
the apsis stand, upon a continuous stylobate, twelve Ionic columns 10 feet
high, with their entabiature, over which, up to the chief cornice, are several
panels adorned with sculptures. When the monarchy was restored, the
temple of glory was changed into a church and dedicated to St. Magdalen
as the bas-relief on the front gable indicates. :

9. Toe Cuaret or Sr. Ferpivanp at Sastonvitte. The unfortunate
event which on the 138th of July, 1842, terminated the life of the Duke of
Orleans, oldest son of Louis Philippe, was the occasion of the erection of a
beautiful building, of which pl. 50, jig. 4, represents the perspective view.
The King of the French bought from the civil list for 110,000 frances the
house of Cordier in Sablonville, before which the accident occurred, removed
it, and on its site the architects Fontaine and Lefranc erected a mausoleum
that was consecrated on the 11th of July, 1843. It forms a Greek cross,
and is of the Byzantine style, whose rigor is somewhat softened by several
antique motivos. A little turret with a cross surmounts the intersection of
the aisles. In the right cross-arm is the altar of St. Ferdinand, in the left
the cenotaph of the Duke, and in the high choir is the altar of our Lady of
Compassion (Votre Dame de Compassion), whose statue also stands upon
the exterior of the church in a niche of the wing. The three facades have
rosette windows with painted glass representing Faith, Hope, and Charity.
There are also arched windows with glass paintings from Sevres, represent-
ing various saints from designs of Ingres. The sacristy lies outside the
chapel behind the high choir ; and in the front wing, before which is a little
open place, is the dwelling of the keeper. The cenotaph is executed in
marble from designs by Ary Schefer; and a praying angel, one of the last
works of the Princess Mary of Orleans, who died shortly before, is intro-
duced.

C. Germany.

Germany does not lack churches of the time of the decline of art, but as
they are mere repetitions of the Italian and French churches of the period,
we do not notice them, but pass at once to some of the most modern build-
ings of Berlin and Munich, where architecture is now especially cultivated.

1. Taz Covrr Cuurcn or Att Saints iv Mounicu. Although king
Maximilian I. of Bavaria did much for his country in architecture, yet its
new era was reserved for the reign of Louis I., and that king, equally
enamored of poetry and art, did not spare his private treasure in making for
Munich an artistic period like the Augustan age in Rome. In all the
churches of this period, although the antique is not avoided, the preference
is plain for the Byzantine and the old German styles.

The Church of All Saints was built after the design of Leo y. Klenze.

P1. 46, fig. 8, shows the exterior, and pl. 49, jig. 7, the inner perspective
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ARCHITECTURE. 197

view. The church is built in the style of the 11th and 12th centuries, which
is preserved throughout in its strictest purity. A high middle aisle is accom-
panied by two lower side aisles, and is lighted by little semicircularly
arched windows. The interior contains broad pillars, between which arches
are sprung supporting vaults. The main nave is separated from the side
aisles by arcades which support galleries. The arches and domes are richly
painted in fresco, and are well lighted by the front windows of the nave.

2. Taz Cxaurce or Mary tHe Hetrer mw tHe Favsoure Av In
Mocnicu. This church was designed and executed by the architect D. J.
Ohlmiller. Pl. 49, fig. 8, represents the inner view. The church, of which
the German style of the 13th century is the basis, consists of three aisles
equally high; the side aisles are half as wide as the main aisle. The ribs
of the vaults are artistically arranged, and the nineteen windows are covered
with very. beautiful glass painting. The facade has a chief tower with a
perforated pyramid, and two small contiguous towers upon the corner pillars.
A gallery extends around the roof between the pyramidal turrets which
crown the buttresses. The church has no transept, and the end of the choir
is semicircular. The church was completed in 1831.

3. Tae Basmica Sr. Bontrace in Municu (pl. 46, jig. 9) was designed
by the architect Ziebland, and beautifully painted in fresco by Henry Hess.
On the 12th Oct., 1835, the corner stone of this basilica was laid, and in
1840 the building was so far completed that the fresco paintings could be
commenced, and -they were finished in 1844. The church, in which pre-
vails the old basilica style, forms a long rectangle with four colonnades, five
aisles, and a semicircular vaulted apsis. In the interior there are sixty-six
disengaged columns in four rows. The columns of the middle aisle are
connected by round arches, upon which rests the high wall of this aisle, con-
taining the windows. The main walls, with the exception of some arch
frames, are built of bricks in their natural color. The middle aisle is 262 feet
long, 52 broad, and 83 feet high to the entablature. The framework of the
roof is entirely uncovered, and the blue surface of the roof painted with gold
stars is visible through it. Each of the side aisles is 18 feet broad, and 44 feet
high, so that the whole breadth of the church is 124 feet. The columns are
25 feet high, and each consists of one block of grey marble, but the capitals
of white marble, upon which are carved vines and ears of grain as allegori-
cal representations of the wine and bread of the Last Supper. All the paint-
ings with which the walls of the middle aisle, the wall of the choir, and the
choir niches are covered, were executed after cartoons of the artist Henry
Hess, and under his direction. They are frescoes upon a gold ground, and
represent partly scenes from the life of St. Boniface, partly the propagation
of Christianity, or finally are portraits of saints and popes.

4. Toe Parish anp Untversiry Cuurcu or Sr. Louis m Montcu.
This church was designed and built by Fr. v. Gartner in the style of
the 14th century, and painted in fresco by Peter v. Cornelius. PJ. 50,
jig. 2, represents the exterior perspective view of this church, which con-
sists of three aisles, and has an open portico in front between the towers.
The church and towers are of red brick, coated with a cement imitating

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198

white freestone. It was built at the suggestion and expense of the citizens
of Munich, and has an inscription in the interior to that effect.

5. Taz Werper Cuvrce inv Beri. As Leo v. Klenze and Fr. vy.
Gartner were the animating principles of architectural progress in Munich,
so was Frederick Schinkel its genius in Berlin; and as they ornamenied
Bavaria, so did he Prussia, with buildings that indicate a pure sense of art,
and the fruitful and earnest study of the architecture of all times and
people. Schinkel’s designs are diffused thoughout Germany, although Ber-
lin is considered richest in them, and his school of architecture has sent
forth a number of pupils who zealously strive to imitate his noble example.
The design for the Werder Church, of which jig. 3 gives a perspective view
from the south-west, was made in 1895, and was soon executed. The means
appropriated for the building allowed wale very simple forms in the exterior.
Yet it lacks not ornament from the sculptures in burnt clay and moulded
cornice-stones. Over the portal stands, after a design of Schinkel’s, the
archangel Michael, modelled by Wichmann, and the capes also are finely
executed in burnt dee The interior of the church has a single aisle with
five cross-vaults up to the high choir, which has a star-shaped vault of
remarkable breadth and height, and vials a lofty and pleasing impression.
It is beautifully decorated with oil paintings by Begas, Schadow, and Wach.
The entire building is exclusively of brick, and not plastered.

6. Tae Garrison Cuurca at Porspam. This was also designed by
Schinkel. It was originally intended to be only a substructure of square
ground plan (pl. 48, jig. 7), with a portico and a semicircular apsis support-
ing a drum surrounded by a peristyle, and having a double dome. The
bells were to hang in the belfries forming the front corners of the ground plan
with a fore hall between them, which were not to be higher than the sub-

structure. The four corners were to be adorned with sculptures, statues of
angels, and candelabra; but as it was found that the bells did not sound
loud enough, the two small corner towers were made higher, and thus the build-
ing received the facade which jig. 8 represents. There are no columns in
the interior of the church, except in the three cross-arms arising from the
jnclosure of the two corner towers, and the corresponding sacristy and con-
fessional in the rear corners, where galleries are supported by light columns.
The square of the church has a side of 135 feet, and the whole height to the
wings of the angel upon the lantern is 232 feet, to the vertex of the dome
only 200 feet.

ARCHITECTURE,

D. England.

When the English deserted the pointed-arch style and returned to the
antique, Palladio became their model, and they have many buildings erected
entirely according to his rules. We have selected for representation the
most interesting edifice of this period, second in the whole world only to
St. Peter’s in Rome.

Sr. Pavi’s Cuvrcn 1x Lonnon. Sir Christopher Wren (born 1632, died
1728) is justly reckoned among the most famous architects. He devoted
himself with such zeal to mathematics, that in his 25th year he lectured

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ARCHITECTURE. 199

upon astronomy. Upon his return from his travels through France and
Italy, he was appointed first Royal Architect, in 1668. In 1666, when the
old church of St. Paul, in spite of Inigo Jones’s repairs, threatened to fall,
it had been resolved to build a new church, and Wren began it after his own
design on the Ist of June, 1675. Originally his idea was to erect a build-
ing in the basilica style, but the orthodox clergy demanded a new design,
of which pl. 49, jig. 1, is the ground plan, jig. 2 the western facade, and
jig. 3 a lateral section west of the dome.

The length of St. Paul’s is 530 feet, and in some places the foundations
are more than 40 feet deep. There is a crypt beneath. The ground plan
forms a Latin cross, with a transept 252 feet long. The middle aisle is 42
feet wide between the pillars, and each side aisle is 20 feet wide. The
height of the middle aisle is 90 feet, the inner vault of the dome is 216 feet
above the church floor, the outer to the foot of the lantern 280 feet. The
lantern with the cross is 80 feet, so that the whole height is 360 feet. From
the street, however, as the church has a high substructure, it is 372 feet.
The outer breadth of the dome is not quite 100 feet, and its height is 56
feet, whence the dome forms a half ellipsoid. The church is faced with
Portland sandstone, and was completed in 35 years, for in 1710 Sir
Christopher Wren had the gratification of laying the last stone of the lantern.
The church cost £747,954. Upon the landing of the great steps are six pair
of coupled Corinthian columns 4 feet thick and 40 feet high, which supporta
complete entablature and an attic 3 feet high, over which again stand four
pairs of coupled Roman columns 3 feet 2 inches thick and 33 feet high.
These support a frieze with consoles 2 feet 6 inches high, a few connecting
mouldings, and finally a lofty gable. Both stories are overloaded with
coupled pilasters, niches, and gable windows. On each side is a small
belfry 100 feet high, surrounded by Roman columns. That the facade
fails to make the grand impression anticipated from its proportions is attri-
butable to the following reasons: 1. The use of coupled columns on the
facade, and a slight inequality in the intercolumniations in the two stories.
2. The intersection of the facade by the lower chief cornice and by the
attic. 38. The paralysation of the effect of the great architectonic lines in
the whole facade by the many coupled pilasters, niches, and gable windows.
And finally, 4. The tasteless details of the two small belfries, and the dis-
proportionate height of the gable.

The effect of the interior, however, is weakened by no defects, and its
grandeur of proportions and neatness of execution are well calculated to
make a deep and lasting impression on the beholder. It contains a great
number of noble monuments to England’s great men, among which are
those of Abercromby, Pitt, Nelson, &c. Sir Christopher Wren, the architect
of the church, is buried in it. His epitaph, which is in Latin, is short and
appropriate in every respect except in being in a foreign language; the
concluding sentiment, though frequently quoted, is worth repeating for its
felicity of expression : Lector, si monumentum requiris, cirewmspice (Reader,
if you seek his monument, look around you).

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200 ARCHITECTURE.

At the time when Italy had only remains of the Roman monuments, and of
the Greek and Etruscan, but already possessed large and beautiful Christian
basilicas, when in France and Germany and England large churches shamed
the works of past centuries, Russia was yet only inhabited by barbarians.
In 957 the Russian princess Olga, the wife of Igor, was baptized in Constan-
tinople, and returning to her native country, introduced civilization, together
with the milder religion. From this period date the traces of the new
Greek architecture which we meet here and there, as, for instance, the
Kremlin in Moscow, built in the 14th century and destroyed in the year 1812.
When Peter the Great removed his residence to the city of Petersburg,
which he had founded, Russian edifices began to be built in a regular and
modern style. Of these we have selected two for our account.

1. Tae CHaper or THE Kwicuts or Matra in Sr. Pererspure. The
Emperor Paul I. had givena palace in St. Petersburg to the Knights of Malta,
and permitted them at the same time to erect a Catholic chapel. At that
time Giacomo Quaranghi lived in St. Petersburg (born in 1744 at Bergamo,
and died there in 1820), and the knights applied to him for a design for the
chapel, which would certainly have been very beautiful if they had executed
the portico he designed. But instead of this, the building, founded on the
23d of August, 1798, received a facade which is represented in pl. 50, jig.
11, which has four Corinthian half columns, and two small columns with a
gable as door ornament ; jig. 10 represents the ground plan and the manner
in which the chapel is united with the palace, and jig. 12 the lateral section
of the chapel. The interior is in the basilica form, ending in a large apsis.
Two rows of yellow marble columns divide the church into three aisles 51
feet high. The breadth of the chapel is 50 feet, its length 100 feet.

2. Sr. Isaac’s Cuurcn in Sr. Perersspure. After the fire which destroyed
in 1710 the wooden church of St. Isaac of Dalmatia, standing upon the site
now occupied by the statue of Peter the Great, and the two churches of
the same saint which were in time built in another place, after designs by
Maternowi and Rainaldi, had fallen into decay, the emperor Alexander I.
resolved to rebuild it in a simple but effective manner, and intrusted Mon-
ferrand with the design, which was accepted, and the erection of the
building commenced on the 8th July, 1819. Pl. 47, jig. 7, shows the
ground plan, jig. 8 the elevation of this church. Its exterior length is 312
feet, the inner 297 feet 6 inches, and the greatest breadth is 192 feet. It
covers 580,322 square feet, and is consequently somewhat smaller than
Notre Dame in Paris, and is to St. Peter’s as 1: 3.44. On each long side,
one of which fronts on the Place of the Admiralty, opposite the statue of
Peter the Great and the Neva, is a portico, closely imitated from that
of the Pantheon at Rome, but much more imposing, as the columns,
which consist each of a single block of Finland marble, are 12 feet higher
than those of the Pantheon, being 56 feet: high. The capitals and bases of
the columns are cast in bronze. The short sides, which are east and west,
have also porticoes, but less projecting, which were demanded by the rules

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‘ARCHITECTURE. 201

-of the Greek ritual, according to which the high altar must be placed in
the east and the church doors in the west. The interior is roofed with
cassetted cylindrical vaults, which rest upon pillars decorated with columns
and pilasters. The columns of the sanctuary are partly of jasper, partly of
porphyry. Over the middle of the church is a dome 87 feet 4 inches in
diameter, and whose height is 275 feet, and with the lantern, 327 feet from
the church floor. The drum is surrounded by a superb Corinthian peri-
style, whose entablature supports an attic with a balustrade, upon whose
cubes stand statues of angels. The acroteria are also adorned with statues.
‘Four small belfries covered with domes, on the corners of the middle
building, injure the otherwise fine effect of this beautiful edifice.

-9, Oastirs AND PALACES.
A. Ltaly.

We must here again begin with Italy, because in this country, while the
German style reigned elsewhere supreme, even in secular buildings, the
introduction of a new style had commenced, which afterwards spread through
Europe. Wemention the prominent buildings in chronological order.

1. Tae Cancerterta In Rome. Bramante, whom we have already men-
tioned, meets us'again in the most beautiful palaces of Rome. The palace
of the Papal Cancelleria (pl. 52, jig. 3), whose right side includes the
church of San Lorenzo in Damaso, which was restored about twenty years
ago, is among the most noticeable of Roman buildings. Its facade, 254
feet long, is built of travertine taken from the old Coliseum. Two ranges
of pilasters ornament the broad window-piers of the two chief stories, while
the lower story has windows raised above a substructure of freestone in
rustication. A bolder profile would be desirable in the cornices. The
court of columns is especially beautiful, which below, as in the first story,
consists of four pillars and twenty-two Tuscan columns, connected by semi-
circular arches, and whose passages have cross-vault ceilings. The shafts
of the columns are each of a single block of*granite, taken from the
Basilica of San Lorenzo, which stood upon this spot.

2. Tue Casa Sirvestri iv Rome, of which pl. 52, fig. 10@ shows the
ground plan, jig. 10d the front, and jig. 10¢ the rear view, is said to have
been commenced by Baldassare Peruzzi of Volterra about 1502, although
many, and probably justly, ascribe it to Michael Angelo. It isa small build-
ing, with a meagre main cornice, and overladen with subordinate cornices.
The ground plan is like the antique Roman buildings, one of whichis repre-
sented in jig. 11; but the windows are too narrow, and disagreeable divisions
arise from the omission of the vertical joints in the rustication of the first story.

3. Tue Patazzo Grraup In Rome (fig. 9) was begun by Bramante in
1504. It is situated beyond the Tiber, and was built for the Cardinal
Corneto. It is almost a cupy on a smaller scale of the Cancelleria, save
that the windows of the first and third stories are alike. The pilasters

here, as in the Cancelleria, project a little from the walls, a plan which
201

202 ARCHITECTURE.

deserves to beimitated. Yet here alsothe main cornice is too insignificant,
and the upper windows are too low.

4, Toe Patazzo Sora in Parone iv Rome was built by Bramante in
1505. Its facade (jig. 6) is well massed, but the windows of the second
story have three-cornered and round pediments, to which the under cor-
nices offer an unfavorable contrast. The columned court of this palace is
very beautiful.

Tue Pauazzo pet Te 1w Mantua, of which pl. 57 a 9, shows the ground
plan, was begun about 1520 by Ginlio Pippi, known as Giulio Romano.
The name is derived probably, not from any resemblance to the letter
T, which does not exist, but from an abbreviation of the word Tejetta
(drainage), for the palace stands upon a ground drained by water furrows.
The principal ground plan forms an exact square of 180 feet side, and
incloses a court of 120 feet side. This court has two entrances, the princi-
pal one, consisting of a great gate with an arch in rustication, leading into
a vestibule ornamented with columns, while the other, which is located at
one of the sides, has three arches built in the same taste. The facades of
the palace, both in front and rear, consist of an order of Doric pilasters,
coupled at the corners. The panels with rustication in the lower story are
interrupted by window openings which relieve the heaviness. The facades
are surmounted by a Doric entablature with triglyphs and metopes. From
the court, where instead of pilasters is an order of coupled wall columns, a
loggia leads into the garden. The facade of this side represents a peristyle
of 12 columns, two deep and coupled. The centre intercolumniation com-
municates with a bridge which separates two water basins. Beyond this
is a parterre with greenhouses and household buildings. The garden
terminates in a large semicircle. The length of the whole estate is 550
feet. The interior of the building is arranged in a masterly manner, and
decorated with paintings by Giulio Romano and his pupils.

6. Toe Patazzo Saccuertt in Rome (originally called Casa San Gallo)
was designed and built by San Gallo (died 1546) for himself, in the year
1530. Pl. 52, fig. 7, represents its facade. It is 111 feet broad and has a
very beautiful door. The windows are four feet broad and are placed 9
feet, 3inches apart. Those of the first story are unfortunately a foot narrower
above than below. The main cornice is 3 feet in height and of the same
projection, and is to the height of the building as 1:17. The rectangular
court is surrounded by arcades beneath, resting upon imposts between
which stand Tuscan pilasters.

7. Tae Patazzo Paoto Iw Rome (jig. 5) was built by Torriani, a pupil
of San Gallo, with a handsome door and otherwise of good proportions,
although the middle windows, from the varying width of the piers, fail to
make an agreeable impression.

8. Tae Viria Menicr iv Rome, at present the French Academy, built by
Alessandro Lippi, about 1551, is a well proportioned building. The width
of the piers between the windows, the upper of which are, however, a little
too low, as well as the pure and bold profile of the girth and main cornices,
whose height and projection are equal to one seventeenth of the height of

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ARCHITECTURE. 203

the facade, shows the pure taste of the architect. A vestibule towards the
court and garden is especially good. It is supported by six beautiful Ionic
columns; pl. 52, fig. 8a, shows the front facade, jig. 8b the ground plan of
the lower story.

9. Te Pavazzo Saorrt in Genoa was built in 1553 by Alessi, who was
for Genoa what Bramante was for Rome. This palace is a master-piece.
It has two facades, as it is a corner house, and a garden lies before one of
the facades. The street facade, including the entrance, has five openings
in rustication constructed so judiciously as to make a very agreeable
impression. The middle of the upper story consists of arcades upon
columns, with a window upon both sides, with coupled pilasters, over
which is a balcony. The interior of the court (pl. 51, jig. 5) is surrounded
by two stories of piazzas, or vaulted galleries of marble columns, and has a
magnificent effect, as well as the staircase. The extraordinary grandeur of
these galleries is attained by connecting the columns in pairs by complete
entablatures, and these again by arches sprung from their ends, whilst the
vaults abut between and on the arches. The main cornice is well profiled,
but too richly ornamented. :

10. Taz Parat Patace 1x Rome. Domenico Fontana (born 1553, died
1607), known by a large number of fine buildings in Rome, by command
of Pope Sixtus V., enlarged the Vatican with a building, the Palazzo di
Papa Sisto V., briefly termed the Papal Palace. Pl. 52, fig. 4, repre-
sents this building. It makes a grand impression, although it is not a large
edifice. The round and triangular pediments over the door and centre
window can, however, hardly be justified by good taste. The main cornice
is beautifully and boldly profiled.

11. Tae Parazzo Doria Turst 1s Genoa was begun in 1590 by Rocco
Lurago, and is at present the property of the king of Sardinia. PU. 54,
jig. 3, shows the facade. It is almost too crowded with pilasters and
gable-windows to be classed unreservedly with the good Italian style. On
each side the fine vaulted portico supports a terrace adjoining the second
story of the building. The cornice is remarkable for its very great consoles.
The staircase, approached from the spacious vestibule, is numbered among
the most perfect. The court is surrounded with columns and half columns
connected by arches.

12. Patazzo Caserta NEAR Napies. One of the largest European build-
ings of the last century is the Palace of Caserta near Naples. Vanvitelli,
or more properly Louis van Witel of Utrecht, planned it and laid the
corner stone on the 20th January, 1752. Pl. 51, jig. 1, represents the
ground plan of the lower story, jig. 2 that of the main story, jig. 3 the eleva-
tion, and jig. 4 the section of the palace. The building has four courts and
occupies an area of 410,480 square feet. Each of the two principal fronts has
a large portal and two side entrances. On every corner is a pavilion of 161
feet in height and in the centre between the courts a dome covering the
great vestibule, whose height is 183 feet from the floor. The main story,
which is 26 feet high, rests upon a substructure which has two stories,
each 18 feet high. The great saloons in the main story extend through

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204 ARCHITECTURE.

the upper. building and are 45 feet high. The windows are 5 feet, 6 inches
wide in the clear, and are placed 10 feet apart. Those of the main story
are 12 feet high. Over this story is still another, 21 feet high, and an
intersole, 12 feet high. In the middle of each facade stand four Ionic
columns, and as many in the facades of the pavilions, which have flat roofs
surrounded by balustrades. The plan of the arcades, which are 45 feet
high, and connect the two portals, is magnificent. They have four passages,
and in the middle they form the octagonal vestibule which contains the
great staircase. At each portal isa vestibule ornamented with eight Co
rinthian columns. The columns consist each of a single block of ash-grey
Sicilian marble. The great staircase, which also leads to the royal chapel,
whose ceiling is supported by sixteen Corinthian marble columns, has steps
19 feet, 6 inches long, each of a single block of marble. In one side of the
odes 4 is a theatre extending through two stories.

Tn order to show the style in which the Roman palaces vi were finished, we
have represented 1 in pl. 54, figs. 6-9, four superb doors from various pale
and also in jig. 4 one of the many owen fountains, the Hontana Paolina,
not far from the church San Pietro in Promontorio upon the Janiculus. It
was executed by J acob Fontana, and is fed by the aqueduct of Bracciano,
which, lies 36 miles from Rome. Three large and two small arcades, ee
falls the, water. in three streams into the broad basin, form the icone
Between the arcades there are five half columns of granite, and over them
an attic with an inscription, and then an arched superstructure with two
angels bearing the papal.arms. As an offset to this example of tasteless-
ness, built in 1560, we give in jig. 5 the ancient fountain of Marius, not far
from Rome, and it is curious to observe how human taste, when such guides
were near, could go so far astray as to produce the Fontana Paclina.

B. France.

1. Tae Louvre i Paris. Of French palaces, the Louvre at Paris
claims the priority of age; for in the 8th and 9th centuries there stood upon
its site a palace.of the King of France, which in 1529 was so ruinous that
Francis I. determined to build a new palace in its place. Sebastian Serlio
and Francis Lescot drew plans for it, and the latter was accepted. But at
the death of Lescot even the wing towards the Tuileries, the old Louvre,
was not yet completed. . Its court facade (pl. 52, fig. 2) has in the centre a
projection ( le grand avant corps), and a little one on each side and in the
corners. These avant corps are repeated on the other sides of the court.
Before them stand forty-six.pairs of fluted Corinthian three-quarter columns
2 feet thick and 19 feet 2 inches high, placed on high pedestals. Before the
receding parts (arriére corps) are thirty-two pilasters of the same order
ornamenting the window piers. Similar orders of columns and pilasters
are repeated before the main story but in the Roman style, and each order
has its full entablature. The ground floor is 33 feet high, the main story
29 feet. The length and depth of the Louvre are 525 feet. After Lescot’s
death Lemercier erected, over the middle of the wing towards the Tuileries,
a high balustrade, and over that a rectangular drum with a dome of frame-

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work which covers a large hall, resting in part on caryatides executed by
Jean Goujon. Lemercier (born 1629) continued the wing towards the Seine,
to the facade of which Claude Perrault afterwards added the remarkably
beautiful colonnade represented in elevation and ground plan in pl. 52, fig. 1.
The three older facades towards the court were then made to harmonize
withit. After Perrault’s death Gabriel continued the building of the upper
part of the three older facades according to his own idea. When'Louis XIV.
wished to finish the Louvre there was a disagreement about the form of the
outer facades. At the suggestion of Colbert, Bernini was summoned from
Rome to Paris, but his plans were not approved of. It was then that
Perrault designed his colonnade, which was completed in 1670. It consists
of coupled fluted Corinthian columns 3 feet 9 inches thick and 38 feet high,
placed upon pedestals over the lower story, and supporting an excellently
profiled entablature, whose height is 24 columnar diameters. The column-
couples are placed at distances of 3 diameters; the two middle ones 6
diameters’ distance from‘each other. ‘The four couples, or eight columns, in
the centre support a triangular gable, whose crown cornice consists of two
stones 54 feet long and 28 inches high. The facade towards the Rue le
Coq has much beauty, especially an imposing carriage portal. In 1755 the
exterior of the Louvre was completed. After the palace had been left to
itself almost forty years Percier and Fontaine were ordered by Napoleon
to improve it and arrange the interior tastefully. They opened the niches
between the columns of the colonnade and changed them into windows.
The two divisions of the colonnade were united over the middle door with
a horizontal ceiling, so that now the communication appears no longer to be
interrupted by the great arch. In spite of the triangular pediments over
the windows of the main story, this facade is justly regarded as one of the
finest of modern times, owing to the correctness of its proportions.

2. Tue Patace oF THE TuILERIES IN PaRis was commenced in 1364 by
command of Catharine di Medici, by Philibert Delorme and Jean Bullart,
but was again abandoned until Henry IV. caused it to be continued on an
altered plan by Ducerceau and Dupérai. It was finally completed under
Louis XIV. by Louis le Beau and Frangois d’Orbois. Pl. 53, fig. 1, gives
a view of the Tuileries from the Place du Carrousel. The employment of
so many architects has had the effect of producing a singular arrangement :
there are roofs of five different shapes, and the whole building is without
any essential esthetic unity of design. The windows, which are six feet
wide, have throughout piers of no greater breadth. Those of the first and
second stories are 18 feet high; of the third, 16 feet. The entablature of
the pilasters is intersected by the windows of the second story, and in the
upper there are small pilasters standing over those beneath. The roof is
disproportionately high, higher than half of the building. Altogether there
are five pavilions, among which, besides the clock pavilion in the centre,
the northern is interesting as the residence of Napoleon, of the Duchess
of Berry, and finally of the Duke of Orleans; and the southern as the
residence of Pope Pius VII. in 1804, of Charles X., and finally of Louis
Philippe.

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206 ARCHITECTURE,

3. Taz Luxemsoure Patack iw Paris. When, after the death of
Henry I., Maria di Medici wanted a palace for her own residence, she
bought, in 1611, the old Palais Luxembourg, had it removed, and ordered
Desbrosses to build a palace, of which the corner-stone was laid in 1615,
and the Palazzo Pitti in Florence served as model. The plan of the
Palais Luxembourg (pl. 53, jig. 4) is a rectangle. It has six large square
pavilions, and is very regular. The north side has a row of arcades, over
which there is an open terrace, which is divided into two parts by the dome
over the entrance. The system of rustication prevails throughout the build-
ing, and there are no columns, scarcely any pilasters, and thence the
building has an appearance of great strength, but it is also monotonous.
The small dome is unimportant in itself, but it very happily interrupts the
long line between the pavilions. The walls here recede above the main
story, forming two galleries. Upon the middle pavilion is a sun-dial, upon
which the meridian of mean time is indicated.

4. Toe Navy Department AND THE GaArpEe-Mevusies in Paris. In the
year 1763 the Place Louis XV., now the Place de la Concorde, was designed.
It was completed in 1772. Upon the north of this place stand two large
buildings 288 feet long. Before the ground story of each is a row of
arcades 10 feet wide, which form a covered passage 9 feet broad and 25
feet high. On both sides (jig. 2) of the facade are pavilions, upon whose
substructures of bound masonry are four Corinthian columns crowned with
a triangular gable, whose sides rest on pilasters. Between the pavilions
stand twelve Corinthian columns 30 feet high and three feet thick, forming
a terrace over the lower passage. The columns extend through two stories
and stand 11 feet apart. These buildings were originally designed as store-
houses of the furniture and jewels of the crown (Gardes-Meubles) ; but one
was changed into the present Navy Department. Jacques Gabriel, a pupil
of Hardouin Mansard, was the architect of these edifices, and they have the
advantage of the Louvre in not having their columns coupled, whilst on
the other hand they are too weak and low and their distances too great.

5. Tae Panace ar Versarttzs. The royal pleasure grounds at Ver-
sailles were first planned by Louis XIII., but Louis XIV. caused the present
palace to be erected after Leveau’s designs. It is 1320 feet in length, and
consists of a centre building with two wings. Its finest part is the grand
colonnade after Mansard’s design, fronting towards the garden. PJ. 54,
jig. 1, gives the view of it. Unhappily the chief masses of the palace are
injured by many projections and recedings, by which all the great architec-
tonic lines are destroyed. The great entrance is truly insignificant, hidden
as it is between the rear wings inclosing the open court which is 70 feet
wide. The interior of the palace is magnificent, and Louis Philippe
placed there the Museum, whose treasures are all of the grandest historical
interest to France. One of the finest halls is the so called Battle Gallery
(fig. 2) in the southern part of the ground story. It is 327 feet long, lighted
from above, and contains in paintings, mostly by Horace Vernet, the history
of Napoleon’s campaigns from 1796-1815, and of the French campaign in
Algiers. Some of the paintings are of enormous size: the Battle of Isly for

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instance is 90 feet long. The busts of Napoleon and of the members of his
family are also placed there.

C. Belgium and Holland.

A league and a half from Brussels, near the canal to Malines, is the
pleasure palace of Laeken, erected in 1782 after the designs of Montemayor,
but the interior was executed by Payen. /P/. 51, fig. 6, shows the
ground plan, pl. 53, fig. 5, the front elevation. The facade is in the French
style, and has in the centre a portico of four Ionic columns placed at dis-
tances of three and a half diameters, and on the corners pavilions with
pilasters. The round hall in the rear of the vestibule is surrounded with
twelve Corinthian columns, and covered with a dome, and is considered to
be a structure of great architectonic value.

Tae Roya Resipence In AMSTERDAM, built by Jacob Van Campen, born in
Harlaem (d. 1658), is without question the most beautiful building in Holland.
The grandeur of its masses, the regularity of its plan, the beauty of its con-
struction, the richness of its decoration, all combine to make it one of the finest
creations of modern architecture. PU. 55, fig. 4, gives the elevation, fig. 5
the ground plan of the ground story, and jig. 6 that of the second and third
stories. The dome, which is wanting in the elevation, is represented to the
right, the line A A being that of its connexion with the clock tower. The
building stands upon 13,659 piles driven into the morass, and forms a large
rectangle of 282 feet in length and 222 feet in breadth. The plan is im-
posing, the interior arrangement judicious, the communications convenient
and easy, and all combined with taste and skill. The height of the facade
is 116 feet. Upon a large substructure, forming a very subordinate story,
with seven low entrances, there are two tiers of pilasters, the upper belonging
to the composite, the lower to the Corinthian order. They are 36 feet high,
each reaching through a story and an intersole. The facade has three pro-
jections, the middle one being both broader and deeper than those at the
ends. This middle projection has a gable with a beautiful bas-relief repre-
senting the power of Amsterdam, and the acroteria of the gable support
bronze statues twelve feet high.

D. Great Britain.

The castles and palaces of England are for the greater part of the medi-
geval style, which was widely employed for secular buildings after it had
yielded in other countries to the Italian, and it is still much used. Next to
that we find the manner of Palladio, and especially in country seats, which
are often of very great extent. Such, for instance, is the country seat of the
Duke of Argyle in Dumbarton county in Scotland, whose ground plan
( pl. 51, fég. '7) is much like the castle at Laeken, and whose fagade is almost
precisely the same.

8. THmatres,

A considerable degree of luxury has always prevailed in the building of
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208 ARCHITECTURE.

theatres, not alone among the Greeks and Romans, but in modern times ;
and there has been an effort to give them an exterior adequate to thie
sumptuous splendor which characterizes the modern dramatic art. In the
division of this work devoted to the Fine Arts we shall speak of the plans of
theatres, and especially of their interior construction, and therefore will
here record only one of the most beautiful German theatres, begun in
1837 and finished in 1840, the theatre in Dresden, designed and executed
by Semper (pl. 57, jig. 4), and one of the largest theatres, that of St.
Petersburg, built about thirty years ago by Montron (fig.5, front view;
jig. 6, ground plan).

The appearance of the Dresden Theatre is unique in this, that its exterior
is of the same form as the interior. The chief entrance is at the end of the
ellipse, while the carriage portico is at the side. The upper part of the
facade is rather heavy for the fine, light arcades of the lower. In the
interior arrangement, the judicious distribution of the apartments, and the
spacious vestibule and foyer, deserve unqualified praise. The latter are
remarkable for their beautiful fresco paintings.

The Theatre in St. Petersburg was built under the Emperor Alexander,
and is singularly regular. By the arrangement of the rear, it is susceptible
of being enlarged upon special occasions. As it is 360 feet deep in itself,
enlargement is, however, very rarely required. The facade, with its eight
Ionic columns, is imposing.

St. Charles Theatre, in New Orleans (jig. 7), fails in its exterior, and
may be quoted as an example of bad arrangement of the facade. The por-
tico reaches through two stories, and is covered with a heavy gable. There
are Corinthian columns above, ee upon high “pedestals. It is much
too heavy for the open wall behind, which seems hardly calculated to sup-
port the heavy superstructure.

4. Musrums.

During the two last centuries, the care for the better arrangement and
preservation of objects of art, like the sense of true art, had apparently lost
all vitality. Only recently have objects of art begun to be collected in
buildings specially constructed for the purpose, and affording greater con-
venience of observation and study. We have selected a few of the best
buildings of this kind for special notice.

The Museum in Cassel (fig. 18), which contains also the library, was
planned by du Ry. It is 294 feet long, and its facade is decorated with
Ionic pilasters, and has a portico of eight Ionic columns. Over the large
round hall is a tolerably high dome, with a drum, surrounded by Corin-
thian pilasters. Although the whole makes a pleasant impression, yet the
details belong to a period whose predominant corrupt taste precludes the
possibility of anything very beautiful. Nevertheless, the building has just
claims to admiration from its perfect interior arrangement.

King Louis L., of Bavaria, in order to collect into appropriate buildings

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ARCHITECTURE. 209

the various treasures of art dispersed in his palaces, and amassed during
his travels, built in Munich the Pinacothek for the paintings, and for the
sculptures the Glyptothek. Of the latter, pl. 53, fig. 6, shows the ground
plan, and pl. 56, jig. 2, the perspective view. It was commenced in 1816
and completed in 1830, and reflects the highest honor on its architect, Leo
v. Klenze. It surrounds a rectangular court, and is built in the Grecian
style. In front isa portico of eight, in the rear one of four, Jonic columns.
As the whole hall is lighted from above and from the inner court, it has no
exterior windows, but in place of them niches, in which are placed statues of
famous painters and sculptors. There are nine colossal figures in the front
gable, representing Minerva and the plastic arts. The interior contains
twelve halls, with friezes and ceilings painted in fresco by Cornelius, Hay-
degger, Zimmermann, Hermann, and others, and marble floors. The cor-
rectness of its proportions, and the noble simplicity of its motivos, make
this building a model of good taste, worthy of being minutely studied by
architects, along with the finest monuments of antiquity.

Opposite the Glyptothek is the newly built edifice for the exhibitions
of art and industry (jig. 3, perspective view). This building is similar to
the opposite one in form and plan, but very inferior to it in point of cor-
rectness and decoration, besides having the great fault of not answering the
purpose for which it was constructed, since its door is so small that wall-
paintings cannot be brought in for exhibition. The eight columns of the
portico are very beautiful, and of the Corinthian order. In the gable-field
is likewise a rich sculpture composition, representing Minerva as the tutelar
deity of the arts and crafts. The general effect of the building is very good,
and if it were not for the gem opposite it would certainly command consi-
derable admiration.

5. Crry anp Councizt Hovusts. GovERNMENT BouILpDINGs.

The council houses of cities and houses erected for the meetings of the
legislative bodies of states or confederacies, are usually, in their exterior
appearance, expressive of the dignity of their purpose. Their prominent
features are, generally, durability and simplicity, though from the latter rule
there are some notable exceptions. We have selected a few examples of
this class of buildings.

The City Hall at Maestricht, of which pl. 55, fig. 7, is a view, was erected
in the middle of the eighteenth century, and rests entirely upon a mass of
piles, over which is a tolerably high substructure. This is ascended by
two flights of steps, which lead to the portico consisting of four Ionic
columns upon high pedestals. The facade has two tiers of pilasters. The
lower ones are Ionic, placed upon high pedestals, whose cornices extend
across the entire front. These pilasters support a complete entablature, and
upon that is the second tier of Corinthian pilasters, resting also upon pedes-
tals. The middle building rises over the chief cornice, and has Roman
pilasters, whose entablature supports a gable with good reliefs. Over the

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210 ARCHITECTURE.

whole is a bell-tower with arched openings and covered with a dome.
The building is, on the whole, well proportioned, although many of the de-
tails lack good taste.

Much better is the town-hall in Neuenburg in Wirtemberg, built in the
present century, and of which pl. 55, jig. 9, shows the view, and jig. 8 the
ground plan. The portico, of six Ionic columns, is well proportioned, and
the arcade which ornaments the front side is of good effect. The windows
are rather low, which is the more striking on account of the heavy cornices
over them. The large hall in the interior, extending through two stories,
is very beautiful. Its two tribunes rest upon six Corinthian columns.
each. |
The Capitol at Washington, of which pl. 56, jig. 1, gives a perspective
view, is the seat of the Congress and of the Supreme Court of the United
States of North America. This handsome building, erected in the year
1814, is elevated upon a hill 78 feet high, and consists entirely of marble.
It is 362 feet long, 120 feet deep, and has three domes, the highest of which
is 120 feet. The front of the building has a portico of eight Corinthian
columns, with a wing-portico of five columns on each side, receding about
one columnar distance, and bears a finely decorated gable. On the rear is
a colonnade of 10 Corinthian columns, forming a gallery in front of the
library room. The windows on the whole circumference of the building
are laid between Corinthian pilasters. The facades would merit to be
classed among the best, if it were not for the tasteless mixture of differently
shaped windows. The interior plan is susceptible of great improvement,
as there is a sad want of room for the transaction of business. Besides, no
regard has been had in the construction to the laws of acoustics, so that the
edifice is far from being adequate to its purpose. The great rotunda in the
middle of the principal floor is surmounted by the great dome, which is very
valuable in point of construction.

6. EXCHANGES.

Exchange buildings would answer their nearest purpose of affording
‘places of meeting for merchants for the transaction of mutual business, if
they were merely, as in former times, spacious inclosures sheltered from the
weather by roofs only. Such were the ancient Greek stow, and similar
halls or inclosures were for a long time found all-sufficient for the wants of
the merchants. More recently, however, it has been found very convenient
to connect with these places of meeting a number of offices with which the
greater number of merchants have daily business, and hence the open halls
have been abandoned for solid, and for the most part magnificent edifices,
affording room for banks, insurance companies, commercial reading-rooms,
and sometimes the post-office, besides the great hall where the merchants
and brokers meet for business transactions. The plans of the Exchanges
of Paris (pl. 56, fig. 6, ground floor, jig. 7, upper story) and of Ghent
(fig. 8, ground floor, jig. 9, upper story) will serve as illustrations; the

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ARCHITECTURE. UE

large halls being the places of meeting, the smaller apartments serving
various purposes of the above-mentioned nature.

The Exchange in Paris (fig. 5, perspective view) was built after the
designs of Brogniart. It forms a rectangle of 69 metres by 41, and is
erected on a substructure about 3 metres high, on which is a peristyle
of 66 Corinthian columns, 1 metre in diameter and 10 metres high. The
entablature resting on these columns is surmounted by an attic without
any ornament, which hides the roof. The wall proper is interrupted by
two rows of windows, separated by a Doric entablature. The introduction
of these tasteless windows in connexion with the beautiful peristyle, is
altogether unaccountable. Much superior in this respect is the granite
portico of the Exchange in New York (fig. 4, perspective view), which
exhibits a perfect unity of taste, and is one of the boldest edifices of recent
times.

The Exchange of London (fig. 11) has a fine portico of eight Roman
columns, but the whole facade is spoiled by the tasteless arched windows
and the door behind it, as well as by two entirely inappropriate arches in
the attic over the gable. }

The Old Exchange in Amsterdam, of which we have given a section in
pl. 57, jig. 14, has the original character of this style of building, a large
court surrounded by covered galleries as protection against the weather,
and in the upper story the necessary rooms for business and chambers of
commerce.

7. UNrvERsITIEs.

The plan of the building for a university must be modified by the various
necessities arising from the number of professors, of necessary recitation
rooms, of students, of laboratories, museums, &c., and no general rules can
be given. But as this is a matter of theoretical architecture, we will here
confine ourselves to the description of a few buildings belonging to this
class. One of the most modern buildings of this kind is the Unwersity of
Gient, whose facade is seen in pl. 56, jig. 10. It was erected at the expense
of the city of Ghent, and was designed and executed by Rouland. It con-
tains a fine round hall, whose cassetted dome is supported by eighteen
Corinthian columns, and surmounted by a lantern through which the hall
is lighted. This hall is reached by a double-armed state staircase with
twelve columns, whose wood-work ceiling is also cassetted, and through a
superb vestibule, whose ceiling rests on four Corinthian columns. Before
the building is a grandiose portico consisting of eight Corinthian granite
columns, the field of whose gable is decorated by an excellent bas-relief.

The Paris Observatory (pl. 57, jig. 3, ground plan; jig. 2, northern
facade) was built under Louis IV. by Claude Perrault. The building con-
sists of four chief parts: of the centre, a rectangular tower whose sides face the
four quarters of the heavens, the north projection with a gable, and two
octagonal towers on the ends of the south side of the building. In the ele-

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212 ARCHITECTURE.

vation the building has, besides the ground floor, a kind of intersole and a
main story, and is covered with a flat roof. The great windows of the main
floor are arched and all the stories are vaulted. Through all the vaults an
open space passes in the middle of the building to the cellar, for experi-
ments with freely falling bodies. The building is extremely sound, and
throughout in a pure style, so that it makes a good impression. But a great
fault is that it is so inadequately planned that on the east side a new build-
ing was necessary for the astronomical observations. This fault is aseribed
to Cassini. |

8. Assempiy Hovsss.

These buildings, again, depend for their plan upon many circumstances,
as whether the place is much visited, whether it is for men only, and has
consequently reading-rooms, billiard, and coffee-rooms, or whether balls
and assemblies are held there. One of the prettiest edifices of the kind is
the Casino in Lnége (fig. 10, view; jig. 11, ground plan of the ground floor ;
jig. 12, plan of the upper story). The building stands upon a terraced
hill, and has in front a grand double-armed staircase which leads to
the terrace before the building. In the rear the ground floor divides into
two parts, between which is the carriage way. Upon the ground floor of
the front there are great halls and card rooms. In the rear building is the
staircase and some other assembly rooms. ‘The first story contains in the
front building the great ball room, and on both sides terraces over the card
rooms of the ground floor. As the carriage way is built over in the upper
story, the rooms of the rear building communicate immediately with those
in front.

A peculiar kind of buildings for guests are the Persian Caravansaries.
These buildings are especially devoted to the entertainment of caravans. Erect-
ing them is a meritorious work, and they are under a public superintendent.
They take the place of our assembly and coffee-houses. They consist
generally of a four or eight-cornered court, mostly with a fountain in the
centre, and surrounded by the building, affording opportunity for exercise
either under the arcades or in the free air. PJ. 57, jig. 15a@ and 6, are
ground plans of such caravansaries. The building around the court consists
only of single cells. The outer ones serve as shops for the traders or as
coffee-houses, the inner ones for lodging the travellers, who make them-
selves at home there, and must themselves provide for their wants. The
beasts are also sheltered here. The institution of caravansaries is very old,
for Herodotus mentions them and calls them catalysais.

9. Watcu-Hovsrs, Custom-Hovssrs, Exctsz-Hovsss.
Custom-houses are situated either at the gates of cities, if they serve for

the reception of the barrier tax, and are then called excise-houses, and are
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ARCHITECTURE. 213

very subordinate buildings, at most an ornament of the gate, or they are
destined for the collection of the state duties, and stand then generally near
the wharfs or freight depots. ‘They contain various offices, a hall of sessions
for the officials, and sometimes dwellings for one or more of them. The
custom-house of New York (jg. 8), built in a fine old Doric style, is admi-
rable as an ornament, but certainly suggests upon the exterior anything rather
than a building for the collection of duties. The facade, of a fine Greek
temple style, is built of white marble, and being placed on a considerable
substructure, has a very good effect.

Watch-houses are public buildings for the accommodation of soldiers or
officials who have charge of the public peace. They are therefore very sim-
ple, often included in the excise building, or are decorations of the gate and
the open square. ‘They contain nothing but the rooms for the officers and
men, and a chamber of confinement for the arrested delinquents. The decora-
tion of these buildings is very various. Those of the residential cities are
usually very handsome. When Paris was made a fortress, a certain system
was introduced in this matter. Watch-houses were placed in the interior of the
city (pl. 57, fig. 16 a, ground plan ; fig. 16 b, elevation), and were manned by
strong detachments of the National Guard, oud Vedette houses (jig. 17) for
subordinate posts. These watch-houses are so arranged that they can be
defended for some time against a superior force; some are even furnished
with light cannon.

10. Honorary Monuments.

Honorary monuments are erected either for the commemoration of great
events or of great men, and there are very various ideas of their construc-
tion from a simple statue to columns and arches of honor. The use of
them dates from the most remote antiquity, but modern times have
abounded in monuments to individuals, many of whom were very much
honored and very little fed while they lived. We will describe some of
these modern monuments.

In commemoration of the great victory which Napoleon had achieved as
in a whirlwind, he resolved in the year 1806 to erect a superb triumphal arch,
the present Arc del’ Htoile in Paris (pl. 57, fig. 1). The ground was so
unstable that an artificial foundation was necessary to secure the building.
When Napoleon married Maria Louisa of Austria, the building was scarcely
above the foundation, and it was finished for the occasion of their entrance
into Paris with wooden scaffoldings, covered with linen and painted, so that
the architect Chalgrin had the rare fortune of seeing the model of his build-
ing in the natural size. In 1811 it was continued by the architect Goust; in
1814 it was interrupted ; and in 1823 Huyot and Goust began itagain. In
1828 it stopped again, and in 1832 Blouet was ordered to ee it as
rapidly as patie, made in 1836 it was finished, after an expenditure of about
ten millions of francs. The monument is 137 feet long, 68 feet broad, and 152
feet high. The middle arch has a span of 90 feet. The reliefs upon the side

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214 ARCHITECTURE.

visible in our drawing represent on the right the departure of the army in
1792: the Angel of Glory summons the people; on the left is the triumph of
Napoleon in 1810, by Cortot : Napoleon protected by the Angel of Glory is
crowned by Victory. Upon the opposite side is the defence of the French
people in 1814 and the Peace of 1815. In the upper part the figures appear
in modern costume, and here are the Battle of Aboukir, the death of General
Marceau, the Battle of Austerlitz, &c. The frieze contains historical reliefs,
and in the attic are shields with the names of the victories. In the walls
are steps by which the summit of the arch is gained and a fine prospect
commanded.

We must here mention two monuments of similar import, the Column
of the Place Venddme and the Column of July in Paris. In the middle
of the Place Vendéme was erected in 1699 an equestrian statue of Louis
XIV., modelled by Gerardon, which was destroyed upon the day of the
execution of Louis X VI., who was forced to behold the outrage. When
Napoleon seized the reins of government, he resolved to immortalize the
battle of Austerlitz, and to erect a column after the model of Trajan’s
Column in Rome, and from a drawing of the architect Lepére. It was
erected of stone, and surrounded by 274 bronze reliefs from Bergerel’s
designs, spirally arranged in 22 windings. The column is of the Tuscan
order, 108 feet high, and with the substructure 124 feet. The shaft is
11 feet thick. Pl. 53, jig. Ta, shows the column as it now is, and
jig. 7b, a view of its prototype, the Column of Trajan. The colossal statue
of Napoleon was 10-11 feet high, and represented the emperor in antique
warrior’s costume, resting with the right hand upon a sword, and bearing in
the left a globe with the victory (jig. 8). But it was removed in 1814.
After the revolution of July it was resolved to replace the statue of Napo-
leon upon the column; but his modern costume was chosen (jig. 9) on the
one hand because it had become world-renowned, and on the other because
all the figures in relief were in modern costume. The metal of the column
weighs 1,800,000 pounds, and it was built of captured cannon. The labor
alone cost 1,200,000 francs. Upon the pedestal is the Latin inseription
represented in jig. 7c, and on the upper part of the capital a Freneh one,
relating to the building of the column, begun under Denon, Lepére, and
Gondoin on the 25th August, 1806, and completed on the 15th August,
1810.

Upon the site of the Bastille destroyed on the 14th July, 1789, it was
proposed to erect a fountain, with an elephant 40 feet high, the plaster
model of which still exists. But after the July revolution, it was deter-
mined to decorate the place with a column in remembrance of those who
had fallen there; and Louis Philippe on the 28th July, 1831, laid the
corner-stone, and on the 29th July, 1840, it was consecrated. P7. 58,
jig. 10 a gives the view; jig. 106, the inscription upon the pedestal ; and
jig. 11 a view of the Column of Antonine in Rome, which served as the
model. The Column of July stands upon a vaulted foundation, through
which passes the canal of St. Martin, and it has a double substructure, one
round, with an inner gallery, and one square, over it, of granite and white

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ARCHITECTURE. 215

marble, in which are the beginnings of the steps upon which the column is
ascended. It is of the Corinthian order, and the pedestal is adorned with
inscriptions, palms, laurel crowns, oak branches, the arms of the city of
Paris, the Gallic cock and the lion, the zodiacal sign of July. Upon the
shaft, divided into three parts, are recorded in gold letters the names of
the victims of July. The statue of the Genius of Freedom with a torch
and a broken chain in the hand is by Dumont. The column is entirely of
bronze, 133 feet high, and the lower diameter is more than 11 feet.

Another monument of honor is the Valhalla near Ratisbon (pl. 55,
jig. 1, view, jig. 2, section), which king Louis I. of Bavaria erected to the
memory of distinguished Germans. It forms a Doric marble temple, and
was founded on the 18th October, 1830, planned and executed by Leo v.
Klenze, and dedicated on the 18th October, 1842. The monument stands
upon a hill on a foundation 126 feet high. The temple is 70 feet high, 100
feet broad, and 300 feet long. In front is a double portico of eight columns ;
each side has seventeen columns, and the rear eight again, so that the
temple is a peripteros. The gable-fields are decorated with reliefs by
Rauch and Schwanthaler. The southern slope of the hill is made accessi-
ble by steps up seven terraces of Cyclopean work, one above the other. The
exterior is finished with unusual splendor. The walls and roof are painted
in several colors. The ceiling is pendent, being fastened to the roof, and
ornamented with rich metal cassettes. The illumination is from above.
The upper entablature is supported by caryatides standing upon a cornice
supported by pilasters, which divides the walls into an upper and lower
part. The paintings of the frieze are by Wagner. Between the entablature
and the pendent ceiling are figures from the northern mythology. The
hall is decorated with the marble busts of distinguished Germans, standing
partly upon pedestals, partly upon consoles, and executed by German artists
only. There is room for one hundred and forty busts; about ninety have
as yet been placed. Victories by Rauch and candelabra (jig. 3a and 6)
interrupt the monotony of the rows of busts. On the north side is a small
hall with columns supporting the floor of an upper hall which opens into
the interior of the building. Southward in the subterranean part is a kind
of crypt, where are placed the busts of those who are to have a place in the
Valhalla after their death.

11. Harris anp Bazars.

Market halls belong to the most sensible institutions of the ancients,
revived in our day, and are no less useful to the public than to the traders.
One of the finest is the Gram Hall in Paris. (Pl. 58, fig. 1, gives the
half outer view; jig. 2, the half section; jig. 3, the ground plan of the
lower; jig. 4, the ground plan of the upper story.) The hall was begun in
1762, and was finished in 1772. The President of the Board of Merchants,
Viarmes, undertook the building after the designs of Comus de Mezieres.

The ground plan is a complete circle, whose outer diameter is 68 metres,
215

216 ARCHITECTURE.

and the ground floor, which has 28 arcades, is excellently vaulted. A
double winding staircase serves for communication. Originally the build-
ing consisted of these arcades only, but in 1782 the court was covered with
a dome of framework, designed by Legrand and Molinos, and executed by
Rubo. The diameter of this dome is 126 feet, and its height is 100 feet.
In the year 1802 the dome was burnt, but in 1811 was restored, of the same
dimensions, but of iron with a copper roofing. Upon the side of the hall is
acolumn (jig. 1A and A), which was erected by Catharine di Medici,
and served her as an astronomical observatory. Now there is a remarkable
sun-dial of Pingré’s upon it. PJ. 51, jig. 8, gives the ground plan of the
ground floor, and jig. 9 that of the chief story of the grain market at Corbeil
near Paris, which contains store-rooms for corn and meal.

The Market of St. Germain in Paris (pl. 58, fig. 5, inner view ; jig. 6,
section; jig. T, ground plan) consists of a rectangular building inclosing a
court and containing 400 stalls. The length is 276 feet, the breadth 216
feet, and the depth of the part covered with building, 42 feet. The build-
ing was commenced on the 15th August, 1813, by Destournelles. In the
centre of every side there are three arched passages 30 feet high. All the
arcades are furnished with blinds, and under the roof there are openings for
ventilation, the beams of the suspension roof resting on little pillars project-
ing above the side walls. In the middle of the court 8 is a fountain. A
distance of 34 feet separates the large market from the meat market c. It
is 220 feet long, 42 feet deep, and was planned in 1814 by Blondel. Under
this are cellars, which are lighted by windows in the lower wall of the
building. This hall has 20 divisions with about 150 stands, and in the
middle a large vestibule.

The Magdalen Market in Paris (fig. 9, lateral section; jig. 10, general
ground plan) was completed in 1836, and serves for the vendors of flowers
and vegetables. Upon the sides are large and small hall-like stands for
business, but in the middle only open stalls. All the ridges of the roof are
of iron, and the covering of sheet-iron.

The Market at Pavia (fig. 8, half view; jig. 11, half ground plan) was
built in 1837, and contains, upon the front side, a colonnade for the stands,
but in the rear a number of sitting rooms for the hucksters, and over these
chambers smaller ones in the attic.

The Market Hall in Florence (pl. 51, jig. 10, ground plan ; jig. 11, view)
was built in the sixteenth century by Bernardo Tasso. It consists of twenty
Ionic columns, 2 feet 7 inches thick and 23 feet 3 inches high, and eight
pillars. It rests upon four steps. The shaft of each column consists of one
block of grey granite from Fiesole. The columns of the loggia have Corin-
thian capitals. Upon the corner pillars are niches for placards.

The Fish Hall at Marseilles (fig. 12, ground plan; and jig. 13, eleva-
tion) is, like those of Ghent and Bruges, only an imitation of the fish hall
built at Florence, in the sixteenth century. It is a double hall, with a wall
running lengthwise through the middle. The roof rests upon eighteen Ionic
granite columns and two pilasters.

As an example of the hugeness of market halls.in the East, we have re-

216

ARCHITECTURE. 217

presented in pi. 58, jig. 12, a part of the view, and jig. 13, a part of the
ground plan of the Almetdan at Ispahan, in Persia. The whole building
contains selling stalls, distributed through many stories. It surrounds a
large court C C, to which is adjoined a spacious colonnade. Large
entrances, A, B, D, E, F, G, lead into the inner stalls, and on the inside a lane
passes before the stands, every building having four rows of stands, of which
every two stand with their backs to each other.

12. Prisons.

In the construction of prisons, meaning those which are also work-
houses, many systems are adopted, according to the manner in which the
prisoners work, together or separately, and whether strict silence is to be
observed, &c. The last-named system arose in America. This is not the
place to speculate upon the characteristic advantages of these systems. Yet
the American system greatly prevails. Generally, the prison-houses sur-
round several courts, as the prison at Aix (pl. 57, jig. 18), to separate the
sexes, and even the classes of prisoners from any intercourse. PJ. 59, jig.
15, shows the ground plan of the prison of Newgate, which is not a work-
house, on which account the cells are larger, and no regard is had to a hall
for labor. The jail at Ghent (jig. 16), recently built, and upon the cell
system, forms an octagon, and all the entrances of the cells are in the form
of radii from the church placed in the centre. In the prisons of Milan
(jig. 17) and Amsterdam (jig. 18), the labor is in common, and only espe-
cial criminals are separated into single cells.

We shall give some details of the new prison at Halle, because it is
often quoted as a model institution. Pl. 59, jig. 1, gives a perspective
view of the whole institution, and jig. 2, the general ground plan. A is the
chief building, of which jig. 8 shows the ground plan of the cellar story, jig.
4 that of the first story, jig. 5 of the second, which is like the third, and
jig. 6 is the ground plan of the four stories, with the church. /%g. 7 is the
front, and jig. 9 the side view of the main building; jig. 8 its lateral section,
and jig. 10 the longitudinal section. 7g. 2, B, C, and D, are the prison-
houses, connected by bridges @ 6 with the church in the main building. E is
the entrance building, F the bath and wash-house, whose ground plan is
seen in jig. 13, and the side view in jig.14. G is the lazaretto, whose
ground plan is seen in jig. 11, and the side view in jig.12. The whole
establishment is surrounded by a wall, inclosing courts and gardens for
recreation and Jabor in the open air.

13. Brass.

As in the other buildings we have described we have omitted technical
details, so we shall do with the bridges, of which we will describe a few of
the most famous.

1. Irary. One of the most beautiful bridges is the covered bridge over

217

218 ARCHITECTURE.

the Ticino, near Pavia (pl. 60, jig. 17). It is 700 feet long, 70 feet broad,
and 108 feet high, and has seven Gothic pointed arches, 66 feet wide and
60 feet high. The covering has several stories. The great mass of the build-
ing is of brick, the little columns which support in double rows upon each
side the covered way for pedestrians are of colored, and the bases and capi-
tals of white marble, of which also the balustrade and other architectonic
parts are made. Over the arches are arabesques, with gilding upon blue
ground.

The covered bridge over the Rialto in Venice ( pl. 60, jig. 1, view ; jig. 2,
section) was begun in 1560 by Antonio Conte del Ponte, and finished in
1591 by Dyonis Boldo. It is a master-work. A single flat marble arch,
90 feet wide and 19 feet high, supports the street of the bridge, which is
inclosed upon both sides by arcades of marble used as shops. The bridge
ascends and descends by three marble steps, and hence its peculiar form.

The curved bridge (Ponte corvo) over the Melfa, near Aquino, was planned
by Stefano del Piombino. The ground plan forms a sextant. Stefano’s son
and the Genoese Fra Jocondo completed the work in 1505. It is 600 feet
long, 42 feet broad, and consists of seven semicircular arches (jig. 16). The
middle arch has 88 feet span, the last and smallest 70 feet. The pillars
increase in thickness symmetrically from 10-12 feet, and stand upon a
common foundation. The bridge is built in a simple and imposing style.

2. France. The bridge Notre Dame, over the Seine in Paris (jig. 10),
was built by Fra Jocondo in 1507, after the stone bridge of 1412 had been
destroyed in 1499. It is 380 feet long, 73 feet broad, and has six semi-
circular arches averaging 53 feet span. The pillars are 12 feet broad and
have three-cornered heads.

The bridge Ste. Jfarze in Paris (fig. 8) was begun in 1613 by Christopher
Ste. Marie, and completed in 1635. It is an imitation of the beautiful
bridge of Augustus near Rimini, 335 feet long, 72 feet broad, and it has
seven semicircular arches of 42-55 feet span.

The bridge of Wewzlly over the Seine, near Paris (jig. 9), one of the most
beautiful and imposing of bridges, was begun in 1768 by Perrot, and
finished in 1774. It is 876 feet long, 45 feet broad, and consists of five
large, depressed, basket arches, constructed from eleven centres, of 120 feet
span, and 30 feet high. Each top surface of the arch ends in a flat arch,
whose union with the basket arch of the bridge vault produces an oblique
vault (cow’s horn). At the key-stone the arch is 5 feet, and the oval-headed
piers are only 13 feet broad.

The bridge of St. Maizence, over the Eure, built by Perronet in 1774-84,
is 252 feet long and 39 feet broad. It has three very flat arches of 72 feet
span (jig. 12) and 4 feet 6 inches thick at top. The piers are only 18 feet
thick.

The bridge of Gignac, over the Herrault (pl. 60, jig. 7), was begun in
1777 by Garipuy, and finished in 1793. It is 558 feet long and 80 feet high,
with three large arches, the middle of which has 150 feet span and is 50
feet high. The two other arches are semicircles of 77 feet diameter. The
piers of the bridge are 24 feet broad.

218

ARCHITECTURE. 219

The bridge of Tilst¢ or Bellecourt, over the Saone, near Lyons (jig. 18),
was begun in 1789 by Varegua and Vimar, and was completed in 1810. It
1s 422 feet long, and has five basket-arches 64 feet in width and 20 feet
high. The pillars project and rise to the railing, where they bear inscrip-
tions. They are semicircular. The cornice exhibits consoles, and the
bridge-way is horizontal.

3. Enetanp: The bridge over the Taff (jig. 15), in Glamorganshire, was
built of brick in 1756. It consists of a single flat arch 132 feet wide and
33 feet high, the widest arch in England and the seventh in the world.
Over each shank are three circular bridge eyes, which materially lighten
the structure, and thus contribute to its stability.

The Strand, or Waterloo bridge, in London (fig. 11), one of the largest
bridges in Europe, was begun by Rennie in 1814, and finished in 1817. It
is 1200 feet long and 43 feet broad, and consists of nine basket-arches, 1124
feet broad and 28 feet high. To diminish the pressure upon the pillars,
all the arches are united by reversed vaults. The pillars are 184 feet
thick, and the heads terminate in the pointed-arch style. Each one
bears two columns, whose entablature lies in that of the railing of the
bridge.

The bridge of Colebrookdale over the Severn (jig. 22) is the first great
iron bridge, and was the work of the master-smiths John Wilkinson and
Abraham Darley. It was cast in 1778 and erected in 1779. It consists of
a flat arch 1004 English feet broad and 38 feet high. The arch is formed
of five arch ribs; and upon each lies, with the length of the bridge, rows of
beams to support the road upon the bridge, which is laid upon iron plates
2% inches thick, strewn with gravel and sand. Diagonal buttresses and
straight joints knit it firmly everywhere. The road upon the bridge is 22
feet broad and the iron works weigh 3880 tons.

The most astonishing work of modern times is the tubular iron bridge
over the Menai Straits in Wales. This structure will be found mentioned
under Technology.

4. Germany. The bridge near Késen over the Saale (pl. 60. jig. 18) is
one of the oldest remaining German bridges, and was built in the 11th cen-
tury. Itis 288 feet long, and consists of eight arches, whose middle five
are pointed arches, the rest semicircular. They have 24-25 feet span.
The pillars are almost 12 feet thick, and have round heads. The ascent is
rather steep.

The Bridge of Zwetau near Torgau (jig. 14) was built in 1730 by
Augustus II. King of Poland, Elector of Saxony. It is 690 feet long, and has
twelve arches in full semicircle, spanning 33-46 feet. The pillars reach to
the cornice, and have alternately a three-cornered projection. The bridge
is steep and uncertain of ascent.

5. Sparv. The Bridge of Toledo (fig. 21) was built in the 13th century,
and is simple and handsome. It is 520 feet long, and has nine semicircular
arches of 32 feet span, and eight piers of 20 feet breadth, with semicircular
heads which extend to the bridge-way, where they keep the railing firm.
The bridge is horizontal.

219

220 ARCHITECTURE.

6. Persia. The Bridge of Barbaruh at Ispahan over the Senderuth
(fig. 8, the length ; jig. 4, front view; jig. 5, section of the side) is named
from its builder, and is of an unknown antiquity. It is 2250 feet long, 120
feet high, and 156 feet broad. The middle way, 60 feet broad, and the side
ways are paved with marble, and the latter lead through arcades, to which
the ascent is by stairs in the four towers of the bridge. ‘These stairs also
lead under the bridge, where a way leads along the length of the bridge
through the pillars, as the substructure reaches to the surface of the water,
which flows only through bridged canals. The bridge has 29 arches of 50
feet span, and the pillars are 25 feet thick.

7. Cutna. The Chinese bridges have generally huge proportions, as, for
instance, the Bridge of Loyang, which is 26,800 feet long, and that of
Focheu, which is 22,000 feet long, and both are 60-70 feet wide. We
have represented two specimens of Chinese bridges in jigs. 19 and 20, one
with pointed, the other with round arches. These two bridges prove that
the usual simplicity of Chinese bridges is not owing to ignorance of the art
of vaulting, which on the contrary the Chinese appear to possess in
perfection.

220

MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

Puates VIII. 1-30.

INTRODUCTION.

Tue belief in a Supreme Power is inherent in every human being; and so
thoroughly interwoven with our nature is this sentiment, that it is impossible
for any one at any period of life wholly to divest himself of it, and hence the
desire to worship this power. Everything in the external world as well as
in the internal world of his thoughts impresses him with the great truth, that
there is a God who has created all things, and who rules over all. He is
forced to this conclusion when looking around for an answer to the questions
concerning himself and the material world with which he is surrounded.
For what other reply could be given to the questions, “ What has called this
world into existence? Why does it exist, and what is its ultimate destiny ?
Nay, why do I exist, and what will become of me after death?” And when
his attention is drawn to the phenomena of nature and the extraordinary
events in the life of individuals, as well as to the history of whole nations,
is he not compelled to acknowledge the superior hand that shapes our
destinies, ‘“‘rough hew them as we may ?”

Hence it will be difficult to find among the nations of antiquity or modern
times, one wholly destitute of the consciousness that a higher power exists,
or without a desire to worship that power in some way or other. Even the
Atheist, of whatever school, only deceives himself when he fondly imagines
that his reasoning power will always enable him to combat successfully
every rising inclination to a religious faith.

But though all nations have acknowledged the existence of this supreme
power, they often differ widely in their representations of it, in their modes
of worshipping it, and in their habits and thoughts, as far as they are the
results of their religious creed. The cause of this difference will be found in
the different degrees of civilization, variety of soil, climate, and even occu-
pation, whether commercial or agricultural, peculiar to the country inhabited
by each. For in proportion as a nation is barbarous and uncultivated, so
will also its religion be rude and imperfect ; and the lower its position in the
seale of civilization the more incomplete will be the character which it
ascribes to its gods; for ‘‘ As the people’s gods so are the people.” Hence
the many dissimilarities which we meet with by the side of similarities,
when comparing the different systems of religion practised by the nations

221

2 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RIZES.

of antiquity and modern times ; and it is for that reason often difficult to
show how they are connected in their origin and in the propagation of their
doctrines and principles.

The systems of religion best known to us are: Monotheism, viz. the
worship of one god, and Polytheism, the adoration of several gods, the latter
of which includes also Dualism (the worship of two gods) and Tritheism (the
worship of three gods).

The lowest grade of polytheism is Fetishism, viz. that idolatry which
teaches its followers to worship inanimate nature, sticks and stones, and the
productions of their own skill. Next to this comes Pyrolatry or the worship
of fire, and Sabzism, which considers the stars as gods. All other creeds are
varieties of the same géneral system.

Mytuoxoey is the name given to the science which treats of the various
systems of idolatry, and the doctrines of its votaries. It embraces also the
language of figures and symbols by which the ancient and modern Pagans
sought to teach their religion, philosophy, and history. Their manner of
testifying reverence for the gods, and the other devotional acts appertaining
to their religion, are designated as Reticious Rrres.

Every reflecting man must feel a desire to inquire into and make
himself acquainted with these various systems of religion. For, conscious
that religion is the most important subject, and of the most vital interest to
our race, he will naturally feel inclined to inquire into everything pertain-
ing to it, whether true or false, and to examine the beacons which different
portions of our race, at different times, have set up for their religious
guidance. This field of human research will present him, like all others,
with a view of a slow but constant progress from the imperfect to the
perfect. In it he will also learn that notwithstanding all the aberrations of
the human mind which have manifested themselves more particularly in
systems of religion, there is always a higher power whose overruling influence
cannot be mistaken.

It is also impossible, without a thorough inquiry into the migration of
religious ideas as they passed from nation to nation, properly to appreciate
this progress in the scale of perfection, or to understand the spirit which
pervades individual nations in their every-day life, in their heroic deeds, and
the vicissitudes that befell them. This inquiry is even necessary to a
thorough understanding of the religious systems of our own times.

A knowledge of mythology is also indispensable to explain the growth and
spread of the arts and trade, which were indebted to the fostering care of
religion for the high degree of perfection to which they attained at so early
a period.

We will now endeavor, as far as possible, to pursue a systematic course
in tracing the progress of religious development as it is delineated in
mythology. To do this we shall have to examine chronologically the various
religious systems of antiquity. We begin with those of non-classic anti-
quity, the more developed religious systems of the Greeks and Romans
constituting the subjects of the mythology of classic antiquity.

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HINDOO MYTHOLOGY. 3

NON-CLASSIC ANTIQUITY.
I. THE RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS OF INDIA.
1. Myrnotoey anp Worsuie or tHe Hrinpoos.

The study of Hindoo Mythology is surrounded with difficulties and
obscurities. Many of the books from which we have to draw our information
are still either unknown or almost inaccessible to European mythologians.
The religious systems have also undergone considerable changes in the
course of time, and while some have altogether disappeared, others have
taken their place. All this has contributed to perplex many learned investi-
gators, and to cause them to mistake one for another, or to confound them
together. Yet, nevertheless, a close examination of the authorities accessi-
ble to us will be sufficient to enable us to throw considerable light upon
this very intricate subject.

The chief authorities upon which the student of Hindoo mythology must
rely are: the four Vedas, considered the holy books of the Hindoos; each
of which is divided into two parts, the one containing prayers and the other
hymns. Next in order are the Puranas, eighteen in number. They con-
tain the theogony and cosmogony (doctrines of the origin of the gods and of
the world) of the Hindoos. To these may be added the two great epic
poems, Ramayana and Mahabharata, which celebrate heroic acts and battles.

We learn from these holy books that the Hindoo religion was originally
a kind of monotheism, for it taught that all was ruled by one great Supreme
Being. But it was also at the same time a sort of pantheism, for the
Supreme Being was considered to be a portion of the world, a species of
world-soul pervading the universe. This monotheism soon degenerated into
polytheism, the oldest form of which was Brahmaism ; it prevailed until
Sivaism took its place, which again in its turn was supplanted by Vishnu-
ism. These systems were named, either after the divinities recognised as
the supreme ruler or after their respective founders.

1. Hrmpoo Cosmogony. The Hindoos have various myths concerning the
creation of the world. The simplest is the following. Brahm (the self-
existing), who is also called Para rama (the infinite), the supreme and
invisible god, created the waters at a time when darkness still covered the
unfathomable abyss. He then deposited in the waters the seed of light,
which soon developed into an egg brilliant with golden hues and sparkling
like a bright flame, or as others say, with the combined splendor of a
thousand suns. This egg he inhabited a full year (Menus in his book of
laws says a thousand years) as Brahma, completely absorbed in self-contem-
plation. At the expiration of that period he divided it into two equal
parts, and then made out of the one half the concave canopy of heaven and
the eight celestial spheres, and out of the other the earth and what is called
by the myth the water house. These he peopled with gods, spirits, and

men, and then became again Brahm.
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{ MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

Another myth describes Brahm (pl. 1, jig. 16) as the supreme being,
self-existing and ever the same, wholly absorbed in his sublime meditations,
wrapped in the Jaya (this word means also delusion), the personification
of pleasant self-forgetfulness, represented in the form of a cloak. In con-
junction with the Maya (also called Bhavani, the mother of all created
things), he gave existence to the three great Deyotas (created spirits),
Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, who compose the Indian trinity called
Trimurti, and are represented as a man with one body and three heads
(pl. 2, fig. 1). The Maya, when Bhavani (pl. 1, jig. 2), is generally found
depicted as seated upon a cloud, one foot under her body and the other
stretched out as if in the act of descending; a veil cast around her, orna-
mented with the figures of animals and other created things.

The Trimurti is also included in other symbolical figures of Hindoo
Mythology: viz. in the triangle with the flame (pi. 1, fig. 6), in the Lingam
or Phallos (fig. 1), of which we shall speak again hereafter, when treating
of Siva. The figure Om or Aum (fig. 9) contains also an allusion to the
Trimurti. Om is a contraction of the letters A. U. M., and is considered
by the Hindoos too holy to be pronounced by any one who is not a
Brahmin.

There are a few other symbols which we will enumerate here on account
of their connexion with the above. The elephant (jig. 8) in the act of
worshipping the lingam as the symbol of wisdom ; the Pradyapati (fig. 10)
the symbol of creation as taught by the Brahmins ; Pracrite (fig. 11), the
symbol of the three divine attributes, the creating, preserving, and destroy-
ing powers; and the tortoise upon the serpent supporting the world and
the seven celestial spheres (jig. 12), as the symbol of eternity. The chief
symbol of Brahma is the earth, of Siva fire, and of Vishnu the water; they
are all represented in jigs. 6 and 9.

2. Tum THREE SupERIon Gops. a. Brahma. Brahm, the Supreme Being,
was considered too awful and holy a god to have temples erected to him,
or to be addressed by mortals. Hence a distinction was made between
Brahm and the spirit of Brahm personified in Varayana, which signifies
moving on the waters.

Brahma, who was the first manifestation of Brahm enveloped in his
Maya, is the embodiment of the creative power and wisdom, as well as the
ruler of destiny, and lord over life and death. He is regarded as the first
law-giver and teacher of the Hindoos, and hence as the author of the
Vedas.

In the sacred book we find the following account of his birth. Vara-
yana extended upon the thousand-headed serpent Sesha, and moving upon
the waters, caused the lotus to spring from his navel, and from the lotus
Brahma (pl. 1, fig. 4). Another myth informs us that Vishnu, the second
person in the Trimurti, and considered by the Vishnuites as only another
name for the Supreme Being, assumed as Narayana the shape of a child,
with its toe inserted in its mouth, and in this form, bedded on the leaf of
the Indian fig tree (fig. 1a), was rocked by the waves of the milk sea.
While in this position, and asleep, he called into existence the laws of

224

HINDOO MYTHOLOGY. 5

nature, regulating generation, and the result was, that the flower of the lotus
came forth from his navel, and gave birth to Brahma the creative power,
who in his turn created the world. But a long time, which he spent in
profound meditations, elapsed between his own birth and the creation of
the world. When he had resolved upon calling the universe into existence,
he created first space, and placed in it the seven Swrgs, or starry spheres of
heaven, illuminated by the radiant bodies of the Deyotas. Then he made
the earth (Afirtlock), and the sun and moon to give it light, and the seven
Patals, or lower regions. This creation embraced the fourteen worlds of
the Hindoo Cosmogony. When these worlds had been completed, and with
them the mountain Calaya (Meru), there appeared at the top of the latter
the symbol Yonz, the triangle, and inclosed in it the Zingam. Mount
Meru was then selected as the seat of the gods, and for that purpose made
the most delightful place of abode. Silvery brooks meandered in every
direction, and fertilized its soil ; magnificent trees, shedding delightful odors
and covered with delicious food, gratified the eye and the taste; and four
large streams issued from the highest point of the mountain, and flowed
towards the four quarters of the heavens. Splendid palaces were every-
where seen, in which dwelt the gods, the guardians of the world, and the
souls of the happy admitted to their company.

Brahma, having thus made the material world, now created the spirits ;
and in order to people his world, he gave existence to one hundred sons,
partly Deyotas, spiritual beings, to become denizens of the celestial regions,
and partly Daints, who were to live in the worlds of the lower regions. The
earth alone remained still an uninhabited region, but it was not destined to
remain so long, for Brahma now resolved to give it inhabitants who should
be direct emanations from his own body; and from his mouth came forth
the eldest born, Brehman (Brahman, priest), to whom he confided the four
Vedas; from his right arm issued Chetris, or Chetre (warrior), and from
his left, Shateranz (the warrior’s wife). His right thigh gave birth to Bais,
or Bice (agriculturist and trader), and his left to Basand, or Varssya, his
wife; and lastly, from his right foot sprang the lowest of the race, Suder,
or Sooder (mechanic and laborer), and from his left Suderanz, or Sudra, his
wife.

These four sons of Brahma, so significantly bronght into the world,
became the fathers of the human race, and heads of their respective castes.
They were commanded to regard the four Vedas as containing all the rules
of their faith, and all that was necessary to guide them in their religious
ceremonies. They were also commanded to take rank in the order of their
birth, the Brahmins uppermost, as having sprung from the head of Brahma.

Brahma was originally the first in rank in the Trimurti, but he lost his
position very soon after the creation. or the myth tells us that, anxious
to enlarge his domain, he secretly appropriated to his own use a large por-
tion of the universe assigned to the other gods, and then claimed, as author
of the Vedas, superiority over Vishnu. Besides these, he was also accused
of other and more heinous offences. Brahm punished him for these crimes,
by casting him, with his place of abode, into the lowest abyss. There he

ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOP£&DIA.—VOL. IV. 15 225

6 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

had to abide for a million years, and to submit to the severest penances,
part of which were, his compulsory appearance upon earth during a portion
of each of the four ages of the world, in order to act as a chronicler of
Vishnw’s heroic acts. After that period had expired, he was again admitted
into the celestial regions, there to be the representative of the Supreme
God. The most prominent of his wives is Saravadi, who is described as
seated by his side upon an elevated bench (pl. 2, jig. 15). Brahma
is represented as of a golden color, with four heads and faces, with
which he looks over the four divisions of the world (sometimes five are
given to him); he has also four arms and hands, in one of which he holds
the Vedas, in another a sacrificial spoon, in the third a sacrificial vase, and
with the fourth he grasps the rosary hanging around his neck. His para-
dise, Brahma-Loga, is upon Mount Meru, the favorite place of the gods.
To that place he admits his faithful followers to bathe in the sea Behra, by
which they renew their youth.

The worship of Brahma has long ago been abandoned by the Hindoos,

who now bow before Vishnu and Siva.
- 6. Vishnu. Vishnu is the second person in the Hindoo Triad, and as
the second emanation from Brahm, the personification of the preserving
power of that God. His Avatars or Incarnations were ten in number, and
are the most remarkable incidents in his history and the favorite subjects
of Hindoo poetry. In his first Avatar (J/atsyavatara) he appeared as a fish
(pl. 2, fig. 8). He assumed this form to save King Satyavrata or Vawvas-
rata and his queen, with the seven /zshis and their wives, during the
deluge which inundated the whole earth, for they alone, on account of their
piety, were deemed worthy to escape the general destruction. The myth
relates further, that he presented them with a vessel (the ark Cahztra) in
which to navigate the waters, and then transformed himself into a fish of
stupendous dimensions, to which the ark was moored, and which served as its
guide during the flood.

After the waters had subsided he returned to the land to promote the
welfare of the new races. In his second Avatar (Curmavatara) he appeared
with the body of a tortoise (jig. 4). The myth concerning it informs us
that the gods and the giants united to prepare the Amrita, the draught
which gives immortality to all who partake of it; and for that purpose
twined the great serpent Scsha (sometimes called Vasky) around Mount
Mandara (Mandreghi), and afterwards carried the mountain into the Milk
Sea. The mountain was then made to revolve by means of the serpent ;
for the gods on one side pulled it by the tail, and the giants on the other
pulled it by the head in a contrary direction, and thus gave it the rotary
motion in order to convert the sea of milk into butter. But after churning
thus for a thousand years, they found that the mountain began to settle into
the sea. To prevent its further sinking, Vishnu assumed the form of a
tortoise, and diving under it supported it on his back till the Amrita was
obtained. The gods, who immediately appropriated the precious draught,
had to fight a hard battle for it with the giants, who were finally vanquished
by Vishuu and then cast into the bottomless pit. But the Amrita was not

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HINDOO MYTHOLOGY. 7

the only result of the churning of the ocean. Among other valuable gems
Lakshmi (also called Sri) (pl. 1, fig. 16), the goddess of beauty and for-
tune, like another Venus, was born of its foam, and Vishnu, captivated by
her charms, made her his wife. In the third Avatar ( Vaharavatara)
Vishnu took upon himself the form of a boar (pl. 2, jig. 5). This incarna-
tion took place to save the earth from a watery grave; for the giant
Eriniak-Shasser (Hirana- Yatsha, the golden-eyed) had seized the earth
and cast himself with it into the depths of the sea. Vishnu, in order to
preserve it, descended into the abyss in the shape of a boar, where, after a
severe contest, he slew the giant, and then emerged with the earth on the
point of his tusks. The earth, however, had lost its balance in consequence
of its immersion ; he added, therefore, a few mountains of great height to
its bulk, and thus restored its equilibrium. In the fourth Avatar (ara-
singhavatara) Vishnu appears in the form of a man-lion bursting forth from
a pillar (pl. 1, fig. 18), which divided into two parts to give him egress.
This incarnation took place in consequence of the blasphemous conduct of
the giant Hirayacasipu. This giant, who had obtained from Brahma, by
means of a long penance, the boon of universal empire, an exemption from
death by the hands of either god or man, and that no animal should be
permitted to hurt him upon earth, became insolent even to the gods, and
caused himself to be worshipped ; and when exhorted by his son to abstain
from such conduct, he replied by defying Vishnu and all other gods. They
were standing before the consecrated pillar erected at the threshold when
he exclaimed: “Show me this mighty god and his abode, and I will soon
convince thee that he must lie subdued at my feet.” Hardly had he uttered
these words when the pillar burst asunder, and before him stood the
terrible Wavasingha (the man-lion), who threw himself upon him, and lifteng
him off the ground, tore his bowels out of his body. The fifth Avatar
( Vamanavatara) is that in which the god appears in the form of a dwarf-
brahmin (pl. 2, fig. 6), who is called Braman Vimana. The giant Bely
had, by the usual process of penances, obtained from the gods such gifts as
-made him independent of them. He then pursued a behavior similar to
that of his predecessors, bidding defiance to the gods. To subdue him ~
Vishnu assumed the form of a dwarf, and while the giant was offering
sacrifice, Braman Vimana asked for a spot large enough to build him a
cottage on. As soon as this was granted to him he expanded his body to
such a degree that it filled the whole world, while he stood with one foot on
earth and the other in heaven. Bely, who was at first astonished at the
metamorphosis, now recognised Vishnu, and throwing himself down,
embraced his foot and begged for pardon; which was granted to him on
account of his speedy repentance. His mission during the sixth Avatar
was to destroy the giant Z2avana, King of Ceylon, who had ten heads and
twenty arms (pil. 1, jig. 23). Ravana’s offence was that of his predecessors,
his having set himself up as an object of worship. Vishnu, under the
name of Parasu Rama, aided by the king’s brother, attacked him, and
after a terrible battle slew him with a weapon which Brahma himself had
presented to him. He then liberated his wife, Lakshmi, who was incarnate
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8. MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

in the person of Sita, and who had been carried off by the Ravana. His
exterior during this incarnation is described to be that of a handsome youth
of a green complexion, who is armed with bow and arrows (pl. 2, jig. 7).
The nenth Avatar is the most important of all his incarnations. He now
appears as Arzshna, the noble black shepherd (jig. 10). While he was
thus incarnate he was attacked by Aalinac, the father of the serpents, who
bit him in the heel, and Krishna in return crushed him with his foot. The
tenth Avatar (atk: Avatar), according to the sacred books, will only take
place when the present creation is to be destroyed. When the last day shall
have dawned upon this earth, then will Vishnu appear as Kaninki or Kathi,
upon his body the head of a horse (jig. 12) (other authorities say mounted
on a white horse), his right hand armed with the terrible flaming sword, and
in his left the impenetrable buckler. The wicked will be judged according
to their deeds and condemned to fearful punishment, and the good be
admitted into paradise. The sun and moon will lose their light, and the
earth tremble to its very centre; the stars will fall from the heavens, and
the world with all that is therein be consumed by fire. After that there
will be a new heaven and a new earth, and an age of purity will succeed.

Before we close the history of Vishnu we must mention a few other
representations of him, frequently met with in the temples devoted to his
worship. /%g. 9 is that of a beautiful youth seated upon an oval cushion ;
his head is encircled with the triple crown, to indicate that he is the ruler
of heaven, earth, and the sea; suspended from his neck hangs the famous
diamond KHaustubhamanay, and priceless rubies constitute his earings.
Another representation of the god is seen in pl. 3, fig. 6, which exhibits
him as carried by the giant Garuda, and in the act of revealing himself to
the giant Vismanutra and to Hama as an incarnation of Rama. He is
also sometimes exhibited, as in pl. 2, jig. 2, completely united with Siva,
by which some of his followers wish to indicate that Vishnuism and Sivaism
are one, and have superseded Brahmaism. Besides these there is a represen-
tation of him on a pillar in the palace of Modobedery, near Manglar, where
he is seen mounted on the back of an elephant (jig. 11) composed of the
gopis or gopeas (nymphs of the Milk Sea).

His paradise is also located on the sacred mount Meru, and is guarded
by two dragons. It is divided into four sections, the highest of which is
Nirban, where the perfectly pure are united with the god, which exempts
them from the necessity of a metempsychosis; while the lowest, Saloc, is the
abode of those who as a reward for their purity in life are endowed with an
ethereal body, and with faculties capable of enjoying the purest pleasures.

c. Swa (Shiva, Shiven) is the third person in the Triad. He is sym
bolized by fire, and is himself the personification of the destroying power.
His immediate worshippers look upon him as the Supreme Being, but other
sects ascribe to him only a subordinate place. His followers are called
Sivaites, and their religious system Sivaism. He is generally represented
as of a white color, with one head (sometimes with five heads, and with
four and in a few instances with sixteen arms) and riding on a white bull.
He is distinguished by a third eye placed in the centre of his forehead,

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HINDOO MYTHOLOGY. 9

which is the emblem and instrument of his omniscience and omnipotence.
Durga, the Nemesis of the Hindoos, is said by some to have issued from it.
His head is adorned with the crescent and his locks with the Ganga, a
beautiful female head, symbolizing humidity, one of the fertilizing princi-
ples. Sometimes, to show the fearful light in which he is viewed, we find
him wrapped up in a tiger or elephant skin, a necklace of skulls around his
neck, with the trident in one hand and the battle-axe in another. His
attributes are the Zengam, the trident which never misses the object at
which it is thrown, and the snakes which he uses either as a girdle, neck-
lace, or bracelet, or as a toy in his hands. It will not be difficult to
recognise some of these attributes in each of the representations which we
have given of him. /l.1, jig. 5, represents him as the destroying and
reproducing power; this is indicated by the trident in his hands and the
flame which rises like a tiara above his head, symbolizing warmth as a
fertilizing principle. Pl. 2, jig. 8, exhibits him simply as a young man
seated in Oriental fashion, and holding a long trident in one hand and the
Indian sacrificial drum in the other. His wife Ama, or Bhavani, or Par-
vati, is said to die at the end of every year, when he, in order to honor
her, severs one of her legs and adds it to those already hanging on a string
around his neck.

Many incarnations, miracles, and heroic labors of Siva are recorded in
the Hindoo legends, some of which are illustrated in our plates. The first
of these is pl. 1, jig. 14, where he appears as Swwa Mahadeva at Caylasa,
the torrid side of Mount Meru. He is seated upon a tiger-skin, with his
‘back leaning on an oriental cushion; by his side is his wife Parvati,
evidently pleased with the loving converse of her lord. A little in the rear
stands the holy cow, from whose mouth gushes forth the father of waters.
Again (fig. 17) we see him in the form of Audra, the king of the monkeys.
In this capacity and form he showed himself a faithful and valuable
auxiliary to Vishnu, during the latter’s Avatar as Rama. PJ. 2, fig. 13,
represents him as the hermaphrodite, half man half woman, which is
intended to indicate that he and Parvati are so closely united as to make
but one person. The name given to him by his followers when he is found
in this form is Parashiva or Parasata. Finally, jig. 14 represents him on
the back of the giant M/uyelagin, crushing him, a position which we find
explained in the myth wherein the origin and nature of the Zingam, the
symbol of the triad, and the most important attribute of Siva, is told. This
‘Lingam is also the most sacred symbol under which he is worshipped. It
is the symbol of the universe imbued with the powers of the deity, allegori-
cally represented as a column consisting of three component parts: the
hardest being Brahma (earth); the second and softer, Vishnu (water and
air); and the third and most delicate, Siva (light and fire). These three
combined are represented as the fertilizing principle of the earth, and the
column therefore appears inserted in the opening of a conch or sea-shell,
symbolizing the earth, which rests on a rock symbolizing the durability of
its nature (pl. 1, jig. 7). Siva is represented as the guardian of this
column, before which he daily prays and sacrifices flowers, and hence the

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10 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

Lingam has become his most sacred symbol. It is said to have arisen from
a combat for the supremacy between the different elements or principles ;
and according to the worshippers of Vishnu it originated under the follow-
ing circumstances.

Certain devotees, who had exhibited extraordinary sanctity, had been
granted great powers and privileges on the condition of maintaining spotless
purity in themselves and in their families. Siva determined to deprive
them of their prerogatives; and with the assistance of Vishnu in the form
of a lovely maiden, he succeeded in beguiling them. Smarting under the
consequences of their transgression, the poor dupes sought only to revenge
themselves upon the authors of their misfortunes. By their prayers and
sacrifices they raised up the giant JMuyelagin, and arming him with the
sacrificial fire, sent him to combat Siva; but the god, seizing the fire
with his right hand, struck down the giant with the other, and trampled
upon his prostrate foe (pl. 2, fig. 14). Enraged at this failure, the devotees
now combined all their incantations, and directed them with terrible effect
against their enemy. Enveloped in a volume of unquenchable fire, Siva
did not escape without serious injury from the all-searching element, and
furious at the indignity, he cast down the glowing fragments of his mutilated
body with the full intention of destroying the whole earth by the fire which
they would call forth ; but Vishnu caught them as they fell, and conveying
them into the lap of Brahma, thus saved the world. The wrath of Siva
was finally appeased by the promise that the mutilated portions of his im-
mortal body should henceforth, as a symbol of the principle of life or of
fertility, become an object of worship to all mankind. J. 1, jig. 7, repre-
sents this symbol, or the Lingam. The pedestal, the recipient of the fertiliz-
ing principle, is the symbol of Brahma ; and the oval cup-like form which it
supports, forming the channel of communication, is the emblem of Vishnu,
the Yoni, sometimes also represented (jig. 6) as a triangle. The Lingam is
not recognised by the Vishnuites as a sacred symbol, but all other Hindoos
worship it with zeal. The principal wife of Siva is Parvati. She is
described (jig. 15) as seated upon a bull with a crescent around her head,
and with rays seeking to penetrate the shadow caused by her body, which
has reference to the allegory by which the cause of the eclipses is explained.
Her name was the Daughter of the Mountain, or mistress of the lofty
regions. But different names are sometimes given to her when she is wor-
shipped as the presiding deity over objects.

3. Hixpoo Turocony AnD THEeoLocy. ‘Thus far it was impossible to sepa-
rate these branches from the Cosmogony of the Hindoos, for the gods which
we have described were not only the creators to some extent, but also the law-
givers of their creation. But now, having finished the history of the supe-
rior gods involved in the creation, we can examine under the proper head
the inferior gods and the good and bad spirits of which the theogony treats.
The chief among these is Surya, pl. 1, fig. 19, the god of the sun; one of the
eight celestial gods or guardians of the world. He is described as standing
in a carriage drawn by seven horses, who are guided by Harun or Ariguna,
the god of twilight, with rose-colored reins. The image of the sun crowns

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HINDOO MYTHOLOGY. 11

his head, and in each hand he holds a flower of the lotus which opens its
petals to the first rays of the sun, and closes them again as soon as the last
rays have left the horizon. Among the rest of the inferior gods we must
notice Camadeva or Camos (pl. 1, fig. 20), the god of love. He is a son of
Vishnu and Lakshmi, and is represented as a boy riding a parrot, and
armed with a quiver, bow, and arrows. The old Hindoo idols, whose pic-
tures are given in pl. 3, jigs. 1-5, were found in the cave-temples, but their
names have as yet not been ascertained ; neither have we been able to learn
the name or office of the god represented by jig. 7, an idol worshipped by
the Indians of Astrachan.

The Giants were a wicked race of beings, and since the difficulty about the
Amrita, of which they were deprived by the gods, the bitter enemies of the
Triad and all its friends. Like Garuda (pl. 1, jig. 22) they are represented
with the most grotesque bodies and heads.

House gods, worshipped as the particular patrons of individual families,
are also common among the Hindoos. They are generally selected from
the inanimate productions of nature; among these the Ganges, and other
rivers considered sacred, held conspicuous positions. 7g. 21 is a specimen
of the forms under which they were worshipped. It represents a personifi-
cation of the Ganges, Jamuna, and Saraswadi, all embodied in one group.
Some animals were also considered sacred; among these were the bull,
the elephant, the monkey, the eagle, the swine, and the serpent. <A trace
of this can be detected in the Mythic Camel (pil. 2, jig. 19). In the vege-
table kingdom, the lotus was honored as peculiarly favored by the gods.
But the Hindoos did not confine themselves in their consecrations and
deifications to the productions of our globe; the blue ether above them,
with its host of brilliant worlds, was introduced into their religious system.
A specimen of this is seen in jig. 18, which is a representation of the Hindoo
solar system (/ast-Chacra) with the zodiac. Swraya, with his phaeton, the
only wheel of which is the sun itself, is seen driving through the centre.
The back of the carriage leans against Mount Meru, while the remainder,
with its seven green horses, is hovering in the air. The inner circle, with
its figures, represents the seven planets, in which the sun and moon are
included, revolving in their periodical courses. Each of them is named
after a god, and has one day in the week assigned to him over which he
rules.

The two figures on the left are only imaginary planets ; the one with a
crowned head resting upon a rug, and supported by a cushion, is intended
to represent the ascending node or dragon’s head; and the other, the body
without a head, seated upon an owl, and holding in one hand a sceptre,
and in the other a flower, the descending node or dragon’s tail. The myth
accounts for these strange figures, by telling us that when Vishnu struck
off the head of the giant Bahu, whom he had canght taking by stealth
the Amrita destined only for the gods, he did it with such force that the
head flew into heaven, where it remained, and was placed among the stars.
The outer circle of jig. 18 is an exact copy of our own zodiac.

The Hindoo worship is much Jess complicated than the doctrines about

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12 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

their gods. It is principally confided to the Brahmins (pl. 3, jig. 9), who
constitute a caste by themselves, and order, arrange, and conduct every
part of it. They alone can become priests; no member of another caste is
permitted to read or expound the revelations contained in the Vedas, to
prepare the sacrifice, or instruct in religious matters, and, in case of being
overtaken by poverty, to demand alms. They are the sole judges in all
religious cases, and their decision is considered infallible. They were wont
to adorn the temples of the gods with many architectural ornaments. A
specimen of these will be found in p/. 4, jig. 1, which is a correct repre-
sentation of a pillar, with allegorical figures, found in an old Hindoo temple
at Barolli.

Next in importance are the Ascetics. They are generally divided into
tribes or fraternities more or less differing from one another in their
habits, dress, &c. The most respected and venerated of this class are those
distinguished by the name of Sanashis, or Saniassi (pl. 3, fig. 10), who are
also considered by the people as saints. The majority are Brahmins, and
are vowed to poverty, chastity, and abstinence. They lead a wandering
life; going from place to place with a staff in one hand, and a cup out of
which they drink, in the other, while their dress consists only\of a strip of
yellow linen wrapt around the body. They abstain carefully from all
employment, and obtain the scanty supply of food which they allow them-
selves by asking it as an alms of their countrymen. Another fraternity of
this class, the Vishnavins (fig. 11), collect their alms by going from house
to house with a guitar-like instrument in their hands, upon which they
play, and prefer their request in a song; when this is finished, they bow
their heads, upon which they carry a small copper vessel to receive the gift
which any one may choose to bestow.

The Penitents belong also to this order, but are distinguished from other
ascetics by their fanaticism. Their gloomy doctrine teaches them to merit
reward by a rigid abstinence from all the enjoyments of life, by severe
mortification of the body, and a refined selftorment, which cause them to
be held in great respect by the people, who look upon them as saints. One
of this order is represented in pl. 3, fig. 12, with a bundle of peacocks’
feathers in his arms, his cheeks and tongue pierced with a sharp iron, which
is firmly held in its place by another piece fastened under his chin. A
whole group of these penitents is given in pl. 2, jig. 20, where one is seen
standing in a painful position on one toe, his right foot and his arms
elevated, in which position he has vowed to continue for a specified time.
Another is seen stretched out on the ground, in consequence of a vow to
measure the distance between two temples by the length of his body, which
he does by throwing himself on the ground, and then rising repeats it
until he has traversed the space the length of which he is bound to ascer-
tain. The figure on the left of the tree represents one who has voluntarily
undertaken to carry a heavy yoke upon his shoulders, and an iron lock in
his hands ; and the one in the left corner does penance by carrying heavy
weights in his hands and around his neck; while he who is seen in the
back-ground, between these two, has resolved to remain for a definite

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HINDOO MYTHOLOGY. 13

-period in a fixed position, his leg chained to the ground, and his eyes fixed
upon the tip of his nose, with his mind wholly absorbed in meditations.
‘Many other and often fearful penances are voluntarily submitted to by
these deluded followers of an idolatrous creed.

Like all other nations of antiquity, the Hindoos considered sacrificial
offerings one of the most important parts of their worship. The value and
the kind of these were in many instances prescribed by the priests, who
selected the utensils, a representation of which will be found (pl. 2, jigs.
21-24), for the ceremony, according to the nature of the offering.

Strong were the barriers thrown out by the founders of Brahmaism to
guard against division or innovations; but notwithstanding all these pre-
cautions, there sprang up, as we have said, different sects, who disagreed
about essential doctrines. The most important schism, however, was that
which was known as Buddhism.

2. Tae Reticion or Buppwa, or Bupputsm.

This religious system does not profess to be a new religion, it only claims
to be a reformation of Brahmaism, which having become corrupted it
sought to exhibit again in its pristine purity. The history of its founder,
Buddha, is still enveloped in much mystery. Some assert him to be one
of the seven planets, the one who rules the fourth day of the week and who
is called by the Hindoos Buddha- Vara ; others consider him to be Brahma
himself; while a third party look upon him as the ninth incarnation of
Vishnu, and hence Avishna only under another name. Some of the
learned among his followers say that he was the saint known also as Sacya,
while the Hindoo transcendentalists contend that Buddha is not the name of
an individual, but only a word used to signify a certain assemblage of
virtues, or the character of a perfectly virtuous being.

Hence the various accounts given of his birth and life, and the different
representations made of him. In his character as a sage and the first
teacher of the sublime sciences he is sometimes found as Surya (jig. 17)
with seven heads on one body seated in an oriental fashion and with his
eyes turned in every direction ; on his breast and in his open hand is the
square, divided into four smaller squares, and at his feet the crescent moon.
He is also represented in a similar position, with but one head and without
the square on his breast or the moon at his feet as in jig.16. A more mag-
nificent representation of him is sometimes found in which he is surrounded,
as in pl. 3, fig. 8, with figures of men and animals, all in the act of worship-
ping him. What we have said here will explain why he is worshipped by
his followers under so many different names. But all agree in recognising
him as the supreme ruler of the present age of the world.

Buddhism flourished for a long time in Hindostan proper until Diwr-
andara put to death Aditya, the last Buddhist king, and compelled his
followers to seek refuge in other kingdoms. They then emigrated into the

country of the Burmese, into Further India, China, Siam, Thibet, Mongolia,
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14 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

Tartary, and many other countries of Asia. Thither they carried their
religion, and propagated it with such success that it has continued even up
to the present time the prevailing religion of these countries. Much of this
success is owing to the policy which they pursued at the very outset, not to
set their religion up in opposition to that which they found in each of these
respective countries, but to graft it upon the already existing form of
worship. Thus among the nations of Northern Asia they identified
Buddhism with the prevailing doctrines of Zoroaster, while their brothers
in other countries hesitated not to incorporate the most opposite doctrines
in their creed, provided they could thereby persuade the nation which
granted them an asylum to adopt also their religion. We need not, there-
fore, wonder at the many diversified sects and doctrines to be found under
the general name of Buddhism.

The most marked features by which it distinguishes itself from Brahma-
ism are: that it rejects a distinction of castes, while it acknowledges the
right of all to serve God as it may seem best to them (hence, also, the
right of every one, no matter what his birth or condition in life, to
become a priest if he chooses), and the abolition of all bloody sacrifices,
for it deems only those offerings acceptable to the deity that can be
made without giving pain to any living creature. As an indication of
the latter, we find the statues of Buddha distinguished by a flower which
he holds in his hand, which is interpreted to be an allusion to that golden
age of the Hindoos when the Vedas and the bloody sacrifices commanded
by them were as yet unknown, and man was wont to bring as an accepta-
ble offering to the gods, the fruits of the earth and the flowers of the field.

The doctrines of Buddha are too little known to attempt a full exposition
of them; only an outline can be given with anything like accuracy. The
Buddhists teach that in the beginning there was only an infinite vacuum,
in which creation, destruction, and restoration (Zoga) developed themselves.
Gradually there appeared the seed of good and evil; the former found its
reward in the highest condition of bliss, while the latter met with its
punishment in a succession of innumerable births through which it was com-
pelled to pass, which, when completed, were divided into six departments
or degrees. The first of these is the kingdom of the pure spirits, Zsruen
or Tegri, over which Chormusda rules; the second, that of the bad or
impure spirits, Assw77, under the government of Bimatcht Dahri; the
third, that of men; then comes that of the animals, that of the monsters in
the portals of the infernal regions, and finally that of the inhabitants of hell
itself. These kingdoms were also subdivided into minor sections, through
which all created beings have to pass during their state of impurity until
the time of their final reunion in one great being. The final and highest
state of existence is that in the Buddha or Burchan state. To hasten the
coming of this period Buddha descended upon the earth, and by his efforts
he will raise all men and spirits up to that degree. Though millions of
years will have to pass until this great work will be accomplished, it will
finally terminate in the absorption of all, Buddha included, in one grand
unity, the end of all things.

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HINDOO MYTHOLOGY. 15

1. Tue Sprerr Wortp or tHe Bupputsts. The celestial beings who are
called (Vat, are divided into three classes, and these are above the twenty-
six heavens, which run parallel with the earth and are of the same size.
The lowest of these is 180,000 miles above the earth, in the centre of Mount
Mienmo. It is adorned by the sun, moon, and stars, and inhabited by the .
Nat Zatamaharit who dwell in four kingdoms, eath of which has its
separate capital and king. The highest part of the mountain constitutes
the heaven of the Zavateinza, who are of immense size and enjoy twice as
much felicity as the Nat Zatamaharit. Their immediate ruler is Buddha
under the name of Sacrecya. 'Then come the other heavens, one still above
the other, and each conferring in its turn double the happiness and dura-
tion of life enjoyed in the heaven next below. Good men ascend first to
the lowest heaven, with the prospect of being advanced by degrees to the
very highest.

But even these heavens were not always free from sin, for a portion of
the Tavateinza, seduced by the wine as it pearled in the cup, partook of it
and became Asswrz, in consequence of which they were banished from their
heaven. ‘They wandered for a time in the empty space until Buddha
created for them a new world beneath Mount Mienmo, where they were
permitted to live and enjoy a species of inferior felicity. They were also
made the judges over the souls of those recently deceased, and are there-
fore located near the portals of Vzrza, the hell of Buddhism.

2. Mora Cope or Buppuism. The moral code is mainly embraced in
five great commandments: 1. Thou shalt not kill. 2. Thou shalt not steal.
3. Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor’s wife. 4. Thou shalt not le. 5. Thou
shalt not drink wine or any other intoxicating liquor.

Besides these, the great commandments as they are called, Buddhists are
enjoined not to use harsh or angry words and idle conversation, not to
covet their neighbor’s goods, not to wish a neighbor’s misfortune or death,
and carefully to abstain from every act or thought which may lead them to
worship false gods.

3. Sects AMoNG THE Bupputsts. We have already stated the causes
which led the followers of Buddha to divide into numerous sects. These
sects in the progress of time began to differ widely from one another, not
only in their names but also in doctrines and rites. Our space permits us
‘ to allude only to a few.

One of these is the sect called Zensji. It has its chief temple at Foocoo-
saizi, of which we have copied an interior view (pl. 4, jig.17). Pi. 6,
fig. 4, represents the chief priest; jig. 5, one of the subordinate priests.
The former is particularly distinguished from other priests by the rich
necklace, a drawing of which is given in figs. 16a), 17ab. Another sect,
the Hokkesji, worshipped in the temple of Wetsirin at Honrensi (pi. 4,
fig. 16). Pl. 6, fig. 8, is the figure of a priest belonging to this sect.
Fig. 7 is a priest of the Lecosjt, and pl. 5, figs. 39, 40, priests of the sects
Zen and Singon. All the temples were supplied with various implements
that were used in the service and when offerings were made: some of these
we have represented on pl. 1, jigs. 25-28, and pl. 4, figs. 18-32.

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16 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

A beautiful and rich altar-piece is given on pi. 1, jig. 24. Many of the
figures and attitudes in it recall to mind the pictures of the Virgin Mary
with the infant Saviour in her arms, and the three Magi.

Before we leave this subject, we must not forget to mention more par-
ticularly the votive tablets, pl. 4, jigs. 38-36. They had their origin in a
custom which was also not unknown to the Greeks and Romans, that of
making vows on extraordinary occasions: for instance, in case of sickness,
for the recovery of the patient; or when travelling, for a safe return home ;
and in order to remember such vow, they wrote it upon a tablet, which
they wore suspended around the neck until it was paid. Hence the name,
from the Latin, tabule votive.

After having thus touched upon all the most important points of
Buddhism in general, we will now examine it in one of its special forms,
Lamaism.

3. LAMAISM.

Lamaism is one of the many religions under which Buddhism disguised
itself, when it entered as a refugeé the territories of those who gave it
shelter. It derives its name from Lama, the title which the Thibetans,
Mongolians, Tartars, and their kindred nations gave to their priests. They
worshipped Buddha (considered by them the ninth incarnation of Vishnu)
under the name of Shakia-munz, the supreme being, ruler of all things.
The inferior gods held in great veneration by them were Dshaed-shik, who
introduced Buddhism into Thibet, and Cenrese and Cadroma, two apes
who were held to have been the first parents of the Thibetans. Pl. 3,
jig. 19, exhibits another of their idols called Amida. It is generally found
with a head like that of a dog, seated on a throne, its feet planted on the
back of a lion, who stands upon a corpse. Among the goddesses they
assign the highest rank to Purha (jig. 14). She is always represented as
a woman; one of the family of gods (Pusa), to which was assigned the
guardianship of the minor affairs of life, and the members of which were
interrogated as oracles in all ordinary transactions. It is very probable
that this goddess was only a personification of nature, and hence we find
her represented in different ways. Sometimes partially, at other times
wholly dressed, she is seated upon the J/usnud, a seat in the shape of an*
altar, and formed of several cushions laid one upon another, generally from
five to seven feet high; her legs are crossed, and her neck and _ breast
ornamented with a rosary. The cuticle of the palms of her hands and the
soles of her feet is slit open in a circular or star-like form, and that of the
nose in straight lines.

They had also a number of other gods of less importance, a few of which
are represented by jigs. 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, and 20, whose names and cha-
racters have not yet been learned.

The spiritual world of Lamaism embraced also a great many good and
bad spirits: among the latter we mention the Asswrz, who were divided
into four séctions, each governed by its own prince.

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HINDOO MYTHOLOGY. 17

1. Cosmogony. Lamaism had also its own peculiar cosmogony. It,
teaches its followers that incessant rains formed the ocean, which became
agitated by a violent storm ; and after this subsided a golden bottom was
found to support the waters, from which four different species of atoms
evolved, which when united constituted the world. After thus being called
into existence, it was divided into four equal parts and eight islands. The
central part of the world is occupied by the /zghzel or world-mountain,
supporting the Swmmar Oola or world’s pillar. The country north of this
mountain, Enada Mina, is inhabited by a race of beings without a soul,
but enjoying a very long life. The solid part of the earth was then encircled
by the briny ocean, and this again by an iron wall. This world being thus
prepared to receive its inhabitants, the Zahen spirits sent by the Supreme
Being descended from on high and clothed themselves with earthly bodies,
which shone with a lustre which enabled them to dispense with any other
light. Their food was the fruit of the heaven-born tree Zampu planted for
them, and from whose sides gushed the four sacred streams, Gangi, Sinthu,
Pankin, and Sita. They lived thus in happiness and innocence for 80,000
years, until they yielded to the tempter and partook of the forbidden
fruits of Shima, the earth, when they lost their inherent luminous radiance,
and were hence buried in profound darkness. To disperse this darkness
the great being caused the sun, moon, and stars (planets who derived ©
light from their inhabitants, Lahen, in their primitive state of innocence) to
appear in the sky. The fallen Lahen wandered for a while upon the earth,
now cursed on their account, and then died without heirs. Those who had
repented were transferred to other worlds, while the others had to expiate
their sins by being sent into the bodies of animals and reptiles. After the
first race had wholly passed away, the supreme being sent other Lahen, to
some of which he gave the bodies of men and to others those of beasts.
But only two of these new inhabitants of the earth had the power of
assuming different sexes, and that only on condition that while so doing
they must divest themselves of the form of man, which was the image of
the celestial beings. Cenrest and Cadroma assumed therefore the shape
of apes, as that most resembling the original form of man, and in that
shape became the progenitors of the human race. Man now began very
soon to degenerate and display the lowest vices of a fallen being, which
contributed greatly to reduce gradually the original period of his longevity
(30,000 years) to that of a hundred years, and this will continue to decrease
on account of his hardness of heart, until ten years will be the average
lifetime and an ell the average size of man.

2. Tue Conpirion OF THE Sout AFTER Dearu. Lamaism teaches that as
soon as death has separated the soul from the body, the former has to appear
before Lrlik-Hhan, the judge of the dead and the ruler of the lower world,
by whom it is judged according to the deeds done in the body. The good
are then sent to the paradise (Zanghrz) of the happy, where silver trees
bearing golden and diamond fruits gratify the eye, and where unceasing
pleasures await those who have lived a good life. There is also a second
though inferior paradise, for those who have not attained to so great a per-

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18 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

fection as to merit admission into the first. But only few are so perfect as
to be immediately assigned a place in either of these abodes; most men.
have to undergo first a purification, shorter or longer according to the state
of the soul, by means of a transmigration into the bodies of different
animals, which always terminates in the body of a dog, the emblem of
fidelity and genius, before the soul is permitted to inhabit for a second time,
preparatory to its final rest, the body of a human being.

The wicked are condemned either to a long course of transmigration from
one body to another, and if very bad through those of the meanest reptiles,
or if hopelessly corrupt are sent to the lower regions (Zamu). Tamu is
divided into three regions: the first, Biridien Orron, is a kind of purga- ,
tory, whence the soul after a long course of suffering may again be liberated.
This purgatory is situated 500 miles beneath the surface of the earth, and
has a large city, surrounded with white walls, for its capital, in which
Erlik-Khan has his palace in a castle guarded by sixteen iron walls. The
second division in Tamu is Gvehva (hell), subdivided into sixteen regions,
eight of which are always filled with a burning heat, and in the other
eight reigns more than polar cold. In the former the spirits are tor-
mented by being thrown into vast caldrons filled with liquid iron, and
then stirred up in their frightful bath by their jailors, the imps of the
place, while others are hacked or cut to pieces with red-hot saws and scythes.
In the other division a fearful cold penetrates every sensitive part, without
depriving it of sensation. Murderers were thrown into the boiling ocean
of ever sweltering gore. The soul that had once entered these regions could
never more return.

3. Tuz Priestaoop. Priests have always exercised a great influence, and
Thibet may justly be called the kingdom of priests. Those of the higher
rank are called Zamas, and those of the lower Gylongs. The former are
always considered an incarnation of the gods, and are therefore always
looked up to with the most profound reverence. PJ. 3, jig. 21, repre-
sents a Mongolian Lama, and jig. 22 a Lama among the Tartars. The
chiefs of the whole priesthood, and at the same time the rulers of the
country, are two Great-Lamas. One of these, the Dalai Lama, resides
at Lassa and governs the northeastern portion of Thibet ; the other, Bogdo-
Lama, has his residence in Tishi Lumbo, and exercises dominion over the
southern part of Thibet. Besides these two there is also a Great-Lamaess
(female Lama), who resides on and rules over the island Palte or Shandro,
governing the convents of this island. But though absolute on the island,
she is not independent of the Great Dalai Lama, before whom she appears
at stated periods seated upon a movable throne, her face and body enve-
loped in costly veils, and her carriage surrounded by a numerous retinue.

The Dalai Lama is considered not only the representative of the Supreme
Leing, but also the Deity itself incarnate and dwelling upon earth. Hence
divine honors are paid to him, which he receives seated with crossed legs
upon a magnificent cushion of costly material and embroidered with gold
and precious stones. He is supposed to be omniscient and omnipresent,
and on that account the questions which he addresses to his worshippers are

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HINDOO MYTHOLOGY. 19

considered only tests to ascertain their sincerity and truth. His death is
only the destruction of the external form, subject to the unchangeable laws
of matter, which the undying principle has left to inhabit another body.
His corpse is then burned with imposing ceremonies (pl. 3, jig. 23). It
becomes now the duty of the Lamas to discover the person upon whom the
spirit of the Dalai Lama has descended, and in this search they have no other
guide than the name of the province in which he resides, which has been
designated by their late chief, and certain signs and tokens known only to
themselves. We have already said that Thibet may justly be called the
country of priests; hence comes it that an unusual proportion of the
inhabitants belongs to that order, which is divided into nine degrees.

The two Great-Lamas are always surrounded by a long retinue of
priests belonging to the first order, and it is said that in and around Lassa
there are 30,000 persons belonging to the different degrees of priesthood.
The country is moreover filled with numerous monasteries and nunneries,
the greater number of which are in the hands of the Lamas. There is not
a family in the land which has not at least one of its members enrolled as a
priest, monk, or nun. .

The worship of the followers of Lamaism consists chiefly in the conse-
crating of persons to the service of their religion, in prayer, singing, and
performing upon musical instruments ; though even the giving of presents
to the Lamas is considered an act of divine service. They have also
several religious festivals and processions; as one of the. former, we
mention the celebration of the new year, which takes place in the beginning
of February.

The J/ongols who profess Lamaism differ from their neighbors, the Thi-
betans, only in the more rational and less idolatrous respect which they pay
to the chief of their priesthood, whom they call Cutuchtu.

On pl. 2, jigs. 25-30, will be found some ancient idols worshipped by the
Mongols ; but little is known of their history and to what system of religion
they belonged. |

4, Cutnesr Myrsonoey.

We have classed the Chinese religious systems under Hindoo Mythology
because their most common religion (Foism) is properly only a variation of
Buddhism.

The most perfect religious toleration is practised in China, from which
only Christians and Mahomedans are excluded; hence we find three forms
of religion among the inhabitants: that of Lao-Zse, or Laokiun, or
Laokung ; that of Confucius, or Chung-Tse ; and that of Buddha, or Fo.

The primitive religion of the Chinese was in a great degree a worship of
nature. Zan, who represented the heavens, was their chief deity. Next
to him in rank were the spirits who ruled the earth, the stars, the moun-
tains, cities, and rivers; and next to these the souls of their ancestors,
particularly those of the Emperors, all of which received divine honors.

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20 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

The first reformer of this simple religion, particularly of the moral pre-
cepts connected with it, was Lao Tse, or, as he is sometimes called, Laokung.
He was the son of a poor peasant, but was already at an early period of
his life fond of meditating and speculating upon religious subjects. During
a journey to Thibet he became acquainted with Lamaism, which was then
already the religion of that country, and pleased with many of its features
he resolved to introduce them among his own countrymen.

As the basis of his moral system he laid down the rule that man must
subdue and control his passions if he wishes to obtain spiritual and physi-
cal happiness. but he asserted also at the same time that sickness and
death, the two greatest enemies to undisturbed pleasure, could and ought to
be overcome by the draught of immortality (a preparation of opinm and
other materials calculated to excite the nerves) lately discovered.

The temples of his followers are filled with large uncouth idols made of
wood, stone, or burned clay, and painted or varnished with glaring colors.
A. favorite idol with them is the so-called god of immortality (pl. 4, jig. 2).
The manner in which they arrange their idols is peculiar to themselves. It is
done by placing on one side all those that personify virtuous and proper
sentiments with their corresponding antagonists opposite to them; thus the
personification of love is contrasted with that of hatred.

This whole system of moral philosophy was Epicurean in the lowest sense :
Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow we die. The priests of Lao-Tse, in
accordance with his precepts to enjoy the present without a thought for
the future, lived in celibacy and associated together in convents, where
they practised magical rites, incantations, and the invocation of spirits.

The professors of this creed are chiefly the rich, and those that belong to
the higher classes of society. but Lao-Tse, the founder of this sect, met
already during his lifetime with a rival.

Chung-Tse, or, as he is commonly called, Confucius, came also forward
as a reformer, with the avowed purpose to re-establish again the religion of
the fathers, and to lead man back to a primitive life of purity and virtue.
His object was not so much to teach a new religion as the inculcation of
moral principles, and to induce his countrymen to live a moral life.

The Mythology which he taught was, that from the Great First Source,
Tuiki, emanated Yang and Yen. ‘The former, which was the perfect
principle, was of the masculine gender, and included the higher heavens,
the sun, day, and warmth; and the latter, the imperfect principle, and of
the feminine gender, comprised the moon, the earth, night, and cold.
From a union of these two sprang the lower heaven (the sky) the source of
moisture, fire, water, the winds, thunder; the dry land, and mountains.

Man was then formed of an ethereal principle, which was joined to an
earthly heavy body. ‘The two are again separated by death, which consigns
the latter to its mother earth, and permits the former to fly back to its
native element. But the spirits of the good are not cut off by this return to
a spiritual abode from visiting the places where they dwelt while upon
earth, and particularly the spots where divine honors are paid to them by their
descendants, upon whom they are permitted to bestow blessings and favors.

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HINDOO MYTHOLOGY. 21

Confucius attached no idea of personality to the Deity, and prohibited his
followers from making images or representations of him ; and seems to have
worshipped him rather as a power or principle pervading all nature, and
acting by means of his creatures the sun, the moon, and the elements. To
these he ordered adoration to be paid, joining them all in one under the
name Zien (heaven).

As a teacher of morals he was in advance of his age and country. The
main features of his moral code were: love all mankind, execute justice, be
upright in all dealings with men, and observe the laws and customs
sanctioned by the authorities.

His disciples, who were chiefly the nobles and the educated, revered him
therefore as a saint.

Buddhism, which we have shown to be the foundation of Lamaism, was
also the basis upon which the religion /o is built. But here the original
assumed a far more varied and amplified form than with the followers of
Lama.

This system of religion has the greatest number of professors in China.
Many of the doctrines of Confucius and the ancient Chinese have been
incorporated in it, while the features which it has borrowed from Lamaism
served to degrade it into a common idolatry.

But it is the religion of the emperor and of the people. Many if not
most of the Chinese idols are little more than adaptations of Indian deities,
or the persons of their remote ancestors invested with the characteristics of
these gods. Pl. 4, fig. 3, represents one of these, 7shing-Hoang, receiving
the offerings of his worshippers, and jig. 4 another, Zotwr, or as he is some-
times called Vinifo.

The priests, who are very numerous, are called Lonzes, and are divided
into different classes. They inhabit convents called Poo-ta-la. This word
is derived from Buddhalaga (the dwelling of Buddha), the Chinese not being
able to pronounce the original word. In jig. 6 we give a representation of
some priests in the dresses belonging to their respective ranks. The chief
priest is here called Bandshiun Hrdem, and like the Dalai Lama is absolute
head of the priesthood throughout the empire. The priests of the higher
classes are educated, and in duty bound constantly to study their religious
books; but the lower classes are very ignorant, and live in convents, where
they pass their time in modest retirement, fasting, and penitential exercises.
Foism has also its female Bonzes, who live together in convents like nuns.

The temples dedicated to the worship of the idols are either mere chapels,
being areas inclosed by colonnades, at one end of which is an apartment
called Zing for the idol; or they are large temples, consisting of several
such inclosures, the whole surrounded by one colonnade, ornamented at the
corners with pavilions two stories high, and surmounted by high towers.
These temples always contain several idols, each of which has its own apart-
ment in it.

The worship of the Foists consists mainly of prayer, music, and offerings.
Pl. 5, jig. 1, represents the interior of the temple of Fo in Canton during
worship ; pl. 4, jig. 5, the worship in the temple at Honan near Canton ;

ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOPZDIA.—VOL, IV. 16 ! 241

22 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

and pl. 11, jig. 20, represents the interior of a temple in which the Zoku-
Najir is worshipped with strange ceremonies. Religious festivals and pro-
cessions are very numerous ; especially in July and August, the dry season
in China, when these solemn trains may be seen in every province, invok-
ing the gods for a plentiful rain (pl. 6, fig. 9).

The religion of this idolatrous people abounds like that of other nations
of antiquity in superstitious rites; one of these, the inquiry into the future,
is illustrated on pl. 6, jig.10. The figures to the left represent a Chinese with
his friend who, about to enter upon some important undertaking, as mar-
riage, the building of a house, or a distant journey, seeks first one of those
little temples which abound in every city and village, and are even to be
found in the forest and on the mountain top. They are always open in
order to enable any one to repair there and seek counsel. The inquirer
having entered approaches the altar before the hideous idol, and takes the
cup with the little wooden sticks; this he shakes until one of these staves
falls out, and is carefully examined on both ends upon which different words
are inscribed. The priest seated to the right now endeavors to find in the
book of divination (which is always kept in the temple) the corresponding
sign and its interpretation. This ceremony the inquirer repeats three times,
and if he meets with one favorable stick during the process, he considers it
a propitious omen. His friend behind him looks on with anxiety vividly
depicted on his countenance. If the enterprise turns out favorably, the
grateful worshipper returns to the temple and acknowledges his indebted-
ness by burning a few sheets of colored paper upon the furnace which is
seen to the right of the idol, and then deposits a few coppers for the support
of the temple.

5. JAPANESE MyrTHonoey.

The Japanese, whose religious systems are classed here for the same
reason as those of the Chinese, namely, on account of the prominence
of Buddhism, enjoy like the Chinese great religious toleration. Hence
the variety of different creeds professed not only by different families, but
also frequently by the different members of the same household.

The oldest religion of the island, and that which would be still the pre-
vailing and state religion if political causes had not obliged many of the
inhabitants openly to acknowledge one of the sects of Buddha, is the Xznto
or Sinto religion.

This system teaches the existence of a supreme invisible being inhabiting
the infinite regions of eternity, and that of a race of great but inferior gods
who dwell in the visible heavens.

But the great king is thought of too lofty a nature to be represented by
images or worshipped in temples, while the other gods are considered as
wholly indifferent to all the affairs of man. No altars are therefore erected
to either, nor religious worship paid to them. Their existence is only recog-
nised as objects by which to swear. The gods that are worshipped by the

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HINDOO MYTHOLOGY. 23

people are a kind of inferior deities, called Cama, who are represented as
the rulers of the world and the destiny of mankind, and whose altars are
zealously thronged with supplicants.

The chief of the priesthood, Dadri, is also deemed to become a god after
his death; hence the number of their gods increases from time to time.
Pious men are after their decease adored as saints.

The creation of the world had, according to the Sinto religion, its origin
in a wandering chaos, which gave birth to the spirit of the universe, AZ
(power). This Ki then created out of the chaos seven races of sensuous
spirits. The first of these was Zensjo-Dai-Sin, the creator of Japan. From
him emanated the succeeding spirits, who decreased in spirituality in the
order in which they came forth. The people over which they ruled were
of a semi-divine nature, but gradually degenerated, until they sank to the
level of the present race of men.

According to the views of the Japanese, the soul immediately after its
separation from the body is cited before a tribunal where it is judged for
its motives as wellas for its deeds. The just are then recompensed by an
immediate admission into -the thirty-third or highest heaven, but the
wicked are excluded, and condemned to wander about in space as a
punishment for their sinful life upon earth.

The duties to be performed by the pious are: to cultivate purity of
thought and the practice of strict morality, symbolized by great purity of
the body, to celebrate the days set aside for festivals and religious services
in the temple, pilgrimage to the sacred place /se, and mortifications of the
body.

The temples, J/as, generally consist of two apartments, a large one for
the accommodation of the priests and their attendants, and a small chapel
for the idol. Their erection is required to be accomplished without injury
to any of the laborers during the progress of the work. On pl. 5, jig. 11,
we give a representation of one of these chapels, that of the Camz of Givon,
in which the little building on the top, 1, is the mia of the two Cami; the
building, 2, the mia of the two Jnarz (figs. 12 and 13); the building, 3, is
the house for the priests; and the square to the right, 4, the place for
music and dancing. gs. 14,15, 16, and 17, are the four Camznz, who
are always represented as watch-dogs. 7g. 4 shows the interior of the
temple of Miroc of Tuku-Kaisi, one of the four great gods of the Sinto
religion. He is worshipped (particularly by merchants) as the god of
riches, health, and happiness, and always represented very corpulent.

The title of the high priest (pl. 6, jig. 6) is Vinait, who is second only
to the great Dairi. All the priests of the second class (Zondas) are chosen
by him.

The Buddhist form of worship, which comes next to that of the Sinto,
and is often called by the natives Luddsdo, has the greatest number of
professors. The leading doctrines of this system are: that Am¢da, or
O-mit-to, the creator and supreme ruler of the whole universe, is without
beginning or end. He at one period came down upon earth, where he
lived for a thousand years and became the redeemer of our fallen race.

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24 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

The good who keep his commandments, will through him obtain forgiveness
of sin and life everlasting ; but the wicked will be cast into hell for a time
proportioned to their sins. After a suitable expiation has been made,
Amida’s mediation will procure for them permission to return to the earth,
to inhabit first the body of some animal and then that of a human being,
and thus to have an opportunity to secure for themselves, by a more virtuous
life, a happier fate in the land of spirits.

The sect of Syuwntoo, which professes the morality of Confucius, is wr
distinct from the above creeds, and numbers among its adherents chiefly
the great and the learned. Here, as in China, its only object is the incul-
cation of a virtuous life in this world, without any reference to a future;
for it teaches that the soul of the departed is absorbed into the all-pervading
power, as a drop of water ito the ocean. It teaches also that the original
ruler of the universe, but who was not its creator, is a spiritual and perfect
being, and the world which he governs eternal. Men and animals are the
productions of Jn-Jo and the five elements. The professors of this creed
have no temples or ceremonial worship; they only celebrate the days set
apart for the commemoration of their departed friends and relations.

When we take into consideration the different religious creeds of Japan,
with their diversity of doctrines and traditions, and the manner in which
new gods are added to their list, it will not appear strange to find that a
host of idols are worshipped there. There are not less than 3,132 Cami
enumerated ; 492 of these were created spirits, and 2,640 are canonized
mortals. Besides those mentioned already before, we will only add here the
following : Syu-took-dar-si ( pl. 5, fig. 2), and Koobo-dar-si ( fig. 3); the idols
of Mumero-maro and Matsvo-maro (fig. 5); Cama Tenzin (fig. 6); Tsyoo-
bon-ge-syoo (fig. 'T); Tsyoo-bon-tsyoo-syoo (fig. 8); and Kong-goo-kaino-
dai-nitsi (fig. 9). The idols chiefly selected as objects of worship in the
temples are: Man-da-rano-mida ( pl. 4, fig.1); Hookai-syooye-yuge-tsintsua
( fig. 8); Kokuwuzoo-basats (fig. 9); Sitsi-tsi-montsyoo (fig. 10); Ye-kwan-
soo-tsyoo (fig. 11); TLsen-mui (fig. 12); Hoo-syoo-ni-yoraa (fig. 18); figs.
14 and 15 are only house-gods, idols worshipped in domestic circles by par-
ticular families. A few other idols will be found on pl. 6, viz. fig. 1,
Tsigo-montsyoo: fig. 2, LItsi-tsi-kin-lin ; and jig. 3, another whose name
has not been ascertained.

To avoid the confusion that must necessarily attend the worship of so
great and diversified a number of idols, and to give to each his share of
worship, they have been divided into sections, and one or several assigned
to each province and district in the empire.

The great diversity with which these different idols are worshipped in
their respective temples, requires also a great number of vessels and instru-
ments, each appropriated to its own particular use. Among these are censers
(pl. 5, figs. 18, 19, and 20a@b); vases for flowers (jigs. 21, 22, and 23);
ornamented candlesticks, used only at ceremonies in the temples (jigs.
94-97); various utensils employed during the service (jigs. 28-34); and
musical instruments ( figs. 35 and 36).. Pl. 6, figs. 12 and 13, are some
other vases, and jigs. 14 and 15 other utensils belonging to the service of

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PERSIAN MYTHOLOGY. 25

the idols. As in China, so also in Japan, processions constitute an impor-
tant feature in the celebration of religious festivals (pl. 6, fig. 11).

We have already mentioned a few of the religious societies when we were
treating of idolatry in China; we will therefore only add, since the same
features are also found in this country, that Japan is also not without its
monks and nuns, a few of which we have represented on pl. 5. Fig. 37 is
a Jamabusi, or mountain monk of Japan; jig. 38, another, with the idol-
box upon his shoulders, with which he wanders from place to place: jig.
41 a blind monk, and jig. 42 a nun and a lay sister.

6. JAVANESE MytHotoay.

_ Sivaism seems to have constituted the primitive feature in the creed of
the aborigines of the island of Java; only at a later period was Buddhism
intermixed with it, but the whole was subjected to many reforms, and many
centuries elapsed before the latter system became the prevailing religion.
At the present time, most of the inhabitants are Mahomedans, though
Christianity is not wholly unknown in the island. But though the Javanese
profess now a belief in one God, they are by no means free from super-
stitious practices, which bear evidently the marks of being remnants of the
idolatry of their forefathers. A few of the idols of the olden times are still
found in several places of the island, pictures of which will be found on pi.
6. Jig. 18 represents Ganesa, a son of Siva, with the head of an elephant,
whom the Indians.worshipped as the god of marriage. /%g. 19 is probably
intended forthe Trimurti, with Siva as its chief, and (fig. 20a6) Swa
himself, in his character as the destroyer, having around his neck the
string of skulls.../7gs. 21, 22, and 23 are evidently not idols of Indian
origin, and must have come from some foreign quarter; their import has
not yet been ascertained.

II. THE RELIGION OF THE ANCIENT PERSIANS.
(PARSEEISM.)

This religious system differs essentially from those already described,
and has even a faint resemblance to the Mosaic and Christian religions.
The primitive religion of the ancient Persians was simply a worship of
the elements of nature, fire, water, earth, and air, the winds and the starry
heavens, but particular reverence was paid to the sun and the moon. The
rivers were also considered sacred. They had no temples, but sacrificed
upon the mountains, by offering to the gods the lives of animals without
burning their bodies. It is probable that, already at an early period, the
principles of a religious system which came out of Media were incorporated
into this service of nature, and became soon after the prevailing religion.
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26 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

Such was, in all probability, the origin of the Magan, or Medo-Persian
religion.

The first framer of a new law was Hom, who is also generally considered
to have been the founder of the sect known as Magi, and who continued
on that account to be held in high esteem. At a later period Zerdusht, or
Zoroaster, reformed and renovated the religion of the Persians, and wrote
for them the book which contained the law, aud which is still in existence.
The life, and even the epoch of the birth of this famous legislator and
reformer, are involved in the utmost obscurity.

He inculeated the doctrine of an eternal self-existing Supreme Being,
Zeruane Akherene, who created at first, by means of the living word
(Honover) Ormuzd, the source of all good. In this being, equal in power
and greatness to the Supreme Creator, are united the three original powers,
the source of light, fire, and water; and his kingdom endures for ever and
ever. Opposed to him is Ahriman, the prince of darkness, a morose and
evil being, who, not created, but by divine permission having been suffered
to come into existence, is allowed to continue, in order that the good may
be glorified in its struggle against the evil.

In accordance with the will of the Supreme Being, Ormuzd created, by
the word Honover, out of the source of light and water, the whole universe,
and completed his work in six periods.

At first, he created his own abode, the dwelling of light, the heaven
Sakhter, mal the pure spirits. The highest among these were the seven
Veaoshitepiesicle of whom Ormuzd himself was the ruler and chief. Bahman
became lord of the empire of light, king of the universe, and dispenser of
all happiness. Ardibehesht was constituted the genius of fire; Shariver,
lord of splendor and of metals ; Stapandomad, the source of all fruitfulness ;
Khordad, the genius of water and of time; and Amerdad, protector of the
vegetable world, and the prime cause of growth in all living things.

The second class, /zeds, consisted of twenty-eight good spirits, of both
sexes, who presided over and ruled the elements and all pure things.
Their chief was Mithras, the sun, the vivifying and fructifying power.
Next to him came Zashter, Serosh, and Behram, who were very much
worshipped.

The third class were the Feruers. They are actually only the ideas of
the Supreme Being embodied, and constitute, as a whole, the fundamental
idea of the perfect world, of which the visible creation is an imperfect
imitation.

Every being, even Ormuzd, the Amshaspands, and Izeds not excepted,
has its Feruer, its type, which is the purest emanation from the deity; and
every new creation or new creature is but the manifestation of a new
Feruer. The abode of the Feruer is in the pure world of light where
Ormuzd lives; here they sparkle even in the splendor of that light, by a
more brilliant one of their own, and fly to the protection of the good when-
ever invoked by them. A representation of one of these Feruers will be
seen on pl. 7, in the upper part of jig. 4, where he appears as if descended
to protect the chief persons of the group, to whom he bears a strong

246

PERSIAN MYTHOLOGY. 27

resemblance. He seems to emerge out of a circle formed by the bodies of
two serpents folded around his body; in his left hand he holds a ring, while
the right is lifted up and open, anda huge pair of wings are spread out as if
to support him in his flight. A similar representation of a Feruer is seen
in fig. 5.

When Ahriman, who was originally a good spirit, had fallen and rebelled,
the Supreme Being set aside 12,000 years as the time during which the
contest between darkness and light was to last, after which the empire of
the former was to be destroyed.

‘ During the first quarter of this period Ormuzd was to retain the supreme
rule over the universe, during the second the contest was to begin, during
the third the contending parties were to have equal power over the world,
and during the fourth Ahriman was to have apparently the victory over
his adversary, which would inevitably lead to the destruction of the
whole visible world with the empire of evil, by a general conflagra-
tion, in order that the pure and the good might reign undisturbed and
supreme.

As soon as Ahriman saw the world of good spirits which Ormuzd had
created, he sought to fortify himself by creating a rival world composed of
evil ones, Devs. The highest among these, over which he presided in
person, were the Arch-devs, intended to oppose the Amshaspands. The
Devs were the personifications of all vices, impurities, and noxious things.

While Ahriman was still confined with his creatures to the realms of
darkness, Ormuzd created the sky, the sun, the moon, and the stars. He
then made the fire, the wind, and the clouds, separated the solid part of the
earth from the waters, bade the mountains to raise up their heads, and
planted among them <Albordj, the father of mountains, from which the sun
and moon start each on its respective tour. The earth he after that divided
into seven Kashvars, and called forth the vegetable world ; first of all Hom,
the type of all trees. Having thus prepared it to support animal life he
created Abudad the great bull, from whose blood all the living things of
earth have sprung.

As soon as Ahriman was released from his captivity, he attempted with
his hosts to storm heaven, but was repulsed by Ormuzd, who continued his
work of creating the terrestrial world. Repulsed from heaven Ahriman
visited the newly made earth and killed Abudad; but the body of the bull
became the germ of all kinds of animals and of the first man Hajamorz ;
him also the Devs slew, but Ormuzd then made a plant fewwas (man and
woman combined) to grow out of the body. It gained its maturity in
fifteen years, and bore as its fruits fifteen pair of human beings, the first of
which were Meshia and Meshiana, the parents of the present race. After
each period in the creation of the world and all that is therein Ormuzd
rested and celebrated the festival Gahanbar.

Ahriman, disappointed by his previous failures, sought now to destroy
the new creation. He blackened the fire with smoke, created different
-kinds of noxious animals and reptiles, and finally succeeded in seducing man
from his allegiance to virtue. In the course of the fourth period he had

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28 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

gained so great an influence upon earth as to lead men wholly to forsake the
worship of Ormuzd, and to join the Devs in all their practices. Ormuzd,
who pitied the fallen race, now sent them his law, first by his servant Hom,
and afterwards by the great reformer Zerdusht or Zoroaster. But the
people paid no regard to it, and hence Ahriman remained victorious for the
last 3,000 years. Religion and virtue disappeared gradually from the face
of the earth, and misery and destruction prevailed everywhere.

Thus will i continue to rule with an iron rod until the eic pind
of time, when Soszosh, the promised redeemer, will come and annihilate the
power of the Devs, divoelhcel the dead, and sit jh final judgment upon spirits
andmen. After that the comet Gwurzsher will be thrown down, and a general
conflagration take place, which will consume the whole world. The remains
of the earth will then sink down into Duzakh, and become for three periods —
a place of punishment for the wicked. After these three periods Ormuzd
will have compassion upon them and pardon their sins, and admit those
into heaven who seek for it by penitence and prayer. The just will pass
through the fiery ordeal without injury, and at once ascend into the heaven
Gorodmone.

Even Akriman and the Devs will after a more protracted punishment be
pardoned and purified, and after a proper submission to Ormuzd be admitted
into the regions of bliss. Then a new heaven and a new earth will be
created free from the impurities of the old, and a fit habitation for the
virtuous and good.

The Zendavesta, the sacred book of the Persians, contains what is taught
concerning God and his work, as well as the moral law and that which per-
tains to their civil institutions. Their worship consists in reading this book,
in adoring the sacred fire as a symbol of Ormuzd, in their sprinkling them-
selves with consecrated water, in praying to Ormuzd and the good spirits,
and in partaking of the sacramental bread and cup.

Temples properly so called were not erected by the ancient Persians,
neither were they in the habit of making likenesses of their gods; and
images which did exist were looked upon with reverence, but never received
any divine honors; they treated them in the same way as an enlightened
Catholic may be supposed to treat the pictures and images of saints. 1.7,
jig. 14, represents two ancient colossal idols of Afghanistan, but evidently
belonging to a period of which we have neither record nor tradition.

We have already said above that Mithras, the Ized of the sun, was par-
ticularly an object of general adoration. /%g. 9 is generally considered a
representation of a sacrifice by Mithras. A bull is evidently about to be
slain in honor of the god; the animal having been thrown, struggles to
regain his feet, which a youth, in a garment agitated by the wind, prevents
by kneeling down upon him, holding with one hand the lower jaw of the
beast, and with the other burying the sacrificial knife in his neck. A dog
jumps up and licks the flowing blood, while a serpent and a scorpion appear
by his side. Mithras the mediator is said to have brought this sacrifice as
an atonement for the Ahrimanian original sin introduced into the world.
Some consider this group as an emblem of nature on the approach of

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PERSIAN MYTHOLOGY. 20"

summer, and think the bull represents the earth, and the blade the first rays
of spring. Others again assert that this representation is by no means of
Persian origin, because, say they, bloody sacrifices were never offered by
them. But this is not true, for before Zoroaster’s reformation, and even a
short time after his appearance, such sacrifices were brought, as will be
seen in jigs. 1 and 2, which are copies of pictures representing two sacrificial
processions, in which horses, oxen, lambs, and dromedaries are led to the
altar.

_ A feature peculiar to Parseeism was the adoration of the sun (jig. 6), and
that of fire (jig. 5), as the symbol of the animating principle which was in
reality nothing but Ormuzd himself clothed in his divine power. J/g. 13
represents the celebration of the Darun, a ceremony performed at least
once a month in commemoration of Hom, the giver of the law. The priest,
after having said the prescribed number of prayers, now stands before the
altar ready to partake before the devoutly kneeling assembly of the conse-
erated bread, a kind of unleavened cake, and of the juice of the Hom, a
beverage somewhat similar to the Amrita of the Indians.

The priests of Parseeism belonged to the Magi, who formed a caste by
themselves, the members of which never intermarried with other than the
children of Magi. ‘They were divided into different classes, to each of
which was assigned its own occupation. Pl. 7, jig. 8 a-e, represents five
of these, with the implements indicating their pursuits, viz. a, Iconologists,
or sacred scribes (Chartumim); 6, Magicians (Asphin); c, Astrologers
(Mechasphim) ; d, Soothsayers (Gasrin); and e, Gasdim, a class whose
occupation remains still unknown.

The priests were also divided into three classes: the Novices (Herbeds),
teachers (Mobeds), and the perfect teachers or masters (Desdur Mobeds).
They were distinguished by sacred vestments, consisting of the Sadere, a
tunic with short sleeves and coming only down as far as the knee and girded
with the Costd or sacred belt, which was to indicate that the priest was
always ready to contest against Ahriman; in addition to these they wore
the Penom, a mask which was to prevent them from sullying the sacred
flame by their breath. The most prominent person in jig. 4 is that of a
Median high priest. The face is somewhat disfigured, but the beard is
ample and carefully arranged, while profuse locks cover head and. neck.
The dress consists of long and flowing garments coming down to his feet
and supplied with apparently wide and hanging sleeves. In his right hand
he holds a staff tipped with a broken ornament probably intended to repre-
sent an apple, in his left a lotus. One of his attendants holds a parasol over
his head while another with a flybrush in one hand endeavors to keep the
flies from his master, and in the other carries something resembling a hand-
kerchief. Above is seen the already described Feruer. The human figures
in figs. 7 and 8 have a very strong resemblance to this high-priest. They
‘are of a colossal height and are generally called the priest-kings. Both are
of a noble and imposing carriage and are dressed in long and flowing
garments without sleeves. A rather low diadem encircles the thick and
curly locks, and the long and pointed beard is curled in a way peculiar to

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*30 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

the kings of the nation. Each of the two figures is represented as seizing
with one hand the strong horn so prominent on the forehead of the animal,
while with the other he buries his sword in the body. The attitude of both
during this act is quiet and self-possessed. A little difference will be per-
ceived between the two animals. The one (jig. 7) is a monster with the
body of a lion, the head and neck of an eagle, the feathers extending down
over the back and resembling the scales of a coat of mail. The other
(jig. 8) has a head resembling that of a wolf and legs like those of an
eagle; the neck is covered with feathers resembling scales and with a
mane; and the long wings extend down to the tail, which is long and has
the bony appearance of a prolonged spine. The tradition among the
natives is that these figures are a symbolic representation of the fights
in which Dshemshid and Lustan overcame the evil spirits who had
assumed the forms of monsters. It is said that the former, an old king,
ruled over his people with so much wisdom and goodness that he made
his kingdom flourish more than any other; but an enemy came and drove
him from his land. Then arose Rustan (like the Hercules of the Greeks)
and slew the usurper and freed the land from the oppressors. He was
therefore looked upon as the benefactor and hero of his nation.

Similar figures of mythic animals, only more simple in form, are given
in figs. 10 and 11, which are very probably intended as symbols for some
duties, for it was customary to represent them symbolically under the
forms of different animals, as the unicorn, the ox, the ass, &c. In addi-
tion to the above there are also two coins (jigs. 12 a, 6), dating from the
period of the Sassanides, with figures that have reference to this religious
system. The former of these we suppose to be the bust of a Magian or
a high priest, and the latter a representation of fire worship.

Il. EGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY.
1. Inrropvucrion.

The mythology and religion of the ancient. Egyptians is composed of
various and often heterogeneous elements, in a greater or less degree con-
nected with one another. Their growth and development were materially
influenced by the physical conformation of the country, by which the
inhabitants were early led to devote attention to mathematics and astronomy.
But they owed many of their peculiar features more particularly to the
mixed character of the inhabitants. People with widely different ideas
and customs emigrated thither from time to time. While at one time the
Arab and Pheenician sought the fertile plains of the Delta, there came, at
a later period, the persecuted Brahmaists, driven out of India by the
followers of Siva, who gained the ascendency. All these brought with
them their creeds and rites, part of which were gradually grafted upon the
religion of the country. Other sources of many modifications were the

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EGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. | 31

domestic disturbances and wars which broke out from time to time, and
brought in their train necessary deviations from the customary ceremonies,
whilst, on the other hand, they caused the propagation of new ideas by the
contact of different elements of the people. Thus arose, at different periods,
entirely new systems, which wholly or partially supplanted those that were
already established. But it was also very natural that during each contest
of a new with an old system, no matter whether followed by the suppression
of the latter or its amalgamation with the other, each would seek for the
victory by its natural weapons, and hence new myths were introduced on
all such occasions.

This will account for the various ingredients found in Egyptian mythology,
such as Leteshism, particularly the worship of animals and plants, Saba@ism,
and the worship of nature in general; and with these strangely-connected
Anthropomorphism, the worship of deified human beings.

It will, therefore, not appear strange that this mythology is so full of
contradictions and uncertainties that it is almost impossible to speak with
any certainty concerning the number, name, and particulars of all its gods.
To the causes here enumerated, which render it difficult to gratify our
curiosity, we must add another; the great unwillingness which the ancient
Egyptian priests evinced to spread their knowledge beyond the precincts
of their own temples, which caused them to invent a system of hiero-
glyphics bearing a double or triple signification, in which hieroglyphics
they wrote the mysteries of their religion. Not until these hieroglyphics
are deciphered will it be possible to have a perfect knowledge of the
Egyptian antiquities.

The following is the result of the latest information drawn from the most
reliable authorities. But before we enter fully upon the subject, we will
preface the theogony by a myth which is as interesting as it is important
to know ; for it will show that the Egyptian mythology with which we are
acquainted is of a later origin, and somewhat different from that of the
primitive inhabitants.

1. Myru or Osiris Ann Isis. Osdris, the sun, and sis, the moon, which
were, with Hermes, the three most important gods of the ancient Egyptians,
were at one time induced to descend to the earth to bestow gifts and bless-
ings on its inhabitants.

Isis showed them first the use of wheat and barley, and Osiris made the
instruments of agriculture, and taught them the use of them, as well as how
to harness the ox to the plough. He then gave men not only the fruits of
the field, but also laws, the institution of marriage, a civil organization, and
taught them how to worship the gods. After he had thus made the valley
of the Nile a happy country, he assembled a host, with which he went to
bestow his blessings upon the rest of the world. He conquered the nations
everywhere, but not with weapons, only with music and eloquence. His
brother Zyphon (pl. 8, jig. 21) saw this, and, filled with envy and malice,
sought, during his absence, to usurp his throne. But Isis, who had
returned, and held the reins of government, frustrated his plans. Still
more embittered, he now resolved to kill his brother. This he did in the

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32 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

following manner: After having organized a conspiracy of seventy-two
members, he joined with them the feast which was being celebrated in
honor of the king’s return; he then caused a box or chest to be brought in,
which had been made to fit exactly the size of Osiris, and declared that he
would give that chest of precious wood to whosoever could get into it. The
rest tried in vain; but no sooner was Osiris in it, than Typhon and his
companions closed the lid, and flung it into the Nile. When Isis heard
of the cruel murder, she wept and mourned, and then, with her hair
shorn, clothed in black, and beating her breast, she sought diligently for
the body of her husband. In this search she was materially assisted by
Anubis, the son of Osiris and Vephthys (wife of Typhon), who was the fruit
rather of a mistake than an infidelity. He was represented with a dog’s
head (pl. 9, jigs. 6, 7, 8), and as having a dog’s nature; but he was wise
and good like his father. They sought in vain for some time; for when the
chest carried by the waves to the shores of Byblos had become entangled
in the reeds that grew at the edge of the water, the divine power that
dwelt in the body of Osiris imparted such strength to the shrub, that. it
grew into a mighty tree, inclosing in its trunk the coffin of the god. This
tree, with its sacred deposit, was shortly after felled, and erected as a
column in the palace of the King of Pheenicia. But, at length, by the aid
of Anubis and the sacred birds, Isis ascertained these facts, and then went
to the city of Byblos. Arrived there, she seated herself before its walls as
a servant seeking a place. The queen, who had just presented her lord
with an heir, sent her servants out to procure a nurse, and they engaged
Isis. The goddess, however, instead of feeding the child from her breast,
put frequently her finger into its mouth, and then laid him during the
night in the fire, in order to cleanse him from all earthly dross. One night
she was watched by the queen, who, when she saw what the supposed
nurse did to her child, shrieked aloud in despair; upon this, Isis imme-
diately abandoned her disguise, and appeared as the goddess surrounded
with thunder and lightning; striking the column with her wand, she caused
it to split, and give up the sacred coffin. This she seized, and return-
ing with it, afterwards concealed it im the depth of a forest, but Typhon
finding it there, cut the body into fourteen pieces, and scattered them
hither and thither. After a tedious search, in which she was not quite so
fortunate as in the last, Isis found thirteen pieces, the fishes of the Nile
having eaten the other. This she replaced by an imitation made of
syeamore wood, and buried the body at Phile, which became after that
the great burying-place, and the spot to which pilgrimages were made
from all parts of the country. A temple of surpassing magnificence was
also erected there in honor of the god ; and at every place where one of the
limbs had been found, minor temples and tombs were built to commemorate
the event.

But the story has also a sequel. As soon as the body of Osiris had been
consigned to a suitable sepulchre, his spirit appeared to his son Horus
(pl. 8, fig 19), and exhorted him to revenge against Typhon. The youthful
god therefore proclaimed war against the fratricide, whom he vanquished

252

EGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 33
©,

and made prisoner, and then delivered him bound to his mother. But Isis,
full of compassion, and prevailed upon by the prayers and promises of the
captive, set him again at liberty. Horus, enraged at her ill-timed clemency,
tore the crown from her head, which Hermes (Anubis) immediately covered
with the skin and horns of a cow’s head (fig. 12), which ever after con-
tinued to be the insignia of the goddess.

Horus now waged for a second time war against Typhon, and forced prea
and his companions to hide themselves in the desert. He then mounted
the throne of his father, and was the last god that honored Egypt by ruling
over it as its king; for all its subsequent kings were mere mortals.

Osiris became after that the tutelar deity of the Egyptians, and his
soul was supposed always to inhabit the body of the bull Apzs, and at his
death to transfer itself to his successor. PU. 8, jig. 20, represents this bull
attended by two genii with their burning torches, to indicate his resurrection.

Apis, who was in fact the same as Osiris, or rather the perpetual abode
of his soul, must always be a perfectly black animal, with a white spot
resembling a triangle on the forehead, another resembling a crescent
on his right side, and under his tongue a lump somewhat in the shape of
a beetle. As soon as a bull thus marked was found by those sent in search
of it, he was placed in a building facing the east, where for four
months he was fed with milk. At the expiration of this term the priests
repaired at new moon with great pomp to his habitation and saluted him,
Apis. The bull was then placed in a vessel magnificently decorated, and
conducted down the Nile to Nilopolis, where he was again fed for forty
days. During all this period women only were permitted to salute him.
After certain ceremonies at Nilopolis he was conducted to Memphis, where
his inauguration was concluded, and a temple with two chapels and a court
for exercise assigned to him. Sacrifices were made to him, and once every
year about the time when the Nile began to rise a golden cup was thrown
into the river, and a grand festival was held to celebrate his birth-day, and
however extraordinary it may appear, oxen were immolated to him.
Marcellinus says, “ during this festival the crocodiles forget their natural
ferocity, become gentle, and dono harm to anybody.” There was, however,
one drawback to his happy lot, he was not permitted to live beyond a
certain period; and if when he had attained the age of twenty-five years
he still, survived, the priest drowned him in the sacred cistern, and then
buried him in the temple of Serapis. On the death of this bull, whether
it occurred in the course of nature or by violence, the whole land was filled
with sorrow and lamentations, which lasted until his successor was found.

2. Turocony or THE Eeyprians. The gods of Egypt were divided into
three classes or orders, each of different rank from the others, while each
successive series was supposed to have been an emanation from the one
immediately above it.

They acknowledged as the highest deity Amun, afterwards called Zeus or
Jupiter Ammon, the one great, almighty, and incomprehensible being. He
was symbolically represented under the figure of a ram (pl. 8, jig. 6) with
the disk of the sun upon its head, to indicate that he is the god of the sun,

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34 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

as that luminary enters the sign of the Ram. Amun then manifested him-—
self in his word or will, which created Kneph and Athor, the mother of
the material world. Athor is represented (jig. 9) as the Egyptian Venus,
accompanied by the dove held sacred to her. Kneph, who was of the male
sex, breathed out of his mouth Athor, who was of the opposite sex. After
this Amun caused another principle to emanate from the primordial night;
this was Phtha, the god of fire and of life. He then formed out of the
residuary matter 7’ho and Potiris, the upper and the lower heavens. Phtha
now divided himself into a male and a female, Mendes and Weith ; and the
sun, the moon, the firmament, and the earth were called into existence.
These two, Mendes and Neith, were the last emanations belonging to the
first order of the gods. The second order, to which also a few of the gods
belonging to the first are reckoned, consists of twelve deities, planets with
the sun, the moon, and primordial principles of nature; and the third of
seven, including also some properly belonging to the first and second orders.

The twelve great gods of the Egyptian mythology had each for his sym-
bol one of the twelve signs of the Zodiac, and as satellites three attendants
who in their turn had again two assistants each assigned them, and this
system continued until the last class of subordinates amounted to 360; thus
giving to each degree of the Zodiac a genius of this class to preside over it.
The starry firmament was then divided into two sections; and'the stars of
the northern section placed under the influence of light and purity, while
those of the southern section were ruled by darkness and the principle of
evil. There were also six orders of demons; and every star, every creature,
and every occupation had its own particular tutelary genius.

Upon this system was founded the study of astrology, to which the
Egyptians were so much addicted, and which led to the doctrine that the
souls of all human beings were at some previous time disembodied spirits or
demons.

The Creator now resolved to call into existence a new race of beings, and
with his breath sent forth a beautiful woman; this was followed by his
creating in the same way many thousand souls made after his own image,
and which he divided into sixty classes. These he commanded to procreate
beings like themselves, and gave them the promise that he would animate
these creatures by his own breath.

But they, prompted by curiosity, passed the boundaries of the gelestial
spheres, and seeing the earth, longed to inhabit it. To gratify and punish
them at the same time, Hermes gave them bodies of earthly mould, and
they became men and women. Their happiness was, however, of a short
duration, for they remembered their lost pleasures and became discontented,
and committed crimes upon crimes, until the earth and the elements com-
plained of them to the creator. He then took compassion upon them, and
bade Osiris and Isis descend upon earth and be born as children, in order
to redeem the fallen race. They accordingly descended and made Egypt,
the cradle of the human race, the scene of their deeds.

The course of a soul before it inhabits a human body, and after it has left
it again, is described as follows: Accompanied by its guardian angel it is

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EGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. | 30

Jaunched into existence, with the privilege either to live in heaven or
descend down to earth. If the latter be its choice, it is made to traverse the
Zodiac until it reaches the sign of the Lion, the gate to corporeal existence,
through which it goes down to the earth in the sign of Cancer, where it
receives a human body and then is purified. After 3,000 years it reaches
again in Aries the confines of the region where the celestial beings dwell.
Here it is compelled to wait and wander about for three days, before it is
permitted to enter these abodes of bliss.

These are the things which are taught to the people, but the priests had
mysteries where lessons were imparted far different from the religious
instruction given to the people, but they were carefully concealed from the
uninitiated. The mythology which the people considered as literally true
was to the priest only a symbolic language for great truths expressed in
figures, and the names of the gods with their mythic histories conveyed to
them a meaning never suspected by the rest of their countrymen. But
they were rigid in enforcing all the rites and ceremonies of the external
worship, and inculcated a profound reverence for the creed as taught, in
order to sustain their authority and power over the people.

2. Spectan MytHonoey.

1. Myrus anp Symeors. Having given an outline of the gods of the
Egyptians, we will now examine the leading features of the principal deities
and the myths appertaining to their history. The first of these deities, we
have already said, was Amun or Ammon; he was the god above all gods,
the infinite and eternal, the source of all life and being, from whom every
blessing came, and who was too holy to be named by any one except the
priests. We have already referred to his representation in Egypt. In
Nubia we find him represented, as in pl. 8, jig. 7, seated upon a throne,
with the war-club and key to the Nile in his right hand and the left raised
as if in benediction. In Elephanta he is found represented, as in fig. 17,
with the Nile key in his hand, standing between Oszris and Zs¢s, who join
their hands behind him as a sign of their intimate union.

Kneph, the creator of Osiris, is represented (pl. 9, jig. 1), seated, and
with his hands stretched out as if about to create; his head is ornamented
with rams’ horns. On pil. 8, jig. 8, we give his likeness as Kneph Mendes,
resembling that of the Pan of the Greeks. On pl. 10, jig. 18, is a copy of
a coin upon which he is represented as a serpent called Agathodemon, the
good spirit The harmless serpent, particularly that of Thebes, was so
called by the Greeks because they used it as a figure of the benevolent
power of God, and this name was therefore also given to Kneph Mendes.
Peculiar characteristics of the serpent representing him are also the hawk’s
head, and the swollen and erect body, and particularly the ornament upon
the head, the highest mark of distinction. The ears and poppies with which he
is surrounded are symbols of the blessings bestowed by this benevolent deity.

Osiris, who is next in rank, is the chief of the three highest deities to

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36 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

whom temples were erected by the Egyptians. He was worshipped as the
god of the sun, the source of warmth, light, and fruitfulness, in addition to
which he was also looked up to as the god of the Nile, who annually visited
Isis his wife, viz. the earth, by means of an inundation. ‘The year and
Tartarus were also subject to his sway.. Hence do we find him represented
in a variety of forms. Pl. 8, jig. 15, he is seen as a boy with a hawk’s
head riding upon a cow, the horns grasped in his hands; and on pl. 9, fig.
4, with a lion’s head, while jig. 5 represents him with a bull’s head crowned
with a crescent. The lion’s head he has in his capacity as god of the =
whose annual rising was symbolized by the figure of a lion.

Pl. 10, jig. 10, shows us a statue of the god with the hawk’s head look-
ing ‘ititin dé, and holding in his left hand the key of the Nile; and jig. 11
is another representation of the god, wrapped in a long and ample garment,
holding in his right hand a staff ornamented with a hawk’s head simi-
lar to his own. Pl. 8, jig. 16, is intended either for Osiris with the
Serapis serpent, as the god of Tartarus, in which capacity he is considered
as one and the same with Serapzs, or it is to represent 'Serapis himself.
The latter, it is asserted by some writers, was a separate deity, ruler of Tar-
tarus and god of medicine, in which latter capacity the serpent is appended
as the symbol; others considered him also as god of the sun, and as such
he is seen in jig. 23, with the rays around his head, and encircled by the folds
of the serpent. He is also regarded as the presiding deity over the rising
Nile, and in that capacity he is wrapped in a long garment, pl. 10, jig. 7
holding a staff in his hand and carrying a corn measure upon his head.
This latter attribute is always found about his person, no matter what the

form under which he is represented. He is seen thus in jig. 8, seated upon »

a throne and his feet covered with sandals, while his right hand, without
the staff, is raised over his shoulder and the left resting upon his knee. /7gs.

5 and 6 seem on the contrary to confirm the assertion that Osiris and.

Serapis were one and the same person, who was called by the one or the
other name, and represented according to the capacity in which for the
time being he was supposed to act; for these figures are intended for
Serapis and Isis closely united, and it will be remembered that Isis was the
wife of Osiris, the god of the sun. Another fact in corroboration of this
Opinion is that Osiris was buried in the temple of Serapis, where he was
worshipped more than at any other place. Nevertheless it is probable that
Serapis may have been substituted for Osiris, which some say was actually
the case after the time of Alexander; and if so, he was considered ruler
of the elements, bearer of the keys that unlock the waters everywhere, and
particularly those of the Nile, god of the earth as well as the presiding
deity over all the powers of matter and king of Tartarus. In this character
it necessarily followed that he was the source of life, and the judge of the
dead, to punish or pardon according to his own good pleasure.

A coin has also been preserved (pl. 8, jig. 24), upon which he is repre-
sented with acorn measure upon his head and surrounded with seven heads,
intended for the seven Danet | who are in their turn encircled by the
Zodiac.

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EGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. | 37

Isis, the wife of Osiris, is represented in a variety of forms besides those
already mentioned. Pl. 10, jig. 1, represents her head decorated with
Egyptian ornaments. On pl. 8, fig. 10, she is seen in a youthful form, her
head ornamented with the emblem of divine authority, seated upon the
flower of the lotus, holding in her right hand a whip, the symbol of govern-
ment. /%g. 13 represents her as a star in the heavens surrounded by the
symbols of the four elements, the eagle (air), the salamander (fire), the
lion (earth), and the fish (water). P/. 10, jig. 2, is a copy of a coin upon
which she is represented as queen of the ocean, her garment agitated by
wind and holding in her hand the sestrwm, while she is in the act of unfold-
ing asail. In this form she was worshipped under the name of Pharia.
The ststrum, of which we give two different drawings, one on pl. 8, jig. 28,
and the other on pl. 9, jig. 23, was a musical instrument invented by Isis
and made use of in the service of the temple for the purpose of beating
time. It was of an oblong oval form, narrowed towards the lower end and
hollowed out in the centre with four strips of metal fastened over it.
Sometimes she is represented in her character of a mother, as in jig. 2,
where she nurses, as some say, Osiris, who is seated upon her lap with the
crescent on his head. Onthe back of her chair are two hoopoes, symbols of
filial love, and upon the table before her is a vessel with a long spout and
a handle in the shape of a serpent. This vessel was made use of in the
ceremonies of the mysteries belonging to the worship of several gods of the
elements, and was the jug which as a water vessel was sacred to the gods
of that element, while the lamp attached to it indicated its use in the
worship of fire, and the serpent called to mind the powers of nature ever
growing and ever renovating themselves. Osiris is sometimes also found
grasping a staff ornamented with the head of the hoopoe. Another figure
of the same import is given in pl. 8, jig. 14, where Isis is seen with the
head of a cow.

Here it becomes necessary for us to say that the incongruity by which
Osiris, the husband of Isis, is presented as her son must be either owing to
a mistake in consequence of which his name has been substituted for that
of Harpocrates, a younger son of the goddess, or must have had its origin
at a later period when a new system assigned to Isis her original rank
among the gods, while Osiris was placed among the deities of the second
rank. Twice we find the goddess represented as nursing Horus; first on
pl. 10, jig. 9, where she is seated upon a chair, without any attendants,
holding the child upon her lap; and again pi. 9, jig. 3, where Horus, as a
half-grown boy, stands by her side to be fed from her breast. Before her we
see a priest apparently with an offering of lotus; immediately behind her
sits Hermes, keeping the sacred records, and behind him Osiris holding
the staff in one hand and the key to the Nile in the other.

There are three very fine and even artistic statues of Isis which we have
copied on our plates. PU. 8, fig. 11, represents her dressed in a closely
fitting transparent garment holding a lotus or palm-branch in her left hand,
her head and a part of the face almost concealed beneath the folds of a
curiously wrought head-dress. Pl. 10, jig. 3, is a very elaborate work,

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38 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

particularly the rich drapery and the manner in which it is disposed over
the under-garment; the attributes are the sistrum in her right hand and
the sacred cruse in her left. In jig. 4, the youthful-looking head of the
goddess is finely set off by the long braids that fall over her neck and
shoulders, while the loose upper and longer under garments envelope her
whole. figure; in her right hand she holds the sistrum.

Harpocrates, the youngest son of Isis and Osiris, was the symbol of the
‘sun when in its feeble condition, just after the winter solstice, it appears
with its faint rays asif just called into existence. On a coin ( pl..8, fig. 25),
we see a bust of this boy-god, and on pl. 10, fig. 14, a statue of him with a
cap ornamented with rams’ horns, with his hand raised as if in the act of
placing the fingers upon his lips. The Greeks considered this as a symbol
of silence, and hence called him the god of silence. ig. 15 represents
him mounted upon a ram which carries a ball upon its head; his left hand
is armed with a club, while he here also appears to place his right hand
upon his lips. He carries the club because he was considered the Hercules
of the Egyptians. |

Anubis, the son of Osiris and Nephthys, has already been mentioned in
the myth which relates the labors and death of Osiris. Concerning him it
was thought that his mother, afraid of her husband Zyphon, exposed the
babe in the desert. There Isis found him, attracted to the spot by some of
her dogs. After carrying him home with her, she nursed him with great
care, and found the reward of her charity in the faithful services he rendered
her afterwards as a friend and watchful guardian. He was also made a
guardian to the gods, and discharged the duties just as the dog fills that
office among men, and hence we find him often represented in the form of
a dog, as in pl. 9, jig. 8, where he is seated between Canop and Jorus,
Sometimes he is found with the body of a man and only the head of a dog,
as in fig. 6, where a cloak is thrown around part of his person. In his left
hand he holds a staff resembling a caduceus, and his left foot is planted upon
the back of acrocodile; and jig. 7, where he is seen by the side of Isis, repre-
sents him likewise with a human body surmounted by the head of adog. In
this form he is considered as one and the same with Hermes, or Theut, or
Thot. There are two other statues of him (pl. 10, jigs. 12 and 18) that
differ but little from those already described, only the former is furnished
with a plainer kind of caduceus, and a branch which is placed in the left
hand of the god; while the latter represents him with a palm branch in
his left, and the club in his right hand. As Hermes, he is sometimes seen
with the head of the Ibis surmounted by a lyre (pl. 8, fig. 18). Under this
name he was also known as the friend and counsellor of Osiris, the inventor
of spoken and written language, of grammar, astronomy, surveying, arith-
metic, music, and medical science. He was also held to have been the first
who framed laws for the human race, and taught man how to worship the
gods and erect temples to them. The discovery of the olive tree as well
as the instruction how to use its fruit is also ascribed to him.

The statues which represent him with the head of an Ibis instead of that
of a dog are of a later date, and owed their origin to the following legend: As

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EGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 39

soon as the nilometer indicated a rise in the river, the Ibis was seen busy
along its shores devouring the vermin driven back by the water. Hermes
was the first to observe this, and devised at the same time a correct standard
for measuring the gradual increase of the flood. This he described in
hieroglyphics, chiefly by the figure of an Ibis. Hence was he represented
with the head of this animal instead of that of the dog, to indicate his talent
as a geometer, or rather nilometer.

Pl. 8, jig. 22, is a copy of the statue of the god Adlures with the head
of a cat; but little is known of this idol. The wolf (pl. 9, fig. 9) was the
guard of Amenthis, the Hades of the Egyptians, and was one of the attri-
butes of Osiris or Serapis, in his capacity as ruler of the infernal regions.

The head-dresses with which the Egyptians ornamented their idols differed
much in appearance, but were always characteristic, and sometimes even
gorgeous. The most curious will be found in jigs. 11-14.

In addition to the gods worshipped in the temples, the ancient Egyptians
had also a kind of domestic gods, who were very highly revered. But as they
were only idols of particular families, they were not only very diversified in
appearance, but had even the most grotesque and often rude forms, as will
be seen from the specimens which we give (jigs. 17-19, and pil. 8, jig. 27, a,
b, c).

After what has been said of the gods of Egypt, and the forms under
which they were represented, it is not surprising that living animals were
also worshipped or regarded as sacred by the people of that country. But
those so distinguished were not all of the same character, for the useful
and harmless ones enjoyed this distinction as a mark of gratitude, while
fear dictated a similar offering to the noxious beasts and reptiles, in order
to propitiate them. Neither were the same animals equally esteemed in
all parts of the country; for those that were worshipped or considered
sacred in one section were often despised and even killed in another.
Only a very few enjoyed a universal reverence. Thus, we find that every
household had its sacred bird as a tutelary deity, which was carefully tended
and provided for. When one of these sacred animals died, it was brought
to the priest to be consecrated. The body was then embalmed and placed
in a tomb in some temple or sacred burying-ground. The pains taken
with the body depended altogether upon the degree of sanctity ascribed to
the animal. The Falcon and the Zdzs were treated with marked distinction
in this respect. Small animals were also sometimes, after they had been
embalmed, placed in vessels of clay or stone, and thus preserved in the
family ; but of the larger class, only one or a few limbs were embalmed,
and then wrapt round with linen, on one end of which the head was
fastened, or often only a rude likeness of it painted.

Only a few forms of the symbolic and mythic animals belonging to
Egyptian mythology have been handed down to us. Some of these will be
found on pl. 9, jigs. 20 and 21, and on pl. 8, jig. 29, the last representing
the sacred Camel, the two former probably intended to represent the
Phoenix, a fabulous bird, who was said to have had a golden plumage.
In size and form it was thought to resemble the eagle. It was said to

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40 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

visit Egypt only once in five hundred years, in order to consume itself by
fire, and then to arise out of its own ashes in renewed youth. The
Sphinwes were also fabulous creatures, variously described, and divided
into male and female sphinxes. Usually they are found with the body of
a lion and the head of a woman, covered with the sacred cap, which was a
head-dress with very ample folds; the body is generally seen stretched out
like that of a lion when at rest, as in pl. 10, jig. 23. Sometimes, though
rarely, they are found with a lion’s head upon a lion’s body (fig. 24).
There is another copy of a sphinx (pl. 9, jig. 22) taken from an Egyptian
coin, struck off in the reign of the Emperor Hadrian, which deserves par-
ticular notice, on account of the numerous attributes of divinity with which
it is surrounded. The head is ornamented with the lotus; the front part of
the body covered with a veil, which falls down over part of the limbs, and
from the breast projects the inverted head of a crocodile; upon the back
sits a griffin with a wheel in his claws, and beneath the feet of the sphinx
a serpent strives to drag its body forward. The body strongly resembles
that of a lion, with the head of a woman. Mythologians, as well as anti-
quarians, are still divided in their opinions as to the typical meaning of these
monsters.

They were usually found before the entrances to the temples, as guardians
(pl. 10, jig. 35). Some think that they were the emblems of wisdom and
power, but others ascribe to them an astronomical signification. The
Egyptians considered them, like all other monsters, as created by Typhon
and Wephthys.

Among the other symbols of Egyptian mythology we mention particu-
larly the flower of the lotus (fig. 25), which occupied a prominent place
among them. It was the most sacred plant of the Egyptians, and served
as the emblem of the world as it emerged from out of the deep. Gods and
goddesses ascended out of its cup, and from it the people drew lessons
which taught them to hope for immortality and happiness, even amidst the
terrors of death. Hence do we find it not only as an attribute of the gods,
but also frequently by itself in their temples, their pictures, and elsewhere.
The Nile, too, had its symbol, which is represented (jig. 16) in the form of
a man with a cornucopia in his hand, out of which a child appears to
ascend, while he seems to watch its motions. Before him stand three other
children in a supplicating attitude, and by his side lies the mysterious
sphinx. The Nile key, or Egyptian cable (jig. 17), which we have already
mentioned, is a symbol concerning which not much is known, except its form.
Some say that it was intended as an emblem of the four elements, others that
it was a nilometer, and a few contend that it was a symbol of authority over
the earth, or of the division of the year into four seasons. As symbols
may also be regarded the attributes of the sun (pl. 8, jig. 1), viz. the
serpents and the two wings, which were symbolic of eternity and motion,
and the all-seeing eye (fig. 2), which represented omniscience. In connex-
ion with the symbols we must also mention the sacred ship ( Jig. 3). This
vessel was an object of general reverence and profound regard. It is some-
times found as if resting on a pedestal, and in other places surrounded by

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EGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 4]

many priests, who carry it by means of long poles. The centre seems to
be occupied by a little temple, around which are grouped a number of
figures and ornaments, as cherubim and other representations of a similar
kind, while the prow and the poop are ornamented with rams’ heads. gs.
4 and 5 are two other but simpler forms of this same vessel. The figure
seen in the latter is probably intended for the body of Osiris, after he had been
slain by his brother Typhon. It is uncertain whether it was placed there in
commemoration of the act of launching it upon the waves of the Nile, or of
Tsis’s devotion in carrying off the body after she had discovered it at Byblos.
It was a favorite device of the Egyptians to represent the gods as going
about in vessels; and they kept the idols generally in large boxes which
were deposited in the sacred ship, whence they were removed during
festival seasons or for sacrificial solemnities, and placed in the temples
dedicated to them. |

_ 2. Worsuie AND PriestHoop. Sacrifices, which were sometimes of a
bloody character, and music constituted the main features of the worship
performed in the numerous temples dedicated to the gods. Pl. 10, fig. 35,
represents a sacrifice brought to Isis in one of her temples.

A great variety of sacred vessels and utensils were employed in the
temple service, most of which were wrought with great skill and taste.
We have represented a few of them on our plates. J. 9, jig. 24, is a kind
of cup; jigs. 25, 26, and 27, are two jugs and a pitcher, and jig. 28 an
ancient flask or bottle. The most valued and esteemed vessels were the
so-called Canope or sacred jugs (pl. 8, jigs. 26a, 6, and pl. 9, jigs. 15
and 16). They were brass vessels wide in the body, with narrow necks and
covers, made in the shape of the head of some deity: sometimes they were
also covered with hieroglyphics. We cannot with certainty say for what
purpose they were used, but it is probable they were employed as deposi-
tories for the sacred water drawn from the Nile. They seem to have
served in astronomical observations for measuring time in the manner of
hour-glasses in which water was used instead of sand. This was done by
placing one jug with a small hole at the bottom and filled with water, over
another empty jug of the same size without an opening at the bottom.
When the time for the astronomical observation had come, that is as soon
as the watched for star made its appearance on the horizon, they removed
the stopper from the aperture in the upper vessel. The water which now
ran into the graded vessel beneath it, during the time which elapsed between
the first appearance of the star and its reappearance on the following night,
served as the standard by which to measure the course of every move-
ment in the starry heavens. Not only the course and periods of the stars
but also the length of the days and nights were calculated by the help of
these little instruments, and those that were set aside for that purpose
were ornamented with covers resembling a dog’s head or a dog sitting upon
his haunches.

The guardians of this mythological system and of the sacred rites con-
nected with it, the priests, formed a separate caste. The cultivation of arts
and sciences was their special province. All legislative and judicial power

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42 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

was vested in them. They governed the land under the presidency of the
king, who applied to them for counsel and acted under their tutelage.
Their sons were his playmates in his childhood, his companions during
his youth and manhood, and his life was spent in accordance with the
rules prescribed by them, which were so minute in their details as to
specify the time when he must walk and bathe. When the reigning family
became extinct a successor was chosen from among the priests. But these
prerogatives never contributed to the aggrandizement of an individual at the
expense of the class; they were the property of the whole body, and no
matter what the personal talents, merits, or honors of any one might be or
become, he had no exclusive right to them, but his merit was ascribed to
the entire caste. The priests were, therefore, not honored by the people for
their personal merits, but only for belonging to the caste of priests.

The caste was divided into different classes, holding different ranks :
1. The Prophets, or orators, who superintended the worship in the temple,
had charge of the government of the order and of the public revenues.
2. The S¢olzsts, whose duty it was to impress the seal which was the mark
of consecration upon the animals selected for sacrifice. 3. The Hzerogram-
matists or sacred scribes, who were the scientific men of Egypt. 4. The
Horoscopists, who occupied themselves with astrology and magic. 5. The
Minstrels, who devoted their time to music and hymns, and oceupied the
front in all processions. 6. The Pastophorod (box carriers), whose chief °
occupation was the practice of medicine. They are represented in pl. 10,
jigs. 26-81, most of them distinguished by some mark of their profession.
Some of them had even the attributes belonging to a god, as jig. 27, who
carries the staff with the falcon’s head. /igs. 32-34 seem to be priestesses ;
but it is still doubtful whether they were invested with the privileges of
officiating at the altars, or were only attendants in the temple.

In addition to the above division there was another by which each of the
greater gods and goddesses was furnished with his or her own college of
priests, who had the charge of the temple and worship of their patron
divinity. PU. 8, fig. 31, are two priests and two priestesses belonging to
the temple of Isis; the first of these carries the sacred jug; the second
probably the sacred books; the third follows with the large pitcher, the
handle of which is the crawling serpent; and the fourth has in one hand
the sistrum and in the other a ladle with a long handle carved as if for a
measure.

The priesthood was hereditary in Egypt, as well as the property belonging
to the temple. The style of dressand mode of living were strictly prescribed
to the priest. He had to keep his head shaved, except when a member of his
family died, and then he wore his hair as a mark of mourning. His dress
consisted of a linen gown and tunic more or less long, and shoes of rushes
or papyrus. His drinking vessels had to be washed and cleansed daily, and
he himself was required to bathe twice every day and every night. His
food he had to select with the greatest care; he was not allowed to eat fish
or any indigestible or flatulent food, particularly pork, which he was not
permitted even to look at; but on the other hand he and the king were the

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EGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 43

only persons to whom the use of wine, though in prescribed quantity, was
allowed.

~The votive-hands, so frequently found, must here be mentioned on
account of their close connexion with the vocation of one class of the priest-
hood. We have already said that the pastophoroi were also the physicians
of the people, and as such belonged to the colleges of priests who served in
the temples of Serapis and Isis. The sick and afflicted repaired therefore
to this temple to be cured, and whenever they were restored they deposited
there as offerings of gratitude these votive-hands, of which we give copies
on pl. 10, jigs. 19-22, and during the festivals in honor of the god or the
goddess they were carried about upon long poles as trophies of his or her
power. All these hands of bronze, as will be seen on the plate, had the
thumb with the fore and middle fingers stretched out, while the others were
bent down to the palm. |

The first hand, jig. 19, has on the inside of the fore and middle fingers the
head of Serapis, and on the palm of the hand two other symbolic marks ;
just above the wrist is a bracelet, beneath which is seen the figure of a
woman in a recumbent position, with a child on one side and an ibis on
the other. /%g. 20 has the head of Serapis in the same place as the other,
but instead of the palm this shows the back of the hand covered, with a
miniature drawing of a serpent, a toad, a lizard, a pair of scales, a jug, and
a few hieroglyphics. 1g. 21 is a hand showing the palm; the end of the
thumb has the shape of the head of Serapis, and upon the second joint of
the bent fingers is a miniature ram’s head; a serpent entwines the wrist.
Fig. 22 is a drawing of the back of a hand, with the head of Serapis in the
same position, a tortoise and several vines covering the centre of the hand,
while a serpent which encircles the wrist stretches out its head towards the
thumb. All these hands are right hands, and in every one the fingers are
found in the same position. This has led to the supposition, it is true upon
very slight grounds, that the cures in the temple were performed by a kind
of animal magnetism which it is thought was well understood by the
priests.

8. THe Mystertms. The system of secret doctrines adopted by various
nations of antiquity, and which was known as The Mysteries, was also in
high repute among the Egyptians. These doctrines were diametrically
opposite to those held by the people. They had two kinds of mysteries in
Egypt, the greater and the lesser; the former taught by the sinh of
Osiris and Serapis, the latter by those of Isis.

The first cause of the introduction of symbols was the profound ignorance
of the people, which compelled the more enlightened, whose views about
the deities were more developed, to speak to them in parables and figures
in order to be understood at all. This system of symbols increased at last
to such a degree that the explaining of them became a distinct branch of
study wholly confined to the priesthood. The people in their great
ignorance were naturally inclined to regard the symbols as the very things
or ideas which they allegorically represented, without troubiing themselves
about understanding the allegories in their higher connexion, or in other

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44 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

words to be initiated into their mysteries. The priests, perceiving the
tendency and the advantages which it gave them, became more careful in
concealing the truths ae they at first had sought to propagate. They
required therefore that a candidate for initiation into the mysteries should
be of a mind sufficiently cultivated and enlightened to understand and
practise the lessons taught by them to their disciples, and that he should
have lived a pure and moral life. Even when these conditions were fulfilled
a number of preparations and tests had to be gone through, and a solemn
and fearful oath of perpetual silence was administered. The initiation itself
‘was accompanied by many and strange ceremonies. The novice was then
instructed gradually, at first still in symbols and by degrees only, and as
he advanced from step to step he was made acquainted with their true
meaning, and what they were intended to convey.

The manner of proceeding was as follows: When a candidate offered
himself for initiation he was required to spend a week in solitude and medita-
tion, and to purify the body by frequent ablutions and severe mortifications
of the flesh. Then he was ordered to enter the pyramid during the night,
where he had to descend by aid of his hands and feet through a narrow passage
without steps, until he reached a cave-like opening, through which he had
to crawl to another subterranean cave, where three priests, disguised as
jackals, sought to frighten him, first by their appearance and noise, and
afterwards by enumerating the dangers that awaited him on his journey
onwards. If his courage did not fail him here, he was permitted to pass on
to the hall of fire. This was a large apartment lined with burning stuffs,
and whose floor was a grate painted flame color; the bars of this grate
were so narrow that they offered scarcely room enough for the sole of his
foot. Having passed through this hall, he came to a canal which he had
to cross by swimming. As soon as he reached the opposite shore, he found
his passage obstructed by an iron door. While vainly striving to force his
way, the earth suddenly began to quake beneath his feet ; he sought for sup-
port from the iron rings inserted in the door, but he no sooner grasped them
than he felt himself abruptly lifted up in the air, exposed to raging and
piercingly cold winds. When he was almost exhausted by his sufferings,
he was gently let down and the door opened before him of its own accord.
A dazzling light filled the apartment of the temple into which he found
himself suddenly introduced, and before and around him stood the whole
band of priests, dressed in full regalia, and singing hymns in praise of their
divinity.

There he was made to kneel before an altar, and take the solemn oath
which bound him to secresy. He was then retained for several months in
the temple, where moral trials of different kinds awaited him. The object
_of this was to bring out all the traits in his character, and to test his fitness
for his vocation. After he had passed through this trial, there came what
was called his manifestation. This consisted of a number of ceremonies,
of which the novice was the subject during the space of twelve days. He
was dedicated to Osiris, Isis, and Horus, and decorated with the twelve

consecrated scarfs (stolw) and the Olympic cloak. These scarfs were
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EGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 45

embroidered with the signs of the zodiac, and the cloak with figures
that were symbolic of the starry heavens as the abode of the gods and
happy spirits. A crown of palm-leaves was placed upon his head, and a
burning torch in his hand. Thus prepared, he was again led to the altar,
where he renewed his oath, and called upon the gods to visit him with their
direst wrath if he should ever be so unfortunate as to violate his solemn
oath and obligation.

This terminated his initiation, and entitled him to be instructed in what
was called the lesser mysterves, and in the writings of Zhot,which were in
some degree connected with these mysteries.

Now came the time when he had a right to appear as victor before the
people, and to this end they prepared for him a solemn procession, called
The Triumphal March of the Initiated (pl. 9, jig. oe which was pro-
claimed by heralds in every quarter of the city.

On the mor ning of the day appointed for this ceremony, the priests
assembled in the temple, where the most precious treasures belonging to
the sanctuary were displayed, and repaired to the chapel of Isis to bring a
sacrifice to the goddess, covered with a veil of white silk, and embroidered
with golden hieroglyphics, and this again concealed beneath a black gauze.
After the sacrifice, the procession left the temple and moved westwards.
First in the train came an image of Isis seated upon a triumphal car
drawn by white horses, next to which walked the priests in the order of
their rank, dressed in their most gorgeous attire, and carrying the sacred
symbols, the utensils of the temple, the books of Thot, and the sacred
tablet of Isis, which was a silver plate with the hieroglyphics that referred
to the mysteries of this goddess engraved on it. The priests were followed
by all the native and foreign adepts, dressed in white linen garments. The
newly initiated walked in their midst, distinguished by a white veil which
extended from his head down to his shoulders. All the houses of the |
streets through which the procession passed were decorated as on festal
occasions. Flowers and perfumes were everywhere thrown over the person
of the novice, and his arrival greeted with shouts of rejoicing.

After his return to the temple he was placed upon an elevated throne,
before which immediately afterwards a curtain descended. While the
priests chanted during the interval hymns in honor of the goddess, he
divested himself of his holiday suit, and assumed the white linen garb
which he was henceforth to wear. The curtain was now again raised, and
the renewed shouts of the spectators greeted him as an adept. The cere-
monies concluded with a festival, which lasted three days, during which
the newly-made brother occupied the seat of honor.

4, Astronomy. Thescience of astronomy was probably better understood
by the Egyptians, or rather by their priests, than by any other nation
of antiquity. We have already stated that one class of priests devoted
all their time to it. As a proof of the great advances they made in
it we refer to the picture of the Egyptian zodiac (pl. 8, jig. 30), found
on the ceiling of one of the oldest temples of the country, situated
in the wretched village of Denderah, which occupies the site of the

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46 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

ancient Tentyra in Upper Egypt. This picture was afterwards removed
and carried to France. It is composed of a great number of figures and
hieroglyphics, arranged in a certain order. We notice first the external
circle inscribed with a number of hieroglyphics which follow one another
in regular succession. ‘This circle is divided into eight equal parts by four
erect female forms and four pair of kneeling female twins with sparrow-
hawks’ heads. These figures appear also to support the weight of the inner
circle.

The picture within the latter circle contains quite a number of hiero-
glyphics of all kinds. We will endeavor to examine them in their astrono-
mical order. The first figure in this order is that which is seen a little to
the left, just beneath the centre of the disk. It is a lion with a serpent under
his feet, and a woman behind him. This was the true zodiacal representa-
tion of the sign Zeo. Next to this group, if we turn to the left, comes a
woman with an ear of wheat in her hand, and a man with something like
the attributes of Osiris. This is intended for Virgo. Further on we see
LInbra with the scales, Scorpio, Sagittarius in the shape of a winged centaur,
Capricornus half goat half fish; then comes a male figure pouring water
out of two vessels which is Aquarius, followed by Pisces, two fishes united
by a triangle and the hieroglyphic for water; next to these we see Avves,
Taurus, and Gemini, and finally the last sign in the ring, which is Cancer,
over the head of Leo, whereby the latter appears the first in the order of
the zodiac. A great number of other figures are also there, both within
and without the spiral line of the zodiacal signs. These represent the most
important constellations next to those of the zodiac. The erect clumsy
animal which occupies nearly the whole centre of the disk, is an ancient
figure for Ursa major, hence the north pole is pretty nearly in front of it.
The position and order of the 36 figures which are seen on the very edge of
the inner circle are interesting. They were intended for the 36 Decanes or
good spirits, to whom the care and protection of the human race were
intrusted. To each was assigned a particular limb or part of the body as
the object of his peculiar care, and which he had to guard against the power
and influence of the evil spirits.

The hieroglyphic marks around the individual groups are merely the
respective names of the different Decanes, e. g. Chnumis, Chachnumis
Uare, &e.

5. DocrrINEs CONCERNING THE Future State or THE Sovux. The idea
of a future state was closely connected with astronomy. The Egyptians
believed in the immortality of the soul, and in its partial transmigration.
Life upon earth they looked upon as of no great importance, but they valued
as a very estimable thing a good conscience, which could be carried
beyond the grave. Hence they bestowed but little care upon the dwellings
of the living, which they looked upon merely as inns, only intended to
accommodate the wanderer on his journey home; but the tombs of the
dead were to them the permanent abodes of mankind, and were therefore
built with great care, and without regard to expense. Some think that
they embalmed the body only as a symbol of the purification which the

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EGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 47

soul had to undergo before it could enter the place of eternal rest; others
say it was done in consequence of a belief that the soul could preserve its
individuality only as long as the body preserved its own, and that as soon
as the latter had returned to its native dust, the former was compelled to
commence its transmigration through the bodies of the inferior animals,
and continue it for three thousand years, at the end of which period it was
permitted to enter again a human body.

They believed firmly in a rigid judgment beyond the tomb, for they
thought that shortly after the separation of the soul from the body, the
former, before it could enter into the peaceful realm of the departed, had to
appear before Osiris, the stern judge of the lower world. Here its life
upon earth underwent a close scrutiny, and according to the degree of its
past piety or wickedness was the amount of reward or punishment awarded
to if. |

PI. 9, fig. 10, is a picture of this tribunal of the dead, as described by
the ancient Egyptians. To the left, which appears to be the entrance to
the judgment-hall, is a group of three persons; the one nearest to the
entrance appears to be a priestess, who prays jointly with the figure before
her, that of a departed soul, that the latter might be permitted to present
itself before the god who is seated in the back-ground upon the judge’s
throne. These prayers are evidently addressed to the female who confronts
them, and whose attributes indicate that it is Isis. Behind this goddess
are the immense scales in which the deeds of man are weighed. They are
attended by two persons, one with a hawk’s head, and the other with that
of a jackal, who seeks to steady them. These attendants are probably only
representations of the same divinity in different capacities. Above the
centre of the beam is a figure with a dog’s head, probably intended for
Anubis, accompanied on each side by aminiature sphinx. <A weight similar
to the one in the scale hangs down from the beam; and in the scale to the
right is a substance somewhat resembling a plant. Immediately behind
the scales stand the divine scribe Thot or Hermes, with the head of the
Ibis, engaged in noting down the result of the inquiry as ascertained by
the scales. In front of the scribe we see Harpocrates seated on a crook, in
one hand a flail, and in the other a small crook; and upon the altar sits a
monster with the body of a lion and the head of a boar, almost in contact
with the lotus, upon whose leaves four mummy-like figures are seen, one
with the head of a man, another with that of a dog, the third with a
jackal’s, and the fourth with a hawk’s head. The last figure in the picture
is Osiris upon his throne, the crook in his right and the flail in his left
hand; and before him, hovering in the air, a little animal like a horse, with
the head severed from the trunk, and the latter transfixed by a spear.

Though it cannot be denied that every explanation given of this symbolic
picture must be the result of mere conjecture, yet it is certain that it was
intended to convey the idea that there is another life beyond the grave,
where every one will meet with a just reward for the deeds done in the
body.

6. Taz Apraxas. Before we conclude the Mythology of the Egyptians,

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48 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

we must mention the Abraxas (gems well known to all mythologians
and antiquarians) to which the ancients attached a symbolical meaning.
Abraxas, the name by which they are distinguished, is said by some to be
a word composed of Greek letters, the numerical value of which was 365 ;
others hold that it is a compound of the Egyptian words Abrac and Saa,
which signified either the Saviour, or Mithras, the sun, if it was not meant
for the sacred mystic word. Basilides of Alexandria, a Gnostic, who
endeavored to connect all kinds of ancient philosophic elements with Chris-
tianity, considered this word as the symbol of the deity from which 365
spirits came forth by emanation. The Abraxas figure found upon these
gems (pl. 14, jig. 30), he explained as symbolizing the seven primary
powers of the deity, viz. the serpent’s feet, thought and reason; the cock’s
head, wisdom and foreknowledge; the whip in the left hand of the figure,
power; and the circular shield, equity and peace; while the trunk was the
symbol of the eternal uncreated Father of All. The followers of Basilides
valued gems of this kind very highly, and carried them about their persons as
amulets. These gems must be carefully distinguished from the Abraaoides,
for the figures upon the latter, though in the style of Abraxas, referred
generally to something taught by the Christian gnostic sects. There were
also some gems known as Abrawasters, which were altogether different,
from the two already mentioned; the devices and inscriptions upon these
always had reference to strictly Pagan subjects (pl. 7, jigs. 15-17; pl. 9,
Jigs. 80, 31).

IV. MYTHOLOGY OF THE BABYLONIANS, SYRIANS, AND
PHCENICIANS.

The mythology of these Eastern nations may be considered as the well-
spring or fountain whence first came those corrupt streams of idolatry,
which receiving numberless accessions in their onward course, deluged all
the heathen world with false gods.

The basis upon which the mythology of these three nations was founded
was very nearly the same in all: it was a worship of nature, and particularly
of the stars. The objects thus deified were also more or less common
to them. If we consider their political relations and commercial inter
course, it will appear evident that they must have exchanged with one
another many of their religious ideas. This, together with the great want
of copious and reliable authorities, contributes materially to the obscurity
which still exists with regard to the essential points of difference between
their systems.

The supreme gods of these nations were the same, only worshipped under
different names; and their respective cosmogonies show that their mytholo-
gical systems must have sprung from a common source.

The Babylonians and the Assyrians generally held that all creation had
its origin in a shapeless chaos which moved in the beginning in primitive

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BABYLONIAN MYTHOLOGY. 49:

darkness, and over.which the goddess Homorca reigned in solitary grandeur.
This chaos was supposed also to have been the abode of beasts and human
beings of monstrous conformation. :

After the lapse of some millions of years, Lelus or Baal, the father of all,
determined upon creating the world, and divided Homorea into two parts,
which became the heaven and the earth. But this separation of her body
caused the monsters of her former realm to die. Belus resolved then to
create a race out of his own blood, and ordering some of the other gods to
cut off his head, mixed the blood of his body with some earth, and made
out of it the sun, moon, and stars, besides the five planets, and out of the
residue men and animals. But mankind were still but little removed in
intellect and manners from the lower creation. Oamnes arose therefore out
of the Red Sea, and came to Babylon in the shape of'a large fish, with feet
like those of men, and brought them laws for their government, and
instructed them in manners, civilization, religion, arts, sciences, and trades.
Every evening he returned into the sea, and every morning he appeared
again and continued his labors.

Other sacred animals (Annedatz) followed his example in instructing
mankind, the last of which was the one generally called Odacon.

The twelve chief gods worshipped by the Babylonians, were said to have
had their respective abodes in the twelve signs of the Zodiac. The best
known to us were: Salambo, probably the goddess of the moon, during
whose festival the slaves were waited upon by their masters; Zurrah, the
god of war; and Derketo, who was considered to have been the mother of
Semiramis.

The worship of the Babylonians consisted in sacrifices and prayers offered
up in temples, and in the celebration of festivals in honor of the gods.
Pi. 11, fig. 1, represents two of the ancient Assyrians in the act of bringing
their offerings to the altar in vessels suspended from long ribbons, probably
priests. The two feet on the pedestal between them must have belonged
to some idol-statue, the body of which was broken off.

The main featnre in the system of idolatry of the ancient Syrdans was the
worship of animals; fishes and doves in particular received divine honors.
The origin of this species of worship among the Syrians is related in the
following myth. Once an immense egg fell down from heaven, and was
caught by the fishes of the Euphrates, which carried it to the shore, where the
doves hatched it. After a time the egg opened and a goddess of great beauty
came forth, who has ever since been worshipped under the name of the
“ Syrian goddess” or Astarte, and sometimes also Derketo. The earliest repre-
sentations make her appear as a woman, with fins and tail likeafish. After-
wards she was shown with a head-dress in the shape of the head of an ox.
But the latest statues of her are often found to represent her as a beautiful
woman, with a mural crown upon her head, a spindle in her hand, and
the magic belt around her waist. A few of these attributes we have
copied in pl. 11, jigs. 3, a, 6, from representations found upon ancient
medals.

Another ancient Syrian idol is seen in fig. 2. It appears like a hale old

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50 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES,

man with a long beard, his head covered with a cap curiously ornamented
with figures, his right hand lifted up, and his left as if buried in the folds
of his dress. His garment as well as the background is covered with a
number of hieroglyphics, probably in explanation of the statue.

The Phenicians believed that the breath of the supreme god Colpiah
united with that of Laau (chaos) and produced the primitive matter, Moth.
This gave birth in its turn first to the lower animals, and afterwards to
rational beings (Zophasemum). After the creation of the living world,
Moth assumed the form of an egg, from which sprang the sun, the moon,
and the stars. Colpiah and Baau now united again, and produced Proto-
gonos the firstborn and Zon (time), from whom all the generations and
species of beings have sprung. Life was then infused into the dormant world,
and the air, the ocean, and the earth separated into distinct elements, the
winds began to blow, and the clouds to move, pouring down rain upon the
earth, while the thunder awaking the echoes in the mountains roused also
the slumbering animals into life, who now came forth out of the Moth.

The giants were afterwards called into existence, and were made of fire,
light, and flame, the triad of the Egyptians. The first inhabitants of Byblos
were said to have been the Hlwen (the oak) and the Beruth (the pine).
They had two children, Uranos and Gea, who gave birth to four sons, Jos
or Cronos, Baedylos, Dagon, and Atlas; and three daughters, Astarte,
Rhea, and Dione. Uranos, alarmed by a prophecy which predicted that
his son Cronos would dethrone him, sought to kill his eldest born, but
Cronos by the aid of the Hlohim conquered his father, and then became
himself the ruler of the universe.

Among the idols of the Pheenicians we mention the following as the
most prominent: DMisor, whose son Zaauth or Hermes was the inventor
of writing, and first instructor in all sciences; Sydik, the father of the
Cabires, famed for medical knowledge, and the founder of civilization among
mer; and finally Baal, who is frequently spoken of in the Bible.

The chief temple of Baal was at Tyre, where he was worshipped as the
god of the sun, and also as Metcarth (the Tyrian Hercules). But he was
also worshipped throughout Assyria and Babylonia and in Carthage as the
chief god. Jezebel, a Tyrian princess, and wife of Ahab, king of Israel,
introduced his worship even among the Hebrews, but Jehu, a pious monarch,
afterwards abolished the abomination.

The sacrifices offered up at the altar of this idol were generally oxen, but
sometimes children were immolated at the shrine of his bull-headed image.
This was done by first heating the hollow statue by a fire kindled in its
interior, and then placing the infant in the extended arms of the monster.
The altars were generally erected on high places; and the priests, dressed in
crimson-colored garments, madly danced around the sacrifice, howling, and
lacerating their bodies with sharp instruments.

But there are also other idols known by the name of Baal; these are
distinguished from the one spoken of, by having distinctive appellations
added to their names, e. g. Baal-Zebub (the god of flies), an idol at Ekron,
who was thought to prevent the pestilence and the plague of flies from

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NORTHERN MYTHOLOGY. . dl

afflicting the people; Baal-Zamen, a divinity worshipped by the Pheeni-
cians as the god of heaven and of the sun. The discoveries made among
the ruins of Palmyra brought to light, among other things, a temple of Baal,
the best and most magnificent monument of antiquity found there.

The idols of the ancient Phcenicians were as grotesque and diversified as
those of other eastern nations, as will be seen from the procession of the
gods (pl. 11, jigs. 5 a, 6, c), which show that animals and parts of animals
entered largely into the composition of their forms; for everywhere we
meet with serpents’ heads or tails, parts of fishes, or the heads of birds or
beasts. ig. 46 represents one of the goddesses, whose name is not known ;
she has flame-like hair, surmounted by a crown in the shape of a star, and
before her sits an eagle, with his head and eyes uplifted, as if watching
her countenance. 72g. 4a represents two other deities, standing by a palm
tree. The bas-relief was found in the region of Palmyrene. One of them
is dressed in a skirt which falls from the hips half way down to the knees;
around the shoulders is a cloak, which appears to be thrown back; the head
is ornamented with a flat crown, and the left hand armed with a club;
behind the shoulders we see the crescent, which is probably a characteristic
attribute. The other figure is that of a youth dressed in an under and upper
garment, and holding a scroll in his left hand, which he seems to offer to his
companion.

V. NORTHERN MYTHOLOGY.

To the descendant of the Anglo-Saxons, the northern mythology is pecu-
liarly interesting. When he examines the religious poetry and the solemn
rites of his forefathers, and enters into the peculiarities which distinguished
their religion from that of all other nations of antiquity, he must feel proudly
uplifted by the stern dignity that pervades their myths. Nowhere does
he meet with the luxuriant allegories of the Grecian mythology, the adven-
tures of Jupiter, or the intrigues of Juno; but everywhere an abundance
of vigor, and the majesty of a deeply-rooted love of truth and honesty set
forth in tales of surprising simplicity. It is true, the good is not entirely
unalloyed by evil, yet the innate respect of the Northern people for virtue,
veracity, and purity of heart, is predominant. It is evinced by the very
simplicity and grandeur of the northern mythology, whose powerful and
highly figurative poetry is unequalled by anything presented by other
Pagan nations of antiquity.

‘The religion of the Scandinavians was at one time the prevailing belief
of all the Germanic tribes that inhabited the shores of the Baltic and the
Rhine, as well as that of the Francs and Westphalians. But when Norway
was conquered in the ninth century, and the countries around it acknow-
ledged the truth of Christianity, and the freest and proudest families saved
their liberty and their faith by taking up their abode in Iceland, this
country became properlv the home of their religion, and Icelandic poetry is

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52 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

the richest source of authority on the subject. The Germanic, and particu-
larly the Scandinavian nations were, more than many others, distinguished
for possessing unusually athletic bodies, and an iron will, to strain every
nerve in defence of their gods and their hearths. They were also renowned
for their bravery and skill in all warlike exercises, while the name of a
coward was considered the greatest stigma that could be affixed to any
one; and these virtues and sentiments we see fully reflected in all their
myths. The distinct features of the northern religion are most conveniently
examined if we turn our attention separately to the religions of the Scan-
dinavians proper (comprising the Danes, Swedes, and Norwegians), of the
Germans, and of the Slavono-Vendic nations.

1. ScanpinaviaAn Myruo.uoey.

The first thing that deserves our particular notice in the Scandinavian
system of religion is the lofty idea which it presents of the Supreme Being.
Twelve names are given to him, some of which are: the One and Indivisible,
the Creator, the Destroyer, the Eternal; but the one by which he is the
most frequently called is Alfadur, the father of all.

This God and Creator dwelt high above all mundane affairs, and was
not even approachable by worship; that was paid to inferior deities
who presided over the temporal interests of man, and who were themselves
mortal, and finally responsible to the Supreme Ruler, for their death was
predicted to take place at the twilight of the gods, of which we shall speak
more hereafter. The chief of these gods was Odin, who, though frequently
ealled Alfadur, must be carefully distinguished from the Supreme Being, the
uncreated God.

The cosmogony of this system is also on a grand scale; for we learn from
the Edda, on the authority of the Voluspa, a very ancient and sacred poem,
that, ‘‘ In the beginning there was neither shore nor sea; the earth was not
to be found below, nor in the expanse above; all was one vast abyss, in
which a chaos reigned.” To the north of this abyss was Vifleheim (the fog-
world), a dreary region of mist and cold; and to the south, Muspelheim
(the fire world), a world glowing and luminous, not to be dwelt in by any
but the sons of fire. Surtur (the black) is its ruler; but Viftehewn is a
world of icy coldness and full of gloom, and in its centre, beneath one of
the roots of the ash tree Yggdrasill, is the spring Hvergelmir, which sends
forth part of its waters in the Hlwanger, that flow through Helhewm, viz.
the rivers of destruction, of howling, of roaring, of agony, &c. The world
of fog is the abode of all who have died as cowards, or in any other dis-
graceful manner. The ruler of this dreary place is Hela, the daughter of
Loke and Angurbodi, a monster of Jotunheim, who was hurled into WVéfle-
hevm by Odin, when Loke dared bring her to Asgard, the abode of the
gods. Odin gave her power over nine of its worlds, into which she
distributes those who are sent to her, that is to say, all those who die
eravens, or through sickness or old age. Her domain is protected by very

arg

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NORTHERN MYTHOLOGY. 53

high walls and strongly barred gates. Misery is her palace; Hunger,
her table; Starvation, her knife; Delay, her waiter; Sloth, her maid;
Patience, her threshold; Sickness, her bed; Burning Anguish and Blas-
phemy, its curtains. One half of the body is livid, and the other the color
of human flesh ; one side of her head is covered with hair, while the other,
the livid side, is hideously bald, which contributes to increase the frightful
appearance of her grim countenance.

Some of the waters flowed at one time so far from their source, that the
poison which they contained became hard, and this was the origin of the
ice, which now began to fill the dark abyss. But the ice was affected by
the fiery vapors of Muspelhewm, and the drops that fell from the melting
mass formed themselves into the giant Hymir, who became the father of a
new generation, and especially of all the giants that have ever since lived
in the world. As he lay stretched out sleeping, his natural warmth
brought forth a man and a woman from his armpits, and the contact of his
two feet produced a son. ‘These became afterwards the progenitors of a
race called Hrimthussar, or frost giants. These giants were demi-gods,
and nearly related to the gods of the first order, but were nevertheless
their greatest enemies ; for Hymir and his posterity had a great portion of
the poison of the Elivanger in their bodies, and were therefore of a wicked
disposition, and employed all their powers in efforts to injure the gods.

Besides Hymir there sprang also from the melted ice a wonderful cow,
Audhumbla, whose milk, which flowed from her in four rivers, afforded
nourishment and food to the giant. ‘The cow supported herself by licking the
hoarfrost and salt from the ice. But these rivers of milk were not the only
wonderful production of this cow; for while she was one day licking the
saltstones, there appeared at first the hair of a man, on the second day the
whole head, and on the third the entire form endowed with beauty, agility,
and power. This new being was a god who is called Lure, and became
the father of Bér, who married Belsta the daughter of the giant Belthorn,
by whom he had three sons, Odin, Vile, and Ve. These three now made
war upon Hymir and slew him, and in the deluge caused by his blood as it
flowed from his body all the giants were drowned except Lergelmer and
his wife, who escaped in a boat. Odin and his brothers then commenced
to create the visible world out of the body of the slain giant. They dragged
the body of Hymir into the middle of the abyss, cut it in pieces, and formed
out of the flesh the earth, his blood became the sea, his bones became
mountains, his teeth rocks, his hair trees, his skull the arch of heaven, and
his brain clouds pregnant with hail and snow. With his eyebrows the
gods formed the castle Midgard (middle earth), destined to become the
abode of man. The earth thus formed is round and flat, and the arched
heaven above it is supported by four dwarfs called the Hast, South, West,
and Worth. The sea forms a belt around the earth, and beyond this belt is
the land of the giants.

But thick darkness stil! covered all the world created by the three
brothers; to dispel which they gathered the sparks and beams that issued
from Muspelheim and scattered them in the firmament to light the earth,

‘ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOP£DIA.—VOL. IV. 18 273

54 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

and they became stars. Odin then regulated the periods of day and night
and the seasons, by placing in the heavens the two great luminaries, and
appointing to them their respective courses. As soon as the sun began to
shed its rays upon the cool earth, it caused the vegetable world to bud and
sprout. Shortly after the gods had created the world, they walked by the
side of the sea, pleased with their new work, but found that it was still
incomplete, for it was without human beings.

They therefore took an ash-tree and Aas a man out of it; and they on
a woman out of an alder, and called the man Aske, and the woman Lmla.
Odin then gave them life and soul, Vile reason and motion, and Ve
bestowed upon them the senses, beautiful features, and speech. They were
then perfect (pl. 13, fig. 8). Midgard was then given to them by the gods
as their residence, and they became the progenitors of the whole human race.

The mighty ash-tree Yggdrasill (pl. 12, fig. 6), was supposed to support
the whole universe. It had sprung from the body of Hymir, and had three
immense roots extending, one into Asgard (the dwelling of the gods), the
other into Jotunheim (the abode of the giants), and the third to Wiffleheim (the
regions of darkness and cold). By the side of each of these roots is a spring
from which it is watered; the root that extends into Asgard is carefully
tended by the three WVorns, Urdur (the past), Verdandz (the present), Skuld
{the future). The spring at the Jotunheim side is Hymir’s well, in which
wisdom and wit lie hidden, but that of Niffleheim, which is called vergel-
mir (the old goblet) feeds the adder Vzdhégge (darkness), which perpetually
gnaws at the root. The branches of this tree spread over the whole world,
and reach even above heaven. An eagle is perched upon them, which
knows many things (between his eyes sits sometimes the hawk called
Vederfolnir) ; the squirrel Ratatésk runs up and down the ash, fanning
strife between the eagle and the Nidhégge, by whispering to the one what
the other says. Four harts run across the branches of the tree and bite
the buds; they are called Dainn, Dvalinn, Duneyr, and Durathror, and
represents the four winds. Under the tree lies Hymir; when he tries to
shake off its weight the earth quakes.

Asgard is the name of the abode of the gods, access to which is only
gained by crossing the bridge Bifrést (the rainbow). On one end of
this bridge is a citadel in which dwells the warden appointed by the
gods to watch without ceasing that no enemy cross or even approach
it. Asgard itself consists of golden and silver palaces, the dwellings
of the gods; but the most beautiful of these is Valhalla, the residence
of Odim and some other deities. It is an immense building of solid
gold, with 540 gates. It fronts the rising sun, and is surrounded by
the magnificent grove Gladsheim (home of joy), all the trees of which
bear golden leaves. Its splendid halls are the reception rooms where
Odin welcomes the spirits of heroes slain in battle, and hails them
Einhervar (chosen heroes). Here they are then made to enjoy unalloyed
and uninterrupted pleasures. Every morning they are roused from sleep by
the crowing of the cock with a golden crest, when they arm themselves and
go to Odin’s Tuum (the court of wine where they fight until the hour of

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NORTHERN MYTHOLOGY. 90

repast; then they return to Odin’s hall with their wounds all healed, and
enjoy the sumptuous feast daily spread for them. This banquet consists of
the flesh of the boar Seremnir, which is always sufficient in supply, no mat-
ter how great the number of the guests may be. Every day it is served up at
table, and every day are its life and flesh renewed. Their drink is mead,
the milk of the goat Hetthrun, which stands upon the walls of Valhalla, and
feeds on the foliage of the tree Lerad, which grows upon the hall of the
dead ; this beverage is served to them in abundance by the Valkyre, beauti-
ful maidens of whom we shall speak hereafter. Before we leave the hall of
Odin, we must also notice the wonderful stag Azkthyrnir, from whose
horns the waters of the spring Hvergelmir gush forth.

But this scene of fierce contest was not the only heaven of which the

northern nations had an idea. We learn from the Voluspa, that beyond
the clear blue ether there is another heaven called the boundless, in
which is situated the glorious city Gamble, the eternal and unchangeable.
At the final day of judgment, the dwellers of Valhalla, Niffleheim, and
Midgard, will have to stand forth and be tried, no longer by the rule of
warlike achievements, but by that of moral justice. Those who, however
unwarlike, have been good and just, will then be admitted to the glories of
Gimble and the presence of the Supreme Being; while those who, though
valiant, have been cruel, unjust, and rapacious, will be hurled down
to Vastrond (the bleak shore of the dead).
_ In the meantime all who die by old age or disease, and all cowards and
fugitives in battle, will have to suffer in Helhevm, a province of Niffleheim,
which is girt by the hell-stream G/éll, and set apart as the abode of the
unblest.

Tue Gops or THE Scanpinavians. The Supreme Being, the uncreated one,
we have already said was not considered an object of the religious worship
of mortal beings. They honored therefore in this way the created gods, the
chief of whom was Odin. He was originally the sun considered as a deity,
and also its symbol. As the ruler of the world, and king of gods and men,
he occupies the chief seat at the banquet of the gods of Valhalla, upon his
throne, from which he can overlook all heaven and earth.

Upon his shoulders are the ravens Hugin and Munin, who fly every day
over the whole world, and on their return report to him all they have seen
and heard. As the god of the sun, he has the disk of that luminary behind
his head, supported by two serpents (pl. 11, jig. 6). In his right hand he
holds a spear, and by his side is the sword, attributes which designate him
as the ruler of battles, and source of all valor. The tablet in his left hand
he holds as the inventor of the Runic characters and songs of enchantment.
Pl. 18, fig. 1, we see him standing with the left foot on a stone ; around his
shoulders is the warrior’s cloak over a splendid cuirass, and upon his head
a golden helmet; his left hand grasps the shield, and with his right he is
leaning upon the sword. The two ravens before mentioned are perched
upon his shoulders, and at his feet lie the two wolves Gert and Lrekz, to
whom he gives all the meat placed before him at every banquet, while he
himself lives only on the wine which he drinks.

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56 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

There are a few representations of him, which we give in pi. 11, figs.
7-10, but they are much more imperfect. In the two first we see his gar-
ments covered with Runic characters. These runes were the written letters
of the ancient Scandinavians, and consisted chiefly of oblique lines placed
upon a perpendicular one, so that their individual character and meaning
had to be determined by their number and direction. The well known
runic stones (figs. 17 and 18) had generally a border in the shape of
two intertwined serpents, whose bodies were covered with these lines. They
were used either as tombstones, monuments, genealogical registers, or
records of treaties. The runic calendar (jig. 19) is covered with the same
kind of characters.

Vile and Ve, the brothers of Odin, who assisted him in the creation of
the world, are not afterwards mentioned in the Edda, and appear never to
have Buon objects of worship.

Thor, the god of thunder, the most powerful warrior, and the oldest son
of Odin and Hrigga, was the first in rank after Odin. He was called Asa
Thor (the lord Thor). His splendid palace, situated in the air, had in it
540 halls, and was called Blskirnir. He is represented (pl. 18, fig. 2)
seated on an iron chariot (the rolling of which causes the thunder) drawn
by two wild goats. Hence his other name Avka Thor (the driving Thor).
His attributes are the three precious presents which he received, and which
make him powerful and feared, namely: in his right hand the hammer
Mjélnir with the short handle, which, when hurled against his enemies, not
only kills, but returns also to his hand of its own accord; it was also sometimes
used to bless the marriage tie. Around his body is the belt of prowess,
Megingiadir, which increases his strength twofold; and upon his hands are
the enchanted iron gloves, which enable him to feandle his hammer with
greater efficacy. On account of his influence and power he is also seen ( pl. 11,
jig. 6) at the right hand of Odin when the latter is seated on his rrdtne?
The hammer in his hand he wields as a symbol of lightning.

Tyr, another son of Odin, is the god of battle-fields. He is the protector
and friend of all heroes who combat one another in open and honest fight,
for he himself is without guile or deceit. He is generally represented (pi.
13, fig. 6) as a powerful-looking man in the vigor of life, with a cuirass-
like tunic, and the warrior’s cloak thrown over his shoulders, a helmet upon
his head, the lance in his right hand, and the buckler by his side. Behind
him lies the ram. He is distinguished for courage and boldness, and was
therefore appointed to feed the terrible wolf Henris, who has such enormous
jaws that when he opens them his nose touches the heavens, and he dis-
plays teeth so large that the highest towers would seem small by their side.
Tyr’s fearless courage caused him afterwards to lose his right hand by means
of this wolf. The myth which relates the circumstance tells us, that the
wolf Fenris was a son of ZLoke, and then continues. When the gods who
raised the monster saw how rapidly he grew in size and strength, and more-
over knew that he would at a future period prove fatal to them, they
attempted to chain him, but he broke the strongest fetters as if they were
made of cobwebs.

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NORTHERN MYTHOLOGY. o7

' The gods despairing that they would ever find a chain strong enough tu
fetter Fenris, sent a messenger to the mountain spirits (Svartalfir) in Svartal-
fahewm, who made for them the chain called Glezpnir (the Devouring). I:
was fashioned of six things; viz. the noise made by the footfall of a cat.
the beards of women, the roots of mountains, the breath of fish, the sinews
of bears, and the spittle of birds; when finished, it was as smooth anc
soft as a silken string. But when the gods asked the wolf to suffer himsel:
to be bound with this apparently slight ribbon, he suspected their design,
fearing that it was made by enchantment; he therefore only consented to
be bound with it upon condition that one of the gods put his hand in hig
mouth as a pledge that the band was to be removed again. Tyr alone had
courage enough to do this. But when the wolf found that he could not
break his fetters, and that the gods would not release him, he bit off the
hand of Tyr, who has ever since remained one-handed.

Braga, another son of Odin ( pl. 12, fig. 2), is represented as a man ad-
vanced in years, and playing on a harp; he was the god of elocution, oratory,
poetry, and song, and was distinguished above all the other gods for his
wisdom and penetration. His tongue was covered with runes of enchant-
ment, symbolizing that his song records great deeds. He is, therefore, in
modern literature, often regarded as the god of history. }

The warden of Asgard, who lived in the celestial citadel at one end of the
bridge Biférst, which he guards against the giants, was Leemdall, or Heim-
dallur (fig. 5); heis represented mounted upon his steed Gulitoppur (Golden-
mane), blowing his trumpet Giallarhorn (the far-sounding), the sound of
which can be heard throughout the universe, and which he only blows to
eall the gods and heroes-to the rescue when danger threatens. He also
was a son of Odin; but. the gifts bestowed upon him by his nine mothers
were the coolness of the ocean, the strength of the earth, and a blood of
reconciliation. He was particularly and in an extraordinary manner
qualified for his post; “for he sleeps,’ says the Edda, “less than a bird,
can see a hundred leagues by night or day, and so acute is his sense of
hearing, that he hears the grass grow in the earth and the wool on the
sheep’s back, and a wound from his sword is always fatal.” His nine
mothers were the nine hours of night, begetting the dawn, and he was
himself the symbol of the brightness of early morning, which favors virtue

‘and oppeses vice.
»Hermode, also the protector of travellers. On pl.18, jig. 7, we see him dressed
in-a cuirass, and with a helmet upon his head, both presents from Odin.
-He acted also as master of ceremonies with his brother Braga, whose duty
“it was to welcome the newly slain heroes on their entrance into Valhalla.

Besides those already mentioned, there are two other gods that belong to
the same class, who have the collective name Asér ; Vidar, the god of silence,
and Vail, the god of spring, concord, and reconciliation.

The goddesses of this race were Prigga, Idunna, Gefion, Fylia, and Sif.

Frigga was the wife of Odin, and granted growth and fruitfulness to all
living things. She presided in all the assemblies of the goddesses, which

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58 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

were always held in her palace Vingolf. She knew, also, the fate of all
men, but never revealed it to any one. She understood, moreover, the
language of all animals and plants. Her wisdom and knowledge were so
great, that even Odin applied to her often for counsel. She is generally
represented as in pl. 12, fig. 1, seated in a golden chariot, which is drawn
by two white cats, her white veil is flying in the wind, and by her side
hover two of her attendants with veils similar to her own.

Idunna was the wife of Braga, and the goddess of immortality. She is
always found as in jig. 3, seated by the side of her husband, with a basket
of apples in her lap, which the gods eat when they begin to grow old, in
order to renew their youth, and which are given to the Einheriar to make
them immortal. The myth relates of her, that she was once carried off by
the powerful giant Z/iasso, who was assisted in this abduction by Zoke,
that most crafty of the gods. When the gods were thus deprived of the
youth-giving apples, they visibly began to grow old. Alarmed at this state
of things, they threatened Loke, who confessed his guilt, and promised to
bring her back if the queen of the gods, Frigga, would change him into a
falcon, and endow him with the power to transform himself and others into
any shape he pleased. The request was granted, and he transported him-
self immediately to the abode of the giant, where he arrived just as the
other had gone on a fishing excursion, accompanied by all his servants.
He entered the window in the shape of a falcon, and seating himself on the
shoulder of the goddess, communicated to her his errand, and changing her
into a swallow, flew with her towards Asgard.

The giant, who returned just in time to witness their escape, immediately
pursued them in the shape of an eagle, but they reached Asgard before he
could come up with them. Loke, afraid of his pursuer, hid himself beneath
a pile of branches just as the eagle was about to dart upon him, but the
gods set fire to the pile, which singed the wings of the eagle so badly, that
he fell down, when he was readily destroyed. But Idunna’s arrival was
hailed with great demonstrations of joy.

Gefion was the goddess of innocence, and the protectress of pious
virgins. /ylla was the confidential attendant and counsellor of Frigga ; and
“Sif, the wife of Thor.

The gods belonging to the second class were the Vanzr, and such of them as
were afterwards adopted by the Asir. ‘The Vanir were a race who inhabited
the regions of the ether which stretched over Godhewm (Asgard). They were
always friendly disposed to the human race, and protected it even against
any injustice perpetrated by the gods against any individual of the race,
or avenged it when protection came too late. When Odin had once
unjustly killed a man, the Vanir took up the cause, and stormed Asgard ;
a battle ensued, but as neither side could gain a victory they made peace,
and ratified it by spitting in a large vessel. The saliva thus collected gave
birth to a wonderful being Quasir, who was endowed with supernatural
wisdom, and travelled through the world for the purpose of instructing man-
kind. At last the dwarfs /ialar and Galar killed him, and collecting his
blood in two tubs and a large kettle they mixed honey with it. This mix.

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NORTHERN MYTHOLOGY. 59

‘ture soon became a mead, the drinking of which made sages and poets.
To the gods they reported that they had found Quasir strangled by his own
wisdom. But some time afterwards they killed a giant also; his son avenged
the death of his father by placing them upon a rock in the sea, and
threatened that he would not release them until they had given him the
precious mead. Fear at last overcame avarice, and they yielded to him
their treasure. He concealed it in the Guztberg ; but Odin having bored a
hole in the rock, entered through it in the shape of a worm and drank all
the mead in the three vessels, and then escaped in the shape of an eagle. -

The giant discovered the theft, pursued him in a like form, and caught
the god above Asgard. A terrible fight took place, and Odin, in order to
relieve himself, disgorged all the mead, which was caught by the gods
below in a number of small vessels.

When the Asir and Vanir had ratified the peace above mentioned, they also
exchanged hostages. The Asir gave to the Vanir Hénir and his companion
Minmir, and the Vanir left with the Asir Wjord, and his two children,
Freyr and Freya, who were adopted by their new associates. |

Njord, or Njérdr, was the god of the winds, the giver of rain, and had
the power to still the agitated waves of the ocean and to quench the fire.
He was the patron god of sailors, fishermen, and hunters, and received with
particular favor the o®erings of travellers. Even temples and sacrificial
places were considered under his especial care. His palace Voadun is the
eleventh of the palaces in Asgard. He is represented (pl. 13, jig. 5)
dressed in an ample garment, with wings upon his shoulders, and long and
dishevelled hair on his head; in his right hand he holds the oar, and in his
left the bow, while a net is at his feet.

Freyr, his son, is the god of the sun, of fruitfulness, and rain ; his aid was
always implored when men wished to obtain a favorable season or peace.
He was considered kindly disposed towards mankind and willing to grant
their prayers. He is represented (jig. 3) with a halo around his head, in
his left hand holding a number of ears of wheat, and with his right an urn
from which the water flows ; as the god of the sun, he has the golden boar
Gullinbursti lying at his feet. His dwelling is in Alfheim. Sometimes he
is also found standing on the left of Odin (pl. 11, jig. 6).

The myth tells us of him that he once seated himself upon the vacant
throne of Odin, from which, as has been said, one could see everything in
the whole world. Casting his eyes around he saw in the high north in the
land of the giants, the beautiful Gerda, daughter of Gymir, and fell imme-
diately so deeply in love with her that it affected his health, so that he
could neither eat, drink, nor sleep. His parents were very much afflicted
at the condition of their child, and made his servant Skyrnir ascertain the
cause. When they learned it, they charged the faithful attendant with the
task of demanding her in marriage for their son. After much trouble and
overcoming many obstacles, Skyrnir succeeded and Gerda became Freyr’s
wife. |

Freya, the sister of Freyr, was the goddess of love and also goddess of
the moon. She was next to Frigga the most powerful and honored, the

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60 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

most beautiful, virtuous, and gentle of all the goddesses, ever ready to grant
the prayer and petitions of man.

She loved music, spring, and flowers, and was particularly fond of the
Elwes (fairies). The Scalds also drew their inspiration for their love songs from
her. Her husband Odur left her and travelled into distant countries ; when
she found after some time that he did not return, she went in search of him,
but without success. She began therefore to lament and weep her loss;
but her tears became gold and her lamentation the sweetest melodies.
She is always described as attended by two of her maids ( pl. 13, fig. 4).

The strangest figure in the whole circle of Scandinavian gods is Loke,

the ever fickle, the disturbing element. He is the symbol of the resisting .

force in the material world against the laws of nature, the embodiment of
that wild, unruly recklessness which breaks down all barriers that will yield
to its strength. In the spiritual world he represents arbitrariness, untruth,
falsehood, frivolity, impudence, sin, and generally all evil in the world
arising from its compound nature of spirit and matter.

Locke or Loke, for he is called by either name, was the son of the giant
Farbauti, and surpassed most created beings in beauty, skill, agility, as
well as in craftiness and perfidy. He appeared as if belonging neither to
heaven nor to hell, but partaking of the virtues of the one and vices of the
other. He remained on indifferently good terms with the gods, into the
company of whom he had forced himself, and he delighted equally in
bringing them into difficulties and in extricating them again out of the
danger by his cunning, wit, and skill. His greatest crime was the plan
which he devised and which resulted in the death of Baldur, the best and
most beloved of the gods.

This Baldur was a son of Odin and Frigga, and is described in the. Edda
as “so fair and dazzling in favor and features, that rays of light seem to
issue from him, and of so fair a head that the eee of all plants is called
Baldur’s brow. Baldur is, moreover, the mildest, wisest, and the most
eloquent of the Asir, yet such is his nature that the judgment he has pro-
nounced can never be altered.” For a long time he lived in happiness by
the side of his wife Vana in his splendid palace Brecdablik (far shining
splendor) until he dreamed one night that his life was in danger.
Disturbed by this dream he related it to the gods. His mother, who
became alarmed, sought to prevent all danger by making everything
animate or inanimate, fire, water, earth, animals, stones, trees, and reptiles,
take an oath that they would not hurt him. Baldur being now thought
invulnerable, the gods amused themselves by making him a target at which
they discharged arrows, stones, and swords, without occasioning him any
injury, all things that had taken the oath being mindful not to hurt him.
But Loke, who hated and envied this pure being, was hatching a malicious
trick. Disguised as an old woman he elicited from Frigga the avowal
that, deeming the mistletoe too weak and insignificant to do harm, she had
omitted to take the oath from it. Loke immediately went in search of the
mistletoe, which he found and returned with it to the assembly. He now
persuaded Héduwr, who was blind, and had taken no part in the sport, to

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NORTHERN MYTHOLOGY. | 61

‘hurl the shrub against Baldur, offering to direct his hand.. Hédur, ignorant
of the nature of the weapon, consented and threw the mistletoe against
Baldur, who, to the consternation of all the gods, immediately fell dead.

The grief of the celestials was so great that it deprived them at first of
all courage and even speech, for the oracle had predicted that the death of
their favorite threatened all with destruction. All the gods and even
some of the giants united in burning his remains with great pomp on a
funeral pyre. His wife, who died of grief, and his horse were buried with
him.

After a fruitless attempt to restore him to life Frigga sent Hermode the
messenger to entreat //ela, the queen of the lower world, to allow the latter
to return, assuring her that he was beloved by all things. ‘ Well,” replied
Hela, “if all things in the world, both living and lifeless, weep for him
then shall he return to the Asir, but if one thing speak against him or
refuse to weep, he must be kept in Helherm.” When Hermode had returned
with this answer from Hela, the gods sent messengers out into all the world
requesting all created things to weep for Baldur’s death, and all, even the
inanimate things, wept. Only one old witch who was found in a cave shed
no tears and refused to do it; this witch was Loke in disguise. Baldur had,
therefore, to remain among the dead. But Loke did not escape his well
deserved punishment. When he perceived how exasperated the gods were
he fled to the top of a mountain. There he built a house with four doors
so that he could see every approaching danger. Frequently he changed
himself into a salmon and hid among the stones of a neighboring waterfall.
But the Asir caught him in a net, and then took the intestines of his son
Nari, who had been torn to pieces by his brother Valz, whom the gods had
changed into a wolf, and with them they bound Loke to the points of three
rocks, and afterwards transformed these cords into thongs of iron. Skadi, the
goddess of the chase, then suspended a serpent over him in such a manner
that the venom fell on his face drop by drop. Sigyn his wife stands
by him and receives the drops as they fall in a cup; but when she carries
it away to empty it of its contents, the venom falls upon Loke, which makes
him howl with horror and twist his body about so violently that the whole
earth shakes, and this produces what men call earthquakes. In this condi-
tion will he remain until Ragnaroek (the twilight of the gods), which is the
end of the world, when in the war of extermination Loke will fall simulta-
neously with his antagonist Heimdall. The lower portion of pl. 11, jig. 6,
is intended to represent Loke suffering the punishment of his crime.

Fig. 11 is a front and back view of an idol lately found in Norway; but
little is known about it. ;

Among the lower goddesses, though not exactly goddesses themselves,
we must also enumerate the JVorns already mentioned above (pl. 12,
jig. 6). They were the dispensers of the unghangeable fate to which
gods and men had alike to bow, and were as such looked up to with awe
and reverence. The first, Urdur (the past), was of the race of the giants;
the second, Verandi (the present), belonged to the Asir; and the third,

Sculd (the future), to the Vanir.
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62 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES. .

Their chief occupation consisted, as we have already said, in taking care
of the tree Yggdrasill, and seeing that its root was duly watered ; they had,
besides, to engrave the runes of fate upon a metal shield, for by these runes
was the lot of every living being decided. But they were always just,
impartial, and unchangeable, and none of their decrees could ever be altered.

Next to these in rank are the Valkyra, or Valkyryor (pl. 12, fig. 7). They
were warlike virgins, mounted upon horses, and armed with helmets,
shields, and spears. Odin, who was desirous to collect a great many heroes
in Valhalla, in order to have a numerous host of warriors when at the
Ragnaroek he would be compelled to meet the giants in battle, sent down
to every battle-field to make choice of those who were to be slain, and to
sway the victory. Hence their name, which is composed of Val, a battle-
field, and kyra, to choose, the electors of the battle-sield. Their presence was
known by a strange flickering light, like that of the Aurora Borealis, and —
every hero was rejoiced at the prospect of being called by the Valkyre totake
a place in Odin’s hall. In Valhalla these virgins had the office of waiting
upon the banqueting heroes, and of foretasting their mead. Every time these
maidens rode through the air they filled it with the rays of light which
streamed from their spears, and from the manes of their horses dew dropped
into the valleys, and hail fell upon the woods. Their number is not men-
tioned, and only two are particularly distinguished, viz. Hrist and Mirst, who
were the exclusive cup-bearers to Odin.

The Edda mentions also another class of beings inferior to the gods, but
still possessed of great power; these were called the Hlves, or Alfs. The
white spirits, or Hlves of Light, were exceedingly fair, more brilliant than
the sun, and clad in garments of a delicate and transparent texture. They
loved the light, were kindly disposed to mankind, and generally appeared
as fair and lovely children. Their country was called Alfhevm, and was the
domain of Freyr, the god of the sun, in whose light they were always
sporting.

The black or night-elves, Svartalfs, were a different kind of creatures.
Ugly, long-nosed dwarfs, of a dirty brown color, they appeared only at
night, for they shunned the sun as their most deadly enemy, because when-
ever his beams fell upon any of them, they changed them immediately into
stones. Their language was the echo of solitudes, and their dwelling-places
in subterranean caves and clefts, which were called Svartalfaheem. They
were probably the dwarfs who came at first into existence as maggots pro-
duced by the decaying flesh of Hymir’s corpse, and were afterwards endowed
by the gods with a human form and great understanding. They were
particularly distinguished for a knowledge of the mysterious powers of
nature, and for the runes which they carved and explained. They were the
most skilful artificers of all created beings, and worked in metals and in
wood. Among their most noted works were Thor’s hammer, and the ship
Skidbladnir, which they gave to /reyr, and which was so large that it
could contain all the Asir with their war and household implements, but so
skilfully was it wrought, that when folded together it could be put into a
side pocket.

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NORTHERN MYTHOLOGY. 63

The Giants, who were the natural enemies of the gods, were divided into
several races, all of which traced their common origin to the Hrimthussir
(the frost-giants). They were said to be uncouth in form, furnished with a
number of arms and heads, some having as many as a hundred of each;
but they were possessed of great riches. They possessed a greater know-
ledge than most of the Asir of the past, of the wisdom gained from the runes,
and of witchcraft. Their world was Jotunheim, a region situated near
the borders of the earth, where they had a kind of capital called Utgard,
the residence of their king Utgardloke, from whom the above-mentioned
wicked Loke was distinguished by the epithet Asa Loke.

The character of this giant-king of Utgard best appears in the myth of
Thor’s adventures on his journey to Utgard. As soon as the god of
thunder obtained his wonderful hammer J/jé6/nir, he determined to go out
in search of adventures, and try the virtues of his new weapon. Accom-
panied by Zoke and Thialfi, his friend and companion, noted for his
swiftness in running, he determined to visit Utgardloke.

As soon as the three reached Jotunheim they entered a large wood, and
night having come on, looked around for a place to sleep: at last they
discovered a hut in which they passed the night. But their rest was several
times disturbed by a noise which they thought was caused by an earthquake.
When morning came they discovered that what they had taken to be an
earthquake was only the snoring of an immense giant, who had slept near
their hut. Just as Thor was about to try the virtue of his hammer upon the
head of the sleeper he awoke, and looked about for his glove, which he had
lost the previous day; after a brief search he found it and picked it up.
Then only did Thor find out that this was the hut, or what they had taken
for one, in which they had spent the night. The giant now offered them
his company and services as a guide, which they accepted. The four then
pursued their journey together. When the evening came again their new
companion offered them his basket with provisions to supply themselves
with supper, but requested that they would be careful with the cord wound
round the basket, for he had no other to fasten it with. After he had given
this injunction he lay down and was soon fast asleep. When Thor tried to
open the basket he could not untie a single knot, nor render a single string
looser than it was before. Seeing that his labor was in vain he became
wroth, and grasping his mallet with both hands launched it at the giant’s
head. Skyrmir, for so he had called himself, awoke and merely asked if
a leaf had not fallen on his head. About midnight he commenced again to
snore soloud that it sounded like distant thunder. Then Thor arose and
again took his mallet and launched it with redoubled force on the giant’s
forehead. Skyrmir awaking, said an acorn must have fallen on his head,
and then composed himself again to sleep. A little before daybreak when
the enraged god perceived that the giant was again asleep, he seized for
the third time the terrible Mjdlnir, and concentrating all his strength, threw
the mallet with such violence that it forced its way up to the handle into
the sleeper’s temple. But Skyrmir arose grumbling and said it was not
pleasant to sleep in this wood, for just now a branch of a tree had fallen on his

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64 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

head. He then left them, and they pursued their journey, until they came
to Utgardloke’s palace. The king returned their respectful salutations with
contempt, and asked them to give his people some proofs of their boasted
strength and skill. Zoke immediately offered to eat the greatest amount
placed before him quicker than any one else. _ Utgardloke then ordered one
of his men who was sitting at the further end of the bench, and whose name
was Logi, to come forward and try his skill with Loke. A trough filled
with meat having been set on the hall floor, each placing himself at one end
began to eat as fast as he could, until they met in the middle of the trough.
But it was found that Loke had only eaten the flesh, whereas his adversary
had devoured both flesh and bone, and the trough to boot. All the com-
pany therefore adjudged that Loke was vanquished. Z’hzalfi now proposed
that he would run a race with any one who might be matched against him.
The king called a young man named. Hugs and bade him run a race with
Thialfi. But in each of the three courses which they ran Hugi so far out-
stripped his competitor that Thialfi himself confessed that he had lost the
race. Thor then offered to drink against any one. His host immediately
ordered his cup-bearer to bring the large horn which his best. companions
were wont to empty at a draught at his feasts. The cup having been
brought he handed it to Thor, saying, “ Whoever is a good drinker will
empty that horn at a single draught, though some men make two of it, but
the most puny drinker can do it in three.” But Thor attempted in vain to
accomplish the feat: even after the third draught he found that the liquor
was only a little lower in the horn.

Full of wrath at this defeat, he now challenged the giants to select any
one among them to meet him in a trial of strength. To which Utgard-
Loke replied: ‘“‘ We have a very trifling game here, in which we exercise
none but children. It consists merely in lifting my cat from the ground,
nor should I have dared to mention such a feat to Asa Thor, it I had not
already observed that thou art by no means what we took thee for.” Stung
to the quick by this taunt, Thor seized the cat, but with all his strength
succeeded only in making her lift one foot from the ground. Twice bafiled,
the Thunderer now exclaimed: “ Little as ye think me, let me see who
amongst you will come hither, now I am in wrath, and wrestle with me.”
To which the king replied that he knew no one who would not think it
beneath him to do so; but if Thor was so anxious to show his prowess, to
come forward and wrestle with the old nurse Aldi, who presented herself at
the same time. But so far from his throwing her down at once, which he
at first thought he could do without much effort, she succeeded in bringing
him down upon one knee, and was therefore declared the winner. Dis-
pleased at these failures, Asa Thor departed with his companions from the
city of the giants. Utgardloke led them to the gate, and before parting
he said to him: “‘ Nay, thou needst not be astonished at having been van-
guished in all these contests; for Logz, the competitor of Loke, was the
all-devouring fire ; Wugz, who won the race with Thialfi, was Thought, and
it is impossible to keep pace with that. One end of the horn, which thou
didst try to empty, reached the sea; when thou comest to its shore thou wilt

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NORTHERN MYTHOLOGY. 65

perceive how much it has sunk by thy draughts. The cat was the Midgard
serpent, whose body encompasses the ocean; when we saw that one of his
paws was off the floor, we were terror-stricken, for he was then only long
enough to inclose the waters between his teeth and tail. The wrestling with
£lla was also a wonderful feat, for she is Old Age, and there was never yet
any one whom she will not sooner or later lay low if he abide her coming.
And I was the first giant who met thee in the forest, for the purpose of
frightening thee from coming here. Mayest thou never return any more!”
When Thor heard this he raised his mallet to kill the king of the giants,
but the latter had already vanished, and with him the city of Utgard. The
three travellers saw nothing but a beautiful plam. They then returned to
Asgard to plan another expedition.

It was a firm belief of the northern nations, and a prominent article of
their creed, that a time would come when all the visible creation, the gods
of Valhalla and Nifleheim, the inhabitants of Jotunheim, Alfheim, and
Midgard, together with their habitations, would be destroyed. This we have
already mentioned as the end of Loke’s sufferings, Ragnaroek, the Twilight
of the gods. The Asir themselves were the first cause of the calamity ; for
by making peace with the giants, and admitting the wicked Loke into their
society, as well as by their intermarriages with the daughters of the giants,
they introduced wickedness into the region of bliss, and incurred the penalty
which sooner or later must overtake it. The fearful day of final retribution
will not, however, be without its forerunners. The gods themselves having
ceased to be what they were, the purity of their race will have departed,
and craft and injustice begin to characterize their deeds.

Wickedness having increased everywhere, the race of the giants will once
more rule with power and might. Then comes the beginning of this fearful
period. It will open with the dreadful /%mbulvetur, a triple winter, during
which snow will fall from the four corners of the heavens, the frost be very
severe, the wind piercing, the weather tempestuous, and the sun impart no
gladness. Three such winters will pass away without being tempered by a
single summer. Three other similar winters will then follow, during which
war and discord will spread over the universe. Brethren, parents, and
children, for the sake of mere gain, will kill each other, and no one spare a
human being no matter what the tie of relationship. The earth itself will
be frightened and begin to tremble, the trees will be torn up by the roots,
the sea leave its basin, the heavens tear asunder, and men fall in numbers
victims to death’s arrows, while the eagles of the air feast upon their still
quivering bodies. The wolf /enris, now become aware that his time has
come, will break his bands, and the Aidgard serpent will rise out of her
bed in the seaj and fill the atmosphere with her poisonous breath. Loke,
too, released from his bonds, will join the enemies of the gods. Amidst
this general devastation, the sons of M/wspelheim will rush forth under their
leader Surtur, before and behind whom are flames and burning fire. His
sword outshines the sun itself. Onward they ride over B2frost, the rainbow
bridge, which breaks under the horses’ hoofs ; but they, disregarding its fall,
direct their course to the battle-field called Vigrid. Thither also repair the

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66 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

wolf Fenris, the Midgard serpent, Loke with all the followers of Hela, and
Hrym with his Hrymthussir.

LTleimdall now stands up, and with all his force sounds the Gjallar-horn
to assemble the gods and heroes for the contest. The Asir thus summoned
advance led on by Odin, who is armed with his spear Gungnzr, and wears
his golden helmet and refulgent cuirass. A battle now commences, such as
was neyer before seen, nor will ever have its equal. Odin engages the
wolf Fenris, who devours him; but at that instant his son Védar advances,
and setting his foot on the monster’s lower jaw, seizes the other with his
hands and tears them asunder; the wolf dies, and Vidar has avenged the
death of his father. Zhor gains great renown for killing the Midgard ser-
pent, but recoils at the same time and falls dead, suffocated with the venom
which the dying monster vomits over him. The dog of hell Garm, who
has broken loose from the Gnipa cave, attacks Tyr, and they kill each
other. Loke and Heimdall meet and fight until they are both slain.

The Asir and their enemies having fallen in battle, Surtwr, who has killed
Freyr, darts fire and flames over the world, and the whole universe is burn-
ing and consuming. The sun becomes dim with smoke, the earth sinks
into the ocean, the stars fall from heaven, and time is no more.

After this ‘Alfadur, the eternal and uncreated god, will cause a new
heaven and a new earth to arise out of thesea, where the gods and men will
live happily together. The new earth, filled with abundant supplies, will
spontaneously produce its fruits without requiring labor or toil. Neither
will wickedness or misery any more mar the happiness of its inhabitants,
who will live amidst scenes of uninterrupted bliss, innocence, and joy.

Before we close this section we will make a few remarks on the worship
and religious ceremonies of the Scandinavians.

Their priests were called Llodgodar or Blodmen, and their high priests
Hofdingt. They were all divided into different classes according to their
respective ranks.

We read also of priestesses, Blodgydiur, who lived in separate dwellings
which were considered sacred, and were an asylum, particularly for perse-
cuted virgins.

These priestesses were only in the service of the goddesses, but officiated
also at the worship of Baldur.

The chief business of the priesthood was to consult the oracles, to predict
future events, and to superintend the ceremonies of enchantments. Their
soothsaying was termed Sezd.

The Scandinavians had no temples; for, holding that the gods could not
be inclosed in walls, they erected their altars in sacred groves or on emi-
nences, and sometimes inclosed them with a hedge. Public opinion alone
invested them with a character of sanctity. The ring worn by the priest
when offering the sacrifice was always kept upon the altar, and upon it
every one placed his hand who was about taking a solemn oath. Sacrifices
of men or animals constituted the chief feature of their worship.

They had several religious festivals, of which we mention two which were
considered the most important. The annual chief festival, or Yule, which

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NORTHERN MYTHOLOGY. 67

was celebrated on the 21st of December with many imposing ceremonies,
one of which was accompanied by the sacrifice of a boar in honor of Freyr,
the god of the sun. The other was the Novennial, which was the greatest
festival of the nation, in the celebration of which all the inhabitants were
required to join.

It lasted nine days, during which time they sacrificed many animals, and
each day a human being. The blood of the victims was offered as an atone-
ment to the gods, and their bodies were hung upon the branches of the trees
in the sacred grove. Kings and nations sent offerings and presents for this
festival, to Upsala, the capital.

2. GerMAN Myrnonoey.

' The religion of the ancient Germans is much less known in its details
than that of the more northern nations of Europe. There is no doubt that
its general features were the same as those which characterize the religion
of the Scandinavians. The same gods were worshipped, only under differ-
ent names and with different ceremonies.

It is probable that the primitive Germans paid divine honors to the earth,
fire, and the celestial bodies. The St. John’s fire, which was kept up for a
long time after the introduction of Christianity, and which is still to be met
with in some sequestered spots of the country, is very likely a remnant of
the old fire-worship. They did not, however, regard fire as a god, but only
as a symbol of the Almighty Being, whom they adored with profound
reverence without presuming to name him or worship him in temples.
Before no visible being were they willing to bend the knee, for they
acknowledged no one as master except the invisible Lord of the universe.

Only at a later period, when the nation had been already divided into
regular tribes, and had learned to look up to a superior of their own race,
do we find the idea of a god with characteristics more within the scope of
the human imagination, develop itself in the popular belief. This god and
king, who was also considered the father of the nation, they called 7Awzsco,
Teut, or Theut. But the race of gods of which he was the chief had to
share the same fate with the ancient gods of Scandinavia. A new dynasty,
the Asir, supplanted it, and established themselves under their leader, who
was called in Germany Wodan, the same as Odin. He soon became the
object of the most profound worship, and to him only were human sacrifices
offered. He was regarded as the god of heaven, and the oak was sacred
to him. Thor and Frigga appear also to have been worshipped as divine
beings; and if we credit what the Romans said, they must have had
besides these a number of other gods and goddesses. ut all that has been
handed down to us on this subject is too obscure and of too doubtful a
character to be accepted as matter of reliable information. The most
authentic tradition is that which contains an account of the goddess Wirthus
or Hertha (pl. 12, jig. 14). She was worshipped as the personification of

the earth, the creator and preserver of all animate and inanimate beings of
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68 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

this globe, and as the ruler of man’s affairs. Her chariot was kept covered
with tapestry in a sacred grove upon an island in the seas (probably the
isle of Rugen) in the centre of which was a calm lake. At different periods
she visited the earth, when the priests, who alone were aware of her descent
and who were the only persons privileged to approach her, prepared her
chariot drawn by white cows, and led her in procession through the country.
Everywhere the train was greeted with joyful demonstrations, and the event
celebrated as a great festival. Her presence was the harbinger of peace;
hostile weapons were laid aside and contending parties united like brothers
to hail her arrival. After she had thus visited every part of the country
and had restored peace and quiet to every hamlet, she returned to the
sacred grove where a hundred slaves were selected to assist in bathing her
in the sacred lake. But death was the price which these poor beings had
to pay for the privilege of attending upon the goddess; for immediately
after she had taken her bath they were drowned in the silent waters of the
lake. ad

fig. 17 is a drawing of an Alemanic idol lately discovered, but of which
little is known.

The priesthood among the Germans was not confined to a particular
caste, and the reverence and privileges accorded to priests were granted to
the office and not to the individual. Every head of a family was the priest
of his household, and one of the oldest nobles filled the office for the district.
Great privileges and rights were enjoyed by the priests during the session
of the public assemblies, which was always held on the new or full moon,
and opened by one of the order. Though without a direct or controlling
influence in the deliberations of the people, they had, nevertheless, a great
political power, for to them was confided the interpretation of the divination
by the casting of lots.

Disputes which could not be decided by human judges were left for
decision to what was called the judgment of God, which was either a trial
by fire, single combat, or, in particular cases, the casting of lots. |

White horses were also kept in the sacred groves, and supported at the
expense of the community. They were never permitted to do any ordi-
nary work, but on solemn festive occasions were harnessed to a sacred
chariot and driven about, accompanied by the priests and nobles; great
attention was paid to their snorting and neighing, from which the priests
predicted the course of future events.

The Germans had also their priestesses, but they were not intrusted with
the sacrificial service, for their duty was exclusively that of consulting and
interpreting the oracles, an office to which a kind of sacred character was
attached. Their influence was particularly great in times of war or popular
excitement.

At a later period there was another class of sacred virgins who were
called Alrunes, and were esteemed as infallible prophetesses. No one
attempted to dispute their words or commands. They lived always in the
solitude of the sacred groves, in which the dwelling stood inclosed by a
hedge, and were never intruded upon by any one.

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NORTHERN MYTHOLOGY. 69

8. Tar Stavono-VEnpic MytHonoey.

The religion of the Slavonians and Vendes was intimately connected with
the mythology and worship of the Germanic nations. It was not, however,
so indigenous as the latter, but owed its form and peculiarities more to
foreign elements adopted by the nation. This will be readily accounted for
when we examine the locality and occupation of these tribes.

The centre of the Slavono-Vendic idolatry was on the Isle of Rugen and
along the coast of the Baltic, from Stettin to Rostock. The inhabitants of
this region, favored by the natural facilities of their country, at an early day
became the traders for all the region along the Baltic. In their mercantile
intercourse they acquired not only riches but also borrowed the doctrines
and religious belief from many a nation which they visited. But in pro-
portion as they became wealthy, they began to despise the simplicity of
their neighbors, and spent immense sums in the erection and ornamenting
of costly temples and splendid idols, with which they filled their beautiful
towns. Vineta is said to have been the place where Vendic idolatry was
first known to flourish. This town is supposed to have been situated near
the shore of the Baltic, and was the chief mart for all the northern nations,
whose peculiarities of worship were equally tolerated there. When the
city was destroyed by war and inundation, the inhabitants fled and built
Julin not far from it, which they soon made to rival their lost Vineta in
splendor and wealth. Arcona, on the Isle of Rugen, was next founded by
them, and finally Rhetra, which, like Venice, was built upon a number of
small islands. The latter soon became the city of the gods and the pan-
theon of all the nations near the shores of the Baltic: Scandinavians, Finns,
and Slavonians. Hence the multitude of gods of different nations, German,
Finnish, Prussian, and even Grecian, found in the Slavono-Vendic mytho-
logy, and the consequent confusion and contradictions in the system.

Some suppose that these strange gods were only admitted by the priests
into their secret systems, while the people continued to worship exclusively
the gods of their own country. If this is true, then should we have to dis-
tinguish between the doctrines of the priesthood and a popular creed. But
the whole is involved in so much obscurity that it is difficult to decide with
any certainty. We can therefore only give what has come down to us with
some degree of reliable authority.

It appears that the foundation of this creed was a belief in one Supreme
God, the Creator of all things, and the existence of a host of inferior gods who
were merely the servants of their creator. The latter had their sphere of
action in the visible world, where they appeared as the representatives of
the Supreme Ruler, with power to direct the affairs of man. They them-
selves were divided into different classes, according to their respective
influence, power, and rank. All the gods were supposed to be either white
or black, and were according to their color ranked in one of the two grand
divisions. The white gods were good and kindly disposed to man, and the
black ones bad or evil-disposed to the humanrace. The Vendes divided them.

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70 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

into Razi (counsellors) and Zernetra (wizards). The Supreme Being was
supposed to rule over both divisions and partake of the characteristics
which distinguished each; but his influence on the visible world he only
exercised through their instrumentality.

We have said that all the gods belonged either to the white or black
division, but there were a few who were exceptions to this rule, particularly
among the highest ranks; they seemed, like their creator, to possess the
traits of both classes, and were therefore thought to belong to both. Each
division had its presiding deity, after whom his followers were called.
Svantevit was the chief of the gods of light. He is generally represented,
as on pl. 12, jig. 9, with four heads, his right hand resting upon his hip,
and his left supporting a cornucopia, which he presses to his breast. He
was probably a personification of the Supreme Being, Creator, and Ruler
of the universe, who with his four heads watches over the four quarters
of the world, and holds in his hand the horn of plenty and consolation ; for
through it he is said to have absorbed the sun; and when that great lumi-
nary shall have ceased to exist, he will console and nourish with heavenly
ambrosia the souls who shall be deemed worthy to be fed from the horn
of life preserved by him. All souls emanate from him, and to him they
return by a gradual ascent.

Next in rank to Svantevit is the god adegast, which means counsellor,
and subordinate to the Supreme Being. He is said to have been the first
of the gods who became incarnate, and the source of all procreation and
birth. His color, which is black and White, designates him as both coun-
sellor and wizard. Among the Vendes he was the god of the sun and
probably also of war. An older statue (pl. 13, fig. 9) represents him witha
swan upon his head, a human face in front and that of a lion on the back
of his head; upon his breast is a bull’s head with a human face. Another
anda later statue (pl. 12, jig. 10) represents him perfectly naked, a bird
with outstretched wings upon his head, a shield with the bull’s head before
his breast, and a kind of halbert in ‘his left hand.

Radegast had two characters, Shvaixtix and Perkunust, in each of which
he was worshipped as a distinct individuality. The former (fig. 13) is the
sun shedding his blessings abroad, a god conferring benefits upon the human
race. Upon his altar the fire was never suffered to go out. As Perkunust
he is a god of light, both good and bad, or the god of thunder. In pi. 13,
jig. 12.4, he is represented with a human face, the head surrounded by
ten beams of light, and holding the plough in front of him as protector
of agriculture ; jig. 125 shows the reverse of the statue with a lion’s face.
Both of these gods were borrowed of the Prussians and eastern Slavonians,
for the ancient war and sun god of the Vendes was Love, who is repre-
sented with shield and lance (pl. 12, jig. 11); and their passive deity
Podaga (pl. 13, jig. 11) presided over agriculture, fisheries, and the inter-
est of the herdsman, and to him they prayed for favorable weather. But
when the new gods were introduced his altar was only sought to obtain
propitious weather. They left him, however, his attributes, the boar’s face
on the back of the head, the plough, the ten beams, and the cornucopia.

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NORTHERN MYTHOLOGY. 71

The latter reminds us of the god of spring, who in the signs of the ram and
bull pours plenty over the land. Stebog is reported to have been the god
of love (pl. 12, jig. 12); the back of his head was represented as the head
ofacat. Sreba (pl. 13, fig. 10) was the goddess of love. Wemisa was
feared and worshipped as the divinity who cut the thread of life. Some-
times we find this idol in the shape of a man (fig. 13) with four beams
around the head and one wing, on the front part of the body a dove with
outstretched wings; at other times it is represented in the shape of a naked
woman, with an eagle by her side looking up to her. Nemisa was con-
sidered as belonging to the black gods, inasmuch as death was regarded as
a calamity ; but on account of the beneficial office which he performed by
introducing the soul through death to a new life, he was also honored as a
white or a good god. TZriglav (pl. 12, fig. 8) was a very important deity
among the Vendes, and his statue at Stettin which represented him
with three heads, was explained by the priests to be symbolical of his
dominion over heaven, earth, and the lower regions. Sometimes he is found
with a veil covering his head, emblematic of his willingness to hide his face
from the’sins of men, and to: pardon them. Some supposed that it was an
emblematical figure of the Trinity veiled from the sight of mortal eyes. The
moon too was represented by a deity called Zzselbog (pl. 11, fig. 12), but it
was a very uncouth form, though not more so than that of /pabog (jig. 13),
the god of the chase, whose head was decorated with two beams and a pair
of horns, and upon his back were engraved the symbols of hunting.

The chief among the black or evil gods was Pya, generally called
Zernebog. He was the god of bloody deeds, and as such was represented
as a fierce lion, erect, with his head somewhat elevated, though sometimes
the head alone served to denote the god. The black gods, who did not share
any of the qualities of the white ones, were usually represented as animals.

Next in rank to Pya was /lyntz, the god of death, among the Zirnitra.
He was generally represented in the shape of a skeleton with a lion upon
its shoulder, a burning torch in its hand, and its feet placed upon a large
pebble. Sometimes, however, an old man (pl. 12, jig. 15) with all the
attributes of the skeleton, only a flint instead of a pebble is beneath his foot
as an emblem of the resurrection. In this form he was therefore numbered
among the gods of light.

Hela, the goddess of the lower world in the Germanic Mythology, was
also included among the Zirnitra, and was represented by a lion’s head
with an outstretched tongue. d/yda, another of the dark gods, appeared in
the shape of a crouching dog. Besides these they had numerous forest and
house gods to whom only a local worship was paid. A number of statues of
idols have been found, of which neither the name nor the office is known.
We have represented two of these belonging to the Slavonic Mythology on
pl. 11, figs. 14 and 15; on pl. 13, fig. 14a is a Sarmatian, and jig. 146 a
Silesian idol, though it is possible that the latter may, like pil. 11, fig. 10,
be intended to represent Zhor in the shape of Zyr. P/. 13, figs. 15 and 16,
represent idols of which neither the nature nor the place of worship is

known.
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72 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

Numerous and frequently costly temples were built for the worship of
many of the above-mentioned gods. The chief temple was the one at
Arcona. It was a wooden structure in an open place near the centre of the
town, and was divided by a partition which ran through the whole build-
ing. The exterior of the walls was richly carved, and they were sup-
ported on the inside by four pillars; cloth tapestry served instead of walls
to divide the whole into separate apartments. Here was kept the gigantic
statue of the four-headed Svantevit, with the hair and beard cut short,
according to the custom of the Vendes. Close by it are always found his
immense saddle and bridle, and the two-edged sword, the grip and scabbard
of which were of chased silver.

The worship in this temple consisted in feeding and tending the white
war-horse of the god, which office had always to be performed by the high
priest, whose duty it was also to ride him out for exercise, though it would
appear that he must have had enough without this; for it was said that the
god mounted him every night, and rode forth to battle against the enemies
of his religion; this was assigned as the reason why the horse was found
every morning covered with perspiration. Peace and war depended also
upon the actions of this horse; for he was always consulted before any
warlike expedition was undertaken. This was done by laying a number
of spears upon the ground, a short distance one from the other; the
priest then led the horse across them, and it being considered a favorable
omen if he passed three times over them without touching any one, war
was then determined upon; but if he touched one with his foot it was con-
sidered an unlucky sign, and the contemplated expedition was abandoned.

In this building they kept also the sacred banners, and the ample
treasures of the temple, consisting of precious metals, silks, and other stuffs.
The revenues of the temple were very great, and were collected from the
spoils cf war, a third of which was deposited with the priests for its sup-
port; besides this, every citizen had to pay an annual capitation tax into its
treasury. The conquered nations were also made to contribute to its
support, and foreign merchants and princes enriched it with many presents.
Independent of all this, it drew a large income from a band of 300 horse-
men, called the Sacred Host, who were exclusively in the service of the
priesthood, and who had to deposit in the hands of the priests whatever
gain or booty they became possessed of.

There was another temple at Rhetra also built of wood, and with carved
walls ; its foundation consisted of bulls’ horns, collected from sacrificed
animals. This temple also was the depository of sacred banners. Its
annual revenues were collected not only in money, but also in animals for
the altar. Almost all the idols found here were frightful figures, covered
with cuirasses and helmets ; for the priests, whose revenues were materially
increased by every expedition against other nations, were themselves of a
warlike disposition ; and since the interpretation of the oracle of lots, which
was consulted in all cases when an irruption was contemplated, was in their
hands, they took care to consult their own interest.

Similar to this temple was the one at Stettin, consecrated to Zriglav.

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NORTHERN MYTHOLOGY. 73

On the outside it was covered with well executed carved figures, represent-
ing men, beasts, and birds, to which remarkably good and permanent
colors imparted a life-like appearance. The interior was filled with the
trophies of war, treasure, and arms, for a tythe of all the booty captured
upon the water or during an expedition on land had to be deposited
here, hence there was a great quantity of golden and silver cups used in
soothsaying, and numerous vessels of all kinds used at the banquets of the
great.

The priests of the Slavono-Vendic nations were highly cultivated, and
possessed a great knowledge of the world and mankind. From the Ger-
mans they had learned to write, and from the Scandinavians the use of the
runes. They were, moreover, in constant communication with the priests
of other nations, and procured from their Greek friends their most beautiful
cast metal idols. Among themselves they had established a perfect hierarchy,
and all were divided into classes, the lines of which were drawn with great
precision. The chief, or high priest, lived always at Arcona, and the priests of
a number of districts were under his control. Even the secular authorities
were subordinate to the spiritual power. The ceremonies of the daily
worship and the service in the temples of the inferior gods were conducted
by the priests of the lower ranks, but the service of the superior gods could
be performed only by the high priests.

All or at least most of the Slavono-Vendic nations observed Monday as a
sacred day. The most important festival was the annual harvest-home
celebrated at Arcona. The high priest (A7rive) prepared for its celebration
by sweeping with his own hands the temple of Svantevit, and then killed
the sacrificial animals before the gate. Afterwards he took the cornucopia
from Svantevit and examined its contents. If he found that the mead
poured into it during the previous festival had diminished in quantity, he
predicted a scarce harvest, and exhorted the people to husband their
resources. If on the contrary he found the horn still full, he announced a
season of abundance, and then poured out the old mead at the feet of the
idol. Having prayed for a blessing upon the people, he emptied quickly
the horn now filled with new mead, and then returned it, after it had been
filled for a second time, to the hand of the idol. The ceremonies concluded
by his going behind a huge cake made of flour and honey and spices,
nearly as high as a man, and asking the people whether they could still see
him. As soon as they had answered in the affirmative, he prayed that the
abundance of the next year might be such that they would no longer be
able to see him behind it. Then turning to the assembly, he exhorted them
to be pious and good, and dismissed them with a blessing.

The rest of the day was spent in eating, drinking, and carousing, for it
was considered a sinful thing to retire sober from the banquet.

Human sacrifices were not uncommon, and Christians were preferred,
because they were hated for their zeal in making converts. The blood of
the victims was afterwards used in soothsaying. The Rugians, one of the
most savage tribes, are said to have been particularly cruel when slaying
their Christian victims.

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74 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

VI. THE MYTHOLOGY OF THE GAULS. ©

More obscure even than the mythology of the Germans is that of the
Gauls; partly because their early history is very little known, in part
because their religion in the course of time has undergone a number of
changes owing to foreign influence. The Celts, to whom the Gauls belonged,
were known among the nations long before the Germans had any historical
existence. They were already possessed of a considerable degree of cultiva-
tion, and had even commenced to decline when the latter made their
appearance as active participants in the affairs of nations. Subdued by
the Germans and the Romans, all traces of their mythology were lost, except
such portions as were transmitted to us by the Romans in their accounts
of the worship and religious ceremonies of the Gauls, who had also adopted
much of the religion of their conquerors.

From the sources just mentioned we learn that a few gods only were
universally worshipped by the whole nation, the greater number were
merely local gods whose worship was confined to particular districts; they
paid also divine honors to a kind of inferior spirits subordinate to the
regular gods. ‘Tacitus informs us that Mercury was their chief god. But his
form (pl. 13, fig. 20), so very different from that of the Roman god, as well
as some of his offices, would lead us to suppose that the name given him by
the Roman historian was probably not the proper one. He was represented
in a great variety of shapes, sometimes even with breasts like those of a
woman. The popular creed considered him as the inventor of all arts, the
guide of travellers, and the god of merchants and particularly traders. One
of his statues, evidently modelled after the Roman type (the one to the right
in jig. 23), represents him with a winged helmet upon his head, in his right
hand a money bag, in his left the caduceus (a staff around which two
serpents are euaeied: and which served him as a herald’s staff and also as
a wizard’s wand to aie sleep, to make himself invisible, or to transform
himself), and upon his shoulders sits the cock, a symbol of watchfulness and
active courage.

Next to Mercury i in power was Vehalennia (pl. 11, fig. 16), a goddess of
Belgium. She is sometimes represented standing, but more frequently in
a sitting posture, and holding a basket filled with fruit in her lap. Her
hair is thick and parted over the forehead; over her ample dress she wears
a cloak without sleeves, and the collar around her neck is fastened over her
breast by a button. At her left is a dog watching the contents of the
basket, and on her right is a larger basket made of wicker-work and
supplied with a handle. She was the goddess of commerce and navigation.

Magusanus (pl. 12, jig. 16) was another of the Belgian idols. He is
often represented by the side of Nehalennia, upon votive tablets. Under his
right arm he holds a dolphin, and in his left hand a forked club. A
scaly little monster of the deep seems to bite the little toe of his left foot.
These attributes make him certainly appear as nearer allied to the water
gods than to the Roman Hercules.

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GALLIC MYTHOLOGY. 75

P1138, fig. 21, is supposed to be a representation of Hercules Saxanus,
of whose office or character thus far nothing satisfactory has been dis-
covered. .

» The other gods known to us as worshipped by the Gauls were evidently
introduced by the Romans.

The first is Jupiter (jig. 17), who was worshipped in Gallia as Zaran or
Taranis: Nothing is known of him with certainty, except that human
beings were sacrificed at his altars, and that the lofty oaks were considered
as his emblems. Roman authorities inform us that he was considered as
the lord of heaven. /%g. 18 is another representation of this god somewhat
different from the previous one. Here he is seen but partially clothed with
a cloak, holding in his left hand a lance, and accompanied by the eagle,
who was sacred to him.

Next to Jupiter, Apollo was worshipped by the Gauls, under the names

of Belin, Belen, and Abeloo ( jig. 23, the first left hand figure). He appears
to have been a particular object of worship to the sick at watering-places,
and he had a temple near a warm spring, which was dedicated to him as
the giver of recovery. Apollo had also his oracles in Gallia, which were
consulted: chiefly in cases of sickness. The henbane, called after him
Velinuntia and Apollinaris, was sacred to him. The Gauls dipped their
arrows in the juice to make the wounds of the deer more surely mortal.
As late as the 11th century we meet with a superstitious custom connected
with this herb. When the country suffered from a prolonged drought, the
women and young girls were wont to assemble together and elect the
youngest and most innocent among them for their queen. She had to
undress and proceed in a state of perfect nudity at the head of all her sub-
jects, to a field to seek for henbane. When a plant had been found, she
had to dig it out by the root with the little finger of her left hand, and then
fasten it to the little toe of her right foot. Each of the rest then armed
herself with a branch of the plant, and the procession directed its course to
some rivulet, the queen carefully dragging the henbane after her. When
arrived at the water she was immersed, and the rest sprinkled her also with
their branches moistened from the rivulet. They then returned to the place
from which they had started, the young queen being compelled to retrace
her steps backwards.

In many districts Vulcan was also another object of worship, as the god
of fire, and the inventor and protector of the arts which were carried on by
the os of fire. In pl. 18, fig. 19, he is represented as standing with a
hammer in his right hand ou a pair of tongs in his left. Jig. 28 shows
him seated between four other figures; the same symbols of his profession
are in his hands.

The goddesses of Gaul were chiefly Venws Anadyomene (pl. 12, fig. 19),
she who had ascended. out of the sea; she was the goddess of lan Isis
(fig. 20) and Diana (pl. 18, fig. 22), a Matres Auguste. In this capacity
the latter was the symbol ’ nature, the all-supporting mother, who mani-
fests herself in all creatures. She was represented as a three-fold female

figure, with her backs leaning against a pillar and in her hands the cornu-
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76 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

copia, fruits, &c. Ceres and Minerva are also found here (fig. 23, near
Vulcan), but their statues were different from those by which the Romans
represented them. The former, who was the goddess of agriculture and
the framer of laws, is dressed in a spotted garment, a kind of helmet on
her head, and a cornucopia filled with fruit in her hand; the latter wears
a similar garment but without sleeves, and has the breast protected by a
cuirass; upon her head is the helmet and by her side the shield ; the owl,
sacred to her, sits perched upon her shoulder; she thus resembles some-
what Bellona, the Roman goddess of war.

The priesthood and the nobility were the only orders among the Gauls
that had power and influence, for the people were at an early date already
reduced to a state approaching slavery ; they were never suffered to have a
will independent of their rulers, nor a share in the political deliberations.
The priests, who were called Druids (pl. 13, jig. 24), had established a
strictly theocratic-monarchical constitution, and held the first rank in the
state. They were governed by a high priest, who represented the highest
spiritual and political power, and was always elected for life. If there
happened to be two eligible candidates, they settled the difficulty by lot or
single combat; for they were warriors as well as priests, and always led
their armies into the field, and when they ceased to do so they found that
their power also began to decline. They were also the highest judicial
tribunal, and decided in all civil and criminal cases, whether they referred
to inheritances, boundary lines, or murder. They enforced their decisions
by excommunicating the refractory, which was the heaviest penalty that
could be inflicted, for it excluded the person from the privilege of assisting
at the sacrifices. He who was thus punished was shunned as a wicked and
accursed being, every one avoided him for fear of being contaminated and
having to share his lot. This excommunication was probably pronounced
publicly during the time of the annual assembly which was held near the
city of Dreux in a sacred grove, and where all judicial disputes were
settled.

The Druids lived together as a community somewhat in a monastic style,
for they had everything in common. Many coveted the privilege to be
admitted into their ranks, and even the nobles sought it eagerly, for it
offered great inducements ; but they required a rigid noviciate, which lasted
sometimes twenty years. Their instructions to their disciples were alto-
gether oral, and conveyed sometimes in verse, which the candidate had to
learn by heart. They also enjoined upon all strict’ secresy, and particularly
that no part of their lessons should ever be made known to the people.
This leads us justly to suppose that they also must have contained mys-
teries.

Besides the priests there were priestesses or Druidesses (fig. 25). But
it is not known what their relative duties were, and to what they were
limited.

The Bards and Vates are said to have constituted a separate class among
the priests. The former seem to have been the sacred minstrels, and the
latter the prophets or soothsayers. But there must also have been a class

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GALLIC MYTHOLOGY. 77

of secular Bards, for we find that persons with that title were the constant
attendants of kings and nobles, whom they accompanied even in war in the
capacity of minstrels.

An important part of the worship of the Gauls consisted in sacrificing to
the gods, and not only animals but often human victims bled upon their
altars. Some of these sacrifices were of a public and others of a private
character, for some were offered by the state, while others were brought by
families or private individuals. When any one was dangerously sick or
engaged in war, or otherwise exposed to imminent danger, it was customary
to vow or sacrifice a human life, for by such means only it was thought that
the gods could be appeased and satisfied ; it was as if a life was given for the
life granted. The victims offered by the state were generally thieves, mur-
derers, and other criminals, though in the absence of such they had no
scruples in slaying innocent persons. Some Gallic tribes were in the habit
of preparing for such an occasion a colossal figure of wicker-work, which they
filled with human beings, and then destroyed the whole by burning the
figure. The victims selected by families and individuals were generally
slaves and clients or dependents. Besides the sacrifices of thanksgiving or
atonement, they had also their funeral sacrifices, when all that the departed
valued most, even his animals and favorite slaves and dependents, were
burned with him upon the funeral pile.

Under the head of public sacrifices ought also to be mentioned the savage
custom which condemned all prisoners who had been confined for more
than ‘five years to be hung upon posts and to be burnt on a pyre with other
offerings, and the law which condemned prisoners of war and animals taken
during an incursion to be killed by the sword or by fire.

We have already said that it was the business of the Druids to predict
future events from the flight of birds and the entrails of the victims; the
latter were therefore also frequently selected for this purpose, but instead
of disembowelling them, they were slain by a different process. If an
important subject seemed to require a divination, they selected a victim
who was killed by a stab through the heart, and then suffered to fall
down; from the manner of his fall, his last agonies, and the blood as it
flowed, they then determined the probable result of the matter in question.

The altars were generally erected in sacred groves, particularly beneath
oak trees, for the oak was esteemed above all other trees. The priests never
officiated without chaplets of oak leaves upon their heads, and oak groves
were always selected for their residences and tribunals.

All parts of the oak, as well as its parasites, were therefore considered as
favorite gifts bestowed by the gods upon man, as a mark of their approval
and favor. Distinguished above the rest was the mistletoe; and the 4th of
January, the day on which it was searched for, was celebrated as a high
festival. Pl. 13, jig. 26, represents a part of the ceremonies attending the
search. The priest has just discovered the sacred parasite, and is in the
act of severing it from the tree, surrounded by a breathless audience, eager
to possess themselves of a part of it. A great importance was attached to
this annual search for and distribution of the mistletoe. The Druids

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78 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

announced the coming of the period by a general proclamation, when all
the people collected in the woods between Chartres and Dreux.

The ceremonies commenced with a solemn procession, headed by a choir
of bards, whose chief business it was to sing hymns during the sacrifices ;
then came those who had to slay the victims, and the soothsayers. At a
little distance followed two white oxen, the victims for the day. A herald
marched behind them, dressed ina white garment, with a winged helmet
upon his head, and holding in his hand a branch of verbena, around which
‘two serpents twined, giving it the appearance of a caduceus; to him were
confided the novices or those young men who were prepared for initiation,
and who walked behind their guide. Then came the three oldest Druids,
one carrying the bread about to be offered on the altar, another a vessel
filled with water, and the third an ivory hand fastened to a staff, the symbol —
of justice. The high priest, with the rest of the Druids, closed the proces-
sion, and the nobles and. people brought up the rear. When they had
arrived at the foot of the oak upon which the mistletoe grew they halted,
and the high priest made a short prayer, burned the bread, and then
poured the water upon the fire. The morsels of the bread and portions of
the water left in the jar were then divided among the bystanders. After
that, the high priest ascended the tree and severed the misletoe from it
with a knife shaped like a sickle, and threw it down on the outspread gar-
ment of one of the Druids, who fora short time held the sacred plant
aloft so that all could see it, and then deposited it upon the altar, where
every one was permitted to examine the precious boon. After the high
priest had descended from the tree he again made a short prayer, and
terminated the ceremonies of the search by sacrificing the two white oxen.
The mistletoe was then handed to the Druids of lower rank, who in the
course of the day distributed small pieces of it among the people as a new-
year’s gift. It is difficult to determine what may have been the meaning
of this ceremony, or its allusion. It has been the subject of much inquiry and
a great deal of research, but nothing definite has as yet been ascertained.

A late French mythologian thinks that he has discovered a solution in
the myth of the death of Laldwr, mentioned in the Scandinavian mythology.
He says: “The religion of the Druids was not confined to the Gauls, it
was also introduced among the Germans, Britons, and Scandinavians, and
after it had been already extinguished in Gaul, Germany, and Britain, it
was still preserved in the north as late as the twelfth century. During this
period they collected in the Edda all the dogmas, customs, and rules, pre-
viously only transmitted by oral lessons. Now, the myth of Baldur’s death,
found in the Edda, offers a solution to this problem. For the search after
the mistletoe and its subsequent destruction are intended to deprive the god
of darkness (Loke) of the means to kill the god of light (the sun). And the
distribution of small pieces of the mistletoe was to provide pious souls with
amulets to protect them against the wicked temptations of Loke.”

Others say that the mistletoe was considered a medicinal plant of great
virtue, and a decoction was made of it, which was a powerful antidote
against poison, and imparted fecundity to every living being.

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~ MEXICAN MYTHOLOGY. | 79

-» At a later period, particularly after the religion of the Druids had ceased
to exist in Gaul, we find that the mistletoe was also introduced into the
religious systems of various Germanic nations (pl. 12, fig. 18), and it sus-
tained itself until banished by Christianity, with the rest of the system to
which it belonged.

VU. THE MYTHOLOGY OF THE MEXICANS.

The Mexican system of mythology was probably a fusion of the religion
of the primitive inhabitants, with the doctrines introduced by immigrant
nations, particularly the Azteks. The latter came in the year 1160 from
the north, and traversing different countries, finally settled within the terri-
tory of Mexico, of which they became after some time the rulers. It followed
as a matter of course that the religion of the conquerors was soon engrafted
upon and partially supplanted that of the conquered. We know therefore
nothing of the creed of the primitive inhabitants of Mexico except. what
can be gleaned from their mythology, as it was taught under the adminis-
tration of the Azteks.
~The great doctrine of this system was that there is one supreme invisible
being, lord and creator of all. This supreme intelligence was never wor-
shipped, for he was deemed too holy and lofty to be addressed by mortal
men. He was never represented by images, but was called Zot] (god),
Lpalnemoani (he by whom we live), and Z'loque Nahuaque (he who has all
in himself). To him no temples were ever erected as to the lower gods,
who were considered emanations from him.

The gods which the Mexicans worshipped were divided into two ranks,
the higher and the lower, but all were considered the servants of the
supreme being.

The chief of the thirteen higher gods was Zezcatlipoca, the soul of the
universe, the creator of the visible world, who rewards the good and
punishes the bad.

Next to him in importance was uitzilopoctly or Vitziliputeli, who was
the chief god of war, and patron god of the Mexicans. Two of his brothers,
also gods of war, were subject to his commands.

Every element had also its presiding deity. Thus we find a god of the
air, who inhabited lofty mountains, where the spirits of the air and the hills
executed his orders; a god and goddess of water, who dwelt near the highest
springs, surrounded by serving water spirits; a god of fire, to whom at
table the first morse] and the first draught were offered, by throwing them
into the fire; and finally a goddess of the earth. This prolific system
acknowledged gods for everything, arts, sciences, natural productions, and
passions.

The Mexicans believed also in the existence of spirits inferior to the gods,
but with great power to do good or harm. The bad spirits were represented
by ugly, uncouth figures, and the house gods by pretty little statues. The

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80 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

number of these little gods kept in a house was prescribed by the rank of
the family; for kings, princes and the great nobility were permitted to have
six, the inferior nobles four, and others only two.

Tetevinan was the mother of the gods. She was the daughter of the
tyrant Colhuacan, upon whom the Mexicans wished to avenge themselves.
They therefore demanded his daughter, under the pretence that their patron
god required that she should be dedicated to him as his mother. The king
dared not refuse, and the girl was received with great solemnities and
sacrificed to the god, and has ever since been worshipped as the mother of
the gods. The sun and the moon, of whose curious history we shall presently
speak, were also worshipped as deified heroes.

The Aztek or Mexican cosmogony is very remarkable. They believed
that time was divided into four ages or periods. The first of these they
said was Atonatiuh, the age of water, which terminated with a universal
deluge, by which all created things, even the sun and the moon, were
destroyed. Only two human beings were saved in a boat made of a hollow
tree, and landed finally on the mountain Colhuacan. These became after-
wards the founders of a new race, which lived during the second age.
This period was called Zlaltonatiuh, the age of the earth, and terminated
with a terrible earthquake, after the new creation had existed 5206 years.
The third period, Lhecatonatwuh, the age of air, was closed, and the world
again destroyed by Quetzalcohuatl, the god of the winds, who came down
upon the earth armed with a sickle, and swept the nations from the earth
by the power of his breath. The fourth period, Tletonatiwh, the age of
fire, now commenced, everything having again been created anew, except
the sun and the moon.

The divine heroes (the great giants) assembled around a fire in
Teotihuacan, and told the people who accompanied them that the first
person who would throw himself into the flames would rise as a new sun in
the firmament. Then arose JM/anahuatzin, the most courageous among
them, and leaped into the burning mass; his soul soon reached the lower
regions and presently appeared in the east as a new sun.

A new moon was now only wanting, and this was supplied by Zezcociztekal’s
‘selfimmolation, who followed Manahuatzin’s example and appeared again
as the pale luminary of night.

This is the period in which we live, and which will last 5206 years, and
then terminate with a universal conflagration.

The Mexicans believed in the immortality of the soul, and distinguished
three places of abode for the immortal spirits after their separation from
the body. ‘Those of the nobles and the soldiers who died in battle or in
captivity when taken with arms in their hands, and those of women who
died in labor, were supposed to be conducted by Zeoyanzquz to the house
of the sun, where they led a life of endless delight amidst eternal festivities
and singing and dancing. At different periods they received permission to
visit the earth, and to animate clouds and birds of beautiful plumage, as
well as lions and jaguars, but were always at liberty to rise again to heaven.

The souls of those struck by lightning, of those who died by disease or

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were drowned, went, with the children sacrificed to ZValoc, to a place called
Tlalocan, the paradise of this god. This was a cool and shady place, where
they had the most delicious repasts and every other kind of pleasure.
Lastly, those who suffered any other kind of death went to Mictlantocli, the
kingdom of Jictlan, the god of hell, which was a dark and gloomy place
in the centre of the earth.

Such of the idols as still exist, most of which were only lately discovered,
are particularly distinguished by the accumulation of the greatest variety
of figures and devices with which they are ornamented. In a great many
instances it is even difficult to determine whether they were idols; and if
so, what particular deity they were intended to represent. On pi. 14, jigs.
1 and 2, we have represented two of these strange-looking objects of
worship among the ancient Mexicans; jig. 3 is an old bas-relief on a sacri-
ficial stone, representing an Aztek idol; jigs. 4a@b-T were probably idols
of the Guatemalians, and were found among the ruins of Tlapellan and
Palenque ; the first of these seems to represent a deity worshipped by two
human beings, or lower spirits. /2gs. 14-16 are colossal heads, and there-
fore in all probability parts of some similar idols. %gs. 17-19 belong also
to this class ; the last of the three was found near Copan, beneath the ruins
of an Indian city, destroyed by the Spaniards in 1530, and only lately re-
discovered. 72g. 20 represents an altar upon which a similar idol stands,
and jigs. 25-28 are drawings of figures made of burnt clay, and supposed
to have been idols of Yucatan. On the same plate we give also a few
other articles connected with the worship of the Mexicans, ¢. g. jig. 12, a
circular top of a Mexican altar ; jigs. 21-24, basins and bowls used during
the sacrificial service, supposed to belong to Guatemala; and jig. 29, a vase
of burnt clay from Yucatan.

The materials of which the idols were made was either burnt clay, wood,
stone, or the baser metals, and some statues were even of solid gold; but
the grotesque combination of forms of which they were composed made
them always look ugly.

They were kept in private houses as well as in the temples, and wor-
shipped with prayers offered up in a kneeling posture, and with the face
turned towards the east.

Vows were made to them, festivals celebrated to honor them, penances
suffered to appease them, and fumigations and victims offered at their
altars.

The greatest and most numerous public sacrifices of human beings were
those offered upon the top of Mexitli’s temple (pi. 14, jig. 18).

When tie day for the sacrifice had come, the priests dressed themselves
in their white garments bordered with long fringes, and fastened their hair
with leather straps; but the high priest wore a red cloak, and upon his
head a coronet of green and yellow feathers; in his ears were golden rings
set with emeralds and turquoises, and from his under lip hung also a large
turquoise. The victim selected for that day was then adorned like the god
to whom he was about to be sacrificed, and was forced by his executioners
to attend all the amusements which preceded the sacrifice, as a kind of

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82 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

introduction to it. At last, when the hour of his execution drew nigh, he
was brought to the temple with a numerous guard around him, to prevent
every attempt to escape. On the threshold a priest awaited his arrival,
with an ugly little idol in his arms, made of corn meal and honey, the eyes
being green stones, and the teeth kernels of corn. As soon as the prisoner
approached, the priest descended hastily, and seating himself upon a little
platform, held his little monster towards the victim, and exclaimed:
“ Behold! your god.” The prisoner was then undressed and his bonds
removed, and in the company of six priests conducted to the roof of the
temple, where they kept the sacrificial stone. This was a slab of green
jasper, five feet long, and a little raised in the centre. Upon it he was
stretched out, while four of the priests held his hands and feet, and a fifth
threw around his neck a wooden collar made in the shape of a coiled ser-
pent, by which he kept his head upon the stone.

The high priest (Tolpetzin) then came forward, and held aloft the idol to
which the prisoner was about to be sacrificed, outs he called upon the
spectators to worship it. This having been domes he approached the altar,
armed with the terrible sacrificial stone-knife, and made a deep incision in
the breast of his victim, from which he tore the bleeding and still palpitat-
ing heart. At first he held it up towards the sun, and then threw it at the
feet of the idol, where he left it only for a second or two, when he picked
it up again, and either put it in the mouth of the statue or rubbed its lips
with it. After this it was burnt, and the ashes scattered in the air.

If the victim was a prisoner of war, they cut off his head, and then threw the
body down among the people, where the officer or soldier who had captured
him stood ready to receive it, and to feast his friends upon the horrid dishes
prepared of the flesh. The head was then placed by the priests in a build-
ing set aside as a receptacle for the heads of all victims slain at this altar.
The largest building of the kind was called Huctzomban, and was a huge
truneated pyramid of earth, on whose top were seventy large trees, with
bars passing from one to another, upon which the skulls were exposed.
These savage sacrifices were very common among the different nations of
Anahuac, who had gradually adopted the religion and customs of the power-
ful Azteks.

But the Azteks, who were more warlike than the other nations, had also
a custom peculiar to themselves. During certain festivals, they permitted
the bravest or most noble of their prisoners to fight in single combat for
their lives. Ifthe prisoner accepted this offer, one of his feet was fastened
to a large stone, and he was furnished with sword and shield; he had then
to defend himself against the antagonist who had offered to slay him as a
sacrifice. But only the same arms were permitted to this champion, and
the combat had to take place before the assembled multitude. If the
prisoner became the victor he escaped not only a horrid death, but was
also honored with the titles and dignities which the laws of the land
bestowed upon the most renowned warriors, and was permitted to return to
his country laden with arms and booty. But the conquered man had to
take his place on the bloody altar, for the priests were unwilling to set a

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MEXICAN MYTHOLOGY. — 83

precedent by which a victim, without offering a substitute, might escape
their clutches ; and the people, like the Romans at the gladiatorial combats,
wished not to be deprived of their more than savage pleasure of gloating
over the dying agonies of a fellow being.

_ Not only individuals but large bodies of men were sometimes slain at the
altar at one time, particularly during their so-called great sacrificial festi-
vals ; various historians assure us that several times more than 2000 prisoners
were sacrificed during a single festival. In most of the temples it was also
the custom to fatten every year a prisoner of distinction, so as to be sure of
a victim for the time of sacrifice.

The priesthood of the Mexicans was a very powerful order, composed of
priests of different ranks and influence. Those of the order whose duty it
was to officiate at the bloody altars wore a particular dress and painted
their bodies black. The high priests were called Zeoteuctls (the divine lord)
and Huetteoquiagut (great priest); besides these names, they had also the
title of Zolpztzin. The priests lived together in convents, having a com-
munity of goods, and were only subject to the discipline of their order. It
appears also that they had priestesses, but not much is known of the duties
that were assigned to them. On pl. 14, jig. 9a and 6, are two busts sup-
posed to represent a front and back view of a priestess in her sacerdotal
dress and ornaments.

The temples (teocallis), which were considered the earthly palaces of the
gods, were built in the shape of a truncated pyramid, and were found every-
where, in cities, on mountains, in the forests, and on the public highways.

The priests were, as among all rude nations, the only conservators of science.
We have copied on pl. 14, jig. 11, their almanac as described by Alexander
von Humboldt. The concentric circles, with their numerous divisions and
subdivisions, are drawn with mathematical accuracy. The execution of the
whole shows also the taste for a repetition of the same figures, the spirit of
order, and appreciation of symmetry, which supplies among all half-civilized
nations the sense for the great and good.

They were also acquainted with a species of writing by which they
transmitted important events, laws, and customs. It appears, as may be
seen from the fragment (jig. 8), that it was a hieroglyphic language, and con-
sisted not so much of what is usually understood by writing as of a sym-
bolical representation of the subject which it was intended to commu-
nicate.

Their computation and division of time were remarkably peculiar. They
divided the year into 18 months, each having 20 days, which were named
after the festivals and occupations for which they were set apart. At the
end of the last. month there occurred always five leap-days, Wimontimi (the
empty or useless ones), so called because they were only employed in
making and receiving visits. Every four years they had also a leap-year ;
but instead of letting it occur at its regular period, they waited until the
fifty-second year, when they intercalated the whole thirteen at once. But
in their chronological computations they paid no attention to the months
and years into which time was divided, for they made all their calcula-

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84 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

tions by periods of 13 days and 13 years. They counted thus always up to
thirteen and then commenced again a new section of time.

Pi. 14, fig. 10, is a drawing of an almanac representing the ancient
Mexican year with its divisions. The middle circle, as will be seen, was
divided into six sections, each containing three figures; these were the
signs for the months.

They commenced their year on the 28th of January, though some authors
say their new-year came as late as the 26th of February.

CLASSIC ANTIQUITY.
I. THE RELIGIOUS SYSTEM OF THE GREEKS.

Among no people of antiquity do we find mythological poetry so dis-
tinguished for its fulness and variety as among the Greeks. For this fact
several causes existed. The great diversity of the tribes, which ultimately
blended in a good degree, but which still retained certain national peculiar-
ities ; the vast influence of neighboring and even distant tribes, produced by
frequent immigrations as well as by the commercial relations in which the
Greeks stood to other countries; the astonishing perfection which they had
attained in sciences and arts, particularly in painting, architecture, and
statuary ; the scholars, philosophers, and poets, whose fame reaches even the
present time: all these agencies contributed to the evolution and embellish-
ment of the Greek religious system, and make it an object not less worthy
of attention than the philosophy and literature of that interesting people.

As with the inhabitants of Greece, so with their mythology numerous
alterations naturally took place. No people ever sprang to their highest
civilization at once, and the same law of progression holds good with the
religion of a nation. The immigrations also to which we have referred often
influenced the character of the Greeks, and introduced new elements into
their religious observances, so that we find several periods of religious and
mythological cultivation. What may have been their precise origin, when
and from what source they may have been adopted, and at what period
the circle of the gods may have been completed: these are questions which
can be determined with but little certainty. It seems most probable that
the Pelasgi, the aborigines of Greece, already had gods and a species of
worship which, receiving additional elements from Egypt, Pheenicia,
Phrygia, Persia, and other countries, gradually adjusted itself to the new
principles, and so assimilated all the material constituents as finally to
evolve a system sufficiently harmonious in all essential points.

That which principally distinguished the mythology of the Greeks from
that of other nations was its multiplicity of gods and deified beings. In
addition to the superior deities adopted from abroad, and modified accord-
ing to the peculiar ideas and wants of the worshippers, they reverenced
many others originated by themselves. They recognised gods of the upper

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GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. ‘ 85

and lower worlds; the powers of physical nature personified, or rather
spiritual agencies controlling and directing natural forces; tutelar deities
and genii of rivers, trees, mountains, forests, cities, and states. Virtues and
vices, qualities, occupations and conditions of life, at first symbolically repre-
sented, gradually came to be regarded as independent beings, and received
a position among the acknowledged deities. Gratitude not unfrequently
contributed to increase the number of deities. Whenever a man had shown
himself a benefactor of his countrymen or of his race, or had distinguished
himself by any extraordinary transactions, he was certain to be honored by
public homage, celebrated in popular songs, or to have his name and the
memory of his deeds perpetuated by monuments. As the outlines of his
character grew indistinct in the twilight of receding ages, men gradually
thought of him as a being of a superhuman grade, the poets ascribed to
him divine attributes and performances, his supernatural origin was dis-
eussed, admitted, and believed, and the circle of the gods was enriched by
a new member. It also happened that every tribe among the Greeks
retained in their mythology the gods of their ancestors, and when a new
deity was to be adopted into their system they merely created for him a new
department and assigned to him new qualities, so that in many instances
the same god might have among different people the same name but various
spheres of activity.

The Grecian mythology was also essentially distinguished from others by
its general spirit and tone. It managed to keep aloof from the hideousness
and absurdity of the Indian system, from the filth and bloodiness of the
Babylonian and Pheenician, and from the gloomy solemnity of the Egyptian,
although all these had furnished portions of the materials out of which it
was composed. A spirit of joyousness, liberty, and heroism, as well as a
gleam of the beautiful and the sublime, vitalized and graced the whole
system, and assisted in concealing or at least diminishing the darker
features inseparably connected with its existence. The grounds of this
peculiarity are to be sought in several circumstances, among which we
reckon, first of all, the serene and favorable climate of Greece, together
with the energy and love of liberty of the people. At a very early period
the majority of the Greek tribes obtained free political constitutions, under
whose healthful operation they realized a high state of culture. It contri-
buted not a little to the same end, that the Grecian mythology had no
exclusive caste of priests. It encouraged no bigoted supervision of individual
belief; it placed no odious restrictions upon the prevailing religious ideas
and feelings. All embarrassment being thus removed, the poets and artists
vied with each other in representing religious conceptions in their purest
and most ennobling form. Indeed, poetry was regarded as particularly
devoted to the service of the gods, so that it freely employed its resources
in separating from mythology all extraneous and uncongenial ingredients,
and bringing it into organic union with the national modes of thought and
action.

Despite their high cultivation, the Greeks failed to comprehend the idea
of a pure spiritual essence. Accordingly, they regarded their gods as

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86 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

similar to men, though of course much their superiors in every respect.

While according to them omniscience, omnipotence, sanctity, and a high.

degree of felicity, they nevertheless associated the idea of these qualities
with that of human bodies, human feelings, inclinations, and passions.
They even endowed them with organs of sense, and imagined them capable
of vice and crime. These apparent contradictions can only be explained
by the fact (so often noticed by historians) that the Greeks were at the
same time a most intelligent and a most sensual people. The most educated
among them, as among other nations, were accustomed to consider much

of the popular faith as merely symbolical or really fabulous, whilst they

secretly cherished their own opinions ; and this was the cause from which

sprang the well known mysteries. Whatever the philosophers and the

educated may have really thought concerning the truthfulness of their
religion and the appropriateness of its rites and ceremonies, yet, finding
them of importance in the preservation and improvement of civil society,
they rendered them a hearty public support.

CosMOGONIES AND THEOGONTES, OR THE ORIGIN OF THE WoRLD
AND OF THE Gops.

In no part of Grecian mythology do we encounter so much variation,
obscurity, and contradiction as in the legends concerning the creation of
the universe. Closely connected with this inquiry and not less puzzling
are the fictions relating to the origin and genealogy of the gods. No one
of the Cosmogonies and Theogonies has ever obtained universal credit, and
perhaps no one can be said to possess superior claims upon general confi-
dence. We give a condensed account of the three theories which have
existed the longest, and have received the widest acceptation.

According to the first, Water was the primordial germ of all things.
The water engendered from itself Slime. The combined energies of the
water and the slime produced a Serpent or Dragon with three heads ; the first
that of a Bull, the second of a Leon, the third of a God. The serpent
thus produced brought forth an “gg, which divided itself into two equal
parts; the upper division constituting heaven (Uranos), the lower, earth
(Gea). From these two proceeded the primitive forces of nature.

According to the second theory, the origin of all things was Zime (Cronos),
who begot Chaos and Ether. The conjunction of chaos with ether formed
a brilliant white egg, the mundane egg, which included, in some mysterious
manner, the vitality of the world. This egg was fructified by the moving
ether (winds), and from it emerged Hos, with glittering golden wings. Eros,
now, as the creative spirit, called forth the gods by his smiles, while the
wretched race of mortals sprang from his tears. He is also known as
Phanes, an Orphic term signifying the first principles of the world, and
is doubtless the same as 4on occurring in other mythologies equivalent to
Time as eternal power. The lion’s head of on (pl. 16, fig. 10) is emblem-
atical of strength. The wings and birds indicate his fleetness ; the serpent

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GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 87

symbolizes his constant renovation; the staff denotes the measuring of the
centuries and years, the beginning and end of which are indicated by the
key; the cluster of grapes is expressive of the fertility caused by slime ;
and the caduceus, the cock, the tongs and hammer at his feet testify that
vigilance and industry which can improve time, but which cannot arrest
its flight.

The third is the Hesiodic Theogony. According to it the prime source
of all things was Chaos, from which emanated the primitive forces and the
gods as their rulers. Ga was the ancestress of the gods. She had sprung
from chaos or from an egg, and first gave birth to Uranos (the firmament or
starry heavens), the hegh mountains, and the watery world. After espous-
ing Uranos she became the mother of the six Z%tans (Oceanos, Coivs, Crios,
Japetos, Hyperion, and Cronos), the six Titanides (Lzheia or Rhea, Mne-
mosyne, Themis, Phebe, Thetis, and Theta), and the Cyclopes and Heca-
toncheire (the hundred-handed).

Uranos becoming fearful that his children would grow too powerful and
aspire to supreme dominion, chained them and then banished them to
Tartaros, but Geea, provoked. at his cruelty, incited the Titans to conspire
for his overthrow. Cronos the youngest, who alone had sufficient courage
to make the attack, obtaining from his mother a diamond sickle as his
weapon, dethroned his father. He now became ruler of the universe,
and ascended the throne of Uranos (pl. 16, jigs. 11, 12). He married
Rhea, one of the Titanides, by whom he had three sons, Ais, Poseidon,
and Zeus, and three daughters, Hestza, Demeter, and Hera; but fearing
the realization of the prophecy of Themis, that his sons would imitate his
own example and rebel against him, he devoured all the children except
Zeus, who escaped through the artifice of his mother. When he was born
and seemed likely to perish like the rest, Rhea enveloped the stone Abadyr
in a goat skin, and Cronos swallowed it (jig. 13) instead of the infant,
which was sent to Gea, to be reared in Crete. He was suckled by
the goat Amalthea (fig. 17), whose horn afterwards became the symbol
of plenty. Rhea sits close by dejected, and apprehensive lest Cronos
should discover the retreat, with her veil she wipes away her tears. Two
Curetes (mysterious beings, supposed by some to be demons or servants of
the gods, by others regarded as the children of Zeus) dressed in the chlamys
or warrior’s cloak, and equipped in helmets and armor, practise the war-
dance before Zeus, and by striking their swords upon their shields keep up
a perpetual din, in order to prevent Cronos from hearing the cries of the
child. According to another myth Zeus was nourished by the nymph
Amalthea, daughter of king Minos, with nectar and ambrosia from two
rams’ horns. As a mark of gratitude he afterwards placed one of the horns
among the constellations, and changed the other, which Amalthea retained
into the cornucopia or horn of plenty, containing every commodity that can
be desired. After he grew up he resolved to dethrone his father, and thus
avenge the injuries of his youth. This involved him in a war with the Titans.
The latter had been consigned by Uranos to Tartaros, but were subsequently
released by Cronos to assist him in the revolt against his father. Cronos

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88 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

found them to be excellent allies but turbulent subjects, and was compelled
to remand them to their confinement. Zeus liberated them a second time,
and by their aid constrained Cronos to restore his devoured children,
together with the stone Abadyr (afterwards preserved and known at Delphi
as the sacred stone), and even sought to wrest from him the universal
sovereignty. The Titans at this point assisted their brother Cronos, but
Zeus, with the assistance of the Cyclopes and Hecatoncheiri, whom he
liberated from Tartaros, conquered and hurled the faithless Titans once more
to the infernal regions ( pl. 18, jig. 2). During this contest the gods were
stationed on mount Olympus, while the Titans occupied the opposite moun
tain Othrys. ORs

Another war followed the accession of Zeus. The giants rose against him
and his race, and sought to depose him from his authority. They piled
mountain upon mountain in order to scale Olympos, hurled vast rocks at
the gods, and shook the earth with their shouts of battle. The strife con-
tinued long and fierce, but Zeus showered upon them the thunderbolts
forged by the Cyclopes, and at last plunged them into the abyss below.

Geea, exasperated at the defeat of her children, now brought forth Zyphon,
a monstrous giant, to contend with the gods. Fire flashed from his mouth
and eyes, serpents hissed from his hands, and a number of the gods in dis-
may took flight. Zeus finally overcame him and placed him in the lower
world, where, uniting with Hchidna, he became the sire of the three-headed
dogs, Arthrus and Cerberus, the Lernean Hydra, the Chimera, and
several other monsters.

This terminated the war of the gods, of whom Zeus now became the
sovereign. His family succeeded that of Cronos, to whom he assigned the
government of H'lysion, situated upon the furthest ocean, where he repre-
sents antiquity, and is the ruler of the uninterrupted golden age.

Before entering upon a specific discussion of the new dynasty, it may be
proper to devote a brief space to some of the personages already mentioned,
as we shall not have occasion to refer to them again.

Gea, the primeval mother of the original line of gods, after their subju-
gation, did not wholly disappear from the rank of mythical beings.
Temples were erected, and honors paid to her as the Great Goddess and
Child-nourisher. She was appealed to in oaths, and as goddess of the earth
was blended with other deities of the new system.

From the wound inflicted by Cronos upon his father Uranos, drops of
blood fell into the sea; and out of these sprang the Giants, the Lrinnyes,
the Humenides, and the Delian nymphs.

The Giants, of whom we shall speak more at large hereafter, were
monsters of enormous size and almost invincible strength. Their appear-
ance was rendered frightful by their long hair (which fell in disorder over
their cheeks), and their dragon’s feet and tails; and in their battle with the
gods they were subdued more by ingenuity than by power.

The Lrinnyes ( pl. 23, fig. 14), called Alecto, Megwra, and Tisiphone, were
the avengers of murder, perjury, and capital offences; in other words they
executed the decrees of emesis, the impersonation of divine wrath. The

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GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 89

artists represented them as hideous, broad-faced women, dressed in black,
with projecting tongues, clawed fingers, blood-shot eyes, streaming dis-
hevelled hair, and carrying a blazing torch or a bundle of serpents. Some-
times they appear with snakes instead of hair. They continually pursued
the guilty culprit, scourging him with serpent whips until he sank to despair,
and sought refuge from their fury in suicide.

The Melian Nymphs (nymphs of the ash tree) were a species of Dryad.
At their birth the oak and fir sprang up from the ground, and will wither
and die with them.

Uranos, the progenitor of all these deities, disappeared from the new
dynasty of gods, receiving no further worship or honor.

L?hea, as the parent of Zeus, and the grand maternal source of the new
race of gods, was included among them under the name of Cybele. She was
represented (pl. 16, jig. 14) as a beautiful woman sitting upon a throne, or
riding in a chariot drawn by lions clad in a tunic girt around her waist,
while a full flowing mantle reaches from her shoulders to her feet. On her.
head rests the mural crown, so formed as to exhibit a wall with towers and
gates. Her left hand is lying on a tambourine. We see a profile of her
bust, the head and neck covered, on a coin ( pl. 17, fig. 3).

Originally Rhea and Cybele constituted two separate beings, the first
springing from Crete, the second from Phrygia. According to Diodorus,
Cybele was the daughter of King Mon and his queen Dindyme. In con-
sequence of a prediction, her father caused her to be exposed on Mount
Cybelos, where she was suckled by panthers and lionesses until discovered
by an old shepherdess, who brought her up and called her Cybele. Her
skill in the healing art secured for her the affection of the people. She
invented the cymbal, the drum, and the many-tubed flute, and by reason of
her discoveries and benevolence she obtained the appellation of “ Good
Mother of the Mountain.” A beautiful youth named Atys (pl. 16, jig. 15)
was her constant and devoted lover. Whence Atys came, who he was, and
what fate finally overtook him, are questions which the myths decide
variously. In regard, however, to his end, the most current account relates
that when Mzon became apprised of his daughter’s fame, he hastened to
acknowledge her; but hearing of her intimacy with Atys, put him to death.
Cybele, whose grief deprived her of reason, accompanied by her friend and
tutor Marsyas, now roamed to the sound of the pipe and drum which she
had invented, over many countries, visiting even the Hyperborean nations,
and everywhere teaching mankind the art of agriculture. In consequence
of a dreadful famine which ravaged Phrygia, and at the command of the
oracle, which had been consulted in regard to the general calamity, she, or
according to others Atys, obtained divine honors, his likeness being buried
to stay the devastation of the famine, and public worship being decreed to
him at Pessinus. The worship of Cybele and her chief festival stand,
therefore, in close connexion with her relation to Atys.

The celebration of her rites began with the spring, and was partly solemn
and partly wild and licentious. During the first day, March 21st, a fir was
eut down and borne, with the image of Atys suspended from its branches,

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90 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

into the temple of the goddess. The second day was devoted to constant
mournful music on horns and other instruments. On the third, the day of
rejoicing, the armed priests of Cybele, called Cybelones or Corybantes, per-
formed wild frantic dances to the clamorous music of - cymbals, drums,
pipes, and horns; or ran yelling over hills and valleys with pine torches in
their hands, scourging and lacerating themselves in honor of the goddess.
The ceremonies of the first day, particularly the transplanting of the pine tree
into the temple, were designated by the expression, Arbor intrat/ and the
whole festival symbolized the search and discovery of Atys. The emblems
of Atys were a straight and a curved flute (pl. 16, jig. 16 a), and a shep-
herd’s staff, together with bells (jig. 16 0).

Oceanos, the first born among the Titans, did not join the rebellion
against Uranos, and thus escaped the punishment which consigned them to
Tartaros. He received the government of the sea. In the rude ages the
term Oceanos signified a powerful stream of water surrounding the earth,
and branching off into bays and gulfs. One of the arms, the Styx, flowed
into the lower world. Oceanos was a peaceful, good-natured god, but did
not pass over into the new race of gods, being always regarded as an alle-
gorical personage. The rivers <Acheloos, Alpheus, Asopos, Hridanos,
Inachos, Cephissos, Ladon, and Peneus, were his sons. He had by his union
with the Titanide Zethys three thousand daughters called Oceanides.

Tapetos, another Titan, occupied a middle position between the human
and the divine. His most celebrated sons were Adlas and Prometheus,
who will be mentioned hereafter.

After these elucidations we resume our account and pass on to the
descendants of Cronos.

Tue Cronies, on New Racer or Gops, embraced a vast number of
individuals whose proper qualifications, attributes, and character, owing to
the confusion and contrariety in their history, are difficult to determine.
We state nothing dogmatically upon the subject, preferring to follow the
narration and arrangement most generally received. )

1. SuPERIOR oR Otympic Gops.

There were twelve who received the appellation of Olympic Gods from
Mount Olympos, where they were supposed to meet in council and debate
upon divine and human affairs. They composed one family, consisting of
two brothers (Zews and Poseidon), three sisters (Demeter, Hera, and
Hestia), four sons (Apollo, Hephestos, Ares, and Hermes), and three
daughters (Artemis, Pallas, Athene, and Aphrodite). The number,
twelve, had probably some reference to the division of the year into
twelve months.

1. Zeus (Jupiter). At the termination of the celestial war already
described, a new era of universal government began under Zeus. He
was the Almighty, the Father of gods and men, ruler of the universe,
and the chief of the Olympic council. It belonged to him to exercise

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unlimited sovereignty over the other gods, to chastise them, and even
to banish them from Olympos. He was the thunderer, the cloud-
gatherer, the god who darted forth the lightning, who sent rain, dew, hail,
snow, and wind, and who spread out the rainbow. He appointed the life
and destiny of mortals, elevated and dethroned kings, dispensed good and
evil, wealth and poverty, happiness and misery, life and death. He
rewarded virtue and punished wickedness, guarded the rites of hospitality
and the sacredness of landmarks, and directed his wrath against perjury.
He selected, as the media of his communication with mankind, the oracle,
the flight of birds, and the signs and omens of the sky. At the nod of his
head, or the winking of his eye, the heavens trembled. Olympos consti-
tuted his permanent residence. Here he assembled the gods around him.
As the source of all power and wisdom, he was the reputed father of nearly
all the inferior deities, the remainder being regarded as his servants.

It must be obvious that the representations of Zeus were many and
~ varied. ‘The lofty ideas entertained of him, the extensive sphere he was
supposed to fill, and the peculiarities of the countries and nations in which
his worship was established; would argue this. Mythology presents us with
a triple Zeus: the Cretan, the Arcadian, and the Dodonwan. In every coun-
try the artists endeavored to portray in his countenance majesty, strength,
wisdom, and paternal benignity. The forehead was open and expansive;
the massive hair, gathered in curls, descended on both sides to the shoulders,
while the dense flowing beard, large nose, eyes, and mouth, communicated
to his whole appearance the perfect ideal of a god. Pl. 16, fig. 21, repre-
sents him seated on his throne as king of the gods. His right hand holds
the thunderbolts, his left the sceptre ; while the eagle, one of his attributes,
crouches at his feet. In pl. 18, fig. 1, we have a bust of Zeus as king,
crowned with the laurel, and the expression of his face answering his
generally adopted characteristics. He sometimes appears on coins (pl. 17,
jigs. T and 8), in the character of a warrior, crowned with a laurel or oak
wreath, but always expressing the highest dignity. The old Pelasgzan Zeus
( jig. 9) differs somewhat from the foregoing. Standing erect, his hair less
curly, and his person partially covered with a mantle, he grasps in one
hand the thunderbolts and in the other the sceptre. /2g. 5 represents
Zeus Hellenios, the national god, protector, and type of the Greeks while
opposing the barbarians in Sicily ; and pi. 16, jig. 20, the Olympian Zeus,
the epitome and concentration of all his perfections, dignity, and efficiency.

Sometimes, and particularly upon coins, he is represented in a simple
form, accompanied by the eagle (pi. 16, jig. 22, and pl. 20, jig. 21). Again
in pl. 28, fig. 2, and pl. 16, fig. 19, he appears as the ram on the mountains
or sky, or as the god of flocks and light, under the title Zews Ammon, or
Hammon, with rams’ horns, which clearly point to his Egyptian origin.
The ram (Aries), the first sign in the Zodiac, is obviously an astronomical
allusion. Accordingly another legend makes Zeus a planet, and as such in
the sign of Sagittarius, upon whom he is seated with the eagle and sceptre
(pl. 18, fig. 4). This archer was the son of Cronos and the nymph Phdlyre.
In order to prevent the jealousy of his wife Rhea, Cronos when visiting the

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92 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

nymph changed himself into a horse, and this form so impressed her ima-
gination that her child was half man and half horse.

Chetron (for so the Centaur was named) inherited the iaeanadiigl powers
of his father ; soon exhibited remarkable knowledge and skill, particularly
in music, hetiergaay: prophecy, and medicine; and was well aie in all the
arts and sciences. Profound reverence for the gods and a cordial love of
mankind were his prominent characteristics, and he devoted himself with
zeal to the instruction and accomplishment of talented youths. With this
design he lived secluded from the world on Mount Pelion, and left his
retirement only when the interests of men required it. Indeed he was
unusually loved and revered not only by men but even by the gods, who
deemed it not inconsistent with their rank to accept his advice and instruc-
tion. At last he experienced a tragical fate. Heracles had waged war
with the Centaurs, some of whom, being hard pressed, fled to Cheiron.
One of Heracles’s arrows accidentally struck him in the knee, inflicting an
incurable wound. In vain did the hero apply the remedies invented by
himself; the venom of the Hydra could not be neutralized. The sufferer
retired to his cave and longed for death, but could not overcome his native
immortality. At length Zeus took compassion on his woe, and transferred
his deathless nature to Perseus. Cheiron was then placed among the stars,
where he continues to shine in the constellation Sagittarius.

The Centaurs just mentioned were a race of monsters who possessed the
head, arms, and breast of a man, but from the waist took the form
of a horse ( pl. 30, fig. 193; pl. 29, jig. 22). It is supposed that these fabu-
lous configurations were intended to represent a race of wild mountain
rangers that lived almost constantly on horseback, and delighted in the
chase of wild cattle, and that they are the symbols of perfect horsemanship.

Mythology makes Zeus the hero of a number of adventures connected
with the origin of the inferior gods and of the heroes, and allegorically
accounting for their extraordinary qualities by representing them as the
children of Zeus himself.

The first of the favorites of Zeus was Viobe, daughter of the river god
Inachos. Her daughter Jo, priestess of Hera, the ever jealous consort of
Zeus, also excited within him the tender passion. In order to shield her
from the wrath of his consort, he changed her into a white cow. Hera still
suspecting the fidelity of her spouse, requested the cow as a present, and
placed over her as a guardian the all-seeing Argos, a giant with a hundred
eyes (pl. 20, fig. 1). Zeus, however, outwitted them both. Despatching
Hermes, the messenger of the gods, to liberate the captive, the god of
eunning changed himself into a shepherd, and seeking a position near
Argos, produced upon the flute such soft and soothing tones that all the eyes
were closed in sleep. Approaching Argos from behind, he killed him with
a stone and released the cow. Hera saved the eyes of Argos and set them.
in the tail of the peacock, and sent against Io the gad-fly Ozstros, the tor-
mentor of cattle, which drove her through various countries, compelled her
to swim the Bosphorus, and finally suffered her to rest in Egypt, where
she was worshipped under the name of Zsvs.

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GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. » 93

Another object of Zeus’s affections was Leda, wife of Tyndaros, king of
Sparta. Charmed by her extraordinary beauty, yet denied access to her in
mortal shape, he changed himself into a swan which became her favorite
(pl. 20, fig. 2), with whom she produced an egg, from which in due time
emanated the celebrated twin brothers Castor and Pollux, or the Dioscuri,
who will be mentioned hereafter.

Leto (Latona), the daughter of Cozos and the Titanide Phabe, in her attach-
ment to Zeus, was exposed to hardships and sufferings not less severe than
those of lo. The ever suspicious Hera constantly persecuted her, and prohibit-
ed the inhabitants of the countries and islands through which the trembling
fugitive passed, under the most dreadful threatenings from entertaining her.
Pursued by the hideous serpent Python, she wandered over all lands,
obtaining during only a part of the night a brief respite from the monster.
At a pond in a village in Lycia, the inhabitants refused her the privilege
of slaking her burning thirst, and pursued her with clubs; and Zeus in
revenge turned them into frogs. At the solicitation of Zeus, Poserdon
brought up from the sea the island of Delos, and permitted her to occupy
it. Here she brought forth Apollo and Artemis. The infant Apollo was
wrapped by nymphs in costly bandages, and was fed by Themis with
nectar and ambrosia, which so strengthened him that he burst asunder the
bandages and threw them aside, and seized his bow and arrow to protect
his mother and sister. The serpent Python in the meantime renewed his
persecution, and Leto fled with her twins to Mount Parnassos (pl. 20,
Jig. 5.) Here Apollo slew the serpent, and cast him into a dark cavern.
Long after, when a temple was erected on this spot to the honor of Apollo,
the vapor which issued from the chasm served to inspire the priestesses of
the celebrated oracle.

Europa, daughter of king Agenor of Pheenicia, and of the nymph Zéde-
phassa, also attracted the attentions of Zeus. A box of cosmetics which she
had received from one of Hera’s maids so heightened her charms as to
move the heart of the king of gods and men. In order to approach her
safely, he changed himself into a beautiful bull, and advanced to the sea-
shore where Europa was gathering flowers with her companions (p/. 20,
jig. 22). She found the bull so beautiful and gentle that she ventured to
mount upon his back (pl. 18, jig. 3), when the disguised god ran off with
his lovely burden to the seas (pl. 17, fig. 10), and swam across to the island
of Crete, where he transformed himself into a handsome youth, who inspired
her with love, and to whom she bore three sons, Minos, Sarpedon, and
Rhadamanthus.

The most important myth connected with the history of Zeus is comme-
morated by jig. 11, which is intended to represent Zeus the moment preceding
the birth of Athene (Minerva), who is said to have sprung from his head.
After his marriage with J/etis (Prudence), it was predicted that her child,

if a son, would dethrone him. To prevent this he swallowed his spouse
before her delivery. Presently he felt a pain in his head, and permitted
Hephestos to open it with his hammer, when Athene (Wisdom) sprang
forth in full armor. Another legend relates that she came without genera-
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94 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

tion from his brain ; and a third makes her the daughter of Posezdon and
the nymph Zritonis, and only the adopted child of Zeus.

2. Hera (Juno). This goddess was the daughter of Cronos and Rhea.
She was the sister and consort of Zeus, and as such queen of heaven. For
a while she hesitated to marry Zeus, until one day when she was promenad-
ing on Mount Thronium in Locris, he sent upon her a violent storm, and
hovered over her in the form of a cuckoo. In compassion to the drenched
and frightened bird, she took it to her bosom. Zeus now disclosed his true
character and shape, and she then consented to become his wife.

The marriage of these deities became the source of all blessings wpon
earth, and is represented as the model of the marriage relation, Hera being
the ideal of a Greek wife and mother. She is incorruptibly chaste, show-
ing an unvaried matronly modesty, but also a frigid scorn and jealousy
when Zeus by his infidelities disregards her rights, an exalted self-respect,
and finally an almost unceasing vindictiveness against all rivals in her hus-
band’s favor. Hence the honor in which she was held as the goddess of
marriage and courtship, the patroness of connubial fidelity, and the avenger
of the violation of the marriage covenant. Hera’s insignia were the
diadem and sceptre which defined her rank as queen of heaven ; the peacock,
which indicated her empire in the air; the cuckoo and pomegranate; and
that which marked her particularly from the most ancient times, was the
veil, the assumption of which by the aftianced bride indicated the devotion
of all subsequent life to the husband and his interests ( pl. 15, jig. 7). Some
of the old Pelasgian representations exhibit her with both diadem and veil
(pl. 17, fig. 18), and as the queen of heaven wearing the crown (pi. 15,
jig. 6). Asa mother suckling her son Aves, she is seen in pl. 16, jig. 23,
where her whole appearance is so agreeable as greatly to relieve the ordi-
narily stern features of this queen of gods. Her worship prevailed exten-
sively, and was particularly splendid in Sparta, Mycenz, Samos, Arcadia,
and Elis.

3. Posrmpon (Neptune). In the distribution of universal authority, this
god obtained the dominion of the sea. Originally, while the idea prevailed
that the earth’s surface was not only surrounded by water but rested upon
it, he was regarded in a general sense as the god of the ocean, as well
as of rivers and springs.

Within his own domains he ruled with an absoluteness equal to that of
Zeus in heaven. He agitated the ocean to its foundations, and calmed
it by a nod of his head: he shook the earth and mountains till they reeled.
Accordingly, he had his own circle of inferior beings and agencies, and his
own court, over whose splendor he presided. Ata later period, however,
he took merely the rank of sea god, and althongh still angust and powertul,
he nevertheless lacked the noble majesty of Zeus. His exterior exhibited
something violent and rude, a species of defiance and discontent. The
artists in their representations gave him a more slender frame, and a denser
muscularity than to Zeus. His features were also sharper ; the countenance
contained less of openness and repose, and the hair was more bristling and
disorderly.

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GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 95

According to the older style of representation, Poseidon appears dressed
in a long garment, holding in one hand the trident, in the other the dolphin,
both prime attributes (pl. 22, fig. 4); in later times either wholly nude
(ig. 6), or partly covered (jig. 5). On an ancient Greek coin (pi. 21, fig. 11)
he is seen holding the trident in the attitude of hurling it. The inscription
marks it as the currency of Pastum, a Greek town in Laconia. Not
unfrequently we see him riding on a car without wheels, drawn by héppo-
camps (sea horses). A highly finished engraving of this sort, representing
the triumph of Poseidon and Amphitrite, is given in pl. 23, fig. 20.
They are riding over the sea, surrounded by Wereides, Dolphins, and
Tritons. Mounted upon his car, which is drawn by four hippocamps,
Poseidon moves majestically over the waters, holding the trident in the
left hand and the reins in the right. He looks benignantly on Amphitrite,
who is conveyed by dolphins, and employs her hands in holding the reins
and one end of a veil. One nereid sits on her right side, supporting her
uplifted arm; another is seen on the left holding the other end of the veil
and guiding one of the dolphins. Joyous tritons surround them on all
sides, blowing in their ocean shells; and Cupids or genii are lying or
sitting upon dolphins. Further off appear other nereides or sea gods who
regard Poseidon as their sovereign, while Cupids hover above the scene,
strewing flowers or shooting love arrows.

Amphitrite, as intimated above, was the wife of Poseidon. She was
the daughter of Oceanos and Tethys. During the war of the Titans Poseidon
had signalized his hostility to her race, and remembering this fact, she
spurned his first efforts to woo her, flying from his presence, and hiding
herself among the sea weeds. A dolphin pointed out to him the place of
her concealment. Pursuing her thither he renewed his addresses, and
succeeded in overcoming her objections to the union, and in gratitude
placed the dolphin among the constellations. Amphitrite, now queen of
the sea, lived with her husband in a golden palace at the bottom of the
Eubeean strait.

Poseidon, like his relation Zeus, proved unfaithful to his spouse; indeed
the myths make him the more gallant of the two.

The most celebrated among his favorites was the fountain nymph
Amymone, for whose sake he watered the thirsty plains of Avgolzs, a fountain
being opened on the spot where the god first saw her. The interview is
represented on a coin (pl. 23, fig. 4). Poseidon stands before Amymone
in the act of declaring his love, with his right foot on a stone, his right
hand on his knee, and the left placed on his back; while she holds a pitcher
in the right hand, and covers her eyes with the left, her half-averted face
and abashed look marking her inward agitation upon the question of
rejecting or accepting his proposal.

It is remarkable that notwithstanding Poseidon’s posterity displayed a
wild ungovernable propensity, they should nevertheless furnish so many
heroes and founders of states and cities. Among these we mention only
Taras, who appears on a Tarentinian coin (pl. 21, fig. 10) riding on a

dolphin, holding a trident and a statue of victory. He was founder and
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96 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

patron god of Taras (the ancient name for Taranto), and the figure as well
as the inscription TAPAZ obviously point to that historical fact.

Poseidon and Pallas Athene contended with each other about the sway
of the city of Athens, and the honor of giving it a name. It was agreed to
decide the dispute in favor of the one who should produce the most valuable
gift for the Greeks. Poseidon struck the ground and the horse arose;
Athene created the olive tree. The Greeks thereupon chose her for their
patron deity, and called the city Athens. In pl. 21, jig. 12, representing
this transaction, she is seen extending her right hand to Poseidon, in token
of her joy at the happy termination of the contest. The owl is sitting on a
branch of the olive, around whose trunk coils the serpent, one of the
insignia of Athene. Owing to Poseidon’s gift in his contest with Athene,
horses were ever afterwards sacrificed to him, together with seals ; and horse-
races in honor of him constituted part of the exercises connected with the
Isthmian games. Merchants and navigators made frequent offerings to
Poseidon. 3

4, Demeter, on Dio (Ceres). This goddess was the daughter of Cronos
and Rhea, and the patroness of the vegetable world, particularly of fruits
and grain. At an early period she appears to have been distinguished from
Hestia, or Vesta, the latter impregnating the earth with fertilizing
warmth, the former inducing, shaping, and maturing the nourishing ear.
She fauadded agriculture, reclaimed mankind from a savage state, accustomed
them to permanent residences, and taught them the rights of property.

In statues and paintings she resembles era in the maternal expression,

though she is of a milder countenance, and somewhat taller. The eye also

is more closed, and not so penetrating ; the forehead is lower, and instead
of a diadem she wears a single bandage, or a crown composed of ears of
wheat. The ancient Pelasgi represented her (pl. 24, jig. 1) in full attire ;
the crown rests on her brow, the left hand holds a sceptre, the right a bunch
of wheat ears, poppies, and flowers; while a large veil, covering the upper
part of her head, falls down upon her back. The later Grecian artists, how-
ever, exhibit lea entirely naked, with a fruit basket and a sheaf of grain.
Many busts of the goddess or the crown of ears ( pl. 24, fig. 2), or instead
of it, the hair put up in a waving form, with a tuft or bunch on the top of
the head ( pl. 18, fig. 16).

Demeter was visited by Zeus in the shape of a serpent ; and she is seen
on a coin (pl. 15, jig. 27a), shuddering at the sight of the serpent, and
endeavoring to escape from it, while the reverse of the same coin (jig. 27)
represents Bacchos with the body of a bull, the son of Zeus and Demeter.
Some writers, however, interpret these figures of Zeus and Persephone
(Proserpine). The latter, whom the common myth describes as the daughter
of Zeus and Demeter, was the source of much grief to the mother. While
yet a child, her father had betrothed her to her brother Hades, the gloomy
prince of the infernal world, but when she grew up she declined fulfilling
the engagement. As she was one day gathering flowers in the Mysian plain
in the absence of her mother, the earth opened suddenly, and Hades arose
in his golden chariot and carried her off through a cave to his shadowy

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GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 97

abode. Demeter heard her shrieks, but arrived too late to rescue her from
the ravisher. Lighting a torch at Etna, she mounted her car (fig.
26a@6) and wandered over the world in search of her daughter, but did
not find her. After nine days and nights’ fruitless effort, she learned trom
Helies (the sun), the all-seeing, both the fate and the habitation of Perse-
phone. In grief and rage she cursed the earth for assisting in the escape
of the ravisher, denied herself food and drink, renounced her divinity, and
in disgust abandoned the society of the gods.

In vain did Zeus send J/rzs and others to recall her to Olympos, and
induce her to revoke her malediction upon the now sterile earth; she
remained inflexible until she secured the promise of having her daughter
restored. Zeus despatched the divine messenger Hermes to Evrebos (the
lower world), to bring back Persephone; but Hades had induced her to eat
with him a pomegranate, and this bound her to his domains. Zeus, how-
ever, so modified the penalty of her indiscretion as to allow her to pass
eight months of the year with her mother, and the remaining four with her
husband. Gratified at this concession, Demeter now forgot her resentment,
revived the fertility of the soil, promoted husbandry, and for this purpose
visited the kings of the earth, showing herself particularly communicative
to Triptolemus, King of Attica. She taught him to use the plough (pl. 23,
jig. 18), and presented him with a chariot drawn by winged dragons, in
which he rode over every country, teaching the inhabitants the arts of
tillage, and the method of performing her sacred rites ( pl. 24, fig. 6). After
this Demeter returned to Olympos.

5. Patras Arnene (Minerva). We have already remarked that Athene
was daughter of Zeus and Metis. She was regarded as the goddess of
intellectual power, of cool, calm reason; and the poets and philosophers
have assigned to her various and contradictory attributes. She presided over
systematic warfare, and was supposed to be present in those contests which
were decided rather by military skill than by the rude courage of the belli-
gerents. On the other hand, she favored the reign of peace, promoted the
pacific occupations of spinning, sewing, and embroidery, and patronized the
fine arts so far as they contributed to mental cultivation. Accordingly she
befriended poetry, oratory, and the sciences in general, taking them
cordially under her special protection.

As she was not born of a mother, she exhibited no signs of female tender-
ness. Unsusceptible of the influence of love, she ever remained the virgin
goddess, disdaining all womanly weakness; and yet this apparent incon-
gruity between her sex and character was finely reconciled by the artists.
Her eye, unlike that of Artemis (Diana), does not open fully, is rather
steady and downcast. Her compressed lips indicate earnestness, and the
whole face is rather small and elongated than full and round. The chin is
prominent and somewhat sharp, the nose long and finely formed, the hair
massive and artlessly drawn back from the forehead, falling loosely over her
beautiful neck. In short, the whole figure is in accordance with the ideal,
and the masculine character of the vigorous and compact frame is softened

by the feminine expression which may be traced in all its outlines.
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98 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

The customary habit of Athene is the Spartan tunic, without sleeves or
seams on the sides, and over this is thrown a wide and numerously folded
cloak. The helmet, egis, and shield constitute her inseparable attributes.
The helmet is sometimes of the Corinthian fashion, with a movable visor,
sometimes like the close-fitting Attic helmet furnished with a narrow
frontlet and side clasps, and always more or less richly adorned with griffins,
rams’ horns, and sometimes a row of horses, the front ones so arranged
as to resemble a span harnessed to a war chariot. Sphinxes, also, hippo-
griffs, and serpents often serve to ornament it. The gis was a sort of
cuirass or breastplate, made of the rough skin of a monster which Athene
had killed. Its seams were united by serpents instead of cords. The term
Azgis literally signifies a goat-skin, and Lactantius says it was made of the
skin of the goat which suckled Zeus. When fitted to the person it covered
the breast as far as the waist, and passing over the shoulders, extended as
low behind as the front part. In some pictures it is represented as oblique,
passing from the right shoulder over the breast, and after going under the
left arm, crossing the back to the right shoulder. A mask of Medusa,
sculptured in the middle, gives it a terrific aspect. The shield is Spartan,
of a circular form, and bears on its face the usual ornaments. It did not
accompany the goddess when she was represented in her peaceful character.
Besides the helmet and shield, Athene occasionally appears with the snake,
the olive branch, the night owl, the cock, and the spear.

After this general explanation, the various pictures of this goddess will
be readily understood. As goddess of war, we see her (pl. 27, jig. 7) in her
peculiar panoply, the helmet, egis, shield, and lance; as hastening to
battle, with the lance on her shoulder and the shield hung upon the lance
(jig. 10); as Weke, or Victoria, the goddess of victory after a well fought
battle and the subjugation of the foe (jig. 14). Unlike Aves (Mars),
Athene has no fondness for war for its own sake; hence we see her ( pl.
19, jig. 3) as Victoria in peace, her right hand hanging down inactive, and
the left holding the upright spear. .

In pl. 27, jig. 9, we have the Agorwan Athene wearing the Dorie chzton,
a narrow woollen garment without sleeves, suspended by bands and clasps
trom the shoulders, closed at the waist but open below, the whole enveloped
in a sort of gown. A very small egis hangs over the breast, the shield and
lance are wanting, the right hand rests on the hip, the head inclines
with a singular expression, and the left arm is performing an oratorical
gesture.

Among her busts are some representing her in rich attire (jig. 8); others
in simpler costume (pl. 28, jig. 6). The serpent stands either as the
symbol of medical science, or as indicating the necessity of vigilance over
young women.

Athene often appears upon coins. Thus on a brass coin of Athens (pl.
27, fig. 12 a6) the obverse exhibits her profile with a neat, simple helmet;
the reverse shows the acropolis of Athens, the temple and statue of Athene
standing on the brow of the hill, a flight of steps leading up the sides, and
in the rocks the entrance to the cave of Pan. ‘The inscription shows

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GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 99

the origin of the coin. /%g.11ab exhibits the bust of Athene and her
sacred bird, the owl.

6. Hestra (Vesta). This goddess, the eldest daughter of Cronos and
Rhea, taught men the use of fire and the benefits of social union; she also
represented domestic happiness, and presided over the social hearth. In
comparison with the other Olympic deities, her history is exceedingly obscure
and limited, fewer monuments being found of her than of any other goddess.
She is often regarded as Cybele the younger, the same as Ignis (fire).

The artists represented her with a noble form like that of Hera and Deme-
ter, differing mainly in having a less robust appearance. Her principal
characteristics were a striking simplicity of manner, and a tranquil, placid
earnestness of mien, attitude, and dress. A statue expressive of these traits
is copied in pl. 15, fig. 8, though some authors improperly interpret it asa
Vestal virgin, one of her priestesses. Every part of the figure confirms our
view of it. The general fashion of the dress, the veil, the sceptre-shaped
staff, the intelligence and ideality of the head, the womanly rather than
the maiden-like form, all express the goddess rather than the priestess.
But few temples were erected in honor of Hestia, for every dwelling was
her temple. In the middle of the house stood her altar, and the ante-
chamber of every family residence was regarded as sacred to her.

7. Hepxzstos (Vulcan), son of Hera, who had given him birth out of spite
to Zeus, when he had caused Athene to spring full grown from his head,
was the god of fire, and the inventor and patron of all such arts and manu-
factures as require heat in conducting them. He also symbolized the sub-
terranean fires which sometimes revealed themselves in eruptions. He is
represented in various forms. By ancient artists he is described as youth-
fal and beardless. Later, however, he appears in a manly form, holding a
middle position between the older and more youthful gods. The principal
marks characterizing his statues are the Phrygian cap (pl. 24, jig. 20), or a
conical hat, and as attributes the hammer, tongs, and anvil. As a compen-
sation for his want of beauty and grace (for he was lame, and the only mis-
shapen deity in Olympos), he possessed in its highest degree the inventive
genius, particularly in its application to the working of metals. By the
exertion of this faculty, he secured the respect and favor of all the gods.
He built their palaces, forged thunderbolts for Zeus and arrows for Eyos,
and prepared the silver armor of Aves, the shield of Achilles, and other
similar works. Volcanoes served him as workshops, and here he plied his
profession with his fellow workmen the Cyclopes (pl. 25, jig. 20).

The mythological fictions give different reasons for his lameness. One
relates that his mother, so soon as she saw that his beauty did not equal her
own, petulantly cast him from Olympos, and crippled him by the fall. He
subsequently avenged this unnatural cruelty. At the command of Zeus he
constructed for his mother a golden throne-chair, and the moment she occu-
pied it she felt invisible chains confining her firmly to the seat, until at
length Ares procured her liberation. Another legend states that Zeus him-
self hurled him from Olympos, first when Hera was endeavoring to hide
the new born god from his sight; and again when Hepheestos dared to

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100 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

interfere in a quarrel between his father and mother, and espoused the side
of the latter. This time he fell upon the island of Lemnos, ined inhabit
ants kindly received and intertained him.

At a subsequent period he expressed his willingness to return to
Olympos, and Dionysos (Bacchus) undertook to conduct the refractory. god
home. Having first intoxicated him, he placed him on an ass, and amid
music and acclamations bore him safely to the residence of the gods.

It was not long ere he created new troubles in the divineassembly. Los,
for whom Hepheestos had made golden arrows, resolved to try their influ-
ence on the artist himself. One of them took effect, and the fire god
became a helpless captive to the charms of Aphrodite, the most beautiful
of all the celestials. As the extremes of beauty and ugliness could not
naturally meet in one pair, his passion remained long unreciprocated. At
last the dejected lover abandoned his labors, and threatened never to resume
them until she should become his wife. The other inhabitants of Olympos,
whom Hepheestos had supplied with armor and other implements, now felt
constrained to use their influence in overcoming her objections to the union.
At length she complied, and after a magnificent solemnization of the mar-
riage ceremonies, he cheerfully returned to his work.

8. ApHropite (Venus). The most graceful and charming of all the
female deities was the goddess of beauty. In her the Greeks expressed
their most perfect ideal of female loveliness and attraction, of an all-
influencing, all-subduing power, whose sphere embraced both gods and
men; but as the beneficent impulse of love itself, if not carefully moderated
by morality, may prove destructive of its own aims, she sometimes stands
also as the symbol of this ungoverned sensuality.

In the later history of mythology, however, it was the object of artists,
both painters and sculptors, to embody in her representations the most
attractive female delicacy. Hence the Aphrodite Urania (celestial love)
must be carefully distinguished from the Aphrodite Pandemos, or Vulgivaga
(earthly love). As connected with matrimonial and social interests, she
presided over marriages, births, and festivals, and was the protectress of
children and mariners. So far as concerned the exterior development which
the artists endeavored to reveal, it was handsomely realized in the delicate
and finely swelling form in which beauty and modesty prevailed. The
face is a lengthened oval, the forehead moderately high, the outline of
the eye-brow is clear and serene, the eye small and glancing love, the
mouth small, symmetrical, and charming in expression, the ridge and
point of the nose elegantly chiselled, and finally, the cheeks have an
agreeable fulness. The hair, gathered from the forehead and temples,
reposes in graceful folds on the crown of the head, sometimes adorned with
a riband. ‘The head itself does not sit perpendicularly upon the swan-
like neck, but has a slight easy inclination to one side.

In regard to the dress, position, insignia, &c., of Aphrodite, great diver-
sity existed. This was the natural result of the almost universal homage
paid her, and the innumerable attempts to represent her in every conceiv-
able relation. On the old Pelasgian statues she appeared in full dress ( pi.

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GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. ) 101

27, fig. 18), her head adorned with the diadem; as goddess of matrimony
(jig. 26) she is represented in a similar manner, only the drapery is less
splendid and heavy, and the left breast and shoulder are exposed. %g. 21
exhibits her as empress of the sea, partly clothed and partly exposed, her
right hand resting on the tail of the dolphin, which accompanies her statues
in this character; and at jig. 19 we see her leaning on a dolphin, entirely
naked, and in the act of putting on an anklet. In a celebrated drawing
(jig.20) we see her riding over the sea on a sea-bull ; joyous Cupids are dis-
porting around her; one of them guides the bull by a wreath thrown over
the monster’s horns, a second keeps alongside on a dolphin, while a third
hovers over the goddess in the air. Near the edge of this picture the
artist’s name (Glycon) is given. Pl. 15, fig. 17, represents a statue of her,
very similar in attitude to the beautiful and celebrated Venus di Medici, in
which she appears partly nude and crowned. She was also often represented
bathing. Thus on a coin (pl. 28, jig. 16) she is kneeling on the ground,
one Cupid is rubbing her back with a cloth while another pours water over
her. In jig. 17, she is seen in the act of resuming her dress after a bath.
As Aphrodite Callipygos (pl. 27, fig. 24), she appears with her tunic lifted
above her hips, and her face turned round as if surveying her figure in a
mirror; and as Venus Hrycina, so called from Mount Eryx in Sicily (pl.
28, jig. 15), she is seated in a chair and attended by the dove and a Cupid.
The inscription EPYK signifies “coin of the Erycinians.” We present
also (fig. 14), on a coin of Ascalon, a figure of Aphrodite Urania, under
the name of Astarte, or Astaroth, a goddess of the Pheenicians. A crescent
surmounts her head ; she holds in the right hand a dove, and in the left a
warrior’s lance; while her whole weight rests upon the prostrate Derceto.
This latter goddess was worshipped by the Syrians; she is half woman and
half fish, symbolizing doubtless two successive periods of cosmogony. In
the figure she holds aloft the horn of plenty. Among the numerous busts
of Aphrodite, some exhibit her with the Junonian diadem ( pl. 27, jig. 17 a) ;
others with the simple hair-knot (jig. 17 6.)

The myths relating to Aphrodite equalled in number her representations.
Her birth itself was extraordinary, for according to the old legends she
arose from the drops of blood which fell into the sea when Cronos wounded
his father Uranos. Pl. 27, jig. 31, represents the circumstances attending
her first appearance. Happy Tritons are bearing over the sea on a shell
the new-born pearl of creation ; others proclaim on their horns their joy at
the priceless gift; nymphs vie with each other in celebrating her birth, and
approach her with the richest fruits; while Cupids hover over her with an
ample veil, and scatter flowers on her. When she had left the deep she
wrung the water from her hair (jig. 22), and myrtles and roses sprang up
on the spot where her foot first rested on the shore. She was received in
Olympos with universal acclamation, and, as already remarked, married to
Hephestos, who, however, was not blessed by her acquisition in proportion
to his expectations, as she married him only reluctantly, and as the goddess
of love bestowed her smiles both on gods and mortals. Thus Aves, the
valiant war god, enjoyed her regard; and in pl. 18, fig. 5, they are seen

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102 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

declaring their love. Among mortals she also had her favorites. The
story of her love for Adonis, son of King Cinyras, is well known. This
youth, the handsomest of men, lived on her favorite island Cyprus, and so
intense was her affection for him, that she requested Persephone to endow
him with immortality. The latter granted the favor, but recalled it so soon
as she saw him, herself becoming enamored of his beauty ; though another
account says she permitted him to spend one half the year on earth, the
other in the shades. The fable obviously points to the periodical return of
summer and winter. i |

To return, however, to the first myth. Aphrodite became alarmed for
his safety, as he frequently exposed himself to danger in the chase. At
length the jealous Ares appeared in the woods as a wild boar, and while
Adonis was in hot pursuit, turned and killed him with his tusks. Aphro- |
dite in vain sought to restore him to life; despair, however, yielding to a
gentler grief, she sprinkled water on the ground and raised from the fatal
spot the flower anemone. Her love for Anchises, prince of Troy, was
inspired by Zeus as a punishment for her boast that she was superior to the
power of the tender passion. Anxious for his life, she concealed their
affection; but Anchises imprudently disclosed the secret to Dzonysos.
Enraged at his presumption, Zeus hurled at him a thunderbolt. Aphrodite
caught it in her garments, but terror rendered him dim-sighted and feeble.
After the sack of Troy he accompanied his son eas on his voyage to
Italy, but died in Sicily and was buried near Mount Eryx. Aphrodite
often mourned at his grave, and placed a dove to watch it. Her beauty
occasioned a contest with Hera and Pallas Athene, which arose in this
manner: Peleus, prince of Phthia, had invited to his wedding all the
gods and goddesses except Hvis, the goddess of Discord, who always
marred the harmony of every company to which she was admitted.
Chagrined at the seclusion, she determined at any rate to gratify her ruling
propensity, and threw into the marriage hall a golden apple bearing the
inscription “ For the most Beautiful!” The three goddesses severally
claimed it, but as they could not agree upon the rightful owner, they
appealed to Zeus for an award. The latter declined the office, and referred
them to Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy, who was then on Mount Ida.
Each candidate endeavored to obtain a decision in her own favor by bribing
the umpire. Aphrodite shrewdly promised him /elen, the most beautiful
woman of earth, and the prize was awarded to her. Pl. 27, jig. 25a,
represents her victorious over both competitors, and holding the apple and
a mirror. She fulfilled her engagement with Paris, and aided him in the
abduction of Helen, wife of Menelaus. The Trojan war resulted from this
rape, and even Aphrodite could not avert the calamity nor protect her
favorite from the destruction which it brought upon him and his race.

9. Ares (Mars). Unlike Athene, the patroness of scientific warfare,
Ares, the son of Zeus and Hera, was the god of bloody battles, and represented
the idea of rude, lawless violence. Ferocious and ungovernable, no employ-
ment was so congenial to his disposition as slaughter, and burying grounds
and fields of carnage constituted for him the most pleasing spectacle. Accord-

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GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 103

ingly in the Trojan war he took the part of the besieged, because their rude
method of fighting suited his own genius; while Athene, conducting a
more open and honorable strife, assisted the polished Greeks. In later
times he was regarded as a helper of mortals, a protector of the just, an
avenger of innocence, and as bestowing vigorous youth. His natural rude-
ness rendered him disagreeable to the Olympic gods, yet during their con-
test with the giants he served them successfully.

A compact powerful frame, a strong fleshy neck, short and curly or
bristling hair, rather small eyes, wide nostrils, and, as compared with the
other sons of Zeus, a rather gloomy forehead, composed the principal
features by which the artists expressed the ideal of Ares. He is usually
represented without clothing, or at most wearing only the warrior’s cloak.
His armor consists of the helmet, shield, spear, and sword. Destructive
and carnivorous animals, particularly the wolf, were sacred to him. He
was also partial to the horse for his strength, and to the dog and cock for
their vigilance. Among the refined Greeks, Ares was never regarded as a
favorite, and received far less homage than the other Olympic deities. In
Sparta, however, where war. formed the chief business of life, his statue
was secured by chains, so that the fortunes of battle might always be
insured to the state. Very ancient works represent him with a close fitting
coat of mail, tabard, greaves, spear, helmet, and shield (pl. 17, jig. 18);
and jig. 20 shows a fine head of a bearded Ares, as seen on a coin of Meta-
pontum in lower Italy, with the name of the magistrate Leukippos. A
handsomely wrought bust of him exists, adorned with a sphinx and the
figures of his sacred wolves ( jig. 19). In jig. 21 he is seen reposing after
battle, apparently enjoying a peaceful frame of mind, the shield leaning by
his side and a Cupid playing at his feet.

Among the most celebrated of his numerous children we mention the
twins Ztomulus and Remus, Harmonia, Eros, and Phobos and Deimos
(Fear and Dismay), who harnessed his chariot, and in company with his
sister Hvis attended him everywhere.

10. Hermes (Mercury) was the son of Zeus and Maza daughter of Adlas,
and played a conspicuous part in divine affairs. He was the god of artifice,
inventions, and commerce; the patron of eloquence; and disclosed to man-
kind the first principles of scientific knowledge. He fostered cunning and
fraud; imparted the gifts of prophecy; arranged the sites for athletic
exercises; introduced the use of sacrifices; was the messenger of the gods,
and their legate in their controversies with men; and at death conducted
the departed souls to the world of shades. At the movement of his wand
he awakened the dead or sank the living to sleep. At the judgment-seat
of Hades he stood as either the defender or accuser of the departed, accord-
ing as he was commanded by the gods. He also taught men the art of reckon-
ing; invented weights, measures, and money; showed the nature and prac-
tice of amusing plays, and the method of strengthening the body; and, in full
keeping with his character, taught the use of false games. He instructed
princes in the art of concluding peace; but gave them also the mis-
chievous power of so construing the ambiguous articles of a treaty as to

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104 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

justify themselves in violating them, when it appeared their interest to
do so. Le 4

Considering the multiplicity of his offices and the extensive worship paid
to him, it is easy to account for the numerous and diversified modes of repre-
senting him, both in statuary and painting. In the earlier efforts of art,
particularly in busts (pl. 21, jig. 22), he was represented with a flowing
beard and waving locks; and the prevailing expression here is that of a
teacher and propagator of religious ideas and useful knowledge. Subse-
quently he was ranked among the beardless and more youthful gods, and
here the features of cunning and dexterity reveal themselves. The bust
(pl. 28, fig. 10) shows him with short curly hair, and small ears and mouth.
His physical structure is handsome and compact, and well suits the inventor
of gymnastics. His attitude, gesture, and mien all mark him as the thought-
ful, active, and friendly deity, with whom it would prove an easy task to
accomplish any negotiation, however intricate and difficult. In short,
he exhibits corporeal beauty and intellectual versatility admirably blended.
In regard to his exterior, we sometimes find him entirely naked, sometimes
wearing a cloak which hangs loosely over the shoulders, or is folded over
the arm. His distinguishing characteristics are the wings and the caduceus.
The wings were attached to his head or hat, and sometimes also to his feet
or ankles; they represented the promptness and rapidity with which he
accomplished his errands. The caduceus was a rod with wings at the
end, and two serpents wound round it, and servedas a heraldic staff or
magic wand, with the aid of which he produced sudden transformations,
invisibility, and sleep. Hermes often wears a hat with a low crown and a
brim of various breadth; the hat belongs to him as a traveller. As the
messenger of the gods (pl. 20, jig. 19) he appears in the hat and a short
mantle, holding the caduceus: as Hermes Agonios or the Wrestler (jig. 20)
the mantle is thrown over the left shoulder, to indicate activity in executing
the commands of the gods. The tortoise on which one foot is placed refers
to his invention of the Jyre. On the coin or gem (pl. 27, jig. 5) he supports
the tortoise on a disk, his own arm resting on a pillar. In the character of
Hermes the Eloquent (fig. 4) he stands in the attitude of an orator. The
mantle hangs gracefully on the right arm, the left arm is raised; and the
stump of a palm tree close by is designed to remind us that as the discoverer
of letters and numbers he recorded his earliest instructions on palm leaves.
On pl. 28, jig. 7, his whole figure and bearing, and particularly the signifi-
cant gesture of the fore finger, powerfully express the qualities of ready
ingenuity and cool calculation; while in jig. 9, the ram’s head in a sacred
vessel describes him as the establisher and regulator of religious ceremonies.
In fig. 8 he sits upon his mantle, which is thrown over a ram; a position
which indicates his office as the protector of flocks.

Hermes was represented in different degrees of age. In pil. 24, fig. 22, we
see him as a mere boy, dressed in a short leather tunic. He holds in his
left hand a bag or purse, which marks him as the god of traffic. His right
finger is placed on his chin, and his countenance exhibits that roguish or
mischievous smile which the thought of some adroit plan might naturally

324

GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 105

prompt. In jig. 23 he appears as a more advanced youth, still retaining
the features of active cunning. As shown in a beautiful bust (pl. 27, jig.
2), he wears the hat, and has quite a youthful expression; also in pl. 28,
Jig. 11, where the face is larger. Finally, we have a representation of the
Lthyphallic Hermes (or Priapus, guardian of landmarks) on a coin (pl. 28,
Jig. 12); and in pl. 15, jig. 15, Hermes stands on a winged globe, holding
in the left hand a torch, and in the right a vessel of fruits for sacrifice.

It remains to explain the term Herme applied to terminal statues (pl.
27, fig. 3). The word Herma originally signified a post or pillar, and
hence in sculpture a post on which a bust was placed, and which was
quadrangular and diminished in circumference from the top downwards.
These pillars were very common, and seem to have been first used in
Athens. They were made of heights in proportion to the busts which they
were to bear, and sometimes had arms and feet attached. In some instances
the name appeared on the breast, in others at half the height of the pillar.
The whole doubtless arose out of the ancient worship, when as yet men
revered the rude images which served to describe boundaries, and as
guides at cross-ways ; and when the Herma received the head it became a
symbol of Hermes, the god of highways and travellers. These images had
wings on their heads, as the insignia of Hermes. They were also placed
near the temples of the other gods, in order to indicate the office of Hermes
as messenger, and in gardens and walks for ornament.

From the many myths recorded of Hermes, we make a few ~eleetiaas as
they seem to characterize him more accurately. From the very first he
exhibited remarkable prudence and sagacity. Only four hours from his
birth, he threw off his swaddling clothes, and left the grotto in which he
had been born. By chance he found a tortoise, and killed it; and after
boring holes through the sides of the shell, and inserting reeds or pipes, he
attached to them seven strings prepared from the entrails of a sheep, and
using the tones of this instrument as an accompaniment, he sang the story
of his birth. Thus he became the inventor of the first stringed instrument,
the lyre, which henceforth was regarded as one of his proper symbols.
During a second excursion he came where the herds of the gods, guarded
by Apollo, were feeding. By an ingenious device he stole fifty of the
cattle, hastened back to his retreat, and discovered the art of roasting and
of sacrificing. Concealing the remnants of his meal, he crept back into
his cradle and gathered his clothes about him. Apollo, however, by the
aid of inspiration, learned where the booty was, and went to the grotto to
receive it; but Hermes stoutly denied the theft, and evinced a well-feigned
astonishment that one so young should be charged with so grave an offence.
Apollo now accused him before Zeus, and here he still pleaded his inno-
cence, winking slyly at the Great Father. The latter seemed pleased with
his great cunning, but ordered him to restore the plunder. When Apollo
went to obtain it, he was so entranced by the tones of. the lyre, that he not
only relinquished to Hermes the stolen cattle, but gave him also a share
of the herd for it ; not, however, without making the cunning deity promise
not to rob him of his instrument or his bow, nor even to come near his

325

106 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

residence. In consideration of this pledge Apollo presented him with the
staff of fortune, appointed him god of herds, and taught him the art of
divination by lots.

Hermes gave yet other proofs of his skill in thieving. On the day of his
birth Hera took him in her arms, and pleased with his sprightliness, suckled
him ; but learning from Iris whose child he was, she angrily cast him away
from her. The milk which she spilt streamed across the sky, and formed
the milky way. Aphrodite now took him in her lap, and in return for her
caresses he stole her girdle. He afterwards purloined the sceptre of Zeus,
and while Ares was in the act of recovering it, the sly god took his sword
from its sheath. As some atonement for his tricks, he performed many
and valuable services for the gods, and was always prompt in fulfilling
their commands and requests. He evinced great fondness for the gentle
sex, and had numerous descendants. While enamored of Herse, daughter
of Cecrops, his modesty prevented him from declaring his passion. He
then tried to influence her sister Aglawros in his favor, but incited by envy,
she increased Herse’s prejudices against him. In revenge for her treachery
he changed her into a yellow stone, and ever since yellow has been regarded
as a type of Envy.

11. Apotto. This god, the son of Zeus and ZLefo, and the twin bro-
ther of Artemis, fostered the arts of poetry, music, and divination.
From his skill in archery he received the surnames, the Far-shooting, the
Dragon-slayer, and others. He was also regarded as the founder of medical
science, and to him and to his sister were assigned the arrows of pestilence ;
whence the common opinion that all who died suddenly had fallen by
the arrows of Apollo. Shepherds revered him as the god of flocks, and
many cities claimed and honored him as their founder and patron.

In regard to artistic representation, this god involved the perfect ideal of
human beauty, and was the personification of manly youth and vigor. He
belonged to the beardless gods, and none of the Olympians had so oval a
face, so finely pencilled eyebrows, and so elevated a forehead. His whole
countenance expressed the height of tranquil inspiration. His long, waving
hair is usually fastened back, only a few stray locks descending to the
shoulders, the rest being gathered in a knot on the crown of his head, like
that of Artemis and Aphrodite. In the best statues his entire figure
strongly reminds the observer of the Great Father, and might be mistaken
for a youthful Zeus.

His many representations exhibited him in varied dress and character.
Among his symbols occur the bow and arrow, because he kept the arrows
of sudden death, and joined his sister in the chase; the lyre or some
other musical instrument; the serpent which typifies his killing of Python,
and his discovery of medicine ; the shepherd’s crook, the tripod, the laurel,
the ram, and the hawk. As Delphian Apollo (so named from his cele-
brated temple at Delphi, in Phocis), he is totally destitute of drapery, and
leans against an altar, holding in the left hand a laurel twig, the right being
placed on his head (pl. 27, jig. 15). As Musagetes or leader of the Muses,
he usually wears a long tunic. In this character he is represented as play-

326

GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 107

ing the Phorminx, an ancient stringed instrument resembling the modern
harp (pl. 28, jig. 4); or holds some other instrument (pl. 15, fig. 11). As
Nomios, the pastoral god, he is seated on a rock, tending the flocks of king
Admetos ; the mantle is spread beneath him, the lyre in his right hand, and
near him the shepherd’s crook (pl. 28, jig. 2). We have also copied a
beautiful bust of this god (pl. 28, fig. 1), where the hair is heavy and long;
and another (pl. 18, fig. 14) in which the hair is parted and lies close to the
head.

The myths of Apollo rank among the most interesting of antiquity,
and many incidents connected with his history have been made the
subjects of excellent works of art. We have already described the peril
attending him while Python pursued his mother Leto, and now only add
that while he sat with his sister on the arm of the trembling fugitive, he
reached with his little hand for the monster as though it were a toy (pi. 20,
jig. 5). His first employment was that of a herdsman. While a boy he
tended the sacred cattle of the gods, and at a later period the horses of
Eumotlos, and the cattle on Mount Ida. For a long time also after his
expulsion from Olympos by Zeus, he guarded the cattle of Admetos king of
Phere, and during this time rendered his master important services. The
king loved Alcestis, daughter of Pelias, but could obtain her only on the con-
dition of visiting her in a chariot drawn by a lion and a boar; and Apollo
taught him how to tame and harness these animals, when he received his
bride from the astonished father, and formed with her a happy alliance.

While young, Apollo had the misfortune accidentally to kill two of his
best friends. Wyacinthos, son of king Amyclas, was his favorite, with whom
he frequently practised in games of skill. PJ. 28, fig. 3, represents the noble
boy leaning against a tree, and near him his divine friend. Once, however,
while they were exercising with the quoit, Zephyrus (west wind), who
envied the boy the favor of the god, turned aside the disk of Apollo, so that
it struck Hyacinthos on the temple and killed him instantly. Inconsolable
at his loss, the god caused the hyacinth to spring up and bloom on the spot
where his favorite fell.

His other friend, Cyparissos, had tamed a doe which he prized very highly.
Apollo, while hunting, either through mistake or ignorance shot it, where-
upon Cyparissos died of grief. Apollo immediately changed the friend for
whom he mourned into a cypress, and this tree has ever since been regarded
as the symbol of grief for departed loved ones.

While most of Apollo’s numerous love-suits proved fortunate, some were
disastrous. Among others he strongly loved Coronis, the sister of Jzion,
the most lovely of the Thessalonian maidens, and felt assured that she
reciprocated his passion. By means of the prudent raven, of whose pro-
phetic powers Apollo availed himself, and which is represented perched on
the lid of the caldron on the sacred tripod (pl. 17, jig. 28), he discovered
that Coronis was deluding him, and secretly favoring Jschys, son of Elatus.
In a fit of exasperation he slew the faithless one with an arrow, and because
the raven had not earlier warned him of the deception, or else persisted in
its silence, he changed his white plumage to black. Not less unpropitious

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108 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

was his love for Daphne, daughter of the river god Peneus.. She did not
return his affection, but sought to escape from his presence, and when he
pursued her addressed herself for protection to Zeus. - Immediately her
foot sank into the ground spreading out in the form of roots, her arms
raised in supplication were changed to boughs, her fingers became twigs,
and her hair green leaves, and when her impetuous lover came up to her
she had already been transformed into a laurel-tree (pl. 17, jig. 26).
Apollo embraced the trunk, and adopted it for his favorite tree. )

Apollo enjoyed unusual celebrity for musical skill. After receiving from
Hermes the lyre, he invented the cithara, and learned from Athene how to
perform on the flute. While playing on this instrument in the divine
assembly, Athene was derided for the swelling of her cheeks, and in a fit
of rage threw it away. A Phrygian herdsman or satyr, Jarsyas, found it,
and by diligent practice soon became proficient in its use. In pl. 25, fig.
9, we see him giving instructions to his pupil Olympos. Proud, however,
of his fancied superiority, he challenged Apollo to a musical contest, assert-
ing that the flute was a more perfect instrument than the lyre (jig. 8). The
god accepted the challenge, and the Muses were appointed to decide on
the merits of the performers. When Marsyas played the flute the Muses
danced ; but when Apollo played the lyre and accompanied its notes with
songs, the Muses stood enraptured and motionless. Marsyas now objected
that the singing compensated for the defects of the lyre; but Apollo inverted
the lyre and dispensed with the singing, and still charmed the listeners.
As Marsyas could not produce such an effect, and besides could not sing
and play at the same time, of course the decision was in favor of his adver-
sary, who flayed him alive as a punishment for the presumption of contend-
ing with a god, and tied him to a tree, suspending the flute from one of
its branches, and all the prayers and supplications of Olympos could not
procure pardon for his vanquished master ( pl. 20, jig. 7).

The sun god, Helios, bears a strong resemblance to Apollo, and is some-
times regarded as identical with him. He was the son of Hyperion, and
was represented in the form of a young man. From his head issued rays ;
a ball, the symbol of the world which he illuminated, was supported by one
hand and a cornucopia by the other, indicating the fertility and productive-
ness which he caused. At his feet are his horses Aéthon and Pyrois ( pl. 20,
jig. 13). He was also regarded as the god of time, who kept sacred herds
of cattle and horses, which he counted daily, and whose number exactly
equalled the days and nights of a lunar year. His chief occupation was
to guide across the sky the sun chariot drawn by the four fairy horses.
He led them out each morning from the eastern gates of the horizon over
an oblique arch to the gates of the west, and thence during the night to
eastern Ethiopia, where he bathed his horses in the glittering sun pool.
Thence he returned to his residence, Colchis, whence the next day he
resumed his fiery course. In later times this god was united with Apollo,
and was reverenced under the name Phebus, or Phebus Apollo.. In this
character we see him represented (pl. 26, jig. 11) directing the horses of
the sun, and accompanied by the Howrs or Seasons.

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GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 109

~The present is a fitting place to mention Calus, a god of the physical
universe, who ruled in conjunction with Helios or Sol. He was a symbol
of the firmament and is represented as an old man dressed in a wide flow-
ing tunic. He rides through the upper air, holding a veil, and occupies a
position between the radiant head of Helios and Semele, who bears on her
head a new moon. Greater and smaller stars shine between them (/. 17,
Jig. 2). |

sxeaie teh (Diana). This goddess completes the Olympic circle. Ac-
cording to the common myths she was the daughter of Zeus and Leto, and
the twin sister of Apollo. The sphere of her operations equalled his in
variety and extent, and it is even more difficult to characterize her precisely,
as she not only represented both ancient and later ideas, but indeed three
originally distinct mythological beings.

~The legends relate that when a child she was sitting in the lap of her
father Zeus, and that at her request he gave to her perpetual virginity, the
property of having many names, the lighted torch, Cretan maid-servants,
and a city. Her province extended over earth, heaven, and the lower
world. As Artemis proper, she loved the chase and presided over that
profession. She obtained as her retinue sixty nymphs (pl. 18, fig. 9), and
possessed the power of causing fruits and flocks to flourish, and of prolong-
ing life, and was the protectress of roads and settlements. She next received
armor from the Cyclopes and dogs from Pan, harnessed to her chariot
four stags with golden antlers, and slew wild animals. She also put women
to death, and all who died suddenly were said to have fallen by her arrows,
just as the men expired by the arrows of Apollo. From all this will be
seen her grave, masculine, and almost cruel character. Accordingly the
ancient artists gave to her representations a remarkable resemblance to
those of Apollo. Thus she had the same light, slender form, the same
elongated oval of the countenance, a high forehead, bright eyes glancing
freely around her, braided hair fastened behind, and only a few stray locks
falling down over the neck.

As mistress of the chase, she wears her dress tucked up. The tunic is
secured or gathered above the knee and fastened to the hips, to avoid the
hindrances which longer garments would cause in hunting; the cloak is
laid in a long fold and fastened over the shoulders, around the body, to give
freedom to the arms; the feet are protected by buskins; on her back she
carries the quiver, in her hand the bow or javelin. In pl. 20, jig. 14, one
hand appears on the quiver as if taking out an arrow to intimidate Heraeles,
while with the left she grasps a hind which she has wrested from him.
Less frequently as huntress:she appears in long clothes, as on the cameo
(pl. 27, fig. 1), where, for better recognition, she is seen with the bow
in her hand and near her the stag.

The second principal office of Artemis is to direct the shining orb of
night, the moon; and in this character she has the name Selene. As such
she appears in a full robe flowing to the feet, and over it is thrown the
peplum, a wide sash, which extends to the hips. Over her head flows the
sail-formed veil, and the crescent moon appears either near her or connected

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110 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

with her person. Sometimes, particularly in gems, she is represented
‘driving horses or oxen, or riding on an ox (pil. 21, fig. 3), the upper part of
her person uncovered, provided with wings, and holding an arrow in the
right hand. Selene, with whom Artemis is thus blended, was the goddess
of the moon in the olden mythology. She was much honored in Asia
Minor, whence her worship gradually passed over to Crete.

Finally, Artemis was regarded as the empress of the lower world, and as
presiding over magic and apparitions. In this character she bore the name of
Hecate, and performed the duties of a special goddess of this name. Hecate,
originally the daughter of the Titan Perses and of Asteria, or according
to other myths, the daughter of Zeus and Demeter, was sometimes regarded
as identical with Persephone. She was a terrible goddess of magical incan-
tation, the avenger of perjury, the patroness of the chase and cattle breed-
ing, and the protectress of flocks. She was usually represented with three
heads, to signify her authority in heaven, earth, and the lower world.
From this three-headed Hecate arose, at a later period, a figure with three
bodies, symbolizing the union of Artemis, Selene, and Hecate, or more
properly the concentration in one being of the three departments peculiar
to each of these deities (pl. 28, jig. 18). The first figure holds in each
hand a torch, and over her brow rests the crescent and the lotus; the
second has in her right hand a key, and in the left a bundle of cords, as
door-keeper and guardian of the gate opening to the world of shades ; while
the third holds in her right a dagger, and in her left a serpent demamed of
its head.

Among the simple exhibitions of Artemis, the statue of Artemis Soleia
( pl. 20, jig. 11) deserves notice. Here she is standing, in full dress, with
the right arm elevated, and near her sits a hound. Also a coin (fig. 9)
representing her between two pillars, one of which supports a vase, the
other an animal, as Artemis Lochewa, a name she received as presiding
over child-birth. On the field of the coin appears a reed flute, while above
and around Artemis are leafy twigs. Near the edge is the name AOXIA.
Finally, we present a figure of the Artemis Tauropolos (pl. 21, fig. 2a and d).
Upon the obverse we see her bust, a wreath encircling her head, and
two ox-horns projecting from her shoulders. On the reverse she stands
almost in full length, holding a lance or wand in one hand, the torch in the
other, with an ox-horn on each side, and a modios or measure upon her
head. The name Tauropolos and the horns she obtained from the custom
of sacrificing bulls to her.

The celebrated statue of Artemis of Ephesus (pl. 21, fig. 1) is entirely
different from all other representations. The goddess here wears a mural
crown like that of Cybele ; behind her is the nembus or disk, the symbol of
the moon’s surface. Numerous winged figures adorn it, bearing the appear-
ance of eagles, griffins, or winged bulls. On each arm lie two lions in
bas-relief; and on her breast-plate several animals peculiar to the zodiac,
as the bull, the twins, the cancer; and in the centre four women, two of
whom, representing the seasons, are winged. This plate is inclosed with
rows or festoons, of which the upper contains various kinds of fruits, while

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GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 111

the lower consists only of acorns, the earliest sustenance of mankind.
Beneath these are seen numerous udders of animals, symbolizing all-sus-
taining nature. The lower part of the body, from the girdle to the feet,
resembles an inverted pyramid, and is divided by bandages into six panels,
occupied by victories, lions, griffins, bulls, and stags. On the sides are bees
and flowers. A part of her garment protrudes from beneath and covers
the heels. The whole figure is obviously akin to the Egyptian Isis or
Rhea, since it represents Artemis both as the symbol of all nourishing
nature, and of nature manifested in multifarious and ever-varying forms.

Ranking with the ever youthful goddesses Artemis always remained a
virgin and unsusceptible of the tender passion. Whoever dared to entertain
and express for her the sentiments of love was certain to incur her wrath.
Witness Actwon who watched her and her nymphs bathing (pl. 20, jig. 15),
and whom she changed into a stag to be torn to pieces by his own hounds.
Thus also according to another representation on a coin (pl. 21, fig. 20, a
and 6), she appears in the act of shooting with an arrow the captive (very
probably Orzon, afterwards honored with the name of a constellation)
whom she learned to esteem on account of his fondness for hunting and his
intrepidity, but who fell a victim to her resentment the moment he dared
to love her. Towards only one mortal, Endymion, a handsome shepherd,
she was less vindictive and unfeeling. She first saw him sleeping in a
forest on a mossy bed, while she was leading the moon up the sky. Enrap-
tured at the spectacle, she found it impossible to refrain from checking the
celestial chariot to impress a kiss upon his lips. In compliance with her
prayer that he might always sleep and never become old, Zeus transferred
him to Olympos, but subsequently sent him to the world of shades for rashly
cherishing a tender regard for Hera. Among all who fell under the wrath
of Artemis, however, none suffered so mournful a fate as the children of
Niobe. Their mother, the wife of Amphion king of Thebes, had borne
seven sons and seven daughters, and with a feeling of maternal pride
exulted over Leto, and boasted of excelling her who had borne only two,
Apollo and Artemis. Offended at this reproach Leto accused Niobe to her
daughter Artemis, who at once vowed to avenge the affront offered to her
mother. Soon after Niobe’s fourteen children died, all slain by the arrows
of Apollo and Artemis. This tragic scene is represented in bas-relief upon
the side of a sarcophagus ( pl. 21, jig. 6).

There are yet two other works of art connected with this transaction.
In pl. 20, fig. 17, we see Niobe as she anxiously exerts herself to cover her
youngest daughter with her veil, to protect her from the arrows of Artemis;
while jig. 18 presents Amphion, the husband of Niobe, in a tunic, to which
are added the mantle and Cretan buskins or boots. His whole attitude is
expressive of the most frantic desolation at the death of his children.

Artemis also visited with her wrath the Greeks while they assembled in
the harbor of Aulis, preparatory to their expedition against Troy. Their
chief, Agamemnon, king of Argos, went into her grove, and in spite of the
warnings of her priests, killed one of her white hinds. The enraged goddess
invoked the aid of Poseidon so to restrain the winds as to hinder the

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112 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

Grecian fleet from pursuing the voyage. The calm lasted several months,
and the gods still refused to. send a prosperous gale. In reply to their
inquiries, the seer Calchas informed the Greeks, that as Agamemnon had
offended them they would be appeased only by the sacrifice of his daughter
Iphigenia. The guilty chief heard the decree with horror and a bleeding
heart, yet he saw himself compelled to yield to stern necessity. The
innocent maiden was decoyed into the camp under the pretext of a marriage
with Achilleus, the handsomest of all the Greeks, and there borne asa
sacrifice to the altar; but the sufferings of the guiltless victim softened the
heart of offended Artemis, who enveloped the spot with a dense cloud, and
removed Iphigenia to Tauris, where she afterwards became her priestess,
leaving in her stead a hind on the altar, which was found when the cloud
disappeared, and sacrificed instead of the maiden.

13. Particutar Groups or THE SupERIor Gops. Before leaving the
Olympic Assembly, we propose to refer briefly to some representations of
the groups of the gods, which, from a desire to keep the subjects separate,
we have thus far left unnoticed.

Pi. 19, fig. 2, gives a characteristic group of Zeus, Hermes, and Aphro-
dite. Zeus sits in majesty upon his throne, the rays of divinity encircle his
head, the left hand grasps the sceptre and the right the thunderbolts, while
his sacred bird, the eagle, stands at his feet. He directs a commanding
look at Hermes, who is preparing to depart on an embassy. On the left
of the king of gods stands Aphrodite, joining eagerly in the conversation,
while Eros, or Cupid, clings closely to her side. On the edge or rim of the
picture appear the twelve signs of the zodiac.

Pl. 27, fig. 28, represents Pallas Athene, Asclepios, and Hygeia. The

goddess is seated upon the throne, with a simple helmet upon her head, and
a small gis from which the Medusa’s head is wholly excluded. She
appears dressed in full vesture, and holds in her right hand thesceptre. At
her Jeft stands Asclepios, the god of medicine, holding a rod or wand
around which is coiled a serpent. Hygeia, goddess of health and daughter
of Asclepios, whose symbol is also the serpent, occupies a position on the
right. The whole collection is obviously designed to represent Athene in
her peculiar character and dignity as the preserver of health.
. Another group, combining Posecdon, Amphitrite, and Eros, is given on a
cameo (pl. 18, jig. 11); Poseidon, supporting himself on the trident, places
the left. foot on a rock. On both sides of him stand two horses sacred to
him. In front a female form is reclining on the ground; it is probably
Amphitrite, who seems to be sleeping. Behind him sits a child with
uplifted hands. Above Poseidon’s head a love, probably Eros himself,
stands upon a pillar or altar; while to the left a manly form hovering in
the air is offering a child to a female in asimilar position on the right.

A very beautiful group of the busts of the twelve superior deities, repre-
senting them as deities of the planets, may be seen on a circular altar (pi.
19, fig. 1). Apollo (a) occupies the first place, as god of the sun, father of
the year, and creator of the seasons. His head is encircled with a braided
bandage. Next to him is Hera (6), whose hair is secured in a similar

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GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. | 113

manner. Then follow Poseidon (c), with his trident; Hephzestos (d), with
the pzleus or rounded cap; Hermes (e¢), with the caduceus near him; De-
meter (7); Hestia (g); Artemis (A), easily recognised by her quiver ;
Ares (2), with his helmet ; Aphrodite (%), with Eros resting on her shoulders ;
Zeus (7), with the thunderbolt ; and Pallas Athene (7m), with the helmet on
her head and the lance near her, completes the circle.

Pl. 18, fig. 25, represents the assembly of the gods on Mount Olympos.
Zeus is sitting upon his throne, the ideal of domestic kindness, yet by no
means without the dignity belonging to him as king of the gods. On his
left arm leans the sceptre, in his right he holds the goblet filled with nectar,
and at his feet stands the ever sacred eagle looking up to him. Ganymede
and Hebe, in the foreground to the right, perform the office of cup-bearers.
A little behind Zeus, on his right, sits Hera, the queen of the gods, her
dress and mien bespeaking the chaste, deeply thoughtful housewife; near
her feet is her sacred bird the peacock. Aphrodite, the goddess of beauty,
stands on the left of Zeus, holding by the hand her favorite Eros. Beyond
those just mentioned we easily recognise Hermes, who at the command of
Zeus is introducing Psyche to Olympos ; Poseidon seated, with his trident,
on a bank of clouds, and conversing with Hades, who, with a bifurcated
sceptre, stands close by, and is indeed leaning over to the god of the ocean.
In front of Poseidon sits Hepheestos, with his symbol, the lion, stretched at
his side. Behind the queen of the gods stands Ares clothed in full armor;
and the figure seen near him, with his head covered with a lion’s skin, is
probably “Heracles, who has just been received to Olympos. On the left
behind Zeus, and somewhat elevated, we observe Pallas Athene; close by
her is Apollo touching the strings of his lyre, while behind both appears
Artemis as Selene, with the crescent on her head. Several muses are
accompanying Apollo on their instruments ; two genii are strewing flowers
upon Psyche, and the whole picture seems to represent the celebration
of her admission to Olympos.

14. Tue Norions or THE GREEKS WITH REGARD TO Otympos. With
regard to the residence of the gods, the Greeks seem to have entertained
conflicting ideas at different times. Several mountains bore the name of
Olympos; but that lying in Thessalia was regarded by the ancient Greeks
as the highest mountain in the world, and the central point of the whole
earth. For this reason they supposed it to be the celestial mount, or moun-
tain of the gods, upon which the deities dwelt. Near the summit they sup-
posed there was an opening into the canopy of heaven, the abode of the gods,
which was supported by pillars at the extremities of the earth. In addition
to this opening it had two gates; the one to the east, through which the sun
god Helios and Night with her train ascended from the ocean; the other
opening to the west, through which they returned to their residences. At
various elevations of the many-peaked Olympos, the individual gods dwelt
in their palaces; but on the loftiest summit of all stood the court of the
omnipotent Zeus. Thither all the rest repaired either on visits or to attend
the banquets. From this position also the mighty god scanned the circle
of the earth, sent rain and clouds, and hurled his thunderbolts. The twelve

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114 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

superior gods constituted the council or divine senate of Elders on Olym-
pos, but all the other deities composed the great assembly.

At a later period, as the conception of the universe and the gods became
more enlarged, the Greeks transported the gods to the furthest sphere of
the heavens, uniting them with the planetary world, and gave to this new
divine abode the name of Olympos.

2. Gops or tHE LowER Wor.Lp.

After the Olympic gods, the deities of the world of shades constituted the
next rank. Of these the most powerful and supreme was

1. Hapss (Aides, Atdoneus, or Ais, also Orcos and Dis). He was the
son of Cronos and Rhea, and at the partition of the universal government
he obtained by lot his kingdom, where he reigned with an authority equal
to that of Zeus in the upper world. Ata later period the Greeks gave him
the name of Pluto, to indicate his kingdom, the treasures, mines, and metals
in the bowels of the earth. After his rescue by J/etis from his father, who
had devoured him, he was brought up in a dark cavern. In this way he
came to prefer darkness to light. His exterior greatly resembles that of his
brothers Zeus and Poseidon, the principal point of difference being apparent
in the hair, which in Hades falls on the forehead, while in the brothers it is
drawn back to the crown. This gives to his whole aspect the seriousness
and gloom of a judge from whom justice but not mercy may be expected. |
In pl. 23, jig. 8, he is represented sitting upon a throne, dressed in a long
flowing tunic, and holding in his left hand a sceptre. On his head stands
a modius or measure, to signify that he will rule justly and impartially, and
distribute rewards and punishments in exact accordance with merit. The
terrible impression of his awful majesty is considerably augmented by the
three-headed dog Cerberos, which stands at his feet with a snake round his
body. The busts of Hades (pl. 23, jig.1; pl. 22, jig. 17), which are also
distinguished by the modus, disclose the same earnest solemnity. During
the war with the Titans he gave valuable aid to his brother Zeus. Having
obtained one of the double lances wrought by the Cyclopes expressly for
that contest, he doubled the number usually slain by him, and thus
rendered himself terrible to the usurpers. The fearful helmet which
he wore, and which rendered its wearer invisible, made him a very for-
midable enemy. By its assistance he wrested the sickle from Cronos, which
rendered him both invincible and irresistible in battle.

2. PreRSEPHONE (Proserpine), daughter of Zeus and Demeter, was the
wife of Hades, and as such queen of the lower world, where she lived four
months of the year with Hades, assisting him in judging the dead, and
often sending her messenger AZe to bid transgressing mortals appear before
her tribunal. In the representations which exhibit her in this character
(pl. 23, fig. 11) she bears a strong resemblance to Hera. The dress and
diadem are the same; one hand holds the sceptre, and the other the sacri-
ficial cup. The two serpents, however, on the diadem of Persephone clearly

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GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 115

distinguish her as queen of the world of shades from the milder queen of
the sky. Indeed, her entire figure is wanting in that majestic and matronly
quality so prominent in the statues of Hera. She was often represented as
a vorgen, especially on coins. Thus at jig. 12b we see her bust with a
collar, and a diadem used as a head-band, which marks her as Libera. The
dolphins are intended to indicate the fertility of Sicily, whose inhabitants
especially worshipped her, believing that Zeus had presented her this island
as a marriage gift. The inscription on the coin shows that it is Syra-
‘cusan. The reverse of this coin (pl. 22, jig. 180) exhibits an Olympic
(2. ¢., a victor in the Olympic games) riding in the guadriga (a car drawn
by four horses abreast), and receiving a crown from Vike, the goddess of
victory. Immediately below is a complete suit of armor, consisting of shield,
coat of mail, helmet, and greaves.

The obverse of another coin, which, through the mistake of our designer,
has been confounded with the first one mentioned (pl. 28, jig. 12a), repre-
sents Persephone also as a virgin, with a wreath composed of ears, and
the head-dress of her mother Demeter ; while the reverse (pl. 22, jig. 18a)
shows a Nike or Victoria placing a trophy upon a field of battle. Among
the ancients this was accomplished by hewing the trunk and limbs of a
tree to something like a human shape, and then placing upon them the
war equipments of a fallen enemy, the helmet, mail coat, tunic, shield, &e.
Some have also supposed that pl. 24, fig. 4, was intended for Persephone
as virgin, but as we have only coins representing this goddess in that
character, the presumption is against such a conclusion, so that the figure
probably refers to some other similar goddess. The coin (pl. 25, fig. 19a)
represents her repelling Zeus, who approaches her as a serpent.

So long as she assisted her husband in passing sentence upon the dead,
Persephone equalled him in stern and sober gravity. Still, she was not
wholly insensible to appeals prompted by love or compassion, and Admetos
and Orpheus were indebted to her for the recovery of their wives Alcestis
and HLurydice from the world of shades.

8. Tae Inrerior Gops.

The inferior gods, whose nature is not easily defined, but who possessed
some traits of divinity, composed the third order of deities. Considering
the extensive sphere which he occupied, and the influence which he exerted,
Eros held the highest position in this class.

1. Eros (Cupid, Amor, or Love) is not mentioned by Homer, but in the
older theogonies Eros emerged together with Gaza (earth) from Chaos, and
was the symbol of the vital and generative principle, also the element
combining and assimilating contending forces in the primeval creation.
Sappho makes him the offspring of heaven and earth.

In the later legends, however, the supernatural being known as Z7os, the
most youthful of all the gods, was the son of Aves and Aphrodite, and was
recognised as the god of love. His chief occupation consisted in exciting

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116 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

in the heart ‘the passion of love; and such was his power, that not even
the gods themselves could suppress the sentiment when once awakened.
And thus Eros ruled in heaven, earth, and hell. He was usually repre-
sented as a beautiful, light-haired, rosy-cheeked boy, with wings, bow,
arrows, and quiver; sometimes also bearing a torch, to indicate his charac-
ter as illuminator of the soul. As vanquisher and ruler of the gods and
men, he often pursued his sports, employing temporarily the attributes of
other deities or heroes. Thus he appears (pl. 29, jig. 5) armed with the
shield, helmet, and lance, or (jig. 6) investing himself in the equipments of
Ares in token of his having subdued even the god of war. /%g.3 shows
him borne by Heracles, who is clothed in the lion’s skin, and carries the
characteristic club in the left hand; and in jig. 4 he is riding on a tamed
lion, and playing on Apollo’s lyre, a felicitous emblem of the united power
of music and love. Slyness, desire, dissimulation, wantonness, caprice, and
love of dominion constituted his prominent characteristics. His method of
kindling the feeling of love was by sending an arrow into the heart of his
victim. The point of the arrow was touched by his mother sometimes with
honey, sometimes with gall; and Eros took a mischievous delight in inflict-
ing wounds even upon the gods most distinguished for sobriety, seriousness,
and dignity ; in creating the tender feeling in hearts the most dissimilar;
and exciting love when its reciprocation was improbable, or its gratification
attainable only through violence. He did not even spare his mother.
Accordingly Zeus, who from the moment of his birth discovered his ten-
dencies to wily artifice, commanded his mother Aphrodite to destroy him;
but she concealed him in forests, where he was nourished and brought up
by wild beasts. Here he grew sufficiently strong to carve out for himself a
bow from ash-wood, and arrows from the cypress; and he first employed
his weapon upon the animals around him, with a view to the attaimment of
greater skill in hitting men and gods. When afterwards he was transferred
to Olympos, he endeavored to ingratiate himself into the favor of all the gods.
He succeeded with all except Themis, Artemis, and Pallas Athene.
Hephestos so loved the boy that he wrought for him a silver bow and
golden arrows, which he thenceforward used.

Among the numerous stories of Eros, none have a better claim to notice
than that of his connexion with Psyche. Psyche was the daughter of a
king, and her beauty was such as to cause her to be mistaken for Aphrodite
herself. Her two less favored sisters were married, but Psyche remained
single, no suitor deeming himself worthy to be the husband of one so lovely.
At length Eros saw and loved her, and resolved to make her his wife. The
sorrowful father in the meantime consulted the oracle of Apollo, and
received instructions that as his daughter had been selected for the bride of
a winged dragon, he should lead her with a funeral procession to a moun-
tain, and there leave her. The oracle was obeyed, and amid the tears
of the people Psyche was left in a solitary spot. So soon however as all
had retired, a Zephyr caught her up and bore her to the palace of the god
of love. Here she was surrounded by every imaginable joy and comfort.
Invisible hands fulfilled her wishes before they were clear even to herself.

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GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 117

Eros visited her only in the dark hours of night, and admonished her against
any inquisitive attempts to know more of him, assuring her that such know-
ledge would change her happiness to the deepest misery. For a while her
bliss in her new abode was complete, but she soon felt the need of society,
and obtained from Eros permission for her sisters to visit her. Sosoon as they
beheld the magnificence and splendor of the palace, they began to envy
their happy and fortunate sister, and at once endeavored to destroy the
happiness which they could not enjoy. Accordingly they persuaded Psyche
to gratify her curiosity in regard to the nature and character of her lover,
by providing a concealed lamp, and inspecting him during his slumbers.
The next time he came she followed their advice. His transcendent beauty.
so agitated her, that in her excitement she let fall a drop of heated oil upon
his shoulder. He instantly awoke, and after reproaching her severely for
disregarding his admonition, he left her. She awaited his return long and
in vain, and at length her distress and anxiety became so excessive that she
east herself into ariyer near by, hoping at once to put an end both to her
life and anguish. But the waves did not permit her to sink; they wafted
her gently to the shore, where she was discovered by Pan, and encouraged
to appease her departed lover by repentance and unceasing effort to
find him. After protracted and painful wanderings she finally arrived at
the temple of Aphrodite. The latter, still jealous of her beauty, received
her, but imposed upen her the heaviest trials, which, had not the invisible
Eros assisted her, she could not possibly have performed. She is repre-
sented (pl. 29, fig 11) flying awed and terror-stricken from the persecutions
of Aphrodite. The butterfly’s wings on her back are her attributes, since
Psyche signifies both butterfly and soul. At length the relentless Aphro-
dite sent her captive to the world of shades to obtain from Persephone a
box of beauty. She procured it, and on her journey back her curiosity
prompted her to open it, when a thick vapor issuing from it felled her to the
ground. Eros now hastened to her relief, and touching her with an arrow
restored her to animation. At length Aphrodite’s wrath was appeased.
Zeus, at the solicitation of Eros, granted to Psyche the gift of immortality,
and the union of the lovers was celebrated with becoming magnificence on
Mount Olympos. Their marriage procession is represented in pl. 29, jig. 9:
Hymen is leading the bridal pair to the couch which a Love is preparing,
whilst another holds over their heads a small basket of fruit.

2. Dionysos (Bacchus), the son of Zeus and Semele, was the god of wine,
and in later mythology was numbered among the Olympians. Whilea child
he discovered the art of improving the vine and expressing from the grape
the soul-exhilarating wine. He also taught these arts to men, and strove to
spread the culture of the vine over the habitable earth; and where the soil
was unfavorable to its growth, he taught the art of preparing a palatable
beverage from barley. His course through the different countries resembled
a triumphal procession, men and women everywhere hailing him with
shouts and acclamations. He rode upon a car drawn by panthers, tigers,
lions, or lynxes ; sometimes he was conveyed upon centaurs, and his retinue
was usually composed of Pans, Silenoses, Hauns, Centaurs, Cugnds, and.

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118 MYTHOLOGY AND ‘RELIGIOUS RITES.

Menades, or Bacchantes, sporting, dancing, and. rejoicing from the effects
of wine. Everywhere he was received with delight, and all who honored
him enjoyed his favor and beneficence. None of the gods received a more
universal worship than Dionysos. The mythologies of India, Lybia, Assy-
ria, and Egypt embraced a deity of this name, and that of ancient Greece
recognised two, the elder of which was the son of Zeus and Persephone, the
younger of Zeus and Semele. The myths relate that the jealous Hera,
enraged at her husband’s visits to Semele, persuaded the latter to request
Zeus to approach her the next time in his true form as the god of thunder.
His compliance, which she had insured by making him promise to grant
any request she might make, proved her ruin; she could not endure the
sight of Zeus in his majesty, and expired in the flames. Zeus desired,
however, to preserve her unborn child, and as it wanted three months to
maturity, he inclosed it in his thigh, whence in due time it was born (pl. 24,
jig. 7), and received by Hermes, who, in order to protect the tender limbs
of his charge, enveloped it in a Vebris, or sacred fawn-skin. Zeus commis-
sioned Hermes to carry him to Athamas and Jno, in Thessaly, to be
educated; but as the wrathful Hera persecuted both him and his foster
parents, he was subsequently transferred to the mountains composing the
range Nysa, where he was suckled by Nymphs and instructed by Silenos
(pl. 23, fig. 19). One of the nymphs, Lewcothea, nursed him tenderly ;
and in pl. 24, jig. 8, we see him resting on her arm, grasping the handle
of a wine cup with one hand, and caressing his nurse with the other.
Leucothea herself is dressed in the tunic without sleeves, and a mantle
covers her shoulders and neck.

We have said that many deities bore the name of Dionysos (Bacchus) ;
they all, however, gradually blended into one, and the various deeds of all
came at length to be attributed to the youngest, namely the son of Zeus
and Semele, whom the poets distinguished by the epithet the Theban
Dionysos. In their representations the artists did not confine themselves
to any uniform idea of his person, but permitted their fancy to follow the
various conceptions indicated by the myths and traditions relating to this
god. Some allusion has already been made to the statues of Dionysos the
infant. In addition to these we sometimes see him represented as a youth,
and to such images we shall apply the term adolescent or Theban ; then the
manly, bearded, or Lndian Dionysos ; and finally, we have the horned, or
the ox, resembling Dionysos the son of Persephone.

The Theban Dionysos is characterized by a figure, countenance, long
hair, and general expression, exhibiting the roundness, delicacy, and
tenderness of a beautiful maiden, rather than the qualities of a vigorous
youth. The face is a slightly prolonged oval, while the moderately full
lips indicate the love of pleasure; the eyes are not particularly lustful nor
yet far-seeing, but the expression seems rather feeble and languishing. A
very customary symbol is the frontlet and a crown of ivy or vine leaves
bound round his hair, which is long, flowing, and gathered in a knot or
bunch on the back of his head, only a few locks on each side lying upon
his shoulders. The head itself is slightly inclined. The structure of the

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GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY, . — 119

body corresponds to the cast of the face. It is neither heavily set nor yet
slender ; the shoulders have a tolerable breadth, and the breast and hips, like
those of a young woman, are more fleshy than muscular. A gentle fulness or
swelling harmoniously surrounds his limbs, and one might. easily mistake
his whole form for an Aphrodite under the guise of a lovely youth. These
traits may be seen in the group (pl. 24, jig. 11) where Dionysos is leaning
against the stump of a tree, around which are wound vine leaves. His
left arm embraces the neck of his son Haunus, the fingers grasping a wine
cup, while his right hand lies on his head. In jig. 12 he is resting on the
stump, holding a broken thyrsus (a rod wrapped with ivy leaves); and in
jig. 13 he reclines gracefully on a rock (probably on the summit of Mount
Parnassos, where offerings were made to him), holding the wine goblet in
his right hand.

The Zndian or bearded Dionysos (pl. 24, fig. 15) is of a more dignified,
commanding, and regal aspect. . A wide tunic, gathered in numerous folds,
reaches to his feet, and over it is thrown an ample and splendid mantle.
His left hand grasps the ¢hyrsus, his hair is confined by a bandage, his
right hand holds a wine cup, and his whole countenance is expressive of
repose, serenity, and mildness. Upon a coin from Naxos (pl. 25, jig. 6) he
appears with shorter beard and hair, yet with the bandage decorated with
vine leaves. .

The representations of the Horned Dionysos somewhat resemble the figure
just now described. Sometimes he appears with dishevelled hair, and the
voluptuous expression of a beautiful Faun. Statues of this description are
not now in existence, but there is a beautiful herma which we have copied
(pl. 18, fig. 13). . The hair falls, as with the Fauns, in disorder over the fore-
head; the horns are springing, not from the forehead, but from among the
hair. The diadem encircles the head behind the horns, its broad fastenings
falling down upon the shoulders. We find Dionysos in the form of a bull,
yet with the beard and face of a man, only on coins where he is called
Dionysos Zagreus (pl. 25, fig. 19b; pl. 15, fig. 276).

Thus far we have considered the solitary representations of this deity 3
it remains to mention the groups with which he is connected. The first is
shown on a large brass coin ( pl. 28, fig. 5), where Dionysos and Apollo are
travelling in a celestial chariot drawn by a panther and a goat. Dionysos
supports his body on his left elbow, and holds with his left hand the
thyrsus; Apollo plays on the lyre; and Cupid is riding on the goat. Ac-
cording to a different representation (pl. 26, jig. 12) he symbolizes the sun
and god of the seasons, rides upon a panther, and pours wine into a drink-
ing-horn held by a satyr who carries also a wine-skin; the winged genii of
the four seasons (Hor) are stationed around him. First on the extreme
left stands Winter, who is carrying two geese and a cornucopia. Next
appears Spring crowned with flowers, holding in one hand the mystical
box, in the other the sacred tie or bandage. The third is Summer, who
carries a sickle and ears of corn; and finally Awtwmn is seen with a hare and
cornucopia. Fauns, Satyrs, and boy-fauns, the usual attendants of Diony-
sos, playing with panthers and goats, occupy the back-ground. In pil. 25,

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120 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

jig. 4, Dionysos is reclining in an indolent attitude upon a trotting ass. He
is holding his usual attributes, the thyrsus and drinking horn; before him
marches a satyr playing on a double flute; and in front and behind the
group are seen a sacrificial cake and a sacred sash. In jig. 5, he is repre-
sented riding with a radiant crown on a panther or tiger; a Meenad with
two torches leads the way, and a satyr with a huge wine goblet follows after.
A celebrated myth which furnished an admirable subject for artists, was
the love of Dionysos for Ariadne, of which the following are the principal
incidents. Ariadne was the daughter of Minos J/., king of Crete, and
Pasiphoé, who had also borne to her husband the J/inotaur, a monster with
a human body and the head of a bull, endowed with immense strength, and
whose hunger could only be appeased with human victims. At the time of
his birth there resided at the court of Minos an Athenian artist, Dedalos,
who had been condemned to death in Athens for the murder of a rival, but
who made his escape, and was kindly received and protected by the king
of Crete. During his exile he built the celebrated Labyrinth in which the
Minotaur was confined and fed on human flesh. His common victims were
criminals or captives taken in war; but when Minos had conquered Attica,
enraged at the loss of his eldest son Androgeos, who was murdered at the
instigation of geus, king of Athens, he imposed upon the country an
annual tribute of seven Athenian youths and virgins, to be given to the
Minotaur. When this revolting tribute was to be paid for the fourth time,
Theseus, the king’s son, voluntarily joined the number of the victims, with
the intention of conquering the monster or of perishing with his companions.
His youth and beauty affected the heart of Ariadne, who presented him with
a ball of thread by which to guide himself into the labyrinth, and afterwards
find his way out. He soon found the Minotaur and slew him (pi. 30,
jig. 17), and then carried off and married his protectress. Arriving at the
island of Naxos, he yielded to the persuasions of his companions, proved
faithless to Ariadne, and set sail secretly without her. Sad and deserted,
she endeavored to terminate her existence in the waves; but Morpheus, god
of dreams, spread over her eyelids a soft balmy slumber. At length
Dionysos discovered her on the rocky shore (pl. 24, fig. 14). Captivated by
her extraordinary beauty, he declared his love, and after satisfying her that
he was a god and was sincere in his proposal, she consented to be his wife.
Fig. 5 represents a solemn procession of the two lovers; though according
to some writers the central couple are Dionysos and Demeter. Both are
standing on the chariot. The mantle of Dionysos has fallen to his hips,
while the nebrzs or sacred fawn-skin covers his breast. He carries in the right
hand a double-handled wine vessel, in the left the thyrsus. Ariadne, clothed
in a wide tunic, rests her right arm upon her husband’s shoulders, while her
left hand carries poppies and ears of wheat. Both are crowned with wreaths
of ivy. A joyous sporting Cupid stands on the right of Dionysos. The car
is drawn by two centaurs, one of which holds a thyrsus and drinking horn,
the cther a goblet and blazing torch. They are assisted by two female cen-
taurs, one blowing a double flute, the other beating the tambourine. The
chariot itselfis decorated with serpents’ eggs and tongues, and the centre bears
340

GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 121

a head with flowers and ivy. At the feet of the centaurs on the right is a
costa mystica (sacred box) with the Dionysian serpent, on the other side an
overturned wine vessel. In addition to these groups we have a beautiful
head of Ariadne crowned with ivy (pl. 29, jig. 1); and a highly finished
bust (pl. 18, jig. 15), with a crown of vine leaves and clusters, while bunches
of grapes constitute the ear pendents, and mingle with the falling hair.

Among the sculptures having reference to Dionysos is a fine bas-relief
representing a procession of Bacchanalian genii (pl. 18, jig. 12). The first
figure on the left of the observer carries a little tambourine suspended by a
cord from his left hand, his right holds an inverted torch, while his left foot
stands on a shepherd’s crook. The second carries a cithara and a plectrum
(a small rod of ivory with which ancient musicians played the cithara), and
a reed flute lies at his feet. In the centre appears a drunken, staggering
genius, supported by two of his companions, at whose feet lie cymbals and
a panther. The sixth carries over his shoulder a wine-skin and in his right
hand a thyrsus; the seventh has a shepherd’s crook and a lantern; the
eighth, at whose feet lies a mask, is striking a cymbal; while the last is
playing on a single flute. All are winged and clothed with mantles which
cover only the back and fasten on the shoulders; and several have the hair
neatly gathered up and knotted in front.

3. Asciepios (Aisculapius), the son of Apollo and Coronis, whom Apollo
had put to death on account of infidelity, was nourished for a while by
goats. He was subsequently consigned to the wise centaur Cheiron, who
instructed him in hunting and the healing art. Being of a quick and lively
genius, he soon became so proficient in medical science as not only to over-
come the most inveterate diseases, but also to restore to life the dead by
the blood of Medusa obtained for him by Athene. He eclipsed the
celebrity of his instructor, and drew upon himself the wrath of Hades, who
could no longer bring mortals under his: gloomy reign; and even Zeus felt
jealous of his power, fearing that, by the removal of the terrors inspired by
the prospect of a future life, men would consider themselves released from
their obligations to the gods. Accordingly the mighty thunderer hurled at
him one of his bolts, which consigned him to the world of shades. By the
intervention of his father Apollo, however, he was transferred to Olympos.
As the god of healing, he received profound honors not only after his
reception to Olympos, but also during his stay on the earth. He is repre-
sented (pl. 28, jig. 24) as a bearded man, in a dignified attitude, and with
a countenance expressive of wisdom, benevolence, and great experience.
His customary dress was a mantle in numerous folds, and his constant
attribute a knobbed staff around which was coiled a snake. His head was
covered by a low cap or adorned with the laurel crown. The animals
sacred to him were the goat for having suckled him and the dog for watch-
ing him in his infancy, the cock, the owl, and the raven.

A different, and probably more ancient representation of Asclepios
(pl. 15, fig. 23) shows him as a beardless youth, clothed in a long sweeping
tunic and mantle, wearing a high pointed cap, and characterized only by

the serpent in his hand.
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122 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

His daughter Hygeta ( pl. 24, jig. 19) was the goddess of health, and
was represented as a plain virgin feeding a serpent out of a cup. His son
Telesphorus (fig. 21) was the protector of convalescents. He appears
extremely youthful, is dressed in a wide mantle, and his head covered with
a cowl which is a continuation of the mantle, the whole figure indicating
the precaution observed by convalescents to avoid a relapse. In pi. 27,
Jig. 29, we have copied a beautiful group, in which Asclepios is represented
sitting on a throne; near him stands Hygeia, feeding the serpent from the
cup; while on eae side sits a youthful form, one Telesphorus and ss =
probably another of his sons.

4, SuBporDINATE oR MinistertnG Detriss.

1. Hest was the danghter of Hera and goddess of youth. In Olympos
she discharged the office of cup-bearer. She was represented as a lovely
young maiden. Sometimes she appears leaning against an altar, holding
in one hand a pitcher, in the other a cup, from which the eagle of Zeus is
drinking (pl. 17, jig. 25). She is also represented (pl. 21, jig. 4) in the
act of approaching with her pitcher, holding it aloft as if pouring out
its contents. On a gem (pil. 22, fig. 11) she is caressing the eagle of the
king of gods, which stands with one foot on a rock, the other on a globe
of empire. The wings attached to her indicate her agility and swiftness.

Her office of cup-bearer was transferred to Ganymede after her marriage
to Heracles, or according to another myth, when in handing a cup to Zeus
her foot had slipped, and she had fallen and spilt the nectar. Ganymede
was a very handsome shepherd, and was seized by Zeus’s eagle, or by Zeus
himself in the form of an eagle, and carried to Olympos, where, before
entering upon his office, Aphrodite instructed him in his duties. In accord-
ance with these incidents he was usually represented as a beautiful youth
( pl. 17, jig. 24), his head covered with a Phrygian cap, ashort cloak thrown
over his shoulders, holding in the left hand a shepherd’s staff, and in the
right a cup from which he feeds the bird of Zeus with ambrosia.

2. Ints, messenger of the gods, and particularly of Hera (pl. 21, fig. 5),
is a winged goddess, wearing a double cloak over a long tunic; her left
hand holds a herald’s staff and her right a helmet, which, in the picture
whence our figure is copied, she is in the act of placing on a young warrior.

3. Nemesis was one of the goddesses of justice, who so guided events that
every deed met with reward or punishment according to its merits. While
she encouraged genuine worth, she visited injustice with unrelenting
severity. She is usually represented (pl. 23, jig. 5a) standing, and dressed
in atunic. With her right hand she holds the garment which covers her
breast a little distance from her; and she looks towards her bosom as if
scrutinizing her inmost emotions. This attitude is intended to indicate the
manner and measure by which she judges of human character and deserts.
Her lett hand holds an ash twig; a wheel stands at her feet, and she usually
appears with wings. As LVemesis Panthea we see her (jig. 5) endowed

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-) GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 123

with the wings of victory, the wheel of fortune by her side, and herself
holding the serpent and cup of Hygeia, to signify her dominion over riches,
war, and health. A totally different representation (pl. 16, jig. 2) shows
her with a diadem, short upper and lower vestments, ri with eagles’
talons, her forefingers pointed against each other.

4, The Parca or Fates were three in number, Clotho, Lachesis, and
Atropos. Their office was to spin the destinies of men.
_ 5. The Eumenies, Ermyyes, or Furia, three in number, Alecto, Megera,
and Tisiphone, born from the blood flowing from the wounds inflicted by
Uranos on Cronos, were goddesses of revenge, especially of murder, and
was ornamented by eight statues, viz. those of the principal winds now
named, and four at the points between them.

5. Arrrat Gops or Winns.

At an early period the four principal winds were converted into mythical
personages. We notice briefly:

1. Apetiotss, or the East Wind (pl. 22, fig. 12). He brought mild and
refreshing rains, and fostered the growth of vegetables, wherefore he appears
with fruit and a honey-comb in the folds of his mantle.

2. Noros, or the South Wind (jig. 18). He was also god of rain, and is
accordingly represented with an inverted vessel.

3. Zepuyros, or the West Wind (jig. 14), signified warmth in summer;
he is represented as the promoter of vegetation in the spring, with his mantle
filled with flowers.

4. Boreas, or the North Wind (fig. 15), is represented bearded and carry-
ing a sea-shell, expressive of the roaring north wind. He seized and
violently bore off to his cave Oreithyia, the daughter of A7echtheus (jig.
16), who did not, however, reciprocate his love.

~The winds were subsequently increased, and an octagonal tower at Athens
following the steps of a murderer by day and night, embittering every
moment of his life, until he had expiated his crime.

6. Gops or THE WATER.

1. Nerevs, son of Pontos and Gaza, ruled over the Aigean Sea. By
his prophetic power, which never proved fallacious, he rendered important
assistance to both gods and men. He was represented as a bearded old
man (pl. 21, fig. 7), whose brow, chin, and breast were covered with a
species of angular leaves taken from sea plants. Cows’ horns spring from
the crown of his head, two dolphins glide through his slimy beard, and vine
leaves and clusters of grapes adorn his hair. The horns and dolphins pro-
perly characterize him as a sea god; the grapes and vine leaves refer espe-
cially to the celebrated vineyards on the coast of the Aigean.

2. Tue Nerems. These sea-goddesses were daughters of Nereus, and

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124 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

were fifty in number. They are variously represented: sometimes riding
on hippocamps (pl. 21, fig. 9), again sporting in the water, and surrounded
by dolphins, cupids, and genii (pl. 22, jig. 2). They generally composed
the retinue of Amphitrite, wife of Posecdon, who together with Thetis,
the wife of Pelews, enjoyed a distinguished celebrity.

Thetis had been courted by Zeus and Poseidon, but Themis having
declared that the child of Thetis would be greater than his sire, the gods
withdrew. Peleus then urged his suit, but she opposed his entreaties until
he obtained from Chedron the power of changing himself into a fish, and
appearing to her in this form. The wedding was celebrated on Mount
Pelion, in the presence of all the gods except Discordia. In jig. 10, Thetis is
represented bringing to her son Achalles the shield wrought by Hephaistos.

3. Guaucos, probably son of Poseidon, lived on the Black Sea. By
means of a mysterious plant which he found and tasted, he was changed
from a poor sailor of Boeotia into a sea god. He often assisted Nereus and
warned the sailors of approaching dangers. His body, which above
resembled the human form, terminated in two fishy tails. He is repre-
sented (jig. 3) with a crown of sea-weeds, blowing on a shell, and carrying
a rudder on his shoulder.

4, Triton was a son of Poseidon and Amphitrite, and exercised his
government over the Lybian Gulf, so notorious for its terrors. He was
represented, like the innumerable Tritons who were his descendants, or
perhaps only artistic multiplications of himself, as terminating in the
double fish-tail with falcated fins; sometimes also he appeared with horses’
feet. On a gem (pl. 19, jig. 12) we see a Triton and a Nereid. The
Nereid is holding a young Triton on her arm and leading one with her
right hand; a cupid, the constant attendant of sea deities, together with a
dolphin, accompanies them. 1. 23, fig. 22, exhibits a scaly Triton (taken
from a fragment of a bas-relief), whose extremities are like those of a man.
He is holding a sea monster and near him is the mutilated form of a
woman, probably a Nereid. /%g. 21 gives us a view of a Triton’s head,
with a thick beard dripping wet and the head covered with a fish skin,
apparently connected with a fish basket.

5. Patszmon, though, properly speaking, a sea hero more than a sea god,
must be mentioned here, as he is identitied by many with /Verdtes the son
of Vereus and brother of the WVererds. His original name was Melicertes.
and he was the son of Athamas and Jno. The latter, suspected by Athamas
of having caused the death of his other children, was pursued by the
enraged father, and finally threw herself with Melicertes in her arms into
the sea. The child was saved by Poseidon, who sent a dolphin to convey
him to the shore, where he was received by Sisyphos, who educated him,
Afterwards Poseidon made him a sea hero, and he is represented as a
handsome youth riding a sea-ram and flourishing a whip over his head
(pl. 21, fig. 8). His preservation is recorded on two coins (pl. 22, jig. 9,
and pl. 28, jig. 25), on which he is represented lying on the back of a
dolphin ; the tree behind him is intended to mark the spot where he was
Janded and received by Sisyphos, who appears in the last named figure

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GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. ) 125

with the insignia of a victor in the Isthmian games, which he subsequently
instituted in honor of his heroic pupil. —

6. Orner Water Deirms. Without enlarging on all the specific classes
of mythical personages supposed to occupy the waters, we enumerate
briefly the beings which dwell in the fountains, rivers, lakes, and rivulets.

The gods of the larger streams were usually represented as bearded men
(pl. 21, fig. 14). They appeared naked or nearly so, reclining in an easy
position, the elbow resting on an urn from which water flowed freely, and
with a crown of river grass or reeds, sometimes also with bulls’ horns.
The brooks and rivulets were presided over by beings more like boys or
beardless youths.

The goddesses of lakes and springs were represented as graceful maidens,
and bore the generic name of nymphs. Of these the most celebrated were
the WVaiades, one of which we see (jig. 14) in company with a river god;
and another (pl. 19, jig. 9), carrying two water vessels. They were
daughters of river gods and Potamdes-or river goddesses, and carried
water for their parents. They showed themselves very partial to young
girls and removed the freckles from all who bathed in their streams; but
they were dangerous to young men, whom they dragged down to their
abodes when they came near their watery domain. Thus Hylas, the friend
and companion of Heracles (pl. 22, fig. 1), while attempting to take water
from a spring near the city of Chios, was seized by these nymphs, who
carried him down to their palace and smothered him with their fond embraces.

Hermaphrodites, a son of Hermes and Aphrodite (pl. 28, jig. 22), was
once bathing in a fountain, when the naiad Salmacis, who loved him fondly,
caught him in her arms and implored the gods that their bodies might
never be separated. Hence Hermaphrodites arose out of the water half
man and half woman. His myth refers obviously, both in Greek and
Indian mythology, to the generative principle of the universe, vested in no
single being but in the complete union of two.

The sea monsters, of which there were a great number, are most familiar
in the form of the Hippocamps, horses with dolphins’ tails (pl. 21, jig. 18).
They were chiefly serviceable in drawing the cars of sea gods and in carry-

ing Cupids (pl. 22, jig. 8).

7. Gops or THE Mountains, Forxsts, anp Frexps.

A very large number of deities presided over the mountains, forests, and
fertile plains, to guard them against the intrusion of man, or to assist him
in making them tributary to his wants. The following are the most impor-
tant of these deities : |

1. Pan, the god of shepherds, fields, and hunting, was also the protector
of bees'and the giver of success in fishing. He was benevolent and friendly,
and ever ready to shower his blessings uponman. Disposed to cheerfulness
and gaiety, he often chased away the hours by singing and dancing on the
verdant plains with the nymphs. His form wassingular. His face resembled

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126 : MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

that of a goat, small horns projected from his forehead, ane me ook a veurved
apa long beard, goat’s feet and tail. .

‘With so few prepossessing qualities, his amorous. ciplaticl ‘were not suc-
eteastele He loved the Naiad Syrinx, but she fled from him, and when
about to grasp her, the gods changed her into a reed. Presently the winds
murmured gently through the reeds, and the sweet tones sounded like the
echo of his lamentations for the loss of the loved one.. He therefore eut
from among the reeds several pieces of different lengths, which he tied
together, and which produced enchanting music when the wind blew into
them. In this way he discovered the seven-tubed Syrinx or pastoral pipe,
upon which he subsequently became a proficient player... He instructed
Olympos, the pupil of the unfortunate Marsyas, in the art of playing on
this: pipe (pl. 24, jig. 16). His principal attributes were the crooked
shepherd’s staff and the Syrinx. On a coin (pl. 25, fig. 3) he is represented
sitting on a rock, holding the staff, while the Syrinx lies at his feet. The
letters OA YM signify coin of the Olympians, and AR Arcadia, the district
in which he was particularly honored.

Pan finally’ succeeded in obtaining for a wife the nymph ga, and
became the progenitor of a long line of descendants called Panisks or
Panines, who were formed like himself.

Shortly after Pan’s birth, when Hermes showed him to the gods chee
in hare-skins, Dionysos techie very fond of him. Afterwards, when
Dionysos made his expedition to India, Pan accompanied him, and saved
him by his shrewdness from falling into captivity. Dionysos and his flock
of companions were completely inclosed by a large Indian army, who were
hostilely disposed towards him, and might at every moment be expected to
attack him. Pan advised Dionysos to set up a terrific howl, himself
accompanying it with the discordant sounds of a horn; the Indians who,
by the noise, supposed Dionysos attended by an overwhelming force, fled
in terror, and permitted the enemy to escape. Ever since then a fright so
intense as to deprive one of his self-possession is called a panic, and has
become the. subject of artistical representation (pl. 24, jig.17a6). The
picture from which these figures are taken exhibits two heads of Pan
admirably characterized (of which we have only copied one, jig. 17a), and
between them the head of an old man (jig. 17b), whose bristling hair,
gaping mouth, and staring eyes clearly denote him as suffering under the
extreme of terror.

12. SmteNnos was usually grouped with Pan not so much on account of his
exterior as from his mythological relations to Dionysos. He was tutor and
counsellor of the latter, and at a later period not only his constant com-
panion, but also the leader of the whole Dionysan chorus, and was classed
with the field and mountain gods. The artists represented him as an old
man with a flat nose, bald head, thin beard, the body of medium size, the
flesh bloated and spongy, the breast hairy, the head drooping, the eyes
small and sleepy, so that his whole figure realizes the conception of a little
jovial old toper, and blends the opposites of jest and earnest, sublimity and
meanness. It is contrast personified, yet so that the irony appears its

346

GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 127

natural expression. In pl. 25, jig. 10, he appears leaning against’ a stump
to which his cymbals are hung, pressing a bunch of grapes into a goblet,
and his head crowned with ivy: on the coin (fig. 11) he is seated on the
ground near a vine, his right hand holding a drinking cup. The inscription
NAZION signifies coin of the Naxians. On another coin (fig. 12 @ and 0)
he is riding backwards on an ass, holding‘a wine cup. The reverse shows
a dota (double-handled vessel), with the inscription MENAAIH, a coin of
Mende, a city of Macedonia.

_ As Pan had numerous Panisks, so the progeny of Silenos was extensive.
They differed from their father in having pointed ears, and a tail on the
back. One class among them (pl. 28, jig. 13) may be designated as
genuine tipplers. They are of large, well-set frame, reclining comfortably
upon deer-skins spread beneath them. A large wine-skin serves them fora
pillow, and near them lies a drinking vessel. Their capacious bellies, flat
and broad faces, short stumpy noses, pouting lips, and vinous joviality
embody the perfect ideal of animal enjoyment. Another class of Silenoi
is better shaped (pl. 24, jig. 18). This class is of vigorous, slender form,
and by agility and swiftness especially fitted for dancing and sporting.
The figure here given stands quiet and thoughtful, the elbow resting on a
skin spread over a stump, and the right hand holding a thyrsus.

_ 8. Priaros was the misshapen son of Dionysos (pl. 25, fig. 13) and a
rural god in high repute at Lampsacus. Hebe has adorned his hair with
vines and fruits; his right hand usually holds a scythe or pruning knife,
and his cloak is filled with the fruits of the season.

4. The Saryrs bear a strong resemblance to the Silenoi, and were always
represented as youthful. They had pointed ears and goats’ tails, frequented
the fields and mountains, and joined in the company and sports of Dionysos.
We see a Satyr (pl. 25, fig. 2) in the act of presenting a sacrifice, and for
that reason carrying a torch and fruits. Near by is the tiger sacred to
Dionysos. The figure behind him is one of the Bacchantes (priestesses of
Dionysos) playing on a double flute or pipe. Like the Menades (pl. 21,
jig. 21), they belonged to the land nymphs, and composed part of the train
of Dionysos. |

Besides the Bacchantes and Meenades, who were especially connected
with Dionysos, the Grecian mythology recognised numerous mountain and
forest nymphs, usually forming part of the train of Artemis. Pl. 20, jig.
16, represents such a nymph leading two hounds and carrying a horn, and
another with the quiver on her back guiding a pair of bridled stags.

8. GopprEssEs oF Time.

The Hora, or Hours, were honored not only as goddesses of time, but
also of order, beauty, and loveliness, and as goddesses of the seasons. They
were daughters of Zeus and Themis, and were named Dike (Justice),
Eunomia (Order), and irene (Peace). In time their number was
increased to tour, and still later to eleven, though four was the most common.

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128 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

It was their business to promote the growth of vegetables, to gladdén men
and gods with the fruits of the year, and to guard the gates of Olympos, in
front of which they collected or dispelled the fleecy clouds. They were
also charged with the education of Hera and Aphrodite, whose companions
they remained. On the front of a tomb erected to the Nasoes they are
represented in the form of beautiful maidens, and as presiding over the
Seasons, each one accompanied, however, by a male figure (pl. 29, jig. 18).
The companions of Spring, Summer, and Autumn are handsome youths,
one of whom carries a goat, the others fruits; but Winter is accompanied
by an aged man with a long beard, and a tunic reaching to his ankles. His
head is warmly clad, and he carries a stalk of corn and a goose. The attri-
butes which distinguish the Hore or Seasons were all taken from the
productions of the year.

9. Taz CuHarires, on GRACES.

_ The Cuartres (Graces) were at first the same with the Hors, but ata
later period were supposed to be their sisters. They were daughters of
Zeus and Eurynome, or, according to some authors, of Aphrodite. They
bestowed every grace, beauty, and charm of manners upon their favorites.
While they remained the sisters of the Hore, they dispensed their charms
principally on the seasons and inanimate nature. As nymphs, however,
they bestowed their graces upon the higher goddesses, Hera, Artemis, and
Aphrodite, whose beauty alone had been an imperfect qualification in the
absence of amiability and elegance. Their functions subsequently passed
over to intellectual beauty, and entered into the arts and sciences and all
forms of human cultivation.

In early times different opinions prevailed with regard to their names
and number ; but later three were especially recognised, Huphrosyne (Joy),
Aglaia (Splendor), and Thalia (The Blooming). They were represented
as young virgins, at first dressed, afterwards naked, and nearly always in a
group, their arms entwined, their hands holding fruits, flowers, &c., and
their heads gracefully inclined in different directions. On a circular glass
plate (pl. 29, jig. 12), which seems to have formed the bottom of a goblet,
we see them decorated with bracelets and anklets. Two of them hold a
fillet or bandage, and near each stands a flower. The accompanying names
vary from those we have given, though the half Greek and half Latin
inscriptions may seem to confirm the above conjecture: Pete (drink ye),
LZesete (enjoy life), multis annis vivatis (may you live many years). A
group much resembling this (pl. 28, fig. 20) exhibits the Graces with flowers
in their hands. By some writers it is affirmed that at a later period Peztho
(Persuasion) was added to the Graces; and in jig. 19 she appears with
them, the whole group being girded with the zone of beauty. Peitho was
taken into the service of Aphrodite, and received the office of opening the
mouths of bashful lovers and inspiring them with eloquent language in
which to express their feelings and attachment.

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GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 129

10. Tue Musss.

The Musss, whose number and origin were at first variously stated,
were subsequently fixed at nine, and regarded as the daughters of Mnemo-
syne ( pl. 26, fig. 8), the goddess of Memory. The latter was represented in
a thoughtful attitude, her arms enveloped in anample garment. She taught
mankind the art of language, and while Zeus dwelt at Pzertaas a shepherd,
and hiding from the rage of his father Cronos, Mnemosyne married him,
and bore to him the nine Muses. The rustics at first considered them
nymphs of the inspiring fountains, and honored them as the preservers of
budding plants. Afterwards they were associated with Apollo, who acted
as their leader, and were regarded as the goddesses of art and science, since
these could not prosper without divine inspiration. Each one superintended
some branch of knowledge, power, or art. We characterize their names
and departments more particularly.

1, Caxxiorx (gifted with a beautiful voice), the muse of epic poetry, pro-
claimed the fame of heroes by means of heroic verse. She holds in her
hand the wax tablet and style (pl. 26, jig. 1a), or a scroll of papyrus
(fig. 2), and wears a laurel crown.

2. Cxto (the proclaimer) was the muse of history, and recorded the trans-
actions of the past. In this character she also is represented with a scroll
in her hand, and sometimes resting her elbows on a pillar (jfig.16; jig. 3).
Her head is crowned with ivy.

3. Erato (the lovely), the muse of amorous poetry, and of soft, touching
music. She usually appears with roses and myrtle in her hair, and holding
the lyre in her left hand and the plectrum in the right (fig. 1 ¢), or playing
on the lyre (pl. 19, fig. 5).

4, Mepomens (the songstress), the muse of tragedy (pl. 26, jig. 1d), is
represented with the club of Hercules in the right hand, and in the left
the tragic or heroic mask. She usually wears buskins or shoes with high
cork soles.

5. Evurrerre (the charming), the muse of music, as a symbol of her office
usually appears with a double flute (jig. 1 ¢), but is also represented (fig. 5)
sitting upon a rock and holding a single flute.

6. Tatra (the blooming), the muse of comedy, was represented with a
comic mask and shepherd’s crook (jig. Lf; fig. 7).

7. TerpsicHore (leader of the dance) was the muse of dancing, and is
represented with a seven stringed lyre and the plectrum (jig. 1g).

8. Uranta (the heavenly) was the muse of astronomy and the sciences
therewith connected, particularly the knowledge of divine subjects. A
globe and measuring scale are her common attributes (fig.1h). She is
also represented in a sitting position, her left arm resting on a sphere, the
left hand holding a pair of compasses, and her gaze directed towards the
sky (jig. 6a), or with the measuring rule pointing to the globe in her hand,
and the eye uplifted (jig. 6 6).

9. Potyuymyia (the much singing) favored eloquence, vocal music, and

349

130 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES,

mimicry. She appears in a meditative mood, composing and rehearsing
hymns of the gods (jig 12); she also symbolized the acquisition and reten-
tion of knowledge, and accordingly she stands (jig. 4) dressed in full vest-
ments, and wearing on her head a wreath of corn-bind. She had no special
attributes, and both in symbolical import and representation is very similar
to her mother, Mnemosyne.

The Muses, whose special office was the instruction of mankind in the
arts and sciences, had their common residence on Mount Parnassos. There
they are represented dancing to the music of Apollo’s lyre (pl. 25, jig 21).
To their right stands Hermes with the winged horse Pegasus, and the
caduceus. On the summit of the mountain appear Ares and Aphrodite
in the character of tender lovers. Near by is seen the mischievous Eros,
striving to the utmost, if we may judge by his position and. gestures, to
apprise Hephestos, the husband of Aphrodite, of her new attachment;
and Hephestos is obviously preparing for the loving pair an unwelcome
surprise.

11. Nocrurnat Derrtrs.

1. Ncx was goddess of night, darkness, and repose; hence her supremacy -
over gods and men. She was the last child born in Zartaros, and probably
an evolution from chaos. Regarding Day as her greatest foe, she separated
from him. When Day retired to rest, she ascended the sky, but returned
to Orcos so soon as he again prepared to lead the hours of light.

She is often represented dressed in deep black and riding on a chariot;
sometimes ( pl.17, fig. 1) without the chariot, but with a radiant head, starry
veil, and an inverted torch; and again with outspread wings, soaring
between the two stars of the Dioscuri (pl. 20, jig. 2). By her marriage
with Hyrebos (subterranean night, the kingdom of death) she bore several
children, all of whom were reckoned among the nocturnal deities. The
principal ones were Hypnos, Thanatos, and the Dreams.

2. Hypnos (Sleep) conquered both gods and men, though he possessed the
mild disposition of his mother, and sent tranquillity and repose to the wretched.
During the Trojan war he provoked the ire of Zeus. The latter had espe-
cially prohibited all the gods from taking any part in the contest against the
Trojans. Hera, however, who hated them on account of Paris who had given
the prize of beauty to Aphrodite, induced Poseidon to fight against them;
and in order to draw off the attention of Zeus from Troy, she bribed Hypnos
by the promise of the youngest of the Graces as his wife, to put him to
sleep. The trick succeeded, and Poseidon, landing on the Ilian coast,
inflicted a terrible slaughter. Zeus was awakened by the din of battle,
and was so enraged at Hypnos that he would have hurled him into the sea,
if his mother Nux, whom even the king of gods did not like to grieve, had
not appeased him. |

Among the representations of Hypnos we must carefully distinguish
between materzal sleep and the genius of sleep. The artists usually conceived
the former as twin brother of death, a boy with closed eyes lying in the bosom

350

GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY, | 131

of his foster-mother Wight ; sometimes also (pl. 23, fig. 9) as an old man
with closed eyes leaning on a staff, with loose disordered hair and beard, a
tunic extending below the knees, and over this another garment with
sleeves and fastened below the breast, and with strong wings on his
shoulder and smaller ones on his head. The gendus of sleep, on the con-
trary, is usually represented as a winged boy with an inverted torch (fig. 6),
or as a young man (jig. 8) standing with reclining head and closed eyes, the
left arm leaning on a stump, and the right hand holding the inverted torch.
We often see him also in the form of a boy lying on a skin or the bare earth,
with poppies, a lizard or arabbit near him. According to the old legends, the
lizard acted as the friend of man, and awoke the sleepers at the approach
of a dangerous insect. Therabbit was no doubt a symbol of that retirement
which the weary so much seek when desiring undisturbed repose.

3. Taanatos (Death), twin brother to Sleep, was god of material death.
In representing him the artists endeavored to soften down the terrors of the
popular picture of the death of matter, and made the form to correspond
very nearly or entirely with thatof Sleep. P/. 23, fig. 7, presents us with a
statue found on a sepulchral altar in the palace of Albani at Rome, with
the inscription Somnus (sleep). From the situation of the altar, however, it
may be inferred that material death, or probably the genius of death, was
intended and expressed by the milder and less repulsive figure of sleep.
Far more terrible is the representation of the genius of death (pl. 16, jig. 4),
whose appalling black color, rapid step, expanded wings, dishevelled hair,
and death-dealing weapon, all point to his errand, the destruction of life.

4, The Dreams were also the children of Night, and three of them appear to
have been chiefly recognised. We have copied a group supposed to repre-
sent them (pl. 23, jig. 17) from asepulchral lamp. A female form reposes
gracefully on a lion’s skin, herself partly covered, and near her in a pleasant
easy position lie three winged children or genii sleeping. The largest of
the group appears to be Night, the smaller figures Dreams; and the club,
tree, bow and arrows, seem to confirm this interpretation.

A hideous exhibition of the Dreams is given in pl. 28, jig. 14. Orestes,
whose youthful friendship for Pylades has become proverbial, had taken
bloody revenge on his own mother in retaliation for her having connived at the
assassination of his father Agamemnon upon his return from the siege of
Troy. For the commission of this crime the Hwmenides assailed him, and
pursued him with their bloody serpent-whips night and day. Their appal-
ling figures harassed him in his dreams, while his mother appeared at his
side with the bloody dagger in her breast. Hewas at last permitted to
propitiate them, and occupy the throne of his father in peace. This myth
obviously connects the Dreams with the human conscience, which is sym-
bolized by the Eumenides.

12. Tae Heroes.

The Herozs were sons of the gods by mortal mothers. They shared
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132 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

some of the qualities of the gods, but were subject to the great law of mortality,
with this difference from common mortals, that they were at once received
into the society of the gods at the close of their earthly life. Like the gods
they had sacrifices made to them, attended however by fewer solemnities ;
but, with very few exceptions, they had no special temples or priests dedi-
cated to them. The following heroes are the most prominent, and their
deeds have been sung by poets of all ages.

1. Proweruevs (the Discreet, the Thoughtful) was the son of Japetos and
Clymene, and belonged therefore to the race of the Titans. When the latter
dethroned Cronos in order to make Zeus the king of heaven, Prometheus
was in favor of employing artifice instead of violence. He guided Zeus by
his advice, and may therefore claim the distinction of being the founder of
the new dynasty of gods. Subsequently, however, he disagreed with Zeus
when the latter, after assuming the government of the world, forgot. the
mortals in the distribution of his favors, and even intended to destroy them.
Prometheus then stole a ray of heavenly fire, and in spite of Zeus took it
down to man, whom he taught its uses in the various arts and sciences.
He also instructed mankind in the ceremonies of a sacrificial worship, in
which the gods received the honor of the offering, whilst the profit yielded
by the victim was reserved for man; for he made them divide the bodies
of the sacrificial animals, so that only the bones and the kidney fat were
consumed in honor of the gods, whilst the skin, flesh, and sinews, were saved
for terrestrial uses.

Enraged at such proceedings Zeus resolved to visit mankind with his
wrath. He ordered Hephestos to make a woman of water and clay, whom
the other deities endowed with their best gifts, beauty, loveliness, sagacity,
charming eloquence, and so forth. This woman (pl. 23, jig. 16) was called
Pandora (the all-gifted). Zeus provided her with a closed casket calculated
to make mankind wretched, and sent her as a present to Prometheus, with
a view that he should bequeathe her as a precious heavenly gift to his
favorites the mortals. In this casket Zeus had locked up every human misery,
and no other good but hope, which he had placed at the bottom. Prome-
theus, who suspected the nature of the gift, refused to take it, and warned
mankind and particularly his own brother LApimetheus (after-thought).
against it, to whom Zeus had sent it by Hermes when Prometheus had
rejected the offer. But Epimetheus was beguiled by the lovely woman,
whom he could not suspect of uniting with so much loveliness qualities that
would prove dangerous as soon as they were liberated from their confinement.
His curiosity prompted him to open Pandora’s casket, when at once sick-
ness, care, vice, and every other curse escaped and spread among mankind.
Hope alone remained behind, and henceforth offered to mankind the only
consolation when Pandora’s other gifts in their unrestrained sway threatened
to overwhelm them.

But it remained for Zeus to wreak his vengeance on Prometheus himself
for opposing his will and attempting to frustrate his design by warning
mankind against Pandora’s casket. He caused him to be chained to Mount
Caucasus, and sent a vulture which daily tore out and devoured his liver,

352

.. GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 133

which nightly grew again to renew his agonies on the following day (pi. 23,
Jig. 15). There he was to remain for three thousand years; but Heracles
slew the vulture, broke the fetters; and prevailed upon Zeus to admit Prome-
theus into Olympos, where his sagacity and shrewdness were of much service

2. Pxrrsnus, son of Zews and Danaé, was immediately after his birth

placed in a box together with his mother, and thrown into the sea by her
father Aerisios, who feared the fulfilment of a prediction, according te
which he would be killed by his grandson. The box was carried by the
waves to the island of Seryphos, where both mother and son were kindly
received by King Polydectes, who was so enchanted by the charms of Danaé
that he demanded her in marriage. She managed, however, to defer such
an alliance on the plea that her son should first grow up to be a youth and
zo forth to procure her an adequate dower. When the time came, the
intrepid youth boldly offered to bring Polydectes the head of Medusa, one
of the Gorgons ; and Polydectes, who wished to rid himself of the youth,
who seemed unfavorable to his attachment for Danaé, and hoped he would
perish in the bold attempt, accepted the offer of Perseus, who accordingly
undertook the dangerous expedition.
_ The Gorgons were three sisters, monsters girt with serpents, and having
serpents instead of hair. They had also brazen hands and wings, and huge
boars’ tusks; and so stern was their aspect that every mortal that beheld
them was converted into stone. They were immortal, with the exception
of Medusa (pl. 26, fig. 10; pl. 30, jigs. 13a, 6). Their residence was
beyond the ocean on the frontier of night (west Europe), and the way
thither was full of dangers and almost unknown.

_ Perseus obtained for his perilous undertaking the assistance of Hermes
and Athene. Accompanied by them he went to the Gree, the guardians
of the only weapons with which Medusa could be slain. They were,
according to Hesiod, two misshapen spinsters, Pephredo and nyo, who
had only one eye and one tusk in common, which they used alternately.
Aischylus states them as three in number, and later writers allude to them
by the names Pemphildo or Emphildo, Ento, and Yeno ; still others as
Pephredo, Enyo, and Chersis or Deino.

Perseus subdued the Gree and took away their tusk and eye, which he
withheld until they delivered to him the weapons he wanted. They then
procured for him a pair of winged sandals, the helmet of Ares with the
power of making the wearer invisible, a silver bag and a diamond sickle, to
which Athene added a brazen shield of such splendor that he could use it
as a reflector in which to see the image of the head of Medusa, lest behold-
ing the head itself he should fall under the doom of other mortals and be
converted into stone. Thus equipped he began his expedition. PU. 30, jig.
11, represents him preparing to start.

His winged sandals carried him speedily to an island, where he found the
Gorgons asleep. Approaching them with averted face, guided by the reflec-
tion from his shield, he severed the head of Medusa from her body with
one blow of his sickle. P7. 30, jig. 12, represents him with the head in

one hand, the sickle in the oie and the rg hanging at his arm. From
ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOPADIA. —vol. Iv. 353

134 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

the stream of blood flowing from the slain Gorgon arose Chrysaor (the man
with the golden sword), and Pegasus, the winged horse (pl. 25, jig. 21).
Perseus now thrust the head into the silver bag, and mounting Pegasus, fled
from the island.

The two sisters of Medusa, Stheno and Huryale, aroused by her death-cry,
called to their assistance Poseidon, to whom they related the calamity of
their sister (pl. 30, fig. 10). They are represented in short tunics, and
their broad tongues protrude between the long teeth of their horrid mouths.
To the left stands the Nymph who directed Perseus to the retreat of the
Gorgons. They pursued the murderer; but the helmet which made him
invisible, and the speed cf Pegasus, enabled him to escape unhurt. He
sped his course over Africa, and wheresoever the blood-dr ops fell from the
dripping head upon the cece they took the form of poisonous serpents, —
and ever since that region has been infested with venomous reptiles. On
his way he stopped with Atlas (King of Ethiopia), who had beautiful
gardens and trees which bore golden apples. It had been predicted to
Atlas that he should lose his gardens by a son of Zeus, and hearing that
Perseus was such, he denied him the common rites of hospitality. In
return for his neglect, Perseus, by the head of Medusa, changed him into
Mount Atlas, reaching to the clouds, and which must support the vault of
the heavens. Hence the allegorical representation of Atlas with the celes-
tial globe on his neck (pl. 30, jig. 24).

The winged horse Pegasus was afterwards transferred to Olympos, and
carried Zeus’s thunder and lightnings. He also became associated with
other myths, particularly with that of the Muses, and became thereby the
steed of the poets; hence the expression in regard to poetical efforts, “to
mount Pegasus.”

Returned to Seriphos, Perseus liberated his mother from the persecutions
of Polydectes, by changing him into stone with the head of Medusa. He
then gave the helmet, bag, and the winged sandals to Hermes, and the
head of Medusa to Athene, who decorated her egis with it. After
numerous other exploits he was placed by Zeus among the constellations.

3. Bretteropnon was the son of Glaucos, King of Corinth, and originally
bore the name of Hipponoos, but having murdered his relation Bedleros, he
was compelled to flee from the city, and his name was changed to Bellero-
phon (murderer of Belleros). Lycia, the country to which he escaped,
was infested by the Chimera (pl. 30, jig. 26), a monster with the heads of
a lion and of a goat, a lion’s body, and a tail which terminated in a snake.
It devoured the flocks, vomited forth fire, and burnt the forests aud dwell-
ings all over the country. At the command of Jobates, King of Lycia,
Bellerophon undertook a combat with this monster. Pallas Athene pro-
cured him the winged horse Pegasus, and having obtained this precious
assistance, he took leave of Jobates and began his expedition (pl. 30, jig.
25). The Chimera sent forth its fiery breath against him, but in vain.
He shot arrows at it from a distance, and when these proved unavailing he
hurled huge masses of lead down the throat of the monster, which finally
yielded to his superior prowess.

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After this, Jobates sent him against the Amazons, a nation of warlike
women, who having first dismissed their husbands, admitted no men
amongst them. Wherever they made their incursions, they hunted and
slew all that belonged to the male sex, but captured and bore off the virgins.
They were usually represented as in pl. 30, jigs. 27, 28. Bellerophon
set out against these women, mounted upon Pegasus, whose appearance
so frightened the horses of the Amazons that they became uncontrollable,
and running off, dashed their riders over precipices, or flung them into rivers.

The hero had now accomplished his two difficult tasks, and returning to
the capital crowned with glory, he received in marriage the daughter of
Jobates, who also appointed him his successor. His good fortune, however,
having made him overbearing, he boldly attempted to ride up to Olympos
on Pegasus, but Zeus, to punish him for his presumption, sent a gad-fly,
which so irritated the horse that he threw his rider to the earth. Mortified
and dejected, he ever after shunned the’ society of men, and spent the rest
of his days wandering through lonesome and desolate regions.

4, The Dioscurt (Castor and Pollux) were sons of Zeus and Leda.
Pollux inherited the gift of immortality from his father, but Castor was
mortal. They were both extraordinary youths, and enjoyed in an equal
degree the favor of the gods. Inseparably united, they undertook and
accomplished numerous and celebrated heroic achievements, and partici-
pated in those of others. They joined Heracles in his war against the
Amazons, Jason in his expedition to Colchis in search of the golden fleece,
and Peleus in his attack upon Iolchos. They loved the daughters of Leucip-
pos, one of the participators in the pursuit of the Calydonian boar, in which
the Dioscuri also took part. These virgins, Phebe and Jlwira, were also
loved by the brothers Lynceus and /das, kings of Messenia, who disputed
the claim of the Dioscuri. In the combat that ensued, Castor fell by the
spear of Lynceus, and Pollux, inconsolable for his loss, implored the gods
to share with Castor his immortality. Zeus answered his prayer, and
placed both among the stars, where they form the constellation of Gemini.
They were usually represented as handsome youths in the full vigor of
health (pl. 18, jig. 10), or as symbols of the constellation on horseback,
with the figure of night between them, and accompanied by their stars ( pl.
20, jig. 3).

5. Heractes (Hercules), son of Zeus and Alcmene, was the most cele-
brated hero of the Grecian mythology, in whom poetry has represented the
ideal of human perfection as it was understood in the heroic age, endowing
him with the greatest possible bodily strength, together with the best
qualities of mind and heart recognised in that age. His mother was the
consort of King Amphztryon of Mycene, and bore, together with Heracles,
his twin brother JpAzcles, who betrayed his inferior origin, when AmpAi-
tryon, in order to ascertain which of his children was of godly descent,
threw two snakes into their cradle. Iphicles started back, whilst Heracles
seized both the snakes and strangled them (pl. 25, jig. 14).

Heracles was carefully educated by the greatest men of his age, and
became an expert charioteer, wrestler, archer, and warrior, and well versed

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136 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

in the healing properties of plants. But his hand seemed little skilled for
acquiring the art of music; and when his teacher Zimos one day gave him
a sovere correction, he killed him with the lyre, for which crime he was
punished by Amphitryon, who sent him to his shepherds to assist them in
guarding the vast herds of the king.

When he had reached the age of eighteen, he left the herds and set out
in quest of adventures. Arriving at a cross-road, he was met by two
females, each of whom sought to secure his confidence to herself. The
one was endowed with the most inviting charms and allurements, and pro-
mised him, if he would follow her, exemption from all toils and disquietude ;
her name was Vice. ‘The other exhorted him to follow her and to gain
eternal renown, and a final admission to Olympos, by conquering in a
manly way the troubles and dangers which would obstruct his path, but
which would yield to his strength and earnest will. Though less beautiful
than the first, a noble and majestic mien made her peculiarly attractive ;
her name was Virtue. The youth yielded to her persuasion, and promised
ever to follow her.

The trials predicted by this patroness were not long delayed. The ever
jealous Hera wished to destroy him, and extorted from Zeus a promise to
place him in the service of King Hurystheus, who should assign him twelve
commissions (commonly known as the twelve labors of Heracles), his ulti-
mate freedom depending upon their completion, and consequently Heracles
was sent by Zeus to his severe taskmaster.

The jirst labor he was bid to perform was to slay the Nemean Lion.
This beast lived in the forests of Nemea, desolated the country in every
direction, and seemed to be invulnerable to all the shafts of mortals. Even
the weapons of Heracles produced but a slight effect; the lion rushed at
him more furiously than ever; he dealt him a blow upon the head with his
club, which was shivered, though it staggered the lion; then following up his
advantage, he caught him round the neck and finally strangled him( fig. 15).
He tore off the skin, which ever afterwards served him as a coat of mail,
the head being his helmet.

His second labor was the destruction of the Lernean Hydra. This
monster had one hundred heads, one of which was immortal, while when-
ever one of the others was cut off it was instantly replaced by two new
ones. When Heracles attacked the Hydrait wound around his feet, and he
soon found that although he cut off many of its heads, their number
increased instead of becoming less. He then bid his charioteer set fire toa
neighboring wood, and seizing a burning tree, applied the huge torch to the
fresh wounds he made, thus paralysing the reproductive faculty (jig. 17),
until all the heads were destroyed except the one which was immortal, and
that he placed in the ground beneath a heavy stone. Then cutting the body
to pieces, he dipped his arrows in its blood, which rendered the wounds
inflicted by them incurable. Eurystheus declared the labor ill performed,
as it had been accomplished with the assistance of the charioteer, and
gave him another task more difficult to execute.

This thord labor was to take alive the Hind of Artemis, the swift-footed

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GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 137

Cherynitis. Heracles chased it during a whole year, even into the Hyper-
borean regions, until he succeeded in laming it by sending an arrow through
its foot; when he soon caught it and carried it on his shoulder to Eurys-
theus.

The fowrth labor was to take alive the Erymanthian Boar, which was
also sacred to Artemis. This terrible animal lived near mount Erymanthos,
which it rendered so unsafe by its ravages that no traveller dared approach
it. On his way thither Heracles first conquered the Centaurs and drove
them from Arcadia. He then attacked the boar and chased it inte the deep
snow of the mountain top, where he caught it and carried it home. When
he brought it to Eurystheus, the latter was so frightened that he hid him-
self in a cask, and became so afraid of the hero that he transmitted his
further orders to him through Copreus, forbidding him henceforth to enter
the city of Mycene. ! ,

The jifth labor was to clean the stables of Augeas, in which the latter had
kept three thousand head of cattle for a long period. This task he accom-
plished by leading the rivers Alphezos and Peneios through the stables,
which were effectually cleaned by the rushing waters. ©

The scath labor was to slay the Stymphaldes, rapacious birds with brazen
bills and iron wings, whose feathers they could shoot like arrows against
their pursuers. They lived in the swamp Stymphalis in Arcadia, and
could not be approached. Heracles frightened them out of their retreat by
the noise of a huge rattle, and then laid them low with his deadly arrows,
the birds not being proof against the poison of the Hydra.

The seventh labor was to catch the Cretan Bull which Poseidon, in his
wrath against king M/inos, had brought to Crete to devastate the island with
his fiery breath. Heracles mastered the furious animal, and brought it to
Eurystheus, who sent it into the plains of Marathon, where it spread death
and destruction until it was finally caught by Theseus and sacrificed to
Apollo.

The ezghth labor was the capture of the horses of Diomedes, king of Thrace.
These four dreadful horses were fed with the bodies of all the strangers that
strayed into the territory of Diomedes. Heracles slew their guard and led
the horses to Eurystheus, in spite of the pursuit of the Thracians.

The ninth labor was to fetch the shoulder-belt of the Queen of the Ama-
zons, Hippolyte, which Admeta daughter of Eurystheus coveted. Heracles
went to Hippolyte and persuaded her to give up her belt, but Hera insti-
gated the Amazons to attack him. Believing that this attack was owing
to the treachery of Hippolyte, Heracles slew her and took the shoulder-belt
by force.

The tenth labor was to steal the cattle of Geryon, the three-headed giant-
king of Iberia and the Balearic Islands, which were guarded by the two-
headed dog Orthros and the giant Huryton. Heracles slew both the latter
and drove off the cattle, but he was pursued by Geryon, who was assisted by
Hera, and attacked him furiously. . Heracles, however, succeeded in wound-
ing Hera in the breast, and whilst she hurried to Zeus to get him to paralyse the
poison, he slew Geryon and drove the cattle successfully to. Mycenz in spite

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138 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

of Hera’s renewed endeavor to frustrate his labor by enraging the animals
on a wide plain, where he had the utmost difficulty in keeping them
together.

The eleventh labor was to fetch the Golden Apples of the Hesperides, the
daughters of /Zesperos, who lived near Mount Atlas. But Heracles knew
not where the apples were to be found. He first asked the nymphs of the
Eridanus, who referred him to Wereus, who refused to answer. Heracles
then fettered him and compelled him to tell what he knew. The way he
indicated led through Lybia, Egypt, and Asia, to the Caucasus. Here
Heracles found the fettered Prometheus, whom he liberated after slaying
the torturing vulture, and the grateful Prometheus told him that he must
apply to Atlas for the apples. Thither Heracles then went and asked him
to procure him the apples, offering at the same time to support the heavens
for hint during his absence. When Atlas returned with the apples he was
little inclined to re-assume his office and its burden, but preferred himself to
take the apples to Eurystheus. Heracles apparently consented, and only
asked that he should hold the heavens until he could place a cushion on his
own neck to make the weight less painful. But when Atlas had taken on
himself the burden, Heracles took the golden apples and returned with them
to his lord, who almost despairing at the invariable success of Heracles in
all his undertakings, had in reserve a new task, the last he had authority
from Zeus to impose, but which he was sure would accomplish the wish of
his patroness Hera, and prove the destruction of the hero.

This ¢welfth labor was to bring up Cerberos from the Lower World. Cerbe-
ros was the three-headed dog guarding the shades in the realm of Hades,
the monstrous son of Typhon and Echidna, and was covered with serpents
instead of hair, had a dragon’s tail, and his breath and froth were poisonous.
For this exploit Heracles had to prepare himself by being initiated into the
mysteries by Humolpos of Eleusis. This initiation is symbolically repre-
sented in pl. 25, jig. 18, by the myrtle twig in the hand of Heracles, and
the scarf over his head, similar to that which is handed him by the
priestess of Arete (virtue), who stands in front of him with an inverted
spear.

. going through the ceremonies of initiation he descended to the
infernal regions. The shades took flight when he descended among them.
Menctius alone, the cattle-keeper of Hades, dared to oppose his progress,
when he undertook to kill some cattle in order to slake the thirst of the
shades with their blood, but Heracles dashed him against a rock and broke
his ribs. He then demanded of Hades his dog, which the latter consented
to give up provided Heracles could secure him unarmed. The hero at
once seized the monster, and pressing his three heads between his knees,
fettered him (pl. 25, fig. 16). When he brought him up to Eurystheus, the
affrighted king begged him to take him back to the lower world, which
he did.

Heracles was now free from his allegiance to Eurystheus; but still
subject to the persecutions of Hera he continued his wanderings, in which
he established altars in honor of Zeus and accomplished many a heroic

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GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 139

deed, of which we briefly mention his combat with Echidna, who had
stolen his horses whilst he was asleep, his war with the giants, and his
contest with Apollo for the tripod, which he wanted in order to establish
an oracle of his own. At length Zeus succeeded in appeasing the wrath
of Hera. No longer instigated to activity by the dangers she had thrown
in his way, he grew weary of life, and erected a huge pyre on Mount Attna
on which he placed himself and ordered his friends to light it; but they
refused, and he then bribed the shepherd Pozas to do it by giving him
his arrows. Scarcely had the flame enveloped the pyre when a cloud
descended from heaven, which caught up the hero and bore him to Olym-
pos, where he was received into the circle of the gods and was married to
Hera’s daughter Hebe.

The whole myth of Hercules is obviously the symbolical account of the
progress of civilization through the energy, strength, and virtue of man, for
he prepares the land for cultivation by destroying the wild beasts which
infest it; he shows the way to navigation by crossing and re-crossing the
ocean and by his intercourse with many different races ; and he directs the
mind of man to the divine being, as the source of all success, by erecting
altars and arranging worship.

At a time when lasciviousness and effeminacy had polluted the minds
of Grecian poets, a number of degrading adventures were connected with
the name of Heracles, which, however, are so foreign to the fundamental
idea of this mythological figure, that we merely allude to the fact without
giving room to the accounts in our pages.

The artistical representations of Heracles are always of colossal propor-
tions, expressive of the greatest imaginable degree of human strength.
His features are usually serious, but calm and mild withal, as it behoves
a stern, awe-inspiring, but worthy and great character, who is above the
common meanness of man. His attributes are the club and the lion’s skin,
which constitutes his only clothing. We have copied (pl. 15, jig. 24) the
statue of the Tyrrhenian Heracles. Other representations of this hero will
be found in the division of our plates devoted to Sculpture, as he was
at all times a favorite subject for plastic representation.

6. CEpreous (CEdipus) was the son of Lazos, King of Thebes, and was
celebrated not less for his misfortunes than for his exploits. An oracle had
informed his father that the son of his wife /ocaste would slay him; and to
avert such a fate he had him exposed soon after his birth on Mount
Citheron. Before sending him away he had his ankles pierced and a
leathern thong inserted in the wounds, whence his name (swollen foot).
A neatherd found him and presented him to the childless Polybos, King
of Corinth, who adopted him as his heir. When he grew up and learned
that he was not the king’s son, he inquired who were his parents, but
failing to receive satisfaction he repaired to the oracle at Delphi. The
response was: “ Avoid thy home, if thou wouldst not murder thy father
and marry thy mother!” To escape such a calamity he resolved to
abandon Corinth, which he regarded as his native place, and make Thebes
his home. His father Laios happened to be on the way to consult the

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140 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

same oracle in regard to his son, and the two met'in a narrow part of the
road in Phocis. The king’s charioteer ordered Cidipus to clear the way.
He disregarded the command, a contest ensued, and both Laios and the
driver were killed.

Unconscious of being his father’s murderer, he now proceeded towards
Thebes. At that time the country was desolated by the Sphinz ( pl. 30,
jig. 18, a, 6), a monster with the head and breast of a lovely young woman,
the body of a winged lion, and the tail of a dragon. She propounded to
every passer-by the riddle, “‘ Who walks on four feet in the morning, on two
at noon, and on three in the evening?” and whoever failed to solve it was
devoured. To rid themselves of this dreadful evil, the Thebans offered as a
prize to the man who should answer the sphinx, the now vacant throne of
Laios, and the hand of his widowed queen. (Ci&dipous hearing of the pro-
posal, boldly approached the monster and answered “Man does! As an
infant he creeps on hands and feet, during manhood he walks on two feet,
and when old uses a staff.” The sphinx could not survive the solution, and
cast herself down a precipice; or according to some authors was slain by
(Edipous (jig. 20). The latter now became king of Thebes and husband
of his mother Jocaste, who when the dreadful fact became known hung
herself in shame and despair ; while her unhappy son, as an expiation for his
unintentional crime, deprived himself of sight, ‘went into a voluntary exile,
and finally took leave of the earth without pain or sickness, and at peace
with the gods, whom his sufferings had induced to pardon his crime.

7. Opysseus (Ulysses) son of Zaertes and Hurycleva, and king of Ithaca,
was married to Penelope, who had borne him a son Zelemachos at the time
of the commencement of the Trojan war. The oracle having predicted
that he would not return for twenty years if he joined the expedition,
Odysseus was averse to leaving his happy home. When therefore Menelaos,
Agamemnon, and Palamedes came to Ithaca with a view of inducing him
to join their efforts to liberate Helen, he feigned madness, harnessed an ox
and an ass to his plough, and sowed salt. But Palamedes discovered the
deceit by placing Telemachos in front of the ploughshare, which Odysseus
carefully lifted over the infant. He had then to lay aside his mask and yield
to the persuasion of his friends. In the expedition against Troy he rendered
important services to the besiegers by his sagacity and cunning, which
knew how to turn to account the most untoward circumstances. After the
sack of Troy he started on his voyage home, but astorm threw him on shore
in the territory of allies of the Trojans, who attacked him, and whom he had
to conquer before he could proceed on his voyage. Another storm drove his
vessel to the land of the Zotophagi (lotus-eaters), with which his companions
were so pleased that he had the greatest trouble to make them re-embark.
He was next carried by contrary winds to Sicily, where he and his com-
panions sought refuge from the inclemency of the weather in a cavern,
which was the residence of the gigantic Cyclops Polyphemos, who, on
returning with his flocks from their pasture, found the intruders, and locked
them up by placing a huge rock before the entrance of his cave. Every day
he swallowed one of the companions of Odysseus, who however finally

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GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. | 141

hit upon a plan for saving himself and his remaining followers. He first
intoxicated the giant, and burnt out his only eye whilst he was asleep.
The enraged monster dealt mighty blows in all directions, but his cap-
tives easily evaded their blind antagonist. One morning when Poly-
phemos removed the rock from the entrance of the cave in order to let out
his flock of sheep, Odysseus and his friends each slipped under a ram
holding on to its fleece, and were thus carried out under the very hands of
the Cyclops who stood in the passage feeling the animals’ backs as they
passed him. Odysseus then re-embarked, but having offended Poseidon by
maiming his son Polyphemos, he had to go through a vast deal of suffering
on his further voyage. When his own island of Ithaca was already in sight
Poseidon bid olus, the god of the winds, drive him back. He was first
thrown on the A®olian islands, then on the land of the Lestrygons, and
finally on the island of the nymph Circe (pl. 30, jig. 16), who changed his
companions into swine, but could not transform him as he was guarded
against witchcraft by a mystical plant that he had obtained from Hermes,
and by whose power he also forced her to restore the original forms of his
companions.

Leaving the island he again encountered storms that threw him into the
neighborhood of the abode of the Sirens, half birds, half women (pl. 21,
Jigs: 17, 19), who by their charming song lured mariners into danger, and
either drowned them or changed them into Sirens (jig. 18). Odysseus
escaped the danger by causing himself to be lashed to the mast of his
vessel, and his companions to close their ears with wax. ‘Thus he passed
the dangerous spot unhurt, but was soon after carried by the winds into the
narrow passage between Scylla and Charybdis, of whom the myth relates that
they had been beautiful maidens, and were changed into sea monsters by
Circe from motives of jealousy, and stationed in the Etruscan straits to render
them attractive by their alluring charms and destructive by their monstrous
nature. Odysseus came too near Scylla, who slew six of his companions
(pl. 30, fig. 15), and in his endeavor to escape from the spot fell in with
Charybdis (jig. 14), who also claimed a number of victims. But he at
length extricated his vessel from the dangerous neighborhood. He was not,
however, yet freed from the persecutions of the vindictive god of the seas,
who sent another gale against him which wrecked his vessel on the island
of the Nymph Calypso, when all his companions were drowned, and he
alone saved by his skill in swimming. Calypso retained him on the island
for seven years, when he was finally released at the command of Zeus, who
at the request of Athene sent Hermes to bid Calypso give him a vessel that
he might continue his voyage. Scarcely had he, however, lost sight of the
island when Poseidon again sent a gale of wind that he might destroy him ;
his vessel was shivered by the force of the waves. After swimming during
three days he reached the island of Scheria, where he fell down exhausted
and sank into a deep sleep. He was found by the daughter of King
Alcinoos, who offered him the hospitality of her father. The latter insti-
tuted a great feast in honor of his guest, at which Demodocos sang the
glorious deeds of the Greeks at Troy. Elated by the song, Odysseus dis-

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142 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

covered himself and recounted his own adventures and disasters. Touched
by the hardships of his voyage, Alcinoos resolved to have him brought to
Ithaca by one of his own vessels. Odysseus was sleeping when the vessel
reached his home in the dead of night. His companions carried him on
shore, and left the island after having placed him gently on the beach.
When he awoke he knew not where he was. Twenty years of absence had
effaced the recollection of the scenery around him. Athene, in the shape
of a shepherd, told him he was in Ithaca, but not until she had assumed
her own divine form would he believe her word, so firmly had the idea
become rooted in his mind that he would never reach his island again.

Athene bade him assume the garb of a beggar, and thus approach his
palace, and to address himself under this disguise to Humeos, an old, faith-
ful servant. He was kindly received by the good old man, whom he told
that Odysseus was still among the living, but had difficulty to make him
credit that he knew he was not far off. On the third day Telemachos made
his appearance returning from his voyage in search of his father, and to him
Odysseus discovered himself. Eumeeos was then dispatched to inform
Penelope of her husband’s approach.

Penelope had long been hard pressed by numerous suitors, who had spread
the report that Odysseus had perished at Troy. But the virtuous woman was
true to her lord, and deferred an answer to their suits by promising to
bestow her hand upon one among them when she should have finished the
shroud of Laertes which she was weaving. She wove at it every day, but
undid her day’s work during the night, and thus delayed the ominous
decision. Meanwhile the haughty wooers established themselves in her
palace, banqueted in her halls, and squandered the wealth of her house.
When Eumeos brought her the message she bade him bring to her the
beggar who had sent it. When he entered the hall he found the wooers at
a feast, and they taunted the ragged man and made him wrestle with the
privileged beggar of the house for their amusement. When brought into
the presence of Penelope he told her, who did not recognise him, that her
lord lived and would return to his home on the following day. Rejoiced at
the news, she arranged a feast for that day, and told her suitors that she
would upon that occasion give her decision in favor of one. After the feast
she ordered the bow of Odysseus to be brought into the hall, and promised
her hand to him who could shoot an arrow from that bow through twelve
holes at the top of so many stakes that were placed in a straight line at
short distances behind each other. When all the lovers had tried in vain to
bend the bow, the disguised beggar asked permission to try his skill, and at
the command of Penelope and Telemachos the bow was reluctantly handed
to the despised old man. He raised it slowly and with apparent difficulty,
but suddenly drew the string with perfect ease and sent the arrow from it
through all the stakes. Before the proud suitors could recover from their
astonishment he had thrown off his disguise and sent another arrow through
the breast of the boldest of the lovers, and then, with the assistance of
Telemachos and Eumeos, he killed the rest. Penelope now recognised her
lord by his uncommon prowess and welcomed him home.

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GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 143

_ The death of Odysseus is enveloped in mystery. The most common
version is that he was killed by Zéelegonos, the son of Circe, who had landed
on Ithaca as a pirate, and was opposed by Odysseus and Telemachos.

The term hero was applied not merely to the demigods, as already sug-
gested, but also to worthy and honored men of great antiquity. Thus
Homer employs it in speaking of princes and their sons, nobles, generals,
their aids and companions. Of this class of heroes we give two representa-
tions in pl. 16, figs. 5 and 6.

13. THe Grants.

We have alluded to the Grants while treating of Zeus. They were
monsters of astonishing size and invincible strength, and their dragons’ tails
and feet gave them a hideous aspect. They sprang from the blood which
issued from the wounds of Uranos; or according to another myth, Gaia
brought them forth to spite her husband.

The most noted were J/imas, who, in the contest between his race and
the Olympic gods, was transfixed by Ares (pl. 30, fig. 21); Pallas, who
was slain by Pallas Athene while fighting against her with his snaky tails
and a shepherd’s crook (jig. 22); and Gration, who fought with a stag, or
with Artemis in the form ofa stag (jig. 23).

14. Tae Pyemies.

The Pyemtrs, the complete contrast to the Giants, were a fabulous race of
dwarfs (the Liliputians of modern times), whose most formidable enemies were
the Cranes. 2g. 29 presents a battle between them. Two of the Pygmies
are armed with lances, and carry askin on the left arm as a shield ; a third is
hastening to the aid of a prostrate comrade. Heracles once fell asleep in the
deserts of Africa, when an army of Pygmies attacked him with as much energy
as though they had been besieging a town. The hero awoke during the onset,
smiled at his puny foes, but was so much pleased with their courage, that
he gathered them in his lion’s skin and carried them to Eurystheus.,

15. SacrEpD ANIMALS.

The Greek system of mythology abounded in sacred animals. We have
already spoken of Apollo’s raven (pl. 17, jig. 28). In pl. 28, jig. 26, we
have represented the sacred bull of Dionysos. His body is girded with an
ivy branch, and he stands upon a thyrsus adorned with ribbons. The
inscription designates it as the work of the artist HZyllus, who wrought the
stone from which our engraving is copied. PU. 24, jig. 9, presents the
sacred lion which Dionysos or one of his attendants is feeding. This piece

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144 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

is a part of the frieze on the monument of Lysicrates, generally known as
the lantern of Demosthenes, and illustrates the history of Dionysos and
his punishment of the Tyrrhenian pirates. Finally, we give the sacred ser-
pent (fig. 10a6), copied from a coin called the czstophorus, because it
exhibits the czsta or sacred box, surrounded by ivy, berries, and leaves, from
which the serpent proceeds. The reverse bears two serpents with their
tails entwined ; between them is seen a quiver, and to the right a thyrsus,
around which a serpent is coiled. |

16. Tae Genn.

We close our account of mythical beings by a brief reference to the
Genie (pl. 19, fig. 10). They were originally regarded as gods, but at a
later period they held a position between gods and men. They constituted
two distinct orders: the Good Genwi (Agathodemons), and the Hvil Genw
(Cacodemons). They were considered mortal, and had a very limited sphere
of activity. Every man was supposed to have two. The good one coun-
selled and encouraged him, the evil one sought to corrupt him; and thus
they waged a perpetual strife, the victory depending upon the will of the
individual, who had it in his power to retain or reject either ; and while one
remained in power, the other abandoned him. Accordingly it was custo-
mary to ascribe good fortune or disaster to the presence of the good or evil
genius.

They were usually represented as handsome youths, sometimes winged
and crowned with wreaths, and clothed in a star-embroidered garment,
sometimes without any of these, and naked.

THEOLOGY AND WoRSHIP OF THE GREEKS.

The belief in the existence of the soul after death and an appropriate
retribution of good or evil was universal among the Greeks, though, as
might be expected, the notions on these subjects were gradually modified
in different ages. The abode of departed spirits was the centre of the
earth, and was divided into two distinct regions, Elystwm, the place of
rewards and Zartaros, the place of punishment. Hermes with his golden
wand escorted the souls down to the lower world, to the lake Acherusza,
which was formed by the junction of the rivers Cocytos and Styx. Over
this lake they were rowed by Charon, the ferryman of the lower world.
He was. a severe old man with a dingy dress, and for two obolz (a small
Greek coin) bore across to Hades in his leaky boat the souls of those who
in the upper world had been burned or at least consecrated to Hades by a
monument ( pl. 24, jig. 24); those, however, who had not these pre-requisites
were compelled to wander on the terrible shore during one hundred years.
When landed on the opposite shore of the lake, they passed through a
cavern. in which Cerberos kept watch. to the world of shades. From this

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GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. | 145

there was no return. They next entered a large court, where Minos, the
first supreme judge of the dead, passed judgment upon the acts of their
lifetime, and decided whether they should be admitted to Elysiwm, where
Hades and his queen Persephone reigned, or go to Zartaros. Around
Elysium flowed the erystal waters of Zethe, from which the departed
drank and forgot for ever the sorrows of the past. Meadows of loveliest
green lay stretched out before their view; they were decorated with the
most beautiful flowers and dotted with shady groves; a clear and serene
atmosphere filled the cloudless firmament, which was gladdened by ever-
lasting light. The land brought forth of itself its refreshing fruits three
times in the year; and old age, pain, and disease were displaced by
perpetual enjoyment and delight. Zartaros, on the contrary, which lay
far beneath the world of shades, was a deep abyss inclosed by a triple wall
and by the fiery stream Phlegethon and the raging Acheron. Those whom
Minos directed thither were taken before a second judge, Rhadamanthos,
who determined their penalty according to the measure of their guilt. The
moment the decision was announced, the Hrynnyes appeared and drove them
into the place of punishment, where they remained for ever. Some of these
dreadful punishments are represented in pl. 24, jig. 25, where we see
Sisyphos, once king of Corinth, who was condemned to roll a large stone
up the side of a steep hill, and when he had just gained the summit the
stone recoiled, carrying him with it to the base, by which his labor
was ever beginning and never ended. Another sufferer, Zvzon, king of
the Lapithe, was bound to a wheel which revolved perpetually, and after
plunging him into the flames of sulphur raised him aloft only to submerge
him again beneath the fiery waves. Zantalos, king of Phrygia, tormented
by endless hunger and thirst, stood immersed to the chin in water, while
over him hung a tree whose branches bore the most delicious fruits; but
whenever he stooped to drink the water shrank from his taste, and when
he reached forth his hand for the fruit, the branches receded beyond his
grasp.

The modes of worshipping the gods were as varied as the deities them-
selves. The sacred places were at first certain tracts of land whose products
were dedicated to the service of the deities; next consecrated groves, in
which altars were erected in the open air. At a later period temples were
built, some to particular gods, the greater part, however, to all the gods,
and the latter class of temples bore the name of Pantheon. The worship
consisted chiefly of prayer, sacrifice, and public festivals and games, which
varied, of course, with the character of the god. The style of private sacri-
fices differed also somewhat according to the wealth of the worshipper. In
conducting the religious services, numerous and diversified implements
were employed, some of which were finished in the highest style of art.
We present drawings of altars (p/. 19, figs. 19, 20) ; sacrificial vases (jigs.
21-29) ; offering cups and dishes ( figs. 30-33) ; incense caskets ( jigs. 34, 35) ;
a tripod (jig. 36); a brush of hair for sprinkling the consecrated liquids
( fig. 87) ; various knives, dipping ladles, &c. (figs. 88-47); a large sacri-

ficial knife (pl. 17, fig. 29), which was used at the sacrificing of a bull; an
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146 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

altar lamp (pl. 16, fig. 27), made of burnt clay, having the form of a bull’s
head with pendants and fillets, and employed in the sacrifice of the same
animal; and finally, numerous ladle-, pan-, and shovel-formed implements
( figs. 28-33 ab). On a coin which has reference to the worship (pi. 15,
jig. 24.46), we see on one side Poseedon, on the other (probably) Zagreus.

Among the festivals of Greece none excelled in magnificence and import-
ance the Panathenwan. They were instituted by Arichthonzos in honor of
Pallas Athene. At first they were called Athenwa, but after all the inde-
pendent communities of Attica united in the celebration, they took the
name of Panathenca (pl. 20, fig. 23). The Smaller Athenzea were cele-
brated in April of each year, the Greater every fifth year. In both the
proceedings were somewhat similar. On the first day torch-races took
place, the second was spent in gymnastic exercises, and the third was
devoted to intellectual contests, the rehearsal of Homeric songs, and the
delivery of dramatic poems and orations. Then followed the sacrifices and
the banquet. At the Greater Athenea, the principal ceremonies consisted
of a solemn procession, in which the saffron-colored peplos, or sacred robe
of Athene, woven by maidens of the first families, and illustrative of the
deeds of the goddess, was carried to the temple on the Acropolis and folded
around her image. After this, the peplos was taken down and hung like a
sail upon a ship, which was moved by concealed machinery around the Par-
thenon. The whole festival was deemed so sacred that the inmates of the
prisons were released to take part in it.

Among the feasts in honor of Dzonysos (Bacchus) were prominent the
Orgies, a mixture of mystic rites and drunken revelry. They are illustrated
by an engraving copied from the lid of a sarcophagus (pl. 29, jig. 2), in
which Dionysos and Ariadne are represented sitting opposite to each other,
and between them appears a Faun blowing upon a horn. Near Ariadne
we see a Menad playing upon a double flute, and treading with her foot
an instrument which marks the time. -Ampelos, a youthful favorite of
Dionysos, stands in a car drawn by tigers, which are guided by a Cupid who
plays on alyre. To the right are seen the drunken Silenos supported by
Nymphs, and a Faun retreating in terror from a mystic box which a
Menad has opened, and out of which aserpent is crawling. A picture of
Bacchanalia similar to this is given in pl. 19, fig. 138. The intoxicated
Dionysos is carried by Pans and Genii, a Faun playing on a tambourine
leads the procession, one Meenad plays a double flute, and another appears
to be placing a wreath on Dionysos, under whose feet walks a goat, the
destined victim of the day.

In pl. 25, fig. 7, we have copied a picture referring to the Dzonysian
Mysterves. One of the initiated women sits on the back of a bull, which
is adorned with garlands for the sacrifice. Her hair is ornamented by a
pointed crown ; with her left hand she holds up her flowing mantle, while
with the right she secures herself on the back of the bull. Behind her
walks a man, probably Aazeros (the Hephestos of Samothracia), with a
conical cap, a lance, and wreath. The other man with a lance probably
stands for Aaochersos (the Ares of Samothracia). The figure sitting on the

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ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 147

‘ground and holding a short staff resembling a club is supposed to be one
of the initiated dressed as Dionysos. The wreath in the panel shows that
‘the transaction occurred in a covered place.

The Oracles of Greece were very celebrated, and constituted a leading
object in their religious institutions. They were regarded as the channels
through which the gods revealed their will and the events of the future.
The oracle of Apollo at Delphi was most frequented (pl. 17, jig. 30).
Pythia, a priestess, sat upon a tripod, and being inspired by the vapor
which issued from a fissure in the ground, uttered her strange incoherent
words, which were recorded by the prophets, versified by the temple poets,
and expounded by the interpreters. Inquirers flocked to this oracle not only
from all parts of Greece, but from foreign countries, and the presents with
which they endowed the temple made it the wealthiest of antiquity.

The guardians and administrators of the temples were the priests (pl. 19,
jig. 17) and the priestesses (fig. 18). They also took charge of the gifts,
superintended the solemn festivals, and adorned the temples for that pur-
pose; and while some performed the sacrifices, others pronounced the
prescribed prayers. The Grecian priests, however, never constituted a dis-
tinct and independent class, but were subordinate and responsible to other
authorities. Besides the priests, the Greeks had their astrologers, dream-
interpreters, soothsayers, and augurs, the latter foretelling events by the
flight and singing of birds.

If. THE RELIGIOUS SYSTEM OF THE ROMANS.

The primitive religion of the Romans was remarkably simple, being
destitute both of temples and images of the gods. Romulus, however, by
the erection of a temple to Jupiter Stator, laid the foundation of the subse-
quent mythological system. His successor, Numa Pompilius, introduced
material improvements, taking the Etruscan system as his model, and even
incorporating several Etruscan elements into Roman worship. As the
Roman dominion extended, the principal gods of the conquered nations
were gradually received into the mythology of the conquerors, the latter
regarding this policy the most effective in permanently attaching a subju-
gated people to their masters. In this way the deities of the old Asiatic
countries, and of Greece itself, at last found a place in the Roman system.

In order therefore to obtain a clear and comprehensive view of Roman
Mythology, we propose to examine briefly some of the sources from which
it borrowed. As already intimated, it drew largely from the nations of
ancient Italy; sometimes adopting a god with no change except the name,
and in some instances retaining even that with the slightest alteration. In
this connexion none of the old Italians stand forth so prominently as the
Etruscans, or Htrurians, who, prior to the founding of Rome, possessed a
finely developed religious system, and exhibited a religious life intimately

blended with their political institutions. Their principal god was Zina, the
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148 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

Jupiter of the Romans. Next to him ranked Janus. He was god.of Time;
of the year, which he opened and closed; of the harvest, representing the
sun; and acted as mediator between the mortals and the immortals, convey-
ing the prayers of men tothe ears of the gods. He appears in this character
(pl. 15, figs.:1 and 2a) with two faces. He was also regarded as an
inhabitant of the whole universe, heaven, earth, and sea; the guardian
and director of human affairs; and in order to express his omniscience or
his powers of seeing into the four quarters of the world at: once, he was
represented with four faces (jig. 2). By the ship-prow at his feet is com-
memorated the myth that Cronos, after having been dethroned by Zeus, fled
to Janus in Italy. Another of their gods, Tages (jig. 12), resembled the
Roman Amor. He came as was supposed out of the ground (when a hus-
bandman of Tarquinii was ploughing deep), in the form of a handsome boy,
but with the wisdom of an old man ; and after teaching the rustic and such
persons as had been attracted to the spot by his exclamations of surprise, ©
the knowledge of divine things, of divination and augury by the flight of
birds, and the entrails of the animals offered in sacrifice, and they had
recorded his words, he instantly died. Among the goddesses of the lower
order, the chief was Voltwmna (jfig.:20), at whose temple in Viterbo the
Etruscan confederation held its meetings. She was goddess of deliberative
assemblies, and the patroness of counsellors, senators, &c. Ancaria or
Ancharia (fig. 16) also belonged to this class, but was scarcely known
beyond the district of Fiesole, the ancient Feesule, where she was wor-
shipped.

The Umbrians had a worship and a class of gods very similar to those of
the Etruscans ; and even the Sabznes, who in early times possessed a system
of their own, afterwards adopted much from the more polished Etruscans.
So too the Zatums were indebted to the common source, though in many
particulars their mythology varied from all others. Their first god was
Saturnus, the next Neptunus with his wives Salatia and Venilia. They
recognised a Jupiter Axur or Anxur, concerning whose meaning and form
the ancients themselves did not agree. He is often represented (pl. 16,
jig. 18) as youthful and standing, his left arm enveloped with an e@gis and
serpents, the hand supporting a sceptre; and his right hand grasping three
thunderbolts. At his feet sits the eagle, and behind him lies the shield.
The inscription refers to the name of the sculptor. Probably the figure is
intended to show him in the armor in which he fought the Titans. In
pl. 17, fig. 4, he is represented sitting upon a throne or chair, partially
dressed, with a radiant head, and holding in one hand a sceptre, in the other
a sacrificial cup. He was regarded in some measure as a wicked god, and
goats were sacrificed to him. Vejovrs, in some respects similar to, and even
identical with him (pl. 15, jig. 22 a, 6), was looked on as an awful being; he
was originally an Etruscan god. Others, however, regarded him as a weak,
boyish god, incompetent to render assistance. He was represented beard-
less, and accompanied by a goat. Opis or Ops (fig. 4) was goddess of
Shepherds, and when the whole Latin worship came to be blended with the
Grecian, she held the rank and position of Rhea.

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ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 149

Roman Mythology proper begins with the myth of Satwrnus. At first
the Romans regarded him as the god of husbandry, but when at a late
period his history was blended with that of Cronos, he was honored as the
god of Time. As such we see him on a herma (fig. 3), bearded and winged,
with astar above his head, and a globeinhishand. Identified with Cronos,
he had of course a similar destiny, dethronement by his son Jupiter.
Escaping to Italy, he met with a cordial reception from Janus (regarded by
the Romans as an old Italian king), and obtained for his future residence a
beautiful tract of land surrounded by mountains. He now built on the
Capitoline (formerly the Saturnian) Hill the city of Saturnia, while Janus
established himself on Mount Janiculus. Poets have described his reign as
the golden age of the human race. Peace, freedom and equality, honesty,
confidence, and love prevailed throughout the entire brotherhood of men,
and their whole life was devoted to rational enjoyment. No distinction
subsisted between the rich and poor, the noble and plebeian ; but happiness
was universal. To perpetuate the memory of these prosperous times, the
Saturnalia were founded, a series of festivals which under the emperors
lasted from the 17th to the 23d of December, though originally they had only
lasted one day. During their celebration the slaves sat at the table and were
served by their masters. The most unbounded hilarity prevailed every-
where; the senate adjourned its sessions; law-suits were suspended;
punishments were remitted ; no war was proclaimed ; prisoners were set at
liberty, and friends exchanged presents with the view of cementing their
friendships.

With the dethronement of Saturnus began a new order or dynasty of
gods, into which some that we have mentioned, particularly Saturnus and
Janus, were admitted, though with important modifications of their posi-
tions. The Romans always distinguished the ¢nvesible deities (Dit involuti,
superiores, the veiled or superior gods) who had no special names, from
those who were closely related to nature and the human race. The latter
were again divided into two classes, the gods of the first order and the gods
of the second order. We will now briefly examine the characteristics of
the most important deities of these two classes.

. 1. Tur Gops or THe First Orper.

The gods of the first order were collectively called Diz magni or Dut
majorum gentium, and included twelve superior and eight inferior gods.

A. The Twelve Superior Gods.

Six male and six female deities constituted the divine council whose
decisions determined the course of all human affairs. These deities corres-
ponded with the twelve Olympian gods of the Greeks.

1. Jurrrer (Zeus), the chief and mightiest of all, received among the
Romans a far more zealous worship than Zeus did among the Greeks.
When he entered upon the government of the universe all the other gods

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150 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

rendered him homage (p/. 17, jig. 6). He is seated on a throne with a
footstool. Beneath the throne lies the globe, an emblem of his dominion
over the world. The diadem, a token of his divinity, adorns his head ; one
hand grasps the sceptre with which he governs the heaven and the earth,
the left holds a thunderbolt. J/wno, who stands in front of him, wears the
diadem as queen of the gods; the others, except M/imerva, have only front-
lets. Mercury carries the caduceus and a purse; Apollo, near Juno, has
his hair put up in the form of a double wreath. Of Dzana we see only
the head, and in the original the legs of Jars are also visible. Venus,
the rival of Minerva, turns her back upon her; and between Venus and
Mercury appears Ceres. Higher up we see the head of Vulcan covered
with a hat, and behind him Hebe, the cup-bearer of the gods. Weptune
and Pluto are wanting, because engaged in their respective empires, the
sea and the world of shades.

The exalted rank and worship of Jupiter gave rise to numerous modes
of representing him, and created for him many surnames. As Deus Pater,
father of gods and men (pl. 15, fig. 5), he appears entirely nude, and hold-
ing in his right hand a sceptre as the symbol of his omnipotence. As
Jupiter Conservator or Protector (pl. 17, fig. 12), he holds the sceptre in
the left hand, spreads out his mantle, and extends the right hand with the
thunderbolts over the emperor Commodus, who is also represented with
the lightnings and sceptre. The inscription signifies “Jupiter the Preserver,
Tribune of the People the third time, Imperator the fourth time, Consul the
third time, and Father of his country.” The copy is taken from a large
bronze medal of Commodus.

In Rome alone Jupiter had fifteen temples. In the temple of the
Capitoline Jupiter (who was patron god of the city and state) the Sybilline
books (containing the oracles on state affairs) were kept, and all important
national transactions were begun and completed. Those who were honored
with a triumph deposited in the bosom of his image the laurel twig which
they had carried in the procession. The priests of Jupiter ranked higher
than others and were permitted to wear purple, the royal color. —

2. Juno (Hera) was wife of Jupiter and queen of the gods. She had
a temple in Rome and was honored as the patron goddess of the city.
She was elevated to this dignity after the conquest of Vez, a city which
the Romans had besieged for ten years, and which they finally took by
means of a subterranean passage which they dug and which happened to
terminate in her temple. A soldier asked her. statue whether it wished
to be removed to Rome. The figure nodded an affirmative, and was taken
to the victorious city and located on the Aventine Hill, where the goddess
was honored as Juno Regina (pl. 17, fig. 14). As such she is adorned
with the diadem and holds a lance and a sacrificial vesse!.. The Junonian
diadem, together with the falling locks and the long ear-pendants, is finely
represented on a bust (jig. 15). Very similar to the Juno Regina is the
statue of Juno Capitolina (fig. 16). The goddess here rests her left hand
on her hip, and holds aloft in her right a part of a shaft. As Juno Placida
( fig. 17) she is seated on a chair, a lance or staff in her right hand, and the

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ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 151

peacock at her feet. Juno Sospita (the Deliverer), also called Lanwvina,
because she had a similar statue at Lanuvium, was represented altogether
differently (pl. 20, fig. 12). She wears over her tunic a goat-skin, which
also covers her head, and pointed shoes, a characteristic of the Egyptian
pictures of this goddess. She is armed with a lance and shield, the signs
of her protecting character. The serpent at her feet is an emblem of health,
for which the people supposed themselves indebted to her. It may also
refer to the serpent which a little girl of Lanuvium is reported to have fed
every year in its cave. The coin supporting these devices is a denarius
of L. Procilius, a triwmvir monetalis (member of the board of magistrates
who superintended the mint), who chose this device because his family had
sprung from the city of Lanuvium.

3. Neprunus (Poseidon) was honored only as the god of horses and the
protector of cavalry, in those early times when the Romans had no naval
force; afterwards as monarch of the sea he received a very extensive wor-
ship. We have copied a fine bust of Neptune (pl. 22, jig. 7), and jig. Ta
presents him in full length, on a coin of Titus. He is standing with one
foot on a globe as a sign of his dominion over the earth; with the left hand
he leans on his sceptre, and with the right he holds an aplustre, an embellish-
ment on the stern of a ship.

Fig. 19 is a representation of a sacrifice to Neptune. The statue of the
god with the trident and dolphin stands on an altar, at whose base we see
a ship and sea-horse. In front stands a smaller altar, on which the fire is
burning, and various sacrificial vessels. Priests, surrounded by other
officers of the temple, are praying to the god, and in the background
appears the destined victim, festooned with garlands. A feast, instituted in
honor of Neptune, was celebrated on the 21st of August, termed Consualia,
from Consus the Etruscan Neptune. At a later period the Weptwalia were
observed on the 28th of July, and for that purpose green bowers were
erected on the bank of the Tiber, where refreshments were offered to the
people who took part in the games of the festival.

4, Mars or Mavors (Ares), the god of war and son of Jupiter and Juno,
received among the Romans a far more distinguished worship than Ares
among the Greeks. The most obvious reason for this lies in the fact. that
the Romans attained their supremacy by war, and thus felt constrained to
ascribe their fortune to Mars. ‘They honored him, besides, as the father of
Romulus, the founder of the kingdom. The mother of Romulus and Remus
was properly Zlia, also called /’hea Sylvia, daughter of the Albanian King
Numitor. Pl. 27, fig. 256, represents Mars armed with shield, lance, and
helmet, and descending to the slumbering Ilia. A herdsman (/austulus)
reared the twins ; and Romulus subsequently became the founder and first
king of what was afterwards the great and mighty Roman Empire. It was
on this account that the Romans called Mars Pater, as the father of their
first king; and in addition to the temple built to him by Romulus, they
erected four others, and the successor of Romulus, Numa Pompilius,
organized for him a regular system of worship.

The representations of Mars correspond with the Grecian images of Ares,

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152 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

and he appeared like the latter in different relations. Because war was the
chief business of the Romans, it was natural to ascribe to him the same love
of slaughter. In pl. 15, fig. 13, we see a picture of Mars Gradivus (the
Advancing), as he returns from battle with his lance, and the armor of a
fallen enemy hung upon a pole, which he carried on his shoulder as a
trophy of victory. The term gradwus, however, also and more properly
characterizes him as repairing with rapid strides to the field of contest. As
Mars Ultor (the Avenger) he appears (pl. 27, jig. 27) with the shield in
front, and raised spear ready to be hurled against an adversary. Some-
times he was regarded, particularly after a battle, as Mars Pacificus, the
bearer of peace (pl. 17, jig. 22). In this character he carries in the left
hand an image of the goddess Vectorza, and in the right an olive branch,
both signs of peace acquired by war. The shield and lance are laid aside,
and no armor appears except the helmet.

Like the other gods, Mars had numerous Genii in his service, three of
whom are represented on pl. 18. The first (jig. 6) is carrying his sword
resting in its scabbard, the second (jig. 7) his helmet, and the third (jig.
8) his shield. All three are winged, and wear wide open mantles.

The sons and constant attendants of Mars were Pallor (Dismay) and Pawor
(Fear). The head of Pallor is given on a coin of Hostilius (pl. 30, fig.
30a and 6), with a war trumpet behind it. On the reverse stands Dana,
with a radiant crown and a dress with straight folds; with her right hand
she holds a stag by the horns, and in the left a spear. Pavor, ona denarius
of the same time (fig. 31), is accompanied by a shield.

The sister of Mars was Gellona, the strangler and the desolator of cities,
the goddess of war, and the driver of his battle-car during the conflict. It
was her province to inflame the fury of soldiers, and to arouse their thirst
for slaughter; and accordingly she was represented armed with shield and
helmet (pl. 15, jig. 14.)

The most noted solemnity annually observed in honor of Mars was the
shield dance of the Sali (fig. 25). It occurred on the 1st of March. The
Salii were priests of Mars, twelve in number, whose chief was called
Presul ; their principal musician, Vates ; and he who inducted new mem-
bers, Magister. In addition to these he had another priest of superior
rank, with the title of “amen Martialis, who was one of a class of priests
of the first rank instituted by Numa. The Salii dressed in a variegated
tunic, embroidered with scarlet, and a peaked cap or conical helmet. The
whole ceremony originated thus: In the time of Numa, a brazen shield
(ancile) fell down from heaven. The soothsayers pronounced it a pledge

«from Mars to the Romans, of his future favor and their consequent good
fortune ; and so long as the shield should remain in Rome, so long should
they have success in war, and enjoy the sway of the world. That so valua-
ble an object might not be lost, Numa ordered eleven similar shields to be’
made, and the whole twelve to be deposited in the Sacrarvwm of the Salii,
whose duty it became as priests of Mars to guard them on the Palatine
Hill. During the annual procession or dance, the Salii appeared in short
tabards, with iron girdles and brass buckles, with iron helmets, a sword in

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ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 153

the right hand, and a shield in the left, and marched dancing through the
streets of Rome, striking their swords incessantly upon their shields.

The Martial Games, which were celebrated annually, constituted the
principal festival of Mars. Their features were a horse-race in the circus, and
afterwards the sacrifice of a horse in Mars’s field or Campus Martius. Pl.
28, jig. 27, represents the ceremony of this sacrifice. A magnificent statue
of the god stands on a beautiful pedestal, before which is an altar on which
the fire is burning. At the side of the altar are vases and sacrificial vessels,
the officiating priest stands before it, and after offering a prescribed prayer,
casts a laurel twig into the flames. Behind him is seen a youth crowned
with laurel and playing martial music, and at his left is a boy with the
sacred casket. Several other priests, adorned with wreaths and engaged in
minor parts of the sacrifice, appear in connexion with armed men around
the horse which is to be sacrificed. One man standing behind the statue of
the god holds a laurel crown.

The name of our month March (A/artwus) was obviously derived from
Mars, and being the first in the Roman year, is an evidence of the exalted
rank which the Romans assigned to him.

5. Mercurtus (Hermes), after the Romans began their commercial career,
occupied a distinguished position in mythology. Generally the same func-
tions were ascribed to him in Rome as in Greece, and as god of traffic he
was highly honored by merchants. During a holiday appointed in honor
of Mercury they marched in procession to his fountain at the Porta Capena
in short tunics, and each carrying with him some of his articles of mer-
chandise. Taking water from the fountain, and immersing in it a branch
of laurel, they sprinkled themselves and their goods as an expiation for their
lying and fraud in business.

In Rome alone Mercury had five temples. His festival occurred on the
15th of May, which is named after his mother, d/aia. The representations
of Mercury were exactly like those of Hermes, and we therefore refer to
these, mentioning in addition a Roman statue representing him as a youth
without any distinguishing marks (pl. 24, jig. 28).

6. Vuicanvs (Hephestos) was worshipped in Rome from the age of Romu-
lus as the god of smiths. In the Vulcanalia, a festival in honor of him,
it was customary to offer a boar, a red calf, and other red animals, and
prayers were made for averting the dangers of fire. Wherever there were
volcanic mountains or earthquakes, temples were erected to Vulcan and his
worship was celebrated with great magniticence. He is represented like
the Grecian Hepheestos, and the same myths are told of both.

7. Avotto, though at first regarded as simply the god of the bow a
arrows, was very extensively and magnificently worshipped when the
aman began to develope a taste for the sciences. During the games of
Apollo neat Nenttle and goats were sacrificed to him. The Sake. also pre-
vailed that Apollo, as the deliverer from the curse, would undertake the
redemption of the sinful world. His history and representation correspond
with those of the Grecian Apollo.

8. Venus (Aphrodite) received the same distinctions among the Romans

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154 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

as among the Greeks, being regarded as the ancestress of Romulus, the
founder of Rome. She had seventeen temples in the city alone. The
festival of Venus Verticordia (who turned the heart to love) was celebrated
on the Ist of April, and on the 19th of August the gardeners solemnized
the rural Vinalza, in which they Peotone from the fructifying Leong
blessings for their crops of fruit.

ae the varied representations at Rome the Venus Capitolina (pl.
27, jig. 23) is remarkable. She has just risen from the bath, and is accord-
ingly nude; her hair is tastefully arranged on the top of her head, a few
locks only falling down on her neck. A large vessel stands near her,
over which hangs a cloth edged with fringes. As goddess of love, which
conquers gods and men, she was represented as Venus Vectriz. Ona coin
( jig. 30) she appears leaning against a pillar, and holds in her right hand
the helmet of Mars, while his shield stands at the foot of the pillar. On
another coin (pl. 28, jig. 18) the shield marks her as Venus Victria.

9. Diana (Artemis) had the same significance in Rome and Greece ; but
she was worshipped with far more splendor in the former, as goddess of the
chase, of magic, and of the moon. A temple was erected to her on the
Arata Hill oe Servius Tullius, and the 6th of April was annually cele-
brated as her birth-day. An Nee custom obtained in conducting her
worship in the Italian town Aricia. Her priest here was always a runaway
slave, who could obtain his office only by killing his predecessor. The very
same fate awaited himself, for there would always be slaves who would
covet his place in order to escape the pursuit of their masters. In the yard
or court of the temple there stood a tree, and it was a regulation that any
one who broke off a twig was compelled to engage in mortal combat with
the priest of Diana, who in addition to this was bound to fight a duel for
life or death once each year.

In her representations, Diana was made more or less conspicuous accor-
ding to the sphere she was supposed to fill; hence the variety in her pictures
and statues. In pl. 15, fig. 10, we see but few of her peculiarities. The
short tunic, with the still shorter cloak, serves to suggest the goddess of the
chase, but she wants the buskins, the bow and the quiver. The veil which
descends from her head over her back belongs to her as goddess of the
moon, though generally the veil floats over her like a sail, and in that case
she carries a torch or a figure of the moon. The figure may have been
intended to represent her as the goddess of magic, or as Lucia (presiding
over births), in which characters she had no special attributes. Sometimes
she is represented with the insignia of various offices at once. Thus pl. 20,
jig. 10, exhibits her as goddess of the chase, with the short tunic, bow,
quiver, and buskins, and also with the inverted torch, which she rests on a
stone, while she leans against another. The presence of the torch caused
this statue to be designated as Diana Lucifera, and the other insignia as mere
allusions to her other functions. A figure on a medal of the emperor Antoninus
Pius (pl. 16, jig. 26) is by some taken for Diana Lucifera; but others
interpret it as the portrait of the empress /austina on horseback, adorned
with the attributes of Diana Lucifera, the moon on the head and the torch.

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-\). ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 155

10. Currs (Demeter), The Romans had less sublime conceptions in regard
to the worship of Ceres than the Greeks, and considered her as simply the
goddess of seeds and harvests. Her service was conducted in Rome by
priestesses ( pl. 19, fig. 15) who wore as ornaments and marks of distinction
a diadem, a long anderiress bordered with flowers, and a similar short cloak.
They baratbodl ears of wheat in their hands. The apoE offering to Ceres
consisted of fruits (jig. 16). The goddess is represented on wall-pictures
found in Pompeii (pl. 24, jig. 3) in a long tunic, and an upper garment
reaching to the knees. She holds a sceptre in her right hand, in her left a
small basket with flowers or wheat-ears, and her head is adorned with a
wreath. On acoin of Antoninus Pius (pl. 16, jig. 25), she appears in
proper mythological relation with her daughter Proserpine under the
appellation Catagusa (one who brings back, because she is returning Pro-
serpine to Pluto). She carries the ears of corn, and embraces her daughter
with the other arm. Proserpine has the pomegranate, the tasting of which
for ever prevented her total release from the world of shades.

11. Minerva (Pallas Athene) was worshipped originally at Rome only
as the goddess of war, but subsequently was ranked among the three chief
female deities, and had a temple next to Jupiter and Juno near the Capitol.
She appears on a coin (pl. 27, jig. 18) as the peace-bearer, the shield lying
by her feet, and the lance standing on the ground.

12. Vxsra (Hestia), whose veiled head we find on a denarius (7g. 6), en-
joyed in Rome a remarkable celebrity. The sacred fire on her altar was never
permitted to go out. Her priestesses were the Vestal Virgins, of whom we
present one (pl. 30, fig. 5) with a sacrificial vessel and an olive branch in her
hand; another (pl. 15, jig. 9) standing near an altar with fire; and a third
(pl. 26, fig. 9-6) sitting on a chair and holding the sacred lamp. They were
virgins selected from the most distinguished families, were devoted to celibacy,
and had charge of the sacred fire. At the end of thirty years they could leave
the temple and marry. Ifa vestal virgin suffered the fire to be extinguished
she was scourged ; if she violated her vow of chastity she was buried alive.

B. The Fight Inferior Gods.

1. Janus (pl. 15, jig. 2 6). His. characteristics have already been
alluded to in the system of the primitive gods to which he belonged.

9. Saturnvs, in his capacity as god of husbandry, has been mentioned in
the introduction. The further myths connected with his name are the same
as those referring to the Grecian Cronos.

8. Genius was considered the deity holding supremacy over the genii
that accompanied every man on his path through life. It is an indistinct
deity, and was never the subject of artistical representation.

4. Sor, the god of the sun, corresponds entirely with the Grecian Helios.

-.5. Baccuus is identical oh the Grecian Dionysos, and the festivals in
7 honor (Bacchanalia) were celebrated like those of the Grecian deity.
One of the priests officiating at these festivals is represented in p/. 19, jig. 4.

6. Texxus, the deity of the earth, is the same as the Grecian Gaia, to

which we refer.
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156 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

7. Prvuto, the same as the Grecian Hades, had in Rome a subterranean
temple, where sacrifices were offered to him and Proserpine (Persephone),
of whom a curious Roman image is copied in pl. 16, jig. 3, which indicates
her as the goddess of fruitfulness by the apples under her feet and in her
hand, and the germ of a plant on her head.

8. Hien the goddess of the moon, corresponds with the Grecian Selene.
A god of the name Lunus was also Gear by the Romans and some-
times identified with Luna, but he was properly the god of saa months.
His head is represented in a crescent (pl. 20, jig. 6).

2. Tur Gops oF THE SECOND ORDER.

This class, known as the Dis Minores or Dit minorum gentium, compre-
hends all the remaining beings to whom limited divine honors were paid,
or who were supposed to possess a species of divine nature.

A. Deities of the Social Feelings.

1. Amor (Eros or Cupido) was the son of Venus and god of love. His
history has been told in the Grecian mythology, and we here only add a
few remarks relating to his connexion with Psyche. In pl. 29, fig. 7, we
see Psyche, still in a state of suffering and probation, as Amor is tying
her arms in order to chastise her. In jig. 8 he is scorching the butterfly,
the symbol of Psyche, over a torch, thus signifying the purging of the soul
by fire from corruption and sinfulness. /%g. 10 shows the reconciliation
of the lovers. Psyche, adorned with bracelets and anklets, is drawing over
herself a dress near a mirror; Amor presses her to his bosom; his bow and
closed quiver are lying near by, and near his feet are a rose bush and
scattered roses. The inscription may be rendered, “‘Sweet life! let us
taste pleasure without bitterness! Live !”-(z. e. enjoy life.) The last word
is Greek written in Roman letters.

2. Hymen is god of matrimony, uniting those whom Amor has brought
together. He was represented (pl. 28, jig. 23) as a handsome youth, hold-
mg the wedding torch in one hand a a cup in the other.

3. The Graces (jig. 21) stand in the attitude of persons who are return-
ing thanks. The picture is borrowed from a group in which Mercury
brings to Asculapius, the god of medicine, a restored invalid who thanks
him on his knees. The three Graces in this instance personify Gratitude,
a play upon their name, Gratie, 2. e. thanks. For the rest they hold the
same rank as the Graces of the Greeks. .

B. Deities of Happy Conditions and Virtues.

1. Pax, the goddess of peace, was variously described, though most
commonly as a young woman with wings. In pi. 29, fig. 15, she is holding
a herald’s staff, as if inviting mankind to peace; while the serpent in front
probably typifies the Healing of the wounds received in war.

9. Bonus Eventus, or Happy Result, was originally a deity holding a

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ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 157

relation to harvest, and originated in the idea that the brightest prospects
were useless without good results. Accordingly he was represented (jig. 19)
as a youth, bearing in one hand ears of corn, in the other a sacrificial cup.
At a later period the Romans applied this conception to the success of
every desirable object, retaining, however, the original attributes of the
god, as may be observed on a coin of Titus (pl. 16, fig. 24).

3. Concornia, goddess of harmony, appears on coins as a stately woman,
sometimes standing though often sitting (pl. 29, jig. 18), and holding in
one hand a cornucopia, in the other a sacrificial cup.

4. Fives, goddess of fidelity, holds in one hand a basket with fruits, in
the other wheat-ears (jig. 14).

5. Preras, goddess of piety, had various meanings and of course various
representations. In the character of prety or affection for children she
appears extending her mantle in a fond protecting manner over two
children who stand near her (jig. 16).

6. Pupor, or Punpicrtia, goddess of modesty, was represented as a
maiden, seated and veiling her face (jig. 17).

7. Astrma, goddess of equity and justice, like Justitia, held in the one
hand a cornucopia, in the other a balance (jig. 21).

8. Sprs, goddess of hope, carries a blossom of the pomegranate tree in
one hand, and gracefully adjusts her dress with the other (jig. 20).

9. Fortuna, the goddess of fortune, was variously represented. In
pl. 19, jig. 8, she carries on her head a diadem and modzus (measure), the
latter indicating that she does not act blindly and capriciously, but distri-
butes her favors knowingly and in accordance with merit. Her upper
garment folds like a veil over her neck; with one hand she points to the
earth, with the other towards heaven. She is far more simply clad in
pl. 15, fig. 21b. In fig. 21 a, however, she is represented with her princi-
pal attributes, the cornucopia and the rudder, but also with other insignia,
viz. the thunderbolt of Jupiter, the serpent of A%sculapius, the bust of Isis
and Serapis on the cornucopia, the nebris of Bacchus, the wings of Amor
or Victoria, the torch of Ceres, the diadem of Juno, the rays of Helios, and
in the highest point of the head-dress the lotus of Horus. The statue,
therefore, cannot be regarded as a representation of the goddess of fortune
alone, but as a combination of the chief attributes of all the deities. Such
statues were called Signa Panthea.

10. Vicrorta (pl. 17, fig. 28), goddess of victory, corresponds completely
with Nike of the Greeks.

C. Deities of Time.

1. The Hor or Szasons (pl. 19, jig. 11) were represented as four child-
ren. Spring is carrying.a flower basket, Swmmer a sickle, Autumn a fruit
basket and rabbit, and Wenter a rabbit and a branch of a tree for burning.

2. Avrora, goddess of the rosy morn (pl. 20, jig. 8), rides on a car
drawn by four horses, preceded by Diana Lucifera bearing two torches.
Above is seen the head of the bull. In pl. 26, fig. 10 a, we see her
between her horses.

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158 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

3. The Dioscurt (Castor and Pollux), whose history is given in the
Grecian mythology, were represented by the Romans (pl. 20, fig. 4)
adorned with laurel wreaths, beneath which the hair hangs in massive curls.
Stars twinkle above them, and behind them we see two spear-heads pointing
in opposite directions, a circumstance showing that the brothers are to take
different paths.

D. Rwer Gods.

1. Nizus. The Nile (pl. 21, jig. 15 a) is represented in the form of an
old man reclining on a socle or low plinth, whose upper surface represents
the waves. Vdlus leans with one elbow on a sphinx and holds in his hand
a cornucopia containing wheat-ears, grapes, wild roses, lotus flowers, the
Egyptian arum, and a child with folded arms. The head of the god is
crowned with the fruit and leaves of the lotus, and the right hand grasps a
bunch of wheat-ears. Sixteen children sport over and around him, indi-
cating that for the purpose of fertility the river must rise sixteen cubits.
The genii at his feet are trying to bring on a fight between the ichneumon
and the crocodile, others are covering the urn of the god with a heavy veil,
to signify the obscurity of his sources or head waters. The two ends of the
plinth (jig. 156) support plants and various Egyptian animals, as bulls,
crocodiles, hippopotamuses, the ibis, and ichneumon, and two boats manned
by natives of Tentyra, who are contending with a crocodile and hippopo-
tamus.

2. Treris (the Zzber) is also represented as an old man crowned with
laurel and reclining upon his garments (jig. 16a). In his right hand he
holds a cornucopia containing clusters of grapes, flowers, vine leaves, and
fruits, from between which projects a pineapple, and behind this a coulter
as anemblem of agriculture. On his shoulder rests an oar, to show that
the river is navigable. His left arm is placed on the wolf that suckled
Romulus and Remus. The water rolls over a part of the plinth, and at the
rough end may be seen a hill and wall of Rome. The ends of the plinth
(fig. 16 6) show the Tiber as seen by Atneas. On the left is the sow that
had the thirty pigs, and in the background the town of Alba. The god of
the stream stands up to the middle in water; behind him is another figure,
probably a god of another river emptying into the Tiber. The two who sit
among the weeds on the bank are fishermen, one of whom has a basket on
his knee ; and further off is a loaded boat rowed by three sailors. On the
lower part are two other boats, one of which is moved by the oar, while on
the other a sailor is kindling a fire on the hearth, a second sits before his
cabin, a third is engaged at the ladder, and three others are carrying goods
for lading. A little further off appears a tree as a sign that the shore can
supply wood, and near it we see several animals.

EF. Gods of the Mountains, Forests, and Fields.

1. Faunus (pl. 16, jig. 1), the Grecian Pan, was represented with the
tail, but without the horns and feet of a goat. In Roman mythology he
was ranked with mountain and forest deities. In pl. 25, jig. 1, he appears

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ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. - 159

in company with a Bacchante dancing on a row of skins to the music o
the reed flute. |

2. Frora, goddess of flowers (pl. 26, jig. 9a), is always represented with
a ite of flowers or with a wreath of flowers in her hands (pl. 19, figs.
6, 7.)

3. Vertumnus (pl. 15, fig. 18) was honored as the god who, by the
renewal of the year, brought back the fruits and blessings of which he was
the harbinger. He is represented leaning against a stump, and holds a
shepherd’s crook and a sickle or garden knife, and in the skin suspended
from his neck appear flowers and fruits. He wears a crown of fir cones.

4, Pomona, his wife, goddess of orchards (jig. 19), carries in one hand
the fruit of a tree, in the other a flower stalk, while a basket filled with
flowers hangs on a limb near by.

F.. The Lares.

~ The Lares were patron gods of the house, the family, and even the com-
munity, city, or kingdom. Sometimes they were regarded as specific
deities, though frequently other gods exercised the office of the Lares.
Accordingly their representations varied (pl. 16, jigs. 7, 8, 9). The domestic
Lares appeared as youths dressed in dogs’ skins and wearing a hat. They
carried staves and were attended by a dog, the emblem of vigilance and
fidelity. |

In the later ages of Rome certain distinguished individuals received a
species of worship. Among these we mention only Antinous (pl. 27, jig.
16). He was a handsome young man and the friend of the emperor
Hadrian. During a voyage to Egypt he was drowned in the Nile, and the
emperor erected a temple and ordained an annual feast to his memory, and
placed his image among the constellations. After that his statues were
common.

The Roman views of the condition of the soul after death corresponded
mainly with those of the Greeks ; though, of course, certain national pecu-
liarities gave the whole subject a slight variation. There was no essential
difference in the modes of worship. The Romans, it is true, had more
temples than the Greeks, the city alone containing in its later days 424.

The worship consisted mainly of prayer, sacrifices, and feasts. Prophesy-
ing or divination also entered into the list of their religious customs and
regulations. In addition to the sacrifices which we have already alluded
to, we mention the Suovetaurilza, a sacrificial festival celebrated every fifth
year in the Campus Martius (pl. 30, fig. 7), at the completion of the census,
when, as an offering of atonement and purification, a hog, a sheep, and a
bull, were publicly immolated. Before the sacrifice, the victims were led
around the whole assembly, so that all might enjoy a share in the expiation.
Besides this, the Romans had public sacrifices before and after expeditions
of war (pl. 29, jig. 28), at which the bull was led to the altar in a solemn
procession, followed by a long train of warriors. The vessels and instru-
ments employed in making the offerings were mostly like those of the

379

160 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

Greeks, particularly the tripods on which they placed the flesh of the
victim (pl. 30, fig. 8), the horn (jig. 9), the club or bludgeon (pl. 18, jig.
17), the axes (jigs. 18, 19), the knives and forks (jigs. 20-23), and the wand
or staff (fig. 24.)

The priests and priestesses were divided into those who were engaged in
the common service of the gods generally, and those who were devoted
exclusively to the worship of particular gods. The former class embraced
the Pontifices, whose number was sixteen, and who were selected from the
first ranks of society. Their presiding officer was the Pontifex Maximus
( pl. 30, jig. 1), who was appointed for life by the emperor. The latter
class comprehended the /lamines, of whom the three most ancient and
celebrated were those in the service of Jupiter (fig. 4), of Mars, and of
Quirinus. Besides these, the sacrificial service required the aid of the
Victimarw (fig. 6), men who had charge of the animals and other things
necessary for performing the worship.

The Augures (fig. 2) constituted a college of priests, who divined and
proclaimed the will of the gods, either by signs in the heavens, especially
thunder and lightning, or by observing the flight, song, and the cries of
birds, or their manner of feeding. [or the latter purpose chickens were
kept at the cost of the government, and fed by a special attendant (pl. 16,
Jig. 34). Whenever it was desirable to consult them they were fed, and
the Augurs carefully observed whether they ate eagerly or not, and upon
this and other manifestations they founded their predictions.

The Sibylline Books were preserved by the Quendecumviri, fifteen men
(pl. 30, jig. 8) selected for that purpose, and whose office it was to consult
the mystic pages, and prescribe the proper religious services whenever the
state was in danger. ‘These ominous books of oracles were brought to
Rome by Stbylla, a renowned soothsayer (whose supposed image we have
copied in pl. 17, jig. 27), and offered to Tarquinius Priscus for a very great
price, as containing divine revelations which would protect the state in the
hour of danger. The books were nine in number. Tarquinius deeming the
price demanded exorbitant, refused to buy them. Sibylla then left him,
and after a period returned with six of the books, having burned three.
For the remaining six she asked the same sum as before. When the king
again refused the price she threw three more into the fire, and still per-
sisted in asking the same price for the remaining ones. Struck by such a
proceeding the king called a council of eminent men, who advised him to
buy the remaining books for the benefit of the state, since it appeared that
their contents were so precious that every part of them was worth the price
of the whole. The books were then purchased, and kept in the temple of
Jupiter, their oracles being interpreted for the benefit of the state by their
keepers. According to Cicero, they were fabricated by a number of wise
statesmen and priests, who employed Sibylla to effect their adoption, having
couched the oracles in ambiguous language, and managed to reserve the
office of interpreting them to a number of men selected from among them-
selves and their descendants, thus securing for ages an enormous influence
on all important affairs of state to their own families.

380

MONOTHEISM. 161

Having now completed our outline of the various systems of religion
which recognise a number of deities, we propose to close the subject with a
brief notice of Monotheism.

MONOTHEISM.

Mowortetsm comprises the religious systems which are based upon the
belief in Onz Gop. According to the Bible, monotheism was the primi-
tive religion of the human race, though its form was remarkably simple,
and in accordance with the child-like disposition of the earliest mem-
bers of the human family. A careful examination of the traditions and
religious systems of the ancient nations, who, as we have pointed out in
various places, nearly all had an indistinct idea of one supreme being above
all the other deities which they worshipped, must lead to the conclusion
that the fundamental feeling of man at all times must have pointed to the
existence of onE creator and ruler, and that the recognition of other deities
must have arisen from the desire to comprehend the influence of the
Supreme Being on the course of events and the universal life of nature.
We cannot here enlarge upon the probable way in which Monotheism was
gradually lost in the labyrinth of Polytheism, but proceed to give a brief
account of the three forms in which it again made its appearance, dispelling
the obscurity of Paganism.

1. Tat Mosaic Reticion.

Mosss, the celebrated Jewish Lawgiver, in endeavoring to liberate his
people from Egyptian idolatry, and to establish them in the belief of one
God, placed in the very front of his teachings this precept: “‘ Jehovah is the
Creator and only Lord of Heaven and Earth, and there is no other god
beside him. Ye shall not make unto yourselves any graven image or like-
ness of God.” The Pentateuch also describes Jehovah as an invisible king
of his people, whom he chose to govern through the medium of the priest-
hood. Accordingly all the laws, or ordinances and regulations, whether
moral, religious, or civil, claimed for themselves divine authority ; and as
they contained a stringent statute prohibiting the intermingling, by mar-
riage or otherwise, of the Israelites and the surrounding heathen, the
government took the form of an exclusive theocracy. The Hebrew common-
wealth thus constituted, subsisted under various modifications nearly 1600
years. Its practical effects corresponded with its intrinsic character.
While in many respects it operated beneficially, preserving the doctrine of
the divine unity, and binding the Jews firmly to their nationality, it con-
tinued a barrier between its professors and those of other creeds, and finally
degenerated to a lifeless round of ceremonies.

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162 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

2. CHRISTIANITY.

Curist1anity, while it rested in a considerable measure upon the faith
and morals revealed in the old Testament, was justly described by one of
its earliest preachers as a nobler branch grafted upon a wild tree. The God
of Christianity is not the strong and jealous God that governs and punishes
without mercy; but a tender Father who commiserates the sinner, and
seeks by kindness and mercy to win him to holiness and salvation. _ His
children, accordingly, are not selected exclusively from any one tribe; “ but
in every nation, he that feareth God and worketh righteousness is accepted
of Him.” Every one, however humble, receives his notice and protection,
and nothing can befall him without the will of his heavenly Father, who
can compel all events, whether prosperous or adverse, to work out for his
good. While all men are thus God’s children, they are expected to love
each other as such; and the blessed Founder of Christianity has promised
to recognise as his followers only ‘‘ such as love one another.”

Professed Christians have often sadly departed from this standard of
discipleship. They have hated, persecuted, and murdered their brethren
for opinion’s sake ; and in the course of time so many parties have arisen in
the church, that were it not for the positive promise of God one might well
despair of ever beholding that desirable object, ‘“‘ One fold and one Shep-
herd.” Every denomination seems to suppose that it alone possesses the
true faith and has found the way of salvation, forgetting all the while that
“* Jove is the fulfilling of the law,” and is thus superior to faith and all other
qualifications.

The oldest of these divisions is known as the Loman Catholic Church.
At the head of its organization it recognises the Pope as God’s representa-
tive; besides God and Christ it venerates the Saints ; professes to hold the
all-saving faith ; condemns all who maintain a different belief; withholds from
the laity the Bible, the original source of all certain knowledge in regard to
the proper doctrines of Christianity ; and in many cases openly contradicts
the clear expressions of Holy Writ.

The Greek Catholic Church forms a second of these branches. It differs
from that just described mainly in refusing to recognise the bishop of
Rome as the sovereign Pontiff of the Christian church.

The Protestants. compose a third party, which is again broken into
numerous smaller sects, as the Meformed, the Old Lutheran, the United
(Evangelical) churches of the European continent; the Anglican or Episco-
palian, the Preshyterian, the Independent, &c., of England; and the
Lutherans, Episcopalians, Methodists, Presbyterians, &c. &c., in the United
States. Indeed so great has been the tendency towards dissent and party
spirit, that the earnest labors of those pure, noble, and elevated minds which
have always striven to unite men in the rational affectionate ‘“ worship of
God in spirit and in truth,” have hitherto proved unsuccessful.

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MONOTHEISM. | 163

3. MAHOMEDANISM.

Manomepantsm, the most widely spread monotheistic system of religion,
was established by Mahomed (or Mohamed) in the year 622, a.p. Itisa
compound of Jewish, Christian, and to some extent Heathen religious ideas
and rites. Its founder proclaimed himself as the greatest prophet and the
most distinguished ambassador of God; denounced as infidels all who
refused to profess his religion, and ordered them to be persecuted with fire
and sword.. Unlike Jesus Christ, who invited men to test his religion, and
left its adoption or rejection to the free exercise of their understanding,
Mahomed propagated his system by arms.

Mahomedanism differs from Christianity in two important particulars : it
teaches an unchangeable predestination, and holds out the promise of a
sensual Paradise. This heaven is promised particularly to such as fall in
doing battle for their religion; and in order to increase as rapidly as possible
the number of believers, the condition of the blessed is des¢ribed in
language far more glowing, voluptuous, and extravagant, than any we have
employed in treating of the northern mythologies. Groves, rivers, foun-
tains, diamonds, pearls, and marble palaces, delight at once the eye and the
feelings; costly dishes served in golden vessels and wine in princely cups
regale the taste; the most delicious perfumes impregnate the air; seventy-
two dark-eyed virgins of graceful form and blooming youthfulness ({Zowrzs)
receive the believer and minister to his endless felicity; and seventy thon-
sand slaves stand always waiting to fulfil his wishes, even before they are
uttered. In direct contrast to all this pleasure, Mahomed has painted hell
as a place where transgressors, apostates, and infidels are punished with
intolerable torment, the measure and nature of which are determined by
the grades of offence during life. Faith in the Prophet, however, inducing
his intercession in their behalf, can save from this punishment the most
guilty and abandoned sinners.

The ethical teachings of Mahomed are simple, and his theological doc-
trines, borrowed from Christianity, are in part conveyed in a dignified and
attractive form. Among the sacred duties of the faithful are daily prayer,
during the offering of which the face must be directed towards Mecca, and
not as formerly towards Jerusalem; a fast of thirty days in the month of
Ramadan, the ninth of the Turkish year; the devotion of at least a tenth
part of their income to charitable purposes; and certain prescribed ablutions
and purifications of the body. Monachism and ascetic penances, the vene-
ration of images, and indulgence in wine, are expressly prohibited.

The religion of Mahomed is sometimes called /slamism, and its professors
Moslems or Mussulmans. The Coran or Alcoran is the rule of faith, the
substance of which is considered eternal and uncreated; and Mahomed,
who pretended to have received it leaf by leaf from the archangel Gabriel,
regarded himself only as the editor. The contents of the Coran were em-
bosomed from eternity in the divine mind alone, and written in rays of light
upon the tables of his unchangeable counsel, until the archangel Gabriel

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164 MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

communicated the revelation to Mahomed. Accordingly the Coran is a
collection of numberless miracles; indeed every verse contains a wonder.
At a later period, the Sunna, embodying oral precepts and traditions, was
added to the Coran, but its introduction gave rise to two hostile religious
parties, the Sunnztes who receive the Sunna, among whom are the Turks ;
and the Schzites, who reject the Sunna as apocryphal. The Persians belong
to the latter sect.

The Caaba, or national temple of the Mahomedans, erected at Mecca, is
an object of the highest veneration, and every faithful believer is expected
to perform at least one pilgrimage to its sacred shrine. The priests are
called Jmaums, and though, as above remarked, monachism is prohibited,
there is, besides the priests proper, a kind of monks known by the name of
Dervises, who, however, may be considered as travelling priests or mission-
aries.

Of the many marvellous exploits which the disciples of the prophet are
fond of attributing to him, none can exceed in extravagance his wonderful
night journey to the seventh heaven. Mounted upon a resplendent steed
Al Borak (the lightning), he first rode out of the temple of Mecca to Jeru-
salem. Thence he ascended through measureless space, in company with
the archangel Gabriel, to the seventh heaven, where he was saluted by
patriarchs, prophets, and angels. Beyond this he beheld the throne of Allah
himself, whose face was covered with twenty thousand veils (for no man
could have looked on his undimmed glory and live) and was touched by
the Almighty, who placed his hand upon his shoulder, which caused a
freezing cold to run through the very marrow of his bones. After receiving
several communications from Allah he descended by the ladder of light to
Jerusalem, where he found Al Borak fastened as he had left him. He
mounted the saddle, and returned to Mecca, having accomplished in a few
hours a journey which would have required an ordinary traveller many
thousand years.

384

Eat EDN Bes ACR T'S

Pruatss IX. 1-26.

Arr is the flower of civilization, the ornament of life. Although the
artistic instinct may be said to be innate in man, although the feeling for the
beautiful is deeply implanted in our nature, still it does not come forth to
light until the requirements of the body have been satisfied ; for want gives
the death-blow to art, which can only attain its full development when the
mind is free from care. So long as nations are occupied in securing their
material well-being, we find among them only those rude forms which seem
sufficient to meet the immediate demands of security and comfort ; and it is
not till a later period that we find the sense of the beautiful making its
existence practically manifest, by joining the agreeable to the useful, and
the ornamental to the necessary.

Art rises with the mental cultivation of a people; and in its productions
the character, disposition, and degree of civilization of a people are accurately
reflected. An effeminate sensual people are strangers to vigorous forms in
their works of art; and with the decline of scientific cultivation, art alsc
declines.

Before proceeding to perform the task we have undertaken in this treatise,
that of giving a brief history of the Fine Arts in all times and among the
principal nations of the earth, we must premise a few words on the meaning
of the term art, and the accessory notions connected therewith.

By the term a7t in general, we understand that species of activity
whereby something internal and spiritual is brought forth into the visible
world, or in other words the power of representation. The essence of art
then, as such, consists in this, that its design is only to represent ; and
thereby it distinguishes itself from all other, viz. from practical pursuits,
which are constantly directed to the attainment of some end in external life.
This, too, is what distinguishes art from a trade or handicraft. A handicraft
sets an object before us as practically useful; art adorns it and renders it
more agreeable to the eye.

The external object or object to be represented in art is a sensible form,
whether created by the fancy or borrowed from external nature. But as
even corporeal seeing, and in a far higher degree mental, artistic seeing, is
an operation of the fancy, we must regard the latter as the principal coud
tion of artistic representation. Thus the painter properly paints with his

ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOPZDIA.—VOL. IV. 25 385

2 THE FINE ARTS.

eyes ; and his art is, to see regularly and beautifully. To creation, or the
power of seeing, must be joined as a subordinate one the power of repre-
senting the form in a material, that of execution.

That which is represented, the mental conception, whose expression is
what properly constitutes an artistic form, we call a work of art. It is an
idea of a particular sort which at the same time is combined with a powerful
and lively feeling of the soul; so that sometimes both idea and feeling are
united in a spiritual condition, while at others the idea becomes more
prominent, although in the adoption of the form properly so called the
feeling always predominates.

By the laws of art we mean nothing more than the conditions under
which the faculty of feeling of the human soul can be excited to beneficial
action by means of external impressions; and they determine the artistic
form, in accordance with the demands of the feelings. But first of all the
artistic form must possess a general regularity, which results from the
observance of mathematical relations or of organic forms of life, and insti-
tutes the limits within which the artistic forms move. This, for instance, in
statuary, is the relation borne by the organic fundamental forms to the
particular plastic figure.

After regularity, beauty is the next requisite of the artistic form in refer-
ence to the feelings; and we call beautiful those forms which cause the
soul to feel in a manner which is truly beneficial and salutary, and entirely
suited to its nature; in other words, which make it vibrate naturally. The
highest beauty stands in opposition to the endeavor to represent something
peculiar; wherefore Winckelmann says, that perfect beauty must be as void
of peculiarity as the purest water.

The two extreme points in the chain of sensations are the sublime and
the pleasing. The former requires of the soul an energy raised to its utmost
limits; while the latter, without any stirring up of its powers, draws the
soul of itself into a circle of salutary sensations. Moreover every work of |
art must possess a unity to which everything in it bears reference, and by
virtue of which its various parts are so held together, that the one as it were
demands and renders necessary the other. |

The divisions of art are founded on the nature of the form under which its
representations are produced. All forms that possess a certain regularity
are adapted to the purposes of art, particularly mathematical forms, on
which the nature of bodies and of their systems depends, and organic forms,
in which life on our earth attains to a wider and higher development. The
more obscure and undeveloped the idea to be embodied in a work of art,
the better adapted for the purpose are mathematical forms; but the clearer
the idea, the more recourse is had to the forms of organized nature for its
expression.

Every form presupposes magnitude, and it is in the nature of this magni-
tude that each several art originates. Ifthe magnitude be one of time, we
then have music and eloquence; for tone is ever a magnitude of time. To
these arts, taken in a wide sense, belong also Orchestrics or the art of danc-
ing, which to time adds space, and to the extent of the motion the manner

386

THE FINE ARTS. 3

in which it is performed; for man can effect a representation in space and
time only by the motion of his own body. The arts which represent in
space alone, those of design, make use either of geometric or of organic
forms.

Geometric forms may certainly be the object of art properly so called,
since they may be elaborated according to the rules of art, and thus are
produced utensils, vessels, dwellings, and places of assembly. This branch
of the fine arts is called Tectonics, and its highest grade of development
Architectonics ; its peculiar character results from adaptedness to a purpose
combined with artistic representation. But those arts which have to do
with organic forms, are essentially imitative and are based on studies of
nature. They are: 1, Plastics or Sculpture, by which the forms themselves
are presented corporeally; and, 2, Design or Graphics, which present on a
surface, by the use of light and shade, a semblance of corporeal forms.
The aid of color may be resorted to in both these arts; but in plastics its
use becomes less advantageous as there is an endeavor to imitate nature, and
under such circumstances the want of actual life makes itself so much the
more sensibly and unpleasantly felt. This too is the reason of the unfavora-
ble and almost repulsive effect produced on most persons by a collection of
wax figures. When color is combined with graphics, it raises this art to
the dignity of Painting. As sound arises from vibrations of the air, so
color, according to Euler, is produced by vibrations of the luminous ether,
and consequently has in its effects and laws a strong resemblance to sound.
While sculpture exhibits all organic forms with the utmost completeness,
leaving nothing undefined, painting contents itself with the effects of light
and mere appearance; but on the other hand it can make use of a far
greater number of forms than sculpture, which in this respect is tolerably
limited. Bas-relief forms a connecting link between sculpture and painting.
The ancients treat it more in the manner of sculpture, the moderns more in
that of painting.

The pursuit and practice of art is either national or individual, according
as it results from the mental activity of an entire people or of a single
person, and is characterized by the peculiar habits and idiosyncrasy of such
people or person. ‘This character we call séyle ; and as there is an Egyptian
or Grecian style, so too there is a style of Phidias or Praxiteles when the
idiosyncrasy of the individual artist is powerful enough to characterize his
entire productions. J/anner, on the contrary, is a vicious intermixture of
the personal with the artistic, arising either from habit or from a morbid
tendency of the feelings, in consequence of which the form, without regard
to the requirements of the subject, is constantly modified in a similar
manner.

Art stands everywhere in a special connexion with religious life, with
the ideas entertained of the Deity ; inasmuch as religion opens to mankind
a spiritual world which, although it does not appear externally, yet requires
an external representation, which is found for it under one shape or another
in art; and a religion is found to be artistic and plastic in proportion as its

ideas are susceptible of representation in the forms of the organic world. |
387

4. THE FINE ARTS.

If art is compelled first to search out or invent forms for the representation
of the Deity, it takes a mystical direction, as for instance was the case with
the animal symbols of the Grecian divinities, and then he alone whose mind
is penetrated with the special feeling and belief can discern the divine life
in the animal.

As architecture has been handled sufficiently at length in another
Division of this work, the subjects which remain for us to treat of here are
Puastics or ScunpTurE, Pamrine, and Music. Each of these we will take
up separately, combining our remarks on the art itself with the history of
the same.

I. SCULPTURE, OR THE PLASTIC ART.

The art of representing the objects of organic nature in all sorts of
materials, as clay, stone, metal, wax, &c., in such a manner as to be per-
ceived by the sense of feeling, is called sculpture, or, as mallet and chisel
are not always used in it, the plastic art; and to this is always reckoned
by way of exception that part of tectonics which relates to the artistic
arrangement of the various articles of furniture, as vases, &c.

Sculpture either represents its objects full-rounded, in all their propor-
tions, so as to be viewed from every side, and then it furnishes the truest
copy of nature, or else it presents a half-rounded image, which projects
only by a portion of its thickness, either half of it (bas-relief), or somewhat
more than half (hawt-relief’), from the plane surface which both serves as a
background, and cements the figures together. We have already remarked
that relief forms the connecting link between sculpture and painting. A
detail of the processes by which the art of sculpture is carried into practical
execution would be out of place here. We will only state that the artist
first prepares a model on a reduced scale of the object to be represented,
and this he transfers to the block by gradually removing the superfluous
parts until the finest details are brought out.

We will now consider the art of sculpture as it has been practised by
different nations and at different times.

1. Non-Crasstc ANTIQUITY.

We reckon as belonging to thenations of non-classie antiquity ali those
whose civilization and mental culture are older than those of the Greeks
and Romans; and consequently, with but few exceptions, those primitive
nations of whose mental cultivation it is true we possess relics, but whose
writings have either wholly or for the most part perished.

A. The Hindoos.

The people among whom we find the earliest traces of mental cultivation
are the natives of India, the easternmost branch of the Caucasian race; and
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SCULPTURE. 9)

that they are gifted with great powers of mind is evinced by their possession
of a highly elaborated language, a religious system skilfully wrought out,
and poetry teeming with imagination and fancy. Still they were not fitted for
the successful cultivation of the plastic art in an original manner. The
quiet contemplative spirit of ancient and the luxurious fancy of later times
found in the existing forms of nature no expression for the shapes to which
imagination gave birth; and hence we meet among them with only super-
natural and chimerical images of deities. And although our wonder is
excited at the perseverance of Indian artificers in excavating their grotto
temples, and in hewing out entire mountains, still we miss that guiding
spirit which might have regulated and used such great industry and such
an enormous expenditure of power to the attainment of magnificent results.
We have had occasion in an earlier part of this work to express our senti-
ments in full with respect to Hindoo architecture; but in the sculptures of
India, i. e. in the high and low reliefs which adorn the walls of the rock
temples, and which, in addition to their images of the gods, also represent
scenes from the heroic and legendary ages, we miss both the guiding spirit
and that strictness of system which characterize an art that has long been
cultivated on a native basis. Hence while the Indian sculptures surpass
those of Egypt, of which we shall soon speak, in naturalness of position and
freedom of movement, they must yield to the latter in strictness of drawing
and the regular disposition of the figures. In the expression of characteristic
distinctions of the bodily form of the different personages little seems to
have been accomplished, as appears for instance from the relief on the
facade of the sanctuary in the grotto temple at Kenneri (pl. 1, jig. 4); and
everywhere the attributes are represented by the dress, the coloring, or by
monstrous appendages. The greatest amount of skill is shown in the
representation of female figures, as e. g. the image of Lakshmi from the
pagoda of Bangalore (pl. 2, jig. 14), and another from the grotto temple of
Rama in Isura (jig. 15). Nevertheless in the accumulation of attributes,
the combination of figures with many limbs, as e. g. in the Trimurti on the
bas-relief in the grotto temple of Elephanta (pl. 1, jig. 2) and the relief
from the grotto temple of Wisua Karmah at Ellora (jig.3), the constrained
postures, and the striving after ornament (see the head-dress of the Trimurti,
jig. 2), the art of ancient India, as exhibited in the rock-hewn temples, is on
the whole very moderate, when compared with the monstrosities of many
modern Indian idols and paintings.

B. The Medes and Persians.

The architecture of the Medes and Persians has already been discussed
in its appropriate place. Of the remains of their sculpture but little has
hitherto been known; but great light has been thrown on their progress in this
art by the recent explorations in Nineveh. Most of the plastic monuments
discovered are reliefs, in which the principal figure is usually a king or a
hero (see the relief from the ruins of Persepolis, pl. 1, jig. 1), who is
clothed in a richly embrcidered tunic, with an upper garment and a tiara,

and usually followed by two figures similarly dressed; or who is represented
389

6 THE FINE ARTS.

fighting, seated at table, holding his court, &c. Frequently too he appears
holding a staff as a sceptre, and with a retinue of canopy-bearers and
eunuchs behind him (pl. 2, jig. 18). In battle a figure, probably a
guardian deity, frequently stands behind him holding a defensive weapon
over his head (fg. 19), or he is followed simply by a shield-bearer (jig. 17)
with a peculiar head-dress (fig. 16). Female figures are rarely seen, but
often those of animals, as lions, horses, and bulls, the latter also with human
faces. Several reliefs represent sieges, fortresses, &c. The skill shown in
the drawing of the bodies, the delineation of the hair, &c., is highly praised.

The ruins of Persepolis, from which the above cited reliefs are taken,
exhibit a great quantity of architecture adorned with sculptures. Strange
symbolical forms of beasts executed in high relief stand as royal insignia
at the entrances; and similar ones are frequently made use of for architec-
tonic purposes. Among the principal figures are the unicorn with and
without wings and an enigmatical beast with a royal head-dress, also the
griffin and the lion. Groups in which a mythological hero vanquishes a
monster of this kind are frequently represented in relief. Very remarkable
are the reliefs on the grand stairway in the ruins of Persepolis, where the
provinces of the kingdom are represented bringing the yearly presents to the
king. The costumes are characteristic. The noblest, that worn by the king
himself, is the Median dress, the stola of the Magians. To the ordinary
belongs the coat with empty sleeves, the Persian kandys, resembling the
Hungarian pelisse. Among head-dresses are the tiara with side-ribands,
such as is worn by the king (jig. 19), the kedarzs, and the kyrbasia (fig. 17).
A peculiar covering for the head is represented in the Numidian halfbust
(fig. 18).

The circle of the plastic arts with respect to mythology is among the Persians
very limited, and we find only the image of Ormuzd, a half-figure hovering
in the air and ending below in wings, together with the symbolical animal ;
all else belongs to historical representation. Strict propriety demands
everywhere careful clothing and majestic movement, which even in combat
with monsters is not disturbed; to the same reason is to be attributed the
entire absence of female figures. The folds of the garments are regular
throughout, and the hair is very carefully treated. The drawing is executed
with firmness and precision ; the features bear a dignified impress, together
with the stamp of nationality ; the postures and gestures present a pleasing
variety, and even the figures of animals are grandly and vigorously sketched.
The work in the very hard stone is everywhere neatly executed, and the
treatment of the reliefs is peculiar. Although Grecian artists worked for
the Persians (Pliny names e. g. Telephanes), still in everything there is
manifested a native style of art the result of centuries of cultivation.

C. The Babylonians and Phencians.

The Babylonians, early brought together under monarchies and favored
by the protected situation of their low-lying river-land, began at a very
remote period to erect buildings of importance; and this of course was
accompanied by the cultivation of the plastic arts, although sculpture

390

SCULPTURE. e,

properly so called never attained a very high point of excellence among
them. We meet most frequently with reliefs which were impressed in the
clay before it was burnt and then coated with various colored varnish, and
also statues of deities made of wood and plated with gold or silver. Works
regularly sculptured in stone are hardly ever found, as the material had to
be brought from a great distance, and even wood, excepting that of the
palm-tree, was scarce. The statues of the gods, however, were made of a
colossal size; for Herodotus mentions the image of Belus which cost 800
talents of gold, and another image 24 feet in height. Diodorus informs us
that they made brazen statues of their kings. Daniel, too, set up stone
images; but these belong to a later period, and probably were also of
burnt clay.

Still many engraved stones are found which were executed by the Baby-
lonians; and Herodotus says that every Babylonian had his signet. These
stones are cylinders of chalcedony, hematite, agate, &c., and the figures
engraved on them are for the most part representations of the principal gods
of the Babylonish religion. The style of these productions is very various,
but mostly resembles the Persian.

The Phenicians thought less of indestructible than of ornamental works
of art; their temples were usually very rude, and the wooden walls were
very often plated with gold. Sculptured work among them attained to
no great excellence, and statues of stone were very rare. Nor can cast
statues be shown to have existed among the Pheenicians, although they
were not unacquainted with the art of brass-founding, since they cast
vessels of elegant and frequently of colossal form. Of the sculptures of the
Pheenicians little or nothing has come down to us; but we know, from
their coins and engraved stones and from the accounts of the ancients, that
the figures of their gods by no means exhibited those characteristic and
significant traits which indicate an indigenous school of art. Some grave-
stones there are, as those in pl. 2, jigs. 11, 12, which show as little artistic
skill as they do originality of invention. In their figurative representations
‘the Pheenicians often employed combinations of the human form with those
of animals, while by means of dwarf-like or shapeless and strangely designed
figures they strove to express the mysterious nature of the deity.

D. The Egyptians.

The Egyptians form a distinct branch of the Caucasian race of mankind,
elegant and slender in form, and fitted for persevering labor. We find
them in the earliest times through the whole extent of the valley of the Nile;
and as the country has a peculiar, secluded, and uniform character, so we
find the people to have led from a most remote epoch a monotonously
regulated and, as it were, petrified life. Their religion had become a very
complicated ceremonial worship. The hierarchy and the system of castes
made their influence felt in every department of human activity, and each
“employment was carried on by people who were born to it. We find
among the Egyptians the art of writing already in use and brought to great

perfection ; it consisted first of a monumental writing, the hieroglyphics,
391

8 _ THE FINE ARTS.

some of which have a phonetic value; then the hieratic writing, which
appears to have arisen through an abbreviation of the hieroglyphics
in transferring them to paper; and the demotic, which is still further
simplified, and approaches nearest to the nature of alphabetical writing.
This last was used for legal documents, letters, and all the purposes of
ordinary life. Through the knowledge obtained in recent times of these
species of writing, and especially of the hieroglyphics, we have been able
to determine the age of many monuments, which, as Egyptian art remained
unchanged for thousands of years, could hardly been done from their
style.

In Egyptian art the following periods are to be distinguished: 1, before
the Syro-Arabian invasion of the Shepherd kings, sixteen dynasties; at the
end of which nothing escaped destruction but the pyramids of Memphis,
a work of the fourth dynasty. Here fragments of temples are found built
in, which show exactly the same style as the later buildings. 2. The period
of the native princes, who, starting from the southern border of the king-
dom, gradually regained possession of it, and whose glory under Rhamses
the Great, Sesostris (1472 3. o.), &c., reached its greatest height. The
names Rhamses, Sesostris, Amenophis, Thutmosis, all belonging to the
eighteenth dynasty, are found on numberless monuments, and also in Lower
Nubia. Thebes was then in the height of its splendor. 3. Egypt under
foreign dominion, first Persian, then Greek, and lastly Roman; which,
however, produced no essential change in the manners and customs in the
interior of the country. It was reserved for Christianity with its direct
assaults to break up this mummy-like, dried up, and therefore imperishable
Egyptian world.

With respect to locality, the monuments and productions of Egyptian art
may be divided into: 1. The Upper Nubian. Here was Meroe, where the
dominion of the priesthood survived the longest (270 B. c.). Here are still
found considerable ruins and remains of art, but which exhibit the Egyptian
style only in its later degenerate stage. 2. The Lower Nubian, which show
an affinity to those of Upper Egypt. They are mostly in the form of exca-
vated structures, the Nile Valley being in this portion too narrow to admit
of large foundations. According to the hieroglyphic inscriptions, they date
from the flourishing period of Thebes; and their for the most part unfinished
condition shows that they belong to a transition period. A specimen of
such grotto-like constructions is found in the temple of Hathor at Ipsambul
(pl. 2, fig. 10). This is the smaller of two monuments, the larger of which
is almost wholly buried in the sand. The one here represented is free from
sand, and is situated close to the Nile. Before it stand six colossi about 50
feet high, three on each side; in each group the outer figures represent
priests and the middle one a priestess. The interior has a statue placed in
a niche. The walls are adorned with painted bas-reliefs. Some scholars
assert that these two monuments are not temples, but royal tombs or
cenotaphs, perhaps for Rhamses the Great. 3. The Upper Egyptian, com-
prising those of the region above Thebes and of Thebes itself; all of which
date from the 18th and 19th dynasties, and together exhibit one and the

392

SCULPTURE. 9

same powerful and grandiose style. 4. The Middle and Lower Egyptian
have been mostly destroyed, partly during the frequent civil wars, and
partly in consequence of the rise of new and large cities in their neighbor-
hood. In the Oases also there are found some ancient remains, ¢. g. a
temple vf Ammon, the royal citadel, catacombs, &ec.

The Egyptians particularly excelled in sculpturing stone; and since the
art of sculpture appeared ever among them as the handmaid of architecture,
and as the adorner of the works of the latter, it bears, so to speak, a
thoroughly architectonic character. Their statues, made for the most part
of the hardest species of stone, ¢. g. granite, syenite, porphyry, basanite, or
hard fine-grained sandstone, and the smaller ones of hematite, serpentine, or
alabaster, are mostly intended to rest in a standing or sitting posture against
pylons, columns, and pillars; for figures standing alone are very rare.
They are designed and executed with masterly precision. In the sitting
figures (pl. 2, fig. 7) there reign the greatest repose and equilibrium of atti-
tude; the treatment of the standing figures is stiff, and they rarely have
much action. The feet are often placed close together (see jigs. 1, 2, and 3,
from the Capitoline Museum in Rome), the arms are occasionally some-
what elevated. Free and moving postures (like jig. 6) seldom occur.
Sometimes the figures place one foot forward, as if to advance (jigs. 4 and 5
from the British Museum), but without altering the rigid posture of the
body. The principal type of the Egyptian standing figures is represented
in jig. 4. The size is often very colossal; for figures are found of from 53
to 60 feet in height, for the transportation of which great multitudes of
men were required, as is seen in a relief at Thebes, where a sitting statue
is represented in the act of being removed. The forms of these statues are
for the most part correct, and by the simple curves of their outlines produce
an imposing effect; but their great approximation to geometrical forms
produces a want of life and warmth in the conception of the details. The
parts of the body are formed after the material type, although based on
certain rules of proportion. The forms of the sexes are well distinguished ;
but a definite character is nowhere exhibited in the images of the gods and
kings; they are distinguished only by their attributes and dress, viz. by
various head-dresses, and by having the heads of animals, birds, Wc., as is
shown in the plates to the Egyptian mythology, in another division of this
work.

The forms of animals exhibit much more spirit and depth of observation
than those of men, a study of nature which displays itself even in their
religion. The blending together of the forms of several animals is often
very happily executed, though sometimes the effect is rather odd. Rams
occur most frequently (jig. 8) though generally with a lion’s claws and tail;
also lions, jackals, different kinds of apes, the ibis, and sphinxes. Andro-
sphinxes (jig. 9) are lions with human heads; the largest is that near the
pyramids of Gizeh (see Plates Division VIL, pl. 6, fig.6), which is 117 feet in
length and 40 feet high, hewn out of the living rock, and had in its breast
between its paws the entrance to the great pyramid. Other composite

forms of animals consist of the lion and hawk, the lion and ureeus with
393

10 THE FINE ARTS.

wings, the serpent and vulture, &c. We find here exhibited the striking
contrast, that the Egyptians in their combinations most willingly sacrifice the
head of the human figure, whereas the Greeks in the same case constantly
retain the head: we will instance only the syrens and similar combinations.

The reliefs of the Egyptians are not as successful as their figures; for it
is obvious that their artists strove to represent every member of the body
as complete as possible. Hence in Egyptian reliefs we often have in the
same figure a side view of the head, a front view of the breast, and a side
view of the haunches and legs. A front view of the face seldom oecurs, in
religious reliefs never. In representations connected with religious worship
a constant type for the positions was soon established, which perpetually
recurs. The action is freer in representations of domestic life and the like;
the most awkward are those of battle-scenes, and in general where the
subject demands figures on various levels and consequently a perspective
arrangement. The Egyptian reliefs seldom project from the level surface
of the wall but mostly from fields which have been hollowed out (koilana-
glyphs, velzefs en creux).

In addition to the works of sculpture, we must here also mention, as a
department of Egyptian art, their works in burnt clay. These exhibit many
excellent productions, consisting partly of vessels, to which the so-called
canopuses belong, and partly of small figures coated with a colored enamel
and mostly very well designed. So too the well known scarabeei, amulets
worn on a string round the neck, and which are very often found between
the bandages of mummies, frequently consist of burnt clay, although many
are of carved stones (amethyst, jasper, lapis lazuli, &c.). Sculptures in
metal are rare; on the other hand the Egyptians were able to carve
beautifully in wood, although of this latter material there was no great
abundance. The sarcophagi of the mummies exhibit many specimens of
these branches of art.

If in conclusion we take a retrospective glance at the objects chiefly
represented, and the manner of their representation, we find that the
Egyptians were wholly destitute of the impulse to represent that which fills
and moves the soul because it is beautiful; on the contrary, all their
representations, excepting the figures of their gods, are purely historical,
are as it were memories carved in stone, on which account even their. sculp-
ture is for the most part accompanied by hieroglyphic inscriptions. The
gods never appear in action, but all the reliefs relate exclusively to their
worship. To the kings the artists have given as far as possible a portrait
likeness ; and in the battle scenes the closest accuracy is observed, which
extends even to the number of the enemy slain and captured, as is also the
case with the game in hunting and fishing scenes. In the representations
of domestic employments which are often met with in the tombs, respect is
always had to the occupations in which the deceased was engaged. The
mode of contemplating the world natural to the Egyptians, the reflex of a
cold, jejune intellectual life, gave birth to a style of artistic representation
which presents the most perfect contrast to the glowing, sensual, and. poetic

conceptions of the Greeks.
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SCULPTURE. 11

FE. The Etruscans.

Although the art of the Etruscans at a somewhat advgnced period
adopted a good deal from the Greeks, still we find among them at aso much
earlier date a tolerably advanced and original style of art, that we are
compelled to consider it independently before directing our attention to
classical antiquity properly so called.

The Etruscans were an industrious people, of a bold, enterprising spirit ;
and the structures reared by them, which long before the time of the
Romans were equally remarkable for their extent and for the architectural
skill displayed in them, are still partially preserved to us in their mighty
ruins. It was with the aid of the Etruscans that the Romans began their
buildings ; Etruscans laid their walls; Etruscans constructed their canals;
and the Roman houses were planned after the mode long in use among the
Etruscans. The art of constructing arches with stones hewn into a wedge-
like shape was also known to and practised by the Etruscans; although
most of their walls were of a Cyclopean character, or built of polygonal
stones.

The clearest idea of the degree of perfection reached by the plastic arts
among the Etruscans is furnished by their works in burnt clay, of which a
quantity have come down to us; and although many are formed after the
Greek manner, there are many others which exhibit a distinct, well
developed native style. Everywhere in them we discern a certain
preference for plastic ornament. This preference is displayed in the form
of the antefixee, the acroteria, and the reliefs and statues in the pediments
of the temples. The Etruscans even executed colossal figures in burnt
clay; witness the quadriga on the Capitoline temple, and the statue of
Jupiter in the same, both of which were formed of burnt clay.

Along with this branch of plastics, properly so called, we find that the
Etruscans possessed the art of brass-founding; and they had both bronze
colossi and little statuettes, many of which have come down to us; and
bronze statues, which they knew how to gild, adorned the temples and their
pediments. In addition to casting there was practised the art of chasing
(toreutics) ; and this enabled them to produce embossed works in gold and
silver, which were among the articles most eagerly sought after even during
the most flourishing period of art in Athens and in Rome. Among these
we reckon candelabra, goblets, mirrors, shields, chairs, trestles, &c., &e.
Carved works in ivory also come from Etruria. The art of sculpturing
stone in relief seems not to have been extensively practised; for but few of
the extant specimens of that class of sculptures exhibit the careful and firm
handling to which we are accustomed in the productions of the flourishing
period of Etrurian art. Most of these ancient remains that have been
found in the country in recent times belong to a much later and degenerate
period of art, probably to the times of the Roman domination. J. 1, jigs.
7, 8, are fragments of Etruscan sarcophagi ; these were usually of alabaster,
tufaceous limestone, travertine, and sometimes of burnt clay; and were

adorned with bas-reliefs, which mostly pertain to the tragic mythology,
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12 THE FINE ARTS.

and contain many allusions to death and the lower world. Thus for
instance, jig. 8 exhibits the Etruscan Mantus, or leader of the dead, armed
with a hammer. Other representations of the kind are Mania, the goddesses
of the lower world, the Furies, &c. Parting scenes, dying scenes, and
funerals, are also frequently represented on such sarcophagi.

2. Crassic ANTIQUITY.
A. The Greeks.

1. First Prrtop (previous To 580 3s.c.). The Greeks, originally an
Egyptian colony, had their seat from remote times in Greece proper, a part
of the coast of Asia Minor, and Lower Italy ; and there they had fixed
dwellings, with temples and citadels, which were mostly founded by the
Pelasgi. We still discern the ruins of the cities of Mycenz, Tiryns, &c.,
whose origin dates from that period. The climate and the natural scenery
of the country contributed to produce a beautiful equilibrium between the
sensual and the spiritual in the life of this people; but a long period of
development and many favorable circumstances were needed before the
innate artistic sense could exhibit itself in external materials as an actually
formative art. Yet we find even in the so called heroic period, 7. e. in the
times succeeding the domination of the Hellenic races, a certain love of
splendor evinced in the construction of their houses and in their utensils.

In the period depicted by Homer, great progress had already been made
in the decoration of utensils ; and works were executed not only in wood,
but likewise in the precious and the base metals, and in ivory and amber.
The ark of Cypselus, which was sent as an offering by the Cypselide, the
tyrants of Corinth, to Olympia, stood there in the Hereeum (temple of
Here), and is famed for its beautiful workmanship. It was pretty large, of
an oval form, and made of wood, with figures partly carved out of the
wood, and partly of inlaid gold or ivory. These ran round the chest in five
rows one above the other, and represented scenes from the heroic epic
cycle, which related to the race of the Cypselide.

In these times the art of working in metals had also attained to great
perfection. The description given by Homer of the shield of Achilles
presents us with an elaborate composition consisting of many figures ;
although it may be suspected that these consisted not of embossed but of
inlaid work. The art of casting in metal was invented and perfected in
and after the time of Homer. The invention is ascribed to Rhcecus the
Samian, a son of Phileas, and his son Theodorus. Jthcecus was an archi-
tect and built the Hereeum in Samos. His sons Theodorus and Telecles
worked with him on the Hereum, laid the foundation for the temple of
Diana in Ephesus, and cast brazen statues. Theodorus, son of Telecles, was
not an architect, but confined himself wholly to working in metals. He
wrought for King Croesus a great silver vase, set the ring of Polycrates, and
made a golden vase for the palace of the king of Persia.

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‘SCULPTURE. 13

At the same time with casting, Glaucus of Chios invented the art of
soldering; and to him also is attributed the art of softening iron and
hardening steel. Glaucus was highly celebrated for his works in metal,
and there was in the temple at Delphi a very beautiful pedestal to a vase,
of his workmanship.

The potter’s art flourished at the same time, especially at Corinth; and
very beautiful vessels of pottery were made there by mixing the very fine
clay of the place with fine sand. Dibutades, who is said to have invented
the art of drawing (or at least the silhouette), was the first, according to
Pliny, who mixed ruddle with clay and thus colored it. To him our red
crayon is also ascribed.

If now we pass to the art of sculpture properly so called of those times,
we find that Homer makes no mention of statues; whence it ensues that
only the art of carving in relief had then been invented. The most ancient
remains of sculpture that have come down to us, the lions over the
gate of Mycenz, are reliefs, as also a Niobe on a rock of Sipylus, near
Magnesia. The principal cause of this circumstance may lie in the
then imperfect development of technical skill; but be this as it may,
the fancy of the Greeks was then so much occupied in depicting the won-
derful and the superhuman, that the hero-myths were more suited to the
representations of poetry than of plastics. This we see from the poems of
Homer, where the gods constantly appear in gigantic and often in ghost-
like forms, that cannot be clearly defined. It is for this reason that the
earliest representations of the gods make no claim at all to be considered
as images of the deity, but are only symbols, often unhewn stones, stone
pillars, wooden posts, &c. Thus for instance in the temple of the Graces
at Cyzicus there was a triangular pillar, which Athene herself had pre-
sented as a first work of art; the Hero at Argos was a stone pillar, the
Athene at Lingus a smooth log, and the Dionysius at Thebes a pillar
encircled with a garland of ivy. Afterwards, in order to image the deity
more precisely, attributes were added, and at last arms which held these
attributes. In this manner arose the terminal statues or Herm, which °
long remained the only mode of representing the gods.

The wood-carvers first ventured to make entire images of the gods when
the attributes rendered the whole figure necessary ; and such images, as
e.g. the Lonic Palladium, were then regarded as of the most sacred cha-
racter. The feet, according to the simplest manner, were not separated,
and the eyes were indicated by astroke. Afterwards a walking attitude
was given to the statues, and eyes slightly opened; but the hands, when
they had nothing to bear, hung close against the sides. In the last century
of this period metal statues of the gods first made their appearance.

2. Seconp Prriop (580—460 zB. c.). With the increasing wealth of the
Greeks and their constantly extending relations, there were introduced
among the people a greater degree of refinement and a more highly culti-
vated taste for art; gymnastic games and pantomimic representations had
reached their most flourishing. state about the 50th Olympiad, and excited
a lively enthusiasm for the beautiful and the significant in the human

397

14 THE FINE ARTS.

figure. The athlete first directed attention to a closer study of nature,
and artists exerted themselves to celebrate distinguished combatants by
portraits and statues: the perfection thus attained was of course transferred
to the representations of gods and heroes. Here also the best works were
executed in relief; and we find in the figures of the gods on the dedicatory
craters and tripods spirited representations of the human form. These
figures already exhibit both character and expression. Nevertheless the
type originally adopted was departed from only by degrees. The pious
regard for ancient usage was extended even to the material; though gra-
dually the practice was introduced of putting a head or arms of marble,
ivory, or gold upon the wooden body, until at last they went so far as to
employ the art of casting in metals for the representation of the deities
in their temples.

During this period the gods were represented as sitting enthroned, or in
some other quiet and fixed posture; no attempt is made to charm; the
limbs are powerful, the expression stiff and grave, and the colossal statues
of the gods frequently have smaller inferior deities, which indicate their
character, or other sacred objects, placed upon their outstretched hand.

Of a precisely similar character were the mythological groups which
served to adorn the gable fields, the friezes, metopes, and acroteria of the
temples; and these ornaments had reference either to the deity to whom
the temple was dedicated or to the family legends of the dedicator. The
sculptures on the temples of Aigina, of Selinuntize, and from the ruins of
Xanthus may be considered as forming the limits of this period. The
sculptures discovered in the year 1823 near the middle temple of the
acropolis of Selinuntiee, and now in Palermo, are metopes of a Doric temple,
wrought in tufaceous limestone, and are 4 feet 94 inches high, and 3 feet
63 inches broad; they belong to the very earliest period of art. They
exhibit traces of having been painted, as is everywhere observed in the
architecture of Selinuntiz. One of these metopes, which we have copied in
pl. 1, jig. 12, represents Hercules carrying off the captured Cercopes sus-
pended from a pole. Hercules is naked; yet there are traces which show
that on the body was fastened a lion’s skin of gilded bronze. Another
- metope found there represents Perseus with the cap and winged shoes of
Hermes, Athene in the peplus, and Medusa with Pegasus. From other
sculptures of a frieze in the cella, as of a goddess transfixing a warrior, the
torso of a dying warrior, &c., we have selected the mask of a figure
( fig. 6).

The Aginetan sculptures were discovered by several Germans, Danes,
and Englishmen in the year 1811; they were restored by Thorwaldsen and
transported to Munich, where a separate apartment was appropriated
to them in the Glyptothek. They formed two corresponding groups in
the fields of the two gables of the temple of Athene in A’gina; the
western group is the most complete, although the figures of the eastern
group are somewhat better executed and of a larger size. Athene heads
the combat of the Aacidee or Atginetic heroes against Troy: in the western
group, the battle is around the body of Patroclus; and in the eastern

398

SCULPTURE. 15

group, about that of Oicles, who, as companion in arms of Hercules against
Laomedon, was slain by the Trojans. Of these sculptures we have given
Jig. 10, Athene, fig. 11, an archer, Paris, and jig. 9, a heavy-armed warrior,
Hercules ; and in jig. 5 is given the head of another warrior. Gilded
bronze was here and there fastened on to the marble, as is shown by many
holes still existing in the statues, from which the position of the weapons
attached to them can be made out. The hair also was partly made of wire
fixed on the heads of the figures. On the weapons, the dresses, the pupils
of the eyes, and the lips, but not on the other parts of the body, traces of
color are found. The arrangement of the groups is simple and architec.
turally symmetrical, being adapted to the shape of the gables.

These sculptures have their counterpart in those of a large tomb dis-
covered by Fellows in the year 1838, at Xanthus; which must necessarily
be as old if not older than those of Agina, since Xanthus was taken and
destroyed by Harpagos in the third year of the 58th Olympiad. The
sculptures of this place are found in five different tombs; but one of them,
the largest and best preserved, is the most remarkable. On a base stands
a quadrangular tower consisting of a single block of limestone; its top was
once surrounded by a frieze, which was about 20 feet from the ground, and
above it was a bold cornice with an abacus. The frieze is now in London,
and is set up in the British Museum. The figures on it are about 3 feet
6 inches high, and are distributed over three slabs of white marble on either
side. The east and west sides are 8 feet 4 inches long, the north and south
sides somewhat shorter. On the west, which is the principal side (pl. 1,
Jig. 14), the frieze is interrupted by a small doorway, over which is repre-
sented a cow suckling her calf. This opening leads into a chamber 73 feet
high, and doubtless was intended not for entering the monument but for.
placing within it a cinerary urn, or something of the sort. The style of
art exhibited in these sculptures is purely Greek, and several of the figures
are found repeated with great similarity on othermonuments. This renders
more striking the dissimilarity in the religious rites, the deities, and their
attributes which they represent. The compositions of the four sides stand
in evident connexion with each other. On one side, the western ( Jig. 14),
appear Demeter and Cora, the former with a patera, the younger figure
with a pomegranate and a flower. Before her stand the three Hore or
Charites, the middle one with a pomegranate, the hindmost one with an
egg. The other three sides (the northern is depicted jig. 18) are occupied
in the middle by three gods sitting enthroned, with staves in their hands,
and wearing wide-sleeved garments and mantles; two of them are bearded,
but the third, although also old, is without a beard. These three gods may
be Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto, as appears from their attributes, which are
a quadruped that looks like a bear, a triton on the throne of the second,
and a pomegranate in the hand of the third. To these three gods a family
appear to be making offerings: the man in armor presents a helmet, the
woman a dove, and the child a cock and a pomegranate. The child is
represented on the long eastern side; on which there are also two female
figures and a man with astaff and a dog. On the northern and southern

399

16 THE FINE ARTS.

sides there is placed on each side of the main group a harpy carrying off a
young girl. While these accessories are perfectly suitable and intelligible
as sepulchral designs, the main groups seem incapable of explanation with
reference to the native mythology and symbolism. Of colored ornament
nothing is perceived besides the blue ground, except a little red on the peak
of the helmet, and also on the edge of the plinth and on the throne.

If we now cast a glance at the style of art at this period, we find that
the forms of the body are excessively muscular, the joints and sinews
exceedingly prominent, and the contours consequently hard and trenchant.
This very boldness in design led to that truth to nature which has been so
much admired in the sculptures of Avgina for instance; still the proportions
are short and somewhat stumpy. The gestures are rather violent, although
along with great animation there is always a certain stiffness, something
abrupt and angular. On the other hand a great deal of delicacy is —
exhibited in the neatly and regularly folded garments; the nicely braided,
wire-like curling, andsymmetrically arranged hair; in the peculiar position
of the fingers constantly observed in taking hold of sceptres or staves,
and with female figures in holding up their dresses; in the gliding move-
ment on the extremities of the feet; and in numerous other particularities.
In the shape of the head there reign at this period certain fundamental
forms, which owe their origin partly to the ancient imperfection of art and
partly to an inelegant conception of the national features, and which became
so firmly settled into a type as to be retained even aftera persevering study
of nature had greatly improved the drawing of the other parts of the body.
To this belong (pl. 1, jig. 5) the far retreating forehead, the peaked nose,
the mouth drawn in with the corners elevated, the flat elongated eyes, the
angular chin, the lank cheeks, and the ears placed very high.

Of the statues of wood of this period nothing has come down to us; and
of the works in bronze, with the exception of analogous works in Etruria,
only a very ancient stiff bronze figure has been preserved. On the other
hand, besides the above mentioned sculptures, there exist a few others
which belong to this period. Prominent among these is the statue of
Athene in the Dresden collection of antiquities, on whose peplus the
Battle of the Giants is represented in relief. There are also a number of
reliefs of this period distributed through various museums. Of these we
will mention here only the Theft of the Tripod, which was a favorite subject.
In Dresden there is a three-footed stand for a tripod, one side of which we
have copied in pl. 3, fig. 11. Here the tripod, which on one side of the
stand Hercules is represented as stealing and Apollo endeavoring to prevent
the theft, has been brought back to the temple and set upon the altar; a
priestess is decking it with sacred fillets, and a priest as Neocorus (temple-
servant) stands by, holding a broom, the sign of his office. The third side
represents the preparation of the altar for giving responses, by a priestess
and a priest or soothsayer. To this period also belong the altar of the
twelve gods now in Paris, and the decoration for a fountain preserved in
the Capitoline Museum. We have copied a portion of it (pl. 3, Jig. 10),
on which Vulcan, Neptune, Mercury, and Vesta are represented with their

400

SCULPTURE. 17

attributes. This marble relief is still in very tolerable preservation, and is
one of the principal monuments in which we may study the early Greek
style. :

Remains of the arts of die-cutting and coining have also come down
to us from those ancient times. Coins were stamped already under the
Argive king Pseido in the eighth Olympiad; but it is not till the period
of which we are treating that two-sided coins occur, whereas before only
one side was stamped, and the back showed the mark of the support on
which it was placed (guadratum mcusum). We give as a specimen of the
coinage of this period a silver coin of Gela. The obverse side (jig. 22)
exhibits the fore part of a bull with a human face, intended no doubt for
Bacchus under the form of an animal; the reverse (jig. 23) represents a
quadriga, which is crowned by a victory. The obverse bears the Greek
inscription EAA, the name of the city to which the coin belongs. Another
belonging to this period is an Attic coin, and represents on the obverse
(jig. 25) the head of a lion with the fore paws, and on the reverse (jig. 26)
a Gorgon’s head with a protruding tongue. Both these coins are of great
value for the study of the archaic, or so-called powerful, Grecian style of
art. A third coin of this period, likewise of Attic origin, exhibits (jig. 24)
a Minerva Polias seated and holding the serpent to which she had intrusted
the charge of Erichthonius.

3. Tutrp Prrtop (460—336 B. c.). This period embraces the time from
Pericles to Alexander. Athens, which had now become the centre of
Greek civilization, arrived rapidly in consequence at the height of a power
equal to that ever enjoyed by a city; and the great wealth which the
Persian wars had but slightly laid under requisition was at first expended
in fortifying Athens, and afterwards in magnificently adorning the city
itself; for in this period were erected the temple of Theseus, the Parthenon,
the Propylea, the Odeon, the Theatre, and many other splendid buildings
in Athens. With the progress of architecture sculpture naturally kept even
pace, and both soon spread over the whole Peloponnesus. The productions
of art still exhibited everywhere the repose and severity of the olden period,
although more flexibility and grace are observable in the figures. But when,
in consequence of the Peloponnesian war, the power of Athens had been
undermined, and previously existing ties were dissolved, art also struck
out into new paths, and exhibited in its creations more sensibility and
passion, a disturbed equilibrium, and an uneasy striving of the soul after
external impressions.

In the period of which we are now treating new schools of art were
formed, and Calamis and Pythagoras spread their style over all Greece.
Although not free from hardness, their works present much to admire,
particularly in noble statues of the gods, delicate and graceful women, and
fiery steeds. Immediately after these two artists and their pupils arose
Phidias, a master, whose fame was so great and whose genius so powerful
that the whole host of artists then collected in Athens adopted his ideas.
Phidias himself worked chiefly at colossal statues composed of gold and
ivory, to the magnificent execution of which an unexampled liberality on

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18 THE FINE ARTS.
the part of the states and a more extended technical knowledge mutually
contributed. Here belongs e. g. the colossal statue of Pallas in the Parthenon
(pl. 4, jig. 1), which represented a virgin clad in armor, but victorious
and ruling in serene majesty. The grandiose simplicity of the principal
figures was relieved by rich ornaments on the pedestal, the arms, and even
the edge of the sandals. Athene here bore an egis with a Gorgon’s head;
on her helmet was a sphinx executed in full supported by griffins in relief;
in her hand a spear; and at her feet a shield, on which her left arm rested,
supporting in its hand an image of the goddess of Victory four cubits high.
The sacred serpent of Erichthonius coiled itself at the feet of the goddess.
On the inside of the shield was represented the Combat of the Giants, and
on the outside the Battle of the Amazons. On the edge of the Tyrrhenian
sandals was a relief which portrayed the Combat of the Centaurs and
Lapithe.

Besides these statues and other works of the brass-caster’s and metal-
worker’s arts, Phidias executed numerous statues of gods and heroes of
brass and marble, especially many modifications of the statue of Athene,
among which was distinguished the colossal statue of Pallas Promachos,
which, standing between the Propylea and the Parthenon, towered above
them both, and was visible far out at sea. This statue was left unfinished
at the death of Phidias ; and it was not until nearly a generation later that
Mys completed, after designs by Parrhasius, the Battle of the Centaurs on
the shield and the other chased works with which the molten statue was
adorned. Agoracritos and Alcamenes, pupils of Phidias, also executed
many statues of the gods, and the Aphrodite of Alcamenes is celebrated.
There now exist of the works of the Phidian school only the sculptures that
decorated some of the temples of Athens. ‘There are still preserved some
of the eighteen sculptured metopes of the temple of Theseus. In the ten
metopes towards the east the exploits of Hercules, and in the eight towards the
south and north those of Theseus were represented. Besides the sculptures
of the temple of Theseus there are also a considerable number of sculptures
from the Parthenon. To these belong: 1. The metopes, about 4 feet high,
having a projection of about 10 inches. There were 92 tablets in all: 15
from the south side are now in the British Museum, 1 in the Louvre in
Paris, besides fragments in Copenhagen ; and 32 from the south side were
drawn by Carrey, at the order of Count Nointel, the French ambassador to
the Porte in the year 1674, when the building, which has since been greatly
in*=red, was still in a tolerable state of preservation. 2. The frieze of the cella,
34 feet high and 528 feet in length, of which about 456 feet are still pretty
well known. Of these, besides the plaster casts of the entire west side,
there are 53 tablets in the British Museum, and one in the Louvre (i. 3,
jig. 9). Four have only recently been dug up in Athens. The whole
represent the procession in the Panatheneean festivals. On the west side
was seen the preparation for the cavalcade; then in the south and north
were seen, in the first half, the cavalry of Athens galloping in bands; next,
those who took part in the chariot contest after the procession, accompanied
by goddesses of battle as charioteers ; and further to the south the aged men

402

SCULPTURE. 19

and women of the city; in the north were choirs with flute and cither-
players, bearers of vessels and offerings (ascophorw, canephore, hydraphore),
and furthest in front and on both sides bullocks for sacrifice with their
attendants. On the east side are seated, surrounded by virgins who bring
the offerings and the presiding magistrates, twelve gods, between whom the
priestess of Pallas Polias and the priest of Poseidon Erechtheus form the
central group. 3. Statues in the pediments. The pediments are 114 feet
high and 94 feet long; the depth of the lower cornice is 2 feet 114 inches.
The British Museum possesses nine figures from the eastern pediment, and
from the western pediment one figure and five considerable fragments.
Carrey’s drawing gives the western pediment almost complete. In the
eastern pediment is represented Athene’s first appearance amongst the
gods; in the western pediment, Pallas contending with Neptune for the
sovereignty of Athens conquers him by causing Erichthonius to harness up
the horses which Neptune had made. Here belong the horse’s head
(pl. 8, fig. 18) and the animals’ heads (jigs. 19 and 20), which however are
taken from the frieze.

The influence of the school of Phidias, which had left the early stiffness
completely behind it, manifested itself also in the temple sculptures of
other parts of Greece, but modified by the genius and taste of other masters
and pupils. We may instance the sculptures of the temple in Olympia,
which, although freed from the fetters of the early style, are far from
having attained the grandeur of the ideal conceptions of Phidias. The
reliefs from the friezes of the temple of Apollo Epicurius in Phigalia,
which are in the British Museum in an almost perfect state of preservation,
represent the Combat of the Centaurs and the Amazons in the sight of
Apollo and Diana, and betray in individual groups unmistakable indications
of Athenian models. They display in the composition a matchless power
of invention and a most lively fancy ; nevertheless there appears in them a
far less refined feeling for forms, a fondness for excessively violent gestures
and incorrect attitudes, a hang of the garments with peculiarly awkward
folds almost as if rufiled by the wind, and in the general treatment of the
subject itself a harsher character than is to be found in the school of
Phidias.

Along with the Attic school there arose under Polycletus that of Sicyon
and Argos. Although Polycletus in his colossal statue of Hera in Argos
had brought the art of casting and graving to a higher state of perfection,
he showed himself far inferior in invention to Phidias in his statues of
gods; but the art of modelling statues of athlete in brass which prevailed
in the Peloponnesus was brought by him to the greatest perfection, since
here all that was required was to represent the most symmetrical propor-
tions of the youthful body. And hence one of the statues of Polycletus,
the Doryphorus, became the canon of proportions of the manly form,
which however was then somewhat shorter and stouter than it afterwards
became. To Polycletus is also ascribed the establishment of the principle
of throwing the weight of the body in a statue principally on one foot;

whence resulted the beautiful contrast between the supporting and com-
403

20 THE FINE ARTS.

pressed, and the supported and more developed half of the human body:
Under such circumstances it may well have been the case that Polycletus
gained the victory over Phidias, Ctesilaus, and others in an artistic contest
the subject of which was the representation of an Amazon. The Amazon
of Phidias, leaning on a lance and preparing for a charge, is in the
Vatican ; the wounded Amazon of Ctesilaus (pl. 3, jig. 7) is in the Capi-
toline Museum: and as both these statues are very beautiful, we may well
suppose that of Polycletus to have been of the highest excellence in the
representation of these blooming and powerfully developed female forms.

The spirit of art manifested itself still more corporeally in Myron of
Eleuthera, whose own personal qualities led him to a vivid conception and
representation of the forms of animated nature. His cow, his dog, and
other similar productions were exceedingly spirited, and his quoit-pitcher
(discobolus), represented in the act of hurling, is shown, by the numberless
imitations made of the statue, to have been of the highest perfection.
Among mythological forms that of Hercules suited him best, whom he
stalin ed along with Zeus and Athene in a group for the Samians. His forma-
tion of the countenance, however, remained but indifferent; and his stiff treat-
ment of the hair corresponded to that of the earlier brass statuary in the
period of the Atginetic sculptures.

His opposites were found in Callimachus and Demetrius. The works of
Callimachus were distinguished by an industry that was never contented
with its performances, nay he sometimes spoilt them by his too anxious
and minute execution of details. He invented the application of the drill
to working in marble. Demetrius of Athens on the other hand was the
first who in his facsimile portraits, especially of old people, exhibited a
faithfulness which went so far as to copy accurately even accidental defects
and blemishes.

After the Peloponnesian war there arose in Athens a new school of art in
accordance with the new condition of things in Attica. It was especially
through Scopas, a native of Paros, and Praxiteles of Athens, that art first
received that tendency to the delineation of the more excitable and tender
feelings which corresponded to the frame of men’s minds at that time;
although it must be added that these masters united therewith a noble and
grand conception of their subjects.

Scopas wrought chiefly in marble, whose milder lustre no doubt seemed
to him better adapted to the character of his productions than glittering
brass; most of his statues refer to the myth of Dionysus and Aphrodite.
He was the first who represented the Bacchic frenzy in a free and unfettered
shape, and his Manade with wildly flowing hair sculptured in Parian
marble was universally celebrated. The ideal of Apollo also owes to him
the more graceful and animated form of the Pythian cither-player, which he
effected by giving more life and spirit tothe figure previously in use. Whether
the group of Wi0be and her Children in the temple of Apollo Socianus in
Rome was the production of Scopas or of Praxiteles, the Roman connoisseurs
themselves were unable to determine. At any rate the group manifests an
art which loved to represent impressive and agitating subjects, but observed

404

~ SCULPTURE. 21

at the same time a moderation and noble reserve which guard against any
violation of the feeling for the sublime and beautiful. Unfortunately the
group has come down to us in such a fragmentary condition, that it is hardly
possible to judge of the composition and design which animated and held
together its various parts.

Praxiteles likewise wrought chiefly in marble, and most of his subjects
are taken from the myths concerning Dionysus, Demeter, Aphrodite, and
Eros. It was he whose ideal images of Eros represented the perfect beauty
and amiability of that boyish age which to the Greeks appeared the most
attractive of all; while his nude Venus displayed the utmost luxuriance of
charms joined to a spiritual expression which presented the queen of love
herself as a woman filled with inward longing and in need of love.
Splendid as the works of Praxiteles really are, still in his images of the
deities (and to these he almost exclusively confined himself) there appears
too prominently, in place of the divine dignity and sovereign might which
are found in the works of the older sculptors, the worship of that beauty
which charms the senses. This may have been in good measure the result
of the artist’s way of life, who lived constantly among the heterse. A like
spirit pervaded the works of Leochares, whose Ganymede embodied the idea
of the favorite of Zeus carried off by the eagle in a manner equally charming
and noble. The growing fondness for the delineation of sensual charms
manifests itself still more strongly in the hermaphrodite figures, an artistic
creation which we probably owe to Polycles. The reclining hermaphrodite
of which we have given a copy (pl. 3, jig. 3) is one of the best productions
of this class. It is now in Paris, and was formerly in the villa of Borghese.
It was discovered in building the church of Maria della Vittoria in Rome,
and was presented by the clergy to Cardinal Scipio Borghese, who by way
of acknowledgment built for them the facade of their church. Bernini
restored it by replacing the left foot, and throwing a piece of drapery over
it to cover the joint. The cushions are also by Bernini. There is another
hermaphrodite in the Florentine Museum; but both are exact copies of the
bronze hermaphrodite of Polycles.

As the first artists of this school still cherished the spirit of Phidias, and
only so far departed from it as to endeavor to breathe into their gods and mythic
figures an inner spiritual life, so Euphranor and Lysippus showed themselves
disciples chiefly of the school of Polycles or of Argos and Sicyon, whose chief
aim was the representation of physical beauty and athletic strength. The
favorite of Lysippus among the heroes was Hercules; and him he delineated
in a new manner, developing with such skill his muscles and limbs, as to
serve as a model for all future representations of that hero.

This conception is shown in the Parnese Hercules (pl. 5, figs. 1 and 2),
which is a copy of Lysippus by Glycon the Athenian. This colossal statue
was found in the baths of Caracalla, under which emperor it was probably
brought to Rome. The hand with the apples is new, the legs also were
restored by Giuliano della Porta; but when in 1787 the original legs belonging
to the statue were found, they were put on again in place of the new ones.

The study of nature was pursued with great zeal at this period along

405

22 THE FINE ARTS.

with that of the works of the older masters, and this was the source of many
refinements in matters of detail. Thus, for example, Lysippus put on the
hair more naturally and with picturesque effect. Artists also bestowed the
greatest attention on the study of the proportions of the human figure; and
Euphranor (with Xeuxis among the painters) adopted a much slenderer
model ; this Lysippus was the first to reduce to harmony, after which it
became the predominant one in Grecian art. It must be confessed, however,
that this system was less the offspring of a warm and intimate appreciation
of nature than of a desire to elevate the productions of art above those of
actual life. There is also exhibited in the works of the latest artists of this
period a strong tendency to the colossal, which became predominant in the
subsequent period. The Jupiter of Lysippus at Tarentum was 40 Grecian
cubits (about 68 feet) high.

4. Fourtn Prriop (336—146 3. c.). The conquest of Persia by the
Greeks gave to Grecian artists many occasions for the display of their skill,
while it also communicated a peculiar direction to art itself: as the artists’
sphere of observation was extended, and the wonders of the East excited
them to emulate the magnificence and splendor of its works. But as there
existed a firmly established style of art developed from a native germ in
the different peoples on the one hand, and a strong line of demarcation
between the conquerors and the conquered on the other, no hybrid style
resulted from this cause, but Grecian art, even when transplanted abroad,
remained Grecian still.

Nevertheless we meet with a peculiar phenomenon in this period of art.
The external relations of Greece and its connexion with foreign countries
had called forth a hitherto unknown fondness for splendor and had thus
given a new impetus to the life of art; while the internal and properly
creative energy, after the natural Hellenic circle of ideas had been em-
bodied in plastic forms, was brought to the necessity either of pausing in
its career or of being artificially spurred on to anewflight. The latter took
place in fact; and accordingly we find in the period of which we are now
treating a striving after effect, even at the expense of what is truly valuable
in art.

In the beginning of this period we find that along with the disciples of
Praxiteles the most flourishing was the Sicyonian school, in which brass-
casting was practised in the ancient perfection and in a noble style,
especially by Euthycrates ; but afterwards this art fell into disuse, until it
was revived again in Athens towards the end of this period through the
study of the older works of art, when the Grecian taste obtained the
supremacy in Rome. The school of Rhodes was a branch of that of Sicyon,
and Chares of Lindus, a pupil of Lysippus, cast the largest of the hundred
colossal statues of the Sun, which was reckoned one of the seven wonders
of the world. This colossus, which stood not over but near the harbor, was
70 Grecian cubits high, and was cast in a number of pieces. Tothis period
belongs also most probably the Laocoén (pl. 6, jig. 7), a miracle of art as
respects the fine and noble taste displayed in the execution of so difficult a
task, but evidently calculated for dazzling effect and the exhibition of skill,

406

SCULPTURE. . 23

and perhaps of a somewhat theatrical character. At all events pathos is
carried in this work as high as the nature of the plastic art admits, and
especially much higher than it was ventured to carry it in the time of
Phidias. The group of Zaocoén, who with his two sons is encircled and
killed by two serpents, and of which Pliny speaks with great admiration,
was found in the year 1506 in the Baths of Titus, and now stands in the
Vatican. It consists of six pieces: the right arm is new, and was restored
after a model by Giovanni Agnolo; a portion also of thefeet is new. The
group known by the name of the Farnese Bull, and which in ancient
times was much admired and frequently copied, belongs also to this
period.

Here too we must mention Pyromachus of Pergamus, who celebrated
the victories of Attalus I. and Eumenes II. over the Celts by groups of
warriors cast in bronze; for to these groups some celebrated statues owe
their origin, as the Ephesian sculptors then likewise engaged in the execu-
tion of such works. Here belongs in all probability the Dying Gladiator
(pl. 5, jig. 5), which was formerly attributed to Ctesilaus, but which the
arrangement of the hair, the chain about the neck, and other peculiarities
manifestly show to be a Celt. Accordingly we must regard it as a produc-
tion of Pyromachus. Its affecting character, together with the accurateness
of design and the profound study of anatomy which this statue evinces, has
made it in all times an especial favorite with artists and connoisseurs.

In Ephesus the three Agasiases were celebrated as sculptors, and we
possess from the hands of one of them, the son of Dositheos, the celebrated
statue of the Louvre in Paris known by the name of the Borghese Gladiator.
That this statue represents a warrior (although Lessing took it for a Chabrias,
Mongez for an athlete, Hirt for a foot-ball player, and Quatremére de
Quincy for a racer) is certainly the most probable supposition, if we assume
that this warrior was engaged in defending himself with spear and shield
against the attack of a horseman. This statue probably formed part of a
large group by Agasias.

In the cities where the Macedonian rulers resided statues were executed
for the temples about this time; but they exhibited little that was new in
the way of invention, being for the most part mere copies of celebrated
earlier works. Still the custom of glorifying the kings by portrait-statues
and busts produced many new and spirited masterpieces, especially since
artists carried their flattery so far as to represent the rulers in the form and
costume and with the attributes of certain deities. Thus Alexander appeared
at one time adorned with the dress and the horns of Zeus Ammon, and at
another with the lion’s skin and club of Hercules. Busts of kings, poets,
philosophers, orators, &c., were made at this period in countless numbers,
and not a few of them have been preserved even to our day. On pl. 3 we
have copied some of them, in order to show their style and mode of treat-
ment: of these jig. 12 is a bust of the poet Homer; jig. 13, that of the
philosopher Periander; and jig. 15, that of Thales of Miletus. We have
given in jig. 14 the bust of Theophrastus, and in fig. 17 that of Hippocrates ;

jig. 16 is the bust of the famous orator A¢schines. Besides the portrait-
407

24 THE FINE ARTS.

statues a great deal was done in the way of highly ingenious embossed
work in vases and utensils of metal; and Syria, Asia Minor, and Sicily
were full of such works.

That art in spite of every exertion had declined in the time of Philip and
Antiochus the Great, is not to be disputed; yet soon after there arose,
especially in Athens, statuaries in brass, who, if they did not reach the
ancient lofty point of art, still produced excellent things. They were joined
by Cleomanes, an Athenian, who in his Venus showed himself remarkably
happy in carrying out the idea of Praxiteles. This Venus, known by the
name of the Venus de’ Medici or the Medicean Venus (pl. 4, fig. 2), was
when found in a very mutilated condition. The statue consists of eleven
pieces, and the hands and part of the arms were wanting; the ears bore
ornaments, and the beautifully arranged hair was gilded. This Venus is
an imitation of that of Cnidus; but her nudity no longer needed the excuse
of the bath, and even the dolphin is only a support and not intended to
indicate a sea voyage. At this time flourished Glycon, of whose statue of
Hercules we have already spoken, and Apollonius. They both took the
works of Lysippus as their chief models.

The arts of die-cutting and gem-engraving were practised to a great
extent during this period, especially after the custom had been adopted from
the east of ornamenting vases, lamp stands, and such like objects with
jewels or engraved stones. As the gems in this case were not to be used
as seals, they cut them in relief, in the form of cameos, for which purpose
the variegated onyx was frequently made use of. The finest production of
this kind is the Gonzaga cameo, now in the possession of the emperor of
Russia. It is nearly six inches long, and represents (pl. 3, jig. 21) the
profile portrait of Ptolemy II. and the first Arsinoe in a style remarkable
for its beauty and spirit. Another exquisite cameo, though not equal to
the preceding, is in the Vienna Museum, and exhibits the heads of the
same Ptolemy and of the second Arsinoe. Entire goblets and paterse were at
this period carved out of precious stones (¢. g. of onyx), and were real
miracles of beauty and of perfect execution. The dies for coins at the
beginning of this period were excellent, but towards its close they betray a
decline in art.

The seizure of works of art, which under various pretexts had been prac-
tised towards conquered nations from the earliest times, became in the time
of the Roman domination a regular reward which the Roman generals and
governors took to themselves for their victories; and although in these
plunderings some degree of moderation was at first observed, as under
Marcellus and Fabius Maximus, they were soon carried on without any
restraint. Under Sulla many statues found their way into the melting-
furnace, and this robbery of art was pursued systematically by Verres; he
was followed by the emperors; and an approximate calculation of the
number of statues then brought out of Greece amounts to nearly a
hundred thousand.

Together with the works of art, art itself removed to Rome, and after the

fall of Greece, Italian art alone lays claim to our attention.
408

~ SCULPTURE. 25

B. The Romans.

1. First Pertop. (Previous to tak YEAR 600 a. v. 0c.) In the period
during which Rome remained under the Etruscan kings, it also, as an
Etruscan capital, received its temple statues (of which it had none previously)
from the hands of Etruscan artists, although they consisted of nothing but
images of wood and clay. Even during the times of the republic, the
Romans, in their zeal to promote the common welfare, applied their prac-
tical sense so exclusively to grand and practically useful undertakings,
such as making aqueducts and roads, that but little attention was bestowed
on the cultivation of art for its own sake. Nevertheless political ambition
gradually gave an importance to the plastic arts. The senate and people,
and also grateful foreign states, erected statues of brass in the public places
to men of desert; and the first statue of this metal, according to Pliny,
was a Ceres, which was paid for out of the confiscated property of Spurius
Cassius. When in the time of the Samnite war the dominion of Rome was
extended over Magna Grecia, they began, after the manner of the Greeks,
to dedicate statues and colossi to the gods out of the spoils of war.

The coins of those times and the productions of the gem-engraver show
a very rude state of art: the impress is flat, the figures coarse, and the head
of Roma without beauty. Apart from the coins, no specimens of the imitative
arts of that period have come down to us.

-2. Second Prriop. (From rHenYxrar 600 a. v. c. To THE MippiE Agzs.)
During this period art was concentrated at Rome. This, however, was
owing merely to political ascendency, and by no means to high artistic
talent; for the Roman genius always remained too wholly devoted to
practical and political life, to allow full scope to that careless ease and free
play of the fancy which give birth to art. The taste of the Romans for art may
be best divided into the following epochs. 1. From the taking of Corinth to
the reign of Augustus. The fondness of the great for splendor attracted
artists to Rome, and in consequence a certain taste for art was awakened,
the artists occupied themselves in imitating and emulating the ancient
works, and connoisseurship and learning in art took up their abode in Rome.
2. The time of the Juli and Flavu. The emperors understood how, by
promoting art and by great structural undertakings, to turn the people’s
attention from political matters, and even the half crazy enterprises of some
of them were the means of furnishing employment to artists and fostering
art. Although the artists had already departed considerably from the noble
simplicity of the old masters, still a decided decline of art was not yet
perceptible. 3. Hrom Nerva to the tume of the Thirty Tyrants. During
the long continued peace there was a transitory flickering up of art in
Greece and in Rome under Hadrian; but gradually a want of inner life
and spirit became manifest, and was succeeded by jejuneness and pom-
posity. The transplanting of the worship of Isis to Rome was not without
an injurious influence on art, as it weakened the spirit of Greco-Roman
culture. 4. Prom the Thirty Tyrants to the Byzantine period. The

ancient world fell, and with it ancient art. With the declining faith in
409

26 THE FINE ARTS.

the gods of paganism there disappeared the entire mode of viewing things
in which ancient art originated, and art itself was subjected to the service
of a tasteless semi-oriental ostentation.

If now we cast a somewhat closer glance at the state of art in the epochs
above indicated, we find that under Octavian and his predecessors in
Rome a number of sculptors and brass-casters distinguished themselves,
among whom were Pasiteles and Arcesilaus. The models of the latter were
more highly prized than the finished statues of other masters. There was
also no want of artists who made very beautiful silver vases; and among
the coins of that time there are many that can vie with the Greek. Under
the empire the arts appear already degraded to the service of luxury and
caprice; yet there were still admirable sculptors, who adorned the palaces
of the Ceesars with marble groups of beautiful invention. The bronze
caster Zenodorus cast a colossal statue of the emperor Nero 110 feet high,
which was set up before Nero’s golden house; but when the temple of
Venus and Roma was erected on the spot, the colossus was removed with
the aid of twenty-four elephants. The best sources for the study of the art
of that period are: 1. The sculptures on public monuments. Among
these are the reliefs on the Arch of Titus, representing the apotheosis of the
emperor and the triumph over Judea, well designed and arranged, but
negligently executed; and likewise the reliefs on the Forum of Nerva,
which are beautifully designed, but badly draped. 2. The statues of the
Emperors. Of these some are very well executed, both as clad in the toga
and in the accoutrements of war. Another mode of representation, that of
exhibiting the emperors in a heroic or deified character, was at this time
very much in vogue. These were either naked Achillean statues armed
with a spear, or they were modelled in a sitting posture with a peculiar
drapery designed to suggest the idea of Jupiter. Of the former kind we
have still several specimens, e.g. the Pompey in the Palazza Spada, the
Augustus in the Casa Rondanini, &c.; and likewise of the latter, e.g. the
sitting statues of Augustus and Claudius, from Herculaneum, and a stand-
ing Augustus of bronze holding the thunderbolts, also from Herculaneum,
&c. The gems of this period furnish equally important materials for the
history of art. The greatest master of the time in this branch was Diosco-
rides, who among other things engraved a head of Augustus which the
emperor himself used as his seal. But still more important than the
intaglios are the cameos, which represent the members of the Julian and
Claudian families at different epochs, and which, besides the splendor of
the material and the skilful way in which it is employed, are also remarka-
ble for their execution. Of the gems of this period which have come down
to us we will particularize here only the three largest: a. The Paris cameo,
13 inches by 11, a sardonyx of five layers, representing the apotheosis of
Augustus; 6. The Netherland cameo, 10 inches high, a sardonyx of three
layers, admirably designed, but poorly executed, representing Claudius as a
Jupiter triumphant with Messalina, Octavius, and Britannicus on a chariot
drawn by Centaurs; c, The Vienna cameo, 9 inches by 8, the Gemma
Augustea, of the most exquisite finish, representing an apotheosis of

410

SCULPTURE. 27

Augustus. In the coins the same degree of excellence is observed, the
heads being animated, characteristic, and noble, and the mythologico-alle-
gorical composition ingenious and spirited, although sometimes carelessly
executed.

Under Trajan were executed the reliefs of Trajan’s Column. The figures
are energetic, the heads characteristic, the positions good, and by ingenious
motivos the monotony of military arrangement is avoided; so that the
work, in spite of many faults in the treatment of the nude figure and of the
draperies, has a high value. To it belongs the fragment in pl. 14, fig. 8,
where Trajan is seen receiving the submission of a conquered king. Under
Hadrian, in consequence of that emperor’s fondness for art, partly affected
as it was, it took a more elevated flight. This is shown among others by
the statues of Antinous, the emperor’s favorite, of which a great number
were made. Astonishing is the skill with which this personage is repre-
sented by the artists in the various characters of man, hero, and god, while
preserving and expressing his individuality in all of them. One of the
finest statues of Antinous is that of Belvedere (pl. 6, jig. 1).

During the long reign of the Antonines, when the repose which Rome
enjoyed failed to restore her former vigor, and when oratory degenerated
into dull insipidity embroidered with bombastic phrases, the arts also
assumed a jejune and insipid character in keeping with the general taste.
Accordingly we here find busts of the emperors, in which the hair and
beard luxuriating in excessive abundance, are executed with anxious care,
while the expression given to the countenance is trivial in the extreme.
The art of gem-engraving also shows a state of decline, and the coins both
in invention and execution are of inferior merit.

The unquiet times of Commodus, and of Septimius Severus and his
family, did not suffer the arts to rise, but caused them to hasten still more
rapidly to their fall. The best works of those times are still the imperial
busts, although here too taste seems trampled under foot. Perukes upon
the head and draperies of parti-colored stones indicate the taste in which the
whole is treated. The empresses were often represented with scanty
clothing as Venuses ; but the insipid portrait-like character of the counte-
nance, to which is frequently added the head-dress of the period, plainly
a peruke, presents for the most part a ludicrous contrast to the general
design. Thus we find in the Museo Pio Clementino the statue of Sallustia
Barbia Urbiana, the wife of Alexander Severus, as Venus (pl. 4, jig. 8),
with an Amor at her side; and the statue of Julia Sowmias, the mother of
Heliogabalus (pl. 4, jig. 9), whose head-dress is made to put on or take
off.

The best works of this time, which also exhibits some signs of a peculiar
productivity, are the sarcophagi, the high reliefs on which, representing
scenes from the legends of Demeter, Dionysus, and the heroic mythology,
so modity the subjects as to express in many ways the hope of a life
beyond the grave. The fable of Eros and Psyche is likewise often employ-
ed for this purpose; and the cleverly composed groups of the two lovers,

one of which we have given in pil. 5, fig. 7, cannot be assigned to a date
411

28 THE FINE ARTS.

previous to Hadrian, as the execution is not always of particular merit. At
the same time art was employed to embody the ideas introduced by the
invasion of Oriental culture, its services being now laid under contribution
for the worship of Mithras, as they had been at a former period for that of
the Egyptians. The Abraxas gems too, with the pantheistic figure of Jao
Abraxas and other kindred forms, owe their origin to this period. But gra-
dually the excess of elaboration gave place to meagreness and poverty; on
the coins, which still afford the best clues to the then state of art, the heads
are made constantly smaller in order to bring in also a part of the figure and
accessories. At the close of the third century the busts lose all their relief,
the drawing becomes incorrect, and the entire composition flat, character
less, and ie distinguishable lay the accompanying legend.

The works of the sculptors also become rude and awkward, as is seen in
the reliefs on the Arch of Constantine and on the Column Pe Theodosius ;
the reliefs on the sarcophagi after the turgid, overloaded style of the figures
of the Roman period, are subjected in the Christian monuments to an
architectural arrangement, and in their execution are rude and meagre.
The Christian worship favors painting more than sculpture; and it was
only now and then that so called honorary statues continued to be executed,
especially in Byzantium; but in these the character and individuality of
the persons is entirely disregarded. The making of splendid vases of the
precious metals and adorned with gems is the only branch of art that
seemed to hold its ground still for a considerable time, and even here mere
workmanship took the place of truly artistic composition.

The removal of the imperial residence to Byzantium, together with the
introduction of Christianity, whose simple symbols and unostentatious
worship furnished the artists of that transition period with no special
incentive to the creation of new works, rendered the utter downfall of
ancient art properly so called inevitable ; while the inroads of the Germanic
tribes into Italy, the wars, famine, pestilence, and all kinds of suffering
which afflicted Rome in the sixth and seventh centuries, caused the
destruction both of artists and in a great measure of their works. Still it
was not the force of these outward events, to which art was long subjected
-in a constantly increasing degree, that mainly effected its downfall; it was
rather the inward exhaustion and enfeeblement of the human mind, the
loss of the elevated feeling that formerly inspired it, which caused the utter
prostration of the fabric of ancient art.

3. Or THE SupsEects oF THE Prastic Art In ANTIQUITY.

As the design of the formative arts in general is the imitation of actual
nature, so the plastic art must choose the subjects of its representations
from the circle of positive existences. It can only idealize, ennoble, or
modify, according as it has to deal with historical personages or with
those of religion and mythology. Subjects of the latter kind are always

favorite ones among a people gifted with a genius for art; because in
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them the creative faculty has freer scope for action and development. We
will bestow on both classes a more particular consideration.

A. Mythological Subjects.

Before art properly so called existed among the Greeks, the poetical
genius of that people had already called into being a vast treasure of
myths; and these formed as it were the fruitful soil from which a rich
and luxuriant growth of flowers of art must necessarily spring. The mystic
nature of religion, though which the Divine Being, as something entirely
different from humanity, admits only of indication and never of personifica-
tion, had been thrust by poetry into the background ; and when the plastic
art sought to represent the gods, it found in them only idealized human
beings elevated to the highest point of perfection. Although even this was
quite impossible without an entirely peculiar conception, without inspiration,
without an act of genius on the part of the artist, still there prevailed
throughout the nation a general idea of each deity, that served as a test of
the representation. If this idea was satisfied by the character of the artist’s
production, there was constituted at once a normal figure or type of the god,
which was adopted and followed, though not with slavish literalness, by
succeeding artists. AJ] this is exhibited most completely in those deities
which possess the most individual character ; 7. e. whose whole being cannot
be reduced to a fundamental idea. These are the twelve Olympic gods,
Zeus with his children and brothers and sisters.

1. Tat Twetve Gops or Otympus. a. Zeus. Zeus, the Jupiter of the
Romans, was the father of all life in nature. Old descriptions make him to
be the god who rules in heaven, upon the earth, and under the earth; but
the conception of him embodied by artists is that of the gracious and mighty
ruler of gods and men. This union of his qualities was adopted already by
Phidias. To it belonged the arrangement of the hair rising high over the
centre of the forehead and falling back like a mane on both sides, the fore-
head clear and open above and vaulted beneath, the deep sunk but wide
open and round eyes, the fine and mild contour of the upper lip and cheeks,
the full flowing and curly beard, the broad deep chest, and the powerful
muscular development. The most important statue of the kind still exist-
ing, although by no means a work of the first class, is the Verospz Jupiter
in the Museo Pio Clementino. Later artists occasionally deviate from this
type, some of them giving to Jupiter a more youthful form with less beard,
while others, giving to his youth an expression of anger though moderated
and of martial vehemence, represent him as an avenging, punishing
deity.

b. Hera. The female counterpart of Zeus was Hera, the Juno of the
Romans. Her union with him, which is the source of nature’s blessings,
constitutes her essence, and at the same time makes her the goddess of
marriage. As a lawful wife and powerful goddess she has attributed to her
a proud and imperious character, which artists, however, knew how to
soften. From very ancient times her principal attribute was the veil, and

in the oldest statues it envelopes her completely. The colossal statue by
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30 THE FINE ARTS.

Polycletus wore a crown with the figures of the Hours and Graces in relief.
In one hand she held a pomegranate as an indication of the great deity of
nature, and in the other a sceptre on which perched a cuckoo. In the
countenance of Juno is depicted an imperishable bloom and maturity of
beauty, softly rounded, and commanding reverence without harshness. Her
forehead, bordered with hair flowing down on each side, forms a gently
arched triangle; and her full and open eyes look straight before/her. Her
form is blooming and completely developed, that of a matron. Her dress
leaves only her neck and arms bare. ‘The best extant statue, although
of no particular excellence, is the Barberint Hera in the Museo Pio
Clementino.

c. Poseidon. The god of the sea was Poseidon, the Neptune of the
Romans; and to him the rivers and springs were sacred. The artistic form
‘ of this god is based on the fundamental idea of the poets, that, as ruler of a
stormy element, he is like Zeus august and powerful but without his calm
majesty of demeanor, while he exhibits something hard and rough both in
his corporeal and mental movements. Hence he is represented in the most
flourishing period of Grecian art with a rather slenderer figure than Zeus
and more powerful muscles, which are rendered still more prominent by
his posture. His countenance is angular in its character, with less calmness
and repose in the features, and with wild disordered hair. ‘There still exists
a statue of Poseidon by Phidias in Carrey’s drawing of the western pedi-
ment of the Parthenon, standing with feet wide apart and swelling veins in
the breast. The modifications, however, to which the form of Poseidon is
subjected even in the productions of ancient Greek art areso considerable,
as to render it difficult to define its general character (See pi. 3, jig. 10,
second figure).

d. Demeter. Connected with Poseidon appears Demeter, the Roman
Ceres, the goddess of nourishing and sustaining nature, conceived of as a
mother. This character, regarded in a purely human point of view, is also
made the foundation of the artistic representations of the goddess; and the
most beautiful embodiments of the idea are found in the school of Praxiteles,
viz. in the gold and ivory statue in the temple of Eleusis. Demeter has a
more matronly and motherly appearance than Hera; the expression of her
face, the back part of which is concealed by the upper garments or veil
thrown over her head, is gentler and milder; and her form, which is com-
pletely enveloped in clothing, appears stouter and fuller, as becomes the
mother of all. Her attributes are a garland of corn-ears about her head,
poppies and ears of corn in her hand, and a torch and fruit-basket. Not
unfrequently she is seen enthroned; although it is as common to behold
her walking over the earth and dispensing her fruits. A colossal statue of
Demeter with her attributes complete is preserved in the Museo Pio
Clementino.

e. Apollo. Phoebus Apollo was a god of health and of order, as opposed
to a hostile nature and world. With respect to nature, he is the god of the
more cheerful seasons of the year who drives away the winter; and as
regards human affairs, a god who destroys oppressors and protects the

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SCULPTURE. dl

good. An ingenious symbolism represented the different aspects in which
Apollo was regarded by the contrast of the weapons and the lyre, the
bent and the unbent bow, &c. This god was a favorite subject with the
great artists who immediately preceded Phidias. On the whole Apollo was
then represented as of a more mature and manly form than afterwards, with
stronger and stouter limbs, a rounder, shorter face, an expression rather
earnest and energetic than amiable and charming, and mostly unclothed
except when appearing as leader of the Muses. The slender shape, the
longish oval head, and animated expression of the features were first given to
Apollo by the younger Attic school. The statues of Apollo may be divided,
according to the idea which predominates in them, into the following classes :
1. The Apollo Callinicus, who strides away with anger not yet entirely
allayed from his vanquished opponent. Of this kind is the Pythian Apollo
or Apollo of Belvedere, so called because it formerly stood in the Cortile di
Belvedere (pl. 6, jig. 2). It was found near the harbor of Antium, and is of
Lycian marble ; it seems to have been copied from a statue in bronze, which.
is rendered probable by the entire disposition of the chlamys (short cloak).
The left fore-arm and the fingers of the right hand have been supplied, and
also some portions of the legs. 2. The Apollo reposing after battle, with his
right arm thrown over his head and beside him his closed quiver. Of this
kind is the beautiful Apollino in Florence. 3. The Apollo playing the lyre,
who appears very variously costumed. A statue of this sort is in the Museo
Borbonico. 4. As the Pythian Agonistes, clothed in a solemn and gorgeous
costume and wearing the Pythian stola; such is the Apollo in the Vatican,
after Scopas.

jf. Artenns. The Diana of the Romans is the Grecian Artemis. Her
character, like that of her brother Apollo, has two phases; she being some-
times regarded as a combating or hunting, and at other times as a life-giving
and light-dispensing goddess. In the olden style she constantly appears
in long and elegant drapery, which displays her full, blooming form.
Afterwards, when Scopas, Praxiteles, and others had developed her ideal,
Artemis appeared, like Apollo, slender and light-footed, with hips and
breast without the fulness of womanhood ; her face is that of Apollo, only
more delicate, rounder, and less strongly marked. Her dress is a Doric
chiton (tunic), usually girt high. The shoes of the huntress are those of
Crete, which protected the foot all round. Asa huntress, or as a combatant,
Artemis in the better statues is represented sometimes in the act of drawing
an arrow from her quiver, and sometimes as on the point of shooting it.
The huntress Artemis is likewise guardian of wild beasts, and then she
appears accompanied by a sacred doe. Pl. 4, jig. 7, is copied from a
statue in Versailles, now in the Louvre, where Diana is represented as a
huntress, slenderly and delicately but powerfully formed, with the horned doe
by her side, and adorned with a stephana (fillet or wreath). As tutelary deity
of the temple of Ephesus, Artemis appears in an Asiatic Amazon costume.

g. Lephestus. A mighty god, the god of fire, was Hepheestus, the
Vulean of the Romans, a consort of Aphrodite; but he was not able to

maintain his dignity either in poetry or in the plastic art. The former
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32 THE FINE ARTS.

makes him a skilful smith, but misshapen, limping, ridiculous, and a cuck-
old in his own house. The formative art represents him in the earlier times
as a dwarf; afterwards as an active, laborious man, youthful (pl. 3, fig. 10,
first figure), and robust; while the later schools gave him the appearance
ofa mature and bearded man, with a slight indication of lameness, which
however does not deform his powerful figure, but rather makes it more
interesting. He is recognised by his smith’s implements and sometimes
by asemi-oval Lemnian cap.

h. Pallas Athene. A pure and exalted being closely related to the god
of heaven, appears Pallas Athene, the Minerva of the Romans, under the
form of an Athenian maiden, who in the world sometimes diffuses light and
warmth and wholesome life, and at other times destroys hostile beings.
She is the goddess of energetic industry, of clear intellect, and the pro-
tectress of every profession and every person that undertakes and executes
with discretion things of utility. Art, with which in the earlier times Pallas
was an especial favorite, represented her in the ancient palladia with raised
shield and brandished spear; although there were also statues in a tranquil and
even in asitting posture, with distaff and spindle. In the more advanced state
of early Greek art, Athene appears constantly in a posture ready for combat,
more or less advancing, and wearing over the chiton a stiffly folded peplos
(richly woven robe) and a large egis (coat of mail), which sometimes also lay
over the left arm serving as ashield. The outlines of her body show but little
feminine fulness in the hips and breast, and the legs, arms, and back are
almost those of aman. The countenance has a peculiar cast, but the features
are very harsh and ungraceful. Since the ideal of an Athene was perfected
by Phidias (pl. 4, fig. 1) we discern in her a tranquil seriousness, self-conscious
power, and clearness of intellect ; her virginity denotes simply her elevation
above all feminine weakness ; she is too masculine to be capable of surrender-
ing herself toman. ‘The clear forehead, the long and finely shaped nose, the
somewhat stern cast of the mouth, the large and almost angular chin, the
not fully opened and rather downcast eye, the hair pushed back from the
forehead and carelessly flowing down the neck, all agree with the character
_of this wonderful ideal creation, Later attempts to resolve this seriousness
into grace, as in the Pallas of the Villa Albani (pl. 3, jig. 4), would only
end in rendering her characterless. The modifications of the figures are
closely connected with the dress. Pallas, in many statues of the perfected
style, has a himation (toga) thrown about her, either so that falling over in
front it covers merely the lower parts of the body and thus heightens the
majestic impression of the figure, or so as to conceal both the left arm
and a part of the sgis, and then the shield either rests on the ground or is
wanting altogether ; sometimes in this case the serpent is seen. The first men-
tioned style of drapery is displayed in the Pallas (p/. 5, jig. 6) found at Velletri
in the year 1747, a grand statue 94 feet high, now in the Louvre. The
himation covering the arm and the egis is found in the Pallas with the
Serpent (pl. 3, fig. 5) which now stands in the new wing of the Vatican.
Pallas the champion has an uplifted shield, no himation, and the whole
figure exhibits a combative action and athletic form. Sometimes Athene

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SCULPTURE. 33

appears as a politically active oratorical figure, and without helm or egis,
as a peace-maker.

a. Ares. Ares, the god of war, the Mars of the Romans, is significantly
placed along with Aphrodite in the twelve god system. He was too much an
idea to become a favorite subject of the plastic art; and hence it is that,
although some remarkable statues of Ares by Alcamenes and Scopas are
mentioned, his plastic character is not well defined. A compact powerful
muscular development, and short, often disordered, curling hair, seem in
general to belong to the representation of this god. Ares has smaller eyes,
rather more widely distended nostrils, and a less serene forehead than the
other sons of Zeus; he has a more manly appearance than Apollo and even
than Hercules, is bearded, although in later times also without a beard (pi. 3,
jig. 2), and, when not represented entirely naked, only wears the chlamys.
His arms are a helmet and sword; he is rarely provided with complete
armor. Ares seldom appears in battle groups, and only as a giant-slayer
on gems; but we often see him with Aphrodite, although this union of
love and war is not always regarded as a frivolous adultery, but in a more
serious sense. One of the most beautiful representations of this kind is the
group in the Florentine Museum (jig. 2).

_k. Aphrodite. Aphrodite, the Roman Venus, is represented by the
artists of the most highly finished school with the natural forms of her sex.
She is all woman, more so than Athene or Artemis. The ripe bloom of
maidenhood is in general the degree of physical development in which the
forms of her body appear. The shoulders are small, the bosom formed like
a virgin, the fulness of the hips tapers away into elegantly shaped feet,
which, little adapted to firm standing and walking, seem to betray a light
and gentle gait. Her face appears delicate and rather long; and her
languishing eyes and smiling mouth give it an expression of tenderness and
exquisite sweetness. Her hair is elegantly arranged, usually encircled by a
diadem, or restrained by a band, or else knotted into a krobylos. Here too
the dress is connected with the essential modifications of the form. The
completely clothed Venus, who however wears only a thin chiton, which
enables one to divine more than it conceals, and who with a graceful move-
ment of her right arm merely draws forward a little the upper garment
which falls down behind, is derived from the Urania of the early artists.
She was worshipped as Mother Aphrodite, had rounder and stronger forms,
shorter proportions, and a more matronly character. From this widely
differ the statues which, ‘without the chiton, have only an upper garment
thrown round the lower part of the body, and are further characterized by
having one foot resting on a slight elevation. In these the goddess appears
as a heroine; the forms of her body are firm, powerful, and slender; the
bosom is less rounded than in the other statues; and the countenance
furnished with more prominent features is full of pride and self-conscious-
ness. This is Aphrodite the victorious, whether she embraces Ares himself
(pl. 3, fig. 2), or bears his helmet or shield, or a palm, or, as her sign of
victory, the apple. Of this sort isthe Venus Victrix from the amphitheatre
of Capua, now in the Museum of Naples (pl. 4, fig. *), who rests her left

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34 THE FINE ARTS.

foot on a helmet. Very nearly related to this one in the drapery is the
Venus of Melos, now in the Louvre (jig. 3), the work of an artist of Antioch
on the Meander, if the inscription belongs to it. This statue was restored
twice in antiquity.

Of greater fulness and roundness, although less powerful, appears Aphro-
dite at the Bath, her bosom covered with a piece of the drapery hanging
round behind her, and still more soft and delicate in the hetera figure of
Venus Callipygos. On the other hand, faultlessly beautiful proportions are
observed when the goddess is completely undraped, and the unsullied bloom
of maidenhood forms a medium between Aphrodite the mother and Aphro-
dite the conqueror. The statue here becomes the complete symbol of female
loveliness, brightened by the manifestation of natural shame into an expres-
sion of pure womanhood. Ofthis kind is the Cnedian Venus, who is just lay-
ing aside her garments, and the Medicean Venus of Cleomenes (jig. 2), which
is very like the ¢orso (mutilated statue) in the Dresden Museum (jig. 4) and
the Capitoline Venus (fig. 6), with the same position of the hands, but less
bent forward, with a more womanly shape, greater individuality in the fea-
tures (perhaps a portrait?), a high head-dress, and near her a vase of un-
guents and a bathing-towel. This statue is in good preservation, even to the
fingers. Such statues of Venus are found in almost all museums of conse-
quence. Other attitudes, which show more movement and action, notwith-
standing the peculiar charms which they disclose, have not the same per-
vading and uniform fulness of beauty. Of this class is the Venus girding
on the cestus, putting on a shoulder-belt, defending herself, and above all
crouching in the bath. The finest is one of the last description in the
Museo Pio Clementino (pl. 5, fig. 8), and in the Louvre there is a similar
representation of the goddess. In groups Venus appears sometimes with
Adonis, for instance holding him in her arms as he hes mortally wounded
by the boar. Adonis is represented as a beautiful youth with powerful
forms but almost boyish features, ¢.g.in a statue in the Museo Pio Clemen-
tino (fig. 9).

1. Hermes. Among the ancient Greeks Hermes, the Roman Mercury,
stands in the circle of the powers that send up fruits and bounteous bless-
ings from below; and this giver of all good the Greeks set up in the form
of a post, furnished with a bearded head and a phallus, in all roads, fields,
and gardens. But gradually he became an agronomic and mercantile deity
of gain and traffic, and received the form of an active, powerful man, with
a strong and pointed beard, long tresses, a chlamys thrown back, a travel-
ling hat, winged shoes, and in his hand a caduceus which often resembles a
sceptre. He is thus exhibited in all the older works of art; but the Attic
school represents him as a gymnastically perfected youth, with a broad
expanded chest, and slender but powerful limbs, clothed with the chlamys
and travelling hat, and his hair cut short and not much curled. His
features indicate a calm and acute intellect, and a friendly benevolence,
which is also expressed in the gentle inclination of the head. As executor
of the commands of Zeus he is often seen half-seated and already prepared
to spring up again; sometimes in bronzes winging his way through the air,

418

SCULPTURE. 35

or resting after a long journey with his arm leaning on a pillar. In accor-
dance with this posture and these characteristics, Visconti explains also the
statue which goes by the name of the Antinous of Belvedere (pl. 6, fig. 1)
as areposing Hermes. As a preparer of sacrifices and guardian of cattle
Hermes often appears undraped and leading a ram, as on the Capitoline
Puteal (pl. 3, fig. 10, the third figure).

m. Hestia. The household hearth, which forms the centre of domestic
life and a regular worship of the gods, stood under the protection of Hestia,
called Vesta by the Romans. She forms very apprepriately, standing
along with Hermes the god of sacrifice, the key-stone to the twelve god
system (pl. 3, jig. 10, the fourth figure). The form of this goddess, as
sculptured by Scopas, was that of a woman in matronly costume, but with-
out the character of maternity, quietly standing or sitting enthroned, with
broad, powerful forms, and a serious expression in her simple features.

2. THe ormeR Derrizs. a. Dionysus and his Attendants. The worship
of Dionysus, the Bacchus of the Romans, has retained more than the
preceding the character of a worship of nature; and the circle of Dionysian
forms, which in a manner constitute their own Olympus, represents the life
of nature with its effects on the human mind, in various stages, sometimes
noble and sometimes ignoble. The old Dionysus was a stately, majestic
form, with a luxuriance of curling hair restrained by the mitra, a gently
flowing beard, clear and blooming features, and rich almost effeminate
clothing. It is not till the time of Praxiteles that the youthful Dionysus
appears with bodily forms softly flowing into one another, which bespeak
the halffeminine nature of the god. His features exhibit a peculiar mixture
of happy intoxication and undefined longing. The mitra over his forehead
and the vine or ivy wreath about his head produce an advantageous effect ;
the hair flows richly and in long ringlets over his shoulders; the body is
entirely naked, at most with only a roe-skin thrown about it; and the feet
are sometimes covered with the Dionysian cothurnus. An ivy-entwined
staff ornamented with a fir-cone (the thyrsus) serves him as a support; he
usually stands in an easily reclining posture, and seldom sits enthroned.
A particularly beautiful statue of Dionysus is that of Versailles now in the
Louvre (pl. 5, jig. 10), where the god leans on the trunk of a tree
entwined with the foliage of the vine and brandishes the thyrsus. Some-
what different is the Bacchus in the Dresden Museum, who, as appears
from the position, is expressing the juice of grapes into a cup (jig. 11).

To the attendants of Dionysus belong in the first place the Satyrs, who
represent in a lower stage that life of nature which we have seen displayed
by the god himself in its most elevated form. They are figures powerfully
built but not ennobled by gymnastics, sometimes flabby, sometimes firm,
with snub-nosed or otherwise ignobly formed countenances, goat-like ears,
and bristly hair; in old age with a bald forehead; to which is added a
little tail. Sometimes, however, the satyrs rise into very noble, slender
shapes, and are hardly to be distinguished as satyrs except by their pointed
ears.

Here too belong the Sileni, which are properly nothing but old and
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36 THE FINE ARTS.

bearded satyrs: still the name is confined chiefly to one satyr-form, which
is usually connected with a wine-skin and itself has something of the appear-
ance of one; in its drunken unwieldiness too it has more need of a support
than the others, and this is afforded him sometimes by an ass and some-
times by satyr-boys. He is usually the instructor and fosterer of Dionysus’s
children.

Lower in the animal world stand the race of Pans and Panisks, repre-
senting the secret delight and dark horror of sylvan solitudes. Here too
appears at first the human form characterized as Pan by the shepherd’s
pipe, the pastoral crook, the bristly hair, and sprouting horns; but the
Praxitelian school brought the goat-footed, horned, and hook-nosed shape
into vogue.

The female figures in the train of Dionysus offer less variety. Prominent
among them is the graceful, blooming, ivy-crowned, and often richly
dressed Ariadne. From the nymphs who exhibit no excitement of cha-
racter, and the rarely occurring female satyrs, the Menads (Thyades,
Clodones, Mimallones, Bassarides) are distinguished by their revelling
enthusiasm, dishevelled hair, and head thrown back, with thyrsi, swords,
serpents, roe-calves, tympana, and fluttering, loose-flying garments.

To the Dionysian circle of beings belong also the Centaurs, as they
seem perfectly fitted, by the unrestrained rudeness with which an animal
life of nature is manifested in them, to join themselves to Dionysus. In
the earlier times they were represented in front entirely as men, with a
horse’s body growing on behind; but from the time of Phidias the blending
was effected more happily by joining to the belly and breast of a horse the
upper part of a human body, whose cast of countenance, pointed ears, and
bristly hair, betray an affinity to the satyr; whereas in female forms
(Centaurides) the human portion shows more wemanly and attractive
shapes.

b. Eros. In temple-statues appears Eros, the Amor of the Romans, as a
boy of graceful and developed beauty ; but later art preferred the sportive,
Anacreontic shapes of the childish form. As a still undeveloped, lively,
and active boy he is seen, e. g. trying to fit the string to his bow, to carve
his bow, &c.; and we have Erotes busily engaged in dragging off the
insignia of the gods, taming wild beasts, and boldly and wantonly roving
about among sea-monsters. Real children were also frequently represented
in portrait-statues as Erotes (pl. 4, jig. 8). As a modification of the same
idea we find Pothos and Himeros (Desire and Longing) represented in
similar figures, and often grouped with Eros. Still more significant is the
joining him with Anteros, the demon who enjoins reciprocal and avenges
slighted love.

A very rich and important class of sculptures is furnished by the union
of Eros with Psyche, the soul, which is represented as a maiden with
butterfly-wings, and often simply as a butterfly; by which union is
expressed the idea of Eros elevating the soul to a higher blessedness, and
guiding it through life and death. Sometimes both Eros and Psyche
appear without wings, as in the beautiful group copied pl. 5, fig. 7.

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SCULPTURE. — 37

_ With the fable of Eros we connect also Hymenzus, who appears as a
more serious and larger Eros, and is at the same time related to Comus,
the leader of the joyous festal throng. A favorite subject of later art,
when it had become effeminate and luxurious, was Hermaphroditus, a
creation of artistic fancy rather than a svmbol of nature, who sometimes
stretches himself restlessly in sleep, as the Hermaphrodite on a lion’s skin
in the Florentine Museum, and that from the Villa Borghese now in Paris,
restored by Bernini and reclining on a pallet (pl. 3, jig. 3), and sometimes
stands wondering at his own enigmatical nature, or in various groups with
Erotes and Satyrs.

The Charites (Graces), as social deities allied to Aphrodite, were sculp-
tured in the earlier times in elegant forms, and sometimes lightly draped,
although usually entirely naked. They are characterized by mutual
embracing and joining of hands. In pl. 9, jig. 3, we give Canova’s
Graces; and in jig. 5, Thorwaldsen’s Graces, which, although belonging
to modern times, are not inappropriate here, as conceived in the genuine
spirit of antiquity.

ce. The Muses. The ancient artists recognised only three Muses, among
whom they distributed the principal instruments of music; and it was not
till Apollo became the leader of the Muses, that they appeared, nine in
number, as draped figures, with fine intellectual countenances, and nicely
distinguished from each other by expression, attributes, and sometimes by
attitude. Still the parts performed by individual Muses are not so
accurately distinguished in ancient art, but that many deviations may be
discerned. Sometimes the Muses appear adorned with plumes; and this is
explained by their victory over the Sirens, which are seldom represented
as entirely human, but often as virgins with birds’ legs and wings, or as
birds with virgins’ heads, and furnished with various instruments.

d. Gods of Health. Asklepius, among the Romans sculapius, receives
in art most commonly the form of a mature man, of a Zeus-like but less
sublime presence, with a mild, benevolent expression, his copious hair
encircled by a fillet, a himation about his left arm and passing across under
his heart, and in his hand a staff enwreathed with a serpent. But besides
this there was a youthful bearded Asklepius. With him is grouped Hygeia,
the goddess of health, a virgin of a particularly blooming appearance, who
is usually giving drink to a serpent from a patera. Along with Asklepius
is also frequently found Telesphorus, a little masked demon, the spirit of
the hidden vital power.

e. The Primeval World. The Creation of Man. Representations of
the older gods who are closely connected with the obscure origin of things,
Uranus, Gea, and the Titans, occur rarely or not at all as separate statues,
although they find a place in reliefs and paintings. Kronos, however,
makes his appearance, characterized by his veiled head and often also by
his straight-hanging hair and sickle. Rhea acquired a greater significance,
and Phidias sculptured her with the attributes of a mural crown, a timbrel,
and a span of lions. Atlas,the Titanian bearer of the heavens, appears only,

under an almost comical aspect, on reliefs and vase-paintings ; and the fable
421

38 THE FINE ARTS.

of Prometheus, especially of the fettered Titan, incited artists at an early
period to its representation. The giants who figure as opponents of the
gods are represented by the older artists as an exceedingly large-sized race ;
and it was not till afterwards that they were converted, as an indication of
their earthly origin, into rock-hriling, snake-footed monsters.

J. The Lower World and Death. Wades, among the Romans Pluto,
the ruler of the shadowy realm, is distinguished from his brothers, Zeus
and Poseidon, by the hair hanging down over his forehead and by his sombre
aspect ; beside him sits enthroned Persephone (Proserpine) as the Hera of
the nether world. These deities appear chiefly on funeral urns and sarco-
phagi; statues of them are very rare. Sleep and Death in the productions
of ancient art are rarely and with difficulty to be distinguished ; and thus is
given that pleasing view of death and the grave, which the ancients were
fond of seeking to preserve. The genius of Death is supposed to be found,
and modern art has retained the symbol, in a winged youth with drooping
head and hands crossed over an inverted torch ; whereas Sleep for the most
part appears with poppy-heads in his hand. Very beautiful is the repre-
sentation of Sleep as a boy in the Dresden Museum (pl. 4, fig. 10). At his
feet is a lizard, indicating the presence of the god of dreams. Morpheus
is also found under the figure of an old man with wings.

g. Tvme. Of the representation of Kronos, who was also the god of
Time, we have already spoken; as for the Horse, who were warders at the
gates of heaven and servants of Helins, and who mostly retained their
signification in art, the succession of blossoming and ripening is their
characteristic. The earlier artists represented only two of them, the later
ones three or more. When four in number, they appear for the most part
as the Seasons, and they are still more frequently represented as youths.
A relief with dancing Hours (pl. 3, jig. 8) was formerly in the Villa
Borghese, but is now in the Louvre in Paris. It is probably a copy from
the masterpiece of Callimachus, the subject of which was Lacedemonan
girls in the act of dancing.

h. Beings of Light. The Sun-god, if we except the Phoebus or Sol of
the Romans, was held especially worshipped only in Rhodes. He appears
with rounded forms and with rays streaming from his head, clothed in white,
in his chariot, and guiding his steeds with the whip. Selene (Luna), in her
usual form, is distinguished from Artemis, who also appears as the Moon-
goddess, only by more complete drapery and by a veil which forms an arch
over her head. Eos (the Dawn) appears either herself in a quadriga in
magnificent form, or along with Helios as guide of the horses of the sun.
Horoscopi play an important part on reliefs, for determining periods of
time. Iris, from a luminous appearance in the sky, the rainbow, was con-
verted in art into a light-winged messenger of the gods. She often appears
on reliefs with the caduceus and a flower.

2. The Winds. Of the eight Winds only Boreas appears alone and
independent on several reliefs, for instance on the coffer of Cypselus, where
he has serpent-feet; and sometimes he is accompanied only by Zephyrus.
All the eight Winds are sculptured in relief with their attributes on the

422 :

SCULPTURE. 39

tower of Andronicus Cyrrhestes. The Harpies were properly dangerous
wind-gusts, and appear usually in the form of winged women (pl.1, jig. 13),
and sometimes with more or less of the likeness of birds, as the myth leaves
their shape tolerably undefined.

k. The Water. The attendant circle of Poseidon entirely resembles that
of Dionysus, except that here the water and its inhabitants come into play.
Their representations extend from the lofty forms of Poseidon, Amphitrite,
and Thetis, through many intermediate gradations, to the fantastic shapes of
the sea-monsters. A fine contrast is presented by the fish-tailed and satyr
or centaur-shaped Tritons (sea and river gods) on the one hand, and on the
other by the Nereids, for the most part in human form, in the earlier art
lightly draped and afterwards undraped (graceful maiden shapes), whose
pliant configuration is charmingly developed in manifold postures and
windings. The water-gods appear, according to the importance of the
streams, either as old men or as youths with urns, cornucopis, and rushes
as attributes, which are further modified by the nature of the country and
the condition of the nations that inhabit it. So the Nereids of the Sea
correspond with the Naiads of the rivers, which are represented as half
clothed maidens frequently holding large shells.

l. The Vegetation. The gods of the groves and fields are for the most
part of Roman origin. To these belong Silvanus and Vertumnus, although
our museums contain no statues of the latter. Among the attendants of
Silvanus are the Fauns; and while he appears as an aged or at least a
mature man, they are slender but powerfully formed youths with short
curly hair and cheerful countenances. They are the guardians of the woods,
appear usually naked or at most with only a beast’s skin, in general a
-panther’s or lion’s hide, thrown loosely about them. 2. 6, jig. 3, is copied
from a beautiful statue of a Faun at rest leaning against the trunk of a tree.
Flora, the goddess of spring and of flowers, seems to have been formed by the
Romans from the Grecian Hora of spring. One of the first statues of Flora
is the Larnese Flora, now in the Museum of Naples (pi. 3, fig. 6) ; although
only the torso is ancient, the head, the extremities, and the attributes being
modern restorations. The Pomona of the Romans is the Autumnal Hora
of the Greeks; and Priapus is properly only a guardian of fields and
gardens.

m. Human Pursuits and Conditions. The number of personifications
and deifications, bordering on allegory, of human qualities and relations,
as also of representations of abstract ideas, is very considerable. But all
these representations, with few exceptions, are either male or female figures
of various ages, which can be distinguished from one another and accurately
determined only by means of the attributes assigned to them; or also such
allegorical figures are based on the representations of olden deities with
such slight modifications as suffice to give them an individual character.

3. Toe Herors. The fixity and definiteness of individual characteristics,
which we have found produced in Grecian works of art not only by means
of attributes and treatment but also by the shape and configuration of the
body, were extended by ancient artists also to the heroes, at least the

423

40 THE FINE ARTS.

principal of them. Now, however, we can recognise so definitely very few
of these heroes, in fact none scarcely but Heracles; for instead of the
numerous marble and bronze statues, the productions of great artists, which
antiquity possessed, we have nothing scarcely but the reliefs on sarcophagi
and vase paintings, which latter are too light and sketchy to exhibit even
a portion of those characteristics which the Greek artists knew how to stamp
upon their masterpieces. It is, therefore, only by the contents of some large
representation that we can ascertain the personages represented ; and even
here there is too often a choice between different cycles of heroes.

a. Heracles. Weracles was a national hero of the Greeks, and in him
the heroic ideal is expressed with the greatest vividness. The characteristic
feature of Heracles, strength steeled and proved by exertion, was expressed
even in the earliest representations, but was developed in the highest
degree by Lysippus and Miron. Even the youthful Hercules displays this
concentrated energy in the immense strength of the muscles of his neck, the
thick short curls of his small head, the small eyes, the form of his limbs,
and the breadth and prominence of the lower part of his forehead. But his
character is still more forcibly exhibited in the victor of fierce combats, the
toil-laden hero of mature age as represented with especial predilection by
Lysippus. The swelling muscles rendered protuberant by perpetual toil,
the powerful arms, thighs, legs, breast, and back, and the serious features
of his resolute countenance, produce an impression which cannot be effaced
by transitory repose. For the twelve labors of Heracles, which were very
frequently sculptured on reliefs, there were soon established certain modes
of representation, which varied according to time and place. The strictly
warlike exploits of Heracles became less generally the subjects of represen-
tation by the ‘plastic art; and he appears for the most part in the costume
introduced by Hesiod, where the lion’s skin, the club, and the bow form
the ordinary accoutrements of the hero. Another phase of the character of
Hercules is displayed in his relation to Omphale, where the hero spinning in
female attire is opposed to the heroine in her nudity armed with the club
and lion’s hide. In his relation to his son Telephus, who was suckled by a
hind and found again, artists, with whom it was a favorite subject,
especially in the time of the Antonines, must have followed other sources
than the usual mythological legend. Of the statues belonging here, of
which there is no inconsiderable number, we will particularize only the
Farnese Hercules in repose (pl 5, figs. 1 and 2), of which we have already
spoken (p. 21); the Combat with Anteus, a magnificent marble group in
the Florentine Museum (pl. 3, fig. 1); and lastly the Hercules with the boy
Telephus on his arm (pl. 6, fig. 5), a wonderfully fine statue which is found
in the Museo Pio Clementino, and is in excellent preservation. Another
style of representation is seen in the Hercules in careless, sportive ease
among the attendants of Dionysus. A Hercules in this state of easy repose
was represented by the statue of which there remains to us the world-
renowned Zorso Belvedere, whose posture perfectly agrees with that of the
Hercules reposing among the satyrs. This torso is copied in pl. 5, fig. 3.
Hercules seems here to have leaned on his right arm in a sitting posture;

424

SCULPTURE. 41

the left arm was thrown over his head; and a happy feeling of comfort is
diffused over all the muscles of the hero’s body, without lessening the
impression of immense power.

b. The other groups of Heroes. The hero-figure of Theseus, even before
the time of Phidias, was fashioned after that of Hercules; he received
however a conformation of body less compact and especially indicative of
activity and skill in wrestling, a more open and graceful cast of counte-
nance, and short, curly, but less crisped hair. His costume is the lion’s hide
and club, sometimes also the chlamys and petasus (hat). Ata much later
period, Hippolytus, allied to Artemis, had given to him by artists the form
of a slender and noble youth. The Bceotian heroes are designated by the
covering for the head worn in their country. Winckelmann thought that he
recognised Jason’s graceful and lofty hero-form in the statue of the sandal-tyer.
in the Louvre known by the name of Cincinnatus (pl. 5, fig. 12), but there
is so little of the hero in this admirable statue, that the contented husband-
man is rather to be sought in it than the bold leader of the Argonauts.
Moreover, according to ancient descriptions, a leopard’s skin seems to have
pertained to his costume. Medea appears sometimes in a simple Grecian
garb, and sometimes in oriental drapery, in a sleeved coat (kandys) hanging
over the under dress, with the strife of passions expressed in her countenance.

Among the Thessalian heroes Peleus alone is deserving of notice in art,
in consequence of his relation to the Nereid Thetis, who is usually striving
to defend herself against her ravisher. Achilleus was represented by the
ancient artists with hair reared up like a mane, nostrils expanded with
courage and pride, and a slender but thoroughly noble and powerful form
of body. His attitude is heroic, with one leg somewhat advanced and the
himation lightly falling over its thigh; when seated, as in some gems and
reliefs, the himation falls in the same manner as with Zeus. Meleager,
the hero of the Calydonian hunt, is represented in a famous statue in the
Museo Pio Clementino (pl. 6, jig. 8) as a slender, powerful youth, with a
broad chest, stout limbs, curly hair, and a chlamys thrown back and
wrapped about the left arm. He is unmistakably designated by the boar’s
head on which he leans. A very fine, perhaps the finest statue of Meleager,
was found at Marinella in 1838, and is now in Berlin. With Meleager
appears Atalanta, in a shape resembling Artemis. The Thracian Orpheus
appears as an inspired lyre-player, at first in Hellenic costume, and after-
wards in a Phrygian garb.

Of the heroes of the Peloponnesus, Bellerophon is celebrated through his
connexion with Pegasus and the Chimera. He appears as a slender,
heroically bold youth, usually naked, either riding Pegasus or vanquishing
the Chimeera, though sometimes thrown off, on reliefs and gems. Perseus
is usually figured like Hermes, and in later times is splendidly armed.
The Dioscuri, who always retained very much of their divine nature, exhibit
a perfectly unblemished youthful beauty, a slender and powerful shape,
and, as an almost never failing attribute, the semi-oval hat, or the hair lying
close to the back of the head and projecting in thick curls about the fore-

head and temples, as in the colossal group on Monte Cavallo.
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42 THE FINE ARTS.

Besides the heroes, there appear also in Asia effeminate figures of mytho-
logical importance : é. g. the boy-favorites of Zeus (Ganymede) and of Heracles
(Hylas) ; and also the Amazons, who have the character of Asiatics both in
costume and accoutrements, and are distinguished by a certain softness of
form ; although the statues, as ¢. g. the Capitoline Amazon (pl. 3, fig. 7), and
the reliefs mostly adhere to the simple, light drapery,and the strongly round-
ed forms of the limbs, which were given to them in the period of Polycletes.

B. Subjects from Human Life.

1. Or an Invivipvat Kinp. a. Historical Representations. Tn the
domain of ancient art historical representations are much less frequent as
pictures of individual events than as a conception of the subject in its
general features. In Greece, moreover, painting was oftener than sculpture
directed to the celebration of historical occurrences, victorious battles, or
the lives of sages and poets. Yet there are a great number of wonderful
and surprising stories of great filial devotion, love, and the like, as that of
the Catanzean brothers, of Hero and Leander, and some others, which have
acquired the prerogatives of myths in the formative art almost as completely
as in poetry. Among the Romans these historical representations were
more frequent, the events being not merely mythically alluded to but
plainly depicted on triumphal arches and columns. The apotheoses belong
rather to the department of allegory than to that of historical representation.
Ancient art manifests great skill in portraying and discriminating between
the different races of mankind; and on the reliefs it is easy to distinguish
the Dacians, Sarmatians, and Germans from the Romans.

b. Portrait-Statues. Portrait-statues, medals, &c., originated in the desire
to honor the victors in the sacred games; but as republican spirit decayed
their number was multiplied by political ambition to an enormous extent.
They were mostly of brass, rarely of marble, and often only busts or
medallions. It was not till after the busts that portrait-statues came into
vogue. At first portrait-images were formed of distinguished individuals
of earlier times in the same manner as of heroes in accordance with their
known character, their writings, &c., as e.g. the head of Homer (pil. 8,
jig. 12). At the time when learning was cultivated, the portraits of
authors, and particularly of philosophers, formed a special branch of art,
as they formed the ornaments of museums and libraries. The artists dis-
played astonishing talent in portraying the peculiar branch of study and
the literary character of these personages. Of the philosophers we can
identify with certainty the busts of Heraclitus and Anaxagoras, Pythagoras,
Thales (jig. 15), Periander (jig. 13), Socrates, Plato, Carneades, Theon of
Smyrna, Aristotle, Theophrastus (jig. 14), Antisthenes, Diogenes, Zeno,
Chrysippus, Posidonius, Epicurus, Methrodorus, and Hermarchus. Of
the poets we have Alczus, Sappho, Anacreon, Stesichorus, &c.; of
orators, Isocrates, Lysias, Demosthenes, Aschines (jig. 16), Leodamas, and
many others. Of physicians we possess Hippocrates, Asclepiades, and
others. Many authentic busts too of Athenian statesmen have been pre

served, of princes perhaps only Alexander.
426

~ SCULPTURE. 43

| 2. Representations or 4 Gunerat Kinp. a. Religious Acts. Subjects
taken from every-day life very frequently have reference to the worship of
the gods and the rites and games connected therewith; but all the repre-
sentations of this class consist chiefly of reliefs or of paintings. To these also
belong vases, libations, offerings, the decking of the statues of the gods,
sacrifices to the dead, &c. Persons engaged in the service of the altar,
especially when their functions introduced a significant and pleasing
attitude, were also represented in statues, and frequently in an established
style appropriated thereto, as the Canephore, &c. |

b. Agones. Plastic representations belonging to the domain of gym-
nastics, and of which the Greeks especially were very fond, constitute an
entire class of themselves. The greatest number indeed, that forest of the
statues of victors which adorned the temple courts of Olympia and Pytho, are
lost to us; but still there are many remains, consisting of marble copies, reliefs,
vase-paintings, and gems, from which a tolerably complete cycle of such
representations can be collected. Short curling hair, robust limbs, powerful
forms, and comparatively small heads, characterize this entire class of figures.
The leading aim here was to represent with perfect truth the particular
conformation of the body and the characteristic movements of the different
kinds of combat; although the athlete were often sculptured in general
attitudes, such e. g. as that of anointing the body, praying for victory, &e.

Horse and chariot races were also frequently represented by the Grecian
artists with life and spirit; and the great frieze in the interior of the Par-
thenon, which portrays the Panathenzean festival, and of which we have
copied a small portion (pl. 3, fig. 9), shows how admirably skilled were the
Grecian artists in displaying the horse in all his attitudes. The Romans
too were fond of seeing their circus games depicted, especially in mosaic ;
and the combats of the gladiators gave occupation at least to the subordinate
arts of painting and pottery in the way of paintings on walls and on vases.
The same too was the case with representations of the art of dancing and
of musical contests. Only those branches of the formative art which,
neglecting severe principles, imitate life extensively, as vase-paintings,
miniatures, mosaics, &c., reproduce scenes from the stage.

ce. War. The ancient triumphal monuments, e. g. Trajan’s Column, the
triumphal arches, &c., the sculptures on which relate to success in war,
fnrnish us the best opportunity for studying the mode in which the Romans
treated these subjects. Even sea-fights, according to the style of the ancients,
of making the human figures everywhere prominent and reducing the
inanimate masses into mere accessories, could be compressed into a com-
paratively small space. Statues of combatants in interesting postures may
not unlikely have belonged originally to large historical groups, and have
been afterwards executed as separate works. To this class we would assign
both the famous Borghese Gladiator (pl. 5, jig. 4), and the Dying
Gladiator (fig. 5), two of the finest statues that have come down to us from
antiquity. The Borghese Gladiator is of marble, little above the size of life,
and, according to an inscription upon it, the work of Agasias, son of

Dositheos of Ephesus. ‘The statue is now in the Paris Museum.
427

44 THE FINE ARTS.

d. The Chase and Rural Life. Representations of the chase, especially
of the boar-hunt and hunting the hare, are very frequently found in ancient
reliefs and paintings. The occupations of rural life, however, are seldom
represented by immediate imitation of the reality, since the occasion for
depicting them was frequently furnished by the worship of Ceres and
Bacchus ; at all events we almost always find mythological figures inter-
woven in representations of this sort. Still in the domain of ancient art
there are not wanting delineations of rustic simplicity and sturdiness; while
in youthful figures this rustic character acquires an expression of harmless
innocence and naiveté. A representation of this sort from rustic life of truly
touching simplicity is seen in the Boy extracting a Thorn from his Foot, in
the Capitoline Museum (jig. 13), a bronze statue of the size of life; the Boy
wrestling with a Goose (after Boethos’s statue in bronze), especially the group
in the Capitoline Museum (pl. 6, jig. 6), also belongs here. Reliefs and
paintings on houses designed to announce the professions of the occupants
gave occasion for manifold representations of handicrafts and_ trades.
Frequently the subject was taken from domestic and married life, as for
instance social banquets, which on sarcophagi, &c., appear as feasts of
the dead, the feasters being often represented as gods of the lower world.

4, Tae Mippre Aces.

A. From the Decline of the Plastic Art in the 8d Century down to the 13th
Century.

The decay as well as the flourishing growth of the arts and sciences
has ever been dependent on those two mighty sources of all movement
in the moral world, religion and the form of government. Sometimes
one, sometimes the other, determines the fate of the arts; but generally
speaking the influence of both causes has operated so uninterruptedly from
the very birth of the arts down to our own times, that their history is almost
inseparably connected with the history of religious opinion and of political
revolutions. Accordingly the mighty revolution which accompanied the down-
fall of the Roman empire and the introduction of an entirely new religion
could not fail to exercise an influence upon art and its forms, and this all
the more as even under the first emperors a decline of correct taste had
become perceptible. Even the apparent restoration of the arts under the
Antonines was of no duration; it was a last fleeting effort, like the sudden
flashing up of a candle before it utterly expires.

In the time of Constantine the Great, art was already at so low an ebb
and there was such a dearth of able artists, as we have already had occasion
to observe, that in order to adorn with sculptures the triumphal arch which
the senate and people erected to the emperor after his victory over Maxentius,
they were forced to take the sculptures from Trajan’s arch and attach them
to that of Constantine, so that only a few reliefs were made new which have
reference to the deeds of Constantine. But these last are as inferior to the
others in composition as they are in drawing and execution. One of the

428

~ SCULPTURE. 45

best productions of that time is a relief now preserved in the Capitoline
Museum. It is known by the name of Pretas Militaris and represents
warriors transporting a wounded companion in arms from the fiéld of battle
(pl. 7, fig.1). Here belong also some statues of Constantine and his sons ;
but these also exhibit the decline of art, which now advanced with gigantic
steps, as is shown by the contracted stature and disproportionate breadth
given to the human figure.

This decline of the arts, however, did not take place so suddenly as some
endeavor to maintain; the decay in fact was very gradual, so that it was
not till the end of the fifth century that they went so far as to patch together
new buildings out of ancient fragments. In Reme especially it was during
the sway of Pope Gregory the Great that this deterioration of art gained
the ascendency; although the bishops in the provinces had been in the
practice for several decenniums of pulling down the temples and building
churches and basilicas out of them, while they eagerly destroyed the statues
of the gods with true fanatical rage.

As soon as Constantine the Great had resolved to rear anew Rome on
the site of ancient Byzantium, not only were the best artists summoned to
Byzantium from Rome, but also the finest and most celebrated works of art
throughout the whole extent of the Roman dominion were carried off to the
new capital; and when its dedication took place in the year 330, men
beheld with admiration in the streets and public squares of Byzantium, no
longer as objects of idolatrous veneration but simply as creations of art,
the statues of the Pythian Apollo and Apollo Smintheus, the tripod of the
Delphic oracle, the Muses of Helicon, the famous statue of Pan, the Cybele,
said to have been set up by the Argonauts on Mount Dindymus, the
Athene from Lindus, the Amphitrite from Rhodes, and countless other
productions of genius; though these were afterwards destroyed by the
Christians as idolatrous images deserving no better fate, and were partly
buried in fragments under the floors of churches, in order that they might
be as it were trodden under foot by the professors of the true faith. But
we need not be astonished that, in spite of this fanatical zeal for destruc-
tion, so many statues of the gods have been preserved to our times; for the
adherents of the old religion buried these images, in order to preserve them
from destruction, from which cause they are- found even now in places
where no temple or altar ever stood.

But Constantine did not content himself with merely collecting works of
art; he also caused others to be executed. To these belong the above
mentioned portrait-statues, which were set on high pillars, and a fountain,
whose plastic ornaments had reference to the Christian religion. Above
appeared Christ as the good shepherd, and another bronze group repre-
sented Daniel in the lions’ den, a subject which in succeeding times was
often treated by sculptors. Constantine also caused a statue to be executed
of Athalaric, king of the Goths.

Among the many churches which Constantine built in his new capital
was the Church of Peace, designed to be the emperor’s burial-place, which

‘was afterwards enlarged by Constantius and dedicated to St. Sophia. He
429

46 THE FINE ARTS.

adorned it on the outside with 450 statues, which doubtless had no reference
to religion, as the use of sacred effigies was not introduced in the early
times of Christianity. This church was afterwards burnt down; and when
Justinian caused it to be rebuilt, there were found on one side buried in the
rubbish more than seventy statues of Greek divinities and a few of Christian
emperors, which statues were then set up again in different parts of the city.

In the reign of Julian the Apostate the heathen temples were restored
and built up again, and new statues of the gods erected. Taste was not yet
utterly extinct; for artists were still accustomed to visit Elis for the
purpose of copying Phidias’s statue of Jupiter Olympius. After Julian’s
early death nothing scarcely was done for art; and Theodosius the Great
was the first who caused a few plastic monuments to be erected. Among
them were two columns resembling Trajan’s Column. One of them, placed
in the Tauric Forum, bore reliefs relating to the emperor’s exploits against
the Goths and Vandals. Bajazet caused it to be totally destroyed. The
other column is still standing, but is so surrounded by the buildings of the
Harem as to be inaccessible. Gentile Bellini made a drawing of it in the
time of Mohammed I., and it was described by Menestrier. Many statues
in short were erected to Theodosius, his wife, and his son, but just as many
to charioteers, actors, and buffoons.

The destructive zeal of the Christians increased with time. Not content
with demolishing all the statues, paintings, and mosaics of mythological
import, they also attacked other objects of art. Everything pagan was for
the most part utterly destroyed; but if a thing was put to some use, it had
first to be purified. Thus Harald, king of Denmark, by the advice of
abbot Hermold of Languedoc, had two statues of Jupiter and Neptune
melted down, to cast church vessels out of them. When materials were
needed for building new churches and basilicas, heathen temples and even
profane edifices were pulled down to furnish them.

The fifth century was the most fatal of all for the remains of ancient art
and civilization, for then the barbarian hordes invaded and laid waste the
Roman provinces. The first were the West Goths under Alaric, who
captured Rome in the year 409, but spared the works of art. Then followed
in the year 487 the persecution of the Catholic Christians by Genseric the
Arian. In the year 445, under the reign of Pope Leo I., Attila, who called
himself the Scourge of God, invaded Italy; and in 455 Genseric set fire
to Rome, on which occasion the palace of Sallust with all its treasures of
art perished in the flames. The imperial palace was plundered; and a
ship laden with bronze statues foundered on her voyage to Carthage. And
when, in the year 476, under the reign of Pope Simplicius I., Odoacer,
king of the Heruli, dethroned the Roman emperor Augustulus and put
an end to the Western Empire, many other treasures of art were
sacrificed. It is hardly necessary to say that in such times artists created
nothing new. Al] that was then accomplished in the department of
sculpture was confined to reliefs and a few insignificant portrait-statues.
Especial pains were taken in adorning the graves in the catacombs ; and if
we wish to behold the remains of art of that period, we must betake our-

430

SCULPTURE. 47

selves thither. Although here and there in these works, which for the
most part are the productions of artists of an inferior stamp, we meet occa-
sional echoes from the better periods of art, as ¢. g. in the reliefs, pl. 7, jig. 2,
copied from a Christian sarcophagus in the cemetery of the Vatican, which
represent the restoration of the dead to life according to the vision of the
prophet Ezekiel; still the great majority of them are weak in invention,
coarse in execution, and generally faulty in drawing.

It was not till the year 493, when Theodoric, king of the East-Goths,
possessed himself of the supreme power in Italy, that bounds were at
length set in earnest to the rage for destruction ; while Theodoric himself
expended large sums not only for preserving but for restoring the monu-
ments of antiquity and the objects of art. When at that period an ancient
bronze statue was stolen at Como, the strictest search was instituted, and
the thief when discovered put to death. Many considerable structures
were reared by Theodoric in Ravenna, Naples, Pavia, &c.; and both during
his lifetime and in the reign of his daughter, queen Amalasunta, several
statues were erected to him, in one of which, at Naples, was applied the
invention of a particular kind of mosaic, the whole statue being composed
of small colored stones. The cement however did not hold, so that in a
few years the statue fell to pieces.

In the year 531, in the reign of Justinian, the church of St. Sophia
in Constantinople was consumed by fire, when innumerable sculptures
perished ; and about the same time Belisarius destroyed all the aqueducts
of Rome. A few years later (a.p. 537), when Rome was again besieged
by the Goths, at the assault on the Mausoleum of Hadrian (now the
Castle of St. Angelo), the defenders broke in pieces the statues which.
adorned it and hurled them at their assailants. Under the dominion of
the Longobards, which began with Alboin in 568 and ended with Deside-
rius in 774, as the native rudeness of this people begot in them an utter
indifference towards the fine arts, a number of the precious relics of ancient
art were again suffered to perish. Yet new works were produced, and
queen Theodelinde in particular caused many sculptured works to be
executed; of these there still remains a bas-relief on the gate of Monza,
representing the queen with king Agilulph, which however affords a very
melancholy picture of the then state of art. In Pavia also, in the church
of St. Michael, sculptures of that period are extant.

Art sustained irreparable losses through the reign of Pope Gregory L,
who caused numberless statues to be destroyed, and of Pope Sabinian L.,
under whom any one at pleasure took possession of the existing statues,
and if he could not carry one off entire, he took at least the head away.
Pope Honorius I. (4. p. 662) built much and caused a good many works of
sculpture to be executed. Paltry and destitute of all artistic value as are
the works of those times, of which a large number have come down to us,
contemporary writers are lavish in the praises they bestow upon them.
Nor is this to be wondered at; for in a time of universal ignorance, when
an acquaintance with the art of writing was a rare accomplishment, the
production of a painting or a piece of sculpture, however poor its quality,

431

48 THE FINE ARTS.

seemed a glorious performance, and this all the more as in the East during
the first centuries of Christianity, the making of sacred images and sculp-
tures was strictly prohibited by the teachers of the church. Nevertheless
art has ever found in the doctrines and traditions of religion its best and
most numerous subjects, and its chief stimulus and support.

In the year 662, according to others 692, the Concilium Quinsextum was
held at Trullo; and then it was decreed in the 82d canon, in opposition to
the decrees of previous councils, that in future the lamb should not be
depicted on the cross, but Christ in the human form. From that epoch
commences the use of crucifixes in painting and sculpture; and in the
earliest ones Christ appears always clothed, with a royal crown on his
head, and fastened with four nails to the cross. The use of three nails
did rot arise till the time of Cimabue, who is regarded as the restorer of
painting.

Shortly after, namely in the year 723, began the systematic attacks on
images of the Iconoclasts which set the eastern and western churches at
variance, and led throughout the greater part of the East to an utter destruc-
tion of the sacred monuments both of painting and sculpture. Now too
began a time when the persecution of the works of art was extended to the
artists themselves: for in the year 825 Michael II. issued repeated edicts
against the adoration of images; and his successor Theophilus caused the
holy figures in the pictures still extant to be painted over with birds,
flowers, and ornamental foliage in the Arabian taste, while he threatened
those artists who engaged in the representation of sacred subjects with
severe punishments, and threw them into prison. But in the year 866 the
use of sacred images began again and spread so rapidly that each military
cohort carried with it the image of its saint in a small chapel mounted on
two wheels.

Many writers are of opinion that the crusades proved of great benefit
to the arts in the west and were the chief cause of their resuscitation.
This supposition is based chiefly on the foregone conclusion that in Italy
art was utterly extinct; so that its first principles had again to be brought
from the East, where the splendor of the imperial court had constantly
preserved it from destruction. To this assertion, however, we cannot assent.
The crusades not only depopulated the country, but they also impoverished
it; for the crusaders took immense sums of money with them out of the
country. Of course, the artists, whose occupation flourishes when peace
and comfort prevail, had to suffer. Nor is it true that any important works
of art were brought by the crusaders into the West to serve as models: all
the booty taken consisted of gold, silver, or precious stones, which, without
regard to artistic value, were divided amongst the warriors, and by these
again for the most part squandered away. At the taking of Jerusalem,
in the year 1099, Tancred, it is true, had the good fortune to attack and
carry the mosque of Omar, which was filled with jewels, and gold and
silver lamps and candlesticks, and also statues, taken from former Christian
churches; but all these were the work of Christians in the East, and con-
sequently dated from a period in which taste and consequently the arts

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SCULPTURE. 49

were already at a very low ebb. Hence the crusades were not directly of
any advantage to art ; but indirectly they were, as we shall soon see.

Although now and then a Genoese or Venetian vessel may have brought
from the East works in alabaster, porphyry, or verd-antique, and perhaps
also occasionally a statue or a reliquary, such insignificant matters can
hardly have exerted any influence on the revival of the arts. But the
wealth which the cities of Italy acquired through their favorable position
for commerce, and which doubtless was increased by means of the crusades,
may well have fostered in the citizens the love of splendor and consequently
a taste for art. The bishops, abbots, and monasteries, moreover, had
enriched themselves during the crusades by the acquisition of lands sold or
pledged to them, and by real or falsely authenticated gifts from persons
who had lost their lives in the East; and these vied with the rich trading
cities in their love of splendor, and in the munificence with which they
adorned their palaces and churches with marble, works of sculpture,
paintings, and mosaics. In this manner the crusades were indeed the
indirect means of elevating the arts; the direct causes, however, which
produced this effect were the industrious pursuit of trade and the astuteness
of the clerical order, who knew how to turn the circumstances of the times
to their own advantage.

Notwithstanding the degraded condition of the plastic art in the 9th and
10th centuries, the fondness for beauty and for embellishment which is
inherent in man extended the practice of art over every part of Europe,
and we perceive its feeble beginnings in those buildings of the period
which have survived to our times. For although Charlemagne caused marble
and columns to be brought from Italy for his structures at Aix-la-Chapelle,
there are also statues extant which were executed for him in Germany.

But with the 11th century there commenced a period in which German
art outstripped that of all other countries; and as in those times German
architecture attained a high state of perfection in the short space of two
centuries, and German architects practised their art in Italy, Spain, France,
and likewise in the north of Europe, so too sculpture arose here from its
slumber earlier than in Italy. For while in Italy it was not till the year
1250 that an advance was effected by the exertions of Nicolas of Pisa, a
better style of art had been already exhibited in Germany in the reliefs of
choir-screens in the church of Our Lady at Halberstadt finished in the year
1200, the monumental effigy of the abbess Agnes at Quedlinburg of the
year 1203, and the bas-reliefs in the church at Gernrode.

B. From the Revival of Art in the 13th to the 17th Century.

‘Tf in the 12th and 13th centuries the art of sculpture made a more rapid
advance in Germany than anywhere else, and if notwithstanding we
possess no grand and independent works of statuary executed by Germans
of that period, the cause of the phenomenon is to be sought in the intimate
connexion in which sculpture then stood with architecture. If we consider
the facade of a dome of those times, we behold, it is tiue, an abundance of

plastic figures; they have, however, even when very cerefully finished, no
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50 THE FINE ARTS.

individual significance, but are intended to act merely as parts of a whole.
The plastic art had become as it were the handmaid of architecture. As
with the sculptures of the facades so too with the ornaments of the high
altars of German churches, especially those of the 15th century. Here too
the statues of the shrine and the statues of the open and lofty tabernacles
were merely designed to contribute to the effect of the whole, which lay
mainly in the architecture. When the age of virtuosoship arrived, and
men recognised the statues of a master, sculpture retreated more from the
fronts to the interiors of churches, the better to satisfy the increasing
tendency to a fond elaboration of details. Still the architectural idea
remained predominant. We find the gold-embroidered stole and the
bishop’s crosier adapted to the architectural style; the censers are little
silver chapels, the pyx is a little golden steeple, and the reliquary a little
church of gold plate, whatever may be the number of statues introduced.
If we cast a glance at the style of the figures of the 13th century produced
by German art, we perceive that the measured severity of the Roman style
retained as its basis has yielded to a rich subjective heartiness of feeling,
and that especially in Saxony a school was produced where excellence
consists less in an adequate study of nature and a skilful representation of
movements than in a pious adoption and genial use of the means which the
ancient works of art placed in their hands. The human figures lose their
cold, rigid character, and assume a graceful demeanor; and the features
have a soft and amiable expression. The shoulders, however, with the arms
fitted close to them, are often made too narrow; the hands too appear
sometimes awry, and the stomach rather too prominent. The drapery is
arranged in long, waving folds.

Nicolas of Pisa, born in the beginning of the 12th century, distinguished
himself both as sculptor and architect, and is regarded, as we mentioned
above, as the reviver of the plastic art in Italy. It is true that in the
manner of his composition he did not differ from his predecessors and con-
temporaries; but in his forms he copied the antique and that so closely,
that he made use in his works of figures from ancient sarcophagi which he
found in his native city, and thus reproduced e.g. a Juno or Cleopatra as
the Virgin Mary, a Plato as Joseph, &c. Although his figures are rather
short in their proportions, they are incomparably superior in every respect
to the productions of the immediately preceding period. His chief works
date about the middle of the 13th century, e.g. the Descent from the Cross
at San Martino in Lucca, 1240; Zhe Pulpit in the Baptistery of Pisa, 1260 ;
and that in the cathedral of Siena, 1266. He died in the year 1275. His
son, Giovanni da Pisa, boldly followed the path struck out by his father;
but he deviated from it in many respects, since, instead of the placid beatty
of antiquity, he strove more after expression and character, and fell not
unfrequently into exaggeration and distortion. One of his best productions
is a Vergin with the Child Jesus (pl., fig. 18) which was set up in 1298 at
the southern side door of the Florence cathedral. She is of life size and
holds in her right hand a flower, the sign of the Maria del Fiore, the
tutelary patroness of this church, and, in allusion to the arms of Florence, a

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SCULPTURE. 51

red lily on a silver field. Other works of Giovanni da Pisa which are
highly spoken of are the great fountain in Perugia, 1264; the pulpit in the
cathedral of Frezzo, 1286; the pulpit in St. Andrea at Pisa, 1301, &c. He
died in 1320. His best pupil was Andrea Ugolino, also called Andrea da
Pisa (born 1270, died 1345), who accomplished much for the perfection of
his art. He wrought in company with Giotto, for whose buildings he
furnished the sculptures. With his son Nino the Florentine school of sculp-
ture attained its most flourishing condition towards the close of the 14th
century. Among the best pupils of Nicolas and Giovanni da Pisa are
reckoned also Agostino and Angelo de Senis (of Siena), who ornamented
the tomb of the bishop of Arezzo, Guido Tarlati de Pietra Mala. Theirs
is the statue of a bishop copied from this monument on pil. 7, jig. 3.
Giovanni Balducci, who flourished about the year 1340, belonged also to the
best masters of the Florentine school and was born in Pisa. Among his
many works that to which his fame is principally owing is a mausoleum or
shrine of St. Peter the Martyr for the church of San Eustorgio in Milan.
We have given a view of this work in jig. 4, and in jigs. 5, 6, 7, and 8
copies of four of the caryatides on a larger scale. Of these caryatides there
are eight: those in the rear represent the four cardinal virtues; those in front .
are the three godly virtues, Faith, Hope, and Charity, and likewise Obedi-
ence which bears the yoke, the other figures also being furnished with their
appropriate attributes. The body of the monument resting on the carya-
tides, which contains the shrine, is decorated with eight reliefs representing
scenes from the legends of the saints. Here we behold the saint stilling a
tempest, visiting the sick, and exposed to view in state after his death.
About him stand figures of apostles and fathers of the church. The pyra-
midal cover is adorned with reliefs and statues of angels; and above it is
an ornamented addition containing the figures of the Holy Virgin, St.
Dominic, and St. Peter the Martyr. On the apex is Christ between two
angels. The entire monument is of white marble and was completed
in 1339.

The next that requires mention among the masters of this age is Jacopo
della Quercia, who formed the transition from the ancient ideal to the
natural style. He was born at Quercia in 1368, and died in 1442. His
chief works are in Florence, Bologna, Lucca, and Siena. In the last
mentioned place is a large fountain ornamented by his chisel, on which,
among other things, are the Virtues in the form of female statues. The
bust of one of them is given in jig.9. Among his contemporaries were
Andrea Orgagna (d. 1389), Michele Algicani (d. 1400), Nanni d’ Antonio
di Banco (d. 1420), Luca della Robbia (d. 1442); the last mentioned dis-
tinguished himself by his little burnt and glazed statuettes, which were
spread as his invention throughout nearly the whole of Europe. Lorenzo
Ghiberti, born in Florence in the year 1378, is less celebrated as a sculptor
in stone than as a caster of statues: his gates on the Baptistery of San
Giovanni at Florence have procured him undying fame, Michael Angelo
himself having declared that they were worthy to form the gates to Paradise.
It was in the year 1401 that Ghiberti with the six best sculptors of Italy

435

52 THE FINE ARTS.

entered upon a trial of skill respecting these gates; and thirty-four judges
of art pronounced his, Brunelleschi’s, and Donatello’s designs the best, but
the two last masters voluntarily yielded to Ghiberti. Besides these gates,
Ghiberti cast several statues for the churches of Florence. His contempo-
rary, the above mentioned Donatello, properly called Donato di Betto
Bandi, was born in Florence in the year 13883. His merits as a sculptor
are very considerable, and he was the cause of more attention being paid
to the treasures of antiquity; in consequence of which the De’ Medici and
other princes began to collect into museums the ancient statues still extant,
and to cause those which had suffered injury to be restored. His style is
noble, his attitudes easy and graceful, and his draperies clear and natural ;
the heads and the action of his figures are characteristic. The number of
his works is not inconsiderable: among them are a relief, the Annunciation,
in Santa Croce, S¢. M/agdalen,and St. John the Baptist (pl. 7, fig. 11) in the
Baptistery. This last statue was carved in wood, and was afterwards cast in
bronze, after Donatello’s model, by the French sculptor Poncé. In the
church of Or San Michele are the statues of St. Mark, St. Peter, and St.
George, by Donatello, the last (jig. 12) being regarded as one of the best
works of this master. He also executed many other works, among them
the fine equestrian statue of General Gatta-Melata. He died in 1466. The
transition from the 15th to the 16th century is formed by Andrea Verro-
chio, who was born in Florence in the year 1432, and died in 1488. He
was a pupil of Donatello and teacher of Leonardo da Vinci; for Verrochio
was a brass-founder, goldsmith, architect, painter, engraver, form-cutter, sur-
veyor, carver, and musical composer, and in all these branches he excelled.
When Verrochio was painting a Baptism of Christ, Leonardo da Vinci, then
only thirteen years old, introduced into the picture an angel, whose beauty
so astounded the master that he never after touched a pencil. Verrochio
also introduced the process of taking plaster-casts from life, which had been
invented by Lysistratus, a pupil of Phidias. His works are clever; his
men’s heads are full of expression (jig. 10 represents the bust of a bronze
statue, an apostle in the church of Or San Michele in Florence); and his
female heads, especially in the treatment of the hair, are so beautiful, that
Leonardo da Vinci often copied them.

But of all the masters of that period Michael Angelo accomplished the
most for the perfection of art, which he brought nearest to the antique,
although his great powers sometimes led him into exaggeration. Michael
Angelo Buonarotti was born, 1474, at Sattignano in the territory of Flo-
rence. He was a pupil of Domenico Ghirlandajo in painting and of
Bertoldo in sculpture, after which he studied anatomy for twelve years in
the convent of San Spirito. Of his merits as a painter we shall have
occasion to speak hereafter: his architectural achievements were dis-
cussed in another part of this work; but it is as a sculptor that he mani-
fested most conspicuously the deep seriousness of his disposition, the
clearness and directness of his conceptions, and the sublimity with which
he embodied them in his works. His forms are simple and grand, and are
elevated above those of common life; his characters are no portraits of

436

SCULPTURE. 53

individualities, and yet they display the profoundest knowledge of the human
body and of the human soul. The attitudes depicted by him seem often
rather violent; still they are never untrue to nature, but are in accordance
with powerful emotion. Of his plastic works we will mention only the
David in front of the old palace in Florence ; a Pzeta, a marble group in the
church of St. Peter at Rome; and an intoxicated Bacchus accompanied by
a Satyr (pl. 7, jig. 18), a marble group 10 palms high, and one of his first
performances. It was intended for Giacomo Galli of Florence, but was
placed by Cardinal Ferdinand de’ Medici in the Florence gallery, where it
still remains. Michael Angelo also designed the monument of Pope
Julius II., which was erected in the basilica of San Pietro in Vincoli, but
spoilt in the execution. Its chief ornament is the statue of Moses (jig. 19),
which was to have stood with several other statues (of prophets and virtues)
on the cornice. This colossal figure is now placed at the foot of the
monument, and is certainly one of the master’s finest works. About the
upper part of the tomb stand a sort of persians, representing fettered
slaves, one of which we have copied (pl. 8, jig. 2). Another monument
executed by Michael Angelo was that of the Medici in the church of San
Lorenzo of Florence, which is famed for its statues of the Medicean family,
and for those of the seasons and of the different periods of the day. Of the
latter we have given the Morning and Hvening (pl. 7, fig. 20), which
will justify our assertion that among modern sculptors there is scarcely
one that can be compared with Michael Angelo. M. Angelo died at Rome
in 1564.

A short time after Michael Angelo, Benvenuto Cellini assumed a high
rank among sculptors and casters of statuary. He was born in Florence
in 1500; and having at an early age manifested an inclination for the
plastic art, he was apprenticed to a goldsmith named Andrea Sandro, and
when scarcely fifteen years of age he surpassed the best of his companions.
His works soon attracted attention ; and a lily composed of diamonds set in
gold for Porzia Chigi introduced him to the notice of several dignitaries of
the church, for whom he then wrought a good deal. When Rome was
beleaguered in 1527, Cellini served as bombardier in the castle of St.
Angelo, where he shot down the Duke of Bourbon whe had captured the
city, and wounded the Prince of Orange. He was appointed master of the
mint to the pope; but manifold persecutions caused him at last to enter
the service of Duke Alexander in Florence, for whom he engraved many
medals and dies. He was once more called to Rome; but being again
attacked, after executing several splendid vases, he went in 1537 to the
court of Francis I. of France. He returned to Rome, however, in 1540,
where he was thrown into prison under a false accusation; but he was
liberated by Cardinal Ferrara, for whom he executed many important
works. Being again summoned to France, he there set up a complete
workshop, having attracted to his employ many German workmen, whose
industry and skill he highly praised. To this period belong his finest works,
of which many still exist, ¢. g. in the Ambrase collection in Vienna, in

Dresden, and in other places. Here too he executed several works in
437

54 THE FINE ARTS.

sculpture, ¢. g. the enormous model of the statue of Mars, whose head
served as a sleeping chamber, a bronze relief known by the name of the
Nymph of Fontainbleau, and some others, among them the Knight's
Shield, now in England (in St. George’s Hall, Windsor Castle). Being
permitted to revisit Florence, he entered into the service of Duke Cosmo,
where he executed the famous but rather jejune statue of Perseus (pl. 7,
jig. 16) for the market-place, which now stands in the Loggia Lanzi. In
casting this statue more than 9000 pounds of metal were employed. The
artist, however, received but a small part of his honorarium ; for the duke,
instead of the 16,000 gold seudi at which the work was valued, caused him
to be paid only 3500, and that in sums of from 25 to 100 scudi. Cellini’s
last work was a Saviour on the Cross of the size of life admirably sculp-
tured in marble, and which is now in the Escurial, Cosmo having presented
it to King Philip Il. of Spain. Cellini died in 187 2.

Bigrade: da Bologna (Giambologna), born in Douay, 1524, was a pupil
of Michael Angelo, and distinguished himself as a sculptor and architect.
When he once showed M. Angelo a prettily executed model in clay, the
master chid him harshly, and told him he should first learn to design before
he began to execute. This severity irritated the young man so greatly,
that he applied himself to study day and night, with the resolve that his
works should yet surpass those of his master; and in fact they were worthy
to be placed beside the productions of the greatest artists. He lived till
the year 1608. One of his finest works is the Rape of the Sabines, of
which a copy was made in bronze for the king of France, while the marble
original stands in the Loggia de Lanzi. His Mercury as messenger of the
gods (pl. 7, jig. 17),an admirable marble statue, remains in Florence;
and in Bologna the fine statue of Veptune in the principal market is from
his hand, as are likewise the bronze gate of the Cathedral at Pisa, and the
equestrian statue of Cosmo I. in Florence. Giovanni was emulated by his
pupil Camillo Mariani of Vicenza, by whom there are several excellent
works in the Vatican, in St. John’s in the Lateran, and other principal
churches of Rome. The same may be said of the works of Francesco
Mocchi of Montevarchio, who owed his artistic education to Mariani.
Mocchi was born 4n 1580, and studied very diligently; among his best
works are the statue of St. ve. 22 feet high, for St. Peter’s at Rome,
and the two fine statues of the apoEtles Peter and Paul before the Porta
del Popolo in Rome. There are other productions of his in the church of
San Andrea della Valle and Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome; in which
last mentioned place is the marble statue of the Angel of the Annuncia-
tion, copied in jig. 15, which proves that the works of Mocchi are distin-
guished for freedom of action, well managed drapery, correct drawing, and
characteristic expression in the heads.

After it had thus taken three centuries to elevate art from the deep
degradation to which true Vandalism and a long period of warfare had
brought it, a single individual succeeded in again bringing it down to a low
ebb. This man was Lorenzo Bernini, born in Naples in 1598, a pupil of
his father Pietro Bernini. The boy, who was gifted with a great deal of

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’ SCULPTURE. © 55

talent, is said to have sculptured a head in marble when only ten years old,
and he certainly had a brilliant reputation both as sculptor and architect.
His genius, which spurned all bounds, gave itself up to the quaintest con-
ceits, utterly disregarding all the laws of true art and beauty, and every rule
of good taste in sculpture. Hence he exerted a most deplorable influence
on the entire plastic art of the 17th century, the effects of which reached far
into the 18th century. His works are not creations of inspiration, but of a
heated jejune fancy ; accordingly they all betray more or less of affectation,
and there prevails in all his works, in consequence of his preference for the
pictorial principle, a mode of treatment that violates all the laws of the
plastic art. So little did he care for truth to nature, that he even set
himself to work to improve nature according to his perverted ideas, and so
presented a phantom in place of the truth. As a specimen of his mode of
composition we have copied his marble group of Apollo and Daphne ( pl. 7,
Jig. 14), which is equally destitute of natural truth and of artistic inspira-
tion. To the better class of his works, which unfortunately are too
numerous in Rome, belong the immense figures of Constantine in the
Vatican, and of Longinus in St. Peter’s, as also the more delicate ones of St.
Theresa in Santa Maria della Vittoria, and of St. Bibiena in the church
dedicated to that saint. The tabernacle 90 feet in height over the high altar
of St. Peter’s church is a model of tastelessness ; but what causes the greatest
regret in connexion with this wretched production is the fact that to furnish
the materials for casting it, the beautiful portico of the Pantheon wes robbed
of its pannelled ceiling and beams of bronze. Of Bernini’s career as an
architect in Rome and in Paris, where he was received with almost super-
stitious reverence, but where, nevertheless, his plans were not put into
execution, we have already spoken under the head of Architecture.

5. Moprern Towss.

At the close of the precedirg period we found that art in Italy had again
begun seriously to decline; since the supremacy acquired by Bernini and
his adherents, in consequence of the great favor showp them by the Pope,
had sufficed to obliterate the impressions produced by the noble exertions
of the true artists of the previous century, and to introduce into the plastic
art a tasteless, unnatural, affected style, which robbed it of all its sublimity
and its charms. It will now be our office to show how the various nations
of modern times again discarded that periwig-style, and how the truly
beautiful combined with the simplicity and sublimity of the antique have
again attained the ascendency, so that now in more countries than one there
are executed works of plastic art that deserve an honorable place beside the
finest productions of classical antiquity.

A. Italy.

So powerful was the pernicious influence of Lorenzo Bernini in his day,

‘that it had the effect of turning aside from their path even such masters as
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56 THE FINE ARTS.

Algardi. A few years younger than Bernini, who was born in 1598, Alex.
Algardi first saw the light in 1602. In early youth he labored to perfect
himself in drawing under Ludovico Caracci, and also in modelling; and
notwithstanding many adverse circumstances, he at last succeeded in causing
himself to be regarded as the best sculptor after Michael Angelo. His
Magdalen, St. John, and St. Paul were universally admired ; and the bronze
statue erected by the senate to Pope Innocent, with which Algardi gained
the victory over Francesco Mocchi, procured for him the cross of the order
of Christ. Nevertheless his last great work, the famous bas-relief over the
altar of St. Leo in the Capella della Colonna of St. Peter’s, which represents
Attila encountering Pope Leo I. on the banks of the Po, and frightened
back by the apparition of St. Peter and St. Paul, degenerated completely
into the pictorial style of Bernini. Algardi and Bernini found imitators in
the sculptors Roggi, Ferrata, and Brunelli; and Rusconi and Zamba per- |
haps surpassed them. It was not till the middle of the last century that the
investigations and the ardent zeal for the simplicity and true beauty of the
antique of such men as Winckelmann and Mengs, supported by Cardinal
Albani, rekindled a love for the antique and a taste for genuine art. Cava-
ceppi also, although as a sculptor he belonged to the school of Bernini,
collected, restored, and described the remains of antiquity with spirit and
knowledge of the subject, and his copies of them are truly estimable. The
first, however, who introduced into Italy a new era of art, in which the
spirit of une antique awoke to new life, were Trippel and Canova. Alex-
ander Trippel of Schaffhausen was originally a cabinet-maker, but studied
sculpture under Wiedevelt in Copenhagen; in which art he soon attained
to such perfection, that he was able to go to the Academy at Dresden and
afterwards to Rome, where he remained and executed several very impor-
tant works.

Antonio Canova was born, 1757,in Passagno in the Venetian territory,
and first applied himself along with Rafael Morghen, under Volpato’s direc-
tion, to the art of engraving on copper. But this he forsook as there became
developed in him a marked talent for sculpture; this last branch of art he
studied in Bassano, and then went to the Academy at Venice, where in his
16th year he executed a statue of Eurydice. In the year 1780 he went to
Rome, where he began and finished his Theseus slaying the Minotaur
(this group is now in Vienna), and very soon gained so considerable a
reputation that in 1787 he was intrusted with the execution of the sepulchral
monument of Clement XIV. About this time he produced his Perseus
with the Medusa’s head, which was purchased by the pope and set up in
the Vatican in place of the Apollo of Belvedere which had been carried
off by the French. After Canova had made a tour through Austria and
Prussia, he executed in Paris in 1802 the model for the colossal heroic
statue of Napoleon. Pius VIII. conferred high honors upon him, and sent
him again to Paris in 1815, to demand the restoration of the plundered
treasures of art. Canova died in 1822, and there was erected to him in
the Chiesa dei Frari the monument which he had designed for Titian.

He had also essayed his genius in the line of painting, and placed a high
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value on his works of that class. These were a Sleeping Venus, a Sleeping
Adonis, a Descent from the Cross, &c. His masterpieces are the Cupid
and Psyche (pl. 9, fig. 2) and Hebe ( fig. 1), both in St. Petersburgh; two
Athlete, and Perseus with Medusa’s head, in the Vatican; Hercules
dashing Hylas against a Rock, a splendid group, in the possession of the
banker Torlonia in Rome; Mapoleon with the sceptre and imperial globe
and a Genius with a crown of palm branch, at Apsley-house, London ;
Venus Victria, also in a private gallery in England; Venus coming from the
bath, in the Glyptothek at Munich; the three Graces (fig. 3) and the
penitent Magdalene (pl. 8, fig. 3), in the Leuchtenberg Gallery at Munich;
three dancing girls (one of which is given jig. 4); the tomb of Alfieri,
in the church at Santa Croce at Florence, &c. One of his finest works is
the monument which Duke Albert of Austria raised to his wife Maria
* Christina, Duchess of Saxe-Teschen in the church of the Augustines at
Vienna (pl. 11, jig. 11). Itis entirely of white marble, and represents
the sepulchral ee of the deceased, in which the mourning people,
represented by the four ages of life, fenasit the ashes of the beloved princess.
A lion and a genius recline together on the opposite side of the gate of the
pyramid, bearing the arms of Austria and of Saxe-Teschen. Aotlics genius,
accompanied by a winged palm-bearer, designates the pyramid more
precisely by placing the bust of the princess over the entrance. The
beautiful and expressive epitaph is, Uxorz optime Albertus. The whole
monument is executed in the most elegant manner, and breathes the pro-
foundest sadness: the group to the right is transcendently beautiful.
Canova has the undisputed merit of having greatly elevated the plastic art,
and of having labored with all the zeal and earnestness of conviction to give
it a fixed aim, that of grace and beauty, after the example of the ancients.
The tendency of his own individual taste led Canova wherever he could,
to avoid sharp forms; so that he sometimes borders on the feeble and
affected, and his smooth figures seem almost destitute of bones. He usually
polished his statues or coated them with a yellowish varnish. He was
accustomed to model his works, leaving the shaping of the marble to skilful
workmen, after which he applied the finishing touches himself.

B. France.

In France also, a country which in so many respects has derived the
materials of its cultivation from abroad and afterwards worked them up in
its own manner, the baneful influence to which the plastic art had been
subjected in Italy made itself sensibly felt, especially as the French wantonly
introduced into the domain of art the follies of their code of fashions. From
the time of Jean Gougeon, who in the year 1550 had revived the taste for
sculpture in France, and whose Caryatides in the Louvre, in the hall of the
Swiss, are still celebrated, art had made sure though gradual progress ; yet
even Germain Pilon (d. 1605), who first succeeded in representing the
difference of texture in marble, shows mannerism and occasionally inele-
gance in his works. A comparison of his masterpiece the Three Graces with
the urn inclosing the hearts of Henry II. and Catharine de’ aaa ys Pl 8,

58 THE FINE ARTS.

jig. 1), formerly in the church of the Celestines but now in the Museum,
with the Graces of Canova (pl. 9, fig. 3) or of Thorwaldsen (fig. 5), will
convince any one of the truth of our assertion. The same defects attach to
the works of Sarrassin, the brothers Anguier, Theodan, Puget, Pierre le
Gros, &c.; and Pigalle is the first who shows a purer taste in art, although

he too leaves much to be desired. Pigalle was born in Paris in 1721, and

was a pupil of the sculptors and brass-casters Lemoine and Lemayne,
and in 1752 was professor in the Royal Academy of Paris. His talents
first made themselves conspicuous after his return from Rome; and his
Mercury and Venus, which afterwards became the property of the king of
Prussia, rendered him famous. There area considerable number of statues
by him, among them that of Zowis X V., and many fine reliefs. His best pro-
duction was the monument to Marshal Saxe, which is still to be seen in the
church of St. Thomas at Strasburg. We have copied it in pl. 10, fig. 11.
This mausoleum is regarded as the most beautiful of that period, and is in
fact very skilfully composed; although the mailed form of Maurice of
Saxony does not harmonize with the allegorical figures, neither do these
latter, especially the ancient Hercules and the modern skeleton, with each
other.

The commotion produced in France during the age of the revolution and
those succeeding it was naturally not without its influence on the arts. But
after the first blast had passed over and the waves of the stormy sea had
subsided into something like quiet, art again reared its pinions for a vigorous
flight; and accordingly towards the close of the last and during the present
century many good works have been produced, indeed everywhere we
behold the influence of a refined taste and of an earnest study of art. It is
true that in the choice of subjects many allusions may be perceived to the
events of the times, as e.g. in Chaudet’s Cincinnatus (pl. 8, jig. 7), in
Fogatier’s Spartacus (fig. 9), and in the reliefs on the numerous triumphal
arches and monuments; yet everywhere the study of the antique is con-
spicuous, and as the example of the ancients was imitated in the republic,
so it was in the plastic art, even down to the cutting of dies. As a specimen
of the style of the period in relief we present a copy of a work of Chinard’s,
taken from the triumphal arch in Bordeaux (pl. 11, fig. 18): it represents
Bellona receiving a wreath from the Genius of Lame, and adorning with it
the brave and ardent warrior. To this period belongs also the statue by
Ph. Gross of General Kleber (fig. 10), who was assassinated in Egypt,
which decorates his monument in his native city Strasburg, and is a master-
piece of composition. Yet there was no lack at the same time of works of
a different class; and while for fifty years France was almost without
interruption in a state of convulsive excitement, art quietly held on its way,
and sought the subjects for the exercise of its skill in every department both
of prosaic and poetic life. We cite as examples the Dancing Neapolitan,
by Duret (pl. 8, fig. 8); the group of Jno and the Boy Bacchus, by
Dumont (pl. 10, fig. 7); and the group of Leda and the Swan (fig. 8), by
Seurre jeune; in which the study and to some extent the imitation of

the antique cannot fail to be observed.
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SCULPTURE. 59

- An independent path was struck out by Jean David of Angers; he was
to French what Canova was to Italian, and Tieck, Schadow, Rauch, and
Schwanthaler to German art, and he conducted it by the narrow way which
leads between a slavish imitation of the antique and a mere copying of
nature to the truly beautiful and sublime. Jorn in the year 1792, he
devoted himself from his earliest youth to art, but lacked the means for
pursuing his studies; his namesake, the painter David, assisted him and
gave him instruction until a stipend was allowed him. The first work with
which he appeared before the public was a relief, the Death of Epami-
nondas (pl. 11, fig. 12), which is in truth one of the most beautiful and
expressive compositions of the period, and in 1811 received the first prize
for a bas-relief, with which a studying-pension was connected. David now
went to Rome, where he studied the antique, and enjoyed the benefit of
Canova’s instruction; after which he repaired in 1816 to England, to study
the marble monuments carried off from Greece by Lord Elgin. The propo-
sition, honorable to him in itself, to execute a monument with reliefs in
honor of the victory of the English and German army, he as a good patriot
rejected, and returned.to Paris, where in 1822 he executed the statue of
King René for the city of Aix, and a S¢. Cecilia for a Parisian church. In
the year 1827 he produced the statue of the great Condé (pl. 10, fig. 4),
which represents the hero at the moment of hurling his commander’s staff
into the enemy’s redoubt, to rush forward gt the head of his troops and
recover it. This statue was designed as a pendant to that of Admiral
Duquesne by Roguier (jig. 1), and, with the statues of Bayard by Moutoni
(jig. 2), of Duguesclin by Bridan (jig. 3), and of eight other heroes and
statesmen of France, to adorn the bridge of Louis XV. built by Perronnet,
now the Pont de la Concorde. These statues, however, were removed, and
stand now in the Museum of Versailles, while the bridge still waits for a
substitute. It would here lead us too far to enumerate merely the principal
works of this prolific and industrious artist, which are scattered through all
parts of Europe, especially as David has manifested a great fondness for
portraits. It is in this line and that of bas-relief that he has furnished the
finest specimens of his talent; though it is not to be denied that he has
occasionally manifested in his most celebrated works of the kind an
excessive striving after effect. This is shown, for instance, very plainly in
his two busts of Goethe, one of which is at Weimar and the other in
Dresden, and in the bust of Tieck in Dresden. Especial notice is due to
his bust of Alexander Von Humboldt, which is perfect as a likeness, and is
justly famed for the sublimity which the artist has given to the brow of the
illustrious naturalist. We must mention in conclusion a few of David’s
sculptures which belong to the most recent times. Among these is Guten-
berg’s Monument in Strasburg, which was executed in bronze after a
model by David (pl. 11, fig. 3). In the physiognomy of this colossal figure
we notice rather a straining after great expression than the manifestation
of a profound intellect. The deep folds and furrows of the countenance,
beard, &c., give an appearance of hardness. There is also something con-

strained in the figure, and the drapery exhibits nothing of the grand style.
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60 THE FINE ARTS.

But notwithstanding the singularity of David’s Gutenberg in point of com-
position and drawing, and its disregard of the laws of artistic conception as
respects the figure, in the poetry of the thought it surpasses even that of
Thorwaldsen in Maintz (jig. 4): the latter represents the inventor of print-
ing with movable types in his hand; whereas David has placed a proof-
sheet in his hand, on which are printed the words, 4¢t la lumiere fut !
(And there was light!) Besides several monuments, among which are
those of Cardinal Cheveru and the physician Larrey, David has produced a
number of genre sculptures which have received universal applause and of
which we shall mention here only the Boy relishing Grapes. David in his
works had departed from the cold imitation of the antique, and knew how
to express his ideas in a free and suitable manner; although sometimes, as
we have mentioned above, he fell in consequence into a forced attempt at
effect. As an opponent of the baldness and severity of the antique, he
practises a style of sculpture exceedingly powerful and effective and hence
perfectly adapted to the colossal; at the same time it is very different from
the prevailing mode of treating clay and marble especially in Germany,
and gives him liberty to exercise that warmth of inspiration and bold sweep
of the hand with which he embodies his ideas. Yet notwithstanding his
aversion to the antique, David pays his tribute to its excellence, especially
in the nude figure; and here he inclines less to the Hellenic than to the
luxuriant Roman. ‘

In speaking of French sculpture, we must make mention of a female
artist, whose early death was a severe loss to art. It was the Duchess
Marie of Orleans, a daughter of Louis Philippe, late king of the French.
She was born at Palermo in 1813, and in 1837 was married to Duke
Alexander of Wirtemberg, whom she accompanied to Germany, but a fire
having occurred in the castle of Gotha, at which she took cold, she went to
Pisa for the recovery of her health and died there in 1839. This princess
had a great talent for sculpture, and we have by her the well known most
graceful and spirited statue, of the size of life, of the Maid of Orleans
(pl. 8, fig. 10), which stands in Versailles; and in Paris the equestrian
statue of the same heroine represented in the act of striking down an
Englishman with her battle-axe. Her last work was a very beautiful
angel of white marble, which now stands in the chapel of Sablonville
on the sarcophagus of her brother, the Duke of Orleans, who met his
death by an accident in 1843. The productions of the young princess are
equally remarkable for the spirit of their conception and the beauty of their
execution.

C. Germany.

The plastic art of Germany in the middle ages struck out a path of its
own, and consequently exhibits a high degree of originality ; and although
we find in it no traces of a study of the antique, there resides in most of its
productions an expression of much grace and loveliness, combined with power
and dignity, and a very earnest study of nature. The works of an Albert
Durer, Veit Stoss, Adam Kraft, George Surlin, Peter Vischer, and nume-

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rous others, give proof of this; and the later masters, as Balthasar Per-
moser, Schliiter, &c., did all in their power to preserve the art handed
down to them in its purity, until at length the turgid style and perverted
taste of the periwig period, which had originated in Italy and infected
France, extended also to Germany and furnished that country with their
rococo images. Fortunately this period did not last very long in Germany ;
for German good sense expelled the foreign intruder betimes. In Italy itself
this false taste was combated and a nobler art revived by Germans: the
names of Trippel, Winckelmann, and Mengs are become immortal, and
sufficiently attest the German sense of the beautiful. But recent times
have produced an array of artists of world-wide celebrity ; and if Italy has
her Canova, France her David, and Denmark her Thorwaldsen, we find
contemporaneously or in quick succession in Germany the names of Zauner,
Schliiter, Schadow, Dannecker, Tieck, Rauch, and Schwanthaler, all of
them heroes in the art of sculpture. We will here give some account of
each of the five masters of the most recent times.

Joh. Heinr. Dannecker, the son of a groom, was born in Stuttgard in the
year 1758, and, like Schiller, was a student at the Charles-school, but
devoted himself to sculpture. As early as 1776, at the competitory exhibi-
tion, he gained the first prize for his I/tlo attacked by Lions, and in 1780
he was appointed by Duke Charles sculptor to the court, with permission
to pursue his studies in Paris and Rome. Here he soon distinguished
himself; and after he had been there five years, his statues of Ceres and
Bacchus gained him admission into the academies of Bologna and Milan.
In the year 1790 he returned to Stuttgard, where he was greatly honored,
and had a title of nobility conferred upon him. Besides his Ariadne, in
the possession of the banker Bethmann of Frankfort (which cost 20,000
guilders, or $8000), we will mention his bust of Schiller ; his colossal
Christ, in Russia; and his Amor and Psyche, both in England. Dan-
necker died in 1841.

Joh. Gottfr. Schadow was born in Berlin, in 1764, a few years after
Dannecker. He was the son of a tailor, and was taken to instruct by a
pensioned sculptor of the court. He married early and went to Italy,
where he wrought so industriously and with such success as to obtain at a
competition the highest prize. He was made rector of the Academy of
the Plastic Arts in Berlin, an office which he held from 1788 till his
death, which occurred recently. Schadow was the father of sculpture in
northern Germany, as Dannecker was in the south. The number of his
works is very considerable, and they are distinguished by great truth to
nature and vigorous conception, while those of Dannecker breathe more
the spirit of the antique. Though Schadow also was no stranger to this ;
as many of his works, and especially the beautiful frieze on the Mint in
Berlin, &c., demonstrate. Schadow executed the monument of Count
Von der Mark in the church of St. Sophia in Berlin, and that of Frederick
the Great in Stettin, for which even the French showed such great respect
that at the last siege they took precautions to prevent any injury to it from

their balls. This beautiful statue is of white marble. The statue of Duke
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62 THE FINE ARTS.

Leopold of Dessau, known by the name of “the old Dessauer,” and the ©
model of the beautiful quadriga over the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin are
works of Schadow’s. He too was raised to the rank of nobility. Schadow
had two sons, one of whom, Rudolf, born in 1786, also a sculptor of reputa-
tion, died at Rome in 1822; his Girl spinning and Girl binding her sandal
are famous. His last work, Penthesilea, was finished by his friend Wolf.
His brother, Wilhelm von Schadow, is painter and director of the Academy
of Arts at Dusseldorf. He was born in 1789.

Christian Frederick Tieck, a brother of the famous poet Ludwig Tieck,
was a pupil of the elder or so-called “old Schadow.” He was born in
Berlin in 1776, and exhibited at an early age so great a talent for sculpture
and drawing, that, after being for a while under the instruction of Betten-
kober, he was received by Schadow into his atelier, and afterwards
perfected himself in Dresden, Paris, and Rome. His forte, like that of
David in Paris, to whom Tieck is greatly indebted, lies in portraits; and
a good portion of the busts of celebrated Germans placed in the Valhalla
at Regensburg are the productions of Tieck’s chisel. But he has also pro-
duced some admirable larger works. We will instance only the statues
wrought in copper after his model in the cathedral at Berlin; and his
beautiful ornamental works on the theatre newly erected in Berlin by
Schinkel.

But of greater importance for the advancement of the art of sculpture
in Germany are the works of Christian Rauch. He was born at Arolsen in
Westphalia, in 1777, and made his first studies under Ruhl in Cassel, but was
compelled by necessity to change for a while his intended course of life and
become page to queen Louisa of Prussia. He here employed his leisure
hours in modelling and sculpture; and this coming accidentally to the
knowledge of the queen, she furnished him the means of completing his
studies and going to Rome, where he produced many busts and reliefs, until
the king of Prussia recalled him in 1811 and charged him with the execu-
tion of a sarcophagus for the queen, who had died in the meanwhile.
Rauch performed the task; and in the exquisitely beautiful sarcophagus,
which forms a couch whereupon the body of the queen reposes, we recognise
the pious gratitude with which the artist labored on this tribute to the
memory of his benefactress. The monument stands in the small sepulchral
chapel in the royal tomb in the palace garden of Charlottenburg near Berlin,
and which now contains also the sarcophagus of the king himself likewise
executed by Rauch. Jauch has produced besides these a great number of
admirable works. We will mention only the statues of generals Scharnhorst
and Bilow of Dennewitz near the main guard-house in Berlin, and opposite
the statue of Prince Blicher of Wahlstadt near the opera house, which were
modelled by Rauch, cast by Lequine, and chiselled by Vuarin; and on the
pedestals of which, in the historical groups, we recognise among the stand-
ard-bearers the portraits of Tieck, Rauch, Schadow, and Schinkel. Rauch
modelled another bronze statue of Lliicher for the city of Breskau, and also
the beautiful monument to the deceased king Maavmilian I. of Bavaria for
Munich. This monument has likewise very fine reliefs and works executed

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SCULPTURE. 63

‘in full on the pedestal; we copy here the statues of Felicitas publica (the
Public Weal) (pl. 10, fig. 10), and of Bavaria (fig. 9), to show how Rauch
combined a true conception of nature with a very refined study of the
antique in the design and execution of his works of art. Rauch has been
very happy in modifying as far as possible the unpicturesque forms of the
military dress, so as not to offend the esthetic feeling which demands
drapery of a free, unconstrained, picturesque character. The number of his
portrait-statues and busts is very considerable. Thus we have by Rauch a
statuette of Goethe, and the statues of Luther in Wittenberg, of Albert Diirer
in Nurnberg, of Francke in Halle, of the two princes MMieczislaus and
Boleslaus in Posen, and of Frederick William J. in Gumbinnen, which
were all cast after his models. The four large Vectorzes in the Valhalla
at Ratisbon are also by Rauch, as well as countless other works of art,
one of the most interesting of which is Lawrentia of Tangermiinde on
the Stag. Recently Rauch has finished and erected a colossal equestrian
statue of Frederick the Great, which is placed at the entrance of the
Linden in Berlin, and is one of the grandest monuments of our time. It
is true that during the last centuries the Germans have gone to excess
in erecting monuments; still it is not to be denied that the style of the
monuments bestowed by the Germans on their poets and statesmen, espe-
cially their favorites, is better calculated tosatisfy a true feeling for art than
those which have been erected by Britain to her poet Burns in Calton Hall,
Edinburgh (pl. 10, fig. 12), and to her philosopher Dugald Stewart on
the Calton Hill, Edinburgh (pl. 11, jig. 14), which are feeble imitations of
the ancient choragic monuments.

We have still to speak of one other German sculptor, Ludwig Michael
Schwanthaler, who is among the most prolific of artists, if we compare the
number of his works with that of his years. This recently deceased master
was born in Munich in 1802; and after receiving instruction in the elements
of his art from his father, who was likewise a sculptor, he entered in 1818
the Academy of Munich for the purpose of pursuing his studies in sculp-
ture, but was already too independent to change the course he had marked
out for himself. On that account he left Munich for Rome, and there in
the year 1826 enjoyed the instruction of Thorwaldsen; after which he
returned to Munich and set up an atelier of his own. Schwanthaler executed
for the Glyptothek several reliefs on subjects taken from the Iliad; next for
the palace of Duke Max in Munich a frieze of more than 150 feet in length,
representing a wonde ful Bacchanal, and then two large friezes in the new
palace in Munich, one of which represents the Myth of Venus, and the
other the Olympic Games. Among many designs produced by Schwan-
thaler we will instance only those of the wall-paintings for the six halls in
the new palace on subjects from the Odyssey. For the hall of Barbarossa
he executed a frieze from the crusades, and for the presence chamber the
models for twelve bronze statues of the ancestors of the royal house of
Bavaria. Of these statues we have copied two: Otto the illustrious (pl.
11, jig. 1), and the emperor Ludwig the Bavarian (fig. 2), to show how

admirably Schwanthaler managed the costume of the middle ages, even
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64 THE FINE ARTS.

when it seemed ill adapted for the purposes of art. It will also be perceived
from these figures that Schwanthaler’s drawing is beautiful and correct, and
his movements animated and true to nature; each one of his works is a new
proof of the correctness of these assertions. Many honorary statues have
proceeded from the hands of Schwanthaler; of which we will mention only
that of Mozart tor Saizburg, which represents the composer in an attitude of
inspiration (pl. 10, jig. 5), while the reliefs on the pedestal (jigs. 5* and
5°) portray the sisterly union of the muse of painting and sculpture with
that of music (the Opera), and a singing scene (Song). Schwanthaler like-
wise modelled the statues of Jean Paul in Baireuth, of Goethe in Frankfort,
of Margrave Frederick in Erlangen (jig. 6), of Kreitmayer in Munich, and
of Ludwig of Hesse and Charles Frederick of Baden, the two last for
Carlsruhe. Schwanthaler executed several works in sandstone, limestone,
and marble, some for the Ludwigskirche, some for the Pinakothek, and
some for private persons ; but he gained especial celebrity by the reliefs on
the pediments of the Walhalla at Regensburg, one of which, the front one,
he executed after Rauch, but the other, the Battle of Arminius, after his
own design. The relief on the new Exhibition-building at Munich, repre-
senting the arts under the protection of Bavaria, is also by Schwanthaler.
His grandest work, however, was the model for the colossal bronze statue
of Bavaria, which he did not live to see finished. It was erected before the
gates of Munich in the summer of 1850, and dedicated by ex-King Ludwig
I., in the month of October. Its colossal dimensions, which are admirably
disguised by the most exquisite truth in the proportions, were demonstrated
at the solemnities attending the erection of the head, from which at a certain
elevation thirty-two artists emerged descending one by one by a ladder
placed against the lower edge of the throat !

D. England and Denmark.

While art was making vigorous progress in France and Germany, much
was accomplished for it in England also; yet the number of celebrated
English sculptors is not very considerable. John Flaxman kept true to
the strict study of the antique, with which in most of his works, and espe-
cially in his designs to illustrate the Greek poets, he associated a great
deal of winning grace and delicacy. Chantrey also, whom the English
call their Canova, has judiciously combined the antique with the natural
in his statues of Watt, Canning, Malcolm, and George IV., in his group of
sleeping children, &e.

We now come to Bertel (Albert) Thorwaldsen, who, a descendant of
kings (his ancestor was King Harald Hildebrand of Denmark, though his
father was a poor ship-carver), rose to be king of sculptors. Even his birth
seemed to call him to a special destiny : for he was born at sea, in 1770, as
his parents were on the voyage from Iceland to Copenhagen. From his
earliest childhood Thorwaldsen busied himself with the art of sculpture;
and when in his 17th year he wrought in the Academy under Abildgaard,
he almost invariably obtained the prize. In the year 1796 Thorwaldsen
went to Italy, where he was kept after completing his studies by Hope the

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English banker, who ordered the execution in marble of his model of the
statue of Jason (pl. 8, fig. 5), which in despair of encouragement he was
about to break in pieces. The great beauty of the finished statue founded
his reputation as a master, which several works in rapid succession con-
firmed, and it soon became a point of honor among the wealthy to possess
a work of Thorwaldsen’s ; so that Protestant as he was, he was intrusted
with the execution of the mausoleum to Pius VII. in the church of St.
Peter. Thorwaldsen visited his paternal city only four times, and resided
for many years in Rome. At last he came to Copenhagen in 1842, where
he suddenly died in 1844; he left his native country his heir, which has
collected his works and his treasures of art in the Thorwaldsen Museum.
The number of his productions is very great, so that we cannot even name
them all; but one of his chief works is the Procession of Alexander, which
he designed in honor of Napoleon, for an apartment in the Quirinal at
Rome, and which was executed in marble for the Villa Sommariva on the
Lake of Como. We have copied (pl. 9, jigs. T-11) some fragments of this
frieze, which is 110 feet long, and 3 feet 8 inches in height, and the plaster
model of which was completed in the space of three months. By this
work Thorwaldsen proved that even a modern master could penetrate com-
pletely into the spirit of the antique and vie with the classical plastics of
the Hellenes themselves. On repeating the work in marble, Thorwaldsen
added to it another group, representing Count Sommariva and himself.
The frieze was afterwards put in marble again for the castle of Christians-
burg in Copenhagen, and as it needed to be longer, the artist added to it
several other groups. The subject of this relief is the entry of Alexander
the Great into Babylon, which the Persian general Mazzeus delivered up
to him without striking a blow. Thorwaldsen could not of course represent
the entire scene as described by Curtius Rufus in his Life of Alexander
(Book V.); but he has arranged in beautiful order the most important
particulars. The artist conducts us, first to the banks of the Euphrates,
which is represented by fishermen and the river-god himself, whom Thor-
warldsen erroneously called the Tigris. Before the walls of Babylon we
behold a shepherd with his flock; and close by, an altar of incense guarded
by two warriors. We have given the end of this group in pi. 9, jig. 7.
The two seem displeased at the friendly reception of the conqueror; on the
countenances of the shepherd and shepherdess we see portrayed the intense
expectation of the coming events; while the boy in utter indifference is
playing with a sheep. To the group here described are joined the priests
and magi, before whom horses, a lion, and a tiger are led as presents to
the invading general. Music heads the procession ; before which advances
Bagnophanes, the treasurer of Babylon, marshalling the array, and causing
altars to be hastily erected at intervals. Gurls strewing flowers precede the
procession, at the head of which is the goddess of Peace with a horn of
plenty and a palm-branch, and behind her appears the Persian general
Mazzens with his children beseeching clemency. Opposite this group
begins Alexander’s procession, coming towards that of the Persians. At

its head appears the conqueror hinseld (jig. 9), on a brazen quadriga,
ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOPZDIA—VOL, Iv. 29 449

66 THE FINE ARTS.

which the winged goddess of Victory herself guides to meet the goddess of
Peace. This group, in the first copy of Alexander’s Procession, of which
as is well known there are five in existence (one, properly only a plaster
sketch, in the Quirinal; one in marble, for Count Sommariva; a new
sketch, wrought entirely anew and of half size, in the Museum; a frieze
executed in marble and of full size, after the last mentioned, for the castle
of Christiansburg; and a copy of that in the Quirinal, for the Duke of
Leuchtenberg), was quite differently and in general more quietly arranged,
and only the copy in the castle of Christiansburg has it as it here appears.
Behind this group begins the victorious procession of the army with Alex-
ander’s armor-bearer, followed by Bucephalus with his grooms leading
him; next Alexander’s generals, Hepheestion, Parmenio, and Amyntas;
after whom comes an adjutant, and then the wonderful group of horsemen in
pl. 9, fig. 10. This group likewise is not found in the Quirinal copy, but
was composed for Christiansburg and adopted in the copy of Sommariva.
After this follows a very beautiful one of four horsemen, and after these
the group of horse and foot in jig. 11; these again are followed by an
elephant, as a symbol of the spoils of war, loaded with conquered weapons,
and the famous casket which Alexander withheld from the booty, to keep
in it his copy of Homer which everywhere accompanied him; and after it
a captive Persian chieftain. The whole procession is closed in all the
copies by a group in which Thorwaldsen himself appears viewing the pro-
cession; but in Count Sommariva’s copy Thorwaldsen appears in an
animated attitude explaining the whole procession to Count Sommariva
and his son.

Of Thorwaldsen’s pieces on mythological subjects we will mention only
his Venus Victria with the apple of Eris, in the act of seizing her garments
to put them on again (fig. 4), for Lord Lucan; the Three Graces (fig. 5), for
the Duke of Augustenburg, a charming composition ; and the Apollo (pl. 8,
jig. 6), executed for the Countess Woronzow, the model of which, in place
of the trunk of a tree, has the Delphic tripod. Of his mythological and
historical bas-reliefs we will instance only in addition to those mentioned
above, his beautiful relief of Achiiles and Briseis from Homer's Mliad, V.
345 et seq., which is copied in pl.9, fig.6. This relief was Thorwaldsen’s
first production of the kind in Rome. It was executed while the Jason was
being blocked out; and it laid the foundation of Thorwaldsen’s fame as a
master of composition, which he ever after retained. This relief has been
twice transferred to marble, once for the Duke of Bedford in Woburn
Abbey, and once (before that) for Herr von Ropp in Mitau, when the
composition was somewhat altered. Here also should be mentioned the
two celebrated reliefs of Wight and Morning. Of subjects taken from the
Christian religion we can allude only to the colossal Chrest and the twelve
Apostles, the Angel of Baptism, Christ’s procession to Golgotha and
several other bas-reliefs in the cathedral of Copenhagen, whose gable is orna-
mented with one of Thorwaldsen’s most wonderful groups in detached figures,
representing St. John the Baptist preaching in the Desert. In addition
to the above works, Thorwaldsen designed and modelled a considerable

459 |

PAINTING. a

number of epitaphs and monuments, e.g. the monument of Pope Pius VIL,
already mentioned, of Copernicus in Warsaw, of Count Potocki in Cracow,
of the Duke of Leuchtenberg in Munich, of the electoral Prince Maximilian
of Bavaria in the same city, of Conradin of Suabia in Naples, of Schiller in
Stuttgard, of Gutenberg in Maintz, &c. The statue of Schiller’s monument
is copied in pl. 11, fig. 7, and jigs. 8 and 9 show two of the reliefs of the
pedestal; of these fig. 8 is the front, representing an apotheosis of Schiller
(the two Zodiacal signs are those of the months of Schiller’s birth and
death), and jig. 9 is the rear; the two sides contain hovering angels. 7g. 4
represents the statue of Gutenberg’s monument, which as a statue is
altogether ‘superior to that of David (jig. 3). J/g. 6 is a relief from the
base, representing the invention of movable types; and jig. 5 is another
relief which represents the first execution of the art of printing and Guten-
berg in the act of examining a proof-sheet. Characteristic attributes are
given to the statue itself, which holds movable type in its right and the
newly printed Bible in its left hand.

Ii. PAINTING.

As the sense of form, so too the sense of color is deeply implanted in the
nature of man; and we meet in all times and in all countries with proofs
that men have practised the art of painting in some mode or other, even
though it be limited to staining or painting their own bodies or the objects
which they have carved or constructed. The question has been asked,
Which of the two arts is the older, painting or sculpture? It would lead us
too far to enter here into a discussion of this question: still it appears to us
that sculpture must almost of necessity have preceded that painting to
which the term “art” can be applied; for to us it seems easier for the
uncultivated man to mould soft clay into the shapes of objects, and even to
execute images of them in hard stone, imperfectly to be sure, than to repre-
sent raised objects at different distances and hence perspectively, by draw-
ing on a plane surface. A proof of the correctness of our supposition is
furnished by the fact that we have plastic works of the Indians, Medes, Baby-
lonians, and Persians, which are even brought to a certain degree of perfec-
tion; while of their paintings not a trace is to be found, if we except a few
instances where colors are spread over walls and ceilings or over sculptures,
whose antiquity, moreover, seems hardly established with sufficient certainty.

We must divide our brief survey of the history of painting, as we did
that of sculpture, into two great periods, the painting of antiquity and that
of the middle ages and modern times.

1. ANTIQUITY.

The period of antiquity extends from the time when we meet with the
451

68 THE FINE ARTS.

first traces of painting properly so called, ¢.¢. the endeavor to represent
corporeal objects with the colors belonging to them on a plane surface,
among the Egyptians,down to the utter decline of this art at the time of the
introduction of the Christian religion.

A. The Egyptians.

We have found among the Egyptians the evidences of a considerable
degree of culture, as compared with other ancient nations, in their architec-
ture and sculpture as well as in other arts of scientific and social life; and
the same is the case with respect to painting, although this stood at a con-
siderably lower degree of advancement than the plastic art.

The painting of the Egyptians commences with the coloring of statues
and reliefs, and does not change its character through being transferred to
a level surface, whether it be walls, or tombs, or hypogeea, or the outside or
inside of mummy-chests, or the byssus wrappers of mummies, or rolls of
papyrus. The colors, mixed with glue or wax, are applied to the stone, or
in the case of mummy-chests to a thin layer of gypsum, without regard to
light and shadow; and without mixing or shading. Thesame simple color-
ing materials are employed everywhere in the same manner, with some
though a very slight regard to the natural local colors, although sometimes
a symbolical signification appears to be aimed at. To men is usually given
a peculiar flesh color; women have somewhat more of a yellowish tinge;
quadrupeds are usually red, birds for the most part green and blue, and so
too is water. But everywhere the same type occurs in the drawings to
which we have alluded in speaking of the reliefs. The Egyptians remained
in drawing pretty much as if they were dealing with round sculptures, a
new proof that sculpture is older than painting; and even in the ripest age
of their art they stand at the point where other nations usually begin: they
never got beyond the straight, angular, scarcely waved strokes of the first
cutlines of their figures, and to these figures they gave very little action, so
that one is almost exactly like the other. The position and play of the
muscles, together with the manifold variations which they produce in the
body according to its different inflexions, the Egyptians, if acquainted with
them, were unable to imitate in drawing and painting, on account of their
ignorance of chiaroscuro. Still it excites our astonishment to behold in
these paintings, how defective soever they may be, in the royal tombs, on
the ceilings of Denderah and Syene, and on the overturned Sphinx at
Heliopolis, the same glowing colors and the same perfect freshness that
they exhibited at the time of their execution thousands of years ago. Count
Caylus ascribed this circumstance to a mordant added to the color; yet
colors usually suffer by the addition of sharp mordants, and hence we are
tempted to attribute it rather to an admixture of wax, by means of which
the colors were made to penetrate deeper into the stone. It may also be
possible, according to the opinion of some antiquarians, that the reliefs of
the Egyptians were moulded, after the fashion of owr clay models, out of a
plastic, colored mass, which gradually acquired the hardness of stone; and

such compositions we have at the present day,which become hard enough
452

PAINTING. 69

to strike sparks with a steel. According to this view their reliefs and
paintings were a sort of mosaic prepared in a moist state. Perhaps we
have here the first trace of fresco painting, an opinion which seems in the
highest degree probable.

But although these Egyptian paintings may rank very low as artistic
productions, yet for the study of the history of the manners and customs of
the Egyptians they are of inestimable value; for they afford us an insight
into the domestic and social life of the people which scarcely leaves anything
to be desired. This is especially true of the paintings which adorn the
royal tombs and the Egyptian tombs in general, as these paintings usually
relate to the former occupations of the deceased (see Architecture p. 10,
or p. 10 of this volume). Thus we find in one tomb scenes from the life of a
shepherd or of a husbandman, in another hunting scenes, in a third,
fishing, &c. In one grave we find represented arms and implements of
war, in another musical instruments, and a third shows us the religious and
domestic usages and institutions of the Egyptians in their smallest details.
The scene in pl. 12, fig. 1, will serve as an example. It represents the
hallowing of the water of the Nile, a domestic ceremony which took place at
each overflow of the river. The Nile water is celebrated for its palatable
and salubrious qualities, and at the time of the overflow a stock of it was
laid up in every household. Our view represents the interior of an Egyp-
tian house. We see the whole family assembled in the principal apartment,
with the master of the house at their head, and engaged in the act of
blessing the water, of which we see a stock already stored up together with
other provisions along the upper part of the walls; while other vessels of water
are being brought in, as it appears,from out of doors, which have just been
drawn. In the upper corner of the picture we see, in a sort of green-
house or garden-house, a similar transaction going on. Another Egyptian
picture is given in fig. 2, in which two parties are seen playing a game
which bears a very close resemblance to our chess. In these two pictures
will be found confirmed the assertion which we made respecting the
drawing and the monotonous attitudes of the figures; although it cannot be
denied but there are many points, as e. g. the distinction between the races
of mankind, which evince a talent for accurate observation. Both of these
paintings are from tombs. In the temples paintings are of rarer occurrence,
and were in general confined to the coloring of reliefs; but where actual
paintings exist, as in the halls of Carnak, they relate for the most part to
historical events and to sacred rites.

B. The Etruscans.

We have already, in speaking of the sculptures of the Etruscans, had
occasion to express our opinions respecting the origin and the progress of
civilization of this people and concerning the remains of sculptures and
castings which have come down from them to our times. Of their skill in
painting and drawing we also possess valuable relics in the wall-paintings
of the tombs, the pictures on vases, and the engravings on metallic mirrors.

The subjects delineated were usually taken from domestic life or from their
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70 THE FINE ARTS.

religious myths. The drawing is rather meagre, the forms conventional
without imitation of nature, and the drapery is indicated by fine lines
rather stiffly and without being divided into masses. The features are’
usually destitute of expression except that they seem inclining to a smile.
The coloring consists of colors laid on simply and separately without light
and shade, and constantly reminds us of its Egyptian origin. In later
times Grecian art exerted a great influence on the Etruscans, and the later
Etruscan vases are in no respect to be distinguished from the Greek; in
the ornaments especially, the Greek feeling for the beautiful is far more
prominently active. The Etruscan paintings which we possess exhibit a
progressive improvement in the style from the formally severe to the light
sketchy manner. The localities where the greatest quantities of vases
have been found are Arezzo, Camino, Chiusi, Corneto (the ancient Tarqui-
nium, where are also the hypogeea of which we have spoken under Architec-
ture, p. 36), Viterbo, Volterra, and Vulci; these vases exhibit the utmost
variety in their forms and sizes. In pl. 12, jigs. 8-7, and pl. 13, figs. 1-4,
we have copied a number of patterns.

Pl. 12, fig. 3, represents a vase the painting of which is displayed in
jig. 7. The sitting figure, probably a young bride, holds in her right hand
a mirror, and in her left apparently an apple, both attributes of Venus, the
goddess of love. Before her stands a winged genius, probably Amor, who
is talking to her. On one side is a female attendant with an apple and a
wreath, and on the other a maiden bringing a bowl containing fruit. The
vase is 1 foot 24 inches high. PJ. 12, jig. 4, shows a Bacchante sitting
between two fauns and holding a timbrel in her hand. One of the fauns
stands with his left arm resting on his knee and his foot supported on a
box, joking with the bacchante and offering her fruit in a bowl. The other
faun, with his foot resting on a rock, touches the timbrel with one hand and
points with the other to the broken fragments of a bowl. The female figure
is white; all the rest is orange and black. The vase is 11 inches high.
The vase-painting, fig. 5, represents Electra at the tomb of her father Aga-
memnon. Near her stands a large water vessel for libations, and beside it
an unguent vessel and a girdle. Before Electra stands Orestes with a vase
and a spear. He wears only a cap and a light cloak. The figure with
the petasus (travelling hat) is doubtless Pylades ; and the caduceus on which
he leans points him out asa messenger. One of Electra’s maids stands
near. The whole is ascene from the Electra of Sophocles. The neck of
the vase is ornamented with a combat between a horseman and a foot-
soldier. On the vase jig. 6 there is depicted in the middle a sepulchral
monument in the form of a little temple resting on a double substructure.
In the interior is seen the deceased in a sitting posture, holding a jewel
casket, and only covered with a light garment. Before her stands an
attendant with a fan and a wreath of flowers. Near the monument stand
a male and three female figures, who are bringing offerings to the dead,
chiefly articles of female ornament. This vase, which is 2 feet, 23 inches
high, and is doubtless a cinerary urn, was once sold for 270 dollars.

Pl. 18, fig. 1,is a black vase 44 inches high, on which a female head and

454

PAINTING. 71

several ornaments are painted in white. 2g. 2 shows a vase on which is
a Bacchante with a thyrsus and a wreath also; the other side of this vase is
given in jig. 4, and shows a youth walking with a staff. 7g. 2 exhibits a
cinerary urn with ornaments painted on it; and jig. 4 also a pitcher with a
handle, on which is painted a priest sitting under palms. Jig. 3 is the
reverse of the vase in pl. 12, jig. 5, and represents Iphigenia on the altar
of Diana Taurica, and near her Orestes and Pylades. According to
Millingen, the figure seated on an altar is Io (in which case the horn would
indicate her metamorphosis into a heifer); she is imploring the protection
of a king, behind whom appears a Satyr. A companion of Io is awaiting
the event. Behind the altar stands on a pillar the statue of the goddess,
near which hovers a winged genius.

Some of the vases have black figures on a red ground, others black or
violet figures on a yellow ground, and others yellow or red figures on a
black ground. Sometimes we find blackish or black vessels with figures
and ornaments slightly raised or depressed. One of the finest vases was
found in the year 1845 by Alexander Frangais, at Chiusi. It is very large
and is now at Florence; it has black figures on a red ground, with white and
red lights laid on and the finest sgraffito drawings accompanied by 115
Greek inscriptions relative to the mythological scenes (among which is the
Wedding of Peleus and Thetis) and giving the names of the potter, Ergoti-
mos, and of the painter, Klitias.

OC. The Greeks and Romans.

Among the Greeks also painting became an independent art later than
sculpture; which perhaps was partly owing to the fact that Grecian
civilization had little need of it. Homer speaks only of garments with
figures interwoven, of ships painted over, and of horse-trappings of colored
ivory; and in his time, and doubtless long afterwards, painting consisted
wholly in coloring images and reliefs of clay and wood. The first advances
in painting are ascribed to the Corinthians and Sicyonians; and it is
asserted, though without much credibility, that Cleanthes of Corinth
invented linear drawing, that Cleophantes of Corinth was the inventor of
monochromes, or paintings of single colors, and that Eumacros of Athens
was the first@who distinguished men from women in his drawings, perhaps
by a lighter color.

In Corinth, where the manufacture of fictile vases attained such a pitch
of perfection, we find the first union of painting with the art of pottery,
which at the same time was in vogue among the Etruscans. The fabrication
of vases was divided into two main branches: the light yellow vases without
gloss, of broad and depressed forms, with red, brown, violet, and black
figures, and animal shapes mostly of an arabesque character; and the red
and dark yellow varnished vases, of a more tasteful form, and with black
figures chiefly of a mythological nature. Both kinds were made in Greece
as well as in Italy, and the oldest are distinguished by the rudeness and
clumsiness of the figures, and especially by the stiffness of their attitudes,

the scenes they represent belonging mostly to the Dionysan myth.
455

72 THE FINE ARTS.

After the 50th Olympiad, the art of painting, by means of Cimon of
Cleonze and others, made very considerable progress, especially in the
perspective treatment of subjects. Cimon of Cleonze at that time painted
in the Herzeum the picture dedicated by Mandrocles the architect, which
represented the bridge over the Bosphorus and the passage of Darius upon
it. Vase-painting was more limited in its resources, and the prevailing
species, with black figures on a dark red ground, exhibit all the peculi-
arities of the old style, viz. the excessive prominence of the chief muscles,
the formal regularity in the folds of the drapery and the postures of the
figures, and the angular abruptness of their movements.

In the period when Phidias, Praxiteles, Lysippus, and Leochares fur-
nished specimens of the highest excellence in the plastic art, that of painting
also attained, in three great stages, to a perfection which made it a worthy
rival of sculpture. Ancient painting, however, remained always more
closely allied to sculpture than that of modern times, by reason of the
predominance of form over light and shade; the paintings of this period too
are characterized by a certain separation of the figures in order not to con-
fuse the outlines, a uniform distribution of light, and an avoidance when-
ever possible of foreshortenings.

The first painter of great reputation was Polygnotus of Thasus, who
resided in Athens, and whose pictures are distinguished by accurate draw-
ing, a noble and distinct mode of characterizing the mythological figures, and
charming female forms. His great paintings were planned with an exten-
sive knowledge of historical legends and according to architectonico-sym-
metrical principles. He was the son of the painter Aglaophon, and
painted for the Peecile, the Theseion, the portico of the Propylea, the
Delphian temple, &c. Pausanias has left us descriptions of these paintings,
especially of those at Delphi; after which the brothers Riepenhausen have
attempted to recompose them. Next to Polygnotus are placed Iphion of
Corinth, Micon of Athens, Dionysus of Colophon, and many others; none
of whom, however, equalled the first named master. The first who made
a deeper study of the gradations of light and shade was Apollodorus of
Athens, who is hence called the shadow-painter (sciagrapher). He formed
his style after that of Agatharcos of Athens, who painted for the stage.

With Zeuxis begins the second period of improved paintinggin which the
art attained the power of deceiving the senses; we will allude only to the
grapes of Zeuxis which the birds pecked at, and to the painted curtain
of Parrhasius, which one of his brother painters tried to push aside in order
to see the picture behind it. Zeuxis particularly excelled in the delinea-
tion of sublime majesty (Zeus on his throne surrounded by the gods) and
female beauty (Helen at Crotona); while Parrhasius was preéminent for
the rich variety of his compositions and the perfect appearance of roundness
which he gave to his figures. Besides Zeuxis and Parrhasius, who formed
the so-called Asiatic in contradistinction to the Attic school, Pamphilus
originated the Sicyonian school, which was distinguished for scientific
cultivation, and for accuracy and facility of drawing. Celebrated masters
of this school, in addition to Pamphilus of Amphipolis, were Pausias of

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PAINTING. 73

Sicyon (figures of children), Euphranor of Corinth (heroes and gods), &c. At
that time also (104th to 110th Olympiad) encaustic painting, if not invented,
was considerably improved upon.

Before all, however, ranks the great Apelles, who united the advantages
of his native Ionia, grace, sensual charms, and rich coloring, to the scien-
tific severity of the Sicyonian school. His most charming picture was his
Anadyomene im Cos, in the temple of Aisculapius, which was brought by
Augustus to Rome, but was already quite decayed in the time of Nero.
He showed that heroic subjects were also suited to his genius, and especially
portraits in the grand style, as e. g. that of Alexander wielding the thunder-
bolts, of his father, and of his generals. Along with Apelles, Protogenes and
Theon distinguished themselves. Much praise was bestowed upon the picture
of Nausicaa by Protogenes in the portico of the Propylea at Athens, in
which was depicted a harbor with vessels of state, and upon the Matricide
of Orestes by Theon. Of all these famous paintings we possess nothing but
obscure accounts of authors and later imitations; yet the vase-paintings of
this period, with their bright, thinly distributed figures on a dark ground,
afford some idea of the degree of excellence attained in the art of correct
design, if we may venture to draw conclusions from the works of simple
artisans as to the productions of the first artists. Polychromes (paintings
in several colors) are also found on the vases of this period. Pl. 14, jigs. 1
and 2, are the two sides of a beautiful specimen of these vases 2 feet 7
inches in height. The front side relates to a festival of Bacchus. A young
man holding a lance is seated on his chlamys, and his hat has fallen off;
he is resting after a war-dance, such as was performed at the Dionysia.
Near him is a clothed Bacchante holding a thyrsus and a laurel-branch.
The picture on the reverse side likewise refers to these festivals. We have
here a pair of Dendrophori, such as appear in the Dionysia, with branches
of laurel and other trees. Rich ornaments accompany both pictures. 72g. 3
represents the pictures on a small vase 122 inches high painted with
various colors. A woman is seated at a tomb, which she is adorning with
various fillets by way of offerings to the dead, while a richly clothed young
man, bearing two spears, points to the foot of the monument. The
vase was found by Sir William Gell in Attica; its ground is a pinkish
yellow, and the drawings and contours are laid on in red. In our copy all
the half-shade tones of the figures and ornaments are bright red; those
next dark are of a brick red; and,the border of the youth’s chlamys, the
upper garment of the female, and the 2d, 4th, 8th, 12th, and 14th rings
of the pillar, as also the ornaments @ la grecque, are green. The neck and
foot of the vase are black.

In the period of Alexander down to the destruction of Corinth, painting
was zealously cultivated; yet none of the masters of the three above-named
schools attained to the fame of their great predecessors, inasmuch as hasty
painting, which the state processions in the cities where the rulers resided
rendered necessary, spoiled many an artist. At this time too arose rhypa-
rography (the painting of low life, as it is called), and scenography was
applied to decorating the palaces of the great. As the love of splendor

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74 THE FINE ARTS.

now demanded that the floors as well as the walls should be decorated with
eolors, the mosaic art arose, which quickly developed itself, and undertook
to represent great combats of heroes and animated battle scenes. The
painting of fictile vases, on the other hand, ceased about this time: for we find
none whose style indicates a later period of art. The first mosaic pavements
were made by Sosos of Pergamus, and consisted of fictile cubes, which were
mostly laid in beautiful patterns (pl. 13, jigs. 19 and 21), although they
often had a separate mosaic picture in the centre. One of these mosaics
exhibited in the middle a cantharus (drinking-vessel) with doves drinking
and sunning themselves, a picture which was afterwards repeated in the
villa of Hadrian and is now preserved in the Capitoline Museum (jig. 17).
Another centre-piece of a mosaic pavement of this sort exhibits several
masks, an ancient imitation of which is now in the Vatican (jig. 16).
Several of the decks in the state vessel of King Hiero of Syracuse were
inlaid with mosaics. Pl. 14, jig. 6, is a copy of a very beautiful mosaic,
now in the Villa Albani, which was found in 1760 at Arpino in the King-
dom of Naples, and on which is represented the deliverance of Hesione by
Hercules. The hero has slain the sea-monster with arrows, and Telamon is
helping Hesione down from the rock, on which we see the traces of chains.
In the background appears a burning house, alluding to the destruction of
Troy, whereby Hercules avenged the faithlessness of King Laomedon, the
father of Hesione. Relief-mosaics were also made use of as medallions, of
which the head, pl. 13, jig. 18, and the statue of Theodorie, of which we
have already slat p- £7, are specimens.

The plunderings and denecieiian to which Greece was subjected and
the transportation of its treasures of art to Rome, occurrences of which we
have already treated in our history of the plastic art, produced also the
downfall of painting in Greece, and the artists betook themselves to Rome,
in which new abode Greek art is to be looked for from this time forth.

In the age of Cesar the art of painting bloomed once more, but soon
again faded. Subjects were then chosen of the deepest tragic pathos, as for
instance the pictures by Timomachos of Byzantium, of Ajax and Medea
before the murder of her Children; although portrait-painting was also
much in vogue. Under the emperors we find the main branch of the art,
easel-painting, entirely neglected ; while wall-painting, as the handmaid of
luxury, was practised in preference. Scenography, which, especially in
Asia Minor, had taken a fantastic direction, and spurned all the rules of
architecture, was transferred to the decoration of apartments, where it was
developed if possible in a still more arbitrary manner ; and artists pleased
themselves with working up a transparent and airy architecture into forms
of vegetation and other fantastic shapes. An example is furnished in the
architecture of the two wall-paintings from Pompeii (pl. 12, jig. 8,a Roman
priestess, and jig. 9 a songstress), where the excessively slender columns
are crowned by the ornamental pinnacles which we have placed at the sides
of the pictures.

A peculiar style of landscape painting was introduced in the reign of
Augustus by Ludius, who produced wall-paintings containing villas, towns,

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sea-ports, &c., animated with figures of persons engaged in all sorts of
pursuits and often in very comical situations. In ancient buildings there
are still many remains of this period of art, the date of whose execution
extends down to the time of the Antonines. To these belong e.g. the
paintings from the pyramid of Cestius, and the large and constantly increas-
ing collection of wall-paintings from Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Stabie,
as well as those in the tomb of the Nasones. In‘all of these the art exhibits,
even in its degenerate state, an inexhaustible invention and productiveness :
everything too is depicted with lively colors and simple illumination, and
is clearly and agreeably arranged with much taste for harmony of color
and a general architectural effect. We here furnish a few specimens of the
painting of this period. The oldest is a painting found in one of the
subterranean chambers in the garden of the Villa Pamfili in Rome (pl. 13,
jig. 8); it is a fresco representing a satyric or comic scene, probably the
flight of a Bacchante from a drunken Faun. The nuptial celebration,
jig. T, is of great antiquarian value, and is one of the finest fresco paintings
that have come down to us from antiquity; it was found under Pope
Clement III. not far from the Arch of Gallienus, near Santa Maria Maggiore
and the Baths of Titus, and has been called, after the villa Aldobrandini,
where it was afterwards preserved, “the Aldrobrandini Wedding.” This
fresco is now in the Museum of the Vatican. Winckelmann explains it to
be the wedding of Peleus and Thetis, at which the goddesses of the Seasons
or three Muses are singing and playing the epithalamium. The bride
seated on the torus is exhorted by Aphrodite or Peitho to receive the bride-
groom who is waiting on the threshold. A charis stands ready to anoint
her. In the back part of the chamber the bride’s bath is preparing. Zoega
and Heinrich Meyer perceive in the figures portrayed only ordinary
mortals, and consider, no doubt correctly, that the whole is simply a repre-
sentation of the Greek wedding ceremonials. The figures are rather more
than two palms high, and are painted very lightly and thinly but with a
fine feeling for harmony and the force of colors.

Of the innumerable paintings with which archeology has been enriched
by the excavations in Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Stabis, we will mention
only a few. To these belong, e.g. Achilles and Briseis, from Pompeii.
We here behold the Peleide Achilleus seated on a throne against which
leans the famous shield, and causing the weeping Briseis to be delivered by
his friend Patroclus to the herald, near whom Mercury appears. It is
interesting to compare this design (pl. 12, fig. 11) with the manner in which
Thorwaldsen has treated the same scene in his relief (pl. 9, jig. 6). It
having been declared by an oracle that Troy could not be taken without
Achilles, but that if he went there he would meet with an early death, his
mother Thetis disguised him in female garments and placed him at the
court of Lycomedes king of Scyros. A painting from Pompeii represents
his discovery there by Ulysses (pl. 12, jig. 12). The latter came to the
court of the king disguised as a merchant, and proffered his wares, among
which were some arms. As the women were inspecting the goods, he
caused a trumpet to be suddenly sounded ; the disguised Achilles unthink-

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76 THE FINE ARTS.

ingly seized a sword in his martial zeal, and was thus detected. On the
shield which the crafty Ulysses has brought with him we see Achilles
in the act of being instructed by the centaur Chiron in the use of arms.
More peaceful scenes are depicted on two other wall-paintings from Pompeii
(jigs. 8 and 9), taken from the edifice called the “‘ Pantheon,” which portray
a priestess and a songstress surrounded by rich although fantastic architecture.
In both pictures the drawing is excellent and the coloring beautiful; the
combination of the colors too evinces much taste. Of the wall-paintings of
Herculaneum we will instance only the picture of Warcissus (pl. 13, fig. 6),
who, while gazing at his own image in the watery mirror, falls in love with
himself, and wastes away with desire. In the background we perceive
Cupid, who in silent sadness is casting away his torch, or an angel of
death with his torch inverted. Another picture from Herculaneum (pl. 12,
Jig. 10) is a monochrome (a picture of one color), which represents Z’heseus
preventing the Rape of Huyppodamia by the Centaur Eurytos. The attitudes
of Theseus and the Centaur remind one pretty strongly of Canova’s famous
statue of Theseus slaying the Minotaur (now in Vienna). A pendant to
this monochrome is found in a painting executed in several colors (pl. 13,
Jig. 5), likewise from Herculaneum, which represents Theseus the slayer of
the Minotaur receiving the thanks of the Athenian youth. As specimens
of the manner in which the walls were divided for painting, we give (jig. 15)
the painting on a ceiling, and (pl. 14, fig. 4) a wall in the sepulchral vault
of the Naso family in the neighborhood of Rome. The former, which
occupies about a third of the whole ceiling, shows in the central field,
surrounded by rich ornaments, two dancing Bacchantes; and in the lateral
fields a horse crossing a stream,and Mercury bringing the apple to Paris
and summoning him to the famous judgment which resulted in the rape of
Helen and the Trojan war. The wall-painting exhibits most probably in
its principal field the forms of Ovid and his wife Perilla, accompanied by
Mercury and the Muse Erato.

In the age of Hadrian, painting, along with the other arts, must have
revived for a brief period, for Lucian mentions as belonging to this time the
pictures of Attion, which he ranks along with those of the best masters,
and Hadrian himself was a rhyparographer. But after this the decline of
painting becomes all the more rapid and perceptible ; the earlier luxuriance
of composition and of arabesque disappears, and a clumsy and poor sim-
plicity joimed to a sensual fondness for the delineation of the nude form
takes its place. This is particularly conspicuous in the paintings of the
time of the Antonines and of Constantine. We will here give some speci-
mens of paintings from the baths of Titus and of Constantine. From the
former are the two pictures in pl. 12, jigs. 13 and 14; the former of which
represents a rural scene, a father letting his two boys ride on a goat, while
the mother beats a tambourine before them. In the second picture is
represented a game of ball, probably that called by the ancients pila
trigonalis, which was a sort of exercise usually taken before the bath.
From the ruins of the baths of Constantine we take two representations
of Apollo, the Pythian (pl. 18, jig. 9) with his bow and arrow, and the

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PAINTING, 77

Delphian with his lyre; also two nymphs or dancing girls (jigs. 11 and 12)
as parts of arabesques, an Amorette with bow and arrow (jig. 13),
and another climbing after a fruit (jig. 14); and lastly the mosaic floors
(pl. 13, jigs. 20 and 22) from the Basilica, which will sufficiently confirm
our assertion respecting the meagreness of the style and the poverty of the
arabesques.

2. Taz Mippte Aces anp Mopern Tres.

We can very fitly divide the painting of the middle ages and modern
times into two periods, of which the first extends to Cimabue, the precursor
of the modern period, while the latter embraces the modern and the latest
times. |

A. From the Introduction of the Christian Leligion down to
Cimabue (d. 1300).

With the downfall of the blooming mythology of antiquity, there
appeared in its place a more earnest and simpler religion; which, while in
itself less adapted to embodiment in visible forms, was not yet sufficiently
elaborated for introduction into the domain of art. On the cessation of the
living study of nature and the decline of all higher technical skill, the arts
naturally sank, and of course painting among them, to a lower and lower
ebb. Still there was zealously preserved a sort of manual skill of the
painter and sculptor, which had assumed the nature of a handicraft, along
with the principles and forms of ancient art. Christianity first appropriated
to its own use the forms and even many of the subjects of ancient art, and
gradually shaped for itself, and not without artistic feeling, a cycle of
images of its own, whose introduction however was opposed by the repeated
assaults on works of art of which we have already spoken in treating of
sculpture. In the Christian church there arose by degrees fixed and standard
forms for the holy personages, a process which was furthered by the suppo-
sition, that by going back to the oldest representations the actual form was
preserved. The faces, although rudely executed, were shaped after an
ideal fundamental form; the costume in the main was Grecian; and the
drapery was thrown into great masses, after the ancient manner. It was
not till long afterwards that the peculiarities of the middle ages in dress
and gestures penetrated into the world of antiquity. But nowhere do we
perceive an independent treatment of nature, the renewed study of which
in the 13th and 14th centuries produced a fresh revival of art, and at the
same time liberated it from those typical and lifeless forms which are still
preserved in the pictures of the Greek church as the last relics of a perished
world of art. The pictures which have come down to us from these times
are chiefly mosaics, and in fact it appears as if the mosaic art had almost
entirely superseded painting with the usual colors; for with the exception
of the illuminations of the latter centuries of this period no pictures hardly

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78 THE FINE ARTS.

but mosaics have come down to us. Thus in the reign of Justinian,
John, bishop of Naples, caused a mosaic representing the Zransfigura-
tion of Christ to be executed for the Basilica Stefania; and even still
earlier, Paulinus bishop of Nola (431) had the portico of the Basilica of St.
Felix adorned with paintings, in which instead of encaustic (cera liquens)
mosaic was employed. About the year 441, in the reign of Sixtus IIL,
were begun the mosaics in the Basilica of St: Paul on the road leading to
Ostia; and in 462, under Pope Hilarius, those of the church of St. John in
the Lateran; and under Simplicius, those of Santa Maria Maggiore. The
mosaic fragment representing the head of the apostle Paul, which we have
copied (pl. 14, jig. 7), is from St John’s in the Lateran. It is preserved in
the Triclinium of Pope Leo.

In like manner the succeeding popes proceeded to adorn the churches
partly with mosaic and partly with fresco paintings, although of the latter
we have gradually fewer and fewer. Thus art is greatly indebted to the
popes, who alone prevented its utter extinction in those barbarous centuries,
and encouraged the other clergy to imitate their example. It is on this
account that all the artistic productions of those times are to be sought
either in the catacombs or in the churches. That art notwithstanding made
no considerable ‘advance, is easily conceived ; and if the reliefs on Trajan’s
Column, one of which, vz. Trajan receiving the submission of a vanquished
king, we have copied in jig. 8, be compared with the mosaics of the 8th
century, ¢. g. that of Christ sending forth the Apostles (jig. 10), now to be
found on the Triclinium of Leo IV. in St. John’s in the Lateran, the
beholder cannot but remark a considerable decline as respects both compo-
sition and drawing. With what rapid strides this decline must have
proceeded is shown by a comparison of the above mentioned mosaic of
about the year 797 with the mosaic executed in 705 for the Basilica of St.
Peter and now preserved in the church of Sta. Maria in Cosmedin (jig. 9),
which represents the Adoration of the Magi, and in which many beautiful
points can still be observed that characterize the work of Greek artists, in
whose hands the practice of art then almost exclusively lay.

Art remained at the same point down to the 10th century; the mosaic
eopied in fig. 12 will give an idea of the skill of that period. It was executed
at the close of the 10th century; for it formerly adorned the tomb of the
emperor Otto IT. (d. 983), which stood under the portico of the old St. Peter’s
church, and is one of the few works of art that were saved when that church
was hastily pulled down. It is now preserved in the crypt of the present
St. Peter’s. The picture represents Christ between the apostles Peter and
Paul; and singularly enough Peter appears with three keys, of which the
learned have never yet given asatisfactory explanation, although they regard
it as a symbol of the closer union of celestial, terrestrial, and spiritual power.

After this period fresco-paintings begin again to occur in greater numbers,
while traces of easel-paintings likewise make their appearance once more.
Thus Pope Calixtus, when in 1120 he took prisoner the anti-pope Bordino,com-
memorated the event by a painting in the chambers of the Vatican ; and Cle-
ment III. caused the Lateran palace to be repaired and adorned with pictures.

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PAINTING. 79

Of the mosaics of that time a specimen is furnished in the Christ’s head
(pl. 14, fig. 11) from the church of San Miniato in Florence, which was
executed in 1196, and which Vasari describes as one of the works that
already exhibit an advance towards perfection in art.

The miniature paintings or illuminations of the last centuries were
properly the form in which easel-painting had taken refuge after being
supplanted by the frescoes and mosaics; and thus ancient manuscripts
furnish us with an opportunity of observing and studying the gradual decline
of art. Figs. 5* and5” are specimens of this class of paintings belonging
to the 8th century. They are taken from a Greek manuscript, formerly
in the library of the Elector of the Palatinate in Heidelberg, but now
in the Vatican. The entire painting, of which we present here only
a fragment, portrays the history of Joshua in a series of representations,
which, like the reliefs on Trajan’s column, form a continuous band. The
portion here copied begins with Josh. ix. 22, 27, where Joshua detects the
artifice of the Gibeonites, but pardons them and condemns them to bondage
to Israel. Next we have Joshua’s battle with the five kings of the Amorites,
where, in order to complete his victory, he commands the sun and moon to
stand still (x. 12, 13). Joshua takes the kings of the Amorites in a cave
(x. 17, 18); when he has destroyed their army, he causes them to be
led forth, and orders all the men of Israel to put their feet upon the kings’
necks (so far jig. 56), after which he orders them to be hanged (jig. 5°).

About the year 1200 mention is made of a Greek painter Theophanes,
who settled in Venice and there established a school of painting; among
his pupils was one Gelasio of Ferrara. About the year 1219 a painter
named Tullius of Ferrara executed a picture of St. Hrancis of Assisi; and
another of the same saint was painted by Bonaventura Berlinghierl. We
now gradually approach the time when the history of the arts presents us
with living and breathing monuments. To these belong e. g. the works of
Guido of Siena, of Andrea Tafi, Buffalmaco di Giunta of Pisa, Margheritone
of Arezzo, and lastly of Cimabue, the father of modern painting, who first
discarded those hardnesses which are usually characterized as the Greek
manner. His paintings manifest independent study and give some indica-
tions of chiaroscuro. His first great picture, a Madonna on the throne, is
in the church of Sta. Maria Novella in Rome; and in that of San Francesco
in Assisi he painted several holy figures and histories. What is shown in
galleries under his name is certainly not by him.

B. From Cimabue to the latest Times.

Although Cimabue is doubtless to be regarded as the father and precursor
of modern painting, we are not to suppose that immediately before him there
were no Italian painters; nevertheless at that time there was no acquaint-
ance with the ancient pictures or the ancient statues, and the only subject
of study for the artist was nature. In the works of Giotto, a pupil of
Cimabue, we already observe an admirable use of the study of the productions
of ancient art; here consequently the hardened and angular taste ends, and
Italian art begins. The most celebrated painter who appeared immediately

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80 THE FINE ARTS.

after Giotto was Masaccio, who flourished about the year 1400; his con-
temporaries were Domenico of Venice, Vittore Pisano (Pisanello), Squar-
cione, Mantegna, and several others, who by their example and instructions
educated the great painters of the 16th century (the cinquecentists). We
see in Masaccio’s pictures not merely bodies in motion, but these bodies
have souls which breathe through their movements, while the figures are
better brought out by means of good drawing and a proper distribution of
light. In this period they first painted @ tempera (in which the colors
were mixed with the white of an egg), and it was not till afterwards that
they began to paint in oil on wood, plaster, and at length on canvas.

1. Iraty.—a. The Roman School. Wereckon among the painters of the
Roman school those born not only in Rome itself, but also in the Romagna
or anywhere in the States of the Church, and this we are in a manner com-
pelled to do as Rome has almost nothing of its own to show in the way of
talent for painting; and hence it was much later than in Florence and
elsewhere, and not till the reign of Julius IL, that art actually flourished
there. The Roman school may be said to begin with Oderigi of Gubbio,
who died in 1300 and was a good miniature painter: he along with Giotto
and Franco Bolognese ornamented books with illuminations for Boniface
VIII. He was succeeded by Guido Palmerucci and Pietro Cavallini, who
lived about the year 1342, and by whom pictures are still extant in Rome,
Assisi, and Florence. A favorite subject with artists at that time was the
Annunciation. In these paintings the angels are always represented as
youths with long flowing garments reaching to the feet and with a staff in
their hand; for the light drapery of angels belongs to a much later date.
Almost all the painters of that period added to their pictures legends in
Gothic characters. To the 14th century belong Boccardo Fabriano, Alle-
gretti Nutti, Andreas of Velletri, and several painters in Perugia. The
series of painters of the 15th century opens with Octavian Martis and
Gentile of Fabriano, whose distinguished merits were afterwards acknow-
ledged by Michael Angelo himself. He was the instructor of Giacomo
Bellini, whose sons Giovanni and Gentile are regarded as the founders of
the great Venetian school. There are still good pictures in Florence by
Gentile da Fabriana of the year 1423. His style was noble, and may be
compared to that of Giovanni da Fiesole, only the latter excels him in the
beauty of his female forms and uses gold less profusely.

A characteristic difference between the pictures of this and the succeed-
ing time is perceived in the grouping of the figures, the former exhibiting
great simplicity in this respect, while the latter observe an almost stiff and
rigidly symmetrical arrangement, which extends even to minute details.
This was particularly the case in the time of Perugino, and even Raphael
could not for a long time free himself from it.

At the close of the 15th century Urbino was not destitute of good
painters; among these are distinguished Lorenzo di San Severino and the
father of Raphael, by whom there is an Annunciation in the chapel of St.
John in St. Sebastian and in Sinigaglia, bearing the superscription “ Joh.

Sanctis Urbin.” The style of this painter is dry, but shows already an
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PAINTING. 81

approximation to that of Pietro Perugino. The works of Fra Bartolomeo
Corradini of Urbino are full of fire and vivacity, and he originated the
practice of introducing portraits into historical compositions, which was
afterwards adopted by Raphael. Excellent painters flourished at this time
in Perugia; and when Sixtus V. set about adorning the Vatican with pic-
tures, he obtained most of his artists from this place. Among them were
Benedetto Buonfigli, whose works are highly esteemed, and Pietro Vanucci
(born 1446 in Citta della Pieve, died 1524), called Pietro Perugino. Who-
ever has seen the works of this last artist must confess that his merit does
not consist solely in having been Raphael’s instructor; but that his pictures
exhibit grace, his attitudes are dignified, and his coloring lovely, although
he is not yet free from the defects of his age. His best work is preserved
in the Sala del Cambio in Perugia; he, however, was not fertile in invention
and repeated himself very often. His pupils spread themselves over all
Italy; we will mention only Guerino of Pistoja, the brothers Ubertino,
Montevarchi, and Zoppo in the Tuscan school, and in the Roman Bernardo
Pinturicchio and Sinibaldo of Perugia, which last, however, did not equal.
their master in excellence, although they were almost his mechanical
imitators, for instead of regarding Pietro’s instructions as good foundations
on which to build, they made them an easy cushion to reclineupon. But all
Pietro’s pupils did not adopt this course of stupid imitation; and had not
Andrea Luigi of Assisi early lost his sight, he would certainly have become
a formidable rival to Raphael. His extraordinary talents gained him the
cognomen of 7’ Zngegno (the Genius), and Sandrart has erroneously ascribed
to Raphael several of his works. Domenico Alfani also worked in an
independent spirit, greatly resembling Raphael, only weaker in coloring.
His reputation has been outshone by that of his son Orazio Alfani, who in
after times greatly distinguished himself, and to whom many of his father’s
works are attributed.

Raphael Sanzio (Santi), one of the greatest painters of modern times,
was born at Urbino, on Good Friday, the 28th of March, 1483; and
even in his boyhood, when his father gave him instruction in the first prin-
ciples of drawing and painting, he manifested such surprising abilities, that
his father took him at once, in 1492, to Pietro Perugino in Perugia. He
was soon engaged, along with Pinturicchio, in painting the Library at
Siena; after which he went, in 1503, to Florence, where a new light
broke in upon him from the works of Masaccio, and caused him to relin-
quish the somewhat vague manner of his master. During his abode in
Florence he is said to have become acquainted with Leonardo da Vinci and
Michael Angelo. He next went in 1508 to Rome, where he was commis-
sioned by Pope Julius II. to paint in fresco the Stanza della Segnatura.
He lived on terms of the closest intimacy with Count Castiglione, Cardinal
Bembo, and several poets and authors, and was a most amiable man.
Towards his pupils especially, of which he had a great number, he was
courteous, friendly, and ever ready to advise and essist. His constantly
increasing fame procured him great commissions. Thus he worked in 1517

for Francis I. of France and painted several pictures fer him, as the Arch-
ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOP.ZDIA.—VOL. IV. 30 465

82 THE FINE ARTS.

angel Michael, &c., but declined an invitation to the French Court.
Raphael was never married, although he had been betrothed since 1514 to
Maria niece of Cardinal Bibiena. In the year 1515 he received, after
Bramante’s death, the charge of conducting the erection of the church of
St. Peter, as also the superintendence of the antiquities in Rome. In 1517
he had drawn the Cartoons for the tapestries in the Vatican, on subjects
taken from the Bible, seven of which are still preserved in Hampton ©
Court, and had painted the Christ bearing the Cross (lo Spasimo di Sicilia)
now in Madrid. He then accompanied the Pope to Florence, where he
painted him along with Giulio de’ Medici and De Rossi (this picture is now
in the Pitti Palace in Florence). In consequence of the increasing number
of orders which he received, he could only sketch most of his pictures and
put the best touches to them, intrusting their execution to his pupils. His
restless activity so undermined his health, that he died on Good Friday in
the year 1520. He was buried in the Pantheon by the side of his betrothed.
His most distinguished pupils were Giulio Romano and Francesco Penni,
whom he made his heirs and to whom he left the completion of his works.
His last picture is the Zransfiguration, for which he received 655 ducats.
His principal works, passing over his earlier ones executed under Perugino,
were: the Marriage of Mary (lo Sposalizio), im Milan; the Madonna
del Granduca (in the Pitti Palace in Florence) ; the Holy Family, for
Canigiani (in Munich); the Lntombment of Christ (Borghese Gallery in
Rome); the Holy Family and the Madonna among the Flowers (la belle
Jardiniére) in Paris; the fresco paintings in the loggie of the Vatican,
consisting partly of arabesques, of which we have given fragments in
pl. 17, figs. 1a and 6 and 2a and 6, and in pl. 16, jigs. 3 and 4, and partly
of large historical compositions from the Bible (faphael’s Bible). The
arabesques are sketched and painted with a rich fancy and with trans-
cendent beauty, and they form an inexhaustible study for ornamental
designers. Of the historical paintings several were executed by Raphael’s
pupils. Of the pictures in the halls of the Vatican we copy one, the
School of Athens (pl. 15, fig. 1), which is equally celebrated for its compo-
sition and execution. In these halls are seen also the Despute of the
Fathers; the Parnassus with poets of ancient and modern times; the
Expulsion of Heliodorus from the Temple, the Mass of Bolsena, Attila’s
Retreat from Rome, the Conflagration of the Borgo, &c., pictures in the
execution of which Raphael’s pupils also took part. Besides these Raphael
painted Galatea and the fable of Psyche, in the Farnesina; the Sybzls, in
the church of the Madonna della Pace; the Dladonna and the Fathers of
the Church (pl. 18, fig. 1); the Madonna col Pesce (in the Escurial,
Madrid); St. Cecilia (pl. 16, fig. 1) with St. Paul, St. John, St. Augustine,
and St. Magdalen (in Bologna); a Madonna and Child (fig. 2), the
famous Madonna della Seggiola, Leo X. with his Cardinals, and the Vision
of Ezekiel (in the Pitti Palace in Florence); the celebrated Madonna
di San Sisto (in Dresden), the Transfiguration (in San Pietro in Mon-
torio), and the above mentioned Cartoons in Hampton Court, the tapestry
woven after which cost 70,000 scudi, and is stillin Rome. His portrait,
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PAINTING. 83

painted by himself (pl. 17, fig. 3), is in the Uffizi in Florence. Three

successive manners have been pointed out in Raphael’s pictures: one

rather stiff and meagre, and dry in its coloring, which he derived from

Perugino; another freer and formed on the study of the antique, in which
blooming colors, graceful forms, and tastefully arranged draperies predomi-
nate; and the last a grandiose style, in which the form prevailed more and
more over the “ motivo,” and the feeling for ideal beauty became the
measure of its characteristics. In the technical part of his art he may be
said to have been perfect, especially during the latter part of his career.

The most distinguished among Raphael’s pupils is Giulio Pippi, called
Giulio Romano (born 1492, died 1546), to whom he left a third of his
estate. Giulio worked constantly under Raphael’s eye, and hence it was
not till his master’s death that he assumed a manner of his own. His fiery
imagination led him not unfrequently into exaggeration; and thus he
formed a style of painting strongly tinctured with mannerism, which found
but too many adherents. As a proof of the quaintness and affectation that
pervaded Giulio Romano’s works, we copy his picture of Venus and Vulcan
arming Cupid (pl. 16, fig. 6). In Rome he painted the grand hall of
Constantine, and then entered the service of the Marchesa Gonzaga in
Mantua. Here he built the Palazzo del Te, which he also, with the assist-
ance of his pupils, beautifully decorated. Among his paintings his Fall
of the Giants is particularly celebrated for its original composition and the
boldness displayed in the postures of the naked body. His co-heir and
fellow-pupil was Gianfrancesco Penni (called 2/ Fattore, born 1488, died
1528), who had been with Raphael from his boyhood. His style was a
mixture of that of Raphael and of Michael Angelo. Giovanni Nanni
(da Udine, born 1494, died 1564) distinguished himself by the arabesques
painted by him in the loggie of the Vatican after those found in the Baths
of Titus. Pietro Buonacorsi (Perino del Vaga, b. 1500, d. 1547) also
worked on these arabesques; he likewise painted a great deal after
Raphael’s sketches and designs, and his coloring is admirable.

In the death of Leo X. painting at Rome received a severe blow; for
Hadrian VI. was an enemy to the fine arts, and immediately put a stop to
all the works in the Vatican. This occasioned the dispersion of Raphael’s
school; but they were at length employed again to some extent under
Clemens VII., on the occasion of decorating the Villa Madama. It was
about this time that Michael Angelo, in Florence, who as early as 1503
had developed a style in which he alone could attain perfection, and in
which beauty, grace, coloring, and chiaroscuro were sacrificed to anatomy
and to the perspective foreshortening of the figures, came to Rome. As
long as Raphael lived, this style, which must have excited more asto-
nishment than admiration, found little acceptance in Rome; and even during
the life of Clement, it provoked attacks which were extended to the master
himself. The work in which Michael Angelo’s peculiarities made them-
selves most conspicuous, and which gave the most violent blow to correct
taste, was the Last Judgment, completed under Paul III.: it produced
such a revolution in the Roman school, that all became little more than

467

84. THE FINE ARTS.

copyists of Michael Angelo, mannerists who mixed up his style with their
own, by some of whom the manner of the great master was degraded to
caricature. There were but few who, true to the precepts of Raphael, strove
to combine with his grace the seriousness of Michael Angelo; and still
fewer was the number of those who steadfastly adhered to the genuine
Roman school. One of the best and most celebrated masters of that time
was Federico Barozzi (born 1528, died 1612), who had formed his style on
that of Titian, and afterwards on that of Raphael. His best pictures are a
Descent from the Cross in Perugia, and a Laying in the Tomb in Sinigaglia.
In the first third of the 16th century, the state of painting in Rome was
very critical. The corruption of taste gained ground daily, and painters,
no longer concerning themselves about thorough preparatory studies, merely
strove to acquire an easy dexterity ; so that painting became almost a simple
mechanical art, and fantastic conceits remained the only means of obtaining
a certain repute. The style of Raphael was no longer known, and the
highest attempts were confined to different imitations of Michael Angelo.
Venice possessed good colorists; but this had no influence on Rome, where
everything, even chiaroscuro, was neglected. The only painter of note at
this time was Giuseppe Cesari, called il Cavaliere Giuseppino; for then
every painter possessed of a little talent and considerable popularity was.
dubbed chevalier ; which induced Salvator Rosa in his pictorial Satire te
call this ‘‘ the chevalier age of painting.” He had a great deal of fire; but
his compositions are crowded and unnatural, and his coloring only tolerable.
It was reserved for Michael Angelo Amerighi da Caravaggio to combat
the monster of mannerism and lead painters back again to the study of
nature, although he too went to extremes. To the painters who resigned
themselves the most completely to the perverse taste we have spoken of,
and who debased their fine talents to the production of wretched caricatures,
belongs Peter Laar (il Bamboccio), who created a genre of his own, which
unhappily found in Rome both patrons and imitators (Bambocciadi).
Andrew Sacchi was a contemporary of Laar, but an artist of a different
stamp inspired with the true spirit of the Roman school. His Vision of St.
Romualdo is one of the four finest paintings in Rome; the others are the
Transfiguration by Raphael, the Descent from the Cross by Daniel of
Volterra, and the Communion of St. Jerome by Domenichino: there still
exist in Rome many beautiful paintings by this master. His drawing is
remarkable for correctness and breadth, his draperies are artistic and
dignified, and everywhere we perceive in him a profound study of nature.
Richness of composition was his most prominent characteristic. The most
celebrated of his pupils was Carlo Maratti (born 1625), who from his boy-
hood displayed a remarkable talent for painting. His first work given to
the public was a Christ in the Manger (1650). Pope Clement IX. showed
him marks of favor, and Innocent IX. made him superintendent of the
Vatican chambers. Our best information as to the course of his studies is
furnished by a drawing which he made for the Marchese del Carpio and
which has been engraved by Dorigny. In this drawing Maratti depicted
an academy, in which a number of persons are engaged in the studies per-
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‘taining to painting, as geometry, perspective, anatomy, &c. On the part
where perspective, anatomy, and geometry are taught, stand the words,
“ Tanto che baste” (As much as suffices); on the other side we perceive
the most beautiful antiques, with the inscription, ‘ Von maz abastanza”
(never enough); and in the clouds appear the Graces, with the inscription,
“Senza di noi, ogni fatica é vana” (Without us all labor is in vain).
That he himself practised these doctrines is evident from his pictures, of
one of which, the Distribution of the Holy Rosaries, we have given a
sketch (pl. 16, fig. 5). Richardson calls Maratti the last painter of the
Roman school; he died in 1713.

With the advent of the Bolognese school or school of the Caracci, true
taste again obtained a firm footing in Rome; but even these Bolognese and
Lombards formed schools differing to a certain extent from each other.
Domenichino studied Raphael and the antique; Guido Reni created for himself
an original style of apparent facility opposed to that of Caravaggio; Barbieri
combined the two; Albano worshipped the Graces chiefly ; and Lanfranco
formed a mixture of Caracci and Correggio. The most eminent artists of
Rome at that time were Caninia pupil of Domenichino, Cerrini, Scaramuccio,
Michelini, Sacchi, and Giambattista Salvi (il Sassoferrato), who was born
in 1605, studied under Domenichino, Guido, and Albano, and who approxi-
mated to the last mentioned especially in the great pains which he bestowed
on his execution. He painted only small objects; but his small heads and
half figures are equally worthy of esteem for their delicacy of execution and
their lovely and noble expressién, with the works of Carlo Dolci. We give
by way of specimen a sketch of a Praying Madonna by Sassoferrato ( pl.
15, jig. 9).

There is a master whom we must mention here although he did not take
pattern much by Raphael, the great exemplar of the Roman school, and
that is Pietro Berettini, usually called da Cortona. He came to Rome at a
very early age, and formed for himself a style still more facile and more
calculated to please the multitude than that of Lanfranco. He painted a
great deal in Rome and in Florence, especially in the Pitti Palace, from
which we have copied the representations of the Muses Polyhymnia and
Erato (pl. 16, fig. 9), and Euterpe and Urania (fig. 10), painted by this
master. We shall return to him again.

In order to furnish a complete view of the history of art in this age it is
necessary to say something of Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini, of whom we
have already spoken repeatedly under Architecture, and in the section
on Sculpture, as he was both a painter, a sculptor, and an architect. In
Bernini’s works there is a straining after the effects of chiaroscuro,
to which truth and beauty of form are sacrificed; and in consequence
of the great marks of favor that were bestowed upon him and the power
that he acquired, most of the painters living at that time were obliged to
adopt his manner if they wished to be employed at all. Among the chief
principles laid down by the followers of Bernini were the following: exten-
Sive studies are of no avail; to successfully imitate nature and please the
eye is always sufficient; and he who is a master of coloring possesses

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ninety-nine out of a hundred requisites for a painter. Under such auspices
true art could not prosper in Rome, and hence even the masters after Ber-
nini are scarcely worthy of mention. Venesiale and Batoni were the first
again to leave the beaten track.

Pompeo Girolamo Batoni (b. 1708, d. 1787) came to Rome when very
young and became a pupil of Masucci; but being endowed with extraordi-
nary talents, he soon perceived that Raphael, nature, and the antique were
the surest guides in the domain of art; and hence the study of nature makes
itself conspicuous in all his pictures. We discern it in his pleasing and
varied physiognomies, his movements and attitudes ; and even in disposing
the folds of his draperies he was able to snatch from nature a certain pleas-
ing grace, of which his Magdalen in the Dresden Gallery furnishes a
beautiful example.

The second restorer of art in Rome was Anton Raphael Mengs (b. 1728,
d. 1779). He was born in Aussig in Bohemia, and his father, himself a
good miniature painter, destined him to painting, so that in his sixth year
he was obliged to draw and in his eighth to paint in oil, miniature, and
enamel. He was kept to study with almost unheard of strictness: and
when his father observed his great progress, he in 1741 took him from
Dresden, where he had hitherto studied, to Rome, and there, the lad being
now in his thirteenth year, he judiciously made him copy at first after the
antique, then after Michael Angelo in the Sixtine chapel, and lastly after
Raphael, treating him all the while with the same severity as when a boy.

Mengs spent three years at these studies in Rome; at the expiration of
which time his father took him back to Dresden, where king Augustus III.
gave him a yearly allowance of 600 thalers. With this Mengs, his father, and
two sisters went again to Rome. Here he studied four years longer, giving
especial attention to anatomy; and then at length he made his appearance
publicly with a Holy Family, which obtained universal applause. About
1749 he returned once more to Dresden, where he became court painter with
a salary of 1,000 thalers, and was commissioned to paint the altar-piece for
the new Catholic church erected in 1751, a work which he executed in Rome,
whither he returned in 1752. As during the Seven Years’ War his salary was
no longer paid, Mengs painted in fresco the ceiling of the church of St. Euse-
bius in Rome. This was again the first work of the kind in Rome, where
fresco painting had not been practised for a long time, and Mengs gained
by it greatapplause. He painted for the villa of Cardinal Albani a ceiling,
on which he represented Apollo and the Nine Muses.

In the year 1761 Mengs entered, with a yearly salary of 2,000 doubloons,
into the service of the king of Spain; and there he began a ceiling for the
king’s chamber representing the Assembly of the Gods: he also executed
many other admirable works there, among whch a Descent from the Cross
is especially celebrated. From this time forward Mengs resided alternately
in Rome, Madrid, Florence, and Naples, working very diligently, until con-
sumption, brought on by his incessant labors and the climate of Spain,
which did not agree with him, snatched him from the world. No diminution

of power is observed in his works to his latest moment.
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Were we to institute a comparison between Batoni and Mengs, the two
restorers of painting in Rome, we could not do better than adopt the words
of Chevalier Boni, who says: “ Mengs was made a painter by philosophy,
and Batoni by nature. Batoni hada natural taste which led him to the beauti-
ful without effort; Mengs attained the same object by reflection and study.
The gifts of the Muses belonged by nature to Batoni, as they formerly had to
Apelles; while the highest attainments of art were allotted to Mengs, as in
former days to Protogenes. The former perhaps was more of a painter than
a thinker, the latter more of a thinker than a painter. The one perhaps was
more perfect in his art, but more studied ; the other was less profound, but
more natural.” It is but justice to add, however, that Mengs’s mannerism and
unnatural coloring place him much below the first artists of the present day.

b. The Florentine School. Cimabue was looked upon by the Florentines
as a prodigy when he ventured to lay aside the Byzantine manner and
give more movement to his figures. At the time when king Charles, the
brother of St. Louis, was crowned king of Sicily, he was shown as a great
curiosity the picture on which Cimabue was then engaged, a Madonna and
Child accompanied by six angels. This picture is still preserved in the
church of Sta. Maria Novella. Among the contemporaries of Cimabue
deserving of notice are Ugolino of Siena and Gaddo Gaddi, from whose
school proceeded a great number of painters. Here too belongs Giotto,
born in Vespignano in the year 1276. A sheep which he had drawn on a
flat stone while tending his flock had attracted the attention of Cimabue;
the latter took him home to educate him as a painter, and so rapid was his
progress that the pupil soon surpassed his master and applied himself with
equal success to sculpture and architecture. Art is greatly indebted to
Giotto, especially in respect to drapery, expression, grace, and softness, and
because he was the first to venture on foreshortenings. Among the most im-
portant works of Giotto are the Histories from the life of St. Francis of Assisi
and Entombment of the Virgin in Florence. Among the pupils of Giotto
we may mention Taddeo Gaddi, Puccio Capanna, and Stefano of Florence,
who endeavored to surpass his master, and whose pupil Maso or Tomaso
painted a Madonna della Preta in Florence and several frescoes in Assisi.

From this time onward art kept constantly ascending to higher flights
through the exertions of Memmi, Angelo Gaddi, Barocchio, Giovanni
da Fiesole, and others; with Masaccio the last remnants of the ancient
stiffness and constraint disappeared, and art soared aloft at length with
perfect freedom. Masaccio, whose real name was Tomaso Guidi, was born
1402 in St. Giovanni in the Val d’ Arno, and his chief study was nature,
which he portrayed with grace and spirit. He died in 1443, and was
succeeded by Filippo Lippi and Andrea del Castagno, who introduced into
the Florentine school the art of oil-painting, invented by Johann van Eyck,
a Fleming, after he had wormed the secret out of Domenico Veneziano and
then murdered him.

Among the pupils of Filippo Lippi those who distinguished themselves
were Sandro Boticelli and Luca Signorelli, especially the latter, who,

according to Vasari, first paved for artists the way to perfection, by
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88 THE FINE ARTS.

developing the true principles on which the representation of the nude
figure depends, and basing it on the study of anatomy. But a more special
notice is due to Domenico Ghirlandaio (properly Bigordi), who was born in
Florence in the year 1451; for he, of all the painters who then labored in
the Sixtine Chapel, is the only one who can compare with Pietro Perugino.
He possessed facility and richness of invention, drew diligently and
correctly, and was so wellacquainted with perspective that he ornamented
his backgrounds with buildings properly diminished. His Death of St.
Francis, in the church of Sta. Trinita in Florence, is celebrated. Ghirlan-
daio was the instructor of Michael Angelo.

Leonardo da Vinci (b. 1444, d. 1519) was the son of a notary in Florence,
and was placed under the charge of Barocchio, to receive instructions in
drawing, but he soon surpassed his master. Even in early life he pursued
with distinguished success a number of almost incompatible studies; and
in the year 1482, Ludovigo Maria Sforza, duke of Milan, invited him into
his service, where he became the founder and superintendent of an academy
of design. Among the pictures he was commissioned to paint for the duke
the most celebrated is his Last Supper in the refectory of the Dominicans
of Sta. Maria delle Grazie in Milan, a picture unfortunately which is now
almost completely obliterated, but which can still be studied in good copies
by pupils of his, viz. by Bernardino Luino and others, as also in good
engravings, the finest of which is by Raphael Morghen. When Leo X. was
elevated to the papal throne, Da Vinci accompanied duke Julius of Milan
to Rome ; but as, on account of the rivalry of Michael Angelo and Raphael,
no considerable works were intrusted to him, he went in his old age (in 1515)
~ to France, whither he was invited by Francis I. but where on the whole
he wrought but little. As respects the peculiarities ofhis works, some are
distinguished for strong shadows which bring out sharply the contrasted
lights, as for instance in Leonardo’s own portrait, while in others free play
is given to the half tints, as ¢. g.in the J/adonna in the Albani palace.
Leonardo was indefatigable in his studies even to an advanced age, and
was never satisfied with his works, on which account but few are known
which he finished completely. Among his celebrated productions are Lisa
del Giocondo, a picture purchased by Francis I. for 4000 seudi; a Leda,
now in Vienna; Christ teaching im the Temple, in the Pamfili palace in
Rome; and Herodias with the head of St. John the Baptist. As a specimen
of Da Vinci’s beautiful compositions we have given a sketch (pl. 15, jig. 2)
representing the Madonna and Child, to whom the archangel Michael is
bringing the scales of justice, with St. Elizabeth and the youthful John the
Baptist near them. In addition to his pursuits in painting and many other
studies, Leonardo also employed his time in literary works, and sixteen volumes
of his manuscripts are preserved in the Ambrosian library at Milan. Unfor-
tunately none of these but his treatise on painting have appeared in print;
on the other hand there are many drawings and engravings after his works
which furnish admirable studies for the draughtsman.

The number of Da Vinci’s pupils was very great; but the most distin-
guished among them was Baccio della Porta, who was born in 1496 in the

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neighborhood of Florence. His family name is not known; for the name
della Porta was given him from his residence at the gate of San Pietro
Gattolino. This artist however is best known by the name of Fra Barto-
lomeo di San Marco, which he assumed on joining the order of Dominican
monks at the advice of the fanatic Savonarola. Fra Bartolomeo became
afterwards an intimate friend of Raphael, and each learnt from the other,
the latter from the former his lovely blending of colors, and Fra Bartolomeo
from Raphael perspective. During his stay in Rome Fra Bartolomeo began
two pictures, which were afterwards finished by Raphael and are now in
the palace of Monte Cavallo. His pictures are beautiful in composition
and execution, and grand in style; his draperies in particular are admirable.
He is said to have attained to this excellence in drapery by the invention
of the lay figure, which is ascribed to him; at any rate Vasari affirms that
he himself had in his possession the first model which Fra Bartolomeo
caused to be made. One of his grandest pictures is his St. Wark (pl. 15,
jig. 4), now in the Pitti palace, and which certainly is not inferior to
Raphael’s Zsazah in the church of the Augustines in Rome. Fra Barto-
lomeo first sketched his pictures in various shades of grey, and he as well
as Raphael first drew his figures without drapery, as appears from many
drawings by both artists which are still extant. The finest pictures of this
artist belong to the Florentine Museum; among them is that of the Virgin
Mary in the temple, of which we have given a sketch (pl. 18, fig. 2). One
peculiarity of the pictures of this great master is a sort of haze he had the
art of spreading over his figures, and which made them appear as if stepping
forth from the canvas. Fra Bartolomeo died in 1517.

Rudolpho Domenico Ghirlandaio distinguished himself among Fra
Bartolomeo’s pupils, at least he formed himself closely upon his master’s
model, although his pictures evince likewise a profound study of Raphael.
Ghirlandaio never left Florence, although Raphael repeatedly urged him to
come to Rome. Hence his best works remain in Florence.

One of the artists who united in himself most of the qualities for which
the Florentine school is celebrated was Andrea Vannuchi (born in Florence
1488, died 1530), better known by the name of Andrea del Sarto, who,
although his first instructor Gianetto Barite knew but little, afterwards
formed his taste and style by the study of the cartoons of Leonardo da
Vinci and Michael Angelo. Many of his larger paintings are in Florence
and are highly celebrated. In the year 1518, Andrea went at the invitation
of king Francis I. to Paris, where he was very well received; but he acted
unegratefully towards the king and left him after a short time. In order to
appease him the artist afterwards painted two exceedingly fine large pictures,
one of which was the Sacrifice of Abraham. The king, however, was too
much incensed to receive the pictures, which afterwards passed through
various hands, and of which the one above mentioned is now in the gallery
at Dresden. A picture by Raphael, representing Leo X. and two cardinals,
was copied by Andrea with such skill and fidelity, that Giulio Romano, who
had himself wrought on the original under Raphael’s superintendence, mis-
took the copy for the original. One of the finest works of Andrea del Sarto

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90 THE FINE ARTS.

is the Madonna for the church of the Annunciation in Florence. In France
there are a Zobit and the Angel, two Holy Families, and a Charity.
The last named picture, of which we have given a sketch (pl. 17, fig. 7),
was painted on wood; but as the worms had got into it, it was trans-
ferred from the wood to canvas, a rather difficult process, but which has
frequently been attempted in recent times with good success. Another
very fine picture by this master is the Descent from the Cross, or the Entomb-
ment of Christ (pl. 16, fig. 8), which was formerly in the Pitti palace, but
is likewise now in Paris. His Zast Supper, in the refectory of St. Salvi,
saved Florence in the year 1529 from destruction by fire; for at the taking
of the city, the soldiers, who had already destroyed the church, were only
restrained from setting fire to the monastery by the beauty of the picture.
Andrea died of the plague in 1530. The most distinguished of his pupils
were Francesco Saviati and Giorgio Vasari, although these afterwards
worked more after Michael Angelo. We must here mention also Franci-
abigi and Domenico Puligo, the latter of whom acquired Andrea’s beautiful
coloring and dusky tone, but was unable to master his correct drawing
and certainty of outline.

Michael Angelo Buonarotti, of whom we must now speak particularly,
was born in 1474 in the town of Caprese, and manifested at an early age a
strong inclination for the arts of design; he was accordingly placed under
the instructions of Domenico Ghirlandaio, after which the Duke Lorenzo
de’ Medici took him into the school of design founded by himself, where
he enjoyed the instructions of Bertoldo the sculptor. Here he greatly
distinguished himself and wrought both as painter and sculptor; in seulp-
ture especially he executed several admirable works in Bologna and in
Florence, of which his beautiful statue of David (in 1504) in the latter place
deserves particular mention. After Michael Angelo had given considerable
proofs of his talent as a painter, he was commissioned along with Leonardo
da Vinci to decorate the senate-hall with historical paintings; and the
cartoon which he then sketched, representing a scene from the Pisan War,
was perhaps his best performance. Unhappily it was destroyed at the
taking of Florence along with a number of other treasures of art. Julius
IL., through the many proofs of favor he bestowed on Michael Angelo, was
the cause of much ill will towards the artist. This feeling produced an
attempt to withdraw him from sculpture which made him celebrated, and in
consequence he received the commission to paint the vaulted ceiling of the
Sixtine chapel; he executed the task very unwillingly, completing the
painting in the incredibly short space of twenty months, after which
he returned to sculpture. Under Pope Clement VII. Michael Angelo
began the cartoon for the Last Judgment in the Sixtine chapel; he com-
menced painting it under Paul III. in the year 1534, and in seven years it
was finished. This, the grandest work of art of its time, soon gave offence
by the excessive nakedness of its figures, and Paul IV. was inclined to have
it entirely effaced from the wall, though he afterwards contented himself
with letting Daniel of Volterra paint drapery over the offensive places, a
task which procured for the artist the nickname of the “ Breeches-maker”

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(Brachettone). The Last Judgment attracted immense attention, and
artists studied it with such zeal that they neglected to observe the medium
which Michael Angelo had himself already deserted, so that this painting
originated a peculiar but by no means lovely style of art, which was now
adopted by many. We cannot here enter into a more particular description
of the picture itself, but must merely remark that with all its grandeur and
its many beauties, there is in it much that is defective in composition and
exaggerated in execution. The last considerable works in painting which
Michael Angelo undertook were two large pictures in the Pauline chapel,
one representing the Conversion of St. Paul, the other the Crucifixion of
St. Peter. Of his achievements as a sculptor we have already spoken, p. 52;
and his architectural performances we have reviewed in another division of
this work. He died in the year 1564.

Shortly after the time of Michael Angelo the art declined considerably,
partly through an excessive and injudicious imitation of the manner of this
master, and partly through the heedlessness of the artists themselves, who
preferred doing a great deal to doing it well. The influence which Michael
Angelo exerted on the practice of art was not confined to Italy alone, but
spread over the whole of the artistic world of that period; for when art was
in its most flourishing condition, at the beginning of the 16th century, most
foreign artists went for a time to Italy to study both the antique and the
works of the great masters, and thus the new manner which had become so
popular, of giving an excessive prominence to anatomy, was transplanted to
Spain, Portugal, France, and even to Germany.

Immediately after Michael Angelo, the following masters, who were in
part, at least indirectly, his pupils, rose to distinction, viz. Rosso di Rossi,
by whom there are several very beautiful paintings, in his fiery but clever
manner, in the church of Florence, although most of his finest works in
France (in Fontainebleau) have totally perished. Daniele Ricciarelli, also
called Daniele da Volterra, where he was born in 1509, studied under Bal-
dassare Peruzzi, and then worked for Perino del Vaga, until he gave him-
self wholly to the study of Michael Angelo. His best picture, which is also
reckoned among the four best pictures in Rome (comp. p. 84), is the
Descent from the Cross in the church of the Trinita de’ Monti. It is sup-
posed that this picture was planned and drawn by Michael Angelo, who
showed great kindness to Daniel of Volterra. Daniel engaged also in
sculpture, and made a great many plaster casts of Michael Angelo’s
statues.

Giorgio Vasari, born at Arezzo in 1512, was a pupil of Andrea del Sarto
and of Michael Angelo. In addition to his merits as a painter, he has
acquired fame in the literary world, by his Lives of the Painters, Sculptors,
and Architects from Cimabue to his own times, which, besides admirable
notices respecting the history of art, contain so many useful precepts for the
practice of art in general, that they must form an indispensable study for
every young artist. His work has been translated into English by Mrs.
_ Foster, and is published in Bohn’s Standard Library. He executed many
large and fine paintings in Florence, Rome, and Arezzo, and founded a

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school of art of his own. One of his pupils was Francesco di Rossi, also
called Salviati, who had previously studied under Andrea del Sarto, and
who almost surpassed his master.

About this time a new revolution occurred in the Florentine school.
Grace and coloring, and above all that charming harmony which attracts
and satisfies the eye, had been kept by Michael Angelo and most of his
followers completely subordinate; but at length these more sensual advan-
tages of other schools, especially of that of Lombardy, had the effect of
producing a reform in Tuscany also, the glory of which was reserved for
Ludovico Cardi and Gregorio Pagani.

Ludovico Cardi, called also Cigoli after his birthplace, was born in 1559
and died in 1603. _He was a pupil of Allori, but soon united himself to
Gregorio Pagani in common studies, especially of the works of Barozzio
and Correggio. Cardi had laid a good foundation in anatomy, and Pagani
in coloring. The anatomical figure often met with in the painter’s studio
is a production of Cigoli’s, who first made it of colored wax. The most
celebrated among his numerous works is the Martyrdom of St. Stephen,
which he painted in 1587 for the Monastery of Montedomini. An oil-
painting in the Paris Museum, an Lece homo, of which we have given a
sketch in pl. 15, jig. 3, is also highly esteemed. There are commonly
remarked in the works of Cigoli a vigorous style and a beautiful gradation
of coloring ; he knew how to give variety to the tints in Correggio’s manner,
and showed great industry both in planning and in execution. He likewise
applied himself to architecture and perspective, as is proved by his work on
the latter subject. In Rome too, although he there experienced much ill will,
Cigoli found work in the Vatican, and at last had the Maitese order of
knighthood conferred upon him.

The succeeding time produced among the pupils of Cigoli and Pagani
many capital painters, who, however, gradually transferred to the Floren-
tine a great deal of the characteristic peculiarity of the Venetian school, as
is shown for instance in the works of Passignano, whose figures in their
attitudes remind us of Tintoretto, while the draperies reproduce Paul
Veronese. Jacob Chimenti (better known by the name of Jacopo di Em-
poli) took Andrea del Sarto for his model. Comodi, a pupil of Cigolli,
copied the pictures of Correggio and other Venetians with such truth and
spirit, that many of these copies are preserved as originals of that master in
the galleries of Italy. It was at this time that the Salimbeni (Arcangiolo
and Ventura) and Raphael and Michael Angelo distinguished themselves.
A decided reputation was likewise gained by their contemporary Francesco
Rustici, called Rustichino; he was exceedingly skilful in the management
of chiaroscuro, and in some pictures which he painted the illumination of
wax candles is imitated with surprising fidelity. In the gallery at Florence
there is seen a very beautiful Dying Magdalen by him (pl. 17, jig. 5), and
in the Borghese Gallery in Rome a S¢. Sebastian. Christoforo Allori, who
was born in Florence in 1577, also took the works of Cigoli and Pagani for
his models, and his picture of Judith with the head of Holofernes was .
highly prized. He here portrayed his mistress Mazza Firra, and the head

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of Holofernes bore the features of the painter himself; by which he meant
to intimate that love had deprived him of his senses. His mistress’s mother
also appears in the picture as an attendant. He gained great celebrity by
his portraits and his copies after Correggio’s Magdalen, which were fre-
quently taken for originals. Matteo Roselli was preéminently a pupil of
Pagani, whose works, when the latter died in 1605, he also completed.
His fresco-paintings are famous ; and one of them was so beautiful, that when
in 1773 the chapel whose vaulted ceiling it adorned was to be rebuilt, the
whole vault on the 13th of April was removed by Paoletti the architect to
another place without the slightest rent. Francesco Furini, a pupil of
Roselli, perfected himself further in Rome and Venice. He afterwards
entered the clerical order and became a curate. His profession, however,
did not prevent him from zealously studying the female form and portray-
ing it with a grace and truth of coloring worthy of the school of Albano.
One of his best pictures is that of Andromeda chained to the rock and await-
ing the approach of the sea-monster, in the Florentine Museum, a picture of
which we have given a sketch (pl. 18, jig. 4). Yet Furini also painted
some altar-pieces and frescoes in the serious style. The works of Carlo
Dolce, who likewise belongs to this time and to this school, bear the
character indicated by his name. They consist mostly of half figures of
Madonnas, and saints of both sexes, which are full of a charming devotion
and sofiness. Their execution is masterly. Carlo Dolce never painted pro-
fane subjects and only a few large compositions.

Pietro Berettini, better known by the name of Peter of Cortona, was
born in the year 1596, and received his first instructions in art from differ-
ent masters; by them however he was soon left to his own resources, and
he formed himself on the works of Raphael, Michael Angelo, and other
great painters. He soon had the good fortune to receive some consider-
able commissions, in particular one to paint the ceiling of a grand hall in
the Palazzo alle quattro Fontane, which Pope Urban VII. had purchased
for his family, a task of great importance, which the young artist executed
with equal good fortune and ability. The compositions display a wonderful
ease, graceful drawing, a light and brilliant coloring, and an admirable
distribution of light and shade. In the year 1637, he was summoned to
Florence, to paint some chambers in the Pitti palace, for which the ideas
were given to him by a scholar, the younger Michael Angelo Buonarotti.
Pietro, to express his gratitude for the same, presented Angelo witht
the whole of the cartoons for these paintings and the portraits of the eight
most beautiful young girls of Florence, which he had painted in the palace
in medallions containing two each. Two of these medallions, one repre-
senting the Muses Polyhymnia and Erato, and the other Huterpe and
Urania, are copied pl. 16, jigs. 9 and 10. The fifth of the chambers com-
mitted to him he did not complete; for having been insulted by a nobleman,
he returned to Rome. This chamber and the other works left uncompleted
by Pietro were finished by his pupil Ciro Ferri. In Rome Peter of Cortona
painted the cupola and the vault of the church of the Padri dell’ Oratorio
and the Pamfili gallery, where he portrayed the deeds of Aineas. Pope:

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Alexander VII. knighted him. This artist also distinguished himself as an
architect. He died in 1669.

Among the later imitators who adopted the light and graceful manner
of Pietro Berettini but few have attained to great celebrity: the most
notable of them is Luca Giordano, of whom we shall have occasion to speak
further on. Ciro Ferri and Francesco Romanelli were able to imitate their
master so closely that even connoisseurs ascribed their productions to
Pietro da Cortona.

c. The Venetian School. In the different states of the Venetian territory
we find monuments of painting and mosaic which are undeniably of Grecian
origin, but which at the same time go to show that in this part of Italy the
arts were never wholly lost. The mosaics in the church of St. Mark were
begun in the year 1070, and were solemnly dedicated in 1084; they are
the oldest monuments of art in Venice. Abbot Jacob painted in 1180 the
figure of the Savior, and about the year 1200 one Theophilus from Con-
stantinople had a school of painting in Venice. All these works and others
equally old are wholly in the coarse and spiritless taste which characterizes
the Greek works of art of that period. The history of Venetian painting
may properly begin with Guariento, who lived about 1360; for he already
departed to some extent from the Greek style, as did likewise his contem-
porary Nicoletto Semitecolo, who lived in 1367, and Sebastian of Murano,
pictures by whom are still extant, and who was living at the beginning of
the 15th century.

There are in Venice several paintings by Luigi Vivarino of the year
1414, among them a Christ bearing his Cross and a St. Jerome and the
LInon, and, which is remarkable, they are painted on canvas, which did not
become usual till the time of Titian. Our next example of artistic talent is
a German master, Johannes da Alemannia he calls himself on his pictures,
who in 1445 painted in the church of San Giorgio Maggiore a S¢. Stephen
and St. Sebastian. It cannot be a work of Johannes van Eyck, because,
although several of his pictures came to Italy, he was dead in 1441. At
this time we find in Venice three classes of painters: those who adhered
strictly to the ancient traditional practice of the art, those who ventured
to depart from the original coldness and stiffness, and the school of Gior-
gione. At the head of the first class stands Vittorio Carpaccio, who
distinguished himself by his knowledge of perspective, which was then
@adly neglected. The chief of the second class is Giovanni Bellini (born
1424, died 1514), who made considerable advances in the direction of
correct taste, although he simply imitated nature. He devoted his atten-
tion principally to coloring and harmony. There are good pictures by this
master in various galleries ; his elder brother, Gentile Bellini, was likewise
a good painter, but did not equal Giovanni. The third class, namely of
painters who at once renounced the old stiff manner, begins with Marco
Baisati; he painted till 1520, and his finest works are in the different
churches of Venice.

The flourishing period of Venetian painting begins with Andrea Man-
tegna (born 1431, died 1505). He early distinguished himself by his great

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talents, and painted the altar-piece of the church of St. Sophia in Padua,
his native city, when scarcely seventeen years old. His finest picture is
the Zriumph of Julius Cesar, for which, in order that it might be worthily
displayed, Duke Ludovico Gonzaga caused a separate building to be
erected in Mantua. In the year 1630 the picture was lost with several
valuable articles, and is now in England, in the royal palace at Hampton
Court. Mantegna was rewarded with the rank of knighthood, and then
went to Rome, on the invitation of Innocent VIII., where he painted in the
Belvedere. He married the sister of Giovanni Bellini, and this near
connexion with the latter had a favorable effect on Mantegna’s hitherto
rather dry manner.

Giorgio Barbarelli, known by the name of Giorgione of Castelfranco, was
born in 1477. He was a pupil of Giovanni Bellini, and distinguished him-
self so greatly by his talents, that his master, becoming jealous of ‘him,
drove him from his school; whereupon he labored to improve himself by
independent study, and painted some altar-pieces, but chiefly frescoes on
the facades of houses. Giorgione loved the clear and bright in pictures;
his figures are full and round, and his drawing is correct. It being urged
that seulpture is superior to painting, inasmuch as it allows the object to be
viewed from all sides, he painted a celebrated picture for the purpose of
showing that painting can do more, since it can enable us to behold its
object on several sides from the same point of view. He painted a man
with his back to the spectator and his front reflected in a fountain; his
right profile was reflected in the shield of a suit of armor placed on one
side, and his left profile in a mirror on the other side. Giorgione painted
several excellent portraits besides larger pictures, which, however, are rare.
He died early (in 1511); nevertheless he was the proper founder of the
Venetian school.

Tiziano Vecellio, one of the three great masters of the art of painting,
was born at Pieve, in 1477, the same year as Giorgione, and enjoyed in
youth the benefit of a classical education; but as his talents for painting
soon manifested themselves, he was placed in his tenth year under Giovanni
Bellini. With him, however, he did not long continue, but soon proceeded
to improve himself by independent study and imitating the works of Gior-
gione; but he cannot on this account be called his pupil, since he painted
along with Giorgione the frescoes on the German Bazar in Venice. In .
Padua Titian painted in company with Campagnola and others the church -
of San Antonio; and after his return to Venice, he completed the works he
had begun, one of which represented the Emperor Frederick I. at the feet
of Pope Alexander III; into this picture he introduced many portraits from
nature, a very favorite practice at that time, but which produced many
anachronisms in costume. In Ferrara, Titian executed several works for
Duke Alfonso I; and to this period of his life belongs the Tribute-Penny, a
picture of which innumerable copies have been spread abroad in engravings
and lithographs, and which forms one of the greatest treasures of the
Dresden gallery. He painted the emperor Charles V. in Venice three
several times, in 1530, 1532, and 1537; in 1547 and 1550 he painted him

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96 THE FINE ARTS.

in Augsburg, and the emperor made him. a knight and count palatine.
After his return to Venice, Titian painted the admirable picture of Peter
the Martyr, which was carried off with several of Titian’s paintings to
France, but was afterwards restored. Among these pictures was also the
Christ crowned with Thorns from Milan (pl. 18, fig. 3), which was taken
from the church of Maria delle Grazie and is now in the Florence Museum.
Titian bestowed great pains on the execution of the landscapes in which
he placed his figures, and indeed it was he who prepared the way for
the great landscape painters who came after him. But his greatest
eminence was in historical portraits and in characteristic heads generally.
Titian studied the antique with great zeal, and we meet in several of
his works with reminiscences of the Laocoon and of some ancient reliefs
in the church of Maria dei Miracoli, which Rossi has declared to be
works of Phidias himself. It is also well known that Titian afterwards
became the great exemplar for the portraying of children, and that Poussin,
the so-called Fiamingo, Algardi, and all who have rendered themselves
eminent in this line, have made him their study, in order to master that
expression of naive innocence and unassuming truth which constitutes its
charm. Titian painted flesh with great skill. The gradation of his tints is
so admirable that they can be distinguished only by comparing one with
the other with the closest attention. Each one appears as flesh in itself,
and the endless variety of all of them is subjected to the unity of one domi-
nant tone. This is most conspicuous in his famous Venus in Florence,
which, when the spectator stands close to it, seems to be painted with a
single color, so that neither light nor shadow, so to speak, is discerned in it;
but the further one recedes towards the proper point of view, the more
everything appears rounded and seems to stand out from the level surface.
Titian to the last remained like himself and was always great; although in
his latest pictures, in place of that diluting and blending of the tints, we
find the parts boldly delineated with a firm and masterly pencil. Titian
died in the year 1576, of the plague, when 99 years old.

Among the pupils of Titian and Giorgione we will mention first Sebas-
tiano Veneziano, who afterwards received the office of attaching the leaden
seals (piombe) to the papal bulls, a very profitable sinecure, from which he
received the name of Sebastiano del Piombo. He was born in the year
1584, and was at first a pupil of Bellini; but he soon left the rather dry
manner of that master, and took as his models Giorgione and Titian. He
painted historical pieces and portraits with great success. In Rome he
painted along with Raphael in the Farnesina; and Michael Angelo, who
wished to advance him, praised his works beyond measure, and made for
him compositions, drawings, and even the cartoons for his pictures, so that
after Raphael’s death, Sebastian came to be regarded as the first painter.
Giacomo Palma Vecchio (Palma the Elder) was also at first a pupil of
Bellini, but afterwards received instruction from Giorgione, and lastly from
Titian. In his pictures we find one after another all the peculiarities of
these masters repeated: on which account Zanetti said that the beauties of
his pictures were the daughters of the beauties of the works of other artists

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Venice has a profusion of paintings by Palma Vecchio; and in the German
galleries, especially in Venice and Dresden, there is no lack of them, for he
was very industrious. Paris Bordone, of a noble family in Trevizi, was —
born in the year 1500, and died in 1570. At an early age he came to
Titian and resided under his roof, where he also studied the works of
Giorgione. Paris Bordone painted a great deal and very beautifully ; his
finest production adorns the Academy of St. Mark. It represents an aged
gondolier presenting to the Doge and senate a ring which he had received
from St. Mark during the night of a dreadful storm.

Licinio Pordenone was a pupil of Titian and his most zealous rival; he
was born in 1484, and died in 1540 most probably of poison. Between
the pupil and master there existed great jealousy, which on the part of
Pordenone was exhibited in a not very noble form, it being his constant
endeavor to paint along with his master and to lower him in public estima-
tion. It may be that occasionally by a happy effect of coloring or bold
sweep of the pencil he was able to surpass Titian ; but in the art of breath-
ing a soul into his figures and causing the flesh to seem instinct with life he
could never equal him. In Titian it is more nature than manner, in
Pordenone the contrary is too often the case. His pictures are to be found
in Venice, Mantua, and Vicenza, and also in Genoa and Ferrara, where
he directed the tapestry manufactory and furnished the cartoons. Various
galleries likewise possess pictures by him.

We have some excellent works by Francesa Vecellio the brother, and
Marco Vecellio the nephew of Titian, both of whom were his pupils; but
the former afterwards applied himself to mercantile pursuits, being urged
to do so, it is said, by Titian from feelings of jealousy; Marco accompanied
his uncle to Germany. ‘Titian’s son Orazio, to judge by the way in which
he began, would have performed admirable things, had not his excesses led
him to an early death. Marco’s son, Tizianello, shows in his works a
decline of the Titian school; for he lacks both grace in designing and vigor
in handling the pencil.

Giacomo Robusti, called 21 Tintoretto, because he was the son of a cloth
dyer in Venice, was born in 1512, and was placed at a very early age under
the instructions of Titian; the latter, however, perceiving the powerful
talents of the youth, and having no desire to raise up a rival to himself,
soon dismissed him. The young man was not to be discouraged, and he
determined to form by his own exertions a style combining the drawing of
Michael Angelo with the coloring of Titian. He accordingly procured for
himself plaster casts of antique statues and of works of Michael Angelo, and
industriously set himself to studying them. He also modelled for himself
small figures, which he clothed and studied the effects of light and shade
displayed upon them by candle light; and thus he formed his manner,
which is so distinguished for the boldness of its chiaroscuros. The fire of
his genius urged him on to the greatest rapidity in working, in consequence
of which he received the cognomen of i Furioso. But this haste unfor-
tunately was detrimental to correctness, and his vehemence often carried

him beyond the bounds of truth. In the beginning of his most flourishing
ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOPADIA.—VOL. IV. 31 481

98 THE FINE ARTS.

period, Tintoretto painted two enormous pictures in the church of Maria dell’
Orto; in one of which, the Last Judgment, his study of Michael Angelo
is perfectly obvious. The composition is very fine; but some of the fore-
shortenings are too daring, and in many of the figures the centre of gravity
is unsupported. The other picture was the Worsh¢p of the Golden Calf ;
and in both pictures, which are 50 feet in height by a comparatively narrow
width, the master succeeded in suitably filling out the space. In the same
church, in the chapel of St. Agnes, is a picture by Tintoretto which Pietro
da Cortona valued so highly that he copied it for his private study. This
picture and a S¢. Mark delwering a Slave from the Rack are regarded as
works worthy of a Titian. Another famous picture is that of the Adultress
before Christ, of which we have given a sketch (pl. 17, jig. 4), and in
which we cannot but admire the graceful grouping of the figures, although
here too some bold attitudes are to be found, witness the two figures to the
right and left in the foreground. That of the adulteress is rather colossal.
The rapidity with which Tintoretto worked is evinced by the following
anecdote. The first painters were invited to a trial of skill in furnishing
designs for a ceiling-painting, the execution of which was promised to him
who produced the best. While other painters were making their sketches
and drawings, Tintoretto painted his picture out and out, and on the day of
adjudication caused it to be secretly fixed in its destined place; so that
when the prize was awarded him, the work was already done. In conse-
quence of his great fertility, almost all good galleries possess pictures from
his hand. His son Domenico and his sister Maria have likewise a good
reputation in the pictorial art.

Paolo Cagliari, called from his birthplace Paolo Veronese, was born in
1532. His works soon became so distinguished in point of coloring as to be
mentioned with applause along with those of Titian, Palma Vecchio, and
Tintoretto. Titian honored the young artist highly, and when he was to select
the artists to paint St. Mark’s Library, his first choice fell on Paul Veronese.
Paul afterwards went for a while to Rome, in order to impress upon his mind
the beauties of art collected there. It is difficult to say which of his numerous
works is the best; still four great paintings representing ‘‘ Suppers” doubt-
less merit the preference. One of these, in the refectory of San Giorgio
Maggiore, is about 40 feet long and represents the Marriage at Cana. The
picture exhibits as many as 120 beautiful figures, many of which are
portraits of contemporaries; these, collected as they are from far and near,
are very curiously grouped. A party of musicians are likenesses of painters :
Titian is playing the double bass, Paul Veronese the violoncello, ‘Tintoretto
the viol di gamba, &c. The other Suppers are the Feast of Simon and
the Penitent Magdalen (twice) (Matt. xxvi. 7); and the Feast of Lew
(Luke v. 29). Paul painted several other feasts; but he also knew how to
handle serious and sacred subjects with equal skill. Great fertility of imagi-
nation and great facility of execution joined to a good knowledge of the
technics of his art, were the distinguishing qualities of this artist; on which
account he often allowed himself in his pictures to be led away into episodes

which, together with the introduction of costumes from different ages in one
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PAINTING. oa

and the same painting, make his works deficient in historical truth. His
draperies and architecture are excellent and effective; and his colors,
boldly laid on, are fresh and bright, with clear and transparent reflected
lights. He died in 1582.

But from this point the Venetian school, which had now reached the
pinnacle of its greatness, began to decline. Giacomo Palma the Younger
(b. 1544, d. 1628) was the first to enter upon the downward path; for
although he took Titian and Tintoretto, Michael Angelo and Caldara for
his models, he worked far too hurriedly to attain to any degree of excel-
lence. The number of his productions is excessively great. His example
was followed by a long series of artists, none of whose names enjoy much
celebrity. The Venetian painters, in the most flourishing period of their
school, had created for it a certain national character; and although each
of its greatest masters, Titian, Bassano, Tintoretto, and Paul Veronese, had
a style peculiar to himself, it was derived in each case from nature, and
their combination formed the national style, which was also adhered to by
their pupils, although in their hands it underwent a gradual deterioration.
The Venetian school, however, notwithstanding the constancy with which
it had at first opposed itself to every foreign influence and even to the great
inundation of Buonarottists, was at last forced to submit, and, Mingling
with these, to bow to its utter fall. Of the late masters of the Venetian
school the following only are deserving of mention. Giovanni Battista
Piazetta (b. 1682, d. 1754) studied diligently the works of the Caracci and.
of Guercino, and distinguished himself by his admirable handling of
chiaroscuro ; for by means of models of his figures he placed nature before
his eyes and investigated the effects of light and shade: hence too he was:
able to manage the reflected lights exceedingly well. His coloring is pale
and chalky, and his draperies heavy, which last defect doubtless originated in
his modelled figures, where the folds of the small garments on account of
their want of amplitude could never be made to fall naturally. His best
picture is the Beheading of John the Baptist, in the church of St. Anthony
in Padua. Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (b. 1693, d. 1769) manifested remark-
able talents in his youth and formed his manner on the works of Paul.
Veronese. He made long journeys even to Germany, where he painted,
especially in Wurtzburg. We desiderate in his pictures a rather more
correct drawing. The Banquet of Antony and Cleopatra, in Dresden, with
figures of the size of life, is a splendid picture. Tiepolo also executed
various engravings, apparently on tin.

We must here mention one other master, although he does not properly
belong to the Venetian school, since all that he was he became through his
own exertions, and he preserved his individuality to the last. We allude
to Antonio Allegri, called Antonio da Correggio, born 1499. His father
was named Pellegrino, and he received his first instructions from his uncle,
Lorenzo Allegri; but as Lorenzo was no artist, these instructions were of
little account. Hence Correggio was soon reduced to the necessity of
depending upon himself, and his genius was lofty enough to enable him
to surmount all opposing obstacles. Accordingly we never meet in his

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works, which were constantly advancing nearer to perfection, with any-
thing borrowed from another hand. Correggio was never in Rome; and
hence it is impossible that he should, as many have asserted, have formed
himself on the study of Raphael ; besides, it would be no difficult matter to
show a complete contrast between the manners of these two masters.
Raphael was, so to speak, an enemy to foreshortenings, Correggio was very
fond of them, as being so favorable to graceful turns; Raphael sacrificed
everything to expression, Correggio to harmony; Raphael sought beauty
in a certain nobleness of form, Correggio in a luxurious wantonness ;
Raphael made use of a natural, open light, Correggio always produced it
artificially ; and this contrast might be extended even to the details of their
works. The first pictures of Correggio are to be found in his birth-place;
yet the originals have been removed, some of them at the command of the
lords of Correggio, and others in some inexplicable manner, so that copies
are now found in their stead. One of his earliest productions is the St.
Cecilia in the Borghese gallery. This picture reminds us strongly of
Mantegna; yet the peculiar illumination which proceeds from an angelic
glory and spreads almost imperceptibly over the whole picture, leaves no
room to doubt its belonging to Correggio, notwithstanding that certain
hardnesses are to be found init. A work of Correggio’s of the year 1520
exists in a convent of Parma, but it is so little accessible to visitors, that
we had no account of it till quite lately. Seroux d’Agincourt was the first to
publish a drawing of it (in his “‘ Painting,” pl. 202). It was about this time
that our master began the cupola of St. John’s church, which he finished in
the year 1524. It represents the Ascension of the Saviour, together with
the apostles, Mary, &c., and was so beautiful that the superintendents of
the cathedral as early as 1522 contracted with Correggio, at the price of a
thousand sequins, for the painting of a picture for the cupola, which, how-
ever, was not begun till 1526. This sum as well as other prices which
were paid Correggio for his works, and which for that time were very con-
siderable, furnish the best refutation of the statement of the artist’s poverty ;
the story of his having expired under the burden when paid a fee of sixty
sequins in copper money is likewise fabulous, it having been proved that the
fee was paid in gold and that Correggio lived for several years afterwards.
The cupola of the cathedral represents the Assumption of the Virgin ; and
Mengs says with justice that no more beautiful cupola has been painted
either before or since. While this work was going on Correggio painted his
St. Jerome and his famous Wight. For the former he received 400 lire;
the King of Portugal afterwards offered 40,000 ducats, and Frederick the
Great 25,000 sequins for it. There are many who prefer this picture to the
works of Raphael. The Wight, 7. ¢. of the Savior’s birth, was ordered by
Alberto Pratonieri, and the price of it was 208 lire (474 sequins). The
picture was finished in 1530 and set up in the church of St. Prosperus ; in
1640 it was removed to the gallery at Modena, whence again it was taken
to Dresden, and only a copy on canvas by Nogari remained in Modena.
There are many good old copies of this famous picture. Among other
things Correggio painted about this time for the Duke of Mantua a Leda
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PAINTING. 101

and a Venus, to which afterwards was added an Jo. These pictures went
through many strange adventures, until at length they fell into the hands
of Queen Christina of Sweden, who had them made into window-shutters,
but afterwards gave them to Bourdon the painter. Thus they came to
France, where they remained till Philippe Egalité (father of king Louis
Philippe) sold them to England, where from puritanical motives they
were cut up and the head of Io burnt. The remaining pieces came
into the possession of Charles Coypel, after whose death they were sold
at auction and were purchased at a high price by the king of Prussia.
The Leda and Venus were restored by Lyen the painter. Both are now in
the Prussian gallery. The lo was bought by M. de Calabre, and Collins
restored it very beautifully. There are several other fine paintings of
Correggio in the Dresden gallery: among them is the picture known by the
name of S¢. George, which was originally painted for the brotherhood of
St. Peter in Modena; the St. Sebastian ; the picture of Dr. Francesco
Grillenzoni ; and lastly the famous Magdalen, which was stolen by
Wogaz in 1788, but was afterwards recovered. This picture, which was
painted by way of exception on a plate of copper, is so beautiful, that it
has been many times copied, and among others by Titian himself. In
Spain too there are several excellent paintings by Correggio; and the great
number of his works, all of which we cannot possibly enumerate here,
proves how indefatigably industrious this artist must have been, for he
lived to be only forty years old, and never, even in his great cupola pieces,
made use of an assistant. The principal qualities by which Correggio is
distinguished are grace, harmony, and the management of the brush.
Correggio was unsurpassed in his knowledge of chiaroscuro, and it is
evident that this branch of his art he must constantly have studied from full-
rounded figures ; in aerial perspective he seems to have taken Leonardo da
Vinci for his model; but in everything nature was the chief instructor of
this master, who well knew how to profit by her precepts. Correggio’s pupils
were not numerous, and none of them attained to any great celebrity.

d. The Bolognese, Lombard, and Neapolitan Schools. Bologna is one
of the oldest and most famous cities in Italy ; and ever since Bishop Petro-
nius founded its renowned university under Theodosius the Younger in the
year 432, the arts and sciences have constantly been cultivated there. The
oldest paintings it possesses date from the year 1120 and are marked P. P. F.
Guido da Bologna painted at the close of the same century, in 1180;
Ventura, in 1217 and 1220; and the painter Ursone flourished in 1240. Pic-
tures by all of them are still preserved in Bologna in the Malvezzi palace.
Vitale, a pupil of Giotto, painted about the year 1320, and there are pictures
by him and by his fellow pupil Lorenzo da Bologna in several places in the
city; but the greater part of them have been whitewashed over or have
perished in some other manner. Marco Zeppo was the instructor of Fran-
cesco Raibolini, known by the name of Francesco Francia. He was born
in 1450, and may be regarded as the head of the Bolognese school; for at
the time when Vanucchi flourished in Rome, Leonardo da Vinci in Florence,
and the Bellinis in Venice, he was the first artist in Bologna, and his works

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102 THE FINE ARTS.

in the Chiesa alla Misericordia and the San Giorgio Maggiore place him
on a level with those artists. Although his rich compositions are to a
certain degree lacking in fire, yet his drawing is correct and his coloring
better than that of Perngino. Francia was an intimate friend of Raphael,
who sent him his portrait. He formed a considerable school, from which
proceeded, among others, Timoteo Vite and Mare Antonio Raimondi, who
afterwards became a pupil of Raphael.

Besides the school of Francia, Innocenzo de Imola formed a school of
painting. Here Francesco Primaticcio, born in 1490, acquired the princi-
ples of his art; although his knowledge was chiefly obtained through Giulio
Romano, to whose pupils he belonged. He executed many works in Man-
tua, in the Palazzo del Te. Francis I. in 1531 invited him to France, where
he met with Rosso and remained nine years; the king then sent him to
Rome to purchase antiques, and with Vignola’s assistance to take plaster-
casts of several ancient statues and reliefs, a mission which he undertook
with benefit to himself; and it was not till Rosso’s death in 1541 that he
was recalled, to complete that artist’s unfinished works. Under Francis II.
he was made superintendent in chief of the royal palaces; and, as he
was likewise an architect, he designed the plan of the Castle of Meudon.
Primaticcio had a great deal of invention and colored with taste; yet his
many and great works left him too little time for the study of nature, and
hence we often perceive in him a mannerism. Among his pupils, Nicolo
dell’ Abbate and Alberto Fontana rose to eminence. Among the works of
Nicolo great praise is bestowed on the gallery in Fontainebleau, unfortu-
nately pulled down in 1738, in which the exploits of Ulysses were portrayed
after the designs of Primaticcio. They have been engraved by Theodore
Van Tulden and also by Kilian.

We have already remarked on several occasions, that in the beginning
of the 16th century the influence of Michael Angelo’s manner was very
perceptible not only in the rest of Italy but also in Bologna, since most of
the artists not only sought to make this manner their own, but fancied they
could improve upon it by their experiments; and thus gradually arose a
mode of painting which not only wanted firmness but was often erroneous
in drawing, while it was feeble and wishy-washy in coloring, and without
even a semblance of truth to nature. Unhappily this corrupt taste had
spread, to the great detriment of true art, throughout Italy, and there were
but few artists, and those chiefly of the Bolognese school, who were able to
stem the torrent with much success. But at length arose the Caraccis, who
earned for themselves the glory of imparting new life and vigor to art.

Ludovico Caracci (b. 1555, d. 1619) was the son of a butcher; and as
he manifested a great inclination for painting, he was placed under the
instructions of Prospero Fontana. His quiet and contemplative disposition,
however, caused him to be misunderstood; and the fiery Fontana as well
as Tintoretto pronounced him destitute of talent.. Upon this the young
man withdrew himself into retirement; he remained a while with Passig-
nano in Florence; then studied the masterpieces of Primaticcio, Andrea
del Sarto, Correggio, Giulio Romano, Paolo Veronese, and Titian; and at

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length, furnished with profound artistic knowledge, he began his glorious
career in Bologna. He had two cousins, Agostino (b. 1557, d. 1602) and
Annibale (b. 1560, d. 1609), who likewise devoted themselves to painting,
the former studying with Fontana, the latter with Ludovico. The two
brothers lived in a constant state of alienation, and their mutual interests as
artists and as men could not induce them to behave in a friendly manner
towards each other. Agostino was noble and talented, and pursued all his
scientific studies with much success; but Annibale, whom his father had
destined to be a tailor, and who scarcely knew how to read and write,
constantly ridiculed his brother’s learning, as the means of dissipating his
powers. Agostino in consequence, who saw with what gigantic strides his
brother was advanced in the art of painting, determined to renounce it,
and applied himself successfully to copperplate engraving. About the
same time Annibale exhibited his first works, consisting of two altar-
pieces, a Crucifixion and a Baptism of Christ ; but as these were simply,
nobly, and naturally executed, they were attacked on all sides, so that the
painter’s only present reward was the hope of seeing the right ultimately
triumph. Ludovico and Annibale pursued with the greatest ardor the
path they had struck out, and Agostino likewise again took up painting.
About the year 1580 Annibale went to Parma, and then to Venice; and
after his return the three Caraccis painted together several friezes in the
Fava palace, representing the Exploits of Jason, and Ludovico alone painted
in a hallthe History of Aineas.

In spite of all opposition the three artists quietly pursued the course
which they had decided to be the only correct one, and at length they
founded a school of painting in which the study of the nude figure and of
the antique was pursued with great zeal, and where Agostino lectured on
the theoretical branches, architecture, perspective, anatomy, &c. From
this time forward the reputation of the Caraccis kept spreading more and
more. Ludovico had already distinguished himself by several large works,
Agostino shone as an engraver, and Annibale by his paintings, which
excited universal admiration. The Caraccis, after having studied the works
of the greatest masters, formed a manner of their own, in which the
character of one or the other master served as a pattern, and they always
chose with great judgment that which was most suitable. Accordingly
when the nature of the subject required it, they produced by their mode
of treatment a mixture of the styles of Primaticcio, Tintoretto, Tibaldi, &e.

In the convent of the Carthusians in Bologna Agostino painted his
admirable work, the Communion of St. Jerome, a production which excited
universal attention and which is now in Paris. The fame of the skill of the
Caraccis now spread more and more, and many commissions were conse-
quently given, not to any one of them but to all of them together. Thus
the grand paintings in the Magnani palace are to be regarded as the work
of the Caraccis, and chiefly of Ludovico and Agostino. Two ceiling-pieces
are here celebrated, one representing Galathea as the symbol of Water,
painted by Ludovico, and the other Pluto as the symbol of Fire, a work of
Agostino. We have given a sketch of the former in pl. 15, fig. 12, and of

: 487

104 THE FINE ARTS.

the latter in jig. 18, which will afford an idea of the manner of these two
masters. About this time Annibale began one of his most celebrated paint-
ings, viz. St. Rogue distributing Alms, which is now in Dresden, and also
the beautiful picture of Mary, the Magdalen, and St. Francis of Assisi by
the body of Chrost, of which a sketch is given in jig.7. Another picture,
which adorns the Paris Museum, and is copied in pl. 16, jig. 7, represents
the Madonna with the child Jesus asleep and John the Baptist ; it is known
by the name of “ Stdence,” and is of somewhat later date than the preceding.

Agostino and Annibale next undertook for Cardinal Odoardo Farnese to
decorate with paintings the Farnese gallery in Rome. But artistic rivalry
between the two brothers, who otherwise were tenderly attached to each
other, soon had the effect of disturbing the progress of the work, and
Agostino quitted Rome, relinquishing to his brother the honor of completing
this great work. In his native country new works awaited him but also
new attacks, in consequence of which he fell into a state of dejection and
died in the 43d year of his age.

Annibale was occupied eight years in the work of the Farnese gallery:
Ludovico also came for a short time to Rome, and one of the naked figures
in the medallion of the fable of the Syrinx is painted by his hand. The
contemptible recompense which Annibale received on the completion of the
work, only 500 scudi instead of 10,000, made him resolve to paint no more;
and although he was persuaded to begin in conjunction with Albani a work
in the church of St. James of Spain in Rome, the melancholy which had
seized him undermined his health and he expired in Rome in the 49th
year of his age.

Ludovico, after his ‘return from Rome, had undertaken along with all his
pupils a great work, namely to decorate with paintings the portico of San
Michele in Bosco, and the subjects were the history of St. Benedict and the
legends of St. Cecilia. Many of the largest and finest pictures are by
Ludovico himself, and all of them are characterized by an inexhaustible
beauty and sublimity; in all of them too we cannot but admire the accurate
study of the greatest masters which they manifest and the skill shown in
adopting their several manners for those subjects to which they are best
- suited. The last work of Ludovico was the great vaulted ceiling in the
cathedral of Bologna, where he painted the Annunciation, giving to the
fizures of Mary and the Angel a colossal size. Unhappily he committed
an error in this picture, which proved the cause of his death. The angel in
the act of approaching the Madonna wears a light garment through which
the movement of the body is seen. But if we follow out the folds of the
drapery, we find that the left foot is where the right ought to be, and vice
versa. Ludovico did not notice this fault until the scaffolding was taken
down and it was too late to correct it; the grief and mortification which he
experienced in consequence undermined his health and he died. The
error was corrected by Prof. Fancelli in 1830. There were also three other
painters of the Caracci family, Paolo, Francesco, and Antonio; but none of
them became very celebrated.

The pupils of the Caraccis are innumerable. We find among them

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the greatest masters of their time, such as Domenichino, Guido, Albano,
and Lanfranco, of whom we shall speak directly. Opposed to the school
of the Caraccis was that of the so-called naturalists, which was founded by
Michael Angelo Merigi, called, after his birth-place, Caravaggio. He
was born in 1569, and manifested a talent for painting in early youth; but
he confined himself to a close and slavish imitation of nature without
making the least distinction between beauty and ugliness. He went to
Vienna and studied Giorgione, after which he removed to Rome, where he
gradually came into notice. He here hit upon the idea, while seeking to
produce peculiar effects, of painting his studio black and letting the light
in from above. He consequently saw all objects with sharply defined
lights and shadows, and, by reason of the darkness of the place, without
reflexion. His manner in consequence acquired a resemblance to that of
Rembrandt, although the latter is far more tasteful and transparent: never-
theless he found very many imitators, and his fame increased from day to
day. He received commissions for several altar-pieces, which stirred up
many enemies against him; and being of a very quarrelsome disposition
and always with a sword at hand, he once killed one of his adversaries,
upon which he fled to Naples, and from there to Malta, where he executed
his best works. To this period belongs the beautiful picture of the
Entombment of Christ (pl. 15, fig. 6), which is now in the Paris Museum.
But he also got into disputes in Malta; and as he was about to be cast into
prison, he made his escape to Sicily: from there he intended to go to Naples
and Rome, but was attacked on the road and so badly wounded that he
soon after died (in 1609). Caravaggio adhered in all his works so closely
to nature that he copied even her faults; his drawing is deficient in dignity
and correctness, indeed in all those advantages which result from a scientific
education. Content simply tv copy his model, he despised every other
means of excellence.

After this brief digression, we return again to the school of the Caraccis, the
members of which were busily engaged in striving against the disorders intro-
duced into art by the followers of Caravaggio. The first of these to whom we will
cail the reader’s attention was Giovanni Lanfranco, who was born in Parma
in 1580 and received a liberal education; he entered as page into the
service of Marchese Scotti, who, perceiving his talent for painting, placed
him under the instruction of Agostino Caracci. He here devoted himself
chiefly to the study of Correggio’s works, in which Agostino encouraged
him. Lanfranco followed his master to Rome, and worked with him in the
Farnese gallery. From this time the Marchese Sannesi took him into his
service; for him Giovanni painted a great deal, and by him the way to
great reputation was opened to the artist, for the Marchese brought him
to the notice of cardinal Montalto and pope Sixtus, from whom he received
many commissions. lLanfranco gained an enviable reputation by his works.
His most beautiful production, which he executed wholly in the manner of
Correggio, is the cupola in the church of St. Andrea della Valle in Rome,
where Domenichino painted the four corners and the tribune. Lanfranco

labored four years on this cupola, and the harmony of the whole is admirable,
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106 THE FINE ARTS.

the distribution of the colors wonderful, and the chiaroscuro and the grada-
tion of the tints are lovely in the extreme. With respect to the celestial
glory this cupola is unique in its kind. He did not succeed so Well with
the cupola of the Jesuits’ church in Naples; but this was owing to its con-
struction, it being provided with ribs and having an excessive quantity of
gilding. Lanfranco and his followers applied themselves chiefly to the study
of the distribution of masses and of movements, after the example of
Correggio; yet what they sought was the appearance without the arduous
study of the principles of art. The pictures of Lanfranco are distributed
in great number through Italy and some through Spain and France. There
are also several of them in Vienna and Dresden; but his fresco-paintings
are of more value than his pictures in oil.

Guido Reni, born in Bologna 1575, was to have been a musician; but he
preferred the study of painting under Calvaert, who directed his attention
to Albert Direr’s works. Here Albano and Domenichino were his fellow-
pupils; but all three went over to the school of the Caraccis. Guido accom-
panied Annibale Caracci to Rome, where he soon acquired considerable
reputation: his first work was a Crucifixion of St. Peter, in the Chiesa
delle tre Fontane, a picture in which he endeavored with great success to
excel Caravaggio in chiaroscuro. This picture and several others after-
wards came to Paris. One of the finest fresco-paintings in Rome is the
Aurora which Guido painted for Cardinal Borghese, but which during the
recent events in Rome has suffered considerable damage. Guido also
decorated with his pencil the chapel on Monte Cavallo and one in Sta.
Maria Maggiore. He soon afterwards removed to Bologna, where there
were already several of his paintings ; but he was summoned back to Rome
to complete his unfinished works. He then repaired once more to Bologna
and afterwards to Naples. But an attempt being there made upon his life,
he soon left that city and returned to Bologna, where he finished the chapel
of St. Dominic and painted several pictures for the Chiesa de’ Mendicanti.
This is not the place to enumerate the countless works of Guido, who at
length acquired such a facility that he seemed to design with the pencil.
There exist also many paintings which go by his name, but which are either
copies of his pictures or have been produced by his pupils and merely
finished by him. Guido’s greatest excellence doubtless consists in the
ideal beauty which animates his heads. In his female heads and even in
those of youthful males, his study of the ancient group of the Niobids is
everywhere visible. The Madonna of the Florence Museum (pl. 15,
jig. 10) and the John the Baptist of the Paris Museum (jig. 11) may serve
as specimens. The countenances of his old men and apostles he selected
from fine natural ones, because among the models of the antique none of
religious inspiration have been preserved. For the representation of the
other parts of the body he likewise adhered to nature, without ennobling
them by means of the antique; so that the bodies are frequently not in har-
mony with the beautiful heads. An example of this, and also of what we
shall have to say respecting his draperies, is furnished in the S¢. Francis

from the Paris Museum (fig. 5). Guido’s flesh color has too great a tendeney
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PAINTING. 107

to yellow, but without being disagreeable; his coloring in general is deli-
cious and without offensive prominence. In the folds of his draperies we
observe great beauty of form, and sometimes they remind us of Diirer; yet
they often want harmony with the remaining whole and with the nature of
the material. Notwithstanding the beauty and correctness of his aerial per-
spective, his linear perspective is often treated in an erroneous manner.
Nevertheless, Guido, whose portrait from the Florence Museum is given
pl. 18, fig. 6, is deservedly reckoned among the most distinguished artists.
He died in 1642.

Francesco Albano, born in Bologna in 1578, was the third from the
school of the Caraccis who labored to uphold it against the exertions of the
naturalists. He was a fellow-pupil of Guido; but although they were
apparently united by an intimate friendship, a violent jealousy existed
between them, which at last broke out into open enmity, so that the one
was constantly laboring to eclipse the other. Albano began his public
career in Rome, where under Annibale Caracci he executed many of the
latter’s cartoons in the church of St. James of Spain; but among his most
celebrated works is the Verospi gallery. Very celebrated also are his four
Elements, which he first painted in the Villa Borghese, and afterwards had
to repeat several times, each time introducing new ideas. Although
Albano’s great paintings are excellent, his easel-pictures are preferred, and
his representations of Venus, Diana, the Nymphs, and the Cupids are so
charmingly beautiful, that they gained for him the appellation of “the
painter of the Graces.” In his second wife Doralice Fioravanti (the first
died at an early age) and his twelve children he had an ever ready supply
of the finest models. We find several of them in a picture of the Holy
Family (pl. 17, fig. 6), and his little Cupids (the Dresden gallery possesses
one of the most beautiful compositions of this kind) are for the most part
pictures of his children. Albano also painted very beautiful landscapes,
and one of them was the occasion of placing the jealousy between him and
Guido in a very clear light. Albano was commissioned by Cardinal Bar-
berini to paint a landscape for the king of England, in which Guido was to
insert the figures for the fable of Bacchus and Ariadne. Albano executed
his task splendidly, so much so that Guido perceived that his figures must
remain secondary matters; upon which, losing patience, he seized a large
brush and obliterated the entire landscape, and then designed instead of it
a naked rock. Albano’s drawing is always exceedingly correct, and his
coloring is charming. In invention he was rather a poet than a painter;
his fancy was inexhaustible, and in his female Loves he has remained
unequalled. He died in 1660.

Domenico Zampieri, called Domenichino, was born in 1581, and died in
1641. He likewise was a pupil of the Caraccis, and Agostino predicted
for him great success. Zampieri was uncommonly industrious, and his
acute powers of observation enabled him to note with accuracy the effects
of the passions on the human countenance and to depict them to the life.
He lived on terms of the most intimate friendship with Albano: and when

the latter went to Rome, he soon followed him, and worked there in com-
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pany with him. Domenichino at first experienced violent opposition, and
his bashful nature was looked upon as weakness; but he was all the more
esteemed and honored in the end. The number of his works is great ; but
the most celebrated is his St. John, one of the four Evangelists, which he
painted in the church of St. Andrea della Valle in Rome, the cupola of
which, as we mentioned above (p. 105), was painted by Lanfranco. There
are also some beautiful works of Domenichino in Naples. He ranks indis-
putably among the most accomplished painters; he made use of the
antique with great ability, and in point of expression he stands next to
Raphael. His coloring is beautiful, powerful, and natural, and his compo-
sitions are for the most part full of grace and spirit.

As painting in Rome, Florence, and Venice, after reaching its most
brilliant period, began to decline, so too in Lombardy it now began to
approach its fall. The rage for novelty, the numerous rival styles, the
eagerness to banish the difficulties of the art and to facilitate its study at
the expense of thoroughness, made their appearance here likewise.
Although Bologna had become the first school of Italy, still the countless
different styles of the pupils of the Caracci combined with the methods of
other artists, especially with the followers of Pietro da Cortona, hastened
the downfall of art. Among all the pupils of the Caraccis, although they
were excellent, but few are distinguished by any peculiar characteristics :
they all drew from the same stream, without examining whether its waters
were pure or turbid, and but few gave themselves the trouble to ascend to
its source. Carlo Cignani, who was born in Bologna in 1628, and died in
1719, was the first to bring about a revolution. He early applied himself
to the study of the works of Titian, Correggio, and the Caraccis, and formed
for himself an individual manner distinguished by very accurate drawing
and great power of coloring. His very first works gained him great repu-
tation and so many commissions, that he was prevented from devoting the
requisite attention to his own improvement, by means of which he would
otherwise have risen to the highest grade of excellence.

Among the finest works which Cignani has left us are two frescoes, with
which he in company with his fellow-pupil Taruffi adorned the Farnese hall
in the public palace of Bologna. These two pictures painted by Cignani
himself represent, one of them Francis I. of France touching for the king’s
evil in Bologna, and the other the entrance of Pope Paul III. (Farnese)
into the same city. Cignani painted a great deal in fresco, both in Bologna,
in Parma, and in other places: in acknowledgment of his merits he had
bestowed on him the title of count and cavalier. Besides the innumerable
pictures which he painted for many noble houses of Italy, he worked also
for the emperor, the king of France, prince Adam of Lichtenstein, and
for the elector of Bavaria and the Palatinate. In the city of Forli,
where he resided for many years. for the purpose of painting the great
cupola of the church of the Madonna del Fuoco, he kept his school of
painting as he had done in Bologna; and from it a good many tolerably
able artists proceeded. His easel-pictures are found in almost every gallery
of importance ; one of the best of them is in Dresden: it represents Joseph

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tearing himself from the arms of Zuleika (Potiphar’s wife) (pl. 15, jig. 8).
His last work, which he painted at the close of his life, was an infant
Jupiter in the act of suckling; he painted it for the elector of the Palati-
nate, who rewarded him very generously. The venerable artist died at
Forli in the year 1710, and is there buried under the cupola on which
he had labored for twenty years, and which he regarded as his master-
piece. In his manner we find a combination of the finest characteris-
tics of Correggio, Titian, Guido, and the Caraccis; yet he followed no
master exclusively, but was always original. He possessed a peculiar
talent with which nature had also gifted Correggio, that of representing
figures in scanty spaces magnified in a wonderful manner. There was a
great deal of grace in Cignani’s drawing, and he selected only the finest
natural forms for models ; his coloring is vigorous without too great masses
of shade, and his illumination is clear and intelligible.

A school of artists was also formed in Naples and Sicily, which has
produced some celebrated masters. We need only mention here the names
of Andrea da Salerno (1480-1545), Francesco Penni (il Fattore), Giovanni
Caracciola, Giuseppe Ribera (lo Spagnoletto, 1593-1649), Salvator Rosa
(1615-73), Mattia Preti (il Calabrese, 1613-99), Luca Giordano (Fa presto,
1632-1705), and Francesco Solimena (1657-1748), to give an idea of the
services rendered to true art by this school.

2. Spaty. Among all the kingdoms of Southern Europe there is perhaps
none that has undergone so many revolutions and had such various rulers
as Spain. Phcenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians were enticed thither by
its mines of silver and gold, and these expelled the original inhabitants and
established their colonies instead. The Romans transplanted thither their
manners and civilization, and many beautiful temples still testify to the
architectural skill of the Augustan age. Next took place the irruption of
the Goths, with whom the Christian religion found entrance, as is shown
by the churches now in ruins of the 6th and 7th centuries. The incursion
of the Arabs into Spain introduced a new religion, new manners, and new
art, until Ferdinand I. (1047-65) delivered a great part of Spain from the
domination of the Moors. From that time forth the Christian religion has
reigned unrestricted in Spain. Relics of art are still preserved in greater
or less numbers belonging to all these periods; and it is to be regretted
that the Pyrenees and still more the intolerance of the Spaniards preserve
the Peninsula in such a state of isolation that these ruins and remains of
art are still but very imperfectly known in the rest of Europe.

The oldest accounts of Spanish painting relate to the 10th century, when
the monk Vigila wrote a codex and adorned it with miniatures; the
painters were Saracino and Garcia. There is a Bible in two volumes of
the 13th century, with paintings by Pedro de Pampeluna; and in 1291
Esteban Rodrigo was court painter to king Sancho IV. Juan Caesillas
painted in 1382 for the city of Reus an altar-piece with the twelve Apostles
and many embellishments, for which he received 830 florins of Arragon ;
and there is a painting of the year 1399 in the cathedral of Toledo by

Fernando Gonzales, who was also a sculptor. .
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110° THE FINE ARTS.

In the beginning of the 15th century there came to Spain the Florentine
artists Gerardo Starnina and Dello, whose works it is true no longer exist,
but which are said to have been very fine. About the year 1462 lived the
Spanish artists Juan Sanchez de Castro and Pedro Sanchez; works by
both of them are still extant, which as respects delicacy of execution and
sprightliness of coloring are of distinguished merit. There also lived in
Spain about the year 1455 an English artist named Jorge (George), good
portraits by whom are still extant. The first Spanish painter who went to
Rome to perfect himself in his art was Antonio del Rincon (1446-1500),
who after his return executed many fine works; all, however, have been
destroyed with the exception of an altar-piece of seventeen compartments.
It is expressive and very clever. Pablo de Aregio and Francesco Neapoli
painted in the spirit of Leonardo da Vinci, as appears from two side wings —
on the high altar of the cathedral of Valencia of the year 1506. At that
time Spain was rich in artists, some of whom were of a high order; yet
there were also foreigners among them. Johann Cornelius Vermeyen
(Juan de Majo or Barbalonga), from Beverwyck near Haarlem, produced
church paintings and beautiful landscapes. Titian also remained here
for some time, and the great number of paintings by him which are found
in Spain (they are reckoned at 85) attest the high esteem in which he was
held by the emperor Charles V. and Philip II. Great reputation was
gained by Fernando Yarmez, a pupil of Raphael: his best work is the
Adoration of the Kings. Rubens too spent a considerable time in Spain,
of whom we shall have occasion to speak again in treating of the Nether-
land school. There are also in Spain 96 pictures and 46 designs for
pictures by Rubens; yet strictly speaking he was of little benefit to the
Spanish school, as the reputation to which he attained was injurious to
that of Italy.

Passing over a great number of artists whose enumeration would have
led us too far, and of whom we will particularize only Herrera and Velas-
quez de Silva, we turn to Bartolomé Esteban Murillo (1618-82), who is
rightly esteemed one of the greatest painters of Spain and indeed ‘of his time.
He was born in Seville and studied the art of designing with Juan de Cas-
tillo; but he remained deficient in coloring until he came to rely upon himself
and formed his own style. At this period he painted pictures in several
churches, which show strong marks of mannerism. Then came Pedro de
Moya, a pupil of Vandyck, to Seville; and on Murillo’s thus becoming
acquainted with the coloring of Vandyck, he determined to repair to that
master for instruction, when he received information of his death. Italy
then became the goal of his wishes; but being without the means of defray-
ing his expenses thither, he painted an immense number of little sacred
pictures which were sent to India. With the money saved from the pro-
ceeds he went to Madrid, where under Velasquez he copied the paintings
of Titian, Rubens, Vandyck, Ribera, &c.; by this course he profited so
greatly that when in 1645 he returned to Seville, he gained universal
applause by his paintings in the convent of St. Francis. They were exe-

cuted in an entirely new style, in the taste of Vandyck, Spagnoletto, and
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PAINTING. 111

Velasquez, and gained for him a great number of commissions. His
beautiful picture of St. Anthony of Padua in the cathedral, which is
regarded as his finest work, was painted by him in the year 1656. His
most brilliant period, however, was from 1670 to 1680, when among other
things he painted the eight pictures in the church of the hospital of St.
George, for which he received 78,115 reals. The pictures of Murillo are
valued very highly: for instance the English banker Angerstein paid for two
of them 18,000 dollars. Murillo possessed an amiable character: he treated
the mistakes of his pupils, of whom he had a great number, with gentleness,
and referred them constantly to nature. His pictures are to be met with
through all Europe; as he was uncommonly industrious, and his works were
always held in high esteem. Many too have been given as presents by the
kings of Spain to other rulers or have been sold for high prices; and hence
it is that no gallery of consequence is without a picture of Murillo, although
many of them no doubt were only executed in his school. The Dresden
gallery possesses a few pictures by this master, and among them a very
beautiful Madonna and Child (pl. 17, fig. 8), which indisputably belongs
to Murillo’s best period. We find in his pictures two characteristic styles:
one is vigorous and powerful and the execution true to nature; while the
other shows a certain sweetness which Murillo derived from his manifold
studies after Italian masters and after Vandyck, but which he discarded in
some paintings of this style found in the Soult gallery in Paris. Murillo left
many imitators and a respectable school, which, however, soon degenerated.
In Spain also art sank by degrees from the high point to which it had been
raised by the masters of the 16th and 17th centuries ; and although occasion-
ally one master or another cast a ray of light over the domain of art, no serious
revival was produced in it until the advent of Mengs.

3. France. The first traces of painting in France present themselves in
the time of bishop Gregory of Tours, who in the 9th century caused many
churches to be adorned with paintings;*the tomb of Fredegunde was also
decorated with mosaic paintings, the execution of which was at that time
well understood, the art having been handed down from antiquity. At the
time of the Norman invasion (in 865), miniature painting was not unknown
in France. There is still extant a manuscript of that period, the four
Gospels in the National Library in Paris, which contains several miniatures,
among others that of the emperor Lotharius; and there is also a Bible of
the time of Charles the Bald containing paintings, among which is one
representing the king on his throne surrounded by eleven priests, guards,
and magnates of the kingdom. A work has come down to us from the year
1065 which, though not properly a painting, is nearly enough allied to one.
We mean the great tapestry of Bayeux, 212 feet in length and over 2 feet
in breadth, on which queen Mathilda and her maidens depicted in em-
broidery the deeds of William of Normandy. To be sure the drawing on
this tapestry is truly barbarous ; nevertheless it is of great historical impor-
tance if only on account of the inscriptions it contains. There are also
fresco-paintings of that time, which represent William the Conqueror, his

queen Mathilda, and his sons Robert and William, besides other works of
) 495

112 THE FINE ARTS.

the kind in churches. Miniature painting was brought to great perfection
by Foulques, precentor at St. Hubert’s; and considerable progress was like-
wise made in painting on glass. Of greater importance at that time for the
advancement of art in France were the exertions of abbot Suger, a zealous
patron and promoter of all the arts. A great deal too was done for the arts
under Louis [X.; and his expeditions to the Holy Land, his imprison-
ment, and his subsequent adventures, afforded to painters and sculptors a
rich material for illustration. Thus we find a picture of this king of the
year 1226, in the Saints’ Chapel in Paris, which is painted in very good
taste and represents the king with a bird sitting on his left hand and holding
in his right a sceptre; and in the abbey of St. Denis there are eight beautiful
glass windows of the year 1350 with paintings from the life of that saint.

When in the 14th century the French city of Avignon became a possession —
of the pope and several popes ruled there, a closer union took place
between France and Rome, the proper seat of art, and with this event art
advanced considerably in France also. Gaddo Gaddi and Giotto both
lived for some time in Avignon; and the latter at the command of the pope
painted altar-pieces and frescoes for a number of French churches. In the
year 1431 Charles IV. had a court painter, Jean de Bruges, perhaps the
father of the famous John van Eyck, who is almost always called abroad
John of Bruges.

The history of painting in France properly begins with Francis I. It
is true, his own attempts in Italy were crowned with more honor than
success; nevertheless he succeeded in transplanting if not the art at least
the artists from Italy to France. Leonardo da Vinci was the first,in 1515;
but he lived only a few years in France, and died in the arms of his
sovereign. Andrea del Sarto soon after, in 1518, entered the service of
. Francis I. but behaved, as we have seen, very ungratefully towards him.
It was with Rosso di Rossi, or Maitre Roux as the French call him, who
came to France in 1530, that Italian art at length obtained a firm footing
in France. Francesco Salviati also remained but. a short time in France,
and after him the Duke of Mantua sent to Paris Francesco Primaticcio,
whom Francis I., after Rosso’s death, raised to the dignity of chief court-
painter. These Italian artists, instead of educating Frenchmen to be their
assistants, drew other Italians to France; and thus French art remained
for a long period in a sort of sleeping partnership with the Italian, and
nearly all the important works of art which were executed in France were
produced by Italians, and this state of things continued till the time of
Louis XIV. The only French artists who distinguished themselves under
Francis I. were Francois Clouet and Corneille de Lyon as portrait-painters,
Arnoud Demoles as a painter on glass, and Pinaigrier who painted frescoes.

The unquiet reigns of Henry II. and Francis II. witnessed little advance-
ment in the arts; and the massacre of St. Bartholomew’s eve under Charles
IX. cost many artists, among others Jean Goujon, their lives. A French
school properly so called was at length formed under Henry IV., at the
head of which stood Jean Cousin, several very good works by whom (he
was living in 1589) are still preserved; he also painted a great deal on g'ass,

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PAINTING. 113

e.g.the windows of the parish church of St. Gervais in Paris. He was
likewise a sculptor and architect. The artists of those times oon ee |
selves chiefly in the preparation of cartoons for tapestries, of which fi

I. was very fond; and to this Gilles Gobelin, by the beautiful and dura
colors which he succeeded in imparting to the wool, contributed not a little.
After the death of Primaticcio, the superintendence of the works at Fontaine-
bleau came into the hands of Ruggieri and the two Frenchmen Du Breuil and
Jean Bullant, who there represented the exploits of Hercules in twenty-seven
pictures which they painted together. Jacques Bunel and Du Breuil also
painted the cupola in the small gallery of the Louvre, which was burnt in
1660; and Freminet, who took Michael Angelo for his model, painted the
ceiling of the chapel at Fontainebleau.

Yet notwithstanding all this, in the times of the Caraccis, when art stood
in Italy at a high pitch of perfection, French art had hardly attained the
first stages of its growth, and the magic creations of the Italian pencil seemed
to excite no rivalry in France. The French works remained mean and dry,
the drawing was incorrect, the coloring spiritless and without harmony,
and there was a lack of the fancy and invention which are indispensable for
the production of a genuine work of art. The first great masters proceeded
from the school of Simon Vouet; but their successors already manifest a
decline in skill. Simon Vouet had acquired his artistic education in Rome
and Venice; and we discern in his pictures the effects of his studies after
Titian, Tintoretto, Paul Veronese, Raphael, and Michael Angelo. The
number of this artist’s productions is very great, as he was very industrious,
and his ambition led him to grasp at everything, in consequence of which
France lost one of her best artists, Poussin.

From the school of Vouet there issued many other masters, Lebrun,
Lesueur, Mignard, Du: Fresnoy, Testelin, and Dorigny pére. His contem-
poraries were Noél Jouvenet, Percier, Quintin Varin, &c.

Varin’s school produced Nicolas Poussin (b. 1594, d. 1665), who rose to
be one of the greatest painters of France. After visiting the schools of the
most celebrated painters of the time, and finding that he could not derive
much further advantage from them, he studied and copied the works of the
great Italians, and at last succeeded by dint of severe economy in getting
to Rome. Here he studied very diligently and especially the. antique.
Of all the Italian masters Domenichino became his favorite. His first
works of importance were the Martyrdom of St. Hramus for the Vatican
basilica and the celebrated Seven Sacraments for the cavalier Cassiano del
Pozzo. Several works of Poussin which had come to Paris excited in
Cardinal Richelieu a desire to have him in that city; and in consequence
he was summoned in 1639 to Paris, where he was overwhelmed with com-
missions and was appointed court painter and chief superintendent of all
artistic undertakings with a salary of 3000 livres. On account of some
works in the Louvre he fell into a dispute with Fouquier the landscape
painter and Mercier the architect; and these conspired with Vouet to
cause Poussin’s overthrow, which at length they effected. Poussin returned

to Rome, where he painted a great deal, and where he died in 1695.
ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOPADIA.—VOL. Iv. 82 497

114 THE FINE ARTS.

Poussin had pursued a peculiar course in the cultivation of his talents:
after he had well grounded himself in his art by the study of the greatest
masters, he perfected his knowledge in Rome by means of an accurate and
diligent observation of the antique, whence his strictly accurate costumes
and the learning displayed in the accessories of his pictures, which render
them of great value to the archeologist. His drawing is perfect, as is
also his expression; his compositions seem to be formed upon his studies
from the cartoons of Raphael and Domenichino and on the principles of
Leonardo da Vinci. In coloring and in pleasing harmony he remained
deficient, and his works were sometimes wanting in fire, as he endeavored
to finish them too minutely and according to all the rules of art. His land-
scapes are excellent in composition, but incorrect in the details. Poussin
wished to paint only for the soul, to exercise only the understanding, and —
not to gratify the senses with luxury of coloring; hence many of his
pictures are nothing but moral rhapsodies, which under the guise of a
poetic picture excite the beholder to reflection, and speak to his heart.

Claude Gelée (Claude le Lorrain, 1600-1682) was a contemporary of
Poussin, whom he survived. His birth being of low condition, he was at
first apprenticed to a pastry-cook; but he afterwards learnt drawing of his
brother in Freiburg, and went with a relative to Italy. Here he was left
without protector or guide, until he obtained employment as a color-
grinder of Tassi the landscape-painter, a pupil of Paul Bril, and gained
some knowledge of painting, which he afterwards completed under Vals in
Naples. He was soon enabled in consequence to take his place in the
highest rank of landscape painters; and on his return to Rome, where he
took up his abode, he received many commissions from the popes and
other persons of consequence. The demand for his pictures caused other
artists to paint in his manner and to sell their works as his; so that there
exist an immense number of so-called pictures by Claude with which he
had nothing whatever to do. In order to keep an account of his pictures,
he slightly sketched each one of them in a book, which he called the “ Book
of Truth.” It consists of about 200 leaves: it came finally into the posses-
sion of the Duke of Devonshire, and was engraved by Richard Carlom and
published by Boydell in 1777. The works of Claude are found in the best
galleries; four of the finest are in Cassel, and two in Dresden. The magic
effects of light and shade in his landscapes are unsurpassed and hardly
rivalled, but the conformation of the ground and vegetation often lack truth
and evince mannerism.

One of the most distinguished painters of the French school was Pierre
Mignard (1610-95), who made his studies after Rosso and Primaticcio,
then joined the school of Vouet, and lastly went to Rome, where he com-
pleted his artistic education. He lived on terms of the most intimate
friendship with Alphonse du Fresnoy (1611-65), who was likewise in
Vouet’s school. From Rome they both proceeded to Venice: after some
time Fresnoy went to Paris, but Mignard returned to Rome, whence he
went to Paris in 1658, and rendered himself equally celebrated as a portrait

and as an historical painter. At court he was held in high esteem, but had
498 .

PAINTING. 115

much to endure from the jealousy of Lebrun. At the command of the
queen-mother of Louis XIV., he painted the cupola of the church of Val
de Grace, which is indisputably the greatest fresco executed in France. It
represents the abode of the blessed, in the midst of which queen Anne,
conducted by St. Anna and St. Louis, presents to God the model of the
newly erected church. The picture contains more than 200 figures, the
largest of which are 17 feet high. Mignard then decorated with paintings
the saloons of St. Cloud, which he finished in four years. After executing
other works in Versailles with great success, Mignard had conferred upon
him the title of Chevalier; and on Lebrun’s death in 1690, he received the
appointment of first painter to the king. Mignard’s style in some of his works
is admirable; his drawing is in the highest degree correct, and his coloring
very beautiful. A lack of originality is, however, perceptible in all his
works. He had a peculiar talent for imitating to the life the various styles of
the masters whom he had studied in Italy ; and this he made use of to revenge
himself on Lebrun. He painted a St. Magdalen in the manner of Guido,
and let it be sold by a picture-dealer for a high price. He then caused a
rumor to be spread about that the picture was not genuine; and the matter
being referred to Lebrun, the latter pronounced the picture to be one of
Guido’s finest productions. Hereupon Mignard came forward and claimed
the work as his own; to prove which he effaced the hair of the Magdalen,
- when she appeared decked in a red cardinal’s cap! and poor Lebrun
became the laughing-stock of the town.

Another pupil of Vouet was Eustache Lesueur (1617-55) who completed
his style by the study of the Italian masters. He was soon commissioned.
by queen Anne to adorn the little convent of the Carthusians with 22
pictures from the life of the founder of the order, a work which procured
him great reputation. He painted a great deal, especially allegorical and
mythological subjects, which in his hands became very unpalatable to
refined minds. Lesueur was never in Rome; yet his countrymen place
him by the side of Raphael! whom he knew only by a few paintings in ©
France and by engravings. Lesueur’s pictures are excellent for his time:
what we admire in him is correct drawing, great simplicity, and a
coloring which, although not of ravishing perfection, is lovely and ‘free
from faults or mannerism. Had Lesueur visited Italy and not died in the
flower of his age, he might, it must be admitted, have approached Raphael.
His pictures are rare, and it appears that of German galleries Berlin alone
can show one of them.

Charles Lebrun (1619-1690) was born in Paris, and received from his
father, a sculptor of moderate abilities, his first instructions in drawing and
sculpture. He then applied himself to the study of painting in the school
of Vouet, but soon saw that the instruction he there received would not
suffice ; accordingly he repaired to Fontainebleau, to study the works of the
Italian masters. Here his progress was such that the king conferred upon
him a pension to enable him to go to Rome. He there studied, under
Poussin’s direction, chiefly the works of Raphael. Upon his return in

1645, he began two large pictures, the Crucifixion of St. Andrew and the
. 499

116 THE FINE ARTS.

Martyrdom of St. Stephen, whereby he founded his great reputation.
These were succeeded by a host of other pictures, of which we can particu-
larize only that celebrated one, painted by him at the king’s command
and in his immediate vicinity, in which the artist represents Alexander
after the battle of Issus, at the moment when, accompanied only by his
friend Hepheestion, he visits the family of Darius. Lebrun was loaded
with the highest honors and rewards, and became a sort of monarch
of art in France. Innumerable are the designs which Lebrun executed,
and which were transferred to tapestry or wrought into pictures by
other artists under his supervision. About this time Lebrun completed
some pictures which are connected with the one mentioned above; they
are Alexander's Entrance into Babylon, the Battle of Arbela, the
Defeat of Porus, and the Passage of the Granicus. Of the last named
picture we have given a shaded sketch (pl..17, jig. 10); which will serve
to convey an idea of the rich and animated compositions of this master,
and to show how admirably he disposed his masses and managed his
illuminations. The costume is everywhere strictly observed; and all
is planned in such a manner as to form a living whole, that cannot
but delight the connoisseur. As Lebrun’s coloring is not quite perfect,
the beautiful engravings of his works by Audran generally please con-
noisseurs better than the pictures themselves. The last great work to
which Lebrun put his hand was the gallery of Versailles, in which he
represented in allegorical pictures the exploits of Louis XIV. from the
Peace of the Pyrenees to the Peace of Nimeguen; but unfortunately they
are wholly unintelligible without a commentary and altogether failures in
art.

Before Lebrun, the imitation of the good Italian schools was a predomi-
nant feature in all the works of the French. But after his time, the French
school received a direction which carried it constantly further and further
from the true principles of art, and the artists followed certain talented
masters, as Coypel and Jouvenet, who exceeded the limits of the good and
beautiful, pushed expression to exaggeration, sought to represent everything
in violent action, and would rather satisfy the eyes of the courtiers than
the “judgment of connoisseurs. Hence we pass over the next succeeding
painters ; for they only prepared the way for the decline of art in France
which Louis XIV. was unable to prevent, in spite of all his exertions and
the enormous sums which he expended for the purpose. The feeling for
the ideal had vanished, and there was no longer an eye for beauty or an
appreciation of truth. The only artists who did not wholly suffer themselves
to be borne along by the downward stream were the Vanloos (Jacques, his son
Louis, and his grandsons Jean Baptiste and Charles André and their sons),
and also Pierre Subleyras (1699-1749), though this last is better known in
Italy than in France, as he there executed his chief works. Francois
Lemoine (1688-1737) likewise deserves favorable mention.

Jaeques Louis David, born in Paris in the year 1748, was the founder
of a new French school, which strove to extirpate the old abuses and to

promote the growth of true art. He was a pupil of Vien, and applied
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PAINTING. 117

himself in his youth to the painting of battle-pieces ; but when in 1774 he
had gained the great prize of the Academy, he went to Rome and perfected
himself by the study of Raphael, Michael Angelo, and the Caraccis,
without, however, taking their best works only as his models. One
of his first pictures, that of St. oque healing those smitten with the Plague,
laid the foundation for his future fame. Afterwards, by way of competing
for the prize, he painted his Lelvsarvus; but having been treated with
undeserved contempt by the then director Pierre, he withdrew the picture
and sold it immediately at a much higher price than the amount of the prize.
In the year 1787 he finished in Rome his Horatw recewing their swords
from their Father, certainly his most brilliant production, and which
spread his reputation most widely; still this picture is by no means free
from faults, for, notwithstanding the correctness of the drawing, the compo-
sition is so defective, that the whole suggests the idea of an old subaltern
officer exercising three recruits, and these, like all David’s Romans, have
the appearance of so many Talmas decked out for the stage. The genuine
expression of feeling and passion is altogether wanting in the picture; and
the fact of its receiving such immense applause shows to what a low ebb
the arts had then sunk in France. Another picture of the like stamp is his
Brutus condemning his Son ; it was painted in 1789, and many prefer it
to the Horatii. During the reign of terror, David was the intimate friend
of Robespierre and also president of the Convention, in which capacity he
voted for the death of Louis XVI. It was thus in conformity with his sen-
timents that he painted so many revolutionary scenes, although his zeal
was likewise excited by other subjects. Thus he painted the Death of
Socrates ; and his Sabine Women, which he exhibited for some months at
an admission of 36 sous, brought him over 60,000 francs. Afterwards,
under Napoleon, David was held in high consideration; but on the
restoration of Louis XVIII. he was tried as a regicide, and was exiled
and went to Brussels, where he died in 1826. While David has the merit
of having aroused art from its torpidity, he is to be censured for having led
it astray by his exaggeration, affectation, and theatrical scenery.

Among the members of the school of David we distinguish Francois
Pascal Gérard, who conferred so much honor upon this so-called Classical
school. He was born in Rome in 1770, but returned to France with his
father and studied under David. He lived at first in great indigence,
and supported himself during the Revolution by working for booksellers.
In his eleventh year he composed a picture representing the Plague
which excited the applause of amateurs; but it was his Bel¢sarius, now in
the Leuchtenberg gallery in Munich (pl. 18, fig. 14), which first made his
name celebrated. We behold in this picture the noble and unfortunate
Belisarius, bearing on his arm the stripling who served as his guide, and
who is now mortally wounded by a snake that still hangs coiled about his
foot. The background of the picture is lighted by the rays of the setting
sun. Another very beautiful picture by Gérard is his Cupid and Psyche,
now in the Palais Luxembourg in Paris; and besides these and a great
number of portraits, he painted the Four Ages of Life, and for Napoleon

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118 THE FINE ARTS.

the Battle of Austerlitz. At the time of the Restoration, he painted almost
all the sovereigns then in Paris; he afterwards painted the Entrance of
Henry I'V., the Coronation of Charles X., &c. He died in 1837. He
excelled his master in coloring and in truth to nature.

Tn opposition to this classical school there arose another called the Roman-
tic school, which distinguished itself from the former by its predilection for
middle age subjects and forms. To this class of artists belong Abel de
Pujol, Richard, Ingres, who make choice chiefly of religious subjects and
Raphaelesque forms, Delacroix, Ary Schafer, and Delaroche. The four
last, and foremost among them Delaroche, with Horace Vernet, are the
corypheei of the French school of our day, whose performances in historical
painting far excel those of the previous French schools and approach the
solidity of the newest German art.

One of the most highly esteemed painters of David’s school was Anne
Louis de Girodet-Trioson, who was born at Montargis in 1767, and died
in 1825. As early as 1790 he made himself a name by his repre-
sentation of the Story of Joseph and his Brethren; and this gave him
courage to paint another picture, the Sleeping Hndymion (pl. 18,
jig. 13), which attained equal celebrity. Endymion slumbers in a
charming posture, while Zephyr thrusts aside the overhanging branches,
that Diana, in the shape of the Moon, may more easily let fall her rays
upon the lovely sleeper. This chef d’ceuvre Girodet painted while in Rome
in 1792. He likewise painted a scene from the Deluge, which together
with the Endymion is preserved in the Luxembourg palace ; this was followed
by the Surrender of Venice, the Revolt m Carro (in the Paris Museum),
Pygmalion and Galathea (in the collection of Count Sommariva), and
many others. Girodet’s drawing is faultless, his coloring beautiful, and the
many portraits which he painted are striking likenesses. Antoine Jean
Gros is another painter who reflects honor on the school of David. Of his
portraits those of Mapoleon on horseback and Napoleon on the bridge of
Arcole are the most celebrated ; his historical pieces are also excellent.

Another artist of the classical school is Guérin, who as early as 1796
exhibited two pictures, Geta murdered at the command of his brother
Caracalla, and Coriolanus’s Delivery from Death, in which was discerned the
great master that he afterwards became. His finest picture was exhibited
in 1799 in the hall of the Louvre: it represents Sextus on his return home
after having escaped the proscription of Sylla, when he finds his wife dead
and his daughter weeping at her feet. The picture was purchased by a
private individual for 10,000 frances. Guérin also executed some small pic-
tures in a pleasing style, e. g. Two Lovers bound by Cupid, &e. His Or-
pheus at the Grave of Hurydice is one of his last and finest works ; equally
praiseworthy is his Phedra and Hyppolite after Racine, and the Offering
brought to Aisculapius (jig. 5), the idea of which he took from one of
Gesner’s idylls. Noble simplicity, purity of design, and a vigorous and easy
sweep of the brush, are the excellences remarked in the works of Guérin.
He is, however, not free from the theatrical affectation belonging to the

school of David.
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PAINTING. 119

_ France has also its school of higher genre and historical painting; in
which, besides the great historical painter Delaroche, Horace Vernet,
Robert, Schnetz, Decamps, and Lessore have obtained a distinction emi-
nently surpassing that of any earlier master.

4. Germany. The first beginnings of German painting have perished
with the buildings that contained them. We have specimens of them,
however, in the meniature paintings or tlluminations of the old manu-
scripts; for while the splendid edifices of Charlemagne have long ago
fallen into undistinguishable ruins, the books which were written for
him and adorned with paintings, are still preserved almost uninjured in
Treves, Bamberg, and Munich. One of the oldest genuine German illumi-
nated manuscripts is a missal in the Bamberg library, which dates from the
10th century and contains twenty pictures representing sacred subjects
distributed through the 223 leaves of text. These pictures exhibit coarse and
uncertain outlines; while their bright and broken colors show that they
are the offspring of ancient art. So too an evangelistary of the same period
and in the same library exhibits some very interesting and peculiarly dis-
posed symbolical paintings. The pictures, which present a very rude
appearance, have violet and brick colored flesh, and are very feeble in
design ; but the ornaments still manifest an adherence to ancient tradition.
Another manuscript in the Bamberg library, once the property of empress
Kunigunde, contains sixty-one illustrations of the Revelation of St. John,
which are very weak in invention. This MS. is of the 10th century, and
exhibits as yet but little Byzantine influence; the execution is artless, and is
little more than a mere laying on of colors without light and shade. The
flesh parts are pale and brownish: the other colors bright but broken.
The illuminations of the Tristan manuscript in the library at Munich, which
dates from the first half of the 13th century, have still more the character
of mere outlines ; they lack that attempt at pictorial effect which is observed
in the Belgian and French works of the same period. The miniatures of
the 14th and 15th century begin to exhibit the influence of the Cologne
school of painting; and in the 16th century Sebald Beham and Hans
Glockendon distinguished themselves as miniature painters.

Next to miniature-painting in importance as illustrating the history of
art in the middle ages, is the art of painting on glass. It is a purely Ger-
man invention; and its first traces appeared in the 10th century, when a
‘certain Count Arnold presented the Bavarian convent of Tegernsee with
painted windows, and when Theophilus Presbyter made known rules for
painting on glass. Probably then the origin of the art was in Bavaria:
an abbot Wernher of Tegernsee, who lived at the close of the 10th or at
the beginning of the 11th century, is mentioned as the first glass-painter,
-and to German masters the rest of Europe is indebted for this art.
At first glass-painting was, properly speaking, a kind of mosaic: for the
‘stained glass was colored in the mass and the only color laid on was black,
-with which the outlines of the features, the folds of the garments, &c., were
delineated. Afterwards the glass used was white with a colored coating

and the colors laid on were blue, green, and occasionally yellow. Glass-
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120 THE FINE ARTS.

painting, as the handmaid of architecture, preserved. always an architec-
tural character, even as late as the 13th century, when all other kinds of
painting were practised without any such restriction. Of great importance
for the history of this kind of glass-painting are the windows of the high
choir in the Cologne cathedral, and those in the church of St. Catharine in
Oppenheim dating from the middle of the 14th century, as also the works
of about the same period in the nave of the Strasburg minster, most of
which were painted by Hans von Kirchheim. From the 15th to the 17th
century dates the most flourishing period as well as the decline of this art.
Although in technical details it became greatly improved, its chief cha-
racter was always that of ornament. Coated glass of different kinds came
into use at this period, new fluxes were invented, and several colors were
annealed on one and the same glass plate; so that a kind of cabinet-paint.
ing arose, which represented scenes and figures from the Bible history,
coats of arms, &c. Artists came to Germany from abroad to learn this art,
e.g. Francesco Livi of Gambari near Volterra, who came to Libeck; glass-
paintings by him of great perfection are still extant in Our Lady’s church
‘in Libeck. This artist painted in 1486 the windows of the cathedral in
Florence. Of German glass-painters of the 15th century we will mention
Peter Acker (1460) in Noérdlingen ; Hans Kramer, who worked in 1480 on
the cathedral and town-hall of Ulm; and Hans Wied, who worked at the
same period on the Ulm minster. The principal family of glass-painters,
the Hirschvogels, worked in Niirnberg, and Veit Hirschvogel painted (in
1527) the “ margrave window” in St. Sebald’s church, in which margrave
Frederick of Ansbach and Baireuth is portrayed with his wife and ten sons,
after the designs of Hans von Kulmbach. This window and one furnished
by the emperor Max, besides another by the Pfinzing family, all by the
same master, are certainly among the finest works of the kind. Lucas
Zeiner painted in 1503 a window for the abbess of the nunnery in Zurich ;
and here flourished in the middle of the 16th century Josias Maurer,
who with his son Christoph (d. 1614) distinguished himself both in composi-
tion and drawing. Other painters of the 16th century are Hans and Claus
Glaser, Schondorf, Hans and Georg Hebenstreit in Munich, &c. The
finest paintings on glass are to be found in the various churches of Cologne ;
but unfortunately it is not known by whom they were painted. The change
in the style of architecture caused glass-painting to be dispensed with, and
thus the art fell into disuse, although the knowledge of it was not wholly
lost; for when in the present century it was desired to have the windows
painted in the Regensburg minster, Sigismund Frank of Nurnberg soon
recovered the process, and a school of glass-painting was formed in Munich
which produces excellent things. In Prussia, Gersdorf and Mohn applied
themselves to this branch of art; and now excellent works are produced
chiefly in Bavaria by Hemle, Schwarz, Kirchmayer, Ainsmiller, Wehrs-
dorfer, v. Gartner, Hoss, Hammerl, Bertram, &c., whose . performances
greatly surpass those of earlier times in artistic composition and execution.
Painting on glass is also practised in the porcelain manufactory of Sevres,
but in a style inferior to that of Munich.
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PAINTING. ; 121

« Wall-painting never flourished in Germany to the same extent as in
Italy, for the reason that in the German style of building the masses of wall
are diminished as much as possible, and cupolas are replaced by cross-
vaults. Still there were always places to be found for the application of
fresco-painting ; but we have only scattered instances of what German art
has been able to accomplish in this respect, for not long ago there was such
a fondness for white that even painted walls and vaults of churches were
whitewashed over. Ofgreat importance here are the newly discovered paint-
ings formerly hid by tapestry in the cathedral of Cologne, representing the
legends of the three holy Kings and pope Sylvester. These pictures, which
date from the 14th century, show already a very decided effort in an artistic
direction. The first German fresco-painters whose names have been
handed down to us were Nikolaus Wurmser and his brother Kunzel of
Strasburg, who painted in the cathedral in Prague and in the church of
the Theatinians on the Karlstein. Along with them worked Theodoric
of Prague, who surpassed them in drawing. Master Wilhelm of Cologne
painted in St. Severin a large picture, which unfortunately has been a good
deal painted over again; he also painted a Cruczfiaion in a church in Cob-
lentz. Ulrich of Maulbronn executed in the 15th century several wall-
paintings in the church of that place; there are also some secular paintings
on the walls of the Ehinger Hof in Ulm. Important for this branch
of art are the Dances of Death executed in this and the following
century, which were often painted on the churchyard walls and some-
times in the churches themselves, and which are replete with satire against
the priestcraft of that time. Unhappily the most considerable works
of the kind, the Dance of Death in the Klingenthal convent in Kleinbasel,
and that of the younger Holbein on the churchyard wall of the former
church of the Dominicans in Basel, are no longer in existence. That how-
ever in theinner church at Strasburg has been saved, as it lay under a
coating of plaster, which has been cautiously removed. There are five
pictures with figures above the size of life; the heads are characteristic,
and the colors (original or restored ?) are tolerably lively. Holbein’s Dance
of Death was copied in 1806, shortly before the wall was pulled down, by
Rudolf Feierabend ; he executed his task better than Emanuel Biichel, a
baker, who had copied it in 1773, after executing a colored copy of. the
Klingenthal Dance of Death in 1768. Both drawings are now in the
library of Basle. Fresco-painting has recently been revived with much
success in Bavaria and also in Prussia; and the works of Cornelius, Kaul-
bach, Heydegger, Hess, Zimmerman, ati others, show to what a high
eich of perfection it has again been rawake

We have here used the term jfresco-painting in the sense in which it is
commonly adopted, namely to designate the art of decorating fresh-made
walls with paintings, which, becoming dry together with the plastering of
the walls, acquire a certain degree of durability. This art is the result of
the endeavors to imitate the Egyptian wall-paintings, whose durability
amounts almost to perpetuity. The chemical process by which the Egyp-
tians succeeded in handing down their wall-paintings through thousands

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122 ; THE FINE ARTS.

of years has not yet been discovered (see Architecture, p. 10). On the
other hand, modern art has gained great triumphs over the ancients in the
composition and design of these wall-paintings, succeeding, as it has done,
in spite of the necessarily hurried execution of fresco-paintings, in imparting
to them the same ease of motion and drapery and the same delicate effects
of light and shade that characterize the most elaborate easel-painting. It
is with regard to this great accomplishment that modern fresco-painting
may lay claim to the highest appreciation, being in fact an entirely new
art. From the architectonic point of view it is as yet far behind the
technical perfection of the Egyptian art, and it is therefore unjustifiable to
employ it in the exterior decoration of buildings, as has been freely done in
recent times; for, as it cannot resist the influence of the weather for any
considerable length of time, it tends,after a short period of splendor, in its
decay to destroy the beauty of the edifices which it was intended to
enhance. 7

We now come to the easel-paintings; and in this department the works of
the 13th down to the close of the 14th century have already something
grandly religious to show. The figures are simple, and the features are
typical, ideal, and dignified. The draperies have large round folds simply
arranged, and the colors are bright. The general mode of painting is in
distemper, with the white of eggs for an agglutinant, on a chalk ground
and on panels of wood, which were sometimes covered with canvas. The
entire ground was gilded or ornamented with gold, and many parts of
the pictures were adorned in like manner. Paintings were also executed
on slate; indeed the oldest picture, which bears the date of 1224 and is
preserved in the church of St. Ursula at Cologne, is painted on that
substance. The first master of eminence is Hans of Cologne, who settled
at Chemnitz in 1307; he there adorned the high altar of St. James’s church
with a large altar-piece, and in the church of Ehrenfriedersdorf he decorated
the altar with the side wings and many gilded figures. We have panel
pictures too of the date of 1310 by the above mentioned fresco-painters
Wurmser and Theodoric in Prague and on the Karlstein; and here these
masters founded a school of their own. There is likewise a Crucifiaion
by Wurmser in Vienna; but the works of Theodoric are the better of the
two. Oil-painting was brought into use at the close of the 14th century by
the brothers Van Eyck. Of much more importance than the Prague
school was that founded in 1380 by Master Wilhelm at Cologne, the art of
which at the opening of the following century had attained a singular
state of perfection. Master Wilhelm’s pieces display a mild and gentle
character; the forms of the heads are roundish, the draperies full and
majestic; the colors are bright, well blended, and light, and are soft and
airy in their texture. Of Master Wilhelm’s works the following should be
mentioned: the altar of the chapel of St. John in the cathedral of Cologne,
the altar in the city museum of Cologne, the Veronica in the Munich
Pinakothek, and a couple of panels in Boisserée’s collection. Somewhat
younger is Master Stephan of Cologne, the chief painter of the cathedral.
From him we have the famous picture of the Adoration of the Kings, which

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PAINTING. 123

has been brought from the chapel of the city hall into the cathedral. This
precious picture is said to have been completed in 1410. The central piece,
83 feet high and 9 feet broad, represents the child Jesus sitting on the lap
of the holy virgin, while before him the three wise men of the East are
offering gold, frankincense, andmyrrh. On the two wing pieces are depicted
the patron saints of the city, St. Ursula and St. Gereon with their attendants.
The expression of the Virgin’s countenance, as she looks down upon the
child, is serious and modest, soft and winning. She is designated by a
crown and a halo of glory as queen of heaven. The child, which has an
exceedingly intelligent expression of countenance, raises its hand in the
attitude of benediction towards the old king who reverently regards it.
The second king, who is represented in the prime of life, presents his gifts
kneeling with an expression full of reverence and devotion; and the third,
who is designated by his swarthier complexion and frizzled hair as a Moorish
king, humbly lays his left hand on his breast, and presents his offerings
with his right. The men composing the numerous train present a most
charming group of faces. On the outer sides of the wings of the painting
is depicted the Annunciation. Masters Wilhelm and Stephan left many
pupils, and there still exists a considerable number of pictures by them. It
is true that these pupils exhibit among their number no very distinguished
painters, yet there were always very respectable artists among them who
remained true to the national style and sentiment. A pious and fervent
conception mostly of biblical subjects, a rich and juicy coloring, and an
attractive unartificial mode of treatment characterize the painters of this
school, especially in their smaller pictures.

After Master Stephan there arose a later school of Cologne and also that
of Calcar, on which however the influence of the Netherland school is per-
ceptible. Two masters distinguished in this direction are the so-called
Master of Calcar, by whom is the panel containing the Death of Mary
preserved in the parish church of that place, and the Master of the Passion,
a picture consisting of eight panels formerly in the possession of Mr. Lyvers-
berg in Cologne. There are several other pictures by this latter master,
whom Boisserée calls Israel of Meckenem, in Lintz, Sintzig, and other places.
Besides these we must mention a third master of Cologne, whose pictures
are often ascribed to Luke of Leyden. He is the painter of the St. Bartholo-
mew on a panel in Munich, of a Descent from the Cross in Paris, and
several other things. His mode of treatment is softer than that of Luke,
his heads are mostly ideal, and the coloring and draperies of his pictures
are admirable; but his figures, especially his hands, are faulty.

The productions of the Cologne school, which often bear the closest
resemblance to those of the Netherlands, are greatly surpassed in interest
by the pictures of the Suabian and Westphalian schools, which truly and
worthily represent the old German style of art, whose grand aim is the
embodiment of ideal loveliness. Here belong Lucas Moser of Wil (1430),
who painted the altar-panels in Tiefbronn near Pfortzheim; and likewise
Martin Schongauer of Kalembach (Martin Schon or der Schéne Martin),

whose works manifest an artistic tendency similar to that of Pietro Perugino,
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124 THE FINE ARTS.

and of whom Wimpfeling says that it was not possible to paint anything
more lovely, charming, and delightful than the pictures of this master. He
painted about the middle of the 15th century in Ulm and Neuenburg in
Wirtemberg, and afterwards in Colmar, where he died in 1488. His pic-
tures exhibit a high order of beauty in the cast of the human countenance ;
and he was careful both in the charm of expression and in the representa-
tion of the softest and gentlest feelings of devotion, resignation, and peace
of mind, to portray the ideal furnished him by the piety of his native
region. He was also very successful as an engraver. Besides these South
German masters there was in Westphalia the Master of Liesborn, whose
labors were directed in his own peculiar way to the same end with those of
Schongauer. His greatest work is the altar-piece, painted in 1465, in the
convent of Liesborn near Minster. In his pictures there is reflected the
most intelligent sweetness brightened into a loveliness that is absolutely
charming, and combined with very delicate coloring and noble forms. A
contrast to this painter is furnished by Jarenus of Soest (1450-1500), in
whom there was something fancifully passionate, which discloses itself in
his long lank forms and overcrowded composition. His masterpiece is the
Christ taken Captive, in which are seen also Christ bearing the Cross,
together with his crucifixion, burial, and descent into Hell. Another
painter of analogous skill and taste was Master Raphon of Eimbeck, who
lived in the 15th and 16th centuriés, and who painted the Crucifiaion in
the cathedral at Halberstadt. The works of this and of the preceding
master remind us forcibly of the Netherlandish element, which however
the masters of Southern Germany in the latter half of the 15th century
knew better how to make use of in the way of perfecting their own style.

Another painter who manifests a similar tendency to that of Schongauer
in his works is Bartholomew Zeitbloom (1468). His pictures are pervaded
by great dignity and good sense, and the expression is homely and honest ;
but the ideal beauty of Schongauer is wanting. His compositions are
simple, his countenances fine and engaging, and his flesh tint delicate,
clear, and ruddy. Next to him should be mentioned Hans Schihlein of
Ulm, whose compositions are richer, and whose forms are cast in a more
powerful mould. The altar-piece in Tiefenbronn is by him. Hans Holbein
the father (of Augsburg) also approximates to the Schongauer school,
although a certain fantastic exaggeration is observable in his characters.
He worked very unequally, often almost mechanically ; yet everywhere the
great energy of this master is exhibited in his expression of the passions,
and in the strength and richness of his coloring. We have still to mention
Frederick Herlin, who studied in the Netherlands and spread the manner
of Van Eyck in France; he was likewise a carver. His motivos show
plainly the influence of Hans Hemling: the folds of his draperies, the use
of costly stuffs, the richness of the colors, and even the architecture and
buildings, all remind us forcibly of that master; while the deviations from
him are mostly for the worse.

Among the various German schools which originated in the 15th century
the Frankish school of painting, the centre of which was Nurnberg, was by

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far the most considerable. It was formed about the same time with that
of Cologne, and is characterized by great vigor and variety of conception
and representation, great liveliness of coloring, and careful execution, but
all accompanied by hardness of drawing and to some extent a want of taste
in character and drapery. The most distinguished master of the first period
of this school is Michael Wohlgemuth, in whom the striving after sharply
defined characteristics exhibits itself in a very one-sided manner; but who
admirably succeeded in giving to figures possessing an ideal significance a
character of lofty dignity combined with a certain beauty. To his chief
works belong the altar-paintings in St. Mary’s church at Zwickau, a few
pictures in the church of St. Sebaldus at Niirnberg, and the panels of the
high altar at Schwabach (1507). The second and more brilliant period of
the Frankish school opened at the commencement of the 16th century with
Albert Diirer, a pupil of Wohlgemuth, who to the rational principles of
his master added an uncommonly fine eye for the forms of life and a keen
perception of even the slightest changeful manifestations of feeling. To
extraordinary fertility he joined cleverness of invention and the endeavor to
found drawing and perspective on a scientific basis; besides which he
manifested uncommon skill and dexterity in the use of the different
technical materials. He is equally great as a painter and as an engraver
on wood and copper, and his productions in the last named branches form
the most considerable part of his works. He painted almost altogether on
wood, but also on canvas: thus his Hercules shooting at the Harpies (now
in the Landauer Briiderhaus at Nurnberg) is executed in distemper on fine
canvas. At this period the old German art of painting attained its most
flourishing condition ; and it is a characteristic fact that at the close of the
middle ages the German artists quitted more and more the pious region of
an extremely one-sided ideality in which they had formerly delighted, for
the bright and living domain of reality. The ideal in the heads almost
wholly disappears, and a living and natural expression takes its place.
The compositions become rich, the heads are often portraits ; the figures
acquire a correct expression ; the draperies appear in small, interrupted,
skilfully designed folds; and the use of gold gradually disappears alto-
gether. Only the figures of Christ, the Virgin Mary, and the Apostles
are draped in the ancient manner; all else appear in the costume of the
time of the master. The pictures are on wood, mostly linden-wood, with a
chalk ground, sometimes laid on canvas glued to the panel; but they are
also painted on canvas without any ground.

Contemporary with Durer flourished Nikolaus Manuel of Bern, who
bears the surname of “the German,” and is distinguished for correct and
sharp drawing, an extremely dexterous management of the brush, and often
an elegant arrangement of the figures of his pieces. His invention is rich,
and his glowing humor often seizes upon and embodies the fantastically
comic elements of the time with magnificent hardihood. In Basel there are
several works by him; his chef d’ceuvre was a Dance of Death on the
eburchyard-wall in Bern; but it now exists only in a drawing in that city,

the original having been destroyed in 1560. Hans Holbein the younger is
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126 THE FINE ARTS.

a master whose name is of historical importance as relates to art. He
came betimes with his father to Basel; but being very industrious, and
not finding sufficient employment for him there, he set out upon his travels.
He went with recommendations from Erasmus and Sir Thomas More to
England, where he ever after continued to reside. He attained to very
great eminence, especially in portrait-painting ; and, although his treatment
is entirely different, he can be placed on a level with Vandyck, while he
has often been compared to Leonardo da Vinci with respect to style.
With all this he is thoroughly German. His best pupils were Christoph
Amberger of Nirnberg and Hans Asper of Zurich, whose portrait of Zwingla
is universally celebrated. ‘Two very distinguished church painters of the
16th century were Martin Schaffner of Ulm and Hans Baldung of
Gemiind. The first mentioned drew his forms so fine and full as to
remind us of the best Italian masters, and his conceptions are rich in
original and spirited motivos. His flesh-tint ig clear and inclining to
yellow, and indeed his entire coloring appears rather cold. There are
pictures by him in Munich and in Nirnberg. Hans Baldung (also called
Grien or Griin) painted beautiful, characteristic heads ; but his bodies were
often stiff and inelegant. The altar-piece in the minster at Freiburg in the
Breisgau is from his hand (1516), and represents the Crowning of the
Virgin. There is something awkward in the disposition of the picture.
The Virgin is the best executed figure: modesty and humility are her cha-
racteristics. God the Father looks like a patriarch, nor is the Christ very
noble in appearance; his attitude and form too are inelegant. Some of the
angels are beautiful and full of expression. ‘The coloring is powerful. The
remaining works of this master manifest a strong tendency to the Nurnberg
manner; he was a friend of Direr’s.

In Cologne the art at this period exhibited still a character bordering on
that of the Netherland school: yet there were then living some distinguished
masters, e.g. Hildegard of Cologne, Hans of Melem, and Bartholomé de
Bruyn, who painted (in 1586) the pictures on the high altar in Xanten. In
Westphalia, Ludger zum Ring and his son Hermann zum Ring show
evidences of study and imitation of the Italian masters.

The Augsburg school had for one of its principal masters, in the beginning
of the 16th century, Hans Burgkmaier, who, although a friend of Diirer’s,
retained his own peculiar character. His drawing is not as good as that
of Direr, but in harmony of coloring and aerial perspective he is the latter’s
superior ; still a certain coldness pervades his works. Burgkmaier was like-
wise a wood-engraver, and most of the cuts for the “ Weisskunig” (Cologne,
1514) are by him. He is one of the most productive masters of the German
school, and his pictures are found in several galleries, though the best are in
Nirnberg. Matthaus Grunewald of Aschaffenburg, who was a rival of Albert
Direr, formed himself independently of these schools. He wrought a great
deal in Mayence, although there are also paintings by him in the cathedral
at Aschaffenburg. His conceptions are grand, his drawing correct, his heads
characteristic, and his flesh-tint clear. One of his pupils was Hans Grim-
mer, who was living in 1650, but whose works have mostly perished.

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PAINTING. V27

Of Diirer’s pupils but few approached his perfection: the most talented
was Albert Altdorfer, a Swiss, born in 1488, whom many call the Rem-
brandt of the Niirnberg school. One of his finest pictures is the Battle of
Alexander in the Pinakothek in Munich. Next to him should be men-
tioned Heinz of Kulmbach, Hans Schauflin, who in some points almost
reached his master; Heinrich Aldegrewer, and the two Behams, who,
however, are better known as engravers on wood and copper. Georg Pentz
left Diirer’s school for that of Raphael.

The Saxon School was founded by Lucas Kranach, who, born in Franco-
nia and formed in the Frankish school, transplanted the Nurnberg style of
painting to Saxony. He enjoyed the greatest consideration next to Direr
among the artists of that time. Portraits were his forte, and his smooth
handling, which at the same time is entirely free from a licked or labored
appearance, is peculiar to him. In his conceptions he has much in common
with Durer; though in him naiveté and good humor are more predominant.
His works are very numerous; we will mention only the altar-piece in the
cathedral at Meissen, a picture in the chapel of St. George in the same place,
and the altar-pieces in Schneeberg and in Our Lady’s church in Halle; the
two last are considered his finest pictures. Among his many pupils none
but his son, Lucas Kranach junior, attained to any celebrity. His chief
work is in the town-church in Wittenberg. :

The new German School dates from the end of the preceding and the
beginning of the current century, when the new flight taken by the national
mind of Germany soon manifested itself in the arts of design. The charac-
teristic features of this period are the choice of important subjects, signifi-
cance of conception, and peculiarity of treatment. The choice of subjects
was confined almost wholly to classical antiquity, the biblical history, and
the Divine Comedy of Dante. But there the mode of treatment usual in the
academies would not suffice, nor was any particular charm to be acquired
through the usual means of art; accordingly they depended mainly for
success on the conception of the subject and the drawing. The beginnings
of this school, however, are to be sought not in Germany but in Rome,
whither, from the middle of the 16th century, all men of artistic talent
repaired, to perfect themselves in the knowledge and practice of art. The
principal artists of this class were Carstens, Schick, Wachter, Koch, and
Dietrich. This last was born in Weimar and painted at an early age in
Dresden; but his pictures of that period were destroyed in the Seven Years’
War. He went'to Italy in 1742, and studied the great masters in Venice
and Rome. His taste, however, led him to the imitation of Poelenburg,
Waterloo, and Rembrandt; and in fact he imitated these masters with such
chameleon-like success, that his pictures in the manner of one or the other
of them may easily be mistaken for works of the master himself. His fame
had spread so on his return, that he received commissions even from France
and England. There is found in the Paris Museum an Adoration of the
Magi by Dietrich (pl. 18, fig. 12), the composition and execution of which
rival the works of the first masters. Besides a number of pictures in the

spirit and taste of Rembrandt, we have more than 200 very fine engravings
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128 THE FINE ARTS.

on copper by him. Tischbein, Figer, Grassi, and Von Langer are also of
the number of those who distinguished themselves, although in an opposite
manner. The German Artists’ Union, founded in Rome in 1811, had the
effect of adding heartiness to the prevailing character of the painting of that
time; although we observe here and there a somewhat mystical tendency
and in the drawing an approximation to or at least a preference for the
older school, whose forms of art are but incompletely wrought out. The
choice of subject was now confined in a good measure to the New Testa-
ment and the cycle of legends. The most celebrated masters of this period
and phase of art are Cornelius, Overbeck, W. Schadow, Veit, Jul. Schnorr,
and afterwards Wach, Hess, Vogel, the brothers Riepenhausen, Begas,
Nacke, and J. Scheffer. The exertions of king Louis I. of Bavaria gave
birth to a new era for art in general and painting in particular; at the same
time he recalled fresco-painting from its oblivion by the commissions for
great wall-paintings which he distributed among the most celebrated masters
of the age, vzz. Cornelius, Schnorr, Hess, Zimmermann, and Schlotthauer.
In this manner was formed the Munich school of painting, from which have
proceeded, in addition to a great number of excellent easel-pictures, the
frescoes of the Glyptothek, the Royal Palace, All Saints’ Chapel, &., and
by the younger artists, Hermann, Von Schwind, Schorn, Stirmer, and
Stilke, the frescoes of the arcades of the court garden, the Odeon, the
protestant church, the Isar gate, &c. The opposite of the Munich school,
the school of the ideal forms, is found in the Disseldorf school under W.
Schadow, which may properly be termed a school of naturalists, as they
combine a faithful imitation of nature in conformation and coloring, with
richness of thought and feeling, without attempting any peculiar idealiza-
tion of forms. The most distinguished masters of this school are Lessing,
Bendemann, Hildebrand, Hiibner, Sohn, Steinbriick, Kohler, Camphausen,
Hasenclever, and Leutze. The last named, at present in America, was born
in Germany, and received his artistic education in Diisseldorf, although he
lived the greater part of his youth in Pennsylvania. His great talent and
true artistic zeal have gained for him a place among the first of his school.
In Frankfort on the Maine, Veit formed a school of painting, in which,
among others, we find Rethel, Steinla, and Settegast; while the Vienna
school adhered more to the manner of Overbeck. To this latter belong
Ruppelwieser, Fihrich, Binder, and many others. In Dresden, Bende-
mann and Hiibner, being invited to take up their abode there, gave that
direction to art which has been followed up by Peschel, Richter, Oehme,
and others. In Stuttgart, Gegenbauer (frescoes) and Dietrich pursued
nearly opposite paths ; in Berlin, Begas and Wach took the lead, and were
followed by Hensel, Hopfgarten, and others; but at present Kaulbach of
Munich, the most eminent of all.German painters, exerts his powerful
influence on all lines of art in Berlin. In Prague, Ruben, a pupil of the
Munich school, labors for the revival of art, which in the middle ages
(see p. 122) was pursued here with a good deal of success. The number
of genre painters at the head of whom stand P. Hess, Htbner, Schrédter,

and others, as also that of landscape painters, is considerable. Among the
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PAINTING. 129

latter Lessing, Achenbach, Funcke, and many others have distanced the
best productions of any previous period.

5. Tam Neraertanps. Contemporaneously with the schools of painting
in Westphalia and Cologne, there was formed in Ghent and Bruges, and
throughout the Netherlands, a peculiar school of strict naturalists, rich
- indeed in fancy and deeply imbued with ecclesiastical and Christian sym-
bolism, but wholly incapable of or indisposed to the production of ideal
forms. Their historical and sacred personages are pure portraits from
nature, their very costumes being borrowed from the time of the painter.
In consequence of the defective models that presented themselves to the
painters, their representations are not wanting in defects: the proportions
are faulty, the several parts of the body are meagre and often unhandsome,
and even the draperies are characterized by hardness, having an angulax
appearance and being broken up into many little folds. The accessories on
the contrary are depicted with a marvellous exactness and truth to nature,
so that one often feels tempted to take a microscope and follow the drawing
into its minutest details. Through the invention of John Van Eyck, who
was the first to use oil for mixing his colors, a totally different enamel, «
fire, and a depth of coloring were attained, such as artists until that time
had been able to arrive at only with the greatest trouble and labor. Re
specting the masters of this school our information is in some respects still
very imperfect, so that to this moment the names of the authors of several
of its finest productions have not been positively ascertained.

We will begin with the brothers Hubert and John Van Eyck
(1866-1426 and 1370-1441), both of whom received instruction in the art
of painting from their father. John was the inventor of oil-painting and
is altogether the more celebrated of the two. His chef d’ceuvre is the altar-
piece in the church of St. John in Ghent, a picture on which there are over
330 heads, each with a different expression. This picture became exceed-
ingly celebrated, and Philip I. of Spain had it copied for himself by
Coxcie. John was likewise a portrait and landscape painter, and his pic-
tures are found in various galleries. One of Van Eyck’s pupils was Rogier
of Bruges, the accounts respecting whom are not free from contradiction,
and by whom there are several pictures in Italy. At the same time lived
also Hugo Van der Goés and Hans Hemling (not Memmelink, as Van
Mander calls him), of whose life little is known, but whose works show him:
to have been an excellent painter. Many of his pictures are found scattered’
about in galleries, and there were some of them in Italy even in the middle
ages. Of a somewhat different and more secular character were the works of
Quintin Messis (1450-1529), known by the name of “the smith of Antwerp,”
as he was a blacksmith in his youth, which are still met with in many
churches and private collections; there were also those of Robert Van der
Weyde, who sought to introduce into painting a purer and nobler taste; those
of Luke of Leyden, whose best pictures are in Vienna, Berlin, and Munich;
and many others. At the beginning of the 16th century, when painting in
Italy was gaining its highest triumphs, the artists of the Netherlands endea-

vored to make themselves familiar with the advances which had there been
ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOP 2DIA.——-VOL. IV. 33 513

130 THE FINE ARTS.

made in their art. The consequence was that the native art lost its peculiar
character, and borrowed in its place from that of Italy nothing but external
forms, movements, and costumes. The coloring, however, long retained its
peculiar stamp. The most eminent masters who pursued this course are the
following :

John Schoreel (1495-1590), a pupil of James Cornelius, a celebrated
painter whose works unfortunately have perished, perfected himself in the
school of John of Mabuse and also received instruction from Direr; he
afterwards visited the Holy Land and Jerusalem, seeking out all the places
of historical interest, and taking views of them. In Italy, where Schoreel
remained for a considerable time, he studied the works cf Raphael and his
contemporaries; and in consequence he introduced an entirely new taste
into the painting of his native land, on which account his countrymen call
him “the torch of the painter’s art.” One of his best pupils was Martin
Heemskerk (1498-1574), who likewise visited Italy. After his return he
became highly honored in his native land and painted a great deal; but
most of his works, including the best, were destroyed at the taking of Har-
lem by the Spaniards in 1573. Many of the pictures in galleries which go
by his name are most probably the work of Egbert Heemskerk.

John of Mabuse (Maubeuge, properly Johann Gossaert, 1498-1562) was
born at Maubeuge in Hainault, and studied in Italy. Notwithstanding his
more than dubious manner of life and his love of dissipation, he arrived in
painting at a very high degree of perfection. He was the first painter that
transferred the Italian art to Flanders, and there ventured to introduce
figures completely naked into his pictures. His greatest picture was the
altar-piece of the church in Middelburg, which was unfortunately destroyed
by fire. His works are seldom met with in galleries; yet Vienna and
Munich possess some of them. JBernardin of Orley likewise pursued
this course; he was one of Raphael’s favorite pupils, and the latest
investigations have established with tolerable certainty that Raphael’s
beautiful Christ bearing the Cross, known by the name of the Spasimo di
Sicilia, isin great part from the hand of this artist. From this time onward
till the beginning of the 16th century, the masters, with the exception of
Francis Porbus, gradually diminished in excellence ; and Peter Paul Rubens
was the first to awaken art to a new life. This artist, one of the greatest
geniuses of his time, was born in the year 1577 in Cologne, whither his
father, a lawyer of Antwerp, had betaken himself, in order to escape
from the troubles of Brabant. Rubens received a classical education ; was
then a page, and lastly applied himself to painting, in which he received
instructions from Adam Van Oort and Otto Venius. His artistic skill,
which soon became very extraordinary, and still more his varied acquire-
ments and agreeable deportment, brought him in contact with the most
eminent personages of his time, and led him as ambassador to the court of
Philip II. of Spain, whither he was sent by the Duke of Mantua, while he
was engaged in Italy, expecially in Venice and Mantua, in studying the old
masters. After his return to Italy he came back to his own country, where

he lived wholly in the study and practice of his art, until Mariade’ Medici
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PAINTING. | 131

invited him to Paris, for the purpose of adorning with paintings two
galleries in the Luxembourg palace; but of these only one was executed, in
which he represented the principal events of the queen’s life in twenty-four
pictures, unhappily in absurd allegories. -

Subsequently Rubens again visited Madrid, where he was appointed
secretary of state, loaded with high honors, and at length sent to England,
to negotiate a peace between England and Spain, a commission which he
executed with the greatest discretion. Rubens performed several other
diplomatic missions, and afterwards married Helena Forman (1629), who
was of such remarkable beauty that he often introduced her into his pic-
tures, sometimes under one form and sometimes under another, now as a
shepherdess and again as the queen of heaven, as e. g. in the beautiful
Assumption of the Virgin (pl. 18, fig. 7). Rubens also frequently painted
his own picture, sometimes as a portrait proper, such as is found in the
Florence Museum (jig. 8), and sometimes in action, as e. g. with Helena
Forman, as Shepherd and Shepherdess kissing each other, a picture preserved
in Munich. As for Rubens’s style, he took for his models Titian and Paul
Veronese; but he failed in attaining to either their noble simplicity, correct
drawing, or beautiful forms. His coloring is distinguished by great purity,
and by the fact that he laid on the shades close to one another and blended
them together with the brush; he never painted over a color, excepting
merely that now and then he added azure tints to his lights. His pictures
are overloaded with reflexes and reflexions. His composition is remarkable
and grand, but his draperies are almost too rich both as regards materials
and profusion. Nearly 4,000 pictures are ascribed to Rubens; but although
he lived to be sixty-three years old and was very industrious, he could not
possibly have performed so much. Most of the pictures were painted by
his pupils and assistants, and he retouched them; many too are doubtless
only painted by them in his manner or are copies after him. His pupils,
Van Thulden, Diepenbeck, Von Hock, Cornelius Schut, Vandyck, Jas.
Jordaens, and many others, adhered faithfully to his manner. The most
eminent of them was clearly Vandyck (1599-1641) of Herzogenbusch.
Rubens soon perceived that Vandyck would be able to surpass him, and
accordingly he employed every means to confine the young artist to por-
traits. After Vandyck had painted two altar-pieces in the church of
Savelthem, the celebrated S¢. Martin and a Holy Family, which however
are no longer extant, he went to Italy to study the works of Titian, Paul
Veronese, &c. Here he painted a good deal, but soon returned to his
native land, in consequence of the annoyances he was subjected to by the
envy of his countrymen. The most brilliant part of Vandyck’s career was
spent in England, where he painted both historical pieces and portraits.
Vandyck (his portrait, painted by himself (pl. 17, jig. 9), is preserved in the
Florence Museum) is the only painter of portraits that can be compared
to Titian, and his portrait of King Charles is a study for the portrait-paint-
ers of all times. Yet Vandyck was great also in historical painting; and
there are many pictures by him which deserve to be ranked above those of
his master, his drawing being certainly more correct and his coloring more

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132 THE FINE ARTS.

delicate than that of Rubens. His contemporaries were Jakob Jordaens,
Kasper de Crayer, Franz Snyders, &c.

In later times the Flemish school has been illustrated chiefly by de
Kayser, Wappers, Biéfve, and Gallait, who form the eminent Belgian
school of our day, whose great historical paintings are distinguished for their
magnificent coloring. Their subjects are drawn chiefly from the history of
their country; and their pictures exhibit elegant drawing as well as the
noblest harmony of composition.

Nearly related to the Flemish is the Dutch school: at first it assumed
precisely the same direction; it then developed itself in a peculiar, often
fantastic, and even tasteless manner, and, leaving wholly historical events,
it confined itself to the delineation of common life and of natural pheno-
mena, thus passing even entirely into the department of genre, low life, and
landscape painting. There is no lack in the Dutch school of distinguished
masters in these branches. Eminent among the portrait painters are
Miereveld, Francis Hals, Van der Holst, and Keyser ; and in a wider sense
Paul Rembrandt, Govaert Flink, Ferdinand Bol, &c. The number of
masters in genre painting is very considerable; among them are Breughel,
Vinkenbooms, Ostade, Teniers, Brower, and others. A somewhat higher
flight in genre painting was taken by Terburg, Gerhard Dow, Metzu,
Wouverman, and others, who selected their subjects chiefly from the
middle and higher classes of society. Francis Van Mieris (1635-81); a native
of Delft, pursued the same course. After having been kept for some time
to his father’s trade, that of a goldsmith, he left it and became a pupil of
Gerhard Dow; but he soon left his master and pursued his studies wholly
after nature. His genre pictures and portraits of a very small size soon
obtained great applause and were sold at high prices (as high as 3,000
florins). He led a pretty loose course of life; and hence some of his pic-
tures have a lascivious character, or at least border closely upon it, as the
exceedingly beautiful picture in the Florence Museum of the Youth with
the Drinking-cup, of which we have given a sketch in pl. 18, fig.10. Mieris
designed more correctly than his master; his figures have a more noble
expression, are full of spirit and freshness, and are more highly finished.
There is in Dresden a picture of a man by him, the meshes of whose stock-
ings are so fine that they can be seen only with a magnifying glass. His
best works are in Paris, Vienna, and Dresden. His sons, John and Wil-
liam, were likewise good painters. One of Mieris’s contemporaries and
fellow-pupils was Kaspar Netscher (1639-84), a native of Heidelberg, but
who, although a German by birth, belonged to the Dutch school. He
wished, after studying also with Terburg, to visit Italy, but got only as far as
Bordeaux, where he took a wife; he settled with her in the Hague and
painted cabinet pieces and portraits with universal applause. From him
we have mostly half figures and conversation pieces, and in almost all of
these, as in the picture of the Gwitar-player (pl. 18, jig. 11), in the Florence
Museum, there is a lady dressed in white velvet, which, as well as stuffs in
general, he painted to perfection. Three of his sons devoted themselves to
painting.

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PAINTING. 133

* Adrian Van der Werff (1659-1727) also belonged to the higher depart-
ment of the Dutch scheol. He was born in the neighborhood of Rotterdam
and was originally designed for a learned profession ; but he manifested such
great talents for portrait taking that it caused him to turn his attention to
painting, and he placed himself under the instructions of Van der Neer.
When only in his 17th year, he worked independently, and with so much
applause, that the elector palatine gave him employment and afterwards
allowed him an annual stipend; the elector was very generous to him in
other respects and conferred upon him the rank of knighthood. Accordingly
the gallery of that Prince in Diisseldorf displays the finest productions of
Van der Werff, who had but little time to work for others. There are some
fine pictures by him in Dresden; but they are not to be compared with the
Diisseldorf works. No artist has succeeded in obtaining such good prices
for his works as Van der Werff. Thus for his picture of Zot and his
Daughters he was paid 4,200 florins; the Adoration of the Shepherds
(jig. 9), in the Florence Museum, a picture very remarkable both for com-
position and execution, brought him 4,000 florins; an English nobleman
purchased ten pictures from him for 33,000 florins; and his picture of the
Prodigal Son was bought after the artist’s death for 5,500 florins; the Judg-
ment of Paris, which went to England, cost 5,000 florins, &e.

Of the painters of battle-pieces belonging to this school we will mention
Palamedes, Jean le Duc, and Van der Meulen; of the landscape painters,
Cuyp, Hobbema, Wynants, Van der Neer, Ruisdael, Berghem, Everdingen,
&c. Marine views were painted by Bakhuysen, Peters, De Vliger, Van
der Velde; architectural by Neefs, Steenwijck, De Witte; flowers by
Breughel and De Heem; and low life by Adriaenssen, Van Aelst, &e.
Dutch artists of recent times distinguish themselves in landscapes, marine
views, and animal painting; of these we may mention Koeckoeck, Schelf
hout, Schotel, Verboeckhoven, Jansen, and Dreibholz; historical painting
on the contrary still remains in a backward state.

6. Tae Eneuise Scuoot. During the middle ages the fine arts in England
were almost entirely dedicated to the service of religion, and shared in the
general European development until the time of the reformation under
Heury VIIL., in the middle of the 16th century. By this event the existing
relations of England with the south of Europe (the chosen seat of fine art
cultivation) were rudely disturbed, and the consequence seems to have been
that painting and sculpture, too often identified with the old religion in
whose cause they had wrought, were treated with indifference and neglect.
For nearly two centuries from this time we seek in vain for any distin-
guished native artist. The names of Holbein, Zuccaro, Cornelius Jansen,
Vandyck, Lely, and Kneller, to whom we owe the portraits of the great
men of the Tudor and Stuart Dynasties, show that from a foreign source
came the talent which met with a ready employment in perpetuating the
fair and the brave of their times, for to portraiture the patronage of the
great was almost exclusively confined. Charles I. indeed encouraged paint-
ing and liberally rewarded its professors;but the distractions of the latter

part of his reign, and the succeeding troubles, prevented his efforts for
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134 THE FINE ARTS.

establishing an English School from meeting with success. In the next
century the first name that occurs of any Englishman who had raised
himself to eminence as a painter is Svr James Thornhill, and he is
less remarkable for himself than as the father-in-law of Welliam Hogarth
(1698-1769), that great man with whom the English school of painting may
be said to commence. Unversed in academic rules, and to the last not con-
spicuous for technical skill in his art, Hogarth derived his inspiration from
the nature immediately around him. Sometimes regarded as merely a
satirist, a larger object was before him; to amend mankind as well as
amuse them was his task. ‘“ Zhe Harlot’s Progress,” “ Marriage a la
mode,” “ The Rake’s Progress,” &c., which have been spread by the graver
throughout the world testify to the extent and variety of his powers. These
“ serious dramas,” as they have sometimes been called rather than paintings,
deserve the closest study, as the most minute accessories tend to carry out
the purpose of the artist. In the words of Charles Lamb, other painters we
look at, but we read Hogarth.

Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792), the great luminary of the English
school, was gifted by nature with exquisite taste in his art, which, improved
by foreign study and diligent investigation into the true principles of paint
ing, places him at the head of the English school of portraiture. Splendor
of coloring and graceful composition are the characteristics of his pictures.
He was perhaps most happy in children and female heads; many of them
have never been surpassed for truth and purity of effect. The few historical
pictures he painted were not calculated to increase his fame. As first Pre-
sident of the Royal Academy established in 1768, Reynolds exerted great
influence in the progress of the arts, and his lectures or discourses on paint-
ing, delivered before that body, will long perpetuate his name asa classic
and enlightened writer on art. Among the first academicians we find the
names of West, Wilson, Gainsborough, and Barry, who all deserve separate
mention.

Benjamin West (1738-1820) was born in Pennsylvania, and after study-
ing his art in Italy, he settled in London in 1763. He soon attracted the
attention of George III., and chiefly through his patronage was enabled to
execute the numerous historical works for which he has been celebrated.
Posterity has failed to confirm the judgment of his contemporaries. With
one single exception, the Death of Wolfe, in which he first ventured
to break through the old conventionalities of treatment, his works are
viewed with indifference, and their academical correctness is not sufficient
to rescue them from the charge of insipidity and feebleness. West suc-
ceeded Reynolds and was the second President of the Royal Academy.

In Lichard Wilson (114-1782) the English for the first time had a
landscape painter who could be compared with the great old masters. His
style was formed by a study of Italian nature, and met with little
encouragement from the patrons of his day; his career was an unhappy
one, but the pictures which he painted, to provide the mere necessaries of
life, are now purchased at enormous prices as the ornaments of the choicest
galleries.

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PAINTING. 135

Thomas Gainsborough (1727-1788) was a truly English painter; he
excelled in portraits as well as in picturesque delineations of English
landscape ; in them his freedom of handling, force, and vigor of touch, have
never been excelled.

James Barry (1741-1806), an Irishman of great talent, who scorned the
common way to fame and fortune, devoted himself to the higher histori-
eal branch of his art. He is well known by his great series of pictures
illustrating the Culture and Progress of Human Knowledge, painted for
the Society for the Encouragement of the Arts, which was declared at the
time to be the greatest work north of the Alps.

John Opie (1761-1807), the rough and energetic self-taught portrait
painter, George Romney (17384-1802), the temporary rival of Reynolds, and
James Northcote (1746-1831), the careful and studious illustrator of Shak-
speare and English history, may be mentioned as the chief artists of this
generation, though our limits forbid a lengthened notice. With the present
century commences the fame of Sir Thomas Lawrence.

Sir Thomas Lawrence (1770-1830), the worthy successor of Reynolds in
the Presidency of the Royal Academy, is the head of the English school
of portrait painting. Favored by fortune with the patronage of the great,
and gitted by nature with a taste and manner of the highest elegance,
Lawrence is the model of a court painter; and if he does injustice to his
powers in too many instances, a number of his portraits (as that of Pope
Pius VII.) will remain to testify to the brilliancy of his coloring, and the
refinement of his execution.

Since his time the number of artists has increased so rapidly in England,
that we can only briefly allude to the more conspicuous of them. Sir
Dawid Wilkie is perhaps the most widely known of any English artist.
Inferior to Hogarth in depth of feeling and moral purpose, his unrivalled
sense of the humorous, and academic skill in painting, make him world-
renowned. Leslie and Mulready are distinguished in the same line of art,
the representation of domestic and familiar scenes. In landscape, the
peculiar glory of English art, the names of Zurner, Callcott, Stanfield,
foberts, and a host of others, are conspicuous, each for his varied and
peculiar excellence. In historical painting, Lity, Hastlake, and Maclise
are the most distinguished. As a painter of animal life, Hdwin Landseer
has surpassed all previous artists. As regards drawing, color, and charac-
teristic expression, his finest works are miracles of art. Since the accession
of Queen Victoria, efforts have been made on the part of the government
for the patronage of high historical art. The decorations of the new palace
at Westminster have afforded an ample field for the exercise of talent, and
we now see the most rising painters of the English school for the first time
creating a school of fresco painting, the effect of which must be most salu-
tary and ennobling to art.

7. An American Scuoot or Art cannot as yet be said to exist, owing to
the extreme youth of the country, and the enormous tasks in material
improvement that had, and in part still remain to be performed, before an

adequate patronage can be extended to the Fine Arts. It is, however,
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136 THE FINE ARTS.

worthy of notice that, in spite of the trifling encouragement American
artists as yet could hope to meet with, a number of talented men have
devoted themselves to the study of sculpture and painting, and have secured
for themselves a good share of the admiration of connoisseurs. Thus the
great Thorwaldsen named among the foremost sculptors of the age two
Americans, Hiram Powers and George Crawford: the former as rivalling
himself in the boldness and purity of his busts; the latter as deserving the
greatest credit for the harmony of his groups and the ease of his drapery.
Among the painters belonging to America Washington Alston and Thomas
Cole deserve to be especially mentioned. Much has been done in late
years towards making art popular by the establishment of art-unions in
various cities of the United States, whose purpose it is to encourage artists
by purchasing their works, and distributing them among their members after
exhibiting them for a season. These art-unions may be regarded as creating
the germs of a future American school ; and when we consider the immense
field open for the development of an original school of art, in the bold and
picturesque conformation of the country ; in the original features of Ameri-
can life, commercial, rural, and political; and in the very progress of.
improvement in the various pursuits that engross the attention of the people,
and whose different stages wait to be recorded by the artist’s pencil or
chisel ; we consider ourselves justified in expressing the view that one day
the American school of art will reach a high point of excellence, and will
command the respect of the world as perfectly as American skill and energy
have already done in every utilitarian branch upon which they have as yet
been concentrated. But that is a high eminence to climb, and it is to be
hoped that the contenders for the prize may not be misled by excess
of praise to sit down in self-complacency when their work is only half
done, or their natural talents only half developed. They should also bear
in mind that, while they naturally have to learn a great deal in points of
technicalities and accuracy of drawing from European masters, ancient and
modern, a servile adoption of the manner of any one master or school, how-
ever sublime, will retard their progress instead of speeding it. If their
progress equal their beginning in zeal, if they preserve their own freshness
and originality of conception while enlarging their esthetic feelings by a
close study of whatever is excellent in foreign schools of art, and if their
fellow-citizens extend to them‘a judicious patronage, thus enabling them to
follow the glorious path they are led into by their own inspiration, then may
we hope at no distant day to see their efforts result in a respectable and
original American School of Art.

3. THEORY OF THE ART OF DRAWING.

The art of drawing represents the visible form of bodies on a plane. This
representation is called the drawing of the bodies.
The materials employed in the art of drawing are: first, any smooth
surface, as, for instance, that of paper, parchment, canvas, ivory, stone,
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THE ART OF DRAWING. 137

&e., called the plane of the picture; secondly, any more or less colored
substance, as, for instance, lead-pencil, chalk, Indian ink, common ink, &c.

By means of the latter we make on the former either mere lines, answer-
ing to the outlines of the body to be represented, the aggregate of which is
called the contour; or we draw also within the contour various degrees of
shades, corresponding with the light and shade of the body, which is called
the shading. The shading is performed in several manners, from which
the work is denominated a drawing in hatching, in graining, in Indian
mk, &e. |

A more essential difference of the graphic manner arises from the prin-
ciple which governs it. If the graphic representation of an object is founded.
upon optical laws, ¢. e. upon the real perception of an object from one
point in space, it is then called a natural drawing of the object; for such.
a drawing, in being looked at from a proper position and distance, strikes
the eye in the same way as the object itself viewed from the same point.
Such a natural drawing is also called a perspective drawing or a perspective
projection, from the optical laws applied in its construction, in opposition
to the geometrical projection of the same object, made on geometrical laws,
which are reducible to an imaginary perception from an infinite distance,
by means of parallel rays of sight. Natural drawing alone belongs to the
Fine Arts. In closely comparing the appearance of an object in a natural
drawing with its real configuration, we readily perceive that it essentially
differs from a geometrical projection of the same; that the former is but
an optical phenomenon representing the image of the object in the same
way as it falls, through the pupil, upon the retina of the eye.

It follows from what has just been said that the conditions required for
producing a natural drawing are: 1. The exact knowledge of the real shape
of the object; 2. The knowledge and application of its optical appearance
upon a plane. The former is taught by J/orphology or the doctrine of
Forms, the latter by the Art of Perspective. The two combined are the
basis of the art of drawing; while the doctrine of illumination (of shades
and shadows) teaches the distribution of the degrees of light on and around
the object.

A. Morphology, or Doctrine of Forms.

The objects of the art of drawing are the visible bodies and phenomena
of nature and of social life. It is the duty of the artist to render himself
capable of representing them with exactness in a natural drawing. He
must, therefore, study those portions of architecture, of botany, zoology, of
the theory of clouds and of the movements of water, which treat in general
of the forms of their objects. He must, moreover, endeavor to find in
nature a certain model for each single object which he is about to draw,
with the view of practising its several parts in preparatory essays, and
of developing on it the peculiar individual character which he intends
representing in his drawing. Such extensive preparatory studies cannot
be enjoined upon a mere amateur of the art. Yet even he ought never to
draw anything, or even copy any drawing, for which he cannot procure

521

138 THE FINE ARTS.

a corresponding object in nature as a model, whose smallest parts he might
compare with their representation upon a plane. Drawing from nature is
most efficient in forming the eye and hand, and must be first practised,
even by a dilettante, from real, sharply defined bodies, beginning with
geometrical figures, proceeding through the simplest products of mechanical
arts, to plants, animals, &ec. It is only after this sort of drawing, by which
the student has enabled himself to become, so to speak, penetrated by a
double perception of the objects drawn, that the question about a7t can
arise. The designer must have become able to represent to his mind all
objects of a drawing as they actually exist, ¢.e. to see the complex of all
lines as if they were projected from the plane of the picture into space
while, at the same time, he must be able to see in his mind’s eye every
real object as if it were depicted on a plane surface. After this attainment —
only can the draughtsman be said to be prepared to enter into the sanctuary
of art; nay, not till then will he be able to produce a correct copy of u
drawing.

In order to obtain a precise knowledge of forms or shapes as they exis»
in space, the theory of lines, angles, surfaces, volumes, as treated in geo
metry, must be thoroughly studied. After this only can we attempt tc
draw the simplest bodies of nature. This elementary knowledge is indis.
pensably necessary for this reason: it stamps on our mind the sense of
definiteness of form, whence the perception of all the characteristics of the
various configurations of visible objects can be safely developed, since
geometrical figures are their absolute constituent parts. The truth of this
is evident as regards crystals, the simple products of mechanical arts, of
architecture, &c. The objects of nature will be treated of, in this respect,
in the sequel of this statement. Meanwhile it will be useful to examine
the auxiliary lines in the figures given in explanation of the subject (pl. 19,
jigs. T, 8, 18-16 ; pl. 20, figs. 18, 14, 20; pl. 21, figs. 12-16).

Being obliged to restrict ourselves to mere hints, we propose to give a
short outline of wniversal morphology, of anatomy as part of special
morphology ; and, after having referred to the essential points of perspective,
to treat of the delineation of the human body as a specimen of the applica-
tion of morphology and perspective combined.

1. Universan Morrnotocy. a. The Straight Line. Of all possible
directions in space the most definite and absolutely steady are two: the
vertical line ( pl. 19, fig. 45 DP) and the horizontal line (fig. 42 cd). They
are called the chief directions. The numberless other directions are more
or less oblique (fig. 45 mD, nD, tD, 7D, &c.), and can be determined only
by their respective relations to the two chief directions. The latter indicate
either by themselves the position of an object (pl. 19, jigs. 18, 14, 16), or
they assist in determining it (as the auxiliary lines in jigs. 1, 2, 41-45).
The vertical line is characteristic of standing and striving upwards, the
horizontal of reclining and resting.

b. The Angle. Of all possible angles the right angle is the only definite
invariable one, and serves therefore as the standard in the determination of
all other, or oblique angles. The latter being either acute or obtuse, 7. e.

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THE ART OF DRAWING. 139

smaller or larger than a right angle, are determined by their respective
proportions to the standard (pl. 20, jig. 4abg right, pgq obtuse angle ;
Jig. 6 abg right, pgg acute angle). The position of a right angle can vary ;
it is called normal when its sides are in the chief directions, and oblique
when its sides are oblique lines ; in the latter case its position is determined
by auxiliary lines having the chief directions.

c. Rectilinear Figures. Of rectilinear figures the square is the most
regular, being formed by four right angles and four sides of equal length
(pl. 16, fig. 40bwxy). Being the most accurately determined figure it
serves for the determination of others. Its position, like that of the righ‘
angle, can be normal or oblique.

Next to the square in simplicity is the rectangle, differing from the for
mer only in being inclosed by two pairs of parallels of unequal length
(pl. 19, the boundaries of jigs. 41-45.) The proportion of form, 7. e. of the
height to the breadth of a rectangle, is most simply determined by the
draughtsman by dividing it into squares (pl. 20, jigs. 18, 14; pl. 21, jigs.
12-15). The normal position of a rectangle is either the reclining (reversed)
(pl. 19, figs. 41, 42), or the standing (erect) (jigs. 48, 44). All other
positions are oblique.

With regard to definiteness of form to the eye, the next figure to be con-
sidered is the equzlateral triangle, and after it the dsosceles in its varieties
(steeple, roof, or gable-shape) arising from different proportions between the
height and the base. Then follow the regular hexagon, octagon, and other
polygons, which, like the irregular ones, are determined either by means of
the above enumerated simple figures, or by division or integration (comple-
menting).

d. Curves (or curved lines) are determined as to their form by examining
whether they be of egual curvature throughout or not. The circle is the
standard of the former. Of the wnequally curved lines the rule of their
curvature must be determined, and the places of greatest and relatively inferior
curvature found. This determines the character of a curve as an ellipse,
parabola, cycloid, spiral, &c. It is further to be examined in which
part or division there is a concavity or a convexity, and whether either of
these is constant or whether concavity alternates with convexity as in wave
and serpent-lines, and the outlines of a nose, mouth, &e. In the latter case
the points of recurvature, or the points where concave curves pass into con-
vex ones, are to be accurately observed. Curves of a freer sweep, as for
instance the profile lines of organic formation, are determined by compari-
son with those whose curvature is reducible to geometrical laws.

Mathematics teach the precise formation of the geometrical curves. But
we may obtain an immediate knowledge of their form as well as of that of
the organic curves (of mountains, clouds, plants, animals, &c.) in the follow-
ing manner. We apply the enumerated rectilinear auxiliary figures either
between two points of recurvature or the terminal points of a curve, or at
one point on the convex side of acurve. In the former case the determining
or auxiliary lines form chords, in the latter tangents, vertical or horizontal
ones being most available. We then carefully observe the point of the

523

140 } THE FINE ARTS.

greatest divergence of the curve from the chord, the proportion of the dis-
tance of this point to the length of the chord, and the precise direction of
the latter. Or if we employ tangents we measure the various distances on
both sides of the point of contact between the curved line and the straight
auxiliary. These few indications will suffice to show the ample field of
observation and study afforded by the endless variety of curves that occur
in the great domain of nature.

e. Curvilinear Figures are either in themselves sufficiently definite for
immediate conception by our mind (the simplest being the circle, next the
ellipse, and then the oval), or they require the application of auxiliary lines
to determine their forms, and are then to be resolved into their various curves,
the divergence of each from a straight line being determined as before
indicated.

J. Geometrical Bodies. The cube, parallelopipedon, tetrahedron, the
prism in its various forms, the pyramid, cone, cylinder, sphere, ellipsoid,
the egg, and the various mineral crystallizations, constitute a series of forms
from the most definite and easily determinable to the indefinite and difficult,
similar to that of lines and plane figures before alluded to. Our limited
space forbids a detailed consideration of these forms and of the manner in
which those whose forms are definite are used in determining the confor-
mation of the irregular ones. But we urgently recommend a minute study
of these forms, inasmuch as they not only exert the greatest influence upon
our more or less correct appreciation of the plastic conformations in nature,
but afford us constructive auxiliary bodies to facilitate our transferring the
bodies produced by nature into a perspective projection or natural drawing.

With a view of promoting the study of forms, we add the following
general observations on general outlines, general forms, symmetry, and
skeleton of axes.

Most of the forms of natural objects are continuous deviations from such
geometrical figures as form their basis, and which, when imagined around
or in a natural body, can be called in the drawing its general outline. To
find this general outline in any object is the first condition for the determi-
nation of its form, and the principal auxiliary in its correct representation.
It is found by trying to circumscribe the object as closely as possible
with straight lines or geometrical curves, in such a manner that, if need be,
we either complete some of its parts by auxiliaries (pl. 19, jig. 20), or cut off
some of its protuberances ( pl. 20, figs. 8-6, 13-15), or inclose them in suitable
auxiliaries ( pl. 19, figs. 13, 14; pl. 20, figs. 7, 8). Principal parts of whole
figures can be treated in the same manner (the arms, pl. 21, jigs. 14, 15;
the skull, pl. 20, figs. 4, 5, 7, 8). Even geometrical figures can be thus
reduced to their simple fundamental forms ; for instance, a regular octagon
can be reduced to a square by prolonging its horizontal and vertical sides;
a regular hexagon to an equilateral triangle by prolonging three of its
sides; a trapezium to a triangle by prolonging its non-parallel sides
(pl. 19, fig. 45, cap and base of the pilaster in the building on the left).
By circumscription the square is shown to be the basis of the circle (pi. 20,
jig. 8, square and circle over the line 1); the rectangle that of the ellipsis

524

THE ART OF DRAWING. 141

and of the oval ( pl. 20, jig.7), the proportion of length and breadth remain-
ing unaltered. In a similar manner the general outline of the human head
in the front view is an oval, but in other views an oval-like general form
(pl. 20, figs. 1, 2, 7, 8; pl. 21, figs. 6-11). The same proceeding holds
good with regard to bodies. Thus, by producing the corners of the capital
and of the pedestal of the corner pilaster of the edifice on the left (pl. 19,
Jig. 45), we obtain pyramids, and by lines connecting the corners of the
steps on the obelisk (ibidem, on the right), and producing them until they
intersect each other, we complete the general form of a four-sided pyramid.
It is also easily perceptible that the cube is the general form of the sphere ;
the parallelopipedon, of the ellipsoid ; the egg, of the human head.

By drawing through the middle of a figure a right line in the direction of
its length, we obtain its longitudinal axis ; and by doing the same perpen-
dicularly to that axis, through the greatest breadth of the figure, we find
its lateral axis. If the figure be divided by either of its axes into two equal
but opposite parts, the figure is said to possess symmetry, and those parts
are called symmetrical opposite sides. All regular geometrical figures,
including the rectangle, the isosceles triangle, and the isosceles parallel-
trapezium, are symmetrical; and so also the ellipse, the oval, &c. (pil. 19,
Jigs. 13, 14, 16). A figure with a centre, from which it can be divided into
three or more equal opposite parts by as many lines, is said to possess a
stellar or central symmetry. Such is the case with all regular geometrical
figures, with all cross and star flowers (cruciferee, asters), &c. The symme-
trical opposites in symmetrical bodies are similarly disposed round either a
central awis, as in the prism, pyramid, cylinder, cone, and egg (pil. 19,
jig. 45, obelisk), or round a centre (as in the sphere, the regular geometrical
bodies, and crystal forms), or on both sides of an imaginary plane-azis, as
in most animals, the human body, in regular edifices, &c. &c. The inquiry
into the symmetry of a figure, and the finding of its axis of symmetry, or
plane-axis, is one of the essential means towards the knowledge of its con-
formation. We must observe that in most organic forms (plants, flowers,
&c.), especially in animals, the equal position of the symmetrical opposites is
abolished, and the axes of symmetry, which have originally been straight,
have become curved lines, and that it is owing precisely to this deviation
from exact symmetry that the organic bodies are endowed with the charm
of life, and with movement. Constant symmetry as well as the degree of
deviation from it, must be assiduously studied, in order that the designer
may be able to conceive and to express movement. This is a point of the
greatest importance for the artist. Scarcely less important is the fact, that
axes or mid-lines may be found also in less strictly symmetrical organic
forms and in their parts (thus in plants, animals, especially in the human
body), about which axes the mass or matter of the form itself is located in a
certain statical equipoise, and around which the most manifold forms are dis-
posed in a harmonious arrangement. To observe all this, to feel it out as it
were from the laws of nature, is the mission of the artist.

If the natural body consist of several essential parts which issue from the

principal form like branches (as the branches and boughs from the stem of a
525

142 THE FINE ARTS.

tree, or the limbs from the trunk of an animal), then the axis of the prin-
cipal form constitutes, in connexion with the axes of the branches or limbs,
a system or skeleton of axes. To discover the position and the proportion
of this system, to define and to employ them as the foundation of a design,
is the first, must be the chief problem of the artist, in order that he may
recognise, comprehend, and vividly represent the general as well as the
individual form of a natural body.

2. Spectan Morpyotoey. Anatomy. Since our limits do not permit us to
enter upon a detailed elucidation of all the various modes by which the
tenets of universal morphology are applied to the representation of different
objects, as, for instance, by the painter of buildings to the various styles of
architecture, by the painter of landscapes to the manifold diversity of plants
and of terrestrial scenery, we shall restrict our considerations to a single
but most interesting department of morphology, 7. ¢. to anatomy, which is
‘ndispensable to the designer of the human figure.

As the trunk of a tree, with its ramifications, forms the plastic frame-
work for the masses of foliage, blossoms, and fruit, so is the skeleton or the
somplex of the bones, the frame of the whole human body, the supporter
of the mass of flesh that surrounds it. The study of the osseous system,
of the proportions of its system of axes, as well as of the form of the several
bones, of their symmetrical and statical arrangement into a wonderful
machinery of articulated or organic mechanism, constitutes the first part
of the anatomical studies of the artist. What has been said on this subject
in the division of this work devoted to Anthropology will suffice as a guide
for the artist. We will in this place consider the muscular system with a
special view to artistical representation.

The thorough understanding of the muscular structure is indispensably
necessary to the designer of the human figure, especially of the nude form,
which is the complete mirror of spiritual man. Without this knowledge it is
impossible to represent in drawing, even from a living model, the play of
the muscles that would manifest itself in the peculiar movement and in the
individual expression of the figure, as conceived in the idea of the artist.
Even a mere copyist of an already drawn or painted human figure, if defi-
cient in such knowledge, would be at a loss to know all that the designer or
painter of his original intended to express by his particular clearer or
darker touches, by his emerging and again vanishing lines (compare pi. 21,
Jigs. 12-15, 18-21); he would not be able to distinguish the essential single
traits from such as might be unessential, or even merely accidental or owing
to a faulty impression.

In naming, locating, and explaining those muscles which are situated on
the surface of the body under the skin, and which are therefore conspicuous
by their play, by their rising or subsiding, in consequence of the various
movements of man, and consequently of importance for the artist, we shall
refer to pl. 20, jigs. 15, 16, representing the anterior and posterior views of
man’s body divested of its cutaneous integuments and blood-vessels.

In the front view of the figure (jig. 15) we have presented to us the fol-
lowing muscles: 1. Musculus frontalis. It elevates the eyebrows, the

526

THE ART OF DRAWING. 143

inner corners of the eye, and the skin of the nose, and it wrinkles the skin
of the forehead. 2. If. temporalis, raises the lower jaw. 3. IL. zygomaticus,
draws back the corner of the mouth towards the ear and the cheek-bone.
4. Levator labii superioris, raises the upper lip. 5. Buccinator, draws the
cheeks and the lips towards the grinders. 6. d/asseter, raises the lower
jaw. 7. Orbicularis labiorum, draws the lips together. 8. Sterno-cleido-
mastoideus, springs from the upper part of the breast-bone and collar-bone,
and ends in the mastoid process near the ear. It bends the head forwards. 9.
Trapezius, springs from the dorsal vertebree and from the back of the head,
and ends in the collar-bone. It draws back the head and the shoulder-
blades. 10. Sterno-hyoideus, ascends from the breast-bone to the hyoid
bone, and draws the hyoid bone downwards. 11. Omo-hyoideus, springs
from the upper margin of the shoulder blade, and is inserted into the hyoid
bone, which it draws downwards. 12. A small portion of the pectoral
muscle (see 15). 13. Deltordeus, springs from the bone of the shoulder,
and descends to the middle of the upper arm. It draws the arm outwards
and upwards. 14. Latissemus dorsi, springs from the lower dorsal and the
lumbar vertebrze, the sacrum, and the coccyx, passes obliquely forwards, and
is attached partly to the outer ends of the four lowest ribs, and partly by
means of a tendon to the humeral bone. It can draw the arms downwards
and the ribs upwards. 15. Pectoralis major. Its greater portion springs
from the outer surface of the breast-bone and the cartilages of the six upper
ribs. 16. Its smaller portion springs from the sternal end of the collar-
bone, and ends in the outer side of the upper part of the humerus. It
draws the arm strongly forwards against the breast, or, if the arm be made
fast, it draws the breast-bone towards thearm. 16. Serratus anticus major,
springs from a number of digitations of the ribs, extending from the second
to the ninth, then contracts, and is attached behind to the shoulder-blade,
which it can draw forwards. When the arm is fastened it helps to enlarge
the cavity of the breast. 17. Brachialis, is for the most part covered by
No. 18, arises from the outer surface of the middle of the humerus, spreads
over the outside of the elbow-joint, and is attached to the upper end of the
ulna. It bends the arm. 18. Biceps brachw. One of its heads springs from
the capsule of the shoulder-joint, and the other from the coracoid process of
the shoulder-blade ; it passes down the humerus, and ends at the elbow-
joint behind the tubercle of the radius. It helps to bend the fore-arm, and
at the same time turns it somewbat outwards. 19. Linea alba, goes from
the scyphoid cartilage down to the pubes, and is formed by the union of the
tendons of some of the abdominal muscles from both sides. 20. Reetus abdo-
minis, ascends from the pubes to the lower costal cartilages and the
seyphoid process. It is interrupted in its course by some small tendinous
intersections which cross the muscle. It can bend the body forwards. 22.
The navel. 23. Obliquus externus, springs from the lowermost ribs, and
from the haunch-bone ; it passes in a broad, thin tendon (21) over the pre-
ceding muscles, and is attached to the linea alba. With the other abdo-
minal muscles it effects expiration, and can turn the breast to one side.
24. Pronator teres, springs from the inner condyle of the humerus,
527

144 THE FINE ARTS.

descends obliquely, and is attached to the middle of the radius. It turns
the hand forwards. 25. /lexor carpi radials, springs from the same place
with the preceding muscle, descends along the fore-arm, and is attached to
the metacarpal bone of the index finger. It flexesthe hand. 24. Supinator
longus, descends from the outer condyle of the humerus, and is attached to
the lower end of the radius on the outside. It turns the hand outwards.
27. Abductor pollicis longus, springs from the outside of the fore-arm,
passes round the lower end of the radius, and is attached to the large mul-
tangular bone, and to the metacarpal bone of the thumb. It stretches out
the thumb and draws it from the hand. 28. Palmaris longus, arises along
with No. 24, and runs along the inside of the arm to the palm, where its
thin tendons are lost in the palmar fascia. It contributes to flex the hand.
29. Llexor carpi ulnaris, springs from the inner condyle of the humerus,
descends along the ulna, and ends in the pisiform bone of the wrist. It
helps to flex the hand. The flexors (80, 31) of the fingers pass underneath
a strong band (82), which passes from the unciform bone over the scaphoid
bone and the great multangular bone, to the palm, and terminates at the
finger-joints. 33. Sartorvus, springs from the anterior spinous process of
the ilium, and runs obliquely inwards (87) to the upper end of the tibia,
where it is inserted. It serves to cross the legs. 34. Pyramidalis, springs
from the pubes, and ascends to the linea alba, to which it is attached. It
co-operates with the other abdominal muscles. 35. Tensor fascow late,
springs from the anterior spinous processes of the ilium, and runs below
the crural ligament which surrounds the muscles of the thigh. It loses
itself in this ligament, and stretches it. 386. Gracilis, springs from the
ischium, passes down one side of the thigh, and is attached to the upper
part of the tibia. It flexes the thigh and draws it somewhat inwards. 38.
Rectus femoris, springs from the front of the ilium, and passes along 41
to the upper end of the tibia. It stretches out the lower part of the leg.
39, 42,44. Vastus mmternus, springs from the inside of the thigh, and agrees
in its course and effect with 40. 40. Vastus externus, springs from the out-
side of the femoral bone, and descends, turning somewhat round in front
(43) to the tibia. It helps to stretch out the lower part of the leg. 45.
Gastro-cnemius, springs with two heads from the lower end of the thigh-
bone, and passes into a thick tendon, the tendon of Achilles, which is
inserted into the heel-bone. It stretches out the foot. 46. Peroncus
longus, springs from the fibula and tibia, and ends in the sole of the foot.
It extends the foot and turns it outwards. 47. T2beales anticus, springs
from the outer surface of the tibia, passes downwards, turns inwards about
the foot, and ends partly in the great sphenoid bone and partly in the first
metatarsal bone. It bends the foot. 48. Haxtensor digitorum longus,
spreads near the preceding, passes downwards, and divides into four ten-
dons, which are attached to the second and third joints of the four smaller
toes. It extends the four toes. 49. Solews, springs under No. 45, from
the posterior surface of the fibula, and ends in the tendo Achillis. 50.
Flexor digitorum longus, springs from the posterior surface of the tibia,
descends behind the inner ankle-bone to the sole. of the foot, and then
528

THE ART OF DRAWING. 145

divides into four tendons, extending to the four small toes, which it
bends.

In the front view (pl. 20, jig. 16) we have the following principal muscles.
1. Levator scapule, which is partly covered by No. 3, as it springs from the
upper cervical vertebra and descends to the upper corner of the shoulder-blade.
It serves to elevate the shoulder-blade. 2. Deltoideus (jig. 15, Wo. 13).
3. Trapezius (fig. 15, Vo. 9). 4, 5. Lnfraspmatus, springs from the great
fossa of the shoulder-blade, and is attached to the upper end of the humeral
bone. It turns the arm upwards. 6, 8. Zeres major, arises from the lower
angle of the shoulder-blade and is attached to the humerus on the inside.
It turns the arm inwards. 7. Latessimus dorsi (fig. 15, Wo. 14). 9. Triceps
brachw. One of its heads springs from the front end of the shoulder-blade
and the other two from the humeral bone ; it covers the posterior surface of
this bone, and is attached to the ulna by a broad tendon. It serves to
extend the fore-arm. 10. An offset from No. 7 to the spines of the lumbar
vertebre. 11. Anconeus parvus, springs from the lower end of the hume-
rus and ends in the ulna. It supports the extensor muscles of the fore-arm.
12. Hatensor digitorum communis, springs from the humerus, passes down
the hinder surface of the fore-arm, and is divided into four tendons, which
are attached to the second and third joints of the fingers. It extends the
fingers. 13. Hatensor carpe ulnaris, arises along with the preceding, is
attached to the fifth metacarpal bone, and assists to extend the hand.
14. Flexor carpi ulnaris (fig. 15, Wo. 25). 15, 16. Gluteus medius,
springs from the outer surface of the ilium and is attached to the upper end
of the thigh-bone. It works along with the following one, by which the
greater part of itis covered. 17. Glutwus maximus, springs from the pos-
terior surface of the os ilii, from the sacrum and from the coccyx, and is
attached to the posterior surface of the femoral bone. It serves to extend the
thigh. 18,19. Vastus eaternus (fig. 15, Vo. 40). 20. Semetendinosus, springs
from the ischium and descends to the tibia, to the upper end of which it is
attached. It flexes the thigh. 21. Biceps femoris. One of its heads
springs from the ischium, and the other from the middle part of the pos-
terior surface of the femur, dnd it is attached to the head of the fibula. It
flexes the lower part of the leg. 22. Adductor magnus, springs from the
ischium and the pubes and terminates in part on the middle of the inside
of the thigh-bone, while the rest of it descends to the lower end of that bone.
It draws the thigh inwards. 23. Gastro-cnemius ( fig. 13, Wo. 45). 24. So-
leus (fig. 15, No. 49). 25. Hatensor digitorum longus (fig. 15, Vo. 48).
Fleacor digitorum longus ( fig. 15, Wo. 50).

In closing this enumeration we must not omit to remark that the muscles
here named are by no means all that are found in the human body, but that
those only have been selected the play of which during the motions of the
body is particularly observable from the surface.

It is of great importance to observe that the enumerated muscles stand in
manifold relations to one another as regards their conspicuousness on the sur-
face of the human body. Some muscles are always conspicuous ; some become
manifest and sharply defined only at certain movements of the whole body

ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOPZDIA.—VOL. IV. 34 529

146 THE FINE ARTS.

or of its single parts, thus causing others that are near them to vanish more
or less; others, again, are never prominent. On the bodies of children and
young persons certain muscles, not being yet fully developed, are less
visible than on older people. The same is the case with female forms. In
these, as in general in fat or obese human bodies, the interstices between the
muscles are more or less filled up with adipose substance, which overlies in
some spots the muscles themselves. In consequence of this the muscular
frame becomes less conspicuous than in bodies whose muscles are freed from
that incumbrance by dint of powerful movement and active exercise, their
muscles being immediately under the skin. All these, and similar modifi-
cations and relations, can be studied and appreciated only by an immediate
and assiduous contemplation of living models or of the best statuary of
antiquity, as well as of that of such eminent artists as Thorwaldsen, Rauch,
Schwanthaler, &c., or of plaster-casts of such works. In drawing these we
again must take heed not to be carried away by the desire of showing our
knowledge of anatomy by too strong and explicit an indication of the
muscles, or we shall be in danger of representing flayed figures (pl. 20,
Jigs. 16, 15), rather than fine-limbed and powerful ones ( pl. 20, jigs. 18, 14;
pl. 21, figs. 12-15, 18). In the latter the play of muscles, although
they are strong, is tempered by thin layers of fat and by the cutaneous
integument being stretched over them, so that their prominence and sub-
sidence are mutually compensated, and a pleasing plastic equipoise is
thus established.

B. Pictorial Perspective.

After having made himself thoroughly acquainted with the actual forms
of objects, the draughtsman has yet to acquire a two-fold knowledge: viz.
1. That of the appearance to the eye at one point of view of the actual
form of objects extending in space in three directions, the three dimen-
sions of bodies; and 2. That of the manner of fixing this appearance as a
drawing on the plane of a picture, v.e. of reducing the appearance of the
three dimensions of bodies to the éwo dimensions of a plane.

Both these points are taught by Perspective. Its principles have already
been developed in the mathematical part of this work (vol. i. p. 50), but
this is a suitable place to add a few remarks on its application to the art of
drawing.

In drawing from nature, a natural drawing originates in the mind of the
delineator by his imagining a transparent plane, e.g. a pane of glass placed
between his eye (the point of view) and the object to be drawn. This
transparent plane represents the plane of projection. By keeping his eye
steadily on this plane in one direction the draughtsman will fix upon it,
in his mind’s eye, the true copy of the object behind it, by imagining
points and lines drawn on the transparent plane in such a manner as to
cover precisely the outlines of the real object. This imagined true copy on
the transparent plane is the «mage or the perspective projection. This
image has to be transferred by real, visible lines to the plane of the
picture in order to obtain a natural outline of the object. Such an out-

530

THE ART OF DRAWING. 147

line, filled up with exact imitations of the colors of the object and their
delicate shades, and placed in the precise position of the imagined trans-
parent plane, will convey to the eye from the old point of view the
impression of seeing the object itself, though it be entirely covered by
the picture or taken away.

The pupil in the art of drawing must by practice acquire the faculty of
beholding all visible objects before which he assumes a fixed point of view
as if they were already drawn on a transparent plane; and conversely, of
imagining a natural drawing as a transparent plane behind which the
objects of the drawing appear as if existing in reality. Both these accom-
plishments must be aimed at from the very beginning of instruction in
drawing, in order to insure a thorough understanding on the part of the
pupil. ?

When we view various natural objects as if seen through a transparent
plane, and fixed upon it as described, we can by mere ocular perception
recognise the following laws, which are also susceptible of mathematical
demonstration.

1. Lines, angles, and figures of solid bodies (2. ¢. of objects of threefold
extension in space), parallel to the transparent plane, preserve wm the
image their real position and form, or, more explicitly, such lines
retain their real durection ; such angles their real size; and such figures
their real form and position. All lines, angles, and figures not parallel to
the transparent plane exhibit in the image an altered direction and position.
This will be more clearly understood after a comparison (p/. 19, figs. 48, 44)
of the perspective niches in the backgrounds with those on the sides; and
(jig. 45) of the facade in the centre of the background and of its details
with the perspective forms of the similar fronts on the left side in the fore-
ground ; and finally of the front and side faces of a perspective drawing of
a double cross (jig. 40).

2. Lines and figures on a body, or the body itself, appear smaller on the
transparent plane 7 proportion to their increased distance behind the same.
This perspective reduction is illustrated (pl. 19, jig. 40) by the different
appearance of the projecting and receding lines, squares, and cubes, which
in reality are all alike; and is still more prominent (fig. 45) in the perspec-
tive forms of the buildings in the background as compared with those of
the foreground, whose real dimensions are equal; as well as in the divisions
of the floors (figs. 41, 42), which in reality are of the same size.

8. All lines on a body parallel to each other, but not to the transparent
plane, from which they recede either at right angles or obliquely, converge
in the image to one point, the vanishing point, if sufficiently extended.
Thus all the lines converging to the point s (jig. 40) are in reality parallel
to each other, receding at right angles from the transparent plane. The
same is the case with the lines converging in the point P (jig. 45), whilst
those converging in D2, being parallel to each other, recede obliquely from
the transparent plane.

5. A line im space drawn from the eye of the draughtsman towards the

transparent plane, and parallel to a number of parallel lines on the object,
531

148 THE FINE ARTS.

will intersect the transparent plane in the vanishing-point of the image of
the parallel lines on the object. Vanishing-points determined by such
imaginary lines in space are shown at p and s (fig. 40); at e (figs. 41, 42) ;
and at P and D2 (jig. 45). If such a line in space intersect the trans-
parent plane at right angles, the vanishing-point coincides with the point
of sight (figs. 40,8; 41, e; 42,e; 45, P), and the horizontal line passing
through this point is the horzzon of the image. If the line in space intersect
the transparent plane at an angle of 45° or less and at the same time be
horizontal, the point of intersection is called the point of distance of the
image, and lies in the horizon at a distance (right or left) from the point of
sight equal to the distance of the eye from the transparent plane (jig. 41d).
If the line in space intersect the transparent plane at an angle of more than
45°, the vanishing-point which marks the intersection is called the point of
incidence ( fig. 45 D2).

5. All cwrved lines, angles, and figures on an object, which lie in a plane
whose extension would pass through the eye of the draughtsman, appear in
the image as straight lines; the more or less curved appearance of curved
lines, or broad appearance of angles and figures in the image, is in direct
proportion to the distance at which the extension of their planes would pass
over, under, or right or left from the eye of the draughtsman (pl. 20, jigs.
8 and 9, the middle lines; jigs. 1, 2, and pl. 21, jigs. 6-11, the auxiliary
lines through the eyes and points of the noses).

The methods of determining these various points and the horizon in the
plane of a picture can only be explained practically by elaborate deductions
and with the assistance of models, and the instruction in these methods
must be obtained from a teacher in a progressive course of lessons.
Regarding their theory we offer the following remarks.

The paper of the draughtsman, or the plane of the picture, represents the
transparent plane itself, the frame of the former or its circumscription coin-
ciding with the limits of the latter (pl. 19, jigs. 41-45, the rectangles circum-
scribing the drawings). The lines of construction drawn on the plane of |
the picture are partly those enumerated above, in part such as the draughts-
man originally imagined drawn in space from his eye to points of the object
or parallel to some of its lines, and which are, as it were, folded or flapped
into the plane of the picture. The student of the art of drawing must
acquire the faculty of imagining such constructive lines projecting into
space before and behind the plane of the picture, in order to understand
construction and to apply it. This accomplishment can only be attained
by the study of perspective in models and by continued systematic lessons
in drawing from nature.

The same course of study is requisite to prepare and qualify the student
for a due consideration of some points of particular importance in pictorial
perspective, viz. the selection of the precise place for the transparent plane,
and of the proper distance of the point of view from, as well as its position
(line of sight) with respect to the transparent plane.

Concerning the position of the transparent plane, the general rule, in
ease a single angular body is to be drawn, is to place the plane vertically

532

THE ART OF DRAWING. | 149

before the same in such a manner that it is in contact with one corner or
edge of the body, forming with its principal front an angle of less than 45°.
If a number of objects are to be drawn in one group, the rule is to place
the transparent plane parallel to the front of one of them (pl. 19, jigs.
40-45). In drawing inclosed spaces (rooms, churches, &c.), the front wall
is ugually imagined as removed and replaced by the transparent plane and
the eye of the draughtsman on its exterior side. In drawing an open
landscape, and this is the most difficult case, two points on the ground
have to be selected and retained, through which the transparent plane is
imagined to pass vertically; whilst the plane itself must be imagined as
bounded on the right and left sides by perpendiculars, and above and
below by horizontal lines, these four lines encompassing everything in the
landscape that is to be included in the picture, and excluding everything
that is not to be drawn. The boundary lines of the fictitious transparent
plane must then correspond with the lines circumscribing the paper or the
plane of the picture.

The dzstance of the draughtsman from the transparent plane must at least
be great enough to allow the eye to survey its limits without any motion of
the head, either sideways, or upwards, or downwards. A common distance
is the diagonal or better twice the length of the transparent plane. If the
distance be chosen too small (pl. 19, jig. 48) the eye is easily fatigued in
the survey, and the objects appear as unusual images, wm perspective distor-
tion. Lig. 44 offers a favorable contrast, being taken from the right dis-
tance, whilst jig. 43 is taken from a distance not exceeding the breadth of
the image. On the other hand, if the distance be chosen too great, the
smaller parts of the object lose in clearness, and the picture fails in express-
ing the depth to which the receding parts extend.

The altitude of the pownt of view before the transparent plane above the
base of the latter, 7. e. the height of the point of sight or of the horizon in
the drawing, is most natural at the elevation of the eye of a standing man
above the ground (pl. 19, jigs. 42, 45). If the ground be covered by but
few objects, or if it be empty or barren, the altitude of the point of view
should be decreased ; the ground will then appear less extended in the pic-
ture. If the altitude be too limited the appearance of the ground will
approach too much that of a straight line, and the objects on it will cover
each other too much. If on the other hand it be too great (fig. 42) the
ground will appear too extended, the lines on it too steep, and the objects
in the depth too much as if they were placed above each other; and if the
point of view be higher than the upper surfaces of the objects, the draw-
ing will have the appearance of a horizontal projection: in landscapes that
of a topographical map. ‘The proper height of the point of view can only
be determined for every special case by a practised judgment, developed by
continued drawing from nature.

The lateral position of the point of view with respect to the vertical axis of
the transparent plane varies according to the object to be drawn. If this be
a single rounded object the draughtsman places himself precisely opposite the
axis of the plane, or so that the line of sight intersect it at right angles (pl.

533

150 . THE FINE ARTS.

21, figs. 18-21) ; but if it be an angular object having lateral surfaces (pl. 19,
jig. 40) he selects a point at either side of the axis. If a group of several
objects is to be drawn, the point of view is taken opposite its vertical axis ;
especially in historical compositions of human figures and in open landscapes.
An exception from this rule is made in the case of avenues and streets, of
rooms, churches, and similar bounded spaces in which the objectg on
the two sides are mostly parallel, their lines receding at right angles from
the transparent plane. If in such a case the point of view were taken
opposite the vertical axis a perspective symmetry would be the result,
making the impression of monotony or stiffness (pl. 19, figs. 48, 44). It is
therefore preferable to choose a point of view on either side of the vertical
axis, thus avoiding the unpleasant effects of perspective symmetry (pl. 19,
Jig. 45).

In conclusion, we call attention to the necessity of placing finished natural
drawings in a certain position to the eye of the beholder, in order that the
images of the objects may appear to him as real objects im space. This
one true position of the drawing is that in which its plane has the same
angle of intersection with his line of sight, and the same distance from his
point of view, which the transparent plane had with the line of sight, and
Jrom the point of view of the draughtsman. The drawing must therefore
be held before the beholder in such a manner that his eye shall be precisely
opposite the point of sight m the drawing, and at a distance precisely
equalling the distance in the drawing. Thus the cross of cubes (pl. 19, jig.
40) must be held a certain distance to the left from the eye; the rooms (jigs.
43, 44) straight before the eye; and the group of buildings (jig. 45) a little
to the right of the eye; in all three cases at such an elevation that the
horizon marked in the figures be in the horizontal plane of the eye. If in
these drawings the points of sight were not indicated, they would be found
by prolonging the receding horizontal lines. In drawings that are destitute
of such receding horizontal lines, the determination of the horizon and point
of sight requires elaborate constructions, but a practised eye very easily
discovers the right point of view for the inspection of a good drawing, with-
-out such construction, by means of a well developed sense of beauty.

These remarks about the right position for viewing a drawing are of
even greater importance for making a correct copy of a finished drawing.
It is therefore of little use, and even absurd, to let pupils draw from finished
patterns before they are thoroughly acquainted with the rules of perspective
and their application.

In order to show how necessary is a strict attention to general and special
morphology, and to the rules of perspective, even in drawing single
natural forms, we subjoin an outline of the rules for drawing the human
figure.

C. Drawing of the Human Figure.

In the following remarks reference is had throughout to a purely ideal
human figure, forming, as it were, a medium between the innumerable
individual figures produced by nature, from the normal proportions of which

534

THE ART OF DRAWING. 151

those of individual figures differ more or less. In drawing from nature or from
models, the individual deviations from the normal figure must be deter-
mined and correctly rendered in the drawing. Thereby only will the indi-
vidual character of a given person be clearly expressed, since individuality
is the deviation from the normal. The proportional numbers given, having
reference partly to actual measurements in space on the body or model, in
part to measurements of its image on the transparent plane in certain
definite positions, must be modified, in drawing from nature, according to
the perspective phenomena of each special case.

1. Tae Heap. In examining the various component parts of the human
figure, we begin with the head as the most characteristic, the rules for
drawing whose details we will briefly lay down.

In order to produce a correct drawing of the nose im front view, we divide
its whole length from the root to the tip (pl. 19, figs. 13, 14) into four equal
parts, of which one (0,1) will be required for the distance from the root to
the point of incidence of the eye-brows, or to the beginning of the nasal
bone; two (1,2, and 2,3) for the bridge of the nose, which is often left
unmarked by lines; and the fourth part (8,4) for the tip and wings of the
nose. The breadth of the nose is divided into six equal parts, of which the
first on either side is required for the projection of the wings of the nose;
the next on either side for the projection of the nostril; and the two middle
ones for the projection of the rounded part of the tip of the nose, which
however will appear to project a little below the level of the wings (marked
by the line 4,0), since the tip, in passing towards the upper lip, is drawn
somewhat down, as seen in the side view of a nose (jig. 15), but the proper
tip or end of the nose lies on the line 4,0.

_ The eye is drawn in front view most easily if we divide its height into
four equal parts, the uppermost for the upper eyelid, and the remaining
three for the field of vision. The middle one will then form the diameter of
the pupil, and the two others the visible parts of the iris or apple of the eye,
which is three parts in diameter. The length of the eye not turned to one
side (a, b, fig. 1) is equal to twice its height; the line of direction, however, is
not perfectly horizontal, but sinks a very little towards the nose; the eye
too when seen from the side (jig. 2) is drawn in a little towards the bottom.
As soon as the look is turned towards the one side or the other, the appear-
ance of the eye is shortened; and as it is a rounded body, the lines of
direction, which in the full front view are projections of curved lines, must
receive their proper curve by the help of perspective, as shown in the eyes,
Jigs. 8, 4, T,and 9. Fags. 5, 6, 8, 10, 11, and 12, exhibit the human eye in
various positions of the features of the face, and in various directions of
the transparent plane, and more or less closed.

For the mouth, whose regular length is determined by drawing lines
from the middle of the forehead touching the wings of the nose and continued
to the line of the mouth, we divide the height for a front view, into five
equal parts (jig. 16), two of which belong to the upper and three to the

lower lip. /%gs.18 and 19 give a side view of the mouth, and show how
the lower lip recedes somewhat from the line of the upper lip; hence the
535

152 THE FINE ARTS.

dotted perpendicular central line, when the mouth is turned to one side,
appears not straight but curved, as shown in jig. 17.

The contour of the ear in a front view is a somewhat obliquely lying oval
(fig. 20), whose axes bear to each other the proportion of two to three. The
cavity of the ear takes in a third part of its height. The ear itself is one of
the most elaborately constructed parts of the human head, and it is neces-
sary to study it in all possible positions and foreshortenings. igs. 21-27
will serve as guides to the drawing of the ear in very different positions of
the head to the transparent plane.

If we now turn our attention to the drawing of the head as a whole, we
have first of all to study the form of the skull. A front or straight profile
view of the rounded part can be obtained most easily by constructing an
oval line in the following manner: from the centre s ( pl. 20, jig. 4) describe |
the circle 2 ve, and from t, where s ¢ — 4 s v, describe another circle u &,
whose radius is one eighth smaller than s v. Through s draw the perpendi-
cular line 7 g, which gives the middle line of the ear, whose height equals
tof le. The distance from e to g we make also 4 of Je; so that Z @, the
whole height of the head, is four times the length of the nose. The part
eg serves to form the mouth and chin, the next third gives the length of
the nose, the next the forehead to ie the hair begins, and the last the
receding part of the front of the head. The lowermost portion ¢ gq is sub-
divided into five parts, of which one fifth gives the upper lip, one fifth the
mouth, and three fifths the chin. The line # g, which touches the middle
of the forehead and the under lip, varies in its direction according to the
_ different races of man. In the Caucasian race, g stands back from 6 about
half the length of the nose; while in negroes it advances almost two thirds
the length of the nose (jig. 7). In old men whose mouths are sunken in
owing to the loss of the teeth (fig. 3), this line touches the point of the chin.
In children the lower part of whose face is not yet fully developed (jig. 5),
it does not amount to the entire length of a nose.

In order to draw the front view 7 a face, we likewise begin by construct-
ing the oval (jig. 7). This is effected by eee two circles, the upper
and larger one with a diameter one and a half times the length of the nose ;
- and the lower one, whose centre lies within the circumference of the larger
circle, with a diameter equal to the length of the nose. In children the
proportions are different, as represented in jig.8. When the oval has been
drawn, we divide its breadth (p/. 21, jigs. 16 and 17) into five parts, and
its height into four. The division of the breadth is applied as follows: the
middle fifth gives the distance between the eyes; the two next following,
the eyes themselves ; and the two outer ones, the part of the skull receding
towards the temples. The division of the height is the same as described
in speaking of the profile head. Yet we must observe here that in the
female head the skull is somewhat flatter above, and the eye is placed a
fifth of its height lower than in males. The breadth of the neck (pil. 21,
fig. 16) is 1} the length of the nose; and its length (jig. 17) to the pit of
the neck is 14 the length of the nose.

Thus far we have spoken of the head only as presented to us in profile or

536

THE ART OF DRAWING. 153

en face ; and here the lines of division were projections of the curved lines
of the form of the head, and appeared as straight. But when the head is
turned from either of these positions, these lines exhibit to a greater or less
extent their curved form; that is to say, when the front face is simply
turned upwards or downwards, the horizontal dividing lines become curves,
as in jig. 11; but if the head be turned in two directions, all the dividing-
lines become curves. igs. 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10, present a complete guide to
the drawing of these lines of direction and explain themselves. The lower
part of the face is given rather more in detail in jigs. 1, 2, 3,4, and 5. On
the other hand, pl. 20, jigs. 1 and 2, show the manner of sketching heads in
profile. Heads copied in detail from the antique are given (pl. 21, figs.
19, 20) in profile; fig. 21 shows a head en face turned to one side; pl. 20,
jig. 9, a child’s head in contour; and jg. 10, a similar head half shaded.

2. Hanps anp Frer. Having given the most necessary directions for
drawing the head we now turn our attention to the other parts of the body,
and first of all to the hands. In order to learn to draw correctly a hand,
open, stretched out, and parallel to the transparent plane, its whole length
should be divided into two parts, one of which forms the fingers and the
other the palm. The portion that forms the fingers is to be subdivided into
12 parts, of which 7 give the length of the thumb, 10 that of the forefinger,
12 the middle finger, 11 the ring finger, and 9 the little finger. The
breadth of the metacarpus is equal to its length; and by dividing the latter
into two parts, we determine the point at which the thumb begins. The
breadth of the metacarpus divided into four parts gives that of the fingers
at their roots; these taper towards their tips, and are each to be divided
into three parts, of which the middle is a little larger than the lower part,
and this latter than the part ending in the tip. The thumb has only two
parts, as the third lies within the circumference of the metacarpus. When
the hand is turned sideways and the fingers bent, considerable modifications
of the given proportions will arise by perspective; and on account of its
many diffierent parts and the very various positions they may assume with
respect to each other, the drawing of the hand becomes very difficult, and
we often find it out of proportion even in good pictures and by celebrated
masters. In pl. 20, jigs. 17, 18, 20, we have given hands drawn from the
inside; in jig. 21, two hands clasped together; and in jig. 19, an extended
hand drawn from the outside. 7.19, jig. 36, represents the back of a hand
with the fingers bent; jig. 33, a hand turned sideways; and jigs. 32, 34-39,
represent hands holding various objects, and hence wholly or partially closed.
The hands of females are in general distinguished by plumpness, while in
those of males the sinews and muscles appear more prominently. Our
readers will easily distinguish the male from the female hands in the
drawings.

The proportions of the foot may best be represented in the following
manner. The foot is thrice as long as it is high; consequently, in order
to draw a foot as seen directly from the side, we begin by constructing
a rectangle of the above mentioned proportions. Then by describing from
the lower front angle, with a radius equal to two thirds the length of the

537

154 THE FINE ARTS.

foot, an arc intersecting the upper boundary line of the rectangle, we obtain
the point at which the leg joins the foot; and by describing from this same
point an are with a radius equal to the entire length of the foot, we obtain
the direction of the heel. The general course of the instep is given by a
line drawn from the junction of the foot and leg to the lower angle of the
parallelogram in front. This line, together with the heel and the base-line
of the rectangle, marks the rectilinear general form of the profile of the foot,
within which are the place of the ankle-bone and the curved line of the
ends of the toes, whose precise positions must be determined by their
appearance on the transparent plane. An upper view of the foot may be
drawn in a similar rectangle.

When the foot is turned about in any other position, the phenomena of
perspective become more prominent, as well as in the foot’s motions, which
are usually performed not on the toes but on the ball of the foot (figs.
30, 31). A man’s feet, standing upright and seen almost directly from the
front, are delineated in jig. 29, and a woman’s feet (those of the Venus di
Medici), to which the remark applies that we have made above respecting
the hands, in jig. 28.

3. THe Entire Bopy. The first thing to be considered in drawing the
body is the proportioning of the several parts to each other. The propor-
tions, however, keep constantly varying until the individual has attained
his full growth, 2. e. before his twenty-first year. The length of the head,
or, according to other masters, that of the face, has been taken as a unit,
with reference to which the measure of all the other parts has been deter-
mined. Now the proportion of the head to the whole length of the body is
different in different years. In the new-born child, the head usually com-
prises one fourth of the entire length ; in one three years old it is one fifth
of the length ; and in an adult it is one eighth. In a child three years old,
like those represented in the groups in pl. 20, jigs. 11 and 12, the head is
a fifth part of the whole length; in one of seven years it amounts to only
two thirteenths ; while in one of twelve years it is almost one seventh. In
a youth of seventeen the head is 4; of the length; and a full grown man
has a length of eight heads or ten faces. In females the proportion is
always rather less.

The division of the body into lengths of the head is shown in pi. 21; the
front view is given in jig. 14, and the back view in jig. 15. One head-
length is taken up by the head, the second dividing-line passes through the
nipples, or through the shoulder-blades at one third of their height from the
bottom. The third goes through the navel, and the fourth through the
share-bone. From there down to the knee are two head-lengths, and the
remaining two head-lengths go to the legs. The arms, together with the
hands, contain three head-lengths. All these proportions, with the variations
they undergo in the different years of growth, must be minutely observed,
otherwise, instead of drawing children, we shall merely represent adults on
a small scale. The breadths in the above-mentioned figures are given in
lengths of the face. P/. 20, jigs. 13 and 14, show the whole somewhat
more in detail; and pl. 21, jigs. 12 and 13, show the deviations of the pro-

538

THE ART OF DRAWING. 155

portions in the female figure, where all appears rounder and more delicate ;
the region of the hips too is quite differently proportioned. J%g. 18 repre-
sents a male torso, in which the muscles are brought out more prominently.

In order to be able to draw a figure with correctness and elegance, it is
not sufficient to know the proportions of length and breadth as displayed in
the finest antiques ; we must likewise know the anatomical and statical rules
according to which the various parts of the body, in motions and attitudes,
preserve their equilibrium. Here, too, the antique affords us the best
information. For greater clearness we give an example.

If we wish to draw a figure in the attitude of rest, the body must rest on
one leg, say, as in jigs. 14 and 15, the left. The left hip will then become
thicker, and must stand higher than the right; because the body, when
resting upon the left leg, throws itself together on that side over the hip.
The shoulders and hips must never stand parallel; while the right leg,
thrown as it were out of use, is bent, the thigh being turned forwards and
the leg backwards, the right arm must be raised, or in motion, while the
left hangs down at ease. Nature itself teaches us this; for in walking and
moving about, the left foot and right arm are advanced together, and vice
versa, the hands must also move differently ; if we see the inside of one,
we must be able to see the back of the other. When a person is walking,
the hips swell out little or not at all, but the breast must always be thrown
forwards perpendicularly over the advancing leg; when the right leg is
thrown forwards the left elbow is thrown back. When a person is at rest
the whole weight rests on the advanced foot ; the breast is thrown forwards,
the head a little back; one foot is raised slightly from the ground. Dili-
gent observation of correct works of art is calculated to afford more informa-
tion with regard to the method of representing correctly, 2. e. naturally,
than volumes of theoretical advice on drawing and painting.

D. Composition.

To compose, in the Fine Arts, is to give to an zdea which is to be con-
veyed, the right expression and natural forms in artistical arrangement.
The leading rule in all kinds of composition is to awm at beauty. Beauty
in composition is identical with wnity of idea and form. Every picture
ought to have only one prominent idea. »Our definition of artistical beauty
contains therefore the law for compositions of more than one individual
form. This law is: the composition must be a whole. No part of it must
be overwrought, none slighted. All component parts must be essential,
and must stand in relation to each other; not only in an inward or ideal
relation, but also in an outer or visible one, so that every part may bear upon
and contribute towards the composition as a whole. Some of the parts,
those which give the principal expression to the composition, must predo-
minate; others, those which assist towards and complete the total expres-
sion aimed at, must be less prominent; all must be subordinate to a centre
in space, which at the same time represents the central point of the idea; a
centre which, while it is supported by the other parts, is itself the centre of

their attraction and combination in an artistical whole.
539

156 THE FINE ARTS.

Every composition includes three forces, whose perfect equilibrium is
essential to beauty. From their equal co-operation arise the life and indi-
viduality of the composition, and that unity which quiets, gratifies, and
delights. The prevalence of any one leads to deficiency both in correctness
and beauty. These three artestical forces (or momenta) are objectivity,
subjectivity, and space. |

The first force, objectevity, centres in the object of the composition. This
object bears in itself the law for its formation and representation. It is the
artist’s first duty to form a purely objective conception of his object, which
he can only do by setting aside his own individual view of the same, and
subordinating himself to the object. He must therefore, above.all, make
himself thoroughly acquainted with the real appearance of his object,
and strive to render it in his composition so completely, that a clear view
and room for an untrammelled judgment are afforded the beholder, whether
the object be taken from nature or from history. This can often be done
only by indicating in subordinate parts the condition of the principal object
immediately before or immediately after the time of its actual condition.
Such indications must, however, be introduced with judicious economy, as
they may very easily disturb the unity of the composition. They ought to
explain the object completely. But completeness and prolixity are two very
different things; a subject is exhausted as soon as it has been made clear.

The second force, subjectwvity, is the artist’s own feeling for his object or
his view or judgment of the same. Its seat is the depth of the artist’s soul.
He that cannot transfer to the representation of his object part of his best
and loftiest feelings, his enthusiasm for humanity, liberty, or other sublime
ideas, may fill the plane of his picture with abstract tokens for objects or
ideas, but he can never inspire them with the breath of soul. It is true
that every object fit for artistical representation contains in itself the law of
this representation, and, as it were, presents itself ready for introduction
into the composition. But every educated man looks upon every object in
his own peculiar subjective manner. This may be compared to a positive
law passed by a legislative power which receives different ¢nterpretations
from those intrusted with its execution. Only he who himself feels can
inspire feelings. He that cannot stamp the representation of the object of his
picture with that expression which, makes it a truthful picture, replete with
life (which makes it Aes own picture), may not aspire to the name of artist ;
he will never be original ; he is a mere copyist, imitating the forms of nature,
or painting hieroglyphies forideas. An excess of subjectivity must, however,
be carefully avoided, by which the truth of the objective image would be
impaired. For if the artist portrays his own fancy instead of the object,
and fills his picture with allegories of dreamy perceptions, or with events
foreign to the actions of his object, his picture becomes confused and the
beholder is puzzled. The subjective force of the picture should be limited
to the enlistment of that sympathy of the beholder for its object, which
will induce him to form his own opinion about it, and impress the latter
upon him in the shape either of a distinct recollection of, or of an enthusi-
astic feeling for the object, or both.

540

Cad

THE ART OF DRAWING. 157

The third force of a composition is space : first, that which is occupied by
natural forms expressive of the idea the picture is to convey; and, second,
that which is filled by the artist according to artistical rules, with graceful
forms harmonizing the coloring and grouping of the picture as a whole.
The former may be occupied by a single figure or by a group. Every single
figure is determined with regard to its general action and expression as
soon as it has been chosen as an element of the composition. In endeavyor-
ing to give it truth to nature, the artist will at the same time secure its
special individuality. In divesting it of all that is wanting in beauty or
superfluous in its outward appearance, he imparts to it an ideal expression.
The esthetical law of contrast in space has already been adverted to in the
theory of drawing the human figure, and we have there given a few exam-
ples showing the different positions required for corresponding limbs in
order to produce a pleasant effect. We here add a few rules concerning
the requisite contrast in space in compositions. If a part of an arm or
leg appear fore-shortened the other part must appear in full. If an arm
and its hand be extended, the latter must not have precisely the same direc-
tion as the arm, but must assume a different position by a gentle flexion. .
Fore-shortenings must also be contrasted among themselves; e. g. if the
right upper arm be fore-shortened, the left thigh must be so too. It is self
evident that circumstances require occasional deviations from these and
similar rules, especially in positions and motions determined by actions.
Rules of artistical practice, in general, must be applied with careful judgment
and such modifications as are dictated by the nature of the special cases.
An inconsiderate adoption and application of such general rules easily
lead to stiff theatrical effects. A group is constituted by several single
figures only by their approximation in space in such a manner that their
limbs are in part intermingled, or that they at least exhibit contrasts of
motion within a certain space, which originate in reciprocity of cause and
effect. Of artistical general forms of single growps in compositions, the
pyramidal has been most frequently employed. The nature of special actions
requires, however, often a different form of group. In great compositions
several groups are often combined into a larger unit in space. In this casea
central figure or a central group is required to which the lateral groups
should stand in the relation of contrasts to their unity.

Relative to given spaces (walls of rooms, churches, halls, &c.) we observe
that objects represented in them, whether scenes of nature or history, are
not products of true art unless they attain the perfection and unity of a real
architectural ornament. In the arrangement of such compositions attention
must be paid, not only to the general form of the grand group of objects
represented, but also to the general form of the remaining part of the space,
and definite harmonious proportions must be given to these two divisions of
the space. If the composition in itself be intended to be the principal
source of effect, extremes of decorations in the space have to be care-
fully avoided lest the substance of the object be sacrificed, and characters
degraded to mere arabesques, in favor of a symmetry or an external har-

mony flattering the eye.
541

158 THE FINE ARTS.

E.. Illumination.

The supply of light by which an object becomes visible is called ¢dwmv-
nation. It requires a special course of study similar to that of perspective
to render its effects on single objects in a drawing. The requisite informa-
tion is imparted by a special division of the theory of the art of drawing,
called projection of light and shade, and it can only be properly practised in
drawing from models. Presupposing this study, we offer the following remarks
on pictorial illumination in general. In nature, light admits of endless
variety ; and according as it varies, the object produces a different impression
upon theeye. The effects of different kinds of illumination are often so diverse
that itis difficult to persuade ourselves that we see the same object. It would
be a fruitless undertaking to endeavor to describe completely the effects of
the various kinds of illumination; we will only call the artist’s attention to
the fact that the knowledge of illumination is an important branch of paint- —
ing, and even of composition, since the choice made of it co-operates in
determining the tone of a picture. Nature is here the best instructor; and the
mode of profiting by her teachings is to observe a landscape under a very
bright and very cloudy sky, in moderate daylight and strong sunshine,
when the sun is high and when he is low in the heavens, and with the light
falling upon it in front, on the side, and in the rear. Under each of these
altered conditions we behold a different picture. When the painter ob-
serves a happy or an ill effect, let him investigate the cause of the same.
It is only thus that he can obtain a perfect knowledge of the effects of ,
illumination, so as to employ it properly in his pictures. It would be of
great advantage to a painting-academy if it were furnished with a kind of
stage resembling that of a theatre, on which various models and complete
grouped pictures could be exposed to every kind of illumination and from
every direction, while the back-grounds by means of curtains could be repre-
sented in various degrees of brightness.

E. The Various Kinds of Painting.

The products of the art of painting may be classified according to
their several principal objects of representation. The designation of the
various branches of the art under this classification are, Portrait Painting,
Historical Painting, Religious Pamting, Painting of Low Lnfe ; Land-
scape Painting including the special branches, Vaval Painting, Painting
of Anumal Life, &e.

If, however, we consider the phases of life represented in art, in
nature as well as in history, we find two principal classes of painting, the
Painting of Conditions, and the Painting of History in Nature and Infe.
The latter class would naturally include all historical paintings proper ; but
it includes also everything that is popularly designated as Genre Painting ©
and, what may be considered still more strange, a part of landscape painting,
whilst another part belongs to the painting of conditions. As this classifi-
cation, though strictly logical in every instance, would involve difficulties
arising from the unfamiliarity of the majority of readers with its motives,

542

THE ART OF DRAWING. 159

we propose to group our remarks under the three universally familiar heads of
Genre Painting, Historical Painting, and Landscape Painting. We must,
however, previously advert to a very common error, namely that of calling
a picture either a “ genre picture” or a “ historical picture ” with a view of
designating its “ triviality” orits “excellence.” Such a designation with
such a motive is absurd, because a “genre picture proper” can have the
same degree of “ classical excellence” as a “historical picture proper” of
the same perfection.

1. Genre Parntine aims at representing nature, and more especially
man in a definite condition of existence. It represents its object at rest
or at least not engaged in any action of historical importance or influ-
ence on his own fate or that of others. It may portray an individual
as the representative of his class, or in his own accidental personality
with its restrictions. It may also depict several individuals whose col-
lective representations offer a picture of life, or of domestic, or social, or
such conditions as belong to the landscape ; not of such conditions which
only exist for moments in the historical transition from past to future, but
of such as exist for longer periods of life or recur at intervals. It is self-
evident that such conditions most frequently have reference to objects of
every-day life; but products of poetic invention also, and even historical
subjects, as far as they depict local conditions or conditions of kindly
humor, afford objects for genre-painting. It has attained to this extent
since artists have begun to form a true conception of its real nature; viz.
since, not confining themselves to a mechanical imitation of objects in nature
or even to their accidental attributes, they have sought rather to repre-
sent their condition, and to unite with truth to nature an admissible degree
of ideality, by a careful selection and artistical arrangement of their
objects. Therefore genre-painting in its higher products passes into histori-
eal painting.

2. Histortcat Painting. The term historical painting in its widest sense
is applied to every picture which depicts important historical events, and
whose chief contents are either nature herself in her grand evolutions (thun-
der-storms, gales at sea, &c.), or acting personages whose dispositions and
feelings or tragical fate are portrayed. The historical painter is the painter
of the historical development of nature and of the human mind. If a
historical painting possessed no other excellences but those of art or techni-
eal skill, 2. e. a perfect disposition of its parts, correct drawing, and good
coloring, it would still be a poor one if wanting in the significance we have
indicated, and in expression. As a work of art it should not only captivate
the eye, but it should also take hold of the feelings and inspire the mind
of the beholder with the higher ideas of life. The first care of the artist
who desires to produce a historical picture should be a proper choice of his
subject ; and herein but too many failures are made. Insignificant trans-
actions, if only described in detail in the Bible, in Mythology, or in History,
are too often selected as materials, and even by good painters, when no
reasonable being would go ten steps to see the thing itself that is repre-

sented. The historical painter should choose only events of importance,
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160 THE FINE ARTS.

moments of the development of a higher idea, or of the contest for or
against the same. When he has found such a subject, he should think over
his representation from figure to figure, and resigning himself to the feelings
which the invisible part of the matter awakens in his mind, these he should
strive to depict. The painter should reflect, too, that his vocation is differ-
ent from that of the historiographer. He is not to record events histori-
cally, but to represent their spirit, and he that is incapable of doing this
should be anything rather than a historical painter. When the painter has
found the material and has determined its spirit, let him choose the
moment of action, and let him examine whether it be possible so to repre-
sent it that it cannot be mistaken for any other. Here Delaroche, for
instance, has failed in his Wapoleon in Fontainebleau, sinee he has
depicted Napoleon sitting as he might have done after the loss of any
battle, and consequently was obliged to add the date on the frame. This
shows that the artist himself perceived that his picture was a failure
as a historical painting, though one of the best paintings of the age
as expressive of condition, so that it would be justly called a genre
picture of the first rank if genre painting admitted tragical subjects.
The contents of the picture should be manifest at once to a person of
education, and he should be conducted precisely to the point at which the
action has arrived. Both these requisites are often very difficult; but of
the older painters, Raphael, and among living artists, Kaulbach, Lessing,
and others, give many examples of their fulfilment. Much, very much can
be effected in this respect by a proper management of accessories, as is
shown by the modern historical painters in contradistinction to the older
ones. In the further extension of the design, the persons are first to be
considered. Let the painter choose such as are characteristic and connected
with the action, and represent them in the attitude suitable to the moment.
Idle personages disturb the effect of a picture as much as of an animated
scene ina drama. None but a painter destitute of genius scrapes together
as much corporeal material as he can, in order to satisfy the eye; a great
painter endeavors to produce the greatest results by means of the smallest
number of persons, because he has a great deal to express in a single one.
In doing this he must carefully avoid an excess of symbolical indications.
It is only after having thus selected his characters and accessories that he
can proceed to actual composition. From this it will be perceived how
difficult it is to produce a perfect historical picture. The historical painter
must not only have a rich imagination, must not only be master of coloring,
costume, and history; these qualities, it is true, would enable him to pro-
duce natural representations, but to attain to the inward power of a histori-
cal picture they could not suffice. The painter should represent nothing
common-place ; he should produce pictures that represent the past in the
enlightened spirit of the present, and which by this spirit (that of liberty
and humanity) will operate on the mind and feelings; and therefore, in
addition to all the above mentioned accomplishments, he must himself
possess a mind capable of understanding the highest aspirations of his own
and the ideal aims of future times; and the highest enthusiasm for this
544

THE ART OF DRAWING. 161

historical development of ideas must fill his breast, to enable him to repre-
sent them.

3. Lanpscare Pamtryc. Among the arts of design that of landscape
painting holds an important rank. The beholder of a good landscape pic-
ture whose mind is capable of penetrating the depths of nature in a
scientific spirit, looks upon that picture as a moment of the everlasting life
of nature, fixed by the painter. The delight which nearly all men take in
the beauties of nature proves the intimate connexion that exists between it
and the human mind. Rarely does the faculty of taste receive such perfect
gratification from any source as that which it derives from the contempla-
tion of open nature. The endless variety and the intimate harmony of its
colors charm the eye almost whithersoever it turns. Whatever can be
imagined of delightful, great, or wonderful in form and shape is there met
with ; and yet in each landscape all the various and endlessly commingled
forms constitute a harmonious whole, and all is so combined together that
notwithstanding the indescribable multiplicity of images, none contradicts
the other, while each breathes a spirit of its own. Painting accordingly is
provided in nature with an inexhaustible fund of materials for operating
advantageously on the mind of man; and the landscape painter, if
acquainted with the higher powers of his art, and if he connects moral and
pathetic subjects with the scenes of nature, can in many ways usefully and
delightfully entertain the beholder. By means of a well chosen scene of
social life, and by a proper combination of living figures, he can give to his
landscape a value that places it upon a par with the best historical painting ;
nay, a landscape becomes itself a historical painting, when it represents
grand actions of the forces of nature or their visible results.

To work up a landscape to the highest degree of perfection exhausts all
the resources of natural science, of the finest taste, and of the profoundest
art. A great landscape painter must unite in himself almost all the talents
of every other class of painters. Before all things the painter, when he has
found a landscape proper for representation, should remove from it every-
thing foreign and superfluous, but retain to the most minute peculiarity
everything typical, in order that its appropriate character may not be dis-
turbed. In order to give unity to the piece, it is necessary that in every land-
scape there be asingle spot to serve as a central point of interest to the whole,
while nothing at the edge of the picture must be made so prominent as to
divert the attention. Landscapes, such as exist even by good masters, which
represent a broad tract of country where everything is beautiful and inter-
esting, so that they might be cut up into several small pieces, each of which
would form a pretty landscape, can never produce a grand effect. In a
good landscape the light and shade must consist of principal masses which
offer no particularly prominent points, but which approach to a roundish
appearance when viewed from a distance. A number of the landscapes of
Wouvermann, few of the older, but a majority of the works of the best modern
landscape painters, Achenbach, Lessing, Turner, and others, can stand this
test. If from a distance we see light and dark patches scattered about a
picture, it will not produce a powerful effect when viewed near at hand. Here

ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOPADIA.—VOL. IV. 35 545

162 THE FINE ARTS.

almost everything depends on the light admitted into the picture; for a
landscape which is charming by the light of evening may be only tolerable
in the morning light. Hence the painter should study the landscape which
he chooses for his subject under every kind of light; and the authors of
drawing-books should make it a point to represent the same landscape under
very different lights, in order to show the pupil the various effects of illu-
mination. All that it would be needful to say on the special points of
drawing and coloring could be comprised in a single rule; but to carry out
perfectly this single rule the greatest genius requires an entire lifetime. In
drawing and coloring all should be so executed that the eye may be com-
pletely deceived into the belief that it sees nature itself. How protracted
and minute a study of the conformations of earth, water, clouds, and vege-
tation, of perspective, of coloring, and of all the effects of light and shade,
is needed in order to attain this end for the different seasons, and even for
the different times of day, it is unnecessary that we should here enlarge
upon.

4, GRAPHICS.

The term Graphics denotes the art of drawing in general, including that
of writing; but it is likewise taken in a narrower sense, and thus we will
use it, to signify all those arts whose object is to put the productions of
the draughtsman into a form that will admit of their being multiplied by
impression. The oldest of this class of arts is Engraving Stamps, &e.

A. Engraving Stamps and Gems.

_ The art of gem-engraving was known to the ancients, and works of the
kind are still extant which were produced by the oldest nations of which we
have any knowledge, as has already been shown in our treatise on Plastics,
where we also remarked that the engraved stones of the flourishing period
of art in Greece and Rome are still among the finest of that class of works
of art. The same is true to a great extent of the coins which were pro-
duced by the art of stamp-cutting, a stamp being engraved in hard metal
and the coin struck with it in soft metal, as is done at the present day. The
process of stamp-cutting is too generally known to make it necessary for us
to say anything further concerning it; but we will add a few words respect-
ing the technics of engraving on stones.

Gem-engraving is not executed by hand simply, but by the aid of a con-
trivance which bears the closest resemblance to a small turning-lathe, the
spindle of which is set in motion by a cord-wheel. This spindle in the
mandril has at the end a square hole, in which the cutting instruments,
technically called hands, are stuck and made fast. These hands are small
steel rods, having at the end a small head, disk, point, or knob, by means
of which the figures are cut in the stone either raised above the surface
(cameos) or depressed below it (¢ntaglios). For cutting glass or the softer
stones the instrument is moistened with oil or emery, but oil and diamond-

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GRAPHICS. 163

dust are used for the harder stones. Preparatory to the design the stone is
first ground dim; and after the design is completed, the outline is cut in
with the cutting-hand ( pl. 22, fig. 36 to the left). The manner of applying
the stone, cemented to a support, to the hand, is shown in fig. 9. With the
flat hand (jig. 36 to the right) level, and with the rounded index (jig. 37),
rounded depressions are hollowed out; shallow depressions are excavated
with the flat pearl (jig. 38 to the left) and deeper ones with the round pearl
(fig. 88 to the right), and points are made with the pointed hands. Of
every sort of hand and pearl there are many different sizes, to suit the
degree of fineness of the drawing. It will of course be understood that
the cutting, properly speaking, is effected, not by the instrument, but by
the emery or diamond-dust applied to it. When the engraving is finished,
the gem is afterwards polished again. This brief notice of the subject will
show that the whole art consists in presenting the stone in the proper direc-
tion to the cutting tool, which has no other than a simple rotary motion;
and that everything depends on the light and certain motion and the delicate
feeling of the artist’s hand. This and the want of any contrivance to facilitate
the execution, render gem-engraving one of the most difficult of arts.

B. Wood-Engraving.

The art of wood-engraving is likewise of great antiquity ; for the Chinese
eut their written characters in wood and then printed them, a thousand
years before our era; and even the Hindoos had their wood-cuts more than
a century before Christ. In Europe wood-cutting was improved, and
brought into frequent use by the making of playing-cards, in the beginning
of the fourteenth century, when these cards came into fashion; after which
it was applied to the representation of sacred personages and scenes in the
Biblia pauperum. The oldest cut of the kind is supposed to be the St.
Christopher of the year 1423. The legends on these pictures occasioned the
invention of the art of printing. A variety of the art of wood-cutting is
furnished by the so-called chiaroscuros or camayeux, which were invented
in Germany in the time of Direr, and were improved in italy by Hugo da
Carpi. For each picture he used three or four blocks, the first of which
contained the outlines and the deepest shades, and each of the others one of
the middle tints up to the lightest of them. This gave to the impressions
the appearance of drawings. Raphael, Titian, Rubens, and many others,
caused their works to be multiplied in this manner. We have many cele-
brated masters belonging to the earlier period of wood engraving, e. g.
Meidenbuch, Pleydenwurf, Schnitzer, Hans von Kulmbach, Mich. Wolge-
muth, Albr. Direr, Kranach, Holbein, Altorfer, &e. After 1610, wood
engraving greatly declined, and at length was applied only to tapestry and
calico printing. It was reserved for recent times to restore the wood-cut to
its early dignity. The chief impulse was given in England, and especially
by the founding of the Penny Magazine. It was to contain a great many
illustrations, but was to be published very cheaply and at very short inter-
vals, which rendered it necessary that the pictures should be printed along
with the letter-press. This of course could be effected only by the aid of

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164 THE FINE ARTS.

wood-engraving, and great pains were bestowed upon its revival. The
first step towards improvement was to cease cutting the blocks with the
grain as was practised in the middle ages, and to cut them out of box-wood
across the grain. In this manner not only a finer and more even surface
was produced, but the laying open of the numerous pores made the block
better adapted to receive the printing-ink. The second principal improve-
ment was to exchange the use of the knife formerly employed for the burin of
the copper-plate engraver, so that the block was no longer cut but engrawed.
In Germany there are now but few, though these are the most celebrated
artists, who understand the far more difficult art of cutting on the side of
the woody fibre; among these are Unzelmann, Kretzschmar, and Gubitz.
The third, and perhaps the greatest of the improvements in wood-engraving,
is that of varying the height of the block’s surface. When the engraving
is executed upon a perfectly even surface, all the lines which are to appear
in the printing must stand in relief, while in the places that are to remain
white, a portion of the thickness of the wood must be removed; a line, of
course, must make throughout its whole length an equally black impression,
and the only way of lightening the shade is to make the lines finer, and to
increase the breadth of the white spaces between them. But even then the
lines cut off suddenly will press their ends sharply into the soft paper,
where not unlikely they will make little black spots, such as often disfigure
the older wood-cuts. Hence it becomes necessary that the lightly-shaded
parts should be treated in some way to prevent their taking up and giving
off too much color. The object was effected by lowering such parts a little
below the proper type-level, so that during the impression these sunken lines
and shadows but slightly touch the paper, the inking-roller likewise impart-
ing to them less color than to the more elevated portions. This process
produces the most admirable results, but it requires very skilful artists ;
because those parts of the design which have been lowered must be drawn
over again. It has been erroneously supposed that the lowering of the face
of the block to obtain lighter shades was an invention of Thomas Bewick in
1828. As Bewick was a self-taught artist, the idea may: have been original
with him; although he practised it long before 1828, which was the year
of his death. The same expedient, however, was in use centuries before his
time, as may be seen by referring to Jackson’s Treatise on Wood-Engraving,
p. 548.

The English acted on the spur of practical utility; to the useful the
French added the agreeable, and to them we owe the first editions of classical
writers illustrated with wood-engravings. In Germany, also, the utility of
the art of wood-engraving soon became apparent. Gubitz, in a manner,
created this art anew in Germany, and his productions are still among the
best. His pupils are found everywhere. He was followed by Blasius
Hofel in Vienna, who also invented chromo-xylography, or a mode of print-
ing in different colors by using a succession of blocks of the same size, each
having only those objects engraved on it which are to ‘appear in one par-
ticular color, a sort of chiaroscuro or camayeux. Germany is now rich in
artists who can compete with the best English and French wood-engravers,

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GRAPHICS. 165

and who indeed frequently surpass the latter in thorough technical know-
ledge of their art. It would lead us too far were we to undertake to
enumerate all the artists who have distinguished themselves in xylography
in Germany: among them are Unzelmann, Kretzschmar, Vogel, Georgy,
Braun, Flegel, Deis, Ehrhardt, Rietschel von Hartenbach, &c. The greatest
progress in recent times has been effected by Kretzschmar ; for while most
of his fellow-artists devote themselves to rapid execution, and the producing
of effect in the service of the book trade, Kretzschmar has striven to obtain
recognition for the true art that lies in wood engraving, and to prevent
xylography from becoming the mere handmaid of typography. His wood
engravings for D’Alton’s Anatomy are true works of art; and his splendid
xylographic production, the Death of Gustavus Adolphus, after a design
by Kirchhof, is probably the largest wood-cut ever executed on one block.
In this work the art has probably attained to its highest pitch.

A subordinate branch of wood-cutting is formed by the preparation of the
blocks for paper-hangings and calico-printing, in which the principal lines
of the pattern carved in relief on pear-tree wood, and little figures, vines,
&e., are cut out of brass and driven into the block. Here too there is a
sort of camayeusx, since for calico from four to eight, and for paper-hangings
as many as thirty blocks are used for as many different colors, which certainly
produces very beautiful results.

C. Engraving in Metals.

The art of engraving designs in metals in intaglio was known to the most
ancient nations: many examples of such engravings are mentioned in the
Bible and in the writings of the ancients, and also of the practice of filling
up the engravings in one metal with another metal, so that, e. g. silver and
steel were inlaid with gold. The so called mzello-work was very much
admired in the middle ages. The design was engraved in silver, and the
sunken lines were filled with a composition of 1 oz. of fine silver, 2 oz. of
refined copper, and 3 oz. of lead, to which virgin sulphur and borax were
added as a flux. The molten mass was then poured upon the heated plate,
which was afterward scraped and polished off till the engravings appeared
sharp and black upon the shining ground. In this process originated the
art of copper-plate engraving.

1. Copprr-pLate Eneravine. This is the art of transferring a design to
a copper-plate, so as to admit of its being multiplied by impression.
Tomaso Finiguerra, a skilful goldsmith, wishing to try the effect of a plate
engraved for niello, had smoked it and then polished it again; so that the
soot only filled the engraved lines, as the niello composition was intended
to do afterwards. The idea occurred to him of laying over it a damp sheet
of paper and passing over the latter a soft brush, by which means he
obtained a reversed impression of the plate. This took place in the year
1452, and the transition from niello-work to copper-plate engraving was
easily made. So the matter is related by some, and the story seems not
improbable; but Vasari says that the artist, in order to preserve a model
of his work, made a mould of it in sand and then took a sulphur cast,

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166 THE FINE ARTS.

after which he blackened the cast and accidentally took an impression
of it.

Copper, however, was not employed at first for printing from; the earli-
est works were engraved on tin, zinc, or iron, and afterwards the idea was
adopted of using very fine-grained, homogeneous, and tolerably hard copper.
The oldest known German copper-plate is of the year 1465, and is marked
@. S. More than 120 plates have come down to us executed by the same
md&ter, but of which only ten bear the dates 1465, 1466, and 1467; the
remainder are without date, and may very possibly be still older. The art
of copper-plate engraving, properly so called, was introduced from Germany
into Italy by Sweynheim, who settled there in 1467; at least so he says
himself in his preface to Ptolemy’s Geography. With the beginning of
the sixteenth century the new art spread over all Europe, and it has been
practised with the greatest zeal ever since. Its productions are genuine
works of art, which, although destitute of the charm of coloring, often
represent nature in the most pleasing manner.

There are as many as eleven different modes of engraving on copper,
viz. 1. Copper-plate engraving properly so called, executed with the graver
or burin; 2. Engraving with the dry-point; 3. Etching (pl. 22, fig. 2);
4. Etching and finishing with the graver (jig. 3); 5. Stippling (jig. 6
exhibits this manner combined with No. 1); 6. Mezzotinto (jig. 4); 7. The
Le Blon process with various colors; 8. The chalk manner; 9. English
stippling ; 10. Aquatint engraving (jig. 5); 11. The aquarelle manner.

The plate intended for engraving must be hammered cold, or still better
rolled very hard; it must then be rubbed with sandstone, next with pumice-
stone, and lastly with moistened charcoal ; after which it must be polished.
For all the kinds of engraving above mentioned, excepting Nos. 6, 7, and
11, the plate is now covered with a priming or ground. For this purpose
it is placed over a hot charcoal brazier; and then is rubbed to and fro
with the etching-ground tied up in silk (fig. 10), which is composed of
wax, asphaltum, colophony, and mastic or Burgundy pitch. The etching-
ground, which is liable to come off in some places, is then evenly distri-
buted over the plate by means of Tampon’s dabber, a ball made of cotton
wool tied up tightly in silk (jg. 11), so that the ground is made of equal
thickness throughout. The design is then copied in outline on the ground.
For this purpose the ground is either whitened with washed white-lead and
gum, or fastened in a hand-vice.( pl. 22, fig. 8 a) and blackened by passing
it backwards and forwards over a wax taper; and to this ground the draw-
ing is transferred, in the usual manner, with tracing paper or by pressure
on the back of the drawing. Ifthe drawing is to be on a smaller scale than
the original, the reduction is effected by the aid of a reducing frame
(fig. 34). ?

In the first mode of engraving, the outline drawing is scored through the
ground with an etching-needle or dry-point, a sharp-pointed instrument of
steel; after which the plate is cleansed and the engraving proper begins.
The instrument which the copper-plate engraver makes use of is the graver
of hardened steel (figs. 23-26), one end of which is pointed and the other

550

GRAPHICS. 167

secured in a wooden handle. The gravers are ground off obliquely at the
point, and the face is either low, 2. e. forms a square (jigs. 25a and 25 d),
or high, 2. e. lozenge-shaped (fig. 240); there are also knife-gravers
(jigs. 26), whose face forms a very acute-angled triangle. The low-faced
_graver is used for tracing out the design, the high-faced for deepening the
strokes, and the knife-graver for fine, very sharp lines. The beard or burr
that forms on the edge of the stroke is removed with the scraper (figs. 14
and 15), which serves also to scrape out slight faults; and any roughness
that may be produced in consequence is rnbbed down with the burnisher
(jig. 16)..The graver lies while at work almost flat on the plate; the
manner of holding it is shown in jigs. 7 and 8. For very broad lines
gravers are used with faces formed as in jigs. 26a and 266. During
the process of engraving the plate lies either on a sand-bag (engrav-
ing-cushion) or on a desk-shaped easel (jig. 7 a), and in executing
curved lines it is turned round with the left hand. In order to examine
portions of his work as they are executed, the artist rubs them over with
the otl-rubber (fig. 9), which consists of a ball of felt rolled tightly together,
on which there is some lamp-black moistened with oil. If any mistakes
are made which are too deep to be effaced by the scraper, they must be
knocked up. This is done from the back; the plate is laid on a small anvil —
(jig. 31), and the knocking up is done either with the hammer (jig. 32)
alone, or, if the places are very small, with a punch (jigs. 29 and 30),
which is placed upon the faulty spot and struck with the hammer. The
back of the spot to be effaced is found by means of the callipers (jig. 27)
or of the improved compasses (jigs. 28a and 286). Straight lines are
drawn with the ruler (fig. 12) and parallels with the parallel ruler (fig. 18);
but such surfaces and tints as are formed wholly of parallel lines are now
almost always ruled with the machine. The laying down of curved lines is
a chief object of care with the artist, who must lay them according to the
rules of perspective in order to represent the roundings of the forms. For
this purpose the apparatus represented in pl. 22, jig. 35, is of use, where
the shadows cast by the threads of the frame upon the bust indicate the
correct perspective curve of the strokes to be used in delineating it.

In the second mode of engraving, with the dry-point, the strokes are cut
through the ground with steel needles of various shapes, and frequently
these strokes run cross-wise over each other. This mode of engraving
demands great certainty in the artist, and then it furnishes very fine and
delicate work, which, however, will seldom bear more than 200 impressions.

The third mode of engraving, that of etching, is entirely different from the
preceding. Here the ground is not removed when the outline is done, but
the whgle drawing with all its shades, &c., is completed in it. For this
purpose variously shaped etching-needles of hardened steel (jigs. 20, 21, 22)
are employed, which are handled like lead-pencils, excepting that each
stroke must pierce through the ground so as to lay the plate bare. When
the drawing has been gone over in this manner, the artist proceeds to biting
am. The etching-liquor consists of nitric acid diluted with rain-water. For this
purpose the plate is surrounded by a border of yellow wax, which is smeared

551

168 THE FINE ARTS.

over with a coating-varnish composed of tallow, yellow wax, and sweet oil,
or of etching-ground dissolved in oil of lavender. When this is dry, the
etching-liquor is poured on, is left about a minute to act, and is then poured
off again ; the plate is then washed and dried quickly either in the open air
or by blowing it with a bellows. Those parts which are to be the highest
are then covered or stopped out, as it is called, with coating varnish ; and
as soon as it is sufficiently dried, the etching-liquor is poured on again, left
a minute to act, and again poured off. This process is repeated for each
degree of shade, and the deepest is usually attained by allowing the acid to
act from seven to nine minutes; accordingly there will be from seven to
nine shades in the whole plate. When the biting in is finished, fe plate is
dried and the etching-ground removed ; and if the work has been carefully
performed, the strokes will appear as if engraved. The work is accomplished
far more expeditiously than with the graver, but not with the same sharp-
ness and purity. Etching on soft ground (jig. 1) is a very easy kind of
etching. The ground used in the process is so soft, that the lightest stroke
removes it. If we lay upon the plate so grounded a sheet of rough but
very thin paper, and draw upon it with a hard lead-pencil, the etching-
ground under the lines will adhere to the rough paper and separate from the
plate. When the paper is removed, the drawing appears as if sketched
with chalk, the plate showing bare through, and can then be etched in the
usual manner.

In order to give the etched plate a more elegant finish, it is re-engraved
with the graver in the fourth manner of engraving; and by means of this
combination of the three first methods of engraving most of our present
copper-plates are executed.

In the fifth mode of engraving the goldsmith’s punch is made use of, and
by means of it dots are struck in the plate, which in the shaded parts are
either placed thicker together or made larger, and sometimes both methods
are resorted to. The punch usually has two and often three or more points.
It is struck with a small hammer. Work executed in this manner presents
great softness in the transitions, and chalk drawings are imitated by means
of it; butit is altogether destitute of sharpness and force, on which account
itis often employed for the flesh-tints alone, while the remainder is executed
with the graver or the needle in the line manner.

The sath mode of engraving is that of mezzotint. It is the opposite of
the former modes, as it proceeds by converting dark into light. The
polished plate is first roughened, so that if inked and printed it would pre-
sent one mass of black. This grounding or roughening is performed by means
of the rocking-tool or cradle (pl. 22, jig. 17), a toothed instrument of steel,
which is worked accross the plate with a pretty strong pressure in all direc-
tions in the manner of the lines drawn in jig. 33; others use the roulette
( fig. 18) or the scratcher ( fig. 19), which they apply in the same manner as
the cradle. According as the teeth of the implement stand closer or wider
apart, the grounding will be fine or coarse. The plate is next covered with
etching-ground, the design transferred to it, and the outlines bitten in; after
which the plate is again thoroughly cleaned. Then with the scraper the

552

GRAPHICS. 169

grounding is removed according to the various degrees of shade required ;
so that in the strongest lights the smooth plate again appears, and is
even polished again. This method, which is exceedingly tedious, produces
a remarkably soft effect when completed, but will hardly furnish 150 perfect
impressions.

The seventh mode, that of printing in several colors, differs from the pre-
ceding in this respect, that for each color a different plate must be engraved ;
but lately a method has been discovered of printing several colors from a
single plate, which is called “coloring in the plate.” This trifling, how-
ever, has been almost wholly confined to France and England.

The e¢ghth mode of engraving, the chalk manner, is only a variety of the
stippling process, which is applied to the etching-ground, while instead of
the single-pointed needle one of several tolerably blunt points is used,
together with the roulette, with which the strokes are dotted. By this
method strokes are obtained which look as if made with chalk.

The nenth mode, the English dotted manner, answers precisely to the
stippling above mentioned, except that it is applied to the etching-ground,
and no roulette is used in it.

The tenth mode, called aquatint engraving, differs from the preceding,
and is, properly speaking, etched mezzotinto. Here the outlines are first
sketched and bitten in. The plate having been cleansed, there is sifted over
it, according to the fineness of the grain desired, some more or less finely
powdered colophony, after which it is set over a gentle charcoal fire. The
resin will melt on the plate in the form of small grains, between which the
plate will be exposed. All that is to remain quite white is covered over
with coating-varnish, and the design is bitten in as in etching, the different
degrees of shade being stopped out as they are etched dark enough; the
plate is then retouched in order to preserve the soft transitions, after which
it is ready for printing. Sometimes, too, strokes are laid with the graver
in the deepest shades.

The eleventh or aquarelle process is the same with that of Le Blon
(the seventh mode), except that the plates are worked in the aquatint
instead of in the mezzotint manner; it is however but little used, if
at all. 7

Map-engraving and letter-engraving form special branches of the engravy-
ing art. These demand a separate study, the main requisites being great
uniformity and freedom of stroke. Hence the artists in these branches
seldom engrave other works, and figure and landscape engravers never
work on lettering or maps. The letter-engraver should possess a knowledge
of the written character of the most diverse nations ; and we have given,
for his assistance, in pls. 23 and 24 a variety of Oriental alphabets, with the
names and powers of the letters, together with the alphabets used in
Europe already. Letter-engravers are accustomed first to etch the charac-
ters and then to go over them with the graver, by which means the work
acquires greater freedom. Attempts been very recently been made to form
letters by means of machines and to etch them altogether. The artistic
department of the house which has issued the plates of this work (F. A.

553

170 THE FINE ARTS.

Brockhaus, Leipsic) possesses a letter-engraving machine invented by C.
Kretzschmar of Leipsic, which works admirably.

2. Sreet-pLaTE Eneravine. The art of engraving on steel was invented
by the English in the year 1820, and the principal credit of it is due to the
copper-plate engraver Charles Heath; but it required British inventive
genius and British perseverance to subdue that hard and brittle material to
the operations of the graver and etching-needle. This art did not reach the
Continent till some time later, and indeed in England itself it remained for
a considerable time in the possession of individuals; but now steel-engray-
ings are produced in France, Italy, and Germany equally as good as those
of England. One part of the process, namely the etching-liquor, the
English attempt still to keep a secret; but German ingenuity has long ago
snipplied this deficiency, and the enti process is no secret now.

The plates made use of in steel-engraving, or siderography, are of the
finest English cast-steel with the stamp of Huntsman or Martial. Acier
poule, or blistered steel, is also employed 1 in France and Switzerland. All
this is steel of cementation, 2. e. it is produced in the cement-furnace by
being subjected to a long suearod and powerful heat in a mixture of
animal and vegetable substances and pounded glass; and it is better,
harder, more brittle, more uniform, and more finely grained, and ean be
more easily and uniformly hardened than the other sorts of steel. The
plates, in order to guard against the warping to which they are liable in
consequence of their cementation, are made somewhat thicker than copper
plates. The cementation renders the plates, at least on the surface, quite
soft; if they have become somewhat warped, they are straightened by
hammering them with a wooden hammer on an anvil; they are then easily
ground and polished.

The ground and polished plate is thoroughly cleaned with spirits of tur-
pentine, and is then coated with etching-ground in the same manner as a
copper plate; but it must not be heated as strongly as the copper, for other-
wise the ground will be apt to break up and form blisters, and even to
evaporate. The etching-ground dissolved in spirits of turpentine may also
be laid on with the brush, but always more thickly than on copper. When
the outline of the drawing has been properly sketched or transferred, it is
etched through precisely as in working on copper; but care must be taken
that the needle actually scratches the surface of the plate, while the artist
must be cautious not to breathe upon his work, lest it produce rust im the
etchings, which will prove an obstacle to the subsequent biting in. The
chief requisite now is a suitable menstruum or etching-liquor. Almost every
engraver has a mixture of his own, which he naturally considers the best.
We will here give only the one invented by Cooke in 1827, and which
obtained the gold medal of Isis. When the plate is ready for biting in,
mix and gently shake together six parts of acetic and one part of nitric
acid, and pour this mixture upon the plate. As it acts very rapidly, it
should not be left on the plate more than half a minute, at the expiration
of which time the plate should be washed clean and dried with a gentle
warmth or by blowing with the bellows. The light parts of the drawing

554

GRAPHICS. 171

are now done, and, as in copper-engraving, are to be stopped out with
varnish. There is then poured upon the plate, in order to wash the oxide
out of the strokes, a mixture of six parts of water and one part of nitric
acid: this is left to stand two or three minutes, is then poured off, and imme-
diately the menstruum is applied with which the second tint is etched.
The same process is gone through for the other tints. If the plates be very
soft, the following menstruum may be employed : 3 oz. warm water, 4 grains
tartaric acid, 4 drops nitric or sulphuric acid, and 1 drachm corrosive subli-
mate. Every time a plate is bitten in, it is carefully gone over with a
camel’s hair pencil dipped in clean water, and then immediately dried, in
order that no oxide may be left in the strokes. Places which are not yet
deep enough are rebitten, which is done by dipping a clean rag in greatly
diluted nitric acid (so that the water has merely a sharp acid taste) and passing
it over the places until they become dull, when the plate is cleaned again.

The stopping out, even of whole surfaces, is never done with the dabber,
but always with the pencil, as the dabber is apt to remove the etching-
ground. As the chief point in etching is to see that the menstruum acts
precisely the proper time, the light tints must be tried each minute after
the first biting in; with the deeper shades this is not necessary. The skies
are bitten in after Cooke’s method ; the plate is inclined a little by means of
wedges, the darker part lying foremost, and the acid is applied through a
funnel, in the pipe of which a small stick is placed, and kept constantly in
a perpendicular position by a string. The acid is let to fall on the darkest
places, and to drop more rapidly or slowly according to the depth of the
tint ; this is managed by means of the stick, a tremulous motion being also
communicated to the acid, until it floats over the whole sky. The etching- |
liquor should never stand more than one sixth of an inch above the
plate; for otherwise the design cannot be accurately inspected and judged
of. The process of biting in and re-biting must be performed in a
temperature of at least 60° F., and if possible must be finished in the same
day ; because even in a very well cleaned plate an oxide will form in the
strokes over night, which will prevent the etching-liquor from workin’ pro-
perly the following day.

When the etching is completed, the ground is taken off with the aid of
turpentine, any remaining oxide is removed from the plate, and its entire
surface is then rubbed over with very fine emery-paper, which is first worn
down a little on the back of the plate. By this operation the fine burr
which is always found on the edges of the strokes is removed. When the
plate is etched, and has been thoroughly cleaned, it is coated for re-engrav-
ing with a very thin layer of wax or of mutton-tallow, to prevent any oxide
from forming in the strokes. Finally, the finished plate must be hardened
again. This is done in hot olive oil, in which the plate neither warps nor
eracks. The plate, however, remains in the hot oil only a few minutes,
after which it is taken out and immediately plunged into cold water, where
it stays till completely cooled. It is still better to substitute mercury for
water in the process of hardening, as thereby the grey coating that forms on
the steel is avoided, and the surface of the plate remains uninjured.

555

172 THE FINE ARTS.

For the purpose of lightening the labor, the so-called ruling-machines have
been invented, which are used for copper and steel engraving, and also in
lithography. These machines are so contrived that parallel lines may be
ruled with them with the utmost exactness at any desired distance apart,
so as to yield two thousand or more lines to the inch; they are furnished
with a diamond-pointed needle, which slightly cuts into the plate. These
machines are employed for laying what are called the flat tints, and like-
wise for ruling parallel lines in drawings of architecture and machinery.
Besides these there is the relief-machine, by means of which a relief is so
minutely transferred by curved lines to a copper-plate as to give an
astonishingly perfect imitation of the relief. M. Collas invented this machine
in 1834, with which beautiful copies of gems and medals have been fur-
nished. |

D. Hyalography.

The discovery that fluoric acid corrodes glass has led to a very pleasing
description of ornament; it is produced by coating a glass plate with an
etching-ground in such manner as to leave clear certain parts forming a
desion. Ifsuch a plate be exposed to the fumes of fluoric acid, produced
by pouring sulphuric acid over pulverized fluor, the exposed parts of the
surface of the plate will be bitten in ; and when the plate has been cleansed
from the etching-ground, the drawing will present a dull appearance on the
transparent ground of the glass plate. This art has very recently been
brought to great perfection, and the neatest drawings have been executed
by it. This fact presented to Prof. Botticher, of Frankfort-on-the-Maine,
who afterwards invented the gun-cotton, the idea of etching on glass with
fluoric acid in the same manner that copper is etched. He coated a thick
glass plate ground perfectly even with a peculiar etching-ground, and
etched through it in the usual manner a design, which he then bit in with
liquid fluoric acid. The process is kept a secret by the inventor, and nothing
respecting it has been made public, except that several impressions of such
plates have been exhibited. In order to print from the glass plate, it is
cemented to a wooden block, and the impressions are taken by a litho-
graphic press.

The impressions produced by this process are of exceeding fineness, and
the strokes exhibit great delicacy; yet the deep shades are wanting in
force, and the whole lacks a certain warmth possessed by engravings on
copper and wood. It almost seems as if the hardness of the material had
an influence on the warmth of the engraving, which is very perceptible
when we compare a wood-cut, a copper-plate, and a steel and glass engray-
ing together. ;

EL. Lathography.

A very peculiar art is that invented by Sennefelder of printing on stone,
ealled lithography. Instead of copper or steel plates, the artist makes use
of finely ground slabs of the calcareous slate of Solenhofen, and the entire
process is rather chemical than mechanical.

556

GRAPHICS. 173

The invention of lithography was not a result of scientific speculation, but
was for the most part an accidental phenomenon, intelligently observed and
turned to good account. The real essence of lithography lies in the so-
called chemical printing; for in the preparation of the stone there is mueh
that is identical with the process of etching. This chemical printing is
based on the repulsion that exists between grease and moisture, and the
attraction that grease has for grease. Thus, in order to get a design on the
stone, and afterwards to prepare it for printing, the design is drawn with
some fatty substance on the nicely ground and polished stone, which must
then be submitted to a chemical preparation, and all the places which are
not drawn upon must be rendered impervious to grease by saturating them
with a solution of gum-arabic, which sinks into the pores of the stone, and
by washing them over with water. Ifnowaroller charged with a fatty ink
be passed over the dampened stone, all the strokes of the drawing, being
greasy, will take ink from the roller; but the moistened parts of the stone,
which are also made mucilaginous with the gum, will strongly repel the
fatty ink, and thus remain perfectly clean. If, then, we lay upon the inked
stone a sheet of damped paper, and pass the two under a press with a pretty
sharp pressure, the paper will take the ink from the stone and exhibit an
impression of the design. The wet sponge is passed over the stone again,
again it is inked, and an impression taken ; and thus, by repeating the pro-
cess, thousands of impressions may be taken from asingle drawing.

The design is put on the stone in very different ways; all the modes of
drawing which are applied to paper have been made applicable, by the use
of more or less precaution, to stone also. We will consider the principal
modes more particularly.

1. Tae Pey-wanner. This manner was the first, that invented by
Sennefelder. In order to draw in the pen-manner on stone, the artist makes
use of extremely elastic and very finely pointed steel pens, by means of
which, and with an ink composed of wax, tallow, soap, mastic, and shellac,
and colored with some soot, he draws his design completely on the smoothly
ground and polished stone in the same manneras on paper. In order to
prevent the ink from spreading on the stone, the latter is covered with a
very fine coating of spirits of turpentine or soap and water. When the
drawing is completed, which must be done with the greatest neatness and
circumspection, taking particular care not to touch the stone with the hands
or with-anything else of a greasy nature excepting the ink, the next thing
is to prepare it for printing. Over the stone is poured a very weak dilution
of nitric acid (12°), which has the effect of converting those portions of the
calcareous slate which have been impregnated with fat by means of the
drawing, into oleo-margarate of lime, a fatty substance insoluble in water.
When the stone has thus been etched in, it is rubbed over with a solution of
gum-arabic in water of about the consistence of syrup. This gum-mucilage
penetrates into the pores of the stone wherever there is no: ink, and fixes
itself so fast that it cannot be washed out again. ‘The stone is now ready
for printing. When this operation is to be performed, the stone is laid on
the press. The press is a frame-work consisting of two stands, between

557

_-~_— = — as

174 THE FINE ARTS.

which turns a wooden or iron cylinder, and on this the press-bed runs to and
fro either simply by its friction or by means of a strap. The table is pre-
pared for receiving and holding the stone securely and has attached to it a
tympan of leather stretched over an iron frame so as to open and shut by
means of a hinge, and which when put down covers the stone without
touching it. Above the cylinder are two cast-iron uprights, one at each end,
in which the scraper-box works up and down. In this is fastened the
scraper, a small strip of yoke-elm or apple-tree wood rounded on its lower
edge, which is about two inches high, one inch thick, and of a length equal
to the breadth of the drawing on the stone. When the printing is to begin,
and the stone has been fixed in its place, the bed of the press is brought out
so far that the stone can be uncovered by raising the tympan. The stone
is then washed perfectly clean with pure water so as to remove all the gum,
and the black strokes of the drawing are gone over with a little spirits of
turpentine and water. A wooden roller covered with leather to render it
elastic is rolled on the ink-table to supply it with printing-ink, and is then
rolled in every direction over the sponged stone. All the places that have
been drawn upon will now take ink, but those that have been saturated with
the gum will remain completely white. A sheet of damped paper is laid
upon the inked stone with some sheets of waste paper upon it as an over-
layer, and then the leather tympan is shut down. The press-bed is now
brought under the scraper, the latter is pressed down upon the stone with
the proper degree of force, and the bed is slowly drawn along under the
steady pressure of the scraper, until the scraper has passed over the
whole of the design and the impression is finished. The scraper is then
raised, the bed run out again, the tympan lifted, the overlay taken off, and
the paper cautiously raised from the stone; and if the work has been well,
carefully, and neatly performed, a successful copy of the drawing will be
found upon it. The stone is again moistened with a soft sponge, the ink-
roller pressed over it,-another impression taken, and so on. When the
printing is finished and the stone is laid by to be used again, it is first care-
fully cleaned, and then rolled in with a very greasy ink called preserving-
ink, and afterwards coated with gum-solution, which is dried upon it.

If mistakes are made in the drawing, they must be neatly erased with the
scraper (pl. 22, figs. 14 and 15), without taking any more from the stone
than is absolutely necessary, after which the correction is introduced. If
during the printing an alteration is to be made, the place is erased, the
correction introduced, and then it is etched in when quite dry with a small
pencil dipped in diluted nitric acid; the place is then gummed, and after
a short time the printing is again proceeded with.

The pen-manner demands a great deal of labor and pains, if the drawing
is to be executed with the requisite fineness and sharpness; because the
greasy ink, in spite of all the precautions that may be taken, is sure to
spread somewhat, and the ink, if it has the proper degree of greasiness,
flows with difficulty from the pen. Hence another mode has been invented
called,

2. Taz Engraving Manner. This is strictly speaking the reverse of the

558

GRAPHICS. 175

pen-manner. In this method the nicely ground and polished stone is first
etched and then coated with a layer of gum: thus prepared, if the roller
were pressed over it, it would take no ink at all. When the stone has been
washed off, it is next covered by the aid of a brush with an exceedingly fine
coating of gum colored with red chalk or lamp-black ; and as soon as the stone
is dry, the drawing is sketched out. The artist then takes what are called
engraving-points of the finest steel, which are ground sharp or blunt at the
point; and with these he etches the drawing in the same manner as on
copper-plate, taking care, however, not to go too deep into the stone. It is
quite enough if he removes the coating of gum under the lines of the draw-
ing, and the stroke appears perfectly white and makes a little dust. Broad
spaces must be scraped perfectly level. It must be borne in mind that the
light strokes on the dark ground seem broader than they really are, so that
in the impression, where they show black on a white ground, they will be
smaller. Consequently the artist is to make his strokes rather broader
than would seem necessary. In this respect experience alone can serve as a
guide. When the etching is completed and its effect ascertained, the entire
stone is gone over either with linseed oil or with diluted preserving-ink,
which is allowed to stand on it about half a minute. As it has all been
prepared excepting the parts that have been laid bare, it follows that these
only will take the grease, which the stone absorbs with great avidity. If
the stone be now washed off and the inking-roller passed over it, all the
greasy places will take ink, the rest remaining white. The stone can now
be printed as if drawn with the pen; the impression, however, as well as the
overlayer must be somewhat stronger than in the pen-manner. As the
engraved drawing lies a little below the general surface of the stone, and
hence does not readily take the ink from the roller, it is usual to rub it
over well with pieces of felt or with blocks of wood covered with cloth,
and to make the ink pretty thin.

3. Tae Cuatk Manner. This method furnishes the best imitation of
chalk-drawing on paper: but it requires great care both in the drawing and
in the management of the printing; and it is necessary that the printer also
should be an artist and understand drawing in the case of large and carefully
executed works. For this as for other methods the stone is nicely ground
and polished ; fine sand is then sifted over the stone; and by grinding in the
usual manner, a coarse or fine grain is given to the surface, as the nature of
the drawing may require. A drawing made on a coarse grain will furnish
not as fine but many more good impressions; while a stone more finely
grained will furnish much more delicate impressions, but their number will
be considerably less. A finely-grained stone, too, requires in the drawing,
and particularly in the printing, very careful management.

The stone having been grained and very carefully cleaned, the drawing
is put on it in the same manner as on paper by means of a chemical chalk,
whose chief constituents are almost the same, only in different proportions,
as in lithographic ink. It is customary to lay on the deepest shades,
in order to obtain greater effect, with lithographic ink and the pencil. The
design when completed is etched in rather more lightly than a pen-drawing ;

559

176 THE FINE ARTS.

it is then coated over with gum, and, after standing two or three hours, is
printed in the same manner as a pen-drawing, using, however, a great deal
more care.

4. Daxspine Mernop. A peculiar mode of drawing, resembling the chalk
manner, is that of dabbing, or the aquatint of lithography. A grain is pro-
duced on the stone as for a chalk drawing, and the outline is sketched with
a pen or with chalk; all that is to remain white is covered with a solution
of gum-arabic, to which is added a little ox-gall and cinnabar. Then the
artist takes a pretty hard, flat ball, of fine leather, and with it gives the
whole stone a uniform weak tone; this he does by dissolving some litho-
graphic ink in lavender-oil, spreading it out on a glass or stone slab, taking
a little on the ball and rubbing it out, and then spreading it over the stone
with the proper degree of thickness by means of a gentle dabbing. The
first tint is of course very light. As soon as it has been uniformly com-
pleted and is dry, all that is to retain this tint is coated with the composi-
tion given above; and when the composition is dry, the second tint, and so
on, as in aquatint engraving on copper. When all is completed, the com-
position is softened with spring-water, and is removed by frequently washing
off the stone. When it is clean and dry, it is retouched with chalk, and
then treated in the same manner as a stone with a chalk drawing.

5. CHRoMo-LITHOGRAPHY. Printing in colors on stone is a process now
coming extensively into use, and which has already furnished very perfect
results. For this purpose what is called an outline-stone is first drawn with
the pen and etched. Then for each color of the design a separate stone
must be prepared, on which is placed nothing but what is to have that
single color. In order that the parts of the design on all the stones may
accurately fit together, as many impressions as there are colors are taken
from the outline stone, and then while still damp are pressed one on each
stone, by which means the requisite number of similar drawings is obtained.
These are now accurately marked out with chemical tints, 2. ¢. all the parts
which are to be hatched, as the shadings, are indicated with the pen; but
where flat tints are drawn, the whole surface is covered with the pencil. In
this manner is produced a red stone, a blue stone, &c. On the outline-stone
is usually put all that is to be black. Judgment is required in the arrange-
ment of the stones, as by printing one color over another various shades can
often be obtained; thus, ¢. g. if a violet tint be desired, the parts to be so
colored are drawn both on the blue and on the red stone, and the two
colors are printed one over the other. So, too, the character of the colors
ean be altered by various shadings. When, for instance, in the green
foliage of a drawing one part of the shadings is executed on the red and
the other on the blue stone (the deepest shades come on the black stone),
some of the green leaves will exhibit a different tone from the others,
although both have the same green ground-color. Here experience must
give the necessary knowledge. When all the color-stones are finished,
etched, and gummed, first one color is printed, then the other, and so on,
till at length the black stone is printed. Gold and silver are laid on by
printing yellow or grey underneath, and then dusting upon it with a pencil

560

MUSIC AND THE DRAMA. 177

the proper colored bronze. Prussian blue is printed as a ground for ultra-
marine, which is then dusted upon it. In order that the color-stones may
accurately fit one another, certain marks (points) are applied, according to
which the paper is laid on. In the new and improved lithographic presses
a pointing apparatus is used, which enables the printer to adjust the sheets
with greater accuracy and expedition.

6. Avrograpuy. If drawings and especially writings in which no great
elegance is required are to be very quickly multiplied, so that the prepara-
tion of a stone with the pen or the graver is out of the question, recourse is
had to autography. In this process the drawing or writing is made with
a very greasy lithographic ink on paper prepared for the purpose and
coated with a thin layer of starch paste; and this when dry is pressed
upon the smoothly polished stone. The mode of doing it is to damp the
drawn or written paper on the back and let it soak in a little; then, the
stone having been slightly warmed, the paper is laid upon it, care being
taken not to move the paper after it has touched the stone; after which it
is passed through the press, as in taking an impression, several times, each
time increasing the pressure. The paper, which now cleaves fast to the
stone, is wet with a sponge dipped in water acidified with a few drops of
nitric acid, until it is loosened from the stone. If the paper then be care-
fully raised, it will be found that the writing or drawing has separated from
the paper and attached itself to the stone. When the stone has become
perfectly dry, it is slightly etched and gummed, and then it can be printed
from in the same manner as a pen-drawing.

There are many different lithographic processes in addition to those here
described, as machine-work, relief-work, pencil-work, brush-work, white
ornaments on a black or machine-ruled ground, &c.; but, as it is not our
intention to compose a manual of lithography, a fuller description of them
would lead us too far.

Ill. MUSIC AND THE DRAMA.
1. Music.

We have already shown, in the general introduction to this department
of our work (p. 2), that music belongs to the domain of art, and in par-
ticular to the fine arts; and here we may add that music is the art of
expressing conditions and emotions of the soul by means of beautiful tones :
its works are not submitted to our contemplation through the sense of sight ;
its effects are produced directly on the mind, and hence it is a purely
mental art, of whose operation the understanding can give no account. In
one sense it stands higher than poetry and higher than plastics and paint-
ing: on the one hand it expresses feelings and yearnings to which no words
can be given, and is a sort of universal speech of the heart; and on the
other hand it has the advantage over sculpture and painting, which repre-

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178 THE FINE ARTS.

sent sensible objects alone, and which only by an ingenious treatment and
combination of them are able to act upon the mind. We will here give a
brief sketch of the history of music.

A. Ancient Times.

Music, the language of the soul, belongs to the most ancient arts; for the
Bible affords us circumstantial information respecting it, and names Jubal
as the inventor of musical instruments, among which are mentioned the
lute and the shepherd’s pipe. In Job we read of timbrels, pipes, and Intes ;
and Moses mentions silver trumpets: his sister also was a singer, so that
vocal music was already artistically practised. David’s harp-playing is
celebrated ; and under Solomon, when the music of those times reached the
summit of its perfection, the trumpet-music was performed by more than
4,000 persons. After Solomon music among the Israelites fell into decline,
and during the Babylonian exile it ceased altogether; after the restoration
the most zealous exertions of the high priests failed to restore it to its
former state. Among the Egyptians too we find the clearest evidences of
the cultivation of music as an art, in their representations of various
musical instruments and of festivals and processions, which are found in
great numbers in the temples and tombs, in the form both of reliefs and of
paintings.

From Egypt music was carried to Greece, where it was greatly cultivated
and improved; but we know little that is definite respecting it, not even
how the choruses in the ancient tragedies were performed and accompanied.
Music it is certain played an important part among the Greeks; and their
legislators recommended the practice of it, as having a softening and
humanizing effect. It was placed under the protection of two Muses, and
was said to have been invented by Epimetheus and Prometheus. Great
musicians attained celebrity, and the names of Orpheus and Amphion have
been handed down to these distant ages. Among the cultivators and
improvers of the art mythology enumerates the gods and goddesses Hermes,
Minerva, Bacchus, Cadmus, Pan, Midas, Marsyas, &c. In the sixth cen-
tury before Christ instrumental was separated from vocal music, and Lasos
was the first writer on music in a theoretical point of view. Pythagoras
also paid attention to the improvement of the art, and Aristoxenus founded
a school of music. Euclid investigated the mathematical principles on
which music is based. Music was transplanted from the Greeks to the
Romans, who however cultivated it but little, as they considered it to be an
enervating art; on this account it was reckoned among the employments
of slaves and freedmen. Among the violent political revolutions that con-
vulsed the Roman empire, music sank into the darkness of barbarism. The
Gauls and the Germans are known to have had a sort of music; and the
Scandinavians had their skalds, who, like the bards and druids, recited and
perhaps also sang their sacred songs to the accompaniment of the harp.

It was not till the Christian worship assumed a more refined and elabo-
rate ferm that music was again awakened from its slumber; it was then
applied to the singing of the church, which consisted chiefly of the psalms

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MUSIC AND THE DRAMA. bv9

of David and the hymns preserved in the Old Testament. In the year 340
after Christ, singing at the Lord’s supper was introduced ; for this purpose
they at first doubtless made use of heathen sacrificial melodies, to which
Christian hymns were adapted.

B. The Middle Ages.

As early as the 4th century the Popes, e. g. Damasus, Ephraem Syrus,
and Ambrose bishop of Milan (a4. p. 396) exerted themselves for the
improvement of music; and Pope Gregory the Great founded in the
beginning of the 7th century a singing-school, for which the best ancient
melodies were collected and arranged as chorals. Guido of Arezzo intro-
duced an entirely new order into music, and was the first who attempted to
write it with notes; his notation was improved by Franco of Cologne (1046)
and John de Mar In the year 980 Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury,
introduced part-singing into use. Thus far music had been the property of
the church; but now arose the master-singers, troubadours, and minne-
singers, who either recited their poems in a melodramatic manner to the
accompaniment of the cither and harp, or sang them to tunes of their own
composing. In this manner the foundation of secular music was laid, and
it flourished especially in the South of France, where music soon began to
be used as an accompaniment to dancing. The troubadours and minne-
singers led partly a wandering life, performing at courts and at the castles
of knights; while sothe of them found a fixed abode in the residences of
princes and of the highest per sonages among the knights: the real minne-
singers were everywhere held in high esteem, and many a nobleman
regarded it as an honor to belong to their order. Among them were Wol-
fram von Eschenbach, Walter von der Vogelweide, Otto von Bottenloben,
and many others.

C. Modern Trmes.

At the revival of letters and science at the close of the fifteenth century,
music also came in for its share of improvement, and particularly the part-
music in the churches, which then assumed the character it has since main-
tained. And in this as in the other fine arts, Italy decidedly took the
lead of the rest of Europe. The old church music still preserved in St.
Peter’s at Rome, consisting of the productions of Gafor, Patavino, Porta,
and Zarlino, testifies to the great knowledge possessed by these masters of
the rules of counterpoint, which at length degenerated in the hands of
Berardi and Buocini into artificial triflmg. But Paleestrina, and after him
Anexis, Nanina de Vallerana, Velletri, and Allegri, restored church-music
to its former dignity. At the close of the sixteenth century, music began
to be applied to the ballad, canzonet, and madrigal, and still later to accom-
panying the choruses in theatrical representations. Then, too, arose the
opera, and Galilei, Caccini, Peri, and Monteverdo, effected an immense
improvement by laying aside the difficult contrapuntal style of the church-
music, by venturing on a freer musical phrasing, and by striving to connect

the words with the music, and thus creating recitative. The first comic
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180 THE FINE ARTS.

opera was written by Vecchi. From Italy music in its cultivated form was
transplanted in the beginning of the sixteenth century to the Netherlands,
where the monk Hucbald, of Flanders, who lived as early as 930, was
acquainted with four-part singing, and Ockerheim taught music theo-
retically in 1450. In Germany, England, and France, cultivated music was
still a prerogative of the court, and the people were acquainted only with
the music of songs and dances. Luther introduced the present practice of
church singing in German, which had previously been in Latin. In the
year 1628, Henry Schiitz or, as he is sometimes called, Sagittarius, attempted
to compose German operas, but with little success.

D. Recent Times.

Even in recent times, Italian music has unfortunately remained the oracle
of composers and audiences, and but few German and French masters have
been successful in competing with it. The older music of the present
period, beginning with the last quarter of the seventeenth century, was dis-
tinguished by a very thin instrumentation, excellent melodies, and beautiful
harmonies ; whereas the newer and very latest music is often characterized
by excessively powerful instrumentation, and by the introduction of many
bold, unmotived, and striking melodies. If we now turn to Italian music,
we find in the earlier part of this period church music predominating in
the works of Scarlatti, Durante, Pergolese, Piccini, Jomelli, Paesiello,
Traetta, Terradeglia, &c., who however also wrote fof the opera, and espe-
cially comic pieces. In instrumentation were especially distinguished
Corelli, Vivaldini, and Geminiani; and in chamber-music, Scarlatti, Tar-
tini, Nandini, and Pugnani, who still for a while maintained the old strict
style. But in the next ensuing period music sank more and more; its true
essence, the carrying out of the theme, the harmony, and the proper choice
of instrumental accompaniments, were neglected ; all was made to depend
on the skill and taste of the performer, and hence arose a rage for bravuras
with trills, runs, and other difficulties, in which the real music appeared as
a secondary matter. In the latest times this perverse taste also invaded the
province of church-music ; airs were written to suit the voices of singers,
even Durante’s pupils fell into an excess of instrumentation, and the Italian
Sarti introduced in St. Petersburgh hunting-horns, and at last the firing of
cannon into the accompaniment of his church-pieces, and in particular of a
Te Deum. Only the works of Righini, Salieri, Cherubini, Spontini, and
Paer, are comparatively free from traces ofa national character; though much
of it is yet perceptible in Spontini. Of the masters who composed in Italy
the best are Caraffa, Nicolim, Fioravanti, Cimarosa, Zingarelli, Morlacchi,
especially Bellini, and in a less degree Pucitta, Donizetti, Mercadante, and
Coppola. Rossini appears as the representative of the latest Italian music,
and unites in himself all the above-mentioned faults together with surpassing
talent. His operas address themselves to and seduce the ear, even though
his treatment of the text, numerous repetitions, cadenzas of the same stamp,
&c., displease the judgment. Italy is especially rich in musical artists of every
kind ; among instrumentalists there are such names as Scarlatti, Tartini,

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MUSIC AND THE DRAMA. 181

Paganini, Baccini, the sisters Milanollo, Clementini; and among vocalists
Farinelli, Caffarelli, Caristeni, Crescentini, and Veluti (castrati); besides ©
Liberati, Sandoni, Faustina Bordoni (afterwards Mad. Hasse), Allegrandi
Teri, the sisters Sessi, Catalani, Camporesi, Pasta, Garcia-Malibran, Viardot-
Garcia, Grisi, and also Bricci, Zezi, Rubini, Tamburini, Lablache, &e.
German music received its earliest cultivation in Austria and Bohemia.
In the period immediately succeeding Luther’s efforts in behalf of German
psalmody, little was done for church music in general, although much was
accomplished for the improvement of the organ and for the theory of music.
Sebastian Bach and his sons, Handel, Marpurg, Mattheson, and Sorge were
skilful theoreticians; but Héandel was the only one that made his talents
felt beyond the borders of Germany. Handel and Hasse composed operatic
pieces, but only in the Italian style and in the Italian language. Still the
study of thorough-bass was zealously pursued, and the names of Kirnberger
and Albrechtsberger are everywhere held in high esteem at the present day.
At the close of the 18th century Graun, Telemann, and the two Haydns,
Fasch, Naumann, and Schicht distinguished themselves by their cantatas,
motets, oratorios, and masses; and from this time forth song-writing was
cultivated, especially by Zumsteeg, Zelter, and Reichardt. In theatrical
music Gluck, Himmel, Benda, and Winter composed a great number of
pieces for the opera; the highest degree of excellence in German music in
respect to harmony, correct phrasing, and excellent instrumentation, was at
that time attained by Joseph Haydn in chamber music, and in opera by
Mozart, from whose school in this same department of the art proceeded the
grand and comprehensive Beethoven. These have been succeeded by many
distinguished names in German music; but future times must determine
which of them will endure and which be forgotten. A fondness for
music has been exhibited in Germany such as is hardly equalled in any
other country ; and the musical institutions and unions which have arisen
during the present century in every district of Germany contribute exceed-
ingly both to keeping up this fondness and to cultivating the art in all its
branches. Among the coryphei of this period were Beethoven, Spohr,
Ries, Fr. Schubert, Lachner, Reissiger, and Lindpaintner; for the opera
C. M. von Weber, Marschner, Wolfram, Chelard, Glaser, Kreutzer, Wagner,
Meyerbeer, and Herold, although the two last inclined more to the French
school, Wenzl Miller, Weigl, Lortzing, &c.; for songs Kiicken, Cursch-
mann, Schubert, Proch, &c.; and for dance-musie Strauss, Lanner, Labitzky,
Gungl, &e. Church music also stands now at a high pitch of excellence,
and among those who have rendered themselves illustrious in this line are
Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Schneider, Stadler, Ritter von Seyfried, Aloys
Schmitt, and others. The number of German musical artists since Quantz,
who was the first to gain for himself a reputation abroad, is truly astonish-
ing; and there is no instrument from the organ to the trombone, from the
contrabasso to the jewsharp and mouth-harmonica, on which some itinerant
German artist has not exhibited his skill both at home and abroad. The
same is the case with singing: Mesdames Sonntag, Schréder Devrient,

Fischer-Achten, Heinefetter, Cornet, Karl, Griimbaum, Schechner, and
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182 THE FINE ARTS.

Messrs. Fischer, Gerstacker, Wild, Haizinger, Bader, Vetter, Martius, Ti-
chatschek, and others, have rendered German song celebrated not only in
their native country, but likewise in the rest of Europe.

French music, with the exception of the popular songs, is altogether an
offshoot from that of Italy; and before Louis XIV. there was not a single
French composer of reputation. The idea that it was possible to have a
French opera had its birth under Mazarin; in 1560 Lambert set to music
the libretto of a French opera by Perrin, and Lully first forsook the Italian
manner in his compositions in 1677. His successors were Destouches,
Monteclair, and Lalande, then Rameau and his successors Rebel, Francceur,
Berton, &c. A brief applause was gained by the Italian-sounding pieces
of Pergolese and the mongrel style of Rousseau. About 1760 Philidor and
Monsigny appeared ; and these were followed by Grétry and the German
Gluck, who introduced a severer style into music. He was opposed by the
Italian Piccini; and thus there were formed in France two widely opposite
schools, the Gluckists and Piccinists. But soon by the efforts of the Germans,
as Kreuzer, Herold, and others, German music came to be much esteemed,
although the Italian always remained a great favorite. French music pro-
perly so called was not called into existence till after the establishment of
the Conservatory in 1793; but from that time we meet with composers of
note, as Méhul, Boildieu, Dalayrac, Le Sueur, Isouard, Paer, and many
others. But it is in the 19th century that French music has attained the
summit of its excellence; and the names of Auber, Halevy, Meyerbeer,
Adam, Monpou, Ruolz, &c., denote the representatives of the French style.
The chansons have been especially cultivated by Panzeron, and dance-
music by Musard. In chamber and concert music Cherubini, Aimon, and
Habeneck have distinguished themselves ; and the last-mentioned especially
has done much to render Beethoven and German music in general appre-
ciated in France. Church music, however, has never yet met with any
great success in that country ; the French have but few organs, and accom-
pany their psalmody with brass instruments. Choral singing is unknown ;
but sacred texts are often sung to opera melodies, and artists frequently seek
to shine in the church. France is by no means deficient in performers ; but
the violin and the piano-forte are the favorite instruments and those most
cultivated. We will mention here Baillot, Lafont, Beriot, Vieuxtemps,
Chopin ; the flutist Drouet; the violoncellist Servays; and among singers
Nourrit and Cinti-Damoreau.

2. Tae Dramatic ART.

The art of representing a dramatic poem to the eye by means of living
personages is called the Dramatic or Scenic Art; and it requires a most life-
like impersonation by the aid of costumes, masks, and mimicry, an accurate
conception of the character to be represented, a power of penetrating into
the thoughts and ideas of the poet, a suitable delivery, and lastly an accu-
rate adaptation of the scenery to time and place.

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MUSIC AND THE DRAMA. 183

The scenic art was carried to considerable perfection among the Greeks,
especially the Athenians; and Phrynichus was the first who introduced
several speakers together upon the stage. At first the actors were chosen
from the highest ranks of free citizens, and the poet himse’f appeared and
conducted the whole; so that the performances resembled those at our
amateur theatres: But as early as the time of Demosthenes acting had
come to form a distinct profession, as the fondness of the Athenians for
dramatic representations could not suffer them to be dependent on the good
pleasure of chance performers. The place of the poet as conductor was
taken by the Protagonist (or impersonator of the chief character), who was
at the same time the manager of the company. Such troupes were formed
chiefly in Athens, and then traversed the whole of Greece, giving their
representations in the chief cities, on which occasions two rival companies
would sometimes come in each other’s way. The applause was as immo-
derate as the blame: and while Aristodemus earned a talent ($8,000) in two
days, bad players were hissed and hooted from the stage, pelted with stones,
and even condemned to be fined. Still actors in general, though for the
most part they led a very loose life, were held in great esteem, and were
often invited to the courts of foreign princes; they were even intrusted
with important affairs of state, and the orators received instruction from

them.
At first tragedy and comedy were mingled together in the Grecian

drama; but afterwards, as civilization advanced, the two were separated,
although in representations a tragedy was always succeeded by a farce.

Among the Romans national pieces were performed by the sons of .
Roman citizens; but the common pieces were left to mechanical players,
histriones, who down to the time of Cicero belonged to the condition of
slaves and were reckoned among the dregs of the people. Under Augustus
persons of the higher ranks addicted themselves to acting; on which accout
an edict was issued prohibiting knights and senators from going on the
stage. Although players as a class stood in bad repute, still the best of them,
as Roscius and Pylades, were treated with great consideration. The Etrus-
cans also had plays; and among the Jews the first theatre was built under
Herod.

Among Christian nations the dramatic art originated in the practice in
schools and monasteries of throwing stories from the Bible and legends of
saints into the form of dialogues, which were then performed by the scholars.
Bishops Apollinarius of Laodicea and Gregory of Nazianzen exerted them-
selves greatly for the perfection of sacred tragedy, and the last named
divine even wrote a tragedy himself entitled “The Sufferings of Christ.”
The celebrated nun Hroswitha wrote several Latin pieces for the same pur-
pose. In the middle ages there arose in France, the so-called Mysteries,
Miracles, and Morals, and in Italy the Impromptu Comedy (Commedia
dell?’ arte), from which a more artistic drama was soon developed. In
England the drama as early as the 16th century assumed a definite fixed
form, and Shakspeare has gained undying fame by his contributions to it.
In Spain the chief dramatic writers were Calderon and Lope de Vega; and

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184 THE FINE ARTS.

their pieces as well as those of Shakspeare, with certain modifications to
adapt them to the altered taste of the age, are still the ornaments of all
stages. The French drama had its origin in the above mentioned Mys-
teries, and had always at first a mystic and religious tendency; but about
the close of the 17th and the beginning of the 18th century, Racine, Cor-
neille, and Moliére formed, according to the rules of Aristotle, a sort of
canon, to regulate the planning and composition of a drama, and this canon
is still to all intents and purposes in full force.

The German drama was cultivated the last. Here too the first begin-
nings were sacred tragedies and mysteries, which were performed by
students; but as early as the 15th century the comedies of Terence were
represented at Augsburg, and about a hundred years later the sacred
comedies were performed by the pupils of the high schools both in public
places and before private companies. The reformation here introduced a
change, as in the Protestant high schools these performances ceased, although
they were continued down to the 18th century in the Jesuit colleges. Out
of the so-called itinerant students who took part in these performances there
were now formed regular companies of players, who traversed the country
up and down in all directions, staying as long at a place as the people cared to
witness and listen to their tragedies, farces, andjests. The first strolling com-
pany of the kind who gained for themselves a certain reputation was that of
Master Velten or Veltheim, who obtained their license in Saxony at the end
of the 17th century: they accordingly styled themselves the ‘“ Royal Polish
and Elector of Saxony’s privileged Court-comedy,” although they wandered
about everywhere and performed in every considerable town of Germany.
This company was the first to produce regularly composed dialogue pieces,
which were translated by Velten from the Italian and Spanish, and doubt-
less too from the French; still the impromptu comedy retained its footing
a good while longer in Germany. Several other troupes were formed after
the pattern of Velten’s; and these had among themselves a body of laws
regulating the profession, in which the several classes of parts were as
sharply distinguished from each other as at present. There was a king’s agent,
a tyrant’s agent, a pantaloon, a merryman (styled cowrtesan, the former
jack-pudding), &c. In the middle of the 18th century, when Germany
advanced with giant steps in the cultivation of letters and arts, the drama
also partook of the general progress; since men of talents and learning, as
Schréder, Eckhof, Iffland, &c., devoted themselves to it, and rendered the
actor’s profession respected and honorable. At this time too began the
erection of permanent theatres, where the better artists had engagements for
life and received pensions for their old age, while youthful talents were
cultivated in the newly erected theatrical schools. A distinguished reputa-
tion was gained and has been maintained down to the latest times by the
Castle-theatre and the theatre at the Carinthian gate in Vienna, and by the
theatres in Manheim, Gotha, Weimar, Hamburg, Berlin, Munich, Stuttgart,
Dresden, Leipsic, &c., which were under the direction of such men as Dal-
berg, Goethe, Schroder, Eckhof, Iffand, &c. The most flourishing period of
the scenic art was at the close of the preceding and the commencement of the

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MUSIC AND THE DRAMA. 185

present century, when such poets as Iffland, Goethe, Schiller, &c., devoted
their muse to the drama, and when more account was made of the proper
artistic talents of the performers than now. At present immense sums are
expended on elaborate scenery, splendid dresses and decorations, artificial
effects by means of machinery, and on the construction and fitting up of the
the building; but with the exception of a few very distinguished performers,
the salaries given to the actors are not such that we can expect exhibitions
of true artistic talent from them. The opera especially, with its costly
accessories, has contributed a great deal to depress both the tragic and
comic drama.

The Buildings.

As early as the times of the Greeks and Romans especial buildings were
erected for musical and dramatic performances; and under the head of
Architecture we have given descriptions and representations both of the
odeons of the Greeks (page 41 and Plates Div. VII., pl. 17, figs. 1, 2, and 8)
and of the amphitheatres of the Romans (page 65 and Plates Div. VIL,
pl. 14, figs. 2 and 3). In modern times great sums are expended on the
erecting of concert-halls and theatres, and science has employed all its
resources to construct them in the most suitable manner, so that they may
meet the many requirements both of the public and the poet.

1. Opzons. The first and great requisite of a building destined for musi-
cal performance alone, is a large spacious hall constructed in accordance
with the rules of acoustics. As such halls are found here and there in
other large buildings, it rarely happens that buildings are erected exclu-
sively for the purpose; nevertheless, the Odeon in Munich, the Singing
Academy in Berlin, and the building of the Society of the Friends of Musie
in Vienna, furnish excellent specimens of this class of structures. The hall
of performance should have an elevated stage for the musicians, and a
space in front of it to afford convenient accommodation to the audiences
that may be expected. Sometimes raised galleries are carried round the
walls of the hall. As regards the form that should be given to a concert-hall,
acousticians are not yet agreed. Some of them are in favor of an almost
elliptical or semicircular form, while others prefer a rectangle, and each can
adduce plausible reasons in support of his opinion. It seems to us that a
very suitable form is an oblong rectangle with rounded corners. The ceil-
ing should be built flat, or but very slightly vaulted. But above all things
are required smooth walls, with as few breaks as possible ; accordingly they
must be kept free from curtains, as all interruptions and all draperies, espe-
cially of woollen, swallow up the sound and interfere with the resonance.
In addition to the hall proper, an odeon should have apartments for the
ticket-office, the ante-rooms, the wardrobe, and the retiring-rooms for the
artists who are not constantly engaged in the performance. Separate en-
trances for the public and for the musicians should by all means be provided.

2. Turatres. The ancient theatres were very different from those in use
at the present day ; in the first place, because the performances took place
in them in the day-time, and not as with us by artificial light in the even-

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186 THE FINE ARTS.

ing ; again, because they were necessarily a good deal larger, the theatre in
ancient times being a popular recreation furnished by the state, and the
number of visitors consequently very large; and lastly, because the ancient
spectacle and tragedy was very different, and much more simple than
ours.

The form of the Greek theatres was mostly a semicircle, and they con-
sisted of three parts, the scena, the orchestra, and the theatrum proper.
The scena was usually raised eleven or twelve feet above the ground, and
had walls at the sides and back, which served to support the decorations.
In front of the scena was the stage (prosceniwm), a large rectangular
space on which the performances took place; and the front part of the
stage had a small projection (Jogezon), from which the actors addressed the

chorus stationed in the orchestra or delivered their monologues. On both

sides of the stage were rooms for the actors ( parascenia), and the front
part of the stage was adorned with statues which were different for different
performances. The proscenium was connected with the orchestra by two
flights of steps; one on the right for apparitions and personages coming from
the lower world, and one on the left for those coming from the sea. The
decorations on the walls of the scena had three doors, the middle, royal, or
principal door, and the two side doors; persons from abroad came through
that to the right, and those from the city through that to the left. Besides
these there were other entrances from the parascenia. The place of our side-
scenes or wings was supplied by the percactoi, three-sided scaffoldings,
which revolved on their axes, and had different decorations on each side,
one of which stood always parallel to the rows of spectators or to the
orchestra. Against the rear wall of the scena were placed huge cloths
or flats, which were pushed together when the scene was changed. The
part of the scena behind the doors usually represented the interior of a
house, and was decorated by means of revolving scenes. The scenery was
shifted only between the acts, when the curtain, which during the perfor-
mance was let down and lay behind the orchestra, had been drawn up again.
The theatrical machinery consisted of machines for imitating thunder and
lightning, and others for aiding the ascent and descent of the gods, and for
representing them hovering in the air. The orchestra was the space between
the scena and the theatrum, of a circular form, and situated somewhat
lower than the scena. Here the chorus was stationed, and in the centre
was a decorative part (tiymelewa), which represented either an altar, a
tomb, or arostrum, according as one or the other was required. The two
entrances into the orchestra stood open. The theatrvum, or part assigned to
the spectators, consisted of the rows of seats rising one above another in the
form of an amphitheatre. The magistrates sat in the first or lowest rows ;
and then followed several flights or tiers, divided by broad passages or
lobbies (diazoma), consisting the first of eleven, the second of twelve, and
the third also of twelve rows of seats. Flights of steps, which ran from top
to bottom through all the rows of seats, formed a connexion between them,
and made each row accessible in from eight to twelve places.

In Rome, Marcus A¢milius Lepidus was the first to cause the erection

570

MUSIC AND THE DRAMA. 187

‘

of a permanent theatre with seats; but Pompey built one of the kind of
stone and marble. These theatres, it is true, were copied after those of the
Greeks ; still, to say nothing of their greater splendor, they presented many
deviations. Thus, e. g. the orchestra was smaller; because no choruses
appeared in the Roman theatre, and the orchestra was used as a place for
seating distinguished persons. It answered to our pit. The stage was not
raised as high, being only five feet above the ground, but it was larger than
with the Greeks. Before it hung the principal curtain, which was let down
at the beginning of the performance, and drawn up again at its close.
Between the acts a simple curtain was drawn up. The doors had the same
arrangement as with the Greeks ; then came the revolving scenes ; and then
in front of all the above-mentioned large space, with two side walls on each
side, also provided with doors, through one of which came persons from the
city, and through the other persons from abroad. The seats were divided
in the same manner as with the Greeks, except that taking in the orchestra
gave them four tiers of seats instead of three (the orchestra, podium or
cavea uma, cavea media, and cavea summa). ‘The pretor had an elevated
seat in the orchestra, among the senators ; in the podium sat the vestals and
knights; in the cavea media, persons of distinction; and in the cayvea
summa, the people. Behind the seats rose a portico to the same height as
the scena, and immense awnings (velaria, parapetasmata) were drawn over
the whole space allotted to the spectators. These awnings at first were red,
but afterwards were made of precious stuffs and embroidered.

The theatres of the middle ages owed their construction chiefly to the
exertions of Bruneleschi (d. 1444) and Baldassare Peruzzi (d. 1536), who
engaged in the painting of decorations and the construction of theatrical
machinery, and who developed the rules of perspective drawing. Fernando
Francesco and Antonio Bibiena Galli, in the middle and at the close of the
18th century, did a great deal for theatrical architecture and machinery, as
also for the decorations; and many theatres were planned by them in
Rome, Verona, and Vienna. Servandoni, a Florentine, also gained cele-
brity in France through his decorations and machinery.

Our play-houses of the present day contain, besides the stage proper, the
orchestra, and the spectatory or space for the audience, many other rooms
which are necessary to the economy of the theatre. Among these are the
manager’s office, the treasurer’s office, &c., the room for the trial of debu-
tants, the reading-room, rehearsal-room, the library, the wardrobes, the
lumber-rooms in which scenery and properties are deposited, the dressing
and green rooms, the painting-room, the retiring and refreshment rooms for
the audience, and often besides these a large concert-hall, as in the theatre
in Berlin, of which we have given the ground-plan in pl. 25, jig. 1. Here
A is the stage, B the spectatory, and C the portico, which also forms a
vestibule. D is the concert-hall; E the offices and rooms connected with
the management, &c., which go through three stories; F is the covered
avenue for carriages, and G the entrances for those who come on foot. The
painting-room is situated over the spectatory, and is so arranged that the
scenes can be drawn up to the rigging-loft, to be suspended without being

571

188 THE FINE ARTS.

rolled up. The stage is so high that the decorations can be drawn up out
of sight without being turned over. Another theatre, which we give some-
what further in detail, is one built a few years ago in Paris, called the
Théatre historique. Its concealed situation between the masses of houses
D (jig. 2) rendered necessary a special entrance from the boulevard ; for
this purpose the passage C was constructed, which is lighted from above,
and the front elevation of which is given in fig. 3. J%gs.4 and 5 are the
two caryatides at the entrance, which represent personifications of Tragedy
and Comedy. In pl. 26, jigs. 44 and 45 show the two upper groups, one
(44) containing the Cid and Ximene as representatives of the Drama, and
the other (45) Hamlet and Ophelia as representatives of Tragedy. As to
the distribution of the interior, A (pl. 25, jig. 2) is the stage; B the par-
quette with the parterre behind it; EK and F are the first tier of boxes;
G, the staircases; and H, I, K are the manager’s and other apartments
connected with the business of the theatre.

As to the proper form which should be given to the portion of the build-
ing allotted to the audience, there has been a great deal of disputation.
Some wish to make it a complete semicircle; and this form is certainly the
most natural, but it affords comparatively too little room. Others propose
an elliptical form; to which, however, there are many objections on the
score of sound. <A form that contains more than a semicircle is very
commonly employed, but is disadvantageous, because in it'a great number
of the best places in the boxes are so situated that only a small part of the
stage can be seen from them. The best form would seem to be that of a
rather long round arc drawn from several centres, the sides of which open
again somewhat towards the proscenium (82), and which is so calculated that
the first rows of the persons sitting on each side of the first and second tiers
of boxes can have a perfect view of both walls of the proscenium. If the
boxes, then, have no side-walls, but only columns to support the tiers above
them (pl. 25, fig. 9, side view, and jig. 10, front view), and the hinder seats
are raised higher than those in front of them, a good view will be obtained
from every place. In order to give a clear idea of the entire arrangement
of the interior, we present in jg. 6 a longitudinal section of the Thédtre de
la Gaveté in Paris.

We will now offer in a few words what we have to say respecting the
erection of a stage.

a. Principal Dimensions. Its size depends altogether on the kind of
pieces that are to be performed upon it. A stage destined for the repre-
sentation of the grand operas with all possible splendor must needs be
much larger than one which is to be used for tragedy and comedy ; because
the choruses, ballets, processions, &c., demand a great deal of space. The
width of the proscenium is usually taken as the standard of measurement
for the whole stage ; and at least double this width is taken for that of the

whole theatre from wall to wall, in order that the flats and wings may have

the requisite breadth and that the workmen and performers may have plenty

of room to move about behind them. The height of the stage-opening

should be always at least four fifths of its breadth ; and the building must
572

MUSIC AND THE DRAMA. 189

be as high again above that, in order that the rigging-loft may be properly
disposed and that the decorations may be drawn straight up without being
folded together. The depth below the stage must be at least from 36 it. to
40 ft., and in large theatres 45 ft. Even quite small theatres require at
least 12 ft., on account of the traps, &c.; but when the depth is so small,
the wings can no longer be set on carriages, but must be pushed to and fro
by hand, an inconvenience which exists in the theatres of Turin and Naples.
The length or rather depth of the stage cannot be determined by positive
rules; but it should be at least twice that of the proscenium-opening.
Besides this there is the proscenium itself, 7. ¢e. the space between the
curtain, a, and the foot-lights, bb (pl. 25, jig. 14). The deepest stages are
those of Turin, Naples, and St. Petersburg; yet they have not more than
seventeen pairs of wings, or, in technical language, are seventeen grooves
deep. When the stage is too deep, the architecture in the back-ground
becomes too much reduced by the perspective and gets out of proportion
with the figures.

b. The Substructure. The construction of a stage is exceedingly interest-
ing in its details, and next to that of a ship of the line is difficult to repre-
sent by drawing. The substructure of a large stage consists of platforms
( figs. T, 8, 11, 13), the framework of which consists of sleepers, a (jig. 11),
which rest on stone piers and extend the entire depth of the stage; on these
stand the pillars which support the beams for the first story of the space
allotted to the machinery. These sleepers lie seven feet apart, but none
must lie under the middle of the stage. Above this first platform lies the
middle floor (fig. 12), on which stand the wing-carriages. The cross-beams
have a groove in the direction of their length, in which is inserted an iron
rail with a high rim, thus forming a sort of railway for the wheels, a,
of the wing-carriages (fig. 15). From this middle floor the posts are
doubled, as between each two of them there stands a wing-carriage, which
passes up through the stage. (In fig. 15, d is the stage.) As the tie-beams
of the substructure cannot be bound together by cross-pieces running from
front to rear, because the spaces between these tie-beams must be open from
top to bottom, they are connected at various heights by strong chains
furnished with hooks, which can be removed for a while as occasion requires.
The posts, too, are not inserted perpendicularly into the sleepers, but their
tops incline one eighteenth or one twentieth of their length towards the rear ;
because if they stood perpendicular, the sloping position of the stage would
have the effect of pressing the whole framework out towards the footlights :
the inclined position of the posts, however, averts this evil.

c. The Stage. In a large theatre the stage must be so constructed as to
open at any place and still possess the greatest solidity. The stage is com-
posed of panels of pine boards, a (pl. 26, fig. 9, lower view, jig. 8, section),
each made of three pieces connected together by two battens, 6; and
‘between the rows of posts there are small trap-doors, 6b (jig. 11), to admit
the supporting frames of the shifting pieces or similar objects which are to
ascend from below. Thus the entire stage is movable, and only the portion

between the line of the curtain and the foot-lights is nailed fast. For the
5738

190 THE FINE ARTS.
purpose of allowing objects to sink into the ground and to arise out of it,
the floor must open at the places required without the spectators hearing
or seeing it, and the adjacent parts of the stage must be as firm as before.
For this purpose the following contrivance, represented in jigs. 6 and 7, is
employed. All the panels of one range are slipped into grooves in the tie-
beams; but for the last movable panel of each side the grooves slope down-
wards, so that the panels can be thrust close underneath the fixed part of
the flooring, and then pass along horizontally again to the side walls
of the theatre. The lever d (jigs. 6 and 7) is so contrived, that when in its
place at c,it keeps the panel horizontal and even with the rest of the stage ;
but when it is slipped out, the panel falls to the level of the sloping grooves.
Rings are fixed on the under side of the movable panels. If now the
stage is to be opened at any spot, a rope is simply run through the ring of ©
the last panel that is to be shifted, and is then carried over the cylinder
of the lower windlass, N (jig. 3). If by shifting the lever the first
movable panel be let fall down to the sloping grooves, then by turning the
windlass the last movable panel to which the rope is attached will shove all
the rest along, and as many panels will be thrust under the solid stage as
are necessary to make the opening required. When the opening is to be
closed again, a rope passed through the ring of the first movable panel
and over the opposite windlass, N (jig. 3), draws all the panels into their
places again, so that the last one can again be secured by means of the
lever. If there is to be a descent through the stage, the panels are shoved
back far enough to admit the platform into the stage; as soon as the
descent is made, the panels are thrust back into their places and the stage
closed over it. When an ascent is to be made, the panels are first thrust
back to form the opening, into which the platform is then raised.

The side-walls of the theatre are lined throughout with boarding, H (jigs.
1and 2) in such a manner that an empty space remains, in which the counter-
weights, J, of the drop-scenes can play up and down. These counter-weights
consist, as is shown in pl. 25, jigs. 24, 25, and 26, of disks of metal a a,
which, according to the weight required, are stuck on the rod d d;
and they are attached by the ring ¢ to the running-ropes of the drop-
scenes. These counter-weights must weigh together the same as the scenes,
so that in drawing them up and down there is only the friction to be over-
come.

d. The Framework of the Roof. Vf the framework of the roof of a
theatre be not made of iron, as is now usually the case, but of wood, care
must be taken to obtain, by employing as little wood as possible, a solid
hanging and horizontal framework ; since the framework of the roof has to
support besides its own weight, that of the various flies and the rigging-loft
floor as well as of the drop-scenes, hanging-scenes, &c. An example of an
iron roof-framing is furnished in p/. 26, jig. 26, which represents the roof of
the Théatre Francais. Figs. 27-81 exhibit its details. Another specimen
of iron roof-framing is given in that of the Cirque Olympique in Paris ( fig.
35, and details in jigs. 836-43); jigs. 1 and 2 also contain examples of such
iron frame-work. The details of a wooden roof-framing are shown in the

574

MUSIC AND THE DRAMA. 191

longitudinal and transverse sections of the stage part of the Dresden Theatre
(pl. 25, figs. 7 and 8, and pl. 26, jig. 3).

The framework of the roofs of theatres must be much higher than that of
ordinary roofs, and must also be more strongly tied together, because they
have also to support the flies F, G, H (jig. 3), which are ten feet apart.
Sloping-roofs are here to be avoided, because they greatly contract the space
at the back part of the stage, the very place where the greatest’ machine
effects are to be produced. Over the tie-beams is extended the rigging-loft
floor (pl. 25, fig. 12), on which stand the windlasses and drums A and B,
of which an end view is given in jig. 30. From these tie-beams are suspended
the permanent flies G, H, and F (pl. 26, jig. 3) and the temporary ones D,
which are put up only for occasional purposes, by means of suspension-joists
or tongs as they are called. The rigging-loft floor itself consists of beams
seven inches by five in thickness placed on edge at a distance of two feet
nine inches apart, and covered over with planks as occasion requires.
These beams, however, are not made fast, but fit into grooves ; so that when
necessary, they can be removed for the purpose of admitting large objects
through the rigging-loft floor.

e. The Wings and Wing-carriages. By entrance we understand the
opening between two sliding-scenes or wings which bound the scene on each
side of the stage. When the theatre is designed to be large and convenient,
the entrances must be at least six feet broad ; this gives room enough for the
carriages, and if the drop-scenes are suspended to the tie-beams of the roof
at a distance of twelve feet apart, two changes of scene can easily be
prepared one behind the other. The wing-carriages serve both to sup-
port the side-scenes or wings and as means for running them out and
in. Such a carriage (pl. 25, jig. 15) consists of a sill a, into which are
mortised four uprights 6 6 b 6, joined together two and two, and long
enough to extend down under the stage. Above are the head-rails d,
which run in the grooves of the stage and keep the carriage from being
overturned. In order that the carriage may run easily, it has two bronze
wheels at the bottom deeply channelled, which run over the high-rimmed
iron rail described above, or projecting wheels running in a deep groove.
At each end of the sill a is fixed a spring-hook, to which the rope of the
windlass is attached by means of a ring, when the carriage is to be run out
orin. Besides the regular wing-carriages, there are other carriages which
run on the same floor and on which shifting pieces, &c., are placed. These
carriages are usually brought under the trap-doors (pl. 26, jig. 11), and
objects can be run upon them across the stage.

J. Wing-Ladders. ‘The wings when about to be used are fastened to large
wing-ladders (pl. 25, jig. 15); these consist of two uprights 7.7, which are
connected together by rails above and below, and are prolonged at the lower
end so as to extend almost half way into the wing-carriage, and below,
where they are weakest, are strongly cased with iron. For the purpose of
getting easily to the top of the wing, each frame has a light ladder g attached
to it. Another sort of light wing-ladder is represented in fig. 16; jig. 17
exhibits a front view as seen from the stage of three wing-ladders, /, fastened

575

192 THE FINE ARTS.

in their carriages; jig. 18 gives a bird’s-eye view, and fig. 19 a section on a
larger scale.

The frames for the drop-scenes are of like construction, but are much
stronger and furnished with braces in every direction. Frames are intro-
duced for practicable doors and connected with the framework of the
whole. The stage curtain is also attached to such a frame; but in recent
times curtains of tin plate or frames of wire-work have been made; so that
in case of fire the stage may be instantly cut off from the spectatory. Pl.
26, jig. 32, represents a curtain of this description in the Thédtre St. Marcel
in Paris; and jigs. 33 and 34 give the details, from which the construction
and mode of joining together the ribs of the curtain frame can be readily
understood.

All the drop-curtains have from eight to ten loops fastened to the top-
rail of the frame ; and to these rings are attached, by means of which the
curtains are suspended on the hooks (pl. 25, jig. 23) which are fastened to
the tie-beams of the roof. When a drop-scene is to be made use of, the
halliards of the scene are fastened by a slip-knot to these loops. The
hanging-scenes or borders have no frames, but are nailed on to single rails
or battens, which are also provided with loops like the drop-scenes.

Another kind of loops are those used for perforated drops, exhibiting e. g.
colonnades, clumps of trees, &c., through which the actors have to pass ;
and it is often very difficult so to contrive these frames that they may have
the necessary firmness, as they must never be visible. So too the frames
for those pieces which by means of small trap-doors are to rise as it were
out of the ground, are very difficult to construct, as they have no upper rail,
and cannot be fastened in any other way at the top. Hence these frames,
especially when they extend across the whole head of the stage, are usually
very heavy. Jig. 22 shows a combination of wing-carriages which serves
to transport those pieces which are carried across the scene through the
traps. ig. 20 is a side-view, and jig. 21 a section of one of the metal
wheels in the sill.

g. Machines. Ina theatre there are a great many machines, which are
situated partly in the space beneath the stage and partly above it in the
flies and rigging-loft. To these belong, e.g. the drums, which consist of
two large disks connected by a common axis, and to the circumference of
which strips of board or laths are nailed extending from one to the other.
The uses of these drums are very various, for they are distributed about all
parts of the loft and cellar. One application of them is for shifting the
scenes. Jor this purpose there is placed under the middle line of the stage
(pl. 25, fig. 11¢c) a large cylinder (pl. 26, jig. 3 M), which begins at the
orchestra and extends to above the sixth pair of wings; at the end of this
is placed a second, and, when the theatre is large, a third cylinder. Parallel
with this there stands on each side one or two other rows of cylinders (pl.
25, fig. 11 b6 and dd, and pl. 26, fig.83 NN). On these cylinders or shafts
the drums for the ropes are fastened, and the shaft in the place where these
are isleftsquare. Atthe ends the shafts, as shown in figs. 13, 14, and 15, are
cased with iron rings, and iron gudgeons ad are driven deep into the shaft

576

MUSIC AND THE DRAMA. 193

and secured with the wedge ec (fig. 15). By these gudgeons the shaft rests on
its bearers; although when it is long, it is supported at one or more places
in the middle. In order to facilitate its working, metal friction-wheels (pi.
26, fig. 20, bird’s-eye view, and jig. 21 end view) are everywhere employed.
Between the ends of the drum there are several other disks for the support
of the laths or staves which form the mantle of the drum ; and strong ends
of rope with rings are fastened inside to the shaft and pass out through the
mantle, to which the halliards are fastened by means of spring hooks. In
the middle floor ( pl. 25, jig. 13) the drum-shaft runs along the middle over
the other shafts; and these drums serve the purpose of shifting the panels
of the stage or of working the tackle for the ascent of objects out of the
ground. Several drums are also placed on the rigging-floors, but of different
diameters, which serve for raising the drop-scenes and borders, for wafting
cars and persons through the air, &c. The diameter of these drums must
be accurately adapted to the distance which the drop-scenes, &c., have to
go in a certain time and in a certain number of revolutions. The drums
which are placed in the rigging-loft, and which mostly serve to control the
motions of the counter-weights of the drops, need not be of any great
breadth, as the rope of the counter-weight is merely passed once or twice
round the drum in order to increase the friction, so that its motion may be
quickly checked. But while the shaft below the stage, by means of a rope
passed over its cylinder, moves all the drums at once, here each one is moved
separately, and consequently each must be provided with a wheel and hand-
spikes. 42g. 30 exhibits such a windlass-frame from the side, and jig. 29
from the front ; dis the wheel, and g the cylinder round which the rope of
the counter-weight is. passed. In jig. 28 the construction of the wheel is
shown. /%g. 27 shows the fastening of the frame to the floor of the flies.

We have stated above that loops furnished with rings are attached to
the drops, by means of which they are suspended to the hooks of the tie-
beams (pl. 26, jig. 17) when not in use. When a drop-scene is to be
made use of, lines which are of properly adjusted lengths and furnished
with spring-hooks, are made fast to these loops. Each of these lines
before it reaches the halliards goes up to the collar-beam and over
the roller e in the roller-case 6 (jig. 16), which is fastened to the
beam @; so that these lines can never get entangled, although their length
equals the entire height of the drop-scenes. Such roller-cases are distri-
buted all along the collar-beams, as shown in jig. 18; similar ones too are
required for the borders, although these (jig. 19) may be of a much lighter
construction.

In order to cause objects to ascend through the trap-doors, another contriv-
ance must be added to the carriages (pl. 26, fig. 2. 4 ); for in that case the
frames are to be elevated while the carriages remain under the stage. For
this purpose the uprights of the carriages have a head-piece attached to
them, of which pl. 25, jig. 31, shows a front, fig. 32 a vertical, and pi. 26,
jig. 12, aside view. The uprights have in them a deep dovetail-shaped
groove, in which a sliding-rail moves up and down, and on this the piece
is fastened. In the inside of the groove there are two channels, one on

ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOP&PIA.—VOL. IV. 87 577

194 THE FINE ARTS.

each side of the rail, in which the halliards } 6 run; these are fastened to
the foot of the rail, and pass over the rollers ¢ ¢ in the head of the carriage,
from which they go to the windlass. When the halliards } } are drawn
tight or slacked up, the rail with the shifting-piece must rise or fall.

h. The Illumination. Until quite recently, and even at present with but
few exceptions, the stage has been lighted by means of argand oil-lamps,
arranged partly in front of the proscenium along the orchestra, and partly
behind the frames of the side-scenes, and above and in front of the drop-
scenes. When isolated lights are needed, as e. g. for the moon and such
like appearances, they are placed in closed boxes, so as to give no light from
the sides.

When the foot-lights consist of oil-lamps, the lamp ladder isa movable trap ;
when night is to be produced, it is let down below the stage. Changes of light
to imitate sunset or moonlight are produced by mediums, which are provided
with red or green glass, or similar colored silk stuff; these are usually kept
below the stage, and are raised by a separate contrivance to such a height
as to shade the light of the lamps. The lamps at the wings are ranged one
above the other, and before them is placed a half cylinder (pl. 26, jig. 4),
in which the space between every two lamps is divided into four parts.
One of these parts is entirely open for imitating daylight; the second is
entirely closed for night; the third is shaded with red for sunrise and sun-
set; and the fourth is shaded with green for moonlight (£ and Z). This half
cylinder works up and down at m on long pintles, and is raised by machinery,
which is also connected with the foot-light ladder, to such a height as to
bring that part of the cylinder before the flame of the lamp which corre-
sponds to the light of the foot-light medium. In many theatres there are
only three divisions in the half cylinder, black, green, and red, and for day-
light it is thrown back, a contrivance which is certainly superior to the
other.

In the better class of theatres, however, gas is now employed for lighting
the whole stage, and is likewise introduced into the great chandelier of the
spectatory ; this has great advantages over the old mode. In this mode of
illumination the gas passes first from the gasometer to the place of the
inspector, or of some one charged with the matter, and from there it is con-
ducted through various sets of pipes to the gas-ladders, the lights above the
stage, and the great chandelier. ‘The main pipe from which all the other
pipes proceed is furnished with a graduated cock ; and the director is able,
by partially cutting off the gas, to gradually reduce the entire illumination
from the greatest brilliancy to almost total darkness, so that for the purpose
of imitating night no other contrivance is necessary. Accordingly, as is
shown by the section of the gas-ladder (pl. 26, jig. 23), the lamp ¢ with its
support }, and the gas ladder a, are fixed to the beam g of the stage, and
only the shades for changing the quality of the light, a 6 ¢ (jig. 22), are
raised and lowered as occasion requires. The lighting of the side-scenes
occasions rather more difficulty, on account of the wing-carriages being
movable. ig. 4 contains a front view and jig. 5 a section of the con-
trivance here employed. The supply-pipe hangs above on the right corner

578

MUSIC AND THE DRAMA. 195

of the carriage along with the feeding-pipe, and consists of four shanks,
SF 9%, which are connected together by perforated air-tight joints. When
the carriage is drawn back, as here represented, the shanks lie close
together; but when it is pushed forward, they form a right line. A very
similar contrivance is applied to the great chandelier, being placed above
the ceiling of the spectatory, so that the chandelier can be raised for the
purpose of lighting the lamps, and then lowered again. The intensity of its
light is constantly the same with that of the stage-lghts ; for the gas comes
toit only as regulated by the superintendent. The lamps employed for light-
ing the stage overhead are fixed like the foot-lights. Movable lights are
inclosed in cases, as shown in jig. 24, which represents the section of such
a case. The case is suspended at e, and has at a and d a disk of glass, by
means of which the light can also be colored. The lamp 6 receives its gas
through a flexible caoutchouc or gutta percha pipe. The light of the wing-
lamps is colored, as represented in jig. 25, by a turning-shade f, which is
colored alternately green and red, the proper color being brought before
the flame of the lamp by raising the whole shade. Gradations of color are
obtained by turning the shade more or less forward.

572

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Prati A 135:

INTRODUCTION.

Tue first effort of man is to procure his food and the most indispensable
necessaries of life; when these are supplied he endeavors to make his
existence more comfortable, and to obtain various physical and mental
enjoyments. For the attainment of these objects a great variety of different
kinds of labor is required, which are sometimes quite simple, but more
frequently complicated, requiring much knowledge and skill. The totality
of knowledge by which we learn to transform and prepare the products of
nature, the raw material, so as to serve for the use and pleasure of man, we
eall Industrial Science or Technology. In other words, technology com-
prises the knowledge of the various arts and manufactures by means of
which the different materials are adapted to our uses, and the knowledge
of all the substances and auxiliaries which serve for that purpose. It is
evident that the field of Technology is one of vast extent, there being no
branch of human industry into which it does not enter.

However crude technology must have been in its beginnings, being at
first limited to the preparation of food, the construction of secure dwellings,
and the manufacture of arms and clothing, it has yet risen to a high degree
of development in the course of centuries. While the first inhabitants of
the earth were content with a rude preparation of the products of nature,
using only the power of their hands, we call to our aid the elementary
forces of nature, and have subjected them to our rule; the most sagacious
discoveries in mathematics, physics, and chemistry, the experience of cen-_
turies and the most distinguished results of human ingenuity are united for
the purpose of saving power, time, and human labor, while at the same
time the results are more perfect than it is possible for them to become by
mere manual labor. The knowledge of those implements and machines
which have been invented for working raw materials constitutes therefore
one of the principal branches of industrial science. In order to treat of
the latter in its full extent it would be necessary to compile a voluminous
work with countless plates. This, however, could not be the design of the
present treatise, which only forms a subdivision of a more comprehensive
work ; and we have therefore selected the most important and interesting

581

2 TECHNOLOGY.

subjects and discussed them more at length, in preference to giving some- |
thing of all without treating fully of any.

One of the principal means of advancing civilization is facility of com-
munication, by which men are brought together and the products of one
region are speedily and safely transferred to another; the interchange of
ideas as well as the exchange of the productions of nature and industry
being thus promoted and facilitated. We therefore place at the head of our
treatise the means of communication.

I. MEANS OF COMMUNICATION.

Means of communication include the construction of highways on land
and water. The welfare of a state is greatly promoted by a well regulated
system of roads and inland navigation, and it is easy to discover the dif:
ference in the civilization, industry, and general opulence of two countries,
in one of which communication in all directions is made easy and convenient,
while in the other cities and villages are in a measure isolated by the bad
condition or want of highways. How much has been effected in this respect
by the construction of railroads in the greater part of Europe and in the
United States need scarcely be mentioned. We will now proceed to consider
the different kinds.

1. Tae Construction or Roapbs.

The natural surface of the ground, unless it be rock, when used as a
road, is soon brought to such a condition by the action of the weather and
of vehicles as to offer great obstacles to convenient communication. On this
account artificial roads have been constructed since very ancient times, and
remains of such which have been preserved to the present time show how
carefully and judiciously they were designed. The first highroads of
which we have any knowledge were built by Semiramis, and one of them
led from Susa to Sardis, a distance of 2100 miles. The Carthaginians also
had artificial roads, and the oldest in China were built so durably as to be
still available. The Greeks, especially the Athenians, constructed excellent
roads, particularly for their religious processions, as for instance the sacred
road of Eleusis, and that to Delphi; there was also such a one near
Cyrene.

The Romans, especially in the reigns of Augustus, Vespasian, and
Trajan, constructed causeways from the city of Rome to all parts of the
empire, however difficult the ground, all of which radiated from a central
column (melliare aureum) and were divided into miles of eight stadia each.
They were built with extreme care, and remains of these Roman roads are
found in almost all parts of Europe. They have below a bed of mortar

substratum) of about one inch in thickness; on this rests a stratum ten
582

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 3

inches in depth, of flat stones (statwmen) laid in mortar and breaking joints,
which serves as a support for the second stratum of 8-10 inches, composed
of concrete (rudus) or small pebbles cast in cement. The third layer con-
sists of a mass of lime and brick-dust (#wcleus), on which finally was placed
a stratum of gravel or a stone pavement (swamum dorsum). In this way
the body of the road was something over three feet in depth. Besides these
roads they had others of less importance, consisting of two gravel-ways
twenty feet in width.

In the middle ages the Roman roads were suffered to fall into decay, and
no new ones were constructed except in France by Queen Brunehild, for
which reason causéways are even now called chemins brunehauds in Bel-
gium. In modern times causeways were first built in Holland, and
subsequently in Spain, England, Germany, and France.

A. Streets in Cities.

Streets in cities are paved with stones almost without exception, and only
in some cities the streets in the suburbs are made in the manner of cause-
ways as we shall describe them below. |

The paving of streets may be done in two ways; that most commonly in
use is represented on pl.1, jig.5. ‘There are others, however, constructed in
the manner shown in jig. 38. Every street should have side-walks along the
houses (jigs. 3, 4, 5, 6) from three to eight feet wide, covered with flags of
granite, or paved with bricks; the latter, however, should only be used
where nothing better can be obtained. Some years ago asphaltum was very
much advocated ; it was mixed with very fine gravel and spread in a semi-
liquid state over the side-walks, when after cooling it presented a smooth
surface similar to granite. The idea was soon given up, however, as the
wear of the asphaltum was very great, and it became soft in very warm
weather.

The carriage-way of the street should be elevated in the centre (jig. 3)
and slightly arched, so as to turn the water to both sides, where it runs off
more readily in gutters (a, fig. 3, and g, fig. 5), which must have a longitudinal
descent. In cities provided with sewers which run along under ground
usually in the middle of the streets, and carry off the rubbish from the
houses as well as the water from the streets, the latter may be much
less arched ; the gutters are in that case provided with conduits covered
with grating, through which the water enters the sewers; these also
have openings through which they may be entered from the street and
cleaned. !

In places where the soil is firm and the seasons generally dry, the pave-
ment itself may be made in the manner shown in pl. 1, jig. 3 being a
section, and jig. 4 a ground-plan. Here the tracks of the wheels only, ec
( fig. 3), and EF (fig. 4), are laid with closely fitted stones, and the spaces
b, d, and 6 (jig. 3) are covered with well-rammed gravel. In most cases,
however, the pavements are made as shown in jigs. 5 and 6, where the
whole street is paved with round stones (pebbles) fitted together as closely
as possible. The wheel-tracks should in any case be laid with flat stones,

5838

4 TECHNOLOGY.

Sf (jig. 5), and the spaces ce paved with small pebbles, on which the horses
have a safer hold. Sometimes long stone sleepers are employed for the
wheel-ways, jointed together as seen at jigs. 7 and 8. Another mode of
joining the stretchers, by Mathews, is shown in jig. 9, by which not
only the lateral displacement but also the lifting of the ends is to be pre-
vented. ‘This is effected by the introduction of a key-stone, d, which may
either be shaped as in jig. 10, cde, or else as in jig. 11, cde.

In order to avoid the disagreeable noise and diminish the dust attendant
on stone pavements, it was proposed in England and France to use instead
of the paving-stones blocks of wood of equal size, placed with the transverse
section of the fibres on the surface.

This idea was favorably received, and trials were made by paving whole
streets in this manner, on which, however, many drawbacks and imperfec-
tions became apparent, the most important among which were the great
cost and the action of moisture, which by swelling the wooden blocks
deranged their position and dle firaptord the pavement. On this account
en pavements have gradually disappeared, but they are frequently
applied in passages, covered ways, and stables, where they are found to
answer very well. There are many different modes of constructing wooden
pavements, and we will proceed to consider some of them.

The simplest kind of wooden pavement consists of cubical blocks of wood
placed so as to break joints on an even and firm foundation of sand, and
firmly pressed together by a curb-frame ; but such a pavement is too much
affected by changes of temperature and moisture to remain in order long,
and with any unequal yielding in the foundation it will become uneven.
It was therefore proposed so to shape and arrange the blocks as to support
each other, similar to the voussoirs of an arch. Of this kind is the pave-
ment represented in pl. 1, fig. 216’. It consists of blocks of wood (jig. 21 a)
the tops of which are regular hexagons, as the dotted lines 0)’ (fig. 21 a)
show, while the lower sides are irregular hexagons of three long and three
short sides, a@and a’. Hig. 21a shows how according to this construction
the sides of the blocks form warped surfaces, which, when the blocks are
arranged as in jig. 210, will hold and lock them in such a manner that no
single one can be removed. Grooves are cut into the upper surface in order
to afford a safe footing for the horses.

Arranged on a similar plan is the construction of Laves of Hanover.
Fig. 13 represents a walk for foot passengers; jig. 12, a carriage-way ;
jig. 14 is a cross-section and jig. 15 a longitudinal one of the latter. Here
the wooden blocks rest on the cross-sill ¢ and the longitudinal beams or
sleepers 4 and 6; their upper surfaces are regular squares, while the sides
are cut obliquely in different forms, and in such a manner that the several
prisms form, as it were, voussoirs of a flat arch, which are held immovably
against each other by a key-prism. The latter is fastened by screw-bolts to
the sleepers. When the pavement gets wet and the prisms swell, the pres-
sure which they exert upon each other, and which otherwise raises the
pavement in the form of an arch, is thus directed downwards, in which
direction no displacement is possible.

584

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 5)

An improved construction has been sometimes used, which is shown in
pl. 1, jigs. 16-20. Here we have first a substructure, which of itself is
a wooden pavement, through which, however, the moisture that penetrates
from above is drained off into the bed of sand below. /%g. 16 shows this
substructure, which can be conveniently taken up when water or gas pipes,
&e., are to be laid. Two or more sills are placed lengthwise at suitable
distances from each other and united at intervals by cross-ties. On these
sills rest short pieces of plank, aaa, bevelled at both ends in opposite direc-
tions (jig. 17), the piece d remaining, however, which prevents the pieces
of plank from being pushed closely together, thus leaving the interstices ¢¢u
( fig. 16), which serve as drains. Those pieces which abut against the curL
of the pavement (jig. 16, left side) are fastened to the sill. No further
fastening is required, as any pressure acting on the substructure will only
serve to bring its several parts more closely together. ‘he prisms for the
_ pavement itself are made of various forms, some of which are represented

in jigs. 18,19, 20, and 21. Of these jigs. 18 and 19 show a pavement whicis
is very suitable where the ascent is considerable and the horses require
a very secure footing. The perspective view (jig. 19) shows the form of
the single blocks as well as the manner in which they are alternately sc
placed as to afford a firm step both in ascending and descending. /%g. 2%
shows a combination of blocks which also forms a very firm pavement.
They are truncated pyramids, alternately inverted, and two such courses
will support themselves entirely.

Great attention is at all times to be bestowed on the cleanliness of streets.
and especially of wooden pavements, but the cleaning when done by human
labor is too expensive and slow. Many attempts have been made in
England and France to perform this labor by machines, and one of the
most effective of these is represented in jig. 27. It is a street-cleaning
machine made by Whitworth & Co. of Manchester, where as well as in
London it has for some time been successfully in use. Two horses with
a driver can work with a machine of the dimensions given below with
a speed of 100 feet per minute, and thus can sweep thoroughly in one hour
120 yards of a street 50 feet in width.

The machine consists of a cart provided with an apparatus which sweeps
the street, and carries the dust and rubbish into the interior of the cart.
when it is moved. In this consists its superiority over other machines of
this kind, which only move the dirt aside, and leave it to be carted away
separately. It operates equally well on all kinds of pavements and roads.

The machine represented in jig. 27 consists of a two-horse cart, a, of ordi-
nary size, with two large wheels, B ; the body of the cart hangs low between
the wheels, and consists of two parts, the lower one of which can be taken
off when full and exchanged for another. or this purpose it is suspended
by chains passing over pulleys, x. Both pulleys are on the same axle,
which also carries a cog-wheel that is moved by an endless screw, which
may be turned by a crank or key in a place accessible to the driver. In
this way the lower part or box which, when in use, is fastened by bolts,

may be exchanged for another when required, and thus when the place of
585

6 TECHNOLOGY.

deposit is at a distance, the full boxes may be left and afterwards carried
off together in a frame-cart. Through the bottom of « passes a pipe, the
upper end of which reaches a little above the top of the full load of solid
dirt; in the cart the fluid and solid parts will separate, and the former may
be drained off into the sewers by opening the bottom of the pipe.

At the top of the back part of the cart there is an axle movable in fixed |
bearings, carrying two pulleys, p, of 1 foot diameter, at a distance of 3 feet
4 inches apart ; outside of these pulleys movable about the ends of the axle
are two light wrought-iron frames, which carry at their lower ends the
bearings for another axle, on which also two pulleys, 5, are fixed. Round
the pulleys p and E pass two parallel endless chains, F, on which are fixed,
at regular intervals, thirty rows of brooms, 3 feet 4 inches inlength. On the
top of the frame is a light cover of sheet-iron; below is a wide trough rest-
ing with its upper end on the top edge of the lower cart-box. On the axle
p there is finally a pinion into which works a large cog-wheel on the inner
face of one of the cart-wheels; and thus when the cart is drawn by the
horses the system of brooms is made to move in the direction of the arrows,
each broom successively touching the street and carrying the dirt up the
trough into the box. When the lower box is to be changed, or the full cart
is to be drawn away, the whole broom-frame is raised into a horizontal
position. For this purpose it is provided with the sector, 1, over which
passes a chain that winds up on the pulley #; the latter is also moved by
a crank, endless screw, and cog-wheel. On the axle of u is another pulley,
over which also passes a chain, to the end of which weights may be applied
in order partially to balance the weight of the broom-frames, and thus to
regulate the pressure used in sweeping. An apparatus for counting the
revolutions may also be attached to the axle, which is advantageous when
the work is contracted for by the square yard.

B. Roads.

Roads connecting places of importance, and forming the great arteries
of the country through which they pass, are constructed with great care ;
they are regularly graded, drained, secured from inundation, and covered
with gravel or broken stone, so as to be easily and safely travelled at all
seasons.

The grade of a road, ¢. ¢. its inclination to the horizon, should in no
place be so steep as to require heavy wagons to take additional teams, or
in descending to lock their wheels; it should not exceed 3-5 per cent.
The road should be sufficiently wide to allow two wagons to pass each
other conveniently without encroaching upon the foot-way ; the width of
the roadway should therefore be at least 24 feet. In regions subject to
inundation, safety requires that the road should be above the level of the
highest water, and guarded against its pressure by bridges and break-
waters. In order to allow the rain-water to run off rapidly, a transverse
convexity is given to the road-way, efi m (pl. 1, jigs. 1 and 2); the foot-
‘paths de and mn should also have a slight lateral slope towards the side-
‘channels. The depth of the latter is 3-4 feet, and when the road is on a

586

i! a

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION, 7

level with the adjacent ground, as in jig. 1, the slopes of the side-channel
abed may be 1 base tol perpendicular. When the road is on an embank-
ment, as in jig. 2, its side slope should be 14 base to 1 perpendicular, and
the same slope, or even a less inclination, is required for the sides of exca-
vations. The bottom )c¢ 0 p of the*drains is two feet in width. At intervals
walled drains, termed calverts, built of stone or brick, and usually arched
at the top, pass under the road, and convey the water to the main drains
which communicate with the natural courses. Shade-trees should not be
planted on the road itself, as they are apt to keep it damp.

When a road is to be made, the country through which it is to pass is
carefully surveyed and mapped; profiles of the surface are obtained by
means of the spirit-level, and from these data the location of the road is
determined on, and estimates made of the required structures, such as
bridges, culverts, and side-walks, and of the number of cubic yards of
embankment and excavation. The line of road being thus marked on the
ground, the grading and draining are done according to the plan proposed ;
on each side of the road from 3 to 6 feet are marked off for the footpaths
de and mn (jigs. 1 and 2), and two rows of curbstones placed at e and m.
The paved bottom road covering (fig. 1) is formed of three layers of stone.
The bottom layer, /, consists of small blocks of stone, about 6 inches high,
packed together as closely as possible, the interstices being filled with small
stones compactly set with a hammer. ‘The second layer, g, of broken stone,
is made four inches high, and the convexity of the carriage-way is begun
tobe formed. The third layer, / should consist of the hardest broken stone,
of the size of a pigeon’s egg, and should again be from 4 to 6 inches high. A
coating of clean gravel, two inches thick, termed a bending, is spread on the
surface, and levelled by means ofa road-roller. The elevation of the centre
of the carriage-way is about one eighteenth of its width. ‘The foot-paths are
also covered with gravel, and serve as abutments for the body of the road.

In order to diminish the wear and tear of the road as well as of the con-
veyances, swmmer roads are sometimes laid out on the sides of stone roads.
They are not covered with stone, and are closed by gates in wet weather
and in winter.

The materials for a good road-covering are the harder kinds of stone,
quartz, the scorize of iron-furnaces, poor iron-ore, &c. Sandstone and all
kinds of slate are too friable for the purpose. In Holland the so-called
klinker roads are made, which are covered with brick baked very hard,
called klinkers.

Another mode of forming the road-covering was first brought into notice
by McAdam; roads made according to his system are called Macadam-
ized, and have been adopted in many states on account of the economy in
their first construction. PJ. 1, fig. 2, represents a road of this kind; the
covering consists entirely of broken stones, those of the bottom layer being
about as large as hens’ eggs, and those on top of the size of a hickory-nut;
gravel when it can be procured is preferable for the top-coating. Roads of
this kind will only answer when the subsoil is very firm ; they require much
care during the first years, as deep ruts are readily made, which must be

587

8 TECHNOLOGY.

constantly filled up, but after some time the whole mass will attain a high
degree of compactness and durability.’ - )

We have mentioned above that after the superstructure of stones is spread
on the road, it is pressed and smoothed down by a road-roller. Formerly
huge cylinders of granite were employed for this purpose; the axle, which
passed through the centre, rested on bearings in a square frame, which was
drawn by ten or twelve horses. In modern times cylinders of cast iron are
used, and we will notice two of the various forms which have been given to
these rollers.

The road-roller of Schattenmann consists of a hollow cast iron cylinder of
4 feet diameter and 4 feet width. On each side is fastened by screws a cross
of cast iron, through the centre of which the axle passes. On the ends of
the axle rest cast iron bearings which are attached to the under side of the
frame which carries a box 6 feet long, 5 feet wide, and 2 feet high, capable
of being loaded with three tons of stone. Attached to the frame are two
scrapers of plate iron, two brakes which can be pressed against the cylinder
by screws, and four rings through which levers can be pressed to prevent
the roller from upsetting on inclined grades or very soft ground. At each
end of the frame is a pole and below it a runner, in order to be able to
reverse the motion without turning the roller round. The cast iron cylinder
with arms and axle weighs about two tons, the frame and box about one ton,
and, by loading the roller, the weight of the whole may be increased to six
tons. P1.1, fig. 22, is a side view of this machine, and fig. 23 a part of the
section of the cylinder with its arms and axle. a is the cylinder, B the
frame, c the box, p the brakes, = the adjusting screws for the same, F
the scrapers, ¢ the runners, # the poles, shown in part, 1 the arched floor
of the box, x the bar supporting the latter. The roller is drawn by six
or eight horses, and is at first, passed over the road several times without
additional load, after which the box is gradually loaded to the full extent.
In one working-day 2,500 sq. yards may be worked in this way; the road
must be kept moist, however, the whole time.

The road-roller by Scheefer is loaded within the cylinder. /%g. 24 repre-
sents a side view of it, fig. 25 a section of the cylinder, and jig. 26 a hori-
zontal section of the whole machine. The axle rests in bearings on the
frame EF, to which the pole B is attached. In the interior of the cylinder is
a hexagonal system of boxes, 2, 7, 4 (fig. 25), which are held by the arms 7/7,
and the knees d; these boxes or cells are loaded when required with bars
of lead or iron, through the openings m, ™, which are closed by covers and
bars, 6,6 (fig. 24). This roller has the advantage that the axle and frame are
not loaded as much as in the preceding one, the pressure being more imme-
diately upon the road; the axle may therefore be of less diameter, and less
force will be required to move the roller.

C. Tunnels.

Tunnels are subterranean roads which are excavated through mountains,
under rivers, or under structures, in order to avoid the obstacles presented
to their passage on the surface. The ancients appear to have made tunnels

588

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 9

at early date, for in Babylon an arched way 500 feet long, 15 feet wide, and
6 feet high, passed under the bed of the Euphrates connecting the two
palaces. The grotto of Pausilippo near Naples is also a structure of this
kind. In modern times tuunels have been excavated in most civilized
countries. In Germany we name the tunnel near Tiibingen in Wirtemberg,
by means of which the river Ammer is carried through the Oesterberg ;
also the tunnel near Reichenau in Austria, 1,362 feet long, and 3,700 feet
above the level of the sea, through which a stream is made to pass for the
purpose of floating wood to Vienna. In France the canal of Languedoc is
carried through a mountain. Between Gravesend and Rochester in Eng-
land is a tunnel of about two miles in length, through which passes a canal
connecting the river Medway with the Thames. The Bridgewater canal
passes through a tunnel near Manchester, and various other tunnels for
similar purposes existin England. Of Railroad tunnels we shall speak below.

The most remarkable tunnel is the celebrated Thames tunnel, of which
we have given representations in pl. 1, jigs. 28-34. It was built by Sir I.
Brunel, a French engineer, who on seeing a ship’s keel hollowed out entirely
by the worm, had conceived the idea that a large tunnel might be made by
driving a number of small tunnels close to each other. For this purpose he
constructed his so-called shield, of which a single field is represented in jig.
33. These fields, of which there are twelve in all, as jig. 31 shows, consist
of the bottom-plates, 7, 7, the side-faces, d, composed of several pieces, and the
top-plates, ce, ¢; each has three compartments, in each of which a man can
work erect. The openings in the side-plates allow the workmen to assist
each other. The forward face of the field is composed of a number of iron
plates, a, a, 6 inches wide and 2 inches thick, each of which is supported by
two screws against the side pieces, when the shield is placed against the
earth wall that is to be perforated. The earth is thus sustained while the
shield itself abuts at its head and foot plates against the masonry, and can
be moved forward by screws. 7g. 32 shows this plainly. When the work
is to proceed each workman takes out one of the foot-plates, a, and removes
the earth immediately before it to exactly the depth of 6 inches, after which
he inserts the plate again and presses it firmly against the new wall by
means of the screws. He then takes up the next plate and proceeds as
before, until he has pushed forward all its plates, when six inches will
have been gained on the whole face of the tunnel, and the shield can be
moved forward by that amount. The newly gained space is immediately
closed by the arches (jigs. 31 and 32), while the thirty-six workmen in the
shield proceed to excavate another 6inches. In this manner the pressure of
the earth is supported at all times, except at the small spaces where the
earth is just being moved, and these may be closed at once should any
portion suddenly give way. ‘The form and dimensions of the arches are
shown in jig. 31.

The success of the work is wholly due to the use of this shield and
Brunel’s unflinching perseverance. The shield, which is entirely his
invention, has been set up by the proprietors of the tunnel as a monument
in honor of the distinguished engineer.

589

10 TECHNOLOGY.

The tunnel is situated between Wapping and Rotherhithe (see the plan,
Jig. 28) at the only point between London Bridge and Greenwich where it.
could be driven without endangering the foundations of the bridges across the
Thames. The banks of the river at this place are but 1200 feet distant from
each other. Formerly it was necessary to make a circuit of four miles to
pass from one side of the river to the other.

The joint-stock company which constructed the tunnel was formed in
1824, and the work was commenced in the following year by the construc-
tion of a cylinder of brick, fifty feet in diameter, three feet thick, and forty-
two feet high, on the Rotherhithe shore, 150 feet from the river. This
cylinder rested on a cast iron ring, sharp on its lower edge, and its masonry
was well connected by iron rings and anchors. On its top was erected a
steam-engine of thirty horse-power for the purpose of elevating the earth
and water from the excavation; the earth being dug away from under the
cylinder, it gradually descended until in this manner a walled shaft of
sixty-five feet depth was obtained; a second shaft eighty feet deep was sunk
in the first one, to serve as a reservoir for the water. The tunnel com-
mences at a depth of sixty-three feet; it was excavated thirty-eight feet
wide and twenty-two and a half feet high, as it was to afford room for two
arches, each fifteen feet high, and having a footway besides the carriage-
way (pl. 1, jig. 80). The entrance to the tunnel from the shaft is shown in
jig. 84. The excavation of the tunnel was commenced on the first of
January, 1826. For every foot in length about 45-50 tons of earth were
removed and delivered at the head of the shaft by the steam-engine, and
5,500 bricks were required for the masonry. Although the tunnel descends
about three feet in every hundred, yet it approaches the bed of the river
near the middle to within ten feet (jig. 29). Still no aceident happened
until the 18th of May, 1827, when at a distance of 544 feet from the shaft
the water broke in with such violence that within fifteen minutes the tunnel
was filled with water and about 1,000 tons of sand. On examining the
break with the diving-bell it was found that the arches had not been
damaged, and that the shield remained in its place. The break was filled
with 3,000 earth bags, each containing a ton of clay, and the water being
pumped out, the work was re-ccommenced in September, but progressed very
slowly, as the workmen were much inconvenienced by fire-damp, and the
work was often dangerous. Fifty-two feet more were completed when, on
the 12th of January, 1828, the water broke in a second time and filled the
tunnel in ten minutes. On this occasion six workmen lost their lives.
This break having also been closed by means of 4,000 tons of clay in bags,
the water was again pumped out; but the work stopped here for want of
funds. Seven years afterwards, when government agreed to advance
all the funds required, the work was taken up again, but progressed very
slowly on account of the difficulties of the ground. Three more breaks
also occurred, but one life only was lost. In January, 1841, the tunnel had
reached the opposite bank, a distance of 1,140 feet, and on the 13th of
August of the same year Sir i. Brunel walked for the first time below the
Thames from one shore to the other. On the 25th of March, 1843, the

590

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 11

tunnel was completed with the exception of the descending road for the
carriages, and was opened for foot passengers. The carriage road on each
side is forty feet wide and descends fifty-seven feet in two turns of a spiral
of 200 feet in diameter, the grade being thus very moderate. The archways
are lighted by gas, and the temperature in them is but little different
from that of the open air.

The whole cost of the work, originally estimated at $800,000, amounted
to $3,000,000, on account of the breaks and many other accidents ; and the
excavation and removal of a cubic yard of earth cost on the average $16.
According to a moderate estimate the income of the tunnel amounts to
$100,000 annually.

D. Raulroads.

Roads with wheel-tracks of large blocks of dressed stone closely fitted
were used early by the Egyptians and Indians in order to transport with
more facility the great burdens they used in their structures, and a stone
road of that kind led from Palmyra to Baalbec through the desert. The
Romans had similar stone-tracks, for which they used granite, porphyry,
and syenite ; but still the blocks were frequently crushed by the immense
loads transported over them, and on that account stone-tracks gradually fell
into disuse.

About 300 years ago the first wooden railroads were built in Germany, —
in the mines of the Hartz mountains. The track consisted of two parallel
beams or sleepers of timber, between which the wheels ran on planks. The
roads affording great facility, Queen Elizabeth employed German miners to
construct similar ones in England in iron and coal mines. It often occurred
that the carriages were thrown off the track by stones and other impedi-
ments, in order to obviate which iron tires with exterior flanges were put
on the wheels. The rapid wear of the wooden rails, which did not last over
six years, caused in 1738 the employment of flat bars of cast iron, which
were secured with spikes to the wooden rails. In 1770 the continuous
wooden support was replaced by stones and the flat rails by prismatic ones
(edge rails), and next came the Vignole or T-rails. In 1776 Carr proposed
to support the rails on wooden cross-sills, and in 1797 Barnes employed
blocks of stone in place of the latter. Since 1810 wrought iron has been
used for rails instead of cast iron, and the rails may thus be made
15-18 feet long, and much lighter than before when they were but 3-4 feet
long.

At first railroads were only introduced to facilitate the transportation of
burdens by horse-power, one horse drawing as much on the railroad as eight
on a common road. After the invention of the steam-engine, Dr. Robinson
suggested in 1750 that it might be used as a motive power on railroads, but
the idea was ridiculed as insane ; it was however pursued by Watt in 1769,
and by Evans in North America in 1786, but without any practical attempt.
It was only in 1802, after the invention of the high pressure steam-engine,
that the inventors Trevithic and Vivian undertook the construction of a
locomotive steam-engine, and in 1804 they obtained a patent for one to

591

12 TECHNOLOGY.

move carriages on arailroad. The first engine drew on the Merthyr-Tidwyl
road five carriages of iron-ore weighing eleven tons, a distance of nine

iles in 1? hour. At the same time Oliver Evans constructed a locomotive
in the United States, but it was not until 1824 that Stephenson built the first
successful locomotive for the Stockton and Darlington railroad, by which
at length passengers were transported in 1826. It still remained doubtful
whether preference was not due to the employment of stationary steam-
engines, until in 1829Stephenson’s locomotive ‘“* Rocket ” was victorious in
all trials. When in 1830 the Liverpool and Manchester railroad succeeded
beyond expectation, and Stephenson’s tubular boilers proved to be as safe as
advantageous, the railroads at once rose to that high degree of importance
which has ever since continued to increase. From that time no branch of
industry has been so much the object of new inventions as railroads; the
most ingenious men surpassed themselves in constantly adding new improve-
ments to their engines. Self-acting inclined planes and stationary steam-
engines were employed for overcoming steep grades, and new forces were
sought in order to replace steam by a less expensive motive power, of which
however atmospheric pressure was the only one practically attempted, in
1839, but has since been abandoned.

After England the United States were the first to introduce railroads
with locomotive steam-engines. The first railroad in France was that from
St. Etienne to Lyons, built in 1827; in Germany that from Nurnberg to
Firth, in 1835. Since then railroads have been constructed in all the
European States, and in a few years a connected system of railways will
be spread over all Europe.

After this brief historical review we will now proceed to treat of the
construction of railroads and the motive power employed on them.

1. Location oF A Ratroap. ‘The location or first determination of a
railroad line is a matter of the greatest importance, as the success and value
of the work are in a great measure dependent on a judicious selection of the
line, and the highest qualities of talent and knowledge are required in the
engineer who undertakes the task. The considerations that must mainly
guide in the location are, the object of the road, the grades and curvatures,
the physical conditions of the country, and the relative cost of the road in
different locations.

The objects of railroads may be various. A main line which is intended
to connect distant parts of a country and to serve as a basis for a system of
branch roads which are to intersect the country in every direction, will be
made to pass through the most important places only, pursuing its general
direction without reference to minor towns. If a road in a sparsely popu-
lated country is intended to serve as a means of promoting its colonization,
the physical conditions of the country will be the prevailing consideration,
and the road will pass through those regions the agricultural or mineral
products of which promise the greatest success. Again the object of a road
may be to transport passengers and freight by the same power as rapidly
as possible from one terminus of the road to the other; in this case the
straight direction of the road would be a main condition, which, however,

592

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 13

would have to yield if unfavorable grades occurred, or the direct line could
only be obtained by a disproportionate expenditure.

An important point to be kept in view in the location of a road is the
distribution of excavations and embankments, which should, if possible, be
so arranged that the amount of earth to be moved in either case is nearly
equal. Opportunities of using the earth from neighboring hills for embank-
ments must also be regarded; the surplus of excavated earth must either
be disposed of by augmenting the side slopes of the embankments or else a
suitable place of deposit must be provided near the road. Of still greater
importance are the grades of the road, and great changes of direction or
even the abandonment of a particular route may be occasioned by the
unfavorable nature of the country. It is generally received that from 8 to
9 lbs. per ton is the resistance of friction on a level road, so that 1 in 280 is
about the inclination at which the action of gravity equals the resistance of
friction.

Descending grades should be carefully avoided when the point to be
reached is higher than the point of departure. When favorable gradients
cannot be obtained, we must at least endeavor to cross valleys on their
highest ridges and hills on their lowest depressions, or else, if a satisfactory
line cannot thus be obtained, the obstacles must be overcome by stationary
steam-engines or by tunnels. The admissible grades on a railroad will be
determined by the probable amount of transportation and the power which
may be available in each case. The gradients may either conform in
general to the face of the country and undulate with the same, or else the
elevation to be overcome may be concentrated in some few places, where
in consequence the grades will be short and steep, requiring the employ-
ment of additional locomotives or of stationary engines, while for the
remainder of the road much more favorable grades and partial levels will
be obtained. A road laid out on the first system requires in general less
capital, and less labor on the part of the engineer, while the second system
calls for the exertion of the highest powers on the part of the latter, and
frequently involves a much larger capital ; but on the other hand the speed
will be much more uniform and the wear and tear of locomotives will be
less than on the undulating grades, the varying power on which is very
injurious to the engines. To which of these systems the preference is due
in any particular case must be determined by existing circumstances, the
value of a railroad depending mainly on the amount of transportation of
freight and passengers. Whether the road is mainly to be used for travel
or for transportation of freight will materially influence the choice of
location, as in the former case speed, in the latter power, are the chief con-
siderations. In cases where the bulk of transportation is in one direction,
as on roads carrying coal from the mines to market, ascending grades in
that direction will, if possible, be avoided altogether.

Another essential point to be kept in view in the location of a railroad
line are the curves arising from changes of direction. Independently of the
increase in length of the road the curves exert a very injurious influence on
the locomotives and cars. In turning a curve the flanges of the wheels will

ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOPADIA.—VOL, IV. 38 593

14 | TECHNOLOGY.

impinge against the rails, and the outside wheels must pass over a longer
space than the inside wheels, and therefore are dragged a certain distance
over the rail, which causes great friction and torsion in the axles. It has
been attempted to diminish the dragging of the exterior wheels and the
friction of the flanges by giving a conical form to the tire of the wheels and
elevating the exterior rail in curves by a certain amount, by means of
which the force of gravity will counteract the tangential velocity to some
extent. Nevertheless the resistance of friction remains very prejudicial in
practice, and its amount depends on the length of the radius of curvature,
on the width of the track, on the length and weight of the train and its -
speed. It will become still more sensible if faults exist in the laying of the
rails and in the construction of the cars.

2. ConsTRUCTION OF A Ramroap. In proceeding to the actual work of
construction after having perfected the plans, the attention of the engineer
must be directed to a great variety of points, all of which are essential to
the ultimate success of the road. We will now follow the several steps of
the construction of a railroad.

a. Grading. In railroads the principle that they should be dry and
secure from inundation is of still greater importance than in common roads,
as it is essential to the duration of the superstructure.

In order to give solidity to embankments the newly filled earth must
always be spread equally over the road. HEmbankments of no great depth
may be made solid by ramming and rolling, but if they are considerable,
the filling should be done in layers and the material so spread as to produce
a firm combination of the masses of earth. Ifthe earth is to be moved but
a short distance, wheelbarrows may be employed, but for distances of any
considerable length two-wheeled carts are used, which are often made to
run on temporary railroad tracks. Embankments should not be formed by
filling from one side to the other, raising the whole at once (s¢de-forming),
but rather by embanking out from one end in the whole width of the bank,
by which some solidity is given to the lower portion by the pressure of the
superincumbent earth as well as that of the carts and workmen. When
side-forming is resorted to it should be done as indicated in pl. 2, jig. 1
(that is to say, the filling should be commenced from the bottom for some
distance along the embankment, by means of a guide-way, b, supported on
trestles, cc, filling first the part ad of the slope, next de, and so on. The
core of the profile is considerably solidified in this manner, but the method
is expensive and slow). For very wide embankments (jig. 2), the two out-
side portions dc and fg may be completed first with the aid of temporary
tracks, and the interior part de filled afterwards. All embankments are at
first to be made higher than the required grade of the road by the probable
amount of settling of the earth. Very high banks should be allowed at
least a winter season to settle before the superstructure is laid, a precaution
to be recommended for all embankments. ‘The inclinations of the side
slopes should always be less than that which the earth naturally assumes ;
it will generally be from 1 upon 1 to 1 upon 1}, and according to cireum-
stances even 1 upon 2 and less.

594

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 15

The width of the roadway will depend on the number of tracks, but it is
advisable always to grade for two tracks, even where only one is to be laid
at first; because a subsequent widening of the embankments is always
attended with a want of firmness, which is not counterbalanced by the
advantage of transporting the material on the finished track. The distance
between two tracks is made a little greater than the width or gauge of the
track. From 4 to 5 feet are generally allowed from the end of the supports
of the track to the beginning of the side slopes. In cuttings, at least 4 feet
should be left between the longitudinal supports of the rails and the side-
drains. To preserve the side slopes they should be sown in grass seed or
sodded ; low bushes may also be planted to advantage.

In order to keep the road dry, drains are made along the foot of embank-
ments. In excavations, drains are necessary not only by the sides of the
roadway, but also above the side slopes, in order to carry off the surface
water. PI. 2, jig. 3, gives an idea of such an arrangement when walled
drains, 6 df e, run along the road 272; & is the ordinary ditch, 2 a second
one on the hill side. In England gutters of earthenware or other drains, g,
are sometimes used under the middle of the track to carry off the water from
the superstructure.

Cross-drains or culverts are constructed in various ways, of which’ some
examples are given in figs. 4, 5,6, and 7. In wet or marshy soil drains must
be made under the body of the road emptying into the side drains; an
example of this is given in jig. 3.

In localities where land is very expensive, and stone can be obtained
at moderate cost, the extent of the side slopes both in cutting and filling
may be diminished by building sustaening walls, of which jigs. 11 and 12
show examples. They may be built of dry masonry, and should have a
batter of at least 1 upon 10.

The best materials for embankments are gravel, sand, and clay; clay,
which mixes very readily with water, and earth containing vegetable sub-
stances, are least adapted to the purpose. In marshy localities it is often
requisite to remove the upper stratum to the depth of several feet, and to
fill in solid material, such as gravel. When this is not sufficient, and the
subsoil will not sustain the weight of the road and trains, it is best to drive
wooden piles on which the superstructure for the railroad is placed. F%g.
24 shows a road partially sustained by piles.

In regions where timber is abundant, the use of wooden trestles or truss-
work in the place of embankments is sometimes resorted to. Structures of
this kind are required to be very firm in order to withstand the racking
caused by the passage of the trains. Embankments are generally filled in
afterwards to take the place of the woodwork as it decays, and this system
is found very suitable in cases where the funds for the construction of a
road are not abundant, and it has to be built in part from its income. 2.
2, jigs. 18, 14, and 15, represent a structure of this kind; jig. 13 is a side
view, jig. 14 a top view without the superstructure, and jig. 15 a cross-
section. The sleepers aa support the three uprights 0b), sustained by the
side-braces dd, which form a kind of truss with the cross-tie c¢; on the

595

16 TECHNOLOGY.

latter rest the timbers ee which support the track; ff are the stringers on
which rest the longitudinal sleepers of the track or the rails; gg are side
railings.

As railroads frequently cross common roads, regard must be had to these
crossings in arranging the grades of the road. If the highway is to pass
above the railroad, which consequently is in excavation, the depth of the
cut, as well as in all cases the importance of the road, will determine the
manner of bridging. The clear space between the bridge and the rails
should in general not be less than 16 feet, in order to allow a free passage
for the chimneys of the locomotives. When the cut is of a less depth, the
required elevation must be attained by making an embankment on the
highway on each side of the bridge, the grade of which must not be steeper
than 1 in 15. <A separate chapter will be devoted to the construction of
bridges; but to illustrate road-crossings, we have given in pl. 2, figs. 16, 17,
and 18, a viaduct of masonry; jig. 16 is a side view on the left, and a
longitudinal section on the right; jig. 17 is a ground plan of an abutment,
and jig. 18 a horizontal section below the roadway. 72g. 19 shows a per-
spective view of a viaduct of very similar construction.

Whea, on the other hand, the grade of a railroad is at a considerable
elevation above a highway, the former must cross on a bridge, which,
whether built of wood or stone, must have strong abutments and wing walls
of stone to sustain the embankments on both sides. /%g. 20 shows a
viaduct of this class ; jig. 21 is the ground plan of an abutment, and jig. 22
a horizontal section below the roadway. In cases where the railroad crosses
a valley on a viaduct, no especial construction will be required for a road-
crossing, except perhaps a slight change in the direction of the highway, in
order to make it pass through one of the bays of the viaduct. When
the elevation of the railroad is not sufficient to allow the highway to
pass under it, the latter is brought to the level of the former by means of
embankments. Road-crossings on a level are prohibited by law in England.
They are, however, very frequent in the United States and in Germany,
and no accidents appear to have occurred at such crossings where proper
care has been used. An elevated pavement of wood or stone must be laid
at such crossings, even with the top of the rails, as shown in jigs. 45, 46, and
47. The edges of the pavement next to the rails are covered with flat iron
bars, 60’ ; they must not approach the rails on the inner side nearer than
about two inches, in order to leave the spaces, ¢ (jig. 47), for the flanges
of the wheels. They are either even with the rails (jig. 46) or elevated
above them as in jig. 47; the latter arrangement has the advantage that
the wheels of the carriages crossing the railroad will not touch the rails,
while on the other hand it has the disadvantage that dirt accumulates
easily on the rails, causing great friction, and sometimes even throwing
the cars off the track; constant attention, therefore, is required in such
places.

Rivers and streams are crossed by railroads on bridges built either of
stone, wood, or iron, and requiring various modifications of construction
according to the length and angle of the crossings. The chapter on dridge-

596

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 17

building will give the details on this subject. Drains and small water-
courses are crossed by means of culverts, which are also bridges on a small
scale. An arched culvert is represented in pl. 2, figs. 8, 9, and 10, in
front view and cross-sections. When the elevation of the track is not
sufficient to admit of an arched stone culvert, iron plates may be employed ;
and when locomotives only are used, it is not necessary to cover the drain,
longitudinal string-pieces being laid across the opening to support the rails.

When the line of a railroad is interrupted by rocks or hills where an
excavation is impracticable, and the location of the road cannot be changed,
it becomes necessary to pierce the obstacle by tunnels, which are driven
according to the principles of mining, and which if very long require to be
ventilated by shafts from above. /%g. 23 shows the mouth of a railroad
tunnel in a mountainous region.

b. The Superstructure. The durability and safety of a railroad are
altogether dependent on the quality of the rails, and on their being firmly
fastened to solid supports imbedded below the roadway surface. These
supports may either be of wood or stone, and may continue without inter-
ruption along the track, or support the rails only at certain intervals. The
first railroads had continuous supports and flat bar rails, called plate or tram
rails ; but the difficulty of procuring the large quantities of timber required
for that kind of superstructure, and its great cost, together with the exten-
sive manufacture of iron in England, soon led to the adoption of rails
of sufficient strength not to require a continuous support, but capable of
bearing the load when sustained only at intervals by stone or wooden sills
to which they were attached by iron chairs.

The stone used for supports should be of the densest and hardest kind;
a block intended for the support of one chair should measure at least 2 feet
each way, but generally the top face only need be dressed. Those blocks
on which the ends of two rails meet should be still longer, as on them the
load is not sustained by the rigidity of the rails. To fasten the chairs to
the stone supports, holes are drilled by machinery into the blocks 6 inches
deep and 1 or 14 inches in diameter, to correspond exactly with the holes
in the chairs. The blocks are generally not simply sunk into the roadway,
but a bed of dry masonry 1 to 3 feet thick is carefully laid under each track,
of the width of the supports. On this bed the blocks are accurately
adjusted to the level of the road and firmly packed with gravel, after which
the road is filled up with earth, gravel, or broken stone, to the level of the
blocks, and well rammed. The top layer is made with a transverse con-
vexity for the better drainage. 1. 2, fig. 30, shows a ground plan of this
arrangement, jig. 31 a section. The distance from centre to centre of the
supports varies from 3 to 5 feet; it appears, however, unadvisable to exceed
the measure of 3 feet 4 inches, by which a rail of 15 feet length has five
supports. A distance of 3 feet is still preferable, but more expensive. In
order to prevent the lateral displacement of the rails more effectually than
could be done by a large number of supports for single chairs, large stone
sills have been employed extending entirely across the track and receiving
two chairs, as may be seen in jigs. 30 and 31.

597

18 TECHNOLOGY.

As all embankments settle more or less according to their depth, it
becomes necessary to re-adjust the level of the stone blocks by packing
gravel underneath, which, on account of their weight, is very expensive.
In order to avoid this, wooden cross-sills are generally first used on embank-
ments for the time of their duration, after which they are replaced by
stone blocks, as the road will have become settled by that time. F%g. 29
shows one of these wooden sills. They have great advantages when placed
sufficiently near each other. The best kinds of wood are used for the pur-
pose, generally oak, which sometimes is kyanized. They should be twelve
inches wide, from 4 to 6 in thickness, and 6 feet long, and are generally flat-
tened on top, or else only notched to receive the rails. They are laid on
beds of broken stone, and should not be more than 3 feet apart from
centre to centre. Opinions differ as to the proper height of the filling
between and outside of the tracks. Some keep it below the top of the sills
in order to keep the rails clear of earth, and to air the wood, which they
suppose assists its preservation ; while others prefer to fill up as high as
can be done without interfering with the flanges of the wheels; because
wood, especially oak, is in fact better preserved by being entirely covered
with earth than when partially exposed to the air; and because such filling
protects the wood from being set on fire by coals dropping from the loco-
motives: and besides, in case of the locomotive or any carriage running off
the track, the revolution of the wheels will be gradually stopped, diminish-
ing very much the breakage and danger attenaant upon such accidents.

The fastening of the chairs on stone supports is shown in pl. 2, fig. 33,
which illustrates fhe method used on the London and Birmingham road.
First holes are drilled of 14 inches diameter, to correspond with those in
the chair; on the bottom of the holes iron or wooden wedges, e, are placed
with the edges upwards, and oaken pins, split at the lower end and tarred,
are driven into the holes and cut off even with the chair. The iron spikes
d, chisel-shaped at the lower end, and sometimes barbed, are then driven
home, and confine the chair firmly to the support. The rail ais then placed
into the chair and fastened to it by the wedge c. We must not omit to
mention that the stone-blocks are frequently split by the successive driving
of the pins and spikes, and afterwards by the swelling of the pins by
moisture. Between the chair and stone-block must be placed a plate of
wood, or else a piece of felt, 4 inch thick, and soaked in oil, in order to
break the rebounding which would otherwise be intolerable and ruinous to
the cars.

The first rails were of cast-iron, and it was not until 1820 that at Birking-
shaw, under the direction of J. Stephenson, wrought-iron rails were pro-
duced. Those of cast-iron had the double disadvantage of being necessarily
very short, and so brittle as to break readily when not continuously sup-
ported. They can be used only on roads where the superstructure is made
as is shown in jigs. 25 and 26, where the rails, d, are supported by longitu-
dinal sills, 6, which rest on the cross-sills, a ; or as in jigs. 27 and 28, where
the rail-stringers, ¢¢, rest on stone-beds, a, which have supporting walls at
the junctions of two rails. The use of cast-iron rails has been almost

598

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 19

entirely abandoned since the advantages of wrought-iron rails have been
fully recognised.

The requisites of a good rolled rail are the following: 1. It must be rolled
at an equal temperature throughout, and be entirely free from flaws. 2.
The profile must be precisely the same at both ends, in order to allow per-
fect fittings to be made. 3. The rail must be perfectly straight, and must
have a suitable form. 4. It must offer sufficient surface to the driving
wheels without at the same time producing too much friction; the surface
is therefore generally slightly convex, in order to fit the conical tire in some
measure. 5. That cheek of the rail which is exposed to the greatest pressure
must be sufficiently strong not to break, and somewhat rounded, in order to
correspond to the flange of the wheel.

For the system of interrupted supports (pl. 2, jig. 32), the form and weight
of the rails depend on the weight of the locomotives to be employed, their
required speed, and the distance between the supports, as no flexure should
take place. Various forms of rails have been used; those most generally
employed now have a broad base, an oval top, and are from 3 to 5 inches
high. A weight of 16 or 17 pounds per foot is generally deemed sufficient ;
rails of much less weight have been employed on roads over which no very
heavy trains are transported. The usual length of rails is 15 or 18 feet, and
the ends meet at right angles, although an angle of 45° would be preferable,
as diminishing the shock in passing from one rail to the next.

The fastening of the rail and chair has been effected in many different
ways; at present it is simply done by fastening the rails to the sills by
means of spikes, the heads of which lap over the base of the rail, and at
the ends only iron plates with projections that hold down the rail are used.
Some of the more complicated chairs are shown in pl. 2; fig. 33 is a cast-
iron chair of the London and Birmingham road, the manner of fastening
which has been referred to above; jig. 34 shows Hartley’s chair for the
Manchester and Bolton Road, which is fastened with spikes, ¢, the dotted lines
showing the fastening between the chairs; the rails here weigh 20 pounds
per linear foot. /%g. 36 represents the chair and rail on the Northern road
in Austria, where the rail @ is held in the chair } by the heads of screw-
bolts ec. ig. 37 is a cast-iron bridge-rail and chair of the Providence (R. 1.)
road. The shape of the spikes is shown in jig. 35. F%g. 42 shows Steven-
son’s attachment of chair and rail by which he intended to obviate the
existing imperfections, but which was found too complicated and requiring
too much accuracy in the execution for practical use, although well calculated
to answer its purpose ; @ is the rail, bthe chair, ¢ the wedges, d the spikes, &e.

The method of fastening the rails in the chairs by means of wedges of
wrought-iron has proved to be imperfect, the wedges being loosened by the
vibration of the track caused by the passage of the trains. The wedges in
jig. 33 are of oak-wood prepared with a solution of corrosive sublimate (kyan-
ized ) and compressed by hydraulic pressure ; these also are found to become
loosened, and require constant driving, besides having other disadvantages.
Wedges of tempered cast-iron have been employed with the best success.

The foundation for a superstructure on the plan of continuous support for

599

20 TECHNOLOGY.

the rail is generally a uniform layer of broken stone, into which the sleepers
are imbedded and firmly settled with beetles until no sensible sinking takes
place. The cross-sills are rough hewn in order to remove the sap-wood, and
their ends generally project 12-18 inches beyond the sleepers. The longi-
tudinal sills are let into the cross-sills, and are either wedged or fastened by
means of chairs. In the South it is best to use yellow pine for these, as
that wood warps and cracks less from the effects of the heat than oak.

The arrangement of the timber is shown in pl. 2, jigs. 25 and 26, with a
rail as in jig. 39. The longitudinal sills or stringers will have a depth of
from six to ten inches, according to the strength of the rail and the proposed
burdens ; the supports may be four feet apart, and the length of each
stringer should not be less than twenty feet in order to avoid too frequent
breaks, which in one track should always be opposite the middle of a
stringer on the opposite track. In the same way the joints of the rails
should never correspond with those of the stringers.

Superstructures of this kind being very expensive in countries where
timber is scarce, they have not been introduced to a great extent in Europe;
even in the United States the lower sleepers have frequently been dispensed
with on that account, the cross-sills resting in beds of broken stone. In the
place of wooden supports a stone superstructure has also been employed,
consisting of two continuous parallel walls of stone, connected by cross-ties
of stone, which may be replaced by wooden sills of one foot square, or else
by iron rods and binders, where stones of sufficient length cannot be
obtained. The direct attachment of the rails to stone being very injurious,
as stated above, wood must be interposed between the rail and the support.
Plank of two inches in thickness will suffice for rails of two inches depth,
but heavier string-pieces will be required for rails of less size. Grooves of
the width of the wooden stringers are cut into the stone of such a depth
that the top of the rail is at least two inches above the rough-dressed stone
surface, in order to allow room for the flanges of the wheels. The fastening
of the rail may be done as in pl. 2, jig. 83; jigs. 27 and 28 show a super-
structure of this kind.

The rails used with continuous supports are of very different forms and
sizes, varying from three pounds to eight and even thirteen pounds per
linear foot. The ends are generally cut off at an angle of 45°, sometimes
also in the form of a metre joint (fig. 40), which is preferable. The rails
are fastened to the supports by spikes or screws, the holes for which are
one eighth of an inch longer than required, in order to allow for the effect
of temperature upon the iron. Under the joints are placed plates of zine
or iron, to prevent the ends of the rails from being pressed into the wood.
An excellent form for the flat rail is that shown in jig. 39, weighing nine
pounds per linear foot, which was devised for the New Orleans and Nash-
ville railroad. /%g. 41 shows the ordinary flat rail. Of many other different
forms we only instance that proposed by Strickland, the bredge or U-raal
(fig. 88), weighing 133 pounds per linear foot, and a similar one by J. K.
Brune (jigs. 48 and 44), which has a more convex bearing surface than the
preceding.

600

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 21

P1. 3, fig. 28, is a plan of the superstructure of the Baltimore and Ohio
Railroad ; jig. 23 is a longitudinal section ; fig. 27, a cross-section of the
same. J/g. 26 shows the attachment of the rail to the sill by plates and
screw-bolts ; jig. 24 is a top view and jig. 25 a side view of the chair. The
whole forms an excellent arrangement.

In laying the rails the effect of changes of temperature upon their length
must be paid attention to. The difference in length at extremes of tempera-
ture is from ¢ to 3, of an inch in a rail of 18 ft., and if the rails were laid
close to each other at a low temperature the track would inevitably be torn
up by an increase of heat. In order to avoid this, pieces of iron gauged to
thicknesses corresponding to the existing temperature are interposed between
the ends of the rails while they are being fastened to the supports.

The distance between the inner edges of two opposite rails is called the
gauge of the track. On the first railroads in the coal-mines the gauge was
from 3 ft. to 8 ft. 6 inches, but on the introduction of locomotives the gauge
was increased, and Stephenson first introduced the gauge of 4 ft. 84 inches
on the Stockton and Darlington road. The success of his locomotives
caused them to be employed everywhere, and thus the above gauge of 4 ft.
83 inches came to be almost universally adopted. A wider gauge was sub-
sequently considered by Stephenson himself preferable for the more power-
ful engines built since then; and Brunel proposed a gauge of 7 ft. for the
Great Western Railway, which was adopted. In Russia and in Baden a
gauge of 6 ft. was introduced, but in the latter state it was found necessary
to lay extra tracks for the narrow gauge in order to accommodate trains
from adjoining roads. The broad gauge is also used on the Atlantic and
St. Lawrence Railroad in Maine.

The distance between the rails must be greater by about # of an inch
than that between the flanges of the wheels, so as to allow a play of 2 of an
inch for each wheel, without which the friction would be too great. A
larger play would prove destructive to the road and to the carriages by
allowing the latter to rock violently from side to side. The flanges (pl. 5,
jig. 14¢ and jig. 12a) are on the inside of the wheels and guard the
carriages against sliding off the rails.

On railroads consisting of a single track provision is made for allowing
two trains to pass each other by an arrangement called a seding or turnout,
consisting of a portion of a track laid by the side of the main track, at a
suitable distance from it, and connected with it at each extremity by
a curved portion, which is so arranged by means of a movable part that
the cars can either continue on the main track or enter the turnout, as
circumstances may require. The curved portion must be composed of two
arcs of circles, one tangent to the main track, the other tangent to the
siding, and both tangent to each other midway, but convex in opposite
directions. The movable portion by means of which the cars may be made
at pleasure to take either track is called a switch. A simple arrangement
for turning out to the right is shown in pl. 2, fig. 48, where awa are the rails
of the main track, 66 those of the turnout; the latter do not come close up
to the former, but leave a space of 13 or 2 inches in order to allow the

601

22 TECHNOLOGY.

flanges to pass when the train continues on the main track. Two rails of
the main track are connected by the iron bars ce, and are attached as usual
to chairs at the ends furthest distant from the turnout; each rests on a cast-
iron plate provided with shoulders, ¢e, and is movable by means of a lever
attached to the end of the bar d, its elasticity allowing it to be bent so as
to be on a line with 6, the shoulder e limiting the extent of the motion.
When it is desired to turn out on either side of the main track, the switch
is arranged as in jig. 51, where the rails ef turn out to the left and gk to
the right. :

Another kind of switch is shown in jig. 50; the movable rails and the
tongue s turn on pivots, and are placed in the desired position by means
of a lever attached tom. The construction of such a lever is seen in pil. 3,
jig. 29; it is contained in a box, ghkl, which is partly imbedded in the
earth. The lever d turns on the pivot ¢ and moves the switch by means of
the bar b, attached at a; it is also connected by the band e with a spring,
which is compressed when the lever is brought from the position p into the
position g, when the switch is aligned with the side-track. When the pres-
sure on the lever is relinquished, the action of the spring will replace the
switch in its position in the main track. The switch just described is
used on the London and Greenwich Railroad. When the guide-rails do
not move on pivots, but are only bent, they will of their own accord return
to their former position as soon as the pressure on the bar is relinquished.
Another switch for a turnout is shown in pl. 2, jig. 49, which is an excel-
lent plan.

An arrangement similar to a siding, termed a crossing, is made on roads
with double tracks to enable trains to pass from one track to the other.
Fig. 52 represents a crossing connecting the two tracks cx and pF in every
direction; ab, cd, ef, gh, are the rails of the tracks; 2h, lm, no, pq, rs, tu,
ow, xy, those of the crossing. «8 and yé are two rails 6 ft. in length, form-
ing part of the main tracks and held together by ties as the figure shows ;
they can be moved about a pivot in the centre so as to form the connexion
between any set of corresponding rails, as may be desired. Cast-iron plates,
called crossing-plates or frogs (fig. 54), are laid where the rails cross each
other: d, ¢,.f, g, are the ends of the rails ; the piece abe of wrought-iron is
riveted or screwed on the plate, and the cheeks m and prevent the wheels
from sliding off. It may be preferable to weld the rails together in the
requisite form, as in jig. 53, and to lay the pieces p and g at the sides to
keep the flanges in the proper direction. For unimportant crossings short
tongues of wrought-iron, fastened on wood and brought into the required
position with the foot, are generally sufficient.

Pl. 3, fig. 9, represents a switch with a counterpoise, wu, which causes the
switch to assume its position in the main-track whenever left to itself. The
switch in use on the Magdeburg and Leipsic road is represented in jigs. 10,
11, and 12. It is moved by a crank, A, A (jig. 12), or an eccentric in the
box, ¢, and the position of the target, n (jig. 11), to the right or left always
indicates the position of the switch, the two sides of the target being, more-
over, painted of different colors.

602

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 23

When two tracks diverge at a considerable angle where there is no room
for curves, as at the stations, horizontal disks of wood or iron, called turn-
tables, which revolve about a centre, are employed to transfer cars from one
track to the other. The turn-table is crossed by rails on which, when in
line with one of the tracks, the carriage is drawn; the table is then revolved
until the rails are in line with the other track, when the carriage can be
moved on. Turn-tables are also used to reverse the position of the loco-
motive on the track.

The upper part of pl. 3, jig. 4, shows the top view, the lower part the
substructure ; jig. 5 a section of a turn-table of wrought and cast iron, which
is in very general use. It revolves about the centre pin, a, on eight cast-
iron rollers, B, B, ten inches in diameter, carried by the rods, c, c, which
centre in a wrought-iron ring, p, that turns about the centre pin. The
bearings of the rollers and of the centre pin are plainly seen in fig. 5. The
whole is inclosed by a cast-iron ring, =, cast in four pieces. The disk
consists of four arms, I, 1, crossing it at right angles, and four others, x, x,
which radiate from the centre; the spaces between the arms are filled with
an iron grating. On the top of the table are two tracks crossing each
other at right angles, and corresponding exactly with the track of the road
in gauge and level. Turn-tables of this construction have generally not
more than 16 feet diameter. A turn-table calculated to receive a loco-
motive and tender of 30 feet in length is represented in pl. 3, jig. 1, as
seen from below; jig. 2 is a cross-section on the line 4’, 3’; jig. 3 a longi-
tudinal section on a, 8. It revolves in a circular well, and consists only of
a zone just wide enough to receive the track, in order to be as light as
possible ; it is readily moved by two men when loaded with the engine and
tender. .

c. Stations. The arrangement and size of the buildings at railroad
stations depend of course on the amount of travel and transportation at each
station. Stations of importance have,besides the hall for the arrival and
departure of the cars, a ticket-office, a sitting-room for passengers, a restau-
rant, baggage-room, &c.; warehouses for goods, locomotive and car houses
also belong to main stations, together with offices for the transaction of the
business of the road. On pl. 3, jig. 30, is a view of the Leipsic station of
the Saxon and Bavarian railroad.

At suitable distances along a line of railroad are water-stations for the supply
of the tender. The water is contained in an elevated reservoir from which
it is carried to the tender by a pipe. /%g.6 shows a water-pipe of improved
construction ; the pipe 6 issues from the reservoir, and is closed by the stop-
cock p; when this is opened the water rises in the column a to the valve u,
which is closed by the weight 6, and opened by means of the lever d, when
the tender is brought under the supply-pipe r, which can be turned in all
directions on the support B, E, having a water-tight joint at «. Fig.6 @
is a section on the line 3, 4; jig. 7 one on 1, 2, and fig. 8 one on 5, 6.
Arrangements for warming the water in the reservoir in winter are neces-
sary in cold climates.

3. Mortrve Powrr on Ramways. The power by which loads are trans-

: 603

24 TECHNOLOGY.

ported on railways is that of horses, steam, atmospheric pressure, or gravity.
The employment of horses on railroads differs from that on ordinary roads
only in their being able to draw much heavier loads. We therefore proceed
at once to the consideration of the locomotive steam-engines and cars. The
employment of atmospheric pressure or gravity requiring special modes of
construction, we shall treat of them under separate heads.

a. Locomotives. The general features of a locomotive, aside from the
tender which carries the supply of fuel and water, are the following: A
tubular boiler is supported on a frame with four, six, or eight wheels wedged
firmly on their axles, which turn in bearings. Below the boiler or on both
sides of the frame are two cylinders, the piston-rods of which cause the axles
of the driving-wheels to revolve either by means of cranks or by wrists on
the outside of the wheels. The other wheels either revolve independently,
in which case they are smaller than the drivers, or they are coupled with
the latter by connecting rods, when they must be of exactly the same
diameter.

Pl. 4, fig. 1, is a side view of a locomotive, jig. 2 a vertical section
through one of the cylinders, jig. 3 a horizontal section in the plane of the
sliding-valves, and jigs. 4, 5, and 6, represent the apparatus for working the
valves and reversing the motion in different positions of the eccentrics. a
is the boiler, c the fire-box, r the smoke-box, and «@ the chimney. The
boiler is cylindrical, and is made of sheet-iron of about 4 of an inch in
thickness, riveted steam-tight with 3 inch rivets. It is covered by a
casing of strips of inch plank, hooped together to diminish the radiation of
heat.

The fire-box has double sides, the inner being of sheet copper; it descends
about two feet below the bottom of the boiler. The grating is in the middle
of the bottom part. It is seen by jig. 2 that the fire-box is surrounded by
water in all parts but the door and the grating. The tubes or flues extend
from the fire-box to the smoke-box, and are entirely surrounded by water ;
there are from sixty to one hundred and eighty flues in a boiler, and it is
the large amount of heating surface gained by this arrangement that con-
stitutes the superiority of the tubular boilers over all others in the production
of steam. If any of the flues collapse, the water will enter the fire-box and
put out the fire, but no explosion will ensue.

Below the smoke-box are the two steam-cylinders vv. Above the fire-
box is the steam-dome p, into which the steam rises before passing on to the
cylinders, in order to deposit the particles of water which it carries with it.
The steam then descends as the arrow shows through a funnel, and passing
along the pipe s arrives at the cylinders, as shown by the second arrow.
The enlarged portion of the steam-pipe is screwed into a corresponding
opening at the back of the fire-box, which is covered by a plate provided
with a packing-box, through which passes the spindle of the regulator or
steam valve. By this valve the quantity of steam admitted into the
cylinders is regulated, and it is constructed in various ways. In the engine
before us it is what is called a disk valve, consisting of a circular plate,
from which two segments are cut, working steam tight against a similar

604

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 25

plate at the entrance of the main steam-pipe s; when the movable plate is
turned by the crank so that its openings correspond with those in the
stationary one, the way is opened for the steam from p tos; if the movable
plate be turned a quadrant, then the openings are closed and the steam is
shut off from s.

The main steam-pipe s passes through the forward end plate of the
boiler, and is connected with two descending pipes which carry the steam
to the steam-boxes vu vu, whence it is delivered by the slide-valves to the
cylinders ; the cast-iron steam-boxes are situated immediately over the
cylinders, and are screwed fast at their ends to the boiler plates. The slide-
valves also communicate with the exhaust-pipe r, which conducts the steam
after it has operated upon the pistons into the chimney «a, as indicated by
the arrows (pl. 4, jig. 2). This almost interrupted stream of steam into the
chimney creates a powerful draught, which in stationary engines is accom-
plished by the height of the chimney. Rods connected with the slide-
valves, and passing through stuffing-boxes in the steam chambers, which
are actuated in a manner hereafter explained, serve to bring the valves in
a proper position to throw the steam alternately upon one side or other of
the pistons. When the slide-valve is in the position seen in pl. 4, jig. 30,
the steam is thrown upon the back of the piston, while the space in front
of the piston is opened to the exhaust-pipe. When a contrary motion takes
place in the slide-valves, then the space at the back of the piston is thrown
open to the exhaust-pipe, and the steam rushes out from this side of the
piston. The piston passes through a stuffing-box in the head of the steam-
cylinder, to prevent leakage of the steam and the consequent loss of power.
The end of the piston-rod is attached to a cross-head which runs upon ways,
and is connected by a joint with a connecting-rod, which embraces at its
other end the crank upon the shaft of the main driving-wheel, which thus
receives its motion from the piston.

We come now to the apparatus which serves to regulate the motion of
the slide-valves; in general this is accomplished by eccentrics, of which at
least two are necessary in the locomotive, as there are two cylinders to be
operated. These eccentrics are seen at E, in jigs. 3, 4, and 5, and give
motion to the connecting-rods e f, which operate the double-armed levers
Z ~, connected with the rods, m, which move the slide-valves. The eccen-
trics are so arranged that they admit the steam to the cylinder just before the
piston reaches the end of its stroke; the steam thus operates as a cushion to
receive the blow of the piston, and prevent the injury which would other-
wise result to the machinery. This is called the lead of the engine. /%2g.6
shows an arrangement of double eccentrics, for the purpose of reversing the
motion of the engine.

The wheels are an important part of the locomotive; they are constructed
in a great variety of ways. In the machine before us two kinds of wheels
are used. The middle or driving-wheels have no flange, and a diameter of 6
feet ; the other two pair, the running-wheels, are 4 feet in diameter, and are
furnished with flanges, which serve to retain the locomotive upon the rails.

The rim of the wheels consists of two concentric hoops. The interior, to
605

26 TECHNOLOGY.

which the spokes are secured, is of cast-iron ; the exterior is of wrought-iron

shrunk on while hot. The wheels are all secured fast to their axles, which

project out beyond the wheels, and run in composition-boxes which have

their seats upon the cheeks or pendent arms, seen in jig. 1, formed of strong

plate iron, with which the wooden frame of the locomotive is covered.

Upon the top of each of the journal-boxes rests the end of a vertical rod,

the other end of which is connected with the spring, which for the driving-

wheels is placed above the main frame of the engine, and for the running-
wheels below ; the springs are all secured to the main frame, and each bears’
its share of the weight of the locomotive.

The boiler is secured to the main frame by six iron knees. P is the man-
hole, to enable the inside of the boiler to be cleansed. o is the safety-
valve, and upon the steam-dome there is another, immediately under the
control of the engineer, while the other is beyond his reach. The valve
at the back of the engine is connected with a lever secured to a
spring balance, which serves to show at any moment the pressure of the
steam within the boiler. Upon the top of the boiler, near to the position
of the engineer, is the steam-whistle, for the purpose of giving signals;
this consists of two hollow metallic half globes or balls, the upper one
of which has a sharp edge, and is placed immediately over the lower one.
Within the lower half globe is another slightly smaller, so arranged that
between the two there is a narrow opening or slit all round the edge. When
the steam is admitted from the boiler between the two cups of the lower half
globe, it rushes out of the opening between them against the sharp edge of
the upper cup, and the well known whistle is produced.

Upon the end of the boiler, near the fire-door, is a glass indicator for
showing the height of the water in the boiler.

To soften the concussions of the cars with each other, and with the engine
while in motion, and also as a measure of safety in case of accidents, both
the locomotive and the passenger cars are furnished with buffers, a (pl. 5,
jig. 19). These are cushions stuffed with horse-hair or other elastic sub-
stance, either alone or in conjunction with steel springs. They are seen at
the extreme forward end of the locomotive carriage in pl. 4, jig. 1.

The locomotive is always accompanied by its tender, which carries a
supply of fuel and water; it is seen in pl. 5; jig. 9 is a side view, jig. 10
a longitudinal section, jg. 11 shows one half of the upper portion of the
tender in plan. Upon the frame p, running upon four or six wheels x,
rests a horse-shoe formed body, which serves to contain the water for the
supply of the locomotive. This water receptacle is made of sheet-iron, and
is entirely covered in upon top, where there are three holes closed by valves
or covers; the centre one q receives the water, and the others communi-
cate with spaces separated from the water-chamber, and which are used to
carry tools and other articles which may be required during the journey.
The vacant space left by the peculiar form of the water-box serves to carry
the fuel. The water is fed to the locomotive through the tubes p’ and a’,
having flexible joints to enable them to accommodate themselves, without
breaking, to the motion of the locomotive and tender. The tender is con-

606

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 27

nected with the locomotive by chains and hooks seen hanging from the
buffer in jig. 9.

A cock in the supply-pipe x (pl. 4, fig. 3), within reach of the engineer,
serves to regulate the supply of water to the engine; and there is also a
cock upon the tender to shut off the water entirely. The supply-pipe ter-
minates in a chamber x (jig. 2), from which the water is taken by a pump
which forces it into the boiler.

Pl. 5, fig. 1, is a longitudinal section of Stephenson’s locomotive with

variable expansion ; jig. 2, front view of the same, the end plate of the
engine being removed ; jig. 3 @ is a horizontal section of the cylinders ; fig.
4, a vertical section of the same; jig. 5 is a view of the pump; jig. 6, sec-
tion of the end of the exhaust-pipe; jig. 7a, section through one of the
slide-valves ; jig. 7b, a plan of the same; jig. 36, view of the piston with
metal packing, seen in section in jig. 3c; and finally, fg. 8 illustrates the
position of the different parts of the valve-gearing during the operation of
the machine. As we have already explained the construction of a locomo-
tive, it will be sufficient to enumerate those parts which differ essentially
from the one already described- a is the main frame of the machine. The
springs c rest upon the rods p, as already explained, the whole weight of
the locomotive being carried by the rods £7; 6* is the dome, which is fur-
nished, instead of a cock, with a slide-valve n’, the rod t of which passes
through a stuffing-box in the steam-dome, and thence to the position of the
engineer, where it is managed by the levers 66’. Upon the pipe which
carries the steam from the boiler is a safety-valve, beyond the reach of the
engineer, kept down by a spiral spring, as seen in fig. 1. @is the lower
end of the chimney, @’ is the man-hole, oH are the steam cylinders. The
cylinders FF have their valves upon the inside, close to each other ; this
is rendered necessary, as we shall presently see, by the expansion arrange-
ment. The exhaust-valves of both cylinders open into a common chamber
Tt (fig. 4), whence the steam passes by the two side pipes to the exhaust-
pipe #, which by means of a double-angled lever may be more or less
closed by the engineer as required. The steam may also be thrown into a
chamber, v, whence it is blown out beneath the locomotive through a slide
valve, @ (jigs. 4-Ta@ and 76), also manageable by the engineer without
leaving his station. The pistons 77 (jig. 3a) are furnished with spring
metal packing, as seen in jigs.386 and 3c. The piston-rods o are connected
with the cranks upon the driving-wheel shafts. The steam-pipe x carries
the steam from the steam-dome to the valve-chest and cylinders, as in the
former case, the valves receiving their motion from the shaft of the driving
wheels, which have already been set in motion by the pistons. The variable
expansion was effected by Stephenson by what is technically called link
motion. For each valve there are two eccentrics by the side of each other,
and so placed upon the main driving-shaft that one of them will drive the
valve-rod forwards and the other backwards. The forward ends of these
connecting-rods are united by a link, which has a slat in the middle, in
which plays a pin connected with the end of the valve-rod. By this simple
and effective arrangement the forward or backward motion is effected, with-
607

28 TECHNOLOGY.

out the necessity of uncoupling the eccentrics; all that is necessary being
to change the lever 1’ from one extreme of the arc in which it moves to the
other, which, through the levers &' /’/, so changes the position of the slotted
link that it either lies at its top or bottom, and receives motion from either
one or other of the eccentrics. If the lever 1’ is in a vertical position, then
neither of the eccentrics will predominate, the slide-valve will remain
stationary, and no steam will be admitted to the cylinders. The working
by expansion is effected in the following manner. In the vertical position
of the lever 1’, although the driving-shaft may continue to revolve, no steam
is admitted to the cylinder; when, however, this lever is at either extreme
of its motion, the valve-rod makes its full stroke, the valve opening its
entire passage to the cylinder ; consequently the nearer the lever 1’ is to its
vertical position, the shorter will be the stroke of the valve-rod, and the
sooner the steam will be cut off and permitted to act by expansion. Thus
the engineer has it within his power, by operating the lever 1’, to work his
engine with any degree of expansion, forwards or backwards. The feed
pump is at p, fig. 1, and in detail fig. 5; jig. 2 shows the arrangement of
the tubes in the boiler.

Of the numerous improvements which have been made in locomo-
tives, we will mention only one, which has caused quite a revolution in their
construction. William Norris, of Philadelphia, ran the connecting-rods to
crank-pins in one of the arms of the driving-wheels, in place of attaching
them to cranks upon the axles. The advantages of this modification are
very great, and most of the European locomotives are now built upon this
plan. Inthe Norris locomotive the cylinders, with their valve chests, lie
outside of the main frame upon both sides of the boiler. By the whole
arrangement a double advantage is gained. Where the crank was upon the
driving-axle it described a circle equal to the half stroke of the piston,
added to the thickness of the crank-wrist ; consequently the stroke could not
be lengthened without raising the boiler. This is not now necessary, and
the diameter of the boiler may be increased, and consequently the number
of the flues and the extent of heating surface, as well as the length of stroke
of the pistons. The axles being now perfectly straight, are stronger and
more durable with the same weight of iron. The working parts are more
exposed to view, more easily controlled, and in case of injury or accident
are more easily repaired. |

b. Passenger Cars. Railroad cars require an entirely different construc-
tion from ordinary carriages to enable them to run with the necessary
velocity and safety. We shall notice first the wheels and axles, then the
trucks, brakes, and couplings. The wheels and axles are of primary
importance both as regards the safety of passengers and the durability of
the cars. Constant efforts have been made to obtain a cast-iron car-wheel
without flaws, and of sufficient strength to withstand the shocks to which it
is exposed ; but it would seem that this has never yet been accomplished,
although the desired end has doubtless been approached. It is necessary in
the first place that the rim or tread of the wheel be very hard, otherwise
it would soon wear uneven from constant contact with the rails, and become

608

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 29

useless ; on the contrary, it is necessary that the other parts of the wheels, the
nave, spokes, &c., should be annealed, to avoid the constant breakage which
would otherwise result. It has been attempted to accomplish these two
ends by casting the tire or tread of the wheel in contact with a ring of
iron, which chzd/s and very much hardens this part of the wheel, while the
spokes and nave were cast in sand and permitted to cool gradually, the ring
or band of iron called the chzld being laid into the mould of sand, so that
the whole wheel was cast together. The unequal contraction of the iron,
however, in the rim and spokes in wheels cast in this manner has thus far
prevented the attainment of a perfectly safe cast-iron wheel. Cast-iron
wheels have been hooped with a tire of wrought-iron, shrunk on while hot,
or secured with screws or bolts. The wheels have also been made entirely
of wrought-iron, by uniting the separate portions of the wheel by welding
or otherwise ; sometimes the tire has been made of steel, at others the body
of the wheel has been made of wood suitably combined with iron; indeed
countless combinations of wood, steel, wrought and cast iron have-been
tried in the effort to obtain a cheap, durable, and safe wheel. PU. 5, fig. 18,
is a portion of a wrought-iron wheel and axle; dcis the axle, a a spoke
welded to the nave, which is made in one piece with the axle. These wheels
are safe but expensive, and are much used upon passenger cars in England.
In America cast-iron is very generally used; it is more durable upon the
tread, but more liable to break than wrought-iron. /7%g. 14 is a section
through a wheel in which wooden spokes 0 are introduced between the rim ¢
and nave a, a plan not now much used. The diameter of car-wheels is
usually three feet, with a thickness upon the tread of three or four inches.

Railroad axles are of wrought-iron, and require to be carefully proved
before being put in use, as a small flaw may cause a breakage, and conse-
quently loss of life and property.

The bearings or gudgeons are turned cylindrical and run in composition
boxes, which must be capable of carrying a supply of oil for lubricating
the bearing parts and preventing undue friction. When this has not been
attended to with care, the heat has become so excessive as to melt the brass
bearings above the journals.

Pl. 5, jig. 15, represents a journal-box of approved construction in longi-
tudinal section. Here the oil is placed in a vessel in the top of the box,
and is permitted to drop slowly upon the axles through the hole / in the
bearing, from the end of a wick, the other end of which is in the oil-box
above. The oil that drips from the journal is drawn off from the bottom
of the box and may be used a second time. 1.5, jig. 16, shows a method
of keeping the journal always lubricated without the use of the wick and
without waste of oil; the ring gis turned upon the journal and descends
into the box below the level of the surface of the oil, which is poured in at
the opening 2.

The bodies of the cars are variously constructed according to the use to
which they are to be put, whether they be for the transportation of passen-
gers, freight, or animals. The passenger-cars are differently constructed upon
almost every railroad. In Europe there are three or four classes of cars, and

ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOPZDIA.—VOL. IV. 39 609

30 TECHNOLOGY.

the most convenient arrangemert is there thought to be a division of the
car into three or more separate apartments, holding eight to ten persons
each, as seen in pl. 5, jigs. 24 and 25. In the United States, however, most
of the cars at the present time have but one apartment, the seats being
arranged transversely two upon each side of a centre passage. In Europe
the first-class cars are fitted up with great elegance. Jig. 29 shows the
interior of the Duke of Brunswick’s car upon the Brunswick railroad, and
jig. 30 Queen Victoria’s car upon the London and Dover railroad.

For the transport of merchandise which must be protected from the
weather long tight cars closed on every side are used, as seen in jigs. 27
and 28. For the transport of sand and other materials not injured by the
weather, cars are used with low sides and without roof; figs. 22 and 23
show a car for the transport of wood. For the transport of animals cars
formed of slats or grating are used ; they are also furnished with rings to
which to secure the animals.

The car trucks are of the same size in all passenger cars. The height of
the wheels is always 3 ft., and the carriage frame rests upon springs which
are secured to the journal-boxes, as shown in pl. 5, figs. 22-24 and 27. A
species of spring much preferred at the present time is seen in jig. 18; this
spring gives a particularly easy motion to the cars. The spring d consists
of a single piece of steel and is secured to the main frame f at g by means
of a link joint, and to the axle-box at c; dd are chains which unite the
ends of the springs and secure them to the axle-box. At first it was pre-
sumed that these springs would be easily broken, and to guard against this,
the additional springs, e, were applied.

Pi. 5, jig. 26, shows a portion of the frame of a passenger car as some-
times constructed ; it consists of the timbers, /f and g, strengthened longi-
tudinally by the centre beam dd, and also by the diagonal braces ¢,; the
steps 72, for the accommodation of passengers, are secured to the frame.
To neutralize the effect of the concussions of one car against the other while
in motion the so-called buffers are applied to each end of the carriage
frame: these are leather cushions upon the ends of rods, 6, which rods are
attached to springs, a, beneath the body of the carriage. The buffers
receive the shocks and prevent them from annoying the passengers. In
freight wagons the springs are dispensed with, and only the leather cushions
are used. In eight-wheel cars it is necessary that the wheels be permitted
to accommodate themselves to the curves of the track, to a degree which
would be impossible were the axles secured rigidly to the car-frame. Without
some provision of this kind great friction and a speedy destruction of the rails
and wheels would result. To effect this flexibility the wheels are secured in
small frames called trucks, upon the centre of which the main car-frame is
permitted to pivot, as seen in pl. 5, fig. 27; jigs. 17 a and 17 6 show an
arrangement for accomplishing this purpose, contrived by Ross Winans,
an American engineer, at the time of the introduction of eight-wheeled
cars; fig. 17 @ is a bolster secured beneath the main frame of the car with
the ring-bolt d projecting downwards, and into a cavity in a corresponding
bolster (fig. 176), which is secured to the centre of the wheel-truck. This

610

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 31

arrangement permits the wheels to accommodate themselves to the curves
of the track, without reference to the main body of the carriage.

In order to arrest the cars when it is necessary to stop, or to check their
progress in descending inclinations upon the road, brakes become necessary ;
they consist of blocks of wood which are pressed against the rim of the
wheels by an arrangement of levers, or in any other manner, and thus produce
sufficient friction to arrest or at least to retard the motion of the cars. The
simplest form of brake is seen in pl. 5, fig. 22; the lever, 6, is so connected
with the brake block, c, that when the lever is depressed the block is
pressed against the wheel, but when the lever is raised to the position
indicated by the dotted lines the block is removed from contact with the
wheel, which is left free to revolve.

A brake of different construction is seen in jig. 9, in which motion is
communicated to the brake blocks ff by the lever g, through the joints cd,
the one being pressed forwards and the other backwards. In this manner
by a slight modification all the brakes of a six or eight-wheeled car may be
applied at once; in jig. 27 is seen a brake of this description. /%g.19 shows
a brake of different construction; 4% are the brake blocks, secured to the
rack bars 2%, which engage with a cog-wheel upon the upright axle /;
upon this axle there is a bevel wheel, which gears with a similar bevel
wheel upon the shaft 7, which is in a similar manner connected with the
crank ¢ above, and thus upon turning the crank the brakes are applied to
the wheels, the one forwards and the other backwards. In this same
figure is seen a peculiar method of applying springs to buffers. The buffer-
rod @ is attached to the bent lever 0, one arm of which is connected with
the spring d, through the rod c. When two cars strike together, the rod a
is forced in, and by means of the bent lever and connecting-rod the force
of the blow is transmitted to the spring d, which thus neutralizes the shock
and returns the buffer to its place when the pressure is removed.

In order to connect several cars into one train, coupling bars or chains
become necessary; sometimes these are attached immediately to the car
frames, at others to springs upon the frame as in pl. 5, fig. 26; the coupling-
chain is hooked into the hole / upon the end of the bar d, which is attached
to the small pair of semi-elliptical springs which afford a certain degree of
elasticity to the connexions, and prevent the disagreeable jars which are
experienced in starting and stopping where the couplings are rigid. Some-
times the chain-couplings are drawn together by means of screws until the
buffers touch, in order in passenger cars to diminish the unpleasant jolting
of the cars against each other; at the short turns in the road this arrange-
ment, however, has a tendency in conjunction with the centrifugal force to
throw the cars off the track, or at least by increasing the friction to injure
the roads, cars, and locomotives. A plan of this coupling is given in
pl. 5, fig. 20, and a side view in jig. 21; aa are the coupling-chains
attached to the end hooks of the car at d; the buffers } are brought in con-
tact and the arm ¢, attached to a right and left screw, is turned until the semi-
elliptic springs (jig. 26) are slightly strained, and the lever is suffered to fall
into a vertical position, the weight w upon its end keeping it from rising.

611

32 TECHNOLOGY.

4. IncriveD Pranes. Where a considerable rise is to be overcome in ‘a
railroad route, it is often preferable to concentrate the ascent at the termina-
tion of the route, instead of equalizing it through the whole length of the
road. Various methods have been adopted for overcoming these steep
ascents, and we will describe some of the most usual of them.

a. Self-acting Roads. Where loaded cars descend an inclined plane they
are often made to bring up the empty cars ; such roads are called by the Eng-
lish, self-acting roads. The motion is communicated by means of a rope or
chain to which the cars are attached. This rope or chain runs in the middle of
the road upon rollers (pl. 4, fig. 14, @), and upon the upper end it passes over
a drum or wheel (jig. 13)*which lies beneath the surface at the top of the
ascent. This wheel is from 6 to 16 feet in diameter, and revolves in a
masonry chamber, over which are strong timbers which serve to carry the
rails. Usually there are two roads side by side upon the ascent; when
therefore the loaded cars are upon the left track at the top, the empty cars
are upon the right track at the bottom, and as soon as the full cars are per-
mitted to descend, they draw the empty ones up upon the other track. If
the descent is so steep that danger is to be apprehended from the accelerated
motion of the descending cars, a brake is applied to the large drum at the
top, by means of which the motion is moderated and controlled. The
rollers upon which the rope runs are formed in a variety of ways: pl. 3,
jig. 19, is a plan of aroller used upon the Disseldorf and Elberfeld inclined
plane; jig. 17 a side view of the roller and the box in which it runs; +g. 18
is a longitudinal section upon a B of jig. 19; jig. 20, cross-section on ¢c D,
jig. 19. The case, a, is secured to the timbers, e, e, and contains the bear-
ings, c, of the roller 6, which is of cast-iron, the axle being of wrought-iron,
and of a size according with that of the rope which it has to carry. The
size and quality of the ropes upon an inclined plane are of the first impor-
tance. Wire ropes are at the present time almost exclusively made use of,
and as these may sometimes break, it is necessary to have the means at
hand instantly to stop the descent of the cars ; this is accomplished by brakes.
To the ascending cars, however, a self-acting arrangement is applied in the
following manner: behind the last car hang one or more bars, 6 to 7 feet
long, and 3 inches square, suspended to the car at one end, and shot with iron
at the other. These bars trail after the car; and in case the latter attempts to
descend, the point of the bar enters the ground and holds the car stationary.

b. Inclined Planes with Stationary Engines. . It is almost exclusively in
mines that a counter-weight can be depended upon to modify the motion
of the descending cars; in other cases, where a loaded train of cars is to be
raised or lowered, some other power must be resorted to, and this is usually
steam. A short distance from the top of the plane is a drum, o (pil. 3, jig.
16), lying horizontally with its axis perpendicular to the direction of the —
rails; attached to this drum is a cog-wheel which engages with a pinion,
upon the shaft of which is a fly-wheel and clutch; the shaft is driven by a
steam-engine. The drum turns upon a cylindrical axis, from one end to the
other of which it may be moved by a lever; it has also a brake attached to
it, by which its motion may be controlled.

612

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 33

If the inclined plane has only a single track, as seen in pl. 4, fig. 7, turn-
outs must be’ arranged at the top, the middle, and foot of the plane, that
the ascending and descending cars may cross each other. When loaded
cars are to ascend the plane the end of the rope is attached to them, the
drum is turned, and as the rope is wound upon it the cars ascend.

' When cars are to descend the plane, whether they be loaded or empty,
they are in like manner attached to the rope and suffered to descend, the
drum being uncoupled from the engine and the motion regulated by the
brake.

When the inclined. plane has a double track, as is necessary upon roads
where there is a great deal of travel, two drums are required, the one for
the ascending trains, the other for those descending. The arrangement of
the tracks is the same as for self-acting planes.

Where the plane has so little inclination that the descending cars cannot
move the heavy cable, it becomes necessary to attach a second rope to the
foremost of the descending cars, while the other end, after passing over a
roller at the foot of the ramp, is secured to the last of the ascending cars,
and thus the engine carries the ascending cars up, and the descending ones
down. |

A similar plan is adopted upon the inclined plane in the great Liverpool
tunnel, to move the cars in each direction (jig. 12). An endless cable passes
first around the vertical drum, a, which has two grooves upon its surface,
thence diagonally to a smaller drum, a, then half round the pulley, ¢, past
the pulley, a, again, and diagonally across to the lower groove in the pulley
A, thence along the centre of one of the tracks, over the large wheel, 3, and
along the centre of the other track again.

The cable, by the hygrometric changes of the atmosphere, is lable to
contraction and expansion, to compensate for which, and to keep it con-
stantly tightened, the roller, e,is placed upon a carriage running on rails,
which is drawn back by a heavy weight, the suspending cord of which passes
over the pulley, d, and thus the cable is kept uniformly tight through all
weathers, moist and dry.

A steam-engine at the top of the ramp gives motion to the drum a, and
the cable receives a constant motion up one track and down the other. The
ears are attached to the cables by smaller ropes.

Ina simifar manner a line of horizontal road may be worked with station-
ary engines.

The road is divided into distances of 500 to 600 rods, and at the termina-
tion of each stretch there are a double track and a stationary engine. The
drums at the stations a Bc (jig. 11) are run alternately first in one
direction, then in the other. pb and £ are the trains drawn in the direction
of their arrows by the cables 2 and #, upon the drums o and g, and
dragging after them the cables 7 and g from the drums m and n, which are
uncoupled from their respective engines a and B.

Instead of running the two drums of each machine one after the other,
they may be run at the same time, but then a double track with crossings
becomes necessary, as seen in jig. 10.

613

34 _ TECHNOLOGY.

Pl. 3, jig. 138, shows the engine-house of the Diisseldorf and Elberfeld
inclined plane, jig. 14 a plan of the same, fig. 16 a view from above of the
main drum and parts connected therewith, and fig. 15 a cross-section on
the line, o’ pv’, of fig. 16. Here the drums do not lie in the prolongation of
the plane, as in pl. 4, figs. 9 and 16, but perpendicular to the same; 0, is the
main drum, driven by the steam-engine ; from this drum the cable runs over
the two inclined intermediate wheels, p and g, and thence over the rollers,
cr (fig. 15), to the railroad track. gs. 17, 18, and 19, are the cable-rollers,
as already more particularly described. In jig. 14 are seen upon the left
the two steam-engines which operate upon the crank-axle, /, upon the other
end of which is the fly-wheel, n, and the main drum; 0bcde, are water
and steam-pipes to and from the boiler-room and the well, a.

5. SusPENDED Rairoaps. These were first suggested in England by
Palmer, but have never been introduced to any extent. A road of this kind
was used at the building of the military works at Posen, and as its con-
struction is peculiar, we will give a short description of it. 7g. 21 is a
side-view of the car and road; jig. 22 an end view of the car, with a section
of the rail. At yin jig. 21 is seen the end of a second car attached to the
first. The road consisted of a continuous wooden sleeper or beam, B, hay-
ing an iron rail, c, upon its top, and supported upon posts, a. The cars
were balanced upon each side of the road, and were supported upon the
top rail, c, by a grooved roller, u. To the sides of the posts, a, were
secured bars, a, having each an iron rail, 3, in its centre, against which
the body of the cars rests either with or without friction-rollers. Where
horses are the moving power, they are to travel one upon each side of the
road.

6. AtmospHERIC Ratrroaps. The many accidents which occurred when
railroads were first introduced, and the great expense of running locomo-
tives, made it very desirable that the latter should be dispensed with, and
that a cheaper and safer motive power should be found to take their place.
Compressed air was thought of, and experiments were made to render this
available, but without success. Rarefied air was then thought of; and
Vallance, an Englishman, suggested a large hollow cylinder of sufficient
capacity to contain the whole train of cars within its interior; in advance of
the train, and attached thereto, there was to be a piston sufficiently large to
fill the cylinder, from one side of which the air was to be exlausted, and
the pressure of the air upon the other was to drive it along, together with
the train attached to it. The proposition carried upon its face entire imprac-
ticability, and was never acted upon.

The same idea was however afterwards carried out with considerable
modification, and an experimental tube was laid near London, 1200 feet
long and 9 inches in diameter; a 16-horse steam-engine was used to
pump out the air from the tube. The result of this experiment being
entirely satisfactory, the system was put into practical operation in Ireland
upon a branch of the Dublin and Kingstown Railroad. This branch, with
the Croydon and South Devon Railroads in England, and a few minor
trials in France, are the only ones ever constructed upon this plan. The

614

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 35

branch of the Dublin road to Dalkey was full of curves and inclinations
which rendered the use of a locomotive perfectly impracticable; it was
opened in December, 1843, and still continues in operation.

In pl. 6, we have represented the Kingstown and Dalkey Railroad, and
shall explain its construction sufficiently in detail to manifest the principle
upon which it acts. In the centre of the track is laid a hollow cast-iron
cylinder, which is secured to the sleeper by bolts and screws (jigs. 2 and
4). The joints of the cylinder, where the separate pieces come together, are
made air-tight, and are firmly secured by screws. Within the cylinder,
which is 15 inches in diameter, moves a solid piston, B (figs. 3 and 4), with
an exceedingly elastic packing, that it may adapt itself as nearly as possible
to the small inequalities of the interior of the cylinder. The piston is pro-
vided with an advancing head, which serves to open the valves, and has
attached to it a piston-rod 18 feet long, the central portion of which is a
plate, c, balanced by the weight, w, so that the piston always lies
horizontal.

The plate e has four rollers, © (jigs. 3 and 4), the object of which we
shall learn hereafter. The driving-piston is connected to the carriage above
by the plate p (jigs. 3, 4, 5, and 6), which, however, must pass through the
cylinder, which has a slit running its whole length for the purpose. This it
is necessary should be closed air-tight in advance of the piston, and open
only at the moment of the passage of the plate p, that the pressure of the
air may operate upon the back of the piston. /%g. 8 shows the arrange-
ment adopted for this purpose. a is the cylinder, x1 the valve, which con-
sists of a strip of stout sole leather covered with a thin plate of steel, sur-
mounted by a cast-iron plate, x, which prevents the valve from being forced
into the opening by the pressure of the atmosphere ; beneath the valve there
is also an iron plate, not shaded in jig. 8, but seen in jig. 6, which entirely
closes the opening in the tube; this latter plate is curved upon the same
radius as the cylinder, that the piston may fit air-tight all round. At 7
the leather valve is held firmly, and at 1 is a trough into which a composi-
tion of wax and tallow is poured, which assists to pack the valve air-tight.
In order to protect this apparatus from the weather, plates of sheet-iron, g,
5 feet long and hinged at A, are made to hang over the whole. To under-
stand the operation of this apparatus, we must turn to jigs. 3,5, and 6. The
roller, H, upon the piston projects into the longitudinal slit, and raises the
valve, K, breaking the wax cement which holds it to the cylinder; at the
same time the roller, m, upon the bottom of the driving-car (figs. 5 and 6)
comes under the plates, H, and raises them, so that the atmosphere is free
to press upon the after-surface of the piston, which is thus driven along the
cylinder, and with it the driving car, the two being connected together by
the plate, p, as seen in jigs. 1 and 5. That the valve may be returned to its
place after the passage of the plate, p, the driving-car carries a roller, F,
( figs. 3 and 7), which runs upon the surface of the plate, x, and presses the
leather, L, again down upon the valve-seat. At the same time, immediately
over the trough, L, there passes a tube, eg, heated by a small furnace upon

the driving-car, which melts the mixture of wax and tallow, and again packs
615

36 TECHNOLOGY.

the valve air-tight. This heating arrangement was subsequently found
to be ineffectual and unnecessary, and has since been discarded.

It was doubted at first whether the trains, once started, could be stopped,
but it was found that they were perfectly manageable with powerful brakes.
In order that the conductor may be informed of the extent of the rarefaction
in front of the piston a tube passes through it up into the piston-car, near
his seat, where it communicates with a barometer, and he is thus informed
of the amount of atmospheric pressure which he at any moment has on;
he has also the means within his reach of regulating the speed of the train,
and when it becomes too high of admitting air through another tube, which
also passes through the piston and comes up near his seat, where it is
furnished with a cock; by the admission of air through this tube the speed
is soon checked, but the air-pump continuing uninterruptedly at work the
vacuum is soon re-established.

The whole length of the line is 3050 yards or nearly 12 miles, with a rise
of 714 ft. from the commencement at Kingstown to the termination at Dalkey,
the average rise being 1 in 140, but the last 365 yards have a rise of 1 in
57. The line is worked only one way by the atmospheric apparatus, the
return being effected by the force of gravity. —

As stated above the length of the line is 3050 yards, but the atmospheric
main is only 2400 yards long, the remainder of the way, 650 yards, being
run by the momentum previously acquired. The diameter of the main is
15 inches, and near its extremity branches out a pipe, c (pl. 6, jig. 2), which
leads to the exhausting apparatus, distant 500 yds. The air-pump, which is
double acting, is 663 inches in diameter, with a stroke of 66 inches. It
is worked by a high pressure condensing engine with 343-inch piston and
66 inches stoke, working expansively, the cut-off valve being regulated by
a governor, so as to vary the speed of the engine from 4 at the lowest
to 1 at the quickest.

At the entrance end, and some thirty feet from it, is a kind of balance-
valve, B (fig. 2), very ingeniously contrived to open by the compressed air
in front of the piston; and at the other or exit end is another valve, open-
ing outwards by means of the compression of the rarefied air, after the
piston has passed the tube leading from the main to the air-pump.

2. Bripge-Burpina.

Bridge-building may, strictly speaking, be considered a branch of road-
building, for a bridge is merely a road over a river or a ravine; still it
appears to be of sufficient importance to merit a chapter by itself.

The oldest bridge of which we have any information is that over the
Euphrates at Babylon, and described by Diodorus, Herodotus, and Philo-
stratus. According to Diodorus it was built by Semiramis, but Herodotus
ascribes the building of it to Nitocris, about five generations later, and the
probability is that it was repaired or completed by him. The length of the
bridge was near 3000 ft.; the piers stood 12 ft. apart in the clear, were of

616

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 37

eut stone and built upon deep-laid foundations, the river having been turned
from its bed for the purpose. The stones were bound together with iron
clamps set with melted lead. The starlings formed an acute angle; down-
stream the pillars were semicircular; the roadway was 380 ft. wide and
consisted of cedar and cypress timbers overlaid with palm wood. <A draw-
bridge was raised every night to break the communication. Without doubt
all the bridges of antiquity differed but little in their construction from this.

The Romans are the first the remains of whose bridges have come down
to the present time. So great was the importance which they attached to
these structures that the supervision of them was intrusted to a priest who
received his title therefrom, Pontrrex Maximcvs.

Before we enter upon the details of the subject we will lay down certain
well established principles respecting the position and construction of
bridges, which principles must rest upon the four conditions which should
govern all architectural structures: suitableness or convenience, durability,
beauty, and economy.

The situation of the bridge should be such at the confluence of streets or
highways as to shorten the journeys of the greatest number of individuals
without uselessly increasing the number of bridges. The bridge should be
located upon a good foundation, and where it is in no danger of being
undermined by the water.

The direction of the bridge should correspond with that of the streets
leading to it, or nearly so, that the entrance of vehicles may be unobstructed
and easy; and its axis should be perpendicular to the direction of the
stream, that the bridge may be as short as possible and the piers present
their shortest face to the current.

There should not be any considerable ascent or descent from the street
to the bridge, while at the same time the bridge must be so high as not to
_ obstruct the water-way.

The width should be such that vehicles may pass each other, while upon
each side there must be sufficient room for foot passengers, except in bridges
of short span where there is but little travel ; in such cases, if two carriages
chance to meet at opposite ends of the bridge, one of them may wait, and
the roadway may be sufficiently wide only to accommodate one at a time.

The foundations must be well laid and broad, particularly where the
ground beneath is not solid, and in such cases they may be carried up in
steps, as seen in pl. 7, fig. 14a.

The form of the bridge must be decided with relation to the material
employed and other attendant circumstances, whilst its beauty will result
from the proper application of architectural principles.

There are three distinctly different constructions of bridges, according as
they are built of stone, wood, or iron.

A. Stone Bridges.

We turn now to the construction of stone bridges, which, from the rudest
form of rustic bridge seen in pl. 7, fig. 1, to the noble structure represented
in jig. 23, are characterized by a feature common in some shape to them all,

617

38° TECHNOLOGY.

the arch, the various forms of which exert an important influence upon
the whole arrangement and appearance.

It is the fortune of but few architects to be intrusted with the building
of large bridges, and consequently to have experience on this subject. |
Perronet in France is amongst the most celebrated of modern bridge-
builders, and has planned and erected a great number of important bridges,
amongst others that of Neuilly, which will be referred to hereafter, and
which has already been mentioned under Architecture, and represented in
Plates, Div. VIL, pl. 60, jig. 9. The first step towards the erection of a
bridge is to build the piers and abutments ; for this purpose, when possible,
the bed of the river where the pier is to rest must be laid bare, and we will
here exhibit some of the usual methods of accomplishing this and of laying

the foundations beneath the surface of the water.

The space which the pier is to occupy is first inclosed with a coffer-dam.
For this purpose piles are driven into the ground below, inclosing a rectan-
gular space, and four to six feet within these another series is driven; the
two walls thus formed are well stayed and strengthened with timbers, and
the space between the two is rammed full of puddled clay. Much depends
upon the careful preparation of the coffer-dam, as a slight blunder may lead
to disastrous consequences, even the entire destruction of the dam.

Under certain circumstances, the dam may be built cylindrical. 72g. 5
shows the disposition of the piles and timbers, and jig. 6 is a vertical section
of the same; @ is the outer wall of piles, f the interior piling, and c ¢ ¢’”
braces for the greater security of the dam. The dam being completed, the
next operation must be to empty the inclosed space (jig. 4), for which
pumping arrangements of some kind are necessary, which are driven by a
water-wheel placed in the stream at the side of the dam, or by a steam-
engine. It is very seldom possible to lay the bottom dry; so great is the
pressure of the water from without, that it is constantly forced up through
the bottom of the dam, which obliges the pumps to be kept in operation
until the masonry of the pier is completed to a level with the surface of
the water. So soon as the bottom of the dam is dry, or as nearly so as
possible, the foundation of the pier is commenced, preliminary trials having
been made to ascertain the nature of the ground below. If rock be found,
the intermediate layer of earth is removed, and the pier is placed imme-
diately upon the rock.

In most cases, however, sand, gravel, or clay is found, and then a fram-
ing of timber becomes necessary, which, if the ground below be firm, is laid
upon the surface, and covered with a plank floor, upon which the masonry
is commenced ; generally, however, it becomes necessary to pile the whole
area to be covered by the foundation. To this end large piles are driven,
at a distance of 2 feet from each other, to such a depth that they can no
longer be sunk deeper by repeated blows of the monkey. When the piles
are driven, they are all cut off upon the same level, and upon the surface
thus produced the floor is laid which is to receive the masonry, the space
between the piles and lower timbers of the frame being rammed with clay,
stones, &c.; the pier is then raised of cut stone, or, if of rubble, the stone

618

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 39°

for the exterior only is cut. So soon as the pier has reached the level of the
spring of the arch, the coffer-dam is destroyed, and the water allowed to
come to the pier.

It often happens that the stream where the bridge is to be built isso deep
or so rapid that no coffer-dam can be built, or that the ground below is of
such a nature that timber framing is not necessary ; in such cases another
method of laying the foundations is adopted, the pier being built in large
water-tight boxes, or chambers, called caissons, which are afterwards sunk
upon the spot where the pier is to stand.

These caissons must be sufficiently large not only to hold the pier, but
also to accommodate all the workmen who may be employed upon it at a
time. Pl. 7, jig. 11, is the plan of the bottom of the caisson, which shows
the grating or framework on which the masonry is laid. Around the edge of
this bottom double water-tight plank walls are built, between which
tenacious clay is rammed, and so arranged, that on the completion of the
work the sides may be separated from the bottom. /%g. 9 is a front view
of the caisson, jig. 8 is a vertical section. In this caisson, as seen in jig. 12,
the pier is built, the caisson sinking as the work proceeds until it reaches
the ground below. /%g. 10 shows a caisson grounded upon the bottom,
already prepared for it by divers; here is also seen the manner in which
the caisson is stayed to the pier as it sinks into the water. %g. 7 shows
the manner in which the piers of Westminster Bridge, London, were built
in caissons. When the pier has reached the springing line of the arch, or
at least is above the surface of the water, the sides of the caisson are loosed
from the bottom, to be used again in the same manner. The arch of the
bridge is now to be commenced, but previously the centring, which is to
support the vowssovrs or separate stones of the arch, must be built. The
centring must be sufficiently strong to sustain the weight of the whole struc-
ture without sinking, until the key-stone is put in, which binds the whole
together, and for large bridges must be constructed with extreme care and of
great strength ; otherwise, as the two ends of the arch are built, the weight of
the materials depresses the centring at these points, causing it to rise in con-
sequence in the centre, and the arch of the bridge to become higher or more
pointed than was intended. To prevent this, even with the best constructed
timbering, the top of the centre should be loaded with stones as the work
proceeds at the ends, and the tendency of this part to rise thus counteracted.

Centrings are either supported from below, or are self-sustaining, as seen
at jigs. 16 and 13. Piles may be driven, or small stone pillars may be
raised for the purpose, upon which the centring is built; jig. 14 shows an
arch of London bridge, with one of the centrings resting upon the piles, a,
upon which are placed the tie-beams, 6, suspended by the trusses, d, ¢ ;
the other struts of the centring, 7, also rest upon the piles, which thus
carry the whole weight of the centring and bridge until the key-stone is in.
Figs. 19 and 20 represent a supported centring of a bridge built in Berne in
1842; here the support is afforded partly by stone pillars, partly by piles,
which carry the temporary bridge for the support of the laborers and

materials ; the construction of the centring itself is apparent from the draw-
619

40 TECHNOLOGY.

ings. When it is not possible to support the centring from below, it must be:
made self-supporting, and can only rest upon the pillars at its ends. This

problem is one of importance and difficulty, and in large bridges requires.
an architect of greatexperience. Pl. 7, jig. 18, is the centring contrived by
Perronet for the very flat arches of the Neuilly bridge. /%g.16 is the
centring constructed by Rennie for the new Waterloo bridge in London ; the
bearing points of the ties and struts are all in iron shoes, to enable them to
resist the great strain put upon them. /%g. 23 represents Westminster
bridge in process of building, together with its centrings. The latter are
supported upon a great number of wedges, that any particular portion —
requiring it may be tightened, and ultimately to facilitate the removing —
of the centrings when the work is completed.

As the wedges are very easily lost or misplaced, Elmes contrived for
London bridge a species of screw wedge, of which a representation is given
in jig. 15: the wedges m and m were moved by the screws J, and by this
means the whole centring was capable of being raised, and ultimately of being
lowered ; d are the shores or supports resting upon the heads of the piles.

In jig. 20 are seen the derricks used in laying the stone, also the trucks which
bring them to the work upon the temporary working frame; in jig. 20 the
stones are seen slung in can hooks; jigs. 21 and 22 represent the ordinary
lewis, used where the stone is hung from the centre. A hole, ¢, enlarged at
the bottom is cut in the stone, and the wedge, a, is inserted ; the two cheek
pieces, 6, are then put in, and as the wedge, a, cannot be withdrawn by a
straight pull, the stone is raised by the hook, e. To withdraw the lewis it is
requisite only to take out the pieces, 6, and the whole is loosened.

Formerly the voussoirs of bridges were all of the same height (pl. 7, jigs.
2,19, and 17, a side view of the Nydeck bridge in Berne), the extrados or
outer surface of the arch being parallel with the entrados or inner surface,
as in the Pons Senatorius at Rome. More recently the surfaces of the
stones in the vicinity of the key-stone were made horizontal, as in the Pont
Royal in Paris, the Neuilly bridge, and many others of recent times. At
present the voussoirs are made to increase from the key-stone gradually to
the springing line (jigs. 3, 16, and 18), for the purpose of enlarging the
bearing surface of the arch upon the pier. For lightness the bridge is
sometimes filled in with minor arches as seen in pil. 7, fig. 18.

B. Wooden Bridges.

Wooden bridges are characterized by the arrangement of the timbers
which support the roadway over the openings to be bridged.

In the simplest form of wooden bridges the roadway is supported upon
piles driven into the bed of the river, or upon stone piers, either with or
without trussing or framing.

In all wooden bridges of large span the roadway is suspended from
trussed frames or wooden arches.

In pl. 8, figs.1-8, is represented the bridge over the Rhine at Schaffhausen ;
this was one of the most celebrated wooden bridges ever built. It was planned
and constructed in 1757 by a common carpenter, Ulric Grubenmann, and

620

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 41

was burned by the French in the campaign of 1799. It consisted of two
spans of 171 and 193 feet, resting upon an old stone pier which belonged
to a former stone bridge upon the same site, and which had been swept
away. ig. 1 is aside view with one half of the covering removed; jig. 2
a plan of the road timbers; jig. 3 a plan of the roof; jig. 4 a cross-section ;
jig. 5 a view of one of the hollow suspension frames ; jg. 6 a section of the
roof ; fig. T a portion of the notched girders ; fig. 8 a perspective view of the
joints used for uniting the separate pieces of the above. rom these figures
the construction of the bridge and the arrangement of the timbers are appa-
rent. Originally it was intended that the bridge should stand without the
pier; this was suffered to remain, however, and some years later Gruben-
mann, fearing that it might also be carried away, added the braces, b, 7, seen
in jig. 1, for the purpose of making the bridge independent of its central
support. |

A bridge over the Limmat, near the Abbey of Wittengen, was also erected
by the same carpenter, assisted by his brother John Grubenmann, and burnt
soon after that of Schaffhausen ; it consisted of one opening of 390 feet span,
with a rise of 43 feet, and was a more solid and even asuperior piece of car-
pentry to that at Schaffhausen. This was the greatest span ever executed
with timber. Its radius of curvature or curve of equilibrium was about
600 feet.

Fig. 9 shows an arch of peculiar construction of the viaduct over the
valley of the Ouse, on the North Shields and Newcastle railroad ; jig. 10 is a
cross-section of the same; jig. 11 a view from above of one of the piers,
showing the arch upon one side and the road timbers upon the other ; jig. 12
is a side view of a portion of the pier a, with the foot of thearch B; fig. 13a
vertical section showing the manner of uniting the planks ; jig. 14 is a cross-
section showing the connexion between the arch and the braces; jig. 15 is
a front view of a pier A, with the cast-iron shoe in which the arches B rest ;
jig. 16 is a view of the said shoe, c; jig. 17a@ longitudinal section of the
same; jig. 18 transverse section of the same, with the clamps which secure
it to the pier A; jig. 19 is a section of the top of a pier, showing the road
timbers and railing ; jig. 20 shows the manner of bolting the ribs beneath
the roadway F and & to the crown of the arch; jig. 21 shows the connexion
of the roadway u with the railing p at a point immediately over the crown
of the arch B, over which the timbers © and F meet; jig. 22, cross-section
of this joining on a larger scale ; fig. 23, side view of the same; jig. 24, sec-
tion of joinings of these timbers; jig. 25, the joint between the timbers Fr
and = and the cross-ribs ; jig. 26, joint between the rib a and the flooring ;
jig. 27, detail of the connexion between the timbers © and the pier a, and
by means of the cross-ribs t with the arch 3, also through the carriers o
with the longitudinal timbers of the roadway ; jig. 28, section of the foun-
dation piles, with the platform and grillage.

Another bridge with a notched timbered arch deserves to be mentioned
in this place. This is a bridge over the Schuylkill at Philadelphia, covering
an opening from one abutment to the other of 340 feet 32 inches. 2. 8,

Jig. 29, is a view of the bridge, with the covering removed from the left half
621

42 TECHNOLOGY.

to show the arrangement of the timbers. The boldness and simplicity
of this bridge are equally to be admired. The greatest part of the thrust
and the whole weight of the covering are thrown by the framework a} upon
the abutment ¢ and the timbers de¢c', whilst the arch has only its own
weight and that of the movable load to support. In 1838 this bridge was
burned, and its place is now supplied by a wire bridge of single span.

A new system of bridge-building recently come much into use should be
here mentioned ; it was invented by Laves, chief architect to the court of
Hanover. Laves had already invented a peculiar method of building
beams, by which he had attained great strength at comparatively small cost.
The girders were sawed longitudinally each way from the centre to within
two feet from the ends, as seen in fig. 35. At each end where the cut
commences the girder is bound with iron rings, a, two inches wide and half
an inch thick, to prevent the entire splitting of the timber. The two por-
tions of the bridge were then driven apart by wedges, 6, and a girder was
obtained, having all the strength of a flat arch without the thrust, only
wall-plates 4 B being required to give the ends an even bearing. Shortly
afterwards the inventor carried the idea further and. constructed his girders
of two timbers notched together at the ends, jig. 36; as in the former case
no abutments were required and no thrust was axons

Subsequently this method of construction was extended to bridge-building
by the inventor. The principles of the application will be made apparent
by an inspection of pl. 8, jig. 30, the cord below being united with the
bridge by the braces ac and bc, whilst the diagonal braces serve to render
the structure self-sustaining and stiff.

The same system, carried out with rather more attempt at beauty and
ornament, is seen in jigs. 31 and 32; jig. 33 is a cross-section, and jig. 34 a
plan showing the arrangement of the braces. This system would be very
limited in its capabilities of extension were it confined to a single beam ;
this is not the case, however. Any number of beams may be scarfed
together, as seen in jigs. 87 and 38, to form either the roadway or the tie-
beam beneath. In fig. 39 is seen the method of giving the ends of the
bridge-frames a solid bearing upon the abutments. 6 and @ are the upper
and lower timbers bound together by iron rings, dd, and ¢ are wedges also
notched to the lower beam and which serve to give it a firm bearing upon
the head of the pier. 72g. 40 is a section through an arch of this descrip-
tion ; a and 0 are the timbers, and g the blocks which serve to keep them in
their places. A large bridge built entirely upon this principle is seen in
jig. 41; fig. 42 is a plan showing the diagonal braces, and a portion of the
road covering ; jig. 43 a cross-section of the bridge; jig. 44 the scarfing of
the timbers of the tie-beam ; jig. 45 the joint at the end where the girders
rest upon the abutment.

C. Iron Bridges.

When the arch of a bridge is constructed of iron it is called an iron
bridge, although the piers and abutments may be of stone and the floor or
roadway of wood. These bridges are variously constructed ; in very short

622

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 43

spans the arch may be cast in a single piece, in larger spans it may be cast
in many pieces and united by bolts, or voussoirs may be cast and set after
the manner pursued with stone bridges, or the roadway may be hung upon
chains or even wire cables. Desaguiliers and Garrin, in the commencement
of the 18th century, proposed the building of iron bridges, but the idea was
first carried out in England. The first iron bridge was that over the Severn
near Colebrookdale, erected in 1779. Pl. 9, fig. 1, is a view of one half
of the arch; jig. 2, a cross-section; jig. 3 is a plan with the roadway
removed ; jig. 4, a plan of the springing plates on which the arch rests ;
jig. 5 shows the fastenings of the diagonal braces, 5, of jig. 3 with the
main arches; jig. 6, the connexion between the cross-braces and the arch
ribs. These figures are so clear that they require no further explanation.
The bridge is one arch of 100 ft. 6 inches span and 45 ft. high from the
level of the springing-plates to the middle of the soffit. The height from
ordinary low water to the springing-plates is 10 ft., making the whole
height from low water to the soffit 55 ft.

The bridge was designed and executed by Abraham Darby and formed
a new era in bridge building. The form of the intrados is nearly a semi-
circle and consists of five ribs, upon each of which rests one of the longi-
tudinal stringers which support the roadway. Upon these stringers are
placed iron plates 24 inches thick, which support the road-covering, consist-
ing of clay with broken iron cinders.

Soon after the completion of the above bridge the second iron bridge
was built, three miles higher up the Severn. The engineer, Thomas Telford,
a county surveyor, introduced the principle of suspending the bridge upon
two large ribs, one on each side of the bridge. The span is 130 ft., the
versed sine of the ribs which bear the covering plates is 17 ft. and the
breadth across the soffit is 18 ft.; the height from ordinary low water to
the soffit is 34 ft. %g. 14 is a side view of this bridge; jig. 15 is a cross-
section of the same; jig. 16, a plan of the springing-plates ; jig. 17 shows
the connexion and bracing between the main arch B and the intersecting
arch c, by the upright braces @ and diagonal braces 0; jig. 18 shows the
connexion of the railing with the bridge road, and jig. 19 shows the
connexion of the two arches at the crown. It will be perceived that
the auxiliary arch is for the purpose of supporting the main arch at its
weakest point, the latter being suspended by iron straps to the auxiliary
arch. The cost of the bridge, including the abutments, was £6000
sterling.

The third bridge in regard to time and progressive increase of magnitude
was that over the Wear at Sunderland, in the county of Durham. The
arch is the segment of a circle, the chord being 236 ft. and the versed sine.
or height of the crown of the intrados above the level of the springing line
34 ft., so that the largest ships may pass beneath it.

It is of the boldest construction, and is put together very differently from
those already described, the arches being composed of open-work boxes or
gratings, which take the place of the voussoirs in a stone arch. 7g. 7 is a
side view of the bridge, and jig. 8 a perspective view of one end; jigs. 9 and

623

44 TECHNOLOGY.

10 show the open work of arches upon a larger scale ; jig. 11, the vertical
bars uniting the three ribs of the arches, whilst the latter are firmly stayed
together by the transverse rods (jig. 12). In the sunken panels of the ribs,
a (fig. 10), over the vertical joints between the voussoirs, lie wrought-iron
plates (fig. 13), which are screwed to the ribs and bind the voussoirs firmly
together.

A peculiar construction of iron bridges was introduced in 1837 by a
French architect, Polonceau, who built upon this plan the Carrousel bridge
in Paris. In this construction the strength of iron is united to the elasticity
of wood. The arches of the bridge consist of hollow cast-iron tubes filled with .
wood and imbedded in asphaltum. //%g. 20 is a view of this bridge, which
consists of three arches, with stone abutments and piers. Upon each askew-
back are five cylindrical boxes or springing-plates, into which the arch ribs
are set (jig. 32). These ribs consist of elliptical tubes composed of two
pieces, one of which is seen in jig. 26 in various views and sections. The
two halves united are shown upon a large scale in fig. 25, in which the
plank filling is seen. Between each layer of wood is a thick layer of
asphaltum. Thesemi-cylinders are united together by screws (pl. 9, fig. 25) ;

fig. 21 shows the foot of the arch upon a large scale. The large rings

between the arch and roadway are seen in section in jig. 29 and in elevation
in jig. 30, from which the connexion between the rings is apparent; jig. 31
is a horizontal section of one of these rings; jig. 28 is a view from above
of the ribs of the arch, the roadway being removed, and showing the
diagonal braces, x, and the transverse braces, L; jig. 22 is a vertical section
of the arch of the bridge; jg. 28 shows the connexion between the diagonal
and transverse braces with the ribs of the arch. The stringers 6 (jig. 24)
are borne in iron shoes (jig. 27) by the five arch ribs and the supporting-
rings D; the stringers are made in two parts screwed together, and the two
outside stringers are covered with iron plates, o (jig. 24). Above these
stringers come the transverse sleepers of the roadway, a, carrying the con-
sole plate G, the elevated foot-walk being supported by the tringle x, the
support 7, and the bearer. The sleepers also carry the iron plates, e, which
support the foundations, r and «eG, with the road-covering above. Jig. 22
shows the whole roadway in section.

For laying the arch ribs, co, a peculiar centring was constructed (jig. 33),
resting upon two temporary piers ; the ribs were supported upon this centring,
on blocks and wedges, where they were filled with the wooden plates,
screwed together, and secured in place.

Of an entirely different character from the bridges described above are
those in which the roadway is suspended from chains or wire cables,
stretched from the top of towers or tall piers. The suspension system, though
new in Europe, has been long known in India and America ; to the English,
however, is due the credit of having perfected the system, which rests upon
the properties of the so called catenary, that is the curve which a thread
takes when suspended at both ends and left to itself. If now in lieu of the
thread, two chains or wire cables be imagined suspended at a distance from
each other equal to the width of the bridge, with the roadway suspended

624

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 45

horizontally by rods of different lengths from these cables, we shall have
the rough idea of a suspension bridge.

At first chains were used for this purpose, made something after the
manner of watch chains with links 10 to 15 feet in length, but it was found
that cables made of a great number of iron wires bound together were pre-
ferable on many accounts to chains, which they have almost entirely
replaced in the construction of suspension bridges.

By means of bridges upon this principle distances are now spanned, and
ravines and gorges bridged, which before their introduction were never
attempted.

The difficulties of constructing a bridge across the Danube have long been
considered insurmountable ; the current is very rapid, and the least depth of
water is 20 feet, while at times the water rises 36 feet above low-water
mark, bringing with it immense masses of ice which break down embank-
ments and carry away whatever impedes its progress. Suspension bridges
have, however, been found to be perfectly practicable; and one constructed
at Pesth by an English engineer is said to be the first permanent bridge
erected over the Danube below Vienna for upwards of seventeen centuries.
It was opened for the first time on the 5th January, 1849, and the same day
was put to the severest test to which the stability of a bridge can be subjected,
by the retreat of the Hungarian army over it, followed by the Austrians.
The passage over the bridge is thus described in a letter written from the
spot. ‘First came the Hungarians in full retreat, and in the greatest
disorder, hotly pursued by the victorious Imperialists ; squadrons of cavalry
and artillery in full gallop, backed by thousands of infantry; in fact the
whole platform was one mass of moving soldiers; and during the two first
days 60,000 imperial troops, with 270 pieces of cannon, passed over the
bridge.” This fact is of the first importance, as it proves that suspension
bridges, when properly constructed, may be erected on the most exposed
situations, while their cost is small in comparison with that of stone bridges.
It should be mentioned in connexion with the above, that the marching of
a close column of infantry is considered to be the severest test to which a
bridge can be subjected. The distance between the points of suspension of
this bridge is 665 feet, and the platform is 42 feet wide. This is the first
bridge with stone piers built between Ratisbon and the Black Sea since the
time of Trajan, A. p. 103, when a bridge was built across the Danube near
the confines of Hungary and Servia, the ruins of which are still pointed out.

At Vienna a steel suspension bridge has been erected over the Danube,
the span of which is 234 feet. It is calculated that the weight of the steel
in the bridge is only one half that of the iron required to build a bridge of
equal strength.

The first suspension bridge in England appears to have been erected over
the Tees, for the use of the miners in 1741. The most noted of this descrip-
tion in England is the chain bridge over the Menai straits, which separate
the island of Anglesea from the county of Caernarvon.

The main opening is 560 feet between the points of suspension; in
addition there are four arches on the western side and three on the eastern

ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOPZDIA,—VOL, Ivy. 40 625

46 TECHNOLOGY.

side of the principal opening, each of 50 feet span. The under side of the
roadway is 100 feet above the high-water line.

In France wire suspension bridges have been extensively introduced. In
the United States also suspension bridges have been erected to a limited
extent. At Philadelphia there is a wire suspension bridge over the Schuyl-
kill upon the site of Wernway’s wooden bridge, burned in 1838. At
Wheeling, over the Ohio, one of the finest structures of this kind in the
world has been erected by Mr. Charles Ellet, Jr., with a span of 1,010 feet,
which is 152 feet longer than the celebrated bridge at Freyburg, which has
the greatest span heretofore constructed.

The flooring of the Wheeling bridge is 24 feet wide, and is suspended
from twelve cables of iron wire 4 inches in diameter, and 1,380 feet long.

The same architect has also constructed a suspension bridge over the
Niagara river, between the falls and the whirlpool, and in sight of both; the
span is 800 feet, and the roadway 230 feet above the surface of the river.

Thus it will be seen that distances have been spanned by suspension
bridges far exceeding anything even attained by any other species of con-
struction, while the experiments made by Vicat during an examination
of the state of the suspension bridges over the Rhone lead to the conclusion,
that with proper care they will prove as durable as the most solid stone
structures. It is to be regretted, however, that they do not afford that
stability which is necessary to enable them to be used as railroad bridges.

A few years ago it became necessary to construct a bridge over the
Menai straits for the passage of the Chester and Holyhead Railway. It
was impossible to make use of the chain suspension bridge, as was at first
intended, its flexibility rendering it unsuitable to the passage of trains of
ears. It was also necessary that no centring or scaffolding should be used,
as this would interrupt navigation ; a stone bridge was therefore out of the
question. .

Mr. Stephenson offered a design of an iron tube, a proposition which was
received at the time with general incredulity; the company, however,
having confidence in their engineer, after some preliminary experiments,
decided to adopt the plan, and it has since been built. The tube is not
eylindrical, but rectangular; it is constructed of thick plates of boiler-iron,
and is made of several sections resting upon piers. The distance spanned
by the longest section is 460 feet clear, the greatest distance ever yet
attempted except in suspension bridges. One of the longest sections is esti-
mated to weigh 1600 tons. These tubes were floated upon pontoons to
near the position they were to occupy, and raised to their place by huge
hydraulic presses. The trains pass through the interior of the tubes.

8. Intanp NAVIGATION.

Hitherto we have treated of communication by land only; but streams
dlso form an important means of communication wherever they are capable
of ‘bearing shipping. All streams, however, are not adapted to this pur-

626

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 47

pose, some being either too shaliow, or having many small crooked windings,
which retard the current and cause bars; and in others the current is so
swift as to render navigation dangerous. In all such cases certain works
are necessary to render the streams navigable. By cutting off the small
windings, and giving a river a straight course, the current will be increased
and the formation of bars prevented. When the channel of a river is
obstructed by rocks they may be removed by blasting ; where it is generally
too shallow to bear vessels, successive portions of it are dammed up in order
to obtain sufficient depth, the vessels entering the successive reaches by
means of locks. Canals are constructed for the purpose of inland naviga-
tion, where no natural means are available, or to connect one stream with
another. Some of these structures we will now proceed to consider in
detail.

A. Dams.

When shallow streams are to be made navigable by means of dams, the
latter are built ofa height sufficient to maintain the depth of water required
for navigation, and allowing the surplus water to run over the top, on which
account they are called overfall-dams. They are built of wood or stone.
In building wooden overfall-dams, large beams of timber are first laid in
several contiguous rows across the bottom of the stream, and are firmly
settled into its bed. Upon these sills are laid successive rows of beams,
breaking joints, and planed throughout on the horizontal faces so as to pre-
vent leakage; they are pinned together with treenails both vertically and
horizontally, and the interstices between the vertical faces are closely packed
with clay and sod. The sides of the dam are sloped towards the top, the
pressure sustained at the bottom being much greater than at top; that face
which slopes against the current is called the breast ; the downward slope is
ealled the apron. To protect the breast from being undermined, a double
row of thick plank is driven into the bed of the river above the breast. For
the protection of the apron, piles are driven, on which a hearth of thick plank
is laid to receive the fall of water, or else a bed is made of rocks firmly
packed between the piles.

On pl. 11, jigs. 16, 17, and 18, is represented a wooden overfall-dam
across the river Witogra in Russia. This river being large and rapid, a
very wide base has been given to the dam. The mode of construction is
different in some respects from that above described, as is seen in the cross-
section (jig. 17). The base consists of piles and grillage; the breast, F, is
made by driving piles of different lengths so as to form the required slope.
across which the breast-sills are laid, on which are spiked heavy oak planks
closely fitted. A bulkhead of timber is built into the bank on each side of
the dam, to prevent the water from passing through. Below the dam
strong piles are driven into the bed of the stream, and between them large
stones are packed to receive the slack of the falling water, and prevent the
undermining of the dam.

The upper surface of the dam is sloped in the direction of the current;
thick planks are spiked upon the dam-sills. and their joints caulked and

627

48 TECHNOLOGY.

covered with laths. In order to have the means of regulating the height of
water, frames with flood-gates, a a! a” (figs. 17 and 18), are built on top,
and between these frames and the sides bulkheads are built to the height
which the water is to assume when the gates are closed.

Stone overfall-dams are built massively of heavy dressed stone, on a
foundation of piles and grillage, unless the bed of the river is rocky. The
stones are clamped together by brass clamps, to prevent their being dis-
placed separately. A stone dam, built by Smeaton, is represented on pi.
10, jig. 15 being a top view, jig. 16 one half of a longitudinal section, and
jig. 17 a cross-section.

Between the two slopes of stone dams an open space is sometimes left,
which is lined with two rows of closely fitted planks, and then filled up with
rammed clay, in order to oppose an impermeable barrier to the water which
may pass through the joints of the walls. Stone dams are protected against
the undermining action of the water in the same manner as described in
speaking of wooden dams. The form of an arch, with the convexity up
stream, is often given to stone dams (pl. 10, jig. 15), by which they are
enabled better to resist the action of the current.

B. Canals.

Canals are open trenches filled with water from lakes, streams, or springs,
to a sufficient depth to bear loaded vessels, thus affording a means of inland
navigation. They are formed either by excavations in the solid earth, or by
embankments upon it. In some cases aqueducts are built, of which we shall
treat separately.

For the invention of canals we scarcely know to whom or to what age we
are indebted, such is their antiquity. The most ancient vestiges seem to
exist in Egypt, where a canal was once undertaken to connect the Red Sea
with the Mediterranean. Other canals of antiquity still remain ; for instance
the Yussuff Canal, and others in Persia and Afghanistan, where they had
reached great perfection, and where canals had been constructed under
ground for miles in length. We also find ancient canals on the Tigris and
Euphrates. The Greeks and Romans did very little in the construction of
canals. Charlemagne was the first to plan the connexion of the Danube
with the Rhine, which work was commenced under him, but completed
only in modern times. Within the last three hundred years canals have
been constructed in all civilized countries, the Dutch, English, and French
leading the way in improvements in the system of construction.

Excavation is the simplest and cheapest method of forming canals, and
is resorted to wherever existing conditions make it possible; but few cases
occur where any great length is obtained without embankments, which
become necessary when a shallow stream is formed into a canal, and when
a canal is carried along the side of a hill or across low or marshy land.

Embankments are mostly formed of rammed clay, and when they attain
a considerable height the outside slope at least is protected from washing
and caying by a stone wall of dry masonry. In cases of great height both
slopes of the embankment are formed of stone walls, while the space between

628

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 49

them is filled with clay, which is wetted and worked into a mass of the
consistency of potter’s clay, and well rammed down, an operation termed
puddling.

The two sides or banks of the water-way are sloped; in hard and clay
soils the slope need not exceed 1} base to 1 rise ; but in softer soils a greater
slope must be given, and in loose soil the banks must be well protected by
fascines, piles, or stone walls, from the washing caused by the fluctuation of
the water attending the passage of the boats. The depth and width of the
canal depend of course on the size and capacity of the boats intended to be
put upon it. The width at bottom should be sufficient to permit the passage
of two boats abreast without their rubbing against the side slopes.

If a canal is to be navigated by steam, both the slope of the banks and
the depth should be increased, and the protection of the banks made more
permanent, as the washing caused by the wheels and the rapid passage of
the boats is very great. Most canals, however, are navigated by means of
horses or mules, for which purpose the top of one bank is formed into a
road called the tow-path, which continues uninterruptedly, occasionally
changing sides by means of. bridges. The surface of the tow-path is formed
either of hard sandy clay or of small broken stone; it should be from eight
to twelve feet wide, to admit readily of the passage of two horses and
riders abreast, and should have a lateral slope from the canal to shed off
the rain-water. At suitable intervals drains are constructed to carry off
the water either into the canal or away from it, as opportunity may
serve.

It is seldom practicable to continue a line of canal on the same level for
a great distance. The points to be joined by the canal are frequently on
different levels, and hills or valleys intervene on the route, which it is
impossible or too expensive to cross on the same level by means of excava-
tion or embankment. In such cases successive portions of the canal are
built on different levels, the boats passing from one level or veach into the
other by means of locks, of which we shall treat fully below.

A longitudinal slope should be given to the bottom of a canal sufficient
to cause a moderate current of water, not exceeding three feet per second.
If the current is too slow the water is liable to become stagnant in places,
and to accumulate mire and rubbish to a great degree; if too fast, the
expenditure of water and the resistance to the boat is too great. In long
reaches and on hill sides, openings are left at intervals in one of the banks, in
which dams are built even with the water-line of the canal, for the purpose
of discharging the surplus water occasioned by rains and lockage. These
dams are called waste weirs, and are constructed either of wood or stone;
they retain the water at the required height, but allow it to flow over in
case of arise. They are also provided with draw-gates to act as drains for
the purpose of carrying off mire and rubbish, and of emptying a reach in
the canal when necessary for repairs.

Among the most important canals in the world is that of Languedoc, in
France, which connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean,
and thus avoids the dangerous passage of the Straits of Gibraltar. It was

629

‘50 _ TECHNOLOGY.

projected in the year 1660 by Francois Andreossy, and commenced in 1666
by Peter Paul Riquet, on the upper Garonne.

This canal runs across the isthmus which connects the peninsula of Spain
with France, and which is inclosed between the Pyrenees and the moun-
tains of the Rhone. It commences in the river Garonne, on the west side
of the city of Toulouse, and after rising through eight locks reaches the
river Lers, along which it ascends through thirteen locks to Villefranche.
From this point, after crossing the Lers by an aqueduct, it reaches the
summit level by means of five additional locks. These 26 locks make a rise
of about 220 feet above the level of the Garonne, in a distance of 22 miles.

I'rom the summit level, after crossing six streams, the canal descends
through 87 locks to the river Aube; continuing northwards from the city
of Trebes, it arrives at the main level near Olangac, by another descent
through 22 locks, after having crossed five other streams, which have their
sources in the Montagne Noire. The main level continues along the sides
of the mountains, in many places with aqueducts, crosses two streams, and
after considerable winding around the Ecurene mountain cuts through a
ridge of the Malpas hills with a tunnel 575 feet long, which ends with a
chain of eight locks. Here the canal descends to the plateau of Fonse-
ranne, whence continuing southwards, it crosses the rivers Orbe, Libron, and
Agde, and makes its final descent into the Mediterranean. In its approach
to the latter it crosses a small lake, through which for about four miles it is
carried between two embankments, the level of the canal being higher than
that of the lake.

From the summit level to the Mediterranean the distance is about 114
miles and the descent 658 feet. The canal has in all 102 locks (one of
which is circular, with 95 feet diameter, pl. 10, jig. 18), 55 aqueducts,
numerous dams and dykes, one tunnel, and 92 bridges, in a distance of
about 136 miles. The lift of the locks is from five to twelve feet. The
width of the canal is generally 36 feet at bottom and 68 feet at the water-
line ; the depth is seven feet. The boats used upon it are 90 feet long, from
18 to 20 feet wide, draw 5 feet 6 inches of water, and carry 100 tons. The
first trip was made in June, 1681.

For the supply of water at the summit level feeders were constructed,
which deserve some attention. Eight small streams of the Black Moun-
tain (Montagne Notre) were brought together by means of ditches and
excavations in the rocks into one channel, which was blasted out of the
rock for a distance of five miles along the mountain, and then carried
through it by a tunnel 420 feet long and 94 feet wide. At this point it
is joined by another feeder, the two forming a larger one, which, continu-
ing its course along the mountains, enters the great reservoir of St. Ferreol.
From here it takes the direction to the river Gorge, and entering the basin
of this river, the combined waters are carried by the great feeder to the
reservoir of the summit level which supplies the whole chain of locks.
The whole length of these feeders is about 37 miles, although in a direct
line the distance is not over 16 miles.

The most important structure on this canal is undoubtedly the great

630

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 51

reservoir of St. Ferreol, of which pl. 11, fig. 1, is a section, and jig. 2 a part
of the ground plan. The inner or principal wall of this reservoir is 110
feet high, and contains about sixteen hundred thousand cubic feet of
masonry. To about 40 feet from the bottom this wall is 40 feet in thick-
ness ; then suddenly contracting to 18 feet, it tapers to the top, where it is
about six feet thick. At a distance of 200 feet from the inner wall, the
outer wall is built 64 feet high, and the space between the two walls is filled
with binding clay, which is well rammed. Through an arched aqueduct
which commences about the middle of the reservoir (D, jigs. 1 and 2) the
water is let into the feeder-canal through guard-gates, at a rate insuring
safety to the works. The reservoir is 530 feet long and 265 feet wide.

Another important reservoir of this canal is that at Lampy: pl. 11, jig. 3,
represents a side elevation of it; jig. 4, a section through a, and fig. 5, a
section through B. The water can be let off at different heights, as seen at
A and B.

C. Locks.

A lock is a small basin which connects different levels of a canal, and
through which boats ascend or descend from one level to the other. The
bottom of the lock is even with that of the lower level, and the top is even
with that of the upper level of the canal. Both ends are closed by gates
provided with valves, through which the water can be let into the lock from
the upper level, or lowered to the height of the lower level, the lock form-
ing thus at pleasure a continuation of either portion of the canal. When a
boat is to descend through the lock, the water is let in from above, the upper
gates are opened, and the boat is drawn into the lock; the upper gates are
then closed, and the valve in the lower gate is opened, when the boat will
descend with the water to the lower level, and on the lower gates being
opened it can continue its course. The inverse operation will be pursued
when the boat is to ascend to the higher level.

From this it is apparent that locks form the most important feature in
the construction of a canal. By means of them navigation is made practi-
cable and easy where otherwise it would be impossible. Their use is not
confined to canals proper, but they are also used where shallow streams
have been made navigable by means of damming up successive portions,
-as mentioned in the introduction to this subject.

The construction of locks demands the greatest attention on the part of
the engineer, as the pressure which they sustain and the action of the water
upon them are greater than at any other point in the canal. The size and
proportions of a lock are dependent upon the size of the boats to be used,
the frequency of navigation, and the supply of water. The form is usually
rectangular, unless a special object dictates a different form; pl. 11, fig. 12,
is a top view of a lock, which stands by the side of a wooden dam in one
of the canals in Russia; jigs. 13 and 14 are the two side views, and jig. 15
asection. Pl. 10, figs. 6, 18, and 21, give the top views of different locks
in the Languedoc Canal in France; jigs. 2 and 4 show cross-sections, and

Jigs. 19 and 20 longitudinal sections of various other locks, and jig. 29 is a
631

52 TECHNOLOGY.

perspective view of a chain of locks on the Rideau Canal, near Bytown in
Canada. 7

A lock consists of three divisions, viz. the upper entrance, called the
head-bay ; the middle, called the chamber; and the lower entrance,
called the tazl-bay. The difference in elevation between the bottom of the
head-bay and the top of the tail-bay is called the d¢/¢, which varies accord-
ing to circumstances from 5 to 15 feet. The highest single lift is in a lock
at Bouzingen, near Ypern, in the Netherlands, amounting to 22 feet. The
chamber is the narrowest part of the canal; it is made just large enough to
admit of an easy entrance of the boat, and to leave some space for play
during the commotion of the water while being lifted. It is formed by two
solid walls of cut masonry, slightly battered towards the top; or if of wood
the walls are built of heavy beams and planks fitted water-tight. Any
excess in the size of the chamber above that required for the easy passage
of the boat would only occasion loss of water and time. The head-bay as
well as the tail-bay, being continuations of the main water-way, have
of course the general depth of the canal; their form is usually that which
we give in pl. 10, jigs. 1,3. a, and 36. The side-walls of the bays are called
wing-walis, which are also battered, the batter or slope increasing from that
of the chamber to that of the bank of the canal, where the wing-wall
joins it.

The lock gates are large and heavy gates consisting of two parts or leaves,
each leaf turning upon its own hinges, and the two abutting against each
other in the middle of the water-way, where they form an angle projecting
against the head of water. There are always two gates to a lock, one at
each end. They are usually made of wood, but latterly cast-iron gates
have come into use and are greatly preferred. Those made of wood are
carefully put together of heavy timber; the frame is usually composed of
two upright and from four to eight horizontal pieces, which vary in thick-
ness and depth according to the size of the gate and the head of water;
these are mortised together, and covered on the side next to the head of
water with durable two-inch planks, which are rabbet-jointed and caulked.
The upright posts upon which the gate hinges are called heel-posts or
guoins ; and the other uprights forming the edges of the two leaves of the
gate are called the mztre posts. £1.10, figs. 22 and 23 a, are representations
of different lock gates. Single leaves are also seen at A and B in jig. 20.
The heel-post (fig. 26) is made to turn upon an iron gudgeon which fits into
an iron plate below (jigs. 24 and 25); it is kept in its vertical position by
means of two iron collars, which are fastened into the wall of the lock and
in which it turns. The mitre-posts are so bevelled that when the gate is
closed they abut against each other along the whole edge, and form a water-
tight seam. The bottom of the gate is also bevelled and fits closely against
the mitre sill, which forms the head of the head-wall and tail-wall running
across each end of the chamber (a and 6, jig. 21). The water by its pres-
sure produces a close contact of the bevelled faces, and is thus prevented
from leaking through.

The gates are opened in various ways: when they are very large, a chain

632

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 03

attached to the mitre-post is wound upon a drum by means of cranks and
cog-wheels, and the gate thus drawn into its open position. At each end
and upon each side of the chamber a recess is left in the wall for the recep-
tion of the gate when opened (pl. 10, jig. 21), allowing it to form an
uninterrupted line with the wall, leaving no projection against which the
boat may strike in passing. The most common method of opening the gate
is by means of a heavy beam, termed the balance beam, because it assists
in balancing the weight of the leaf upon the gudgeon and keeping the quoin
in an unstrained position. A lock-gate with a balance beam is represented
in pl. 10, jig. 2. The balance-beam is mortised upon the mitre-post and
quoin, and extends some distance out upon the bank; in many cases an
additional weight is put upon the end of the beam when it is not sufficiently
heavy. When the gate is to be opened it is backed through the water into
the recess by a steady push against the end of the balance-beam.

A lock-gate ofa different construction from that above described is repre- ~
sented on pl. 10, jigs. 3b and 4. The gate here consists of a single leaf, a,
and instead of turning on a pivot, it slides into a lateral recess, being moved
by means of the windlass d, and ropes which pass over the pulleys } and e.
This method of construction is not to be recommended, and is rarely met with.

P1.10, jig. 5, shows a kind of drop-gate, which may be used in small
canals; on the left is a side view with open gates, on the right a front view
with closed gates ; the drop-gate may describe a quadrant, and be opened
and closed without trouble. These doors have not been found very prac-
ticable.

The valves through which the water enters and leaves the chamber are
small doors, made either in the side of the chamber-wall, the top of the
end-walls, or in the lock-gate. In the former case a conduit must be built
by the side of the lock for the discharge of the water, as seen in pl. 10, figs.
27 and 28. It is usual to have the valves in the gates. They must be so
constructed as to be readily opened and closed, and to be water-tight when
closed. Those generaliy employed are either slide-valves or paddle-~walves.
The slide-valves may move vertically or horizontally; the vertical slide-
valve is the simplest in its arrangement, and is therefore most frequently
used. It moves in grooves, and is opened and closed by means of a rod
which passes up to the top of the gate, and is raised or lowered by a screw,
or arack and pinion. /. 10, jig. 22, shows a vertical slide-valve in the
gate, and jig. 28 a similar one in the side wall of the chamber. The hori-
zontal slide-valve is moved in a similar manner, but slides horizontally,
which may be effected by means of a rack on the side of the valve, driven
by a pinion on a vertical axis projecting above the water, and turned by a
erank. The paddle-valve is one which turns about its middle, or at one
side on a vertical axis which reaches up to the top of the gate, and is turned
by means of a crank. The paddle-valve is neither as safe nor as easily
worked as the slide-valve. The size of the valves is dependent upon the
quantity of water to be discharged in a given time, and upon the head of
water; they vary from 20 inches to 4 feet square, and are generally made

of cast-iron.
633

54 TECHNOLOGY.

We have thus far confined our remarks to locks of a single water-way,
which pass only one boat at a time. Where navigation is frequent, double |
locks are built, consisting of two separate chambers side by side, by which
arrangements two boats can be locked through at the same time, either in
the same or in opposite directions. Double locks of the best and most
durable construction have been built on the Erie Canal in the State of New
York.

D. Aqueducts.

When a canal meets in its course with a river or ravine, it must be car- .
ried across on a bridge, which differs from ordinary bridges only in the
superstructure, which embraces the canal and tow-path. As a specimen of
a stone aqueduct, we give on pl. 11, jigs. 6, 7, and 8, a side-view, cross-
section, and top-view of the Cesse Aqueduct, designed by Vauban for the
Languedoc Canal. The water-way is frequently carried across the bridges
in wooden trunks; of this there are many examples in the United States,
where wooden aqueducts have been more extensively constructed than else-
where.

The first aqueduct of cast-iron was the Chirk Aqueduct on the Ellesmere
Canal, built in 1795, by Thomas Telford, who, encouraged by its success, con-
structed immediately afterwards, on the same canal, the Dee Aqueduct, in
the valley of Llangollyn, 127 feet above the bed of the Dee, and 1000 feet
in length. It consists of 19 arches of cast-iron, abutting on stone piers (i.
10, jig. 10). Each arch consists of four ribs, as shown in the cross-section
(jig. 11), secured against lateral motion by connecting-plates (jig. 18).
An abutting plate or skew-back is shown in jig. 12. The bottom plates
(jig. 14), as well as the side-plates, are firmly connected by flanges, and are
made water-tight by iron cement. The position of the tow-path is seen in
jig. 11. The canal is 12 feet wide, and passes boats of 7 feet in width.

The carrying of canals across rivers is not the only object of aqueducts.
They have been built since the remotest times for the purpose of conveying
water into cities. The Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans had large structures
of that kind, and they continue to be built in modern times. The Croton
Aqueduct, by which the city of New York is supplied with water, com-
pleted in 1842, under the direction of J. B. Jervis, is the most gigantic
modern work of the kind, of which we will here give a description.

It was constructed at the expense of the city of New York, and cost
about twelve millions of dollars. The conduit commences at the Croton
river, in Westchester county, where a dam has been constructed which
raises the water of that stream 40 feet above its natural level, and 116 feet
above mean tide, setting back the water of the river about 5 miles, and
forming a reservoir of about 400 acres surface. The aqueduct runs down
the valley of the Croton to the shore of the Hudson, which it leaves again
at the village of Yonkers, and, crossing the valley of the Sawmill river and
Tibbitt’s Brook, gains the summit between the Hudson and East Rivers,
and continues on it to the Harlem River, a distance of 83 miles of con-
tinuous masonry. Iron pipes are then laid 1450 feet on an arched bridge

634

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. | 59

across the valley of the Harlem River, after which the aqueduct of masonry
is resumed, and continues two miles to the Manhattan valley, which is
passed with four iron pipes, descending 102 feet to the bottom of the valley,
and rising again to its opposite side, forming a syphon of 4100 feet in
length. The masonry conduit is again resumed, and crossing the Asylum
ridge and Clendenning valley, is continued two miles to the receiving
reservoir at Yorkville, whence iron pipes laid beneath the surface of the
ground conduct the water a distance of two miles to the distributing reser-
voir at Murray Hill, three miles from the City Hall.

The length of the aqueduct from the Croton dam to the receiving reser-
voir is 454 miles. Its general declivity is 13+ inches to the mile. The
form of the masonry conduit is seen in pl. 11, fig. 11; the bottom is an
inverted arch, the chord of which is 6 feet 9 inches, and the versed sine 9
inches ; the side-walls rise 4 feet from the springing line of the bottom arch,
with a batter of 1 inch to a foot rise, making the width at the top of the
side-walls 7 feet 5 inches. The roof-arch is a semicircle, making the area
of the interior 53.59 feet. The supply of water furnished daily is about fifty
millions of gallons, which is more than the aggregate of all the London
water-works, and more by ten millions of gallons than the quantity fur-
nished by the fourteen aqueducts which supplied Rome in the days of her
greatest splendor.

There are on the line sixteen tunnels, driven chiefly through gneiss and
marble, the aggregate length of which is 6841 feet. The streams encoun-
tered are crossed te 114 culverts with spans from 12 to 25 feet, at depths
varying from 12 to 70 feet below the grade. There are also five road-cross-
ings of from 14 to 20 feet span. The aqueduct is covered with earth
to a sufficient depth to protect the water from frost. There are thirty-three
ventilators placed at a distance of one mile from each other, to give free
circulation of air through the aqueduct; they rise 14 feet above the surface
of the ground, and have a circular aperture of 15 inches diameter; eleven
of them are provided with doors by which the aqueduct may be entered.
There are also six waste-weirs to allow the water to run off when it reaches
a certain height, and to allow the aqueduct to be emptied should it become
necessary. They are constructed of well dressed stone, with cast-iron gates
and frames.

The Croton reservoir, which has received the name of Croton Lake, is
available for 500 millions of gallons above the level that would allow the
aqueduct to discharge thirty-five millions per day. The greatest height of
the weir of the dam above the bed of the river is 55 feet. The width of
masonry at low-water line of the river is 61 feet ; the form on the lower face
is a curve described by a radius of 55 feet, which continues to within 10
feet of the top, when a reversed curve of 10 feet radius carries the face over
to meet the back line of the wall. The back line is carried up vertically
with occasional projections. The waste-weir is 270 feet in width. At 300 feet
below the main dam is a second dam 9 feet high, which sets the water back
over the apron of the main dam, and thus forms a pvol to check the water

as it falls over the weir. The gateway which guards the entrance to the
635

56 TECHNOLOGY.

aqueduct is placed on a solid gneiss rock, through which the aqueduct passes
by a tunnel of 108 feet in length. The gate chamber is provided with a
double set of gates, one set of guard gates of iron, the other a set of regulat-
ing gates made of gun metal. The gates are all 18 by 40 inches, and there
are nine in each set ; they are operated by means of wrought-iron screw rods.

The Harlem bridge | is represented on pl. 11, jig. 9; it crosses the valley
of the Harlem river with eight arches of 80 et frat and seven of 50 feet
span ; they are semicircular, and the height to the top of the parapets is 114
feet above ordinary high water ; the width on top of the parapets is 21 feet.
The material of the bridge is dressed granite. The water is conveyed across
the bridge in three iron pipes of 3 feet diameter, having an extra fall of 2
feet in order to make their capacity for conveying water equal to that of the
aqueduct.

The greatest depression of the Clendenning valley is 50 feet below the
top of the aqueduct, and the valley is 1,900 feet across. Streets cross the
line of the aqueduct in this valley at right angles, and archways are con-
structed over them. /. 11, fig. 10, represents the aqueduct, and jig. 11is
a section of the same.

The receiving reservoir is 1,826 feet long and 836 wide, and covers with
its embankments an area of thirty-five acres. It is divided into two parts,
having respectively the depths of 20 and 30 feet ; its present capacity is 150
millions of gallons. It is formed by earth-banks, the interior having
regular rubble walls; the outside is protected by a stone wall on a slope of
one horizontal to three vertical, the face laid in cement mortar, and the
inside dry.

The distributing reservoir at Murray hill is 420 feet square, and covers
four acres; it is 86 feet deep, and holds twenty millions of gallons. The
walls are of hydraulic stone masonry, constructed with openings made by an
interior and exterior wall, connected every 10 feet by cross walls, in order
to give an enlarged base and reduce the quantity of masonry. At 17 feet
from the top the cross-walls are connected by brick arches; the exterior
wall, 4 feet thick, is then carried up single to the top, where it has an
Egyptian cornice surmounted by an iron railing. On each corner of the
reservoir pilasters 40 feet in width are raised, projecting 4 feet from the main
wall, and in the centre of the street-facades are pilasters 60 feet wide ; they
have doors and stairways leading to the top of the walls and to the pipe
chambers, in which the supply of water can be regulated by stop-cocks.
The reservoir is divided by a wall of hydraulic masonry into two divisions,
from both of which the city is supplied, and in each there is a waste-cock to
draw the water from the bottom. The level of the reservoir is 45 feet
above that of the adjoining streets, and higher than any part of the city of
New York.

Ef. Canal Bridges.

On canals which are not navigated by vessels carrying masts, the foot
and road bridges crossing them are built like other structures of the
kind; care should be taken to give them sufficient height to allow persons

636

WINDLASSES AND CRANES. 57

to stand upright on the deck of boats passing under them. When on the
contrary sailing vessels are used on a canal, drawbridges of various kinds
are constructed, which may be opened to allow the passage of the boats.
The common drawbridge is raised vertically on hinges by means of a
windlass or other machinery. olling bridges are those which are
drawn back horizontally on rollers, and turning bridges move aside by
revolving on a vertical axis or hinge. PJ. 10, jig. 7, is a side view of an
iron turning bridge of 40 feet span; jig. 8 is a top view of one wing with the
roadway partially removed; jig. 9 is one of the inner ribs or semi-arches
which support the roadway. Both wings turn about an axis at c, c, and
when they meet they are rounded off in such a manner as to slide past each
other when turned. This bridge is preferable to a drawbridge, being more
readily moved and more durable.

I. WINDLASSES AND CRANES.

Of the great variety of machines which have been invented to facilitate
the labor of raising weights which manual labor alone could never move,
we propose to describe and illustrate only the most important and inter-
esting.

Wrnptassrs and Jacks are simple machines designed for raising heavy
weights. The simplest forms of these are too well known to require illus-
tration. A windlass of more elaborate construction is represented on pl. 12,
where jig. 10 is an end view, jig. 11 a front view, and jig. 12 the bottom
frame. The wooden drum a is mounted on an iron axle, which also carries
the spur-wheel 6, which is driven by the pinion ¢, the axle of which is
turned by the two winches dd’ ; the frame B rests on rollers ff, which
may be made to run on a railway. The windlass is used in building and in
manufactories, where heavy loads require to be moved from one place to
another. In France they are employed, as shown in jig. 10, to lift the
bodies of mail coaches, p, off the ordinary wheels, 5, and place them upon
the railroad trucks, c. The ropes or chains pass down over the pulleys, g g.

Cranes have a two-fold motion ; that by which the load is raised, and a
rotary motion by means of which it may be deposited in another place.
The frame of a crane consists of a post or upright beam, from the upper
end of which projects horizontally or obliquely upwards a beam called the
jib, at the end of which the load is raised, and which is supported by a
brace or stay. The post turns on pivots at both ends, or sometimes on the
lower end only. At the end of the jib is a pulley, over which, in cranes
of asimple construction, passes a rope from the load to a drum which is
turned by winches, or, when heavy loads are to be raised, by a spur-wheel
and pinion, as in the machine last described. Cranes are generally erected
on wharves for the unloading of vessels, and they are universally employed
in foundries and machine shops, where enormous loads are lifted and moved
by means of them.

637

08 TECHNOLOGY.

Pl. 12, fig. 6, is a side view of a crane generally used in foundries ; jig. 7
is a top view of the same. It is entirely of iron; the frame consists of two
plates separated by cross-pieces and held together by screw-bolts, 4A; 8 is
the post, c the stay, p the jib; the gudgeons, p p’, of the post turn on fric-
tion rollers, as shown in fig. 8. The force is applied at the winches, 0, on
the axle of the pinion, x, which drives the spur-wheel, m, on the axle of which
is another pinion driving the spur-wheel x, which carries round the drum, t.
On the axle of the pinion n is a ratchet-wheel, into which a catch or detent
falls to prevent the load from descending when the power ceases to act. The
chain passes from the drum over the pulleys, q, 1, and n, to the load. Besides
the circular motion about the gudgeons, a rectilinear motion towards or
from the centre can be given to the load in this crane by means of the
following construction. The pulley, u, is attached to a small truck, e, which
can be drawn along the track, t, by means of the rack, F; the latter is
driven by the pinion, p, which is turned by means of the rope, m n, wound
several times around the drum, g, on the axle of pP.

Another crane of French construction, composed of wood and cast iron,
and intended for raising very heavy loads, is represented on pl. 12, jig. 1
being a view from behind, and jig. 2 a side view; jig. 8 shows the arrange-
ment of the wheels on a larger scale. It is supported entirely at the lower
end on the axis A, which is a hollow cast-iron cone (a section being partly
shown in jig. 2) turning on a gudgeon, B, at the lower end, and at the top in
an iron collar, c, which are fastened in a pier of solid masonry. The jib, £,
and stay, Fr, are of wood; the drum, a, on which the chain, 7, is wound, and
the wheelwork arms, @ a, which are attached to the post. The operation of
the machinery is readily understood from the figure. In order to sustain
the load when raised, and to allow it to descend slowly when desired, a
small drum, 7, is attached to the spur-wheel, 5, having a ratchet-wheel and
brake, as shown on a larger scale in jigs. 4 and 5.

Pl. 12, fig. 9,is a drawing of a very ingenious crane in the machine-shop
of Maudslay, in London, which is mounted on wheels in a room used for
setting up large engines, and which serves for raising and transporting the
heavier parts of the engines and for adjusting them in their positions. It
has two arms, @Q, which are movable about the bolts, a a, and may be
raised or lowered by means of the chains attached at 6d and wound around
the drum, a, when it is desired to bring the load nearer to or further from
the centre of the crane. The drum, A, turns with the cog-wheel, B, which
is driven by an endless screw on the spindle, x, which also carries the
wheel, p; the latter is driven by the pinion, r, when the spoke-wheel, a, is
turned by hand. The load is raised at one arm only, while at the other a
counterpoise is suspended, which descends as the load is raised, and vice
versa, and serves to establish the equilibrium of the crane. The chains by
which the load and counterpoise are suspended are attached to the arms at
ec, and passing over the pulleys, m and 3, are wound over the drum, x, the
axle of which rests in bearings at d, which are set into the post, r. The
force is applied at the crank, 0, and turns the drum by means of the pinions,
e and m, and the spur-wheels, n and 1; if lighter weights are to be raised

638

HYDRAULIC ENGINES. 59

the crank is applied at f to the axle of the pinions, m, and ¢ is thrown out
of gear by releasing the detent, g. The frame, p, turns on a centre pin, 2,
and is supported on six rollers, A, which run in a circular track on the
truck, xr. The latter is mounted on four wheels, ¢, which can be set in any
direction by means of the bolts, % When the whole crane is to be moved,
it is done by means of blocks and tackle, as the application of levers under
the truck would disturb the equilibrium of the machine.

Ul. HYDRAULIC ENGINES.

Hydraulic engines are machines by the aid of which water is raised or
thrown from a lower to a higher point. We proceed to consider the usual
kinds of hydraulic engines under their respective heads.

1. Pumps.

We have in general three classes of pumps, viz. suction or lift pumps,
Forcing pumps, and double action pumps, which combine the principles of ~
the two former.

A lift-pump (pl. 18, fig. 1) consists of a straight or bent pipe as, the
suction-pipe, extending below the surface cd of the water, enlarged at the
lower end, and generally provided with a strainer or perforated cap, ab, to
exclude impurities ; joined to the upper end of the suction-pipe is a pipe
cp, which is generally larger than the former, and must be bored truly
eylindrical, in order to allow the box e to fit perfectly water-tight and move
with as little friction as possible. At the junction of the two pipes is placed
the valve a, the swction-valve, which in its simplest form moves on a leather
hinge, opening upwards. The box e is perforated and provided with a
similar valve Fr, also opening upwards. Hux is the pitman, which is moved
up and down by means of the bent lever or pump-handle grim. Frequently
there is a contrivance to insure the rectilinear motion of the piston-rod, or
at least there is a joint at 3, which allows the portion su to remain nearly
perpendicular during the reciprocating motion. The action of this machine
is quite simple: at the commencement the suction-pipe is filled with water
to e¢ (the level of the surrounding water), and the space between ez and the
bucket ¢ is filled with atmospheric air. As the bucket rises the air between
it and the suction-valve a will expand, and the latter will be opened by the
greater pressure from below; when the bucket has reached its highest posi-
tion, 41, the water will have risen to a height, mn, at which its pressure
added to that of the rarefied air m the space klmn equals that of the
exterior air; the suction-valve will now be closed by its own weight. By
the descent of the bucket the air between it and the valve a is condensed
again until its pressure begins to exceed that of the exterior air, when the
bucket-valve r will open and allow the air to escape. By repeating the

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60 . TECHNOLOGY.

motion the water will be caused to rise successively in the suction-pipe, and
will reach the valve a, open it, and arrive at the bucket. In descending
through the water the bucket-valve will be opened, and the water will
ascend through it, while the pressure will keep the suction-valve closed :
on rising, the bucket-valve will close, the bucket lifting up the water in its
ascent, while the pressure of the atmospheric air will force the water in the
suction-pipe to follow the bucket to its highest position. By the continued
play of the bucket the water will thus finally be raised to a reservoir, EE,
at the top of the pump, whence it is discharged by spouts or cocks.

In this pump the water is raised entirely by the ascent of the bucket and
the pressure of the atmospheric air. When the height, ge, of the bucket in
its lowest position above the level of the water, cd, exceeds that of a column
of water the pressure of which equals that of the atmosphere, then the
water will not follow the bucket in its ascent, and cannot, therefore, be
raised above it. The greatest height at which the bucket may therefore be
placed above the level of the water to be raised is 32 feet, the height of the
above column. In practice this height will be diminished by 2 or 3 feet,
as the development of air contained in the water and the want of a perfectly
air-tight fit of the piston will not allow a perfect vacuum to be formed.

A forcing pump in its simplest form is represented in jig. 2. The cylin-
* der aB, immersed in the water, is closed at the bottom by the valve f, and
communicates by the valve p with the pipe pz, through which the water is
forced to the required beight. The solid piston or plunger, c, has no valve,
and is here moved by means of a lever of the second kind. When the
plunger rises the water will ascend into the cylinder by its own pressure
and that of the air; as the plunger begins to descend, the pressure will
close the valve 7 and open pv, through which the water will be forced into
the pipe pr. As the plunger ascends again the valve p will be closed by
the pressure of the water in DE, which is thus prevented from returning into
the cylinder. If the plunger in its highest position is below the surface of
the exterior water, the pump will act independent of the pressure of the air,
and is then a forcing-pump, properly so called. |

A double action pump is one in which the cylinder is elevated above the
level of the water, communicating with it by a suction-pipe. This is a kind
of pump very frequently employed to raise water to great elevations. A
simple lift-pump, however, may also be employed to raise water to a
considerable height.

As an example of this kind jig. 3 represents Stephenson’s pump for wells.
A is the surface of the ground ; BB the wall of the well in which the water-
level is below c. pb is the pump-handle by which the pitman @ is worked:
the latter consists of wooden rods, joined together by iron fastenings, as
shown in jig. 6. All the pipes are of wood; the cylinder © has a brass
lining, intended to diminish the friction of the bucket d ; 7’ is the suction-
valve. The upper end of the cylinder is closed by a metal cover, g (jigs. 4
and 5), which has a stuffing-box in the centre for the iron piston-rod, A ;
k (fig. 3) is a guide which keeps the piston-rod in a vertical position. The
lift-pipe F consists of as many pieces as are required to carry the water

640

HYDRAULIC ENGINES. 61

to the desired elevation: the conical joints of the pieces are seen in the
figure. It would be preferable to have a valve at the inclined junction-pipe
é, in order to relieve the valve /’ from the pressure of the water in r. The
water is discharged at the spout 7. Nis a second spout provided with a screw,
on which a hose may be screwed to convey the water to a distant point.

Pl. 13, fig. 7, represents a pump of superior construction in the mine
Huelgoat, in Normandy. The plunger p in its upward motion lifts the
water through s 1’, and 1, and the lift-valve s’ into the lift-pipe B; during its
downward motion the water is forced up from the reservoir B’, through the
suction-pipe a, by the pressure of the air, raising the valve s. The cylinder
c is of bronze, open below, and provided at the top with a stuffing-box for
the piston-rod x. The packing of the plunger P is shown in jigs. 8 and 9,
consisting of a leather ring pressed outwards by the eight sectors, 7, and the
springs, 7’. The valve-box consists of the two portions i and t’, the upper one
of which is fitted to the lift-pipe at vv’ and has a vent at 7’; and the lower
one connects with the cylinder by the pipe T, and has a vent at vr. The
valves s and s’ are conical or puppet valves.

When the pump is to be put in operation the lift-pipe is brought into
communication with the suction-pipe by opening the cocks ww’ w'’ of the
bent tube p, and water is poured into the pump, the valves zz’ at the
bottom of the suction-pipe preventing its escape. The confined air is
allowed to escape by the vent w, the cocks ww’ w’ are closed, and the pump
is ready for action.

A pump by Letestu of Paris, which differs from those heretofore
described in the construction of the valves and piston, is represented in jigs.
10,11, and 12. The latter shows the construction of the suction-valve,
which consists of the disk, a, perforated by a great many holes, and covered
by a leather disk, a, which is fastened by the screw, 6. During the ascent
of the bucket the leather disk is raised up by the pressure of the water
admitting it into the cylinder, while during the downward stroke it is
pressed firmly upon the disk, ce, closing the openings. The bucket (jg. 11)
consists of a perforated funnel with a loose conical leather-cap, d, which in
the upward stroke is pressed against the sides of the funnel and of the
cylinder, and thus makes a perfect packing. The lift-valve, J, is of the
same construction as «, and the packing of the piston-rod, p, is also effected
by a leather funnel, e.

2. Taz Hypraviic Ram.

The Aydraulic ram is a machine designed to make use of water-power
when with a considerable elevation or head of water the supply is so small
as not to suffice for the turning of wheels. The mechanical effect is pro-
duced by the pressure of a high column of water confined in a pipe upon
a piston, and the momentum it accumulates in descending a certain distance.
The essential parts of the machine are, besides the main-pipe, a cylinder
with the driving piston, and an arrangement of self-acting alternating valves,

ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOP£DIA.—VOL, IV. 4] 641,

62 TECHNOLOGY.

by means of which a reciprocating motion is given to the piston. This
machine is generally employed for the purpose of raising water, the driving
piston being connected with the plunger of a pump. The construction and
play of it are best illustrated by reference to pl. 13, fig. 15, which represents
a section of a machine of this kind constructed by Reichenbach in the
salt-works at Ilfang in Bavaria, which forces the saline water to an elevation
of 1,218 feet. igs. 16, 17, 18,19, 20, and 21, represent details of the same.

The column of water which acts as the motive power enters by the main-
pipe, A (jig. 15), the supply being regulated by the throttle-valve, a, and
after having performed its work it is discharged by the pipe,w. The whole
mechanism is in the four verticals, a’, o', ¥’, 0’; in a’ is the pipe B branching
off from the main-pipe, and communicating with the horizontal pipe, B’,
when the stop-cock, 6, is opened. In the vertical c’ is the pipe, c, which
is seen on a larger scale in fig. 21; it communicates with the pipes, np’, and
contains two small pistons, d and d@’, both on the same rod, p, and drawn
in fig. 15 in their lowest position. In the vertical, Fr’, is the distributing box,
consisting of two cylinders, r and « u, the lower one having a larger diameter ;
in the former moves the piston x, in the latter the pistons, x and M, all fixed
in the same vertical axis. In the vertical, 0’, are the three cylinders, P, aq,
and Rr, the first of which contains the counter-piston, s, the second the main
driving piston, Tr, and the third the plunger, v, which forces the saline water
to the required elevation. The cylinders Pp and r have equal diameters,
and are both open at top, while q is open at the bottom. The cylinder, r,
of the forcing pump, the suction pipe, x, the chamber for the puppet valves,
x and a’, and the pipe, y, are supported by a strong wall.

We will now suppose all the parts of the mechanism to be in the positions
represented in jig. 15; the stop-cock @’ is closed, 6 is open, and there is no
air in any of the pipes. The water from the main-pipe fills the cylinders,
@, F, Pp, and the pipes, B, B’, q@’, and vp’. The small pistons, d and d’, are at
rest, having equal diameters and suffering equal upward and downward
pressures. The pressure on the unequal pistons, x and L, is greatest in the
downward direction, but their descent is prevented by the rod, m. The
water therefore passes through Q’ to the main piston, 1, which is driven
downwards by a pressure equal to the weight of a column of water having
the diameter of the piston, T, and the height of the main pipe. In its descent,
T carries with it the counter-piston, s, and the plunger, uv; the action of the
latter is to force the saline water into the conduit pipe, y, while the former
expels the water contained in p through the spout, 7. As the main piston
arrives at its lowest point, a small pin, e’, on the rod ¢ (figs. 15 and 19),
pushes down the end, ’, of the lever, »’n, and thereby raises the opposite
end, ©, and the rod, p, with the piston,d and @'. The water will now enter
below the piston, m, through c, and will neutralize the pressure from above
upon L; the pressure upon x will therefore carry all three alternating pistons
rapidly upwards, cutting off the communication of Q’ with a, and establish-
ing that between a and P’, which will immediately produce an ascent of the
counter-piston, s, and consequently of r and u, the water in q passing through
q’ and 1 into the discharge pipe, x. When Tt reaches again its highest position

642

HYDRAULIC ENGINES. 63

the pin e will push the lever, n', », into its former position, carrying with it
the pistons d and d’, and cutting off the communication of the water below
m with the main pipe. The downward pressure on L exceeding the upward
pressure on K, they will descend again to the position of jig. 15, the water
below m being expelled though ¢, oc, and ¢’, into n, when everything is
again in the position first assumed.

The two small cut-off pistons, d@ and d’, are of block tin. The alternating
pistons, K, L, and m, consist each of brass cylinders with a ring of block tin,
which, being soft and elastic, serves as packing. The counter-piston, s, has
the same construction. The main piston, tT (jigs. 15, 18, and 19), consists
of a cylindrical piece of brass (shaded in jig. 19) encircled by two rings, s, s,
of block tin, which are sufficiently elastic to expand a little when a pressure
is exerted from within, and to contract again when the pressure ceases.
This property is made use of by means of the small tubes, z’, z', which com-
municate with circular grooves in the brass body under the middle of the
rings. During the descent of the piston the water entering the grooves will
press the rings outwards and produce a perfect packing, while during the
ascent the pressure is in a great measure relieved, allowing the wings
to contract and experience very little friction. The plunger, vu, consists of
disks of leather saturated with oil; the manner of putting them together is
seen in fig. 19. A better construction is shown in jig. 20, where it consists
of two different layers of leather disks, the upper set forming the plunger,
and the lower set, of less diameter, receiving the blow of the piston on the
plate, y. The piston-rod, s’, has a ball and socket-joint, as is seen in jig. 19,
which also shows the connexion of rand v. The piston-rod, £7, also has
a ball and socket-joint at r. #%g. 17 represents a horizontal section along
the line, 3,4, in fig. 15, of the forcing pump and valve chamber; jig. 16
a similar section along the line, 1,2, in jig. 15.

A second hydraulic engine of this kind is represented in pl. 13, jig. 13.
It was built by Jordan in the mine of Clausthal, in the Hartz, and was
completed in 1835, together with another similar one, which works in the
same shaft. The main piston has a diameter of 17 inches, and is driven by the
hydrostatic pressure of a column of water 688 feet in height. The operation
of this machine is similar to that just described, and will be readily under-
stood. Eis the main pipe, 6 inches in diameter; 0 m v are the alternating
pistons by which the driving-column is cut off and let on; Tis the main
cylinder in which the piston is driven upwards by the pressure of the water ;
H is the back-water pipe through which the spent water is carried off; h is
a double stop-cock, which opens or cuts off the communication of the pipes
E and H with the cylinder uv, by means of the tubes 1, 1’, and Lv”, which have
a diameter of { of an inch. The figure represents the machine just after
the completion of the upward stroke ; the communication of the main pipe
with the cylinder rT is cut off by the piston-valve m, and the main piston-
rod p will descend, and by its own weight and that of the long piston-rod
ce, which descends to the bottom of the shaft, will force the spent water in t
up the back-water pipe u to an elevation of 80 feet, where it flows off. In
descending, the projection ® operating against the angular arm a’, causes

643

64 TECHNOLOGY,

the axle w to turn through a certain arc, which, by means of the rod g and
the lever 2, turns the cock / so as to shut off the main water from the
cylinder v. The pressure upon m exceeding that upon o, will cause mu to
descend, and admit the water from the main into T, when the main piston
will commence its upward or working stroke. As it reaches the top, the
projection B will, by acting on the arm a, turn the cock A, so as te admit
the main water through x into v, and to close L’; when the piston-valve m
will ascend and close the communication between the main pipe and cylin-
der, leaving the piston to descend as before. The couplings of the pitman-
rods are shown in jig. 14.

3. Frre-EnGInes.

A further application of the suction and forcing-pumps are jire-engmnes,
which serve to throw water or other fire-extinguishing fluids to a consider-
able distance or elevation. The chief requisites of a fire-engine are, that it
should be as compact and portable as is consistent with the power of fur-
nishing a large quantity of water, and that the stream of water thrown by
it should not be intermittent but continuous, and that any desired direction
may be given to it. All fire-engines consist of a single or double forcing-
pump, provided with an air-chamber, the effect of which is to make the
discharge of water continuous. The essential features of the machine are
the following: one or two cylinders, at the bottom of which is the bottom
or suction-valve, opening into the cylinder ; each cylinder is connected with
the air-chamber by a pipe, at the junction of which with the air-chamber is a
valve which admits the water into the latter, but prevents its return, In
the lower part of the air-chamber is the pipe through which the water is
expelled, and which consists of several portions so joined together as to
allow the mouth or branch-pipe to be turned in every direction, or else a
leather pipe or Aose ending in a brass nozzle is screwed to the first piece.
The plungers in the cylinders are moved by levers on which the firemen
operate. The cylinders and air-chamber generally are mounted in a water-
box, which is supplied with water from a reservoir by means of a hose;
when this reservoir is below the level of the fire-engine, the water is drawn
from it by suction, and the suction-hose is stiffened out by spiral coils of
wire (pl. 14, jig. 206) to prevent its being compressed by the atmospheric
pressure.

The operation of fire-engines differs from that of ordinary pumps only by
the action of the air-chamber. At the beginning of the play of the engine
the chamber contains a quantity of air corresponding to its volume; as
water is forced into it while the nozzle remains closed, the air will be com-
pressed in the chamber to a great degree, and will, on the nozzle being
opened, expel the water with great velocity in a copious stream, which
retains its force without much variation while the pump continues to be
worked. The suction-valves are either conical, spherical, or plane-valves.
The spherical or ball-valves (pl. 14, jig. 19) are the most usual, and deserve

644

HYDRAULIC ENGINES. 65

the preference over conical valves, as they close perfectly, even when coming
down a little inclined, which is not the case with the latter. Plane or hinge-
valves consist of square or round plates of brass, well polished, and moving
on hinges ; or else a disk of leather is serewed between two plates of metal,
one of which is a little smaller, the other a little larger than the opening to
be closed, the leather disk thus closing the opening, while a prolongation of
it serves as a hinge. ‘The valves in the pipe connecting the cylinders and
air-chamber are always hinge-valves in an oblique position.

We will now proceed to explain the construction of different kinds of
fire-engines, with the aid of plate 14. J/g. 1 is an elevation, fig. 2 a section
of the simplest machine of the kind, which is readily worked and carried
about by one person, and, having no air-chamber, throws an intermittent
stream. a is the cylinder, 8 the suction-valve, c the perforated suction-pipe ;
when the plunger, 1, is raised, the water enters the cylinder through zn, and
in descending the plunger drives the water through the pipe, p, and the
valve, F, into the hose, a, and expels it in a stream oe the nozzle, Hu. The
crutch, L, serves to manage and support the machine.

A foeable fire-engine with a single cylinder, which acts far more power-
fully than the shige: but Late several persons for its management, is
represented in jigs. 3 and 4, the former being a cross-section in front of the
air-chamber, the latter a longitudinal section. In the trough, a, is the sill, 2,
to which the main parts of the engine are screwed; ¢ is the plunger, @ the
air-chamber, with the orifice, 7, opening into the branch-pipe, 2 #, which is
movable in every direction by means of the joints at g, 4, and ¢, and the
construction of which is shown in detail in jig. 18. The pump is worked
by the lever, x; the levers, p p, which turn about the bolts, ¢ g, serve for
transporting the engine, when they bear against the projections, 7 7.

A double-acting portable fire-engine of very simple construction is that
by Letestu, having pistons and valves on the principle explained above
in speaking of his pump. /7g. 11 is a longitudinal section, fig. 12 a top
view, jig. 13 a cross-section through the air-chamber, fig. 14 a horizontal
section along the lower dotted line in jig. 11, and jig. 15 a front view of the
engine. On a strong support, 4B, provided with the rings, o, through
which poles may be passed for transportation, rests the trough or water-box,
D; in its centre is the air-chamber, &. ‘The piston, x, in ascending admits
water into the cylinders, u, and in descending forces it through the valve, a,
into the air-chamber, whence it is expelled through the pipe, o, to which the
hose and branch-pipe are screwed. At u the piston-rods are attached to
the lever or balance-beam, m, which moves about the centre-bolt, p, and is
worked by means of the arms, Nn N.

A more complex fire-engine is that by Pontifex, of London, which is fre-
quently used on board ships, on account of its requiring but little space.
Fig. 5 represents a longitudinal and jig. 6 a cross-section. It is inclosed in
a box, A, which has at the bottom the projecting leaves, ¢ (the one on the
left hand is omitted), that fold up about a hinge, f; when the engine is in
use they are turned down and a part of the men stand on them, giving
stability to the engine. The upper part of the box consists of two pieces

645

SS ee er een,

I i rt a

66 TECHNOLOGY.

which turn on the hinges, @, and when closed are held together by the
hook, 6, jig. 6. Four ring-bolts, r, are attached to the box by which it is
carried, the brake-bars, m, being put through them. The working parts of
the engine are now readily understood by inspection of the figure. ¢ is a
guide-rod which passes through a packing-box at 2’, and insures the recti-
linear motion of the plunger. Two uprights, x x (jig. 6), support the axis,
r, of the balance-beam, kK Hx x. The pipe, p q, leads from the air-chamber
to the hose. Two cross-pieces, n, limit the extent of the stroke. The
volume of the air-chamber is nearly four times that of one cylinder. Six
or eight persons can work this engine, and water may be thrown with it to
a height of 60 feet. |

A fire-engine constructed on an entirely different principle is that invented
by Repsold, in Hamburg, in 1843. It works by revolving pistons, and is
represented in jig. 7 in a side elevation; jig. 8 is a top view of the active
machinery, jig. 9 a front view, and jig. 10 a section. On a light hand-cart,
A, is placed a sliding frame, B, which can be fixed in any position by the
set-screw at B. The engine, £, rests on the platform, cp; the hose, cranks,
and other apparatus are carried in the box, s. The body of the engine, x,
consists of a metal box formed by two cylinders partly inserted into each
other, and closed at the ends with two plates. In this box play the two
pistons, L and mM, which are mounted on the axles of the wheels, a and 8,
and are turned by the cranks, rr. The pistons are of an epicycloidal form,
and so arranged that their surfaces are always in close contact at a line
between the centres. The larger segment of the epicycloid is in close con-
tact with the surrounding cylinder, which is effected by a packing on the
latter of lamina of metal covered with leather, e and 7 Gand u are the
orifices by which the water enters and is discharged. The action of the
engine is as follows. Whenever by turning the cranks the pistons, 1 and m,
are set in motion, revolving in opposite directions, a vacuum will be formed
before the smaller segment of one piston, and will be filled with water from
the supply-pipe; the piston in continuing its revolution carries the water
before it, and throws it out at the opposite orifice. In this way both pistons
operate alternately, and the pressure of one will have commenced before
that of the other ceases to act, thus furnishing a continuous stream of water
without the aid of an air-chamber. An engine of this kind worked by four
men will do as much work as an ordinary one when worked by six or
eight men.

Pl. 14, fig. 16, represents a fire-eengine mounted on carriage-wheels, as it
is In general use by the firemen in cities. It differs in nothing but the
larger dimensions from the portable double-acting fire-engine described
above, and its operation will be readily understood by inspection of the
figure. The connexion of the several sections of pipe or hose is shown in
jig. 17. Fig. 21 represents a stop-cock as it frequently occurs in different
parts of the engine. It will be seen that the cock, a, is so perforated as to
admit the water in the position in which it is drawn; when turned at right
angles to that position it will cut it off completely.

Pi. 14, fig. 22, is a longitudinal section, and jig. 23 a transverse section,

646

HYDRAULIC ENGINES. 67

of a fire-engine constructed by Bramah, which differs essentially from those
already described. Upon a strong four-wheeled truck rest the saddles a, cut
out circularly on top to receive the cylindrical chamber B, made of staves
or boards and hooped with iron: it is divided into three divisions, A, B, ©.
A contains the pump-cylinder; the middle portion, B, is the water-box; and
c receives one of the gudgeons of the centre shaft and the levers or arms
by which it is worked.

At a is an opening with a closely-fitting cover, through which the
interior of the water-chest is cleansed. Above the engine is a box, p, for
carrying tools, at one end of which, in a separate division, is the air-cham-
ber £; beneath the engine is a cock, c, to let off the water. At d@ is seen
the brass pump-cylinder, 10 inches in diameter and 74 inches long for an
engine to be worked by 10 men. Above this cylinder communicates with
the air-chamber, and below with the water-chamber through the pipe 7;
k is a cock which establishes a communication between the pump-cylinder
and either the water-chamber or with the external air, according as it is
turned in one direction or the other. When water is to be drawn from a
well, the cock is turned, as seen in fig. 22, so that the pump-cylinder d is
opened to the tube on the left, to which is attached a suction-hose reaching
to the bottom of the well.

When water is to be drawn from the water-chamber p, the cock & is
turned in the opposite direction, opening a communication between the
pump-cylinder and the pipe 7. Beneath the central axle the pump-chamber
d is divided by a vertical partition, reaching from the axle to the bottom
of the chamber, and upon each side of the division-wall are valves in the
bottom of the chamber opening inwards. The axle is packed water-tight
where it enters the pump cylinder, and also at the joint between it and the
vertical partition. Attached to the axle within the cylinder are two plates
or pistons, one upon each side of the partition, which are packed tight by
rings or disks of leather. In these plates are valves opening upwards. <A
reciprocating rotary motion is communicated through the brakes o to the
centre axle, and the plates or pistons attached to it are thus alternately made
to approach and recede from the stationary partition. The water is thus
drawn through the valves in the bottom of the cylinder, and forced through
the valves in the reciprocating pistons into the upper portion of the cylinder
d, which communicates with the air-chamber £, from which the pipe passes
which receives the hose.

Steam-power has also been applied to the working of fire-engines, Braith-
waite in London being the first who made the attempt. Pl. 14, fig. 24,
represents a side view of a fire-engine driven by steam; it works on the
high-pressure principle, and has six horse-power. It has two horizontal
cylinders, one of which is the steam-cylinder and the other that of the
forcing-pump ; the pistons of both are on one rod and act at the same time,
the alternating motion of the steam-piston producing that of the plunger
immediately. @a@ is a wooden frame which rests on springs that are
supported on the axles of the wheels; on this wooden frame is an iron one,
which supports the cylinders and other main parts of the engine; 4 is the

647

68 TECHNOLOGY.

boiler; c, the cinder-box: in order to produce a rapid combustion, a blow-
ing apparatus is contained in the box n, which may be worked either by
the engine or by hand; m is the boiler-pump; w, the mercurial gauge ;
u, the escape-pipe; wv is the coke-box, serving also as a platform for the fire-
man. ‘The steam-cylinder has 7 inches diameter, the length of stroke is
16 inches, and the number of strokes 35 to 45 per minute. The parts
belonging to the fire-engine proper are the air-chamber 7, connected by the
pipe s with the cylinder of the pump g, of 6% inches diameter: g is a
suction-pipe or hose which supplies water from a reservoir; or if water
cannot be procured in that way, it is supplied by other engines to the water-
box. This engine can throw four streams at once, if required. In Berlin
there is one of the kind described, with 10-inch double-acting cylinders and
15 horse-power.

Having treated at length of fire-engines, this may be the proper place to
add a few words on other means and apparatus employed to save persons
and property in case of fire.

In all large cities there are regularly organized fire-companies, who are
always ready to act when the alarm is given. In France the corps of fire-
men have a military organization under the name of Sappeurs Pomprers.
One third of each company is always on duty, while another third is in
reserve, and only the remaining third is off duty. Those on duty are
engaged in patrolling through their districts, to give the alarm in case of
fire. Their dress uniform is very tasteful; 1, L, mM, and n (pl. 14, jig. 28)
are parts of the accoutrement of a pompier; x is the hat of an officer. The
working-dress of course is very different; one of the main pieces is the
casque, H (jig. 29), which protects the head against falling bodies. 72g. 27
represents a fireman in a safety-dress of leather, with a thick glass-plate
before the face, by which he is enabled to enter burning rooms, the dress
being well wetted before.

Among the apparatus used by firemen we notice the hook-ladders, a
( figs. 28 and 29), by means of which the upper stories of buildings can be
reached when the stairs are already on fire, the ladders being hooked
successively on the window-sills of the several stories. It requires some art
and practice to scale these ladders, which of course are nearly in a vertical
position, and persons who are to be saved from the higher stories cannot be
expected to descend by them; for such the fireman carries with him a long
bag of leather or strong twill, 8, which reaches to the ground and is held
away from the house at the lower end by several persons; through this
persons are sent down, sliding rapidly down the inclined bag, and are
caught up below in a horizontal position. The hose, p, accompanies the
fireman everywhere ; a short folding ladder, 5, an axe, eg, and a bucket, F,
also belong to his equipment. Among the larger apparatus designed for
rescuing persons and property from burning houses one of the best is that
represented in pl. 14, jig. 25 being a side view, and jig. 26 a front view;
the former represents the machine when entirely raised, the latter while it
is partially elevated. Like all other machines of the kind, it can only be
used in cases where time and room admit of it, as it can be raised but

648

MILLS. 69

slowly and requires much space. <A square frame, }, is mounted on the
truck a, and supports the posts cc, which are united by ties and braces to
form a square tower, the stability of which is secured by the stays na when
mounted for use. In front and in the rear is a ladder, a, which moves on
a hinge at top, and when in use is braced out by the strut a’. In the
interior of this tower are two more of the same kind, sliding out like the
tubes of a spy-glass, the second within the first, the third within the second.
The third story has on top a platform provided with a railing, from which
communication with the building is established by means of planks or
ladders thrown across. The several stories are raised by means of the
machinery seen at the bottom, which winds the ropes f and ¢ on a drum.

IV. MILLIS.

Before entering upon the subject of Mirzs, it may not be out of place to
say a few words upon the power by which they may be set in motion, and the
improvements made in modern times in this branch of industry.

Whatever power may be made use of, it should be so arranged as to pro-
duce a rotary motion. Man-power, horse-power, steam, wind, and water,
may be used, or in fact any agent capable of being employed to drive
machinery. The simplest mode of driving machinery is by horse-power.
The horse in this case is harnessed to a long horizontal lever, mortised into
a vertical shaft, and is forced to travel round in a circular path, and thus
the shaft is made to revolve and to give off the power to the machinery to
be driven. There are @ great variety of methods of making use of the
power of horses for driving machinery, which are too special to be discussed
in this place.

Another common motive power for mills is wind. This power is
obtained by the pressure exerted by the wind upon the inclined arms or
sails of the wind-wheel, and is thence communicated to the mill. In some
eases the whole mill is made to revolve, in order to bring the wheel in a
proper position to be acted upon by the wind; in others, as in the case of
the Dutch mills, only the upper portions or hood are made to revolve.

Steam is also frequently employed for this purpose, but more commonly
water, as this agent is more generally at hand to meet the primitive wants
of man, before an advanced stage of the arts introduces the use of steam-
mills, and the costly machinery necessary in the application of this power.

1. VerticaL Water-WHEELS.

Vertical water-wheels are those in which the shaft of the wheel is hori-
zontal. Those wheels in which the force of the moving water is communi-
cated to the buckets beneath the wheel are called wnder-shot wheels ; and
those which are driven only by the weight of the water which is poured

649

70 TECHNOLOGY.

upon the top of the wheel, over-shot wheels. In breast wheels the water strikes
the wheel upon a level with its axis.

Formerly water-wheels were built of wood; more recently, however, cast-
iron has been used, not only for the disks which support the buckets, but
also for the buckets themselves, the whole being put together by serews
upon the spot where it is to be put up.

An important part of the water-wheel is the bucket, an idea of the form
and position of which may be gathered from pl. 15, fig.1. It will readily
be seen that one desideratum with over-shot wheels is to keep the buckets
filled with water until they reach the lowest point of their revolution ; this
in practice it is impossible absolutely to accomplish. At first, the buckets
were placed in the prolongation of the diameter of the wheel (jig. 3), but in
this position their power to retain the water ceased when the bucket became
horizontal. Then the buckets were inclined, as seen in gf, jig. 6; but this
arrangement was liable to the objection that the capacity of the buckets
was much diminished, while the wheel itself was made very heavy. Sub-
sequently the buckets were formed with two inclinations, as seen at Mo F,
jig. 6, which insured the advantages without the disadvantages of the
inclined bucket.

Under-shot wheels, as already remarked, are those in which the water
acts only by impulsion or concussion. There are many varieties of the same.
Pl. 15, jig. 5, is a form often used in small but rapid streams. Where a
stronger wheel and larger bucket is required, the wheel seen in jigs. 3 and
4 is used; in this case, it will be seen that the buckets do not project beyond
the sides of the wheel as in the former case.

Pl. 15, figs. 1 and 2, are a side and front view of an iron over-shot wheel ;
E is the flume which conveys the water to the wheel; 7 is the gate which
regulates the flow of the water, and is worked by the screw ¢; c is the
bevel-wheel which transmits the power to the machinery. gs. 3 and 4
are vertical sections and plan of iron breast-wheel; a is the gate, raised and
lowered by the pinion @, worked by crank; c is the cog-wheel which drives
the machinery. In jig. 5 the gate © is raised by the pinion 6, and guided
by the roller c¢. igs. 7 to 18 show the details of an under-shot wheel of
approved modern construction, the principal parts of which are of cast-iron ;
Jig. 7 is a side-view, showing the driving circles and the wheel which transmits
the power; fig. 8 is a vertical section of one half of the whole; fig. 9 is a plan
showing the apparatus for raising the gate and the driving-wheel L; jig. 10
is a vertical section through the axis; jig. 11 a portion of the annular disks
which support the ends of the buckets, showing the grooves which receive
the same; jig. 12 shows the construction of the buckets on a large scale ;
Jig. 13, section through one of the buckets; jig. 14 is a section of the apron
or gate, furnished with shelves forming shutes at different heights, that the
water may be delivered horizontally upon the wheel, whatever may be the
height of the water in the flume ; fig. 15, pillow boxes of main shaft; jig. 16,
the same seen from above; jig. 17, the box forthe shaft which raises the apron;
jig. 18, front-view of the same. The same letters indicate corresponding
parts in all the drawings. 4 is the hollow iron shaft, running in boxes, B, upon

650

MILLS. 71

the masonry of the mill; c, arms of the wheel; p, sockets of cast-iron upon
the axle which receive the iron arms c, and the wooden ones 5; F, circles or
annular plates of cast-iron made in segments, bolted or screwed together, and
also secured to the iron arms c; @, an interior ring of wood which received the
arms E ; H, grooves for the reception of the ends of the buckets ; x is the driv-
ing gear, with teeth on its interior periphery, made fast to one of the annular
plates ; m is the gearing for raising and depressing the gates; », crank for
driving the same; 0, pinion driving cog-wheel p, on shaft g (jig. 9), which
carries another pinion, engaging with the rack r of the apron or gate, which
is thereby raised and lowered in the grooves in the side-walls of the flume.

2. HorizontaL WaAteR-WHEELS.

Horizontal water-wheels differ essentially in their construction and opera-
tion from those already described. Pl. 15, fig. 19, is a vertical section of a
turbine as improved by Fourneyron. F is the vertical axle which carries
the horizontal water-wheel, from which the power is communicated in any
known way to the machinery to be driven.

This shaft is stepped into the lever, x, having its fulerum at P, and adjust-
able by means of the screw, M, upon the rod, L, so that the wheel with its
shaft may be raised or lowered at pleasure; at the foot of the axle is secure
the concave disk which terminates in the annular plate, a, upon which are
fixed the vertical curved buckets, @. These buckets perform a duty analo-
gous to that fulfilled by the buckets of the vertical wheels, receiving the
impulse of the water and transmitting it to the machinery to be driven: nn
is a tube by which the step, m, is oiled. The water flows from the flume
above into a cylinder, pp, and thence into the cylinder containing the curved
guides, 6, b (pl. 15, figs. 19 and 20), which serve to guide the water upon
the wheel, that it may strike the buckets perpendicularly. This cylinder
rests upon a flange, 2, of the tube, a, which surrounds the shaft of the wheel,
the latter turning freely whilst the guide cylinder remains stationary. In
order to regulate the force of water upon the wheel, the cylindrical gates,
c, are so arranged as to be raised or lowered by the rods, 5, attached to the
ring, d@, to which the gates, c, are secured.

At the bottom of the gate, c, are wooden wedges, so formed as to fit into
the guide curves, and close the openings to the water-wheel in proportion as
the gate is depressed.

Pl. 15, fig. 21, is a section ; fig. 22 a front view, and jig. 23 a plan of a
turbine of a little different construction, which will be easily understood
from what has gone before; / is the water way; A the gate. The back-
water passes off through the channel, a, and above is seen, at b, m, ”, the
machinery for transmitting the power.

In order to lessen the friction upon the step of the vertical shaft in wheels
of this description, Nagel in Hamburg conceived the idea of admitting the
water to the wheel from below, instead of above, which he did with the
happiest. effects, increasing the power of the wheel from 55 per cent. to 80

651

72 TECHNOLOGY.

per cent. of the power applied. Pl. 15, jig. 24, is an elevation of a wheel
arranged in this manner; jig. 25 a plan; jig. 26 a section of the wheel upon
a larger scale; jig. 27 shows the bearing of the main shaft; 7g. 28 a vertical
section of the water passage ; jig. 29 a view of the small gate; a is the flume;
B the wheel secured to the shaft, c; p, the stationary curves which conduct
the water to the wheel, and are secured to a nave made fast to the vertical
post, F, im such a manner as to be easily raised or lowered ; @ is a gudgeon
made fast by the wedge, x, to the vertical post, 5, to which the wheel, Bz, is
hung. The oiling of the gudgeon is accomplished by means of the canal, y,
bored through the shaft, c, of the wheel (jig. 26). The guide-curves serve
also the purpose of a gate to admit the water, and are raised and lowered for
that purpose in the following manner (jig. 24). The rods, n, passing into
the opening, m, of the nave carry the guide-curves ; these rods, by means of
the joint, op, and levers, pq, are connected with the rod, s, passing through
a stuffing-box, and moved by the lever, 7, and vertical rod, ¢.

3. Grinpinc MILts.

With mills as commonly constructed and arranged every one is supposed
to be familiar; having therefore already noticed the power by which
they are driven, we will turn our attention only to some important im-
provements which have been made in the United States during the last
fifteen years, and which are now generally introduced into Germany and
other parts of Europe. Amongst the advantages which these improve-
-ments possess are the following: Ist. A much larger proportion of superfine
flour is obtained from the grain. 2d. The flour is better adapted to keeping
and to transportation to hot climates, being in a great degree deprived of its
moisture, and this without kiln-drying the grain, which has not been found
fully to answer the purpose. 3d. The compactness and general arrange-
ments of the machinery, together with the use of cast-iron for the
mill-shafts and gearing, materially lessens the friction of the running
parts, the frequent recurrence of breakages, and the consequent cost of
repairs.

In pl. 16 is a system of mills upon the American plan for six run of
stone; fig. 1 is an elevation, jig. 2 a vertical section through the main
_driving-shaft, jig. 8 a vertical section perpendicular to the latter, jig. 4 a
section showing the disposition of the stones, jig. 5 a portion of the ring
supporting the vertical shafts of the stones, jig. 6 a view from above, jig. 7
a view from above of the ring upon which the separate shafts are supported,
jig. 8 a vertical section of the mill-bush in the stationary stone, through
which the vertical shaft which drives the upper stone passes, fig. 9 the
horizontal section of the same; jig. 10 vertical section of the upper portion
of the boxes in which the mill-shafts run, with the apparatus for raising the
same; fig. 11, plan of the same; jig. 12, horizontal section immediately
above the mill-spindle, jig. 13, horizontal section immediately above the
base of the column ; jig. 14, horizontal section immediately over one of the

652

MILLS. 73

driving-wheels, t; jig. 15, box in which the spindle of the main driving-
shaft rests. The same letters indicate corresponding parts in all the figures.
The base, A, carries the pedestal, B, and the columns, c, which support
the flooring, p, carrying the ring 5, which supports the different bed-stones.
Upon the bed, p, are the triangular frames, r, regulated by set-screws, and
upon which the bed-stones, F’, rest, while the runner-stones, F’, hang upon
the top of the upright shafts, c. Within the bed-stone is the mill-bush, u,
through which the shaft, @, passes. In the eye of the runner-stone is the
rind, 7, and the tube, 7, which feeds the grain to the stones, from the recep-
tacles, v, to which it is brought by the tubes, s, from the room above. The
runner, F’, is raised and lowered by a suitable arrangement. The shaft, a,
which carries it, is supported in a box, 7’’, on the top of the hollow column,
J, within which is a rod, 1, on which the above named box rests; this rod
rests upon a lever, x, which is raised or lowered by a rod, L, passing up
through one of the columns, c (jig. 4), by which means the box, 7” and
with it the shaft which carries the runner-stone, is raised and lowered.

The whole system is driven by the main-wheel, m, upon the horizontal
shaft, n, which is in gear with the driving power (jig. 7). Upon the other
end of this shaft is a bevel wheel, 0, which engages with another wheel, p,
upon the upright shaft, a, carrying the large cog-wheel, s, which drives the
smaller wheels, Tt, upon the shafts of the mill-stones. The stones are inclosed
in cases, u, which prevent the waste of the flour; from these cases the flour
is delivered into a circular trough x (jig. 8), in which are made to revolve
the arms or scrapers, v (jig. 2), which sweep the flour round into another
trough, through which it is carried by the screw-formed conveyor, z, to the
elevators, z’, seen at the right hand upper corner of the machine in jig. 3.

Upon the main shaft is a small pulley, c’, from which a band passes to the
governor, 4’, which regulates the velocity of the steam-engine, and conse-
quently of all the machinery driven by it.

In all well arranged mills the grain, before being ground, is freed from
foreign substances; this is sometimes accomplisned by passing the grain
through a cylindrical riddle, furnished with screw-formed divisions on the
inside, so that as the riddle revolves the grain passes over a great extent of
surface, and is measurably freed from dust and other extraneous substances.
Very perfect machines have been invented and put into use for the purpose
of cleaning grain, which is accomplished in most of them by subjecting it
first to friction and then to a current of air which carries off the impurities.
By one process recently invented in the United States the grain is not only
freed from the impurities which it may contain, but entirely deprived of its
hull or skin. This process is briefly as follows: the grain is moistened for
a few seconds in either steam or water, and is then passed through rubbers,
which take off the outer skin entirely, leaving the useful portion of the
grain clean and white; from the rubbers it passes through a kiln, in which
it is again dried, and then it is run through a fan which blows off all the
impurities with the skin, leaving the grain ready for the mill; it is then
ground, and may be packed at once in barrels, as it requires no bolting or
any further preparation. The seeds of garlic and other weeds, which have

653

74 TECHNOLOGY.

heretofore proved so troublesome to the miller, are by this process entirely
removed. The preliminary soaking, which is just sufficient to moisten the
skin of the wheat, entirely penetrates other seeds, so that they are subse-
quently ground or crushed in the rubbers, and after being dried are blown off
with the hull of the grain. It is said that by this process fifteen per cent.
more flour is obtained from wheat, and at a less expense, than by the usual
process of grinding and bolting.

The mill-stones in use in the United States and Europe are mostly made
of a porous silicious stone obtained from France. As this stone is not
obtainable in masses sufficiently large to make the mill-stones in a single
piece, they are put together in smaller pieces with cement and secured by
iron bands. After being accurately balanced, the stones are cut upon their
grinding surfaces, as seen in pl. 16, fig.6. The bed-stone must not only be
adjusted level, but concentric with the axis of the spindle. To accomplish
the first, the bed-stone rests upon a frame, r, which is adjusted by three
screws, one under each corner. The centring of the stone is accomplished
by means of screws working against the sides of the stone (pl. 16, jig. 6).

The operation of the mill-bush is seen in figs. 8 and 9. This bush is of
cast-iron, and is secured in the centre of the bed-stone. Three pieces of
brass or wood rest against the mill-shaft, and are pressed against it by
screws, in order to perfectly adjust the main shaft in the centre of the
bush ; the interstices not occupied by the brass or wooden blocks are filled
with oakum or tow saturated with oil, in order to lubricate the bearing.
After the grain is ground, it is necessary that the flour be thoroughly cooled
before it is bolted ; where there are no arrangements for effecting this, the
flour has to remain twenty-four hours before being bolted. in most mills,
however, this is accomplished by a machine, also an American invention,
called the hopper-boy. The flour is run into a circular room, where it is
stirred by revolving arms until it is completely cooled, when it passes imme-
diately to the bolts, where the preparation of the flour is finished.

V. COTTON MANUFACTURE.

Cotton is the production of a genus of tropical plants of which there are
many species; these again run easily into varieties, so that there have been
enumerated over one hundred different sorts. The dwarf varieties found in
America, India, and China grow to a height of eighteen inches to two feet ;
the blossoms are a pale yellow and are succeeded by triangular three-celled
seed-vessels, which gradually turn brown as they ripen, and ultimately burst
open, exposing the cotton fibres wrapt round the seed. The shrub and tree
cotton grow in America, the West Indies, East India, Egypt, &c., the latter
reaching a height of from 12 to 20 feet.

When cotton is to be spun, it is first subjected to the operation of ginning,
to separate it from the seeds. This is performed upon the plantation where
it is grown, as when packed with the seeds it becomes oily and soiled, and

654

COTTON MANUFACTURE. 79

is unfit for manufacturing purposes. The close adherence of the fibres to
the seed renders this a tedious operation, which is now entirely performed
by machines called gins. That most commonly used in the United States
is the saw gin, of which pl. 17, fig. 1, is a section, fig. 2 a plan showing
the saws and brush cylinder. The prominent parts of the machine are two
cylinders of different diameters, r and u, which lie in a strong wooden
frame, and are set in motion by crank, bands and pulleys, or other means.

Upon a horizontal axle ff, circular steel plates or saws are secured, the
circumference of which is filled with sharp-pointed inclined teeth. These
plates, which are 10 to 12 inches in diameter, and half a line thick, are
separated a distance of 9 lines from each other by small washers. In front
of this saw-cylinder, and secured to the main frame of the machine, is a
grating of bent iron bars, placed so near each other that the saws can just pass
between them without rubbing. This grating forms a portion of the for-
ward side of the hopper 1, which receives the cotton to be operated upon.
Connected with the back wall of the hopper is a strip hung upon hinges,
and adjusted by a set of screws, by which means the opening through which
the seeds pass when cleaned is regulated. Behind the saws, and parallel
with their axis of rotation, is the drum u, carrying six horse-hair brushes, ce.
The saws and brushes move in contrary directions, the former making about
100 and the latter 150 revolutions per minute. ‘The teeth of the saws,
which project more or less between the rods of the grating into the hopper,
seize the fibres of cotton and draw them through, whilst the seeds, being too
large to follow, fall through the opening at the bottom of the hopper into
the box n below; the cotton is then swept off the teeth of the saws by the
revolving brushes. The brush-cylinder also acts as a ventilator, which
partially cleans the wool. The ginned cotton falls upon the inclined table
o, and thence into the box p; such a machine requires two-horse power to
move it, and turns out 5000 lbs. of cotton per day.

1. Picxine, Scurcuinc, anp Lapping Macutnes.

The first operation in cotton-spinning is to pick open the closely packed
mass, and separate the sand and other foreign substances which it may con-
tain. The finest cotton, as the Sea Island, is first opened by hand, spread
upon a table of coarse netting called a fake, and beaten with rods by women
and children. The shaking of the net-work loosens the cotton and frees it
from sand, whilst the larger extraneous substances are picked out by hand.
This labor was tedious and expensive, and machines have been invented to
perform it. One of the best and most common for this purpose is the wolf
or willow, originally a cylindrical willow basket, but as now constructed, a
most powerful and effectivemachine. 1. 17, jig. 3, represents an exterior
view of a conical willow, showing the side which receives and delivers the
cotton; jig. 4 is an end-view, and jig. 5 a plan, a portion of the covering
and frame being removed to show the interior mechanism. /%g. 5a shows

the perforated plates on the grating which forms a portion of the bottom
655

76 TECHNOLOGY.

casing round the cone. The cone a consists of a strong shaft, aa, carrying
three cast-iron rings, one at each end and one in the middle, on which the
sheet-iron is secured which forms the surface of the cone.

Longitudinally upon this surface are four iron rods, in which are secured
rows of strong iron pins, 0d ; upon each side of the framework is a row of
pins, dd, corresponding to the spaces between the pins upon the cones.
The cone is surrounded by a concentric covering, the bottom of which con-
sists of a grating or perforated plate; at the small end of the covering is a
rectangular opening, e, connected with the frame p, in which travels the
endless feeding apron £, which consists of parallel stripes of thin sheet-iron,
# inch wide, and secured half an inch apart, upon endless bands of leather
running upon rollers.

At the larger end of the machine is a chamber, r, into which the cotton
is thrown by the revolving cone, whence it is received by an endless apron
similar to the feeding apron, and shown by dotted lines at ec. About an
inch above the apron, and upon an axis parallel thereto, revolves a wire
cylinder, u, having a sheet-iron covering which communicates with the
chamber F by the openings ff. Above the wire cylinder is a ventilator,
which draws the dust of the cotton through the wire cylinder from the
chamber F, and blows it out at the opening g. The wire cylinder seems not
only to prevent the cotton from being blown away with the dust, but lays
it upon the delivering apron, and is connected with the ventilator by means
of a covering of sheet-tin, which embraces the openings at the ends of both
these cylinders, the dust passing through the meshes of the wire cylinders
being blown out by the ventilator.

The motions of this effective machine are as follows: Upon one end of
the shaft a of the cone a, are the usual fast and loose pulleys x, and upon
the other end the two pulleys 7 and #, of which the former communicates
motion to the ventilator, by a band upon the pulley 7. From the pulley &
an endless band drives the pulley m, upon the axis of the roller carrying
the delivering apron. Upon the axle of the latter roller is a pulley, x,
which gives motion by another band to the pulley o of the wire cylinder u.
Upon the other end of the last-named axle is a pinion, y, which drives the
wheel g, and the small pulley 7 attached to it. rom the latter a band runs
to the pulley s, upon an axle ¢, having a universal joint, which permits the
deflection of the direction of its motion to one parallel with the exterior sur-
face of the cylinder. The universal-jointed axle ¢ runs in boxes in the
frame p, and carried a cog-wheel, «, which engages another cog-wheel, »,
upon one of the rollers of the feed apron, by which means the latter is
driven.

The operation of the willow is as follows: The cotton, which is gradually
carried to the machine by the feeding apron, is torn open at the smaller end
of the cone, and its heavier impurities, dust, stones, &c., fall out; the cotton
being carried by centrifugal force to the other end of the machine, the
lighter particles of dust are thrown through the cylindrical revolving sieve.
This is a powerful and safe machine, and capable of cleaning 7200 lbs., or
24 bales of cotton per day.

656

‘COTTON MANUFACTURE. 77

_ The next operation to which the cotton is subjected is performed by what

are called batting (beating), scutching, and blowing machines, by means of
which the fibres of the cotton, which have been loosened by the willows,
are more perfectly opened, and by the use of Sieves and ventilation entirely
freed from dust. The beating is accomplished by flat rods, which strike
the cotton whilst it is slowly carried through the machine upon endless
cloths.

In each machine there are generally two beating arrangements, from the
second of which it is taken to a new machine, called a dap machine, which,
after again blowing and scutching the cotton, coils it upon a wooden roller,
in the form of a lap or sheet.

The first blowing machine serves to prepare the cotton for the second,
and is sometimes called a spreading machine; it is shown in pi. 17, fig. 6.
The frame is of cast-iron and is covered in with boards, only the necessary
openings being left for the introduction and extraction of the cotton and the
separation of the dust. The feeding takes place through an endless apron, a,
which runs over two wooden rollers, 6 and c, by the revolution of which it
is moved. A table, d, between the rollers 6 and ¢, on the surface of which
the feeding apron travels, serves as a support for the latter, and keeps it
always flat. The cotton is spread by hand upon this apron, which feeds it
with the utmost regularity to the fluted rollers, e¢, by which it is drawn in
and subjected to the operation of the beater or scutcher, 7, which consists
of an axle and two arms, which carry thin iron beaters with rounded edges.

Beneath the beater is a curved grating of iron wire, x, which permits the
dirt and seeds to fall through, whilst the filaments of cotton are blown upon
a second apron, @’, which conducts the cotton to the second seutcher, 7’,
arranged precisely like the first. In order that the cotton may be delivered
regularly to the feeding rollers e’, it is pressed down upon the apron
by a wire-gauze squirrel-cage, A, which bears with its whole weight upon
the feeding apron, a’, and transfers to it, in the form of a sheet, the cotton
which is blown against its circumference. The dust and short fibres of
cotton are blown through the meshes of the sieve, from which they are
again drawn off by a sucking fan-ventilator above.

The second beater drives the cotton through a long wooden canal, «xz,
a portion of the floor of which consists of a grating of inclined slats. The
progress of the cotton through this canal is assisted by a ventilator, m,
placed beneath the beater.

The second blowing-machine, called a lap-machine, because it converts
the cotton into a lap or sheet, resembles in its elements the before described
machine, and is represented in pl. 17, jig. 7. The cotton, which, by the
pressure of the wire-gauze drum /, is already measurably compressed, passes
from the endless apron op, between the two smooth rollers 7,s, which are
pressed together by heavy weights, and serve to give the sheet of cotton an
additional degree of firmness. As it leaves these rollers the lap is rolled
upon a wooden roller, v, whose gudgeons run in vertical grooves, which
permit it to rise as the size of the roll of cotton increzses. This roller rests
upon the revolving rollers ¢,w, covered with leather, by friction upon which

ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOPZDIA.—VOL, Iv. 42 657

78 TECHNOLOGY.

the lap-roller is turned ; and thus the winding of the lap takes place with
entire regularity. A weight is hung upon each end of the roller w, for the
purpose of giving firmness to the lap.

With this machine first commences the determining of the fineness of the
thread to be spun. As this fineness depends upon the weight of a given
length of thread, the manufacturer must keep himself informed in the whole
course of his operations of the length produced in each step of the process
by a certain quantity of cotton. This comparison must commence with the
lap-machine. |

The cotton is spread upon the feeding apron, a, not only with great regu-
larity, but care must be taken that a specified weight of cotton be distributed
upon a certain length of cloth. To the accomplishment of this end the
cloth is divided into equal lengths by red and black lines, and the cotton is
weighed in small portions as it comes from the first blowing-machine, so
that an equal quantity of cotton is always distributed upon an equal distance
of the apron. When a number of such portions of the apron requisite to
fill the lap-roll have passed a division is left empty, that the laps may be
separated from each other as they come out of the machine.

Carding is the next operation to which the cotton is subjected; its object
is to draw out the imperfectly opened fibres, to lay them parallel with each
other, and to cleanse the cotton more perfectly. The operation consists in
the mutual action of two contiguous surfaces, both furnished with hook-
formed elastic teeth of hardened iron wire, of the form seen on pl. 17, jigs.
8 and 9. These wires are bent and placed in the eard-plates by machinery,
the utmost regularity being requisite in both operations, otherwise an
uneven fabric would be the result. American ingenuity has given birth to
the most beautiful automatic machines for making these cards. Mr. Ellis’s
machine has been justly characterized by an English writer on the subject
as ‘one of the most elegant automatons ever applied to productive industry.”
The leather and wire are furnished to the machine in rolls; the former is
shaved to a uniform thickness and pierced with the requisite holes to
receive the wire, which is cut into proper lengths, bent, and passed through
the leather, and the strips of card cloth leave the machine completed.
Suppose @ and b (pl. 1%, jig. 11) to be two cards whose teeth are set in
opposite directions, and whose surfaces are parallel and at a short distance
from each other; suppose a bunch of cotton to lie between them; let a
move in the direction of its arrow, whilst > remains stationary or is moved
in the opposite direction ; the teeth of a tend to carry the cotton with them,
whilst those of } retain it, or carry it in the opposite direction. Each of the
cards takes a portion of the cotton, the small bunches are all drawn apart,
and the fibres laid in a parallel direction. If the cards are placed as in
pl. 17, fig. 10, the teeth pointing in the same direction, and a be moved in
a direction contrary to that indicated by its arrow, whilst 6 remains station-
ary or moves slower than a, then a will comb the wool out of the teeth of 6,
since the hooks of } have in this position no power of retaining it. By con-
sidering these two relative positions of the cards, which take place in hand
cards simply by reversing one of them, any person will be able to under.

658

COTTON MANUFACTURE. 79

stand the play of a cylinder card against its flat top, or against another
cylinder card, the respective teeth being in what we may call the teasing
position (jig. 11), and also the play of a cylinder card against the doftter
cylinder, in what may be called the stripping position (jig. 10). Generally
one carding is not sufficient for long-stapled wool. In order to produce the
requisite lightness and parallelism of fibre, the cotton is twice carded; first
in what is technically called a breaker, and afterwards through the finisher.
The card cloth is placed upon cylinders or plane surfaces, the latter being
at rest and the former revolving in contact with them. Sometimes large
cylinders work against the surfaces of small ones moving with less velocity
than the large ones. /%gs. 12, 18, and 14, represent a carding machine
combining both the above systems in one; jig. 12 is a longitudinal section ;
jig. 13, a view of the end from which the carded cotton leaves the machine ;
and jig. 14, an end view in which the principal wheelwork for the motion
of the machine is shown.

A is the main card drum, consisting of parallel segments of mahogany
secured by screws to iron rings made fast to the axle. Upon each of these
segments is nailed a strip of card cloth, the length of which is equal to the
width of the drum. The direction of the card teeth is apparent from the
figures. BB are parallel segments of mahogany, resting at their ends upon
the heads of screws, 6 6, upon the frame, c, of the machine, and maintained
in their places by pins passing through their ends. The interior surface of
these segments is covered with stripes of card cloth, and they are then
called top jlat cards ; their distance from the drum, 4, is regulated at each
end by the set screws, 6.4, which arrangement is seen in jig. 14. Db, 5, F,
@, are rollers covered with narrow strips of card cloth running spirally from
end to end. These small cylinders, called runners, urchins, or workers,
revolve in supports, d, ¢, 7, g, which are furnished with set screws for the
purpose of adjusting the distance of these small cylinders from the main card
cylinder. Atuare two fluted cast-iron feeding rollers pressed together by a
screw; / is a feeding table which conducts the fleece to the feeding rollers as
it is given off from the lap roller by the friction of the revolving roller, x.
The first cylinder card or runner, p, moves slower than the main card drum,
takes the fibres from the feeding rollers, and is therefore called the lécker-an ;
these fibres are immediately stripped off by the main drum to be again
drawn out by the second roller, z, which revolves slower than p, and serves
to take the knots of uncarded fibres off the main cylinder, and carry them
round and transfer them to the licker-in, p, with which it is almost in con-
tact, which again transfers them to the main cylinder with the fresh cotton
from the feeding rollers. The knots or bunches which escape the two first rol-
lers, p and 8, are seized by the fourth roller, ¢, which lies nearer to the mai:
cylinder, and revolves with the same velocity as the runner x. The knots
caught by G are drawn out again by the roller Fr, also called a stripper frou)
the office its performs, which travels faster than eG, but not so fast as the main
cylinder. From F the fibres are again transferred to the main drum, which
carries them forward and draws them again a second time over the runner.

Should any uncarded knots still remain they are stopped by the first flat
659

80 TECHNOLOGY.

top card, on the surface of which they remain until entirely carded out by
the revolutions of the drum. On this account the first top cards require
cleaning oftener than the others. The fibres of cotton are now, after being
subjected to the operation of the top cards, taken off by the small cylinder,
L, called the doffer, which is clothed with spiral strips of card cloth, and
revolves in contact with the main cylinder. By its slow motion, in a direc-
tion contrary to that of the main cylinder, the doffer strips the cotton from
the main cylinder drum, and clothes itself with an exceedingly thin fleece,
which is taken off upon thé opposite side of the doffer by the dofing knife,
m. This apparatus consists of a steel plate, the lower edge of which is
finely toothed, and which has a rapid up and down motion imparted to it
tangentially in contact with the surface of the cylinder. ‘The cotton is thus
combed off in a thin bat of the width of the doffer cylinder, but it is immedi-
ately condensed into a small riband or card end by passing through a
funnel, ¢ (jig. 12). This card end, called also a slwer, is drawn forwards by
the rollers seen at n. This apparatus consist of three pairs of cast-iron rol-
lers, k, 7, m. The underneath rollers, & and J, are finely fluted, and the
upper ones are covered first with flannel, then with leather, to give them a
smooth elastic surface.

The upper rollers are pressed firmly against the lower ones by uprights.
As the rollers 7 revolve with greater velocity than the rollers %, the card end
is drawn and extended between them. After the fleece has been converted
by the action of the rollers into a flat riband, it again receives an elliptical
form by passing through a vertical slot in a metallic plate, through which it
is drawn by the rollers, m, which are pressed together with but little force.
The card end now has a very open, spongy texture, and scarcely sufficient
tenacity to hold itself together. From the last pair of rollers it falls into tin
cans, 0. In many manufactories the card ends from several machines are
~ wound immediately upon a lap roller or large bobbin, ready to be taken
immediately to the drawing-frames. In other factories the card ends as
they run from a number of machines are united together and conducted
through wooden troughs, and at last are wound upon a large bobbin into
a fleece of parallel ribands ready to be taken to the drawing-frame.

Motion is communicated to the different parts of the machine in the
following manner. Upon the axle of the main drum, without the frame of
the machine, are the ordinary fast and loose pulleys, and a smaller pulley
( fig. 14), giving motion by a crossed band to the stripper, F; also a pulley,
R, seen in dotted lines in jig. 12, communicates motion through a crossed
band to the licker-in, p. There is also another pulley, s (jigs. 12 and 13), upon
the axle of the main cylinder which drives the pulley, 7, on the axle of
which are two cranks (fig. 13) which communicate a rapid up and down
motion through the rods, p, to the toothed knife,m. The rods, p, are guided
by the horizontal arms, 0, which are so adjusted that the knife vibrates in
contact with the surface of the doffer cylinder, t. Upon the opposite end
of the main cylinder shaft is a pinion, m, which engages with a wheel, 2,
on whose axle is another pinion, 3, which meshes with a wheel, 4, producing
a slow motion which the latter wheel transfers to the doffer cylinder, 1,

660

COTTON MANUFACTURE. 81

through the wheel, 5. A band from the axle of this cylinder drives the
workers & and @ as shown by the dotted lines in jig. 12. Upon the other
end of the axle of the doffer is a bevel pinion, 6, which by means of thie
oblique axle, u, and the bevel gearing, 7 and 8, drives the lower feeding roller.
From this feeding roller, by means of an intermediate wheel, 9, motion is
communicated to the roller x, which unwinds the lap roller1. The wheel, 2,
already mentioned, drives another wheel below it, 11, and a pulley upon the
same axle; from which pulley motion is communicated to the drawing
rollers at n (jig. 14).

The axle g has upon one end two wheels, one of which drives both pairs
of drawing-rollers, 7 and m ; the other drives a larger wheel upon one of
the rollers, £, so that this pair has a slower motion than the others; 7 and m
move with nearly the same velocity ; m, being slightly larger than J, has a
somewhat greater surface motion. That the two rollers m may run together,
they are connected together by small wheels, 7.

As before mentioned, in most manufactories the cotton passes successively
through two carding-machines, the breaker and the finisher; this is parti-
cularly the case with that destined for fine work. /%g. 15 is an end view,
jig. 16 a plan of a fine carder or finisher.

2. Tae Drawinc-FRAME.

We turn now to another operation, the principles of which differ essen-
tially from those of the former. It has for its object to draw out and
lengthen the loose ribands of cotton furnished by the carding-machine, and
also to complete, as far as possible, the parallelism of the fibres. This
operation, the drawing and doubling, is pertormed by rotary drawing |
rollers, and is a very important step in the process of spinning. Upon this
principally depends the uniformity of the cotton, as many ends are united
in one and the faults of each are lost in the crowd. The drawing, when
properly executed, completely does away with all these faults.

Pl. 17, figs. 17-20, represent a drawing-frame of the most approved
construction; jig. 17 is an end and jig. 18 a front view ; jig. 19 a section of
the working parts of the machine upon a larger scale, and jig. 20 shows.
the manner in which the upper rollers press upon the lower ones.

A is the frame, upon the strong cross-timbers, B, of which the drawing-
rollers are placed, as seen in jig. 18; © is a horizontal axle furnished with
pulleys, p, which drive the drawing-rollers. In jig. 19, abe are the lower,
a’ b' c' the upper drawing-rollers. The former run in composition-boxes in
an iron frame, d.

The bearer of the first roller, r, is stationary, but the two others are
adjustable, and can be brought more or less near to each other and the
forward rollers, according to the length or staple of the cotton to be operated
upon. The length of the upper rollers is equal to that of two fluted portions
of the under rollers, as seen in fig. 18, and the upper rollers run with their
necks in boxes, which are adjustable like the bearings of the under rollers.

661

82 TECHNOLOGY.

In the middle of each of the top rollers, a’ 5’ c', are smooth necks supporting
composition-boxes, ¢ and f, upon which are suspended weights, g and g', by
means of wires, 4 and h’ (figs. 19, 20). Generally the two back rollers,
which move the slowest, are pressed down by a common weight, whilst the
front roller has a separate weight.

The three other rollers are covered with a bar of mahogany, ¢, which is
covered underneath with flannel, and wipes off any fibres left remaining
upon the surface of the roller. A. corresponding bar, 6, about one inch
thick, and covered upon its upper surface with flannel, of the length of the
drawing-roller, is pressed against the under side of the two forward rollers,
6 and c, by means of the small weight m. This bar also serves to keep the
forward rollers free of fibres. The cord or wire upon which m hangs goes
over the roller e, and then down again, in order to support the wiper bar J.

In jigs. 17 and 19, a represents a smooth curved plate of brass, with
curved channels upon its surface, which conduct the slivers nm from their
respective cans, H, at the back of the machine to the drawing-rollers. The
slivers are kept apart by the pins o in the brass rod p. In this manner
three to six slivers are united upon each division of the fluted rollers, and
are extended by the drawing-rollers, particularly the front pair, into one
thin, uniform, and much elongated sliver. Generally two such slivers are
conducted through a funnel, 1, and pass off through the smooth rollers x
into the cans L.

The motions of the machine are as follows: n is the usual fast-and-loose
pulley on the prolongation of the shaft of the lower forward drawing-roller ;
this pulley is driven by a band from the pulley p upon the shaft c; upon
the same front roller shaft is also a pinion, which, by means of the inter-
mediate wheel 2, drives the wheel 3 upon the end of the smooth roller x
(pl. 17, fig. 18). Upon the other end of the forward fluted roller ¢ is a
pinion, which drives the shaft o by means of the wheel 5. By the side of
the latter wheel and upon the same shaft is another small wheel, 6, which
drives a larger wheel, 7, upon the prolongation of the lower middle roller b.
Upon the other end of the shaft o is the wheel 8, which engages with a
wheel, 9, upon the back lower roller a.

Having examined the operation of the drawing-frame, we will notice
more closely the changes brought about upon the fibres of the cotton. Were
the surface velocities of the three rollers abc equal, the slivers nn would
pass through the machine unaltered. As, however, the velocity of 6 and ¢
is greater than that of a, the former will deliver a greater length of riband
than they receive from the latter, or than this receives from the cans #, and
there results, in consequence, an extension of the riband between the rollers
a, b, and c, and a proportional approach to parallelism in the fibres during
the process. The distances between the drawing-rollers, a, b, and c, are so
adjusted to the staple of the cotton that no disruption of the fibres will take
place, which must inevitably occur if the length of the individual fibres
were less than the distance between the rollers.

It would be impossible to continue the drawing upon a single sliver until
the requisite parallelism of fibre were attained, on account of the excessive

662

COTTON MANUFACTURE. 83

attenuation of the riband; this inconvenience is obviated by the simple
expedient of uniting together several of the formerly drawn slivers at each
repeated drawing. This operation is called doubling, and insures this
advantage, that the uneven portions of the slivers mutually correct each
other, and finally a uniform riband results.

3. Tae Rovine FRAME.

The next operation after the above-described process of drawing is the
preparation of the roving, which is a thin sliver with a slight twist. In the
tube-roving frame this twist is only momentary. In this stage of the cotton
manufacture the greatest care is necessary to preserve the uniformity of the
spongy cord, upon which the evenness of the yarn depends. Since the first
can-roving frame, invented by Arkwright, numberless machines have been
contrived for performing this operation with exactness. In Arkwright’s
machine the slivers, after passing through the ordinary drawing-rollers,
received a slight twist by the revolution of the tin cans into which the
roving fell, and around the interior surface of which they were regularly
coiled by the centrifugal force. This machine is in fact the ordinary draw-
ing-frame (pl. 17, jig. 17), with the receiving-can revolving on a pivot.
This frame, though effective in the hands of its inventor, was still defective ;
the torsion was unequal upon different portions of the yarn, and even when
the twist was put in it was liable to be deranged as it was drawn from
the cans.

A machine constructed upon the principle of the common spinning-wheel
is in very common use for the preparation of the rovings. The difficulty
with these machines arises from the soft and delicate nature of the roving
and the care necessary to regulate the winding-on, that it be neither slower
nor faster than the delivery from the front rollers. The care required was
increased by the constantly varying size of the bobbin within the flyer, as
successive layers of roving were wound upon it, as well as by the changes
occasionally required in the degree of twist to be given to the roving for
particular purposes.

The operation of this machine, called the bobbin-and-fly frame, is two-
fold, twisting and winding. The twisting is accomplished by the revolution
of the spindle, F (jigs. 21 a and 215), to which the fly-fork is united, whilst
the sliver, A, in its progress from the rollers to the bobbin, passes through
the hollow arm, u, which being made in one piece with the spindle, revolves
_ with it.

The amount of twist given to the roving depends upon the relative sur-
face velocities of the drawing-rollers and the bobbin.

The winding-on is accomplished by giving such a velocity to the bobbin
that the difference between the motion of the surface of the bobbin and the
motion of the delivering end of the flyer-arm is equal to the surface motion
of the roller supplying the sliver.

The first on the list of machines of this class is the tube-roving frame of
663

84 TECHNOLOGY.

Danforth, an American invention, introduced, however, soon after its inven-
_ tion into the factories of England and other countries. The twisting of the
roving, as it comes from the front drawing-rollers, is here performed by
revolving tubes, through which it is made to pass on its way to the bobbins.
The latter consist of simple hollow wooden tubes without ends, which rest
upon iron axles, and are moved by friction upon horizontal iron drums or
rollers, upon which the bobbins bear by their own weight, whilst the feeding
tube has a transverse motion for the purpose of distributing the roving upon
the bobbin. This transverse motion is diminished gradually as the spool
increases in size, for the purpose of producing conical ends. This machine
contains a drawing arrangement similar to that already described.

Pl. 17, jig. 22, shows one end, and jig. 23 the other of the machine. In
the latter the three pairs of drawing-rollers are seen in section at a, and in
the former an outside view of the front rollers, B, is given, to show their
arrangement upon the roller beam, c. The position of the usual fast and
loose pulleys upon the main shaft, a, is indicated by dotted lines, as also
the large pulley, ¢c', which communicates motion to the revolving tubes.
Pil. 18, jig. 1, is a portion of the forward view of the machine, to show the
working gear and the manner in which the bobbins are filled ; jig. 2 shows
the principal spinning parts of the machine on a large scale ; jig. 4, a forward
view, showing some details subservient to the traverse motion of the
tubes ; fig. 6, a side view of the same. a’ B’, pl. 17, fig. 22, are the two
rows of drawing-rollers, which receive the rovings as they come from the
cans behind the machine. After the rovings have passed the front rollers
of the first set, they enter the back pair of the front set, both sets revolving
with equal velocity, and are delivered by the front roller of the second set
to the bobbins in slender slubbengs. The bobbins are arranged in a line in
front of the machine and rest upon fluted rollers, p, the common axle of
which passes longitudinally through the machine. These rollers are fluted
for the purpose of creating friction upon the surface of the cotton-covered
bobbins, one of which is seen at © (pl. 18, jig. 1), filled and in its place,
and revolving in slots in the upright pieces d, by which arrangement the
bobbin is enabled to rise as it increases in diameter. ee (pl. 17, jig. 28)
are several arms secured to the roller-beam, oc, upon the inclined surface of
which the bearings, 7, receive an up and down motion by means of the
pinions, g, engaging in the racks, A. The part f of these bearings serves to
slide a small iron frame, 2, best seen in the section jig. 3. Upon its surface
are secured the bearings 7/7, in which the carriers of the revolving tubes
may vibrate or swing on an axis, as seen at one point in pl. 18, jig. 1.
mm (fig. 8) are the tubes revolving with their ends in the carriers, kk ;
m is a guide plate for conducting the roving after it has received a momen-
‘tary twist in the tubes; 0 is a catch attached to the carrier, 4, to hang it upon
‘an iron rod running the whole length of the machine, when the bobbins are
‘to be changed ; at other times it presses with the plate, m, upon the roving
-of the bobbin, £.

As the roving is being wound upon the bobbin, the frame, 2, with the
carriers, kk, gradually rises by means of the pinions, g, engaging in the

664

COTTON MANUFACTURE. 85

racks, 2, of the bearings, 7, thus producing a constant pressure of the
delivering ends of the tubes, mm, in the same direction upon the bobbins,
E, Which being turned by the roller, p, wind up the roving as it passes from
the opening in the plate, m. At the same time the frame, 2, is sliding to
and fro in a direction parallel with the axis of the bobbins, for the purpose
of distributing the roving evenly upon their barrels. The extent of this
sliding motion is shortened a little each time for the purpose of forming
the ends of the bobbins into a conical shape. When the bobbins are full
the machine is adjusted to stop itself by throwing the driving band from
the fast to the loose pulley. The motions of the machine are produced as
follows :

The dotted circle 60 (pl. 17, jig, 23) indicates the position of the driving-
pulley, and ec’ a larger pulley, from which astrap runs over the pulleys 7,
s, and ¢. The strap then passes the whole length of the machine and over
the pulleys w and v at its other end (jig. 22). This strap, in its progress
from the pulley s to the pulley uw, passes round the tubes mm, in such
a manner as to go over one of the tubes and under the next, which are
thereby made to revolve without interrupting their sliding or traverse
motion.

Upon the axle a@ is the wheel 1, which drives the front roller of the series
B by means of the wheel 2. A small wheel upon this roller drives through
the intervention of two intermediate wheels, 4, a wheel, 3, upon the back
roller. From this back roller the front roller of the other series, a, is driven
with equal velocity, by means of intermediate wheels (not represented) ;
motion is communicated to the back roller 4 in the same manner as at B.
The middle rollers of both sets are moved by wheels 5 and 6, attached to
them and their respective front rollers, at the other end of the frame, and
intermediate wheels 7 and 8 (pl. 17, jig. 22).

Upon the front roller shaft of the set 8, behind the wheel 2 (jig. 23), is a
bevel pinion, which engages a bevel wheel, 9, upon an inclined shaft, which,
by means of other bevel gearing seen at 10, drives the bobbin-roller p.
Upon the other end of this shaft is a roller, «, from which a band passes
to the pulley y and drives the axle z.

This axle operates by means of a bevel wheel, a’, upon two bevel wheels,
b' and ¢’, which drive the axle d in one direction or the other, according as
a is shifted in gear with 0’ or c’.

This shifting is effected by moving the bar /’ ( pl. 18, jig. 1), in which is
the end-bearing of the shaft z, a little one way or the other, and locking it in
that position by one of the catches, m or n’, which fall into notches in the
bar 7’; this bar is moved by one of two weights, d and p, hung upon a chain
running upon rollers, seen in dotted lines (pl. 17, jig. 23). This chain is
attached at its centre and midway between the two weights to a pin secured
to the bar /’, in such a manner that when one of the weights is raised, the
other by its weight moves the bar /’.

The two ends of the chain pass down through holes in a balance lever, v,
over each of which holes there is a small ball upon the chain, against one of
which the balance lever v’ presses alternately to raise that particular weight,

665

86 TECHNOLOGY.

whilst one of the catch-hooks, m or n’ (pl. 18, fig. 1), is lifted from the
notch in the bar /’, permitting the other weight to move the rod in the
opposite direction, and the bevel gear a’ to engage with the other of the
two wheels 0’ or ¢’.

Upon the shaft is an endless serew, ¢', which works in a horizontal wheel,
F', by means of which and a small pinion upon the upper end of the shaft
carrying 7’, the rack, /’, is moved (pl. 17, jig. 23, and pl. 18, fig. 1). This
rack is connected by means of the rod 7’ with the apparatus u, for the pur-
pose of shortening the traverse motion of the beam 2, and thus forming the
tapering ends of the bobbins; the rack /’ is also connected with the bell
crank lever ¢’, which has at the sides of its upright branch two screws, for
the purpose of alternately raising the caéch-hooks m and n’ whenever the
lever ¢’ arrives at one end of its traverse motion. In jig. 1 is seen the man-
ner in which this is effected. The other end of the bent lever 7’ raises or
depresses one end of the balance-beam v’ at the end of each traverse motion,
and thus stops the action of one of the weights d and p, whilst the other is
drawing the bar 7’, so that the catch m or n’ not previously raised by the
screw w’, falls into the notch in the bar /’, holding the wheel a’ in gear, until
the bent lever 7 at the other end of the traverse motion raises this catch
and suspends the other weight. We can thus perceive how the rod 7 is
regularly moved to the right and left, and have only now to show how this
motion is constantly shortened, and communicated to the beam 7; @” is a
curved arm, vibrating upon a centre 6’, its other end being attached to the
rod @’ (pl. 18, fig. 1). During the working of the machine, a toothed plate
ce” slides downwards, in the teeth of which and upon opposite sides two
clicks engage, @’’ d’’, which are connected together and kept in contact with
the rack-plate c’ by a spiral spring. When the arm a’, moved by the rod
d', has reached the end of its traverse motion, it presses one of the clicks
against the head of the set screw e”, which raises the click out of the tooth
of the sliding piece c’’, and permits it to fall the distance of half a foot, the
other click ¢’ immediately catching it. Thus as the extremity of the lever g’’
constantly approaches the centre of oscillation 0’, the traverse motion com-
municated by the rod g’’ to the beam 2 becomes shorter, the arm @” vibrating
always through equal spaces. The teeth upon the sliding-rod ¢” are cut
at alternate intervals on either side, so that its motion at each time is limited
to half a tooth. A” is a guide screwed to one of the posts @ to guide the
rod 2” connected with the rod g’; a’ is joined to a slotted arm #” upon the
beam 7, on which the tube-carriers, %, stand, as explained above. At each
traverse motion of the arm @’’ a pin, 6”, projecting from the bent piece,
strikes against a lever, m’’, the end of which is seen in pl. 17, fig. 22, and
which, through the lever n” and click 0’, moves the ratchet-wheel 1 upon
the same shaft as the pinion g (pl. 18, jig. 3) one tooth, whilst another
click, p”, prevents the ratchet-wheel from being forced back by the weight
of the beam, 2, which gradually rises as the spools enlarge. When the
toothed rack ¢” has reached its lowest point, a projection upon its side, not
seen in the drawings, strikes against the end of the lever m’, which sets
free a catch at its other end, which makes the upright lever?’ move the

666

COTTON MANUFACTURE. 87

horizontal lever wv’. The latter extends the whole length of the machine,
and carries a fork, which shifts the driving-band from the fast to the loose
pulley, and thus the machine isstopped: By pushing this rod the attendant
is enabled to stop the machine at whichever end he may happen to be.

4. CoMPLETION OF THE Rovinas.

After the cotton has passed through one or two bobbin-and-fly frames, or
through the tube frame, the rovings are handed over to the mule or throstle,
and spun into yarn. In the finer qualities of yarn the roving is subjected
to a process called stretching, in order still further to attenuate it; this is
done upon the bobbin-and-fly frame. The machine heretofore employed for
this purpose is called a stretching-frame, and differs but little from a mule-
jenny. Its operation is briefly as follows: The bobbins filled by the fore-
going operations are placed in the frame, and the ends passed through the
back drawing rollers, and thence to the front ones, from which they pass out
in a lengthened and fine-drawn state, proportional to the amount of drawing
which they receive. The rovings thus attenuated are severally attached to
the spindles of the carriage ; the machine is set in motion; the rovings pass
from the front rollers, and the carriage recedes from the stationary part of
the machine with a velocity equal to that with which the roving is given
out by the drawing rollers. Thus the roving is kept extended between the
spindles and the forward drawing rollers. Whilst the carriage is drawn
back, the rovings are twisted by the rotation of the spindles, and when it
has receded about 54 inches it stops, together with the drawing rollers.
The twist is produced without the help of the flyer (of the fly-frame), by the
rovings being coiled diagonally up to the point of the spindle, where, from
the inclined position of the latter towards the rollers, one end of the roving
remains during the revolution of the spindle, and thus receives its twist.
The carriage and spindles stop together; it then becomes the business of
the attendant to wind up the 54 inches, which she accomplishes by depress-
ing the faller wire with her left hand, so as to bring the rovings at right
angles with their respective spindles. At this juncture she turns the

‘spindles by means of a crank with her right hand, whilst she pushes the
carriage back to the drawing rollers with a velocity corresponding to that
with which she winds up the roving. As the carriage approaches the
drawing rollers she raises slowly the faller wire, during the last turn of
the spindles ; and then the rovings, in consequence of the relative position
of the spindles and rollers, coil themselves again to the point of the spindle,

‘and the twisting commences again with another length of roving.

The roving is wound in an oval form upon the spindle, and when the cop
is sufficiently large it is taken off, skewered, and placed in the creel of the
spinning machine.

The product of the stretching frame is a very soft and delicate roving,
and must be handled with great care.

Besides the mule frame, the throstle frame is also used in the preparation

667

88 TECHNOLOGY.

of rovings. It differs from the former in this, that it spins and winds simul-
taneously : it is, however, used only for the coarser kinds of yarn. The
yarn spun upon the two machines is very different ; that from the throstle
frame is hard and wiry, while that from the mule frame is soft and woolly.
The former is used for the warp of heavy goods, for the filling of coarse
goods, and also for both warp and filling of fine goods. The object of the
throstle frame is to extend the rovings into slender threads, and at the same
time to twist them. It consists of two roller beams, each provided with the
usual three-fold set of drawing rollers. The fluted rollers receive the roving
from the spools, which are placed upon vertical skewers fixed in shelves in
the middle of the frames, called creeds. A throstle frame has seldom less
than 72 spindles. :

Pl. 18, jig. 2, is a view of a portion of the front of Danforth’s throstle
frame ; jig. ’7,an end view; pl. 17, jig. 24, is a section through the spinning
parts of the machine, and jig. 22 a is a peculiar spindle for winding on cops.
AB (pl. 18, jig. 2) are the usual fast and loose pulleys, the former making
about 480 revolutions per minute. Next to the pulley, pn, and upon the
same shaft, is a pinion which drives the cog-wheel, c; and a pinion, p, upon
the same shaft with the latter, drives the wheels, ¢ @ (pl. 18, fig. 7), through
the intermediate wheels, = and r. The wheels, ce, drive the drawing
rollers, HH, on both sides of the machine. These drawing rollers are
arranged as in the other machines already described, the upper ones being
pressed upon the lower by weights, x (pl. 17, jig. 24). The fluted rollers
are set in motion by wheels and run with different velocities, the front
rollers making about 120 revolutions in a minute, the middle ones about 17,
and the back rollers 12. Their relative velocities are capable of regulation
by the change of the intermediate wheels. In this manner the roving, 1, is
drawn out proportionally to the relative velocities of the front and back
rollers.

The twisting is effected as follows: @ (pl. 17, jig. 24) are the spindles
secured to the rail, m, by a screw; 6 is asmall pulley, with a hollow axle,
running freely on the spindle, a. The pulley, 6, is driven by a band from
the drum, x ( pl. 18, jig. 2). The band runs first round two spindles on one
side of the machine, and then round two upon the other side, and lastly
round the tightening pulley, m, back to the drum. In this manner four
pulleys are driven and four threads are spun. Upon the pulley, 0, and
over the said tube, the bobbin is placed, on which the thread is wound
after being twisted by the revolution of the pulley, 4. The winding is
effected by a hollow cylinder fast to the immovable spindle. The thread is
forced to pass below the lower edge of this cylinder to the bobbin, which is
revolved by friction upon the pulley, 6, and winds up the thread as fast as
it comes from the rollers. This winding up would be very imperfectly per-
formed, were not an up and down motion imparted to either the bobbin or
the cylinder, in order to fill the bobbin evenly. It has been found prefera-
ble to give this up and down motion to the bobbin. The small whorls
which carry the bobbins slide freely up and down the spindles, and rest
upon a bar, f, called the copping rail, which is raised and lowered by means

668

COTTON MANUFACTURE. 89

of the levers, 0,0 (fig. 7). These levers receive their motion from the heart-
formed cam, Pp, upon a shaft with the wheel, xr, which is driven by a pinion
upon the shaft, s, and a worm, 1, on the shaft of the wheel, 5. The whorls,
bb, make about 6,000 revolutions in a minute. To prevent the interference
of the threads with each other at this great speed, the bobbins are sometimes
separated from each otber by partitions of tin plate secured to a board back
of them.

5. Taz Morr, anp Mute Spinnine.

The finer qualities of thread are spun upon the mule. The operation of
the machine is in general similar to that of the stretching frame, and may
be stated as follows : |

The rovings coming from the bobbins in the creel pass between the rol-
lers and the spindles, the carriage in this machine moving somewhat faster
than the rollers, and not as in the stretching frame, where they move with
equal velocities. This excess of velocity is called the gain of the carriage,
and has the effect of rendering the thread uniform by drawing out the larger
and less twisted portions. When the carriage has advanced 45 or 50 inches,
according to the fineness of the work, a general change takes place in the
operation of the mule; the drawing rollers stop, the velocity of the spindles
is nearly doubled, and the carriage slackens its pace to about one sixth of
its former velocity; this part of the operation is called draw. When the
threads are sufficiently extended the carriage stops, but the spindles con-
tinue to revolve until the requisite twist is communicated. The thread is
then wound upon the spindles, as the carriage returns to repeat the opera-
tion.

Pl. 18, fig. 8, is an end view of a self-acting mule, or mule jenny ; jig 9,
a plan of the head-stock, showing a portion of the drawing-rollers, certain
portions of the head-stock being removed, which are shown in jig. 10;
jig. 11 is a cross-section, fig. 12 a front view of a portion of the carriage
which moves beneath the head-stock; jig. 18, the frame opposite to the
head-stock ; and jigs. 14 and 15 are detached portions, to which reference
will be made.

AAA (fig. 8) is a cast-iron frame, to which, on each side of the head-
stock, is fixed the roller-beam 8, seen in section. co’ co’ (figs. 8 and 10) are
three pulleys upon a horizontal shaft, a. The pulley c, secured together
with the wheel 7 upon a hollow axle, turns freely upon the shaft; c’, on the
contrary, is secured to the shaft, and the narrow pulley c” is the loose
pulley.

Two bands, p and p’, drive these pulleys; the first moves the pulleys by
covering one half of each, but it is moved at a certain stage of the process
upon c alone. At the same time the band p’, running in a contrary direc-
tion and with a less velocity, runs for a few seconds on the pulley o’ and
immediately returns to the loose pulley c’. The pulley c, which revolves

constantly with a uniform velocity, drives the apparatus for changing the
669

90 TECHNOLOGY.

motions, and carries the carriage back to the head-stock when the other motions
have all ceased. This apparatus consists of the cam-shaft, d, and a friction-
pulley, ¢, which has four parallel grooved cavities at equal.distances in its cir-
cumference, in any one of which the leather-covered pulley d (jig. 10) may
slide, when revolving opposite to the groove; the pulley dis moved by a cog-
wheel, 2, upon the same axis, which is driven by a cog-wheel, 1, connected
with the pulley c. When an edge of any one of the grooves of the pulley ¢
by the action of a spring is made to press against the leather-covered pulley
d, the latter will turn the pulley ¢ by friction through a quadrant, till the
shaft 6 is arrested by a catch, which prevents the further action of the spring,
and makes the pulley d run in the concavity of the next groove. By disen-
gaging the catch, the grooved pulley ¢ will turn through another quadrant,
and so in succession, making four different motions in one complete stretch :
3 is a pinion upon the shaft @, which drives, by means of the intermediate
wheel 4, the cog-wheel 5 (fig. 9), which gives motion by means of the bevel-
wheels 6 and 7 to the shaft connecting the front rollers of both sides of the
machine. Upon the shaft / is also a pinion, 8, which engages with the cog-
wheel, 9, on the:shaft g, carrying a drum, ©, which draws the carriage out
by means of a rope. The rollers are stopped by moving the bevel-wheel 7
out of gear with 6, uncoupling the wheel 8 with the shaft 7, and at the
same time bringing the small bevel-wheel 10 into gear with the wheel 11,
from which the drum £ now derives its motion. The wheel 10 is driven by
a crossed band from a small pulley, on the shaft with the cog-wheels 5 and 6,
to the pulley 7 on the shaft 2; by which means a slower motion is com-
municated to the drum £ and carriage. From the front roller shaft motion
is communicated in the usual manner to the other rollers, the carrier-shaft
# serving for the rollers on both sides of the machine.

F is a double spiral scroll upon a shaft running in the main frame 4;
to“the smaller radii of the scrolls are attached ropes going round the spirals ;
these ropes, after making a few turns round the drums = and 6, are severally
attached thereto. Two other ropes are attached to the barrels © and 6, the
other ends of which are attached to two small drums of the carriage H
(fig. 8); the ratchet-wheels seen upon the shafts of these rollers are for the
purpose of tightening the ropes as required. The spiral scroll r has nothing
to do with the outward motion of the carriage; this is effected by the
revolving drum r. When the latter is disengaged by throwing the bevel-
wheel 10 out of gear with 11, the carriage stops until it is to be returned,
at which juncture the pinion 12 is engaged with the bevel-wheel 13, which
thus drives the shaft bearing the scroll r. This now moves the carriage,
first with an increasing, and then with a decreasing speed, as it nears the
roller-beam; the drawing-out ropes remaining fully stretched, since the
scroll gives off as much rope in one direction as it takes up in another.
The pinion 12 upon the shaft g, which revolves uninterruptedly (although not
in gear with 13), is driven by the wheel 14 (jig. 10), which receives motion
from the intermediate wheel 15 upon the shaft 7, which also carries the
wheel 16 (jigs. 8 and 10). The wheel 16 gets its motion from the wheel 1,
which drives also the friction-pulley d. |

670-

COTTON MANUFACTURE. $i

We will now describe the driving parts of the carriage. s is an inclined
shaft (jigs. 8 and 12), parallel to the axis of rotation of the driving-drums
(jig. 11), which give motion to the wharves of the spindles. Upon the
shaft s is the double grooved pulley 1, which gives motion by bands in the
usual manner to the drawing-drums on each side of the carriage. On the
lower end of the shaft s is a bevel-wheel, 17, which may be shifted to
engage with either of the bevel-wheels 18 or 19 (fig. 12). The wheel 18 is
placed upon a short shaft which carries a double-band pulley, 1, driven by
a band from the twist-pulley mM, passing under guide-pulleys, ¢ and wu (figs.
8 and 9). One end of this band passes over the guide-pulley, x, of the
carriage, round the driving-pulley 1, for the purpose of increasing the
friction between the band and pulley, and insuring the rotation of the spin-
dles. The endless band then passes round the horizontal tightening-pulley,
v (jig. 9), thence back under the other guide-pulley, ¢, and up to the twist-
pulley m again.

After the backing off is performed, the shaft s is shifted, so that the
bevel-wheel 17 engages the wheel 19 (jig. 12), on a short shaft carrying a
wheel, 20, which gears into a wheel, 21, upon the shaft of the winding-on
barrel 0, on the periphery of which are grooves to carry the chain attached
to it. The other end of this chain is fixed to the point 10 of the apparatus
P (fig. 8). |

As the carriage moves backwards to the roller-beam it causes the drum,
0, to revolve as the chain pulls it round, the other end of the chain being
fast at the point, 10. Thus the shaft s receives a slow motion on its axis
through the wheels 21, 20, 19, 17, which, during the return of the carriage,
causes the spindles to revolve and wind on the yarn by the depression of
the faller. vp (jig. 8) is a toothed quadrant revolving upon a centre, x, and
having a grooved arm, ¥, in front of which is a screw, having on one end
a small bevel wheel, 22, which gears with another, 23, turning with a pulley,
z, on an axis. In the groove of the arm, y, slides a nut, 10, to which
the end of the chain is attached, and which moves gradually to the end of
the screw by the revolution of the pulley, z, and consequently the bevel
wheels 23 and 22, the latter being fast to the screw, y. This quadrant moves
through one fourth of a circle during the going out of the carriage, being
in gear with the pinion, 24, on the shaft of the barrel, ¢, round which the
rope passes which carries out the carriage. Therefore the scroll, r, moving
back the carriage with a varying velocity, gives by the pinion, 24, a cor-
responding returning motion to the said quadrant, by which means the nut,
10, is caused to describe a quadrant of a circle of a diameter corresponding
to the distance of the point, 10, from the centre of the quadrant. By this
action the drum, 0, does not turn in proportion to the advance of the car-
riage; the point, 10, to which the end of the chain of that drum is attached,
following the motion of the carriage in the proportion of the cosines of the
ares through which the quadrant p hasturned. The velocity of the drum, a,
is consequently increased as the said cosines diminish, and therefore turns
the spindles faster as the carriage approaches the roller beam, the faller
guiding the threads upon the cop.

671

92 TECHNOLOGY.

In the beginning of building the cop the nut, 10, is nearest the centre of
the quadrant, p, and may then be considered as a fixed point for the chain,
causing therefore the spindles to turn with the carriage during its going in.

During the making of the double cone foundation of the cop (pl. 18, fig.
16), the nut, 10, is moved gradually towards the extremity of the arm, y,
thus describing increasing arcs, and thereby causing the spindles to turn at
each stretch more slowly at the beginning, and more quickly towards the
end of the winding-on; the faller beginning the winding-on each time at a
higher point of the spindle. |

When the double cone is made, the winding-on guided by the quadrant,
Pp, remains constant, as the nut, 10, does not move any more, while the
faller after each stretch continues to lay on the winding from a higher point
of the spindle. The motion to the screw, y, is given at each stretch in the
following manner. Over the small pulley, 2 (jg. 8), and over the guide-pulley
a’, runs an endless band, a certain length of which is moved during the
return of the carriage in forming the double cone foundation of the cop. 6
is a lever connected with the faller arm, c', by a chain, and which, when the
faller sinks, presses upon the said band and pinches it to the plate, d’ (jig.
11), whereby it is fixed by the returning carriage and drawn along with it
till the faller rises again and lifts the weight of the pinching lever, d, from the
plate.

After the double cone is made, the faller no longer descends so low as to
permit the lever, 6, to press upon the band, and the nut, 10, is no further
moved outwards; thenceforth the cop continues to be built by winding on
uniform surfaces of yarn upon the top cone of the foundation (jig. 16); the
faller at each stretch descending less and less, and consequently beginning
the winding-on at successively higher points (jig. 16).

On the carriage (jigs. 11 and 12) are two shafts, e and ff, running its
whole length, the former being the faller-shaft, and the latter the counter-
faller-shaft, which latter is here put in front of the carriage.

On either side of the carriage both are moved by small arms attached to
them, and by connecting-rods joined to arms, ¢ and #, on the ends of hori-
zontal shafts, 7’ m’. The faller-shaft, e, is always kept up by several spiral
springs working on arms attached to it, unless when depressed during the
winding-on action of the machine. On the counter-faller-shaft, /, are several
segments from which by chains are suspended weights, »’, which are
directly proportional to the number of the threads, and inversely propor-
tional to the fineness of the yarn, and which serve to support the threads
during their winding on the spindles. The faller-shafts on each side of the
machine are depressed and raised in the following way. On the shaft
belonging to the left side of the carriage is fixed a small pinion, 0’, which
is in gear with the toothed segment, p’, the shaft of which rests in bearings
on the carriage (jigs. 8, 14, and 15). The toothed segment, p’, has one
portion smooth, at whose end is a notch, g’, into which by turning the
segment, which is loose on its shaft, a catch, 7’, may fall. This catch is
fixed upon a curved arm, s’, which embraces the shaft of the segment, and
is thus permitted to move up and down with the catch,7’. Another curved

672

COTTON MANUFACTURE. 93

arm, 7, turns loosely round the shaft of the segment, and is connected by a
link to the arm, s’, and has at its end a roller, wv’, which slides during the
motions of the carriage on a long rail, Q, fixed to the frame of the head-
stock (jig. 13) on the side opposite to that represented in jig. 8.

In jig. 13 this frame is shown with the rail, @, in dotted lines behind ; this
rail has two pins, @’’ and 6’, going through the slots in the frame-piece, B,
which rest upon two plates, c’ and @”, called the shaper plates, because they
define the shape of the cops, and are connected with each other by the bar e’’.
The shaper plate, @’’, has a nut, #’”’, in which a screw works, bearing on its
end a ratchet-wheel, g'’, one or two teeth of which are moved by a click
from the carriage at the end of each of its comings-out. Thus the shaper
plates c’ and d@” are gradually shifted, and the rail, a, at the back of the
frame-piece, B (figs. 14 and 15), is permitted to sink a little so as to make
the roller w’ (jig. 14) run lower upon its rail, ga, during the motions of the
carriage. When the faller is depressed, which is at the time when the car-
riage begins its going-in, the segment, p’, is turned, and the catch, 7’, falling
into the notch, g’, must now follow the action of the sliding roller, w', on the
railg. The segment, p’, now driving o’, which is attached to the faller-shaft
of the left side of the carriage, will give to that shaft a regular rising motion
in proportion as the carriage approaches the roller beam, by being con-
nected to the roller w’, which runs over the inclined rail ge. The carriage
having reached the end of its course, the arm s’ goes over the bar v seen
in section in jig. 15, by which means the catch 7’ is lifted from its notch g’
(jig. 14), and the fallers are made to rise by the spiral springs attached to
them: the same motion is transferred to the faller-shaft, e (jig. 15), on the
right hand side of the carriage by the horizontal shaft /’, to which both are
connected by arms and connecting-rods.

We have now to explain how all these motions are successively produced
in the machine. 6 (jig. 8) is the shaft which by certain disengagements is
permitted to revolve at each of four different periods through a fourth part
of a circle. On this shaft are the following guides and eccentrics. In front
of the pulleys, c, c’, c’’, is the guide, h” (fig. 10), for the fork of the strap, p,
which is attached to the top end of the lever; 2’, the guide (2” in jig. 10)
for the other strap, p’, which is shifted by the lever, 4, working in the bar,
2’, on the end of which is fixed the fork for the said strap. m’” (fig. 8) is
an eccentric by which the bevel wheel, 7, and the coupling clutch on the
shaft, 7 (fig. 9), is worked, whilst the wheel 10 is brought into gear with 11.
The lever which carries the bearing of the shaft 2 and shift-wheel 10 into
gear with 11 is connected with the lever n” (jig. 8), working the coupling
on the shaft 7 (jig. 9), and is moved by the eccentric mv’ by a hook, which
being subsequently lifted makes also the wheel 10 to fall out of gear with 11.
o” is a finger, seen best in jig. 10, by which the quantity of twist is regu-
lated, and which keeps the shaft } from turning a fourth part of a revolution
till a notch in the plate p allows that finger to strike through. The shaft is
afterwards arrested in another way.

_ The plate p is fixed on a shaft with wheel 25 (jig. 8), which is driven by
a worm on the principal shaft, @ (fig. 10), and may be varied in diameter
ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOPZPIA.—VOL, IV. 43 673

94 TECHNOLOGY.

according to the quantity of twist the yarn is to have. g’’ is another eccen-
tric, by which the wheel 12 is shifted into gear with 13 by means of the
bell-crank lever r’’, at the end of which is the bearing of the shaft g. s’’
is a plate on the shaft 6 (fig. 10), having on one end four pins, against which
a spring presses so as to bring the friction-pulley, c. in contact with the
pulley d, thus to make it turn through a quadrant. On the other side of
the said plate s’’ are three square escapement pieces, against which presses
the end of a rod, w’', connected with the end of the horizontal balance
levers. By either depressing or lifting this lever the rod, w’’, is moved
from one of the catches on the plate s’, by which it revolves througha |
quadrant, as has been said, and is then caught by the next escapement on
the plate s’’.

In the going-out of the carriage let us suppose the band p to be driving
both the pulleys, c and’, and the strap p’ to be on the loose pulley o”.
The rollers are driven by the shaft ¢’, and the carriage moved by the drum
BE, getting motion by the wheels 8 and 9 (jig. 9). The twist is given from
the pulley m driving the pulley 1, and the bevel wheel 18, which engages
with the wheel 17 upon the shafts. The carriage coming near the end of
its course lifts a catch from a latch (see dotted lines in fig. 8) of the lever s’,
which sinks a little and is caught by a second catch, which is connected
by a rod, v’, to a lever, , the latter resting on the boss of the curved arm
s' (figs. 14 and 15). By the falling of the left hand end of the balance-
lever, s', the rod «’’ has moved from one of the escapements of the plate s’
(jig. 10), and after the shaft b has made a quadrantal motion, it is arrested
by the finger o” striking against the plate p; by this means the eccentric
m'’, on the shaft 6, has disconnected the coupling on the shaft f/ (jig. 9).
The rollers are thus set at rest, while the carriage moves a little longer, but
very slowly, being driven by the shaft 2 and the wheels 10 and 11 (fig. 9).
The carriage, having arrived at the end of its course, strikes against a rod
not seen in the figures, detaching the click, with which, by the lever n/”,
the wheel 10 was shifted into gear with 11, thus setting at rest those parts
which gave motion to the carriage. The twisting motion, however, is con-
tinued till the principal shaft, a, has turned the wheel 25 so far round that
the finger 0” can strike through the notch in the plate p (jig. 8). The shaft
b goes on to revolve through a second quadrant, and is now caught by the
rod wu” at one of the catches of the plate s’. By this quadrantal motion
the straps are shifted, p moves to the pulley o, alone, and pv’, which moves
much slower, and in an opposite direction, is shifted to the pulley c, which
is fixed on the shaft of the twist-pulley m. The latter is therefore now
turning in the contrary direction, and giving a like motion to the spindles,
thus backing off the coils of the yarn from the noses of the spindles. At
the same time, however, a ratchet-wheel, w (jig. 8), on the slant-shaft s of
the carriage, turns by a click, #’,a plate connected with a spiral piece below,
to which is attached the end of a chain which passes over two guide-
pulleys, 2’ and r’, to an arm, a’”, at the top of the carriage, upon the same
shaft with the pinion 0.

By the reverse motion of the shaft s, therefore, the faller is depressed till

674

COTTON MANUFACTURE. 95

the catch 7 falls into the notch g’ of the segment p’, after which the faller
follows the motion given to the roller w’ by its sliding on the railg. At
the time, however, that the catch falls into the notch, the lever 1, which had
been resting upon the boss of the curved arm s’ (jigs. 8 and 15), falls also,
and takes away the catch which had suspended the latch of the left hand
end of the balance-lever s', and makes this end to fall a second time, after
which the rod w” lets another detent of plate s” escape, and causes the shaft
6 to revolve through the third quadrant, by which the straps p and pb’ are
brought back to their former positions. Meanwhile the shafts is shifted
with its wheel 17 into gear with 19, as will presently be described, and the
eccentric g" (jig. 8) has shifted the wheel 12 into gear with 13, which is
fixed on a shaft with the scroll r, by which the carriage is now returned
towards the roller-beam, whilst the winding-on is performed by the drum 9
( fig. 12), turned by the chain attached to the nut 10 at the quadrant p
(jig. 8). Round this drum there are a few coils of a rope, which passes
over the two pulleys 6’” and ¢’” (fig. 8), and suspends a weight, d@'”, in order
to keep the chain tight upon the drum o.

When the carriage comes home to its place, near the roller-beam, it
presses down the right hand end of the balance-beam s, and makes the rod
w'’ to fall off from the third escapement of the plate s’’, after which the shaft
6 turns through the fourth quadrant.

By this motion the eccentric g’ shifts the wheel 12 out of gear with 13,
while the eccentric m’’ sets the rollers in gear by the coupling upon the
shaft 7, and of course, also, the drum rE which moves out the carriage by
the wheels 8 and 9. The bar 7 (jig. 14) has now lifted the catch 7’, out of
the notch g' in the segment p’, and thus has disengaged the faller shaft;
finally, the shaft s (jig. 12) is shifted together with its wheel, 17, to give
twist again to the yarn spun during the next stretch of the carriage. It
remains only to mention how this shifting of the shaft, s, is performed, at
the moment of the carriage goimg in and out. The step-bearing of the
said shaft is fixed on the end of a bell-crank lever, e’” (jig. 8), the other end
of which is connected with an arm upon a shaft upon which is a kind of
balance lever, 2’’ and 2’, which passes, when the carriage arrives at each
end of its course, under rollers attached to the large radial weights u at
each end of the frame, which thus presses on that one of the arms A/” or 2”,
which is just arrested by a detent or click, and keeps the wheel 17 in gear
with either 18 or 19. When the carriage is drawn out, and the wheel 17
is still in gear with 18, the arm /’” is suspended, and remains so, till by
the falling of the lever 1, the balance lever s’ makes its second fall, and
disengages the click by which the arm, 4’, is suspended; the latter is now
depressed by the radial weight v, whilst the other arm, 7”, is caught by
another click. On the contrary, when the carriage arrives near the roller-
beam at the same time that it depresses the balance-beam s, and changes
the motion, the click which keeps the arm, ¢’’, suspended is also disen-
gaged, and the radial weight on the right hand of the machine (jig. 8)
presses down the arm 7’, whilst 2’ is caught in its click, and keeps the
wheel 17 in gear with wheel 18. %'” is a detent or click, in which an arm,

675

96 TECHNOLOGY.

connected with the counter-faller shaft, is caught when the carriage is going
out. This arm has on its end a roller, which glides at the beginning of the
course of the carriage over an inclined plane, x, fixed on the floor (fig. 11),
and lifts the arm to be laid hold of by the catch k'”.. When, however, the
faller becomes depressed at the going-in of the carriage, the finger, ¢’”’, is
attached to the arm ¢ (jig. 11), near the left hand wheel, disengages the arm
attached to the counter-faller from its catch k'’’, and causes the counter-
faller to react against the tension of the threads.

The yarn is now reeled and bound in hanks. It is numbered according
to its fineness, the number expressing the weight of a certain fixed length .
of thread. /%gs. 22 and 23 represent the scales commonly made use of for
weighing yarn ; jig. 24 illustrates its operation. The assorted yarn is then
packed for transportation in a press of simple construction, seen in jigs. 27,
28, and 29.

6. Tue Sincine or Gassing or YARN.

The fine cotton yarn used in the manufacture of bobbin-net lace, and for
hosiery, is generally subjected to a singing process, to free it from loose
fibres, which operation gives it a more uniform, compact appearance. This
singing is accomplished in a peculiar machine by passing the threads with
great rapidity through the flame of gas. Pl. 19, jigs. 16, 17, and 18, are
different views of a gassing machine of simple construction, the general
operation of which is apparent from inspection. /%g. 19 is the heart-cam
serving to guide the thread upon the winding-on bobbin. The thread passes
from the bobbins 1 round the glass pins p and the rollers g and 9g’, between
which rollers it is subjected to the action of the flame; thence it passes
through the guide-plate, 7, to the winding-on bobbins, ¢, which are revolved
by friction upon the rotating carrier pulleys, r. The bobbins make from
2500 to 3500 revolutions per minute. ?

7. WrAvine.

The preparatory step to weaving is arranging the warp-yarn in parallel
layers upon a wooden beam. ‘This is effected by the aid of an ingenious
machine called the warping-mill. PJ. 19, jig. 2, is an end view, and jig.
3 a plan of a warping-mill of approved construction. The threads pass from
the bobbins a through guides @ and d@ round rollers cc’ c”’, and are ulti-
mately wound upon the warp beam «, which runs in vertical slots in the
arms 7, and is revolved by friction upon a cioth-covered roller, 1.

For the purpose of showing the threads more plainly, the machine is
painted black, and when the warper discovers a thread to be missing, she
stops the machine, finds the ends and unites them, and the machine runs
on again. PJ. 19, fig. 20, shows the arrangement of the spools in jig 8.

Pl. 19, jig. 1, shows the ordinary method of beaming for hand-weaving.

676

COTTON MANUFACTURE. 97

The spools are placed upon a frame, ©, and the threads pass through the
guide r, which descends as the reel is turned. This is effected by the
attendant by means of a crank, pulleys, cord, &c.

Weaving proper is the art of making cloth by the rectangular decussa-
tion of flexible fibres, of which the longitudinal are called the warp or chain,
and the traverse the woof or weft. The former extends through the whole
length of the web, the latter only over its breadth. The outside thread on
each side of the warp, round which the filling or woof thread returns, in
the act of decussation, is called the selvage or list.

P1.19, fig. 4, exhibits the old European loom in itssimplest form. The chain
is wound upon the warp-beam, a, and passes thence through the heddles, o,
which consist of twines looped in the middle, one half of the warp threads
passing through the loops in each heddle. The yarns then pass through
the reed beneath p at the bottom of the swinging frame &, called the batten
lay or lathe. The weaver, seated upon the bench «, alternately raises and
depresses the heddles c by pressing his foot upon one or other of the
treddles, 3, which are connected by cords to the bottom of the heddles.
By this motion of the heddles, one half of the warp threads are carried up
and the other half down, a few inches, thus shedding the warp, as it is
technically termed, for the passage of the shuttle, which carries through the
warp thread or filling. The shuttle is thrown through the shed by a sharp
jerk given to the picking-strings, seen at 1, by the hand of the operative,
and leaves a shoot of weft behind it. The weaver then swings the batten
towards him, to beat wp the thread thus laid in, and the heddles are changed
again by the treddles, preparatory to passing the shuttle again through the
shed. In more primitive looms the shuttle was passed through the shed
by hand. The cloth is wound up as fast as woven, upon the cloth beam at 1.

The power-loom has experienced many changes and improvements since
its first introduction. In pl. 19, jigs. 5, 6, and 7, is represented a power-loom
of modern approved construction.

A is the frame of the loom, B fast and loose pulleys, upon the crank shaft.
Upon the other end of the crank shaft is a cog-wheel p, driving a wheel pn’,
with double the number of teeth, upon the shaft x, which makes, therefore,
only half as many revolutions as the crank shaft 8s. The shaft, n, is called the
wiper, or comb-shaft ; it throws the shuttle, and raises and lowers the heddles,
while the shaft B by means of its crank r works the lay u, which drives home
the weft towards the finished cloth. The cranks F are connected with the two
levers cg, called the swords of the lay, to which the batten u is made fast,
which carries the reed in its middle, and the shuttle-boxes A at its ends.
1 is the warp-beam ; ,the warp yarns pass from it, over the roller x, through
the heddles t and reed 2’, over the breast beam m (having now been woven
into cloth), and are finally wound upon the roller ny, or cloth beam. This
roller bears at one end a toothed wheel a, moved slowly by asmall pinion w,
upon the axis of the ratchet-wheel 6 (jig. 7). This latter wheel is turned
round a little after every throw of the shuttle, or shoot of the weft, by
means of a stud projecting from one of the swords of the lay. The lifting
of the heddles, 1, is performed by two eccentric wipers 0 0’, upon the shaft 5,

677

98 TECHNOLOGY.

which press the treddle levers p and P’, alternately up and down. These
levers are connected by strings or wires with their respective heddles,
which are in their turn placed in communication by straps, which play
over rollers, ¢, at the top of the loom.

Pl. 19, jig. 21, shows these levers isolated. The shuttle is thrown by the
two levers, 9 Q, which are alternately moved with a jerk by the rollers, r,
secured to the shaft, n, by means of arms, and working upon cams, s, con-
nected with the shafts of the arms, qq. These arms are connected together
at the bottom by a cord or strap, mounted with a spring of spiral wire.

The shuttle is lodged in one of the boxes, ff, of the batten, n, and is —
driven across along its shed-way by one of the pickers, gg, which run on
the two parallel guide wires, 4 /, and are connected with the arms, @, by
strong cords. |

If by any accident the shuttle should stick in the shed-way, the blows of
the batten, u, against it would cause the warp to be torn to pieces. In
order to guard against this, a contrivance has been introduced for stopping
the loom immediately, in case the shuttle should not come home into its
cell. Under the batten u (pl. 19, jigs. 7 and 22) there is a small shaft, 2,
on each side of which a lever, / and /’ (fig. 6), is fixed; these two levers
are pressed by springs against other levers, 7m, which enter partly into
the shuttle-boxes. There they act as brakes to soften the impulse of the
shuttle, and allow also the point of the lever / to fall downwards into a line
with the prominence at n, provided the shuttles do not enter in and press the
spring-point, m, backwards, together with the upright arm /’, and thus raise
the horizontal arm 7 above nm. When this does not take place, that is,
when the shuttle has not gone fairly home, the lever 7 hangs down, strikes
against the obstacle , moves this piece forwards so as to press against
the spring lever or trigger 0 0, which leaps from its catch or detent, shifts
the fork pp with its strap from the fast to the loose pulley, and thus in an
instant arrests every motion of the machine.

The shuttle is represented in jig. 8 in a top view and in jig. 9 in a side
view. It is made of a piece of box-wood mortised out in the middle and
tapered off at its ends, the tips being shod with iron points to protect them
from injury by blows against the guides and the bottoms of the boxes.

In the hollow part, a 6, there is a skewer or spindle, c, seen in dotted lines.
One end of this skewer turns about the axis, d, to allow it to come out of
the mortise when the cop is put on.

e (see dotted lines in jig. 9) is the spring which keeps the spindle ¢ in its
place by pressing against one of the sides of the square ends of the spindle.
J is a projecting pin or little stud, against which the spindle ¢ bears when
laid in its place. g is a hole in one side of the shuttle, bushed with ivory,
through which the thread passes, after being drawn through a slit in the
centre of a brass plate, A. In that side of the shuttle which is furnished
with the eye-hole there is a groove extending its whole length for receiving
the thread as it unwinds from the cop.

The warp is wound upon the cylinder 1, and passes over the roller x; the
cloth is formed at the point 7, passes over the breast-beam Mm, and is wound

678

COTTON MANUFACTURE. 99

upon the cloth-beam ny. The delivery of the yarn is regulated, and the
warp threads are kept at a uniform tension, by friction produced by a cord
with weights attached to it passing round the beam 1.

The cloth-roller x bears upon one of its iron axes prolonged, the toothed-
wheel, a, which works into a pinion, ~ (seen in dotted lines, fig. 7), upon
the axis of the ratchet-wheel 6. Hence if the latter be turned gradually
by the motion of the lay, as before explained, the cloth-beam wn will be
revolved very slowly, and thus take up the woven cloth.

The heddles, through the loops of which the warp threads pass (one half
through each), are connected together by straps, passing over pulleys, ¢, at
the top of the machine in such a manner as to balance each oben, the
descent of one drawing the other up. At the bottom they are connected
to two bars, u and vy, which are secured by rods, 0 0’, to two treddles, PP”,
turning on a pivot at w. These treddles are alternately depressed by the
cams 0 0” upon the revolving shaft ©, and thus the heddles are alternately
raised and depressed, and the warp threads opened to form the shed or
angular opening between the threads seen at r (jig. 6), through which the
shuttle passes to carry the woof thread.

Pl. 19, jigs. 10 and 11, represent the jaw-temples, which serve to keep
the cloth distended to its full width during the operation of weaving ; these
temples are attached one on each side of the loom, and consist of spring
pincers, which seize the selvage of the cloth immediately in front of the
point where it is woven. At each beat of the lay the movable jaw of the
temple is opened to permit the cloth to pass the small amount made by the
one thread, beat up, and the instant the lay recedes the jaws grip the cloth
again, and hold it distended until the lay beats up again.

8. FouisHiInc AND BLEACHING.

The first operation in the finishing of cotton goods is bleaching, which is
not so tedious as with linen, as the cotton is but slightly colored. The size,
which was put upon the chain threads before weaving, is first soaked off in
warm water, in which the cotton is allowed to remain thirty-six or forty-
eight hours, or until a sort of fermentation takes place; it is then washed
in running water, and bleached either by exposure to the sun or with
chlorine.

The cotton is first singed by passing it quickly over the surface of a red-
hot iron, to free the surface from loose fibres. Pl. 19, jigs. 12 and 18,
represent the singing-oven: @ is the oven door; 8, the fire-grate; c, the
ash-pit; d@, the fine. dn light goods, muslins, &c., the flame of alcohol or
of gas is sometimes used. The cotton then goes to the wash-wheel, repre-
sented in plan in pl. 19, fig. 15; jig. 14a is a portion of the front side, and
jig. 146 a view of a portion of the back of the wheel. This wheel makes
about twenty revolutions per minute. A constant stream of clear water is
admitted through a tube at 2, the dirty water passing off through holes in
the case A; f are openings to admit the goods; m is a cog-wheel by which

679

100 TECHNOLOGY.

the wheel is driven. The goods are then boiled to free them entirely from
size and to open the pores.

Pl. 18, figs. 17, 18, and 19, represent a washing-kettle of common con-
struction, the upper part, a, of which is for the reception of the goods, and
the lower, L, for the water; c is a grating, seen also in fig. 19, from the
central hole of which rises the tube p. ¥F is the fire-chamber, the grating
of which is seen in jfig.18. In this kettle the goods are boiled ten hours,
being closely watched, as the water should constantly rise through the
tube p and pass down through the goods.

Then follows the bucking or boiling in a lye of potash, which is thrice .
repeated, the goods being washed after each operation, and ultimately
passed through the wringing-machine (pl. 18, jigs. 20 and 21), consisting
of rollers in a strong frame, between which the cotton is passed under
heavy pressure, and thus the water is pressed out. Then follows the treat-
ment with chloride of lime, and finally the sour bath, the acid of which
acting upon the chloride gradually and slowly sets free the chlorine in
immediate contact with the cotton.

The goods then pass to the starching and steam-drying apparatus (pi. 18,
jigs. 25 and 26), being carried from the roller q@ beneath a roller, 1, which
carries it through the paste-trough, £; it then passes over the hollow cylin-
ders, 1, heated by steam, admitted through the tubes, 0, from the steam-
pipe, x. Ultimately the finished cotton passes out between the rollers, 1,
and is folded upon the table, v. :

We close our observations on cotton manufacture with a few cursory
remarks on the kindred manufacture of woollen goods.

Woot LEN MANUFACTURE.

Nearly all the wool manufactured in Europe and the United States is
that of the sheep. The first operation to which it is subjected is washing
with soap and water, to free it from sweat, grease, and dust; it is then passed
through the. drying squeezers, and carried to the drying-room over the
boilers of the steam-engine. The wool is then passed through a machine
differing somewhat from the willow used in the cotton manufacture, and
represented in pl. 18, jigs. 30-33. It consists of a series of rapidly revolving
fans upon a shaft, # (jig. 33), within a net-work of wire, the whole inclosed
within a tight wooden case, aB. The wool is fed to the machine upon the
feeding apron, D, running upon rollers, £ and eG, passes between finted rollers,
and is caught by the teeth, n, of the revolving fans; and as it is carried
round is beaten against the wire net-work, separated and opened by the teeth,
0, upon the interior of the wire cylinder, and ultimately thrown out at one
end of the machine, opened and free from the dust, which has passed through
the wire cylinder. After being cleaned in this manner, the wool is again
oiled and passed through a wolf of simpler construction, then carded upon
machines not essentially different from those already described under
Cotton Manufacture, spun, and woven.

680

COINING. 2 101

VI. COINING.

Corina is the art of making the metallic currency of trade. In civilized
countries the currency is partly metallic, partly of paper; the latter having
an imaginary value, based upon the credit of him who issues it.

ae MeErattic Money.

Gold and silver, the most precious metals, have been used from the
earliest periods as the materials for the fabrication of money. Platina has
also been resorted to in more modern times, but its value is too fluctuating
for a steady currency, and its use has been abandoned. Besides these
metals an alloy of silver and copper, and also pure copper, are in use for
coins of the lowest denominations, on account of the diminutive size of silver
coins of so small a value.

Coins are almost always made in the form of small round plates or disks,
on one side of which, called the obverse, is the head of the sovereign, the
arms of the state, or an emblematic device; and upon the other, called the
reverse, a suitable expression of its value. As, for various reasons, gold and
silver are never coined pure, but with an alloy of copper, the proportions in
which the noble metals and copper are used must be accurately prescribed.
Almost every state has its own standard. In Germany this is determined
by the number of sixteenths of pure silver which a crude alloyed mark shall
contain, and the number of coins to be struck from the same. For gold’
coins, in the same manner, it.is fixed how many twenty-fourth parts, or
carats, of fine gold they are to contain, and how many pieces of coin shall
be struck from a given weight of the alloy. Though the just weight and
proper alloy are thus fixed for every kind of coin, yet the rule cannot be
applied with mathematical precision; a slight variation must therefore be
allowed from the regulation. This variation is termed the remediwm, or the
authority to the mint to diminish the alloy. Formerly this was more con-
siderable than it is in the present advanced state of the art of coining. In
France it is ;;5;; above or below the fixed rate for gold, and for silver -3.5

2000 1000
for five-franc pieces, >, for two-franc pieces, and ;3%; for quarter francs.
The value of coined silver is of course somewhat higher than that of
uncoined, as those fabricating the coin must be remunerated for their
labor. This increase of value is termed the mint tax. In France,
where the coinage is most excellent, the mint now reckons coined gold
only at about 4 per cent., and coined silver only about 1} per cent. over the
uncoined. The minting of the baser metals is much more expensive than
that of gold and silver, as it costs more to coin one hundred cents than one
dollar.
1. Mertivce. The melting of gold and silver is generally carried on in
large black-lead or cast-iron crucibles in cupola furnaces, with charcoal or

coke.
681

102 TECHNOLOGY.

The crucible is first heated before the alloyed metal is put in, that any
cracks may become apparent; and the metal is covered with a layer of
charcoal, to prevent oxidation by exposure to the air. After it is thoroughly
melted a specimen is taken out, the alloy tested, and, if necessary, rectified.
If the proof is satisfactory, the metal is cast into zngots, in moulds of cast
or wrought iron. Silver is taken out of the crucible with an iron ladle
coated with clay ; gold is manipulated with a black-lead crucible held by
tongs. In England and the United States the cast-iron crucible is raised.
from the furnace by the aid of a crane, and set into a peculiar pouring
machine, which is gradually tilted by a curved rack and pinion, to allow
the contents to flow into the iron forms. 7.20, figs. 1 and 2, exhibit such
a machine. As the crucible is tilted, the carriage upon which the moulds
are placed is moved along directly under its nose. :

2. Rottine. The ingots having been cast and cooled are next passed
through the rolling mill (fig.3). Its construction differs slightly from that
of the common rolling mill. mis a cog-wheel, which receives motion from
the driving power of the machine; upon the same shaft are wheels, x and 0,
gearing into wheels, p and x, upon the axis of the rollers; gg (fig.3") are the
set screws which serve to adjust the distance between the rollers ; and jig. 4
shows the manner in which these screws are moved together by the screws, H,
turning the wheels, r. The rollers are of steel or iron, case-hardened, and
are usually from four to twelve inches in length. When the requisite
thickness is thought to be attained, a few blanks are struck and tested in
the scales; if they are too thick, the rolling is continued ; if too thin, the
bars must be melted over again. In some cases a flattening mill is made
use of to prepare the bars for the rolling mill; pl. 20, jig. 7, is an end, and
jig. 8 a front view of the machine. It is, in fact, a rolling mill, but less
substantially built than the one already described, and serves to remove the
chief inequalities of the bars, and to extend them slightly. su is the driving
pulley upon the shaft of the pinion, c, which engages with the cog-wheel, r,
upon the lower roller, 6, upon the other end of which is a wheel which
engages with a similar wheel upon the upper roller. A central wheel upon
the top of the machine engages with the wheels, e, upon the top of the
screws which adjust the distance of the rollers, and turns them equally.

The bars then pass to the drawing machine, of which jig. 10 exhibits a
top, and jig. 11 a side view; jig. 12 shows the pincers and a section of the
drawing plate ; fig. 13 is a top-view of the vice; jig. 14, a front view of the
drawing plate.

From the driving-pulley L, motion is communicated to the wheel e, on
the shaft of which are two polygonal disks, ¥, which carry the endless chain
7, upon which the pincer-carriage travels (jig. 12). The bars are secured
by screws into the jaws of the pincers, and are drawn through the drawing
plate. To diminish the ends of the bars that they may pass through the
dies to the pincers, they are introduced between the rollers of a machine,
seen in pl. 20, jig. 9, arranged something like the rollers of a rolling-
mill. The upper roller is cylindrical, but the lower is formed with three
flat sides. The end of a slip of metal is presented between the rollers while

682

COINING. 103

they are in motion, not on that side of the roller which would operate to
draw in the slip between them, as in the rolling-press above described,
but on the contrary side, so that when one of the flat sides of the under
roller fronts horizontally the circumference of the upper roller, an opening
is formed, through which the bar is to be inserted until it bears against a
fixed stop at the back of the rollers. As the rollers continue to revolve, the
cylindrical portions come opposite to each other, and press the metal, fore-
ing it outwards, and rendering the part introduced between the rollers as
thin as the space between their cylindrical surfaces; thus the end of the
slip of metal becomes attenuated enough to pass between the dies of the
drawing machine and to be seized by the pincers. The drawing plate is
seen in pl. 20; jig. 14 shows the die-box; the dies are adjusted vertically
and horizontally, by means of the screws dd and gg.

The bars are now heated and cut into lengths of about 4 feet, and if, as is
the case in the English mint, the breadth is twice or three times as great
as that of the coin to be struck, it is also cut through lengthwise. This is
effected by means of circular shears, seen in jigs. 5 and 6; fig. 6a shows
the cutting wheels, with the bars lying between them. 4G is an adjustable
ledge, against which the metal plate rests, to regulate the width of the strip
to be cut off.

3. Tar Currine Out. Pl. 20, jig. 15, presents a side-view, and jig. 16 a
top-view of acoin-punch. £ is a hollow cast-iron column, from which the
atmosphere is kept constantly exhausted; G is a cylinder with a hollow
axis, around which it can revolve on the frame #; by means of the tube x
the air can be exhausted from the cylinder when required, and motion
imparted to the piston in the same, the pressure of the atmosphere upon the
piston carrying the punch, c, down, and the fly-wheel, p, raising it again, and
returning it to a position ready for another downward stroke.

The blanks cut out by the above machine are then tested, and smoothed
upon the surface.

4. Mituive. The polished blanks are next milled upon the edge, which
operation precedes the stamping, and is performed by a machine shown in
pl. 20. Figs. 19 @ and 6 are the two milling plates, on the edges of which
is engraved the device or motto to be impressed upon the edge of the coin ;
to the plate a is imparted a reciprocating motion by the rack bar e, and the
blank being laid upon the arm / is forcibly compressed between the plates
a and b, and passes out at g.

A milling machine is seen in jig. 20, by which a single workman can
mill 20,000 large coins in one day. The two milling plates & and p contain
each upon their curved edges one half of an inscription for the edge of the
coins; one of these plates is secured firmly to the bed of the machine, the
other to the vibrating lever pp, which turns upon an axis, c; @ is a tube
which supports a pile of blanks, and having an opening at the bottom just
sufficient to permit one of these blanks to pass out at a time. As the lever
pp is moved, the arm cp attached to it carries out the lowest blank of the
pile, which is moved from a towards x, between the milling plates © and p,

and finally passed out at 6. More recently, in order to improve the appear-
683

104 TECHNOLOGY.

ance of the rim of the coin, the edges are polished by passing them through
a machine, seen in jigs. 17 and 18, similar to the milling machine, the
edge of the disk, w, and the corresponding concave being smooth, so that
the edges of the coins, as they are carried through by the revolution of the
disk, w, are polished and compressed.

5. Srampine. The coins are now to be stamped with their appropriate
devices upon both surfaces. P/. 20, fig. 34, is a section of the principal
parts of a stamping machine constructed by Gengembre in Paris. A reci-
procating rotary motion is communicated to the triple-threaded screw a,
within the female screw n, secured to the frame of the machinev ; beneath the
screw are the dies c and Pp, between which the blanks are placed, and as
the screw a is turned, it descends upon the upper die and presses it down
upon the blank, which is thus stamped upon both sides. That the coin
may not lose its circular form, the lower die is surrounded by a steel
ring which just incloses the coin at the moment it is stamped, and
retires again that the coin may be withdrawn. That no damage may
arise to the machine should the coin fail to enter the ring, the latter is
placed upon springs that it may be forced down, and only the blank be
injured. Sometimes the coin is surrounded by a ring made in sections,
which are brought together at the instant the coin is stamped, and thus
the inscription upon the rim of the coin is formed at the same time (pl. 20,
Jigs. 82 and 33).

After the stamping-screw a (jig. 84) rises, the upper die and the parts
connected with it are raised by the spiral springs ss, to make room for the
next blank. In many of the common stamping machines, the blanks are
placed upon the lower die, and removed again after they are stamped by
hand. In the better machines, however, this is all done by machinery.
The apparatus which effects this is called the carrier, and is operated by the
vertical motion of the screw-stamp. ‘This carrier first moves backwards to
take up the blanks, then forward, gliding across the ring round the lower
die, into which it lets the blank fall; after the coin has been stamped, the
carrier strikes it and casts it out of the machine. This is effected by a con-
trivance (fig. 27) called the conductor, on the front edge of the carrier.

Fig. 21 is Boulton’s stamping mill in the London Mint, which will not
require a detailed description; jig. 22 is the guide ring and set screws for
the top boxes of the stamping screw; jig. 23 is the box for the upper die;
jig. 24 the box which encircles the upper die; jigs. 25, 25 a, 256, 25 c, are
the details of the stamping ring; jig. 26 is the box for the lower die; jig. 27
the crescent-shaped conductor on the carrier, which has charge of the pre-
pared coin ; figs. 28, 29, and 30, show the details of the carrier ; jig. 31 is the
lower box for stamping with a divided ring; jig. 32 is a section of the
divided stamping ring; fig. 33, bottom view of the stamping ring ; jig. 35 is
a view of a stamping machine in which the die is worked by the crank e,
and levers @’, c, and which operates without the violent shaking produced
by the machines worked by levers.

In the principal mints the machinery is driven by steam, the pressure of
the air being very ingeniously employed to transfer the effective power of

684

- COINING, - 105

the steam to the stamping mill. 7. 21, jig. 1, shows an outline of the
stamping machine in the mint at Rio Janeiro. Eight stamping mills are
arranged around the receptacle, a,in which is kept a constant vacuum. The
vertical stamping screws are moved by chains passing round the drums, g,
and attached to the pistons in the cylinders, p. The valves bringing the
cylinders alternately in connexion with the vacuum and the atmosphere,
are worked by pins upon the fly-wheels, r. PJ. 20, jig. 37, is the cylinder
by which the vacuum and the atmosphere are made to operate the stamps.
When the bottom of the cylinder is in connexion with the vacuum chamber,
the pressure of the atmosphere which is admitted through the holes, a,
drives the piston to the bottom of the cylinder and operates the stamps;
at this juncture the atmosphere is admitted beneath the piston, which,
together with the screw stamps, is drawn back by springs. This cylinder,
M, is sunk in the vacuum chamber to the fillet, 1, and the cylinder is brought
alternately in connexion with the atmosphere and the vacuum chamber by
the two-way cock, b; the cock d is for cutting off communication between
the vacuum chamber and any one of the stamping mills that it may be
desired to stop. Pls. 21 and 22 exhibit specimens of the coins of the
principal countries. Their names and approximate values will be found in
the table of Contents.

2. Paper Money.

Paper money is the representative of metallic money, and derives its
value from the supposed ability and willingness of the individual or com-
pany by whom it is issued to redeem it in gold and silver. To avoid
the chances of paper money being counterfeited, care is taken through the
whole process of its manufacture to make the imitation of it as difficult as
possible. The paper is first prepared with water marks, so that without the
co-operation of the paper-maker himself, a perfect imitation cannot be made.
The engraving is made as complicated as possible, to increase the difficulty
of counterfeiting it, and lastly the bills are numbered and signed by the
individuals issuing them, or by their representatives. Bank notes have
usually been numbered by hand; but machines have been invented which
print the successive numbers upon them without aid in making the changes
in the numbers. The most ingenious of these machines is that invented by
Bramah in London, and which arranges the numbers with such rapidity
that it executes threefold more work than can be accomplished by an active
penman. P7. 20, jig. 36, is a section of the machine. The numbers are
arranged upon a series of rings, 1, which are turned by wheels, #, actuated
by the motion of the handle, r: these numbers are brought successively
from 1 to 99,999 or even higher, beneath the tympan, 5, in which position
they are inked; the note is then laid upon them, and as the handle, r,
descends, the impression is transferred from the types to the paper. The
next number in order is then produced by the revolution of the rings as the
handle is raised, and the same operation is repeated.

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106 TECHNOLOGY.

VII. MINING.

Having in the preceding pages turned our attention more exclusively to
machinery, we will now treat in separate sections of some branches of Prae-
tical Technology, and particularly of the subjects of Mining, Smelting, and
Agriculture. We will first take a brief view of Mrntne, as it relates to the
extraction of the economical, or, as they are usually designated, the useful
minerals.

INTRODUCTION.

All the useful minerals, in those parts of the surface of the earth to
which we have access, are distributed into certain distinct groups. These
minerals are distributed among other mineral substances, either in beds or
veins. They occur either stratified or unstratified. The former are called
layers, from the laminated structure they present, and beds. The term bed
is principally applied to mineral coal, iron, &c. Layers or beds of minerals
are sometimes horizontal, sometimes inclined at a considerable angle with the
horizon, and sometimes distorted, bent, and broken. The want of stratifi-
cation and a tendency to a crystalline structure show that the beds belong
to an unstratified or massive formation.

In observing a layer or bed of minerals, we notice first its strike or direc-
tion, that is, the angle which it makes with the meridian line; its dip, or
the angle which it makes with the horizon; the position and character of
the hanging wall, or the rocks which bound the top of the bed, and of the
foot walls, or those rocks which lie underneath the bed, the former being
sometimes called the roof and the latter the floor of the bed; and finally
the out-crop of the bed or its termination in the open air at the surface of
the earth. Sometimes layers or beds which are horizontal for the greater
part of their extent, rise up towards the out-crop and form basin or saddle-
shaped folds. They are then called disturbed strata. We often find local
dislocations and displacements of the beds, which are here and there inter-
rupted by fissures which have since been filled up by some mineral sub-
stance. These fissures run across all the strata of the formation. These
interruptions in the continuity of strata in the same plane, accompanied by
fissures, are called faults, which term is sometimes applied to the rock filling
the fissure. These fissures are generally filled with basalt, or some similar
rock ; the rock which fills the fissure is properly called a dyke. The com-
plications produced by faults are very diverse; the mineral substance
which constitutes the rock above and below it, and the fault which has
caused the disturbance, being often mixed together, so that the character of
the bed is materially changed. The faults often cause a separation and dis-
location of the members of the formation. The thickness of the fault
variés from one line to several yards. The strata separated by the
fault have frequently suffered therefrom a change of place or a slide

686

MINING. 107

-of one part below the other. The strata containing mineral coal, inter-
sected by faults, are generally of soft clay mixed with fragments of trap
or porphyry.

Pl. 23, jig. 4, shows a section of the rocks containing mineral coal in
the region of Newcastle upon Tyne. The scale of the perpendicular is
double that of the horizontal distance, so that in fact only half the dip is
represented. The line 277 represents the great bed or seam of coal, which
has a thick bed of sandstone for its roof. The Holywell shaft, to the left of
the profile, the Carsdon shaft, a, the Algernon shaft, c, the Chirton shaft, d,
the Percy shaft, ce, the Howdon shaft, and nine others, are cut through beds
and seams parallel to each other. The part lying south from the River
Tyne, g, below the morass of the Jarrow, 4, some hundred feet or more, is
not represented, but may be estimated from what is shown in the section.
The dotted lines and the roof of the bed or seam, 27, serve as the horizon
to aid us in judging respecting the dislocations occasioned by the many
faults which have destroyed the continuity of all the strata. In passing
from the lowest southern point below the Jarrow morass, the roof of the
seam or bed uprears itself at an angle of 10°, and is there interrupted by
the first fault ; afterwards by the second, which raises it about twelve yards.
A third fault meets the bed at p, which sinks it about thirty yards, whence
the bed mounts at about the same angle up to c, where it is raised about
eighty yards by the fault, so that merely the lower strata of the formation
appear. Later it sinks again at B about 22 yards, and then passes on hori-
zontally to a thick fault or dyke, a, which throws down the whole bed about
280 yards, from whence it gradually rises again.

Pl. 23, fig. 3, is a section of the coal strata of Ronchamp, a, in the
department of the upper Saone. The distinctly marked seams are suddenly
broken through by a porphyritic mass, s. In the plains of Champagne,
lying beyond the interruption, there has been found a continuation of the
red sandstone, c, which forms the roof of the bed of mineral coal, pp; Eis
the transition slate, and at B we again find the porphyry. The boring works,
66, and the shaft,.a, are carried down even to the porphyry, 8, but the bed
of coal has not again been found. |

A vem is a more or less thick mass of rock of proportionably small
dimensions compared with the rock in which it is found, which differs in
kind from the rock which incloses it, even when the inclosing rock and
vein belong to the same species. We also apply in relation to veins the
terms strike, dip, roof, and floor. Although the strata on both sides of a
vein have the same successions, they are for the most part dislocated, and
therefore do not form opposite continuations. Veins too have their disturb-
ances and contortions, frequently more than beds, and are likewise often
pierced through by other veins.

1. Exprrimentrat Works.

The existence of localities of beds or veins is' usually indicated by out-
687

108 TECHNOLOGY.

ward signs. We trace the head or outcrop of the bed by the shodes or
loose fragments which have been accidentally detached from it. It is only
in particular coal formations that the localities of beds of coal are so clearly
indicated as to furnish sufficient grounds for working the mine. If the
miner has found the locality of a bed or vein, he must closely examine
the region around in order to judge of the changes the formation has under-
gone. Springs which contain hydrochlorate of potash in solution are
usually indications of the presence of beds of coal. Naphtha and asphaltum
springs indicate also localities of coal; jets of carbonic acid, or carburetted
or sulphuretted hydrogen gas, frequently mdicate beds of coal, as well as
masses of mineral salt.

If any one, by means of any of the indications above-mentioned, has
come upon the outcrop of a bed or vein, he must attempt to uncover and
display it. He must examine its dips and determine its strike by those
parts which are uncovered, and also determine its extent by sinking pits in
the vicinity of the bed or vein, and driving transversely to intersect it. The
experimental work should be carried on until the miner shall consider him-
self justified in commencing the real working of the mine. In those cases
in which saline or gaseous exhalations serve as indications of the presence
of beds of minerals, Bortye is the most suitable experimental work.

The earth-borer, or auger, is an instrument for boring, in any soil, holes
of small diameter, in order that we may not be obliged to sink a shaft or
drive a level to learn the nature of the soil. We have already spoken of
Boring when treating of Artesian Wells (Vol. I. p. 626), and have repre-
sented the principal boring tools, so that we shall here content ourselves
with a short enumeration of the same.

An auger consists of an upper piece, which always remains above the
hole bored, and of a lower piece, or the auger proper, which takes hold of
the bottom of the auger-hole and its sides. The middle piece, or shaft,
unites the two pieces above named, according to the depth of the auger-
hole. The auger is suspended by means of the upper piece to the rope in
the boring-frame, and must be so arranged that a person ean turn the auger
without twisting the rope. The middle piece or shaft is cylindrical, octa-
gonal, or square. The last form is best, because it 1s cheapest and at the
same time admits of the use of holes for inserting handspikes. The size is
according to the depth of the hole to be bored. The diameter is usually
14 lines, but for the greatest depths is as much as 21 lines. Its length is
from 16 to 19 ft. Each end is enlarged for the purpose of joining the
middle piece to the parts above and below. The most common method of
uniting the different pieces of the auger is by means of a male and female
screw with triangular threads. The lower end contains the female screw,
the upper the male, which is from an inch and a quarter to an inch and a
half indiameter. This mode of joining is not so good as the joining by means
of a tongue and groove, which admits of turning the auger in all directions.

The boring part of the auger has different forms according to the strata
of rocks which are to be penetrated. The chisel auger serves for boring
through loose and disjointed strata, like sandstone, &c. In order to fasten

688

MINING. 109

upon the rocky strata in turning the auger, use is made of the carp-tongue
or serpent-tongue auger, of the riband-shaped, furrowed, and four-cornered
auger. For cutting into quartz, pebbles, or rubble-stone, the conical-headed
auger answers. ‘The portions of rock bored out, and the earth, are brought
to view by means of the soil-borer or loam-spoon, also by the salt or sand-
borer, which is a hollow cylinder having a globular valve below. Some-
times the shaft and boring part break in the hole, and they must be again
drawn out. For this purpose a hook is used which catches hold of the
bands of the shaft, and in this way it is lifted out. The same object
is accomplished by a grappling-tool, which is screwed down in such a
manner over the shaft broken in the hole or rope that the claws fasten upon
the shaft or rope, which is then drawn up.

For facilitating the operations of boring, variously constructed frames are
used. A very good boring-frame consists of four posts for suspending the
auger with a windlass and lifting-cams. There is a rope for suspending and
lifting out the auger, and a swingle or balance-handle to allow the auger to
operate by strokes. This swingle is connected with a lever, which is raised
by means of cams on the windlass and falls back by its own weight. This
windlass is represented in pl. 23; jig. 13a is a side view of the cams or
short levers on the windlass. 7g. 136 is a section at azB of jig. 13c, seen
towards the side of the windlass. /%g.13c¢ is a front view. The three
cams or lever arms, aaa, are fixed to the axis m, and serve to make the
lever for the swingle, or auger handle, rise and fall. cc are the cast-iron
uprights of the frame; m, the axis on which the rope of the auger winds
itself; on the same axis is the lift-wheel, aaa, which moves the lever of the
boring-rod. wN is a cog-wheel which catches in the driver g; d is a set of
pinion wheels, the teeth of which have a reversed direction, and in which
the pawl x, which is fastened on the upper rod, is allowed to catch when it
is desired to prevent the backward movement of the windlass. ¢ is a
wooden wheel on which presses the brake band, e, which is drawn on to it
by means of the lever f (jig. 130). A is a stop placed on the axis of the
crank between the upright c and the enlargement of the axis, to keep the
wheel in gear with the pinion. Ifthe stop / be raised, then the driver may
be released from the cog-wheel, by shoving the axis gf through its boxes
in the frame cc until the pinion g no longer engages the cog-wheel n.

The usual process of boring is briefly the following. First, the surface is
attacked by the proper boring tools. With conical-headed augers and
chisels, the motion of the auger is by strokes, the tool being slightly turned
round. The auger is only occasionally lifted when the borings impede its
operation. The expense and difficulty increase rapidly with the depth of
the hole bored, on account of the weight of the shank of the auger; for the
last few years, therefore, ropes have been used instead of the stiff iron shanks,
and with very good success. A tolerably high massive boring-frame, a
windlass or vertical capstan, and lever, together with the auger rope and
various tools for attacking the rock, are the only things needed in this
method of boring, which is represented in pl. 25, jigs. 6, 7, 8, and 9.
Figs. 6 and 7 represent the boring-frame, the windlass, the swingle, and the

ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOPZDIA.—VOL, IV. 44 689

110 TECHNOLOGY.

preparatory arrangement of the ground for boring, where the hole to be
bored is to be six inches in diameter. The frame has four posts, some 12
feet high, and stands over a shaft about 9 feet in depth, which has been
sunk at the commencement of the operations, in the axis of which a wooden
tube is placed to guide the auger at the outset. The rope passes over a
guiding pulley of oak which hangs above the frame, and is wound up
around the axis of a windlass, for which a vertical capstan is substituted
when the hole becomes deeper. The longer arm of the lever is 12 to
15 feet in length, and the shorter 2 to 3 feet; the latter terminates in a
rounded head which serves to raise the rope with the auger. In order to
keep the auger rope always taut, the longer arm of the lever is provided
with a hook by which it may be fastened down.

The boring instruments used consist of a simple chisel which is fastened
on the lower end of an iron rod (jig. 8, front view; jig. 9, sectional view),
which hangs to the rope by means of a swivel. In the middle it is square,
but above and below it has a round flange with four incisions, by which the
borings may pass up. The diameter of the flange is equal to the width of
the chisel. The hook (pl. 23, fig. 33) is used to give a twisting movement
to the rope. A comparison of rope with rod augers shows that in boring a
hole 18 inches in diameter and 200 or 300 feet deep, the cost with the rope
auger is greater than with the rod auger, and that in using the latter the
cost increases greatly with the depth, while with the rope auger it remains
nearly unchanged.

2. Mininea For ORE.

The tools of the miner differ according to the nature of the stone or soil.
Tn loose substances, such as sand, gravel, marl, &c., he uses a heavy pick with
a blunt point. In soft adhesive substances like peat he uses a cutting tool like
a gardener’s spade, but which is furnished on the sides with two wings, so that
the separation of the peat from the mass is rendered easy. This is shown
in pl. 23, fig. 28a. For digging many mellow substances, such as clay,
sand, and decomposed rocks, the pickaxe, crowbar, and shovel are suf
ficient. The pickaxe used, at one end terminating in a steeled point, and
with a handle about 23 feet long, is represented in jigs. 14 and 15. The
size of the iron part is proportioned to the stone to be worked. In working
mineral coal the miner makes a deep furrow or trench in a certain part of
the mass to be obtained. The trenching tool is a light pointed sharp pick-
axe ( pl. 23, figs. 16 a and 17a), having the helve in the middle. For hard
stone a heavier tool is used. PJ. 24, fig. 41, shows the miner at work with
the pickaxe in soft stone.

Hard substances are obtained by the mining pick or by the aid of fire.
The pick (pl. 23, fig. 19) is a tool of iron faced with steel or made entirely
of steel. On one side it ends in a point of the form of a four-sided rectangu-
lar pyramid, and on the other has a flat face. The eye of the helve is in
the middle. The miner (pil. 24, fig. 42) places the point of the pick on the

690

MINING. lil

rock which he wishes to obtain, and smites the face of the pick with a
short-handled two-faced hammer or mallet (pl. 23, jigs. 20 and 21). The
miner has a selection of different kinds of picks, adapted to different kinds
of rock. These he arranges on a piece of an iron ring curved like a hook,
or has a shap or chain (pl. 23, jig. 18) with two pieces of hoop iron. Since
the employment of powder, the hammer and pick have been used in hard rock
only for levelling and digging holes, or where timber-work and machines
prevent the use of powder. ‘The mining pick is more useful for working in
veins of ore, where also crowbars and large-sized steel wedges (jig. 29, a
and 6) for driving into the fissures of the rock are used.

The use of powder for mining began about the year 1613, and produced
an entire change in the mining operations carried on upon solid rock. The
first operation in blasting with powder is the drilling of a narrow cylindrical
hole, a (fig. 9), in the mass to be blasted off. This hole is partiy filled with
gunpowder, and then, with the exception of a narrow channel needed for
firing it off, is rammed down hard, so that the powder which is in the hole
on being ignited must exert its force on the rock which surrounds it. Pl.
24, fig. 40, exhibits a miner busied in the labor of drilling. The holes
drilled are from 10 to 48 inches deep, and about half an inch wide. The
drill used for boring the cylindrical hole is usually a round iron rod, which
ends in a steeled and hardened chisel or cutter (pl. 28, jigs. 22a and 6). The
drill is held in the left hand, and is driven by a hammer. The drill should
be occasionally immersed in water to prevent the flying of dust from the
hole, and to prevent it from losing its temper by being heated.

In the mines of mineral salt at Northwich, Cheshire, England, they
use a drill seven or eight feet long, consisting of an iron rod which
bellies in the centre. This drill is held by the middle (pl. 23, jig. 12).
In quarrying gypsum in the vicinity of Paris, they bore with a kind
of auger (jig. 26). In mining brown coal in Lankowitz, in Carinthia,
they make use of an auger (jig. 35), provided with a handle like that of a
bitt stock, having a flat lance-shaped pod with a small point, the steeled
edges of the cutting-tool being slightly twisted. For boring a hole with
this instrument three feet, and charging and firing the blast, an hour is
sufficient.

After the hole has been freed from the dust and chips by the scraper
(jig. 23), a dry wad of tow is put on the lower side of the scraper, which
absorbs the water in the hole. The hole, when dry, is charged with from
two ounces to one pound of powder, wrapped in a cartridge of paper or
tarred linen, or if the hole is under water, placed in a well closed leaden or
tin cylinder. The cartridge is driven in by means of a rammer (jig. 24),
which is made of wood, copper, or iron. Previously, however, the priming-
rod (jig. 25) has been stuck into the cartridge and is introduced with it
into the hole. The priming-rod is of copper, and reaches only half way
into the powder in the cartridge. The space above the cartridge in the hole
is filled with clay, pieces of brick, or pounded slate-stone. This is called
the tamping. The first inch or two of the tamping above the cartridge must
be only lightly rammed around the priming-rod, and the successive layers

691

112 TECHNOLOGY.

be driven firmer and firmer until the hole is entirely closed to the top. The
priming-rod is smeared with tallow, and often turned round during the
charging, that it may be easily drawn out. When this is done the train is
laid to ignite the powder in the cartridge. The most common modes of
igniting the powder are the following. First, by using little tubes of elder
straw, &c., filled with fine gunpowder, or brandy and powder, and con-
nected with the cartridge by being placed in the hole left by the priming-
rod, or inserted at first instead of the priming-rod ; second, by matches of
rushes, or shavings, or small paper caps covered with powder and stuck into
the hole made by the priming-rod. The fire is communicated to them by
the sulphur wick, or a thread prepared by dipping it in sulphur. The slow
match of sulphur allows the workman time to escape from the blast. In
modern times the Beckford safety match is used to great advantage. The
electric spark has proved a very safe and suitable means of igniting the
charge, especially when a number of charges were to be ignited at the same
time. In this way, in the year 1844, in constructing the London and Dover
railroad, a part of the Shakspeare cliff was blasted off and thrown into the
sea. A good mode of placing the powder at the bottom of the hole is to
use the double cartridge of Chenhall. This apparatus (pl. 23, jig. 11 @))
consists of a copper tube about two feet long and of a smaller exterior
diameter than the drilled hole, in which a small piston moves with a
graduated rod. The piston is drawn back far enough to allow the requisite
space for the charge of powder, which is poured into it, and then the tube
is stopped up with a paper plug; it is then put into the drilled hole, and by
pressure upon the piston-rod the charge is forced out of the tube, which
is then withdrawn and the hole is filled in as usual. This method of.
charging can only be used where the descent is directly down.

The blasting must be so conducted that the axis of the hole drilled shall
be parallel with the nearest open side. The surface of the fracture usually
runs through the axis of the drilled hole. For example, if one wishes to
blast a mass of rock having the profileaBconp (pl. 28, jig. 10), a suc
cession of oblique drilled holes will be far more effective than perpendicu-
lar ones. |

Where the rock is full of moisture, cartridges of tarred linen, or paper.
cartridges surrounded with tinfoil, and Beckford’s matches, are very useful.
A mode of filling a drilled hole when the rock is full of moisture, which is
employed in Sweden, is represented in jig. 8. The ordinary filling is.
replaced by two wedge-shaped pieces of iron. ach of these pieces of iron
ends in a smooth circular face, of a diameter somewhat less than that of the
tin canister which serves for the reception of the powder. The charge of
powder used is fastened by a cord on the bottom of the first wedge. The
second wedge lies with its inclined plane on the first, and is furnished with
an iron rod which projects from the upper opening of the tin canister.
In the surfaces of the wedges in contact, there is a channel which reaches
to the powder and extends into the tube of a hollow wooden staff which is
affixed to the end of the iron rod, after a train of powder has been laid in
the channel. cis the match affixed to the end of the train ; B and © are

692

MINING. 113

two platforms which serve for boring the hole and firing the charge; p is a
piece of stone which prevents the wedges and rod from being thrown too
far when the blast is made.

Another mode of detaching portions of a rock or bed is by kindling fires
on the mass to be operated upon. This mode is used where fuel is cheap and
the rocks are not well situated for drilling. The portions of rock detached
by the fire may be easily removed by the pickaxe or crowbar. Pl. 25, fig. 10,
represents the working of the mine in the above manner at Felsé-Banya in
Hungary. Preparations are made for working the mine by driving levels,
which lie nine fathoms below one another, and are connected by shafts and
winces. Piles of wood are erected on the bottoms of the levels, the whole
length between the shafts, in order that the fire may operate on the roof of
the levels. If the level is so high that the flame from combustibles placed
on the floor will not reach the roof, a wooden platform is built up from the
bottom of the level and covered with stone to protect it from the fire, upon
which the piles of wood are placed. The platform is gradually raised as
the roof is mined away.

8. Minine At THE SURFACE.

In many cases the best mode of working beds of minerals is to take off
the roof of sterile materials which covers the bed, and to work them under
the open sky. Such is the case with respect to beds of peat, many stone
quarries, beds of bog iron, and in some cases mineral coal.

In general, the following rules are to be observed in mining under the
open sky: In the first place, a sufficient portion of the bed or vein to be
mined must be laid bare, in order that the materials to be dug out may be
easily procured. We must then descend as far down to the lower part of
the bed as can be done without threatening the caving in of the walls.
Secondly, we must provide the means of containing water if it collects on
the bottom of the mine; all the water should be collected at one point,
where the pump is placed. Thirdly, after the first bank or step is wrought
out we go on to the next, taking care that a drain is left under the rubbish
of the first step to carry off the water. JF ourthly, the general rule is to
commence at the lowest point in the bed and carry on the mining from
below upwards, by cross-cut on the longer line of the bed.

As an example of mining at the surface, we will here give a plan of the
operations at the slate quarries near Angers in France. These quarries lie
east of that city, on a series of beds of slate which have an average extent of
two to three miles, and run in a direction about twenty degrees north of west.
In the year 1841, 14 quarries were being worked, with a yearly production
of about $4,000, 000. The beds dip almost meatier but usually a few
degrees to the wel (pl. 23, fig.6D). The separation coincides with the
stratification, as the fakeaved impressions of organic remains which are
found abundantly between the layers show.

The slate quarries belong to different companies. The operations of each
693

114 TECHNOLOGY.

quarry are under the charge of two superintendents, one of whom directs
the labors of the quarry, and the other those above-ground. After the
soil and clay produced by the decomposition of the slate, which is often
quite thick (jigs. 5, 6, and 7), have been removed, the rock is worked by
steps or banks about 10 feet high each, as is shown in figs. 6 and 7, so that
an oblong square excavation is formed. Two walls in the quarry are made
vertical. On the firmest of one of the upper steps, a wooden platform is
erected. This platform carries a pulley, upon which runs the hoisting rope
( jigs.6 and 7). The platforms are connected by bridges, with sheds, a B ¢,
where the steam-engines are set up. In commencing the quarrying, a notch
is made with a pickaxe, and widened into a trench of about 3 feet broad
( jig. 6), and the slate is taken out on both sides, so that the quarry has
always steps upon which the workmen may take their places. To cut in
each step, the workmen dig in the fissures of the rock with their pickaxes a
series of notches, in which wedges are placed (pl. 25, figs. 31 ¢ and d), 25
or 80 of them for every 28 or 35 feet. The workmen all stand in a line,
each man to a wedge, and smite with heavy hammers on the wedges, keep-
ing time in their blows. As the slate splits open and the wedges sink,
thicker ones are put in their place, until the rock breaks at the bottom and
tumbles down. When the rock cannot fall by its own weight, an instru-
ment, represented in pl. 25, jigs. 34 a and b, is aid in the cleavage of the
slate. To this a rope is fastened, and pulled by ten or fifteen men. /%gs.
32 a and 33 show a hand crowbar which is used. The steps cut on each
side of the shaft are indicated by the horizontal lines on fig. 6. For some
time past blasting has been used to advantage, several holes being charged
and fired off at once.

When a block is quarried off, it is divided by means of the irons ( pl. 25,
jigs. 81 a and 6); the drill-wedge and pick (jig. 30 a 6 and jig. 32 d e), the
pickaxe and hammer are also used. Lach block is divided into pieces of
convenient size. The pieces are then loaded into boxes (figs. 27, 28, and
29), and carried up to the top of the quarry. The slate is carried from the
hoisting-shed to the platforms around the quarry, where it is prepared.
This is done in the open air. A working gang consists of three persons, two
splitters and one apprentice. The blocks are divided into smaller pieces,
having the general form and dimensions of the different kinds of slates.
The blocks of slate are divided by placing a flat chisel (jigs. 32 6 and e, and
35) in one of the clearly-marked divisions of the slate, and striking it with
a wooden mallet. The slates are then laid flat on a wooden block, and
fully smoothed off with a kind of knife.

Another kind of work at the surface is the digging of peat. Beds of peat
occur in the flat regions of rivers in the north of France, Holland, and the
plains of lower Germany, also on high plains without trees.

The thickness of a bed of peat may be discovered by the peat-borer (pl.
23, jigs. 32 and 34). This is a simple half-opened scoop auger, which is two
or three inches in diameter, and is fixed to a pole 15 or 20 feet long, on
which is marked a scale for measurement. Peat is usually soft enough
to be easily dug by means of a cutting instrument, and from the firmness

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MINING. 115

of the mass may be cut vertically to a considerable depth without any fear
of its caving in. Care should be taken that no heavy weight is placed on
the edges of the pit. On account of the situation of peat beds, they can
rarely be thoroughly drained without great cost. Where the water can be
managed by buckets, small trenches can be dug, and the peat easily
obtained by means of the usual spade (jig. 27) or the spade with sides or
wings (jigs. 28a and 28 6). Where the peat-bed is covered with water, and
the draining is too expensive, the peat is obtained with nets. For obtain-
ing soft peat a net is used, similar to that with which sand is obtained from
the bottoms of rivers. If the peat is firm enough, a rim of hoop-iron is
used, on the circumference of which a net is fastened. The rims of the
nets used in Holland are from 12 to 22 inches in diameter. The peat
obtained by the net can be dried in drying-boxes or moulds.

4. Drirts or LEVELS.

The excavations intended to reach veins or localities of ore in order to
unite them with the surface of the earth, and which have a small sectional
area in proportion to their length, are called drifts and levels, or shafts,
according as they approach a horizontal or perpendicular direction.

The adit or adet-level is a horizontal gallery, terminating in the open air,
and which generally serves for draining the mine. Levels are horizontal
excavations driven on the lode. Cross-cuts are levels driven at right angles
with others to intersect the lode.

The mode of working the levels, and the tools used for the work, vary
according to the condition of the rock to be operated upon. In hard rock
the levels are driven without the support of carpentry or masonry. In soft
and crumbling rocks carpentry or masonry must immediately follow the
mining operations, and frequently precede them. In hard rock the levels
are mined by blasting or by means of hammers and picks, or strong steeled
wedges or gads ( pl. 28, jigs. 31 a and 316). A section of the drift or level
has usually the form of atrapezium. The upper side is semicircular. The
height of the level may be 5 to 6 feet, and the width at the bottom from 3
to 4 feet; but generally the height is 6 feet, and the width at the bottom
4 to 5 feet. The adit level serves at the same time for conducting off and
obtaining water. When the water covers the bottom several inches deep,
the adit may be divided into two parts by a horizontal partition, which is in
fact the roof of the conduit for the water. On this roof is constructed the for-
warding floor, and beneath it, on the floor of the adit, the water flows from
the mine. The roof of the conduit is 14 or 16 inches above the bottom of
the drift, and the gallery above this roof is 5 to 6 feet high. The roof of
the conduit consists of boards, which are nailed on beams or sleepers.
Drifts or galleries with a very large cross-section, called tunnels, are driven
forward by steps, so that the part of the tunnel which is being wrought has
the appearance of a flight of stairs with several broad steps, each one of
which can be occupied by a workman, The obtaining of a cubic foot of

695

116 TECHNOLOGY.

rock in a wide drift costs far less than in a narrow one, not only on account
of the greater facility of working by steps, but because the extent of space
lightens the work. In soft but tolerably compact rock the levels are wrought
by means of pick and wedges without blasting. The rock stands long enough
to admit of carpentry or masonry being subsequently constructed, to prevent
future falling of the walls and roof. 7

1. Toweerine oF THE Levers. In driving a level which must afterwards
be timbered, care must be taken that the requisite space within the timbers
is secured. Timber-work is almost always cheaper than masonry, but wood
rots and gives away under the pressure of the rock, and therefore requires
to be replaced from time to time. In works upon a mine which is to be
used only two or three years, timbering is used ; while in large drifts or adits,
which serve for draining the mine, and therefore require to last for a con-
siderable time, masonry is adopted.

Before considering the details of timbering, we may make the following
preliminary observations: First, we must observe the degree of compact-
ness of the rock, and determine as far as possible the direction of the
pressure. If, for example, the rock is split through in many places, and
consists of broken and loose masses of stone, this is a sign that the mass
exerts strong pressure, and must be supported by timbering. As the
pressure of the rock is not always vertical, but lateral, the resistance fur-
nished must correspond with the pressure. As the pressure which the mass
exerts upon several points is less than when the whole mass has to rest on
a single point, we must seek to bring the pressure to bear upon as many
points as possible.

The ends of every cross-beam used in a mine should lie in the rock. Two
mortises or hollows must, therefore, be cut in the rock in which the ends
of the cross-beams should he. These mortises must be 8-12 or 24 inches
deep, according to the character of the rock.

The cross-timbers are round, hewed, or split pieces of timber, which are
laid in a horizontal position withia the level, parallel to each other, and at
such distances from each other that from Sire to five may occupy a length
of six yards. The timber-work of the levels further consists of double and
single upright posts, standing under the cross-beams. In mining operations
it often happens that the roof and sides of the level when it is first exca-
vated are perfectly strong, but in the course of a few years large masses
give way both in the roof and sides. Whenever there is any apprehension
of this difficulty, double upright posts are chosen for timbering. If weak-
ness in the roof alone is apprehended, the single uprights are used. The
double upright posts stand perpendicularly to the bottom of the level, and
are connected at the top by acap or cross-beam. A single upright stands alone
under the cap. At Freiberg, in Saxony, where the lodes are not thick and the
levels, consequently, are narrow, all the uprights are placed vertically ; but
where the lodes are thick and the levels widen, the uprights or posts are
placed wider apart at the bottom than at the top ( pl. 25, jig. 11a). This is
made necessary by the width of the levels and the pressure. The uprights
are set up slanting wherever the side pressure is greater than the pressure

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MINING. 117

of the roof. After the uprights are placed, covering-boards are fastened
upon the caps and upon the sides behind the uprights, in such a manner
that they may lap over towards the rock. Where the pressure of the rock
is not very great, the second upright is placed about three yards from the
first. When the pressure is more considerable, an auxiliary upright is
placed half way between the two.

When the level is very wide and the cross-beam does not appear suffi-
ciently strong to resist the pressure, it is strengthened by means of braces
of joists, which meet under the centre of the cross-beam and rest on the sides
of the uprights. Where a level is employed for ventilation, draining, and
often even for mining itself, the timber-work has an appearance like that
represented in pl. 25, jig. 18, in which both the uprights lean against
each other at the top, and stand below on a horizontal beam or sill. This
timber-work is simple and cheap, and requires but little room. This method
of timbering is much used in the copper mines of Cornwall. Another kind
of timber-work used in rubble-stone which has but little pressure, is repre-
sented in jig.11b. It consists of four posts or planks, from 2 to 23 inches
thick and 12 or 15 inches broad. These planks cover four sides of the level,
and are so placed that the ends of the upright planks are behind the ends
of the other two. The planks are held together at the corners by square
blocks or pieces of joist, against which the upright planks are nailed.
There should be no empty space between the planks and the ground in
which the excavation is made.

If the ground is so soft that it will not sustain itself at the least distance
from the upright posts, the timber-work must, to a certain extent, precede
the mining operations. The process adopted when certain strata of sand or
clay are entirely pervaded by water, forming marshy or what is called com-
pressible soil, is as follows. Two upright posts with a cap are placed in the
level to be driven. If the bottom is not solid they must be placed upon a
sill. When a square frame has thus been set up, a covering of plank piles,
or sheeting piles, is driven in around the frame. The sheeting piles must
always be introduced at a slight divergency, so that the whole piling may
have the form of a truncated pyramid, the smaller end of which embraces
the first frame set up. If the ground is not very soft, as soon as the piling
is inserted the level may be driven onwards 20 or 24 inches, after which a
second piling is placed exactly like the first. In driving the level care
must be taken to keep the course perfectly true. The divergency of the
piling must be preserved. The piling is kept at some distance from
the second frame by wooden wedges, which are driven in between the piles
and the frame. The piles are afterwards driven further into the ground by
beetles, and then the mining of the level is further carried on until a third
frame is set up. The piles should not be longer than 6 or 8 ft., and, there-
fore, after the fourth frame is set up, new piles must be placed. The second
set of piles lie on the frame and below the ends of the first, so that wedges
may be driven in between them. As an example of this mode of working
in marshy ground, we will describe the operations in the mine of argenti-

ferous lead ore, called the Frederick mine, at Tarnowitz, in Upper Silesia
ny

118 TECHNOLOGY.

(pl. 25, jigs. 15-17). When marshy ground is met with in driving the
levels it is shut in to prevent the caving in of the sand and clay. A square
frame, like that described above, is placed against the marshy soil which is
to be driven through, and behind it cross-boards, forming a bulkhead, are
placed, which are kept up by the frame (jigs. 15, 16). If the bottom is
bad, the uprights are set on a wooden sill, formed of a half-round board
split from a log 16 or 20 inches in diameter. The flat side is placed on the
ground. Pieces of board are sometimes placed below the sill to give it
more support. ‘The sill is made as long as possible, in order to rest in the
earth on each side. After the sill has received its position, the two uprights
are set up accurately perpendicular, and are bound together in the usual
manner by a cap. The ends of the cap do not project beyond the uprights,
as is seen in jig. 15. After the frame has been put in place, sheeting piles
of plank are placed around the uprights and the cap, and are retained at
the requisite distance from the frame by wedges. The wedges lie on the
piles already fastened in, and by driving the wedges the position of the
frame can be accurately adjusted. The piles are then driven in, com-
mencing with the two which rest on the upper corners of the frame, being
made broadest at the end which is driven in. The cap is first covered, and
afterwards the uprights. In this mine, where the pressure was very strong,
piles formed of plate-iron were used.

To carry on the mining, the topmost of the planks which shut up the
end of the level, as is shown in jig. 15, is lifted up or moved from side to
side, and as much of the earth taken away as can be done without reaching
the end of the piling. This plank is afterwards shoved further forward and —
fastened by two short braces or ties to the last frame which has been set up.
The plank when pushed forward is somewhat raised, that it may touch the
piling with its upper edge. The section of the planks and side elevation
of the braces or ties are shown in pl. 25, fig. 16. If the ground is very
soft or marshy, the water is drained off, and this drainage so regulated that
the water may be withheld at pleasure; otherwise it might fill the level and
displace the frame. As soon as the workman sees that a sufficient quantity
of water has flowed out, he presses back the plank, or stuffs in a bundle of
straw. Short braces are driven in by hammers between the uprights and
the plank, in order to push forward the latter. When the highest plank has
in this way been shoved forward, there remains between it and the one
which is under it, and which has not been pushed forward so far, an empty
space, through which the mud sometimes flows out. This must be kept
under command. In this way, by a successive pushing on of the planks,
the end of the piling is almost reached. Then another main frame must
be forced in and new piling fastened by wedges. If it is apprehended that
the framework is not strong enough to resist the pressure, strong pieces or
longitudinal beams are placed under the caps, and on the sills and between
them perpendicular posts are placed, as is shown in jigs. 15 and 16.

In ground where the pressure is very great much is accomplished if even
a narrow passage can be effected, because by opening and draining the
ground it is prepared for subsequent working. For this purpose, at Tarno-

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MINING. 119

witz, temporary posts are erected on timbers placed in a wedge form, anda
narrow opening, gradually enlarging, is carried forward in the ground to be
worked (pl. 25, fig. 17). After the ground is drained permanent timber-
work is constructed.

2. Masonry or Levets. Masonry is always to be preferred to timbering
if the adit or level to be driven is long, provided cheap and suitable mate-
rials are at hand, and also if the mine has been opened several years.
Masonry is indispensable where the adit or level is driven in very soft or
marshy ground, where the object is not only to resist the pressure but to
prevent the flow of water into the mine, and in all wide galleries or tunnels,
such as are made on canals or railroads. All kinds of hard stone are used
as materials for masonwork. When bricks are used they must be burnt very
hard. The stone obtained in the mine is rarely suitable for the masonry of
the adits or drifts. For dry masonry only rubble-stone and moss are used.
For cementing the mason-work common lime and sand mortar or hydraulic
mortar are used.

There should be no empty space behind the masonry, or between it and
the walls or roof of the drift. If this essential condition is secured, mason-
work will receive a pressure on all parts of its exterior surface, and there-
fore can only be destroyed by falling into the inside of the drift. In ground
where there is no very strong pressure, and where at the same time the
roof and the walls or sides of the drift are to be sustained, the masonry
generally consists of a semicircular vault, or a right cylindrical arch resting
on two piers extending perpendicularly along the walls of the drift. If the
bottom of the drift is incapable of supporting the piers, the following means
of obviating the difficulty are adopted. 1. The piers are placed on sills of
oak wood, as in pl. 25, fig. 12. 2. Beneath this sill is constructed an
inverted or reversed arch. 8. A perfectly closed elliptical arch is con-
structed, the longer axis of which is vertical (jig. 14). The first method is
adopted when the side pressure is weak. The second and third are resorted
to when the drift is of large dimensions and the pressure is very consider-
able. The lower curve of the ellipse may be flattened to prevent the
gallery from being too high.

We will now refer to some examples of the appropriate masonry of
mines. In loose ground, like clay, sand, &c., and at a slight depth below
the surface, where the excavation is afterwards to be built in with masonry,
the walls and roof are temporarily supported by props and cross-beams. In
this kind of ground, dry walls filled in with moss are often used, which are
made 20-24 inches thick. These walls are better in marshy ground than
those cemented with mortar. If the pressure is very considerable, and the
ground at the same time marshy, hydraulic cement is used, and small canals
are left here and there, by which the water may flow into the adit.

If the proper curve for the arch of the masonry is fixed upon, centrings,
constructed according to the condition and weight of the masonry, are
placed for supporting the arches while being built.

The most general rule for constructing arches in the adits or drifts of
mines is, thatthe chord of the are should be perpendicular to the direction

699

120 TECHNOLOGY.

of the pressure. If the bottom and sides of the drift are capable of sustain-
ing pressure, but the rock above or in the roof exerts a perpendicular pres-
sure, an obtuse or surbased arch is employed. If parts of the walls of the
drift are cracked and loose, the abutments of the arch should be laid deeper
into the rock or ground on the sides of the drift, or so far that a solid point
is found for them to rest on. If the sides of the drift are so broken that
no solid support can be found for the abutments, the span of the arch may
rest on the firm bottom of the drift, or strong slabs of stone. The section
of the arch then forms an ellipse compounded of many arcs of a circle. If
the sole or bottom of the drift is so yielding that no firm ground can be
found even by excavations, then ground or foundation arches must be con-
structed. These are flattened arches the chords of which lie in the direc-
tion of the drift, the impost of each arch being on points of the sole which
have been ascertained to be perfectly firm (pl. 25, fig. 20a6). Upon these
foundation arches the side walls are constructed. Various means of remedy-
ing the want of firmness of the sole of the drift may be resorted to. The
sole may be covered with large slabs of stone, or an inverted or counter-
arch may be constructed, and on its springings the side walls may be erected.
If the sole is wholly excavated and peculiar strength is to be given to the
gallery, sustaining arches may be thrown across the drift under the bottom
of the gallery which is to be constructed. The arches should be at a distance
of from four to eight feet from each other (pl. 25, jig. 21a@6). Against the
springings of the sustaining arches, and at right angles to them, the ground
arches above described (fig. 20) should be constructed, and upon them the
walls of the gallery or adit are built. Rubbish should be placed so as to fill
up the space beneath the sustaining and ground arches. If, finally, there
is nowhere any solid rock, and the bottom of the drift is wholly soft and
yielding, continuous elliptical curves must be used to form the gallery (pl.
25, jig. 14).

Pl. 24, jig. 2, represents a mode of constructing the masonry of an adit
where the foot-wall furnishes the only firm support. The foot-wall forms
part of the bottom of the adit, and a partial ellipse of mason-work is made —
to rest on steps or projections of the firm foot-wall.

Recently whenever practicable, an entire or partial ellipse has been used
in the masonry of levels and adits. One advantage in using the ellipse is
that it may be constructed within timber-work and piling, which is first
constructed when the ground is soft and compressible (pl. 24, jig. 1).

In building the roof arch, centrings are necessary, as in masonry above
ground, and the work is carried on in the same manner, except that the con-
fined space makes it more difficult and tedious. The laying of the key-
stones in such cases requires particular care and skill. After the completion
of the section of an arch, such as is shown in pl. 24, jig. 6, the centring should
remain several days before it is removed.

A peculiar method has been adopted in the lower levels of the mines of
Freienwalde in Prussia. Here an iron supporting-arch was made use of to
preserve the roof and sides of the gallery while the arch was being con-
structed, and to keep out the water. The walls of the galleries afe vertical, and

700

MINING. © 121

covered with asemicircular arch. The sole, where it consists of sand, and there
is not an excess of water, stands very well. When it is very wet it becomes
necessary to turn a reversed arch, upon which the walls of the gallery are
built. Only one iron centring is used while constructing the arches, which
is moved forward as the work proceeds. It is made of wrought-iron, and
consists of three ribs which have the form of the outside of the walls (pl.
25, jig. 18). These exterior centrings, if they may be so termed, consist of
three parts, the bottom piece, and two similar half arches which leap over
each other in the middle, and are fastened together by means of screws.
The iron sole rests upon another of wood, and the three ribs of the centring are
placed pearly two feet apart. Upon these ribs lie about forty iron plates,
seven to eight feet long, half an inch thick, and four inches wide. By this
means the walls and roof of the excavation are secured for a distance of
seven feet, and when the arch is completed the supporting frame is moved
on to support the next stretch.

Most of the machine-chambers below ground consist of rooms for the
water-wheels which are connected with the pumps, the steam-engines being
very seldom beneath the surface. These chambers require to be walled up,
partially or entirely, and great care is necessary in their location, as serious
accidents may occur, entailing costly repairs. In pl. 24, jigs. 3, 4, and 5, is
seen a wheel-house as usually walled up in the Saxon mines, the wheel being
indicated in jig. 3 by the dotted circle. The water is admitted through
suitable openings in the roof if the wheels be over-shot, or through the side
walls of the chamber if under-shot wheels be used.

5. SINKING oF SHAFTS.

When a shaft is to be sunk into solid rock it is done by blasting. In
this work great inconvenience is caused to the workmen by the water which
issues from the cliffs in the rock and falls down upon them. In order to
prevent this a gutter is cut in a spiral form along the sides of the shaft (pl.
25, fig. 22), emptying into a small excavation in the solid rock, calculated to
contain the water discharged in twenty-four hours, from which the water is
raised in buckets when it is full.

_ In England, especially in the vicinity of Newcastle, the shafts are made
circular, the smallest being ten feet in diameter. The circular form is well
adapted to shatts in strata of a small dip, and is also much used in the
Liége coal-mines, and in some parts of France. For shafts in rocks of great
dip, the rectangular form is preferable, particularly when they are to be tim-
bered ; in Germany therefore the rectangular form is generally used, and the
masonry is executed in four arches abutting against each other in the corners.

1. Toveertne or Suarrs. The timbering of the shafts is the wood-
work necessary to support the sides. In shafts which are to serve for
a short season only, a temporary timbering is made use of, constructed
in the following manner. Green oak, birch, or beech, is bent into hoops,

which are placed one beneath the other as the shaft proceeds, and serve
701

122 TECHNOLOGY.

to support the sides for a limited period; this method is not expensive,
and is not resorted to in excavations of an enduring character.

In permanent shafts timbering of a more substantial character must be
made use of. The shafts intended to be stayed with timber are usually
square or rectangular, as this form renders the timbering easier. Where
the pressure of the earth is not excessive, the timbers are placed three or
four feet asunder; where the earth is moist, it becomes necessary to place
them closer. Pl. 25, figs. 23 @ and 24, show the arrangement of the wood-
work in elevation, and jig. 236 the same in plan; fig. 25 a, vertical section
of the timbered shaft. As seen in jig. 23, the shaft is divided into three
divisions, one for tae service of each of the tubs, and another gor the
ascent and descent of the miners.

Pl. 24, fig. 7, shows the first steps to be taken in sinking a shaft. The
lower and stronger beams of the frame for supporting the windlass are
parallel with the short sides of the excavation. 6 or 8 feet below the sur-
face the first rectangular frame of the timbering is placed, which serves as
a guide for the balance of the shaft, the sides of which, as the work pro-
gresses, are supported by similar frames at suitable distances from each
other, and have joists driven down behind them, the spaces between which
and the walls of the shaft are filled with blocks and wedges of wood, to give
them a firm bearing, and the longer sides of the framework are strutted
with stout cross-timbers, the ends of which are seen in pl. 25, jig. 26; these
timbers are more clearly seen in fig. 236. Pl. 24, jigs. 8 and 9, represent
different methods of shaft-timbering.

In very wet mines it becomes necessary to dam out the water, which is

done either with oaken frames, with cast-iron cylinders, or with masonry
laid with hydraulic cement. /. 24, fig. 18, is a section of a shaft of a coal
mine in Belgium thus walled up.
_ It often occurs that shatts pass through strata of coarse sand filled with
springs; in this case the excavation is opened much larger than it is ulti-
mately to remain (pl. 24, jig. 21), and lined with a double timbering, the
intermediate space being puddled with tenacious clay; this, however, can
only be accomplished when on penetrating the sand a firm impermeable
stratum is reached.

As an example of damming out with cast-iron, we will give an instance
which occurred in a coal mine near Newcastle, England. At a depth of
42 feet from the surface, a spring was encountered which poured in 200
gallons of water per minute; the workmen having succeeded in penetrating
to a firm impermeable stratum below, a carefully prepared ring of oak was
laid at the bottom, upon which segments of cast-iron were placed, the joints
between the segments being chinked with strips of wood, and the space
behind well puddled, by which the water was completely shut out, and a
foundation was furnished for the masonry above, which was placed directly
upon the iron segments.

Further down a copious spring was encountered, which required a similar
dam of nearly 40 feet in height, the segments being rather thicker than those
above.

702

MINING. 123

_ Ata depth of 216 feet a third tubing became necessary for a distance of
24 feet, and at a still greater depth a fourth was required. 7. 24, fig. 19,
is a vertical section of a portion of this dam. Above these cast-iron cylin-
ders the shaft was lined with stone masonry.

There is another species of damming, in which, instead of lining the gallery
or shaft, the point from which the spring has burst is plugged up as it
were. This occurs most frequently in a gallery, the whole of which, in
such cases, is often closed by the dam. A bed of moss is first laid upon
the sole, and the timbers of the dam are then built in, wedged, and caulked
with moss. PJ. 24, jig. 28, shows an instrument used for enlarging the
openings between the timbers, and jig. 29 the chisel for driving in the
moss ; jigs. 26 and 27 are sections of such a dam, propped upon the front
side to prevent bending; jigs. 22 and 28 are instances of the same in vertical
shafts. |

Sometimes the wall of the shaft is built upon an iron shoe, sharp at the
bottom, and the excavation is made upon the interior, the shoe cutting its way
down as the work proceeds, and sinking gradually with the wall. Between
the wall and the sides of the shaft are scantlings, placed vertically to prevent
interference between the masonry and the sides of the cut (pl. 24, fig. 20).
At other times the sides of the shaft are supported at the time it is sunk by
a temporary timbering of scantling (pl. 25, jig. 19), which gives place where
the shaft is entirely excavated to the masonry walling.

2. SHarr Masonry. When shafts are to be kept open more than six or
seven years, masonry is preferred to timbering. The masonry is either
laid in common or hydraulic cement, or is carried up dry where the ground
is free from water. When oneor more sides of a shaft are to be secured by
masonry, arches are sprung over the level below the shaft (pl. 24, fig. 13),
and on these arches the masonry is carried up, presenting either a straight
face to the shaft (pl. 24, fig. 10), or the concavity of an arch (jig. 11)
when the rock is rather loose, and exerts considerable pressure on the wall.
The empty spaces behind the walls are packed with rocks. /%igs. 12 and
14 are sections of a rectangular shaft, all four sides of which are secured by
masonry; jig. 15 is the plan. In shafts of great depth a partition-wall is
built, separating the ascent-shaft from the service-sbaft, and affording addi-
tional security to the masonry of the long sides of the shaft. Wooden par-
titions are also often made of boards nailed against cross-pieces fixed in the
masonry ; the boards are tongued and grooved, and closely fitted, the
division of the shaft into two spaces serving for ventilation. Jigs. 24 a,
246, and 25 a, 25 b, show a wooden partition; at the lower end (jig. 24 5)
it is inclined to the side of the shaft, in order to prevent the buckets from
catching under it. The ladders stand in the smaller portion of the shaft on
foot-boards (fig..256), which occur every 30 feet; each foot-board has a
man-hole (fig. 25a), through which a man can pass freely.

In inclined shafts the masonry of the short sides is made in the same
raanner as in vertical] shafts. The upper side is secured by a flat arch, or
according to the dip and pressure of the strata by arches of more or less
rise, resting below on strong supporting-arches (pl. 24, jigs. 16 and 17),

703

124 TECHNOLOGY.

which span the gallery into which the shaft enters. When the shaft is
very wide, as when the ascent-shaft, service-shaft, and water-shaft, are
contained in one, a single arch would require a great excavation into the
strata over-head, and great thickness; it is preferable, therefore, to build
one or two partition-walls, and to arch each part of the shaft separately.

When at any part of the mines a powerful spring is encountered which
cannot be cut off at a higher point, it may sometimes be backed up by a
dam or bulkhead until it breaks out at the surface. This method can only
be resorted to when there are no clefts in the formation through which the
water might issue at another point, or perhaps even at a greater depth. A
bulkhead for this purpose consists generally of strong beams of oak timber,
closely fitted and caulked with moss or oakum with the aid of caulking-
irons (pl. 24, jig. 29), and then wedged with wooden wedges, which are
inserted by the aid of a kind of chisel, shown in jig. 28. A bulkhead of
this kind, built in the lead mine of Huelgoet, in France, is represented in
Jigs. 26 and 27. For the purpose of caulking on the water-side, a hole was
left in the centre, which was afterwards closed with a wedge-shaped block
of beech wood. The space behind the bulkhead was filled with concrete
made with hydraulic cement. The ends of the beams bear against a rectan-
gular offset in the rock on both sides of the bulkhead, which is, moreover,
stiffened by braces on the outside.

When a shaft in a wet mine is abandoned, it is often necessary to shut
off the water from the mine by a bulkhead, across the shaft below the wet
strata, in the solid formation. The part of the shaft above the bulkhead is
generally filled up with rock. A horizontal dam or bulkhead of this kind
may be built of masonry or timber; in the former case the spherical form
is to be preferred; a bulkhead of timber is represented in pl. 24, jigs. 22
and 23. The ends of the beams and the side beams are bevelled, and
rest on a shoulder in the rock, as seen in the plate, where they are wedged
tight ; the centre or key-beam is held in its proper position by means of a
strong iron eye-bolt, b, while the whole bulkhead is caulked and firmly
wedged up. Any subsequent fleam of the timber is prevented by bracing
on top of the bulkhead.

6. WorkING THE MIEs.

Mines may be divided into two classes according as they are worked. In the
first the economical minerals are found in connexion with the gangue and
sterile rocks, which are separated in the mines, and are suitable for walling
and protecting the passages. The second class embraces those mines in
which the deads are not serviceable for the above purpose. To the first
class belong most metallic mines, and to the second, mines of coal, salt, &c.
Mines may be worked either by open or subterranean excavation. The
former are the least expensive, when not pushed to a great depth; and are
preferred for mineral deposits lying near the surface, for building materials,
lime, &e. |

704

MINING. 125

Pi. 24, fig. 48, exhibits a general view of the subterranean operations as
conducted in steps, which is called stoping; by this process the sole of an
existing level is cut down by steps, or the work may be commenced directly
from the foot of a shaft; after the work has proceeded for some time, the
excavation presents the appearance of a series of steps, as seen in fig. 43.
The height of a step is generally to its length as one to three or four; a
similar method is adopted in the gold mines of Morro Velho in Brazil
(pl. 25, jig. 4). The thin coal-seams near Mons are worked in a similar
manner, a main shaft for the working of the vein and another for the pump
being first sunk (pl. 26, jig. 3); these shafts are then united by a cross-
gallery and two principal levels are then driven, the one upon a level with
the bottom of the pump shaft, and which serves to carry the water to the
sink, called the swmp, c, the other serving as a working level for the seams
above. In pl. 24, jig. 32, the levels are run parallel with the vein. Upon
the left is seen the water shaft, and above it the working shaft, from which
leads out the working gallery; 6 is the ground level, which leads the water
to the sump.

Pl. 26, figs. 4 and 5, shows a’ mode of operation practised in lieu of stop-
ing, in horizontal or slightly inclined veins. vp is the working shaft, and p’
serves for the pumps and also for ventilation; aB is the principal working
level, either horizontal or slightly inclined towards a.

A variety of methods are adopted in the working of those mines which
do not furnish the material with which to support the roofs of the excava-
tions. Pillars are left which are just sufficient to support the strata above,
or massive columns are left, a large portion of which is removed when the
regular working is finished. In other cases levels are driven forward and
the pillars are cut away by working backwards, allowing the whole super-
incumbent strata to fall down and follow the miners in their retreat. In
highly inclined veins covered levels or galleries are oftentimes necessary
for ventilation (pl. 26, jig. 26 6), in which a is the gallery, m a pillar, and
the passage for the draught.

Pl. 25, jig. 5, represents two coal seams, one immediately above the
other. In such cases the upper seam is first worked and the pillars removed,
and two years afterwards the lower seam is worked by long pillars and
galleries running in the direction of the dip; the pillars are then removed,
and the whole is allowed to fall in after the miners.

Pi. 24, fig. 31, is the plan of a Sunderland mine in an immense field of
a million square fathoms. The whole is set upon pillars, and the work is
driven as far as ventilation and the power of removing the coal to the main
shaft will permit. a are the large safety pillars ; B is the ventilating shaft ;
c, a shaft or inclined level.

Pl. 25, jig. 3, shows the method adopted in the silver mines in the
vicinity of Freiberg, and in the iron mines of Missen in Rhenish Prussia.

ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOPXDIA.—VOL, IV. 45 705

126 TECHNOLOGY,

7. VENTILATION oF Mrnzs.

The air in mines becomes unfit for respiration either by the consumption of
oxygen by the miners and lights, or by the development of gases which are
dangerous or at least do not sustain life, as carbonic acid, hydrogen, sul-
phuretted and carburetted hydrogen, carbonic oxide, sulphurous acid, and
the fumes of mercury and arsenic. When there is no reason to apprehend the
presence of inflammable gas in a mine, the condition of the air is readily
investigated by lowering down a burning candle, which will only burn in
respirable air; the presence of sulphuretted hydrogen is recognised by the
smell, or by the blackening of strips of paper dipped in a solution of
acetate of lead. When carburetted hydrogen, called jire-damp, is suspected,
a safety-lamp is lowered, the wire cylinder of which will become entirely
filled with flame when the air contains one sixth of the gas; when one half
of the volume of the air is composed of carburetted hydrogen the lamp will
go out. The practice of setting fire to the inflammable air in mines, which
was formerly often resorted to, is very objectionable, being not only danger-
ous to the workmen engaged in doing so, but also to the mines which are
set on fire, besides having the disadvantage that two volumes of oxygen
are consumed for each volume of inflammable gas.

The only effectual way of purifying the air in mines is by the copious
introduction of pure atmospheric air, a continuous current of it being made
to enter the mines at one point, and passing out at another after circulating
throughout the excavations. This ventilation may either be produced solely
by the difference in gravity of the external air and that in the mines, aided
by a judicious arrangement of the excavations, when it is called natural
ventilation ; or else it is caused in part or entirely by machinery, producing
artificial ventilation.

1. Narurat Ventization. In mines with but one surface opening, whether
a shaft or a gallery, the ventilation is very much assisted by large dimensions
which allow two opposite currents of air to be formed without interfering
much with each other. In shafts the dripping of water at the sides pro-
motes a downward current of air, while an upward current takes place in
the centre. By dividing a shaft or gallery into two parts by a closely fitted
partition, the ventilation is much augmented; one of the parts may be
advantageously connected with an air-chimney. The wind may also be
temporarily made use of by means of a windsail.

The natural ventilation generally exists in a sufficient degree in mines
with two surface openings, between which there is a considerable difference
of level, which may be increased by erecting an air-chimney over the higher
one. In winter the currents of air are often inconveniently strong, and are
therefore diminished by doors which partially shut off the draught.

9. ArtirictaL Ventination. As the natural ventilation depends on the
difference of temperature of the exterior and that in the mines, it may be
effectually assisted when it is found insufficient by a furnace placed at the
bottom of a shaft, by means of which a brisk draught is created.

706

= MINING. 127

Machines for injecting or exhausting air are also employed extensively.
Pl. 24, fig. 35, represents an exhausting engine driven by steam, erected at
the mine of Bois de St. Ghislain. The exhausting cylinders have ten feet
diameter; they are made of oak staves hooped with iron hoops, their
bottoms as well as the pistons are of cast-iron, and have each ten valves
which are counterpoised. At each stroke of the engine one of the cylinders
exhausts air from the mine while the other is descending freely.

The centrifugal ventilator is also frequently employed for ventilating
mines. 1. 26, jigs. 6 and 7, represent half sections of this apparatus: six
curved rings or guides, @, a, are attached to a disk at the upper end of the
vertical axis; on the lower side of the guides is attached the annular disk,
cc, which lies in the plane of the head of the cylinder, pp, which covers the
opening of the shaft. To ce is attached a sheet iron cylinder, ee, dipping
into water contained in a circular trough, 7, in order to prevent leakage;
the difference in the height of water on both sides of the cylinder, ee, is
due to the difference of pressure between the exterior air and the interior,
which is set in motion by the rotation of the ventilator. /%gs.8 and 9 repre-
sent a similar apparatus, which revolves on a horizontal axis. /7%g. 10 is a
ventilating screw, which will act either as an exhauster or a blower, accord-
ing to the direction in which it is turned.

The manner in which the circulation of air to the furthest extent of a
mine is insured by regulating its course by means of doors, is shown in pl.
24, jig. 33. The air comes in at the shaft a, circulates through all the work-
ing levels by following the course indicated by the arrows, and escapes
again through the shaft B; the dark portions of the figure are exhausted
workings which are separated by air-tight partitions. At a, a, a, is shown
how the current is guided into the foreheads of the mine. /%g. 34 represents
another system of working and ventilation, which is in general use in coal-
mines. The current descends through the shaft a, and is divided into two
parts, which remain separate throughout the whole mine until they unite
again near the shaft B, through which the air rushes out; pis a furnace
which keeps up the ventilation.

In most mines there are persons whose sole duty it is to examine con-
stantly the state of ventilation. An anemometer, which is frequently used
for the purpose of ascertaining the velocity of the air-current, is represented
on pl. 26, figs. 13, 14, and 15, in two side-views and a top-view. To the
axis, A, are attached four wings of gold-foil, making an angle of 80° with a
plane perpendicular to the axis: an endless screw, v, drives a wheel, r, of
100 cogs, which by a small lever, c, moves the wheel x’, having fifty teeth,
by one tooth for every revolution of x. Thus for 5,000 revolutions of the
fans the wheel, r', makes one ; when the axis of the instrument is presented
to the draught, the number of revolutions of the fan counted by the indica-
tors, 2, 2’, will show the relative velocity of the current.

3. Ixnumination or Mines. The pit-bottoms only and the straight gallerie:
of transport are lighted by stationary lamps (pl. 23, jig. 36, the bottom of
the engine pit of a Newcastle coal mine). The miners either carry smal}

tallow candles, which when at work are fixed in front of their hats, or oil
707

128 TECHNOLOGY.

lamps suspended from a hook by four chains. Since the invention of Davy’s
safety lamp it has been universally employed in all mines in which inflam-
mable gas is developed. On pl. 26, jig. 12 a, it is represented ; it consists
of a common lamp covered with a cylinder of very fine wire gauze, which
was found by Davy to interrupt the flame of carburetted hydrogen, unless
the air is agitated. An improvement upon Davy’s lamp was made by
Messrs. Upton and Roberts, by covering it with a glass cylinder in such a
manner as to admit the air which feeds the flame only under its bottom,
first through holes and next through a disk of wire gauze. The air which
surrounds the wire-gauze cylinder will therefore not be set in motion by
moving the lamp, or by currents of air. Figs. 12, c, b, d, represent this lamp.

Another safety-lamp, invented in 1838 by Dumesnil, is represented in
jigs. 12, e and f ; the oil-reservoir is at the side, the flat wick passes through
the cylinder plate, », and air for the flame is supplied at both sides through
the tubes, cc, covered with wire gauze. The flame is encased in a strong
glass cylinder, mm, and at the top is a double chimney with a contracted
orifice, but not covered with wire-gauze.

fig. 11 represents a breathing-tube which is made use of to enter the
mines when they are filled with noxious gases, in order to save persons in
danger of suffocation. It consists of a tube of cloth or cotton kept open by
a wire spiral, and is provided with a mouth-piece fitted closely to the face,
which has two valves, one admitting the air from the tube, the other open-
ing outwards when the air is exhaled. With a tube of three quarters of an
inch diameter respiration can conveniently be kept up at a distance of
100 feet from the respirable air, and with larger tubes at a greater distance.

8. TrRansporT OF ORES TO THE SURFACE.

In irregular and short levels the ore is carried on the back of the work-
men in bags or convenient vessels. In many mines in France the ore is
dragged in a kind of sledge (pl. 26, figs. 16 and 17) on the floor of the
level. In the larger levels wooden or iron tracks are laid, on which the ore
is transported in vehicles called dogs or rolleys (jigs. 19 and 20). Another
mode of constructing these cars is seen in figs. 21 and 22, each wheel
having a separate axle, which affords some advantage on curved tracks. A
two-wheeled car (fig. 18), with props like a wheelbarrow, is also frequently
used.

In working deposits of considerable dip the coals or ores are simply
thrown down into the main level of transportation from the upper working
levels through planked openings, which are frequently provided with a
valve at the lower end, by opening which the cars placed below it will be
filled.

When the rolleys cannot be brought to the surface through the gallery,
they are unloaded at the bottom of the engine-pit, either by being tilted over
or by opening one of the sides of the car, which moves on hinges. The
material is then drawn up in buckets or corves, the size of which depends

708

MINING. 129

s. os
upon the power of the machinery employed to raise them. For raising
ore from a moderate depth a common windlass (pl. 26, jig. 28) may be
employed. For greater depths and larger loads horse and steam-power are
used. ig. 27 represents the application of a steam-engine for the purpose
of raising coals. It works in two shafts at once, the empty corves descend-
ing in one while the full ones are coming up in the other. In this way the
weight of the material only is required to be overcome by the engine, the
descending and ascending corves balancing each other, an arrangement
which should always be attended to.

In cases where a mine has a capacious adit, or when material must be
introduced to fill up the spaces from which the ore has been removed, the
ascent of the corves is caused by the descent of vessels filled with water or
rocks ; the velocity is regulated by brakes. The same means are employed
to draw up the ores on inclined planes, the lower part of one of which is
seen in jig. 26 a, which also shows the manner of loading the car, mu. A
dog, a, filled with ore is weighed by an apparatus indicated in the figure,
and is then allowed to tilt over and discharge its load into the car, m, by
withdrawing the bolts which hold it down to its truck.

fig. 23 represents a car which is frequently used on inclined planes.
figs. 24a and 25 show the usual contrivance for unloading large cars. The
last sills of the railroad on which the car runs are movable about pivots, 7 ;
when the car comes on them, they are held in the horizontal position by the
hooks x and y ; after attaching the car by the chains, c, and drawing the bolt,
u, of the end of the car, the hooks, # and y, are thrown out by means of the
lever d, when the frame will be tilted by the weight of the car, and the load
discharged. It requires but little force to replace the frame afterwards in
the horizontal position, when the car will again be on the track.

The descent and ascent of the miners take place on single or double
ladders (pl. 24, fig. 87), on winding stairs (jig. 86), in the corves (jig. 38),
or on an especial seat attached to the rope (jig. 389). In France, Belgium,
and England, the latter modes are common, but in the Prussian coal mines,
in the Hartz, and in Cornwall, the common ladders are in general use, in
consequence of which much time and force are spent by the miners in
the ascent, more particularly through shafts of a depth of 1,200 to 2,000
feet.

9, DRAINAGE oF Minzs.

When the workings are above the level of a valley at no great distance,
the drainage is generally effected by an adit level, which is a slightly
inclined subterraneous canal emptying the waters of the mine near the
lowest level of the valley. Such a slope only should be given to it as is
just sufficient to make the water run, in order to drain the mine at the
lowest possible level. This method of drainage is always the surest where
it can be effected, and notwithstanding the great first outlay is generally

the most economical.
709

130 TECHNOLOGY.

Whenever the workings are driven below the natural means of drainage.
or below the level of the plain, recourse must be had to mechanical power.
The water is sometimes raised in buckets or tubs, but most frequently by
pumps of various construction. The common suction-pumps are used for
inconsiderable depths; for great depths forcing-pumps with hollow pistons
or solid plungers are employed, all of which have been fully described in a
former article. We add the description of an excellent lifting-pump in the
mines of Huelgoet, which is set in motion by a hydraulic ram (pl. 26,
jig. 29). cis the working barrel, closed at the top, but open at the lower
end; Pp is the piston, tx’ the valve-box; when the piston descends, the
water ascends through the suction-valve, s, into the valve-box and the
barrel, and by the upward stroke of the piston it is raised through the lift-
valve. Both valves are conical, without any packing. The leather packing
of the piston-rod, x, is seen in fig. 33; that of the piston, which is a spring-
packing, in jigs. 31 and 34. A small lateral tube, wu’ ww’, provided with
stop-cocks, connects the suction and lifting-pipes and the barrel, and serves
to fill the suction-pipe with water when the pump has not been in action
for a length of time. A small valve, w, which is loaded with the pressure
of one atmosphere, shows at all times whether the suction-valve is in good
condition, as, when it does not close perfectly tight, the pressure of the
upward stroke will cause the valve, w, to open. /%g. 32 shows the joining
of the several pieces of the lifting-pipe.

Water containing copperas in solution is injurious to leather packing by
rendering it hard. In such cases plungers of solid metal without any pack-
ing are to be preferred (fig. 30), and in the copper and zinc mines in Corn-
wall they are generally in use.

Before: closing this article we must say a few words about some mines
which claim our attention, either by the peculiarity of the mode of working
or by their picturesque appearance. Among these are the Swedish mines
at Falun and Persberg; of the former we have given an exterior view
(pl. 28, fig. 1), and a view of the great cauldron with the head of the work-
ing-shaft (pl. 25, jig. 2); and of the second the exterior view (pl. 23, jig. 2)
and the interior view of the rock chambers (pl. 25, jig. 1). The copper
mines at Falun and Persberg have long been celebrated, but are now nearly
exhausted. In the time of Gustavus Adolphus they yielded yearly over
5,000,000 pounds. The principal entrance, which we have represented, is
240 ft. deep and 60 ft. wide, and was formed by a terrible caving in which
occurred in 1687. It was then resolved to suspend the working, but upon
a revolt of the miners the labors were resumed.

A singular impression is made upon the beholder by the interior of the
mill-stone quarry at Niedermendig on the Rhine (pl. 26, jig. 2), with its
colossal arches and pillars. The quarrying of the stones is quite simple.
The hardness of the stone is such that neither masonry nor timbering is
required, but immense pillars are occasionally left to support the roof.
The stone is blasted in large blocks, which are first worked cylindrical, and
split with wedges into disks of the required thickness; the stones are then
dressed, the hole is cut, and they are sent up to the surface completed.

710

METALLURGY. . 1381

» The salt mines at Wieliczka (pl. 26, fig. 1), in Galicia, are justly con-
sidered one of the wonders of Europe. They extend not only beneath the
town, but also to a considerable distance on each side; and their treasures
still appear to be inexhaustible, though they have been worked between
five and six centuries.
- The depth of these mines is upwards of 2000 ft.; there are eleven open-
ings to the surface, and the aggregate length of all the galleries is said to
be over 250 miles. Many exaggerated stories are told of whole families
living in the mines and never coming to the surface, but these are entirely
without foundation. The workmen are divided into three bands, which
relieve each other alternately, spending eight hours of the twenty-four in
the mines and the balance above-ground with their families. In 1570 and
also in 1614 the mine suffered very much from fire, and since then all
timbering has been discarded, the roof being supported upon pillars of
rock-salt ; the steps are also cut out of the same material. St. Anthony’s
Chapel, upon the first floor, about 300 ft. from the surface, is also hewn
out of the salt rock, as is also the great hall, which contains lustres hanging
from the roof and all the curiosities, crystals, petrifactions, &c., which have
been found in the mine. The effect of illumination is said to be truly
magical in these spacious rooms, and to be enhanced by the varied color of
the salt, white, pink, grey, and black.

These mines are supposed to be connected with the salt formation in
Walachia, having an extent of upwards of 500 miles.

Vill. METALLURGY. :

Metallurgy, equally with other branches of art, requires its own peculiar
implements and tools, the most important of eich we shall notice in the
sequel. As our ae will not permit us to speak of all the metals, we shall
select iron, indisputably the most important one, and carry it through the
different processes to which it is subjected, from the ore to the merchantable

metal.

1. GenerRAL PREPARATION OF ORES.

Metals, united with other mineral substances, in the form of ores, are
found distributed throughout the crust of the earth, and we have seen
them extracted therefrom in the foregoing article, by the operations of
mining.

Before the final reduction, the ore is more or less separated from foreign
substances by mechanical means; this it is not, however, possible perfectly
to accomplish, and the further the 0 egcrig is pushed the greater will be
the waste of the ore.

The preparation of the ore commences with the picking or sorting, which
711

132 TECHNOLOGY.

takes place in the mines; and consists in separating those pieces of rock which
apparently contain no ore, from those which contain more or less of it.

The richest portions are to be subjected to the dry stamping; the next in
grade, which are too rich to be subjected immediately to wet stamping, are
first sifted, and thus are made to yield much pure ore. There are, then, two
other qualities of ore distinguished, which are subjected to wet stamping and
sifting.

Sifting serves to separate the rich ore from the fragments of sterile rock,
the whole having first been subjected to stamping, either wet or dry, and
to distribute and separate the ores in the order of the coarseness of the
grain. The sieves are plunged into vessels of water, and violently agi-
tated by a series of up and down motions, and thus the mineral substances
are raised up and fall nearly in the order of their specific gravity, the
metallic portions sinking to the bottom ; those particles which pass through
the meshes of the riddles settle at the bottom of the vessel, and are after-
wards exposed to washing, when they are worth the trouble. :

The powdering of the ores is performed in stamping-mills. The stamps are
raised by wipers or cams on a revolving-shaft, and are permitted to fall
upon the material in troughs; the stamps are shod with iron at their lower
ends, and weigh from two to three hundred pounds (pl. 27, jig. 21). A
stream of water passes constantly through the trough, and the pounded ore
passes with the water immediately to a series of shallow receivers united by
channels; the richest portions of the ore, being heaviest, settle nearest to the
stamping-trough, and the lighter particles next, until the water arrives at the
last receiver, where the lightest particles are thrown down.

2. RoastinG.

The ore prepared as above is submitted to another operation, called roast-
ing, before coming to the furnaces.

Iron ore, which requires only to be pulverized to assist its melting, is
roasted to render it friable, and disengage its water and carbonic acid.
Sulphur, antimony, and arsenic are also volatilized by the process of roast-
ing, and by their union with the atmosphere various products are formed.
At alow temperature sulphates are formed, which, as the heat is elevated,
yield sulphuric acid gas; the metallic oxides remain behind.

3. FURNACES.

The different furnaces made use of in metallurgic operations may be
divided, according to their construction, into open furnaces, stack furnaces,
reverberatory furnaces, and crucible furnaces. In the two first classes the
fuel is mixed with the ore; in the third, only the flame operates upon it ; and
in the fourth, the material to be heated is inclosed in crucibles, which are
exposed either to immediate contact with the fuel or to its flame. In some

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METALLURGY: 133

of these furnaces a blast of air is used to urge the fire, and increase the
heat.

1. Oren Furnaces. Open furnaces are the simplest used in metallurgic
operations. Pl. 27, jig. 1, is an example, in which the walls are but 2 or
3 feet high; strictly, this should be considered as several furnaces, with
division walls between them. The roasting of minerals is performed in
these furnaces in the following manner: The floor is covered with a layer
of fuel, upon which the ore is placed and the fuel is lighted. Those ores
containing sulphur and bitumen require but little fuel, as when once heated
to a certain point they take fire and burn of themselves. Others, as iron
ores, which contain no combustible matter, require considerable fuel to
effect the roasting. Ores are often roasted in pits in the earth, in which
ease a high and dry locality must be chosen; frequently the operation is
performed in heaps in the open air, which is often considered the most
available method. Pl. 27, jig. 2, shows the liquation furnace used for
separating silver from lead ores; the walls, a, are inclined towards each
other, and on the top are covered with plates of iron, which leave narrow
openings between them, their whole length. The material to be operated
upon is placed upon the inclined plates, and the fuel beneath and all around
it; the lead, as it melts, drops through the openings between the plates, and
collects in the receptacle 6. /%gs. 3,4, and 5, represent a blomary or forge-
fire for the reviving of iron; it consists of low masonry work, with an exca-
vation in the hearth, to contain the metal to be operated upon. Fig.3,abed
are four cast-iron plates, the bottom of the hearth forming a fifth; e is the
opening through which the tuyere passes; three or four inches above the
bottom of the hearth is a row of holes or a slit to let off the cinders. The
hearth and tuyere are hollow, and water is kept circulating through them.
An open copper furnace, seen in jig. 6, differs from the blomary principally
in having a spherical hearth; @ is the crucible. The masonry, which par-
tially surrounds the hearth, is for the purpose of better concentrating the
fire; 4 is the tuyere; c, the back wall through which the tuyere passes; d,
a partition wall dividing the space above the hearth.

Pl. 27, jig. 7, is a view of an open silver refining furnace; a, the open-
ing for the tuyere; 6, the cupel crucibles. The cupel consists of a crucible
of iron, in which the wood and bone ashes are rammed, on the surface of
which is a depression for receiving the silver which is to be refined.

2. Srack Furnaces. The signification of the word stack sufficiently
explains the general character of this class of furnace, the interior space
being open at the top, and entirely closed with masonry, forming a shaft or
stack which receives the material to be heated, either alone or mixed with
the fuel, the atmosphere necessary to combustion being supplied at the
bottom, either by the draught or by a blowing apparatus ; those operated by
draught alone are used for roasting only. P2. 27, figs. 11 @ and 1143, are ver-
tical sections, at right angles to each other, of a Swedish furnace of this
description ; @ is the stack which is to be filled with the material to be
operated upon ; d is the fire space, at the bottom of which is a grate; e the
ash-pit. The fire space is covered with massive iron bars, laid close to each

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134 TECHNOLOGY.

other, which, however, permit the flame to pass through. 6, the openings
from which the ore is withdrawn as it is roasted; g, inclined iron plates,
over which the iron is withdrawn from the furnace. The ore to be roasted
is supplied from above, at the top of the stack. fare openings in the ash-
pit, to supply draught and for the withdrawal of ashes.

fig. 8 a is a vertical and jig. 8b a horizontal section of a furnace for
roasting iron ore; @ is the shaft, lined with fire-proof stone ; 6 is the grate.
The roasted ore is withdrawn at the openings, ¢, into the spaces, e, and thence
to the arched chambers, 7; d is the ash-pit. The operation in this furnace
is continual, the material being constantly supplied at top, and withdrawn
below as it is roasted.

Pl. 27, figs. 9a and 96 are sections of an ellipsoidal furnace for roasting
iron ore; 6’ are three fire doors ; below each grate is an ash-pit, d; ¢ are
openings for withdrawing the ore.

All stack furnaces used for the purpose of smelting metals, and which
require a high heat, are furnished with a blowing apparatus ; they may be
divided into blast furnaces and blue ovens.

Fig. 10 a@ is a vertical section and jig. 106 a horizontal section of an iron
blast furnace; a is the shaft; } the boshes; ¢ the crucible; cand p are the
tuyeres, of which there may be one, two, or three; ¢ is the hearth-pit, where
the melted iron collects; gis the dam-stone, which closes the hearth-pit,
except at a single point, which is closed with clay, through which an. open-
ing is made to let off the melted iron; / the timpstone, which is protected
by the timp-plate, imbedded in fire-clay. The upper portion of the stack
is seen at 10a, above jig. 7. his the fauld-plate, over which the cinder is
run out; a is the working side, B the back, c and p the blast sides of the
furnace. At jig. 20 are seen the tuyere chambers. Every part of the wall
exposed to a strong heat is constructed of fire-proof stone.

Pl. 28, jigs. 1a,16, are sections of a blast furnace, through the dam-
stone and hearth, upon a large scale. The stones a rest upon a layer of sand,
, and form the hearth ; beneath the sand is an iron plate, 0, and beneath
the plate is the air passage, q ; the cheek stones, 6, the back stone, c, and
the dam-stone, @, form the walls of the hearth-pit ; fis the timp-iron, g the
timp-plate, ¢ the timp-stone ; A and ¢@ are the tuyere stones, £ & iron plates
to support the wall above; // are the wall stones between the timp-stone
and boshes, m the openings for the tuyeres. PU. 27, jig. 19, is an interior
view of a blast furnace house in the department Aveyron. /%ig. 12 isa
so-called blwe oven, which is worked with a closed breast, and has an open-
ing below to let off the iron and cinders; @ is the shaft, 6 arched openings
through which enter the blast tubes ; ¢ is an opening which, when the furnace
is in operation, is walled up as high at the tap hole. When the furnace is
started the breast is closed, with the exception of a hole at the bottom to
let out the iron, and a hole six or eight inches above the first through which
the cinder flows out; it is filled to the top with coal and iron, the supply of
which is renewed as the charges sink. This furnace is kept in continuous
blast for three, six, or nine months.

Pl. 27, figs. 13 a, 13 6, and 13 ¢, represent a crucible furnace with closed

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METALLURGY. 135

breast ; @ is the shaft, 4 the crucible for the metal and slag. The sole, d,
consists of cement, and rises towards the tuyere opening at the back.

Figs. 14 a and 14d are sections of a furnace in use at the Falun copper
works. The shaft terminates in the sink in the clay at f; the fore-hearth
in front of the breast-opening, 4, communicates by a canal with the cru-
cible 0. The layer, ¢, is firmly rammed clay, d cinders, m iron plates in
front of the hearth.

There are also blast-furnaces from which the iron runs uninterruptedly
through the tap hole, which is never closed. Pl. 28, jig. 2a, is a furnace
of this description, constructed something like the German blue oven. ais
the shaft, c the crucibles into which the metal flows, e the openings for the
tuyere.

3. REVERBERATORY Furnaces. Those furnaces in which the fuel does not
come in contact with the metal, but operates upon it by its flame, are called
reverberatory or puddling furnaces. In furnaces of this description the ore
is placed upon a level or concave hearth, and the walls and arch are so
constructed as to throw back the flame upon the metal to be melted. In
pl. 28, jigs. 3 a, 36, 3c, and 3d, is represented a double roasting furnace
on the reverberatory plan, in which there are two hearths one above the
other, A and #’. This furnace may be used in two different ways: either
each hearth may be used with its separate blast, or the blast may be applied
to the lower hearth only, passing thence with the stream of hot gases to the
upper one. In the former case the smoke passage, 7, is closed with an iron
plate, and the smoke passes immediately to the chamber x, and the double
roasting furnace performs the functions of two reverberatory furnaces, with
this difference, however, that the upper one is easier to heat. Where it is
used as a double roasting furnace, the passage f is opened and there is but
one fire, viz. upon the grate r ; the upper hearth then serves for preparatory
roasting and the latter for finishing the operation. The working openings,
o and o’, are upon opposite sides of the furnace, that two laborers may be
employed at the same time without interrupting each other.

P1. 27, figs. 15 a, 155, 15, represent a puddling-furnace used for con-
verting cast-iron into wrought-iron; @ is the ash-pit, r the grate, 6 the fire-
bridge, A the hearth upon which the pig metal is placed. The bridges 6
and d are hollow, having each in its centre a cast-iron pipe through which
a stream of water is kept constantly running; 7 is an opening beneath the
chimney, through which ashes which collect there may be withdrawn ; ¢are
cast-iron columns which support the stack. Beneath the hearth is an open
space, and the openings, x, are for the purpose of giving access to the same.

4, Crucrpte-Furnaces. Those furnaces in which the substances to be
acted upon are confined in a crucible which is exposed to the action of the
fire, are called crucible-furnaces. Their construction is very various, accord-
ing to the use to which they are to be applied. Of this class are mufile-fur-
naces made use of for various metallurgic processes, in which the material
is to be kept from immediate contact with the fire. PJ. 28, jigs. Ta, 76,
represent a furnace for roasting or distilling arsenic with muftile-formed

chamber. a isthe ash-pit, B the grate, p the hearth of a double layer of fire-
715

136 TECHNOLOGY.

bricks upon which the finely stamped arsenic mineral is spread. The fire
passes from the grate beneath the hearth out at the opening, g, thence back
through the channels, 2, to the double chimney, g, and thus the flat muffle-
formed space above the hearth is heated without bringing the flame into
contact with the arsenic, and the arsenic acid passes by the passage, A, to
the condensing-chamber. Whilst the furnace is in operation a second
charge is being warmed upon the top of the furnace, and is fed to the ©
muffle at the hole, e.

Crucible-furnaces, which serve simply for melting, are of the simplest con-
struction. 1.28, figs. 8a and 8d, is a Sefstrom furnace, and consists of two
cylinders of sheet-metal so united by the ring, e, as to leave a vacant space
between them. The interior cylinder is lined with fire-clay, and there is
also a support of the same material for the crucible; at @ is an opening for
the entrance of the blast, which passes through a circle of holes, 6, to the
fire on every side.

For handling the crucibles in this and other similar furnaces, the tongs
shown in pl. 27, jigs. 17 and 18, and pl. 28, jigs. 9 and 10, are used. Pl.
28, figs. 6a and 6b, represent an English muffle of sheet-iron lined with
fire-clay ; @ is the fire space, ¢ the fire grate, e the fire door. The box, d, in
the space, 5, is the muffle.

Fig. 5a is a longitudinal section, and 56 a transverse section of a
muffle-furnace used for burning enamels and colors upon porcelain and
elass ; a is the ash-pit through which the draught passes to the fire; 0 is the
fuel; g the grate. The muffle, A, is shoved into the furnace from front.
When the operation is completed the chimney is closed at d, and the whole
permitted to cool gradually.

Sand-baths are another species of furnace of this general character. They
are used where materials are to be warmed or heated to a moderate degree
without coming in contact with the fire, for which purpose the vessels
which contain them or the substances themselves are burned in the sand
or simply laid upon its surface. $l. 28, jigs. 4a and 46, represent a sand-
bath-furnace, in which @ is the ash-pit, f the grate, b the fire space, A the
fire door; behind the fire space is a bridge over which the flame and smoke
pass to the chimney, ¢c, which may be closed by the plate, d, to regulate the
cooling of the sand-bath. Over the fire space is a cast-iron plate, and upon
this a frame, 2, which supports the sand-bath.

4. Cyemicat Merartiturcic APPARATUS.

The apparatus used in the chemical processes of metallurgy are the same
as those required for this branch in the laboratory, modified only by the
amount of materials operated upon in each case. As an example, however,
of the difference which occurs in the construction of some of the apparatus,
we will present the gold amalgam mill (pl. 27, jig. 16) used for extracting
gold from auriferous sand. As but a portion of the metal can be extracted
from the sand by a single mill, it is usual to unite several of them together,

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METALLURGY. 137

that the gold sand carried by the water from one mill may be conveyed to
the other. Two such machines are seen together in the drawing. a@ is the
mill-basin secured to the frame, A, and having a hollow tube in its centre
through which the shaft, d, driven by the wheel, g, of the runner, turns.
Upon the top of the shaft, d, is a cross-bar, 6, which is connected with the
runner by two arms; in the centre of the runner is a funnel-formed opening
which receives the stream of water and sand, which in its passage beneath
the runner is brought into contact with the quicksilver at the bottom of
the basin a, which is also kept in motion by iron plates upon the bottom of
the runner, and which amalgamates with a portion of the gold, the sand
and water passing on to a similar mill where the process is continued.

5. Worxine Iron.

No metal is of so great importance to man as iron; on this account we
have selected it to give a rather detailed description of its manufacture. As
it leaves the furnace after the operation of smelting, it is known as raw-iron
or pig-iron, of which two kinds are distinguished, white-iron and grey; the
former has a silver white color, and is used in the manufacture of steel ; the
latter is of every shade, from black to light grey. Wrought-iron is of a
light grey fracture, running partly into white, partly into gray. Steel hasa
greyish white fracture, is harder than iron, and is worked with more difficulty.

We have already spoken of the furnaces made use of in extracting iron
from the ore, and will now say a few words upon the process itself. The ore
having been broken into small pieces and roasted, is ready for the smelting
process, which reduces the oxygen and separates the compounds of silicic
acid in the form of slag. Charcoal, stone coal, or turf, may be used accord-
ing as they are to be obtained to advantage.

The furnace is first slowly heated, to prevent it from cracking, and is then
charged lightly with coal and ore alternately. When the first traces of
metal show themselves the crucible is cleaned, the tap hole closed, and the
blast is let on, lightly at first, and gradually increased for five or six days,
when it has its full power. The labors of the blast-furnace then consist in
renewing the supply of ore and coal from time to time, and keeping the fur-
nace free of slag.

When sufficient metal has collected in the crucible, the tap hole is
opened and it is suffered to run off; in blast-furnaces with open breast this
takes place every twelve, eighteen, or twenty-four hours; the tap hole is
then cleaned out and again closed.

Within the last twenty years many experiments have been made with
hot-blast-furnaces ; in these the blast is heated before it is supplied to the
furnace. Many methods have been adopted for effecting this purpose ;
sometimes the air is heated in separate furnaces, at others the waste heat
from the furnace itself is employed; generally it is made to pass through
heated cast-iron pipes, the convolutions of which are surrounded by fire ; at

others it is accomplished in air-tight chambers (pl. 28, jig. 11).
717

138 TECHNOLOGY.

Wrought-iron is produced immediately from the ore or from pig-iron; in
the former case, where the blomary fire is made use of, the iron ore, roasted
or not, is mixed with coals, and melted down upon an open hearth under a
blast produced by bellows of the common form, or more generally by wooden
cylinders urged by water-wheels.

The production of wrought-iron from pig metal is accomplished in finery
fires, or puddling furnaces. - In finery fires the metal is partially melted
under the blast, and the carbon and foreign substances measurably expelled
before it is taken to the squeezers.

The puddling-furnace is undeniably the best adapted for converting pig-
iron into bar-iron. The iron hearth of the furnace already described is
covered to a depth of three or four inches with cinders from a charcoal
forge, from another puddling-furnace, or from a re-heating-furnace. Ifnone
of these can be obtained, cinder from a blast-furnace will answer. The
furnace is then fired, and when the cinder is melted, and the bottom and
sides are properly protected, cold cinder is thrown in; and when the bottom
is so far cooled that the tools make no impression on it, the iron is charged.
As the latter begins to get red it is turned and worked over, and as it
becomes white and commences to melt, it is broken with hook-formed
instruments, and mixed with the partially melted cinder; after a further
heat it is divided into lumps twelve or fifteen inches in diameter, and carried
to the hammer or squeezers. These lumps, called balls, are then subjected
to the operation of shengling, which is performed under the hammer or in
the squeezers, and which converts them into blooms or more regularly
formed masses; these blooms then pass to the rough rollers. Sometimes no
hammer or squeezers are employed, but the balls are taken directly from
the puddling-furnace to the rollers. The roughing rollers take the bloom
and reduce it into billets of a size proportioned to that of the bars to be
drawn. ‘The rollers for the final preparation of the iron are seen in pl. 28,
jigs. 12 a, 12 band 12c; fig. 18 represents them in plan; jigs. 14 and 15,
cross-sections; jig. 16, the cog-wheel driving the rollers; jig. 17, a front
view of a sheet-iron rolling machine; jig. 18, a view from above, and
Jigs. 19 and 20, details of the same; fig. 21 shows the operation of roll-
ing; and jig. 22, the cutting off of railroad rails by circular saws. The
rollers are set in stroug cast-iron frames, and are adjustable more or less
near each other by screws; they are furnished with round or angular grooves
according to the size of iron to be rolled.

After the balls are prepared in the puddling-furnace they are carried in
the tongs (fig. 10) to the hammer, or, where no hammer is used, to the first
set of rough rollers (figs. 12@ and 14), where they are drawn into billets
or plates. The hammer is, however, to be preferred, as the cinder falls freer
and the welding is more perfect.

The iron thus prepared either by hammering or by passing many times
through the rough rollers, is cut, bound into parcels, re-heated, and taken
to the finishing rollers.

Sheet-iron is made directly from the bloom upon the rollers (jigs. 17 and
18), which are made to approach each other slightly after each passage of

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AGRICULTURE. 139

the iron, by means of the set screws moving the upper rollers; the iron is
repeatedly heated during the operation, which is continued until the sheet
is reduced to the required thickness.

IX. AGRICULTURE.

Agriculture is that art by which the earth is rendered capable of minis-
tering to our necessities. It treats of the growth of plants and animals, as
mutually dependent branches, the latter being always founded upon the
former. Its legitimate aim is not the production of the largest and finest
animals, the heaviest crop without regard to cost, but the reaping from a
certain capital the surest heaviest income.

Agriculture may be taught or studied in three different ways : as a trade
or mechanically, as an art, and as ascience. Mechanically considered, agri-
culture does not differ from other trades, and consists in the imitation of
practice, and the exercise of. judgment. As an art it takes a wider range,
and follows fixed rules and precepts, which are the result of long-continued
observations upon nature. So long as these rules are founded upon nature,
they are of value ; but in most cases they spring from isolated observations,
are not in accordance with first principles, and are unworthy of confidence.

The insufficiency of such rules, without distinction of cause and effect, is
never more apparent than in the case of an agriculturist who has followed
them with advantage in one district, and who, when he moves to another
of different character, finds they but mislead and deceive him.

Science, on the contrary, fixes no positive rules, but developes the prin-
ciples to be followed in every variety of case that may arise, teaches us to
dive to the bottom of nature’s springs for the foundation stones of a rational
theory, and is in fact itself the only true basis on which a system of agri-
culture can be erected. Theory alone, however, can never make an agri-
culturist, but only when hand in hand with practice.

Lo Lire

A. The Soil.

The surface of the earth, the grand workshop of the vegetable kingdom,
produces everywhere, when left to itself, those plants to the growth of which
the soil and climate are congenial. The original elements of the soil, silex
or sand, clay, lime, and iron, now one now the other preponderating, con-
stitute, as it were, the vessel in which is prepared the food necessary for
the growth of plants and in which it is offered to their roots.

These elements impart certain qualities to the soil, according as they pre-
ponderate, one producing a light, dry soil, with but little power of retaining
moisture; another, a close, moist soil, having strong affinity for water, and
retaining it for a great length of time. A certain medium between the two

719

140 TECHNOLOGY.

extremes, to a depth of nine to twelve inches, is most favorable to the
growth of cultivated plants. In general the greater the preponderance of
sand the lighter and more easily moved is the soil, while a preponderance
of clay gives it exactly opposite qualities. .

The food of plants consists of water and the remains of decayed vegetable
bodies, which in the state in which it is found in the soil is called humus.
Soils may be divided into, 1. very stiff clay; 2. moderately stiff clay ;
3. sandy clay; 4. morst, jme-grained, sandy soil; 5. dry, coarse-grained
sand.

1. StrrF Cay is in best condition when, either by nature or liberal treat-
ment with manure, it contains a rich supply of humus, or when the decom-
position of the humus has been effected by cultivation which has brought

every portion of the soil in contact with the atmosphere, and which at the -

same time has eradicated the weeds. As such soils, however, on account
of their impermeability, are liable to suffer from an excess of moisture, care
is necessary that good water-furrows be provided to carry off superfluous
water, which otherwise might stand in pools upon the surface. Attention
to this is important to the prosperity of every plant, but indispensably
necessary to the growth of the cereals.

2. Mopreratety Stir Cray or Cray Loam. In general, what has been
said of stiff clay holds good of this soil also; it is, however, easier to work,
suffers less from moisture, and thus is better adapted to the growth of grain.
On the other hand, it is more easily deprived of its humus by a succession
of crops; but by the admixture of lime the assimilation of its elements is
promoted, and even when there is a lack of humus, with favorable weather,
good crops may be expected.

_ Each of these grades of soil is, however, easily baked or hardened upon
the surface by the sun; on this account a covering of vegetation is of great
importance to the development of the strength of the soil.

38. Sanpy Cray or Sanpy Loam. This soil permits the ready entrance
of the air, and in consequence its cultivation presents comparatively few
difficulties ; its natural products, weeds, require a corresponding greater
degree of care. This soil may be said to be in the best order when the manure
applied to small grains is decomposed and mixed with the earth. Care is
requisite to retain the surface water instead of leading it off, and to compact
the soil during its cultivation by the use of the roller. Furthermore the
ready access given to the atmosphere causes a constant decomposition of its
humus and manure until interrupted by frost, and consequently such soils
should never be left without some growing crop. On this account such
Jand should not be fallowed, as the air thus carries off its useful gases and
the soil soon becomes sterile.

4. Most, Frve-Grarvep, Sanpy Som. The peculiarity of this soil con-
sists in the extreme fineness of its sand, which exists in a state of dust so
minutely divided as to resist the entrance of the air to an equal degree with
those soils containing too much clay. Water is thus prevented from escap-
ing, and weeds grow with great luxuriance. The sun hardens this soil so
as to render ploughing extremely difficult, and the atmosphere is completely

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AGRICULTURE. 141

excluded. This so-called cold soil must be so managed in cultivation as to
destroy knot-grass, charlock, and other weeds which are apt to infest it,
and to forward the decomposition of its humus. This is accomplished not
so much by fallow as by cultivation in hills upon long manure. Potatoes
and garden vegetables, when used for food, are not so well adapted to the
purpose, as the coldness of the soil retards them, and they flourish only in
very warm days. Naked fallows evaporate the gases which should nourish
vegetation. As this soil also suffers from too much moisture, the lands
should be laid off narrow and the furrows be well cleaned out, particularly
for winter grain.

5. Dry, Coarse-Grarvep, Sanpy Som. This is the direct opposite in all
respects of clay soil, and must be managed in an entirely different manner.
If in the latter the entrance of the atmosphere is resisted, in the case before
us it is too much encouraged, and the ceaseless evaporation may impoverish
the soil before it has borne a single crop. This soil is only fit for grain
when it can be shaded by a heavy cover of foliage, which impedes the
evaporation of the gases. Its weeds are eradicated by leaving it for many
years in meadow, when they are prevented from perfecting their seed, and
thus ultimately are extinguished; even knot-grass, the worst and most
troublesome of all weeds, cannot endure many years after the ground is
laid down to meadow. As with the soils in which clay predominates care
is not necessary to conduct off superfluous water, in this case every means
must be resorted to, to retain the moisture for the use of vegetation.
Neither land nor water furrows are necessary, and the roller must be used
with every crop, to compact and consolidate the soil as much as possible.

This classification of soils is important only so far as the decomposition
of humus and the growth of weeds are concerned; thus far it is sufficient.
A classification as regards fertility requires that other attendant circum-
stances be noticed, as the subsoil, the character of the surface (whether flat,
rolling, or otherwise), and the presence of other chemical and mineral sub-
stances. The knowledge of soils thus classified is taught by Agronomy,
which treats of the different elements of soils and the relation they bear to
each other.

There are also exterior signs to be noticed in judging of soils. Their
tenacity, as manifested in ploughing and harrowing ; its excess in one case,
while it is entirely wanting in another ; their different powers of absorption
and retention of moisture; their color when wet, and their peculiar odor
indicating the presence or the absence of humus.

We will now turn our attention to some of the most common agricultural
tools.

B. Agricultural Tools.

1. Tae Proven. Ploughing serves to open the soil for the admission of
air and moisture to the organic matter which it contains, and which is thus
decomposed and fitted to serve as food for vegetation. The operation is
more or less necessary, more or less difficult, according as the soil is stiff
and tenacious, or loose and porous. Another object to be accomplished by

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142 TECHNOLOGY.

ploughing is, the destruction of weeds, which are turned under with the
surface soil, and covered with the layer immediately beneath it, which is
brought up in contact with the atmosphere and laid in narrow parallel
ridges. This turning up and separating from the subsoil is performed by a
sharp horizontal plate of iron called the share ; the dividing into narrow
ridges is the work of a vertical iron called the coulter ; and the turning over
is done by a board shaped for the purpose, called the mowld-board. Every
plough consists of these three elements, arranged in proper order, the
coulter preceding the share and mould-board. Ploughs may be divided into
two great classes: those with wheels, called wheel-ploughs, and those with-
out, called swing-ploughs. _

In pl. 29 ploughs of different construction and for various purposes are
represented. 2g. 1 is a swing-plough in use in Belgium, the share and
mould-board of cast-iron, and forming an uninterrupted and continuous
eurve ; jig. 2 is a Brabant plough, also of cast-iron, which runs very steadily
and may be set to cut deep or shallow, narrow or wide furrows ; jig. 3 is a
Flanders cultivating plough ; jig. 4 is a Belgian plough, used for breaking
up sod-land ; jig. 5 is a Bohemian plough ; jig. 6 is a form of subsoil plough
or deepener, for increasing the depth of the soil and moving the subsoil ; jig.
7 is a shovel plough, for cultivating growing crops; jig. 8 is a small plough,
used also for cultivating and hilling potatoes and other crops; jig. 9 repre-
sents a plough so arranged as to keep the furrows without the aid of the
ploughman ; fig. 10 is an old Thuringian plough; jig. 11 is the so-called
ehampion plough, with the guide wheels of unequal diameter, the right
wheel running in the furrows ; jigs. 12 and 13 are right and left hand views
of a German plough, which nearly resembles the Belgian; jig. 14 is a
simple form of subsoil plough, which breaks up the subsoil without bring-
ing it to the surface; jig. 15 is a hand plough, for working between the
rows of seed beds; jig. 16 is a plough with wheels behind the sole, to
diminish the friction upon the subsoil; jig. 17 is a light plough, used for
covering stubble before winter. |

In no part of the world, perhaps, have the mechanics of agriculture made
such rapid advancement as in the United States. The plough has been
made much lighter and of easier draught, whilst its cost has been materially
lessened. Amongst others an ingenious instrument has been invented for
digging potatoes, which promises to be a great labor-saving machine. Im-
provements have also been made in ploughs for cultivating upon the sides
of hills, and in the common cultivator.

2. Tue Harrow. The object of the harrow is three-fold : more completely
to pulverize the ground after it is left by the plough, to eradicate and destroy
the roots of weeds and grass, and to cover seed when sown broad-cast. It
consists of a strong wooden frame filled with wooden or iron pins, each of
which as the harrow is moved makes a small furrow, or breaks the clods it
may encounter.

Pil. 29, figs. 18 and 19, are old forms of the Scotch harrow, with hori-
zontal and oblique teeth; jig. 20 is a harrow with hooked teeth, for the
purpose of eradicating weeds and grass; jig. 21 is a form of cultivating

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harrows invented in Saxony, for working between the rows of crops; jig. 23
is a Norwegian harrow, as improved in England; fig. 22 is the so-called
English extirpator, which nearly resembles the cultivator in common use
all over the United States.

3. Sowmne anp Piantine Macutnes. Many machines have been devised
for planting and sowing, which differ essentially from each other, according
to the nature of the seed they are intended to plant. Pl. 29, figs. 32 and 33,
are instruments used in the preparation of the ground ; jig. 28 represents a
simple instrument used for marking the lines in which to deposit those
seeds planted by hand, and may be drawn forwards either by the hand or by
an animal ; jigs. 34 and 35 are instruments for transplanting.

Sowing machines were first invented in Germany about the middle of the
17th century ; since then they have been much improved in England and
the United States. With nearly every machine for this purpose is united
one or more small ploughs, to open the furrows, in which the seed is regu-
larly distributed; they are so arranged that they may be placed to run
deeper or more shallow, according to the nature of the seed to be planted,
and to cut the furrows at such a width as may be required. There is also
some arrangement attached to most of them for covering the seed. That
portion of the apparatus which strews the seeds in the drills generally con-
sists of a series of tubes reaching almost to the ground. Into these tubes the
seed falls from a cylinder filled with holes, or is thrown in by small scoops
upon an axis made to revolve in the seed-hopper ; they are so arranged as
to be adjustable more or less near to each other, and receive a slight shaking
motion to secure the passage of the seed. In a seed-sower represented in
jig. 80 the seed is fed to the funnel by a revolving cylinder, and there is an
arrangement to stop the feed when the machine is turned. Hornly’s seed-
planter, seen in jig. 36, is intended to sow all kinds of small grain, as also
to distribute dry or liquid manure; it has ten seed-tubes, with the same
number of ploughs or drills. The furrows are opened at the required dis-
tance apart, the seeds are dropped in them either continuously or at proper
distances, and immediately covered. /%g. 29 is a more simple machine for
drilling beans, which are dropped at certain required distances from each
other; jig. 31 is a machine used for sowing clover-seed, and consists of a
series of short perforated cylinders from which the seed is distributed with
great regularity as it is drawn along the ground; this is said to be a
labor and seed-saving machine, which performs its work well. Lig. 27 is
a simple machine for drilling turnips, in which the feed-roller receives
motion by a band from the axis of the machine.

When seed is sown by hand it is covered by a drag seen in jig. 24. F; oq.
25 is an instrument for the same purpose, which leaves the surface very
smooth, and may be loaded with stones to increase the pressure. Fg. 26 is
the common roller sometimes used when the field has been well harrowed.
to cover the seed.

C. Grain Crops.

After the grain is cut it is bound into sheaves and put up in shocks
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144 TECHNOLOGY.

(jig. 39), and when sufficiently dry it is stored in stacks or barns. These
stacks are so formed as to shed the rain, and are thatched with long straw, the
more effectually to exclude the rain. PU. 30, jigs. 25 and 26, are common
forms, the former as put up in Germany, the latter in England. Before the
general introduction of threshing machines, the grain was beaten out upon a
threshing-floor, generally formed in the barn itself. The threshing-floor was
prepared by first covering it with stiff clay, which was moistened, trodden, and
beaten; when dry it was wet with bullocks’ blood, and after further beat-
ings, suffered to harden. PJ. 30, jig. 32, shows an English grain-barn and.
threshing-floor beneath the same roof. /%g. 33, another arrangement of
the same with corn-loft, potatoe-bin, and tool-house added. Movable grain-
barns are sometimes made use of, which are brought up to the side of the stack
which is to be threshed (pl. 30, fig. 84). In most parts of Europe grain is
still threshed by hand with the flail ; in the United States threshing-machines
are in almost general use for the purpose, and usually consist of a cylinder
of wood or iron, studded with teeth, which revolves rapidly within a con-
cave also filled with teeth, so arranged that the rows of teeth on the cylinder
fall into the spaces between the teeth upon the concave; the grain being fed
into this machine is carried round by the cylinder and violently beaten
between its teeth and those of the concave, and the grain thus threshed falls
out at one end of the machine, while the straw is carried out at the other end
by the centrifugal action of the cylinder and the draught which it occasions.

Where the grain is threshed by hand it is much mixed with chaff and the
dust of the threshing-floor ; to separate it from these it is passed through the
winnowing machine or fan (pl. 29, figs. 87 and 38). The grain is put into
the hopper, /, from which it is delivered gradually upon a vibrating sieve
which permits the grain, but not the larger pieces of straw, to pass through ;
it then descends upon the inclined board, 4, to the back of the machine,
whilst the dust and lighter particles of chaff are blown out at the other end
by the revolving blower or fan, d, e, f, g.

In some parts of Europe grain intended for grinding is first coarsely
broken up on a mill seen in pl. 29, jig. 40, in which the grain is crushed
between revolving rollers.

When the straw, after the grain is threshed out, is used for feeding, it is
first cut into short lengths, the better to be mixed with the grain or other
food used with it. This is performed upon the straw-cutter. Upon small
farms this machine consists of a trough three to four feet in length,
through which the straw is fed beneath the edge of a knife worked by
hand. On larger establishments more effective machines are in use; in
one represented in pl. 29, jig. 41, the knives are secured to the arms of a fly-
wheel, which is made to revolve rapidly and thus cut the straw as it is fed
from the end of the trough.

Before we proceed further it may be well to say something upon the
preservation of the various products of the farm.

In some parts of Europe many kinds of grain are kiln-dried before being
threshed. Pl. 30, figs. 40 and 41, show an arrangement used for this pur-
pose. The same building contains the threshing-floor, the stove, and the

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AGRICULTURE. 145

shelves for the sheaves of grain which are replenished from the stacks with-
out continually, as the grain is threshed

D. Root and Fruit Crops.

Root crops, such as potatoes, turnips, and the like, are preserved in cel-
lars or in holes in the ground, or even, where the cold is not too severe, in
heaps raised above the surface and covered with earth. Pl. 30, figs.
31a and 31c, represent such an arrangement. The roots are heaped and
covered first with straw, then earth to a depth sufficient to exclude the frost ;
in the centre of the heap is a hole usually filled with straw, in which a ther-
mometer (jig. 24) is placed. This thermometer is occasionally examined,
that frost and fermentation may be guarded against; sometimes the roots
are heaped upon the surface covered with light frames (fig. 316), and then
with straw, the ends being filled with straw that access may be had to the
roots. Clover hay requires peculiar management, otherwise the leaves fall
from the stalks and its value is diminished. It should be mowed when a
majority of the flower-heads are developed, and left one day in the swath.
The next day the swaths are to be turned so that two fall together ; it is then
left until nearly dry, and when the stems on being beaten cease to show any
moisture, it is gathered in when the dew is upon it. Upon the continent of
Europe it is sometimes cured upon frames made for the purpose, called
clover-horses (pl. 30, jig. 27). ig. 28 is also a form of frame used for the
same purpose, the object in both cases being to secure a free ventilation
amongst the clover, which is arranged with the flower heads inside, that they
may not suffer so much from the rain.

The drying of frwit can only be performed in dry weather, when this is
done in the open air. When it is carried on upon a large scale, kilns built
for the purpose become necessary. In pl. 30, jig. 35, is a plan of such a
kiln, on the line, ex, of jig. 36; jig. 86, a vertical section upon the line,
rs, of fig. 38; fig. 37, a transverse section on the line, ex, in fig. 88; jig. 38,
a horizontal section on the line, ex, in jig. 36; and jig. 39 is a perspective
view of one of the sliding frames for holding the fruit. Beneath the drying
chamber is an oven, and at m are openings for the entrance of air which
passes through tubes, «, to the fruit-chamber, and is again drawn off by the
tube, x, and carried beneath the fire-grate to save fuel, and to increase the
draught in the drying-chamber.

E. Under-Ground Drains.

When from the nature of the subsoil an excess of moisture exists in the
soil, excluding the atmosphere, the evil must be corrected by under-ground
drainage. Soils of this moist, cold nature, are unsuited to the growth of
any cultivated plants, though particularly congenial to that of weeds. Sur-
face draining does not accomplish the desired end; indeed this can only be
effected by deep under-ground drains, which, lying beneath the surface,
collect the water from a considerable distance, whilst the cultivation of the
ground is not interrupted.

The first thing to be attended to in laying out drains is to give them a

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146 TECHNOLOGY.

sufficient fall or descent to carry off the water which collects in them. The
operation commences with the construction of a main drain through the
lowest portion of the field, to receive and carry off the contributions of the
minor drains. This main drain is best left open, and in general should be
at least three feet wide at the bottom, and three feet deep; from this radiate
over the whole surface of the ground to be drained, the under-ground
branches, which, having been dug to the requisite depth, are filled with
stones, bushes, straw, reeds, or similar substances, as they may be at
hand. 7

If stones be made use of, care should be taken that none are so large as
to fill alone the bottom of the drain; in general the stones should lie hol-
low, so as to permit the passage of the water, and not dam it up at any one
point. Pl. 30, jig. 29, is not an unusual arrangement, the drain being
covered first with a layer of straw, rushes, &c., then with the soil. Where
reeds and straw are made use of, jig. 30 shows a common arrangement.
When the drain itself is filled with these materials, there should be a space
above of at least one foot, which is to be filled with the surface soil; this
should be heaped over the drain, that as the ground gradually consolidates
it may not sink below the general surface.

In England, where draining is extensively practised, the plough is made
use of in opening the drains, which materially lessens the cost of excavation.
The following tools are also made use of in England: The drain shovel (pi.
30, figs. 10, 11, and 12), and drain hoes of various forms and sizes (jigs. 8 and
9). The earth-borer is often made use of to advantage to ascertain the
nature of the ground beneath the surface, as the labor of draining may often
be reduced by finding a stratum of gravel beneath, into which the surface
water may be conducted. For minor depths, the auger shown in jig. 15 is
quite sufficient. When a greater depth of auger is required, an instrument,
shown in jig. 16, is made use of. /%g. 17 is the shaft of the auger ; jig. 18,
the handle; jig. 19, the guide for directing the rod of the auger when a con-
siderable depth is to be attained.

Whilst we are speaking of English operations, we will take occasion to
mention a few instruments in use in England for cultivating and hoeing
vegetable crops. Pl. 80, jig. 14, is a hoe used to thin out plants where
they stand too thick; jig. 13 is a double-pointed hoe, of Portuguese
origin, and serves to cultivate on both sides of a plant. The treble-pointed
hoe (fig. 22) is for working between the rows of garden vegetables ; jigs. 23
and 21 are other forms of hoe used for the same purpose ; p/. 30, jig. 20, is an
instrument for cutting and grubbing up roots of trees and small shrubs.

F, Double Crops.

Not unconnected with the present article is the subject of double crops.
We shall limit ourselves, however, to the consideration of a method prac-
tised with success in Austria, for obtaining a crop of small grain and a crop
of roots from the same ground each year.

The field (pl. 30, jig. 1) is ploughed and harrowed in the usual manner,
and planted with small grain, wheat, rye, or oats, in rows two feet apart;

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AGRICULTURE. 147

before the grain is up th®field is rolled and harrowed, which leaves it in
the state seen in fig. 2. Upon the appearance of the grain (jig. 3), the cul-
tivator or some other instrument is made use of between the rows. At the
moment the first crop begins to show its ears, the second crop, which may
be potatoes, turnips, or beets, is planted between the rows (jig. 4). 2g. 5
shows the grain ready for the hagvest, and in jigs. 6 and 7 the second crop
has possession of the ground.

G. Flax.

This useful plant is harvested when ripe by pulling up the roots, tied in
bundles, and dried in the field. It is then freed from seed by passing the
heads through an iron comb, bound in small bundles and rotted, that the
woody portion of the plant may be separated from the hal or fibrous por-
tion. After the rotting is completed, it is dried and broken upon a simple
machine called a flax brake (pl. 30, fig. 44). In the lower or stationary
part of the frame there are three slats on edge, between which work two
similar slats upon the movable frame which vibrates upon a pivot in the
frame of the machine. The flax is laid upon the lower slats, and is broken
by the motion of the upper frame, which is worked by the hand of the
operator. .

A great variety of machines have been invented for braking flax, which
have ina measure replaced the hand machines. After the flax is broken, it
is submitted to an operation called swingling, to remove the woody portions
which have been broken up by the brake; it is laid upon a bench and beaten
by the swingle (pl. 30, jig. 45¢), then it is heckled upon the coarse heckle
( jig. 45), and lastly upon the fine heckle.

Pl. 29, fig. 42, is a machine for cleaning flax after it comes from the
brake, which makes better work than the above manual operations. It acts
in the following manner: two reels, a and 0, revolve rapidly, nearly in con-
tact with each other; the flax is attached to rods and hung at the frame at ¢,
and is gradually lowered and raised between the revolving reels until entirely
freed from the Aurds, when it is fit to be spun.

H. Cider.

An important branch in the economy of the farm is the making of cider,
which may be prepared from apples, pears, or plums. The ripe fruit is
ground or mashed in a mill (pl. 30, jig. 47) driven by horse power, or upon
a small scale in an apparatus represented in jig. 48, in which the fruit is
crushed by a conical roller, pivoted in the centre of the table. Upon a
larger scale, the fruit, after being ground in the mill (pl. 30, jig. 47), is car-
ried to the press (jig. 49), the screw of which is worked by the rope ¢, or
otherwise. The cider is received from the press in barrels, which are kept
entirely full until the fermentation is ended. Its flavor is improved by the
addition of strawberries, raspberries, or other small fruits, before the fer-
mentation ; lime or chalk is sometimes added, to check the too rapid fer-
mentation. By the evaporation of sweet cider a syrup or molasses is obtained,
by many preferred to that made from sugar-cane.

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148 Beene TECHNOLOGY.

2. Live Stock.

A proper choice of stock is a matter of much importance. Whether the
most improved or the common breeds are to be selected, depends upon
climate, soil, and other circumstances. Good, sufficient food, shelter from
the severity of the weather, and faithful attendants, are indispensably
necessary to the thriving of all farm stock.

A. The Horse.

We shall here treat of the horse as a farming animal, and refer to the
article Zoology, in the second volume of this work, for a scientific descrip-
tion of him, which would be out of place here. PJ. 31, jig. 19, represents
the skeleton of the horse with the outline of his form ; jig. 18, the appear-
ance of the same immediately beneath the skin; jig. 21, a side view of the
bones of the head ; jig. 20, a top view of the same; jig. 30, a healthy knee-
joint of the hind leg; jig. 31, the ligaments and blood-vessels of the same;
Jig. 82, the healthy bone, and jig. 83, a spavined bone of the same joint;
fig. 84, the hoof of a five-year-old mare not yet shod; jy. 35, the same
after having been shod a year; jig. 36, a section of the fore hoof, and fig. 37,
a section of the hind hoof.

As the age of a horse is determined by the condition and appearance of
the teeth, it becomes necessary to observe these closely.

They are divided into incisors, tushes, and grinders. In the full-grown
horse there are twelve incisors, six in each jaw; the two front incisors, aa
(fig. 24 a), are popularly called nippers or gatherers ; the two next adjoin-
ing, bb (fig. 24 a), separators, or middle teeth ; and the outer, the corners,
or corner teeth, ¢ (jig. 27a). The tushes are between the incisors and
grinders, dd (jig. 25a). The horse has also twenty-four grinders, twelve
in each jaw. There is, besides these, another or temporary set of teeth,
called milk teeth ; some of these are apparent at birth, others are developed
in the first years afterwards. The horse is foaled with six molar or grinding
teeth in each jaw; the twelfth day after the two front nippers appear above
and below, and in fifteen days the two intermediate; the corner ones are
not cut till three months after. At ten months the incisors are on a level
with each other, and have a very sensible cavity ; at twelve months this
cavity becomes smaller (pl. 31, jig. 22), and the animal shows four molar
teeth on each side above and below, three of the temporary or colt’s, and
one horse tooth; at eighteen months the cavity in the nippers is filled up,
and there are five grinders, two of the horse and three of the colt’s ; at two
years (fig. 23) the first of the colt’s molar teeth in each jaw are displaced,
and the cavities in the corner teeth are not yet quite filled up; at two years
and a half or three years, the front nippers fall and give place to the per-
manent ones; at three and a half the middle nippers are likewise removed,
at which period the second milk molar also falls (pl. 31, jig. 24a), and
the four corner teeth continue to protrude themselves more and more

( fig. 24 6).

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AGRICULTURE. 149

At four the horse has six molar teeth, five of his new set and one of his
last; the corner colt’s tooth, seen from the side, has become very small
(jig. 25 6); at four and a half years these corners are replaced by the per-
manent teeth, and the last temporary grinder disappears. At five years
the principal indications are found on the corner teeth and tushes; the
corner teeth have their inner and outer edges upon a level, and the tushes
are developed (jigs. 26a and 26 6); at five and a half they are completely
out, and the internal wall of the upper nippers, which was before but incom-
pletely formed, is now on a level with the rest; at this period the nippers
or incisors have all of them a cavity formed in the substance between the
inner and outer walls, and it is the disappearance of this that marks the
age; at six years those in the front nippers below are filled up, while the
cavities in the corner teeth are still deep, the tushes well grown, and their
points more or less worn off (jigs. 27 @ and 27 6). At seven years the mark
or cavity in the nippers is filled up, and the tushes are a little more worn
(jigs. 28 @ and 286). It often occurs, however, that there is a depression
in the cavity of the nippers, and also, in the middle teeth, no real cavity,
but a slight brown depression. At eight years the cavities have entirely
disappeared, and the tushes are still more worn ( jigs. 29a and 296); at
this period the horse is said to be aged and to have lost his mark, but
among good judges the teeth still present sufficient indications. At nine
years old the groove in the tushes is nearly worn away, and the nippers
become rather rounded; at ten these appearances are still stronger; at
twelve the tushes only exhibit a rounded stump, the nippers push for-
ward, become yellow, and as age advances appear triangular and usually
uneven. There are also other indications of great age in the horse, such
as rough, uneven hoofs. J. 31, jigs. 38 to 47, show the foot of the horse
in several diseased forms; spavin, windgall, malanders, ring-bone, elub-

foot, &e.
B. Neat Cattle.

The raising of neat cattle is an important branch of husbandry, even con-
sidered independently of the usefulness of the ox as a beast of burden. The
flesh and the milk, either in its natural state or in the form of butter and
cheese, serve as food, the hide and other portions of the animal as articles
of commerce. From the wild ox of Europe have descended many varieties,
much modified by taming or cultivation. We shall figure a few of the
most noted of these varieties: pl. 31, jig. 2, is a Swabian cow; jig. 4, a
Sussex bull; jig. 5, a Sussex cow; jig. 6, a Herefordshire cow; jig. 7,
a Devonshire ox, and jig. 8, a Kiloe ox; jig. 1 is a Swiss cow of the moun-
tain race; jig. 8 is a Swiss bull. This latter race is of medium size, not
remarkable for its fattening qualities, but superior milkers.

The ox is very generally used as a beast of burden. When an animal is
stubborn and refuses to pull, he should be yoked to a heavy weight, as seen
in pl. 32, fig. 1, in such a position that in order to reach the food trough he
must haul up the weight, and thus he becomes gradually accustomed to the
strain upon his shoulders. The question of the relative profit of the horse

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150 TECHNOLOGY.

and the ox as beasts of draught is still undecided, and must be determined
for each locality by existing circumstances, climate, &c. The horse is much
more subject to disease than the ox, while the latter is more easily fatigued,
particularly in warm latitudes. Amongst the diseases to which horned
cattle are subject is that very dangerous one caused by eating too greedily
of green food ; this produces such a quantity of gas as to endanger the life
of the animal, which oftentimes is only saved by opening a vent for the gas
from the stomach. J. 32, jig. 3, is the knife used for this purpose, and at
jig. 2 is seen the manner in which it is applied. This knife is plunged into
the animal with its sheath, which is left in the opening when the knife is
withdrawn, to prevent the immediate closing of the wound.

Particular cleanliness is requisite in the management of neat cattle, also
light, well-aired stalls, such as are represented in pl. 32, fig. 4. Pl. 29,
Jig. 44, is a plan and elevation of a cattle-barn. The cattle-stalls are in the
centre of the building, with a passage-way between the cribs and the wall
for the purpose of feeding without disturbing the animal. The building
should be furnished with a chimney, with a valve for purposes of ventila-
tion.

The milk as it comes from the cows is strained immediately into cans
( pl. 32, jig. 4), and is then set away in shallow pans in the dairy room. In
large establishments an especial house is devoted to the milk, butter, and
cheese ( pl. 30, fig. 42). Hig. 48 is the plan of such a house. ais the
milk-room, with shelves around the walls for the milk-pans, and a table in
the centre. This portion of the building has very thick stone walls, and
only one window, de, which runs slanting through the wall, and is glazed
on both interior and exterior. There is also a ventilating chimney to keep
the room well aired. In the room 6 the butter and cheese are made and
the utensils kept; fis a fire-place used in making cheese. In the room ¢
the butter and cheese are preserved ; the centre of the room may be par-
titioned off for an ice-house, which can be filled through the passage, g h,
and the exterior space, 741m, remains for the butter and cheese. In this
room is kept the lactometer, which should be found upon every milk
farm; it is seen in pl. 32, fig. 5, and consists of a row of cylindrical glasses
of equal size and similarly graduated. The best milk is first poured into
the glasses, and when the cream has separated from the milk, its thickness
or quantity is noted on the graduation; this serves then as a scale with
which to compare the milk of the other cows.

By butter-making is understood the process of separating the oleaginous
portions of the milk by means of a rapid and violent shaking ; this is ordi-
narily accomplished in the churn represented in pl. 32, jig. 6a. Fig. 66 is
the dasher. A more convenient churn for large establishments is repre-
sented upon the same plate; jig. 7 is a barrel-shaped vessel resting in the
frame (jig. 9). The dasher (jig. 8) is hung upon an axis within the barrel,
and is worked by a crank. Pl. 30, fig. 46, represents an English churn, in
which the dasher, at the same time that it is raised and lowered, is rapidly
revolved, by which arrangement the cream ¥# much more violently agitated.
After the butter has separated from the buttermilk, it is worked and beaten

730

AGRICULTURE. 161

by the hand or by wooden implements until all the buttermilk is worked
out; it is then salted, and if intended for transportation or keeping, is packed
into firkins or jars, to preserve it as much as possible from contact with the
atmosphere.

Cheese is also another product of milk; the solid portion of the milk or
curd is caused to separate from the whey or watery portion, by the addition
of rennet, which is the stomach of the calf dried and preserved for that
purpose. The curd is first drained in a bag, then salted, pressed, and set
away in the cheese-room to dry. Pl. 32, jig. 10, is a common form of
cheese-press.

C. The Sheep.

So easily does the sheep accommodate itself to differences of climate and
situation, that every country has its peculiar race. In pl. 31 are represented
some of the most important varieties. ig. 9 is an improved Merino ram,
jig. 10 a ewe of the same; this breed has fine short wool, particularly
adapted to fine cloths. The Saxon Merino or Electoral race is a cross
between the Saxon sheep and Spanish Merino; it produces light fleeces, but
of the finest, softest wool. The English breeds have run into great variety
by crossing, some furnishing long, others short wool; of the latter are the
Southdown sheep (jig. 11). Hg. 12 shows the Leicester breed, fig. 13
the Herefordshire. In most countries the sheep are driven in at night and
confined in stalls. Sometimes they are permitted to remain all night in the
open air, but in this case they are confined in a movable inclosure or hurdle
( pl. 32, fig. 12); or as the night air is considered to injure sheep in the
climate of England, movable sheep stalls are sometimes made use of (jigs.
1iaand110). At other times stationary shelters are erected for them, into
which they are driven every night. Pl. 32, jig. 13, is such a sheep-fold or
stall, so arranged as to serve the purpose of sheltering the sheep at night,
while it is furnished with shelves on which silkworms are fed.

D. The Hog.

Next in importance to the sheep comes the domestic hog. In form it
varies but little from the wild hog of Europe, from which it is descended.
Its teeth are rather remarkable; they are 44 in number, twenty-eight back
teeth, and above and below six front and two corner teeth. By cultivation
it has run into numerous varieties, a few of the most important of which
are figured in pl. 81. /%g. 16 is a boar, fig. 17 a sow of the Berkshire
breed ; jigs. 14 and 15 are of the Chinese race, which has been more or less
introduced into England and on the continent of Europe. Everything which
can be digested is devoured by this voracious animal. Roots, fruit, grain, or
carrion, nothing comes amiss ; its own young are not safe, even when other
food is plenty, but the character of the flesh depends upon the nature of its
food. Where this is flesh or oily nuts, the flesh is very inferior ; but where
fed entirely upon milk and grain, the meat is extremely delicate. Where
potatoes are used for feeding hogs, they are first washed in a machine ( pi.
29, fig. 48) and cooked, which process is found to add greatly to their nutri-

731

152 TECHNOLOGY.

tious qualities. The above machine consists of a cylinder revolving in a
frame; the cylinder is partially filled with potatoes and revolved until
the friction has loosened the dirt from them; it is then filled with water,
or a stream is kept running through it, until it flows clean from the
machine.

E.. The Silkworm.

Silk is an animal production, spun by the so-called silkworm, the larva
of the Phalena bombyx mori. The animal is furnished with a collection
of vessels, in which is secreted, about the time of spinning, a glutinous liquid
which hardens on exposure to the atmosphere, and forms the silk thread,
which is usually about two thousand feet long, and is strengthened for use
by doubling. In the raising of the silkworm the first care should be to pro-
vide the food; many substitutes have been tried for the mulberry, but
nothing has yet been found to take its place.

The white mulberry, the leaves of which furnish the best food for the silk-
worm, is indigenous in Syria, Persia, China, and southern Germany. That
the leaves may be gathered with ease, the tree should not be permitted to
grow very tall, but be shortened-in every season, for several years after it
leaves the nursery. PJ. 32, jig. 31, may be cut in, as seen in fig. 80; the
following year the branches which it has pushed (fig. 33) are headed down,
as seen in jig. 32, and so on each succeeding year, as seen in jigs. 34, 35,
36, and 37, until the tree receives a low bushy form, from which the leaves
may be easily gathered. Recently the mulberry has been grown in hedges,
from which the leaves may be gathered without trouble. The Morus mul-
ticaulis is best adapted to this mode of culture. The rooms in which the
worms are fed are furnished with shelves one above the other ; or more pro-
perly removable frames made of plaited willow roots or coarse netting ( pl.
32, figs. 16 and 17) ; they should be well ventilated, and capable of being
darkened when required. There should also be arrangements for heating
the apartments, that an equable temperature may be maintained, and the air
kept constantly dry; should the air become too dry it may be corrected by
placing vessels of water in the rooms.

The first care of the silk-grower is to procure good egos; cocoons are
selected of a white or yellow color; the female cocoons (pl. 32, jig. 24)
are rounder in the middle than the male (jig. 25), which have a deeper
depression in the centre. Equal quantities of both are selected. The
cocoons inclose the pupa; jig. 26 is the female, jig. 27 the male. A tem-
perature of 50° to 80° Fahrenheit is necessary to bring them out, and a
period of two to three weeks is required; this should take place in a tole-
rably dark room.

Figs. 28 and 29 are the perfect insect, the former the female, the latter
the male. Soon after hatching they are permitted to come together. After
a few days the male dies, and the female, after laying five to six hundred
eggs, dies also. These eggs are permitted to hatch at a time when the
young leaves of the mulberry are tender. The eggs (jig. 18) are placed in

boxes (jig. 15), which in eight or ten days are placed in frames covered
732

AGRICULTURE. 153

with paper, and pierced with holes, upon which some young mulberry
leaves are strewed; from the tenth to the fourteenth day the eggs hatch,
when they are carefully carried to the feeding apartments. Several distinct
periods are distinguished in the life of the silkworm ; during the first (pl.
32, fig. 19) the worm is sparingly fed with cut leaves. In the second period
(jig. 20) the supply of cut leaves is increased; during this period the first
skin is cast. In order to clean the frames, tender branches of mulberry are
laid over the worms, and when they have crept upon them they are removed
toacleanframe. On the fourth day of this period thesecond skin is cast. In
the third period (jig. 21) the worms are again removed, and on the fifth day
the third skin is cast. On the sixth day of the fourth period (jig. 22) the
fourth skin is cast, and the frames are again cleaned. In the fifth period
(jigs. 23 a and 28 6), the feeding increases until the tenth day, when it again
decreases gradually. Onthe 11th day the worms cease eating, the body
becomes transparent, and the thread is visible. The spinning-chamber is
now arranged with branches of birch, upon which the worms creep and wind
their cocoons (pl. 32, fig. 14). This operation occupies six or seven days,
though the cocoons should not be removed until the tenth day.

The chrysalis is then to be killed, which is effected by exposing the
cocoons to a high heat, to steam, or the vapor of turpentine. They are then
thrown into hot water to loosen the glue which binds the threads together,
and the silk thus loosened is wound upon a reel eight to twenty-four threads
together. Nine to ten pounds of cocoons give 1 pound of silk.

F. The Honey Bee.

The rearing of bees, though not generally pursued by agriculturists, is one
of the most interesting employments of the husbandman, while there is
none in which he can engage which affords so large a profit upon the
capital invested, or the labor and attention required.

In a wild state, bees occupy hollows in trees, living in families of from
20,000 to 40,000. In a tame or cultivated state, however, they are kept
in boxes or baskets made of straw or willow roots, called hives. A com-
plete swarm of bees consists of one queen, the mother of all the other bees
(pl. 32, jig. 48), differing in form and shape from them all; her wings are
much shorter, and her legs are without the brushes and cavities with which
the working bees are furnished. The queen is the object of the attention
and solicitude of the whole hive, and alone lays the eggs which produce
the working bees; the latter (jig. 45), which are the smallest and most
numerous in the hive, are produced in small cells, and are but sparingly
fed at first. When fed with the food prepared for the queen they lay eggs,
which, however, produce only drones (jig. 44). The working bees have
stings, and upon their legs brushes, with which they collect the pollen which
adheres to the hair of their bodies from the flowers, and pack it away in
small cavities or baskets on their legs; this pollen is thought by most
naturalists who have turned their attention to the subject, to be made use
of by the bees only for the purpose of feeding their young, their own
food being exclusively honey, or sugar in some other form. The drones

733

154 TECHNOLOGY.

are the males; like the queen, they have neither brushes nor cavities on
their legs.

The impregnation of the queen is effected by the drones on the wing and
without the hive. J. 32, jig. 55, is a sheet of honey-comb; a is a closed
drone cell; on the left is seen a queen’s cell, and on the right another half
completed. Within their hive the bees close all openings and cracks with
a substance called propolis, which they gather from resinous or other trees
in the state in which it is used, and then commence the building of the
combs. The cells destined for the queens are many times larger than the
others, and require 100 to 150 times as much wax. There are also about
1200 to 2000 drone cells and smaller cells in which the working bees are
hatched. Besides these there are others less regularly formed and used
only for storing honey.

The queen lays during the summer from 16,000 to 18,000 eggs, the care
of which devolves upon the working bees, assisted, it is believed by some,
by the drones. The larvee produced from these eggs are fed with honey
mixed with the pollen of flowers, called bee-bread ; in seven to eight days
the first transformation takes place; the pupa is then shut up in its cell,
and after thirteen to fourteen days the perfect animal comes out, and an
hour or two afterwards is ready to start out on its labors. Those which are
crippled or disabled are immediately killed and carried out of the hive.
When two queens exist in the same hive, one of them leaves with a portion
of the family and the bees are said to swarm, pl. 32, jig. 42, shows a
swarm of bees, hanging one to the other upon a branch of a tree.

When the bees have completed their labors and the hive is filled, they
are smothered with sulphur, and their store of honey and wax is taken.
Many hives have been contrived by which the surplus honey is taken with-
out destroying the bees, and the lives of these interesting insects are spared.
Pi. 32, fig. 56, is a hive contrived by Thorley for this purpose ; the lower
box is the habitation of the bees, and has a hole in the top over which a
straw hive or other box is placed; when the lower box is filled, the bees
ascend and fill also the one above it, and at the close of the season the
upper box may be taken from them, leaving sufficient provision for the
winter in the lower one. On top is seen a glass globe in which the bees
may be watched at their labors; it is, however, necessary to keep the globe
covered with another box to exclude the light. PJ. 32, jig. 57, represents
the collateral hive of White, consisting of wooden boxes placed side by side,
with openings for communication in each box; they are represented in the
figure as separated from each other, to show the openings ; when the labors
of the bees are over for the season, one of these boxes with its contents may
be removed, leaving them the other for their winter support. The most
common material of which hives are constructed in Europe is straw; the
form most usual is seen in pl. 82, fig. 38; in the United States wood is
almost exclusively made use of. J/g. 52 is a style of straw hive much used
in England ; several of these are placed one above the other, and the top one
is furnished with a cover. One or more of these boxes is taken from the bees
in the fall, leaving, as usual, sufficient honey to carry them through the winter.

734

HUNTING AND FISHING. 155 .

Besides the straw cover which surmounts the whole, each hive is furnished
with a wooden cover composed of slats (jigs. 52 and 53); these bars should
be 14 inches wide and placed at a distance of half'an inch from each other, and
are for the purpose of supporting the combs attached to them. Other hives
have been used with glass windows (jigs. 48-50), through which the opera-
tions of the bees may be watched ; jig. 54 is the cover of the hive seen in®
jig. 50, showing the openings through which the bees pass to the glasses
above. ‘The better to observe the bees at their labors, the bottom or sides
of the hives may be made of glass (jig. 51); jigs. 40 and 41 represent a
barrel hive, much used in Europe, where the bees are managed on the
depriving system ; at the close of the season the hive is opened and the
surplus honey is cut out; to facilitate this operation, the division boards,
which in jigs. 47 a@ and 0 are horizontal, are in this hive placed vertically.

Bee-stands are the shelters in which a number of hives are placed, and
may be either large wooden boxes, containing a number of hives (fig. 46),
or masonry structures (jig. 38), or detached sheds, open upon one side or
entirely closed (jig. 39), the object in every case being to protect the hives
and bees from the sun, rain, and cold winds.

X. HUNTING AND FISHING.
1. Honrine.

Hontine is the art of chasing and capturing the various kinds of wild
animals, either with a view to their destruction as vermin, or as affording
sport in the pursuit, or as furnishing food, clothing, or other economical
results. The classification sometimes adopted in professional treatises of
different degrees of the art, varying with the kind of game, will here be
unnecessary.

Hunting in Europe differs very materially from the art as practised in
America, if indeed it deserves the name of an art upon the latter continent.
There the noxious animals have become scarce, comparatively speaking, and
game properly so-called is in most places protected by law, and killed only
by the privileged classes. In many parts of America, on the contrary,
bears, wolves, jaguars, &., are still to be found in abundance, and game
may be taken by any one who has the inclination to seek and possesses
skill in finding and capturing. Whilst in Europe hunting has become an
art usually practised by the rich and noble or their retainers only, in
America the field is open to al], and in most cases hunting is practised in a
very unskilful manner. In presenting the following article, therefore, our
object is not so much to afford instruction to our American readers, who
will probably derive from it little or no information of practical importance,
as to show the manner in which hunting is carried on in the civilized parts
of the Old World, to give an account of the implements used, the different
species of animals pursued. &e.

735

156 TECHNOLOGY.

The animals sought after in Europe are Bears, Deer, Roes, Wild Boars,
Hares, Foxes, Badgers, Beavers, Otters, Martens, and Wild Cats, among
quadrupeds, and Wood Grouse, Moor Fowl or Red Grouse, Pheasants,
Partridges, Woodcock, Snipe, Quail, Swans, Wild Geese, Wild Ducks,
Buzzards, Curlews, Plover, Corncrakes, Fieldfares, &c., among birds, and

«the order in which they are mentioned will indicate their relative impor-
tance in the eyes of the hunters and sportsmen of that country.

A, Aids in Hunting.

Success in hunting depends in a great measure upon the sagacity and
training of the dogs employed to discover the trail of game and other ani-
mals. Hence it is necessary that the hunter be provided with good dogs,
the training of which should, whenever possible, be superintended by him-
self. At the head of hunting-dogs stands the slow-hound, by means of
which the trails of wild animals are discovered and followed up. The
education of this kind of dog is a task requiring great care, and three years
are usually consumed in the process. If the animal is not perfectly trained
at the end of this period of time, the blame should rest upon the trainer,
provided the dog is of a good stock. The slow-hound may be trained upon
stags and wild boars. For baiting-dogs, the Bull-dog, Danish Mongrel,
Wolf-dog, and Pomeranian Boar-hound are employed; they also require a
very careful education, and should be taught not only to catch a wild animal
when wounded, but to seize it at the proper place, and not to make the
attack from behind. In addition to those already mentioned we may also
name the. Boar-finder, the Pointer, Setter, and Spaniel, the Greyhound,
used in catching hares, the Badger-dog, employed in searching for foxes
and badgers in their subterranean retreats, the Otter-dog, and even the
Poodle, which may be trained as a water-dog. Horses are also of assistance
in hunting, and are used either as stalking-horses, behind which the hunter
conceals himself in order to approach within proper distance of game, or as
saddle-horses mounted, upon which the hunter follows deer, &c. In this
connexion we mention, finally, Hawks, although falconry at the present
day has been almost entirely abandoned. For this description of hunting
all the species of hawks are employed, but a careful education is required
to render them serviceable. Immediately after the capture of a hawk
its talons are cut off, and a cap of strong leather ( pl. 33, jig. 48), made in
such a manner as to cover the eyes completely, without, however, causing a
painful pressure upon those organs, is clapped upon the head, and removed
only at bathing and feeding times. The wings are confined by means of the
collar (fig. 50, c), a strap of fourteen inches in length, provided with a slit,
whilst the feet are shackled with the catching shoes, rings nearly four
inches long with loops supporting the bill. To the catching-shoes are
attached leather straps used for keeping the hawk at a greater or less dis-
tance. Hawks are kept in a mews or house arranged for the purpose, on
hoops or horizontal poles, are attended to very carefully, and now and then
bathed; the Jer Falcon requiring to be frequently sprinkled with cold
water. The training of hawks is a work troublesome in the highest degree.

736

HUNTING AND FISHING. 157

They often fly away, even those that are best trained. When this occurs
the falconer throws up a lure (pl. 33, jig. 49), which is an imitation of a
bird, or merely two wings fastened together; or even a live pigeon is made
use of in order to bring back the wanderer to the proper course. Herons,
cranes, buzzards, crows, pies, hares, ducks, partridges, and quails, may be
hunted with hawks. Falconry has never been practised to any great
extent in North America, though some American falcons, the duck hawk
and pigeon hawk (Falco peregrinus and columbarws), might be usefully
employed.

B. Practical Hunting.

In order to convert a heath or forest into convenient hunting ground it is
divided into exact squares by means of alleys intersecting 900 paces from
each other, the distance ascertained to be the best. On each quadrangle
six toils of cloth or some other stuff are needed, being part of the apparatus
of hunting practised in artistic style. On pl. 33, jigs. 1 and 2, are exhibited
toils of the ordinary description, which should be ten feet in height each,
and 150 paces in length, calculating three feet to a pace. Two breadths of
linen usually reach to a height of nine feet, to the upper edge of which a
network one foot high is attached, the meshes of which are made of strong
twine or packthread. A strong cord is sewed to the top and bottom of the
cloth, and furnished with short sticks and rings. When network is not
used, a very broad cord, or rather binding, is attached. /2g. 3 exhibits a
rolling or drawing toil, which is almost indispensable in many cases, as, for
instance, in hunting wild boars. A toil of this description is disposed (as
shown in the figure) across the place through which it is supposed the game
will pass, in case any should be driven out of the woods. When the animal
has passed through, the toil is stretched out. Several poles belong toa
drawing toil.

Nets of different descriptions have been in use for a longer period of time
than toils. Nets for stags are much stronger than those employed in the
capture of smaller game. /%g. 6 exhibits a deer-net of this description.
Tossing nets (jig. 5) are called also mirror nets because the threads cross
each other at right angles. The meshes are six or seven inches square.
Boar-nets are only half as high as stag-nets, and those used for taking roes
are likewise somewhat lower, the rope being of the thickness of a quill, and
the width of the meshes four inches. Wolf and hare nets are also used;
the latter, however, are lower, with meshes of three inches square. ows
of patches are also employed for the same purposes. The patches (jig. 4)
are about three quarters of a yard square, and, that they may blind more
readily in the dark and in the forests, which is the only end in view, consist
of bleached linen or cotton cloth. In cases where the apparatus employed
in the more artistic kind of hunting is not sufficient, the patches come into
use ; and when they are not placed too near, and the game is not too tightly
entangled, the animal prefers receiving the shot to passing through the
patches. Besides the cloth rags, bunches of feathers (fig.,7) are very useful.
The latter are composed of feathers of birds of prey, amongst which those

ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOPAZDIA.—VOL, IV. 47 137

to TECHNOLOGY.

of geese may be mixed. In making this apparatus, two feathers (fig. 6) are
fastened together by the quills, which are split for that purpose. They are
then passed along the rope by means of loops. The bunches are always
ten inches apart, and the row when finished is placed upon the reel, where
they are spread and stretched. Another mode of making the bunches is
shown at jig. 9, a@ and 6, in which the feathers are soaked, so as to enable
the manufacturer to tie them into knots in threes, two on one side and one on
the other. They are then looped up on the rope, and firmly stretched by
means of gags. They are likewise placed at distances of ten inches from
each other and reeled up.

Besides the foregoing our plate exhibits other implements which complete
the hunting apparatus. /7%g.10 represents a pole of beech-wood, with a
branch at top, a, and a similar pole furnished with iron hooks at the upper
end, b. fg. 11 is a pole of fir or pine, very light, having at top a hole or
notch, through which the cord passes. A pole for a high toi! must be ten
feet long. /%igs.12 and 13 represent two net sticks, the upper extremity of
the one at jig. 12 having a straight branch to it, while the one at jig. 18 is
merely notched. The former are more conveniently arranged, as the cord
might easily escape from the notches of the latter. The accompanying
propping poles.( fig. 14) are three feet long, and furnished at the two ends
with iron hooks or rings. /%g. 15 is a straight fork for elevated apparatus.
It is six feet high, and provided at top with a fork, one of the prongs being
somewhat shorter and slightly bent, the other a little longer and bent out-
wardly. /%g. 16 is another rod, indispensable where riding is necessary.
These rods are stouter than the poles referred to above, are eleven feet three
inches in length, and furnished at top with a hole, through which passes a
handle or very strong ropes reaching on both sides down to the hooks or
pins, to which they can be fastened. At top is an iron ring with a hook to
it to receive the upper ropes of the cloth and one of the winding ropes.
For raising and lowering the toils a brass bar is added above, through which
passes a cord three fathoms in length, and furnished at one end with a piece
of wood. /%gs. 17 and 18 represent hooks, on which roe and hare nets are
stretched and fastened ; they are four feet long and pointed below. A com-
plete hunting apparatus, moreover, must include a paling and punching
iron (fig. 19) for making holes for the poles, a, and another instrument, 6,
used in setting up the nets and patches, which consist of a rounded piece
of wood tipped with iron. Pins (jig. 20) of oak, beech, or any hard wood,
should always be at hand, as also small hooks -with which to fasten the
toils to the ground; also a mallet (pl. 33, jig. 21) for driving down
hooks and pins. /%g. 52 is the needle used in making the net. 72g. 58
represents the pack starting for the hunt, and jig. 54 the chase of the wild

boar.

C. Shooting, Trapping, ce.
Under this heading we include the methods of hunting in which neither
toils, nets, patches, nor feathers are employed. Hence we shall consider
1. Saoorme. The best way for a hunter to approach his game is to move
738

HUNTING AND FISHING. 159

against the wind. Wild animals, birds especially, possess so delicate a
sense of hearing as to render it a difficult matter to come within shooting
distance by going in the direction of the breeze. When the haunt of game
has been discovered, the sportsman stations himself in the vicinity, and to
the leeward, early in the morning or in the evening, and waits until the
animal sought for appears. But if unsuccessful in this way, the ground
must be explored to the leeward and search made. Wild boars are hunted
with good boar-hounds also to the leeward, and when the animal appears,
may either be shot in front of the dogs or killed with the hunting-knife,
whilst the hounds hold it fast. oes are brought within shooting distance
by imitating the cry of the doe to her young, by means of a leaf or a piece of
birch bark. The roe soon approaches and is slain.

2. Catrcuine THE Baperr. When the winter retreat of the badger, or
the passage through which it goes in and out during the summer season, is
discovered, a piece of heavy wood is placed before the entrance, and fixed
in such a manner in connexion with another piece, that upon the animal’s
entering or leaving it must necessarily fall down and crush the badger
by its weight. Another mode of capturing the badger is by means
of the hood, which is a network of packthread furnished with iron rings.
The hunter, having placed the hood at the entrance of the retreat,
watches until the badger leaves it, and after the animal has got his
head into the apparatus, it is closed around his neck. When the hood has
been placed in the proper position, it is necessary that the badger should
be driven from his hole by dogs. The badger may also be taken by means
of the iron apparatus exhibited at jig. 25. Plates of good iron are used,
which are placed before the entrance of the retreat, and covered slightly
with earth. The plate, however, should be rubbed with the acicular leaves
of the fir tree, or foliage of the oak or beech, and even then the badger
ventures to run over the plate only when all other passages are closed. The
plate should he well fastened to the spot or the animal may take it with
him into the hole, in which case it would become necessary to dig him out.
Another implement is exhibited at jig. 24. In order to protect the hunter
from the blows of the badger, the animal is seized by means of the nippers
(sig. 38). |

3. Taxine THE Fox. In the first place, foxes may be shot whilst running.
They are also caught in holes dug for the purpose, or taken in their dens
by means of badger dogs, and finally, may be driven into nets placed at
the entrance of their retreats. The best mode of catching the fox is by
iron traps (jigs. 22 and 23). Foxes may also be caught by means of the
iron plate (fig. 25). A wooden trap (jig. 40) is used for the same purpose.
Two pieces (a and @), each four feet in length, are placed on the ground,
and at one thix@l that distance apart. Both are fixed firmly, and slightly
covered with earth. An upper piece (c) is five feet and a half long, and
sustained by small poles. A transverse rest (d) is placed near the summit
of two solid supports, and each movable piece of the apparatus rests upon
appropriate sticks. At the other end, the upper pole slopes in such a man-
ner as to form a slightly-opened hinge, and is attached to a stretched string

739

160 TECHNOLOGY.

(h) extending the whole length of the trap. This apparatus is made at
leisure, and allowed to stand out during winter and summer, without appa-
rent design, so that the foxes may become familiar with its appearance. As
soon as the fur of this animal becomes good again, the trap is put up and
baited, when the fox happens to be in its retreat during rainy or bad
weather. In attempting to go out he is caught under the trap and crushed.
It must be understood that a trap of this description should be placed at
the entrance of each fox-hole. In taking foxes with iron hooks, either the
kind exhibited at jig. 27, called the German hook, or the Lorraine hook
(fig. 26), or the French hook (jig. 28), may be used. These figures are so
beautifully and minutely drawn, that it is unnecessary to describe the instru-
ments particularly.

4. Toe Orrer. The otter is taken either in the water or upon land, by
means of the iron plate, on which the bait is to be fixed. Or the snare
(fig. 29) may be used, constructed much like jigs. 22 and 23, the only
difference being this, that instead of beams, barbed blades are employed.
The otter-trap is represented at fig. 837. The clod-trap (jig. 38) is used for
the same purpose.

5. Tae Witp Cat anp Marten. The wild cat is caught by means of the
iron plate baited in the same way as for the fox, or may be shot whilst
running. Martens are fond of frequenting the same places as foxes, and
are taken in the same kinds of iron traps; the wooden trap may also be
employed. For tree martens the wooden trap (jig. 39) is in general use,
being fixed at a height of from three to four feet. The bottom pieces are
firmly fixed on two forked poles or on two branching young trees. Martens
are taken with nets also and with board traps. Of the latter we shall say
a word when we speak of the polecat. —

6. Tue Potecat. The polecat is generally caught in the same manner
as the marten and also with polecat traps (jigs. 35, 36), the latter being used
also for taking the marten. Polecat traps are constructed of boards, and are
so simple that a glance at the figures will show the method of making them.
Before setting up the trap, the animal must be rendered familiar with the
locality by depositing from time to time food relished by it. After this has
been done a dead bird or raw egg is laid upon the tongue-piece of the trap,
which must be set doubled in such a manner as to oblige the animal to pass
through it in order to reach the bait. A plain trap should have a grating
of iron wire at its posterior end. Polecats may be taken also in spring-
traps (jigs. 33, 34). Being constructed at a small expense, great numbers
may be scattered about. A small bird is suspended between the loops, and
when the animal attempts to take the bait, the loop is detached and incloses
the game.

7. Toe Weaset. The weasel is most readily taken in tH® double board-
traps exhibited in p/. 33, fig. 36, and which are laid for the most part in
hen-houses and pheasant walks or preserves. Weasels will also go into the
wire loops exhibited in jigs. 33 and 34.

8. Tue Peasant. In places where wild pheasants are to be found
pheasant dogs are employed to search them out. When they come upon a

740

HUNTING AND FISHING. 161

bird, it rises and alights upon a tree, and the dog runs round and round,
uae at it, unti] the sportsman makes his appearance and shoots a
game ( jig. 55). Pheasants may be hunted without dogs on a bright starry
night, or when the moon shines faintly. These birds are taken also in
thorn nets or tunnel nets, and finally, with the pheasant trap (jig. 44),
which consists of a large hoe resembling a house, on the outside of which
one or several silk nets, or linen =i fall soa when the trigger or
holding-piece of the apparatus is pulled a the attempt of the pheasant to
take the bait.

9. Witp Guesr anp Ducks are caught in nets of different kinds, on land
or water, or (especially the ducks) with fishing tackle. They are also pro-
cured by shooting. For this purpose a cabin of leaves is constructed upon
the shore, towards which the ducks are attracted by means of the bird-call, or
they are killed from a boat (fig. 56). In boat-shooting the gun is rested
upon a support (fig. 51), and the skiff rowed cautiously from place to place.
Ducks, however, being difficult to approach, it is better to make use of
decoys, or even the shooting-horse, behind which the sportsman hides him-
self until the birds come within distance.

10. Parrrmers were formerly taken in nets made of thorn bushes, but
having now become scarce (in Germany) are reserved for shooting, or
caught in the partridge-trap (jig. 48), constructed upon the same principles
as the pheasant-trap described above.

11. Fre~praRrEs AND OTHER SMALL Birps. In taking fieldfares and other
small birds the apparatus most in use is the gin (fig. 30) or horse-hair loops,
tripled or quadrupled according to the necessity of the case. The bait con-
sists of berries. “2g. 30 represents the bow-gin. Snares somewhat similar
to those used by boys in America for rabbits are also in use for catching
snipes. gs. 31 and 32 represent spring-snares in which birds are
strangled. Another mode of taking birds is by means of the trap exhi-
bited in jig. 45. A very useful contrivance for catching singing birds in
numbers is the fowling-floor (fig. 46). This is a mound, a, of 18 or 20 feet
in length by 12 feet wide, and 3 feet in height, covered with sods on which
little twigs with berries and trained decoy birds are placed. Other decoy
birds are hung in cages in neighboring trees, ps. Around the mound is
fixed in the ground a large net with small meshes, which is carefully folded
down on the ground. Its upper edges are fastened to a double frame, gg,
capable of being closed round the hinges, 7/7, and whose extremities are
held firmly to the ground between stretched ropes passing crosswise from
the spring-poles, ee, through rings at the end of the frame, to the pegs, dd,
driven into the ground. Two lines, Ai, are passed under the frame and
over the blocks, ec, and are united into one line, 6, which is governed from
the hut, c, where the fowler is stationed, and which has only small loop-
holes on the side towards the mound, the door being on the opposite side.
A pull at this line will lift the two Sree of the frame’a little from the
ground, when the spring-power of the poles, ee, will immediately act, and
rapidly draw the two halves of the frame into a vertical position over the
fowling-floor, causing the net to be lifted and closed over the mound. This

741

162 TECHNOLOGY.

contrivance is chiefly in use in Thuringia, a district in Germany, which
annually exports many thousands of the finest singing birds.

12. Brrps or Prey. Birds of prey, besides being shot and destroyed in
other ways, may be taken with the gin net, which also proves of service in
catching other birds. /%gs. 41 and 42 exhibit two kinds of traps, jig. 41
for partridges, jig. 42 for smaller birds. When intended for rapacious birds
they are constructed on the plan of jig. 42, but much stouter.

2. Fissine.
A. Hresh Water Fishing.

1. Fissive wire Hook anp Linz. The general principles of bait-fishing
are so well known that it is scarcely necessary to mention them here. The
apparatus is exceedingly simple and within the reach of almost every
one, but in many cases great skill is necessary to capture the so-called
game fish.

The instrument usually employed for hand fishing is the rod and line
( pl. 84, fig. 1) held in the hand, and the baited hook cast into the water.
Sometimes a swimmer or float is attached to the line, to show more readily
the attack of the fish, or to regulate the depth to which the bait ought to
sink. The bait varies with the fish to be captured, with the season, and
with the condition of the water. It may consist of a worm, caterpillar,
grasshopper, bit of meat, small fish, frog, and indeed animal matter of
almost any kind. Sometimes a number of short baited lines are attached
to a longer one, which is then stretched out in the water, and allowed to
remain over night.

9. Fissinc wira Nets anp Werrs. This mode of fishing affords more
abundant results than the preceding, but its machinery is much more
complicated and expensive. The forms of nets are very various, differing
with the species of fish, locality, &c. A simple kind is that known as the
scoop or hoop-net, consisting of a netted bag attached to a hoop with a long
handle (pl. 84, jig. 2). The dip-net is a square piece of netting, stretched
by the corners between two semicircular hoops, which cross each other at
right angles, and are suspended from a long pole. The jish-wevr is repre-
sented in jigs. 4 and 5, the set-net in jig. 6, the seene or haul-net in fig. 3.
Fig. 7 shows the construction of what is usually called a jish-pot or basket.
The casting-net is much used on the Southern sea-coast of the United States.
This consists of a circular net with weights around the circumference, and
along rope attached to the centre. This is cast into the water, and the
circumference sinking more rapidly than the centre, any fish which happen
to be beneath are immediately inclosed.

3. Fisninc By Fire. This consists in attaching an iron vessel containing
burning splints to the bow of a boat, or carrying it by hand close to the
water. The light attracts the fish, Pie are then taken either by hand or
by means of scoop-nets, spears, gigs, &c. (pl. 34, jig. 8).

742

HUNTING AND FISHING. 163

B. Marine Fishing.

It will already have been understood by our readers that fishing includes
not only the capture of fishes, but of aquatic animals in general. Under
this head, therefore, may be given the catching of whales, crabs, oysters,
lobsters, &c., in addition to that of herring, cod, tunny, mackerel, &c. We
have, however, presented the general features of the whale-fishing under
the head of Mammattia, and those of the fishes above-mentioned under
Fisues, and shall, therefore, conclude this part of our subject by a brief
reference to the fleur es on plates 34 and 35.

Pl. 35, fig. 1, represents a party of fishermen in the act of capturing
tunnies, ieeaetas to the method practised in the Mediterranean. The
entire apparatus is shown in pl. 34, jig. 9, consisting of huge nets, arranged,
in a succession of chambers, in one of which the scene first mentioned is
supposed to be taking place. PU. 35, fig. 2, shows a scene of the whale-
fishery ; a party of men about to harpoon a whale, with the ships in the
distance, from one of which is streaming the smoke evolved in trying out
the blubber. Two dead whales, previously captured, form part of the
picture. In pl. 35, jig. 3, we see fishermen catching herrings by means of
an enormous net. The eee thus taken amounts sometimes to 120,000
or 140,000 at a single haul.

Pl. 34, jigs. 138 and 14, present incidents in cod-fishing. Orysters are
taken by means of the ae (pl. 34, fig. 11), and sometimes by a kind of
dredge (fig. 12). Crabs and lobsters are caught in pots (jig. 10) baited
with meat.

743

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Ly TO). QeCHITECT URE

[The numbers refer to the top paging of the text.]

Azacus, the, origin of, 23.

Abbey, the, of St. Denis, 168 ; of Melrose, 174.

Acropolis, the, of ancient cities in general, 32, 33 ;
of Tiryns and Mycene, 33; of Athens, and
edifices connected with it, 42-44.

/#gina, ruins on the island of, 45.

Esculapius, temple of, at Pompéii, 80.

Agnes, St., the church of, erected by Constantia,
97.

Agrigentum, temples of Juno and Concordia at,
51; temple of the giants at, ib.

Agrippa, additions of, to the Pantheon, 71; the
Diribitorium, baths, and other buildings erected
by, 72; temple dedicated to the sons of, erected
by Augustus at Nismes, 73.

Aisles, side, various forms of, 147, 148,

Aix, the prison at, 217.

Alberti, Leo Battista, 183.

Albertus Magnus, 164.

Aleagar of Seville, 145.

Alessi, Galeazzo, 189, 203.

Alexandria, the catacombs of, 16.

Algardi, Alessandro, 189.

Alhambra, the palace, description of, 144.

Altars, natural, 111; of the early basilicas, 127 ;
of the Byzantine churches, 133.

Ambrogio Fossano, an Italian architect, 177.

America, ancient monuments the only representa-
tives of American architecture proper, 118;
state of architecture in Mexico at the time of
the discovery of, 119 ; architectural remains in
Mexico, 119-121—in Guatemala, 121, 122—in
Yucatan, 122, 123.

Amphitheatres, 31,32; of Rome, 65; of Flavian,
78; at Verona and Nismes, ib.; of Pompeii,
80.

Amsterdam, the royal residence in, 207; the old
Exchange at, 211.

Ancona, harbor of, built by Trajan, 86; the
church of St. Cyriacus at, 171.

Angelo, St., the castle of, formerly the mausoleum
of Hadrian, 86.

Anglesea, double dolmen at, 110.

Anteopolis, large temple ruins at, 16.

Antinoe, or Antinopolis, the ruins of, 16.

Antonine, the column of, 214.

Antoninus Pius, restorations by, 88; temple of
Antoninus and Faustina, ib.

Antwerp, the cathedral of, 166, 167.

Apollinopolis, the temple of, 7.

Apollo, temple of, at Basse, 46; at Delos, 47;
near Miletus, 48, on the Palatine at Rome,
69.

Apsis, the, or sanctuary, various forms of, 147.

Aquino, the bridge over the Melfa near, 218.

Arabian style, the, details and examples of, 142-
146.

Arausio, triumphal arch at, 83.

Arch, the, first rude attempt at, 33 ; knowledge of,
introduced into Italy by the Etruscans, 58 ; the

Tuscan, 99 ; the Doric, 100; the Ionic and Co-
rinthian, 102 ; peculiar forms of, in the modern
Persian and Indian styles, 146 ; great variety of
forms of, in the Middle Ages, 152; the Ro-
manesque, the Moorish arch, &c., ib.; the
pointed, seven different forms of, 152, 153; the
ass’s back or Tudor, 146, 153 ; the basket, 153.

Arches, triumphal, at Rome, 66, 67, 83; at San-
tonum, 83 ; of Tibus, Gabius, Marius, and Au-
gustus, ib.; arch of Titus at Beneventum, 85;
triumphal arch of Marcus Aurelius, 89—of
ee ones 90, 91—the arch of Constantine, 95,

Architecture, ancient Hindoo, the characteristics
of, illustrated by the description of various
buildings, 1-4; Egyptian, 5-19; Assyrian, Me-
dian, Babylonian, and Persian, 19-22 ; Grecian,
general considerations respecting, 22-39 and 52,
53; special description of Grecian structures,
32-53 ; Pheenician or Syrian, 53-58; Roman
architecture—the period of the kings, 58, 59—
of the republic, 59-68—of the emperors, 68-97 ;
the Tuscan style, 60; remarks upon the gene-
ral style of, at Pompeii, 81; review of the ar-
chitectural achievements at Rome from Augus-
tus to Antoninus, 89,90; the age of Constantine
the limit of the architecture of genuine antiquity,
95; leading features of the principal orders of,
97-104; Chinese, 115-118; American, 118—
123 ; of the Middle Ages, 124; difference be-
tween the Latin or Romanesque and the Greek
or Byzantine styles, ib.; examples and details
of the Romanesque style, 124-131—of the By-
zantine style, 131-141—of the Gothic, Visigo-
thic, and Lombardie styles, 141, 142—of the
Arabian or Moorish style, 142-146—of the
modern Persian and Indian styles, 146 ; history
of, from the 11th to the 16th century, or the
period of the pointed-arch or Gothic style, with
a detailed account of several buildings erected
in that period, 147-174 ; the period of the Re-
naissance, and description of some of the build-
ings of, 174-180 ; general remarks upon modern
architecture, and descriptions of numerous build-
ings of every class, illustrative of the present
state of the art, 180-220.

Architrave, the, origin of, 23; the Doric and
Tonic, 29.

Archivolts, various forms and decorations of, 153,
154.

Argolis, ruins of temples and other buildings in,
45, 46.

Argyle, duke of, his seat in Dumbarton county,

Arnolfo da Lapo, a German architect, 182.

Artemisia, the mausoleum erected by, at Halicar-
nassus, 48.

Arter, Henry and Peter, 169.

Ashlers, 28.

Asia Minor, account of Grecian monuments in,

745

INDEX TO ARCHITECTURE.

47; ruins at Delos, Sardis, and Mylasa, ib. ; at
Halicarnassus, Euxomus, Miletus, and Priene,
48 ; at Magnesia and Ephesus, 49, 50.

Assembly houses, 212.

Assisi, ruins at, 74.

Assyria, the architecture of, 19 ; Nineveh, ib.

Asychis, the pyramid of, 17.

Athens, probable features of, at the time of Pau-
sanias, 37 ; enumeration and description of the
principal streets and buildings in the city of,
37—42 ; account of the principal edifices on the
Acropolis, 42-44; arch of honor of Hadrian
at, 87; the Panhagia Nicodimo at, 131; Latin
basilica at, ib.; the Catholicon or Cathedral at,
131, 136; church of St. Nicodemus at, 132.

Atreus, treasury of, at Mycene, 34.

Attic base, the, 28.

Augustus, buildings erected at Rome during the
time of, 68-75 ; builds the temple of Apollo on
the Palatine, 69 ; mausoleum, ib.; the temple
of Quirinus, ib. ; ; the theatre of Mareellus, rise
obelisks, forums, and restorations, 70 ; temple
of Mars, ib.; the Pantheon, 70-72; buildings
by Agrippa and other friends of, 72, 73 ; build-
ings erected outside the city, 73, 74; in Upper
Italy, 74; along the Danube and the Rhine,
74, 75; temple of, 75, 80.

Aurelian, city walls built by, 93;
Sun erected by, 93, 94.

Aurelius, Mareus, little done in architecture by,
88, 89; triumphal arch and column of, 89.

temple of the

Baal, temple of, at Baalbec, 55, 56.

Baalbec, temple of the Sun at, 55—of Baal or
Jupiter at, 55, 56; other ruins at, 56; remarks
on the origin and dates of the structures at, 56,
Bi.

Babylon, description of, and of the principal fea-
tures of Babylonian architecture, 19, 20.

Bacchus, temple of, at Teos, 5|0—of Bacchus and
the Muses at Rome, 73.

Balusters, various kinds of, for the different orders,
104.

Baptisteries, various forms of, 127.

Base of the column, origin of the, 23 ;
and Ionic, 28.

Basis, the Doric, 100 ;
thian, ib.

Basilica, the Romaz, based on the stoe, or halls,
32; at Pestum, 51; general description of the
Roman, 64, 65; the Basilica Alexandrina of
Severus, 92; great irregularity in the ground
plans of the early basilicas, 124, 125; the ele-
vation, 125, 126; the interior, 126, 127; de-
scription of various, at Rome (see Rome), 128—
131; at Tyre and Athens, 131; in Vicenza,
188; of St. Boniface in Munich, 197.

Basse, temple of Apollo at, 46.

Baths, the, of Agrippa, 72; of Caracalla, 91, 92;
of Diocletian, 94, 95.

Bedjapur, the mausoleum of Ibrahim Adil Shah
at, 146.

Begars, cromlech at, 114.

Bell towers, various forms of, in the pointed-arch
style, 159 ; at Palermo and Rome, 183.

Belus, the temple of, at Babylon, 20.

Beneventum, arch of Titus at, 85.

Berlin, the Werder church in, 198.

Bernini, the architect, 186, 187.

Bohnensack, designer of the cathedral of Magde-
burg, 166.

Bonn, the cathedral at, 139, 142.

746

the Attic

the Ionic, 102; the Corin-

Borromini, Francesco, 190.

Bramante, the celebrated architect, 184, 185, 201.

Brick-work, different kinds of, among the ancients,
24,

Bridgenorth, the church of Mary Magdalen at,
188

Bridges, at Rome, 61, 67, 68 ; brief descriptions of
various modern, 217-220.

Britons, the, monuments of, 106 et seq.

Bruant, Liberal, a French architect, 192.

Brussels, the church of St. Michael and St. Gu-
dula in, 166.

Buildings, different classes of Grecian, 30-32.

Buonarotti, Michael Angelo, 185, 186, 189.

Burgos, the cathedral of, 171, 172.

Buttresses, form and construction of, in the pointed-
arch style, 155, 156.

Buxbaum, John,,.165.

Byzantine style, the, details and susata of, 131-
141.

Cesar’s table, a Celtic monument, 109.

Cesars, temple of the, 77.

Cairo, Moorish edifices in, 145.

Caligula, the temple of Augustus, the Palatine
house, and other buildings erected during the
reign of, 75.

Callimachus, the originator of the Corinthian or-
der, 25.

Campanile towers, 149.

Capital, the Composite, 104.

Capitals, Doric, 24, 100, 101; Ionie and Corin-
thian, 25, 28, 101-104; Tuscan, 99 ; Compo-
site, 103; various forms and decorations of,
in the structures of the Middle Ages, 151,
52:

Capitoline gods, temple of the, erected by Domi
tian, 81, 82.

Caracalla, the baths of, 91, 92; restoration of the
temple of Serapis by, 92.

Caravansaries, Persian, 212.

Carnac, in Bretagne, the men-hir at, 108; dolmen
ai, i.

Carnak, description of the ruins at the village of,
1IDEIS:

Carneilloux, or collections of tombs, 114.

Caryatides, 25.

Cassel, the museum in, 208.

Castle style, the, of the Franks and Normans,
141,

Catacombs of Thebes, 10; of Alexandria, 16.

Catalysais, the, of Herodotus, 212.

Cathedral, the, of Cologne, 162-164 ; of Magde-
burg, 165, 166; of Antwerp, 166, 167; of No-
tre Dame in Paris, 167, 168; of Rouen, 168,
169 ; of Milan, 169, 170; of Burgos, 171, 172;
of St. Januarius, at Naples, 178; of Florence,
182, 183.

Cecilia Metella, tomb of, 67.

Ceilings, construction of, 29, 30.

Celts, the, monuments of, 106 et seq.

Ceres, temple of, at Paeestum, 50.

Chalembaram, general description of the temple
district at, 4.

Chapel, the, at Fresnes, 192; of St. Ferdinand at
Sablonville, 196; of the Knights of Malta at
St. Petersburg, 200.

Cheops, the pyramid of, 17.

Chephrenes, the pyramid of, 17.

China, state of architecture in, 115; the Chinese
wall, 115, 116; ground plan, framework, and
decorations of Chinese dwellings, ib. ; deserip-

1
cit ie

INDEX TO ARCHITECTURE. iii

tion of the dwelling of a mandarin, 117 ; pago-
das and temples, ib. ; the porcelain tower, 117,
118 ; bridges in, 220.

Choir, the high, of churches in the pointed-arch
style, 147.

Cholula, the pyramid of, 120.

Churches, Christian, erected by Constantine, 97,
124; great variety in the forms of the early,
124, 125; description of the principal external
features of, 125, 126—of the interior, 126, 127;
general description of the Eastern or Byzantine,
with examples, 131-141; of the pointed-arch
or Gothic style, 147—the apsis or sanctuary,
ib.—the choir, nave, and aisles, ib.—the tran-
sept, portals, forehall, and vestibule, 148, 149—
the towers and spires, 149, 159, 160—the ves-
try, 149—the outer walls, columns, and capi-
tals, 149-152—arches and archivolts, 152-154
—entablatures, 154, 155—roofs, 155—walls
and buttresses, 155, 156—windows and tracery,
156-158—doorways, 158, 159—detailed de-
scription of various churches in this style, 160-
174; the church of St. Stephen at Vienna, 164,
165—of St. Michael and St. Gudula in Brus-
sels, 166—of St. Cyriacus at Ancona, 171—of
St. Simon in Palermo, ib.—the collegiate church
at Manchester, 173—of St. Zacharias and of
the Redeemer upon the Giudecca at Venice,
174—176—church near the charter-house in Pa-
via, 177, 178—of St. Francis in Perugia, 178—
of Notre Dame in Vetheuil, 180—of Santa
Maria del Fiore in Florence, 182, 183—of San
Andrea in Mantua, 183—of San Pietro in Mon-
torio at Rome, 184—della Consolazione in
Todi, ib.—of St. Peter at Rome, 184—-187—
of San Giorgio Maggiore, della Figlie, and St.
Francesco della Vigna in Venice, 187, 188—of
Mary Magdalen at Bridgenorth, 188—of Notre
Dame de Lorette at Paris, ib—of the Assump-
tion in Genoa, 189—of Santa Maria della Vit-
toria, and of St. Ignatius in Rome, ib.—of San
Carlo alle Quattro Fontane at Rome, 190—
della Superga in Turin, 190, 191—of the Ma-
donna delli Angeli at Rome, of the Assumption

. at Genoa, of Santa Maria della Vittoria and of
St. Ignatius at Rome, 189 ; description of several
modern churches in Paris, 191—196—in Munich,

. 196-198; the Werder church in Berlin, 198;
the garrison church at Potsdam, ib.; St. Paul’s
church in London, 198, 199; St. Isaac’s church
at St. Petersburg, 200.

Circus, the, extent of, at Rome, 66; enlarged by
Trajan, 84.

City and council houses, 209.

Claudius, buildings erected during the reign of, 75,
76; the harbor and temple of Jupiter at Ostia,
76; the aqueduct and other works of, ib.

Claudius Gothicus, many gates of honor erected
105.93:

Coblentz, St. Castor’s church at, 140.

Coliseum, the, at Rome, description of, 78.

Cologne, the cathedral of, 162-164.

Colonnades, arrangement of, 26, 27; the princi-
pal, at Rome, 66.

Colossi, fragments of, at Thebes, 9.

Column, the, origin of the base of, 23; account
of the gradual improvements in, and of its dif-
ferent parts, 24; the Doric, Ionic, and Corin-
thian, 24, 25; explanation of terms employed
to designate columnar distance, 26; difference
between the, and the pillar, 28; reduction and
torsion of the shaft of, 104, 105.

Column, triumphal, of Marcus Aurelius, 89.

Columns, various positions, number, and distances
of, in Grecian temples, 31; the five orders of,
97 et seq.; the columnar arrangement in the
Tuscan order, 99—in the Doric, 100—in the
Ionie and Corinthian, 102—in the Composite,
103 ; twisted, 104, 105; construction and va-
rious forms of, in the pointed-arch style, 150.

Columns, memorial, at Rome, 66.

Composite order, the, principal features of, 103,
104.

Concordia, temple of, at Agrigentum, 51; at
Rome restored by Tiberius, 72.

Conerets, pierced stone at, 111.

Confucius, the temple of, at Tsing-Hai, 117.

Constantia, the church of St. Agnes, erected by
Sie

Constantine, the arch of, 95, 96; minor buildings
of, 96; founds a new residential city, 96, 97;
churches built by, 97, 124; his countenance of
the Christian religion gives rise to a new era in
architecture, 124 ; the basilica of St. John Late-
ran at Rome built by, 128.

Constantinople, the church of St. Sophia at, 131;
the church of St. Theotokus at, 132, 135, 136
—of St. Sophia, 133, 134; the mosque Achmed
at, 137; the mosque of Osman at, 145.

Contralatopolis, temples at, 8.

Corbeil, the grain market at, 216.

Cordova, the mosque at, 143.

Cori, temple ruins at, 73.

Corinthian column, the, 25, 28, 102; frieze and
cornice, 29; the Corinthian order, 53, 58, 102—
104.

Cornelius, Peter v., 197.

Corneto, the grottoes of, 36.

Cornice, the, origin of, 23; the Doric, Ionic, and
Corinthian, 29; forms of, in the pointed-arch
style, 154.

Covered ways, a species of dolmen, 109; uses of,
110, 111.

Colebrookdale, bridge of, 219.

Cromlechs, or sacred inclosures, 114, 115.

Cross, the archiepiscopal, or cross of Lorrain,
148; the Greek and Latin, ib.

Crypts, or subterranean churches, 124.

Curie, the, at Rome, 64.

Custom-houses, 212, 213.

Cybele, ruins of the temple of, at Sardis, 47.

Cyclopean structures, 23, 32-36.

Cyrus, the mausoleum of, at Pasargada, 21.

Danube, the, improvement in the buildings of the
countries adjacent to, in the time of Augustus,
74; bridge built by Trajan over the, 85.

Darius, the tomb of, 22.

“Datum inter leones,” origin of the formula of,
in the Middle Ages, 149.

De Cotte, 192.

Definitions of terms applied to various descriptions
of masonry and brick-work among the ancients,
24; of the different terms expressive of colum-
nar distance, 26; of the terms used to denote
the different kinds of mouldings, 27; of terms
applied to the various kinds of pillars, 28; of
terms applied to temples according to the posi-
tions, number, and distances of the columns, 31.

Delhi, the Kutub Minar tower in the vicinity of,
146.

Delos, ruins of the temple of Apollo at, 47,

Demosthenes, the Lantern of, at Athens, 40, 41.

Denderah, description of the ruins of, 15, 16,

747

1V INDEX TO ARCHITECTURE.

Devil’s table, a species of Celtic monument, 108.

Diana, temple of, at Eleusis, 45; at Magnesia,
49 ; at Ephesus, 49, 93.

Diocletian, the baths of, 94, 95; his villa at Sa-
lona (now Spalatro), 95.

Diospolis Magna, the ruins of, 8.

Diribitorium, the, erected by Agrippa, 72.

Dolmen, various forms of, 108, 109; religious
character of, 109 ; double dolmen at Anglesea,
110.

Dolvarchant, a name for the dolmen at Locmari-
aquer, 109.

Domitian, temple of the Capitoline gods erected
by, 81, 82; builds a stadium, odeon, and nau-
machia, 82; the forum of, ib.; temple of Mi-
nerva and Janus, ib.; triumphal arches, 83;
private edifices, 83, 84.

Doors, trimmings and decorations of, 29 ; various
kinds of, for the different orders, 105, 106; of
Roman palaces, 204.

Doorways, characteristic features of, in the point-
ed-arch style, 158, 159.

Dorie column, the, 24, 25, 28 ; doors, 29 ; archi-
trave, frieze, and cornice, 29.

Dorie order, the, principally adopted in Grecian
buildings, 52; faithfully adhered to by the Sici-
lian and Italian Greeks, 53; two styles of,
composed by Vignola, 99, 100; the Greek
Doric, 100, 101.

Dresden, the theatre at, 208.

Druid altar in Finisterre, 111; druidical circles,
115.

Dwellings, primitive, 22; outline of the course of
improvement in, 22, 23.

Ecbatana, 19, 21.

Echinus, the, 24.

Ecole des Beaux Arts at Paris, formerly the palace
of Gaillon, 179.

Edfou, the temple of, 7.

Egypt, ancient, the architecture of, 5; description
of the principal temples, palaces, monuments,
and pyramids of, 5-19; Moorish edifices in,
145.

El] Generalife, the villa at, 145.

El Kusr, the palace of, 11.

Elephantine, ruins on the island of, 6.

Eleusis, ruins at, 44, 45.

Ellora, the temples at, 1, 2.

England, Celtic monuments in, 109-113, 115;
churches in, 172-174, 198, 199 ; the Exchange
in London, 211; bridges in, 219.

-Entablature, description of the several parts of the
Greek, 29; the Tuscan, 99; the Doric, 100;
the Corinthian, 102.

Entasis, the, or swell of the column, 26.

Ephesus, description of the temple of Diana at,
49 ; other ruins at, 50.

Erechtheum, the, at Athens, 44.

Ermeut, ruins at, 8.

Errard, Charles, 193.

Esneh, temples at, 8.

Euxomus, ruins at, 48.

Exchanges, description of several, 210, 211.

Excise-houses, architecture of, 212.

Faustina, temple of, and Antoninus, 88.

Fidene, the theatre at, 75.

Finisterre, Druid altar in, 111.

Flavian, the amphitheatre of, 78.

Florence, the church of Santa Maria del Fiore in,
182, 183 ; the market hall in, 216.

748

Flutes, origin of the, in columns, 24.

Fontana, Carlo, 186; Domenico, 203.

Fontenay le Marmion, contents of a mound near,
113, 114.

Fora, the, or public squares of Rome, 63.

Fore-halls, the, of churches, various forms of,
148, 149.

Forli, temple of Jupiter at, 82.

Fortuna, temple of, at Pompeii, 80.

Forum Romanum, the, and the most important
buildings in, 63, 64; the forum of Domitian,
82; forum of Trajan, 84, 85.

France, Celtic remains in, 109-114; descriptien
of several modern churches and chapels in, 191-
196 ; bridges in, 218, 219.

Frankenberger, Conrad, 162.

Franks, the, castle style of, 141.

Fresco painting, an ancient Egyptian invention,
9; the true art of, unknown at the present day,
9, 10.

Fresnes, the chapel at, 192.

Freyburg, the minster of, 160, 161.

Frieze, the, origin of, 23 ; the Doric, Ionic, and
Corinthian, 29.

Frontispiece, the, or gable, 30.

Fucinian lake, draining of the, under the emperor
Claudius, 76.

Gabius, the arch of, in Verona, 83, 93.

Gable, the, or frontispiece, 30.

Gartner, Fr. v., 197.

Gaeta, ruins at, 74.

Gallienus, city gates erected by, 93.

Gardens, the hanging, at Babylon, 20.

Gate of the Lions at Mycene, 34.

Gauls, the monuments of, 106 et seq.

Genoa, the church of the Assumption at, 189.

German, the, or pointed-arch style, prominent
original features of, 160; oldest monuments
in, ib.

Germany, bridges in, 219.

Ghent, the Exchange at, 210; the University of,
211; the jail, 217.

Giganteja, the, or tower of the giants at Gozzo,
35.

Gignac, the bridge of, 218.

Gisors, Gallic mound near, 114.

Gizeh, the group of pyramids at, 17.

Gordianus, family palace and other buildings
erected by, 92, 93.

Gothic style of Architecture, the, 141, 147;
detailed account of various buildings erected in
accordance with its principles, 147-174.

Gozzo, description of temples on the island of, 35,
36.

Greece, ancient, general considerations respecting
the architecture of, 22; construction of the
walls and columns, 23-26; mouldings, 27;
pillars, 28; entablature, ceilings, and roofs, 29,
30 ; different classes of edifices, 30-32 ; Cyclo-
pean structures, 32-36; temples and other
buildings, 36-47: Grecian monuments in Asia
Minor, 47 et seq.; general remarks upon the
architecture of, 52, 53.

Greek, the, or Byzantine style, 124,

Grotte des Fées, the, at Tours, 110.

Hadrian, building prosecuted with zeal during the
reign of, 86; builds the temple of Venus and
Rome, ib. ; the mausoleum of, 86, 87 ; the Villa
Tiburtina, 87; arch of honor at Athens, ib. ;
other works of, 87, 88.

INDEX TO ARCHITECTURE, v

Halicarnassus, description of the mausoleum at,48. | London, St. Paul’s church i in, 198, 199 ;

Halle, the new prison at, 217.

Halls, or stow, of the ancients, 32 ; description
of various modern, 215-217.

Heliogabalus, temple of, 92.

Heliopolis or Baalbec, description of the ruins at,
55, 56.

Hercules, temple of, at Cori, 73, 74.

Herme, or simple monuments, 30.

Hermonthis, ruins at, 8.

Hess, Henry, 197.

Hindoo architecture, leading features of, 1 ; five
periods of, 2; description of several temples,
2-4.

Horatii and Curiatii, tomb of the, at Rome, 67.

Hiiltz, John, of Cologne, 162.

Huts, structure of primitive, 22.

Hypogea, at Thebes, 10.

Inclosures, sacred, or cromlechs, 114.

Indian style of architecture, the modern, 146.

Indra Sabah, the temple of, 1, 2.

Ingeram, a German architect, 169.

Tonic column, the, 25, 28 ; doors, 29 ; architrave,
frieze, and cornice, ib.

Tonic order, the, first introduction of, 53 ; principal
features of, 101.

Isis, temple of, at Pompeii, 80.

Ispahan, the Antler tower at, 146 ; the Almeidan,
217; the bridge of Barbaruk at, 220.

Italy, introduction of Grecian architecture into,
50, 58; ruins at Pestum, 50, 51; in the island
of Sicily, 51, 52; few traces left of the oldest
edifices of Central Italy, 58; ruins in upper,
74; buildings of the Renaissance in, 174-178 ;
description of several modern churches and
chapels in, 182-191 ; castles and palaces, 201-—
204 ; bridges in, 217, 218.

Ivara, Filippo, 190.

Janus, temple of, at Rome, 61; a small one
erected by Domitian, 82.

Jerusalem, various churches in the Byzantine style
at, 133.

John of Cologne, 172.

Juno, temple of, at Agrigentum, 51.
Rome.

Jupiter, temple of, at Athens, 39.40; at Aégina,
45; in Argolis and Olympia, 46 ; at Selinuntie,
52; of Jupiter or Baal at Baalbec, 55, 56.
And see Rome and Temples.

And see

Kailasa, the temple of, 2, 3.
Karvati, the ancient Mycene, 33.
Klenze, Leo v., 196, 198, 215.
Kosen, the bridge of, 219.

Laeken, the pleasure palace of, near Brussels,
207.

Lantern, the, of Demosthenes, at Athens, 40, 41.

Laodicea, ruins of the theatre at, 26.

Latin, the, or Romanesque style, 124.

Latopolis, temples at, 8.

Lazzari, Bramante, 184.

Lemercier, a French architect, 192, 205.

Lescot, Francis, 204.

Liége, the Casino at, 212.

Ligorio, Pirro, 186.

Lippi, Alessandro, 202.

Loemariaquer, dolmen at, 109.

Log houses, origin of, 22.

Lombardic style of architecture, the, 142.

the Ex-
change, 211; Newgate prison, 917; Waterloo
bridge, 219.

Lorsch, the abbey of, 140.

Luxor, the palace of, 11.

Madonna degli Angeli alle Certosa, the church
of, formed from the great circular hall of the
Baths of Diocletian, 94, 95.

Maestricht, the city hall at, 209.

Magdeburg, the cathedral of, 165, 166.

Magnesia, temple of Diana at, 49.

Maison Quarrée, the, at Nismes, 74.

Manchester, the collegiate church at, 173.

Mansard, Hardouin, 192.

Mantua, the church of San Andrea, in 183.

Marcellus, the theatre of, at Rome, 69.

Marchiano, architect of the church of St. Cyria-
cus in Ancona, 171.

Maria della Minerva, the church of, at Assisi,
formerly the temple of Minerva, 74.

Marius, the arch of, at Arausio, 83; the fountain
of, at Rome, 204.

Markets, the, at Rome, 63 ; various modern, 215-
ALT:

Mars, temple of, erected by Augustus at Rome,
70.

Marseilles, the Fish hall at, 216.

Martino Lombardo, a Venetian architect, 175.

Masonry, various kinds of, among the ancients,
24.

Masuniah, the rock-cut tombs of, 7, 8.

Mausoleum, the, of Osiris, 5; of Osymandias, 9,
10; of Cyrus at Pasargada, 21; ancient mau-
soleums in general, 32; erected by Artemisia at
Halicarnassus, 48; of Augustus, 69; of Ha-
drian, 86, 87 ; of Theodorie at Ravenna, 141 ;
of Ibrahim Adil Shah at Bedjapur, 146.

Mavalipuram, the temples at, 3.

Media, the architecture of, 19.

Melrose Abbey, 174.

Memnonium, the, 9.

Memphis, description of the large pyramid of, 17,
18.

Men-hir or men-sash, the simplest form of Celtic
monument, 107, 108.

Menai Straits, tubular bridge over the, 219.

Merchant’s table, the, a Celtic monument, 108,
109.

Mercury, sanctuaries of, a name given to certain
Celtic monuments, 109.

Mexico, condition of, at the time of the conquest
by the Spaniards, 119 ; remains at Teotihuacan
and Papantla, 119, 120; pyramid of Cholula,
120; temple at Xochicalee, ib.; ruins at
Tlaseala, 120, 121.

Michael Angelo Buonarotti, 185.

Michelozzi, an Italian architect, 178.

Milan, the cathedral of, 169, 170.

Miletus, description of the temple of Apollo near,
48.

Minerva, temples dedicated to, at Athens, 43:
temple of, at Priene, 48; at Syracuse, 51; at
Assisi, 74; at Rome, by Domitian, 82.

Minster, the, of Freyburg in Baden, 160, 161; of
Strasburg, 161, 162; of York, 172, 173.

Module, the, or modulus of an order, method of
finding, 98, 99.

Merris, the first builder of pyramids, 17.

Mont St. Michel, 113.

Monuments, the simplest kind of, 30 ; honorary,
32; sepulchral at Rome, 67; Celtic, aceount

749

vi INDEX TO ARCHITECTURE,

of the principal, 107 et seq.; description of
several modern honorary, 213-215.

Moorish style, the, details and examples of, 142-
146.

Morbihan, Celtic monuments in, 110.

Mosque, the, of Achmed at Constantinople, 137 ;
the mosque at Cordova, 143, 144; of Osman
at Constantinople, 145; of Ebn Touloun and
El Moyed at Cairo, 145, 146.

Mouldings, the object of, 27; description of the
different varieties of straight and curved, ib.

Mounds, the custom of erecting, traced to the
earliest times, 112; various shapes and dimen-
sions of, 112, 113 ; twin mounds, 113; single
mounds and groups, ib. ; contents of, 114.

Munich, the court church of All Saints in, 196,
197 ; the church of Mary the Helper, 197 ; the
basilica of St. Boniface, ib.; the parish and
university church of St. Louis, 197, 198; the
Pinacothek and Glyptothek at, 209.

Museums, modern, 209.

Mycene, the ruins of, 33-35.

Mycerinus, the pyramid of, 17.

Mylasa, ruins at, 47, 48.

Mystic Portico, the, at Eleusis, 45.

Nakshi Rustam, the ruins of, 21.

Naples, cathedral of St. Januarius at, 178.

Naumachia, the, of Rome, 65.

Navarino, the church of, 131.

Nave, the main, in the pointed-arch style, 147.

Necropolis, the, at Tarquinii, 36.

Nemesis, temple of, at Rhamnus, 47.

Neptune, temple of, at Pestum, 50.

Nero, destruction by fire of a great part of Rome
during the reign of, 76; the golden house of,
77.

Nerva, the forum of, 92.

Neuenburg, the town-hall ai, 210.

New Orleans, the St. Charles theatre at, 208.

New York, the Exchange at, 211; the Custom-
house, 213.

Newgate prison, 217.

Niesenberger, John, of Gratz, 161, 169.

Nineveh, the remains of, 19.

Nismes, ruins at, 74; the amphitheatre at, 78.

Normans, the, castle style of, 141.

Nundi, the temple of, 2.

Obelisks, the, of Luxor, 11; at Carmak, 14;
erected at Rome by Augustus, 70.

Odeons, 32; the odeon of Pericles at Athens, 41.

Ohlmiuller, D. J., 197.

Olympia, temple of Jupiter at, 46.

Orders of architecture, principal features of the,
97 et seq. ; parts of an order, 98, 99.

Orkney Islands, mounds of the, 114; Druidical
circle in, 115.

Osiris, the mausoleum of, on the island of Phile,
5; colossal statues of, at Osymandias, 9.

Ostia, the harbor of, built by Claudius, 76; tem-
ple of Jupiter Patulcius at, ib. ; temple of Por-
tumnus at, 92.

Osymandias, the temple of, 9, 10.

Pzstum, temples of Neptune and Ceres at, 50;
the basilica, 51.
Pagodas, the, of the Hindoos, 3; Chinese pago-

das, 117.

Palace, the, of Sesostris, 8, 9; of Memnon, 9;
of Luxor (El-Kusr), 11; of Carnak, 12-15 ;
the royal palace and hanging gardens at Baby-

750

er i

lon, 20; of Utatlan in Guatemala, 121; of
Theodorie at Ravenna, 141; the Alhambra,
144; the Palazzo Regio at Venice, 176; the
. palace of Gaillon at Paris, 179 ; the Cancelle-
ria, Casa Silvestri, Palazzo Giraud, and Palazzo

Sora in Parione in Rome, 202; the Palazzo

del Te in Mantua, ib.; the Palazzo Sacchetti
and Palazzo Paolo in Rome, ib. ; the Palazzo
Saoli and Palazzo Doria Tursi in Genoa, 203;
the Papal palace in Rome, ib.; the Palazzo
Caserta near Naples, 203, 204; the Louvre,
Tuileries, and Luxemburg at Paris, 204-206;
the palace of Versailles, ib.; the pleasure
palace of Laeken and the royal residence in
Amsterdam, 207.

Paleo-Anapli, the ancient Tiryns, 33.

Palatine house, the, the usual residence of the
emperors at Rome, 75.

Palenque, the ruins of, 122.

Palermo, the church of the convent of St. Simon
in, 171; the bell tower, 183.

Palladio, Andrea, 175, 176, 187, 188.

Pallas Athene, temples of, at Athens, 43.

Palmyra, temple of the sun at, 53, 54; triumphal
monument and other ruins at, 54.

Pandrosos, hall of the nymph, at Athens, 44.

Pantheon, the, description of, 70-72; at Paris,
194, 195.

Papantla, the pyramid of, 119.

Parenzo, church of, 123.

Paris, the cathedral of Notre Dame in, 167, 168;
the palace of Gaillon, 178, 179 ; the church of
Notre Dame de Lorette at, 188; the churches
of Sts. Gervais and Protais, and of St. Paul
and St. Louis, 191; the Hotel des Invalides,
192; the church of the Sorbonne, 192, 193 ;
the churches of the Assumption and of St. Sul-
pice, 193, 194; the Pantheon, or the church of
St. Genevieve, 194, 195 ; the Madeleine, 195,
196; the Louvre, 204, 205; the Tuileries,
205; the Luxembourg, 206; the Navy De-
partment and the Garde-Meubles, ib. ; the Ex-
change, 210, 211; the Observatory, 211; the
Are de Etoile, 213 ; the Columns of the Place
Vendome and of July, 214; the Grain hall at,
215, 216; the market of St. Germain and the
Magdalen market, 216; the bridges of Notre
Dame, St. Mary, and Neuilly, 218.

Parthenon, description of the, 43.

Pasargada, the most ancient fortress of the Persian
kings, 21.

Pausanias, description of the buildings on the
Acropolis of Athens by, 42.

Pavia, St. John’s church at, 142; church near
the charter-house, 177, 178 ; the market, 216.

Peace, temple of, erected by Vespasian, 77.

Pedestal, the Tuscan, 99 ; the Doric, 100 ; the Ionic,
102 ; the Corinthian, ib. ; the Composite, 103.

Pelasgian structures, 33.

Pericles, the odeon of, at Athens, 41.

Perrault, Claude, a French architect, 205.

Perros-Guyrech, the rocking stone at, 112.

Persepolis, description of the ruins of, 21, 22.

Persia, ancient, architecture of, 20-22; the mo-
dern Persian style, 146; the bridge of Barba-
ruh in, 220.

Persians, a name applied to male figures substi-
tuted for columns, 25.

Perugia, church of St. Francis in, 178.

Peruzzi, Balthasar, 185.

Paes the, a species of Celtic monument, 107,
108.

INDEX TO ARCHITECTURE.

Phile, the island of, description of the remains
upon, 5, 6.

Pheenicia, architecture of, only to be
ruins of Palmyra and Baalbee, 5

Pietro da Bologna, 169.

Pietro Lombardo, 183.

Pietro di Martino, a Milanese architect, 178.

Pilgram, Anthony, 165.

Pillars, various forms of, in the ancient Hindoo
temples, 1,2; difference between the pillar and
the column, 28 ; different kinds of, in Grecian
architecture, ib. ; columnar, 150.

Pillori, the ancient Selinuntiz, description of tem-
ple ruins at, 51, 52.

Pippi, Giulio, 202.

Pisa, the baptistery, cathedral, and leaning tower
at, 137-139.

Pointed-arch style, the, peculiarities of, and de-
tailed account of various buildings erected in
accordance with its principles, 147-174 ; seven
different forms of the pointed-arch, 152, 153 ;
generally known as the Gothic style, 160.

Pola, in Istria, temple to Roma and Augustus at,
75; arch of Augustus at, 83.

Pompeii, description of the ruins of, 79-81.

Ponte Corvo, the, a bridge near Aquino, 218.

Porcelain tower, the, of China, 117, 118.

Pornic, mounds near, 113.

Portals, the, of the Middle Age churches, 148.

Portumnus, temple of, at Ostia, 92.

Potsdam, the garrison church at, 198.

Pozzuoli, temple of Jupiter Serapis at, 74, 92.

Priene, temple of Minerva at, 48.

Prisons, construction of modern, 217.

Propylza, the, at the island of Phile, 5; of the
Parthenon at Athens, 42.

Pyramids, the, origin and object of, 16; general
account of, 17; construction of the large pyra-
mid of Memphis, ib. ; description of the inte-
rior, 18 ; the Mexican, 119, 120.

aced in the

Quaranghi, Giacomo, 200.

Quatremére de Quincy, 195.

Queue style, the, 181.

Quirinus, the temple of, erected by Augustus, 69.

Raphael of Urbino, 185.

Ratisbon, description of the Valhalla erected by
Louis of Bavaria in the vicinity of, 215.

Ravenna, St. Vital’s church at, 131, 136, 137;
the palace and mausoleum of Theodoric at,
141.

Renaissance, the, 124; period of, and description
of some of the buildings of, 174-180.

Rennes, witches’ grotto in the vicinity of, 110.

Rhamnus, temple of Nemesis and Themis at, 46,
A7.

Rhine, the, improvement in the buildings of the
countries adjacent to, in the time of Augustus,
74,

Roceo Lurago, 203.

Rocking stones, 111, 112.

Romanesque style, the, details and examples of,
124-131.

Romano, Giulio, 202.

Rome, ancient, the architecture of, 58; gradual
extension of, and principal buildings erected in,
under the kings, 58, 59; considerable archi-
tectural improvements in, during the first years
of the Republic, 59, 60; temples erected at,
during the republic, 60-63—markets, basilicas,
and curie, 63-65—buildings for public amuse-

fon En a a SS ee ee ee ee ee ees

vil

ment, 65, 66—sepulchral and honorary monu-
ments, 66, 67—bridges, 61, 67, 68; temples
and other buildings erected at and near the city
of, during the time of Augustus, 68-75—of Ti-
berius and Caligula, 75—of Claudius, 75, 76—
of Nero, 76, 77—of Vespasian, 77, 73—of Ti-
tus, 78-81—of Domitian, 81-84—of Trajan,
84—86—of Hadrian, 86-88—of Antoninus Pius,
88—of Marcus Aurelius, L. Verus, and Com-
modus, 88, 89—of Septimius Severus, 90, 91—
of Caracalla, 91, 92—of Heliogabalus and
Alexander Severus, 92—of the emperors from
Maximus to Gallienus, 92, 93—-of Aurelian,
93, 94—of Tacitus and Probus to Diocletian,
94, 95—of Constantine and his family, 95-97 ;
description of several ancient churches and
basilicas at, 124-131; the bell tower, 183,
184; St. Peters and other modern churches,
184-190 ; palaces, 201-203 ; fountains, 204.
Rondelet, a French architect, 195.

Roof, the, and the parts connected with it, vari-
ous forms of, in the pointed-arch style, 155.
Roofs, description of the, in ancient Greek build-

ings, 30.
Rouen, the cathedral of, 168, 169.
Russia, modern edifices in, 200.

Sablonville, the chapel of St. Ferdinand at, 196.

Sacred Way, the, at Athens, 44.

Sakkarah, the pyramids at, 17.

Salisbury, mound near, 113.

Salona (the modern Spalatro), ruins of the villa
of Diocletian at, 95.

Samara, the church of, 131.

San Gallo, an Italian architect, 185, 202.

Sanctuaries of Mercury, a name given to certain
Celtic monuments, 109.

Sanctuary, the, various forms of, 147.

Santonum, triumphal arch at, 83.

Sardis, ruins of the temple of Cybele at, 47.

Sarzeau, mound near, 113.

Saumur, witch’s grotto in the neighborhood of,
109, 110.

Scamilli, the, of Vitruvius, 26.

Seamozzi, an Italian architect, 176.

Schinkel, Frederick, 198.

Segeste, ruins at, 52.

Selinuntiz, description of temples at, 51, 52.

Septizonium, the, erected by Severus, 90.

Sepulchral monuments at Rome, 67.

Sepulchre, the, of St. Denis, 179.

Serapis, the temple of, 9—of Jupiter Serapis at
Pozzuoli, 74, 92.

Sesostris, ruins of the palace of, at Thebes, 8, 9.

Severus, Alexander, the Basilica Alexandrina and
other buildings by, 92.

Severus, Septimius, triumphal arch dedicated to,
and his sons by the senate, 90, 91; the Septi-
zonium, 91; minor buildings erected by, ib.

Seville, Moorish remains at, 145.

Shafts, various forms and decorations of, in the
pointed-arch style, 150, 151.

Shehel- Minar, ruins in the neighborhood of, 21.

Sibyl, the Tiburtine, temple of, at Tivoli, 73.

Sicily, description of the ruins of Grecian strue-
tures in, 51, 52.

Silsilis, the rock-cut tombs of, 7, 8.

Solomon, mausoleum of the mother of, formerly
that of Cyrus at Pasargada, 21.

Soria, Giambatista, 189.

Soufflot, Jacques Germain, 194.

Sphinx, the, 17, 18. 451

Vill

Spires, the, of churches, various forms of, in the
pointed-arch style, 149, 159, 160.

St. Denis, the abbey of, 168 ; the royal sepulchre
at, 179.

St. Maizence, the bridge of, 218.

St. Petersburg, chapel of the Knights of Malta in,
200 ; St. Isaae’s church, 200, 201; the market,
208.

Stadia, or racecourses, 32.

Steinbach, Erwin v. and Sabina, 161, 162.

Steps, flights of, 28, 29.

Stereobates, 28.

Stow, or halls, 32.

Stonehenge, 107, 115.

Stones, pierced and rocking, 111, 112.

Strasburg, the minster of, 161, 162.

Stylobates, 28.

Sun, temple of the, at Palmyra, 53, 54; at Baal-
bec, 55; temple of, erected by Aurelian, 93,
94.

Sunium, ruins at, 47.

Syene, ruins of, 6.

Syracuse, ruins at, 51.

Syria, the architecture of, only to be traced in the
ruins of Palmyra and Baalbec, 53 ; arguments
for the originality of the Syrian monuments, 57.

Tacitus, contributes to the erection of the forum
at Ostia, 94.

Taff, bridge over the, 219.

Tamy and Shamy, the colossi of, 9.

Tarquinii, the necropolis of, 36.

Telamons, 25.

Temple, ancient Hindoo, general features of a, 1,
2; the temple of Kailasa, near Ellora, 2, 3; at
Mavalipuram, ib.; the temple district of Cha-
lembaram, 4; temples on the islands of Phile
and Elephantine, 5,6; of Apollinopolis Magna
(Edfou), 7; at Latopolis (Esneh), Contralato-
polis, and Hermonthis (Ermeut), 8; of Serapis,
9; of Carnak, 13; of Tentyra or Denderah,
15, 16; temple ruins at Anteopolis, 16; of
Belus at Babylon, 20; description of the exter-
nal and internal structure of a Grecian, 31;
Cyclopean temples on the island of Gozzo, 35,
36; of Theseus, at Athens, 38, 39 ; of Jupiter
Olympius at Athens, 39, 40; temples on the
Acropolis at Athens, 42-44; temple ruins at
Eleusis, 44, 45; of Jupiter, at Augina, 45; of
Jupiter and Juno, in Argolis, 45,46; of Apollo
at Basse, 46; of Jupiter at Olympia, ib. ; tem-
ples of Nemesis and Themis at Rhamnus, 46,
47; ruins at Sunium, 47; of Apollo at Delos,
ib.; of Cybele at Sardis, ib.; of Rome and
Augustus at Mylasa, 48 ; ruins at Euxomus, ib. ;
of Apollo at Miletus, ib. ; of Minerva at Priene,
ib ; of Diana at Magnesia and Ephesus, 49,
50; of Bacchus at Ephesus, 50; of Neptune
and Ceres at Pestum, ib.; ruins at Syracuse
and Agrigentum, 51; of Jupiter at Selinuntie,
52; ruins at Segeste, ib.; of the Sun and other
ruins at Palmyra, 53,54; of the Sun and of
Baal or Jupiter at Baalbec, 55, 56; of Fortuna
Virilis and others erected in Rome under the
kings, 59 ; description of the principal temples
erected at Rome during the time of the republic,
60-63 ; temples of Apollo, Jupiter, and Quiri-
nus erected by Augustus, 69; of Mars the
Avenger at Rome, 70; the Pantheon, 70-72;
of Castor and Pollux and of Concordia restored
by Tiberius, 72, 73 ; of Honor and Virtue and
of Bacchus and the Muses, 73; of Vesta and

752

INDEX TO ARCHITECTURE.

other ruins at Tivoli, ib. ; temple ruins at Cori,
73, 74; of Jupiter at Pozzuoli, 74; of Minerva
at Assisixand other temples in Upper Italy, ib. :
of the eS: of Agrippa at Nismes, ib.; at Pola
in Istria, 75; of Augustus at Rome, ib. ; of Ju-
piter at Ostia, 76; of Jupiter Capitolinus and
of Peace by Vespasian, 77; of Juno, Fortuna,
Augustus, A’sculapius, and Isis, at Pompeii,
80; of the Capitoline gods at Rome, 81, 82;
of Jupiter at Forli, and of Minerva and Janus
erected by Domitian, 82; of Venus and Rome
by Hadrian, 86; of Antoninus and Faustina,
88; of Portumnus at Ostia, 92; of the Sun,
erected by Aurelian, 93, 94; of Confucius at
Tsing-Hai, 117.

Temples, Mexican, 119, 120.

Tenochtitlan, the temple of, 119.

Tentyra, description of the ruins of, 15, 16.

Teos, temple of Bacchus at, 50.

Teotihuacan, the pyramids of, 119, 121.

Theatre of Laodicea, ruins of, 26; the theatres of
Rome during the republic, 65; of Marcellus,
69; at Fidene, 75; at Dresden and St. Peters-
burg, 208; St. Charles theatre at New Orleans,
ib.

Thebes, description of the ruins at, 8, 9.

Themis, temple of, at Rhamnus, 47.

Theodoric, the palace and mausoleum of, at Ra-
venna, 141.

Theseus, temple of, at Athens, 38, 39.

Tiberius, restorations of the temples of Castor and
Pollux and of Concordia by, 72, 73; the Pre-
torian camp erected, and various buildings com
pleted during the reign of, 75.

Ticino, bridge over the, near Pavia, 218.

Tiryns, the ruins of, 33.

Titus, great destruction of buildings by fire and
the eruption of Vesuvius during the reign of,
78; description of the ruins of Pompeii, 79-81 ;
the arch of, 83.

Tivoli, villas and temples at, in the time of Au-
sustus, 73 ; ruins at, 87.

Tlascala, ruins in, 120.

Todi, the church della Consolazione at, 184.

Toledo, the bridge of, 219, 220.

Tombs, the rock-cut, of Silsilis, 7, 8; at Thebes,
10; the royal, at Persepolis, 21, 22; ancient
tombs in general, 32; Roman, 67; the Gallic,
of common people, 114.

Torbia, ruins at, 74.

Torre del Orologio at Venice, 183.

Tours, the Grotte des Fées at, 110; St. Martin’s
church, 125.

Tower of the Winds, at Athens, 39.

Towers, the, of churches, various forms of, in the
pointed-arch style, 149, 159, 160.

Tracery, the leaf, flamboyant, and perpendicular,
157, 158.

Trajan, enlargement of the Circus Maximus by,
84; the forum and column of, 84, 85; bridge
over the Danube by, 85; triumphal arch of, at
Beneventum, ib. ; marble arch at Ancona, 86.

Trani, the church of, 137.

Transept, the, various forms of, 148.

Treasure, buildings for the preservation of, at My-
cene, 34, 35.

Trevignano, the church of, 188.

Trie, dolmen at, 109.

Triglyphs, the, origin of, 23; of the Doric frieze,
29.

Triumphal arches. See Arches.
Trophzon of Augustus, the, at Torbia, 74.

INDEX TO ARCHITECTURE.

Turin, the church della Superga in, 190, 191.

Tuscan style, peculiarities of the, 60, 99.

Tuzapan, pyramid of, 121.

Typhonium, a temple dedicated to Typhon, 15.

Tyre, basilica at, erected by Bishop Pamfili, 131.

Tyrrhenians, the, no reliable information to be
obtained concerning the structures of, 58.

Universities, buildings for, 211.

Urban alla Caffarella, St., the church of, formerly
the temple of Bacchus and the Muses, 73.

Utatlan, the palace of, 121.

Uxmal, the ruins of, 122, 123.

Valhalla, the, near Ratisbon, 215.

Van Campen, Jacob, 207.

Van Witel, Louis, of Utrecht, 203.

Vanvitelli, an Italian architect, 203.

Vaults, the artificial construction of, in England,
173.

Vendramini, Andreas, monument to, in Venice,
T6077. .
Venice, St. Mark’s church at, 134, 135; the
church of St. Zacharias, 174, 175; the church
of the Redeemer upon the Giudecca, 175, 176 ;
the Library upon the Piazzetta, 176 ; monument
of the Doge Andreas Vendramini, 176, 177;
the church San Giorgio Maggiore, 187; the
church delle Figlie, 188—of St. Francesco della
Vigna, ib.; the clock tower, 183; the bridge

over the Rialto, 218.

Venus and Rome, temple of, erected by Hadrian, 86.

Verona, the amphitheatre at, 78; arch of Gabius
at, 83, 93.

Versailles, the palace at, 206.

Vespasian, restoration of various temples by, 77;
the Coliseum or Amphitheatre of Flavian erected
by, 78.

Vesta, temple of, at Tivoli, 73.

Vestibules of churches, various forms of, 148, 149.

Vestry, the, situation of, 149.

ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOPADIA.—VOL.

Vetheuil, the church of Notre Dame in, 180.

Vicenza, the basilica in, 188.

Vienna, St. Stephen’s church in, 164, 165.

Vignola, the Tuscan order created by, 99; two
styles of the Dorie order composed by, 99, 100 ;
employed on St. Peter’s at Rome, 187, 188.

Villa Tiburtina, the, of Hadrian, 87.

Visigothie style of architecture, the, 141.

Vitruvius, discussion as to the meaning of the term
scamilli as used by, 26.

Wall, the, of Babylon, 19, 20; various methods
of constructing walls and explanations of the
terms applied to the different kinds, 24; the
wall the continuation of the pillar, 28.

Walls, the outer, of churches, many and important
changes in, 149, 150 ; apertures or interruptions
in, 152; various forms of construction of, in the
pointed-arch style, 155, 156.

Washington, the Capitol at, 210.

Watch-houses, architecture of, 212, 213.

West Hoadley, the rocking stone at, 112.

Wilhelm of Innsbruck, architect of the leaning
tower at Pisa, 138, 139.

Windows, trimmings and decorations of, 29 ; dif-
ferent kinds of, for the several orders, 105, 106 ;
various forms of, in the basilicas and early
churches of the pointed-arch style, 156, 157;
rectangular and rosette, 158.

Winds, tower of the, at Athens, 39.

Witches’ table, a species of Celtic monument,
108, 109 ; witches’ grotto, 109, 110.

Wolzner, Octavianus, of Cracow, 165.

Wren, Sir Christopher, 198, 199.

Xochicaleo, temple at, 120.

York, the minster at, 172, 173.
Yucatan, architectural remains in, 122, 123.

Zwetau, the bridge of, 219.

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INDEX TO MYTHOLOGY

AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

[The numbers refer to the top paging of the text.]

’ Axapyr, the, or the sacred stone, 87, 88.

Abelio, a name for Apollo among the Gauls, 75.

Abraxas and Abraxoides gems, 47, 48.

Acteon, 111.

Adonis, the story of, 102.

JEsculapius, the god of medicine, 121.

Agathodemons, the, or good genii, 144.

Aglaia, one of the Graces, 128.

Ahriman, 26; myth relating to, 27, 28.

Alecto, one of the Eumenides, 123.

Alfadur, the Supreme Being of the Scandinavian
mythology, 52.

Alfs, the, or Elves, of the Scandinavians, 62.

Alrunes, the, or sacred virgins of the German
mythology, 68.

Amazons, the, 135.

Amor, or Cupid, worship of, at Rome, 156.

Amphion, king of Thebes, 111.

Amphitrite, the wife of Poseidon, 95.

Amrita, the draught of immortality, 6.

Amshaspands, the seyen, 26.

Amun, or Jupiter Ammon, 33, 34, 35.

Amymone, the nymph, a favorite of Neptune, 95.

Ancharia, an Etrusean goddess, 148.

Anchises, the love of Aphrodite for, 102.

Anemone, origin of the, 102.

Animals, worship of, among the ancient Syrians,
49 ; sacred, among the Greeks, 143, 144.

Antinous, a species of worship rendered to, 159.

Anubis, 32, 33, 38.

Apeliotes, or the east wind, 123.

Aphrodite, her dress, attributes, and myths relating
to, 100-102.

Apis, the bull, 33.

Apollo, worshipped by the Gauls, 75 ; attributes
and representations of, in the Grecian mytho-
logy, 106, 107; myths relative to, 107, 108;
oracle of, at Delphi, 147; worship of, at
Rome, 153.

Ares, attributes and various representations of,
102, 103.

Argos, the hundred-eyed, 92.

Ariadne, the story of, 120, 121.

Artemis, her attributes and representations, with
the legends relating to her, 109-112.

Ascetics, fraternities of, among the Hindoos, 12.

Asclepios, the god of medicine, 112, 121.

Asir, the, a class of Scandinavian deities, 57.

Assyrians, the, mythology of, 48, 49.

Astaroth, or Astarte, a Pheenician goddess, 101.

Astarte, a Syrian goddess, 49.

Astrea, the goddess of equity, 157.

Astrology, study of, among the Egyptians, 34.

Astronomy, advances made in, by the Egyptians,
45.

Athene, the birth of, 93, 94; her contest with
Poseidon, 96; attributes, dress, and representa-
tions of, 97-99 ; festivals in honor of, 146.

Atlas, king of Ethiopia, 134, 138.

Atropos, one of the Fates, 123.

Atys, the lover of Cybele, 89.

Augures, the, a college of priests at Rome, 160.

Aum, or Om, a symbolical figure, 4.

Aurora, the goddess of the morning, 157.

Avatars, the, of Vishnu, 6-8.

Azteks, the, mythology of, 79 ; peculiar custom
of, 82.

Baal, or Belus, a Babylonian divinity, 49 ; tem-
ple of, at Tyre, 50; various idols known by
the name of, 50, 51.

Babylonians, the, mythology of, 48 ; cosmogony
of, 48, 49 ; gods and idols of, 49, 50.

Bacchanalia, the, 146, 155.

Bacchantes, the, 127.

Bacchus, the Dionysos of the Greeks, 117, 155.

Baldur, myth relative to, 60, 61.

Bards, the, a class of priests among the Gauls, 76.

Belen, or Belin, a name for Apollo among the
Gauls, 75.

Bellerophon, myth relating to, 134, 135.

Bellona, the sister of Mars, 152.

Bely, the giant, 7.

Bhavani, or the Maya, 4.

Bonus Eventus, a Roman deity, 156, 157.

Bonzes, the, or priests of Fo, 21.

Boreas, or the north wind, 123.

Braga, a Scandinavian deity, 57.

Brahm, myths relating to, 3, 4.

Brahma, account of the birth of, 4,5; creation
of the world and of the human race by, 5;
origin of castes, ib. ; his rank in the Trimurti,
ib. ; worship of, 5, 6.

Brahmaism, 3.

Brahmins, the, 12.

Buddha, the history of, 13 ; spread of Buddhism,
13, 14; distinctions between Buddhism and
Brahmaism, 14 ; doctrines, ib. ; spirit world of
the Buddhists, 15 ; sects, 15, 16.

Buddsdo, a Buddhist form of worship in Japan,
oa, ot:

Caaba, the, or national temple of the Mahome-
dans, 164.

Cacodemons, the, or evil genii, 144.

Cahitra, the ark, 6.

Calliope, one of the Muses, 129.

Calypso, 141.

Camadeva, the god of love, 11.

Camel, the sacred, of the Egyptians, 39.

Campus Martius, celebration of games in honor
of Mars in the, 153.

Canope, or sacred jugs of the Egyptians, 41.

Castes, origin of, among the Hindoos, 5.

Castor, one of the Dioseuri, 135, 158.

Be ean a name for Ceres among the Romans,
Foot

Centaurs, the, 92.

Cerberos, 138, 144.

Ceres, worshipped by the Gauls, 76; the Deme-

755

INDEX TO MYTHOLOGY

ter of the Greeks, 96; worship of, at Rome,
155.

Charites, the, or Graces, 128.

Charon, the ferryman of the lower world, 144.

Charybdis, 141.

Cheiron, the centaur, 92.

Chimera, the, 134.

Chinese, the, primitive religion of, 19 ; Lao-T'se,
the first reformer, 20 ; doctrines of Confucius,
20, 21; the priests or Bonzes, 21 ; the temples,
ib. ; superstitious rites, 22.

Christianity and the principal branches of the
Christian church, 162.

Chrysaor, the man with the golden sword, 134.

Clio, one of the Muses, 129.

Clotho, one of the Fates, 123.

Ceelus, a god of the physical universe, 109.

Concordia, the goddess of harmony, 157.

Confucius, the doctrines of, 20, 21.

Consualia, a feast in honor of Neptune, 151.

Cornucopia, the, or horn of plenty, 87.

Coronis, myth relating to, 107.

Corybantes, the, or priests of Cybele, 90.

Cosmogony of the Hindoos, 3, 4; peculiar, of
Lamaism, 17; of the Persians, 27; of the
Babylonians, 48, 49 ; of the Pheenicians, 50 ;
Scandinavian, 52-55 ; the Aztek or Mexican,
80; of the Greeks, 86.

Cronos, myth relating to, 87.

Cupid, or Eros, 115-117.

Cybele, myth relating to, 89.

Cyparissos, a favorite of Apollo, 107.

Dalai Lama, the, 18, 19.

Daphne, the story of, 108.

Dead, the tribunal of, as described by the ancient
Egyptians, 47.

Death, the god of, 131.

Delphi, oracle of Apollo at, 147.

Demeter, her attributes and myth relating to,
96, 97.

Devs, the, or evil spirits, 27.

Diana, worshipped by the Gauls, 75 ; the Artemis
of the Greeks, 109 ; worship of, at Rome, 154.

Dii majorum gentium, 149, 156; Dii minorum
gentium, 156-159.

Dike, one of the Hours, 127.

Dio, or Demeter, 96.

Dionysos, attributes and representations of, and
myths relating to, 117-121 ; festivals in honor
of, 146.

Dioscuri, the, 135, 158.

Dreams, the children of Night, 131.

Druids, the, 76; rites and ceremonies, 77, 78.

Dualism, 2.

Durga, the Nemesis of the Hindoos, 9.

Edda, the, an ancient sacred poem of the Seandi-
navians, 52.

Egyptians, the, observations on the mythology of,
30, 31; myth of Osiris and Isis, 31-33 ; their
theogony, 33-35 ; myths and symbols, 35-41 ;
worship and priesthood, 41-43 ; the mysteries,
43-45; state of astronomy among, 45, 46;
doctrines of, concerning the future state of the
soul, 46, 47; the Abraxas and Abraxoides
gems, 47, 48.

Eirene, one of the Hours, 127.

Elves, the, or Alfs of the Scandinavians, 62. ,

Elysium, 144, 145. ,

Endymion, the story of, 111.

Epimetheus, the brother of Prometheus, 132.

756

AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

Erato, one of the Muses, 129.

Erebos, 130.

Erinnyes, the, 88, 89, 123.

Eros, attributes and representations of, 115, 116 ;
the story of Psyche, 116, 117; worship of, at
Rome, 156.

Erymanthian boar, the, 137.

Etruscans, the gods of the, 147, 148.

Eumenides, the, 123.

Eunomia, one of the Hours, 127.

Euphrosyne, one of the Graces, 128.

Europa, the story of, 93.

Euryale, one of the Gorgons, 134.

Euterpe, one of the Muses, 129.

Falcon, the, a sacred bird with the Egyptians, 39.

Fates, the, 123.

Faunus, the Grecian Pan, 158, 159.

Festivals, religious, of the Slavono-Vendie nations,
73 ; of the Mexicans, 81, 82; of the Greeks,
146 ; of the Romans, 159, 160.

Fetishism, 2.

Fides, the goddess of fidelity, 157.

Fire worship, 2, 29 ; traces of, among the ancient
Germans, 67.

Flamines, the, a class of Roman priests, 160.

Flora, the goddess of flowers, 159.

Flyntz, a Slavono-Vendie deity, 71.

Foism,.a variation of Buddhism, 19 ; nature of
the worship, 21, 22.

Fortuna, the goddess, 157.

Freya, a Scandinavian goddgss, 59, 60.

Freyr, a Scandinavian deity, 59.

Frigga, a Seandinavian goddess, 57, 58; wor-

_ shipped by the Germans, 67.

Furie, the Furies, 123.

Gea, the ancestress of the gods, 87.

Ganymede, the cup-bearer of the gods, 122.

Gauls, the, principal deities of, 74-76 ; the Druids,
Bards, and Vates, 76 ; religious rites and cere-
monies, 77, 78.

Genii, the, 144.

Genius, a Roman deity, 155.

Germans, the, mythology of, 67; priests and
priestesses, 68.

Geryon, the giant, 137.

Giants, the, of the Hindoo theogony, 11; of the
Pheenician, 50; of the Scandinavian, 63 ; of
the Grecian, 88, 143.

Glaucos, a sea-god, 124.

Gods, the, of the Hindoos, 4-11; of Lamaism,
16; of the Japanese, 24; of the Javanese, 25 ;
of the Egyptians, 33, 34, 35-39 ; of the Baby-
lonians and Syrians, 49 ; of the Scandinavians,
55-66 ; of the ancient Germans, 67,68 ; of the
Slavono-Vendic nations, 69-71 ; of the Gauls,
74-76 ; of the Mexicans, 79, 80; of the
Greeks, 86-131; of the Romans, 147-160.

Gorgons, the, 133.

Graces, the, 128, 156.

Gree, the, 133.

Gration, one of the giants, 143.

Greeks, the. general observations on the religious
system of, 84-86 ; cosmogonies and theogonies,
86-90; the superior or Olympic gods, 90-113 ;
notions of, with regard to Olympos, 113, 114;
gods of the lower world, 114,115; the inferior
gods, 115-122 ; subordinate deities, 122, 123 ;
aerial gods or winds, 123 ; gods of the water,
123-125 ; of mountains, forests, and fields,
125-127 ; goddesses of time, 127, 128; the

a i

INDEX TO MYTHOLOGY

Charites or Graces, 128 ; the Muses, 129, 130 ;
nocturnal deities, 130, 131 ; the heroes, 131-143 ;
the giants, 143 ; the pygmies, ib. ; sacred ani-
mals, 143, 144; the genii, 144; theology and
worship of, 144-147.

Hades, attributes and representations of, 114.
Hands, the votive, of the Egyptians, 43.
Harpocrates, various representations of, 38.
Hebe, the goddess of youth, 122.

Hecate, the goddess, 110.

Hela, a Slavono-Vendic deity, 71.

Helios, the sun god, 108.

Hephestos, his attributes and myths relative to,
99, 100.

Hera, the attributes and representations of, 94.

Heracles, birth and education of, 135, 136 ; the
twelve labors of, 136-138 ; representations of,
139.

Hercules Saxanus, 75.

Herme, or terminal.statues, 105.

Hermaphrodites, myth relating to, 125.

Hermes, a god of the Egyptians, 31, 33, 38; the
offices, attributes, and representations of the
Grecian, 103-105 ; myths recorded of, 105, 106.

Hermode, a Scandinavian deity, 57.

Heroes, the, account of the most prominent, of
the Grecian mythology, 131-143 ; application
of the term, 143.

Herse, the daughter of Cecrops, 106.

Hertha, a goddess of the German mythology,
67, 68.

Hesperides, the, 138.

Hestia, or Vesta, 99.

Hindoos, the, mythology and worship of, 3 ; cos-
mogony, 3, 4; symbolical figures, 4; the three
superior gods, Brahma, Vishnu,.and Siva, 4-10 ;
theogony and theology, 10-13.

Hippocamps, the, 125.

Hore, the Hours, 127, 157.

Horus, the son of Osiris, 32, 33.

Hyacinthos, a favorite of Apollo, 107.

Hydra, the Lernean, 136.

Hygeia, the goddess of health, 112, 122.

Hylas, the friend of Heracles, 125.

Hymen, the god of matrimony, 156.

Hypnos, the god of sleep, 130, 131.

Ibis, the, a sacred bird with the Egyptians, 39.

Idols, Hindoo, 11 ; of the followers of Lamaism,
16; Japanese, 24; Javanese, 25; Babylonian
and Syrian, 49, 50; Pheenician, 50, 51; Ale-
manic, 68; Slavono-Vendic, 69 ; Mexican, 81.

Idunna, a Scandinavian goddess, myth relative
to, 58.

Tlia, the mother of Romulus and Remus, 151.

Incarnations, the, of Vishnu, 6-8 ; of Siva, 9.

Ipabog, a Slavono-Vendie deity, 71.

Iphigenia, the sacrifice of, 112.

Iris, the messenger of the gods, 122.

Isis, the myth of, 31-33 ; representations of, 37 ;
worshipped by the Gauls, 75.

Islamism, 163.

Ixion, the punishment of, 145.

Izeds, the, or good spirits, 26.

Janus, the god of time, 148, 155.

Japanese, the, cosmogony of, 23 ; the Sinto reli-
gion, ib.; the Buddhist form of worship, 23,
24; the sect of Syuntoo, 24; idols and tem-
ples, 24, 25 ; monks and nuns, 25.

Javanese, the, mythology of, 25.

AND RELIGIOUS RITES. iii

Juno, the Hera of the Greeks, 94 ; statues of, at
Rome, 150, 151.

Jupiter, worshipped by the Gauls under the name
of Taranis, 75; the Zeus of the Greeks, 90 ;
Jupiter Axur of the Latins, 148 ; representations
and temples of, among the Romans, 149-150.

Jupiter Ammon, 33, 34, 35.

Justitia, a Roman deity, 157.

Kneph, the creator of Osiris, 34, 35.
Krishna, 8. i

Lachesis, one of the Fates, 123.

Lakshmi, the wife of Vishnu, 7.

Lamaism, account of, 16; peculiar cosmogony,
17; doctrines respecting a future life, 17, 18 ;
the priesthood, 18, 19; nature of the worship,
19.

Lao-tse, the doctrines of, 20.

Lares, the, or household gods, 159.

Latins, the gods of the, 148.

Latona, or Leto, 93.

Leda, the story of, 93.

Leto, the story of, 93.

Leucothea, the nymph, 118.

Lingam, the, its origin and nature, 9, 10.

Loke, a Scandinavian god, attributes of, and
myth relating to, 60, 61.

Lotus, the flower of the, held in particular
esteem among the Egyptians, 40.

Lucina, a name for Diana among the Romans,
154.

Luna, a Roman deity, 156.

Lunus, a Roman deity, 156.

Menades, the, 127.

Magi, the, 26, 29.

Magusanus, a Belgian deity, 74.

Mahabharata, the, 3.

Mahomed, visit of, to the seventh heaven, 164.

Mahomedanism, brief account of, 163, 164.

Mars, the Ares of the Greeks, 102 ; worship and re-
presentations of, among the Romans, 151, 152 ;
solemnities and games in honor of, 152, 153.

Marsyas, musical contest between, and Apollo,
108.

Matres Auguste, 75.

Maya, the, or Bhavani, 4.

Medusa, one of the Gorgons, 133.

Megera, one of the Eumenides, 123.

Melian nymphs, the, 89.

Melicertes, myth relating to, 124.

Melpomene, one of the Muses, 129.

Mercury, worshipped by the Gauls, 74; the
Hermes of the Greeks, 103; worship of, at
Rome, 153.

Mexicans, the, gods and idols of, 79-81 ; human
sacrifices, 81, 82; priesthood, 83; division of
time, 83, 84.

Mimas, one of the giants, 143.

Minerva, worshipped by the Gauls, 76; the
Athene of the Greeks, 93, 94, 97; worship of,
by the Romans, 155.

Minotaur, the, 120.

Mistletoe, the, ceremonies attending the search
for, by the Druids, 77, 78.

Mithras, an object of general adoration to the
Persians, 26, 28.

Mnemosyne, the mother of the Muses, 129.

Mongols, the, religion of, 19.

Monotheism, 2 ; brief account of the three exist-
ing forms of, 161-164.

757

iv INDEX TO MYTHOLOGY

Mosaic religion, the, 161.

Muses, the, 129, 130.

Muyelagin, the giant, 9, 10.

Myda, a Slavono-Vendie deity, 71.

Mysteries, the, or secret doctrines of the Egyp-
tians, 43-45.

Mythology, general observations on, 2; of the
Hindoos, 3-16 ; of the Chinese, 19-22 ; of the
Japanese, 22-25; of the Javanese, 25; of
the Persians, 25-30 ; of the Egyptians, 30-48 ;
of the Babylonians, Syrians, and Pheenicians,
48-51; of the Scandinavians, 52-67; of the
Germans, 67, 68; of the Slavono-Vendie na-
tions, 69-73; of the Gauls, 74-79; of the
Mexicans, 79-84; of the Greeks, 84-147; of
the Romans, 147-160.

Naiades, the, 125.

Nat, the, a race of celestial beings, 15.

Nebris, the, or sacred fawn-skin of Bacchus, 118.

Nehalennia, a Belgian goddess, 74.

Nemean lion, the, 136.

Nemesis, a goddess of justice, 122, 123.

Nemisa, a Slavono-Vendie deity, 71.

Neptune, the Poseidon of the Greeks, 94; wor-
ship of, at Rome, 151 ; sacrifices to, ib.

Nereids, the, 123, 124.

Nereus, a sea-god, 123.

Night, the goddess of, 130.

Nile key, the, or Egyptian cable, 40.

Nilus, the river god, 158.

Niobe, the story of, 92, 111.

Nirthus, a goddess of the German mythology,
67, 68.

Njord, or Njérdr, a Scandinavian deity, 59.

Norns, the, of the Scandinavians, 61.

Northern mythology, the, 51 et seq.

Notos, or the south wind, 123.

Nux, the goddess of night, 130.

Nymphs, the, 125, 127.

Oceanides, the, 90.

Oceanos, the first born of the Titans, 90.

Odin, the chief of the Scandinavian divinities, 52 ;
the hall of, 54, 55 ; various representations of,
55, 56; worshipped in Germany under the
name of Wodan, 67.

Odysseus, the story of, 140-143.

CEdipus, the story of, 139, 140.

Olympos, notions of the Greeks with regard to,
‘CERIeES ,

Om, or Aum, a symbolical figure, 4.

Opis, or Ops, a Latin deity, 148.

Oracles, the, of Greece, 147.

Orion, 111.

Ormuzd, 26 ; myth relating to, 27, 28.

Osiris, the myth of, 31-33 ; representations of,
35, 36.

Palemon, myth relating to, 124.

Pallas, one of the giants, 143.

Pallas Athene. See Athene.

Pallor, an attendant of Mars, 152.

Pan, the god of shepherds, 125, 126; myths
relative to, 126.

Panathenea, the, 146.

Pandora and her casket, 132.

Panic, origin of the term, 126.

Panisks, the, or descendants of Pan, 126.

AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

Parseeism, account of its traditions, forms of wor-
ship, &c., 25-80 ; different classes of priests, 29.

Parvati, the wife of Siva, 9, 10.

Pavor, an attendant of Mars, 152.

Pax, the goddess of peace, 156.

Pegasus, the winged horse, 134.

Penelope, the wife of Ulysses, 142.

Penitents, fraternities of, among the Hindoos,
1a bs

Persephone, the rape of, 96, 97; attributes and
representations of, 114, 115.

Perseus, the story of, 133, 134.

Persians, the ancient, account of the religion of,
25-30 ; different classes of priests, 29.

Pheebus Apollo. See Apollo.

Pheenicians, the, cosmogony of, 50; their idols,
00; Dik:

Pheenix, the, 39, 40.

Pietas, the goddess of piety, 157.

Pluto, attributes and representations of, 114, 156.

Podaga, a Slavono-Vendie deity, 70.

Pollux, one of the Dioscuri, 135, 158.

Polyhymnia, one of the Muses, 129, 130.

Polyphemos, the giant, 140.

Polytheism, 2.

Pomona, the goddess of orchards, 159.

Pontifices, the, a class of Roman priests, 160.

Poseidon, attributes, representations, &c., of, 94,
95 ; his contest with Athene, 96.

Potamides, the, or river goddesses, 125.

Priapos, a rural god, 127.

Priests and priestesses, Persian, three classes of,
29 ; the Egyptian, their power and privileges,
41, 42; Scandinavian, 66; ancient German,
68 ; of the Slavono-Vendic nations, 73; of the
Gauls, 76, 77; of the Mexicans, 83; of the
Greeks, 147; of the Romans, 160.

Prometheus, the story of, 132.

Proserpine, the rape of, 96, 97; attributes and
representations of, 114, 115, 156.

Prove, a Slavono-Vendic deity, 70.

Psyche, the story of, 116, 117; representations
of, by the Romans, 156.

Pudicitia, or Pudor, the goddess of modesty, 157.

Puranas, the, 3.

Purha, the goddess, 16.

Pya, a Slavgno-Vendie deity, 71.

Pygmies, the, 143.

Pyrolatry, or the worship of fire, 2.

Python, the serpent, 93, 107.

Quindecimviri, the, office of, 160.

Radegast, a Slavono-Vendie deity, 70.

Ramayana, the, 3.

Ravana, the giant, king of Ceylon, 7.

Razi, a class of gods in the Slavono-Vendie
mythology, 70.

Rhea, the wife of Uranos, 87, 89.

Rhea Sylvia, 151.

Religion, universal nature of the sentiment of, 1 ;
different systems of, 2.

Romans, the, primitive religion of, 147; sources
whence the Roman mythology was borrowed,
147, 148; the myth of Saturnus, 149; gods
of the first order, 149-156 ; gods of the second
order, 156-159 ; their modes of worship, priests,
and sacred books, 159, 160.

Paradise, the, of Vishnu, 8; the paradise or | Sabeism, or star worship, 2.

tanghri of Lamaism, 17, 18.
Parce, the, or Fates, 123.
758

Sacrifices, human, among the Slavono-Vendic
nations, 73; among the Gauls, 77; among

———

INDEX TO MYTHOLOGY

the Mexicans, 81, 82; sacrificial festivals of
the Romans, 159, 160.

Salii, the priests of Mars, 152 ; annual solemnity
celebrated by, 152, 153.

Salmacis, the naiad, 125.

Sanashis, the, or Saniassi, 12.

Saravadi, the wife of Brahma, 6.

Saturnalia, the, 149.

Saturnus, myth relating to, 149, 155.

Satyrs, the, 127.

Seandinavians, the, cosmogony of, 52-55; the
principal divinities of, and myths relating
to them, 55-65; their belief in the final
destruction of the visible creation, 65, 66;
worship and religious ceremonies of, 66;
festivals, 66, 67.

Schiites, the, a Mahomedan sect, 132.

Seylla, 141.

Sea-gods, the, 123-125.

Seasons, the, 128, 157.

Selene, a name for Diana, 109.

Semele, the story of, 118.

Ship, the sacred, of the Egyptians, 40, 41.

Sibylline books, the, 160.

Sieba, a Slavono-Vendic deity, 71.

Siebog, a Slavono-Vendic deity, 71.

Signa Panthea, statues so called, 157.

Silenos, representations of, 126,127; his progeny,

Sinto or Xinto religion, tenets of the, in Japan,
222s.

Sirens, the, 141.

Sistrum, the, a musical instrument invented by
sis 37.

Sisyphos, the punishment of, 145.

Siva, history of, 8-10.

Sivaism, 3.

Slavonians, the, mythology of, 69-73.

Sleep, the god of, 130, 131.

Sol, the god of the sun, 155.

Soul, the, Egyptian belief in the immortality of,
46 ; ideas of the Greeks on the subject, 144—
of the Romans, 159.

Spes, the goddess of hope, 157.

Sphinxes, various representations of, 40.

Stars, worship of the, 2.

Stheno, one of the Gorgons, 134.

Stymphalides, the, 137.

Sun, the, adoration of, 29.

Sunnites, the, a Mahomedan sect, 164.

Suovetaurilia, a religious festival among the
Romans, 159.

Surya, or the god of the sun, 10, 11.

Svantevit, a Slavono-Vendie deity, 70.

Svartalfs, the, of the Scandinavians, 62.

Symbols of the Hindoo mythology, 4, 9, 10.

Syrians, the ancient, idolatry among, 49, 50.

Syrinx, the, or pastoral pipe, origin of, 126.

Syuntoo, a Japanese sect, 24.

Tages, an Etruscan deity, 148.

Tantalos, the punishment of, 145.

Taran, or Taranis, a name for Jupiter among the
Gauls, 75.

Tartaros, 144, 145.

eos the protector of convalescents,
122.

Tellus, the deity of the earth, 155.

Temples, Chinese, 21; Japanese, 23 ;
vono-Vendic, 72; Mexican, 83;
145.

Tensju, the priests of the, 15,

Sla-
Grecian,

AND RELIGIOUS RITES. Vv

Terminal statues, 105.

Terpsichore, one of the Muses, 129.

Thalia, one of the Graces, 128 ; one of the Muses,
129.

Thanatos, the god of material death, 131.

Theogony and theology, the, of the Hindoos,
4-13; of the Japanese, 22, 23; of the Egyp-
tians, 33-35 ; of the Babylonians, Syrians, and
Pheenicians, 48-50; of the Scandinavians,
52-66 ; of the Mexicans, 80; of the Greeks,
86, 144; of the Romans, 147.

Thetis, the wife of Peleus, 124.

Thibet, the priesthood in, 18, 19.

Thor, the god of thunder and son of Odin,
56; his adventures on his journey to Ut-
gard, 63-65; worshipped by the Germans,
67.

Thot, or Theut, an Egyptian deity, 38.

Tibris, the river god, 158.

Tina, an Etrusean deity, 148.

Tisiphone, one of the Eumenides, 123.

Titans, war of the, and the gods, 87, 88. __

Tribunal of the dead, as described by the ancient
Egyptians, 47.

Trigler, a Slavono-Vendie deity, 71.

Trimurti, or the Indian trinity, 4.

Triptolemus, a favorite of Demeter, 97.

Tritheism, 2. :

Tritons, the, 124.

Tyr, the son of Odin and god of battle-fields,
myth relative to, 56, 57.

Ulysses, the story of, 140-143.
Urania, one of the Muses, 129.
Uranos, myth relating to, 87.
Utgard, the giant-king of, 63.

Valhalla, the residence of Odin, 54.

~Valkyre, the, or Valkyryor, 62.

Vanir, the, the second class of Scandinavian
deities, 58.

Vates, the, a class of priests among the Gauls,
76.

Vedas, the four, or holy books of the Hindoos,
3

Vejovis, a Latin deity, 148.

Vendes, the, mythology of, 69-73.

Venus, worshipped by the Gauls, 75 ; the Aphro-
dite of the Greeks, 100 ; worship of, at Rome,
153, 154.

Vertumnus, a Roman deity, 159.

Vesta, or Hestia, 99, 155.

Victimarii, the, assistants in the sacrificial service,
160.

Victoria, the goddess of victory, 157.

Virgins, the Vestal, 155.

Vishnavins, the, 12.

Vishnu, history of, and his Avatars, 6-8;
various representations of, 8; his paradise,
ib.

Vishnuism, 3.

Voltumna, an Etruscan goddess, 148.

Votive-hands, the, of the Egyptians, 43,

Vulcan, worshipped by the Gauls, 75; the He-
phestos of the Greeks, 99; worship of, at
Rome, 153.

Water, gods of the, 123-125.
Winds, the, or aerial gods, 123.
Wodan, or Odin, 67.

Xinto religion, tenets of the, in Japan, 22, 23.
759

v1 INDEX TO MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS RITES.

Yoni, the, 10. Zeus, his attributes, various representations, and
Yule, festival of, celebrated with imposing cere-| myths relating to, 90-93.

monies by the Scandinavians, 66, 67. Zirnitra, a class of gods in the Slavono-Vendiec

mythology, 70.
Zendavesta, the, or sacred book of the Persians, | Ziselbog, a Slavono-Vendic deity, 71. .
8. Zodiac, an Egyptian, description of, 45, 46.

Zephyros, or the west wind, 123. Zoroaster, 26.
Zernebog, a Slavono-Vendie deity, 71.

“760

Lebel 2D Oe TH EFA NE ARES

[The numbers refer to the top paging of the text.]

ABEL DE Pusot, a French artist, 118.

Abraxas gems, the, 28.

/Xginetan sculptures, the, description of, 14, 15.

fMsculapius, or Asklepius, the artistic form of, 37.

fAtion, a painter of the time of Hadrian, 76.

Agasias, the name of three celebrated sculptors
at Ephesus, 23.

Agathareos of Athens, 72.

Aglaophon, a Greek artist, 72.

Albano, Francesco, sketch of the life and works
of, 107.

Aldegrewer, Heinrich, 127.

Aldobrandini Wedding, the, an ancient painting
found in Rome, 75.

Alfani, Domenico and Orazio, 81.

Algardi, an Italian sculptor, 56.

Algicani, Michele, an early Italian sculptor, 51.

Allegri, Antonio, sketch of the life and works of,
99-101.

Allori, Christoforo, 92.

Altdorfer, Albert, 127.

Amazon, statues of a, by Phidias and Ctesilaus,
20.

Amazons, the, artistic form of, 42.

Amberger, Christoph, of Nurnberg, 126.

America, state of art in, 135, 136.

Amor, or Eros, the artistic form of, 36.

Anatomy of the muscular system with a special
view to artistical representation, 142-146.

Andrea del Castagno, 87.

Andrea da Salerno, a Neapolitan artist, 109.

Andrea del Sarto, sketch of the life and works of,
89, 90.

Andreas of Velletri, 80.

Anguier, a French sculptor, 58.

Antinous, the statues of, 27;
Belvedere, ib. and 35.

Apelles, the works of, 73.

Aphrodite, the artistic form of, 33.

Apollo, the artistic form of, 30, 31;
Callinicus, the Belvedere, &c., a

Apollodorus of Athens, 72.

Apollonius, a Greek Seale 24.

Aquarelle engraving, 169.

Aquatint engraving, 169.

Arcesilaus, a Roman sculptor, 26.

Architectonics, province of, 3.

Ares, the artistic form of, 33.

Ariadne, the artistic form of, 36.

Art, general observations on, 1; meaning of the
term, ib.; laws of art, 2; forms adapted to the
purposes of, 2,3; pursuit and practice of, 3;
mythological subjects of ancient, 29-42 ; his-
torical representations and portrait-statues,
42; representations of religious acts, gymnas-
tics, horse and chariot races, war, the chase,
and rural life, 43, 44; decline of, under the
Roman emperors, 44, 45; condition of, in the
time of Constantine, 45—in the time of Julian
the Apostate, 46; destruction of works of, by

the Antinous of

Apollo

the early Christians, 46—and by the barbarian
hordes which invaded the Roman empire in the
fifth century, ib. ; encouragement bestowed on,
by Thecdoric, 47 ; losses sustained by, during
the reigns of Justinian and his successors, ib.—
and of Popes Gregory I., Sabinian I., and Ho-
norius I., ib. ; persecution of works of, extended
to artists themselves, 48 ; influence of the Cru-
sades on, 48, 49 ; revival of, 49, 50; deplorable
influence of Lorenzo Bernini upon the plastic
art, 54, 55; decline of, after the death of Mi-
chael Angelo, 91; the classical and romantic
schools of, in France, 117, 118. And see
Painting.

Artemis, the artistic form of, 31.

Artists. See Painters.

Ary Schafer, 118.

Asper, Hans, of Zurich, 126.

Atlas, the artistic form of, 37.

Augsburg school of art, the, 127.

Autography, a lithographic process, 177.

Babylonians, the, little progress made in sculpture
by, 6, 7; colossal statues and engraved stones
of, 7.

Bacchus, the artistic form of, 35.

Baccio della Porta, sketch of the life and works
of, 88, 89.

Baisati, Marco, 94.

Balducci, Giovanni, description of a mausoleum
erected by, 51.

Baldung, Hans, of Gemund, 126.

Bamberg library, illuminated missal in the, 119.

Bambocciadi, the, a school of Roman painters,
84.

Barbalonga, or Juan de Majo, 110.

Barbarelli, Giorgio, or Giorgione of Castelfranco,
95.

Barbieri, an Italian painter, 85.

Barocchio, 87.

Barozzi, Federico, 84.

Barry, James, 135.

Bas-relief, 4.

Batoni, Pompeo Girolamo, 86.

Bayeux tapestry, the, 111.

Behams, the two, 127.

Bellerophon, the artistic form of, 41.

Bellini, Giovanni and Gentile, 94.

Belvedere Apollo, the, 31.

Berettini, Pietro, 85, 93.

Berlinghieri, Bonaventura, 79.

Bernini, Lorenzo, vicious mode of composition of,
54, 55, 85.

Bigordi, or Domenico Ghirlandaio, 88.

Boceardo Fabriano, 80.

Botticher, Professor, the inventor of etching on
glass, 172.

Bolognese, Giotto and Franco, 80.

Bolognese school, the, sketches of the principal
artists of, and their pictures, 101-109.

761

INDEX TO THE FINE ARTS.

Bordone, Paris, a pupil of Titian, 97.

Borghese Gladiator, the, 23, 43.

Brass-casting, perfection of, in the Sicyonian
school, 22.

Brass-founding, the art of, practised by the Etrus-
eans, 11.

Brunelli, an Italian sculptor, 56.

Buffalmaco di Giunta, 79.

Bunel, Jacques, a French artist, 113.

Buonacorsi, Pietro, 83.

Buonarotti, Michael Angelo, 52, 53, 83, 90, 91.

Buonfigli, Benedetto, 81.

Burgkmaier, Hans, 126.

Busts of kings, poets, philosophers, &c., common
in the declining age of Greek art, 23 ; of philo-
sophers, poets, &c., of antiquity handed down
to modern times, 42.

Caesillas, Juan, a Spanish artist, 109.

Cagliari, Pietro, 98.

Calamis, a Grecian sculptor, 17.

Calcar, the master of, 123.

Callimachus, the works of, 20.

Camayeux, or chiaroscuros, 163.

Cameos, exquisite, of the Greeks, 24; of the Ro-
mans, 26; modern, 162.

Camillo Mariani of Vicenza, the works of, 54.

Canini, an Italian painter, 85.

Canova, Antonio, sketch of the life and works of,
Bh, oi.

Canvas, not generally used by artists before the
time of Titian, 94.

Caracci, Ludovico, Agostino, and Annibale,
sketches of their lives and works, 102-104.

Caracciola, Giovanni, 109.

Caravaggio, sketch of the life and works of, 105.

Cardi, Ludovico,-92.

Carlo Dolce, 93.

Carpaccio, Vittorio, 94.

Casting in metal, the invention of, ascribed to
Rheecus and his sons, 12.

Cavallini, Pietro, an early Italian painter, 80.

Cellini, Benvenuto, sketch of the life and works
Oi, 5s, 54.

Centaurs, the, artistic representations of, 36.

Ceres, the artistic form of, 30.

Cerrini, an Italian painter, 85.

Cesari, Giuseppe, 84.

Chantrey, the English sculptor, 64.

Chares, a pupil of Lysippus, 22.

Charites, the, elegance of the artistic forms of, 37.

Chase, the, subjects from, frequent in ancient re-

~ diefs, 44.

Chasing, the art of, practised by the Etruscans, 11.

Chaudet, the Cincinnatus of, 58.

Chiaroscuros or camayeux, 163.

Chimenti, Jacob, 92.

Chinard, specimen of the style of, 58.

Christianity, effect of the introduction of, upon art,
(ve

Christians, the early, great destruction of works
of art by, 46.

Chromo-lithography, 176, 177.

Chromo-xylography, 164.

Cignani, Carlo, 108, 109.

Cigoli, or Ludovico Cardi, 92.

Cimabue, the father of modern painting, 79.

Cimon of Cleone, a Greek artist, 72.

Cincinnatus, or the Sandal-tyer, statue of, in the
Louvre, 41; statue of, by Chaudet, 58.

Cinquecentisti, the, 80.

Ciro Ferri, 94.

762

Claude le Lorrain, 114.

Cleanthes of Corinth, the invention of linear
drawing ascribed to, 71.

Cleomanes, an Athenian sculptor, 24.

Cleophantes of Corinth, the invention of mono-
chromes ascribed to, 71.

Clouet, Francois, 112.

Coining, the art of, handed down from the most
ancient times, 17.

Coins, description of several ancient Greek, 17:
Roman, 27.

Cologne school of painting, the, 122, 123.

Colors, the, of the ancient Egyptian artists, 68.

Colossus, the, of Rhodes, 22.

Comodi, a pupil of Cigoli, 92.

Composition, the three artistical forces of, 156,
157.

Concert-halls, requisites in the construction of,
185.

Constantine the Great, a great encourager of art,
45; portrait-statues erected by, ib.; paintings
from the baths of, 76, 77.

Copper-plate engraving, invention of, 165; de-

scription of eleven different modes of, 166-169.
Corinthians, the, first advances in painting and
manufacture of vases among, 71.
Corneille de Lyon, 112.
Corradini, Fra Bartolomeo, 81.
Correggio, sketch of the life and works of, 99-101.
Crucifixes, the use of, in painting and sculpture
introduced, 48.
Crusades, influence of the, upon art, 48, 49.
Ctesilaus, the wounded Amazon of, 20.
Cypselus, the ark of, at Olympia, 12.

Da Cortona, 85.

Da Vinci, Leonardo, sketch of the life and works
of, 88.

Dances of Death, various wall-paintings so called,
1k:

Daniele da Volterra, 91.

Dannecker, Joh. Heinr., the works of, 61.

David, Jean, sketch of the life of, and account of
several of his works, 59, 60; Jacques Louis,
116, 117.

De Bruyn, Bartholomé, 126.

Death, representations of, by the ancients, 38.

Decamps, a French artist, 119.

Delaroche, 118, 119.

Dello, a Florentine artist, 110.

Demeter, the artistic form of, 30.

Demetrius of Athens, the works of, 20.

Demoles, Arnoud, 112.

Denmark, sculpture in, 64.

Design, or Graphies, the art of, 3.

Di Rossi, Francesco, 92.

Diana, the artistic form of, 31.

Dibutades, the inventor of the art of drawing, 13.

Die-cutting, the art of, handed down from the
most ancient times, 17; practised extensively in
the decline of Greek art, 24.

Dionysus, the artistic form of, 35.

Dionysus of Colophon, 72.

Dioscorides, the Roman gem-engraver, 26.

Dioscuri, the, artistic form of, 41.

Dolee, Carlo, 93.

Domenichino, sketch of the life and works of,
107, 108.

Domenico of Venice, an early artist, 80, 87.

Donatello, or Donato di Betto Bandi, principal
statues by, 52.

Dorigny, a French artist, 113.

INDEX TO THE FINE ARTS.

Doryphorus, the, a statue by Polycletus, 19.

Drama, the, 182; state of, among the Athenians,
183 ; among the Romans, ib.; in the Middle
Ages, 183-185 ; buildings for the representation
of, 185 et seq.

Drawing, the art of, invented by Dibutades, 13 ;
the invention of linear, ascribed to Cleanthes of
Corinth, 71; theory of the art of, 136, 137;
morphology, or the doctrine of forms, 137-146 ;
pictorial perspective, 146-150 ; drawing of the
human figure, 150-155 ; composition, 155-157.

Du Breuil, a French artist, 113.

Du Fresnoy, a French artist, 113, 114.

Diirer, Albert, 60, 125.

Diisseldorf school of art, the, 128.

Dumont, a French sculptor, 58.

Duret, a French sculptor, 58.

Dying gladiator, the, 23, 43.

Easel-paintings in Germany in the Middle Ages,
122.

Egyptians, the, 7,8; three periods distinguished
in Egyptian art, 8; the monuments of Egyptian
art classified with respect to locality, 8, 9; ge-
neral characteristics of their statues, 9 ; excelled
in the forms of avimals, 9,10; reliefs and works
in burnt clay, 10; general characteristics of art
among, ib. ; state of painting among, 68 ; gene-
ral character of the subjects represented, 69.

Emperors, the Roman, different methods of repre-
senting, 26.

Empresses, the Roman, methods of representing,
ae

Eneaustie painting, 73.

England, modern seulptors of, 64; modern school
of painting in, 133-135.

Engraving, on stamps and gems, 162, 163; on
wood, 163-165; copper-plate, 165-169 ; map
and letter-engraving, 169 ; steel-plate engraving,
170-172; on glass, 172.

Eos, the artistic form of, 38.

Eros, artistic representations of, 36; Eros and
Psyche, ib.

Etching on copper, 167, 168; on’ steel, 170; on
glass, 172.

Etruseans, the, 11; perfection of the plastic arts
among, ib.; general character of the remains
of, 11, 12 ; subjects, style, and coloring of the
paintings of, 69, 70; description of various
vase-paintings, 70, 71.

Eumacros, an Athenian painter, 71.

Euphranor, the Greek sculptor, 21, 73.

Euthycrates, a famous brass-caster, 22.

Farnese Hercules, the, 21; the Farnese bull, 23.

Fauns, the, statues of, 39.

Ferrata, an Italian sculptor, 56.

Finiguerra, Tomaso, the inventor of copper-plate
engraving, 165.

Flaxman, John, the English sculptor, 64.

Flora, statues of, 39.

Florentine school, the, account of the principal
artists of, and their works, 87-94.

Fogatier, the Spartacus of, 58.

Fontana, Alberto, 102.

Foreshortening, first attempted by Giotto, 87.

Forms, the doctrine of. See Morphology.

Foulques, an early French miniature painter, 112.

Fra Bartolomeo di San Marco, sketch of the life
and works of, 89.

France, principal sculptors of, in modern times,
57-60 ; sketch of the history of painting in, and

of the principal artists, 111-119; music and
musicians of, 182.

Francesco di Rossi, 92.

Francia, Francesco, 101.

Franciabigi, an Italian artist, 90.

Frankish school of painting, the, 124, 125.

Fresco-paintings in the Middle Ages, 78, 121; the
modern art of, 121, 122.

Frescoes, the, of the Romans, 75.

Furini, Francesco, 93.

Gaddi, Gaddo, Taddeo, and Angelo, 87.

Gainsborough, Thomas, 135.

Garcia, an early Spanish painter, 109.

Gelasio of Ferrara, 79.

Gelée, Claude, or Claude le Lorrain, 114.

Gem-engraving, among the ancient Greeks, 24;
among the Romans, 27.

Gemma Augustea, the, or the Vienna cameo, 26.

Gems, the Abraxas, 28; the art of engraving, 162,
163.

Genre painting, 158, 159.

Gentile of Fabriano, 80.

Gérard, Francois Pascal, sketch of the life and
works of, 117, 118.

Germany, rapid advance of the art of sculpture in,
during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, 49,
50 ; condition of sculpture in, during the Mid-
dle Ages, 60, 61; history of painting, and
sketches of the principal painters of, 119-129 ;
music and musicians of, 181; the drama in, ia
the Middle Ages, 184, 185.

Ghiberti, Lorenzo, a Florentine sculptor, 51, 52.

Ghirlandaio, Domenico, a Florentine artist, 88,
89.

Giambologna, or Giovanni da Bologna, works of,
54.

Giants, the, representations of, by the ancient
artists, 38.

Giordano, Luca, 109.

Giorgione of Castelfranco, 95.

Giotto, a pupil of Cimabue, 79.

Giotto of Vespignano, 87.

Giovanni da Fiesole, 87.

Giovanni da Pisa, one of the earliest Italian
sculptors, 50, 51.

Girodet, the works of, 118.

Giulio Pippi, or Romano, the works of, 83.

Giuseppino, il Cavaliere, 84.

Gladiator, the Borghese and the Dying, 23, 43.

Glass, etching on, 172.

Glass-painters, enumeration of the principal in
Germany, both in the Middle Ages and at the
present time, 120.

Glass-painting, in France, 111, 112; a German
invention, 119; sketch of the art to the present
time, 119, 120.

Glaucus of Chios, celebrated for his works in
metal, 13.

Glycon, an Athenian sculptor, 21, 24.

Gods, the earliest representations of the, only
symbols, 13; entire images of, first made by
the wood-carvers, ib.; gradual improvements
in the representation of, 14; leading features
in the artistic representations of each of the
twelve, of Olympus, 29-35—of the minor dei-
ties, 35-39.

Gonzaga cameo, the, 24.

Gonzales, Fernando, a painter and sculptor, 109.

Gossaert, Johann, or John of Mabuse, 130.

Gougeon, Jean, a French sculptor, 57.

Goujon, Jean, a French artist, 112.

763

iv INDEX TO THE FINE ARTS.

Graces, Canova’s and Thorwaldsen’s, 37.

Graphics, or Design, the art of, 3, 162.

Greeks, the, great progress made by, in the art of
working in metals as early as the time of
Homer, 12; the art of soldering and the potter's
art, 13; the most ancient sculptures of, consist
of reliefs, ib. ; earliest images of the gods, ib. ;
gradual advance of art among, 13, 14; the
ffginetan sculptures, 14, 15; the Xanthian
sculptures, 15, 16; prevailing style of art
among, in the fifth century before the Christian
era, 16; description of several reliefs, 16, 17;
die-cutting and coining, 17; palmy time of art,
17; the era of Phidias, 17-19 ; various schools
of art, 19-23; decline of art among, 24 ; his-
tory of painting among, and account of the
principal painters, 71-74.

Gross, Ph., statue of Gen. Kleber by, 58.

Grunewald, Matthaus, 126.

Guariento, an early Venetian artist, 94.

Guérin, a French artist, 118.

Guerino of Pistoja, 81.

Guidi, Tomaso, 87.

Guido, sketch of the life and works of, 106, 107.

Guido of Siena, 79 ; da Bologna, 101.

Gymnastics, as a subject for plastic representations
among the ancients, 43.

Hadrian, the emperor, an artist, 76.

Hans of Cologne, 122 ; Hans of Melem, 126.

Harpies, the, sculptures of, 39.

Haut-relief, 4.

Heath, Charles, the engraver, 170.

Heemskerk, Martin, a Flemish artist, 130.

Heinz of Kulmbach, 127.

Hepheestus, the artistic form of, 31, 32.

Hera, principal features of the statues of, 29, 30.

Herculaneum, paintings found at, 76.

Hercules, representation of, in the metopes of
Selinuntie, 14; the Farnese, 21; the artistic
form of, 40 ; various statues of, ib.

Herlin, Frederick, 124.

Herme, or terminal statues, origin of, 13.

Hermaphroditus, a creation of artistic fancy, 37.

Hermes, the artistic form of, 34, 35.

Herrera, a Spanish artist, 110.

Hestia, the artistic form of, 35.

Hildegard of Cologne, 126.

Hindoos, the, state of sculpture among, 4, 5 ; the
greatest amount of skill shown in the delinea-
tion of female figures, 5.

Uippolytus, the artistic form of, 41.

Historical painting, 159, 160.

Hogarth, William, 134.

Holbein, Hans, the elder, 124; the younger, 121,
125, 126.

Hours, the, artistic forms of, 38.

ituman figure, the, drawing of, 150-155.

Hyalography, 172.

Hygeia, the artistic form of, 37.

{conoclasts, the, systematic attacks of, 48.
‘| Fattore, or Francesco Penni, 109.
{{luminated manuscripts, 119.
‘umination, pictorial, 158.

{luminations, the, of the Middle Ages, 79.
imola, Innocenzo de, 102.

intaglios, 162.

‘phion of Corinth, 72.

‘ris, the artistic form of, 38.

israel of Meckenem, 123.

early sculptors in, 50, 51; decline of art in,
under the influence of Lorenzo Bernini, 55;
modern sculptors of, 56, 57; account of the
principal painters of the Roman school, 80-87—
of the Florentine school, 87-94—of the Vene-
tian school, 94-101—of the Bolognese, Lom-
bard, and Neapolitan schools, 101-109 ; music
and musicians of, 180.

Jacopo di Empoli, 92.

Jarenus of Soest, 124.

Johannes da Alemannia, 94.

Jorge or George, an English artist resident in
Spain, 110.

Joshua, illuminations from a Greek manuscript
representing the history of, 79.

Jouvenet, Noel, a French artist, 113.

Julian the Apostate, condition of art in the time
of, 46.

Juno, general features of the statues of, 29, 30.

Jupiter, main features of the artistic representations
of, 29

Kleber, Gen., statue of, by Ph. Gross, 58.
Koilanoglyphs, or reliefs en creux, 10.
Kraft, Adam, a German sculptor, 60.
Kranach, Lucas, 127.

Kronos, the artistic form of, 37.

Laar, Peter, 84.

Landscape painting, 161, 162.

Lanfranco, an Italian painter, 85, 105.

Laocoon, the group of, 22.

Lawrence, Sir Thomas, 135.

Lebrun, a French artist, 113, 115, 116.

Lemoine, Francois, 116.

Leochares, the works of, 21.

Lessore, a French artist, 119.

Lesueur, a French artist, 115.

Letter-engraving, 169.

Leutze, an artist of the Diisseldorf school, 128.

Liesborn, the master of, 124.

Lippi, Filippo, 87.

Lithography, imvented by Sennefelder, 172 ;
method of printing, 173 ; the pen manner, 173,
174; the engraving manner, 174, 175; the
chalk manner, 175, 176 ; the dabbing method,
176; chromo-lithography, 176, 177; auto-
graphy, 177.

Lombard school, the, sketches of the principal
artists of, and their pictures, 101-109.

Lorenzo di San Severino, 80; Lorenzo da Bo-
logna, 101.

Luca della Robbia, an early Italian sculptor, 51.

Luea Signorelli, 87.

Ludius, wall-paintings by, 74, 75.

Luigi, Andreas, 81.

Luna, how distinguished from Artemis, 38.

Lysippus, characteristics of the style of, 21, 22.

Mabuse, John of, a Flemish artist, 130.
Menads, the, artistic forms of, 36.
Manner, definition of, 3.

Mantegna, Andrea, 94, 95.

Manuel, Nikolaus, of Bern, 125.
Manuscripts, illuminated, in Germany, 119.
Map-engraving, 169.

Maratti, Carlo, sketch of, 84, 85.
Margheritone of Arezzo, 79.

Mars, the artistic form of, 33.

Martis, Octavian, 80.

italy, Nicolas and Giovanni of Pisa and other | Masaccio, an early Italian painter, 80, 87.

764

INDEX TO THE FINE ARTS. V

Maso, an Italian artist, 87.

Master of Calcar, the, 123 ; of Liesborn, 124.

Medea, the artistic form of, 41.

Medes, the, little known of the state of sculpture
among, 5.

Meleager, the artistic form of, 41.

Memmi, an Italian artist, 87.

Mengs, Anton Raphael, sketch of the life and
works of, 86.

Mereury, the artistic form of, 34, 35.

Merigi, Michael Angelo, 105.

Messis, Quintin, or “ the smith of Antwerp,” 129.

Metopes, the, of a Doric temple at Selinuntie, 14 ;
of the temple of Theseus and the Parthenon,
18, 19.

Mezzotint engraving, 168, 169.

Michael Angelo Buonarotti, 52, 53, 83, 90, 91.

Michelini, an Italian painter, 85.

Micon of Athens, 72.

Mignard, a French artist, 113-115.

Minerva, the artistic form of, 32.

Miniature paintings, the, of the middle ages, 79 ;
in France, 111, 112 ; of the old manuscripts, 119.

Mocchi, Francesco, the works of, 54.

Monochromes, the invention of, ascribed to Cleo-
phantes of Corinth, 71.

Montevarchi, an Italian artist, 81.

Morpheus, the artistic form of, 38.

Morphology, or the doctrine of forms, 137; the
straight line, 138; the angle, 138, 139 ; recti-
linear figures, 139; curves, 139, 140; curvi-

linear figures, 140; geometrical bodies, 140-

142 ; anatomy, 142-146.

Mosaics, early Greek, 74; patronized by the early

popes, 78, 79.

Moser, Lucas, of Wil, 123.

Munich school of art, the, 128.

Murillo, Bartolomé Esteban, sketch of the life
and works of, 110, 111.

Muscular system, anatomy of the, with a special
view to artistical representation, 142-146.

Muses, the, artistic forms of, 37.

Music, its position in the Fine Arts, 177 ; sketch
of the history of, in ancient times, 178, 179—
in the Middle Ages, 179—in modern times, 179,
180—in recent times, 180-182 ; requisites of
buildings intended for musical performances,
185.

Myron of Eleuthera, works of, 20.

Mythology, subjects of the plastic art in antiquity
taken from, 28; general features of the artistic
representation of the twelve gods of Olympus,
29-35—of the minor deities, 37-39—of the
heroes, 39-42.

Naiads, the, representations of, 39.

Nanni d’ Antonio di Banco, an early Italian
sculptor, 51.

Nanni, Giovanni, 83.

Naturalists, the school of the, founded by Cara-
vaggio, 105.

Neapoli, Francesco, 110.

Neptune, the artistic form of, 30.

Nereids, the, representations of, 39.

Nero, colossal statue of, by Zenodorus, 26.

Netherland cameo, the, 26.

Netherlands, history of painting and painters in,
129-133.

Netscher, Kaspar, a Dutch artist, 132.

Nicolas of Pisa, the reviver of the plastic art in
Italy, 50; account of his works and of those
of his son, Giovanni da Pisa, 50, 51.

Nicolo dell’ Abbate, 102.

Niello-work, 165.

Nile, remains of art in the valley of the, 8;
Egyptian painting representing the hallowing
of the water of the, 69.

Niobe and her children, the group of, 20.

Niirnberg school of art, the, 127.

Nutti, Allegretti, 80.

Odeons, requisites in the construction of, 185.

Oderigi of Gubbio, a miniature painter, 80.

Oil-painting, the art of, invented by Johann Van
Eyck, 87.

Olympia, sculptures in the temple of, 19.

Orazio, a son of Titian, 97.

Orgagna, Andrea, an early Italian sculptor, 51.

Orleans, the Duchess Marie of, beautiful sculp-
tures by, 60.

Pablo de Aregio, 110.

Pagani, Gregorio, 92.

Painters, the principal, of the Greeks and Romans,
71-77; of the Middle Ages previous to Cima-
bue, 77-79 ; of the Roman school, 80-87 ; of
the Florentine school, 87-94; of the Venetian
school, 94-101; of the Bolognese, Lombard,
and Neapolitan schools, 101-109 ; of the
Spanish school, 109-111 ; of the French school,
111-119 ; of the Cologne and Calear schools,
122, 123; of the Suabian and Westphalian
schools, 123, 124; of the Frankish school,
124-126; of the Augsburg, Niimberg, and
Saxon schools, 126, 127; of the new German
school, 127-129 ; of the Flemish school, 129-—
132; of the Dutch school, 132, 133; of the
English school, 133-135.

Painting, the art of, general observations upon,
67; state of, among the ancient Egyptians, 68,
69—among the Etruseans, 69-71—among the
Greeks and Romans, 71-77; sketch of the
progress of, from the introduction of the Chris-
tian religion down to Cimabue, 77-79—from
Cimabue to the latest times, 79 et seq.; in
Italy, 80-109 ; in Spain, 109-111 ; in Franee,
111-119 ; inGermany, 119-129 ; in the Nether-
lands, 129-133; in England, 133-135; in
America, 135, 136; leading rules of composi-
tion, 155-157; illumination, 158; various
kinds of, ib.; genre painting, 158, 159 ; his-
torical painting, 159, 160 ; landscape painting,
161, 162.

Palladium, the Tonic, 13.

Pallas, colossal statues of, by Phidias, 18; the
artistic form of, 32.

Palma, Giacomo, the younger, 99.

Palma Vecchio, 96.

Palmerucci, Guido, an early Italian painter, 80.

Pamphilus of Amphipolis, 72.

Panathenean festivals, sculptures representing the,
18, 19.

Panisks and Pans, the, artistic representations of,
36.

Paris cameo, the, 26.

Parrhasius, the artist, 72.

Parthenon, the, sculptures from, 18.

Pasiteles, a Roman sculptor, 26.

Passignano, an imitator of the Venetian school,
92.

Paul Veronese, 98.

Pausias of Sicyon, 72.

Pedro de Pampeluna, an early Spanish painter,
109 ; Pedro de Moya, 110.

765

Peleus, the artistic form of, 41.

Penni, Gianfrancesco, 83, 109.

Percier, a French artist, 113.

Perino del Vaga, 83.

Permoser, Balthasar, a German sculptor, 61.

Persephone, or Proserpine, the artistic form of, 38.

Persepolis, enumeration of sculptures from the
ruins of, 5, 6.

Persians, the, little known of the state of sculpture
among, 5. :

Perspective, pictorial, 146-150.

Peter of Cortona, sketch of the life and works of,
93, 94.

Phidias, the works of, 17, 18; influence of the
school of, 19; statue of Poseidon or Neptune
by, 30.

Phigalia, reliefs from the friezes of the temple at, 19.

Pheenicians, the, little or nothing handed down of
the sculptures of, 7.

Piazetta, Giovanni Battista, 99.

Pictures, various, of the ancient Egyptians de-
scribed, 69 ; of the Etruscans, 70, 71; of the
Greeks, 72-74 ; of the Romans, 75-77 ; almost
entirely superseded by mosaics in the early ages
of the Christian era, 77; of the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries, 80; by Raphael, 82, 83 ;
by Giulio Romano, 83; by Sacchi and Ma-
ratti, 84, 85; by Da Cortona, Bernini, and
Mengs, 85, 86; by Leonardo da Vinci, 88; by
Fra Bartolomee, 89 ; by Andrea del Sarto, 89,
90; by Michael Angelo, 90, 91; by Cigoli,
92; by Rustichino and Furini, 92, 93; by Peter
of Cortona, 93; by Mantegna, 94, 95; by
Titian, 95,96; by Tintoretto, 97,98; by Paul
Veronese, 98; by Correggio, 99-101; by the
Caraccis, 102-104; by Caravaggio, 105; by
Guido, 106, 107; by Francesco Albano, 107;
by Domenichino, 108 ; by Cignani, 108, 109 ; by
Murillo, 110, 111; by Poussin, 113, 114; by
Mignard, 114, 115; by Lebrun, 115, 116; by
David, 117; by Gérard, 117, 118; by Girodet
and Guérin, 118; by Wilhelm and Stephan of
Cologne, 122, 123 ; by Wohlgemuth and Al-
bert Diirer, 125 ; by Dietrich, 127; by Rubens,
131; by Van Mieris and Kaspar Netscher, 132 ;
by Van der Werff, 133.

Pierre le Gros, a French sculptor, 58.

Pietas Militaris, a sculpture of the time of Con-
-stantine, 45.

Pietro Perugino, 81.

Pigalle, a French sculptor, the works of, 58.

Pilon, Germain, a French sculptor, 57.

Pinaigrier, a French freseo-painter, 112.

Pinturicchio, Bernardo, 81.

Pisano, or Pisanello, Vittore, an early Italian
artist, 80.

Plastics. See Sculpture.

Pluto, the artistic form of, 38.

Polychromes, Greek, of the time of Apelles, 73.

Polycles, the reclining hermaphrodite by, 21.

Polycletus, the sculptures of, 19.

Polygnotus of Thasus, the first Greek painter of
great reputation, 72.

Pompeii, paintings found at, 75.

Pordenone, Licinio, 97.

Portrait-statues, of antiquity, 42 ; erected by Con-
stantine, 45.

Poseidon, the artistic form of, 30.

Potter’s art, the, flourishing state of, at Corinth,
in the early ages of Greece, 13.

Poussin, Nicolas, sketch of the life and works of,
113,114.

766

INDEX TO THE FINE ARTS.

Prague school of painting, the, 122.
Praxiteles, the works of, 21.

Preti, Mattia, or I] Calabrese, 109.
Primaticcio, Francesco, 102.

Protogenes, a contemporary of Apelles, 73.
Psyche, the artistic representation of, 36.
Puccio Capanna, 87.

Puligo, Domenico, 90.

Pyromachus of Pergamus, 23

Pythagoras, a Grecian seulptor, 17.

Quercia, Jacopo della, principal works of, 51.

Races, horse and chariot, as a subject for plastic
representations among the ancients, 43.

Raibolini, Francesco, 101.

Raimondi, Mare Antonio, 102.

Raphael Sanzio, sketch of the life and works of,
81-83.

Raphon of Eimbeck, 124. |

Rauch, Christian, the works of, 62, 63.

Relief, the connecting link between sculpture and
painting, 4.

Reliets, from the ruins of Persepolis, 5, 6; general
features of Egyptian, 10; reliefs en creux, ib. ;
early Greek, 13; description of the Theft of
the Tripod and others, 16; from the Parthenon
and the temple at Phigalia, 19; on the arch of
Titus at Rome, 26; on Trajan’s column, 27;
from a Christian sarcophagus of the fifth cen-
tury, 47.

Religion, subjects taken from, in ancient art, 43.

Reni, Guido, 85.

Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 134.

Rhea, the artistic form of, 37.

Rhodes, the school of, 22 ; the colossus of, ib. .

Rhecus the Samian and his sons, supposed to be
the inventors of the art of casting in metal, 12.

Rhyparography, or the painting of low life, 73.

Ribera, Giuseppe, or Spagnoletto, 109.

Ricciarelli, Daniele, 91.

Richard, a Freneh artist, 118.

Rincon, Antonio del, 110.

Robert, a French artist, 119.

Robusti, Giacomo, sketch of the life and works
of, 97, 98.

Roggi, an Italian sculptor, 56.

Roman school, the, account of the principal artists
of, and their works, 80-87.

Romanelli, Francesco, 94.

Romans, the, condition of the plastic arts among,
25 ; sculptured gems and cameos, 26; sculpture
during the empire, 26, 27; deterioration of art
among, 27, 28; state of painting among, 74—
dig:

Roofs, the, of modern theatres, 190, 191.

Rosa, Salvator, 109.

Roselli, Matteo, 93.

Rosso di Rossi, a pupil of Michael Angelo, 91.

Rubens, Peter Paul, sketch of his life and account
of his principal works, 130-132.

Rural life, subjects from, frequent in ancient re-
liefs, 44.

Rusconi, an Italian sculptor, 56.

Rustici, Francesco, or Rustichino, 92.

Sacchi, an Italian painter, 84, 85.
Salimbeni, the, 92.

Salvi, Giambattista, an Italian painter, 85.
Salviati, a pupil of Vasari, 92.

Sanchez de Castro, a Spanish artist, 110.
Sandal-tyer, the, in the Louvre, 41.

INDEX TO THE FINK ARTS.

Sandro Boticelli, 87.

Saracino, an early Spanish painter, 109.

Sarcophagi, the Roman, 27.

Sarrassin, a French sculptor, 58.

Sassoferrato, an Italian painter, 85.

Satyrs, the, artistic representations of, 35.

Saviati, Francesco, 90.

Saxon school of art, the, 127.

Searamucio, an Italian painter, 85,

Scenography, among the Greeks, 73, 74.

Schadow, Joh. Gottfr., the works of, 61, 62.

Schauflin, Hans, 127.

Schaffner, Martin, of Ulm, 126.

Schliiter, a German sculptor, 61.

Schnetz, a French artist, 119.

Schongauer, Martin, of Kalembach, 123, 124.

Schools of art. See Painting.

Seopas, the works of, 20.

Schoreel, John, a Flemish artist, 130.

Schithlein, Hans, 124.

Schwanthaler, Ludwig Michael, the works of, 63,
64. :

Sculpture, or the plastic art, province of, 3,4; state
of, among the Hindoos, 4,5; among the Medes
and Persians, 5, 6; among the Babylonians
and Pheenicians, 6, 7; among the Egyptians,
7-10; among the Etruseans, 11, 12; among
the Greeks, 12-24; among the Romans, 25-
28; the subjects of, in antiquity, 28-44; gra-
dual decline of, under the Roman emperors, 44,
45 ; rapid advance of, in Germany in the twelfth
and thirteenth centuries, 49, 50; deplorable in-
fluence of Lorenzo Bernini upon, 54, 55; con-
dition of, in modern times, and enumeration of
the principal seulptors, in Italy, 55-57—in
France, 57-60—in Germany, 60-64—in Eng-
land and Denmark, 63-67.

Sebastian of Murano, 94.

Sebastiano del Piombo, 96.

Selene, how distinguished from Artemis, 38.

Selinuntie, sculptures at, 14.

Semitecolo, Nicoletto, 94.

Senis, Agostino and Angelo de, early Italian
sculptors, 51.

Sennefelder, the inventor of lithography, 172.

Seurre jeune, a French sculptor, 58.

Sicyon, the school of, 22.

Siderography, or steel-engraving, 170.

Sileni, the, artistic representations of, 35, 36.

Silhouette, the, invented by Dibutades, 13.

Sinibaldo of Perugia, 81.

Sirens, the, artistic representations of, 37.

Sleep, representations of, by the ancients; 38.

Soldering, the art of, invented by Glaucus of
Chios, 13.

Solimena, Francesco, 109.

Sosos of Pergamus, the maker of the first mosaic
pavements, 74.

Spagnoletto, 109.

Spain, sketch of the history of painting in, and of
the principal painters, 109-111.

Spartacus, the, of Fogatier, 58.

Squarcione, an early Italian artist, 80.

Stamps, the art of engraving, 162.

Starnina, Gerardo, 110.

Statues, materials, design, and general execution
of the ancient Egyptian, 9; bronze, of the
Etruseans, 11 ; no mention made of, by Homer,
13 ; origin of terminal, ib.; of Phidias and his
school, 17, 18; of Scopas and Praxiteles, 20,
21; of Niobe and her children, the Farnese
Hercules, and the Laocoon, 20-22; portrait-

Vil

statues, 23; the Venus de’ Medici, 24; of the
Roman emperors, 26 ; principal characteristics
of the, of each of the twelve gods of Olympus,
29-35—of the minor deities, 35-39 ; historical
representations and portrait-statues of antiquity,
42 ; various, by Nicolas of Pisa and other early
Italian masters, 50-52; by Michael Angelo,
52,53; by Benvenuto Cellini, 53,54 ;, by Giam-
bologna and his contemporaries, 54; by Ber-
nini, 54, 55; by Gougeon, Pilon, Pigalle, &c.,
57, 58; by David, 59, 60; by the Duchess
Marie of Orleans, 60 ; by Dannecker, Schadow,
and Tieck, 61, 62; by Rauch, 62, 63; by
Schwanthaler, 63, 64; by Flaxman and Ca-
nova, 64; by Thorwaldsen, 63-67.

Steel-plate engraving, 170-172.

Stefano of Florence, 87.

Stephan, Master, of Cologne, 122, 123.

Stippling, 166, 168.

Style, definition of, 3.

Suabian school of art, the, 123.

Subleyras, Pierre, 116.

Sun-god, the, artistic form of, 38.

Surlin, George, a German sculptor, 60.

Tafi, Andrea, 79.

Tapestry, the Bayeux, 111; the Gobelin, 113.

Tarufh, a contemporary of Cignani, 108.

Tectonics, province of, 3.

Testelin, a French artist, 113.

Theatres, ancient, 185, 186; of the Greeks and
Romans, 186, 187; of the Middle Ages, 187;
of the present day, 187, 188; proper form of
the spectatory, 188; principal dimensions of
the stage, 188, 189; the substructure of the
stage, 189; construction of the stage, 189, 190;
the framework of the roof, 190, 191; the wings
and wing-carriages, 191; wing-ladders, 191,
192; drop-scenes and drop-curtains, 191, 192;
machines used in, 192-194; the illumination
of, 194, 195.

Theft of the Tripod, the, an early Greek relief,
16.

Theodan, a French sculptor, 58.

Theodoric, king of the East-Goths, encouragement
of art by, 47.

Theodorie of Prague, 121, 122.

Theon, a contemporary of Apelles, 73.

Theophanes, a Greek painter of the Middle Ages,
vie

Theseus, sculptured metopes of the temple of, 18 ;
the figure of, fashioned after that of Hercules,
Al.

Thorwaldsen, sketch of the life and works of, 64—
67.

Tieck, Christian Frederick, the works of, 62.

Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista, 99.

Timomachos of Byzantium, pictures by, 74.

Tintoretto, sketch of the life and works of, 97,
98.

Titian, sketch of the life and works of, 95, 96.

Titus, the arch of, reliefs on, 26; paintings from
the baths of, 76.

Tizianello, a son of Marco Vecellio, 97.

Tomaso, an Italian artist, 87.

Toreutics, or the art of chasing, 11.

Trajan, reliefs on the column of, 27.

Trippel, Alexander, the sculptor, 56.

Tritons, the, representations of, 39.

Ubertino, the brothers, Italian artists, 81.
Ugolino, Andrea, an early Italian sculptor, 51.

167

Vill

Ugolino of Siena, 87.
Ulrich of Maulbronn, 121.
Ursone, a Bolognese painter, 101.

Van Eyck, Johann, 87; the brothers, 122; Hu-
bert and John, 129.

Van Mieris, Francis, a Dutch artist, 132.

Van der Werff, a Dutch artist, 133.

Vanloo, Jacques, and his family, 116.

Vannuchi, Andrea, sketch of the life and works
of, 89, 90.

Vanucci, Pietro, 81.

Varin, Quintin, a French artist, 113.

Vasari, Giorgio, 90, 91.

Vase-paintings, the, of the Etruscans, 70, 71.

Vases, manufacture of, at Corinth, 71; Greek, of
the time of Apelles, 73.

Vecellio, Tiziano, sketch of the life and works of,
95, 96; Francesa and Marco, 97.

Veit Stoss, a German sculptor, 60.

Velasquez de Silva, 110.

Venesiale, an Italian painter, 86.

Venetian school, the, sketches of the artists of,
and their principal paintings, 94-101.

Venus, the artistic form of, 33 ; description of va-
rious statues of, 33, 34.

Venus de’ Medici, the, 24.

Vermeyen, Johann Cornelius, 110.

Vernet, Horace, 118, 119.

Verrochio, Andrea, works of, 52.

Vesta, the artistic form of, 35.

Vienna cameo, the, 26.

Virtues, the, statues of, by Jacopo della Quercia,
51.

Vischer, Peter, a German sculptor, 60.

768

INDEX,.TO THE FINE ARTS.

Vivarino, Luigi, 94.

Vouet, Simon, a French artist, 113.
Vulcan, the artistic form of, 31, 32.

Wall-paintings, the, of the Romans, 74-76; in
Germany, 121.

War, subjects from, as represented if ancient
sculptures, 43.

Water-gods, the, representations of, 39.

West, Benjamin, 134.

Westphalian school of art, the, 123.

Wilhelm, Master, of Cologne, 121, 122.

Wilson, Richard, 134.

Winds, the, sculptures of, 38.

Wohlgemuth, Michael, 125.

Wood, sketch of the art of engraving on, 163-
165.

Wurmeer, Nikolaus, a German fresco-painter, 121,
122.

Xanthus, the sculptures of, 15, 16.
Yarmez, Fernando, a pupil of Raphael, 110.

Zamba, an Italian sculptor, 56.

Zampieri, Domenico, 107, 108.

Zeitbloom, Bartholomew, 124.

Zenodorus, colossal statue of the emperor Nero
by, 26.

Zeus, leading features of the artistic representa-
tions of, 29.

Zeuxis, the painter, 72.

Zoppo, an Italian artist, 81, 101.

INDEX TO TECHNOLOGY,

[The numbers refer to the top paging of the text.]

ADIT-LEVELS, methods of working, 115-121.

Agriculture, general observations on, 139; de-
scription of the principal soils and the methods
of tillage appropriate to them, 139-141 ; agri-
cultural tools, 141-143 ; grain crops, 143-145 ;
root and fruit crops, 145 ; under-ground drains,
145, 146 ; double crops, 146, 147; flax, 147;
cider, ib. ; live stock, 148-155.

Anemometer, the, an instrument to ascertain the
velocity of the air-currents in mines, 127..

Angers, the slate-quarries near, 113, 114.

Aqueducts, various early, enumerated, 54; de-
seription of the Croton aqueduct, 54-56.

Arkwright’s can-roving frame, 83.

Atmospheric railroads, 34 ; construction of the
Kingstown and Dalkey line, 35, 36. .

Batting or beating machines, for cotton, 77.

Bees, the rearing of, 153-155.

Blasting, the, of rocks with gunpowder, 111-113.

Bleaching, the, of cotton goods, 99.

Blowing machines, for cotton, 77.

Bobbin-and-fly frame, the, 83.

Boring, the process of, and apparatus used in,
108-110.

Boulton’s stamping-mill for coins, 104.

Braithwaite’s steam fire-engine, 67, 68.

Brakes, for railway carriages, 31.

Bramah’s fire-engine, 66, 67.

Brunel, I., the engineer of the Thames tunnel, 9.

Bridges, the, of the ancients, 36, 37; general
principles respecting the position and construc-
tion of, 37 ; details of the construction of stone
bridges, 37-40—of wooden, 40—42—of iron,
42-44 ; suspension, 4446; canal bridges,
a6, 57.

Buckets, form and position of, for water-wheels,
70.

Buffers, the, of railway carriages, 26, 30.

Butter, methods of making, 150.

Caissons, 39.

Canals, high antiquity of, 48; method of making,
48,49 ; description of the Canal of Languedoc,
49-51 ; the construction of locks, 51-54 ; aque-
ducts, 54-56 ; bridges, 56, 57.

Carding machines, 78-81.

Carrousel bridge, the, at Paris, 44.

Cars, railroad, 28-31.

Causeways, 3.

Cesse aqueduct, the, 54.

Chirk aqueduct, the, on the Ellesmere canal, 54.

Cider, the manufacture of, 147.

Coal region, the, of Neweastle, 107; of Ron-
champ, ib.

Coffer-dams, the construction of, 38.

Coining, 101 ; the melting process, 101, 102 ; the
rolling-mill, 102, 103 ; the cutting out, 103 ;
milling, 103, 104; stamping, 104, 105.

Coins, variable alloy in, 101.

Colebrookdale, iron bridge over the Severn near,
43.

Cotton, the manufacture of, 74; ginning of, 74,
75; picking, scutching, lapping, and carding
machines, 75-81 ; the drawing-frame, 81-83 ;
the roving-frame, 83-87; completion of the
rovings, 57-89 ; the mule and mule-spinning,
89-96; the singing or gassing of yarn, 96;
weaving, 96-99 ; finishing and bleaching, 99,
100.

Coupling-bars or chains for railway carriages, 31.

Cranes, description of various, 57-59.

Crossings, railroad, 16, 22.

Croton aqueduct, the, description of, 54-56.

Culverts, 7, 15, 17.

Dairy, the produce of the, 150, 151.

Dams, various methods of constructing, 47, 48 ;
in mines, 122-124.

Danforth’s tube roving-frame, 83, 84 ; throstle-
frame, 88.

Danube, the, suspension bridge over, at Pesth,
45, 46.

Darby, Abraham, bridge over the Severn con-
structed by, 43.

Davy’s safety-lamp, 128.

Dee, aqueduct over the, 54.

Dogs, used in hunting, 156.

Drainage, the, of mines, 129, 130; of the soil,
145, 146.

Drains, 15.

Drawing-frame, operation of the, and changes
wrought by, in the fibre of cotton, 81-83.

Drifts, the, of mines, 115-121.

Earth-borer, the, or auger, 108.

Ellesmere canal, aqueduct on the, 54.

Ellet, Charles, suspension bridges erected by, 46.

Embankments, the construction of, 14; materials
for, 15, 48, 49.

Faleonry, 156, 157. ,

Fire-engines, description of several different kinds
of, 64-68 ; other means and apparatus for the
preservation of persons and property in case of
fire, 68, 69.

Fishing, fresh water and marine, 162, 163.

Flax, the preparation of, 147.

Fruit, the drying of, 145.

Furnaces, description of the different kinds of,
used in metallurgie operations, 132-136, 138.

Gauge, the broad and narrow, 21.

Ginning, the, of cotton, 74, 75.

Gold, method of extracting from auriferous sand,
136, 137.

Gradients, railroad, 13.

Grain, machines for cleaning, 73, 74; the thresh-
ing of, 144; double crops, 146, 147.

| Grinding mills, 72-74.
ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOPZDIA.—VOL. IV.

49 769

INDEX TO TECHNOLOGY.

Gunpowder, method of blasting rocks with,
111-113.

Harrow, the, various forms of, 142, 143.

Hawks, the training of, for sporting purposes,
156, 157.

Highways, construction of, on land and water,
2 et seq.

Hog, the, proper food for, 151, 152.

Horse, the, as a farming animal, 148 ; condition
and appearance of the teeth of, at various ages,
148, 149.

Hunting, general observations on, and description
of the pursuit of various kinds of game and of
the principal apparatus used in, 155-162.

Hydraulic engines, 59; pumps, 59-61; the hy-
draulic ram, 61-64 ; fire-engines, 64-69.

Iron, detailed description of the manufacture of,
137, 138.
Iron bridges, description of various, 42-46.

Jacks, 57.
<

Kingstown and Dalkey atmospheric railroad, the,
35, 36.

Klinker roads, 7.

Kyanized wood, 19.

Ladders, firemen’s, 68.

Languedoc, the canal of, 49-51.

Lapping machines, for cotton, 77, 78.

Letestu, peculiarities of the pump constructed by,
61 ; description of a fire-engine by, 65.

Levels, methods of working, and tools used in the
work, 115-121.

Limmat, the, wooden bridge over, 41.

Locks, the construction of, 51-54.

Locomotives, the early, 12; general features of,
24; arrangement and construction of the differ-
ent parts of, 24-26; the tender, 26, 27; de-
scription of Stephenson’s locomotive with vari-
able expansion, 27, 28; improvement in the
construction of, by Norris of Philadelphia, 28.

Loom, the old European, 97; the improved
power-loom, 97-99.

Macadamized roads, 7, 8.

Menai straits, the, bridges over, 45, 46.

Metallurgy, 131; general preparation of ores,
131, 132; roasting, 132; furnaces, 133-136 ;
chemical metallurgic apparatus, 136, 137 ;
working iron, 137-139.

Mill-stones, 74.

Mills, various motive powers employed for, 69 ;
vertical water-wheels, 69-71 ; horizontal water-
wheels, 71, 72 ; grinding-mills, 72-74.

Miner, the, various tools employed by, 110.

Minerals, layers or beds of, 106 ; veins, 107.

Mining, introductory remarks upon, 106; experi-
mental works, 107-110 ; mining for ore—blast-
ing and other methods of detaching rocks, 110-
113 ; mining at the surface, 113-115; drifts or
levels—methods of working, 115-121; sinking
of shafts—shaft timbering and masonry, 121-
124; working the mines, 124, 125 ; ventilation
and illumination of mines, 126-128 ; transport
of ores to the surface, 128, 129 ; drainage of
mines, 129, 130.

Money, metallic, the fabrication of, 104, 105;
paper, 105.

Mule, the, and mule spinning, 87, 89-96.

770

Navigation, inland, 46 et seq.

Neat cattle, 149-151.

Nets, various kinds of, 157, 158.

Newcastle, the coal region of, 107.

Norris, William, his improvements in the con-
struction of locomotives, 28.

Ores, methods of transporting to the surface of
“mines, 128; the general preparation of, 131,
132 ; the roasting, 132; the smelting, 132-136.

Ouse, the, wooden bridge over, 41.

Ox, the, as a farming animal, 149, 150.

Paper money, 105.

Paris, the Carrousel bridge at, 44.

Pavements, stone, 3, 4; wooden, 4, 5.

Peat, methods of digging, 114, 115.

Pesth, suspension bridge over the Danube at,
45

Picking machines, for cotton, 75, 76.

Piers, the construction of, 38.

Pile-driving, 38.

Planes, inclined, various methods of overcoming,
on railway routes, 32, 33.

Planting machines, 143.

Ploughs, description of various, 141, 142.

Polonceau, peculiar construction of iron bridges
invented by, 44.

Pontifex, fire-engine constructed by, 65, 66.

Power-loom, the, 97-99.

Puddling, the operation so called, 49.

Pumps, suction or lift, forcing, and double action,
59-61.

Railroads, brief historical review of, 11, 12; the
location of, 12-14; the grading, 14-17; the
superstructure, 17-23 ; stations, 23, 24 ; loco-
motives, 24-28; passenger cars, 28-31; in-
clined planes, 32-34 ; suspended railroads, 34 ;
atmospheric, 34-36; viaduct on the North
Shields and Newcastle railroad, 41.

Rails, the supports and fastenings of, 17-20;
cast and wrought iron, 18, 19 ; requisites of
good, 19 ; form, weight, and length of, 19, 20;
laying of, and distance between, 21 ; sidings
or turn-outs, and switches, 21, 22.

Ram, the hydraulic, 61-64.

Repsold’s fire-engine, 66.

Reservoir, the, of the canal of Languedoe, at St.
Ferreol, 51—at Lampy, ib.; of the Croton
aqueduct, 55, 56.

Roads, the construction of, 2; reads of the Ro-
mans, 2,3; the grading of, 6,7; laying out
of, 7; draining, ib. ; materials for road-cover-
ing, 7,8, road-rollers, 8.

Rollers, cast-iron, for roads, 8.

Ronchamp, the coal strata of, 107.

Root crops, 145.

Roving-frames, 83-87 ; completion of the rovings,
87-9.

Safety-lamps, 128.

Salt mines, the, of Wieliczka, 131.

Sand-bath furnaces, 136.

Schefer’s road-roller, 8.

Schaffhausen, wooden bridge at, 40, 41.

Schattenmann’s road-roller, 8.

Schuylkill, the, wooden bridge over, 41, 42.

Scutching machines, 77.

Severn, the, iron bridges over, 43.

Shafts, the sinking of, 121; the timbering, 121+
123 ; shaft masonry, 123, 124.

INDEX TO TECHNOLOGY. iii

Sheep, the, various breeds of, 151.

Sidewalks, the construction of, 3, 4.

Sidings, or turn-outs, on railroads, 21, 22.

Silkworm, the, method of rearing, 152, 153.

Slate quarries, the, near Angers, 113, 114.

Soils, the different kinds of, and methods of culti-
vation appropriate to, 139-141.

Sowing machines, 143.

Spreading or blowing machine, for cotton, 77.

Stations, railway, 93.

Steam-engines, locomotive, 24, 25 ;
32-34.

Stephenson, locomotives constructed by, 12,27, 28.

Streets, the paving of, 3 ; wooden pavements, 5 ;
sweeping of, 5, 6.

Stretching-frame, the, 87.

Sunderland, iron bridge at, 43.

Suspension bridges, description of various, 4446.

Switches, 21, 22.

stationary,

Technology, or industrial science, general 7
vations upon, 1, 2.

Telford, Thomas, bridge over the Severn an 43 ;
aqueducts built by, 5A.

Thames tunnel, the, description and history of,
9-11.

Thread, method of spinning, 89.

Threshing machines, 144.

Throstle-frame, the, 87, 88.

Tube roving-frame, Danforth’s, 83, 84.

Tunnels, various, enumerated, 8, 9 ; description
of the Thames tunnel, 9-11 ; railroad, 17.

Turbines, 71.
Turn-table, for railroads, 23.

Veins of minerals, ordinary outward signs of,
107, 108.

Viaducts, 16; on the North Shields and New-
eastle railroad, 41.

bi ta natural and artificial, of mines, 126-

Water, various methods of damming out, in mines,
122-124.

Water-wheels, vertical, 69-71 ; horizontal, 71, 72.

Wear, the, iron bridge over, 43.

Weaving, the, of cotton yam, 96-99.

Weirs, 49.

Wheels, the, of locomotives, 25, 26; of railroad
cars, 28, 29 ; water-wheels, 69-72.

Whitworth’s street-cleaning machine, 5, 6.

Wieliczka, the salt mines of, 131.

Willow, the, or wolf, a machine for picking
cotton, 75, 76.

Windlasces, BT

Winnowing machine, 144, a

Wooden bridges, various methods of constructing,
40-42.

Wooden pavements, 4, 5.

Woollen manufacture, the, 100.

Yarn, cotton, the spinning and reeling of, 89-96 ;
singing or gassing of, 96 ; weaving, 96-99.

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