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THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES OF
NORTHERN RHODESIA

MACMILLAN AND CO., Limited

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA • MADRAS
MELBOURNE

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO
DALLAS • SAN FRANCISCO

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd.

TORONTO

Photo E. If. Smith.

Kakua, a Bambala Chief.
(See Vol. I. p. 77-)

THE ^\

6/5

^LA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

NORTHERN RHODESIA

REV. EDWIN W.JjMJTH

HONORARY CHAPLAIN TO THE FORCES

FELLOW OF THE ROYAL ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE

AUTHOR OF " A HANDBOOK OF THE ILA LANGUAGE," ETC.

CHIEF TRANSLATOR OF THE NEW TESTAMENT IN ILA

AND

CAPTAIN ANDREW MURRAY DALE

MAGISTRATE IN THE BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY'S ADMINISTRATION

QetTTOpLdri, 6u-qT0L<uv ainiiLffroov tto\£ioi> irep
ov8£i> atypaaroTepov iriXerixi voov avdpibiroLaiv.

Homer.

IN TWO VOLUMES
VOL. II

MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED
ST. MARTIN'S STREET, LONDON

1920

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OUR MOTHERS

CONTENTS

List of Illustrations

PAGE

xiii

PART III— [continued)

CHAPTER XVIII

From Birth to Puberty .

i. Pregnancy ....

2. Birth ....

3. Child Life ....

4. Initiation ....

CHAPTER XIX
The Relations of the Sexes

1. Before Marriage .

2. Restrictions upon Intercourse

3. Sexual Attraction

4. Betrothal .

5. The Chiko .

6. Marriage Ceremonies

7. Polygyny

8. Lubambo

9. KUSENA .

10. Adultery

1 1. Rape ....

12. Perversions

35
36

45
46
48

54
64
67
69
72

74
74

S(\;

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

^avuM^

l>qt >,

PART IV

CHAPTER XX

Dynamism .....
i. The Theory
2. Witchcraft ....

CHAPTER XXI
The Doctrine of Souls

i. Death and Funerary Customs

2. The Destination of the Departed

3. Metempsychosis

4. Various Kinds of Ghosts

5. Dreams

6. Spirit Possession

7. Reincarnation

8. The Genius, or Guardian Spirit

9. The Psychology of the Ba-ila

CHAPTER XXII

The Divinities .....

1. Personal and Family Divinities .

2. The Great Mizhimo : Communal Divinities

3. BULONGO .....

CHAPTER XXIII
The Supreme Being : Leza

I'AGE

79
90

100

1 KJKJ

IOO

118

124

132

134

136

152

156

160

164

165

180

192

197

PART V

CHAPTER XXIV

Miscellaneous Notions .
1. Reckoning Time

215
215

CONTENTS

Ideas about the World .

Ideas about the Animals and Plants

The Bakamipilwi

Ideas of Colour

Ideas of Number .

CHAPTER XXV

The Ba-ila at Play

i. Adult Games of Skill and Dexterity

2. Children's Games .

3. Legerdemain and Puzzles .

4. Musical Instruments

5. Singing and Dancing

CHAPTER XXVI
The I la Language ....

1. Phonetics ....

2. Word Formation

CHAPTER XXVII

Proverbs, Riddles, and Conundrums

1. Proverbs .....

2. Riddles .....

3. Conundrums ....

CHAPTER XXVIII

Folk-tales : Introduction

Part i. Etiological or Explanatory Tales
,, 2. The Adventures of Sulwe, the Hare
,, 3. Tales of People and Animals
„ 4. Tales of People — mostly Fools

PAGE
218

223

230

2^1

242
26l
262
269

277

277
291

&h .

I I

324
331

s§a

334
345
375
398
404

INDEX

419

ILLUSTRATIONS

of an Ant-hill

Kakua, a Bambala Chief

Four Ba-ila Children .

Enjoying her Breakfast

Girls carrying Water .

A Young Nurse

A Girl playing the Mantimbwa

A Ba-ila Doll .

A Group of Ba-ila Boys in fron

Boys carrying Firewood

A Scene at a Funeral .

Three Mourners at a Funeral

Cutting up an Ox at a Funeral

A Group of Mourners .

The Mabivabiva around a Grav

Graves

The Grave of Sezongo II. at Nanzela

Mupumani the Prophet

In a Baluba Village

A Feast in Honour of the Dead outside Chibaluma's Sacred Hu

A Lwdnga and Grave-temple

The Great Gateway with Small

A Near View of the Sacred Enclosure at the Gateway

The Grave of our Friend Mungalo

A Liuanga and Grave-temple .

The Chief, Kakua, and his Lwanga

Offerings upon a Grave

Shimunenga's Grove at Mala .

\iii

PA(.E

Frontispiece
i

Sacred Enclosure at each Side

j
14
16

32
107
108
109
1 1 2
1 20
1 2 i
1 27
148

15'
170

171

1 72

173
175
177
179

184
,85

XIV

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

Diagram of Time Reckoning .

Playing Chisolo ....

Diagram of Suntirfa Move

A Plan of a Chisolo Game

The Hunters and the " Lions "

A Sham Lion Hunt : The Lion and His Victim

A Sham Lion Hunt : The Hunters arrive on the Scene

A Sham Lion Hunt : Attacking the Lion

A Sham Lion Hunt : Rescuing the Lion's Victim

A Sham Lion Hunt : Saved ! .

A Sham Lion Hunt : The Hunters attacked by two Lions

A Spear-throwing Competition

Boys playing with Clay Oxen .

Very much a Man

The Game Ku lumamba hva mainza

Playing Intuhtlu or Chombombo

Boys playing the Banansakwe and Ingoane Game

Boys playing the Game " In the Melon-patch " .

Boys playing the Katantaile Game

The Game Bwato

Jeic de Patience

Two Kinds of Katumbu, Musical Bow

A Man playing the Budimba .

Four Ba-ila Pianos

Diagram of the Push-drum

Man playing the Namalwa — " Push-drum

The Kayanda Drum

The Ingomantambwe and Indandala

Ba-ila Women dancing

The Band at a Dance .

Ba-ila Women dancing : a Pas de Seul

Lukendo, a Bambala Chief

A Gang of Ba-ila Carriers

A Mwila : a great Teller of Tales

I'AGE
215

233
234
236
238

2 39
239
240
240
241
241
242

243
244
246
248
249

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257

260

26l

263

264

265

266

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268

271

273

275

32 1

327

335

PART III — {continued)

CHAPTER XVIII
*

FROM BIRTH TO PUBERTY

I. Pregnancy

To have children, and many of them, is one of the great
ambitions of our natives. Any man will tell you that to
leave children, especially sons, when he departs from this
earth is one of the greatest desires of his heart. He who
fails in this respect is regarded by others, and he regards
himself, as something less than a man. When he dies
they cut off his little finger and little toe, and enclose a
piece of charcoal in his fist, before burying him. Their
reason for doing this is obscure. They suppose that it will
either prevent his being reborn, or if it fails to that extent,
at least they will be able to recognise him by the absence
of those members should he return to earth. To avoid
this indignity it is incumbent upon every man to try every
possible means to have children. Thinking that the fault
is in his wife, if she fails to bear children after trying a course
of treatment by the doctors skilled in that branch of medicine,
he will either divorce her or marry other women. If still
no offspring come he will be told that the fault is his own,
and he also will seek drugs. If no favourable result follows
he has to reconcile himself to disappointment and to the
jokes, if not contempt, of his fellowmen and wives. A barren
woman is also despised. They will say of her, " Wakatuluka
izhadilo " (" She had her womb pierced," i.e. by too frequent
illicit intercourse). Sometimes, when there is no result, the
people of the husband and wife meet and offer a prayer to I
Leza ; saying, " Give this child of ours a child."

VOL. II b

2 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. ih

Sons are preferred to daughters, because through sons
the family is continued, i.e. a man cannot be reborn oh
earth through his daughter, only through his son. The
children, sons and daughters, take the mother's clan name,
but it is not her people, it is the father's people, that are
born in her sons. Girls are regarded as riches only, i.e. as
so many cattle to the credit of the clan's account.

In the ordinary course of things a woman is expected
to conceive very soon after marriage. If she goes three
months without doing so, her people will seek medicine owa
kwimita (" for conception "), and the doctor gives her a
potion to drink each day.

A woman accepts the sign of the cessation of the menses.
She may not, if it is her first child, inform her husband of
the fact. Nor may the husband ask his wife if such is the
case. She goes home and tells her mother ; the mother
tells the woman's father, who first sends to the husband
asking for a spear or hoe or shell. By this the husband
recognises what is in the wind, and gladly sends what
is asked for. Then they tell him. The woman may tell
her husband in subsequent pregnancies, but he is not
allowed to mention the fact to others. The news is not
told outside the family, except to the doctor, through fear
that somebody by ill-practices may cause a miscarriage.
Should any one break the custom by asking a woman if
she is pregnant, and should a miscarriage follow, or the
child die, that person has committed a great fault and has
to pay damages. They say he or she has milomo mibiabe
("evil lips"), and has bewitched the child. If any one
asks the husband, he will deny his wife's condition ; even
if it be evident to all he will profess ignorance. Nor may
people mention the fact in conversation before the husband
or any relation of the woman.

The woman is taken to the doctor who is told of her
condition. He prepares a charm which is put around her
waist and gives her a small pot in which medicine has been
placed. He then gives her various instructions as to her
conduct during the time of pregnancy, warning her especially
against those things and actions that are taboo.

The woman is taboo : her condition makes her a source

ch. xvrii FROM BIRTH TO PUBERTY 3

of danger to the community. Especially is she liable to
injure .the new life developing within her womb. The
husband, from his close connection with her, is also taboo.
Strict rules are therefore laid down to avoid any evil con-
sequences that may come from these dangerous persons ;
above all, nothing must be done to prejudice the well-being
of the unborn child.

The injunction as to silence which we have already
noted is for the good of the child. Other mitondo (" taboos ")
are as follows. There are things she may not eat. Above
all, blood is bad for her and bad for the child ; if she eats
it she will suffer severely at her confinement and the child
may die. She must therefore abstain from eating the flesh
of animals, lest there be any blood left in it. The exception
made is the flesh of hippopotamus, though why, it is hard
to say, for the hippopotamus has plenty of blood. The
barbel fish when fresh is taboo to her for the same reason,
but may be eaten dried.

There are some foods that are tonda to the husband as
well. Neither husband nor wife may eat flesh of hartebeest,
the reason given being that that animal gives birth to its
young blind ; and if they eat of it their child will be born
blind.

Neither of them, again, may eat makwelekwele, i.e. the
flesh of an animal that has been torn and pulled about by
birds. The reason given is that avhwe wazhoka mwifu
bubona mbn bakwelakwela bazune (" when the child is about
to come out it will return into the womb, just as the birds
pull about the meat ").

They must not eat the goose, lest the child should have
a long neck like a goose.

The wildebeest is said to occup}^ a long time in parturi-
tion ; and the flesh of it is taboo to husband and wife lest
by eating it they should cause a protracted confinement
to the woman.

Food cooked the day before and left over (called chidyo
ch'ona or chidyo cha mulala) is forbidden lest the confine-
ment be lengthy.

The woman may not sleep in the daytime lest her child
should be dull and sleepy-headed.

4 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. m

She must be careful not to cross the spoor of a bushbuck,
nor if she can avoid it must it cross hers ; in either case
the result to the child will be fatal. This taboo applies also
to a nursing mother.

She must avoid looking upon unpleasant objects for
fear of damaging her child. For instance, Mrs. Smith was
examining once a hawk that had just been shot, when two
women approached. One of them had no sooner caught
sight of the dead hawk than she pushed the other (who
was pregnant) away, saying, " Don't look ! Don't look ! '
and the woman ran away.

It is tonda to both husband and wife to go and take a
look into a house and then withdraw without entering. It
is tonda for any one to do the same at the woman's door.
The reason is that it may lead the child also to sumba, i.e.
to act in a similar way when it comes to be born. And
for either of them to go in and out of the hut as if not
knowing their own minds, is also tonda, lest the child should
act similarly in birth.

Intercourse between husband and wife is not tonda
during the early months of pregnancy. Indeed it is regarded
as conducive to the child's welfare. During the last
month or so, however, all this must cease lest the child be
killed. As they say, " Ulamutulula a lubwebwe" ("He would
pierce the child's fontanelle ").

The woman is forbidden to have connection with other
men, and any man who assaulted her would be liable to
heavy damages. She may not sit on others' beds or stools,
nor sit with bakwakwe ("her relations-in-law "), nor with
her lover, nor may she sport with men. She is tonda. She
on her part might do them mischief, and they might blight
the unborn child.

The husband watonda ku mwinakwe ("is taboo on account
of his wife "). He, in her interest and in that of the child,
may not have intercourse with other women, except his
other wives if he is a polygamist, may not sit on other
people's stools nor lie on their beds.

Of a hunter it is said, " Mwinakwe wemita waleka kuyaya
banyama kambo ka mamba " ("He stops killing game because
of the wars"). Whether it means that by going hunting

ch. xviii FROM BIRTH TO PUBERTY 5

he will bring an injury upon the wife or the child, or whether
the pregnancy of the woman means he will have no luck,
is not clear to us ; but he finds a way out of the difficulty
whichever it may be. Wachita busongo they say (" He
acts wisely"). He goes out as usual and on reaching a
place where the roads divide (a masanga a nzhila) he calls
out, " Na mwinangu udimishi mukaintu n'ashale a munzhi
akudima budio ; na mulombwana atuende, tukaweze " ("If
my wife be pregnant of a woman let her (i.e. the child)
stay at the village and hoe, if it be a man let us (i.e. he
and the boy) go on the hunt "). Having said this he goes
on and kills game : but if he does not say it he may not,
or will not kill : as they say, "Pele atachita bobo udi mukaintu
wemita tayaya munyama,pe" (" But if he did not act thus he
who has a pregnant wife would not kill an animal ").

Mulier pregnans vaginam distendere manibus conatur,
quas suco aloarum inunguit. Os vaginae eo usque expandere
iubetur dum pugnus suus facile inseri possit. She must
also take care not to allow the cold to reach her, and to
this end must always wear a piece of cloth or other covering
between the legs. Unless this is done the child may die.

In the fifth month the woman goes home and is given
medicine. She is given an insungu (" medicine receptacle ")
and a basket to cover it. A three-pronged stick (change-)
of the mufumu tree is planted at the head of her bed and
the insungu placed in the fork. Into the insungu is placed
the medicine mixed with light beer [ibwantu), or, in the
absence of light beer, with water. This insungu must
never be left uncovered, but as soon as some of the medicine
has been taken out of it the basket must be replaced over
it. This medicine is tonda ; it must on no account be given
to others, and is to be drunk by the husband and wife only.
Should any one steal and drink it, uladitaya, i.e. he commits
'buditazhi against the owners. The two continue to drink
this medicine until the child is born ; its purpose is to give
them both strength. The man is said to drink because
shilwazhi sha mulumi shilakasha mukaintu kutumbuka
(" diseases in the husband would prevent the woman from
giving birth ").

Other medicine is given to people outside, the purpose

6 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. hi

being thus stated : ati bakatole shilwazhi akatumbuke
kabotu (" so that they may take away the diseases in order
that the woman may give birth properly ").

There is thus, in the thoughts of the people, a
sympathetic connection between father, mother, even the
neighbours, and the unborn child, so that to secure the
child's well-being they must all be free from sickness.

The insungu in which their medicines have been kept
is also in sympathetic connection with the child. After
the child is born the mother or father returns the insungu
to those who gave it to them, and makes them a present
of a hoe or some beads. The insungu is then carefully
preserved inviolate : it may not be used for any such base
purpose as drawing water, ilatonda (" it is taboo "). Yafwa
ati ulafwa mwana, yafwa mukaintu ulaba namatezi, kambo
"kako ilazobolwa insungu ukwabo (" If it dies (i.e. is
broken) it means that the child will die ; if it is broken
the woman will become a Namantezi, i.e. a woman whose
children all die, and for that reason it is preserved at her
home ").

Abortion is regarded with horror ; the woman is in a
state of uncleanness and is a distinct danger to the
community. She is therefore isolated and treated in the
manner shown in the following account :

" If a woman becomes pregnant but plays the harlot by
having converse with other men, then she aborts. When
she has aborted they build her a shelter out west, and there
she has to remain all the time of her uncleanness. After
a time, they prepare medicine for her, putting it into a
basin, that she may wash with it every day. Her food
she has to cook in potsherds. When it is over, her mother
seeks medicine for the return to the village, and all the people
wash in that medicine. When she enters the village she
gives the medicine to all that are in the village and they
drink it, which means that the abortion (kasowe) shall not
stick to them. And the woman when she enters her house,
she and her husband may not come together before she
has been with other men. On her return from the other
men, then they come together as man and wife. This is
the affair of a woman who has aborted."

ch. xvm FROM BIRTH TO PUBERTY 7

2. Birth

The people do not seem to have accurate ideas as to
the time of gestation. One of our most intelligent infor-
mants, himself a married man, put it at twelve months ;
some women we have known to make it ten months. This
is perhaps hardly to be wondered at when we remember
the uncertain way in which they reckon time.

It is taboo for a woman to give birth in a hut ; were
she to do so and the child be born dead, she would suffer
heavy penalties : her husband might, unless they were
redeemed by her clansmen, enslave her and her children.
All grain and medicines in the hut would have been
contaminated, and hence would be destroyed.

When the woman feels that her time is drawing near
she goes to her home. The birth takes place either in a
shelter some distance from the house, or on the verandah
of the house, a space being enclosed with mats for the
purpose. Other women come to help. There are those
who have the reputation of being skilled in midwifery, and
a woman who is known to have medicine for use in some
irregularity may be specially called in should occasion
arise. Owing to their hardy manner of living, their free-
dom from constricting garments, and the smallness of the
children's heads, the birth is usually unattended with serious
complications, and the woman quickly resumes her usual
life in the community. To those accustomed to the usages
of civilisation it comes as a shock to see a woman rise up
and carry her child, half-an-hour old, back to the house
from a shelter in the forest. But deaths do occur. Such
a complication as a transverse presentation often proves
fatal. They claim to have medicine to administer to the
patient ; and there are midwives who will, after bathing
their hands in certain medicines, endeavour to turn the
child, but often without success. There is a complication
called Kavhwi kakosoka (" the breaking of the Kavhwi "),
which is said to be fatal, but we are not sufficiently
acquainted with anatomy to say what the Kavhwi is.

As men are not allowed to be present on such occasions,
we cannot describe at first-hand the procedure at a birth ;

8 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt.ih

but we have the advantage of notes prepared for us by
two ladies who have attended and watched cases.

When a woman is about to become a mother and the
first pains of confinement are felt, she is given an infusion
made from the roots of the castor-oil plant. This she drinks
from time to time until the child is born. During the first
pains she may lie down if she gets tired, but she is not allowed
to lie for long and has to get into a sitting position now and
again. When the last pains arrive she sits all the time and
is not allowed to lie down on any account, as doing so might
kill the child. Generally two women attend her. During the
first pains one woman supports her back while the other
holds her knees, which are drawn up close to the body.
When the strong pains come on, the woman who is sup-
porting the knees puts her feet close together and presses
the patient's buttocks, and the woman who was support-
ing the back comes in front and puts a strong long piece of
cloth round the loins of the patient and holds the two ends.
Quotienscunque dolor acrior incessit, tnulier ea quae ex adverso
consedit, pedibus suis parturientis poplites prernit, simul
maximo pedis pollice anum eius occludens ; velut interdum
fit, anulum ad id factum impositumque adprimens. Haec
ideo faciunt ne quid excrementi parturiens remittat ; quod
si accidit, parturientem destitui mos non vetat. The woman
with the two ends of the cloth in her hands pulls with all
her strength. This goes on until the child is born. If the
woman gets impatient or expresses a wish to stand or lie
down, or groans or complains, she is spoken to very roughly,
told she will be thrashed, accused of wanting to kill her
child, and generally treated like a naughty, disobedient
youngster. When the child is born, the cord (ludila) is
tied once and then cut. As they are doing this the women
sing a little song ; the first words coming from the woman
or women sitting by, and the last, as a refrain, from the
woman actually cutting.

Uteend'anji! Nyama ! (" Do not travel elsewhere ! Meat!")

If the afterbirth does not come away at once, the patient
is given a medicine to drink, made from the roots of the
mukonono tree. The root is roasted on the embers, then

ch. xvni FROM BIRTH TO PUBERTY 9

put in water. If this is not efficacious, two leaves of the
same tree are taken and inserted in the woman. The hands
are then put in, the placenta grasped and pulled out.

We have the following account from Mrs. Price. It
describes what happened at the birth of Lissie's child
at Nanzela, July 1913 :

" When I arrived the child was already born and was
lying on its left side on the mud floor of the hut, but the
afterbirth had not yet come away. The mother was sitting
on a bit of rag on the floor with her head against Matsediso.
Marta several times put three fingers into the mother's
throat to make her heave, the idea seeming to be that
this would help the afterbirth to come away. Afterwards
Lissie knelt (the afterbirth being then halfway out) leaning
on her hands, and the afterbirth came away. She was then
given hot water, in which bark of some tree had been boiled,
to drink. This was for the ifu ('womb'). Then Matsediso
gave her a kind of warm watery gruel to drink. The child
was lying on the ground all this time with the cord still
attached. The woman sat a while talking, the mother
sitting up all the time, naked with the exception of a bit
of twisted calico around her abdomen. This she had asked
for as her ifu hurt her. The women sat a while and seemed
to be looking for something with which to cut the cord.
Marta went out and found an old penknife and also a piece
of old dirty rag about six inches long. This they twisted
to tie the cord with. Each seemed afraid to perform the
operation : first Marta and then Galassi essaying to do it.
Galassi then took out of the wall where the earth had
broken away a thick reed, and broke off a piece about three
inches long and laid it under the cord ; then she took the
knife, drew it across once, and as she did so all together
sang in monotone. They cut across four times before it
was through, singing all the time. Another woman took
the child on her knee. Marta took a calabash, smashed the
top and made the broad part into a bath. Into this they
put hot water, and the woman who held the child dipped a
hand into it and washed the blood from the child. Then
Lissie washed her breasts in the same water. Then the
woman holding the child, still sitting, jerked it towards the

io THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. m

east, and then towards the west, head foremost each time,
and as she did so all the women in the hut lululooed and
clapped very loudly. Then all shouted ' Ezeulu ' (' Up '),
and as she shot the child up all shouted praises to the wife
of Petrose who had borne a child. Then all thanked
her : 'Ndalumba chinichini usunu mb'uwazhala mwana (' I
give much thanks to-day that you have given birth to a
child '). Marta got a stick and scraped the earth from a
rat-hole in the hut to about 9 inches deep. Lissie edged
off the rag on which she had been sitting on to bare earth
and Marta scraped it into the hole with a stick. Then
Lissie took hold of the afterbirth with the right hand
(the hole was towards the left) and dropped it into the
hole. Immediately the woman holding the child cried
out, ' Ndapenga, ndapenga, weh ! ' ('I am troubled, I am
troubled, oh dear ! '). Whispering among the women,
then Lissie carefully laid hold of the afterbirth and
straightened it out, half turning it over. Then Marta
covered it with earth. Then a skin of an animal was spread
out, one end over the place where the afterbirth was buried ;
Marta's clothes were made into a bundle for a pillow, the
child was put down beside the mother and both blankets
thrown over them. The child was not put to the breast."

The afterbirth is buried in the hut. There would seem,
from several phrases in the above account, to be some
mysteries attached to the afterbirth ; but we have not been
able to investigate them. The caul also, if there is one, is
buried in the hut.

After the confinement, the woman goes back into her
house and stays there for some time, six days at least.

All the time of her pregnancy there have been dangers
surrounding her ; hence the precautions we have described.
And now the child is born, care is taken to fend off from it
perils of a mystical kind. After the birth and for several
days the child is given a concoction made of the leaves of
the castor-oil plant as a preventive against the malign
influence of pregnant women. And a string, made of palm-
leaf, is suspended on poles in front of the hut to give
warning, especially to those same women. This is
kukobaika ingozhi ("to fend off by means of string"). A

ch. xviii FROM BIRTH TO PUBERTY n

pregnant woman must on no account come to the hut
lest the child ulafwa luvhumwe na imamba (" should die
of luvhumwe or wars "). Luvhumwe is the condition of
something split or parted asunder. If a pregnant woman
passes through a calabash garden, the calabashes will all
drop off their stalks or split ; if she passes a tree laden
with fruit, the fruit will fall to the ground ; if she passes
near a litter of pups their heads will split and they will
die ; if she passes a hen sitting on a nest of eggs, they will
all crack. This is kufwa luvhumwe : in the same way,
were she to enter a hut where there is a baby its skull would
part asunder.

The mother is not absolutely secluded from the world ■
during the days of retirement. After the birth, her husband
may go and see her and offer his congratulations, taking
presents of beads or hoes to his parents-in-law. And her
male relations may enter the hut, clap their hands to
her, and give her bracelets or leglets by way of con-
gratulation.

A person who has had sexual intercourse the night
previous may not enter ; he or she is called a Shimalo.

When the woman emerges from her seclusion, the father
ties a string of beads on the child's wrists and legs, and
takes and nurses it in his arms. By so doing he acknowledges
the child to be his. And the relations come to congratulate
the parents ; but every one who approaches the child is
more or less under suspicion. Unless they give the child a
small present they are not allowed to take it in their arms,
lest they should tensha it, i.e. hinder its growth.

On coming out from her hut, the woman takes an
insungu and places it by the door. Those who pass in or
out must jump over it, batole shilwazhi shivhwe ku mwana
(" that they may take away the diseases, so that they may
leave the child"). When the day gets warm they carry
the insungu outside ; and the mother pouring some of the
contents into her hand, first makes the child drink some of
it and then sprinkles some a lubwebwe, a mozo (" on the
fontanelle, on the heart"). Then she washes it all over.
This done, the insungu is taken back into the hut. This
is done every day until the child becomes a mupumpula,

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. Ill

i.e. about three years old. The medicine is named Isamba-
bacheche (" the babies' washer ").

A woman who has recently given birth is called a
Mutumbu (kutumbuka, "to give birth"). Artificial
feeding is of course a thing unknown to the Ba-ila. The
nursing period lasts two or three years. Very early the
mother's milk is supplemented by porridge. The child is
running about long before it is weaned. The weaning must
take place at a new moon. If there is any difficulty in the
matter, the mother rubs a little nicotine from her pipe on
the nipples.

The Mutumbu has to avoid many things ; they are
tonda to her, lest harm should come to the child she is
nursing. Among these things we find the following :

It is tonda for her to come out of her house very early
in the morning. The reason given is that she may step
on the footprints of the nocturnal animal shibandilwabana,

A. '

which, as we saw in Chapter X.,is very maleficent to children.
By her waiting indoors until there are many people mov-
ing about, it is hoped that the baneful influence attending
the footprints may be obliterated.

She is forbidden to eat inshima ya kubwenga, lest she
should have the milk in her breasts dry up.

It is tonda for her to drink cold water ; should she
drink, either she or the child will die — perhaps both.

It is tonda for her to sit on the beds of married people.
Should she do so, the child will manuka mu chamba, ulafwa,
(" will get sick in the chest and die "),

It is tonda for her to strip ; for should she do so and
any one should happen to see her, the child would waste
away.

Above all, the woman is tonda to all men, her husband
included. The reason for this is that she might conceive,
and the drain upon her system would be bad alike for the
child living and the child unborn. Should she break this
taboo and conceive, she would be despised by other women.
Such cases do happen and then the women often secure
abortion by taking medicines.

Not until the milk is dried up in her breasts may her
husband resume cohabitation with her.

ch. xviii FROM BIRTH TO PUBERTY 13

Others say that the taboo extends to the time when
the child's teeth are grown. If she has intercourse before
then, they say, " Mwana wamusotoka. Atafwamba kuleta
musamo wafwa " (" She has jumped over the child ; it will
waste away, and unless they quickly doctor it, it will die ")

3. Child Life

Ba-ila children are most delightful little creatures : so
weirdly solemn at times and then changing so rapidly into
romping, laughing little rascals. Even to those whom the

Photo li. II'. Smith.

Four Ba-ila Children.

adults fail to attract, but rather inspire with feelings of
disgust or contempt, the sight of the little children rolling
about in their play brings a warming of the heart.

The saddest thing about the child life is the considerable
mortality. It is only the hardiest that can survive the way
they are treated. If love were synonymous with intelligent
care of the children then indeed there would not be so many
die, but the mothers are woefully ignorant of sanitary rules.
On a hot day a woman goes to her field with her baby slung
on her back in a skin ; she works while the baby dozes
with only its head visible above the skin. When it wakes
up and cries the mother finds a shady place, takes the

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. Ill

baby out dripping with perspiration, and proceeds to nurse
it. A cool wind is blowing and the child lies naked with
no protection. Then they wonder that the child catches
cold and is carried off by pneumonia. Again, the women
have no idea of cleaning out a baby's mouth : you rarely
find one with a clean mouth. It drinks at all times : when-

Photo E. II'. Smith.

Enjoying her Breakfast.

ever it cries it is put to the breast. Indigestion inevitably
results. Another deleterious practice is to cover the head
of the child with a fatty mess, and undoubtedly the pressure
on the brain is often disastrous. Nor is the beer given to
the young babies a good thing for them.

These are only examples of the disregard of hygienic
principles. We find it impossible to calculate the proportion
of dead to living children. It is reckoned tonda to question

CH. XVIII

FROM BIRTH TO PUBERTY 15

a woman as to the number of her children, and we have
therefore failed to estimate the extent of infant mortality ;
but we know it to be very great. As we have seen in another
chapter, some children are destroyed at or shortly after
birth, but the numbers so disposed of, even in the older
times, were small compared to those who died of sickness.
Mrs. Smith, who has had the longest experience of any
lady among the Ba-ila, thinks that fully seventy per cent
of the children die.

In the tsetse-fly districts the number is even larger,
owing to the absence of milk. We have even heard the
figure ninety per cent given. It is not at all uncommon
to find young women who have borne four or five children,
not one of whom is living. Nothing, we may say here, has
so commended the Christian religion to the Ba-ila as the
fine healthy families reared by the converts.

We shall describe in a later chapter the games of the
children. Their life is not all play. The young girls are
early made to help their mothers in looking after the baby
and other domestic duties. They are taught to carry
burdens upon their head, such as pots of water and bundles
of firewood, and this practice undoubtedly is one cause of
the splendid figure and upright carriage a girl develops.
The boys too have their duties : while still young they are
set to herd goats or sheep and later the calves. It is a proud
day for the lad when he goes out with young men to herd
the cattle. The boys, too, do much of the milking.

There is a system something like that of fagging in
English public schools. Under this the boys have to do a
great many services for their elder brothers and their friends.
Indeed we sometimes think that the Ba-ila never work so
hard as when they are boys. Of the men we may say, as
a Spanish Ambassador once said of the Irish : "La gente
is muy olgazana, enemiga de trabagar " ("The people are
lazy and do not like work"). They seem to think that
they did enough while they were boys, and are now glad
to make their juniors do as they themselves had to do.
At the same time, Ba-ila childhood is not burdensome but
happy. While they are made to work there are not so
many restrictions upon them as obtained in our own

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. Ill

boyhood. There are no worries about clothes and keeping
clean ; and there is no school to creep unwillingly to in

Photo E. II'. Smith.

Girls carrying Water.

the morning.1 Indeed it would be better for the people if
children were treated with rather less lenity. Children are
largely exempt from punishment. A mother rarely beats

1 At least this is true where there are no mission schools in the
neighbourhood : as yet, there are all too few of them.

ch. xvni FROM BIRTH TO PUBERTY 17

her child. If a girl refuses to stamp grain the mother
eats alone without offering any to her. Similarly, if she
refuses to fetch water she must go thirsty. If in drawing
water she breaks a calabash, the mother quietly sends her
a longer distance with a new and perhaps larger one. But
parental discipline extends no further.

' Lemeka kana ako kakulemeke," says the proverb
("Honour a child and it will honour you"), and it is
interpreted to mean that you must not be severe with them,
however naughty. Children are precious in their eyes, and
they are constantly haunted by the idea that the child
may make up its mind to return to the spirit world whence
it came, if it is not treated properly.

Ba-ila children, like children perhaps all the world over,
are intimidated by means of awesome bogeys. " Utakudila,
ulakuluma Pompo," one may hear a mother say to a child
(" Do not cry, or Pompo will bite you ! "). Shezhimwe —
Pumpa — Shilombamudilo — Momba— there is quite an array
of these fearsome creatures.

We may mention here some of the taboos imposed upon
children. There are some things that are regarded as
dangerous for them to eat. Boys and girls may not eat
fat, for it is said adia mafuta alabavhwa ku bulombwana 0
ku bukaintu (" the fat will pour out at the genital organs ").
Eggs are forbidden on the plea that they will stop up the
passages of the genitalia. For the same reason mukamu,
bread made of sorghum grains, is tonda, and also katongola,
a kind of ground-nut. They may not eat the unground
grains of corn, lest they should sprout and block the passages.
Bufufu — meal made by splitting the grain in a certain
way — is also taboo ; should they eat it they would split
at the genitals, just as the grain is split to make bufufu.
The fish called Inkungwe, Mazanzhi, and Shimulele are also
tonda because of their softness : should a girl eat them
her children when she grows up would be soft like them,
and a boy would be afflicted with softness in the pudenda.
Girls may not eat the root called Miseza, for it is said
n'adipena wakadya miseza mushimbi ulakupuluka mashino
' Ubi vagina distendi coepta erit {id quod infra descriptum est)
pudendi labiae destringentur" (see p. 20). It is also said

VOL. II . C

18 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. hi

that they would puka mu shibelo (" have the skin of their
thighs peel off"). Young girls are forbidden to touch
the miandu drums used in connection with the initiation
ceremonies. Children must never say, "Ndasata chibunu"
(" I have a pain in my loins ") ; if they do, their elders
may die.

4. Initiation

The boys and girls thus develop until the time when
they think, and their elders think, they should become
men and women. The passage from childhood to adolescence
lies through the initiation ceremonies, three of which fall
to be described here : Kudivhunga, Kuzaluka, and Kushinga.
The first is practised by the Nanzela people ; the second
by the Ba-ila proper ; the third by both. In the nature
of things, we have been unable to witness much that we
now describe, but have done our best to get information
from reliable sources. A girl before initiation is mushimbi
(plural, bashimbi) ; afterwards she is called kamwale
(plural, bakamwale).

(a) Kudivhunga

Some time during the wet season the young girls
{bashimbi) in a village get together and make up their minds
that it is time for them to be initiated into womanhood.
So they go out and look for a munto bush, around which
they scuffle a clear space. That night they sleep at home
but at dawn arise, unfasten their scanty clothing, and throw
it on the roof of their parents' hut. They go off naked to
the munto bush and lie around it, curling themselves up
(badivhunga) , whence the name of the proceedings. In the
morning their mothers discover the clothes on the roofs
and know that their girls have entered upon their initiation.
They go off to find them and on coming upon them start
lululooing. It is a glad day to them. They dress the girls
in new clothes, and dance from the morning till the afternoon.
As the sun is declining they pick up the girls, put them on
their shoulders, and carry them back to the village. There
they are all put into one hut, where they have to stay.

CH. XVIII

FROM BIRTH TO PUBERTY

They also choose out a young boy, called shakamwale
(" master of the
maidens "), who is
put into the same
hut and has to be
treated with respect
by the girls. Food
is taken to them, but
before eating they
must close their eyes
while the shakamwale
eats first. In the day-
time a shady place is
sought for them in
the fields among the
grain, and there they
sit with their shaka-
mwale. He keeps on
the look-out ; if he
sees any one ap-
proaching he gives
warning and the girls
must cover their
heads. To be un-
covered in the pres-
ence of an outsider
would result in their
wasting away. Any
one thus discovering
the girls will plague
them : a man will
give them a beating
with a stick ; a
woman will pinch
them on the thighs ;
but they must en-
dure the pain without

either speaking or crying. It is tonda to utter a sound ; if
they did people would exclaim, " What sort of a kamwale
will this be who speaks to people ! ' During the day they

Photo E. IK Smith.

A Young Nurse.

20 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. m

are occupied in weaving mats and baskets When darkness
falls they steal back to their hut, all covering their heads.
In the hut they may not sleep on a bed, but on the ground,
or under the bed.

After a time the parents and relations of the girls bring
fowls and meat and other things as a preparation for a
dance : this is called kuhololwa. They invite the dancers
of the Kashimbo dance and the players of the mwandu
drums to assist them, and the dance is kept up through
the night. These assistants are rewarded (balatailwa) with
beads, tobacco, and spears. Another month passes away
and they dance again.

All the time the girls are in the initiation hut they are
being instructed ; that is to say, they teach each other
what they know, and an old woman is called in as their
mubudi ("instructress"). There where they sit in the
veld they put themselves through several operations which
they think will prepare them for marriage. Baladichita
misamo ku bukaintu, baladipena o kudieleka chinkodi
chepopwe, na mufuma owa chikampe cha musekese, ati
babone sena mulombwana akabatwale ulayana musena :
" Genitalibus medicinas applicant, rimam pudendi disten-
dentes, metientesque vel spica f arris quod vocatur Indiani,
vel arboris fetu quant musekese vocant, id sciscitantes num,
si nubant, viro adituni sat largum praebiturae sint." They
do this for ten or twenty days, " when they find they have
grown and become women," as our informant says. The
old woman with them gives them many instructions as to
their conduct when married. She holds one by the ear,
to secure proper attention, and says : ' A man has to be
reverenced and well looked after in the house ; your
parents-in-law also." The girl is not supposed to speak,
but to nod her head to signify her assent.

A third month passes and now the girls' relations brew
great quantities of beer and lay in a stock of other things
for a feast. They levy contributions on all the girls' clans-
men, so that they may worthily feast the dancers. When
the brew is ready the feast is held. The girls are anointed
with fat, dressed, and decorated. After the people have
danced the girls come out. Before doing so they are given

ch. xviii FROM BIRTH TO PUBERTY 21

their final lessons and among other things are told always
to reverence the munto bush, under which they curled them-
selves up ; and also the shakamwale boy — respecting him
and obeying him in all things.

Coming out of the hut thus attired in their best, they
are the centre of admiration ; the news goes through the
country that the daughters of So-and-so have passed
through the initiation, and are now women.

When in seclusion in the house the girls are made to
play the Indavu (kupwa indavu). They sit round with a
number of pieces of broken pot and play as in the game of
" Five stones." They also play the mantimbwa and sing
songs, such as this :

N amunkulungu tobele musamo,

Muntembwe ndo, muntembwe ngu musamo.

(" ~N amunkulungu is not the medicine,

Muntembwe, my dear, muntembwe is the medicine ").

(b) Kuzaluka

The principal difference between the Balumbu custom
described above and that of the Ba-ila proper is in the time
of the ceremony. At Nanzela it takes place before the
first menstruation, and girls believe that if they do not go
through it they never will menstruate. On the other hand,
the Ba-ila defer their ceremony until the first menstruation
has taken place. A secondary difference, following on this,
is that at Nanzela the girls enter in company ; while among
the Ba-ila each girl goes through the rite of initiation alone.

Among the Ba-ila, when a girl first menstruates, she
must keep quiet about it. If she were to mention it the
women would say : " Mwauiche chilatonda checho. Mukoa
ako ulamana kufwa" ("Child, that is taboo; all your clan
will die "). The women discover it by examining the
girl's clothes ; then they say to her, ' ; You have men-
struated " ; and they take hold of her and dance. It is
a great occasion to them. The mother, it is said, weeps on
hearing the news ; probably because it means that she will
soon lose her daughter. But in another respect she is glad,
because now her child has grown up. All the girl's clans-
men share in the rejoicing, saying, " Mwanesu wakomena "

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. Ill

(" Our child has grown up "). They take the Mwandu and
dance. Before the dance is commenced the girl's father
formally presents the men with a hoe and asks them to
dance for his daughter. The girl is now secluded in a hut.
To amuse herself she is told to play the indavu, as described
below. A round hole is dug by the mother of the girl close
to the bed ; this is called the Mulao. Broken pieces of
pottery are placed around the edge of the hole ; the girl
takes one of these pieces, throws it into the air, and while

Photo t //-'. Smith.

A Girl playing the Mantimbiva.

it is in the air she knocks one of the other pieces into the
mulao, catching the piece she has thrown up as it comes
down. If she knocks in two pieces, the women who are
standing by, teach her. This is her occupation during the
seclusion; ngu mudimo wakwe ("it is her work"). She
also plays the mantimbwa. She sits on the ground with a
pot between her legs, with knees drawn up. The mantimbwa
consists of two bows ; the end of one is placed on one
shoulder, the end of the second on the other ; the other
ends of the bows resting on a basket covering the pot.
The bows are kept in position by a stick which passes over
the middle of the bow under the string and held under the

CH. XVIII

FROM BIRTH TO PUBERTY

knees. She plays the instrument with her fingers The
mantimbwa is brought to the initiate by her betrothed
husband. At the same time, he brings a mwana wa
chisamo (" a wooden
doll"), which he
has decorated with
strings of beads.
The mantimbwa , and,
some say, the doll,
must be made of
munkulnngu wood,
though why nobody
can tell. The be-
trothed husband is
accompanied by a
woman bearing the
name that he will
give the girl after

marriage ;
they are
into the
hut, but

together
admitted
initiation
may not

Photo E. IT. Smith.

see the girl. These
two after presenting
the things they have
brought must sit
down and have a
game of indavu to-
gether, taking every
care that the im-
pwisho, the stones
thrown up, do not
fall on the ground ;
for should that happen the man would have to pay a fine.

This seclusion lasts two or three months. The girl may
not be seen by any man during this period. She is carried
out well covered up to answer the calls of nature and does
not leave the hut for any other purpose.

Sometimes when paying a visit to a village, you may
see several figures, with covered heads, come creeping

A Ba-ila Doll.

24 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. hi

stealthily out of the grass towards the huts, one of them
bearing a burden on her back. It is the initiate and her
attendants.

We were once invited to enter a hut in which one of
these girls was being initiated, but there was very little to
see. The girl herself we were unable to catch a glimpse of,
as she was under the bed in the inner chamber, which was
in utter darkness. It is there she has to spend most of
her time. As our eyes became accustomed to the gloom of
the outer room we could distinguish the forms of several
women. One, the girl's maternal aunt, was sitting near
the door leading into the inner chamber. She had between
her legs a large earthenware pot, covered with a piece of
dressed skin ; in one hand she was grasping loosely a reed
standing upright on the skin ; the other hand she dipped
into water and drew up and down along the reed : the
vibration caused a deep harsh sound. This is the mwandu,
the instrument consecrate to the initiation ceremonies.
Two girls were sitting on the ground near by, with a pot
between them ; each had a long hollow reed, with one
end resting on the rim of the pot ; down the other end
they blew, making a noise. If you ask the meaning of these
things, the reply is that they are to amuse the girl lying
there in the darkness.

When staying in a village you may see a party of women
dressed up and going from mukobo to mukobo dancing.
They enter the cattle-kraal, and, standing in a circle outside
the inner fence in front of the principal hut, they dance.
The wives of the headman join in, singing and dancing for
a few minutes, and the party goes on its way. This is a
little diversion in honour of the girl passing through the
rites.

Some time early in the period the young man comes
again with his friends, and they join with the villagers in
dancing the Chululu. An ox is killed and consumed, together
with much beer. This feast lasts one night.

Towards the end of the period the impatient man
begins to worry the girl's relations to get the initiation
completed. " I want my wife to come from under the bed,"
he says. Theyt put him off as long as possible, and at last

ch. xvin FROM BIRTH TO PUBERTY 25

consent that on a certain day she shall emerge. Great
preparations are now made for the Chisungu, as the final
feast is named. Before the girl may leave the hut, however,
she has to be given final instructions as to her future conduct
as a wife. Here is an account we have received of the
teaching given : " They seek out an old woman to teach
the girl, and give her things, a hoe, or ten strings of beads.
Then she begins to instruct her, saying, ' So-and-so, you
are to be married. Remember that a man is to be obeyed,
and his food cooked. And when people come to pay a
visit, do not hide your face, but receive them warmly and
hospitably. When you have people in the house, treat
them kindly. And if your mothers-in-law send you on an
errand be quick in starting ; they are to be honoured ;
food is to be ground for them, water drawn for them, and
they are always to be answered respectfully. And in your
house, things are to be done nicely ; the pots are to be
kept clean and in good condition, and the house is to be
swept within. And your husband is to be obeyed implicitly
and not answered angrily. When you are married, do not
act childishly ; you are to provide food. Oh woman,
cook well and do not spoil the food ; you are to be perfect
in cooking. Vir etiam purgandus et lavandus x est, capillo
pubis evulso.' And so on and so on, for a day or two before
the close of the seclusion. The girl is also anointed with
butter, dressed in a new lechwe skin, and ornamented with
beads, etc., to enhance her beauty in her husband's eyes.

On the day appointed, the young man and his friends
arrive at the village, and all the other guests assemble.
On entering the courtyard the young man, or his companions,
plant a spear upright in the ground, and are given in return
a present named Chikwatamasumo, which may take the
form of an ox or something else of value. The Chisungu
is kept up for two or three nights and days, and is the
occasion for much unbridled licence.

The cattle killed, or given, during these ceremonies have
special names. The first one killed is provided by the father
and is named chululu ; the second one, provided by the father

1 Hac voce, kusansumuna, significatur raos quo iubetur mulier post
coitum a viri corpore omnes seminis guttas quantulascunque abstergere.

26 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. m

when the beer is brewed, is ing' ombeyakusotoka (" the jumping-
over ox ") ; at the same time he kills one called ankalisho.
The ox, provided by the father, exchanged for tobacco
and given to the friends of the husband, is called ing'ombe
ya banamusela. The ing'ombe ya mukako is given to the
girl's mother : the ing'ombeya muchizhi is given to whoever
cooked for the girl in her retirement. These last two are
provided by the husband's people. Another calf is given
by the father to the husband and called wakusangana
tuntu tutonda (" for to abolish the taboo things ").

Some time during the proceedings the girl's clansmen
bring an ox and stuff things down its throat, or close up
its mouth and nostrils with clay, in order to kill it without
a sound. Should it succeed in making a sound it means
bad luck or death to the father. When the ox is dead the
clansmen leave and the girl comes out and jumps twice over
the ox ; or if she is unable to jump the father takes her on
his shoulder and jumps over with her. This is evidently
a symbolic act. It signifies that the girl has now passed
over from childhood to womanhood.

After the Chisungu, among the Ba-ila, the marriage
follows immediately. It involves the taking of the girl
<j away from her home to her future husband's (for marriage
is patrilocal), often to a village some distance away. She
must be carried, however far it may be ; the bridegroom
i may not help in the carrying, nor may he see her on the
road : that is taboo. We have often seen these processions :
perhaps on a very hot day have seen one of a company of
men struggling along, with the perspiration rolling down
him, under the burden of a well-favoured damsel. This
carrying may be regarded as the first marriage rite and
what follows we must leave for the next chapter.

Menstruation Taboos

Here we may describe some of the taboos imposed upon
the woman during the time of the menses. To menstruate
is kusea and the woman is called Namusea. She is spoken
of euphemistically as being kumbadi (" in retreat "), and
uina matashi (" having no hands ").

ch. xviii FROM BIRTH TO PUBERTY 27

She is a dangerous woman, and must be separated as
far as possible from contact with her fellows.

She may not enter a hut in which people are sitting
who have '^eaten medicine " ; if she must enter, they have
first to come out. It is taboo for her to eat in company.
Were she to eat in company with a man he would lose his
virility. If he went from that place into the veld and started
to run, he would have something burst within his chest
and would die. Should she venture to sleep on her husband's
bed, she would incur his righteous indignation and be made
to pay damages : it would be reckoned buditazhi by some.
She may not sit near people, lest there should be mutual
injury. Si enim hominis cuiusvis umbra mulieri incidat,
credunt effluvium sempiternam fore ita ut hac tabe cito
peritura sit. She must have nothing to do with the common
fire, but must light one for her own use. She must not handle
other people's pots, nor eat out of their basins, nor drink
out of their cups, nor smoke their pipes. She may not cook
food for anybody, nor draw water for another. If she
sleeps in her hut, it must be on the floor. She may not
enter a village other than her own. She may not wear
nice clothes. For five days is she tonda ; then she washes
and may rejoin her fellows.

It is evident from this that there is something about
the woman that is dangerous ; moreover, her condition
lays her open to receive malign effluence from others.

That she is dangerous is shown also in the procedure
with regard to a person called an Imbala. H-e is a man
that is wasting away. Nothing seems to stop the emaciation.
Then they say there is a musangushi (" ghost ") taking away
his flesh. They put him into a hut and young girls enter
and kindle a new fire for him. No menstruating woman
must enter, for she is particularly dangerous to him.

But the mysterious radiation from her, that ordinarily
is so baneful, may be made use of. It is believed that if
tsetse fly invade a district they can be driven away by the
menstruating women going and sitting where they are and
allowing themselves to be bitten. One of our friends was
told by natives that a certain fly-infested road was now free
because so many women had passed along it.

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. Ill

The boys go to their elders and say : " Take us to the
cattle outpost and let us shinga, i.e. be initiated." So next
day they take them there and they sleep. In the morning
they milk the cows. Then all the herdsmen take sticks,
lumps of dry dung, and stones, and line up outside the cattle-
kraal, the cattle having already come out. The boys have
then to dart out one by one and run the gauntlet of the

Wiim**;*

Photo JS. If. Smith.

A Group of Ba-ila Boys in front of an Ant-hill.

men, who beat them with the sticks and pelt them with the
lumps and stones. The goal which the boys must reach
is the bull of the herd, and until they succeed in striking
the bull they continue to be beaten. Once a boy has touched
the bull he is free. The boys then take the cattle to pasture.
They return in the evening. They may not dress nor sleep
on a bed.

When the unsatisfying evening meal, consisting of some
very sour milk, is over, the men devote an hour or two to
disciplining the boys : the Ila word is kukoma. Whatever
they are told to do, they must respond with alacrity or
they are thrashed unmercifully. " Fight ! " say the men,

ch. xvin FROM BIRTH TO PUBERTY 29

and the boys must take sticks and belabour each other,
or grapple and wrestle. Any one not entering heartily
into it is abused as a coward by the men and beaten.
" Zhana ! " say the men, and the boys leave the fighting
and dance. Names of various dances are shouted and
they must instantly change their steps accordingly, or the
stick descends upon them. " Dance as your mothers
dance. . . . Dance as your fathers dance. . . . Dance the
mwandu as your mothers dance ..." and so on. Then
other orders. " Grind corn as your mothers grind," and
the boys have to flop down on their knees, and go through
the action of grinding corn between two stones. They
have to be quick about it too. Other things follow. De
rebus genitalibus certiores facti, coguntur pueri inter se coitus
imitari, iubenturque etiam masturbari. The men exhaust
their rich vocabularies of abuse upon the boys — all the
matushi they can think of. They may not show the slightest
resentment at any of this treatment, or it will be the worse
for them.

Next morning, early at dawn, they are sent to the water
to bathe. It is bitterly cold and they creep shivering back
to the kraal ; but if they attempt to warm themselves at
a fire they are driven away, and have to crouch naked and
get warm as best they can. No bread is given them to eat,
but only very sour milk, mabishi alula. For two days
this is done. On the third day they take out the cattle
to herd ; when the sun reaches that point which is called
Akabonzhabeembezhi ("when the herdboys are tired."), i.e.
about 3 p.m., they bring back the cattle near to the kraal,
and then run off home, naked as they are. Reaching the
village they sit outside and call aloud for something to
wear, and when this is brought them they enter.

Like the girls, the boys have their private operations to
perform to fit them for marriage, the chief business of life.
We give here a literal translation of an account of these
dictated to us by an intelligent native :

" They also [i.e. the boys) sit in like manner and look
for medicines at the village ; medicines for difuka and for
drinking, and for the first semen, and for to make them
strong, and for enlarging, and for blowing into themselves.

30 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. in

To fuka himself, he takes a certain bush 1 and on making
incisions into it a juicy substance flows out ; this he
rubs on the scrotum morning and evening. He goes to
the meeting of the roads and leaves the medicine, burying
it in the ground and covering it with a piece of pot ; then
people jump over it, saying, ' Cito puer Me testes suos sciat.'
The medicine for strengthening is drunk ; he does not
know the plant it comes from, but is simply given it by
the elders. The medicine of the first semen (shitompo) is
to be drunk, it is the root of the mubanga tree. He cooks
it three times ; at the fourth he puts in white meal of the
first grinding and cooks it with an axe ; when he has done
cooking he eats some of the porridge, and the rest he puts
into his small calabash ; at dawn he drinks ; only he
climbs up on his bed and drinks standing, before the flies
have come to sit upon his body. The medicine for enlarging
is the same Mufufuma, the roots. He digs a small hole at
the threshold and buries there the medicine root. Bene
mane radicem Mam iterum effosam cinerique saepius
immersam turn peni suo ubique impingit, ea spe scilicet ut
penis crescat extendaturque velut radix ipsa. Ex eadem
radice venenum faciunt quod pertunsum et in pulveris speciem
redactum per harundinem parvam in os mentulae inflat ;
quo scilicet prava omnia a mentula exsolvantur. After a
time when he has finished these medicines, he seeks that of
the first pubic hairs (koza ka chisokwe), dry small sticks of
the Mupazopazo tree ; he digs a little hole and plants over
it a small platform ; then he makes fire by friction ; when
the fire has burnt down he has to take the ash of the fire
which he made and rub it on the os pubis to pluck out the
first hairs there. He does this till it is quite clean. He
does not leave even one little bit of a hair, because if he
were to leave one it would break off, and he would become
lame, swell at the knees, and be without strength. Having
done this, he runs off to the river to bathe. And, again,
there where he plucked out the hair, he will not pass again,
lest the hair should return to him which he plucked out
there.

" Also they take away the fraenum. They tie tightly

1 The Mufufuma, see Vol. I. p. 254.

ch. xviii FROM BIRTH TO PUBERTY 31

the hair of a wildebeest, and after a whole day and night it
cuts through."

The initiation proceedings, then, are to serve two
purposes : first, to harden the boys and teach them to
endure pain without complaint ; second, to prepare them
for their manly functions. There is a third thing which
cannot be passed over lightly, namely, the better kind of
instruction the boys receive from their elders during the
time. We cannot vouch for the universality of this instruc-
tion among the people ; it may take different forms, be
less or more in different districts ; but such as we have
learnt from men of the teaching they received we transcribe
here. It will be seen that moral teaching of a high character
is mixed up with other things not so admirable.

We have three accounts of the teaching, and will give
them just as they were communicated to us.1

The first man said : "I was taught not to curse my
elders, nor the initiator who is called mulumi (' husband ') ;
to be humble before my mulumi and listen to all he told
me, not transgressing one of his commands, for they were
to me as the words of God ; to go where I am sent and
go willingly ; always to take of the spoils of my hunting
to my mulumi, even were it far away I must go ; always
to be ready to assist him in his work ; not to be afraid of
approaching his wife,2 and if ever I found another man
with her to thrash him, or if unable to do that at least to
inform her husband of the fact ; but I was not to eat in
her presence unless I had given her a bracelet."

The second man said : " He told me : ' Now you are
grown, honour your elders. If you find anything on the
path, or meat, give it to any of your companions who are
older than you ; it is not good for them to ask you for it.
While you are still young you must not stand near your
elders who are discussing affairs. If your friend is a thief
and he asks you to go and look at things not your own
you must refuse.' I was told wisdom as to sleeping at
my mulumi's. {Ndakashimwinwa busongo bwa kutcba ku

1 See W. Chapman, A Pathfinder in Central Africa, pp. 334 sq.

2 The initiate sleeps with the wife of his mulumi about five nights, and
may always cohabit with her if invited, even until and after he is married.

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. Ill

midumi angu.) He said : ' Beware of other people's things,
even if it be a child's ; people will curse me because I have
not taught you wisdom if you do not respect all the things
of other people. Honour all the people of the community,
especially your chief. If you are travelling with an elder
in the road help him with the things he is carrying, so that
people may praise you for being good and kind. Let there
be no conceit (kandokando) no rudeness {chisafii). If your

Photo E. W. Smith.

Boys carrying Firewood.

elder sends you for firewood you must bring him some.
If he sends you on a journey you must, not refuse but fetch
him what he desires. If you are travelling with an elder
you must fetch water for him, if he sends you you must
answer, " I will go, I am still a child." When you return
he will tell your father what a good boy you are. Honour
all others as you honour your mulumi. If you do this you
will live well, if you do not honour the elders you will not
live well.'"

The third man said : " This is what I was taught :

ch. xviii FROM BIRTH TO PUBERTY 33

' You must not speak evil things to your elders. If they
strike you it is no fault in them. If they curse you, you
must not curse them in return, but simply enquire : " For
what reason do you curse me ? ' If you meet a woman
you must not strike her, nor ask her to give you tobacco.
If a woman meets you, you must not cause her to stand
or the neighbours will ask you, " For what reason do you
cause this woman to delay ? " If a woman wants to discuss
affairs with you intimately (kudisha makani), you must not
agree ; if she persists you may even beat her. If she comes
into your house, you shall cry : " There is a woman here ! "
And on the morrow they will enquire of her : " Why do
you follow after this child of ours ? You must not get
him into evil habits." Again, if a woman comes to you
saying, " Give me tobacco, my man," you must say to her,
' Tobacco ! Where shall I find it ? " The woman will
say, " Here is a little piece of tobacco, I will give you a
smoke." Then you shall reply, " I do not desire tobacco
that has medicine in it." She will go on to say, " You can
love me," but you must reply, " I refuse you, why do you
cling to me ? " She will reply, " Why, man, do you not want
' to eat ' anything ? It may be you are only a child. Are you
not yet grown? " Then you must say, "I do not want
you." She will go on, " Are you a fool or an idiot ? Why,
man, let us divide the tobacco." You must say : " I have no
pipe with which to smoke. There are among the people
those who desire to smoke. I am sickened and weary of
being importuned. I curse you." She will reply : " You
ought to marry me. Simply marry me ! " You must refuse
her by saying: " I have no desire to marry you." Then
she will say, " Well ! this child ! How was he begotten ?
He does not love these 'affairs.' This man soon brings out
his anger ! Well ! Whenever did a man beget a child who
gave birth to another who curses a poor woman ? ' Then
after a time she will say, "Man, come now, discuss this
matter, you are stubborn and very angry." Then finally
you shall say to her : "I curse you because you weary me
by following after me. This woman clings to me in an
evil way. These things tire me. I will now disclose this
thing to her husband, and say to him, ' This woman came
VOL. 11 D

34 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. hi

to my house, but I refused her.' Then her lord will say,
' Yon woman clings to men in an evil way. I have thrashed
her, but she does not repent,' and turning to her, he will
say, ' You walk in an evil way. Your eyes are constantly
towards men. The person that gave birth to you gave
birth to an evil person.' " They will help you. You are a
man. This thing will go on and on and never end.' "

These proceedings completed, the boys, like the girls, are
dressed and decorated with beads, impande shells, and
anklets. The boy is now at liberty to begin growing an
impumbe. Wakubuka (" he has become a young man," a
mukubushi) .

CHAPTER XIX

THE RELATIONS OF THE SEXES

There is much that is unpleasant in this part of our subject
— much that we would fain pass over in silence. But if
we are to be faithful to our purpose to give a true picture
of the Ba-ila, we must not dwell upon what R. L. Stevenson
called " the prim, obliterated, polite surface of life,"
but must lay bare "the broad, bawdy, and orgiastic — or
maenadic— foundations." To write of the Ba-ila and omit
all reference to sex would be like writing of the sky and
leaving out the sun ; for sex is the most pervasive element
of their life. It is the atmosphere into which the children
are brought. Their early years are largely a preparation
for the sexual function ; during the years of maturity it is
their most ardent pursuit, and old age is spent in vain and
disappointing endeavours to continue it. Sex overtowers
all else. In the magistrate's court, cases arising out of sex
are ninety per cent of the whole number. It is the rock
against which break all efforts to improve the young and
influence the old. We were speaking to a chief once about
sending his sons to school, and his reply was, "I want them
to go, but they are adolescent {badikwete mabolo, i.e. lam
testicalos habent), and won't leave the women to go to school."
They were lads of twelve to fourteen years of age. At the
other end of life the commonest request made to us by the
old men is for aphrodisiacs.

We desire to look at even these things from their point
of view. Our object is not to hold them up to reprobation,
but simply to describe and understand. To them, the union
of the sexes is on the same plane as eating and drinking,

36 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES px. in

to be indulged in without stint on every possible occasion.
There are limits even to eating and drinking ; you may
not take a pot of beer out of my hut without permission,
nor strip the maize from my field ; if you do. I shall take
you to court. Of course a glutton may be subject to ridicule
or even to scorn, but as long as the food he eats is his own,
what right has any one to interfere ? In precisely the
same way may men or women indulge their sexual instincts ;
only they must respect the proprietary rights of others.
The sexual quality of a woman is somebody's property ;
while she is immature that quality is absent and she is
not regarded except prospectively ; but once that quality
develops, it enters into the possession of her husband, and
his right cannot be infringed with impunity. He may
give his right to a friend, just as he may give him a meal ;
but if the friend presumes and takes either without per-
mission he may be fined. It is a matter of property, not
of moral reprobation. The anger of a man may be raised
by some one interfering with his wife ; he would feel just
as angry if the man drove cattle into his gardens ; and in
either case is easily placated by payment of a fine.

i. Before Marriage

It will be sufficient to say that boys and girls are under
no restraint. Whatever they may do is looked upon merely
as "play" (kusobana). Adults rather encourage than
otherwise these precocious acts, for they regard them as a
preparation and training for what is man's and woman's
chief business in life. We have seen how the initiation
ceremonies are largely a preparation for this, and how
boys and girls employ various devices to hasten the time
when they shall be able to fulfil their ambitions. More
and more as the period of adolescence approaches are their
minds centred upon the one thing. Whatever they may do
during these early years, no blame is assignable.

The game named mantombwa is a kind of children's
harvest festival. There are different forms of it : this is
how it is played in Bwila. One day at harvest time the
young girls (bashimbi) get together, and having come to an

ch. xix THE RELATIONS OF THE SEXES 37

agreement on the matter go and tell the chief. He bids
them wait while he procures a house for them from one of
his people. Having taken possession of the house and
swept it, they then pair off : as they say, batwalana, umwi
umwi watwala mushimbi nina (" they marry each other,
every one marrying her fellow "). They beg food from the
villagers, and having cooked it, " man ' and " wife ' eat
together in the house. They sleep together ; and at sunset
they begin to sing :

Bana-mantombwa tababoni izuba nku dibidila,
Bamnkwelakwela bamutola ambo
Suntwe akamudye.

Which, being freely translated, means : " The mantombwa
players are not to see the sunset ; if any one ventures out
they take her to the west that the hyena may eat her."
Then at dawn they sing again :

Kumbo ukwa Mukonga twakeyana inzake ;
Tu busongo, twaandwa, ye !
Chilumino muchele ;
Chiyulamudiango, tuyudile,
Tulakusadila wa lukombo.

These songs are not easily translated on account of the
strange words used ; this one may be rendered thus : "In
the west, at Mukonga's place, we found a building ; We the
wise ones are frozen with cold : Here's a dish and some salt
in it. O ! opener of the door, open for us, And we will
choose you something for your stomach." So they play
and sing, until they weary of the game. Then they break
up, by running off one morning to the water to bathe.
If any boys see them bathing, they beat them saying :
" Kamukatupa inkungo sha mapopwe a mantombwa" (" Give
us a bundle of the maize of the mantombwa "). Then they
return to their homes.

Played thus the game is innocent enough. But in some
localities it is different. The young girls go out of the
village and build play-huts of grass, and take up their abode
there, being assisted in their preparations by the boys.
They beg plenty of food — the new grain, new ground-nuts,
and milk. The night before the play begins they all collect

38 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES p*. ra

at one of the huts in the village — perhaps the chief's —
where they sleep. Next morning at cockcrow they rise
and begin to sing : " Tuyudile, tuyudile, tuyudile " (" Open
the door for us, open, open "). It is tonda for any female
to open the door : a man must do it, or a boy. Then they
take the food they have collected and scamper off to the
play-huts. There they set about putting things in order
and cook the food. During the morning the boys put in
an appearance, and eat with the girls. Having eaten their
fill, one of the boys says : ' Atuone ' (" Let us sleep ").
Then the boys and girls pair off and go to bed in the huts.
Later in the day they rise, and as the sun is setting they
go back to their homes. This may be kept up for a few
days or even for a month. During all this time the boy
and girl are as man and wife. It is indeed a game counter-
feiting the life of their elders.

All these things are included under the general title of
chikunku, meaning " childishness " and the things that are
done by children in the state of immaturity.

We have been assured by leading men in the tribe that
it is tonda for an adult man to have connection with
immature girls ; but in the same breath they admit that
such things are done. We fancy they are done very largely.
We have seen young girls, of seven or eight years of age,
suffering from primary chancres, not on the genital organs,
but on the inner sides of the thighs. This can only mean
one thing. Penetration being impossible, the connection
has been external ; what they call kuchompa. Should
this be discovered, the man does not get into trouble ; the
girl is simply rebuked by her elders and told not to allow
it to happen again.

Owing to these things, it is doubtful whether any girls
who could be called chaste are discoverable over ten years
of age. Such a thing as a grown virgin is not known. In
seeking for the word to add to our vocabulary we asked
many old men, but for long in vain. In seeking information
from Mungalo we had this conversation :

' My friend, what do you call a woman who repels
men ? "

" A namauwa."

ch. xix THE RELATIONS OF THE SEXES 39

' ' What do you call a woman who has borne one child ? '

" A nakasomona."

" What would you call a woman who has grown up
without ever knowing a man ? "

" You mean such and such a woman ? "

" Yes."

" Well, I should call her a mudimbushi " (" a fool ").

Of course it happens sometimes that a girl becomes
pregnant ; and what follows depends somewhat upon
whether she has passed through the initiation ceremonies
or not, that is, whether or no she is recognised as a woman.

If the girl has not been through the ceremony, they say,
" Waimita imfunshi " (" She has conceived a monstrosity "),
and the man, if discovered, is fined one or two head of
cattle, not because he has deflowered the girl, but because
of that " monstrosity," which, however, is not allowed to
live but is killed as soon as born. The girl too is punished,
not for unchastity but because of that uncanny thing.
We knew a case at Lubwe of a slave girl who was found
pregnant before having menstruated ; she was taken and
put into a rude shelter away in the forest in order that she
might be killed by wild beasts. The native teacher from
the Mission rescued her, much to the indignation of the
people, who foretold all manner of calamities upon him.
He persisted however ; the child was born and lived. When
it was two years old the people, and her master in particular,
clamoured for her return to the village, but she refused to
go, and the teacher to give her up. Should she go back, she
said, and were to be married, her next child would be killed
in order that she might be purified from the contagion of
the " monstrosity."

If the girl has been initiated, the man will have to reckon
with her affianced husband, who will claim damages from
him. The " husband " may, however, claim to be released
and to have his presents returned. In that case, they may
try to persuade the seducer to marry the girl ; if he agrees
and pays the chiko, all is well. If he refuses, they will
insist upon his bringing things from time to time to the
young mother in order kukuzha mwana (" to help rear the
child"). But he has no right in the child ; whoever marries

40 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES px. m

the girl is regarded as the father. By her loss of chastity
she suffers no degradation in prospects ; her fiance may
marry her, but even if he does not, somebody else will.
Nor will he object to the child, but rather be pleased,
because he has already got a start with a family.

In a case like this, action is taken by relations of the
girl other than the father. In our eyes, the father is the
one to take proceedings, but to Ba-ila ideas it is strictly
tonda for him to do anything ; if his wife had been assaulted
he would be allowed, if not required, by public opinion to
take steps ; but if he did it on behalf of his child, people
would say, " He makes his child his wife " ; in fine, he would
be vilified as an incestuous person.

Of course, in cases of inconvenient pregnancy, resort is
often had to abortifacients.

Of an unmarried mother it is said, " Mwana wakazhala
wakatanda ; ifu ledia ndia mwisokwe " (" The child has given
birth before marriage, the stomach is of the veld ").

We recall the words of Professor William James : ' No
one need be told how dependent all human social elevation
is upon the prevalence of chastity. Hardly any factor
measures more than this the difference between civilisation
and barbarism. Psychologically interpreted chastity means
nothing more than the fact that present solicitations of
sense are overpowered by suggestions of aesthetic and moral
fitness which the circumstances awaken in the cerebrum ;
and that upon the inhibitory or permissive influence of
these alone, action directly depends." The unchastity of
the Ba-ila is due to the fact that these inhibitory influences
are weak or do not exist, and that the permissive influences
are powerful. Where the passions are strong, solicitations
frequent, opportunities abundant, moral restraints feeble,
and tribal discipline weak, such a state of things as here
exists, while it earns the reprobation of the strict moralist,
cannot be wondered at. The unchastity has had, and still
has, dire results upon the people. But their determinations
are swayed by reference to immediate ends and without
regard to consequences to themselves and the tribe. They
see no wrong in it, and there is no public opinion to serve as
an inhibitive conscience.

ch. xix THE RELATIONS OF THE SEXES 41

2. Restrictions upon Intercourse

Yet it must be said here, the Ba-ila fall short of actual
promiscuity in their sexual relations ; and the above
remarks are to be qualified by reference to certain inhibitive
influences. There is, first, the intense horror with which
incest is regarded. We have not heard a word that is
equivalent to "incest" ; but there can be no doubt as to
their abhorrence of it. In one respect their idea of incest
is wider, in another it is narrower, than ours. Wider,
because as we have seen, our prohibited degrees are enlarged
to take in all the members of the clan, who are regarded
as relations. All sexual intercourse, regular or irregular, is
taboo between those who stand in the relation of bakwesu}
banokwesn, bakwe besu, batatesu. These regulations are
carried out with some amount of strictness. Those who are
taboo are always taboo ; there are no saturnalian carnivals
where the restrictions are removed ; even in licentious
dances, such as the chisungu, they may not take each other
as partners. Their bounds to legal intercourse are narrower
than ours in that ortho-cousins 2 are prohibited from marry-
ing and from illicit intercourse. It is done occasionally, it is
true, but only by those of whom the Ba-ila say baina insoni,
(" they have no shame "). We see here an eking out of the
totemic taboo ; for these cousins, even if not clansmen, are
under a taboo. Two brothers will marry from different clans,
and their children will take their mothers' totems, and so
may be of different clans from each other, but the rule holds
good. A man must not cohabit with his brother's wives, nor
with his wife's sisters, while brother or wife is alive ; but a
man may inherit his brother's widow, and a second wife is
usually taken from the deceased's sisters, if there are any.

For relations to cohabit is kukozha babwa 0 banyama
(" to be like dogs and animals "). One who should cohabit
with his sister, except in the case mentioned on p. 261,
Vol. I. would be put to death as a warlock.

The following tale was told us as relating the first
instance of an incestuous relation :

1 But see Vol. I. p. 319.
2 Some cross-cousins are allowed to marry. See Vol. I. p. 318.

42 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. m

" When the people had gone out of the village, a certain
man called his daughter into the house. As soon as the
child came, she said : ' What do you call me for, father ? '
The father said nothing, but just caught hold of her, and the
child was ashamed. The man had no feeling of shame, he
made his daughter to be like his wife. Then the child said :
' What's the meaning of this ? ' The father answered
nothing. As soon as the people returned, the child said,
' Father, do to me as you did to-day.' Thereupon the
father chaffed her, and the child said : ' Father, do to me
as you did to-day.' She caught hold of her father, saying :
' Let us do as we did to-day.' Thereupon the people were
amazed and said : ' You have made your child to be as
your wife.' To this day if a man acts thus he resembles
that man who slept with his daughter as a wife."

Another tale may be quoted here :

" A certain man had two children, son and daughter.
Their father and mother both died, so they went to another
district. On the way they slept together. But a bird
seeing them, began to sing, saying :

Chobe, Chobe, wezo ngu- mwend'aze C. C. who is it you travel with ?

nguni ?

Chobe, Chobe, ngu mukwesn, C. C. it is my sister, oh bird.

kazune.

Chobe, Chobe, nadi mukwenu ni C. C. how is she your sister

■mwalala. lying with you ?

Chobe, Chobe, wambonena kwi, C. C. whence did you see me,

kazune ? oh bird ?

Mu chisamo chikonkomene. Out of the crooked stick.

" ' My mother ! ' said the boy, ' how that bird lies. I
will hit it with a stick.' Then when they arrived at the
village, the bird also arrived and began to sing, saying :

Chobe, Chobe, wezo ngu mwend'aze C. C. who is it you travel with ?

nguni ?

Chobe, Chobe, ngu mukwesu, C. C. it is my sister, oh bird.

kazune.

Nadi mukwenu ni mwalala. How is she your sister when you

sleep together ?

Wambonena kwi kazune ? Whence did you see me, oh bird ?

Mu chisamo chikonkomene. Out of the crooked stick.

" ' My ! that bird lies ! ' said the boy. ' My ! I will

ch. xix THE RELATIONS OF THE SEXES 43

hit it with a stick ! ' Then the people said, ' Hear what
the bird is saying. These people have been sleeping together,
brother and sister.' So they put them into a house and
burnt them."

The facts with regard to incest among the Ba-ila do not
bear out Westermarck's theory as to its origin. He main-
tains that there is an innate aversion to sexual intercourse
between persons living very closely together from early
youth, and that as such persons are in most cases related
this feeling displays itself chiefly as a horror of intercourse
between near kin. We may easily credit the statement
that boys and girls in civilisation, unrelated, living under
the same roof from childhood, are more likely to grow up
as comrades than to become lovers, but we cannot credit
it among the Ba-ila. As a matter of fact people in a village
are not " in most cases related." We can hardly imagine a
state of life where the young people can see more of each
other than in the intensely open life of a Ba-ila village ;
yet there is no aversion to intercourse between them ; and
marriage between such does take place, and is welcomed
by the elders, provided, of course, that the family and clan
taboos are respected. And to show that it is not mere
contiguity that accounts for the horror of incest, we have
only to remind ourselves of the fact that a man would
readily marry a girl he knew and had lived next door to
from childhood if she were not of his clan ; while he would
not marry a woman from a hundred miles off who belonged
to his clan.

Besides the restrictions we have been dealing with,
there are a number of particular occasions when sexual
intercourse is prohibited to men and women.

1. Menstruous women are to be strictly avoided. If a
woman tells the man of her condition and he persists his is
the crime ; if she conceals it, she ditaya's him.

2. A woman whose full term of pregnancy is approaching
is also to be respected.

3. While a woman is nursing a child she must have no
intercourse with any man.

4. When she weans the child, she is still under this law,
so long as any milk is in her breasts.

44 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. m

5. If the child dies while a suckling, she must also wait
till her breasts are dry. Should any man sleep with her
while there is milk in her breasts, he would be liable to the
sickness called mabishi, i.e. " sour milk."

6. If either man or woman is sick, intercourse is avoided,
lest the sickness should be worsened by " jumping over it '
(kusotoka bulwazhi). The Ba-ila are not so particular about
this as their neighbours at Nanzela ; they will abstain only
in cases of serious illness.

7. If either is suffering from open sores (not necessarily
syphilitic) on the body, they abstain. But we have known
a young man marry a girl whose legs and arms were covered
with festering sores.

8. A woman while making beer must abstain, or the beer
would refuse to ferment.

9. A woman just before sowing her fields will abstain,
lest the seed should not sprout.

10. The people who thresh out the grain also have to
abstain the night before they commence the work.

11. Also those who store the grain away in the bins.

12. A man starting on a journey must keep away from his
wife and all women the night before, or he will meet with
bad luck on the road, and the purpose of his journey will be
frustrated. Thus, if he is going to trade, he will make only
bad bargains.

13. Also men going to fish, or to set traps, or to dig
game-pits must not visit their wives or other women the
night before. Some men will not do it before going to
hunt, lest, as they say, they should be hurt on the way
or be mauled by a wild beast. Others, on the contrary,
regard intercourse as giving them good luck during the
hunt. The bashilwando must abstain all the time they are
fishing.

14. Men engaged in smelting iron must abstain from all
commerce with women.

15. Above all, men going to war must absolutely have
nothing to do with women from the time that preparations
are begun and the doctors have started to doctor the army.
Breach of this would mean certain death in the fight ; and
likely enough bring disaster to the army.

ch.xix THE RELATIONS OF THE SEXES 45

3. Sexual Attraction

Before going further, we may well ask, what is it
particularly that attracts Ba-ila men and women to each
other ?

In a woman there are many things that appeal to a
man. He likes to see bright eyes, and long eyelashes ;
small ears and lips that close evenly. He likes to see a head
without a lot of depressions in it ; they are called makozhi,
or mangungunya — the latter a rude term. The head that
attracts him is shaven clean, with an even surface (mutwi
uueme), and not straight up and down behind ! He does
not pay much attention to the girl's breasts, for though he
admires the contour, he knows that they will soon fall and
be unsightly ; but he likes an abdomen rounded and not big.
If the girl has a navel hernia (lukombo) an inch or so long,
it is an additional attraction because out of the common.
He likes red thighs (shibelo shisubila) and calves that are
fat and firm and able to fill out many leglets. He likes to
see an erect carriage and a graceful walk. But there are
other things he wants in a wife : above all, she must be
good at agricultural work and a good cook. She must not
simply be able to cook but must serve the food in a charming
manner ; and be attentive to his visitors. He likes to see
her well dressed, with a skin-petticoat that fits her, and
pretty mishini on her head.

Many of these things are also attractive in a woman's
eyes. She likes her lover to have bright eyes and long
eyebrows. She admires a head-dress that is built and kept
straight, and well ornamented with feathers and twala.
Praeterea mulier membrum magnum miratur, plurimusque
de co apertissimusque sermo , formamque sponsi saepe laudant
vel vituperant coram sponsa. In the same way, men who
have the means of knowing soon communicate private
knowledge to their friends, and a woman's reputation for
beauty is largely in their hands. Women like men to be
men ; strong, brave, and skilled in hunting and fighting.

46 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. m

4. Betrothal

What are the steps taken by the young people themselves,
or by others on their behalf, to bring about a marriage ?
There is no one set rule.

1. There are cases of genuine love matches, where two
young people are mutually attracted, the marriage is
not one arranged for them by others. The aspirant to
their daughter's hand has, of course, to satisfy the parents
and guardians in the matter of the chiko. There is no
doubt that there are such love matches.

2. More commonly the parents or guardians arrange
the marriage. We will quote here an account of a betrothal
of this kind taken down by us in the original :

" They do this : when the son is grown, she who bore
the boy begins to discuss with her husband, saying : ' The
child has grown, he ought to be married to somebody.'
Thereupon they arrange the matter, and next morning the
boy's mother and sister go walking round the villages
where they have seen marriageable girls. On arrival at a
village, and after exchanging salutations, they say : ' We
are looking for a pot.' The people of the village know by
this that they are looking for a wife. They may answer,
' There is no pot here ; all the pots are finished.' They
answer, ' And if it be only a little pot ? ' They say, ' There
is none.' So they leave that village and go to another.
There also after being greeted they tell them the same thing,
saying, ' We are looking for a pot.' If there are any who
are agreeable, they answer, ' For whom are you seeking a
pot ? ' The mother of the boy says, ' It is for my own
child that I am seeking a pot.' They reply, ' There is
a pot, but it is not fit for work.' They answer, saying,
' We shall improve it.' They say, ' Come back again,' —
which means that the relations of the child wish to talk
the matter over quietly. Again they tell them, ' Sleep
thrice, and on the fourth day you may come back.' They
go back and spend three days ; on the fourth they return.
On their arrival the relations say, ' Bring the muyumusho.'
The wife-seekers return, and go to bring the muyumusho,
five or four hoes ; when they produce them they say,

ch. xix THE RELATIONS OF THE SEXES 47

' Return and come back here to-morrow.' So they go
back."

Here, under the well -understood fiction of seeking a
pot, the girl is sought for, and the preliminary arrangements
are made for the marriage. The muyumusho is not reckoned
part of the chiko, but is a sort of retainer, or sign of
betrothal. The two young people are now known as man
and wife, and the marriage may take place a few days
after, or as soon as the chiko has been arranged. The
saying with which this account ends, ' Come back
to-morrow," means they are to return for the marriage to
be completed.

3. Another form of betrothal is termed bubadikile : a
word derived from the verb kubadikila, which means, "to
cause somebody to carry on his (or her) back for somebody
else." It signifies that a man becomes betrothed to a
young girl, perhaps to a baby, and contributes to her
support until she is ready to be married. He causes, or
helps, the mother to rear the child for him. What takes
place is shown in the following account :

" It may be one like my daughter Namunza {i.e. about
four) : a man loves her (or wants her) and says : ' That's
my wife.' As for me, I suppose that he is joking ; then
one day I see a blanket which he has sent, saying, ' Take
this to my wife.' Again on another day, if he finds meat he
sends it, saying, ' Take this to my wife.' Why, then that
man must be respected, and when he arrives and says,
' You are seen, father/ and salutes by clapping his hands,
you also clap your hands for him. Another day he will
send a potful of fat and it arrives ; he will go on doing
this all the time. Mayhap there is no good fortune, and
while the child is still growing, the man to whom she is
betrothed dies. Well, then you weep, and the child becomes
a widow. If she be not shaven, at least she has all her hair
cut off, and is called a widow. When the mourning is over,
he who eats the name of the deceased follows just into
their betrothal. He goes there and they do not forbid him,
for he also is a son-in-law (mukwe) ; he does just the same,
sending things just as the other did. Afterwards when the
child is grown up they talk about the selfsame chiko. He

48 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. hi

also gives the chiko, the amount stated. Whether they
decide upon ten or four cattle he will give it, and will marry
her."

In this way it sometimes happens that a very young
girl is betrothed to a man greatly her senior, perhaps a
hoary old polygamist, or at least one old enough to be her
grandfather. The girls cannot be expected to welcome such
a state of affairs ; in fact, to our knowledge, many of them
strenuously rebel, even to the extent of running away.
But if one runs away, she is chased and brought back for-
cibly to her husband. It is by no means a matter of mere
coquetry ; we have known many cases where the young
girls were forced into a relationship that they abhorred.
Very often before the marriage takes place she has conceived
an affection for a lad of her own age. We have known
instances where in such an event the old man has been
induced for a consideration to relinquish his claim ; but,
generally speaking, the girl has to obey. Once married, she
may find herself fairly happy, as she may be the favoured
wife, and especially as custom allows her to console herself
with more youthful lovers.

The things given by the man to the girl's parents are
called the chibonesho (" the sign ") ; the purpose being not
only to assist in the child's upkeep but also as a token to
all that the child is bespoken.

Before she becomes properly his wife, the man has
certain rights over her. When she is about ten she is taken
to his hut and they cohabit. She may carry out the custom
to be mentioned later (kunyonkola mazha), but all the time
she remains at his home she may not speak to him. If he
orders her, say, to fetch water, she must obey in silence.
When she first menstruates, she goes to her home to pass
through the initiation ceremony, and then the marriage
proper takes place.

5. The Chiko

The goods given by, or on behalf of, the bridegroom to
the clansmen and parents of the bride are called the chiko.
To give such things is kukwa. It would be incorrect to
translate this term " dowry," for, according to the dictionary,

CH. XIX

THE RELATIONS OF THE SEXES 49

a dowry is the portion a woman brings to her husband.
It is also misleading to call the chiko a bride-price. To us
it may seem to be a matter of buying and selling, but the
Ba-ila would repudiate any such idea. They use quite
different words for the two kinds of transaction. To buy
is kuula ; and the word is used not only of ordinary
merchandise but of slaves. A slave is muntu nucule (" a
bought person "), but the term is never used of a wife.
The woman is not bought. Her husband does not acquire
such proprietary rights in her as he does in a slave that he ,_
purchases. The chiko is more properly regarded as a com- u
pensation to the girl's clan, a return to parents and guardians
for the expense they have incurred in her rearing, the seal ,
oTa^colitract by which she is to become the mother of the
man's children, and a guarantee of good treatment. We
therefore avoid using the terms dowry and bride-price, and
keep to the native term, chiko.

Whether a slave is proud of the price paid for him, as
an indication of his worth ; and whether a ten-pound slave
looks down upon a five-pound slave are matters we do not
know; but certainly a woman among the Ba-ila has a certain
pride in the amount of chiko given by her husband, because
it is an indication of her worth in his eyes. The chiko is
an acknowledgment that the marriage is an honourable
one, and even Ba-ila women have some feeling on that
score.

A case in point was once brought into court. A as a
child was married by B, who gave for her an ox-skin and
two calabashes of fat. Later on, when she was visiting her
own home, another man, C, fell in love with her and married
her. B naturally complained of this to the girl's parents,
and they endeavoured to console him by saying that perhaps
he might get her later. The girl soon tired of this interim
husband and went back to B, saying she left C because he
was poor, and did not know how to work like others ; she
also said she would not stay with a man who had given
jiothm^jfor her. Womanlike, she had plenty of reasons,
and the true one, as usual, was the last.

The amount of the chiko depends upon the position of
the girl and the wealth of the suitor and his backers. —

vol. 11 E

vW',

[

50 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. in

Here are the items in some of the settlements we have
known :

(i) One blanket, three goats, one hoe, one basket of
salt. (2) Two oxen, one cow. (3) Two impande shells, one
blanket, five shillings' worth of print, and some beads.
(4) Four cows and three oxen. (5) One cow, one ox, one
blanket, ten shillings in cash, and one impande shell. (6)
Nine hoes, two blankets, six yards of calico. (7) (Basala)
Six sheep, one goat, two loaves of tobacco, and one ox.
(8) (Basala) Two cows, one ox, one impande, and five
strings of beads.

For a chief's daughter as much as thirty head of cattle
may have to bejgiyen. It is said that at Nanzela formerly
the chiefs would not allow of a big chiko ; two or three
hoes were to be sufficient. We have known of as little as
three strings of beads being given there. But in later
years they have taken to imitating the Ba-ila proper in
demanding substantial amounts. Generally speaking, we
may reckon the chiko as four or five head of cattle, say from
£12 to £15.

The amount having been arranged, the bridegroom or
his representatives, as we saw in a previous chapter, seek
help among their family and clan. The man's chief helps
and he himself does what he can. The help is readily given
and the chiko paid over, not necessarily in a lump, but
often in instalments as it is forthcoming. As the chiko is
contributed by the bridegroom's clansmen mostly on the
one hand, so, on the other, it is distributed mostly among
the bride's clansmen ; the parents, especially the father,
getting little of it. The one who gets the lion's share is
the Shimalelo, the guardian of the girl. The mother always
has her portion called mukako ("of the belt"). If the
chiko is given in hoes there may be ten, and a further five,
mamba osanwe a mukako wa baina (" five hoes of the mother's
belt ") ; or if it be ten head of cattle, musune wa mukako
(" an ox of the belt "). Another portion is called lushila,
given to defray the expenses of doing up the girl's hair
with chishila (" ochre ") : this is perhaps not part of the
actual chiko, but like the muyumusho more a sign of
appropriation given before the settlements are made. An

ch. xix THE RELATIONS OF THE SEXES 51

occasion like this becomes a kind of clearing-house for all
disputes and claims ; and infinite adjustment is required
before the whole business is completed.

It is regarded as wrong ever to dispose of the offspring
of the cattle received as chiko. The calves as born may go
to clansmen who could not be given their portion at first.

Rescission of the chiko is claimable by the parties who
give it on the following grounds : virulent or contagious 1 '
disease ; laziness ; neglect to provide husband with food
by hoeing or by cooking ; inability to bear children.
Persistent adultery is a ground rarely put forward. Should
the woman be incapacitated by accident, the husband
would claim another wife. And in the same way, if she
dies her people must provide a woman to take her place.

If for any reason the man is dissatisfied with his wife
and wishes the chiko returned ; or if the relations of the wife
have reason to be dissatisfied with him and refuse to give
up anything ; or if the woman runs away to join another
man : then endless disputes arise occasioning litigation.

We may quote the following cases to illustrate the
kind of litigation that arises. They throw light upon the
life of the Ba-ila in certain aspects.

(1) In one case the girl was a slave and her parents
went to the man and offered her as his wife. She had had
two husbands previously. Her release was obtained and
he married her. After a time he got sick with syphilis,
and as her mother was also ill he sent her home to visit.
He went to see her several times ; but when he wanted her
back the mother put him off by saying that she was working
in the fields. Then he heard they had married her to another
man. He was disgusted with this, and instead of trying to
regain her he put in a claim for^ thejreturn of the chiko he
had given.

(2) A married the daughter of B ; then later B took
her away and gave her to C. When A put in a claim against
him C gave him a woman D in settlement. On his way
home A called at B's, who seized D on the pretext that
she had thrown ash on him — a serious offence. He after-
wards promised to send D back to A, but as she did not
come A went for her, and they threatened to kill him.

52 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. hi

For four years he continued to try to get the woman, but
in vain. He lost both women and also the chiko he had
given for the first.

(3) A took B as his wife when she was a child, and she
stayed at his brother's. When the latter died, C took both
her and another girl as inheritance. Then D married her,
giving chiko to C, and promised to compensate any one
who claimed her. Then A paid an ox to C for B and got
possession of her ; A also gave a boy and some tobacco
to her father. When D sought to get her, A admitted that
D was the lawful husband and claimed five cows to release
her. In the event B was returned to D.

(4) M married a girl N in childhood, and when she
grew up she went back to her home as the parents were
not satisfied with the chiko. M said he would continue to
work and add to the amount. Meanwhile O came along,
fell in love with N, and his father went to her parents, who
agreed to the marriage, saying that M had given only a
bit of tobacco and some beads, and if he claimed for them
they would settle with him. Then M put in his claim,
saying that he had lived with her two years. N's father
then said that M had left the girl for some time, and when
she had gone to the initiation he refused to come to the
dance, thus repudiating her. So O kept her.

(5) This is a good instance of the extraordinary way in
which these claims become entangled.

A man named Lushika died (he was Namudionto's
brother's son) and Shisumba took the name. One of the
wives did not like him and went off to Kabulamwanda and
married Nalubi (Husband No. 2). Then later Sichianji
saw her at Mala and married her (Husband No. 3). He
promised to pay two cows for her, but as he failed to do
so her parents took her away. Then she went to Lubwe,
and Namudionto said, " There's my brother's son's wife ; I
will take her." He paid two cows, one blanket, and an
ox to the parents (Husband No. 4). Now the complications
arose. When Namudionto's nephew married, Namudionto
had given three cows towards the chiko, and when
Namudionto's brother died, Namudionto's nephew, Lushika,
took a cow as his share of the inheritance. Namudionto

ch. xix THE RELATIONS OF THE SEXES 53

had two sons ; the younger, Molo, lived with him, and the
other, Shaba, lived with the Sichianji mentioned above.
When Molo wanted to join his brother, Namudionto
stopped his wife and Sichianji stopped another wife that
he had got. Sichianji also took a cow from Chilondo,
telling him to go and claim the woman from Namudionto ;
that is, he transferred his claim in her to this man Chilondo.
Thereupon Chilondo claimed the wife or a cow from
Namudionto. The cow Sichianji took from Chilondo
belonged to Namudionto, so Namudionto claimed a cow
back from Sichianji.

(6) R married S when she was young and gave a shell
and five hoes for her. Before R married her, sHeTTa^TBeen
promised to T, who had given a cow, ten baskets of salt,
and two hoes. Then another man, U, gave T a cow for his
rights, and when R took her U claimed a cow from him
and he refused to pay. The girl rejected her original suitors
and said she loved U.

(7) A died of smallpox ten years before this case came
up. B took his name and married C. Then C got into
trouble through a woman taking medicine because her
children all died after birth, and the woman's people took
C as a slave in consequence. A man, D, redeemed her
with a cow and an ox and took her to wife, to the annoyance
of B, who had not been told of the trouble. B then made
a claim against D. C lived with D for years and then ran
back to B. B then claimed from D for C's children, and
D claimed against B for the return of C.

(8) X took the girl Y as his share of an inheritance.
Then Z married Y, giving X as chiko a person and an ox.
Then Z died and X brought an ox to mourn with at the
funeral and asked for a big present in return. Z's son gave
him the girl Y. Then X asked for more and was given
another person, and as Y did not wish to stay with him
she gave a slave to release herself. However, X took
away the woman, and then Z's son brought a claim against
him for the return of his wife, and got her.

(9) F married G and then H took her away. She ran
away from H, and another man, I, seized her and took her
to his hut. Her husband was away working at the time,

54 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES px. m

and on his return he claimed against I. In his defence
I declared that H had given her to him in payment of a
fault. The woman said that of the three men she wanted
F : and she was sent back to him as the result of the case.

(10) X wanting a wife went to the parents of B's wife
and they gave him B's daughter, i.e. their granddaughter.
X gave five cows as chiko and they handed B a small ox
and a small cow as his share. Then the girl died and
according to Ila custom the sister should have taken her
place. As there was no other daughter, X claimed for the
return of the chiko. The parents had to find him another
wife to settle the case.

(n) This case was over a woman who had died three
years before. As a girl she (we call her A) was promised to
B and he gave her to C. C paid chiko of an ox to her father.
Then B made a claim against C for the return of his wife,
and C gave him ten baskets of salt, two blankets, and two
strings of beads, which went to the father. Then B took
A and C seized a cow from the father. The woman was
two years with C and one with B. Now five years after,
the girl having died in the meantime, the father brought a
case against C for the cow.

(12) The following is an instance of how a man may be
held accountable to his parents-in-law for the death of
his wife. A married B's daughter. She fell sick and he
asked for medicine and got it from the parents. After her
death B claimed and got ten cows from A because his
daughter had died of an unknown disease.

These cases are quoted as specimens of what is continually
occurring, and they show clearly how fragile the marriage
bond is among the Ba-ila. Women are bandied about from
man to man ; and of their own accord leave one husband
for another. It is no unusual thing for a young woman
scarcely out of her teens to have had four or five husbands,
all still living.

6. Marriage Ceremonies

Following immediately, in most cases, after the Initiation
rites, come the marriage ceremonies, which we will first
describe in the natives' own words :

ch. xix THE RELATIONS OF THE SEXES 55

" So when all is done (i.e. the Initiation) they take the
girl to where she is to be married. And they tell the men
who are at the village, ' When you hear us shout, catch
hold of the man (i.e. the bridegroom).' When they arrive
before the village they shout, and those in the village
catch the bridegroom and carry him to his home. They
put the man into his house. As soon as it is dark they
take the woman to his house and they sleep. After the
marriage is consummated, the bridegroom rises, takes
strings of beads equal in total length to the measurement
of the bride from head to foot, and hangs them on the
bedpost. He also puts a hoe on the fireplace. Primo
diluculo mulier experrecta capillum de viri pube et de maxillis
vellere coepit, dum omnia levigentur. Ad galli cantum
anus, ilia intrat nudosque inspirit, digitis suis viri pubem
maxillasque temptans. Turn si levia omnia invenit magna voce
inclamat : ' puella haec praeceptis meis paruit.' The old woman
takes the beads from the bedpost and the hoe from the fire-
place— they are her reward — and after sweeping the house,
goes her way. In the morning the man's people cook bread
and relish and take the newly married couple there. When
they arrive they place bread between them (as they sit
face to face) with the relish. The woman breaks off a
morsel, dips it into the relish, and gives it to the man ; and
the man also breaks, dips, and gives a piece to the woman.
When he has done this, he gives her a name, saying : ' It
is So-and-so.' The woman refuses it. Says he : ' So-and-so.'
The woman refuses it. Again he says : ' Well perhaps So-
and-so.' The woman nods her head, which is to say that
she agrees.

' Now this bread is given to all the people, old and
young, that they may eat and join in ' the-eating-of-bread '
(madyanshima) . So they eat and sleep ; next day they
sleep ; on the third day come the woman's sisters and all
her relations ; they come to fwenezha. And the man begs
things from all the community ; one gives him beads, another
a fish-spear, another a spear, a hoe, an axe, anything. He
puts them in his house. When the visitors arrive they
bring a basket of meal and he puts into it a hoe. When
he has done this well, they who fwenezha go into his house

56 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. hi

and he gives one a fish-spear, another beads, another a
spear, and another an axe. When they have all got some-
thing they return home.

" Next day the woman goes to her home ; she goes to
throw away the masansa ; she goes to spend two nights, on
the third she returns. So ends the account of a marriage."

We may supplement this account by another.

" Now in the evening they come to fetch her and on
arrival they hide near by. Then they go. They (the men)
catch the bridegroom and say : ' You are to marry to-day.'
Then when the women give their shrill cry and he hears it
he loses heart (lit. his heart comes out) and leaving them
he runs away to hide. Then they bring the son of his uncle
to sleep with the woman to ' eat her the marriage ' [kumudya
bwinga). When he has done this, next morning they fetch
the bridegroom that he may give the name. Then they
cook bread ; having done this, they make them eat together.
Then they tell the man : ' Give the name.' He gives her
a name, saying: ' It is So-and-so.' If the woman likes it
she agrees, if she doesn't like it she refuses by shaking her
head ; she may not speak to indicate her refusal. Again
he gives her another name and then she agrees.

" After spending three days with her husband the
woman goes to her home to throw away the masansa ;
the man takes a spear and accompanies her. When he
arrives before the village of his parents-in-law, he throws
the spear in front of the woman ; she picks it up and takes
it into the village. The man returns home. The woman
enters the village of her people and sits. They begin to say
to her : ' You have got up ! ' She answers : ' I have got
up.' Then they ask her : ' Is your husband good ? ' ' Yes,
he is good.' They sleep and next morning they give their
child meal and she takes it to the house of her parents-in-
law ; and on arrival she hands it to her husband's people,
because she hasn't yet begun to do their own cooking.
Then after two days her namesake comes to see her and
takes a hoe ; on arrival she gives the woman the hoe and
returns. And the husband goes begging things to fwenezha
withal and to feed them from his relations and comrades
and brothers-in-law They all give him things. He returns

ch. xix THE RELATIONS OF THE SEXES 57

and sleeps. Next day they arrive to fwenezha ; they enter
the house and sit and have bread cooked for them and eat.
When they have done eating they are given beads and
spears. All have something. Then in the basket they put
a hoe and then return home and stay. After a time the
people of the man collect grain and make beer of the-
cooking-for-themselves (kudiikila) and they mould the fire
cones {mafua). They who mould them are the people of
the woman. They drink beer, and sing, and the people of
the woman instruct their child, saying : ' You are grown
to-day. Cook for yourselves ; a man is to be given food
when alone. When he has done eating with many people
and you enter the house, give the-food-put-by (mafubikila) ,
which you have hidden, whether it be beer or bread, give
it him and he will eat.' And they also instruct the man :
' That child of others is to have fruit gathered for her and
be anointed with fat and clothed with rugs. That is good
husbandship, and if you do not anoint her they will take
her away from you.' Then when they have done telling
them these things there remains the entering of his mother-
in-law's house and the parents-in-law make beer. Then
when he enters the house they also will give him a hoe.
When they begin drinking beer the mother-in-law hands
him a hoe. That is partly doing away with the taboo,
and all that remains is to shout and say : ' You are seen,
O father of So-and-so.' "

From these accounts we may gather that the following
elements enter into the constitution of a marriage : 1. The
teaching of the girl and of the man ; 2. The hiding away
of the bridegroom ; 3. The kudya bwinga ; 4. Kunyonkola
mazha ; 5. The madyanshima ; 6. Giving the new name :
kundika; y . Ku/wenezha ; 8. Kusowa masansa ; 9. Throwing
the spear; 10. Kudiikila; 11. Entering the mother-in-
law's house.

Some of these are explicable as Rites de passage :
ceremonies accompanying and symbolising the passing out
from an old stage of life into a new one, and there is a
recognition that this transition is accompanied by some
danger arising out of entering into the unknown. The
instruction given to the young people as described here

58 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. m

and in connection with the Initiation, seems to be in the
nature of a separation rite : they are no longer children,
but are about to enter into new relations and need to be
prepared for their duties. Much of this teaching is admirably
practical in character. The hiding away of the bridegroom
is also separative : it is to be explained not as mere bashful-
ness on his part but as due to dread of the unknown. It
is thus that the people explain it themselves. Probably
the counterpart of this action of the boy is the custom of
kudya bwinga : both are due to the desire to escape from
some mysterious miasma arising from the union of the
sexes. A young boy, chosen for the purpose, spends the
first night with the bride. Between them friendly relations
continue to exist afterwards, and they address each other
as mwa&hangu. It is as if something physical and tangible
existed which needs to be removed by the boy in order
that the marriage may be consummated with impunity.
It is difficult to reconcile this with the fact of pre-nuptial
unchastity. It cannot be the passage from maidenhood,
as we understand it, that must be accomplished that night,
for the simple reason that there is little or no likelihood
of the woman being a virgin when she comes to the marriage
bed. It may possibly be a custom surviving from times
when pre-nuptial intercourse was more strictly prohibited.
Or it may have its origin in that play-acting that is so
characteristic of these savage races x ; they pretend that a
thing is not that really is, in order to mislead the mysterious
powers that rule their life. The bride is not a virgin :
anything inherent in her that would damage her husband
has really long since been removed by other men ; true,
we may suppose them to say, but let us act as if it were
not so, so that if there be any penalty we may avoid it.
After the marriage, the bride goes back to her people for
two or three days, for the purpose, as they say, kusowa
masansa (" to throw away the masansa "). What that
is we cannot explain : it seems to be allied to the lusasa
to be explained in another connection ; and to be something
that results from sexual intercourse. If that is so, then

1 " In ritual, fiction is frequently as good as fact." — Dr. Farnell, Cults
of the Greek States, vol. iv. p. 188.

ch. xix THE RELATIONS OF THE SEXES 59

something in the woman has already been conveyed to the
boy ; now what was in the man has been conveyed to the
woman and she gets rid of it by visiting her home.

These, we say, may be regarded as separation rites ;
others are much more definitely aggregation rites. The
young people are assimilated by certain things ; and their
families are also brought into closer relationship through
them ; the bridegroom is especially brought into relationship
with his wife's family: The first of these ceremonies is
kunyonkola mazha. It is the custom of the Ba-ila to remove
all hair growing on the pubes ; both boys and girls pluck
it out on its appearance, and continue to do so afterwards.
The reason given is that they may be clean. It is impossible
to tell whether they mean physically or ceremonially clean :
the one idea merges into the other and the word used,
kusalala, expresses both, though more often the latter.
The woman does for the man what he has been accustomed
to do for himself ; she will continue to do it during their
married life. We may therefore see in this a symbol of
the wife's subordination to her husband. In the next
ceremony, that of madyanshima, on the other hand, we see
a recognition of the equality of the two : they eat together,
in a way that reminds us of the Roman custom of
confarreatio. Eating together means union in close friend-
ship between equals. The next custom, of giving a new
name, shows very clearly that the woman has passed into
a new stage of existence ; to get a new name is to be reborn,
remade ; she is no longer the girl she was, but something
else. She shows her reluctance to pass into this by refusing
the first names proposed.

The husband and his wife are now one ; but there are
the relations to consider. According to the Ila proverb,
" Shimukwelansanzhi inkwaya weletelela " (" He who pulls a
branch brings the leaves with it "), if you marry a woman
you marry her family too. Not only have you given the
chiko, but now after the marriage is consummated her
people come to get what they can out of you, kufwenezha ;
it is their way of recognising you as their relation. The
"throwing of the spear" when the woman returns to her
home is not explicable. But the kudiikila is readily

60 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. m

understood. Up to this time the two young people have
not commenced housekeeping on their own account. But
now the bride's people mould the mafua — the conical
lumps of baked clay used to support the fire ; and the bride
henceforth is to be mistress of her own menage. One
more ceremony remains. Between the man and his wife's
family, especially her mother, a very strict taboo exists,
which if it were kept in its entirety would prevent any
social intercourse. So at the final feast she hands her
son-in-law a hoe, taking the initiative in approaching him,
and henceforth he is free of her house under restrictions.
As our informant quoted above has it, kwamana kutonda
chinichini ("that is partly doing away with the taboo").
Now they salute the bridegroom not by his own name but as
" Baushe nini " (" the father of So-and-so "). So ends the
ceremonial. This last part of it may not be carried out
until after the birth of the first child.

The Marriage of a Widower and of a Widow

What happens in the case of a widower is shown in the
following account :

" If the woman dies they weep very much and spend
five days before seizing the heiress. Next day {i.e. the sixth)
they shave the widower's head and give him a hoe on
which he treads, and also the chishonsho. So he begins to
inherit ; in the evening they seize the heiress. Then they
put out the fire which is in the house, and only leave that
which is outside. They put a sherd on the fire and it gets
red-hot. They put the woman into the house ; when he
arrives he sits and cuts away the strings around her loins,
throwing them on the ground, so that she is left naked.
Inde lumbis tantum mulieris vir mentulam admovet
(wachompa) and the woman coughs so that they hear who
are sitting at the door. When she coughs they bring that
red-hot sherd, putting it on some grass and quickly carrying
it so. The grass catches fire. Then those two lying on the
bed move apart, and the people light a fire from that of
the sherd ; that fire is thus a new one and the woman
becomes new. So they sleep. Next morning they anoint

ch. xix THE RELATIONS OF THE SEXES

her with fat and take her outside. Then the man's relations
clap their hands and begin to charge her, saying : ' Look
after us well just as the deceased looked after us.' And
others say to the man : ' You also, you must gather fruit
for her just as you gathered it for the deceased.' Again,
that woman, if she does not like him, returns to the house
of him who brought her up. If he be a vagabond she leaves
him. Or if he who married her first is a vagabond she leaves
him and stays where she ate the name."

A little explanation will clear up several obscure things
in this narrative. The widower on the death of his wife
is taboo ; he may not go visiting until the vacant hut is
again occupied. There is hanging about him something
contagious : something left over from his marital relation-
ship with his deceased wife. This is called lusasa, or bv
others chibinde. We have heard this explained as being the
spirit (muzhimo) of the deceased which attaches itself to
him and his clothes ; but it would appear to be physical K> ,:

rather than psychical, for it can be got rid of by transferring
it to somebody else.

A friend of his deceased wife comes to his hut and
by having intercourse with her he gets rid of the miasma,
and so is ready to marry again. The people to whom he
gave chiko for his first wife have to provide a substitute ;
before they do this the procedure of kudya chishonsho must
be gone through. The relations of the wife and the widower
exchange presents ; first of all they present him with a
hoe, on which, for some esoteric reason, he places his foot.
In the evening the woman's people put her into a hut,
out of which all fire is carefully removed. Then the man
enters, and removes her garments and the belt or strings
around her waist. It ought to be said that this woman
has perhaps been married before and is now taken away from
her husband for the purpose of " eating the name " of the
deceased. As such she is unclean, the contagion of her
former marriage is still about her ; by throwing off her
garments, and especially the belt, the new husband throws
away the contagion. Then follows the action named
above. On hearing the signal given by the cough, the people
enter, bearing a brand of grass, lighted from a red-hot

C^A^W.

62 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. m

sherd, and a new fire is kindled in the hut. As it is signifi-
cantly stated, the fire is new and the woman also becomes
new.

In the case of a widow, she also is taboo, and may not
carry on her usual occupations, nor marry again, until the
lusasa (or chibinde) is removed. This is done, some say, by
a boy coming into the house and cutting the belt (kukosola
mukaba is the name of the operation) . Others say a relation
of the deceased husband has intercourse with her ; and
this also is kukosola mukaba, even though the belt may not
be actually cut. If neither of the things happens, the
woman goes about seeking a man to take away the contagion
from her.

The widow for three days after her husband's death is
not allowed to prepare food for herself lest she should
injure the vessels by infecting them with her contagion.
A woman is appointed to give her food and is later given
a new hoe by the widow. When the relations of the deceased
meet to appoint the heir who shall take the widow, she
has a say in the matter ; and there is a special word
(kutangaza) which describes the woman's way of refusing
first one and then another until she gets the man she wants.
After the cleansing process just described has been carried
out, she is put into a hut with the new husband and the
new fire is lighted and the other things done as narrated
above of the widower. After the mourning and before
taking the new husband she is freshly shaved, and given
chishonsho, a cow or ox ; if this should be omitted the heirs
of the deceased's property would be regarded as having
committed buditazhi against her. The woman who shaves
the widow must also be rewarded by the heir.

A namantezi is a woman whose children all die. The
name is also applied to a man whose wives die in childbirth.
It is believed that should the first die in childbirth, the
second and third will do the same, but the fourth will
survive. Why, with such a belief, women will consent to
be the second and third wives we do not know, unless it is
an instance of the fatalism so strongly marked in the Ba-ila.

ch. xix THE RELATIONS OF THE SEXES 63

Marriage of a Chief's Daughter, and of a Chief

Among the Ba-ila proper there is no difference in proced-
ure in the case of a chief's marriage or the marriage of his
daughters. But at Nanzela there is this custom. When a
chief's daughter is grown up she tells her people that she
wishes to marry a certain man whom she names. Owing to
her position she has the right of choosing her own partner.
They send a messenger to pour over the chosen man a potful
of fat, which must be, wholly or in part, that of a hyena.
This is the equivalent of making the man a slave. By
marrying the chief's daughter he becomes a mukwetunga, i.e.
the son-in-law of the ruling family, and the position is practi-
cally one of serfdom : as they say, " Bukwetunga mbuzhike "
(" Son - in - lawship - to - a - chief is slavery "). The man's
friends are quite insensible of the honour bestowed upon
him ; indeed the messenger runs the risk of severe maltreat-
ment at their hands. But once the fat is thrown over the
man he can only escape his destiny by payment of a heavy
ransom. If none is forthcoming, he is taken to the headmen
and they instruct him in the duties of bukwetunga, impressing
particularly upon his mind the necessity of continence as
far as other women are concerned. If he is at all obstreperous
he may be soused in the river until he is half-dead. That
takes the devil out of him. In his new position he is avoided
by the women. Si qua mulier cum illo coire audeat, statim
earn arripiunt pudendique labias maiores recidunt. No such
law of faithfulness is imposed upon the chief's daughter ;
she, without blame, has the run of the men.

Similarly, if a chief so admires a woman that he wishes
to marry her, he sends some women to throw a pot of fat
over her. They go stealthily, and having achieved their
object run off in fear of the consequences. The woman is
brought and she is instructed in her duties and especially
warned against unfaithfulness. If she is obstinate or
recalcitrant, she also may be half-drowned to subdue her
spirit. If she is lascivious and goes to other men, they will,
or rather would under the old regime, be killed. Of such a
man they say : " Wakaya ku mibanga, wadiyazha mwini "
{" He went to forbidden things and so destroyed himself ").

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. Ill

7. Polygyny

Whether the preponderance of females over males is
due to such general causes as the hot climate, the plenteous
food-supply, or the practice of exogamy, certainly it seems a
fact that there is an excess of female births among the
Ba-ila, and while the proportions may be increased owing
to the higher mortality of the males, the census shows a
surplus of fully 10 per cent of adult women over men.
This means, of course, that in a system of strict monogamy
ten women out of every hundred would remain unmarried.
But celibacy is regarded by the Ba-ila as highly unnatural,
and the ambition of all the men is to marry as early and
to have as many wives as possible. As a matter of fact,
monogamous marriages are in the majority ; for there are
two conditions of polygyny which cannot always, with the
best of wills, be met ; namely, first the women and secondly
the chiko. Owing to the small excess of women only ten
men out of every hundred should be able to get more than
one wife, and these extra wives, in the nature of the case,
would fall to the men who could best afford to give chiko
for them. And when some men have up to twenty wives it
is evident that many have to do without any. There is
always a number of men without wives. On the other
hand, there are always many unmarried women. Most
of these are slaves and may be said to live in a state of
concubinage. A slave is often given to wife, but frequently
the master, while not marrying her himself, is unwilling
to forgo her services as labourer and concubine, though he
may give her temporarily to a man without a wife.

Having mentioned this point, we may reproduce here
what we were told by a man who himself had married a
slave. " It is best," said he, "not to marry a slave. If
you marry her, clothing her and giving chiko for her, the
owner still has rights over her and will have intercourse
with her secretly. And no fault is attached to him ; it is
his right because he had to travel far perhaps to purchase
a her. And if you have a quarrel with him, he will simply
take her away altogether. Another reason for not marrying
a slave is that she will not hoe well in her own fields but

ch. xix THE RELATIONS OF THE SEXES 65

only in her master's. Better to marry a free woman and
then her people will help you to hoe your fields. Again, if
you marry a slave and you die, her master takes her and
the children and they become slaves."

It seems superfluous to enquire into the reason for the
polygynous propensities of the Ba-ila. The natural desires
of men, who, it must be remembered, are by custom debarred
from their wives for lengthy periods, find allies in economic
considerations, for the more wives the more likelihood of
the husband having plenty to eat and the better his status
among his fellows. The idea also prevails, in direct contra-
diction to what we should say is the truth, that a multiplicity
of wives means so many more children, and children are
always an object of desire. Other reasons given by the
men are that they may have a wife to lend to a friend or
visitor, and that their wives may be able to provide visitors
with plenty to eat.

It is well pointed out by Westermarck that " polygyny
implies a violation of woman's feelings." Ba-ila women
can be most furiously jealous ; and the only things that
reconcile them to sharing their husbands with other women
are the fact that many hands make light work and the
reflected dignity that comes of being the wife, albeit an
inferior one, of a wealthy man.

Polygyny is called modi ; a polygynist is shimadi ; to
marry more than one wife is kuadika bakazhi ; and to be
married to a polygynist is kuadikwa.

Some interesting glimpses into such a state of life are
afforded by the following native account :

" If she has no fault, a man will tell his wife, ' I am
going to marry another.' If on account of jealousy the
wife does not like it, she will refuse to allow it. Then perhaps
the husband gives her things and propitiates her and she
agrees. So he does this : he seeks to wife a woman, or an
initiated girl, or a young girl. And the people of the girl,
if they do not wish her to become the wife of a polygynist,
refuse, and say : ' We have no child to be a polygynist's
wife.' Perhaps after a time they will agree. The man's
chief wife {nabukando) goes seeking a wife for him to the
mother of the man her husband, and they say : ' Won't

vol. 11 F

66 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. hi

you be constantly fighting ? ' The woman says : ' It depends
upon our natures, perhaps we shall fight.' Then they agree
who have the girl sought in marriage and she is married
by that man. When they marry thus, he will build two
houses side by side, or one in another enclosure, for fear
they should fight if they were side by side. Then as to the
duties of that man to the two wives : if he gather firewood
for the chief wife, it must be in greater quantity than for
the lesser wife. If he clothes one with a goatskin, he must
also clothe the other in a goatskin. If he draws water he
will carry two calabashes, and if one is full he must fill
the other to the brim so that the wives may not fight.
Because if he does not do so, they will often be a-fighting.
One will say, ' I am not loved,' and then they will fight.
With food the same. If at one house she cooks bread,
and he eats and finishes it, there also at the other house he
must go and finish it. If he does not, those women will
fight ; one says, ' As for me, my bread he didn't finish it,
whereas he did finish yours.' If he sleeps four nights in
one house, he must also sleep four in the other. He will
sit and talk a while at the one house in the evening and then
go to the other to sleep. That is how he does, and perhaps
they won't fight ; if he does not do so they will constantly
be fighting. Again, if the spears at one house number four,
at the other they must also number four. And axes the
same : at one house an axe and at the other an axe : blankets
and stools the same. When the husband changes about, he
does not take a pipe to the other house, nor a spear of this
house, nor an axe, nor a rug, nor tobacco ; he must go
and find them at the other house to which he goes. He
who acts thus is the one to manage polygyny ; he will
keep married to those wives always. Whereas if he does
not act thus, he cannot manage polygyny. One of them
will run away and go to her home, and there at her home
they may refuse to let her return, saying, ' We have no
child to be treated ficklely and made into a servant. She
also is a daughter just as the other one you married.' So
they will restrain her ; if they keep her thus he gets back
the chiko. If he is clever he will say when they return the
chiko : ' I throw away the woman : when I am dead the

CH. XIX

THE RELATIONS OF THE SEXES 67

cattle will belong to many.' His relations will miss him,
and when they haven't him they will insist upon an
equivalent for the cattle. That is why he will refuse the
chiko and allow the woman to stay at her place." The
idea is that by abandoning the cattle, when he dies his
people will benefit ; the woman's people will have to find
a wife for his heir or other relations, and be unable to claim
any more chiko.

From this it is very evident that the life of a polygynist
is not always a rosy one ; if he wishes to preserve domestic
peace he has to exercise considerable tact. While he must
be careful to show no marked favour to one wife at the
expense of another, there is a recognised scale of dignity
in the family. The nabukando (chief wife), e.g., may, if the
man is rich in cattle, have thirty cows allotted to her house-
hold to milk, the second wife fifteen, and the third ten.
While they fight among themselves they will in case of
necessity unite against the husband. Cases are not unknown
where the husband is chastised by his wives when they
consider themselves slighted collectively by his attentions
to other women. A friend of ours once witnessed such a
scene in a village. The four wives of a man were giving
him a thrashing and talking something like this : " Why
did you marry us ? You spend your strength on other
women and we have no children. Are we not women also ?
If we cannot have children by you, what is the use of you ?
We will all leave you." On the other hand, many poly-
gynists are very devoted to their wives and live happily.
We know of one such man, who, in his anxiety to satisfy
his eleven wives, sought a strong aphrodisiac from a
missiona^ that would enable him to visit them all each
night.

8. Lubambo

In addition to the forms of marriage already described,
there is a kind of Cicisbeism named Lubambo, which is
really a species of polyandry. This is a recognised institution
and one of those things that the Ba-ila very strongly hold
to and very much resent any deprecation of. It differs
from an ordinary system of paramours, in that there is a

68 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. hi

public ceremony, so that everybody knows of it, even the
woman's husband. He cannot throw stones at his wife
because he does the same. We have seen this public
ceremony. One year we were present at the great annual
gathering in honour of Shimunenga at Mala. There were
hundreds of people present, all dressed in their best, singing
and dancing around the grove sacred to the muzhimo.
Then there was a lull, and we saw a procession of men
approaching ; all of them in the extremity of Ba-ila finery.
One of them was leading a young ox. The drums now
resumed ; and another procession came forward, of women
dressed finely. In the centre was one woman, conspicuous
by her extra fine appearance : freshly shaven and anointed,
and wearing polished bangles and a new lechwe skin. The
two parties met, and the man formally presented the
woman with the ox and received a spear in return. Then
they separated, and singing and dancing were resumed by
the whole multitude. What it meant was that these two
had already agreed in private and now signified the fact
publicly that they were lovers. At a feast, they, leaving
their spouses, become partners and drink and sleep together.
During the feasting no young man without such a lover is
allowed entrance into the hut, but is driven away with
ridicule. The next day, if the man is wealthy he may
present the woman with a second ox, and she may give
him a blanket. This is not a temporary arrangement
simply for the feast, but continues as long as they desire,
the man and woman paying each other visits at intervals.
No Mwila male or female lacks these lovers.

The system is called Lubambo ("an arranged thing "),
from kubamba, to arrange. The paramour is called
Umambakwe.

Husbands naturally exhibit great complacency in regard
to this custom. To their minds it is the best policy, for
they benefit by it. Occasionally they show resentment
when the wife shows undue affection for her paramour.
In one case we know of, a husband brought a claim against
his wife's lover because she so often visited him that he
thought she meant to leave him altogether. Once after
she had been away visiting for a long period, she returned

ch. xix THE RELATIONS OF THE SEXES 69

home and immediately announced her intention of going
to her lover. This very naturally made the husband very
angry. He said he would not have grumbled if she had
stayed with him a day and then gone to her lover ; what
he objected to was not only the indecent haste but also
the manner in which she took to her lover the cloth that
he gave her for clothing. So he brought a case against the
lover to recover his wife.

It must be noted that men and women are restricted in
the choice of paramours : the same restrictions apply to
lubambo as apply to marriage. The lover must also recognise
the occasions when intercourse between man and wife is
forbidden. It is, for instance, a serious offence for a man
to visit his paramour while she is nursing a child : not
because of any damage done to the woman, but simply
because the child may suffer. Should he break this rule the
husband would claim substantial damages

9. Kusena

In addition to the above there are less permanent forms
of recognised sexual partnership. Kusena means to hand a
wife temporarily to another man ; kusenana means to
exchange wives. Kusena is a courtesy extended to a friend
or honoured visitor. The woman is given a present, chipo,
but this does not devolve any right upon the giver. Should
he venture to enter the woman's hut on another occasion,
without the husband's invitation, he would render himself
liable to a fine for adultery.

Kusenana is a mutual arrangement, for a brief or long
period, by which each of two men gives the other the
privilege of entering his wife's hut. Innumerable disputes
arise out of this ; as when one thinks the other takes undue
advantage.

For example, Jongo andNamaunga made such an arrange-
ment : the former used the other's wife several times, and
Namaunga used Jongo's once. Jongo gave the woman a
small ox, but the husband returned it saying that he wanted
a big one. That was tantamount to breaking the agreement
and claiming damages for adultery, and Jongo felt aggrieved.

70 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. m

Jongo paid the ox demanded in addition to the small one,
and bided his time. Then when Namaunga visited the
other woman, Jongo made him pay two cows.

While the arrangement is usually between married men,
a man will sometimes lend his wife to a bachelor friend on
the understanding that when he marries he will fulfil his
share of the bargain. But it happens that sometimes the
younger man does not feel inclined to do so, and then the
other claims damages. Or it may be that the older man
wishes to enjoy his privilege while refusing to allow the
other a continuance of his. Such a case arose between two
men, A and B, who were friends. Before A married, B
used to allow him access to his wife. Then A married and
B refused A his privilege while maintaining his own. This
made A angry and he watched for his opportunity which
came when some one told him that B had a sickness. He
promptly claimed against B for making his wife sick.

In all such cases children are recognised as the husband's.
Sometimes a claim is brought against the man for causing
the woman's pregnancy. In one case, after the agreement
had been made and the man had given the woman a shell
and a hoe as a present, the husband died leaving his wife
pregnant. Then the husband's brother claimed against
the man for making the woman pregnant. The man agreed
to pay two oxen, a blanket, and a shell ; but the brother
returned them and claimed a cow.

The infertility of a marriage is a source of such disappoint-
ment to both parties that neither can rest content with
the other. The account given below explains what may
happen in such an event ; and it will be seen that the
custom of kusena may be practised when the -husband is
impotent. First he proves that the cause of the infertility
is in himself, and then hands his wife to a friend, bind-
ing himself by an oath before the heads of the village
not to charge him with adultery. Any children resulting
from this will of course be acknowledged by the husband
1 as his.

' A woman who doesn't give birth is a harlot, many
have pierced her womb and she will not bear children
again. Even if she is handsome she will be divorced. If

ch. xix THE RELATIONS OF THE SEXES 71

you do not divorce her, where are you going to find a
child ? Then therefore if you are not an adulterer, you
prove yourself by having intercourse with another woman,
saying, ' Let us see whether I cannot give her a stomach.'
If she conceives, those who laughed at you will be con-
founded. Having thus proved that the sterility is in the
wife, you divorce her. Or if you love her too much to
divorce her, you build another house for a second wife who
will bear children. Again, when a man marries a woman,
they put them into a hut, that they may sleep together.
Then when he does so, and he cannot manage to function,
the next morning the woman rises early and goes to her
mother-in-law's hut and sits down. And the man's people
cook very early a little bread for the naming. They call
the man, and he comes, and sits. When he breaks off a
small morsel and gives it to the wife and she refuses to
accept it, they know that their son is impotent, he has no
strength. Then they speak to the woman : ' Just agree to
the name.' Then he names her. And they say, ' All right,
let us see how he is.' So at evening when they sleep together,
and the same thing happens, in the morning they ask the
woman, ' Can he do it ? ' She denies, and says, ' No, your
son cannot. He is only a woman, what he ate was pap
only, he is not a man who can beget children.' Then the
woman rebels, and goes back to stay at her home. They
then say to him, ' You must give your wife to another ' So
he gives her to another man whom he loves, and brings
her, saying, ' Let us go to the house.' Then she gets up
and he brings her. On arrival he calls that friend of his
and takes him to the elders that they may judge. Says he :
' This friend of mine I bring to the elders here so that they
may hear our business.' Then he says : ' This is the one
that I lend (lit. give) my wife to, if they converse I will
not bring a fault against him. Before the sun sets, let me
die the death if I bring a fault against him.' So all salute
and the woman is afterwards justified by bearing a child ;
she cannot be expected to remain with him who is only a
bit of pap."

72 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. m

io. Adultery

Besides these forms of recognised sexual relations, there
is a very considerable amount of illicit intercourse that
comes under the heading of Adultery. As we have already
seen, it is attended by no moral disapprobation, but is
looked upon as a breach of proprietary rights and reckoned
as buditazhi. In former days the offence was often punished
by cutting off the man's hands, as if he were a thief. That
was only sometimes ; mostly then, and always now, the
offence is met by the payment of a cow. The offender,
unless he ransoms himself by paying a fine, is enslaved.
Among the Batema there have been instances of a husband
spearing the offender caught in the act, but we have never
known such a thing among the Ba-ila ; they are usually
content with a cow.

If the woman is the wife of a chief, the damages may
be increased to three cows. If the adultery be committed
with a pregnant or nursing woman the offence is a very
serious one, because of the harm done to the child. In a
certain case the child was still-born and the woman suffered
greatly. The husband claimed six cows from the adulterer.
Should the woman die the case is still more serious : it is
then a matter of Iwembe (" blood money "). Twenty cows
will hardly expiate his crime. He has, as they say, kudia
mutwi wa muntu (" to pay for the head of a person ").

A feature of adultery cases is that very often they are
not brought to court until a considerable time has elapsed.
The woman keeps quiet, and then one day in an outburst
of confidence, or perhaps when having an altercation with
her husband, she tells him. He does not bear any resent-
ment to her, but goes and claims damages from the adulterer.

Sometimes a man makes a claim against another who
" played " with his wife when they were still children. If
he had not been betrothed to her in her childhood, he has
no right to any damages, but he may succeed in bullying
the man into parting with a beast or something. If the
girl had been betrothed to him when the thing happened,
he would be justified by custom in making the claim.

In claims for adultery it is not necessary at all to prove

ch. xix THE RELATIONS OF THE SEXES 73

that actual connection took place. Indeed the interfering
with a woman's garment would be grounds for a claim.
Cases have been known where a woman has been touched
accidentally and a claim was made against the man for
adultery.

Finally, we must notice that it is a common custom for
women, after agreement with their husbands, to go and pro-
stitute themselves. They call this kuweza lubono munganda
(" to hunt wealth in the house "). The woman returns with
her report, and the husband straightway claims damages.
The proceeds belong to him, the woman having to be con-
tent with the chipo given her by the man, but after she has
earned several cows for him, he may give her one, but she
has no right to it. It happens sometimes that when a wife
is divorced she puts in a claim against her husband for her
share of these proceeds. Custom does not substantiate her
claim, but if she is backed by an influential, strong man
in the shape of a new husband she, or he, may succeed in
forcing him to pay. A woman will say on such an occasion
that she makes the demand because she hunted that game
herself.

To illustrate the kind of thing that takes place, we
may recall a famous case that was brought to the court at
Namwala. In 1905 a man named Kalosa came to Mr.
Dale to complain that his wife had run away ; as it transpired
that he had thrashed her, Mr. Dale refused to intervene.
Shortly afterwards a man named Shalampondo told Mr.
Dale that he wished to marry this woman ; and was advised
not to do so until she was properly divorced. He waited
three weeks, and then, being much in love, he married the
woman. As was to be expected, Kalosa's representative
immediately claimed the woman ; the case came into
court and damages were given against Shalampondo.
Then the woman was divorced and Shalampondo married
her properly. He kept her four or five years and then
Kakobela, Kalosa's chief, tried to get her back, but failed
because the chiko having been returned they had no more
right to her. Kakobela declared his fixed intention to get
her by hook or crook, no matter what the magistrate might
say. Three months later the woman ran away from

74 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. m

Shalampondo to Kakobela, and when a case was brought
declared that she preferred the latter. Then another case
came on to get back the chiko that Shalampondo had
given. When the case was over, the woman put in a claim
against Shalampondo for the proceeds of her prostitution
while his wife ; as this was contrary to native law it was
dismissed. But in such cases the success of the claimant
depends less upon legality than upon his own influential
position and his capacity for bullying. And Kakobela being
a strong man would achieve his purpose.

ii. Rape

This is a common occurrence, though it does not often
come before the European magistrate. Damages are given
up to ten cows.

One of the worst offences known to the Ba-ila is to
assault a woman in her sleep. This applies, not only to
an unmarried, but also to a married woman assaulted thus
by her husband. A woman has been known to leave
her husband for this cause. Of such a man the people
say, " Watwala mukaintu, wamuteba madiabona, waditaya.
Nkambo kakando " (" He married a woman, and had inter-
course with her in her sleep, and so committed buditazhi.
It is a great fault ")..

12. Perversions

Instances of sexual inversion are known, but whether
congenital or acquired it is impossible to say. We have
known of only one man who dressed always as a woman,
did woman's work such as plaiting baskets, and lived and
slept among, but not with, the women. This man was a
mwaami ("a prophet ").

Paederastiam, quae non ita rara est, abominantur,
praecipue quia metuunt ne pathicus concipiat. Poena
amatori trium vel quattuor bourn statuta est.

Bubonum, id est membrorum ex corio vel ligno factorum,
usum inter mulieres fieri audivimus.

Masturbari satis commune.

ch. xix THE RELATIONS OF THE SEXES 75

Bestialia quaedam non ignota.

Cunnum lingere est maximum flagitium ; non minus
decern duodecimve boves a noxiis exiguntur. Hoc crimine
olim in indicium citabat mulier virum a quo divortium
fecerat, adfirmans ilium hoc scelere se infecundam fecisse,
et, quod omnium pessimum fuisset , /acinus Mud sibi dormienti
intulisse.

Fellatricem in servitutem adserere fas est.

Note. — Captain Dale, writing from Rhodesia in November 1917, tells me
that the Government is endeavouring to stop some of the evil customs we
have described. No marriage with girls under puberty is to be permitted,
though betrothal is allowed. All marriages have now to be reported to
the District Official and the girl is to declare her willingness. Something
is also being done against the Lubambo custom.

To correct an impression that might be conveyed by this chapter, I
add a note written by Captain Dale : '* There are so many unhappy unions,
and so many instances of infidelity come under the official's notice, that
he is apt to conclude they are all of a like character. I believe this to
be a mistake ; there are many instances of sincere affection and many
happy unions of long standing ; a number of instances, too, where, when
death has severed the tie, the survivor has proved inconsolable and
sought relief and oblivion in suicide." With this I agree. — E. W. S.

PART IV

CHAPTER XX

DYNAMISM

i. The Theory

We now enter upon a part of our subject the interest and
importance of which are only equalled by its difficulty.
Behind all the actions and customs of the people lies their
conception of the unseen. A casual observation of the
Ba-ila might lead one to the conclusion that- they are a
materialistic people, but in fact they are very largely
concerned with what is invisible and mysterious. Indeed
we may say that they are more concerned with the invisible
than with the visible. To understand their life we must
strive to understand the things which lie behind. To
attain this understanding is very difficult, largely because
of the haziness in their own minds. For any one to expect
reasoned precise statements from them is to be disappointed.
They are content with resting in the beliefs inculcated in
childhood without exercising their minds as to their logicality.
It may be there are ideas current among them that have
been derived from different sources. As we have seen, the
Ba-ila are very largely a mixed people ; and we can easily
imagine women introduced from other tribes teaching their
children the ideas they have brought with them from their
native places. In this way, probably, different beliefs have
been thrown into the cauldron and the result is a hotch-
potch. These ideas all, to change the figure, get into
circulation and the people accept them without question
as to their origin and without comparison. Hence one
must be prepared to find incongruous elements in their
beliefs.

8o THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

Professor W. James in his Varieties of Religious
Experience says : " The religious phenomenon studied as
an inner fact and apart from ecclesiastical and theological
complications has shown itself to consist everywhere, and
at all its stages, in the consciousness which individuals
have of an intercourse between themselves and higher
powers with which they feel themselves to be related."

That the Ba-ila have such a consciousness of higher
powers cannot be questioned by any one with even a
superficial knowledge of them. They not only believe in
their existence but are quite sure that they have intercourse
with them. That is to say, they are religious.

But in explicating their ideas on these subjects we have
to begin on a lower level than this. Besides these higher
powers — -the Mizhimo and Leza — the Ba-ila, as we have
already repeatedly seen in previous chapters, have a
consciousness of hidden mysterious forces that we should
call impersonal. Whether or not there has been a historical
development of belief, there is certainly what to our minds
is a logical development in their ideas, a development from
the impersonal to the personal, from charm to prayer,
from musamo to mizhimo, from mizhimo to Leza. In other
words, we can distinguish traces of development from
dynamism to something approaching monotheism.

In the earlier chapters of this book we have used the
words magic, magical as convenient expressions for the
mysterious elements in life ; but we prefer not to use the
words in this connection. And that for two reasons. They
are ambiguous in meaning, and they appear to convey the
sense of something inferior, illicit, bad. Nor for similar
reasons do we use that other term so commonly employed
in descriptions of African races : Fetishism. We prefer
the word Dynamism, because the beliefs and practices we
wish to include under it have not necessarily any evil
intention, and because it expresses simply what we believe
to be the nature of their belief and practice — the belief in,
and the practices associated with the belief in hidden,
mysterious, super-sensible, pervading energy, powers,
potencies, forces. We may call them what we please ;
there is no need to be more definite than the Ba-ila are

?.4f- -

ch. xx DYNAMISM 81

themselves ; the more vague the name we give to the
dunamis the nearer we shall come to the Ba-ila conception.
We may call it X, or use the word Od : the name does not
matter, as long as we recognise the existence and nature
of the belief itself.

In previous chapters we have recognised a certain
dualism in the practices of the Ba-ila ; such as that
expressed in their terms Tonda and Buditazhi. In regard
to homicide, for example, we found that in some cases the
offender is punished by the community, and in others is
left to the vengeance of mysterious powers. There is, on
the one hand, the action of persons, living or dead ; on
the other hand there is the X vaguely connoted by such
terms as tonda, malweza, chikuto, lusasa, musamo, matushi.
This dualism is a marked feature of their life and runs
through all their conceptions of the unseen ; on the one
hand there are the mizhimo and Leza : both to be regarded,
as we shall see, as personal ; on the other hand, the Od,
which isjmpersonal, though often it is vaguely personal.

We use the terms with hesitancy. It is very
difficult indeed to decide as to what extent the Ba-ila
recognise personality in the world. In their marvellous
grammatical classification of words, the Ba-ila put in a
class by themselves, substantives with the singular prefix
mu-, and the plural prefix ba- ; to this class belong personal
names : muntu, bantu, are definitely " person, persons."
Another class has the prefixes chi-, shi-, and comprises things.
Chintu is a thing. The root ntu would seem to indicate
existence : the prefix mu-, personality ; and chi-, " thing-
ship." So far all is clear. But there is another class, with
the prefixes mu-, mi-, to which belong the names of trees
and, among others, the words musamo, misamo (" medi-
cines"), muzhimo , mizhimo , the divinities, which seem to
belong to an intermediate concept : neither personal nor
impersonal. They have the personal singular prefix, mu-,
but mi- in the plural. Another feature of the classification
is that the names of animals, though not in many cases
carrying the mu- prefix, belong to the mu- ba- class, forming
the plural with ba-. This might seem to predicate personality
in the animals. But what their idea of personality is we

vol. ii JX-uQxS

82 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

do not know. Some of the animals, as we shall see presently,
are in many respects classed as persons, others are not. We
can only leave the question in this vague state : there are
persons — reckoning personality as we reckon it ; there are
impersonal things ; and there are things on the hazy
borderland between personality and impersonality.

Are we to reckon this Dynamism as religion or not ? If
the concept of a personal God is essential to religion, then it
is not. Whether the X can be described as a " higher power '
is difficult to say : it is higher in the sense of being super-
sensible, mightier than men ; and higher in that it is treated
with reverence and submission ; but we could not, with any
regard for the accepted meaning of the word, call it a god.
If intense faith in the efficacy of the ritual and in the powers
recognised in the ritual ; and if a strong, and, on the whole,
a wholesome influence on conduct, are constituent elements
of religion, then Dynamism is certainly a religion. Perhaps
it may best be regarded as a proleptic stage in the growth
of religious ideas.

If we are to bring Dynamism into relation to the
Ancestor-worship and Leza-cult to be described in subsequent
chapters, we must revert to the already mentioned dualism.
On the one hand, on a horizontal line, we have the X ; on a
parallel line, the belief in personality, which, prolonged into
the unseen world, brings us to the ghosts. The X powers
are extended into the cosmical sphere ; and somehow in a
paradoxical way the two lines there meet : the X powers
come to partake of the personal characteristics of the
ghost : and the result is a personal, or quasi-personal,
Being uniting the potency of the X with the personality of
men and ghosts. In some such diagrammatic fashion we
may venture to describe the undoubted connection. The
lines, however, are not to be drawn clear and distinct,
but shaded into each other — the shading representing all
the vague undefinable gradations between personality and
impersonality.

It seems that the X pervades all things. Usually it is
quiescent. In itself it is neither good nor bad ; it is
amoral, neutral ; but it can be tapped by people and turned
to use — to evil use or good according to the intention of the

CH. XX

DYNAMISM

person who uses it. The banganga, basonzhi, and balozhi
are those who have the secret of manipulation. The
banganga can draw out the forces contained in various
plants and other things and put them to beneficent purposes,
as in curing the sick and making amulets and talismans ;
or to maleficent purposes, as when they provide the warlock
with death-dealing drugs. The basonzhi can tap the forces,
and by their means look into the future and discover things
unknown ; they are uniformly beneficent in intention. On I

\\jl

unknown ; tney are umiormiy Denencent m intention. (Jn
the other hand, the balozhi draw on these mysterious
energies to plague and destroy their fellow-men.

The only thing in civilisation which we can compare
with this conception is electricity. We are to imagine all
things charged with something as mysterious and pervasive
as electricity. Like electricity, it can be utilised for legiti-
mate ends : but it is a perilous thing to mishandle. For
any rash or ignorant person to come into contact with a
live wire is, as we know, dangerous. And, we suppose, a
person could be so charged with electricity that he would
be a danger to any one touching him. So in the minds of
the Ba-ila is it with this immanent energy.

The forces are dangerous things to interfere with.
They are therefore tonda (taboo). For an ordinary person,
under ordinary circumstances, and without an antidote, to
interfere with them is forbidden ; it is dangerous to him-
self and the community. By saying certain things, doing
certain actions, eating certain foods, he may liberate these
energies with fatal consequences to himself and his neigh-
bours. Persons in certain conditions, and things put to
certain uses, come into intimate contact with these forces
and are therefore tonda. It is as if at certain times the
separating medium becomes attenuate, the insulating rubber,
so to speak, gets worn off the live wire, and people come into
close contact with the forces.

That the neutral force may be turned to good or bad
use explains many curious things in the practices of the
Ba-ila. Incest is one of the things that bring men into
violent connection with it, and is therefore taboo. The
incestuous person is expressly called a mulozhi (" a
warlock "), a trafficker with forbidden powers. But incest

84 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

under certain conditions, i.e. when a man is wishful of
special good fortune, is not only permitted but enjoined.
So with words. Phallic songs that on ordinary occasions
are tonda, must be used on the occasion of a funeral, during
smelting operations, and on other occasions when the
forces are intimately in evidence. In normal times the
abnormal is taboo, but in abnormal times the abnormal
things are done to restore the normal condition of affairs.

These our generalisations are based, not upon direct
information derived from the natives, but upon their customs.
We need not repeat what we have already described at
some length of their practice of medicine. It would seem
that almost any object can be used as a musamo. True,
there are specific drugs for specific diseases, but it seems
that a doctor can discover in anything he chooses a remedy
for some complaint, or a charm for some purpose. It is
not he who imparts the potency to the object, but he dis-
covers it to be a peculiar manifestation of the all-pervading
force. And the drugs work not only upon diseases of the
body, but also directly upon a man's feelings and disposition.
It is not necessary by any means that they should be
brought into close contact with him, by wearing or swallow-
ing ; they can act over a distance. Moreover, they can
separate by their mysterious action some part of his
constitution — his " life " — from the rest, and can change him
into another form, both before and after death. Indeed,
they can affect ghosts ; and also the elements — changing
the direction of rain-clouds, keeping off lightning, and
producing rain. Many are the tales told of the way people
have gained happiness and prosperity in life through the
action of the misamo. Here is one example. " There was
a very old man who was driven away by his children and
went crawling into the forest. There some boys found him
and began to jeer and mock the poor old fellow — all but
one, who bade them desist, and who brought him some
water and food. When the boys were departing the old
man called the kind lad back and told him to sit down b}'
his side. He began to cough, and spat the sputum into a
small pot ; he then scraped his skin, and the scrapings he
added to the sputum. He mixed it all up and told the boy

ch. xx DYNAMISM 85

to drink it. The boy was rather disgusted and couldn't
make out what the old man was up to, but he obeyed. |
The old man then said to him : ' That was musamo, very
powerful in effect. By giving it to you, I am giving you
bwami (chieftainship), and wealth and long life and good
fortune in hunting. Nothing shall be able to hinder you.'
And so it came to pass. The boy grew up fortunate, wealthy,
renowned, and died at a ripe old age." There would seem to
be no limit to the range of the possibilities of the medicines.
We are reminded of Virgil's lines :

has herbas atque haec Ponto mihi lecta venena
ipse dedit Moeris (nascuntur plurima Ponto)
his ego saepe lupum fieri et se condere silvis
Moerim, saepe animas imis excire sepidcris
aique satas alio vidi traducere messis.

[Eclogue, viii. 95.)

And it is not an animistic belief. These things are not
supposed to be possessed of a " soul." When the lover,
the trader, the warrior, the diviner addresses the musamo
he is not as a rule conscious of any ghost or spirit in it
(we have noted exceptions to this), he speaks to the
medicine itself. Yet it seems there is an approxima- ^
tion to animistic conceptions in the importance attached
to the name. Without the name the medicine would
not be what it is with it. One might almost say that^
the name bears something of the same relation to the I
thing as " soul ' to " body." We have even instances
where the people have spoken of the izhina (" name ")
entering a person and causing sickness.

We may give here some additional information with
regard to manifestations of this power.

There is a bush called Kamwaya ("the scatterer"),
which may not be used as firewood, nor its poles taken for
building purposes. It has the quality of dispersing things :
hence the name. If you were rash enough to burn it, your
friendship with another person would be dispersed and you
would fight him that day ; and if you were to build a pole
of it into your house it would part asunder. The ancients,
we are informed, found this out. They built a fence partly

86 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

of Kamwaya around the village, and afterwards could not
understand why one by one their people left them. One
of the elders had it revealed to him that it was on account
of the Kamwaya ; so all the poles of that tree were pulled
up and others put in their places. After a short time
strangers began coming to ask permission to build at the
village, so the community was restored to its former strength.
Then they spread the news abroad, saying, " Tadizasha,
tadizotwa, dilamwaya munzhi" ("Don't build with it or
warm yourselves at its heat, it will scatter the village").
From that day to this diatonda (" the tree is taboo ").

But under certain circumstances the power within it
can be made to serve a useful purpose. When there has
been more rain than is required and the clouds are still
gathering, if you take this bush and wave it about you
will scatter the clouds, and rain will not fall. And you
can make a medicine out of its roots to get rid of that horrible
disease called kafungo.

Another tree not to be used as firewood is the Mabanga.
As we shall see, the corpses of certain people are burnt, and
Mabanga is used for the purpose because it burns fiercely,
so much so that it can destroy not only the body but the
spirit. Because of this power in it, its use is taboo under
ordinary circumstances. But, as we saw in Chapter IX.,
because of its power it is used in smelting iron.

Certain animals and birds are peculiarly manifestations
of the X; they are called mnpuka ("a monster"), or
muntu (" a man "), or mulozhi (" a witch ") ; some are
said to be malweza {i.e. bad omens, unlucky).

We have already mentioned some of them.

The Chinao cat (see Vol. I. p. 239) is particularly unlucky
to children. It is called ushibandilwabana (" He that may
not be named to or by children "). If a child is ill in a
way that makes it resemble the cat [kusata kuchinkozha
cha munyama wezo — " to be sick in the likeness of that
animal "), its eyes starting out of its head, its fists clenched,
its body shaking all over, then they know that the Chinao
has affected it ; somebody has brought a skin of the cat
into touch with the child, or named the cat in its presence,
or the cat has passed by near the child. But a kind of

ch. xx DYNAMISM 87

homeopathic prophylactic can be made from the animal —
that is, it provides its own antidote. Many children for this
purpose have, sewn into the carrying-skin, small medicine-
receptacles made of pieces of the Chinao pelt ; or the mother
wears a Chinao skin. The pelt of the cat is taboo to a person
as a garment— i.e. he may not enter a village wearing it,
unless the children have been in this way made proof
against the Chinao's influence. Once protected they can
handle the skin with impunity, and any one can wear it.

The chikambwe (blue jay) is another malweza. It is
said to fly with a scream up into the sky and to fall lifeless.
Should any one in charge of a child notice this bird, he
would distract the child's attention, lest it should see it and
be influenced by it. It can so affect a child that it too will
die a sudden death. But the power in chikambwe can be
made use of, not to cause but to prevent untimely death ;
its feathers are converted into musamo for that purpose.

Some animals and birds are termed bantu (" persons "),
and balozhi ("warlocks"). In them there is a quasi- ru
personal quality. They are said to have shingvhule (i.e.
'shadow-souls") just as men have; but, unlike men, they
are not reincarnated after death.

We have described the ceremonies following the death
of an elephant. When a man kills an eland he must also
go through certain rites to avert the retaliating power in
the animal. After killing an eland the hunter chews leaves
of a Mukono or Munto bush, together with a piece of
kaumbuswa (ant-heap), holding meanwhile a lump of the
latter under his foot. Some of the chewed leaves he rubs
on his forehead and some on the eland's forehead. Having
done this he throws at the eland's head the piece of ant-
heap that was under his foot. He also cuts and splits a
stick and jumps through the cleft, as the killer of a man
does. He then goes off to the village to get people to help
him in carrying home the meat. On their arrival at the
eland he sits apart while they open the carcass. He must
not join them at first, but once it is opened he may help
them to skin and cut up the animal. Were these rites
omitted, the eland would trouble him — would come at night
and horn him, or in any case cause his death. But the

88 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

power in the eland can be put to use. Medicine put into
its horn derives therefrom a more potent efficacy.

The owl (shishishini) is another mulozhi. If you see it
sitting on your roof in the dusk, and it wakes up and cries,
^iWkj there will be a death in your home. You are then to throw
a firebrand (chishishi) at it to drive it away and take off
the spell. You must not throw a stone at it lest the owl
should micturate upon it and it should dissolve — and you
with it !

The plantain-eater (induba), whose red feathers, thought
to be dyed with human blood, are worn as a trophy by
warriors and others, is also reckoned as a muntu. As far as
reputation goes, killing an induba is the same as killing a
man ; even if you find it lying dead you are entitled to
" put up " the feathers.1

The nakansakwe (" secretary bird ") is another mulozhi.
Ulatonda, it is taboo, because of the mysterious force
manifest in it. It is said that once three people were going
along a road and saw one of these birds ahead. Being
alarmed, they asked each other, " What bird is that ? '
As they were speaking the bird jumped over the path.
One of the three went forward and passed the place where
it had jumped ; the others returned to the village. When
they told why they had turned back, one of the elders
said, " You have done well. That bird is nakansakwe ;
he is tonda when he jumps the road." The man who
ventured ahead was never seen again ; he disappeared.
So the news went abroad. Waluchimba nakansakwe ;
mozo wakwe washia (" Abandon your journey because of
nakansakwe ; his heart is black "). But he can be turned
to use : one of his feathers is a powerful medicine to give
good fortune.

It is to be noticed that it is especially strange, unusual
things, uncommon sights, new-fangled habits, strange foods
and ways of doing things, that are regarded as manifestations
of the hidden powers. It is here that we find the root of
the conservatism of the Ba-ila and their hatred of new

1 This, by the way, is an artifice practised sometimes by a murderer.
When asked by curious people why he wears the feathers, he replies that
he found an induba lying dead.

ch. xx DYNAMISM 89

ways. When, e.g., bananas were first introduced by us at
Kasenga, we offered some of the fruit to Mungalo. He
turned from it with expressions of great horror. " No !
No ! I have never seen that before ! It is tonda ! '

There is a certain animal named Chivubavuba, said to
live in water. Whether fabulous or no, we cannot say ;
we have never seen one. If it lives, it is rarely seen, and
therefore it is among the things that are tonda. The
Shilufukwe (the mole) is not rare, but it is rarely seen on
the surface in the daytime ; and therefore it is tonda to
see it out of its burrow. If you saw it, it would grin and
one of your friends would die in consequence. To see it in
the burrow means nothing.

We have said enough, perhaps, to illustrate what we
believe to be the basis of the Ba-ila conception of the world.
If we are vague in our descriptions it is because the thing
itself is vague. The Ba-ila have never formulated their
belief ; it is not so clear, e.g., as their conception of the ghost.
We have found no name for the power. The nearest, we
think, is bwanga, which etymologically would mean " the
tying-up, the contents," or better, " content — that which is
contained in things." It is used commonly of the medicines.

Vague as it is, this conception is one we can understand,
and understand better now than we could have understood
it twenty years ago. Is not Science to-day telling us of
the energy stored up in the very paving-stones of our
streets ? Have we not gained some insight into mysterious
metapsychical forces ? Have not bacteriological researches
opened up to us a new world of agencies ? We can under-
stand that some experience of the powers of drugs would
confirm, if it did not originate, their belief. And we have
met with things only explicable on the supposition that
they are not ignorant of psychic phenomena. This latter
is a subject we hope will be further investigated by more
competent observers. We can only express our conviction
that these things are known to them.

But there is no formulation of the belief by themselves.
It is rather the result^of an emotional response to their
environment — a world which, to them as to us, is a thing of
mystery.

go THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

It cannot be wondered at that they should regard any
traffic with these hidden powers with horror, traffic, i.e., of
an illegitimate sort. They are dreaded in any case, but
for a person deliberately to invoke their aid for the purpose
of harming and killing his fellows is the most monstrous of
all crimes in their eyes. Such people are balozhi (witches,
warlocks, sorcerers). We have now to give an account of
them.

2. Witchcraft

It is impossible to say how many people used to meet
with their deaths through suspicion of witchcraft, but the
number was probably very great. Under European
government it is a crime either to practise or to accuse
of practising it. One might have thought that this action
of the authorities would have been welcomed by the people ;
but as a matter of fact it is a standing grievance that the
white man no longer allows them to deal with witches as
they used to do. A leading chief said to us one day, " You
white men are destroying the community. The balozhi are
exultant and doing just as they please, because they know
we can no longer kill them as we used to do." He then
went on to describe what had recently happened in a neigh-
bouring community. A warlock had committed adultery
with the chief's wife, caused her to swell up and die. Four
wives of the chief had met with the same fate. For his
witchcraft he had been driven out of the community, but
if he had met with his deserts he would have been burnt.

If it seems strange to any of our readers that what
appears to them as a cruel superstition should be thus
upheld by the leaders of the people, let them at least recog-
nise the sincerity of the belief. If we believed as they do
we should act as they do, or would like to do. Suppose a
foreign conqueror made a law in England forbidding any
accusation of murder as well as abolishing capital punish-
ment, should not we regard it as the very limit of wicked-
ness ? And witchcraft is murder to the Ba-ila.

We will first transcribe an account dictated to us by an
intelligent native of the doings of the balozhi.

' A warlock, when he hears of a person's death, goes to

ch. xx DYNAMISM 91

' press ' the deceased. He raises him up as an evil spirit
and takes it away to his own house. This is what he does
with it : if he sees one whom he does not like he sends the
evil spirit to kill that person. When it arrives where that
person is, it appears and he sees it, and, seeing it, dies. It
seems that he sees a person he knows to be dead, and being
greatly startled he dies. Before dying he makes it known,
saying, ' I have seen so-and-so who is dead.' Thereupon,
if they don't hurry and doctor him, he dies. It means,
that that evil spirit was sent by a sorcerer. Others are
sent to the grain-fields, being told to go and bring ears of
corn from so-and-so's field. So the evil spirits go and take
the ears to that sorcerer. He works and works upon them,
so that when the owner of the field comes to harvest he
may gather a large quantity, but it does not increase (i.e.
the heap in his granary), because it is made mysteriously
to disappear. And so it is said, ' His grain is fleeting grain
on account of the spirits, that's why it does not last, does
not stay.' Again, if a man has a lot of grain left over from
last year, and all the time it does not come to an end, it
means that he has something that goes on and on,1 that's
why it does not end. What takes place is, that as soon as
it begins to end the spirit adds to it, puts more there : that
is witchcraft.

" Again, spirits are sent to clansmen. If that warlock
has a clansman who is very rich, he sends evil spirits that
they may kill his children. So they are bereft of their
children ; two die perhaps in one month. If then the
children are all killed, he begins at the wives, saying, ' Go
and kill such-and-such a wife.' So the spirits kill them.
Or if he has got two they kill one of them. If he sees that
is done, he then sends the spirits to the man's people,
saying, ' Go and kill them.' So they kill all his slaves.
If he be a chief, his chieftainship vanishes and he becomes
the poor owner of a single hut, he who had built a great
village. Or he becomes a vagabond, and it is said of him,

1 Kafundiiluzho (a thing that does not come to an end) . The verb is
kufunda (" to regrow ") ; Maila alafunduluka, (" the maila keeps on
coming "). The word would be applied to the widow of Zarephath's barrel
of meal which wasted not and to the cruse of oil which failed not.
(1 Kings xvii. 16.)

92 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES rr. iv

' That man was a chief. He was invaded by witchcraft ;
people bewitched him.'

" This is inzuikizhi (witch medicine). The warlock
sends a snake, saying, ' Go and bite so-and-so.' So it does ;
the snake goes and bites him and he dies. They doctor and
doctor him, but he does not recover, the wound from the
snake does not heal. Presently it kills him. They say it
is witch medicine, which means, it was sent from the hand
of a person, i.e. from a sorcerer. Others send lions, saying,
' Bite so-and-so.' They go and bite him. They who
know the medicine for lions, doctor and doctor him, but
he gets worse and dies. It is to say, the lion is from the
hands of a man. Others work upon the very food — food
that is eaten, whether bread or meat or fish or boiled maize,
or strong beer or light beer, or anything else, anything
that is eaten. It is sent in just the same way, the warlock
saying, ' Kill so-and-so.' So he eats that food as he always
eats, and it introduces sorcery into his body, and he gets
sick perhaps in the stomach, and he says, ' I am dead in
the stomach ! I am dead in the stomach ! ' They who
know stomach medicine doctor and doctor him, but he does
not recover, he dies. They say it is inzuikizhi. As for
bewitching, they bewitch in this way. He who does it
leaves his place at night, and at the village opens the
gateway, and though there may be dogs they do not bark.
On arrival at the door of the person whom he is going to
bewitch he dances in the night, he pulls out grass above
the door, and dances with the bunches in his hands, he
stamps about, dancing. Tired of dancing, he begins to
measure out funeral fire-places all over the village of the
person he is bewitching. This is what he does, saying to
himself, ' You people light a fire here ! And you, so-and-so,
light here ! You women light here ! And you men light
here ! And you dancers light here ! ' So in time he com-
pletes the circle of the village, measuring out the fire-places,
where they are to light the fires for cooking. Presently he
against whom he danced begins to sicken and then dies.
They light the fires just as he had measured them out in
the village ; yes, they do just like that.

" The shadow that is seen, they say it is the person.

■

CH. XX

DYNAMISM

When a person dies the corpse remains alone and the
shadow goes to God. It is sorcerers who say they will
take the shadow while he is still living and the body will
remain by itself. The sorcerer takes the shadow and goes
to work on it with medicine, and having done that, why,
the man dies. When he dies, he does not become reborn
on earth : so they say he is a mudimbe (' a pressed-one '),

he has utterly perished."

As a further illustration of the working of witchcraft,
we give the following account, dictated by a native, of the
doings of a woman named Namiyobo. She was trying to
get the chieftainship at Nanzela for herself, and so, in the
belief of the people, bewitched the chief. The point of this
narrative is not whether the accusation was true, but the
manner in which she and others are related to have acted.

' Now there the old woman went to the doctors that
they might give her medicine ; and the doctor administered
medicine to her and said, ' He will die, he will not cultivate
his fields this year.' Then she gave him a gun and some
sovereigns, that doctor of hers. Then as they were leaving,
the doctor told her, ' Take some ash from his fire-place.'
Indeed they took some ash and put it with the medicine,
and so doctored it. Having done this, they put a curse
upon him, saying, ' You, oh medicine, we eat you, so that
when we arrive at our home Namanza may die. And, see,
he must not die here; let him die at his home.' And truly
they took some ground from his footprints. On their arrival
they (her attendants) passed through the village ; she
herself passed by through the veld. Then they began to
discuss the matter of the chieftainship. And she with
false lips (lit. greasy lips) made it good for herself, saying,
' I am only an old woman, I will have only the power of
Kachinka (i.e. an inferior position) and Namanza shall have
that of Shambala.' But Namanza refused, saying, ' No,
not so.'

" Before long he went to Kazangala, and on arrival
there he sent people to bring him some milk. Then arose
Kayoba and Mwanamboloma and took the milk. On
arrival they found him quite well. He was very grateful,
but they had done to him so that he should die at his home

-U

•pfrfWu

94 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

and not return. Thereupon he began to sicken, and before
many days Namanza was dead.

" Then arose a great tumult.

" ' Who has bewitched him ? ' Some said, ' It is
Kazhiampande ; if it is not he who bewitched him, who is
it ? Is it not that youngster who long ago destroyed the
chiefs ? ' They had falsely accused Pobola long ago of
bewitching somebody. But the Creator had refused, and
also his divinities saw to him that Pobola should not die.
Nevertheless they disputed.

" ' Who is it ? ' Then they said, ' It is Nakabanga, the
son of Kanchemba.' And then again there was a great
row. And Nakabanga resented it, saying, ' Why do you,
Mutabakomo, and your wife falsely accuse me ? ' * Then
they denied, saying, ' We simply put the fault on others,
saying that perhaps it is Kazhiampande the younger, whom
they named before.' Others said, ' No, this is not the one
you named, it is the other.' So then Nakabanga went to
his relations, and on arrival called them all, saying, ' Come,
they are accusing me of witchcraft.' So all the ba-Mala
came together, and on their arrival they asked, ' Who is it
that accused our child ? ' Mutabakomo and his people
said, ' We don't know, ask him himself.' Nakabanga
answered ' Kazhiampande is the warlock, ask them ; if he is
not afraid we will buy mwazhi.' So Mutabakomo bought
it, and when they arrived they seized a dog, and made it
drink, beginning thus to charge it, ' O mwazhi, if it was
we who said that Kazhiampande was a witch, this very
day, oh do you die ; if it was not we, you must not die.'
Really the dog lived, and when it recovered the ba-Mala
stood condemned. So they left it, saying, ' Let us wait for
the chief,' i.e. the magistrate."

We have to make a clear distinction between the
munganga and the mulozhi : the former is the doctor,
skilled in all kinds of misamo (" medicines ") ; the latter is
a warlock or witch, a dealer in black magic, a trafficker in
forbidden forces, always with a bad purpose. They come

1 This seems obscure. There were two men of the name of Kazhi-
ampande, one Pobola and the other Nakabanga. The latter thought he was
being accused, whereas really it was the former.

ch. xx DYNAMISM 95

into association when the mulozhi secures from the munganga
the powerful drugs with which he or she works. Further,
a munganga may be a mulozhi, but that is not part of his
profession. Bunganga, the quality, practices of the doctor,
is quite distinct from bulozhi, the quality, practices of
the witch.

A person, moved by hatred or jealousy, may send to a
doctor to secure witchcraft medicine. It is such powerful
stuff that it needs very delicate handling. We know of a
case where the medicine was so strong that it killed the
messenger who had been sent to fetch it ! We have known
people assembled in court during a witchcraft trial to make
a bolt for the door when the presiding magistrate proposed
to open up and examine the contents of the packages of
medicine.

The warlock secures his medicine, and in virtue of it can
exercise his black art. As we have seen, there are several
ways in which he can set to work.

First, by " pressing " (kudimba) a man's spirit. The
man may be alive at the time, but the witch abstracts his
' soul," and what is left is only the empty shell, and of
course that soon withers, and the man dies ; or, the warlock
waits until the actual death and then impresses the disem-
bodied spirit into his service. This spirit is called a Chizwa,
Shikazwa, Kazwa, all forms of the same name ; or Kayobela
(a chirping spirit) ; or Kapeo. The names vary, but the
demon is much the same. The essential thing is that it is
in the possession of the warlock and is subservient to his
will. He may send it to appear to any one ; the person
sees the spirit, and in terror falls sick and dies. Or he may
send it to fetch the grain out of another person's field.
The owner does not notice the theft, for to all appearance
the grain is still there. But it is only phantasmal ; the
essence has been abstracted. It has no body, and when
he harvests it the store does not get any bigger. It has
been taken away long ago by the warlock's familiar. Not
only does his enemies' grain disappear, but his own is
increased by this means ; he grows rich through the activities
of his demons.

The technical term for the effluence from the warlock is

96 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

inzuikizhi. The root of the word is zua : kuzua, or kuzuwa,
means to push over, thrust out ; and the word means
literally, " that by means of which you thrust out in the
direction of somebody." It may take several forms. It
may be an animal or a snake, either a real one or a phantom.
It may be the witch himself in the shape of a hyena or lion
or snake. While the rest of the village is sound asleep the
warlock may arise, transform himself into a hyena, and attack
his enemy.

Or the inzuikizhi may take another form. Our in-
formant speaks of food which is " worked upon." The
verb here used is kuindauka (to turn over and over,
reshape, transform). The reference is not to the poisoning
of food in the ordinary sense of the word, though we do
not deny that some witches may be mere poisoners. The
meaning is this. The warlock takes food in his hands, says
some incantation over it, and sends forth a phantom of
the food, which appears in the man's dish as if it were his
own food, but which in reality is full of a deadly essence
that, entering his body, will kill him. So when the account
speaks of a chief being killed through his milk, it does not
necessarily mean that it was poisoned ; but in some way
the milk was " worked upon ' by the witch, either by
actual contact or by actio in distans. Or the witch may
secure something that has been more or less in contact with
the person : some earth from his footprints, ash from his
fire, hair or nail-parings, and by working on these he is
able to kill the owner.

The essential point is that the action of the warlock
takes place telergetically, i.e. over a distance.

Sometimes he approaches nearer his victim, but still
remains out of actual touch with him. It is a weird picture,
drawn by our informant, of the warlock rising at night
and making his way unseen and unheard, so that even the
dogs do not bark at him, to the door of his enemy's hut.
He casts a spell upon the person. He dances with the
grass in his hands, repeating over and over in his mind
the words that are to send the person to his doom. He
plans out the person's funeral. At funerals a number of
fires are built in a village for the accommodation of the

ch. xx DYNAMISM 97

visitors ; and the warlock marks the places where these \
fires are to be lit. He could not more plainly indicate his
evil intention. He is not only predicting, but actually
causing, the person's death.

The dire effects of this belief in witchcraft have often
been pointed out, and we need not enlarge upon them. It
is inimical to industry and economy. A person who should
labour hard to increase his crops above those of his fellows,
or who should be sparing and not waste his grain, would
expose himself to a charge of witchcraft. Some spiteful
person is sure to start whispering, " Yes, we know what
that means ! If we had tuyobela in our huts we could have
plenty of grain also ! ' Once set going, such suspicions
soon spread and grow, and the person is lucky if he does
not have to swallow the mwazhi, or have it swallowed for
him by proxy by some unfortunate dog. So a man dare not
be too prosperous, and the ambition, if he feels it, to rise
above his fellows is very rudely checked. An accusation of
witchcraft is a very useful weapon in the hands of an
enemy. People who make themselves in any way obnoxious
to their neighbours can very easily be despatched. Some-
times whole families are wiped out. When a death occurs,
as is vividly portrayed by one of our informants, there is
suspicion and tumult, and innocent people are seized upon
and made to pass the ordeal. It is horrible to think of the
hundreds and thousands of people who have been hurried
to a violent death through such means.

How much is there in it ? Is there anything at all ?
It may seem strange to any one who regards witchcraft
as " the culminant example of human ignorance and folly "
that we should ask such questions. But at the risk of
ridic ule we will profess that we believe there is really some-
thing behind the intense conviction of the Ba-ila. We
readily allow there are many cases where there is not a
shadow of any rational ground for suspicion ; perhaps
most cases are like that. Yet if there be not a modicum
of truth in the thing we cannot account satisfactorily to
ourselves for the intense belief in it.

Auto-suggestion plays a considerable part — that much
is certain. We remember a man — a big stalwart fellow,

VOL. II H

98 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES ft. iv

who never appeared to us of a cowardly nature — being
greatly concerned because after returning home he found
a string of beads, with a small black mass attached, hanging
in his hut. Nobody could tell who had put it there. It
seemed to have sprung up out of the earth. The strange-
ness of it preyed on the man's mind. He had of course
from childhood been accustomed to hearing about warlocks
and their doings, and had never for a moment doubted
their power. Now what was to him the awful truth took
possession of his mind : somebody had put this in his hut
to bewitch him. He was changed at once from a bright,
laughing, cheerful being into a miserable creature. You
could see him getting ill, and we believe that if we had not
taken him in hand he would have died. He was, by auto-
suggestion, killing himself. It must be remembered that
the minds of these people are very suggestible. Again and
again have we noticed people giving up all hope because
they believed they would die of the sickness that had seized
them. They made no effort, but simply resigned themselves
to their fate. It is in such soil that witchcraft flourishes.

And if they can suggest themselves into death, it is
easy to see that they can receive suggestions to the same
effect from others. We cannot support our belief by any
range of illustrative facts, but we are inclined to see in
suggestion the ground for much of the witchcraft. Mr.
F. V. Worthington, who has had a very wide experience of
natives, related to us two instances that had come under
his personal knowledge. In one of these an old man sitting
in a hut was much tormented by some boys jeering at him
outside. At last he rushed out, seized one of them, gripped
him by the leg, and said, " You are lame ! " And the boy
was lame. When Mr. Worthington saw him he had been
lame ever since. This is a very good example of the power
of suggestion.

But even if this accounts for some of the cases of
witchcraft it cannot account for all. As we have seen, the
essential part of witchcraft is that it is done from a
distance without any mediating instrument that can be
sensed. They believe in telepathy and telesthesia and
telergy. The first of these is perhaps accepted by most

ch. xx DYNAMISM 99

people in these days ; and we have only to go a step
further and grant that one mind can affect another over a
distance and we have all that is necessary to support belief
in witchcraft. Or if we cannot go so far, simply by
acknowledging as a fact that there is telepathic communion
of mind with mind, we grant what is necessary : for
if I can convey to another mind suggestions of sickness
and death that is quite sufficient. The suggestion from
without will set up auto-suggestion, and the man will
persuade himself that he is going to die, and he will die.

It would seem, therefore, that our modern psychology
is bringing us back to where the Ba-ila stand in this
respect— an illustration of the dictum : " The intuitions
of the savage are the reasoned convictions of modern
science." The difference is that the Ba-ila would not
recognise the occult power as latent in the mind ; they
would say it is derived from the musamo, the expression
and vehicle of the all-pervading force.

CHAPTER XXI
*

THE DOCTRINE OF SOULS

In trying to discover what the Ba-ila believe about the
psychical structure of man it will be best to take a
somewhat roundabout course and lead up to the conclusion
through a study of the funerary and other practices.

i. Death and Funerary Customs

These people, like all others, have meditated about
death, and like so many others have come to the conclusion
that death is not in the original constitution of things.
Unlike other peoples, they do not say that every death is
unnatural and caused by witchcraft, for, as we have seen,
they ascribe sickness and death to other and some natural
causes. But they look back to the beginning of things and
speak of a time when death was not. Sir James Frazer says
there are four types of myth explaining the origin of death.1
The first of these, the type of the Two Messengers, is common
to the Ba-ila with many other Bantu tribes. Their story is
as follows :

God (Leza) sent Chameleon, saying : " Go and tell men
that they shall die and pass away for ever." He started
on his journey but travelled very slowly, and rested often
on the way. Then God saw that he delayed and sent Hare,
saying : " Tell them that they shall die and return." On
his arrival Hare announced to the people : " You shall die
and return." But Chameleon contradicted him, saying :
" No, that is not what God sent us to say. He sent us,

1 The Belief in Immortality (London, 1913), vol. i. p. 60.

100

ch.xxi THE DOCTRINE OF SOULS 101

saying : ' They shall die and pass away for ever.' But
Hare would not have it so : " That is not the message.
He said : ' They shall return.' " Thereupon Hare returned
to God in anger and said : ■' Yon person whom you sent, he
has told them : ' You shall pass away for ever.' " And
God answered : " All right, let it be as he has told them."

We have heard another version of this myth : God
sent Hare and sending him said : "Go and take a message
of death to men. You go also, Chameleon, and take a
message of life." The Hare arrived first and announced :
" Men shall die and pass away for ever." After he had
delivered this message Chameleon arrived. Said he : ' Men
shall die and shall return." But it was too late.

In the first version Hare brings a promise of life ;
Chameleon of death ; in the second Hare arrives first with
a message of death and Chameleon follows, too late, with a
promise of life.

Notwithstanding the contradiction, the meaning is
plain : death was not in the original constitution of things,
but came afterwards.

This myth is common to the Bantu tribes, but the
Ba-ila have another, to the same effect, which seems to be
peculiar to them.

In the beginning, it is said, a man descended from
above accompanied by his mother, his wife, his mother-in-
law, cattle, goats, and dogs. The women herded the cattle
but used to quarrel about it. One would say : ' It's your
turn to-day," and another would reply : ' No, it's yours."
Consequently the cattle frequently got lost. One evening
the cattle had not returned and it was too late to find
them. They went next morning into the forest to look
for them, and found that they had turned into buffaloes.
That was the first misfortune. After a time, another
misfortune arrived : the mother of the man's wife died.
Then the woman said to her husband : ' Let us go and
bring back my mother, she must not be allowed to leave
us like this." The man answered : " Oh, it's all right, she
will turn up of her own accord." After a time the man's
dog died, and he said to his wife : ' Let us go and bring
back my dog." But the woman refused, saying : ' You

102 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

want to go and fetch your dog, but my mother went away
and has not returned and you wouldn't go and fetch her."
Then the man's mother died. And he said to his wife,
" Let us go and fetch my mother." But the woman refused,
saying: " No, when my mother died you wouldn't go after
her, and now I refuse to go after yours." And that is why
that ever since people die and do not come back ; it was
because of the doings of those first people who lived.

We have heard another version of this myth among the
Bambala. The place of the man is taken by Leza (God),
of whom it is said that he had a wife, mother, a mother-in-
law, and five children, three sons and two daughters. His
mother died, but when he told his wife that she must return
to life, she said: " No, let her die, she has eaten all my
beans in the field." Leza agreed to this. After five months,
Leza's mother-in-law died, and his wife said : ' Let her
return ! " But he said : " She return ! And my mother
already rotten ! " The wife said : " Do you refuse, husband ? "
He replied : " Yes, I do refuse, for when my mother died
you refused." So the woman said: "Let her die, then.
This is lufu lukando, the great death." And that is how
death began ; it was owing to the butavhu (" greed ") of
Leza's wife. And Leza told those whom he had sent down
to earth : "I also shall die. And when my heir begins to
weep, I shall descend to you and burn houses.1 And I
give you medicine which you must quickly give to the
people who are burnt in the houses. Because here above
my relation is dead, I shall kill you on earth." So he sent
down diseases, and also medicines. Said he : "I give you
both : when a person is sick doctor him. If I will that he
live, he will live ; if I will that he die, he will die." And
having given them death, he also gave them musamo wa
luzhalo (" birth medicine ") so that the race should not die
out. So it is that when a person with no children weeps
and says: " If only I had children to leave behind me!'
they say : " Leza it is that refuses that you should bear
children."

1 The reference of course is to rain and lightning. The idea appears
to be that at the end of a rainy season Leza dies, and next season his heir
takes his place and weeps for him.

ch.xxi THE DOCTRINE OF SOULS 103

With reference to these statements about men passing
away and not returning, we must explain that they do not
mean that at death a person is utterly extinct. It is the
resurrection of the body that is denied. The person himself
lives on, as we shall see.

While any notion of a general bodily resurrection appears
very ridiculous to them, we have had vague tales told us of
people who have actually returned in the flesh. They do
so in virtue of some very rare and enormously powerful
medicine called musamo wa Iwende. Having taken it, a
man warns his people not to weep after his death. They
erect a platform in the veld and place the body upon it
without ceremony. Three days afterwards the man is
supposed to get up and set out for the east. As he comes
to each kraal, the people, believing him to be alive, give
him food. Afterwards when he has resumed his journey
they hear that he was dead. He travels east until he
comes to a land called Chundu, where he marries and settles
down again, but if one from his former home comes and
sees him alive he immediately dies in earnest. One of our
most intelligent informants told us that he had seen one
of these men. Another said that in his village there was
once a mulozhi who on two occasions was killed out-
right, but not buried, and in virtue of drugs came to life
and lived in the veld, where he was seen by people going
to water.

Another idea to be mentioned is that a man does not
die except at the return of the hour in which he was born.
As they express it : " Muntu tafwi ansha chishika chindi
nch'akazhalwa " (" A person does not die except when the
hour arrives of his birth ").

If a Mwila falls sick away from home, his chief desire
is to return home to his village. His idea is that should
the disease prove fatal he must be buried among his own
people, be properly mourned for by them, and his ghost
join the ghosts of his fathers. If at all possible he will
struggle home ; but unless he is at the point of death his
companions will not carry him, as it is reckoned very
unlucky ever to carry a living person in an improvised
stretcher. We have known instances of men being carried

104 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

home to die but only because recovery was known to be
impossible.

Often when camping near a village at night we have
been awakened by a loud, shrill, agonising cry ; it is the
sound raised by the watcher at a deathbed and soon arouses
the village. Messengers are sent out to inform friends and
preparations are soon made for the funeral, which takes
place a few hours later.

What takes place may be seen from the following notes
written by one of us after watching the burial of a friend
who had died elsewhere and was brought home to be buried :

" Went down to the village at 9.30 a.m. and presently
saw the procession coming up from the river ; the corpse
was carried suspended in a skin from a pole. They put it
in the shade and opened the skin so that the corpse lay
on it upon the ground. They then sat up the corpse and
tucked in the knees, with the hands folded over the chest.
Two men held it in that position and arranged the impande
on the head. They then laid the corpse down to take its
measurement. Then Shikatakala (a chief) went with some
men towards the centre of the cattle kraal and pointed out
where they were to dig. Impossible to watch the scene
unmoved. An old one-eyed woman, the deceased's wife,
walked about with a spear (its point stuck into a mealie
cob) in one hand and a calabash churn and a fly-whisk in
the other. She kept approaching the corpse, crying :
' Ndezila ike!' ('I come alone!'). Other women were
running about calling, but I could not distinguish what
they said. Meanwhile the corpse was being prepared,
anointed with butter, decorated with strings of large white
beads around the neck and waist. The piece of cloth I
gave as my chidizho was put round the neck and over the
chest. A second impande was put on the head. The head
was shaved. Mungalo told me that if a man's head were
not shaved his fellow-ghosts would not receive him.
Finally the corpse was put into the pre-natal position and
wrapped in a skin. But just before this there was a touching
scene. People made way for the wife and children. The
wife lay down and embraced the corpse, calling out some-
thing I could not catch. The children followed ; first

ch.xxi THE DOCTRINE OF SOULS 105

three stalwart sons and then several girls, all crouching at
the side, with tears streaming down their faces and crying :
'Tata! Tata!' ('Father! Father!'). The grave was
now ready, in depth about five feet six inches. One digger
was standing in the grave and when the corpse was brought
to the graveside there was some confusion ; several men
were loudly called to enter the grave but declined. At
last one entered. The two stood side by side, received the
corpse and gradually lowered it. The grave was oval in
shape, lying west and east, head to the west. The corpse
was placed on a skin, lying on its left side, and under the
head a carved stool. Then they brought things : some
maize, ground-nuts, a small calabash of milk or beer (I
couldn't see which), a lump of tobacco and a pipe ; also ^
a packet of beads I had given. (By the way, when I asked
Shikatakala whether the things had come I had sent for,
he replied : ' Ndamupa kale '• — ' I have already given them
to him '). One by one these things were put into the grave
and placed under a fold of the skin. All the time one son
knelt by the graveside and called as each thing was put
in, ' Tata, here is tobacco which we give you to smoke,'
etc. This done, the men standing around retired and one
old woman, kneeling by the graveside, gently swept with
her arm a quantity of soil into the grave ; others followed,
kneeling on three sides (we stood on the fourth). When
they had put some in they desisted while the diggers, still
standing in the grave, firmly pressed the soil down with
their feet. This went on till the grave was almost full,
the women keeping up a mournful chant all the time.
When the grave was so full that the soil under their feet
was level with the ground, a curious thing was done. A
woman brought an old yoke-skey found lying in the kraal
(dropped, I suppose, by my waggon) and presented the tip
of it to the nose of each man in turn ; they sniffed at it
and then left the grave. On asking the meaning of this, I
was told that it was to enable the men to leave the grave
well. Can't make this out. The grave now being levelled,
some of the women ran and threw themselves headlong
upon it (it's a wonder they don't hurt themselves), others
sat at the foot and kept up a song : a solo with chorus.

io6

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. IV

To my surprise it was a song praising Shikatakala and
saying that he has as many cattle as Lewanika. Couldn't
see why they should sing such a song at that time. Women
then began running from the end of the kraal and throwing
themselves on the grave. Meanwhile the men were sitting
in the shade smoking. As I came away the men were
about to do their part. In fact before the actual burial
they were at it. Two would stand at one side of the kraal,
with spears raised and quivering, shouting out their names,
and then set off racing across the kraal at top speed. On
reaching the other side they stood and made as if spearing
a prostrate foe. Shikatakala told me that the ing'ombe sha
mavhwika (' the wrapping-up cattle ') were not killed on
this occasion as it was a poor man who hadn't an ox ;
to-morrow they will kill and eat what is brought by
mourners."

There are some features in the funerals among the
Nanzela people slightly different from the typical Ba-ila
funeral described above.

The shape of the grave is different. At Nanzela it is
excavated on one side at the bottom and the corpse is
placed in this cavity. When the grave is filled, before the
diggers step off from it, water is brought and all who have
handled the corpse wash their hands over the grave. This
is to cleanse them from the defilement they have contracted.
The custom of pressing the piece of stick to the lips of the
diggers, as described above, has undoubtedly the same
meaning. The stick is previously rubbed in the ashes of
the fire and afterwards thrown away. They say this is
basalale munkumu (" that they may be pure as to the
forehead "). Should this ceremony be omitted they would
shimbalwa (" be unfortunate ").

The duration of a mourning (idilwe) varies in proportion
to the importance of the deceased. A child who dies before
its teeth are cut is buried outside the hut and no mourning
takes place. Only its mother weeps for it. At the other
extreme an important chief's obsequies may extend over a
month.

A funeral is a great occasion. We fancy sometimes that

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C/3

io8

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. IV

some men spend their lives in going to funerals. One's
workmen seem to be always wanting to go, and are quite
clever in tracing their relationship with the deceased in

Three Mourners at a Funeral.

S&f.

Plwto E. II'. Smith.

order to have a good excuse for going. The reasons for
this practice of flocking to a funeral are many. Family
feeling is strong, and it is considered a great fault if a man
does not weep for a relation ; this extends not only to

CH. XXI

THE DOCTRINE OF SOULS

109

blood relations but to all members of the clan, to allied
clansmen, and to friends. If a person absented himself he
might very easily be charged with having bewitched the
deceased. Without question the mourning in many instances
is sincere ; indeed many show a lot of emotion. We recall
what we saw at the funeral of Chongo, one of the Kasenga
headmen. Mungaila, the chief , and a relation of the deceased,
was coated from head to foot with white ash and wore the
scantiest bit of cloth around his loins. With a broken
stick in one hand and a wildebeest tail, containing musamo,

Photo E. II'. Smith.

Cutting up an Ox at a Funeral.

in the other he was going about alone. As he stood, with
his long thin shanks and wizened body, gesticulating with
the tail and shouting, as if expostulating with death, he
presented a most pathetic figure. Every now and then he
would flop down and wallow in the dust, throwing ash from
the mukwashi over himself. When after a time he came
over to speak to us, the old man was quite exhausted.
Three old women, the picture of grief, were sitting together,
with their arms around each other. On the grave four of
the deceased's wives were lying as if lifeless. A son, a lad
of fourteen or so, was lying on an ash-heap, his body shaking
with sobs. These were real mourners. In the case of others

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. IV

'l/j.

it is a very perfunctory affair. Men take their spears and
run across the kraal a few times in a listless fashion and
think they have done quite enough to show their respect for
the deceased. It may be that many are attracted to the
funeral by the meat that is provided for the mourners. It
is almost their only chance of getting a taste of beef.

Funerals are occasions for much feasting. Every one
in a position to do so brings a chidizho (literally, " a thing
to weep, with ") — an ox, a pot of beer, some grain, goats,
or some beads or print or something else. In addition,
cattle belonging to the deceased are killed. We have known
as many as a hundred beasts killed in this way at a funeral.
Every man's ambition is to set aside a number of fine large
oxen to be killed at his funeral, and these he will not part
with for love or money. They are named the masunto,
and are killed on the second day of the mourning. As
many as five are killed immediately ; they are called
ing'ombe sha mavhwika (" the wrapping-up cattle "), because
the skins are used to lay at the bottom of the grave and
to wrap round the corpse. If, as in the case described
above, a man has no cattle, his friends may contribute
these wrappings and also cattle for the feast. The flesh
of the ox whose skin is laid on the floor of the grave is
not eaten by the mourners but is given to the dogs.1 As
already related (see Vol. I. p. 305), every one who brings a

1 Writing to me in Nov. 191 7, Captain Dale describes the funeral of
Kakobela, one of the most prominent of the Ba-ila chiefs. " I promised
to send an ox, and Kakobela, before he died, said he would wait for it
below, and ordered that no one was to kill until it came or he would be
displeased ; only his own oxen might be killed first. The first day ten
were killed, four being left to the dogs, next day ten, and the next ten ;
then all the people from the districts began to kill. The fifth day his
own people began to kill — those on the left side of the village ; the next
day all from the other side, and then his people from outlying kraals.
The corpse was put on three dry skins, and wrapped in a blanket. Then
shells (impande) were put all over him— on the head, under the armpits,
and on the back, then beads ; bracelets for which there was no room on
him were put in a basket, together with tobacco (for he would be in great
trouble without it), pipes, mealies for seed, also Kaffer corn, millet, mabele,
ground-nuts. He was then covered with four blankets given by his children
and fresh ones for him were put in a box. Fat was put all over him and
his pipe put into his mouth. Then finally the people addressed him :
' Lubeta Iwako luambe, utalutola lubeta anshi, pe, kuyaya chishi chako '
(' Speak out your complaints now (if you have them), do not take them
with you below to destroy your community '). As there was no answer
he was taken to be satisfied, and the funeral proceeded."— E. W .S.

ch.xxi THE DOCTRINE OF SOULS in

chidizho has the right to receive an equivalent or more from
the deceased's estate.

A word as to the killing of these animals. It is done in
a cruel manner, for the beasts are not slain outright, but
speared in an unvital spot and allowed to bleed to death.
We have, on some occasions, been allowed to put an end to
their sufferings with a rifle bullet. They are mostly torn to
pieces in a few minutes without being flayed.

The mourners at a funeral seem to have three objects :
to make themselves look as unhappy as possible, to make
as much noise as they can, and to eat and drink to the
utmost. The men smear themselves with clay and ashes,
the women also plaster themselves over and neglect their
appearance entirely. We have never noticed any self-
mutilation at these ceremonies, but whether it be the natural
consequence of grief or some vague idea of pleasing the
spirit of the deceased, certainly they look most haggard
and miserable. Yet this does not apply to all : we have
seen many people at a funeral looking very happy.

By way of making a noise drums are kept sounding
day and night, and there are singing and dancing as well.
At the funeral of old Sezongo, at Nanzela, this went on for
a month with hardly an hour's cessation ; while one party
feasted another would sing and drum and dance night and
day.

The writer of the notes above expresses his surprise at
the nature of the funeral songs. One would expect, perhaps,
songs reflecting on the sadness of life and death, the shortness
of the one and the inevitableness of the other ; or at least
praising the virtues of the deceased. But the songs we
have heard have been either extolling the living chief or
phallic — mostly phallic. Some of these songs we have
recorded and give the substance of them here with a transla-
tion ; it being understood that all songs are sung with
almost endless variation and repetition.

i. Kwezhiwa, musale umambako,
Koya musolobole !
Mama ! Musale,
Koya musolobole '\

" Come, select your paramour : go take her out.
Dear oh dear, select her, go take her out."

D
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en. xxi THE DOCTRINE OF SOULS 113

2. Ni wakudi ku mayoba
Buka, untebe wo !
Buka, untebe wo !

" You who were at the rains get up and lie with me, get up
and lie with me."

3. Mu lubambo shinaile mo ;
Mu lubambo shinaile mo ;
Mu lubambo uiye !

" I have not yet been concerned in lubambo
I have not yet been concerned in lubambo.
Have a try at lubambo !

4. Ma ! Ma ! Ma ! Diakomena itoni diakwe !
Ndia mulolobozho

Kudikwete kudilolobola.

" Dear ! dear ! dear ! His great penis is a size ! It is a thing
without an end. It must have had a long unwinding ! '

5. Munkundanguzu,
Chanda ncha masanga.

" Most energetic in copulation (remember that) the old house is
only made of grass."

6. Uswe kesu kabanga kadibangamene
Umwe chenu chishinshi chidishinshibele.

This has a double meaning. Literally : "As for us, our little
axe is long; as for you the stump is short." The secondary
meaning is : " As for us the penis is erect ; as for you the
clitoris is small."

7. Umwa mukazhima ikongo mbi mbi !
Ome mwangu mudi tushino tubotu.

" In my fellow wife the clitoris is very black,
In myself there are small and pretty labiae."

When we have expressed our astonishment at women
singing such songs — for it is the women that sing them —
the elders have quoted the proverb " Ushidilwe taitwa ku
bushu " ("A mourner is not to be passed before the face "),
i.e. he or she has licence to do whatever he or she pleases.
Under ordinary circumstances it would be reckoned taboo
for women to utter such things in the presence of men ;
but at funerals all restraints are removed. People do as
they like. Grass may be plucked out of the thatched roofs ;
the fields may be robbed of the growing corn ; all passions

vol. 11 1

ii4

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. IV

fcG&4>

are let loose ; and no complaint for damage, theft, or adultery
can be made. This last item used to be the case ; nowadays
fines are claimed.

In old times a funeral of an important person at Nanzela
was the scene of much violence. As old men have described
it to us, it seems to have been like this. When a chief
died, a great pit was dug and a mat spread at the bottom.
Upon this were laid the bodies of several slaves, who had
been knocked on the head for the purpose ; and upon these
was placed the chief's corpse ; on either side bodies of his
wives and at the head and feet bodies of his children. Over
all these were placed other corpses and the grave was filled in.
If any stranger happened to pass he was promptly killed
and added to the pile. Women would voluntarily jump
into the grave and surfer themselves to be buried alive
with their husband. This custom, which seems never to
have existed among the Ba-ila proper, has now happily
died out.

So far we have dealt with normal or natural deaths ;
we may add a few notes on special practices on other
occasions.

Among the Bambala it is the custom not to bury a
child who dies before cutting its teeth but to throw it out
into the bush.

When a woman dies in childbirth, it is customary to
bury the child, alive or dead, clasped in its mother's arms.
We have been instrumental in preventing this in a few
instances ; but have reason to suppose that it is still done.
In one case we remember it was the woman's mother who
was most insistent upon the usual custom being carried
out. We gave the child into her charge and showed her
how to feed it artificially, but only succeeded in prolonging
its life for a short time, for the old woman so neglected it
that it soon died.

A pregnant woman must have the child removed before
she is buried. An example of this was reported to us by
Rev. W. Chapman from Nambala. In Feb. 1912 there was a
woman at Mpone's village, seven months with child. She was
taken ill and died four days after. While she was lying ill
nobody attended to her. The husband was away at a beer

ch.xxi THE DOCTRINE OF SOULS 115

drinking. When she died, the child was taken away by
the husband's mother. At first it was arranged that the
husband himself must do it. Then the mother came forward
and cutting into the upper part of the abdomen, while her
son held the light, brought out the child. When it was
taken out, she held it up, saying : " Here it is, now you must
not say I have not taken it out." It was then taken and
buried in another grave. No one must be near at the time.
If this were not done, the woman would rise up and her
ghost would kill people. The husband had to remain in
the hut during the burial.

If a person after death is suspected of harassing people 1
by killing them or bringing other misfortune upon them,
the corpse is taken up and burnt. Or in some instances,
where through ill-treatment or sheer malice, a person has
expressed an intention on his or her deathbed of returning
to haunt the living, then no burial takes place ; the corpse
is simply thrown out into the bush or burnt.

Rev. W. Chapman writes us : "A man came to me one
day, saying : ' Will you please come and see my wife who is
ill and give her medicine ? ' I accompanied him to the
village, and on entering his hut a most sickening and
repulsive sight met my gaze. An old woman about seventy
was lying on the ground by the side of the fire with arms,
legs and parts of her body a mass of deep-seated fetid sores.
Her surroundings were indescribably filthy. The miserable
little hut was full of blinding smoke ; a pot of coarsely
ground meal was simmering over a low fire, a putrid stench
pervaded the whole place, and there were abundant signs
of neglect. It was a hopeless case, indeed the wonder was
that she was still alive. The following morning when I
enquired of the husband how his wife was, he replied,
' She is no better, other sores are breaking out ; she will
most likely die to-day for the rats have begun to eat her
already.' That day the poor soul was released from her
sufferings. But to my surprise there was not the usual
mourning. The reason, as I afterwards learnt, was this :
The old woman had said just before she died : ' You people
neglect me, you do not bring me water and food as you
ought ; when I am dead I will come back and trouble

n6 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

you.' So a noted doctor was sent for from a neighbouring
village and after various incantations had been gone through
and the people protected by his various medicines from the
power of the old woman's ghost, the corpse was taken into
a lonely place in the veld. And there a huge pile of firewood
was collected and set alight. The doctor then cut up the
corpse and threw it on the fire bit by bit, going through
numerous incantations the while. When the process of
cremation was completed, the ashes were scattered to the
winds so that the old woman's purpose might be completely
frustrated."

In case of a person drowned, whose body is not recovered,
or of any one who loses his life in such a way that the body
is not available for burial, the funeral rites are gone through
and some of the person's belongings are buried. Sometimes
a person gets burnt in a veld fire ; if the remains are dis-
covered they are taken to the village, unless it is too far
and then they are buried on the spot ; but in any case the
ceremonies take place at the village. The same is done if
a person dies far from home, if his absence was only a
temporary one. As for a woman who is married into another
district, she is buried there and some of her people will
travel to her funeral ; others remaining behind bunga
idilwe ("hold the funeral"), but without any burial of
things. In all these cases the ghost returns to the paternal
home of the deceased.

Suicides are buried in the usual way, and their ghosts
are not feared more than others. All they think is that
the ghost of a suicide is a shingonzunzu, discontented,
rebellious, headstrong, and will be likely to cause whoever it
is reincarnated in to commit suicide. In one case we knew,
of a man who blew out his brains in the bush some distance
from the village, the body was carried back to the village
for burial, but all the funeral rites took place on the spot
that was bespattered with his blood ; and the little spirit-
temple was erected there. We were told that the ghost is
\\ where the blood is, hence this practice.

The funeral rites of a stranger are carried out in the
usual way in the village where he dies. The news is sent
back to his home and the relations have to provide a

ch. xxi THE DOCTRINE OF SOULS 117

musambo, i.e. something to cleanse the village — kusalazha
munzlii — from the defilement of the corpse. This generally
takes the form of an ox, which is killed and eaten by the
villagers. This done, the ghost returns to its home.

So much for facts : what can we learn from them ?

We may say here, that we have always tried to ascer-
tain what meaning the people give to their own practices.
Generally speaking, they can give no reason other than that
they do as their fathers did. Sometimes we have got a
reason, and have noticed often that their theories do not
coincide with the theories deduced by anthropologists from
similar or identical practices elsewhere. This is not to say
that the theories of anthropologists are unsound ; they may
be truer than the explanations given by the people to inquisi-
tive enquirers. For, leaving out the fact that has always to
be borne in mind, that people seek often deliberately to
mislead enquirers, the original intention of a practice may
be forgotten and a purely fanciful one put in its place.

So with regard to the things buried with the corpse
and the cattle slain at the funeral. These world-wide
practices seem to point to a belief in a spirit-world where
life is lived much as it is lived here on earth ; where men
and women need the things they needed here, food and
drink and tobacco, hoes and spears and cattle and slaves ;
so that food is buried in the grave that its shadowy counter-
part may be taken by the ghost of the deceased whither it
goes ; and the cattle and slaves and wives and children
are killed for the same reason, that the deceased may
continue to derive from them the comfort and joy he
experienced on earth. This appears to be a rational
explanation of the customs. But if a Mwila is asked why
they kill the cattle, he will answer that they are to feed
and comfort the mourners. We have heard men strongly
deny that the things buried with the corpse are taken by
the ghost ; they say the reason for burying them is that
they belonged to the deceased, and if they were not buried
the ghost would be angry and would return to trouble
them. When we asked about the custom of killing slaves,
etc., we were told that it was, not to provide the ghost with

n8 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

a retinue, but simply to show their grief. And as for the
wives throwing themselves into a grave, which we inter-
preted as due to their desire not to be separated from their
husband, had we not, they asked, heard of people in our
country killing themselves out of sheer grief ? What about
a certain European who had recently committed suicide,
was not that due to some sorrow ? We should say that a
child is buried with its mother in order that the mother
may keep it in the spirit world, but they will not have it
so : the child is buried simply because of the impossibility
of rearing it artificially and because women will not, and
may not, nurse children other than their own.

As to the noise at funerals, and the deshabille of the
mourners, some would say that they were due to fear of
the ghost, and a desire to drive it away, others to the desire
to show respect to the deceased ; but the Ba-ila give the
meaning simply as grief. How can any one, they say,
be happy and clothe nicely when a friend is dead ? At
Chongo's funeral, after watching the men charging up and
down, all dressed in war toggery, we suggested to some that
it looked as if they were engaged in a battle with death.
This was taken as a huge joke and was quickly passed round :
' The missionary says you look as if you were fighting
death."

We notice, therefore, a tendency to give these practices
a meaning other than a spiritistic one ; but at the same time
there is no doubt in our minds that the Ba-ila believe im-
plicitly in the survival of personality after death. They
state this without reserve, and, as we shall see, seek to come
into communion with the departed.

Most significant of this are the last words sometimes
addressed to a corpse: " Kochiya ! Kukashimuna kabotu
kudi babo bakatanguna kufwa, ati, Ndabashia balalanga
kabotu " ("A good journey ! Tell them well who died before
you : I left them living well ").

2. The Destination of the Departed

We have not met with a Mwila who would dogmatise
as to the destination of the dead. We may sum up as

CK. XXI

THE DOCTRINE OF SOULS

119

follows the answers to our inquiries : the ghost goes under-
ground or somewhere to the east, or hovers in the vicinity
of the grave or lives in the houses of the living ; it becomes
an animal or lives in a tree, or rock or ant-hill ; it becomes
an evil spirit or a divinity that is worshipped : it may for
a time possess a person ; sooner or later, unless prevented
by certain untoward circumstances, it is reincarnated.

We will take up these points one by one ; and here deal
with the first.

Many place the location of Hades (Kubashikufwa :
where the dead are) deep down under the ground. They
say that there are collected the spirits of all cattle and wild
animals as well as the ghosts of men. In that shadowland
things go on much as they do here : the hunters still hunt,
fishers fish, and there is marrying and giving in marriage.
This, however, is not a conception prevalent widely among
the Ba-ila proper, but seems to be that of the Bambala.

Among the Ba-ila, we have often heard it said that Hades
is somewhere in the east. Thus one old man said their
fathers told them the basangushi ("ghosts") went Kwiwe,
' to the east," but he did not know just where, nor whether
their fathers had ever been there to see or how they knew.
When a man dies they often say to him : " Utakunjila u
manda a bantu, koya kwiwe kwa Chilenga " (" Do not enter
into people's houses, go to the east, to the Creator "). Of
a corpse it is said sometimes : " Utamutanzha a mwaka, no
tnupniile ambo, utamululamikidi a mwaka, wachita bobo
ulazhimina " (" Do not turn his head to the south, put it to
the west : do not lay him north and south, for if you do he
will lose himself ").

The corpse is placed, as we have seen, west and east,
with the head to the west ; but the head is bent down so
that if the corpse could see it would look towards the east ;
if at one time the custom was to bury in a sitting position,
it would be looking towards the rising sun, i.e. in the direction
whither the ghost is supposed to go.

We believe that this has to do with the direction from
which the Ba-ila immigrated into this country ; for as we
have seen, there is a vague tradition that they came from
the east.

Sifc

•

120

THE ILA-SPEAKINCx PEOPLES

PT. IV

Another idea among the Ba-ila is that the ghosts of the
dead continue to hover about the place they used to inhabit ;
either near the grave or actually in the houses of the living.
Certain practices appear to be founded on this belief.

It is the general custom to plant a circle of sticks, chosen
from trees that easily sprout, around the grave, so that in
a few years there is a grove of trees to mark the place.
These groves are called mabwabwa. Over the grave and

Photo II. II'. Smith.

The Mabwabwa around a Grave.

within the circle of sticks, a small hut is erected, consisting
simply of a few short uprights and a roof of grass. Some-
times these " temples " are situated other than over the
graves. On moving his village to a new site, a chief will
often move the temples of his fathers and rebuild them
near his huts in the new village. One chief we know has
no fewer than six of these outside his principal hut. In
this way the ghosts are brought to the new habitation of
the living.

It is at these temples that offerings and prayers are
made to the ancestral spirits. This shows that the ghosts

122 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

are supposed to be near the place where they lived their
mundane life.

If ever there was a people conscious of being surrounded
by a great cloud of witnesses it is the Ba-ila. They might
say with Milton :

" Millions of spiritual creatures walk the earth
Unseen, both when we wake and when we sleep."

In and around the village and in the huts themselves they
are continually present. There are certain people who,
in virtue of musamo ("medicine"), can see them; and
occasionally a ghost appears to a person when he is awake.
But the latter is an ill omen, and, generally speaking, though
the ghosts are everywhere they do not appear to men.
They are, however, visible to dogs and other animals. We
were in the early days of our residence foolish enough to
smile when an old man was telling us about the ghosts.
" Ah ! " he said. " You do not believe. But will you tell
me why your dog barks so much at night when all is quiet ?
He sees the ghosts, to be sure." Many are the tales told of
the ghosts. Here is one native account of their doings.

" This is what a ghost does. He comes back to his house
and taking hold of its door like a living man, opens it as if
to enter. His widow, if awake, calls out : ' Who are you,
opening the door ? ' Getting no answer, she rises from the
bed, dresses, and goes to the door. She finds it open — the
door removed. She says nothing but replaces the door ;
she knows that it is the master of the house, the ghost,
her dead husband, who opened the door. Perhaps she will
ask her new husband : ' You, lying there, didn't you hear
some one open the door ? ' And he may answer, ' No, no,
I heard nothing.' Then she may tell him how she found
the door open. When this happens, the widow and the
eater of the dead man's name do not make the door fast :
they simply lean it up against the doorway, so that the
ghost may have free ingress.

" The reason why people are forbidden to stand about
a doorway is that ghosts are always near the doorways of
houses, wanting to enter, and if a man stands there thej?'
will make him fall to the ground. And if a man comes

ch.xxi THE DOCTRINE OF SOULS 123

with a big heart (i.e. with evil intentions) into any house
where there is a ghost, he will stumble and fall just there j J
at the doorway. Why ? Because the ghost seeing that
he has not come with kind intent will throw him down.
Seeing which people say to him : ' Come graciously, not
with a big heart, that is why you fell at the doorway.'
That is how a ghost helps the people in his house ; and
that is why the ghosts' people trust them. The ghosts save
them from their enemies, those who would kill and harm
them in any way whatever.

" Again, when a man coming in from a journey drinks
water he begins by pouring out a few drops ; before he
eats, he throws a little piece of the bread on the ground,
and after that he can eat well. If he doesn't do that, but
simply eats at once, and a piece falls from his hand, he
knows that the ghosts are asking for a taste. That is how
all Ba-ila do. They pay regard to the ghosts. ; When they
smoke, they first throw a piece of tobacco on 'the ground
for the ghosts. Should a man eat without recognising the
ghost, he would vomit and grow sick and people know he ate
by himself. He lived with a ghost and forgot -to make an
offering."

The Matongo 1 are the sites now unoccupied once
inhabited by people. They are found all over the country,
for within certain areas the Ba-ila move about every few
years — because the soil is exhausted or because a new chief
does not want to disturb the ghosts of the ancestors. Or
it happens that a community dies out or is dispersed by
war or plague. These Matongo are held sacred. People
are as afraid of passing by them at night as villagers in
England are afraid of passing the churchyard. Here live
the ghosts of the people who once resided on the spot.

They are not happy in their deserted position, but live
disconsolately in the trees, cold and hungry. When one of
the writers took up his residence at Ibamba we had an
interesting conversation with an old chief on this topic.
Many years before there had been a large community living
at Ibamba but it had come to an end. Ghosts, he told us,

1 The Zulus call the spirits of the dead Matongo. The Ila word
muzhimo is rarely heard among them in the form Umzimo

124 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

are always glad when there is a village near, so that they
can come and warm themselves at the fires and have friends
to bring them food and drink. Since the Ibamba people died
out, the ghosts had been living in the trees, now they would
rejoice as the place was to be occupied once more. Here,
evidently, is the other side of the truth that the living
reverence and worship the dead : the dead are dependent
upon the living for their happiness.

3. Metempsychosis

The Ba-ila are firm believers in the doctrine of
metempsychosis : that is, that at death a person passes
into another living creature, man, animal, or plant. We
deal now with the transmigration into animals.

We will first by means of a story which gained universal
credence throughout the country some years ago, illustrate
their belief in metamorphosis— the change that a living
person may undergo (temporarily) into the form of an
animal.

A man in the Bunkoya country was in time of famine
searching for roots. He sat down after a while to rest and
suddenly descried several lions dragging an eland. He
hastily climbed a tree under which the lions finally deposited
their spoil. Then they turned themselves into men and
after eating lay resting, when one of them looking up
observed the man in the tree. They thereupon begged
him to descend, which he naturally refused to do. All
then began pushing and swaying the tree until the man
dropped down. They then having questioned him gave
him a leg of eland and warning him to say nothing of what
he had seen, sent him home. The frightened man, however,
no sooner got a short distance away than he dropped his
meat and fled for safety. The men promptly reassumed
the form of lions, chased and caught him. They brought
him back to the tree, and one of the young lions strongly
urged that he should be put to death. The elders, probably
in a good humour from a plentiful meal, forbade this and
after again warning him sent him off home. This time he
obeyed and reaching his village informed the people that

ch. xxi THE DOCTRINE OF SOULS 125

he had found a dead eland. To his wife only he related
what had actually happened. She naturally told others,
with the result that when her husband went out two days
afterwards to gather firewood he was killed and eaten by
lions.

Many men, it is said, have the power derived from
powerful medicine to turn themselves into a lion or hyena
or wild dog, and to go out at night-time to hunt animals.
It is even said that they will take people out of their huts
into the forest and eat them. We remember a strike amongst
some of our workmen because, as they said, a stranger
whom we had just engaged had this unpleasant power ;
he was a were-wolf. They refused to work with him or to
have him on the premises. Needless to say, could they be
sure of any man thus changing his shape the mudisangiizhi
("the self-changer") would have short shrift. Under the
old conditions any one suspected of such doings would have
met with a swift fate as a mulozhi.

Believing then in metamorphosis, it is easy for them
to believe that the dead can become animals. Numerous
people are said thus to change. It depends upon their
own wishes and whether they can obtain the necessary
medicine.

Curiously enough, it is only more or less dangerous
beasts that men choose to become : the lion, leopard,
hyena, wild dog, elephant, the shimakoma snake, and the
(fabulous) Itoshi monster. Sometimes a person may choose
to become all the first four or five of these. A doctor
provides the necessary medicine. He cuts small pieces of
the hide of each animal chosen and puts them to soak in
a potful of water to which he adds certain roots. The
pot is carefully covered and put away. After a time they
find worms in the pot and these are removed. If it is a
quadruple operation the doctor professes to pick out the
worms that represent the four animals and puts in the
man's mouth two of the lion, two of the leopard, two of
the hyena, two of the wild dog. Sometimes they are added
to porridge, but in any case the man must swallow them
without chewing, so that they enter his body alive. He is
not allowed to eat hot food, nor must he get wet. If one

126

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. IV

should pour a little water on him he would go mad, showing
the strength of a lion and roaring and barking like all those
four animals, until they bring live coals, on which some
drug is sprinkled, and make him inhale the fumes. And at
a funeral, when he sees the blood-stained earth where cattle
have been killed, the frenzy may return. He rushes to the
grave, and if not speedily prevented will dig down to get at
the corpse. When he comes to die, he roars like a lion,
cries like a leopard, howls like a hyena, barks like a wild
dog, and then expires. When he is buried, a long hollow reed
is inserted in the ear and the other end of it left to protrude
above the surface, the opening being carefully covered over
with a potsherd. Along this channel emerge the worms
from the corpse and grow into the animals named. Or,
before the man dies he may vomit up the worms, and these,
after his death, become the animals.

Two points must be noticed. The person does not enter
into an already existing animal, but becomes an animal.
The animal is not born, it simply develops out of the worm.
The ghost of the man has already taken its course, gone to
the east or taken up its abode near the grave. While
the hyena or lion is wandering about, the people will
still come to the grave to make their offerings. And
the fact of having become a lion is no bar against being
reincarnated.

It was like this with the old chief Sezongo at Nanzela.
Some time after his death we visited his grave and found
some men sweeping the hut in which he was buried. There
was a tortoise in the hut and we were informed that it was
Sezongo. They scraped some earth from the grave, dis-
closing a potsherd, which they moved, shewing the orifice
of a reed. It was along this the tortoise had come, so they
said, but they meant that worms had come along the reed
and changed into the tortoise. We heard subsequently
that two lion cubs had appeared in the hut and it was an
accepted fact that Sezongo had become two lions. A year
or so later a number of lions, ten or a dozen, came one night
and made the earth shake with their roaring. The people
were much impressed. They said the lions had come from
afar to salute the two who were Sezongo.

CH. XXI

THE DOCTRINE OF SOULS

127

Some time afterwards, Sezongo's son had a son born to
him, and it was proved to be the old chief who had returned
to earth.

The question occurs to a European — it would not occur
to a native — where is Sezongo ? At the grave where to-
day he is " worshipped," in the tortoise, in the lions, or in
the boy running about the village ? There seems to be
either a curious confusion of thought or a conception of
the " soul " as bipartite or tripartite.

Smith.

The Grave of Sezongo II. at Nanzela.

Leaving that for discussion later, another question arises :
What is the relation between the people and the lion who
was once their chief, and in particular what is the relation
between the lion who is Sezongo and the boy in the kraal
who is also Sezongo ?

Some people would answer that the lion was the boy's
external or " bush " soul, and the relation between the two
was so close and intimate that the well-being of the one
depended upon that of the other. But the Ba-ila have no
such belief. As we shall see presently, the boy has a guardian

128 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

which seems at first almost like a fourth Sezongo, but which
certainly is not the lions.

To the community that lion is more or less sacrosanct.
They will not kill it if they can avoid doing so, and further,
they will seek to prevent a European from killing it. Should,
however, it take to man-eating they will give their scruples
to the wind ; be he ten times their chief, they are not going
to let him devour them !

We were once asking a man about his totem and he said
he was of the Banashumbwa or lion clan. Asked if he would-
eat lion flesh, he said he would though the elders would
not ; there was but one lion that he would not eat. It
seems that a man named Nachibanga of the lion clan
had turned into a lion and none of the clan, not even the
young men, would eat it if they got the chance. Nor
would they attack it, nor would it attack them. If they
were to meet, so this man told us, the lion would simply
look at them and seeing that they were his clansmen would
wag its tail and trot off. Sometimes a lion, that is one of
these persons in lion-form, will chase one of his old friends,
but he is only having a game with him. If instead of
running, the man stops and addresses the " lion " by name
{i.e. the name of the deceased), "he" turns away. If a
man meets a wild-dog and recognises in it an old chum, he
says : "Go and get me some meat, there's a good fellow ! '
It goes off, finds some game, chases one in the direction of
the man's village, then kills and leaves it. The vultures
soon congregate, and so the man finds the meat his friend
has got for him.

Sometimes going through the forest, people may disturb
a lion at its meal and perhaps the lion will leave its kill for
them. In such a case the party will recognise the lion as
one of their friends and will loudly thank it for remembering
them and killing them such a fine animal.

The imagination of the Ba-ila has peopled the rivers and
hills and pools and forests of their country with a great
many monsters, which, without more proof of their existence
than we have at present, we can only consider to be fabulous.

Chief among these is the nix, the great water monster,
named Itoshi by the Nanzela people and called by the

ch.xxi THE DOCTRINE OF SOULS 129

Ba-ila simply mupuka, or muzoka (" reptile," " great snake ").
All rivers and lakes in Africa are probably thought to
be inhabited by similar monsters. In the Victoria Nyanza
there is Lukwata.1 The Batonga speak of the Maloa in the
Zambesi and the Barotsi of the Lengongole. Mr. Worth-
ington tells us that Lewanika informed him he once
saw the latter when he was a young man. It was walking
along the bank of the river ; it had a body like a hippopo-
tamus in size and a tail like an iguana, which swung from
side to side as it walked. From Stow's Natives of South
Africa (pp. 13 1-2) we learn that the Bushmen painted
animals that are not seen in these degenerate days. One
of these described by an old Bushman woman was 'Kow-
kign 'koo-ron ("Master of the water"), of enormous size,
far larger and more formidable than the hippopotamus.

There was talk some years ago of an expedition to
Central Africa to search for a dinosaurus whose existence
was reported by the natives, described as having the
head of a crocodile, with rhinoceros horns, a python's
neck, the body of a hippo, and a crocodile's tail, all of
great size.

It is to this class of creature that Itoshi belongs. It
has been described to us as big as a very large Ihunga
thorn-tree, with the body of a crocodile, the head of a
man, and the fins of a fish, and upwards of fifty feet in
length. It is generally invisible to all but those who have
the proper medicine ; should it appear to others it means
death. It seizes people and takes them into its burrow
under the river-bed. When this happens, a person duly
protected by medicine goes along the bank and sits there
praying for the captive's release, and maybe succeeds.
Numerous adventures are related by people of their narrow
escapes from these monsters.

What concerns us here is the fact that many people,
especially chiefs, enter the water after death and become
these monsters. Along a short stretch of the Kafue at
Kasenga, no fewer than ten chiefs have been named as

1 H. H. Johnston, Uganda, vol. i. pp. 79-80. The author thinks the
lukwata may be a small cetacean or a large form of manatee or a gigantic
fish.

VOL. II . K

130 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

living in the river, and our informant added that there were
many more whose names he did not know. Nor is it only
in the Kafue that they are found ; its tributaries abound
in them. At Nanzela, Namongwe, who was the chief some
generations ago, and Shantalo, one of his successors, are
both now in the river in the form of matoshi.

Here is a description, given to us by a doctor, of the way
a man is treated in order to become an Itoshi :

" You go and dig up musamo, bring the root, scrape off
the bark, and spread it out to dry. When it is dry you
grind it into a powder. Then you bring a scale of the
Itoshi, the head of a python, the head of a Mulala (dragon),
heads of other snakes, and a powdered reed, and mix them
all up together. Of these you make a little bread. You
break off a bit, put it on the ground, pick it up with your
mouth and swallow it. When your health begins to fail,
you will be very quick in dying unless they go to the river,
bring some wet mud, and smear it on your heart. Then
they must bring you a little bit of python skin and after
soaking it in water put it in your hands. They also put
palm-string in your hands, because being long it is like a
snake. When you die, from your decaying body there will
come out an Itoshi and a python ; indeed many snakes.
When grown the Itoshi goes into the river and the snakes
go into the veld."

At the funeral of Chongo, mentioned by us already, we
learnt from Mungaila that, being of the Bakubi clan and
having " eaten ' the necessary medicine, Chongo was to
become an Itoshi. In two days' time they expected him to
emerge through the reed in the grave and take up his quarters
in the hut where he used to live. There the people would
feed him on lizards and fish until he was full grown, when his
clansmen would accompany him to the river. He added
that the place in the Kafue destined to be his home was at
Munga-wa-nkanga. We saw Mungaila again a few days
later and were told that Chongo was then in the hut. We
wanted very much to go in and watch him enjoying his
lizards and fish, but were told it was impossible just then.
The next time we were at the village Mungaila said they
had already been in procession to Munga-wa-nkanga and

CH. XXI

THE DOCTRINE OF SOULS

131

put Chongo into the river. So we had missed the chance
of seeing him.

Besides these in the rivers, there are said to be various
bapuka inhabiting ant-hills, rocks, and trees, who once were
men. These places are regarded with great awe by the
people ; they are tonda (" taboo ") : no firewood may be
gathered there nor earth taken for building purposes.

There is a grove of trees in the Mala chishi, for example,
said to be inhabited by a monster called Shichonka. A
very long time ago it was a man. It is regarded as the
guardian of the Nyungwe clan. If enemies come, it makes
them weak at the knees.

At Chitumbi there are several of these sacred places.
The ancient chief of the place, Shikadio, lives in the form
of a mupuka beneath a great ant-heap ; others say he turned
into the ant-heap itself. When the Mission was founded
there, an old chief came from a distance to warn us that
this ant-heap must not be touched. Close by is another
great heap called Kafumpa, inhabited by another ancient.
We were warned that if we dug at these spots we should
die.

Besides creatures such as these, there are various sprites
living in pools and trees and forests which are difficult to
classify. According to some people they once were men,
but others deny it. They may be nature spirits, or they
may be transformed men : it is impossible to say. These
are the names of some of them : Luwe, Kaluwetoba, Chi-
binda, Mwabi. Of these Luwe is a one-legged goblin that
rides about the forest mounted on an eland. He prevents
people from killing game but is himself a great hunter.
They say the antelopes are his cattle. Some people say it
is possible to get medicine from Luwe for hunting.

On the top of Nambala mountain there is said to be a
very deep pool of water in which one of these beings lives.

There is Chobochobo. A man told us once that he had
not seen it but had heard of it from his father. It lives in
a certain pool in the forest. He told us of a man who long
ago dived into this pool and was given very powerful medi-
cine for hunting elephant and buffalo. It gives others good
luck. It is a benevolent fairy.

trtf

132 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

4. Various Kinds of Ghosts

We have spoken of various kinds of ghosts ; it will be
well at this stage to attempt some kind of classification of
them.

The general name for them is basangushi (" the changed
people"). The word is derived from kusanguka ("to be meta-
morphosed "). They are regarded generally as beneficent or
neutral, but may be induced by neglect to make people
sick. They enter certain people and speak through them
to men ; or they appear in dreams.

The mizhimo (sing, muzhimo) are basangushi in their
capacity as divinities, " worshipped " by the people.

Some people at or before death are, as we have seen,
" pressed " and their ghosts taken as slaves by the witches.
These ghosts are variously named : mazwa, tuzwa, bashi-
kazwa (sing, chizwa, kazwa, shikazwa) — all forms of the
same word.

There is some idea that these are not always in the charge
of witches ; perhaps they escape or survive them ; anyhow
they act as free agents. They cause disease, sometimes, by
entering into a person. They waylay people and strike
them dead. They act, sometimes, in sheer devilry, it
seems, knocking burdens off people's heads, breaking hoes,
unhandling axes, upsetting pots of beer, and so on.

Another kind of ghost, closely allied to the mazwa, is
the tuyobela (sing, kayobela). They are also the ghosts of
men and women who have been " pressed " by witches and
are now in their service. They have two characteristics
peculiar to themselves : first, they chirp and twitter like
birds — hence the name (kuyobela, " to twitter "), and second,
they are dwarfish. We might call them elves. Some people
have seen them. Mungalo told us that he had : and he
was amazed to find what funny things they were. " What
are all these children ? " was his first thought. On looking
again he saw that, although they were very short, only
about eighteen inches high, they had the bodies of full-
grown men, only they were turned round the other way, so
that the bellies and faces were at the back ; their hair was
all standing upright. They live in and around their master's

ch.xxi THE DOCTRINE OF SOULS 133

hut, and his wife must cook plenty of food for them, or
they would beat her. They are sent out to steal, to make
people sick and to kill. We knew of one boy who was said
to have been bitten by them ; he fainted and the people
had to doctor him. They sometimes enter into people and
kosaula mala (" cut up the intestines ").

Another species of evil ghosts is the tunchinya (sing.
kanchinya) The mutalu is the vengeful, destructive demon
of an aggrieved person. The malendela are said to be
the ghosts of particularly brave men. Another species of
ghost, not regarded as malevolent, is the bashituta, the
characteristic of which is their silence (cf . the Zulu, isituta) .

Here is a typical ghost story. There was once a witch
who, beginning with those of her relations, had " pressed '
many ghosts. She was quite used to doing that. This is
what befell her. One day she found a ghost up in a
namuzungula tree, eating the flowers (they are called
chishonsho-momba). She called the ghost, saying, " Come,
let me carry you on my back." The ghost left off eating
the flowers, came dbwn from the tree, and got on to the
woman's back. She went off home, and on arrival there
said to the ghost, " Get down off my back." But the
ghost refused, saying, " No, I won't. You yourself called
me there where I was eating chishonsho-momba and bade
me get on your back."

Hearing this, the witch fetched some porridge and
invited the ghost to get off her back and eat. But the
ghost refused. She found some honey and miseza and
other delicacies and offered them to the ghost, but it refused
to get off her back. She then said, " Come off and I will
give you whatever you like." But the ghost refused, saying,
" No, I won't. You asked me — there where I was eating
chishonsho-momba — to get on your back and here I stay."
So the woman was in a bad way. She could not eat, nor
lie down, nor sit : she could only stand there with the
ghost on her back. Six days she neither sat, nor ate, nor
lay down. Then she began to totter at the knees and get
dizziness in the eyes. Then she lost the power of speech.
And on the ninth day the witch died and the ghost left
her and went its way.

134 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. rv

5. Dreams

According to the Ba-ila, the ghosts often make their
appearance to the living in sleep. To them the dream world
is as real as the waking world. When a man sees in his
sleep the phantom of a person he knows or used to know,
he has no doubt that the person, or the person's ghost, has
actually visited him. These appearances may be beneficent
or maleficent in intention. Missionaries find that very
often a dream is the turning-point of a man's life ; many
a convert, now doing useful service in the Mission, traces
back his conversion to a dream. One such bright young
man gave this as his experience. In sleep he stood on a
high mountain and saw the villages and people below.
Coming down he found a crowd collected at a river. There
was a missionary there, who lifted up his hand, with some-
thing in it, and immediately water flowed from it. The
people fell to the ground amazed, thinking the end of the
world had come. He (the dreamer) stood with folded
hands praying. Suddenly the scene changed. Now he
was in the river fishing and heard a voice saying, " Follow
me and I will make you fishers of men." Then he woke
up. We have been asked sometimes to interpret dreams,
and can bear witness to the extraordinary impression often
made by them on the minds of the people. But not all
dreams are caused by the ghosts. Some arise they know
not how and need interpretation. Like some civilised
people the Ba-ila interpret them often by contraries.

The following translation of notes dictated to us will
illustrate this :

It may be that when a person is lying asleep a ghost
comes to him and says : "Go and pluck such and such
leaves and use them as medicine for such and such a
disease." He gets up and in the morning he goes just where
the ghost told him, he goes and plucks that medicine and
uses it just as he was ordered. To others the ghost comes
in sleep and on arrival says : " To-morrow go to such and
such a place and you will find such and such a thing." So
in the morning he goes and finds it. To another, who has
a case in court, a ghost comes in sleep and says : "As for

ch. xxi THE DOCTRINE OF SOULS 135

this affair, you must speak in such and such a manner."
He does just so, he speaks and all believe what they are
told, and say: "He does not speak of himself, it comes
from dreaming." That is how they are convinced at the
court.

Or a hunter when he is lying asleep, a ghost comes and
tells him : "In the morning take your gun and go to hunt
at such and such a place." So next morning he goes and
finds game ; just where the ghost told him. The thing he
went for, he goes and kills just in the way he was told.

It may be that a man in sleep dreams, perhaps that
his father or mother or kinsman is dead ; that means, it
is not that one but another who is dead. It may be he
dreams his father is being carried or that he is nicely clothed,
or that he is fat— that means he is dead. He knows that
he is dead. If it be that he dreams his father is bathing
at the river, or that he is very white and thin, it means
that he is alive. If he dreams when asleep that a dog bites
him, it means that he must not go about that day, or he
will be bitten by a lion. Or if he dreams that his father is
bitten by a dog, it means it is another not his father who is
bitten by a lion.

If he dreams of marrying his relation, or embracing her,
it means meat ; he must go and hunt. If in sleeping he
dreams of pieces of tobacco, it means meat— the livers of
animals. He who dreams of weeping says : ' There is a
person dead, there is mourning."

If there be a sick person and there come two ghosts
to fetch him, and if they fight, it means they will kill him ;
he knows that he will die. If they simply come and tell
him about medicine, and say, " Do so and so," why, he
goes and does so and recovers. On the other hand, if the
sick man tells his friends, " I dreamed of ghosts who were
fighting about me," at once they go to a diviner and the
diviner divines, and having consulted the oracle he tells
them : " There were two ghosts fighting about him, one
is a deliverer, the other is the one who wants to kill. Now
go and make an offering to the deliverer, that he may go
on delivering. And the one who did not deliver, to him
also make an offering at the cross roads, at the foot of a

136 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

tree, that he may pass away." At once they go and make
offerings just in that way. They say : "You must never
return, pass away for ever." And they motion him off with
medicine.

The following, from another source, gives some more of
these dream omens :

" Again if you. dream of fish it is malweza. That dream
tells that next day a person will die. Truly he will
die. If next morning you tell people, " I dreamt of fish,
let us go to-day and kill fish in the water," the elders will
interpret, saying, " A person is going to die." Afterwards
a person who was sick will be wept for. If he dreams of flying
through the air, going flying over the trees, and next
morning tells them, " I dreamt of flying," they will tell
him, " You will live very well. It is life. That is a great
dream." If a person dreams of red beads it means meat,
he will kill an animal. Next morning he goes hunting in the
forest and kills an animal.

" Again if a person dreams of falling into a game pit,
next morning he tells people, " I dreamt of a game pit and
fell into it," and they answer, " You will die." Truly he
gets sick and dies."

6. Spirit Possession

A ghost may, according to the belief of the Ba-ila,
enter into a living person, temporarily, intermittently,
or permanently. The reincarnation of spirits falls in a
different category, for, as we shall see, it is not a case of a
spirit merely possessing any one but of its becoming actually
re-embodied in a new physical organism.

i. Temporary, transient, possession is conceived to take
place in the case of a person who commits murder. The
uncomfortable feelings that seize such a person, which we
should call remorse and attribute to conscience, they attri-
bute to the ghost of the murdered man. It is then said :
" Chia chamukwata" ("The chia seizes, possesses, him").
The ghost is supposed to take up its lodging in the region
of the epigastrium and can be expelled by the taking of an
emetic or by cupping. The physical basis for such a belief

ch. xxi THE DOCTRINE OF SOULS 137

is, of course, that the solar plexus becomes disturbed by
excitement of the higher centres.

There is another idea that seems more like obsession
than possession. A murderer or other evil-doer is said to
have Chanzu or Lwanzu, that is, the ghost of the murdered
man, or some other spirit, haunts him, or is in him — the
idea is very vague. A man we knew of went to stay at a
village and fell sick. The diviner declared that he was a
murderer and had Lwanzu. He was therefore driven away.
If he had been allowed to remain many others would have
died. At Munkwasa's village, at Nambala, there were two
men who had Lwanzu. One was a boastful person
{wadikankaika) so they beat him, and he repented and got
well. The other, who was an adulterer, was sold into slavery.

These conceptions remind us of the Erinnyes.

2. Temporary possession is also the cause assigned to
many cases of illness. As we saw before, delirium is put
down to the basangushi. We were called once to see a man
who was said to be possessed. We found him lying in his
hut wrapped in a blanket. He was conscious and could
answer feebly our questions. He was in a state of prostra-
tion ; his pulse weak, his temperature below normal. He
had pains in the frontal region of the head and in the nape
of the neck. Two days before he had come from across the
Kafue at midday : and it was an extremely hot day. That
evening he complained of being sick and fell into convulsions.
They thought it was a ghost, and as is the custom, asked
him who he was. The answer was, " I am Shacheza " — a
brother who had died recently. He recovered in a few days.
We diagnosed this case as heat-stroke.

3. There are people who are intermittently possessed.
They might be called demoniacs. A description of such a
case has been furnished us by Mr. L. C. Heath, the A.N.C.
at Chinenga, who had a good opportunity of watching it
and recording his impressions at once. He writes :

' Last night I was called to see a woman who was
dancing busala. I found the wife of Chungwe face down
on the ground and covered with dust. The limbs were
rigid, the eyelids quivering, and only the whites of the eyes
visible. The feet moved spasmodically and the head wagged

138 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

from side to side. This morning on inquiry I heard that
she was still in a fit and leave was asked to play drums
for her, a certain cure, it was said ; after dancing to the
drums she would sleep and recover. The woman was still
on the bed apparently unconscious when they commenced
to bang these drums immediately outside the hut. With
me in the hut there was a second woman who was said to
be similarly affected at times. As soon as the noise began
the woman on the bed began to twitch and jump about,
and would have fallen from the bed had I not directed the
other women to help her to the floor. She then grovelled
on the floor with her head in the dust, but presently began
to crawl on all fours to the door, still keeping her forehead
on the ground. The other woman gave a native rattle into
her hands which she grasped and shook violently and did
not at any time release her hold of it. I was surprised to
see her take it, as she appeared to be otherwise unconscious
and her eyes were still only showing their whites. The
drumming continued and the woman kept on throwing
herself about and kicking and rising to her knees, but no
further. She made noises at times with her mouth and the
drums were suppressed in order to accompany her ' song.'

" I became aware that the dinning sound of the drums
produces a perceptible feeling of vibration in the chest
which may be the cause of the excitement they produce.

" While the above was in progress the other woman
mentioned suddenly developed the complaint in a most
alarming manner. Her body moved like a whiplash with a
big knot at the end, her head, which seemed in danger of
being flicked off. She also had a rattle, and dropping it
during her contortions made several ineffectual efforts to
pick it up again, but was prevented apparently by the
action of her body. She had also a battle-axe, and I was
glad to see a man remove the sharp edge therefrom by
grinding it on the ground. Woman number one, then, was
more or less on the ground and kicking, and number two
in a state horrible to witness, when a third woman came
and made obeisance to the possessed. This was because
she felt the spirits calling her to dance but she was unwilling
to do so.

ch.xxi THE DOCTRINE OF SOULS 139

" The cure seemed to be out of order somehow and the
complaint too catching to be safe. So I had the drums
stopped and the women taken wriggling to their beds, and
after bathing their heads with cold water they are now
quiet and apparently asleep.

" (Next day.) There is more to chronicle on those
cases, though I had thought the incident closed.

" Woman No. 2 recovered yesterday afternoon and is
well again. She still has pain but in her neck only, where
the spirits congregated. (I wonder it is not dislocated.) ,

" Woman No. 1 had another attack last night and was
once more grovelling in the dust. Bathing her head with
cold water had no effect, and I was besought to have the
drums beaten for her again and refused.

" This morning she was much better again and able to
talk. She had pains in her neck of course. She was not
quite well, however, and I found they had given her a rattle
soon after I had been to see her and done everything in
their power to encourage her malady. They have now
taken her to their village.

" The following points may be noted :

" (a) The drum is played on these occasions in a peculiar
way described as kunzuma, kunzuma, kunzuma, kunzuma,
and the vibration is felt by all the natives in the manner I
mentioned as having been apparent to myself. Playing the
drum, on other occasions, as at dances, does not have this
effect, and I have not myself noticed it before.

" (b) On hearing a drum so beaten any busala dancer
within earshot, it may be miles away, they say, must needs
hurry with great speed to the spot and commence the
contortions described. In corroboration of this it may be
noted that the sick woman left her bed at once to go to the
drums, that the woman No. 2 came and danced to the
drums, and that woman No. 3 was affected and would
probably have started had I not stopped them.

" (c) Had the drums been beaten for long enough the sick
woman would have risen to her feet, spoken the name of the
spirit troubling her and then recovered, or she might have
gone on in this manner for several days and the drumming
should be carried on at intervals until she recovered.

140 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt.iv

" (d) The afflicted will not eat, and can only drink
water with a little meal stirred into it. Children, even
small babies, are affected in this manner, and are to be seen
wagging their heads while on their mothers' backs."

4. The kind of possession we have just described may
pass into another, not different in nature but in degree.
The persons may go on to deliver messages from the unseen
world and so be named bashinshimi or baami. Kushinshima
is to prophesy, the word being applied primarily to the low
muttering tone in which the person speaks.1 The name
basala applied to them indicates the people of the Busala
country, and is said to be given to them because the first
prophets came from that country. Most of them would be
called " mediums." The entering or using of such a person
by a ghost is described by the Ba-ila as kukwata (" holding '
or " seizing ").

A few notes (translated) written by one of our informants
will serve as an introduction to them.

" These are the affairs of a prophet. When a ghost enters
his chest he will prophesy. It will be that that ghost
causes him to prophesy. He enters his chest and then he
prophesies : ' Hi ! Hi ! ' The people answer him : ' Tell
who you are ! ' He answers, ' I am So-and-so.' They
say, ' We are humble. Tell the news that you have got
so that we may hear.'

" Then that prophet tells all the news, saying, ' I am So-
and-so, I have come to tell you the news. There is here at
the village a warlock who bewitches. Look out for him
and seize him, or here in the community you will all die of
disease or something.'

" Or he tells them if there is going to be a famine here,
or much grain this year, or whether there will be drought
and the rivers will not be full of water ; or whether the
rivers will be full, or whether this year it is to be abundance
and much grain.

" Or the prophet will prophesy after a man's death. If
he has been bewitched he will enter into a person and cause
him to prophesy, saying, ' I have come, why did I die ?

1 The word seems to be equivalent to the Arabic gllS, to utter a low
0 *
voice, whence ^.-J a prophet ; cf. Hebrew una

ch. xxi THE DOCTRINE OF SOULS 141

Why was I simply killed when I had no fault ? ' All the
people hear the news and say, ' So-and-so is possessed by
a ghost and he prophesies of So-and-so, he is asking about
his death. Says he, Why was I killed seeing I have no
fault ? ' Then his relations discuss those affairs of the
prophet. Again they will ask the prophet, ' Who is the
warlock ? ' He will tell them, saying, ' It is So-and-so.
He is the warlock who killed So-and-so.' Then the men
will kill the accused or they will drive him out of the
community — out he goes.

" The ghosts tell many things when they enter the chests
of people. One spirit when he seizes a person and prophesies,
will speak and say ' There will be a ravening here by
a lion.' Another will prophesy : ' So-and-so is pregnant,
I shall come to be born by her.' Another ghost seizes a
person and speaks to the people of the community : ' At
such and such a community they are plotting to kill you.'
Another ghost seizes and causes a person to prophesy, saying,
' So-and-so I shall kill if he does not brew beer and make
me an offering.' Or he says, ' He who ate my name does
not look after my children well : I shall kill him, or I shall
kill all the children and he will be left alone to his sorrow.'
He will say, ' Let him go out of the community, let him
build elsewhere if he does not make me an offering. Let
him brew beer.' That is how the ghosts speak in the chests
of people. That is how they cause them to prophesy and
tell all the news."

These prophets play a very important part in the life
of the Ba-ila. As the mouthpieces of the divinities they
are the legislators of the community and, generally speaking,
they receive a great deal of credit. Sometimes the message
they deliver is harmless enough, sometimes it is distinctly
good, but sometimes it is noxious. The word of the prophet
is sufficient to condemn to death for witchcraft a perfectly
innocent man or woman. And such is the extraordinary
credulity of the people that often they will destroy their
grain or their cattle at the bidding of a prophet.

We must distinguish two methods in which the message
is supposed to be conveyed to them. The Ila account
quoted above speaks only of the first, and most common

142 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

method : the message comes from the ghost " in the chest "
of the prophet. This is possession proper : a disembodied
spirit enters into the sensitive medium and uses his brain
and organs of speech. The communicator takes more or less
permanent possession of him : he may continue for a long
time to speak his messages, and the medium may even
call himself by the name of the spirit and be so named by
the people. Or the ghost may only occasionally use the
medium ; or again a medium may only once or twice be
so used. There are some mediums who are regularly
possessed by their own particular controls ; so that when-
ever a muzhimo communicates with his people it is through
this one individual.

The other method is different : it is that of ecstasy.
The spirit of the prophet makes an excursion into other
realms and comes back to tell what he has seen and heard.

There are some prophets who enjoy a very wide reputa-
tion, and their names have been handed down for generations.
The Bambala speak of no less than five famous prophets of
the past, of whom Mukubwe was the greatest. Another
most famous one was Longo, the mother of the chief
Shakumbila of the Basala. She was once captured by the
Makololo chief, Sekeletu, and taken by him as far as Ianda
on the way to Barotsiland. It is said that when on the
Kafue, Sekeletu ordered her to call Chinga — the chief at
Kaingu, thirty miles away. She went down to the river
and shouted his name : " Chinga ! Chinga ! " and then
came back to Sekeletu to say that Chinga had answered
and would be in the camp next morning. Sure enough he
was. On another occasion the Makololo set her to stamp
grain in a mortar, and she had no sooner started the work
than a stream of water gushed out of the mortar. She
performed such marvels as these, until the chief grew
afraid of her and sent her back to her home.

We will give some account of the prophets we have
knowledge of.

In December 1911 the chief Sachele, who had died about
six months before, began to speak through a woman : he
told the people that he had not been allowed to go to his
mother — the Longo spoken of above — in the spirit world

ch.xxi THE DOCTRINE OF SOULS 143

because she was angry with him for having been buried
with dogs in his grave instead of slaves. He told them that
he was living in the neighbourhood of the village and going
about hunting as he used to do in life. This prophet, like
most others, had a message demanding something from
the people ; in this case she gave out that all who went
to pay respects would be given rain and those who refused
would experience famine.

At the same time there was a man prophesying at
Kakoma's village, near the Nambala mission station.
His message was that there was going to be a lot of rain
and an abundance of fish of all kinds ; they would be found
on the banks of the river, and some would be already cooked.
He called the chiefs of the district to him but they refused
to go. He named one lad as his slave to do his bidding,
and the people insisted upon the lad doing it. As a proof
that it was going to rain he ordered a clay pot to be put
out, but unfortunately it was never filled and somebody
threw it away. The old women of the village used to tell
the children of the greatness of the prophet : last year,
said they, he told us that we should find an eland in a
game-pit and we found one, so you must honour him and
listen to what he says. The missionary was not very pleased
with him, as he told the people that praying to God was all
nonsense and that they would get no rain at the Mission !

The prophets claim sometimes to be possessed by
beings superior even to the mizhimo. It was so with a
man who called himself Chilenga, " the Creator," and
who appeared in 1909. He announced that he could destroy
a grub that was spoiling the crops. In obedience to his
commands the people brought him specimens of the grub
and he burnt some amidst incantations. But the grubs
did not cease their ravages. One would have thought
they would have lost faith in him, but undaunted he
ventured on loftier flights. He said that in a short time
he would turn the sun black for six days, destroy the bridge
over the Kafue, tear up the railway, and cause all the
Europeans to leave the country. To enable all this to
happen the people were to destroy their cattle. The
unfortunate Batwa, to whom he told this tale first, had by

144 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

long exertions managed to scrape together a few head of
cattle ; believing his story they killed them ; but before
the sun turned black the false prophet was arrested for
sedition and put into prison by a Government not inclined
to be sympathetic with such things.

Another professed to be Mwana Leza (" the Child of
God "), i.e. to be possessed by Him. He came to the people
at Nanzela at a time when there was a very heavy rain
(1909), and the crops were in danger of being spoilt. He
made his appearance in one village and ordered the chief
to build him a hut which was to have two doorways in it,
one facing east, the other west. " When you have finished
the hut," he said, " bring me some grain and I will pray
to Leza so that these floods may cease." They all believed
him and built the house and brought the grain. " But,"
said he, " this is no good ; there's too little of it, bring
more." He went to another village and ordered the headman
to produce grain, to another and to still another, until all
the villages, believing his story, were doing their utmost
to provide him with grain. It was at a season when grain
is very scarce. They came flocking with what grain they
could gather, but he looked at it disdainfully and said,
' I cannot pray for you, because you give me such a little.
If you want me to pray for you, you must give me cloth
and shirts." Some believed and produced cloth and shirts,
even cattle and goats. Then at last he offered his prayers,
but the rain did not cease. He then declared that it was
against Leza's will and that He had ordained there was
to be a great flood of water that year. The people then
began to get restless and to demand the return of the
things they had given him. " Don't be in a hurry," he
told them ; " presently I will beseech Leza very earnestly
to hear my prayer." He put them off in this way, until
they became convinced that he was a false prophet. We
have never heard that they got back the things they gave
him.

And who, may we ask, is Mwana Leza ?

Our first acquaintance with the name came in this way.
We quote from the diary of one of us :

" July 1, 1906. Visiting Mala. After service this

ch. xxi THE DOCTRINE OF SOULS 145

morning three women came and talked with me. They
are baami (' prophetesses '). Had not been at service, but
had heard I had been telling people about the Son of God.
Told me spontaneously about Mwana Leza. Came down
long ago in the country of Lusaka ; was kind and gentle,
went about telling people to stop fighting. After a time
people killed him ; bamuyayil' a musune (' they killed him
on account of an ox '). Was killed at Chongo. His spirit
enters into many baami, who foretell events and tell people
to stop fighting, to live in peace and cease shedding blood.
Mungaila brought one of them here because of the fighting
between him and Mungalo and through her they have
peace to-day. They are light-skinned women, with a curious
far-away look in their eyes ; hair is twisted into small knots
with ochre and fat in the way called shimbulumbumba."

Later in the year (1906) the people of the country were
weeping because Mwana Leza was dead. It appeared that
a certain man living in some district in the north was out
hunting one day and following a wart-hog he had wounded.
As he was going through the veld, a bright, dazzling object
appeared before him, reaching from the earth to the sky.
The man fell to the earth as one dead. Then he heard a
voice saying, " Have you not heard that it is taboo to
eat the flesh of wart-hog ? Stop following the spoor and
tell people that if they persist in eating that flesh there
will be trouble. And — stay ! Why is it you people on
earth have never lamented the death of Mwana Leza who
died so many years ago ? Bid them weep ! ' The man
presently returned to his senses, and made his way home.
He told the people what he had seen and heard ; they
only laughed at him. A few days afterwards two people
died very mysteriously in the village. That was sufficient
to set them mourning. The deaths were accepted as a
sign : " Leza is angry with us," said they, " come, let us
weep." They commenced the mourning ceremonies as if
it were for a friend. Moreover, they sent messages to the
neighbouring villages, who sent farther on, and in a very
short time all over the country the people were mourning
on account of the death of the Child of God. In some places,
perhaps most, the matter was regarded in a most serious

vol. 11 L

146 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

way. The people would gather outside the village and be
solemnly warned by the elders that there must be no joking
or playing. For upwards of a week the mourning would be
carried out and the ashes from all the fires collected and
I placed in a heap outside the village. Then a pole would be
I erected by the heap, to give proof that they had carried
out the command, so that Leza would pass them by and not
destroy the village.

This was one of the most remarkable occurrences we
have experienced among the Ba-ila. It will be said at once
that the story of Mwana Leza is nothing but a corruption
of the teaching of the missionaries. In the district where
we first heard of it there were then no missionaries, nor in
the districts of Lusaka and Chongo named by the baami,
nor in the northern district where the hunter saw his vision.
Moreover, there is every sign that the story is much older
than the advent of the missionaries among the Ba-ila.
Mwana Leza is a figure introduced into the folk tales. We
are inclined to think that the story is an offshoot of Christian
teaching grafted upon an old idea of their own ; and that
while it may have come to the Ba-ila through other tribes
from the teaching of Dr. Livingstone, yet it is more probably
an infiltration from the old Jesuit mission in Portuguese
East or West Africa.

That it is not recent is shown by the fact that the first
missionaries among the Ba-ila heard about Mwana Leza.
The Rev. A. Baldwin has given us the following quotation
from his diary of August 26, 1895, a time of severe famine
and rinderpest :

" Chungwe's son was here this afternoon with a wonder-
ful story which he had got first hand at Mosanga's to-day.
A woman belonging there was out in the forest getting roots
for food, and in the midst of her digging she looked up to
find herself confronted by a big man. She had heard no
sound of his approach and could tell neither how nor whence
he came. Naturally she was afrighted, whereupon he told
her not to be afraid, for he was Mwana Nyambe (Leza) who
had come to make a revelation to her. She was to pick up
her basket and hoe and follow him. On and on he led her far
away until they came to a kloof overspread with beautiful

ch.xxi THE DOCTRINE OF SOULS 147

white sand. He bid her look down into it and she saw all
the cattle that had died of this disease — thousands of them,
all alive and healthy. (We did not know at the time that
the disease was rinderpest.) He asked, ' What are these ?
She replied, ' Our cattle which have died.' : Yes/ he
went on to say, ' You are right. I have taken all your
cattle away from you. I am not going to allow you Mashu-
kulumbwe to have any more.' Again he called her to
follow as he left the kloof and on and on they went. At
last they sighted a town, but nearing it she discovered that
what she thought were huts were granaries, and he told her
this was where he kept his stores. He then showed her
grain of all kinds — mealies, kaffir corn, small corn, nuts, etc.,
in such abundance as she had never seen before. She had
carried her few roots in her basket all this time, and now
he told her to throw them away and filled her basket
with corn. Then he commanded her to return home and
tell the people all she had heard and seen, and that he
promised they should all have an abundance of food this
next harvest.

" He was intensely excited as he told his story and all my
questionings failed to change his belief in it.

" The story puzzled me for some time, until it occurred to |
me that it must have been a dream. The woman was
tired and hungry and had fallen asleep in the forest and had
dreamed the experience she related when she got home."

Whether Mr. Baldwin's explanation is the true one or
no, this story admirably illustrates the way in which some
prophets receive their messages.

In June 1913 another prophet arose in the neighbour-
hood of Nanzela. His name was Mupumani, and he was a
leper. According to his own account, he was not given to
dreams, and had only the one vision. This is what he told
us of his experience. He had gone to sleep as usual in his
hut, when he heard a movement above, and looking up saw
a man's leg dangling down from the roof, then a body, and
at last the person reached the floor and stood by his side,
but he could not see his face. The man (Mupumani said he
must have been a musangushi , " a ghost ") lifted him upon
his shoulders and carried him off, where to, he knows

148

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. IV

not, but he found himself in the presence of Namulenga
("The Creator"), or Mulengashika ("Creator of Pesti-
lences"). The first thing Namulenga did was to take
Mupumani's leprous body and throw it away and then

Photo li. II'. Smith.

MUPUMANI THE PROPHET.

begin to mould a new body with complete fingers and
toes. But another figure intervened and said, " No,
do not do that. If Mupumani goes back to earth with a
new body the people will die of amazement to see him."
So Namulenga desisted and gave him messages to take to
the people. One was to the effect that he would give him

ch. xxi THE DOCTRINE OF SOULS 149

a kankudi ka buloa (" a small calabash of blood"), which
he was to pour out and all the people would die. But
once again the second figure, wishing to save the people,
intervened and restrained Namulenga from doing this.
Then Namulenga gave him a message that people when
mourning were to cease killing cattle, throwing themselves
violently on the ground {kudikankata) , and rushing about
with spears (kuzemba). He had often, He said, sat by in-
visible and watched people mourning and had split His
sides with laughing [kuzumininina kuseka) to see their antics.
He took men from earth, and caused men to be reborn, as
it pleased Him : it was not for people to mourn. He also
gave a message denouncing witchcraft. " Go down again,"
he concluded, " and give my words. Perhaps the people
will revile you, perhaps they will listen and treat you well.
I shall see." Mupumani found himself back in his house ;
how he got there he does not know. He began to tell of
his vision and soon the fame of it spread abroad, and people
began to flock to him from all quarters. We ourselves
were at the time travelling in the northern districts and
met many parties, some from as far off as the Lukanga
swamp, on their way to him. In those villages whence
the people had already been to him, a long white pole was
erected as a sign. Ultimately, people came from districts
as remote as Ndola and Mwinilunga. To all of them he
gave the message. At first he accepted nothing from them,
except the small ring of beads for the little finger which
seems to be given to every prophet. But what preacher is
accepted without signs and wonders ? And the people de-
manded " medicine " of him to make their corn grow and
give them good luck in hunting, and Mupumani had to yield
to their insistence. He gave them drugs, and they gave
him money in return. Later, before the magistrate, Mu-
pumani said the Ba-ila did not accept his messages : " They
still kill cattle at the funerals. You know the Ba-ila never
listen well to people who tell them to do things. At first I told
the people about the calabash of blood and then I did not
Perhaps I made a mistake in not always speaking about
it ; they would have been afraid of that and listened to
Leza's voice."

150 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

A man from Mala, named Mungaba, while on a visit to
Lubwe, heard of Mupumani, but scoffed and refused to go
on to him. Shortly after his return to Mala, one of his
people died suddenly, and while he was wondering what
had caused the death, one of the mediums of the communal
demigod, Shimunenga, fell into a trance. The people sat
round, as usual, waiting for the message, and presently it
came : "I am Shimunenga. Mungaba's child has been
slain by Leza because he scoffed at Leza's messenger. It
is your habit, it seems, to scoff at those who come from
Leza. The missionary, too, you do not listen to him. Look
out for yourselves." This message made a very deep im-
pression upon the people, and it was further deepened by
several strange portents that happened at the same time.
Some of the women at Mala had been going for some time
to collect firewood from a great tree that had been blown
down in a gale. One morning when they went they found
it standing upright ! Imagine the excitement. We were
taken to see the tree and there was no question about its
having been lying flat — there were the marks left by the
termites on the bark and on the ground, and the sides that
had not been in contact with the ground were charred by
the fire that had swept over the country just before. There
was no question about its being upright ; we saw it and
saw too that it had not been raised by human hands.
The explanation soon occurred to us, but did not commend
itself to the people : they were sure occult powers had been
at work.

Mupumani was taken to the magistrate's camp for
examination, it being suspected that mischief was afoot
with all these people flocking to him. He gave his story
in a straightforward manner which showed him sincere and
innocent. The most extraordinary rumours were meanwhile
floating about the country.

It was said that while being taken to the Magistracy
he told the people in one district that if he were put in prison
he would stop the rain ; curiously, there ensued a drought
in that district and the people drew their own conclusions.
The day after his arrival, a trader's store near by was burnt
down, and this was regarded by the people as another

Ill

1-1

ti)

' — ■"

152

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. IV

display of his supernatural power. Some said that
Mupumani had sent an oribi with a letter to the magistrate,
and there was a still more extraordinary story of two
monkeys, each with two tails, that had come down with a
letter for him from the sky. The excitement died down
after a time, and it seems that the only result of his visions
is the inauguration of a new kind of salutation on solemn
occasions. Mupumani greeted people with the formula
used in prayers to the divinities — " Ndakabomba" (" I am
humble"), and taught them to raise their hands high
over their heads and reply " Twakabomba " (" We are
humble").

7. Reincarnation

Sooner or later, almost every person now living will
return to earth. Such is the belief of the Ba-ila. The
exceptions seem to be two : the ghosts who have been
pressed into the service of the sorcerers ; and the great
mizhimo of the various communities, such as Shimunenga.

. The Ba-ila seem to think that a certain number of spirits
were created at the beginning and given bodies : when
the bodies wear out or are destroyed, the ghosts live for a
short time free and then have other bodies prepared for
them. They seem to regard this as the best of all possible
worlds, for the disembodied spirits clamour to be reborn.

The process of discovering the identity of the reincarnate
person may be described here in the (translated) words of
one of our informants :

" Before the mother emerges from the hut, if the child
cries they go to divine, and a female spirit comes in the
divining rod and says : ' Go on sacrificing, it is So-and-so
come to be born, give him the name {lit. call upon his
name).' They return from divining, and on their arrival
they offer water at the door, saying, ' You, So-and-so,
we see you. Now as you have come back to earth, do
not come with two hearts, suck well and grow ! ' Some
of the water remaining in the mouth they spurt over the
child's body, and call him by that same name ; then
the child starts up and cries. The child cries because
fearing the water. But if he goes on crying all the time

ch. xxi THE DOCTRINE OF SOULS 153

when he is called by that name they will go and divine a
second time, and bring another spirit, for it seems the first
spirit should be conquered. Then as they call that one's
name the child leaves off crying. Calling they call aloud,
and the first spirit is conquered. This is the birth name,
the great one, the one of the spirit, he is called by it by all
the people who have the right.

" It is taboo to address an elder by his birth name. It is
to shokolola him, and he will be angry. Because it is the
great name, which is to be honoured. If his contemporary
shokolola him by the birth name it is to despise him, but
he does not get angry, he simply laughs, saying, ' It is my
musama.' The mothers and fathers are they who shokolola
him by his birth name, and his elder relations, his younger
relations, no.

" Often a spirit of a woman comes to be born in a
male.

" When they say, ' Do not come with two hearts,' they
mean, ' Do not be in a hurry to die.' The spirit may choke
himself through being angry. If he hurries to go away
again they say he has choked himself."

This is one method of identifying the child. Another,
similar, consists in placing the child to the breast and
pronouncing the names of its grandfather and other fore-
bears. If at the mention of a name it begins to suck, they
are satisfied as to the identity.

There is some difference of opinion as to the precise
time when the ancestral spirit becomes the child. Some
hold that it is at the mentioning of the name in this ceremony
that the child becomes So-and-so, or, rather, that So-and-so
becomes the child. That is the reason of the cryptic remark
quoted above : " They bring another spirit — for it seems
the first spirit should be conquered " — i.e. driven away, as
not being the legitimate one. But we have again and again
heard men say : "I am my grandfather, I entered my
mother's womb to be born." In that case, either at con-
ception or some time later, the spirit enters the embryo. If
there were unanimity upon this point, it would help us to
determine their ideas of the soul. If the spirit only comes
at the naming ceremony, then, before it, has the child no

154 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iy

soul, or has it a secondary, a nutritive, sensitive soul, and
the spirit comes as the rational soul ? What is the relation-
ship between the ancestral spirit and the body ? Does it
simply live in it as a guest, or does it animate the body,
making it perform its functions ? These are questions to
which they can supply no answer.

It seems certain, however, that there is no relation
between the incarnate ancestral spirit and one of the most
important functions of the body, viz. the sexual function ;
for a woman may return as a man, or a man as a woman.
This seems to show that the spirit animates the higher and
not the lower centres ; a person, i.e. the true self, the self
continuous through all the reincarnations, may take the
form of male or female ; it itself has no sex.

In accordance with this belief, we find many men with
feminine names, and females with masculine names. The
name prefix na- is a shortened form of Nina (" his mother!/) ;
Nachibanga means " mother of an axe." The prefix shi or
sha or she represents the word ushe (" his father ") ; so
that Shimunza means " father of the day." The following
are the names of some males we know : Nakadindi ("mother
of a pit ") ; Namamba (" mother of hoes ") ; Nabanyama
(" mother of animals ") ; Namabuzo (" mother ol baobab
trees "). And the following are names of females : Shimbala
(" father of palm string ") ; Shamakowa (" father of wild
cucumbers ") ; Shachifua (" father of a bone ").

Furthermore, there is a double incarnation in some cases,
for a discarnate spirit may return to earth in two bodies.
Suppose there are two brothers who separate to live in
different districts, and each has a child born to him about
the same time. They go to the diviners in their respective
districts, and each is told that it is the grandfather who has
returned in the flesh ; the child confirming this in the way
we have described. They are satisfied, then, that this is so.
Up to this time no communication has taken place between
the brothers as to the children, but now that the names
are given each sends to the other to say, " Our father has
returned to our home." No conviction arises in their mind
that a mistake has been made ; they simply accept the
situation. If a spirit so wishes, why should it not occupy

ch. xxi THE DOCTRINE OF SOULS 155

two bodies ? It does not occur to them to question the
possibility of one person being in two places at once.
The Ba-ila, then, are at one with Wordsworth :

The Soul that rises with us, our life's Star,
Hath had elsewhere its setting,
And cometh from afar :

But with the next lines they would not agree :

Not in entire forgetfulness,
And not in utter nakedness . . .

For no man can remember, they say, what he was when he
lived on earth before, or what he was and did in the spirit
world. The memory — shall we put it so ? — and all intel-
lectual activities are outside the scope of the spirit ; which
determines who the man is, not what he is. With us per-
sonality is somehow bound up with memory ; we are con-
scious of our identity through all the changes the years
bring. But to the Ba-ila, it would seem the soul — the man
himself — is more like a tenant, a lodger, in a house where
all the daily avocations are carried on apart ; he has no
share in them, but is like a star and dwells apart.

Consequently, there is no morality in their ideas of
incarnation. They are far removed from those of the
Brahmans and Buddhists,1 where the conception of metem-
psychosis is dominated by the idea of moral retribution ;
where the successive migrations through ten thousand
millions of lives, as ordained in the code of Manu, are steps
through punishment to redemption. A man is blind now
owing to his lust of the eye in a previous birth. The Karma
(doing or action) in the one life determines the position of
the individual in the next. Nothing of this kind is found
in the Ba-ila ideas of reincarnation.

1 Buddha denied the soul. With Plato he said that the desires,
cravings of a man determined his future ; there was no passing over of
a soul. The cravings made a new body ; how is not said. There is some-
thing like this in Bwila. A man wishes to be a lion and he gets medicine
and becomes so. But in regard to reincarnation, no medicine is required ;
whether he craves it or not he returns.

156 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

8. The Genius, or Guardian Spirit

Here is a short account given to us of the Guardian
Spirit. It is called musediakwe muntu, " a person's
namesake."

" When a person sneezes, he makes an offering by spitting,
and says, ' Tsu ! My namesake, stand by me always ! '

" If he is minded to go hunting he gets up early ; and at
the Lwanga makes a heap of meal — fine meal — and offers,
saying, ' Tsu ! My namesake, let us go out together and
hunt ; bring the animals near to me, let the sharp stick
sleep, let all biting things sleep, let the fierce snake be far
away. I want only meat. Give it me, 0 hunter.'

" When he has finished the offering, he goes out. When
he finds animals and kills one, he cuts up the liver, and off
the rump he cuts morsels, as well as from the heart and
foreleg and leg, and begins to make an offering, saying,
' Thou in the East, here is meat ! ' He throws a morsel
from the leg, one from the rump, one from the foreleg, one
from the liver, and one from the heart. Having done so
he makes another offering, saying, ' Thou in the North,
here is meat ' ; (and another) ' Thou in the West, here is
meat ! ' (and another) ' Thou in the South, here is meat ! '
When he has done this, he lies on his back, does obeisance,
and claps his hands, saying, ' To-morrow and to-morrow
give me meat ! '

" Having finished, he makes an offering to his namesake
of liver, roasted or boiled, heart and liver, and says, ' Here
is meat, O my namesake. Pambala, pambala, a spirit does
not refuse his own anything. To-morrow and to-morrow
may I kill even more than this animal ! Be thou around
me, O hunter ! '

" He claps his hands. And at the village when he returns,
he does the same, he makes an offering at the Lwanga to
his namesake. Then also he claps his hands. He will in
this way put his trust in his namesake all his life through."

Several points call for elucidation. And, first, as to the
name. Musediakwe means " his namesake." One never
hears the word musedi without the enclitic possessive, but
we may here use it alone. As already explained, there is

ch. xxi THE DOCTRINE OF SOULS 157

something about a man's name that must be respected.
For any one to call a man by his birth name is a fault ; it
is also a fault for a man to pronounce his own name, that
is, his birth name. If another person has the same name
as you, you may not speak to him or of him by that name,
but must use the word musediangii (" my namesake ").

Now, in this connection, musediangu is not used indis-
criminately by a man, as if just any one bearing his name
stood by him always in spirit. He is not thinking of any
of his friends or relations on earth. The namesake upon
whom he calls for help, and to whom he makes his offerings,
is the one whose name was given him after birth — his grand-
father, probably. Thus a boy is named Mungalo after con-
sultation with the diviners, and by his solemn act of accept-
ing the breast at the mention of the name he shows his
acquiescence: Mungalo was his grandfather. And when
he speaks in his prayer of his namesake he means Mungalo,
his grandfather.

But he was named Mungalo because he actually was and
is Mungalo, that is, he is his grandfather reborn ! Quite
so ! He is Mungalo, and Mungalo is his grandfather and
Mungalo is also his guardian spirit. That is to say, a man's
guardian spirit, his tutelary genius, is the reincarnate spirit
within him : shall we say, is himself. The genius is not
only within him, but, in a sense, external to himself, pro-
tecting and guiding him.

Now, at first sight, this appears to be an incongruous
conception, resulting from the fusion of two disparate ideas
derived from different sources. One might imagine that
one set of ancestors believed in reincarnation ; that another
set believed in a guardian spirit, a father or grandfather
who, while not actually reincarnated, constituted himself
the genius of his descendant. These two sets of people, we
say, might have coalesced and one belief become super-
imposed upon the other in the minds of the children, and
hence to-day they say in one breath that Mungalo No. 1 is
Mungalo No. 2, and that Mungalo No. 1 is the guardian
spirit of Mungalo No. 2.

That is a possible explanation ; but may there not be
something deeper in it ? Some doctrine of the soul, implicit

158 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

if not explicit in their beliefs, which though not explicable
by modern Ba-ila was clearly grasped by their ancestors ?

That the soul, or part of it, may also be a man's guardian
spirit seems to be a belief shared by Plato.1 ' As concerning
the sovereign part of the soul within us," he says, " that
which we say and say truly, dwells at the top of the body
and raises us from earth towards our heavenly kindred,
forasmuch as we are a heavenly and not an earthly plant —
(fivrbv ovk eyyetov a\\' ovpdviov- — we ought to believe that
God has given it to each of us as a daemon " 2 — a kind of
genius or guardian angel for the direction of our lives.

The Ba-ila would agree that we are a heavenly and not
an earthly plant and that our kindred are in the regions
above. They would certainly subscribe to the doctrine of
daemon. And they would also agree that the sovereign
part of us is the daemon guiding our lives. It seems that
Plato and the Ba-ila philosophers are not far removed from
each other in this matter.

As for the doings of the guardian spirit, it is not neces-
sary that we go into details. Briefly, whatever good fortune
a man may have, whether it be by way of gaining wealth
or fame, or escaping from danger, it is ascribed to the good
offices of his namesake. The apparent contradiction that
he also has medicines for the securing of safety and pros-
perity is no greater than the contradiction between praying
for rain and yet working medicines to induce it to fall. The
two things work together. The musedi is the man's own
personal god, devoted to his interests. Accidents, of course,
happen ; a man may have his life endangered in a thousand
ways. When such happens he wonders what his musedi was
doing to allow him to get into danger like that. He makes
an offering and reproaches his musedi, saying, " Why did
you leave me ? I nearly died. Where were you ? See, I
make you an offering : do not leave me again." Should
the accident be fatal, his friends can only suppose that for
some reason the guardian spirit was vexed and had aban-
doned him to his fate.

As for the way the guardian spirit conveys his admoni-

1 Timaeus, 90 a.
2 Jowett translates, " divinity."

ch.xxi THE DOCTRINE OF SOULS 159

tions, he comes in dreams, or he speaks in a low voice heard
only by the man himself within his breast.

It only remains to be said that all people have these
attendant spirits, from the time the birth name is conferred
until death.

We may compare this Ba-ila belief with the Zoroastrian
doctrine, founded on primitive Sumerian beliefs, of the
fravashis, and also with the idea of the genius (or of a
woman, the Juno) or divine double of the Roman, accom-
panying him during all his lifetime, who was also an object
of worship. In America also a very widespread belief
assigns to each individual an attendant guardian spirit,
independent of, but attached to the physical self, which
warns the self through the intuitions of impending dangers
and the like.

This widespread belief cannot but remind us of the
conception of the subliminal consciousness formulated by
modern psychologists. Here in the secondary self, that
part of us that lies beneath the threshold of consciousness,
we have, it seems to us, the psychological basis for the Ba-ila
belief. That secondary self is more sensitive than the
primary self with which we normally identify ourselves :
it receives impressions from the world without, which our
ordinary senses cannot perceive, just as a photographic
plate will record things which the eye cannot see. And it
sends up into the supraliminal consciousness messages in
the form of monitory inhibitions and impulses. Such seems
to be the explanation of the daemon of Socrates, the Voice,
the sign that guided him in all the affairs of life. Numerous
instances have been recorded since the days of Socrates,
where a sudden presentiment of danger has saved a person
from violent death, or where in answer to a strong over-
mastering feeling a person has hurried off to a fateful meet-
ing to which he had received no call in the ordinary way.
There is no reason to suppose that such experiences are
confined to civilised beings ; indeed we can well understand
that they should be more common among the uncultured
races. Granted such phenomena we can see how naturally
they would suggest to the savage mind the presence of a
spiritual guardian, directing his movements and shielding

160 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

him from danger. For the voice or sensation arising from
the subliminal region seems actually to be external to himself.
He does not see the hidden danger, or opportunity of fortune ;
it must therefore be some being wiser than himself, who is
interested in his welfare and who directs him accordingly.
We do not suggest that every time a man thinks that his
guardian has prompted him there has actually been a
message from his second self, for many an escape or meeting
may be only an accident or coincidence, though interpreted
by the savage in accordance with his dominant idea. AH
that we ask for is that such messages have been sent up at
some time, and have really been the means of helping ;
such instances would be sufficient to start the idea. Once
started it would be handed down from generation to genera-
tion and become firmly established as a universal belief.

Whatever may be thought of this, the close correspond-
ence between the Ba-ila idea of the guardian spirit and
the psychologist's theory of the subliminal consciousness
cannot but strike our readers. Here is the secondary self,
so mysterious and elusive, guiding the primary self by virtue
of its hyperesthesia ; within and yet seemingly without, so
that often its extraordinary performances suggest rather the
action of some extraneous being ; oneself and yet not one-
self. In this strange conception, which yet explains so
much, the Central African savage and the European (and
American) psychologist once again clasp hands.

9. The Psychology of the Ba-ila

We are now in a position to estimate the contents of
the Ba-ila psychology. We have certain facts before us,
how can we explain them ?

Let us note first the important distinction to be drawn
between what the natives say about these and what we
say. One is apt to read into things more than the people
do. It is not easy for us to realise that the African does
not systematise as we do. To explicate what lies implicit
in his ideas is legitimate enough, provided always that we
state clearly which is our deduction and which are his ideas ;
and that we clearly understand what his ideas really are.

ch.xxi THE DOCTRINE OF SOULS 161

Some writers present to us a very elaborate analysis
of the soul of the people they are describing ; and we wonder
whether the people would recognise the description or
whether the writers have not made out to be separate
entities what are really only different aspects of one entity
in the minds of the people.

It is well known, for example, that the ancient Egyptians
had a very complicated idea of the human ego ; we are told
of about ten entities comprising it. Many of these bear a
striking similarity to what we find among the Ba-ila ; indeed
it would be easy to compile a Ba-ila psychology as compli-
cated as the Egyptian.

There is the Egyptian A b, translated " heart " or " in-
side," the will or intentions. This corresponds with the
Ila mozo, of which, as we have seen, the Ba-ila speak much.
The Ijaibit corresponds to the chingvhule ("the shadow").
The Egyptian ba was " a sort of agile principle whose habitat
is chiefly in the skull " : one writer compares it to those
little genii or " spirits " that savage peoples locate in the
nape of the neck ; that is to say, they (for people had
more than one Ba) may correspond with the Ba-ila shin
and Bashimpulukutwi, of whom we learnt in Chap. X. In
many respects the Egyptian Ka corresponds to the Ba-ila
musedi. It has been variously described by different writers,
but we may be content to say that it was the man's double,
second self. Perhaps, too, we may take the Egyptian Ran
as like the Ba-ila izhina, the name ; for the Egyptians had
similar ideas as to names. If the Ran was part of the
personality, so is the izhina. The Egyptians thought that
these elements of the personality were not enough to make
up the living being, they constituted merely a being capable
of life. Then came into the man's nostrils the vital breaths
of Nature, wafted by the breeze ; this we may compare to
the Ba-ila moza or muwo ; and as a result of its entrance
life came ; what the Egyptians called Aonkhu and the
Ba-ila, burnt.

On these lines, then, we might speak of the Ba-ila Ego
as composed of mozo, chingvhule, shiu, etc., musedi, izhina,
and moza. But this would be an over-elaboration and
would, we believe, misrepresent Ba-ila ideas.

VOL. II M

162 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

The chingvhule, e.g., cannot be taken as a separate entity.
It is true that it is sometimes spoken of as if it were. If
you want to take a portrait of a child, its father will object
on the grounds that you will take away its chingvhule and
it will die. We have seen how witches can take away a
man's " shadow." But on the other hand, when the question
as to the identity of the self and the shadow is pressed
home, they will always deny it. We remember talking this
matter over with one of our closest friends among the
elderly Ba-ila chiefs ; he emphatically declared that the
shadow was only a thing seen when a person stands in the
sunshine, and had nothing to do with the man himself.
You say, we went on, that when a man is dead he is not
done with. ' Yes, true," said he. " He enters the womb
and is born again." " Well, what is it that enters : the
man's body or his chingvhule, or what ? ' 'I don't know,
perhaps it is muwo." Muwo is the wind. Sometimes they
talk of the moza, " breath." But we feel sure that all three
terms are used metaphorically. They know the difference
between a corpse and a living being ; they have watched
the last breath and know that when it has come out a
change takes place. And that breath is evidently akin to
the wind. Breath — wind — shadow — these are not to be re-
garded as three distinct entities ; rather are they words
with which the Ba-ila seek to express the mysterious self-
evident thing that possesses them. We should be nearer
still to their attitude if we said that they think of a living
being as a muntu — a person, without asking questions as to
what constitutes his personality. There is something strange
about him, as mysterious, intangible as the shadow, or
wind, or breath ; but what that is they cannot say. Suffice
it to call him a person.

The soul as we speak of the soul, it is doubtful whether
the Ba-ila believe in it. Certainly we have never found a
word that would be a satisfactory translation. Muzhimo,
musangushi : these are discarnate spirits. There is no word,
and apparently no idea, of a " soul " as such.

Can we formulate an explanation that will cover all they
think and say ? Shall we say that a man is full of soul-
stuff just as the world of Nature is pervaded by those

ch.xxi THE DOCTRINE OF SOULS • 163

mysterious forces manifest in medicines, etc. ; that this
soul-stuff pervades his whole body but is specially active
in some organs — in the blood, heart, and genitals ? It is
also specially prominent in the senses of taste and hearing,
so much so that there the soul-stuff appears to become a
self-acting distinct individuality. This soul-stuff is ethereal,
impersonal, animating the whole body, giving it life. The
essence of it may, with the aid of drugs, be separated from
the body and be hidden for safety as an " external soul "
in other things. Into the body comes the spirit from the
spirit-world, which gives the person his identity, his name,
his position, all that we mean by personality.

At death the man wasanguka, becomes metamorphosed.
The spirit is freed from the body and enters the unknown
spirit-world where it awaits the time of its reincarnation.
The " soul " of the man now changes, it is no longer mere
" stuff " but a person — a musangushi — which hovers around
the grave, lives in trees and houses. This is the normal
process ; but it may be disturbed by the action of the
mysterious force in musamo (medicine), by taking which a
man may extract an essence from his body which trans-
forms into an animal. So that the one person now becomes
three distinct entities. On the other hand, a magician may,
by means of his art and medicine, destroy the spirit en-
tirely, so that it cannot be reincarnated, and the soul-stuff
instead of becoming a musangushi is transformed into a -
malevolent chizwa. Between the body mouldering in the
grave and the spirit no connection exists after death, but
until the process of decay is complete the musangushi, as
well as the chizwa, remains in some way attached to the
body, so that to destroy the body is to destroy the chizwa.

c^ p.

CHAPTER XXII

THE DIVINITIES

The basangushi (" ghosts "), regarded as objects of adora-
tion, are named mizhimo. Strictly speaking, not all basa-
ngushi are mizhimo, but only those more or less helpful to
men, not those who, for some reason, are inimical ; though
in a loose way the word is applied to all ghosts. The root
of mizhimo is no longer a living one in Ila, and it is im-
possible to give a derivation of the word. That it is an
ancient one is shown by the fact that in various forms
(umzimu, muzimu, mudzimu, mdzimu, musimo, mushimu,
modimo, morimo, elimu) it is the common name throughout
the Bantu field for the divinities ; indeed we may take
this as an indication that before the Bantu tribes emigrated
from their original home they already had this name and
this cult of the dead. One other significant fact may be
mentioned : muzhimo is not a personal name, but neuter or
collective ; the plural, as almost always in Bantu languages,
is mizhimo, not bazhimo. It would seem as if the dead were
/ regarded as having lost their individualities and become
mere potentialities. But whatever may once have been, it
isjmpossible now to deny all personality to the Ba-ila divini-
ties. Other names of the ghosts, basangushi, bashikazwa,
etc., are personal in form ; and there can be no question
that such mizhimo as Shimunenga stand out clear and
distinct in their individuality.

For the purpose of description we may divide the
mizhimo into three classes : personal, family, and communal
divinities.

164

ch.xxii THE DIVINITIES 165

1. Personal and Family Divinities

We have already had occasion to describe the Genius,
or Guardian Spirit ; it is what we mean here by a personal
divinity. It is, in a sense, the man himself ; his spirit '
moving on a higher plane, watching over him and his in-
terests. " Every person," said one of our informants,
" trusts his own muzhimo : whether he is travelling or
whether he stays at home, he does not forget his divinity."
It would, of course, be a poor man who had only one divinity
— the Ba-ila call such a person shikazhimo-komwi (" a single-
divinity man ") ; every one not isolated in the world has
his family divinities all around him. Hence when a hunter
is successful he throws morsels of meat as offerings north,
south, east, and west, that none of his divinities may go
neglected. If you had only one, and that one should absent
himself, you would be in a bad way ; but having many, if
one should neglect you, others are sure to be there, and not
knowing who is present it is better to cast your offerings in
all directions and give thanks by expressing confidence in
their continued beneficence : " To-morrow and to-morrow,
give me meat." But, says our informant quoted above,
" however many may be a person's divinities there is always
one that is thought of first, whose name and help are first
invoked, and that is the man's own personal muzhimo."

The family divinities are the ghosts of one's grand-
fathers, grandmothers, father and mother, uncles and aunts,
brothers and sisters. In the unseen world they continue
to take an interest in things mundane and, in particular, in
the welfare of their relatives on earth. They are never far
away. Theoretically their number is indefinite ; all the \
deceased members of a man's family are his mizhimo, but
in practice it is mostly only those who have recently passed
over that are thought of.

There is one law of spiritual etiquette that rules in this
region ; that is, a man has to do only with the divinities of
his own family ; looked at from the other side the law is
expressed in the formula : Pambala-pambala , muzhimo tokaki
mwini ( " Pray pray, a divinity does not refuse his own "),
with the implication that he has nothing to do with others.

166 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt.iv

! A man and his wife, being of different families, have dif-
ferent divinities ; and it would be an offence, coming under
the category of buditazhi, for a man to appeal to his wife's
divinities or she to his. More curious is the application of
the word buditazhi to the divinities themselves — to any who
should presume to go beyond their province and affect, for
good or ill, members of another, family.

This is what one of our informants says on the matter :
" Married people have their respective divinities : the
husband his, the wife hers — that is to say, the divinities of
their families. When they are married their divinities re-
main distinct, only when a child is born is there a partial
assimilation. If the child gets sick and they go to divine,
the diviner finds usually that the one who causes the sick-
ness is the divinity belonging to the husband — his father's
ghost, or his mother's, or his own genius, or his grand-
parents' ghosts, or his sister's. Those are they who have
the right to sicken the child. Should the diviner declare
that it is the wife's divinities that cause the child's sickness,
the husband's family would wax exceeding wroth and say,
' How comes it that the woman's divinity sickens the child
in the house ? That muditazhi of a divinity has no right
to act thus.' The divinity of the wife may sicken her ; the
husband's divinity may not : nor may hers sicken him.
That is how the divinities are separate : yet they live to-
gether in the house together with the man and his wife.
When the husband makes an offering to his divinity he does
it at the doorway of the house — on the right-hand side : the
woman makes the offering to her divinity on the left side.
That shows that the divinities of the husband are superior
to the wife's. The same divinities of the husband's are the

1 divinities of the children in the house ; the wife's are her
own, and only to a certain degree of the children, in that
they help the father's a little in shepherding and guarding
the children. The father's divinities are superior in the
house and over the children ; and quite distinct from the
woman's in regard to the husband and wife : the husband's
do not help the wife : only her family divinities help her ;
and the wife's divinities do not help the man."

From what we have said, it will be seen that the Ba-ila

cii.xxn THE DIVINITIES 167

are well provided with divinities : for a man has his own
attendant genius, his family gods, and, moreover, superior
to all, the great communal divinities watching over the
interests of the commune as a whole. If we add to these
all the various charms whose use we have already described,
it is apparent that the Mwila strenuously guards himself
against the ills of life. Nor is there any incongruity in his
mind in the simultaneous resort to both divinities and
charms. There are, he recognises, many forces, personal
and impersonal, seeking his destruction, and the wise man
wilI~enTIsFThe aid of all the help the universe provides.

Their attitude towards the departed is a twofold one,
founded on a sense of mutual need. In the close com-
munity between the living and the dead neither can do
without the other. The living need the help of the ghosts
in battling with the evils of their present existence, and on
the other hand the departed depend for much of their well-
being upon the living. Out of this there grow apparently
contradictory ways of regarding the ghosts.

From one point of view, we may define their attitude by
the word shoma (" trust "). The meaning of the word is
quite clear. On the first occasion we heard it we were
standing on the top rung of a rickety ladder, papering a
room in our house, and were just reaching up to place the
paper in position when we heard a boy below saying, "If
I were the master, I would not shoma this ladder, he will
fall and break his neck." The word means to put reliance
upon, have confidence in, to trust. The ghost has some
power that the living man has not, power largely in that it
lives invisible (seen at any rate only on rare occasions),
independent of the laws of space and time. Things hidden
to the mortal eye are no secret to the ghost. And normally
it is devoted, or one may suppose it devoted, to the interests
of its family. The attitude of trust would seem then the
proper one to adopt towards this unseen but powerful
being.

But, on the other hand, in putting off the flesh the
ghosts have by no means divested themselves of human
nature. The best of living men are subject to moods :
ordinary people are jealous, touchy, fickle ; you have to be

168 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

on your guard not to offend them, for if put out they are
apt to be vindictive. And so it is with the ghosts ; you can
never be quite sure of them ; any omission on your part to
do them reverence will be visited on your head or on the
head of some one dear to you. Then they must be placated
by offerings. It is a good thing they are placable, for if
they kept up resentment where would you be ?

There is, then, both trust and fear in their attitude to-
wards the divinities ; in a word, awe, what the Ba-ila call
mampuba — the proper disposition, including reverence, fear,
trust — in which to approach both chiefs of dignity and the
divinities.

But there are ghosts that are deserving of no trust
whatever, only unmitigated dread. They are the larvae
who have gone into the other world embittered by their
treatment in this, and now work off their spleen upon the
living. This is what we are told about them : " One
divinity of a man is not good, no, he is bad. It is a person
who was not pleased in his death because he was bewitched
by a relation, desirous of ' eating ' his name ; so he goes
off indignant when he dies saying, ' We will see to that
one who killed me.' But it does not mean that he straight-
way kills that warlock ; he begins to cut down (kutemenena)
outsiders — any one he sees — and their relations, seeing the
deaths, go to the diviner. The diviner declares the deaths
to be due to this divinity, saying, ' It is So-and-so who
killed this person ; he is fighting about his own death at
the hands of his relative : he wants to kill him.' There-
upon that warlock gets into trouble with those people and
has to pay over one of his slaves as a fine. So the divinity
goes on troubling him who caused his death. The man
will have to be purged (pupululwa) with medicines, to
drive away that divinity, or else he will be the death of
many and himself will die inzanganzanga — a violent death."

A man is pupululwa'd by being held forcibly with his
face over a potsherd upon which are placed live coals and
medicine. He inhales the pungent fumes. Presently he
struggles and breaks away from his captors : they follow
him with the potsherd until he falls down. Just then they
throw away the sherd, and after a time he gets up and

ch.xxii THE DIVINITIES 169

returns home free of the tormenting ghost. The "medi-
cine " has somehow driven it off ; others say it goes at the
moment the sherd is thrown away. This purging is resorted
to in any case where a person is possessed or obsessed by a
harmful ghost.

Not only are the divinities offered various things, but
they are kept in good humour by having their names given '
to one's spear, ox, canoe, slave, dog, or drum — anything that
one has. Every time you have need of the thing you
remember the divinity's name and pronounce it, and that
is highly pleasing to him.

There are places consecrated to the divinities, but the
Ba-ila proper neither make images of them, nor portray
them in any way whatever. It is only on the north-eastern
border of Bwila and under the influence of Baluba, that one
finds graven images. Chibaluma, chief of the Lusaka com-
mune, who is of mixed Baluba and Ba-ila blood, took us
into his sanctum — an ordinary hut surrounded by trees,
entry to which is forbidden to ordinary people — in the
centre of the village. There he keeps the most valuable
of his movable property — drums, guns, etc. ; they are safe
in the guardianship of the divinity, safer than if behind
locked and bolted doors. Here also are deposited his hunt-
ing trophies. There is also a bed upon which occasionally
he sleeps. And in the hut there are two figures about ten
inches high, roughly carved in wood. They are named
mituni, bangosa, or tunkishinkishi.1 In the heads of these
images there are holes into which " medicine " is poured.
The hut is sacred to Chinenga, an ancestor of Chibaluma,
removed three generations back, who was chief of the dis-
trict and had his village farther west. He is reincarnate
in Chibaluma and is his genius. It is believed by some of
his people, and some of his sons, that Chibaluma's life is
hid in these images ; he himself told us that they preserve
him from witchcraft. In some way his genius is bound up
with the images, and the " medicine " is poured in at times
to renew their power. On occasions, such as departure for
a trading or hunting expedition, or before going to war,

1 This name is evidently related to nkici, the name given to the
" fetish " among some Congo and Western tribes.

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CH. XXII

THE DIVINITIES

171

and when he is sick, he makes an offering before these
images and implores the help of his divinity.

This hut we have described was not built over a grave.
Among the Ba-ila proper, as well as among the Balumbu
and Bambala, a tiny temple, consisting of a small conical
grass roof supported on sticks, is built over the grave. This
also is a sacred spot. Within the temple one usually finds
an earthenware pot, sunk into the ground above the grave,
as a receptacle for beer offerings. Around this, living poles

Photo E. IS'. Smith

A LWANGA AND GRAVE-TEMPLE.

are planted which soon sprout and in course of time grow
up into a circular grove. On these trees one notices at
times maize cobs, heads of Kaffir corn and other offerings,
also heads of game. Some chiefs are buried in their huts,
which are kept in repair for some time and then replaced
by others, smaller and flimsier. In them are kept various
articles that belonged to the deceased. After the death of
Sezongo II. at Nanzela we saw in the hut various drums,
stools, and spears — among them some very handsome ele-
phant spears. One would think they would be preserved
inviolate, and so we were told at the time ; but some years
later we found them all gone. They had been removed by

172

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. IV

relations of the deceased. When we expressed surprise at
the impiety, we were told : " It is all right. When a rela-
tion wanted anything, he made an offering to Sezongo, told
him what he desired, and took it."

Another sacred spot, which we might dignify by the
name of the village altar, is the Iwanga. It takes different
forms. Usually it is a long many-pronged pole planted
near the centre of the village ; sometimes it is composed of
four or five poles planted in a row and joined by a cross-

Photo E. II'. Smith.

The Great Gateway with Small Sacred Enclosure at each Side.

beam ; sometimes a quick-growing tree, such* as an Isole, is
planted for the purpose. In any case it has a close rela-
tionship with the divinities, localising, as it were, their
presence in the village. Upon it various charms are hung
to put them in the guardianship of the divinities ; men
hang on the prongs, or place at the foot, their hunting
trophies as offerings ; here, too, the spears are often de-
posited ; when meat is brought to the village it is first
placed at the foot of the Iwanga and an offering made.
When a man has bought a new slave, he stands him at the
Iwanga and makes an offering to the divinities by filling
his mouth with water and spitting it out upon the slave

CH. XXII

THE DIVINITIES

173

and upon the Iwanga ; he then gives the slave a new name :
this rite is to bind the slave to his master.

The Iwanga is the public altar. In addition each family
has private altars in the house. We say " altars," but in
reality they are sacred spots without anything to mark

fe^st

Photo Ji. I!'. Sunlit.

A Neak View of the Sacred Enclosure at the Gateway.

them off. One is at the foot of the musemu, the central
pole of the hut ; the others are on either side of the main
doorway — on the right the husband's, on the left the wife's.
Another sacred spot in the village is at the great gate-
way, through which the cattle are driven. There is often
nothing to mark the spot, but at some villages there is a
small enclosure formed by the fence pole'5 on each side of
the gateway. It is here that offerings are made to the

174 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

divinities to secure the well-being of the village, and of the
cattle in particular.

To make an offering to the divinities is kupaila, a form
of the word kupa (" to give "), and signifying to give re-
peatedly or frequently. The offering itself is chipaizho
(" that which is given," or more accurately, " that by means
of which one gives ") . Two other words, impaizho and mapai,
meaning the same, are formed from the root. Another
word often used is kutula (" to offer"), and chituzho is the
thing offered. A place at which things are offered is chi-
paidilo, or chitudilo.

These words are not restricted entirely to the service of
the divinities, but are occasionally (and kutula more fre-
quently than kupaila) used of presents given by one person
to another, and especially of gifts to a superior. The word
kukomba corresponds very well to our " worship " in the
broad sense.

Many things are offered to the divinities, anything indeed
that has value, or may be thought to be valuable to the
divinities. Beer, grain, tobacco, hemp, hoes, bells, impande
shells : all these among others are offered. The commonest
of all is water ; a person fills his mouth with it and spits
it out upon the ground. Simpler still is it to offer the
saliva ; but here a necessary distinction must be made. A
violent expectoration, such as may be represented by Thu !
is a curse ; a gentle expectoration, Tsu ! is an accompani-
ment of an offering, or an offering in itself, to the divinities.

The occasions for offerings are numerous ; they are made
whenever there is need to approach a divinity, either to
propitiate his anger or to entreat some blessing from him,
or whenever his devotee wishes to do him honour. We
may specify some of these occasions.

As we saw in a previous chapter, various things are
placed in the grave and vocally offered to the deceased.
The beer and beef consumed by the mourners are also to
be taken as a form of offering, though perhaps not always
regarded as such by the people themselves. Two or three
days after the funeral ceremonies are completed and the
crowds have dispersed, the relatives meet to drink beer
named funku owetwe (" beer of the ash "). The occasion of

CH. XXII

THE DIVINITIES

175

this is the sweeping up of the ashes left from the fires made
by the mourners : they are carefully gathered and thrown
away into the veld. After some time they meet again for
the funku owa nsako (" beer of the shafts ") — meaning the
shafts of the deceased's spears, which are then broken and
thrown away. Then comes funku owa kuzhola munganda
mufu (" beer to bring back the deceased into the house ").
It is a kind of welcome home to the ghost. A month or
two after the funeral is funku owa mapai (" beer of the offer-

rhoto E. II'. Smith.

The Grave of our Friend Mungalo.

ings ") — a simple feast in honour of the deceased, at which
an ox is killed and eaten and beer is drunk. The next and
last of the series is called funku owa madidila (" beer of the
final weeping "), probably a year after the funeral. There-
after there are no set occasions upon which an ordinary
divinity, as distinguished from a communal divinity, is to
be celebrated : only when they need his help or he makes
his needs known by bringing some trouble upon them.

Such an occasion is the illness of a member of the family.
The diviner on being consulted may say that the sickness
is caused by a divinity who thinks himself neglected. So

176 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

the head of the family makes an offering in his house : and
prays: "Tsu! Nandiwewasashamwanesu,nguwezomukuku
ngulanga, 0 tombwe aze. Uwe Leza na ndiwe ukunjaya n'apone
kabotu (" Tsu ! If it be thou who art causing our child's
sickness, see, here is the beer which thou wantest, and also
some tobacco. And if it be Thou, O Leza ! who art
destroying me, I pray Thee let him recover"). Here is
another prayer offered by a man on behalf of his child :
" Akaka, tola, na ndiwe muleke mwanako adiendele. Tsu!
Akaka, tata, no kambonzhi ? Anu tamuboni nu mizhimo
nimudi kunze. Tsu! Akaka, muchembele, muleke. Noula-
dila kudya, ulakukumbila mukuku ng'udila, ulakupaila.
Akudi ndiwe, muleke, aende bubona bushiku. Tsu! A kaka, tata,
twakukomba ("Oh, my father, if it be thou (who art troubling
him) leave the child alone that he may go about alone. Tsu !
Oh, my father, what is the matter ? You divinities who are
without, he doesn't see you (i.e. doesn't recognise you).
Tsu ! Oh, old man, leave him alone. If thou art crying
for something to eat, he shall brew thee the beer thou criest
for and make thee an offering. If it be thou, leave him
alone that he may walk this very day. Tsu ! Oh, my
father, we worship thee ! ") If it is the head of the house
himself who is sick, he makes an offering on his own behalf :
" Tsu ! Na ndiwe akaka ndeka, ndeendele, no chinzhi
uch'ukapula ? Kai, tombwe ngu wezo, menzhi ngazo, ibwantu
ndi ledi. Ndeka ndikusobanina budio " (" Tsu ! If it be
thou, O leave me alone, that I may be well. What is it
thou requirest ? See, here is tobacco, here is water, here
is beer. Leave me alone that I may enjoy myself").

Before a hunter sets off on the chase, he takes water in
a dipper, together with tobacco, or hemp if he is a smoker
of that narcotic, and places them at the foot of the musemu.
He may add a little meal to the water. He spits out a
mouthful of the water and prays : " Tsu ! Nini, ngu wezu
tombwe 0 lubange, ndakupa ; ndaya mwisokwe atuende tonsc ;
kutabi uchebuka munshi, atuendele tonse. Chisamo chikadi
na ch' one ,inzoka inkadi nesakane, shiluma shonse kashisakana,
pele kuyana chimana malweza, muzovu ngu wakuwula kulota,
pete kusamba " (" Tsu ! So-and-so, see here is tobacco and
hemp that I give thee ; when I go to the veld, let us all go

CH. XXII

THE DIVINITIES

177

together ; let there be none who looks back, let us go on
all together. Let the sharp stick sleep ! May the fierce
snake be far away ! Let all biting things be far away !
Let there only be found the end of that horror — the elephant
that was picked up dead in a dream ! Let there be good
fortune ! ") He makes his offering after killing game, by
throwing morsels in all directions, and on returning home
deposits the meat first at the Iwanga, where he makes another
offering, to his own genius first and then to the family
divinities.

Photo E. li: Smith.

A LlVANGA AND GRAVE-TEMPLE.

An unsuccessful hunter will consult a diviner, saying,
" Who is it that prevents my killing game ? Is it Leza, or
is it a divinity ? Tell me." He consults the oracle, finds
it is a divinity and tells the man to make an offering to his
father or uncle. " And when you have done so, go to bed,
and early in the morning go into the veld and you will kill
an animal." He does so and is successful. When he has
skinned the animal and cut it up, he makes an offering of
pieces of meat in the manner already described, and again
afterwards at the Iwanga.

When a man's son returns home from a long journey, or
after a lengthy residence elsewhere, he takes him into the

vol. 11 N

178 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

hut and paila's him by sprinkling water on him and giving
him beads or other things ; they are named impaizho, and
are intended as an offering to the divinities, who have
guarded the man's son and brought him safely home. It
would be buditazhi for a person to paila in this way any
one not related to him (see Vol. I. p. 287).

Sometimes people gather around the grave of a departed
relation or chief. The chief takes a calabash-cup of beer or
water, pours a little upon the grave, and passes it to the
person next to him, who does the same. So the cup circu-
lates and each person pours out in turn a little of the con-
tents. This is kulazha muzhimo (" to greet the divinity ").

When a village is moved to a new site the goodwill of
the divinities must first be obtained so that they will con-
sent to remove with the people. Further, care must be
taken that no malign influences destroy the felicity of the
removal. The chief goes to a doctor to enlist his aid ;
together they visit the proposed new site, and the doctor,
if he approves of it, doctors (wainda) it with his "medicines."
They return to the old village and after a time set out again,
accompanied by the people, and preceded by a woman
(sometimes a child) carrying a pot of " medicine." Some
poles are first planted in a small circle where the gateway
of the new village is to be, and the woman places her pot
of medicine within them. Then an ox is killed and some
of its blood added to the contents of the pot. Then the
chief offers a prayer : " Hear us, O divinities, that our
village may be firm and strong." As an additional safe-
guard, the doctor drives in pegs of musamo around the site
to keep off witchcraft and other evils from the new village.

In a case like the foregoing, it is primarily the divinities
of his own house that the chief addresses, and each man as
he speaks the prayer directs his thoughts to his own family
divinities. It will be seen that there is no organised priest-
hood in this cult. The head of each family acts as the
priest, as far as his divinities are concerned, and his wife
approaches hers ; the chief of the village appeals to his on
behalf of the village, for they are on a different footing
from the ordinary family divinities who do not act outside
the family limits ; like him they have a representative

CH. XXII

THE DIVINITIES

179

capacity, acting in the other world, as he acts in this, as
the guardians of the village.

riwlo E. II . Sunt

The Chief, Kakua, and his Lwanga.

When the early maize is ready, the people go through
the ceremonies of knsomya : that is, before they eat any of
the grain (kusoma) they make an offering to their divinities.

^irt^Wl

VJV

180 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

The man goes to the field and plucks a few ripe ears of
maize and takes them to the village. He strips off the
husks and takes the cobs to the grave of a certain ancestor.
He sweeps around the grave and then kneeling before the
grave, says, " So-and-so, here is some of the maize which
is ripe first and which I offer thee." Having done this he
returns to his home, and at the threshold of his hut makes
another offering in the same way : afterwards hanging some
of the cobs over the door, or in the rafters.

2. The Great Mizhimo : Communal Divinities

The genius is the man's own personal divinity ; each
family has its own ; and the chief's or headman's divinities
are in a way the guardians of the village. Over and above
all these, are the great mizhimo, whose function it is to care
for the common interests of the communes to which they
belong. They are distinguished from all others by their
greater permanence ; within the family the ghosts of one's
remote ancestors cease to be regarded, but the respect paid
to communal divinities lasts as long as the community
■ survives. And they are unlike in this respect also : the
I communal divinities are never reincarnated, but remain in
the spirit world. While the Ba-ila give them all the same
name, mizhimo, we may, to mark the grades in the hierarchy,
call the three classes : Genii, divinities, and demigods.

First let us transcribe what one of our informants had
to say about the demigods.

" The divinities of the community are common property,
there is no man who can claim them as his own. As at
Kasenga, for example, where Shimunenga belongs to the
whole community and all, whether chief or slaves, put their
trust in him for what they need. They do not rely upon
him in case of ordinary sickness — that is a matter for the
family divinities — but for wealth, for victory in war, for
protection against lions and in pestilence ; against all things
that fight against them they trust him, saying, ' Shimunenga,
our muzhimo, will save us.' In all the communities it is
just the same ; they have one, or two, or three demigods.
If a lion is killed the chief takes it to Shimunenga's grave

' I' :

ch.xxii THE DIVINITIES 181

and the muzhimo is grateful for it shows the trust his people
have in him — a trust shown in the offering. If one kills a
leopard he does the same, taking the head to show that it
is the great muzhimo of the community who gave the good
fortune to kill that fierce beast. If there should be a
pestilence, all the people have faith that this muzhimo will
remove it so that they die not. Every community that
God created is the same, there is none that has not its
muzhimo to whom offerings are made. The divinities of
men are not assimilated ; a man who is not your relation
does not join you in making offerings to your divinities ;
he would be doing wrong. But it is otherwise with the
communal demigod : none refrains from calling upon him ;
he belongs to all. In a household there are various divini-
ties ; a husband prays to his, a wife prays to hers ; but as
members of a community they all pray to one and the same
demigod."

As we look back into the past, there emerge from the
hazy gloom the figures of these demigods who are regarded
with such impressive reverence. This is a list of some of
them and the communities to which they belong :

At Kasenga : Shimunenga.

„ Kabulamwanda : Zambwe.
,, Bambwe : Sheebelelwa.

,, Bunga : Kazua.

,, Kasamo : Shibulwe.

,, Ianda : Mushanana.

,, Lubanda : Namashaka.

,, Lubwe : Mwanachiwala.

,, Ngoma : Shanyimba.

,, Basanga : Ngala and Namadiia

„ Nalubanda, Chiyadila, Munga, ]

Naluvwi, Maulizhi, Byangwe, > Malumbe.

Kabanga, Nzovu, Nyambo, Lusaka. )
In other districts N.W. : Munyama.

These demigods vary in importance according to the
extent of the territory over which they are the guardians,
the number of their present adherents, and the length of
time that has elapsed since they left the earth. Some of
these named above are, in these respects, of inferior note :
three stand out pre-eminent, viz. Malumbe, Munyama, and
Shimunenga.

182

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. IV

Of Malumbe — who to-day is worshipped over a larger
area than any other demigod of the Ba-ila — it is said that
his father was named Mungalo, who came from the far
east. Mungalo had two children, Malumbe and Chintu,
the latter being the ancestress of the present Basala chief,
Shakumbila. Others say that Malumbe was the son^jiot
the brother, of Chintu. In accordance with his origin in
Busala is his praise-name : Mwana-Musala. Others say that
his father was Shitemambalo, and his mother Nachisanto.
The latter died, it is said, of hunger, and people all over the
land pray to her in time of drought.

When Malumbe grew into a man, he became famous as
a wonder-worker. Then he came from Busala among the
Ba-ila and gained the submission of the people in the dis-
tricts where to-day he is reverenced as a muzhimo. He did
not gain sway by means of the spear, but by reason of the
fear he inspired. He is said to have struck with blindness
all who opposed him. He was contemporary with Mu-
nyama and they were rivals. To settle their claims, the
two chiefs agreed to appeal not to the spear but to a trial
of skill in the chisolo game, which, according to one tradi-
tion, had been introduced by Malumbe. They met near
the hot springs — Isho dia Mwino, in the neighbourhood of
Mafwele. The first game fell to Munyama ; the second to
Malumbe ; a third to Malumbe and the fourth to Mu-
nyama. Munyama wished to play one more game to settle
the question, but Malumbe refused. By so doing he for-
feited his claims to the country he was contesting, and it
fell to Munyama. This tradition comes to us from a de-
scendant of Munyama and is contradicted by another from
fhe other side, according to which Malumbe was victorious,
and gained in consequence much territory which hitherto
had been Munyama's.

Another tradition assigns the creation of Isho dia Mwino
to the agency of Malumbe. He had seen farther north a
similar spring from which the possessors drew a considerable
income by making salt ; and Malumbe thereupon made
Isho dia Mwino to spring up for the benefit of his own
people, and caused the other to dry up.

Malumbe's end on earth is said to have been very

ch.xxii THE DIVINITIES 183

mysterious. He simply disappeared. His spears, clothes,
and ornaments were discovered by the side of a deep pool,
but he himself was never seen again. Before leaving earth,
he parcelled out his territory among several chiefs.

Of Munyama it is said that his mother and father came
down in a rainstorm from heaven, and afterwards gave
birth to him. One tradition is that he, or his parents, were \
immigrants from the Lunda country in the far north-west.
He_became a very powerful chief, had a great many people
under him : so many, his descendant Mulendema told us,
that no trees were left in the land, and as for his village,
you could travel a whole day and yet not get through it !
After his death, different chiefs set up for themselves, and
one by one hived off. So that to-day Mulendema sits alone
with his family in a village of about ten miserable huts and
complains much as he thinks of the departed glories of his
family.

Shimunenga is the communal god of the ba-Mala, the
people of the Kasenga district. How long ago he lived it
is impossible to say. He is spoken of as Mukandonokwabo •
Malnmbe 0 Munyama (" the ancient one who was con-
temporary with Malumbe and Munyama"), but little is-
known of him, and we cannot even guess when he lived.
It is significant that like the other two great mizhimo he \\\
was an immigrant. His praise-name is Munambala (" the
one of the Mbala country "), i.e. he came from the north
somewhere. His father is said to have lived at Kaundu.

Besides Shimunenga there is at Kasenga a female
divinity named Nachilomwe. She is said to have been
a contemporary of Shimunenga ; some say she was his
mother, others his sister.

In the other communities there are the demigods we
have named, but often it seems that the most ancient ones
are not those most regarded to-day. They lived so long '
ago that the people prefer others who were more recently
in the flesh among them. Thus at Lubwe, Mwanachiwala
is to some extent displaced by Shepande.

In each commune there is a grove of trees consecrated
to the demigod. It is called Isaka (" the thicket "), or
Isoko ("the place of origin"). Malumbe's grove is at

184

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. IV

Malende in the Mauluzhi commune, Munyama's is near
Chikuni's village, and Shimunenga's at Mala, within the

Offerings upon a Grave.

Pho'o E. 11'. Smith.

Kasenga district. Besides the principal grove each has
subsidiary groves or single large trees where the demigod
at times takes up residence ; thus Shimunenga has a large
fig-tree at Chitumbi and another at Busangu.

CH. XXII

THE DIVINITIES

185

The origin of the groves may be the poles planted
around the graves. In course of time they would grow
into large trees, decay, and be replaced by younger ones
growing up around them. As it is taboo to meddle with
the trees and the brushwood springing up under and around
them, a dense impenetrable thicket is formed. Shimunenga's
grove at Mala covers at least an acre of ground ; on its
outskirts there stand several large wild fig-trees, upon one
of which, in particular, various skulls of cattle and animals
hang bleaching — remains of past offerings. We have tried

r/wto B. II'. Smith

Shimunenga's Gkove at Mala.

many times, but always unsuccessfully, to induce the
Kasenga chief to take us into this grove. Sometimes we
imagined that we had persuaded him, but always at the
last moment, and once after he had got as far as the grove
itself, he found a polite excuse for declining. It would not
be easy to enter. There is no path into the interior. Only
the " priest " ever enters and he but once a year, when he
has to cut his way in.

Sometimes in travelling one comes upon a beautiful '
grove in a region destitute of inhabitants. It stands as a
witness to the denser population of former days, for it was
at one time the revered centre of a community that has
now died out or been dispersed. Such a grove is that of

f^v-eA-

186 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

Maundu between Kalundo and Ngabo. It stands at the
summit of a slope and is about half an acre in extent. There
is but one entry. Creeping in there, between and under
the thickly massed trees, you enter what is a fit temple for
a sylvan god. There is a vacant space in the centre, the
heads of the tall evergreen trees arching overhead and
almost shutting out the sky. Long twisted vines hang
down from them. The ground is strewn thick with leaves.
Here is a bone, bleached with age, the remains of some
offering. But there are no signs of any recent sacrifice.
The grove no longer resounds with the rejoicing of the
yearly festival. For the chishi has vanished and no devotees
now forgather here. In such a case the ghosts continue for
a time to haunt the trees, but they are cold and hungry and
lonely, and should no fresh inhabitants take the place of the
old the memory of them dies out — which is as much as to
say that they themselves perish. And the communal demi-
god shares their fate : maybe his very name is forgotten.

Besides these groves there are in some communes other
sacred spots, associated in "some way with the demigod.
At Mala there is such a spot named Nakatunda. It is a
bare place about an acre in extent, with a solitary palm-
tree growing upon it. It is strictly taboo : nobody may
cultivate there, nor build. Nobody has been able to give
us an explanation of the name. It is one of the places that
are reckoned as chikomo : an obscure word which is applied
to places, rites, and customs traditionally associated with
the demigods. It is here that the communal gatherings
take place before and after war : where the warriors are
doctored, where war is decided upon, where the cattle are
killed in ratification of peace ; and it is here that the chiefs
and people meet to discuss what shall be done when a
murder has been committed.

In past days it was no uncommon thing for an embassy
to arrive at Mala from a neighbouring community to solicit
aid in war. The request was made in this form : " Kamwiza
bakwesu, mukatutemene kasanzhi oka meya kapatizhile '
(" Come, brothers, and cut down for us a twig covered with
thorns "). A ready response was generally forthcoming, for
the ba-Mala were always spoiling for a fight, and dressed and

ch.xxii THE DIVINITIES 187

armed for war they collected quickly at Nakatunda, where
oxen were killed — called ing'ombe sha makulo — to seal the
compact. At the close of the war, the opposing parties would
meet at Nakatunda, and again oxen would be killed — kuyaya
kakosa — and partaken of by all, as a declaration of peace.
When a murder has taken place within the community, the
people assemble at Nakatunda, singing an old song that runs
something like this :

Nguni wabisha kono ? Who is it that has been doing

wrong here ?
Wa-wo-o, katuyabuenda. Wa-wo-o, let us all go.

Ye-ye ! Wo ! We ! Ye-ye ! Wo ! We !

Kwabula bapanda bwanga, There are none who can purge it

with medicine.
Wa-wo-o, katuyabuenda. Wa-wo-o, let us all go.

Shimunenga's medium delivers a message to the effect that
the demigod is offended by the murder, and that steps must
be taken to discover the impious criminal. He is made to
pay -Iwembe (" weregild ") of from ten to twenty cattle,
which he collects from among his friends and clansmen.
Two of the oxen are killed at Nakatunda : they are the luloa,
offering to. Shimunenga ; the flesh is eaten by the people
and the heads deposited at the grove. One, or two, are
reserved for the representative of the demigod, i.e. the
' priest." The rest are distributed among the chiefs : so
that each subdivision of the commune has one at least.

In all these observances the community as a whole is
regarded as assembling in the presence of the demigod.
The affairs are those in which he takes an immediate personal
interest.

There is no organised priesthood associated with the \
demigods. But they have their representatives on earth,
one class of whom seems to be a rudimentary priesthood.
Presiding over the central grove in each commune is a
custodian whose duty it is to receive and make the offerings
on behalf of the people, to summon the people to the period-
ical feasts, and it is he who takes as his perquisite two of
the cattle paid as luloa. In the former capacity he is
mupaizhi (" offerer ") or mupaidizhi (" offerer on behalf of
others ") ; in the latter he is mukonki (" a summoner ").

)pci'.

188 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

This office is generally hereditary. At Mala it is held by a
man named Kabombwe, whose son is now associated with
him in the duties. The other men who figure in the rites
are the mediums through whom the demigods make their
will known. At Kasenga there are two of these ; one is a
middle-aged man named Nakahunga. At times one of them
falls into a trance (mu chiyu). It happened thus in June
1911. Nakahunga was sitting quietly with his friends in
the evening when he was " seized." The people carried him
into the veld where he remained unconscious till next morn-
ing. They told us he was convulsed with contortions and
twitchings (wazuzuba). On being questioned the communi-
cator announced himself as Shimunenga and proceeded to
give a message to the community. Nakahunga told us
afterwards that he was quite unaware of what had happened.
In reply to a question he said that he first became " pos-
sessed ' ' when a child. We always wanted to see him in
that state, but never had an opportunity.

We have mentioned that when a lion is killed the trophies
are offered to the demigod. One night shortly after our
arrival at Kasenga we were awakened by a sudden outburst
of drumming from the cattle outpost close by and the
simultaneous shouting of our workmen aroused from sleep.
On inquiry next morning we learnt that the drums had
been beaten to convey to the community the news of the
death of a lion. About midnight it had sprung over the
high fence and seized a cow. The three or four herdsmen
had issued from their huts and attacked it with their spears
— a plucky thing to do in the dark. We were in time to
see the little procession of men, carrying the skin and head,
set out on its way to Shimunenga's grove. In such a case,
the skin would be taken by the chief, and the " priest "
would deposit the head in a tree of the grove as a solemn
recognition of and thanksgiving for the demigod's assist-
ance.

Another occasion for approaching Shimunenga is at the
sowing season. The " priest " goes to the Isoko and plants
a few seeds as an offering ; before this is done nobody may
sow his fields, but once the demigod has been recognised
they may set to work. Early in the season when the corn

ch.xxii THE DIVINITIES 189

begins to show above the surface (kuvhwa busonga) the
priest makes another offering.

Apart from these occasions, every demigod has at least
one annual festival in his honour. It is called an ikubi.
At Kasenga, the makubi of Nachilomwe and Shimunenga
are held some time in September, i.e. at the close of the old
and beginning of the new year, according to their reckoning,
in connection with the opening of the cultivation season
and the departure of the cattle for the outposts {kuwila,
see Vol. I. p. 131).

We will translate an account of this ikubi given to us
by one of our informants :

" The festival of Shimunenga is called (diakonkwa) at \j^V
the new year {kumwaka) according to his sacred custom ;
(chikomo). It is said, ' The year has come round again.'
Kabombwe goes to Mala and enters Shimunenga's grove
and holds conversation with him. This finished he goes fe
round to all the villages and says, ' Gather firewood and
begin the brewing of the beer.' After several days, think-
ing that by this time they have gathered the wood and the
malt has sprouted, he returns to Mala and gives a second
summons : ' Now put the beer to brew.' So on the
morrow they begin and for four or five days are busy with
the beer. On the fifth day all the cattle are collected to
sleep at Mala and the drums begin to sound throughout the
commune. On the sixth day, all the men plaster them-
selves with white clay, and they and the women adorn
themselves in their finery. And they call upon his name :
' Shimunenga, Lobwe, Udimbabachembe ! ' (' Shimunenga,
Gatherer of men, Giver of virility to males ! ') Then they
all drink beer. The men make compacts with the women,
that is to say, give them cattle, and the women rejoice and
give their lovers leopard skins and cloth and other things
as they wish. All join in these things. On the morrow
the same things happen. And they drive out the cattle,
and wila, i.e. go down to the outposts on the river bank.
In leaving Mala they are preceded by Shibeenzu's herd ;
his is the one to lead the way and goes by itself ; the others
follow after. They go down to the Lubunda ford and there
they cross. When all are on the other bank, they recross

igo THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. rv

them to this, separate the herds and each goes off by itself.
Before leaving Mala, and while the men are all charging up
and down (kukwenzha), all the women lululoo and cry :
' Ulu ! Let the cattle beget and bear coloured calves !
O Shimunenga, Gatherer of men, Giver of virility to
males ! Let them bring forth coloured calves ! ' This is
how the festival is celebrated. They drink plenty of beer
and are all very happy. When it is over they leave the
villages and go off to the fields to cultivate, and things go
on until the year comes round again."

We will now supplement this account by some notes
written by us after being present at a festival :

" Went to Mala to-day to witness some Shimunenga
celebrations. Came to Chidyaboloto's and finding they had
not yet started, sat there. The women were busy getting
their finery ready, many wearing the mukaku girdle, others
with strings of white beads around their waist. Presently
women began to pass by the village singing. Then a party
of men came in, singing and beating sticks together to
make a noise. They came and knelt before Chidyaboloto,
evidently singing his praises, but I couldn't catch the words.
My boys said the men go all round the villages doing this
and in return the headmen give them beer. I went off,
leaving the men there. Long lines of women were con-
verging from all the villages towards Shimunenga' s grove.
They wended their way there and joined company outside
the grove, singing with all their might and clapping their
hands. Presently a man came with a drum and started
beating it to help the women in their singing. This being
the women's day the men simply stood and watched.
Presently the men we had seen at Chidyaboloto's came
round singing. What they sang I could not distinguish, nor
the songs of the women. One of my boys said, ' They're
singing about us,' and another replied, ' Why, they sing
about anybody.' Shambweka came up and said it was
their custom thus to pray for rain. In the midst of these
proceedings, which lasted about an hour, a ceremony took
place which struck me as very incongruous." (This has
been described in another chapter : it was the Lubambo
ceremony.)

ch.xxii THE DIVINITIES 191

This we found was the song of the men as they knelt
before Chidyaboloto : —

Boloto wakakala shishishini
Muwale kashishi, akauliike !

" Boloto sat as an owl,
Throw a firestick at him and make him fly away !

The men on the path sang : —

Umudi Shimunenga
Mwenzu ndi abia taumwa :

' Where Shimunenga is, a visitor, however ugly he may
be, is not to be beaten." (This about us !)

The songs of the women are the same as those sung at
funerals, i.e. mostly phallic in character.

On this first day of the feast, the women's day, Nachi-
lomwe, the female demigod, is associated with Shimunenga
in the celebrations. The display of the cattle on the second
day, the men's day, seems to be for the purpose of showing
them to Shimunenga. We cannot say whether the demigod
is thought of as partaking in the feast of beer. We should
rather say that just as a living chief is pleased and
complimented by an exhibition of his people's happiness
and wealth, so Shimunenga is thought to be gratified by
this display — so gratified that at this critical season of
the year he will in return do his utmost to increase their
prosperity in field and herd.

There is a monotonous sameness about all the makubi.
There is always plenty of beer ; much dancing and singing ;
charging up and down by men with their spears ; lewd
songs and a general license. In many points the annual
feast is comparable with the Saturnalia.

At the end of 1914 something happened at Kasenga that
had never been known before : the months slipped by and
no festival was held for Shimunenga. When January came
in and still Kabombwe gave no signs of summoning the
people, a meeting of the chiefs was held to discuss the
matter. The reason was found to be that Kabombwe was
angry. He made this declaration : " This year I have not
inaugurated the festival because when, two years ago, one of

192 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

Shimalondo's people committed murder you never gave me
part of the luloa, but nevertheless I held the festival. This
last year there have been two murders and I have received
no cattle. Now, I, Kabombwe, how can I hold the festival
in the face of these things ? Is it not always so, that when
a murder takes place you give me a cow and you also collect
two great oxen to be killed for Shimunenga ? " The
assembly could only answer him in the affirmative : and it
was decided that the cattle should be collected. Why they
had never been paid we do not know. All three of the
murders had been committed by clansmen of one chief, and
the old man addressed the assembly in a great state of mind.
Said he, " You are killing me altogether ! How can I find
thirty head of cattle to pay these fines ? ' They insisted,
until Nalubwe called for silence and spoke : ' I say, my
brothers, that Shimalonda cannot find these thirty head of
cattle. Let him bring one, a fine big ox, to die at the
grove. And let Machacha, at the chisungu feast of whose
daughter the other murder took place — let him bring a cow
in calf and give to Kabombwe. And let the clansmen of
the third murderer all contribute ten cattle for the damages
and one big ox to die at Shimunenga's grove. This is
what I say, I Nalubwe ! ' And it seemed good to all the
chiefs and they ordered this to be done. But as a matter
of fact, when we left Kasenga in March 1915 the feast had
not been held.

3. Bulongo

Of all the figures in the Ila pantheon, the most elusive
is the arch-demigod Bulongo. We put him in a class by
himself because, according to the imperfect information we
have collected, he seems not to be a local demigod such as
Shimunenga, but to be regarded over a wider area than
even Malumbwe : as one of our informants says, "He is
the muzhimo of the whole country : there is no community
that does not pray to him." He has no grove such as the
others have, but has temporary huts built for him. At
Mala, his representative is an old blind chief named Nalubwe,
who is said to be a lineal descendant from Shimunenga. The
latter, we are told, was the first to ordain that an annual

ch.xxii THE DIVINITIES 193

ikubi should be held in honour of Bulongo, and the dignity
of Bulongo's priesthood has descended not to the chief who
has inherited Shimunenga's chieftainship, but in Shimu-
nenga's family. Nalubwe has the clan-name borne by Shi-
munenga, i.e. Nyungwe ; and this is an interesting example
of how exceptionally the clan may descend through the
father, and not through the mother. His ancestors since
Shimunenga's time have all, he tells us, lived where he
lives now.

We will transcribe three accounts of Bulongo that we
have received from different men :

" That Bulongo," said our friend the Mala blacksmith,
" is the greatest on earth. Every person puts his trust in
Bulongo at all times, for when they pray to him at a time
when they have no water falling from Leza, it will come —
Leza will let fall much water. But they do not know who "j^
he is; all they know is they found him (i.e. his name)
here_ on earth. It is said of him : Bulongo, greatest on
earth among those earliest ancients, is earth only. They
praise him thus : ' Bulongo, Mwanamungo, we are humble
before thee/ When they call thus upon him, rain falls.
Again, after the grain is ripe they make a festival for him
in the winter. The first _irijthe year is Bulongo's ; after-
wards comes Shimunenga's. It is said again he is the
friend of God (mwenzhina, comrade, equal, fellow). When
they pray to Bulongo, Leza throws down {walosha) water,
so they suppose that the two are together (badibwenene, ' in
each other's sight'). Some suppose Bulongo is the greater,
and Leza to be as his friend only, or as his ' child.' Only
really nobody knows these things. Our fathers never saw
Bulongo, but perhaps their grandfathers knew better about
him ; perhaps they saw him himself. This is all that can
be said of Bulongo. He is earth only, not a person."

Another man said, " Bulongo is simply a musangnshi ,
he is not a person. Nobody knows him. The ancients
simply found him here when they descended long long ago,
and they sacrificed to him in blindness because of what
they had heard by the ears. The Ba-ila found their fathers
of long long ago doing this, so those who came after them
did as they did, simply carrying on the tradition. Bulongo

VOL. ir o

194 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

speaks to us only through Shimunenga. When he wants
to have beer brewed for him he seizes Shimunenga in the
usual fashion of a control (mu chisoko cha kushinshima) and
Shimunenga in turn seizes his medium and tells his name.
The people ask, ' What is it you say, sir ? ' and he
replies, ' I say, brew beer for Bulongo.' The Ba-ila at
once consent and say, ' We are humble, O Chief ! we
will brew beer.' When he has given that message, Shimu-
nenga leaves the medium, and he who had been entered
recovers and becomes a man again. The Ba-ila get to work :
the whole country puts malt to soak and brews beer. On
the day for drinking it, all the ba-Mala go to the little huts
yonder in Nalubwe's village, every person with a calabash
of beer to offer to Bulongo. They pour it on the ground
and cry, ' We are humble, O Bulongo ! See here is beer
which we give you.' He who calls that feast is Nalubwe,
and in doing so is carrying on the sacred custom (chikomo)
left by his fathers, and they who begat his fathers found
it being done by those who begat them. But not one of
that line of descent knew him ; they heard only by the
ears that Bulongo is — whether a man, or a ghost, or whoever
he may be, they do not know. Another time Bulongo
' seizes ' by means of Shimunenga and tells people to do
so-and-so according to his wishes. And Nalubwe himself,
as it is his chikomo, if he wishes to call a festival, tells
the people, ' Let Bulongo be built a house.' Then all
the people bring every one a bundle of sticks and the
women small bunches of grass, and build those small houses
for Bulongo. And if he wants beer brewed for Bulongo
he gives his orders, whether it be the winter or any other
time. But as for knowing him, nobody knows. They
simply imagine things. And in plastering those huts, all
the people join, bringing small lumps of clay. As the
people of Mala are so numerous, some of them can't get
near with their contribution, but they try, and they who
struggle forward do well. Again it is said : Bulongo
belongs to all the communes, there is no commune where
Bulongo is not. No, in all the world his existence is
recognised — everywhere. But as for seeing him, among
all the people there is none who has seen him, no, no, they

ch. xxii THE DIVINITIES 195

imagine things only. Some say : He is earth ; others :
He is a ghost ; others : He is just wind (muwo) ; others
say : He is a man who came from the Sala country. He
never was seen ; that is all we can be sure of."

The third account says :

" Bulongo also was a man and had his origin in the
Sala country at Nashamwenda's. He also was a fellow of
Shimunenga, for those two were living at the same time.
It is from the Sala country that the impande shell came,
because when Bulongo' s people descended they brought
the shells with them — shells and all kinds of wealth, such
as bukolwe and mambulukutu, i.e. large beads. People
of to-day have never seen these, but n those old days
you took a string of beads, long enough to go round your
neck and down to the navel, and bought an awfully nice
girl with it. All these are things heard by the ears, even
Kabombwe and Nalubwe, the masters of these ceremonies,
never saw them. Bulongo has a festival made for him
at Nalubwe's. They meet to drink beer, dressed in their
finery, and they praise him, saying, ' Bulongo Mwana-
mungo, Mwanakumpande, Upaokutuba' (' Giver even to
the whites/ i.e. to unfortunates, wasters). He is
worshipped in the summer, whenever rain does not fall
and there is great heat. They build a little hut at
Nalubwe's, on the western side of the village near the
big gate. There are three altogether : Nachilomwe, elder
sister of Shimunenga ; Shimunenga himself and Bulongo ;
they are the three great ones of the Mala community. If
it should be that these three did not speak as usual at
the change of the year, the ba-Mala would be perplexed
and say : ' Where have our demigods (mizhimo) gone to-
day ? The year has gone without our hearing their words.'
That is how the people speak. They haven't a lot to say
for nobody has ever seen them, but this is the way in which
these three are worshipped."

We have had many talks with Nalubwe himself about
Bulongo. He is a very intelligent old man — the most in-
telligent of the Ba-ila chiefs, we should say ; and he is not
one who puts you off with fancy legends, but discusses a
matter reasonably. But we have not been able to add

196

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. IV

much to the accounts given above. Nalubwe will not
dogmatise as to who or what Bulongo is. It seems to him
that he could not have been a man ; he still lives, that is
certain, but whether as muwo or musangushi he does not
know. We discussed the question of the identity of Bulongo
with Leza, for some people confuse the two. When you
ask for Bulongo's praise-titles they answer : Mwanamungo,
Chiotamaila, Nakumpande, etc. " And what are Leza's ? "
Lubumba, Chilenga, etc. " You do not praise Bulongo as
Lubumba ? " Oh, no. " Nor Leza as Nakumpande ? "
Certainly not. Well, that shows they are not the same.
Nalubwe agrees to that. Ba-ila and Bambala make an
annual festival in Bulongo's honour and build houses for
him ; the other demigods have their groves. But nowhere
in Bwila has Leza a local habitation, natural or artificial,
and nowhere is a festival held for him. The little houses
built for Bulongo remind one of similar structures put up
for every prophet that arises in Bwila. And we imagine
that Bulongo is the name of a very ancient prophet, either
contemporary with Shimunenga or more probably prior to
him, who gained an unrivalled influence all through the Ila
countries, so much so that since his death he has remained
the one muzhimo that is venerated in all the districts.
There is probably some truth in the tradition that he came
from the Sala country : he may have come with other
emigrants from some country farther north and introduced
the impande shells and other things mentioned above.

We ought to mention before leaving the subject, that
one of our informants had the idea of Bulongo being the
earth (the name means clay) and Leza the sky, and the
union of the two producing grain and all other things.

We have been mounting through the stages of the Ila
hierarchy — genii, divinities, demigods, arch-demigod — all
spoken of as mizhimo, but having an ever-widening scope
of action ; it remains now to deal with Leza, the Supreme
Being, whose sphere is cosmical.

-K" CnmA>

CHAPTER XXIII

THE SUPREME BEING I LEZA

The Ba-ila tell a legend of a very bid woman, who in ancient
times, being perplexed by the riddle of this painful earth,
set out to seek for Leza and to demand from him an explana-
tion. The legend runs thus :

She was an old woman of a family with a long genealogy.
Leza being Shikakunamo — " the besetting One " — stretched
out his hand against her family. He slew her mother and
father while she was yet a child : and in the course of the
years all connected with her perished. She said to herself :
" Surely I shall keep those who sit on my thighs " — but no,
even they, the children of her children, were taken from
her. She became withered with age, and it seemed to her
that she herself was at last to be taken. But no, a change
came over her : she grew younger. Then came into her
heart a desperate resolution to find God and to ask the
meaning of it all. Somewhere upjthere in the sky must be M
His dwelling : if only she could reach it ! She began to
cut down trees, immense trees and tall, joining them together
and so planting a structure that would reach to heaven. It
grew and grew, but as it was getting to be as she wanted
it, the lowest timbers rotted and it fell. She fell with it,
but without being killed or breaking a bone. She set to
work again and reared the structure, but once again the
foundations rotted and it fell. She gave it up in despair,
but not her intention of finding God. Somewhere on earth
there must be another way to heaven ! So she began to
travel, going through country after country — nation after
nation — always with the thought in her mind : "I shall

197

198 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

come to where the earth ends, and there where earth and
sky touch. I shall find a road to God, and I shall ask Him :
' What have I done to Thee that Thou afflictest me in this
manner ? ' " She never found where the earth ends, but
though disappointed she did not give up her search, and as
she passed through the different countries they asked her,
" What have you come for, old woman ? " And her answer
would be, "I am seeking Leza." " Seeking Leza ! For
what ? " " My brothers, you ask me ! Here in the nations
is there one who suffers as I have suffered ? " And they
would ask again, " How have you suffered ? " 'In this
way. I am alone. As you see me, a solitary old woman :
that is how I am ! " And they answered again, " Yes, we
see. That is how you are ! Bereaved of friends and kin-
dred ? In what do you differ from others ? Shikakunamo
sits on the back of every one of us, and we cannot shake Him
off ! " She never obtained her desire : she died of a broken
heart (yamuyaya inzezela). And from her time to this,
nobody has ever solved her problem !

That is legend. Let us hear what living men say them-
selves of the Power they dimly discern working in the world.
We have talked with many old men who had not come
under the influence of Christian teaching, and will transcribe
here the actual words of two of them — both intelligent old
chiefs.

This is Shikanzwa's version :

Sunu Leza waalaala, waleka To-day Leza has turned over,

mianza yakwe ya kalekale, sunu and abandoned his old ways.

To-day he is not the same, he is
ngunji, udi bunji chinichini, ukuti alt0gether different, for he is not

tadi mbu akubele miaka mile, as he was in distant years before

kabatana kwiza bami batuba. the white .chiefs {i.e. the Euro-
peans) came. At that time he
Nakudi Namese chinichini shonse was truly the Water-giver and

shintu kashichizudile sh'anshi, all things were still sufficient on

i„h„„~u u u 7. 7 earth as they had been established

shakasokasoka ku masokelo. . , J . _, T

from the beginning. Then Leza

Ledio Leza kachidi mupya. was still fresh (or young or new).

Anukuti sunu kwina muyoba, Whereas to-day there is no

. heavy rain, no continued rain

kwina shoye, shivhulamabwe and nQ great hail.storms< As t

shinjishinji. Indaba Shikanzwa, am Shikanzwa ! to-day we say :

CH. XXIII

THE SUPREME BEING : LEZA

199

sunu tulaamb' ati : Leza wache-
mbala, waba muntumbano, ubele
kale. Mbu tuzunga bobo ukuti
menzhi aza ng'alosha izungwa bn
misozhi ivhwa u menso a bantu ni
badila, bit bafumbi aba mupami
adile nakasozhi kalosha a chamba
chakwe, mbu tumuzunga. Sunu
Leza ati udimwi tamwizhi sunn,
tulaamba, lulazeka, kudi ukazumya
mutwi, ukakusakulwa, ulabona
okubonesha shikaba kwa Leza
nshi akachita bwasunu. Miaka
yedia katuyene shimuno sha
mikumo mikumo sha mbono, anu
sunu, kwina pe, pe. Ngu
Shatwakwe, shintu shonse nshina-
kwakwe. Talandwa, taambwa, aze
tabuzhiwa, takolombwa, tachitilwa
shonse nshi tuchitila bantunokwesu
anshi ano, pe. Ulapa 0 kubozha.
Muzhololosha ngwakwe mwini.
Kwina mivenje sunu, kwina shi-
mwenje mukando. Mbu azungwa-
zungwa bobo, usunu Leza ulasha-
shitizhiwa. Kalekalc kadi su-
ngwasungwa kuchitila kabotu, pele
waleka.

And Kambunga said :

Kalekale Ba-ila tibakumwizhi
Leza makani akwe, pe, pele kaba-
mwizhi budio ati, ngu akatulenga, 0
kutachimwa kwakwe. Leza ubudi-
sunu mainza mbu akatazha sunu,
mbuatawi ,intela kai balatamauka,
ati, Leza watukatazha kutawa.
Odimwi awisha, ati, Leza wawisha.

Leza has grown old, he has be-
come the ancient one, of long ago.
That is what we suppose, because
the water which he rains down
is supposed to be like tears from
the eyes of men when they weep.
So it is when one becomes aged,
when he weeps tears he lets them
dribble down his chest — and
that is how we judge Leza to be.
To-day we say again, we do not
know Leza now, we speak, we
imagine there is one who will
harden his head by being shaven,
and he will see and see clearly
what will be from Leza and the
things which he will do nowa-
days. In yonder years we found
wealth of various kinds of pro-
perty, but to-day there is none
— no, no. He is Owner-of-his-
things : all things are his. He
cannot be charged with an offence,
cannot be accused, cannot be
questioned, cannot be claimed
from : none of the things can be
done to him which we do to our
fellow-men on earth. He gives
and rots. Vengeance is his own.
There is no flood to-day — no
great giver of floods. This is
how he is judged of ; to-day
Leza is not as he is wanted to be.
Long ago he was the One who
could be urged to do well, but
to-day he has left off being so.

Long ago the Ba-ila did not
know Leza as regards his affairs —
no, all that they knew about him,
was that he created us, and also
his unweariedness in doing things.
As at present when the rainy
season is annoying and he does
not fall, why then they ask of
Leza different things : they say
now, " Leza annoys us by not
falling " : then later when he

200 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES ft. iv

Achita impeyo, ati, Leza wachita falls heavily they say, ' Leza

.. , , . ,. r falls too much." If there is cold

impeyo. Abala lumwi ah : Leza they „ ^^ makeg it cxM„

wabadisha, na kuvhumba-vhumba. and if it is hot they say, " Leza

Nikubabobo Leza mbwadi Shi- is much too hot let it be over-

clouded. All the same, Leza as
ntemwe, kwaamba, mbwadi Shi- he is the Compassionate, that is

luse, talemani, taleka kuwa, taleka to say, as he is Merciful, he does
kubachitilashintushonse.pe.obatu- ^ ^in&^Z' doesnTgiv/up
kana, obamuchopa, obamuvwiya, doing them all good — no, whether

bonsewabachitilakabotushikwense. theY curse> whether they mock

him, whether they grumble at
Mbu bobo mbu bamushoma shi- him> he does good to all at all

kwense. Kwakudi kubona makani times. That is how they trust

, . ., , . 7 , . D ., him always. But as for seeing

akwe shikwense , pe , tabezhi Ba-ila, . ■.■«■• j_-u -d •,„

r always his affairs, no, the Ba-ila

baamba budio, ati, Leza ngu do not know, all they say is :

shichenchemenwa, ngu natamau- Leza is the good-natured one , ne

is one from whom you beg differ-
kilwa. Tu Ba-ila twina ntu ent things_ We Ba-ila have no

twizhi. more that we know.

In these native-told accounts, certain epithets are applied
to Leza which need, and will repay, reconsideration. He is
called Shikakunamo. Kukunama is to beset any one — to
cling to, adhere, persecute by unremitting attentions. The
phrase gives the idea of Leza plaguing the old woman,
castigating her by killing off herniations. Again he is
called Sungwasungwa. Kusunga is to stimulate, stir up a
person to do things, good or bad, by repeated solicitation.
Long ago, says Shikanzwa, you could get Leza to do what
you wanted by constant entreaty, but not so to-day. He
is called Shichenchemenwa. Kuchenchemena (the active form
of the verb) is to trade on a person's good nature, by asking
for various things without a sense of shame, which you
know you have no title to ask for. That is how Leza is
regarded. He is called also : Natamaukilwa. Kutamauka
is to be changeable in speech. To tamaukila a person is to
ask him for something, and when you get it, say, " No,
that's not what I want, give me something else." So is
Leza treated by men. When no rain falls they say, " Leza
you annoy us, give us some rain " ; and when he sends
plenty of rain they say : " You give too much " ; when he

CH. XXIII

THE SUPREME BEING : LEZA

201

(•■ ii '

sends cold they want heat ; and when he sends heat, they
want cold.

These are epithets that might be applied to any person
whose character warranted it ; they are different from the
praise-names, which are peculiarly his. As we have seen in
another connection, ajgraise-name is descriptive of qualities,
capacities, possessed or supposed to be possessed by a person.
What a man's character is, in the opinion of his fellows, may
be gathered with accuracy from these names. So is it in
regard to Leza. In no way can be better determined the
Ba-ila theology than by a study of these praise-names.

Chilenga x (also Namulenga) " The Creator." The word is
derived from kulenga, to make, to originate, to be the first
to do anything — not necessarily to create out of nothing,
but certainly to produce something that did not exist before.
The word is sometimes used of men ; for instance, when one
of us commenced to make bricks the people said of him :
"Ngu akalenga shitina um Bwila" (" It is he who was the first
to make bricks in the Ila country.") It is also used in the
sense of establishing, instituting a custom. By calling Leza
Chilenga, they mean that He made things and established
the tribal customs. We were talking in our room one day
with an old man ; he picked up a beautiful wild-cat skin
lying on the floor, and with some enthusiasm said, " Who
but Chilenga could colour a skin like that ? Yes, only He
who is_aboye. And all these things " — with a wide sweep
of the arm to indicate the world in general — " He only ! '

Lubumba (" the Moulder ") is a title made from the
common Bantu word kubumba, to mould, shape, as a
woman moulds her pots (cf . Kongo, Zulu, bumba ; Suto,
bo pa) .

Shakapanga (" the Constructor ") is from another com-
mon root : kupanga, to put together, set in order, construct.
The verb is not used commonly in Ila to-day, but occurs in
many other Bantu languages (Lenje, Lala-Lamba, Wisa,
Bemba, Swahili, Nyanja ; Kongo, Vanga).

These three titles indicate that Leza is the maker of

15 *

\p^ai

1 Among the Awemba Mulenga is said to be the chief mulungu or
nature spirit distinct from Leza : a benevolent spirit who can grant
abundant rain. Mlengi is a title given by the Manganja to Chiuta.

202

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. IV

^GXfA

things. If we ask, what things ? the answer is " all."
Necessarily the "all' of a Central African native is re-
stricted, but it comprises all that he knows, and the word
to us could mean no more.

Mutalabala is a name derived from kutalabala, to be
age-lasting, to be everywhere and all times, equivalent to
the phrase, Vina ngaela (" He has nowhere, or nowhen,
that he comes to an end ").

Namakungwe is a title said to mean " He from whom
all things come." The etymology is obscure. Kukungwa
means to be well-dressed, and if derived from that root the
name would mean " He (or rather, she) who is well adorned "
— and might be taken to refer to the beauty of the world as
the garment of God, but that is doubtful.

Other names bring Leza into relation with men : Muninde
(kudinda, to watch, guard), " The Guardian" ; Chaba (kuaba,
to give, to allot to), " The Giver " ; Ipaokubozha (kupa, to
give ; kubozha, to rot), " He who gives and causes to rot."
He gives things, but His gifts are not permanent : fruits
fall from the trees and decay ; the rainy season passes into
winter : the corn in the bins is spoilt by weevil, etc.

Ushatwakwe means " Master, Owner, of his things."
Leza is not only the master but the owner of all, and the
ordainer of the fate of all. Life, as an old man said to us
once, is like a labour ticket that the white men give to
their workmen ; before your time is up you cannot leave,
but as soon as it expires you have to go. So Shatwakwe
disposes of men. When we killed a deadly snake one day,
a man greeted it by saying, " To-day you are dead ! Killed
by the white man ! So was it ordered by Shatwakwe that
you should come and be killed." The name gives expression
to the_deep underlying fatalism of the Ba-ila.

Other names have reference to the elements.

Shakatabwa, " The Faller ' [kutabwa is to fall ; used
only of the rain : Leza watabwa : rain falls).

Lubolekamasuko means " He who causes the masuko
fruit to rot." Mangwe is said to mean " the Flooder " ;
Shakemba, or Kemba, is said to mean the Rain-Giver ; but
the etymology is obscure. Namesi is " The Water-Giver."
(Mesi is an older form of menzhi : water, cf. Yao, mesi.)

CH. XXIII

THE SUPREME BEING : LEZA

203

Munamazuba means " He of the suns ' (or " days ").
Luvhunabaumba : " Deliverer of those in trouble." juK

Other less familiar titles are : Mukubwe (Kukubula, to

cut down and destroy) ; Chembwe, said to mean " He who
takes away till there is only one left " ; Munakasungwe,
' Leader " (kusungula, to lead) ; Munakachulwe, or Nama-
chulwe ; Namazwingwe (or Namazungwe) ; Kayuyu ; Mu-
ndandamina-Kalunga ; x of the last four we have been unable
to find any meaning.

These are some of the descriptive tembaula titles applied
to Leza : Lubombolangulu-maiimbiiswa-nchi-atalana (" Dis-
solver of ant-heaps, but the maumbuswa ant-hills are too
much for him"). Wakazuzha-kalambwelambwe, katende-ka-
nakasha-kamukachila (" He can fill up all the great pits of
various kinds, but the little footprint of the Oribi he cannot
fill"). Chaba-wakaaba-ochitadiwa ("The giver who gives
also what cannot be eaten ").

These are names commonly applied to Leza. They are
in no sense esoteric, but may be heard on the lips of any-
body. It is just possible that some of the obscurer names
may at one time or another have been of human beings, or
mizhimo, though now applied only to Leza. We have heard,
e.g., among the Bambala the name Lukele given to Leza ;
and He was described as having been the piler-up of the
Nambala mountains. But it seems that Lukele was at
some ancient date a human hero. At Lubwe we have heard
Leza called : Bulongo-Namesi. Bulongo, as we have seen,
is the arch-demigod of the Ba-ila, probably once a man. If
we did but know, the same might be true of other names ;
but at the same time we are certain that in the conscious-
ness of the Ba-ila at present these names do not imply that
Leza is the totality of ancient heroes ; nor do they imply
a recognition of many gods. To conclude that the Ba-ila
were polytheists on the strength of these titles would be as
accurate as saying it of the Parsis who are said to have
a thousand and one names for the Supreme Being. The
Parsi names, e.g. Purvedegar, the Provider ; Purvurdar, the

1 We have heard these other names for Leza among the Bambala :
Nzumaknle ; Mulundumuna ; Mundobwe. The Baluba and Balamba
have the names Shakapanga ; Mande.

204 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

Protector, etc., are similar to those of the Ba-ila: not names
of multitudinous deities but praise-names of the one.

So much for the titles. What in everyday talk do the
Ba-ila say of Leza? Now, when we say "it rains, it blows,"
grammarians call the word " it " a prop- word ; it remains
in our language probably as evidence of an ancient belief
that the sky fell in the form of rain : just as the Greeks
talked of Zeus raining and afterwards dropped the noun and
simply said: "it rains." And that is how the Ba-ila speak
to-day. Where we say " it " they say " Leza." Leza
wabala (" it is very hot"); Leza ulaunga ("it blows");
Leza wawa ("it rains"), literally "Leza falls." When it
lightens they say : Leza wakalala (" Leza is fierce ") ; when
it thunders, Leza wandindima (" Leza makes the revet1-
berating sound ndi-ndi-ndi ") . Chandwa-Leza is the name
given to anything struck by lightning : " that which is
split by Leza." Leza watikumuna masalo akwc (" Leza is
beating his rugs ") is another way of describing thunder.
Leza wazhika mat (" Leza buries eggs ") is another descrip-
tion of thunder. Just as a crocodile buries its eggs in the
sand and returns to the spot unerringly, so does the thunder
return in its season. Leza wabwanga bushiku (" Leza ties
up the day ") is said of a disappointingly short rainy season.
Leza wabonzha bushiku (" Leza softens the day ") is said of
the beginning, and Leza wabusangula bushiku (" Leza
changes the day ") is said of the end of the rainy season.
The rainbow is called Buta bwa Leza (" Leza's bow "). In
regard to a death they may say : Leza wakombola mungo
wakwe ("Leza snaps off his pumpkin"). The name is
further used in solemn affirmation : Leza ! ngu Leza ! are
common oaths. It is used also in cursing : Leza wakuanda
(" May Leza split you ! ").

It is not altogether easy to say to what extent these
names and phrases imply belief in a personal Being. The
curse just quoted might be the invoking of the wrath of a
person, or merely calling down lightning. Many of the
names might very appropriately be applied simply to the
elements.

The rain and the phenomena associated with it are the
most important, the most striking, the most useful. In

en. xxiii THE SUPREME BEING : LEZA 205

the Ila country it is supremely so. From the end of March
till the end of October not a drop of rain falls. The small I
rivers either disappear entirely or remain as shrunken, broken
pools. The water -holes dry up. As winter passes and
August comes in, the sun grows in power until in the weeks
preceding the rains the heat is almost unbearable. And
then in the most impressive manner imaginable the welcome
clouds gather, the wind suddenly veers round to the west,
and a great storm passes over the country, heralding the
incoming of the new season. And what a transformation !
A day or two after the storm, nature is wearing a new face.
Millions of little seedlings are pushing their way through the
earth. The people have been hoeing their fields, and now
the work is pressed on. To them, of course, the rain comes
just at the time when they are wanting it : not that they
cultivate in preparation for, and at the coming of the rains ;
but it comes when they cultivate. For months there has
probably been a scarcity of food ; and the coming of the
rain is looked forward to eagerly and anxiously. Should
its coming be delayed, or be scanty, great is the trouble.

Any one understanding these things, could appreciate at
once the calling of the rain and thunderstorms by such
names as Chaba : the giver of all good things ; and Muninde,
the Guardian of Men ; seeing that it is from them that we
derive directly all the material blessings we enjoy. And
those other names are so aptly descriptive of the rain-
storms that sweep the country : " The rotter of the
masuko fruit " — the " Flooder." And when a man tells you
that Leza is Shichenchemenwa (" the good-natured one ") ;
Shintemwe (" the Compassionate "), you can see he has the
rain in mind. The rain falls on the evil and the good, the
just and the unjust : and falls, in greater or less amount,
with regularity year by year. When it falls they say, " Leza
falls " ; although they have the common Bantu word for
rain — imvula (cf. Luba, imvura ; Suto, pula, etc.), yet they
always speak of the rain as Leza. And the wind is Leza :
thunder is Leza, the lightning is Leza. That is to say, those
elements themselves, not any personal being working in and
through them. To generalise : Leza is the sky and what
comes from it.

206 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

Such is one's first impression of the Ila theology : but
two facts must be remembered which correct that impres-
sion. The names are proper names. In form, Chaba,
Lubumba, Chilenga, etc., appear to be neuter, but are per-
sonal really : the use of the pronouns wa and mu — " he '
(or she) and " him " (or her) is conclusive of this. Some of
the names — those beginning with na — are really feminine :
Namesi would mean, literally, " The mother of Water."
And, further, the people themselves recognise that the
water falling to earth is not really Leza, but is water sent
down by him. Walosha menzhi, they say sometimes, " Leza
drops water." There is much confusion in the minds of
many of them, and the way in which they speak some-
times might lead one to think the contrary, but we have
never yet met with any one who on being pressed would
confound the one with the other. It is very likely that
the metonymical use of " Leza " for rain is a survival from
a time when the two were actually identified. We can
think of them revering the elements themselves, then rising
to the thought of a power behind the elements, and finally
coming to think of that power as a person.

There is certainly in these names a personification of the
powers of nature. But it is clear that the Ba-ila have gone
a step beyond that and attained to the idea of a personal
god. There is, of course, a vital distinction between the
two stages of development. To personify simply means
that you recognise the thunder, for example, as He instead
of It. You get then a special god, one whose activities are
confined strictly to one sphere, that of thundering. If you
pray to him, or make offerings to him, it is only to avert
disaster from the thunderbolt : you would not ask his help
in case of ordinary sickness, for that would be outside his
sphere of operations. But a personal god exercises a wider
influence ; if he begins as thunder, he comes to control the
clouds, to feed his people, to watch over their interests, and
so become the Father of men. That seems to be how the
Ba-ila now regard Leza ; not simply as a sky god, but as
their god ; though sufficient of the old views remains to
make him in the minds of many little beyond a dispenser
of the rains.

ch. xxiii THE SUPREME BEING : LEZA 207

It is no mere sky god of whom the woman in the legend
already related went in search, though his home was in the
space above. And in the aetiological myths we have in-
dications of a similar kind. In a later section we give the
tale of how Leza in the beginning gave men grain (see p. 348).
Here Leza is evidently more than the sun and rain which
cause fruits and grain to ripen ; in his solicitude for the
well-being of the people he has placed on earth, he shows
personal feelings : he provides for them, is grieved at their
foolishness, and takes steps to repair the damage they have
done to themselves.

In the story of Chikambwe- — the blue jay who
married the daughter of Leza (see p. 347) — Leza is more
than a sky god. The lightning is the opening of his mouth,
his voice is the thunder, his sweeping descent is that of the
tempest or thunderbolt. But he has some relationship to
men ; he speaks in the imperative, he imposes a taboo, he
punishes Chikambwe, holding him responsible for her death.
He is very human in his affection for his daughter : human,
too, in his desire to avenge her.

It must be added that the Ba-ila are far from being
convinced of the benevolence of Leza. He is over all —
watuvhunikila, they say, " covers us " as the sky above, but
this is not altogether a comfort. He is mostly regarded as
an all-powerful Fate, to whom they trace much of the evil
and sorrow of life. A person who is bereft of his children
is called mulabile-Leza ("one upon whom Leza has looked").

We have been trying to reconstruct for ourselves the
theology of the Ba-ila. We conclude that they have risen
to the conception of a being closely related with the pheno-
mena of the sky, who is also the maker of all things, and
the guardian of men. Such cognition does not, of course,
constitute religion, which is primarily a matter of emotion
— an impulse to enter into mystical communion with the
Being whose existence is felt in the world around them.
What is the nature of that communion ?

We notice, first, the disparateness of Leza from the
mizhimo. Everybody will admit that the mizhimo were once
men ; but we have never once heard a suggestion that Leza

208 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pi. iv

was ever a man, nor is he ever named a muzhimo. He
stands in a class by himself. It is true that legends assign
to him a wife and family, but that does not imply his
humanity, The mizhimo are near to men : they are of the
same nature, know human life from the inside, realise the
wants of men ; Leza, on the other hand, is remote and takes
little or no cognisance of the affairs of individuals.

Hence there arises a difference in the cult. Many tribes,
indeed, that acknowledge Leza do not pray to him ; he is
otiose — too far removed from men to heed them. But the
Ba-ila do seek to come into touch with him. They regard
the mizhimo as intermediaries between themselves and Leza ;
but on occasion they address him directly. They say (with
no irreverence) " matwi akwe malamfu" ("his ears are long "),
i.e. he can hear even words whispered in secret. But Leza
has no ikubi as the great mizhimo have ; there is no in-
dividual who periodically summons the people to sacrifice
to him. Generally speaking, it is only on occasions of
special need, when the help of lesser beings is of no avail,
that they seek him.

As might be expected, it is in time of drought that the
help of Leza is much sought after. In the proceedings now
to be described, it will be seen how dynamistic and religious
conceptions may be combined. The prayers are a definitely
religious act, but the rain-making process is as definitely
dynamistic in character. They not only pray, but employ
the mysterious powers in misamo to compel the rain to
fall.

When there is a drought, the people repair first of all to
the musonzhi — the diviner. After consulting his oracles, he
informs them perhaps that a certain muzhimo is preventing
the rain from falling and bids them go and make him an
offering. Or he may announce that there is no obstacle on
the part of any mizhimo : in that case they are at a loss.
Then appears another functionary — the mushinshimi, the
prophet or prophetess. With all the people kneeling in a
circle around him, clapping their hands, he works himself
up into an ecstasy. Presently he delivers his message,
which may be of drought, famine, or only of delayed rains.

CH. XXIII

THE SUPREME BEING : LEZA

209

He orders them to build one or two prayer-huts, to pray
and go through the rain-making ceremonies (kupuka). In
probably every chishi there is a person or more who has the
ability to puka. His services are now called into requisi-
tion. Taking a pot he puts into it some roots of the Muti-
mbavhula tree and some water. Then holding a small forked
stick between the palms of his two hands he twirls it round
in the liquid, producing froth (iovhu) . Some of this froth he
throws in all directions, the idea being that it will collect the
clouds. Then another kind of medicine is burnt, and throws
up a dense smoke which is supposed to have some con-
nection with clouds. The ashes are put into a pot of water,
so that the water becomes very black — another reference to
black clouds. Then he once again twirls his stick (lupusho)
in this mixture — to gather the clouds. As the wind brings
up clouds, so will the movement of his lupusho. All the
time this is going on the people are singing and invoking
the praise-names of Leza. One refrain is :

T ue )i dele 0 muyoba, Leza, kowa !
" Come to us with a continued rain, O Leza, fall !

4oA -

When the operation is completed, the medicine is poured
on the ground, the pot is covered and left there by the
little huts.

When rain first falls, they do not work for two or three
days : nobody makes any attempt to hoe. This is an act
of reverence towards Leza. They say : " Mutayasi iyamba,
mutayasi menzhi akwe, mushu akwe " (" Do not wound (him)
with a hoe, do not wound his water, his urine ").

Here is an account given to us by a native at Nanzela
of prayer offered to Leza by a party of hunters :

" Again they pray also to Leza, Muninde (" The Guard-

"). When they go into the forest hunting and stay
there many days without success, they build a shed, and in
the evening find out whether any of the company is able to
divine. They inquire of him what divinity it is that keeps
them from killing, and maybe he finds it is Leza himself.
' What are we to do now ? ' they ask, and he replies, ' Let
us go out of the shed and sweep a clear space outside.'

vol. 11 p

—lilVlv&rX/

ian

210 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

They do this, and then with all their things assemble at
that clear space. The eldest of them takes his place in the
centre, with all the others sitting round, and begins to
pray : ' O Mutalabala, Eternal One, if it be Thou that
keepest us from killing animals, why is it ? We pray Thee,
let us kill to-day before the sunset.' When the elder has
finished his prayer, all fall to the ground and cry : ' O
Chief, to-day let us kill.' Then they break up and go to
the shed to rest awhile. In the afternoon late they separate
and hunt. One kills an animal and at once calls his fellows,
and they clap their hands. One cuts off bits of meat and
makes an offering, throwing a piece in the air and saying :
' I thank Thee for the meat which Thou givest me. To-
day Thou hast stood by me/ They clap their hands.
Then they take the meat to the space cleared for Leza.
The oldest man arises, cuts off bits of meat and makes an
offering, saying : ' Chief, here is some of the meat Thou
hast given us. We are very grateful.' Then he throws
the morsels of meat into the air, and offers again between
the horns of the beast. Then they shuwelela — utter the
shrill greeting and divide the meat. They say : ' Who
gave us the meat ? It was Leza who gave it to us, not a
divinity.' "

There are cases of sickness when, after praying in vain
to the divinities, direct access is sought to Leza. The head
of the household fills a lukoma with meal and water, and
pours some of it on the ground on the right side of the
threshold and prays like this : " Leza ndakukomba na ndiwe
wdsasha wezu mukwesu, muleke adiendele muzhik' ako. No
nu wakamulenga anshi ano waamba akeende, akanshome,
muleke mwanako, akakushoma. Mutalabala twakukomba,
ndiwe mwami mukando." (" Leza, I pray Thee. If it be
Thou who hast made our brother sick, leave him alone,
that Thy slave may go about by himself. Was it not Thou
who createdst him on the earth and said he should walk and
trust Thee ? Leave Thy child, that he may trust Thee,
Eternal One ! We pray to Thee — Thou art the great
Chief ! ").

He then fills his mouth with water and squirts some out
as an offering.

ch. xxiii THE SUPREME BEING : LEZA 211

We have mentioned, too, that access is sought to Leza
when offspring is desired.

In the early morning, when a man smokes his pipe for
the first time that day, he may blow some smoke into the
air as an offering and say : " Mwami, wambusha kabotu.
Muntu owakunditaya, muzovu owa kuwula, chibosha nda-
bweza chinyama " (" Chief, Thou hast caused me to rise
in health. A man who shall ditaya me, an elephant who
shall be found dead — it is good that I should take such a
great thing " i.e. " give me happy fortune to-day ! ").

When, in travelling, a Mwila arrives at a river, he some-
times takes the opportunity of offering a sacrifice. Filling
his mouth with water, he squirts some of it on the ground
and says this, or something like it : " Ndiwe unyenzha.
Inzho koko nkwinja nkazhoke 0 cholwe chako uwe Leza.
Koya bu nyembela kabotu, Shimatwangangu " ("It is Thou
who leadest me. Now may I return with Thy prosperity
from the place where I am going, O Leza ! Go on shepherd-
ing me well, my Master ! ").

We have seen that Leza is regarded as having founded
many of the customs, and that certain laws or regulations
are said to be shifundo shaka Leza (" God's prohibitions ").
But too much must not be made of that. The relation
between Leza and men is not to be described as ethical.
He has no title of Judge. It is true that at times when
they see a circle around the moon the Ba-ila will say : " To-
day there is a lubeta above " (Kudi lubeta kwizeulu), using
the word describing the meeting of the chiefs and people to
try a case. But this is no more than a picturesque description
to-day, whatever it may once have meant. That Leza
should take cognisance of all the doings of men, and regard
them with approval or disapproval, is an idea quite foreign
to their minds. In all their invocations of Leza there is
no confession of sin. Indeed we have never met with the
idea of sin against Leza except in one instance. That is
in connection with the luloa or blood-offering made on
account of a murder. As we have seen already (p. 187),
among the cattle paid as a fine, one or two are offered to
the communal demigod. We once amused an old man

212 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. iv

by asking whether in such a case Shimunenga would eat
the ox offered to him. " No," said he, " we eat the
ox. Shimunenga takes the chingvhule (the shadow- soul)."
The offering is made to him as the head of the community,
for in killing one of his men a crime has been committed
against him. But that is not all. They have the idea that
Shimunenga is in some degree responsible to Leza for the
lives of the community, and should any one be slain he
(Shimunenga) is in fault to Leza. Hence they say Shimunenga
takes the chingvhule of the ox and conveys it to Leza as a
propitiation. The old man went through the action of
Shimunenga approaching Leza with the offering in his hand.

PART V

213

CHAPTER XXIV

MISCELLANEOUS NOTIONS

i. Reckoning Time

The Ila word chindi means " space, period," and chidingo,
a definite point of time. As the people have no clocks
and no calendars, one is prepared to find much vagueness
in their expressions.

The day-period of twenty-four hours is called bushiku,

<?<■

xx. >T^ x,

0^2/ Buzuba W*

(sunset) Diebila I i -| D.apasa f swmej

Mangolezhal j *fxmo.funio

IgggS^ \ MASflIKU /I^Xt^^cro^

Diagram of Time Reckoning.

a term which is also applied specifically to the time of
dawn. The bushiku is reckoned from one sunset to another.

-215

216 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

One plural form of the word, inshiku, means " days," the
other, mashiku, is " night." Mashiku aza (" this night ")
is the night coming ; mashiku adia (" yonder night ") is
the one passed. The period of daytime is called buzuba
(from izuba, sun), or munza, a term applied specifically
to the forenoon. The mode of dividing the bushiku may
be seen from the diagram on the preceding page. Many
of the names indicate what is done about that time.
Thus, muvhwang ombe is when the cattle go out to
graze ; munjilang'ombe, when the cattle return in the
afternoon ; akabonzhabeembezhi is the time in the early
afternoon when the herdsmen begin to get weary ; ama-
ladidilo is when the last meal is eaten (kuladila), and
achizhizho the time for which food is prepared (kuzhia, to
grind meal). Other names trace the course of the sun :
diapasa (" sunrise ") ; akalendebwe (" when the sun rests on
the fontanelle "), amutwikati (" when it is on the middle
of the head "), diakumbo (" when the sun declines,"
kukomboka), diaungaunga (" when it gets a bit cool "),
diasubidizha (" when the sky reddens "), diavhuma (" when
the sun is diminishing "). When speaking of time, a Mwila
points to the position of the sun in the sky ; thus he will
say, " We will arrive when the sun is so high," and point.

There was no division of the month into weeks, but
they are learning it from Europeans. Sunday is named
by a corruption of the English word, nsunda, which is also
applied to " week." For Saturday and Monday they have
taken Tebele words learnt at the mines : imbelekelo (" the
end of work "), and mushimbuluko (" the opening day ").

The year, mwaka, is a very indefinite period. In common
speech ku mwaka means the spring, or the point when the
old year merges into the new ; others speak of the mwaka
as the six months from October to March, i.e. covering
the sowing, weeding, and early harvest seasons. Yet they
recognise the cycle of the year, and say mwaka wazhinguka
(" the year has revolved, has come round "). The number
of months in a year is not a thing they think about, and
we have never met a man who could say off-hand how
many there are. Even when you ask them to give you the
succession of the months, some will give ten, some twelve,

ch. xxiv MISCELLANEOUS NOTIONS 217

and some thirteen names ; and no two of the lists we have
written down agree.

By months we mean, of course, moons (miezhi). The
Ba-ila reckon from the first appearance of the moon to its
disappearance, and the dark interval is inshiku sha ntatano
(•" the in-between days "). The new moon is mwezhi
mucheche (" the infant moon ") ; and at the full it is
called mwezhi uzhuka ( ' the moon which comes out of the
ground"). Chonancheche (" when the children sleep ") and
chonankando ("when the elders sleep") are terms applied
respectively to the full and waning moon.

Reckoning the year from about the time of the ap-
pearance of the Pleiades, there are three seasons : Chidimo,
(" the cultivation-period "), i.e. spring ; mainza (" the rainy
season "), and mweto (" winter "). Kunkosoko is a name given
to the change of season, as from chidimo to mainza, mainza to
mweto, and mweto to chidimo. The following is a list of the
moons in as accurate a succession as we can determine :

1 Kavhumbi kashonto — the time of new grass and leaves.
Chidimo -J Ivhumbi ikando — the time of full grass and leaves.
I Shimwenje — when the rains are fully developed.

Kukazhi — the women's month, i.e. when they are busy
weeding.
( Knyoba — the time of continued rain.
\K11lumi — the men's month, when they hunt.
Itaano — "pass here" literally; i.e. come and get food :
there is plenty.
iChisangule — the time of change, i.e. the rains are

lessening.
yChibuantimba — the time of little rain.
I nkombolabulezhi — the breaking of the Pleiades.

Ikonaula masanga — breaking of the long grass.
I Kazhalakonze — when the hartebeeste calves.
I Kaabanino — change in the season, beginning to get
warm.

Kapukupnku — the time of much wind.

Katente kashonto — the time of the first veld fires.

Kasangabimbe — when the bimbe bird appears.

Katu — the shooting of the first leaves.

Mainza <

Mweto

Several of the " moons ' have more than one name.
But none of these names is constant. With us January
is always January, and June, June : but, as the Ba-ila name

218 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

the moons according as to what is done at the time, if the
season is retarded, or hastened, the name varies accordingly.

2. Ideas about the World

The creation of all things is, as we have seen, ascribed
to Leza. The blue arch of heaven they call Izeulu ;
some speak of it as a solid thing, others confess they do
not know what it is. The earth they think of as flat,
and somewhere on the far horizon is where earth and sky
meet. Somewhere in the east, on that bordering line,
they say, is the home of the Bashikampinukila — a race of
dwarfs of whom their forefathers told them : men about
two feet high, living in holes in the earth. When you
visit them and inquire about your sleeping-place they point
to crevices in the rocks, or say, " vhungulula ibolo diako,
none mo ' (" loosen out your scrotum and sleep in its
shade"). But nobody has seen them: their existence is
only a tradition.

The sun is called izuba. It is to some extent per-
sonalised by the name Chisowa (" Mr. Disperser "), whose
rising is the signal for men and women to go about their
daily work. The sun, said Sir W. Scott, " is every wretched
labourer's day lantern — it comes glaring yonder out of
the east, to summon up a whole world to labour and to
misery."

When the sun appears above the horizon a man ex-
pectorates on the ground as an offering, " Tsu ! Wavhwa
chisowa " (" Mr. Disperser has emerged "). This is to avert
ill-luck and give him good fortune during the day. They
have the idea that the sun, after declining in the west,
comes back to the east at dawn, leaping across from
stump to stump on the earth. Nobody sees it ; indeed
to see it would be malweza — and death. Eclipses of the
sun are regarded with fear ; they speak of the sun as
rotting away (kubola) ; as dying and rising again
(kubukuluka) .

The moon is mwezhi, and every month they think a
new and different moon appears. When it is first de-
scried, a person takes a piece of charcoal (kashimbi) in his

CH. XXIV

MISCELLANEOUS NOTIONS

219

hand, waves it round his head, and throws it towards the
west. This is kudikusha malweza, to remove ill-luck from
himself. In its early days the moon is tonda : the ill-luck
attached to it has not yet been thrown away. When six
days have passed, and it has reached its first quarter,
the ill-luck has gone, and the people dance in joy. A
tale tells how Sulwe, the hare, got up into the moon ; he
is still to be seen there.

Remarkably little attention is paid to the stars
(intongwezhi). When one thinks of the magnificently
brilliant nights and their habits of sitting around the even-
ing camp-fires, one wonders that they should not have
figured out constellations and formed myths of the stars.
We have many times drawn their attention to the stars
and tried to get their names, but without success. It is
not reckoned taboo to attempt to count the stars, but any
one who should try it would be laughed at as a fool. The
only planet they name is Venus ; but, not knowing that
she appears as the evening and as the morning star, they
give her two names. Because Venus is often seen very
near the moon in the evening she is named Mukamwezhi
(" the moon's wife ") ; or she is named Inangabadya (" seen
of the eaters "). As the morning star Venus is Intanda, and
plays a considerable part in their life, for her rising is
bwacha (" the dawn "), and is the signal for travellers and
hunters to rise and go about their business.

The Milky Way is named Midalabungu, from some
fancied resemblance to the hair on a person's chest.

The only constellation named is Bulezhi (the Pleiades,
' the shewer "), so called because it indicates the beginning
of the new year and the time to begin cultivating.

We have heard the stars spoken of as the eyes of Leza.

A falling star is named itanda ; and they say of it,
not that it falls, but diakosoka (" it is cut off "). When
seen it is greeted with curses ; a man spits violently on
the ground in the direction it is falling: " Thu ! " he
says, " may the people in that direction come to an end ! "
But this means little or nothing.

In May 1910 we saw Halley's Comet. The people made
little comment upon it, and did not seem to take much

WrL^OL

220 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

notice. Four years afterwards we had some difficulty in
recalling it to their memory. Perhaps there is some notion
we have not discovered which forbade their noticing it,
or remembering it ; otherwise, it is certainly remarkable
that the most glorious celestial phenomenon we have ever
witnessed should have made so little impression. When
we afterwards heard of King Edward's death and spoke of
it to Mungaila, he at once connected it with the Comet.

The rainbow is named buta bwa Leza (" Leza's bow ").
They have the curious idea that just below where the bow
touches earth there is a very fierce goat-ram, which burns
like fire. When the bow is very brilliant they take a pestle
(munsha) and point it to the bow, without speaking, to
drive it away ; for they think it prevents rain from falling.

Their ideas of lightning and thunder have already been
illustrated when speaking of Leza. Lightning (lulabo) is
said to be the wide-opening (kulaba) of Leza's mouth ;
it is also spoken of as the quick, fierce glance of his eyes.
Things struck by lightning are not specially regarded,
except that a portion of a tree that has been struck is burnt
and the ashes mingled with the ash from a tree named
Mwande Leza (" struck by Leza "), mixed with fat, and
forced down the throat of an ox or cow ; this is to ensure
the beast wasting away and dying if ever it is acquired by
the owner's opponent in a lawsuit.

Thunder (makadi) seems to frighten them more than
lightning. When it thunders you will hear a man shouting
to the sky: " Kowa budio, tulalanga menzhi ; twina kambo
o muntu ; ukwete kambo o mwenzhina makani akwe mwini '
(" Please simply fall, we want water. We have not
offended any one ; if any one has offended his friend it is
his own affair, not ours "). This is to disansulwila, to
defend himself against any possible evil results of the
thunderstorm ; as he is innocent, he does not deserve to
die. A person will also pray in the presence of thunder
and say : ' Tubantu tulaamba, okuvhuya, uamba buti ;
utababiki ku mozo, bape budio menzhi " (" We people talk
and complain and speak all sorts of things ; do not put
them in your heart (i.e. do not cherish resentment against
them), but simply give them water ").

ch. xxiv MISCELLANEOUS NOTIONS 221

The rain (leza, imvula) is thought to be sent by Leza ;
some say, through small holes in the vault of heaven. The
rain may be prevented from falling by those who have
the proper medicine and released by others with more
powerful stuff.

The hail is called chivhulamdbwe (" abundance of
stone ") ; if it falls during the season, they take it as a
sign of cheyo (" an abundant harvest ") ; if the stones
are very big, it is the maize that will be plentiful ; if small,
the sorghum.

Water is menzhi, a plural term. It is reckoned taboo
to drink water in the early morning unless one has first
expectorated as an offering ; for you may have had the
company of a ghost during the night, and it is right to
offer him something, or he may be vengeful. When cross-
ing a stream it is the custom to bathe and cook on the
farther side, not on this side ; the idea being that some-
body may be drowned, and it is better to get the crossing
over first before refreshing yourselves. Streams are, as
we have seen, often regarded as being occupied by ghosts
in the form of monsters.

The wind is called mnwo ; they do not know its nature,
it is a mysterious thing, to be identified with the breath
of a person, and the ghosts. They have names for winds.
The cool wind of the rainy season is katengezhi ; the
burning wind of October is ikasazhu. The whirlwind is
named kambizhi, and also shikwidikwikwi. Some fancy
it to be a cock with a long tail. When they see it coming
towards them, one stretches out his left arm, and points
with his little finger, moving it slowly round in the direc-
tion in which they wish it to go. Or they point with a
pestle (munsha). If, notwithstanding this, it whirls the
grass off a roof, the owner consults the diviner, for he
concludes it to be no mere whirlwind but katumwa (" one
sent " by an evil-wisher). If it assaults a person himself,
he spits as a curse : " Thu ! Bidozhi bwako twakabona ;
ndiwe nini" ("We see your witchcraft. You are so-and-
so "). This averts the evil.

Earthquakes are a very rare occurence in the Bwila.
On May 28, 1910, there was a slight shock, lasting about

222 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

thirty seconds. It was in the morning as we had finished
dressing ; we heard, or felt, it coming from the west and
wondered what it could be ; then we felt the tremors
beneath our feet, and felt it passing east. Two miles in
that direction are the Mala villages, and as the shock
reached them we could hear the shrieks from the people.
They called it mududumo (" the rumbling "). Some ascribed
the shaking of the earth to Leza, others to the white men ;
all agreed it was a tremendous portent. Old men told us
they had heard from their fathers of a very violent earth-
quake, when the ground opened and swallowed villages.
They gave us a fragment of an old song which celebrated
the event. A dearth of ground-nuts the next year was
attributed to the earthquake.

The metals known to the Ba-ila were only two — iron
and copper. Brass came later in the form of thick wire
introduced by traders. Even now, when they have had
money for some years, they have no idea of the value
of gold and silver, and have formed no names for them.
They know that the mines produce gold for making
money, but do not appreciate its value when not coined ;
a gold ring being no more in their eyes than a brass one.

The Ba-ila have well-known names for the points of
the compass : Kwiwe is the east (" at the rising ") ; kumbo,
the west (" at the setting ") ; north is kumbala ; south is
kububizhi (" to the Butonga country ") or kumpusu.

But the Ba-ila are not a travelling people, and therefore
have very little knowledge of countries around them. In
fact, many of them know little about their own country
outside their immediate neighbourhood, for until recent
years they mostly remained at home. One does, however,
meet great travellers even here, such men as were taken
captive by the Makololo in their youth, and afterwards
accompanied their captors on their expeditions. Old
Mukubu, for example, can tell of travelling with Living-
stone, the discovery of the Victoria Falls, and the journey
to the west coast, of the raid to the upper Kafue by the
Makololo, etc. Another old man told us of a year's journey,
during which he visited Kanyemba, the Chikundi chief in
Portugese territory south of the Zambesi. Such men have

ch.xxiv MISCELLANEOUS NOTIONS 223

some idea of surrounding people, but even their knowledge
is not extensive. In later years many adventurous spirits
have gone to labour at the mines in Southern Rhodesia,
and a few farther, to Katanga in the Congo Beige, and
even to Kimberley. But they return with hazy notions
of those countries. In Kimberley, e.g., which they call
Deemani, they think, some of them, that the white people
dig for big white things like impande. We have told
them of our country, but they cannot, of course, realise
it. We have shown them pictures of houses taller than
their highest trees — taller than three or four trees on end ;
but all such wonders are received incredulously ; they
only pity the narrator as a clumsy liar:

Kumbulawayo (" at Bulawayo ") is the Ultima Thule
of most Ba-ila, and they think all white people come from
there. When European traders and hunters began to
visit the Bwila, we were solemnly asked whether Bulawayo
was being deserted.

They have ideas of the sea derived ultimately, it seems,
from the early Mambari traders from the west coast. They
suppose that all European merchandise is thrown up out
of the " big water ' by monsters — some think they are
men who have been transformed by the magic of white
men to work for them under the sea — and traders pick
it off the shore and sell it. So easily procured and
yet so hardly obtained by them in exchange for their
precious cattle and grain ! They think we white people
are very selfish.

3. Ideas about the Animals and Plants

When we turn to the Ba-ila knowledge of the animal
kingdom, whose representatives are so numerous around
them, we are struck equally by their shrewd observations
and by their ignorance. They have accurately observed
many habits of the animals, but there comes quickly a
point at which they go wrong. Their notions are interesting,
not because of their scientific importance, but largely be-
cause of their fantastic nature. Many of them have been
already mentioned, others will be described in connection

224 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

with the tales : a few of a miscellaneous character regarding

insects and reptiles may be introduced here. This is their

classification :

Banyama : quadrupeds.

Bapuka : creeping things, reptiles.

Tupuka : insects.

Bazune : birds.

Inswi : fish.

The banyama are divided roughly into hoofed animals :
obadi nfumba ; and bachele, soft-footed animals with
shituta (" noiseless feet "). But lions, leopards, and cheetahs
are not included in the latter subclass.

Among the Annelida they name the leech (musundu).
They speak of the leech getting into an elephant's trunk
and thence into the brain, and so torturing the huge beast
that it commits suicide in vain attempts to free itself of its
tormentor. Because of its " sticking " quality the leech
is made into " medicine " to prevent women rebelling and
running away, and also to prevent riches from vanishing.

Among the Myriapoda, the shongolwe (" millipede ")
is a very familiar object in the rainy season, winding about
on the ground, much as one imagines a train would appear
to a man from a balloon. The Ba-ila have a dread of the
innocent creature, because, they say, long ago it entered
the vulva of a woman and she died. They take it up on
a stick and throw it and the stick away so that it may
not return ; and if any one should bring a shongolwe to
a house, the owner would give him things and salute him
humbly by clapping hands and then throw it away. Hence
the proverbial expression, used by a person repenting of
a wrong action : Sh'enda dinji kodia, ndapanga ko, ndasowa
ko chongolwe (" I won't go in that direction again ; I have
deserted it ; I have thrown shongolwe there ").

Of the Arachnida, the scorpion is named kapididi or
kabanzi ; the centipede, ilumabanduwe, also shimukosola-
mukongo (" the cutter of the clitoris "). They dread the
sting of these.

Spiders are of many kinds, but we only know two
named by the Ba-ila. One is the shilubidila, which makes
its circular white silky nest (namundelele) on the hut wall —

ch.xxiv MISCELLANEOUS NOTIONS 225

used to give resonance to the Budimba — and the other is the
shilutangatanga, which weaves its web from tree to tree,
from grass to grass. These are lucky things to the hunters,
for if they find them on their gun they know they will be
successful in killing.

They name two varieties of tick : the ordinary one
which is found on dogs and cattle is called malumabatolo
(" the biter of the lazy "), because only lazy people would
refrain from picking it off themselves ; and the insengele,
which, they say, if it keeps its grip on one's head, will
cause baldness.

Itch (bwele) is a common disease, but they do not know
it is caused by a minute insect.

The inkofu is a kind of bug which infests many houses
and whose bite may make you feel very sick. They say
that if you are bitten by inkofu imishi, a pregnant bug,
you will swell up.

Of the Orthoptera, locusts have in past years done
considerable damage to crops among the Ba-ila : we have
not seen them in swarms during the last twelve years.
The swarming kind is named chikwikwi or chisozhi ; the
voetganger, shinchuta. Locusts are eaten, roasted, with
salt, in an earthenware pot on the fire.

The Mantis is named namutekamenzhi (" drawer of
water ") or lulukwati. Women drawing water are careful
not to kill one, or their pots would break.

There are numerous stick-insects, whose appearance
can with difficulty be distinguished from twigs and grass ;
but the Ba-ila do not seem to pay attention to them.

Lice are named injina. They infest the houses.

Of the Neuroptera, the house-fly is called inzhi ; the
hippo-fly mazhimbwa. There is a fly which inserts an egg
under a person's skin, where it becomes a worm ; we have
taken a dozen out of a European, and some out of ourselves ;
but the Ba-ila do not seem to be aware that it is a fly that
deposits the egg. They think the worms simply appear ;
they say they are not troubled by them, and if any one
gets them he is very unlucky and will die.

Mosquitoes are mamwe. There are several kinds : both
culex and anopheles. Surely no country in the world can

VOL. II Q

226 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

produce more mosquitoes than the Kafue valley during
the greater part of the year. They are a great nuisance
to the natives, who, though ignorant of the connection
between the anopheles and malaria, try to protect them-
selves from them. They have an aromatic plant called
Muvhumbane, which they say drives mosquitoes from their
houses, but, judging by their complaints of sleepless nights,
it is not very efficacious.

Fleas are called imbwenjina. They wrongly imagine
it is an ordinary flea which burrows into the skin and
produces the chigoes (maundu). Only recently introduced,
the chigoe for a year or two was quite a scourge at Kasenga,
but it seems to have disappeared again. If fireflies
(kamweshimweshi) are caught in the evening and placed
under one of the clay cones of the fireplace, next day there
will be heavy rain.

Dragon-flies have the name shimukundanchela ; ' they
say that if one sits on an inchela (the earthen spout of
the blacksmith's bellows), it dies.

Termites of two kinds infest the Bwila.: one, a small
kind, is lumoma ; the other, a large variety, is mulanzhi.
Some people eat, and find nice, the earth of which the
termites make their tunnels. In the flying stage they are
called inswa, and are eaten.

There are many kinds of ants. The busulubi is the
vicious little beast that drives you out of your home and
eats up every living thing in it, that kills fowls, and even,
it is said, calves. Shimwenzhalubilo is a black biting-ant.
Manjenji is a large kind that bites grass. Bumbuswa is a
small ant that makes mounds ; its larvae are eaten by
guinea-fowls.

Of the Lepidoptera, butterflies are named inkongolokwa ;
moths, mampempe. They do not know that a butterfly
develops from a caterpillar. There are many caterpillars :
one is shichisuntaboza, a hairy kind found on trees, which
causes intense irritation if you come in contact with it.
Inzala is another kind.

Beetles are in great variety. There is the borer (shika-
busumpwe) which drills holes in all one's woodwork. The
ing ombemuka is a kind that we have seen tied alive into

ch.xxiv MISCELLANEOUS NOTIONS 227

a man's hair ; some say it is with the object of killing
lice, others that it makes buyebuye, scratching movements,
which are very refreshing !

Kankontyontyo is the cicada, whose " voice " is heard
in the early spring heralding the rains.

Chitolamatuzi (or shafumbula) is the scarab beetle, whose
indefatigable energy in pushing balls of dung is the admira-
tion of travellers.

N amudilakushobwa is a beetle found in the hard bark
of trees : it has a rough back (tuyabizhi). A piece of the
bark containing the beetle is stored in a calabash and the
beetle is used, alive, to rub the gums of a teething child
to facilitate the cutting of the teeth.

Of the Hymenoptera, the Ba-ila name two wasps —
mangvhu and malurnansha— which build their nests on
palm bushes and trees, and whose sting is very painful :
the latter is said to be capable of stinging a reedbuck to
death. The mason-wasp, namuzhingididi , figures in folk-
lore as the fire bringer (see p. 345).

There are two kinds of bees. Inzuki makes its nest in
the hollows of trees, whence it is smoked out and robbed
by the Ba-ila, guided by the honeybird. They divide the
bees into bachende (" males ") which make a dark-coloured
honey which they call kansama, and which is taboo to
children ; and the inzhazhi (" females ") which make the ,
ordinary honey (buchi). That which the bees extract from
flowers they call buluba, but do not know exactly what it is.
The larvae, rnana, are eaten ; and are taboo only to those
who have an aversion from them. The wax is used in
mending calabashes, and is put on arrows and the cupping
horn. It is also used in a kind of divination ; if some one
is suspected as a thief, a lump of wax is held over a flame,
and as it melts and drops, he is named, and if the wax
burns he is guilty, if not, not. The honeycomb, mankanza,
is chewed.

The other bee — named bwanshi, or shikangulwe, makes
its nest in a chamber under the ground. The honey (called
by the same name as the bee) is said to be very nice indeed.
It is not often one finds these nests : only those with good
luck, or the necessary medicine, do so.

228 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt.v

Of the Mollusca — the mussel (?) found in the rivers is
called Iwidi : sometimes, they say, a pearl is found in it.
Snails are inkolakola ; their shells are used to pour medicine
into the ear. Neither is eaten.

There are three frogs : the ordinary one, kabombwe,
found in the pools ; mazhibongo, a huge kind, and ka-
ngvhungvhwe, turned up out of the ground in cultivation.
This latter characteristic is celebrated in its praise-titles :
Shamanungo, Kanyama ok'ona mwivhu. From the frog is
made medicine administered to cattle, which will ensure their
swelling up and bursting if taken from their owner ; and
also medicine to render warriors invisible.

Tadpoles, balube, are said to metamorphose into barbel
fish (babondo).

Crabs (inkala) are eaten.

Among Reptilia the Ba-ila name four kinds of lizards :
Intombela, bulube, shachikanka and sosolwe, the last of
which they say is mukadi (" fierce ") when in its bwina
(" burrow "), and bites.

The chameleon, nanundwe, is dreaded : they fear its
bite ; and they hate it as the cause of death being in the
world (see p. ioo).

Four kinds of tortoises are named : Fulwe and inkaka
— water tortoises ; kalalamina and shichanga, land tor-
toises. Fulwe is a prominent figure in folk-tales.

Snakes (the generic name is inzoka) are much dreaded
by the Ba-ila, who almost invariably describe every one as
dangerous. They name many kinds. Of the puff-adder,
chipile, the fat lazy snake that lies in one's way and whose
bite is death, they say that if you tread on it it does not
bite, but only if you step over it. In the latter case, the
snake feels insulted : they imagine it to say : ' I am re-
garded as an insignificant thing and despised," and to bite
in revenge. Whereas if you tread on it, it feels flattered by
your attention, and so merely hisses its gratification.

Of chisambwe, another poisonous kind, they say that a
person bitten by it will surely defaecate and then die :
whence the name.

The ingongoki is a rare snake : we have seen only the one
shot at night by Captain Lynch. To see it is a good omen ;

ch.xxiv MISCELLANEOUS NOTIONS 229

others say it is a bad omen. It is a prettily marked snake,
with its scales pricked out with white in the centre and
turning to a greyish blue towards the edges. The ridge on
the back is very peculiar — very hard and bony and marked
by a series of white horny scales. The head of this specimen
was shot away. It is said to be purely nocturnal in its
habits, going to earth during the day.

The shimakoma is a cobra with the unpleasant habit of
spitting at one's eyes.

The shibudikila is a short dark-coloured snake thought
by the Ba-ila to have two heads. Its name is used as an
idiom " to come suddenly." It is regarded as bad luck to
see it.

Chidingadinga is a small snake with a blunt tail. Said
to be tonda, to see it means ill-luck, not to oneself but to
one's friends and relations. It is called the mwenzhina
(" the fellow ") of shibudikila.

There are other snakes whose real existence is believed
in by the Ba-ila, but which we prefer to call fabulous, because
of their extravagant descriptions which we have never been
able to verify.

Such is ikonkola — a huge snake two hundred yards long,
which leaps over trees : in colour red and black mixed.
Shapela, one of the chiefs, says he has seen it. A person
would go carrying on his head a huge pot full of medicine ;
the snake always aims at one's head from a tree, so it would
strike the medicine and die.

Another such beast is mulala — which we call a dragon
(see our note on p. 380). Riding across the veld one misty
morning we asked our groom if he had ever seen one :
promptly he replied : " Yes, I saw one yesterday when the
horse was grazing just over there ! "

The Ba-ila name a great many trees, plants, and grasses.
Trees have the generic name masamo ; bushes are shivhuna ;
grass is mani ; leaves eaten as vegetables are shishu. Under
each of these heads we could give a long list of names, but
they would serve no useful purpose : we have already men-
tioned many of those that are eaten and used as medicines.
Of trees we have seventy and of grasses twenty-four names ;
and there are others we do not know.

230 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

4. The Bakamipilwi

One curious thing that has been described to us by
several elderly men is the Flying People, bakamipilwi. We
were showing old Mungalo a picture of an aeroplane and
trying to make him understand that we white people were
so clever that we could now fly ! He was not so impressed
as we expected him to be. " Oh ! " said he. " We saw
them long ago." He went on to tell us how that, say,
twenty-five years ago they came from the north-west and
passed over Mala : he didn't know what they were, but
they seemed to be men flying over the tops of the trees :
whether they were men, or enormous birds or ghosts he
couldn't say. We heard of them again from Chibaluma,
who said he saw them flying between his place and the
Nambala mountain, going south-east. He added that there
were several companies of them and they were several days
in passing over. Some Bambala say the trees were turned
into people and passed away east.

5. Ideas of Colour

The colour-sense of the Ba-ila is undeveloped. There
are but three special names : kusubila, is "to be red " ;
kutuba, is " to be white," or rather, light-coloured ; and
kushia, " to be black," or rather, to be dark-coloured. But
it would be wrong to suppose from this that they can only
distinguish those three. We have many times tested them
with coloured wools and other things and found they had
some ideas of the differences even when they could not
name them. They give some colours the names of objects
so coloured : e.g. a yellow thing is named from the butter-
fly (inkongoloko) or cattle-urine (ishudiang ombe) ; ifumba-
lushi and ishishi are browns ; shimufula-mwemvu, a. snake of
that colour, gives its name to a green ; and injanjabizhi, a
water plant, to another green. The names given to cattle,
from their colours, are very interesting. Every variety has
its special designation.

ch.xxiv MISCELLANEOUS NOTIONS 231

6. Ideas of Number

The Ila system of counting is decimal. They have dis-
tinct names for the numbers up to ten : one is mwi ; two
is bidi ; three is tatwe ; four is ne ; five is sanwe
(these are adjectival roots and take the qualifying sub-
stantival prefixes) ; six is chisambomwi ; seven is chiloba ;
eight is lusele ; nine is ifuka ; and ten is ikumi. Eleven is
ten and one ; twelve is ten and two, etc., twenty is two-
tens, etc., twenty-one is two tens and one, etc., a hundred
is rnwanda ; a thousand is chulu : the word is also applied
to any great number. We have had workmen, ordinary
unschooled young men, whom we could trust to count the
number of poles in a waggon-load, say — 361. Men can
very quickly tell whether a beast is missing from a herd :
tell it more quickly than we could ; but that is probably
because, not of their facility in counting, but of their ability
to recognise each beast by its colour and other charac-
teristics.

CHAPTER XXV
*

THE BA-ILA AT PLAY

Nobody who has watched Ba-ila at play would ever again
regard them as without energy. They may be addicted to
lolling about in a very listless fashion, but the sound of a
drum awakens their energy : and when engaged in the dance
they may keep it up most of the night, or in case of a sham
fight, a large part of the day with magnificent elan. Many
of the dances are associated with serious occasions, but we
are here concerned only with amusements. In these, all
the people join : from early childhood to an advanced age
they have their various recreations. The asking of riddles,
and telling of tales, both favourite amusements, are dealt
with in later chapters.

i. Adult Games of Skill and Dexterity

(a) Chisolo. — Foremost among these games is one that
in different forms is found over a large part of Africa. It
is what the Bathonga call tshuba ; the Banyanja mchombwa,
or msuo ; and the Ba-ila chisolo. This is not a children's
game, though we have seen lads engaged in it with adults
as their opponents, evidently a case of teaching the young
idea how to shoot.

This popular game is played by two men sitting on
opposite sides of a " board," consisting of a series of shallow
holes in the ground. The number of these varies ; we have
watched games with as many as twenty holes on each side,
but a more common number is fourteen. In any case they
are arranged in four parallel lines, two to each player. Small

232

CH. XXV

THE BA-ILA AT PLAY

233

stones, called lubwe, are used as ' men " : and of them
each player has an equal number. The motive of the game
is, by moving these stones in certain directions fixed by
rule, to get them into positions relative to your opponent's
and so sweep him off the board. The skill lies in selecting

Photo I . II . Smith.

Playing Chisolo.

your move so as to bring your men into the required
position.

There are several varieties of the game : the following
is a typical example of the kind named natatu (" the one
of three "), so called because most holes contain three stones
to start with.

Each player has 33 stones, which he proceeds to place
in the holes nearest to him — this is called " planting '

234 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

(kushanga) — three in each hole, except the last four on his
right hand in the second row which have 2, i, o, o. They
are now ready to start. They may move only in one direc-
tion : in the line nearest the player from right to left, in
the farther row from left to right. Thus in the plan here
given A moves in the direction n—h — g — a ; and B, 7 — 1 —
14 — 8.1 The opening move is called kubingula, subsequent
moves kuteka (" to draw water "). The player selects the
hole to move from ; takes out the stones and drops them
one by one in the following holes. The secret is to plan a
move so as to leave the last of these stones in an otherwise
empty hole, immediately opposite the opponent's occupied
hole. If he succeeds in this, he takes all directly opposite
that hole : this is "to eat " (kudya) ; and he has also the
right to remove all the stones in any other hole of his op-
ponent : this is kusuwa (" to snatch "). In the plan the
" eaten " holes are marked • ; the " snatched " holes ©.

Another form of move is called kusuntula (" to lift up ").
You drop the men in the holes as before, but having come
to the end of those you hold you take out all the stones
from the last hole you come to and drop them one by one
in succeeding holes : you can continue this till your last
stone drops into an empty hole. At times one sees a player
going round the board, twice or even three times, dropping
men in successive holes and taking them out. They do it
so rapidly that it is difficult to see what they are doing.
The following will illustrate this suntula move :

0OOOOOOO

OOOO Ox OOO
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Diaguam of Suntula Move.

The top row shows the holes before the move takes
place ; and the lower, after he has moved. He takes 4 out
of 1, drops one in each of 2, 3, 4, and 5 : he takes the three
out of 5 and drops 1 in 6, 7, and 8. As 8 was empty he has
to come to a stop ; but if there had been one or more in

1 This applies to the first move : in the second move the player may,
if he chooses, reverse the direction, but if he does he must keep to it
through the rest of the game. A did so in the game here recorded.

ch. xxv THE BA-ILA AT PLAY 235

that hole he could have gone on moving. The point where
the move culminates is marked X on the diagram.

The following plan shows the actual moves in a game
recorded by us on the spot.

I. The holes arranged for playing.

II. B moves first. He takes 3 out of 12 ; puts 1 in 11 ; 1 in
10 ; and 1 in 9. This brings him immediately opposite the
holes / and i, each of which has three stones : he therefore
" eats " these ; and " snatches " 3 out of h.
III. A now follows and makes a corresponding move. He takes
3 out of e ; puts 1 in d, 1 in c ; and 1 in b : he eats 3 out of
13 and 3 out of 2 ; and snatches 3 out of 1.
IV. B takes 3 out of 11 ; puts 1 in 10, 1 in g, and 1 in 8 : he

eats 3 out of g ; and snatches 3 out of d.
V. A takes 2 out of c ; puts 1 in d and 1 in e : he eats 3 out

of 10 and 3 out of 5 ; and snatches 2 out of 9.
VI. B takes 3 out of 14 ; puts 1 in 13, 1 in 12, 1 and 1 in 11 :
he eats 1 in d and 3 in k ; and snatches one out of b.
VII. A takes 3 out of m ; puts 1 in»; 1 in a ; and 1 in b : he

eats 1 out of 13 ; and snatches 3 out of 3.
VIII. B takes 3 out of 6 ; puts 1 in 5, 1 in 4, and 1 in 3 : he
cannot eat because of his own 2 in 12 (and there are
none in c), i.e. he is not immediately opposite I.
IX. A takes 4 out of n ; puts 1 in a ; 1 in b ; 1 in c ; and 1 in
d : he eats 1 out of 11, and 4 out of 4 ; and snatches 1 out
of 12.
X. B takes 3 out of 7 ; puts 1 in 6, 1 in 5, and 1 in 4 : he
can't eat the 1 in d, because he is not immediately opposite.
XI. A takes 2 out of b ; puts line and 1 in d ; he now suntula's,
i.e. takes both out of d ; and puts 1 in e, and 1 in/.
XII. B takes 2 out of 5 ; puts 1 in 4 and 1 in 3 ; he suntula's,
i.e. takes out the 2 from 3, and puts 1 in 2 and 1 in 1.

XIII. A takes 2 out of e ; puts 1 in / and 1 in g ; he eats 1 out of
8, and snatches 1 out of 6.

XIV. B takes 2 out of 4 ; puts 1 in 3, 1 in 2 ; he suntula's, i.e.
takes the 2 out of 2, and puts 1 in 1 and 1 in 14 : he eats
2 in a, and snatches 3 out of /.

XV. A takes 2 out of/; puts 1 in g and 1 in h.
XVI. B takes 2 out of 1 ; puts 1 in 14 and 1 in 13.
XVII. A takes 2 out of c ; puts 1 in d and 1 in e.
XVIII. B takes 2 out of 14 ; puts 1 in 13 and 1 in 12.
XIX. A takes 2 out of g ; puts 1 in h and 1 in i.
XX. B takes 2 out of 13 ; puts 1 in 12 and 1 in 11 : he eats 1 out
of d, and snatches 3 out of j.
XXI. A takes 2 out of h : puts 1 in i and 1 in j.

1 There is an error in the plan : hole No. 12 at this point should have
an only stone (not two) ; the error is continued in VII. and VIII.

236

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. V

XXII. B takes 2 out of 12 : puts 1 in 11 and 1 in 10 : he eats 1
out of e and 1 out of j : and snatches 2 out of i.
XXIII. A has now no stones left : B has 1 in 3 ; 1 in 10 ; 2 in 11.
B therefore wins : Wamwanga ("he ties him up").

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A Plan of a Chisolo Game.

This game was complete in twenty-one moves ; but
some, especially when the number of the holes is increased,
are much more complicated and lengthy. One we recorded

ch. xxv THE BA-ILA AT PLAY 237

was not complete until the 117th move. The game is
frequently lengthened by one or both players " passing in
foreigners," as they say, kuisha Balumbu. When one is
getting beaten he has this privilege of adding six or seven
fresh stones to his depleted holes and continuing the game.
His opponent may elect to do the same. But unless he
does, the other may not enjoy the privilege in two suc-
cessive games.

There are varieties of this game. One variety is played
with only one stone in each hole. As there is no empty
hole to act as the goal, the starter without moving one of
his own stones makes a vacancy by eating two of his op-
ponent's men opposite his own and snatches another. That
empties three holes ; and his opponent does the same. As
there are now vacant holes, the game can proceed as before.
The players manoeuvre about to get their men into " eating "
positions and also to avoid being eaten themselves.

Another variety is named namudilakunze (" eating on
the outside ") ; and is also played with one stone in each
hole, but with the hole on the player's extreme left, on the
outer row, empty. As the name implies, instead of eating
stones on the inner row only those on the outer row can be
eaten. This is the " eating " position : —

OJ Beats A.

Nambidi is played, as its name indicates, with two stones
in each hole. The opening move is the same as when one
stone is in each hole.

(b) A Hunting Game. — A favourite sport indulged in by
adult men is an imitation lion hunt. This is not mere
sport but serves a utilitarian purpose of practising the
tactics actually pursued in the real thing.

One man (or two) takes the place of the lion, and dresses
in character, with ruffs on his arms and legs and round his
neck, and a most realistic tail attached to a belt and pro-
jecting behind. Some unfortunate herdsman has been
attacked and now lies in the grip of the lion. The hunters,

238

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. V

befeathered and beruffed, with long wands as spears go out
to attack it. They advance to the combat. One more bold
than his fellows advances and throws his spear. It hits
and with a growl the lion turns and bites savagely at it.
The others advance and menace the lion — distracting his
attention, so that they may seize an opportunity of rescuing
their comrade. The beast charges and they retreat, but at

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The Hunters and the "Lions.

last achieve their object. The fun waxes fast and furious.
The growls and roars of the lion, the shouts of the hunters,
the beating of a number of drums and the singing and
cheering of the spectators, the women cheering on the
men — all make up an exciting scene. It is intensified
when with a loud roar a second lion bounds into the
midst and the hunters execute a strategic retreat. But it
ends, as all hunts should, in the defeat and slaughter of
the lions.

Photo G. H. Nicholls.

A Sham Lion Hunt : The Lion and his Victim.
Scouts (in the distance) report the misadventure.

Photo G. H. Xicholl^

A Sham Lion Hunt : The Hunters arrive on the Scene.

Photo 6. H. Nicholls.

A Sham Lion Hunt : Attacking the Lion.

Photo 0. H. Nicholls.

A Sham Lion Hunt : Rescuing the Lion's Victim.

Photo G. H. Xicholls.

A Sham Lion Hunt : Saved !

rhoto G. H. Xicholls

A Sham Lion Hunt : The Hunters attacked by two Lions.
VOL. II R

242

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. V

(c) Spear Throwing. — Practising with spears is one form
of sport. They compete in throwing — to see who can throw,
farthest. In this many men are very expert. Shooting at
a moving target is also practised. A large seed-pod of the
Namuzungula tree is fastened to a long string and a man
drags it at racing speed along a line of young men, making
it bounce and jump. As it goes past they take aim. It is

Photo JS. If. Smith.

A Spear-throwing Competition.
(The target, drawn by the running man, is hidden in the dust.)

no mean test, for to spear the darting object requires con-
siderable skill.

2. Children's Games

Here as elsewhere, the labour of adults is the play of
children, that is to say, many games are simply an imita-
tion of the serious pursuits of the elders. Boys very cleverly
mould clay oxen and clay herdsmen — long isusu, impande
and all. They build small kraals of sticks and spend happy
hours putting the cattle in and out. Nowadays, figures of

CH. XXV

THE BA-ILA AT PLAY

243

white men, mounted on horses and wearing monstrous hats,
are introduced into the scene. Boys have fierce mimic
battles, using long shafts of grass as spears. They charge
and retreat and charge again and shout with glee when
they succeed in transfixing the enemy. Generally speaking,
such games are carried out with good temper, but some-
times a sham fight develops into a real one, when sticks are
grasped instead of grass and broken heads result. We

Photo E. IV. Smith.

Roys playing with Clay Oxen.

remember one instance when a little boy of ten gravely
brought a charge against another of the same age for
hurting him in one of these sham fights, and claimed an
ox as compensation.

Here are two tiny naked boys sitting with legs stretched
out. They have a wild cucumber which they cover with
sand. Each has a spear — a grass stem with a thorn tied on
the end — and they take turns in stabbing the heap to see
who can impale the cucumber. " Ndawala ! Ndawala ! '''
they say in their pretty baby Ila.

244

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. V

Boys are fond of dressing to imitate their elders ; if
they have no bangles of ivory or brass they make them of
grass, or mould clay on the arms to represent them. A

Hioto B. II'. Smith.

Very much a Man.

very favourite sport is to plait a grass isusu and fix it on
the head by a string passing over the forehead. With this
on his head and a play bow and arrows in his hand, or a
small spear of wood, the boy is proud and thinks himself
verv much a man.

ch.xxv THE BA-ILA AT PLAY 245

Girls play with dolls — carved out of wood and decked
with beads, or simply made out of a mealie cob. They
build tiny villages, with all the feminine appurtenances —
the grinding stones, mortars, and all.

Another favourite sport among the boys is the imita-
tion, and caricaturing, of the movements of animals and
birds.

One of the best things of the kind we have seen was
performed by a lad of about eleven, who mimicked the
antics, real and supposed, of the Honey-Guide (solwe : called
for the purposes of the game mwana miyange). He had on
a scanty loin-cloth, into the tail-piece of which he put a few
handfuls of sand and tied it in a knot. Giving this a twist
and working his loins, he kept the cloth whirling round in a
circle, in imitation of solwe' s tail. He drew in his stomach
and pushed out his chest, drew in his cheeks and pushed
out his lips to imitate a beak, and then began his antics by
dancing about on his toes. There is a post near, and to-
wards this solwe advances mincingly — hoping to find honey,
but fearing the stings of the bees. He pecks at the tree, to
hop away with a cry and painful grimaces : presently he
returns with bits of grass with which he proceeds to make
a mock fire to smoke out the bees. Then he brings a dish
and scrapes at the tree, while a friendly bystander drops a
clod into the dish, and off he skips delightedly. All the
time a man sits strumming a kankobele and the spectators
sitting around laugh and cheer. It is a most amusing sight,
and not the least amusing part is the severe gravity with
which the youngster goes through his performance. He
keeps it up to the point almost of exhaustion. Presently,
with giving his tail a too vigorous shake round, the cloth
drops off, leaving him exposed and shamefaced, to the merri-
ment of the onlookers.

We have seen other antics of a similar kind. One was
in imitation of the Katongotongo bird (the Jacana ; called
also inandananda) . A chorus is formed of a line of boys,
who clap their hands and sing ; while the performer dances
in front imitating the movements of the bird. One sings
a solo : Katongo Katongo ntumina mudilo {" K., send me
fire ! "), and the others chant in chorus — Tewe ! Tewe !

246

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. V

In their set games the motive is largely the same — an
imitation of birds, animals, and objects.

The game kabombwe (" Frog ") is played by boys who
squat on the ground, with their arms passed under their
knees. They hop about after the manner of frogs and
sing : " Chibombwe chakundelela mwana " (" The great frog
was nursing a child for me "), or this : " Bombwe ati ku Fulwe,
tuye tudye boa " (" Frog said to Tortoise, let us go and eat
mushrooms ").

riwto E. If. Smith.

The Game Ku lumamea liva mainza.

The game chikwekwe is supposed to be a representation
of the Iwando — the long mat of reeds stretched across a
small river as a drag-net for fish. Boys and girls make a
long line, holding hands, and then the leader starts off in a
circular movement, all the rest following, and each dragging
the other. The game is to see how long they can keep it
up without any one loosing hold. As they go they sing :
" Chikwekwe chilambuzha mudimo " (" Chikwekwe is asking
me about the work ").

Another game is supposed to be an imitation of a battle
fought in marshy ground, where the warriors in charging

ch. xxv THE BA-ILA AT PLAY 247

sink deeply into the mire at every step. The boys form up
in two lines, kneeling on one knee, and advance, changing
from one knee to the other, and clapping their hands.
They sing :

Ku lumamba Iwa mainza ! — " To the war of the rainy season."

In the game chitendebele the motive is to represent a
lukwi — the flat basket with sloping sides used in winnowing.
The boys stand in a ring holding each other by the wrists.
They dance round, and, as they go, throw themselves back
as far as they can. They run round, sloping their bodies
until it seems they must fall backwards. They keep it up
till one, to save himself from falling, jumps back to regain
the perpendicular. One boy sings and the rest join in
chorus :

Solo : Chitendebele — " The backward sloping thing ! "
Chorus : Kamuchileka — " Leave it alone ! "

Solo : Chitendebele.
Chorus : Chitumbwa, kamuchileka — " Leave the old basket
alone."

Another game, lutambo Iwa ngombe, is, as its name sug-
gests, a representation of a calf, tied by the leg and trying
to break free. Boys stand in a ring holding each other by
the wrists. One boy is inside, and as they stand still he
rushes, throws himself on their joined hands and endeavours
to break through. Should he succeed, the boy who looses
his hold takes his place in the ring. The boy within sings :
" Lutambo Iwa ngombe " (" The reim of the ox ! "), and the
others answer : " Talukosoka " (" It won't break ").

Intululu represents an animal going into its burrow
(bwina). The boys stand in file with their legs stretched
apart. The hindmost boy creeps through between their
legs and takes his place in the front, while the next follows.
The boy sings :

Intululu yenjila — " The intululu is entering."

And the rest answer :

Yenjila ku mudiango — " It enters by the door."

This game, under the name of chombombo, is played by

248

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. V

others to represent foreigners stealthily creeping into a
village. The boys, standing, sing :

Chombombo , akaka, balumbu benjila.
" Chombombo ! Dear, oh dear, the foreigners are entering."

Kulea miumba is a game in which the players are sup-
posed to be fish dodging the fish-spears aimed at them.
They stand about with their arms stretched up over their

Photo E. Jl\ Smith.

Playing Intululu or Chombombo.

heads. One dances round his fellow, and he round another,
until they all are dancing round each other. Of course
they sing.

Solo : Kulea miumba — " To escape the spears !
Chorus : Midimo nji yatuleta — " That's the work that brings us ! "

Solo : Kulea miumba — " To escape the spears ! "
Chorus: Kwesu ku Butwa — "There at our home in the Batwa
country."
Midimo yatuleta — " That's the work which brings us ! "

In another game the boys represent a reedbuck wounded
by the hunter. They stand in line with their legs apart,

CH. XXV

THE BA-ILA AT PLAY

249

and come jumping in halting fashion as if their legs were
broken. They sing :

Solo : Banakasha mba hibilo — " The reedbuck are swift."
Chorus : Ati mfuse chini chakonoka — " When I said I would
shoot, the leg broke ! "

Another game is in some imaginary fashion a caricature
of birds, the secretary bird and the ingoane. Two boys
kneel on the ground, facing each other, with a pole over

Photo E. If. Smith.

Boys playing the Banansakwe and Ingoane Game.

their shoulders. They clap on the ground with their hands,
and, as they do so, have each to dodge his head underneath
one side of the pole to the other. They keep it up until
one of them, in moving his head, knocks the pole off his
shoulders.
They sing :

Banansakwe tabapumbani
Ivgoane nshi shipumbana.
" The secretary bird doesn't move his head from side to side,
the ingoane are they who move their heads."

In another game boys form up in two lines to represent
flocks of two carrion - eating birds — bashikube and mwa-
ngvhwa. The idea is that these two birds always avoid each

250 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

other when they come to feed on a carcase. The boys kneel
in lines facing each other, with a boy in between them to
represent a carcase. They advance on their knees and re-
treat in alternation : as one approaches the carcase the
others retire. They sing :

Bashikube tabadiatana o mwangvhwa.
" The vultures do not stand together with the mwangvhwa."

Badiatana balweza !
" It would be horrible for them to stand together."

Another game is representative of animals at play. Two
bands of boys are drawn up facing each other, with their arms
around their neighbour's neck. One company advances,
singing :

Solo : Mwanamukopwe yaya.

" Our brother Mwanamukopwe."
Chorus : Woona, shamukola imbwila.

' He is asleep — the ground beans have intoxicated him."

The other line now advances, singing :

Solo : Nu banyama kubingwa.

" You animals to be driven."
Chorus : Nu banyati nkwaya ku mulonga.

" You buffaloes, that is where he goes to the river."

The two lines pass by each other, wheel round and return.
Then they dance up to each other and charge with wild
yells : " U ! U ! U ! Ah ! Ah ! " Once again they form
in two lines, with arms round each others' necks, and advance
and retreat, singing :

Kit manyama, kubinga ku manyati.
' To the many animals, to drive to the buffaloes."

Ing'ombe ingofu ("the blind cow") is like our blind-
man's buff. The "cow' is not blindfolded, but simply
closes his eyes. He has a reed in his hand with which to
touch any of the boys springing about round him. He
sings : " Ing'ombe ingofu " ("A blind cow ! ") The others
answer : " Teboni " ("It can't see ! ") The first one touched
has to take the " cow's " place.

The game kabia is supposed to be a representation of a
small earthenware pot. Boys stand in a close ring, holding

ch.xxv THE BA-ILA AT PLAY 251

each the other by the little ringer of one hand and grasping
the thumb of that hand with his other thumb, all knuckles
up. Their hands, lifted above their heads, make a circle ;
they raise and depress it, to show the form of a pot.
The leader sings :

Kabia — " A little pot ! "
Chorus : Kabwengo — " A relish ! '

In the shikamimbia a Mala game (" The swallow at
Mala ") the representation is of a swallow. The boys stand
in a circle, with their arms crossed so that each grasps his
neighbour's knee. They dance round : leave hold of the
knees to clap their hands and regrasp them : singing all
the time :

Ibia diakamutola Shimimenga a Mala.
Okoko disanduluke, isamo diabola,
Okoko disanduluke.
' The big pot took him, Shimimenga, at Mala !
And there change over again, the tree is rotten.
And there change over again !"

As they pronounce the word for " change," they alter their
grasp.

Mambwanyanga is supposed to represent the long stems
of the pumpkin and melon plants. The boys stand in a
long line, grasping each other by the wrist. The leader
sings :

Mambwanyanga !

Others in chorus :

SJiibalabala shiboni matanga.
" I do not see the melons."

As the leader sings he goes through under the arms of the
next pair, then through the next, dragging the others after
him. It is like a long chain, threading one end through
the links. When all have passed through they reverse and
go back, singing :

Lushi ! Lushi ! twenda nu bana, tumuswanganye tumwikate.
' Round and round it goes, oh children, let us meet him and
seize him."

Another game is supposed to be a representation of a
tortoise with its hard shell. It is called iiamakaka a fulwe.

252 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

One boy kneels, all fours, on the ground. Two boys lie at
right angles to him, one on each side, and put their legs
over his back : each then grasps the other's feet and raises
himself slightly off the ground. The boy in the middle
moves off with his burden ; as they go they sing :

Namakaka fulwe mbweenda.
' That is how hard-backed tortoise walks."

There is a game called inyundo (" the hammer ") which
is a representation of the blacksmith's work. There are
two bands of boys, sitting on the ground. One leaves his
company — walking on hands and heels, face upwards — and
goes across to the other and begs a hammer. They answer :
' ' Mukafula o bani?" ("With whom will you do the smithery? ")
The other company answer : " We will do it with machende."
He returns as with the hammer and starts knocking. An-
other boy from the opposite company now comes with the
same request. They ask what he wants to make, and his
company answer : " Tulafula intongwezhi " (." We shall forge
a star ! ") They give it to him, saying : ' Here it is ! '
Then they begin to fight over the hammer. A boy, going
along in the same position, charges the company opposite,
shooting out his foot and giving one of them a kick — if he
can — and quickly retreating. They charge and recharge — -
darting about with remarkable quickness in this strange
attitude.

In the game banakabwenga, stronger boys take the
juniors on their shoulders — their feet hanging over the front
and their heads hanging down behind. They go about
singing. There is some imaginary reference to hyenas carry-
ing their young in this fashion.

In the game shikoswe (" rats "), boys squat on the

ground, with their hands through under their knees to give

the appearance of four legs. They dance about. The leader

sings :

Shikoswe ! Shikoswe ! — " Rats ! Rats !
Chorus : Nkwatile mbeba — " Catch me a field-rat."
Leader : Mbeba waunka — ■" The field-rat has cleared."

Then they dance back. Another takes up the song as
before and they go dancing about.

CH. XXV

THE BA-ILA AT PLAY

253

There is a game played which is a kind of dramatic
representation of thefts from a melon patch. One boy
stands with his hands lifted above his head — he is a lubange
bush growing in the garden ; kneeling on the ground around
him are five or six other boys, with their faces hidden low
down : one of them has his head between the " lubange' s '
knees. These are the melons, one of them being caught
fast in the lubange bush. The owner comes round to examine
his melons, and thumps each one as he says: " Matanga

Photo E. li: Smith.

Boys playing the Game "In the M elon- patch. "

angu mudizudile ? ': ("Are you all here, my melons?").
They answer : " Yes, we are all here." He goes away :
then comes the thief, who, stealthily and with much looking
about, carries off one of the melons. By and by the
owner comes again to count his melons and, tapping
them, asks again : " Are you all here, my melons ? ' They
answer: " Kamwandamwanda ng'uteo" (" K. is absent")
This is repeated again and again, until the thief, having
removed all the loose melons, tries to dislodge the one fixed
in the lubange bush. While he is at it the owner comes
upon him, and asks who has taken his melons. The thief

254 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

answers that he doesn't know : he also has lost a lot. He
persuades the owner ; they pluck off each a branch of
lubange (by pulling down the boy's arms) and go off. Later,
the owner discovers the thief in the very act of bearing off
the last melon. The game is up and the thief is chased
by all — owner, lubange, melons and all.

Other games can be classified only as play. There are
numerous such games, and it would be impossible to give
an adequate idea of them. The boys enter into them with
immense zest. It would be as easy to describe them as it
would be to describe young colts at play. Some of them
might be regarded as trials of skill and dexterity : in others
the only motive is to make as much noise and kick up as
much dust as they can.

In the game lutu a boy sits on the ground holding a
long string, to the other end of which is attached a bunch
of grass. He whirls this round his head, at a distance of
about two feet from the ground. As it whirls round, the
boys rush in and jump over it, perhaps as many as three at
once. One boy lies crouching near the whirler, and the
jumper in the intervals between his jumps has to bend down
and pinch him, and then jump over the string as it comes
round to him. The boy who is pinched is called kamwale
(" the maiden ").

In katundulwa the boys stand closely together in a ring,
with their arms round each other's waist. One boy is in
the centre and may have rather a rough time, for the idea
is for the circle gradually to press in upon him, closer and
closer, while he makes frantic efforts to escape between the
legs. The boy inside sings : " Katundulwa ! ' The others
answer : " Uvhwile kwi ? " (" Where will you escape ? ").

In kanyanja the boys form a ring, holding each other
by the wrist and dance round. One boy crouches inside
and hops about trying to escape. They sing :

Solo : Kanyanga kadila — " Kanyanga cries."
Chorus : Kadila mwitanga — " He cries in the enclosure."

Impila is a ball game, played with a ball made of resin or
rubber. No sides are chosen, but each boy throws to a
friend, while the others try to intercept it. As one throws

ch. xxv THE BA-ILA AT PLAY 255

he claps his hands, and the boy preparing to catch it must
first clap his hands.

Another favourite sport is kunma bungo (" to beat the
ball "). It is a kind of hockey, played by two parties with
sticks and a palm-nut as a ball.

In the muneke game they stand in a ring holding hands
and dance round, singing :

Tuleebela mbu aika muneke,
Mulumi adye muneke.
' We will watch how she cooks muneke,
That her husband may eat muneke."

Still holding hands, two of the players bend to the
ground and the one between them has to step over the
hands, turn round and regain his position, all without
releasing his hold. Should he bungle this and, not being
sufficiently lithe, be forced to leave hold, then they deride
him by saying he is the cooker of muneke (" ill-cooked
food ").

Another ring game is called nzenze. One player squats
on the ground in the ring, and the others join hands and
sing:

O Nzenzele ukamukume Kama.
" Oh, you Nzenzele, you may mention Kanza."

One of the players, still holding hands, springs forward
and must leap round the inside boy without touching
him, while the others do their best to pull him so that
he falls over the boy. The boy in the centre doesn't
have a very good time. He is relieved by the first who
touches him.

One game is unique among these youngsters' gambols.
In all except this they strive to outdo each other in noise :
in this, silence reigns. It is called muvhumuko (" the
silencer ! "). The boys stand in a ring with one inside.
Mum's the word : the first who speaks has to take his
place within. This is not by any means a popular game.
We have only seen it once.

Buwawa (" tickling ") is a game played by boys in the
evening. A number of them sit in line with their legs
stretched out, and one goes along the line, drawing his

256 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

hands along each boy's legs in turn. As he does so he

sings :

Tandabale — " Stretch out."

They reply in chorus :

Bawawa !

He goes round a second time, lifts up one leg of each
boy and plants it with knee flexed. As he does so he tickles
the boy's knee-cap. He goes round a third time and puts
up the other legs, and the boys all sit with their arms on
their knees. Then he sings :

Adikuluke ikumbi — " Let the cloud descend ! "
Adibwele ikumbi — " Let the cloud return ! "

As he sings the first line they shoot out their legs, and
return to the former position as he orders the " cloud '
to return. He goes round again, separating the knees and
knocking them on the ground. They sing in chorus :

Tupampe insanya o baina shabalnma.
" Let us shake out the bugs, they bite my mother."

He separates their feet and draws them together, saying as he
does so : " Twabona mo ! " (" We see (the bugs) in here ! ").
He does this to each in turn : at the end he takes each boy
under the arms and lifts him up rigid, without the legs
bending. As he does so, he says : " Bwasuntuka butala bwa
kanini" (" the grain bin of So-and-so is raised"), naming
each boy's village in turn.

In katantaile, a number of boys stand in file, each
with his hands on the shoulders of the boy in front of him.
The hindmost boy runs back a short distance, charges
and jumps with all his force upon the back of the next
boy. As he does so he sings :

Katanta katantaile — " Let the jumper go on jumping up !

They answer :

Katanta kadinyelele — " I can bear the jumper."

The boy upon whom he springs carries him off to the
front, deposits him there and returns to take his turn at
jumping. The game goes on until all have jumped in turn.

o
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VOL. II

258 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES w. v

Kanzhinge is a game very similar to the Oranges and
Lemons familiar to our own younger days. Two boys
stand making an archway with their arms, while the others
form in file and march round. As they go the boys
standing sing :

Banangu bamanina mukasaka kazhinge.
" My children make a circling movement in the forest !

And the players answer :

Sansadi bombwe.

They pass through the arch and the boy in the rear is
cut off, and takes his place behind one of the two pillars.
It goes on till one boy only is left. He makes strenuous
efforts to break through without being trapped. He sings :

Kanga kazhinge kaladikumbakumba mu twembezhi.
" The little, little quail scratches about among the herd-boys."

The others answer :

Kaladikumba — " It scratches about."

He circles round and round, with many a feint, and
manages perhaps to break through. It goes on until he
is caught.

Lembelembe is a kind of " Follow my leader," each boy
having to do as the leader does. The boys sit down in a
ring. The leader kneels on one knee, and sings : ' ' I lembelembe
musamo mukololo." They repeat it in chorus. Then he
chants to one boy: " Uwe, choka" (" You, be broken! ").
The boy answers: " N choke" ("Let me be broken") and
kneels on one knee. When they have all done this, he
begins again : " Uwe, vheketa." The boy answers :
" Nvhekete," and sits on one hip-joint with the legs at the
side. He goes the round and sings again : " Ilembelembe
musamo mukololo." He says to one, " Uwe, ona " (" You,
sleep!"). The boy says " Ngone" ("Let me sleep") and
lies down. He goes the round with this. Then he begins
again. He makes a ring on the ground before the first
boy and sings: " Umwesu umwesu mudi ng'ombe!''' ("At
our home there is a cow ! "). The boy imitates him. He
goes to the next. " In my place there is an ox." The

ch.xxv THE BA-ILA AT PLAY 259

boy follows him. He goes the round, varying his song —
." There is a grain bin," " There is a stamping block," etc.
At the end he jumps up suddenly and says: " Ushadila
wamuluma luka" ("A tsetse-fly will bite the last one").
They jump up and rush off with gleeful shouts, not forgetting
to jeer the last one to rise.

There is a girls' game in which they squat on the ground,
one line facing another. One girl takes a bit of grass and
makes her way, without rising, in a series of short jumps,
to the other side, singing :

Kanyama ntole kwa tzta.
' Let me take a little animal to my father."

The other side sings :

Leta ! Leta ! — " Bring, bring."

In another game, a boy sits on the ground with his
legs stretched out, while another lies on his stomach with
the other's body between his legs. The sitting boy then
gaily sings, while smacking the other on the buttocks :

Bombambomba , tusahimuke , knya kutanguna kuzuma
Tn sandumuke !
" Submit to me till we turn over. Go and be the first
to be tired.
Let us turn over."

And the spectators keep on chanting: " Bombambomba ! '
When he reaches the last word of the song there is a
sudden twist, and lo ! they have exchanged positions, so
that the boy who was at first sitting up is now lying on
his stomach and has in turn to be smacked. As the second
boy smacks he sings the same song.

Another game consists in a number of boys squatting
on their heels in a close circle and beating the ground with
the palms of their hands. The object seems to be to make
as much noise and dust as they can. All the time they
sing : " Wansomba wansomba.''

In the game bwato (" a canoe ") a pole about 3 feet
6 inches long and with a pointed end is planted in the
ground. A longer pole has a hole made in it, into which
is loosely fitted the upright. A boy sits on each end of

260

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. V

this longer pole, and by the help of long sticks they set
it revolving. Faster and faster they go, in a way to make
the spectators dizzy.

Nyumbe is a swing The one swinging sings :

Nyumbe I—' Let me swing."

t*t.

Photo E. //". Smith.

The Game Bitato.

While the others answer :

Nzemwa kalando, ndamukula dino.
" He who gets in the way, I will knock out his tooth."

Shikonkobele is a hopping race.

There is a whistling race too. One boy trots alongside
the competitor, who walks as fast as he can, whistling ;
the moment he stops whistling his companion halts and

CH. XXV

THE BA-ILA AT PLAY

261

marks the ground to show how far he has got ; and the
next tries to go one better.

3. Legerdemain and Puzzles

We have often heard of wonderful conjurers among
these people, but have never succeeded in witnessing any

riwto E. IT. Smith.

Jeu de Patience.

of the tricks — they are called mabibo. For some reason
they have been hidden from us. We are not sure even
that we are correct in classing them here as amusements :
they may have some mystical significance. We have
heard of such things as these : handling and swallowing
fire ; gashing the tongue, and then putting medicine on
it and showing it healed instantaneously ; chopping the
leg with an axe and healing it in an instant, so that no

262 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

scar shows, by application of medicine ; sitting on a fire.
We should like to have seen these, but can only mention
their reported existence. Some say the tricks are only
done by ' drunken ' men. It is said of such conjurers
that they cannot be bewitched — they are impervious.

We have seen only one puzzle among these people.
This was made of two small pieces of flat wood, each having
three holes pierced in it. A piece of string is taken and
the ends spliced : the string is doubled and passed through
the holes, so that when complete the puzzle consists of
the pieces of wood and a double cord joining them, some
twelve inches apart. The puzzle is to unthread the sticks
without breaking or unsplicing the string. A man will
say to another who doesn't know the trick : ' Untie this,
and I'll give you a spear." The other accepts the challenge
and promises a spear if he cannot do it. It is quite a clever
puzzle, and it took us a long time to master it. It is
complicated when four or five pieces of wood or more are
used. Our illustration shows seven of them.

4. Musical Instruments

The Ba-ila have no great range of musical instruments,
and none that has not been already described in books
dealing with other African tribes.

The stringed instruments are very simple. The katumbu
is a musical bow, with a calabash as a resonator. A second
and rather more elaborate form is made up of a piece of
wood shaped into a shallow bow, and having at one end
a number of notches used for tightening the cord (see
illustration) .

The mantimbwa, used only by girls in the seclusion of
the initiation huts, consists of two rough bows cut by the
girls from a Munto or Muntembwe bush, and stringed with
a twisted cord of palm-leaf. The girl sits with a pot between
her knees (nowadays often a tin pan, as giving more
resonance) ; the bows rest on this, one supported on each
shoulder, and are kept in place by a stick passing over
the bow under her knees. She twangs with both hands,
holding the cord of one bow between her lips to vary the

CH. XXV

THE BA-ILA AT PLAY

263

tone. She sits and plays this by the hour together
(see p. 22).

Percussion instruments are of some variety.

The xylophone (budimba) is made of about ten
wooden slats fastened lightly with cords, passing through
holes in them, upon a framework. On the reverse side of
the frame are fixed a number of elongate calabashes, of
various sizes, each under one of the slats : these are the
resonators. If a calabash of suitable size is not to be had,
the maker neatly joins two smaller ones together. In the

Photo E. II'. Smith.

Two Kinds of Katumbu, Musical Row.

lower two-thirds each calabash has a small hole pierced in
it, over which is fixed the thin tough web of the shilubidila
spider. A large bow is fixed on to the instrument, to keep
it at a distance from the player's body when playing it.
The player stands upright, or squats on the ground, a cord
round his neck supporting the instrument. He plays on
the keys with two sticks — the heads of which are covered
with string and a rubber substance. The tone is sweet,
and a good player can produce very pleasant sounds from
the instrument.

The imbila is a very simple form of the budimba,
consisting of a single wooden slat, fixed on a frame above an

264

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. V

open calabash with narrow mouth. It is struck with a
stick. It is used by hunters in the veld and is also played

rhoto E. If. Smith.

A Man playing the Dudimba.

when, on their return, they make the thank-offering at the
Iwanga. It is said to have been introduced from the
Bambwela.

CH. XXV

THE BA-ILA AT PLAY

265

The kankobele, or native piano, consists of a keyboard
with about twelve metal keys, superimposed on a small open
calabash. The player holds it in his hands and strums
with his fingers.

Photo F. If. Smith.

Four Ba-ila Pianos.

There are several varieties of the drum proper— all
called ingoma.

The namalwa is a friction drum — a hollow cylinder

Pad of grass
or palmstring

— Peg

Diagram ok the Push-drum.

carved from a solid log. It is open at the base. The head
is covered with a skin, like the kayanda, but has a hole in
the centre through which passes the end of a reed, secured
outside with a peg.

266 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

To play the namalwa a man takes some sodden grass in
his hand and grasps with it the reed inside the drum, and
then draws his hand backwards and forwards along the
reed. He sits with the drum between his legs, the head
outwards : and as he plays with his right hand, with his
left he grasps the string to steady it. This drum produces
a deep, booming note. It is used in giving announcement
of war, or accident or disaster of any kind. Also, when

Photo E. IV. Smith.

Man playing the Namalwa — "Push-drum."

cattle are to be crossed over a river, they send this drum
ahead in a canoe and the cattle follow.

The mwandu is formed by placing an inkidi (" grain
mortar ") on the ground and covering the top with dressed
leather. A woman dips one hand in water and draws it up
and down a reed stood upright on the leather. This produces
a deep, raucous note. It is used in connection with the
girls' initiation ceremonies.

The kayanda is the ordinary drum or tom-tom. They
vary considerably in size and the quality of their workman-

CH. XXV

THE BA-ILA AT PLAY

267

ship. A well-made, well-preserved drum is a handsome
object. One is made from a solid block of a light, tough
wood — usually Muntuntumba or Mulombe ; and is hollowed
out, of course, by hand with spears and other rough tools.
The shape is seen in the photo. The head of the drum is
formed of skin, which is put on wet, with the hair side
upwards, left to dry, and the hair then shaved off. The
skin is fastened on by means of pegs. The drum is played

Photo E. IT. Smith.

The Kayanda Drum.

by one man with his hands. He stands it up between his
feet, holding it between his knees. He hits with the lower
part of the palm and first phalanges, sometimes with the
tips of his fingers.

This drum plays a large part in the life of the Ba-ila.
It has serious, as well as recreative, functions. It figures at
all the dances : there is no more common sound in Bwila
than its dum-dum-dum-tum-tum-tum-tur-r-r-r.

From the Barotsi has come a certain way of beating
the drum called kutambausha, and Lewanika granted the
right to Kaingu and Sezongo of having their drums so

268

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. V

played — no other chief may do it ; the attempt by a sub-
ordinate chief to usurp the right caused much trouble.

And on this drum signals are conveyed. Constantly
when travelling we have heard the drum beating on
our leaving a village, and on arrival at the next have
found ourselves expected. It is awkward when the
government official is thus heralded, and on arrival

Photo E. If. Smith.

The Ingomantambwe and Indandala

finds tax-defaulters absent. The drummer of the chief
Sezongo once initiated us into the code of signals, but we
found it impossible to record them. There were signals to
call the people to the chief's village to discuss business ;
to announce the arrival of visitors ; a special signal for the
government official's approach ; and others to proclaim
tidings — as of war, and disaster and triumph.

The indandala is a small drum or tambourine, 6| inches
in diameter and 4^ inches in height. The wooden rim

ch. xxv THE BA-ILA AT PLAY 269

is carved out of a solid block, the one end covered with
skin. It is beaten with a short stick. It is used in hunt-
ing and war to carry signals.

The ingomantambwe or iyavukuvuku is a small ..push-
drum. It consists of a hollow cylinder of wood, carved
out of a single block, about 5^ inches in diameter and
9 inches high. It is made on the same principle, and
played in the same way, as the namalwa, except that,
being small, it can be carried in the hand.

Wind instruments include the impeta — a horn of the
reedbuck, pierced with a hole at or near the tip, used much
by herdsmen when bringing home the cattle ; and the
mwembo, a larger kind of the same.

Rattling instruments include the injua or insakalala :
a simple thing like a child's rattle. Nowadays it is made
of a condensed milk tin containing a few mealies or pebbles,
and a handle passing through it. This is much used by
travellers on the march to make a diversion.

The rattles on the legs of dancers may be mentioned,
and the bits of iron strung on the sporran. The ingonji
are iron bells, made in pairs, and used by the Balumbu.

5. Singing and Dancing

Through ignorance of technique, we find ourselves at a
loss when we come to describe the music and dancing
of the Ba-ila. We can give, and have already given, the
words of many of the songs, but to illustrate the music
and to detail the steps of the dances are beyond us.

The Ba-ila are great lovers of song. Hardly any game
mentioned in this chapter is complete without singing.
They sing, when travelling, to keep up their spirits ; they
sing at funerals and at all public celebrations. They are
particularly fond of a chorus, and most of the songs consist
of a line sung as a solo by one man, followed by several
lines in which all the party joins. And a man feeling
lonely will start up a song, very often in the middle of
the night, all by himself : this is kuyabila. To sing ordin-
arily is kuimba, and a song is Iwimbo. To dance is kuzhana.

270 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

There are a great number of names describing the various
dances.

The dance plays an important part in the life of the
people. On the whole, theirs is a monotonous existence,
a rarely broken round of work and idleness. For many of
them the day passes without any physical exertion. The
heat is enervating during much of the year, and it is far
more comfortable to loll about in the shade of the
verandahs than to perspire in the hot sun. Ceremonial
occasions, such as the initiation dances, the Makubi, and
funerals, supply the necessary stimulus to energy ; and the
fine moonlight nights give a welcome occasion for throwing
off the lassitude attendant upon the hot days.

The dances are a revelation of the latent energy of
the people. Often when irritated by the idle ways of
one's workmen, one thinks of Triptolemus Yellowley and
his complaints about the Zetlanders : " Give them a spade
and they work as if it burnt their fingers ; but set
them to dancing, and see when they will tire of funking
and flinging." Many of the dances are merely a matter
of gaiete de cceur. Those associated with the rites may
have some mystic significance, though we cannot say what
that is. The dances associated with the Basala certainly
are not a mere recreation.

Many of the dances are patently mimetic. Occasion-
ally one finds a man who dances a description of some
event. A chief on the confines of the Bwila produced for
our inspection a huge knife which he said was a precious
heirloom, and derived originally from the Congo country,
and in the evening he danced a most vividly realistic
representation of a fight between two men, including the
hacking off of the head of the defeated.

Many of the set dances are also mimetic. For example,
that named malasha is nothing more than an imitation
of the actions of a man suffering from venereal disease.
Each dancer in turn goes through his painful way of limping
about.

In some dances the women act alone, the only men
taking part being the drummers. The women form up
in line, standing close together and clapping their hands,

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272 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

shuffling their feet, and moving their bodies backwards
and forwards. Then one springs forward and executes a
pas de seul and returns to the line, her place being taken
by another. Other dances are danced by both men and
women. They stand in two lines — one of men and the other
of women — and sing and clap hands. Then a person from
each line advances and they meet and dance round each
other without touching. Their place is then taken by
others.

They are very quick in learning new songs and dances.
You arrive at a village accompanied by a host of carriers
and in the evening a dance takes place. The carriers join
in, and then perhaps in an interval take charge of the pro-
ceedings by seizing the drums and starting a dance of
their own. Tune and song and dance, maybe, are all
totally strange to the villagers ; you see them intently
listening and watching, then they begin tentatively clap-
ping their hands ; they get into the swing of it, quickly
catch the tune and words of the song, and in a very short
time are singing and dancing with all their might, as if
they had known it intimately all their life.

We have watched many of the dances without detect-
ing any improprieties. The words of many of the songs
are innocuous ; often they are quite irrelevant or the merest
nonsense. On the occasions, especially in the Mwandu
and Chisungu, connected with the initiation of the girls,
both dances and songs are grossly obscene. There may
be some hidden significance in them — that there is such
attached to the songs we have already seen — but the
apparent motive is to excite the passions to the highest
pitch.

The occasions when lewd songs are not only permitted
but are regarded as essential to the ritual, are at sowing-
time ; at the Lwando fishing ; when a new canoe is taken
to the river to be launched ; when smelting iron ; at the
Initiation ; and at funerals and the Makubi. They are also
employed in the Kashimbo dance. In these dances a man
may not have as partner his sister, niece, aunts, nor any
of his bazhile.

We will give here the words, with a translation, of some

CH. XXV

THE BA-ILA AT PLAY

273

more of the songs. It is not easy, even for one well
acquainted with the language, to translate these songs
They abound in words and phrases of not a bit more mean-
ing than " Hi-tiddeley-hi-ti " or " Ta-ra-ra-boom-de-ay."
And to a philologist it is especially interesting to find in
the songs grammatical forms which are not in the ordinary
speech, but which he can recognise in other Bantu
languages. For instance, one finds in Ila songs the impera-

Photo Rev. J. If. Price.

The Band at a Dance.

tive suffix -ni, which is never otherwise used by them,
but which is the ordinary form in Zulu and Xosa. And,
again, one finds the possessive -mi suffixed to the noun
mwana, — mwanami (" my child," " my dear child ") ; we
have never heard it outside of the songs, and only know
of its existence elsewhere in the Suto language.
1. Women's song at funerals and when sowing :

Tu bana Leza, Yeye. Tu bana Mwami, Yeye.

Tu bana Leza, Kemba watubona ;

Tu bana Leza, Muninde watubona ;

Tu bana Mwami, Yeye, tu bana Leza, Yeye.

' We are children of Leza, Yeye. We are the Lord's children, Yeye !
We are children of Leza, Kemba sees us,

VOL. II T

274 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

We are children of Leza, the Watcher sees us.

We are the Lord's children, Yeye ; we are the children of Leza,
Yeye."

2. Men's song ; funeral song :

Mb'uunga musanza, Yeye !
Waunga musanza, utelele,
Mb'uunga musanza, Yeye !
Waunga musanza, utelele.

" This is how the forest shakes in the wind, Yeye,
The forest shakes in the wind, listen."
Etc. etc.

As they sing they raise their spears aloft and crash them
together.

3. Song for the Baami (prophets) when rain is scarce :

Chongo-chongo, nu baami, nu bana bakunzuma
Nkambileni milonga yaka Mwanza idi musa.

" Chongo-chongo, you prophets, you children of the thundering
east,1
Clap for me, for the rivers of Mwanza are only half-full."

4. Song sung by the Baami :

Bulongo akaka ! Bulongo mbwezha kwiwe,
Ya-ye-ya, ingala, mwadi,
Ya-ye-ya, ingala, mwadi,
Shimushimbula kolanga mwinangu,
Ya-ye-ya, ingala, mwadi.

" Bulongo oh ! Bulongo, take me back to the east.
Ya-ye-ya, an ornament to the head she is here.
Ya-ye-ya, an ornament to the head she is here.
Pucker-up of the brows, look at my wife,
Ya-ye-ya, an ornament to the head she is here.

5. A warrior's song, sung at the Mwandu and any time :

Ndawala, ndawala, kwiwe-e, kwiwe-eye,

Ku buyasanino kwiwe,

Ndawala, ndawala, kwiwe-e, kwiwe-eye.

" I threw a spear, threw a spear, in the east, in the east, away yonder,
On the battlefield of the east,

I threw a spear, threw a spear, in the east, in the east, away
yonder."

1 The reference is to the thunderstorms gathering from the east.

276 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

6. A song sung of a man escaped from a lion :

Kubulwabulwa kavhalama namaundu

Wo ! Wo ! Yeye ! Wo ! Tadi munyama, vnawe !

Munyama udi mubumbe.

" At the place of many islands, roared the dweller in the veld !
Wo ! Wo ! Yeye ! Wo ! He is not a wild beast, oh dear !
No, but one moulded in wild-beast form."

(I .e. Is one made by the art of a warlock.)

7. A song made by dancers on hearing a woman mourn-
ing for her child :

Kachila, maloama, mwezhezhe.
Ambwene ndawezhezha twambo twaleta lundu,
Twala oto ntu asama kakasowaila mulwenge,
Kabakasakila bachiwena, mawe ! mwanangu.

" Kachila, blood of my blood, let me think of you,
Perhaps, thinking of you, the whole world will know of my grief.
These little hair-ornaments let them be thrown into the river
That the crocodiles may wear them. Oh dear ! my child."

CHAPTER XXVI

THE ILA LANGUAGE

The languages of Northern Rhodesia belong to the Bantu
family. The following grouping is founded upon sugges-
tions made by Father Torrend, S.J., in a letter to the
writer, and upon Sir H. H. Johnston's article on Bantu
languages in the Encyclopedia Britannica.
i. Ila, Lenje, Sala, Tonga, Totela, Subia.

2. Sodi, Bwini-Futwe.

3. Lamba, Rwano, Bulima, Lala, Maswaka, Tabwa,
Twa, Bisa, Bemba. This is the most widely spread group.

4. Masasa or Mbwela.

5. Kaundi, closely allied to the Kanyoka of the Congo.

6. Lui, to which may be related Mbwe, Bukushu,
Kwamashi.

7. Nyanja, Senga.

1. Phonetics

The writer is mainly responsible for the present ortho-
graphy of Ila,1 and he confesses that if he had to do the
work again he would adopt the alphabet of the International
Phonetic Association, of which he was ignorant at the time
but which now seems to him to be the best system in
all respects. The chief fault of the present system is
the use of the compound symbols sh, etc., for what are
really simple sounds. The following are the Ila consonants
in the I. P. A. script, the ordinary letters, where they differ,
being given in brackets.

1 E. W. Smith, Handbook of the Ila Language (Oxford University
Press, 1907), and other books.

277

278

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. V

Table of Ila Consonants

Bilabial.

Alveolar.

Palatal.

Velar.

Breath. Voice.

Breath.

Voice.

Breath.

Voice.

Breath.

Voice.

Plosive .

P b

(Ch)

J
(J)

Nasal

(ny)

D
(ng)

Lateral .

Fricative

v 1 (vh)

J (ah)

5 (zh)

i
(y)

Glottal, breath, fricative : h.

1 This sign y is not used by the I. P. A.

We use these signs in this section, but in the other sections of this
chapter, as in the rest of the book, we are content to spell Ila as it is now
written.

The free breath (spiritus lenis), which we show by ', is not
distinguished in Ila books but it must find a place here. If
Ila were correctly written, a vowel would no more stand
unsupported than it does in Hebrew and Arabic ; such
words as amba, ita would be preceded by a sign like Aleph
or Alif-hamza to mark the emission of the breath, the
weak guttural effort made when one passes from silence
to the pronunciation of a vowel. Although for practical
purposes the ' is not necessary, a recognition of it is essen-
tial to an understanding of the phonetics and morphology
of Ila.

The plosive sounds :

The breath in its passage from the throat to the lips
may be completely blocked at various points. By the
pressure of the back of the tongue upon the soft palate
and sudden withdrawal two Ila sounds are formed, viz.
k and g, as in kama, guna.

The tongue pressed against the palate farther forward
and suddenly released produces the sound phonetically
written c which is represented as ch in Ila books. It is

ch. xxvi THE ILA LANGUAGE 279

heard in such words as chaba, chita, chinichini. The sound
varies. Sometimes ci is heard more like ki, that is, the
point of articulation is drawn back nearer to the posi-
tion of k. Sometimes the sound resembles more the ch
in English church, i.e. the composite sound /$ ; and
sometimes, when followed by u, it approximates to the
sound in tune, i.e. the breathed fricative sound written
phonetically ig (tc:un).

The voiced sound corresponding to c is J written j in
Ila books and heard in such words as njeko.

The plosives written t and d are usually described as
dental, but as the Ba-ila have no top front teeth it is evident
that they can have no dental sounds. T and cl are formed
by pressing the tongue upon the edge of the gum behind
where the front teeth should be.

The teeth can also have no part in forming p and b ;
they are both bilabial sounds.

The nasals :

By dropping the veil of the palate the intonated current
of b, d, and g is allowed entrance to the nose and exit there,
and so the three nasals are formed, m, n, ij. Further,
m as the labial nasal nasalises the labials and we get the
compounds mp, mb, mf, mv, mw ; n nasalises the alveolars
and palatals, hence nt, nd, ns, n\, nz, 773, nc ; q nasalises
the velars, hence yk, *)g. n& is the sound of nk in ink ;
tjg is the sound of ng in finger and is written simply ng
in Ila books (tenga =tci]ga) ; while y is the sound in singer
and is written ng in the books. The ij plays an important
part in the morphology of Ila ; it is the resultant of n + '
before a, 0, and u, followed by a nasalised consonant. For
example :

'amba, speak ; v^ambe, let me speak, for n'ambe.

While before a, 0, and u with no nasalised consonant
following n + ' becomes \]g. For example :

'ona, sleep ; rjgone, let me sleep, for n'one.

There is a fourth nasal in Ila, ji, the sound in Italian
campagna, a sound distinct from nj (ny) =ni in onion.
though closely resembling it. It is formed when n is

280 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt v

placed before roots beginning with 'i and 'e followed by a
nasalised consonant. For example :

'imba, sing ; jiim&e, let me sing, for n'imbe.

There are really two m's in Ila : a light nasal as in map,
e.g. mata, and a heavy nasal as in ember, e.g. imbuta. The
latter should properly be distinguished as m. Similarly
there are two n's, as in ine and ndapa.

The lateral I is sounded as in English. Nasalised it
becomes nd, e.g. Iwila, fight for ; ndwila, fight for me.
When followed by i it is often heard as d.

The fricatives :

F and v are formed by the passage of the breath through
the lips. Another bilabial fricative is the sound written
vh in Ila books and here represented as y. The difference
between v and v is often very difficult to detect and is not
significant. The v is pronounced with lips more rounded
and with a more distinct emission of the breath.

W and j are semi- vowels. The former is the sound in
watch ; _;' that in yet. W is often inserted in Ila words to
separate a from a preceding u or o ; thus bo:a may also
be written bo:wa. J is often inserted to separate i or e
from another vowel ; thus i:i, an egg, appears as i:ji
(iyi) ; e:a as e:ja (eya), yes.

S and z, $ and 3, are formed by the passage of the
breath between the tongue-tip and alveolus ; s and z are
pronounced as in English seal and zeal ; $ is the sound of
sh in show, and 3 that of z in azure.

No two consonants can come together without an
intervening vowel. This does not, of course, apply to the
semi-vowels, w and j, and such nasal compounds as mb are
treated as one consonant. All syllables are open and each
word must end in a vowel. No consonant is doubled.

The Ila vowels are :

Back. Front.

Close u i

U
Half-close . . o e

Half-open . 0 g

Open ... a a

CH. XXVI

THE ILA LANGUAGE

281

U is the sound in Italian uno ; 0 that in Italian come. The
0 is intermediate between 11 and 0, 0 is pronounced with
the back of the tongue lowered from the 0 position and
with the lip-opening further enlarged. It is the sound in
Italian notte. The a is similar to the a in father, perhaps
more like the a in French tasse. The a is not the sound in
man, which is written phonetically ce, but a in French patte.
The £ is the open sound of e as distinguished from the closed
sound; it is heard in the Italian cielo (t\jp:lo). The e
is the sound in Italian bene, French ete ; perhaps it has a
tongue position a shade lower than cardinal e. The i is
the sound of i in machine.

As an illustration, we give the Lord's Prayer in Ila,
first in the usual orthography and then in the I. P. A. script.

1. Ushesu udi kwizeulu, nadiile izhina diako, nabuzize Buoneki
bwako, naluchitwe luzando lwako anshi ano ubudi kwizeulu. Shidyo
nshi tubula utupe bwasunu. Utulekelele milandu, bubona mbu
tubalekelele kale obadi milandu kudi uswe. Utatuenzha mu
kutepaulwa, utuvhune ku bubiabe.

2. U'Jgisu udi kwijsi'ulu, 'naidijile i'3i:na djako, 'narbuziize
buo'neiki bwako, 'na:luci:twe h^ando lwako, 'an/i anu ubudi
kwi3e:'ulu. Jiidjo nji tubula utups bwa'sunu. utu'leke'lsle
milandu, bubona mbu tuba'leke'lsle 'kale ubadi milandu kudi
'uisws. u'ta:tuen3a mu kutepai'ulwa, utuyune ku bubi'abe.

( : lengthens the preceding vowel ;
the next syllable.)

indicates stress falling on

The tone in Ila is often very important as distinguishing
words of different meaning ; thus the difference between
chiwa, drought, and chiwa, the outer appearance, depends
entirely upon the pitch of voice. Ila sentences often begin

on a high pitch and end on a low one. The stress, if any,
usually falls on the penultimate, but in long words there
is also a secondary stress on the stem-vowel ; compare the
word utu'leke'le.ie given above, where the stem is lek-.
Monosyllables are largely treated as enclitics and draw the
stress forward to the final syllable ; for example : amb'i.ia,
speak to ; uambila:'nii ? Why do you speak ? The
stress often marks difference of meaning ; for example,
'aze, with him ; a'ze, he also.

°tfn

282 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

History of the Sounds

The phonetic laws of the Bantu languages are very
obscure, more obscure perhaps than those of the Indo-
European languages. Much light has been thrown upon
them by the researches of Meinhof, Jacottet, and Horn-
burger,1 and we propose here to apply some of their con-
clusions to Ila.

According to Meinhof the original Bantu language pos-
sessed nine primitive consonants— three gutturals, three
dentals, and three labials. They may be shown as follows :

Voice — fricative

Breath — explosive

\T„„

(Sonants — continuous).

(Surds — explosives).

Nas;

Gutturals

• y

Dentals .

. L

Labials .

. v

From these primitive consonants all the others have been
derived, either (i) by nasalisation, or (2) by the influence
of the vowels i and u upon the preceding consonant.

What Ila phonemes correspond to these of the ur-
Bantu ? We shall find out by comparing words taken
from various Bantu languages, selecting as typical the
Nyanja, Bemba, Kongo, Xosa, and Suto, of all of which
there are excellent dictionaries published. The last-named
is said by Meinhof to be " the phonetically best-known
Bantu language."

The primitive sound 7, a voiced guttural written g' by
Mile. Homburger, is alveolarised in Ila into z ; that is, the
enunciation is formed not at the back of the mouth but at
the front. The primitive yaka, to build, becomes zaka ; yada,
to spread, becomes zala ; yanika, to put out into the sun
to dry, becomes zanika. In other languages the 7 becomes
_; or ' ; thus in Nyanja we have yaka or 'aka ; in Xosa
'aka, in Suto 'aha. In Ila we have also a number of roots
beginning with ' which, when a nasal is placed before it,

1 Meinhof, Grundriss einer Laut'ehre der Bantusprachen, 1899 ;
Grundzuge einer vergleichenden Grammatik der Bantusprachen, 1906. E.
Jacottet, Bantu Phonetics (Supplement to Christian Express ; Lovedale,
S. Africa, 1907). L. Homburger, F.tude sur la phonetique historique
du Banlou (Paris, 1914). In this section the writer closely follows Jacottet,
who was his first teacher in Bantu studies.

ch.xxvi THE ILA LANGUAGE 283

reverts to the original 7 and is shown as g ; for example,
'ala becomes i\]gala ; 'ulube becomes i\]gnlube ; 'oma
becomes i\)goma.

The original dental represented by Meinhof as / and by
Mile. Homburger as d, appears as / in Ila, as also in Nyanja,
Bemba, Xosa, Suto, and Kongo ; thus lata, lie down, has
the same form in these and most Bantu languages.

The original fricative bilabial v is the plosive bilabial b
in Ila, so vala, to count, becomes in Ila bala, which is the
common Bantu form, except in languages such as Nyanja
and Bemba, where it becomes the peculiar w, a sound
between our v and w, formed by the teeth and lower
lip.

K remains firm in the languages we are comparing,
except in Suto, where it is h ; so we have kama, to squeeze,
to milk, in all the five = Suto, hama ; kala, to sit, in Ila, (^
Nyanja, and Kongo ; kanda, to knead, in Ila, Nyanja, and
Bemba. In Ila as in Xosa the k is followed by a slight
aspirate (k') when in the first syllable of the stem.

The ur-Bantu breathed dental has also persisted in
these languages except Suto, where it is r ; thus the word ^.

for "three" is -tatwe in Ila, and -tatu in Nyanja, Bemba,
Xosa, and Kongo, and -raro in Suto ; and " my father " is
tata in Ila, tate in Nyanja, tatu in Bemba and Kongo.

The ur-Bantu breathed plosive labial is p in Ila, Nyanja,
Bemba, and Xosa, and / in Suto ; as pa, to give (Suto fa) ;
pala, to scrape. In Kongo it becomes v : vana, give ;
vala, scrape ; that is, the breathed phoneme becomes a
voiced. In Ila the initial p of words often disappears ; thus
the common locative pa becomes 'a. A curious feature of
Ila is the presence of double forms, such as 'a\]gika and
pa\]gika, which both represent the more archaic pa\]geha,
to hang up.

These comparisons show that in all but one of these
languages the "original breathed phonemes have remained
plosives ; the voiced phonemes have mostly remained
fricatives, with a tendency to become plosives, e.g. v
becomes b. The other language, Suto, does not show the
same steadiness, for the breathed phonemes become fricative,
i.e. p becomes /. The voiced phonemes have remained

284 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

voiced, and the breathed have remained breathed, except in
the instance given from Kongo.

These, then, according to Meinhof, are the primitive
Bantu consonants from which all the consonants in the
modern dialects have been derived. The distinction between
voiced and breathed phonemes in the table given above is
of great importance, for the sounds derived from the one
are quite distinct from those derived from the other. As
Jacottet says, the distinction is " one of the most important
phonetic features of Bantu speech."

The derived sounds are produced (1) by nasalisation,
i.e. by the influence of a nasal upon the following consonant,
and (2) by vocal influence, i.e. by the influence of the vowels
i and u upon the preceding consonant.

The nasalisation of the primitive ur-Bantu phonemes
probably gave the following results :

Voiced. Breathed.

n +l = nd n +t=nt

m+v=mb m+p=mp

The nasal is guttural before a guttural ; dental n before a
dental ; labial m before a labial. The voiced fricatives
7, I, v become plosives ; the breathed plosives k, t, p
remain plosives.

Except in Suto the results of nasalisation in these
languages are the same as in ur-Bantu ; but the original
7 having become z or ' in Ila, the qg appears as nz, as well as,
sometimes, i]g. These results are very different from what
we get in Suto where ij + 7 = & ; n + l = t; m + v = p ; ij + &
= kh; n + t = th; n+p=ph) that is, the voiced fricatives
have become breathed plosives, and the breathed plosives
have become aspirated plosives, and the nasal usually
disappears when the stem is not monosyllabic. Hence the
Ila i\]kani is the same as the Suto khar}. In Ila and Xosa,
instead of qg we often have ji ; e.g. mu-jiati, or ijiati, a
buffalo. In Xosa we may have ji corresponding to Ila nz,
i]\oka = inzoka. The words in Suto are nare, buffalo;
noha, snake. The law governing this change is very obscure.

There are two principles which appear universal in the

CH. XXVI

THE ILA LANGUAGE

285

Bantu languages : (1) that nasalisation never causes a
consonant to change from one articulation class into another,
that is, labials remain labials when nasalised, gutturals
remain gutturals, dentals remain dentals ; (2) that the
phonemes which were voiced fricatives become plosives
after nasalisation. There is a third principle which applies
in Ila and some other languages, namely, that the nasalised
phonemes produced from the voiced fricatives are sharply
distinguished from those produced from the breathed
plosives. In some languages ij + 7 and ij + k both produce
rjg ; n + l and n + t both produce nd ; and rn + v and m + p
both produce nib.

In Ila nasalisation accompanies morphological change,
that is, when the morphons in-, im-, n-, and m- are prefixed
to roots. Im-, in- are used to form nouns and adjectives
of classes 8, singular and plural, and 9, plural ; m and n
represent the personal pronoun " me," or in the subjunctive
mood of the verb, " I." Here are some examples :

From the root 'anda i\]anda, a house = in-'anda

bona imboni, pupil of eye = im-boni
pela impezho, brush = im-pezho

limi indimi, tongues = in-limi

lemeka, honour ; wa-ndemeka, he honours me. <
zaka, build ; make, let me build, that I may build.

When these morphons are placed before stems beginning
with b and / which already contain a nasalised consonant,
the b and / are changed into m and n respectively. It is
as if the so-called "heavy" nasals m and n would not
tolerate in the same word another heavy nasal. For
example :

bamba, to arrange ; ba-mmambila, they arrange for me = bambambila
lumba, to praise ; ba-nnumba, they praise me = banlnmba.

From the root -banza : immanza, courtyards = imbanza.

It is a matter of instinctive economy of effort.

Another use of nasalisation in Ila is worth mention-
ing here. It expresses often the grammatical copula ;
for example, buzani is " meat," bobn buzani, this meat,
bobu mbuzani, this is meat. In the case of nouns of the
in- class the copula is formed with n-, e.g. i\]ombe, a head of
cattle, ni\)ombe, it is a beast.

&7 &

286 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

The changes of mu into um, and of n(i) into in are of
frequent occurrence in Ila ; one hears umbwa, dog, for
mubwa ; ndombona ( = ndaumbona) for nda-mu-bona ; and
ulenta (u-la-inta) you call me, for u-la-nita. U resembles m
in its place of articulation, just as i resembles n ; and when,
as happens, m and n are pronounced so like vowels as to
cause the disappearance of the vowel following them, the
prolongation of the sound becomes um, in. In some
languages the change uniformly takes place in the noun
prefix mu, which then appears as um- or m-. This prefix
coming to stand immediately before the initial consonant
of the stem produces what is termed " improper nasalisa-
tion," the effects of which are sometimes very different
from those of " true " nasalisation, with which we have
been dealing. In Ila the prefix before consonants other
than b always preserves its form mu-, and so this " improper
nasalisation " does not enter.

We have so far accounted for ten Ila phonemes, viz.
z, d, b, k, t, p, i], ji, n, and m. We have now to deal with
the others, which are mostly fricatives. These can be shown
to derive from the primitive sounds through the influence
of vowels and semi- vowels.

Of the three primitive Bantu vowels, a, i, u, a does not,
it seems, have any part to play in producing other sounds.
/ and u cause many changes, and still more when they
become y and w. Meinhof recognised the presence of two
" heavy " vowels which cause changes often very different
from those caused by the ordinary i and u.

Meinhof also came to the conclusion that in the proto-
Bantu there were sounds, not primitive in the same degree
with those we have been considering, which were due to
the palatisation, under the influence of the semi-vowel j (y),
of the primitive guttural sounds k and 7, and probably
also of the dentals t and /. We may write these mixed
sounds 7', V , k', and f, two being voiced fricatives and
two breathed plosives ; nasalised they become ijg', nd' ,

nk', nV .

What Ila sounds correspond to these mixed phonemes ?
The 7' has become iz, that is, z modified by the vowel

CH. XXVI

THE ILA LANGUAGE

287

-f&&.:t&..

0» y\K

sound i. For example, we have in Tla izula, to be full,
iza, to come ; which correspond to dzala and dza in
Nyanja, isula and isa in Bemba, tlala and tla in Suto, and
zala and za in Xosa. Nasalised, the sound is inz in Ila, e.g.
ni-inzuzhe, let me fill, n-inze, let me come.

The k' has become ik in Ila, corresponding to ik in
Nyanja and Bemba and hi (l) in Suto and Xosa, as shown
in these words: leka, for la-ika, (Ila, Nyanja, Bemba) = -
lahla (Suto, Xosa), to reject; ikala (Ila. etc.) =hlala (Suto,
Xosa), to stay.

The t' becomes s in Ila ; thus sanwe (Ila), sanu (Nyanja,
Bemba), nve = hlano, hlanu (Suto, Xosa). In ur-Bantu,
t'anu.

The V in ur-Bantu is represented in Ila by dy ; dya,
eat = /ya (Bemba), dia (Nyanja), ja (Suto), dla (Xosa).

What we have just said, however, does not exhaust the
matter, for sometimes the V becomes ts in Suto, sh in Bemba,
j in Nyanja, and zh (3) in Ila, as is shown by the words for
"road" : tsela, in-shira, n-jira, in-zhila = Xosa, indhlela ; and
the k' appears, not as hi but as ths in Suto (thseha, to
laugh), and not as ik but as s in Ila, Bemba, and Nyanja
(seka, to laugh = Xosa, hleka). This is apparently due to
the influence of the vowel i or e. And that there is still
something to learn is shown by these other correspondences:
Ila, chaba = Suto, tshaba = ~Kosa., hloba, to rise (of the sun) ;
ur-Bantu, k'aba.

The same Ila phoneme ch (c) has been produced by the
influence on the primitive k of the vowel i ; e.g. mu-chila, a
tail (Nyanja, mchila, Bemba, umu-chira) = Suto, mo-sela; fhwV
Xosa, um-sila. In Swahili the original k has been preserved,
m-kia.

The semi-vocal i and u, i.e. y and w, cause certain
changes which chiefly affect the gutturals and labials.

Thus the ur-Bantu kya, to dawn, is in Ila cha (so in
Nyanja and Bemba) = Suto and Xosa, sa. The primitive
Pya, to burn, retains its form in Ila, Bemba, and Nyanja
= tsha in Xosa and Suto.

The " heavy " vowels i and u are now only recognisable
in a few languages like Suto ; in most of the others they
have become exactly homophonous to the primitive i and

S>e^f '^/iHv ,

2°

288

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. V

-un&t>

iti

u. They are probably the result of a blending of i (or y)
and u (w) with i. It was the presence of these vowels in
Suto that led Meinhof to the conclusion that many obscure
phonetic changes in the modern Bantu languages were due
to the presence in the ur-Bantu of such heavy vowels.

The primitive <yi becomes zhi (si) in Ila (munzhi, a
village), zi in Xosa (umzi), tse in Suto (motse), dzi in Nyanja
(mudzi), and shi in Bemba. So, again, Ila menzhi, water
= Xosa amanzi, Suto metsi, Nyanja madzi, Bemba amenshi.

Li is also represented in Ila by zhi (si) (imbuzhi, a
goat), zi in Xosa (imbuzi) li ( = di) in Suto, {poli), zi or dzi in
Nyanja (mbuzi), and shi in Bemba (imbushi). So again, Ila
izhiba, a pool = Xosa isiziba, Suto seliba ( = sediba), Nyanja
dziwe, Bemba icishiba.

Vi is also represented by zhi (&) in Ila (zhimba, hide,
cover up), by vi in Xosa (vimba, shut up), by bi in Suto
(bipa, hide), by vi in Nyanja (vimba, to thatch), and by fi
in Bemba (fimba, thatch).

Ki has become shi (\i) in Ila (bushi, smoke, cf. buka,
to rise), si in Xosa and Suto (umsi, mosi), tsi in Nyanja
(utsi), and shi in Bemba (ichushi),

Ti again is shi in Ila and Xosa (shiya, to leave), si in
Suto (siea), shy in Bemba (shy a), and sj in Nyanja (sia).

Pi also is shi in Ila (ishishi, dimness),/ in Suto (lefifi,
darkness) ,y£ in Xosa (ubufifi, dimness), y£ in Nyanja (chimfimfi,
secret) and fi in Bemba (imfifi, darkness) .

Thus we see the remarkable fact that in Ila the primitive
voiced fricatives with the heavy vowel i are all represented
by 'hi (zhi), and the breathed plosives by \i (shi). The
primitive sounds have been assibilated. Probably the
removal of the front teeth has had much to do with this ;
certainly the first impression one has on hearing Ila spoken
is that it is made up of shi's and zhi's.

When i becomes semi-vocal (y) other changes are pro-
duced. They may be seen when the causative suffix ya
(ur-Bantu, ya) is added to the verbs.

In Ila when ya is suffixed to verbs whose stems end in
I the resultant is zha (ha), e.g. katala, to be tired, becomes
katazha, to make tired. In Xosa it becomes za (katala, kataza) ,
in Suto tsa (khathala, khathatsa) ; in Nyanja it is tsa, pre-

CH. XXVI

THE ILA LANGUAGE

289

ceded, however, by a vocal element that is written e when
the stem-vowel is 0, and i when it is a, e.g. ola, to be rotten,
oletsa, to make rotten ; ala, spread, alitsa, help, or
cause to spread. In Ila the corresponding words are bola,
bozha ; zala, zazha. In Bemba the ya becomes shy a, e.g.
bola, boshya.

The primitive vy is also zh (3) in Ila ; e.g. from samba,
to wash oneself, is formed sanzha, to wash (clothes). In
Xosa it is z (hlamba, hlanza) ; in Suto tsw (hlapa, hlatswa) ;
(i)ts in Nyanja (samba, sambitsa) ; and in Bemba by (samba,
sambya) .

The primitive ky becomes sh (\) in Ila ; thus by adding
ya to buka, to rise, we get busha, cause to rise. In
Xosa it is s (vuka, vusa). In Suto it is also s (tsoha, tsosa) ;
in Nyanja ts (dzuka, dzutsa), and in Bemba it is shy (shibuka,
shibiishya).

Ty is also sh in Ila ; thus we get chisha, cause to do,
from chita, to do. In Nyanja this word appears as
chitsa from chita ; and in Bemba chishya from chita. The
stem does not seem to be found in Suto and Xosa, so we
may take another example ; in Xosa we have ambesa
formed from ambata, which words appear in Suto as apesa,
from apara.

Py in Ila does not as a rule change into sh but remains
as in the ur-Bantu ; thus the causative of papa, to be
shrunken, is papy a. In Nyanja py appears as (i)tsa (papa,
papitsa) ; in Bemba also it is py a (papa, papya). There are,
however, instances in Ila of py becoming sh, e.g. lansha, to
make sharp, from lampa, to be sharp. ■

We get much the same results in Ila from the influence
of y as we got from i ; under their influence the primitive
voiced fricatives all become the voiced fricative 3 and the
primitive breathed plosives become the breathed fricative $.

\nr£e.x
rprpitAfi.

Vtv^L

A 1A A ^

yi, h, vi\
ly, vyj

ki, ti, pi\ _ .

ky.ty, pyi=]'

It will be noticed that the changes produced under the
influence of i are different from those produced by i ; thus
ki-chi ; ki= It.

We now come to changes wrought by u and w.

vol. 11 u

290

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. V

^WIA-

:i\£fa

,&A,\lfr

The original Bantu 7W has become vu in Ila (e.g. muzovu,
an elephant), and the same in Nyanja (njovu) and Xosa
(indlovu). It is/w in Bemba (insofu) and ^ in Suto (tlou).

The M of ur-Bantu is vu in Ila, vu in Xosa, /w in Suto,
e.g. Ila vumina, to agree = Xosa, vumela, consent = Suto,
lumela.

Vu becomes vu in Ila (imvula, rain) and Xosa (imvula),
pu in Suto (pula), bvu or vu in Nyanja (mbvula or mvula), and
/w- in Bemba (infula). Compare also Ila vukuta, work the
bellows = Nyanja bvukuta, Bemba fukuta.

The ur-Bantu M has become /w in all these five languages,
e.g. Ila, Xosa, Nyanja, Bemba, fumbata = Suto fupara, to
close the fist.

Tu is also/w in Ila and Xosa, e.g.fua=fuya, to possess ;
in Suto it is ru (rua, possess). In Nyanja it is pfu and
in Bemba fu ; Xosa funda, to learn = Suto ruta, to
teach = Bemba funda = Nyanja pfunitsa.

Pu becomes fu in Ila, Suto and Xosa, pu in Nyanja and
Bemba ; compare the root in the words " to blow " "to
breathe": Ila, fula ; Suto, phefumuloha; Xosa, pefumla ;
Nyanja, puma; Bemba, umupu, breath.

We see then that the primitive voiced phonemes + u
(i.e. <yu, lu, vu) are all represented in Ila by the same, viz.
vu or vu, and the primitive breath plosives + u (ku, tu, pu)
by fu. The voiced phonemes are represented by a voiced
phoneme, the breathed by a breathed.

When u becomes semi-vocal (w) much the same changes
are produced in Ila as those we have just described.

Thus the ur-Bantu IS becomes v in Ila (vwa, to go out) ;
in Xosa it is v (vela), in Suto tsw (tswa), in Nyanja low (Iowa),

Kw becomes fw in Ila (fwa, to die) and Bemba (fwa),
f in Xosa (fa) , shw in Suto (shwa) .

With two exceptions we have now traced the origin of
all the Ila consonants given in the table on p. 278. The
exceptions are J and h. Neither of them is a common sound
in Ila ; J is formed by the nasalisation of y, thus=j^, to
go, nje, that 1 go ; and also when n is affixed to verbal
stems beginning with i which do not contain another nasal :
ita, to pass, njite, that 1 pass. The aspirate h is heard

ch.xxvi THE ILA LANGUAGE 291

in some parts of the country, e.g. among the Balundwe, in
place of $ ; they say, for example, hakahina for \aka\ina.
It is heard, too, instead of v ; huluma for vuhima (Bemba,
bulimia), to growl. Other words in which it occurs are
foreign, e.g. hola, to earn.

2. Word Formation

The rudimentary germs of the Ila language are mono-
sonants, i.e. sounds capable of separate pronunciation,
whether represented by a vowel, semi-vowel, or consonant.
If now we take the consonants given in the table on
p. 278, and fit each one with the five chief vowels, in the
manner following

pa pe pi po pu

we shall have a list of 115 monosyllables. These can be
modified by nasalising the initial consonant or by the
insertion of the semi-vowels w and 3' — what is called "mouth-
ing." Thus :

mpa

mpe

mpi

mpo

mpu

pwa

pwe

pwi

pwo

pwu

pya

pye

pyi

pyo

pyu

mpwa

mpwe

mpwi

mpwo

mpwu

mpya

mpye

mpyi

mpyo

mpyu

This gives a further list of potential monosyllables, making
with the former 485 in all. Ila does not make use of all of
these, but probably 400, and it is not too much to say
that they are the materials out of which the vocabulary
is made.

A large number of these syllables are used alone with
more or less definite meanings ; there are, for example,
such particles as pe, no. The first column contains many
monosyllabic verbs, used as imperatives without any
modification ; e.g. pa, give ; dya, eat. These nasalised
gain the added signification of the first person personal
pronoun ; mpa, give me. The corresponding forms in the
second column, ending in e, are jussive and subjunctive ;
mpe, let me give, (that) I give. The same forms ending in
i are negative and require an auxiliary particle, t'a pi, he

292 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

does not give. Others of these monosyllables are pronominal
suffixes : nda, ndi, ndu, I, twa, tu, we, etc. Others again are
tense formatives, chi, ka, la, etc. Others are nominal roots,
needing only a prefix to define them ; e.g. -bwa, -twi, from
which are formed mu-hwa, a dog, ku-twi, an ear. The
great majority of the monosyllables can come together in
pairs to make verbal base-words, ma-na, mi-na, me-na,
mu-na, etc., to which other monosyllables, as formatives,
may be added. So from these four hundred or so syllables,
by a process of agglutination, a vocabulary of at least
fifteen thousand words is formed.

In addition to the uses of the monosyllables just
mentioned there is another, which, as it is one of the most
remarkable features of Ila, it will be worth while to illustrate
further.

Many of these monosyllables are holophrastic. They
stand entirely alone, conveying a definite meaning, or, with
modification of stress and tone, a variety of meanings.
Or they may stand closely connected with verbs, whose
signification they serve to extend, define, or emphasise,
without the connection being at all necessary to their own
being. They are somewhat of a puzzle to grammarians, for
they stand outside the conventional parts of speech. They
have been termed ' ' inter j ections, ' ' ' ' onomatopoeic vocables, ' '
"onomatopoeic substantives," "descriptive adverbs," but,
properly speaking, they are a new part of speech. Whatever
they may be called they are certainly the most interesting
feature of a Bantu language, and have been all too rarely
and insufficiently studied. It may well be, as Mr. Madan1
thinks, that in them we have the ultimate elements of
speech — the survivals of the earliest form which human
language assumed. They stand midway between the
gesture and the articulated sentence. We might indeed
call them spoken gestures, conveying in sound the impression
given by a motion of the arm or a movement of the lips.
They are commonly accompanied by their proper gestures.
They are very numerous in Ila. There is hardly a sound,

1 A. C. Madan, Living Speech in Central and South Africa, 191 1. The
writer had studied these particles closely long before Mr. Madan wrote
this stimulating book, but he owes to it many suggestions.

ch.xxvi THE ILA LANGUAGE 293

action, movement, sensation but has its expressive descrip-
tive particle. They are usually monosyllabic, but often
the monosyllable is repeated or is combined with another.

Let us take some examples.

Mba ! expresses falling headlong to the ground.
Muntu wawa, a person falls, is a tame generalised phrase.
How does he fall ? That is what the Mwila, with his vivid
appreciation of fact, desires to know. Does he fall lightly,
heavily, or how ? Wawa mba ! There is no mistaking
that, even if no swift vertical motion of the arm accom-
panies it. He falls headlong. But there is no need to
make a grammatical sentence of it. Mba ! expresses all
you want to say.

Mbo ! is another kind of falling. You can see the
person in the act as the native says, Mbo ! mbo ! mbo !
mbo ! with a lowered intonation on the last syllable. He
falls gradually, easily, noatingly.

Mbwa ! is the action of falling heavily, wearily, flopping
down on a bed or chair. It is expressed still more vividly
as Mbwa ! mbwala ! mbwa !

The word wa, the ordinary verbal word for " fall," is
descriptive of continual pattering as of the rain — Wa ! wa !
wa ! wa !

There is in one of the tales in a later chapter a very
expressive representation of the falling of Tortoise from
a very great height : Pididi, pididi, pididi ! How could
you express that in English ? Here it comes, rolling over
and over, unhasting, down inevitably, inexorably — down !
It is all there in the Ila phrase.

Ti ! expresses striking the ground. You may say
Ndamuchina anshi (" I throw him down "), but it is much
easier and more trenchant to say simply Ti I, and it means
the same. ' The spear thrown comes to a rest in the ground
short of its target " — you can say it all by Ti ! Nor is there
any confusion in actual usage ; in the one case and the
other the context is sufficient to show what you are talking
about.

Tel is " tearing," the sharp rending of a thin dry skin
or piece of calico. Hence, as rending means that the thing
is divided, perhaps ended, you can say of a case in

294 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

court, a lengthy discussion or argument, Amana te !
(" The affair is finished ! ") or simply, Te !

To-o ! with the vowel drawn out expresses quiet,
peacefulness. Tontolo t-o-o ! (" All is calm ! "). Wi ! and
Ne-e ! express different shades of the same thing. The
line of the hymn " Peace, perfect peace " is translated in
Ila Ne-e, pele ne-e.

Tu ! is spurting or pouring or ejection, according to
the pronunciation. With a short vowel, Tuh ! it repre-
sents a gun going off ; Tu tu ! is spurting ; Ntu-u ! is
pouring water from a pot.

Pi ! is the sensation of heat ; Lu ! the sensation of
bitterness ; Bu-u ! that of sourness — the restringency
caused by a lemon, for example. Lwe ! is the sensation
of sweetness; 'Lwe! lwe! lwe! lwe!" a Mwila will say
on tasting a lump of sugar.

Mbi ! expresses darkness, blackness. When a Mwila
says Mbi ! mbi ! mbi ! mbi ! what he means is, ' It is
altogether and entirely dark, pitch-black, with not a ray
of light anywhere."

Mi ! is " drinking " and Mu ! " sucking." Mi ! uttered
as a command means " Down with it ! Swallow it all ! '
Mu! means 'Go on sucking, don't chew it!' Mo I
expresses the action of shedding off, peeling. You may say
of a leper, Chinsenda chamumonkaola (" The leprosy causes
his flesh to peel off "), but you can say all you want to say
by using Mo ! mo !

Ka ! gives the idea of firmness, tightness. Ka ! you
say after driving home a roof-pole : " It is firmly in, it won't
move ! ' Nka ! describes the action of striking ; Nka !
nka ! nka ! nka ! (" Thump ! thump ! thump ! thump ! ").

Di ! is the sound of footsteps. Didi didi means " Listen !
here they come ! ' Ndo ! is a rumbling sound, and Ndu ! a
dull thudding sound ; Ndi ! is a reverberating sound. AW /
ndi ! ndi .' ndi ! is thunder reverberating in the distance.

Pyu ! expresses redness (" How red ! Altogether red ! ").
Hit ! expresses whiteness.

It is needless further to multiply instances. The reader
will now appreciate, perhaps, the extraordinary vividness,
given to conversation by such particles.

ck. xxv. '1*111' II A I ANt.H \'.l •» j

We have in languages nearer home expressions thai
may remind us of these. One recalls the French comedy
the heroine of which was Mademoiselle Frou frou, so named
in. m the rustle of hei silk skirts, We have borrowed the
wind iKnii tiu1 Krcnch and have many similai expressions
oi our own. When the [talian says Andava torno tomo he

is ii .in,:; .1 phrase exaetly like the I hi Wccmla Inuro zhitlgO

(•• Hewenl meandering about.") Bui thai phrase represents
a furthei development "I the germs we have beendisi ussing ;
il is well on I lie way i<> 1 > « • i 1 1 / ■ ;i regulai adverb. In Hebrew
we iii.ci such expressions as lutirouph touvciph ("rending he
has been rent") where we have lirsl the infinitive verb
Hollowed by the same verb conjugated. The Ba ila have
precisely the same eonstrm lion, I >i 1 1 once again I he phrases
we have described are in <|in!c .i different category. I here
is nothing of articulated speech aboul them; lliey are
interjectory as Whew! is interjectory, but they are some
thing more. We may Say they are eehoisms, but they
echo mil only natural sounds as Nl;a! echoes the sound
of a hammer but also, and more often, the sensation
caused id the mind by outside things. I'yul is evidently
not .in ordinary echoism ; it does not repeal anything
heard as the onomatopes, of which there are plenty in lla,
do ; it represents the immediate pen ept ol redness. I here
is a word for " red," subihi : we can trace its history, know
exactly what il means, put il into its place in ;i sentence ;
it is just an ordinary conventional sign. I'yit ! is also eon
ventional in the sense thai it has been handed down, bu1
there is something natural and immediate about it thai sit hi hi
has not .

It is tempting to see in these particles the genus out

of which the extensive [la vocabulary has developed. ii>

there any indication <»l their being ultimate mots ?

Many of these particles, like zhingo zhingo, are intimately
con nee led wit h fully formed verbs. I hey consisl in repeal
ing all or some of the syllables oJ the verb with perhaps
an altered and si ressed final vowel to give emphasis, I hus !

( halemana lemani ' How heavy il is so very heavy !

Chabota boti I How delicious it is so delicious I

( hachisa chisi I How painful it is so painful in< leei l !

«Jto Irrfo

296 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

Very evidently these are not on the same footing with the
others ; they are probably modern derivations from the
verb.

In another category we -can place the onomatopoeic
words. The Ba-ila aptly describe the flying of the goose
as sekwe sekwe ! imitating the sound of its wings ; and
the bird is named nachisekwe. They imitate the cry of
the crested crane by o-ane and name the bird namuoane.
These are evidently true onomatopes.

Besides these there are many verbs which we should
say have been formed from the particles rather than that
the particles have come from ■ the verbs. From Iwe we
have the verb Iwela, to be sweet ; from mi we have mina,
to swallow ; from nka we have kankamina, to hammer ;
ndi ! ndi ! ndi ! which stands for a reverberating sound, is
reproduced in the noun indindima, distant thunder. And so
on. An illuminating word in this connection is Chimbu-
ndungu. The first syllable is simply a formative, chi,
which, as often, gives the general idea of " time." Mbu !
describes the break of day ; bushiku mbu, or simply mbu !
means " the day has dawned." Ndu is not only, as we
have seen, a thudding sound, but with a varied intonation,
mistiness, haziness,- twilight ; ngu is expressive of emerging
from within; Wavhwa ngu! ("He comes out"). These
syllables put together, chi-mbu-ndu-ngu , mean " the time
at break of day, while it is still twilight, when you come
out of your house," and that is precisely the sense in which
the word is used to-day.

Now Mr. Madan's theory, if we understand him aright,
is that the vocabularies of the Bantu languages have been
formed in this way ; that these expressive monosyllables
were the germs of speech, that the process of language
consists in adding one syllable to another, thus increasing
and varying the meaning, and that the first syllable, or
the initial consonant, of a word retains the root-meaning,
all others being formative.

If this attractive theory were true we should expect
that the various Bantu languages would show some measure
of agreement in the words whose first syllables are identical.
And if the root-meanings survive in the descriptive par-

ch. xxvi THE ILA LANGUAGE 297

tides still in use, we might expect some agreement in regard
to them also. That is to say, if the original speakers said
Za ! as the Ba-ila say it to-day, to express breaking, split-
ting, rending, we should expect za to show with some such
meaning throughout the Bantu field. There should be,
in other words, some permanence of root-meaning. As a
matter of fact, the Bantu did not say Za ! for z is, as we
saw, not a primitive sound. What they must have said is
ya ! which becomes ya in Nyanja, Bemba, and Kongo.
Let us refer to the excellent dictionaries of those languages.
In Nyanja we find these words :

yala, arrange, spread out.

yamba, begin.

yambakata, spread out upon the ground.

yandama, float.

yanika, spread.

yangalala, be spread out.

yanja, spread over.

The idea common to these words is that of " spreading."
In Bemba we get these words :

ya, expand, grow.

yaka, catch fire.

yanika, spread out in the sun.

yankula, catch up a chorus.

yaula, yawn.

Again, the idea of spreading.
In Kongo we get :

yaluka, migrate.

y alula, roll up (something that has been spread).

yalumuka, spread out.

yahimima, expand.

yambana, be placed upon (used of something spreading).

yanda, spread and peg out.

yangama, float.

yanga, spread out in the sun.

Once again, spreading.

Now take the Ila words :

zaka, catch fire.
zala, spread out.
zamba, bind.

298 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

zambukila, be contagious.

zamnka, migrate.

zandala, grow, spread out.

zangadika, be a vagabond.

zanzala, stir up grain spread out to dry.

zazambe, an endless thing.

Running all through these words there is the idea of " spread-
ing," and as the one syllable common to all is za or ya,
which represents an original ya, we may, if it is legitimate
to judge from these four representative languages, con-
clude that ya is an original root with that meaning, and
that the extended significations have been given by the
added syllables. But when we inquire what the Ba-ila
mean to-day by za, we find that it is not spreading but
bursting, tearing asunder. When, for example, the cattle
burst through the cattle enclosure, they say Za ! Of
course we may say that there is some connection between
the two ideas ; when cattle break through they spread
out. The verb corresponding is zapuka, burst, split, be
torn, and we might say, perhaps, that the second syllable
gives that special meaning, for po ! conveys the sense of
" appearing through " (cf. Bemba, lepuka, burst), so that the
word might signify "be in a state (ka) of spreading (za)
through (pu)."

We might, if space allowed, go through other syllables
and determine their meaning by comparison in the four
languages. We should find that pa has the root idea of
putting together, causing to adhere, giving, increasing,
filling ; pe that of light motion, winnowing, grinding,
skimming, spinning ; pi that of rolling, twisting, wring-
ing, folding ; pu that of separation, stripping, cutting,
threshing, aborting, uprooting. We should find that ka
expresses the idea of hardness, tightness, firmness ; he
that of cutting, depriving, decreasing. Ta gives the idea
of extension, from one to another, one place to another,
growing, also of rending, splitting ; te that of looseness,
shaking, slipping, swinging, quivering, creaking ; ti that
of tenseness, flexibility ; to that of piercing, ramming.

We might conclude from these facts that there is much
to be said for the view that the root meaning of Bantu

ch.xxvi THE ILA LANGUAGE 299

words is contained in their first syllable. Or perhaps,
more correctly, we should say in the consonant of the first
syllable.1 As to the so-called interjections in everyday-
use by the Bantu representing these primitive germs of
speech, we can only say that as far as we have studied the
matter we do not find that identity between them that
the theory would seem to demand. Ka, it is true, as a
root means " firm," and on the lips of the people it has
that meaning as an exclamation ; but pi, which as a root
means " rolling" or " twisting," as an exclamation means
" hot." Of course we have to make allowances for changes,
for conventionalising, during the two thousand or so years
since the Bantu migrated from their original home. The
subject would repay more extended study.

Formation of the Verb

Let us now leave these interesting speculations and
get back to the firmer ground of plain fact.

Ila has properly three parts of speech : Verb, Noun,
and Particle.

It is an agglutinative language. Its words are formed
by adding one syllable to another, each of which brings
an added signification to the whole. These syllables may
be divided into (1) basic, (2) formative. Thus to take an
example: Chintamwizhi ("I did not know him"). The
base upon which it is formed is izhi, the shortened form
of the verb, izhiba, to know. Chi is a tense particle ;
n represents nda =1 ; ta is a negative particle, "not";
mw =mu the accusative pronoun " him."

Take another example :

W a-ka-ba-sasidild-nzhi ?
Thou-didst-them-sew-for-for-what ?

Here the root element is sas ; all else is formative.
Learning Ila resolves itself into gaining an intimate
acquaintance with these formative elements, their right

1 This brings us back, of course, to Plato, who observed that p is
expressive of motion, the letters 5 and t of binding and rest, the letter
X of smoothness, c of inwardness, etc. (Jowett's translation of The
Dialogues of Plato, vol. i. p. 311).

300 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt.v

use, the minute shades of meaning they convey, their
correct order in making the word.

Most 11a verbs in their simplest form are disyllabic.
Hundreds are formed by the simple coupling of the mono-
syllables given on p. 291. Thus : kamba, kemba, kimba,
komba, kumba. Indeed the writer, when learning the
language, speculated by forming scores of words on this
model and then seeking their meaning. He did not often
draw a blank. One felt there should be -such words, and
there were.

The final a is properly a formative, so that, e.g., kamb
is the base-word. The formatives may be prefixes or post-
fixes, but whatever is added this base-word remains in-
variable, except that occasionally assimilation causes a
change in the vowel ; you cannot take it to pieces and
add letters to it as you can to the triliteral roots of Arabic.
You may, as we have just been doing, go behind it in the
endeavour to discover the ultimate meaning of the syllables
ka-mb{a), but for all practical purposes kamb is a root.
There are some monosyllabic roots, but they are excep-
tional ; the normal Ila root is on the form : consonant +
vowel + consonant. Any further syllables, whether their
meaning can be determined or not, are formatives.

We may represent the verb in this way :

Prefixes. Postfixes.

Tense (negative)

Subject

Object

Voice (exceptional) j

Voice

Root \ Tense (exceptional)
I Mood

The Ila noun always stands in apposition and is represented
by a pronominal suffix to the verb, as if we said " John he-
eats." The object may be represented also by a prefix
inserted between the subject and the verbal root, just as in
Italian Io vi do ("I give you ") = ndamapa ; only in Ila
it is written as one word.

The tenses of the Ila verb are very numerous; more
have been made out since the Ila Handbook was published.
All of them but one are formed by means of suffixes ; the
exception is the perfect, a tense that is different from the

CH. XXVI

THE ILA LANGUAGE

301

others in that it has something of an adjectival significance.
These are some of the chief tenses of the verb, kubona,
to see :

INDICATIVE MOOD:

(J* = Simple stem, bona.

Tenses.
I. AORISTS.

(1) Adjectival

(2) General

Tense Sign.

2. Presents.

(1) Imperfect

(2) Perfect

3. Pasts.

(1) General

(2) Imperfect

(3) Pluperfect
4. Futures.

-f
-a-f

-a-chi-f
-a-ya-bu-f

-di-mu-ftu-f ■
-chi-f
-la-f

-la-ya-bu-f

-la-ya-ku-f

-di-f
-chi-f

-a-ka-f
-a-ka-chi-f

-a-ka-ya-bu-f

ka-f

-a-ku-f

-a-ku-chi-f

-a-ku-ya-bu-f

-a-ku-f

-ka-la-f
-ka-la-chi-f

-ka-la-ya-bn-f

AFFIRMATIVE TENSES

f — Modified stem, iwene.)
Example.

i. tu-bona — we (who) see.

2. tu-bwene — we (who) have seen.

3. tw-a-bona — we see (saw, have

seen, etc.).

4. tw-a-chi-bona — we continue seeing.

5. tw-a-ya-bu-bona — we are engaged

in seeing.

6. tu-di-mu-ku-bona — we are seeing.

7. tu-chi-bona — we continue seeing.

8. lu-la-bona — we are constantly

(usually, certainly) seeing.

9. tu-la-ya-bu-bona — we are being

engaged in seeing.

10. tu-la-ya-ku-bona — we are habitu-

ally in the act of seeing.

11. tu-di-bwene — we have seen.

12. tu-chi-bwene — we have been seeing.

13. tw-a-ka-bona — we saw.

14. tw-a-ka-chi-bona — we continued

seeing.

15. tw-a-ka-ya-bu-bo'na — we were en-

gaged in seeing.

16. ka-tu-bona — we saw.

17. ka-tu-bwene — we did see.

18. tw-a-ku-bona — we were seeing.

19. tw-a-ku-chi-bona — we were con-

tinuing to see.

20. tw-a-ku-ya-bu-bona — we were en-

gaged in seeing

21. tw-a-ku-bwene — we had seen.

22. tu-ka-la-bona — we shall soon see.

23. tu-ka-la-chi-bona — we shall con-

tinue seeing.

24. tu-ka-la-ya-bu-bona — we shall be

engaged in seeing.

302 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

These are affirmative tenses ; they may be modified by
the use of various negative particles : ta-tu-boni, we do not
see ; ta-tu-na-ku-bona, we have not yet seen ; ta-tu-chi-na-
ku-bona, we have still not yet seen, etc. And besides the
Indicative mood, there are the Subjunctive, Conditional,
Jussive, and Imperative moods. These are formed by
means of prefixes, the final vowel of the verb changing to e
in the Subjunctive and allied forms.

By the addition of various suffixes the meaning of the
verb is extended in a manner that reminds us of the forms
of the Arabic and Hebrew verb. These forms are variously
called Voices or Species. It will be worth while to give
a list of them. No one verb that we know of takes all
these forms and great care has to be exercised in their
use, as often they have idiomatic meanings which are not
apparent.

i. Simple verb : bon-a, see.

2. Relative : suffix -ila, which by assimilation may be -ela, -ina,

or -ena ; bon-ena, see to, or for, in connection with.

3. Extended relative : suffix -idila (-elela, -inina, -enena).

Bon-enena, see to for somebody. Often gives an absolute
meaning ; e.g. ya, go ; ila, go to ; ididila, go right
away.

4. Causative : suffix -ya, which undergoes many phonetic

changes, see p. 288. Chita, do ; chisha, cause, or help,
to do.

5. Causative : suffix, -ika or -eka. Meaning : cause to be in

a certain state. Mena, grow ; meneka, cause to be
growing.

6. Capable : suffix, -ika or -eka. Meaning : corresponds to the

English suffix -able. Chit-ika, be doable.

7. Passive : Like Arabic, the Ila makes use of the vowel u

to express the passive ; but instead of changing a root
vowel (Arabic, qatala, he kills ; qutala, he is killed) it is
suffixed in the form of w ; e.g. chita, to do ; chilwa, to
be done.

8. Middle : suffix -uka. Meaning : to be in a certain state. It

differs from the Passive in that the action is not referred
to any agent. And-uka, be split. The Passive,
andul-wa, means that it is split by somebody ; anduka
refers simply to its condition.

9. Stative : suffix -ama. Meaning : to be in a certain position.

Lul-ama, be straight ; kot-ama, be bowed. Unlike
the other voices this is dead, or at least moribund ; it
cannot be used with the same facility.

ch.xxvi THE ILA LANGUAGE 303

10. Extensive : suffix -ula. This corresponds to No. 8 as

transitive to intransitive. Meaning : to put into a certain
state. The suffix translates " up " " through " in such
words as, break up, bore through. Sand-ula, turn over.
And-ula, split up.

11. Extensive : suffix -aula. Gives meaning of " keep on doing,

do in degrees, gradually, with repeated action." And-aula,
chop up firewood.

12. Repetitive : suffix -ulula. Answers to our prefix re-. Ula,

trade ; ululula, trade a thing over and over again.

13. Reversive : suffix -ulula. Answers to our prefix tin-. Amb-

ulula, unsay, retract.

14. Reflexive : prefix di-. Throws the action back on the subject.

Anga, tie ; dianga, tie oneself ; pa, give ; dipa, give each
other.

15. Reciprocal : suffix -ana. Expresses mutual action. Bona,

see ; bon-ana, see each other.

16. Intensive: suffix -isha. Meaning: to do forcibly, heartily,

lengthily. Ang-isha, tie tightly.

17. Reduplicative : repeating the verbal stem. Ambuka, turn

aside ; ambukambuka, keep on turning aside.

Besides these seventeen forms, others are formed by add-
ing one form to another; e.g. langidizha (No. 1 + 3 + 4),
cause to look on behalf of.

Each form of the verb can take the various prefixes to
mark tense, etc. In this way most formidable-looking
polysyllables, may be, and commonly are, formed ; for
example :

Tamuchinakubaangulwilanzhi ?

Why have you still not yet untied them ?

The root, which seems lost amid the multiplicity of
syllables, is ang, tie.

Formation of the Noun

The Ila noun includes not only the substantive, but also
the pronoun and adjective ; everything that is formed of
a root and the noun prefixes. Like the verb, the noun has
a basic portion and a formative portion, but its formatives
are as a rule prefixed. The final vowel may undergo
significant changes, and there are a few suffixes, such as
we find in miuitu-ma, " my fellow-man."

The Ba-ila, like all Bantu, conceive of all things as

3°4

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. V

distributed in a certain number of categories. The funda-
mentum divisionis is not very clear to the European mind,
but would seem transparent to theirs, for they never have
any hesitancy in allotting new things and new conceptions
to their proper places. The division is not on a sex basis,
like our familiar masculine, feminine, and neuter. It is
marked by the use of certain prefixes, thirteen in number,
which again are roughly divided into two, marking the
singular and plural numbers. We may arrange them as
follows :

Class.

I
2

5
6

7
8

9
io

Singular.
Prefix.

mu-

i- (di-)

bu-

ku-

ka-

chi-

in-

lu-

Significant
Letter.

it- (w-)
u (w)

I- (d-)

b-
k-
k-

ch-

i- (y-)
l-
l-

Class.

I
2

5
6

7
8

9
io

Plural.

Prefix.

Signific
Lette

ba-

mi-

i {y-)

ma-

tu-

shi-

sh-

in-

y- sh

in-

y- sh

ma-

The third columns contain the significant letters of the pre-
fix which are used in forming pronouns, etc.

All nouns whatever carry one of these prefixes which
places it in its proper category ; the base of the word
serving to define its proper nature.

We will not enter into the never-ending discussion as
to the precise nature of these classifiers. Suffice it here
to say that as far as Ila is concerned, Class I contains
persons ; it contains also the names of most animals,
many of them being proper names and as such not having
the prefix mu-, but belonging unmistakably to this class.
Class 2 contains things with a less degree of personality ;
Class 3 contains many augmentatives. The nouns of Class 4
are abstract or collective. Class 6 is the diminutive class.
Class 7 contains many names of worn-out, defective things.
Class 8 contains names of things. Classes 9 and 10 contain
many abstract or semi-abstract things. We noticed that
when new words were being formed for the purposes of

ch.xxvi THE ILA LANGUAGE 305

Christian teaching, such words as " love," " will," were at
once given the prefix lu-.

We will give one example. The root -ntu has some such
meaning as " entity," and with differing prefixes it becomes
as follows : mn-ntu, personal entity, a person ; ba-ntu,
people ; i-ntu, an important entity (compare the word
muka-intu, a woman, i.e. the one belonging to a human
par excellence) ; bu-ntu, status, quality of a person, also
virtus ; ku-ntu, where an entity may be, a place ; chi-ntu,
a thing ; shi-ntu, things ; ka-ntu, a little thing ; tu-nta,
little things ; ma-ntu, a great many things all together.

The noun roots are either verbal roots, or else are a
class by themselves, that is, are quite different from the
verbal roots. In making nouns from the former, great care
is exercised in the choice of the final vowel ; a and i give
the noun an active meaning, e and u a passive meaning;
0 is either one or the other or something between ; i and
e are the vowels mostly in use. For example :

mu-yas-i — one who spears.
mu-yas-e — one who is speared.

Nouns are formed, not only from the simple verbal root
but also from any of the voice-forms. Mu-kumb-izhi, a
beggar, is formed from No. 2, the relative form, kumb-ila,
with the suffix given a definitely active form.

The Ila adjective proper is formed in the same way
as the substantive, with a prefix and stem, the difference
being that the stems are more mobile and can take
whatever prefix the qualified substantive takes ; e.g.
muntu mu-kando, a great man ; chi-ntu chi-kando, a big
thing. Besides this normal way adjectives are formed in
other ways.

It would take us too far afield to enter into a description
of all the various kinds of pronouns — relative, demonstra-
tive, personal, indefinite, etc. Suffice it to say that they
are all closely related to the noun prefixes, being formed
by reduplication or by being attached to certain special
roots. Each noun class has its own proper set. In all,
these forms number some hundreds.

A word should be said of what are called the locative
prefixes.

vol. 11 x

306 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

mu = rest within, motion into or out from.
ku = position at, motion to or from.
a = rest upon, motion on to or from off.

These are prefixed not to the noun roots but to the com-
plete substantive. They afford an example of the remark-
able precision of the Ila speech. If we say in English
" the house is dark," our meaning is, if we think of it,
very vague. Do we mean " it is dark " within or without ?
No doubt is caused by the way the Ba-ila say it :

mu-nganda mulashia — the interior of the house is dark.
ku-ng anda kulashia — around the house is dark.
a-ng'anda alashia — darkness is upon the house.

If they said inganda ilashia, they would mean that the
structure is dark or black.

From these locative prefixes another series of pronouns,
etc., is formed, all bringing with them the defined mean-
ings of the original mu, kit, a.

We need not enter into a description of the particle.
The preposition, apart from the prefixes we have just men-
tioned which are used as such, is not greatly developed,
its place being largely taken by the suffixes of the verb.
The adverb and conjunction would repay further study
could we give it here. We may just illustrate the way in
which the meaning conveyed in some of the noun prefixes
is carried beyond the noun itself. Thus the prefix bu gives
an abstract meaning to the noun, and, used as a particle,
has the meaning " as, how, in the way that." Twandana
bu bakaandana shempela o chivubwe, " let us separate as
the rhino, and hippo, did." It is as if in the mind of
the native the whole phrase bubakaandana formed an
abstract noun. So in the tense already quoted, No. 5,
tw-a-ya-bu-bona, "we are engaged in seeing," bubona seems
to convey the sense of an abstract noun.

A Page from the Ila Dictionary

To show how Ila words develop from roots, we now
give an entry from a dictionary as it might be written.
As a matter of fact, abundant material for such a lexicon

ch. xxvi THE ILA LANGUAGE 307

exists, but whether it will ever see the light is doubtful.
There is nothing artificial about this. No words have been
coined for the purpose of exhibition : all are in actual use.

'Amb-

(Ur-Bantu, yamba ; usual modern forms, amba, as in Ila,
Swahili, etc., gamba, in Ganda, etc.).

1. Amb-a — speak, say, talk, utter.

Inf. kuamba (kwamba) ; pert, ambile. Uambai ? Uambanzhi ?
What do you say ? Wangamba — he says to me. Makani
ngwingamba — things which I say. Usually followed by ati ;
ulaamb'ati — he speaks and says. Idiom : " about to " ;
mubwa aambe avhwe wapatila mu chibia — when the dog was
about to withdraw it stuck in the pot ; mwaba aambe achebuke
munshi — when the jackal was about to look behind.

2. AMB-ila — speak to ; ambil'a, say about, on account of.

Wangambila — he says to me ; ndamuambiV ati — I tell him
that . . . ; mnambilanzhi ? — why do you speak ?

3. AMB-idila — speak on behalf of.

4. AMB-ya — cause, help, to say. ( + 14) Diambya, speak to oneself,

or to one another ; wadiambya mu chamba — he talks silently
to himself ; badiambya beni 0 beni — they discuss a matter
between themselves.

6. AMB-ika — be tellable, speakable ; makani taambika — the affairs

cannot, may not, be spoken of ; makani ataambika — unspeak-
able things.

7. AMB-wa — said, spoken ; kwambwai ? Kwambwanzhi ? — what's

the news ?
11. AMB-aula — keep on saying. ( + 2) ambawila ; perf. ambaudile.

13. AMB-ulula — unsay, retract ; sh'ambulula — I do not unsay

what • I said; ( + 8) ambuluka, unsaid, retracted, reversed;

perf. ambulukile ; makani adi ambulukile — the affairs have

changed. Hence the following, apparently of different

meaning, but all from same root :

(8) AMB-uka — turn aside, leave path when travelling ;
leave path of rectitude, go astray, fall away ; also, of
children going to the bush. (17) AMB-uk-AMB-
uka, constantly to leave the road ; twakeenda obach'-
ambukambuka (riddle) we travelled with those who
were always leaving the path. (10) AMB-ula, put,
take, out of road ; ( + 2) AMB-wila , turn — for ;
( + 4) AMB-usha, cause to turn aside, lead astray.

14. diAMBya, see 4. (+1) diAMBa, speak of oneself, confess.

(4-2, 3) di AMB-ila, di AMB-idila, speak for oneself, plead
one's own cause.

15. AMB-ana, converse, dispute, argue, quarrel ; perf. ambene.

16. AMB-isha, talk much, loudly. ( + 2) AMBishizha ; mua-

mbishizhanzhi ? — why do you speak so loudly ?

308 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

Derived Nouns :

CI. Mu-ba- MwAMBi, speaker. MwAMBilwa, person spoken to ;
proverb : kahtba mwambi, mwambilwa taluba — the speaker
(insulter) may forget, but the one spoken to (insulted) does
not forget. MwAMBididi, MwAMBidizhi, advocate, inter-
cessor. MwAMBidilwa, one interceded for. MwAMBushi,
one who turns out of the road. MwAMBuzhi, one who
turns another aside. ShikuAMBisha, one who speaks loudly.
MwAMBuluzhi, one who retracts. MwAMBani, Shimw-
AMBana, disputer ; proverb : Shimwambana o mwami
walekela o mano ; the disputer with a chief has thrown away
wisdom.

CI. Mu-mi- MwAMBo, word, speech, language. MiAMBoMi-
AMBo, various kinds of languages.

CI. I-ma- IAMBo, a great saying. MAMBo, a great many sayings.
MAMBAMBa, chatterings, one's own affairs, particularly in
contrast with a message with which he is entrusted.
Mambamba budio ! — He is speaking for himself, not what he
was sent to say ; also a confused talking, of many people
speaking at once.

CI. Bu-ma- BwAMBE, speaking, manner of speaking. Wabosha
bwambe — you speak well. BwAMBI, loud talking.

CI. Ku. KwAMBa, speaking, talking.

CI. Ka-tu- KAMBo, thing spoken of, affair, fault, crime, court-
case, reason. Kambonzhi ? — Why ? Kambokakuti — because.
TwAMBO, sayings, utterances, reasons. ShikAMBoma,
my opponent in a case ; shikambonoko, thy— — ; Shikambo-

nina, shikambonokwesu, shikambonokwabo , his , our ,

their . KAMBile, something spoken of already, decided

upon, plot, plan.

CI. Chi-shi- ChAMBa, the chest, thoracic cavity (as seat of
thought). ChAMBa - ehilemu, forbearance. ShichAMB-
achilemu, a forbearing person. ShichAMBa, a sincere,
truthful person. ChAMBo, speech, language, dialect.
ChAMBukilo, place for turning aside. ChAMBilo, time
for speaking, opportunity ; + a, locative particle : acha-
mbilo — at the time ; ano ng'achambilo chakwe — this is the
time for him to speak.

CI. IN-In- IngAMBAMBi, persistent talking ; ShingAMBAMBi, a
persistent talker.

Derived Adjectives :

i. -AMBi, speaking ; -AMBe, spoken.

6. -AMBishi, speakable ; proper, right, to be spoken.

8. -AMBushi, errant, fallen astray.

13. -AMBulule, -AMBuluke, unspoken, retracted.

Here we have, in all, nearly sixty words formed from
the one root AMB ; not all that could possibly, by the

ch.xxvi THE ILA LANGUAGE 309

rules of the language, be formed from it, but those we
have recorded as in use. The Ila dictionary would be
made up of similar pages.

Sentence Formation

The noun is the chief word in the sentence ; it is the
master, so to speak, and every pronoun, adjective, verb,
that is dependent upon it takes its prefix (or the significant
part of the prefix) as a livery or mark of subservience.
This is the principle of the alliterative or euphonic concord.
For example :

Mu-ntu M-urawi mu-botu mwirni-mwi-ni wa-ke-za.

One really good person came.
Ba-ntu kmwi ba-hotu be-m-be-ni ba-ke-za.

Other really good people came.

In a subsequent chapter we give many of the Ila folk-tales ;
it will help to an appreciation of these and of the language
if we now transcribe one in the original with a word-for-
word translation :

Sulwe mbwakatizha Mitzovu.

Hare it-is-how-he-made-fear Elephant.

Usulwe wa-ambila Muzovu ati: " A-tu-ende tu-ka-zube

The-Hare he-spoke-to Elephant he-said : " Let-us-go (that) we-may-hide

tu-ka-bone u-kwete mano a ku-zuba." Inzho Muzovu

we-may-see who-holds cunning of hiding." Then Elephant

wa-ambila Sulwe, ati : " Ome ndi-kwete mano ku-bazha uwe,
he-spoke-to Hare, he-said : " I I-hold cunning to-surpass thee,

uwe kashonto to-mbadi -mano." Inzho ba-ya. Ba-shike

thou little-one not-me-surpass cunning." Then they-went. (That) they arrive

budio Sulwe wa-ambila Muzovu, ati: " Tanguna, uwe uka-zube."
simply Hare he-speaks-to Elephant, he-says : ' ' Be-first thou, thou-may-hide. ' '

Muzovu wa-ya. A-shike kuchivunawa-zuba ; anukuti u-di-shite
Elephant he-went. He-arrive to bush he-hid ; whereas he-is-sitting

a-sweya budio. Walo ati : " Nda-zuba." Walo Sulwe

on-clear simply. That-one he-said : " I-am-hidden." That-one Hare

a-shike wa-mu-zubulula. Inzho aze Sulwe ati : " Ko-shite,
he-arrive he-him-un-hid. Then he-also Hare he-said : " Stay,

nzube." Pele Sulwe wo-ona ku shihuna, wa-salama

I-hide." Then Hare he-lay-down at bush, he-lay-on-his-back

wa-tutulula menso akwe. Inzho we-ta Muzovu, ati :

he-protruded eyes his. Then he-called Elephant, he-said :

310 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

Kweza u-nzubulule." Wa-ya Muzovu, a-shike wa-kapaula

Come thou-me-find." He-went Elephant he-arrive he-kept-on-seeking

wa-amb'ati : " ngu-di kwi no?" A-lang'anshi wa-bona menso
he-spoke-he-said : " it-is-thou-where ? " He-look-down he-saw eyes

atulukile wa-zowa, wa-amb'ati : " Ya-ndweza inshi,ya-mena

protruded he-was-amazed, he-spoke-he-said : "It-me-horrifies earth, it-grows

menso." Inzho we-ta beenzhina, ati : " Ka-mwi-za mu-bone ya-mena
eyes." Then he-called his-friends, he said : " Come-ye, ye-see it grows

menso inshi." Be-za, pele Sulwe wa-buka, wa-ambila Muzovu,
eyes earth." They-came only Hare he-arose, he-spoke-to Elephant,

ati : " Uwe, u-di mudimbushi. Omenda-ku-bazha mano, ndime
he-said :" Thou, thou-art fool. I, I-thee-surpass cunning, it-is-I

mukando." Pele Muzovu wa-usa budio.
great." Only Elephant he-ashamed simply.

How Hare Scared Elephant

Hare once said to Elephant: " Let us play hide-and-seek and
we will see who is the more cunning at the game." Elephant replied :
" I have more cunning than you in hiding ; a little thing like you
cannot be more cunning than I." So they went off. When they
arrived at the place, Hare said to Elephant : " You be the first to
hide." Elephant went off, and coming to a bush he hid ; at least
he thought he hid, really he was lying in the open. He called out :
" I am hidden." Hare on his arrival at once found him. Then
Hare on his part said : " Stay here, while I hide." He lay down
at the bush, turned on his back and protruded his eyes ; then he
called Elephant : " Come and find me." Elephant came, and
hunted about. Said he : ' Wherever can you be ? " Then, looking
down, he saw the protruded eyes, and was amazed. ' The earth
horrifies me," he said, " it grows eyes." Then he called his friends,
saying : " Come and see here, the earth grows eyes." They came
and Hare arose and said to Elephant : ' You are a fool. I have
more cunning than you. I am the great one." Elephant was
simply crestfallen.

Conclusion

This chapter on the language is not to teach it to our
readers (if any have had the patience to follow us so far),
but it is meant to leave on their minds an impression of
the extraordinary richness and flexibility of the language.
It is a fine instrument. One is surprised that the Ba-ila
should have such a fine instrument ; it has potentialities
far beyond their need of self-expression hitherto. For
some years now it has been put into written form for them,
books have been written in it, the New Testament has been
translated into it.

CHAPTER XXVII
*

PROVERBS, RIDDLES, AND CONUNDRUMS

i. Proverbs

In his dealings with the Ba-ila few things help a European
more than a knowledge of their proverbs. To be familiar
with them gives one a good deal of insight into their char-
acter and ways of looking at things, for they express the
likes and dislikes of the people in certain directions in quite
an unmistakable fashion. And, moreover, these proverbs
are taken largely as a rule of life. They are truly " the
wisdom of many " — maxims of discreet conduct that have
stood the test of ages ; they are equally " the wit of one,"
showing a remarkably shrewd insight into motives, and
expressed in a short, concise manner that reflects great
credit upon their authors, whoever they may be. Some
of them bear their meaning on the surface and we see
at once what their equivalents are in our own language.
Of others the meaning is not so apparent, but when once
explained their appropriateness to the occasion is imme-
diately patent. A knowledge of the proverbs is, then,
invaluable to any who wish to appreciate the character of
the Ba-ila and especially to those who have direct dealings
with them. Many an angry dispute has been silenced,
many an inhospitable chief has been rebuked into generosity,
many a forward beggar has been reduced to shame, and
many a long, diffuse argument has been clinched by the
apt quotation of one of these proverbs.

A study of the proverbs is very valuable to the student
of the language. It is not an easy study, but the correct

311

312

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. V

(

f ^

and appropriate use of them will mark the competent
speaker. They contain many words that are not heard in
ordinary conversation, and also many archaic expressions
and grammatical forms. This which, of course, is only a
proof of their antiquity, makes translation difficult — natives
themselves cannot always explain the significance of these
expressions while knowing the meaning of the whole pro-
verb— and one cannot always be sure therefore that he
has caught the precise meaning. And, of course, the
peculiar flavour of these proverbs largely evaporates in
the translating. But, with all allowance for these facts,
the man is to be pitied who cannot appreciate the wit
and wisdom of these sayings.

In the following pages we transcribe a few examples
from a large collection of these proverbs, grouped roughly
under headings and accompanied by such elucidation as
may be necessary.

The first class contains maxims and precepts, truths
verified in the experience of the tribe and inculcated as
rules of conduct. Many of them are serious enough, but
the laughter is never far away. And laughter, Bergson
tells us, " is above all a corrective. ... Its function is to
intimidate by humiliating." The wit pursues a utilitarian
aim of general improvement. " By laughter society avenges
itself for the liberties taken with it." A Mwila greatly
objects to being made fun of, and his susceptibility to
ridicule is a powerful instrument in the hands of those
who try to improve him. He can often be laughed out of
a thing when argument and even force are unavailing.

As a legal maxim we have already quoted : Kwina mwami
owakadizhala (" No chief ever gave birth to a chief "). The
hereditary principle, by which a son follows his father,
is unknown to the Ba-ila.

Among the social virtues most appreciated is hospitality,
and we are not surprised to find it inculcated in various
proverbs. Mwenzu talangwa ankumu, mulange mwifu (" A
visitor is to be regarded not as to his face but as to his
stomach"). Matako a mwenzu makadikwa ("The rump
of a visitor is made to sit upon "). Shikwaze tabudi budilo
bwa nswi (" A fish-eagle does not lack fish for food on a

ch. xxvii PROVERBS, RIDDLES, CONUNDRUMS 313

journey ") ; he is sure to find some, and so will you ; only
trust people. These sayings illustrate also the ironical wit
of the people ■' they state what ought to be done, pretending
that this is just what is actually being done. That is Berg-
son's definition of irony. We should add that the quickest
way of securing hospitality is simply to quote one of these
sayings : what ought to be done is done.

Many of the proverbs aim in this way against certain
classes of people, who, like the poor, are always with us,
whether our lot is placed in civilisation or in heathenesse.

There are Pharisees even among the Ba-ila. Kabombwe
balamusanana, menzhi balanwa (" They spurn the frog
but drink the water"), i.e. they don't like to find a frog in ]<>.;
their drinking-water, but they will drink it after the frog
is removed — an apt description of the unctuous rectitude
that strains at the gnat and swallows the camel ! A man
who claims to be without fault is rebuked by the saying :
U shiletekambo wakatea inzoka munzhila (" Mr. No-fault
ensnared a snake in the road "), and left it to bite passers-by.
Nobody is without blame for something or other !

" The one failing that is essentially laughable is vanity."
So Bergson says again ; and many an Ila proverb laughs
quietly at men who puff themselves up and despise others.
Kwina mwami owakadila mump and e (" There is no chief
who eats out of an impande shell "). The shell may show
his wealth, but when it is a matter of eating, the chief must
do as ordinary people do — eat out of a dish. Nature con-
founds social distinctions. That is a way of reminding
an arrogant man that he is only human after all. A person
who in his conceit is always running others down will be
reminded that Chizhilo chibe chishinka musena (" Any old '
pole will stop up a hole in the fence ") : everybody is useful
to the community in some way or other. Or he will be
told '. W abakembetema wasandukila masamo nina (" An
axe-shaft is made out of an ordinary piece of wood "). That
cuts two ways : an ordinary person can be made of great
use ; but, on the other hand, he is not essential ; like an
axe-shaft, he is of use only in connection with others (meaning
the axe-head) and can easily be replaced. Or again, the
conceited person will be told to remember that Musongo

314 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

wakalukanka, takachidyile ; mudimbushi owakweza munshi
wakachidya (" A wise man ran on without eating it, a
fool coming behind ate it ") — meaning that the wise in
their own conceits often miss the good things in life. An
overbearing stranger may be told, Muchende tafumpuka
matanga obili (" A bull doesn't enjoy fame in two herds ").

A know-all will have quoted to him the Ila equivalent
of our saying about teaching one's grandmother : Uwe
muntu takukubudi banoko, kulakubula banji (" Oh, man,
don't try to teach your mother, try others"). Or this:
Mano avhwa mu kaumbuswa (" Wisdom comes out of an
ant-heap "), which means that even a fool knows something.
Or this : Mano takala mutwi omwi (" Wisdom does not
dwell in one head"). Or again, Mukando mushie lubilo,
mano tomushii (" You may outrun an old man, but you
can't outdo him in wisdom "). Or he will be curtly bidden,
Kula ubone twanshi (" Get grown up and then you will
know the things on earth ") . These are especially applicable,
it will be noticed, to young people anxious to instruct
their elders.

Another class needing correction is the grumblers. One
who should complain of his food would be exhorted that,
Muchanka wa nyama udi omwi (" The niceness of meat
is one"). That is not true of a epicure, but it is so to a
hungry man.

We have many proverbs aimed at evil speakers.
Kamunazaka o mulozhi, shikalaka ulayaya chishi (" Build
rather with a witch than with a false-tongued person, he
destroys a community"). Kaluba mwambi, mwambilwa
talnba (" The speaker may forget, but he who is spoken
to does not forget "), i.e. you may forget the insult but the
person you insult will not, it will rankle. A scandal-monger
will be derided thus : Wakotokela kuvuya (" He leaves off
work to backbite people ") : he's too lazy to attend to his
business. The following are two cryptic sayings descrip-
tive of the same kind of person : Ufulwe mumi tapakwa
bwanga (" A living tortoise is not worn as a charm ") ;
which, whether you see it or not, means that you mustn't
speak evil of a living man. Kazune shimuntwanganya
imbula watola u muchenji (" A treacherous little bird took

ch. xxvii PROVERBS, RIDDLES, CONUNDRUMS 315

an imbula fruit to a muchenji tree " —a fruit-bearing tree) :
the idea is that the bird in a fatuous way sought to curry
favour with the tree. It is a proverb describing a person
who runs his own chief down to another chief, and that
chief to his own : a subtle kind of flattery which yet is so
very obvious !

Greedy people do not come off scathless from the makers
of Ila proverbs. Mulakumune ku kudya kwalo udikwete
insana ("The great - open - mouth, only in eating is his
strength ! "). He is like a sack, that will take in all that
it will hold ; he is good for nothing else. And if he
clamours for food that is being kept for an absent member,
he is gently reminded : Udi afwafwi ng'udya twinu, udi
kulale tabudi bwinu (" He that is near should get a little
of the fat, the one that is far should not lack plenty ").

The Ba-ila are far from being cowards, but they know
quite well that discretion is the better part of valour. Or,
as they say : Kabwenga moa ng'uongola (" It is the prudent
hyena that lives long"). A hot-headed man that rushes
into danger, and meets disaster, against all warning is thus
spoken of : Ubosha obamuweza (" It pays them out who
hunt for it ! ").

A laggard will be told : Ingombe insolozhi njinwa menzhi
("It is the first ox that drinks the water") — when the
laggards come up they find it all gone. And he will slyly
be spoken of thus : Inaumpi odia bula (" The mother wild-
dog of the intestine "). That is a good example of the allu-
sive by-speech of the Ba-ila. Nobody would understand
it who did not know the tale of the wild-dogs : the mother
who used to hunt game for her children until she grew too
old ; then the poor old thing (in the eyes of the Ba-ila she
would be a laughing-stock) had to lag behind, and could
only come up with the pack — her children — in time to get a
bit of the entrails. So to call a man Inaumpi is to poke
fun at him, perhaps in a kindly teasing manner.

It is very often said that Africans are deficient in grati-
tude ; it would be truer to say that they feel thankful but
do not express it in the same way as we do. Ozona ozona
is a thanksgiving formula, or, as the Basuto say, ka moso le
ka moso, both meaning " To-morrow and to-morrow," i.e.

3i6

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

PT. V

JUJU

give me it again and again. The proverbs show that an
ingrate is spoken against. Kunavhuna shilumamba, ushi-
nzala udikwete kambukwa (" Better help a fighting-man
than a hungry person, he (the latter) has no gratitude").

Squanderers come in for a share of ridicule. Thus :
Ing'ombe intaka itakanya muchila wayo (" The prodigal
cow threw away her own tail"). An obstinate person,
who suffers through not taking advice, will have this
thrown at him : Ngulube wakafwa mu shitamba (" The pig
died in the trap ") — against which it was warned.

Levellers, despisers of authority, and kickers against
the pricks lay themselves open to many a witty rebuke.
Tatuzanda kasutasuta kei dia namakukwe (" We do not like
the pride of a hen's egg"). It is difficult to see at first
where the pride of an egg comes in, but if you look at them
lying in the nest you will see that they are all alike ; they
are republicans, every Jack as good as his neighbour — and
that is the pride of an egg ! And a person who sets him-
self on a level with the authorities will quickly be told that
in this community the pride of eggs is not to be tolerated !
Two proverbs may be quoted which show a discontented
person that, while chastening is grievous, it is for his good.
Nevhuluma tedyi mwana ("Though the lion growls it
won't eat its child"). Namakukwe tafwi kabambala ka
nina ("A chicken does not die of its mother's kicks").
An incorrigible rebel will be reminded by his father or
chief : Chikaya ndachileka (" I throw away an old useless
armlet ") — so take heed !

We may pass now to a series of proverbs which contain
advice for discreet conduct in various relations of life. A
general proverb, pronounced by the Ba-ila to be a very
great one indeed, is : Utotakatila mudilo (" Do not throw
it into the fire"). We have often heard this quoted to a
person who is about to commit a foolish action ; it means :
Be careful ! You throw away your chance, it won't come
again ! Perhaps we may also put under the same heading
a proverb which is the very reverse of the golden rule :
Wanchita mwenzha-kabotu, ame ndakuchita mwenzha-kabotu :
wanchita mwenzha-bubi ame ndakuchita mwenzha-bubi (" If
you do me a good turn, I will do you a good turn ; if you

ch. xxvii PROVERBS, RIDDLES, CONUNDRUMS 317

do me an evil turn, I also will do you an evil turn "). Of
a similar effect is the other : Nvhunaolwaku muma, ame olwa
ku menzhi ndakuvhuna (" Help me in my need on the
bank, and I will help you in yours in the water"). This
is explained by one of the tales, in which a hare and a
crocodile make a compact of friendship ; the hare to help
the crocodile on land, and the crocodile the hare in the
water.

Advice is given to masters in dealing with their slaves.
It will be discreet for them to show no favour but to treat
all alike. Bana ba manga balauminwa dimwi (" Twin chil-
dren are both beaten at the same time ") — i.e. if one does
wrong they are both beaten ; if your servants all do well
you must not single out one for praise; nor, on the other
hand, if they all displease should you be angry with any
particular one — treat them all alike. And remember, too,
Muzhike wako ulumbwa n'aloboka (" Your slave is praised
after he has run away from you ") ; you undervalue him now
and treat him with less than justice ; one day, when he
runs away, you will begin to appreciate him.

On the other hand, people in a state of dependence are
advised against foolish behaviour. Malelo mazhokaukwa
(" A state of dependence is to be returned to ") : so do not
anger your master and get dismissed, for one day you
may want to go back to him and he won't have you. And
again : Bomba udye malelo (" Be humble so that you may
continue to enjoy the state of dependence you are in ").

This is a saying conveying advice to a bridegroom :
Kapadingwa kupa banoko, mukazhi nindavu (" Give to
your mother, a wife is a lion ") — which means, treat your
mother better than your wife ; you may have many wives,
you can have only one mother.

It is a wise saying that a man should be on good terms
with his doctor : Chenjezha nganga, malwazhi eza bu seka
(" Annoy your doctor and sicknesses will come laughing ").

Advice is given to people to keep their friendships in
constant repair : Inzhi ikafwine nj'ikukala (" The fly that
loves you is the one that sits on you ") — visit your friends
and so show your affection.

People are warned against not keeping their business

18 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

to themselves : Mankulubwiza atole ku mucheche, mukando-
noko ulazukula (" If you tell jokes about him to a child,
your fellow adult will find it out "), so exercise discretion in
your gossip. Mubwa ukuwa twabona (" When the dog
barks we see them ") — you may not notice strangers ap-
proaching until the dogs draw your attention to them ;
if you want a thing kept quiet don't chatter about it.

So they recognise that walls have ears and little birds
carry news. Kadya maluwo oku . miikoa kadikubwene
(" While you are away from home visiting, your own people
know all about you"). Mweemena mu mumbwe umwini
mumbwe katelele {" If you weep in a deep pit the pit even
will hear you "). Udye ka mashiku mashiku adikubwene, ti-
dy'e ka munza munza udikubwene {" If you eat at night the
night sees you ; if you eat in the daytime the day sees
you ") — whatever you do, it is sure to become known.
There is a recognition of the fact that experience teaches ;
and young people who want to run before they can crawl
may have this saying quoted to them : Ma mpinika !
("Mother, give me a turned-up lip"). Here two words,
like our " sour grapes," represent a story with a moral.
It is the opening of a conversation between Master Wart-hog
and his mother ; the little pig wanted a lip turned up by
the protrusion of the tusks, like his mother's ; the old dame
reminded him in answer that he would have to grow first :
" I can't turn up your lip," she said, " it is only Leza who
can do that."

Another series of proverbs urges the necessity of a man
looking out for himself and getting all he can. Mudimo
wa mwami tokasha kudisala injina (" The work of a chief
doesn't prevent one from hunting out one's own fleas ") —
if you are working for a chief that need not hinder you
from minding your own affairs. Again : Kudya mwami
omwi wabula matende {" If you eat with one chief only, it is
because you have no feet "). Get all you can out of them
all, even if it mean a little exertion on your part. And
do not be backward in asking, remember Muzhimo udiamba
ngudya nyama (" The god that speaks up is the one that
gets the meat "). If a god is easy-going and doesn't trouble
those who neglect to sacrifice to him, he won't get anything ;

ch. xxvii PROVERBS, RIDDLES, CONUNDRUMS 319

and if you don't ask you won't get. And, further, if you
get a chance do not scruple to extort all you can from
anybody : Kombekache kalazhala bana badi ihumi ("A
young cow will in time bear ten calves "). If you have lent
any one anything do not mind playing the usurer ; get out of
him all he has. That is just what the Ba-ila do ; they are
terribly hard on each other. And if people find fault with
you for attempted extortion remind them that Ushikoswe
wakasukusha butale (" The rat tried his teeth on the iron ").
It may have been foolish, but, then, you never know what
you can get until you try.

A more pleasant set of sayings are those used to inspire
men with patience and courage. Luvhwavhwa ndu lumana
munda (" Much coming in and out finishes the field") — so
keep at it ! Bushiku bomwi tabubozha muzovu (" One day
is not sufficient to rot an elephant ") — Rome was not built
in a day. Ukwatakwata tabudididi (" He who keeps hold
does not lack ") — so stick to your work. To a man in great
distress one would say : Ngu menzhi kumbele (" There is
water ahead ") — do not despair. And to a man foolishly
afraid : Ulatia mushinze uina kabz&enga (" You fear the
darkness that covers no hyena"). And to brace up a
man to a great effort one would say : Mulombwana
muzovu uladikwela ("A man is an elephant, he is able
to draw himself ") — i.e. has strength sufficient for his
work.

We come now to the second class of proverbs, those
expressing what we may venture to call the Ba-ila criticism
of life.

Many show a recognition, somewhat cynical, of certain
unpleasant facts. For example, that death wipes out our
memory from the minds of all but perhaps a few. Chabola
chiya ku beni (" That which is rotten goes to its owners ") —
only a few -remember the dead. And the injustice of life
finds many an expression. Mukamwami uleba ubeesha
bazhike bakwe (" When a chief's wife steals she puts blame
upon her slaves ") — a poor man is powerless against the
rich and influential. Mubwa n'akuwa impuwo nja mwini
munzhi (" When a dog barks the fame belongs to the
master of the village "). A master takes credit for his

32o THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt.v

servant's acts. On the other hand, the .master discovers
sometimes that his position does not give him everything :
Kwachiswa ng'ombe mabala akaya ku mubwa (" When the
ox was sick its colours went — to the dog ") — i.e. the subject
married a fine woman, or gained some other advantage
that the chief could not get.

The difference between the apparent and the real often
finds expression in these proverbs : Twabona indudi (" We
saw the houses as to the roofs ") — we did not see the interior.
There is the suggestion that very often things are not
what they seem. Kusambwa itomba buzhike tabumana
(" You may cleanse yourself, but it is not to say you cease
to be a slave ") — let the slave dress as well as he may, he
cannot get rid of his real condition. And a man may seem
happy and prosperous while really suffering shame and
trouble. Ndaseka budio, meno nchifua, such a man might
say (" I laugh emptily, my teeth are a bone"). Or: Oka
chisa kezhi mwini ("A man knows his own woe ").

The painful fact that people cannot live long together
without some quarrelling is thus expressed : Matako aswa-
ngene tabudi mutukuta (" Buttocks rubbing together do
not lack sweat").

There is ample recognition of the fact that men follow
the inclination of their minds, and that it is useless to try
to force them into channels from which they are averse.
Ufuile mubidi, mozo tofuile (" You have the body but not
the heart ") — you may capture me as a slave, or compel
me into marriage with you, but you cannot force me to
love you. Kapuka takashinikizhiwa umbwina mbu kata-
zanda (" An insect cannot be forced into a burrow which
it does not like "). Udi kwabo tachengwa inshima inkando
(" The man at home in thought is not to be deceived by
much porridge ") — you can't retain a home-sick man by
offering him plenty to eat. In brief : Mozo ngu sungwe
("The heart leads").

And it is not for another to criticise me if I choose a
thing he doesn't like : " de gustibus," etc. Chikonda utwele
(" The old thing pleases him who married her ") — whatever
others may say about it. Chibi ku bantu ukudi baina
nchibotu (" What is ugly to other people is fair in the

rhoto U. If. Smith.

LUKENDO, A BAMBALA CHIEF.

To show style of hairdressing.

VOL. II

322 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

sight of its (a child's) mother "') — and it is enough if what
a man has satisfies himself.

Of course a man may choose for himself, and choose
foolishly, in the face of all remonstrance ; well, he must
lie on the bed he made. He can't change later, it's too
late. Mulonga owatakazholwa wakwata makobo (" A river
that would not be straightened has bends in it ") — you
cannot do anything for it now.

And so we come to those proverbs which give expres-
sion, more or less clearly, to the fatalism that is so char-
acteristic of the Ba-ila. The inexorability of life, the
certainty that trouble is the fate of all men, and that it
is hopeless to try to avoid it ; those are their feelings.
Ulabuka bwifu (" It will arise as surely as the stomach ").
You don't know how or when ; you only know that some
time or other a woman will be pregnant ; and trouble is
just as certain. A cryptic saying is that : Lufu Iwina
impwizhi ("Death has no heifer"), i.e. it comes to all
alike, though we have never seen the connection of thought.
Ushikwaze ulelala ("Even the fish-eagle has on occasion to
go to bed hungry"). Tangala kabotu,mwanashimatwangangu,
mapule adi zile (" Rejoice circumspectly, son of my master,
the enemy has come") — be moderate in your exultation,
Nemesis is bound to overtake you. . Notangala Leza
udikubwene ("When you exult, God sees you") — and God
stands for them as fate, the unconquerable powers of the
universe. And if you are very happy, that may be the
occasion for a swift disaster to befall you.

We may insert here a number of shrewd sayings of a
miscellaneous character : Mwami tafwi o manza ku matashi
("A chief will not die with bracelets on his arms"), i.e. in
a time of famine. You need not worry about a wealthy
man, he can always look after himself in time of need. To
the same effect is this : Mukamwini musozha talangwa
imfunda inkando (" You do not look for a big handful
for the owner of the provender"), i.e. the food is in his
power, and he will take what he needs. Ufwile mpeyo
tatondezhiwa ku mudilo (" He who is cold does not need
to have the fire pointed out to him ") — he will go to it
without being told.

ch. xxvii PROVERBS, RIDDLES, CONUNDRUMS 323

So we come to the third class into which we divide
Ila proverbs : smart sayings and clever metaphors rather
than maxims or precepts, though included with the others
in the general term tushim^i (" proverbs ").

Thus a man deceived by another upon whose promises
he was relying may say to him : Wankuluzha olntalampi
(" You shave me with a blunt razor "). When a person is
urged to something he is determined not to do, he may
close the argument by ejaculating : Mani nkuvhunika 0
lukwi ! (" Until I cover you up with a winnowing basket ! ")
— an impossible feat ; he means, never ! If a man has
done some foolish thing, he will lament by saying : Ndawala
ibwe mu lulu (" I threw a stone into an ant-heap ") — it has
gone past recovery.

One of the smartest things of this sort is the saying
applied to a person who is overkind, suspiciously anxious
to do you a favour : Ukwete luse Iwa mulozhi (" He has the
kindness of a witch ").

Thieves are always clever in finding a way out for
themselves. It is said of one that he entered a house and
stole a mess of boiling porridge ; just then the owner
appeared in the doorway, and, slipping his prize under his
clothes, the thief gave a yell of pain — not altogether feigned
— and shouted : Nkafwile ansengwe afwila balombwanama
(" Let me get outside to die where nty fellow-men died ").
The owner, thinking he was dying, let him pass, and of
course saw him no more. So when a man makes an out-
rageous excuse, you say : " Yes, let me die outside."

As we have seen, some of these sayings are allusions
to what is narrated elsewhere in the folk-tales. Here is
another example. It is said that a blind man was going
with a friend along a road carrying firewood ; somehow
he got past the other, and when his friend overtook him
he was astonished to find some meat lying beside the blind
man. " Oh, you've found meat ! " he said. " Yes," was
the ready answer, " I am waiting for you to put it on my
shoulder." The friend was amazed ; how could a blind
man find meat ? As a matter of fact, the first intima-
tion the blind man had of the meat's presence was the
exclamation of his friend. But he said no more and

324 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

went off with ^ the meat, leaving his friend still won-
dering. And the advice a Mwila will give you is : " If a
companion suddenly says, ' Here's an axe ! here's a hoe ! '
don't say, ' Whose is it ? ' but say, ' Yes, my friend, please
hand me my axe.' " Or, as they put it : Waangila adiinsha
mbwakachita mofu (" You seize the fleeting chance, just as
the blind man did ").

The Ba-ila are adept in expressing things in a round-
about way. Sometimes in listening to their conversations,
to our amazement we could not catch the drift of a sentence.
The words were Ila, sure enough, but conveyed absolutely
no sense to us. It was something probably they did not
want us to understand.

Even as we are writing this, we hear a man some dis-
tance off shouting : Menso menso kumbo o kwiwe ! (" Eyes,
eyes, west and east "). He means to say that travellers are
approaching.

2. Riddles

The time and place for asking riddles is the evening around
the fires. The invariable formula is this : one says Kako !
(" This ! ") i.e. Here is one for you ; and the reply is : Kakeza
i (" Let it come ! "). • The name for riddle is kalabi (plural,

tulabi), and to answer a riddle satisfactorilyTi'7ewZa6w&w/wZa.
When one propounds a riddle the others make their guesses ;
if incorrect, he simply repeats it. If they despair of getting
the answer, they say: twazhimina ("we are lost"). He
then tells them and propounds another. There are probably
many hundreds of these riddles in circulation and new ones
are constantly being made. Some people, even young lads,
know a great many; Riddles are more than mere amuse-
ment : they serve to quicken the wits. We give a few ex-
amples that we have heard around the camp-fires at night.
The student of the language will not fail to notice
that in the riddles, as in the proverbs, there are many words
and phrases that baffle him. Here also we find unusual or
archaic words, but there are also words that have no mean-
ing and never, seemingly, had a meaning ; they are used
simply to mystify. There are also plays on words intro-
duced for the same purpose.

ch. xxvii PROVERBS, RIDDLES, CONUNDRUMS 325

1. Musune wa Kachikumbwa ngu shilwiyalomwi.
Kachikumbwa's ox is a one-horned beast.
Answer : Lukoma — " A calabash dipper."

The point is the dipper's long stalk used as a handle.

2. Kazuminina kalonga kwashala isale.

When the brook dried up the grass (on the bank) was left.
Answer: Ndinso — " It is the eye."
The idea is that when the eye goes blind the eyebrows and
eyelashes remain as before.

3. Kafua ka Ntite kwina owatakasola.

There is nobody who has not tasted the little bone of Ntite.
Answer : Ndukolo — " the breast."
There is a play on the words ka Ntite (" of a little bird ") and
Katiti ("the dugs").

4. Mb'uzhokela.
As you return !

Answer : Chilungamo — " Threshold."
The idea is that whenever you return home you find the threshold.

5. Uso ndamupa matimba takamana.

I give your father a small cupful of (a certain kind of) porridge

and it does not end.
Answer : Tulo — " Sleep."

6. Umwenu mukadi kombe kafula bulele.

At your home there is a calf that grazes lying down.
Answer : Mwini — " A 'hoe-handle. "

7. Umwenu mukadi okasubila ifu antumba.

In your house there is a little thing whose stomach is red

outside.
Answer : Insua — "A calabash churn."

8. Mupepe wa Shikwidikwikwi tobonwa mainza.

The feather of Shikwidikwikwi (a bird) is not seen in the

rainy season.
Answer : Kambizhi—" A whirlwind."
The point is that the name Shikwidikwikwi is, applied to the
whirlwind, and whirlwinds are not seen during the rains.

9. Kuunga balanda mwini taunga.

The things possessed may blow away, th owner does not.
Answer : Ndulu — ■" An ant-heap."
The allusion is to the flying ants.

10. Ukwa Leza ndachileta chitasakululwa.

I brought a thing from God that cannot be taken off like

clothes.
Answer : Matwi—" Ears."

326 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

ii. Munzhila ndayana chitaamba.

In the road I found something that does not speak.
Answer: Banyama — "Animals."

12. Bimbile uvhunikile a mat akwe.
A hawk that covers up its eggs !
Answer : Nduludi — " It's a roof."

13. Muzovu umina ch'amba mwifu.

An elephant that swallows something which speaks in its

stomach.
Answer : Inganda — " A house."

14. Balumbu ninkuti kutena.
Foreigners that are covered all over.
Answer : Inyemo — " Ground-nuts."

15. Ukwa Leza ndakachileta chanda chitapapuka.

From God I brought a forked stick which does not split.
Answer : Chifunzhi — " Shoulder."

16. Owakafwa ngu mpampa, umudyezhina ngu mpampa.
He who dies is Mpampa and the heir is also Mpampa.
Answer : Ngongwa: — " A grub."

17. Owakafwa ngu choye, umudyezhina ngu choye.
He who died is Choye and the heir is also Choye.
Answer : Mbwiya — " It is a thorn."

18. Ku mulonga twakwatana 0 Nkamba.

At the river I had a wrestle with Nkamba.
Answer : Mbutezhi — " A slippery place."
Kukamba means to clutch : the man who made the riddle was
at the river one day and slipped in the mud ; falling, he
clutched the ground. Putting it into the form of an enigma
to puzzle his hearers, he makes the word kamba (" clutch ")
into a proper name Nkamba, and says he had a wrestle
with him.

19. Baambana bami.

The chiefs are having a dispute.
Answer : Matende — " The feet."

20. Kakalo katazuminini.

A little spring that never dries up.

Answer : Ndinango dia umbwa — " It's a dog's nose."

21. Mukamwami owakeza kupukwa ndi aba ikadi.

The wife of a chief who came to have her hair dressed and

became a resident.
Answer : Nditovu — " It's a leaf."

P5
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328 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES w. v

22. Ndatenta isokwe mubalo washala.

I burnt the veld and the crooked stick remained.
Answer : Ninzhila — " It's a road."

23. Munganda ya muchembele mulatonkwa ishishi diomwi.

Into the house of the- old man you can only push one firestick.
Answer : Ndinango — " It's the nostril."
i.e. You can only push one finger at a time into the nostril.

24. Twamupa, twamunanga.

We give it to him and then take it away.
Answer : Inkidi — " A stamping-block," i.e. we put grain in
and take it out as meal.

25. Twakeenda oba ch' ambuka-ambuka.

We travelled with those who were constantly going off the

road.
Answer : Mubwa — " A dog."

26. Obadi awa kutaanzha.
Those here do not salute.
Answer : Ninkuku — " It is fowls."

27. Kachea okachina tata.

It is a small thing that choked my father.
Answer : Tulo — " Sleep." Cf. No. 5.
The word for "sleep " is a diminutive.

28. Kaka kalonga menzhi katola kwi ?

This little river, where does the water go to ?
Answer : Chibia chidi a mudilo — " A pot on the fire."
The point is the evaporation of the water in the pot.

29. Muzovu tanwi u mukalo.

The elephant does not drink from a spring.
Answer : Mbwato — " It's a canoe."

30. Twayaya munyama twadya bula, isalo twasowa.

We killed an animal, ate the inside and threw away the

skin.
Answer : Fulwe — " A tortoise."

31. N day ay a intite, ibanda diezula buloa.

I killed a little bird and the plain filled with blood.
Answer : Mudilo — " Fire."

32. Bula bwa shiluwe tabukala inzhi.

The intestine of a leopard is not to be sat upon by a fly.
Answer : Mudilo — " Fire."

33. Ndo wanshia, ndo wanshia.

My dear, you leave me ! My dear, you leave me !
Answer : Matende — " Feet."

ch. xxvii PROVERBS, RIDDLES, CONUNDRUMS 329

34. Bachungwe bakala isamo diomwi.
The fish-eagles that sit on one tree.
Answer : Matwi — " The ears."

35. Umwesu munganda miikadi kaumbo katavhuniikulwa.

At our home there is a little receptacle that is not to be

uncovered.
Answer : Chilendi — " A grave."

36. Kachea kadiiidi kezwile bulengwa Leza.

The hole is small that is full of God's creation.
Answer : Maila — -" Grain."

37. Machela ataandana.
Bellows-spouts which do not separate.

Answer : Izuba 0 mwezhi — " The sun and moon."

38. Mbwakalnkankila.
How he ran away !

Answer : Kabwenga — " A hyena."

39. Ni kuluma tokusha.

Although it bites you, you can't get rid of it.
Answer : Mutwi — ■" The head."

40. Ku kuya ndachiyana, ku kuzhoka shichiyene.
Going I found it, returning I found it not.
Answer : Mitme — " The dew."

41. Kulampa nku baanzhika insazhi Bambala.

It is high that the Bambala hang up their pots of fat.
Answer : Mangvhuma — " Fruit of the palm."

42. Kabwe ka lubanza tohakonzha kukapapula.

A little stone in the courtyard which you cannot pull up

with two hands.
Answer : Mukofu — " A scar."

43. Bana ba Mala balamba chilambo chomwi.

People of Mala who all whiten themselves in one way.
Answer : Bachihw angola — " White-breasted crows."

44. Chakolela mushinze chiloba.

The old thing endured the dark seven days.
Answer : Inkidi — " A stamping-block."

45. Ndadima munda kutebula mwitashi.

I cultivated a field and the harvest was in my hand.
Answer : Masusu — " The hair."

46. Ulaamba zwanga chikutu udi umwini.

The old dry thing talked tumultuously all by itself.
Answer : Ndisamo — " It's a tree."

330 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

47. Ndawala mwitala.

Something I threw over to the other side of the river.
Answer : Menso — " Eyes."

The following are examples of another kind of riddle,
in which the answer is given not in a word but in a phrase.

48. Mbu bakaila.

Answer : Obafwa tabazhoka.

Since they went away ! The dead do not return !

49. Kwa lampa !

Answer : Okwa Leza nkule !

It is far ! And it's a long way to God !

Finally we may notice a series of riddles that are more
than riddles. The enigma propounded is the same all the
way through ; the answer takes different forms. They are
a kind of catechism challenging the self-complacency of
men who think they know everything. They seem like
a weak echo of some passages in the Book of Job —
" Knowest thou . . . ? Canst thou . . . ? " 1

Nudi mwelwe — " You who are so clever ! "

Mu chivhuna cha mbwila tozuba mo !
" You can't hide away under a bean plant ! "

Nudi mwelwe — " You who are so clever ! "

Ingombe ya kwenu divhwelene mukupa toiboni !
" When the milk of your cows is put together you can't tell
which is which ! "

Nudi mwelwe ! — " You who are so clever ! "
Ing'ombe sha kwenu disangana ingombe ya beni toizhiba !
\\ " When your cow is mixed up with a stranger's herd you

^ If

can't distinguish it ! ,:

Nudi mwelwe ! — " You who are so clever ! '

Ansonga sha masumo tokala 0.
" You can't sit on the point of a spear."

Nudi mwelwe ! — " You who are so clever ! '

Mwenzhi toanga mwavhu !
" You can't tie water in a lump ! ,;

Nudi mwelwe ! — " You who are so clever ! "

Menzhi ulaanga 0 musantu ?
" And can you tie water up in a bundle ? "

1 We do not mean, of course, that they are copied from the Book of
Job. They are indigenous sayings.

ch. xxvn PROVERBS, RIDDLES, CONUNDRUMS 331

Nudi mwelwe ! — " You who are so clever !

No mai a nkuku ulabona mudiango ?
" Can you make out the doorway of a fowl's egg ? "

Nudi mwelwe ! — " You who are so clever !

No muntu umishi ulamubona ati wedia udimishi ?
" In the early days can you tell that a woman is pregnant ? "

Nudi mwelwe ! — " You who are so clever !

Mishu ya nkuku wakebona P
" Did you ever see a fowl's urine ? "

Noba mwelwe !- — " You who have grown so clever ! '
Sa mukaintu ulamwizhiba ati udimishi mulombwana na

mukaintu P
" Can you tell whether the woman is pregnant of a male or

female ? "

Noba mwelwe I — " You' who have grown so clever !

Mai ulezhiba ati ledi iyi mukombwe na inseke ?
" And as for eggs, do you know whether this egg is a cock or
a hen ? "

Noba mwelwe ! — " You who have grown so clever ! ,:

Sa inzhila ulakeenzha nj'iela P
" Can you follow up a road to where it ends ? "

Noba mwelwe ! — " You who have grown so clever !

Sa lufu Iwako ulaluzhiba ati uzona ndafwa P
" As for your own death, do you know whether you will die
to-morrow ? "

Noba mwelwe ! — " You who have grown so clever ! '

Sa chingvhule ulachikwata ?
" Can you catch hold of a shadow ? "

Noba mwelwe ! — " You who have grown so clever ! '

Sa chilonda chidi kunuma ulachitulula buti ?
" If you have an abscess on your back, can you lance it
yourself ? "

Noba mwelwe ! — " You who have grown so clever !

Mubiabe sa ulamubwezha mwifu ati abote P
" Can you put an ugly person back into the womb to be
reborn handsome ? "

3. Conundrums

Besides their ordinary folk-tales, which are dealt with
in the next chapter, the Ba-ila have stories which take
the form of conundrums or problems. We have only got

332 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

three examples of these. Their likeness to familiar problems
in our own tongue is evident, especially the third one,
but they seem to be genuinely native productions and not
borrowed from Europeans.1

i . A certain man had five children, four sons and a daughter.
He died, leaving his widow and the five children. Some time after-
wards the daughter was missing, and nobody could make out what
had become of her.

The mother called her sons together and set them to finding
their sister. They were remarkably gifted men.

The eldest, by reason of his wisdom, was able to see things at a
very great distance. On casting his eyes around he discovered his
sister fifty miles away in the clutches of a lion.

Consternation ! What was to be done ? The brothers went off.

One of them, who had the gift of stealing in unseen, made himself
invisible and was able to rescue his sister from the lion's claws.

The lion on missing its prey went rampaging about, but the third
brother killed it.

Then they took up the girl and carried her home. But she was
dead. On reaching home they began to make preparations for the
funeral, but the fourth son said, " Wait ! " He went off into the
forest, got some medicines, and restored her to life.

The mother was overjoyed, and taking a large piece of meat she
gave it to her sons, saying : " Eat, my sons. I give it you in gratitude
for your cleverness and faithfulness."

But the brothers said : " No, give it to only one of us — the one
who did most in giving our sister back to you safe ! "

Here is the problem : To whom was she to give the
meat ? To him who discovered the girl first at a great
distance ; to him who rescued her from the lion ; to him
who killed the lion ; or to him who restored her to life ?
Each seems dependent upon the others. Who got the
meat ?

Natives argue long and excitedly about this, but nobody
has ever yet determined the question. It is said that once
they took the problem to Lewanika and it was argued in
the khotla at Lealui, but even he was baffled.

2. A man and his wife went to visit their friends. On their
return homewards they were accompanied by their respective mothers.
On the road, the four were set upon by all manner of horrible
creatures — lions, snakes, leopards, etc. etc. They managed to elude
them and got to a river.

1 Since writing these down we have read two similar ones in Congo
Life and Folklore, by Rev. J. H. Weeks, pp. 43, 122.

ch. xxvii PROVERBS, RIDDLES, CONUNDRUMS 333

There they found a canoe, but to their horror it would only hold
three people. Their enemies were pressing hard upon their trail.
The river was full of crocodiles ; they couldn't hope to swim. Only
three could escape. One must die ! Who was it to be ?

The man sacrificed his mother-in-law, you say. No ! His wife
would not allow him. She would not desert her mother, nor he his :
the elders would not forsake their children.

How did they get out of their difficulty ?

The native answer is that they all sat down on the
river-bank and died together.

3. A man travelling with a leopard, a rat, a goat, and a basket
of corn arrived at a river, and found that the only means of crossing
was a very small canoe that would hold only himself and one other
thing. He put the leopard into the canoe and started off : but as
soon as his back was turned the rat commenced to eat the corn.
' This won't do," said he-, " I shall have no corn left."

He went back and took the rat ; but the leopard, now left behind,
began to eat the goat.

" This won't do," said he, " I shall have no goat left."

He put back again. But when he came to select his load, he was
puzzled. Should he sacrifice the rat or the leopard ? No, they were
his children, he could not part with them.

What, then, did he do ?

The native answer is that he stayed where he was.

CHAPTER XXVIII

folk-tales
Introduction

A savage people is no more than a civilised people to be
understood apart from its literature. The Ba-ila, like all
the Bantu, have no written lore, it is true, but they have
a considerable amount of oral lore ; and these fables and
proverbs, myths and legends, handed down from generation
to generation, ail throw a most vivid light upon the moral
and mental constitution of the people.

In this chapter we give, out of a larger collection, sixty-
one examples of Ila tales, which were almost all written down
by one of us from dictation, the only exceptions being those
few, not more than six in all, which were written for us by
intelligent natives.1 Moreover, allowing for the translation,
we have given them precisely as they were dictated or
written, and the translation is as literal as possible con-
sonant with smoothness and intelligibility. They might
have been improved by altering the sequence of some
sentences and pruning away some of the redundancies,
but we did not wish so to retouch them as to obliterate
the characteristics of the original.

We have to reconcile ourselves to the fact that for us,
at least, it is impossible to do justice to these tales, and we
doubt if the most skilful hand could reproduce in a trans-
lation the quaintness, the liveliness, and humour of the
original. For one thing, fully to appreciate them one

1 The originals of some of the tales will be found in the writer's Ila
Handbook and Ila Reader No. 2 ("The Adventures of Sulwe and his
Friends ").

334

Photo E. IF. Smith.

A MWILA : A GREAT TELLER OF TALES.

336 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt.v

must be familiar, as only those who have always lived in the
country can be familiar, with the characteristics of the
animals spoken of ; and then they gradually lose flavour
as they pass from the African's telling, first into writing
and then into a foreign idiom. It would need a combination
of phonograph and kinematograph to reproduce a tale as
it is told. One listens to a clever story-teller, as was our
old friend Mungalo, from whom we derived many of these
tales. Speak of eloquence ! Here was no lip mumbling,
but every muscle of face and body spoke, a swift gesture
often supplying the place of a whole sentence. He would
have made a fortune as a raconteur upon the English stage.
The animals spoke each in its own tone : the deep rumbling
voice of Momba, the ground hornbill, for example, con-
trasting vividly with the piping accents of Sulwe, the hare.
It was all good to listen to — impossible to put on paper.
Ask him now to repeat the story slowly so that you may
write it. You will, with patience, get the gist of it, but
the unnaturalness of the circumstance disconcerts him,
your repeated request for the repetition of a phrase, the
absence of the encouragement of his friends, and, above
all, the hampering slowness of your pen, all combine to
kill the spirit of story-telling. Hence we have to be content
with far less than the tales as they are told, And the
tales need effort of imagination to place readers in the
stead of the original listeners.

It is at evening around the fires that the tales are told,
especially on dark nights, when the people cannot dance
so comfortably. Many of the tales are known far and wide,
others in lesser areas. But, however often the people hear
them, they never seem weary of the repetition. They never
say, " Oh, that's an old tale," or make sarcastic references
to chestnuts, but enter into the spirit of the thing all the
more for knowing all that is to come. They heard the
tales first as children from their mothers or grandmothers,
but nevertheless they will, with no trace of boredom,
come in with their ejaculations just at the right points,
take, it may be, a sentence out of the narrator's mouth,
or even keep up a running echo of his words.

We have divided the tales into four parts. The first

ch. xxviii FOLK-TALES 337

contains etiological or explanatory myths. It is usual to
regard savages as uneducated people, and, as far as books
are concerned, they certainly are, but in the book of
Nature they are well read. From an early age they learn
to recognise the animals, to distinguish their footprints
and cries, to know their names, their habitats and customs.
And not only are they keen observers, they reflect on the
facts, and, comparing the facts one with another, they want
to know the reasons of things. They ask not so much, How ?
as Why ? Why are things as they are ? Some of the
questions are serious enough ; certain of them exercise the
minds of cultured men among ourselves. Why are monkeys
so like and yet so different from men ? How is it that men
came to kill each other ? What is the origin of the domestic
fire ? Other questions are more puerile. Why has the
zebra alone of the banyama no horns ? Why does the
honey-guide lead people to honey ? Why are the leopard
and cheetah so much alike in appearance and so diverse
in character ? The answers to such questions are embodied
in tales. If the explanations are naive, they bear witness
to considerable powers of observation and reflection, of
imagination and humour.

Data for answering these questions are almost entirely
or quite absent. We could not ourselves give any rational
answer to some of them. Why has the zebra no horns ?
Who can say ? It is better to use the fact and construct
an amusing, and, in this instance, an instructive tale upon
it than simply not to ask the question and cease to take an
interest in the matter.

As for these explanations, it will be seen that none of
them is assigned to any natural cause, but all to personal
volition. And not always, indeed but rarely, to that of
higher powers. It seems that in the ancient time, when
things were still fluid, before animals and men had assumed
their final forms, it was possible for one creature to affect
another, favourably or adversely, by merely pronouncing
its destiny. Thus Mintengwe, the blackbird, dooms '-the
rest of the feathered tribe to persecution and death ; and
tortoise confers on hare the dignity of pre-eminent wisdom.
Here, of course, we have the world-wide belief in the efficacy

vol. 11 z

338 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES ex. v

of the spoken word, whether for curse or blessing. It is
significant that much of the destiny of the animals con-
cerned is the outcome of lying and cheating. Many of
them get what they want by downright chicane. Thus,
in the beginning, the hippopotamus wore horns and the
rhinoceros tusks, and the reverse state of things, as we see
it to-day, has come through the former's thievery. Some-
times, as in the case of the elephant and the wart-hog,
an exchange of ornaments meant to be temporary is, by
the treachery of one of the parties, made permanent. Some-
times a promise is made and not fulfilled ; and so the
tailless squirrel came into possession of the fine bushy tail
of the coney, who ever since has been so ashamed of him-
self that he lives in the obscurity of the rocks. Occasionally
a plan is made to intoxicate invited guests for the purpose
of robbing them of some coveted property ; it was in this
way that the duiker got his handsome dress away from
the oribi. And, once again, it is a common thing to get
another person into trouble by leading people to believe
that he and not yourself was the thief ; it was so that
leopard and cheetah received their various destinies. In
one case, it is not knavery but something like gratitude
that settles the fate ; the lion is granted the kingship over
the animal world because he helped the troubled tortoise
by showing it how to dig a burrow.

But, whether it springs from good or evil, it is always a
person that affects the destiny. This, one may say, is
typical of the higher native thought, that explains things
not by mere self-acting dynamism but by the activity of
the will.

This assumes, of course, that the makers of these tales
regarded these animals as persons capable of volition.
We are not prepared to say that sophisticated listeners to
these tales to-day all believe that animals act and speak
like men, however eagerly they may receive the tales ;
but most of the natives would, we believe, accept them
as veridical. Perhaps some of them, if pressed hard, would
turn round and say, as the little girl of our acquaintance
once did, after a dramatical performance with her dolls
and teddy bears: "we're only 'tending." But, however

ch. xxvni FOLK-TALES 339

it may be with present-day retailers of the stories, we are
confident that the tales arose in the stage of culture when
the vital differences between men and animals were not
yet recognised. In this respect it is significant that, gram-
matically, the animals with few exceptions are classed as
persons. The great scholar, Dr. Bleek, in the days when
Bantu folklore was just beginning to be studied, imagined
that all animal tales were derived from the Hottentots and
Bushmen, because, their languages being " sex-denoting,"
it was easy and natural for them to personify animals,
while the Bantu, owing to the nature of their languages,
could not. We know now that, without being " sex-
denoting," these languages have a remarkable facility for
personification. In Ila, as in all Bantu tongues, the first
class of nouns contains personal substantives. Thus chi-ntu
("a thing"), of the seventh class, becomes mu-ntu ("a
person ") by giving the root the personal prefix, mu-. In
Suto the ordinary word for lion is tau ; in the tales it is
motau (" Mr. Lion "). In Ila the names of animals mostly
need no change of this kind, because they belong to the
personal class. In form, such names as kabwenga (" hyena ")
and chibizi (" zebra ") may appear to be neuter nouns of
classes 6 and 7 respectively, but really they are of the first
class, taking the plural prefix ba- and all the pronouns
proper to those nouns ; that is to say, the animal is never
referred to as ' it ' but always as "he." In the tales,
if you did not know that Sulwe meant " hare," you would
never dream it was not a person being spoken of. It was
not unnatural for the makers of these tales to ascribe
human characteristics to the lower animals, for they did
not recognise any psychical difference between them and us.
We have thrown into a separate division the tales which
narrate the adventures of Sulwe, the hare. He deserves a
section to himself. He is the most popular of all the
dramatis personae. In the minds of the Ba-ila he embodies
all subtlety. He is skilful in practical jokes; he is cruel,
he is cunning, he is false ; a Macchiavel, a Tartuffe, a
downright rogue. He should be a despicable character,
but the Ba-ila shake and roll about with laughter as they
listen, for the hundredth time, to his adventures. Nor

340 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

can we resist joining in the laughter ; he is such a droll
creature that we forget his treacherous conduct.

Sulwe is only a small creature, but, with one exception,
all the animals are as clay in his hands. He offers to nurse
Mrs. Lion's children and eats them one bv one, meanwhile
heartlessly deceiving the mother into thinking them still
alive. He wants to drink beer at a feast, and on being
told that no animal without horns may do so, he deliber-
ately shapes himself horns of beeswax and mingles with
the company, only to flee when the horns melt in the heat of
the fire, though not before he has had his fill of beer. He
entraps his fellows into all kinds of unpleasant situations.
And so he dances his merry way through life. Only one
animal gets the better of him and that is Fulwe, the Tortoise.
In the expressive words of Uncle Remus about Brer
Tarrypin : " Honey, he tuck n made a fool out'n 'im."
In the famous race between the two animals Fulwe wins,
not by patient running, but by cunningly hiding her family
in numbers along the course, so that whenever Sulwe halts
to jeer at his rival he hears a Tortoise ahead of him crying
to him to Come on ! until after days of running he gives
in exhausted, and the Tortoise, as fresh as ever, brings him
water from the river that was their goal. And in the last
act of this wonderful drama, it is Fulwe who finally beats
Sulwe. There is a drought, and the animals meet to dig
a well — all but Sulwe, who refuses to dig. He comes at
night and cunningly manages to tie up the sentries one
after another ; then Fulwe offers to keep watch, has him-
self covered with birdlime, and when Sulwe brushes past
him in contempt he sticks fast, and the more he fights the
faster he sticks, and is ignominiously slain by his enraged
victims.

These two creatures, Sulwe and Fulwe, who, in the minds
of the Ba-ila, are rivals in cunning and far surpass the
other animals, are in many respects the very antithesis the
one of the other : the Tortoise is the slowest as the Hare
is the swiftest. It is not difficult to understand why the
Hare should be regarded as he is. He is extremely wary ;
as poachers and others in England know, it is most difficult
to entrap him. He has the power, more than most animals,

CH. XXVIII

FOLK-TALES

34i

of lying low and saying nothing. You may step over him
in the veld and never know he is there. We were once
pitching our tent in the bush — standing with a number of
men together, when from out, it seemed, beneath our
feet there darted a hare. The incident caused immense
excitement among our men, and that night, and for many
nights afterwards, it was cited as an example of Sulwe's
amazing wisdom. He had come, they declared, especially
to study the white man and his ways, and having seen all,
had gone off to tell the other animals. And, of course,
this swiftness of foot which enables him so quickly to
escape from his enemies, is another element in his reputa-
tion for cleverness. The wisdom of Fulwe, the Tortoise,
is, on the other hand, founded on its power of shutting
itself up tightly in its shell and the difficulty of killing it.
So we have two types of cunning — the active and the
passive ; the one which gains by nimbleness, the other by
quiescence ; the one goes abroad to seek its victims, the
other circumvents those who come to it. And in the
estimation of the Ba-ila, the slow-moving, passive, unde-
monstrative kind of cunning is the one that wins in the
long run.

In sketching these animals, not Sulwe and Fulwe only,
but all the animals in these tales, the Ba-ila are sketching
themselves. The virtues they esteem, the vices they con-
demn, the follies they ridicule — all are here in the animals.
It is a picture of Ba-ila drawn by Ba-ila, albeit unconsciously, I ',
and valuable accordingly. In the hero, Sulwe, we may
find some at least of the characteristics that the African
most admires. The tales show us that he esteems mind
above physical strength, brain above brawn. The Elephant
and the Lion are types of the latter, the Hare of the former,
and Sulwe always wins ; if at last he is beaten it is only
by superior cunning. In real life among the Bantu, it
is not so much a Hector as an Odysseus that pre-
vails ; even in those cases where, as with Moshesh and
Chaka and Sebitwane, the chief is also a great warrior,
he does more by subtlety than by the assegai. The
greatest figure in Basuto history is not Moshesh but Mohlomi,
the mystic and seer. The most powerful persons, because

342 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt.v

most feared, among the Ba-ila are the munganga and
musonzhi, the doctor and diviner, who with much know-
ledge have also abundance of wit and cunning. Yes, the
Ba-ila appreciate mind, but the type that appeals most
to them is the Sulwe type or the Fulwe type : to get the
better of one's neighbours without being found out — that
is wisdom. We wonder in reading these tales that the
great beasts should so readily be deceived ; could they not
see through Sulwe's specious lying and clumsy stratagems ?
Our wonder ceases when here, too, we recognise a picture
of the people. Along certain lines the Ba-ila are the most
credulous of men ; the greatest liar finds the readiest cred-
ence. We have only to think of the various " prophets "
that arise with marvellous claims, and the way in which
they jockey the people into parting with their goods, to
realise that Sulwe is no overdrawn picture.

We have no intention of making an excursion into the
fields of comparative folklore, but it is worth while, per-
haps, just to point out in a paragraph that similar tales
to these we give are told throughout Africa. Indeed it
might be claimed that Africa is the home of animal tales.
Was not the greatest fabulist of all an African ? — the
famous Lokman to whom Mohammed inscribed the 31st
Sura of the Koran, and whom the Greeks, not knowing his
real name, called Aesop, i.e. Ethiops ? Be that as it may,
we can claim the stories of Uncle Remus as African in
origin; they were taken by the slaves across to America.
Brer Rabbit, Brer Tarrypin, and many others in that col-
lection, are the same as our Sulwe and Fulwe and the rest.
Not only are similar tales told by the Ba-ila to-day, but
actually, allowing for certain changes of detail due to the
different environment, the same tales. An excellent example
is given on p. 377 : the tug-of-war between Hippo and
Rhino is that in " Brer Tarrypin shows his Strength " in
Uncle Remus. We have inserted, notes at the foot of the
tales, drawing attention to resemblances we have noticed
between the Ba-ila tales and those from other peoples.

The persistence of the same incidents in tales coming
from such widely separate African tribes is not to be
accounted for by any hypothesis of borrowing, but seems

CH. XXVIII

FOLK-TALES 343

to point to the fact that before the Bantu migrated from
their original home in the north, they already possessed
these tales. If that is so, we are dealing with things not of
yesterday, but of two or three thousand years ago. That
would not, of course, apply to all the tales, many of them
may be quite modern. The day will come perhaps, when,
by comparing such collections of tales from different parts
of the field, we shall be able to get some idea which are
ancient.

The remaining sections of our collection contain respec-
tively tales of people and animals, and tales of people —
mostly fools. These will speak for themselves and do
not require much by way of introduction.

Many of them have a special name given to them, i.e.
Kashimi. All the other tales were made, and are told, for
amusement, with no didactic purpose, but these have a
definite aim. They end with the words : Inzho bamushima,
which means, " And so they make a byword of him, put
him on record as an example not to be followed." A nag-
ging woman, an ungrateful, cruel son, a querulous wife, a
man who hurts himself, a naughty child, silly women who
entrust their children to old hags, fools who do not under-
stand— all are put on record as solemn or humorous warn-
ings to the younger generation.

In these latter tales there is apparent a certain strait-
ness of fancy. By taking animals and not men as the usual
figures of the tales they are following instinctively a safer
path. Animals are a more fluid medium than men. In
dealing with men the fabulist encounters obstructions to
his imagination. In speaking of them men must not cease
to be men, otherwise hearers can always say they have
never known such beings. But in telling about animals
he has the advantage that they are comparatively un-
known ; their forms and habits may be familiar enough,
but not their inward life, and a large part of their outward
life is also unknown. He has therefore a wide field, he can
keep up the names of the animals and certain well-known
habits, and all the rest he can fill in out of his own mind ;
they act as he might act if he were not so hampered by the
limitation of human power. To his mind those limitations

344 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES. pt. v

are not drawn so straitly as they are with ourselves. Without
going beyond what he believes to be actual human
experience, he can conceive the animals doing things
which we should deem out of all reason, and from these
he can glide into highly imaginative situations without
too rude a shock to the credulity of his hearers. He lifts
the curtain surrounding them and portrays his heroes
doing things themselves would like to do but cannot. And
the minds of the listeners are turned from the cramping
actualities of life into the wider, freer, ideal world, and so
find relief and refreshment.

To us there is a lack of coherence in many of the details,
and explicit contradictions pull us up and spoil our pleasure,
as when Fulwe, after being cooked and eaten, gives Sulwe
his doom. But such things do not annoy the Ba-ila or
detract from their enjoyment. For one thing Fulwe,
though dead, lives in his race ; it is a mere accident that
one individual dies ; it is the ideal Fulwe, not the Fulwe
who merely breathes, but the Fulwe in the narrator's mind,
and he is immortal.

If we cannot always appreciate the humour of these
tales, we have to remember that ideas of humour vary
according to race. Certainly to the Ba-ila they are full
of humour ; they roll about and laugh themselves almost
into hysterics when they hear the tales. What are the
things that appeal thus to them ?

First of all, they find exquisite delight in the buffoonery.
The rough, practical jokes of Sulwe, with his absurd dressing
up, his slashing and chopping, his breaking of teeth, and
all the rest of it, are distinctly humorous to them. And
it must be said, too, that to them facility in deception is
humorous. Sulwe owes his popularity very largely to his
unveracity and his diabolical skill in deceiving those bulkier
than himself. And as with ourselves, the element of in-
congruity in many of these situations appeals to their
sense of humour. The incongruity between Hare and
Elephant in point of size, makes them laugh when the
little ties up the big. The mildness of the Hare and the
ferocity of the Lion in actual life make it all the more amus-
ing when Sulwe ties the Lion up and deceives him in other

ch. xxvin FOLK-TALES 345

ways. One of the stories full of humour to them is that of
the Hippo and Rhino. When one asks the other for his
razor and he replies that he took it to shave his wife with,
we have a very incongruous, scene ; the idea of such huge,
unwieldy creatures using a small delicate instrument such
as a razor, and the fact that neither of them has much
hair to speak of, and so needs no shaving — this is what
constitutes the humour. Smart sayings, clever retorts,
and cryptic utterances also appeal to their sense of humour.
When, for example, Hare, carrying unknown to himself his
mother in a bundle, and greeted the first time in a village,
makes no answer, his companions, who know the secret,
give cryptic replies which puzzle Sulwe ; he discovers the
secret, and is ready with his reply when next he is greeted :
" Cunning he has who cunning has," says he. That is all a
very amusing incident to the Ba-ila. And they delight
also in plays on words and the mistakes people make in
misunderstanding words that are similar in pronunciation
but different in meaning. General obtuseness of mind is
also humorous to them. It is these things which give
point to the stories of fools, of which we give a few examples.
It may be said in conclusion, that man's common human-
heartedness is in these tales. Grief and joy are shown to
touch the same chords in their breasts as in ours. How
simply, yet how touchingly, are the fundamental human
emotions described : the love of parents, the grief that
accompanies bereavement, the joy in offspring — these, as
well as the jealousy, the envy, the malice of our human
nature find place here. Separated by deep gulfs as they
are from ourselves in many things, yet across the abysses
we can clasp hands in a common humanity.

Part I
Etiological or Explanatory Tales

1. How the Mason-Wasp fetched Fire from God

Vulture, Fish-eagle, and Crow were without fire, for there
was no fire on earth. So, needing fire, all the birds assembled

346 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

together and asked : ' Whence shall we find fire ? ' Some
of the birds said : " Perhaps from God." Thereupon
Mason-Wasp volunteered, saying: " Who will go with me
to God?" Vulture answered and said: 'We will go
with you, I and Fish-eagle and Crow."

So on the morrow they took leave of all the other birds,
saying : " We are going to see whether we can get fire from
God." Then they flew off. After they had spent ten days
on the road, there fell to earth some small bones — that was
Vulture ; later, there also fell to earth some other small
bones — that was Fish-eagle ; Mason-Wasp and Crow were
left to go on alone. When the second ten days were ended,
there fell other small bones to earth — that was Crow. Mason-
Wasp was left to go on by himself. When the third ten
days were over, he was going along, reposing upon the
clouds. Nevertheless he never reached the summit of
the sky.

As soon as God heard of it, He came to where Mason-
Wasp was, and answering His question Mason-Wasp said :
" No, Chief, I am not going anywhere particular, I have
only come to beg some fire. All my companions have
stopped short ; but, nevertheless, I have persevered in
coming, for I had set my heart upon arriving to where
the Chief is." Thereupon God answered him, saying :
" Mason-Wasp, since you have reached Me, you shall be
chief over all the birds and reptiles on earth. You, now, I
give a blessing. You shall not have to beget children.
When you desire a child, go and look into a grainstalk
and you will find an insect whose name is Ngongwa. When
you have found him, take and carry him into a house.
When you arrive in the house, look out for the fireplace
where men cook, and build there a dwelling for your child
Ngongwa. When you have finished building, put him in
and let him remain there. When many days have elapsed,
just go and have a look at him ; and one day you will
find he has changed and become just as you are yourself."

So it is to-day : Mason- Wasp builds a house, looking for
the fireplace, just as he was commanded by God.

Note. — The Mason-Wasp, the Prometheus of the Ba-ila, with
its indigo-blue wings, yellow abdomen, and black and orange legs,

ch. xxvni FOLK-TALES 347

is a common, object in Central Africa. It builds its cell of mud
not only on the- fireplaces, as the tale narrates, but also (and in
this is a great nuisance) on walls, books, and pictures in one's dwelling.
In the cell it lays its eggs, together with a caterpillar or grub, and
seals them up ; then it builds other cells, until quite a large unsightly
lump of clay is left on the wall. As the young grubs hatch out
they eat the insects which have been benumbed, but not killed, by
the sting of their parent. We have here an interesting example of
how the observation of natives is correct up to a certain point ; but
not taking into consideration, because they have not noticed, all the
facts, the conclusion they draw is wrong. They suppose Ngongwa
to metamorphose into a Mason-Wasp ; and this tale is to explain
why it is so, as well as to account for the domestic fire.

2. The Story of the Blue- J ay who married the Daughter

of God

Long ago Blue-Jay had a wife. After a time he went
to God ; he went to seek the Daughter of God as his wife.
God replied : ' Since you ask for her, you must not take
her to the earth, you must stay just here in the sky.
Because, if you take her to the earth, she may not eat
meat of Zebra or Gnu or Kudu ; of any large animal she
may not eat. If you desire to carry her to earth, let her
eat only of the smaller animals." Blue- Jay answered : "It
is well, Chief."

So Blue-Jay was allowed to bring the Daughter of God
to earth. Upon his arrival on earth he told these things
to his earthly wife, saying : "I was told by God that His
child may not eat of Zebra or Gnu or Kudu ; she may not
eat of any large animal." These things he told his wife
and mother ; when they heard them, his mother said : "It
is well, my child." Nevertheless his wife was terribly
jealous.

One day Blue-Jay went off hunting. He went and
killed a Zebra and a young Duiker. When he returned to
his first wife, he ordered her, saying : ' You must on no
account give my wife the meat of the Zebra. Let her eat
only of the young Duiker." His wife replied : ' It is well."

Another day while Blue- Jay was out walking, the old
wife deceived her fellow, the Daughter of God, giving her
zebra meat and saying : " Eat, it is young Duiker." But
she was simply deceiving her. As soon as the Daughter of

348 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

God ate it, she died. Then Blue-Jay returned ; on his
arrival he asked : " My wife ! What has she died of ? '
The old wife replied : " I don't know."

Nevertheless God had seen her from the sky. Said He :
" It is that one yonder who killed My child."

Thereupon Blue-Jay returned to the sky ; on arrival
he went to tell the news, saying : " My wife is dead, Chief."
God answered, saying : " You forgot the orders I gave you
that My child must not eat of Zebra or Gnu or Kudu ;
nevertheless, there on earth you went and gave her it. She
ate and died." Then Blue- Jay replied : "It may be so,
Chief." God answered : " Return."

When thirty days had passed, God gathered together
a small cloud. Then He opened wide His mouth and
thundered. After a time He descended and swept open the
grave in which His child was buried ; He took her out and
carried her to the sky. Nevertheless, Blue-Jay did not
survive ; He took him away also. When He arrived mid-
way He thrust him down to earth ; but he never arrived :
only some small bones reached the ground. He died just
there midway. To this very day this is what Blue-Jay
does : when he flies he goes up into the air with a loud cry ;
on the point of descending he dies.

Note. — This idea of Chikambwe's fate is still prevalent, so that
any one in charge of a child will, on seeing the bird, distract the
child's attention from it, lest by seeing or hearing it the child should
become like it in dying a sudden death. Its feathers are made into
a charm against a similar fate.

The tale illustrates, as we have seen, the Ba-ila conception of
God (see p. 207). Blue- Jay, it is evident, is held responsible for
the wrong-doing of his household.

3. How God first gave Men Grain and Fruits

Long ago when God caused men to descend to earth, He
gave them grain, and said : " Take good care of the grain."
On their arrival, they cultivated the grain and got a fine
harvest. When they had gathered it, they put it into their
temporary bins. Having put it into their temporary bins,
they ate ; they ate bread, but (extravagant people) they ate

CH. XXVIII

FOLK-TALES 349

during the day. Having eaten all day, they said : ' This
great quantity- of meal will never get finished, whereas we
are altogether satisfied." So as they were filled, they said :
" Let us burn the grain." And they rose up with fire-
brands and burnt the grain. After they had burnt all the
grain, famine came upon them. However, he alone who
had come as their leader, did not burn his. Thereupon all
the people flocked out of the village and went to gather
fruit. And God gave them fruits, saying : " Here are
fruits, you foolish people ; I gave you great quantities of
grain, and when you had eaten of it you burnt the rest.
Now, as you have burnt it, you will have to eat only mantembe
and mankolongwa and busala." And so, truly, since He said
that, to this day the people have found it so. To this day,
people act in this manner. They destroy the grain, they
waste it ; some brew beer, others follow their own inclina-
tions. When the grain is finished, they have to go after
mankolongwa and mantembe and busala. To this day they
eat those roots.

4. Why Men became Baboons

Long ago Baboons were men ; their clan was the
Bankontwe. In the years of long ago they were just as
men are. They got their living on earth by stealing. After
a time they said : " As we have become lazy, let us go into
the veld." They went off to live in the veld. When they
reached the veld they ate wild fruits. After a time they
said : " We cannot live well on these fruits, and as for
returning to the village we cannot return, so let us just
steal from the fields." To this day, as soon as they see a
man's field they send their servant to spy out the land.
When he arrives, he looks round and climbs a tree ; if
he finds that the owner is not there, he goes back to tell
them and takes them some maize. On his arrival he says :
" Here is some maize ; there are no people." Then they
come. When they reach the field, they break off all the
maize and steal. When they have finished stealing they
go away. To look at their hands and feet they are human,
all but the hair and overhanging forehead.

350 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

Note. — Similar tales from other parts of the world are mentioned
by Tylor (Primitive Culture, vol. i. p. 376).

There is still a Bakontwe clan, the members of which are some-
times called baboons and thieves. On the other hand, baboons are
often called bankontwe.

5. The Explanation of the Origin of Murder

A woman had a child. One day she went to work in the
fields. When she was going to her work the child cried.
When it stopped crying she suckled it, and when she had
finished suckling it she laid it down in the shade. Then she
went on hoeing. Once again the child cried, and a bird came
— an Eagle — and sat upon it. It soothed the child with its
wings. Then the child which was crying became silent.
When she saw this the woman was greatly alarmed ; said
she : ' ' Dear me ! I am amazed ; the Eagle is eating my
child." When she went towards it the Eagle flew away, and
she suckled her child. When she had done suckling it she
put it upon her back. When she had finished hoeing, she
left off work and returned to the village.

On her arrival there, she did not tell her husband the
marvel she had seen but kept it to herself. Next morning,
once again the woman went to work in the field with her
child. The same thing happened ; once again she laid the
child to sleep in the shade. After a time the child cried.
Then she beheld the Eagle come on to the child and quieten
it. The woman was again amazed, and said : " What is
that Eagle doing ? It is sitting upon my child, but it neither
bites nor scratches it — no, and then the child is quiet. Truly
an astounding thing ! ' Once again the woman went to her
child. When the Eagle saw her coming, it flew off and went
to sit on a tree. The woman took her child and was greatly
alarmed.

She returned to the village, and on her arrival told
her husband about it, saying : "A great marvel ! ' Her
husband answered, saying : " What about ? " The woman
said : " To-day is the second day I have seen the thing
there where I hoe. This did I : I put my child to sleep in
the shade, and as soon as it cried an Eagle came, and on its
arrival stooped over its body and soothed it with its wings.

ch. xxviii FOLK-TALES 351

To-day is the second day that I have seen that bird act
thus. Its name is Eagle." Thereupon the husband refused
to believe, saying : ' No, you are lying ; there never was
such a thing." The wife said no more.

In the afternoon she took her hoe and went late to work
in the field. On her arrival she laid her child in the shade.
The child cried. Thereupon the woman thought : " Now
I will go and call my husband, who disputed my word and
said I lied." So the woman ran. When she arrived where
her husband was, she said : " Come on ! It is you who
disputed, saying there never was such a thing. Let us go
and see now."

The man took his bow and three arrows. On his arrival
the woman told him, saying : "Sit here, I will put the child
to sleep in the shade yonder, and then, when you see the
bird coming, hide yourself." The woman left the child and
went away some distance, and the man hid himself there.
Then the child cried very loudly. As he was watching, he
saw the Eagle come and sit upon the child. Then the man
was greatly alarmed, and charged his bow with two arrows
that he might pierce the Eagle sitting on his child. Then
he shot ; but at the moment of shooting the Eagle dodged,
and both arrows pierced his child.

Now that is the explanation of the origin of murder.
The Eagle was a kind person, nevertheless the father of the
child wished to kill it. Then the Eagle cursed him, saying :
" Now is kindness among men at an end ; because you
killed your child, beginning with you and going on to all
people, you shall kill each other." To this day people kill
each other.

Note. — For a parallel to this story among the Lokele people of
the Congo, see Sir H. H. Johnston, Grenfell and the Congo, vol. ii.
pp. 819, 820.

6. How the Ringdove came by its Ring

Blackbird, Ringdove, and all the birds were met together.
The Ringdove opened the conversation by addressing
Blackbird, saying : ' Here where we are met together, who
is the most beautiful ? ' All the birds answered : ." Black-
bird is the only beautiful one. How very black he is ! "

352 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

Then the Ringdove said to himself : "As for me, I am going
to ask for medicine that I may be like Blackbird." So
Ringdove made his petition, saying : " Blackbird, transform
me, so that we may be alike." Blackbird answered, saying :
" I will show you to-morrow. When we are all met together,
and Lapwing is there, and Kestrel and Eagle and Francolin
and Tomtit and Guinea- Fowl, when the birds of all species
are met together, I will show you the medicine." At that
Ringdove was very grateful, and said : "I shall be very
thankful to be like you."

On the morrow, all the birds were gathered together
feeding in the cool of the morning. Then Blackbird came
to where they were assembled, and said : " Ringdove, you
are wanting medicine ? " " Yes," he replied. Said Black-
bird : " Come here." So Ringdove went. Blackbird put
his ringer around Ringdove's neck, and so you see how
it is that Ringdove is like Blackbird in being black around
the neck. Thereupon all the birds were astounded. Another
bird said : " You shall give me medicine also." Blackbird
said : " What will you give me ? " All the birds answered :
" If only you will give us the medicine, you shall do to us
just whatever you please." Blackbird then told them :
" To-morrow I will give you all medicine, so that you may
become black."

On the morrow, Blackbird arose very early and went
into the forest, where he found some Guinea- Fowl eating
termites. "What are you eating?" he asked. Guinea-
Fowl answered : " Termites." Thereupon Blackbird said :
" It is you who begged medicine from me, whereas you eat
earth and insects. Now, as that is what you eat, I will not
give you medicine. You, Guinea-Fowl, I will give you a
speckled coat so that you resemble a Leopard, and when a
Leopard finds you he will eat you — all because you do not
eat as I eat ; you always eat insects that live in the earth.
And you, Francolin, you shall be red about the mouth and
on the head, and you shall always eat the grain belonging
to other people, and then you shall always be trapped by
people and they shall trouble you. All the birds who begged
from me, I give them in the same manner, things good for
them or things not good for them."

ch. xxvin FOLK-TALES 353

Thereupon Ringdove, he about whose neck that finger
had been encircled, he also was cursed and told : " And
you also, Ringdove, you shall always eat the grain belonging
to men, so that you may die. All the birds I condemn
because they begged for medicines, saying : ' Let us be like
Blackbird ' ; whereas in truth they do not at all resemble
me, they do not act as I act nor eat as I eat. To be alike
in the fashion of our bodies ! No, I refuse." So Ring-
dove has colour around the neck where Blackbird's finger
encircled it. In that alone they are alike ; and as for
the rest of the birds, they are in trouble, they are killed,
they are ensnared, they are persecuted. Some are
caught in traps. And all because they were cursed by
Blackbird.

Note. — In Uncle Remus the speckled coat of the Guinea-Fowl is
explained by a cow having sprinkled milk over its blue skin.

7. How Ringdove got her Name —
' Giver-of-happiness-to-men-to-girls-not-so-much.' '

Ringdove and Grey Hornbill gave birth to children in
the same house. Ringdove bore a beautiful child, a girl ;
Hornbill also bore a female child, but it was ugly : so they
nursed their children in the same house. One day Hornbill
said to Ringdove : " Let us go and gather some food for
our children." Said Ringdove : " Yes, let us go." So they
went out, leaving the children in the house, and departed
to gather food for their children. After going some distance,
Hornbill said : " Let us separate." Ringdove said : " Yes,
all right."

So they parted, Hornbill planning to go in one direction,
and Ringdove going in another. Hornbill made haste and
returned home, and finding the children alive and well she
fed her child while Ringdove was still going gathering food.
Now when Hornbill looked upon her child she saw that it
was ugly, and when she looked at the child of Ringdove
she saw that it was beautiful. So she took her child and
went and threw it away in the veld. Coming back, she
took Ringdove's child and went away with it into another
country. When Ringdove returned home she found her

VOL. II 2 A

354 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

child missing, and Hornbill's child missing, and Hornbill
herself missing also.

Thereupon Ringdove was distressed, and began to weep
for her child ; then she went to Fish-eagle to have the matter
divined. Fish-eagle said : "I am Fish-eagle, He-whose-
business-cannot-be-brought-to-an-end ! Did you give birth
in the same house with Hornbill ? ' " Yes," answered
Ringdove, " we gave birth in the same house." Said
Fish-eagle: "As for your child, Ringdove, Hornbill has
stolen her and thrown away her own child." Then Ringdove
said : " Well, Fish-eagle, where has Hornbill taken my child
to ? " Said Fish-eagle : "To Mala ; to-day she is married :
she is the wife of a chief." Ringdove said to Fish-eagle :
" Allow me to go to Mala to find my child." Said Fish-eagle :
" Yes, go, and you will find your child, Ringdove."

When she reached Mala she found her child married to a
chief. On her arrival she said : " Chief, this whom you have
married is nty child." The chief who had married Ringdove's
daughter said : " No, my wife is the daughter of Hornbill."
Then the chief killed Ringdove, whose daughter he had
married. Thereupon that child of Ringdove said : " It is a
good thing I am married as my mother is dead."

To this day Ringdove is Giver-of-happiness-to-men-
to- girls-not-so-much. It is said, When Ringdove stretches
out her wings you must say : " Make me happy, O
Chinakaduedue, Giver-of-happiness-to-men-to-girls-not-so-
much." The saying is, When Ringdove then flies off, it
means that she blesses you.

Note. — This tale is meant to account for the belief in the
Ringdove as a bird of good omen, the giver of happiness. When a
person sees the bird spread out its wings in a certain way, he spits
on the ground as an offering to the bird, and says : " Chinakaduedue,
Chisangidila-ku-balombe-ku-bashimbi-ndukubakuba nsangila " — " You,
Chinakaduedue, Giver - of - happiness - to - men - to - girls - not - so - much,
make me happy." Then he says : Yansangidila, ndikwete cholwe
— " It makes me happy (or, it spreads out its wings for me).
I have got good fortune." The word in Ila "to be happy " is
kusangidilwa, the root of which, sanga, is a widely-spread one, occur-
ring in Nyanja, Lenje, Lala, Wisa, Senga, Kongo, Ganda, and Swahili,
always with the same meaning. Sangidila would mean " spread
out the wings on behalf of somebody," and that may be the idea
in their mind, i.e. that in some way the spreading of the wings

ch. xxvm FOLK-TALES 355

brings happiness. Or perhaps sanga may have had two meanings
at some time, and then it was fancied that they must be connected
and the story was invented to explain the connection. Be that as
it may, the dove is associated with happiness among many peoples.
It is for that reason, so we may suppose, that so often it has its
place in marriage customs. Perhaps it is for some such reason that
it has been so widely domesticated from antiquity and that it had
a sacrosanct character among the Hebrews and other Semites. And
it may be for the same reason that the Ba-ila so frequently have
dovecotes in their villages.

The significant part of the name ChinakadMedne is probably
onomatopoeic, cf. Hebrew, tor, Latin, turtur.

8. How Honey-guide came to have Authority over Honey

Honey-guide and Capped Wheatear lived together in one
place at first and ate out of one dish. Honey-guide was
the elder, Wheatear the younger. They set their minds on
going to hunt for honey, and it happened when they arrived
in the vicinity of the honey that Honey-guide said : " Smile,
Wheatear, when you see where the honey is." Wheatear
smiled, but he did not see the honey; when Honey-bird
smiled he had seen it. That is what they did, and then
they returned, leaving the honey behind. On their arrival
at where they were staying, Wheatear quietly disappeared
and went off to steal the honey.

Next morning Honey-guide said : " Let us go to our
honey." There they found a bit of bare honeycomb
mangled and thrown about, so he asked Wheatear about it,
and Wheatear replied : " My brother, I have seen neither
it nor him who has stolen the honey. Since we came out
yesterday nobody has come back here to demolish the
honey in this way." And once again Wheatear said to
Honey-guide: "As for me, I could not eat any of this
honey unless you had given it to me."

So then Honey-guide said no more, and they went out again
looking for honey. Once more they found some honey.
Honey-guide saw it before Wheatear did, and he tested Wheat-
ear by saying : "Smile . " Wheatear said : "I cannot see the
honey, smile yourself, my brother." Honey-guide said : "No,
child, smile." So Wheatear smiled and he saw the honey ;
then Honey-guide asked him : " What do you see ? " Wheat-

356 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

ear said : "It looks as if it might be flies fluttering before
the eyes." Honey-guide said : " Haven't you seen it ? '
But Wheatear was deceiving him, for he saw the honey all
the time. When Honey-guide was about to smile, he saw
the honey and said : " Let us cut down the tree to get it."
Wheatear refused, saying : " No. As you said yesterday
that I stole the honey, well, I am Wheatear ! Let us
bring some bird-lime and set a trap beside the honey,
then if it be I who steal the honey you will catch me."
" Good business," replied Honey-guide.

They went off to get some bird-lime from the humans.
Then when they arrived at their village, Honey-guide said :
" We will come to-morrow to set the trap." But after a
time Honey-guide quietly disappeared and went off to set
the bird-lime at the honey. Said Wheatear to himself :
" Let me go quietly and eat the honey," but the bird-lime
was set already, although he did not notice it. When he
thought of sitting down beside the honey, he sat on the
bird-lime. Said he, " I will strike it with my wing," but
he stuck to it. And when he struck with his tail he stuck
to it. When he wanted to draw back his right wing, it was
stuck fast. He tried to strike it with his breast but he
stuck. When he attempted to bite it with his beak, he
bit the bird-lime. Why, then he simply died for lack of
breath.

Then Honey-guide appeared on the scene after he had
looked for him at the village, and he found him already
a dead man. Then he mocked him, saying : " Wheatear,
smile ! " As he was dried up, he said that was the reward of
thievery. " From to-day you will not steal any more. The
chieftainship is mine over honey and to be extolled by
people ! As for you, from to-day your portion shall be bird-
lime already spread, and thus you will be killed by people."

Now since they separated there on account of thievery,
Wheatear belongs to bird-lime and Honey-guide is still
extolled. While he talked like this, Honey-guide was stand-
ing upon the corpse of Wheatear. They became distinct
in other directions, while their cry remained the same, and to
this day Wheatear's portion is bird-lime and to be entrapped
by men.

ch. xxviii FOLK-TALES 357

9. Why Honey-guide betrays the Bees to People

Honey-guide went to look for a wife in Bee-town. On his
arrival there he said : "I want a wife." The Bees gave
him a wife, but after a time they took her away from him.
When they took her away, Honey-guide said : " Since you
refuse me my wife, I shall simply go and tell tales about you
to the people who pass along the road."

Since he said that, to this day when he sees a person
passing, he takes him and goes to show him the bees.

Note from Livingstone's Missionary Travels, p. 479. — " December
2, 1855. We remained near a small hill called Maundo, where we
began to be frequently invited by the Honey-guide (Cuculus indicator).
Wishing to ascertain the truth of the native assertion that this bird
is a deceiver and by its call sometimes leads to a wild beast and
not to honey, I inquired if any of my men had ever been led by
this friendly bird to anything else than what its name implies.
Only one of the 114 could say he had been led to an elephant instead
of a hive, like myself with the black rhinoceros mentioned before.
I am quite convinced that the majority of people who commit
themselves to its guidance are led to honey and to it alone." The
exceptions are numerous enough to earn for Solwe the name of
liar. There is a Ba-ila clan of the Bana-Solwe, the members of which
are nicknamed " the liars."

10. How Squirrel robbed Coney of his Tail.

Coney and Squirrel were brothers-in-law and always
dwelt harmoniously together. But after some time Squirrel
said : " Brother-in-law, let me have your tail to walk
about with, I will return it." But Coney refused, saying :
" No ; am I to remain tailless ? " Squirrel left off asking,
but after some days he returned and said : " Truly, brother-
in-law, you refused me your tail though I said I wanted
simply to walk about with it and would bring it back."
Then Coney consented and lent his tail to Squirrel, who
said : "I will bring back your tail in eight days' time."

Then Squirrel went home. On his arrival there, his
people said : " Wherever did you get that fine tail ? '
Said he : ' My brother-in-law gave it to me." They re-
plied : " You are blest indeed ! You have got a line tail."

When the eight days had passed, did Squirrel return the
tail ? Not he ! Nine days passed, ten days were ended,

358 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

and on the eleventh Coney followed his tail to Squirrel's
place. On his arrival there he found him on the ground.
" You have come ! " said he as soon as he saw him. Then
Squirrel jumped up into a tree, climbed up and laughed
heartily, saying : " What have you come after, brother-in-
law ? " Coney had not a word to say. So he asked him
a second time. And Coney answered then, saying : ' As
for me I am angry. You have simply deceived me. You
did not bring back my tail." Thereupon Coney waxed very
wroth. Squirrel laughed aloud and said : "As you are so
angry, perhaps you will climb up into the tree and get
your tail ! If you do not climb the tree you will never
see your tail again."

Then Coney thought within his chest : " How am I to
stay among all the other animals ? They have all got tails :
I am the only one lacking a tail." Thereupon he went to
a hill, and to this day he lives among the rocks.

ii. How Squirrel and Jackal became distinct

Squirrel and Jackal were brothers-in-law ; they had
married into one family. After a time Elephant said :
" You, Squirrel and Jackal, come and work for me and I
will give you a place in a chief's family, for you shall marry
my daughters. At least he who is first to finish the work
shall have the princeship."

Then they answered : " It is well." And they asked :
" What work are we to do ? " Elephant said : " I will show
you. But first you must forsake your old wives." So
they forsook them.

Squirrel and Jackal went to Elephant. On their arrival
he said : "As for you, Mr. Jackal, this is my daughter that
I shall give you in marriage if you win. And, Mr. Squirrel,
if you win, this is the one I shall give you."

So they went to work in the forests : Jackal was given
his forest and Squirrel his. Elephant said : " Fell the
trees, and the first to finish shall marry my daughter."
Then they began to fell the trees. Squirrel felled two
trees while Jackal felled one ; then Squirrel had three to
Jackal's two.

ch. xxvni FOLK-TALES 359

When ten days had passed Squirrel had done his work,
but Jackal's was too much for him. So they returned to
Elephant ; but all the time he had not been telling the
truth but was simply lying.

Squirrel was given good fortune and told : " Nothing
shall ever trouble you, you shall dwell up in a tree always,
you shall live well all the years." Jackal was told : "As
for you, you shall have but little joy in life. When you are
going along the road in the vicinity of men, you will be
caught in a trap, and men will trouble you as long as you
live ; they will spear you, and kill you, and eat you, and
wear your skin."

Note. — The Ba-ila see some relationship or likeness between the
squirrel and the jackal, seemingly because of the bushy tail each
possesses ; and this tale is meant to explain how they have become
separated, so that the squirrel lives in trees practically immune
from annoyance from men, while the poor jackal living on the ground
is every one's chase.

12. How Skunk came to be a Helper of Men

Hare and Skunk went a-hunting. On the road Hare
proposed a game of hide-and-seek, saying : " Skunk, hide
yourself and I will hide myself ; let us see how you can hide."
Thereupon they hid themselves. After a time Hare got up
and went outside to where Skunk was lying and deceived
him by growling like a lion. Then Skunk cried out in fear,
and Hare laughed and said : ' What are you crying for ?
As for me I thought that perhaps you were brave, but now
that you cry on being deceived, let us take a walk." So
they went. On arriving yonder, Hare transformed himself,
making himself like a leopard. Then Skunk shouted in alarm :
' Mr. Hare ! ' He did not recognise Hare. He called again :
' Mr. Hare ! ' Hare did not answer. At last Hare dis-
covered himself and said : " What's the matter ? Yonder
where you began to shout did I hear you ? Nevertheless,
when you called me I answered. But as for you, you are
a coward, you are like a hyena, you are like a chased cur, you
poor infant ! ' Then Skunk said : ' No, sir, I was afraid
because I met a leopard, and I was alarmed because it was
about to bite me." Then Hare was angry and said : ' What

360 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

was the matter with you that you could not hide ? " Skunk
said : " I don't know how." So Hare said : " You're Skunk.
Your name is Mr. Turn-and-twist-about. I give you good
fortune and you shall convey good fortune to men. And
you will help them with some of your flesh and also with
your body." And so to-day Skunk is helpful to them.

Note. — The name Salama-salama given to the Skunk indicates
its manner of running, jumping from side to side, turning and
twisting about, so that it is very difficult to catch or hit. From
its being a difficult target to its enemies, the Ba-ila conceive it to
be a valuable medicine in time of war. Some take its nose, others
some of its hair, and put them in the insengo, medicine receptacles
worn on the body. These are charms to ensure that the spears of
the enemy will fail to reach the wearer : that, indeed, he will be as
hard to hit as the Skunk. It is to this that the Hare refers when he
says that some of the Skunk's flesh will be useful to men. He
also refers to the fact that the Skunk's urine is used to perfume
tobacco.

13. Why Duiker has a fine Coat and parti-coloured Tail

Duiker was the younger brother of Oribi, but one de-
ceived the other. When Duiker looked at Oribi he found
that Oribi was very handsome, that his body was white and
his tail parti-coloured. After some days, Duiker went to
pay a visit at Oribi's home.

On his arrival, Oribi said : " Good day, my brother ! '
He replied : " Good day ! " " What have you come to
look for ? " asked Oribi. " Nothing," said Duiker, " I
have only come to see you. I said, the days are many since
I saw my brother, so I will go to see him." Thereupon
Oribi was glad. He took a cup of water and made an obla-
tion, and after making the oblation he gave him a tuft on
the head, saying : " This is my offering to you." Then
he cooked food for him and Duiker ate. But in his heart
Duiker was envying the body of Oribi and his parti-coloured
tail. Then having finished eating, Duiker returned home and
Oribi stayed behind. While he was on the road, Duiker
thought : " How can I deceive him and take away yon
body of his ? " Then he thought : " Let me brew some
beer, and when I have brewed the beer I will call him to
come and drink."

ch. xxvni FOLK-TALES 361

On arriving home, Duiker despatched his wives, saying :
' Brew some beer that I may entrap Oribi with it. Is my
body handsome ? " The women said : " No, it is very
ugly. You are not fit to bear the name of Duiker because
your body is so very ugly ; you are red and your tail is
dark. You ought to seize Oribi's body, which is white,
and also his parti-coloured tail."

Then the wives brewed the beer, and when it was ready
they sent the invitation : " Let Oribi and his wives come
and drink beer." Then they arrived, and on arrival began
to drink beer. At night when they spoke of returning,
Duiker said : ' No, stay here and sleep, so that to-morrow
morning you can drink again."

Thereupon he gave them a house and they slept. Then
Duiker said to his wives : ' My dears, when they are asleep
to-night and undressed, take away their coats and parti-
coloured tails." So indeed they slept, and while they were
asleep at night, Duiker and his wives arose and took away
the skins of the Oribi and his wives : the man robbed his
fellow-man and the women their fellows ; then they left
their home and went to hide.

As soon as it dawned, the Oribis found their white coats
and their parti-coloured tails — they found them missing ; they
found only those which had belonged to the Duikers. They
dressed in them and tried to find where the others had
gone but did not succeed. So after a time the Oribis got
very sad and said : ' Now as our white coats have gone,
we must go into the open plain and live there. When the
veldfire has swept over the plain we shall become Dwellers-
in-the-open." Thereupon they dressed in the coats which
had been the Duikers' and went off to become Dwellers-in-
the-open. Even to-day that is their name.

14. How Elephant lost his Clothing

Hare went to Elephant, and on his arrival said : " Uncle,
let us go to the river." Elephant said : " What are we to
do ? ' Hare answered : " Only to play. When we get
there let us dive into the water and sit at the bottom of
the river. Only I, as I am a child, I will look outside. Let

362 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

us stay a long time, and then in the late afternoon we will
return." Thereupon Elephant said : " All right."

They dived into the river and went to sit under the water.
They took off their clothes before going in and left them
outside. After a time Hare said : " Uncle, I am going ;
you stay and I will find you here. I am going to see the
time outside : how far the sun has got. You must not rise
to the surface; simply sit still." Then Hare emerged ; on
his arrival he took Elephant's clothing and carried it to the
village. As soon as he reached the village he said : ' Cook
these clothes of Elephant's."

Afterwards he went back. He dived and found Elephant
sitting where he left him. Said he : " It may be, my uncle,
that you have been to the surface ? " He answered : ' No,
since you left me I have simply been sitting." Hare
answered : " It is well, uncle ; let us stay on, the sun is still
big. ' ' They stayed. After a time, Hare said : " I am going to
see the sun." When he got out, Hare ran off to the village
and said : " Cook some bread, we shall be back presently."
When the sun reached the point where the shepherds are
tired, Hare returned, dived, and found Elephant sitting
in the same place. As he arrived, Elephant said : " How
far has the sun got ? " " Uncle," he said, "it is when the
shepherds are tired ; there is still a brief period and we
shall go back." So they stayed on.

After a time, little Hare on another excursion found
that the sun was weak, so he returned and told Elephant,
saying : " Uncle, let us go now, the sun is setting." Then
they came to the surface and emerged on to the bank.
Little Hare put on his clothes. Elephant looked for his
clothes but could not find them, so he asked : " Who has
taken away my clothes ? " Then Hare answered : "I
don't know, uncle. I haven't seen them myself ; when
I came out on to the bank to have a look at the sun, I
simply rose up for a moment and went back again." When
Elephant heard Hare's words he was very sad and astonished,
but although he searched a long time he did not find his
clothes. Afterwards Hare said : " Uncle, we will come to
look for them carefully, let us now go and eat at my
village."

CH. XXVIII

FOLK-TALES 363

So they went off and arrived. Then Hare took one pot
off the fire and dished up all the contents into a basin,
brought as much bread as would suffice him, and gave it
all to Elephant. As soon as he had finished eating, Hare
asked him : " Have you finished eating, uncle ? " Said
he : ' Yes." " Well, it is you who were looking for your
clothes, and it is these which you have eaten. You are
really a fool. You eat your clothes without knowing it."
Upon that Elephant was very sad. To this day Elephant's
clothes are not to be seen outside ; as he ate them long
ago, they are not seen outside, but are within.

Note. — This tale cannot be understood without knowing that
" clothes " is a euphemism for testicles ; the tale is designed to
explain why it is that those parts of the elephant are not visible.

In Bantu tales the elephant is very commonly the butt of the
Hare's witticisms. We shall meet the two again later on. There
is a Baganda tale (Sir H. H. Johnston, The Uganda Protectorate, pp.
711-13), in which the Hare says to the Elephant : "Mr. Elephant,
I can't say I admire your dancing, there seems to be too much of
you and the flesh on your buttocks goes flop, flop, flop. Let us cut
off a few slices and then try. You will then dance as well as I do."
The rest of the tale is occupied with the elephant's endeavours to
regain his steaks. See also the Banyoro tale {ibid. pp. 604-5).

15. Why the Elephant is distinct from the Wart-hog

Wart-hog was Elephant's nephew. Once upon a time
they went to the water. On their arrival, Elephant said :
"Who is to drink first?" Wart-hog: "I will." So
Wart-hog went into the water. When he had finished drink-
ing— Elephant all the while standing on the bank — he
stirred up the water, and having done this, he said : ' Now,
uncle, come and drink." Elephant drank and drank.

When he had done drinking a leech bit him in the trunk.
When he felt this, he said : " Take out this thing that is
biting me." But the leech wouldn't come out. Then he
began to hit his trunk on a tree ; but the leech wouldn't
leave go. He went on bashing it, but the leech stuck on.
Then his trunk began to bleed, and Elephant continued
bashing it. By and by the trunk broke, but the leech
wouldn't leave go. Then Elephant was amazed and said :
' This insect won't come out of my trunk." Afterwards the

364 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

trunk got rotten, but Elephant never ceased bashing it.
After many days, Elephant died.

Wart-hog said : " My uncle is dead. Now as my uncle is
dead I become the great one." Then he marvelled, saying :
" Was it I who spoilt the water when I was the first to
drink ? It was a leech that bit him, was it not ? " There-
upon they became distinct. Elephant took the big tusks ;
Wart-hog took tusks like those of Elephant. Elephant went
on growing, and Wart-hog diminishing. As for being alike,
they are alike ; body and hair, Wart-hog and Elephant are
the same. If you look at the tusks, both Wart-hog's and
Elephant's are white. And the hair is alike and the body
identical.

Note. — We do not know that it would occur to many people
to trace these resemblances between the two animals, but they
have struck the Ba-ila and this tale is meant to account for them.
That a leech should cause the death of an elephant is no mere fancy,
as will be seen from the following : ' This same ponderous elephant
positively trembles at the thought of a tiny leech. And no wonder,
for many an elephant dies an awful death, from a leech sucking the
inner membrane of his trunk until the monster tusker is maddened
to death. . . . You can come across a huge clearing in the grass
where the writhing giant has nearly beaten his own brains out,
the agony being all centred in that finest and most delicate of all
his organs, the marconigram trunk. . . . On Lake Mweru this is
called the ' leech-doom,' and is the cause of that curious ceremony
all elephants perform when they come across drinking water. This
function is called the benediction (kupara) and the elephant passes
a scared, wistful gaze over the sheet of water, at the same time
waving his trunk like a mesmerist again and again over the solemn
treacherous pond. But the trunk, as a matter of fact, is no mere
magician's wand, but the supreme headquarters of Jumbo's cunning,
and supplying him with not so much a sixth sense as a sensorium
commune. Instead of ' praying ' a sort of grace-before-meat peti-
tion, as the native suggests, he is really wringing from the water
its leech-secret." — D. Crawford, Christian Express, 1. 3. 10.

16. Why the Wart-hog lives in a Burrow

Once again there was deception between Wart-hog and
Elephant. Elephant came to Wart-hog and on his arrival
said : " Uncle, do you still keep up resentment against
me ? " Wart-hog answered : " Yes, because one day you
said you would destroy things for me, but you broke your

ch. xxvin FOLK-TALES 365

word, and so now we have no more to do with each other."
Said Elephant : " No, uncle, you must not be resentful."
Wart-hog said : " I don't want to fight again." Elephant
said : " No, I will not fight again. I only came to admire
your tusks." Thereupon Wart-hog said : " Here they are,
you may admire them." And Elephant also said : " Here
are mine, you may admire them." So they dressed up,
Wart-hog wearing Elephant's tusks and Elephant Wart-hog's.
After they had done this, Elephant said : " These
tusks, uncle, I am going to take home and I will bring them
back the day after to-morrow." But he was simply de-
ceiving him. So Elephant went off. On the way he said :
" I have cheated him — the fool. He whose name is
Mufwafwi (' stumpy ') should he have great tusks, and
I the great one wear small tusks ! He shan't see these
again ! ' Thereupon, mumbling much against him, he
entered the matondo forest and went off a long way.

Wart-hog looked for the day of which Elephant spoke
when he said good-bye, saying, I will bring back your tusks,
but he did not see him. So he followed him, and when he
came upon him said : " I want my tusks." Elephant said :

' Really ! Why, you fool, I said, we make an exchange,
and now you are still talking about your tusks ! " Then
Wart-hog said : " You are lying. You said nothing about
making an exchange ; all you said was, let me walk with
them and I will bring them back. Now to-day you have
turned round." He said : " No." And Wart-hog said :

' From to-day I am going to sleep in a burrow ; as for you,
you shall travel about the whole day and go far ; we shall
not be friends again because you have deceived me so."

Thereupon Wart-hog returned ; he considered the matter
and his considerations told him : " Go to Ant-bear. See
that body of yours, in your bare condition you ought not
to sleep simply on the ground, you ought to be in a burrow."
So Wart-hog went to Ant-bear. On his arrival, he said :
"Ant-bear, look after me well and I will give you a blessing."
Said he : ' What sort of a blessing ? " He answered :

' You shall not have to eat as your fellow-animals eat ;
but I will give you a blessing ; of grass you shall eat but
little, only to taste ; when you are sleeping then on to your

366 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

tongue shall come your food, which you will find while
lying down."

To this day Ant-bear only eats little grass, but when he
puts out his tongue insects collect upon it, and all he has
to do is simply to draw in his tongue and eat. Ant-bear's
custom is to dig burrows, and Wart-hog enters one and
sleeps ; when he has had enough of one he looks out for
another. On his arrival he enters the burrow dug by Ant-
bear. To this day it is so.

17. Why Bushbuck came to have a Red Coat

One day Hare said : " Bushbuck, let us go and pay
some calls." Bushbuck said : " It is well." They went
off, and arriving at a village they stayed there and their
hosts gave them something to eat. After a time Hare
said : " Bushbuck." Bushbuck replied : " Yes ! " "Let
us go and steal a goat." They went off to another village,
and on arrival there found some goats. They stole one,
took it to their host's place and killed it. Having killed it,
Hare said : " Bushbuck, bring a basin to put the blood in."
So Bushbuck brought a basin and they put the blood into
it. When the basin was full, Hare placed it up on a shelf.
Then they cooked their meat and, having cooked, ate it.
And when they had done eating they went to sleep.

In the night Hare got up and aroused Bushbuck, saying :
" Bushbuck ! " Bushbuck replied : " Speak ! " Said he :
" Let us go and make burrows, so that if the owners of the
goat we stole should chase us we can enter the burrows."
So they went, arrived, and dug the burrows, Hare digging
his and Bushbuck his. They also pierced escape-holes by
which they might emerge, saying : " Let us do this : as
soon as we enter those people will say, ' They are inside ' ;
whereas we are out at the escape-holes." So they worked
and that same night they finished. When they had finished,
Hare brought a big stone and threw it into Bushbuck's
burrow, so that Bushbuck, having once entered, should not
be able to get out and they would catch him.

So when their work was done, they returned to their
host's place. Before very long the day dawned and the

CH. XXVIII

FOLK-TALES 367

owners missed their goat. Then Hare arose, took down
the basin of blood and poured it all over Bushbuck's body.
Then the owners of the goat arrived, and on their arrival
said : " Who has stolen our goat ? ' Hare answered :
" Look at our claws and bodies and you will see who has
blood on him, and that is he who ate your goat which you
have missed." . So they said : " Bushbuck, you are the one
who has eaten our goat. See the blood on all your body ! '

Upon that Bushbuck and Hare ran off and went to
tKeir burrows. On their arrival Bushbuck entered, but
upon entering he encountered the stone and the way was
blocked. All he could do was to crouch down and hide.
As for Master Hare, he went out at his escape-hole. So
the owners of the goat said : " Bring hoes and let us dig."
When they brought the hoes, some dug at Bushbuck's burrow,
others at Hare's. Those who dug at Bushbuck's caught
him ; but when the digging was finished at Hare's — to see
him, No !

When they caught hold of Bushbuck, he said : "As
you have caught me, do not kill me on the stone. Take me
to a clear space and kill me there, for it is there only I shall
die." So they took him into the flat. On arrival there,
he said : " Throw me up into the air. When I return to
earth, I shall simply be dead." So they threw him up into
the air. When they threw him, he at once ran off and
went away into the bush. The colour which he has is from
the blood of the goat which he and Hare stole. Only when
he got that colour from the blood which Hare spilt on him
did his name become Shichibangu, and since then he has
lived only in the bush. You will not find him in the flat ;
only in the bush now.

Note. — It is a favourite trick of the Hare to throw blame on to
his partners by smearing them with blood or with mud or something
else. In the Suto tale he smears mud on the Rabbit so that the
lion may think it is he who drank his water in the night. (Jacottet,
Basuto Lore, Part 2, p. 10). Mr. Jacottet gives references to similar
tricks played by the Hare in Subiya and Ronga tales. In a Lala
tale (Madan : Lala-Lamba Handbook, pp. 55-8) the Rabbit (kalalu)
plays the same trick on the March Hare {Wachilulu ishilu) ; he
kills a goat and puts the entrails on the neck of the Hare. Then
the people of the village find the Hare ; he escapes and gets into a
hole, whence he is dug out and killed.

368 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

18. Why Jackals do not go in Herds

Jackal and Weasel dwelt in a village together and Jackal
married Weasel's daughter. One day Weasel went after
honey. On his return home he brewed some beer, and
when it was fermented he sent a message to Jackal, saying :
" Let my son-in-law come and drink honey-beer." There-
upon he went with his children and women. On his arrival
they gave him and his children and wives some honey-
beer and they all drank. They drank all day, when it got
dark they drank all night ; when it dawned they drank till
noon, and when the sun began to show that it was about
one o'clock, Jackal and his children were very drunk. He,
when he set about emerging, ran like a madman ; he went
off into the forest. Another came out and ran ; and an-
other came out and ran also. They ran like that because
they were drunk. They all ran off in different directions.
In running, one went his way and another his. To-day
Jackals do not go in a herd. If there are three together it
means that one is a child ; they generally go two by two,
he and his wife ; because of the way in which they were
drunk long ago with honey-beer and separated in running
away. To this day they do not go in herds, and if you see
four together you may know that some are children ; as
soon as they are grown they separate from the others.

w iwl r\rtl * K I9' Why Zebm has no Horns

All the animals were gathered together : Elephant and
Wart-hog and Gnu and Zebra and Eland and Buffalo and
Sable and Duiker and Reedbuck and Puku and Waterbuck
and Roan and Lechwe and Oribi and Kudu — all the animals
of different species were gathered together grazing.

After a while, the time came for going to select horns
for themselves. All the animals said : " Let us choose
horns." So all the animals ran, all of different species ran
off to select horns. And they were all suited, whatever the
animal was, great or small, all of different species were
suited with horns.

Only Zebra remained behind.

CH. XXVIII

FOLK-TALES 369

After a time they said : " Zebra, they will make it
impossible for you to select horns for yourself." As soon
as he thought of this he ran off ; on reaching the place where
the horns were being selected, he was simply sad to find
no horn left, the others had finished them all. All he found
there were a mane and long ears and stripes and a big
mouth. Then his friends laughed at him, saying : " You,
what has your eating done for you ! See, they have finished
the horns, even the little children have got horns, and you —
only colourings and a mane and ears and a drooping lip,
that was what you had to take. See us all with horns, big
and little ! ' So his friends contemned him, sa3^ing : " You
are a glutton, your eating has deprived you of horns."

Thereupon Zebra was very sad indeed as he was without
horns. And so it is that as for eating and eating very
much, to this day Zebra is a glutton. It seems that he
surpasses all the other animals in eating. That is all.

20. Why Leopard and Cheetah became distinct

Leopard became distinct from Cheetah. Leopard bit the
ox of a chief and after biting it, smeared the ox's blood
upon Cheetah. Next morning when the people examined
their cattle they found one missing, and they said : " Call
Cheetah and his brother Leopard, so that we can ask them
about the killing of the chief's ox."

On their arrival the people said : ' Leopard ! " He
answered : " What's the matter, chief ? ' Said the chief :
" One of the oxen is missing." Leopard said : 'As for
me, chief, I haven't seen it." And Cheetah said : "I also,
chief, I haven't seen it." Presently Leopard answered
again, saying : " Such being the case, you will find that
whoever has blood on the mouth and hands is the one who
saw your ox." Thereupon the chief looked at the mouth
and hands of Leopard. As soon as he turned his eye upon
Cheetah he saw the blood on his mouth and hands. So he
sent that same brother of his, Leopard, to seize him, and
he said : " Now, you, Leopard, shall be fierce towards men
and animals. And you, Cheetah, you shall bite calves,
so that the owners of the cattle shall kill you."

vol. 11 2 B

370 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES ft. v

Now to this day, when Cheetah finds- a calf he bites it.
At the same time Leopard also still bites calves and men
too. They did not become altogether distinct. Since they
did not become distinct in their colourings, Leopard and
Cheetah, if you say : " Run away, Cheetah," it will be a
Leopard that runs. If you say : " Run away, Leopard,"
it is Cheetah that runs. Because they are similar in their
markings.

Note. — The Cheetah or Chitah, or hunting leopard, has great
resemblance to the leopard as regards the skin, but is not nearly
so fierce an animal. This tale is supposed to account for the differ-
ences and likenesses.

21. Tortoise, because of the way she and Fish-eagle deceived
each other, does not eat Meat

Tortoise and Fish-eagle made a covenant of friendship.
Fish-eagle bore children but Tortoise had no children, and
for that reason Fish-eagle laughed very much. One day,
Fish-eagle said : " Oh, my friend, give me cunning ! '
" What sort of cunning ? " Fish-eagle replied : " Cunning
by which to withdraw one's head within, so that I also may
not get into trouble. See my children, I leave them alone,
and if a biting thing comes along to where I have left them,
it will bite them, and all because they haven't cunning.
And I have no cunning myself. That is why I ask you, and
if you will give me that cunning I also will give you cunning."

Tortoise answered saying : " What sort of cunning ? "

Said she : " Why, to fly in the air ! You cannot fly
now, no, you can't fly, all you can do is to crawl along
the ground on your stomach, but, on the other hand, I
fly. As for you, the only cunning you possess is to with-
draw your head inside, that only you have ; so now let us
exchange, you give me your wisdom of withdrawing the
head within when I see a thing which kills ; and if you do
that for me, I also will show you the cunning of flying."

Nevertheless Tortoise refused, and when she refused Fish-
eagle stole Tortoise's axe, saying : ' Let us see whether she
will fly to fetch her axe."

Thereupon Fish-eagle took away Tortoise's axe. Tor-

CH. XXVIII

FOLK-TALES 371

toise sought for it carefully, and then she thought : " It is
that friend of mine who has taken away my axe." After
a time Tortoise considered the matter again in her chest,
and said : " Let me kill an animal, and when I have killed
the animal let me hide in the meat of its stomach, and
Fish-eagle will be sure to come to the meat. As she has
children, she will first, on her arrival at the meat, take off
the stomach to carry it to her children, and then I shall
find my axe."

Now thereupon Tortoise hid herself in the stomach of
the meat and Fish-eagle came whirling round in the air ;
as she looked down to earth she saw the meat red below,
and said : "I have found meat." So she descended upon
the meat, and on arrival took off the stomach in which
Tortoise had hidden herself ; she took it to her children at
the village on the tree-top.

When she came to her children she said : " Catch the
meat, I am going back to where I found it to eat." So Fish-
eagle returned to the meat. Her children set about eating
the meat which their mother had brought. Just as they
were about to eat they heard a hiss, and all the children
were afraid. Then Tortoise came out of the meat and
looked about for her axe ; looking about she found it, took
it, and descended and returned to her village.

Then Fish-eagle returned to her village, and on reaching
it found her children absent and called out : "- My children,
where have you gone ? " They answered : " We were
afraid, in that meat which you brought us there was some-
thing that hissed, that is why we ran away afraid ; and
we haven't eaten the meat." Then she was greatly
astounded and said : " Tortoise came here. Who is it gave
her cunning to get up here so high ? She has no wings."
She asked again : " Where is my axe ? " The children
said : " We haven't seen it."

Then she returned to Tortoise. On arriving she sat
down and found that Tortoise had killed another animal,
a Python. So on her arrival she said : ' My friend, to-day
we find peace ; I will not deceive you again. I will do this
to you ; when you bite an animal I will come to be given
of it by you, I will not again do you wrong."

372 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

To-day, yes, to-day, where Tortoise has meat, whether it
is a Snake he kills, or whether it is a breast of meat he finds,
the Fish-eagle also passes there, and on arrival Fish-eagle sits
on top. Tortoise simply hisses, because he does not eat meat.
Since the one deceived the other, Tortoise does not eat it :
all he eats is rushes, it is Fish-eagle that eats meat.

22. Why Rhinoceros and Hippopotamus became distinct

Rhinoceros and Hippopotamus had a fight. Hippo had
taken Rhino's razor : that is why they fought. Rhino
said : " Who has taken my razor ? " Hippo answered :
" I did. I wanted to shave my wife." Rhino said :
" Bring it here." Hippo said : " I haven't seen it."
Thereupon they fought. Afterwards Rhino said : " Let us
separate. As for me I am going off to eat Euphorbia."
And Hippo said : " And I to the water."

And so the saying to-day still is : Let us separate as
did Rhino and Hippo.

Rhino and Hippo also once effected an exchange. Rhino
had the tusks that Hippo has, and Hippo had Rhino's horns.
It thus came about that they deceived each other a second
time. First they fought about a razor and separated.
Although that was the case, Hippo stole Rhino's tusks.
He had said : " How can I deceive him and take his white
tusks, and give him these black horns, which are not firm."
So Hippo determined to invite him, saying : " Let Rhino
come, and let us make peace, that the old quarrel may
cease and we may love each other and dwell harmoniously,
just as we used always to do."

So Rhino came ; when Hippo saw him coming he
found how very white his tusks were. So on Rhino's
arrival, Hippo said : " Brother, let us not fight again, let
us now love each other very much and settle down
comfortably."

It got dark, and as soon as it was night Hippo said :
" Let us take off our horns and put them aside, we will
wear them again in the morning." So they undressed
and as it was night went to sleep. Hippo rose in the night

ch. xxvin FOLK-TALES 373

and stole Rhino's white tusks and put down in their place
his own black horns. Then Hippo went into the water.

Next morning when Rhino wished to put on the tusks
they did not fit, and he said : ' These are not my tusks."
When he looked where Hippo had been lying he found him
gone, — and gone off with the tusks he had stolen. So he
went off to the Matondo forest, but the tusks he did not
see again.

Then he shouted : " Hippo, you who have stolen my
tusks, we are alike in body and in the thickness of our hide ;
your hide shall be red and mine black because of your
thievery. You shall lodge in the water and it is at dusk
that you shall come out to graze ; as for me I shall graze
the whole day. Neither of us shall ever be able to jump
over a tree ! Because we are alike ; both of us have short
legs and neither of us is greater than his fellow."

So, as it happened thus, they are alike in having short
legs, but they are unlike in body ; that of the Hippo is
red and that of Rhino is black. Still, they are of one
family.

23. Why the Cracks in Tortoise's Shell

Mr. Tortoise, who was married to Mrs. Tortoise, had in
Vulture a friend who was assiduous in visiting him. But,
having no wings, Tortoise was unable to return the visits,
and this displeased him. One day he bethought himself of
his cunning and said to his wife : " Wife ! ' Mrs. Tortoise
answered : " Hallo, husband, what is it ? ' Said he :
' Don't you see, wife, that we are becoming despicable in
Vulture's eyes ? ' " How despicable ? " " Despicable,
because it is despicable for me not to visit Vulture. He is
always coming here, and I have never yet been to his house
— and he my friend." Mrs. Tortoise replied: "I don't
see how Vulture should think us despicable unless we could
fly as he does and yet did not pay him a visit." But Mr.
Tortoise persisted : " Nevertheless, wife, it is despicable."
Said his wife : " Very well, then, sprout some wings and
fly and visit your friend Vulture." Mr Tortoise answered :
" No, I shan't sprout any wings because I was not born

374 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

that way." " Well," said Mrs. Tortoise, " what will you
do ? " "I shall find a way," replied he. " Find it then,"
said Mrs Tortoise, " and let us see what you will do."

Later Tortoise said to his wife : " Come and tie me up
in a parcel with a lump of tobacco, and when Vulture arrives
give it to him and say it is tobacco, to buy grain for us."
So Mrs. Tortoise took some palm leaf and made him into
a parcel and put him down in the corner. At his usual
time Vulture came to pay his visit, and said : " Where's
your husband gone, Mrs. Tortoise ? " " My husband is
gone some distance to visit some people, and he left hunger
here ; we have not a bit of grain in the house." Vulture
said : " You are in trouble indeed, not having any grain."
Mrs. Tortoise replied : " We are in such trouble as human
beings never knew." And she went on : " Vulture, at
your place is there no grain to be bought ? " " Yes,"
said he, " any amount, Mrs. Tortoise." She brought the
bundle and said : " My husband left this lump of tobacco
thinking you would buy some grain with it for us and bring
it here." Vulture took it willingly and returned to his
home in the heights. As he was nearing his native town he
was surprised to hear a voice saying : " Untie me, I am your
friend Tortoise. I said I would pay a visit to you." But
Vulture in his surprise let go his hold of the bundle and
down crashed Tortoise — pididi-pididi ! He smashed up
when he struck the earth and died. And so the friendship
between Tortoise and Vulture was broken : and you can
still see the cracks in Tortoise's shell.

24. Why Hornbill has such a Big Beak and Tomtit a

Small One

Tomtit in the old days had a very large beak, and
Hornbill, dying with envy for the beak, planned to rob
him of it. One morning all the birds went out into the
fields to seek for food, and Hornbill was there too, only
he kept away from the crowd, as he was ashamed of being
seen with such a tiny beak among birds who all had beaks
so well-fitting. After a time Hornbill said to Tomtit :
" Tomtit, bring your beak and let me try it on." So they

CH. XXVIII

FOLK-TALES 375

exchanged — Hornbill taking Tomtit's big beak and Tom-
tit taking Hornbill's tiny one. When the birds saw Hornbill
they admired, him and said : " Hornbill, that beak suits
you fine ! " Hornbill was very pleased and began crying :
" It suits me fine ! It suits me fine ! It suits me fine, the
great beak ! " * Then Tomtit said to Hornbill : " Give me
back my beak." He replied : " No, I will never give it
back as it suits me so well." Then Tomtit began to cry :
" Katiti, katiti, tiny, oh so tiny " — crying in that way and
complaining about his tiny beak. Hornbill went on wear-
ing the big beak and crying : "It suits me fine ! It suits
me fine ! ' And that is still his cry. But Tomtit still goes
complaining : " Katiti ! Katiti ! Tiny, oh so tiny ! " And
people hearing his cry named him Ntite, i.e. Tiny.

Part II
The Adventures of Sulwe, the Hare

1. Why Hare had his Destiny foretold by Tortoise

Hare went to borrow an axe from Tortoise with the
intention of felling trees in the forest. Tortoise handed
him the axe and Hare went off to fell the trees. But when
he returned from the forest he did not restore the axe to
Tortoise but kept it at his own place. Then Tortoise said :
" Hare, give me my axe." Said Hare : " I will not give it
you." So Tortoise returned home and called his wife :
" My wife ! " Said she : " What's the matter ? " Said
he : ' Cut me up into pieces and cook me in a big pot ;
then when I am cooked boil some porridge also ; when you
have finished boiling the porridge load yourself with it all
and take it into the forest where Hare is felling trees. On
your arrival there put it on the ground where Hare will
pass, and come back here."

Thereupon the wife of Tortoise cut him up into pieces
and cooked him in a big pot, and she cooked also some
porridge. When she had finished cooking she loaded her-
self and took it into the forest where Hare was felling
trees and put it down in Hare's tracks. As Hare was

1 This fits well with the tune, so to speak, of the Hornbill's cry.

376 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt.v

returning from felling trees he found the porridge in his
tracks where Mrs. Tortoise had put it and also the potful
of meat. When he arrived and found this porridge and the
potful of meat Hare was astounded, as it was in the midst
of the forest ; he stood and gazed and then he began to
shout : " Who are you that has left the porridge and the
potful of meat ? ' There was no answer ; he called and
called, but there was not a voice in reply. Then he thought :
It is my wife who has brought it for me."

So he began to eat the porridge and the potful of meat.
When he had finished eating he took up his trees and went
to his village. When he arrived at the village and was
about to throw down the trees he heard a voice speaking :
" Hare, give me my axe ! " Hare was amazed and said :
' As I am the son of a stranger, these trees astonish me ! '
He cut the trees up into pieces and threw them away.
When he was about to sit on his stool, he heard the voice
saying : " Hare, give me my axe ! " Hare said : " As I
am Hare, this stool astonishes me !." He took the stool
and burnt it in the fire. Afterwards he thought of going to
bed, and again he heard the voice saying : " Hare, give
me my axe ! " He got up from the bed and burnt it, say-
ing : "I am astonished ! " When he went outside he heard
the voice saying : " Hare, my axe ! " And in the house
he heard the voice saying : " Hare, give me my axe ! '
Then he took fire, did Hare, and burnt the house. Said he :
" As I am Hare, the house speaks ! "

Then Tortoise was amazed and said to himself : " Hare
is a person of much cunning." Said Tortoise : ' As you
would not listen to my pleading, from to-day I put your
destiny upon you ; you shall not cease to deceive all the
animals, you shall be a wise man. And in the end when you
die you shall not have your skin stripped from you, you
shall be like me in not being skinned ; just as I am not
skinned, you shall always have a tissue skin ; I, He-who-
ref uses-to-be-surrounded, I say so."

He is not skinned in these days just as Tortoise is not
skinned.

Note. — The voice haunting Hare seems like conscience ; really,
of course, it was Tortoise speaking from within Hare's stomach.

CH. XXVIII

FOLK-TALES 377

2. Hare makes Hippopotamus and Rhinoceros engage in a

Tug-of-War

Now Hare set out upon an errand of mischief ; he went
first to Rhinoceros and said : " These people have sworn
to do so-and-so." Then he ran off to Hippopotamus, and
when he arrived called : " You there ! ' Hippopotamus
answered : " Hallo ! ' Said he : " Take hold of this rope
and let us pull against each other." Then he ran off to
Rhinoceros, and on arrival said : ' Take hold of this rope
and let us pull each other." Then Hare said : "I am
going to return to the bank yonder."

So they began to pull each other, and Rhinoceros was
so pulled that he came to put his foot in the water. Said he :
' Stu-pendous ! " Then he in turn went back with a rush
and Hippopotamus was pulled out upon the bank, and
he also ejaculated : " Stu-pendous ! ' Hippopotamus called
out : " Hare ! Hare ! " Rhinoceros went on pulling and
Hippopotamus went on pulling also. After a time Rhino-
ceros was exhausted and said : "I will go and see that
man who is pulling me." And just then Hippopotamus
put his head up out of the water and said : " Who is that
pulling me ? " Said the other : " Why ! Shinakambeza, it's
you pulling me ! ' And Chipembele (the Rhino) answered :
"It is I." " Why, who was it that tied you up,
Chipembele ? " Then Rhinoceros answered : ' It was
Hare. Was it he who tied you up also, Hippopotamus ? '
Said he : " Yes, it was he."

Now that is where the wisdom comes from, in that
Rhinoceros comes to the water to drink although they had
been at enmity, these two. Rhinoceros had said : "I will
not tread in the river." Thus they became reconciled, and
that is why Rhinoceros drinks water to-day. Rhinoceros
and Hippopotamus, when they do not see each other in
the flesh, Rhinoceros will drink water in the river where
Hippo lives, and Hippopotamus comes out to go grazing
where Rhinoceros has his home.

Note. — This is a well-known exploit of the artful Hare. The
Babemba tell how he played the same trick upon the Elephant and
Hippopotamus (Journal of the African Society, vol. hi. p. 68). Indeed

378 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

it seems that these two animals are the usual figures in the story.
See the same story from Calabar in J.A.S. vol. iv. p. 307. A Duala
story almost identical with the latter is given by Herr Lederbogen
in the Transactions of the Berlin Oriental Seminary. A Temne
version is given by Miss Cronie in Cunnie Rabbit (reviewed in J.A.S.
vol. iv. p. 251). In this it is the spider who challenges the Elephant
and Hippopotamus. Mr. Monteil (see review of his Contes Soudanais
in J.A.S. vol. vi. p. 65) also gives a version in which the Elephant
takes the place of the Rhino. All the other versions treat the matter
as a mere trial of strength, but the Mandinga begin by saying the
Hare owed a slave apiece to the Elephant and Hippo ; he then
got each to pull against the other on the plea that his captive was
attached to the other end. It is the story of " Mr. Tarry pin shows
his Strength" in Uncle Remus, where one end of Mrs. Meadow's
bed-cord is given to Brer Bar.

These animals, like others, have their titles, their " praise-
names," which are repeated by people on occasion. Thus
Hippopotamus rejoices in the appellations : " Shinakambeza,
Muzundazunda, Ingoma ya Batwa, Chiyayoka." And the
Rhinoceros is called : " Chinyama chidya mulundongoma," i.e.
" the great animal that eats the Euphorbia," and Chipembele.

3. Hare deceives Lion and burns him to Death

Hare called Lion, saying : " Uncle, stand over yonder,
I am going into the ant-heap there." He went off into the
ant-hill and then called out to Lion, saying : " Lion, make
a fire there and surround the whole ant-hill with it, while I
stay here." Lion made the fire ; the fire blazed up, and as
soon as it came near him Hare got into a burrow. The
whole ant-hill was on fire, while Master Hare had hidden
himself in the burrow. When the fire on the ant-hill had
burnt out, Master Hare came out of his retreat. He rolled
about in the black ash of the grass, and went to show him-
self to Lion, saying : " Don't you see me, comrade, how
that I am not burnt ? Don't you see this ash on me ? ' Lion
said : " You will give me some of that medicine, so that I
may do the same."

So he plucked him some leaves and gave them to him.
Then he looked for a large ant-heap with plenty of grass
upon it, and Lion went to lie down in the midst of it. Then
Hare surrounded the ant-hill on all sides with fire ; when
the fire came near to Lion he called out in alarm. Hare
answered him by saying : " You mustn't cry out because

ch. xxvni FOLK-TALES 379

of this fire, or you will be burnt." Then the fire got close
and Lion began to -burn at his beard. Then the fire reached
his body and his hair began to burn. Then he got all afire
and died. When he had so perished, Master Hare ran off,
saying : "I have played a trick upon my elder." And he
went off to five elsewhere.

Note. — This tale reminds one of the tale in Uncle Remus about
the Hare and the Wolf. The Hare allured the Wolf to enter a hollow
tree to get the honey by telling him that fire would cause the honey
to " oozle out," — " en mor'n dat, atter you git de honey all over you,
'taint no use ter try ter burn you up, kaze de honey will puzzuv
you." Of course the Wolf is burnt. The Hare had first led the
Wolf to believe that he himself had escaped easily from the same.
A tale, the motive of which is the same as this, is told by the
Balala (A. C. Madan, Lala-Lamba Handbook, pp. 49, 50) of the
Cock and the Wakansuwa (a night bird). There is a Nyanja story
of the Cock and the Swallow which is similar (A. Werner, British
Central Africa, p. 238). Also in a Suto tale (Jacottet, Basnto Lore,
p. 13) the Hare plays the same trick on the Hlolo rabbit.

4. Hare plays a Trick upon the Dragon

Hare and the she-Dragon were without fire, so Hare said :
' Dragon, as we have no fire, let us steal some from the
village." Dragon agreed and said : " All right, let us go."
And Dragon said to Hare : " How are we to steal the fire ? "
Hare answered : " Let us be cunning in our stealing."
Dragon said : " How cunning ? ' Said Hare : " Come,
Dragon, let me tie some grass around your head." So
Dragon came to Hare and he tied a bunch of grass around
her head ; and Dragon asked him, saying : " How am I
to steal, now that you have tied a bunch of grass around
my head ? ' Hare answered : " Go to the village and on
your arrival stick your head into the fire and the grass will
get ablaze ; then run off and come back here."

So Dragon went to the village of men, and on arrival
entered the village. When they saw her they said : " Here's
a Dragon." And all the people ran away in fear. Dragon
entered a house and found fire blazing ; she put in her
head tied round with grass and the grass on her head
caught fire. She ran off to return to Hare ; she ran
calling out : ' Hare ! Hare ! " Hare answered, saying :

38o THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

" Hallo ! " Said Dragon : " Here's the fire.! " Hare said :
" Bring it here ! " So Dragon ran again. But Hare
started running also and went on ahead. Then Dragon
got on fire and died.

So when Dragon was dead, her child said : "As my
mother has died from fire, I shall go and sleep in a hollow
tree and in a burrow, I shall not again sit by a fire." Then
he turned fierce and said : "I am truly Dragon. I am
Lumanyendo. I am the one of the air ! " He got very
fierce because of the fire which burnt his mother. He also
got red about the neck. And the red wattles he has are
the fire with which he was burnt long ago. It is Hare that
made him fierce by killing him with fire. He has not again
warmed himself at a fire. To this day Dragon frequently
dies of fire, by being burnt in the hollow of a tree and in
the burrows where he sleeps. It is Hare that established
the death of Dragon by fire.

Note. — Whether there really is such a monster as Mulala we do
not know, but certainly the description of it seems fabulous. It
will, it is said, swallow as many as a hundred people in a day and
as many cattle. It even flies through the air to reach its victims.
Various places are pointed out as its habitat, and those places are
carefully avoided by passers-by. Nobody can live within range
of its depredations. In the imagination of the people it is a most
terrific creature with its fire-darting eyes. " Dragon " seems to
convey the idea of it.

5. Hare makes himself Horns of Beeswax

Hare and Ground Hornbill went off to a beer drink.
It was said : " Nobody without horns is allowed to drink
beer." So when Hare heard that he moulded beeswax on
his head so that they might think he had horns. They
went to the beer drink. On their arrival Hare went to sit
near the fire while Hornbill stayed near the door. They gave
them beer. Presently Hornbill said : " The beeswax is
melting." The people said : " What does he say ? " Hare
answered : " Hornbill is asking for the sediment of the
beer." They gave him some. When Hornbill looked
again at Hare, he saw the beeswax that he had moulded on
his head beginning to run down, and he said : " The beeswax

CH. XXVIII

FOLK-TALES 381

is melting." The people said : " What does Hornbill say ? "
Hare answered : " He is asking for the lees." They gave
him some -and he drank. Presently Hare's beeswax
melted ; and running Hare ran ! — out of the house. That
is how he deceived them.

6. Hare plays a Trick on Ground Hornbill

Hornbill and Hare left their homes and went off to pay
a visit to some relations by marriage. When they left home,
Hornbill had a lump of bread and Hare also had a lump
of bread. As they were going along they found a stream of
running water. Hare said : " Hornbill ! ' Said Hornbill :
" What do you say, Shanakanchiza ? " Hare said : " I spoke
of this little river ; it cannot be crossed in the ordinary way.
We must throw our bread into the river in order to cross all
right." Hornbill gave his consent, and Hare, beginning,
threw a lump of ants' nest, and Hornbill threw in his lump
of bread. They crossed over. When they had crossed
over Hare said : ' The great discoverer has discovered his
lump of bread ! ' Hornbill said : " And what am I to
eat ? ' Hare answered, saying : ' And you — you throw
away your bread and then you say, ' What am I to eat ? ' "
Hornbill took out his spear to buy Hare's lump of bread,
and he gave it him. But although he ate, Hornbill was not
satisfied.

Hare had coveted Hornbill's spear and thought, Let me
trick him into selling his spear to me. So they arrived at
Hare's relation by marriage, Hornbill and Chinkambaminwe.

Note. — Shanakanchiza and Chinkambaminwe are two of Hare's
praise-names. *

7. Hare scares Hyena

" Who are you ? " said Hyena.

" I am He-who-vomits-the-blood-of-his-victims. One
family of Hyenas is wiped out. Now I am going to eat
you and so start on the second."

Hyena ran off and got into a burrow. And to this day he
sleeps in a burrow, does Hyena, and Hare in a bush.

382 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

8. Hare causes Lion, who had stolen his Mother, to be stung

to Death by Bees

Lion stole Hare's mother in order to help a relation pay
for a wife. Having stolen Hare's mother, he tied her up
in a bundle of grass ; when he had done tying up the bundle
he called Hare, Snake and Frog to carry it. So when those
three, Hare, Snake and Frog, arrived, Lion said to them :
" I called you, friends, to accompany me to my relations'
place." So Hare and Snake and Frog consented. They
said : " It is well, chief, let us go." Lion said : " Hare,
carry the bundle." Hare carried it and they all went on
their journey, Lion and Hare and Snake and Frog.

When they arrived at a village they entered, and the
people greeted them. They greeted Lion, saying : " You
are still in the land of the living ? " Lion answered : ' We
are." Said they : " What's the news ? " Said Lion :
" Nothing particular, only that Hare is carrying a bundle
that he knows nothing of." They greeted Hare and he
simply answered : " Yes, we are still alive." Said they :
" What's the news ? " Said he : " There is none." They
greeted Snake, saying : " You are still alive ? ' Snake
answered : " We are still alive." Said they : " What's the
news ? " Said he : " We went far, very far indeed, in
order to swallow some little short people." They greeted
Frog, saying : " Frog, you- are still alive." Said he : " We
are still alive." "What's the news?" Said he: "One
can swallow a softy without difficulty." All this puzzled
Hare.

They left that village and went their way. On the road
Hare stayed behind and untied the bundle and found his
mother inside ; he took her out and tied up some bees in
her stead. Again they arrived at a village, and the people
greeted them in the same way, saying : " Lion, you are
still alive?" Said he: "We are still alive." "What's
the news ? " Said he : " Nothing particular, only Hare is
carrying a bundle that he knows nothing of." " Snake, you
are still alive ? " Said he : " We are still alive." Said
they : " What's the news ? " Said he : "We went far,
very far indeed, in order to swallow some little short people."

ch. xxviii FOLK-TALES 383

" Frog, you are still alive ? " Said he : " We are still alive."
" What's the news ? " Said he : " One can swallow a
softy without- difficulty." Said they : " Hare, you are
still alive ? " Said he : "We are still alive." " What's
the news ? " Said he : " Cunning he has who cunning
has."

They left that village and went on travelling to Lion's
relations' home ; on arrival there they entered the house
and Lion put therein the bundle. Hare went out with
Frog, leaving Snake and Lion in the house. They shut the
door and Lion said to his relations, " Hare's mother is in
the bundle. Untie it." They untied it and all the house
was filled with bees. Snake entered a burrow, but Lion
and his relations were killed by the bees ; so they perished,
the whole lot of them.

9. Hyena, incited thereto by Hare, wants to wear a

Lion's Skin

Hare said : " I will wear Lion's skin." When Hyena
saw Hare wearing Lion's skin, he said to Hare : " Hare ! '
Hare answered : " Hallo ! " Said Hyena : " Where did
you get that skin ? " Said Hare : ' I got it by killing ;
go you and hunt and kill a Lion and you will get a skin
also."

Hyena agreed and went to hunt the Lions with a club.
He found the Lions did Hyena, but as he was throwing his
club the Lions chased him. Hyena ran away and went
to Hare ; and on reaching Hare said : " Hare ! ' Hare
answered saying : " Hallo ! ' Said Hyena : " You de-
ceived me and I shall kill you." So Hare ran off, entered
a burrow, and stripped himself of the Lion's skin, and went
out at the escape-hole. Hyena also entered the burrow, but
when he tried to get out found the Lions at the entrance.
He went back into the burrow and did not come out again
but died there in the burrow. So it is said : "A crow
doesn't find his Impande unsuitable to wear " (that is, a
man can wear his own armour but not another's).

Note. — An impande is the round white shell worn as an orna-
ment, and the white-breasted crow is said to wear one.

384 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

10. How Hare and Crocodile helped' each other

Hare was sitting in the bush by the side of a river and
wanted a canoe. When he saw Crocodile travelling in a canoe
Hare shouted out : " Take me in ! " So Crocodile brought
the canoe to Hare. Then Hare began to run down the canoe
which Crocodile had brought to him ; said he : "It stinks
horribly, vilely — awful ! " Then Crocodile said : " What do
you say, Hare ? " Hare answered, saying : " No, chief,
your canoe is very fine, it surpasses all other canoes."
Again Hare was mumbling : " This canoe of a slave stinks
horribly. I have got myself into a mess by entering this
canoe." Again Crocodile said : " You, Hare, have got a
lot to say, you are always talking about my canoe." Hare
said : " No, chief, I am very pleased indeed to enter the
canoe of a chief."

Presently the canoe arrived at the bank. Then Hare
said : " Do you want some meat, Crocodile ? " Crocodile
answered : "I want it very badly." Then he said : " You
must go and cover yourself up entirely with mud. I am
going to bring you some meat, and you must make yourself
like a corpse."

So Crocodile wrapped himself up in mud, and Hare went
off, going along calling out : "Is there nobody who wants
meat ? " Now there was a Hyena near who heard and
ran to Hare ; said he : " What do you say, Hare ? " Hare
said : " My word ! There is meat yonder at the river, are
you hungry ? " Hyena said : "I am very hungry indeed."

So they went off together. When they arrived at the
river, he said : " Now, Hyena, you must keep your eyes
very wide open. I left the meat here in this muddy place."
Presently he said : " Hurrah i There's the meat yonder."
So Hyena took a spring and seized the meat, saying : "I
am grateful, Hare." Hare said : " You must not eat it
here, take it yonder, and eat it in the deep water and wash
the meat well."

Now Hyena did so ; he tugged and took the meat to the
shallow water. Then Hyena asked : " Is it here I am to eat ? "
Hare said : " No, take it to deep water up to your neck."
Then Hyena took it farther out, and Hare said : " Crocodile,

ch. xxviii FOLK-TALES 385

seize him ; that slave wants very badly to eat." Then
Crocodile arose and laid hold of Hyena with force, killed
him, and drew him down below. Thereupon Hare went
off and Hyena was at the bottom of the river.

Note. — Another version of this tale shows that the canoe that
Hare was so contemptuous of was nothing but Crocodile's own
body on which he was crossing the stream. No wonder he did
not want Crocodile to hear his remarks in midstream. In this
version, too, Hare opens the conversation by saying : " Nvhuna olwa
ku muma, ante ndakuvhuna olwa ku menzhi : " Help me in my need
on the bank and I will help you in yours in the water." That is now
a proverb with something of the meaning of : " Do good to others
that they may do good to you."

11. Hare kills many Lions

Hare once found some Lions eating meat, and when he
found them he said : " Let me pick the fleas out of your
tails." But he was deceiving them. They thought he was
picking out fleas, whereas he was digging pits. When he
had finished digging the pits, he buried their tails and
rammed them down tight. When he had done ramming,
he went into the forest and fetched a big drum ; he began
beating it in order to deceive them . When the Lions heard
the big drum they tried to flee, and he went on beating
vigorously the big drum so that they should run away and
leave the meat behind. Then again he said : "At the
family of Hares is the place to take refuge." So the Lions
broke away, leaving their tails, which he had rammed down
so hard.

Later, Hare plucked the hair all out of his body, and
came and met the Lions and asked them : " Haven't you
seen those people who said they would eat me ? ' The Lions
answered saying : " We have not seen them who said they
would eat you." And then the Lions said : " You are Hare
who caused us tc break our tails." Hare answered, saying :
" No, I am not. Perhaps it is my namesake, Hare." Then
Hare said to himself : " They will kill me, I had better
trick them." So he called them, saying : " Come here
and take down my axe for me." But underneath he had
dug a game-pit. Then the Lions said : " Who was it that

vol. 11 2 c

386 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

hung up the axe ? " Said he : " Come and take down the
axe for me, I am too short." When Lion reached up to
bring down the axe he fell into the game-pit. When he fell
into the game-pit Hare took down his axe, jumped into
the pit and cut Lion about and killed him. He called
another. He also came, and in trying to take down the axe
fell into the game-pit. He killed him. There came another,
and he killed him. He finished them all. When he had
done killing them, he went back to the meat ; on arriving
at the meat he built a platform and dried the meat ; there-
upon he built a village and became a chief.

12. Hare deceives Jackal three times

Hare and Jackal were going visiting and on the way

found some grass. On finding the grass Hare said :

' Comrade, this grass — when we are given ground-nuts

there where we are going, fetch the grass so that we can

roast the nuts with it."

When they arrived at their destination the people gave
them nuts. When they gave them nuts, Hare said :
" Comrade, go and bring yon grass that we left in the
way, so that we may roast the nuts." During the time he
was gone to fetch the grass, Hare ate the nuts they had
been given. On Jackal's return he asked : " Where are
the nuts that they gave us ? Here is the grass." Hare
answered, saying : " The owners have eaten them."

Again they departed and went to the cattle-post. As
they were going along in the way they found some pieces
of calabash : and Hare said : " Comrade, when we are
given milk you must come back for these bits of calabash
so that we can use them to drink our milk." On their
arrival they were given some thick milk ; on being given
the milk, Hare said : " Comrade, bring those bits of calabash
that we left in the way, let us drink our milk from them."
While he was going Hare drank all the milk, only some he
spilt on the ground. Then Jackal returned, bringing the
bits of calabash, and said : " Here are the pieces of cala-
bash, bring the milk and let us eat." Hare answered,
saying : 'I am greatly astonished, Comrade, because the

ch. xxviii FOLK-TALES 3§7

milk they gave us they have taken it away again and
eaten it. See here is where they were eating and spilt
some of it." Jackal was grieved very much on account
of his friend having deceived him twice. Jackal has no
cunning.

On another occasion, Hare said : " Let us go and eat
ground-nuts, Jackal." They went off and when they
reached the nut field dug up the nuts. When they were
drunk with them they slept ; Master Hare arose in the
night and dug a deep hole and buried the tail of Jackal
and rammed it down hard. When he had done ramming
he aroused him, saying : " Get up, my dear, people are
coming. They will kill us, let us be off." He himself ran,
but his friend was unable to run, and the owners of the
nuts found him. They killed Jackal. That is how his
friend deceived him. Jackal has no cunning.

13. Hare breaks all Lion's Teeth and so kills him

Master Hare found Lion and said : " Let us go and play
as my uncles the Elephants played." Lion answered, say-
ing : " Let us go."

On their arrival Lion climbed a tree and Hare looked
for a fairly large stone. Lion took that stone with him
into the tree. When Lion was about to throw it from
near by, Hare said : " No, go right away up -there among
the leaves, while I am still preparing myself here below."
Hare plucked some leaves and chewed them. Lion let the
stone go and Hare opened his mouth. When he saw it
coming near him Hare jumped away and dodged so that
it did not drop where he was. Just as it fell, Hare spat out
the leaves on to the stone and asked Lion, saying : " Don't
you see these little dirty things ? " l Lion agreed, saying :
' Yes. And now I will open my mouth and you climb to
the top of the tree with the stone."

Hare took it, and Lion below opened his mouth. Hare
went right to the tip-top to let the stone go from there.
Lion opened his mouth and when he saw the stone coming
near he opened it very widely indeed. And as he opened

1 The idea is, of course, that the stone went through his body.

388 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

his mouth in that manner the stone reached his teeth and
all the teeth were smashed. And Lion died.

When Hare descended he said : "As for me I am
astonished. How do these uncles of mine open their
mouths ? I told him myself, saying : Open your mouth
very widely. And he opened it only just a little. And so
for that reason he has killed himself. Once again have I
deceived these uncles of mine."

When he had done this, he ran and went away.

Note. — There is a Lala tale (A. C. Madan, Lala-Lamba Handbook,
pp. 46, 47) called Kalulu ne Nkalamu which is similar. Instead of
a tree, Hare tells Lion to climb a hill and roll down the stone. The
Hare jumps aside and spits leaves upon it, seeing which the Lion
thought the stone certainly went into Hare's stomach. Of course
on trying to emulate Hare he meets with disaster ; not at once but
next morning.

14. Hare eats Lion's Children

Mrs. Lion bore children, and after she had borne them
Hare came to nurse them. Mrs. Lion went out to graze,
and Hare ate one of the young Lions. He went about with
a grain-mortar outside the village (that its impressions on
the sand might resemble Elephant's footprints). When
Mrs. Lion returned he deceived her by saying : ' Some
Elephants passed by and it is they who ate your child."
He took out one of the children and went to suckle it at
its mother. Afterwards Mrs. Lion went out to hunt, and
on her return she found that Hare had eaten them all,
every one.

Hare went travelling and he found some animals at
their village that they had built, he found them playing.
He deceived them, saying : " To-morrow I am going to
bring my Dog, come and see it." He went back to tie
Mrs. Lion up, and having tied her round the neck, he said :
" Lion, I have found those who ate your children. I
deceived them, saying : to-morrow I shall bring my Dog ;
come and see it."

Next morning they went off ; Hare tied Mrs. Lion up
with a rope around her neck and took her to that village,
saying : " Let me take you to those who ate your children.

CH. XXVIII

FOLK-TALES 389

When I get there I shall say : See my Dog ! — and then you
shall kill them."

On his arrival, he said : " See my Dog ! ' All the
animals admired it and said : "A fine Dog ! ' Presently
he took the rope off her neck, and she ran and bit all the
animals. When they were all bitten, they cut up the meat,
and having cut up the meat they dried it, and when it
was dry loaded themselves with it.

Hare loaded himself, so did Mrs. Lion, and they went
off on their journey. On the way the carrying-stick of
Mrs. Lion broke and Hare said : " Go and cut another."
While she was away, Hare went off with all Mrs. Lion's
meat. When Mrs. Lion came back she found the meat
missing, and though she looked about she could not find
Hare.

She went off to have the matter divined by Mr. Ant, and
he said : "Go and look in the water and there you will
see Hare." She went to the water ; on arrival she looked
and saw a shadow x in the water and the meat ; she dived
in and came up. Again she looked in the water and found
the shadow, and again she dived into the water, but she
was unable to see Hare. She went back to Mr. Ant, and
he said : "Go and look in the tree on the river bank and
you will see Hare." She went to look in the tree and found
Hare. As soon as Hare saw her, he said : ' Mrs. Lion,
open your mouth, here is some bread." He .put a stone
into the bread, and when Mrs. Lion opened her mouth
Hare threw it into her mouth. He destroyed all her teeth
and then Hare ran off.

Note. — The eating of lioness's cubs by the Hare is a frequent
incident in Bantu tales. In another version of the Ila tale, the
cubs number ten and the Hare eats one each day, but every day,
till the last, he deceives the mother by bringing out a cub ten times
and taking it back. In a Suto tale ( Jacottet, op. cit. p. 40) the Jackal
deceives a Leopard in the same way. Mr. Jacottet quotes other
references, and suggests that in the Suto tale the Jackal has been
substituted for the Hare.

1 It was, of course, Hare's shadow she saw and thought it was himself
under the water, while really he was up in the tree. Another instance
of the stupidity of the Lion tribe.

390 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

15. Hare is outwitted by Mrs. Tortoise

All the animals were dying of thirst, and they said :
" Let us see who will be the first to reach the water."
Now, Mrs. Tortoise had borne many children, and she went
along burying them in the earth, and one child she buried
by the side of the water.

Now all the animals said : " Let us run hard and go to
the river and drink water."

They rose early and all ran, saying : " Let us see who
will be the first to arrive."

So they ran and the Tortoises went on saying: "Forward,
oh companions of Hare ! " Again they ran and again the
tortoises said : " Forward, oh companions of Hare ! ' The
sun went down and they went on shouting : " One day
has passed. Forward, oh companions of Hare ! "

Next day the animals were dead with fatigue, and the
child of Mrs. Tortoise who was by the water-side shouted :
" Forward, oh companions of Hare ! "

And Hare was done up and could not reach the water.
And Mrs. Tortoise's child that was by the river-side brought
them water in his mouth ; he came to spew it out for the
animals. He said : " And it is you who started the dispute
saying, We will outdo Tortoise in speed. And now what's
the matter that you did not arrive ? You are youngsters.
I am the great-one ; I reached the water. You are
youngsters." Then he spat out the water for them which
he had in his mouth. And they were unable to answer a
word, but were simply ashamed.

Note. — Brer Rabbit in Uncle Remus is defeated in the same way
by Brer Tarrypin. " He had a wife en th'ee chilluns, old Brer
Tarrypin did, en dey wuz all de ve'y spin and image er de ole man. . ."
On the day of the race : " ole Brer Tarrypin en his ole 'oman, en
his th'ee chilluns dey got up 'fo' sun up and went ter de place. De
ol 'oman she tuck 'er stan' nigh de fus' mile pos', she did, en de
chilluns nigh de udders, up ter de las', en dar old Brer Tarrypin
he tuck his stan'."

ch. xxvni FOLK-TALES 391

16. How Hare deceives the Animals and drives them away

from the Fruit

Once in the season of the Imbula fruit all the animals
of every species whatsoever were in the forest eating the
fruit as ordained by God ; only Jackal and Hare found
none for them as the others gave them no room. This
annoyed Jackal and Hare. Next day, being very hungry,
Hare went to call Fish-eagle, saying : " Chung we ! ' The
Fish-eagle answered : " Hallo, Sulwe ! What is it ? '
vSaid Hare : " You are able to fly, so come and sit on an
Imbula tree where all the animals are eating. Then when
I come to them I shall suggest to them that we call aloud
to God and ask Him whose land this is, and do you
reply : ' It belongs to Hare and Jackal.' Do you under-
stand ? "

So Fish-eagle went and sat on the Imbula tree. It
was early morning and there was a great crowd of animals
wending their way to the Imbula forest. Hare and Jackal
had made a compact. Hare had said : " Let us go at
dawn and call to God. Those animals always cheat us so
that we never get any Imbula." And Jackal had agreed,
saying : " Splendid. We will get up very early." So they
slept lightly, and when the first cock crowed they were on
their feet going to the forest. When they got near they
saw the great crowd of animals coming up, and as they
were about to eat the fruit Jackal and Hare arrived. Hare
said to them : " Now then, all of you. To-day you must
not start eating yet." All the animals said to Hare :
' Tell us what you have to say, Sulwe." Jackal and Hare
replied : " What we have got to do is to call aloud to God
in the sky, to ask whose land it is, so that we may hear
what He says on the matter." The animals said : " We
agree. That is good." Now Fish-eagle was sitting up in
the tree and had been told by Hare : " When I shout, do
not answer, but when Elephant shouts answer as I told you."
So Hare shouted out first, and then Elephant shouted, and
Fish-eagle made reply : ' The land belongs to Jackal and
Hare." Hearing this answer, all the animals were stricken
with surprise and said : " What does God say ? " Elephant

392 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

answered : " He says the land belongs to Hare and Jackal."
So the animals said : " Elephant, ask again ; how can this
land belong to Jackal and Hare ? " So Elephant shouted
again : " O God, to whom does the land belong ? " And
Chungwe — whose voice they took to be God's — replied :
" It belongs to Hare and Jackal." The animals yelled in
chorus : ' How can it be theirs ? " And Elephant asked
again : ' O God, how can it belong to Hare and Jackal ? '
And Chungwe, whom they supposed to be God, replied : "It
does belong to them. Leave off eating the fruit here in
this Imbula forest. Only Jackal is to eat it ! " So all the
animals made their departure crestfallen. Since then they
have no longer eaten Imbula fruit ; which became the
property of Jackal and other soft-footed things like himself.
Hare has plenty of wisdom, but he himself does not
now eat Imbula. Jackal became Shimbula ; that is his
name : " Eater of Imbula." And this because of Hare's
deceiving them by sending Fish -eagle to the forest to
impersonate God.

17. How Hare made a Fool of himself

Hare and Crested Crane went out to dig up a certain root
named munkonyongo, and presently Hare left what he had
with Crested Crane while he went some distance off to dig
others. While he was gone his companion ate Hare's roots.
On returning, Hare asked for his roots and Crested Crane
answered : "I have eaten them, my dear." Hare then
claimed compensation, and was given the crest off Crane's
head.

Having received this, Hare went off to another district
and there met a man who had no head ornament. He said
to the man : " You do not look well, oh man, without an
ornament on your head." The man answered : ' Lend
me your crest." Hare handed it to him and he put it on.
He went off and on the road lost the crest and going back
to Hare said : " Sulwe, the crest is lost." Hare said to
him : ' No, don't say that. How is it that you have thrown
away my crest ? I got it from Crested Crane, my brother,
in return for my munkonyongo which he ate. You must

CH. XXVIII

FOLK-TALES 393

give me compensation." So the man gave Hare a spear,
who took it and went to another place.

There he found a man who was trying to skin an animal
with his nails, and said to him : " You are in trouble having
no spear." The man answered : " True, Sulwe, I am in
trouble." Hare said : ' Here's a spear, take it and skin
your animal." The man took it and used it, but after
finishing his work lost the spear. Presently Hare returned
to him and said : " Where's the spear you were skinning
with ? " Said he : " Since I finished skinning I haven't seen
it." Hearing that, Hare said to the man : " You must
give me something for the spear you have lost." The man
gave him some lumps of meat, and after taking it, Hare
went off to another place.

Here he found a man eating bread without a relish and
said to him : " Here in this place what do you use as a
relish with your food ? " The man replied : ' Nothing.
We only have bread." Said Hare : " Here's some meat."
The man took and ate it and when he had done so Hare
said to him : " Give me something for my meat you have
eaten." The man paid Hare some meal.

Hare went off to another place carrying the meal, and
there found a man making a supper off meat. Said Hare
to him : " What are you eating ? " The man replied :
' What am I supping ? Meat only." Said Hare : ' Here's
some meal ; eat." The man took it with thanks and ate it.
Then Hare waxed indignant and said : " Give me back my
meal which you have eaten." The man answered : " How
can I do that ? I've eaten it." Hare said : " You must
give me something then for the meal you have eaten. I got
it from a man who was eating bread because he ate my
meat, and the meat I got from a man skinning an animal
with his nails who lost the spear I lent him ; and the spear
I got from a man to whom I had given a crest ; the crest
I got from Crested Crane, who had eaten my munkonyongo."
The man gave Hare a new earthenware pot, unbaked.

So Hare went off to another place. On the way he came
to a pool of water and took his pot from his shoulder to
draw some water, but when he put it into water the pot
dissolved and came to an end.

394 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

So Hare burst into tears and was much ashamed of
himself . He could no longer go about extorting things from
people now that his pot was dissolved. And so it is said :
" Wisdom does not sleep in one head " — which is to say :
Even a wise man is a fool sometimes.

18. Hare's last Adventures and Death

Elephant and Hare found some fruit called munjebele,
and they found there also an old woman living in a tumble-
down house. Lion passed by and found that old woman ;
and she gathered some of the fruit as a welcoming gift,
saying : " This is the food that I eat here." Lion asked,
saying : " What is the name of that fruit ? " And she told
him, saying : " Munjebele." Said she : " Go along saying
it in the road and tell your friends, so that you may eat
that which you found here."

But on the way Lion came to a slippery place and fell ;
and on reaching his friends they asked him, saying : " What
is the fruit which you ate there ? " He said : "I fell
midway and have forgotten the name."

And so Elephant went there that he might ask the name.
On Elephant's arrival at the old woman's she told him,
saying : " That fruit is munjebele. Go along singing :
Munjebele, munjebele. Don't forget." When he arrived
at the same place where Lion fell, the Elephant fell also,
and forgot the name of munjebele.

On his arrival Hare went off, and reaching that old
woman he asked, saying : " What is the name of that
fruit which they say they have forgotten ? " Said she :
" Munjebele." And she gave him a bell. She tied the
bell around his neck, saying : " When you are going
to fall, call out : Munjebele ! munjebele ! ' When he
came there to the slippery place he fell, but called out :
" Munjebele ! "

Hare arrived there where his friends were, and he plucked
some of that munjebele fruit and ate. His friends inquired :
' Do you know the name ? " Still going on eating, he
said : ' It is munjebele ; eat it without bother."

When he had done eating, Hare said : " Let us go to

CH. XXVIII

FOLK-TALES 395

water, I know where, and let us drink." When they had
done drinking they slept behind that pool.

It was said : " He who commits a nuisance will be
killed ; this is the pool of other people." While they slept
in the night Hare had stomach-ache and went to relieve
himself near Elephant, so that they might say, Our uncles
the elephants have made the mess, and if anyone was to
be destroyed for it they would kill Elephant. So they
killed Elephant.

They said : ' Who is to carry his head ? ' They said :
" Hare, of course ! " So they took up their meat and
went off. Master Hare lagged behind, saying : " The
big head of Great-skull burdens me." Then he sang :
' He made a mess, that little one, and smeared it upon
Jumbo." He found Buffalo resting on ahead, and Buffalo
asked him, saying : " What are you going along singing
about, Hare ? ' Said he : " Nothing, my uncle. I was
singing : ' The big head burdens me, it needs Great-skull
to bear it himself.' ' Buffalo called Hare, saying : " Let
us go on." Once again he put his burden down and
Buffalo passed on in front. And again he took up
his song, saying : " He made a mess, that little one, and
smeared it upon Jumbo."

Elephant caught hold of him, saying : " It is you who
told lies about the elder." Hare said : " Now as you
have taken me in this way, you must no.t hit me on the
rock, or I shall not die. Hit me yonder on the burrow of
Spring Hare ; that is where I shall die." But the little
one was deceiving them. When they reached the burrow
and were about to hit him, he got into the burrow.

One of them put his arm into the burrow and caught
him by the leg, but he spoke in the burrow, saying : " It's
not me you are holding, it's a big root ! ' When he heard
that he who had hold of him let go, saying : "It seems
truly that I had hold of a root." So they brought a hoe
and began to dig, and the little one went out and came
along the road, with his hair braided and changed into a
human being. On his arrival he asked Elephant, -saying :
'What are you digging here, uncle.?" Said he: "We
are digging out Master Hare, he left us and got into the

396 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

burrow." Said he : " Bring the hoe and let me dig." He
dug, and the hoe-handle came out. Said he : " What are
we to hit the hoe upon ? If we hit it on a tree it will
not be firm. Bring one of your legs and let us hit it on
that."

He hit it a little, and dug, and again the handle came
out. Said he : " Bring forward your head, uncle, let us
hit it on that." He chopped him, he chopped him, and
then went into the burrow.

Buffalo put in his arm and caught hold of him. And
the little one sang his song — just this : " It is not me you
have caught, you are holding a large root."

They said : " Let's go and divine the matter." They
went off to get it divined by Mr. Ant. Mr. Ant said :
" Now when you see him, simply get hold of him."

They came back. On arrival they dug. And the little
one appeared in the road, coming along playing a hand-
piano, and when he arrived he inquired, saying : " What
are you digging ? " Said they : " We are digging-out that one
who wounded our friend and killed him." Now they mis-
took him and so did not seize him : he took the hoe from
them and dug. The handle came out and he said : "Buffalo,
my uncle, bring your head, let us hit it on that." He
wounded him just there, and got into the burrow. They
caught hold of him and he sang his song : " It's not me
you've caught, you are holding a big root."

Then they said : " He's too much for us. He has very
great cunning. Let us leave him."

Later on, all the animals were collected together and
they said : " Let us go and dig out the water-hole." When
Hare heard that, he said : "I refuse to dig the water-hole.
I have got my own water." When all the animals heard
that, they said : " Hare, as you refuse to dig the water-
hole, if we see you getting water out of our hole we shall
kill you." When he heard that, Hare said : " No, as for
me, I don't want to get water out of your hole."

Then all the animals went to dig out the water-hole.
When they had done digging, Lion said : " Now it is neces-
sary that one should watch, let it be Gnu." So Gnu stayed
behind to guard the water-hole.

ch. xxvin FOLK-TALES 397

Then as he was looking out he saw Hare coming along
to the hole ; so Gnu said : " Now though you have come
here you shall not get water." He drove Hare away. As
Hare was turning round Gnu saw the calabash of honey on
his back, and said : " What's that ? " Hare answered :
" In here there is mangwalozhi,1 and if an adult is not tied
up he cannot eat it." Gnu said : " Give me a taste." Hare
gave him a taste. When he knew the niceness of it Gnu said
to him : " Tie me ! " So he tied him up with strength and
entered the hole and drew water. When he had done
drawing, he went off, leaving Gnu tied up.

After a time all the animals came to drink and found
Gnu tied up. Said they : " You big fellow, how did that
little child tie you up ? " They unbound him. Then they
left Lion, saying : " If you see him, bite him."

Later on Hare came back ; Lion got very fierce and
said : " What do you want ? Yesterday you tied one
person up." He got very fierce indeed, and drove him
away. As Hare turned round Lion saw the calabash on
his back and said : " What's that ? " Hare answered :
" In here there is mangwalozhi, and if an adult is not tied
up he may not eat it." Then Lion said : " Let me taste."
Hare gave him some. Then he said : " Tie me up ! "
So Hare tied him up and, after cutting off his tail, went off.

When the Elephants came down they said : " He has
tied you up, you big fellow, you who are able to bite all
the animals ! Why ? ' Then Lion answered : " Because
he has got cunning." Then they said : " We will leave
Elephant." Elephant stayed behind and Hare came.
Elephant drove him off, saying : " Leave me alone and go
away." Then when he looked he saw the calabash, and
said : " What have you got ? " Said he : "I have got
some mangwalozhi, and unless an adult is tied up he may
not eat it." Said he : " Let me taste." He gave him to
taste, and Elephant said : " Tie me up ! " Then he tied

1 Mangwalozhi, literally, "Things tied up with string." What they
were we do not know. They must have been bewitchingly delicious to
have enticed so easily Hare's enemies into offering themselves to be tied
up, if only they might enjoy them. Evidently some ambrosia of Hare's
own making. And we are led to suppose that, after all, his victims only
had the preliminary taste.

398 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES ft, v

him up, and threw him away over there, and drew some
water.

When he had done he went off. When the others came
back they found Elephant already tied up, and said : " We
cannot manage that person, he has got cunning."

Then Tortoise said : "I will stay behind at the hole
and watch — I ! ' Then they acted cunningly. They put
bird-lime all over Tortoise's body and put him by the hole.

Presently he saw Hare coming ; then Tortoise said :
" Let him come, that Hare, he shan't draw water." Then
Hare arrived at the hole and said to himself : " It's that
bad fellow they've left at the hole ! " Then Hare said :
" I am going to draw water to-day." Hare went into the
hole, and pushed past Tortoise, and his arm stuck fast.
Then he kicked him with his feet, and they also stuck.
Said he : " If I butt you with my head you will die." He
butted him with his head and the head stuck fast. He
struck him with his tail and that also stuck.

Then the big ones came, they seized Hare and killed
him.

And that is the end of Hare's history.

Note. — The latter part of this tale is found among the Basuto
(Jacottet : op. cit. p. 32), but there it is the Jackal that refuses to dig.
The Rabbit keeps watch and is deceived again and again by the Jackal;
then the Tortoise is set to watch and catches him. Mr. Jacottet
says the story seems to be very popular in S. Africa and cites tales
from the Basubia, Baronga, and Basumbwa in which Hare plays the
part taken by the Jackal in the Suto story. He suggests that Hare
is the original figure, and that Jackal is substituted probably through
direct or indirect Hottentot influence.

Hare's end is to be compared with Uncle Remus's story of the
wonderful tar -baby.

Part III

Tales of People and Animals
1. The Man who called Lions to his aid

A man lived in the forest with his wife and son. Some
people were sent by their master, saying : "Go and hunt
for some meat for me." During their hunting they found

ch. xxvin FOLK-TALES 399

this woman in the forest, and she gave them some milk.
Then they turned back, and on their return they said to their
master : " There where we went we found a fine woman
whom you, chief, ought to marry." Then the chief
answered : "Go and bring her." They said : " We will
go in the morning."

Next day they went their way for the purpose of find-
ing that woman, and on their arrival they said to her :
" You must take a journey." The woman did not refuse
but said : " Let us go." She took her ceremonial axe.
Then she went off, carrying her pot of fat.

Then the child began to call his father, saying : " Father,
hunting, hunting game there in the forest ! " His father
heard the calling and came back. Then the father put
down his meat — Reedbuck — and asked his child, saying :
' Who has taken away your mother ? ' Said he :
' Strangers." Thereupon his father went off, carrying his
bow ; and the track that his wife had passed along was
not lost. He found them and said : " Where are you
taking my wife to ? " They said : " We were sent by
the chief." Then he drove them off, killing one and cutting
off the lips of the other. He who had his lips cut off, when
he arrived at the chief's, said : " It is not possible to arrive
there." The chief answered, saying : " You are fools."
And he said also : " My men shall go."

Then he sounded his alarm bell, did the chief of the
district, and it called the young men. Then "they assembled
at the chief's. Next morning they started to go to the
woman. When they arrived the woman gave them milk.
When they had drunk the milk, they inquired : " Where
has your husband gone ? " She answered : "He has gone
into the forest." Then they told the woman : " It is you
we have come for, the chief wants you to be his wife."

Then the woman rose up, and that child began to look
about and to call : " Father, where you are hunting game
yonder ! ' When his father heard it he came running, and
on arrival said to the child : " Who are they ? " Said he :
" The same that took her first." So on his arrival he said
to the child : " Stay here, I am going to bring your
mother."

400 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

He found those people had already, arrived at their
chief's. And he pressed on after them, and on arrival he
sat down and the chief said : " Give that person some
water." But the man refused to take water from a
slave. Then the chief said : "As he refuses, let some good
man take the water." And again he said : " Who will
take water to that person ? " Then they said : " Bring
out his wife." So they brought her out, gave her water,
and said : " Take and carry it to your husband." She
smiled and was pleased. And the man said : " Let us
sit here under the tree until we return." So the woman
sat down. Then the man said : " Kalundungoma, my
wife ! " When it grew dark he asked his wife : " My
wife, Kalundungoma, do you like being here ? " And the
woman said : " I shall return home, I can't be a chief's wife."
The man said : " Let us go." So that night when it was
dark they made their escape.

When he arrived at his village he went off to summon
the Lions, saying : Those people must not come back here
again. When the Lions arrived they sat down in the road
so that those people should not return. Those Lions
numbered six.

Once again that chief sent his people, saying : "Go
and fetch me my wife, the one whom I admired so." Then
when the man saw the people sent by the chief — there were
seventy of them — he sent the Lions, saying : " Do not
spare them, eat them all, let them come to an end." On
hearing that the Lions were glad and said : " We see meat ! '

Then they rushed upon them, scattered and finished
them ; they spared one only. He returned to the chief
and said : " By the ash ! oh chief, do not send people again :
that man has summoned to his assistance sixty lions ! '

Then the chief abandoned his scheme, being afraid, and
said : " All my people will be finished if I go on with it."
So the man and his wife lived on happily.

2. Kantanga and the Lions

There was a Lion and a pregnant woman. Famine had
entered the district. When the woman saw the Lions she

ch. xxvni FOLK-TALES 401

said : " Oh you Lions, what meat have you ? " The lions
answered : " We have got Nabunga meat." Then she
said : " Yes, you have meat, give me some." And she
added : "I have a child in my womb, and if you will give
me meat, when the child is born I will give him to you ;
when the famine is over vou shall fetch and eat him."
Then the Lions gave her meat, saying : " Take and eat and
live." Then she accepted the meat, took it home, and ate.

The Lions waited as the days went by, and then set out ;
on their arrival they said : " Where is our meat ? ' The
woman answered : " He is over yonder — my child. His
name is Kantanga ; go and call aloud : ' Kantanga ! ' "
They shouted : " Kantanga ! * Your mother is calling you."
Then Kantanga, as he had ivory bracelets on his arms, took
them off and gave to his companions, one he gave a bracelet
and to another another.1 Then his friends said : " We
are all of us Kantanga ! ' The Lions called, saying :
" Youngster, Kantanga, come, your mother is calling you ! "

Not rinding him the Lions went back in anger, and on
arriving at the mother they fiercely said : ' We have not
seen your child." Then she told them : " Hide there in
the nut-patch, conceal yourselves under the nut-bushes."
Then the woman called her child, saying : " Come here,
Kantanga, namesake of my father, go into the nut-patch
and bring me a pumpkin." Now her child had a play-
spear in his hand, and he said to his companions : ' I am
going to throw it yonder and spear the thing that is there."
Thereupon he threw his toy-spear into the nut-bushes, but
it was where a Lion was lying hiding, and he speared it
with his toy-spear. Then the Lions ran away. On arriving
where his mother was, she asked him : " Kantanga, where
is the pumpkin I sent you for ? ' Kantanga answered :
" Here it is." When the woman saw the pumpkin she
was alarmed ; and she herself thought : ' ' Now the Lions
will kill me when they return."

The Lions came back. On their arrival they said :
' Give us our meat." The woman answered : ' Go to the

1 Kantanga is on the alert, fearing some danger. He tries to minimise
it by making his friends as much like himself as possible — so that one may
be taken in mistake for himself.

VOL. II 2D

402 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

water-hole, and when you get there, hide by diving into
the water. When you are hid I will send him to fetch
water, and just there you will catch him." Then she called
her child, saying : " Kantanga, my child, I am thirsty,
go and fetch me some water." Then she gave Kantanga
the water-calabashes. When he came to a bush he called
a Mason- Wasp, saying : " Mason- Wasp, go and fetch me
water." The Mason- Wasp went and drew water for him.
Then his mother was alarmed and said : " Where does he
get this wisdom from ?

After a time the Lions came out of the water and said :
" That person is deceiving us. Her child that she said
was coming to the water, what is he doing ? " Then they
returned to the mother angrily, saying, let us eat the
mother. On their arrival they said : " Our meat ! " The
woman answered, saying : " My masters, do not kill me.
Go and hide in the house."

Then the woman put the Lions in the house and hid
them in big water- jars and covered them up. Then she
called him : " Kantanga, Kantanga ! " On his arrival,
he said : " What do you call me for ? " His mother said : "I
called you, my child, to give me a pot out of the house."
Then Kantanga answered : " This little old woman beats
us very much, and now she has her friends in the house,
and she wants them to catch me." He went in ; as he
was uncovering a pot they seized him, took him away, and
tied him up in a bundle of grass. On arrival in their dis-
trict they seized him, and, washing out a pot, put him
therein, and after pouring water into the pot they put
it on the fire. They said : " Tell the child of So-and-so,
who survived Mr. Hare's consumption of his brothers, to
come and stir up the fire." They went off hunting.

Now when Kantanga felt the pot getting hot, he came
out, and took from their child the fringed blanket he had
on and clothed himself in it ; then he seized the lionet
and put him into the pot. And then he himself sat down
to stir up the fire.

Late in the afternoon they came back from where they
had gone to hunt. On their arrival they inquired : ' Is
the meat cooked, child ? ' He answered : " It is cooked."

ch. xxvni FOLK-TALES 403

Said they : " Bring it here." He took the pot off the fire
and carried it to where they were. They proceeded to
dish up, and when they had finished, they offered him a leg of
the child, but he refused, saying : " No, dad, I don't eat
cooked meat." When they had done eating, he escaped
at dawn. In the morning the Lions looked about and
called : " Where are you, orphan ? Come and give us
water." They came to find all quiet in the place ; he had
gone. Then they said : " That person cooked for us our
own child, and as for him he won't return to his mother,
but has gone to a foreign country." Indeed he had gone
to another country, and had gone to live at Kapepe's
place.

Thereupon the Lions swiftly made their way to his mother,
and on arrival said : " Where has your child gone to ? He
went and killed our child for us." Then his mother
answered : "I haven't seen him, my brothers, and if you
keep on coming here always you will get into trouble."
Then the Lions were afraid, and said : " This saying is true.
If we keep on coming here always we shall find trouble."
That's all.

3. The Woman who married a Fish

There was a woman who had no husband, and she said :
" I wish I had a man to marry me." Then they told her :
' As you want a husband, cut some small sticks and weave
a fish-trap. When you have finished weaving it, go to
the river. When you arrive set your trap in the river.
Then you will kill a barbel. When you have killed it,
bring it to the village. Then look for a large water- jar,
put it in and cover it up. When you uncover it you will
find it has become a human being, and so you will get a
husband." The woman went off to catch a barbel. When
she saw that the people had gone out of the village she went
to uncover the pot, and looking into it saw that the barbel
had become a man. Said he: " Do not cook me ; I am a man.
And as you have no husband, marry me. And as for my
food, I do not eat grain, I eat baboon's fruit. If you eat
it also I shall go back to the water and you won't see me
again." The woman agreed ; after a time she stole some of

404 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

his fruit. When the man returned he examined his food
and said : " My fruit is not all here. The woman has
stolen some." Then he grew angry, saying : "As you
have taken my food, I am going back into the water."
Now next morning the woman took her hoe and left her
husband in the village. When the woman came back from
hoeing, on her arrival she uncovered the pot where her
husband lived, and found that he had gone out of the pot.
He said : "I am going back to my home as you ate my
food." The woman said : " We will go together." When
they arrived at the water the man went in. Said he : "I
am going back. You, oh woman, will find other men."
So he went alone into the water to his home. The woman
watched and watched, but she never saw him again.

Part IV

Tales of People — mostly Fools

i. The Little Old Woman who changed into a Maiden

There was a little old woman who lived away among
the fields. Long ago when the people had cattle they sent
their children, saying: "Take the cattle into the plain,
let them graze, and build yourselves a house." So they
built a village.

The people at that cattle-post were in the act of play-
ing when that little old woman entered the house and stole
out of Mbwalu's churn. Then when the cattle-post men
returned and came' to look about they found there that
little old woman. In her malice that little old woman,
after stealing out of the churn, put into it a whole lot of
fleas. When they arrived the cattle-post men said : " Who
has done this ? " Others said : " It's yon little old woman."
When the little old woman heard that she came back, and
on arrival said : " Mbwalu has married me." Mbwalu said :
" I am still a youngster, I cannot marry." But the little
old woman stuck to it, saying : " You have married me."
Then Mbwalu said : " No, I will not marry you because you
purposely stole out of my churn." Wherever Mbwalu sat

ch. xxvin FOLK-TALES 405

the little old woman followed him, saying : " You have
married me." Then his comrades laughed at Mbwalu,
saying : " You fool ! If you cry about it, shall we not
kill the little old woman ? " Then they went off to the
fields, to the elders their fathers. And the same little old
woman went also to the village. They inquired : " What
is the matter ? " Mbwalu answered, saying : "I shall kill
that little old woman who sticks to me." So when the
sun went down, Mbwalu went into one of the huts and the
little old woman followed him. Next day the elders said :
" Just marry the little old woman as she keeps on at it."
So afterwards Mbwalu consented, and he went off crying
into one of the huts. At night, when it was about to dawn,
she that had been a little old woman was found to have
changed into a pretty maiden. And after it dawned
all the village came in some alarm, saying : "Is not that
the little old woman who cried after you ? " Mbwalu
answered, saying : "It is she." His comrades were con-
founded then who had laughed at Mbwalu, saying : " You
have married a little old woman."

2. The Little Old Woman who killed a Child

There was a little old woman who nursed a child. When
the mother got up early to go to hoe, that little old woman
said : " Bring your child and I will nurse it for you." The
woman answered : " Take it and nurse it for me so that I
can hoe easily." When the woman left off work, she called
the little old woman, saying : " Little old woman, my
child ! ' The woman came quickly and said to the mother :
' To-morrow you can bring your child again and I will
nurse it for you."

The woman went back to her home and slept. Next
morning she rose early and on arrival called : " Little old
woman ! " The little old woman answered : " Hallo ! "
When she arrived she gave her the child. On arrival at
her village the little old woman passed through to where
the melons were — she went to get a melon. After getting
the melon, she throttled the child, killed it, and having
killed it put it into a pot. The arms of the child, which

406 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

she had cut off, she attached to the melon, and she also
fastened on the head to the melon.

When the mother left off work she called, saying : ' Little
old woman ! " Said she " Hallo ! Come here, here is your
child." The child's mother declined, saying : " Bring me
here my child, I want to go." The little old woman refused,
saying : " Come here." So the mother went to the little
old woman. On arrival there she said : " Now sit down
in there." Then the little old woman took a basin and
went to dish up ; she put a leg into the dish and took it to
the mother. The woman took and ate, and asked : ' This
) meat, what is it ? " The little old woman answered : "It
J is young wart-hog. My husband killed it." Then she went
back and fetched another leg. The mother did not refuse,
but ate. When she had finished eating, she said : " Now
bring my child, and let us go." Then the little old woman
said : " Turn round, so that I can give you the child on
your back." When the little old woman was putting it
on the mother's back, the mother saw the melon fall down.
The woman cried and said : " Little old woman, you have
killed my child." Then the little old woman answered :
" You ate my meat, we both ate it."

Then the woman went off weeping to the village. On
her arrival at the village the people laughed at her, saying :
" You are a fool to go and give your child to a little old
woman, and now you see she has eaten your child." Then
they began to weep.

3. The Foolish Woman who killed her Child

A foolish woman bore a child, and after birth the child
was always crying and crying, and then the woman said :
" What's the matter with this child of mine ? ' The elder
women told her : " That's how children cry." Now she,
in the darkness of the night, wrung the child's neck, and
said : "I have taken the thing out of my child's head
that always made it cry." The elders asked her : ' In
taking it out what did you do to the child ? " She said :
" It is sleeping," whereas really it was dead.

Next day her child was partly rotten, and the elders asked,

ch. xxvni FOLK-TALES 407

saying : " To-day your child that is not seen, where has it
gone to ? " The woman answered : " It's in the house,
asleep." The. elders said : " Let us go and see it." That
was an exceedingly foolish woman. As soon as they arrived
she lifted the blanket from its face and said : " Here it is,
it's asleep." Then when the elders entered and came to
take the child, they said : " You are a fool ; you say your
child is asleep, don't you see that it is rotten-dead ? You
talk like that, but you killed it long ago." Thereupon the
woman went out of the house swiftly and threw herself
on the ground with grief. They said : " What do you
throw yourself down for ? Didn't you yourself kill your
child ? And now to-day you howl ! ' Then they said :
" That girl is really a big fool ! " ^j, e

4. The Fool that hunted for his Axe ^ *ty

He put his axe on his shoulder. Nevertheless when he
thought of his axe, he began to search for it ; beginning
early in the morning he sought it. One day went by, and
then his thoughts told him : " My axe is lost." He went
seeking it everywhere where he had been walking about.
All the time the axe was on his shoulder. When the people
saw him they said : " What is that person looking for ? "
He could not ask he was so busy searching. Next day one
asked him : " What are you looking for ? Yonder where
we were gathering fruit we saw you looking about."

Then he said : "I am in great trouble." One answered :
" What's troubling you ? " Said he : " My axe is lost."
One said : " Have you two axes ? ' He said : ' No, only
one." Then they said : ' What about the one on your
shoulder, whose is that ? " He was greatly astonished
and said : " I am a fool."

And to this day it is put on record. When a person
looks for a thing he has got, they say : " You are like yon
man who looked for the axe that was on his shoulder."

5. The Fool who cliopped himself

Some men went hunting. While they were going about
hunting the sun went down, and when it set they said :

408 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

" Let us build a shelter." So they built a shelter, and
having done so went to gather firewood. When it was
dark they went to sleep. As they were sleeping, in the
night one man got up and made a fire. When he had
done making the fire, he went back to sleep. Another was
lying asleep on his back with his knees sticking up in the
air ; he slept very soundly. After a time he woke up, and
when he looked he saw his knees and was very much alarmed.
Said he : "Oh dear ! oh dear ! that lion is going to bite
me!" Presently his thoughts said : " Take your axe,
which you put near your head, and wound that lion before
it bites you." So he reached out his hand towards the
axe very carefully, on feeling about he found the axe, and
then taking it in both hands he brought it down with all his
force and chopped into his knee, and split it all to pieces.
Then he set up a loud yell. One of his companions got up
and asked him : " What's bitten you ? " He was astounded
to see the axe fixed in his knee and he asked : " What have
you done ? " Said he : " My thoughts are of foolishness.
I saw the knee sticking up and I thought it was a lion, and
now I have killed myself."

And to this day if a man hurts himself or wounds himself
with an axe or a spear, they say: "In your foolishness
you are like yon man who wounded himself with an axe in
the knee."

6. The Fool who lay down and slept in the Road

A traveller was passing to another district. When he
reached a certain village he inquired, saying : " Where does
this road lead to ? " They answered : " It goes there to the
village." "Is it there where my relations come from?'
The others answered : " Yes." " And is the road one
only ? " They said : " No, there are two. You will go along
some way, and when you reach the dividing of the road,
take the one to the left ; turn aside, and take that one."

He went on and when he arrived at the dividing of the
roads, he lay down and slept. As he was sleeping and
sleeping, next day some people passed by and found him
asleep, and they said : "Is this man dead or alive, or what's

ch. xxvin FOLK-TALES 409

the matter with him ? ' Then they roused him and found
that on one side of him the termites had been building.
They asked him : " Why do you sleep in the road ? '
Said he : "I slept because they said : when you get to the
dividing of the road, take the one to the left, lie down, and
leave the one to the right." Then those wise people asked
him : " Which is the right and which is the left ? ' He
answered, saying : "I do not know the roads." Then
they told him : " This is the one to the right and this the
one to the left." Then they said : " Come on, let us go."

When they reached the village, to the people, they said
to them : " This fool of a man whom you told the road,
when he got to the dividing of the roads lay down to sleep
as you said to him, when you reach the dividing of the
roads turn aside." Now to this day they do not forget
that man. Youngsters and children and adults say : ' That
man was a fool." His fame went abroad in all the land :
" That person was truly a fool. A fool who was told, ' When
you reach the dividing of the roads turn aside {pinuka)
and take the left,' and when he reached there he lay down
{pinuka) and slept until the termites built on him. Foolish-
ness indeed ! "

7. The Fools who started Mourning when promised some
Milk with their Bread

On earth many, in the sky one only. Some men went to
visit. On their arrival the people cooked bread for them.
When they had done cooking the men ate, dipping it into
gravy ; and their host said : " Eat, travellers. When
you have done eating this you shall eat with milk." The
travellers ate, and when they had eaten they took their
spears and began to mourn by running up and down.
The people were astonished, and said : ' What are these
travellers mourning for ? " So they called them and
asked : " What are you mourning for ? " They said :
" We are mourning because you said, when you have done
eating you will mourn." Then all were astonished and
said : " We said that when you have finished eating the
sop you can eat with milk. To eat with milk (kandila) is

410 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

not to mourn (kudila). We said we would give you milk in
which to dip your bread."

Note : This tale, like the last, is founded on the likeness of words.
They were told mukandile, " you will eat with milk," and they
misunderstood it for mukadile, " you will mourn."

There are Italian tales with similar motives. A man, for
example, tells his wife to prepare dinner for a friend and to be sure
to have broccoli strascinati and novi spersi as they are his favourite
dishes. Strascinare is to drag anything along, but is technically
used of broccoli chopped up and fried — the common Roman dish.
Spergere is to scatter, but the word is used of eggs poached in
broth, a favourite delicacy. The woman, taking the words literally,
drags the broccoli all over the house and yard, and scatters the eggs
all about the place instead of poaching them {Roman Folklore,
pp. 366 sq.).

8. The Fools who waited for Ground-nuts to fall from a Tree

Two people were travelling, and midway along the road
they found some nut-shells under a tree, and they sat down
and watched, saying : " The nuts that were in these shells
fell out of this tree." So they were sitting until the nuts
should fall from the tree. After many days they were still
sitting. Then some other people came along and said :
" What are you doing here under the tree ? " " We are
waiting for the ground-nuts to fall." Then they laughed
at them and said : " You are fools. These are only shells
left by people who ate the nuts." They laughed very much
at them.

And to this day they are a byword. When a person
does a thing that is not right they liken him to those people
who watched for shells. They say to him : " You are like
yon people who when they found shells under the tree
waited for nuts to fall out of the tree." To this day it is
a well-known thing which does not come to an end.

9. How Two Men had a Dispute

Two men started off, one with a dog and the other with
a pot. When they got into the veld he who had the dog
killed an animal. He with the pot said : " Let us cook
and eat." When they had done cooking they ate. Then
the dog got into the pot to lick it out, and when he wanted

ch. xxvni FOLK-TALES 411

to withdraw his head he stuck fast. The owner of the
pot said : " Friend, my pot will be broken. Your dog is
stuck fast in my pot. Come and take him out." The
owner of the dog said : "I cannot manage the dog."
' Well, as you cannot manage the dog, let us cut off his
head so that it may come out of the pot." Said he : " You,
my friend, which is more valuable, the dog or the pot ?
Said he in answer : " My pot is the more valuable." Said
he : " All right, cut away." So the owner of the pot took
an axe and cut the dog's head off. When he had cut off his
head, he took his pot and found it was not broken, so he
brought water and washed out the blood. When he had
done washing it, he brought some string, tied it, put it on
his shoulder, and went off to the village. And the owner of
the dog went also to the village.

When he arrived at the village, the owner of the dog
found his child sick, and he thought : " Yon person who
has the pot, his child took my brass bracelet." So he ran
quickly and went where he was. On arrival he said : ' My
friend, give me my bracelet." They called the girl, but
the bracelet refused to come off her arm, for it had
been put on long ago while she was yet a child, and
now she was grown into a maiden. Said he : 'As it
refuses to come off let us cut off the hand." Said he :
" My friend, don't cut off the hand, let us rather give you
another bracelet." That man said : ' I don't want an-
other, this is my bracelet." " Which is of more consequence,
the bracelet or the hand of the child ? ' That man refused,
saying : "As for me it is my bracelet that I want." So
the father of the child said : " Take an axe and cut off the
hand." He cut it off and the bracelet came away. He
took his bracelet, saying : " This is the hand of your child,
join it up, and let us see how you will join it. You cut my
dog's head off." He took the bracelet and went to divine for
his child who was sick. When he reached the diviner,
the oracle said : " Dig up some medicine and your child
will recover." He came back and dug the medicine, gave
it to her, and she recovered.

f6gri

412 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

10. The Scold who split her Mouth

There was once a woman named Mukamunkomba and
she was a scold, always finding fault with everybody. In
particular she would never allow people to talk, but always
stopped them. She was always the same, railing and nag-
ging. Now in those old days she was nursing two of her
daughter's children : they were young and were always
disputing with each other, as is the way of children. The
old woman so surpassed herself in nagging those children,
her own grandchildren, that her mouth split. And so they
have put her on record as a warning, and when they hear
any one nagging they say : " Beware, you will split at the
mouth as old Mukamunkomba did with her railing. If you
have to find fault with any one, do it once only ; don't
keep on at it."

11. The Man and the Mushrooms

There was once a great famine in the land and many
people were dying with hunger. A certain woman found
some mushrooms and filled her pot with them and water.
The husband was looking on and noticed that the pot was
quite full when it was put on the fire to boil. He went out,
and on his return shortly after the woman took the pot
off the fire and set it between his legs. Now the man said :
' The pot is not full. Where are the rest ? ' So he began
to hint that she had helped herself to them in his absence.
" I saw the pot full," said he, " now it is half empty." The
woman said : " But, my husband, don't mushrooms shrink
when cooked ? " But he wouldn't have it. " You're
lying," he said. " Well," she went on, " if they haven't
shrunk, where are they ? ' " You have eaten them,"
said he. His wife replied : " No, my husband, I couldn't
eat the food in your absence." But the man got very
angry and said to her : " You are a bad woman. You
stole the mushrooms while I was away." The woman
denied, saying : "I did not steal. They shrank in the
boiling," but he took a stick and beat her to death. Then
he told the people that his wife had died of starvation. As

ch. xxvin FOLK-TALES 413

he had no other wife, he had to fend for himself. One day
he brought home some mushrooms and filled that same
pot his dead wife had used. He sat there and watched it
boil, and when he took it off the fire saw that the mushrooms
had so shrunk that there was hardly anything left at the
bottom of the pot — that pot which had been full to over-
flowing. The man was greatly startled. He began to
tremble and cry : ' Oh dear ! oh dear ! This pot which
I filled with mushrooms and now they have shrunk away !
I killed my wife without reason. She did not steal ; the
mushrooms did shrink as she said. Dear ! oh dear ! I
am the child of a foreigner ! "

Since that day they have put him on record as an
example. Do not be in a hurry to accuse people of stealing.

12. The Bogle and his Child
(Told to frighten children.)

There was once a bogle named Shezhimwe who married
a woman, and in course of time a baby was born to them.
All the neighbours rejoiced with them, and the child flourished
and grew big. Before it was weaned the mother left it
one day in charge of Shezhimwe while she went to work
in the field, and the bogle, when he found himself alone
with his child and the mother far away, ate the child and
made tracks. The mother left off work later in the day
and returning home sought her child, and sought in vain.
While she was wondering what had become of it, her husband,
the bogle, suddenly reappeared, and she said to him :
' Shezhimwe, bring the child for its food." The bogle
began to be astonished, clapped his hands in amazement,
and said : " What child do you mean ? ' The woman
replied : " Why, to be sure, the same child I left with you
when I went to work this morning." Said the bogle : "I
laid him down on the bed. I wonder who could have eaten
him ? ' They hunted all about, but no child could be
found. They gave up the search at last and the mother
had to reconcile herself to the fact that her child was lost.
Some time later another child was born in that house,
and all Mrs. Shezhimwe's friends rejoiced with her again.

414 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

But not many days after, while, the woman was gone to the
other side of the village, Shezhimwe, in whose charge she
left the child, ate it in a moment and went out. Presently
she came back, and not seeing her husband, called him
loudly : " Shezhimwe ! Shezhimwe ! Bring the child to
drink." The bogle made no reply, but soon came in as
if nothing had happened, and said to her : " Was it you
calling ? ' " Yes," she answered, " bring the child I left
with you, it's time for it to drink." Said Shezhimwe :
" Why, I left the child only a moment ago, where can it
have gone ? " Then the woman lost her temper and
cried out : " No, that won't do. Just you produce my
child. I would like to know how the children get lost that
are left in your hands." Shezhimwe had no excuse to
make ; he remained silent. They wept for the child, and
afterwards the woman went to her own home and told her
parents all about it. They comforted her and said : ' Go
back to your husband. The child will return to you : and
when it is to be born come home here." So the woman
went back to her husband the bogle. Later on, she made
her escape and went home again. Shezhimwe, seeing that
she had gone, followed her. They saluted him politely did
his wife's people, and cooked food for him. When he had
finished eating they seized and killed him. After killing
him they burnt him in the fire, and out of the fire there
came a great whirlwind. That was really a bogle — and he
is still alive and on the look-out for naughty children.

13. Tale of an Expectant Mother's Fancies

(Told as a warning to such women.)

There was once a woman in the family way who would
not eat porridge and refused all food offered to her. One
day she called her husband. " Yes, wife," said he, " what
do you want ? " "I want some bird's eggs ; all this bread
and other food I can't eat." The husband answered : "Very
well, my wife, but to get eggs is not easy. Where can I
get bird's eggs ? " Said she : "Go and hunt in the birds'
nests and find some." So the husband consented to go
searching for eggs, and came back with some, which the

ch. xxvni FOLK-TALES 415

woman ate — all of them. Next day the man and his son
went out again ; they saw two birds and a nest in a tree
and the man climbed up and got the eggs. Now in that
tree there was a snake, and though the man did not see it
the boy who was on the ground did, and seeing it called
out, " Father, there is a snake there, look out." The man
in his fright fell — and with him the basket of eggs, which,
fortunately, did not break. They returned home, and the
woman received the eggs and said " Thank you." The boy
said : " Mother ! " " Well, child, what do you say ? "
" I say, do not eat all these eggs at once. It is a great
trouble to go climbing trees, and besides there are snakes.
Father was nearly bitten to-day." But the woman cooked
and ate all the eggs that evening, and in the morning
clamoured for more. So the husband went out again, this
time alone, for the boy stayed at home. After searching
for some time he found a nest with eggs in it, and climbing
the tree put them in his basket. But hidden in a hole in that
tree was a mulala snake, and just as the man was descending
it bit him. The man fell and died in a few minutes. It
was away in the forest and there was nobody to take the
news. After sunset when he did not come, the boy grew
anxious and said to his mother : " Mother, I believe father
is dead." Then the woman began to recall her son's warn-
ing not to eat all the eggs at once, because of the trouble and
danger involved in getting them. In the morning they
went out to search and found him at the foot of the tree.
He was stone dead and stank horribly already. The woman
bereft of her husband died also.

14. A Man and his Mother

A man and his mother were once in great difficulty for
food, and were reduced to going about from village to
village begging. After a time they went to live on an
island in the river and there they were still worse off. They
did not know how to rind food. At last the woman said to
her son : "Go and wander about among the villages, and
when you find an ox bring it here." The man went off,
and finding some cattle grazing he drove off one and brought

4i 6 THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES pt. v

it to the river. Now the old woman had medicine, and
when the man reached the river he called to her, saying :
" Mother, strike the water ! ' The mother took her
medicine root and with it smote the water so that the man
and ox passed over dry-shod and then the river flowed on.
The man killed the ox, cut it up, and giving his mother a
bit of a bone ate the rest with his wife. The mother made
no fuss, but kept quiet. When the meat was finished he
went to another place and stole an ox, but the herdsmen
saw him and gave chase. He reached the river first with
the ox and called to his mother as before : " Mother,
strike the water ! " The woman smote the water ; the
river divided allowing them to pass, and then joined up
again. Once again the man killed and cut up the ox and
threw his mother a bone. Now she said to him : " My son,
you bring home an ox and eat all the meat with your wife
and to me you give only a bone. I your mother see your
doings ! " The man got angry and said to her : " That's
the way with you old women, you are never grateful for
what you are given." His mother said no more. Not long
after the man went off to a place some distance away,
where the news of his thievery had not reached, and there
he found many cattle. He drove off two. The people saw
him, raised an alarm, and chased him to the river. There he
called his mother as before : " Mother, strike the river ! '
But his mother answered : "I will not strike it because
you wouldn't give me any meat." And the villagers coming
up killed him.

15. The Child who wanted to sleep in the Middle
(Told to warn men against ignorant children.)

A man took his child with him hunting in the veld.
There the boy set four traps by the side of a pool while his
father looked for game. They were by themselves — those
two, no third. The boy presently caught a guinea-fowl in one
of his traps and went off to the shelter he and his father
had built in the veld. He found there his father, who had
returned unsuccessful, and was therefore glad to see the
guinea-fowl brought by his son. The boy said : " Father ! '

ch. xxvni FOLK-TALES 417

The man replied : " What do you say, namesake of my
father ? " "I say, cook this guinea-fowl and eat it alone ; I
won't eat it, no, no. And to-night when we sleep put me
in the middle." The father answered nothing : he thought
the boy was only playing by talking about being put in the
middle. When the fowl was cooked the man called the
boy and said : " Namesake of my father, come and let us
eat the guinea-fowl you killed, it's already cooked." But
the boy said : " Eat it alone, father, as I told you before.
But when we sleep put me in the middle, because I do not
wish to sleep on the outside for fear of being bitten by
some wild beast in the night." So the father ate the guinea-
fowl by himself. . Presently the boy said : " Father, have
you done eating ? " " Yes, namesake of my father, I have
done." Said the child : ".As you have done eating, let us
sleep." The father replied : " Right, namesake of my
father, let us sleep." They went into the shelter and the
man lay down first. Then his child asked him : " Where
am I to lie, Dad ? " " Wherever you please, namesake of
my father." " Where I like," said the child, " is in the
middle." " How can I put you in the middle ? " replied
the man, " I am only one person." But the child began
to cry, sitting on the ground. Presently his father got up
and tied a bundle of grass and laid it on one side of the
bed, then took hold of the child's hand and said : ' Come
sleep here in the middle as you wished." The child lay
down, but as he was falling asleep he touched the thing
by his side and found it was not a person but only grass.
He got up and began to cry. His father was fast asleep.
Then the boy took his father's spear — it was an iyonga, with
a blade, broad and long and sharp — a spear that a man
takes to tackle a wart-hog. He sharpened it on a stone
and then lifting it in two hands he brought the point down
with all his strength upon his father's stomach, cutting
him open. He did not think of his father dying, but he
died. And the child died too : he died of fright.

Sed nos immensum spatiis confecimus aequor,
Et iam tempus equum fumantia solvere colla.

VOL TF 2 E

INDEX

Note. — The following lists are not indexed in detail

Names of chiefs, i. 57 sq.

Foods and drinks, i. 149 sqq.

Parts of human body, i. 222 sq.

Diseases and remedies, i. 232 sqq., 275 sqq.

Clans, etc., i. 310 sqq.
Communities, i. 313^^.
Tables of relationship, i. 323 sqq.
Games, ii. 246 sqq.

Abduction, of wife, i. 404

Abortifacients, i. 250, 419, ii. 40

Abortion, when induced, i. 250, 419 ;
purification after, ii. 6 ; disease caused
by, i. 234. See Feticide

Accusations, false, i. 371

Adultery, ii. 72 sqq., i. 302, 352, 359,
404, 418

Adzes, i. 219

Affinity, relations by, i. 338 sqq.

Afterbirth, how removed, ii. 8 sq. ; dis-
posal of, ii. 10 ; of twins, disease
caused by, i. 276

Age, Ba-ila age quickly, i. 61 ; how told,
i. 62

Age-grades (mu-sela, mi-), i. 308 sq.

Agriculture, methods of, i. 135 sqq.

Amulets (ch-inda, sh-), i. 250 sqq. See
Medicine

Ancestors of Ba-ila, i. 20. See Divini-
ties

Anderson, Mr. , i. 54

Angoni, raid Basodi, i. 44

Animals, wild, in Bwila, 1. n sqq. ; list
of, eaten, i. 150

Anopheles, mosquito, i. 11, ii. 225 sq.

Ant, Mr., the diviner, ii. 389, 396

Ant-bear, tale of, ii. 365

Ants, kinds of, ii. 226 ; nest of, as
remedy, i. 236

Aphrodisiacs, i. 2495^., ii. 35, 67

Arab slave-traders, i. 33 sq. , 39

Armlets, i. 101 sq. ; filled with drugs, i.

253

Arnot, F. S. , cited, i. 26 ?i.

Arson, i. 403

Ash (itwe), named in oaths, i. 355 ; held
sacred, i. 370 ; thrown on person,
'• 37°. 399. 4°2. 411 > used as remedy,
i. 237, 243 ; in witchcraft, ii. 93 ;

VOL. II A

mounds of (mu-kwashi, mi-), i. 129 ;

at funerals, ii. 109, 111
Attitudes, i. 81 sqq.
Aunt, i. 319

Avoidance, between relations, i. 338 sqq.
Axes, i. 106, 218 sq. ; divining with, i.

269 sq.

Babizhi, " the southern people," i. xxvi
Baboons, in tale, ii. 349 ; clan of, i.

311
Bachikundi, raid Bambala, i. 44
Ba-ila, name of, i. xxv sq. ; = freemen,

i. 299 ; numbers of, i. 15, 313 sqq.
Baila-Batonga Mission, i. 29, 54
Bakaundi, history of, i. 27
Bakubi (clan), turn into matoshi, i. 289
Bakwe, i. 340
Balamba, clans, i. 313

brothers-in-law," i. 339 sq.
. 66
Rev. A.,

1. 39 n., 54, 11.

25 sq., 40,

123,
16;

Balamu,
Baldness
Baldwin,

146
Balea, i. 28
Baluba, i. xxvii
Balui, i. 25
Balumbu ( = foreigners)

nzela people), i. xxvii, 34 sqq.
Balumbwa mountain, i. 9
Balundwe, i. xxvi
Bama (=my mothers), i. 319
Bambala, " the northern people," i.

3, 8, 44, 70, j-j, 79, etc.
Bambo, "the western folk," i. xxvi
Bambwe, list of chiefs of, i. 57
Bambwela, i. 25, 27, 105 (photo),

(clans)
Banangu ( = my children), i. 320 sq.
Bangles, ivory, i. 101 sq. , 180 sq.
Bantuba, i. 25

19 2 E 2

3J3

( = Na-

3*3

420

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

Barotsi, i. 31 sq. , 41, 52

Basala, i. xxvi, 3; (= prophets), ii. 140

Bashamba, i. xxvii, 313 (clans)

Bashituchila, i. 32

Bashukulompo = Mashukulumbwe = Ba-
ila, i. xxv, 39

Baskets, kinds of and making, i. 187 sqq.

Basodi, i. xxvii, 44

Basubia, i. xxvii, ii. 277

Batonga ( = Batoka), i. xxvii, 28

Batwa, i. xxvi, 6 sq. , 29, 92

Bazhile (sisters-in-law), i. 339

Beans, use in iron-smelting, i. 205

Beard, on older men, i. 63 ; in state of
taboo, i. 63

Beauty, ideas of, i. 112, 127 sq., ii. 45

Beer, kinds and preparation of, i. 149 ;
when drunk, i. 203, ii. 20, 57, 174
sq. , 189 sqq. , 194 ; when offered, i. 389,
ii. 178, 194 ; when taboo, i. 238, 349

Bees, ii. 227

Beetles, ii. 227

Bellows, i. 211 sq.

Benelubulo, clan of, i. 219

Bene-mashi (founders of the communi-
ties), i. 21

Bergson, quoted, ii. 3125^.

Bestiality, ii. 75

Betrothal, ii. 46 sqq.

Birds, profusion of in Bwila, i. 14 sq. ;
list of, eaten, i. 151

Birth, customs and taboos, ii. 7 sqq. ;
illegitimate, ii. 39 sq.

Birth-name, i. 365, ii. 153

Black, unlucky, i. 207, 252, 261 sq.

Blacksmithing, i. 211 sqq.

Blood (buloa), uncanny, i. 414 sq.; eaten,
i. 145 ; connected with pain, i. 230
sq. ; offering (luloa, q.v. ), ii. 187, etc.

Blood-brotherhood, i. 308

Blue-jay (chikambwe), feathers of, a sign
of valour, i. 106 ; causes disease and
death, i. 240, ii. 87 ; in tale, ii. 347

Body-odour, i. 94

Bogeys, ii. 17

Bone-setting, i. 276

Boundaries, i. 387 ; disease caused by
trespassing upon, i. 237

Bows and arrows, i. 153, 154 (photo)

Bracelets, i. 101

Brains, i. 225 ; of hare used as remedy,
i. 241 sq.

Bribes, i. 360

British South Africa Company ( = Govern-
ment), i. 54 sq. ; effects of its rule, i.
55. 354 ! attitude to slavery and other
customs, i. 412, ii. 75

Broken Hill, cave at, i. 17

Brothers, how addressed, i. 317

"Brothers-in-law" (mu-lamu, ba- ), i.

339

Buckenham, Rev. H., i. 54

Budinjidizhi, i. 403

Buditazhi, meaning of, i. 346 ; vilifica-
tion reckoned as, i. 374 ; perjury as,
i. 355 ; false accusation as, i. 357 ;
offences against property as, i. 392
sqq. , 402 sqq. ; accident in bed as,
i. 394 ; assaulting woman in sleep as,
ii. 74; other offences, i. 370 sqq. ,
395, 402 sq. , 420, ii. 5, 62; divinity
maybe guilty of, ii. 166 ; not possible
against fellow-clansman, i. 393, 415 ;
nor by slave against master, i. 393

Building, methods of, i. 114 sqq.

Bullets, iron, i. 214

Bulongo, arch-demigod, ii. 192 sqq.

Bunga, war with Lubanda, i. 23

Burglary, i. 393

Busangu, i. 50, 52

Bushbuck, in tale, ii. 366

Butter, i. 130 ; used to anoint corpse, ii.
104

Bwanga, i. 252 ; = content, ii. 89

Bwengwa, i. 29, 41 sq., 44

Bwengwa-Leza, rock at Namwala, i. 21

Bwila (= country of the Ba-ila), i. xxv;
description of, i. 3 sq. ; fauna and
flora of, i. 9, n sqq.

Calendar, i. 140

Calvarium, used as drinking - cup, by
Barotsi, i. 42 ; by Balumbu, i. 35,
179

Cameron, V. L. , cited, i. 26 n., 33 n.

Canoes, making of, i. 200

Cases in magistrates' courts, quoted :
accusation of witchcraft, i. 371 sq. ;
loss of property, i. 394, 402 ; damage
to property, i. 394 ; kushisha claims,
i. 396 ; injuries, i. 396 ; inheritance,
i. 397 ; trespass, i. 402 ; theft, i. 402 ;
recovery of person, i. 404 ; compensa-
tion, i. 406; marriage, chiko, etc.,
ii. 49, 51 sqq., 70, 73

Cassava, i. 140, 148

Castor-oil plant, seeds of, used as remedy,
i. 242 ; as charm, i. 278 ; in and
after child-birth, ii. 8, 10 ; root, as
abortifacient, i. 250

Castration of cattle, i. 130

Cattle, great number of, raided by
Barotsi, i. 50 ; love for, i. 127 ;
named and ornamented, i. 128 ;
marked, i. 128 ; milked, i. 129 ;
breeds of, i. 129 ; numbers of, i. 130 ;
diseases of, i. 132 ; mourning for,
132 sq. ; when killed, i. 130, 178, i
25 sq. , 187; killed at funerals,
130, 306, ii. 106, no ; killed by lions,
i. 158 ; cases about, i. 386

Celibacy, how regarded, ii. 64

INDEX

421

Centipede, ii. 224

Ceremony, at iron-smelting, i. 205 ; of
Lubambo, ii. 68 ; when moving vil-
lage, ii. 178 ; harvest, ii. 179 sq.

Chaka, the Zulu Napoleon, i. 28

Chameleon, ii. 100 sq., 228

Chapman, Rev. W. , i. 54; quoted, ii.
31, 114 sq. ; cited, i. 54 n. ; photos
by, i. 8, 80, 118, ii. 327

Charcoal, making of, i. 206

Charms (see Medicine), classified, i. 250
sq. ; trust in, i. 252 ; how carried,
i. 253 ; village and communal, i. 254 ;
taboos associated with, i. 255

Cheetah, tale of, ii. 369

Chest (thorax), seat of thought, i. 225

Chia, ii. 136

Chiawala (woman's belt), i. 101

Chidizho, ii. no

Chiefs, list of ancient, i. 21, 57 sq. , ii.
181 (demigods); selection of, i. 299 sqq. ;
labours of, i. 124 sq. ; duties and
privileges of i. 305, 307 ; apportions
land, i. 387 ; medicines of, i. 260,
300 sq. , 307 ; in council, i. 351 sq. ;
assault on, i. 413 ; authority of,
undermined, i. 354 ; right to the
bukome, i. 384 ; right to the ground
tusk, i. 385

Chifwembe, list of chiefs at, i. 57

Chigoe (jigger), i. 121, 243, ii. 226

Chiko, misnamed "bride-price," i. 298,
ii. 49 ; secures usufruct of wife's body,
i. 384 ; amount and collection and
payment of, i. 298 ; disputes about,
ii. 48 sqq. ; for heiress of deceased
wife, i. 391 ; for slave, i. 409, ii. 64

Chikomo ( = sacred custom, etc.), ii. 186

Chikuto (= curse), i. 416

Children, desire for, ii. 1 ; life of, ii.
13 sq. ; mortality of, ii. 13 sqq. ; duties
of, ii. 15 ; punishment of, ii. 17 ;
taboos imposed upon, ii. 17 sq. ;
games of, ii. 242 sqq. ; diseases of,
i. 235 sqq. ; killed, i. 419 sqq. ; buried
alive, ii. 114; suicide of, i. 421;
when not mourned for, i. 420, ii. 106 ;
when not buried, ii. 114 ; establishing
identity of, ii. 152

Chimbulamukoa, attacked, i. 40 ; cattle
from, i. 106

Chinao=Ushibandilwabana, i. 239 sq. ,
ii. 12, 86

Chins, i. 61

Chipo (present to woman), i. 410, ii. 69

Chisapi (indecorum), i. 346 ; acts of,

>• 367. 374
Chisosoleke, list of chiefs at, i. 57
Chishonsho, i. 391, ii. 60 sqq.
Chisolo (a game), ii. 182, 232 sqq.
Chisungu, ii. 25, 41

Chivalry, i. 175

Chiyadila, war between, and Nyambo,
i. 24

Chundu, fabulous land in East, ii. 103

Churns, i. 130, 131 (photo)

Cicatrisation, i. 96

Circumcision, practised by Mankoya, i. 94

Clans (mukoa mi-), i. 287 sqq. ;
totemistic, i. 287 ; list of, i. 310 sqq. ;
general rule for descent, i. 294 sq. ;
modified in case of chief, i. 304 ;
descent through father, i. 296; instance
of, ii. 193; various, specified, i. 20,
219, 287 sqq., 294, 297, 417, ii.
128, 130 sq. ; act in obtaining re-
dress, i. 296 sq. , and in marriage,
i. 296, ii. 50 ; secondary (kameko),
i. 295 ; system falls hardly on indi-
viduals, i. 404 ; legend of Banampongo,
etc., i. 20 ; homicide an offence against,
i. 414 ; and feticide, i. 419

Classification of animals, ii. 224 ; of
words, ii. 81, 304

Classificatory system of relationship,
i. 316 sq.

Cleft-stick, jumping through, i. 415,
ii. 87

Climate, i. 9

Clothing, i. 96 sqq.

Coiffure. See Hairdressing, Isusu,
Impumbe

Coillard, Rev. F. , quoted, i. 42, 44, 47 ;
good influence of, i. 43

Cold, endurance of, i. 89

Colour of skin, i. 59

Colours, ii. 230

Comet, ii. 219 sq.

Communities (or communes), i. 298 sqq. ;
list of, i. 313 sqq. ; property of, i. 387

Compass, points of,, ii. 122

Conception, medicine to induce, i. 276

Concubinage, ii. 64

Coney, tale of, ii. 357

Confiscation, as punishment, i. 359

Conjurers, ii. 261

Continence (relative or absolute), when
practised, ii. 43 ; enforced on fishers,
i. 169 ; on warriors, i. 176 ; on iron-
smelters, i. 206 sq. ; on patients, i.
231 sq., 261 ; on traders, i. 263 ; on
husband and wife, ii. 4, 6, 12

Conundrums, ii. 331 sqq.

Cooking, where done, i. 143 ; methods
of, i. 146

Copper, ii. 222 ; as remedy, i. 243

Corpse, preparation of, ii. 104, non. ;
position of, ii. 105, 119 ; when burnt,
ii. 115 ; addressed, ii. 105, izo-n., 118

Cotton, Ila country adapted for, i. 8 ;
grown, i. 140 ; thread of, i. 183

Council of chiefs and headmen (lubeta),

422

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

i. 299 ; to determine succession, i. 303 ;

to judge cases, i. 351
Courage, examples of, i. 158 sq. , ii. 188
Cousins (cross- andortho-), terms applied

to, i. 318 ; marriage of, i. 318 sq.,

ii. 41
Covenant, of friendship, i. 295, 308 sqq. ;

of blood brotherhood, i. 308 ; for
'; exchange of wives, ii. 69 ; for lending

wife, ii. 71
Crawford, D. , i. 26 n. , ii. 364
Crocodile, as good omen, i. 162 ; tale of,

ii. 384
Crops grown in Bwila, i. 7, 137, 140
Cross-roads, rites performed at, i. 207,

242- "• 135

Crystal-gazing, equivalent for, i. 271

Cunnum lingere, ii. 75

Cupping, i. 230

Currency, salt used as, i. 148

Curses, attached to medicine and trans-
ferred, i. 254 ; chikuto, i. 416. See
Matushi

Custom, the norm, i. 344 ; sanctions of,
i. 344 ; established by Leza, i. 345, ii.
211 ; relation of prophets to, i. 345

Daffarn, M. A., photos by, i. 102, 103,

104, ii. 271
Dale, A. M., takes charge of Ba-ila, i. 55.

See Preface
Damage to property, i. 394 sq.
Damages, awarded, i. 359, 394 ; claimed,

i'- 39. 7°. 72

Dances, Dancing, ii. 270 sqq. ; Mwandu,
ii. 22 ; Kashimbo, ii. 20 ; Chululu,
ii. 24 ; Busala, ii. 137 sq. ; others,
ii. 29 ; at funerals, ii. 111 ; by warlock,
ii. 92

Day, how divided, ii. 215 sq.

Deafness, i. 224

Death, origin of, ii. 100^. ; living after,
•i. 265, ii. 103 ; inflicted as punishment,

i- 358
Defaecation, position of, i. 83 ; in bed,

i- 394
Delirium, caused by ghosts, i. 245
Demigods (mu-zhimo, mi-), i. 21, 178,

ii. 180 sqq. ; list of ii. 181. See

Divinities
Demoniacs, ii. 137
Depilation, kudimensa, i. 65 ; kunyo-

nkola, ii. 25, 30, 48, 55, 59
Dinkas, compared with Ba-ila, i. 16
Discretion, ii. 315
Diseases, list of, i. 231 sqq. ; how caused,

i. 244 sq. ; in cattle, i. 132; how got

rid of from pumpkins, i. 139 ; diagnosis

of, i. 268
Divination, methods of, i. 265 sqq.
Diviners (mu-sonzhi, ba-), i. 265 sqq. ;

when consulted, i. 228, 356, 365, ii.

152, 166, i68\ 175, 177
Divinities (mu-zhimo, mi-), ii. 164 sqq. ;

hear only their own family, i. 293,

ii. 165 ; as intermediaries, ii. 208.

See Demigod, Ghost, Offerings
Divorce, property divided in, i. 381 ;

grounds of, ii. 51
Doctors (mu-nganga, ba-), i. 272 sqq. ;

fees of, i. 256, 275 ; claims of, i. 392,

395 ; in iron-smelting, i. 203 sqq. ; in

fishing, i. 161 ; proverb about, ii. 317 ;

buditazhi offence against, i. 395
Dogs, i. 134 ; in hunting, i. 153 ; in

ordeal, i. 356 ; given meat at funerals,

ii. no
Dolls, ii. 23 (photo)
Doorway, i. 119 sq. ; ghosts near, ii.

122 sq. ; medicine placed at, i. 278,

301; offerings at, ii. 166; "altar"

at, ii. 173
Dovecotes, i. 134, ii. 355
Dragon (mulala), ii. 229, 379
Dreams, ii. 134.^. ; medicines revealed

in, i. 230, 253
Drum-signals, ii. 188, 268
Drums, i. 198, ii. 265 sqq. ; mwandu,

ii. 24, 266 ; beaten at milking,

i. 129 ; beaten bukadi, i. 178 ; beaten

kunzuma, ii. 138; beaten kutambausha,

ii. 267
Duiker, in tale, ii. 360
Dung, cattle, causes disease, i. 240 ; of

lizards and hyenas used as medicines,

i. 232, 240, 242
Dwarfs, in the East, ii. 218
Dynamism, ii. 79 sqq.

Earache, i. 224

Earee, C. E. , photos by, i. 90 sq. , ii.

238
Ears, i. 61 ; perforated, i. 96
Earthquake, ii. 221
East, ghost goes, ii. 119 ; race of dwarfs

in, ii. 218. See Chundu
Eating, ways of, i. 124 ; times and

rules for, i. 145 ; "eating the name,"

i. 168, 390; "eating" medicine,

i. 253; "eat the marriage," ii. 56;

' ' eating " the woman = cunnum

lingere (q.v. )
Eggs, seldom eaten, i. 145
Egyptian ideas of soul, ii. 161
Eland, ceremony after killing, ii. 87
Elephant, annual migration of, i. n ;

rites on cutting up, i. 167 ; right to

carcase and tusks of, i. 384 sq. ; in

tales, ii. 358, 361, 363, 394
Ellenberger, D. F. , cited, i. 28 n.
Epilepsy, i. 239
Etiquette, rules of, i. 361 sqq.

INDEX

423

Excrement, as medicine, i. 232, 240, 242 ;

causes disease, i. 240 ; throwing a

person upon, i. 371
Exposure of person, i. 82 ; deliberate,

i. 416
Expression of emotions, i. 83
Expressions, rude, i. 377 sq.
Eyes, pupils of, i. 224 ; colour of, i. 60 ;

hiding "life" in, i. 256
Eyesight, i. 89 sq. ; ideas of, i. 224

Faeces, an offence to mention, in mixed

company, i. 377
False accusations and witness, i. 371
Family, i. 283 sqq.
Fashions, i. 102 sq.
Fatalism, ii. 62, 202, 322
Fauna, i. 11 sq.

Feathers, significance of, i. 104 sqq.
Fees, doctor's, i. 256, 275 ; diviner's, i.

266
Festivals, Feasts, annual (i-kubi, ma-),

ii. 189, 193 ; funeral (i-dilwe, ma-),

ii. 106, 174 sq. ; cattle, i. 131 sq. ;

initiation, ii. 20, 25
Feticide, i. 418
Fibres, i. 184 sqq.
Fillet (mu-shini, mi-), worn by women, i.

101
Fines inflicted, i. 359
Fire, in cattle kraal, i. 129 ; made by

friction, i. 142 sq. , ii. 30; how con-
veyed, i. 143 ; taboos, i. 142 sq., 210;

new, i. 235, ii. 27, 60, 62 ; funeral, ii.

96 sq.
Fireflies, ii. 226

Firstfruits, i. 139^. \) .)' Cf—'\
Fish, names of, i. 151, 160 ;' abundance

of, i. 144, 159 sq. ; how cooked, i.

147 ; traps, for, i. 161 sq. ; nets, i.

163, 186; poisons, i. 166; spear,

making of, i. 213 sq.
Fish-eagle, tales of, ii. 370, 391
Fish-hooks, i. 160
Fishing, methods of, i. 159 sqq. ; rites

before, i. 388 sq.
Flies, ii. 225
Flying-people, ii. 230
Foetus, formation of, i. 227 ; buried, i.

234 ; disease and, i. 234 sq.
Folk-tales, ii. 334 sqq.
Fontanelle, non-closing of, i. 243 ; heart-
beating at, i. 226 ; medicine applied

to, ii. 11
Foods, formalities connected with, i. 364 ;

staple, i. 144 ; preserved, i. 148 ; list of,

i. 149 sqq.
Footsteps, to trace, i. 260
Fowls, domestic, i. 134
Frazer, Sir J., i. 291, 292 ?/., ii. 100
Friendship, covenants of, i. 295, 308

Frogs, ii. 228

Fruits, names of, i. 150

Funeral, description of, ii. 104 sqq. , 114 ;

feasts, ii. no sq. ; oxen killed at, i.

130 ; when corpse is not recovered, ii.

116 ; of suicides, ii. 116 ; of a stranger,

ii. n6 •

Game pits, i. 157 sq.

Games, ii. 232 sq. ; indavu, ii. 21 sq. ;

mantombwa, ii. 36 sqq. ; mimic fight,

i. 172 sq.
Genitalia, names for, i. 223 ; seat of

vitality, i. 226 ; diseases of, i. 238 ;

when not spoken of, i. 377 ; named

in songs, i. 208, ii. 113 ; distension

and enlargement of, ii. 5,17, 20, 30 ;

admired, ii. 45
Genius (Guardian Spirit), i. 54, ii. 156

sqq., 165
Gestation, period of, ii. 7
Ghosts (mu-sangushi, ba-), where they

go, ii. 119; underground, ii. now.,

119 ; near graves and in houses, ii.

120 sqq. ; near doorways, ii. 122 ; in
the matongo, ii. 123, 186 ; enter
living persons, ii. 136 ; doings of, ii.
122, 132 ; speak through mediums,
ii. 140 sq. ; in divination, i. 270 sq. ;
act as witch-familiars, ii. 91, 95, 132 ;
act as guardians, i. 388 ; come in
dreams, ii. 134 sq. ; reveal medicines,
i. 230, 253 ; disease caused by, i. 235,
244 sq. , ii. 27; visible to animals, ii.
122 ; attitude towards, ii. 167 sqq. ;
offerings to, ii. 123 ; various kinds of,
ii. 132 ; vengeful (mutalu), i. 264 ;
harmful, ii. 115, 168 ;' driven off, i.
179, ii. 163 ; medicine to stupefy, i.
264 ; of elephants, i. 168 ; tale of, ii.
133. See Divinities

Gibbon, quoted, i. 22

Gibbons, A. St. H., explorations of,* i.
54 ; his opinion of the Ba-ila, i. 54,
361

Gielgud, Mr. , i. 54

Gift, taken with both hands, i. 364

Gingivitis, i. 66 sqq.

Girdle, woman's, i. 101 ; cutting the, ii.
60, 62

Goats, i. 134

God. See Leza

Grain, kinds of, i. 139 sq., 149 ; proven-
ance of, i. 139

Grain-bins, i. 138 sq. ; the shumbwa, i.
121

Grandchildren, i. 320.^., 339, 342

Grandparents, i. 320 ; my power over
their persons and property, i. 339

Grass-fires, annual, i. 4, 11

Gratitude, ii. 315

424

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

Grave, digging of, ii. 104 ; shape of, ii.

106; "temples," ii. 120, 171
Gray, Rev. S. D. , photos by, i. 204,

206
Greed, ii. 315
Groves, around grave (mabwabwa), ii.

120 ; consecrated to demigods, ii.

183 sq.
Guardian, rights and duties of, i. 386 ;

children under, i. 391 ; receives chiko,

ii. 50
Guardian Spirit. See Genius
Guns, medicine for, i. 262

Hades (kubashikufwa), ii. 119 sqq.

Hail, ii. 221

Hair, colour and texture of, i. 63, 71,
75 sq. ; shaving, i. 63, ii. 47 ; on
pubes and in armpits, plucked out, i.
65, ii. 59 ; on body, i. 65 sq. ; when
not cut, i. 63, 207 ; sign of robustness,
i. 66 ; buried, i. 66 ; a fault to pull
out, i. 373

Hairdressing, styles of, i. 69 sq. , 77 sq.
See Impumbe, Isusu

Handicrafts, i. 180 sqq.

Handley, G. F. B. , i. 18 ; photos by, i.
4. 6, 19

Hands and feet, i. 61

Harding, Col. C. , i. 55

Hare (Sulwe), in tales, ii. 100 sq., 339,

359. 36l> 366- 375 SQ1- '< brains of,

used as remedy, i. 241 sq.
Harvest, i. 138, 140 ; offerings, ii. 180
Hazell, Mr., i. 27 n.
Head, shaven after death, ii. 104
Head-dress. See Impumbe, Isusu
Heart, functions of, i. 225 sq.
Heat, endurance of, i. 88
Heath, L. C, ii. 137
Heir, to chief, selection of, i. 299 sqq.
Hemp, Indian, i. 152
Hewetson, Dr., i. 66 sqq.
" Hiding the life," i. 255 sq.
Hippopotami, in Kafue, i. 12 ; hunting,

i. 156 ; skin used as charm, i. 278 ;

tales of, ii. 372, 377
Hoes, i. 219 ; ceremonial, i. 101
Holub, Dr., i. 49 sqq., 96, 123
Homburger, Mile. H., cited, ii. 282 sq.
" Home," equivalent for (uko), i. 286
Homicide, i. 412 sqq. , ii. 187; not im-
puted at Isanti, i. 417 sq.
Honeyguide (Solwe), in tales, ii. 355, 357
Hornbill, ground (Momba), in tales, ii.

374, 380 sq.
Hospitality, i. 364 sq. , ii. 312
Humour, ideas and sense of, ii. 344 sq.
Hunger, endurance of, i. 88
Hunting, methods of, i. 153 sqq. ; rights

to the meat, i. 384 ; a game, ii. 237 ;

prohibitions, ii. 4 ; prayer to Leza in,
ii. 209
"Husband" (mu-lum., ba-), used by
cousins, i. 318 sq. ; of grandson, i.
321 ; of initiator, ii. 31 ; of objects, i.

369
Huts, description of, i. 114 sq. ; built
for the manes, i. 113, ii. 120, 171
(see Grave, "temples ") ; for prophets,
ii. 144, 196 ; for Bulongo, ii. 194 sqq. ;
are open, i. 364 ; entering at night, i.

393
Hyena, tales of, ii. 381, 383 ; dung of, as
remedy, i. 240

Ichila, lists of chiefs at, i. 57

Ikowela, i. 295

" Ila," meaning of, i. xxv sq.

Images, ii. 169

Immunisation from snake-bite, i. 247 sq.

Impande (round base of shell), i. 26,
35, 101 sq.

Impemba (a white substance), i. 106,
177, 232, 252

Impotence, how caused, i. 226 ; pre-
vention of, i. 278 ; treatment of, i. 227,
277 ; what follows, ii. 70

Impumbe (head-dress), i. 71, ii. 34 ; re-
newed, i. jj ; ornamented, i. 103 ;
corn hid in, i. 40

Incest, horror of, ii. 41 ; between children
of two sisters, i. 318 ; between bazhile,
balamu, bakwe, i. 340 sq. ; ordeiedby
doctor, i. 261, ii. 41, 84. See ii. 40

Indavu, game of, ii. 21 sq.

Indecencies of speech, i. 377 sqq.

Indecorum (chisapi), i. 346 ; offences of,
i. 374 sqq.

Independence, spirit of, i. 16, 361

Infanticide, i. 419 sq. , ii. 39. See ii.
114

Inhabitants, ancient, i. 17 sq.

Inheritance, i. 303, 305, 390 sqq.

Initiation, ii. 18 sqq.

Inkaya (ivory armlets), i. 101 ; imita-
tion, i. 102 ; making of, i. 180 sqq.

Inoculation, i. 247 sq. , 168, 266

Insanda (breast of animal), significance
of, i. 384

Instruction, to initiates, ii. 20, 25, 31
sqq. ; to bride and bridegroom, ii.
57 sq.

International Phonetic Association, ii.
277 sq.

Intimidation, i. 350

Inzuikizhi (witchcraft medicine), i. 252,
264, ii. 92, 96

Iron-ore, i. 202

Iron-work, i. 202 sqq., 211 sqq.

Irony, ii. 313

Isambwe (= talisman), i. 251

INDEX

425

Isho-dia-mwino, ii. 182

Isusu (coiffure en cornet, tall head-
dress), origin of, i. 16 ; effect of, on
countenance, i. 61 ; construction of,
i. 71 sqq. ; tied up to rafters, i. 82

Itoshi (fabulous river monster), ii. 128
sq. ; figures of, on huts, i. 120 ; Bakubi
turn into, i. 289

Ivory-working, i. 180 sqq.

Jackal, in tales, ii. 358, 368, 386, 391
Jacottet, Rev. E. , cited, ii. 282, 284,

367. 379. 389. 398
Jalla, Rev. A., cited, i. xxv, 28 n.
James, Prof. W. , quoted, ii. 40, 80
Jealousy, ii. 65 sq. ; disease caused by,

i. 235
Johnston, Sir H. H., i. 18, 288, ii.

129 «., 277, 351, 363
Junod, Rev. H. A., cited, i. 272

Kabulamwanda, Sebitwane at, i. 29 ;

Lewanika at, i. 42 ; Holub at, i. 50 ;

list of chiefs at, i. 57
Kabulwebulvve, chief of Bambwela, i. 25
Kafue plain, i. 3 sqq., 4, 6, 13

(photos)
Kafue River ( = Kavuvu), meaning of

name, i. 3 ; description of, i. 5 sq. ;

railway bridge over, i. 6, 7 (photo) ;

photos of, i. 5, 6, 8 ; ="Loengue,"

" Cafucue," i. 46 ?i. ; cause of floods,

i. 9 sq. ; lagoon of, i. 20 ; fish in, i. 159
Kafue valley, malaria in, i. n
Kafungo, disease, i. 234, 276, 279, 403
Kaingu, chief at Itumbi, i. 40 ; mis-
named Cainco by Pinto, i. 46 n. , and

Cahinga by Porto, i. 47 n.
Kale, chief of Bambwela, i. 25 sq.
Kameko, secondary clan, i. 295
Kamwale (" maiden "), nerve of elephant

tusk, i. 168
Kamwaya tree (" disperser," " scat-

terer"), i. 235, 264, 345, ii. 85
Kantengwa, i. 54 ; list of chiefs at, i. 57
Kanyemba, chief of Bachikundi, i. 44
Kapidi, chief of Baluba, i. 25 sq.
Kasale, a very rich woman, i. 381
Kasempa, chief of Bakaundi, i. 27
Kasenga, Sebitwane at, i. 29 ; raided by

Makololo, i. 33 ; Lewanika at, i. 42 ;

Holub at, i. 50 ; scene at (photo), i.

15 ; list of chiefs at, i. 57
Katanga, copper mines, i. 26, ii. 223
Kerswell, Mrs., cited, i. 54 //.
Kerswell, Rev. J., photo by, i. 70
Kidd, D., i. 298
Kilns (inganzo), for smelting iron, i.

204, 206 (photos)

* These technical Ila terms are verhs in the
without kit or kiv. the sign of that mood ; thus

King Edward Mine, i. 17

Knots, i. 184, 186

Kubadikila,* ii. 47

Kubola, i. 132

Kuchompa, ii. 38, 60

Kudimba, ii. 95

Kudipena, ii. 20

Kudishita, i. 256

Kuditaya, i. 346

Kudivhunga, ii. 18

Kufumba, i. 179, 366

Kufwenezha, ii. 55 sqq.

Kuila, i. xxv, xxvi, 347

Kukamba, i. 362

Kukoma, ii. 28

Kukona, i. 303, 390

Kukunama, ii. 200

Kukwata, ii. 140

Kulabula, i. 371

Kulela, i. 307

Kulumbula, Kulumbuzha, i. 257

Kunanga, i. 385

Kunjidila mukaintu, i. 374

Kuntuba, list of chiefs at, i. 58

Kuombwezha, i. 355

Kupampa, i. 179

Kupuka, ii. 209

Kupupulula, ii. 168

Kusala, i. 359

Kusansumuna, i. 378, ii. 25 n.

Kusaulula, i. 416

Kuseluka, i. 20 sq.

Kusena, Kusenana, ii. 69

Kushinga, ii. 28

Kushinshima, ii. 140

Kushisha, i. 350 ; instances of, i. 396,

407
Kushokolola, i. 369
Kushoma, ii. 167
Kushomausha, i. 376
Kusoma, Kusomya, i. 140, ii. 179
Kutangaza, ii. 62
Kutonda, i. 347. See Taboo
Kutuka, i. 227, 369, 374
Kutwila, i. 364
Kuvhubula, i. 390
Kuweza lubono, i. 382
Kuwila, i. 131, ii. 189
Kuyumbula, i. 364
Kuzaluka, ii. 21
Kuzunga, i. 372
Kwenzha, i. 171 sq.
Kwinda, Kwindauka, i. 251, 256, ii. 96

Labour, division of, i. 114, 117 sq. ,

136 sq., 139
Land, belongs to community, i. 387 ;

apportioned, i. 387 ; sold, i. 388 ;

trespass upon, i. 388

infinitive mood ; they may be found in the text
badikila, inda.

426

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

Language, the Ila, ii. 277 sqq. ; closest
affinities of, i. 18 ; words in, express-
ing approval and disapproval, i. 343

Lathe, for ivory-turning, i. 180 sqq.

Lechwe, vast herds of, i. 12 ; hunting,
i. 155 ; skins of, as dress, i. 98

Leech, ii. 224 ; in tale, ii. 363 sq.

Legend of the Banampongo, i. 20 ; of
the old woman who sought God, ii.
197

Leglets, i. 101 sq.

Leopard, tale of, ii. 369

Leprosy, i. 232 ; medicine for, i. 277

Leselo, i. 34 «., 45 (photo)

Levellers, ii. 316

Lewanika (Lobosi), chief of Barotsi,
supports Nyambo, i. 24 ; birth, ac-
cession, policy, and death of, i. 41 ;
raids the Ba-ila, i. 42 sqq. ; frees
slaves, i. 411 ; sees the Lengongole,
ii. 129

Leza (the Supreme Being), ii. 197 sqq.;
name, i. 18 ; customs established by,
i. 345 ; his family and " death," ii.
102 ; son of, ii. 144 sqq. ; causes
disease, i. 232, 245 ; death ascribed
to, i. 268, 357 ; gives medicine for
propagating the; race, i. 258, ii. 102 ;
clan named from, i. 311 ; angry, ii.
145 ; prayers addressed to, i. 162,
ii. 1 ; offerings made to, i. 168 ; named
in oaths, i. 355 ; in songs, ii. 273 ; in
proverbs, ii. 322 ; in riddles, ii. 325
sq. , 329 sq. ; in children's sayings, i.
242 ; in myths and folk-tales, ii. 102,

"• 345- 347 sqq., 391

Life (bumi), associated with genitals, i.
226 ; hidden away, i. 256

" Life-token," i. 255 sqq.

Lightning, ii. 204 sq., 220 ; medicine to
ward off, i. 261

Lions, habits of, i. 12 ; cattle killed by,
i. 14, 129, 158 ; hunted by natives,
i. 14, 158 ; name of, i. 289 ; men
turn into, ii. 124 sqq.; tales of, ii.
378, 382 sq., 385. 387 sq., 394, 398,
400

Litigiousness of Ba-ila, i. 360

Livingstone, Dr., at Linyanti, i. 38 ; his
account of the Mambari, i. 39 ; his
map of the Zambesi, i. 47 ; his ser-
vant, Mukubu, i. 29 ; impression left
by, on native mind, i. 47 ; his teach-
ing, ii. 146; cited, i. 28 «., 33;
quoted, i. 38 sq., ii. 357

Load-carrying, i. 87

Lobengula, chief of the Matabele, i. 46,
140

Locusts, i. 143 sq., ii. 225

Longo (Shianamwenda), Basala chief-
tainess and prophetess, i. 29, ii. 142

Loss of property, i. 393

Love-philtres, i.' 249 sq.

Lubambo, ii. 67 sq.

Lubanda, conflict at, i. 23

Lubeta, description and occasions of,

i. 35 1 ■"/•> 387
Lubwe, village at, i. 109 sq. ; list of

chiefs at, i. 57
Luck, i. 252, 262 sq., ii. 219
Lucky-hand (chesha), i. 139
Lukono, i. 303, 390, 392
Luloa (blood-offering), i. 411, 417, ii.

187, 192, 211 sq.
Lulonga, Holub at, i. 50, 52
Lunacy, i. 239
Lunda country, i. 25 ; Munyama came

from, i. 26 n.
Lusasa (or chibinde), ii. 61 sq.
Lushinga, i- 231
Lutango, Barotsi leader, i. 41
Luvhumwe, i. 243, ii. n
Lwando, i. 161, 169
Lwanga (sacred forked pole, "village

altar"), ii. 156. 172, 177; cooking at,

i. 262
Lwanzu (or Chanzu), ii. 137
Lwembe (blood-money, weregild), for

homicide, i. 359, 417, ii. 72 ; for

feticide, i. 418 sq. ; for burning village,

i. 404
Lying, characteristic of Ba-ila, i. 378 sq.

Mabamba, warrior's belt, i. 106
Mabwabwa, ii. 120 (photo)
Macgregor, J. C, cited, i. 28 ».
Madan, A. C., cited, ii. 292, 296, 367,

379. 388

Madyanshima, ii. 55

Mafwele, list of chiefs at, i. 58

" Magic," " Magical," i. 222, 255, 346 ;
effect of beans, i. 205 ; why the words
are not used in later chapters, ii. 80

Makobo, isle of, i. 8

Makololo (Sebitwane's people), attack
Batonga, i. 28 ; kill Sezongo, i. 35 sq. ;
attack Chimbulamukoa, i. 40 ; raid
Ba-ila, i. 40 ; exterminated, i. 41

Mala, district of, i. 54 ; chiefs at, i. 57

Malaria, i. 11, 234

Malumbe, a demigod, i. 57, ii. 182

Malweza, definition of, i. 347 ; instances
of, i. 420, 423, ii. 86 sq.

Mambari, slave traders, among the Ba-
ila, i. 36, 39 ; beads introduced by,
i. 106

Mampuba ("awe"), ii. 168

Manes' huts, i. 113. See Grave,
' ' temples "

Manimbwa, i. 36, 42

Mankoya, i. xxvii. 94 ; clans, i. 313

Mantembe, poisonous drink, i. 35

INDEX

427

Mantimbwa, instrument, ii. 21 sq., 262

Mantombwa, game of, ii. 36 sqq.

Marriage, discussed by clan, i. 297 ;
ceremonies, ii. 54 sqq. ; of a widower
and of a widow, ii. 60 sq. ; of chief's
daughter and of a chief, ii. 63 ; of
slave, i. 408 sq. , ii. 64 ; of widow to
whom you have no right, i. 374 ;
allowed between offspring of brother
and sister respectively not between
offspring of two sisters, i. 318 ; other
restrictions, i. 293, ii. 41 ; happy,
ii. 75 n. ; proverbs about, ii. 59, 320.
See Sexual relations

Masamba, a charm, i. 261

Masansa, ii. 56, 58

Mashukulumbwe, name given by Barotsi
to Ba-ila ( = Bashikulompo), meaning
of, i. xxv, 42

Mason-wasp, ii. 345 sq.

Massage, practised, i. 230 sq.

Masturbation, ii. 29, 74

Masunto, oxen killed at funeral, i. 130,
ii. no

Matabele, fight Sebitwane, i. 30 sq. ;
massacred by Sezongo I., i. 35 ; raid
the Ba-ila, i. 44 sqq. ; Ba-ila helpless
against, i. 178

Matjokotjoko, Matabele name for Ba-ila,
i. xxv

Matongo, deserted sites, ii. 123

Matushi, vilifications, i. 374 ; examples

of. i. 375 •*¥•
Mbeza, Sebitwane at, i. 29 ; Barotsi

defeated at, i. 44 ; Holub at, i. 50
Mbololo, last of Makololo chiefs, i. 41
Meal, how prepared, i. 146
Mealies (=maize), how grown, i. 137
Meals, times and description of, i.

145

Measles, i. 232

Meat, eaten, liking for, i. 144 sq. ; how
cooked, i. 147

Medicine (mu-samo, mi-), meaning of
word, i. 222 ; faith in, i. 228 sq., 252 ;
methods of administration, i. 230 jy/. ;
classification of, i. 229, 250 sq. ; lists
of names of, i. 232 sqq. , 275 sqq. ;
powe*rs of, ii. 84 ; damage to another's,
is buditazhi, i. 395 ; taboos attached
to, i. 231, 255 ; curse attached to,
i. 254 ; addressed, i. 249, 262, ii.
85- 93 I offerings made to, i. 262 ;
derived from trees, etc., i. 229;
from skunk, ii. 360 ; from frogs,
ii. 228 ; from excrement, i. 232, 240,
242 ; used in smelting iron, i. 203 sq. ,
209, 278 ; in hunting, i. 167 sq. , 260,
262, 277 sq. ; in fishing, i. 161, 169,
279 ; in blacksmithing, i. 219 sq. , 278 ;
in making butter, i. 277 ; m turning

ivory, i. 182 ; in agriculture, i. 277 ;
in divination, i. 266, .269 sq. ; in
initiation, ii. 21, 30 ; in rain-making,
ii. 209 ; in war, i. 178 sq. , 263, 278 sq. ;
for protecting and increasing cattle,
i. 129, 253 ; for propagating the
species (luzhalo), i. 258, ii. 102 ; for
impotence, i. 227, 277 ; love-philtres,
i. 249 sq. ; to induce conception,
i. 228, 276, 280, ii. 2 ; to induce
abortion, i. 250, 419 ; after abortion,
ii. 6; for overdue menstruation, i. 277 ;
for midwifery, i. 277 ; given to preg-
nant woman and husband, ii. 2, 5 ;
during parturition, i. 277, ii. 7, 8 ;
given to new-born child, ii. 10 sq. ; for
bewitching, ii. 95 ; for avoiding and
curing witchcraft, i. 253, 259 .r</., 275,
277 sqq. , 300 ; for general well-being,
i. 259 ; good luck, i. 261, 263 ;
insambwe, i. 395 ; for wealth, i. 381 ;
for making rich and famous, i. 263 ;
for use in court, i. 264 ; to soften and
defend from enemies, i. 259 sq. ; to
obviate result of ordeal, i. 356 ; poured
into images, ii. 169 ; for rebellion, i.

263 ; to cause unhappiness, i. 264 ;
to keep away thieves, i. 277 ; for
snake-bites, i. 245.fr/. I for purification,
i. 169 ; for hardening one's heart,
i. 259 ; against lightning, i. 261 ; for
protecting chief, i. 300 sq. , 307; for
ensuring prosperity and popularity,
i. 253, 260 sq. ; for protecting village,
i. 301, ii. 178 ; for defending com-
mune, i. 178, 254 ; for long life, i. 259 ;
for hiding the "life," i. 256; for
kulumbuzha, i. 257 ; for feeding on
life-substance of others, i. 258 ; to
draw life from trees, i. 258 ; for seeing
ghost, ii. 122 ; for purging ghost,
ii. 168 sq. ; for stupefying ghost, i.

264 ; for keeping off, driving off ghost,
i. 179, ii. 168 ; for transforming dead
into animals, etc., i. 264, 381, ii. 125,
130 ; for wiping out family, i. 264 ;
for sudden death, i. 265 ; for resuscita-
tion, i. 265, ii. 103 (lwende) ; for seeing
itoshi, ii. 129 ; references to, in folk-
tales, ii. 416

Mediums, ii. 140, 150, 188, 194. See

Prophets
Meinhof, cited, ii. 282, 284, 286, 288
Menstruating women, taboo, i. 207 ;

clouts of, used as remedy, i. 239 ; not

to approach gun in house, i. 262 ;

warnings against, i. 262 sq. ; drive

away tsetse, ii. 27
Menstruation, medicine for overdue,

i. 277 ; taboos, ii. 21, 26 sq.
Metals, ii. 222

428

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

Metamorphosis, ii. 124 ; tales of, ii.

345 sqq. , 403
Metempsychosis, ii. 124 sq. ; connection

with Totemism, i. 289 ; example of,

i. 381
Micturition, position in, i. 83 ; upon

another, an offence, i. 373 ; disease

caused by, i. 238 sq.
Midwifery, medicines used in, i. 250,

277 ; practice of, ii. 7 sqq.
Milk, i. 130, 144 ; disease so named,

i. 239
Milking, i. 129
Milky Way, ii. 219
Millipede, ii. 224
Mimicry : mimic fights, i. 172 ; in games,

ii. 245 ; in dances, ii. 270
Mizhimo (sing. muzhimo) = divinities,

demigods, q.v. , ii. 164 sqq. ; places

consecrated to, ii. 169 sq. ; images,

ii. 169 ; customs derived from, i. 345
Mobukwano, chief of Barotsi, i. 31
Mole, ii. 89
Months, names of, ii. 216 sq. ; work done

in various, i. 141
Monze, Livingstone at, i. 47 ; B.S.A.

police camp at, i. 54
Moon, ii. 217 sqq.
Mortality, infant, ii. 13
Mosquitoes, i. 11, ii. 225
Mpepe, Sebit wane's nephew, i. 33 sq.,

40, 63
Mudimbe ("a pressed one "), ii. 93
Mufufuma, "violet-tree," i. 137, 254,

276, ii. 30
Mufwebabachazi, i. 229, 421 sq.
Mukaku, woman's ceremonial girdle,

i. 99 sq.
Mukubu, Livingstone's servant, i. 29,

30 (photo), 32
Mukwashi (pi. mi-), mounds of ash, i. 129;

father's family, i. 284
Mukwe, bakwe : "son-, daughter-in-
law," i. 340
Mukwesu, meaning of, i. 317
Mukwetunga, ii. 63
Mulambwa, Barotsi chief, i. 32, 34
Munambala, father of Shimunenga, i. 22
Munangombe, Makololo leader, i. 33
Mungaila I. , chief at Kasenga, i. 54
Mungailall., i. 55; photo of, i. 56;

" life " hidden, i. 256 ; was a slave, i.

304 ; at a lubeta, i. 351 ; his praise

titles, i. 367 ; as a mourner, ii. 109
Mungalo, "our friend," quarrel with

Mungaila, exile and death, i. 54 sq. ;

his age, i. 62 sq. ; as a spoon-carver, i.

200 ; his family, i. 284 ; his totem, i.

291 ; at lubeta, i. 351 sq. ; total ab-
stainer, i. 349 ; as a raconteur, ii. 336 ;

what he said about bananas, ii. 89 ;

about corpse, ,ii. 104 ; about asking

questions, i. 379; about tuyobela, ii. 132
Munyama, chief and demigod, from

Lunda, i. 26 n. , ii. 182 sq.
Munyati, chief at Mbeza, i. 29
Munyuni, a doctor, i. 247
Mupuka (pi. Bapuka), meaning of, i.

224 ; in body, bashimpulukutwi, shiu

and Chibumba, i. 224 sqq. ; causes

convulsions, i. 239 ; disease so named, i.

240 ; in pool, i. 389 ; in river ( = itoshi),

ii. 129 ; in trees, ant-hills, etc., ii. 131
Mupumani, a prophet, ii. 147 sq.
Murder, origin of (folk-tale), ii. 350. See

Homicide, etc.
Musamo. See Medicine
Muscular development, i. 61 ; power, i.

86
Mu-sela (pi. mi-). See Age-grade
Mu-semu (pi. mi-), central pole of hut,

i. 116; offerings at, ii. 173, 176
Mushidi (Msidi), history of, i. 26 sq. ;

attacks Kasempa, i. 27
Mu-shinshimi (pi. ba-). See Prophets
Musical instruments, ii. 262 sqq.
Mutaka, ceremonial hoe, i. 101
Mutenda, list of chiefs at, i. 58
Mutilation, when practised, i. 358
Mutumbu, taboos on, ii. 12
Mutumbwe Hill, Baluba settle at, i. 26
Muvhumenzhi, pool, i. 388
Muyumusho, ii. 46 sq., 50
Muzazani, Mukololo leader, i. 33
Mu-zhimo (pi. Mi-), divinity, demigod, q.v.
Mwana-Leza (child of God), ii. 144^^. ;

in tale, ii. 347
Mwanawina, Barotsi chief, i. 41
Mwazhi, ordeal poison, i. 356, ii. 94 ;

appealed to, i. 357
Mwine-mbushi, lake, i. 20
Myths, of origin of death, ii. 100 sq. ;

other etiological, ii. 337 sqq.

Nachilomwe, mother of Shimunenga, i.

22, ii. 183
Nachisanto, a demi-goddess, ii. 182
Nails (of hand), i. 66
Nakabanga, chief at Busangu, i. 33
Nakatunga, sacred spot, ii. 186
Nakedness, of Ba-ila men, i. 96 sq.
Namadindi, Sezongo killed at, i. 35 sq.
Namaumbwe, battle at, i. 23
Nambala Mountain, i. 9, 37 (photo)
Name (i-zhina, ma-), various kinds of,
i. 365 sqq. ; belief about, i. 239 ; con-
nection between and object, i. 254, ii.
85 ; to call a person out of his, i. 370 ;
given to cattle, i. 128; rules concern-
ing, i. 365 sqq. ; tabooed, i. 367 sq. ;
given at birth, i. 365, ii. 152 sq. ; men
with feminine, etc., ii. 154 ; " eating "

INDEX

429

the, i. 168, 303 ; "enters," i. 239, ii.

85 ; new, given to bride, ii. 55, 56, 71 ;

to slave, ii. 173
Namesake, i. 369; = genius, ii. 156
Namwala, Government station, i. 20
Nanzela, people of. See Balumbu
Ndongola, mineral springs, i. 9
Necklaces, worn by women, i. 101
Needle (insonde), in hair, i. 106
Nets, fishing, i. 163 sq. , 186
Ngabo.warat, i. 23 ; list of chiefs at, i. 57
Nicholls, G. H., photos by, i. 98 sq. ,

172 sqq. , ii. 238 sqq.
Nicknames (mazhina a champi), i. 288,

310 n., 312 n., 365
Nkala, first missionaries arrive at, i. 54 ;

police camp at, i. 55
Nocturnal emission, i. 207, 373
Nose-blowing, i. 86
Numbers, system of, ii. 231
Nyambo, war of, with Chiyadila, i. 24 ;

Sebitwaneat, i. 29 ; raided byMakololo,

i. 33 ; Holub at, i. 50 ; list of chiefs

at, i. 57

Oaths, kinds of, i. 355 ; taken on back
of head, i. 224

Offences, against customary laws, i. 350 ;
buditazhi, i. 370

Offerings (chi-paizho, shi-), the word, ii.
174 ; placed at graves, ii. 120, 171,
180 ; at lwanga, ii. 172, 177 ; at gate-
way, i. 113, ii. 173 ; at groves, ii. 187 ;
made when eating, i. 145 ; after killing
elephant, i. 168 ; before war, i. 176 ;
after battle, i. 178 ; at fishing, i. 389 ;
at sowing, ii. 188 sq. ; at harvest, ii.
179 ; after sneezing, ii. 156 ; other
occasions, ii. 174 sq. ; things offered,
ii. 174; made to divinities, i. 113,
168, 389, ii. 172, 174 sqq. ; to genius,
i. 156; to the dead, ii. 105; to ghost,
ii. 123 ; to demigod, ii. 181, 188 ; to
Bulongo, ii. 194 ; to Leza, i. 168, ii.
210 sq. ; to ghost of elephant, i. 168 ;
to medicines, i. 262

Omens, good and bad, i. 162, ii. 86 sq. ,
122 ; in dream, ii. 135 sq.

Onomatopes, ii. 296, 355

Onomatopoeic vocables, ii. 292 sqq.

Ordeal, trial by, i. 356 sq.

Organs of body, names for and functions
of, i. 222 sqq.

Oribi, tale of, ii. 360

Ornamentation, of huts, i. 119 sqq. ; of
grain-bins, i. 139 ; of pots, i. 194 ;
of pipe-bowls, i. 195 ; of woodwork,
etc. , i. 201

Ornaments, i. 99 sqq. ; men's, i. 101 sq. ;
on and in houses i., 1195;/.; on cattle,
i. 128

Orunda, Kele word for taboo, i. 18
Oswell, W. C. , at Linyanti, i. 38
Outlawry, as punishment, i. 358
Owl, reckoned a mulozhi, ii. 88
Ownership, spiritual, i. 388 sq.

Paederasty, ii. 74

Paintings in houses, i. 121

Palms, kinds and uses of, i. 185

Path, stepping off, i. 363 ; dividing of, i.
139. See Cross-roads

Perfumes, i. 94

Perjurer, guilty of buditazhi, i. 355

Personality, ii. 81 ; of divinities, ii. 164 ;
of Leza, ii. 204 sqq. See ii. 162

Personification, ii. 339

Perversions, sexual, ii. 74

Pheasants, i. 137

Phlebotomy, i. 231

Pickering, Rev. F. , i. 54

Pigeons, domesticated, i. 134. See Dove-
cotes

Pillows, wooden, i. 82 ; taboo, i. 82

Pipe-bowls, i. 195 sqq.

Pipes, for tobacco, i. 152, 195 ; for
hemp, i. 152

Places, sacred, ii. 169 sqq.

Plantain-eater (induba), feathers worn,
i. 104 sqq., 179, ii. 88

Plato, ii. 15572., 158, 299 n.

Pleiades (Bulezhi), i. 137, 140, ii. 217

Pluck, examples of, i. 158 sq. ; medicine
to give, i. 168

Polygyny, ii. 64 sqq.

Population, i. 15, 313 sqq. ; why so
small, i. 15 sq. , i. 22

Porridge, how made, i. 146

Portuguese travellers, i. 46, 49

Possession, spirit, ii. 136 sqq.

Pots, earthenware,- making of, i. 191 sqq. ;
baking of, i. 194 ; names of, i. 195 ;
on huts, significance of, i. 118 ; used
in divination, i. 268 sq. 271

Praise-names (-titles), i. 365 sq. ; the
authors', i. 366 ; of Buffalo, i. 288 ;
of Malumbe, ii. 182; of Shimunenga,
ii. 183, 189 ; of Leza, ii. 201 sqq. ; of
Rhinoceros and Hippopotamus, ii. 378;
of Hare, ii. 381

Prayer, offered at the fishing, i. 162 ; of
thanksgiving after victory, i. 178 ; ad-
dressed to the mwazhi, i. 357 ; offered
by doctor, i. 274 ; offered by trapper,
i. 278 ; to Leza, i. 162, ii. 176, 209
sqq. ; quoted, ii. 176, 178, 180, 210
sq. , 220 ; for rain, ii. 220 ; not offered
by man for wife, i. 293

Pregnancy, ii. 1 sqq. ; taboos, ri. 10 sq.\
previous to menstruation, ii. 39

Price, Mrs. J. W. , ii. 9

Price, Rev. J., photo by, ii. 273

430

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

"Priest," " Priesthood," ii. 178, 187

Property, how acquired, i. 380 sqq. ; held

by women, i. 380 ; communal, i. 387

sq. ; offences against, i. 392 sqq. ; held

by slave, i. 411

Prophets, ii. 140 sqq., 208; and customs,

i. 345, ii. 141
Prostitution, i. 382, 410, ii. 73
Proverbs, list of, ii. 311 sqq. ; quoted, i.
293, 302, 3045?., 358, 374, 400, 413,
ii. 17, 59, 113, 385
Punishments, i. 358 sq. ; capital, i. 413
Purification, of lwando, i. 169 ; of
warriors, i. 179 ; of defaulting smelter,
i. 207 ; from abortion, ii. 6 ; of grave-
diggers, ii. 105; of village, ii. 116 sq.
Puzzles, ii. 262

Rain, ii. 205, 221 j^when falls, i. 9
Rainbow, ii. 220
Rainfall, the, i. 9
Rain-making, i. 135, ii. 208
Ransom, for slaves, i. 400 sqq.
Rapacity of Ba-ila, i. 360, 400
Rape, ii. 74
Rats in village, i. 121 ; and good luck,

i. 263
Razor (lu-mo, i-), i. 63, 219
Razzias suffered by Ba-ila, Kasempa, i.

27 ; Barotsi, i. 32, 42 sq. ; Makololo,

i. 33 ; Bashituchila, i. 32 ; Matabele,

i. 44 sq.
Reincarnation, i. 365, ii. 152, 180 ;

ancestors descended for, i. 21 ; man

only reborn through sons, ii. 2 ; how

affects heir, i. 304
Relationship, terms of, i. 316 sqq. ;

falsely to claim, i. 370
Religion, i. 113, ii. 80 sqq. , 207. See

Divinities, Leza, etc.
Remedies, i. 232 sqq.
Reproduction, process of, i. 226 sqq.
Resentment (inkoto), i. 389 ; medicine

for, i. 259
Retaliation, i. 350
Rhinoceros, where found, i. 11; tales

of, ii. 372, 377
Rhodesia Scientific Association, i. 17,

66 n. , 69
Riddles, list of, ii. 324 sqq.
Ridicule, susceptibility to, i. 375, ii. 312
Rinderpest, i. 46, 130
Ringdove, tales of, ii. 351, 353
Rings, worn by women, i. 101 ; by men,

i. T02
Roads, meeting of, ii. 30 ; dividing of,

ii. 5. See Cross-roads
Ryan, B. , photos by, i. 201 sq.

Sacred spots, at graves, ii. 120, 171 sqq. ;
lwanga, ii. 172; in hut, ii. 173; at

gateway, ii. 173 ; groves of demigods,

ii. 183^.; Nakatunda, ii. 186
Sacrifices, i. 113, 132 ; in connection

with fishing, i. 388. See Offerings
Sa'id ibn Habib (Saidi), i. 33, 40
Saliva, as offering, ii. 156, 174
Salt, how prepared, i. 148
Salutations, i. 362 ; a new, ii. 152
Sanctions of morality, i. 343 sqq. I
Sanctuaries, i. 359
Sanitation, i. 92 sqq.
Scorpion, ii. 224
Sea, ideas of, ii. 223
Seasons, ii. 217 ; dry and wet, i. 9 ;

work done in, i. 141
Sebitwane, chief of Makololo, history of,

i. 28 sq. ; invades Bwila, i. 28 sq., 33 ;

fights Matabele, i. 29 sqq. ; invades

Barotsi, i. 31 ; invades Bulumbu, i. 36 ;

his death, i. 38
Seclusion, of mother, ii. 105 sq. ; of in-
itiates, ii. 18 sq. , 23
Secretary bird (nakansakwe), ii. 88
Segregation of patients, i. 231 sq.
Sekeletu, chief of Makololo, attacks

Ba-ila, i. 40 ; and Longo, ii. 142 ;

death of, i. 41
Self-complacency of Ba-ila, i. 16
Selous, F. C. , travels of, i. 53 ; quoted,

i. 44, 53 n.
Senicide, i. 416
Sepopa, chief of Barotsi, i. 41 ; raids

Ba-ila, i. 41 ; killed, i. 41
Serpa Pinto, quoted, i. 46 n.
Sexual attraction, ii. 45 ; inversion, ii.

74 ; relations, promiscuity of, i. 16 ;

restrictions upon, ii. 41 sqq. ; when

forbidden, i. 169, 176, 206 sq. , 231

sq., 261, 263, 293, 338 sqq., ii. 4, 6,

12 sq. , 41 sq. , 43, 69; ideas of, ii.

35 sq. ; before marriage, ii. 36 sqq. ,

48 ; dangers of, ii. 11, 58, 61.

See Adultery, Incest, Lubambo,

Marriage
Sezongo I., chief of Balumbu, i. 34 ;

massacres Matabele, i. 35 ; meaning

of name, i. 35 ; death of, i. 35 sq.
Sezongo II. (Munaswaba), settles at

Manimbwa, i. 36 sq. ; death of, i. 38 ;

life renewed from tree, i. 258 ; turned

into lions, ii. 126 ; reborn, ii. 127 ;

his grave, ii. 171, 127 (photo)
Sezongo III. and IV., i. 38
Shachibinzha, Balumbu chief, i. 34
Shade, Shadow, Shadow - soul (chi-

ngvhule, shi-), i. 234, 271, ii. 87,

93, 162, 212
Shakamwale, ii. 19, 21
Shaloba, chief of Lubwe, i. 43, 109, in

(photo), 123
Shamabuyu, ancient grooves near, i. 18

INDEX

43i

Shaving, i. 63 ; sign of adulthood, i. 70 ;

of corpse, ii. 104 ; of widow, ii. 62
Sheep, i. 134

Shezhimwe, a bogle, ii. 17, 413
Shichonka, mupuka so named, ii. 131
Shimakoma, African cobra, i. 246
Shimunenga, demigod, i. 22, 417, ii.

68, 150, 152, 180, 183 sqq.
Sisters, how addressed, i. 317
"Sisters-in-law" (bazhile), i. 339
Sitatunga, in Kafue swamps, i. 12
Skin, colour of, i. 59
Skin-dressing, i. 183
Skunk, as a charm, i. 263 ; tale of, ii.

359

Slaves, Slavery, i. 398 sqq. ; mean-
ing of name (mu-zhike, ba-), i. 299 ;
may become chiefs, i. 304 ; people
seized as, i. 174 ; why made, i. 395 ;
inherited, i. 392 ; paid as fines, i. 400 ;
make themselves such, i. 400^. ; how
change masters, i. 370, 399, 411 ;
female, piteous sight, i. 61, 4O8 ;
rights of, i. 408 ; marriage of, i. 408
sqq., ii. 64; rite of binding, ii. 172;
proverb about, ii. 317

Slave-trade, Sezongo and, i. 35 ; Arabs
and Mam bar i engaged in, i. 39 sq. ,
398 ; local, i. 399 ; disease introduced
by, i. 232 ; put down by B.S.A.
Company, i. 55

Slighting, an offence, i. 376

Smell, sense of, i. 91

Smelting iron, i. 202 sqq.

Smith, Mrs. E. W., i. 54 n., 366 n.,
ii. 15

Smith, Rev. E. W., his Handbook of
Ila Language quoted, i. 288, ii. 277

Snake-bite, i. 245 sqq.

Snakes, varieties of, i. 14, ii. 228 sq. ;
as ornament on huts, i. 120 ; on grain-
bins, i. 139

Snuff, i. 152

Social organisation, i. 283 sqq.

Sodomy, i. 373, ii. 74

Songs, Singing, ii. 269; at iron-smelting,
i. 208; at funerals, ii. 111 ; lewd, when
permitted, ii. 84, 272 ; other, ii. 8 sq. ,

21, 37, 187, 191, 209, 273

" Soul," ii. 162

Spears, names of, i. 215 ; throwing, i.

87, ii. 242 ; etiquette of, i. 363 ;

fish-, making of, i. 213 sqq.
Spiders, ii. 224 ; cause erythema, i. 241
Spirits, evil {see Ghosts) ; nature, ii.

131

Spitting, in oaths, Thu ! i. 355 ; medi-
cine, i. 162
Squanderers rebuked, ii. 316
Squirrel, talcs of, ii. 357 sq.
Stars, ii. 219

Sterility, i. 16, 228, ii. 1, 70

Strings, i. 183 sqq.

Subliminal consciousness, ii. 159

Succession to chiefship, i. 303

Suggestion, practised by doctors, i. 274 ;

in witchcraft, ii. 97 sq.
Suicide, Suicides, i. 421, ii. 75 n. , 114;

burial of, ii. 116 ; instance of, i. 416
Sun, the, ii. 218
Swamps, of Kafue, i. 10 sq.
Swearing, false, disease caused by, i.

236
Sweetbread, when not eaten, i. 145
Swimming, i. 92
Syphilis, medicine for, i. 277

Taboo (kutonda, kuila, kuzhila), mean-
ing of word ila, i. xxv, xxvi ; pro-
venance of word tonda, i. 18 ; defini-
tion, i. 347 ; difference between tonda
and buditazhi, i. 347, ii. 81 ; classifica-
tion of, i. 348 sq. ; and danger, ii. 83 ;
ascribed to Leza, i. 233 ; shaving,
i. 63 ; plucking out body hair, i.
66 ; pillows, i. 82 ; day after first
rains, i. 139, ii. 209 ; fire, i. 142
sq., 210; foods, i. 149 sqq. , 255,
ii. 3, 17 ; fruits, i. 150 ; water, i. 207,
ii. 221 ; beer, i. 238 ; fat, i. 238 ;
barbs of fish, i. 238 ; meat, i. 233,
255, 261 sq. , ii. 3, 17 ; fishers, i. 169;
warriors, i. 176 ; iron-smelters, i. 206
sq. ; lepers, i. 232 ; boundaries, i. 387 ;
prayers, i. 293 ; marriage, i. 293,
ii. 26 ; abortion, i. 348 ; names, i.
365 sqq., ii. 153; matushi, i. 374
sqq. ; twins, i. 405 ; spilling blood, i.
414 ; cutting teeth, i. 420 ; suicide, i.
423 ; striking a stone, i. 258 ; associ-
ated with pots, i.. 258 ; medicine, ii. 5 ;
medicine receptacle, ii. 6 ; pregnancy,
ii. 2 sq., 11 ; birth, ii. 7 sq. ; nursing
mother, ii. 12 ; asking about children,
ii. 14 ; children, ii. 17 sq. ; initiation,
ii. 19, 21, 26 ; menstruation, i. 207,
ii. 26 sq. ; mantombwa game, ii. 38 ;
connection with immature girls, ii. 38 ;
father to claim damages for daughter's
illegitimate pregnancy, ii. 40 ; incest,
ii. 41 ; mother-in-law, ii. 60 ; rela-
tions, i. 318, 338, 341 ; bakwe, i.
341 ; widower and widow, ii. 61 sq. ;
places, ii. 131, 186 ; Kamwaya and
Mabanga, ii. 85 sq. ; Chinao, ii. 87 ;
secretary bird, ii. 88 ; Chivubavuba
and mole, ii. 89 ; to see certain snakes,
ii. 229 ; new-fangled things, ii. 88 sq. ;
the moon, ii. 219 ; associated with
drugs and charms, i. 231, 255, 258,
261 ; disease caused by breaking, i.
241, 244

432

THE ILA-SPEAKING PEOPLES

Tales, of incest, ii. 42 sq. ; of men turn-
ing into lions, ii. 124 ; of lad given
medicine, ii. 84 sq. ; of ghost, ii. 133.
See Folk-tales

Talismans (i-sambwe, ma-), i. 250 sqq.
See Medicine

Tasting food, i. 364

Tata (my father), i. 319

Taylor, Rev. H. J., cited, i. 54 n.

Teeth, bad condition of, i. 66 sq. ;
practice of knocking out, i. 69, 94 sqq. ;
effects of, i. 69 ; cleaning, i. 92

Termites, i. 121, ii. 226

Testicles (i-bolo, ma-), eaten by warrior,
i. 177 ; cut off and thrown away, i.
178 ; see ii. 30 ; tale of elephant's, ii.
361

Theal, Dr., i. 289

Theft, i. 393 ; medicine to prevent, i. 277

Thu ! and Tsu ! meaning of, ii. 174 ;
when used, i. 355, ii. 156, 176, 218,
221

Ticks, ii. 225

Time, reckoning, ii. 215

Tobacco, i. 152

Tomtit (intite), tale of, ii. 374

Torrend, Father, ii. 277

Tortoise, tales of, ii. 340^^., 370, 373,
375. 39° I medicine against lightning,
i. 261 ; for sudden death, i. 265

Totemism, i. 287 sqq. ; and metempsy-
chosis, i. 289 ; Dr. Theal's theory, i.
289 ; Sir James Frazer's theory, i.
291 ; and religion, i. 293 sq.

Totems, list of, i. 310 sqq. ; respect
shown to, i. 294

Touch, sense of, i. 92

Traps, for hippopotamus, i. 156 ; other,

'• z57
Trees, named, i. 185, 196 sq., 203, 11.

18, 23, etc.
Trespass, i. 388
Tribal marks, i. 94 sq.
Trophies, of warriors, i. 177 sqq. ; put

on lwanga, ii. 172
Truth, regard for, i. 378
Tsetse fly, driven away by menstruating

women, ii. 27
Types, physical, i. 59. See Frontispiece,

vol. i. and photo, i. 60

Umbilical cord, ii. 8, 9

Umziligazi (Moselekatse), Matabele chief,

i. 28, 32
Uncle (Uachisha), position and power of,

i. 319 sq.
Uncle Remus, ii. 340, 342, 353, 378^.,

390

Vanity, reproved, ii. 313
Vapour bath, i. ^30

Venereal disease, i. 238 ; medicine, for

i. 277
Vengeance no crime, i. 417
Venus, the planet, ii. 219
Victoria Falls, i. 17
Vilification, i. 374 ; when permitted, i.

309
Village, description of, i. 109 sq. ; new,

removal to, ii. 178
Vital spots, i. 223
Vow, of friendship, i. 308

Walenje (Beni Mukuni), i. xxvii ; clans,

i- 313

Warfare, i. 170 sqq.

Warlock, detected, i. 268, 272 ; chief
becomes, i. 301. See Witchcraft

Warrior, medicines for, i. 263, 278 sq.

Wart-hog, hunting the, i. 158 ; in tales,
ii. 363 sq.

Water, ii. 221 ; ordeal of boiling, i. 356

Water-lily, roots of, used as medicine, i.
240 ; for making snuff, i. 152

Weaning, ii. 12

Weasel, tale of, ii. 368

Weeks, Rev. J. H. , cited, ii. 332 ;/.

Weregild (Lwembe, q.v.), i. 359

Werner, Miss A., quoted, ii. 379

Westermarck, Prof., theory of incest, ii.
43 ; quoted, ii. 65

Whirlwind, ii. 221, 325

Whiteness and luck, i. 252

Widow, inherited, i. 390 sq. ; remarriage
of, ii. 62 ; marrying one to whom you
have no right, i. 374

Widower, remarriage of, i. 391, ii.
60 sq.

Wife, Wives, how called, i. 339 ; distinc-
tions between, ii. 67 ; lent to guest,
i. 365, ii. 69 ; inherited, i. 390 sq. ;
exchange of, ii. 69 ; abduction of, i.
404

" Wife," used figuratively by doctor dur-
ing smelting, i. 207, 210 ; by cousins,
i. 318 sq. ; of granddaughter, i. 321 ;
of wife of grandson, i. 342 ; of col-
lateral grandmother, i. 339 ; of objects,
i. 369

Winds, names of, ii. 221

Witchcraft (bu-lozhi), ii. 90 sqq.; disease
caused by, i. 234, 236 ; preventives
of, i. 253, 259 sq., 278 sq., 300 sq.;
medicine (to operate), i. 252, 264,
301 ; medicine (to cure), i. 275, 279 ;
accusation of, a great fault, i. 371 ;
detection of, i. 268, 272, 356 ; death
as penalty for, i. 358 sq.

Witness, false, i. 371

Women, handsome figures of, i. 61 ;
clothing of i. 98 ; ornaments of, i. 99
sqq. ; their work, i. 114, 187, 191, 381

INDEX

433

diseases of, i. 238 sq. ; hold property,
i. 380 ; no right to their children, i.
384 ; inherit, i. 390 ; inherited, i. 390
sq. ; suffer under inheritance laws, i.
391 ; assault of sleeping, i. 393 ;
names applied to : mutumbu, ii. 12,
namauwa, ii. 38, nakasomona, ii. 39,
namatezi, ii. 62 ; who die in child-
birth, burial of, ii. 114; who die
pregnant, burial of, ii. 114 sq.

Woodwork, i. 196, ii. 262 sqq.
Worthington, F. V., i. 39 «., ii. 98, 129

Xylophone, ii. 263

Yaws, i. 232

Year, i. 140, ii. 216 ; new, ii. 189

Zambesi River, i. 6, 28, 32
Zebra, tale of, ii. 368

THE END

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