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' September/October, 1989
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' ' September/October, 1989
ILLINOIS TEACHER
Foreword, Annabelle Slocum, Linda Peterat and Linda Eyre 1
Canadian Home Economics Association 1939 - 1989, Norma Bannerman,
Shirley Rebus, and Arlene Smith .'. 2
The Best for Home Economics Education Is Yet To Come, Heidi Adair "7
Alice Ravenhill: International Pioneer in Home Economics
Mary Gale Smith j0
In Search of Place, Wanda Young 15
Home Economics Curriculum for Canadian Schools, Linda Peterat 18
The Education of Home Economiccs Teachers in Canada, Beverly Pain 20
Gender Equity and Home Economics Curriculum, Linda Eyre 22
Computers in the Home: A Curriculum Project,
Eda Favaro and Audrey van Alstyne 26
Career Preparation— Programs for the Work World, Leslie Paris 33.......' 29
Toward a Global Home Economics Curriculum, Linda Peterat and Mary Gale Smith 34
Book Reviews, Linda Eyre 39
Book Reviews, Linda Peterat 40
Illinois Teacher of Home Economics
ISSN 0739-148X
A publication of the Division of Home Economics Education,
Department of Vocational and Technical Education,
College of Education, University of Illinois,
Champaign, Illinois 61820
Illinois Teacher Staff
Mildred Griggs, Professor and Editor
Annabelle Slocum, Visiting Lecturer and Managing Editor
Norma Huls, Office Manager
June Chambliss, Technical Director
Catherine Burnham, Graduate Assistant and Ed.D. Candidate
Sally Rousey, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Other Home Economics Education Division Staff and Graduate Students
Alison Vincent, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Vida U. Revilla, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Volume XXXIII, No. 1, September/October, 1989. Published
five times each academic year. Subscriptions $15.00 per year.
Foreign, including Canada, $18.00 per year. Special $10.00 per
year ($12.00 Foreign) for undergraduate and graduate students
when ordering by teacher educator on forms available from
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Address: ILLINOIS TEACHER
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Telephone: 217/244-0820
©1989
Foreword
Welcome to Volume XXXIII and to a new academic year. The central theme of
Illinois Teacher for 1989-90 is critical and reflective questioning of our
understanding of home economics toward action. This issue is guest edited by our
neighbors to the north, Canadian home economists celebrating the fiftieth year of
their professional organization. We hope you will enjoy learning about their
history, some of what has formed and shape home economics in Canada, and the
scope and understanding they bring to home economics education through their
reflections on the past while looking toward the future.
Annabelle Slocum
Managing Editor
In 1989, Canadian home economists mark fifty years of professional
organization. This occasion was one reason to assemble a special issue focusing on
home economics education in Canada. In this issue, we have attempted to provide
a picture of what home economics education is like and what some of the current
movements are. However, in a country as large and diverse as Canada, a complete
picture is never possible.
Our lead article reviews some of the history of the Canadian Home Economics
Association. In the articles that follow, authors lead us to reconsider the past while
pondering the future. The enthusiasm of new educators comes together with the
reflective tones of the more experienced. The international influences, particularly
from Britain and the United States, which have always been a part of home
economics education in Canada, are brought to life in the study of Alice Ravenhill.
Analytical and questioning voices raise issues related to curriculum and teacher
education. Many articles convey the sense of turning point in education and home
economics currently, and express the sense of opportunity and challenge present.
These themes are present in the articles specifically addressing issues of practice:
career education, global education, computers, and gender equity.
With greetings from Canada
Linda Peterat and Linda Eyre
Guest Editors
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1989 1
CANADIAN
HOME ECONOMICS ASSOCIATION
1939 - 1989
Norma Bannerman — Food Consultant
Shirley Rebus — Consultant Home Economist
Arlene Smith — Clothing and Textile Instructor
Calgary, Alberta
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Shirley Rebus
Arlene Smith
Norma Bannerman
In July of 1939, Winnipeg hosted a gathering of
enthusiastic home economists who were intent on laying
the groundwork for a national association. By that
time home economics was not a new field of study in
Canada. University degree programs were well
established in ten universities, and the subject was
widely taught to junior and senior high school students
and groups of adult women. Local associations of home
economists existed in a number of centers, but these
groups were scattered, few in number, and there was no
mechanism to bring them together for shared
professional activities. The spark to achieve this came
from the Manitoba Home Economics Association.
The Founding Convention
The founding convention was held July 4-6, 1939 at
the Royal Alexandra Hotel in Winnipeg. Although
most of the 116 delegates were from Winnipeg, all
provinces except Quebec, Nova Scotia and Prince
Edward Island were represented. The delegates
included teachers, university lecturers, hospital
dietitians, homemakers, and home economists in home
service, government, and journalism.
In the first few minutes of the business meeting, a
motion to organize a national association was
unanimously passed. This was followed by a motion
naming the new organization the Canadian Home
Economics Association (CHEA). The accepted aims and
objectives of the organization were:
1. to bring about a closer cooperation between the
branches of home economics,
2. to coordinate the aims and objectives of all
branches of the profession and of the provincial and
other Canadian groups,
3. to promote the welfare of the Canadian home and
to serve the community life of Canada, and
4. to encourage and aid investigative research and
surveys and to make available reports, pamphlets,
etc. relating to home economics.
The program featured sessions on nutrition,
synthetic fibers, Ontario's new province-wide
curriculum, and the work of home economists in various
occupational settings. There were public lectures on
"Home Economics and the Community" and "The Home
Economist and the Consumer."
But it was not all work. Although it would not
have been called networking back then, there were
several opportunities for delegates to strengthen
friendships and discuss their work with colleagues.
The University of Manitoba hosted a tea in the newly-
constructed practice house, the Swift Canadian
Company provided luncheon following a tour of the
plant, the Men's Press Club gave a cocktail party, and
the Winnipeg Tribune hosted dinner at the St. Charles
Country Club.
The convention received excellent coverage from
the two Winnipeg newspapers. Jane Horn of the
Winnipeg Free Press pointed out that it was:
no ordinary convention of people but a meeting
of women whose work is vitally allied with
everyday living.. .their research... the means to
the end of making life more pleasant,
healthful and economically sound for the
homemakers of the nation and consequently for
the nation at large.
2 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1989
Conventions Over the Years
For CHEA members, conventions have been a time
of meeting and sharing. From concluding remarks at
early conventions, we sense the excitement and unity
fostered by the newly-formed association.
The 1950's was a time to define the organization
and set standards. Incorporation was one lasting result.
Many conference sessions focused on family living, and
this intensified throughout the 1960's when
communication and public relations were also new areas
of interest.
The biggest issue of the 1970's was preparing for,
coping with, and planning for the future. There were
also sessions on ethics in marketing, the needs of
minority groups, the new consumer climate, single
parenting, daycare, and the metric system.
The 1980's became more introspective and focused on
professionalism. There was recognition of strength
through diversity, professional development, and the
need to broaden the role of the home economist.
Networking, job sharing, professional reentry and
management were issues of concern. Research
presentations were also included in the program.
As the conferences moved back and forth across the
provinces, delegates experienced the diversity of this
country. Local talents, specialties and resources helped
to make each gathering memorable and unique. Menus
featured lobster in the Maritimes, beef in Alberta, a
salmon barbecue in British Columbia, and an evening of
I Quebec cider and cheese in Montreal. Entertainment
included a Maritime hoe-down, Ukrainian dancers in
Edmonton, and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police
(RCMP) Sunset Ceremony in Regina. Activities
included a picnic supper by the Avon River at the
Stratford Shakespearean Festival, a drive to Butchart
Gardens in Victoria, a tour of a fish processing plant, a
double-decker bus tour of Ottawa, and on and on -
always the opportunity to better know the country and
its people, and to expand the horizons of home
economists.
Communication
In an association with widely-scattered members,
communication was important. The first newsletter,
published seven months after CHEA was formed,
included a message from President Jessie McLenaghen,
reminiscences of pioneer home economists, and accounts
of addresses given at the founding convention, a list of
conveners of standing committees. A chart showing
membership by province indicated that membership
had grown to 292 in just a matter of months.
For several years there was discussion about
expanding the newsletter into a journal. In 1950 the
newsletter was replaced by the quarterly Canadian
Home Economics Journal. Although there was more
emphasis on professional information, the Journal
continued to publish news about the Association and its
members. This continued until 1985 when the
newsletter, Rapport, once again carried news items
while the Journal focused on scholarly articles. In 1973,
in response to a recommendation from the Canadian
University Teachers of Home Economics (now the
Canadian Association for Research in Home
Economics), the Journal introduced a refereed research
section. By 1986 the research section had earned
scholarly recognition and was supported by the Social
Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.
Reflections of the Times
The Newsletters and Journals were a reflection of
their times. For example, journal articles written
during World War II show that Canadian home
economists were committed to assisting the war effort
through fund-raising activities, by providing
information about food dehydration, and in training
chefs for the Royal Canadian Air Force. In the 1940's
there was concern about standardization and labelling
of consumer goods, the new radar cooking range, the
chemical treatment of fibers to impart desirable
qualities, and the appointment of a CHEA member as
director of the Chatelaine Institute and editor of the
housekeeping section. Topics of the 1950's included
"Mental Health and the Family", "Good Taste in the
Home", "Around the World With Canadian Home
Economists", "Canadian Fabrics Foundation Accepts a
Challenge", "Skinfold - A Measure of Obesity", and
"Careers for Home Economists" (a series of fourteen).
Articles in the 1960's reflected the growing concern for
global well-being, the effect of the technological
explosion, and the impact of sociological change. There
were items about food technology, new products and
equipment, the effect of women working outside the
home, the need for daycare and nursery schools, and the
changing roles of men and women.
The 1960's and 1970's were times of change within
the profession. A major concern of the 1960's was
whether or not men were welcome, particularly in
administrative positions. There were strong positions
on both sides of the question. In the 1970's there was
discussion as to whether home economics was the best
name for the profession. Numerous articles addressed
the topic of professional identity, but none was more
provocative than Jennifer Welsh's "Letter from a
Closet Home Economist." She shocked readers with
her assertion that home economists were viewed as
academically inferior, promoters of myths, and
antifeminist.
Since the late 1970's, the newsletter has featured
"Operation Alert," which invites members to alert the
executive to concerns they have regarding social issues.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1989 3
Alerts have been raised on issues such as misuse of the
terms nutritionist and home economist, sale of
children's T-shirts with psychologically damaging
slogans, sexual discrimination, Playboy television
channel, nutrition labelling, stereotyping of home
economics teachers, and removal of the spousal tax
exemption. Follow-up articles report action taken by
the executive on these issues, primarily that of writing
to media, government, school boards and store officials.
Professionalism dominated the themes of the early
1980's. In the last half of the decade, more attention
has focused on the areas of home economics practice
such as the family, the aged, health, and education.
Sharing Expertise With Developing Countries
Very early on, Canadian home economists' concern
about the welfare of families extended abroad. In 1945
the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO) was established, including a home economics
branch directed by Canadian home economist Margaret
Hockin. In the years that followed, several home
economists from Canadian universities pioneered
higher education abroad. Out of this grew a
commitment in the developing countries toward the
creation of outreach programs for rural development.
In the 1970's, CHEA began to explore ways of
becoming officially involved in international
development. With encouragement from the FAO, the
International Federation of Home Economics and
financial support from the Canadian International
Development Agency (CIDA), CHEA's first twinning
relationship was established between the Toronto
Home Economics Association and the Caribbean
Association of Home Economics in 1979. This joint
project produced three textbooks for junior high school.
Since then 16 other twinning partnerships have been
established through local and provincial international
development committees across Canada. In addition to
textbook development, projects have included daycare
centers and daycare worker training, consumer
education, secondary school home economics curriculum,
teaching/learning packages for primary schools,
nutrition education, and a vocational training program
for students leaving school before graduating. All of
these focus on the needs of the local people and are
designed to allow individuals in developing countries
to have more control over their destinies. In 1983,
CIDA provided funding for a program administrator,
and in 1987 for a development education officer.
Development education became an important part of
the program, with educating Canadian home
economists about development issues going hand-in-
hand with twinning. To achieve this, audiovisuals and
educational kits were created to help members examine
specific development issues.
Committees
In 1939 the CHEA founders established 13 standing
committees; today there are 21. Many committees have
continued through the years, sometimes with a change
of name or focus. Three committees central from the
beginning were the Extension Services Committee
(recently renamed Home Economists in Government),
the Home Economics Women in Business (later Home
Economists in Business) and the Education Committee
(now known as Home Economists in Education). Each of
these committees has a story to tell, but the focus of
this paper will be the work of the Education
Committee.
Home Economists in Education
The objective of the early education committee -
quality, effective home economics education in schools
and universities - has endured. Only the focus and
means of achieving this objective have shifted as times
and needs have changed.
From the outset, the Education Committee was
concerned about the content of home economics courses
and the qualifications of teachers. In 1939, the
Committee conducted a country-wide survey of home
economics in elementary, junior and senior high schools,
and universities.
In 1942, CHEA polled members to determine their
views on minimum standards for the education of home
economics teachers and for their opinions on
appropriate textbooks. When each research project
was completed, letters were sent to the provincial
departments of education. Overall, CHEA
recommended that home economics supervisors be
appointed for each province and that high school home
economics teachers should be well trained and have
qualifications equal to those required for the teaching
of other high school subjects. In 1943 a report by Dr.
Hope Hunt, chair of the Education Committee, stated
that educators should be urged to employ only qualified
teachers and that home economics should begin by
grade 6 for boys and girls, at least in relation to health
and family living. She suggested, as well, that
university departments expand according to the
particular needs in their part of the country. The 1945
education report contained an outline of minimum
requirements for undergraduate training of teachers,
and during the ensuing year, the Committee considered
minimum course standards and devised a course of
studies for an undergraduate program in extension work.
In 1949, with financial assistance from the
membership, and from the Canadian Life Insurance
Officers Association, Grace Duggan (Cook), Associate
Professor in the School of Household Economics at the
University of Alberta, was appointed to conduct a
nation-wide study of home economics education. This
4 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1989
project involved meetings with home economics faculty
members, graduates, and prospective employers across
Canada. This study found that significant changes had
occurred in educational institutions. The Duggan Report
found that students' primary reason for enrolling in
home economics was not preparation for marriage, as
was earlier the case, but rather their desire to earn a
living in a women's profession. The committee which
studied the report concluded that:
The universities must place more emphasis on
preparing graduates for a professional
career... More intensive training is required in
the specialist courses, so that graduates will be
more fully prepared to meet the demands of the
business world. ...More specialization is
required if the universities are to meet the need
for adequately trained women in home
economics.... (and) emphasis should be placed
on the possibility of providing a two-year core
of general education subjects, followed by two
years of specialization.
Over the years universities gradually changed to
four-year programs and developed areas of
specialization. Teacher training qualifications were
raised and were more standardized across the country.
Home economics curriculum in schools had always been
under provincial jurisdiction, and curriculum concerns
were frequently dealt with by provincial home
economics associations. As a result, the efforts of the
Education Committee shifted to actively supporting
the teachers in the profession.
The 1968 annual report indicated that the
Education Committee was gathering information about
opportunities for graduate work in Canadian
universities, and on vocational and technical programs
in secondary schools in each province. A summary of
family life and child development courses was sent to
the Departments of Maternal and Child Health, and
National Heath and Welfare.
By 1970 there was growing awareness of the
importance of consumer education, and the annual
report contained the results jof an extensive survey of
Canadian university-level courses in consumer
education and management. The survey indicated that
there was "a growing awareness of the importance of
[these] courses..." and pointed out the necessity of
extending them "to all areas of the university."
i Building Closer Links
Through the 1970's and into the early 1980's there
was concern with structure and terms of reference for the
; Education Committee. The committee was structured so
I there was representation from each province, and closer
liaison was possible because CHEA conferences were
held annually. In 1977 the chair of the Education
Committee, in recommending future directions,
suggested that this group could be more effective if the
professional aspects of teaching were emphasized. It
was thought this could be done by planning an
education session at each annual conference to examine
issues related to the profession of teaching.
The 1978 annual report mentioned such a session for
teachers at the conference, and subsequent reports
indicated that special sessions and workshops for
teachers were a responsibility of the Education
Committee. The success of the computer workshop at
the 1983 conference precipitated the idea of a
travelling workshop in co-operation with the
affiliates across Canada. As part of the recognized
need for on-going professional development, joint
ventures in continuing education have been undertaken
at the provincial level.
In the early 1980's there was growing concern about
the trend to downplay the importance of home
economics in schools. Members in the field of education
were asked to report any concerns in their areas to the
Education Committee for further action by the board. In
1984 a position paper on home economics/ family studies
in Canadian schools was written. The report was
released to members and internal groups prior to the
1985 annual meeting, and to the public in mid- August of
that year. Members were encouraged to distribute the
paper and use it for information and lobbying in their
school area.
Shaping Public Policy
The education position paper was but one of many
resolutions, briefs, position papers and reports that
CHEA has prepared over the years. By 1941, the
Association had advocated that the Department of
Agriculture provide legislation for a simpler food
grading system, for regrading of fruit removed from
storage, for extension of meat grading to include all
fresh meats, and for pasteurization of milk in all
provinces. The Association had endorsed a proposal to
the Federal Department of Health to establish
Canadian food values, and recommended establishing a
National Bureau of Textile Testing and Research to
serve the Canadian consuming public.
Throughout the 1940's, CHEA continued to present
its positions to the government. These included
recommendations that piece goods and ready-made
garments be labelled as to fiber content, that school
lunch programs be emphasized, and that a public
education campaign be undertaken to encourage the use
of whole wheat flour. In 1949, a brief was presented to
the Royal Commission on the National Development in
Arts, Letters and Sciences regarding what home
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1989 5
economics had to offer to the cultural development of
Canada. In the 1950's CHEA recommended standard
sizes for baking utensils, and standard abbreviations for
teaspoon (tsp.) and tablespoon (Tbsp.). Twenty-five
years later, the association worked with the
government to establish standards for metric measures.
In the 1980's CHEA responded to government papers on
nutrition labelling, pensions, pornography and
prostitution, child care, and divorce mediation.
In looking at the history of the Canadian Home
Economics Association, it is evident that some things
change and some things stay the same. The issues and
means of responding may be different, but CHEA's
concern for the welfare of individuals and families has
been constant.
References and Sources
CHEA newsletters, 1940-1950 and 1975-1988.
Canadian Home Economics Journal, 1950-1988.
CHEA Minutes of Executive, Board and Annual
Meetings, 1939-1988.
CHEA Annual Reports, 1940-1988. • • •
Note: The authors of this paper are in the final stages
of editing the manuscript for We Are Tomorrow's Past:
A History of the Canadian Home Economics
Association. The publication has been prepared to
commemorate the 50th anniversary of CHEA. Those
wishing to read the complete book are invited to order
a copy. Cost is $10.00 + $1.50 handling for members,
and $15.00 + $1.50 handling for non-members (Canadian
funds). Cheque or money order should be sent to:
Canadian Home Economics Association
901, 151 Slater Street
Ottawa, Ontario
KIP 5H3
(Peterat, Continued from page 19.)
Peterat, L (1986). Home economics in Canadian schools.
Journal of Consumer Studies and Home
Economics, 10, 271-278. • • •
Peterat, L (1984). Home economics, A survey of
provincial curricula at a secondary level
(unpublished report). Fredericton, New
Brunswick, University of New Brunswick,
Faculty of Education.
Peterat, L (1985). Home economics education in
secondary schools. Canadian Home Economics
Journal, 35(2), 80-83.
(Young, Continued from page 17.)
many areas of specialization were offered for the size
of the faculty. Most criticized were the laboratory
classes in foods, clothing, interior design, and communi-
cations which required additional space for the
laboratory and time for the application of theory in a
practical way. Finally, at the October 1988 meeting of
the senate, President Kristjanson stated that the Col-
lege of Home Economics was being closed for economic
reasons.
A Sense of Place
The pioneer families came to Saskatchewan with a
sense of place. They thought that this province was a
place where they could raise families in freedom. For
most of the century home economists have had a place
in the educational system of the province, assisting the
families to survive with a satisfactory quality of life.
The future is obscure. Now it is the home economists
who are searching for a sense of place as closure of the
College of Home Economics is planned in 1990. As a
profession we must focus on the role of home economics
education in a changing world. Which curriculum
concepts are home economists best prepared to teach?
What problems of the family are the mandate of home
economics teachers?
References
Begin, M. (1988). Debates and silence. Reflections of a
politician. Daedalus, 117(4 Fall), 335-362.
Calendar of the University of Saskatchewan. (1910),
72.
Rowles, E. (1964). Home economics in Canada. Saska-
toon, Saskatchewan: Modern Press and University
of Saskatchewan Book Store.
Statistics Canada. (1976). Census of Canada popula-
tion: Demographic characteristics: Mother tongue.
Ottawa, Ontario: Statistics Canada.
Young. W. E. (1975). A chronology of changes at the
University of Saskatchewan. Unpublished
manuscript. Saskatoon, Saskatchewan: Archives
of the University of Saskatchewan.
Young, W. E. (1984). A content analysis of the Home
Economics Bulletin. A paper presented at the
American Home Economics Association 75th Annual
Meeting, June 25-28, Anaheim, California. • • •
6 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1989
The Best for Home Economics Education
Is Yet To Come
Heidi Adair
Teacher
Fort Frances High School
Fort Frances, Ontario
Will home economics education survive into the
21st century? Why should we, as home economics edu-
cators, want to continue and how can we ensure our place
in future societies? These are some of the very impor-
tant questions that are being asked today by home eco-
nomics educators. In order to plan our future, we must
first look into our past; for it is the past that gives
meaning to our present actions as well as helping to
formulate our future plans. By studying demographics
we can analyze the probable composition of future soci-
eties and predict what their needs will be. Our history
and our future are important for educators to study in
order that we might develop and instigate programs
now that will help all individuals shape their lives,
i By looking back to where we as a profession have been
i and looking forward to where society is headed, we can
I see what we as home economics educators need to do
! now to ensure our place in the 21st century and beyond.
I Where Have We Been
I The history of home economics education began in
I the mid to late 1800's when rapid and dramatic
changes were taking place in society due to the techno-
i logical advancement of the times. The impact on the
I family was staggering as the agrarian way of life
, evolved into an urban industrial lifestyle. The family
J unit which had formerly been relatively stable, self-
supporting, and geographically and emotionally close
i was becoming increasingly dependent, separated, and
j alienated (Lund, 1976).
In earlier times, the home was the center of every-
i thing. As well as being a place for nurturing and love, it
was the center of production in which the work done by
women was valued equally to that done by men. When
i men moved into wage-paying jobs in factories, the work
of women was devalued because no direct financial ben-
efit was evident.
It was during this period of rapid social change and
upheaval that a group of scholars came together in the
ten Lake Placid Conferences. Their objective was to de-
vise a new discipline that would respond to problems
facing individuals and families (Lund, 1976). Born out
of a concern for the plight of overworked women,
undernourished children, and the unsanitary living
conditions of the early 1900's, the discipline's goal has
been that of improving the well-being of the family
and individuals. Historically, in all cultures, the
family has been the cornerstone of any society, instill-
ing the value systems of the times and socializing the
next generation to be effective citizens (Lund, 1976). It
was felt that during this era of such rapid change,
which had never before been experienced to such a de-
gree, that a profession and knowledge discipline was
necessary that would help individuals cope with
change.
The need for this field was reemphasized by World
War I and II when homes increasingly became centers of
consumption rather than centers of production. At this
time, educators came to the forefront by teaching young
homemakers the importance of conserving resources, not
only food but also money, and emphasis was placed on
being a "time efficient" housekeeper. The primary aim
of home economics education throughout its short his-
tory has been to react and respond to the social changes
of the time. The field of home economics evolved from
the accumulated experience of individual's reactions to
serious social need, and a successful future depends upon
the actions taken by teachers in the field today (East,
1982). We must now become the innovators of the future
as well as reactors to the present and start shaping our
future instead of deciding how we fit into a precon-
ceived future others make for us.
Our Future
Home economics education has come a long way in a
relatively short period of time and throughout this
time educators have tried to meet the needs of the stu-
dents and their families. In this modern era of rapid
change in our society, it is necessary that we study the
demographic trends to deduce what the needs of our
students will be in the future and design programs now
to prepare them well for that future.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1989 7
One predominant change in future civilizations
will be in the variety of family forms recognized by so-
cieties (Whatley, 1974). There will no longer be one
typical family but, as Martin and Light (1984) state,
there may be as many as 13 different types of house-
holds. One characteristic of these future families will
be that a great number of women will be working out-
side the home (Cetron et al., 1985). As a result of this,
child bearing will be delayed and the birth rate will
continue to fall. By the year 2000, the school aged
population (age 5-17) will have dropped to 28% from
32% in 1982 and, along with this trend, our population
will continue to age with the fastest growing age group
being those 85 and over (Cetron et al., 1985). These de-
mographics show home economics educators that peo-
ple in the future should be able to understand the dy-
namics of all family forms and how the quality of fam-
ily life contributes to all of its members throughout the
entire life cycle. Home economics education should
provide an integrated program that prepares
individuals for both the role of making a living and for
living itself (Harriman, 1977).
Other social problems such as the problems of
crime, mental illness, health problems, suicide, drug
and alcohol abuse, spousal and child abuse, teen preg-
nancy, unemployment, poverty, and discrimination, all
continue to rise at an alarming rate and are a direct
threat to the families of today and tomorrow (Spitze,
1984). Education should not merely be a preparation for
progressively higher learning but more importantly,
the preparation for life as individuals, families, and
as a society. All of these problems reduce the quality of
family life and are most often the cause or result of
stress.
As home economics educators, we should help
families develop positive skills for creating good in-
terpersonal relationships that are built on realistic ex-
pectations (Spitze, 1976), and foster the ability to find
alternatives and rationally analyze the consequences.
Individuals and families can then deal with stress
without abusing their spouses and children, teenagers
can analyze the alternatives open to them and make
positive choices concerning sexuality and, by dealing
with stress, we will all have more healthy lifestyles.
Developing programs for the future in this rapidly
changing world requires that the home economics
professionals be constantly aware of new technology
and its impact on the family.
What We Need To Do Now
No matter what predictions are made for the fu-
ture, home economics educators must begin taking steps
now to ensure their place in that future. Home eco-
nomics teachers have good reason to be worried about
their future. Because this is an era of rapid change,
depleting resources, and declining enrollments, putting
money or time into one program often means reductions
in another (Moxley, 1984). The implication of this for
the home economics teacher is clear; we must teach
something of consequences, teach it effectively, and tell
others about it.
As a profession, we must all be competent in our
knowledge of our subject areas. Being professionals, it is
essential to continue to be competent by allowing time
and energy for professional growth (Moxley, 1984). We
cannot, in the future, teach students to use equipment
which will soon be outdated, or to sew on fabric which
may become obsolete, or plan meals that are out of the
individual's price or time range (Spitze, 1976).
Perhaps in time professionals can devise among
themselves ways to avoid incompetence by requiring
continual updating. Is it ethical as teachers, who have
as a major educational objective to develop in students
the love of learning, (Spitze, 1984), not to continue to
learn themselves?
Home economists must continue to be assertive in
letting others know their actions and intentions in order
to broaden the understanding of society as to what
home economics is all about. Most people base their
perceptions about home economics on what they
experienced in their junior and senior high school years
(East, 1982). Since home economics was traditionally
an all female field, most males in influential positions
(such as legislators, administrators, and curriculum re-
view committees), and parents are basing their beliefs
about home economics on ignorance (Glines, 1985). It is
the responsibility of all home economics educators to
continue communicating the realities of the profession
to others (Swope, 1974) and, through involvement in
the community with parents and administrators, we can
educate others about home economics today.
Home economics teachers must become involved po-
litically and support those from our profession who
take leadership roles in schools, school divisions, and
government. As a profession we have often been re-
garded as "nice, likeable ladies" who are "doers and
not thinkers" (Moxley, 1984). If we are dedicated and
believe we are teaching something of consequence, the
time has come to stand up and be heard. This is why it
is imperative that we support our professional organi-
zations. They serve as the strongest voice for our pro-
fession and unify the many subject areas of home eco-
nomics.
The most important step we can take now is in de-
signing a curriculum that meets the needs of today and
tomorrow. As our society changes, so should our curricu-
lum to better meet the needs of society (Spitze, 1976).
In Spitze's article (1976), the author states that our
curriculum should include more information on the
dynamics of marriage, parenting, and child
8 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1989
development so that future generations will have
realistic expectations for their relationships and the
ability to deal with stress. In the new curriculum
guides for Manitoba, these topics are a major component
of the senior high school Family Studies program.
Home economists should let all administrators and
students know how home economics courses can affect
their future lives. With budget restraints and a "back
to basics" movement, it is important that we become
visible and show that what we are teaching is basic —
basic to life. Dagenais (1987) states we must be careful
not to overstate our programs by claiming that we are a
little bit of everything, losing the focus of the family.
We are teaching the basics for life: food, clothing,
shelter, and interpersonal relationships.
Just as an outdated curriculum will no longer meet
student needs, traditional teaching techniques will also
need to be revised (Whatley, 1974). All types of
teaching techniques must be used for variety is the key
to reaching all students and much used, older techniques
are recognized as ineffective in teaching many of
today's students. The classroom setting should move
beyond food and clothing laboratories into other
3 settings for experiential learning — social agencies,
community organizations, government. This would
change the perceptions others have of home economics
and help others to see its value in a new way (Haney,
1985).
The last step and perhaps the most controversial is
that we must stick to our name and work as home eco-
nomics educators. Many schools have dropped the
name of home economics in favor of other terms such as
life skills, yet all this serves to do is confuse students
about what goes on in our classrooms. Many home eco-
nomics teachers believe that because our field has
changed, that the title home economics no longer re-
flects what we do, and thus conveys inappropriate
stereotypes that work against us in recruiting students.
Although a name change might provide some immedi-
ate relief to an image problem, it is not a long-term so-
lution! Rather, our common title should serve as a uni-
fying bond between all members of our profession and,
through the development of effective public relations
programs in our schools, we can communicate to all stu-
dents and staff what is now going on in our classrooms.
We have been home economists since the Lake Placid
Conferences (1899-1909) and have a history to be proud
of. If we take action now, we can continue to be proud of
our contributions to society in the future.
Conclusion
In summary, home economics education will con-
tinue into the 21st century by taking important steps
now to help society prepare for the future. It is time to
stop making excuses for ourselves, our programs, enroll-
ments, and our name (Dagenais, 1987). Instead, we must
look to the future and what it holds so that we can pre-
pare individuals to look positively into the future, an-
ticipate and create change (Brun, 1976). As a novice
home economics teacher, I do not feel that this profes-
sion is at risk but rather that, due to dedicated profes-
sionals in the field and the fresh new ideas that arise
each day, the best for home economics education is yet
to come!
References
Brun, J. K. (1976). Futurism as focus for home economics
education. Illinois Teacher, 20(1), 2-8.
Cetron, M. J., Soriano, B., & Gayle, M. (1985). How
American business and education can cooperate to
save our schools. Toronto: McGraw Hill.
Dagenais, R. (1987). Home economics education: A
profession at risk in a nation at risk. Illinois
Teacher, 30(4), 129-133.
East, M. (1982). A look back to plan ahead: The fences
and the stakes. Illinois Teacher, 26(1), 19-21.
Glines, D. (1985). Home economics and the future.
Illinois Teacher, 28(3), 103-105.
Haney, P. H. (1985). Orienting to the future. Illinois
Teacher, 27(1), 6-11.
Harriman, L. C. (1977). Changing roles: Implications
for home economics. Journal of Home Economics 69,
22-27.
Lund, L. A. (1976). The future of the family. Journal of
Home Economics, 68, 9-11.
Martin, R. E., & Light, H. K. (1984). Preparing stu-
dents for family life beyond the 80's. Illinois
Teacher, 28(1), 28-30.
Moxley, V. M. (1984). Home economics at risk. Illinois
Teacher, 28(2), 46-48.
Spitze, H. T. (1976). Home economics in the future.
Journal of Home Economics, 68, 5-8.
Spitze, H. T. (1984). Yes, our nation is at risk, but. . .
Illinois Teacher, 28(1), 2-4.
Swope, M. R. (1974). The future: What's in it for sec-
ondary school home economics. Illinois Teacher,
18(1), 6-9.
Whatley, A. E. (1974). Indignation, an impetus for
change: Implications for the professional home
economist. Illinois Teacher, 18(1), 10-13. •••
(Peterat, Continued from page 19.)
Peterat, L (1986). Home economics in Canadian schools.
Journal of Consumer Studies and Home
Economics, 10, 271-278. • • •
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1989 9
Alice Ravenhill: International Pioneer
in Home Economics
Mary Gale Smith
Graduate Student
Faculty of Education
University of British Columbia
Vancouver
As the Canadian Home Economics Association
celebrates its fiftieth anniversary, it seems timely to
consider the work of its first honourary member, Alice
Ravenhill. Recognized by the American Home Eco-
nomics Association as a founding member and the first
woman to be conferred a fellowship of the Royal Sani-
tary Institute in her native England, Alice Ravenhill
was truly an international pioneer in home economics.
As a woman from an upper class family who was not
allowed to pursue a career until family financial re-
sources declined, she became an authority on public
health and was noted for her stimulating public
lectures. In 1900, at the Annual Congress of the Royal
Sanitary Institute held in Paris, her interest was
sparked by "the prominence given to the American
methods of handling "Home Economics" (Ravenhill,
1951). From then on she actively promoted her vision of
home economics in England, Canada, and the United
States. This vision was very much influenced by her
health and sanitation background.
A Brief Life History
Born in 1859, Alice Ravenhill grew up in the En-
glish countryside. She was educated at home and at
residential schools for daughters of the privileged un-
til family financial reversals forced her to return home
at seventeen. Her father rejected her proposals to
attend public day school and to train as a hospital
nurse. It was not until she was almost thirty that her
father finally allowed her to fulfill her desire to be-
come part of the social welfare movement.
Our grandfather had left to each of us a small
annuity, and I was determined mine should suf-
fice...to prepare for the diploma given by the
National Health Society to those who passed
the requisite examinations for County Council
Lecturers in rural districts on "Home Nursing,"
"First Aid," and "Health in the Home"
(Ravenhill, 1951).
An excellent student, Ravenhill was encouraged to enter
nurses' training but she declined recognizing "the
greater call of preventive work" (Ravenhill, 1951).
Ravenhill worked as an itinerant county council
lecturer travelling to various villages and small towns
in the west of England, giving short courses in hygiene.
However the constant travelling and living conditions
taxed her somewhat fragile health so she returned to
London to the position of secretary to the Royal British
Nurses Association and continued to give lectures when
the opportunity presented itself. This commitment
lasted three years until a severe bout of influenza
forced her resignation.
In 1897, she began a two year tour of the larger cen-
ters in England giving a series of lectures on the Public
Health Laws. Through this work Ravenhill concluded
that support for legislation would only come about
when "a general and better informed interest had been
aroused in public sanitary reforms based upon sounder
insight into the fundamentals of healthy living"
(Ravenhill, 1951). While lecturers and publications
were two ways of arousing public interest, Ravenhill
could also see the potential of the formal education
system.
One of the most progressive educational authori-
ties, the West Riding of Yorkshire County Council ap-
proached Ravenhill in 1899, to train women teachers
for a Home Nursing course for girls. She declined be-
cause rather than emphasizing prevention the course
held a "too strongly morbid interest in illness and dis-
aster" (Ravenhill, 1951). Instead she proposed that
"...an opportunity might be offered to teachers of boys
as well as girls to prepare themselves for diffus-
ing...'health' interest and practice in their schools"
(Ravenhill, 1951). Her proposal was accepted and she
pioneered a thirty lesson class in September, 1899. This
work continued at centers in Yorkshire, Leeds, Bradford
and Wakefield until 1904. During this period, while
attending the Annual Congress of the Royal Sanitary
Institute in Paris, she became interested in home eco-
nomics and decided to propose to the Special Report
Department of the Board of Education that she carry
out an enquiry into the methods of teaching home eco-
nomics in the schools and colleges of the United States.
10 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1989
Thus, as special commissioner of the Board of Edu-
cation of England and Wales, she attended the third
Lake Placid Conference in 1901 and presented a syl-
labus: Teacher Training Courses in Practical Hygiene.
An abstract of her address in the proceedings of the
conference summarizes the course as comprising:
...a study of nutrition. ..the general structure of
the body and functions. ..personal hy-
giene...domestic hygiene. ..municipal hy-
giene...cursory surveys of vital statis-
tics...sanitary law, and the scheme of local
governments in England... (Lake Placid
Conference, Proceedings, 1901).
She returned to teaching in Yorkshire. While
there she published her report on degree courses in
Household Economics in the United States. As a result,
she became the first woman Fellow of the Royal Sani-
tary Institute. Poor physical health continued to
plague Ravenhill. In 1904, she was forced to leave her
work in Yorkshire and return to London where she be-
came involved in committees concerned with school
hygiene. She lectured on such topics as hygiene, public
health, and physical development in childhood and
carried out investigations in health, child develop-
ment and moral training.
All the while, Ravenhill was pursuing another ob-
jective, that of a course in Household Economics at Lon-
don University. After years of tireless lobbying:
Thus it came about that the somewhat suspi-
cious faculties of the University of London
agreed to sanction the introduction of post-
graduate and undergraduate courses in social
and household sciences, by the usual procedure
of first granting a diploma and later, after the
course has been sufficiently tested and shown to
have reached university standards, granting a
degree (Ravenhill, 1951).
The course was offered at King's College for Women in
October, 1908. Ravenhill lectured there until the close
of the academic year in 1910.-
Ravenhill left the work she was so devoted to
when her nephew, who had attended agricultural col-
lege, and her brother decided to homestead in Canada.
...I must confess the shock to me was startling
when my sister insisted that she and I must join
our men folk as soon as we could and make a
home for them both during the early years of
pioneer life (Ravenhill, 1951).
These "urgent family claims" brought her to Shawni-
gan Lake, Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Well
into her fiftieth year, Ravenhill and her sister em-
barked on a life of hard physical work, homemaking in
the bush while her brother an nephew cleared the
land.
In Canada she found her services in demand and her
career as a lecturer continued. In 1911, Ravenhill began
a long association with the Women's Institute when she
responded to an invitation from the Department of
Agriculture to address these women's groups in the
province. She also spoke to teachers in Victoria,
Vancouver and Nanaimo about child and school hy-
giene. One of her biggest challenges was that of
principal speaker in an appeal to the University of
British Columbia for the establishment of home eco-
nomics. (More than thirty years would pass before this
came into being.) Of all her public speaking, the invi-
tation from Mrs. Massey Treble, to give the inaugural
address at the official opening of the Household Sci-
ence Building at the University of Toronto was consid-
ered "one of the great compliments" (Ravenhill, 1951).
In 1915, Ravenhill began a four year period of
working almost exclusively in the United States. She
addressed home economists in Seattle on the topic of
economics and efficiency. She gave "...a series of lec-
turers on what might be termed the Science of Human
Life..." (Journal of Home Economics, 1916) at Oregon
State Agricultural College. Ravenhill became the first
international lecturer appointed by the American
Home Economics Association as trustees of the Ellen H.
Richards Memorial Fund. In 1917 she embarked on a
lecture tour of the United States which took her to six-
teen universities and colleges; her topic was "Physical
Development in childhood." The first stop on her tour
was Salt Lake City, Utah where the State College
officials invited her to Logan for two years to
reorganize and expand the Department of Household
Economics. Although she accepted the assignment, she
was unable to fulfill the commitment as age, the
altitude, and a severe bout of Spanish influenza forced
her retirement in 1918.
She and her brother and sister purchased a home in
Victoria and closed the book on active promotion of
health and home economics, although she maintained
her interest through reading and correspondence. In
1926, the Women's Institute asked for her advice on
how to adapt native designs to the making of hooked
rugs. Little did they know that the interest they
sparked would become the new focus of Ravenhill's
abundant energy. From that time until her death in
1954, she used her talents to draw attention to the arts
and crafts fo the native people of British Columbia and
it was for that contribution as well as for her work in
the advancement of social welfare that she was
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1989 11
and crafts fo the native people of British Columbia and
it was for that contribution as well as for her work in
the advancement of social welfare that she was
awarded an honourary degree of Doctor of Science from
the University of British Columbia in 1948.
The Purpose of Education
Ravenhill preferred preventative work. Her ini-
tial work in education developed because she believed
that education could prevent many social ills. It was in
the national interest to have healthy, productive
citizens. Her guiding principle was "that public
health means public wealth, mental, moral, and
physical, as well as financial" (Ravenhill, 1902).
Ravenhill's beliefs were consistent with the general
theme of schooling at the time — nationalism. The aim
of education was threefold: to maintain the greatness
and glory of the state; to train for patriotic citizenship;
and to protect the state from external attack and
internal disintegration. She wrote:
Once convince the people and the Press of the
vital connection between my subject and na-
tional efficiency, and the suitable inculcation
of hygienic rules for the maintenance of sound
health must and will find an honored place in
educational institutions for all ages and for
both sexes (Ravenhill, 1902).
As a result of her trip to the United States, she fre-
quently used the American system as an example:
School life and interests are there really
"national," and the nation looks to the schools
to cooperate with the homes in the manufacture
of a human product second to none in the uni-
verse (Ravenhill, 1902).
And she was always quick to point out that "the study
of elementary hygiene and physiology.. .is the only
obligatory subject required throughout the States"
(Ravenhill, 1902).
It is interesting to note the terminology used by
Ravenhill. "Efficiency," "inculcation," "manufacture
of human product" all point to the metaphor of the
school as a factory. Another frequently used term was
"imperial" as in a woman's "imperial service" or
"imperalism." The term usually means "of or pertain-
ing to an empire" but in Great Britian it has the added
significance of "designating the principles and aims of
the Imperial Federation Committee established in
1893, which invited the colonies to take a share in the
cost of imperial defense" (Webster's International Dic-
tionary, second edition, 1935).
In Canada, Ravenhill referred to imperialism and
the advancement of the empire in her address at the
opening of the Household Sciences Building at the
University of Toronto in 1913 when she stated:
This function attests to the forging of another
link in the chain of imperialism by which our
great empire is united for the advancement and
protection of its people.. ..It is quite legitimate
to describe household economics equally with
imperialism.. .for its aim is to promote the
welfare of our race... Imperialism recalls to the
individual the responsibilities attaching to
the goodly heritage he enjoys; also does family
life (Ravenhill, 1913).
She also included that "the full scope of this compre-
hensive subject (was) the right conduct of human life in
the home" (Ravenhill, 1913). Nowhere in her writing
does she address the value question of who decides on
the "right conduct." Perhaps it is the result of her up-
per class upbringing that allowed her to make pro-
nouncements as she felt". ..most reforms, if not all, filter
from the higher to the lower strata of society"
(Ravenhill, 1913).
At the end of her career in home economics educa-
tion, Ravenhill described what should be included in a
college course on child welfare. In 1919, she was still
concerned with the state of infant mortality statistics,
the increasing death rate of those over thirty years of
age, the prevalence of infections and disease, and the
effects of such things as defective feeding and insuffi-
cient sleep. She continued to believe that education
was the answer as she wrote:
Each individual is answerable to the commu-
nity for the contributions he makes to the wel-
fare and prosperity of the nation... The new ed-
ucation will insist that the cultivation of
health is a public duty and that preventable
sickness is a dereliction of such duty...
(Ravenhill, 1919).
Ravenhill's beliefs about the function of education re-
mained fairly constant throughout her lifetime. She
continued to believe that the main function of education
was to promote the welfare of the nation by preventing
conditions which caused deterioration. She maintained
that the home was the foundation of society and it was
there that the problems must be addressed.
The records of history afford a wealth of sound
evidence that the quality of human life and
the character of the homes in which it is
reared and maintained underlie every interna-
12 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1989
Thus, the children in school must be educated by experts
on how to live properly and women must be trained to
administer the home properly.
It is not for economic competition with their
brothers that we urge girls to attend college; it
is not for immediate economic independence and
relief from the restraints of the family circle
that the doors of our universities have been
thrown open to them; but to afford them right-
ful opportunities for self-development on the
one hand and of essential equipment for their
highly dignified national responsibilities on
the other (Ravenhill, 1920).
Although she advocated a liberal education for women
it was to help them perform their "national responsi-
bility" which was the maintenance of the home and
the production of healthy productive citizens.
A Vision for Home Economics Education
Ravenhill's vision of home economics was best re-
vealed in a critique, which she wrote in 1917, of a syl-
labus of home economics subject matter for universities
and colleges which had been prepared by the American
Home Economics Association. The following is a sum-
mary of her main points:
1. The aim of home economics is to promote human
progress.
Its object is the inculcation of right methods and
practice.. .Its aim is to release mankind from
bondage to unnecessary physical, moral, and
mental disabilities, and to set human nature
free to realize its full inherent powers
(Ravenhill, 1917)
2. Home economics is but a part of hygiene.
Hygiene, — the conservation and maintenance
of health, — is to me the lens through which
we should focus all learning upon the advance-
ment of life...(H)ome economics students fail to
grasp that their primary object is the promo-
tion of health, physical, mental, and moral;
and that instead their chief end is rather the
production of. ..food, clothing, and shelter
(Ravenhill, 1917).
3. Home economics is a broad, comprehensive, in-
tegrated subject area.
The habitual arrangement of subject matter into
the three main sub-divisions of food, clothing
and shelter. ..are of undeniable importance to
the right conduct of human life; each is closely
linked to the other through mutual relations to
the whole; but this latter fact is liable to the
obscured by the general method of emphasized
subdivision (Ravenhill, 1917).
4. Home economics involves the application of
scientific principles from both the physical and
social sciences.
Fewer hours shall be spent.. .in actual prepara-
tion of food and in the mere setting of
stitches;.. .personal hygienic practice, the re-
sponsibilities of parenthood, the physical as
well as the psychological development of
children, the social and civic relations of the
home, must all receive more definite and more
extended and more suitable coordinated treat-
ment... (Ravenhill, 1917).
5. Home economics is a course for both males and
females.
Home influence is the earliest and most perma-
nent element in the formation of character as
well as in the protection of health; it must now
advance a step further and recognize that this
responsible influence is based upon certain fun-
damental principles which must be studied and
applied equally by men and women (Ravenhill,
1917).
6. The main objective of home economics is the better
understanding and maintenance of human life.
The relation of selves to society; emphasis upon
the moral and economic aspects of "being well
born," well tended, well trained, well recre-
ated, well exercised, in home life; all these
factors in human welfare and many more.. .are
vital elements, inadequately emphasized, in-
sufficiently coordinated, in most of our courses
(Ravenhill, 1917).
7. Home economics education should develop a
wholistic form of knowledge.
I aim to direct attention to the existing risk of
neglecting the synthetic by exaggerated devo-
tion to the analytic... (Ravenhill, 1917).
8. Home economics education should include study of
the broad cultural and historical aspects of the
subject
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1989 13
(Such study) will foster that sense of perspec-
tive, that perception of the relation of the
parts to the whole which maintains balance
and adds dignity and responsibility to the
course (Ravenhill, 1917).
9. Home economists and home economics educators
have a responsibility to advance their cause.
A deprecatory, retiring attitude is not the best
advertisement of a great cause... (Ravenhill,
1917).
As frequently pointed out by historians there was not
consensus in the field. Not everyone agreed with
Ravenhill's conception of home economics. Isabel Be-
vier (1918), for example, differed with Ravenhill
especially with her choice of a "measuring unit"
Some contradictions in Ravenhill's work also need
exploring. How do you, for example, reconcile
"inculcation" with "synthetic reasoning"? Many would
take issue with Ravenhill's view that home economics
is but a part of hygiene although most would agree that
hygiene, or health as it is more commonly referred to
today, is a part of home economics. Although Raven-
hill does mention the development of human powers,
one must ask of her, to what end? Ravenhill would
probably align with the good of the state while others
would align with a more humanistic view considering
the well-being of the individual and family.
Conclusion
While there was considerable preoccupation with
management as evidenced in the themes of "efficiency"
and "economy," which leads one to believe that home
economics was a very technical occupation which could
be learned by "inculcation," Ravenhill also expressed
concerns with which home economics educators continue
to struggle, for example: the "wholeness" of home eco-
nomics; the health and well-being of families; educa-
tion of both males and females; child care, critical
thinking versus rote learning; and the promotion of
home economics. Although we may not always agree
with her interpretation of home economics education,
Ravenhill lived her life believing that she could make
a difference and she challenges us to do the same.
Journal of Home Economics. (1916). News from the
field. 8(5), 276.
Lake Placid Conference on Home Economics. (1901).
Proceedings. Washington, D.C.: American Home
Economics Association.
Ravenhill, A. (1897). The health of the community:
How to promote it. Public Health Papers. Kirkby
Lonsdale: Women's Co-operative Guild.
Ravenhill, A. (1902). The teaching of hygiene. Amer-
ican Kitchen Magazine, 27(3), 184-189.
Ravenhill, A. (1913). Address at the University of
Toronto. Journal of Home Economics, 3(3), 250-257.
Ravenhill, A. (1917). The scope of home economics and
its subject matter in universities and colleges. Jour-
nal of Home Economics, 21(9), 393-404.
Ravenhill, A. (1919). Reconstruction in relation to
home economics. Journal of Home Economics, 22(10),
436-439.
Ravenhill, A. (1920). The open forum. Journal of Home
Economics, 22(11), 508-512.
Ravenhill, A. (1944). Notes on her life. U.B.C. Spe-
cial Collections: typewritten.
Ravenhill, A. (1951). Alice Ravenhill — the memoirs
of an educational pioneer. Vancouver: J. M. Dent
and Sons. • • •
(Eyre, Continued from 25.)
Sadker, M., & Sadker, D. (1986). Sexism in the class-
room: From grade school to graduate school. Phi
Delta Kappan, 67(7), 512-520.
Shakeshaft, C. (1986). A gender at risk. Phi Delta
Kappan, 67(1), 499-503.
Spender, D. (1982). Invisible women: The schooling
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Cooperative.
Tetreault, M. K. T. (1986). The journey from male de-
fined to gender balanced education. Theory Into
Practice, 25(4), 227-234.
Thompson, P. J. (1984). Home economics: A knowledge
system — not a gender system. In P. J. Thompson
(Ed.), Knowledge, technology and family change
(pp. 317-341). Bloomington, Illinois: Bennett &
McKnight.
Weiner, G. (Ed.). (1985). Just a bunch of girls. Milton
Keynes, U.K.: Open University Press. • • •
References
Bevier, I. (1918). Comment and discussion [Letter to the
editor]. Journal of Home Economics, 20(1), 40-41.
14 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1989
In Search of Place
Dr. Wanda Young
College of Home Economics
University of Saskatchewan
Saskatoon, Saskatchewan
The purpose of this paper is to review the history
of home economics education in the province of
Saskatchewan, Canada. The review will include a
statement about the search for a place to live by set-
tlers from many parts of Europe. Another statement ex-
plains the place of education in the value scheme of
these people, especially of a higher education and of
home economics education. As a university expands,
faculty are drawn from other places. From which
places were the faculty of home economics drawn?
It was the important value placed upon the family
that gave home economics education its place or posi-
tion in the educational system. What role or place
have men had in the development of the discipline of
home economics? What has been the location or place
for the study of home economics in Saskatchewan?
What is the position or place of other specializations
in the field of home economics? At what point or place
was a need felt for a professional organization in home
economics education? These are the questions which
guide the consideration of the following scenarios.
The Settler's Place
The man looked across the creek to the hill which
broke the flow of westerly wind. To the right there
was a wave of golden color from the aspen trees which
stretched from the top of the hill to the plain. To the
j1 left, or south, a similar band of color worked its way
down the hill. The central portion was filled with
bushes and there the color was a rich red. Across the
creek a flat sweep of land stretched to the base of the
hill, surrounded it and disappeared both to the north
and south. "There," he said to the sturdy dark woman
by his side, "there is where we will build our home.
We can use logs from the parkland and cement them
with mud from the creekbed. It will be like our parents
home in the Ukraine." And so another European family
settled in what was to become Saskatchewan.
Further south on the plains, a prairie wagon had
remained at home all summer. As weather turned
cooler the young Irish wife suggested to her husband
that they cut the sods and stack them to make a house,
using the peat cutting skills they had developed in the
homeland. Many rural families today point with pride
to the log cabin or sod shanty still standing on the
family property, built by the grandparents.
The mother languages spoken in Saskatchewan in-
dicate the multicultural nature of the settlers. English,
German, Ukranian, French and native Indian, in that
order, and the predominant languages (Statistics
Canada, 1976). The shapes of church towers in the
small communities are as diverse as the languages. Re-
ligion does shape the thinking and the values of Cana-
dians (Begin, 1988).
The Place of Education
These settlers had left Europe, in search of a place
where they could be free to till the soil, to raise a fam-
ily, to worship together, and to provide education for
that family. The University of Saskatchewan charter
was instituted in 1907 to answer the needs of these pio-
neers for higher education which would be of service to
the people of the province (Rowles, 1964). The 1910
Calendar of the University of Saskatchewan includes
the Statutes of the Charter. Statute IX refers to the
establishment of faculties: "There shall be established
a School of Domestic Science and Art at such time as
the Governors determine" ( 1910). Although President
Murray promised such a school it was not until 1928
that he was able to see it established (Rowles, 1964).
Meanwhile, the settlers wanted assistance with
beginning domestic problems. Short courses about
women's work were offered by the Extension Division of
the College of Agriculture beginning in January 1909
(Young, 1975). In 1913 the Department of Education
offered a summer school course to train teachers of
Domestic Science. In 1914 the contract for summer
school classes was offered to the University of
Saskatchewan. In 1916 President Murray sought a staff
member to offer such courses during winter term as well.
A year later, Mrs. Ethel Rutter came to the university
to organize a certificate of specialization in home
economics in the College of Arts and Science. By 1924,
this specialization included training for dietetics. In
1928 the School of Household Science became a reality.
A Place for Faculty
Saskatchewan did provide a place for faculty.
Mrs. Ethel Rutter, the first home economist, came with
a Philosophy degree from the University of Chicago.
Before she became director of the school of Home Eco-
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1989 15
nomics in 1928 she had earned an M.A. at Columbia
University.
Other early faculty, Bertha Oxner, Edith Patrick,
and Helen Wilmot, had undergraduate degrees from
the University of Toronto or the University of
Saskatchewan. They had studied at either the Uni-
versity of Chicago or Columbia University and com-
pleted M.A.'s before being promoted.
In total, 61 faculty members have taught in the
College of Home Economics at the University of
Saskatchewan. Of these, 19 took their undergraduate
degree at the University of Saskatchewan. They went
on to graduate study at other universities, mainly in
the United States. From a study of the calendars from
1910 to 1988, it was found that home economics faculty
had earned 43 master's degrees and 14 doctor of philos-
ophy degrees.
The 43 master's degrees included 28 science degrees
and 15 arts degrees. Three or more of the degrees were
from Cornell, Manitoba, Columbia, Chicago, Min-
nesota, Wisconsin and Michigan State University.
Other master's degrees were obtained from Toronto,
Iowa State, Saskatchewan, London (England), Oregon
State, University of British Columbia, Ohio State, Is-
rael, Montana State, Texas Women's University, and
the University of Leeds (England).
The first faculty member in home economics to have
a doctor of philosophy degree was Dr. Hope Hunt who
came in 1940 to direct the school, to change it to the
College of Household Science in 1942, and to change the
name to the College of Home Economics in 1954. Dr.
Hunt obtained her degree from the University of Min-
nesota. Two or more of the doctorates have been
achieved at Cornell, Michigan State, Minnesota, and
the University of Edinburgh (Scotland). Other faculty
with doctorates had studied at Columbia University,
Wisconsin, Texas Women's University, Georgia, Al-
berta, and Cambridge.
The Place of Home Economics Education
In Survival of the Family
It was in 1908 that M. Python, of the canton of
Freiburg in Switzerland met with a group of women
from the canton, who were teaching about household
tasks (Young, 1984). They were all concerned about the
effect of the industrial revolution on the families of the
canton as more women went outside of the home to work.
This meeting resulted in the formation of the Interna-
tional Federation of Home Economics. The British of
the higher classes at this same time were concerned be-
cause they were losing household helpers to the fac-
tories; housecraft classes were begun to train servants
and the wealthy housewives who managed them. In
Eastern United States and Canada, home economics
classes were begun in order to help the migrants adjust
to life on the new continent. On the western prairies,
domestic science classes were commenced in order to
help the families survive in the harsh environment,
with little transportation to bring products from the
commercial centers of the east. The common element in
these situations across the globe is survival of the
family; survival against the forces of industrial-
ization; survival from diffusion of the family caused by
migration; survival from the impact of
commercialization; and survival in the environment.
In Saskatchewan, the element of survival continued
with the drought of the "dirty thirties." Teachers and
university professors received worthless paper in lieu
of salaries. In the forties it was survival in the condi-
tions of World War II. In the period from 1950 to 1975
times were good and it was necessary for the family to
survive the force of materialistic values. Divorce be-
came common. Recently, the family has had to survive
the destruction of natural resources, including another
drought that is damaging the land and forcing farm
families into bankruptcy.
In Relation to Men
Another common element in the stories of home
economics in Switzerland, Britain, Eastern Canada, and
in Saskatchewan in the early years of the profession
from 1875 to 1925, was the role that men played. They
established the advanced training for home economics
teachers, the professional organizations, the
universities in the United States and Canada, and the
research institutes. Today men do not seem as concerned
with professional help for families.
Through the years after World War II, home
economists urged administrators to admit men into the
colleges as students. There are some today, primarily
in nutrition, textiles, design, and family and consumer
studies at the graduate level. During the past ten years
home economics courses at the elementary and sec-
ondary level have increasingly included courses for
young male students. These classes have been more
popular in the comprehensive and technical schools
than in the academic high schools.
Location
If the meaning location is given to the word
"place," there have been a number of changes in the
place of home economics in Saskatchewan. The first
home economics classes were the short courses offered
by the Extension Division. These continued well into
the seventies. Today home economists are employed by
the Extension Division but they work with 4H clubs,
with women's studies, and in general adult education.
The first credit courses were in home economics
education in the College of Arts and Sciences. Training
16 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1989
of home economics teachers continues today. In the past
twenty years a home economics teacher could pursue a
I four year degree in the College of Home Economics
(formed in 1942 as the College of Household Science
(and renamed in 1954) and then proceed to a one year
j diploma course in the College of Education. Another
| approach is to pursue a four year Bachelor of Education
I with a double major in home economics. The first ap-
| proach provided more content classes in home eco-
( nomics. The second approach gave students an opportu-
nity to be in the classroom each year. Adjustment to
i teaching was made quickly by graduates from the sec-
| ond approach. In 1990 the College of Home Economics is
to be phased out. The College of Education has been
[charged with the task of studying the best way to pre-
j pare home economics teachers in the future. This study
is conducted by Dr. Beverly Pain.
Other Specializations in Home Economics
Dietetics and Nutrition
When small hospitals were built in the province in
the early 1920's, a dietetics program was added to the
j offerings in home economics in the College of Arts and
: Sciences. This was expanded to include nutrition
sclasses. In 1966 there was a major in Food Science, to
I service the agriculturalists of the province, as well as a
major in Dietetics and Nutrition. The Food Science ma-
jor was transferred to the College of Agriculture in 1983.
(The Division of Nutrition and Dietetics within the
[College of Pharmacy was formed in 1987 by transferring
students and faculty from the College of Home Eco-
nomics.
Clothing and Textiles
Clothing and textile classes have been offered for
teachers from the early years. A major in Clothing and
[Textiles was formed in 1966 for home economists in
ibusiness. With the phasing out of the College of Home
1 Economics in 1990, these courses will disappear. A
(course in socio-economic aspects of clothing and textiles
may be included in the program of home economics edu-
cation.
Household Economics and Management
A major in Household Economics and Management
was set up in 1966. This was absorbed into the Division
of Family and Consumer Studies in 1980. Currently a
program in Family Resource Management is before the
^Academic Affairs Committee of Council. Although the
farm crisis makes such a program essential, there is no
guarantee that this program will be initiated.
Housing and Design
Finally, a major in Housing and Design was set up in
1966. Graduates from this program have succeeded in
becoming registered designers in the Interior Designers
of Saskatchewan, a professional body. The environ-
ment of Saskatchewan has some unique qualities for re-
search in housing and design. Nevertheless, the origi-
nal objective of service for the people of Saskatchewan
seems to have been forgotten. The program in Housing
and Design will be discontinued in 1990.
The Place of Professional Organizations
The Saskatchewan Teachers' Federation provides
support to a number of subject councils. The
Saskatchewan Home Economics Teachers Association
(SHETA) was formed at a meeting in April 1968. The
author was a member of the committee that wrote the
constitution setting out the objectives: to improve the
effectiveness of home economics education; to encourage,
enrich, and promote qualities of family life education
essential for a diverse society; to facilitate better
teaching of home economics; to furnish advice to the
Saskatchewan Teachers' Federation regarding home
economics education. For a number of years SHETA was
a member of an umbrella organization called the Coor-
dinating Council, meeting with representatives of the
Saskatchewan Home Economics Association, the
Saskatchewan Dietetic Association, the Regina and
District Home Economics Association, the Saskatoon
and District Home Economics Association, the Parkland
Home Economics Association, representatives to the
University of Regina Senate and the University of
Saskatchewan Senate, the Home Economics Study
Society, and the faculty of the College of Home Eco-
nomics. VISTA, the publication of SHETA was first
published in 1968. In 1988 there were two issues of
VISTA and two newsletters for members. Surveys have
been conducted regarding standards for teaching
certificates. A brief was presented to the Core
Curriculum Committee. Currently there are 222
members in SHETA.
Closure of the College of Home Economics
At approximately ten year intervals from 1954, the
College of Home Economics was evaluated. The 1954
evaluation and the final evaluation in 1986 were con-
ducted by external evaluators. The 1966 study and the
1974 Role study were conducted within the university
community, including alumni. Curriculum changes re-
sulted from each evaluation.
Reasons given for the closure of the College of
Home Economics in 1990 include statements that too
(Continued on page 6.)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1989 17
Home Economics Curriculum for
Canadian Schools
Linda Peterat, Assistant Professor
Home Economics Education
Faculty of Education
University of British Columbia
Vancouver, B.C.
JUk
W «v 1
&
One feature which distinguishes home economics
education and all of education in Canada is that
education is a provincial matter and therefore there is
no national office of education. Each province has a
minister and department of education usually
responsible for education of students, kindergarten to
secondary graduation. It is common for a second
department to have responsibility for post-secondary
education. The provincial ministers of education meet
periodically for the exchange of information and
coordination of some activities. This administrative
structure leads to considerable diversity in education
across Canada.
The Canadian Home Economics Association has
been a means through which home economics educators
have communicated, shared concerns and made joint
representations to departments of education. Over the
years, several reviews of home economics education
have been completed (Bannerman, Rebus and Smith,
1989), with the most recent in 1984 (Peterat).
This article summarizes the main features of home
economics curriculum in Canada. It focuses on current
developments and suggests some central challenge for
curriculum projects as they focus on the future.
Features of Curricula
Unlike in the United States, in most provinces of
Canada, home economics curricula has not been
identified with vocational education but has more
commonly been a part of the practical arts and general
education. Curricula guides are written in most
provinces for grades 7-12, although in four provinces
programs begin at grade 8, in one province they end at
grade 11 and in one province at grade 13. A common
pattern in recent years has been for curricula guides to
be revised about every ten years. Although they vary
from province to province, curricula guides tend to serve
as guides to practice allowing for considerable judgment
and initiative by teachers. Nevertheless, curriculum
development tends to be centralized in departments of
education. Local school jurisdictions, if involved in
curriculum development projects, tend to develop
supplementary materials.
Home economics programs are known by two
different names across the country. In Ontario, and
Newfoundland and Labrador the programs are called
"family studies", while in all other provinces they are
identified as home economics. The curricula study in
1984 revealed that home economics courses across the
country were identified by 58 different titles. Course
titles ranged from "Textile Arts and Crafts", to "The
Canadian Family in Perspective" to "Food for Life" and
"Economics and Family Living" (Peterat, 1986).
The form in which curriculum guides are written
varies considerably although the common form includes
conceptual frameworks, objectives, generalizations and
suggested activities. None are written in an issue or
problem format nor are any of the current curricula
explicitly based on recent reconceptualizations of home
economics education (Brown, 1980).
The 1984 study of curricula concluded that two
philosophies dominated in home economics curricula in
Canada: management and decision making, and
personal and family development. The management
emphasis was evident in curricula of three provinces
while the individual and family emphasis existed in
the remaining seven provinces (Peterat, 1984).
Home economics tends to be an elective course in
Canadian schools. If compulsory, it is more likely to be
so at the junior secondary grades for one or two years. In
1984, three provinces had some compulsory courses at
junior secondary level. In the other provinces, whether
the course is compulsory for junior secondary students
and whether it is compulsory for girls and boys is often
dependent on policy within schools or local school
districts (Peterat, 1985).
Current Developments
A concern of many home economics educators during
the past several years has been with the perceived
overlap with and relationship to other school courses
such as health, family life education and religion.
Recent years in Canada have seen a re-vitalizing,
particularly of health programs, with health being
18 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1989
defined to include physical, mental and social well-
being. In many provinces, new health curricula are
being re-written and health content is commonly
compulsory for students up to grades 8 or 9. Particular
overlap in content has occurred in the areas of
individual and family relationships, and nutrition.
Different solutions are being worked out in various
provinces. At the junior secondary levels and to some
extent at the senior secondary levels curricula are being
written in modular format. This means that a course is
made up of a number of core and elective modules, with
each module consisting of a delineated set of concepts
and an established number of instructional hours. This
format has lent itself to integrating health, home
economics, industrial education and sometimes other
courses in the timetable. This trend at junior secondary
grades results in more students being reached by home
economics but the length of time for exposure has been
lessened. The recent Royal Commission report on
education in British Columbia has proposed a common
curriculum for students up to the end of grade 10. This
has opened discussion about appropriate curriculum for
kindergarten to grade 7 and the possibility of including
home economics (along with the other practical arts)
throughout all grades of schooling is perhaps an
initiative long overdue.
Another current development in curriculum for
students beyond grade 9 has been the introduction of
courses in some provinces focusing on life skills, or career
and life management. A recent example of this is the
Career and Life Management course introduced in
Alberta during 1988-89. Every student will take it once
during grades 10-12 to meet graduation requirements.
The core course contains five themes: self-management,
well-being, relationships, careers and the world of
work, and independent living. Content may range from
the stock market to sexually transmitted diseases, with
the main emphasis on "self-management skills - the
ability to organize and shape one's life occupationally,
financially, and socially" (Alberta Education, 1988, p.
II). Similar courses are being developed in other
provinces.
Interestingly, leadership has been given in many
provinces by home economics educators to the
developing of health programs at the junior secondary
levels and life management-type courses at the senior
i secondary levels, although the courses resulting are not
identified as home economics courses. These
developments can be seen positively as recognizing the
value of much of the content traditionally taught in
home economics; or they can be seen negatively as the
continual misunderstanding of the scope and
I philosophy of home economics.
Challenges for the Future
The organization of education in Canada poses
particular challenges now and into the future. There is
need for nation-wide professional dialogue on and
leadership in home economics education. Provincial
curriculum development tends to be influenced by
concerns of politics and immediate social problems
leaving a lack of philosophical and conceptual
leadership in home economics curricula. Consequently
the influence then falls to developments beyond
Canada and the question of the extent to which a
Canadian vision is evident in or should be evident in
Canadian curricula remains (Peterat, 1984).
The current developments cited above leave open
the question of the relationship between health and
home economics curricula. Is health a part of home
economics or home economics a part of health? These
are questions that will work themselves out as curricula
is renewed and teacher education programs move in new
directions. Many home economics teachers are teaching
the new health and life management type courses and
benefiting from being a part of the core or compulsory
curricula in schools. Whether these new courses signal
a new and positive opportunity for home economics will
depend on the initiative and vision of home economics
educators.
As reflected in other articles in this journal, many
challenges and opportunities will also impact on
curricula in the future: How should we respond to the
new technologies impacting on education and families?
What is our responsibility in relation to career and
work education? What is our role as part of the
practical arts in education? How should we respond to
issues of gender equity in schooling and in relation to
the content of our discipline? How should we respond to
the current teacher shortage to assure quality home
economics education for all students?
References
Alberta Education (1988). Career and life management
20, Prescribed course of studies. Edmonton,
Alberta: Author.
Bannerman, N, Rebus, S., & Smith, A. (1989).
Canadian home economics. Illinois Teacher,
XXXII (1) 2-6.
Brown, M (1980). What is home economics education?
Minneapolis, Minnesota: University of
Minnesota.
(Continued on page 6.)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1989 19
The Education of Home Economics
Teachers in Canada
Beverly Pain
Associate Professor
College of Education
University of Saskatchewan
Saskatoon
The education of home economics teachers has been
formalized in Canada for almost a century. This paper
will focus on how home economics is currently defined in
the Canadian context, a brief look at the origins of
home economics teacher education in Canada, a listing
of the institutions which currently offer programs in
home economics teacher education, and a summary of
the types of programs available.
Home economics in a Canadian context
The Canadian Home Economics Association (1984)
adopted the following definition of home economics in
1984:
Home economics is concerned with all aspects of
daily living including human relationships and
development, resource management,
consumerism, foods and nutrition, clothing and
textiles, housing and aesthetics. Home
economics brings together knowledge from its
own research, the sciences and the arts and uses
this knowledge to assist individuals and
families in enhancing their daily lives.
In the 1985 policy statement on home economics/ family
studies education in Canadian schools, the Canadian
Home Economics Association supported the view that
home economics in schools is a practical science which
focuses on the daily problems of:
What should be done about... securing housing,
acquiring appropriate clothing, caring for
children, etc. Unique to its considerations are
the substantive areas of human relationships
and development, resource management,
consumerism, foods and nutrition, clothing and
textiles, housing and aesthetics (p. 117).
While this may appear to be a rather simple
straightforward statement of the focus of home
economics education in Canadian schools, the question
of how this might be put into practice through the
preparation of home economics educators is not simple,
nor straightforward.
Elizabeth Feniak pointed out in 1979 that when we
look at university courses in home economics,
particularly when there might be a comparison with
those in other countries, "some facts about Canada
should be noted. It is a country with a very large land
mass (approximately 3.8 million square miles) and a
relatively small, scattered population" (p. 72). The
United States in comparison comprises approximately
3.6 million square miles. In comparing populations, the
United States has a population of approximately 235
million while Canada has 25 million - a population
comparable to the state of California.
Another factor which must be noted is that in
Canada education falls under provincial jurisdiction
(Feniak, 1979, p. 72; Peterat, 1985, p. 80; Rowles, 1958,
p. 9). "This leads to differences from province to
province in the education of home economics teachers"
(Rowles, 1958, p. 9). An additional complicating factor
is related to certification. Certification requirements
vary from province to province, and in some provinces
anyone who is a certified teacher may be assigned to
teach home economics or any other subject.
Origins
The teaching of home economics classes, or domestic
science classes as they were then known, occurred in
Canadian schools prior to the establishment of home
economics courses in teacher education programs. Edith
Rowles Simpson credits the teaching of domestic science
in the schools along with the organization of the first
Women's Institutes, with creating the "need for teacher
training in home economics" (Rowles, 1958, p. 9). The
first regulations concerning the preparation of domestic
science teachers in Canada were introduced by the
Department of Education, Province of Ontario in 1898
and in 1899, 16 students had passed the tests and
received Domestic Science Certificates (Rowles, 1964).
"By 1898 the Normal Schools [teacher education
programs] of Ottawa and Toronto were providing
courses of lectures in domestic science" (Rowles, 1964, p.
17). This was followed by the opening of the Ontario
20 ILUNOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1989
Normal School of Domestic Science and Art in
Hamilton in 1900 and the move in September 1903 of
this school to Guelph, Ontario to become the
MacDonald Institute (Rowles, 1964).
Institutions Currently Offering Home Economics
Teacher Education
Peterat and Pain (1989) identified 13 institutions
currently offering home economics teacher education
programs in Canada and graduating approximately 100
new teachers in 1989. While the original three
institutions were all located in Ontario, programs now
exist in all provinces except Newfoundland. The
spread of programs from Ontario to other areas in
Canada followed the settlement of Canada and the
creation of sufficient populations in these areas to
sustain programs.
Today, Ontario has two institutions offering home
economics teacher education programs: the University
of Toronto and the University of Western Ontario. The
province of Quebec also has programs at two
institutions, McGill University and Universite Laval,
as does the province of New Brunswick at the
University of New Brunswick and the Universite de
Moncton, and the province of Nova Scotia at Acadia
i University and Mount Saint Vincent University. The
following provinces each have one institution offering
home economics teacher education programs: British
I Columbia, at the University of British Columbia;
Alberta, at the University of Alberta; Saskatchewan,
at the University of Saskatchewan; Manitoba, at the
University of Manitoba; and Prince Edward Island at
the University of Prince Edward Island.
Types of programs
The types of programs offered were examined by
Peterat and Pain (1989). Twelve of the 13 institutions
; offer post-degree programs. The University of New
I Brunswick offers only a four year Bachelor of Education
program. This was the only program at the time of the
; study in which the home economics content classes were
provided by the faculty in the Faculty of Education.
The University of New Brunswick, however, does
: accept students who already have a home economics
| degree. The students are able to complete the second
degree in Education in about two years.
In addition to post-degree programs the University
of Alberta and the University of Saskatchewan have
four year Bachelor of Education programs and the
I University of Manitoba offers an integrated two degree
I five year program.
The move to post-degree programs is a rather recent
phenomenon in a number of institutions in Canada. This
is occurring at a time when degree programs in home
economics are being terminated at a number of
universities, such as the University of Saskatchewan
and the University of Windsor. This is a matter of
some concern as it leads to the question of what
constitutes an acceptable first degree for teachers of
home economics.
There are eight programs which specified
particular home economics course requirements with the
number of courses, including electives, ranging from 10-
22. When comparing courses by content areas, courses in
foods and nutrition ranged from two to six, courses in
family and consumer studies ranged from three to five,
courses in clothing and textiles ranged from two to five,
and courses in housing and aesthetics ranged from zero
to three. There was some overlap in the latter two
areas in which classes related to both design and
clothing were combined in some programs. However,
the number of hours per course is not known in all cases
and this must be kept in mind when comparing
programs.
Another trend in recently revised teacher education
programs is the lengthening of the student teaching
practicum. All programs have some practicum
component. The length of the practicum ranged from
four to twenty one weeks, with the majority of programs
having a practicum length of about 12 to 16 weeks. Of
the 13 institutions offering teacher education programs,
six had active master's programs and two offered
doctoral programs in education.
Summary
As mentioned earlier, a central issue for home
economics teacher educators in Canada currently is the
question of what constitutes an appropriate first degree
for admittance to home economics teacher education
programs. Students having a major in sociology and
psychology with a family emphasis are being
admitted to some programs while most programs
require a comprehensive (or general) home economics
degree. This issue is compounded with the recent loss of
some home economics degree programs from the
universities across Canada.
Another central concern is the few new teachers
being graduated by the universities. In 1984, there were
approximately five thousand home economics teaching
positions in the country (Peterat, 1984). With the
universities graduating only about one hundred this
year, this number falls far short of that required for
replacement of teachers likely leaving positions this
year.
Our look at teacher education programs across the
country was an attempt to summarize the current state
of programs. Considerable diversity of programs exists.
Even the names of programs, which may be influenced
by the orientation of school curricula in a province
(Continued on page 38.)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1989 21
Gender Equity and Home Economics
Curriculum
Linda Eyre
Doctoral Student
Faculty of Education
The University of British
Columbia
Vancouver
Since the early 1970's, in Canada and in the United
States, different solutions have emerged in response to
the call for gender equity in schooling. Initially,
attention was directed at equality of educational op-
portunity for female and male students; efforts were
made to sex balance course enrollments and curriculum
materials were evaluated for sex stereotyping and sex
discrimination. These concerns resulted in: 1) changes
in core subject requirements, which directed female stu-
dents into mathematics and science courses and male
students into subjects such as home economics and the
humanities, primarily in coeducational classes; and 2)
the development of gender free curriculum materials
(Houston, 1987). These efforts, however, have been
criticized by researchers who have shown that
coeducational classrooms, and gender free curricula,
mask gender bias and allow discrimination to continue
in more subtle ways (Sadker & Sadker, 1986; Shake-
shaft, 1986; Spender, 1982).
More recent approaches suggest that gender equity
is more likely to be achieved through a gender sensi-
tive and gender balanced curriculum (Eichler, 1987;
Martin, 1981, 1986; Tetreault, 1986). A gender sensitive
approach would attend to differences between women
and men, and would provide different treatment to
compensate the disadvantaged. A gender balanced
curriculum would address the male biased knowledge of
schooling, and would include women's lives, interests,
and experiences as an integral part of the education of
all students and across all subjects in the curriculum.
Others argue that gender equity will not be achieved
without a complete reconstruction of the political,
economic and social conditions which presently
reinforce women's subordination, including the educa-
tion system which hitherto has been rooted in male ex-
perience and unexamined assumptions about what it
means to be female and male (Lecke, 1987).
In summary, those who advocate equal opportuni-
ties and gender free curricula assume that equality of
access will ensure equality of outcome, and thus gender
equity will be achieved; whereas those who advocate
a gender sensitive and gender balanced curricula, and a
reconstruction of education, argue that gender equity
will not be achieved unless fundamental changes in
schooling occur. Such changes must bring to light
"patriarchy, power, and women's subordination"
(Weiner, 1985)
Criticisms of coeducational and gender free
curriculum materials raise important questions for home
economics educators. Since the purpose of home
economics in secondary schools is to prepare young peo-
ple for family living, as well as providing equal
opportunity for female and male students to participate
in home economics, I would argue that this subject
should also promote transformation rather than main-
tenance of traditional gender relations. This article,
therefore, will examine approaches to gender equity
adopted by home economics and will raise questions
about the appropriateness of the response.
The use of the term curriculum in this paper in-
cludes not only curriculum guides and teaching materi-
als, but also the total school environment including
school organization, school knowledge, classroom in-
teraction, and classroom pedagogy. Also, it is impor-
tant to emphasize that attention to gender equity does
not preclude the importance of a similar critique of
racism and classism in curriculum; gender, race, and so-
cial class intersect, and each illuminates to light the
other.
The Equal Opportunities Solution
In home economics, the movement to coeducational
classes is an example of a liberal-feminist equal
opportunity solution to gender equity. Those educators
who support coeducational home economics claim,
generally, that when home economics is taught in a
coeducational setting this subject no longer contributes to
the maintenance of traditional gender relations since it
promotes equal participation by females and males in
the private sphere. The assumptions underlying
coeducational, however, are: 1) female and male
students can be educated together, 2) male and female
students can learn to share roles better if they are
taught together rather than apart, 3) students can learn
22 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1989
from each other, and 4) having both sexes together in
the classroom has little impact on what is taught or
how it is taught (Laird, 1989).
My experiences, however, as a home economics
teacher, and as an ethnographic researcher in a
coeducational home economics classroom (Eyre, 1988),
have caused me to question these assumptions. For ex-
ample, observations in a food and nutrition classroom
revealed that female students took control of domestic
tasks and directed action in the setting; they frequently
i told male students what to do and how to perform tasks
correctly. Boys were directed to fetch items for girls
and responded to girls' directions; girls frequently at-
} tempted to correct boys' behavior in the domestic set-
C ting. At the same time analysis of teacher student in-
I teraction revealed that male students demanded and
received more attention from the teacher than did fe-
, male students; attention was drawn toward boys be-
cause they were unable to perform certain tasks, and
because boys, more than girls, engaged more frequently
in off-task behavior.
This glimpse into student life in a home economics
i classroom raised many questions; those which are par-
ticularly relevant here are:
1) How might home economics teachers provide an
equitable educational environment for female and
male students when, due to past experiences, young
women are often more advanced than young men?
2) What can teachers do to avoid being drawn to the
dominant male group?
3) How might teachers use the example of the class-
room experience itself to illustrate how women ex-
perience oppression and why men may reject the
domestic role?
4) How might classrooms be structured to encourage
cooperation, sharing, and nurturing, rather than
competition, authority, and control?
5) How do social class and ethnicity influence gender
interaction? How might teachers accommodate
differences yet provide a gender equitable environ-
ment?
The Gender Free Solution
Home economics curriculum has attempted to over-
come sex role stereotyping primarily by the use of non-
gender specific language, and through the use of illus-
trations which show women and men participating in
homemaking and parenting activities. Criticisms of
these liberal-feminist attempts at gender free cur-
riculum, however, raise questions about whether this
approach allows unexamined, masculine values to in-
fluence curriculum content and classroom pedagogy in
home economics.
For example, the criticism that non-gender specific
language hides rather than illuminates the different
experiences of women and men, can be applied to home
economics curriculum. Do non-gender specific concepts
such as family life cycle, parenting, aging, adolescence,
poverty, housing, relationships, divorce, family
violence and communication, frequently used in home
economics curriculum guides and materials, suggest that
these experiences are the same for both men and women,
when in reality they're not? If so, home economics is
not contributing to gender equity, because, critics argue,
the dominant masculine position will be assumed to be
true for everyone (Gaskell & McLaren, 1987).
Similarly, home economics curriculum guides and texts
often use the work of theorists such as Piaget, Erickson,
and Kohlberg or theories built primarily from the
experience of male subjects (Gilligan, 1982). Again, if
theories such as these are not critically questioned from
a women's perspective, gender equity is in jeopardy.
Criticism of a gender free approach can also be
applied to the stance taken by home economics to fam-
ily issues. Do home economics curriculum guides and
materials represent the concerns of women when deal-
ing with practical problems of families? My analysis
of the British Columbia Family Management curricu-
lum and its accompanying text (Leavenworth, et al.,
1985), builds on the work of Bernice Hayibor (1988, and
reveals that:
1) the politics of health care are not mentioned — the
male medical model of childbirth is presented —
feminist concerns about reproductive technology are
ignored;
2) a patriarchal "blame the victim" approach under-
lies topics such as poverty, unemployment, family
violence, health care, and nutrition;
3) communication units take a business approach —
they do not address sexist language and the silenc-
ing of women;
4) relationships are assumed to be heterosexual — gay
and lesbian relationships, are treated as other;
5) work refers to the outside of the home; housework
is ignored other than vague references to the shar-
ing of responsibilities — still a major difficulty for
many families, and a barrier to the wellbeing of
women;
6) community services are taken as given — availabil-
ity, accessibility, and affordability, as well as the
different requirements of women and men, are not
questioned; and
7) housing concerns center around the purchase and
design of a middle class home, and neglect the real
housing issues faced by lone parents and those who
live at or below the poverty line, most of whom are
women.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1989 23
Also, because gender free curriculum guides and
materials, such as those examined previously, allow
masculine values to dominate, they tend not to name, or
tell the truth about, what happens in families and in
society. The battering of women, and incest glossed over
by the use of the terms spouse abuse and child abuse,
and real concerns such as legislated poverty,
unemployment, and the lack of child care facilities and
affordable housing receive only superficial attention.
There is also a tendency to suggest that family
problems can be solved by effective communication and
decision making when in reality many problems
originate in political, economics, and social conditions
beyond the control of the individual.
Also, in focusing on the family as the unit of study,
too often the traditional nuclear middle class family is
portrayed as the ideal, and other family arrangements
as anomalies. In addition, when the experiences of the
individuals in families — women, girls, boys and men —
are ignored, a male biased view of family is promoted.
In other words, family is defined ideologically, by the
dominant masculine hegemony. Margrit Eichler (1988)
writes of ideological familism, a form of sexism which
avoids the many dimensions of family, and ignores the
reality for the lives of individuals within families.
The statement "families take care of their elderly
members," is an example of familism, because usually it
is women who do this work.
A male bias is also evident in home economics cur-
riculum which manifests the masculine virtues of in-
dividualism, competition, and control, rather than the
feminine virtues of cooperation, caring, and nurturance
(Noddings, 1989). Such curricula: 1) adopt a technical,
managerial approach, i.e., family management; 2)
place the teacher in control of learning; and 3)
emphasize mastery of specific skills and memorization
of content. Also, gender free curricula tend to accept the
validity of differing values, needs, and wants. As a
result, conflicts in society related to gender and the
distribution of power, are not fully addressed. For ex-
ample, the effects of too much power for men and too
little for women, in government, the media, working
conditions in and outside of the home, and in relation-
ships, are rarely dealt with in a critical manner.
A Gender Sensitive and Gender Balanced Solution
In contrast to a gender free home economics cur-
riculum, a gender sensitive approach recognizes the
different experiences of women and men and draws on
past actual (neither stereotyped nor ideological) expe-
riences of both. Rather than being biologically deter-
mined, gender role is recognized as a cultural
construction which is, therefore, open to change.
Students explore topics such as mothering, fathering,
women and aging, men and poverty, women and housing
men and divorce, etc. Teachers are alert to the amount
and kind of attention given to female and male
students. Teachers are sensitive to the possibility of
differences in ways of learning between girls and boys,
and women and men (Belenky, 1986) — differences based
on their past experiences as gendered beings. Teachers
attend to these differences when working with
students, and provide additional experiences to support
the disadvantaged group. In the home economics
classroom this might mean attention to the lack of male
experience in domestic tasks, and to the oppression of
women students in a mixed sex group.
A gender balanced home economics curriculum em-
phasizes the value of work in the private sphere for
both men and women, provides a learning environment
which manifests the virtues of caring, nurturing, shar-
ing, cooperation, and collaboration. It is not assumed,
as Patricia Thompson (1984) warns, that because stu-
dents participate in home economics activities they
necessarily have a shared understanding of the value
and meaning of work in the private sphere. Nor is it
assumed, because home economics has the domestic re-
productive sphere as its focus, that the feminine virtues
are necessarily evident in home economics classrooms,
since the masculine virtues of competition, power, and
control, i.e., the dominant values of society, influence
thinking and action in the schools.
Curriculum content in a gender balanced curriculum:
1 ) openly addresses equity issues;
2) explores the relationship between sexuality and
oppression at school, in the workplace, and in the
home;
3) seeks the true experiences of individuals in fami-
lies;
4) acknowledges the experiences of women's oppres-
sion;
5) critically examines problems of the individual, the
family and society from a political, economic, per-
spective;
6) views values as having been shaped by society and
as therefore open to critical examination; and
7) evaluates the experiences of the home economics
classroom in terms of providing a gender equitable
environment.
Summary and Implications
Despite the efforts made by home economics, and
other school subjects, to contribute toward a gender
equitable education, recent assessments indicate there
is still much to be done. The question is raised of how
autonomous can any school subject be? Marjorie Brown
(1985) suggests home economics historically has been
molded by political, economic, and social forces exter-
nal to the field. For example, at the turn of the century,
24 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1989
the view of home economics which prevailed, reflected
the Victorian ideology of natural, separate, and gen-
dered public and private spheres. Acceptance of the
scientific model of home economics also reflected
industrialization, when industry looked to the schools
to provide efficient and willing workers (Danylewycz,
Fahmy-Eid, & Thivierge, 1984). During war time when
women were encouraged to work outside of the home,
home economics curriculum guides promoted dual career
families; by the 1960's, however, when government
policies and practices were reversed, home economics
guides did likewise (Prentice, 1988).
Thus an equal opportunity and gender free home
economics curriculum can also be linked to prevailing
ideologies. A post industrial capitalist society which
is divided economically and socially, and which
values individualism and moral relativism (Fisher &
Gillgoff, 1987) is unlikely to promote a critical gender
sensitive and gender balanced pedagogy. Particularly
at a time of close government control of education, and
conservatism, schools are likely to reflect the dominant
hegemony of the period.
A difficulty, therefore, which arises is how to cre-
ate spaces for growth and change when one is submerged
in reality. I suspect that this requires encouraging
teachers to appreciate education as a political and a
moral enterprise. Through reflection, in which we as
teachers, and as women, discover our personal history,
we may come to question the virtues which inform our
curriculum and classroom pedagogy and come to under-
stand how gender equity and democracy are threatened
when home economics is allowed to be molded by male
biased knowledge and masculine values. We may, in
time, be able to bring collective power to bear on home
economics education. Without a gender sensitive and
gender balanced perspective home economics is good for
patriarchy; it is neither good for women, nor men, nor
ultimately for family well-being.
References
Belenky, M. F., Clinchy, B. M., Goldberger, N. R., &
Tarule, J. M. (1986). Women's way of knowing: The
development of self, voice, and mind. New York:
Basic Books.
Brown, M. (1985). Philosophical studies of home eco-
nomics in the United States: Our practical
intellectual heritage, Vol. 1. East Lansing, Michi-
gan: Michigan State University.
Danylewycz, M., Fahmy-Eid, N., & Thivierge, N.
(1984). L'enseignement menager et les "Home Eco-
nomics" au Quebec et en Ontario au debut du 20e
siecle une analyse comparee. In J. D. Wilson (Ed.),
An imperfect past: Education and society in Cana-
dian history (pp. 68-119). Vancouver: The Univer-
sity of British Columbia.
Eichler, M. (1987). The relationship between sexist,
non-sexist, women centered and feminist research in
the social sciences. In G. H. Neimiroff (Ed.),
Women and men: Interdisciplinary readings on
gender (pp. 21-53). Canada: Fitzhenry & White-
side.
Eichler, M. (1988). Nonsexist research methods: A
practical guide. Winchester, MA: Allen & Unwin.
Eyre, L. (1988, September). Gender equity in curricu-
lum. Presented at the biennial conference of the
Western Regional College and University Profes-
sors of Home Economics Education. Oregon State
University, Corvallis.
Fisher, D., & Gillgoff, B. (1987). The crises in B. C.
public education: The state and the public interest.
In T. Wotherspoon (Ed.), The political economy of
Canadian schooling (pp. 69-93). Toronto: Metheun.
Gaskell, J., & McLaren, A. T. (Eds.). (1987). Women
and education. Calgary: Detselig.
Gilligan. C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological
theory and women's development. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
Hayibor, B. (1988, June). A feminist criticism of the
family management 11/12 course as outlined in the
B.C. curriculum guide. Paper presented at the An-
nual Conference of Canadian Association for Re-
search in Home Economics, University of Windsor,
Ontario.
Houston, B. (1987). Should public education be gender
free? In G. H. Nemiroff (Ed.), Women and men: In-
terdisciplinary readings on gender (pp. 139-149).
Canada: Fitzhenry & Whiteside.
Laird, S. (1989, March). Needed: Research on
coeducation. Paper presented at the annual meeting
of the American Educational Research Association,
San Francisco.
Leavenworth, C, Hendricks, G., Gay, K., Harriman, L.
C, & Kreinin, M. M. (1985). Family living. New
Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Lecke, G. M. (1987). Feminist pedagogy, liberation
theory, and the traditional schooling paradigm.
Educational Theory 37(3), 343-354.
Martin, J. R. (1981). The ideal of the educated person.
Educational Theory, 32(2), 97-109.
Martin, J. R. (1986). Bringing women into educational
thought. Educational Theory, 34(4), 341-353.
Noddings, N. (1989, March). Developing models of
human caring in the professions. Paper presented at
the annual meeting of the American Educational
Research Association, San Francisco.
Prentice, A. (1988). Canadian women: A history.
Toronto: Harcourt Brace and Jovanovich.
(Continued on page 14.)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/ October, 1989 25
Computers in the Home:
A Curriculum Project
Eda Favaro
District Principal of Home
Economics
Vancouver School District
Vancouver, British Columbia
Audrey van Alstyne
Teacher and Curriculum Chair for
Computers in the Home Project
Sir Charles Tupper Secondary
School
Vancouver, British Columbia
A
i
Recent market surveys predict that by the end of
the century a personal computer will be found in eight
out of ten households. The 1990's will become the
golden era of home computers use (Wakefield, 1986).
Given this prediction, home economics teachers might
do well to ask themselves: What are we doing to pre-
pare students for this high tech world? Will our stu-
dents have the decision making and critical thinking
skills to use a rapidly changing technology to enhance
the quality of family life? Are girls as well as boys
encouraged and enabled to participate in and gain from
this computerized world? As a result of raising and
addressing these questions, home economics teachers at
Sir Charles Tupper Secondary School in Vancouver,
developed an innovative and dynamic action plan for
their school and district.
The first stage of this plan was to foster coopera-
tion, collaboration and interaction among home eco-
nomics and computer science teachers in the school to-
gether with school and district administration to gar-
ner sufficient support and funding for computer educa-
tion in home economics. This group was successful in ob-
taining a grant from the provincial Ministry of Educa-
tion Funds for Excellence and the project was on its way.
The major goal of stage two was to develop and im-
plement a curriculum designed to enable students to
examine, experience and evaluate household
applications of microcomputers, and to encourage course
enrollment of a broad spectrum of students at the grade
9/10 level, non-computer users in particular.
Once again, home economics and computer science
teachers worked together to produce a program resource
guide titled Computers in the Home based on the fol-
lowing student objectives:
1. To develop a critical understanding of the im-
pact of computers on personal and family life.
2. To increase awareness, knowledge and use of
microcomputer technology in daily living.
3. To use the computer effectively as a creative
tool; as a means to an end and not an end in it-
self in dealing with the needs and interests of
individuals and families.
4. To identify, preview and evaluate software
applicable to home economics, organized in the
broad categories of: Design (including clothing,
textiles, interior and architectural), Health
and Fitness (including food preparation, diet
analysis, nutrition, and bio-feedback and stress
analysis), Leisure Activities (including
creating art work, creating music, and family
entertainment), and Family Management
(including budgeting, telecommunications and
word processing).
Concomitant with development of the program guide,
complex decisions were made regarding hardware and
software acquisition. After careful consideration the
Apple IIGS system was selected for several reasons, in-
cluding availability of software, graphics and sound
capabilities.
Software selection was an ongoing process carried on
in conjunction with students in the program with the
goal of locating appropriate user-friendly software for
each area of home economics. In addition to the pur-
chase of commercial packages, a software program in a
game format was developed to reinforce and evaluate
specific learning outcomes of the Computers in the
26 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1989
bank of questions for review or test purposes, organized
in a format which can be edited or expanded to reflect
changing curriculum content.
Program implementation at Tupper began in the
spring of 1987 with a cluster of six computers in a loca-
tion central to the home economics classrooms. There
were several important benefits of this location: 1) the
home economics area provided a supportive and non-
threatening atmosphere for those students with a ten-
dency to shy away from computers; 2) female home eco-
nomics teachers became role models in the predomi-
nantly male-oriented computer discipline; and 3) stu-
dents expanded their view of home economics to include
a different technology. Through the use of this com-
puter cluster, eight home economics teachers enhanced
their program with new technology and provided a
practical and positive introduction to the world of
computers. (A list of software which accomplished
these ends is attached). In spite of frequent and frus-
trating computer bugs, teachers and students alike
enjoyed their learning experiences, and were prepared
to make the transition the following year to a sixty-
hour course Computers in the Home.
Having sparked the interest of some seventy eager
trade ten male and female students, the course moved to
a computer lab setting. Teachers introduced the course
with two hours of hands-on experience using Your Tour
of the IIGS (Apple Canada, 1986), to become familiar
with the machine. During the hands-on sessions,
teachers provided one-on-one instruction as needed, so
that students could work and progress at their own
pace. It has been said that using Print Shop
(Broderbund, 1987) is as easy as falling off a log. The
students would agree. Using Print Shop GS and Dazzle
Draw (Broderbund, 1987, 1986) they created and
applied designs to produce personalized T-Shirts. A
mouse driven, user-friendly program called Multiscribe
GS (Scholastic, 1988) provided the introduction to word
processing and inspired the students to present all of
their course work on letter-quality printout.
As in other computer courses, databases and
spreadsheets had a variety of uses. It was difficult to
find appropriate software until the recent release of
AppleWorks GS (Apple Canada, 1988). Coupled with
templates, this program was used for budgeting,
wardrobe and other inventories, as well as for a variety
of research projects.
A very popular unit with students was "Healthy
Lifestyles." Computer technology was used to monitor
body activities with the aims of learning to cope with
pressure and improving fitness. Other applications in-
cluded diet analysis, health inventories and self-as-
sessment, and decision making related to drug and alco-
hol abuse.
Computer camps where groups of non-computer users
were invited to be individually tutored by the students,
were a highlight of the course. The first camp featured
Tupper students tutoring home economics teachers from
a neighboring school. As a result of this positive
experience, a camp for senior citizens and one for young
children were held with great success. Students
assumed the role of expert which did wonders for their
self-concept and also assisted them in better
understanding people at each stage of the life cycle
(Hall & Short, 1987>.
Beyond general applications, this course stimulates
students to address questions on a variety of issues. For
example, how will piracy and security problems affect
us in the future? Is it legal to copy software? What do
we look for when purchasing a personal and family
computer? What is the best location for a
microcomputer in our home and why? What technology
has the microchip generated in our environment? What
benefits will accrue and what problems will arise for
our families as a result of technology? Will computers
enhance or control our lives? What tasks can be best
performed with a computer as opposed to using
traditional methods?
All in all, the students benefitted from a course de-
signed to be flexible, that focused on student needs and
interests, and was paced to ensure that individuals
master each task before moving to the next level of
skill development.
Evaluation of the Computers in the Home course,
focuses on change in the attitudes of students towards
computer use in home economics and across the curricu-
lum as well as on changes in student perceptions of home
economics as a discipline. It is premature to draw con-
clusions at this point in this longitudinal study.
A less scientific but more tangible mark of the suc-
cess of the course is evident in enrollment for the 1989-
90 school year, which has doubled to 57 boys and 75
girls. Positive student response has also encouraged the
senior Family Management teacher to offer Family
Management 11 with a focus on the computer as an im-
portant tool for family use. This focus parallels the
conceptual framework included in the Wisconsin Home
Economics Guide for Curriculum Planning, "The Family
and Technology" (Hittman, 1987).
The final stage of the action plan looks outward to
share experiences with other local and provincial
teacher groups through presentations and workshops
with the intent of encouraging awareness and more
widespread implementation of the Computers in the
Home course. In Vancouver, these workshops were en-
thusiastically received by school administrators and
home economics teachers. As a result, a second Vancou-
ver secondary school has established a home economics
computer lab and the remaining sixteen secondary
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1989 27
schools are in various stages of acquiring computer
hardware and software.
In summary, the Computers in the Home project is a
unique and inspiring example of an interdisciplinary
approach where computer science and home economics
teachers interacted and shared their particular exper-
tise to produce a relevant and challenging course. The
computer science teachers involved in developing this
curriculum came away with a better understanding of
the content and scope of the home economics program.
On the human dimension, computer science and home
economics teachers experienced a new level of appreci-
ation for and interaction with their colleagues.
The Home economics program in British Columbia
has benefitted in the short term through the materials
that have become available. The Computers in the
Home - Curriculum Resource Book developed for the
course has expanded the use of computers in home eco-
nomics in Vancouver and elsewhere in the province. In
the long term, it is anticipated that the products of this
experience will be included in the revised home eco-
nomics curriculum. This project has been a major break-
through for home economics in British Columbia. It has
forged a new and important link between current tech-
nology and the traditional focus and concern for indi-
viduals and families.
SOFTWARE: Computers in the Home Curriculum
To choose relevant and innovative packages in each
area of home economics is a challenging exercise, as
software is continually being updated. The following
list includes programs for the Apple IIGS that teachers
selected and were using in the spring of 1989.
I. DESIGN
Clothing and Textiles
Print Shop GS (Broderbund)
Color Your World (MCE Publishing)
Fiber Basics (Learning Seed)
Fabric Identification (Learning Seed)
Interior and Architectural Design
Floor Plan (Learning Seed)
Color Your World (MCE Publishing)
II. HEALTH AND FITNESS
Foods and Nutrition
Food Facts (MECC)
Nutrition Vol. 2 (MECC)
Senior Level
- Food Preparation (MC Media)
- Introductory Nutrition (MC Media)
Fitness and Health
Cardiovascular Fitness (HRM)
Learning to Cope with Pressure
(Sunburst)
Biofeedback Microlab (HRM)
Teen Health Maintenance
(Planned Parenthood)
III. LEISURE ACTIVITIES
Dazzle Draw (Broderbund)
816 Paint (Baudville)
Music Studio (Activision)
Where in the World is Carmen San Diego?
(Broderbund)
Print Shop GS (Broderbund)
IV. FAMILY MANAGEMENT
Child Development
Create a Story Series (D.C. Heath)
Budgeting
Appleworks GS Templates
(Apple Canada)
Budgeting Simulation (EMC)
Word Processing
Multiscribe GS (Scholastic)
Apple Works GS (Apple Canada)
The Computers in the Home - Curriculum Resource Book
is available from the Vancouver School Board, Pro-
gram Publications, 2530 East 43rd Avenue, Vancouver,
BC, V5R 2Y7. In early 1990, a teacher resource guide
will be completed and available both in printed format
and on disk.
References
Apple Canada. (1988). AppleWorks GS [Computer
Software]. Toronto, Canada.
Apple Canada. (1986) Your Tour of the IIGS [Computer
Software]. Toronto, Canada.
Broderbund. (1986). Dazzle Draw [Computer
Software]. Santa Fe, California.
Broderbund. (1987). Print Shop GS [Computer
Software]. Santa Fe, California.
Hall, B., & Short, B. (1987). Family computer camp.
The Computing Teacher, 14(7), 61-63.
Hittman, L. (1987). Family and technology: Educating
for the 1990's and beyond. Home Economics Forum,
2(2), 3-6.
Scholastic. (1988). Multiscribe GS [Computer
Software]. Toronto, Canada.
Wakefield, R. (1986). Home computers and families:
The empowerment revolution. The Futurist, 20(5),
18-22. • • •
28 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1989
Career Preparation — Programs for the
Work World
Leslie Paris
Home Economics Teacher and
Department Head
Burnaby School District
Burnaby, British Columbia
Introduction
What programs are available in our schools for the
non-college-bound or potential drop-out high school
student? At present very little is available for these
students. Most of the education system is geared to the
university bound student. In reality approximately "20
million Americans between the ages of 16 and 24 are not
likely to embark upon undergraduate education"
(William T. Grant Foundation, 1988), and "4.3 million
between the same ages drop out of school and never
graduate" (Hahn, 1987). A total of about 78% of this
age group either never completes high school or goes to
university. In Canada, the statistics are similar. In
1983, 57.8% of the 4.4 million youth (15-24 years old)
were out of school (Employment and Immigration
Canada, 1983). Three quarters (74%) of Canada's youth
had no education beyond high school. In 1983, 1.876
million (42.5%) youth had dropped out of school before
i graduation (Employment and Immigration Canada,
1983). Further statistical data cited in Youth/Jeunesse
\A new statistical perspective on youth in Canada,
indicated that these young people had higher
unemployment rates, longer periods of unemployment,
and stayed dependent longer.
What do we as educators offer these young people
that will enable them to get and keep jobs — jobs that
| will offer reasonable wages, provide medical insurance
I and other fringe benefits, and opportunities for ad-
vancement based on competence and diligence? We need
to be offering them opportunities to gain competencies
(that will enable them to get and keep jobs — jobs that
i will help to decrease the high cost of unemployment.
In a report, The Forgotten Half: Non-college -
Bound Youth in America, the William T. Grant
Foundation Commission on Youth (1988) suggests that
The young people need some assistance, and ed-
ucators allied with employers and community
leaders can provide it by giving students
opportunities to reach beyond school walls. By
moving education into the community, educators
not only tap rich learning possibilities but also
give youth the exposure and confidence they
need to make it on their own.
In this report it is suggested that there are several
ways that schools can help potential high school
dropouts, or students with no job skills, to succeed. The
suggestion is to provide school -to- work programs. In-
cluded in these programs should be: monitored work
experiences, involvement in community and neighbor-
hood services, redirected vocational training and career
information and counseling.
Another report, "Reaching out to America's
dropouts: What to do?" supports this proposal and in-
dicates that it is:
Very important to recognize that most studies
show that, regardless of how badly youngsters
have fared in school, they are strongly moti-
vated to succeed in the workplace. These stud-
ies show that these youngsters want to work
and do work when opportunities are available.
If anything their motivation to work is too
strong for the school to hold them (Hahn,
1987).
In a review of the second chance programs aimed at
keeping these students in school, several important
lessons were learned about designing programs to pre-
vent students from dropping out. The following were
indicated as necessary components of program de-
velopment that would bridge the gap between school
and work:
1. Isolated work experience programs have
little value in increasing the employabil-
ity of dropouts. Dropouts should work, but
the experience from the work sites should
be integrated into a classroom component
that is clearly connected to the job.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1989 29
2. Dropouts should learn, but the curriculum
should relate to the functional skills
needed in the workplace.
3. Dropouts should be prepared for the labor
market through pre-employment/ work-
maturity services — but not until they are
genuinely ready to conduct a job search.
Writing resumes and exit services — not the
centerpiece of dropout prevention or reme-
diation.
4. Above all, program services must to some
degree be intensive; in the jargon of profes-
sional educators, there must be sufficient
"time on task" (Hahn, 1987).
One attempt to address these problems is the Ca-
reer Preparation Programs that are part of the ap-
proved curriculum of the British Columbia Ministry of
Education. Career Preparation Programs are designed
to help students, especially non-college-bound students
to focus their studies and energies on an area that has
potential for employment once they leave school.
The career preparation programs in British
Columbia senior secondary schools are designed
to provide students with options that enable
students to enter the work force, proceed to a
college or provincial institute or to pursue fur-
ther academic studies leading to a professional
career. Courses related to career fields at the
senior secondary level are intended to improve
the transition of students between school and
employment and between school and post-sec-
ondary institutions. Students enrolled in a ca-
reer preparation program will participate in
cooperative career preparation studies to spend
part of their school time in a learning situation
in the community at a training station. The ex-
perience is designed to provide practical expe-
rience for a student in an occupation field di-
rectly related to a program specialty in the
school (Ministry of Education, N.D.).
employer-employee relations, job application and
safety procedures.
A second goal is to help students decide before they
enter the work force, or college, whether the area of
specialization is right for them. If by taking the pro-
gram and doing the actual work of a person in that field
they discover it is not what they want to do they have
lost little, and hopefully have gained positive work
habits and attitudes. Graduates of a career prepara-
tion program will be able to proceed directly to em-
ployment with marketable skills and may be qualified!
to pursue further studies toward a profession, or to at-
tend a college or trade school to acquire furtherr
specialized education.
Benefits of the Career Preparation Program
The complementary nature of school instruction and
on-the-job experience has benefits not only for the stu-
dent but also for the school, employer and the commu-
nity. The schools benefit by having access to facilities
and resources in the community that allow students to
have experiences they otherwise might not have. The
programs also allow schools to hold onto students for a
longer period of time increasing the probability that
the students will become self-sufficient adults. The
schools also gain by having direct avenues for keeping
abreast of new developments in the business and
industrial world, and for meeting some of the needs of
the community.
The employers benefit from extra help in the busi-
ness and it gives them a chance to be exposed to adoles-
cents who are skilled in the area and who they can as-
sess as potential future employees. The employers also
may have an avenue for input into the training
provided by the school, increasing the value of the stu-
dents being trained.
The community as a whole benefits from the in-
creased school and community relations that are a re-
sult of the interaction between businesses and schools.
It allows the community to have a part in reducing the
number of untrained people that could become a burden
on the community. The cooperation between business
and school is essential if the programs are to succeed.
The programs have potential benefits for all concerned.
Goals of Career Preparation Programs
One goal of these programs is to give students an
opportunity to focus on a particular area of interest and
to gain knowledge and skills that will assist them in
entering the work force. Their participation in real
work situations, as well as in school instruction, enables
the students to gain the essential generic skills neces-
sary for employment. Such generic skills relate to
punctuality, appearance, cooperation, self discipline,
Subject Areas for Career Preparation Programs
In British Columbia, there are Career Preparation
Programs available to students in the career areas of
Hospitality/Tourism, Business Education, Mechanics,
Woodworking, Metalwork, Power (industrial) Sewing
and Human Services. The three programs that relate
directly to the field of Home Economics are Power
Sewing, Hospitality/Tourism and Human Services.
Home economics is an ideal field for career preparation
programs because it teaches not only basic skills but
30 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1989
accompanying knowledge as part of the curriculum. The
value of coupling career preparation and home
economics courses is in the easy translation of the
school-learned skills into job-related skills.
The Human Services Program is divided into three
areas, Family Services, Health Care, and Children's
Services. At present there are four Career Preparation
Programs in Children's Services operating in British
Columbia. There are programs in Vancouver, Burnaby,
Kelowna, and Victoria. There are numerous programs
operating throughout the province in the Hospital-
ity/Tourism area, and one in Power Sewing in Vancou-
ver. It is in the context of the Children's Services, that
I will describe the overall program.
Components of the Program
There are four component parts to any career
preparation program. First, the program must have six
core courses that the students must complete in their
last two years of high school. In the Children's Ser-
vices program these are: Child Development 11 and 12,
Family Management 11 and 12, Work Study 11, and
Work Experience 12. The Child Development courses
cover the theory that the students will need in order to
work with preschool children. Areas include: the de-
velopmental stages, the essentials for healthy devel-
opment (nutrition, health, safety, play and child
abuse), and the recognition and integration of special
needs children.
The Family Management courses cover aspects of
the student's own growth through adolescence and
adulthood, the development and maintenance of rela-
tionships, the use of resources, and the functioning of
families. A good understanding of individual growth
and the functioning of families is essential in jobs deal-
ing with children and their families.
The Work Study 11 course covers the many skills
that are necessary for getting and keeping a job, in any
field. Skills such as filling in job applications, resume
writing, interviewing, and positive work attitudes are
taught and practiced. Students are made aware of the
responsibilities and the rights of workers in both union
and non-union situations. The emphasis in this course is
on child care skills such as: first-aid, developing ap-
propriate children's activities, arranging schedules
and routines, discipline and motivating, observing and
communicating with both children and parents.
The Work Experience 12 course gives the students
opportunities to apply the theory and the skills that
they have learned in their previous courses to practical
on-the-job-situations. These are unpaid work
practicums. The students are placed in a work-setting
under the guidance of a qualified supervisor where
they work directly with children for 100 to 120 hours.
The program of placing students into the labor force
under controlled conditions is done in British Columbia
with the cooperation of the school boards, the Ministry
of Labor, the Board of Industrial Relations, the labor
unions, the British Columbia Teacher's Federation and
business people. The student can be placed in union
shops with prior approval of the union. Each student,
teacher and job supervisor enters into an agreement
covering the terms of employment.
My students work in two different settings, a li-
censed day care centre for children 22-4 years old and
in a preschool for 3-4 year olds. The work that a stu-
dent may do includes: feeding, diapering, soothing and
putting children to sleep, preparing art activities,
telling stories, conducting circle time, supervising in the
playground, cleaning up the facilities and helping on
field trips.
The students work under the constant supervision
and direction of the center's supervisor. The student is
visited regularly by the classroom teacher who makes
observations, gives suggestions and evaluates the stu-
dent. The student is evaluated on: general work habits,
personal habits, motivation, the ability to work with
little direction, and the ability to apply the skills and
knowledge learned in the classroom to a work situation.
The workplace supervisor gives the student an evalua-
tion that counts for one half of the student's letter
grade. An accurate evaluation requires a good working
relationship between the supervisor of the center and
the classroom teacher. This is one of the important as-
pects of the program because a good supervisor is aware
of what the students should know and what the
teacher's expectations are. I have been very fortunate
to work with the supervisors that I have. They have
learned a lot about adolescents and I have learned a lot
about the child care field. They have offered encour-
agement and advice freely and wisely especially dur-
ing the initial development of the program.
High School Graduation Requirements
The second part of the program is the successful
completion of the basic high school graduation re-
quirements. The completion of English, social studies,
mathematics and science courses, at a minimum essen-
tials or trades level, ensures that the students have
basic academic skills. When completed in conjunction
with a job training program these courses tend to take on
greater importance for the student and the completion
rate is higher.
Postsecondary Articulation
The third component of the program is the
articulation with a postsecondary institute, college or
vocational school that will recognize the training that
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1989 31
has taken place and allow some preferential treatment
for the student. This may be in the form of giving ad-
vanced entry, a work experience credit, or an otherwise
unavailable opportunity for an entrance interview. The
completion of a good work experience practicum is an
indication of experience and commitment to the field; a
prerequisite for entry into some further training pro-
grams.
Advisory Boards
The fourth component of the program is the forma-
tion of an advisory board to oversee the program. The
committee is composed of representatives from the
school (the principal, the classroom teacher), the in-
dustry (job supervisors, company contacts), the school
board, and the articulating postsecondary institute.
This committee operates to ensure that the needs of the
student, and the employer are being met and that the
program is meeting its goals and objectives as produc-
tively as possible. The committee members for the
Children's Services consist of the classroom teacher,
the school principal, the school board Career Prepara-
tion coordinator, the daycare supervisors, the preschool
supervisors, and the school nurse. The advisory board
is a good communication mechanism ensuring that the
school and business are meeting each other's needs and
that expectations are congruent.
Qualifications for Teaching A Career Preparation Pro-
gram
Teachers who are teaching classes in a Career
Preparation Program must have a thorough knowledge
of the speciality area that the program covers. This
knowledge includes not only the theoretical but also
the very valuable practical applications. Some of the
programs require that teachers hold journeyman papers
in the speciality area. In addition to knowledge di-
rectly related to the speciality area, the teacher also
must be able to make contact with businesses in the
community that will give the students worthwhile and
relevant experiences. The teacher must be able to assess
quality, safety and the appropriateness of the work
that will be assigned to the students.
Program Success
The success of this program requires not only the
commitment of the students to complete the require-
ments for graduation including the six core courses but
the cooperation of teachers and employers to arrange
meaningful work experience. One of the most important
aspects of the program has involved the cooperation of
the day care centers and preschools in accepting the
students for their work experiences. After three years
they are still enthusiastic about the contribution the
students make to their programs.
The second important factor is the cooperation and
support of the school administration in the scheduling
of the courses. Scheduling is critical when trying to
place students in daily work placements without hav-
ing them miss too much of their other courses. I have
been fortunate in that the students in Work Experience
12 have been triple blocked into the afternoon classes
which facilitates their going out to do their work
experience. They can go every afternoon and still keep
up with their other classes. Students enrolled are also
often the envy of other students, which is a wonderful
confidence and self-esteem builder for students. Other
ways of scheduling work experience is to have the stu-
dents do three one-week sessions spread evenly
throughout the year, to use a combination of during-
school and after-school hours, and to use school
vacation time to be on the job. When working with low
achieving or unmotivated students it is important to
give them every opportunity to succeed and limited
opportunities to fail. Many students achieve great i
success while on the job that they have never received!
from in-school classes.
Conclusion
Ties exist between the career preparation programs |
in British Columbia and the four recommendations
made for second chance programs listed earlier in this
article. There is a direct and deliberate connection!
between classroom instruction and on-the-job experi-
ence. The program also directs much of the content to
generic work skills that can be applied not only to jobs
in a specific subject area but to any employment oppor-
tunity. Time-on-task in the career preparation pro-
grams is a minimum of one third of the course require-
ments in the final year. This amount appears to give
students enough time to discover if they are suited to
the field, and to demonstrate their competence both in i
the specific skills required and in important general i '
work habits.
The value of career preparation programs in facili-
tating the transition from high school to the job market
has not been researched but I am convinced of its value.
The value may not lie in students getting a job that will
last a lifetime but rather in acquiring some marketable
skills that allow entry into the job market. The
securing of a job that is interesting and relevant is
important to any individual and especially to a student
who does not have the ability, motivation or self con-
fidence to continue in school. Success for the students is
difficult to measure as there is little or no contact with
them once they leave school. They leave the program
enthusiastic about working with children and keen to
find a job.
The one disadvantage of this program in British
Columbia is that no one can work in a licensed child
32 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1989
care facility unless s/he is 19 years old and are either
working on, or holds, an Early Childhood Certificate.
Therefore, students usually find first jobs in non-li-
censed family day care, in nanny positions or babysit-
ting.
To date, the Children's Services Center Prepara-
tion Program offered at Burnaby North Secondary
Schools has placed six students directly into child care
jobs, and at least six more into child-related training
(Early Childhood Education Diploma program, nanny
program and nursing). To this point the program has
graduated 28 students in 2 classes (of 2 years each) and
has the potential to graduate at least 20 more students
over the next two years. The number of students enter-
ing the program is stable at a manageable number.
Success of this program cannot be measured imme-
diately, if at all, as many of these students are only just
embarking on jobs, careers, further education and par-
enting. Success also cannot be measured because the
number of students who would not have completed high
school or would not have successfully been able to get a
job is unknown. Another factor, the previously men-
tioned age restriction on entry to further training for
work in preschools or licensed child care centers, is only
just now allowing students who graduated in 1988 to
apply for entry to further study programs. If the pro-
gram has given the students some child care skills that
can be used in the job market or in a family situation,
some generic employment skills and a knowledge of the
child care field, then it has attained the goals set for
the program. I feel comfortable that it has met at least
one of these goals for each student.
In both large and small communities in British
Columbia there are facilities that feed people and care
for small children. With an ever increasing need for
trained people in both the food industry and the child
care field it makes good sense to expand on the skills
learned in foods and human relations to give non-col-
lege-bound students avenues to the work place. If there
are community facilities and businesses willing to take
students in a non-paying employment situation, then
the potential exists for programs that will help young
people to get into the job market while gaining some
basic academic skills and increasing their feelings of
self-worth.
The issue of enabling young students to become self-
sufficient adults is an important one, one that not just
the schools, but the community as a whole, can address.
The cooperation of businesses and schools to give po-
tential dropouts or non-college-bound students a helping
hand is an exciting and worthwhile endeavor that de-
serves our attention.
References
Employment and Immigration Canada. (1983).
Youth/ Jeunesse a new statistical perspective on
youth in Canada. Ottawa, Ontario: Authors.
Hahn, A. (1987). Reaching out to America's dropouts:
What do do? Phi Delta Kappan, 69(4), 256-263.
Ministry of Education, Curriculum Development
Branch. Province of British Columbia, (undated).
Career Preparation Program Curriculum Guide for
Hospitality /Tourism, Industry, Tourist Services.
Author.
William T. Grant Foundation Commission on Work,
Family and Citizenship. (1988). The forgotten
half: Non-college-bound youth in America. Au-
thor. • • •
(Book Reviews, Peterat — Continued from page 40.)
These girls... were being commercialized; we had
typewriters provided in our schools; we were offering
everything to enable them to fill commercial
occupations, and we were not doing one thing to develop
the domestic side. In other words, we were trying to
draft masculine tendencies on feminine stock, and that
has been the tendency of our system of education for
some years.
(Adelaide Hoodless, 1910 in MacDonald, 1986, p.
45)
Domestic Science is the application of scientific
principles to the management of the home. It teaches
the value of pure air, proper food, systematic
management, economy, care of children, domestic and
civil sanitation and the prevention of disease. It calls
for higher and higher ideals of home life and more
respect for domestic occupations. In short, it is a direct
education for women as homemakers. The management
of the home has more to do in the moulding of character
than any other influence, owing to the large place it
fills in the early life of the individual during the most
plastic stage of development. We are therefore,
justified in an effort to secure a place for home
economics or domestic science, in the education
institutions of this country.
(Adelaide Hoodless, undated, in MacDonald, 1986,
p. 46) • • •
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/ October, 1989 33
Toward a Global Home Economics
Curriculum
Linda Peterat Mary Gale Smith
Assistant Professor Graduate Student
Home Economics Education Faculty of Education
University of British Columbia
Vancouver
In recent years the Canadian Home Economics
Association has promoted development and global ed-
ucation in the schools by providing educational kits in
conjunction with World Home Economics Day and
World Food Day. Along with twinning projects
(partnerships with developing countries to identify
needs and implement projects) of associations
throughout the country, they have pursued an active
role in international development (Channer, 1987).
Likewise, the Global Connections project of the Ameri-
can Home Economics Association has highlighted the
call for a global home economics education
(Montgomery, 1987). In this paper we ask the question:
Why should we care about global education? We ex-
plore some of the reasons fundamental to building a
rationale for global education. Secondly, we offer a
checklist for examining how global our current programs
are. The checklist is intended to be used for raising
discussion among groups of educators about issues central
to global education.
Why care?
Anderson responds to this question by saying that
it's a non-sensical question (1982, p. 155). We cannot ig-
nore the global nature of our world. Telecommunica-
tions media make us immediately aware of events
around the world. Mobility and immigration has made
it increasingly possible for more peoples
in the world to become neighbours. The availability of
consumer goods from a wider range of countries reminds
us daily of our interconnectedness. The consumer choices
we make have economic and political implications for
other peoples in the world, and for our national
economies. We are increasingly aware that the natural
environment we share does not recognize national
boundaries. The society in which we live is a global
one. This fact should be reflected in our school
programs.
Global education has been broadly defined as
"education for responsible participation in an interde-
pendent global society" (Anderson, in Becker, 1979, p.
99). Kniep (1986) identifies the substantive focus ofl
global education as the domains of global systems, ofl
global issues and problems, of human values and!
cultures, and of global history. Global education has
also been defined in terms of its vision or goal to
develop in students a global perspective. Hanvey
(1986) states "education for a global perspective is thati
learning which enhances the individual's ability to
understand his or her condition in the community and I
the world and improves the ability to make effective
judgments" (p. i).
Home economics is also often defined in terms of its
vision, goal or mission:
The mission of home economics is to enable
families, both as individual units and gener-
ally as a social institution, to build and main-
tain systems of action which lead 1) to matur-
ing in individual self-formation and, 2) to en-
lightened, cooperative participation in the
critique and formulation of social goals and
means for accomplishing them (Brown and
Paolucci, 1979, p. 23).
Home economics education aims to develop the systems
of action referred to in the mission statement: "Action
in rational-purposive production or procurement of the
physical entities required by the family for the good
life" (Brown, 1980, p.101). Essentially, this is instru-
mental action involving technical tasks such as the
preparation of food, clothing and shelter. Since the
procurement of food, clothing and shelter is a basic hu-
man necessity, the study of how people in different
countries and locations in the world solve these basic
needs can move the study of instrumental action into a
global perspective.
The second system of action referred to in the mis-
sion statement was "Communicative action within the
family and with social groups outside the family for
understanding and for consensus in defining the good
life, i.e., in the formation and determination of values
and goals" (Brown, 1980, p. 101). Since communicative
action both within the family and in the broader soci-
ety requires that the different experiences and interests
34 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1989
of individuals and groups be considered in relation to
practical problems, considerations of different na-
tional, cultural and religious beliefs and values can
move communicative action into a global perspective.
The third system of action referred to in the mission
statement was "Emancipative action in freeing indi-
viduals, the family, and society from dogmatic beliefs
and from social forces which are dominative or ex-
ploitative" (Brown, 1980,p.l01). Since emancipative
action implies the critical analysis of oppressive fea-
tures of one's social conditions, emancipatory action re-
quires the seeing of other possibilities which compar-
isons and contrasts with other societies and belief sys-
tems in a global perspective offer.
In many ways it appears that home economics edu-
cation as conceptualized by Brown (1980) and global
education have a lot in common. That commonality
includes increased awareness and understanding of the
gaps between social ideals and current realities that
affect people worldwide, and a commitment to action
are shared goals. They both seek to justify a value
stance in terms of some notion of the good. Brown (1980)
mentions such things as human happiness, the good life
and the evolution of a free society. Global education is
often justified on the basis that not to do it would cause
harm, that is, students would be dysfunctional in
society (Daniels, 1983; Anderson, 1982). Both assume
that education can make a difference and that schools
should respond to and be agents of social change.
We suggest that global education is fundamental to
home economics education if we are to educate for self-
formation and the critique of social goals. The central
concepts of home economics - families, daily living and
basic needs - are universal concepts and are also global
concepts. While central in some form to the experiences
and actions of people world-wide, there are certain
common features (accounted for in being universal) and
differences (necessary to account for in being global).
This global nature of home economics education has not
been emphasized, however. Rather, the common em-
phasis on technical reason and action has assumed
monolithic and unchanging families which is no longer
(if it ever were) justifiable in a global society. Because
of the emphasis on technical reason and action, the
need for global perspective has not been widely ad-
dressed through considerations of value issues, ade-
quate teacher preparation and curriculum development.
In regard to curriculum development, Joyce and
Nicholson (1979) have outlined five imperatives
which they suggest could be viewed as the
[philosophical basis for the generation of new curricula
in global education. Consideration should be given to
reconciling the various conflicting interests of indi-
viduals and entities who share the same earth; to the
complexity of the global scene; to the promotion of cul-
tural pluralism; to the development of international
citizenship; and to creating a belief that one's efforts
can be efficacious in the improvement of the world con-
text. Imperatives such as these point to the importance
of developing curricula that are morally realistic, that
display a respect for people, that avoid oversimplica-
tion, stereotyping, polarity and relativism, and that
show a degree of optimism. Moral questions cannot be
ignored and students must be taught how to make
defensible judgements about what is fair and just.
Like Anderson, we suggest that a global emphasis
in education is inevitable if our schools are to be so-
cially relevant. Home economics teachers should care
about global and intercultural education. There are
several implications that follow from such caring. In-
tegrating global education and home economics educa-
tion must be done carefully and cautiously and under-
taken for the right reasons. We must not be just jumping
on the bandwagon or as Popkewitz (1980) states,
adopting a "slogan system". A well thought out and
ethically defensible rationale is imperative. Some
argue that home economics ought to stay at home in its
focus rather than become another social studies by fo-
cussing on global concerns. An appropriate rationale
will need to retain the centrality of families while
placing them clearly in the reality of a global society.
Preparing teachers to teach from a global
perspective is also important. The role of the teacher
in a program which encourages problem posing,
perspective taking, problem solving, and critical
thinking is quite different from a program which is
essentially information giving or training. Developing
curricula which supports global home economics
education becomes a major requirement. These are the
challenges facing home economics educators as we take
our part in a global society.
A Curriculum Analysis Checklist
This checklist is a self-analysis device for home
economics teachers.1 The intention is to stimulate
thought and discussion about the ways global education
is or can be a part of home economics curricula. In re-
sponse to the following sixteen items, circle either YES
or NO. There is no right or wrong response for each
item, rather implication responses are offered as a way
of stimulating thought about global education. If
possible, we recommend discussing the implication re-
sponses with other teaching colleagues.
1. Do the goals or rationale for your program include
the need to educate young people for living in an
interdependent world?
YES NO
ILUNOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1 989 35
2. Does your program encourage understanding of the
various cultural groups within Canadian society?
YES NO
3. Are differences and similarities of peoples of the
world a part of the teaching/learning activities in
your classes?
YES NO
4. Are problems of housing, child care, and food sup-
ply studied in relation to the stage of economic de-
velopment of various countries?
YES NO
13. Do students propose, analyse and /or evaluate solu-
tions to global problems?
YES NO
14. Do you encourage students to take action directed at
improving or solving global problems?
YES NO
15. Do you promote and model conservation and sound
ecological practices in your classroom, for example,
avoidance of waste, limiting the use of plastics,
and recycling?
YES NO
5. When a technique is taught, for example bread
making, is it used as a way to examine the global
practice of the provision of bread?
YES NO
6. Do you teach about problems such as malnutrition,
sanitation, and poverty in Canada and the world?
YES NO
7. Do you teach about policies and regulations on food
and clothing production in your province or Canada
but not in other countries?
YES NO
8. When teaching about peoples and problems of
various countries, do you begin with activities
which foster empathy and identification with the
people of the other country?
YES NO
9. When teaching global issues, is the issue considered
from the perspective of the experiences and conse-
quences of various people within each country?
YES NO
10. Does your home economics program explore the in-
ternational linkages in your own community, for
example, Red Cross, Amnesty International, Ox-
fam, etc.?
YES NO
11. When examining traditions, policies and problems
of various countries, do you emphasize their
consequences on individuals and families?
YES NO
12. In teaching about global problems, is an emphasis
placed on the complexity and difficulty of the
problem?
YES NO
16. Do you emphasize knowledge of facts rather than
problem solving/critical thinking?
YES NO
IMPLICATION RESPONSES
1. If NO, you may be preparing students for a future in
which they will lack the global understandings
necessary to solve larger global issues of interde-
pendence - trade, economics, peace, pollution con-
trol, human health, and well-being. If YES, global
education is more likely an explicit goal apparent I
to students, parents and administrators as well. If
it is a stated goal, is it a goal for all areas of home
economics, not only foods and nutrition, but also
clothing and textiles, and family studies?
2. If YES, you are fostering multicultural education I
which can be a part of and a first step toward I
global education. If NO, you may be missing an op-
portunity to understand global issues through ex-
ploring local connections.
3. If YES, you are likely encouraging students to ap-
preciate the common-ness along with the unique-
ness of all peoples. If NO, an emphasis on
similarities will mask some of the real differences
of peoples which are influenced by various cultural
and national features. An emphasis on differences
risks portraying others as strange and different in a
negative way.
4. If YES, you are helping students to understand the
relationship between the larger economy of country
and the daily living practices of families and the
various forms this relationship takes in countries at
different stages of economic development. If NO,
you may be emphasizing global polarity which as-
sociates different practices and values with devel-
oped and developing countries.
!
36 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1989
5. If YES, you are helping students to understand hu-
man resourcefulness in the meeting of basic needs,
and the source of different food traditions. If NO,
you are missing an opportunity to move beyond skill
development to emphasize the relationship be-
tween daily living practices and resource avail-
ability and use.
6. If YES, you have the opportunity to explore with
students how these problems may have similar,
different or contradictory causes around the world.
If NO, and these problems are studied only in coun-
tries other than Canada, you will convey that
these problems do not occur in Canada and foster
the idea of Western superiority.
7. If YES, your program may be setting advocacy and
promotion of local industries ahead of understand-
ing the interrelationships and interdependence in
global trade and production. If NO, and your
teaching includes global trade and production of
materials necessary for living, you have an excel-
lent opportunity to foster an understanding of global
interdependence.
3. If NO, you are missing the opportunity for students
to understand through experiencing and feeling how
other people may feel or think given a set of
conditions or circumstances of daily living. If YES,
you are using an approach effective for countering
the we/ they dichotomy in our thinking which
emphasizes differences and objectifies peoples
different from ourselves.
). If YES, students will see that there are many dif-
ferences and similarities among peoples in a country
as there are between countries. If NO, you may be
emphasizing stereotypical and universal experi-
ences within a country. Problems should be studied
with sensitivity to the different perspectives of
various classes; men, women, and children, rural
and urban families within various countries.
0. If YES, you are encouraging students to see the pos-
sibility of "thinking globally/acting locally". If
NO, you are missing an opportunity to help students
understand a range of responses individuals can
make to global problems both locally and in inter-
national agencies.
If NO, students may be unclear as to why global
education should be a part of home economics and
see little difference from what they learn in other
courses. If YES, you are supporting other educators
working for a global education and developing the
unique focus of home economics on the individual
and families.
12. If YES, this may create feelings of helplessness,
despair or guilt which can evoke from students a
resistance to caring and being interested in others'
problems. If NO, you may be emphasizing the
human story, for as complex and difficult as some
global problems are, they are also stories of human
resilience, resourcefulness, cooperation, and caring.
Thus, the daily living of the conditions and
consequences is also a source of human hope.
13. If YES, you are likely helping students to see that
conditions can be changed and helping them to feel
empowered to act in contributing to appropriate so-
lutions. If NO, students may feel helplessness and
despair as mentioned above.
14. If YES, you are encouraging students to act according
to their commitments and beliefs and to realize
that they can make a difference. If NO, again,
students may feel overwhelming despair as noted in
12 and 13 above.
15. If NO, you are missing an opportunity to model
global responsibility in a small way and risk losing
credibility with your students. If YES, you are
modeling small globally responsible actions which
we all can do daily.
16. If YES, you may feel a lack of information and un-
ease in teaching global issues and topics. If NO,
you may find problem solving and critical thinking
approaches lend themselves more easily to entering
into cooperative and joint learning approaches (e.g.
simulations, group discussion, and research) with
your students on issues of global concern. It is usu-
ally necessary to go beyond consideration of facts in
teaching global issues.
NOTES
1. In developing this checklist, we acknowledge the
use of an earlier one by Dena G. Stoner and T. Elaine
Staaland (1978) Creating a Family Focused Cur-
riculum, Illinois Teacher of Home Economics, 22(2),
107-111.
This checklist was developed as part of the Re-
search and Development in Global Studies Project,
Centre for the Study of Curriculum and Instruction,
University of British Columbia. The project is
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1989 37
funded by the Public Participation Program, Cana-
dian International Development Agency.
REFERENCES
Anderson, L. F. (1982). Why should American educa-
tion be globalized? It's a nonsensical question.
Theory into Practice. 22(2), 155-161.
Becker, J. M. (1979) (Ed.). Schooling for a global age.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
Brown, M., & Paolucci, B. (1979). Home economics: A
definition. Washington, D.C.: American Home
Economics Association.
Brown, M. (1980). What is home economics education?
Minnesota Research and Development Center for
Vocation Education. Minneapolis, MN: University
of Minnesota.
Charmer, S. (1987). World Home Economics Day: An
Effective Teaching Strategy. Illinois Teacher,
32(2), 78, 82.
Daniels, L. (1983). Review of Development education:
The 20th century survival and fulfillment skill.
Canadian and International Education. 22(3) 199-
204.
Hanvey, R. (1976). An attainable global perspective.
New York: Global Perspectives in Education.
Joyce, B. R., & Nicholson, A. M. (1979). Imperatives
for global education. In J.M. Becker (Ed.), Schooling
for a Global Age. (pp. 95-110). New York: McGraw-
Hill.
Kniep, W. (1986). Defining global education by its
content. Social education. 50(6), 437-446.
Montgomery, W. et al. (1987, Spring). Global
connections: Linking third world concerns with
American teens through the home economics
classroom. Journal of Home Economics, 79.
Popkiewitz, T. (1980). Global education as a slogan
system. Curriculum Inquiry. 20(3), 303-316.
• • •
We women have often said we are politicians because it
has been shown to us that we cannot do our duty either
to our own homes or to our country without being so . . .
[Some critics thought politics 'degrading' but they]
must be faced out. The criticism comes from (1) a very
partial view of what a woman's life should be and (2) a
low estimate of politics . . .
(Lady Aberdeen in French, 1988, p. 85)
(Pain, Continued from page 21.)
varies. Three titles are in use: family studies, horr
economics, and/or consumer studies. In a country s
regionally diverse and large as Canada, period!
reviews of educational programs have a purpose i
showing similarities and differences. They raise th
question of whether the programs best serve the guidin
definitions of the field. There is a need for furthe
communication on many issues emerging from thi
review, and an opportunity for leadership from th
profession in establishing guidelines and influencing
policy.
References
Canadian Home Economics Association (1984)
Rapport, September, 2.
Canadian Home Economics Association (1985). Home
economics/family studies education in
Canadian Sshools. Canadian Home Economics
Journal, 35(2), 116-119.
Feniak, E. (1979). Home economics in Canadian
universities, 1978. Journal of Consumer Studies
and Home Economics, 3, 71-78.
Peterat, L. (1984). Home economics, a survey of h
provincial curricula at secondary level,
(unpublished report) Fredericton, New
Brunswick: University of New Brunswick,
Faculty of Education.
Peterat, L. (1985). Home economics education in
secondary schools. Canadian Home Economics
Journal, 34(2), 80-83.
Peterat, L., & Pain, B. (1989). Directory of home
economics/family studies teacher education
programs in Canada. (Available from Dr. L. B.
Peterat, Faculty of Education, University of
British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C., V6T 1Z5
and Dr. B. J. Pain, College of Education,
University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, •
S7N OWO)
Rowles, E., (1958). Are our universities and colleges
offering adequate programs in home economics?
Canadian Home Economics Journal, 8(4), 9-10;
21.
Rowles, E., (1964). Home economics in Canada, the
early history of six college programs: Prologue
to change. Saskatoon, SK: University of
Saskatchewan Bookstore.
• • •
38 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1989
*
BOOK REVIEWS
Mnda Eyre
"•octoral Student
acuity of Education
he University of British Columbia
jtderson, K. L., Armstrong, H., Armstrong, P., Drakich,
J., Eichler, M., Guberman, C, Hayford, H., Luxton,
M., Peters, J. F., Porter, E., Richardson, C. J., & Tes-
son, G. (1987). Family matters: Sociology and con-
temporary Canadian families. Toronto; New York:
Methuen.
landell, N. & Duffy, A. (Eds.) (1988). Reconstructing
the Canadian Family: Feminist Perspectives.
Toronto; Seattle: Butterworths.
IcLaren, A. T. (Ed.) (1988). Gender and society:
Creating a Canadian women's sociology. Toronto;
New York: Copp Clark Pitman.
These books were chosen because each provides a
ender sensitive and gender balanced approach to fam-
ly related concerns (see Eyre this issue). Each book
learly identifies female and male perspectives on the
amily, and each raises questions about traditional pa-
riarchal interpretations of family living. These books
an help us examine the ways we have traditionally
tudied families, and help increase our understanding
bout the reality of people's lives. I highly recommend
ach book as a teacher reference.
Family Matters challenges prevailing ideologies
bout families. Having defined clearly the concepts of
amily and household, and explored the various
onceptual frameworks for studying families, this book
>rings together several articles about specific issues
vhich concern family living. Issues such as those
vhich surround families and social policy, the rela-
ionship between work in and outside of the home, di-
vorce, and violence against women, are critically ex-
plored. The authors show how family law and social
>olicy are based on ideological notions about family
iving and are justified through functionalist theories.
U the same time the authors show that the notion of a
raditional family is inaccurate - since historically, it
\as never represented everyone. The authors expose
differences among families and link these to larger
brces in society. This book is written clearly and
ivoids technical language. As well as being highly
ecommended as a teacher reference Family Matters
ivould also be suitable for senior high school students.
Reconstructing the Canadian Family provides cur-
■ent information about women's issues in the Canadian
family, and challenges gender inequalities in the fam-
ily and in society. The authors take apart our tradi-
tional masculine notions about family living and recon-
structs them from a gender sensitive and gender bal-
anced perspective. The editor's stated goal is to work
toward egalitarian rather than patriarchal relations
in family living. The book is divided into three sec-
tions. Part One examines the roles of women, wives,
and mothers; men, husbands, and fathers; and children,
from an historical and critical perspective. Part Two
provides an historical overview of demographic
changes in family patterns, and feminist critique of
family power relations between women and men. Part
Three addresses the impact of the political economy on
families, and on women in particular. Questions are
also raised about the new reproductive technologies, as
well as state legislation, and the impact of each on
women and families. Throughout, the diversity of
women's lives in families is evident; as is the changing
historical context of the family. A strength of the book
is that it is based on the daily realities of women's
lives as family members; a perspective which is often
missing from texts on the family.
In Gender and Society Arlene McLaren sets out to
fill the gap in traditional male biased sociology texts,
by providing a feminist sociological perspective of
women in Canada. Of particular interest to home
economists in education are articles which explore the
relationship between women, men, families, the work-
place, and the state. For example, the book includes
articles which provide: a social and political analysis
of childbirth; an understanding of how the state
maintains patriarchal relations in families through
welfare legislation; and an exploration of female and
male high school students' understandings of their fu-
ture occupational and familial roles. Articles about
more specific family concerns explode our historical
middle class, heterosexual, and patriarchal under-
standings of family life and motherhood, and include:
family demographic patterns of women in Canada from
an historical perspective; an explanation of women's
response to being battered; child custody and lesbian
mothers; and the impact of new reproductive technolo-
gies. Other articles specifically useful for home eco-
nomics include: an examination of sex segregation in
Canadian women's employment; an evaluation of solu-
tions to sexual harassment in the workplace; an exami-
nation of resistance to midwives by the state and the
medical profession; and feminist critique of approaches
to pornography and sexuality issues. • • •
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1989 39
BOOK REVIEWS
Linda Peterat, Assistant Professor
Home Economics Education
Faculty of Education
University of British Columbia
Vancouver, B.C.
Chown, Alice (1988). The Stairway. Toronto:
University of Toronto Press. (63A St. George Street,
Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A6).
For those of us who have sought out and delighted
in the reading of the The Stairway, first published in
1921, this re-issue is a welcome addition to
feminist/home economics literature. Diana Chown, a
great-great niece of Alice, provides an excellent
introduction, clarifying names of people and places
given pseudonyms in the original text, and the
dominant philosophies and social ideas influencing
Alice Chown (1866-1949).
The Stairway is the reflective journal writings of
Chown from 1906-1919. In the introduction, Diana
Chown aptly describes the book as:
The story of a single, middle-aged Canadian
woman who was a radical intellectual during
the first quarter of the twentieth century. It not
only relates the tale of her work and
achievements but also reveals the problems she
sometimes encountered - loneliness, rejection,
semi-poverty, and illness. To portray herself as
lonely and rejected was not, of course, Alice
Chown's intention. She hoped that she could
reach others, particularly women, with a
message of love, empowerment, and truth to one-
self by telling her own story from a particular
point of view (p. xi).
Chown is well known for her contribution at four of
the Lake Placid Conferences. College educated, her
ideas of home economics contrasted sharply with
Adelaide Hoodless'. Shunning institutions, her
interests and activities ranged beyond home economics.
Diana Chown describes her diverse career as:
"feminist, suffragist, pacifist, settlement worker,
writer, home economics advocate, journalist,
labour/activist, labour college teacher, and peace
activist" (p. vi-vii).
40 ILLINOIS TEACHER,September, October, 1989
The Stairway offers a rare portrayal of thi
personal and intellectual life of a turn-of-the-centun
woman. Recommended reading.
MacDonald, Cheryl (1986). Adelaide Hoodless,
domestic crusader. Toronto: Dundurn Press. (2181 Queen
Street East, Suite 301, Toronto, Ontario M4E 1E5).
Relying primarily on the Hoodless family papers
bequeathed to the University of Guelph in 1966, Mac-
Donald offers the first book length biography of
Adelaide Hoodless (1857-1910). Hoodless is the
woman most often credited with leading the struggle to
have domestic science introduced into the public schools
in Canada. After attending the International Congress
of Women at the Chicago World's Fair in 1893 until her
death, this was her driving goal. As well, Hoodless,
had an active role in establishing other women's
organizations of the time: the Victorian Order of
Nurses, the Women's Institutes, the Young Women's
Christian Association, and the National and
International Councils of Women.
While Hoodless has been widely written about and
criticized in recent years by feminists and educators,
MacDonald presents a sympathetic portrayal. She
offers little analysis and interpretation of the
character, and doesn't develop any particular or
explanatory story-line on her life. She offers some
details of Hoodless' family and personal life. She
offers some insight to the relationship between
Hoodless' and other early home economists, suggesting
that Hoodless' lack of college education was a barrier
to her continuing leadership among home economists
and educators as the subject became established in
education. Much detail is offered on Hoodless' struggle
in her home city of Hamilton to have domestic science
taught in the schools.
MacDonald offers a useful book for those interested
in the founders of home economics in Canada. Its
weaknesses are the somewhat narrow scope of research
on which it is based, the often confusing sequence of
events and detail offered, and the almost too
sympathetic treatment of the character which left me
feeling I still didn't know this woman very well.
(Continued on page 33.)
i
PUBLICATION
GUIDELINES
1. Articles, lesson plans, teaching techniques are welcome.
2. Submit two double spaced, typewritten copies. For computer
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3. Include any visual aids or photographs which relate to the content
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4. Include a small black and white photo of the author, as well as cur-
rent professional position, location, and title.
5. Document your references using APA style.
6. Submit articles anytime.
7. Editorial staff make the final decision about publication.
8. Please forward articles to:
Illinois Teacher
352 Education Building
1310 South Sixth Street
University of Illinois
Champaign, Illinois 61820
Send for: "Information for Prospective Authors"
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f \y ' VOLUME XXXIII, No. 2
November/December, 1989
ILLINOIS TEACHER
j\
Foreword, Mildred Barnes Griggs 41
Strengthening Single-Parent Families, Beverly Uhlenberg 42
Implementation of the Components Needed for a Teenage-Parent Program,
Barbara J. Mitchell 45
LIFESPAN: Experiential Learning About Family Development,
Benjamin Sillitnan 48
Family Life: Using Premarital Agreements as a Teaching Tool, Tommie Lawhon 50
Teaching Survival Techniques in A Changing World, Irene Storrer 54
Content Analysis as an Innovative Teaching Technique for Home Economists,
Paula W. Dail 56
Building Self-Esteem in Middle School Students Through Home Economics
and Industrial Technology, Marguerite Mellin and Beverly Forbes 61
SUPERMARKET SAFARI, Tracking Down Good Nutrition in the Grocery Store,
Darlene Gubser and Barbara A. Holt 64
Marketing Home Economics: Let's Stop Assuming and Start Selling,
Machelle Bonde 65
Inductive Teaching: A Strategy to Teach Housing Concepts,
Deborah G. Wooldridge, Marge Sebelius, and Susan Ross 68
The Issue of Curriculum Change in Clothing Studies, Susan G. Turnbull 72
Suggestions for Extension Home Economists Programming At Congregate
Nutrition Sites, Janette K. Newhouse 76
Philosophy Narrative, Judith T. Tebo 79
Book Reviews, Joseph L. Wysocki 80
Illinois Teacher of Home Economics
ISSN 0739-148X
A publication of the Division of Home Economics Education,
Department of Vocational and Technical Education,
College of Education, University of Illinois,
Champaign, Illinois 61820
Illinois Teacher Staff
Mildred Griggs, Professor and Editor
Norma Huls, Office Manager
June Chambliss, Technical Director
Linda Simpson, Graduate Assistant and Ph..D. Candidate
Sally Rousey, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Other Home Economics Education Division Staff and Graduate Students
Catherine Burnham, Graduate Assistant and Ed.D. Candidate
Alison Vincent, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Vida U. Revilla, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Volume XXXIII, No. 2, November /December, 1989. Published
five times each academic year. Subscriptions $15.00 per year.
Foreign, including Canada, $18.00 per year. Special $10.00 per
year ($12.00 Foreign) for undergraduate and graduate students
when ordering by teacher educator on forms available from
Illinois Teacher office. Single copies $3.50. Foreign $4.00. All
checks from outside the U.S. must be payable through a U.S.
bank.
Address: ILLINOIS TEACHER
University of Illinois
352 Education Building
1310 S. Sixth Street
Champaign, IL 61820
Telephone: 217/244-0820
©1989
FOREWORD
Welcome to Volume XXXIII and to a new academic year. I recognize that
this is the second issue of the current volume, however, the first one was
guest edited and the greetings came from the guest editors. We at Illinois
Teacher hope you enjoyed that issue written by our neighbors to the north
about home economics in Canada.
Our focus this year is on curriculum more specifically we have
encouraged authors to give recommendations about content and rationales
for it. We encourage you to take a critical look at what you are teaching, how
you are teaching and why you are teaching it. Are your reasons satisfactory,
do they stand up under your reflective scrutiny?
This issue contains suggestions for content in several areas, a few teaching
techniques, things to reflect on and career advice. We hope you will find it all
helpful.
We had a staff change in August. Annabelle Slocum left to take a position
at University of Western Ontario in London, Ontario, Canada. Best wishes to
Annabelle.
Readers, please let us hear from you. We value your input.
Mildred Barnes Griggs
Editor
ILLINOIS TEACHER, November /December, 1989 41
Strengthening Single-Parent Families
'
Beverly Uhlenberg
Assistant Professor of
Home Economics
Department of Home Economics
and Nutrition
University of North Dakota
Grand Forks, ND
I
Families have been a strong, healthy, and re-
silient basis of our society for centuries. They have sur-
vived because of the ability to change to meet the needs
of individuals and society. It is through the family
that the race is continued through new births. Chil-
dren are socialized, economic support is provided, and
individuals receive emotional support, intimacy, and
love (Winch, 1971). Home economists have long recog-
nized the importance of strong families to our society.
In fact, the purpose of the American Home Economics
Association, as stated on the contents page of each issue
of the Journal of Home Economics, is to improve the
quality and standards of individual and family life.
It is important both for our society as a whole and
for each individual family member that the home en-
vironment be a healthy one for both children and
adults. At present, many single-parent families are ex-
periencing more problems than are two-parent families.
Too little money to provide a healthy environment is a
major problem for many single-parent families, but the
poorest are the never-married. Never-married parents
tend to have the least education, the fewest job skills
and the highest rate of unemployment (Displaced
Homemakers Network, 1987). Divorced females
experience dramatic reductions in their standard of
living following a divorce and an increase in family
responsibilities. These experiences often cause feelings
of anger, resentment and guilt. Low self-esteem is
reported by both types of single parents (Weiss, 1979).
Of the many types of families in the United States
today it is the single-parent family that is increasing
in numbers most rapidly. In 1986, 24 percent of children
under 18 years of age were living with a lone parent
(Glick, 1988). Approximately one-half of all single-
parent families are headed by the never-married,
however (Norton & Glick, 1986). Ninety percent of
single-parent families are headed by females.
42 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1989
Classes for Single Parents
One of the ways of assisting single parents to im-
prove the home environment is by offering classes ir
self-help skills. Data from a study of single parents ir
North Dakota in 1986 (Uhlenberg & Estrem, 1988]
revealed that single parents were very interested in
learning self-help skills. They were particularly '
interested in developing high self-esteem, managing ,
stress, developing personal relationship skills, and .
learning parenting skills. They also were quite
interested in learning about money management, health!
and wellness, home and time management, and meal
management.
It is important to schedule these classes at a con-
venient time for single parents. Daytime hours might
be good for the young, never-married parents, but those
who are employed may find lunch hour classes more
convenient. Classes could be held over the dinner hour
if brown bag meals were provided. Evening classes
could be held if child care were provided. In some
communities the child care could be provided by
students who need experiences planning children's
activities and evaluating their effectiveness. Plans
which provide enrichment activities for children
while parents are learning self-help skills can be
particularly effective for the entire family.
Characteristics of the Curriculum
Cary Estrem and I developed a curriculum guide
(Uhlenberg & Estrem, 1988) to be used in classes where
self-help skills are taught. Because single parents dif-
fer from each other in age, level of education, socio-eco-
nomic background, ages and number of children, and
personal motivation, we attempted to develop materi-
als that would meet the needs of this diverse group.
Some of the characteristics of the curriculum are:
1. Non-sexist. The curriculum is written using gender
neutral language. The subject matter is applicable
to both men and women.
2. Low reading level. Parents of all educational
backgrounds can benefit from the handouts and ac-
tivities.
3. Activity oriented. The many activities enable
single parents to practice the life skills they wish
to learn.
• •
it.
W
Topics were chosen by single parents. Information
and skills that single parents indicate a desire to
learn are arranged in five units: self-esteem and
assertiveness; managing stress; raising happy,
healthy children; managing money matters; and
food for healthy families.
May be used with individuals or groups. A group
setting offers the advantages of support from oth-
ers and the sharing of ideas, which often results in
better decision-making. However, the materials
may be used with individuals, also.
Requires little preparation by the leader. Back-
ground information is provided for each topic and
complete instructions are given for each activity.
Activity sheets are ready to be reproduced for
each student.
Can be adapted to different time frames. The
leader and students select the activities so it is
easy to adapt to various class schedules.
v Teaching Problem Solving
Problem solving and decision making are impor-
:ant life skills taught by this curriculum. These skills
are essential for effective management of one's life.
Problems are a fact of life, a daily occurrence experi-
enced by everyone. The chance to solve them should be
viewed as a challenge and an opportunity to take
, charge of one's life. Opportunities to practice these
skills are provided in each of the curriculum units.
The curriculum incorporates the Practical Action
Teaching Approach (Laster, 1982). This is a model for
teaching problem solving that enables learners to solve
their own problems and to acquire new information and
skills based on their own needs. It is an individualized
teaching approach used within a group setting that
takes advantage of the pooling of ideas, experiences
and skills of the group members. Each student uses the
following four-step plan to solve problems:
1 . ZEROING IN ON THE PROBLEM
Identify my problem.
Describe how I would like my problem solved.
2. WHAT SHOULD I DO?
List many solutions to my problem.
Identify and evaluate the advantages and
disadvantages of each solution.
Choose a solution.
3. PLAN OF ACTION
Gather information and develop skills needed
to carry out my solution by:
- talking with others
- making phone calls
- reading about it
- taking a class.
List the steps I must take to solve my problem
and when I will do them.
Carry out the steps for solving my problem.
4. HOW DID IT WORK?
Ask myself:
- Has my problem been solved?
- What must I continue to do to keep my
problem under control?
- What else could I do to solve my problem?
A single parent might be experiencing the follow-
ing problem. "People ask me to do more things than I
have time for. I don't know how to say no without feel-
ing guilty." The parent would like to learn how to say
no without fearing the loss of friendships or contacts.
Possible solutions would then be identified, such as to
avoid the people who ask the parent to do things. The
disadvantage of this solution is that contact with these
important people would be lost; the parent is not
willing to do this. The solution the parent chooses is to
learn how to say no without offending anyone. This
skill is learned by using the activities concerned with
"I" statements, which are included in the curriculum
guide. After using "I" statements in real situations the
parent would evaluate the effectiveness of this ap-
proach. If the solution were not effective, a new
solution would be adopted and necessary skills learned.
According to Bruffee (1987), single parents will
learn best how to create effective solutions to their
problems by working in groups. They will learn these
skills better and more quickly if they work with others
than if they practice the skills alone. Each group
member has had different experiences and is able to
evaluate the proposed solutions of others in a unique
way. The group members also provide support, which
assists the single parenting in carrying out the plan or
in persisting until the skill is learned.
There are several benefits of using the problem
solving approach described above. One important bene-
fit is that single parents will learn to solve problems
effectively and take charge of their lives. This is a
real self-esteem builder because being able to do what
is needed or expected is a very important part of self-
evaluation. Being able to solve problems effectively
reduces stress, which is another skill single parents
wanted to learn. Being a good problem solver prevents
additional problems, so life is easier to manage. It
enables persons to outgrow their need for helpers
because they become more independent as they become
more able.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1989 43
A second advantage of using the problem solving
approach is that the single parents will learn informa-
tion and skills that they can apply immediately to
their lives. They will be more effective family
managers which will be beneficial both them and their
children.
A third advantage comes from the opportunity to
learn in groups. The pooling of ideas, experiences and
skills can help individuals find better solutions to their
problems more quickly than by solving problems alone.
The single parents will also feel support from others.
This important social interaction is often missing from
their lives.
Class Benefits
Being a teacher of a class for single parents of any
age or either sex is a challenging task but also a very
rewarding one. These teachers have the opportunity to
do the following, plus much more:
1. Promote the development of self-confidence
in single parents.
2. Provide single parents with learning oppor-
tunities and facts.
3. Help single parents to see the available op-
tions.
4. Serve as a cheerleader as single parents are
encouraged to solve their own problems.
The focus of the class should be to strengthen
single-parent families by empowering parents to solve
their own problems. Teaching problem solving skills is
like an old Chinese proverb:
Give people fish, and you feed them for a
day. Teach people to fish, and you feed them
for a lifetime.
Our updated version is:
Solve parents' problems, and you prepare
them for the day. Teach parents problem
solving skills and you prepare them for a
lifetime.
References
Bruffee, K. A. (1987). The art of collaborative learning.
Change, (March/April), 42-47.
Displaced Homemakers Network. (1987). A status re-
port on displaced homemakers and single parents
in the United States. Washington, DC: Author.
Glick, P. C. (1988). Fifty years of family demography:
A record of social change. Journal of Marriage and
the Family, 50(4), 861-873.
Laster, J. F. (1982). A practical action teaching model.
Journal of Home Economics, 74(3), 41-44.
Norton, A. J., & Glick, P. C. (1986). One parent fami-
lies: A social and economic profile. Family Rela-
tions, 35(1), 9-17.
Uhlenberg, B. M., & Estrem, C. E. (1988). Life skills for
single parents: A curriculum guide. Grand Forks,
ND: University of North Dakota Bureau of Educa-
tional Services and Applied Research.
Weiss, R. S. (1979). Going it alone. New York: Basic
Books, Inc.
Winch, R. F. (1971). The modern family (3rd ed.). New
York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. • • •
"
To obtain a copy of the Life Skill For Single Parents
Curriculum send a $15.00 check or money order for each
copy to:
The Bureau of Educational Services
and Applied Research
Box 8158 University Station
University of North Dakota
Grand Forks, ND 58202-8158
People and Practice:
International Issues for Home Economists
People and Practice is a new publication that is
intended to promote dialogue about the issues facing
home economics in the contemporary world. The
booklets come in a brief, easily read form providing a
philosophical and theoretical base followed by some
examples of the use of the ideas in practice at various
levels and in different world settings. They are
designed for practicing professionals and professional
associations.
Please direct subscriptions and any enquiries to:
Dr. Eleanore Vaines
School of Family and Nutritional Sciences
2205 East Mall
University of British Columbia
Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
V6T-1W5
44 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1989
Implementation of the Components
Needed for A Teenage-Parent
Program
Barbara J. Mitchell
Home Economics Teacher
Staunton River Annex
Moneta, VA
Teen pregnancy is a problem that is not going
away. There is really no single or simple solution to
the problem of "children bearing children" in commu-
nities all over the country. "People — administrators,
home economists, church and community leaders, and
teens — are recognizing that something has to be done"
(Babies can wait, 1987). Due to the dramatic change
in our societal norms, there is less stigma attached to
being an unwed mother today. Teen pregnancy is an
epidemic social problem that affects all socio-eco-
nomic and intellectual levels, all races and all reli-
gious affiliations. It is a serious national problem
that affects all of our lives (Bleyer, 1986).
Over one million teenagers become pregnant annu-
ally in the United States. What happens to these one
million plus teens? A majority, about 80 percent, drop
out of school. The long term social, economic and
health costs associated with school-age pregnancy
are immeasurable. Congress acknowledged the prob-
lem of single parents, including teenagers, and pro-
vided funds for programs for them in the Carl D.
Perkins Act (Kister, 1987).
How to educate our nation's teens on the risks and
long-term effects of teen pregnancy is an ongoing de-
bate among Americans. Many programs have been ini-
tiated by state and federal agencies as well as by
schools, and community and church groups to address
the problem of teen pregnancy. Although some recent
efforts have been made to incorporate sexuality edu-
cation for young men, the majority of programs are
still aimed at reaching the female population.
Groups attempting to address the issue of teen preg-
nancy agree that networking of churches, schools,
parents and the media is necessary (Pecoraro, Ro-
bichaus, and Theriot, 1987).
Secondary school personnel have the opportunity
to provide leadership to the effort to coordinate par-
enthood education. Schools are the logical place to
reach the majority of teens. Cooperation with health
department, hospital, and community agency spon-
sored programs can be used to further enhance school
programs. Parenthood education should provide
teenagers with a foundation upon which to make deci-
sions regarding parenthood, and the knowledge and
skills to perform parental responsibilities effectively.
This paper addresses major components that need to be
included in a teenage-parent program within the
home economics curriculum.
Advisory Committee
An advisory committee is a group of individuals
selected from community, business, education, and lay
citizen sources that can become a critical component for
a successful parenting program. In the initial stages of
the development of a program, the committee can use
its well-defined goals to engender community support
for it. As the program matures, continued support of
the advisory committee plays a critical role. This
committee works with the home economics teacher(s)
to bring community attitudes and beliefs as well as
knowledge into the school as a basis for planning,
evaluating and vitalizing the program (Wiley, 1983).
This committee can help facilitate needs assessment
by designing and administering a questionnaire to
"key informants" in the community.
Needs Assessment
A well-planned needs assessment can serve as a
useful guide to identify, prioritize, and implement
programs (Chandler, 1985). Needs assessment data
can be used to identify an emerging clientele, aid in
developing the instructional model, and justify imple-
mentation of the program components. This process
should be coordinated by the advisory committee that
can be responsible for collecting and tabulating the
data.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1989 45
Program Goals and Objectives
Once the need for a community program has been
determined and support from school officials has been
established, the next step is the development of goals
and objectives consistent with the philosophy of the
school and the cooperating agencies. "The program
needs to help teens understand themselves and build
decision making skills" (Kenny, 1987). An overall
goal for the program would be assisting students to
complete their high school education while giving
priority to their parenting-education needs. Receiv-
ing credit while attending the program may be an
incentive to stay in school. The high school diploma
will prove to be an important credential for obtaining
employment or postsecondary education.
Program Location
A school based program can include appropriate
vocational training, academic and home economics
classes. It can also help the teenage parent move
through this potentially difficult period of trying to
become a good parent and lead a productive life.
A program that draws upon the resources of a
school, various agencies, and community organizations
may provide more stability and a better support
system than could be provided if they worked inde-
pendently to meet the teen-parent's special needs. In
urban areas, the number of eligible students in one
school may be sufficient to constitute the total enroll-
ment. In small communities, a unified program for
several schools can bring all pregnant teens and teen-
parents in the area to a vocational school, alternative
school or career center site.
Program Funding
The Carl D. Perkins Vocational Education Act of
1984 (Public Law 98-524) requires that each state use
Title III, Part B to:
make grants to States to assist them in con-
ducting consumer and homemaking education
programs. Such programs may include (1) in-
structional programs, services and activities
that prepare youth and adults for the occupa-
tion of homemaking, and (2) instruction in the
areas of food and nutrition, consumer educa-
tion, family living and parenthood education,
child development and guidance, housing, and
home management (including resource man-
agement), and clothing and textiles.
In addition to federal funding, grants for a
teenage-parent program are becoming available in
many states. Drawing upon support services within
the total community can ensure greater quality and ef-
fectiveness than could be generated by the school
working alone. Home economics teachers should make
a concerted effort to apply for these grants. Funding
needs to be acquired for salaries, contractual services,
equipment and supplies, travel, textbooks, audio-
visual aids, resource materials, other related
expenses, and indirect costs. Consideration needs to be
given as well for child care services related to the
program, as many social services now include such
payments.
Program Coordinator
An important component of the program's success is
the program coordinator. This individual should be a
certified home economics teacher who is well quali-
fied in child-care education, counseling, and adminis-
tration. The coordinator needs to be a caring, sensitive
person and responsive to student needs. This person
also needs good communication skills in order to repre-
sent the program well to school boards, community
agencies, and other groups. It is important that the
coordinator be secure in his/her own life and have
several years of successful teaching experience that
will provide expertise in curriculum planning and co-
ordination.
Program Curriculum Units
A vital part of the teen-parent program is the cur-
riculum. A curriculum that includes a two-prong,
proactive and reactive approach is best. The proac-
tive curriculum provides students with the knowledge
and skills necessary to become contributing members of
the family and society. The reactive curriculum is de-
signed to deal with special needs of the students.
"Each unit should be competency based so that the
attitudes, behavior, skill or understanding can be
demonstrated by the student at a specific performance
level" (AHEA, 1987). Topics that need to be included
in a parenting program are: (1) value clarification, (2)
self-esteem, (3) problem-solving techniques, (4) money
management, (5) nutrition, (6) health care, (7) human
sexuality, (8) responsibilities involved in being a par-
ent, (9) child development, and (10) career planning.
These ten areas may be augmented if the needs assess-
ment shows that other content is needed.
The program should provide skills for employ-
ment and /or further postsecondary study. In addition
to providing "hands on" experiences with their own
babies or children, the program needs to provide pre-
natal and postnatal care, education and counseling,
46 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November /December, 1989
family planning information for the father and moth-
ers when possible.
Child Care Services
To receive "hands on" experience a day care center
becomes an essential component of the program. Each
i teenage parent would be expected to participate in the
day care center for a required number of hours each
month. Participation helps students learn the
tremendous responsibility and skills of group child
care and the extra effort needed to bring the baby to
school each day. On-site services can enable the
mother to continue her education. Adolescent mothers
are more likely to take advantage of these services
when they are readily available and built into an ed-
ucational and support system (Holman & Arcus, 1987).
Networking Services
A number of successful teenage parent
programs provide support and referral
through the development of linkages among
community agencies. These agencies include
those that offer legal advice, health care,
emergency funds, shelter and protection,
substance abuse counseling and housing.
Information about each "networking" service
should include facts about the resources they
offer and their availability (Burge, 1987).
The practical experience the teen-parents gain by
visiting resource sites such as the health department,
extension office, police department, hospital, and li-
brary, can help them overcome their fears and learn
about the services available to them and how to take
advantage of them (Langone, 1986).
Most programs refer mothers to other social agen-
cies within the community for specialized services on
a basis of individual need (e.g., intensive social
casework assistance). Some programs provide medical
and nursing staff to give prenatal care to the students
in the school classroom while other programs have
arranged for the student to receive this care at a des-
ignated clinic time (Wiley, 1983).
Evaluation
Evaluation is an important component of any pro-
gram. A well-thought-out evaluation plan can iden-
tify accomplishments, illustrate strengths and weak-
nesses, and provide data to be used for upgrading and
' revising the program. Publication of the evaluation
results can also keep the community informed concern-
ing the benefits and impact of this teenage-parent
program (Young, 1985). The merit of the program for
individual students will be documented by the number
of students who complete the program with proven
curriculum competency.
Job Placement/Follow-Up Services
Some form of follow-up is important to the success
of the program. Past experiences with various pro-
grams have shown that when a program loses contact
with the student after her baby is born or the student
graduates from high school, some of the gains made
during the student's participation in the program are
lost. Although the limitations of staffing sometimes
can prohibit a full fledged follow-up program, an
"advocate" can be an effective follow-up for a pro-
gram. The "advocate" must be a designated person
who can be available to the teen-parent when a crisis
occurs. This might be a counselor, nurse, teacher, pro-
gram coordinator, or an aide (Wiley, 1983).
The vocational guidance counselor or the voca-
tional teacher could help with job placement for stu-
dents who had vocational training during the pro-
gram. Here again the "networking" with local com-
munity services that have been involved with the
program will be an asset in job placement. According
to Burge (1987), "Community colleges provide another
source for opportunities for furthering career education
and vocational training for teenage parents."
Summary
"Babies don't come with directions. They grow
through love and understanding, guidance and pa-
tience, knowledge and skills that can be learned"
(AHEA, 1987). Home economists must continue to ad-
dress this national crisis, and communicate to the pub-
lic and our decision makers the important role of home
economists and home economics programs (AHEA,
1987).
The strength of the teenage-parent program lies in
its cooperative nature and the integration of services
from several different agencies which serve teenage
mothers and their children. Promoting the much
needed teenage-parent education program is where
home economists can have a great impact. "Every
community has the human and technical resources to
develop such a program, but unless some person, group,
or agency takes the initiative, the development does
not take place" (Tucker, 1987).
(Continued on page 49.)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/December, 1989 47
tt
LIFESPAN: Experiential Learning
About Family Development
Benjamin Silliman
Assistant Professor
Family and Child Studies
College of Home Economics
Louisiana Tech University
Home economics educators have traditionally
been concerned with providing active, experiential
learning experiences for students (Brown & Paolucci,
1979; Sheek, 1984). Student observation of and inter-
views with families have been used by social science
educators with positive results (Gunter, 1974). In ad-
dition to facilitating direct experience with a variety
of family lifestyles and issues, self-directed partici-
patory learning experiences help promote develop-
ment of analytical skills and intellectual autonomy
(Helm, 1987; Hultgren, 1987). Use of a wide variety of
teaching methods in the classroom accommodates a
variety of learning styles (Njus, Hughes, & Stout,
1981; Martin, 1986) and presents a model of diversity
in teaching for home economics educators-in-training.
This paper discusses a project developed at Louisiana
Tech University to promote experiential learning in
an introductory child and family development class.
Description of LIFESPAN Project
LIFESPAN is the major out-of-class project in a
sophomore level college class which examines growth
and change in individual and family life from birth to
death. At the beginning of the quarter students are
given a guide to and explanation of the project. Re-
quirements for LIFESPAN include the following se-
quence:
a ) selection of a topic of study (varied by quarter)
- stages/ types of families (newborns, preschoolers,
school-age, teenage, college-age, young adult,
middle age, older adults, ethnic families, single
parent families, blended families, families
with handicapped members);
- dimensions of family development (physical,
intellectual, emotional, social, spiritual);
- issues for families (work and family, child care,
drugs and alcohol, clothing needs, budgeting, ca-
reer development, teen pregnancy, stress and
coping, cohabitation, enriching marriage, di-
vorce, remarriage, single parenting, aging par-
ents, retirement, facing death);
b) identification of a family to interview (her/his
own or another; family can remain anonymous, but
must sign release);
c) selection and outline of a three to five page article
from a popular magazine (Time, Newsweek, U.S.
News and World Report, Psychology Today) on a
relevant suggested or self-selected topic;
d) development of ten interview questions (based on
articles read) to be the focus of investigation with
the family;
e) interview the family, including as many members
as possible and collecting slides and artifacts of
family life;
f ) write a short summary report of the interview [on
a word processor (to facilitate computer skills)],
including a description of the ecological setting
(urban/rural, housing, family health and well-
being), roles and personalities of individual fam-
ily members, and the family's responses to five to
ten of the student-generated questions (depending
on length of interview); and
g) preparation and delivery of a five-minute presen-
tation that includes a summary of the article, a
description of the family, and characteristics of
family life development.
Several insights for implementing a LIFESPAN
project have been gained through experience. First,
instructions and grading criteria need to be written out
very clearly to help focus student energies. Clear in-
structions would be even more important for imple-
menting the research/ interview assignment with
high school students. After the first term, examples
of successful projects should be available to guide con-
struction of new projects. Regular checks on progress
will reduce uncertainty and procrastination among
students. Careful class planning will insure inclusion
of everyone without missing important lecture
material. Upperclass student helpers will reduce
workload on the teacher, especially if there are more
48 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November /December, 1989
than 30 students in class. Helping with LIFESPAN
may provide these students with opportunities for
practicum experience. Finally, positive feedback, es-
pecially for the first group of presenters, serves to re-
duce anxiety and reinforce positive models for present-
ing LIFESPAN findings.
References
Brown, M., & Paolucci, B. (1979). Home economics: A
definition. Washington, DC: American Home
Economics Association.
Gunter, B. G. (1974). Using volunteer families in
teaching family sociology. The Family Coordina-
tor, 23(3), 261-268.
Helm, G. R. (1987). Relationships— Decisions
through the life-cycle: A course to stimulate
thinking skills. Illinois Teacher, 30(4), 127-128,
133.
Hultgren, F. (1987). Leaping into the neighborhood
where thinking resides. Illinois Teacher, 30(4),
147-149.
Njus, H. P., Hughes, R. P., & Stout, B. L. (1981).
Cognitive style, teaching mode, and learning
outcomes. Home Economics Research Journal, 9(4),
264-275.
Martin, R. (1986). Tools of the profession: Learning
and thinking in home economics. Illinois Teacher,
30(2), 54-56.
Sheek, G. W. (1984). A nation for families: Family
life education in public schools. Washington, DC:
American Home Economics Association, 32-36.
9{gthing maizes a person
more productive than the
tost minute —
llnkjiown
(Continued from page 47.)
References
American Home Economics Association. (1987). At is-
sue: Teen pregnancy. Journal of Home Economics,
79(2), 63-64.
Babies can wait. (1987). Forecast, 32(7), 18-19.
Bleyer, D. R. (1987). Building vocational incentives:
A prevention strategy for teenage pregnancy.
Family Life Educator, 4(4), 16-17.
Burge, P. L. (1987). Career development of single par-
ents. Columbus, OH: ERIC Clearinghouse on
Adult, Career, and Vocational Education, The
National Center for Research in Vocational Edu-
cation, p. 26.
Chandler, R. M. (1985). Needs assessment: A frame-
work for determining community needs. PACE,
#33, Blacksburg, VA: Virginia Cooperative
Extension Service, 1-4.
Holman, N., & Arcus, M. (1987). Helping adolescent
mothers and their children: An integrated multi-
agency approach. Journal of Applied Family and
Child Studies, 36(2), 119-123.
Kenny, A. M. (1987). Teen pregnancy: An issue for
schools. Phi Delta Kappan, 68(10), 728-736.
Kister, J. (1987). GRADS— A successful model for ad-
dressing the educational needs of school-age par-
ents. Tips & Topics, 27 (\), 3.
Langone, C. A. (1987). Teacher training for effective
parenting education. Tips & Topics, 27(\), 5.
Pecoraro, A. G., Robichaus, F. B., & Theriot, J. G.
(1987). Teen pregnancy: Effect on family well-be-
ing. Journal of Home Economics, 79(A), 7-10, 59.
Tucker, J. L. E. (1987). Teenage pregnancy and parent-
hood: How home economists can help. Tips &
Topics, 27(1), 2-4.
U. S. Congress. (1984). Carl D. Perkins Vocational Ed-
ucation Act. Public Law 98-524. Washington, DC:
U. S. Government Printing Office.
Wiley, C, & Border, B. (1983). Teenage parenting ed-
ucation: Program components. Nontraditional
home economics: Meeting uncommon needs with
innovative plans. Bloomington: IL: McKnight
Publishing Company, 73-85.
Young, M. (1985). Community support for family life
education. Family Life Educator, 3(4), 20-22.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, November /December, 1989 49
Family Life: Using Premarital
Agreements as a Teaching Tool
5
Tommie Lawhon, Professor
Child Development and
Family Relations
University of North Texas
Denton, TX
Home economics teachers have a vital interest in
the development of the family and are constantly
searching for new ways of guiding students so that they
can reap the greatest benefits in the future. We are in a
position to help students recognize that marriage is a
contract between two people and the state which brings
with it responsibilities, obligations, duties, and rights.
Since marriage counselors have found that a com-
mon problem among married people is a feeling of being
treated unfairly (Gass, 1974), premarital discussions
and agreements may have a positive effect upon the
marital relationship. Some findings indicate that
shared and agreed-upon roles, values, and goals (Bowen
& Orthner, 1983), and discussions of personal feelings
and concerns (Jorgensen & Gaudy, 1980) prior to mar-
riage have been related to marital satisfaction. Un-
happy couples tend to hold unrealistic expectations
about marriage (Epstein & Eidelson, 1981), and myths
contribute to these expectations (Crosby, 1985; Larson,
1988). Certainly home economists help to dispel some
of the myths and misconceptions.
The recognition of personal feelings is related to
successful marriage, and individuals contemplating
marriage can evaluate their suitability by openly
communicating their needs and desires. Couples profit
from devoting time to the discussion of roles, responsi-
bilities, expectations, career aspirations, and their
feelings about children (Gullotta, Adams, & Alexan-
der, 1986).
*A portion of this paper was presented at the Annual
Conference of the Texas Council on Family Relations,
April 1988, Houston, Texas.
Some students expect to live the life of Cinderella i
and Prince Charming; when differences arise, they can j
be devastating. Common sources of quarrels in marriage
are related to money matters, different ideas on child I
rearing, sex, sharing of household chores, and leisure
time activities. When there is too much conflict, -,
dissatisfaction can result in both people feeling lonely,
unhappy, misunderstood, rejected, and insecure
Havemann & Lehtinen, 1986).
The Changing World
Before entering into premarital discussions and
agreements which involve many areas, including
housework, child care, and employment, the growing
trend toward the mother's employment needs to be con-
sidered. Half of all married mothers, 9.5 million
women, are in the labor force. Of these, 2.8 million
have children younger than age 2; moreover, 50% or
more of all mothers with preschoolers are employed.
Seventy-one percent of employed mothers with chil-
dren under 18 work full time (Children's Defense Fund,
1988).
a
Dual-earner families are becoming the norm, an
role overloads and strains are experienced by many
households (Lawhon, 1984; Pleck & Staines, 1985).
There are at least two possible solutions for this prob-
lem. One remedy for this time and energy bind is to
hire household help, and a second is for both parties to
share the total workload at home and on the job
(Berardo, Shehan, & Leslie, 1987). Some solutions or
ways to avoid this type of role overload could be nego-
tiated before marriage and then renegotiated before
and after the birth of a child.
Students need to explore new ways of planning to
avert or remedy certain situations, and home economics
teachers are in a position to encourage this exploration.
Consider the growing number of problems associated
with family life. Surely, some of these could have been
avoided if more cautious premarital and marital plan-
ning had taken place. In certain cases, parties may rec-
ognize deep-seated problems that can affect marriage
and family relationships. For example, one who was
abused as a child is more likely to abuse, but by ac-
knowledging and working through this problem, other
avenues of behavior can replace the pattern learned in
childhood. In 1986, an estimated 1.9 million children
were reported abused and neglected. This represents
50 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1989
more than a 50% increase since 1981. Abuse can be in-
flicted upon a child of any age, however, about 40% of
those reported abused and neglected were of preschool
age. Almost one-fourth were teenagers (Children's De-
fense Fund, 1988).
Problems and concerns centering around families
seem limitless; however, with more realistic and atten-
tive premarital planning and agreements, many
hardships can be avoided. The growing number of
homeless families with children, the increase in chil-
dren being produced where the father is absent from the
home, the continuing concerns centered around the col-
lection of child support, and the growing number of fam-
ilies living below the poverty level are but a few of the
reasons for using open communication techniques and
mutual agreements before creating families.
The Purpose
The basic purpose of the inquiry from which this
article resulted was to find teaching methods that
could be used in an effort to improve a student's chances
of having a satisfactory marital relationship. This
could lower dissatisfactions, disillusionments, divorces,
desertions, separations, costly mediations and legal
fees, and fights over child custody, child support, and
alimony.
Open discussions of potential responsibilities and
an agreement upon acceptable ways of behaving could
reduce marital failures and marital dissatisfactions.
Some ways to achieve these goals are through ac-
knowledging that marriage involves work, that fair-
ness in marriage includes defining and observing each
other's rights, and that the goal is to reach a level of
agreement and practice that is acceptable to both. One
method of recognizing and establishing these guide-
lines and specific points is through a premarital
agreement (National Conference of Commissioners of
(Uniform State Laws, 1987; Texas Family Law Practice
Manual, 1986).
There is a growing awareness that some
agreements are needed before marriage. Between 1985
and 1987, 11 states adopted a "Uniform Premarital
Agreement Act" (National Conference of Commissioners
on Uniform State Laws, 1988). A premarital agreement
is made by the prospective spouses whereby they agree
to various provisions governing the marriage. Some
(items that may be included relate to household duties,
allocation of household expenses, provisions regarding
ithe location of the couple's home, terms defining the
structure and extent of the parties' marital
relationship, tax liabilities, preexisting debts, record
keeping, disclosure during negotiations, independent
counsel, insurance, and other matters (Ingram &
Johnston, 1986).
Furthermore, Havemann and Lehtinen (1986) iden-
tified additional items where agreements could be
reached. Some of these areas were career development,
family ties, friendships, religion, responsibilities for
each other's parents and other relatives, birth control,
money management, infidelity, household tasks, and
division of property in case of a divorce.
Other items that could be discussed are: mainte-
nance of spouse and children, support of children by a
previous marriage, property brought into and acquired
during the marriage, and property rights upon the dis-
solution of the marriage whether by death, divorce,
annulment, or declaration of voidness (Ingram & John-
ston, 1986).
Individuals and conditions change, and adjust-
ments and readjustments are necessary throughout the
life cycle. Havemann and Lehtinen (1986) noted that
the parties may want to set a time limit when the
agreement expires unless both want to renew it, either
in the original form or with revisions.
Reasons for Opposing a Prenuptial Agreement
A premarital or marital agreement will not neces-
sarily be enforced in court. If there are concerns about
how binding an agreement is or can become, persons must
seek advice prior to the ceremony from an attorney who
practices law in that state. It is wise to hire a personal
lawyer or to postpone the wedding when there are feel-
ings about fairness, even before the marriage.
Another disadvantage is the possibility that a
premarital agreement may be too specific to allow for
flexibility. When an agreement is confining in all ar-
eas, then the restrictions may lead to feelings of dissat-
isfaction, and hostility can result. However, an
agreement that is too vague or totally flexible can be a
waste of time.
Circumstances may change and one may be unwill-
ing to modify the original plan. Conflict can result
when one tries to live with an unworkable situation.
Whether this is a disadvantage or an advantage
may be debatable, but some relationships will wither
during the discussions intended to lead to premarital
and marital agreements. Talking about the realities of
marital relationships and behaviors can dispel a num-
ber of myths that certain engaged couples enjoy. Poten-
tial mates may decide that they are not ready for mar-
riage because of the multiple responsibilities; others
may elect to find someone with more similar expecta-
tions, values, and goals; and some couples may feel that
they have a firm foundation for marriage.
Reasons for Premarital Agreements
Students will find that similar views will be eas-
ily recognized when discussing some areas relating to an
impending marriage; however, when negotiations are
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1989 51
necessary and are entered into honestly and fairly,
many differences may be resolved and compromises
reached. Some areas to be discussed during premarital
agreements in addition to those already mentioned ear-
lier in the literature are reflected below:
1 . To recognize joint and individual goals and priori-
ties (Weitzman, 1981).
2. To provide one form of safeguard for individuals
who are incompatible but may not realize it unless
they sit down and put their feelings into writing
(Sheresky & Marines, 1972).
3. To develop a contract to meet the needs and prefer-
ences of both parties (Gullotta, Adams, &
Alexander, 1986).
4. To establish proposed timing for life events such as
marriage and education (Weitzman, 1981).
5. To agree upon the duration of the relationship as
lifelong or renewed periodically (Weitzman,
1981).
6. To consider each person's assets, incomes, debts,
and financial obligations, and to determine
whether resources will be pooled or remain sepa-
rate (Weitzman, 1981).
How Can A Teacher Help
Many activities can be used to increase the
likelihood of having successful planning for premarital
and marital agreements. Some classroom experiences
that encourage students to recognize and discuss poten-
tial responsibilities that could reduce personal stress,
marital failure, and marital dissatisfactions are of-
fered below. These have been selected to complement
the review of literature in this article.
1. An experienced attorney can talk with the
class about contracts, premarital and marital agree-
ments, and the legal implications of marriage and par-
enthood.
2. "How much can you afford for housing?" is a
realistic topic to be presented by a realtor or by a
banker. The local classified advertisements provide
the information necessary to ascertain the cost of
rentals, leases, and home sales. Students could compare
the cost of housing to their potential earning power.
3. Guest speakers are good resources for present-
ing points on "How our lives changed during pregnancy
and after the arrival of the baby."
4. "What if" games bring out feelings about
home management and employment. For example, you
and your mate are both employed full time and ride to
and from work together. Upon arriving at home it is
obvious that the floors need to be cleaned, dinner pre-
pared, the dog fed, and the laundry run, but your mate
sits down to watch three hours of television and expects
you to do the chores. How do you feel? Did you have
agreements about the division of household labor be-
52 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1989
fore you married? How will you handle these tasks:
(a) when you are initially struggling to establish your-
self at work, (b) when there is an infant, and (c) when
there are two young children?
5. A spending guide or an annual budget is a ben-
eficial tool for the class members to use as they work in
small groups to determine how three couples, with very
different income levels, allocate finances to meet needs
and wants.
6. Effective communication skills can be ob-
served through selected media and explained through
mini-lectures which reflect the differences between ag-
gressive, assertive, and non-assertive techniques.
Assertive techniques are helpful when applied to prob-
lem solving, decision making, negotiating, and other
methods of resolving or avoiding conflicts. Role
playing may be utilized as a follow-up to illustrate the
points clearly.
7. Popular television programs which are built
around the family unit can serve to illustrate how fam-
ily and parenting philosophies vary from individual to
individual and from household to household. The
"What if" game could be used by the students as they
determine with which family they would most like to
live, which family member they would elect to be, and
why they made those selections.
8. Develop a time management plan for the cou-
ple in #4 above that includes leisure time spent to-
gether, time to be alone, time for utilizing stress-reduc-
tion techniques, and time to complete the work at home
and on the job.
9. Comparisons of costs, quality, marketing, se-
lection and care of food, clothing, automobiles, and
other necessities might begin with student reports on
student-selected items. Specialists can serve as invited
guest speakers.
10. Popular sayings include "Birds of a feather
flock together," "Like father, like son," "Like mother,
like daughter," "Daddy's little girl," and "Mama's
boy." Students could speculate on the possible impact
that each saying may have upon relationships during
dating and marriage. They can also explore why it is
essential to become well acquainted with a potential
partner's family and religious beliefs and practices be-
fore deciding or making a commitment to marry.
11. Students who develop short- and long-range
personal, career, and family goals will have a frame-
work for decision making. A kickoff for the unit could
be a brief vignette that includes a breakdown of illus-
trative goals.
12. Characteristics associated with successful
marriage, like compatibility, cooperation, similarity
of values, and the timing of major life events, could be
discussed. Methods of encouraging the healthy devel-
opment of these areas and the value of premarital and
marital planning and agreements for the timing of ma-
jor events like marriage and parenting may be explored.
Any or all of the twelve experiences listed above
will lead to more realistic plans for marriage and fam-
ily life. Communicating expectations and establishing
areas of agreement are important to one's feelings of be-
ing treated fairly.
How can a teacher encourage the development of
premarital or marital agreements? First, a teacher
might discuss some pros and cons of premarital agree-
ments. Then each student could develop at least four
lists: one to reflect personal contributions in a marital
and family relationship, one to note what will be ex-
pected of a mate, another to explore individual goals
and priorities, and a fourth to recognize joint responsi-
bilities. Once a list is complete, the students may move
into small groups to share ideas and the teacher could
direct the group discussion through pertinent questions.
Following the presentation of all four lists the
students could develop a premarital agreement based
upon their feelings. The agreements may be collected
and analyzed for logical reasoning, sequencing of
events, and other factors that serve as keys on which a
meaningful unit relating to some of the realities of mar-
riage and family living might be developed or con-
tinued.
Negotiating abilities are important in sharing
views. Teachers can guide students as they develop ne-
gotiating techniques that may be used with peers, fam-
ily members, and others. Some basic background on the
art of negotiating is in the January /February 1988 issue
of the Illinois Teacher (Lawhon, 1988).
Conclusions
Considering the high rate of marital failure and
marital dissatisfaction, the time has come to encourage
students to explore methods that can lead to a greater
degree of fairness in marriage and a more realistic atti-
tude about marital dissatisfaction. Only through
communicating can individuals and couples share and
agree upon roles, values, and goals which enhance the
parties' chances of marital success. One method of
reaching a consensus on many issues that would be ac-
ceptable to both is through premarital agreements.
During these discussions there will be many opportuni-
ties to observe temperaments, negotiating abilities, and
perceptions regarding families, careers, and other mat-
ters. This process can aid in dispelling some myths and
unreasonable expectations which create conflict for the
individual and the couple.
References
Berardo, D. H., Shehan, C L., & Leslie, G. R. (1987). A
residue of tradition: Jobs, careers, and spouses' time
in housework. Journal of Marriage and the Fam-
ily, 49, 381-390.
Bowen, G. B., & Orthner, D. F. (1983). Sex-role congru-
ency and marital quality. Journal of Marriage and
the Family, 45(1), 223-230
Children's Defense Fund. (1988). A call for action to
make our nation safe for children: A briefing book
on the status of American children in 1988. Wash-
ington, DC: C.D.F.
Crosby, J. (1985). Illusions and disillusion: The self in
love and marriage. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Epstein, N., & Eidelson, R. L. (1981). Unrealistic be-
liefs of clinical couples: Their relationship to ex-
pectations, goals, and satisfaction. American Jour-
nal of Family Therapy, 9, 13-21.
Gass, G. Z. (1974). Equitable marriage. Family Coordi-
nator, 23, 369-372.
Gullotta, T. P., Adams, G. R., & Alexander, S. J. (1986).
Today's marriages and families. Monterey, CA:
Brooks/Cole.
Havemann, E., & Lehtinen, M. (1986). Marriage &
families. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Ingram, D. O., & Johnston, D. A. (1986). Antenuptial
contracts. In B. A. Kazen (Ed.), Family law Texas
practice and procedure (pp. 10-1 - 10-73). New
York: Matthew Bender.
Jorgensen, S. R., & Gaudy, J. C. (1980). Self-disclosure
and satisfaction in marriage: The relation exam-
ined. Family Relations, 29(3), 281-287.
Larson, J. H. (1988). The marriage quiz: College stu-
dents' beliefs in selected myths about marriage.
Family Relations, 37, 3-11.
Lawhon, T. (1984). Work and stress: How do you help
in the family? Journal of Home Economics, 76(4),
2-5.
Lawhon, T. (1988). Teaching students to negotiate.
Illinois Teacher, 31(3), 134-135.
National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform
State Laws. (1988). Pocket parts. Uniform laws
annotated. St. Paul, MN: West, 9B, pp. 6-7.
National Conference of Commissioners of Uniform State
Laws. (1987). Uniform premarital agreement act.
Uniform laws annotated. St. Paul, MN: West, 9B,
pp. 369-380.
Pleck, J. H., & Staines, G. L. (1985). Work schedules
and family life in two-earner couples. Journal of
Family Issues, 6, 61-82.
Sheresky, N., & Mannes, M. (1972). A radical guide to
wedlock. Saturday Review, 55, 33-38.
Texas Family Law Practice Manual. (1986). Austin, TX:
State Bar of Texas, Council of the Family Law
Section, pp. 31.1-32.35.
Weitzman, L. J. (1981). The marriage contract: Spouses,
lovers and the law. New York: Free Press. • • •
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1989 53
tt
Teaching Survival Techniques in A
Changing World
Irene Storrer
Cimarron, KS
As teachers it is our responsibility to teach
students skills which will enable them to survive in
this fast changing world of ours. Because I believe
this so strongly, I tell my junior high home economics
students and their parents that our three goals for
the semester are to learn to read and follow
directions, to listen and communicate, and to
cooperate with others. These are survival skills
usable every day of their lives, important skills in
helping them cope with the problems they face
today and the problems they will encounter in future
situations.
Home economics is an ideal class for teaching
students to read and follow directions. My students
begin by learning to name the parts of the sewing
machine and how to thread it by reading the
instruction book. Their first project is a simple
football pillow with four seams. A simple
sweatshirt or jacket is their second project.
I do not intend to make tailors out of these
students, but I do want to teach them to read and
follow directions. With this skill they can thread
any sewing machine and even someday, if they
desire, make a tailored suit. I tell their parents if
they bring home a sweatshirt with one sleeve
attached to the bottom, it's a sure sign they had
problems reading and following directions. If the
student brings home a completed, wearable sweat
shirt, it's a bonus to our original goal of learning to
read and follow directions. Learning to read and
follow directions will not only help them thread a
sewing machine, but it will also enable them to
accomplish other tasks, such as turning on a computer
and running a computer program, or filling out an
application form. Teachers won't always be there to
help, and students must learn to be self-reliant.
I help my students accomplish our second goal,
listening and communicating, by having them play
with Tinkertoys. First I pair off the students and
seat them back to back. Then I divide the Tinkertoys
into numbered plastic bags, each containing exactly
the same Tinkertoy pieces. One student begins to
assemble his Tinkertoys. S/he is the communicator
and is to tell her/his partner, the listener, how to
put the Tinkertoys together. When the task is
completed, the objects created should be identical.
However, usually the two objects aren't exactly
alike.
This activity gives us the opportunity to discuss
the problems the students encountered in
communicating. In our discussion students make such
comments as:
"S/he didn't describe the pieces well
enough."
"S/he called them all little round orange
dealies."
"S/he talked too fast."
"I couldn't hear her/him."
"S/he didn't tell me left from right."
"Did s/he mean her/his left or my left?"
"It would be easier if we could ask each other
questions."
After we've discussed these problems, roles are
changed. This gives the listener a chance to become
the communicator.
To supplement the Tinkertoy lesson, I use a paper
activity to encourage good listening skills. One
person is given a paper with geometric figures drawn
on it. S/he is to describe the drawing, and the other
students are to copy it on their papers, following
his/her directions and asking no questions. The
results are similar to the Tinkertoy activity in that
the drawings rarely look like the original. By
understanding the problems involved in
communicating, the students learn to become better
listeners and better communicators.
54 ILLINOIS TEACHER, NOVEMBER/ DECEMBER, 1989
These activities lead naturally into our third
goal: learning cooperation. No matter how good a
communicator or listener may be, if one person doesn't
choose to cooperate, the project can fail. Sometimes
projects fail because one person doesn't understand
how to cooperate. In order to cooperate the person
must first understand the problem. S/he must then
believe s/he can help, the instructions must be clear,
and everyone must think of the other person as well
as her/himself.
In one activity I use to teach cooperation, the
class is divided into groups of five or six students.
Each group is given a large box of Tinkertoys. The
students are encouraged to listen to directions, to
communicate questions and ideas, and to cooperate in
accomplishing the task. The task is for the group to
construct one continuous model of as many Tinkertoys
as it can in 40 seconds. Each group is to post its goal
and is given time before we begin to plan strategy,
but it may not practice. Most groups end up with sev-
eral small models instead of one continuous model at
the end of 40 seconds. This is a good activity to
repeat several times, allowing students to plan new
methods of cooperation for reaching their goal.
This task is comparable to a business planning
marketing techniques. The task force would read to
see what marketing ideas had been used in the past,
would listen and communicate new ideas, and would
cooperate to create a new marketing strategy. If the
students have difficulty in putting Tinkertoys
together (and they do), how many more problems
will they encounter in a real-life situation as they
become business people?
Another activity I use to teach cooperation is
called Cooperation Squares. Before beginning this
activity, we discuss what people need to know before
they can cooperate. I ask them these questions: Can
a fan who hasn't practiced play on a football team?
Can someone without medical training help a person
with a broken leg? Can a person with no mechanical
ability help people with car trouble? When we
play Cooperation Squares, the students are placed in
groups of five. Each student is given puzzle pieces
that will form five squares exactly the same size
when pieces are exchanged with others in the group.
They are not to talk and may cooperate only by
giving some of their pieces away. Not only must
each student work to complete her/his own square,
but s/he must also be keenly aware of the needs of
the others in her/his group. Each student is
dependent upon other group members to see what
pieces s/he needs and to offer them so s/he may
complete her/his puzzle. S/he must first recognize
the other members' problems. Perhaps they don't
have all the pieces they need. S/he then asks
himself/ herself, "Can I help?" (only if s/he has the
piece and wants to offer it.). S/he must follow the
rules of the game: no one is allowed to talk, no one
can take pieces away from a member, members can
only offer pieces. Finally, s/he must think of the
other person as well as her/himself. S/he knows
s/he's taking a chance when s/he gives his puzzle
piece away. Perhaps the other person won't give it
back when s/he needs it. But if s/he doesn't do
something to help the team member, the group could
sit there forever, or another team could win.
After the students have assembled the squares,
we discuss their feelings of frustration when one
person held a puzzle piece another person needed to
complete a square. How did they feel when a person
withdrew from the group after s/he had completed
his square? How can they use what they learned
about cooperation with their families and friends, at
school and later in business?
Summary
I have attempted to teach both individual and
group skills which students may use to address
questions such as these: How do I use a sewing
machine or a computer? How can we fix a bicycle? Is
this garment washable? How do we make pizza?
What do I do on this test? What needs to be done?
How can I help? What is the problem? What is my
assignment? How can we help balance the family
budget? What makes the music group produce a
pleasing sound? How does the athletic department
develop a winning ball team? What will build
better families and school systems? What makes a
business run smoothly? We read and follow
directions, listen and communicate questions and
ideas, and we cooperate with other individuals in
the group.
Students begin by developing individual skills
and ideas. They start by reading and following
directions. They expand into listening to others and
developing good communication techniques. They
cooperate with each other for the benefit of
themselves and for the group as a whole. Students
begin to realize the importance of working together,
whether within families, between friends, as co-
workers, with community members, or even on a
national level. • • •
ILLINOIS TEACHER,November/December, 1989 55
Content Analysis as an Innovative
Teaching Technique for Home
Economists
Paula W. Dail
Co-Director and Leader
of the Research Program
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University
Blacksburg, VA
Introduction
Although the term content analysis is only about 50
years old, the concept itself has roots that go back to
the beginning of our conscious use of symbols and lan-
guage. Gradually, as magical interpretations of sym-
bols were replaced by more systematic efforts to under-
stand the use of language and characterizations as a
means of communication, a method for accomplishing
this task evolved. Today, the concern for symbolic
phenomena has been institutionalized in literature,
mass media, education, academic disciplines, practical
pursuits such as political analysis, and so on. The
primary concern of all of these is the function and ef-
fects of the use of symbols, constructed meanings, and
messages upon human behavior.
As a result of massive advances in technology, the
average individual is bombarded with various kinds of
messages from a wide variety of sources. Some have ar-
gued persuasively that this intensive exposure to vast
amounts of information often surpasses the human
capacity to readily absorb, process, and understand the
full meaning of the message (note: for a more compre-
hensive discussion of this issue, see Dail, 1987). How-
ever, a reality of today's world is that it is possible to
saturate our environment with information, accurate
and inaccurate, good and bad, and needed and unneces-
sary. Under these conditions, individuals often receive
more information than they want, need, or is useful to
them. Thus, it is appropriate to devise some technique
to assist in managing the messages that are received.
Home economists who, more than in any other
discipline, teach about managing family and in-
dividual life in today's more complex world, will find
the use of content analysis an effective teaching tool.
56 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1989
Content Analysis as a Teaching Technique
Because it permits meticulous inquiry into the com-
plex structure of both written and verbal communica-
tion, content analysis is one technique for processing the
information that is presented. As the methodology has
become more sophisticated, it has taken on greater
significance as a technique for educating individuals
about the subtle messages which flow through every-
day life, primarily from the mass media. Becoming
skilled in content analysis enables one to develop very
useful critical thinking skills which act as a filter
through which information may pass. In this way, it is
possible to more fully understand the messages which
are being received, and thereby avoid being victimized
by incorrect, inaccurate, and unnecessary information.
The technique is particularly useful with socially
disadvantaged groups, who may be particularly vul-
nerable to misinformation which may be forthcoming
through various media forms, particularly television.
These are individuals who commonly lack sufficient
personal resources, such as education and money, and
may not have had opportunities to learn to make ra-
tional, thoughtful choices about managing the resources
which they do have. This is a population which
would benefit enormously by developing the critical
thinking skills which content analysis as a learning
experience can provide.
The Basis of Content Analysis
The foundation upon which content analysis is built
is helpful background information for the teacher who
uses the method in an educational setting. The tech-
nique began as a research tool for the social scientists,
and thus, has a research basis behind it. This is briefly
discussed in the following paragraphs.
Content analysis has been popular in the public
domain for a long time, and is commonly used to deci-
pher the meaning of information which appears in the
mass media, particularly newspapers and television.
Political analysts frequently use it to try to discover
the real meaning behind public statements by candi-
dates for public office, and even to predict election out-
comes, based upon the nature of information which par-
ticular individuals are sending. However, its use
within areas of academic inquiry and as an educative
tool is fairly recent, and has increased in popularity
only as the methodology has become more precise
(Dail, 1987). Most scientific, empirical research using
content analysis methodology is relatively recent.
Krippendorff (1980) has written a seminal text on
content analysis methodology, thus permitting the
phenomenon to become science. In this volume, he pro-
vides a fairly comprehensive review of research using
this technique. He fails, however, to address the use-
fulness of the methodology itself as an educative tool
which assists in uncovering the subtle messages which
are present in language and symbols. Because of this
omission, many researchers using content analysis
methodology have not interpreted the findings with an
educative goal in mind.
More recent studies that have addressed the
educational value of the findings from content analysis
research include a study of prime time television
portrayals of parenting behaviors (Dail, 1983; Way,
1982); prime time television portrayals of the elderly
in the context of family life (Dail, 1988); and
observations of the consumer content of prime time tele-
vision (Way, 1982). In each case, the findings from
these studies were interpreted with a view toward the
implications for curriculum development and edu-
cational programs. Even so, the usefulness of the tech-
nique itself as an educational experience has been
i largely ignored.
Content Analysis Methodology as a Teaching Tech-
nique
Using content analysis as a teaching technique is a
scientific endeavor which involves three logically
separate activities: design, method, and interpretation
of the findings. It is important to note at the outset
that content analyses, like science, are rarely ever
completed. Although a good design will, in fact, an-
swer some questions, it should also pose new ones which
should suggest further investigation. When using the
technique as a teaching tool, it is important to ap-
proach the project with a scientific, investigative
frame of mind, and integrate it into the curriculum in
this light.
1. Design - The design of a content analysis project
involves nine aspects. The most relevant ones for
teaching include:
a . Applying a framework for content analysis. As
with any scientific investigation which is motivated
by a desire to empirically know or to better understand
something, some framework for pursuing this end must
be applied. Thus, the first step is to determine what
the investigator really wants to know or find out.
Second, a decision about what sources of informa-
tion would best help to answer the question is made.
For example, if one wishes to inquire into the nature of
information being presented about family life for sin-
gle-parent families, one would logically use data
sources which contain information about various forms
of family life, such as printed or broadcast media.
b. Searching for suitable data. The source of the
information for a content analysis project must be rele-
vant to the project. Using the example of family life
for single-parents again, it would be pointless to exam-
ine sports magazines for the contents of messages about
the child rearing styles in these families because the
subject is not likely to be addressed by this media
source. On the other hand, if one only wanted to know
the frequency of the mention of single-parent families
in popular magazines, it would be possible to randomly
select from all popular magazines which are avail-
able, and examine these for evidence of the appearance
of information about single-parent families. The im-
portant point here is that the source of the information
must match the questions being asked.
c. Searching for contextual knowledge. In order to
justify any interpretation of the findings of a content
analysis project, it is critical to have some empirical
knowledge about the data themselves and what they
may be saying, in the context in the larger society. This
permits the investigator to put the information from
the study into a suitable frame of reference and make
statements about what it may indicate. In other words,
if one were to find a very high incidence of the
appearance of information about single-parent
families, one could conclude that single-parent families
are regarded as being a significant portion of the popu-
lation and an important marketing group for the media
to target.
d. Developing plans for sampling. Once the in-
formation source has been identified, some systematic
way of examining it must be devised. This plan has to
be detailed and explicit so as to result in a procedure
which is replicable and accurate. To begin, the entire
universe of potential data sources is identified (for ex-
ample, print media). From this, specific sources are de-
termined, based upon some predetermined criteria such
as volume of readership. Once having decided upon
which printed media to use (e.g., magazines and
newspapers) it is obviously necessary to impose further
limitations on the sample because it would be impossi-
ble to examine all magazines and newspapers. The
final sampling plan might be to randomly sample from
the two national magazines having the highest
readership in 1985 and from the Sunday edition of the
three largest circulating newspapers in the country.
The important key is to have some defined plan for ob-
taining the sample for the content analysis.
e. Coding the information. After having deter-
mined the question to be addressed and the sample from
ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1989 57
which to draw, it is necessary to decide how to code the
information. Categories of information must be chosen
and defined. Those who will be collecting the
information must be carefully instructed in how to do so
with the least amount of error. In looking for messages
about single-parent families, for example, it is
necessary to decide what constitutes a positive
message, a negative message, or a neutral message.
Each coder must be in agreement about these
definitions.
f. Analyzing the information. The information
generated in content analysis is numerical data which
are determined simply by counting the frequency of
occurrence. Most often, data are analyzed using fre-
quency distributions (which may include percentages,
means and standard deviations). The techniques chosen
to analyze the data depend upon the nature of the re-
search questions being addressed. For ordinary class-
room use, percentages and averages are sufficient.
g. Quality standards. The quality standards of a
content analysis refer to the reliability and validity of
the findings. Standards of validity are much more
powerful than the standards of reliability, but both are
important, and if reliability levels are low, then the
validity of the data is questionable. It is important for
the teacher to be mindful of these concerns even though
it is not likely that a classroom project can approach
the rigor of a true scientific endeavor in these regards.
2. Methodology - Ideally, the execution of a well
designed content analysis project should be routine, fol-
lowing the research design already determined. In re-
ality, some problems are bound to emerge, and most of-
ten these occur in the area of quality standards. If the
validity and reliability of the data are below the min-
imum standards decided upon in advance, then the
design must be modified, keeping the overall goal of
the project in mind.
3. Interpretation and Reporting - This is an au-
thoritative account of the project, describing what was
done, why it was undertaken, what was accomplished,
and what was learned. If the project has been designed
as an educational experience, it is important to care-
fully discuss what was learned in terms of skills gained
by the student which may be generalized to other set-
tings (e.g., an ability to more carefully attend to the
contents of messages without automatic acceptance of
the message as true). This is also the place to de-
termine what new questions have emerged from the
findings of the project.
A Model for Designing a Content Analysis Project
A content analysis project can be an exciting and in-
formative educational experience which will finely
58 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1989
tune one's critical thinking and analytical skills. In
the space following is a brief outline exemplifying a
content analysis project which would be suitable for and
useful in an educational setting. To maximize the
educational benefits, it is important that the teacher
fully discuss each step of this model with the students.
1 . Design
A. The Problem and Its Context - Today there is
acute concern for the welfare of single-parent
female-headed households, since more than half of
families headed by females fall below the poverty
line. Many argue that children in these families grow
up disadvantaged for many reasons, chief among these
being a lack of good parenting skills among single
mothers.
It is commonly accepted that television is an impor-
tant source of information about various aspects of life,
including parenting. There are many family-oriented
programs presented on television, and media research
has suggested that many people use television as a
model for behavior, particularly when the situation
being portrayed is relevant to the viewer. Thus, it is
appropriate to examine television programs for their
portrayals of single-parent, female-headed families in
order to more fully understand the messages about this
lifestyle which are being sent to television viewers,
particularly single-parent mothers.
B. The Questions to be Addressed - (Note: It is
important to read about other studies on the topic
which the project is designed to investigate prior to
deciding upon the research questions, as the available
literature on a topic can assist in clarifying appropriate
issues to address.)
a. How many single-parent, female-headed
households are being presented on television?
b. What is the parenting style of the single-
parent mothers (e.g., authoritarian,
authoritative or permissive)?
c. What is the economic status of these
households?
d. What is the household composition of these
families?
2. Method
A. The Sample - Prime time (8 to 11 pm EST)
television programs meeting the following criteria will
be examined for their portrayals of parenting styles of
single-parent mothers:
1 . program appears as a serial
2. program appears for at least 13 weeks
3. the central theme of the program is single
parenting for females
All programs meeting these criteria will be content an-
alyzed for 13 sequential weeks of the regular viewing
season. Summer reruns and commercials will not be in-
cluded.
B . The Data Collection Instrument - An instrument
will be developed which allows for recording of the
program title and air time, the household composition
(mother, number of children, other adults present), and
economic status. Parenting styles will be defined by
ascribing appropriate descriptors to the terms
"authoritarian," "authoritative," and "permissive."
For example, an authoritarian behavior might be de-
scribed as harsh, cool, unresponsive, demanding, reject-
ing; while an authoritative parent might be seen as
flexible, negotiating, expressive, firm but not demand-
ing, etc. These descriptors are needed to insure that the
findings are valid, and that the study is measuring
what it intends to measure. Figure one is an example of
a coding instrument which could be used for the type of
study being described.
C. Procedure - Everyone who is doing the project
will learn how to identify the appropriate programs on
television, accurately define the households, and ap-
propriately identify authoritarian, authoritative, and
permissive behaviors. There should be at least 85
percent agreement among all who are working on the
project as to the behaviors being coded. This procedure
assures reliability of the findings. After it is certain
that everyone is seeing the same thing, each person is
assigned certain programs to watch for the 13 weeks of
data collection.
D. Data Analysis - This project intends to describe
the parenting styles of single mothers. It also identi-
fies how many programs about single-parent, female-
headed households are presented, and the economic
status and household structure of these families. The
data are nominal (real numbers) and are reported as
averages and percentages as well as actual numbers. It
is also possible to make some comparisons. For exam-
ple, one could compare whether or not mothers are more
authoritarian towards daughters than sons, etc.
3. Reporting
After the information has been collected and ana-
lyzed, the results are reported. At this time it is possi-
ble to make inferences about the findings, such as
whether or not these messages are positive or negative
(e.g., authoritative parenting is generally regarded as
ithe most positive.. .if the predominant parenting style
appears to be authoritarian, then the message about
parenting styles of single mothers can properly be in-
terpreted as negative), and whether the messages are
accurate (e.g., does economic status and household com-
position accurately reflect the known social context of
single mothers?). This process is generalizing from the
actual information to the context in which it is seen,
and allows for interpretation of the results of the study.
A second, important aspect of the reporting process
is to interpret the findings for their educative implica-
tions. For example, if other single-parent mothers are
seeing very authoritarian parenting styles being por-
trayed on television, are they likely to model this be-
havior in their own parenting? Is this information im-
portant to know when planning parent education classes
specifically for single-parent mothers? Students
should also carefully consider what they learned from
the process of a content analysis. Careful attention
should be directed toward the accuracy of the
information as well as how the student interprets the
information for him/her self.
CONCLUSIONS
The example of a content analysis project outlined
in this paper is a very simple one. The process lends it-
self to much more sophisticated efforts to unravel the
messages being sent through various media forms. More
complex research designs which are properly con-
structed and executed can generate data that permit
statistical analysis which will reveal comparisons,
significant differences, and the discovery of even more
complicated interrelationships among variables.
However, as a classroom learning experience, the sim-
plified version presented here is probably the most ef-
fective and easily undertaken, and the desired results,
which include development of critical and analytical
thinking skills among students, will be accomplished.
As noted earlier, the technique is particularly
valuable when used among less advantaged student
populations. These are persons who do not ordinarily
have the needed family and social experiences which
would foster critical thinking skills and enhance deci-
sion making processes. The teacher who is able to assist
the students in fully understanding the process of con-
tent analysis as well as carrying through with a project
as a learning experience will have given the students
an invaluable life skill which will generalize to many
situations and circumstances.
References
Dail, P. W. (1988). Prime time television portrayals of
older adults in the context of family life. The
Gerontologist, 28, 5, 700-706.
Dail, P. W. (1987, November). Technology and educa-
tion: Some relevant philosophic considerations.
Paper presented to the National Council on Family
Relations Annual Meeting, Atlanta, GA.
Dail, P. W. (1983). Possible television influences upon
parental socialization: Implications for parent ed-
ucation. Dissertation Abstracts International, 44,
06-A.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, November /December, 1989 59
tt
Dail, P. W. & Way, W. L. (1985). What do parents ob-
serve about parenting from prime time television?
Family Relations, 34, 491-99.
Krippendorf, K. (1980). Content analysis: An introduc-
tion to its methodology. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage
Publishing Co.
Way, W. L. (1982, July). The consumer content of prime
time television: Implications for consumer educa-
tors. Paper presented at the American Council on
Consumer Interests. Columbus, OH.
Figure 1: Coding instrument Single parent household
project
Program Title Coder:
Time (1/2-1 hour):
Household structure:
# male children
# female children
# adults
Occupation of parent:
Approximate socio-economic level:
Parenting Styles: (Each time a particular style or be-
havior is observed, mark in appropriate box. Count
ONLY behaviors by mothers toward their children. At
end of each program, total each category)
Authoritarian
Authoritative
Permissive
Neutral
total:
total:
total:
total
notes:
Tip-Offs to Quackery
FDA and the Council of Better Business Burea
provide these tips to protect yourself fror
quackery:
- Be wary if a product's label or advertisini
promises immediate, effortless or guarantee
results.
- Be wary of testimonials in ads or on labels fror
satisfied users. They rarely can be confirmed.
- Don't be taken in by a "money-back guarantee.
A guarantee is only as good as the company tha
backs it.
- Be wary of promises that a product is effectiv
for a wide variety of ailments.
- Be wary of promises of complete relief from
pain.
- Don't be taken in by promises that a produc
offers a "cure."
- Watch out for claims that a treatment or product
has been approved by FDA. Federal law doesn'
permit mention of FDA in any way that suggest '
marketing approval for any drug or medica
device.
- Don't give too much importance to the tern
"natural ingredients." The definition o
"natural" is elusive, and the word is oftei
abused.
- Look out for other misleading words such a;
"amazing," "secret," "miracle," "special,1
"vanish," "painless," "discovery/
"breakthrough," "exclusive," "instant,"
"immediate," quick," or "fast."
- If the product sounds too good to be true, il
probably is.
Reprinted from:
FDA Consumer, Vol. 22 No. 6
Department of Health & Human Services
Public Health Services
Food and Drug Administration
Rockville, MD 20857
60 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1989
Building Self-Esteem in Middle
School Students Through
Home Economics and
Industrial Technology
Marguerite Mellin, Home Economics Teacher
Beverly Forbes, Industrial Technology Teacher
Forest Park Middle School
Forest Park, IL
Marguerite Mellin
Beverly Forbes
Teachers have always played an important role
assisting youth in developing self-concepts. It has only
been in recent years that this facet of teaching has been
acknowledged as part of the teacher's responsibility.
;(Beane & Lepka, 1984, p. 6)
A student's behavior, in school and out, is primar-
ily determined by what s/he thinks of her/himself.
What the student thinks of her/himself is known as
self-esteem. Self-esteem is an abstraction, a mass of
perceptions, something that is not easily defined.
Self-esteem and self-concept can be thought of as
wo different perceptions. In this paper we will discuss
self-esteem. We feel there is a difference between self-
esteem and self-concept. Self-concept refers to the de-
scription of self in terms of role and attitudes. It is not
eferred to as a positive or a negative. Self-concept is
only a description of the perceived self and does not in-
volve a value judgement. Self-esteem refers to the
evaluation one makes of oneself; more specifically, the
jiegree to which one is satisfied or dissatisfied with
>ne's evaluation, either in whole or in part. For exam-
ple, an individual describes him/herself as tall (self-
:oncept), s/he then says s/he is either happy or un-
happy with the self-esteem. Self-esteem judgements
.
are based on value indicators such as attitudes, beliefs
or interests.
Investigations employing diverse tests generally
indicate persons high in self-esteem are happier and
more effective in meeting environmental demands than
are persons with low self-esteem. We find that those
students who exhibit low self-esteem withdraw from
other people and show signs of stress. (Lounsbury &
Vars, 1978, p. 19)
The idea of seriously trying to know oneself can be
traced back many centuries in the history of music, art,
literature, and other areas of the humanities. In recent
years interest in self-perceptions has increased. This
new movement is less concerned with the humanities;
instead more emphasis has been placed on attempts to
analyze the causes and effects of self-perceptions in
terms of behavior, attitudes towards others, and
achievement. It is the areas of attitudes towards oth-
ers and achievement that I am interested in improving.
As educators we are charged with the task of
helping young people experience healthy growth and
development. Today we know this means more than just
intellectual and physical growth. We must help de-
velop ways of nurturing personal and social growth. An
educational program without an emphasis on enhancing
self-esteem is an incomplete program.
Junior high or middle school students are going
through a period of drastic change in their lives. Men-
tal and physiological changes are taking place through
normal growth and development. Divorce, peer pres-
sure, drugs and alcohol are but a few extraneous events
that vie for attention during this stressful period.
Self-esteem serves as the basis of reality for the
middle school student. It determines what s/he sees,
experiences and perceives. Adolescents tend to see that
which is consistent with their already existing concept
of self. Once affirmed, the self-esteem becomes some-
thing of a screen or filter through which everything
else is seen, evaluated and understood. There is a cir-
cular effect to self-esteem. It tends to maintain itself
and reinforce its existence. For instance, a major prob-
lem often is a pupil's belief that he cannot spell.
Rather than any inherent lack of ability to spell, be-
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1989 61
lieving s/he cannot, s/he does not, and s/he avoids
opportunities to try. This vicious cycle thus perpetu-
ates itself. The same cycle can work in a positive way.
If the self-esteem is a learned belief then positive self-
esteem can be taught. This is a fundamental premise for
middle school teachers who seek to guide youth in
their quest for identity and maturity. Change comes
slowly for those students with low self-esteem, but
change does occur as conscientious efforts are made to
facilitate successful experiences and to reinforce posi-
tive actions. Students who believe they can achieve
are much more likely to succeed.
The exploratory areas of a middle school not only
have the potential for numerous self-enhancing oppor-
tunities but usually include them. Home economics
courses, often misinterpreted as simply sewing and
cooking, usually include extensive work in family liv-
ing, human growth and development, child care, human
relations and nutrition. (Beane & Lepka, 1984, p. 91)
Industrial technology deals with such topics as tech-
nology in American life, plastics, the metric system,
wood fabricating and finishing, and home repairs.
Home economics and industrial technology often em-
phasize creating projects, repairing clothing, care and
use of appliances and tools, and the opportunity to sur-
vey career choices. Students have a chance to develop
and use skills that are personally satisfying and some-
times economically rewarding in terms of part-time
jobs. Once considered a dumping ground for those unable
to do brainwork, industrial technology and home
economics have a major role to play in our technological
society (Lounsbury & Vars, 1978, p. 88).
Home economics and industrial technology are two
disciplines that lend themselves extremely well to
building self-confidence and self-esteem in everyday
living situations. For example, learning to deal with
their emotions through role-playing affords all stu-
dents a safe means by which they can explore and prac-
tice coping techniques. Role-playing manners and
behaviors suitable for a dance or a date can be a way to
avoid some of the apprehension and concern most ado-
lescents might have for these activities. Working
through situations beforehand allows the student to see
what behavior patterns work and which do not. When
faced with the real situation, s/he feels more confident
and self-assured. A home economics course can deal
with many of these situations in a nonthreatening
manner, yet afford the practice needed to gain the
required skills.
Another aspect of the home economics curriculum
that is particularly valuable for building self-esteem
and self-confidence is in the area of decision making.
Learning to make intelligent decisions is not an easy
skill to master. One must work at it and practice! In
home economics classes this process can be developed
and practiced under guided supervision. Decisions
about project choice, materials, equipment and proce-
dures can be made. The student can practice the deci-
sion process and see results in a short time. By using the
decision model, a student learns to cope with problems
and can then transfer this knowledge to other real life
situations.
Another way that a student's self-esteem may be
improved in a home economics class is through projects
As a student gain skills, s/he becomes more confident
and feels good about her/himself. Carefully chosen
projects allow every student to achieve success; some-
times in a group, as in a cooking class (being able to eat
your project is very rewarding and satisfying), and
sometimes as an individual, as in a sewing class where
one is able to have a finished product to take home.
Also, during the class time when skills are being
learned and practiced students can help each other.
Learning to help one another makes one feel s/he be-
longs!
Devising a curriculum that includes opportunities
for the student to show his/her work to his/her family
and friends builds esteem and makes the student proud
of his/her achievements. Fashion shows, luncheons,
parties, and displays are all ways of showing off fin-
ished work.
Adolescents need to feel that they can participate
in the larger world as well as in a classroom. Projects
can be made for donation to a hospital or other worth-
while causes. Making candy or cookies at Christmas
time for food baskets helps give the satisfaction of con-
tributing to society and less fortunate others. The stu-
dent can feel a sense of pride that they can help others.
Many of the skills learned in home economics are
life skills, skills that are needed to live in everyday
life. Such things as learning to budget money, shop for
food, prepare food, care for clothing, care for children,
etc. are things everyone in our society must know. Fami-
lies are not always capable of teaching these skills. A
home economics class can teach many of these skills and
allow the students to achieve success at practicing
these skills needed for adult life.
One of the interesting facets of home economics ed-
ucation that is often overlooked in scholarly journals is
the opportunity to learn skills that can be used for
hobbies and as leisure time activities. Being able to
make use of free time in interesting and exciting activi-
ties not only makes one feel satisfied, it also leaves one
with a sense of well being.
Finally, a home economics education can also be
used to train for job skills. The students practice how to
set tables, prepare and serve food, clean up eating ar-
eas, safely store and preserve food and many other
skills required of entrance level jobs in the food field.
They may learn how to fill out a job application and
62 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1989
how to interview for a position. All of these skills will
help to make a beginning employee ready and able to
perform a job. The student has a chance to feel self-re-
liant and comfortable with an unknown experience be-
fore actually encountering the task.
Industrial technology and home economics are
courses that blends learning and project work. A per-
sonal performance is demanded of each student. That
performance may be solo or as part of a group.
The student's first experience in our industrial
technology lab is one of skill building. Some students
bring with them basic knowledge learned at home;
these students come with positive self-esteem. It is
these students who are likely to be chosen as peer
teachers later in the term. Others who are not as
fortunate and are frightened to use the tools in the
workshop gradually begin to lose that fear as they
observe others working safely with the equipment. No
student is made to operate any tool that he does not feel
comfortable using. As the students learn the safety
rules and procedures they gain the confidence to use the
shop equipment. They are very happy to relate the
fact that they were able to help their parents make
various repairs around the house. This not only builds
self-esteem but gives them a preparation for the life
skills needed in our society.
In the first class the students are allowed to chose
their project from a list presented to them. That first
project is one that is interesting to adolescents and
teaches them basic skills using tools. The project may
be a toy or game. Each selection affords the student the
opportunity to personalize it in his or her own way.
S/he may paint or woodburn his/her initials or a fa-
vorite rock group insignia or the project may be left
plain; it is all up to the individual student. By allow-
ing adolescents to make decisions and to receive posi-
tive feedback, positive self-esteem is enhanced.
A computer-aided design program is a popular
project. This not only gives students who are interested
in computers a chance to be creative but it also demon-
strates the state of the art methods employed by indus-
try in the field of drafting, architecture and industrial
design. The finished printouts look professional. The
student receives positive feedback not only from
students but from family and staff as well. Comments
like "You didn't do that, did you?" are not uncommon.
Students with low self-esteem usually avoid in-
terpersonal contacts to insure that they do not get nega-
tive feedback regarding their perceived inabilities. A
mass production unit is a good exercise for these stu-
dents. In this project they must all work together. The
members of each group are randomly selected. The
group is then allowed to vote for officers in their com-
pany. A chairman of the board is selected, vice presi-
dent and so on down the line. Stock certificates are then
sold to obtain capital; a project is selected and made
and sold; and the dividends are distributed. Each stu-
dent in the group has a specific job along with being on
the assembly line. A student who shies away from re-
sponsibility is usually pushed by the others in the
group. This activity allows the student with low self-
esteem to receive positive feedback from his/her peers,
it helps her/him identify a strength s/he may have
and improve her/his own concept of self-worth. It puts
her/him in a position where s/he must interact with
others. A positive experience is usually gained by ev-
eryone involved in the group. This not only teaches
self-esteem but helps explain the process of American
industry and how the various jobs are interrelated.
One of the activities the students enjoy the most is
one that involves giving. It makes the students feel
that they are special. Each class designs and makes
toys, games, puzzles, jewelry holders, pencil holders or
any similar project. Each project is somehow per-
sonalized by the student craftsman. Those students who
are better artists may paint or decorate the projects,
those who are good at manipulating the power tools do
the cutting, and the whole class gets totally involved.
The students find their niche. This usually occurs
around a holiday like Christmas, Hanukkah, or
Easter. When the projects are all finished, bagged and
tagged, the students go to the Shriners Hospital for
Crippled Children and spend an afternoon with the
patients. The students not only distribute the presents
they have made but they make new friends and learn
how some children their own age are coping with
disabilities. Our students learn things through this
project like self-esteem, a sense of giving to others, love
and a sense of community. These are all important
skills adolescents need in adulthood.
Schools should be concerned not only with aca-
demics but also with subjects that convey a satisfying
lifestyle. It becomes the duty of every teacher to face
his/her students with challenging situations and lead
them not to a predetermined solution, but to their own.
Industrial technology does not provide specific job or
trade training, but provides insights into the processes,
tools, and materials of American industry. Industrial
technology is designed to provide orientation to modern
industrial society and its problems through informative
study and problem solving experiences. As with home
economics, many of the skills learned in industrial
technology can be used for hobbies and leisure time ac-
tivities. These activities enhance the quality of life
and make one feel self-satisfied.
Some of the most important functions of a school
today are those that may be emphasized the least.
The traditional focus around academic disciplines does
(Continued on page 67.)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, November /December, 1989 63
tt
SUPERMARKET SAFARI
Tracking Down Good Nutrition
in the Grocery Store
Darlene Gubser
Barbara A. Holt
School of Vocational Education
Louisiana State University
Baton Rouge, LA
Darlene Gubser
Barbara A. Holt
Foods classes hunting for good nutrition should find
fair game in the local grocery store. Clues to nutritional
quality can be spotted on food labels by students who
see with trained eyes. The Food and Drug Administra-
tion requires that every food label must state:
a.
b.
the common name of the product,
the name and address of the manufacturer,
packer, or distributor,
the net contents in terms of weight, measure or
count, and
the ingredients in descending order of predomi-
nance by weight.
Additional information on serving size, portion, calo-
ries, protein, carbohydrate, fat, vitamins and minerals
must be given on the label if any nutrition information
or claim is made on the food package.
In 1979 the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services de-
vised a list of nutritional recommendations for Ameri-
cans called the "Dietary Guidelines for Americans."
These are:
1 . Eat a variety of foods daily.
2. Maintain a desirable weight.
3. Avoid too much fat, saturated fat and choles-
terol.
4. Eat foods with adequate starch and fiber.
5. Avoid too much sugar.
6. Avoid too much sodium.
7. Use alcoholic beverages only in moderation.
A grocery store tour can help students learn to track
down information needed to follow these guidelines.
By following a trail through six food areas-meats,
breads, cereals, oils, dairy products and frozen conve-
nience foods-students can learn to spot the best nutri-
tional trophies.
Meats: Fresh meats and poultry do not contain itemized
labels that can be examined by the student, so the in-
structor needs to point out the different cuts of meat and
their fat contents. Good meat choices would be lean,
well-trimmed cuts of beef, veal, lamb and pork with
little marbling; chicken and turkey without the skin, or
ground turkey, which contain only 15% fat; and fresh
fish. Shrimp and crawfish are high in cholesterol, so
these should be limited. Other sources of protein, such
as dried beans and lentils and soy bean products, may be
tracked down in other parts of the store such as the ce-
reals section. Only six ounces of protein a day per per-
son is recommended. Students may check the weight of
a package of meat and decide how many people it will
serve.
Breads: In touring the bread aisle, point out that just
because a product is labeled whole wheat bread, it does
not mean that the product is high in fiber. Keep an eye
out for labels that say stone ground wheat, cracked
wheat, or wheat bran to spot breads high in dietary
fiber. English muffins and pita bread are among the
low-fat bread choices.
Cereals: Breakfast cereals are a source of B vitamins
and fiber. Oat bran is a popular cereal due to its link to
lowering blood cholesterol levels. The cooked oat bran
and oatmeal cereals contain the highest quantities of
oat bran. Good breakfast cereal choices should be low
in fat-less than one gram per serving, which is about
1/4 teaspoon-and high in fiber. Two to three grams of
fiber per serving is good-four or more grams is excel-
lent. (Continued on page 67.)
64 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1989
Marketing Home Economics:
Let's Stop Assuming and
Start Selling
Machelle Bonde
Home Economics Education
Department
South Dakota State University
Brookings, SD
Recently a great deal of attention has been given
to the image of home economics, and the content and
validity of home economics curricula has been ques-
tioned. As our nation strives for excellence in educa-
tion and a "back to the basics" approach, there have
been fears that home economics programs might be
eliminated. There has been a substantial increase in
required courses for high school students. These re-
quirements have left students with very few elective
choices in their secondary plans of study. This situa-
tion has led many schools to become selective in their
elective course offerings.
During the past few years, I have given some
thought to my future as an instructor of home economics
and the future of the course of study I hold so dear to
my heart. I have always believed that since the life
skills I am teaching are important and relevant to to-
day's youth, no board of education would ever consider
eliminating them. I discovered, however, that there
is one major flaw in this line of thinking. I have my
curriculum, ideas, and philosophies so clearly in mind
that I tend to assume that others know and understand
my program and its importance as well as I do. I as-
sumed that after thirteen years in the same school
system, everyone in the community knew why my
home economics program was all about. I had made an
incorrect assumption.
I revise all of my courses each summer to keep
them current and relevant to today's lifestyles. I as-
sumed that their content communicated their value. I
assumed that because my carefully prepared plan of
study, including my conceptual outlines and task com-
petency lists, was on file in the school office, the
board members and administrators had carefully stud-
ied it. By keeping my course content and my plans cur-
rent, I believed that I was communicating and portray-
ing a positive image that would demonstrate the va-
lidity of my program. These were all incorrect as-
sumptions. I have learned that we must verbally
communicate about our programs directly to others if
we want them to receive an accurate message.
Our board of education, faced with enrollment de-
clines and a tightening of the budget, decided to re-
view the programs and curricula in our school system.
One by one each department was given a chance to
meet with the board of education and administration
to explain its course of study.
As I started thinking about how I might present
all of the important concepts I cover in my home eco-
nomics courses, I realized that I had probably been as-
suming too much and selling too little. I was suddenly
faced with the need to prepare a thirty minute presen-
tation which would cover the important concepts from
each course I teach. This seemed to be an impossible
task.
I was certain of one fact. I needed an absorbing
presentation to which board members could relate
based on their diversified life situations. I reviewed
my conceptual outlines. I realized that it would be
impossible to cover everything I teach in all of my
courses in thirty minutes. My husband, a marketing
instructor and professional sign painter, assisted me
in narrowing down the concepts to issues that could
easily be understood by those without a home eco-
nomics background. He helped me develop a market-
ing strategy for my program emphasizing the life
skills through a series of posters. Each poster pre-
sented a series of questions. My goal was for each of
the board members to answer "yes" to every question.
After reviewing the question, I discussed how my
classes address these issues.
The questions I selected to emphasize the impor-
tance of my program were simple, but important. (In
fact, perhaps the simplicity was the reason I had as-
sumed that the administration and board of education
knew the contributions home economics could make to
students' educations and lives.) The questions I pre-
sented to the board members are listed below:
ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1989 65
7th Grade Skills for Adolescence
Have You ever:
lacked confidence?
set goals?
lacked self-control?
made a decision?
experienced a family concern?
worked with peers?
needed to communicate your feelings?
explored your potential?
made decisions about alcohol, tobacco, and other
drugs?
8th Grade Home Economics
Have you ever needed to:
be a wise shopper?
know your rights?
schedule your time?
manage your money?
conserve resources?
select and care for clothing?
care for your home and keep it safe?
hire a qualified, responsible person to care for
your children?
use equipment and appliances?
know what foods are good for you?
Home Economics I
Have you ever needed to know about:
leadership roles?
planning your career?
high tech equipment?
making choices and setting priorities?
making responsible teenage decisions, such as
those related to dating, pressures, sex?
financial decisions?
caring for young children?
furnishing a room?
planning space and storage needs?
planning and preparing a family meal?
the future?
interpreting a direction sheet or recipe?
repairing your clothing?
Relationships
Have you ever experienced:
communication problems?
stress or depression?
the need to improve yourself?
love?
marriage?
pregnancy, childbirth, and parenting?
a lack of money?
a family crisis?
concern for today's families?
Have you ever attempted:
using a budget?
using credit?
setting up and managing your first home?
managing your energy between home and work re-
sponsibilities?
working with a child or adult with special
needs?
coping with new trends and technology?
Housing and Home Furnishings II
Have you ever:
rented, bought, or built a home?
read a blueprint?
purchased and used major appliances?
furnished your home on a budget?
experienced home maintenance problems?
Textiles and Clothing II
Have you ever needed to:
purchase clothing for your family?
have clothing altered?
have a cost-effective wardrobe?
make a good first impression?
dress for success?
Food and Nutrition II
Have you ever had to:
plan and prepare meals for your family?
simplify meal preparation?
safely store or preserve food?
save money at the grocery store?
Healthy Lifestyles
Have you ever been concerned about:
your health?
exercise?
nutrition?
weight control?
what food to eat?
food quackery?
substance abuse?
current nutritional issues, such as fat and choles-
terol, fiber, sodium, caffeine, or supplements?
diets for special groups, such as the elderly, chil-
dren, or athletes?
66 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/December, 1989
Have you ever felt the need for personal skills for
living in today's complex and fast-paced society?
I also felt it would be important for each board
member to have information to take home with them,
so I prepared packets for each of them. These con-
sisted of abbreviated conceptual outlines for each
course that I teach. I color-coded each outline, so
they could easily see how the basic skills provided
by home economics apply to other areas such as social
sciences, science and health, math, reading and writ-
ing, and oral communication. For example, the stud-
ies of food preservation, and alcohol, tobacco and
other drugs were coded for the application in science
and health. The studies of marketing and budgeting
the food dollar and using credit were coded for their
relationship to math.
I also stressed the importance of integrated
Future Homemakers of America activities to make
home economics learnings come to life. I shared my
students' experiences in applying child development
and foods and nutrition learnings as they developed
and taught lessons on nutritious snacks and safety to
elementary students as a Future Homemakers of
America project.
The end result of this challenging, yet rewarding,
experience was an informed, impressed and support-
ive board of education and administration. I am con-
vinced that home economics teachers need to stop as-
suming others know what we teach and start selling
our home economics programs. When we take the
time to communicate about home economics, it can sell
itself. • • •
(Continued from page 63.)
not adequately reflect the varied purposes of an
education, in particular those dealing with personal
development and socialization.
Both industrial technology and home economics
courses can offer much in this area. They can
contribute to establishing well developed individuals
who have pride in their work, and who can contribute
successfully to our society.
References
Beane, J. A., & Lepka, R. P. (1984). Self concept, self-
esteem, and the curriculum. Boston: Allyn and
Bacon, Inc.
Lounsbury, J. H., & Vars, G. E. (1978). A curriculum for
the middle school years. New York: Harper and
Row. • • •
(Continued from page 64.)
Oils: The total fat consumed daily should be about 30
percent of the caloric intake. Of this, about ten
percent should come from saturated fats, less than ten
percent should come from polyunsaturated fats, and
the remainder should be monounsaturated fats.
Examples of saturated fats are palm oil, coconut oil,
and solid shortening. Polyunsaturated fats include
corn, cottonseed and soybean oils; and
monounsaturated fats include olive and peanut oils.
Safflower, sunflower and corn oils are good choices.
All oils contain the same amount of calories. Some
olive oils are marketed as "light," but this refers only
to the color of the oil.
Dairy Products: When a product is labeled "light" in
the dairy section, such as "light sour cream," it indi-
cates that the product is lower in fat than the normal
product. Skim or 1 percent low-fat milk are excellent
choices for milk. Yogurt and skim milk are good
sources of calcium. To reduce fat intake, however, it is
best to select low-fat or non-fat yogurts. Low-fat
cheese choices are 1 percent cottage cheese, skim-milk
ricotta, skim-milk mozzarella, and other "light-line"
cheeses. Limit the use of cheddar, American, Swiss,
Muenster, cream cheese, and Brie. Use these cheeses
only for a meal, not a snack.
Frozen Convenience Foods: These foods are usually
very high in sodium and should be limited in the diet.
The recommended daily sodium intake is 1,100 to 3,300
milligrams. Many frozen dinners contain 1,000 or more
milligrams of sodium per package. A few of the
"light line" entrees have sodium levels between 500
and 700 milligrams, but it must be pointed out that
these are only entrees and the students will need
vegetables, fruits and bread along with the entree to
make a balanced meal.
Other points of interest to be noted during the su-
permarket safari are that items labeled low in
cholesterol are not necessarily low in fat—peanut
butter and potato chips are examples. Air-popped
popcorn is the best choice of popcorns— many
microwave popcorns are packaged in saturated fats, so
examine the labels closely. Sorbets and fruit ices are
the best choices for frozen desserts because of their low
fat content.
A tour of the neighborhood grocery store can be an
effective way to track down the nutritional quality of
foods. But the supermarket can be a jungle for students
who do not know how to look for clues. The home eco-
nomics teacher can be a good safari leader and point
out ways for students to get on the right track for good
nutrition! • • •
ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1989 67
tt
Inductive Teaching: A Strategy
to Teach Housing Concepts
Deborah G. Wooldridge, Assistant Professor
Home Economics Education
Marge Sebelius, Instructor
Housing and Interior Design
Susan Ross, Graduate Assistant
Home Economics Education
Southeast Missouri State University
Cape Girardeau, MO
Educating students for the 21st century will re-
quire that they be taught independent, higher order
thinking skills through the use of cooperative and
active learning (Task Group on General Education,
1988). The development of these skills will facili-
tate formal operational thinking in students.
Therefore, teachers need to develop an awareness of
how students come to understand, interpret, and inte-
grate ideas (Thomas, 1987). The development of
these skills and abilities in students will enable
them to be lifelong learners.
According to Piaget (1952), formal operational
thought is characterized by the ability to think ab-
stractly, and move from concrete to abstract thought.
Students who think at this level are able to think in
terms of "what if." They are able to see a variety of
solutions and are able to use hypothetical reasoning.
Students cannot develop formal operational
thought processes through the use of dialogue, ques-
tioning, and verbal expression. However, much of
what takes place in the classroom is the teacher
talking to the students with very little time allowed
for the students to respond verbally. Paul (1984) ex-
pressed the need for teachers to explicitly teach stu-
dents how to develop and express opinions and this is
best done through the use of dialectic skills.
One strategy which teachers can use to facilitate
the development of formal operational thought is
the inductive teaching model developed by Taba
(1967). The inductive teaching model used reasoning
from which general principles are derived from par-
ticular facts or instances. Taba's model develops in-
ductive thinking processes through three stages: con-
cept formation, interpretation of data, and applica-
tion of principles.
During the concept formation stage, students de-
velop a general idea or understanding which encour-
ages the development on conceptual skills. The
teacher uses techniques such as listing, grouping, and
categorizing to encourage concept formation. The sec-
ond stage allows students to begin interpreting and
generalizing information. The teacher facilitates
this stage by asking questions and engaging in dia-
logue with the students in a cooperative learning set-
ting. Finally, the students are ready to apply the
learned principles to new situations. At this final
stage, students begin to further develop formal oper-
ational thought by utilizing higher order thinking
which is characterized by the ability to generalize
from concrete to abstract situations.
The following is a sample plan for using the Taba
model to teach about furniture styles. The same
model can be used to teach concepts in foods, nutri-
tion, child development, personal development, etc.
INDUCTIVE TEACHING MODEL
TOPIC: FURNITURE STYLES
GENERALIZATION: The design of furnishings re-
flects economics, social, political and religious influ-
ences of the culture of origin.
OBJECTIVES:
1. The student will identify furniture styles.
2. The student will be able to discuss the relation-
ships between furniture styles and the economic,
political, social and religious influences on the
culture of origin.
3. The students will be able to predict the influence
of the changes in the economic, social, political,
and religious climates on furniture design.
STRATEGY ONE: CONCEPT FORMATION
Phase One: The teacher and students will enumerate
and list information which is relevant to the prob-
lem.
Teaching strategy: The class will brainstorm the
following question: What political events do you
think of in relation to these countries and periods:
68 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1989
Italy, England, Ancient Egypt, France, Middle Ages,
America, and Spain?
Write each term on newsprint and record student
responses to each term. Next, ask the students to
name significant historical events and record the re-
sponses.
Phase Two: The teacher will guide students in group-
ing information with similar characteristics.
Teaching strategy: Provide students with picto-
rial examples of furniture styles related to the terms
used in Phase One. Students will then be asked to
place the examples beside the term they think best
fits the furniture style.
Phase Three: The students will begin labeling and
categorizing information which reflects characteris-
tics of all items in the group.
Teaching strategy: The teacher will use a ques-
tioning strategy to probe the students' level of under-
standing, how they interpret information, and how
they are integrating learning. Suggested questions:
1. Why do you place the (pictorial) examples
in these categories?
2. What similarities do you notice among the
examples?
3. Why do you think all of the items belong
where you placed them?
4. Why are these categories appropri-
ate/inappropriate?
5. What similarities do you see between what
you listed on the newsprint and the exam-
ples?
6. Are there any examples you would like to
change?
After the questioning strategy and discussion, allow
the students to open a textbook that has examples of
furniture styles. Ask if their categorization agrees
with that in the book. How are they alike or differ-
ent and how they account for the outcome.
STRATEGY TWO: INTERPRETATION OF DATA
Phase Four and Five: The students will be able to
identify and explore critical relationships among
the examples.
Teaching strategy: The teacher will use the ques-
tioning technique to probe students' critical thinking
abilities. Suggested questions:
1 . What similarities do you see between what you
have listed on the newsprint and the (pictorial)
examples?
2. What similarities do you see among the groups?
3. What differences do you see among the groups?
4. What kinds of relationships do you see between
history and furniture styles?
5. What evidence is there of relationships be-
tween religious events and furniture styles?
6. What kinds of relationships do you see between
the political climate and furniture styles?
Phase Six: The students will begin making inferences
by developing generalizations from the pictorial ex-
amples and discussion.
Teaching strategy: The teacher will utilize the
questioning strategy to lead students to making gen-
eralizations related to the information. Suggested
questions are:
1 . What conclusions can you draw from what is
listed on the newsprint and the pictorial ex-
amples?
2. What does this mean?
3. When you hear the terms related to furni-
ture styles, what mental picture is created?
4. In what ways does the economic climate af-
fect furniture design?
5. In what ways do social attitudes influence
design?
6. In what way(s) is design influenced by be-
liefs and ideologies?
7. In what ways do religious values influence
design?
STRATEGY THREE:
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES
Phase Seven: Students will predict consequences and
explain unfamiliar phenomena by stating hypothe-
ses on the generalizations or showing evidence of
moving from concrete to abstract thought.
GENERALIZATION: The design of furnishing re-
flects economic, social, political and religious influ-
ences of the culture of origin.
Teaching strategy: The questioning strategy will
be utilized again. Suggested questions:
1. What would happen to furniture styles if a
law were passed which banned the use of
wood in furniture construction?
2. Many furniture materials are petroleum
based. How are families likely to be affected
if the cost of producing furniture made of nat-
ural resources increases?
3. Taking current affairs into account, what
changes might take place in furniture design
by the year 2020?
Next, discuss the consequences of the changes on fur-
niture styles and how these changes will affect the
family. (Continued on page 71 .)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/December, 1989 69
Clearing Up the Confusion About
Cholesterol
Reprinted from:
Food Insight
International Food Information Council
Spring 1989
1331 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W.
Suite 717
Washington, DC 20004
Cholesterol. The word conjures up images of arter-
ies clogged with fat, prohibiting the passage of life-
giving blood.
In an attempt to avoid this terrible fate, some in-
dividuals shun eggs, beef and other cholesterol-rich
foods. But the specific degree to which dietary
cholesterol raises blood cholesterol levels is not clear.
Further confusing the issue, professionals and the
public alike often use the terms "dietary cholesterol"
and "blood cholesterol" synonymously. What is the
difference? Is it important? In its ongoing look at far
in our diets, Food Insight examines the confusion about
cholesterol.
Blood vs. Dietary Cholesterol
Technically, cholesterol is not a fat, but rather a
fat-like substance classified as a lipid. Cholesterol is
vital to life and is found in all cell membranes. It is
necessary for the production of bile acids and steroid
hormones.
Actually, most of the cholesterol in the blood is
manufactured by the body, usually about 800-1,500
milligrams a day, compared with 400-500 milligrams
consumed daily by the average American in foods.
It travels through the blood via particles called
lipoproteins — combinations of lipids and proteins.
Too much cholesterol can build up in the blood and ac-
cumulate in the walls of the blood vessels, a condition
known as atherosclerosis. This can ultimately reduce
the flow of blood in major arteries.
Although high serum or blood cholesterol has
been identified as one of the significant risk factors in
the development of coronary heart disease (CHD),
the cholesterol we eat — or dietary cholesterol — is just
one factor influencing blood cholesterol levels.
And many experts say that's the case only for
some people rather than the entire population. For
others, the cholesterol content of the diet may have
little effect. As few as 10- to 20- percent of adults may
actually experience lower blood cholesterol levels as
a result of eating less dietary cholesterol.
In fact, for most people at risk, heredity is a
stronger predictor of cholesterol levels than diet. Re-
gardless of how little fat or cholesterol they eat,
their bodies produce excess amounts of cholesterol
that can spell trouble. Scientists may one day be able
to identify a gene or phenotype that is carried by such
"cholesterol responsive" individuals.
From a public health perspective, dietary recom-
mendations from the government and most major
health associations advise reducing dietary choles-
terol as well as the total fat and saturated fat intake
to control risk for coronary heart disease.
Coronary Heart Disease
Risk factors for CHD include some beyond our con-
trol— such as heredity, age, race and sex — as well as
those which we can influence. For example, in addi-
tion to reducing high blood cholesterol levels, we can
reduce our risk of heart disease by avoiding cigarette
smoking, controlling high blood pressure, preventing
obesity, getting adequate exercise and managing
stress. For those with diabetes, controlling blood glu-
cose levels also is important.
Blood cholesterol reflects the amount of three
major classes of lipoproteins: very-low-density
lipoproteins (VL DL), low-density lipoproteins
(VDL), which contains most of the cholesterol found
in the blood, and high-density lipoprotein (HDL).
LDL seems to be the culprit in CHD and is associated
with cholesterol deposits on artery walls.
In contrast, HDL is increasingly seen as more de-
sirable. Recent studies indicate that the more HDL in
the blood, the lower the risk for developing CHD.
HDL apparently carries cholesterol out of the blood
and back to the liver for breakdown and excretion.
Therefore, LDL is the actual target for cholesterol
reduction efforts. But because LDL contains most of the
cholesterol in the blood, total cholesterol is more eas-
ily measured as the first indicator of the relative risk
for development of CHD.
The average level of blood cholesterol in the U.S.
adult population is approximately 210-215 mil-
ligrams/deciliter (mg/dl). The National Heart, Lung
and Blood Institute's National Cholesterol Education
70 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/December, 1989
Program (NCEP) classifies risk for heart disease
based on total blood cholesterol levels as follows:
Under 200 md/dl— Desirable
200-239 mg/dl— Borderline-High
240 mg/dl— High
NCEP recommends that individuals with choles-
terol readings of 200 mg/dl and above — about half of
all Americans — should have these readings confirmed
through another test. Persons with borderline — high
or high levels and having two CHD risk factors or di-
agnosed CHD, should also have their lipoprotein
levels analyzed, particularly the amount of LDLs and
HDLs.
All adults over the age of 20 with desirable
cholesterol levels should have their cholesterol lev-
els rechecked every five years.
Dietary Management
NCEP recommends dietary modification as the
first treatment for elevated blood cholesterol. The
recommendations are designed to reduce intake of sat-
urated fat and cholesterol and to promote weight loss
for those who are overweight.
NCEP recommends to first limit total fat to less
than 30 percent of calories, saturated fat to less than
10 percent of calories and cholesterol to less than 300
milligrams daily — guidelines similar to those es-
poused by most health authorities today.
If that approach fails to reduce blood cholesterol
after a six-month trial, NCEP recommends a harder
line. Saturated fat is further decreased to 7 percent of
calories and cholesterol dropped to no more than 200
milligrams per day for another six months. If LDL
levels cannot be reduced, drug therapy may be tried
along with continued adherence to the diet.
The Bottom Line
Although dietary cholesterol may not play the
major role in the development of CHD as once
thought, Americans are likely on the right track
when consuming moderate amounts of high-choles-
terol foods.
But perhaps the most important point to keep in
mind when developing a plan to prevent CHD is that
many factors are involved. And it's difficult to sepa-
rate the impact of one factor from another. Alone, re-
ducing cholesterol in the diet may have little effect.
The best approach to avoid America's number one
killer appears to be: a well-balanced diet, plenty of
exercise, maintaining proper weight, avoiding smok-
ing and getting prompt, effective treatment of diseases
such as high blood pressure and diabetes.
(Continued from page 69.)
Phase Eight: The students will explain and provide
supporting evidence for their predictions.
Teaching strategy: Place students in groups and
have them identify evidence that supports or
negates a selected prediction. Then have them pre-
sent the evidence to the class. A discussion will fol-
low each presentation to help students clarify flaws
in their logic.
Phase Nine: The students will verify the predic-
tions.
Teaching strategy: During this phase, the
teacher will help the students investigate political,
social, economic, and religious trends to support their
predictions.
Summary
The home economics profession has evolved from
an interdisciplinary model. The curriculum being
taught in the secondary classroom is also interdisci-
plinary in nature. The inductive thinking model in
teaching can help students see interrelationships
among subjects and between subjects and real life situ-
ations. If students are to be lifelong, global, holistic
thinkers they must be able to see the interdisci-
plinary nature of knowledge.
SUGGESTED CLASSROOM REFERENCES for this
lesson.
Craig, H. (1987). Homes with character. New
York: Lipincott.
Lewis, E. L. (1987). Housing decisions. South
Holland, IL: Goodheart-Wilcox Publishers.
Whiton, S. (1974). Interior design and decoration.
South Holland, IL: Goodheart-Wilcox
Publishers.
Sebelius, M. S. (1989). Housing, home furnishings,
and equipment. Columbia, MO: Instructional
Materials Laboratory, University of Missouri-
Columbia.
References
East, M. (1980). Home economics: Past, present, and
future. Boston, Mass.: Allyn & Bacon, Inc.
Paul, R. (1984). Critical thinking: Fundamental to
education for a free society. Educational
Leadership, 42(1), 4-15.
Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in chil-
dren. New York: International University Press.
Taba, H. (1967). Teachers handbook for elementary
social studies. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley
Publishing.
(Continued on page 78.)
ILLPNOIS TEACHER, November /December, 1989 71
The Issue of Curriculum Change in
Clothing Studies
Susan G. Turnbull, Head
Department of Clothing & Textiles
Faculty of Human Ecology
University of Manitoba
Winnipeg, Canada
Introduction
Early in the twentieth century, English philoso-
pher and educator Herbert Spencer (1905) posed the
question: what knowledge is of most worth? The ques-
tion continues to be a critical one for educators today.
As knowledge changes and expands, the change itself is
a dominant force that ensures a continuing difference in
our lives. In the discipline of clothing and textiles, ed-
ucators are cognizant of the need for change, and are
constantly searching for ways of changing most effec-
tively.
This paper explores issues relevant to change in the
clothing studies curriculum. General educational
change, home economics factors, and details of clothing
studies content, teachers, and planning for the future
will be discussed along with recommendations for
teachers' involvement in curriculum planning.
Educational Change
Societal trends are recognized as influencing school
curricula. Many authors agree that schools must be
viewed as an integral part of the larger societal unit,
and as such, curriculum perspectives must reflect society
as society changes (Smith & Cox, 1976; Tyler, 1962, Van
Til , 1974). However, some authors warn against plac-
ing undo importance on the need to reform for reform's
sake (Winn, 1983).
The concept of change agents, first developed by
Havelock in 1973, has meaning in the educational con-
text. Agents of change were defined as individuals or
groups of people with direct impact on educational
change, being either inside or outside of the system.
Goodlad (1975) build on Havelock's ideas by suggesting
that schools themselves are agents of and for change.
In Canada, Leithwood (1982) examined the broad
field of decision-making in curriculum. Initially he
commented that agents of change, as single units, often
do not have a complete conception of the change pro-
cess. He brought together many theories to form a con-
ceptual framework of decision-making which would
recognize the numerous incremental parts and stepwise
progression of curriculum change. Within the frame-
work he included teachers as agents in the educational
system.
Relevancy of educational curriculum is championed
by many education experts. Chan (1984) examined the
Canadian situation and stated that curriculum can be
composed of subject areas perceived to be relevant to the
present and future needs of the learners. He acknowl-
edged that questions such as who does the perceiving
and who assesses the student needs must be addressed.
Several of the theories that place educational
change in a futuristic frame are particularly relevant to
this discussion. Tyler (1962) and Beck, Bernier, Mac-
donald, Walton & Willers (1968) described the impor-
tance of the relationship between societal trends and
school curricula. Dyer (1984) and Gibbons (1984) identi-
fied the need for educators, especially teachers, to con-
tinually alter their performance vis a vis the
"knowledge explosion" and changing social circum-
stance. And both Chan (1984) and Leithwood (1982)
emphasized the requirement for relevant future change
in education, reinforcing the premise that educational
change should be examined within the larger context of
general social change.
In addition to needed curriculum change, the recog-
nition of the importance of teachers in the process is
well documented (Chan, 1984; Common, 1983;
Havelock, 1973; Hill, 1979). Research quantifying the
perceived importance of teachers in the curriculum
decision-making process was conducted in Ontario.
Connelly, Kormos and Enns (1982) recognized the wide
variety of sources of influence in the overall provincial
curriculum establishment. While noting the great
diversity in the data collected, their research showed
that teachers ranked highest in perceived overall
influence for both sample groups of teachers and
administration-related personnel.
The importance of teachers in the curriculum sphere
was underscored by Morris (1982), who reviewed much
of the work of futures-related educational theorists.
He summarized the findings, and noted that futures-re-
lated educational theory generally consisted of the
change, conscious awareness, and cooperation. Morris
agreed with Fullan (1982), who said that educators
72 ILLINOIS Teacher, November /December, 1 989
should concentrate upon "designing a curriculum of
change, not merely a changing curriculum."
Home Economics
Individuals making curriculum decisions in home
economics have long been supportive of the need to be
aware of general developments in education and of the
primary importance of the changing socio-economic
conditions that directly affect family units (Simpson,
1965-66). In 1962, Coon drew a U.S. national sample of
schools to obtain up-to-date information about what
home economics courses were being taught, where and
how often, and the proportion of students enrolled in
such courses. Hughes (1982) further examined the gen-
eral shifts in focus and content following the publica-
tion of Coon's work, by comparing high school curricu-
lum guides from the late 1950s and of the 1978-80
period. Hughes concluded that home economics
curriculum had changed as a result of the differences
evident in the surrounding environs reflecting
employment changes, the movement from in-home
production to mass production and marketing, and
growing governmental involvement in the field.
In a national survey of Canadian home economics
secondary school curricula, Peterat (1984) noted the
great variety of emphases of the general course offer-
ings. The goals in most of the provinces were shown to
be directed toward the development of individuals and
families via management, decision-making, or problem
solving methodologies which were set in present day
environments. As an illustration of this, Hames (1980),
investigating the Ontario family studies curriculum,
noted that change within the educational system hap-
pens almost automatically, even within individual
classroom settings. From a list of subject matter topics
obtained from the provincial curriculum documents,
teachers selected topics which they would most likely
teach. The topics represented content areas in which
they had knowledge and confidence, thereby constantly
changing the curriculum-in-action.
Recognition and reinforcement of the change and
relevancy axiom was endorsed by the general profession
in the Canadian Home Economics Association's policy
statement and position paper, "Home Eco-
nomics/Family Studies Education in Canadian Schools"
(1985). In this document, home economics programs
were defined as focusing on the family in its changing
environment and as using teaching strategies which are
relevant to all students.
Clothing Studies
The curriculum of clothing studies has been exam-
ined at the different levels of education at which it is
offered. Within the post-secondary clothing and tex-
tiles community, the Association of College Professors
of Textiles and Clothing's Future Development Com-
mittee methodically examined futures issues at an ini-
tial Futures Workshop in 1983, and a subsequent series
of regional workshops. Horn (1984) described the
schema of the workshops as approaching the future by
emergent design, which she defined as the encourage-
ment of controversy, and exploration of many different
alternatives to better our understanding of the possible
family and societal actions of tomorrow. The work-
shops allowed for a listing of strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities, and threats, but did not include an exam-
ination of what these elements might mean for future
curricula.
Using a similar technique, Turnbull (1986) con-
ducted a workshop with New Brunswick junior and se-
nior high school home economics teachers. The results
contained many parallels to those identified by Horn;
the strengths and opportunities of secondary school
clothing studies curriculum identified by the teachers
included the field's content, provision of aid to student
self-development, opportunities for new teaching mi-
lieus, and the use of technology. The weaknesses and
threats were listed as general threats to the school sys-
tems such as underfunding and lack of support, dis-
interest of the students, and irrelevancy of the curricu-
lum content. The overall results did indicate the will-
ingness of teachers to be analytical in relation to the
clothing studies curriculum.
The work of Peterat (1984) provides additional in-
formation on the various subject areas within Canadian
secondary school home economics. She noted that in
both specific clothing courses and those courses with
clothing studies components, emphasis on clothing con-
struction was predominant. In five of the ten Canadian
provinces, courses were shown to deal exclusively with
traditional topics of clothing studies: clothing construc-
tion, clothing care, design principles, and grooming.
There was some evidence in the other provinces of
innovative teaching approaches to these concepts, as
well as some expansion of the field using sociology,
history, and economics as base disciplines. Examples
included the management of needs and resources
approach used in Quebec, use of indigenous groups to
study clothing practices and crafts in Nova Scotia, and
a course relating to Canadian designers and the fashion
industry in Alberta. Some change from traditional
content then was evident, but the clothing studies
change was not a strong national movement.
The issue of the over-emphasis on clothing construc-
tion techniques within all of the clothing studies
content area has been debated throughout the home
economics and clothing education literature. Courtless
(1982) noted that the amount of home sewing which is
done outside of school-related activities is decreasing
in the U.S. Margerum (1981) explored the issue of over-
ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1989 73
emphasizing construction, to the detriment of other
clothing studies topics, in times of economic stress. She
echoed Horn (1981) by stating that educators must
constantly monitor current events, considering clothing
curriculum while evaluating the events. Spitze (1983)
believed that an emphasis should be placed on other
things that are already taught in clothing construction
classes, such as decision-making and organizational
skills.
The concept of perennial practical problems as a
vehicle from which to approach home economics was
developed by Brown and Paolucci (1979). MacCleave-
Frazier and Murray (1983) believed it possible to con-
centrate on the underlying principles and processes of
the identified practical problems as they apply to
clothing studies. They suggested a shift in the focus of
teaching clothing studies at the secondary school level.
They examined the need to consider clothing as a means
of studying general issues in home economics and
pointed out the importance of viewing clothing as a
major factor in individual development, family rela-
tionships and processes, and inter-relationships be-
tween family structures and the societal environment.
They also dealt with the place of clothing construction
within this framework, positioning it as only one of a
series of means to satisfy the clothing needs for family
units.
In an attempt to utilize home economics teachers as
agents of change in determining suitable clothing stud-
ies curriculum, Turnbull (1987) employed a futures ap-
proach to investigate the question of curriculum content.
Respondents to a mail survey that was directed to all
anglophone junior and senior high school teachers in
New Brunswick (n = 116) were first asked to read a two
page description of anticipated future change in educa-
tion, home economics and clothing studies. The "futures
stimulus" was set in a near future time frame of five to
ten years hence. Provided with this encouragement to
think about future curriculum matters, the teachers
then responded to a series of scales designed to measure
the desirability of certain clothing studies topics for in-
clusion in future provincial curriculum. Generally the
results indicated that traditional topics of clothing
study at the secondary level were viewed as maintain-
ing their importance. It was interesting to note that
"basic construction skills" was not placed in the most
important rank of clothing topics to be taught, but
rather in order of importance it fell below those of
clothing care, clothing labels, and purchasing ready-to-
wear. This provided evidence for the evolutionary pro-
cess of curriculum development. Change in content was
recognized by the teaching professionals as desirable;
however the change was not so severe as to totally
overturn the existing curriculum focus.
They perceived that home economics in general has
a promising future as a field of study and clothing stud-
ies should retain its position as part of the field. In
addition, there was strong evidence that teachers
themselves recognized the importance of relevancy in
the curriculum for today's students. But the concept of
curricular relevancy was not considered a strength of
the field, indicating a need for increased consideration
of this element in planning for the future.
Conclusions
What important factors can be drawn from this lit-
erature overview? For teachers in general, the issue of
change in education is pervasive. What the curriculum
changes to, and how it is changes are questions that
inspire no easy answers. Several theories of change
that facilitate modelling exist, all of them having the
common critical component of relevancy of curriculum
content and a recognition of the need to place curriculum
change within a futures time frame. Curriculum
planners can not plan for today but must consider the
needs of future individuals in society. Constant review,
critical analysis and needs assessments must be
conducted; forecasting skills must be developed to
enable the development of suitable, relevant curriculum
for tomorrow's students.
Teachers should consider themselves as important
players in the curriculum change process. The agents of
change concept means that teachers themselves have a
powerful foundation upon which to develop or redirect
curriculum content. More processes need to be made
available so that teachers can become actively in-
volved in curriculum development. Changing member-
ship on provincial curriculum committees and enhanced
interaction between junior and senior high school
teachers will aid the profession in self-recognition of
their power base as curriculum change agents.
Relevancy of curriculum demands an acute aware-
ness of changing societal conditions on a local, provin-
cial, national, and even international basis. Relevancy
implies responsibility not only to social groups with
vested interests in education, but more importantly it
implies responsibility to the students as receivers,
those individuals experiencing the curriculum content.
In clothing studies, the relevancy concept must be
attended to on an on-going basis. Construction will not
likely disappear from clothing studies classes in the
near future, but these classes should encourage students
to consider construction as only one means of satisfying
clothing needs. Class instruction must make provision
for accommodating topics such as purchasing ready-to-
wear and exploring the growing influence of technology
on clothing production, selection, and use.
74 ILLINOIS Teacher, November/ December, 1989
References
Beck, C. E., Bernier, N. R., Macdonald, J. B., Walton, T.
W., & Willers, J. C. (1968). Education for rele-
vance. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.
Brown, M. A., & Paolucci, B. (1979). Home economics:
A definition. Washington, D.C.: American Home
Economics Association.
Canadian Home Economics Association. (1985). Home
economics/family studies education in Canadian
schools. A policy statement and position paper.
Canadian Home Economics journal, 35, 116-119.
Chan, T. V. (1984). Curriculum development for the
classroom. A teacher's prerogative. Education
Canada, 24(2), 31-35.
Common, D. L. (1983). Who should have the power to
change schools: Teachers or policy-makers? Educa-
tion Canada, 23(3), 40-45.
Connelly, F. M., Kormos, J., & Enns, R. J. (1982). Com-
mercial and locally developed curriculum materi-
als. In K. A. Leithwood (Ed.), Studies in curriculum
decision making. Toronto: Ontario Institute for
Studies in Education Press.
Coon, B. I. (1962). Home economics in the public sec-
ondary schools. A report of a national study.
Washington, D.C.: Office of Education.
Courtless, J. C. (1982). Home sewing trends. Family
Economics Review, 4, 19-22.
Dyer, J. (1984). Deterrents to change. Education
Canada, 24(1), 28-33.
Fullan, M. (1982). The meaning of education change.
Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education
Press.
Gibbons, M. (1984). Walkabout ten years later:
Searching for a renewed vision of education. Phi
Delta Kappan, 65, 591-600.
Goodlad, J. I. (1975). The dynamics of educational
change: Toward responsive schools. NY: McGraw-
Hill Book Co., Charles F. Kettering Foundation
Program.
Hames, P. K. (1980). Development of an evaluation
model for implementation of home economics subject
matter in selected schools in Ontario, Canada. Un-
published doctoral dissertation, Texas Tech Uni-
versity, Lubbock.
Havelock, R. G. (1973). The change agent's guide to in-
novation in education. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Educational Technology Publications.
Hill, J. W. (1979). Societal decisions in curriculum. In J.
I. Goodlad et al. (Eds.), Curriculum inquiry: The
study of curriculum practice. New York: McGraw-
Hill Book Co.
Horn, M. J. (1981). The second skin (3rd edition).
Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.
Horn, M. J. (1984). Clothing and textiles: Future by
emergent design. Clothing and Textiles Research
Journal, 2(2), 1-6.
Hughes, R. P. (1982). 25 years of high school home eco-
nomics and a look ahead. Illinois Teacher, 25, 156-
164.
Leithwood, K. A. (1982). Decision making in planned
educational change. In K. A. Leithwood (Ed.),
Studies in curriculum decision making. Toronto: On-
tario Institute for Studies in Educational Press.
MacCleave-Frazier, A., & Murray, E. C. (1983). Recon-
ceptualizing the teaching of clothing consumer and
homemaking programs: Implications for teacher
preparation. University Park, PA: Home
Economics Education, The Pennsylvania State Uni-
versity.
Margerum, B. J. (1981). The clothing scene - The teach-
ing guide. Journal of Home Economics, 73(1), 45-47.
Morris, G. B. (1982). A conceptualization of education
in the future. Canadian Journal of Education, 7(2),
16-33.
Peterat, L. (1984). Home economics: A survey of
provincial curricula at secondary level. Frederic-
ton, N.B.: University of New Brunswick.
Simpson, E. ]. (1965-66). Curriculum development in
home economics education. Illinois Teacher, 9(1), 1-
21
Smith, F. R., & Cox, C. B. (1976). Secondary schools in
a changing society. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and
Winston, Inc.
Spencer, H. (1905). Education: Intellectual, moral, and
physical. London: Watts & Co.
Spitze, H. T. (1983). Curriculum reform and home eco-
nomics or, what do we do now? Illinois Teacher, 27,
1-4.
Turnbull, S. G. (1986). Using teacher self-analysis for
curriculum change. The case of clothing studies.
Illinois Teacher, 30,36-37.
Turnbull, S. G. (1987). Clothing studies in New
Brunswick secondary schools: Teacher assessment
of future content. Unpublished doctoral disserta-
tion, The Ohio State University, Columbus.
Tyler, R. W. (1962). Curriculum development and re-
search. In P. L. Hosford (Ed.), Using what we know
about teaching. Alexandria, VA: Association for
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Van Til, W. (Ed.). (1974). Curriculum: Quest for rele-
vance (2nd ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.
Winn, I. (1983). High school reform: Stuffing the
turkeys. Phi Delta Kappan, 65(3), 184-18. •••
ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1989 75
Suggestions for Extension
Home Economists Programming
At Congregate Nutrition Sites
Janette K. Newhouse
Resource Development Specialist
Virginia Cooperative Extension
Service
Home Economics
Virginia Tech
Blacksburg, VA
With the aging of the American population, older
adults are becoming an increasingly more visible and
significant segment of society. Evidence exists to indi-
cate that the Cooperative Extension Service (CES) has
taken note of this phenomenon (Van Horn, Heasley, &
Preston, 1985) and is intensifying its efforts to design
programs to address the needs of older clients.
One appropriate forum for bringing home
economists employed by Extension together with older
adults is the congregate nutrition site (group meal
programs for older adults). The CES is one of the
largest educational outreach organizations in the
United States with a network of 11,240 agents in 3,150
counties across the nation (Warner & Christenson,
1984). To complement the pervasiveness of the Exten-
sion system throughout the nation, there are nearly
15,000 congregate nutrition sites in the country (U.S.
Department of Health and Human Service, 1985). In
addition to the nationwide geographical dispersion of
these two networks, Extension involvement is suggested
by Title IIIB of the Older Americans Act of 1965 that
not only authorizes the Congregate Nutrition Services
Program, but also provides for the inclusion of financial
counseling, health education, and nutrition education
(Ficke, 1985). Therefore, the opportunity exists for Ex-
tension Home Economists to provide information for
older adults in these established areas of program ex-
pertise.
Despite the goodness of fit between the educational
resources of the Extension Home Economist and the
elderly participants of the Congregate Nutrition
Services Program, traditional program delivery models
are often inappropriate to older participants. As home
economists prepare to target Extension's educational
programs to audiences at congregate nutrition sites some
recommendations are offered. These suggestions are
based primarily on the author's involvement in a
national study of the role of CES in congregate nutrition
programs (Newhouse, Scott, Hertzler, & McAuley,
1989) and a post-doctoral experience studying programs
at multipurpose senior center in West Virginia
(Newhouse, 1986).
Understand how the congregate nutrition sites in
each community are organized. Research has shown
that there is considerable diversity in the organiza-
tion, operation, and programming at senior centers
(Krout, 1985). They differ according to the chain of
command; who makes the programming decisions; the
hours and days of operation; the program format; when
participants arrive, eat, and depart. Some centers are
activity-oriented while others are primarily a point of
socialization where elders come to visit, eat, and return
home. Within other centers you might find both an ac-
tivity and a socialization model operating simultane-
ously with perhaps a third group who attend but
choose not to be actively involved. Visiting the center
prior to program planning is a good way to observe the
facilities, clients, and organizational format. If a visit
is not feasible, certainly a conversation with the site
supervisor to help you more clearly understand the op-
eration is warranted.
Cultivate a positive working relationship with
the Area Agency on Aging and other appropriate com-
munity agencies. Find out which organizations and
agencies are involved in the operation of the commu-
nity nutrition program, then make them aware of Ex-
tension's resources and interest in providing educational
programs. It is not unusual for territory problems to
evolve among agencies striving to serve similar clien-
tele groups. Extension Home Economists need to empha-
size that their service is the dissemination of research-
based education— a service few other community
organizations provide exclusively. Explore ways that
CES can interact with sponsoring agencies to achieve
common goals.
The Area Agency on Aging (AAA) is likely to be
involved in the implementation of the nutrition pro-
76 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1989
gram because it is the agency designated by the Older
Americans Act to develop a comprehensive and coordi-
nated system to serve older individuals (Ficke, 1985).
For this reason, it seems imperative that Extension
Home Economists foster a positive working
relationship with AAA personnel.
Find out what is unique about each audience. Re-
search on senior center participants indicates that no
congruent profile of center users versus non-users emerges
with regard to sociodemographic indicators (Krout,
1987). Consistent with this finding, congregate nutri-
tion sites are likely to include a heterogeneous group of
older people. Even among people who live in close geo-
graphic proximity, people of different educational lev-
els, different levels of functional abilities, various
ethnic and racial backgrounds are likely to be attracted
to the center. Without losing sight of individual dif-
ferences, it is useful to look for some commonalities
among the participants. Do they all reside in the same
housing facility? Are they primarily female? Are
many participants victims of the farm crisis? Do they
live in an economically depressed region? Are there
certain cultural or religious values that permeate the
community? Understanding the basic similarities and
differences among the older persons who participate
will enable the educator to target programs to client
needs.
Target program topics to the needs of the client.
Ralston and Griggs (1985) found that a major obstacle to
senior center utilization was the lack of interesting
activities. To reiterate a previous point, consider the
heterogeneity of the subgroups served by the center and
plan programs accordingly. Consider cultural and
regional values, religious differences, racial and ethnic
norms and preferences as well as diversity in economic
resources and living arrangements. For example, a
program on vegetable gardening may be appropriate to
a rural audience while it is of limited interest to a
group of city dwellers residing in a high-rise apartment
facility. Remember that it is inappropriate and often
offensive to try to impose middle class values on elders
who may have a different background and set of values.
Design learning experiences that respect the uniqueness
of each elderly participant.
Don't assume that each congregate nutrition pro-
gram client is willing to participate in the educational
effort you are promoting. Even when the educator
makes a concerted effort to involve the facility staff
and participants in program development, there may be
individuals whose needs are not met by the program
being offered. Often in senior nutrition programs there
are persons whose physical or mental limitations make
them poor candidates for program participation.
Others are limited by sensory deficits that make
hearing and/or seeing a presentation difficult. If
reading is a requirement those with low literacy skills
may opt out. Some older persons who have been out of
school for many years are uncomfortable in a classroom
setting and others may simply not be interested in the
topic. By accepting that not everyone will participate
in the program, the home economist can avoid being
offended by those who choose not to participate.
Perhaps the home economist could announce, "There
will be a video and discussion on reducing sodium in the
diet. Everyone who wants to participate meet in the
rear of the room in five minutes." It is better to have a
few participants who are interested than a large group
of disinterested and uncomfortable older people.
Plan presentations that are short, visually stimu-
lating, and do not interfere with the meal. It is just as
important to plan short programs as it is to make activ-
ities interesting and relevant. Segments longer than 15
to 20 minutes may be too long to command the optimal
attention of older audiences. If the pace of the program
is inappropriate or the delivery is unstimulating, then
it doesn't matter if the subject is targeted to the needs of
the audience and other details are carefully designed
because the older adult's attention may be focused
somewhere else. Consider energizing programs by
making them highly visual through the effective use
of color and motion. Perhaps a puppet show, colorful
posters, a well-designed exhibit, or a flannel story
board might be strategies to capture the attention of
audiences while imparting relevant information.
Another important consideration with regard to
timing is the scheduling of educational efforts so they
do not infringe on mealtime or other planned activities
(e.g., the arrival or departure of center vans and buses).
Remember the meal and the accompanying socializa-
tion are the primary agenda for many of the elders
attending the center; all other activities are periph-
eral and secondary in importance.
Plan activities that have a beginning and an end.
Home economists often feel frustrated by their in-
volvement in congregative nutrition service programs
because their efforts seem fragmented and difficult to
evaluate. One way to make program involvement more
meaningful is to play sequential learning activities
that last for a specified period of time. For example,
the Extension educator could design or adapt a six-ses-
sion program on healthy eating for older persons and
market it to senior centers throughout the county or city.
By taking such a proactive stance, the home economist
can avoid the reactive mode of responding to numerous
calls to "come to the center and present a program on
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1989 77
anything." Although these encounters often foster posi-
tive agency relations and sometimes quality programs,
the results of such sporadic efforts are difficult to
evaluate in order to determine program impact. Fur-
thermore, when the educator becomes less reactive to
the demands of others, s/he can more effectively man-
age scarce resources. For instance, the home economist
can use a similar set of lesson plans for multiple audi-
ences. S/he can also design an evaluation strategy to
help assess the impact of the program. Other advan-
tages to having a series of lessons are the opportunity to
establish rapport with the audience and having an end
point so the educator knows the program is over and
that it is time to collect evaluation data.
Consider roles other than teaching. Extension home
economists have resources to offer the Congregate
Nutrition Program other than direct teaching of pro-
gram participants. Some potential roles are advisory
committee member, volunteer coordinator, teacher
trainer, staff training, program developer, and program
evaluator. Some other ways to disseminate research-
based information to senior center participants are
newsletters, video tape presentations, bulletin boards,
teaching placemats, a question box in which clients
place nutrition or consumer questions for the home
economist to respond to, or word activities such as
crossword puzzles, matching and word search activi-
ties.
Many opportunities exist for CES to provide valu-
able educational services to elders at congregate nutri-
tion sites. The challenge is to be creative as you
endeavor to maximize your efforts with this important
clientele group.
Summary
Based on this author's experience in study partici-
pants at congregate nutrition sites and in surveying Ex-
tension Home Economists to determine their role in pro-
gramming for this client group, these suggestions are of-
fered to guide CES professionals in delivering programs
targeted to the unique group of elders being served. For
too long we have failed to acknowledge that
differences exist not only between groups of older
people, but also within such groups. Thus the
underlying theme of this article is to make educators
aware of the importance of offering programs that
mesh with the needs and interests of the older adult
audiences they serve which are compatible with the
organization and operation of each specific congregate
nutrition program site. In so doing, program
contributions by Extension Home Economists are likely
to be welcomed and evaluated positively.
References
Ficke, S. C. (Ed.). (1985). An orientation to the Older
Americans Act. Washington, DC: National
Association of State Units on Aging.
Krout, J. A. (1985). Senior center activities and services:
Findings from a national survey. Research on Ag-
ing, 7, 455-471.
Krout, J. A. (1987, May). The frequency, duration and
stability of senior center attendance. Paper pre-
sented at the Seventh Annual Northeastern Geron-
tological Society Conference, Hartford, CT.
Newhouse, J. K. (1986). A study of multipurpose senior
centers in southern West Virginia. Gerontological
Society of America Post-doctoral Fellowship in
Applied Gerontology Final Report, Virginia Tech,
Blacksburg, VA.
Newhouse, J. K., Scott, E. D., Hertzler, A. A., &
McAuley, W. J. (in press). The role of Cooperative
Extension in congregate nutrition programs for the
elderly. Journal of Applied Gerontology.
Ralston, P. A., & Griggs, M. B. (1985). Factors affecting
utilization of senior centers: Race, sex, and socioe-
conomic differences. Journal of Gerontological So-
cial Work, 9, 99-111.
U. S. Department of Health and Human Services.
(1985). Older Americans Act of 1965, as amended
(DHHS Publication No. 1985-527-319:30451).
Washington, D.C.: U. S. Government Printing
Office.
Van Horn, J. E., Heasley, D. K., & Preston, D. B. (1985).
Shedding the cocoon of status quo. Journal of Exten-
sion, 23, 4-7.
Warner, P. D., & Christenson, J. A. (1984). The Cooper-
ative Extension Service: A national assessment.
Boulder, CO: Westview Press. • • •
Continued from page 71.)
Task Group on General Education. (1988). A new vi-
tality in general education. Washington, DC:
Association of American Colleges.
Thomas, R. G. (Ed.) (1987). Higher order thinking:
Definition^ meaning and instructional approaches.
Washington, DC: Home Economics Education
Association. • • •
78 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1989
Philosophy Narrative
Judith T. Tebo
Home Economics Education Student
University of Arizona
Tucson, Arizona
Editor's Note
This article was written as a class assignment in a methods course.
We hope that by reading it you will be encouraged to think about
your own beliefs about teaching, students, learning, and home eco-
nomics.
There is no doubt that I was given many gifts: a
sense of humor, an ear for music, and, best of all, the
power of choice. As a result I see cups full and not half
empty. I can handle rapid change because I choose to
remain adaptable and flexible.
Basically I am a black and white analyzer of
what I observe of the world around me. I do acknowl-
edge gray areas but the percentage of gray is small
compared to what I see as black or white; while there
may be four-plus/minus hours total for dawn and dusk,
there are still twenty -plus/ minus hours of night and
day. Since I do not entrap myself too often in gray ar-
eas, I am decisive and can correct a wrong decision
very quickly — I have Plan B and C ready.
I feel I have the ability to do anything I make up
my mind to do. The only limitations I have are the
ones I put on myself, because I am the only one respon-
sible for my behavior. I frequently limit my negative
reactions to situations; I have learned it is less drain-
ing to let go of the cause than it is to waste the energy
on a display that could have a damaging effect on
other people. As a result, I have the ability to work
well with a variety of individuals.
Seeing people as individuals rather than as types
or groups enables me to teach more effectively because
I believe students are PEOPLE. Each is a distinct,
unique individual and should be treated as such. Just
as there are no bad people there is no such thing as a
bad student; there is only a good student who has erro-
neously chosen to do bad things. Moreover, I am con-
vinced students learn more effectively when the
teaching approach is humanistic in nature. It is criti-
cal that I teach students of all ages the desire to learn
more because learning must precede growing. While
the two are both prerequisites to successful living, the
order or sequence must be maintained before individ-
ual enjoyment of successful living can be achieved.
Teaching is living as opposed to existing; it is
change, challenge, excitement, frustration, suc-
cess/failure, decisions, growth and enjoyment. My
teaching experiences all through my life have been
my best learning experiences. Now that I have ma-
tured, it is even more important that I continue my
learning to maintain the growing and enjoying phases.
I have the energy to enter the profession at this
late date because it is a challenge to help others in our
industry bring about some much needed change. We
need to improve our image; the responsibility to do
that is OURS. I see many avenues we can choose to ac-
complish this and other goals. We must learn to agree
on basics, terminology, plans, and action.
Environmental changes occur much more rapidly than
we respond; as a result, pressure is put on us we could
avoid, to a degree, if we spent less time disagreeing.
We must screen prospective teachers more carefully;
we must offer them a considerably different curricu-
lum; and we must provide them with as many oppor-
tunities for hands-on experiences as possible. We must
take measures to police our own profession. If we truly
are to be regarded as professionals, we need to recog-
nize that professionalism is an attitude toward self,
colleagues (both peers and superiors), students, par-
ents, teaching, and continuing education; it is the way
you think that is reflected in what you do and how
you come across to others.
My determination to invest even more energy to
teaching junior high school students stems from the
many decades I have been observing "Abandonment of
the Adolescents." Not only does the public school sys-
tem fail to provide continuity between the elementary
grades and the secondary levels, but family stability,
intracommunication, and support generally wane dur-
ing these years. Family, as we traditionally know it,
may well be an endangered species because of the in-
creasing numbers of single parents, as well as crises in
the home due to drugs, alcoholism, abuse, and vio-
lence. Family is a concept that needs to be re-defined,
strengthened, reinforced and appreciated. Since so
many parents are not providing a sense of well-being
and security in the family, young people turn to the
school for a sense of direction and guidance they used
to get at home. Since home is a state of mind, not a
place, I intend to "be there" for as many as I can as
long as I can to help them fill these voids, both aca-
demically as well as socially. • • •
ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1989 79
Book Reviews
Joseph L. Wysocki
Assistant Professor of Housing/Extension Specialist
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Homes: Today and Tomorrow (1990), Ruth F. Sher-
wood. Mission Hills, CA: Glencoe Publishing Com-
pany, 544 pages.
Homes: Today and Tomorrow Teacher's Resource
Book (1990), Ruth F. Sherwood and Eddye Eubanks.
Mission Hills, CA: Glencoe Publishing Company, 429
pages.
The fourth edition of this housing and home fur-
nishings text for high school students reflects the
rapid changes in housing. Included in the student
text are seven units containing 25 chapters with top-
ics such as human needs and housing; housing an soci-
ety; careers in housing; housing styles; consumer
concerns ( renting and buying); construction; housing
and the environment; design and planning interiors;
kitchens, baths, and storage; safety, security, and
maintenance; and remodeling and renovating.
Richly illustrated, each chapter begins with
student objectives, household words, and a two-page
"Putting Skills to Work" section. Personal inter-
views are included with people in diverse housing
careers such as community project leader, resident
manager, carpet salesperson, closet organizer, uphol-
sterer, and kitchen planner. Minorities and all
levels of positions are well represented. Each
chapter ends with a two-page review that covers
chapter highlights, questions about the issues cov-
ered, and do-it-yourself activities.
Visual presentation is especially important in a
housing and interior design text for use at the high
school level. Learning about good design depends on
seeing good design. A glance through the student text
will quickly convince the teacher this book's whole
look insures eye-catching student appeal as well as
good design education.
The inclusion of social, psychological, and cul-
tural issues including designing homes for special
needs, as well as the traditional construction and de-
sign segments is especially appropriate for a student
text and reflect the topics, trends, and concerns of
housing today. A good blend of housing and interior
design topics lay the foundation for students to
become informed housing consumers. Sections on
safety and home maintenance are also appropriate
in a text at this level.
Three chapters on housing styles may be more
than is necessary. However, preservation, remodel-
ing, renovating are good topics to introduce to young
people at a time when they often equate "new" with
better. Renting and home ownership should not re-
ceive equal coverage because renting will probably be
the first major housing decision young people make.
In fact, the renting section should be expanded to in-
clude information about dormitories, group, and
shared living, especially for those students who are
college bound.
The Teacher's Resource Book (429) pages), writ-
ten by "Ruth Sherwood and Eddye Eubanks, contains
lesson plans, handouts, projects, transparency mas-
ters, and test questions in a binder or book format.
Although the book contains many useful materials
they were difficult and confusing to use due to the
book's organization. I would recommend the easier to
use and less confusing binder format. In addition,
some of the references in the beginning of the book
are out of date (e.g., listing the 1975 edition of Inside
Today's Home rather than the 1986 edition.) Other
items that should be included are the University of
Illinois Small Homes Council-Building Research
Council circulars, Cooperative Extension Service pub-
lications, and publications such as Practical
Homeowner, Housing and Society, and Fine Home-
building.
Housing and home furnishings are often men-
tioned by teachers as the subject matter areas in
which it is most difficult to obtain up-to-date infor-
mation. Homes: Today and Tomorrow and the
Teacher's Resource Book both make useful contribu-
tions to filling this existing void.
School prices are $23.87 for the student text and
$27.48 for the Teacher's Resource Book. To order,
write Glencoe Publishing, 809 West Detweiller
Drive, Peoria, IL 61615-2190 •••
80 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/December, 1989
PUBLICATION
GUIDELINES
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3. Include any visual aids or photographs which relate to the content
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4. Include a small black and white photo of the author, as well as cur-
rent professional position, location, and title.
5. Document your references using APA style.
6. Submit articles anytime.
7. Editorial staff make the final decision about publication.
8. Please forward articles to:
Illinois Teacher
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Send for: "Information for Prospective Authors"
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Volume XXXIII, No 3
January/February, 1990
ILLINOIS TEACHER
j\
Foreword, Mildred Barnes Griggs 81
Vocational Home Economics Today Results of a National Phone Survey,
Charlotte Carr and Diana Greene 82
A Process for Curriculum Development: Putting a System Into Action,
Joan Quilling, Betty B. Martin, and Paula Hartsfield 84
Teaching and Evaluating Courses in Parenthood Education for Adolescents,
Betty Cooke 86
Rethinking the Role of Fathers: Meeting Their Needs Through Support Programs,
Brent A. McBride and Rebecca J. McBride 89
School-Age Child Care: Solution to Latchkey Problem, Mary M. Warnock 92
Cooperative Learning, Jennifer Herget 94
Maintaining Momentum, Harriett K. Light 96
Are Workbooks Really Necessary?, Mary Ann Block 100
A Phenomenological Platform for Teaching At-Risk Students, Marian White-Hood 101
Challenges and Opportunities for Teaching Clothing in the 1990s, Betty L. Feather 103
Adaptable Housing for Lifelong Needs, Patricia A. Tripple and Carole J. Makela 106
Families Coping in a Technological Society, Jillian R. Boyd 110
Community Meetings: A Tool for Assessing Local Needs, Sally J. Yahnke, 115
Emma J. Gebo, and Cathleen T. Love 118
Journey Toward Peak Performance: A Tribute to Dr. Hazel Taylor Spitze,
Elaine F. Goodwin 120
Illinois Teacher of Home Economics
ISSN 0739-1 48X
A publication of the Division of Home Economics Education,
Department of Vocational and Technical Education,
College of Education, University of Illinois,
Champaign, Illinois 61820
Illinois Teacher Staff
Mildred Griggs, Professor and Editor
Norma Huls, Office Manager
June Chambliss, Technical Director
Linda Simpson, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Sally Rousey, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Other Home Economics Education Division Staff and Graduate Students
Catherine Burnham, Graduate Assistant and Ed.D. Candidate
Vida U. Revilla, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Alison Vincent, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Volume XXXII, No. 3, January/February, 1990. Published five
times each academic year. Subscriptions $15.00 per year.
Foreign, including Canada, $18.00 per year. Special $10.00 per
year ($12.00 Foreign) for undergraduate and graduate students
when ordering by teacher educator on forms available from
Illinois Teacher office. Single copies $3.50. Foreign $4.00. All
checks from outside the U.S. must be payable through a U.S.
bank.
Address: ILLINOIS TEACHER
University of Illinois
352 Education Building
1310 S. Sixth Street
Champaign, IL 61820
Telephone: 217/244-0820
©1989
Foreword
Sharing is a way to become more involved in your profession. If one of
your resolutions for 1990 is to be more involved in home economics edu-
cation, Illinois Teacher is a vehicle for accomplishing it. We invite you to
share your ideas and success stories with our readers.
This issue contains several articles that focus on recurring curriculum
issues: What to teach; why certain content should be taught; how it should be
taught and how to determine if the content has been learned. It also contains
a few teaching ideas, speeches most of you may not have heard, reflections on
teaching practices, reports of home economists' involvement in educational
endeavors in non-school settings, and a tribute to an outstanding teacher.
Best wishes from Illinois Teacher staff for a happy, healthy and enjoyable
new year.
The Editor
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/February, 1990 81
Vocational Home Economics Today
Results of a National Phone Survey
Charlotte Carr
Diana Greene
Directors of the Illinois Plan
for Home Economics Education
Illinois State University
Diana Greene
curriculum. Eleven supervisors reported that they
were not in the process of developing, and had not
developed any new curriculum within the last three
years (Fig. 1). These state supervisors volunteered
that curriculum is usually developed in their states by
colleges and/or universities, local school districts,
individuals or other assigned groups of teachers by the
state department.
Question 1
Number of States
One of the challenges in the development and
revision of curriculum is to determine the current status
of curriculum. More importantly is determining the
future curriculum content. With these thoughts in
mind, the directors of the Illinois Plan for Home
Economics Education initiated a telephone survey to
state supervisors of Vocational Home Economics in the
50 states and the District of Columbia.
The phone survey was conducted during the
months of September and October, 1988. Each of the
supervisors was asked the following questions:
1 . Is your state in the process or have you developed
home economics curriculum within the last three
years? If yes, briefly describe the curriculum
content.
2. Do you have any research in your state to support
the value of home economics at the junior and
senior levels?
3. What changes would you make in home economics
curriculum to meet the needs of students in the year
2000?
4. How would you describe the "health" of home
economics in your state?
The combined responses of the 51 state supervisors
for each question are listed below.
Responses to Question 1: Is your state in the process or
have you developed home economics curriculum
within the last three years? If yes, briefly describe
the content.
Yes
No
Fig. 1.
Number of supervisors responding to the
question, "Is your state in the process or have
you developed Home Economics curriculum
within the last three years?"
Forty state supervisors said their states were
currently developing or had recently developed
Five state supervisors reported curriculum
development for culinary arts/food service programs.
Three states were in the process of writing or had
written curriculum materials with a work and family
focus. Three other states were developing or had
developed critical thinking materials. Two states
emphasized curriculum for latchkey children and two
other states emphasized family and individual
health. Other curriculum topics mentioned only once
which included disaffected youth, focus on you,
pregnant youth, family and community
interdependence, critical living skills, and technology
and the home.
82 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1990
Responses to Question 2: Do you have any research in
your state to support the value of home economics at
the junior and senior high levels?
Although 41 supervisors reported that there was
no current research being conducted to support their
programs, ten supervisors reported that they had
research projects underway (Fig. 2). Most states with
completed curriculum research projects had published
the results for local use only; however, two states had
articles pertaining to their research published in
national publications.
Question 2
Number of States
No
Yes
Fig. 2.
Number of states responding to the question,
"Do you have any research in your state to
support the value of home economics?"
Current research themes reported include
effectiveness of parenthood education, attitudes of
home economics teachers and students, states needs
effectiveness study, value of seventh and eighth grade
home economics, and value of home economics and the
gross national product.
The supervisors recommended that more research
be conducted to support the value of home economics;
therefore, it is hoped that the findings of the above
mentioned research projects be published nationally.
Sharing information will help to strengthen the
discipline.
family and eleven recommended balancing of work and
family. Eight responses each were reported for
critical thinking and problem solving skills and for
developing a more scientific approach to foods and
nutrition classes. Two states have changed class titles
from Foods and Nutrition, to Nutrition and Foods, and
reported reflecting the scientific approach in these
classes.
Five state supervisors reported a desire to
incorporate academic basics, five suggested more
parenting, and five others were in favor of a
comprehensive health education or wellness
component in the home economics curriculum. Four
responses were for curriculum to help students adapt to
change. Three responses encouraged the incorporation
of employability skills into the curriculum.
Other responses given to this question were: global
awareness, AIDS education, values/concepts, home
based businesses, student maturity levels, societal
issues, resource management, and the electronic
cottage.
Responses to Question 4: How would you describe the
"health" of home economics in your state?
Question 4
Number of States
25
15
1 1
Maintaining-
Good
Increasing-
Healthy
Decreasing-
Ailing
Fig. 3 Number of supervisors responding to the
question, "How would you describe the health
of home economics in your state?"
Responses to Question 3: What changes would you
make in home economics curriculum to meet the needs
of students in the year 2000?
Answers to this question were quite varied, but
there was considerable agreement on some topics. Most
of the state supervisors had more than one response.
Thirteen supervisors suggested issues pertaining to the
Fifteen state supervisors reported an increase in
home economics enrollments, several of them had
comments which explained their growth (Fig. 3).
Statements that were volunteered included: a former
home economics teacher who had become a principal
in a large district, strong programs had been able to
add staff, the courses had been changed from one year
(Continued on page 88.)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1990 83
A Process for Curriculum Development:
Putting a System Into Action
Joan Quilling, Associate Professor
Research, Occupational Home Economics
Betty B. Martin, Supervision Coordinator
Home Economics Education
Paula Hartsfield
Home Economics Education
University of Missouri-Columbia
Betty B. Martin
Introduction
In order to increase the impact of vocational edu-
cation programs statewide, the Missouri Department
of Elementary and Secondary Education developed a
cooperative agreement with the University of
Missouri-Columbia, Department of Practical Arts and
Vocational-Technical Education, in the early 1970s.
The university was selected as one of the sites for
establishing an instructional materials laboratory.
The laboratory was designed to facilitate the prepa-
ration, field testing and dissemination of curriculum
materials in vocational education. The materials
produced by the laboratory are an outgrowth of
teacher advisory committees. Teachers in vocational
programs reap the benefits of the Missouri system as
they are able to obtain low-cost materials developed
and verified by vocational teachers throughout the
state.
Missouri's Curriculum Structure
In the early 1970s, the University of Missouri,
Department of Practical Arts and Vocational-
Technical Education, in cooperation with the
Department of Elementary and Secondary Education,
developed a cooperative arrangement for statewide
curriculum development. The arrangement involved
preparing curriculum materials for five service areas
(home economics is one of them) in vocational
education and special project areas that are identified
by Missouri legislature. Economic data indicates the
need for these programs. In order to incorporate
grassroots input into the curriculum, the Department
of Elementary and Secondary Education organized a
system of satellite and steering committees to solicit
advice during the curriculum development process.
The State of Missouri was divided into seven re-
gions. Each region formed its own satellite committee
of home economics teachers with a chair responsible
for calling the group together. Each of the seven com-
mittees generated ideas for curriculum development in
home economics. The committees typically meet in
the fall of the year. In the spring, an overall curricu-
lum steering committee made up of satellite chairs,
teacher educators, and State Department representa-
tives meets to review regional curriculum priorities
and prepare a two-year program of work for home eco-
nomics education.
The development of curriculum materials in Home
Economics Education is a continuous process. Within
the past few years, emphasis has been placed on pro-
ducing materials which incorporate an Instructional
Management System, a priority of the State Board of
Education. The Instructional Management System is
called VIMS in vocational education (Vocational
Instructional Management System). Curriculum guides
incorporate this system with each guide containing
instructional goals which are based upon a task
analysis of consumer homemaking or occupational
home economics. They also include content outlines,
instructional methods and evaluation strategies for
assessing student performance.
The structure of home economics curriculum guides
is based upon Missouri's Scope and Sequence for
Vocational Home Economics. Scope and Sequence ex-
emplifies VIMS. All home economics subject matter
areas taught in secondary schools are included along
with content outlines and student performance compe-
tencies for each area. This publication serves as the
basis from which curriculum materials are generated
for the state.
The Instructional Materials Laboratory
The mission of the University of Missouri-
Columbia Instructional Materials Laboratory is to
facilitate the development of curriculum materials in
all vocational areas. The editors in the laboratory
assigned to work with home economics content get
input from advisory committees that are formed in
84 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1990
cooperation with the Department of Elementary and
Secondary Education Home Economics staff. The
committee develops the task analyses for subject
matter areas scheduled for production each year.
Editors also supervise individuals assigned to produce
curriculum materials and prepare manuscripts for
publication.
The laboratory is affiliated with larger regional
curriculum networks. The affiliation enables home
economics curriculum developers to become aware of
materials produced by other states. An awareness of
what other states are producing helps the Curriculum
Steering Committee to avoid duplication of effort. If,
for example, Missouri home economics teachers want a
curriculum guide in home management and find one al-
ready available from another state which meets
Missouri's educational standards, the guide can be
adopted by Missouri. The adoption process places
copies of the guide in the laboratory and teachers can
purchase these guides. All materials available from
the laboratory are sold on a cost recovery basis.
Although the laboratory was designed principally to
serve Missouri vocational teachers, publication cata-
logs are available upon request and a teacher any-
where in the United States has access to these mate-
rials.
together. Teachers using the table know
which resources to use with specific portions
of the content outline.
F. Assignment sheets: these are typically pa-
per-pencil activities designed to reinforce con-
tent priorities.
G. Transparency masters: visuals designed to re-
inforce key concepts in the content outline.
H. Handouts: information forms which supple-
ment content outlines.
I. Job sheets: activities to involve students in
physical action with the content. These forms
are based on a task analysis of content areas.
J. Unit tests: evaluations which summarize the
key content presented during a unit of instruc-
tion.
As priorities in curriculum development change
over time, curriculum guides change to reflect new and
emerging instructional approaches.
The process of curriculum development in the state
of Missouri is a team approach. Teachers play a vital
part in helping to conduct the task analyses that are
used as the foundation for the curriculum guides. They
also field test the guides to assure quality control of
the materials.
Curriculum Elements
The curriculum used by vocational home economics
teachers in Missouri is based upon a format originally
developed by the Mid-America Vocational
Curriculum Consortium located in Oklahoma. The
home economics Curriculum Steering Committee
agreed to adopt this format in the early 1970s. Over
the years, the format has changed and adapted to the
specific needs of teachers. Currently, the format is
structured to accommodate the VIMS process.
Each curriculum guide includes some of the follow-
ing elements:
A. Task analysis: a list of performance behav-
iors viewed as essential for carrying out re-
sponsibilities in a given subject matter area.
B. Performance objectives: specific behaviors
which teachers are asked to measure accord-
ing to standards of performance.
C. Content outlines: key concepts enabling stu-
dents to comprehend a specific subject matter
area.
D. Procedures for implementation: references and
resources needed to supplement the curriculum
guide.
E. Cross-reference table: based upon a task anal-
ysis of the subject matter area which illus-
trates how all parts of the guide coordinate
Curriculum Utilization
The University of Missouri and the Department of
Elementary and Secondary Education work
cooperatively to facilitate the utilization of
curriculum materials in the State of Missouri.
Currently two strategies are followed to assist
teachers in using the curriculum materials. These are:
A. Field testing: Most of the curriculum
materials take two years to complete. The
first year is set aside to complete the task
analysis and writing. The second year
involves teachers field testing the materials
and suggesting revisions. Field testers are
selected during the summer and are expected
to complete their use of the guide by the end of
fall semester. The winter semester is used to
revise and refine the guide and ready it for
publication.
B. Introduction of the guide: The introduction of
the new curriculum materials occurs in
conjunction with the annual vocational
association meeting held during the summer.
The writers or teacher educators working with
the guide are usually involved in presenting
new materials during the conference.
(Continued on page 102.)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1990 85
Teaching and Evaluating Courses in
Parenthood Education for Adolescents
Betty Cooke
Research Associate
Home Economics Education
University of Minnesota
Home economics educators have an important op-
portunity to provide education for parenthood to ado-
lescents—an opportunity and a responsibility which
we need to be prepared to do well. I am not at all con-
vinced that we know how to do this effectively, nor do
we know how to effectively assess what it is we are
teaching or should be teaching in this area. My com-
ments in this article focus on what I see as two major
areas to consider related to parenthood education for
adolescents: course or curriculum design and delivery;
and course assessment.
Two recent studies involving assessment of the im-
pact of parenthood education courses for adolescents,
one focused on assessing change in adolescents' knowl-
edge (Mann & Hunt, 1989) and one focused on assessing
change in adolescents' attitudes (Tulloch & Omvig,
1989), gave considerable attention to assessing out-
comes of the courses. However, neither study paid
much heed to what went on in these courses leading to
whatever outcomes may have resulted. Before we can
assess the impact of what it is we are teaching in par-
enthood education for adolescents, we first need to be
very clear about all aspects of course design and deliv-
ery. This should include what it is we are or should be
teaching, how it is or should be taught, and to what
ends or for what purposes we are or should be teaching.
We first need to clarify the goals of a parenthood
education course for adolescents and the target audi-
ence to whom it is directed. Parenthood education
courses for adolescents often imply goals focused on
prevention of adolescent pregnancy and provision of
information to help adolescents who do become par-
ents cope with this situation. However, the kind of
parenthood education course designed to meet the
needs of any adolescent who may someday become a
parent and the kind of parenthood education course
designed for the adolescent who actually becomes a
parent should look very different in many respects.
For example, a course designed for any adolescents
might address the issue of parenthood as a choice and
as a decision to be weighed seriously including consid-
eration of such factors as financial and other responsi-
bilities and changes in life style. In contrast, a par-
enthood education course for adolescent parents would
need to address the multiple concerns associated with
adolescent parenthood which include, but go beyond,
focus on the infant and its care and development.
These concerns include the adolescent's health and
development, education and job opportunities for the
adolescent, financial needs, family support and rela-
tionships, etc. I question if one curriculum or course de-
sign can effectively address these two related but dif-
ferent foci in education for parenthood for adolescents.
Therefore, it is very important to be clear as to which
of these goals and adolescent audiences a course in
parenthood education is directed because of the impli-
cations it has for what should be taught.
Along with clarifying goals for a parenthood edu-
cation course, how the course is or should be taught
also needs to be considered. Curriculum in parenthood
education often focuses on teaching knowledge in child
development and parenting. Frequently knowledge
that is taught in any course is not taught in a form use-
ful for translating it into action. It certainly seems
that increased knowledge should be available for
translation into decision making and action for parent-
ing or caregiving as a result of participation in a par-
enthood education course. If knowledge taught in
child development and parenting is to be available for
translation into action, it must be taught through
methods involving direct and fairly extensive obser-
vation and experience with children. Instruction
should include guiding adolescents in the analysis of
this experience for identification and understanding of
the concepts taught if what is taught is to have a last-
ing impact on adolescent knowledge, understanding,
and behavior. As suggested by Tulloch and Omvig
(1989), adolescents may not be at a developmental
stage where parenting issues are of concern or interest
to them. For this reason, it is also important to relate
what is taught in child development and parenting to
the adolescent's own past and present experiences as a
developing person and as a family member before be-
ginning to have them think about the meaning of what
they are learning to their future parenting.
The suggestions made related to course design and
delivery imply that there are a number of different
86 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1990
potential goals and ways to design and teach a par-
enthood education course for adolescents. This poten-
tial for diversity is almost inevitable and exactly
what we in the field should want to see given the di-
versity of adolescent groups we are likely to teach It
is obvious that these groups will differ on such demo-
graphics as socioeconomic level, race, cultural and re-
ligious background, geographic location, etc., as well
as on other types of characteristics. Curriculum has
been, and needs to continue to be, flexibly designed to
allow teachers to meet these diverse needs. Given the
likelihood and desirability of local individualiza-
tion in course design and delivery even if a standard
curriculum is used as a guide, it is not appropriate to
evaluate such courses as if they were standardized
across groups.
This point leads me into the thoughts I have about
the assessment of impact of a parenthood education
course for adolescents. Monitoring of the implementa-
tion of a parenthood education course or curriculum is a
necessary first step in assessment. A record of the
preparation of teachers in use of a curriculum, a record
of what each teacher emphasizes or includes in the
teaching of a curriculum (including any individualized
adaptations they may make), and information on the
experience and ability of the teachers assessed in
their use of the curriculum is needed for effective
course evaluation. When so little attention is given to
the treatment in parenthood education courses, it is not
surprising that there is often a lack of significant re-
sults (Mann & Hunt, 1989; McClelland, 1984). If the
manner in which a course is delivered is not known
and, in the case of the use of an experimental design
for assessment as is often done, no attempt is made to
document the standardization of this treatment across
classes, how can the results of assessment be meaning-
ful and used effectively to make changes in that pro-
cess? Whatever the treatment or course design and de-
livery consists of, part of the process of evaluating the
impact of any educational intervention is to provide a
careful description of the nature of that intervention.
This kind of monitoring and documentation should be
an initial step in any course evaluation plan.
The choice of an experimental design for evaluat-
ing course impact and use of such an assessment design
implies a standardization of treatment or implemen-
tation. My comments related to program design and
delivery indicate that I do not believe this should be
the case, that is, we should not try to standardize our
teaching of a parenthood education course. Therefore,
rather than using an experimental design to assess
course impact, there are other ways of conceptualizing
and conducting an evaluation that would be more con-
sistent with the local diversity in course design and
delivery that is likely to occur. These suggestions are
also consistent with the ideas expressed by
McClelland (1984) in her critique of experimental de-
sign as a method for assessing parenthood education.
First, it would be useful to include process or formative
forms of evaluation as well as impact or summative
forms of assessment when evaluating a parenthood ed-
ucation course. A process evaluation might focus on
identification and understanding of course delivery
variations to meet needs of particular groups of stu-
dents and what could be learned from this to improve
the curriculum being used. Impact or summative eval-
uations could focus on questions of knowledge and atti-
tude change as was done in the studies previously men-
tioned, but they might also focus on questions related
to changes in values, skills, and the meaning of the
course to the students. Impact evaluation might also
focus on identification and understanding of differen-
tial outcomes in relation to diversity in course deliv-
ery.
In assessing parenthood education courses, evalua-
tion methods in addition to pre- and post-treatment
questionnaires for determining impact should be con-
sidered. For example, it might be possible to select a
few students from a school site where a parenthood
education course is to be taught for a pre-course inter-
view with more open-ended questions related to their
knowledge and attitudes toward parenting. After
completion of the course, these same students might be
interviewed again to determine changes in knowledge
and attitudes and other areas where the course may
have an impact upon them. Or a group of students
might be interviewed after completing a course to de-
termine what they thought participation in the course
meant to them. Another alternative might be to ob-
serve students enrolled in a course in interaction with
children in order to assess their effectiveness in inter-
action with children if developing skills for interac-
tion is a course goal. Any or all of these assessment
approaches might be combined in assessing the impact
of a parenthood education course.
Obviously, assessment approaches such as inter-
views and observations may be more costly and com-
plex to do than a questionnaire, but they are likely to
provide a more meaningful and accurate picture of
what change, if any, does occur in adolescents because
of participation in a parenthood education course.
These approaches to assessment are also more likely
to get at some of the more subtle outcomes associated
with participation in a parenthood education course
that are not revealed by a multiple-choice question-
naire. Changes of this nature could possibly be the
most important outcomes of such a course. Such assess-
ment approaches would also be likely to yield data of
more use in refining and improving a course than that
available from use of a multiple-choice questionnaire
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1990 87
on child development knowledge or parenting atti-
tudes alone.
The ideas in this article related to teaching and
evaluating parenthood education courses for adoles-
cents are intended to stimulate teachers to think criti-
cally about more appropriate and effective means for
delivering and assessing parenthood education courses
than those they may now be using. As indicated in my
opening comments, I think this is an area in which
home economics educators have an opportunity to
make a significant contribution to the important soci-
etal need for effective parenting, and I think we need
to give much more thought to what and how we teach
child development and parenting to adolescents as
well as to how we assess the impact of the teaching
we do in this area.
References
Mann, M. B., & Hunt, S. N. (1989, March). Impact of a
parenthood education course on adolescents'
knowledge. Paper presented at the meeting of the
American Education Research Association, San
Francisco, CA.
McClelland, J. (1984). Experimental design and eval-
uation of parent education. Journal of Vocational
Home Economics Education, 2, 54-63.
Tulloch, C. R., & Omvig, C. P. (1989). Changing atti-
tudes through parenthood education. Journal of
Vocational Home Economics Education, 7, 104-113.
(Continued from page 100.)
constantly think through our presentations of concepts
so students will continue to learn skills for the real
world and not stand still in their attainment of
educational ideas.
References
Durkin, D. (1976). Strategies for identifying words.
Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Harp, B. (1989). When the principal asks. The
Reading Teacher, 42, 4, 326-327.
Lusteck, C. C, & Bense, D. L. (1988). Student activity
guide for Guide to good food. South Holland, IL:
Goodheart-Wilcox Company, Inc.
Spitze, H. T. (1979). Choosing techniques for teaching
and learning. Washington, D.C.: Home Economics
Education Association. • • •
(Continued from page 83.)
to one semester, several new programs for home
economics were requested, and new curriculum had been
implemented.
One of the fifteen supervisors reported that
teacher education units had been actively recruiting
which had helped the health of their home
economics program. Three state supervisors said they
were experiencing a teacher shortage. Others
predicted a shortage in the next few years.
Twenty-five state supervisors reported that the
program was maintaining itself. Their comments
included: the role we play in AIDS education and
sexuality is important; the percentage of the total
enrollment is stable; strong teachers are doing fine;
sewing is dead; receiving science and math credit for
home economics classes has helped; more part-time
teachers have caused enrollment to stabilize; and
offering semester courses is helpful in light of
increased graduation requirements. Additional
comments were: occupational programs were healthy,
consumer and homemaking were not as healthy;
teacher meetings in a region are helpful; and
leadership skills make or break a program.
Eleven state supervisors reported a declining
enrollment. Some of their comments included: much
depends on the teachers; increased graduation
requirements have hurt programs; and teachers are
frustrated with legislated requirements including
teacher evaluation and student testing. Other factors
contributing to the decline are poor economic conditions
in the state and that the school population has
decreased.
The information gained from the survey of state
supervisors will serve as a basis for examining existing
curriculum in Illinois and for determining future
curriculum goals.
The Illinois Plan for Home Economics Education is
a project funded by the Illinois State Board of
Education Department, of Adult Vocational and
Technical Education. Dr. Charlotte Carr and Diana
Greene, Illinois State University, Normal, Illinois are
the Directors. The final results of this project will be
to print a conceptual framework document and a
comprehensive home economics curriculum guide
within the next three years. • • •
88 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1990
Rethinking the Role of Fathers: Meeting Their
Needs Through Support Programs
Brent A. McBride, Ph.D.
Asst. Professor, Early Childhood Education
Research Fellow, Institute for Behavioral Research
University of Georgia
Rebecca J. McBride
Consumer Information Specialist
Atlanta Gas Light Company
Brent A. McBride
Rebecca J. McBride
The roles of fathers are in a state of flux (McBride
& McBride, in press). Societal expectations are
emerging which call for men to assume a more active
role in childrearing as dual-career families become
the norm rather than the exception in two-parent
homes. Being the family bread-winner is no longer ac-
ceptable as the major function of father involvement.
Men are being expected to participate actively in all
aspects of childrearing. This more active form of fa-
ther involvement is viewed as a way of relieving the
role "overloads" mothers experience as they strive to
be primary caretakers of their children while em-
ployed outside the home.
Many fathers are finding themselves unprepared
as they attempt to meet these new societal expecta-
tions for father involvement (Klinman, 1986). Due to
the way they have been socialized when growing up,
many lack the basic skills, knowledge and sensitivity
that would allow them to become active participants
in raising their young children. Parent education and
support programs designed specifically for fathers
maybe one way to help better prepare men to meet
these changing expectations for paternal involvement,
yet such programs are few and far between (Levant,
1988; Klinman, 1986).
The purpose of this paper is to describe one such
program designed to encourage fathers to assume a
more active parental role.
Definition of Father Involvement
A major problem in the development and imple-
mentation of parent support programs for men has been
the lack of a clear and consistent definition of father
involvement. Just what is meant when we say we want
to increase father involvement? It seems as if every-
one has a different definition. In an effort to rectify
this problem, Lamb and his colleagues (Lamb, Pleck,
Charnov & Levine, 1987) have proposed a three-part
taxonomy (1. Interaction, 2. Accessibility, 3.
Responsibility) to identify and define the different
categories that father involvement in childrearing
might entail. This definition of paternal involvement
has been utilized in designing our program for fathers.
The first category in this model, Interaction, con-
sists of the father interacting with his child in activi-
ties such as playing with them, holding them,
bathing, and dressing them, etc. In the second cate-
gory, Accessibility, the father is involved in less di-
rect interaction with the child yet still available to
them. This type of involvement would include such
times as when the father is in one room of the house
and the child is in another (e.g., the father is avail-
able to the child if needed). The third category of
this taxonomy, Responsibility, has the father assum-
ing responsibility for the welfare and care of his child
through such activities as making child care arrange-
ments, knowing when the child needs to go to the pe-
diatrician, ensuring the child has clean and appropri-
ate clothes to wear, etc. Our program is designed to en-
courage fathers to assume a more active role in all
three categories of this taxonomy.
Structure of the "Dad's Day" Program
The structure of our "Dad's Day" program is one of
a parent education/play group model. In our program,
fathers and their preschool aged children meet to-
gether for two hours on 10 consecutive Saturday morn-
ings. This program has two major components: group
discussion and father-child play time. Fathers of
preschool aged children are identified as targets for
the program for two reasons: a) the rapid growth and
development (social, emotional, cognitive & physi-
cal) that children this age experience, along with the
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1990 89
impact of familial influences on this development
(Minuchin, 1987); and b) the lack of preparation for ef-
fective parenting by many men during this important
period of their children's development (Klinman,
1986).
During the first hour of each Saturday morning
session the fathers and their children participate in
structured and nonstructured preschool type activities
(i.e., finger-painting, block play, dress-up corner, story
& music time, etc.). This portion of the program al-
lows the fathers to explore and discover different
ways of interacting with their children and to de-
velop sensitivity to the needs of their children (see
McBride, 1989a for a complete description of this
aspect of the program). Not only are the fathers find-
ing new ways of interacting with their children during
this time that were previously unconsidered, but they
also become aware of the importance of such activities
in their children's overall development. Prior to par-
ticipation in the program, most of the fathers view
this type of activity as just being play and not a means
of fostering their children's development.
During the second hour of each Saturday session
the fathers participate in a discussion group while as-
sistants supervise and lead activities with the chil-
dren. These discussion sessions address various topics
related to father involvement. Each session is de-
signed to address issues related to one or more of the
categories outlined in Lamb's taxonomy (Lamb et al.,
1987) of father involvement, and are continually
refined with each new 10-week program. A discussion
group format was selected for this portion of the
program due to the tendency of other more didactic
parent education programs such as P.E.T., Adlerian,
and Behavioral approaches to focus primarily on the
child while excluding opportunities for parents to
share their problems and perceptions with one
another. The discussion group format allows the
curriculum to be adapted to the fathers' background
experiences, concerns, perceptions, etc., thus keeping
fatherhood as the primary focus.
Discussion Group Curriculum
When we first started offering our Dad's Day pro-
gram we left it up to each group of fathers to identify
topics of interest for the discussion sessions. What we
found after three years of offering such programs is
that the same topics keep coming up with each new
group. As such, we have been able to standardize the
discussion group curriculum and develop activities and
facilitator questions based on Lamb's taxonomy (Lamb
et al., 1987) of father involvement. A description of
the discussion topics and how they relate to the
taxonomy follows.
Opening Session - This session is designed to give
the men a opportunity to get to know each other, and
to learn the nature and goals of the program. This ses-
sion is important in that for a discussion group format
to be successful, the participants must feel comfortable
with the group and its structure. A big portion of this
session is spent with the fathers sharing why they
signed up for the program and what they hope to gain
from it for themselves and their children.
Want-Ad for a Father - During this session the
men brainstorm together as they attempt to write a
newspaper want-ad to recruit a replacement father for
their own child. Topics discussed for use in the ad typ-
ically include the duties and responsibilities of a fa-
ther, the types of preparation necessary for father-
hood, the pay and benefits of fatherhood, time re-
quirements, personality requirements, etc. The process
forces the men to evaluate their own perceptions of
what they believe a father should be, and then com-
pare these perceptions with their own parental situa-
tions. In discussing the types of interactions men are
expected to have with their children, interaction
issues are being addressed. Accessibility issues are
being addressed when discussing the time requirements
and constraints of fatherhood. In discussing the
preparation required for fatherhood and the responsi-
bilities once they become one, responsibility issues are
being addressed.
Educating Young Children - This session starts
with a 25-minute video presentation of educating
young children. The tape presents two opposing view-
points on how preschoolers should be educated (i.e.,
Glen Doman's "Better Baby Institute" approach vs.
David Elkind's notion of the "Hurried Child").
Discussion is spurred as the fathers share their reac-
tions to these two extreme viewpoints. Responsibility
issues are raised as the fathers become aware of how
young children learn and the reasons why they should
take an active role in this process. Interaction issues
are also addressed as the fathers discuss ways in
which they can help foster their children's learning
in a developmentally appropriate way.
Sibling Rivalry - This session is designed to help
the fathers examine the reasons for sibling rivalry.
Strategies are discussed as to how parents can effec-
tively deal with these problems, as well as a discus-
sion of why sibling rivalry occurs. This session also
leads into a discussion of the problems associated with
parents comparing their children, not only amongst
their own, but with other children when in a group si-
tuation. The goal is to encourage the fathers to appre-
ciate the individuality of their children and to be
aware of those things about the child they can and
cannot change, and to know the difference. Interaction
issues are addressed as the fathers discuss ways to dif-
90 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1990
fuse rivalry situations and make each child feel
unique and special. Accessibility issues are addressed
as the fathers discuss the importance of spending
"special" time with each child. As they learn more
about the importance of acknowledging the uniqueness
of each child and why not to compare children,
responsibility issues are being addressed.
Ages & States of Development - This session is
spent discussing the various types of behaviors that
are normal for each developmental state of a child.
Although this usually happens with each topic dis-
cussed, it is the primary focus during this session. The
goal is to help the fathers become aware of the wide
range of developmental differences among children,
and how their expectations for child behaviors need
to be reflective of these differences. Responsibility
issues are being addressed as the fathers learn about
children developing at a unique pace, and how
parental awareness of the developmental needs of
their children is critical. As they discuss develop-
mentally appropriate ways to interact and play with
their children, interaction issues are being raised.
Super Hero/Fantasy Play - This session is based on
a discussion of how parents can effectively counteract
the violent nature and influence of super hero cartoons
so prevalent of television. This is done by examining
the various types of super hero, fantasy and dramatic
play in which children engage. From this session the
men become aware of the various types of learning and
development that occur when children are engaged in
fantasy and pretend play. Interaction issues are ad-
dressed as the fathers discuss ways in which they can
become involved in their children's pretend play, and
how this involvement can be channeled into positive
forms. Responsibility issues are addressed as the
fathers discuss and learn more about why fantasy and
pretend play is important for their children's devel-
opment, and how they can create an environment that
would encourage this type of play.
Discipline (2 weeks) - Discipline is a very impor-
tant topic for the fathers. As such, two weeks are de-
voted to this subject. The two sessions are designed to
encourage the fathers to discuss various aspects of dis-
cipline, such as: why do children misbehave; what is
the difference between punishment and discipline-
why do young children want and need limit; what are
different disciplines strategies; and so on.
Accessibility and responsibility issues are being
addressed as the fathers discuss why it is important
for both parents to play an active role in family disci-
pline, and why examination of alternative discipline
strategies is important. Interaction issues are raised
as the fathers discuss how their own behaviors and in-
teractions (or lack thereof) have a strong impact on
their children's behavior.
Time Constraints/Role Strain of Fatherhood -
This session is devoted to discussing the various fac-
tors that push and pull on a father as he becomes more
involved in childbearing. Reasons why these role
strains and pressures occur are discussed, as well as
strategies on how to deal with and overcome them.
Issues in all three categories of father involvement are
addressed in this session as well.
Closing/Reflection - This last session is spent with
the men reflecting back and sharing what they be-
lieve was most beneficial to them and their children
from participating in the program. As the men share
their reflections, discussion on the changing roles of
fathers is usually brought up, along with predictions
on how paternal roles may change in the future.
Again, issues in all three categories of father in-
volvement are addressed in this session.
Discussion
Results from research conducted in conjunction with
our "Dad's Day" program suggest that it has a signifi-
cant positive impact on the types of involvement the
fathers have with their children, their perceptions of
parental competence, and the quality of interactions
they have with their children (McBride, 1988, 1989a,
1989b). Informal evaluations completed by the fa-
thers suggest they believe that program participation
had positive benefits for their children as well as
themselves. Comments such as "I really enjoyed hav-
ing the opportunity to talk with other fathers about
being active parents," and "It was great realizing that
I'm not the only father out there bumbling around try-
ing to figure out what I should be doing as a dad,"
indicate another positive aspect of the program. Men
have very few opportunities to come together and
share their concerns with other men as they struggle
with becoming actively involved fathers of their
young children. We believe this informal support
network created by our program to be one of its
strongest components; one which can have a far reach-
ing impact on the lives of the fathers and their fami-
lies.
Parent education and support programs such as ours
designed for father are few and far between. Family
life and parent educators need to consider programs
such as this one as they explore ways to meet the
needs of families in our ever changing society. They
also need to reevaluate their conceptualization of the
roles of fathers as they develop programs for men.
The father's role as primary bread-winner is no longer
a valued portrayal of how men can be involved in
childrearing. Lamb's three-part taxonomy (Lamb et
al. 1987) of father involvement can guide the
(Continued on page 93.)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1990 91
School-Age Child Care:
Solution to Latchkey Problem
Mary M. Warnock
Associate Professor
Clothing, Textiles and
Merchandising
Department of Home Economics
University of Arkansas
Fayetteville, AR
Specific Steps in Getting Started Include
Following:
the
Editor's Note: Mary Warnock received the National Safety
Council's Third Place Citation for Outstanding Service for her work
with Project Home Safe.
Do you and your spouse work and have one or more
children attending elementary school? Is it
impossible to meet your child(ren) when school is out
for the day? Are you apprehensive about allowing
your child(ren) to enter the home alone after school
and spend time at work visualizing all the pitfalls of
a child alone at home (fire, strangers, etc.)? Does it
seem impossible to find affordable quality child care?
If you have asked these same questions and discovered
no real answers, starting a school-age child care
program could be the solution.
Getting Started
If you have a need for school-age child care,
others in your community also may have this same
need. The criteria for getting your program off the
ground is to find those persons interested in supporting
such a community effort and acquiring the necessary
skills and/or information to meet the need.
One source of information has been the latchkey
workshops sponsored by the American Home
Economics Association (AHEA) (Plantz, M., Director,
Project Home Safe, Washington, DC) and the
Whirlpool Foundation under the title of Project Home
Safe. These workshops provide home economists with
the resources to start school-age child care programs.
The Cooperative Extension Service may have
brochures and information concerning these Project
Home Safe workshops. The book by Baden, Genser,
Levine and Seligson (1982) is an excellent reference
that contains profiles of existing programs, imple-
mentation, management and other operational
criteria. Seaver and Cartwright (1986) book, Child
Care Administration, is also a useful source.
1 . Establish Community Coalition. Members would
include persons in the community who have
special interests or skills necessary for the success
of the program. Persons to involve would be
lawyers, bankers, contractors, mayor, school board
members, principals, ministers, and parents. No
more than nine members are necessary for the
coalition.
2. Conduct Needs Assessment Survey. Potential
enrollment for the child care program needs to be
determined. A needs assessment survey may be
obtained from the State Department of Human
Services for distribution to local school children.
Permission from school superintendent and
principal(s) of school(s) to be surveyed must be
obtained before distribution. After data have
been tabulated, potential enrollment and necessity
for the program may be determined.
3. Find Facility. The best location for a school-age
child care problem would be the school(s) which
the children attend. School cafeterias have been
used successfully for this purpose. Community cen-
ters and churches also are good facilities.
4. Develop Policies. Community coalition will
determine all policies for the child care program
which will be presented in a parent's manual.
These policies will cover such items as fees,
enrollment, days and hours of operation, curricula,
snacks, disciplinary action, medication
procedures, permission slips and transportation.
5. Hire Personnel. Community coalition will hire
the director and any other personnel needed to run
the child care program. Salary will be
determined by the community coalition.
6. Seek Incorporation and Licensing. The child care
program needs to be a non-profit organization with
the correct papers being filed with the state
government. Licensing information may be
obtained from the local county department of
human services.
Implementation
1. Budget. The budget will be determined by the
program design and vice versa. Salary of person-
nel, curricula, equipment and food needs must be in-
92 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1990
eluded. If child care fees do not cover all costs of
the program, outside funding may be needed.
Possible sources of funding include state and fed-
eral agencies plus community businesses and lead-
ers. Income and expenses must be listed.
2. Program Design. Daily schedules should be
written and posted for parents information. Types
of indoor and outdoor activities plus snacks need to
be included. Curriculum will be determined by the
director in association with the community
coalition.
3. Publicity. Pertinent information needs to be
forwarded to the community. How this is
accomplished may depend on the needs of the
community. Fliers, posters, newspaper ads, radio
and TV spots plus brochures are just a few ideas.
4. Enrollment. The doors must be opened and
children enrolled in the program for it to be
successful. The beginning date of the program will
depend on the needs of the community, financial
status of the program and how quickly legal
requirements have been met.
The Future
The success of a school-age child care program in
your community will depend on the commitment that
you and the community coalition members have for
providing a solution to the latchkey problem. Many
hours of free service will be dedicated to such a
project, but the rewards are very great. Your
child(ren) will be provided with affordable quality
day care in a clean environment with trained
supervision. Involvement is the secret to establishing
future school-age day care programs.
The author is indebted to Dr. Era Looney for her
assistance in establishing the Elkins School-Age
Child Care Program, Inc., Elkins, AR, and developing
this article.
References
Baden, R. K., Genser, A., Levine, J. A., & Seligson, M.
(1982). School-Age Child Care An Action Manual.
Massachusetts: Auburn House Publishing Com-
pany.
Seaver, J. W., & Cartwright, C. A. (1986). Child Care
Administration. California: Wadsworth Pub-
lishing Company. • • •
(Continued from page 91.)
development of programs designed to help men meet
these changing expectations for father involvement.
Examination of the changing roles of fathers,
along with the design and implementation of pro-
grams such as ours, should not be limited to those orga-
nizations geared for adults. Home economists working
with family life, parent education and child devel-
opment programs for school-aged children should also
consider addressing these issues. Involving elemen-
tary, junior high and high school students in activities
which draw attention to the changing roles of fathers
will help guide them in rethinking their conceptual-
ization of paternal and maternal behaviors. As such,
these students may go into their adult lives with more
open attitudes toward how mothers and fathers can
both become actively involved in raising their chil-
dren. Programs for fathers can even be set up in conjunc-
tion with these classes. The "Touch Guys - Tender
Father" program at West Jordan High School in West
Jordan, Utah (Forecast, 1988) is one example of how an
FHA chapter has addressed this issue. The positive
response to their program is one indication of the stu-
dents' interest in this topic. Programs and classes that
ask students to evaluate the role of fathers, will help
better prepare young adults (both boys and girls) so
they can effectively meet the changing expectations
for paternal involvement.
References
Forecast, (1988). H.S. Students teach dads. Forecast,
34 (3), 30.
Klinman, D. G. (1986). Fathers and the educational
system. In M. E. Lamb (Ed.), The father's role:
Applied perspectives (pp. 413-428). New York:
Wiley.
Lamb, M. E., Pleck, J. H., Charnov, E. L., & Levine, J.
A. (1987). A biosocial perspective on paternal be-
havior and involvement. In J. B. Lancaster, J.
Altman, A. Rossi, & L. Sherrod (Eds.), Parenting
across the lifespan: Biosocial perspectives (pp.
111-142). Chicago: Aldine.
Levant, R. F. (1988). Education for fatherhood. In P.
Bronstein and C. P. Cowan (Eds.), Fatherhood to-
day: Men's changing role in the family (pp. 253-
275). New York: Wiley.
McBride, B. A. (1988). The effects of a parent educa-
tion/play group program on father involvement in
childrearing. Unpublished doctoral dissertation,
University of Maryland, College Park.
McBride, B. A. (1989a). Interaction, accessibility and
responsibility: A view of father involvement and
how to encourage it. Young Children, 44, 13-19
(Continued on page 99.)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1990 93
Cooperative Learning
Jennifer Herget
Teacher, Home and Career Skills
Camillus Middle School
Camillus, NY
The Nation at Risk (1983) reports that
"educational foundations are being eroded by a rising
tide of mediocrity that threatens our future as a na-
tion and a people" (p. 5). Within this report, national
test scores and student achievement in America were
shown as declining. In the past decade, when com-
pared internationally, our student achievement test
results came up short. The SAT scores were in an
unbroken decline from 1963 through 1980. It was sug-
gested that this trend stems from a weakness of pur-
pose, a confusion of vision, an underuse of talent and a
lack of leadership. The 1987 report still shows us at
risk. Education secretary, William Bennett, stated
that "We are doing better than we were in 1983, but
we certainly are not doing well enough, fast enough.
We are still at risk" (Goodwin, 1988, p. 51).
As educators, we are responding to this issue in
many ways. As teachers, as a school district, and as
citizens, we are dealing with it in the many roles we
play. The Nation at Risk (1983) reports our goal is "to
develop the talents of all to their fullest." How are
we doing at this? As classroom teachers, there is a
learning theory we can implement that will make
some marked improvements in our students, individu-
ally and collectively. This theory results in improv-
ing their individual talents and skills, while increas-
ing their accountability and responsibility in the
classroom. The theory is the Cooperative Learning
Theory. The schools using it are seeing changes and
saying "it works". Cooperative learning is a tech-
nique that has many advantages for students. Today
we need to improve the interpersonal skills and lead-
ership skills of our students. Small group work has
been a part of home economics for some time; however,
the adaptation to cooperative learning would take
only a slight effort.
Cooperative groups can be used for activities, dis-
cussion groups, and even for reading assignments. The
most important part is the initial establishment of
the groups, clearly stating and practicing the desired
behavior, and evaluating often.
Need for Cooperation
The need for cooperation between people is re-
flected in all aspects of life: the family, the commu-
nity, the work force, sports teams and society in gen-
eral. And yet so often in our schools and classrooms we
over-emphasize learning environments which operate
on an individual or competitive basis (Fehring, 1987).
The student's need for cooperative learning was a pri-
mary finding in related studies. Evidence showed the
benefits for students were both academic and social.
Cooperation has been found to promote more positive
attitudes toward the instructional work than does in-
dividualistic work (Johnson & Johnson, 1987). Most
classrooms today are an individualistic approach,
some are competitive and few are cooperative. In fact,
small group learning techniques are used seven to
twenty percent of classroom time (Johnson & Johnson,
1987). With more cooperative learning, there will be
greater student achievement, improved attitudes
about school and the responsibility of learning placed
back on the students (Smith, 1987). One of the most
powerful study techniques known to psychologists, ac-
cording to Pauk (1974), is the act of verbalizing newly
learned information. Group learning can provide stu-
dents with this opportunity.
Cooperative Learning Theory
Cooperative learning, defined by Slavin (1987),
refers to "a set of instructional methods in which stu-
dents are encouraged or required to work together on
academic tasks" (Slavin's,1987, p. 31). Study on
cooperative learning included the group contingency
component. In group contingencies, groups of students
are rewarded on the basis of the behavior of the group
members (Slavin, 1987). Slavin (1987) has done
comprehensive research since 1983 on cooperative
learning and achievement. He began by looking at
learning activities being a function primarily of their
motivation and found groups to be motivating. When
implemented effectively, they can be much more
motivating than competitive or individualistic
learning. In his 46 studies, Slavin (1987) found
significantly greater achievement in cooperative
learning classes than in control classes. If grouping
has no reward, the results were not favorable.
94 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1990
Smith (1987) feels that once cooperative skills are
learned, students have little trouble staying on a task,
enjoying their time together, caring about others and
turning out higher quality products. Smith (1987) fa-
vors cooperative learning and states that students do
not function effectively just because they are placed in
groups. The previously mentioned cooperative skills
exhibited by groups were contributing ideas, encourag-
ing others participation within groups, coordinating
the efforts of all the group members and expressing
support (Smith, 1987). Expected group behavior
should be outlined for cooperative learning to be most
effective.
The Basic Elements of Cooperative Learning
• Positive Interdependence
• Face-to-Face Interaction
• Individual Accountability
• Interpersonal and Small Group Skills
• Group Processing
(Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 1986)
Grouping of Students
The number of students in a small group differed in
research. Small groups of two to six were suggested by
Jacob and Mattson (1987) and groups of three to five
students were suggested by Fehring (1987) to be more
effective. Three groups of ten were recommended by
Wood (1987) in secondary level classrooms. Groups are
implemented for a number of different reasons, the
content area, behavior problems, and desires for stu-
dent achievement. The structuring of a group is very
important and clear outlines of group behavior and
goals should be made available. Groups allow the
teacher and the students to deal openly with sources
of conflict that may be causing surface behavior prob-
lems. The purpose and type of group that is imple-
mented will dictate specific outcomes (Coleman &
Webber, 1988). Other variables in the decision to
group consists of size of class, type and makeup of
class, flexibility on the part of students, their feelings
toward the subject and the ability of the students to
work successfully (Gerleman, 1987). Due to all these
variables, it is obvious that an initial attempt at co-
operative learning may not be a sufficient indicator of
its success for that teacher.
Structure of the Groups
The structure of the group is determined by the
group's purpose and teacher's preference. In order for
groups to be successful, structure and predetermined
expectations must be established (Coleman & Webber,
1988). This guideline is reiterated in many reports.
Learning groups may need a clear, cooperative goal
structure (Johnson, Johnson, & Stanne, 1986). Like any
other instructional activity, groups require systematic
movement toward predetermined goals and objectives
(Coleman & Webber, 1988). Students should be told
that each group member needs to assist the other
members of the group with understanding the materi-
als or completing the project (Johnson & Mattson,
1987). There is a need to create an atmosphere of posi-
tive interdependence between group members. Such in-
terdependence provides the reason for working to-
gether and thus encouraging cooperation (Fehring,
1987).
Advantages for Teachers
Advantages of cooperative learning for students,
such as their improvement academically and socially,
has been discussed. Teachers also have many benefits
from grouping, yet some teachers prefer working with
fewer students at a time because they feel it is easier
to know how much to expect from students and how
much to give them to do (Gerleman, 1987). Students
with high level abilities were not bored, and those
with lower abilities levels worked at their own pace.
When their efforts brought success, they were more
confident and as a result the students misbehaved less.
One of the attractions of cooperative learning is the
positive affects on the following variables: race
relations, attitudes toward mainstreamed classmates,
self-esteem, and other nonacademic outcomes (Slavin,
1987). The grouping technique can be an effective tool
for improved classroom management when
implemented appropriately. Any capable teacher
who is organized and somewhat flexible can group
(Gerleman, 1987).
The cooperative learning theory and steps are out-
lined in reference materials. It is not just putting stu-
dents in groups. Each student has a role and there are
observation forms to be completed and a checklist of
behaviors.
Important considerations mentioned were teachers
enthusiasm, experience, style and flexibility. Two
possible concerns for teachers were the fears of losing
power and losing control (Gough, 1987). The loss has
many gains for the student. Cooperative environments
provide so many benefits when compared to competi-
tive and individualistic environments. The suggestion
was made for teachers to start independently then
work with a group of colleagues who want to try it,
which would be easier and more fun. A last benefit for
teachers is that it will teach responsibility to the
students resulting from their individual accountabil-
ity to the group. Responsibility is a difficult concept
to teach and to develop in today's students. There is a
natural responsibility created in cooperative learning.
(Continued on page 99.)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1990 95
Maintaining Momentum
Harriett K. Light
Dept. of Child Development
and Family Science
College of Home Economics
North Dakota State University
Fargo, ND
Tips from the major theorists on how to handle a
problem experienced by most of us at some time in our
lives, dwindling energy and enthusiasm, are presented
in this article. This problem has been addressed by
Freud (1916-1917), Erikson (1963), Bardwick (1986),
Ringer (1989), Maslow (1968), and James (1977). Their
discussion of a common human dilemma is an indica-
tion that the great theorists were very much like all
of us. This realization helps theory come alive with a
practical message for living in the high-tech 1990s.
Erik Erikson: Care Deeply
Erik Erikson said life was one darn thing after the
other. In theoretical jargon, he said life consists of
eight psychosocial crises. Each crisis must be success-
fully resolved before the individual can progress to
the next crisis.
The eighth crisis is concerned with maintaining
momentum in adulthood. It is termed generativity vs.
stagnation. Generativity means a "...general concern
for guiding and supporting the next generation"
(Frager and Fadiman, 1984, p. 152). Continued cre-
ativity and productivity in adulthood requires a gen-
uine, caring concern about values that will promote a
high quality of life for all of human kind. To care
means to have a purpose in life that is outside of one-
self and all the worries about the self.
Dr. Wayne Dyer (1989), psychologist and prolific
author explained generativity and life's purpose:
"You find your purpose in service. Once you transcend
yourself - that is, once you get outside of you, and all
the pettiness, and all the worries about me, me, me -
and you get into the world. ..all of the other things in
terms of helping.. .people will begin to be a part of
your life" (p.24).
To care deeply about something that is worth-
while allows us to advance confidently in activities
that will make the world a better place for the next
generation. To care deeply means living life on ethics
and helping others develop their potential. It is from
caring that we derive the energy necessary for main-
taining momentum.
Stagnation is the alternative. Like a pond in
summer that has no fresh water flowing into it and
sends no water out of it - there are no new ideas flow-
ing into the stagnated mind; no new ideas flow out of
the mind into the world. Self-indulgence, self-concern,
inactivity and lifelessness are characteristics of a
stagnated person.
Erikson's tip for maintaining momentum and pre-
venting stagnation can be summarized by saying that
one must care deeply about something outside of self-
serving interests. This means involvement in activi-
ties which are based on values and ideas that will
"...ensure the ongoing health and maintenance of our
creations, ideals and principles. Unless the sphere of
our care and productivity widens, we fall prey to a
sense of boredom and stagnation" (Frager and
Fadiman, 1984, p. 152).
Judith Bardwick: Dare to Act
If caring is the first step in maintaining momen-
tum, the second step must be daring to act. Judith
Bardwick (1986) stated that being plateaued means
reaching a stage in work or life where there is no more
growth or movement. Like that old song that Peggy
Lee sings so well, we ask, "...is this all there is?"
Plateaued people have lost momentum because
they do not dare to act. They are scared of losing the
security they have gained, scared of change, scared of
being different from the crowd, scared to speak out
against injustices, and scared they will never win in
the race of life again.
How can momentum be maintained when you have
plateaued? Dare to act! Dare to shake off your long
term case of chronic fatigue that has become a conve-
nient excuse for inactivity. Dare to confront the rules
that no longer make sense. Dare to give up attitudes
and patterns of living that served you well in the
past, but now are your liability. According to
Bardwick, (1986) daring is the key to maintaining
momentum. ,
Robert Ringer: Bear Life's Realities
Too tired to care? Too tired to dare? Ringer (1989)
would say you have exhausted your energy because you
have had unrealistic expectations. Ringer (1989) is a
contemporary author of three self-published best
96 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1990
selling books. Striving without receiving what you
think ought to be your deserved rewards and believing
you have been singled out to experience unique prob-
lems are reasons for failure to maintain momentum.
He suggested that in order to maintain momentum, one
needs to understand the basic realities of life. This
will lead to an understanding of how the world works.
This is necessary if you are to avoid becoming over-
whelmed by the negative aspects of life. According to
Ringer (1989) the realities are:
1. Life is a continual stream of problems, obstacles,
lost jobs and people who treat you unfairly. This isn't
fair - but fairness isn't the issue. It's just reality. It is
better to understand this reality that life is full of
difficulties and dilemmas so you can spend your time
and energy becoming skilled at resolving those diffi-
culties as quickly and easily as possible.
2. For every negative occurrence in the world, there
is an equal and offsetting positive. Nothing in life is
one way. There are positive aspects in every negative
situation. A positive mental attitude does not ignore
the negative; it looks for the positive outcome in every
negative event.
3. The law of averages always prevails in the long
run. Your chances of succeeding are in direct proportion
to the number of times you try. If you try forty times,
your chances of succeeding are four times as great as
they are if you try only ten times.
Accepting problems as a part of life and working to
solve them, (instead of wasting energy thinking of
yourself as a helpless victim), and looking for the pos-
itive outcomes in all negative situations and
persistence when being faced with failure will help
one maintain momentum, according to Robert Ringer
(1989).
Sigmund Freud: Confront Negative Situations
Anxiety, triggered by various types of losses, was
viewed by Freud (Frager & Fadiman, 1984) as an en-
ergy consuming major obstacle to personal growth.
Types of losses include loss of love and approval, an
object or person, and self-respect. Anxiety consumes an
enormous amount of energy. Anxiety is a major reason
for failure to maintain momentum.
According to Freud (1916-1917), there are two gen-
eral ways to decrease anxiety. The most desirable
way is to deal directly with the anxiety causing situa-
tion. This involves resolving problems, overcoming ob-
stacles, and coming to terms with problems to mini-
mize their negative effect.
On the other hand, if problems are not confronted,
an individual may consume valuable energy by using
defense mechanisms as protection from anxiety. The
defenses avoid reality (repression), exclude reality
(denial), redefine reality (rationalization), or reverse
reality (reaction formation). They place inner feel-
ings on the outer world (projection), partition reality
(isolation), or withdraw from reality (regression). In
every case, energy is necessary to maintain the de-
fense. Defense mechanisms tie up psychological en-
ergy which could be used for more effective activities
(Frager & Fadiman, 1984).
The disadvantages of not confronting and dealing
with problem areas of life appears to be clear: an
enormous amount of energy is consumed as one tries to
"run" by using defenses. Momentum is lost. Self-confi-
dence is diminished. How much better to take Freud's
advice: deal directly with the situation and work to
resolve problems and overcome obstacles. This can re-
new energy because confidence is gained in handling
the anxiety producing situations.
Abraham Maslow: Immerse Yourself in Newness
Maslow (1968) believed that behavior can be ex-
plained on the basis of need fulfillment. Human needs
are arranged in a pyramid fashion with psysiological
needs, safety and esteem on the bottom. These must be
met before the person can go onto the higher level need
of self-actualization. Unfortunately, many people
stop growing and become bored when their lower level
needs are met, then there are no more challenges. This
can be due to poor health habits (poor diets, addiction
to drugs), group pressure, negative influences from past
experiences and inner defenses (Frager & Fadiman,
1984).
Momentum is lost when boredom sets in. Maslow
(1968) refers to this loss of momentum as the Jonah
complex. The Jonah complex is a refusal to try to real-
ize one's full capabilities. "Just as Jonah attempted to
avoid the responsibilities of becoming a prophet, so
too many people are actually afraid of using their ca-
pacities to the fullest. They prefer the security of av-
erage and undemanding achievements, as opposed to
truly ambitious goals that would require them to ex-
tend themselves fully" (Frager & Fadiman, p. 392).
Maslow's (1968) suggestion for maintaining mo-
mentum is to become immersed in new and different
challenges that require the use of latent abilities and
talents. Immerse oneself fully in newness: new ideas,
new skills, new actions, new feats. From the excite-
ment of newness, comes energy to maintain momentum.
James: Develop Wisdom - The Art of Knowing What
to Overlook - and Will
James (1977) is considered to be the father of psy-
chology. Writing at the turn of the century (1890s), he
viewed obstacles to personal growth as our own bad
habits (self-destructive health habits, procrastina-
tion), unexpressed emotions (anger or guilt can lead to
physical or mental illness), errors of excess (excess of
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1 990 97
love becomes possessiveness, an excess of loyalty be-
comes fanaticism, an excess of concern becomes senti-
mentality) and personal blindness (the failure to un-
derstand another person). These obstacles consume en-
ergy that could otherwise be put to constructive per-
sonal growth activities (Frager & Fadiman, 1984).
James (1977) experienced a long, severe period of
depression. His diary recorded the steps in his recov-
ery. On April 30, 1870, James made a conscious decision
to end his depression. He chose to believe in free will.
"My first act of free will shall be to believe in free
will," he said (Frager & Fadiman, 1984, p. 244).
Will is the center of James' (1977) theory-- the
combination of attention (focusing thoughts) and effort
(overcoming inhibitions, laziness, or distractions).
"An idea inevitably produces an action unless another
idea conflicts with it. Will is that process which
holds one choice among the alternatives long enough
to allow the actions to occur. We must ATTEND to a
difficult object and hold it steadfast before the mind"
(Frager & Fadiman, p 249).
Momentum is maintained when thoughts are fo-
cused on what one wishes to accomplish. Energy can
then be utilized on the desired activity instead of dis-
sipated on many competing thoughts. Knowing what
to overlook, and thus conserving energy, helps one to
invest personal energy wisely.
Summary
Loss of momentum is a common human dilemma.
Six theorists included this problem in their writings.
The theorists' views are summarized on the following
chart. Their views present several causes. However,
their suggestions for maintaining momentum focus on a
single commonality; action must be taken by the
individual and effort must be consciously focused on
maintaining momentum. Once a decision to maintain
momentum is made, then the necessary skills must be
developed. Only then will the individual be able to
maintain momentum.
OBSTACLES TO GROWTH
MAINTAINING GROWTH
ERIKSON
Self-centered concerns;
narrow view of world.
Reach out to others; care about
next generation.
FREUD
Anxiety caused by the
losses in life, including
loss of approval, objects,
confidence, etc.
Confront and deal with the
anxiety causing situation.
BARDWICK
Fear of losing security;
fear of change.
Dare to act; challenge
ineffective rules and old
ways of doing things.
RINGER
Unrealistic expectations;
meaningless strivings.
Accept reality of life's
problems; persist in
problem-solving skills.
MASLOW
Failure to develop one's
abilities and talents.
Lifelong learning; new
challenges.
JAMES
Own bad habits; unexpressed
emotions; errors of excess,
helplessness.
Believe in free will; act on
that belief; know what to
overlook.
98 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1990
References
Bardwick, J. M. (1986). The plateauing trap. New
York: Bantam Books.
Dyer, W. (1989). To make a difference in the word.
Insight, Nightingale-Conant Corp. 76, 17-25.
Erickson, E. (1963). Childhood and society (2nd ed.).
New York: Norton.
Frager, R., & Fadiman, J. (1984). Personality and per-
sonal growth. New York: Harper and Row.
Freud, S. (1916-1917). Introductory lectures on psy-
choanalysis. Standard Edition, Volumes 15 & 16.
Vienna: University of Vienna.
James. W. (1977). The writings of William James.
(John M. McDermott, ed.)
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Maslow, A. (1968). Toward a psychology of being.
New York: Van Nostrand.
Ringer, R. J. (1989). The power of PMA. Insight,
Nightingale-Conant Corp., 76, 26-39. • • •
(Continued from page 95.)
The Teacher's Role in Cooperative Learning
The teacher's role in cooperative learning is to
be a facilitator and a manager. The language used
may be as follows: our classroom, our rules of
behavior, our responsibility, our decision, etc.
(Fehring, 1987). Once groups are set up, teachers need
to intervene and monitor, this is only after they have
explained the task and desired behaviors (Jacobs &
Mattson, 1987). Sometimes cooperative learning is not
successful due to the teacher's perceived role and
behaviors. Also grouping is not for everyone and
teachers need to be comfortable with the mode of
teaching they use (Gerleman, 1987).
In conclusion, considering the variables and
the effects, cooperative learning is definitely
something to be implemented or at least try. The
advantages far outweigh competitive and
individualistic learning.
References
Coleman, M., & Webber, J. (1988). Behavior prob-
lems? Try groups! Academic therapy, 12(3), 265-
274.
Fehring, H. (1987). Cooperative learning strategies
applies in the language classroom. Adelaide:
Australian Reading Association. (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED 285 122).
Gerleman, S. (1987). An observational study of small-
group instruction in fourth grade mathematics
classrooms. The Elementary School Journal 88(\),
3-28.
Goodwin, I. (1988). Five years after "A Nation At
Risk" US schools still seek better grades. Physics
Today. June 1988, 50-52.
Gough, P.B. (1987). The key to improving schools: An
interview with William Glasser. Phi Delta
Kappan, 68(9), 656-662.
Jacob, E., & Mattson, B. (1987). Cooperative learning
with limited-English proficient students.
Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research
and Improvement. (ERIC Document Reproduction
Service No. ED 287 314).
Johnson, R., & Johnson, D. (1987). How can we put co-
operative learning into practice. Science Teacher,
54(6), 46-48, 50.
Johnson, R.T., Johnson, D. W., & Holubec, E. J. (1986).
Comparison of computer-assisted cooperative,
competitive and individualistic learning.
American Educational Research Journal, 23(3),
382-392.
Lew, M., Mesch, D., Johnson, D., & Johnson, R. (1986).
Positive interdependence, academic and collabo-
rative skills, group contingencies and isolated stu-
dents. American Educational Research Journal,
23(3), 476-488.
Slavin, R. (1987). Cooperative learning: Where be-
havioral and humanistic approaches to classroom
motivation meet. The Elementary School Journal,
84(4), 409-422.
Smith, R. A. (1987). A teacher's view on cooperative
learning. Phi Delta Kappan, 68(9), 663-666.
Wood, K. (1987). Fostering cooperative learning in
middle and secondary level classrooms. Journal of
Reading, 32(1), 10-19. •••
(Continued from page 93.)
McBride, B. A. (1989b, April). The effects of a parent
education/play group program on father involve-
ment in childr earing). Paper presented at the
Society for Research in Child Development
Biennial Meeting, Kansas City, MO.
McBride, B. A., & McBride, R. J. (in press). The chang-
ing roles of fathers: Implications for family life
and parent educators. Journal of Home Economics.
Minuchin, P. (1987). Schools, families, and the devel-
opment of young children. Early Childhood
Research Quarterly, 2 , 245-254. • • •
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1990 99
Are Workbooks Really Necessary?
Mary Ann Block
Deptartment of Home Economics
Tarleton State University
Stephenville, Texas
As I remember workbooks from my own school
days, I recall filling out my spelling workbook within
2 weeks. Condensing the supposedly 36 weeks of work
into 2 weeks was not work. It required little effort and
filled my time that was not otherwise engaged.
Did I learn from such a rapid endeavor? Did I
forget the spelling or the definitions by the time the
test was presented? Was the material presented on a
low level that demanded little thought? These are
difficult questions to answer. Perhaps I was good at
memorization as are many students and the workbook
filled my vacant study time. There may be many
students who complete the exercises in workbooks yet
do not learn very much as a result.
In home economics, as in other subjects, student
guides or workbooks have proliferated. Do we really
need them? Are they helpful in promoting and
developing the attainment of meaningful concepts for
students? Do they facilitate critical thinking? Are
these essential materials (Harp, 1989)? The answers
to these questions require careful consideration.
Learning that is meaningful comes from material
that has relevance and importance to the student.
Students retain concepts or ideas when they are used to
help them achieve a desired goal or purpose.
Workbooks have a tendency to be separate from the
furthering of important ideas (Harp, 1989).
Commercial materials or workbooks also have a
tendency to not advance ideas (Durkin, 1976). We need
to use the concepts of home economics in everyday life
and to help our students to do so.
In reviewing some of the workbooks or student
guides in home economics, there were many 'fill-in-
the-blank' pages, scrambled words, diagrams, charts,
questions to which answers must be found, cross word
puzzles, lists to be straightened, definitions to be
written, and small blanks in which to do it. Such
teaching materials represent a large amount of
seatwork. If this is knowledge worth knowing, can
home economists find more interesting, creative,
innovative ways in which to present it? The answer is
YES!!!
Students could write their own workbook pages.
Ask the students to pick out the most important ideas
from the assigned reading materials and present it to
the class in another form. Not only is this a good
review but it can be an evaluation technique. You may
have to give them some ideas but once they have the
idea students may be very creative with the material.
Instead of a fill-in-the-blank question on the effects of
egg, vinegar, and salt on metal (Lusteck and Bense,
1988, p. 51) students could demonstrate what actually
happens to the different metals when exposed to
different foods. Student demonstrations require a more
thorough knowledge of the subject than the fill-in-
the-blank. The teacher must give assistance to
students and help them plan.
The study of place settings in foods classes is
important for on the job work as well as serving a meal
to a family. Drawing the place settings in the book to
fit a certain menu has value but making the material
real will probably have a more lasting effect.
Students could illustrate and actually set the table for
many different menus, situations, and places. Students
could then be asked to evaluate the setting for
efficient use of time and energy and on the aesthetic
values.
The ages and stages of children could be more real
by creating activities to actually use with children of
different ages and abilities. Creating a 'quiet' book
with learning activities which help children learn
skills of dressing or by developing and equipping an
inexpensive babysitters' kit would illustrate concepts
of child development. These activities would require
research as to age appropriate skills for the student to
develop, and require the actual use and evaluation of
the product. In place of fill-in-the-blank or true-false
statements in a workbook, students could develop a
babysitter's or child care handbook. The research and
writing required by the students to complete such a
project would be useful not only to the students but to
others beyond the class.
There are many ways to make learning meaningful
and useful to students. Hazel T. Spitze (1979)
indicated that a variety of learning experiences can
accommodate a large class or a small class, and slow,
average, or advanced students. As teachers we need to
(Continued on page 88.)
100 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1990
A Phenomenological Platform for Teaching
At-Risk Students
Marian White-Hood
Doctoral Student
University of Maryland
We are all functioning at a small fraction of
our capacity to live fully in its total meaning
of loving, caring, creating and adventuring.
Consequently, the actualizing of our potential
can become the most exciting adventure of our
lifetime.
—Herbert Otto*
Taking a look at your life practice, beliefs,
strengths, and feelings is an enabling process — one
that stretches the existence and increases the capacity
to live fully. This process leads to a phenomenologi-
cal platform — a powerful theme for becoming. As a
middle school teacher, I was committed to the process
and now see it as a viable strategy for students who
have been placed at-risk by peers, home life, overly
formal education, and social pressures. These adoles-
cents suffer from a barrage of injustices, mixed mes-
sages, misunderstandings, and ideologies. They sit
now on the limb of misfortune, awaiting winds of
temptation and challenge. What kinds of activities,
strategies, and curriculum decisions will nurture ado-
lescents through the winds and ground them in hope,
vision, and desire for learning? How does the teacher
(as mentor) teach, make decisions that will benefit all
students, and stimulate the cavalry of thoughts in the
minds of middle schoolers? Further, what occurs in
the process ~ for teacher and student?
Building upon the mission of home economics
education, I focused upon the individuals at-risk and
the family. I sought ways to empower these young
adolescents, helping them realize their potentials
and abilities. I wanted each to engage in meaningful
activities for personal growth -- establishing goals,
examining resources, making their own decisions,
resolving personal conflicts, and becoming successful
individuals and family members in a highly
technological and impersonal society. The mission
motivated me to move beyond the standard course of
study to something more personally, professionally,
and educationally demanding. I sought funding for
special projects, developed my own hidden curriculum,
and looked to family and community members for
support. Being "at-risk" was something that had been
imposed upon the adolescents in the school -- like an
injury of sorts — the prognosis was good and I was
challenged to explore a process that would awaken
potential.
Moving beyond the confines of the classroom walls
into the community -- society in miniature, my middle
school students explored real-life situations and
developed a clear view of the problems that exist now
and possibly will persist into the 21st century. We
turned to mass communication, explored news articles,
stories on television, and movies that portrayed
teenagers as confused, hostile, apathetic, and
indifferent. Why are so many people in pain? What
causes hurt and misery? What has the world become?
What can we do to help? These questions paved the
way for action. Realizing that young people can work
on their own and along with adults, the students began
to set goals. They wanted to help alleviate and
eliminate some of the suffering that was so prevalent
in the world.
Months passed and the phenomenological process
took on new dimensions. We began to write poems,
stories, and accounts of experiences. Middle schoolers
talked more about the community and less about
themselves. Concerned about such issues as human
rights, ethnocentrism, violence, and help for the
homeless, world hunger, and drugs, the students
created mini-programs to address community needs.
As each became more open to experience, current
events, and conditions that were controlling and over-
powering, stones were turned and students disclosed
feelings of concern, empathy, appreciation for life,
and respect. As they continued to work and discover
together, cooperation and companionship grew
stronger and more intense. Another dimension of the
phenomenological process was reflected in aesthetic
attunement. We began each class with a "thought for
the day," a song of friendship, or a relaxer. Class
sessions focused on:
the communication of wants and needs
living in the world
social relationships
increasing independence
life plans -- work and the family
community responsibilities
financial fitness
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1990 101
Goals we shared include developing self-confidence,
setting high expectations, coping, communicating,
building self-esteem, and increasing basic skills. I
wanted to model what was important — what they
wanted to know, learn and do. Open ended questions,
end notes to the lesson, and humor offered warm
closure.
Praise and positive reinforcement was first
modeled by me then used by students to increase
feelings of belonging and self-worth. Success stories
were often shared and used as motivators on days
when a warm smile or firm brow was just not enough.
Further, using the names that the students wanted to
be known by was important. Like sweet music to the
ear, the sound of the right name reinforces student
worth in the class.
About mid-year, students who had been enrolled
in home economics exhibited positive thinking. We
planned an "Attitude Assembly" with a special
speaker. We gave out buttons and made posters for the
school. A bulletin board was created to promote the
attitude theme. Positive phraseology was encouraged
— students created their own list then used it on peers.
They were not at-risk of failing, falling, or sinking
into that imaginary pit that we tend to create when
things go bad. Attendance had improved and students
expressed sincere feelings about home economics.
Knowing the students allowed me to learn more
about their families. The class planned special parent
involvement activities such as a health fair, drug
program, restaurant field trip, career day, and parent
recognition day. We shared accomplishments that
were the result of schooling and focus on family styles.
Middle school home economics had done it's work!
Students demonstrated a greater awareness of the
challenges of perennial and universal problems. They
developed an appreciation for individual differences,
while learning to cooperate and work together in
teams. Many demonstrated the ability to set goals
and follow plans through to completion. They began
to understand and utilize humanitarian skills, while
modeling character development skills. Further, the
students in the home economics class experienced a
sense of community.
By the end of the year, I was able to examine the
phenomenological platform that prompted my being
for and with the students in the first place. It was
slightly tarnished -- by the bruises and bumps that
appeared at different points during the year.
However, it was more sturdy than before. I felt a
deeper commitment to the students, a desire to continue
our work, and appreciated myself as a teacher ~
mentor — and friend (to me). As for the students, they
progressed to high school and a new chapter begins.
Stretching and working to capacity, the students
know what individual potential is and how to use it.
If used well, it will carry them a lifetime. They are
also eager and excited as one door closes and another
opens. I think about the year, the experiences, and our
times in class activity together. I am reminded of the
closing door, the phenomenological platform that we
shared, and I say to each, "A window remains open for
your return."
What we do in middle school, what we teach,
what they learn, and what we give will follow them
through life. The window remains open and students
do return to relive, recall, review, revisit, and retool.
What they leave and what they find when they re-
visit the experience of middle school provides the
foundation for adult living.
"Herbert Otto, cited in Leo Buscaglia, Love. Holt, Rinehart
and Winston Distributors. Slack Publishers, 1972. Page 31.
(Continued from page 85.)
In the future, we will have to consider other ways
to make teachers aware of the newly created curricu-
lum material. One present concern is that a number of
teachers do not attend the annual conference and
therefore are not exposed to the materials available.
Research is needed to determine the usefulness of the
materials.
Summary
The system currently used by vocational home
economics to develop curriculum materials has been in
development for approximately 19 years. In that
time, curriculum development has moved from one
person being responsible for producing a set of
materials to expanded involvement of teachers,
advisors, and a host of writers and editors. With the
assistance of the Instructional Materials Laboratory,
the Department of Elementary and Secondary
Education, and committed home economics classroom
teachers, curriculum development efforts in the state
have grown into a responsive network of people who
listen to the concerns of public school teachers and
make a concerted effort to respond to their needs.
Reference
Instructional Materials Laboratory. (1987). Scope and
sequence for vocational home economics programs.
Columbia, Missouri: Instructional Materials
Laboratory. • • •
102 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1990
Challenges and Opportunities for
Teaching Clothing in the 1990s
Betty L. Feather, Ph.D.
Professor and State Extension
Specialist
University of Missouri-Columbia
A shift in the population distribution in the 1990s
will create additional challenges for the American
education system. The focus of our challenge will be to
provide a quality education, to prepare students with
life skills, and to retain borderline students in school.
For the next three decades, there will be a decline in
the percentage of young adults under age twenty-five.
In fact, for the first time in the history of the United
States, elderly persons will outnumber teenagers. The
prediction is that American women can now expect to
spend more time caring for an aged parent than a de-
pendent child. Education continues to be the most im-
portant service that the public can provide for the
youngest segment of the population — those under 18
years.
Quality of education became a prominent issue in
the 1980s. As a result in nearly every state, high
school graduation requirements were increased. Some
educators believe that today's younger generation will
be the first in American history to receive a lower
quality education than previous generations. While
the percentage of the population that received high
school diplomas rose from 24 percent in 1940 to 70
percent in 1981, currently one of every four freshmen —
25 percent — does not graduate from high school
(United Way, 1987). In some urban schools, more
students actually drop out of school than graduate.
This drop-out rate has serious social implications.
High school drop-outs are far more dependent on
social aid, such as welfare and/or unemployment
compensation, and are much more likely to be involved
in criminal activities than high school graduates.
It is predicted that employment opportunities in
the 1990s will increase. More young adults should be
able to find work because there will be fewer youth
under age eighteen to compete with them. Job vacan-
cies are expected to increase especially in industries
that rely on young, low-wage workers — industries such
as tourism, food service, sales, and hospitality.
Ninety percent of the new jobs will be in the service
sector — from janitors to bank clerks, from computer re-
pair persons to lawyers. Although jobs will be avail-
able, some observers fear that many of the nation's
chronically unemployed will continue to be at a dis-
advantage because they lack training and because
these jobs will be concentrated in suburban areas.
Female students should expect to be employed out-
side the home most of their lives. The growing number
of working women may be the single most important
change affecting the American work force. Current
trends indicate that by 1995, women will constitute 47
percent of the work force. Women work due to economic
need, because they are mainly responsible for their
household, or because two incomes are necessary to en-
sure a middle class standard of living. Women's par-
ticipation in the work force has affected family struc-
ture and the marketplace. While men have become in-
creasingly more involved in child and household care,
women seem to provide the greater proportion of care
for elderly parents. These dually employed couples
comprise a large, potential market for time-saving
appliances, ready-to-wear clothing, convenience and
commercially prepared food, and domestic help.
Challenges in the classroom
Research (Schultz, 1989) indicates that today's
teenagers are realistic about the future. In the AHEA
Survey of American Teens, teenagers voiced the impor-
tance of employment and indicated they understood
that it takes two incomes to be economically viable.
Life skills education is being funded in many states
through the provisions of the Carl D. Perkins
Vocational Education Act.
Life skills education includes concepts such as self-
awareness, personal and family living skills, health
and wellness, nutrition and foods, parenting education,
consumerism, financial management, and career devel-
opment. Home Economics teachers readily identify
foods and nutrition, family and child care, and finan-
cial management as life skills areas, but are unsure
about how to incorporate topics in other areas such as
housing and clothing. It is our responsibility as educa-
tors to remind parents, administrators, and legislators
that food is prepared in homes, families interact in
homes, and individuals and families have to manage
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/February, 1990 103
finances to afford homes. To carry out all of these in-
teractions, people wear clothing, and spend consider-
able time selecting garments, wearing, worrying about,
and cleaning their clothes. Our role is to educate not
only students but influential and interested others
about the importance of education about housing and
clothing.
The importance of personal appearance is well
recognized in interpersonal relationships, in peer
group acceptance, and in interviewing for employment.
Researchers (Cash, Winstead and Janda, 1986) have
documented that young people, compared to older peo-
ple, are more dissatisfied with their appearance. We
need to help students have realistic standards and
goals with respect to their appearance and body-im-
age. Through the press, and perhaps even personal ex-
periences, we are aware that extreme dissatisfaction
with one's appearance can result in serious physical
conditions including anorexia nervosia and bulimia.
Students need help forming healthy attitudes to-
ward grooming habits and taking care of personal
clothing. Considerable amounts of time and resources
are spent each week in laundering and grooming tasks.
Many families can tell of the lessons in interpersonal
relationships, family finances, and impression control
that can be learned by self-examination.
Body image and appearance relate to nutrition
and health. "You are what you eat." Everyone knows
that calories count, but not everyone realizes that
calories need to be burned to avoid weight gain.
Exercise burns calories and also tones muscles for im-
proved appearance and enhanced self-esteem. As stu-
dents examine their eating patterns and exercise
schedules, they may be able to see the relationship
between diet and appearance.
Students today purchase most of their own cloth-
ing. How can we as teachers help them make informed
decisions? Whether or not they are using their own
earnings for these purchases, they will be disap-
pointed when purchases do not meet their expecta-
tions. Because catalog shopping is so prevalent, it
might be used as an easy way "to shop and compare" in
your classroom.
To what extent are clothing career opportunities
related to clothing discussed in the classroom? For
example, in Missouri there are approximately 25,000
persons employed in the apparel industry — about the
same number as are employed in the hotel and lodging
industry. This number does not include people
employed in retailing nor garment care industries such
as dry cleaning, laundry, and alterations. According to
Dickerson, Dalecki, and Meyer (1989) Missouri
considers tourism a major industry but few people
realize that apparel employs a similar workforce.
Another fast growing segment of the job market is
in providing personal care services to elderly persons
in their own homes or in institutions. In a recent study,
Feather and Dillard (1989) found that in-home care
aides were asked by elderly persons most frequently
for assistance in housecleaning (96.8 percent), then
personal grooming (92.6 percent) and third, laundry
(89.7 percent). Assistance with dressing was the sixth
most frequent request with 66 percent of the clients
asking for that service. Pensiero and Adams (1987,
p.ll) noted that "Longevity of life has more value
when there is quality to living, a sense of well-being,
and some normalcy. Dress can be an important link to
the outside world." We can help students understand
that appearance continues to be important to most
people regardless of age. Moreover, we can teach
students about design features that will contribute to
ease of dressing, ease of care, and yet not look
"geriatric." Pensiero and Adams (1987) concluded that
there is a great need for motivational strategies to
encourage and help nursing home staff members. They
found that elderly patients who dressed in their own
day wear were treated differently from elderly who
wore institutional clothing. But perhaps of more
importance, elderly persons who were dressed in their
own clothing showed greater independence and higher
self-esteem. Many of our students will be working with
elderly parents or clients in the future, are we address-
ing this need?
If you agree that clothing and textiles is a neces-
sary part of life skills, then let's explore what is being
taught in today's classroom. Remember as we teach,
we are "modeling" attitudes and practices for our stu-
dents to use.
Opportunities for clothing in the 90s
Naisbitt (1982) pointed out that interdependence
builds understanding. Many times we think we know
what other people do but it's only when we work with
them that we begin to see things from their perspec-
tive. To help others better understand what we do,
they need to be involved in our classrooms. Bringing re-
source people to your classroom not only enhances your
classroom teaching,.but also educates them about your
program. They may become your best advocates.
Learning which is based solely on facts will soon
be outdated. Toffler (1974) cited Lewis Carroll who
said "That's why they're called lessons, ...because
they lessen from day to day." Teaching strategies that
rely on the four Cs — comprehension, critical thinking,
communications, and coping — rather than information
dissemination, will more adequately prepare students
for improved decision making.
You make many decisions about your clothing cur-
riculum. What topics do you include? How much time
104 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1990
do you allocate on each topic? How do the topics
taught and time spent compare to what you taught
five or ten years ago? Interviews with teachers and
teacher educators indicate that considerable time con-
tinues to be spent on garment construction. Ambry
(1988) suggested that home sewing is more of a luxury
activity today than one of necessity. Shouldn't we be
teaching skills that students need? Is teaching cloth-
ing construction a wise use of our time when there are
so many appearance related topics to be taught? Is it
wise to spend the majority of the school clothing bud-
get on new sewing machines and sergers?
As a State Extension Specialist for approximately
15 years, I have had considerable interaction with
consumers. The greatest number of calls to Extension
offices across the country relate to clothing care.
Recently over 300 in-home health care aides were of-
fered a selection of educational publications free of
charge for completing a survey related to care of
elderly persons. The most frequently chosen publica-
tion was a stain removal guide, followed by laundry
procedures. The third and fourth favorite topics were
"dressing slim, and "building a workable wardrobe".
Elliott (1986) noted that nationally Home Economics
Extension Program Leaders considered clothing con-
sumerism a first priority and clothing maintenance,
second.
An important aspect of the process of buying and
using garments is caring for them. If consumers fol-
lowed good laundry practices and understood how to
use laundry products effectively many problems could
be avoided. Excellent educational materials are
available from the Soap and Detergent Association
(SDA), individual detergent companies, laundry
equipment companies and the International Fabricare
Institute (IFI), as well as county Extension offices.
Several new text books include information re-
lated to buying and caring for garments and have orga-
nized content to include areas related to life skills.
Fashion (Wolfe, 1989) focuses on six major areas which
is consistent with the life skills focus: Clothes and
Fashion (the importance of personal appearance and
what it says about the individual), Apparel Industry
(the production and distribution of merchandise),
Textiles "Science of Apparel" (fibers, fabrics, and
finishes), Design "Art of Apparel" (design principles,
color, coordination), Consumers of Clothing (wardrobe
planning, managing finances, labeling, maintenance),
and Apparel Industry Careers.
As teachers, you deal with a variety of student
ages and a diverse curriculum. Curriculum and learning
activities need to be developed in sequence and built on
previous learnings. For example, in junior high school
it may be appropriate to discuss personal appearance
and its relationship to others. At the senior high
school level, however, understanding the significance
of clothing at different stages in life might be more
appropriate. It is important that we address the scope
of clothing content and not focus exclusively on one
aspect, such as clothing construction, so that students
have the life skills they will need in all clothing ar-
eas.
Many students we are teaching now are going to be
living in 2050! We can be certain there will be a
tremendous amount of change by that time. By teach-
ing the 4C's — comprehension, critical thinking, com-
munication, and coping — we will help students apply
principles to new situations, make informed decisions,
and cope with a changing world.
References
Ambry, M. (1988, October). Sew what? American
Demographics, pp. 36-38, 58, 59
Cash, T. F., Winstead, B. M., and Janda, L. H. (1986).
The great American shape-up. Psychology Today,
20(4), 30-37.
Dickerson, K. G., Dalecki, M., & Meyer, M. (1989,
July). Apparel manufacturing in the rural
heartland. Bobbin, pp. 104-110.
Elliott, E. A. (1986). Extension Textiles and Clothing
in the Future. Proceedings of the National
Extension Workshop in Textiles & Clothing and 4-
H Clothing & Textiles Curriculum. Raleigh, NC:
North Carolina Extension Service. 199-203.
Feather, B. L., & Dilliard, B. G. (1989). In-home care
aides' knowledge and perceptions of elderly
patients' clothing needs. Paper presented at the
meeting of the Association of College Professors of
Textiles and Clothing, Atlanta, GA.
Naisbitt, J. (1982). Megatrends. Ten New Directions
Transforming Our Lives. New York: Warner.
Pensiero, M., & Adams, M. (1987). Dress and self-es-
teem. Journal of Gerontological Nursing, 13(10), 10-
17.
Schultz, J. B. (1989). AHEA's Survey of American
Teens. Journal of Home Economics. 81(2), 27-40.
Toffler, A. (1974). Learning for tomorrow. New York:
Vintage.
United Way of America. (1987). What lies ahead:
Looking toward the 90s. Alexandria, VA:
Strategic Planning and Market Research Division.
Wolfe, M. G. (1989). Fashion. South Holland, IL:
Goodheart-Wilcox.
(Continued on page 109)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/February, 1990 105
Adaptable Housing for Lifelong Needs
Patricia A. Tripple, C.H.E.
University of Nevada-Reno
Carole J. Makela, C.H.E.
Colorado State University
Patricia A. Tripple
This paper is based upon data collected as part of the
Regional Agricultural Experiment Station project (W-176)
"Housing and Locational Decisions of the Maturing
Population: Opportunities for the Western Region."
Cited as the most important trend of our times is
the aging of the American population. With aging
comes the questions of how society will change from a
youth oriented culture to one that has a more balanced
mix of ages. From now and well into the next century,
the most rapidly growing proportion of the population
is the group over 75 (Figure 1). For the first time in
American history, it is predicted that by 2030 the
proportion of the population 65 and over will be simi-
lar in size to that segment under 17 (Figure 2). Nearly
Population 55 Years and Over
By Age
1940-2050
120
Population Millions
100 -
80
60 +
40
CD
85
♦
^
76-
84
□
66-
74
8H3
58
64
■
1940
1960
1980 2000
Year
2020
2040
Figure 1. U.S. Senate Special Committee on Aging in conjunction
with the American Association of Retired Persons, the
Federal Council on Aging and the U.S. Administration on
Aging (1989). Aging America: Trends and Projections,
1987-88 Edition. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, 11.
one half of the population over 65 has arthritis, three
out of twenty have hearing deficiencies, and one out of
ten has a visual impairment (National Center for
Health Statistics, 1987). By age 85, one quarter of the
elderly population needs assistance in walking, and 15
percent need assistance with bathing. At this later
age, about 30 percent need help to shop and do house-
hold chores.
Children and Elderly in the Population
Actual and Projected
50%
Percent of Population
40% -
30% -
20%-
10%
0%
40%
26%
Age
CD
0 -
17
m
66
- Plu«
4%
22%
11%
III
21%
21%
22%
■
^
^
m
1900
1980
2030
2050
Year
Figure 2. U.S. Senate Special Committee on Aging in conjunction
with the American Association of Retired Persons, the
Federal Council on Aging and the U.S. Administration on
Aging (1989). Aging America: Trends and Projections,
1987-88 Edition. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, 13.
When people age they spend more time at home
and lose agility, mobility and sensory acuity. As a re-
sult, housing needs change, making the match between
the physical environment and physical capabilities
increasingly important. A well planned, pleasant en-
vironment can compensate for mobility and sensory
losses. Thereby allowing people to maintain indepen-
dence in their own homes with greater feelings of secu-
rity and lessened fear of accidents. Winston Churchill
(1944) said, "We form our buildings and then our
buildings form us."
With the graying of America, attention needs to
be given to the desired lifestyles and habitats of re-
tirees. The expectations of the pre-retirement popula-
tion during their retirement years gives direction to
the services and facilities needed. The views of pre-
retirees related to housing and (locational) decisions
were studied by a cadre of researchers from nine mid-
west and western universities (Makela, 1989). All
106 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1990
university employees aged 40 and over were sampled
and sent a questionnaire. Most respondents (62 percent)
were faculty, administration or professional within
the university. The remaining were clerical (19
percent), and maintenance, technicians, and crafts (20
percent). The major findings from 5,662 persons
(Makela, 1989) were:
1. Anticipation of retirement: Fifty percent of
the respondents held positive attitudes toward re-
tirement. A few (12 percent) indicated they were not
looking forward to leaving university employment.
The remaining were neutral about the event.
2. Retirement decisions: Forty-four percent had
decided where to retire; 38 percent when to retire; the
remainder had made neither retirement decision.
3. Community Preference Present community was
the favored retirement choice. Only one-third
indicated they would like to live somewhere other
than their present community.
4. Geographic preference: Areas near water
(ocean, lake, river) (rather than the desert), moun-
tains, and trees were preferred. Although altitude
preferences were not often noted, when expressed, they
were state specific. Respondents from Oregon and
Washington for example, clearly preferred low alti-
tudes while respondents from Colorado, Nevada and
Utah preferred high altitudes.
5. Location of residence: Most (45 percent) of the
respondents in all states preferred living year-round in
one location. During the first ten years of retirement, a
small town away from the largest city or in the county
was preferred. The second choice was a rural country-
side less than 20 minutes from the largest city.
6. Desired population age mixture: The choice of
neighborhood age mix was to have all ages repre-
sented. With advancing age, more pre-retirees be-
lieved they would like to live in a neighborhood of
peers.
7. Community characteristics: Regardless of the
retirement location, community facilities are impor-
tant. Ninety-six percent indicated medical facilities
as an important service. Facilities for limited surgery
available within 20 to 30 minutes by car from their re-
tirement home was the minimum acceptable standard.
Slightly fewer respondents desired to have facilities
for general surgery available. Other services in order
of importance were library, recreation and shopping
malls.
8. Housing structure preference: The single-fam-
ily house was the housing structure preferred (77 per-
cent).
Future Housing Patterns
With the preference for and existence of such a
predominance of single-family housing units in this
country, the question becomes one of how preference
and inventory can be brought together to provide suit-
able housing for an ever increasing aging population.
The authors are proposing four situations for the fu-
ture. These were developed based on current trends
and preferences, the desire to keep people in their
homes as long as possible, and their adaptability for
varied structure types (apartments, mobile homes,
townhouses, etc.). It is recognized that there is no one
best alternative but rather a variety of choices to al-
low the diverse aging population to have suitable
housing and related services reasonably priced.
Variety is also essential to provide for changing
lifestyles of today's sixty year olds compared to those
who reach 60 in 1960 and those who will reach 60 in
2020.
The four housing patterns proposed to address the
graying of America are: an ageless house, a high-
touch house, an electronic house, and a sun city in each
state. Each has unique characteristics.
Ageless House. The ageless house is most similar
to present day houses. Many of the features needed
are the same as today's barrier free house. The con-
cept of ageless housing is important because it avoids
labeling either the housing or its residents as different
from others. People resist different housing either to
live in or in their neighborhoods as it conjures up nega-
tive stereotypes that often are far from reality.
Instead of being for the handicapped only, ageless
houses provide safety, security and support services in
all ages. Major requirements are:
1 . No steps at the entrance or between living areas
2. Doorways 36 inches wide
3. Halls 36 inches wide
4. Turning area in each room of 54 inches
5. Accessible bathroom facilities
6. Grab bars in bathrooms for shower, tub and toilet.
Amenities to accommodate restricted reach and enable
independent living are also needed such as a voice or
motion-activated lock and lighting system or electri-
cal fixtures within reach when seated. While these
items are usually recommended for the elderly, they
are just as useful to people of all ages. The teenager
who is crippled by an auto accident, the pregnant
woman or even someone carrying groceries will find it
easier and safer to maneuver in wider, well lit halls,
with door levers and no steps.
High-Touch House. The high-touch house pro-
vides an added dimension to the ageless house. When
the house alone no longer provides sufficient support
and assistance with daily living, the time for the
high-touch house has arrived. Sometimes, all that is
necessary is to rearrange the housing plan to accommo-
date another person in the household to care for the
incapacitated person. Private space is mandatory for
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1990 107
each household member while maintaining communi-
cation between the person who needs help and the
care-giver. Providing a bell to call the care-giver may
be all that is needed. Intercoms and alert systems are
other alternatives. This environment also requires
some built-in mental stimulation; for example, win-
dows to see what is happening out-of-doors or a patio
to sit in the sun or smell the freshness after a rain.
Access and suitable furnishings to allow the care-re-
ceiver to interact with others in both living and sleep-
ing spaces are important. Adjacent bathroom facili-
ties are also a basic requirement.
Electronic House. The electronic house provides
limitless options. Electronic technology in the home
can control and monitor equipment and systems as well
as aid in communication. Electronic automation, com-
munication, and entertainment/instructional systems
are available. These may be a whole house system or
specific purpose units for certain functions (security,
etc.) or a combination thereof. Automation systems al-
low the dweller to monitor and control interior cli-
mate, lighting, appliances and equipment and home
security by either pre-programming or on demand con-
trol from locations away from the functioning device.
For example, light may go on as one enters a room and
shut off after a delay when one leaves. The level of
lighting may be determined by the available natural
light and /or the usage of the area. All are intended to
increase the comfort, safety and security of the home
dweller. Electronic communication enable off-site
and /or message transmission to other locations to alert
emergency centers, relatives or neighbors of fire,
changes in heart function or a fall.
Sun Cities. Sun cities have been developed around
the idea that certain people are attracted to their
ideal climate (which may be either warm or cold
weather oriented), related recreational and leisure
time opportunities and an age range that excludes
young families. Often this latter characteristic is
used as a selling point that taxes will be lower than
surrounding areas as schools will not be part of the
community. These communities also allow service
providers (transportation, physicians, attorneys, etc.)
and retailers to specialize in and meet the needs of an
older population.
Sun cities are a collection of ageless, high-touch
and electronic houses for people 55 years of age and
over. The recreation, medical and shopping facilities
are in close proximity. The residents often share simi-
lar interests such as golf, cards and dancing.
Occupational backgrounds and income may also be sim-
ilar. A full range of housing types, the single-family
unit with no related services, apartment units with
meal service and housekeeping and full care nursing
homes, are available to meet varied needs. Each state
would support at least one sun city for its older citizens
to make recreation, shopping and medical care readily
available and cost effective.
A person's needs and resources will differ in each
succeeding decade from ages 60 to 100. Housing must be
adaptable. This may be in terms of changes in the de-
sign and equipment or ease of superimposing needed
services. Whether there will be the variety of hous-
ing options available at the appropriate time, place
and price is unknown.
Classroom/Student Activities (Learning Strategies?)
Each student should become familiar with the re-
strictions of a wheelchair, walker or crutches.
Several activities make this possible. The most
meaningful is to have a wheelchair so that the stu-
dent can evaluate maneuvering space required. The
student should sit, work at a counter, travel from room
to room, go outside and especially use the bathroom,
kitchen and laundry facilities to see the difficulty of
propelling the wheelchair in restricted places. The
personal needs for assistance in and out of a
wheelchair must be considered. If a wheelchair is not
available one can be simulated using a straight chair
plus cushions to show how much additional room is
required for the wheelchair. Students may also
explore the school and classroom for the barriers to
the wheelchair bound student, teacher or visitor.
A second activity is to evaluate their home as to
ageless house requirements to determine useability.
The following measurements should be made to see if
their home is barrier free: (1) exterior walkway;
(2) exterior entrance; (3) interior hallways;
(4) interior doorways, especially those to the kitchen,
bath and bedroom; and (5) height of storage shelves
and drawers, work counters, light switches and elec-
trical outlets. After the students determine the most
often missing barrier-free features, invite a builder to
discuss (1) the cost of adding these amenities when
the house is first built and (2) the cost to add the fea-
tures after the initial construction is completed.
Students can also use their ingenuity to develop low
cost ways to make adaptations for the ageless or high-
touch house. Another aspect of usability is to consider
the needs of a person who is bedridden (young person
after an auto or diving accident or an elderly person
after a serious stroke) and their care-givers (assist in
and out of shower, car, bed, etc.).
A group think tank is a third activity to give stu-
dents opportunity to improvise on their own. Groups
would enumerate features to enhance the livability of
the electronic, ageless and high-touch houses. A fol-
low-up search of the literature to see what profes-
sionals envision as housing for the elderly would
broaden the students' perspective. Competition be-
108 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1990
tween groups could be introduced by giving bonus points
to the teams whose list is judged best by a panel of
elderly persons who are living in each type of house.
As an alternate or in addition, students could visit
area stores to see which electronic technologies identi-
fied in their think tank groups are available in the
community and compare costs.
For a fourth activity, design a sun city for the
state. What activities does the location and climate
encourage (golf or snowmobiling, gardening or boating,
bridge or horseshoes, etc.)? How should the commu-
nity and the housing units be designed to effectively
accommodate interests and needs of the residents both
when they are couples in their late fifties and sixties
as well as when they are widows 70 and older? This
design may be a narrative description of the commu-
nity and its housing, a blueprint type layout of the
community, its housing, facilities, etc. or a three di-
mensional model of the community.
Inventorying housing options in the community
would be another way to involve students. Residents
or grandparents could share their experiences or be in-
terviewed to determine reactions to living in shared
housing, auxiliary homes, group homes, retirement
communities, residential hotel or rooming house, nurs-
ing home and recreational vehicle parks.
Lastly, students could explore job and career oppor-
tunities in housing that are used by the elderly popu-
lation.
If you want to read more about the changes in
housing for the aging population the following refer-
ences are suggested.
Dychtwald, K., & Flower, J. (1989). The age wave:
The challenges and opportunities of an aging
America. Los Angeles: Tarcher, Inc.
The Futurist, a journal of forecasts, trends and ideas
about the future.
Smith, R. L. (1988). Smart house: The coming revolu-
tion in housing. Columbia, MD: G. P. Publishing.
Pamphlets from American Association of Retired
Persons and from the American Telephone and
Telegraph Corp.
References
Fitzgerald, F. (1986). Sun City - 1983. In Cities on a
hill. New York: Simon & Schuster, 203-243.
Makela, C. (Ed.) (1989). Housing and locational deci-
sions: Thinking ahead to retirement. Fort Collins,
CO: Colorado State University.
National Center for Health Statistics. (1987,
October). Current estimates from the National
Health Interview Survey, United States, 1986.
Vital and Health Statistics, Series 10, No. 164.
U.S. Senate Special Committee on Aging in conjunction
with the American Association of Retired Persons,
the Federal Council on Aging and the U.S.
Administration on Aging. (1989). Aging America:
Trends and Projections, 1987-88 Edition
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services, 11.
U.S. Senate Special Committee on Aging in conjunction
with the American Association of Retired Persons,
the Federal Council on Aging and the U.S.
Administration on' Aging (1989). Aging America:
Trends and Projections, 1987-88 Edition
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services, 13. • • •
(Continued from page 105.)
Resources
The following companies or associations have educa-
tional materials available that are suitable for use
with high school students. Write and request their
list of educational resources and associated costs.
American Apparel Manufacturers Association, 1611 N.
Kent Street, Arlington, VA 22209.
American Fibers Manufacturers Association, Inc., 1150
17th Street, N.W., Suite 310, Washington D.C.,
20036.
American Textile Manufacturers Institute, 1801 K
Street, N.W., Suite 900, Washington D.C. 20006.
The Clorox Company, Consumer Services Department,
P.O. Box 24305, Oakland CA 94623.
Cooperative Extension Service, county or state land-
grant university.
Faultless Fabric Care Institute, P.O. Box. Box 3431,
Chicago, IL 60654.
International Fabricare Institute, The Association of
Drycleaners and Launderers, 12251 Tech Road,
Silver Springs MD 20904.
Lever Brothers Co., Consumer Ed. Dept., Box 576 SDA,
390 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10022.
Maytag, Consumer Education, One Dependability
Square, Newton, Iowa 50208.
National Cotton Council of America, Box 12285,
Memphis TN 38112.
Proctor and Gamble Educational Services, P.O. Box
14009, Cincinnati, OH 45214.
The Soap and Detergent Association, 475 Park Avenue
South, New York, NY 10016.
Texize, Division of Morton Thiokol, Inc.,Consumer
Affairs Dept.- Box SDA, P.O. Box 368, Greenville,
SC 29602. •••
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1990 109
Families Coping in a Technological Society
Jillian R. Boyd
Co-ordinator, Home Economics
School of Education
University of Western Sydney, Nepean
Australia
Paper taken from the Conference Proceedings of the
5th Bienial Conference of Asian Regional Association
for Home Economics, Singapore.
Introduction
In this paper technology is taken to mean the
application of scientific knowledge, skills, attitudes,
processes and techniques to solve problems in every-
day living. These problems come about as people in-
teract with all aspects of their physical and social
environments. Technologies are created from a series
of specific decisions made by particular groups of peo-
ple, in particular places, at particular times, and for
their own purposes (Wajoman, 1987). In this sense
then, technology reflects how power is distributed in a
society. Women, for example, have and continue to be
under-represented and excluded from decision making
about technology.
As a society develops, the role of technology in-
creases both in scope and depth. It is through technol-
ogy that societies are able to become more complex and
to grow. New ways of doing things are found.
Technological change is the name given to the process
by which new replaces old. The past century has seen
technology assume great importance and dominance in
most people's lives. They have learned to pin their
faith on the idea that technology will provide a
seemingly endless supply of new materials, sources of
power, knowledge, processes and tools (Coombs, 1985,
p. 5). They have observed how technological devel-
opment has enriched human lives by providing more
choice in goods and services, and healthier, more com-
fortable lifestyles. In such a climate it is very easy
for people to overlook that science and technology are
not able to solve every human problem nor are science
and technology synonymous with human progress.
Human beings are far more than tool-making and con-
suming animals (Jones, 1982, p. 211). We have at-
tributes like emotions, language, tradition, religion,
myth and understanding. These kinds of human att-
tributes play an important part in bringing meaning
and quality to our lives.
What are the Broader Social and Economic Effects of
Technology?
To appreciate the effects of technology on fami-
lies, it is important to consider first the broader social
and economic contexts.
The history of technological development shows
it to be a mixed blessing for most people. The
widespread adoption of new technologies brings about
social and economic changes which are on the one
hand beneficial, and on the other, harmful. This di-
chotomy comes about by the choices people make in us-
ing a specific technology rather than something in-
herent in the technology itself.
I recently read the report of the World
Commission on Environment and Development (1987)
called Our Common Future. It is a powerful message
and I recommend its reading to all home economists.
The Commission was set up as an independent body of
the United Nations in 1983. Its report shows that the
human race continues to be threatened by nuclear
weapons and the arms race. People are suffering and
dying from inadequate provision of their basic needs
while millions of dollars a day are being spent on
technologies of violence (Fazal, 1985, p. 142). The life
support systems of our natural environment are becom-
ing increasingly damaged by human activity, princi-
pally by people in the more technologically advanced
nations. Natural forests in places like the Amazon
Basin, Africa, Asia and Australia are disappearing
rapidly. As more people seek farm land, especially in
marginal agricultural areas, soil erosion and salinity
become more widespread. The burning of fossil fuels
(coal, oil and gas) releases billions of tons of carbon
dioxide and other gases into the atmosphere each
year. Scientists now appear to agree on the global
warming theory which says that world temperatures
are increasing. It is believed by some that in our chil-
dren's lifetime there will be adverse consequences, for
example, on national economies, agricultural produc-
tion and human habitation in coastal areas (The
World Commission on Environment and Development,
1987, p. 2).
The still widespread use of chlorofluorocarbons in
a range of consumer products, such as refrigerants and
aerosol packaged household products, is depleting the
ozone layer around the earth. As a result, more ultra-
110 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1990
violet radiation from the sun is reaching the earth's
surface and increasing our risk to skin cancer. The food
chain, including fresh water and marine environments,
is being seriously upset by agricultural/industrial
toxic substances and household waste. For example,
industrial pollution in the form of acid rain is destroy-
ing forests and water environments in places like
Canada and Europe.
In 1989 the world population is estimated as
slightly more than 5 billion people (United Nations,
1989). The present population growth rate, if it con-
tinues, will increasingly deplete the finite resources of
our natural environment and undermine the efforts of
many nations to raise their people's living standards.
The World Commission on Environment and
Development (1987, p. 8) advises us to address this
global problem by using technology to advance devel-
opment in ways that meet the needs of people today
without compromising the ability of future genera-
tions to meet their needs. I'm sure you will agree that
this represents an enormous challenge! It transcends
national boundaries, demands greater international
cooperation, and implies that affluent nations will
have to adopt ecologically sounder lifestyles as well
as a more considerate view of the development efforts
of poorer nations. In regions where population growth
is of concern, future growth rates will need to be at a
level that the prevailing environments can comfort-
ably sustain.
I have just presented a gloomy picture of the pre-
sent and future. The good news, however, is that the
report of the World Commission on Environment and
Development (1987) is optimistic. It makes a special
point of showing world-wide trends of improvement in
the provision of mass education, adequate nutrition,
and health services. The Commission sees this and in-
creased technological know-how as having the poten-
tial to lead people to make better use of available re-
sources.
Communication technology like satellites, televi-
sion and modern telephone systems is one major impe-
tus for drawing people throughout the world into
closer social and economic interdependence. It also en-
ables many people living outside Asia to see the rapid
technology-driven social and economic transforma-
tions that are occurring in this region. We see that the
Asian region reflects wide diversity in technological
development. This ranges from still predominantly
agricultural economies, to those becoming more indus-
trially based, and others that are industrially domi-
nant. Then a number of Asian nations are into a post-
industrial era where services like education, adminis-
tration and transfer of information will dominate em-
ployment (Jones, 1982).
How are Families Coping with Technology?
Family studies research consistently demonstrates
the resilience of families as social systems. The fact
that families in one form or another have endured
through the centuries bears strong testimony to this
point. Most families are able to adapt reasonably ef-
fectively most of the time to changing environmental
circumstances including changes brought on by new
technologies. This adaptiveness is greatly enhanced
when families have access to appropriate technology
education, training and information, and when family
communication is effective.
Families are not passive receivers of technology.
Rather, they are active agents in their technological
environment. By this I mean families interact with it
by influencing, to varying degrees, how technologies
will be used and to what extent, if at all.
Nevertheless, families' control over technology is
generally most effective at the level of the household
and local community.
One major challenge at present for families in
technologically advanced nations is to redefine the
nature, quality and meaning of work and leisure due to
major restructuring of industry and increasing automa-
tion (Williams, 1983). In this transition period,
groups with limited formal education and none of the
newly desired job skills are very vulnerable to unem-
ployment; women are one such group. The notion of
"one job for life" is fast becoming a thing of the past,
and increasingly education and training will become a
lifelong process (Eckersley, 1987, 1). Average working
hours are decreasing in many countries. Leisure and
recreational services have become a flourishing
business area. We are seeing more professional people
working from home with the aid of telecommunica-
tions and personal computers. There is growing de-
mand for permanent part-time employment especially
in two income families with dependent young chil-
dren.
A worldwide trend toward urbanization is seeing
people moving away from rural areas to live in cities
because they are primary centers for technological
advancement and job opportunities. In some develop-
ing countries it is the husband-fathers who usually
come to the cities leaving behind their wives and
children. These often long separations are detrimen-
tal to family life and are reflected in the growth of
female-headed single-parent families living in
poverty. In many cities, but especially in the Third
World, the swelling city populations are putting
enormous strain on community services. Housing is one
major social problem. Homelessness and families liv-
ing in appalling makeshift shelters in vast slums on
the fringes of cities are just two by-products of rapid
urbanization. For many other urban families world-
1LUNOIS TEACHER, January /February, 1990 111
wide there is concern over having to live in cramped
high-rise apartment buildings that are not conducive
to quality family life.
The fast pace of city living frequently leads peo-
ple to feel alienated. They have less time and oppor-
tunity to relate closely with their families and local
community. Traditional family and community values
and roles are challenged. The higher cost of city liv-
ing is a major reason for the sharp worldwide increase
in the proportion of married women with dependent
children having paid employment outside the home.
Child care in these circumstances is frequently a worry
for parents as many don't have relatives to care for
their children while they are absent from home.
Community child care facilities are often non-exis-
tent, inaccessible, inappropriate or expensive.
People often feel overwhelmed and worried when
they sense their world is changing at a faster rate
than they can accommodate or when the changes
about them are contrary to their personal and family
values. For example, in Australia there is growing
community disquiet about the expense and dehuman-
ization of "high-tech" health services. There is con-
cern that technology is advancing at a faster rate than
associated public policy, especially in morally con-
troversial areas like in-vitro human reproductive
technology (Kirby, 1986).
Look around in your home community and you will
likely see many examples of individuals and families
who are struggling to cope effectively with the mag-
nitude of change and uncertainty in their daily lives.
It is possible to think of families as requiring both
stability and change in order to develop and adjust to
changing environmental circumstances (Paolucci, 1977,
p. 22). Each family has its own optimal mix of stabil-
ity and change for effective functioning and seeks to
operate at that level. Too many changes, especially
rapid change, can seriously damage or even destroy a
family's coping ability. This situation contributes to a
wide range of individual, family and social problems.
Mental health disorders like anxiety, aggression, de-
pression and drug abuse are common in families living
in materially affluent countries. Family violence, in-
stability and breakdown are also common. In many
Western and now in some Eastern countries, nutrition
and life style-related health problems such as obe-
sity, diabetes and heart disease represent significant
social concerns.
Much of the physical drudgery of housework has
disappeared for some people due to reticulated elec-
tricity, water and sewerage services in households,
and a supply of mass produced appliances like refrig-
erators, ranges, and washing machines. Generally,
however, married women continue to have primary re-
sponsibility for housework and child care even when
they have full-time paid employment outside the
home. This double burden of many women is fre-
quently at a high cost to their health and well-being.
Better nutrition, health services and overall living
standards are reducing infant mortality and death of
women in childbirth. Life expectancy is increasing in
many countries and is reflected in the sharp rise in the
proportion of elderly citizens especially in countries
like Singapore, the Philippines and Hong Kong. This,
in turn, gives rise to new resource demands in both fam-
ilies and communities.
The impact of technology in the everyday lives of
families can be quite dramatic. Think about the dif-
ference in quality of life and work roles that are
brought about when Asian rural village families ac-
quire for the first time a clean, safe and reliable water
supply. Consider the many ways your family life was
altered when your family obtained a television, tele-
phone or car for the first time. How did your family
relationships change? How did other social relation-
ships change?
With technological development comes increased
family expectations for what is wanted from life
especially in regard to goods and services.
Unfortunately family choices are not always health
enhancing. We only have to investigate the effect on
babies' health when mothers in developing countries
switch from breastfeeding to infant milk formula or
the impact of cigarette smoking on human health to be
convinced of this point (Fazal, 1985).
What Are the Implications for Home Economists?
The worldwide development of the home eco-
nomics profession has in many ways been facilitated
by the use of technology to improve the quality of
family life. Home economists have been in the fore-
front of household-targeted technology transfer by
disseminating information and teaching new skills
(Thompson, 1984). There is much that we can be proud
of; however, we have also been criticized for promot-
ing environmentally unsound products and services or
technologies that are inappropriate to our clients' best
interests. Home economics professional practice is at
the interface between scientists/technologists/
marketers and individuals/families as consumers.
Our professional role is socially sensitive; it requires
us to have up-to-date technological know-how and
clear ethical standards so that we can present strong
advocacy on behalf of families in our communities.
What, then, should be our priorities? I wish to offer
four recommendations for your consideration:
1. In order to maintain our credibility as family ser-
vice professionals, each of us has to accept per-
sonal responsibility for continuing our professional
1 1 2 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1 990
development about new technology especially
that which is targeted specifically at the house-
hold. In addition, we need to investigate ways in
which the new information technologies can ex-
tend home economics career opportunities, enhance
administrative effectiveness in our work places,
and generate better ways of communicating with
our clients (Thompson, 1984).
2. As individuals and as members of home economics
associations, we need to think critically about
technological development from the perspective
of its impact on family life. It is always difficult
to anticipate the consequences of technologies on
families and society overall; nevertheless, we
will be increasingly challenged to deal with the
moral and ethical issues raised by them. We,
therefore, need to have a vision of what is a rea-
sonable way for families to live (Reiger, 1986, 17).
• What kind of families, child rearing, homes,
work, schooling and communities do we want
in our particular national/cultural context?
• How can we ensure that women and girls, the
young and the old, the poor, and the disabled
have greater equality of access to technology
education training and decision making?
• How can we see that technological develop-
ment has minimal costs to the dignity, auton-
omy, privacy and intimacy of family life?
That vision can then be used as a basis for devel-
oping a code of ethics for the home economics pro-
fession and for generally guiding our personal be-
havior in professional practice (Quilling, 1988).
3. As individuals and as members of home economics
associations we need to resist passive acceptance
of technology. We have a responsibility to par-
ticipate in community decision making about it
rather than just accept what we get! That means
we will have to become politically astute so that
we can work effectively within our nation's exist-
ing institutions, laws and procedures (Slimmer,
1986, p. 5). We should also aim to have home
economists represented on key family life related
committees and organizations, and to have home
economists employed in the initial development
stage of household-targeted technologies so that
appropriate applications can be found. A home
economics research emphasis on the impact of
technology in families will enable us to become
better informed about health risks, stewardship
of the natural environment, and effects on tradi-
tional family values and quality social relation-
ships. Such research will also enable us to be more
effective advocates for families.
4. Home economics has a critical educational role to
play in assisting families to adjust adequately to,
take advantage of, and contribute toward techno-
logical development. This can be done through
formal and informal education aimed at empower-
ing people to shape the future in which they wish
to live. In home economics practice we specifi-
cally seek to assist people to achieve personally
satisfying and socially responsible everyday lives
especially in the contexts of their homes and fam-
ilies.
A vast array of technologies continue to target
families as ultimate users. On reading the home
economics syllabi for schools in Singapore, I noted
that teaching-learning related to technical deci-
sion making and technical skills in using equip-
ment and materials are emphasized. Is this
enough? Our students will be living most of their
lives in the twenty-first century. They will have
to make very difficult choices about the use of
technology. They will have to cope with rapid
change, great choice complexity, and uncertainty.
There will be very few universally right ways of
doing. They will have to find defensible, appro-
priate ways of acting, given specific contexts in-
cluding the values of those involved.
Home economics school classrooms need to be
places where students not only learn to feel confi-
dent and be competent in using technologies but are
encouraged to test and evaluate them. A major
teaching-learning emphasis should be on develop-
ing students' abilities to make defensible decisions
and to participate in social decision making.
Underpinning this should be an emphasis on de-
veloping students' reasoning abilities to aid their
choices. I believe children are "natural philoso-
phers"; asking how, why and especially why not
questions comes readily to most children. We can
build on this capacity by developing our students'
abilities to think critically about what is taken
for granted, the everyday and the ordinary.
Fortunately for us many excellent ideas for assist-
ing teachers to develop their students' reasoning
skills have been published over recent years in
home economics and education journals.
Conclusion
I have tried to raise some issues about the role of
technology in family life and its implications for us as
home economists. I hope we will continue to think
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/February, 1990 113
about these issues, and to debate them with fellow
conference participants and people in our home coun-
tries. There is a great deal of work to be done in the
worldwide home economics profession if we are to con-
tinue to serve families effectively and gain/maintain
public confidence and respect.
World Commission on Environment and Development
(1987). Our Common Future. New York: Oxford
University Press. • • •
References
Coombs, H. (1985). Science and Technology - For
What Purpose? Canberra: Commission for the
Future, Australian Government.
Eckersley, R. (1988). Australian Attitudes to Science
and Technology and the Future. Canberra:
Commission for the Future, Australian
Government.
Fazal, A. (1985). The impact of technology on human
welfare. Illinois Teacher of Home Economics, 28
(4), 142-146.
Jones, B. (1982). Sleepers, Wake! Technology and the
Future of Work. Melbourne: Oxford University
Press.
Kirby, M. (1986). Human rights - the challenge of the
new technology. The Australian Law Journal, 60,
170-181.
Paolucci, B., Hall, O., and Axinn, N. (1977) Family
Decision Making: An Ecosystem Approach. New
York: Wiley.
Quilling, J. (1980). Ethics: The hidden dimension of
home economics. Journal of Home Economics, 80
(4), 33-36.
Reiger, K. (1986). Technology and the family. Journal
of the Home Economics Association of Australia,
28 (2), 17-19.
Slimmer, V. (1986). The impact of the information so-
ciety on home economics. ]ournal of the Home
Economics Association of Australia, 28 (2), 2-8.
Thompson, P. (Ed) (1984). Knowledge, Technology and
Family Change. Yearbook 4, Washington, DC:
Teacher Education Section, American Home
Economics Association.
United Nations Information Service, Sydney,
Australia. Telephone Enquiry.
Vaines, E., Badir, D., and Kieren, D. L. (1988). The re-
flective professional: Reflecting on helping for
the 21st century. People and Practice:
International Issues for Home Economists, 1 (1), 1-
37.
Wajoman, J. (1987). Technology - For what? Current
Affairs Bulletin, 63 (8), 28-31.
Williams, C. (1983). The "work ethic", non-work and
leisure in an age of automation. Australian and
New Zealand Journal of Sociology, 19 (2), 216-237.
Annual Home Economics Education
Alumni Conference
March 10, 1990
9:00 a.m.— 3:30 p.m.
Meet in Room 22, Education Building for
coffee and rolls. Program and lunch to
follow. Alums come and bring your
friends.
Everyone Welcome.
We would like to hear from you by
March 2, 1990.
Send registration of $9.00
(including lunch) to:
Mildred Griggs
351 Education Building
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
1310 South Sixth Street
Champaign, IL 61820
114 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1990
Community Meetings:
A Tool for Assessing Local Needs
Sally J. Yahnke
Instructor
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, CO
Emma J. Gebo
Chair and Associate Professor
Idaho State University
Pocatello, ID
Cathleen T. Love
Associate Professor
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, CO
Introduction
The planning of secondary programs is an ongoing
process. Throughout the process, attention needs to be
given to conditions in society that affect individuals
and families, developments in education that affect
all subject areas, and advances in knowledge that in-
fluence planning the direction of secondary programs
(Hughes, Kister & Smith, 1985). Home Economics
Education has been challenged by the federal govern-
ment to prepare individuals for the occupation of
homemaker. In making decisions about what that role
entails, curriculum developers must go to many sources
to find viable information. The three most important
are learners, community members, and subject matter
specialists.
Curriculum experts over time have endorsed the
importance of using the community to develop
curriculum. By knowing about the community and the
needs and concerns of community members, the school
can better meet the needs of learners. The educational
agencies within a community need to cooperate in
assessing educational needs, establishing educational
goals for different agencies, selecting appropriate
curriculum designs and learning experiences, and
evaluating outcomes.
Vocational educators have always used advisory
committee members from the community as a panel of
experts to determine what needs to be taught in the
curriculum. Business and community leaders are often
asked to be part of that panel of experts. In home eco-
nomics, the community members who are the panel of
experts are also members of families. With consumer
and homemaking as the focus, home economics has the
unique position to rely on leaders in industry, business,
education, etc., that are also members of families.
They face the challenges on a daily basis of being a
member of a family and of the work force, both con-
cerns of home economics. Several curriculum experts
recognized the need for community involvement and to
evaluate contemporary life and how it affects the
learner (Tyler, 1949; Taba, 1963; Zais, 1976; Brown &
Paolucci, 1979; Tanner & Tanner, 1980; Saylor &
Alexander, 1981; Knorr, 1986; Thomas, 1986; and
Glatthorn, 1987).
Knorr (1986) believed there were benefits and ad-
vantages to be gained from the involvement of people
in examining curriculum. She stated, "such involve-
ment can alert curriculum builders to conflicts and the
need for their resolution, enable curriculum developers
to see through the eyes of learners and the public so as
to be ready to make relevant curriculum choices" (p.
71). In home economics the primary concern is about
the needs of families. By involving the public in de-
termining these needs, a knowledge base of what fam-
ilies are facing is established. Using this knowledge
base, teachers can address areas of concern which stu-
dents will need preparation for to be successful mem-
bers of families and society.
This article presents a complete plan for conduct-
ing community meetings to obtain input from members
of your community. The community meetings can help
to identify concerns and challenges faced by individu-
als and families today which should appropriately
be addressed in home economics curriculum.
As you plan for the community meetings, keep in
mind ways that you might be able to utilize your
FHA-HERO Chapter to assist with the meeting and
also to promote your program. Perhaps the chapter
members could provide child care for the children of
meeting participants and also provide refreshments as
a class or chapter project.
Conducting the Community Meeting
This article presents suggestions and format for
community meetings to discuss the home economics cur-
riculum. Such information can be used to help you plan
and conduct your community meetings. It is highly rec-
ommended that particular attention be paid to the
ethnic, racial, gender and economic mix of your local
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/February, 1990 115
area when inviting community participants. Work
with your administrator to get him/her to co-sign the
letter of invitation.
Lesson Plan for Community Meeting
Teacher Objectives:
1. To informally validate/update concerns to be ad-
dressed in home economics curriculum content.
2. To create an awareness of the home economics pro-
gram in a cross-section of the community.
Supplies needed for 20 community members:
20 name tags (25 are provided)
20 pencils (25 are provided)
20 individual response sheets (6 for each per-
son, enough for 25 people should be pro-
vided—have the response heading on each
sheet).
30 content area summary sheets (6 should be
provided for each group of 5 people with the
response heading on each sheet).
6 sheets newsprint (at least)
5 felt tip markers (one for each group assuming
5 people/small group)
drafting tape
participant information sheets (have each
participant fill one out)
refreshments
Steps:
1. Select individuals to participate in the commu-
nity meeting. You may decide to use members of
your vocational advisory committee as a core.
Participants might include parents, a principal, a
superintendent, former students, current students,
business people, school board members, a media
person, a legislator, people over 65, a person repre-
senting special needs, and a single person. Include
various income levels and both males and females.
Identify enough "extras" that you'll be sure to
have at least 20 at the meeting. Consider teen
parents, single parents, blended families, and the
ethnic make-up of your community when identify-
ing participants.
2. Set the time, date, and place of the meeting. Plan
for 1 1/2 to 2 hours maximum. Work with your
school administrator to plan the meeting.
3. Send out letters to invite participants. The letter
should be signed by the principal or superinten-
dent and the home economics teacher. A sample
letter is included in this article.
4. At the time of the meeting provide name tags for
each person.
5. Introduce each person to the group, or use some
kind of an informal introductory activity so that
each person is introduced.
6. Tell the group why you want them to help you.
The purpose of this meeting is to list the challeng-
ing concerns and life decisions related to individ-
ual and family life that should appropriately be
addressed in the home economics curriculum. Keep
in mind the American Home Economics Association
definition of family, and the statement that
"everyone is a homemaker." See the suggestions
for an introductory statement that follow the
sample letter.
7. Hand out six (6) response sheets to each person.
The six headings/questions are:
1) What are major challenges faced by individu-
als and families in regard to children, parent-
ing, and family life?
2) What are major challenges faced by individu-
als and families in regard to coordinating
work and family activities and responsibili-
ties?
3) What are major challenges individuals and
families face in meeting their housing and
shelter needs?
4) What are major challenges faced by individu-
als and families in regard to meeting clothing
and wardrobe needs?
5) What are major challenges faced by individu-
als and families in regard to meeting their fi-
nancial needs?
6) What are major challenges faced in regard to
nourishing and feeding individuals and fami-
lies?
8. Have each person write down on the response
sheets at least two concerns, challenges, or life de-
cisions that impact upon them. Talk about situa-
tions that they have to deal with year after year,
recurring decisions. You may find it helpful to ex-
plain it in terms of those challenges and issues
that they feel should be addressed in the home
economics curriculum in each of these six areas.
9. Allow time for each participant to think and
write quietly and individually (15-20 minutes).
Divide the large group into small groups of 4-6
people. Ask each group to choose a recorder.
Have the recorder record the total group concerns
on summary sheets. Ask each group to star * or
checkmark the top 2 concerns under each heading.
10. Reconvene the group. Ask the recorders or another
representative from each small group to share the
top two concerns under each heading. List these
concerns on large newsprint sheets. Ask the entire
group to discuss the items listed on the newsprint
sheets.
11. Collect the individual response sheets, summary
sheets, and newsprint sheets. On a separate sheet
116 ILLINOIS TEACHER, JANUARY/FEBRUARY, 1990
note any comments or observations you have re-
garding the process.
12. Thank the participants for their help. Serve re-
freshments now if you haven't already done so.
Good job! Pat yourself on the back!
School Letterhead
Date
Dear :
You have been recommended as one who would be
willing to help School District plan and
offer relevant home economics programs. Yes, we need
your help!
Vocational home economics teachers are in the
process of updating the programs offered to junior and
senior high school students. We invite you to help us
identify concerns and challenges related to home eco-
nomics content that should be addressed in the curricu-
lum. Your input will be valued and greatly appreci-
ated.
*insert alternate paragraph here
We will meet in room of the
(building) at (street address) on
(day) (date), at (time). We
hope to see you there.
Sincerely,
Superintendent
Home Economics Teacher
*Child care will be provided by members of the
FHA-HERO Chapter for those who need
the service. If you need child care, please call
and indicate the number and ages of chil-
dren by (date).
Introduction to the Community Meeting
Vocational home economics educators are in the
process of updating the programs offered to junior and
senior high students. We have invited you here today
because we believe you can help us identify concerns
and challenges of everyday living which the content
of our programs should address.
Home economics, as a discipline, was established
in the early 1900s for the purpose of strengthening and
enriching individual and family life. The goal of
home economics education today is to assist all stu-
dents, male and female, in the development of atti-
tudes, appreciations, understandings, and abilities
necessary for satisfying personal and family living.
As changes in American culture, society, and tech-
nology come, we are each faced with new challenges in
our lifestyles. One major example of this is the soci-
etal change we have experienced over the past 15
years in the role of wage-earner and homemaker. We
have seen these two traditional male and female roles
blend into a one-person dual role which may be ful-
filled by wives, husbands, single individuals, single
parents, and yes, sometimes even teenagers. The chal-
lenges which have come to individuals and families
as they endeavor to coordinate their work activities
and responsibilities with family activities and re-
sponsibilities are great. Home economics courses
should be teaching students skills to help them meet
these types of challenges.
We recognize that there are some challenges and
decisions of life which come to all individuals and
families regardless of generation. For example: mak-
ing a living, providing housing and shelter, acquiring
and preparing nutritional foods, maintaining health,
meeting clothing needs, and raising children. There
are also other challenges which may be specific to a
certain generation. Our generation, for example, faces
challenges not identified a generation ago. Dealing
with child abuse, shrinking security for retirement,
teenage suicide, an aging population, more leisure
time, threat of nuclear war, working families, ex-
tended families, and career change based on ever-
changing technology are just a few of the challenges
we must face today. A part of the goal of home eco-
nomics is to give students the knowledge and skills
needed to successfully meet both of these types of
challenges.
As we strive to fulfill that goal, we as home eco-
nomics teachers must continually update what we
teach in our courses. This is where we need your help.
Our purpose here today is to have you help us identify
the challenges which individuals and families face in
our society and particularly in our community and
state. This will help us know what to teach in our
program which will really help students meet the
challenges they will face.
Six major areas have been identified as major con-
cerns of individuals and families. These are:
1. Children, parenting, and family life
2. Coordinating work and family activities and re-
sponsibilities
3. Meeting housing and shelter needs for individuals
and families
4. Meeting clothing and wardrobe needs
5. Meeting individual and family finance needs
6. Nourishing and feeding individuals and families
Question: What are major challenges faced by in-
dividuals and families today in each of these six
areasr
(Continued on page 119.)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1990 1 1 7
A Decade of Caffeine Research Produces a
Reassuring Conclusion
Reprinted from:
Food Insight
International Food Information Council
1100 Connecticut Avenue, N.W., Suite 430
Washington, DC 20036
In the late 1960s, the U.S. government launched a
scientific review of many food ingredients that had
been widely consumed for years and were classified as
"GRAS," or Generally Recognized as Safe, by the Food
and Drug Administration. Caffeine was one such in-
gredient.
During its review in the ensuing decade, scientific
interest in caffeine's basic metabolism and mecha-
nisms of effect helped stimulate a wide-ranging re-
search agenda. New reports about caffeine have since
been forthcoming at least monthly, and almost
weekly, from scientists in different parts of the world.
In the past 10 years, extensive research on caffeine
in relation to cardiovascular disease, fibrocystic
breast disease, reproductive function, behavior in
children, birth defects and cancer has found no signifi-
cant health hazard from normal caffeine consumption.
That was the message of Harvard Medical School
Professor Peter B. Dews, M.B., Ch.B., Ph.D., who pro-
vided a general overview of caffeine research to more
than 100 scientists and experts from around the world
who gathered recently in Hong Kong for the Sixth
International Caffeine Workshop, sponsored by the
International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI).
For an ingredient consumed and enjoyed around the
world for thousands of years, Chinese Emperor Shen
Nung provided the first written report of caffeine con-
sumption as an ingredient in tea as early as 2737 B.C.-
this renewed attention in the scientific community has
brought a more thorough understanding of caffeine's
metabolism and effects.
Importance of Dose
Allen H. Neims, M.D., Ph.D., Dean of the College
of Medicine at the University of Florida, is one of
leading U.S. experts on caffeine. He reported at the
ILSI Workshop that research in recent years has
clearly established that any biological effects of caf-
feine in either animals or humans depend strongly on
the dose, method of administration and duration of
exposure.
"Extensive research on caffeine. . . has
found no signifcant health hazard from
normal caffeine
consumption."
Dr. Peter B. Dews
Harvard Medical School
Dr. Neims advised that high-dose experiments
that produce caffeine levels in animals far above
those ever experienced by humans need to be under-
stood in terms of biological mechanisms, rather than
directly concerning human safety.
Some research reports testing high doses in ani-
mals have sometimes been mistakenly interpreted as
relevant to people drinking a couple of cups of coffee.
Because of the large amount of human research on caf-
feine, Dr. Neims said scientists should consider human
data when evaluating and interpreting high-dose an-
imal experients.
Dr. Neims also discussed how current research is
helping identify basic cellular and molecular interac-
tions between caffeine and several different
"receptors" present on or within individual body cells.
Epidemiologic Research
Caffeine has been evaluated in a number of epi-
demiologic studies in the last decade, according to
Alan Leviton, M.D., a leading epidemiologist at
Harvard Medical School.
Epidemiologic research looks at data generated
by surveys of human populations. Researchers attempt
to measure the frequency and distribution of an illness
or condition within a given population, and then cor-
relate that condition with various behaviors, expo-
sures, dietary patterns, or other such factors.
Drs. Leviton and Alvan Feinstein, M.D., Ph.D., of
Yale University School of Medicine, both warned
against over interpretation of "nonhypothesis" driven
epidemiologic research, citing several examples re-
lated to caffeine.
Dr. Feinstein said a study is hypothesis-driven if
the research is designed to investigate a potential
relationship between a particular cause and effect.
However, problems have arisen, he said, with the
development of computerized data bases containing
118 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January /February, 1990
information about a multiplicity of possible causes
and outcomes .
In some cases, investigators have performed auto-
mated computer searches that identify any possible
cause-effect relationships that are "statistically sig-
nificant," yet are likely to occur quite by chance when
performing multiple explorations.
New Study Reports on Pregnancy
Findings from a seven-year prospective study of
caffeine consumption during pregnancy and child out-
come were presented at the meeting by Ann P.
Streissguth. Ph.D., of the University of Washington
School of Medicine in Seattle. Dr. Streissguth's re-
search team has been credited as one of the groups to
first identify fetal alcohol syndrome.
Dr. Streissguth's study of more than 1,500 preg-
nant women found no significant relationships between
maternal caffeine consumption and pregnancy compli-
cations, labor and delivery complications, Apgar
scores, congenital defects, infant medical status, or
height, weight and head circumference of the new-
borns.
Follow-up examinations of these children at age
seven found no relationship between maternal caffeine
consumption and laboratory assessments of attention or
intelligence. The authors concluded that there were no
long-term consequences of pre-natal caffeine in this
sample.
Technological Function
In addition to safety research, other studies re-
ported at the workshop addressed the technological
function of caffeine.
Joseph G. Brand, Ph.D., of the Monell Chemical
Senses Center in Philadelphia, described the com-
plexity of taste and taste receptors in the mouth.
Caffeine has been used for over 100 years in some cola
beverages as a flavor ingredient because of its bitter
taste and its effect as part of the flavor profile when
combined with other flavors and sweeteners.
Research to Continue
In his concluding remarks to the workshop, Dr.
Neims noted that research over the past decade has
helped lay to rest concerns about caffeine's reproduc-
tive, carcinogenic and mutagenic potential. However,
he said, research efforts should continue in order to
maintain a high-level of understanding of the effects
of such a widely consumed ingredient.
A report on the Sixth International Caffeine
Workshop with summaries of presentations by more
than 30 scientists from around the world will be pub-
lished in a future issue of the journal Food Chemical
Toxicology. •••
(Continued from page 117.)
Conclusion
The information gathered from this community
meeting process can help you assess your home eco-
nomics curriculum. Are you meeting the needs of your
students? In Colorado, three main themes evolved as
those challenges the community meeting participants
most often faced. The areas were time and money
management and the need for more effective communi-
cation skills. Does your curriculum reflect these
themes?
Changing societal trends and issues and the affect
they have on the individual and family impact home
economics curriculum. By continually assessing curricu-
lum, home economics can better meet the needs of indi-
viduals and families.
References
Brown, M., & Paolucci, B. (1979). Home economics: A
definition. Alexandria, VA: American Home
Economics Association.
Glatthorn, A. A. (1987). Curriculum leadership.
Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and Company.
Hughes, R. P., Kister, J., & Smith, J. (1985).
Redirecting secondary home economics programs.
Journal of Home Economics, 77(3), 14-17.
Knorr, A. J. (1986). Contextual factors impacting on
home economics curriculum. In J. F. Laster & R. E.
Dohner (Eds.), Vocational home economics
curriculum: State of the field (pp. 63-73). Peoria,
IL: Bennett and McKnight Publishing Co.
Saylor, J. G., Alexander, W. M., & Lewis, A. J. (1981).
Curriculum planning for better teaching and
learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and
Winston.
Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum development theory and
practice. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World,
Inc.
Tanner, D., & Tanner, L. N. (1980). Curriculum devel-
opment theory into practice. New York:
Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc.
Thomas, R. G. (1986). Alternative views of home eco-
nomics: Implications for K-12 home economics
curriculum. Journal of Vocational Home Economics
Education, 4, 162-188.
Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and
instruction. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago
Press.
Zais, R. S. (1976). Curriculum principles and founda-
tions. New York: Thomas Y. Crowel Company.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1990 119
Journey Toward Peak Performance:
A Tribute To
Dr. Hazel Taylor Spitze
Elaine F. Goodwin
Assistant Professor
Northern Illinois University
DeKalb, IL
"To achieve all that is possible, we must
attempt the impossible, to be as much as we
can, we must dream of being more."
(Author unknown)
Dr. Hazel Taylor Spitze, recently retired profes-
sor at the University of Illinois, was honored at the
American Home Economics Association's Annual
Conference in Cincinnati, Ohio, in June 1989. She re-
ceived the AHEA Foundation Award for
Distinguished Service. This award carries with it one
of the highest distinctions granted by our professional
organization. Her list of contributions to home eco-
nomics education, her writing and her professional ac-
complishments are extensive! Many know her because
of her involvement as editor of the Illinois Teacher.
Perhaps her greatest accomplishment was the inspi-
ration she provided students through her dedication
and high expectations.
It was from a sense of appreciation that I decided
it was important to write a letter to be added to those
being compiled and given to Dr. Spitze at the time of
the award presentation. Teachers do, indeed, make a
difference. It is essential to keep in mind the influence
each of us has as we work with students. We need to
strive for "peak performance" for ourselves and moti-
vate our students to achieve their peak performance.
Following is a copy of the letter which I submitted.
Dear Dr. Spitze:
The end of another semester of teaching
classes at Northern Illinois University is
almost here. I have neglected to complete one
of my "personal" assignments! Therefore,
with pencil in hand, I now tackle the job of
writing a letter to honor you, Dr. Hazel Taylor
Spitze.
Several years ago I embarked on one of the
most challenging and rewarding experiences of
my life as I began my doctoral work in Home
Economics Education at the University of
Illinois. You have inspired me to continue my
belief in home economics, to promote the
purposes and vision of our profession, and to
continue to be actively involved. Through
your encouragement, I have learned skills in
questioning, in being more assertive and vocal,
in developing my leadership abilities, in
being a risk-taker, in being receptive to
change, and in the use of creative and critical
thinking.
Classroom readings, projects, assignments,
and interaction — all were a part of your plan
to motivate me. In reflecting on class
discussions, I've appreciated your openness
about the many roles of being a professional
and being a college professor. These have all
been extremely helpful in the continuing
process of my personal and professional
growth and development. I thank you for
"pushing" me in my thinking, in my work, and
toward my goals.
Ours has been a somewhat unique relation-
ship, since I was aware of your professional
influence and support during our daughter,
Cherie Goodwin Bertsch's, years on campus at
the University of Illinois and in the years
since her graduation. I, too, have found my
contacts with the students I have taught to be
extremely rewarding.
I want to wish you "highest" congratu-
lations on the award of American Home
Economics Association Foundation's
Distinguished Service Award! I, also, must
120 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1990
add that I do use the Illinois Teacher re-
peatedly and appreciate your dedication to its
publication. I have duplicated copies of many
of your "writings" for personal reference and
use them as a catalyst for required student
readings for the university classes which I
teach. Thank you for helping me to believe in
myself and in Home Economics Education.
Sincerely,
Elaine Goodwin
Assistant Professor
Department of Human &
Family Resources
Northern Illinois University
Life holds in store many opportunities if we are
willing to risk and to take advantage of those oppor-
tunities. The persons with whom we associate are
often extremely influential in our attitudes toward
those opportunities. People with a positive and opti-
mistic view help us perceive the ups and downs of life,
the happy and the sad, the exciting and the hum-
drum all as part of life's journey.
Both short trips and long journeys have times of
great pleasure and times of anxiety. We marvel at
the scenery. We fret about wasted time caused by un-
planned delays. We enjoy good companionship and
shared communication. We complain if the costs
seems too high. We delight in exploring new vistas.
We grumble over the drudgery of time schedules and
physical discomfort. (I now find I need to get out and
stretch more frequently when driving.) We feel re-
freshed and relaxed from seeing new things, new
places, and new people. (Sometimes the old things,
places, and people are great, too!) We worry about
safety and all the technological gadgets on the car
and the airplane. What if they don't work? What if
we have a flat tire? What if we run out of gas (or
fuel)? And, we must have insurance — right?
These contrasts and concerns about travel have
application to our lives. A few suggestions can guide
our journey:
1. Prepare for your trip. It is necessary to map out
where we are going. Individually we must set our
goals and determine when and how we can get
where we want to go. (Dr. Spitze helped me real-
ize it's up to me and I am in control of my life.)
2. Decide who will accompany you. Choose wisely
your companions and associates. Create opportu-
nities to share and network with those who can
add meaning and contribute to your life. (I'm
grateful for the chance to have been in Dr.
Spitze's graduate classes.)
3. Enjoy the ride. Keep smiling even over the bumps!
Continue to be involved and pursue learning as a
life-long endeavor. (Dr. Spitze does exemplify
this, doesn't she?)
4. Take some side-trips. Try the new and different.
Dream of doing and being more. Attempt the
challenge of new paths. Be a risk-taker. Events
in our lives may demand some creative planning
and critical thinking. (I still have the pencil
scribbled note from my daughter which says "GO
FOR IT, MOM!" when I made the decision to work
on a doctoral degree.)
5. Head in the right direction. True, there will be
stopping points on the journey. These may be for
refueling. (Dr. Spitze along with other
University of Illinois colleagues provided that for
me.) The road signs caution of danger, construction
(many women need to build self-esteem), curves
(sometimes ethical decisions test us), etc. — but
then also signs appear which indicate full speed
ahead! Enthusiasm is contagious. Assess your
progress regularly and feel pride in what you
have accomplished.
Each of us needs to make progress and strive for
peak performance. The advertisements for high oc-
tane gasoline and the latest models of automobiles re-
peatedly stress the potential and possibilities of
their products. As individuals, we also have the po-
tential of high performance! When viewing life as an
exciting journey it can be full of "possible dreams." To
achieve these dreams, it is essential to believe in one-
self. Sharing that belief and confidence with our stu-
dents, our friends, our families, and our professional
colleagues can make the difference. The road to even
greater success lies ahead.
Thank you and congratulations, Dr. Spitze. • • •
"If you can conceive it and
believe it, you can achieve
it."
William James
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> '(-70 Volume 3CDh£ No. 4
V^ March/April, 1990
ILLINOIS TEACHER
Foreword, Mildred Griggs 121
A Salute to the 1989 Home Economics Teachers of the Year, Illinois Teacher Staff 123
MIRACLE: Making Ideas Reality Allowing Creative Learning
in Entrepreneurship, Geraldine Miracle 135
Relationship Course, Kathy Gifford 136
Independent Life Skills, Kay Wolff 137
Integration of FHA/HERO into the Classroom, Judy Whitener 138
Eating for the Health Of It, Frances Baynor Parnell 139
Entrepreneurship, Janet Powell 141
Taking Charge: Thinking Critically and Creatively Toward Ethical Action,
Jan Abramsen 143
Relevance in Teaching Clothing: A Case for the Human
Ecological Approach, Lillian O. Holloman 145
Family Life Education in the 1990s. The Challenge:
What Shall We Teach, Harriett K. Light 148
Subject Communities as Curricular Influences: A Case Study,
Jane Thomas 153
Charting a Career Path — Voices of Home Economics Educators,
Linda Peterat and Linda Eyre 158
Illinois Teacher of Home Economics
ISSN 0739-148X
A publication of the Division of Home Economics Education,
Department of Vocational and Technical Education,
College of Education, University of Illinois,
Champaign, Illinois 61820
Illinois Teacher Staff
Mildred Griggs, Professor and Editor
Norma Huls, Office Manager
June Chambliss, Technical Director
Sally Rousey, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Linda Simpson, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Other Home Economics Education Division Staff and Graduate Students
Catherine Burnham, Graduate Assistant and Ed.D. Candidate
Vida U. Revilla, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Alison Vincent, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Volume XXXII, No. 4, March/ April, 1990. Published five times
each academic year. Subscriptions $15.00 per year. Foreign, in-
cluding Canada, $18.00 per year. Special $10.00 per year ($12.00
Foreign) for undergraduate and graduate students when ordering by
teacher educator on forms available from Illinois Teacher office.
Single copies $3.50. Foreign $4.00. All checks from outside the U.S.
must be payable through a U.S. bank.
Address: ILLINOIS TEACHER
University of Illinois
352 Education Building
1310 S. Sixth Street
Champaign, IL 61820
Telephone: 217/244-0820
©1990
Foreword
Being recognized for excellence in teaching, curriculum and pro-
gram development is one of the highest honors that we can bestow
upon members of our profession. In this issue we recognize the 1989
national Teacher of the Year, Merit Finalist, and state Teacher of the
Year award recipients. A few of the state awardees did not respond to
our request for information about their program and therefore are
not represented among honorees.
All of the state Teacher of the Year awardees were asked a series of
questions that we thought would enlighten us about their feelings,
beliefs and practices. Their responses help to confirm our beliefs
about the merit of home economics education and enhance our pride
in the quality of people who are teaching home economics.
The Teacher of the Year program has some corporate support, how-
ever, it is sponsored by the American Home Economics Association.
Please participate in the future by nominating yourself or some
deserving teacher in your state when the time arrives to do so.
The remainder of the articles in this issue represent our continuing
interest in sharing information about home economists who teach
and home economics education programs and possibilities. We
think you will find them interesting and useful.
-The Editor —
ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/ April, 1990 121
9{ationaC Winner
ttome "Economics 'Teacher of the year
Thyllis Landman
Susan M. Anderson
Merit finatists
(Denise WL ^Missal
3 ana Lowell
122 ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/April, 1990
A Salute to the 1989 Home Economics
Teachers of the Year
Each year the American Home Economics Associa-
tion, Chesebrough Pond's Inc. and Lever Brothers Com-
pany sponsor the TOY (Teacher of the Year) program.
This is the 16th year that the award has been given
to outstanding home economics teachers from different
states. The objective of the program is to stimulate
the development of innovative programs that are
timely, newsworthy, and that expand the focus of
home economics. The winners are recognized for their
outstanding contributions to the improvement of the
quality of family life, the development of outstanding
education programs, teaching techniques and activi-
ties that might engage other educators and build
community awareness of home economics education.
Phyllis Lamiman from Bethesda, Maryland was
selected as the National Home Economics Teacher of
the Year for creating an innovative program that
helps senior citizens and teens break down the stereo-
types of age. Her program titled "Closing the Gap" is
part of a year-long program in Personal Family Living
which she teaches at Walt Whitman High School in
Bethesda. Mrs. Lamiman believes that one reason the
program works is because the students and the senior
citizens come together as equals. She states that,
"Students learn from the experiences of the seniors
that love, caring, and new adventures are lifetime
events, not isolated happenings and certainly not
restricted to the young. Similarly, seniors increase
their awareness of the problems facing today's teens
as well as what the younger generation thinks about
the world around them." Mrs. Lamiman added,
"Teens are seeking their identity. They want to know
who they are. Older people know who they are and
can offer encouragement as well as a wealth of
experience to the young. At the same time, if seniors
have suffered losses or changes in lifestyle, they too
need to reaffirm their sense of integrity or personal
value. Closing the Gap helps both groups achieve
these goals."
In addition to the National Teacher of the Year,
there were awards given for creativity and educa-
tional excellence. The three Merit Finalists were: Su-
san M. Anderson, Denise M. Missal, and Janet Powell.
Susan M. Anderson, a teacher from Angoon,
Alaska developed an innovative curriculum that uses
community resources to help students learn to appreci-
ate their heritage and improve the quality of their
lives, now and in the future. Mrs. Anderson stated, "In
this isolated rural area, the school is the center of the
community. Our program capitalizes on that by invit-
ing the Tlingit elders to teach students their cultural
traditions such as beading, smoking fish, or gathering
native fruits and vegetables." She added, "Our pro-
gram demonstrates that every community can provide
a range of experiences that can help students realize
their own talents, develop skills, and identify the va-
riety of career opportunities available to them." Mrs.
Anderson has developed a close relationship between
the school and the community. She has called upon
elders, parents, business owners, and community
members and used today's technology as classroom re-
sources.
Denise M. Missall who teaches at the Florence M.
Burd School in Newton, New Jersey was selected for
her program on teaching students how to be more so-
phisticated consumers. She explains, "Teens have the
largest disposable income of any age group in the coun-
try. According to recent syndicated research studies,
children and teens spend $81 billion annually and in-
fluence the spending of up to $200 billion, yet few
teens know their consumer rights or how to use them. I
want to give them the confidence and capability to do
that." Her students focus on the process, not the prod-
uct. They practice critical thinking skills, learn how
to evaluate ads, write a business letter, interpret
package information, compare coupons and other price
incentives. This gives students a practical under-
standing of the demands of the consumer marketplace,
the creative challenges companies face in meeting
those demands, as well as its impact on their every-
day lives. In addition, Mrs. Missall also teaches stu-
dents how to use creativity to meet consumer needs.
For example, her eighth grade students were chal-
lenged to develop inventions that would fill a need in
today's marketplace. Among the products they cre-
ated were a 'can smoosher' that makes the most of the
space available for garbage, baby bumper pads to
protect toddlers from bruises when they are learning
to walk, and rubber gloves with sponges attached to
the palms for people with arthritis who have diffi-
culty holding cleaning supplies.
Janet Powell, also named as a National Merit Fi-
nalist, teaches at the Orchard Ridge Middle School
in Madison, Wisconsin. Her program features an en-
trepreneurial course that brings students face to face
with the world of small business. Mrs. Powell's
ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/April, 1990 123
'entrepreneurship' course teaches students about the
day to day problems and challenges of the world of
work. The class divides into small groups to research,
plan, and develop a product or service. The program
offers students a practical experience in career explo-
ration by integrating the reality of the business world
into his/her program. Members of the business
community share their experiences with other
students in order to help them develop initiative,
creativity, and leadership. Mrs. Powell explains,
"Eighth grade students need to begin thinking about
their life plan, how it relates to the family, and how
their personal abilities and interests will shape their
career choices. Using problem-solving skills, students
quickly learn to assess their own interests and
abilities. Some realize they are better at researching
an idea, others at selling concepts or making
production plans. The whole activity enables them to
gain a sense of personal competence and learn in a real
world setting." The long-term goal of the course is to
teach young people the relationship between job
satisfaction, personal interests and values.
Illinois Teacher salutes the National Teacher of
the Year and State Teachers of the Year. Some state
winners were also merit winners and among the top ten
finalist as noted in the following entries.
ALABAMA
Wanda Padgett
Program Title: Occupational Care and Guidance
of Children
Focus: Career Awareness/Job Skill Training
Focus: Awareness/Job Skill Training
CALIFORNIA
Carol Hahn
Program Title: Economics
Focus: Consumer Education/ Family Finance
COLORADO
Carole Ann Groh
Program Title: PRD — Personal Resource Devel-
opment
Focus: Family Life/Personal and Social Devel-
opment
CONNECTICUT
Margaret McDonnell Omartian
Program Title: Comprehensive Home Economics
Focus: Creative Dimensions/ Alternative Program
Designs
FLORIDA
Susan Dawson-Perez
Program Title: "Home Economics Enrollment
Booming at Miramar High School — The Secret of
My Success"
Focus: Career Awareness/Job Skill Training
GEORGIA
Carolyn Leverett Kelly
ALASKA MERIT WINNER
Susan M. Anderson
Program Title: Career Awareness
Focus: Care Awareness/Job Skill Training
Program Title: Integration of Community Re-
sources into a Rural Home Economics Program
Focus: Creative Dimensions/ Alternative Program
Designs
ARIZONA TOP TEN
Dolores "Dolly" Maitzen
Program Title: Introduction to Human Relations
Focus: Family Life/Personal and Social Develop-
ment
ARKANSAS TOP TEN
Delma Sue Welsh Farris
Program Title: Consumer Homemaking "HEAD
SMART" — (Helping Educate And Develop So
Minds Are Ready Tomorrow)
IDAHO
Alverna M. Thomas
Program Title: Fashion Merchandising
Focus: Career Awareness/Job Skill Training
INDIANA
Patricia Ann Bowdell
Program Title: Focus on Relationships
Focus: Family Life/Personal and Social Devel-
opment
IOWA
Kay T. Jensen
Program Title: Vocational Home Economics —
Child Development
124 ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/ April, 1990
Focus: Family Life/Personal and Social Devel-
opment
KANSAS
Betty LeVon Rust
Program Title: Teen Sexuality Unit and Promotion
of Sex Respect
Focus: Family Life/Personal and Social Devel-
opment
KENTUCKY TOP TEN
Geraldine "Gerrie" Miracle
Program Title: MIRACLE: Making Ideas Reality
Allowing Creative Learning in Entrepreneurship
Focus: Career Awareness/Job Skill Training
LOUISIANA
Mollie H. Abadie
MINNESOTA
Brenda Mattfeld
Program Title: Plan to L.E.A.D. (Leadership and
Education through Awareness Days)
Focus: Creative Dimensions/ Alternative Program
Designs
MISSOURI TOP TEN
Judy Whitener
Program Title: Family Life Education
Focus: Family Life/ Personal and Social Devel-
opment
MONTANA
Diana Jeanette Morris
Program Title: Foreign Foods
Focus: Nutrition Education/ Diet and Health
Program Title: Innovative Comprehensive Voca-
tional Home Economics
Focus: Creative Dimensions/ Alternative Program
Designs
MAINE
Claudia Ann Dalton
Program Title: Home Economics "Out of the
Closet"
Focus: Creative Dimensions/Alternative Program
Designs
MARYLAND NATIONAL WINNER
Phyllis Lamiman
Program Title: Personal and Family Liv-
ing/"Closing the Gap"
Focus: Family Life/Personal and Social Devel-
opment
MASSACHUSETTS
Jo Ann Pullen
Program Title: Textile Technology/ Entrepreneur-
ship
Focus: Career Awareness/Job Skill Training
MICHIGAN
Eleanor O'Toole
Program Title: Career Exploration in Action
Focus: Career Awareness/Job Skill Training
NEBRASKA
Kathy Gifford
Program Title: Relationships — Skills for Life
Focus: Family Life/Personal and Social
Development
NEVADA
Nancy M. (Lamb) Pierce
Program Title: Hotel Operations II
Focus: Career Awareness/Job Skill Training
NEW HAMPSHIRE
Regina Sibilia
Program Title: Critical Skills Impacts Home Eco-
nomics
Focus: Creative Dimensions/ Alternative Program
Designs
NEW JERSEY MERIT WINNER
Denise M. Missall
Program Title: Consumer Awareness Skills, 8th
Grade Unit
Focus: Consumer Education/Family Finance
NEW MEXICO
Mary Ellen Butler
Program Title: Practical Applications to Nutri-
tion
Focus: Nutrition Education/Diet and Health
ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/April, 1990 125
NEW YORK
Ruth Anne Schultz
Focus: Career Awareness/Job Skill Training
Program Title: Family Dynamics/Family Life
Education
Focus: Family Life/Personal and Social Devel-
opment
NORTH CAROLINA
Frances Baynor Parnell
Program Title: "Eating for the Health of It"
Focus: Creative Dimensions/ Alternative Program
Designs
OKLAHOMA
Edna DeAnn Pence
Program Title: Personal and Social Development
Through FHA Leadership
Focus: Family Life/Personal and Social Devel-
opment
PENNSYLVANIA
Jan Abramsen
Program Title: Taking Charge: Thinking Criti-
cally and Creatively Toward Ethical Action
Focus: Creative Dimensions/Alternative Program
Designs
RHODE ISLAND
Lucille L. Flynn
Program Title: Special Food and Nutrition Co-op
Focus: Creative Dimensions/ Alternative Program
Designs
SOUTH CAROLINA
Mary McCarley McGee
Program Title: Industrial Sewing
Focus: Career Awareness/Job Skill Training
SOUTH DAKOTA
Kay Wolff
Program Title: Independent Life Skills
Focus: Family Life/Personal and Social Devel-
opment
TEXAS TOP TEN
Leta Durrett
Program Title: Hospitality Services
VIRGINIA
Emily H. Richardson
Program Title: Home Economics Cooperative Edu-
cation
Focus: Career Awareness/Job Skill Training
WASHINGTON
Karen Fisher
Program Title: Peer Helpers Program
Focus: Creative Dimensions/ Alternative Program
Designs
WEST VIRGINIA TOP TEN
Lucy A. Sullivan
Program Title: Building Self-Esteem Through
Cross- Age Teaching
Focus: Creative Dimensions/ Alternative Program
Designs
WISCONSIN
Janet Powell
Program Title: Entrepreneurship
Focus: Career Awareness/Job Skill Training
We surveyed the Teachers of the Year. The
following are their responses to some of our survey
questions.
Why do you like being a teacher?
Carol Hahn— Whittier, CA—
"I like teenage vitality and
enthusiasm. When a student's
eyes light up, I get excited."
0
Carol Hahn
Carole Groh — Colorado Springs, CO — "Junior high
students are so receptive to our subject matter. They
become so excited doing the activities, they provide
126 ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/April, 1990
immediate feedback
classroom!"
there is such energy in the
Margaret McDonnell Omartian — Simsbury, CT —
"Teaching is a challenge everyday especially
working with junior high students. I am in a role in
which I can share and initiate new experiences in life
skills."
Betty Rust— Fort Scott, KS—
"Teaching is an opportunity
to touch the future and make
a difference in the lives of my
students."
Betty Rust
Carole Groh
Margaret McDonnell
Omartian
Geraldine "Gerry" Miracle — Fort Mitchell, KY —
"Being a teacher presents a new challenge everyday,
and I like that. It is stimulating to meet new faces
each year and see the progress made by all students in
his or her very own way. I think teaching is fun, and I
try to make learning worthwhile and exciting for my
students."
Brenda Mattfeld — Great Eagle, MN — "Teaching is
challenging and motivating. I enjoy the students and
love to watch them grow and change."
Patricia Ann Bowdell — Montpe-
lier, IN — "Teaching gives me an
opportunity to make a difference
in someone's life. Teaching pro-
vides a chance to make a better
world by making better people
through education."
Geraldine Miracle
I
Brenda Mattfeld
Patricia Ann Bowdell
Kay Jensen — Knoxville,
Iowa — "Teaching allows me
the chance to challenge
students to think and make
better decisions for them-
selves. I feel that home
economics is the core of to-
day's living and improving
tomorrow's living."
Diana Morris — West Yellow-
stone, MT — "Being a teacher is
like dreaming a dream and
then being able to watch it
become reality. I enjoy
sharing and learning with my
students and I appreciate the
opportunity to see them meet
their challenges positively
and with great pride in their
achievement."
Kay Jensen
Diana Morris
ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/April, 1990 127
Kathy Gifford — Kearney, NE
— "I like being a teacher
because it is an opportunity to
continue learning and growing.
The best moments of teaching
are those experienced when a
student succeeds at even the
smallest task — their eyes light
up and they say 'I did it!'"
Kathy Gifford
If you were choosing your career again, would you be a
home economics teacher?
Delores "Dolly" Maitzen— Phoenix, AZ— "Yes, I
believe the life skills we offer students in our classes
are the most critical in today's world: parenting, good
human relationships with others, and healthy
nutrition for wellness. They all point to our ultimate
goal — teaching students how to be healthy
individuals, mentally and physically."
Carole Groh — CO TOY — "I have taught in many
subject areas (social studies, science, and health) but in
home economics I feel I have an impact on students'
lives preparing them for the future."
Margaret McDonnell Omartian — TOY CT — "Of course
I would choose to be a home economics teacher for
where else can someone affect the daily life of those
around them."
Kay Jensen — TOY Iowa — "Yes, I can't imagine a career
that allows one to have an impact on so many people
and their lives anymore than home economics does."
Betty Rust— KS TOY— "Yes, this choice has
enlightened my life and made me a better person. I
will always be proud to say I am a home economics
teacher."
Gerrie Miracle— TOY KY— "Yes!! Teaching is
exciting and challenging. There is not another subject
in the curriculum that presents as much variety and
practicality as home economics. One NEVER has to be
worried about getting bored when s/he teaches home
economics. I thoroughly enjoy each day in my
classroom. Today's home economics is not just 'stitchin'
and stewin", but has expanded to include a wide
variety of life skills. Home economics is just as vital
for males as it is for females, and for the past three
years I have had a few more boys than girls in my
home economics classes. Home economics topics are
fundamental for life security."
Nancy Pierce— Las Vegas, NV— "YES, YES, YES,
although I left the traditional consumer and
homemaking classroom seven years ago to use my home
economics skills to write, develop, and implement a
hotel operations program for high school students."
Nancy Pierce
Regina Sibilia
Regina Sibilia — Merrimack, NH — "There is no doubt
in my mind! When I first began teaching, I thought I'd
get tired of it within 5 years . . . I'm still loving it 15
years later."
Karen Fisher — Mt. Vernon, WA — "Yes, being in home
economics has made it possible for me to branch out
and learn a variety of subject matter that also applies
to my own life. I love it."
Kay Wolff — Eureka, SD — "Yes, the importance of
family in our mission very much 'makes me tick.' I
love to use a variety of teaching techniques. I like to
discuss the 'gray' areas. Real life is hardly ever 'cut
and dried' and students need to know how to deal in
the real world — in home economics there is never a
dull moment."
What did it mean to you to be a teacher of the year?
Susan Anderson — Angoon, Alaska — "Receiving the
TOY award was extremely rewarding. It was a time of
growth personally and professionally to receive the
award and to write the twenty page book which was
submitted for national competition. Attending the
National AHEA at Cincinnati was an unforgettable
experience."
128 ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/April, 1990
Alverna Thomas — Moscow, Idaho — Being selected
TOY meant that "I was being recognized for the
contribution that I am making to the overall well-
being of my students. It encouraged me to maintain my
teaching standards. I felt very humble because I knew
that there were so many other outstanding teachers in
my state who deserve to be honored."
Gerrie Miracle— TOY KY— "Teacher of the Year has
brought far more attention and recognition to me and
my program than I ever dreamed possible. It has been
fulfilling to see others so interested in a program that
I have written and used with my students. Teacher of
the Year has given me the chance to meet with other
teachers from all over the United States and learn of
their exciting programs. It has given me ideas on ways
to expand my local home economics program. I have
also had the opportunity to speak at several national,
state, and local conferences to share my ideas with
others and learn new ideas from others. My fellow
faculty members, the administration in my local
district, and my own family have been very
supportive and proud of this accomplishment.
Sometimes we do not realize how much other people
mean to us until something happens that we can share.
It is a wonderful feeling to know that others really do
care about what you are doing — Teacher of the Year
has given me this wonderful feeling."
Kathy Gifford— TOY NE— "To be the Teacher of the
Year has meant a great deal to me. To be recognized by
one's peers is truly an honor. This also said to me,
'Yes, what you're doing is needed and worthwhile for
our students.' This recognition gives me the incentive
and encouragement to continue even on those 'not so
good days.'"
Luci Flynn — RI — "The honor
of being Teacher of the Year
has not only been a great
experience for me, it also
helped other teachers within
my school reflect on their
programs and share their
ideas with me in order to
motivate students and other
peers."
What do you feel is your most important contribution
to society as a teacher?
Margaret McDonnell Omartian — TOY CT — "I hope to
spark an interest and instill the love of learning that
is a lifetime process."
Alverna Thomas — TOY Idaho — "I try to help each
student to develop self-confidence skills and good
attitudes toward people, work , and life in general."
Claudia Dalton — Kennebunk, ME TOY — "My most
important contribution to society is to teach young
individuals how to survive on their own — to help
them become planners of the future, to make them
aware of careers in home economics of which they are
not aware."
Judy Whitener — Farmington, MO TOY's most impor-
tant contribution to society as a teacher is "serving as a
positive role model for hundreds of students."
Kathy Gifford is TOY NE — "My most important
contribution to society as a teacher is being a role
model for her students. I try to lead a healthy
lifestyle, coping with the inevitable changes that
happen in one's life. My students know me not only as
a teacher, but also as a person."
Frances Baynor Parnell —
Wilmington, NC — "I help
young people develop think-
ing skills, which facilitate
decision making and the cre-
ative use of resources, as they
manage their own lives and
offer help to others."
Frances Baynor Parnell
Luci Flynn — TOY RI — "I feel my most important
contribution to society as a teacher is my ability to
present concepts to students, and allow the students to
nurture these ideas and help them expand and grow as
individuals."
Kay Wolff— TOY SD— "I feel
as teachers we help students to
realize their potential. In
addition, we serve as an
extended family for students in
today's hectic lifestyle. Our
classes may be the brightest
spot of their day, a place
where they are accepted for
who they are."
Kay Wolff
ILLINOIS TEACHER, March /April, 1990 129
How do you keep from getting out-of-date, bored,
unenthusiastic, tired of it all.
Margaret McDonnell Omartian— TOY CT— "I try to
keep an open mind to new ideas and be willing to
accept change. Incorporating the students' interests
creates a commodity that keeps both students and
teachers' interests high."
Alverna Thomas— TOY Idaho
— "I am not afraid to try new
things, up date and change my
curriculum each year, and listen
to what students say to each
other and to me, attend pro-
fessional conferences, and keep
up my membership in profes-
sional associations."
Alverna Thomas
Brenda Mattfeld— TOY MN— "Activities that keep
me up-to-date and enthused are continuing education
and professional organizations. I take every
available opportunity to learn more about my
profession through classes, workshops, conferences,
and networking."
Diana Morris— TOY MT— "Each summer I work at a
new job that is unrelated to school. By doing this, I
achieve two goals. First, I put myself in the position
that my students maintain from September to June-
learning new procedures and skills, adjusting to
management techniques of a new boss, and meeting new
people in an unfamiliar setting. I am in the 'student
mode' — it is amazing how much more understanding I
am in the classroom. The second goal I accomplish is
that I stay abreast of home economics related topics as
they are perceived in the outside world. In the past,
my jobs have allowed me to build awareness and skills
related to food service, fashion merchandising,
marketing techniques, and gain skills that are needed
to deal with the real world on a daily basis. My
community also appreciates seeing its teachers in
settings other than the school— we gain credibility as
members of the business workforce."
Regina Sibilia— TOY NH— "If there is such a thing as
a workshopaholic . . . that's me. I love learning new
things! No matter what it is I'll find a way to apply
it in my classroom. My interests are many and
varied— I refuse to allow myself to become out-of-
date, bored, unenthusiastic."
Jan Abramsen
Frances Baynor Parnell— TOY NC— "I actively
participate in professional organizations, read and
seek extraordinary ways to accomplish ordinary
tasks. I look for challenges to perpetuate growth as a
person and a teacher."
Jan Abramsen — Allentown,
PA — keeps from getting out-
of-date by . . . "working at
the edge of my competence
rather than in the comfort-
able middle. This has in-
volved teaching workshops
on critical thinking and
communication and learning
new skills such as writing
newspaper articles, as well
as reading journals, books,
and reports not only in my field of education and home
economics, but from other professions and disciplines,
supplies nourishment for thought and questioning."
Kay Wolff— TOY SD— "Keeping a positive attitude
is number one. Belonging to professional associations is
of utmost importance. A strong support network is
necessary to keep motivated and share ideas."
Karen Fisher— TOY WA— "I like to change subject
matter, start new programs such as weight
management class and peer helping class, and
constantly participate in conferences and workshops."
Lucy Sullivan— WV TOY— "I take a class, get
involved in research, help with curriculum writing,
attend meetings, and work with the community."
Janet Powell— TOY WI —"When I returned to
teaching, I found that getting my master's degree
twenty years after my B.S. degree was a terrific
stimulant to my teaching. I have continued taking
classes and feel education is the secret to staying
excited about teaching."
If you could give new teachers one sentence of advice,
what would it be?
Carol Hahn — TOY CA — advises a new teacher to
. . . "manage time so you have some for yourself."
130 ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/ April, 1990
Carole Groh— CO TOY— suggests . . . "Using a variety
of activities and learning experiences, and being
prepared to expend a great deal of energy in the
classroom."
Alverna Thomas — TOY Idaho — advises . . . "Love
your students and keep the needs of students in mind."
Patricia Bowdell — IN TOY — gives the following
advice . . . "Be fair, firm, and friendly with students
and with yourself and never quit learning."
Betty Rust — TOY KA — advises new teachers
to . . . "Be committed to your profession and to your
students and give it your all."
Gerrie Miracle — TOY KY — says, 'Teaching is as
exciting as you make it: spend time thinking, writing,
learning, working, studying, and playing, but most of
all spend rime caring about yourself and others."
Jo Ann Pullen — Northfield, MA — says that, "If you
relax and watch your students they will delight you
as you watch them learn."
Claudia Dalton — TOY ME — advises new teachers
to . . . "Enjoy teaching, get involved in
interdisciplinary activities, make home economics
more meaningful. Teach for the future."
Judy Whitener— TOY
MO — advice to new
teachers is . . . "evalu-
ate programs yearly.
Don't be afraid to make
changes. Keep up with
changes. Don't be old
fashioned."
Judy Whitener
Kathy Gifford— TOY NE— says, "It is essential to
achieve and maintain a balance between your personal
life and your professional life, therefore never allow
one to dominate the other for any length of time. Be
realistic and build a network of supportive people in
both your professional and personal life."
Emily Richardson — TOY
Williamsburg, VA — advises
new teachers to . . . "Remem-
ber why you became a teacher
and keep your focus on the
potential in each students."
Emily Richardson
Jan Abramsen — TOY PA — advises new teachers to . . .
"keep an open mind to new ideas, and expect to learn
from my students as well as from educational
colleagues."
Kay Wolff— TOY SD— offers this advice, . . . "Don't
get annoyed at the little things that sometimes get us
down is important and taking the advice TCOY — Take
Care of Yourself. Students need to be healthy, both
physically and mentally."
Janet Powell— TOY WI— ad-
vises . . . "Like what you are
doing, address the individual
needs of the students, and keep
current with educational theo-
ries and techniques."
I
ajfc
Janet Powell
Describe any innovative programs or curriculum topics
that you have found to be successful
Susan Anderson — Alaska TOY — . . . "involves the
community, parents, and natural resources extensively
in my program."
Margaret McDonnell Omartian — TOY CT — says "I try
to maintain the curriculum with adaptations to
involve innovative teaching styles, and new trends in
learning. I have incorporated a great deal of faculty
interaction of academic teachers in my classroom to
open communication and understanding of home
economics in my unique teaching techniques. Through
the use of peer tutoring techniques, I give my students
the opportunity to display their new found knowledge
in areas beyond the traditional classroom. The most
fulfilling accomplishment is the increased sense of
self-esteem students experience."
ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/April, 1990 131
Patricia Ann Bowdell — TOY IN — offers this lesson
plan on "Thinking Skills for the Home Economics
Classroom."
Background — Several days have been spent on
establishing classroom climate prior to this
exercise. Since the first six weeks of the class
is spent on understanding self, this is the first
activity to start thinking on this topic.
Thinking Skill — Brainstorming
Focus Activity — Questioning the class in
relation to the importance of understanding
self before getting involved with the opposite
sex will help students see the importance of
this unit. Everyone is a unique individual!
This is an amazing fact. What makes
everyone different? What makes you, you?
Objectives — To become more aware of factors
which influence us and make us unique; to
encourage students to think about themselves
and clarify what past influences have been
important as well as present and future
influences on the whole self; to encourage
students to change or work at changing
attributes about themselves that they do not
like; to help students accept attributes about
themselves that they cannot change.
Input — Think about these:
S = self-knowledge can lead to self-under-
standing and acceptance
E = explore old and new ideas about self
L = love yourself before you can love others
F = focus on you before you focus on others
then you'll relate unselfishly
Activity —
1 . Students are to work in cooperative groups
with assigned tasks. They are to make an
attribute web using self in the center focus-
ing on the ideas of "What makes you, you?"
2. Informal brainstorming is used to make
webs. Observer reports to the class on the
thinking within the groups.
3. Teacher combines all ideas on web into a
list an hands this out to the class. Students
are asked to do various tasks using their
master list.
4. Students are asked to choose 10 attributes
that are important in making you, you and
then arrange them in order of most impor-
tant to least important.
5. Students are asked to choose 5 attributes
which cannot be changed and write a sen-
tence telling why.
6. Students are asked to choose 5 attributes
which cannot be changed and write a sen-
tence telling why they cannot be changed.
They are then asked to arrange them in
order of most difficult to least difficult to
change.
7. Students are asked to choose 5 attributes
which can be changed and rank them in
order of importance. Write the one you
would like to change the most first and so
on down the list. Tell why you want to
make the change.
8. Students are asked to predict which of the
10 attributes on their list would have been
on their father's list. If their father is not
the home, use a significant male figure.
9. Do the same for the mother or significant
female figure.
Metacognition and Closure —
Students make a collage about themselves.
They are instructed to place the most impor-
tant attribute toward the center of the collage
and the least important toward the outside.
They may use a picture (real or magazine),
real objects, and other items which signifi-
cantly relate to them. The collage should
show themselves past, present, and future.
Any shape or size of display board may be
used. Neatness counts.
Students should not put their name on the out-
side of the collage. The collages will be on
display and students then guess which collage
belongs to which student. There may be times
when you will not want to do this.
Students might be asked to stand up — off your
seat and on your feet — and explain their col-
lage and how it reflects them.
132 ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/ April, 1990
Kay Jensen — TOY IA — says "My key here is that I try
to involve the class as much as possible in the topic for
the lesson. For instance, sharing in small groups as the
students study the life cycle and write a short story of
the day in the life of a couple at one part of the life
cycle. Each group writes their interpretation and then
shares. I try to have some active involvement in each
lesson every day. Listening and caring make an impact
on the students."
Gerri Miracle— TOY KY— offers "The program that I
have written called MIRACLE: Making Ideas Reality
Allowing Creative Learning in Entrepreneurship is an
introduction to entrepreneurship has a career option
taught to seniors in high school. Most students know
about working for others because of their jobs at the
local grocery or department store or McDonalds;
however, very few students know about owning and
operating their own small business. Home economics
presents a perfect place to introduce entrepreneurship
as a possible career choice.
I have also been active in the new Parenting and
Family Life Skill curriculum recently required by law
in grades K-12 in the state of Kentucky. I find the
content of this type of curriculum to be of interest to
students; certainly, it is extremely important and a
timely topic of instruction."
Brenda Mattfeld — TOY MN — suggests "Awareness
Days: A program designed to utilize leadership and
peer education in addressing current concerns of the
community, students, and faculty. Students design,
organize and carry out the educational day which
includes workshops, movies, and speakers. Topics
covered include drug use, health concerns, and special
needs students."
Luci Flynn — TOY RI — suggests "developing programs
working with the elderly and special needs students.
Most recently I have integrated both the special needs
with the regular students in a successful restaurant
endeavor."
Karen Fisher— TOY WA—
claims "New ideas are always
accepted in our program. We
teach the weight management
class with the P.E. teacher so
students do aerobics two days
and meet in class three days
weekly. Sixty students trade
back and forth one half in gym
and one half in class. Also
Peer Helping in the classroom
with extensive work with shy, quiet students — grades
1-4. Our goal is to help them feel important, work on
friendship skills, and build self-esteem. We also
work with the elderly as a local convalescent center."
Lucy Sullivan — TOY WV — thinks "Cross-age
teaching has been successful with our students. They
learn nutrition concepts, synthesize them, plan a
lesson, then teach it to fifth grade children. The
results are fantastic."
Please list any resource materials that have been
particularly helpful to you.
Susan Anderson — TOY Alaska — "My best resources
are members of the community and the natural
resources of Alaska. The home economics curriculum at
Angoon High School stresses the use of community
resources that stimulate students growth in and
outside the program. Angoon is a small nature com-
munity whose activities center around the school.
Upon graduation the majority of students remain in
the community and become future leaders. In a world
of broken homes and child abuse it is important for
students to gain in self-confidence and self-respect as
they develop skills they can use in their daily lives.
"In my foods class elders assist in gathering,
cleaning and preparing 'local foods.' Community
members are also part of our annual style show which
provided students with planning, modeling, narrating,
and leadership opportunities. The Chefs Club sells
baked goods and learns marketing skills. The foods
class prepares many means for parents, the School
Advisory Committee, and the Chatham School
Board. My child care class gains valuable hands-on
experience while working with the community
clothes. While teaching subject relevant to student
needs I use a variety of strategies in an attempt to
reach my students."
Carole Groh — TOY CO — recommends "The Personal
Resource Development (PRD) co-authored by Beth
Zitko-Peters (instructional specialist for Colorado
Spring school district 11) and myself. This curriculum
has recently been designated the pre-vocational
middle school curriculum for Colorado."
Karen Fisher
ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/ April, 1990 133
Mollie Abadie— TOY LA—
says "Choices is a timely
magazine the students enjoy
and use for outside reports.
Videos from the March of
Dimes are excellent."
Mollie Abadie
Alverna Thomas — TOY Idaho — suggests using
"Teaching kits from the education department and the
beef industry council of the National Livestock and
Meat Board."
Judy Whitener — TOY MO — suggests these resources:
"Future Homemakers of America publications, etc., co-
curricular classes with FHA/HERO. Outstanding
community involvement and public relations."
Kathy Gifford — TOY NE — says that "more than any
textbook or magazine, resources such as having a
mentor friend, attending workshops and networking
with other teachers and resource people prove to be
most helpful to me."
Nancy Pierce — TOY NV — explains, "I tend to put
packets together from various sources, and then have a
very structured/unstructured classroom with every
student doing something different — working at their
level/speed towards a due date. I also teach business
machines in the program so that we are oriented
toward skill accomplishments."
Lucy Sullivan— TOY WV—
says that "In the cross-age
teaching project, I found the
following to be of great help:
nutrition education materials
from the National Dairy
Council; computer software —
What did you eat yesterday?,
Snackmonster, Printmaster."
Lucy Sullivan
1990 TEACHER OF THE YEAR AWARD PROGRAM
Who is eligible for the TOY Award Program?
Eligibility
Any individual is eligible who is a home
economics teacher, grades K through 12 only, and a
current member of the American Home Economics
Association at the time of nomination to national
competition. The award may also be given a second
time to an individual for outstanding contributions
different than that for which the first award was
given.
Nominations
Nominations may be submitted by any individual
or organization using the 1990 nomination procedures
and forms available from the state Home Economics
Association's Teacher of the Year Chair or through
the AHEA Foundation office. Each state may submit
one nomination for the national competition. All
entries must be postmarked by March 15, 1990.
Basis for Selection
Some of the selection criteria are:
• Pertinence and timeliness of program for the
community/population it serves;
• Innovation/creativity;
• Impact on students' lives beyond the classroom;
• Integration of other related subject matter with
home economics subject matter;
• Heightened visibility of the home economics
concepts; and
• Professional commitment.
The program focus areas may be selected from any
of the following:
• Career Awareness/ Job Skill Training
• Consumer Education/Family Finance
• Creative Dimensions/Alternative Program Designs
• Family Life/Personal and Social Development
• Nutrition Education/Diet and Health
134 ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/April, 1990
MIRACLE:
Making Ideas Reality Allowing Creative
Learning in Entrepreneurship
tt
Gerald ine Miracle
Kentucky Teacher of the Year
3U
Would you like to make an idea reality and run
your own business? Many of the students at Beech-
wood High School in Ft. Mitchell, Kentucky have
that goal. In fact, about one-third of my senior home
economics students say they would like to be an en-
trepreneur. Entrepreneurship is a topic of interest to
many people because small business ownership is a
major part of our market economy. Home economics is
very concerned with the economics of our society by its
very nature; therefore, the home economics curriculum
seems an obvious place to introduce entrepreneurship
education to high school students.
MIRACLE: Making Ideas Reality Allowing Cre-
ative Learning in Entrepreneurship is a two to three
weeks study of small business ownership as a career
option. Most teenagers know about working for others;
however, many have never dreamed of working for
themselves. The purpose of this study is to give stu-
dents the option of entrepreneurship as a career.
One of the most valuable aspects of this unit is to
help students determine if they are interested in en-
trepreneurship. Perhaps, the greatest service is to
help some students know that entrepreneurship is not
for them. Hopefully, this will prevent some students
from a future business failure. The program starts
with what is an entrepreneur and is it for you. The
lesson titles include:
1. Entrepreneurship — Why?
2. Is It For You?
3. Career or Jobs That Lend Themselves to En-
trepreneurship.
4. Going Into Business
5. Making My Business Profitable.
6. Now I Am the Employer!
7. Advertising Makes the Difference!
8. This Is For Real!
This overview of entrepreneurship has had a signifi-
cant impact on students lives by helping them to real-
ize what entrepreneurship is all about. This unit of
study in no way attempts to have students ready to run
their own small business operation in two to three
weeks; instead, it gives students an opportunity to ex-
plore entrepreneurship through class activities and
their imagination and gives them the foundation to
investigate details on their own.
The last month of school which is normally a time
that seniors need to be stimulated with interesting ac-
tivities has proven to be a perfect time to teach MIR-
ACLE. Many interesting exercises are included such
as:
• An entrepreneur that sells sheets for yachts. She
owns Nautical Images, Ltd. and comes to class to
share the story of making her own business success-
ful.
• Students become the employer, read job appli-
cations and interview potential job candidates for
their imaginary company. Each student fills out a
job application and makes copies of it. In class at
least three job applications are handed to each
student. From these applications they determine
at least two applicants to interview for their job.
This is a back door approach to teaching students
the value of completing job application forms
neatly and correctly. It makes real sense to students
when they are trying to determine the recipient of
their company's job. Each student then interviews
at least two people. It is not necessary for the
teacher to explain the importance of appearance,
neatness, honesty, etc., when filling out the
application forms and going for an interview.
Everything becomes very real when it is their own
company that is affected.
• Index cards are used for students to write their fa-
vorite hobby. The students then get in groups and
(Continued on Page 147.)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/April, 1990 135
Relationship Course
tt
Kathy Gifford
Teacher of the Year
Nebraska
The Relationships Course at Wood River Rural
High School is intended to help students build self-
confidence and strong relationships in all aspects of
their lives. The course is open to all students in grades
ten through twelve. Awareness that low esteem and
lack of communication skills contributes to job loss
and /or relationship failures led to the development
of the course.
Specific skills studied include decision making,
problem solving, communication techniques, coping
with stress, assertiveness and handling conflicts con-
structively. Students practice such activities as the
trust walk, power push and communication puzzles.
Each student also records their feelings and thoughts
in a journal throughout the semester.
The first unit deals with getting to know oneself
through values, goal setting and decision making.
Students experience such activities as the hot seat,
college identification, and personal space games. This
unit serves as the basis for the second unit, which is
personal decisions relating to drugs, alcohol and sex.
Application of the decision making and some testing
of what they think their values are takes place.
Assertive communication techniques are introduced
and practiced so that students will be able to use the
technique in a pressure situation. The third unit deals
with relating to others. During this unit we have spe-
cial days such as Grandparents Day, Handicapped
Day, and the Gadget Factory Day. This helps the
students to become more aware of people of different
ages and in different situations. Finally we have a
unit on stress and stress management. Hard to handle
emotional situations are dealt with such as death,
terminal illness, job loss and family violence.
Through our activities, English, speech and his-
tory are integrated throughout the course. Our commu-
nication activities and journal writing provide stu-
dents with an opportunity to use the English and
speech skills in a little different way. Students find
it amazing how often historical events affect people's
behaviors, attitudes and relationships.
When the students were asked to comment on the
course, the following statements were made:
• "I learned alot about dealing with others
especially my family, friends and co-workers. You
need those skills your whole life."
• "You learn how to solve problems in your relation-
ships with others."
• "It prepares you for the future. I can be more
prepared when I'm under a stressful position."
When students were asked if they had tried to put
any of the techniques into practice in their own lives,
the following statements were made:
• "Yes, I've listened better when people want to
share things with me and I don't jump to conclusions
about people without giving them a chance."
• "Yes, I have tried to cut down the sarcasm or cutting
people down. I have tried harder to get along with
people I don't especially like."
• "Sticking to my values — stating them and sticking
to them under a stressful situation has been
helpful."
It is evident that the students continue to learn,
grow and develop their personalities and relation-
ships throughout their whole life. My special reward
is to think that I have had the opportunity to con-
tribute in a positive way to this growth. • • •
Ihe most important attitude that can
be formed is that of desire to go on
[earning.
John Dewey
Experience and Education
P. 49
136 ILLINOIS TEACHER, MARCH/APRIL, 1990
Independent Life Skills
ID
Kay Wolff
Teacher of the Year
South Dakota
The course "Independent Life Skills" was created
in response to a need in our school system. Many stu-
dents had taken math, science, language and other
college preparatory courses that did not teach them
skills to deal with day to day living situations. Par-
ents of these students expressed an interest in having
their children take a home economics course that
would help them deal with "real world" decisions.
The course is offered to junior and seniors.
The central focus is to assist students in prepara-
tion for living on their own. To achieve this goal, a
variety of concepts are taught. The introductory unit
of the course starts by examining personal identity.
Students complete various workbook exercises, class
discussion and role play in determining their personal
values and goals. They study the concept of self-es-
teem and ways to enhance self-esteem. Students who
have a very low self-esteem often have negative
academic experiences, and may not be athletically
inclined. Throughout the year, the program is
intended to help students identify their strengths and
to build a positive self-image.
A boundary breaking exercise helps to develop a
trusting climate for discussing communication skills.
Students learn the importance of using "I" language
and the relation of body language in expressing feel-
ings. They study techniques for resolving conflicts and
the causes of conflict. Students discuss their feelings
of frustration as adolescents and the importance of be-
longing. Pressure forces, both positive and negative,
are analyzed.
The concept of sex-role stereotyping is introduced.
Students analyze it's historical effect upon opportuni-
ties for women and how these opportunities are slowly
changing. The ethnic heritage of this area has re-
garded women as subserviant to men. This standard is
not accepted by the general population. Males and
females discuss their expectations for relationships
and the role of dating.
The importance of the family as a basic structure
in society is covered. Students analyze the changing
composition of today's traditional family structure.
The number of single-parent families and blended
families is on the increase. The impact of these
changes on society is examined.
Decision-making is a skill which students
develop by analyzing case studies. By using their own
personal experiences, students apply the concept of
decision-making to daily situations.
Financial management is an objective which stu-
dents accomplish by learning more about budget,
checking accounts, credit and insurance.
Students work toward their goal of living on their
own. They analyze rental property by researching the
classified ads and talking with friends and relatives
to get an approximate idea of the cost of living in dif-
ferent geographic areas. Understanding all costs of
rental is an important concept, as well as understand-
ing the terminology in a lease contract.
Coping with stress is included in a unit on wellness
which deals with the importance of rest, exercise, and
proper nutrition. The misuse of chemicals to relieve
stress is discussed.
Weight management and the balance between
calories and weight are discussed. Eating disorders
and problems associated with poor diets for teenagers
are covered in a unit. With the abundance of nutrition
information in the media, it is important that
students are able to distinguish between the facts and
fallacies. Students study ways to determine if
information is reputable. Using the dietary
guidelines, students plan nutritious meals.
Understanding the importance of safety and
sanitation is a topic which is emphasized throughout
the foods unit.
Students learn the correct operation of a sewing
machine. They use their skills in sewing sweatshirts
and duffle bags. Students also learn how to operate an
overlock/serger. The use of the serger adds a profes-
sional touch to their projects and a real sense of pride
as most people are unaware that their projects are
handmade. A unit on clothing selection and care cov-
ers the analysis of fads and classic styles, as well as
effective wardrobe coordination.
The concept of entrepreneurship is studied by the
students. They assist in the operation of the busi-
nesses, "Balloons-4-You" and " Bobcat Hooper
(Continued on Page 157.)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/April, 1990 137
tt
Integration of FHA/Hero into the Classroom
Judy Whitener
Teacher of the Year
Missouri
I sponsor the local chapter of the Future Home-
makers of America. My students work with preschool,
elementary, headstart, and handicapped children as
well as senior citizens. Community projects are devel-
oped on drug use and abuse, physical fitness and good
eating habits, money management, self-esteem, safety
for children, sexual promiscuity, and family abuse.
An instructional method which has been successful
in my classes is the integration of FHA/HERO that
allows all my students to develop leadership skills.
Each class elects officers and the class president leads
the students in planning at least one FHA/HERO
project related to the curriculum. Students brainstorm
for ideas, narrow concerns, make decisions, and accept
responsibility for their decisions. After the project is
completed, the students make evaluations. The
following are examples of projects that the students
developed:
A popular project is the mock wedding in
the dating and marriage class. Students choose
the mock groom, bride, best man, and
bridesmaid. Committees are appointed to plan
the wedding. Emphasis is placed on wedding
costs and the commitment of the marriage
ceremony. Each committee reports to the class
for approval. During the mock wedding, the
bride and groom, in full dress, repeat the vows
with the minister. Following the ceremony is
a wedding reception. Many students say, "This
is like a real wedding." The project is taken so
seriously that I once had a bridegroom faint
three times before the ceremony was
completed.
Another class project is an egg hunt with
preschool children and senior citizens. The
students take the children to the health care
clinic to dye eggs with the senior citizens. The
next day, the senior citizens hide the eggs and
the children and students return for the egg
hunt.
Another successful class project was the
development of a nutritional program for
children. Students were concerned about poor
eating habits. The class worked with a
language class and developed a story, Snow
White and the Seven Healthy Dwarfs The
story describes Snow White eating all the
nutritional foods and helping the dwarfs
follow good diets. The old witch was fat and
ugly and ate all junk food. She poisoned Snow
White with a candy bar and while Snow
White was asleep, a handsome prince
chewing on a carrot came riding by and gave
her a kiss. The students were pleased with the
story. They worked with the art department
developing a descriptive coloring book to
compliment the story.
Integrating FHA/HERO into the classroom is a
teaching method that has helped our program to
grow. Our enrollment has increased because of the
projects. At the beginning of the semester, students
ask: "What project will we do? I always respond, "I
don't know", because I don't know until the students
make the decisions. I am amazed at the ideas students
develop. Students enjoy the projects and our program
receives excellent public relations. The most successful
part of integrating FHA/HERO into the classroom is
the involvement of every student. Involving the un-
involved student is my goal. The uninvolved student
helps plan and organize the projects because it is part
of the class curriculum. Each student develops positive
self-esteem and a sense of pride in FHA/HERO and
his school. • • •
The purpose of teaching is to inspire the desire
for [earning. The, teacher who knows ail the
answers is not always the one who kriows the
right questions to asfc.
Sydney J. Harris
138 ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/April, 1990
Eating for the Health Of It
tt
Frances Baynor Parnell
Teacher of the Year
North Carolina
Current data which show that infant mortality,
teen pregnancies, population density, and longevity
are increasing makes preventive health care a rele-
vant topic for everyone.
Using the concept that students learn best when
teaching others, I initiated programs which give stu-
dents opportunities to teach, and therefore, practice
nutrition education as it relates to diet, health and
physical fitness. This approach allows students to
study dietary needs as they change throughout life
and to practice planning meals, snacks and refresh-
ments for special events that are consistent with di-
etary guidelines endorsed by the Surgeon General's
Report and National Institute of Health in 1988.
Nutrition education is basic to the well-being of
people and determines the wellness level that any in-
dividual or society can expect to achieve. While much
attention has been focused on health and wellness in
the 80s, teens have not widely joined the force for
healthy living. My program uses a non-traditional
approach to teaching nutrition, diet and health, and
recognizing that students are still establishing
dietary patterns that will influence their own well-
being for the rest of their lives, and in the case of
females, that of their children. People like to eat and
are more likely to participate in events which offer
food. I have capitalized on this human drive and
taught nutrition through a broad spectrum approach,
infusing the concepts into advanced home economics,
child development, and consumer management.
The following examples indicate some ways nutri-
tion has been successfully taught at John T. Hoggard
High School:
1. To introduce dietary guidelines to senior citizens
and to encourage incorporation into lifestyles, ad-
vanced home economics students creatively
planned and taught three classes to seventeen
enthusiastic seniors. To insure participation, they
were always invited to lunch and foods prescribed
by the dietary guidelines were served.
Educational skits, games, demonstrations and
armchair aerobics were used to educate and
entertain. Everyone loved the series! Even the
students discovered that they enjoyed foods
without salt when other seasonings were
substituted.
2. To gain experience in relating to children, child
development students plan and teach a series of
four nutrition classes to groups of four-year olds
each semester. Little children love to cook and
respond enthusiastically to a hands-on approach
to learning about nutritious meals and snacks.
3. To comprehend the value of straight information
advertising, consumer management students
conceptualized and developed the framework for
an educational poster to advertise peanuts for
Peanut Growers Promotions entitled, "Eat Peanuts
Just for the Health of It." This 17" x 22" poster
teaches health practices and shows how peanuts
fit into a plan for nutritious meals and snacks. The
class was paid $1,000.00 for their work, and the
poster was distributed nationally through
FORECAST Magazine.
4. The FHA/HERO Chapter invites other student
organizations to co-sponsor annual hunger
luncheons which point out the inequities of food
distribution and reasons for malnutrition around
the world. This annual observance, held on World
Food Day in the school's media center, induces
global thinking as participants are challenged to
seek ways to alleviate world hunger. Students
pay up to $4.00 for tickets to participate.
(Luncheons which we call "Hunger Banquets" are
held during each lunch period so that all who
wish may participate.) Monetary contributions to
organizations such as Trickle Up and
Presbyterian's Answer to Hunger (PATH) are
made as a result.
5. To instill an awareness of hunger as it exists in our
community, "Box Day" was initiated in keeping
with a European tradition where after a feast,
people prepare boxes of food for the needy. After
World Food Day, students fill decorated boxes
with hundreds of non-perishable food items
ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/April, 1990 139
which they deliver to one of the town's food banks
for distribution to the hungry. After focusing on
the needs of developing countries around the
world, it is felt that students need to recognize and
help alleviate the hunger which also exists at
home.
6. To improve cafeteria manners in one elementary
school, the school's guidance counselor asked my
child development students to spend a day on
their campus role modeling appropriate table
manners, as well as, teaching the importance of
eating the nutritious foods served to them. This
program received high accolades among
elementary teachers and their students according
to the counselor.
As students respond to the challenge of teaching
others, they develop or enhance their own learning
and therefore, retention. They also grow in many
other ways which include confidence, communication
skills, leadership abilities, resource management and
creativity.
Certainly the greatest indicator of accomplish-
ment is one's personal satisfaction and pride in know-
ing that s/he was responsible for a job successfully
completed. The successes and productivity of these
students have been widely recognized by others.
Senior citizens who participated in the nutrition
classes told the press they had used the information
learned in these classes at home and liked the results
obtained.
Parents have called and written numerous notes
about impressions the nutrition classes made on their
preschoolers. Parents indicate that the children be-
come more adaptable and enjoy a wider variety of
foods at home after these classes.
The World Hunger Program has certainly been the
most visible nutrition program of those conducted by
my students. Its timeliness, interdisciplinary ap-
proach, and interdepartmental involvement made it
appealing to all groups. It offers that feeling of
"ownership" to all who participate and a sense of
self-worth when participants discover that they can
truly do something to help combat world hunger. The
fact that it is sponsored by FHA/HERO and initiated
by home economics students makes home economics and
the importance of an adequate diet visible to the hun-
dreds who have already participated. The local,
state, national, and perhaps through AHEA's Global
Connections portfolio submitted to the International
World Food Day Committee located in Rome, Italy —
even international visibility is certainly helping to
internationalize the home economics image.
Summary
This wellness approach to teaching diet and nu-
trition removes the cooking stereotype and focuses on
dietary goal-setting to reach and maintain a desired
health status throughout life. It includes not only diet
and nutrition; it also integrates other lifestyle factors
which affect optimal health.
Through a broad spectrum approach, this perti-
nent and timely program has touched the lives of pre-
school children, elementary, junior high and senior
high students, parents, teachers, counselors, school
administrators, other school staff, and community
leaders. It has been recognized by the media at the lo-
cal, state and national levels.
Dr. Norman Robinson, Clinical Associate Professor
of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel
Hill, who supervises medical interns at the local hos-
pital, endorsed the efforts of this program by stating,
"We are becoming increasingly aware of the signifi-
cance of particular components of our diet as they re-
late to disease. We are keenly aware of the impor-
tance of fat and cholesterol in the diet as they con-
tribute to heart and circulatory problems. Low sodium
diets help to curtail high blood pressure. We are also
aware of the harmful effects of alcohol and nicotine.
Efforts to promote a program such as this increase
awareness among high school students as well as
those they teach. The entire population would be bet-
ter off if we had general adherence to the precautions
being taught in this program."
A recent meeting of the National Governor's Asso-
ciation revealed a concern regarding Americans' gen-
eral lack of knowledge of other nations. They consider
this a barrier to successful international trade. The
governors were reported to say that public schools
should add geography and international relations to
the curriculum. By addressing world hunger issues,
these home economics students are finding relevance in
their nutrition studies and an "internationalized
home economics program" is the result.
This creative program is indeed pertinent and
timely. Students are learning to make a difference in
the lives of others while they learn to improve the
quality of their own. They are learning nutrition by
preparing to teach the facts to others. They are also
enhancing their own retention rate. • • •
Tm not a teacher,
but an awakener.
Robert Frost
140 ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/April, 1990
Entrepreneurship
tt
Janet Powell
Wisconsin Teacher of the Year
ajfe
Entrepreneurship was developed in 1985 because
of a need in the Family/Consumer Education curricu-
lum at Orchard Ridge Middle School for career explo-
ration. The newly-revised DPI (Department of Public
Instruction) Curriculum Guide for Family/Consumer
Education placed a strong emphasis on career
exploration in middle school. Career exploration also
became a DPI requirement of the Education for
Employment program in middle school. When my sons
completed high school and entered the college
selection process, I became aware of the importance of
students beginning to plan and think about the world
of work at this early stage.
The student population at Orchard Ridge Middle
School in Madison, Wisconsin is predominantly
white, middle class with a minority population of
about 12 percent Many of our students will attend
college or other post-secondary institutions after
graduating from high school.
The class is an elective eighth grade course which
the student chooses from nine elective offerings.
While this is an elective course, class size is some-
what controlled to balance enrollment in each of the
elective sections. Enrollment averages approximately
2-25 students each semester, a combination of boys and
girls.
Entrepreneurship was chosen as a career emphasis
because many of our students will be involved in small
business some way in their lifetime. Many home
economics related occupations lend themselves to en-
trepreneurship, both for males and females. Almost
half of all small businesses fail in the first two years.
By having a short term but practical experience in
small business, the students may identify an interest
and learn what it takes to make a small business suc-
cessful. Economic principles of supply and demand,
competition and profit and loss are learned in the
business process.
Entrepreneurship provides a practical, hands-on
experience in planning, decision-making and problem-
solving. It incorporates many work values and skills
that are learned in the family.
Entrepreneurship is part of a semester long, elec-
tive course. During the first quarter of the semester
the students investigate the questions, "How is self-
concept affected by appearance?" and "How do fami-
lies manage clothing needs?". Entrepreneurship takes
about eight weeks of the second quarter and further
career and job exploration utilizing WCIS materials
and software complete the quarter.
The entrepreneurship unit begins by exploring the
meaning of the word "work". Examples and non-ex-
amples are given with the eventual formation of defi-
nitions of the word. Work of the family and values of
the world of work are compared and discussed. (The
students have studied about the work of the family in
the required sixth and seventh grade courses.)
The students are then introduced to entrepreneur-
ship and various business concepts. One or two small
business owners are invited to share their experiences
with the students. The students progress from learning
about the qualities and characteristics of en-
trepreneurship, to developing ideas for a business, to
actually setting up a business.
To develop ideas, the students experience creativ-
ity activities and look at trends. Marketing research
is conducted on the target market to determine a need
or interest for the proposed business. Guest speakers
inform the students about market research and adver-
tising techniques. Before the business can actually be
started, a business plan is written and must be ap-
proved by the school principal and myself.
The businesses are self-selected groups of usually
four to five students. Before forming, the responsibili-
ties within the business such as management, produc-
tion, record keeping, etc. are discussed so the students
have some idea of the expectations of the role as-
sumed. Businesses are set up according to sole propri-
etorship, partnership or corporation.
The business may be a product or a service,
although usually the students choose a product. The
product may be something they construct (e.g., holi-
day ornament, tote bag, scarf) or decorate (e.g., tie
dye, stencil) or any other creative idea they may
have that might relate to the curricula of the first
quarter.
After completing the market research to deter-
mine a need and getting the business plan approved,
the students begin their business. Financing the busi-
ness can be done in several ways — taking out a loan
ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/April, 1990 141
from parents or teachers on which interest is charged,
contributing their own money or selling stock.
Using information provided to them by an adver-
tising specialist, the students begin to advertise. The
students find advertising the business is most impor-
tant because if the customer doesn't know the business
is there, s/he won't buy what is offered. Who the
students choose to sell to determines the kind of ad-
vertising the students do. The most popular market
has been other middle school students at Orchard
Ridge Middle School. Other possible markets are the
Orchard Ridge Elementary students because they are
in the same building. Parents are another market to
which the students might direct their efforts.
Forms of advertising include written media utiliz-
ing posters, flyers, etc., radio, using the P.A. and
television advertising. Students are encouraged to
work with the eighth grade language arts teacher
who teaches a unit on radio. This year the students
wrote television commercials,with the help of a
resource person from a local television station,
produced them and showed them in the various
classrooms. (These commercials were also shown on
the local public access television channel.)
Product production can be, and is encouraged to be
done in the classroom. Before the students begin pro-
duction, a few decisions will be made such as: who
will be responsible for the purchasing of supplies
needed, what will be the most efficient production
method, will it be done assembly-line or another
method, and who will assume which responsibilities
in the process. With information about labeling laws,
the students design appropriate labels where
necessary.
The product sales take place over a period of two
to three weeks. Before and during the selling process,
the students learn about sales promotion and good
sales techniques. They also become aware of customer
rights and responsibilities as they sell their product
and listen to their customers. Selling is done early in
the morning, at lunch time and in the evening at the
book fair, concerts, etc. Some groups choose to take
orders, others to produce and then sell.
Inventory control and record keeping of expenses
and income are an important part of the business, and
one that students find most difficult. Math skills find
a practical use here and the eighth grade math
teachers are available to assist when and if neces-
sary.
Students experience some of the "real life" costs of
operating a business. Profitable businesses are
assessed 5 percent of gross profit for operating expenses
such as utilities and advertising costs and 35 percent of
the net profits for taxes. This money is then donated
to a charity decided on by the group.
As one might infer, because of the many responsi-
bilities within the business, each student is kept very
busy. Cooperation, organizational skills, communica-
tion skills and responsibility become very important
determinants to the success of the business. (Success of
the business is judged not on profitability but the
completeness with which the requirements were
executed, the effort shown and the problem-solving
strategies enacted to overcome any difficulties.) The
students are very motivated because they want their
business to succeed.
During the business operation the teacher acts as a
facilitator. Concerns with business problems such as
marketing, sales, communication difficulties or lack of
responsibility on the part of one of the business
partners are worked through by the group with the
teacher asking questions and offering suggestions, fa-
cilitating the discussion but not making the decisions.
Where possible, the business experiences are com-
pared to situations experienced by small business or
are related to family situations.
Evaluation of this unit is done in several ways:
- Students are graded on the completeness and
thought of the business plan.
- A weekly checklist (based on the critical spirit) is
filled in by the students to highlight group interac-
tion skills.
- A final report is handed in from each group.
- A final evaluation of group participation of each
member (is filled in by each member).
- An oral report is given by each group in which they
reflect on what was successful and what they
would do differently.
- An anonymous course evaluation is given at the end
of the unit.
Evaluation provides the students an opportunity
to reflect on their skills and effort. Record keeping is
perhaps the most difficult for the students. Some
students find they are better at sales, production, or
accounting. Communication skills, responsibility and
cooperation are found to be very important to group
success. Overall, students are able to identify
important skills learned in the family and apply
their importance to the world of work. • • •
142 ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/April, 1990
tt
Taking Charge: Thinking Critically and Creatively
Toward Ethical Action
Jan Abramsen
Teacher of the Year
Pennsylvania
Consumption and the material wants and needs of
life have become so dominant that psychic, social
and cultural needs are neglected, reason
constrained and critical reflection diminished.
Effects include alienation, loss of individuality,
meaninglessness and often insistence on meeting
personal desired with weakened concern for the
welfare of others." (Bubolz, 1988)
Education must be seen, not a? providing right
answers, but as confrontation with problems; not
imaginary play problems either, but real ones in
which decisions count. (Coombs, 1966)
To many students, particularly middle school stu-
dents, the world seems a conflict of contradictions and
confusion beyond their control. Rather than feeding
nuggets of prepackaged, soon to be obsolete informa-
tion, my goal is to help students build a nurturing
community where they can participate together in
dreaming visions for the future and thinking critically
and creatively of realistic ways to build those
dreams. As students wrestle with great ideas and
practical, perennial problems, they realize that their
decisions and actions impact on not only their
families, but on their local community and the global
community.
A spirit of critical and creative thinking, not a set
of skills or method of teaching, is essential to students
becoming independent thinkers who care about their
world. This spirit calls for new perspectives for seeing
oneself in the world. It means willingness to let go of
old meanings, ideas, and ways of doing and thinking.
This spirit celebrates that there is more than one re-
ality in the world; realities represented by various
ethnic and cultural groups which need to be un-
wrapped, studied, and evaluated before one begins to
build one's own view of the world. This spirit creates
a thirst for more inquiry and learning.
Choosing not to be a mirror image of others also
means not being a captive to social forces. With this
freedom comes responsibility. David Perkins, Har-
vard University, describes a creative thinker as one
who "depends on working at the edge, more than at
the center of one's competence." Thus, students are to
be continually challenged to question the given
paradigms, asking "What if? and "Why not?".
Students develop and share heuristics for solving
life's unstructured, ill-defined problems. This chal-
lenges them to build their own knowledge and criteria
for judging rather than depending solely on experts.
As students develop a sense of pride and confidence in
being able to reason through the complexities of their
world and take action to create changes, they feel
more unique, more needed and more useful, and more in
control.
Taking charge strives to challenge and empower
students:
to become independent thinkers who live deliber-
ately, taking responsibility for their decisions
and actions;
to enlarge their worlds by learning from and re-
specting others representing different cultures,
economic situations, ages, and abilities;
to question gender and racial stereotypes which
limit the expression of the full range of human
traits;
to think critically about what is and creatively
about how to achieve what should be;
to effect changes in themselves, in their families,
and the local and global communities that
will engender the common good.
Students and Teacher in Partnership
If my job is to fill students with capsules of knowl-
edge, requiring them to collect, file, memorize, and
give back this knowledge, then my main responsibil-
ity is to insure that students produce good test scores.
However, if I am a partner with my students in
the learning process, investigating and transforming
our world, then my responsibilities and theirs must be
interdependently deepened and broadened. We must
be nurturing and challenging each other to be
autonomous individuals reflecting upon common needs
and interests and taking actions for the betterment of
not only ourselves, but our families, neighborhoods,
ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/April, 1990 143
and global community. My attitude toward learning
speaks more convincingly than carefully planned
activities. Thus, I am responsible:
to create a rich environment where compassion,
mutual trust, dignity, spontaneity, curiosity,
divergent thinking, and consensus can thrive;
to recognize and reduce my biases and assumptions
while challenging my students to examine
their own dogmatic beliefs;
to develop and maintain a view of students as
thinking, capable of ethical action
individuals who can change themselves and
their world as they critically question and
creatively dream;
to celebrate students' efforts at flying, even when
there are mistakes, wrong turns and crashes;
to slow down and gift students with time to think
and digest and react;
to keep my sense of humor on call and my integrity
untarnished;
to ask if I really believe and do what I tell my
students is important;
to listen to their agendas as well as my day's ob-
jectives;
to be irritant, calling students to question
paradigms, thus moving from being passive to
self-directed and responsible;
to be a presence that encourages justice rather than
power, wonder and awe, confidence in one's
abilities and ideas, joy in giving service to
others, and the certainty of being able to make
a difference.
Families and Community in Partnership
What does it mean that we are a nation
experiencing peace when other nations, but violence at
home? A nation scrambling to maintain its high
standard of living while losing its quality of life? A
nation espousing democratic ideals while supporting
hierarchies of opportunity and access? A nation
founded on individual freedoms that seeks to
homogenize the cultural differences and even select
which cultures will be admitted to the melting pot?
Families and educators need to be partners in
dialogue and action to insure a future of hope for our
children. To be partners, we must honestly examine
our goals for education. Do we really desire education
to transport our children to common destinations
rather than helping them develop resources for their
individual journeys? Should classrooms be fast-
thought drive-thrus where knowledge and truth are
dispensed? Are schools to be primarily training
grounds for the next level and then the next and then
finally for jobs? In a world where compassion and
consensus are critical to our survival, do we want
education to promote individual clawing to the top
compensation? When our children achieve high test
scores in the three R's, does this mean they have
developed a breadth of knowledge and a whole
perspective on life?
Education, in partnership with families, can
actively engage the whole child in discovery,
examination, and discourse about themselves, their
neighbors, and the world. Taking the road not
heavily traveled might lead to a dead end or a new
journey of thought. Thus, the process of learning is as
crucial as the product, i.e., the right answer or
mastery of a skill. Emphasizing the development and
sharing of heuristics rather than just the
memorization of algorithms prepares students to be
problem seekers and solvers, not just skilled workers.
Classrooms offer valuable opportunities for
children to learn participatory democracy as they
work toward consensus, if, indeed, there is still truth
and knowledge to be discovered and examined, then
each child becomes a valuable resource for the group's
learning together. Interactions with children from
different cultural and family backgrounds can help
develop individual and collective autonomy.
When children gain understanding of historical
conditions impacting on individuals, families and
societies, their own self-understanding begins to
change and deepen. At the same time, their
evaluations of how various social structures enhance
and inhibit family and community well-being can call
them to thoughtful action in changing the structures.
They become engaged in a lifetime process of learning
and taking action.
As they learn from each other and their
community, children can develop a global perspective
that openly investigated traditions, values, and
contributions of other cultures. Reciprocity is nurtured.
Challenging students to think critically about the
consequences for their actions in the local and global
communities fosters commitment to democracy.
Families and education, seeking mutual goals, can
seek to develop competencies which empower students
to be agents of change in the world.
References:
Bubolz, M. (1988). Thinking for ethical action in fam-
ilies and beyond: Issues, development and dreams.
Second International Conference on Thinking and
Problem Solving in Home Economics, The Ohio
State University, Columbus, Ohio.
Combs, A. W. (1966). Fostering self-direction. Asso-
ciation for Supervision and Curriculum Develop-
ment. • • •
144 ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/April, 1990
Relevance in Teaching Clothing:
A Case for the Human Ecological Approach
tt
Lillian O. Holloman, Assistant Professor
Department of Microenvironmental Studies
& Design
Howard University
Washington, D.C.
Like all educators, secondary home economics
teachers constantly face the challenge of maximizing
the learning experiences of their students by making
learning exciting, creative, and most of all, relevant.
An additional challenge is that of bringing tradi-
tional subject matter into the realm of contemporary
living. The utilization of an ecological approach can
make this task more achievable.
The ecological approach is concerned with the in-
teraction of humans with their near environments
(Compton & Hall, 1972; Bubolz, Eicher and Sontag,
1979; Edwards, 1988, Strickland, Hamner & Robertson,
1988). Clothing, which represents an individual's
most intimate, external environment (Edwards, 1988,
Parker, 1988), lends itself especially to the ecological
approach because of its physical, economic, sociologi-
cal, cultural and symbolic nature. The study of cloth-
ing from an ecological approach encourages class par-
ticipation and offers several specific goals:
(1) To broaden students' understanding of the subject
matter;
(2) To increase students' problem-solving and
decision making ability;
(3) To enhance students' critical thinking ability;
(4) To improve students' oral presentation skills;
(5) To improve students' valuation skills.
Because the ecological approach dictates the
study of clothing holistically and across disciplines,
the following broad topics, recommended activities
and skeletal lesson plans are proposed. The teacher
and students can jointly select the activities that are
most feasible and relevant for them.
Suggested topics and activities are:
I. Clothing Care
• Discuss/demonstrate proper laundering, stain
and spot removal.
• Discuss/demonstrate hand washing and ironing
of regular and delicate garments (such as silk
blouses).
• Discuss/demonstrate storage procedures for out-
of-season clothing.
• Discuss care labels and the interpretation of
care procedures.
• May bring in examples of garments not prop-
erly cared for and show the results.
II. Clothing and Aesthetics
• Discuss/demonstrate the use of clothing to help
compliment the figure and to create the illusion
of (desired figure proportions).
• Discuss/demonstrate the use of accessories to
add interest, originality and versatility to
clothes.
• May invite a clothing or wardrobe consul-
tant in to discuss topic and give demonstra-
tion of concept.
III. Clothing Symbolism
• Discuss how clothing can be used to send mes-
sages to others.
• Discuss national or local events and the role
clothing has played in that event.
• Parades
• Inaugurations
• Balls/proms
• Weddings
• Concerts
• Halloween parties/masquerade parties
• Funerals
• Discuss the role that clothing plays in an indi-
vidual, family, or group ritual.
• Discuss the part clothing plays in various orga-
nizations to which you belong.
• Church choir
• Girl Scouts
• Community clubs
• Athletic Teams
• Discuss the role of school uniforms
• What do they mean to those wearing them
and to those observing them?
IV. Clothing and Economics
• Discuss ways to economize on the clothing bud-
get
ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/April, 1990 145
• Engage in comparison shopping by locating and
pricing similar items from different types of
stores:
• Department store (upper, moderate and
lower priced)
• Boutiques
• Discount/off-price stores, thrift shops
• Discuss reasons why similar merchandise may
sell for different prices at the various stores.
• Explore thrift shops to compare prices and
quality of merchandise to that found in conven-
tional stores.
• As a fun exercise, students can try to coordi-
nate an outfit from garments found in a
thrift store and then share the results of
that experience with the class. No purchas-
ing is required.
• On the basis of this exercise, students can
formulate guidelines for resale or second-
hand shopping, pointing out how different
it is from regular shopping.
• Study imports by taking a survey of a specific
item to determine its country of origin.
(Example: In a department store, or a shopping
center, randomly select 20 sweaters from differ-
ent vendors or from different parts of the store
and read the label to see how many were made
in the U.S. and how many were made in a for-
eign country.)
• Survey store personnel (both managers and
salespersons) to determine what part imports
play in their store and how their store would
be affected if management changed its present
policy on imports.
• Identify and research some of the main issues
surrounding imports and discuss them in class.
Ask for example whether students feel that
the U.S. clothing industry would benefit if
fewer clothing items were imported Why?
V. Clothing Selection
• Discuss some construction details that are nec-
essary for reasonable serviceability of apparel.
• Check and compare construction details of gar-
ments from various stores:
• Mass volume discount stores
• Newer "off-price" stores
• Designer boutiques within department stores
• High/Moderate/low-priced department
stores
• The following construction details should be
checked:
• Seam width and finish
• Buttonhole treatment
• Grainline
• Hem depth and treatment
VI. Clothing and Image Projection
• Read and compare various books on "dressing
for success." Prepare book reviews to share
with the class. Analyze dress of persons shown
in magazines, newspapers.
• Analyze your own dress and describe the image
that you feel you project; describe the image
that you would like to project and how clothing
can assist you.
• Show pictures or slides of individuals and ask
students to characterize each person shown
based on this assessment of their dress and dis-
cuss reasons for their choices.
• Invite a personnel officer to class to address
clothing and its relationship to first impres-
sions and hiring. (May invite school principal
since that person often hires personnel.)
• Survey individual reactions to dress by brows-
ing in a department store that caters to higher-
income customers. Make two trips to the same
store. On the first trip, wear well worn, old or
out-of-date clothing. On another day, wear
your better garments. Compare the two visits
by describing the reaction of the store personnel
to you as a potential client.
Skeletal Lesson Plans
Lesson plans that incorporate the aforementioned
activities can be flexible. The skeletal outline
that follows requires both teacher and student
participation. This format should be used only as
a guide. Adjustments can be made as necessary to
comply with student needs, readiness, attention
span, and makeup or personality of the class
(Chamberlain and Kelly, 1981). The instructor
must also consider the time allotment for the
clothing unit.
I. Dayl
1. Teacher introduces clothing unit, outlining the
different topics that will be discussed.
2. Teacher divides class into groups consisting of
four or five students per group.
3. Teacher assigns group a topic such as "clothing
care" that the group will later develop into a
lesson to be presented to the class.
II. Days2-9
Each day teacher discusses one of the selected
topics in order to provide the class with an
overview of the scope of the topic.
146 ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/April, 1990
III. Days 10-15
1. Student groups work on developing their as-
signed topic into a clothing lesson to be pre-
sented to the class. Students will use their
home economics class period to work on their
lesson. Students will also be expected to work
on assignment outside of class. Teachers may
permit students to use the library during the
class period.
2. Each lesson plan must be developed in consul-
tation with and approved by the teacher.
IV. Days 16 -23
As an alternative to the traditional method for
teaching:
1. Each group presents its topic to the class.
(Each lesson will be about 25 - 30 minutes.)
2. Teacher decides which group will be
presenting each day or students can hold a
lottery to decide.
3. Time should be reserved at the end of each
class period for questions, discussion and
clarification of information. Time should also
be allowed for evaluation from teachers and
peers.
4. Teacher may add additional information
about the topics following the group
presentations.
In today's world, students need a wide range of
skills for competent living. The human ecological
approach fosters skill development by increasing
knowledge, stimulating analytical thinking, and
encouraging responsible decision making. Thus, this
approach facilitates the role of home economics
education by improving the quality of life for
individuals and families (Fleck, 1980; Parker, 1987).
Furthermore, the human ecological approach can
make a difference by offering challenging, exciting
and relevant contemporary courses.
References
Bubolz, M., Eicher, J.B. & Sontag, M.S. (1979). The
Human Ecosystem: A Model. Journal of Home Eco-
nomics, 71, 28-32.
Chamberlain, V.M. and Kelly, J.M. (1981). Creative
Home Economics Instruction, 2nd ed. New York:
Webster Division McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Compton, N. and Hall, 0. (1972). Foundations of Home
Economics Research. A Human Ecology Approach.
Minneapolis: Burgess Publishing Company.
Edwards, C. (1988). Human Ecology: The Interaction of
Man With His Environment, 11th ed. Howard
University.
Fleck, H. (1980). Toward Better Teaching of Home
Economics, 3rd ed. New York: Macmillain Pub-
lishing Company, Inc.
Parker, F.J. (1987). Home Economics An Introduction To
A Dynamic Profession. 3rd ed. New York: Macmil-
lian Publishing Company, Inc.
Parker, S. Ecological Aspects of Dress (1988). Human
Ecological Studies, 2nd Ed. Edited by M.P. Strick-
land and T.J. Hamner. Edina: Burgess Interna-
tional Group, Inc. (Bellweather Press Division)
pp. 1-36.
Strickland, M.P., Hamner, T.J. & Robertson, E. (1988).
Human Ecological Studies, 2nd Ed. Edited by M.P.
Strickland and T.J. Hamner. Edina: Burgess Inter-
national Group, Inc. (Bellweather Press Division)
pp. 231-253. • • •
(Continued from Page 135.)
have a buzz session to determine as many
entrepreneurial endeavors as possible to match
their hobbies.
• Each student determines an imaginary company
and plans advertisements for it. These advertise-
ments can be in any media, for example: brochures,
billboards, magazine ads, radio commercials done
on audio cassettes, television ads done on
videotapes, door flyers, newspaper ads, etc. The
students share these in class.
• Students complete surveys to determine if they
have the characteristics of an entrepreneur.
Approximately one third of the students enrolled
in the senior Adult Living classes at Beechwood High
School have shown an interest in entrepreneurship as
a career. With this much interest in one type of
career, we certainly need to address those students'
needs. Home economics is a perfect place to examine
small business ownership with the vast possibilities
of entrepreneurial endeavors in our field of
study. • • •
ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/April, 1990 147
Family Life Education in the 1990s [13
The Challenge: What Shall We Teach 1
Harriett K. Light, Ph.D.
President-Elect,
American Home Economics Association
and
Professor, Child Development and
Family Science Department
College of Home Economics
North Dakota State University
Home economists in general, and specifically fam-
ily life educators, have unique opportunities to make
valuable contributions to the present and future qual-
ity of life for their students. The mission of home eco-
nomics is to improve the quality of life for individuals
and families. The overall goal of family life educa-
tion is to prepare students to make beneficial and pro-
ductive decisions in various areas of life. In order to
accomplish this goal, it is important that curriculum
content be relevant to contemporary society and to the
society in which the students will spend their adult-
hood. This is an enormous challenge for family life
educators in the high-tech 1990s, where life will
move at an accelerated pace. It can be accomplished
only if the educator is well informed regarding critical
issues, perceptive about the implications of those is-
sues for the quality of life, and willing to have open
discussions with students about the issues.
The explosion of knowledge in recent years has
created an information gap between the generations.
Issues related to lifestyles and changing values have
created family misunderstandings and disagreements.
Technology and predictions for the future hold pro-
found implications for the quality of life. When
viewed in this context, one can easily be overwhelmed
by the myriad of curriculum content possibilities. The
implications of the curriculum content choices accent
the serious responsibility of family life educators as
they prepare students for a life that is challenging to
predict and difficult to comprehend.
Content Decisions
How can appropriate content decisions be made?
One method is to use quality of life as the pivotal cur-
riculum focus, and ask the question: "What are the
essential components of quality of life?" After all the
non-essentials and luxuries are removed, what is left
that cannot be compromised and is absolutely neces-
sary for an acceptable quality of life? While the an-
swers may vary slightly according to an individual's
value system, I would propose four essential compo-
nents from which all other factors that make up qual-
ity of life evolve. These essential components are:
1 ) the state of humankind and the world;
2) individual rights and freedom;
3) meaningful employment; and
4) physical and emotional well-being.
In this article, each essential component and its
relevance to quality of life will be explained, the ra-
tionale for inclusion in family life curriculum and
ideas for teaching will be given.
Component I: State of Humankind and the World
With all the technical capabilities, tangible
benefits, and unprecedented opportunities available to
human beings at the end of the 20th century, we are
nevertheless:
1 ) in danger for the first time ever of extinguishing
the human species in a nuclear war;
2) living in a world in which almost half the people
subsist in abject poverty under crushing burdens of
illness, ignorance, and disability;
3) immersed in an ancient sea of prejudice, ethnocen-
trism, and violence - now amplified greatly by
modern weapons and telecommunications technol-
ogy;
4) generating a growing underclass of people gravely
damaged for life - paradoxically set in the midst
of unprecedented affluence;
5) degrading the planet's environment in ways that
could have profound long term significance
(Hamburg, 1988, p. 18-19).
Dr. David A. Hamburg, President of the Carnegie
Corporation, described the state of humankind and
the world with the above statements. His words have
special significance for family life educators. Because
our purpose is to prepare students for life, they must be
able to act and fully partake in life's opportunities
while recognizing the risks and taking responsibility
for the consequences of their actions. They must also be
148 ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/ April, 1990
willing and able to initiate action that will improve
the quality of life for the world in general.
This is an enormous challenge, with room for con-
troversial ideas of similar magnitude. Dr. Hamburg's
description of the world's situation is enmeshed with
ethical dilemmas, legal entanglements, value
upheavals and challenges to lifestyle traditions.
What kind of curriculum guidelines are necessary
to meet these challenges? Dr. Hamburg (1988, p. 13)
presented, in condensed form, guidelines from the book,
Windows of Opportunity. Dr. Hamburg was address-
ing the global problem of crisis management and pre-
vention and focused on U.S. -Soviet relations.
However, his guidelines are equally valuable as a ba-
sis for preparing young people to live in the 1990s and
21st century. Condensed and applied to family life
education, the guidelines are:
1 ) Realism in recognizing facts; common sense in ana-
lyzing implications...
2) Recognition of each other - as sovereign states, as
legitimate governments, as nations (and people)
that have equal rights, and as coequal great pow-
ers, which should therefore shoulder a special re-
sponsibility...
3) Recognition of the real differences that divide na-
tions and people.
4) Regular communication, consultation and discus-
sion of vital issues.
5) Negotiation of differences, permitting differences
to surface and to be resolved.
6) Respect for human rights at home and abroad.
7) Encouraging, and actively working toward stop-
ping the spread of mass destruction through nu-
clear weapons, chemical and biological weapons.
These seven guidelines can give us a foundation to
build a relevant 1990s and 21st century family life
program. The building blocks can be categorized as:
1) Critical thinking skills
a) ability to identify reality
b) ability to dissect reality for practical impli-
cations
2) Appreciation of differences
a) becoming knowledgeable about global situa-
tions
b) sharing, instead of dominating
3) Negotiating skills
a ) cooperation in problem solving
b) empathy in order to facilitate positive com-
munication
4) Expanding the concept of quality of life to include
human rights
a) the right of all people to live in physically
and psychologically safe environment
b) significance of individual privacy
c) the right of all people to have opportunities
to develop their potential
5) Developing a global conscience
a ) intellectual strength to be a minority voice, if
necessary
b) willingness to actively work toward world
peace and the survival of the human race
Component II - Individual Rights and Freedom
The United States will soon celebrate the 200th
anniversary of the Bill of Rights. This event is intri-
cately tied to the mission of home economics and
specifically to family life education.
Quality of life and productivity and satisfaction
with life decrease in direct proportion to diminished
individual rights. It is hard to imagine a claim of
high quality of life in a country where civil rights,
privacy rights and individual rights are not present,
preserved and protected. Fear for one's life, loss of
freedom and "big brother" tactics are not conducive to
development of one's potential.
One does not have to look far to see evidence of the
relationship between human rights and quality of
life. Chilling reminders are the Chinese students who
were massacred in Tienanmen Square on June 4, 1989,
because they wanted the dignity of freedom,
apartheid in South Africa that relegates black South
Africans to a meager subsistence in a white-dominated
economy, and the intense drive for independence of the
Baltic Republics. The hope of freedom is carried
through the concept of glasnost to the people in the
Soviet Union.
It is easy in a time of rapid change with shifting
values and new lifestyles, to let our focus dwell on the
immediate near concerns. In doing so, the risk is in-
creased that decisions will be made without clearly
understanding the long term implications. For in-
stance, at least partially in response to the rising
crime rate, the United States Supreme Court has
upheld capital punishment - the death penalty - for
mentally retarded individuals and for children. This
is, indeed, among the most controversial and frighten-
ing issues ever to come before the people of the United
States. How can home economists and family life edu-
cators not be deeply moved by this decision?
The significance of individual and civil rights to
quality of life can be illustrated through discussion of
several topics. Some examples are listed:
1) Individual rights
a) personal examples of perceived or real viola-
tion of various types of rights
b) personal feelings when rights were violated
ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/April, 1990 149
c) personal impact (productivity, etc.) of viola-
tions of individual rights
d) transfer of personal situations and feelings to
others (empathy)
2) Civil rights
a) rights of all citizens, regardless of race, sex,
religious beliefs, economic status, to a quality
life
b) implications for all people of denial of civil
rights to certain groups
c) relationship of economic status, sex, health
and civil rights
3) Bill of rights
a ) discussion of the document
b) personal meaning of the Bill of Rights
c) ideas of what personal life would be like
without the Bill of Rights
d) importance of protection of the Bill of Rights
It will be necessary for the educator to be willing
to allow open discussion of the many different points
of view that are likely to surface. The educator is en-
titled to his/her own thoughts. However, students
need to be encouraged to express their views and to be
tolerant of diverse opinions in order to reach a high
level of moral development in their appreciation for
rights, freedom and liberties that we enjoy in a demo-
cratic society. Methods that can be used include dis-
cussion, creative writing, literature depicting life in
countries that do not have individual and civil rights,
and discussion of the Bill of Rights. Guest speakers
who have played a role in government policy-making
or a court judge could also create awareness and appre-
ciation of rights.
Component in - Employment Opportunities
Employment is usually thought of as necessary to
provide adequate money to exist in a relatively inde-
pendent lifestyle. However, employment means much
more than a mere financial existence. According to Dr.
George H. Pollock (1988), President of the American
Psychiatric Association, "Work is an enormously com-
plex activity.. .it deals with such issues as mastery,
competency, learning, identification, skills, thinking
and doing" (p. 1055).
Work involved in all employment requires prepa-
ration. Career selection requires guidance to help as-
sure that a rapidly changing, high-tech society will
still need the career one has chosen. When one's cho-
sen career is no longer viable, alternatives need to be
available. The person's ability to adapt to change is
crucial. The family life educator can assist individu-
als in both of these tasks.
An excellent resource for career discussion is
Workforce Projections 2000. Published by the United
States Bureau of Labor Statistics, it makes predictions
about employment in the year 2000 and beyond. It has
implications for the preparation of individuals to en-
joy the many advantages of meaningful employment.
According to these predictions, the labor force will
become increasingly minority and female. The white
labor force is projected to increase less than 15 percent,
while the black labor force is expected to grow by 29
percent. The Hispanic labor force is projected to grow
by more than 74 percent, and will account for nearly 29
percent of labor force growth for 1986-2000. Women
are expected to account for more than 47 percent of the
labor force by the year 2000.
Of the 21 million new jobs projected for 1986-2000,
5 occupational groups are expected to increase - techni-
cians, service workers, professional workers,
salesworkers, and executive and managerial employ-
ees. Three broad occupational groups are expected to
experience below average growth: precision produc-
tion, craft and repair workers, administrative support
workers (including clerical), and laborers. There will
be a sharp decline in the number of jobs where less
than a high school education is required.
Currently, females and minority groups are not
well represented in the fast-growing occupations and
both groups are over-represented in the slow-growing
or declining occupations. The challenge is clear: fam-
ily life education must prepare members of minority
groups and women for their role in the labor force.
Young people must be encouraged to, at a minimum,
complete high school.
How can family life educators prepare their stu-
dents for successful work experience? Dr. Pollock has
stated several issues related to work. Curriculum con-
tent might use these issues as focal points. The follow-
ing outline is suggested; however, several of the issues
cannot be taught only as a unit. They permeate every
subject as process, rather than only content.
I. Mastery
A. Levels of mastery for promotion in various
careers
B . Amount of education/ training necessary
C. Continuing growth throughout life
II. Competency
A. Specific competencies needed by specific
jobs
B. Relationship of competency to career pro-
motion
C. How is competency developed
D. Organizational support/training on the job
E. Factors that detract from one's competency
level
III. Learning
A. Preparation necessary for various careers
150 ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/April, 1990
B . Exploration of how specific learning is ac-
quired
C. Cost and ways of financing preparatory
education
IV. Identification
A. Careers predicted to grow and characteris-
tics of each (i.e., education, executives,
lawyers, mechanics, etc.)
B. Advantages and disadvantages of various
careers
C. Can student imagine self in a particular
career
V. Thinking
A. Intellectual demands versus physical de-
mands of various careers
B. Examples of careers requiring intense
thinking ability (i.e., air traffic con-
trollers, attorneys, surgeons)
C. Relationship of career, thinking demands
and salary
VI. Doing
A. What is involved in getting a job
B. What is involved in keeping a job
C. Comparison of hours worked, income, and
career preparation
D. What are absolute "nevers" on a job
"An automated society with its accelerated de-
mands for highly trained technicians, scientists, pro-
fessionals, and other workers will alter the terrain of
life as we know it" (Pollock, 1988, p. 1056). Family
life educators can help their students adjust to the al-
tered terrain of life through discussion of career-re-
lated issues in the 1990s and beyond.
Physical and Emotional Well Being
Wellness is not a new concept to home economists
and family life educators. It will not be generally dis-
cussed in this article. However, two aspects of well-
ness have particular relevance for the family life cur-
riculum. The two aspects are social support systems
and social skills training, as they relate to emotional
well-being.
"Clinicians have long observed that our emotional
well-being is affected by the support of people close to
us. ..only in recent years has a body of re-
search...demonstrated the way social supports are rel-
evant..." (Galanter, 1988, p. 1270). Research has also
supported the relationship between physical and
mental well-being.
Family life educators can use the following state-
ment as a guideline for curriculum content in this area:
Significant others help the individual mobi-
lize his/her psychological resources, and mas-
ter his/her emotional burdens; they share his
(her) tasks; and they supply him (her) with
extra supplies...and cognitive guidance to im-
prove his (her) handling of the situation
(Caplan, 1988, p. 1270).
The significant role of social isolation in suicide
and depression is well documented. The accelerated
pace of life in the 1990s and beyond will likely make
time to spend with others a scarce resource. It is also
likely that the challenges, obstacles, problems and
general tension that have always been a part of life
will increase as society becomes increasingly complex.
Therefore, including social support systems in the fam-
ily life curriculum as a positive coping technique that
can be used throughout life, is very timely.
The basis for social skills training programs is the
idea that depression is related to inadequate interper-
sonal functioning. Causes for inadequate interpersonal
behavior include: insufficient exposure to interperson-
ally skilled models, insufficient opportunity to prac-
tice interpersonal skills, learning inappropriate be-
havior and failure to discard old behaviors and adopt
new ones during periods of transition, such as entry into
adolescence or adulthood (Becker, Heimberg &
Bellack, 1987, p. 4-5). Some curriculum guidelines are
suggested in the following brief outline.
I. Individual friendships and relationships
A. Importance of trust
B. Appropriate confiding and disclosing of
personal information
C. Developing empathy
D. Reasonable expectations of friendships
E. Effort required to initiate and maintain
friendships
II. Social Skills
A. Importance of not being isolated
B . How to reach out, become involved in so-
cial activities
C. Overcoming shyness*
D. Developing leadership, talents and abili-
ties
E. Self-confidence in social situation
III. Peer-led, Self-help Groups
A. Cohesiveness and mutual support
B. Sharing information as a means of under-
standing problems
C. Sharing insights into new ways of dealing
with problems
D. Locating and joining appropriate groups
E. Starting a group, if one does not exist.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/April, 1990 151
Summary
The content of family life education must adapt to
the needs of individuals and families in the acceler-
ated, high-tech 1990s and beyond. This article has of-
fered suggestions for determining curriculum content
and what that content might be.
It was suggested that four components are essential
to a high quality of life: awareness of the overall
state of humankind and the world, individual rights
and freedom, meaningful employment, and physical
and emotional well-being.
The family life educator will need to be actively
involved in keeping abreast of new developments in
these components and be acutely in touch with their
own values, attitudes and opinions regarding the is-
sues. He/she will also need to be a skilled group dis-
cussion leader because the issues of the 1990s and be-
yond will not lend themselves to clear-cut, black and
white answers. Through sharing of information, the
students (and educators) will clarify the issues.
Consequently, they will be better equipped to face the
future without fear and anxiety.
Two excellent references on the significance of shyness and
self-disclosure to emotional well-being are:
Jones, W. H., Cheek, J. M., & Briggs, S. R. (1986).
Shyness: Perspectives on research and treatment.
New York: Plenum Press. (This book contains ex-
cellent suggestions for overcoming shyness.)
Derlega, V. J., & Berg, J. H. (1987). Self-Disclosure:
Theory, research, and therapy. New York:
Plenum Press. (This book explains appropriate
versus inappropriate disclosure of personal infor-
mation, and the implications in various social and
business settings.)
References
Becker, R. E., Heimberg, R. G., & Bellack, A. S. (1987).
Social Skills Training Treatment for Depression.
New York: Pergamon Press.
Caplan, G. (1974). Support Systems and Community
Mental Health. New York: Behavioral
Publications, quoted in Galanter (1988).
Galanger, M. (1988). Research on social supports and
mental health. The American Journal of
Psychiatry, 145(10), 1270-1271.
Hamburg, D. A. (1988). A historic opportunity to re-
duce the nuclear danger. (President's Annual
Essay). Reprinted from the 1988 Annual Report of
the Carnegie Corporation of New York.
Pollock, G. H. (1988). Presidential address:
Landfalls, journeys, and departures. The
American Journal of Psychiatry, 145(9), 1055-1060.
Projections 2000. (1988). Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
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152 ILLINOIS TEACHER, March /April, 1990
Subject Communities as Curricular Influences: A
Case Study
ane Thomas
)octoral Candidate
acuity of Education
Jniversity of British Columbia, Vancouver
ntroduction
In 1984, the Ministry of Education in the province of
•ritish Columbia (B.C.) mandated several changes to
he public school program of studies which threatened
he educational status and survival of home economics as
school subject. However, the actions of provincial
tome economics groups and associations (or subject
ommunity as these are collectively called) were in-
luential in maintaining home economics in the school
urriculum. This study used Goodson's (1983a) theory of
ubject communities as curricular influences to examine
>rimary documents associated with an imposed curricu-
um change and to analyze the actions of the B.C. home
conomics subject community as it responded to this
hange. ^
According to Goodson, subject communities comprise
>oth subject associations (which represent a formal arena
Dr promoting a subject in the school curriculum) and
ubject groups (which are in some way affiliated with
he school subject). Through action and negotiation,
hese communities pursue curricular territory, resources,
nd educational status for their subject, and exert
iressure for curriculum change. During times of conflict
ver which subjects should be included in the school
urriculum, subject communities organize themselves to
legotiate the place of their subject in the school program
f studies. Goodson emphasizes, however, that such
ction and negotiation represent the influence on
ducation of macro events, such as broad social, political
nd economic movements, which are then reinterpreted
t the micro level through the response of various subject
ommunities. This case study of a home economics
urriculum change reflects the interplay of the
ransformation of curriculum through professional action
nd negotiation at the micro level.
In this paper, the strategies employed by the home
conomics professionals in curriculum action and negoti-
tion are analyzed, the forces that appear to have in-
fluenced these at the macro level are explicated and
some implications are discussed.
Micro Influences on the Home Economics Curriculum
Change
The mandated changes to the public school curricu-
lum occurring in B.C. in 1984 were intended to provide a
more academic focus in education and to increase high
school graduation requirements. These changes impacted
on home economics and resulted in a revision to the senior
home economics program. According to the government's
edict, the home economics program was to be
"consolidated to include only three areas of study: Foods
and Nutrition, Clothing and Textiles, and Home
Management" (B.C. Ministry of Education, 1984). This
third area was to be created by the elimination of two
grade 12 courses which did not have grade 11 prerequi-
sites— Family Studies, and Housing and Interior Design.
In keeping with Ministry policy concerning senior
elective courses both grades 11 and 12 were to be offered
in each of the three areas.
Although the Ministry of Education dictated the
general nature of this curriculum change, several groups
within the B.C. home economics subject community in-
fluenced both the form and the content of the new area.
Four groups which made recommendations to the Min-
istry are noteworthy. First, an ad hoc committee com-
posed of the instructor and students in a home economics
graduate course at the University of B.C. (UBC) lobbied
to retain Family Studies 12 in the senior home economics
program, and recommended a comprehensive grade 11
course which would interrelate family and nutrition
concepts and serve as a prerequisite to both Family
Studies 12 and Foods and Nutrition 12 (Promnitz, 1984).
It should be noted that this recommendation was made
prior to the official adoption and implementation of the
new educational policy. Documents associated with this
recommendation suggest that a Ministry official
publicized the impending policy changes during a lecture
to the home economics graduate course class (Promnitz,
1984).
Second, the Vancouver Secondary Home Economics
Department Heads made several recommendations to
the Ministry. Because members of the Vancouver group
had collaborated with the aforementioned UBC group,
the first set of recommendations generally paralleled
those of the UBC ad hoc committee. Initially this group
ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/ April, 1990 153
advocated that Family Studies 12 not be required to
have a grade 11 prerequisite, and that it be a "highly
recommended course for all students in the secondary
school." This group also urged that a course in Family
Foods and Nutrition be developed at the grade 11 level
to serve as a prerequisite to "either a Family Studies
specialty, or a Foods and Nutrition specialty"
(Vancouver Home Economics Department Heads, 1984).
However, when these suggestions were rejected by the
Ministry, this group acted on the Ministry's original
suggestion to combine Family Studies and Housing and
Interior Design, and prepared a course outline entitled
"Families: Health and Management." Concern was
expressed that if a suitable two year course was not de-
veloped quickly, home economics was in danger of be-
coming "the two areas of Foods and Nutrition and Cloth-
ing and Textiles" (Favaro, 1984). This concern was
reinforced by the Director of the Ministry's Curriculum
Development Branch at the time. He indicated that it
was largely due to the efforts of these two home
economics groups that the Ministry had retained the
idea of a third speciality area in home economics. The
director also revealed that the provincial cabinet was
opposed to the use of the word family in the course title,
and had strongly suggested that management be used
because of its business connotations (Overgaard, 1985).
A third group involved in this revision was the
Home Economics Curriculum Revision Committee. This
committee was composed of several B.C. home economics
teachers and a curriculum coordinator who was
appointed by the Ministry. In contrast to the groups just
mentioned, this committee was formed after the gov-
ernment's new educational policy was made official.
Moreover, its formation was the direct result of Ministry
policy with respect to curriculum revision in the
province, which requires representation by subject asso-
ciations on such committees. Thus, this group had con-
siderable influence in determining both the form and the
content of the new course, and was able to make sig-
nificant contributions to the selection of its title. For
example, in consultation with several UBC home eco-
nomics subject specialists, the Curriculum Revision
Committee developed a draft outline which identified
major content areas for both grade 11 and grade 12 levels
and which described the aims and purposes of the new
course (B.C. Ministry of Education, 1985). Similarly,
this committee made recommendations concerning the
course title. Although the Ministry had originally
recommended that the new specialty area be called
Home Management, the Revision Committee negotiated
for an alternate name. It was felt that the proposed title
reflected a somewhat narrow and outdated conception of
home economics and that it was not indicative of the
intended (family) focus of the new course. Consequently,
several possible titles were suggested and submitted to
the Ministry. From among these, the name Fam
Management was selected.
Finally, while the Home Economics Revision Co:
mittee provided the initial focus for the new course, t
provincial home economics subject association (hereaf
referred to as THESA) validated this focus and lobbi
for retention of home economics in the public schc
curriculum of the province. The draft outline developf
by the Revision Committee was circulated at the annn
THESA conference, and comments and suggestions ma
by the three hundred members present were considered
the preparation of the final drafts of the course. At t
same time, THESA presented a statement regarding 1 1
importance of home economics in B.C. schools as
collective response to a Ministry document entitled "Le '
Talk About Schools," in which the government solicit
public comment about the nature and direction
schooling in the province ("Response," 1985).
Macro Influences on the Home Economics Curricula
Change
Although the actions of the home economics subjn1
community influenced particular aspects of the curric
lum change under scrutiny, the source of the change w
related to sources external to the school system and
these professional groups. During the seventies, pre
lems associated with declining school enrollments, i
creasing economic instability and financial constrain
and an apparent decrease in public confidence in t
schools contributed to a widespread examination of e
ucation in North America, and gradually a move towa
accountability and back to basics became appare
(Stevenson, 1979; Tomkins, 1981).
By 1980 in B.C., public interest and political resporn
centered on inflation and unemployment during a perir
of economic recession. In education there was a genei
move toward a more centralized approach, where t
concern with student achievement and with financ
support of education was more overt, and where t
development of intellectual skills was emphasize
These forces at the macro level impacted on the B.
school curriculum and contributed to several genei
changes in the nature of education. They were given foi
or substance through their translation into educatior
policy by the Ministry of Education and created t
context in which the home economics subject communi
negotiated curriculum change.
Discussion
The document examined in this study suggest th
the actions of the home economics subject community
this curriculum change focused on the three issues tin
Goodson argues are central to most curriculum deba
curriculum territory or the place of the subject in f
school curriculum, educational status, and resources. F'
154 ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/April, 1990
imple, in the curriculum proposals and position papers
bmitted to the Ministry, the home economics pro-
pionate initially emphasized retaining the Family
idies course as it existed, rather than the re-
mbination which the Ministry had mandated. This
ggests an attempt to protect home economics' current
sition and to preserve its curricular territory in the
Z. public school program. When this recommendation
is rejected, the subject community then combined the
o courses as mandated, but insisted on retaining the
>rd family as part of the new course title. Perhaps
urse titles are related to a subject's curriculum territory
?., they in effect map out a subject's territory) and a
ange in the name of a course may represent an invasion
alteration of curriculum territory.
The issue of the educational status of home economics
is raised in two ways. First, the recommendations that
tnily Studies be exempt from the grade 11 prerequisite
juirement and that it be a "highly recommended course
• all students" suggest that an attempt was made to
hance the status of home economics through promoting
educational relevance. Second, in their response to
et's Talk About Schools," the home economic
Dfessionals presented a detailed justification of the
ucational relevance of their subject in light of the
ovince's stated educational goals of "intellectual
velopment... social and human development.. .[and]
cational development." It was also stated that home
gnomics was the "only [secondary school] subject. ..to
ess.. .the relationship between schools, parents and
mmunity," a relationship that was recognized by the
nistry as essential "to enable youngsters to reach their
ucational potential." Finally, it was argued that
cause of "changes in work and family
?... parenthood.. .employment patterns. ..lifestyles and
:ial values.. .home economics education is becoming
zreasingly necessary" ("Response," 1985). From this
Dup's perspective, retention of curricular territory was
ated to the perceived educational relevance of the
bject.
The issue of resources was made explicit in the home
Dnomics response to "Let's Talk About Schools." The
>ponse paper emphasized the need for Ministry
idelines to "ensure curriculum support and space in the
lools [for home economics]", and for adequate al-
:ation of funding and materials for the subject. This
cument also stressed that "instruction in home eco-
mics should be provided by teachers trained in home
Dnomics specialties" and echoes Goodson's (1983b)
lim that the "material [or career] interests of teach-
j...are broadly interlinked with the fate of the spe-
ilist subject communities." Because a decrease in the
imber of home economics elective courses might reduce
3 number of subject specialists required for teaching
m, teaching jobs were likely at stake.
The actions of the various home economics groups in
this curriculum change may be characterized as both
collaboration and negotiation. Although several indi-
vidual groups made recommendations for change, these
recommendations represented a collective or cooperative
home economics response. This cooperative action
parallels Goodson's observation that in order to promote
their subject and negotiate for territory, status, or
resources, subject communities become more strongly in-
stitutionalized. It is possible that such internal support
strengthens the group's conviction about its place in the
school curriculum, and reinforces the pressure for change.
The documents examined in this study suggest that there
was a conscious effort among some home economics groups
in the province to present a united front. The
similarities between the recommendations made by two
of the groups prior to the implementation of the new
educational policy underscore this point. At the same
time, however, it appears that not all home economics
groups in the province assumed a role in this curriculum
dispute. For example, the extent to which the B.C.
Home Economics Association (a professional association
for provincial home economists) supported the actions of
these other groups in unknown. Similarly, there is no
evidence to suggest that the Canadian Home Economics
Association (a national professional organization) was
either consulted or participated in this curriculum action
and negotiation. This may be due in part to what
Goodson describes as the "shifting network of factions"
which comprise subject communities. According to
Goodson, although these factions are related by virtue of
their subject, their specific interests may differ. Thus,
while participation by other home economics groups may
have strengthened the proposals put forward by the
groups in question, perhaps their involvement was
perceived to be peripheral to the concerns of home
economics educators.
The ongoing exchange of correspondence between the
Ministry and the home economics groups were indicative
of negotiation. These exchanges were primarily
concerned with suggestions for alternatives to the
Ministry's mandate and represented an attempt to in-
fluence the direction of the curriculum change. The three
alternatives presented to the Ministry by the Vancouver
Secondary School Department Heads highlight this
process of negotiation. As mentioned earlier, this group
initially rejected the mandated change and presented an
alternative for change. When this was vetoed, the
group suggested a reinterpretation of the mandate.
Finally, a compromise: that the two courses be combined
as originally mandated, but that the name and focus of
the course be determined by the home economics subject
association was proposed.
It should be noted that the timeline for the devel-
opment of this new course appeared to add urgency to the
ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/ April, 1990 155
actions of the home economics groups. It was perceived
that if the new course was not finalized within the nine
month timeframe set by the Ministry, the third
specialty area, which represented approximately one
quarter of the senior home economics course offerings (and
considerable curricular territory), would be lost.
Conclusions and Implications
This case study examined a recent home economics
curriculum change by analyzing the actions of a home
economics subject community. Although broader forces
influenced the general nature of this change, the subject
community influenced several specific curriculum
changes. In part, such influences were possible because of
provincial policies with respect to the involvement of
subject associations in all curriculum revisions. At the
same time, however, the actions of these groups
contributed to the name, focus and content of the new
course. For example, the subject community's apparent
concern with retaining a course which centered on the
family appeared to direct much of its action and was
clearly reflected in the resulting curriculum document.
While the Ministry mandated that two courses be com-
bined, the resulting course retained very little of one
(Housing and Interior Design), and represented instead
an expansion of the other (Family Studies). Thus, the
home economics subject community was influential in
constructing and transforming the home economics
curriculum.
This analysis also reveals that, as Goodson suggests,
subject communities represent substantial interest groups.
Clearly the B.C. home economics professionals had a
stake in the curriculum, and the imposed change
threatened their curricular territory and its associated
resources. Not only was a reorganization of some senior
home economics courses required, but also student options
for home economics electives were being reduced which
had the potential to decrease home economics
enrollment. It is interesting to note that, as this group
negotiated to maintain its curricular position and
resources, it was compelled to address the question of its
educational status with respect to other school subjects.
According to Goodson, the former are related to the
latter. Those subjects with an academic tradition tend to
have greater educational status, resulting in a more
secure position in the school curriculum and greater
allocation of resources. Because home economics in B.C.
has long been associated with a utilitarian or practical
tradition, its claim on the school curriculum historically
has been somewhat tenuous. Thus the justification of its
perceived educational relevance appears to be central to
the process of curriculum action and negotiation in home
economics.
Two additional points are worthy of mention. The
first concerns the absence of a home economics represen-
tative in the Ministry of Education. It is conceiva
that the home economics subject community took actior
the first place because they lacked advocacy at
government level. Indeed, in previous home econom
curriculum revisions in B.C., Provincial Directors of ho:
economics both directed and mediated home econom
curriculum change (Thomas & Arcus, 1988). The loss
this government representation in 1980 perhaps provid
some impetus for professional action. The second po
concerns the apparent consensus of the groups within I
home economics subject community. As suggest!
previously, Goodson (1983a) asserts that because subjr
communities are not a "homogeneous group whc
members share similar values and definitions of re
common interests and identity," some conflict amo
various factions of the community are inevitable. Wh1
it is conceivable that members of the subject commun
may not have agreed with the intended focus for the nnj
course, no evidence of such conflict was found.
These findings have implications for both hoi]
economics practice and research. For example, althou i
this study revealed a close correspondence between t
actions of the home economics subject community a
Goodson's theory of curriculum change, it appears tl
this correspondence was fortuitous rather th
deliberate. There was no indication that the subjo
community had planned its strategies in view of €>
idence concerning the potential influence of profession
organizations on curriculum change. This suggests tl
more studied and conscious efforts on the part
professional groups is warranted. Such consideration
may be extended to professional preparation program'
where, in addition to traditional curriculum-buildi:
skills, attention to the multiple forces which influew
curriculum change and to the development of politk
skills (such as leadership in public affairs and metho
in educational policy) might be emphasized.
The findings also have implications for home ec
nomics research. In particular, more case studies whi
examine specific instances of home economics curriculu
change may increase our understanding of curriculu
development as a process of action and negotiatic
Similarly, examination of home economics curriculu
change in a variety of historical contexts may enhan
our understanding of how curriculum evolves throuj
action and negotiation and of how past actions a
related to present actions. At the same time, howevc
further study is also required to determine tl;
relationship between what Goodson calls "tl
promotional strategies" and the rhetoric of change, ai
the realities of curriculum content and of classroo
practice.
Apple (1983) has predicted that the next tv
decades will be characterized by increasing curricul
conflict. If his prediction is accurate, it is essential th
156 ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/April, 1990
e economics professionals be adequately prepared to
I this challenge, and to influence the nature of home
nomics curriculum in schools.
erences
pie, M. W. (1983). Curriculum in the year 2000: Ten-
sions and possibilities. Phi Delta Kappan, 64(5),
321-325.
espouse to "Let's Talk About Schools". (1985, Febru-
ary). A collective response of the B.C. Home Eco-
nomics Teachers to the Ministry of Education's dis-
cussion paper entitled "Let's Talk About Schools."
I Ministry of Education. (1984, December). Ministry
policy circular: Revised graduation requirements.
Victoria, B.C.: Author.
I Ministry of Education. (1985, February). Proposed
home economics curriculum outline: Draft copy.
Victoria, B.C.: Author.
aro, E. (1984, November 6). Letter to Overgaard.
xlson, I. (1983a). School subjects and curriculum
change: Case studies in the social history of cur-
riculum. London: CroomHelm.
xison, I. (1983b). Subjects for study: Aspects of a so-
cial history of curriculum. Journal of Curriculum
Studies, 15, 391-408.
jrgaard, B. (1985, January 9). Presentation to HMED
404: Home economics methods. The University of
B.C.
mnitz, J. (1984, July 27). Letter to B. Overgaard.
yenson, H. A. (1979). So little for the mind? Reac-
tion and reform in the modern curriculum. In G. S.
Tomkins (Ed.), The curriculum in Canada in histori-
cal perspective (pp. 95-110). University of B.C.:
Canadian Society for the Study of Education.
>mas, J., & Arcus, M. (1988). Forces influencing home
economics curriculum changes in British Columbia
secondary schools, 1912-1985. Canadian Home Eco-
nomics Journal, 38(2), 88-95.
nkins, G. S. (1981). Stability and change in the
Canadian curriculum (Monograph). Vancouver, B.C.:
University of B.C.
Kouver Home Economics Department Heads. (1984,
September 20). Home economics curriculum: Present
status and future directions. Unpublished position
paper. • • •
(Continued from Page 137.)
Hankies". These businesses allow students an oppor-
tunity to analyze a business and take part in it.
Career exploration and job seeking skills are gained
by students in a unit devoted to these topics. Students
select a job and create a cover letter and resume. They
practice filling out a job application and participate in a
job interview. They conclude the unit by identifying the
characteristics of a good employee.
"Independent Life Skills" are vital and relevant to
each and every student no matter what their chosen
path in life. Based upon this premise, this program is a
step towards success in life for students. • • •
INTERAGES - AN INTERGENERATIONAL
PROGRAM IN MARYLAND
Interages is a nonprofit organization in Montgomery
County, Maryland. It fosters intergenerational programs
in Montgomery County by implementing pilot projects
such as:
• Grandcare - During the past two years, 70 older
adults were recruited and trained as staff of 4
child care centers to meet the critical need for
child care staff.
• Person-to-Person - Gaithersburg High School Key
Club students made weekly visits to older
residents of the Town Center Apartments and
participated in a number of activities with them.
• Teamwork - A project to provide job coaches to
help disabled youth find jobs. Interages
collaborated with the National Council on the
Aging and the Foundation for Exceptional
Children.
Interages also held a county-wide workshop on "Schools
and the Senior Community - A Partnership Across the
Ages." A newsletter is published and distributed to over
1600 individuals and organizations; Interages also
distributed copies of their Intergenerational Resource
Guide. For more information, call (301) 279-1770.
Source: Aging Issues Brief. Priority Issue Subcommittee on
Aging/American Home Economics Association.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/ April, 1990 157
Charting A Career Path-
Voices of Home Economics Educators
Linda Peterat and Linda Eyre
Faculty of Education
University of British Columbia
Br ~*~ ti»A J
1 ijl
%^m
m'TS'
z*^ i
\
•^
Linda Eyre
Linda Peterat
When we hear of teachers "leaving" the classroom
for administrative, or consulting positions we feel a
sense of loss for the profession and for ourselves. At the
same time it seems important that educators who
understand home economics, be present in various levels
and capacities within the total education profession.
We wanted to explore this phenomenon further, so we
contacted several home economics educators who are
now working in other educational positions. We asked
them five central questions: What do they do in their
present job? What post-secondary educational
qualifications do they have? What other related work
and professional experience do they have? How has
their home economics background helped them and do
they continue to be members of professional
associations? What advice have they for other home
economics educators wishing to chart a career path in
education? Here are their responses.
Elaine Mills, Director, Continuing Education Services,
Edmonton Public Schools, Edmonton, Alberta.
The Edmonton Public School Board, through this
area of service, offers credit and non-credit programs for
adults and school age students outside of the regular
curriculum. Our areas of programming for adults include
day credit, evening credit and Saturday credit courses.
For students we offer summer school, and Saturday and
summer school tutorials. In addition we offer Adult
English as a Second Language, Adult Literacy, and
reading tutorials for illiterate adults. We offer general
interest courses in the following areas: Art, Business
and Professional Skills, Cake Decorating,
Communications, Computers, Cooking, Crafts and
Needlework, Driving Skills, First Aid, Floi
Arrangement and Design, Grooming and Imaji
Handyman, Heritage Languages, Interior Design, L;
for the Layman, Bridge, Fine Arts, Gardenii
Photography, Money Matters, Music, Parentii
Personal Growth, Physical Activities and Recreatic
Sewing and Travel. We employ 900 instructors, ha
150 day staff and serve over 50,000 clients a year.
I have a Bachelor of Science (Home Economi
from McGill University and a Bachelor of Educati
and a Master of Education from the University
Alberta. I enjoy teaching and the contact with studen
but have never regretted leaving the classroom. In t
positions I have held over the years, the influenci
have had and decisions I have been able to make ha
been ones to help teachers do a better job in t
classroom, and in the long run be able to help mc
students achieve their potential.
I taught home economics, grades 7-12 in thr
different provinces and have been a teacher of scienr
biology, English, social studies, and vocational fo<
preparation. I have been involved in curriculu
writing and revision at the provincial level. In a seni
high, I was assistant principal, vice-principal ai
then deputy principal. I then became a principal ol
Kindergarten to grade 9 school and then principal ol
large (over 1800 students) high-school, grades 10-1
Prior to my present position, I was Assista
Superintendent of Curriculum for Edmonton Pub
Schools.
The organizational skills needed to run a mul
activity lab, which I developed as a home economi
teacher, have been useful in the jobs I have held. Thi
have also helped me manage a home with very litt
time and have given me the skills to continue sewin
cooking, knitting and crafts in a rewarding ar
professional manner.
I have not belonged to home economics profession
organizations for many years because of time constrain
and the need to keep up with administrative and cros
curriculum changes. As the curriculum leader in j
school, one needs to be knowledgeable about all subje
areas and instructional processes.
The advice I would offer to those wishing to build
career path in education is:
• Teach in areas outside home economics.
• Be involved in committee work that providr
insights into how the school and the system work.
158 ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/April, 1990
Volunteer to do things other than manage the
fashion show and school tea. (These are important
but should, if one wants further challenges, be used
as a stepping stone.)
yce MacMartin, Program Coordinator, Human
;velopment, Manitoba Education, Winnipeg,
anitoba.
My position includes responsibilities in the
ogram areas of home economics, health education,
nily life education, AIDS education, child abuse
ograms, guidance and counselling, physical
ucation, early years and middle years. This includes
rig range strategic planning for a team of six
ovincial consultants, preparing budget submissions,
ordinating resources of the team, evaluating
oposals, doing performance appraisals, initiating
d developing new and revised programs and
rricula, and implementing curricula province-wide.
I have Bachelor of Science in Home Economics, a
chelor of Education and Master of Education
urriculum) degrees. Work as an educational
nsultant in home economics, health education, AIDS
ucation and family life education provided valuable
lining for my present position. Planning facilities for
me economics and participating as a vocational team
*mber for Manitoba Education added another
mension. Teaching at the University of Manitoba,
culty of Education, on a secondment was a rich
perience. Until that term appointment, I had been a
icher of home economics for grades 7-12 in three
fferent settings. Teaching skills are valuable for a
de range of career possibilities. I have the highest
^ard for home economics teachers because many
ovide an exhilarating place for students to learn
evant content that will impact their quality of life.
I have worked with and served on the executive
ard of the Manitoba Home Economics Teachers'
isociation and been Associate Editor of the Canadian
)me Economics Association Journal Committee. I
esently chair the Manitoba Education council on
DS and the Education Committee of World Food
iy. On a national level, I have served on the North
nerican Steering Committee for "Skills for
lolescence," a program offered by Lions/Quest
ternational and on the advisory committee for Collier
acMillan Publishers. I also serve on a national
?alth Promotion Committee for Drug Education and
ve represented Manitoba Education at national
minars on AIDS education, including a recent one
onsored by the Council of Ministers of Education,
inada, held in Toronto; and a Health and Welfare
inning meeting in Regina prior to the release of the
nada: Youth and AIDS Survey. For one year I served
rt-time as a member of the Inner City Team, helping
to coordinate the delivery of resources earmarked by
Manitoba Education for Inner City education, and
helping to administer the Compensatory Support
Program of 1 .8 million dollars.
Working in the field of home economics has been
valuable. Because the discipline is so broad,
encompassing the sciences and the humanities, the
scope of this area of studies is amazing. I have chosen
to branch out into other areas related to home economics
education and bring my home economics training with
me. However, I am the consultant for home economics
and I belong to most of the professional organizations
because they are a source of education, support,
fellowship and fun.
My advice to current home economics teachers on
building a career path in education is to set some career
goals and start to move in that direction, to keep current
and to consider further study, to diversify if the setting
is right, to consider administration if that is of interest,
but most of all, to enjoy each experience as it unfolds.
Carol McLean, Director, Lethbridge Regional Office of
Alberta Education, Lethbridge, Alberta.
The Regional Office Director is the Department of
Education's final authority and last appeal at the zone
level for ensuring the best possible basic education for
all students. The position involves three orientations:
(1) The field: regulate, monitor, audit, consult,
supervise, and evaluate the administration and
implementation of Alberta Education programs,
policies, and projects by school authorities. (2) The
Department: provide leadership in the design,
development, articulation, implementation, and
assessment of Alberta Education programs, policies, and
projects. (3) The branch: organize, administer, and
manage the branch office.
I have a Bachelor of Education (Home Economics)
and a Master of Education (Secondary Education) from
the University of Alberta. Several past positions in
professional associations have helped prepare me for
my present work. They include being regional director
of the Canadian Home Economics Association;
president, Edmonton Branch, Alberta Home Economics
Association; provincial president, Home Economics
Council, Alberta Teachers' Association. Prior to my
present position, within Alberta Education, I was home
economics consultant, associate director and then acting
director in the Edmonton Regional Office.
I taught all grade levels and subject areas in home
economics during my ten years of teaching. During this
time I was also heavily involved in home economics
professional activities as well as activities at school.
This required a high level of organization and
planning. My home economics training certainly came
in handy.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/April, 1990 159
I maintain membership in the Home Economics
Council of Alberta Teachers' Association and the
Alberta and Canadian Home Economics Associations. I
maintain these professional memberships although I
am currently working as an administrator. I feel it is
important to maintain a working knowledge of
pedagogy in at least one specific curriculum area. My
credibility as an educator is greatly enhanced by the
ability to converse in the areas of teaching and
learning.
I also have a personal connection and interest in the
relationship between feminist theory and home
economics. As well, I have a strong belief in the value
of education focused on the well-being of individuals
and families.
The advice I would offer to those wishing to build a
career path in education is to:
• Teach at all grade levels and in other subjects in
addition to home economics;
• Become involved in professional associations in a
leadership capacity in order to develop skills at
working with and motivating people, organizing
events, and managing a heavy and multi-faceted
workload;
• Gain experience at school-based administration in
order to establish credibility;
• Maintain a knowledge of current research in
teaching and learning and applying the research in
daily practice;
• Display a willingness to address issues or take on
projects which you may not initially be expert at.
Jean McLafferty, Vice-Principal, Ballantrae Public
School, York Region Board of Education, Ontario.
Over eighteen years, I taught in elementary and
secondary schools in the areas of physical education
and family studies. For one year I was a Family
Studies Department Head and for three years, a
consultant in Family Studies/Sex Education.
I have a Bachelor of Arts (Family Studies major),
an Honor Specialist Family Studies (teacher
education) and am currently completing a Master in
Education Administration at The Ontario Institute for
Studies in Education.
My experience and education as a home economist
has been helpful in understanding child development;
in understanding and working with parents, families,
and communities services; and in goal-setting, decision-
making and time management. I continue to be a
member of the provincial organization for Family
Studies teachers.
The advice I would offer to those wishing to build a
career path in education is to:
• assume a high profile in the school;
• serve on board committees;
• start early in charting a courses and qualifying
that course;
• take advantage of leadership opportunities
provincial and local levels;
• be active in professional development initiative
• take risks, accept challenges;
• take the opportunity to move into new positions
moving every four or five years.
Barbara MacDougall, Assistant Principal, Alex Mu
Elementary School, Calgary Public School Bo«
Calgary, Alberta.
As Assistant Principal, I am a member of the
ministrative team and often chair staff meetings
work closely with the volunteer coordinator (who cc
dinates 65-70 parent volunteers), am staff advison
the student council, and teach health (approximai
60% of my time) providing release time for grade o
two, four, and six teachers. I also work closely with
school resource teacher in coordinating and conduct!
School Resource Group meetings. The purpose of I
group is to identify and implement strategies to mr
the individual needs of special needs students. (T!
includes academic, emotional and behavioral needs),
act as principal whenever the principal is absent fnr
the school.
I have a Bachelor of Science (Home Economics!
Bachelor of Education, and a Master of Scier
(Educational Psychology/Counselling) degree.
Professional association positions I have he
which have helped prepare me for my current positit
include president, Calgary Branch of Alberta Hoi'
Economics Association; Alberta director for Canadil
Home Economics Association; and president of the
berta Home Economics Association. I have always I
longed to the local, provincial, national and inten
tional home economics associations, as they provid(
valuable support network as well as providing exc
lent information to keep up-dated professionally,
have met, and can claim as friends some wonderl
women whom I would never have met otherwise.
Teaching required organizational skills to pla
organize and implement lessons in the classroom, b
more importantly, relationship skills are essential
relating well to students and colleagues. These ski
are also essential for an administrator.
Home economics teachers should consid
administrative positions as part of their career pat
and should, early in their career, identify a mentor,
mentors in administrative positions, from whom th<
can seek advice on an ongoing basis. • • •
160 ILLINOIS TEACHER, March/April, 1990
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Volume XXXIII, No. 5
May/June, 1990
ILLINOIS TEACHER
Foreword, Mildred B. Griggs 161
Bases for Curriculum Decisions in Home Economics: From Questions to
Lived Practice, Francine H. Hultgren 162
Home Economics Curriculum Review: A Local School District's Approach,
Robert A. Reineke and M. Ann Irvine 167
The "Real" Home Economics Curriculum, Edna Page Anderson and Marlene F. Brands 172
The Critical Perspective: A Challenge for Home Economics Teachers,
Donna Kowalczyk, Nora Neels, and Marge Sholl 174
Teaching to 'Open Fences', Mary Ann Block 178
The Effects of Competitive Awards on Self-Esteem, Karen DeBord 181
External Networking: The Untapped Resource, Laurie A. Stenberg and Jack Elliot 185
Caring.. A Permanent Possession for Teaching: A Phenomena Shared Through Story,
Marian White-Hood 188
Managing Experiences with Children in High School Parenting/Child
Development Classes, Verna Hildebrand and Rebecca Pena Hines 191
Lifestyle Diseases: Equal Risk for Men and Women, Rose J. Davis 194
Index for Volume XXXIII 197
Illinois Teacher of Home Economics
ISSN 0739-1 48X
A publication of the Division of Home Economics Education,
Department of Vocational and Technical Education,
College of Education, University of Illinois,
Champaign, Illinois 61820
Illinois Teacher Staff
Mildred Griggs, Professor and Editor
Norma Huls, Office Manager
June Chambliss, Technical Director
Sally Rousey, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Linda Simpson, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Other Home Economics Education Division Staff and Graduate Students
Catherine Burnham, Graduate Assistant and Ed.D. Candidate
Vida U. Revilla, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Alison Vincent, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Volume XXXIII, No. 5, May /June, 1990. Published five times
each academic year. Subscriptions $15.00 per year. Foreign, in-
cluding Canada, $18.00 per year. Special $10.00 per year
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©1990
Foreword
With this issue of Illinois Teacher we conclude our volume on "Critical and
Reflective Questioning of our Understanding of Home Economics/' however, we
hope to continue including articles on this important topic in future issues. We
need to be critical and reflective about our understanding, motives and practice as
home economists.
The articles in this issue of Illinois Teacher contain many ideas that will cause
us to question, think critically about and reflect on curriculum, teacher
expectations and learner potential. We hope they will inspire you in the coming
year.
Best wishes for a healthy, happy, safe summer. We look forward to receiving
your renewal (see extra cover) and your order for back issues and other materials.
The Editor
j\
Illinois Teacher
Theme 1990-91
Home Economists as Leaders in the Workplace and the Community
The education and the mission to which home economists are committed make
us viable candidates for a variety of leadership roles in our workplace (schools,
Cooperative Extension, public agencies, business, etc.) and in our communities. We
need to lead in efforts to promote, enhance, and sustain the educational, social,
emotional, physical and economic development of youth and adults.
Your leadership efforts in all areas that affect family life will be the focus of
the 1990-91 volume of Illinois Teacher and we invite you to write about what you
are doing and why, what you have accomplished, and what you have learned as a
result of your efforts to enhance the quality of life for families and individuals by
doing such things as working to improve environmental conditions, schools, the
workplace, the economy, the media, governmental agencies, etc. Knowing about
your good work will give us increased pride in our profession and be an incentive to
others who will replicate your activities.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990 161
Bases for Curriculum Decisions in Home
Economics: From Questions to Lived Practice
Francine H. Hultgren
Associate Professor
Home Economics Education
University of Maryland
College Park, MD
I teach a course for beginning Home Economics Edu-
cation majors which bears the same title as the first
part of this article title. I have conceptualized the
course around five practical problems which serve to
guide our inquiry together as we examine bases for cur-
riculum decisions. As I reflect upon what this course
has taught me from my preparation for teaching it, as
well as from my interaction with students in this class,
I am also mindful of how my experiences with teach-
ers in various state curriculum projects — including our
new Maryland Conceptual Guide Framework (1989) —
have served as sources of grounding for the practical
problems we address in this course. On the one hand, I
am working with persons who are at the formative
stages of their thinking about home economics and cur-
riculum, while on the other hand I am engaged with
teachers who have well established beliefs and prac-
tices regarding their views of home economics and cur-
riculum. The contrast between these different realms
of experience is healthy for me as a teacher educator
in my attempt to reflect and take a critical look at
what should be taught in home economics, why it
should be taught, and what should be the processes
used in our knowing and teaching? I have organized
this article around the five practical problems ad-
dressed in the course I have mentioned. My responses
to these questions are not to be seen as prescriptions,
but rather as pointing to possibilities that have been
made visible as we have struggled to articulate the
bases for curriculum decisions in home economics. I in-
vite you the reader to struggle with these questions as
you make choices and act on your curriculum concerns.
What Interpretations Should Be Given To The Way In
Which Home Economics Has Been Historically Con-
ceptualized?
Gadamer (1975) says, "where we have a written
tradition, we are not just told an individual thing, but
a past humanity itself becomes present to us, in its gen-
uine relation to the world" (p. 352). What this calls to
mind is the significance of seeing curriculum as a social
construction or what might be termed a cultural view
of curriculum. The tendency is to view curriculum fore-
most in a conceptual manner. Grundy (1987) develops a
pointed analogy to contrast these distinctions. She
suggests that a conceptual view of curriculum corre-
sponds to a draftsperson's approach to housing design,
where the interest is in the elements or parameters
within which it is possible to design the house, in
order that a set of plans will be developed which will
guide the actions of the builders of the house. In con-
trast, she suggests that in a cultural view of housing,
the concern would be more with the houses in which
people already live, their reasons for living in such
houses, and what the house might be like should they
wish to move into another. A cultural view of curricu-
lum, then, is more concerned with the experiences peo-
ple have as a consequence of the existence of the cur-
riculum or actions and interactions in certain situa-
tions, rather than with the elements which make up
the curriculum or which exist apart from human inter-
action, as is the focus of the conceptual view. Both di-
mensions are needed of course, but what this analogy
reminds us of is that seldom do we start from scratch in
curriculum matters, and that far too often we abstract
the curriculum from persons and historical dimensions
in which it is rooted.
Returning to my class again, as we hear voices
from the past through decade reviews of the Journal of
Home Economics, I am constantly called to enter
different relations to the world through these
multiple bearers of meaning. The temptation is to
want to view these earlier interpretations of home
economics and the world from our present perspectives,
failing to enter another era in the context of what
brought people to action at that point in time. If we
are able to step back in time we can be drawn more
closely to understand what stands behind our present
relation with the world and begin to recognize the
traditions from which we come. To the newcomers in
the field (the pre-service teachers) this confrontation
with the history of home economics always brings an
element of surprise as they see evidence of attention to
concerns which they thought were reserved for our
present time in history. Their surprise frequently turns
to dismay when they also begin to recognize how the
learning from our past has often been neglected in our
162 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990
approach to the present and our concerns about the fu-
ture. They have the opportunity of seeing prior views
of home economics in relation to a view of home eco-
nomics that is emerging for them, without having to
"undo" prior beliefs and conceptions.
As I work with teachers already in the field, I am
appreciative of the time difference we have for this
kind of reflection — and of Grundy's (1987) concern
about how little opportunity there is for teachers to
come in contact with ideas that have the potential to
transform their work as opposed to ideas which
simply enhance or extend it. An article I frequently
have teachers read is one by Ruth Thomas (1986)
"Alternative Views of Home Economics: Implications
for K-12 Home Economics Curriculum," wherein East's
(1980) four models of home economics are examined
(Education for Women, Manual Training, Application
of Science, and Household Management) along with
two others (Family Development and Intervention).
Just to read this article and identify where one's views
of curriculum and practices relate, would be a matter of
merely enhancing or extending one's present views.
But to raise questions about what the consequences are
for such views begins to point the way to seeing gaps in
how we communicate about what we do, as well as to
see the missing links in our concern about family as the
focus of our curriculum thinking. In a very real sense
we begin to participate in the stories and scenes
created by earlier voices in our history. Through that
participation, we also come to tell our own stories as
we look at paths we have followed and paths we
intend to follow.
A starting point for curriculum decisions, then, is a
process of living out the stories we tell ourselves
(Connelly & Clandinen, 1988) as we have heard or ex-
perienced them passed on in our history, in order to
make meaning of and critically reflect on our experi-
ence. The more we understand ourselves and our tradi-
tions and can articulate the reasons why we are what
we are and do what we do, the more meaningful and
defensible our curriculum will be. In a sense, curriculum
begins to be viewed in narrative terms, an overall life
study. A "thinking back" so that we might "think be-
yond." There is no better way to study curriculum than
to study ourselves and what has gone into our curricu-
lum thinking.
What Should Be The Substantive Content Of Home
Economics Programs And How Should It Be Orga-
nized?
It has been over ten years now since Brown and
Paolucci (1979) introduced the conception of home eco-
nomics as a critical science and the consequent articu-
lation of home economics curriculum from a practical
problem orientation (Brown, 1979). As I have worked
to understand this perspective and have been engaged
in dialogue about its merits in relation to other per-
spectives, I must be explicit in my endorsement of this
view as the most intellectually and morally defensi-
ble position we can hold for home economics and our
concern about the family. The underlying rationale for
this choice is the belief that we need to regain control
of our rapidly changing technological society and re-
store the person dimension to the forefront of our
thinking as we prepare persons for reasoned reflection
in response to the competing interests of family in a
complex and diverse society. The aim of secondary
home economics from this perspective is to develop in-
terdependent and responsible individuals capable of
engaging in critical thought and the formative pro-
cesses of family and society — all in the interest of a
free and democratic society (Hultgren & Wilkosz,
1986). We ourselves as teachers can no longer accept
the world "as is" nor can our students. Focusing our at-
tention on "what to do questions" brings about a con-
scious awareness of the knowledge needed for making
the kinds of judgments called for in order to act in ways
to improve the individual's, the family's and soci-
ety's position in the world.
As various states have reconceptualized their cur-
riculum from a practical problem perspective, we have
a rich resource from which to draw in determining
what the substantive content appears like in relation
to practical problems (Fauske, 1986; Schwartz,
Wilkosz, DeBoe, Grote & Torgerson, 1986; Hultgren,
1986; Kister, 1986) as well as the curriculum documents
from each of these respective states (Wisconsin, Min-
nesota, Pennsylvania and Ohio). Since the practical
problem orientation has been conceptualized and writ-
ten about in each of these sources as well as others
(Hultgren & Wilkosz, 1986), my focus here is to reflect
on what I have experienced in working with this ap-
proach.
In the conceptualization of home economics from a
practical problem framework, the uniqueness of the
knowledge base or curriculum content does not come
from the uniqueness of the concepts, but rather from
the formulation and ordering of the knowledge for the
problems which are to be addressed. This requires a
way of thinking that calls for a shake-up in our long
held views of how we "do" curriculum. Rather than
determining the "list" of concepts to address first, fol-
lowed by pre-determined objectives, the primary focus
is determining the practical problems to be addressed
and then finding ways the practical problem can be
explored, or exploring a concern upon which a practi-
cal problem is derived. As teachers, that requires of us
to be open to the possibilities of that exploration,
along with our students and to give up some of the con-
trol that here-to-fore has been implicit in our struc-
ILUNOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990 163
hired outline of what content will be developed. This
tends to create feelings of discomfort, but the discom-
fort allows the confrontation of those long held values
and practices of how we "do" curriculum. As Gadamer
(1975) says, to ask a question is to recognize that one
does not know, and that is the way to knowledge. To
ask a question in the form of a practical problem means
that we too will arrive at a response to that question
as we are engaged in the examination of it. To raise
the question, for example, of "what should be done
about the confusion caused by conflicting information
relating to food and nutrition" truly means that we
will examine it along with our students, and in the
process probably arrive at some new insights — or find
a new practical problem to be addressed. We cannot
just pose practical problems for our students, and then
go back to a prior way of thinking that is organized
around a different conceptualization.
I am disappointed to find in the new document by
AHEA, Home Economics Concepts: A Base for Curricu-
lum Development (1989), a surface posturing of practi-
cal problems but then returning to concepts as a base for
curriculum development, by offering a long list of con-
cepts for each content area. Although the document of-
fers a comparison of three approaches to be "applied"
to the concepts (Concepts and Generalizations, Compe-
tency Based, and Practical Problem) it is misleading to
think we choose different approaches to curriculum by
format concerns. The curriculum framework from
which one operates reflects a particular value orien-
tation; the assumptions of a practical problem orienta-
tion are very different from the other two. Maybe the
most positive outcome of the AHEA document will be
to encourage us to examine the underlying differences
in assumptions to these three approaches. The dy-
namic quality of the practical problem approach
might be revealed as we recognize that predetermined
lists of concepts or competencies, or for that matter,
practical problems, are a basic contradiction to its in-
tent. How, then, do we move beyond the technical
mindset of the predetermined lists for our content? The
next question approaches that concern.
What Should Be Done Regarding Conditions In Soci-
ety And Their Impact On Family?
Historically, we have sought to address societal
conditions in home economics as is evidenced by our re-
formist orientation (Vincenti, 1982) and by our "add-
on" approach to curriculum (in recent times, e.g., units
on child abuse, teenage pregnancy, drug education, eat-
ing disorders, stress management, etc.). But as we have
gone about our adding on, we have tended to get caught
up in the "how-to-correct" syndrome without fully ex-
amining the extent of the concern, because we have
rushed in too quickly in our attempts to "fix" the prob-
lem. Changing the focus of our questioning from a
"how-to" orientation to a "what should be done about"
one, opens the way for the reasoned deliberation
called for in a practical problem focus. I have found
the Discrepancy Analysis used in the Minnesota cur-
riculum (1984) to be of particular value here. The
framework includes clearly differentiated ends (such
as rootedness, self-identity, significant ideals and be-
ing pro-active) considered desirable. It is assumed
that human problems exist when such human goals are
not accomplished, i.e., when the existing human con-
dition is contrary to the valued end — there is a gap be-
tween "what is" and "what should be." In working
through the discrepancy analysis the posing of a prac-
tical problem becomes one that is derived rather than
prescribed — not a static list to choose from, but rather
a dynamic formation in relation to a specific context.
We don't have to look too far to find conditions in
society that affect family well being: lack of adequate
child care facilities, environmental pollution, drug
abuse, increased stress related illness, out of control
crime, lack of affordable housing, enduring racism,
gender inequities, homelessness, increased adolescent
pregnancies, child/spouse abuse, and the list could go
on. The tendency all too often is to address these con-
cerns in the realm of how-to solutions (so ready is the
technical response). If we bring these concerns to a dif-
ferent plane, we begin to ask different kinds of ques-
tions in order to better understand what stands behind
these concerns, as well as to find ways to change the
conditions that are contributing to the problem. The
questions we need to ask are ones that help expose the
underlying values and interest involved that are re-
lated to socio-political, cultural, and economic consid-
erations. If we ask, what should be done about being
critically aware of the social forces which affect fam-
ily, our look at the problem of homelessness, for exam-
ple, would begin to open the way to expose the lives of
these persons — how they got where they are, institu-
tional constraints or bureaucratic regulations and how
they seem to conspire to annihilate a family. How
does a family stay together under these conditions?
What is life for people like on the streets or in shel-
ters? If we look more deeply at the reason for persons
being without homes, rather than giving unreflective
explanations such as family breakdown, drugs, culture
of poverty, underclass, teen pregnancies — we might be-
gin to see that the most basic cause is lack of afford-
able housing. We might also begin to see as Jonathan
Kozol (1988) does in his study of homeless families in
America that homelessness creates an underclass, or
enhances an underclass that may already have ex-
isted, wherein children are all assigned to an imper-
iled way of life. Kozol (1988) forthrightly says, "we
are creating a new institution of our own: the abstract
164 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990
institution of an airtight capsule ('underclass/
'behavioral problem,' 'nonadaptive' or 'psychotic')
that will not allow their lives to touch our own" (p.
135).
When we begin to look more deeply at conditions
in society through social reflection, we begin to restore
an awareness of how the larger whole system operates
in relation to family concerns, and can then more
clearly consider which alternatives might best serve
human needs. To help bring about this kind of exami-
nation, we need a critical pedagogy that can help us
look a more thoughtful and penetrating way, and as
such we are concerned with the next question.
What Should Be Done About The Selection Of Educa-
tional Processes Consistent With Views Of Human Be-
ings (Our Students)?
This question, which on the surface seems such an
obvious call to critical thinking, must be sorted out in
relation to the intent of a practical problem orienta-
tion. As Richard Paul (1989) looks at the meaning of
critical thinking, he suggests that it can be used in ei-
ther a weak sense or strong sense, depending on
whether critical thinking is seen narrowly as a collec-
tion of discrete intellectual skills, or more widely as a
mental integration — as a synthesis of complex disposi-
tions, values and skills necessary to being a fair-
minded critical person. Critical thinking in the weak
sense (as a set of micro logical skills extrinsic to the
person) fosters technical reason (procedural knowl-
edge) with no concern for the person in relation to the
development of ethical values. Strong sense thinking,
on the other hand (integrated macro logical skills in-
trinsic to the person) generates emancipatory reason
(principled thinking, with a concern for the develop-
ment of a free, rational and autonomous mind and soci-
ety). While various models of teaching critical
thinking which focus on specific thinking skills such
as the Bruner Concept Attainment Model, Taba
Inductive Model, Synectics Creativity Model, Thelen
Group Investigation Model or others are valuable for
teaching important intellectual skills (weak sense),
they are not enough in themselves if they are not seen
in relation to the wider valued end of an ethical
orientation as found in the strong sense of critical
thinking. Ethical in this context means taking into
account, when deciding or acting, the well-being of
those involved and making a commitment to act in
ways that are likely to contribute to those affected by
decisions and their opportunity to take their own
ethical action. The critical intent of such a
perspective is that the purpose to which this way of
thinking leads, is to empower persons by enabling
them to expose distortions in understanding or
oppressive conditions in society that favor some
interests of groups or persons at the expense of others.
It is this very interest in emancipatory ends that is
the basis for the kind of thinking involved in
addressing practical problems of the family through
the systems of action. The point of orientation, then, is
to develop the conceptual tools necessary (which the
models of teaching and other intellectual skills can
help accomplish) for examining the ideological be-
liefs that exist in society due to dominating forces.
This requires critique and interpretive understanding
which expose the nature of distorted views and their
source in our lives, as well as the ability to be self re-
flective of our actions in every day life.
If we consider everyday life as a foundation for our
critical pedagogy as Shor (1987) does so revealingly,
socio-political awareness is likely to evolve as we
question social reality. Our view of the learner be-
comes one of knowing subject in dialogue with the edu-
cator, wherein Freire (1972) sees a process that persons
undergo from being submerged in reality to a re-inser-
tion in reality with critical awareness. The right of
self-expression and world-expression, of creating and
re-creating, of deciding and choosing and ultimately
participating in society's historical process become
the focus of our teaching — a cultural view as described
in the beginning of this article rather than a concep-
tual view. It is to that distinction I would like to re-
turn again in relation to the final question.
What Should Be Done About The Relation Between
Knowledge And Practice?
If we are concerned about the "people in the
houses" (cultural view of curriculum) as opposed to the
abstract design elements (conceptual view), it seems to
me that we need to find ways that allow us to create
spaces for such living in our teaching. The questions we
might ask from a practical problem orientation can
start us on the way, but we have to allow ourselves to
go in the direction of where the questions lead. For the
knowledge drawn from theory to be relevant for the
student (and to us as teachers), it must confront our
lived worlds. I am beginning to think less about what
kinds of teaching strategies or critical thinking ap-
proaches which allow that to happen and more about
how we live our lives with students in teaching — our
lived practice. We all too frequently get tied up in
methods or conceptual approaches, and as a result,
fail to experience what it is like to live in the ques-
tions we ask.
I have been quite taken with the metaphor of
"dwelling" in my work with a study group, wherein a
forthcoming book reflects our thinking around this
metaphor (Berman, Hultgren, Lee, Rivkin, & Roder-
ick, in press). The root meaning of dwelling is a linger-
ing or abiding for awhile — to tarry — to delay. I think
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990 165
that in our teaching we have not allowed ourselves
the kind of knowing that comes from such dwelling.
When it comes to our use of a practical problem orien-
tation, we need to get beyond the "visiting stage" and
rather "move in" so that we might really "know the
place for the first time" in the words of T.S. Eliot. A
practical problem orientation is not merely a way to
think about curriculum, but it is rather an orientation
to the world — a way of being and living. As we work
toward a deeper understanding of this orientation, two
quotes are particularly significant to keep in mind to
help us move from the questions to our lived practice:
We can adopt any type of system we want-
but the system isn't going to mean anything
unless we educate people to think differently
and to be different. (Bellah, Madsen,
Sullivan, Swidler, & Tipton, 1985, p. 18 )
If we don't change ourselves, no matter what
the curriculum looks like, nothing will change.
And if we do change ourselves, what happens
in our classrooms cannot stay the same.
(Family, Work and Careers Middle School
Module, 1987, p. 84 )
References
A conceptual guide framework for home economics in
Maryland. (1989). Baltimore, MD: Maryland
State Department of Education.
Bellah, R. N., Madsen, R., Sullivan, W.M., Swidler,
A., & Tipton, S.M. (1985). Habits of the heart.
New York: Harper & Row.
Berman, L., Hultgren, F., Lee, D., Rivkin, M., & Roder-
ick, J. (In press). Voices of educators: Toward cur-
riculum for being. New York: SUNY Press.
Brown, M. (1979). A conceptual scheme and decision-
rules for the selection and organization of home
economics curriculum content. Madison, WI: Wis-
consin Department of Public Instruction.
Brown, M, & Paolucci, B. (1979). Home economics: A
definition. Washington, D.C.: American Home
Economics Association.
Connelly, E.M., & Clandinin, D.J. (1988) . Teachers as
curriculum planners. New York: Teachers College
Press.
East, M. (1980). Home economics: Past, present and fu-
ture. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Family, work and careers middle school module.
(1987). Madison, WI: Wisconsin Department of
Public Instruction.
Fauske, I. (1986). Family focus home economics design:
Wisconsin curriculum project. In J. Laster and R.
Dohner, (Eds.), Vocational home economics cur-
riculum: State of the field (American Home Eco-
nomics Association Teacher Education Yearbook
6). Peoria, IL: Glencoe Publishing.
Freire, P. (1972). Cultural action for freedom. Balti-
more: Penguin.
Gadamer, H-G. (1975). Truth and method. New York:
Crossroads.
Grundy, S . (1987) . Curriculum: Product or praxis . New
York: The Falmer
Home economics concepts: A base for curriculum devel-
opment. Alexandria, VA: American Home Eco-
nomics Association.
Hultgren, F. (1986). Value reasoning design: The Penn-
sylvania State University curriculum project. In J.
Laster and R. Dohner (Eds.), Vocational home eco-
nomics curriculum: State of the field (American
Home Economics Association Teacher Education
Yearbook 6). Peoria, IL: Glencoe Publishing.
Hultgren, F., & Wilkosz, J. (1986). Human goals and
critical realities: A practical problem framework
for developing home economics curriculum. Journal
of Vocational Home Economics Education, 4(2),
135-154.
Kister, J, (1986). Practical action curriculum (PAC) de-
sign: Ohio curriculum project. In J. Laster and R.
Dohner (Eds), Vocational home economics cur-
riculum: State of the field (American Home Eco-
nomics Association Teacher Education Yearbook
6). Peoria, IL: Glencoe Publishing .
Kozol, J. (1988). Rachel and her children: Homeless
families in America. New York: Fawcett
Columbine.
Minnesota secondary vocational home economics cur-
riculum model. (1984) St. Paul, MN: Minnesota
Department of Education.
Ohio vocational consumer /homemaking curriculum
guide: Practical action. (1983). Columbus, OH:
Ohio State Department of Education.
Paul, R., Binker, A.J. A., Martin,D. Vetrano, C, &
Kreklau, H. (1989). Critical thinking handbook:
6th-9th grades. Rohnert Park, CA: Center for Crit-
ical Thinking and Moral Critique, Sonoma State
University.
Pennsylvania State University value reasoning cur-
riculum. (1980). University Park, PA: The Penn-
sylvania State University.
Schwartz, D.J., Wilkosz, J., DeBoe, J., Grote, A., &
Torgerson, R. (1986). Problem posing curriculum
model: Minnesota curriculum project. In J. Laster
and R. Dohner (Eds.3, Vocational home economics
curriculum: State of the field (American Home
Economics Association Yearbook 6). Peoria, IL:
Glencoe Publishing.
(Continued on page 196.)
166 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990
Home Economics Curriculum Review:
A Local School District's Approach
Robert A. Reineke
M. Ann Irvine
Lincoln Public Schools
Lincoln, NE
Robert A. Reineke
M. Ann Irvine
Introduction
James Coleman (1987) in his article, "Families
and Schools," chronicles the changing completion of
the family over the past several centuries, especially
the past 200 years. Coleman (1987) contrasts the "on-
the-job" training in household and farming activities
that characterized education for children throughout
most of history, with the very recent phenomenon of
the public school as the primary education institution.
He describes the shift in the locus of education as a
consequence of a dramatic reduction in the number of
men in agriculture since 1800, and, the more recent
phenomenon of the declining number of women "in the
home." Coleman (1987) goes on to say, "...schools, to
be effective, must change as families change, must be
adjusted to the conditions of the institution they
complement" (p. 35).
The phenomenon Coleman (1987) describes in his
article is clearly relevant to the study of home
economics curriculum and serves as introduction to this
article. The connection between Coleman's (1987)
article and curriculum review becomes apparent from
examination of the philosophy and rationale that
underlie home economics education. As Smith (1988)
states, home economics is "the only curriculum that
focuses on the family and prepares students for family
and home living" (p. 181).
A basic premise for this article is that the purpose
of home economics education is to prepare people for
the work of the family. Consequently, as the work of
the family changes, so does the focus of home eco-
! nomics education. Eight years before Coleman (1987)
talked about the work of the family and his notion of
"social capital," Brown and Paolucci (1979), outlined
a definition of home economics that stressed a pro-
active rather than a reactive role for individuals and
families in terms of developing family members and
the family unit itself. In that article, a mission for
home economics was offered that was to:
"enable families, both as individual units and
generally as a social institution, to build and
maintain systems of action which lead 1) to
maturing in individual self-formation and 2)
to enlightened cooperative participation in
the critique and formulation of social goals
and means for accomplishing them" (p. 23).
The positions taken by writers such as Coleman (1987),
Brown and Paolucci (1979) suggest both a need and a
focus for home economics curriculum review in local
school districts. This article describes one possible
approach that local education agencies might use for
curriculum review.
In discussing the selection of content for home eco-
nomics education as part of a national project to recon-
ceptualize home economics curriculum at the sec-
ondary level, Smith (1988) lists three content selec-
tion issues or approaches: task analysis, teaching the
basics and critical thinking. After discussing some
limitations with each of these approaches, Smith
(1988) concludes that: "... a major factor in
determination of the home economics curriculum is the
teacher" (p. 184).
Brown (1980) has also addressed the question:
"What is Home Economics Education?. She describes
a dialectic process to defining and knowing: "As a
mode of inquiry it [dialectic] is concerned with open
and critical examination of the interconnections of
ideas. To use dialectic as the mode of inquiring into
the conceptual meaning of home economics education,
we are using a mentally active procedure rather than
an inert one of merely taking in information" (p. 11).
Sirotnik (1988), in introducing collaborative inquiry,
emphasizes a similar process of "... self-study — of
generating and acting upon knowledge, in context, by
and for the people who use it" (p. 169). Finally, in
considering the impact of dialectical reasoning on in-
dividuals, Paul (1984) states: "It cultivates the mind
and orients the person as technical reasoning cannot.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990 167
It meets the needs of persons to bring harmony and
order into their lives; to work out an amalgamation of
ideas from various dimensions of experience; to
achieve, in short, intellectual, emotional, and moral
integrity" (p. 14).
This article describes a local school district's ap-
proach to curriculum review that centered on dialogue
among a core group of teachers, but also included sig-
nificant contributions from other segments of the pro-
fession, school district and community. With the goal
of curriculum review and renewal, practitioners were
given multiple opportunities to actively grapple with
fundamental questions and issues regarding home eco-
nomics education in general as well as in the local set-
ting.
The Curriculum Review Process
During one academic year, six junior and senior
high school economics teachers, along with the home
economics administrator and a district evaluator, en-
gaged in a home economics curriculum study. The ma-
jor goal was to examine the relevance of the curriculum
in light of current social and educational trends. The
study was conducted as part of a board policy mandate
that calls for periodic and systematic study, im-
plementation and maintenance of curriculum. Steps for
this nine year study cycle are outlined in a district
study manual (Lincoln Public Schools, 1986). A brief
overview of the process is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1
Lincoln Public Schools
SIM Cycle Task Chart
Study, Implement, Maintain
s
S
S
Step 1 — Study
Step 2— Study
Step 3— Study
• Organize committee
• Select/Develop Resources
• Conduct a Field Study
• Develop Initial Version of
• Conduct Pilot
• Develop/Revise
Recommended Program
• Develop Field Study Plan
Recommended Program for
• Conduct Needs Assessment
• Develop Resource Purchase
Implementation
• Revise Initial Version of
Plan for Field Study
• Develop Implementation
Recommended Program
Plan
• Develop Long-Range Plan
• Purchase Materials
for the Study
I
Step 4 — Implement
• Conduct Staff Development
• Evaluate/Revise Staff Development
Plan/Activities
• Conduct Program Review Plan for First
Year of Implementation
• Develop Program Review Plan for
Steps 5 and 7
I
Step 5 — Implement
• Conduct Staff Development Activities
• Evaluate Staff Development
• Conduct a Program Review
M
M
M
M
• Maintain and
• Maintain and
• Maintain and
• Conduct Future
Support the Program
Support the Program
Support the Program
Scan
• Review Program
• Conduct the Program
• Prepare Preliminary
Review Plan for
Review
Plan Steps 1-3
Step 7
The immediate goal of the study was to establish
program direction. Continuing work includes making
curricular decisions, selecting instructional materials
and pilot testing and implementing a new home eco-
nomics curriculum
168 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990
A district wide review of an entire curriculum is an
enormous task and can easily become an overwhelming
one. Therefore, an essential beginning to a local study
is to establish its boundaries. This was accomplished
in the present case by grounding the curriculum review
within a theoretical framework and establishing a
timeline for completing the work. Within these
boundaries four study components were identified and
are discussed in following paragraphs. These compo-
nents include: (1) establish a study committee and re-
action committee including a program evaluation spe-
cialist who provided technical support, (2) introduce
research and devise a structure for content (we used
practical perennial problems and family action sys-
tems— see Figure 2), (3) gather viewpoints of various
stakeholders through use of a survey and (4) critically
examine survey results and consider their program im-
plications.
Involve Staff
The initial step in the curriculum review process
was to involve staff. Ideally all staff would partici-
pate in all aspects of a curriculum review. However
several practical matters suggested a limit to the
number of staff members involved and the extent of
their participation. Considerations included the
number of staff that could efficiently work together,
the amount of funding to support staff release time,
and concern that all home economics staff have some
input into the curriculum review process and the re-
sulting decisions. Given these factors, a study commit-
tee consisting of six home economics teachers became
the core study group. At the same time a reaction
committee was formed that comprised 24 home eco-
nomics teachers (the remaining home economics staff)
along with other district personnel such as principals
and counselors. In addition a program evaluator, a
member of the local educational service unit, was in-
volved during the entire study. The evaluator's pri-
mary role was to provide technical support. The study
committee met at least once a month during the 10
month study, normally for an entire day. Release time
was provided. The larger reaction committee met four
times during the study period. Meetings were held at
the end of the school day, and lasted about two hours.
Critical activities for this group included reviewing
and reacting to the study committee's work. Through-
out the effort, members were kept informed of the
progress of the study and received information from
leaders in home economics.
Establish a Framework
Establishing a focus for study was particularly
important to ensure efficient use of personnel resources
and progress toward the study goals. As mentioned
earlier, one boundary for the study was the introduc-
tion of a conceptual framework. After a review of cur-
rent research and recent home economic curriculum
structures, such as those completed in Wisconsin
(1987), Minnesota (1987), and Nebraska (1987), the
study committee adopted a structure that emphasized
practical perennial problems. The structure also im-
proved the balance among objectives that paralleled
Brown's (1985) systems of action, namely, technical,
communicative and emancipative. For purposes of
study, this structure was overlaid on seven general
course areas identified as part of the local curriculum,
namely, foods, housing, clothing, child development
and parenting, consumer and resource management, self
development and relationships (stages of life). The
curriculum objectives matrix is shown at Figure 2. To
some extent at least, the seven areas, representing
traditional content offerings, helped establish a con-
text for study. In addition, district criteria for curricu-
lum, e.g., equity review, contributed to the study con-
text.
Gather Opinions
One objective of the study was to invite various
publics to share their ideas about home economics cur-
riculum. Groups that participated included teachers,
administrative staff, parents and students, and com-
munity representatives. A survey was developed to
reflect selected concepts from the conceptual structure
developed as part of the study (Figure 2). Sample
items for the survey include:
Understand and provide social, emotional,
physical, and psychological support of the
family unit.
Plan for and provide nutritious food for self
and family throughout the life cycle.
Develop personal communication skills to
help resolve personal problems throughout
the life cycle.
Importantly, the process of survey development of-
fered study group members a second opportunity to
critically examine premises and assumptions concern-
ing fundamental curriculum elements. Decisions about
what items to retain or how items should be worded,
were made only after substantial discussion of their
meaning, of their fit to the general conceptual struc-
ture, and of their potential merit to aid in understand-
ing public and staff perceptions.
Continued opportunity for study members to share
beliefs, biases, and opinions concerning curriculum is-
sues occurred when survey summary results were re-
ILUNOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990 169
viewed and program implications considered. Discus-
sions by both the study and reaction committees again
involved dialogue, in this instance centering on ques-
tions about similarities and differences in response
patterns among the various groups that responded.
What to do about family
Figure 2
Conceptual Structure
Relationships
Stages of Life
Self
Development
Children/
Parenting
Resource
Management
Food
Housing
Clothing
Technical
Communicative
Emancipative
Process Outcomes
The process used to carry out this initial phase of
a curriculum review, resulted in several outcomes.
First, a set of guiding (7-12 program) objectives was
developed upon which to base curricular decisions.
These objectives were presented and approved by the
board of education. Second, teachers were provided
with information about curriculum objective priorities
of students, parents, teachers, and community mem-
bers. Most importantly, a deeper appreciation of is-
sues and concepts related to curriculum concepts and
content was gained by a core study committee as well
as by the entire home economics staff. Survey devel-
opment, review of results and consideration of impli-
cations for curriculum served as a catalyst for critical
review of and sharing feelings and beliefs about home
economics issues, both content and process. In this
sense, the review process reflected Brandt's reminder,
as he emphasized, "... the futility of trying to sepa-
rate content from the way it is taught (Brandt, 1988, p.
196).
Several factors contributed to the success of this
review process. Importantly, all staff enjoyed the
support of the board of education. Beyond being man-
dated in board policy, the importance of periodic cur-
riculum review is recognized in terms of release time
for study participants (teachers), community partici-
pation, and financial support. Finally, board interest
in the study was reflected in regular reports required
by the board to appraise members of progress toward
study objectives.
Involvement of a variety of staff added to the
quality of the study and helped to insure the useful-
ness of findings in the classroom. As suggested earlier,
teacher involvement was critical. The availability
of technical expertise such as provided by the pro-
gram evaluator, allowed staff to focus their attention
on matters of content. Participation by principals and
counselors resulted in points of view being expressed
that were different from teaching staff in important
ways. Staff participation in the process can help
them in subsequent curriculum implementation efforts
as well as lead to a " . . .continuation of the reflective
conversation" with oneself and among staff members
(Schon, 1983, p. 136).
Incorporating a conceptual structure as a basis for
study proved beneficial. This structure, based on pub-
lished research, served as a guide throughout the ini-
tial study year. The availability of state department
curriculum models (Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Ne-
braska), provided concrete examples of published cur-
riculum standards. In addition, timely inservice op-
portunities were provided by university and state de-
partment personnel.
Finally, however, the value of the process rested
on the year-long reflection, dialogue, and critical
thought that home economics teachers used to engage
curriculum issues. Based on our experience, it may not
be as important that the "Wisconsin" curriculum
model be used as it is that some rationale and structure
be established to reflect upon. It is not as crucial that
a program evaluator be a part of a study as it is that
some technical elements be addressed (e.g., sampling
issues, study design, and statistical review of data).
Similarly, curriculum review can be enhanced by solic-
iting outside opinions from school staff, students, par-
ents professional groups and others. In the author's
opinions, it is critical that those who deliver the cur-
170 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990
riculum should play a key role in deciding its content
and form.
Concluding Statements
The basic approach suggested by Brown (1980) in
examining the philosophical bases for a home
economics curriculum can be effectively applied at the
local level. To do this it is necessary to establish the
climate and conditions that, as Brown (1980) suggests,
in quoting Goulet, allow staff to ". . .decree the
obsolescence of cherished concepts" and that allow
staff to "move beyond the past without repudiating it
at new levels of critical consciousness" (p. 11).
The curriculum review process described here in-
corporated an active approach to curriculum explo-
ration similar to that described by Brown in exploring
the philosophical bases for home economics educa-
tion. At the same time, the process emphasized the
central role of teachers in educational decision mak-
ing, as advocated by Smith (1988).
Curriculum renewal can be approached as ". . .an
equalitarian process which does not depend on the in-
formation-giving of an expert" (Brown, 1980, p. 11). In
this instance, a curriculum review was conducted
through critical thinking by staff about current home
economics structures and in consideration of opinions of
various publics. Obtaining opinions about curriculum
objectives by groups such as student and parents was
important. However, the impact of their collective
views was established as a result of informed review
and reflection by professional staff. The importance
of this reflective activity by teachers is well stated
by Smith (1988); "It is the teacher's view of society;
the teacher's understanding of learners and learning;
the teacher's knowledge, skills, and beliefs about the
relative merits of various learning activities that
govern curriculum at the point of delivery" (p. 185). In
a more general sense, Sirotnik (1988) echoes the view
of Smith; "The 'teeth' of collaborative inquiry are the
act of making it critical — that is, the act of people
confronting descriptive information and the knowl-
edge they derive from it with the values base driving
their programmatic efforts" (p. 175).
This article began with some comments about the
work of the family and principles of inquiry in curricu-
lum review. As suggested by Brown (1980) and
Coleman (1987) school curriculums (particularly home
economics) need to prepare students for changes in
families and society. The authors believe that the
process described here, based on a dialectic method of
inquiry, can be effectively used to guide curriculum
review and contribute to curriculum change in local
school districts. We agree with Robinson (1988) who,
in concluding her article about the application of
research to education, writes: "If ever the climate
exited for researchers and practitioners to apply
measurement, evaluation, and research to the
improvement of educational practice, it is now. All
necessary conditions exist, including a receptive and
sophisticated practitioner field. . ." (p. 65).
References
Brandt, R. S. (1988). Conclusion: Conceptions of con-
tent. In Content of the curriculum, 1988 ASCD
Yearbook. Association for Supervision and Cur-
riculum Development.
Brown, M. M. (1986). Home economics: A practical or
technical science. In Vocational home economics
curriculum: State of the field. American Home
Economics Association Yearbook. Peoria, IL: Ben-
nett & McKnight Publishing Company.
Brown, M. M. (1980). What is home economics educa-
tion. Minneapolis, MN: Minnesota Research and
Development Center for Vocational Education,
University of Minnesota.
Brown, M. M. (1985). Philosophical studies of home
economics in the United States: Our practical in-
tellectual heritage. East Lansing, MI: Michigan
State University.
Coleman, J. S. (1987). Families and schools. Educa-
tional Researcher, August-September.
Lincoln Public Schools. (1986). Program study, im-
plementation and maintenance in the Lincoln Pub-
lic Schools. Lincoln, NE: Instructional Services,
Lincoln Public Schools, December.
Minnesota Curriculum Services Center. (1987). Min-
nesota secondary home economics curriculum guide.
White Bear Lake, MN: Minnesota Curriculum
Services Center.
Nebraska Department of Education. (1987). Ne-
braska base curriculum for family focused sec-
ondary home economics programs, teacher hand-
book. Center for Vocational Education, Kearney
State College.
Paul, R. W. (1984). Critical thinking: Fundamental
to Education for a free society. Educational Lead-
ership, September.
Robinson, C. M. (1988). Improving education through
the application of measurement and research: A
practitioner's perspective. Applied Measurement
in Education, V{\), 533-65.
Schon, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner. New
York: Basic Books, Inc.
Sirotnik, K. A. (1988). The meaning and conduct of in-
quiry in school-university partnership. In K. A.
Sirotnik and J. I. Goodlad (Eds.), School-univer-
sity partnership in action, concepts, cases and con-
cerns. New York: Teachers College Press.
(Continued on page 180.)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990 171
The "Real" Home Economics Curriculum
Edna Page Anderson, Professor and Dean
and
Marlene F. Brands, Assistant Professor
Consumer Affairs and Home Economics
Education Department
College of Home Economics
South Dakota State University
Billings, SD
Edna Page Anderson
Marlene F. Brands
In Margery Williams' (1986) classic children's
story, The Velveteen Rabbit, the Rabbit asks the
experienced Skin Horse, "What is Real?" The Skin
Horse explains to the Rabbit that Real is something
that happens to you but not all at once. "You become. It
takes a long time. That's why it doesn't happen to
people who break easily, or have sharp edges, or who
have to be carefully kept." The Rabbit wanted to be
Real, but after hearing the explanation of the Skin
Horse, wished it could happen without so much dis-
comfort.
Home economics teachers may feel much like the
Rabbit as they make decisions about curriculum. Cer-
tainly we often wish that the process of developing
our curriculum was less complex. It is easy for us to
identify with the Skin Horse because we know that
the real curriculum requires struggling to make many
difficult decisions. In the process of answering ques-
tions about what to teach and how to teach, we con-
front difficult choices and the need to understand the
alternatives before us.
So what is the "Real" home economics curriculum?
In our experience it is the one that has been questioned
and examined from all possible angles. Why am I
teaching this? How does this benefit my students now
and in the future? Is this relevant to problems and
issues that families repeatedly confront? Do students
and their families have more important concerns that
I should be addressing? Can I explain to parents, ad-
ministrators and others why this is important to
teach? Screening curriculum is an on-going process that
requires continuous questions.
Some of our questions cannot be answered unless we
begin with a base of understanding about who we are
as home economics educators. We might call these the
foundation or the underpinnings of curriculum deci-
sions. There may be some differences in what each of
us would identify as fundamentals. Our requirements
would include these understandings.
Understanding the mission and goals of home
economics. What we teach and how we teach
must lead to the fulfillment of the mission
and goals. Since we are home economics
teachers we are not free to teach whatever
we wish. Curriculum cannot be a simple re-
sponse to the most current or popular concern
unless it contributes to our mission of enabling
families to solve their own problems.
Understanding the mission and goals of edu-
cation. We are able to justify what we teach
and how we teach as consistent with and rel-
evant to the fulfillment of the mission and
goals. Just because students or parents are in-
terested in a particular subject or a particular
teaching technique doesn't mean the subject or
the technique is in their interest or is defensi-
ble as learning. If we are to help students de-
velop problem solving abilities, we must be
able to justify both the processes we use to
teach and the subject matter content we select.
Understanding the developmental needs of
learners and what is developmentally ap-
propriate. Learners come to us at different in-
tellectual, social and emotional stages of de-
velopment. Part of the complexity of curricu-
lum development is teaching at a level that
is consistent with the learners' needs, one
that is not overly difficult nor unchallenging.
Understanding that we work and make our
decision in context. The state, the community,
the school and other agencies all have prior-
ities and procedures within which we must
negotiate our curriculum decisions. Curriculum
decisions are not made in a vacuum, and we
are often unable to have our curriculum ex-
actly as we wish. On the other hand, our cur-
172 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990
riculum cannot be so flexible that we abandon
our own goals to satisfy everyone else. Being
able to meet our own requirements and those
which others may impose requires working
within the educational system to develop
curriculum which satisfies our own criteria
while simultaneously fulfilling requirements
of others.
Understanding that there are different
approaches to curriculum and recognizing
that the approaches influence what we teach
and how we teach. There are different
philosophies about teaching and each
represents some difference in values and
goals.
Approaches to Curriculum — Must We Be Exclusive in
Our Choice?
In the past five years, there has been considerable
discussion about curriculum approaches and their dif-
ferences. Much of the discussion was prompted by the
appointment of a steering committee in 1985 to
reconceptualize home economics content (or in some
people's terms "rewrite the bird book"). The discussion
has helped us recognize that different curriculum
perspectives can co-exist (Journal of Vocational Home
Economics Education. Fall, 1986).
The Consumer Affairs and Home Economics Educa-
tion faculty at South Dakota State University has pi-
loted an eclectic model in which three major curricu-
lum approaches—concepts and generalizations, compe-
tency-based and practical problems—are used in com-
bination. The role of each approach is described be-
low.
Concepts and Generalizations — to organize and com-
municate content (cognitive)
The concepts and generalizations framework
serves as a useful tool for organizing the cognitive
aspects of the curriculum. Developing a conceptual out-
line of what is to be included in the curriculum at a
particular level is a simple, familiar way of catego-
rizing key ideas to be learned. Concepts written as
nouns or noun phrases can be articulated to the stu-
dents, parents, and others unfamiliar with a program
to give an overview of a program. Generalizations can
be used to review and summarize information learned,
helping the learner to connect pieces of information to-
gether.
Competency-Based — to organize and communicate ex-
pectations (tasks, competencies, behaviors, learner
outcomes, valued ends)
The competency-based framework can be used to
further develop a systematic approach to curriculum
development and delivery. Utilizing a conceptual out-
line that reflects the needs of students preparing for
life in the 21st century, competencies (knowledge,
skills, attitudes) (Blankenship & Moerchen, 1979) can
be linked to the concept to describe broad duties and
specific tasks a student must perform, perhaps master
at a certain level of competence. At this stage of
curriculum development, grammatical writing skills
combined with Bloom's taxonomy enable even the
novice curriculum writer to communicate content and
outcome to students, administrators and others in-
volved in the evaluation process. A simple verb
phrase stating the cognitive, psychomotor or affective
task (behavior) with the noun concept as the direct
object will communicate what response is expected in
terms of what is to be learned. A performance objec-
tive stating the conditions under which the task is to
be performed and the standard specifying the criteria
for performance sets the stage for the process of learn-
ing.
Practical Problems — to organize learning experiences
and communicate the process of learning (critical
thinking)
The practical problems framework for curriculum
development provides an ideal model for designing
learning activities that focus on the process of learn-
ing. A well-developed conceptual outline and compe-
tence list can serve to identify major, recurring prob-
lems faced by individuals and families over time and
those problems students and their families experience
in their everyday lives. Then it becomes the respon-
sibility of the educator to provide a learning envi-
ronment in which students are enabled to "compare
claims or arguments, weigh evidence, and form conclu-
sions based on sound reasons rather than authority,
expediency, whimsy, tradition, or irrational compul-
sion," (Brown & Paolucci, 1987). Students become
seekers of information and open-minded to alterna-
tive solutions. Educators become guides of the learn-
ing process and facilitators of the learning experi-
ence. This in itself provides for critical and creative
thinking — there is no one right way to solve a prob-
lem or even one right reason to solve a problem! This
communicates that a program is in touch with the
real world faced by students.
The "Real" curriculum is the one that "becomes,"
the one that is subjected to questions, the one that is
built on basic understandings, the one that is carefully
thought about. In the "Real" curriculum, different ap-
proaches are blended in relation to subject matter and
goals. The "Real" curriculum has had lots of sharp
(Continued on page 184.)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990 173
The Critical Perspective: A Challenge for
Home Economics Teachers
Donna Kowalczyk
Nora Neels
Marge Sholl
Home Economics Teachers
Baltimore County Public Schools
In the teaching of home economics content, there
are perspectives or lenses through which a teacher
may approach the curriculum. As a lens on a camera
can greatly affect the picture we ultimately see, the
perspective with which a teacher approaches the
content might greatly affect how the students benefit
from this teaching. In this article, three perspectives
or lenses which can be used to teach home economics
content will be explored. The perspectives included
are the technical, cognitive processes, and critical.
We feel all three of these perspectives have
value in the teaching of home economics. They all
address different aspects of the content. In addition,
each perspective has its own focus and valued end.
The three perspectives will be illustrated through
lesson examples.
As you read through these lesson examples we en-
courage you to reflect on these questions:
- What perspective or approach do I use most
often?
- What is the valued end of each perspective?
- How does the role of teacher and student change
in each perspective?
- Which perspective(s) would I choose to teach
home economics content?
The first lesson example will focus on the techni-
cal perspective or approach to teaching. In this
approach students may glean information through
memorization, lecture, reading, research, etc. In a
lesson developed from a technical lens the emphasis
is on the knowledge being taught. The students are
seen as recipients of the knowledge and the teacher is
viewed as the dispenser of this knowledge. A lesson
based on this approach tends to be very sequential in
that each piece of knowledge builds on what the
students have previously learned and in turn would
prepare students for what is to come. Routines are
very important. Students may perform several of the
same types of activities in most lessons day after day.
Examples of some common routines are the reading of
the lesson objectives, completion of drills and
vocabulary, a review of homework and lesson
activities. The success of a lesson using the technical
approach is based on the ability of students to perform
on some predetermined instrument (Eisner, 1985).
A Technical Approach
Objectives: The student will be able to
- Explain how a microwave works.
- Identify cooking utensils appropriate for mi-
crowave cookery.
- Define terms related to the use of a microwave
oven.
- Explain why common mishaps occur when using
the microwave oven.
- Identify advantages and disadvantages of mi-
crowave cookery.
Instructional Activities
1. As a drill students would identify in writing an
unusual experience which they or a family mem-
ber has had when using a microwave oven.
2. The teacher would demonstrate the use of the mi-
crowave through the preparation of various foods.
Recipes would be selected that illustrate the basic
skills necesary for microwave cookery. During the
demonstration the following would be included:
- how it works
- power levels
- standing time
- memory
- suitable utensils
- probe
- browning trays
174 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990
*. After viewing the demonstration and tasting the
foods prepared, students would be asked to identify
some advantages and disadvantages of microwave
cookery.
Summary Activities
Students would be asked to share with another
student their unususal experience identified at the be-
ginning of the lesson. Together students would be
asked to explain why these occurrences happened.
These would be shared with the class and the class
would be asked to determine if the explanations are
correct.
The technical perspective is one we have all used
through many times as we are planning and imple-
menting curriculum. For many of us it was the way we
were taught throughout our education.
A different perspective that we could use to
approach a lesson on microwave cookery is the
cognitive process lens. With the cognitive process our
focus changes from the teaching of factual information
to the teaching of thinking skills and intellectual
information. The emphasis of the cognitive process is
on the process of learning to learn and problem-solving
rather than content. The role of the teacher is to fos-
ter student learning by raising higher level questions
in order to probe students' thinking to higher levels.
The goal when using the cognitive process approach to
learning is to help students develop thinking skills
that can be transfered, since the information may
change but the skill will remain constant (Eisner,
1985)
The model used here to illustrate the cognitive
process approach to learning is the TABA Inductive
Thinking Model (Joyce & Weil, 1980).
A Cognitive Process Approach
Phase I — Listing
Students would be asked to think about the last
time they used a microwave oven and to describe how
they last used a microwave oven. Some examples of
student responses are:
- warmed up leftover pizza
- thawed and heated a muffin for breakfast
- made a microwave milkshake
- made popcorn
- warmed up leftovers for dinner
- made instant oatmeal for breakfast
- made a microwave pizza
- made microwave chicken cacciatore
- made stuffed green peppers for dinner
- melted butter when I was making a cake
- prepared a microwave sausage sandwich
- warmed up dinner after softball practice
- thawed chicken
- cooked frozen peas
- thawed orange juice
Phase II — Grouping
Students would be asked to group the uses for the
microwave. Each group would have a commonality.
Processing questions:
- What uses for the microwave seem to go to-
gether?
- What is the basis on which you are grouping
them?
- What do these uses have in common?
- Do any of these uses belong in more than one
group? Explain.
- Are there any changes you wish to make?
Phase III — Labeling
Students would be asked to label each group with
a title or label that would describe the common char-
acteristics of all items in that group.
Processing questions:
- What label could be given to this group of uses?
- Why is that label appropriate?
- Why do all thes uses of the microwave belong
together?
- Explain how they are alike.
Example groupings and labels:
To Reheat Foods
- warmed up leftover pizza
- warmed up leftovers for dinner
- warmed up dinner after softball practice
- thawed and heated muffin for breakfast
To Defrost Foods
- thawed chicken
- thawed and heated a muffin for breakfast
- thawed orange juice
- made a microwave pizza
To Prepare Convenience Foods
- prepared a microwave sausage sandwich
- made microwave chicken cacciatore
- made a microwave pizza
- made a microwave milkshake
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990 175
- made instant oatmeal for breakfast
To Prepare An Entire Recipe
- made stuffed green peppers for dinner
To Prepare Part of a Recipe
- melted butter when I was making a cake
Phase IV and V — Identifying Points and Explaining
Items
Processing questions:
- As you look at the different general uses for the
microwave, what use do you think the mi-
crowave is used for most often?
- When microwaves first came out, what general
purpose were they used for most often?
- How has this changed?
- Why has this changed?
- Has the use of the microwave increased in recent
years?
- What has happened to bring about an increased
use of the microwave?
- What impact has this had on families?
Phase VI — Making Generalizations
Students would be asked to make a generaliza-
tion— a statement — to summarize what has been said
about the use of the microwave. One possible general-
ization is: "Because of emerging technology, the use of
the microwave has changed in recent years."
Phase VII — Predicting Consequences
Processing questions:
- Think about all the uses we have discussed for
the microwave oven. What new products do you
see being used now that were not used five years
ago?
- What has happened to change this?
- What new products and uses can you see for the
microwave of the future? What impact will
this have on families?
Phase VII and IX — Explaining, Supporting and
Verifying Predictions
Questions:
- What makes you say that?
- Does anyone agree or disagree?
- What would it take to make this happen?
Many people view the cognitive process as critical
thinking. Richard Paul (1984) sees it as critical
thinking in the weak sense. Paul points out that
although the cognitive process approach to learning
may be based on problem solving and thinking skills,
the problems may not be controversial in nature or
have ethical dimensions. In order to be critical
thinking in the strong sense, students must seek
solutions to problems that require them to make value,
moral, and ethical judgments.
Using the cognitive process to teach students home
economics content also helps them to learn thinking
skills which they can apply to other situations in life.
As emerging technology creates an information over-
load, it is important that students are taught the
thinking skills they will need to sort, question, inter-
pret, process, and verify this abundance of informa-
tion.
As students begin to master thinking skills, a logi-
cal progression leads to the use of a critical perspec-
tive - or critical thinking in the strong sense as defined
by Richard Paul. (1984) This perspective encourages
the use of rational thought in relation to problems
that require students to make value, moral, and ethi-
cal judgements. It could be used when the curriculum
addresses controversial issues such as dieting, food
additives and preservatives, irradiation of food,
AIDS, day care, or genetic engineering. A critical
perspective can also be used to examine those elements
of our lives that we may take for granted but may need
to be examined more closely. This could include fast
food, microwavable foods, new technology for the
home and family, and family roles and responsibili-
ties. As these or other aspects of everyday life are ex-
amined with a skeptical eye, one sometimes finds
elements of manipulation of one segment of society
over another. It is at this point that students would
be encouraged to move on to positive societal action.
A Critical Perspective Approach
To begin, students would be asked to list all of the
ways the microwave has been a help to families in
the 1980s. Some responses might include:
- Microwaves make cooking a meal easier for
working parents.
- Microwaves make it easy to safely defrost food
in a hurry.
- Children can use a microwave to cook.
- Microwaves make it easy for everyone in a busy
family to have a hot meal of their choice.
Based on student responses and student interest,
the teacher would focus the direction of the lesson on
176 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990
one thought and could later go back and explore other
directions. For this lesson, we will focus on the use of
the microwave to heat individual servings of food. To
examine this more closely, students could be asked:
- This use of the microwave is great for meeting
the needs of the individual, but what about the
needs of the family?
- What is happening to the needs of the family?
- What may families give up or sacrifice when
they choose to use the microwave in this way?
After having time to think about these questions,
students might respond that families are giving up:
- the sharing of food
- the sharing of the events and feelings about the
day
- time together
- communication skills
- money
- good nutrition
Students would then be given a chance to consider
if this is, or could be, a problem for families.
Questions such as "Who might see this trend as a
problem?" and "Who might not?" could encourage
students to look at the issues of individual mealtime
vs. family mealtime from a variety of perspectives.
Some perspectives might include those of a parent, a
teenager, a nutritionist, and a marketing executive for
microwavable foods.
Another series of questions could be used to help
the students to reflect on the use of the microwave for
individual meal preparation.
- What signs do you see in society, and in the gro-
cery store in particular, that this trend toward
individual meal preparation is probably going
to continue?
- Who benefits from the fact that families are
eating more often as individuals rather than as
families?
- If the family is not the one who benefits, why do
you think there is such a demand for single serv-
ing microwave food?
This lesson could conclude with students being
asked a question that would encourage self-reflection
and could lead to positive action. Some possibe ques-
tions the teacher may pose are: If we recognize that
the technology of the microwave oven impacts on the
family both positively and negatively, what can you
as a family member do to reduce the negative impact
this technology has on families? What can you as a
consumer do to reduce the negative impact this tech-
nology can have on families?
The critical perspective addresses areas of home
economics content that the technical and cognitive
processes perspectives do not. It allows us to explore
family issues /problems that require value judgements
as a part of the solutions.
Conclusion
We hope that through your processing of the les-
son examples that you have had time to reflect upon
the questions we posed at the beginning of this article.
To summarize we would like to refer back to those
questions.
What perspective or approach do I use most often?
We feel the technical perspective is used most
often because it was the way most of us were taught
and is where the emphasis has been in education for
many years.
What is the valued end of each perspective?
How does the role of the teacher and student change in
each perspective?
The technical perspective's valued end is student
recall of information. The role of the teacher is to
dispense information. The role of the student is to be a
somewhat passive receiver of information. Since this
perspective takes less time, it can be helpful in
providing students with the factual information
which forms the knowledge base required for higher
level thinking.
The valued end for the cognitive process approach
is students who are able to use learned thinking skills
to solve problems and make decisions. The role of the
teacher is to probe student thinking to higher levels
through questioning. The students are active partici-
pants in the learning/ thinking process. This perspec-
tive equips students with thinking and problem solv-
ing skills that can be transfered to other situations.
The valued end of the critical perspective is stu-
dents who are able to look at problems with a skepti-
cal eye in order to raise value, ethical, and moral
questions about an issue or problem and to seek a
morally and ethically defensible solution. The role of
the teacher is that of a facilitator who encourages
students to consider all viewpoints, raises questions
that challenge and probe student thinking, and brings
the discussion to closure. The teacher also serves as a
model to students so they can learn to question one an-
other.
(Continued on page 180.)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990 177
tt
Teaching to 'Open Fences'
Mary Ann Block
Associate Professor
Department of Home Economics
Tarleton (TX) State University
There are many barriers which people erect to
protect themselves from other people or from unknown
dangers. What barriers do schools, pedagogy and
teachers erect for themselves and for students? What
help can we provide or extend to assist students in
climbing or removing natural or man-made barriers.
Barriers separate the wanted from the unwanted.
For instance, by erecting a fence we can control posses-
sions efficiently with a minimum of time, energy, and
expense over the long-haul. If we were controlling
cattle with a fence then the cattle are always easy for
us to find, feed, count, check for disease and load for
market. We do not need to roam the range to check on
them.
Cattle are a product which are objective and can
be easily managed in a closed system or within fences.
Closed systems as defined by Combs, Avila, and
Purkey (1978), are always product oriented and thus
the behavior of the entities must be managed. Schools
and students are not products to be equated with cattle
and confined in a closed system.
What fences do we erect?
The question should cause us to look more closely
at our classrooms and teaching procedures to check to
see if we are only producing products to be controlled.
According to Combs et al. (1978) definition of
closed systems, the use of fences in the classroom
would likely create only products. The control by the
teacher would be absolute. Students would become
products to be processed toward for example the goal
of passing a test (passage). Objective testing would be
the means of deciding on the marketability of the
product or student.
At the present time, one educational researcher
claims that school systems process students (Wise,
1988). The fences surrounding the student are
"standardized testing," "teacher proof curricula,"
"standardized teaching," and "management-by-the-
numbers" (Wise, 1988). Combs, et al. (1978) would
likely describe this as a closed system.
Closed System
One aspect of a closed system which can be consid-
ered is the level of teaching. In order for students to be
measured for the extent of their "fattening," their
ability to periodically pass tests would require spe-
cific facts or knowledge. If the student is to go
"through the gate" to market, s/he must pass the test.
The teacher must teach the facts and concepts for the
test and the student must learn them. The behavior of
the students, physically, emotionally, and cogni-
tively will probably be rigidly controlled to ensure
the attainment of the objectives set by the school or
state.
Suppose a student sees other possibilities for
learning, wants to pursue other subjects, or has prob-
lems that are never addressed by the course content,
the school, or test objectives? Since the fences can be
very high, students may make little progress in the
meeting of their needs.
Closed systems will probably create fear of au-
thority at all levels and result in defensive systems
established by all individuals. Quantities of time
will have to be allotted to maintenance of the system.
Open System
The open system (Combs, et al., 1978), as opposed
to the closed system, is problem centered. The fences
are at least partially removed. The teacher is not the
subject matter authoritarian nor does the teacher
have to have all the answers. Responsibility for
learning is shared by all. The teacher assists, helps,
facilitates, directs, consults and gives direction to the
class and course content.
Closed systems like closed fences depend on some-
one to take care of and manage all that is within.
Open systems result in a different view of humans. In-
stead of seeing people as not being able to direct them-
selves, the open system views people as being able to
think through problems and situations (Wise, 1978).
When individuals are thus viewed the group becomes
more equal and more democratic.
',
What assistance can we give?
If open systems allow more egalitarian concepts to
emerge, then teaching will have to change in accor-
dance with a more open feeling and free ideas. What
help can we as teachers and schools provide or extent
to assist students in climbing the fences in their school
lives?
178 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990
Facts can be like fences! Every subject matter has
a set of facts and vocabulary that needs to be commit-
ted to memory in order to understand and function
within the subject area. If the acquisition of the facts
is the end of instruction in the subject area then no real
learning has taken place. Learning requires a linking
of new information and facts to other learning (Jones,
1987).
Unless a student can use the facts or data from nu-
trition, for example, in the selection of everyday
meals then the facts are useless. Those facts will be
forgotten and in effect the nutrition facts are a fence
which the student may not be able to hurdle. Informa-
tion on nutrients unless organized to make meaningful
meals and used to enrich life will be lost.
Problem Solving
In problem solving situations facts which must be
reorganized and used to solve a problem in a new or
creative way will help students learn the facts. They
will know when to use the facts, how to use them, and
where to use them (Marzana, Brandt, Hughes, Jones,
Presseisen, Rankin, and Suhor, 1988). In using the
facts students will be creating a framework for them-
selves. Facts can be fences if they are isolated infor-
mation. Problem solving creates situations in which
facts are used. Therefore, the facts have relevance
and purpose and are no longer just something to memo-
rize. Teachers need to be willing to spend time with
students in problem solving situations. This will re-
quire more class time but learning can occur at a higher
level of cognition.
Thinking out loud or modeling of cognitive pro-
cesses by the teacher will help students learn to place
facts in a framework, and think with the facts. For
example, in evaluating a meal for nutrient content, the
teacher could think out loud about how to identify the
nutrients in each item of the menu, the component
parts of each item, and how to add up the many dif-
ferent nutrients from all the items. When this is ac-
complished the teacher then needs to go through the
evaluation process of deciding if the mean was appro-
priate considering the nutrients, possible monetary
costs of the meal, time expended, and energy required.
Another problem to be addressed concerns the ade-
quacy of the meal. The food items in the mean need to
become a part of the days food intake. Through the
out loud thinking process, possible suggestions for fur-
ther food choices can be made to complete the days re-
quirement of nutrients for the individual. Choosing
many alternatives which would fit with the given set
of food items allows for the teaching of creativity.
As the facts of nutrients are used in the "out loud"
thinking process, students can hear how to use them.
They have a model to follow in evaluating, problem
solving, and then in creativity seeing (hearing) other
possible choices and why those other choices were
discarded. Creative thinkers are always searching
for something that will work better, save time, en-
ergy, and money (Marzana et al., 1988). Students want
to be able to face the "real" world with skills and
knowledge that is "real." Thinking through a food
choice problem is real and can be creative.
Inflexibility of teachers.
Another fence students encounter is the inflexibil-
ity of teachers. An example of some inflexibility is
when things are always done the same way regardless
of students' needs, interest, abilities or the passage of
other related conditions. Other examples of inflexi-
bility are the repeated use of certain assignments, or
the use of a particular class organization because it
fits with the teacher's personal routine, or using large
quantities of seatwork to be completed before the end
of each class period solely as a means to control stu-
dents' behavior. In such situations students may not be
free to learn beyond the prescribed curriculum. The
fence of inflexibility and sameness may keep students
from learning more than the requirements when no
other opportunities are presented.
We as teachers cannot live in the student's genera-
tion. Each generation must find its own solutions and
responses to current problems. As teachers we need to
be able to help students learn to solve their problems.
They also need to understand the causes of problems
and not only see the symptoms and learn to deal with
those causes. Teaching techniques need to be used
which allow students freedom to identify and explore
alternative strategies for solving their personal prob-
lems.
Teachers may feel that they do not have all the
answers in this type of classroom situation. No one can
ever know all answers to all problems but we can be
willing to help search for the answers with an open
mind. Students do not expect us to have answers to ev-
ery question but they would welcome our willingness to
open the fence to help them search for meanings and
explanations.
Uncaring or Unconcerned Teacher
A third and often crucial fence can be the uncaring
or unconcerned teacher as described by Gross (1989).
Students tend to have many problems; however, an
unobservant teacher may not be aware of them. Clues
are often given by students as to feelings or states of
being. Some students may be chronically late, tired, or
apparently daydreaming. The concerned teacher does
not reprehend before ascertaining a reason for the be-
havior. Nor, does the teacher cut short the student's
explanation. Rather, they use probing questions or
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990 179
noncommittal answers to elicit enough information to
understand the problem. Teachers need to be gen-
uinely concerned and to take the time for some action
to help students to remedy their problems.
Showing interest in students may be such a little
thing as always calling them by name. As the teacher
calls on the student, note may be made of the person's
demeanor or change of manner. After class, teachers
can make passing comments that would let students
know they have been noticed.
The "open door" policy on office or desk hours al-
lows the teacher to be available to students for ques-
tions and concerns. Conveying this information to stu-
dents, permits them the opportunity to choose when
they will avail themselves of the service.
The concerned teacher expects all students to do
their best in the class. The teacher will systemati-
cally teach and prod the students to excel at that
level. They think positive and convey their positive
thoughts and expectations to their students.
Concerned teachers show empathy but do not al-
low sympathy to rule any actions taken. Empathizing
with students may help them to unload some psycho-
logical burden and to know that someone actually
knows and cares. Sympathizing may result in little
positive action.
Summary
Fences create closed systems which are relatively
easy to manage. They also block or prevent significant
use of data and hence may prevent learning.
Only when fences are removed or gates are opened
can true learning occur. Students are not objects to be
managed but people who can think creatively, solve
problems in ways another person may not have
thought possible. By our actions as teachers we need
to free students to learn all they are capable of learn-
ing— to achieve more of their innate potential.
References
Combs, A. W., Avila, D. S., & Purkey, W. E. (1978).
Helping relationships. Boston: Allyn and Bacon,
Inc.
Gross, J. L. (1989). A support group for pushouts:
Helping motivated students who lack adult care.
Kappa Delta Pi Record, 25,(1), 5-8.
Jones, B. R, Palincsar, A. S., Ogle, D. S., & Carr, E. G.
(Eds.). (1987). Strategic teaching and learning:
Cognitive instruction in the content areas.
Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Lindquist, M. M. (1987). Strategic teaching in math-
ematics. In Jones, B. F., Palincsar, A. S., Ogle, D.
S., & Carr, E. G. (Eds.) Strategic teaching and
learning: Cognitive instruction in the content ar-
eas. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Marzana, R. J., Brandt, R. S., Hughes, C. S.., Jones, B.
F., Presseisen, B. Z., Rankin, S. C, & Suhor, C.
(1988). Dimensions of thinking: A framework for
curriculum and instruction. Alexandria, VA:
ASCD.
Wise, A. E. (1988). Legislated learning revisited.
Phi Delta Kappan, 69(5), 328-333. • • •
(Continued from page 171.)
Smith, J. B. (1988). Reconceptualizing the home eco-
nomics curriculum. In Content of the Curriculum,
1988 ASCD yearbook. Association for Supervision
and Curriculum Development.
Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction. (1987). A
guide to curriculum planning in home economics.
Bulletin No. 7170, Madison, WI" Wisconsin De-
partment of Public Instruction. • • •
(Continued from page 177.)
Which perspective(s) will you choose to teach home
economics content and why?
We feel that each of the perspectives has value in
the teaching of home economics content. It is impor-
tant that teachers are aware that there are a variety
of perspectives from which to choose. A conscious de-
cision should be made about which perspective to use
based on the content being taught and the needs of the
students.
If the goal of home economics education is to pro-
duce rational thinkers capable of finding solutions to
the complex problems that families face today, then
we must be committed to helping students attain the
knowledge to achieve this goal. Only through a vari-
ety of learning approaches and perspectives can this
be achieved. We can not stop with the technical or
even the cognitive process perspective. In a family
centered home economics program a critical
perspective is essential to help prepare students to
face the complex problems of families.
References
Eisner, E.W. (1985). The educational imagination (pp.
61-85). New York: Macmillan.
Joyce, B., & Weil, M. (1980). Models of teaching
(pp.47-60). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Paul, R.W. (1984). Critical thinking: Fundamental to
education for a free society. Educational Leader-
ship. • • •
180 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990
The Effects of Competitive Awards on
Self-Esteem
Karen DeBord
Extension Specialist
Rural Child Care
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University
Blacksburg, VA
Self-esteem and self-worth are terms familiar to
most adults involved in programs dealing with youth
and their educational development. Activities are
planned to build esteem, leaders and teachers are
trained to handle developmental stages, and parents
are asked to support their children by attending spe-
cial activities and events.
Are parents and adult leaders of youth really
aware of the impact of planned adolescent and teen
activities? Is healthy emotional and social growth oc-
curring by participation in community and club activi-
ties? What happens to a child's self-esteem when the
gained reinforcement is perceived to be negative?
What differences in self-esteem are perceived when
the participation is competitive? In order to answer
some of these questions, this study was designed to
assess the relationship between self-esteem and the
awards received in 4-H club competitive events.
One prominent researcher of the self system, Susan
Harter (1983), explains self-esteem as an implied self-
acceptance, self-respect, and feelings of self-worth.
Harter (1983) indicates that rewards can serve several
functions; providing information to the individual
about which behaviors are important to perform,
eliciting responses about the success or failure of
particular behaviors and, in the motivational
dimension, as incentives to participate in repeated
behavior anticipating subsequent rewards.
Since rewards are often used for reinforcement, one
of the important considerations concerns the negative
motivational effects of rewarding performance behav-
iors. Lepper (1982) provided a research base for a va-
riety of studies indicating that children who are ini-
tially spontaneously interested in an activity may
lose interest if they are rewarded for it. The reward
tends to undermine motivation due in part to the exter-
nal control and manipulation which the reward pre-
sents. The expectation of external evaluation will re-
duce children's interest in activities. A similar rever-
sal has been observed when pressure is applied NOT
to engage in a certain activity. Strong threats cause
more deviation to the forbidden.
The ultimate key to reward and reinforcement is to
have a child be pleased or displeased with them-
selves through self-evaluation in the absence of any
external control. Until children are at a stage where
they can take another's perspective and recognize the
significance of other's evaluation, there is difficulty
in shaping their self-evaluation. This is referred to as
social comparison and emerges around the age of 8
years. Early interests in social comparison is a concern
with one's fair share and equal treatment (Ruble, Bog-
giano, Feldman & Loebl, 1980).
Youth Activities and Awards
Our country has many organized youth clubs, asso-
ciations and opportunities to interact and receive
recognition. Team sports, scouting, 4-H, church, neigh-
borhood peers, school clubs, band, choir and others
provide some of the youth opportunities. The 4-H
youth organization, which provides the sample for
this study, is a youth organization which has many
aspects and opportunities for reward.
In reviewing the effect of reward on participation,
one study (Hartley, 1983), found that the completion
of a 4-H project and receiving a ribbon was directly as-
sociated with re-enrollment. According to Risdon
(1988), recognition is positive reinforcement of self-
worth and is not necessarily synonymous with compe-
tition. The type of competition that exists in the 4-H
program is "soft competition" or low-pressure. Since
participation is voluntary, there is an element of
choice involved. It is not readily understood the rea-
sons for choosing to participate, whether to win, to
learn, to please a parent or leader or perhaps to please
self.
Competitive events are used as a means of bringing
youth together for fellowship. Risdon (1989) cites
Weber and MuCullers (1986) who explain that in one
survey, only 1.8 percent of the youth surveyed
mentioned winning awards or blue ribbons as an
attractive feature of the 4-H program.
The research question, in this mini study was: Is
there a difference in self-esteem score before a compet-
itive 4-H event and after receiving the earned award
after the competition?
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990 181
Sample
Five rural counties in southwest Virginia were se-
lected as a convenient sample. Focus was given to 4-H
members who were planning to attend a District
Contest Day. Extension agents agreed to assist by col-
lecting data with these members.
Procedure
The Self-Perception Profile for Children (Harter,
1985) was selected to measure self-esteem because it
provides a differentiated picture of the self-concept
by looking at adequacy in different domains. The sub-
scales include Scholastic Competence, Social Accep-
tance, Athletic Competence, Physical Appearance, Job
Competence, Romantic Appeal, Conduct/Morality,
Close Friendship and Global Self-Worth. The
instrument also incorporates several facets of the
child's self-esteem instead of giving only a singular
score.
The Harter Scale was administered three weeks
prior to the 4-H contest competition. Just following
competition, the scale was again administered to al-
low a comparison of esteem before the competition and
just following awards with notation given to the rib-
bon award color.
Analysis
Differences in scores for global self-worth for the
group were compared using a t-test, then emphasis was
given to reviewing the ribbon color for a correlation of
ribbon color and esteem subscales for individuals.
Particular subtests of interest which were re-
viewed for self-esteem correlations were social accep-
tance, scholastic competence and job competence.
Results
Representatives from four counties submitted 16
useable instruments before competition and after
awards. Of the sixteen, thirteen received blue ribbons
(highest award), two red ribbons and one white rib-
bon. Group means and correlations were run to assess
the strength of the relationship between before and
after scores for the group.
Correlations
The results of the correlation emphasize the
strength of the instrument and also seem to imply that
overall self-esteem was not greatly affected by the
competitive nature of the activity in which they had
just taken part (self-worth before and self-worth after
r=.84). The highest correlations were between the
same traits over time. Correlations for before and after
scores for appearance, athletic competence, job compe-
tence, friendship and conduct/morality were .84, .66,
.79, .82, and .50 respectively.
Interestingly high correlations occur in several
other domains differing between time one and time
two. The scholastic competence factor rises slightly
from .78 to .84, while the correlations between ath-
letic, appearance and friendship factors drop as well
as the overall self-worth factor. With an understand-
ing that teens are in an identity stage at this age,
often finding their identity in friends, through athlet-
ics, vocations or appearance, these scores make sense.
Harter (1983) in her standardization of the
instrument noted a cluster in the intercorrelations
between social acceptance, romantic appeal and
physical appearance. This infers physical attraction
may lead to greater acceptance or popularity among
peers while scholastic competence is less related to
acceptance, friendship and romantic appeal. It
appears that school achievement is less relevant to
popularity and peer status after adolescence,
particularly. Harter (1983) also noted the highest
correlations between self-worth and physical
appearance and less relation between athletic
competence and job competence. These findings are
echoed through this mini study. Additionally, this
study revealed a rather high correlation between self-
worth and scholastic achievement, perhaps due to the
nature of the competitive performance.
The group means were similar for the two groups
with the greatest decline noted between the conduct
and friendship factors as well as overall self-worth.
Overall self-worth before mean=15.1 and after mean =
13.6. The means for conduct before was 15.9 and after
was 14.4. And the mean for close friendship was af-
fected with the mean of 17.5 before and 16.1 after com-
petition.
Discussion
These results do not seem to totally attribute lack
of self-esteem to the competitive event of the 4-H con-
test day. With the small sample, however, care
should be taken in generalizing these results to the en-
tire population of either 4-H or youth. A replication
of this study under stricter standards is currently un-
derway with a larger sample.
Several factors could explain the rather level
sense of self-esteem exhibited. First, the environment
appeared relaxed on the contest day and the quality
of support by leaders given to the youth during this
event was evident. Members had made a choice not
only to voluntarily enroll in 4-H, but further, to take
part or not in this competitive activity. Choice raises
motivation level and ultimately is relative to self-es-
teem.
In suggesting techniques to enhance competitive
youth events, using arguments based on studies by
Dweck and Elliott (1983), there are several critical
182 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990
factors for consideration when planning an appropri-
ate learning environments as opposed to competitive
stressful events for youth.
Whatever the motivation for participation, the
combination of challenge, mastery and curiosity form
the force which drives one towards a goal. The al-
lowance of choice and a sense of self-control provide
motivation for persistence with a task.
A "learning" goal increases competence, to master
new skills or understand something new, while a per-
formance goal is a child's expected level of perfor-
mance relative to their own standards. Performance
goals deal with obtaining favorable judgements of
one's competence and avoidance of unfavorable judge-
ments. Errors indicate failures and teachers are
viewed as judges and rewarders or punishers who em-
phasize ability as opposed to effort (Dweck & Elliott,
1983). Performance goals have been most common in
competitive youth events.
Goal expectancies change and are revised often as
the time to perform draws closer. New concerns may
undermine or strengthen the child's confidence. There
is an ongoing revision of expectancies which is impor-
tant in maintaining goals.
How to incorporate non-competitive functions in pro-
gramming
Teachers, leaders and parents have the vast re-
sponsibility of planning effective learning activities
for youth such that participants have a positive expe-
rience which will motivate them to further learning
and participation. Unknowingly, caring professionals
and parents often set up stressful situations which de-
feat the original purpose by simply not being aware of
the developmental level of youngsters and the factors
involved in motivation and goal setting.
In suggesting techniques to enhance youth competi-
tions through 4-H, vocational education contests,
FHA, FFA, church, sports or any youth organization,
it is important to remember that through the eyes of
an adolescent or teen, certain situations appear to be
directed and happening due to fate or bad luck.
Competitive teenagers seem to identify themselves
with their goals. Good performance means being a
good person. Some competition is so stressful, dishon-
esty and self-punishment may come into play, which
are indications of low self-esteem.
Central to positive self-esteem is the adult-child
interaction. Interaction with children is a great de-
terminant in the child's perceptions of learning. When
an adult focuses on learning goals, the interaction is
more as a resource and guide than a judge; thus stress-
ing the process more than the outcome. Subsequent re-
actions to errors will then be perceived as natural and
useful rather than an indication of failure. Stress is
placed on efforts and personal standards, not in com-
parison to a group, while achievement is stimulated
intrinsically, emphasizing the value of the effort,
versus an extrinsic means of placing judgement on the
ability.
Additionally, a supportive environment creates
more acceptance of participation. Under nonthreaten-
ing conditions, most youth function effectively. As the
situation becomes more evaluative, highly anxious in-
dividuals are overcome, feeling threatened rather
than challenged. When negative outcomes are experi-
enced, learned helplessness may be displayed.
Choice plays a very important part throughout
lives of people from early childhood through adult-
hood. Personal choice allows people to feel in control.
Through exercising choice and formulating a realistic
task plan, participants may appropriately estimate
the difficulty of unfamiliar tasks. Over estimation of
ability tends to engage the child in overoptimism.
Youth oriented towards a goal of avoiding looking bad
may be particularly interested in making rapid deci-
sions in order to devise ways to avoid negative judge-
ments. Choosing tasks of intermediate difficulty has
been seen as the center of achievement-producing mo-
tivational tendencies. Standards set should be per-
sonal and flexible rather than normative/
competitive.
Promoting choice allows the student to persist
after experiencing failures and increases performance
in the long run. "A child afraid of failing never learns
to learn" in a healthy manner which will intrinsi-
cally motivate him/her throughout life (Rogers,
1989).
The use of a self-reward system may be considered.
Students may apply their own standards to self-re-
ward through modeling. Selection of one's own perfor-
mance level often leads an individual to set a more
difficult set of standards than would have been set
otherwise. This situation sets up a conflict between
maximizing material rewards and the tendency to
negatively evaluate worth or self-esteem if one opts to
reward devalued behavior. More practically, com-
petitors might have the opportunity to select their
own award according to self-selected standards or stop
by a ribbon table to receive narrative written reports
of performance and self select the ribbon which was
appropriate for performance level. Follow-up to a
competitive event may occur when score sheets are
mailed back to participants. A narrative form allows
the member to internalize the comments and build on
these for subsequent participation.
Success is denned in terms of a continuing process of
which errors are an integral part. Anxiety, interest
and self-control all may be factors which individuals
will define as areas of control in personal develop-
ILUNOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990 183
ment. Failures cause anxiety and depress motivation.
The initial stages of performance should be viewed as
a learning process such that personal standards are
set, and one challenges his or her own abilities rather
than measuring performance in comparison to others.
Once children are able to internalize their personal
standards and performance goals, the basis for future
actions and continuing motivation is formed.
Summary of Recommendations
A non-threatening environment should be ar-
ranged to allow for maximally enjoyed learning
to occur.
Guidance should be given in planning and choos-
ing activities to encourage realistic choices.
Movement to an intrinsically rewarding system
from an extrinsically rewarding system is not
easy and will take time to enable the adults to
react appropriately towards attempts.
Words such as contest, competition and judges
could be reselected.
Reward efforts and mastery attempts, as opposed
to group norms.
The focus should be learning, not performance and
success.
Feedback may be provided narratively with pos-
itive and constructive comments.
Encouragement of collaborative projects (teams)
versus competition would assist the child in
upholding individual esteem.
Consideration could be given to a self-reward sys-
tem.
References:
Coopersmith, S. (1967). The Antecedents of self-es-
teem. San Francisco: Freeman.
Dweck, C.S., & E. S. Elliott, (1983). Achievement mo-
tivation. In E.M. Hetherington's Child Psychol-
ogy (4th edition). Paul H. Mussen (Ed.). New
York: John Wiley and Sons.
Harter, S. (1983). Developmental perspectives on the
self-system in E.M. Hetherington's Child Psy-
chology, Paul H. Mussen (Ed.). New York: John
Wiley and Sons,
Hartley, R.S. (1983). Keeping 4-H members. Journal
of Extension, 22 (4) 19-23.
Lepper, M.R. (1982). Social control processes, attribu-
tions of motivation and the internalization of so-
cial values. In E.T. Higgins, D.N. Ruble & W.W.
Hartup (Eds.). Social Cognition and Social Be-
havior: Developmental Perspectives. Cambridge,
England: Cambridge University Press.
Maccoby, E.E., & Martin, J.A. (1983). Socialization in
the context of the family: parent-child interac-
tion. In E. M. Hetherington's Child Psychology
(4th Edition). Paul H. Mussen (Ed.). New York:
John Wiley and Sons,
Risdon, P. (1989). Is the 4-H Program too
Competitive? Virginia 4- H Information Letter,
January 1989.
Rogers, C. (1989). Class lecture. Virginia Tech:
Blacksburg.
Ruble D., Boggiano A., Feldman N., & Loebl J. (1980).
Developmental analysis of the role of social com-
parison in self-evaluation. Developmental Psy-
chology, 16, 105-11.
Weber, J. A., & McCullers, J.C. (1986). The blue
ribbon: An American way of life. Journal of
Extension, 24 (4). p. 20-23. • • •
(Continued from page 173.)
edges taken off each question about how and what to
teach. Each basic understanding and each curriculum
approach has been carefully examined. Getting to the
"Real" curriculum takes time, and there may be some
discomfort as we struggle with the many questions or
issues that arise. The reality is that we never get
there because curriculum development is a continuous
process. The Real curriculum is not a goal we reach and
then relax. It is on-going and constantly alive with
challenges to re-examine in relation to new knowledge
and understandings.
References
Blankenship, M. L., & Moerchen, B. D. (1979) Home
economics education. Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Co., p. 269.
Brown, M., & Paolucci, B. (1987). Home economics: A
definition, as quoted in Forecast, Novem-
ber/December, p. 14.
Journal of Vocational Home Economics Education,
(Fall, 1986). Vol. 4, No. 2.
Williams, M. (1986). The velveteen rabbit. NY:
Crown Publishers. • • •
184 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990
External Networking:
The Untapped Resource
Laurie A. Stenberg
Assistant Professor
School of Home Economics
University of Idaho
Moscow, Idaho
and
Jack Elliot
Assistant Professor
Department of Agricultural and
Extension Education
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan
The importance of internal networking is conveyed
throughout home economists' professional prepara-
tion. Networking with peers, we are told, will help us
land a job and empower future career growth. Most
often the emphasis is on one's professional develop-
ment. Experienced professionals assume, and purport
to emerging professionals, that networking is internal.
Internal networking with other home economists is en-
couraged by means of professional organization mem-
bership, conference attendance, and committee service,
to name a few.
Often throughout professional preparation, little,
if any, value is placed on external networking. Home
economists are seldom encouraged to affiliate or col-
laborate with professionals from other disciplines,
organizations, or agencies. Subtle messages received
include, "I'm too busy,"or "it's too much of an effort."
Consequently, while home economists function in a dy-
namic, ever-changing society, many tend to network in
an isolated vacuum. Why is this? Lack of awareness?
Lack of priority due to an egocentric goal of one's pro-
fessional growth? And more importantly, what is
happening to the profession and emerging profession-
als when its members instill such values and model
such behavior?
Clearly, the home economics profession needs to
examine more closely the role of external networking
in professional development and growth of the profes-
sion. The objectives of this paper are to 1) present a
conceptualization of external collegial networking,
and 2) discuss benefits of external networks to the
home economics profession, other professions, and in-
dividuals, families and society.
Conceptualizing A Collegial Model of External Net-
working
A conceptualization of collegial external network-
ing includes flexible and mutually interdependent
patterns of training, information sharing, and support
(Swoboda & Millar, 1986). Networking, in contrast to
other types of professional development relationships
(e.g. mentoring), is less intense and entails less com-
mitment. Whereas mentoring and sponsoring relation-
ships are selective, networking is available to all.
While networking will not move an individual up the
career ladder as quickly as will mentoring, it also car-
ries fewer risks (Swoboda & Millar, 1986). Further-
more, one of the greatest virtues of networking is the
degree to which it fosters self-reliance. Rather than
relying upon one individual, networking instills colle-
gial interdependence. Having no one in particular, but
many to depend upon in general, one is not tempted to
become overly dependent. Networkers are perceived
as professionals who achieve their goals on the
strength of collegiality and proven merit. Pancrazio
and Gray (1982) argue for "collegial networking":
"The collegial model is based on affiliation rather
than competitiveness or individualism. It incorpo-
rates those very positive characteristics . . . such as
nurturance, sharing, and helping" (p. 17).
Effective external networks reach out beyond the
safe confinement of one's own specialization to include
the best people possible rather than the most homo-
geneous grouping (Keele & DeLaMare-Schaefer,
1984). This includes seeking out networkers who are of
either gender, at the hub of various networks, and
who represent both supportive peer groups and estab-
lished leaders or power holders. Development of a
network based on the strengths of individuals also
improves the power of the network. Finally, a colle-
gial model of external networking involves reciproc-
ity: members of the network are involved in helping
each other excel.
Benefits of External Networking
The benefits which can be realized through exter-
nal networking are many. Certainly external networks
benefit professional career development. Networks
which include professionals from related disciplines,
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990 185
community individuals, and political leaders can
enhance a professional's perspective, knowledge and
resource base. The recommendations, advice,
sponsoring, and moral support that one can gain
through networking can enhance career development
(Green, 1982).
Rarely does one hear networking praised for what
it can do in a wider context. Many fail to consider the
more illusive, but vital long-term effects to the home
economics profession, other professions, and society
that networking will produce.
Benefits to the Home Economics Profession
External networking can contribute many benefits
to the home economics profession. Two are especially
important — growth of the profession, and improved,
less stereotyped views of home economics. Today, un-
like past decades, home economics functions in a com-
plex and sophisticated society with highly special-
ized fields of expertise. Professions, in order to survive
and grow, must cooperate, coordinate, and communi-
cate— internally and externally. We also live in an
era when home economics is devalued by many due to
a fixed, conventional perception of the profession.
This stereotype restricts individuality as a profession
and critical analyses of the profession's contributions.
While efforts to dispel this stereotype must occur in-
ternally, correction of this misconception can result
form strategies such as external networking. Growth
of the profession and improved, less stereotyped
views of home economics can occur as external net-
works increase and grow stronger.
Simultaneously, other benefits that can occur em-
anate from external networking include improvements
in the quality of teaching and research. Networks can
help us achieve integrated, interdisciplinary class of-
ferings with larger class enrollments, and improved
reputations, and increasingly sophisticated research
supported by expanded funding sources.
Teaching
As financial resources for education continue to de-
cline, more efficient ways of instruction must occur.
One way to increase class size and decrease repetitive
course offerings in post-secondary education is to cross-
list courses for two or more majors. For example, home
economics and agriculture education could offer joint
courses ranging from youth leadership development to
adult education. Students would benefit as broader
perspectives and additional expertise were added.
Furthermore, the establishment of a model for future
cooperative efforts in the workforce would encourage
continued interaction of professionals from various
disciplines. Through insights gained from related dis-
ciplines, the profession would benefit as these in-
sights were put to constructive use.
Secondary home economics programs could follow
this model by networking and co-instructing classes
with science, sociology, and psychology (Smith &
Hausafus, 1988). A marriage and family class from a
sociology (macro) and home economics (micro) perspec-
tive or a food science class from a chemistry (science)
and nutrition/food preparation (home economics) per-
spective represent innovative ways to benefit from ex-
ternal networking. Other outcomes also may result,
such as full or partial credit as a general education re-
quirement or increased reputation as an "academic
class."
Conversing with colleagues about teaching has
the potential to improve pedagogy. Colleagues could
be better teachers if they conversed with each other
about teaching practices and reasons supporting those
practices. Through discussion many educators have
identified innovative answers to tough instructional
dilemmas. The circumstances that make teaching
troublesome are not unique to institutions, disciplines
or individuals (Fox, 1983). Research by Gaff and
Morstain (1978) revealed that few colleagues talk to
each other about teaching. They surveyed 1,680 fac-
ulty from 14 institutions, 42 percent said that they
had never, during their entire career, talked with
anyone in detail about teaching. Specifically, they
had never experienced anyone who offered assistance
in clarifying course objectives, devising effective
student evaluation, or developing a more effective
approach for certain kinds of students. Only 25 percent
said that discussion on these topics had taken place
more than once (Gaff & Morstain, 1978). Many
different activities between colleagues provide the
potential to improve teaching. External networking
can result in informal, open-ended, loosely structured
conversations between educators from all disciplines
and serves as one strategy to address wide-ranging
topics centered around effective teaching.
Home economists may feel isolated in their work
environment in instances where schools, extension of-
fices, and businesses employ only one home economist.
Low motivation, lack of support, and stagnant think-
ing often result. External networking has the potential
to alleviate some of these stresses and burnout
feelings. Through cooperative efforts with other
professionals from related disciplines, support,
motivation and new ideas can be generated, some cases
to an even greater extent than from fellow home
economists.
Research
Networking with professionals from related dis-
ciplines can result in cross-disciplinary research ef-
186 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990
forts. For example, in the family relations area classi-
cal and scholarly work has resulted from joint re-
search efforts with psychology and sociology. Other
areas of home economics can emulate this model to
continue to achieve quality conceptualization and
methodology within research.
As the Hatch Act celebrates its 100th anniver-
sary, home economics and agriculture remain concep-
tually and historically linked, as well as based on
commonalty of purpose (Hefferan, Heltsley & Davis,
1987). Even though numerous situations exist where
agriculture and home economics could jointly address
the practical problems of people, few take advantage
of this opportunity. The most probable reason is due to
lack of external networking and cooperation. In real-
ity, networking with agriculturists may open doors to
cross-disciplinary research ranging from international
trade and use of products, to technological advances
affecting agriculture and individuals.
Expanded funding sources and collaborative pro-
posal writing are additional advantages. An analyses
of current requests for proposals indicates a growing
trend toward funding cross-disciplinary research. A
recent request for proposals at a land grant institution
reads, "higher priority will be given to cross-disci-
plinary research; the council particularly encourages
proposals in this category." Other major research
foundations such as the Spencer, Kellogg and Rocke-
feller Foundations have similar statements in their
research grants competition announcements. Agricul-
ture Experiment Stations continue to move in this di-
rection as an increasing number of grants are funded in
regional and cross-disciplinary research areas. While
expanded funding attracts researchers, so, too, does
the experience of learning from someone with exper-
tise in areas which differ from one's own.
Benefits to Other Professions
It is human nature to take action if, ultimately,
this action will benefit oneself. Yet, as a helping pro-
fession whose mission is to serve individuals and fam-
ilies, action such as external networking should be
viewed altruistically as well as egocentrically. From
an altruistic viewpoint, external networking can bene-
fit other professions, particularly other applied dis-
ciplines and helping professions.
External networking can enlighten other profes-
sions by relaying new knowledge of individuals and
families. Consequently, each profession can more ade-
quately addresses its problems. One of the most no-
table examples of external networking has occurred
between the medical profession and nutrition. Today
the medical profession increasingly looks to registered
dietitians as sources of accurate and current informa-
tion concerning eating habits, nutrients, special diets,
etc. This illustrates that while external networking
can enhance one's own profession, it can also enhance
other professions through shared knowledge which
may impact some aspect of their work.
This perspective may present a concern among
home economists. Will the sharing of knowledge with
other professions threaten the position of home eco-
nomics as a unique discipline? Brown and Paolucci
(1979) proposed a mission of home economics as
enabling individuals and families to build and
maintain systems of action which lead to self-
formation and enlightened, cooperative participation
in setting and attaining social goals (Brown &
Paolucci, 1979). While other helping professions may
have missions serving the family, home economics
distinguishes itself from these professions by the
nature and focus of problems with which it deals. The
mission of home economics is unique. Unlike other
professions, it deals with families' persistent
practical problems in light of individual
developmental changes, family history, and with
concerns for self-formation. Networking with other
professions can enable us to serve more adequately; it
should not threaten the unique perspective which
home economics offers.
Benefits to Individuals, Families, and Society
Perhaps the most important benefits of external
networking are those which individuals, families,
and society as a whole receive. Through cooperative
efforts with professionals from related disciplines, an
integrated, holistic approach is employed. The end
result is more plausible solutions or alternatives
which take into account the complexity of one's life,
rather than an isolated, highly specialized approach
with only one aspect in mind. Ultimately, a cross-
disciplinary, integrated approach views issues and
problems from a wider context which is more relevant
to contemporary society. In addition, this approach is
cost efficient as it can greatly reduce redundancy, and
can be more successful due to a wider base of support
and expertise. One such example is the integrated,
cross-discipline approach which has recently been
taken to treat individuals suffering from eating
disorders. By addressing nutritional, psychological,
self-image, and relationship issues as interrelated
and have impact on one another, professionals can
develop treatment which accounts for multiple
aspects rather than just one. The end result is a
treatment plan which is highly effective, because it
addresses the complexity of this issue (Neuman &
Halvorson, 1983).
(Continued on page 190.)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990 187
tt
Caring...A Permanent Possession For Teaching:
Phenomena Shared Through Story
Marian White-Hood
Vice Principal
Benjamin Tasker Middle School
Bowie, MD
Great lessons are learned
usually in simple and
everyday ways...
What I remember is the lesson
of friendship...
that is a permanent possession.
- Pearl S. Buck*
As I think about the power of lessons, I migrate to
those more revealing "of me" — lessons for those en-
trusted to me within the confines of my home eco-
nomics classroom. These lessons are now stories for me
to revisit and share. I recall my middle school stu-
dents — the heart and lifeblood of my existence as
home economics teacher. Our encounters and times to-
gether... stories in living, loving, and caring, friend-
ship, and being. These stories, I will never forget for
they have become the plasma of my pedagogy.
Following Nel Noddings' work, (1984) Caring: A
Feminine Approach to Ethnics and Moral Education, I
shall refer to the students that I teach as the "cared-
for" and to myself as the "one-caring." As the one-
caring, I am in tune with a number of themes that are
embedded in my personal way of being for my students.
I stand as mentor, friend, advocate, believer, giver,
and receiver. Pedagogy flushes out my concerns for the
age group and arouses my desires to create, stimulate,
and intrigue their adolescent minds.
The ones cared-for collectively present themselves
to me through dress, language, tone, actions, emotions,
and needs. They stand powerfully robust -- deeply
committed to the adolescent world, full of answers to
questions unasked, bound by youth mores, values, and
beliefs. These students enter my world of caring — the
classroom where lessons become stories and friendship
becomes a major theme.
Drawing from stories, I share a few prefatory
notes. First, my philosophy of teaching is one that
Pearl S. Buck. (1982). Cited in Susan Polis Schutz, A
friend forever p. 59. Boulder, Colorado: Blue
Mountain Press.
nurtures reciprocity. Benefits are mutually yielded
and enjoyed because all who enter the educative pro-
cess commit to family notions of giving and receiving. I
believe that we educate each other, developing and
cultivating physical, intellectual, aesthetic, and
moral faculties; show caring; provide opportunities to
think, collaborate, and gain new knowledge; build ties
and bonds of permanence; involve others in experience.
Second, I view teaching and learning in middle
school as a kind of co-inheritance. We, members of
the classroom community inherit together, all that
has come before us. Our blended experiences flow
through a "sieve of relevance," concealing the learn-
ing environment we cohabit. As we prepare the learn-
ing environment for our work together, we neatly store
the products of the sieve for future reflection and ac-
tion. Further, relationships are suppliant within the
teaching-learning environment. Always stretching,
bending, pulling, blending, and bearing, interrelated
strands provide a foundation for the lessons and stories
that emerge within the classroom.
Turning to my library of treasures — the stories
that are most dear -- I am called to the story of
Johnny. Just two years ago, Johnny was a struggling
adolescent deeply rooted in those cared-for. I mar-
veled at his desire to be one yet the same ~ robust,
powerful, active, accepted, yet independent. Despite
his tender nature, Johnny frantically sought the guise
needed to belong to/with the group — ones cared-for.
That is, interactions between Johnny and the one car-
ing were always warm and friendly. Yet, with
classmates Johnny found comfort with language, ac-
tions, and feelings that were distant and often intimi-
dating.
Once Johnny and his mom visited me after school.
She told of her son's love for the class, offered her
support, and volunteered to work with students in
home economics. Johnny smiled a proud sort of way.
Then we talked about activities that would motivate
the other students, then focused on Johnny's wants,
talents, and interests.
Johnny loved to dance, although dancing was not
one of his best points. He struggled to fit in with his
peers. He didn't have the moves, the rhythm, the
steps. Johnny loved to write, tell stories, and role
play. His idol was Jim, one of the more popular fig-
ures in the eight grade. Johnny tried to walk like Jim;
pose like Jim; talk like Jim and even think like Jim. It
188 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990
is important to note that "Jim" ways were hard to mir-
ror, but Johnny was determined to become his own idol
and friend.
The Johnny that only Johnny could be was more
subdued. He was a warm, caring, inquisitive, trusting
person. This "Johnny," mom and I both knew and
loved. We cared about the other Johnny too, but re-
alized that he was a misrepresentation of a fragile
image.
Johnny went to high school but returned to visit me
to see if I was still the same, still in the little home
economics classroom, still teaching the unit on family,
friends, special people. As we talked, he shared
things about his life, mom and sister, friends, and
volunteer work. Johnny was a volunteer at the
firehouse and loved it.
After his visit, I felt great. Johnny had truly
emerged! The caring person that I loved and admired
had peeled back the layers of tenderness to share his
deep respect for life and living. He followed his own
personal dream — not Jim's and he was completely
happy.
Then one day, while talking with a teacher, I
learned that Johnny had lost both legs in an accident.
The fire station had responded to an alarm. Johnny
boarded the rear of the truck, his customary place.
Trying to avoid a head on collision with a police car,
the fire truck swayed and turned over. Johnny was
pinned underneath it's back.
As I struggled to get all of the information from my
colleague, tears began to run down my cheek. They
were salty, then bitter. I hung up the phone; searched
for other numbers to call; then talked to students that
knew Johnny. The story was confirmed and I was lost
in a clammy place called my mind. A student
handicapped! My mind went black... then, I thought:
We've studied handicaps, disabilities, and depen-
dence/interdependence. I taught my students about
hardships using the flour dolls, egg babies, and other
hands-on gimmicks. We talked about diversity, dif-
ference, and acceptance. We discussed caring, personal
crisis situations. So what was left?
I continued to ponder. Wait a minute! There was
something very special about Johnny's class. I recalled
some of the Future Homemakers of America projects
that students generated — working with senior citi-
zens, teaching preschoolers, helping the homeless and
those in need. We collected can goods and clothing,
raised money for Children's Hospital, visited the
sick. Students in the class walked hand-in-hand,
side-by-side, together through fun and good times,
personal concerns, and even my ups and downs. We
j shared so much, learned from each other, and devel-
oped new insights and inroads. But, was this enough?
1 Would one of our seeds be able to survive? Were the
lessons complete? Would they stand the test of time,
place, circumstance, relatedness, and living? Would
the class story be a success ~ a pathbreaker for others
to follow?
Something devastating had occurred. Something
traumatic had happened to one of them, one of us.
Would learnings in home economics prevail? Would I
be able to face Johnny? His mom? The accident was
three weeks old, now. Why hadn't I been called?
Had my relationship with Johnny changed?
As questions continued in my mind, I began to sink
into an endless pit of anxiety, frustration, and wonder.
I picked up the phone and called the hospital. The
operator connected me to Johnny's room. The phone
rang and rang and rang. I thought, perhaps he's in x-
ray or something. Then I quickly hung the phone up.
Days went by and I was finally able to share the
story with friends. I thought about calling Johnny
again, but couldn't. I placed the number carefully be-
tween two pages of Nel Noddings (1984) book. I didn't
want to face dialing those seven cold digits (of pain
and anger.)
The next day, I returned to Nel's (1984) book. My
eyes found words of comfort. It was alright to cry, to be
concerned, to care. Teachers had feelings, too. In the
pedagogical classroom, there is a tremendous amount
of disclosure. The teacher and student mirror love and
respect for each other as they travel through the
process called schooling together. Being authentic,
trusting, telling, and seeing each other helps define
the friendship and leads to self-efficacy and esteem.
As the one-caring I was able to focus on my actions,
my fears, my anger, my reluctance, my caring. There
can be no detachment from my thoughts. Those cared-
for are young individuals, persons, children who be-
friend me. Every hour, class, time, experience, inter-
action, lesson with those cared-for offers a small bit —
a small seed of understanding and meaning. The times
we share contribute to our personal knowledge and
appreciation of the human condition. The lesson we
learn contribute to a story of caring and becomes a
permanent possession for living.
Johnny was only one of the individuals entering
the classroom and a pedagogical friendship — a warm
circle of love and respect. Often concerned about their
images, independence, and the world around them,
these adolescents seek refuge in each other, in signifi-
cant others, in teachers they trust. They seek to voice
a caring side — a side of compassion, connectedness,
and interrelatedness.
As one-caring I was left to make contact with
Johnnys' family, with Johnny. I searched the phone
directory, calling ten or twelve families. Finally, I
reached Johnny's mom. Our conversation was quick,
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990 189
short, and distant. She promised to call back — the
time was not yet right.
What had helped to create the special kind of
friendship between us? The understanding? The mo-
ment? Had it been the lessons learned, the experience
of co-inheritance, the back and forth reciprocity?
Perhaps the supple relationships that became so pro-
lific and sustaining? As I think about these questions,
about Johnny, I am reminded of the birds that eventu-
ally leave the nest. They leave with the insight,
wisdom, love, and care that the one-caring bestows.
They leave cared-for and this attitude,
understanding, and knowledge prefaces the story they
are bound to create. Only through caring are we able
to say, "so long, but never good-bye" — for caring in the
classroom becomes a permanent possession for each
character.
References
Buck, P. S. (1982). Cited in Susan Polis Schutz, A
friend, forever. Boulder, Colorado: Blue Mountain
Press, p. 59.
Nodding, N. (1984). Caring: A feminine approach to
ethics and moral education. Carrboro, NC:
Barclay Publishing. • • •
(Continued from page 187.)
Conclusion
Networking, both internally and externally, is an
essential, powerful strategy. However, a clear
distinction must be made concerning internal and
external networks. While internal networks
primarily benefit individual professionals in their
career growth, the impact of external networking goes
far beyond individual professionals. Networks which
reach out beyond the profession have the potential to
enhance the profession as a whole, other professions,
and, ultimately, society.
Like many other professions, home economics has
failed to adequately convey the message of external
networking to emerging professionals. Perhaps mem-
bers of the profession have failed to value and convey
external networking because it was never modeled to
them as novice professionals. Beliefs and behaviors
are difficult to adopt when there are no role models.
Yet, realizing this void in the profession's practice,
there must now exist a deliberate effort to encourage
and model external networking to emerging profes-
sionals. One of the best times to disclose this empow-
erment tactic is during professional preparation and
socialization into the profession. By modeling exter-
nal networking, and educating home economists on in-
herent benefits, the home economics profession will
dispel the current egocentric ideology and begin to
reap the numerous benefits which external networking
can yield.
REFERENCES
Brown, M., & Paolucci, B. (1979). Home economics: A
definition. Washington, D.C.: The American
Home Economics Association.
Fox, D. (1983, Fall). Personal theories of teaching.
Studies in Higher Education, 8, 151-163.
Gaff, J. , & Morstain, B. (1978, Fall). Evaluating the
outcomes. New Directions for Higher Education,
24, 73-83.
Green, M. F. (1982, Fall). A Washington perspective
on women and networking: The power and the pit-
falls. Journal of the National Association of
Women Deans, Administrators, and Counselors,
46, 17-21.
Hefferan, C, Heltsley, M. E., & Davis, E. Y. (1987,
Summer). Agricultural experiment station re-
search in home economics celebrates 100th an-
niversary. Journal of Home Economics, 79, 41-44.
Keele, R. L., & DeLaMare-Schaefer, M. (1984,
Spring). So what do you do now that you didn't
have a mentor? Journal of the National Associa-
tion of Women Deans, Administrators, and Coun-
selors, 47, 36-40.
Neuman, P. A., & Halvorson, P. A. (1983). Anorexia
nervosa and bulimia: A handbook for counselors
and therapists. New York: Van Nostrand Rein-
hold Co., Inc.
Pancrazio, S. B., & Gray, R. G. (1982, Spring). Net-
working for professional women: A collegial
model. Journal of the National Association of
Women Deans. Administrators, and Counselors,
45,16-19.
Smith, F. M., & Hausafus, C. 0. (1988, September).
Science and home economics: New partners in
Iowa. Vocational Education Journal, 63, 20-
Swoboda, M. J., & Millar, S. B. (1986, Fall). Net-
working-mentoring: Career strategy of women in
academic administration. Journal of the Na-
tional Association of Women Deans, Administra-
tors, and Counselors, 50, 8-12. • • •
When %vas the Cast time your oum
possibilities gave you goosipimptts?
190 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990
Managing Experiences with Children in High
School Parenting/Child Development Classes
Verna Hildebrand
Professor of Family and Child Ecology
College of Human Ecology
and
Rebecca Pena Hines
Assistant Director of Child Care Center
University of Texas Medical Center-Houston
Rebecca Pefia Hines — Verna Hildebrand
The experience of being involved in a guided
learning experience with a lively group of pre-kinder-
garten children can help your high school youth gain
needed and more realistic perspectives on the rigors
and responsibilities of parenthood. As home economics
teachers it is desirable to create opportunities to
involve teen students with young children in order
that the teens learn the behaviors and feelings one
experiences in quality interactions with children.
Such experiences with children can be appropriate in
classes in foods and nutrition, in home management, in
family relations, in parenting education, and in child
caregiver training.
The goals for students' guided learning experiences
with children may range from teaching the students
information and attitudes about children's develop-
ment, to helping them learn to become child care as-
sistants and better parents later on. (Sadly, the goals
are for today rather than for later in life for those
students who have had early pregnancies.) Goals
may focus on what children like to eat and what they
should eat. Or, goals can focus on learning about chil-
dren's books, how to read stories to children, and many
other things that future parents need to know.
Where and how much experience the youth are
given depends on the facilities available and the
amount of time the teacher fits into the class sched-
ule. The challenge for the teacher is to move ahead to
figure out how to provide this one-to-one experience
with children for the high school youth, rather than
lamenting that there is no way to provide such first
hand experience.
Many details have to be worked out when a deci-
sion is made to provide such a guided experience with
children. Five major managerial processes are re-
quired: Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Leading, and
Monitoring (Hildebrand, 1990). Each process will be
discussed briefly.
Planning.
Planning is done prior to action. Plans are made
with pencil and pad in hand. There are many details
to be written down and worked out before a group of
high school students are ready to work with children.
There are many particulars to understand. It is rec-
ommended that literature on early childhood pro-
grams be read before deciding just what type of pro-
gram to develop. Detailed plans need to be made be-
fore the idea is discussed with the school administra-
tors. The plan may need action by the Board of Educa-
tion.
Community people and members of the Board of
Education, like most people across the country, are
probably highly concerned about the teen problems of
today. A plan for a course or courses to help youth gain
a sense of the rigors and responsibilities of parenthood
through learning about and helping care for children
may be well received. To lay the groundwork for sup-
port, start first by reviewing your plans with your own
advisory committee. If you do not have an advisory
committee — organize one. It can be a valuable asset.
Advisory Committee. Carefully select the advi-
sory committee members from people whom you know
that are interested in your program. Even a small
three-person committee can be invaluable for giving
you feedback on your plans and for supporting those
plans once they are operational. Think of people from
business, labor, the media, cooperative extension
home economics; or, home economics alumnae, a parent
of a teen student, or a social worker. The community
people who serve on an advisory committee for your
department can help you gain the political clout to be
persuasive with the administration and the Board of
Education. Committee members can be prepared to
speak up for your program if funding cuts are proposed
that would severely curtail it. They often can help lo-
ILUNOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990 191
cate cooperating programs outside the school if you
can't have your own center.
Some home economics teachers spearhead cooper-
ation between the high school and the district's
kindergartens, three- and four-year old programs, and
before- and after-school programs. More and more
districts are starting full-day kindergartens and four-
year old programs, even programs for three-year-olds.
On-going programs, already paid for and sponsored by
the district, seem a fertile avenue to explore for
providing teenagers some practical work with
children. Be sure to explore the possibilities with
parents, teachers, and principals before lamenting
that the logistics would be impossible. Also realize
that your leadership may have long-range payoffs.
For example, after your classroom emphasis has
moved on to another subject, the students can still
volunteer to help in the early childhood programs,
thus gaining valuable work experience and career
inspiration.
The before- and after-school (latch-key) pro-
grams for kindergartners and other early elementary
children offer another avenue for the practical appli-
cation of the child development information you wish
your students to learn. The lunch room where young
children eat may offer your students an opportunity to
interact with children and to gain insights into chil-
dren's eating habits. The playground offers still
another opportunity to teach teens that appropriate
motor activities are based on each child's level of
development. In your community you may have family
day care homes, libraries, recreation centers, and
church schools groups where students could observe
and work with children.
You may have to create space for young children
within your classrooms. It may require pushing back
the worktables as Martha Caldwell did at Cimarron
High School (see inset story). Or, you may be fortu-
nate enough in your school to have a center especially
designed for your students to work with children.
Home Economics Teachers as Mentors
A few pre-kindergarten age sons and
daughters of the school's faculty entered the
high school home economics classrooms where
the work tables had been pushed back to make
room for the children to play. Colorful books,
just right for these three- and four-year-old
children, were invitingly displayed. Minia-
ture housekeeping equipment filled one corner
while in an adjacent area blocks, puzzles, and
small trucks were ready for the children. High
school students eagerly awaited the children's
arrival. The stated goal was to learn how to
interact with young children.
The above classroom sounds delightfully
current and modern. However, in reality this
scene occurred some four decades ago and was
author Hildebrand's first introduction to early
childhood eduction when she was a vocational
home economics student in Cimarron, Kansas
high school. Thanks to Martha Caldwell, the
home economics teacher, the students received
an opportunity to practice the basic concepts of
interacting with young children that were the
goals of the unit. Hildebrand went on to gradu-
ate from Kansas State University in Home Eco-
nomics. Her first position was that of home
economics teacher. Her career has spanned four
decades of teaching, research, and writing in
child development and early childhood educa-
tion, including 17 books. One of these books is
designed especially for high school students. It
is Parenting and Teaching Young Children,
1990 third edition is now available from Glen-
coe/McGraw-Hill.
Rebecca Pena Hines graduated in Home
Economics Education from Texas Tech Univer-
sity. As a student assistant she helped Verna
Hildebrand teach Spanish to the children at
the Texas Tech Laboratory Kindergarten.
Through Hildebrand's encouragement, after
earning the BS degree, Hines immediately
went into a MS degree program in child devel-
opment and early childhood education at
Washington State University. Since earning
the MS, she has spent two decades as a
teacher-trainer, Head Start teacher, child care
director, and early childhood specialist in the
Child Development Associate Program at
Texas Southern University and in work with
the National Academy of Early Childhood
Program's center accreditation program. For
many years she was one of only a very few Mex-
ican-American early childhood specialist in
the country. She is in high demand as a consul-
tant for government and private agency pro-
grams.
Each author's background shows where a
home economics teacher made a significant dif-
ference in the career path of a student.
Licensing and Accreditation
What they mean and how they differ, will be
important considerations if you organize your own
center, or if you are going to place students out in the
192 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990
community. These measures help designate quality
centers.
Licensing is required for regular half- and full-
day child care programs in most states. States usually
require minimum standards in children's early child-
hood programs. Licensing is typically administered in
either a department of social services or a department
of health. Check locally to learn whether a short two
hour program organized on a short-term basis has to be
licensed. Usually, longer-day programs, such as the
vocational technical center programs that are opened
on a regular full-day basis must be licensed. Laws
specify requirements for space, personnel, teacher-
child ratio, health procedures, and many other crite-
ria when keeping children in centers for care and edu-
cation.
Accreditation is a system designed by the Na-
tional Association for the Education of Young Chil-
dren for recognizing high-quality in many types of
early childhood programs (Bredekamp, 1984). Ac-
creditation is a voluntary program, and one that gives
evidence of high quality to parents and the commu-
nity. Accreditation gives a center's funding agency,
staff and parents assurance that the operation and
program of the center are of high-quality, rather than
minimum quality that licensing assures.
Organizing
The organizing process comes after plans are made
and approved. Organizing is the action part of making
plans become realities. Herein you order and prepare
the materials, equipment, supplies, and space needed.
You make schedules for staff and children, you see
that items needed to carry out the program are all
available. You contact parents and enroll children.
Staffing
You may be the lead teacher for the children as
well as the classroom teacher for your high school
students. Or, you may secure another trained adult to
carry out the program with the children, while you
carry out the program for the students. Students will
be taught to act as staff members and their future em-
ployability may be a major goal. Preparing the stu-
dents for their roles with the children and giving
them feedback will become the responsibility of the
students' classroom teacher with the cooperation of
the teacher working with the children's group where
the students participate. Close staff communication is
essential to balance the needs of the high school stu-
dents and the needs of children. A laboratory program
can be very desirable from the children's point of view
because they will have more willing hands to help
and guide them. However, these inexperienced hands
need lots of tutoring and modeling to assure parents
that their children are receiving a high-quality
early childhood experience along with being part of
educational programs for high schoolers.
Leading
Your skills in leadership will be challenged as
you coordinate a program for getting youth together
with young children. You will be innovative as you
think of new approaches and try new things. You will
be reaching out to others in your school and community
to make these connections between children and high
schoolers happen. You will deal with the profes-
sional early childhood community who are working
with accreditation and standards, with teacher train-
ing, and with parents. The contact with others inter-
ested in young children will enrich your courses for
students. Participation in your professional associa-
tions gives you contact with leaders and helps im-
prove your programs.
Monitoring
Every teacher who manages a program must serve
an evaluation function, keeping the planned objectives
in mind as the performance takes place. You will con-
stantly monitor — keeping alert for the high quality
program that is your goal for both children and youth.
Plaudits follow successes, of course. However, when
deviations arise, you will make corrections immedi-
ately to restore the high standards you've set for your
program. Giving appropriate growth-producing feed-
back is essential to all — the students, the parents, the
children, and the administration. Your knowledge of
child development and the appropriate practice of
early childhood education will be utilized to give
feedback to your client groups (Hildebrand, 1990).
In conclusion, you, as a home economics teacher,
can use your managerial skills to ensure a rich envi-
ronment of practice for youth as they make contact
with young children and learn to understand children
and serve their needs. Your efforts will help
strengthen future families. You have a golden oppor-
tunity for influencing the future generations through
this work.
References
Hildebrand, V. (1990). Managment of child devel-
opment centers. New York: Macmillan. p. 41-55.
Bredekamp, S. Ed. (1984). Accreditation criteria and
procedures of the National Academy of Early
Childhood Programs. Washington, DC: National
Association for the Education of Young Children.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990 193
Lifestyle Diseases: Equal Risk for
Men and Women?
Rose J. Davis
Extension Food and Nutrition Specialist
and Professor of Home Economics
Clemson University Extension Service
Pee Dee Research and Education Center
Florence, SC
Adults are concerned about health and the
prevention of chronic diseases, such as heart disease,
cancer, and stroke. Many questions are being asked.
Much has been written about the health statistics for
men, but are women at equal risk for the chronic
diseases? What does lifestyle have to do with the
chronic diseases? Can we prevent these diseases by
changing our lifestyle?
What is a lifestyle disease? In this author's
opinion, a lifestyle disease would be an illness that is
influenced, at least partially, by behaviors over
which you have some control. Behaviors such as food
choices, alcohol consumption, smoking, and physical
activity would fit into this category.
The three leading causes of death in the United
States, heart disease, cancer, and stroke, have been
related to some of these behaviors. Listed below are
some statistics that are associated with these
diseases (DHHS, 1988).
Heart Disease:
- Declined, but it is still the leading cause of death in
the U.S.
- 1.25 million heart attacks occur each year; two-
thirds of these in men.
- Approximately 540,000 people die of heart attacks
each year; 250,000 are women.
- Cost: $49 billion annually in direct health care costs
and lost productivity.
Cancer:
- More than 475,000 people died of cancer in 1987.
- During the same period, 900,000 new cases were
diagnosed.
- Cost: $72 billion annually for direct health care
costs, lost productivity, and premature mortality.
Stroke:
- Occurs in 500,000 people per year.
- 150,000 deaths each year.
- Approximately 2 million Americans are living
with stroke related disabilities.
- Cost: More than $11 billion annually.
Note that for these three diseases the cost exceeds
$132 billion each year.
What about women? What is their disease
profile? What health habits are influencing these
diseases?
Heart Disease:
Because research on coronary heart disease has
concentrated on men, less is known about the causes,
prevention techniques and treatment in women. As an
example, in the well known study that revealed that
an aspirin every other day can reduce the risk of heart
attack by almost one-half, the research was done on
22,000 physicians — all male (University of
California, 1988).
Dr. William Castelli, Director of the
Framingham Heart Study has stated, "Because of the
myth that women don't get heart attacks, doctors may
not take women's signs and symptoms seriously"
(University of California, 1988, p. 1). Yet, the
statistics tell us that 250,000 women die each year
from heart attacks.
Other interesting data concerning women and
heart disease are that the death rate in African
American women is 19 percent higher than white
American women. Women who have gone through
menopause have twice the risk of heart attack as
women who have not entered menopause (Sandmaier,
1987).
The prognosis for women after a heart attack is
bleaker than for men. Women have a higher death
rate within the first month after a heart attack and
have a greater chance of a second heart attack
(University of California, 1988).
High blood cholesterol is a major risk factor for
heart disease. Over one-third of American women
have cholesterol levels that put them at risk for this
disease. For example, women ages 45-74 who have
cholesterol levels over 240 mg/dl are more than twice
as likely to develop heart disease as women with
levels below 200 mg/dl (Sandmaier, 1987).
194 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990
Obesity or being overweight in women is
associated with heart disease, stroke, and other
heart related deaths. As a woman gets older, she
requires fewer calories to maintain her weight. For
example, after menopause, a woman's calorie
requirement is 15 percent lower than when she was in
college, yet her nutrient requirement, except for iron, is
the same (Sandmaier, 1987).
It is surprising that obesity is more prevalent
among women below the poverty level. It is puzzling
that the Hanes study (U.S. Department of Health,
Education and Welfare, 1979) found that these women
consumed fewer calories than women in other income
groups.
Cancer:
The Department of Health and Human Services
(1988) has stated that lung cancer is one of the most
serious threats to a woman's health today. The final
statistics will probably reveal that lung cancer
deaths in women exceed those from breast cancer.
The number one cause of lung cancer in women is
smoking. The number of women who smoke is
increasing. Women under the age of 23 are the fastest
growing group of smokers (DHHS, 1988).
Stroke:
Approximately 100,000 women die annually from
strokes. The death rate for African American women
is 79 percent higher than for white American women
(Sandmaier, 1987).
The single most important risk factor of a stroke is
high blood pressure. It is more common and more
serious in African American women (Sandmaier, 1987).
The facts about these three "lifestyle diseases"
are sobering. Behaviors such as smoking, weight
control, physical activity and diet are some of the
areas where women need to improve. These behaviors
can influence the risk factors for the "lifestyle
diseases" risk factors such as high blood cholesterol,
high blood pressure, and obesity.
Food choices and the nutritive value of foods are
now of great interest. The media bombards the public
with information on these subjects. Some of the
reports are factual, others fictitious. Recently, the
scientific community has released reports
emphasizing the importance of diet in maintaining
good health.
The 1988 Surgeon General's Report on Nutrition
and Health (DHHS, 1988) states that five of the ten
leading causes of death in the United States have
been associated with diet (heart disease, cancer,
strokes, diabetes, and atherosclerosis). Three others,
unintentional injuries, suicide, and chronic liver
disease and cirrhosis, have been related to alcohol
consumption.
The Surgeon General's Report (DHHS, 1988)
further stated that, "For two out of three adult
Americans who do not smoke and do not drink
excessively, one personal choice seems to influence
long-term health prospects more than any other —
what we eat" (p. 1).
Many people want to know what percentage of
deaths from these diseases are due to the food we eat.
The National Research Council's report, "Diet and
Health: Implications for Reducing Chronic Disease
Risk", (National Research Council, 1989), states that
because of traits that may be inherited from your
family and from environmental exposures, it is not
possible to give an actual percentage of deaths due to
poor diets.
In 1985, the Human Nutrition Information Service
initiated the Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by
Individuals. The diets of women have been analyzed
from the 1985 report. The following data compare
women in 1950 and 1977 (Rizek & Tippet, 1989).
Compared to 1977, women are consuming:
• more skim and low-fat milk
• more carbonated soft drinks
• more mixtures that were mainly meat, poultry and
fish
• more grain products
• less whole milk
• less meat (as nonmixtures)
• fewer eggs
Women's intakes for the following nutrients were
below the Recommended Dietary Allowances:
• Vitamin B-6
• Folacin
• Vitamin E
• Calcium
• Iron
• Magnesium
• Zinc
The recommended intake for fat is 30 percent of
calories. Low-income women consume 36 percent of
their calories in fat; high-income women consume 38
percent. What is causing the high fat intake? Women
are consuming more cheese, baked goods, table fats and
salad dressings. Only 12 percent of the women
surveyed had fat intakes below 30 percent of calories.
It is very clear that women need guidance on how
to reduce fat with emphasis on getting the required
nutrients!
Dietary recommendations have been released
recently by the National Research Council (1989).
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990 195
Combining the recommendations of several reports and
citing scientifically based evidence, the following
dietary recommendations have been given:
• 30 percent of calories should come from fat, 10
percent or less from saturated fat.
• Select leaner cuts of meat, trim off excess fat,
remove skin from poultry, change from butter to
margarine; use less oils and fat; avoid fried foods.
Also select low-fat and skim milk, cheese and
yogurt.
• Reduce intake of cholesterol to 300 mg per day.
• Eat five or more servings of a combination of
vegetable and fruits, especially green and yellow
vegetables and citrus fruits daily.
• Eat six or more servings of complex carbohydrates
each day emphasizing a combination of breads,
cereals and legumes. Eat whole grain cereals and
breads rather than foods and drinks containing
added sugars. Avoid pies, pastries and cookies.
• Maintain protein intake at moderate levels.
• Balance food intake and physical activity to
maintain appropriate body weight.
• The National Research Council (1989) does not
recommend alcohol consumption. For those who
drink alcoholic beverages, the committee
recommends limiting consumption to less than one
ounce of pure alcohol in a single day. This is the
equivalent of two cans of beer, two small glasses of
wine, or two average cocktails. Pregnant women
should avoid alcoholic beverages.
• Limit total daily intake of salt to six grams or less.
Salty, highly processed, salt-preserved, and salt-
pickled foods should be consumed sparingly.
• Maintain adequate calcium intake.
• Avoid taking dietary supplements in excess of the
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) in any
one day. Vitamin/mineral supplements that exceed
the RDA and other supplements, such as protein
powders, single amino acids, fiber, and lecithin, not
only have no known health benefits for the
population but their use may be detrimental to
health.
In summary, although men seem to be at higher
risk for some of the lifestyle diseases, women are not
immune to the consequences of poor health habits.
Diet, smoking, obesity and lack of physical activity
are increasing the risks for women. All of these risk
factors can be improved. The literature indicates that
the lifestyle diseases are influenced by these
detrimental behaviors.
References
DHHS (U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services). (1988). Women's Health: A Century of
Progress and Future Challenges. Public Health
Service, News and Features from the National
Institutes of Health, 88 (1):18; 20-21.
DHHS (U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services). (1988). The Surgeon General's Report on
Nutrition and Health: Summary and
Recommendations. Public Health Service, DHHS
(PHS) Publication No. 88-50211, 78 pages.
National Research Council. (1989). Diet and Health:
Implications for Reducing Chronic Disease Risk
Executive Summary. Committee on Diet and
Health, Food and Nutrition Board. National
Academy Press. Washington, DC: 20 pages.
Rizek, R.L., & Tippet, K.S. (1989, January/ February).
Diets of American Women in 1985. Food and
Nutrition News 61 (l):l-4.
Sandmaier M. (1987) The Healthy Heart Handbook
for Women. U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, Public Health Services,
National Institutes of Health. NIH Publication
No. 87-2720. 32 pages.
University of California, School of Public Health.
(1988). The Female Factor. Berkeley Wellness
Letter 4 (6):1.
University of California. (1988, April). Aspirin: Yes,
no, maybe? Berkeley Wellness Center, 4(7):1.
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
(1979). Public Health Service, Dietary intake
source data. United States, 1971-1974. DHEW
Publication Number 79-12221. Myattsville, MD:
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, p. 1-9.
Willis, Judith. (1984). The Gender Gap At the Dinner
Table. U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, Public Health Services. HHS
Publication No. (FDA) 84-2197, 8 pages. • • •
(Continued from page 166.)
Shor, I. (1987). Critical teaching and everyday life.
Chicago: University cf Chicago Press.
Thomas, R.G. (1986). Alternative views of home eco-
nomics: Implications for K-12 home economics cur-
riculum. Journal of Vocational Home Economics
Education, 4(2), 135-154.
Vincinti, V. (1982). Toward a clearer professional
identity. Journal of Home Economics, 74(3)x 20-25.
Wisconsin home economics guide for curriculum devel-
opment grades 6-12. (1984). Madison, WI: Wiscon-
sin Department of Public Instruction. • • •
196 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990
INDEX for Volume XXXIII
Compiled by Sally Rousey and Linda Simpson
Career and Vocational Education
Paris, L. (1989). Career preparation — Programs for
the work world. XXXIII (1), 29-33.
Peterat, L., & Smith, M. G. (1989). Toward a global
home economics curriculum. XXXIII (1), 34-38.
Quilling, J., Martin, B. B., & Hartsfield, P. (1990). A
process for curriculum development: Putting a sys-
tem into action. XXXIII (3), 84-85.
Child Care and Issues
Warnock, M. M. (1990). School-age child care: Solu-
tion to latchkey problem. XXXIII (3), 92-93.
Child Development
Hildebrand, V., & Hines, R. P. (1990). Managing Ex-
periences with Children in High School Parent-
ing/Child Development Classes. XXXIII (5), 191-
193.
Reineke, R. A., & Irvine, M. A. (1990). Home
economics curriculum review: A local school
district's approach. XXXIII (5), 167-171, 180.
Thomas, J. (1990). ubject communities as curricular in-
fluences: A case study. XXXIII (4), 153-157.
Turnbull, S. G. (1989). The issue of curriculum change
in clothing studies. XXXIII (2), 72-75.
Uhlenberg, B. (1989). Strengthening single-parent
families. XXXIII (2), 42-44.
Curriculum Development and Issues
(see also FHA-HERO)
Anderson, E. P., & Brands, M. F. (1990). The "Real"
home economics curriculum. XXXIII (5), 172-173,
184.
Carr, C, & Greene, D. (1990). Vocational home eco-
nomics today results of a national phone survey.
XXXIII (3), 82-83.
Education Technology
Favaro, E., & van Alstyne, A. (1989). Computers in
the home: A curriculum project. XXXIII (1), 26-28.
Evaluation
Cooke, B. (1990). Teaching and evaluating courses in
parenthood education for adolescents. XXXIII (3),
86-88.
Eyre, L. (1989). Gender equity and home economics
curriculum. XXXIII (1), 22-25.
Favaro, E., & van Alstyne, A. (1989). Computers in
the home: A curriculum project. XXXIII (1), 26-28.
Hultgren, F. H. (1990). Bases for curriculum decisions
in home economics: From questions to lived
practice. XXXIII (5), 162-166, 196
Peterat, L. (1989). Home economics curriculum for
Canadian schools. XXXIII (1), 18-19.
Extension
Newhouse, J. K. (1989). Suggestions for extension
home economists programming at congregate nutri-
tion sites. XXXIII (2), 76-78.
Family Life Education
Boyd, J. R. (1990). Families coping in a technological
society. XXXIII (3), 110-114.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990 197
Lawhon, T. (1989). Family life: Using premarital
agreements as a teaching tool. XXXIII (2),50-53.
Mitchell, B. J. (1989). Implementation of the compo-
nents needed for a teenage-parent program.
XXXIII (2), 45-47.
Silliman, B. (1989). LIFESPAN: Experiential learn-
ing about family development. XXXIII (2), 48-49.
Uhlenberg, B. (1989). Strengthening single-parent
families. XXXIII (2), 42-44.
Future Orientation of Home Economics
Adair, H. (1989). The best for home economics educa-
tion is yet to come. XXXIII (1), 7-9.
Carr, C, & Greene, D. (1990). Vocational home eco-
nomics today results of a national phone survey.
XXXIII (3), 82-83.
Feather, B. L. (1990). Challenges and opportunities
for teaching clothing in the 1990s. XXXIII (3), 103-
105.
Home Economics Around the World
Bannerman, N., Rebus, S., & Smith, A. (1989). Cana-
dian Home Economics Association 1939-1989.
XXXIII (1), 2-6.
Pain, B. (1989). The education of home economics
teachers in Canada. XXXIII (1), 20-21.
Paris, L. (1989). Career preparation — Programs for
the work world. XXXIII (1), 29-33.
Peterat, L. (1989). Home economics curriculum for
Canadian schools. XXXIII (1), 18-19.
Young, W. (1989). In search of place. XXXIII (1), 15-
17.
Housing and Interior Design
Tripple, P. A., & Makela, C. J. (1990). Adaptable
housing for lifelong needs. XXXIII (3), 106-109.
Wysocki, J. L. (1989). Book reviews. XXXIII (2), 80.
History and Philosophy of Home
Economics Education
Adair, H. (1989). The best for home economics educa-
tion is yet to come. XXXIII (1), 7-9.
Carr, C, & Greene, D. (1990). Vocational home eco-
nomics today results of a national phone survey.
XXXIII (3), 82-83.
Bannerman, N., Rebus, S., & Smith, A. (1989). Cana-
dian Home Economics Association 1939-1989.
XXXIII (1), 2-6.
Smith, M. G. (1989). Alice Ravenhill: International
pioneer in home economics. XXXIII (1), 10-14.
White-Hood, M. (1990). Caring ... A permanent
possession for teaching: A phenomena shared
through story. XXXIII (5), 188-190.
Young, W. In search of place. XXXIII (1), 15-17.
Human Development
(see Family Life Education, Child Development,
Human Relations, Human Roles)
DeBord, K. (1990). The effects of competitive awards
on self-esteem. XXXIII (5), 181-184.
Goodwin, E. F. Journey toward peak performance: A
tribute to Dr. Hazel Taylor Spitze. XXXIII
(3),120.
Light, H. K. (1990). Maintaining momentum. XXXIII
(3), 96-99.
Mellin, M., & Forbes, B. (1989). Building self-esteem
in middle school students through home economics
and industrial technology. XXXIII (2), 61-63.
Human Relations
(see Human Roles)
Eyre,L. (1989). Book reviews. XXXIII (1), 39.
198 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990
Peterat, L. (1989). Book reviews. XXXIII (1), 40.
Public Relations
Human Roles
Eyre, L. (1989). Gender equity and home economics
curriculum. XXXIII (1), 22-25.
Bonde, M. (1989). Marketing home economics: Let's
stop assuming and start selling. XXXIII (2), 65-67.
Stenberg, L. A., & Elliot, J. (1990). External
networking: The untapped resource. XXXIII (5),
185-187, 190.
International Education
(see Home Economics Around the World,
Comparative Home Economics Education)
Peterat, L., & Smith, M. G. (1989). Toward a global
home economics curriculum. XXXIII (1), 34-38.
Yahnke, S. J., Gebo, E. M., & Love, C. T. (1990). Com-
munity meetings: A tool for assessing local needs.
XXXIII (3), 115-117.
Research
Nutrition Education
(see Food and Nutrition Education)
Carr, C, & Greene, D. (1990). Vocational home eco-
nomics today results of a national phone survey.
XXXIII (3), 82-83.
Gubser, D., & Holt, B. A. (1989). SUPERMARKET
SAFARI, Tracking down good nutrition in the gro-
cery store. XXXIII (2), 64.
Newhouse, J. K. (1989). Suggestions for extension
home economists programming at congregate nutri-
tion sites. XXXIII (2), 76-78.
Teacher Education
(see In-Service Education, Gaming and
Simulation, Teaching as a Profession)
Pain, B. (1989). The education of home economics
teachers in Canada. XXXIII (1), 20-21.
j\
Parenting
(see Family Life Education, Child Development)
Cooke, B. (1990). Teaching and evaluating courses in
parenthood education for adolescents. XXXIII (3),
86-88.
McBride, B. A., & McBride, R. J. (1990). Rethinking
the role of fathers: Meeting their needs through
support programs. XXXIII (3), 89-91.
Mitchell, B. J. (1989). Implementation of the compo-
nents needed for a teenage-parent program.
XXXIII (2), 45-47.
Uhlenberg, B. (1989). Strengthening single-parent
families. XXXIII (2), 42-44.
Teaching Aids and Teaching Techniques
Abramsen, J. (1990). Taking Charge: Thinking criti-
cally and creatively toward ethical action.
XXXIII (4), 143-144
Block, M. A. (1990). Are workbooks really necessary?
XXXIII (3), 100.
Crawford, C, & Melvin, M. (1990). Does
supplemental reading help? XXXIII (5), 194-196.
Dail, P. W. (1989). Content analysis as an innovative
teaching technique for home economists. XXXIII
(2), 56-60.
Gifford, K. (1990). Relationship course. XXXIII (4),
136.
Gubser, D., & Holt, B. A. (1989). SUPERMARKET
SAFARI, Tracking down good nutrition in the gro-
cery store. XXXIII (2), 64.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990 199
Herget, J. (1990). Cooperative learning. XXXIII (3),
94-95.
Holloman, L. O. (1990). Relevance in teaching cloth-
ing: A case for the human ecological approach.
XXXIII (4), 145-147.
Illinois Teacher Staff. (1990). A salute to the 1989
home economics teachers of the year. XXXIII (4),
123-134.
Kowalczyk, D., Neels, N., & Sholl, M. (1990). The
critical perspective: A challenge for home
economics teachers. XXXIII (5), 174-177, 180.
Wooldridge, D. G., Sebelius, M., & Ross, S. (1989). In-
ductive teaching: A strategy to teach housing con-
cepts. XXXIII (2), 68-71.
Teaching as a Profession
Issues and Concerns
Block, M. A. (1990). Teaching to 'open fences.' XXXIII
(5), 178-180.
Peterat, L., & Eyre, L. (1990). Charting a career
path — Voices of Home economics educators.
XXXIII (4), 158-160.
Lawhon, T. (1989). Family life: Using premarital
agreements as a teaching tool. XXXIII (2),50-53.
Tebo, J. T. (1989). Philosophy narrative. XXXIII (2),
79.
Light, H. K. (1990). Family life education in the
1990s. The challenge: What shall we teach.
XXXIII (4), 148-152.
McBride, B. A., & McBride, R. J. (1990). Rethinking
the role of fathers: Meeting their needs through
support programs. XXXIII (3), 89-91.
Miracle, G. (1990). MIRACLE: Making ideas reality
allowing creative learning in entrepreneurship. XXIII
(4), 135.
Parnell, F. B. (1990). Eating for the health of it.
XXXIII (4), 139-140.
Powell, J. (1990). Entrepreneurship. XXXIII (4), 141-
142.
Storrer, I. (1989). Teaching survival techniques in a
changing world. XXXIII (2), 54-55.
Tripple, P. A., & Makela, C. J. (1990). Adaptable
housing for lifelong needs. XXXIII (3), 106-109.
White-Hood, M. (1990). A phenomenological plat-
form for teaching at-risk students. XXXIII (3),
101-102.
Whitener, J. (1990). Integration of FHA/HERO into
the classroom. XXXIII (4), 138.
Wolff, K. (1990). Independent life skills. XXXIII (4),
137.
Textiles and Clothing
Feather, B. L. (1990). Challenges and opportunities
for teaching clothing in the 1990s. XXXIII (3), 103-
105.
Turnbull, S. G. (1989). The issue of curriculum change
in clothing studies. XXXIII (2), 72-75. •••
Current Nutrition Labeling
Reprinted from:
Food Insight
International Food Information Council
1100 Connecticut Ave N.W. , Suite 430
Washington, DC 20036
Federal regulations governing nutrition labeling have changed
little since 1973, when FDA first developed labels to give consumers
information about nutrients. Nutrition labeling is required only if a
nutrient is added to a food or if a nutrition claim is made about a
food. Nutrition labeling is optional for all other packaged foods.
When nutrition labeling is provided, manufacturers must
include serving size, number of servings per container, caloric
content, grams of protein, carbohydrate and fat, milligrams of
sodium, and vitamin A, vitamin C, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin,
calcium and iron content expressed as a percentage of the U.S.
Recommended Daily Allowance (U.S. RDA). All nutrient values
are listed per serving.
Manufacturers may also include information about fatty acid
composition (saturated and unsaturated) and cholesterol content.
Vitamins D, E, B6, folic acid, biotin, pantothenic acid, phosphorus,
iodine, magnesium, zinc and copper may also be stated as
percentages of the U.S. RDA. If a label claim is made about any of
these nutrients, or if any are added, they must be included in
nutrition labeling.
Currently, about 61 percent of products regulated by FDA bear
nutrition labeling. More than half of these labels have been
adopted voluntarily by the manufacturer.
200 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1990
PUBLICATION
GUIDELINES
1. Articles, lesson plans, teaching techniques are welcome.
2. Submit two double spaced, typewritten copies. For computer
generated manuscripts, please send a diskette along with the
required number of hard copies. Include the name of the word
processing program and give the file name of the manuscript.
3. Include any visual aids or photographs which relate to the content
of the manuscript.
4. Include a small black and white photo of the author, as well as cur-
rent professional position, location, and title.
5. Document your references using APA style.
6. Submit articles anytime.
7. Editorial staff make the final decision about publication.
8. Please forward articles to:
Illinois Teacher
352 Education Building
1310 South Sixth Street
University of Illinois
Champaign, Illinois 61820
Send for: "Information for Prospective Authors"
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"\ . ' . Volume XXXTV, Number 1
'" September/October, 1990
ILLINOIS TEACHER
Home Economists As Leaders in the Workplace and the Community
Foreword, The Editor 1
The Philosophy of Home Economics Teachers at Urbana Middle School,
Janine Duncan, Deborah Tamimie, and Marilyn Mastny 2
Empowering Students to Assure School Success, Henry Meares 3
Tiger Stride: Stepping into Tradition at Urbana Middle School,
Janine Duncan 7
Common Ground: Urbana Middle School's Conflict Mediation,
Fred Schrumpf 8
Music: The Key to the Heart, Janine Duncan 13
The Feelings Jar, Marilyn Mastny 14
Handicapped . . . Or Handicap able"?, Marilyn Mastny 16
Global Education: Home Economics Teachers' Ethical Obligation,
Janine Duncan 17
Teens Helping Teens: A Teen Parent Support Bazaar, Deborah Tamimie 22
Real Life, Real People, Real Caring: What Home Economics Is Really About,
Janine Duncan 23
Developing A Coalition on Teen Pregnancy Prevention, Marilyn Mastny 25
Parenting Simulation: Teacher Responsibility and Universal Care-Giving,
Janine Duncan 28
Our Environment: A Home Economics Issue/ Concern, Deborah Tamimie 31
Technology: People Make the Difference, Marilyn Mastny 34
Sanitation: A Scientific, Hands-On Approach, Janine Duncan 37
American Home Economics Association, Certification and Commitment,
Marilyn Mastny 39
Poetic Justice, Marilyn Mastny 40
Illinois Teacher of Home Economics
ISSN 0739-148X
A publication of the Division of Home Economics Education,
Department of Vocational and Technical Education,
College of Education, University of Illinois,
Champaign, Illinois 61820
Illinois Teacher Staff
Mildred Griggs, Professor and Editor
Norma Huls, Office Manager
June Chambliss, Technical Director
Sally Rousey, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Linda Simpson, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Other Home Economics Education Division Staff and Graduate Students
Catherine Burnham, Graduate Assistant and Ed.D. Candidate
Vida U. Revilla, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Alison Vincent, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Volume XXXIV, No. 1, September /October, 1990. Published five
times each academic year. Subscriptions $15.00 per year. Foreign, in-
cluding Canada, $18.00 per year. Special $10.00 per year ($12.00
Foreign) for undergraduate and graduate students when ordering by
teacher educator on forms available from Illinois Teacher office.
Single copies $3.50. Foreign $4.00. All checks from outside the U.S.
must be payable through a U.S. bank.
Address:
Telephone:
ILLINOIS TEACHER
University of Illinois
352 Education Building
1310 S. Sixth Street
Champaign, IL 61820
217/244-0820
©1990
Foreword
In the past, home economics teachers in junior high and middle schools have asked
us to focus some attention on programs at those levels. In this issue we do that. This
entire issue was written by the home economics teachers, social worker and principal of
a middle school. The content focuses on their personal philosophy, curriculum content,
and school mission and student learning experiences. We are grateful to the home
economics teachers, Marilyn Mastny, Janine Duncan and Deborah Tamimie for their
work on this issue.
Our theme for 1990-1991 is "Home Economists As Leaders in the Workplace and the
Community." This issue is consistent with that theme. Marilyn, Janine and Deborah
are leaders in their school and community.
We encourage all of our readers to take the time to write about the leadership you
have provided as home economists in your school, business, industry and/or community
setting. Tell us what you are doing, why, what you have accomplished, what you have
learned as a result of your efforts, and what you see as implications for other home
economists.
Knowing about your good work will give us increased pride in our profession and new
ideas to help us in our own practice. We look forward to receiving your manuscripts.
Best wishes for the school year.
The Editor
Marilyn Mastny
Janine Duncan
Deborah Tamimie
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/ October, 1990 1
The Philosophy of Home Economics Teachers
at Urbana Middle School
Janine Duncan
Deborah Tamimie
Marilyn Mastny
Urbana Middle School
Home Economics Teachers
This issue of Illinois Teacher contains articles
about the home economics program at Urbana Middle
School. The nature of the program that we have
developed and implemented is based in part on our
philosophy of life, home economics, teaching, etc.
Our beliefs about the needs of students, our
community, and society have influenced our curricu-
lum. We prefaced the articles with some background
information on what we are trying to achieve via our
middle school home economics program and with
some of our beliefs that have a direct impact on our
curriculum.
Home economics at Urbana Middle School mir-
rors its profession's national mission of improving
family life. We try to empower our students to grow
within their present home while providing a posi-
tive vision for their future families. Within this
family framework we seek to educate students on a
variety of topics to help insure their success.
Family members vary according to age, size, and
ability. So do the members of classes which consti-
tute our school based families. All individuals
within our classroom "family" structure are
encouraged to share their hopes and feelings as they
become the best that they can be. Students learn to
accept the different abilities possessed by their
classmates. They see that their success in home
economics depends upon performance based on their
own abilities, rather than on a comparison with
their classmates.
The term "family" has many meanings to us. We
want our students to have an understanding of fami-
lies that includes, yet goes beyond, their personal
individual experiences. We want our students to rec-
ognize that their family may include fellow class-
mates, schoolmates, and community members. It is
important for students to realize that it doesn't stop
there; they are truly members of the family of hu-
manity. Commitment to their personal family life is
not a high priority for many middle school-aged
children. Often developing a sense of responsibility
to their community and their world will stimulate a
trickle-down effect of responsibility to their per-
sonal home environment. We believe that we have
an ethical obligation to try to insure students' social
awareness and eventual responsibility within the
students' school, community, world, and home. Three
service projects we have found eye opening are de-
scribed in detail in this issue of Illinois Teacher.
(See Teen-Parent Support Bazaar, Global Education:
A Home Economics Teacher's Ethical Obligation,
and Recycling).
Developing a sense of responsibility towards
others cannot be achieved by students without a
healthy sense of themselves. We also believe posi-
tive feelings about the physical, social and emo-
tional self should be a priority at whatever level
students are taught. Positive communication skills
are a foundation of a healthy individual. These
same skills will be crucial as individuals work
through the crises of everyday life. With appropri-
ate learning experiences, students can learn to predict
and prevent possible negative outcomes in their
lives.
In order to facilitate this type of growth in
students, we believe that home economics teachers
need to assume a leadership position. When we say
leadership, we do not mean you as individuals must
be vocal to the point of being noisy. Rather, a
challenge for home economists is to ground their
actions in reality and let the outcome speak for
itself. General promotion of activities and projects
taking place are a helpful, if not necessary, opportu-
nity for support. Hall bulletin boards, showcases,
student advertisements, billboards, student letters to
the editor of your school or local paper, daily
announcements and articles in your school newspaper
were all important beginnings for us. We also talk
directly to our administrators. They often have
helpful hints to smooth out the rough edges of our
ideas. We give them the opportunity to hear and
appreciate our commitment and efforts.
(Continued on page 12.)
2 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/ October, 1990
Empowering Students to Assure School Success
Henry Meares, Principal
Urbana, IL Middle School
What are those conditions? They may include
but not be limited to: low income, teenage pregnancy,
drugs, and school dropouts. Let me disucss briefly
each condition.
As I approached the topic of empowering stu-
dents to assure school success, several things came to
mind immediately. The first thing that came to
mind was my personal experience as a student in the
public schools which I will share later. The second
thing that came to mind was the question, how do
low-income students differ from other at-risk stu-
dents? In other words, are we talking about the same
students or is this a different population altogether?
My third thought was, what are those conditions
which continue to plague students or contribute to
their disabling or disempowerment? And finally,
how can the schools empower students so that they
experience increased success and become vitally pro-
ductive members of our society. With these thoughts
in mind I began to prepare a response.
I spent some time trying to differentiate between
the low-income student and the at-risk student. Ev-
erything I have ever read and experienced suggest to
me that the low-income student is one who, by fed-
eral standards, is poor and does not have the re-
sources and /or experiences that are commonly ob-
tained with money. These students come from fami-
lies who earn minimal wages.
The at-risk student is defined in Phi Delta
Kappa (October, 1989) as one who is a failure in
school or in life. "At-riskness" is a function of the
negative experiences encountered by a child, how se-
vere they are and how frequently they happen. For
example, a pregnant 14 year-old is at risk, but a
pregnant 14 year-old who uses drugs is even more at
risk. And a pregnant 14 year old who uses drugs, has
been retained a grade, truant from school, and who
has low sense of self-esteem is even more seriously
at-risk. Frymien (1989) states that being at-risk is
not solely a phenomenon of adolescence, children of
all ages can be at-risk.
In my opinion, most, if not all, children of low-
income families are at-risk; however not all at-risk
students are poor. Whether we refer to this group as
low-income or at-risk, all appear to be victims of
similar conditions.
LOW-INCOME - According to Marian Edelman,
president of the Children Defense Fund (1989), one
out of every five children in this country live in
poverty, which includes about 13 million children.
If you view the figures along racial lines you will
find that nearly half of all black children and one-
sixth of all white children are poor. It is predicted
that by the year 2000, 40 percent of our student popu-
lation will come from low-income families
TEENAGE PREGNANCY - One million
teenagers between the ages of 10-17 become pregnant
each year. One-half of that number gives birth. Ev-
ery day in this country forty teenagers give birth to
their third child. Research repeatedly confirms
that significant percentages of our teenagers become
sexually active before the age of 15. There is a de-
cline in pregnancy rate above the age of 15, but there
is an increase in pregnancy rates under the age of 15
(Charles Stewart Mott Foundation, November,
1987).
DRUGS - More than 50 percent of our teenagers
will use illegal drugs or alcohol before they reach
the age of 18. What really frightens me is that 1,000
babies born in our country each day are addicted to
cocaine or heroine. Four years ago, this country spent
$160 billion in drugs and alcohol programs. I would
imagine that by now that figure has tripled.
SCHOOL DROPOUTS - In this country today we
are faced with an alarming school dropout rate. Ac-
cording to Danzberger (1984), Institute for Educa-
tional Leadership, Washington, DC, 25 percent of
America's teenagers do not graduate from high
school. The inner-city drop out rate, about twice the
nation's average,ranges between 40 - 60 percent, de-
pending on the city.
A disproportionate number of low-income and
minority students make up these dropout rates. That
is a serious concern especially when you consider that
by 1992 it is predicted that one out of three teenagers
in our schools will be a member of a minority group.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/ October, 1990 3
Our country cannot afford these kinds of condi-
tions. The cost to this country both economically and
in loss of human potential is enormous. Every class of
high school drop outs cost this country about $260
billion each year in foregone wages and taxes
(Hornbeck, 1989).
About 35 years ago this country had 17 workers
contributing to the benefits for each retirement. To-
day there are only three workers contributing to each
retirement.
We, as educators and policy makers, have a real
challenge facing us. In order to counter these condi-
tions it is essential that we redefine our roles within
the schools, the local community and the broader so-
ciety. Our role definitions must result in empowering
students and community members. However, schools
tend to disable and disempower students in very
much the same way that communities are disempow-
ered (Cummins, 1986).
What do I mean by empowering and empower-
ment? According to John Nystrom (1989), empower-
ing or empowerment is both a concept and a process.
As a concept, it helps to organize one's thoughts or
develop a framework which one can use to identify
the circumstances of individuals and groups in soci-
ety. As a process, empowerment enables people to
develop and implement organized responses to cir-
cumstances that affect their lives. In other words,
empowerment stresses the mastery of one's environ-
ment and achievement of self-determination. Then
how does a student become empowered in school?
Empowering someone can be done in one of three
ways:
1. By providing the student with quality informa-
tion. We are living in an information age; a time
when quality information is a highly valuable
commodity. And, when one is deficient in this
area, s/he is certain to have serious difficulties
interacting effectively within particular envi-
ronments and institutions.
2. By encouraging quality participation. The ex-
tent to which students are truly empowered by a
school is evident in their rate of participation.
Having access and opportunity to participate is
not enough; they must experience it.
3. By developing enabling skills. I tend to believe
there is a relationship between one's success in
school and one's ability to manipulate the sys-
tem. I use manipulation in a positive sense. For
example, students who have good library skills,
writing skills, problem solving skills, etc., can
manipulate the school environment much more
successfully than those who do not. Even those
students who have charming behaviors and per-
sonalities can skillfully use those behaviors to
manipulate teachers to give them special assis-
tance and receive better grades and other consid-
erations. It happens all the time.
If we believe, as we say we do, that every child
can learn and that we can teach all children, then
when we do not succeed, we need to make some
changes in what we are doing. We tend to interpret
our lack of success with children to mean the chil-
dren are failing the system rather than the system
failing them.
Perhaps there is a need for educational reform
that reaches beyond the reform initiatives that
were made in the 1980s following the publication of
A Nation at Risk (1983). Lengthening the school
day, mandating more graduation requirements and
strengthening discipline policies will hardly reverse
the pattern of school failure among at-risk students.
In fact, the reform initiatives of the 80s may have
compounded the problems. The nation's dropout
rates continue to increase among minorities and/or
low income students despite these initiatives.
Some suggest that these reform initiatives have
not been successful because they did not significantly
alter the relationship between educators and at-risk
students, and between schools and low-income and /or
minority communities. The relationships between
teachers and students and teachers and their commu-
nity have remained essentially unchanged
(Cummins, 1986). Perhaps what is needed are poli-
cies that require educators to redefine how they in-
teract with students and the community they serve.
There are two basic types of interactions or rela-
tionships that schools generally have with students.
They are formal interactions and informal interac-
tions. There are instances, however, when one might
influence the other. The formal interactions are
those interactions or relationships that are directed
by school policies and practices. They include course
requirements, graduation requirements, academic
programming, counseling practices and so on. Track-
ing and ability grouping are examples of formal in-
teraction. Students are assigned to lower tracks or
low ability groups based on their academic and/or
standardized test performance, not by choice. It is a
practice of most schools. Based on these criteria,
many students are denied access to the upper ability
tracks. Unfortunately, a disproportionate number of
lower income and/or minority students are in those
low ability groups.
In a recent study conducted by Phi Delta Kappa
(October, 1989), teachers were asked to list the in-
4 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/ October, 1990
structional strategies used to improve students'
learning. They indicated that they used small
classes, lower-track classes, individualized instruc-
tion, tutoring, extra homework, specialized materi-
als, instruction in basic skills, special teachers, re-
ferrals to special education, and referral to psychol-
ogists. What was interesting about these responses
was that those teachers responding used an average
of two strategies, the most frequent response was
zero. This means that none of the strategies were
used very often.
Have you seen the movie Stand and Deliver? If
not, I urge you to do so. The movie depicts a true story
of a teacher whose determination, persistance and
commitment empowered a class of students who had
been disempowered by the policies and practices of
the system. The story takes place at Garfield High
School which is located in a low-income area of Los
Angeles, California. The students at Garfield High
come from mostly low-income families and families
who do not speak English very well. The students at
Garfield High are enrolled in basic and general
math year after year. In 1981, Mr. Escalento decided
that his math class was going to do something dif-
ferent. He decided that he was going to teach them
calculus. Apparently, all 18 students took the Ad-
vanced Placement Test and passed, which was un-
heard of at Garfield High since the students were
from low-income families. The test results were ruled
invalid. To make a long story short, the students took
the test again and all 18 students passed.
In 1981, 18 students passed the Advanced Place-
ment Test and in 1982, 27 students passed; 40 passed
in 1983; 60 in 1984; and 80 in 1985. It is my under-
standing that 306 students at Garfield High School
are enrolled in calculus today. In fact, Garfield
High has had more students pass the Advance
Placement Test than any other high school in the
United States. The fact of the matter is, Mr. Esca-
lento and Garfield High School redefined their role
and relationship with low-income students. As a re-
sult, it changed their whole life and sense of self-
worth.
The informal interactions are those interactions
or relationships which occur outside the school's
formal structure and are not required. They gener-
ally include extra-curricular activities. They also
include teacher behaviors, attitudes and perceptions
of students. Teachers of low-income and /or minority
students tend to perceive them differently than they
perceive students of upper-income and /or non-minor-
ity. With all good intent, these students are invari-
ably taught as they are perceived — the self-fulfill-
ing prophecy.
Let me share with you my own personal experi-
ence as a freshman in high school. I attended an all
black high school outside of my own rural commu-
nity. My peers and I traveled 26 miles round trip
each day to attend school. This school was staffed
by several locals who had attended the same school,
went on to college to become teachers and returned to
teach. There was a culture within the school and
both staff and students' perceptions of students com-
ing from my community were not very positive. They
did not perceive us to be academically capable or
promising. We were labeled as rural low-income
students whose chances of going to college were little
to none.
I recall my very first week as a freshman in this
school. I chose to take algebra. I chose it because it
sounded very good and I thought that it was the
right thing to do if you wanted to graduate from
high school. No one told me anything differently.
My first visit to algebra class was my first experi-
ence with the high school's real perceptions. This
class was taught by the principal. The principal
was a local whose children had attended this K-12
school and gone on to college. I vividly recall how
nervous and anxious I was that morning having to at-
tend a class taught by the school principal. There
were 15 other students enrolled in the class, all of
whom were locals. The principal began class by giv-
ing a brief overview of algebra. Following his com-
ments he distributed algebra textbooks to those stu-
dents in attendance. Everyone was given a textbook
but me. He proceeded to openly direct his comments
to me. His comments were: "Mr. Meares this math
class is for those students who will go on to college!
You should go see Miss Johnson (counselor) and enroll
in another class." At that moment, I removed myself
from his class and for several weeks became a high
school dropout.
It should come as no surprise to you that students
who are empowered by their school experiences de-
velop the ability, confidence and motivation to suc-
ceed academically. They participate competently in
instruction as a result of having developed a cultural
identity as well as appropriate school-based knowl-
edge and interactional skills (Cummins, 1986).
On the other hand, students who are disempow-
ered or disabled by their school experiences do not
develop this type of cognitive/academic, and so-
cial/emotional foundation (Cummins, 1986). What
are some ways that schools can empower low-income
or at-risk students? Let me share with you want we
are doing at Urbana Middle School.
Like many other schools around the state, Ur-
bana Middle School is experiencing some significant
changes in its demographics. These changes have
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1990 5
become most noticeable in the last five years. For
example, our free lunch eligibilities have grown
from less than 20 percent to about 35 percent. Our mi-
nority population has increased from 15 percent to 27
percent. About five years ago the Urbana district de-
cided to reorganize our secondary 7-12 school and de-
velop a 7-8 middle school. I do not think that this
decision was based on the assumption that all stu-
dents can learn, and that all teachers can teach
them, providing teachers are empowered through
shared decision making, flexible scheduling, ex-
panded resources, professional trust and so on.
Rather, I think that decision was based on the desire
to increase enrollments at the high school and also to
pass a tax referendum to finance a $14 million reno-
vation project needed at the high school.
Nevertheless, following this decision, a junior
high reorganization plan was developed and fully
implemented in the 1989-90 school year. This entire
plan was guided by a philosophy which was devel-
oped by a committee of people representing the en-
tire school -community. Let me take one moment to
share with you a quote which summarizes the intent
of our philosophy. "Teachers, supportive staff and
administrators function as a unified consistent team.
Their task is to provide students with opportunities
which will enable them to participate actively in
their learning experiences, accept responsibility for
their own behavior, and move at a comfortable, se-
cure pace toward gaining independence." What you
just read is our commitment to empower students.
Three years ago, every employee in the Urbana
schools participated in a goal setting activity for
the year. The number one goal recommended and ap-
proved by the school board was: Develop curriculum
and instructional methods which will enable all
students to succeed in school, thus enhancing students
and staff member's sense of self-worth. As of this
date the failure and/or non-success rates in Urbana
for at-risk, low-income and /or minority students re-
mains virtually unchanged. In fact, those rates have
generally increased. Why? Cummins (1986) pro-
vided the answer when he stated that the relation-
ship between teachers and students and teachers and
the low-income/at-risk communities remained essen-
tially unchanged. Those disabling/disempowering
instructional methods practiced in our schools three
years ago were still being practiced.
We began to dismantle our ability grouping prac-
tices at Urbana Middle School three years ago.
While there is still a lot of work to be done, we have
moved from three ability groups in English, to none;
two in social studies to none; five in math to three
(and hopefully to two by fall of next year); and, four
in reading to none. Also, about 45 percent of our stu-
dents ranging from low-income to upper-income stu-
dents participate in one of the three foreign lan-
guage. We try to focus on individual needs.
Three years ago, we implemented the Recapture
Program. This program was designed specifically for
students who had been retained in a grade. The in-
tent of the program was to have retained students
experience, for the first time, some school success.
This was accomplished. It was accomplished be-
cause the school chose to redefine its role with that
particular group of students. An inviting, caring in-
structional environment, one without failure, was
established.
This program also enjoyed overwhelming partic-
ipation of parents of these students. Some of the
parents had never before entered the school because
they felt unwanted This program empowered both
the parents and their children.
Three years ago we began to work vigorously on
school climate and student relationships. As a re-
sult, a learner training program was put into place by
our illustrious social worker. Student leaders from
every identified culture, ethnic racial and/or reli-
gious group were selected for training. These students
were empowered with leadership skills which were
used to build strong, positive relationships through-
out the school.
Today we have one of the most effective and so-
phisticated student mediation programs in the state.
Second semester last year, these students mediated
over 100 student conflicts. These students are valu-
able participants in our school. Just last year, our
home economic teachers developed a successful course
called "Relationships." The course focuses on indi-
vidual students experiencing relationships encoun-
tered in life. A spinoff from that course is the Life-
line Group that meets after school. We decided to
focus first on female students. These girls are learn-
ing decision making skills that will empower them
in their experiences and relationships with boys and
we are now planning a similar group for male stu-
dents. Enabling students to participate in this type
discussion is certain to have some impact on their
dealings with sexual relationships.
When we eliminated one of our math groupings
two years ago, this put one of our math teachers in a
very difficult situation. She was assigned a class
with a mixture of basic learning disabled and low
ability students. She learned that there was very
little material available to accommodate this mix-
ture, especially for this age group. She, with the
help of our learning disabled teacher, took on a new
challenge.
(Continued on page 12.)
6 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/ October, 1990
Tiger Stride: Stepping into Tradition
at Urbana Middle School
tt
Janine Duncan
Home Economics Teacher
Urbana, IL
Springtime at Urbana Middle School, as at any
other school, is a very hectic time of year. There are
the various district, state, and national tests to be
administered, as well as all of the end of the year
activities that teachers and administrators are try-
ing to fit into the last few weeks of school. Students
(and teachers!) become quite restless as they antici-
pate the beginning of their summer vacation. The
tremendous amount of energy flowing through the
building may, at times, be exciting to observe, how-
ever, it is often very difficult to direct it into any
positive learning experiences for the students. The
challenge that all teachers face is to design activi-
ties that will tap the abundance of student energy
and direct that energy into fruitful learning expe-
riences for the students.
One activity that has been quite successful and
well received at Urbana Middle School is the Tiger
Stride. Quite simply, it is an activity in which each
student (or in partners) invites an adult guest to take
a walk around the surrounding neighborhood so that
they have time to talk and get to know each other.
When the adult and student(s) finish their walk,
they come back to the classroom to enjoy nutritious
refreshments that were prepared earlier by the stu-
dents. This activity allows students to pull together
many of the skills they have learned throughout
their semester in home economics. Communication
and "bridging the generation gap" are focused on and
many times this is easier for the students than it is
for the adults! Students have the opportunity to
practice menu planning, recipe testing and prepara-
tion, as well as the aesthetic side of food prepara-
tion and serving. The walking part of this project is
most crucial because too often students and adults are
trapped into conversations because of the setting,
i.e., the school. To go beyond the confines of the
building allows participants to go beyond the con-
fines of their title; student, teacher, principal, par-
ent or counselor. Lastly, walking ties well into the
"total health" = "total self" picture home economics
teachers want students to create for, and of, them-
selves.
There are some details to note about the imple-
mentation of this activity.
1) Invitations must be sent to the adults, who might
include parents, friends' parents, other relatives,
teachers (who have their prep period that
hour), administrators, counselors, social workers,
secretaries, custodians, hall monitors, school
board members, and district administrators. If
possible, invitations should be sent a week in
advance; any shorter period of time will be dif-
ficult to receive RSVP's and send alternate invi-
tations if the first response was negative.
2) Clock the walk. Depending upon the length of
the class period, a 15-20 minute walk should be
feasible. Allow time for refreshments and clean-
up.
3) Make signs and maps which are especially im-
portant for the first annual walk of your school
and for new participants on the upcoming walks.
Signs may be made with arrows for directions
and position them along the walk route. A map
is very handy in the event that strong winds
blow the signs down.. .it has happened!
4) Send reminders to guests. If possible, it is impor-
tant to remind adult walkers of the upcoming
event. Remind them to dress appropriately,
wear comfortable shoes, arrive and leave
promptly. It is discouraging to watch a student
wait for a guest when all the others have ar-
rived and left on their walk. If possible, empha-
size that the walk is for one-on-one time, student
to adult, so each may get to know each other.
Sometimes the adults will converse and not
spend time with the students.
5) Consider refrigerator space. Depending upon the
number of classes participating in your school's
walk, it may be important to stagger classes;
even numbered periods walk on one day, odd
numbered periods walk on the next.. .or of course,
anything else that works!
(Continued on page 12.)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/ October, 1990 7
tt
Common Ground: Urbana Middle School's
Conflict Mediation
Fred Schrumpf
Urbana Middle School Social Worker
Urbana, IL
Conflicts are a part of everyday life for students
in our public schools. Conflicts can be handled in
many different ways and can be seen as positive
forces that accompany social change or personal
growth. Frequently those involved in disputes do not
have the strategies necessary to work out a positive
solution. Conflicts between students in school that
are not resolved may end up in loss of friends, verbal
or physical attacks, and disruptive behaviors that
can make learning more difficult.
Conflicts that lead to violence have become a
major issue in public education. About 282,000 stu-
dents are physically attacked in America's sec-
ondary schools each month. Almost 8 percent of ur-
ban junior and senior high school students missed at
least one day of school a month last year because
they were afraid to go to school (NEA Today, Nov.
1989).
During the 1988-89 school year Urbana Middle
School established a Student Mediation Center
called "Common Ground" to address the problem of
student conflicts. The goal was to train selected stu-
dents to mediate conflicts between peers. This would
be a positive way to problem-solve conflicts.
Mediation has been explained to the students as:
a chance for you to sit across from the person
with whom you have a conflict and talk, unin-
terrupted and be heard. After each of you gets to
tell your side of the story, solutions to the con-
flict are discussed. If each of you agrees to a so-
lution, an agreement is written and signed that
lists ways to prevent the problem from happen-
ing again.
This article will outline the steps that were
taken to establish the center and will explain the
mediation process as it was taught to the student
mediators. We hope this information will encourage
other schools to adopt such a program.
How the Center was Established
From Idea to Proposal
The idea to start a mediation center came from
several school staff members who had attended
three days of mediation training offered by the Illi-
nois State Board of Education. They also had infor-
mation about other schools that taught mediation as
part of their curriculum. The school social worker,
counselor and school suspension room teacher wrote a
proposal to the administration and staff about
starting a program. The program proposal
justification for mediation included the following
statements:
1 . Conflicts are a part of everyday life and are op-
portunities to grow and learn.
2. Mediation can be more effective than suspensions
or detentions in shaping good behavior.
3. Mediation can result in a reduction of violence,
vandalism and absenteeism.
4. Mediation reduces the time teachers and admin-
istrators deal with discipline.
5. It is a life skill that empowers students to solve
their own problems through improved communi-
cations, problem-solving, and critical thinking
skills.
6. Mediation promotes peace and justice through
mutual understanding of individual differences
in our multicultural world.
The administration approved the proposal. It took
the first semester to organize the project, and the
center opened the second semester.
Staff Orientation
The day before school began, the entire staff was
given a one hour overview of the proposed Student
Mediation Center and the mediation process.
Interested staff were invited to join the advisory
committee. This committee was to select mediators,
develop procedures, promote and implement the pro-
8 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/ October, 1990
gram. The timeline for implementation was also out-
lined.
The in-school suspension room teacher and social
worker were designated as coordinators of the project
during the first year. The second year of the project
two teachers were given one period each day for pro-
gram coordination.
Student Orientation and Assemblies
During October, assemblies were held for groups
of 100 to 130 students. The assemblies began with a
skit of typical student conflicts. A demonstration
followed in which these conflicts were resolved
through mediation using either adult or student me-
diators. The mediation process was explained and
the rules for mediation were stated. Students were
told that mediation was a peaceful way to resolve
conflicts and would promote a more positive school
environment. It was offered as a voluntary process
that teaches mutual respect through clear and direct
communication. The role of the mediator was
outlined as one of a referee, one who does not take
sides. Students were told that ten mediators from
each grade level would be selected and trained.
Students were asked to apply. Around 75
applications were turned in from the student body of
1,000.
Selection of Student Mediators
The committee of teachers reviewed all applica-
tions. Selection was based on such criteria as: grade,
sex, social and ethnic groups. In selecting mediators,
the "model" students were not necessarily the best
choices. Student mediators needed to be understand-
ing, sensitive, non-judgmental, assertive, and re-
spected by their peers. Selected students were given
a parent permission and information sheet. The
sheet outlined the program, the training, and infor-
mation about the parent luncheon to be held at the
end of training to recognize the mediators.
Training of the Mediators
The training was organized by the program coor-
dinators. Additional experts with mediation skills
were located to help with the training. All student
mediators were given 15 hours of training. This
began with a one day workshop which discussed
conflict, taught communication skills (listening,
paraphrasing, summarizing, reflecting on feelings),
and explained the mediation rules and process. A
second day of training taught how to gather
information, focus on interests, brainstorm options,
and how to make and write an agreement. Follow-up
training was offered after school. Most of that time
was spent on role plays of typical conflicts that
would be referred to mediation.
Community Sponsorship and Promotion
An important aspect of the success of any new
program is how the concept is promoted. When the
school year began, most students had never heard of
mediation. A professional graphic designer volun-
teered her time to work with art students to develop
a promotional campaign. The students and volunteer
spent many hours designing a campaign that was
educational, exciting, sincere, and humorous.
The name "Common Ground" was chosen by the
mediators. The art students designed a logo and se-
lected colors. Two brochures were designed, one for
parents and one for students. Posters were printed for
the school with messages such as: "Start Talking,"
"Students Helping Students," "Don't Stand Alone,"
and "Can't Flush Your Problems Down the Toilet."
"Common Ground" T-shirts and buttons were created.
A retired teacher found a local business that agreed
to print all of the brochures and posters and to donate
the T-shirts. This local company had trained
supervisors in mediation and knew its benefits to an
organization. Through the efforts of the art students
and the community volunteer, ""Common Ground"
Student Mediation Center became well-known and
accepted by the students and staff before it opened.
The Mediation Center Opens
Morning announcements were used to promote the
program the week before the opening of the center.
The first day of the second semester "Common
Ground" had its grand opening. First period
classroom teachers were given brochures for their
students. They read the brochures together and dis-
cussed the procedures. These procedures included:
• any student can request mediation
• students can be referred to mediation by
teachers, administrators, or parents.
• all parties must agree to be mediated.
• all parties must agree to confidentiality.
• disputants will work toward an agreement by
coming up with their own solutions.
The day of the grand opening, every student
received a button to wear that said: "Start Talk-
ing— Common Ground — Student Mediation." All stu-
dent mediators wore their T-shirts and posters went
up. "Mediation" was the word of the day.
Ongoing Operations and Evaluation
For the first two semesters of operation,
"Common Ground" resolved an average of 100 dis-
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/ October, 1990 9
putes each semester. Around half of the referrals
came from students and the rest came from teachers
or principals. Thirty-five percent of the referrals
involved name-calling and arguments; thirty-two
percent pushing or fighting; fifteen percent rumors,
and ten percent dealt with friendships gone adrift.
Through follow-up interviews with disputants it
was estimated that nine of every ten conflicts were
resolved successfully. About half of the conflicts
that were not resolved the first time were returned to
mediation. An estimate of five percent of the total
referrals were never resolved.
Ongoing training for mediators was important.
After-school meetings were held for advanced train-
ing in dealing with difficult mediations, in handling
anger and in caucusing. At the end of the year a final
evaluation was conducted with the student
mediators. Their responses to the program and its
impact on school climate were very positive. When
asked if they enjoyed being student mediators, they
responded unanimously, "Yes"!
The Mediation Process
It is not difficult to teach the mediation process
to middle and high school age students. Mediation
is a process which involves communication, critical
thinking, problem solving and decision making.
When teaching the mediation process, it is best
to first teach some basic communication skills. These
skills can be effectively taught in the following
order:
• listening and nonverbal communication
• paraphrasing
• reflecting on feelings
• clarifying
• summarizing
Through the use of various exercises and simulations,
students will quickly learn these skills. After the
basic communication skills are presented, the steps of
the mediation process can be taught. When teaching
these steps, students can be divided into groups of
three or four to practice taking the role of mediator
and disputant.
Step 1: Begin the Session
The mediator sits between the two disputants at
a table. The mediator sits closest to the door to pre-
vent someone leaving before the session is over. In-
troductions are made. Ground rules are stated by the
mediator:
• Everything said is kept confidential.
• Each person takes a turn talking, no interrup-
tions.
• The mediator does not take sides.
• Each side agrees to try to solve the conflict
and is committed to the ground rules.
Step 2: Gather Information
The purpose of this step is to find out each dis-
putants' point of view about what happened. What
are the facts? Has this been a long-lasting conflict or
a recent problem? Is there a misunderstanding of the
facts, or a difference in beliefs? Is there something
outside the conflict that is a problem.
The way information is gathered is by having
the mediator ask one party to tell her/his side of
the story. The mediator then paraphrases and
summarizes the story. This is done to be sure the
information is accurately heard and each disputant
is aware of the major issues.
Next, the other party has the chance to tell
her/his side of the story. Again, these statements
paraphrased and summarized by the mediator. This
step is repeated until all the information has been
stated. There are times that the mediator will need
to seek clarification of some of the information.
Step 3: Focus on Interests (Wants and Needs)
In this step, the mediator tries to help the dis-
putants to identify why the conflict exists and what
are the shared interests of each party. The mediator
tries to find the common ground by asking questions to
each participant such as:
• "What do you really want to have happen?"
• "Is fighting getting you what you want?"
• "If you do not reach an agreement, what
might happen?"
Again the major points of each response is repeated
by the mediator and shared interests are
summarized.
Step 4: Create Options
This is the step which involves brainstorming
ideas. The mediator will ask disputants for possible
solutions to the conflict. As least three options need
to be generated. If the parties can not come up with
any ideas, the mediator could make a suggestion. It
is important for the disputants to come up with their
own solutions.
Step 5: Evaluate Options: Decide on Solutions
At this point the mediator asks each disputant
which of the solutions s/he would be willing to agree
10 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1990
upon. Often a disputant will say what s/he want
the other person to do. In this case, the mediator
will point out that the agreement will only state
what each person is willing to do, not what one
wants the other person to do.
Step 6: Write the Agreement End the Session
An agreement is written that lists what each
party has committed to. It is brief and clear. It tries
to be balanced between each person where both par-
ties are responsible. It is action oriented. The
agreement is then signed, the mediator shakes hands
with each person and congratulates them for their
efforts. Both parties are encouraged to shake hands.
There are times when an agreement cannot be
reached and a mediation session might continue the
next day. Mediations usually take ten to twenty
minutes. All agreements are recorded and filed.
A Final Note
Through our work with "Common Ground," we
have discovered that the mediation process facili-
tates a student's ability to respond to conflict situa-
tions in a more effective and peaceful way. It em-
powers the student to get his/her own needs met
while considering the needs and interests of others.
We believe that utilizing the mediation process
in the schools, give educators the opportunity to
transform school climates from places where con-
flicts are handled by suspension, detention, and ex-
pulsion into places where conflicts, accepted as
natural and inevitable, are a positive and con-
structive ingredient of school life.
Resources - References
Cohend, R. (1987, Spring). School-based mediation
programs: Obstacles to implementation. Name
News, 10, p. 2-4.
Drew, N. (1987). Learning the skills of peacemak-
ing. Rolling Hills Estates, CA: Jalmar Press.
Fisher, R., & Ury, W. (1981). Getting to yes.
City/State: Penguin Books.
Kreidler, W. (1984). Creative conflict resolution.
Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and Co.
Markwood, A. (1988, April). Negotiated conflict
resolution: A neglected element of prevention.
Prevention Forum.
National Association for Mediation in Education
(NAME), 425 Amith Street, Amherst, MA 01002.
Prutzman, Stern, Burger, Bodenhamer. (1988). The
friendly classroom for a small planet. Philadel-
phia: New Society Publishers.
School Mediation Associates, R. Cohen. School me-
diation program development: Implementation
checklist.
Urbana Middle School
Resolution Agreement
Date
Mediator,
Problem
The people whose signatures appear below met with
a conflict resolution mediator and with the assis-
tance of the mediator, reached the following agree-
ment:
_, (disputant's name) agrees.
j (disputant's name) agrees.
We have made and signed this agreement because we
believe it satisfactorily solves the issue(s) between
us.
(disputant's signature) (disputant's signature)
.(mediator)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1990 11
Referral for Mediation
Names of Students in Conflict Date
grade
grade
_grade_
_grade_
Where conflict occurred: School/on Campus
Bus Neighborhood
Describe Conflict/Problem:
Signed
Position: (circle one) Teacher Student Parent
Bus Driver Other
Return this form to: Locker #727, by Home Ec room #153
(Continued from page 2.)
A major stimulant for possible ideas for us has
been attending professional meetings and in-service
seminars. (One article in this issue describes the
reaction of one of us to atttending an AHEA meeting.)
We have been fortunate to be working in a
cohesive department which allows us the
opportunity to bounce ideas off of each other. We
encourage you to take time to create this opportunity
for yourselves!
Our intentions for this issue are quite simple. We
want to share with the readers activities and ideas
that we use to promote student involvement within
the family of humanity. Some of the ideas you have
heard before, while others are new. Regardless,
they are all concepts and skills with which we
think students should be equipped when they leave
the home economics classroom. More importantly,
they are all grounded in the heart. • • •
(Continued from page 7.)
Tiger Stride has become a tradition at Urbana
Middle School. The faculty and staff look forward
to the event and are very supportive of it. More im-
portantly, the students have the opportunity to
learn about themselves and others in a fun and enjoy-
able way. There has never been a student who has
refused to take part in Urbana Middle School's Tiger
Stride! • • •
(Continued from page 6.)
To make a long story short, in July 1989, the
Board of Education received from her class a profes-
sionally published copy of a new textbook entitled
Pioneer Math: Written by Kids for Kids. The text
has been adopted by Urbana Middle School as one of
its regular textbooks. One school in another district
is also using this book. The students in this class
gained one of the richest math experiences they will
ever receive in their school career. They were em-
powered with both skills, self-confidence and self-
worth.
Urbana Middle School is by no means fully effec-
tive in its efforts to counter those conditions men-
tioned earlier. However, some of us feel that we are
caught in a situation where we simply cannot allow
or afford to have children fail. It is our responsibil-
ity to redefine our role and make some adjustments in
the way we interact with our students.
I would like to leave you with words of Abra-
ham Lincoln.
A child is a person who is going to carry on
what you have started. He is going to sit
where you are sitting, and when you are gone,
attend to those things which you think are
important. You may adopt all the policies
you please, but how they are carried out de-
pends on him. He will assume control of our
cities, states and nations. He is going to move
in and take over your churches, schools, uni-
versity and corporations. The fate of human-
ity, is in his hands.
References
Charles Stewart Mott Foundation. (November,
1988). Facts at a glance.
Cummins, J. (1986, February). Empowering minority
students: A framework for intervention.
Harvard Educational Review.
Danzberger. C. (1989). Institute for Educational
Leadership, Washington, DC.
Edelman, M. W. (1989). Washington, DC: Chil-
dren's Defense Fund.
Frymien, J., & Ganoneden, B. (1989, October) The
Phi Kappa study of students at risk. Phi Delta
Kappa.
Hornbeck, D. (1989, October. Turning points: The
Carnegie report on the education of young
adolescents.
National Commission on Excellence in Education.
(1983). A nation at risk: The imperative for
educational reform. Washington, DC: National
Commission on Excellence in Education. • • •
12 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1990
Music: The Key to the Heart
tt
Janine Duncan
Home Economics Teacher
Urbana, IL Middle School
If someone were to ask you what your favorite
song was, what would it be? Do you have any idea
why that song has become important to you? Could
it be the beat, melody, or possibly the message?
What if you were asked what made you interested in
music, generally speaking? Can you remember when
you first began listening to music, or what your first
record was? Did any of your teachers ever use music
in the classroom, and if so, was it effective? These
questions and answers as trivial or nostalgic as they
may seem, give quite a bit of insight into most
people; it's likely, that any person who enjoys music
would, without much thought, be able to answer
these questions.
For me, I would say that I learned to like music
in my home. My mom spent much of the day working
in the kitchen with the radio playing. My older
brothers and sister certainly had a great influence
over me. As they rocked into their teen years during
the early 1970s, I followed closely behind, even as
early as the first grade. I remember that well, for I
received my first record player and several 45's of
my choice for my birthday that year. Since then,
I've developed a fondness for Barry Manilow's work.
He is, by far, my favorite artist. It goes as no
surprise, then, that one of his songs is likely to be my
favorite as well — the song is "I Made it Through the
Rain." I can remember two classes in which music
was used when I was in school. The first was
kindergarten; rest period usually included the "Mary
Poppins" album. The second class was Marriage and
Family, team taught by a counselor and a home
economics teacher. They ended the semester with
each playing their favorite song, followed by a few
comments regarding their choices. They selected the
songs "Hard Times for Lovers" by Judy Collins and "I
Made it Through the Rain," by none other than
Barry Manilow. Is there a connection? You bet! The
week prior, my family and I passed through one of
the most difficult stages of our history. Since then,
the song has become my "theme song." Was their
teaching technique effective? Definitely. Did it
effect the 50 other students of the class similarly?
Perhaps, perhaps not.
Why do I share all this with you? My hope is
that while I recount some of my personal "music his-
tory," you will also contemplate your own music
story. And as we recount our stories, might we keep
in mind that our students are currently living their
personal music stories right now. Can we have a pos-
itive effect on them, by choosing music as a technique
to teach Home Economics? I believe so, if done
thoughtfully!
Thoughtfully....
We are teaching children in the 1990s. Will the
songs I heard in 1982 be successful in my classroom?
Definitely not. (Who is Barry Manilow, Mrs. Dun-
can?) As teachers using music, we must work to stay
on top of the charts. To what are the students listen-
ing? By taking time to listen to "their" radio sta-
tion^), not only are we able to gain an idea of what
the students are listening to, but we become privy to
the issues about which the artists are writing.
Choosing current hits is the key to successful use of
music in the classroom. Recently, (within the last
year), artists such as Phil Collins, Bette Midler,
Madonna, KIX, New Kids on the Block, and Terry
Tate have come out with songs that fit very well into
Home Economics classes:
"Another Day in Paradise," (homelessness)
Phil Collins
"Wind Beneath My Wings," (Friendship, re-
spect) Bette Midler
"Oh, Father," (child abuse) Madonna
"Keep it Together," (importance of family)
Madonna
"Don't Close Your Eyes," (suicide prevention)
KIX
"This One's for the Children," (hunger, home-
lessness) NKOTB (New Kids on the Block)
"Babies Having Babies," (teen pregnancy)
Terry Tate
Surveying the student for their favorite songs might
also lead to some classroom possibilities; after all, it
is "their" music!
Music can be such an incredible teaching tool, if
used thoughtfully. Through music we are able to
feel, identify and imagine all types of experiences
(Continued on page 15.)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1990 13
ID
The Feelings Jar
Marilyn Mastny
Home Economics Teacher
Urbana, IL Middle School
About three years ago, I decided to teach self-es-
teem, problem solving and decision making in a spe-
cial way. I have found "the feelings jar" to be a
wonderful opportunity for students to learn these
skills by using their personal thoughts and situa-
tions. I painted a goldfish jar and set out small
pieces of paper next to it. The jar is on my desk and
we refer to it every Friday. I have several
important rules:
1 . Students may choose to write their name but it is
fine if they wish to remain anonymous. (Even if
their name is written, I never read it aloud. In-
stead, I use their identity as an opportunity to
get to know them better.)
2. No student is ever allowed to look in the jar. It is
important that students and their personal feel-
ings remain protected. After all, they have
taken quite a chance revealing themselves!
Their security allows them to become more open.
3. No specific names are revealed in situational
feelings. Students often speak of relationships.
4. If students have a very important situation that
they want to share, they can write on the outside
of their folded note — emergency. (It is interest-
ing to see what they consider an emergency!)
Some have even said, "read Tuesday" and these
feelings can be very serious.
5. I always explain to students that in the case of
abuse or neglect I am a mandated reporter. They
know and trust that I will try and help them.
6. I read (or paraphrase if the grammar is reveal-
ing or very poor) one or two, once a week. Stu-
dents don't really try to guess who wrote what
after the novelty wears off.
7. I read the same "feelings" in all my classes.
That way, students don't know what class the
feelings come from.
I have found my students to be remarkably in-
sightful of these situations. They are not required to
respond, yet, a variety of students get involved. It is
important that students are not judgmental and will
listen to a variety of responses.
Some typical feelings and their responses:
"Explain how you and the other teachers
deal with a serious problem that a child
does not want their parents to know. Do you
just talk about it or take physical action as
well?"
That was a great question, and obviously one
that I needed to answer myself. It's important that
this issue be tackled right from the start.
"There are some girls at school that I don't
really like because I think that they show
off a lot, but sometimes I really want to be
their friend. What should I do?"
Students began a discussion about leaders and
power. Students were quick to share about how
awkward this was and offered each other healthy
support.
"I like someone else's boyfriend and they're
about to break up, but there's this guy who
likes me alot and I kind of like him but I told
him I would probably go out with him. Now I
don't want to cause I like this other guy.
What should I do without losing friend-
ships?"
Sound confusing? Actually this feelings jar entry
brought about an interesting discussion on being at-
tracted to your best friend's boyfriend or girlfriend.
It became clear to students that attraction was natu-
ral and sometimes inevitable. They became very
mixed on what action would be most appropriate.
14 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1990
"I have a boyfriend who is seventeen years
old and my mom thinks that he is too old for
me because I'm 13 and I really like him but I
don't want to disobey my mom by still seeing
him but I can't stop because I think I love
him."
Students had great ideas for this. Basically,
they did not advise "sneaking around." Several stu-
dents thought they would invite him over to spend
time with their mom. They thought it would show
maturity on their part to talk about it openly. They
also considered it important to realize that he might
be expecting her to do things she isn't ready or will-
ing to do. Most students felt this idea was the real
issue.
"My friend has to make a choice with her
boyfriend and her. They want to decide
whether or not it is right to have sex. My
friend has consulted me and I don't know
what to do."
Wow. This was a great conversation. Students
were very clear that the student should give her/his
friend information rather than advice. Everyone
felt this was a big step and it was good that they
were really talking about it. (Some people, they
said, just do it and never deal with each others
feelings at all.)
"My boyfriend got this girl pregnant.
And he told me and I was wondering if I
should still go out with him. But this was
before though. Cause we did break up, and
are together now. Please tell me what to do!
Confused!"
There were very mixed feelings about this. One
of the most interesting points made was should the
teen father become involved with the pregnant girl-
friend and should the "new" girlfriend support it.
Most people had sympathy for the pregnant girl
especially the males in the classroom.
"I feel that people should stop worrying
about what people say and be friends without
saying this and that about each other. It
only takes one person to make a change."
Any adult (parent, teacher, administrator) could
make a similar statement and it would probably fall
on deaf ears. When it comes from the jar and a stu-
dent writes it, other students really hear it. They
responded with similar thoughts and a story or two.
"I saw a film that every kid said that
having sex was something natural. Well, I
think that for teenagers having sex is
something that they shouldn't do because
they should save themselves for the people
who they marry."
This jar is also used as a vehicle to just express
opinions. This opinion got a lot of support in each
class. We also talked about someone who had been
sexually active dating someone who was not.
(Typically, girls in the class assume it is the boys
who will be sexually active.) I have had students
come in from the high school to talk to students about
the pressure of being sexually active. High school
students have said they felt the greatest pressure to
be sexually active during middle school. This was
eye opening to me and a relief to many students.
Use the feelings jar carefully. When an issue is
very sensitive and you are not up to it that day,
choose one you are more comfortable with. This jar
will provide you with an opportunity to know your
school social worker and /or school counselor very
well. You will be giving them plenty of business!
(Continued from page 13.)
and emotions. We are able to see into other peoples'
hearts, minds and souls. Students can gain effec-
tively from the artist's use of emotion, but can also
gain cognitively from the message relayed by the
artist. In home economics classes, it makes sense to
use music. It is this subject that deals most effec-
tively with the affective domain of learning. It is
through this subject that students are taught to ac-
cept others as people who are entitled to their
thoughts and feelings. More so, this subject also em-
phasizes students developing the ability to think
critically about what is communicated to them and
their society. Music can offer a variety of ideas and
perceptions, but it is the students who need to decide
how the message fits into their lives, if indeed it
does at all. Music can be the key to students' hearts,
and minds, within the home economics classroom.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1990 15
ED
Handicapped ... Or "Handicapable"?
Marilyn Mastny
Home Economics Teacher
Urbana Middle School
Urbana, IL
My classropm is two doors away from the
severely and profoundly handicapped room. Over
the years I have watched my colleagues provide in-
credible support and affection for their special young
people. The general middle school population only
sees their SPH (severely and profoundly handi-
capped) peers at lunchtime. They have a difficult
time associating and feeling empathy for their less
fortunate classmates. Teachable moments do occur!
The following simulation was originally meant
to help students identify with the elderly
population. I have come to dislike the implication
that the terms elderly and handicapped are
synonymous. (After all, my seventy-one year old
mother is an active college student who practices tai
chi in her spare time!)
Take the time to set up your classroom into
"stations." The students should divide into teams of
two to three and move from station to station at their
own pace, or give them a specific time limit.
Station One
Blindfold one student and have another student
take a length of yarn and make a trail on the floor.
(Make it rather crooked). The purpose of this sta-
tion is for the sighted student to direct the blind-
folded student accurately along the path. However,
the sighted student may not touch the blindfolded
one. S/he must only use specific words to assist.
Object: The blindfolded student needs to form a
sense of trust. The sighted student needs
to form a sense of respect for his peer.
Station Two
Put a thin layer of petroleum jelly on a pair of
her/his sunglasses and ask the student to read an
article to her/his teammate. An article from a local
paper that is related to families could be used.
Object: This activity stimulates the frustration
of cataracts and is also a bit painful.
Hopefully, some empathy will develop.
Station Three
Tape a piece of notebook paper labeled with the
appropriate class hour onto a table. Ask each stu-
dent to use the hand s/he does not usually write with
to do this activity. Have the student shape her/his
hand in a crippled position and wrap it tightly with
an elastic bandage. Then have student try to write
her/his signature on the notebook paper.
Object: This activity gives the students an op-
portunity of knowing some effects of
arthritis. Remind them that children
can be afflicted by this disease.
Station Four
You will need a small waste paper basket, a
large waste paper basket, bunched up newspaper,
and a pair of crutches to do this activity. Have a
distance of about twelve feet available. Ask your
students to bend one leg as if it were in a cast. They
can never touch the floor with this bent leg at any
time during this activity! Fill the large garbage can
with the bunched up newspaper. Using the crutches,
have the student carry the large waste basket filled
with newspapers over to the small one. Once there,
each student should empty the large waste basket's
contents into the smaller basket! After they clean up
the mess, they should empty it back into the large
basket and return it to its original spot.
Object: This frustrating experience is laughable!
Students begin to appreciate the use of
both of their legs and how difficult it is
to balance and to do simple tasks.
Station Five
Blindfold one student and hand her/him a pin
cushion with a needle in it and a spool of thread.
Ask her/him to cut a piece of thread with some dull
scissors and thread the needle while blindfolded.
Object: This has always been the most difficult
activity of all. It is obvious that blind or
partially sighted people are going to
(Continued on page 21.)
16 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1990
Global Education: Home Economics
Teachers' Ethical Obligation
u
Janine Duncan
Home Economics Teacher
Urbana, Illinois
Why Global Education:
Within our society and our schools there is a gen-
eral lack of global and historical perspective (Winn,
1984). Our students see themselves in their own
world. They think their success and/or failure have
no effect on our global society, nor does our global so-
ciety affect them. Students see no relationship be-
tween their views of a global future and their images
of their personal future (Wagschal & Johnson, 1986).
Students do not think through global issues; they do
not consider the consequences of each global issue to
the point where they can be looked at as a personal
issue (Wagschal & Johnson, 1986). What keeps
students so self-centered? There is a need for
education.
Our country, as well as all others, can benefit
from more teaching and learning about each other.
We need to teach toward mutual understanding by
learning more about the world's common dreams,
common interests, and common aspirations (Winn,
1984). There is a need to educate our students glob-
ally. By doing so, we raise an awareness and an
appreciation of others in our world. We take our
students from a self-centered perspective to a we-
centered perspective.
In 1980, the Council on Environmental Quality
stated, in its "Global 2000 Report to the President,"
(Vol. 1) (Peters, 1985), there is a need to educate
people to the proper future use of the earth's re-
sources by exposing them to the character and nature
of the global community. In 1980, the National
Council on Foreign Language and International Stud-
ies (Peters, 1985) stated that the introduction of in-
ternational studies into public school curricula was a
major organizational goal. In 1982, the editors of
"Environmental Education Report" (Peters, 1985)
stated that education must be expanded to develop
student awareness of and exposure to natural and so-
cial environments as well as to different peoples of
the world. By 1983, the state of Illinois had created
an Advisory Council on Foreign Language and Inter-
national Studies (Peters, 1985). During the last
decade, many learning activities, units, and strate-
gies have been developed to help meet these de-
mands. Teachers want students to rationally exam-
ine consequences. While using some of the aids
available, teachers are able to facilitate the ra-
tional examination of consequences stemming from
specific global issues. This may be achieved in many
different classroom situations: social studies,
science, language arts, and even home economics.
Relationship Between Home Economics and Global
Education
C.H. Edwards (1977) stated: "There is a com-
monality between the social, educational, and fam-
ily life problems of the United States and those of
other nations" (p. 59). Edwards (1977) hit on the core
of home economics when he stated the need for
relationships to be developed with other nations.
H. Cleveland (1986) listed several concepts relative
to global education that have some relationship to
home economics.
1. "their own basic human needs, and therefore the
needs and aspirations of people everywhere."
(Home economics teaches children about their
basic human needs in relationships courses.)
2. "the interrelated global changes that will pro-
vide most of the context for their 50+ years of
adult life." (Home economics helps children rec-
ognize the changes they will endure throughout
their development in human development
courses.)
3. "the rolling global readjustment in what people
produce and consume and do for a living, which
will affect the jobs and careers of each grown-up
child." (Home economics helps prepare students
for the changing job market by emphasizing flex-
ibility throughout its curriculum.)
4. "the lesson from history that it is often possible
for people and peoples, to resolve conflicts and
work together." (Home economics teaches the
importance of positive communication skills
when resolving conflicts.)
5. "the cultural diversity and mandatory pluralism
of a world with nobody in charge — and therefore
everybody partly in charge." (Home economics
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1990 17
teaches the importance of working together,
within the family, the workplace, and society.)
6. "the nature of leadership in such a world — since,
whatever the issue, the USA is bound to be
elected to the global executive committee that
must deal with it" (p. 416) (Home economics
teaches the importance of being a positive role
model for friends, children, and as parents.)
C.H. Edwards (1977) also stated that
"international service is the global dimension of the
efforts of home economists to improve the quality of
life" (p. 60). Let it also be said for home economics
teachers that it is their service to the world to edu-
cate their students globally, helping them to gain an
awareness of the quality of life of all other people.
It is their responsibility to help the students realize
the relationships between all other people and
themselves.
How do home economics teachers go about doing
this? How can home economics teachers adapt cur-
rent curriculum to become globally centered? First,
let's look at a series of questions adapted from the
Global Education Project, Menominee County Inter-
mediate School District (1987).
Do you have a world map in your classroom?
Do you point out on a map or globe cities and
countries that come up in the course of discussion?
Do you stress the need to know about the rest of
the world?
Do you point out international linkages in your
local community?
Do you point out similarities among the world's
cultures when teaching about other countries?
Do you point out that people can have different
ways of doing the same thing, and that's okay?
Do you have people from the community speak
about other countries or cultures?
Do you discuss current world events in class?
Do you encourage students to think, dream and
plan for the future they would like to see?
The following are examples of questions from an
international perspective:
Why are parkas, turbins, and saris common garments
for Eskimos, Arabs, and Indians, respectively?
How does climate affect dress?
Are there other reasons for that type of dress? Per-
haps religion, status, or national costume may
dictate particular clothing styles. Any other
reasons?
How do vegetarians maintain an adequate supply of
protein in their diets?
What is the percent of the world population that
maintains a vegetarian diet?
Why do people live as vegetarians — is it necessity,
choice, religion, habit?
Why would people choose such a lifestyle?
What might be some other pertinent questions?
Are the guidelines Americans follow for optimum
health the same ones that are followed
throughout the world? Why or why not?
What are the reasons that other people may not fol-
low those suggested guidelines?
Is starvation only a worldly problem — or does only
the United States have to deal with starvation?
How do starvation and malnutrition differ?
Are there ways each of us can help to remedy starva-
tion and malnutrition — do we have the power to
do so?
The following topics and activities
stimulate students to think globally:
may
1. Compare and contrast housing styles in the
United States and housing styles around the world.
Brick, wood, cardboard, mud, grass, cement, alu-
minum: Which of these are materials used in
housing construction in the United States and which
are used in other countries? How does income level
determine peoples' level and style of housing?
What does a country's population have to do with
the people's housing type? How do tradition and
values relate to a person's choice in housing, both in
the United States and abroad?
2. In some areas of the world, a family's annual in-
come may be as little as $500. Do you think this is
reality for any Americans? How can a family sur-
vive on such a small amount of money? List steps a
family could take in order to survive. Make a prior-
ity list of items that would be a necessity for sur-
vival. How does this list of items differ from every-
day lists of "necessities?"
3. Do families in other countries have dual careers?
What are the jobs of family members in different cul-
tures? How do expectations and sex roles differ be-
tween the American culture and other cultures
throughout the world? Is there a discrepancy of
workload between family members? Why or why
not? In what other ways do families differ in our
world, and in what ways are families similar?
In each area, clothing and textiles, foods and nu-
trition, housing and interior design, consumer eco-
nomics, and human development and family rela-
tionships, there are a multitude of possible questions
that can be asked, and /or answered to develop stu-
dents' awareness of, and appreciation for, life at the
international level. It might just open students' eyes
18 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/ October, 1990
to the local concerns that are faced in their own
communities.
Home economists are educated to deal with
issues that relate to the global society. Home
economists emphasize the importance of voluntary
simplicity, appropriate technology, and balanced
development. Home economics is a profession that is
holistic and integrative (Murray, 1986). Home eco-
nomics is a profession that focuses on actions, reac-
tions, and interactions of the family. Home
economics teachers have the responsibility to assist
students to build bridges between their global society
and their learning.
Global Education at Urbana Middle School:
Hunger A National and International Problem
At Urbana Middle School, the home economics
faculty are of the opinion that if we can get students
to understand global concerns, it is likely that they
will begin to care about those same issues at the local
level within the community and hopefully, the
school. Two issues that are global in perspective, yet
definitely hit home in the Urbana-Champaign
community, are hunger and homelessness. There are
students within Urbana Middle School, as there are
in all other schools, who might not have enough food
to eat or a place to live. Before the students are able
to deal with the issues of hunger and homelessness in
Urbana seriously, it is crucial for the students to
learn about these topics globally. It is only after
their global exposure that they are able to ask "But
what about the people in the United States, why
doesn't our country help them?" Obviously, the di-
rection of discussion begins to focus on what the
United States is doing to help its citizens in need,
what the Urbana community is doing for these peo-
ple, and what still needs to be done.
Three years ago, we came across an exceptional
resource that may be useful to teachers when ad-
dressing hunger in the classrooms. The information
that is provided for teachers is a gold mine. The
book is entitled: Exploding the hunger myths: A
high school curriculum, by Sonja Williams (1987)
and published by The Institute for Food and Devel-
opment Policy, San Francisco, California.
To order a copy of this book, call or write:
Food First/Institute for Food
and Development Policy
145 Ninth Street
San Francisco, CA 94103 USA
(415)864-8555
We have found that there are many calendar
events around which hunger units may be planned.
October 16 is World Food Day. In recognition of that,
home economics students have entered classrooms to
peer teach their fellow students about hunger.
(Students have found that it is much easier to teach
students who are younger than themselves.) On this
day, the home economics students were prepared to
demonstrate to the others "How the World Eats."
The teachers who signed their classes up for the
demonstration were very pleased with the outcome.
Clearly another time of year for the issue of
hunger to be addressed is at Thanksgiving. This past
year, the Home Economics Department sponsored the
community food drive. Home economics students cre-
ated posters that were placed throughout the build-
ing; made and promoted the signing of a banner that
said, "I Care About Ending Hunger"; delivered an-
nouncements about hunger and the food drive over
the public address system; and collected and sorted
food that was donated by fellow students and teach-
ers. We, teachers and students, worked very hard to
emphasize the importance of donating food because a
person cares, rather than for extra credit. Students
didn't like the idea of being bribed to do something
for others, as though they wouldn't have been
thoughtful enough to help on their own.
The last two springs, the Home Economics De-
partment has promoted "Walk for Mankind," and
has had a number of students participate. "Walk for
Mankind" is sponsored by Project Concern Interna-
tional, an organization that works to educate people
about the needs of individuals worldwide. This
year, after having one thousand pounds of flour car-
ried around the school by students in the Foster Par-
ent Simulation, it was decided that the students
would bake white bread and sell it to parents and
teachers, and whomever else was interested. The
money was then donated to Project Concern Interna-
tional (PCI). On June 4, we were pleased to present
Jan Pritts, representative for PCI, a check for $105,
representing the 105 loaves of bread that had been
sold. That money earned by the students and
donated to Project Concern International will go
toward educating third world families about the
benefits of breast feeding, as well as proper nutrition
for their children.
Urbana Middle School home economics students
have grown accustomed to serving their community
and their world, and realizing their contribution to
their family of humanity. It is every teacher's
dream to see students internalize what has been
taught to them, and take action on it. In my opinion,
middle school teachers may be privileged to observe
this before most teachers of other levels. Middle
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1990 19
school students may need to have a push to turn on
their caring side, but once they are going, it is truly a
pleasure, as the teacher, to sit back and watch. This
year three students have really taken the ball and
run, so to speak. Antwon Booker, Brad Duncan (no
relation to me), and Marques Stone met a great
challenge by choosing to look to music for examples
of work done on different family crises, and write a
song of their own about a particular crisis. (The
assignment was one of five different projects
available to the students. The others included
writing a research paper, writing a short story,
reading a novel and writing a report about the story,
and looking at poetry in a similar fashion to the
music assignment.) The topic they chose for their
rap (lyrics read to a beat without a melody) was
homelessness. Written by Marques and Antwon, "B-
Boxed" by Brad, the three became "I. O. U. on
Homelessness."
I. O. U. on Homelessness
Now if you look at me you will see
I got a place to live in and something to eat
So think about the homeless, and give them a help-
ing hand
They have no where to stay they eat out of garbage
cans.
If you think this is fun, they got no money
They be using bottles and cans that people throw
away,
Hoping for a better day.
They make their beds out of cardboard boxes,
using stone, sticks and rock.
So do you think they have alot?
So if there's a will or a way, please help today!!!
(Antwon Booker)
Listen and listen up,
Cause what I'm about to do is make a fresh cut
While the other MC's are saying word up.
I'm known as T-Love, the ruthless villain
If you don't help the homeless, yuz got to be illin".
We can help them, and make them feel better,
Cause a mansion to them is like livin' in the ghetto.
So when you walk down a street and see an old man
living poor,
Reach into your pocket and think about the Lord.
Cause I know I do, and I know you can.
And help your brother veterans in this land.
So when you see these people don't do them wrong,
Else you won't have a penny and how you livin'
Hobbes?
(Marques Stone)
Teaching globally helps students to move from
me to we; it teaches students that the world includes
even their family. Hopefully it teaches students
that there are many more similarities between us as
opposed to all the differences students assume to be
present between themselves and others. It also
teaches students to open their hearts to others as
well as looking at the hearts of those they consider
"different." Two years ago, I had the opportunity to
attend the XVI World Congress of The International
Federation for Home Economics that was held in
Minneapolis, Minnesota. On the last evening we
gathered in the auditorium for "an evening of
indigenous American entertainment." The finale of
the program was a song performed by the Heartbeat
Singers, whose lyrics, music and symphony arrange-
ment were composed by Raymond Berg. 'The Heart-
beat of Us All" was especially written for the XVI
World Congress to "emphasize our individual
uniqueness yet to celebrate a oneness in global unity."
It seems only appropriate to conclude with the
lyrics.
THE HEARTBEAT OF US ALL
We've come from many different places, distant
lands
Come together, woven out of many brightly colored
strands
Our tongues as strange as the shades of skin we wear
It's so easy to forget there's something deeper we all
share
When we can look beyond the surface we'll see that
one small thing
The common thread, the single song that all our bod-
ies sing
Only then we'll bridge the miles that keep us apart
If we can stop and listen to each other's quietly beat-
ing heart.
Everywhere there's a sound
Put your ear to the ground
Wake up to what's around
A pulse is beating
It's old and it's young
Like a song when it's sung
It's in all of us, everyone
It keeps repeating
It's the spark down deep that keeps the fire burning
Thru the dark and light it keeps the whole world
turning
20 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1990
J\
It's the American Heartbeat
Listen to its call
It's the American Heartbeat
And the Heartbeat of us all
It pounds and it beats
It echoes and repeats
On the backroads and city streets
You can hear it
And the rhythm of our song
It keeps us standing strong
You can feel it
It's the American Heartbeat
Listen to its call
It's the American Heartbeat
and the Heartbeat of us all
It's the American Heartbeat
It's time to make a start
Just take a moment and listen
to the beating of your heart.
International Heartbeat
Listen to its call
International Heartbeat
It's the Heartbeat of us all
International Heartbeat
It's time to make a start
Just take a moment and listen
to the beating of your heart
To Our Friends
Gute Nacht
Bibliography
Good Night
Bonne nuit
Copyright International Federation
of Home Economics (1988)
Checking your classroom's global connections. (1987).
Global Education Project, Menominee County In-
termediate School District, Menominee, Missis-
sippi.
Cleveland, H. (1986). The world we're preparing our
schoolchildren for. Social Education. 50(6), p.
416-23.
Edwards, C. H. (1977). A new look at international
service in home economics. Journal of Home Eco-
nomics. 69(4), p. 58-61.
Murray, E. C. (1986). The family: The global nexus
for home economists." Canadian Home Eco-
nomics Journal. 36(3), p. 102-05.
Peters, R. (1985). HELPing Students perceive the
global community. Contemporary Education
67(2), p. 90-91.
Wagschal, P. H., & Johnson, L. (1986). Children's
views of the future: Innocence almost lost. Phi
Delta Kappan. 67(9), p. 666-69.
Winn, I. J. (1984). Cold war echoes in American
children. Phi Delta Kappan. 66(4), p. 288-89.
(Continued from page 16.)
lose buttons. You may want to use a
stopwatch to see who can accomplish
this the fastest (or compare their times
sighted and blinded).
Station Six
You will need a throw rug, a hanger, a shirt or
sweater, a wheel chair and a separate chair for this
activity. This is a very hard activity to do accu-
rately but your students will appreciate the incredi-
ble will power the wheelchair patient must attain
to have an active lifestyle. Situate the chair next to
the wheel chair. Have the students move from the
edge of the chair to the wheelchair WITHOUT THE
USE OF THEIR LEGS! The average student does not
usually have the upper body strength to do this but I
have seen it done occasionally. Have the student di-
rect the wheelchair over the crumpled rug to a spot
where you have the shirt and hanger and place it on
a hook that is up too high to reach comfortably.
Point out to the students how you would have to ad-
just even your clothes closet to accommodate your
condition. You can easily add to this adventure!
Have the student put something in a drawer that is a
bit too high or balance something that is slightly out
of reach. They should return the wheelchair to its
previous spot and move back into the chair beside it.
Object: Of course this is the activity everyone
wants to do first! Be a good sport and try
to demonstrate it. You will not be en-
tirely successful but they will appreciate
your willingness to try. Make sure the
wheelchair has its brakes on when you
are shifting from one chair to the other.
Give your students the opportunity to express
their reactions to these activities. As a homework
assignment, have them write about their
experiences. Some possibilities of questions are: Of
all the situations you experienced, which one was
most frustrating and why? Write about someone you
know who is "handicapable" and /or one who is
handicapped. What is the difference? If you had to
have a handicap, which one would be the least
frustrating? Why? •••
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1990 21
tt
Teens Helping Teens:
A Teen Parent Support Bazaar
Deborah Tamimie
Home Economics Teacher
Urbana Middle School
Urbana, IL
Home economics classes have often been involved
in service projects such as visiting nursing homes,
volunteering at local hospitals, sponsoring a child
during the holiday season, sending food baskets to
the needy, and holding food and clothing drives to
name just a few. Urbana Middle School students
chose to assist teen parents, some close to their own
age. A teen parent support bazaar to provide new
and used toys was planned to help ease the cost of
holiday gift-giving.
Many teen parents are single and live at home
with their parents. In addition to attending school
each day, many work part-time earning minimum
wage. This limited income must help to pay for
child care, clothing, food, and transportation. The
bazaar attempted to lessen the stress of the holiday
season.
The bazaar was advertised in the school
newsletter and on the local cable television channel.
The social workers in the schools helped distribute
bazaar invitation flyers. Students who knew teen
parents handed out personal invitations to them.
(See below.) The toys were donated from a variety of
places.
Students, as well as teachers, searched through
their closets and attics to locate used toys still in
good condition. Local businesses also donated toys.
Students were amazed at the variety and amount of
toys donated.
All of the home economics classrooms were set up
for the bazaar. One classroom served as a mini-
nursery school. Students planned and implemented a
variety of children's activities suited for different
ages, as well as prepared and served nutritious
snacks. Enthusiastic students kept the children busy
and happy while their parents "shopped" for toys.
Another classroom served as the toy room. Toys were
displayed according to type and age. Students
provided free gift wrap service after the toys were
selected. While the gifts were being wrapped, the
teen parents moved to another classroom for
refreshments. Videos focusing on various aspects of
child care were shown as the parents enjoyed the
opportunity to have "free" time while the children
were supervised by the students. Numerous
parenting pamphlets such as ideas for preparing
healthy meals and snacks, home safety, health care
guides, and quality toy selection were available for
them to take.
Free transportation was provided by our
principal to and from the bazaar. Our students
donated their time and energy toward making this
community service a success.
You are invited to attend the first annual
PARENT TEEN SUPPORT BAZAAR
Saturday, December 9
10:00 -12:00 Noon
at Urbana Middle School
Rooms 153, 154, and 156
Please come with your child. We have designed
these activities especially for all of you. Here is
what you can look forward to:
• New and used toys for you to choose for your child
in time for Christmas
• Gift wrapping
• Information on parenting
• Entertainment and crafts for your children
• Refreshments
Babysitting will be provided
Free transportation is provided for you. We will
leave the parking lots at 10:00 A.M. We will pick up
at the following locations:
Douglass Center in Champaign
Franklin Middle School in Champaign
King School in Urbana
EVERYTHING IS PROVIDED FOR YOU AND
YOUR CHILD FREE OF CHARGE, INCLUDING
THE TOYS!! • • •
22 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1990
Real Life, Real People, Real Caring:
What Home Economics Is Really About
tt
Janine Duncan
Home Economics Teacher
Urbana, IL Middle School
When I think about what kind of skills I want
my students to be equipped with when they leave my
classroom door for the last time, my mind takes me
into the future when they would be adults. My wish
for my students is that they lead happy, healthy,
productive lives. I wish that they might all know
what it is to feel. I wish that they will be able to
give and receive love and that they will be loved,
truly loved, for who they are. I hope that they take
time to simply "be"; that they will allow
themselves time to think, daydream, and ponder life
and what is around them. When it comes right down
to it, I want them to experience life to its fullest ex-
tent. When I return from my visions, I realize that
not all of my students will experience this type of
life; some students do not have any role models that
might demonstrate "real life" for them. (Real life is
in quotes because that is strictly my opinion. . .
though I do hope that I am not alone in my dreams!)
It seems to me, that one of the greatest things
teachers can do for their students is demonstrate
these affective skills — teach students how to care,
love and be loved. It seems to me the most natural
setting for this teaching to take place is within the
home economics classroom. It is there that real life
issues are taught and discussed, feelings are shared,
and dreams are unveiled — even at the middle school
level.
When I mention to people that I teach eighth
grade students the response I get is quite negative.
People tell me that I must be very brave to put my-
self into that situation, for they remember them-
selves at that particular age. A nurse at my doctor's
office recently told me of her child, who is now en-
tering the seventh grade, and how a year or two ago
the child was very nice but suddenly has become
quite mean and angry. For all of you who teach mid-
dle school, I am certain the reactions you receive are
very much the same. The general consensus is that
students at the middle school level are typically
mean and selfish. My experience, however, has been
quite different. I've found that when students are
given the opportunity to care, they seize that oppor-
tunity and take full advantage of it. Note the use of
the phrase "given the opportunity." It seems that
often children are perceived by adults to not care;
there is no use expecting them to give of themselves,
because it is just not part of their nature. In my mind,
children are the one group of people who will give of
themselves freely, if encouraged, and given a chance.
An example.
In October of 1989, my sister received word one
morning that our mom had died. She had no details,
no information except of mom's death. She left her
office and located me at one of the local churches
(where we were training student mediators that
day). We then stopped by school to let the office
know and arranged for substitute teachers for the
week, then went to my husband's office to let him
know so all three of us could plan for our unexpected
trip to Chicago. As our very emotional journey began,
so did it for my students.
The next day, Marilyn (my colleague) went into
all of my classes to tell them what was happening.
She explained to them what she could about
"Janine's relationship with her mom." Marilyn
made a point to tell them that Janine and her mom
had just begun a friendship) — something that occurs
after children become adults. She spoke to them
about empathy and sympathy and how these two
feelings differ based on what a person experiences or
does not experience, respectively. She had the
students share with their classmates their personal
experiences with loved ones dying. She took
advantage of a "teachable moment" to point out to
students that this is just one type of crisis a family
experiences, and that certainly, Janine's family has
already begun dealing with this particular one.
(Marilyn thoughtfully referred to me as Janine, not
Mrs. Duncan, because Marilyn's friendship is with
Janine.) Marilyn gave the students the opportunity
to design cards and write notes to me. She provided
the students with an opportunity to show that they
cared. Below are only a few of the messages that
were written; it would have been impossible to
include the 100+ I received from all of the students.
"Remember, life goes on even though you
think the worst has happened. You're
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1990 23
always there for me, it is my turn to be there
for you. Love Always, P."
"Need a Hug? I have no memories of
anyone in my family dying, but I know you
must be hurting. E."
"Mrs. Duncan, in a way I sort of know
what you are going through. In November of
1987, my grandfather died. I wasn't very
close to him, and I sort of regret it. I really
wish I was closer to him. Also, in January of
1988, a very close family friend died. We
were extremely close to him. I miss them
both very much, and I know you miss your
mother. I still sometimes get upset about it,
and I know it's O.K. to let out your feelings. It
also helps to be open and share your feelings
with others. It really helps! We miss you
and hope you will return soon! Love J.C."
"You never know how much you miss and
love someone until they're gone forever. I'm
sorry. A. K."
As I stated earlier, all students need is a chance,
an opportunity to show that they care. Because of
everything that needed to be done in Chicago, I
made certain I wrote them back before I returned.
Here is my reply:
"Hello Everyone!
I hope all of you are enjoying (or did enjoy) your
day off! In Chicago today, it is a beautiful, sunny
day. The temperature is very crisp — it feels like a
picture perfect autumn day would!
I'm writing to thank all of you for all of the
beautiful cards that were sent along with Mrs.
Mastny when she came up on on Saturday. I must tell
you that I thought you would do that; all of you are
very sensitive people, each in your own way. My
four brothers and sister were surprised that eighth
graders would say such neat things.. .they haven't
been around eighth graders in a long time!
Since Wednesday morning, all of us have been
operating on "automatic pilot." We have done ev-
erything that needed to be done. We called rela-
tives; we called mom's friends; we called our friends;
we cleared her desk at work; we picked out a ceme-
tery plot; we arranged the funeral; we're dealing
with her paper work — insurance and bills and stuff
like that; we wrote thank you notes to all who were
here for us; we wrote letters to those who were not
here to tell them mom died; and we are deciding
what to do with all of her possessions. Our mom was
very clear about us choosing what we wanted. On
visits when all of us were together, she'd always
want to know what we wanted when she died. ..I
suppose many parents are like that.
The toughest time for all of us will be leaving
the apartment where mom lived. That will be so fi-
nal, because we will never return again to visit her or
see things as she had them. I know for me that will
be very, very difficult. All of us are wanting to
linger here, to avoid dealing with that
time.. .something to note. ..even adults try to avoid
painful things.
For me, it has been interesting to watch my fam-
ily. I click between first person and third person. At
times I have been an active participant in what is
going on, and at another moment, I will find myself
watching what is taking place. It makes me very
sad to watch my siblings grieve; I feel badly for
them and their loss.. .kind of how you feel for me in
my loss. The next moment we're all together grieving
our loss. We move very frequently between how "I
feel" and "we feel." Does any of this make sense? If
it doesn't, don't feel terribly bad, I hardly under-
stand it myself!
The one thing we are very thankful for is our
senses of humor. When Dave and I picked up my old-
est brother, Mark, from the airport, he told us of an
article he read in which Rob Reiner was inter-
viewed. Reiner made the statement that laughing
and crying are one in the same. They both vent emo-
tions, so they (emotions) are not bottled inside. Mom
always appreciated Mark and Mike because they
always knew how to make her laugh. ..they do a
good job for the rest of us as well and we do that for
them too!
I will be back on Monday, October 16 — I couldn't
miss the field trip! We will talk more bout this, my
mom's death, death in general, relationships and
how families relate to one another — before and after
major family crises. This kind of stuff is what home
economics is all about! (Hey, I'm always a teacher,
right!?)
Have a good week, be good, and I'll see you Mon-
day, and remember, I love you guys too!
Mrs. Duncan"
The real challenge for teachers is learning how
to be a good role model, how to care and demonstrate
it effectively and how to care. What this really
requires is for teachers to share themselves with
their students; to be open enough so that students
might get a glimpse of how teachers think and feel
and what it takes for that teacher to do that. It is
important to draw the line between dumping and
sharing. Dumping is unloading things or events from
your life that serve no purpose when told to students.
Sharing is done with great thought and the
information provided is for the students' benefits.
(Continued on page 27.)
24 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1990
tt
Developing A Coalition on
Teen Pregnancy Prevention
Marilyn Mastny the agencies in town that deal with teen pregnancy.
Home Economics Teacher We combine our efforts and formed a coalition. We
Urbana, IL Middle School felt that the coalition would help our school and
community work more effectively. Jane Scherer and
Karen Zotz, Cooperative Extension Service, shared
the process of setting up a coalition at an Illinois
As our home economics program became more stu- Home Economics Association meeting. Their
dent-centered, we rediscovered the "at-risk" popula- contributions and our adjustments may help you, the
tion. Many thirteen year olds were sexually experi- reader, to develop your own community coalition.
enced or about to be. To help guide us in serving our Our initial letter was addressed directly to
young people, we formed a coalition that included those services.
Urbana Junior High School
1201 South Vine Street
Urbana, Illinois 61801
217/384-3685
Dear :_
Urbana Middle School (UMS) would like to initiate a comprehensive, coordinated adolescent pregnancy
prevention program. We intend to form a council to accomplish this.
As a start, we feel it is important that we assess existing services and resources in our community.
1. What services exist?
2. Who provides it?
3. How is it funded?
4. What is the program's reputation?
5. Is it adequate, excellent or in need of review?
6. What is the staffing?
7. What is the training of the staff?
8. Is it known and used by the teens in the community?
It is imperative that our council does not become a competing service provider with existing agencies. After
the community survey is complete, the council can begin to develop its goals, objectives and strategies for ad-
dressing prevention.
As a representative of a service providing organization, would you be willing to become a member of our
council? Our first meeting will be a luncheon on Friday, February 24 at UMS in room 153 at 1 p.m. At that time
we would like to accomplish two goals. The first goal is to give an opportunity for each of the service providing
organizations to address the eight points mentioned earlier. The second goal will be to identify individuals
from a variety of agencies and organizations to serve on our council.
The time has come to blend forces in our community. We would love for you to become a part of it. Please let
us know by Friday, February 10th if you will be able to attend our first meeting.
Sincerely,
Marilyn Mastny Henry O. Meares
Home Economics Instructor Principal of Urbana Middle School
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1990 25
After your initial agencies are in place and their
existing services and resources are assessed, you will
be ready to include the other components of your
coalition membership.
The organizational model for our coalition was:
1 /3 of the group should have access to money
1/3 of the group should have expertise
1/3 of the group should be workers to implement
the program
Obviously, the target group of the coalition
should be adolescents. The balance of task forces is
important. You will want to consider a representa-
tive from any groups such as:
parents
peers
medical professionals
media
neighborhood groups
businesses
churches
agencies
legal /government
schools
representatives
The suggested agencies/individuals/organiza-
tions to include in a local coalition include:
^Community Services Organizations (Rotary, Ki-
wanis, Optimist)
"Corporate Leaders
^Recognized Volunteer Leaders
♦United Way
*Health Department
*Department of Social Services
*Hospital Representatives
*Clergy Representatives
*March of Dimes
*School System
*School Board Members
^Elected City/County Officials
*Medical Society
*Junior League
*Medical Auxiliary
*PTA
*Regional
*Family Planning Council
*Media Representatives (Print, Electronic)
*State Legislators
*Red Cross
*Planned Parenthood
*AAUW
*Boy's Club
*Fraternities/Sororities
^Childbirth Organizations
*Baptist Children's Home
*Rape Crisis
*United Family Services
*Head Start/Preschool Programs
^Salvation Army
*Girl Scouts
"Council for Children
"Lutheran Family Services
"Catholic Social Services
*La Leche League
"Jewish Social Service
*Family Services
"Volunteer Action Center
Children's Home Society
"Urban League
"YMCA/YWCA
♦Girl's Club
"Mental Health Center
*Drug Education/Prevention
"Crisis Pregnancy Centers
*Toughlove
"Youth Services
*Legal Aid Services
*Boy Scouts
*Youth Council
*4-H/Ag Extension
*Area Health Education
*Contact/Telephone
*Housing Authority
*Methodist Counseling
*Vocational Rehabilitation
^League of Women Voters
MUSTS!
After you have identified and contacted your
membership, you will want to decide upon your gen-
eral function. Listed below are some possibilities
with a sample list of projects that other councils
have found to be successful. Remember it is impor-
tant that your coalition does not become a competing
service provider with your community's existing
agencies.
ADVOCATE: To support and encourage programs
and strategies that affect adolescent sexuality, preg-
nancy and parenting.
1 . Advocate for participation of teens on boards of
youth serving agencies
2. Let's Talk Month (National Family Sexuality
Education Month)
3. Advocate Health Clinic on wheels
4. Poster campaign to promote "It's okay to say 'No
Way!'."
5. School Based Clinics
6. Day care
7. Alternate Schools
26 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1990
CATALYST: To plan, implement, and evaluate pilot
programs that can be channeled to establish service
providers at appropriate times.
1 . Teen Hot-Lines
2. Middle School Health Fairs
3. Peer Hotline
4. Develop policy and procedures statement for pi-
lot project
5. Parents It's Time to Talk
FACILITATOR: To serve as a resource and referral
center.
1. Develop and distribute pocket referral cards
2. Local Agency Resource Directory
3. Develop procedures manuals for community pro-
jects and programs
4. Community Membership Drive
5. Summit Conference of providers
COORDINATOR: To facilitate and assist providers.
1. Coordinate quarterly Agency to Agency
Roundtable
2. Provide Advisory Board for Local Family Life
Education Group
3. Coordinate Seminar on Adolescent Health with
area agencies
4. Let's Talk Month
AWARENESS: To provide information concerning
adolescent sexuality, pregnancy and parenting.
1 . Collect statistics on adolescent pregnancy
2. Financial report on adolescent pregnancy
3. Annual Meeting
4. Print quarterly newsletter coordinating infor-
mation, services and programs regarding adoles-
cent pregnancy
5. Information/Awareness presentations:
-Church youth group directors
-Campus ministers, university/college campus
-Medical societies, OB-GYN, family practice
-Women's Clubs/Men's Clubs
-County Commission
-City council
-School Board
-PTA, elementary, middle schools
6. Media awareness luncheon for radio and TV
executives with directors of community relations
Our coalition has been in place for over a year.
We look forward to our monthly meetings and all the
information they provide us. Here are some hints
which you might benefit from:
1 . Plan on some sharing during each meeting. There
is always something going on that you should
know about. This also allows you an opportunity
to discuss what is going on in your department.
2. Let other people in your community know what
you are doing. Invite them to attend a monthly
meeting.
3. Meet regularly at a specific time and on a spe-
cific day of the week. It is easier for all of you to
remember. Try to provide some refreshments.
4. If you have a conference room at your school,
hold your meetings there. We prefer them before
school (7:30-8:20 a.m.).
5. Send out reminder letters or postcards of your
next meeting date, approximately one week be-
fore they happen.
6. Enjoy each other! These people are wonderful
and will be a wonderful resource. You aU have
something in common. . .you care about the young
adults you are helping.
Summary
One of the highlights of my year has been
networking with agencies outside of the school
system through our Teen Pregnancy Prevention
Coalition. We had the opportunity to take our
monthly meetings to an exciting new beginning.
Juliana Helmke, the Program Coordinator of
Outreach Services of the Child Adolescent Program
for Champaign County, was able to secure funds to
host a symposium dealing with teen pregnancy and
related issues. She was able to invite
representatives from middle schools and high
schools in the county as well as specific related
agencies. We had an exciting turnout! It was a
wonderful way to get input from a variety of service
agencies (including schools) to make best use of our
combined efforts. We will be sending the results of
our day out to its participants this fall. I would en-
courage you to follow this important lead. The
bridge building it is providing is well worth the ef-
forts your group will make. • • •
(Continued from page 24,)
Opening oneself up to students requires some risk-
taking, which, in front of eighth graders might be
one of the most frightening things a teacher faces.
However, the risk is greatly out-weighed when a
teacher sees students caring about themselves and
the others around them. I will continue to dream
about my students who become real people, with real
lives, who really care — and isn't that what home
economics is really about? • • •
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1990 27
tt
Parenting Simulation: Teaching Responsibility
and Universal Care-Giving
Janine Duncan,
Home Economics Teacher
Urbana, IL
Home economics students have been par-
ticipating in parenting simulations for a number of
years. They have learned the reality that
parenting a child is a difficult job that lasts all day
and night, every day, for years on end. There are
really no breaks, there is never a time when a parent
does not feel the sense of responsibility toward his or
her child. Parenting is a job that lasts virtually
until the end of the parent's life. Home economics
students are able to get a mere glimpse of this
responsibility by participating in a simulation that
lasts for a limited number of days or weeks. Some
students participate by taking responsibility for an
egg; others a flour sack; and still others with plants.
Regardless of the method, the message remains quite
clear: Children are our world's most valuable
resource; the skill of the caregiver directly reflects
the outcome and success of the child.
At Urbana Middle School, all the eighth grade
students participate in a parenting simulation that
lasts from one week to ten days, depending how each
semester flows. The students carry a five pound sack
of flour, wrapped in a paper bag for added
durability, to simulate the weight of a newborn. The
students are responsible for these "infants" twenty-
four hours a day for the duration of the simulation.
These "children" must be taken to all classes, except
physical education, in which case they are brought
to the home economics day care center while "mom"
or "dad" is working out. The "children" must be
picked up and both parent and child must arrive to
their next class on time. The stipulation for the
assignment is that the "children" should be taken
home with their parents. Realistically, it is
difficult to detect all who may have been locked in
their parents' lockers overnight. Students are evalu-
ated on their participation in the simulation. Was
the "baby" left at home, in another class, or in their
locker? Did the "child" suffer from any form of
abuse? Were there any eye-witness accounts,
teachers or other students, of abuse? Was the flour
sack found damaged with holes, tears, etc. after
being returned to the teacher?
In order for the simulation to function smoothly
it is important to enlist the help of two very
important groups of people: the students' parents or
guardians and the faculty and staff of the building.
At Urbana Middle School, the faculty and staff are
very supportive of the project. They have been given
the role of the community members and help to
simulate the responsibility the community is
obligated to take in cases of child abuse and neglect.
Because they are designated as mandated reporters
of child abuse and neglect, their role during the
simulation parallels their role in real life
situations. The faculty and staff are notified of the
upcoming parenting simulation a few days before it
begins and are supplied with a list of new "parents"
and incident report forms in the event they witness
any cases of abuse and /or neglect. The following is
an example of the letter that all faculty and staff
members receive, as well as a sample of the incident
report form.
Dear Faculty and Staff,
On Monday, November 27, the Families classes will
begin their parenting simulation with their flour
sack children. The students will bring their children
to all classes, and generally be responsible for their
children 24 hours per day.
If a student is mistreating, neglecting or abusing a
child, please take time to fill out the attached
incident report form. This report will simulate the
community's responsibility in identifying cases of
child abuse and neglect and hopefully emphasize to
the students the realities of parenting
responsibilities.
These children are not to disrupt your classroom
situation. If a problem arises, please contact me by
dropping a note in my mailbox. If you have more
28 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1990
than one child in your class, it may be of benefit to
you to set up a play pen area in the back of your
classroom. The power of suggestion is enough for its
creation! During the students' P.E. classes, there is a
day care facility in room 154, just as there is in area
exercise centers. However, it is up to the student to
drop off his or her child and be on time to class, as
well as pick up his or her child and get to his or her
next class. (Realistically, parents get fined heavily
for their tardiness when picking children up from
day care facilities.)
The project will continue until Wednesday, December
6, . The "student parents" are listed on the
following page.
Thank you very much for your support— it is greatly
appreciated!
Sincerely,
Janine Duncan
STUDENT-PARENT:
DATE:
ABUSE NEGLECT
DESCRIPTION:
(CHECK ONE)
STUDENT-PARENT:
DATE:
ABUSE NEGLECT
DESCRIPTION:
(CHECK ONE)
STUDENT-PARENT:
DATE:
ABUSE NEGLECT
DESCRIPTION:
(CHECK ONE)
'
STUDENT-PARENT:
DATE:
ABUSE NEGLECT
DESCRIPTION:
(CHECK ONE)
**Return all reports to Duncan's
154.
mailbox, or bring to room
Gaining the support of the students' parents and
guardians is also crucial. The parents are asked to
share their expertise with their children and to
avoid taking on the responsibility of the flour sack
child themselves. Parents and guardians receive a
parent awareness form that provides information
about the project and are asked to sign it and have
their child return it for credit toward the project (see
below) The majority of Urbana parents have
completely supported the parenting simulation, some
have even suggested ideas that would make it more
difficult on the students! There are some parents
who disagree with the idea of the simulation and
feel it does not help teach a student parenting
responsibilities. This year there have been three
students out of the three hundred thirty students in
the eighth grade whose parents have withheld
them from this activity in accordance with Illinois
House Bill 2634. The bill allows parents to pull
their children from any family life education unit or
class. Included are two examples of the parent
awareness form. One form is for a parenting
simulation, the other is for a foster parent
simulation. With either awareness form, the project
remains the same. The difference is the possible
audience with which the teacher is dealing.
Parenting Simulation Form
Dear Parents and Guardians,
As you have probably heard, your son's or
daughter's parenting simulation is beginning! Your
child is experiencing the responsibilities of parent-
ing all day, every day, from Monday, November 27,
, until his or her class period Wednesday, De-
cember 6, .
During these days of parenting, students are ex-
pected to take their flour sack children with them to
all classes. The teachers at Urbana Middle School
have been most receptive and responsive to the pro-
ject, for they are well aware of the growing problem
of teenage pregnancy.
After school, the students' responsibilities do not
end; they are required to take their children home
with them. (This is where you parents and
guardians come in.) At home, your child may ask you
to care for his or her child. Please do not burden
yourself with this project-these grandchildren are
not meant to be a burden to their grandparents. How-
ever, please share with these new parents your bits
of wisdom acquired over your years of experience.
It is important for students to understand the
huge responsibility it takes to be a caring and posi-
tive parent before they have children of their own.
The statistics in Illinois alone are startling:
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1990 29
529 babies were born last year to teenage parents
ages 15 and younger.
21,000 babies were born last year to teenage
parents between the ages of 15 and 19. (That is
12 percent of all births last year in our state!)
Please note the emphasis on parents: it took both
boys and girls to create such statistics! In class, the
responsibilities of both parents are being empha-
sized.
Generally speaking, children learn when the
need arises. When a child wants to purchase an
item, s/he learns to earn and use the money necessary
for the product. When the child splits his or her
pants, s/he then has a reason to learn how to mend.
When teenagees become pregnant or contribute to
someone becoming pregnant, they begin to understand
that "it" really can happen to them. It is my hope
that the burden of parenting a flour sack child will
be enough for students to say no to early parenting,
either by abstention or conception control.
If you have any questions or comments concerning
this project, please call me at 384-3685. Thanks for
your support—it is crucial for the success of this pro-
ject.
Sincerely,
Janine Duncan,
Home Economics Teacher
25 pts. earned when returned by Monday, Nov. 27,
1989.
PLEASE SIGN ON THE LINE BELOW, INDICAT-
ING YOUR AWARENESS OF THE PROJECT.
Foster Parent Simulation Form
The students of the Wildcats are starting a spe-
cial project next week, April 2-10, that will be of in-
terest to you and your family.
It is difficult for many students to visualize the
responsibility of parenting an infant. They can learn
how to diaper, feed and burp a baby but the 24 hour a
day commitment is hard to foster in a classroom!
I would appreciate your support in an effort that
needs to be shared between us. Your child will be
asked to "foster parent" a personalized flour sack
baby for one week. Students will be asked to carry
this "infant" everywhere with them: to class, on the
bus, and at home. Obviously, it won't wake up in the
night or need a new diaper, but the flour sack should
be held as if it were alive.
You may offer to babysit on the weekend, but
don't inconvenience yourself! All students must be
ENTIRELY responsible for each week day at school.
At the end of the week they will be writing about
their experiences. They will also get points towards
their grade by having you sign this form. Please
give it to your child to return as soon as possible.
Thank you for your support.
Janine Duncan
Home Economics Teacher
384-3685
*******************************************
STUDENTS NAME:
PARENT/GUARDIAN SIGNATURE:.
COMMENTS/QUESTIONS:.
Throughout the simulation, class time is spent
studying the various responsibilities of parenting.
Teen pregnancy and parenting are discussed. Positive
parenting, the difference between punishment and
discipline, child abuse/neglect prevention, and par-
ent-child communication skills are practiced.
Emphasis is placed on the all-important loving
and nurturing skills that are the heart of healthy
parenting. Because there are children who don't ex-
perience these positive parenting skills it is impor-
tant to compare and contrast children who are prod-
ucts of healthy parenting and those who are not. It
is important to teach students their responsibility to
those children who are neglected and abused. The
important point students must recognize is that par-
enting skills are universal caring skills. Whether or
not the students become parents, they will likely be
aunts, uncles, friends of people who are parents,
coaches, and /or may unknowingly become role mod-
els for children they may hardly know. If children
truly are our world's most valuable resource, we owe
it to the children of our world to teach students
healthy, responsible parenting. • • •
30 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1990
Our Environment: A Home Economics
Issue/Concern
tt
Debbie Tamimie
Home Economics Teacher
Urbana, IL
Can you guess how much trash the average
family throws out each week? If you guessed seventy
pounds you're correct. That much trash for one week
would weigh as much as a car in one year!
Newspapers and television are informing us of
the growing problem concerning the need for addi-
tional landfill space to dump our trash. Are we re-
ally the "disposable society"? Is it too easy for us to
buy, use, and discard disposable products such as
styrofoam cups, plastic forks, diapers, razors, or food
containers? Recycling things such as plastic, paper,
glass and aluminum is one way to work toward
reducing our enormous garbage load. Recycling not
only reduces solid waste but also saves natural
resources and energy, thus preserving our environ-
ment.
The home economics class is a prime area to in-
troduce the concept of recycling. Students can become
leaders in their efforts to create a positive change at
home, school and in their community. When recy-
cling and its efforts on our environment are taught,
students can take an active role in evaluating what
steps are being taken by themselves and others to
maintain and improve our environment. Following
are activity ideas to aid the home economics teacher
in preserving this environmental issue.
Paper Recycling: A Student Effort
Seventh grade students at Urbana Middle School
initiated a recycling project aimed at collecting
discarded classroom paper. Students painted boxes
discarded from the school office, designed a logo
("Recycling Saves Trees"), and distributed them to
the various classrooms. One day every week these
students collect and empty the discarded paper into
a large container provided by the local community
recycling center. The recycling center picks up the
paper waste and sends it to be recycled into products
such as newspaper, paper towels, and notebooks.
Over 4236 pieces of paper were discarded the
first week. Students started to discuss ways in which
paper could be reused such as using both sides of the
paper, using pencils when possible in order to erase
mistakes, and using returned homework for scratch
paper. When all of the classrooms, offices, and
workrooms are recycling paper, the students' goal
will be met.
Students also held a contest in which they used
their creative talents to design and display recycling
posters from discarded file folders. The design had
to includeda drawing and information to inform
other students and teachers about positive
environmental effects from recycling. The best poster
was selected and a local business agreed to donate
outdoor billboard space and use it to advertise the
student's recycling message.
Think
qlolo oily.
Act
m recycle.
'ocok
If,
"*
Mix OWTCMR
-•MMaiMKKN
Styrofoam Use in the School Cafeteria: A Student
Concern
On what type of material does your school food
service serve student and staff lunches? If the
material used is styrofoam can you guess how many
pieces are used and discarded each day in your
school cafeteria? Many school districts that once
used washable plastic trays have converted to using
styrofoam products. Hot lunches, salads, soups, as
well as beverages are being served on or in styrofoam
products. Plastic eating utensils have replaced the
stainless steel ones once used.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1990 31
My home economics students examined the wide
use of plastic in our society. Advantages and
disadvantages as well as alternatives to using
styrofoam and disposable plastic were explored and
debated.
Advantages
• keeps food warm/cold longer (fast food packag-
ing)
• no cleanup such as washing and drying (no clean-
ing products or water needed)
• fairly inexpensive to purchase (styrofoam cups
and plates)
• helps to retain the shape of food
• some packaging can be washed and reused
Disadvantages
• pollutes the air when burned
• takes up limited landfill space
• no bacteria or fungi capable of decomposing it
• some made using chlorofluorocarbons (CFS's)
which contribute to depleting the ozone layer
• not being recycled in most areas of the country
The home economics students undertook the task
of collecting, cleaning, sorting, and counting all the
styrofoam discarded during their lunch period for
one day. Needless to say, this was a messy and
smelly activity! After totaling the amount of plas-
tic discarded for one day, the students calculated
how much styrofoam would possibly be used for one
week, one month, and for an entire school year.
The results were astounding! In an effort to in-
form the entire student body concerning the environ-
mental effects from using plastic, the students de-
signed a showcase displaying their results. Concerns
about the use of styrofoam in the school cafeteria
were expressedby students to the local newspaper,
the school administrators, the food service director,
the school newsletter and the school newspaper.
The home economics students took the lead in an
effort to educate other students about how and why
our environment is precious to everyone. This topic
lends itself to an interdisciplinary approach.
Science classes can research how plastics are made
and their effects on the atmosphere, English classes
can start a letter writing campaign to state and local
officials expressing concern about plastics, and even
history classes can look into how the use of plastic
has evolved. Home economics students are now
asking the local fast food restaurants to "hold the
styrofoam" when ordering their meals!
Below are some ideas that I have used in my
classroom adapted from materials published by the
Illinois Department of Energy and Natural
Resources, Division of Solidwaste Renewable
Resources, 222, S. College, Floor 1, Springfield, IL
62704.
Activity RECYCLING EMBLEMS
Rationale: The recycling emblem on food products
informs the consumer that the packag-
ing is made from recycled materials or
the packaging can be reused.
Procedure:
Learner
Outcome:
Students will locate food products at
home that bear the recycling emblem.
Students are able to recognize products
in packages made of recycled paper-
board or packages that can be reused.
Activity: DON'T WASTE WASTES
Rationale:
Procedure:
Learner
Outcome:
The average American family throws
away various types of waste much of
which is reusable and recyclable.
Students will sort through their waste
at home and categorize the waste into
reusable and recyclable items. Students
will calculate the percentage of wastes
that are recyclable vs. nonrecyclable.
Students will create an awareness of re-
cyclable and nonrecyclable waste.
The following are ideas for classroom activities
that focus on recycling:
A. Recycling (paper, metal, glass)
1 . Ask students to bring examples of packages
and products that display the recycling em-
blem (paper egg carton, cereal box, clothes
detergent box).
2. Visit a local grocery store and identify prod-
ucts bearing the packaging emblem.
3. Take a field trip to the local recycling center
in order to see what materials can be recy-
cled and how this is done.
4. Initiate a school- wide paper recycling pro-
ject. Provide classrooms with discarded
boxes that have been decorated by students
with recycling logos. Students can collect
discarded paper once a week.
32 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1990
5. Demonstrate how to make recycled paper in
your classroom.
6. Sell stationery and cards made from recycled
paper as a money-making project.
7. Use the school public address to inform the
students the environmental benefits of recy-
cling.
8. Develop a graph for the student body to see
charting the amount of discarded paper col-
lected from one classroom for one week, one
month, and the entire year.
9. Design a "monster" sculpture of various prod-
ucts found at home that cannot be recycled.
Display the sculpture in a location at school
where students can observe it and display
posters stating the negative environmental
effects from these products.
B. Plastic and styrofoam
1 . Initiate a letter writing campaign focusing on
the use of styrofoam in your school district or
at local restaurants. The letters using a
business letter format could be written with
the aid of fellow English teachers.
2. Write letters to local city council members,
state legislators, retailers, and the local
newspaper stating individual concerns about
the overuse of plastic and how it is
hazardous to our environment.
1. Read the local newspaper and various
magazines to discuss topics that focus on
solid waste and solid waste management.
2. Ask other departments such as English,
Science and Math to help create an interdis-
ciplinary approach to the subject of recy-
cling. Focus on recycling in all of these
classes for one day.
Resources
The following is a list of resources from which
you could obtain ideas and information to incorporate
recycling into your home economics curriculum:
National Recycling Coalition
1101 30th St. N.W., Suite 305
Washington, DC 20007
Environmental Defense Fund
257 Park Avenue South
New York, NY 10010
Co-Op America
Dept. EC.
2100 M St. N.W., Suite 310
Washington, DC 20063
Sierra Club
730 Polk St.
San Francisco, C A 94109
C. Community Involvement
1. Invite a representative from the local
recycling center or from an environmental
group to discuss how and why materials
should be recycled.
2. Plan a poster contest focusing on recycling and
its benefits to our environment. Display the
posters in a local store, at a shopping mall,
or ask a local business to sponsor the
"winning poster" on an outdoor bill board.
3. Students can identify someone in their
neighborhood who is not recycling at home.
Students should design a "mini" lesson plan
to inform their neighbor about how to begin
recycling and its benefits to the environment.
4. Present a prize to the student that "converts"
the most neighbors to begin recycling their
waste.
5. Plan a "plant a tree day" in honor of the
trees saved from recyling the discarded
paper at school.
D. Other Activities
Earth Care Paper, INC.
P.O. Box 3335
Madison, WI 53704
The Kids Earthworks Group
1400 Shattuck Ave. #25
Berkeley, CA 94709
Urban Environmental Education Program
Schlitz Audubon Center
Robert E. Nichols, Director
1111 East Brown Deer Road
Milwaukee, WI 53217
The Worldwatch Institute
1776 Massachusetts Ave., N.W.
Washington , DC 20036
The Center for Environmental Education
625 9th St. N.W.
Washington, DC 20001
(Continued on page 36.)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1990 33
tt
Technology: People Make the Difference
Marilyn Mastny
Home Economics Teacher
Urbana Middle School
Urbana, IL
Two years ago I had the opportunity to get in-
volved with the Illinois Plan for Industrial Tech-
nology Education. It was an exciting experience
working with industrial educators as well as repre-
sentatives from math, science, and other academic
areas. Our dream was to implement technology in a
practical and substantial way.
As we shared our visions in each subject area, I
thought about how home economics should be repre-
sented. Should we concentrate on the advances in
food technology or textiles and their increasing di-
versity? What about housing and interior design?
Waste management is another important considera-
tion! All of these areas excite me for their potential
and their reality. As my turn approached, my
thoughts came back to my students that year. Mid-
dle school is indeed a unique time of life! My two
ninth grade classes were a particularly awkward
mix of being sweet, brash, egotistic, and unaware of
the realities of the work place.
And so, as my turn arrived, my mind was made
up. "What about . . . people?" I asked. "What about
how technology affects people and how people
affect technology?" After all, people are the most
important part of home economics and what better
group of people than my two ninth grade classes! As
we finalized our individual units and how we might
implement our ideas, I began considering my plans . . .
a pizza by the slice restaurant . . . sold to faculty and
staff . . . possibly delivery service ... a dine in
restaurant. . . use of a microphone for taking orders . .
. adding machine with receipts . . . evaluations.
Within the whole framework of a restaurant it
became essential to me to show my students how
important their contributions would be in its success.
It was then I knew I didn't want things to go too
smoothly. I wanted them to develop a certain sense
of panic and to be able to pull together when things
got a little difficult. I wanted to see the natural
leaders surface and take charge. As the beads of
sweat developed upon my brow at the mere thought
of this undertaking, I merely reminded myself that
good teaching has a necessary component of risk
taking! I also needed to factor in another element to
the equation. I had a student teacher. Should I
share with her my underlying notion of chaos? I
chose not. As a student teacher she needed to learn
her lessons too.
Opening up the idea of technology was easily
done inside of a foods laboratory. Evidence is all
around them and students were easily able to iden-
tify examples. I kept my introduction to technology
very simple. We defined technology as "the appli-
cation of scientific knowledge for a specific purpose."
We discussed examples of goods and services that
people need or want. We went on to look at how one
might go about manufacturing a product and the
pattern one might typically follow. Williams,
Badrkham, and Daggett (1987) in Technology at
work suggest a good example.
People
Equipment
Materials
Facilities
V7Z
Materials Handling
Input
7
Processing
Output
Explanation of this diagram is very simple.
Materials handling is made up of elements that
support the making of goods. In the case of our
restaurant, the facilities are the foods lab and
classroom for our restaurant; the materials are
the ingredients for our pizza; the equipment is
34 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1990
the stoves, pans, etc., to prepare our pizza; the
people are our students who will make, sell and
deliver our product.
2. Input is using the elements in materials handling
at the proper time and the proper place (like
following a recipe!).
3. Processing means that the product will actually
be completed during this step. The raw materi-
als are transformed into the finished product.
4. Output means that the product will be delivered
to people who need or want them.
"How would you like to manufacture a product?"
I asked the class. I guess through the years I've
learned the middle school mind. "Let's have a pizza
restaurant!" said several students. It became a unan-
imous decision in both classes. As the excitement con-
tinued I decided we might consider a questionnaire to
circulate among the faculty and staff to see what
they might be willing to purchase.
The students got busy and developed a series of
questions with little help from me (see below.) My
particular favorite is number four, as if elevator,
heavy metal and rap music were the only real possi-
bilities!
Student Composed Questionnaire
Dear Staff Member:
Home Economics Four classes are studying a unit on technology and how it affects everyday life. We have
decided to develop our own technological system! We will be setting up a "one day only" restaurant. In order to
know our market, the students have written a survey. The results of our survey will help us to best determine
prices and our delivery system. Please answer the questions and return them to Marilyn Mastny's mailbox as
soon as possible. Thanks!
1 . We would like to sell pizza by the slice. If you ordered from us which would you select?
A. Sausage
B . Pepperoni
C. Onion, Mushrooms, Green Peppers
D. Sausage, Pepperoni, Onions, Mushrooms, Green Peppers
2. We would like to sell a beverage for you to have with your pizza. Which would you choose?
A. Ice Tea
B . Lemonade
3. We would like to sell our food in three different ways. We would like to provide a sit-down, reservations
only restaurant, a "walk-up" restaurant, and a delivery service. Which do you think you would choose?
A Sit down, reservations only restaurant
B. "Walk-up" restaurant
C. Delivery
4. We would like to provide music for you at our restaurant. What kind of music would appeal to you?
A. Elevator music
B. Heavy metal
C. Rap J
D. Other
5. We will also be providing some of Mastny's Famous Saucer Cookies (remember, they were served at the
meeting before sixth grade orientation?). We would like to set reasonable prices that will still allow us to
make a profit so that we can visit a special restaurant of our choice. How does this sound? Pizza-$1.00
(toppings, $.25), Drinks-$.25, $.50, Cookie-$.25 Circle: High Low O.K.
Make this change:
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1990 35
The results of this survey were a surprise to me
and I am so glad I insisted upon it. Only two or
three faculty members wanted the sit down restau-
rant. I was discouraged as I thought this would
have been a super experience for the students. Luck-
ily, we found out early to alleviate alot of disap-
pointment. Delivery was the most frequent re-
sponse and so we prepared for our upcoming event.
Actually, they prepared. I encouraged, listened
and semi-directed my students but took a back seat
in overall planning. Using the questionnaire as an
estimate, we prepared our beverages and pizzas
ahead of time.
Soon it was time for the big day. Were we
ready? Almost. Actually, everything was falling
into place reasonably well. What my students had
not anticipated was RUSH HOUR! Things got very
intense when a line started to form. I stole a glance
at my student teacher. I will always remember the
expression on her face! The natural leaders did
rally and I helped direct a few lost souls myself.
At the end of the last lunch hour, we were
exhausted and yet excited.
v Pickup Pizza/
\. Delivery
v Order Pizza
n
Adding
Drinks
Q,
Machine
""" -Microphone
Cut Up and
Package Pizza
Outline of Classroom/Pizza Parlor
Along with a receipt, we handed out an evalua-
tion form. This was one of the few times in history
that students anxiously awaited their evaluations!
Several students (who normally don't "succeed" in
school) were singled out as being very courteous and
prompt. One student was mentioned to have had
his finger on a slice of pizza as he rushed to deliver
quickly! All in all, students saw how important
they were in the system.
As we picked up the pieces the next day we
counted our profits. Because of a supportive faculty
and staff we were able to count $120.00 in our cash
box. The thirty students, my student teacher, and
myself chose to walk to Jumer's, a very elegant
restaurant, for desserts and beverages as our
reward. For many of those young people, it was the
first time in a non-fastfood restaurant. They
behaved well and appreciated the fine food but
especially the service. After all, it's the people
who make the difference.
Reference
Williams, C, Badrkhan, K. S., & Daggett, W. R.
(1987). Technology at work. West Chicago:
South Western Publishing Co. • • •
(Continued from page 33.)
Environmental Action Foundation
1525 New Hampshire Ave. N.W.
Washington, DC 10036
Environmental Task Force
1346 Connecticut Ave. N.W., Suite 912
Washington, DC 20036
Plastic Recycling Foundation
1275 K Street N.W., Suite 400
Washington, DC 20005
A-Way With Waste, 1984
Washington Department of Ecology
4350 150th Ave. N.E.
Redmond, WA 98052
Living Lightly in the City and
Living Lightly on the Planet
Schlitz Audubon Center
HUE. Brown Deer Road
Milwaukee, WI 52317
Illinois Department of Energy and Natural
Resources
325 W. Adams, Hoor 3
Springfield, IL 62704
36 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1990
Sanitation: A Scientific, Hands-On Approach
tt
Janine Duncan
Home Economics Teacher
Urbana, IL
Home economics has always been known for its
hands-on approach to learning. At Urbana Middle
School, this very traditional part of the subject area
is combined with the scientific aspects of sanitation.
The goal is for students to understand what cross-con-
tamination is, how it occurs, and how to prevent it.
By the time students complete the activities, they
(hopefully!) will have developed safe food han-
dling skills.
Students participate in three activities that fol-
low a class discussion on sanitation, cross-contamina-
tion and food safety legislation. One book that is
particularly helpful to demonstrate the "grotesque"
food handling practices of the early 1900s, (preleg-
islation) is The Jungle by Upton Sinclair. The
graphic writing style of Sinclair allows students to
create a visual image of how bad food handling was
during that time in history and compare it with
techniques currently used.
Food Safety Activity Part I: The Observation
This information gives students a solid back-
ground to complete their first assignment, "The
Restaurant Observation." Students are required to
take time to observe food handling practices in any
of the fast food restaurants around their home. Fast
food restaurants are chosen because the customers can
typically see some, if not all, of the food prepara-
tion. Students must list all forms of cross-contamina-
tion that they see — the observations are typically
very graphic; students are very surprised at the lack
of food safety skills demonstrated by employees.
The observations made during their restaurant ob-
servation will become the basis for their upcoming
sanitation experiment. For example, being told that
money carries a great deal of bacteria has some
impact on students, but getting to see the bacterial
colonies that grow from touching the money creates a
much stronger and more valuable learning experience
for the students.
Food Safety Activity Part II: The Experiment
The second activity, "The Sanitation Experi-
ment," gives the students the opportunity to grow
bacteria for a first-hand look at what is actually
spread by the action of cross-contamination. The
supplies necessary for this experiment include:
1 baby food jar for each student (preferably the
small size) filled with potato/starch medium or
commercially produced Potato Dextrose Agar
(recipe given at end of test)
masking tape, for labeling
markers, for labeling
hand soap
paper towels
The steps for the experiment are as follows:
1. Loosen the lid of medium-filled baby food jar, so
that the lid will come off when lifted.
2. Wash hands thoroughly with hot, soapy water;
rinse completely.
3. Dry hands with clean paper towels, discard
when finished. (Using cloth towel or used paper
towels will only increase the chance of cross-con-
tamination.)
4. Mimic action observed in restaurant, then lift
lid, touch the medium and replace lid.
Example: touch dollar bill in right hand, mak-
ing certain to use finger tips; lift jar lid with left
hand; touch medium with fingers on right hand;
replace lid on jar with left hand; turn lid to
close.
5. Using marker and masking tape, label jar with
name and hour.
Food Safety Activity Part III: Letter to the Com-
pany
Contaminated medium must stand for 3-4 days to
allow bacteria to grow. It is best if kept in a rela-
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1990 37
tively warm room, free from drafts. At the end of
this period the students will need to make their ob-
servations. One possibility is to have them complete
an experimental lab report including an objective,
hypothesis, procedure, results and conclusion. Obvi-
ously, have the students report their findings
through a method with which you feel most com-
fortable. The students will be amazed to see how
much bacteria has actually grown — it is definitely
one of the best ways to demonstrate the need for safe
food handling practices.
The last assignment, "The Letter to the Com-
pany," is a summary of everything the student has
learned, and may be used as an evaluation tool. This
assignment helps students to learn how to voice their
consumer concerns, in a clear and business-like fash-
ion, to the company where they first did their
restaurant observation.
When writing a business letter, there are certain
things that must be included. Below, is a model
letter with specific points that must be discussed.
Remember, your letter must be clear, to the point, and
most importantly, very neat!
Your Street Address
Your City, State, and Zip
Today's Date
Name of Restaurant
Street Address
City, State, and Zip
THE GREETING: (Dear Sir, Madame or Manager; To
Whom It May Concern: Dear ,; :
*Chose one type of greeting*
INTRODUCTION: In the introduction, you must dis-
cuss the following points:
1. What class you are taking at UMS?
2. You are learning about sanitation — why?
3. You are learning about cross-contamination —
why?
BODY: In the body of the letter, you must discuss the
following points:
1. Describe part I of the food safety activity,
"Observing a Restaurant."
2. Why was this activity assigned?
3. What behaviors or actions did you observe?
4. Describe part II of the Food Safety Activity,
"The Experiment."
5. What were your conclusions from the experi-
ment?
CONCLUSION: In the conclusion of the letter, you
must discuss the following points:
1. Based on what you have observed and learned
about sanitation and cross-contamination, list at
least three recommendations you would make to
the manager to prevent cross-contamination at
her/his store.
2. Thank the person for taking time to read your
letter.
CLOSURE (Sincerely, Very Sincerely,
Yours truly, etc.)
*Choose one*
Your name, first and last
Possibly the most exciting thing about teaching
is being able to lead students through various activi-
ties so that they will make educated choices for
themselves. Providing students with a hands-on and
eye-opening series of activities such as those
described previously most often develops within
students the desire to practice safe food handling
skills.
Potato/Starch Medium Recipe
Ingredients:
200 grams potatoes, peeled and diced
20 grams sugar
120 grams corn starch
water
Directions:
Combine potatoes, sugar and 700 mis. water in
sauce pan. Heat to boiling. Continue on lower heat
until potatoes are very tender. Remove from heat;
sieve through cheese cloth, collecting liquid. Bring
liquid volume up to 1 liter, 1000 mis. Return to sauce
pan. Using wire whisk, stir in corn starch, cooking
until thickened, making sure no lumps remain. Pour
into baby food jars and continue cooking in pressure
cooker at 15 pounds pressure for 20 minutes. When
done, let cool overnight in refrigerator. Allow for
medium to come to room temperature before using.
38 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1990
American Home Economics Association,
Certification and Commitment
Marilyn Mastny
Home Economics Teacher
Urbana Middle School
Urbana, IL
Several years ago I had the wonderful opportu-
nity to attend my first AHEA national meeting.
Since I had not been professionally active in my
early teaching years, this experience provided me
with a chance to evaluate its potential importance.
Let me share with you what I experienced.
AHEA is an organization with diversity. It pro-
vides support to home economists in business, educ-
tion, homemaking and extension. It further provides
elaboration on particular fields of study within the
profession, i.e., foods and nutrition, home manage-
ment, etc.
The convention showed the assimilation of these
diversities in smooth and productive programming.
Even more significant than the programming, how-
ever, were the participants themselves. The middle
school teacher, the home economist in business, the
extension home economist and the college professor
found themselves sharing the same workshop.
Together they discussed and debated, each bringing
their own special contribution to the issue concerning
them all: the family.
I really was not prepared for the dynamic indi-
viduals. Chrysie Constantakos, Marjorie East, Patri-
cia Thompson, Marilyn Horn, Beverly Crabtree, etc.,
are all names in books and journals. To see two,
three, and four of them attending and reacting to-
gether in an informal session was so exciting. Having
bolstered the courage to introduce myself, I was
shocked by the graciousness of these women. Their
interest in my growth and work and their delight in
my compliments was wonderful. The brilliance of
their expression both in writing and in verbal
reactions was exciting for the profession and
therefore, for all of us. The significance of their
work for society may be forthcoming, but its
significance for me was immediate. I love this
assertive human who sees family as a priority
without sacrificing the individual.
I really appreciated the opportunity to move
from family economics to communications to public
relations to teacher education all during the same
conference. There was opportunity to interact in
small and large groups and the subjects presented
were so applicable that they attracted home
economists from a variety of backgrounds. I think
this is an essential component of an organization as
diverse as AHEA. Emphasizing similarities rather
than differences can only strengthen solutions to
structural difficulties. The blending of the practical
and the philosophical was particularly poignant to
members attending the conference.
Many of the exhibits were interesting and infor-
mative. Some maintained stereotyped versions of
the home economist, and still others had no place at
the convention hall at all. I did hear some interest-
ing conversations and promotion gimmicks. It was
quite an opportunity to review the latest curriculum
materials. There really is alot of good stuff out
there.
Those persons with whom I interacted those few
days had wonderfully high standards of presenta-
tion. Their commitment to home economics was obvi-
ous as were the ethical and moral ramifications of
their creative thoughts. I found very few insignifi-
cant sessions, attended either by me or others with
whom I attended. Because of the variety of experi-
ences, the dynamics of individual personalities, and
my personal career development, I was truly inspired
by the annual meeting.
Get involved with AHEA and other professional
organizations that will keep you inspired. Don't be
intimidated by becoming certified, either. I took the
certification test to see what we, as home economists,
value in our profession by the questions that were
asked of me. I learned alot! It's time to make a
commitment. • • •
Nothing great was ever achieved without
enthusiasm.
Ralph Waldo Emerson
ILLINOIS TEACHER, September /October, 1990 39
ID
Poetic Justice
Marilyn Mastny
Home Economics Teacher
Urbana Middle School
Urbana, IL
Our home economics department has come to use and
appreciate a special poem by Dorothy Law Nolte
called "Children Learn What They Live."
If a child lives with criticism,
HE learns to condemn.
If a child lives with hostility.
SHE learns to fight.
If a child lives with ridicule,
HE learns to be shy.
If a child lives with shame,
SHE learns to feel guilty.
If a child lives with tolerance,
HE learns patience.
If a child lives with encouragement,
SHE learns confidence.
If a child lives with praise,
HE learns to appreciate.
If a child lives with fairness,
SHE learns justice.
If a child lives with security,
HE learns to have faith.
If a child lives with approval,
SHE learns to like herself.
If a child lives with acceptance and friendship,
HE learns to find love in the world.
C. L. Wallis
This is a wonderful discussion piece. It has also been
the basis for roleplays (choose a statement and act
out how it can come true in real life) and short papers
(choose a statement and share why it has a special
meaning to you).
One evening my daughter Alison brought home
some poetry she was working on for class. It was
called a diamond poem, primarily because of its
completed shape. As she explained how to construct
it, I saw immediate possibilities for a home
economics class! Here is an example of a completed
poem:
Life
Fresh New
Growing Learning Caring
Everything that lives will die.
Ending Aging Completing
Over Gone
Death
by Alison Mastny
Student, Edison Middle School
Champaign, IL
The diamond poem must have a word at the top
and an antonym at its end. I had my students choose
words that had to do with relationships or families.
Some examples I gave them were:
parent/child
boyfriend /gi rlf riend
friend /enemy
healthy/ill
This is a great exercise I did with my students
while they were doing a poetry unit in English.
Here's how you construct a diamond poem:
1.
2.
6.
7.
Choose a noun for the first line.
On the second line, write two words that describe
the noun.
On the third line, write three "ing" words that
describe the noun.
On the fourth line, write a sentence that
describes a change in the noun.
On the fifth line, write three "ing" words that
describe the change in the noun.
On the sixth line, write two words that describe
the change in the noun.
On the seventh and final line, write the antonym
of the original noun.
Use your students' examples as an entry into your
school paper. They are a lot of fun to do and I found
some very insightful work.
Reference
Wallis, C L. (1965). The treasure chest. New York:
Harper and Row, p. 54. • • •
40 ILLINOIS TEACHER, September/October, 1990
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Send for: "Information for Prospective Authors"
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Volume XXXIV, No. 2
November/December, 1990
ILLINOIS TEACHER
Foreword, Mildred B. Griggs 41
Home Economics Curriculum: Purpose, Problems, Possibilities,
Edith E. Baldwin 42
Approaching Home Economics Curriculum at the Middle Level,
Ruth E. Dohner and Joanna Kister 47
Using Writing to Engender Critical Thinking,
Deborah G. Wooldridge and Mary Jeanne Weber 51
The Tree of Knowledge, Ann Lin 54
Enhancing Writing Skills of Home Economics Teachers,
Daisy L. Stewart, Penny L. Burge and Janice A. Black 56
Home Economics Education Partners with Business and Industry,
Eva C. Ratliff 57
The Dual Enrollment Agreement in Virginia, Jean King 58
Gifted Students in the Child Development and Guidance Program,
Elizabeth Thomas and Phyllis Cannon 60
Project CARE — Making A Difference with Teen Moms, Helen B. Snyder 63
Implementation of Computer Activities to Enhance Consumer and
Homemaking Education Programs, Mary Lou Bevins 65
Conflict Resolution: Win, Lose, or Draw, Tommie Lawhon 67
Working with Child Abuse Victims in the Home Economics Classroom,
Peggy T. Pearl 70
Encouragement and Direction for the Cooperating Teacher,
Annabelle Dry den Slocum 76
Illinois Teacher of Home Economics
ISSN 0739-1 48X
A publication of the Division of Home Economics Education,
Department of Vocational and Technical Education,
College of Education, University of Illinois,
Champaign, Illinois 61820
Illinois Teacher Staff
Mildred Griggs, Professor and Editor
Norma Huls, Office Manager
June Chambliss, Technical Director
Sally Rousey, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Linda Simpson, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Other Home Economics Education Division Staff and Graduate Students
Alison Vincent, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Volume XXXrV, No. 2, November/ December, 1990. Published five times
each academic year. Subscriptions $15.00 per year. Foreign, including
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Address: ILLINOIS TEACHER
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Telephone: 217/244-0820
© 1990
FOREWORD
Greetings! We hope that you will enjoy reading this issue of the Illinois Teacher
during your holiday vacation. It is full of stimulating articles on curriculum, critical
thinking, supervision and innovative programs that exemplify our theme "Home
Economics as Leaders...". Also in this issue is a reprint of the winning essay in the
1989 Illinois Critical Thinking Essay contest that is sponsored by the College of
Education, University of Illinois. The essays are written by high school students and
this one entitled "The Tree of Knowledge" is about the family, a topic that is of
interest to home economists.
The editor thanks Penny Burge and Daisy Stewart of Virginia Tech for coordinat-
ing the writing of the series of articles on home economics programs in Virginia. The
articles describe practices that will be of interest to you.
On behalf of the Illinois Teacher staff I wish you a happy holiday season. We
also thank you for your support over the past 34 years that the Illinois Teacher has
been in existence.
The Editor
Happy
Holidays
ILLINOIS TEACHER, Nov ember /Dec ember, 1990 41
tt
Home Economics Curriculum:
Purpose, Problems, Possibilities
Edith E. Baldwin
Assistant Professor
Home Economics Education
The Penn State University
University Park, PA
"Crisis" seems to be a catch word of the late
twentieth century. The crisis in education continues
to receive attention in the public media. As educa-
tors and others argue about excellence, it seems that
education must be redefined as a tool to meet the
needs of business and industry, for we are confronted
by an economic crisis. Occasionally, the spotlight
shifts to the family crisis and as poverty in young
families, teen pregnancy, child abuse, and substance
abuse are focussed upon, education again comes under
fire. Some home economists believe that we have a
crisis in home economics where programs are becom-
ing smaller or closing down. We need to remember,
however, that crisis implies the reaching of a turn-
ing point; a crucial time when something must be
done, and when what is done will have great signifi-
cance for the future. A crisis should be seen not only
as a problem, but also as a possibility; and clearly,
there are considerable possibilities for our field to-
day.
Home economics education cannot, however, be
all things to all people. In order to realize the pos-
sibilities of our field, we must have a clear concep-
tion of its purpose and what this means for practice
and we must act accordingly. Here, I am putting
forth some ideas in the belief that we need to reex-
amine high school curriculum and I will seek to clar-
ify the following points.
1. Historically, the mission of home economics has
been oriented toward the resolution of problems
of the family in the interest of human well-be-
ing. Practice in home economic
2. Development of autonomy is fundamental to ef-
fective resolution of family problems thus to hu-
man well-being and we need to understand the
implications of this for practice in home eco-
nomics education.
Our starting point is "purpose" which is the mission
of the field of home economics and the aims of home
economics education.
THE PURPOSE OF HOME
ECONOMICS EDUCATION
Although there have been various interpreta-
tions of the mission of home economics throughout its
history, home economists have generally been con-
cerned with the family and its problems, improving
the living conditions of the home and strengthening
family life. While one might expect to find a focus
on development of social, moral, conceptual, and re-
flective capacities of the homemaker in the litera-
ture of the field, there has been greater emphasis
historically on scientific management and efficient
control of the home environment (Brown, 1985).
The 1979 definition of home economics, provides
a more comprehensive interpretation of knowledge
and human action. Home economics: A definition is
a coherent line of reasoning that supports the follow-
ing proposal:
The mission of home economics is to enable
families, both as individual units and gener-
ally as a social institution, to build and main-
tain systems of action which lead (1) to ma-
turing in individual self-formation and (2) to
enlightened, cooperative participation in the
critique and formulation of social goals and
the means of accomplishing them (Brown &
Paolucci, 1979, p. 23).
The system of action referred to here include techni-
cal action or work to secure the material necessities
of life, communicative action for mutual understand-
ing and agreement on social norms, and emancipative
action to general critical consciousness of social forces
influencing belief and action. An underlying assump-
tion here is that individuals and families have the
potential to understand their needs, and should have
opportunity to develop that potential and the power
to act rationally for need fulfillment. Thus there is a
focus on the reciprocal relationship between the de-
velopment of human autonomy and the evolution of a
42 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November /December, 1990
free or democratic society — a focus on strengthening
the link between public (political) and private
(family) spheres. This holistic conceptualization of
human action allows us to address the complex ques-
tions that we must address if we are to do what we
say we do as home economists.
Brown (1980) contends that some home economics
education, as part of home economics, is concerned
with promoting competence for the resolution of
problems of the family as a family: i.e., problems
stemming from the family's inability to engage ade-
quately in action essential to meeting its needs. The
home economics curriculum should promote autonomy
through generating a critical, reflective understand-
ing of society and the problems of the family in rela-
tion to it. As human autonomy is such an important
concept, it might be useful to look briefly at its mean-
ing.
THE CONCEPT OF HUMAN AUTONOMY
"Autonomy" is derived from the Greek auto
(self) and nomos (rule). Over time, the meaning of
this concept has evolved so that we have come to un-
derstand human autonomy as the self-conscious con-
trol of life. To be autonomous is to be self-directed to
act according to one's own reasons and purposes
rather than according to outside causes. It means con-
ceiving one's own goals and policies; to be conscious of
oneself as a "thinking, willing, active being;" to as-
sume responsibility for one's own choices and to be
able to explain them rationally (Berlin, 1969, p.
131).
Thus there are two dimensions of autonomy. To
be autonomous requires firstly a developed self — an
understanding of oneself as an individual who acts
according to conscious and justifiable reasons, goals,
or purposes (implying freedom from internal con-
straints). Secondly, to be autonomous requires
freedom from manipulation, coercion, or the exercise
of power in other unethical ways (implying freedom
from external constraints). It should be emphasized
that in home economics we are concerned with collec-
tive autonomy rather than individualism. We will
return to this later. Meanwhile, what are the prob-
lems and possibilities with regard to the develop-
ment of autonomy?
PROBLEMS AND POSSIBILITIES FOR THE
DEVELOPMENT OF AUTONOMY
The autonomous individual has the capacity to
maintain a sense of efficacy — to construct and main-
tain new identities in various spheres of life
(Hurrelmann, 1988). Self-concept is important, for
identity is formed on the basis of self-concept. Self-
concept arises out of social experience and interac-
tion, and it is strongly related to competence in hu-
man action. In other words, the individual's ability
to cope with the demands of everyday situations
throughout life is dependent upon self-concept and
competence in interactive and communicative action,
and autonomy is developed on this basis.
Family Interaction and the Development of
Autonomy
The growing child does not develop toward au-
tonomy simply as part of the maturation process;
development toward autonomy (or adult ego iden-
tity) is dependent upon a certain quality of interac-
tion in the social environment. Since human life be-
gins in some form of family, there should be empha-
sis on the acquisition of language and the quality of
communication within the family (Hurrelmann,
1988). The social environment should encourage re-
flective questioning of beliefs, values, and roles
rather than dogmatic adherence to them. Through
this process, the developing child experiences inte-
gration into the family through adoption of family
beliefs, values, and roles; and later, individuation as
beliefs and values are reflectively appropriated or
discarded and new roles are adopted (Habermas,
1979). In this context, the family is viewed as the
primary social unit in which the personality is
formed, the character takes shape and the under-
standing of what it means to be part of a group is de-
veloped.
Whether the social environment within today's
family is conducive to the development of autonomy
is open to question, it is subjected to continual attack
by powerful and often unrecognized forces. O'Neill
(1985) argues that "The family has been stripped of
many of its social functions and reduced to a phase in
the lives of individuals whose primary goals are
found in school, work, and consumption" (p. 84).
Family beliefs and values are engineered in the
interest of the existing structures of power and
domination in society. People act according to false
interpretations of needs, the nature of society, and
what will make them happy (Fay, 1987).
False beliefs have great psychological power.
As the individual develops toward autonomy, how-
ever, that power dissolves. The individual becomes
critically conscious of, for example, the massive ex-
ploitation of the human body through advertise-
ments of big business; the dehumanizing effects of bu-
reaucracy; the irresponsible, exploitative corporate
power that runs roughshod over family life; and the
notion that education can legitimately be reduced to
vocational training. Growth toward autonomy brings
a realization that systematic misunderstandings
promoted in the interest of powerful social groups
undermine human well-being. The home economics
curriculum can support the family in its development
task by engaging students in activities that lead to a
ILLINOIS TEACHER, November /December, 1990 43
probing of social reality and the development of ca-
pacities for reflective, rational argumentation.
Community Interaction and the Development of
Autonomy
We are fascinated by the expressions of solidar-
ity in various parts of the world today as people
come together to demand freedom. We uphold our
democratic lifestyle as an ideal, and express the
hope that people who have been subjected to harsh
forms of domination will now have the opportunity
to live as we do. But perhaps we should look more
closely at our society, asking ourselves to what ex-
tent we enjoy true freedom, and in what ways human
freedom and autonomy differ from modern individu-
alism.
Questioning our interpretation of freedom and
deploring the absence of community, Greene (1989)
points to the unfriendliness, the empty "silence" of
our cities, and the superficial connectedness of people
in our society through various forms of media. To use
Green's (1989) words, "There are few places where
individuals are impelled to come together in speech
and action, few arenas where freedom can sit down"
(p. 19). Of course, as she points out, most of us believe
that we are free. We are not held hostage, we can
travel where we will, we can read what we like, and
we are free to come together in churches, rock concert
halls, sports stadiums, and movie theaters. Many of
us feel free to have babies out of wedlock, sample co-
caine, carry lethal weapons, and "rip off the sys-
tem." And while we may have an uneasy feeling
that we are not free, we do not know why.
When we look at our society through the eyes of
its critics, we realize that while the material needs
of many may be satisfied, needs for mutual under-
standing, caring, and social integration are unmet.
While genuine community is essential to collective
autonomy, belief in individualism and increasing
mobility leaves us less inclined to maintain commit-
ment to community as a way of life. Community has
degenerated into lifestyle enclaves — looseknit
friendship networks: the gathering of similar, like-
minded people "in the same boat" (Bellah, Madsen,
Sullivan, Swidler, & Tipton, 1985). The richness,
the diversity, the complexity of society is lost, and
we are less likely to have a holistic concep-
tualization of society or its problems.
Moreover, in this age of specialization we have
come to believe that we cannot hope to understand
the complex issues affecting our lives. "Efficiency"
dictates that we must accept a growing bureaucracy
and the elevation of the expert. Yet, bureaucratic de-
cision-makers interpret human problems as technical
matters to be resolved on a cost effective basis; and in
the process, inherent moral questions are not ad-
44 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1990
dressed (Habermas, 1984). While we have the po-
tential to develop a holistic understanding of human
problems, and to participate in their resolution, the
ordinary citizen is shut out of political dialogue.
Without opportunity to participate in the public
sphere as citizens, we seek fulfillment through re-
treating into the private sphere to enjoy the good
life. In so doing, we participate in our own dom-
ination. As Bellah (1985) and his colleagues note,
"Modern individualism seems to be producing a way
of life that is neither individually nor socially vi-
able for it is doubtful that the individual who
withdraws from the public sphere to pursue private
ends can achieve fulfillment in either public or pri-
vate life" (p. 144).
Human autonomy is not achieved through escap-
ing social controls in order to maximize self-interest-
it is achieved through a form of interdependency.
The maintenance of an adequate social environment
within the family and within the public sphere is
essential if human beings are to flourish. As Lasch
(1988) argues, "Social solidarity ... rests on public
conversation. It rests on social and political ar-
rangements that serve to encourage debate instead of
foreclosing it; and to encourage debate, moreover, not
just about conflicting economic interests but about
morality and religion, the ultimate human concerns"
(p. 178). A genuine community would provide for di-
alogue about social issues, the development of a
moral orientation toward them, and the determina-
tion of what should be done in the interest of the
common good. Obviously the family has an impor-
tant role here. What, then, are the possibilities for
the home economics curriculum?
PROMOTING AUTONOMY THROUGH THE
HOME ECONOMICS CURRICULUM
Arguing for a problem solving orientation, Brown
(1980) states that home economics education should
seek "less to solve specific immediate problems di-
rectly than to develop the capacity of students (1) to
define problems of the family in the historical-so-
cial contexts and (2) to participate in enlightened
and reflective solutions to those problems" (p. 104).
If we accept this, what does it mean for the cur-
riculum? Should behavioral objectives be formu-
lated so that students' problem solving abilities can
be "measured," or should objectives be couched in
more general terms? Should we attempt to
incorporate what we assume to be the ever-
increasing "essential" content, or should we develop
an integrative approach, simply drawing upon the
traditional "content boxes" for adequate exploration
of certain problems of the family? We might ask,
what types of pedagogical processes should we
engage in? Should we seek to fill students with
useful information through formal, didactic methods
of teaching? Or should we employ dialogical
methods of teaching and learning in which students
assume a critical, reflective, active role rather than
a passive role? We need to address such questions as:
How is the curriculum to be organized in terms of
sequence?; How are concepts to be developed?; In
what ways should we take into account the levels of
development of students?; Is it appropriate to engage
younger students in exploring problems of the
family? Finally, we need to decide whether our
programs should be tightly structured so that we
"cover" what we consider in planning to be essential,
or whether we should allow for spontaneity and
time for students to develop concepts and skills.
These questions might be considered in relation to
what follows.
Firstly, the broad issues or the perennial prob-
lems of the family need to be determined. As Brown
and Paolucci (1979) argue, these problem categories
should be rationally and publicly formulated by
home economists. Teachers could then develop
modules to address subproblems within the various
categories: i.e., problems of what should be done con-
cerning concrete situations in family life. This would
call for an imaginative, critical approach to curricu-
lum which would open up new ways of looking at ev-
eryday concerns of the family. Some examples might
be useful here.
Let us assume that one category of problems of
the family relates to communication and interaction
within the family and between the family and the
community. Among the practical (political-moral)
problems within this category to be addressed might
be, What should be the role of the family (or this
particular community) with regard to adolescent so-
cialization? Another might be, What should we do
to ensure that the special needs of the pre-school
child are met? Another concrete problem within this
category might be, What should we do as a commu-
nity to protect the natural environment for the sake
of human health? We will look briefly here at how
the latter problem could be examined.
While we could select from a number of concrete
cases, we might choose local newspaper reports ex-
posing a situation in which a company producing a
popular household commodity is causing environ-
mental pollution which poses a threat to human
health in the area. We might learn that a number of
local people are employed by the company.
We would begin critique by identifying the ideo-
logical or false beliefs underlying local acceptance of
this state of affairs. For example, the belief that
technological development is inevitable, or that it is
synonymous with human progress; or that some
trade-offs are always necessary. There might be
widespread belief in the desirability of this partic-
ular commodity. Moreover, people might believe
that the company's activities must be supported,
since the income of local families is at stake.
We would challenge the notion that current con-
ditions are inevitable, by asking such questions as, Is
this practice one that cannot or should not be
changed? What are we assuming about the fixedness
of beliefs and practices? What are we assuming
about social relations, and political decision mak-
ing? What are we assuming about the power or pow-
erlessness of citizens?
We would look at the contradictions in beliefs by
asking such questions as, Do beliefs about the impor-
tance of family health conflict with beliefs about
the importance of corporate enterprise? Whose in-
terests are being served in the present situation?
Should we promote short-term materialistic goals
while ignoring their long-term consequences? What
do we consider a democracy to be? What are we as-
suming about political-moral decision making that
affects the well-being of the individual and the
family? Do our beliefs about democracy conflict
with our beliefs about the power of special interest
groups?
We would explore the historical sources of the
problematic belief (e.g., the belief that technologi-
cal development is inevitable, and that trade-offs
are always necessary) by addressing such questions
as, Where in our own backgrounds did we learn this
belief? Where did it originate in our society? What
social forces brought it about?
We would examine the disparity between false
beliefs giving rise to the problem and corrected be-
liefs by addressing such questions as, What alterna-
tive beliefs might we hold in this situation? Is it not
true that technology is developed and maintained
according to political and economic policy? Is tech-
nology not guided by human decision making?
Should not the quality of human life take precedence
over the promotion of special interests? Do we need
the commodities produced by this corporation? Is it
not possible that other employment opportunities
could be developed in the area? Which beliefs can
be rationally and morally justified? What action
would arise from these new beliefs?
We would plan justifiable strategies to change
the detrimental situation by examining such ques-
tions as, What could be done collectively to change
this problematic situation? How could social rela-
tions be improved? Which of these strategies would
be justifiable? Which hold greater promise of suc-
cess? Which should we choose? Finally, we would
address the question, How could we carry out the set
of strategies that we have selected?
To take another example of the practical-moral
problem to be explored in this way: What should we
do to ensure that the special needs of the preschool
ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1990 45
child are met? In addressing this problem we might
focus on a concrete situation in our particular area
where many young parents ar engaged in employment
outside the home. A crisis has recently emerged in
the community as a result of disclosure of cases of
inadequate and irresponsible day care. Public indig-
nation has been expressed.
As a home economics class, we would begin to
examine this crisis situation by uncovering beliefs
giving rise to the problem. For example, the belief
that the family should be subordinated to the
interests of business and industry — that family life
should be molded according to corporate schedule; or
the belief that parents as individuals should seek
personal fulfillment outside the home, giving a
lower priority to family life; or the belief that the
material environment of the home is all-
important — that family well-being is dependent
upon the family "keeping up with the Joneses;" or
the belief that the economy cannot allow for
payment of a "family wage" or for periods of
parental leave from work to ensure that children's
needs are met; or the belief that children's needs can
be met by anyone who cares to offer their services as
a day care provider.
Problematic beliefs would be questioned and the
consequences of acting upon them discussed; e.g., con-
sequences for the individual, the family, the society,
when corporate or self-interest takes precedence over
the developmental needs of children. The class
would search out background information regarding
the problem; e.g., local business organizations' poli-
cies impinging upon family life Who determines
such policies? What avenues are available for pub-
lic discussion of these policies? Certain concepts,
e.g., public sphere, participatory decision making,
social goals, and developmental needs of children,
might be examined. An understanding of the history
of the problematic beliefs would be developed;
(Why have I come to accept the belief that big busi-
ness must "call the shots?" What are its origins in
our society? What factors reinforce this belief?
Why have I never questioned the notion that anyone
who offers clean premises is a suitable provider of
child care?)
Alternative beliefs would be put forth; e.g., the
belief that family well-being is of fundamental im-
portance to society, thus the needs of the family
should take precedence over business interests; or the
belief that parents would supervise the activities of
their children; or the belief that there should be a
focus on the provision of adequate day care facilities
in the community. The possible consequences (for the
individual, family, society) of acting according to
these beliefs would be discussed.
46 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1990
The question of Which beliefs are more justifi-
able in light of their consequences for action, would
be raised. Through the gradual achievement of a
common understanding of the situation, the group
would move toward consensus regarding the justifia-
bility of beliefs in question.
The group would then consider possible strate-
gies to bring about changes in the current situation.
For example, the possibility of setting up community
meetings so that the needs of all those involved in
the situation could be addressed; the idea of estab-
lishing parenting classes in the area might be con-
sidered, and so on. The possibilities and likely
consequences of implementing various strategies
would be considered. A group decision would be made
as to the most justifiable set of strategies and the
group would seek appropriate means of
implementing the selected strategies.
A common thread runs through this approach to
problem resolution: A crisis situation is identified,
and it is caused in part by a false belief that people
have about their needs, and about the nature of
power relationships. Through dialogue, there is ex-
ploration of the conflicts or contradictions in the sit-
uation. There is exploration of the historical source
of the false belief (in personal and social history).
Through dialogue there is examination of a new be-
lief and its disparity from the initial one in terms of
rational justification. There is examination of conse-
quences of acting according to a revised belief. This
is followed by examining morally and pragmatically
justifiable strategies to change the detrimental so-
cial relations in the particular case; and finally, se-
lecting and acting upon strategies.
Through this process students and teachers are
involved in reflecting critically upon beliefs and ac-
tions, searching out information, clarifying ideas,
exercising reciprocity, arguing rationally, achieving
consensus, and participating in group action. Promot-
ing development toward autonomy, this type of cur-
riculum has potential for enhancing the well-being
of the individual and the family.
It should be pointed out that this approach
would not eliminate the traditional substantive con-
tent of home economics. Obviously there should be
some emphasis on family needs such as food, shelter,
and so on. But these needs should be set in the
broader context of family and social interaction.
Students should come to understand why families
have problems in meeting their needs and how prob-
lems stem from the socio-cultural and political-eco-
nomic spheres. And they should understand how
detrimental social relations can be changed by ra-
tional, responsible, collective action.
(Continued on page 50.)
Approaching Home Economics
Curriculum at the Middle Level
DI
Ruth E. Dohner, Assistant Professor
College of Human Ecology
Department of Home Economics Education
The Ohio State University
Joanna Kister
Assistant Director of Vocational Home Economics
Ohio Department of Education
Deciding what to teach in home economics at the
middle/junior high level involves deliberating
about the school setting and the early adolescent in
relation to the home economics mission. Thinking
about and examining these three elements prior to
deciding what to teach will facilitate:
• becoming a visible part and making a contri-
bution to the total middle school curriculum;
• focusing on the growth and development of
the early adolescent; and
• fulfilling the mission of home economics.
The following are some thoughts about these three
elements which may be considered as curriculum
builders when thinking about middle level home
economics.
The Middle School Setting
A primary concern in the middle school organi-
zation is the developmental needs of the early ado-
lescent. The middle school is viewed as a place to
foster their academic and personal growth. The
middle school model proposed by Alexander and Ge-
orge (1981), expanded by Wiles and Bondi (1981,
1986) and advocated by the Carnegie Council on Ado-
lescent Development (1989) is slowly being adopted
in this country. The Alexander middle school model
is unlike the traditional junior high model in that
this model provides a transition from the one-
teacher-for-all-subjects elementary and the multi-
ple-teachers-for-individual-subjects junior high/
high school. This transition is achieved through
organizational and curriculum elements which
command all subject teachers to plan together for a
common goal, the growth and development of the
early adolescent,
following:
These elements include the
• interdisciplinary teaching and teams of aca-
demic teachers assigned to groups of 60-100
students, called houses or families;
• teams with a flexible scheduled day and a
common planning period for the academic
team of teachers, and sometimes exploratory
team units;
• an exploratory program (including home eco-
nomics) which gives students opportunity to
explore short term, high interest topics;
• continued orientation and articulation of
school goals for students, parents and teach-
ers; and
• a core curriculum which encourages personal
development, continued learning skills, and
basic knowledge (Alexander, 1987; Becker,
1990; Cawelti, 1988; McConnel, 1988).
The middle school structure was designed to ac-
commodate for the early adolescents' characteristics
and permit them the dignity they deserve as they
experience this development. For example, the mid-
dle school structure includes teams of teachers as-
signed to small groups of students to encourage the
student and teacher relationship, reduce student
anonymity, provide the individual a close relation-
ship with an adult, and plan curriculum that meets
the needs of the early adolescent.
The Early Adolescent
The early adolescents are being viewed as
uniquely complex in their development and thus
needing a separate school, organized with a focus on
their needs with specially trained staff members to
facilitate the early adolescents' growth during dra-
matic changes. The following are a few of the char-
acteristics of early adolescents (Wiles and Bondi,
1981) which will guide what should be taught in the
middle school. Early adolescents:
• deserve direction and regulation but reserve
the right to question or reject suggestions of
adults;
• are likely to be disturbed by their physical
changes — boys particularly by voice changes
ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/December, 1990 47
and girls particularly by their obvious,
changing physiques;
• show ravenous appetites and peculiar tastes
and may overtax their digestive system
with large quantities of improper food;
• broaden affiliation base from family to peer
group which may cause conflict when alle-
giance is split;
• show unusual and drastic behavior at times
as they react to new situations and practice
new behaviors — aggressive, daring, boister-
ous, and argumentative;
• have a strong concern for what is "right" and
social justice and can show concern for those
less fortunate;
• copy and display fads of extremes in clothes,
speech, mannerisms and are very susceptible
to advertising;
• are easily offended and sensitive to personal
criticism;
• are very curious and exhibit a willingness to
learn what they consider useful and like to
solve real life problems; and
• will argue to convince others and to clarify
their own thinking (critical thinking
emerges).
These characteristics have implications for
home economics curriculum content, teaching /learn-
ing strategies, expectations of classroom behavior,
school structure, and the approach used to achieve
the mission of home economics.
Home Economics Mission
The mission of home economics is "to enable fam-
ilies, both as individual units and generally as a so-
cial institution, to build and maintain systems of ac-
tion which lead (1) to maturing in individual self-
formation and (2) to enlightened, cooperative partic-
ipation in the critique and formulation of social
goals and means for accomplishing them" (Brown
and Paolucci, 1979, p. 23).
Using the systems of action framework provides
a strong cohesive theory for thinking about how to
direct what is taught in home economics toward this
mission. Three systems of action — technical, commu-
nicative, and emancipative — provide a basis for
making decisions about what to teach.
• The technical "how to" orientation would
suggest content with prescribed methods and
step by step procedures.
• A communicative focus would help students
to "understand their own history and cul-
tural traditions and those of others that are
different (Schwartz, et al., 1986, p. 283),
clarify feelings and consequently improve
their relationships with others.
• The emancipative system would facilitate
students using proactive action to "work in
cooperation with others to change societal
conditions and increase their own and others'
freedom" (Schwartz, et al., 1986, p. 283). In
doing this students examine assumptions,
challenge traditional beliefs and societal
conditions, and make reasoned judgments in
order to take ethical action.
The systems of action theory suggest a problem
orientation to what is taught. One way to approach
this is through practical perennial problems; recur-
ring problems of individuals and families. There are
problems which resurface over and over due to new
situational factors. They are stated as "What to do
about . . .?" questions. The subquestions will reflect
technical, communicative, and emancipative ques-
tions needed to solve problems.
Competence in problem solving requires the stu-
dent to use all three systems of action. Students who
are competent problem solvers will have technical or
how to skills, communicative understanding skills,
as well as emancipative or ethical reasoning skills.
These skills enable them to make socially responsi-
ble judgments, be in control of their actions, and be
aware of possible consequences. Characteristics of
early adolescents described previously (i.e., show
unusual and drastic behavior, and have strong con-
cern for right and wrong) command the skill to use all
three systems of action to resolve concerns of early
adolescents.
The social context in which individuals and
families live and take action is ever changing and
home economics middle school curriculum should
take into account social changes such as the follow-
ing:
- increase in diverse family structures (single,
blended, two-wage earner) that are different
from the past;
- increase of latch-key children taking care of
themselves and siblings;
- teenage sexual activity, child, spouse and
date abuse;
- increase in drug and alcohol abuse and eating
disorders which impacts all family mem-
bers; and
- economic distress of single female-heads of
households.
Sample Home Economics Practical Problem
Figure 1 shows how 1) the middle school setting,
2) the early adolescents' characteristics and 3) the
48 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1990
mission of home economics come together in a content
example that deals with communication. The sys-
tems of action are used as a framework of questions
Figure 1
Practical Problems:
What to do about talking, working, and playing
with my peers, family and others?
Sub-Concepb
Using productive communication in conflict situa-
tions (DeVito, 1989).
Technical Questions:
What are some productive and some unproduc-
tive responses to conflict situations?
What communication skills are required to de-
velop and use productive conflict ap-
proaches?
Communicative Questions:
In your family what approaches are used to re-
solve conflict? What approaches are used
among your peers?
What are your general responses to conflict situ-
ations?
How do you feel in conflict situations? How do
you perceive other people feel in conflict sit-
uations? How do they really feel?
Emancipative Questions:
How do your responses to conflict compare to your
families' and peers' responses?
What are the consequences/feelings in produc-
tive and unproductive conflict approaches
for all people in the situation?
What values are portrayed in productive and
unproductive responses to conflict resolution?
How do I begin to change my responses to conflict
situations?
How will my change in behavior (verbal and
nonverbal) impact other participants' reac-
tions in the conflict situation?
What will I try to do in the next conflict situa-
tion in which I find myself?
skill in technical, communicative and emancipatory
action to solve practical problems.
The mission of home economics is to help indi-
viduals develop self-forming attitudes and skills
which reflect concern for self and others so they can
make contributions to families and community. In
each of the school conditions noted earlier, conflict is
likely to arise. The productive resolution of the con-
flict will make it possible for early adolescents to
grow in their experiences and begin to find ways to
direct their lives. Early adolescents are at a time in
their lives when they are changing affiliation from
family to peers and others, are questioning and chal-
lenging adults but want guidance. With this comes
conflict and uncertainty.
The main goal in the middle school is to encour-
age personal development. While the middle school
model is organized around interdisciplinary teams
the communication skills begun in home economics
could be practiced and encouraged in all the aca-
demic and exploratory areas. The family groups
(usually academic teams) in the middle school
model may simulate a setting where there will be
conflict and the use of conflict resolution approaches
can be implemented. In this way what is learned in
home economics is carried over into the other subject
areas of the school.
Home economics curriculum builders are chal-
lenged to be certain there is a clear link between mis-
sion, characteristics of early adolescents, and the
middle school model. When the link is clear we are
providing the best opportunity for early adolescents.
To assure this the home economics curriculum deci-
sions for the early adolescent should be based on:
• goals of the middle school articulated
through all subject areas (academic and ex-
ploratory);
• developing self-forming individuals as fam-
ily members;
• needs and characteristics of early adoles-
cents; and
• practical problems early adolescents face in
which action (technical, communicative and
emancipatory) is needed for healthy growth
and development?
References
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ing what to do in conflict situations. The questions
suggest content to be taught and experiences to pro-
vide the early adolescents so each student develops
Alexander, W. M. (1987). Toward schools in the
middle: Progress and problems. Journal of Cur-
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Alexander, W. M., & George, P. S. (1981). The ex-
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Becker, H. J. (1990, February). Curriculum and in-
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Brown, M., & Paolucci, B. (1979). Home economics:
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Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development.
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Cawelti, G. (1988, November). Middle schools a
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ate dialogue about interesting possibilities for cur-
riculum.
(Continued from page 46.)
IN CONCLUSION
In attempting to stimulate a critical review of
the home economics curriculum, I have argued that
growth toward autonomy is fundamental to he well-
being of the individual and the family, the histori-
cal focus of home economics. I have tried to show
how the development and maintenance of an appro-
priate communicative environment within the fam-
ily and within the public sphere is essential if au-
tonomy is to be a possibility. In light of the need for
consistency between purpose and practice, I have
provided an example of curriculum congruent with
these ideas. While we may or may not be expe-
riencing a crisis, it seems that there are significant
problems confronting home economics education. Re-
flective, critical examination of them should gener-
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Greene, M. (1988). The dialectic of freedom. New
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Press. • • •
%rioioltdge is -proud that it knows so muck;
ivisdom is humble that it knows no more.
'William Couper
50 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1990
Using Writing to Engender Critical Thinking
tt
Deborah G. Woold ridge, Assistant Professor
Southeast Missouri State University
Cape Girardeau, MO
Mary Jeanne Weber
Notre Dame High School
Cape Girardeau, MO
Call for Change in Secondary Education
Society has now made the transition from an in-
dustrial orientation to a service orientation. Society
will continue to transform as the twenty-first century
approaches. The world which today's students will
inherit will be different, and teachers have an obli-
gation to prepare youth to be viable members of the
work force and the global culture in the twenty-first
century.
Much has been published on the mediocrity in
education during the 1980s (Boyer, 1983; Goodwin,
1988; National Commission of Excellence in Educa-
tion, 1983; The National Commission on Secondary
Vocational Education,1984). The information sug-
gests education has not prepared youth to be viable
members of the global society. Educational critics
have claimed that students are learning only factual
knowledge and not how to think critically, analyze,
and formulate solutions to problems, and make use-
ful, practical decisions (Wales, Nardi, & Stager,
1986). Decision making skills have been viewed as
essential for the year 2000 as well as in the 1990s.
Educational leaders have made suggestions on
how to improve the educational system in the 1990s
and prepare students for the twenty-first century
(Boyer, 1983; Goodwin, 1988; National Commission
of Excellence in Education, 1983; National
Commission on Secondary Vocational Education,
1984). It has been suggested that schools focus on
teaching knowledge and thinking skills which
support appropriate decision making (Wales, Nardi,
& Stager, 1986). Schools have been challenged to
prepare students for the work force and life-long
learning activities. It has been suggested that basic
skills such as math, science, critical thinking,
interdisciplinary thinking, oral and written
communication, and collaboration abilities need to be
the focus of the secondary curriculum.
Vocational education has a role to play in edu-
cating students for the future by providing students
with activities which emphasize the basic skills
needed (Pritz, 1988). Teachers must explicitly teach
the practical application of basic skills in classroom
learning activities.
The purpose of this article is to discuss how
home economics teachers can engender critical think-
ing through the incorporation of writing assignments
in classroom activities. Critical thinking will be de-
fined, suggestions on how to teach critical thinking
will be addressed, and then examples of writing
topics will be suggested.
The Importance of Critical Thinking
Often it can be heard that critical thinking is an
ability which students either posses or lack. Kurfiss
(1988) stated critical thinking must be taught in all
disciplines. Knowledge acquisition and the ability
to think about content must be integrative rather
than sequential.
In Higher Order Thinking: Definition, Meaning,
and Instructional Approaches (Thomas, 1987), teach-
ers were challenged to reflect on why critical think-
ing should be taught, how it can be taught, and how
it can be integrated in the curriculum. Before reflec-
tion of why and how it can take place, an examina-
tion of the meaning of critical thinking and its rela-
tionship to the enhancement of quality of life must
be addressed.
Critical Thinking Defined
The ability to think critically is an essential
condition of being educated; therefore, the teaching
of critical thinking is imperative (Norris, 1985).
Current literature is saturated with various opera-
tional definitions of critical thinking. If home
economists are to engender critical thinking skills in
students there must be a general understanding of the
meaning of critical thinking home economists utilize.
Critical thinking is the ability to purposefully
and logically make decisions (Norris, 1985). Paul
(1985) also refers to critical thinking as an absolute
precondition of knowledge. Sheppard (1984) defined
critical thinking as a skill in which a person has the
ability to question, analyze, and probe information.
Ruggerio (1984) expanded the definition by adding
the valuative and judgmental aspect in identifying
solutions to problems or issues. Walsh and Paul
ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/December, 1990 51
(1986) emphasized that analysis is based on a set of
reflective attitudes, abilities, and skills which
guide thoughts and actions. The creative aspect of
critical thinking was added to the explanation by
Yinger (1980).
Skinner (1976) compared this process with the
logical order of the scientific method. Skinner (1971)
believed that along with the process of inquiry and
the use of the scientific method, certain other
abilities were also necessary to think critically.
Among the abilities mentioned were those included
in the cognitive domain. Skinner (1976) described
the cognitive domain as a mental process of recall
and recognition of information and development of
intellectual abilities. The cognitive domain contains
a hierarchy of six levels of learning: knowledge,
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and
evaluation.
Beyer (1988) conceptualized thinking in three
levels of complexity. Level I thinking skills are
broad strategies which include problem solving, de-
cision making, and conceptualizing. Beyer (1988)
described Level II critical thinking, not as a process,
but as a set of mental operations used to make
rational decisions. The information processing skills
used in Level III are the most basic thinking
strategies which, among others, include recall,
application, analysis, and synthesis.
Paul (1982, 1984) added the affective domain
when he differentiated between "strong" sense criti-
cal thinking and "weak" sense critical thinking.
"Weak" sense consists of structured, technical reason-
ing skills, while "strong" sense provides insight into
the affective domain through dialogue, debate, and
discussion which help develops emancipatory rea-
soning skills. Through "strong" sense critical think-
ing an aesthetic response can be engendered.
In summarization, Ennis (1985) states, "critical
thinking is reasonable reflective thinking that is fo-
cused on deciding what to do and believe" (p. 44).
This reflective thinking relies on use of technical
reasoning skills as well as emancipatory reasoning
skills.
Further reflective thinking on the various defi-
nitions reveal critical thinking as a complex, devel-
opmental, higher order thinking skill. The term
skill has traditionally referred to the proficiency in
a technique requiring the use of hands and /or the
body. The addition of the words critical thinking
expand the meaning to include mastery in complex
thinking characterized by careful evaluation. Skills
are generally accepted as concepts which can be
taught. Skills are also viewed as developmental in
nature. Developmental implies a progression from
simple to complex, as is the progression through var-
ious levels of thinking. To progress suggests that
teachers can provide experiences which could facili-
tate the development of a skill. It also infers that
the lack of experiences could hamper skill develop-
ment. If in fact, we accept the premise that critical
thinking is a developmental skill, home economics
teachers must recognize the fact that they can pro-
vide instructional strategies which could develop
critical thinking skills in students.
Techniques for Teaching Critical Thinking
Recent literature suggests that critical thinking
skills must be taught explicitly. Basic to effective
critical thinking are the abilities to identify prob-
lems, set goals, develop strategies, and evaluate per-
formance. Barell, Liebmann, and Sigel (1988) sug-
gested a process to improve these abilities. The first
step is to address the task by identifying the prob-
lem and determining how it can be approached. The
second step is to monitor progress to determine what
has been achieved during the process. Finally, by
evaluating progress, it can be decided how effec-
tively and efficiently the task was accomplished.
Suggestions for improving the next task assignment
are also made during the evaluation stage.
Norris (1985) stated that while it is important
for one to be skillful at critical thinking, it is of no
value unless one has the critical spirit. This critical
spirit is composed of three requirements. The first is
that critical thinking skills be used in everyday sit-
uations. The second requirement suggests one should
think critically about one's own thinking. This en-
sures that one is honestly seeking to solve a problem,
and not just criticizing one's own thoughts. The final
requirement is that one act on the decision being
made through critical thinking. It is not enough that
a decision be made, but action be taken. Home
economists can help engender the critical thinking
spirit by allowing students to practice skills on daily
problems.
Using Writing to Enhance Critical Thinking
Another basic skill addressed in current litera-
ture is writing. Why write? "Despite technological
advances in communication, the ability to put words
on paper or on the screen is still crucial to the work of
the world- ... to every human enterprise"
(Walvoord, 1986, p.3). Students learn transferable
skills such as sentence structure, grammar, punctua-
tion, and style in English composition classes. Non-
English teachers should structure assignments which
reinforce writing skills across all disciplines. Writ-
ing assignments in home economics classes can allow
students to build and practice skills such as abstract-
ing, synthesizing and forming logical relationships.
Writing is a tool which allows students more time to
think about their thinking and learn more fully. If
52 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1990
writing increases abstract, higher order thought,
then there is a natural connection between develop-
ing critical thinking skills and completing writing
assignments. The writing assignment can be formal
papers, short projects, or freewriting which allows
students to express feelings on an issue.
In the secondary classroom, freewriting is a way
to practice writing and also a way to get students to
put ideas down on paper. The goal of freewriting is
the process, not the product. How can freewriting be
used to engender critical thinking in the classroom?
It can help students open up and share their ideas,
stimulate discussion, and prepare students for more
formal critical writing assignments.
To begin the freewriting experience, the teacher
announces the topic (i.e., fathers' rights, abortion,
housing needs) then allows the students 10 minutes to
write on the topic. The teacher may want to play
music while the students write. Students should be
told not to be concerned with sentence structure,
spelling, paragraphs, etc. At this point the goal is
to write without blocking their creative expression.
Next, classroom discussions can be used to pro-
vide immediate feedback and is a technique appro-
priate for higher order cognitive changes. Discus-
sions allow students to become more active learners.
The discussion should be enhanced from the thoughts
students put on paper during the freewriting experi-
ence. Through dialogue, discussion, and debate,
emancipatory reasoning skills can be developed. Lis-
tening to other students' points of view on the topic
can also engender an aesthetic response in students.
Last, a more formal paper can be assigned. Stu-
dents begin with the basic ideas formulated during
freewriting and expand on the topic. Students need
to be concerned with sentence structure, style,
spelling, paragraphs, etc. during this phase.
When structuring writing assignments in order to
develop higher order thinking, questions should be
based on Bloom's taxonomy (Bloom, 1959; Paul,1985).
Knowledge is the lowest level in the cognitive do-
main and includes the recall of information. Com-
prehension involves the translation and interpreta-
tion of information. Application involves the abil-
ity to use the abstract information learned in concrete
situations. Analysis is the breaking down of infor-
mation into its component parts. Synthesis is the re-
forming of parts into a whole which should foster
the use of critical thinking. The highest level of the
cognitive domain is evaluation. It involves the use
of judgments and standards, and contains all of the
other cognitive levels.
Higher Order Writing Questions
1 ) Compare and contrast child rearing practices of
today with those twenty years ago.
2) What evidence can you provide to support the
statement, "Destruction of the rain forest is a
global issue."
3) Can individuals make a difference in conserving
natural resources? Defend you answer.
4) What life experiences have had a significant
impact on your life today?
5) Summarize the basic facts discussed in class
about the employment of married women, why
they work, the conflict and strain they
experience, and the marital adjustments they
face. What solutions would you suggest to help
employed married women cope with these
changes and conflict?
6) Does society have an ethical responsibility to
the homeless population in the United States?
Support you answer.
7) What criteria would you use to assess the
ecological safety of a product?
8) Taking current affairs into account, what
changes might take place in the quality of life
of individuals by the year 2020?
9) Prenatal tests can now identify genetic defects
in the fetus as early as the ninth week. What
should the couple do with the knowledge that
the fetus has an abnormality?
10) Discuss the legal, moral, personal, and social
considerations related to abortion.
References
Barell, J., Liebmann, R., & Sigel, I. (1988). Fostering
thoughtful self-direction in students. Educa-
tional Leadership, 45(7), 26,30.
Boyer, E.L. (1983). High school New York: Harper
& Row Publishers, Inc.
Beyer, B.K. (1988). Developing a scope and sequence
for thinking skills instruction. Educational
Leadership, 45(7), 14-17.
Elbow, P. (1981). Writing with power: Techniques
for mastering the writing process. Englewood
Cliff, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Ennis, R.H. (1962). A concept of critical thinking.
Harvard Educational Review, 32(1), 81-111.
(Continued on page 55.)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1990 53
University of Illinois, College of Education
The 1989 Critical Thinking Winning Essay
The Tree of Knowledge
Ann Lin
Adalai E. Stevenson High School
Prairie View, IL
With Ms. Lin's permission we have reprinted the
First Place Critical Thinking Contest Essay from the
College of Education Newsletter, University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Spring 1990.
Knowledge is both the seed and the fruit of
Man's existence. A measure of growth and achieve-
ment, learning is a natural, instinctive process that
at times must also be entered into deliberately and
with much struggle. Learning manifests itself in an
infinite variety of forms both practical and aca-
demic. Consequently, knowledge must be obtained
through a constantly growing network of sources, at
the core of which stands the home. Although many
other activities and environments may exert an im-
pact on learning, it is generally the influence of one's
home and family that will always linger.
Some sociologists argue that in this modern soci-
ety of divorce, abusive parents, and un-wed mothers,
"home" lacks the stability and consistency necessary
for learning. Others go so far as to say that families
no longer exist for the majority and, therefore, educa-
tion is best provided by public institutions. How-
ever, this idea is based on the assumption that only
the traditional nuclear family can create a home en-
vironment conducive to learning. In reality, the con-
cepts of "home" and "family" are much more subjec-
tive, following no strict rule. Unlike public institu-
tions that must meet certain criteria in order to legit-
imately exist, a home or family exists when it is ac-
knowledged as such by an individual according to his
needs. For some, family consists of a nuclear unit
while others consider a single parent, relatives, or
an older sibling to be their family. Moreover, the
family is an institution whose existence transcends
the social, political, and economic boundaries that
have hindered the influence of schools, churches,
and other public institutions. Regardless of their
composition, all families have the potential to pro-
vide the guidance that is the foundation of learning.
Due to the flexibility by which a family can be de-
fined, the home environment is easily the most ac-
cessible institution in our society. It is this accessi-
bility that allows the home to be a powerful cata-
lyst for learning.
Another criticism against the home environment
is that at home, one becomes sheltered from experi-
encing life in the "real world." There are those who
insist that knowledge is best obtained only through
firsthand experience. To them, the home environ-
ment seems too isolated from "reality" to signifi-
cantly contribute to a child's life education. Granted
the home unit represents but a fraction of society as a
whole, yet within this unit, "real-world" experi-
ences can still be learned. For the most part, infor-
mation and experiences on how the "real-world" op-
erates is conveyed from parent to the child. When a
parent laments about office politics at the dinner
table or complains about rising interest rates, he is
teaching a subtle lesson on the competitiveness of the
outside world. The fact that the child experiences
this secondhand should not significantly reduce the
lesson's impact. After all, throughout our lives, most
of our knowledge is gained through such
"secondhand" sources as textbooks, newspapers, and
even teachers. This explains why one does not neces-
sarily have to become a drug addict to understand
the devastation that drug abuse can cause; or that
one need not be involved in an auto accident to learn
about the dangers of drunk driving. We all learn
from the experiences of others — our mothers, fathers,
siblings, and friends. We add their experiences to
those of our own to be drawn out and used when
needed. This is the essence of learning.
Obviously, one does not spend his entire life in
the home environment. In fact, more than two-thirds
54 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/December, 1990
of one's life will be spent outside of the home. How,
then, can the home environment be the most influen-
tial factor for learning? Having nothing else with
which we can compare them to, we naturally accept
our families' values for our own. Thus, even before
we enter pre-school, our personalities have already
been somewhat developed by our families. As we en-
ter society and come into contact with differing
ideas, our values do become modified to a certain ex-
tent. However, the attitudes and values of home
will always remain the reference point from which
we view ourselves and the world. For instance, if
raised in poverty, a child may grow to regard the
world as the setting in which people cower beneath
the hand of malevolent chance and circumstance; or a
child whose parents harbor racial prejudices may en-
ter his place in society similarly predisposed to ra-
cial hatred. Apparently, the images of home pro-
vide us the palette with which we color our percep-
tions of the world.
Perhaps the greatest impact home has on our
lives is that it teaches what society expects of us and
what we can expect of ourselves. For the majority of
my peers, parents have been their earliest role mod-
els. We all remember playing "house" with neigh-
borhood kids. Traditionally, the boys, emulating
their fathers, would pretend to go off to "work,"
while the girls, in imitation of their mothers, would
pretend to mind the household. In a similar way,
abused children have been found to become abusive
parents, unable to completely relinquish that first
impression of parenthood revealed in their parents'
behavior towards them. A child whose parent en-
courages him to excel, will usually create high ex-
pectation for himself throughout his life. On the
other hand, a child who is constantly belittled by
his parents will usually lack the confidence to accept
new challenges. Thus, for most of us, home is very
often the foundation of our identity.
If learning could manifest itself in some tangible
form, it would appear to us as a great, towering tree;
each branch, twig, and leaf of which is created by
memory and experience. Providing support and nour-
ishment for the limbs above are a set of roots. These
roots are called home. • • •
(Continued from page 53.)
Goodwin, I. (1988, June). Five years after "A Nation
At Risk" US schools still seek better grades.
Physics Today, 50-52.
Kurfiss, J.G. (1988). Critical thinking: Theory, re-
search, practice, and possibilities. ASHE-ERIC
Higher Education Report No.2 Washington, DC:
Association for the Study of Higher Education.
National Commission of Excellence in Education
(1983). A nation at risk: The imperative for edu-
cational reform. Washington, DC: Superinten-
dent of Documents.
National Commission of Secondary Vocational Edu-
cation. (1984). The unfinished agenda: The race
of vocational education in high school. Colum-
bus, OH: National Center for Research in Voca-
tional Education.
Norris, S.P. (1985). Synthesis of research on critical
thinking. Educational Leadership, 42(8), 40-45.
Pritz, S.G. (1988). Basic skills: The new imperative.
Vocational Education Journal, 63(3), 24-26.
Paul, R. (1982). Teaching critical thinking in the
"strong" sense: A focus on self-deception, world
views, and a dialectical mode of analysis. In-
formal Logic Newsletter, 42, (2), 2-7.
Paul, R.W. (1984). Critical thinking: Fundamental
to education for a free society. Educational
Leadership, 42(1), 4-14.
Paul, R.W. (1985). Bloom's taxonomy and critical
thinking instruction. Educational Leadership,
42(8), 36-39.
Ruggerio, V.R. (1984). The art of thinking: A guide
to critical and creative thought. New York:
Harper & Row.
Thomas, R. (editor) (1986). Higher order thinking:
Definition, meaning and instructional ap-
proaches. Washington, DC: Home Economics
Education Association.
Sheppard, L. (1984, Summer). The role of the disci-
plines in consumer sciences. Journal of Consumer
Affairs, 18, U7- 159.
Skinner, S.B. (1976). Cognitive development: A pre-
requisite for critical thinking. The Clearing-
house, 49, 292-299.
Wales, C.E., Nardi, A.H. & Stager, R.A. (1986). De-
cision making: New paradigm for education. Ed-
ucational Leadership, 43(8), 37-41.
Walsh,D. & Paul,R. (1986). The goal of critical
thinking: From educational ideal to educational
reality. Washington, DC: American Federation
of Teachers, AFL-CIO.
Walvoord, B. E. F. (1986). Helping students write
well: A guide for teachers in all disciplines.
New York: The Modern Language Association of
America.
Yinger, R. (1980). Can we really teach them to
think? In R. Young (ed.), New directions for
teaching and learning, (pp. 11-32). San Fran-
cisco: Josey-Bass. •••
ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/December, 1990 55
Enhancing Writing Skills
of Home Economics Teachers
Daisy L. Stewart
Associate Professor
Home Economics Education
Penny L. Burge
Associate Professor
Home Economics Education
Janice A. Black
Doctoral Student
Educational Research
Virginia Tech
Blacksburg, VA
Daisy L. Stewart
Penny L. Burge
Home economics and other vocational education
programs have much to gain from using a comprehen-
sive marketing approach to increase support for our
programs. For example, better marketing could im-
prove our image with a variety of audiences such as
legislators, parents, and community leaders
(O'Connor & Trussell, 1987). One component of a
comprehensive plan for marketing is the use of news-
papers, professional journals, and other print media.
Many exciting things are happening in voca-
tional home economics programs across the country,
but teachers are often hesitant to promote their suc-
cesses through the written communications. One fac-
tor which may inhibit home economics teachers from
publicizing their activities is a lack of self-confi-
dence concerning writing skills. Enhancing teachers'
use of print media has been selected as a priority for
Virginia home economics educators.
The Home Economics Education Program Area at
Virginia Tech recently conducted a project to assist a
small group of teachers in improving their profes-
sional writing. This effort was sponsored by the
Home Economics Program Services in the Virginia
Department of Education. Teachers selected to par-
ticipate in project activities were among those who
had received funding for model programs in their
schools. One of the challenges for directors of these
model programs was to disseminate their results
through publications.
A one-day workshop was held on the Virginia
Tech campus to assist a small group of teachers with
this challenge. The activities began with a discus-
sion of commonly felt anxieties about writing with a
goal of developing an increased level of comfort.
Characteristics and audiences of a variety of publi-
cation outlets were described to emphasize the range
of possibilities for program promotion. These intro-
ductory activities were followed by a concentrated
work session.
For this session, participants brought a first
draft of a project description written to inform other
home economics teachers about the model program
they directed. A peer review procedure was con-
ducted by a consultant, Cheryl Ruggiero, from the
Writing Center, which is sponsored by the Virginia
Tech English Department. Copies of the drafts were
distributed and each participant received written
feedback from their peers as well as workshop direc-
tors. A discussion session provided an opportunity for
suggestions regarding revision of each draft. Some
time was available for teachers to begin revising
their articles with assistance from the writing con-
sultant and Virginia Tech faculty members. A com-
puter was available for word processing throughout
the day. Teachers left the workshop with ideas for
further revisions as well as suggestions for getting
editorial assistance from colleagues in their schools.
As another focus of the workshop, the peer re-
view procedure was demonstrated as a learning ac-
tivity that could be used in middle and high school
home economics classes. Students may be divided
into small groups to read and comment on each
other's drafts of written reports, using established
criteria and discussion questions. Fedje and Essex-
Buss (1989) describe adolescents as responding par-
ticularly well to evaluations from their peers, re-
sulting in improved writing skills.
Results of these teachers' efforts are presented in
the following series of articles describing model
home economics programs in Virginia. Other project
(Continued on page 66.)
56 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1990
Home Economics Education
Partners with Business and Industry
Eva C. Ratliff, Director
Instructor
Work and Family Institute
Southwest Virginia Community College
Richlands, VA
W ^^m
'^\ "**m?
Wm
■Jr"*" §■'
Today's business world is faced with multiple
challenges as it approaches the 21st century. Ad-
vances in technology and international competition
are major issues with which management must con-
tend. To compound these issues, employers are faced
with a work force that is no longer dominated by a
working man with the wife and children at home.
Women will increasingly flood the workplace as
more and more become single parents, are heads of
households, or work to supplement the family in-
come. Without the mother at home to take care of
sick children or be there for changes in family sched-
ules, much stress is placed on her and other family
members. She often has guilt feelings from not meet-
ing full responsibilities at home or at work. Also in-
cluded in the work force for the 21st century will be
the older person. Employers are realizing the cost
saving function of retaining older workers, because of
their valuable knowledge and skills. Ethnic minori-
ties will also populate the American workforce as
they take up residency in virtually every community
across the United States. Because of the expected
labor shortage of 18 to 22 year olds, all these groups
will play a great role in the workforce.
Management must be ready to meet the needs of
these diversified lifestyles to maintain a quality
workforce that is capable of meeting the demands of
the business world. Smart employers of the 90s are
doing this by addressing those needs that affect
employee productivity. Some of these innovative
benefits include flextime, in-house child care and
health club facilities, private counseling, and
human resource eduction. Employers realize the need
for a team effort from all employees to maximize
productivity and remain competitive. This team
effort can be enhanced through a compassionate
support system from employers who are becoming
increasingly aware of the necessity for providing
programs and policies that address the personal
needs of families and individuals.
What does all this have to do with home
economics education? The answer is plenty. The
challenge of balancing workplace demands with
family responsibilities has led to an educational
opportunity that paves the road for the future of
home economics. What better source than a home
economist to present seminars which benefit
companies and employers in the following ways:
1 . reduce job stress due to conflicts between work and
home,
2. increase employee productivity;
3. build self-esteem and motivation;
4. improve employee lifestyle factors;
5. provide a positive approach to personal
problems and personal growth; and
6. create a sense of loyalty and goodwill toward
the place of employment.
The Home Economics Program of the Virginia
Department of Education has zeroed in on the needs
of the business community by implementing a
program developed by the Minnesota Work and
Family Institute. This Institute offers educational
services to companies on issues related to balancing
work and family. The philosophy of the Institute
views a productive way of life for all individuals in
which personal needs are considered and respected.
It is designed to enhance the lifestyle of individuals,
both at work and at home, by providing seminars
that offer information and support needed to cope
with day to day demands.
In 1988, requests for proposals for a Work and
Family Institute were distributed throughout the
Virginia Community College System. Southwest
Virginia Community College was selected to pilot
(Continued on page 62.)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, November /December, 1990 57
tt
The Dual Enrollment Agreement in Virginia
Jean King
Child Care Occupations Teacher
Gloucester High School
and Vocational Specialist
Gloucester, VA County Public Schools
An exciting and promising educational initiative
which has become a reality in many public schools in
Virginia is the dual enrollment agreement between
local school divisions and the Virginia Community
College System. Under this cooperative arrange-
ment, high school juniors and seniors enrolled in ap-
proved high school courses may simultaneously earn
high school and college credit. Dual enrollment
agreements expand educational opportunities for
high school students in the academic, fine arts, and
vocational subject areas. In addition, educational
tax dollars supporting dual enrollment programs are
spent wisely because agreements eliminate unneces-
sary duplication of programs and equipment in high
schools and community colleges. Lastly, dual en-
rollment agreements encourage high school students
to continue their education by allowing them to ac-
crue college credit during the high school years
(Finley, Davis, & Hockaday, 1988).
A Dual Enrollment Agreement for the Child Care
Occupations Program
In July, 1989, Gloucester County Public Schools
and Rappahannock Community College, located in
Glenns, Virginia, approved a unique dual enrollment
agreement. Under the terms of the plan, high school
students enrolled in the Child Care Occupations pro-
gram at Gloucester High School may simultaneously
enroll at Rappahannock Community College in the
Child Care Career Study Certificate program.
Participating students who successfully complete
the two year high school program also earn 15
college semester credits. The course work must meet
the standards for both the high school and the com-
munity college courses. Classes meet at Gloucester
High School in the vocational department and are
taught by a qualified high school instructor, who
also meets the employment qualifications of the
Virginia Community College system. Under the
terms of the agreement, the Gloucester County School
Board is reimbursed for the use of a qualified instruc-
tor. In turn, participating students' college tuition
and fees are subsidized by the school board. Text-
books for the course work are included in the Glouces-
ter County Schools textbook rental plan. The net re-
sult of this financial arrangement is a minimum per-
sonal expense for payment of college tuition for the
high school student.
Besides financial incentives, students seeking ca-
reers in the day care field after graduation from
high school will have the documented educational
background required for employment in many li-
censed day care centers in Virginia. Previous high
school graduates who successfully completed the two
year Child Care program, prior to the dual enroll-
ment agreement, often faced difficulty when seeking
employment in day care centers without college cer-
tification. Although certification of day care work-
ers is not required prior to employment at the present
time in Virginia, the employment requirements are
moving in that direction.
In addition, students may move up the day care
career ladder more quickly since the 15 college cred-
its earned apply to the educational requirements for
the position of director. In the state of Virginia, a
day care director or assistant director in a licensed
center must complete 48 semester hours of college
credit, with a minimum of 12 semester hours in early
childhood education courses (Minimum Standards for
Childcare Centers, 1989).
Transferability of Courses
The objective of the Career Studies Certificate is
to provide a highly specialized, condensed program
of studies. Generally, courses offered in this type of
program are not designed for transfer to four-year
colleges. However, the child care courses are college
level and are recorded on the student's college tran-
script. These courses can be applied towards certifi-
cate and AAS degree programs within the Virginia
Community College System. Several four-year col-
leges in Virginia will also accept the child care
58 ILUNOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1990
courses, although participating students are encour-
aged to contact the college which they plan to at-
tend to inquire if the courses are acceptable. The
agreement offers no guarantee of transferability of
courses to four-year colleges.
Development of the Plan
A writing team consisting of Michael Willis, Vo-
cational Director of Gloucester County Public
Schools; Rick Ughetto, Continuing Education Direc-
tor at Rappahannock Community College (RCC);
Robert Griffin, Dean of Academic Affairs at RCC;
and Jean King, Child Care Occupations Instructor and
Vocational Specialist for the school division, was
organized in the fall of 1988. The team cross refer-
enced the competencies in the two year child care
programs into five college semester courses. The fol-
lowing course sequence was established:
Child Care Occupations I: 2 units of high school
credit
EDU 110 Introduction to Child Care (3 college
credits)
A course designed to introduce students to
child development, the day care setting and
the needs of young children being cared for
outside the home.
EDU 125 Creative Activities for Children (3 col-
lege credits)
A practical laboratory course which ac-
quaints students with age appropriate activ-
ities which encourage the development of
creative thinking skills in young children.
Child Care Occupations II: 2 units of high school
credit
EDU 118 Methods and Materials in Language
Arts (3 college credits)
A course designed to introduce the student to
pre-reading and language arts activities for
young children.
EDU 215 Models of Early Childhood Education
Programs
A course which instructs students in the de-
velopment and administration of day care
programs. Virginia licensing requirements
are included in the coursework.
PSY 135 Child Care Psychology (3 college cred-
its)
Major theorists of personality development
are studied in the course and applications to
the care of children in a center are studied.
Students meet for two 45 minute class periods per
day, five days per week. The high school contact
hours exceed the minimum contact hours for a
semester college course. This accounts for the fact
that students are able to complete course require-
ments for nine college credits in Child Care Occupa-
tions II.
Another unique facet of the dual enrollment pro-
gram is the inclusion of a student practicum working
with preschool children in the laboratory nursery
school housed in the home economics department at
Gloucester High School. Over the two year course of
study, students complete 120 hours of simulated em-
ployment experience.
Present Status of the Agreement
In the 1990 spring semester, 15 high school juniors
enrolled in the Child Care Occupations I course are
taking advantage of dual enrollment with
Rappahannock Community College. In September
1990, the second year of the dual credit arrangement
will be phased in as the current Child Care I stu-
dents advance to Child Care Occupations II.
This agreement has already produced benefits
for the Child Care Program at Gloucester High
School:
• Enrollment has increased over previous years.
• Student academic performance and motiva-
tion have improved.
• Students who may not have previously con-
sidered further education beyond high school
have made commitments to continue their ed-
ucation after high school graduation.
• Community awareness of the Child Care
Occupations program has increased.
Our dual enrollment agreement is an educational
partnership which affords expanded educational
opportunities for students in a true spirit of coopera-
tion. For more information on this project, contact
Rick Ughetto, Director of Continuing Education,
Rappahannock Community College, Glenns, VA
23149.
References
Finley, D., Davis, S. & Hockaday, J. (1988). Vir-
ginia Plan For Dual Enrollment Between Vir-
ginia Public Schools and Community Colleges.
Richmond, VA: Virginia Community College
System.
Minimum Standards For Licensed Child Care Cen-
ters. (1989). Richmond, VA: Virginia De-
partment of Social Services, Division of Li-
censing Programs. • • •
ILLINOIS TEACHER, November /December, 1990 59
tt
Gifted Students in the Child Development
and Guidance Program
Elizabeth Thomas
Child Care Occupations Teacher
Virginia Beach Vocational Technical Education
Center
Virginia Beach, VA
and
Phyllis Cannon
Coordinator of Home Economics Education and
Vocational Education
Virginia Beach Public Schools, VA
Elizabeth Thomas
Phyllis Cannon
In the past, vocational education programs have
been stereotyped as mostly for average and poor
achieving students. Many academic students were
enrolled in the vocational classes, but no attempt to
interest gifted students had been initiated. When
the Virginia Department of Education offered grant
funds to write a curriculum guide for gifted students
in child development and guidance, Virginia Beach
City Schools presented a proposal which was ap-
proved. The proposal had at its heart the long rec-
ognized fact that skillful nurturing, effective guid-
ance, and efficacious teaching during the preschool
years are very important to a child's total develop-
ment. The long term values of interesting more gifted
students in child-related professions include both
personal and societal significance as well as enhanc-
ing the appeal of vocational education to a large au-
dience.
The child care occupational classes at the Vir-
ginia Beach Vocational Educational Technical Cen-
ter have had mostly college bound students enrolled
in the program. The teacher of these students had
determined the need for more innovative learning
experiences, critical thinking skills, and career
60 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1990
skills in the curriculum. This grant presented the
opportunity to write a curriculum guide for gifted
students in the consumer and homemaking classes as
well as to get ideas for improving the child care oc-
cupation program at the same time. Gifted students
in grades ten through twelve at each high school in
the Virginia Beach system will benefit from the
program.
Program Goals
1 . Goals and objectives were identified for writing
a Gifted Child Development and Guidance cur-
riculum guide for a one-year program. The first
step in this development was to survey all states
in the nation for curricula already developed in
this area. Texas had developed a guide called
Advanced Child Development. After a request
was made to review and use ideas from this
guide, some of the classroom instructional activi-
ties were identified for implementation.
2. Textbooks, brochures, and other materials were
studied to understand more clearly the unique
needs of the gifted students. Appropriate mate-
rials, media, and reference resources were identi-
fied.
Activities were identified for stimulating
critical thinking skills. Career skills and oppor-
tunities were explored. An apprentice-
ship/ men torship experience was provided to al-
low the students to gain knowledge of the career
options. Field trips to medical establishments
and other child-related businesses enriched the
learning experiences. Preschool children were
invited to the classroom to provide hands-on ex-
periences for the gifted students. Through a
wide variety of practical, challenging, and real-
life experiences, the students experienced a
broader spectrum of child-related professions.
3. Promotional materials were developed to inform
students, parents, school personnel, and commu-
nity employers about the program. An interview
with the child care occupations teacher on the
school-sponsored television station also high-
lighted the program. Memos were sent to princi-
pals of secondary schools to keep them updated
on the progress of this new gifted /vocational ed-
ucation venture. Articles describing the program
were in the local media. Special programs were
presented to the school system's guidance person-
nel.
4. Students eligible for the program are those who
are college bound with a three-point grade aver-
age and who are interested in entering an early
childhood-related occupation. The gifted and
guidance personnel assisted with the selection of
students.
5. In order to develop a quality curriculum guide,
professionals from the business community, the
local community college, and school system were
identified as consultants. Planning sessions were
held with the appointed committee. With the
help of the consultants, the competencies to be
taught were identified. The coordinator of the
gifted program presented many ideas for stimu-
lating critical thinking, problem solving, organi-
zation, coping, group processing, decision making,
and encouraging creative expression. The assis-
tant principal of the Vocational Technical Edu-
cation Center, who is a former child care occupa-
tions teacher, correlated all of the ideas into a
final draft.
The competency-based education guide allows
the students to study different theorists and their
philosophies relating to child development and
guidance. The students explore careers relating to
early childhood, such as education, art therapy,
play therapy, child psychology, and pediatric nurs-
ing. Employability skills are emphasized. Some of
the instructional activities include guest speakers
from medical professions, media and instructional
specialists, preschool directors, nutritionists, and
health care specialists. Many opportunities are pre-
sented for research, hands-on experiences, develop-
ment of instructional materials, leadership training,
cognitive development, and self-expression.
The generic and environmental effects on the de-
veloping fetus are also studied. Students will exam-
ine the patterns of child development, including
physical maturation, and emotional, social, and in-
tellectual development. Carefully selected toys and
educational manipulatives are a part of the study of
stimulating and motivating child growth. Examples
as suggested by Piaget, Montessori, and British
infant school theorists have been selected.
Other task areas studied are exceptional chil-
dren, guidance techniques, general behavior, and
safety techniques. The production of a first aid
handbook for children is a classroom cooperative ef-
fort.
Preschool children are invited to the classroom
one day per week to allow the students to observe,
study, and analyze behaviors, patterns, and prob-
lems. This enrichment experience provides the high
school student hands-on experiences for guiding, un-
derstanding, and learning about children. Learning
centers teaching art, music, science, dramatic play,
language arts, storytelling, and practical life appli-
cations are created and used with the children.
An especially exciting feature of the class is the
mentorship component. The students explore areas of
related interests through an internship/mentorship
program. The one-semester course will permit the
students to participate in this activity for approxi-
mately one week to ten days. Working with profes-
sionals in the community, students have the opportu-
nity to assess, first hand, child development service
careers.
Program Success as Observed for Pilot Program
The students have been very excited about the
course. Some have commented that it has been the
most rewarding time in their educational experience.
Some students have been accepted in early child-
hood education programs in colleges for the fall
semester.
The students and teachers feel that the computer
with selected software, the camcorder, media mate-
rials, and educational manipulative toys purchased
from the grant monies have contributed to the course
success.
The vocational educational and gifted personnel
are working together to achieve one goal: to prepare
our students for successful child care and guidance ca-
reers and to have a positive impact on our society.
Gifted students are finding that the science of child
development can be challenging and motivating.
The vocational home economics teachers are enjoying
a new audience with whom to share their expertise
and training. The results have definitely been a
"gift" to all involved.
Program Developers
Funding Agents
Sharron K. Glasscock
Associate Director of Home Economics Education
Virginia State Department of Education
Dr. Foster B. Miles, Jr.
Supervisor Vocational Contracts and Grants
Virginia State Department of Education
ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/December, 1990 61
Directors
Elizabeth C. Thomas
Child Care Occupations Teacher, Vocational
Technical Center
Virginia Beach City Public Schools
Phyllis F. Cannon
Coordinator, Home Economics
Virginia Beach City Public Schools
Consumer and Homemaking Pilot Teacher
Brenda O. Snead
Teacher, Salem High School
Virginia Beach City Public Schools
Curriculum Guide Developers
Dianne P. Bowyer
Assistant Principal, Vocational Technical
Education Center
Virginia Beach City Public Schools
Hazel H. Jessee
Coordinator, Secondary Gifted Education
Virginia Beach City Public Schools
Consultants
Jeanne Atkinson
Director, Stratford Preschool
Joseph P. Kennedy Foundation
Virginia Beach
Juanita Felton
Gifted Resource Teacher
Virginia Beach City Public Schools
Nancy Guarnieri
Early Childhood Instructor
Tidewater Community College
Virginia Beach Campus
Typists
Rex C. Thomas
Donna S. Sawyer
(Continued from page 57.)
the first project and was awarded a three-year grant
through the Carl D. Perkins Act to fund the program.
The project is in its second year at the college and
has proven to be very successful. The project's impe-
tus has been to serve a wide variety of groups and to
reach as many audiences as possible in order to make
it self-supporting at the end of the three-year pe-
riod. Southwest Virginia is a rural area deprived of
organized training in balancing work and family is-
sues. Individuals frequently suffer from stress, con-
flicts at home and at work, a sense of guilt when
children must be left behind, and reduced productiv-
ity at work. Because of its geographic location,
these problems are compounded by long commuting
distances. Stress is often present due to the fear of
losing one's job because of the region's history of ups
and downs in the coal industry, a major employer in
the region.
Many businesses and agencies have taken advan-
tage of the seminars offered through the Work and
Family Institute to train, retrain, or upgrade em-
ployees. Through the use of a survey instrument,
seminar topics and time frames are customized to
meet employee needs. They are normally held at
the beginning or end of a shift, on weekends, or at
lunch time.
The most popular presentations include those re-
lated to employee wellness. Most companies want a
series of topics under this "wellness" heading that
run concurrently. Those topics generally include
stress management, setting priorities, physical fit-
ness, nutrition and meal planning, communication
skills, self-esteem, understanding values and person-
alities, and goal setting. Other frequent requests are
for topics in the area of parenting. Those include
handling guilt as a working parent, overweight
children, nutrition for children, communicating with
children, and leisure time with children.
The Work and Family Institute has provided
services for approximately 35 area businesses and
agencies. Current innovative projects include provid-
ing pre-employment training for several new indus-
tries in the area, lunch and learn seminars for women
in management, and providing services for the start
up of formalized tourism training in the area.
Many participants have commented that Work
and Family seminars are the most helpful programs
that their company has offered. Many say that the
home economics teachers are the perfect people to
present the seminars because of their educational
background and understanding of individual needs.
Virginia Home Economics Education and the Work
and Family Institute at Southwest Virginia Commu-
nity College have worked together to provide the
services needed to help the business world cope with
the challenge of the ever-changing employee. • • •
62 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1990
Project CARE— Making A Difference
with Teen Moms
tt
Helen B. Snyder
Supervisor of Home Economics and
Vocational Special Needs
Newport News Public Schools, VA
While one might hope that improved family
life education would eventually eliminate the need
for programs such as Project CARE, the reality is
that young girls do become pregnant. The children of
these children suffer one of the highest mortality
rates of all groups of America's young. The incidence
of learning disabilities, mental retardation, and
chronic health problems puts these babies at risk in
schools and communities throughout the nation. To
alleviate such problems the development of teen
mothers and families has become a major component
of vocational home economics. Because of this mis-
sion the Home Economics Department of Vocational
Education in Newport News Public Schools ad-
dressed this reality through Project CARE.
Premature delivery and low birth weight are
two leading contributors to the high infant mortality
rate for babies born to teenage mothers. Unlike most
girls in similar circumstances, the teenage mothers in
Project CARE have normal weight, full-term babies.
The project's main priorities are healthy babies and
keeping our teen mothers in school. Project CARE,
now in its fifth year of operation, stresses good nutri-
tion and medical care throughout pregnancy. The
program has made a difference because students are
having normal birth weight babies and are returning
to regular classes in their schools.
Since 1985, the Newport News Public School Di-
vision has had a program for pregnant teens and
teenage parents. We named our program Project
CARE, offering it as an alternative learning experi-
ence for pregnant teens in grades 6 to 12. The program
gives students the option of leaving their home
schools to gain instruction at a central site. The pro-
gram provides parenting skills, support services, and
opportunities to continue receiving academic credit
toward graduation. This effort is also part of the
Newport News Public Schools' state-mandated Fam-
ily Life Education Curriculum, which was developed
using the four-pronged model of awareness, informa-
tion, prevention, and intervention.
Teen pregnancy was becoming a problem in the
middle schools as well as the high schools and mid-
dle school principals voiced concerns that the needs
of teen mothers were not being appropriately met in
the middle school setting. The average middle level
student has other immediate needs—such as social
life and academic issues.
With the support of middle school principals,
the plans for a self-contained academic class and a
parenting class for students as an intervention effort
of Family Life Education were implemented. At the
same time, the Newport News Schools began instruc-
tion in parenting for pregnant teens in high school.
All students take a class in child development
and parenting. High school students take a minimum
of three additional classes to include English, math,
social studies, and/or an elective. Middle school
students continue to take their scheduled classes and
remain in a self-contained classroom.
Students can enter the program as soon as they
find out they are pregnant. A referral form from the
principal or guidance counselor, a parental consent
form, and a doctor's confirmation of the student's
pregnancy with statement of medical care are re-
quired for admission.
The students who choose to come to the program
agree to participate during the semester the baby is
delivered. The girls also receive six weeks of home-
bound instruction and return to Project CARE to finish
the semester. They also study human reproduction
and sexually transmitted diseases.
Individual student plans are made to meet the
academic, social, and physical needs related to the
pregnancy, so that the student can maintain a
healthy self-concept. The learning environment is
unique: students are grouped according to age and
condition—those who are pregnant and those who
are new mothers. They study prenatal care and de-
velopment, teenage parenthood, infant development,
infant care, and childhood development. Some stu-
dents, especially the younger ones, request to stay for
a full year rather than one semester.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/December, 1990 63
Project CARE Offers
Preparation for parenthood
Course content tailored to student needs
Relevant topics
Peer support
Support services - counselors,
medical professionals,
community agencies
Problem-sol vi ng
Family life education
Small classes
Career assessment
Symposiums for teenage fathers
There have been two home economics teachers who
teach and coordinate the program with schools and
community agencies. A nurse, part-time secretary,
guidance counselor, and an impact team comprised of
school psychologists and social workers also have
worked cooperatively to serve the students.
This program assists teenage mothers in gaining
marketable skills so they are more aware of the need
to be better prepared to become wage earners and as-
sume more financial responsibility to support their
children. Students are referred to the school divi-
sion's vocational evaluation services in order to de-
termine their areas of career interests, aptitude,
strengths, and academic and employability needs.
A related gender equity project, CARE Co-Op,
helps teenage mothers find jobs. In the cooperative
program students attend school and work part-time.
Career assessment is provided to make them more
aware of their options and to encourage them to
make career choices. Students also are introduced to
the wealth of community resources available to
mothers and families. Obstetricians, pediatricians,
wellness experts, psychologists, and representatives
of various community service agencies serve as re-
source people for the project. Teen Moms, an outreach
support group for teenage mothers who have returned
to regular school, is offered in three of our four high
schools and will be expanded to the fourth high
school. Teen Moms activities are planned jointly by
the CARE coordinator and the guidance counselors in
the regular school. Unique problems and concerns of
the teen mothers are addressed in program planning
to encourage the young mothers to stay in school.
Symposiums for teenage fathers, highlighting the
father's role in parenting, also are provided. Each
new component has been designed to address the ad-
ditional needs students have helped to identify. As
a result, participants in these new components have
found them relevant and helpful.
Project CARE has received funding for two years
under the GRADS (Graduation, Reality, and Dual-
Role Skills) program from the Virginia Department
of Education using consumer and homemaking money
from the Carl Perkins Vocational Education Act.
During this time, our teachers and supervisors have
informed many people about the program. Our
teachers have given workshops, participated on
panels, and represented the program on community
committees.
Many groups have toured our facilities and
talked with students and teachers. The program has
served as a model for schools that are implementing
the program. Information also has been dissemi-
nated through brochures and project reports. As an
important segment of the Family Life Education pro-
gram, reports have been given to the school divi-
sion's Community Involvement Team and the school
board. The program has received two state awards
for excellence.
Across the nation, approximately 20 percent of
pregnant teenagers continue their schooling. Early in
the 1989-90 school year, 80 percent of 1988-89 Project
CARE students were still in school. The percentage
has remained at or above 80 percent since 1985-86.
The support services and the self-confidence the pro-
ject instills make it appealing. Project CARE demon-
strates that teenagers can have healthy babies;
they can learn to cope with the challenges of teenage
parenting; and they can continue their education.
The program continues to receive high marks
from students, parents, and support personnel. Com-
munity support has grown with the success of the
project. The Kiwanis Club, Delta Kappa Gamma
Honorary Society, and the Junior League of Hampton
Roads have volunteered their support. The program
also continues to receive support from individuals in
the community. Health professionals have re-
sponded favorably about the knowledge and under-
standing that program participants have. Resources
and encouragement have been provided by the school
board, division superintendent, principals,
administrators, and staff.
(Continued on page 66.)
64 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1990
Implementation of Computer Activities
to Enhance Consumer and Homemaking
Education Programs
Mary Lou Bevins
Home Economics Teacher
Castlewood High School, VA
The widespread use of microcomputers and their
integration into the home and the workplace make
this rapidly changing technology important for
home economics curricula. A large number of students
enrolled in consumer and homemaking classes in Rus-
sell County, Virginia have had minimal exposure to
computers. The County Vocational Director, Carl
Jackson, designed a project to help meet the needs of
these students. This project has been located at
Castlewood High School and is gradually being in-
tegrated into other schools in the county.
Funded by a grant from the Virginia Department
of Education, this program was developed with the
following objectives:
1 . To provide integration of computers into consumer
and homemaking courses.
2. To reinforce basic skills in consumer and home-
making education courses.
3. To develop methods for computer assisted class-
room management.
4. To provide training for the home economics
teacher in the use of computers.
5. To provide computer hardware and software to
accomplish the stated objectives.
Grant money provided for the purchase of three
microcomputers with color monitors and a variety of
software. Local funds provided for additional sup-
plies and equipment necessary to carry out the pro-
ject.
Although time consuming and often frustrating,
previewing the software proved to be a true learning
experience. Students played a major role in this re-
view, with the goal of locating appropriate soft-
ware for each area of home economics.
Sorting through catalogues I chose software from
a variety of subjects compatible to my computers.
Most of the software companies I ordered from had a
30 day approval, but required purchase orders. It
took longer than I realized for software to arrive and
be previewed in the time allowed. Also the type of
computer hardware can limit the availability of
software. I have found that there is a better selec-
tion of computer software in areas such as foods and
nutrition, consumer education, and child develop-
ment while areas such as housing and clothing were
less well represented. Most of the software I chose
was priced from $50.00 to $100.00 and was easy to
use.
Before computers were introduced into the class-
room, teachers relied primarily on textbooks, lec-
tures, and audio-visual aids. The home economics
curriculum is changing as rapidly as the methods for
teaching. Students enter a new world of learning
with the touch of a keyboard that serves as an in-
strument for discovery and progress. Information once
found in textbooks appear on computer screens in a
new and fascinating form.
Computers were introduced into my classrooms
two years ago and have shaped the way I teach
along with the manner students receive the informa-
tion. For example, at the beginning of the year, stu-
dents took turns using a self-concept software pro-
gram in an eighth grade life management skills
class. While a group was assigned to the computers,
the remainder of the class assumed activities such as
completing related assignments at their desks. The
use of two teaching tools at the same time is some-
times difficult to juggle, but the benefits outweigh
any problems I encounter.
Several software programs help students learn
about nutrition— choosing appropriate snacks and
good eating habits. Other programs feature prenatal
care and new infant care. Many of the programs are
designed in a question and answer format. Some are
ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1990 65
games, and others offer musical sound effects that
appeal to the students' age groups. Programs offer
some artwork along with the information.
A computer class is essential for the instructor,
especially those who have little or no experience
with a computer system. After I completed a class a
few years ago I realized how a computer can revolu-
tionize the classroom.
Through participation in another computer class
I was taught basic knowledge of the use of computers
and had "hands on" experience with word processing
and spreadsheets. The most useful of these has been
word processing. It has not only been helpful in writ-
ing reports and making out tests, but has also been
very useful for FHA activities, including various
FHA reports, invitations, handbooks, and yearbooks.
Another way I use word processing within my
classroom is by requiring the students to review an
article from Choices, a magazine for home economics
students, then write a report summarizing the arti-
cle, and print out a copy. Some students have come in
during study halls to print out copies of other reports
required of them.
Students receive practice in reading and process-
ing information. The computer reinforces basic skills
of the three R's. Programs teach students about
maintaining a checking account and earning and in-
vesting money. Reading from the computer monitor
allows students to learn proper sentence structure as
well as grammar skills.
Students at Castlewood High School have
shown much interest in the computers. Approxi-
mately 75 students are using the computers and be-
cause of this number it does take time for each stu-
dent to complete a particular program. Students are
always eager for their turn. The computer has
proven to be a very effective tool in instruction. This
project has and will continue to motivate students to
learn and take more active part in the subjects taught
in consumer and homemaking courses. • • •
The job of the teacher is to arrange
victories for his students.
Quintilian
(Continued from page 56.)
outcomes include using writing skills to market pro-
gram success through a variety of outlets. Teachers
were encouraged to write articles for local newspa-
pers, state professional organization newsletters,
and other print media.
References
Fedje, C. G., & Essex-Buss, L. (1989). Words of wis-
dom—theirs, not mine: Evaluating students'
writing. Illinois Teacher, 32(5), 190-193.
O'Connor, P. J., & Trussell, S. T. (1987). The market-
ing of vocational education. Vocational Educa-
tion Journal, 62(8), 31-32. • • •
(Continued from page 64.)
Project CARE is important because children's
lives depend on it. Since the project began five years
ago, only four children have been born with low-
birth weight, and most of them are now healthy in-
fants. This record— some 200 hundred babies born to
teenage mothers— makes the project an imperative
aspect of the Newport News Public Schools.
The project also is important because it often ad-
dresses for the first time the type of chronic social
problems that cause young girls to run away from
home or attempt suicide. These troubled teens are in
an environment that encourages them to seek help for
problems of family violence, sexual abuse and rape,
substance abuse, and poverty. The peer group setting
enables the young women to learn to be better moth-
ers and encourages them to continue their academic
studies.
The school system benefits from this program be-
cause healthy babies are more likely to result in
healthy students as they enter kindergarten. The
parenting skills learned in the program will enhance
the school readiness skills of the children of these
young mothers.
Finally, Project CARE is important because it is a
practical, humane and realistic approach to an all-
too-common community problem. Until an excellent ,
education program brings under control the problems
associated with teenage pregnancy, our community
cannot afford the loss in human potential that such a
threat poses. • • •
66 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1990
Conflict Resolution: Win, Lose, or Draw
tt
Tommie Lawhon, Professor
Child Development and
Family Relations
University of North Texas
Denton, TX
Home and work environments need to be healthy
to strengthen family members and society. Anger, re-
sentment, guilt, and other feelings that damage rela-
tionships result when dilemmas are not faced or
when improper techniques are utilized to resolve
difficulties. Home economists recognize the impor-
tance of strong family relationships and the need to
resolve problems in both the family and the work-
place.
Teachers of child development, family rela-
tions, home management, stress management, and
other related areas have opportunities to help stu-
dents to develop life management skills that will
enable them to survive in the changing world. Part
of this survival depends upon listening, communicat-
ing, and cooperating with others (Storrer, 1989).
Human relationships impact every area of life.
An underlying requirement of relationships is being
able to resolve conflicts (Brown, 1989). Disagree-
ments between students, students and teachers, em-
ployees and employers, customers and businesses,
tenants and landlords, children and parents, spouses,
and neighbors are common. Communication patterns
are important in developing and sustaining relation-
ships, and have an impact upon personal and profes-
sional leadership and growth. Dealing with diffi-
culties can be a process in which everyone wins, or
compromises, or loses, or it can be a situation that re-
sults in a winner and a loser. Having a winner and a
loser drives a wedge between parties.
When frictions arise, constructive communication
skills, brainstorming sessions, and other negotiating
methods can be utilized to reduce or eliminate dif-
ferences. The development, refinement, and applica-
tion of these negotiating methods are assets for life.
Conflicts: Positive or Negative
Conflicts have some positive functions. They
stimulate interaction and emotion, thus increasing
the likelihood of constructive problem solving. Dis-
agreements may also lead to the clarification of
rules and positions and can encourage self-expression
(Bahr, 1989).
However, some conflicts undermine cohesion and
heighten hostility, thereby interfering with effec-
tive problem solving (Bahr, 1989). Hostility de-
creases morale and results in feelings of rejection that
can be reflected through behaviors that range from
withdrawal to aggression (Thompson & Rudolph,
1983).
Denial, practiced by many, does not solve a prob-
lem, but practical communication skills lead to
clearer understandings of issues. What are some
communication techniques for dealing with difficul-
ties?
Dealing With Difficulties
Students effect change and are affected by
change. When considering pressures in the class-
room, school, home, place of work, and pressures from
peers, it is imperative that each child develop the
skills necessary to communicate effectively in situa-
tions where contentions arise. Communication skills
are essential when attempting to influence a change
in the actions and/or decisions of others.
Attempting to influence another is common and
may occur when making weekend plans, budgeting
time and money, buying a car, selecting food, and car-
ing for others. Influence may also be used when de-
ciding about sex and children, planning a vacation,
selecting a home, choosing a job or career, and in
other areas of life where two or more people have
contact.
Some communication techniques useful in helping
both parties to reach agreements have been adapted
from Business Confidential (1988b):
• Have the other person's full attention before
beginning the conversation.
• Select a place that will be free of noise and in-
terference. Reasoning is difficult when there are
too many distractions.
• Use eye contact, sit erect, and be alert to reinforce
the seriousness of the message.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1990 67
• Ask questions to be sure that the other person is
listening.
• Think through the issues and be specific about the
assistance or action desired.
• Present facts and be prepared to offer solutions.
• Make clear, simple, and direct statements, and
avoid provoking alienation or hostility.
• Pause, speak slowly and clearly, and consider the
other person's point of view.
• Watch personal body language so that it conveys
the same message as the spoken words. When
there are discrepancies between the two, the body
is a better indicator of truth than the words.
• Avoid pressing the other person.
The techniques listed above require thinking,
planning, communicating, and problem solving. The
utilization of these skills is an asset to one's self-es-
teem and general welfare.
It is important to get facts straight, to be clear on
positions, know what is to be accomplished, and
work to get it (Hoffman, 1989). These steps will
clarify goals and reduce indecisiveness.
Being able to define a problem, develop a plan,
and work toward a solution is an important part of
self-evaluation and is a self-esteem builder
(Uhlenberg, 1989). Reaching solutions often involves
individual negotiating skills.
Using Negotiating Skills
Negotiating involves conferring and discussing to
reach an agreement on a subject of common interest.
The basic purpose of negotiating is to cope with a
matter successfully and this may include bargaining
to reach agreement (McKechnie, 1983).
Throughout life there are many opportunities to
use negotiating abilities. For example, these skills
are useful when selecting a university, purchasing or
selling items, preparing prenuptial agreements,
planning a divorce, setting or reestablishing child
support, and dividing and distributing property fol-
lowing a death in the family.
Negotiating to resolve conflicts and to establish
points of agreement can be a useful and powerful tool
in dealing with differences. Most matters can be re-
solved by the parties if the emotions have not be-
come too frayed and if positions have not been "cast
in stone" (Matheny, 1989). However, there are bar-
riers to successful negotiating (Brown, 1989). Some of
these barriers are: attacking the individual rather
than the problem; trying to win rather than trying to
solve the problem; having minds made up before the
negotiation; directing discussions toward one position
rather than exploring options; attempting to break
the other person's will; and threatening those who
disagree with a point. Accepting and respecting the
other person's opinion and recognizing each other as
problem-solvers will more likely result in mutual
feelings of fairness.
C. L. Karrass (1983) recommends several negoti-
ating techniques for resolving conflicts:
• Listen to determine the real offer, find areas of
mutual agreement, and introduce new alternatives
and possible solutions.
• Use tact when introducing arguments or facts that
will prove another wrong.
• Avoid demolishing another's case and give a way
to retreat from a position.
• Change the atmosphere from competitive to co-
operative when possible.
There are times and circumstances where a deci-
sion must be made. However, not all negotiating ef-
forts will result in a solution that is acceptable to all
parties. When seeking the understanding of those
affected by a decision, do not expect to eliminate all
opposition. Some resistance may be resolved through
brainstorming sessions. Brainstorming is one method
that can be useful in seeking input from those im-
pacted by the problem or the solution.
Communicating By Brainstorming
Creative ideas can result from a brainstorming
session. The purposes of brainstorming are to assem-
ble a group of people, to stimulate lateral thinking,
to link unrelated ideas, and to break the regular log-
ical approaches. This method is more effective
when the problem is defined in writing prior to a
meeting so that participants have enough informa-
tion to understand the situation. The goal is to so-
licit fresh ideas. Participants are encouraged to ex-
press any views and they need to be assured that no
proposal will be criticized. The leader accepts all
input and avoids complimenting, questioning, or
"putting down" suggestions (Business Confidential,
1988d).
Set a time limit for a session in advance so that
everyone is aware of how much input can be pro-
vided. Maintaining a relaxed atmosphere, redefin-
ing the problem as necessary, taking notes, and
avoiding negative thinking enhances the effective-
ness of the meeting (Business Confidential, 1988a).
Following a session the recorded recommendations
can be reviewed. Many suggestions sound better the
second time (Business Confidential, 1988c).
There are occasions when neither effective com-
munication skills nor brainstorming will produce the
needed results. In these cases, outside help may be
68 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1990
necessary. This assistance can be provided through
mediation or arbitration.
Communicating Through Mediators and Arbitrators
A third person can be an asset in dealing with
conflicts. Two techniques in which a third person is
utilized are during mediation and arbitration. A mu-
tual friend of the two parties who attempts to effect
a reconciliation is a mediator. Mediation is the in-
tercession of one power between two or more parties
on their invitation or consent to attempt amicable
resolutions. Mediators attempt to reconcile opposing
forces, settle disputes, and effect agreements between
others (Morehead, A. & Morehead, L., 1972).
A mediator may assist parties to reach joint de-
cisions regarding written contracts, division of prop-
erty, agreements with builders, problems with retail
businesses, and premarital, marital, and family con-
cerns. Mediators also serve as consumer credit coun-
selors and in many other areas that benefit those
who want to make their own decisions rather than
having the court decide for them.
A distinct difference between mediators and ar-
bitrators is that mediators attempt to bring the
ideas of people together while arbitrators hear, de-
cide, and determine or make decisions based upon the
facts. They serve as judges. Arbitrators can be chosen
by the two sides, or they can be appointed.
Arbitrators are often utilized after mediation
fails to produce a decision suitable to both parties.
Some examples of when arbitration is used are while
negotiating a work contract, employee benefits,
salary, work hours, and other factors. Arbitration is
also useful in settling selected work disputes. It is
important to choose an arbitrator who is experienced
in the kind of problem under consideration. The par-
ties need to meet before arbitration to agree on as
many facts as possible, take another look at the dif-
ferences to see if the outcome is predictable, and con-
sider settling the dispute. If there are deliberations,
ask the arbitrator to write a brief opinion so that the
message will be clear to both sides (Business Confi-
dential, 1988a).
There are times when arbitration is necessary,
but there are some disadvantages in using this
method. One disadvantage is that a decision can be
passed down to the parties that is less satisfactory
than a compromise developed and agreed upon by
all. Arbitrators are usually paid for their work, so
the process can by costly, time consuming, and energy
draining.
Students need to recognize when outside help is
necessary. Home economics teachers can provide in-
struction and model behavior that will benefit stu-
dents in resolving frictions.
Modeling and Other Teaching Techniques
Home economists who encourage the develop-
ment of healthy conflict resolution techniques are as-
sets to students as challenges are faced. One way of
providing this encouragement is by being a good ex-
ample.
An integral part of learning is modeling— the
process whereby people pattern their behavior after
that of others. Individuals are more likely to model
behavior after those considered admirable, power-
ful, or similar to them, particularly if they have ob-
served reinforcement of the behavior pattern
(Bandura, 1977).
Modeling occurs at every age. Some is taught but
much of it is acquired by observation (Berger, 1987).
Teachers who utilize healthy patterns of conflict
resolution which include verbal and nonverbal
communication patterns are more likely to encourage
students to do the same.
Students also learn to recognize options by work-
ing in groups. One activity in which negotiating
techniques can be applied is role-playing. This
method affords a safe means of exploring and prac-
ticing. Working through a situation permits one to
see which techniques are successful. Later, when
faced with a problem, the student will have more
knowledge and experience and will feel more confi-
dent in dealing with a conflict. Brainstorming en-
ables students to reach a decision about what prob-
lem to use for role-playing episodes. Characters may
include children, teenagers, parents, teachers, older
adults, employers, employees, mediators, and arbi-
trators.
Another teaching strategy is to provide a list of
the effective communication skills previously men-
tioned and have each student develop a script that
involves a point where negotiations take place.
Once the script has been written, have students read
their creations before a mirror. Facial expressions,
body gestures, tone of voice, eye contact, and other
relevant observations are recorded and submitted
along with the script. Students can help each other
with scripts and can practice before each other to see
if gestures have been accurately recorded.
A popular strategy for teaching skills is through
the use of case studies. This approach allows many
alternatives to be considered. After a case study is
presented, students may be divided into three groups.
The first group works on a solution using the list of
ideas under "Dealing With Difficulties," the second
(Continued on page 75.)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, November /December, 1990 69
tt
Working with Child Abuse Victims
in the Home Economics Classroom
Peggy T. Pearl
Consumer and Family Studies
Southwest Missouri State University
Springfield, MO
One in seven children in our schools has experi-
enced child abuse (AAPC, 1986). The classroom
teacher, consequently, will have students who have
a history of maltreatment. Because of the nature of
home economics subject matter content, the home eco-
nomics teacher can be very effective in preparing the
child abuse victim for life. A student's history of
maltreatment causes predictable classroom behav-
iors, developmental abilities, and academic needs.
This paper will briefly describe the student with a
history of maltreatment and then discuss some
teaching techniques that may optimize the learning
environment for abused and maltreated children.
Characteristics of Students with A History of Mal-
treatment
The child victim has not developed the basic
trust necessary early in life, and subsequent psycho-
social development is delayed. The child cannot
trust her/himself nor the environment, lacks the
self-esteem necessary to try new learning, and fails
to learn the age-appropriate behaviors of the fam-
ily, peer culture, or the classroom. The child's need
to be safe and loved has made the child become ex-
cessively responsible for her/himself and the adults
in her/his world. The child's own home environment
is the only one the child knows, and therefore the
child assumes this is how all homes and families
are. Because of the negative role models present in
the home, the child abuse victims have few oppor-
tunities to learn positive coping skills and little en-
joyment of life (Lynch, 1982; Heifer, 1987 & Cic-
chetti, 1989). Table 1 summarizes some of the char-
acteristics of child abuse victims. To obtain more de-
tailed descriptions of the victimized child the
reader should refer to Heifer and Kempe's (1987)
The Battered Child and Cicchetti's (1989) Child
Maltreatment: Theory and Research on the Causes
and Consequences of Child Abuse and Neglect.
Table 1
Characteristics of Students with A
History of Maltreatment
1. Lack Sense of Trust
2. Have Low Self-esteem
3. Guess at What is Normal
4. Delayed Language Skills
5. Overly Responsible
6. Lack Positive Coping Skills
7. Don't Enjoy Life
Teaching Techniques
Before any teacher can be effective in working
with victimized children in the classroom, s/he must
come to terms with her/his own emotions relating to
child maltreatment. Likewise, a teacher who was a
victim will need to work through her/his own
problems before s/he can be effective with students.
A teacher who has lived in or who is living in a
chemically abusive family must recognize her/his
own situation and get help. As with any helping
professional, a teacher must have good mental
health to effectively work with or teach those who
do not. Teaching is nurturing, and to be effective at
nurturing the individual needs to have had a wide
range of positive experiences and a strong basic sense
of trust (Pratt, 1978; Murrary, 1972; Lawrence, 1987).
The following is a brief discussion of some of the
teaching techniques that are most effective with
victims of maltreatment.
70 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1990
1. Consistent and Predictable/Don't Become Defen-
sive.
The adolescent is developmentally asking all
adults, "Can I trust you to be what you say you will?"
"How does what you do fit with my ideal concept of
what should be?" "What do I believe, as compared
to what you believe and what I think I should be-
lieve" (Erikson, 1968)? For the adolescent who was
abused at an early age and lacks a basic sense of
trust, this is an especially difficult task. Because
the victim comes from a family where roles are non-
distinct, which causes the child to be uncertain about
what is "normal", the student needs to learn what is
appropriate and positive. Because the basic sense of
trust is lacking, the adolescent cannot trust adults
and, therefore, cannot sort out what s/he believes
and values. To improve their sense of trust in them-
selves and others, students need adults who are con-
sistent and dependable. The teacher also needs to re-
spect privacy, keep confidentiality, and routinely
"practice what s/he preaches."
2. Build Success
Students need to be placed in learning situations
where they are not valued or assessed according to
their own self-worth but rather where their product
is compared to a standard of performance. The
teacher should evaluate the product not the pro-
ducer. "The seam isn't a full 5/8 inch and the ends
are not secured; therefore, it may easily come unrav-
eled under normal wear" is an objective statement
about the seam. However, the statement "You failed
to secure the end of the seam" devalues the student
rather than evaluating the product.
When teachers require students to evaluate their
own work against a predetermined evaluation scale
they are providing an environment that enhances
the child's internal locus of control (De Charms,
1976) and allows the student to feel success and con-
trol. Programed instruction also places the student in
control of progress and minimizes teacher evalua-
tion. Students need a learning environment structured
to build successes rather than failures.
3. Teach Life Skills
Teach realistic standards, not ideals, because
these students who have lived in dysfunctional
homes already have difficulty with "what is" and
"what should be." The curricular content of the
home economics classroom is life skills without ra-
cial, ethnic, or gender bias, especially needed by
young people who have lived in dysfunctional
homes.
The curriculum should include basic life skills
such as nutrition, food preparation, money
management, stress management and interpersonal
communication. The student needs to learn that all
families have money management problems, and
how to manage money to prevent the problems rather
than merely blaming other family members.
Classroom exercises based on case studies of couples
solving money management issues give students
opportunities to practice money management and
communication skills. By practicing problem solving
in the classroom, the student experiences an
alternative family lifestyle. Simple laboratory ex-
ercises in food preparation teach both how to appro-
priately feed the family and interpersonal communi-
cation. All classroom activities need to reflect a va-
riety of socio-economic levels as well as cultural and
ethnic backgrounds.
4. Teach Communication Skills
In most abusive homes, interpersonal communica-
tion is poor (Heifer, 1987 & Lynch, 1982). The home
economics curriculum normally includes units on in-
terpersonal communication, conflict resolution, and
family resource management. All of these units are
especially important to young people who have no
role model of interpersonal communication. In abu-
sive families the person in whom ultimate power is
vested usually communicates in very vague terms and
expects no two-way communication. The child may
have been routinely punished for replying to adults
even in a conversational manner. Therefore, the cur-
riculum will need to begin with the very basics. Ad-
ditionally, the classroom will need to be structured
to give all students opportunities for communication
with peers as well as with the teacher.
5. Allow Students to be "Students"
Because of being reared in an environment where
they parented their parents as well as younger sib-
lings, these students will commonly be overly help-
ful to teachers and classmates. This may be the stu-
dent that you "love to have in class." This is the
"assistant you so desperately need." Don't succumb to
the temptation to utilize the help this student seems
to need to give and seems to enjoy giving. The student
is demonstrating the only survival technique that
has previously brought acceptance and praise. The
child was praised and accepted for doing responsible
helpful tasks, especially cleaning. The child
quickly learned that the same helpful cleaning be-
havior got predictable and needed praise in elemen-
tary school. The home economics classroom provides
this student a natural environment in which to be
helpful. In home economics class, when academic
and social skills are lacking, this student can succeed
by cleaning and helping. This is the student who
ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/December, 1990 71
may "end up doing all the cleaning" in the foods lab
or "tidy up" the sewing or child development lab.
This behavior gains approval and perhaps passing
grades from the teacher. The behavior is easy to
reinforce. The cyclic pattern of repetition fails to
teach appropriate communication or social skills,
and often allows the student to become further
victimized by peers.
Needless to say, all students need to be responsi-
ble and cleaning is a necessary part of many home
economics classes. However, the teacher needs to be
alert to the student who is "excessively" responsible
and redirect that student to more appropriate be-
haviors. In the foods laboratory the teacher needs to
help the students work as a group, assign job tasks,
and enforce those job assignments. Also the teacher
needs to observe the group activity and assist and en-
courage the victimized student to say, "I have done
my assigned tasks, I'll help you complete yours but I
won't do them for you." This says to the victimized
child, "You have rights and responsibilities just as
each other member of the group does. Since other
students frequently recognize the vulnerability of
the victimized child, comments such as "... Sandy
didn't do her part . . . ." may be a common response
when the victimized child asserts her/himself.
Verify what the assigned tasks were and what tasks
were left uncompleted. Don't automatically come to
the aid of any child because you "feel sorry for
them." Defending the rights of the victimized child
shows that you value the child and her/his rights,
teaches assertive behavior, and allows the child to
see appropriate means of resolving peer conflict that
will be needed when the victim encounters sibling
conflict as a parent.
An additional word about working with this ex-
tremely helpful student. This student needs positive
interaction with adults and the home economics
teacher is a very appropriate adult for this role.
However, take special attention to be the appropri-
ate role model this child needs. Be careful not to be-
come another adult that the child cares for. Don't
fall into the easy pattern of allowing the student to
take care of you and pick up after you to the extent
that you come to treat the student like an adult cre-
ating yet another situation of role reversal. Rather,
tell the student that you can use a "student assistant"
during a specific hour of the day or before school, etc.
Make the student responsible for specific routine
tasks, rather than "remembering what you need to do
next or what you have forgotten to do." Carefully
outline in writing and post in a specific place the ap-
propriate tasks for the student assistant. Following
each task identify the expected level of proficiency
on which the "assistant" will be evaluated. Period-
ically evaluate the level of proficiency of complet-
ing the tasks. Praise the student for specifically
completing tasks, rather than making general com-
ments like, "You're working hard, that's good." Spe-
cific praise will allow the student to feel good about
her/himself, learn skills for the world of work and
gain additional insight into the "normal world."
This type of businesslike arrangement will be mu-
tually beneficial to the student and the teacher.
6. Teach Positive Coping Skills
All students need instruction in good management
and coping skills, including a variety of
opportunities to practice those skills. Adolescents
with a history of maltreatment have routinely
developed dysfunctional coping skills that lead to
additional victimization, self-defeating behaviors,
and maltreatment. Such an adolescent frequently
follows poor role models and the resulting behavior
is either inappropriately acting out behavior or
depression. Appropriate coping skills can be taught
by role playing from scripts or allowing students to
view video tapes that set up a situation and then
require the students to discuss the alternatives.
Resource management should be integrated in many
areas of the curriculum. The individual can be
taught ways to avoid many life stresses with good
management techniques. There are many resource
management and stress management programs
available in a variety of formats. Some interactive
computer programs may be especially helpful for
students who lack the language skills necessary for
verbal role playing.
The confronting of alcholism in the family is
essential to some victim's ability to learn positive
coping skills. This will take more than the class-
room teacher can provide. A referral to community
resources, including a mental health professional or
a support group, such as Alateen, is important. The
classroom teacher can educate students about the re-
sources available to individuals and families with
chemical addiction problems but they cannot cure or
treat the student.
7. Provide Pleasurable Experiences
There is educational merit in making all learn-
ing fun, or as some prefer to say, enjoyable. Victim-
ized children have had few, if any, experiences of
doing pleasurable activities and then when they do
have fun they are not allowed to appropriately
enjoy the pleasure. The home economics curriculum is
an especially important place for the student to
have pleasurable experiences because the skills
taught are skills for living in the everyday world.
All students, and especially maltreated students,
72 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1990
need to hear you, the role model, speak about the
pleasant odors, flavors, touches in the curriculum.
The pleasant smells—peaches, cinnamon, cloves,
bread, flowers, colognes/aftershaves, lemon oil
cleaners, fabric softeners, babies, etc. —have fre-
quently been missing or not appreciated in the mal-
treated child's home. Common positive sensual ex-
periences are frequently lacking for many mal-
treated individuals. The adolescent needs opportu-
nities to have the experience and the role model of
an adult enjoying or appreciating the experience.
The home economics classroom routinely provides a
wide variety of these experiences. The first hand
exploration of the world through the senses is
needed for the adolescent who has "missed child-
hood" if that individual is going to ever be able to
nurture the next generation (Heifer, 1987).
The maltreated adolescent needs many pleasant
sensory experiences integrated into the curriculum.
As basic as the home economics education concept of
learning by doing is the concept of using as many
senses as possible in hands-on learning. As you teach
about young children needing play to release anger,
plan a laboratory experience to make cinnamon or
mint-scented, green or red playdough while a
lullaby plays gently in the background. Or when
teaching how to measure liquid ingredients, use col-
ored and scented water in place of clear. When
teaching laundry and ironing, make sure you use a
good smelling chlorine bleach and fabric conditioner
and discuss the good smells. Also discuss the good
hand or feel of specific fabrics and fabric finishes.
Help students identify the textures they enjoy wear-
ing. For example, corduroy slacks, starched cotton
shirts, chambray shirts, soft wool sweaters, soft
leather jackets, firm cotton jeans, etc. Then introduce
how the color of their clothes or the room affects
how they feel. Of course, the importance of touch is
an integral part of any health and home nursing unit,
but don't forget to include the fresh clean smell that
comes with home care, the importance of the taste of
favorite foods, and the pleasant view of flowers, a
plant, fresh fruit, or the sky to the recuperating
patient. Continually the teacher needs to give extra
attention to ways of adding pleasant sensory
experiences to the curriculum. The adolescent with a
history of maltreatment has been made to feel guilty
for enjoying even the simplest of activities for so long
that s/he can no longer feel or express that joy.
When a teacher observes that a student enjoys an ac-
tivity, it should be acknowledged along with a dis-
cussion of other similar experiences that the student
might enjoy. The teacher needs to give the student
permission to feel good about the things s/he enjoys.
By providing a wide variety of learning experiences,
the teacher gives students more opportunities for
success as well as more opportunities for having
pleasurable experiences. Recognize that what is one
student's enjoyment may not be at all pleasant to
other students. Many students find pleasure in tasks
that most students see as very distasteful, i.e., the
one who loves to clean sewing machines, the one who
likes to pull the thread to get fabric grain perfect,
the one who loves to double check to see if the
furniture is to scale on the floor-plan, or the one who
loves to hem by hand. Acknowledge student
enjoyment and praise the successes, and encourage
students to feel pride and pleasure even if they find
pleasure in doing the different. (This will be easy
since every home economics classroom should have,
as standard equipment, at least one colorful poster
stating "it's o.k. to be different.") An environment
where students are encouraged to enjoy learning will
always be an environment where more learning takes
place.
All students need the role model of an adult who
enjoys the everyday world around her/him. Chil-
dren who have grown up in a dysfunctional family
have an urgent need to see the adult who can laugh
when things are funny and lives to care for special
plants, make Christmas cookies, sew with the latest
fabric, or listen to the rain on the roof. They need
role models who take pride and pleasure in the
things they do well, who willingly try new activi-
ties, who read and enjoy learning, and who demon-
strate pleasure in their interactions with people of
all ages, sexes, races and ethnic backgrounds. Pro-
vide that role model to your students.
8. Self-Esteem
All home economics teachers should be aware of
the importance of student self-esteem and include in
the curriculum ways to build self-esteem. To the
children who have been victimized these activities
are especially important. Activities should be in-
cluded that encourage students to focus on their posi-
tive abilities and actions, to learn positive behav-
iors, and to seek methods for self-improvement. In
"He Hit Me Back First!" Creative Visualization
Activities for Parenting and Teaching, Fugitt (1983)
provides a variety of activities that could be
included in lesson plans to build student self-esteem
and help students progress from victim to survivor.
The study of resource management as part of the
curriculum will also provide students with
information on community resources and how to access
those resources for personal growth. For all students,
knowledge brings with it the feelings of power and
being in control which are essential to building
positive self-esteem.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1990 73
9. Provide Avenues to Gain Insight
Bibliotherapy is one way of helping children
who are the victims of abuse gain personal insight.
Bibliotherapy literally means to treat through the
reading of books. The goals of bibliotherapy are (a)
to teach people to think constructively and posi-
tively, (b) to encourage people to talk freely about
their problems, (c) to help people analyze their at-
titudes and modes of behavior, (d) to point out that
there is more than one solution to a problem, (e) to
stimulate an eagerness to find an adjustment to prob-
lems that will lessen conflict with society, and (f) to
assist people in comparing their problems with those
of others (Rongione, 1972). Although the home eco-
nomics teacher is not a therapist nor a counselor,
s/he can request that books about children who have
dealt positively in adverse circumstances be
available in school libraries, and s/he can include
some readings as part of required and optional as-
signments (Table 2). High school students might
gain insight into their own lives by reading or acting
out with puppets such books with younger children in
child development laboratories. In addition to these
books providing some therapeutic value to students
who have been maltreated, they teach all students
what is appropriate treatment of children who are
part of child abuse prevention program. Retrospec-
tive studies of male child sexual abuse perpetrators
show that they abused their first victim sometime in
adolescence (Seghorn, in press; Ryan, 1987; & Swift,
1979)
Table 2
Examples of Books for Bibliotherapy
Benedict, H. (1985). Recovery: How to survive
sexual assault for women, men, teenagers, their
friends and family. New York: Doubleday.
Cole, B. S. (1987). Don't tell a soul. New York: Mar-
ian.
Crutcher, C. (1986). Stotan. London: Greenwood.
Declements, B. (1987). No place for me. New York:
Viking.
Hayden, T. L. (1987). One child. New York: Put-
man.
Jocoby, A. (1987). My mother's boyfriend and me.
New York: Dial Books.
Klein, V. (1986). Bad-mad boy, honey bear and the
magic waterfall. Somerville, NJ: Hage Publica-
tions.
Klein, V. (1986). I-am, pa-pah and ma-me.
Somerville, NJ: Hage Publications.
Kropp, P. (1987). Take off. St. Paul, MN: EMC Pub-
lications.
MacLean, J. (1987). Mac. Boston: Houghton.
Madison, A. (1979). Runaway teens. New York: El-
sevier/Nelson Books.
Miklowitz, G. D. (1987). Secrets not meant to be
kept. New York: Delacorte Press.
Miller-Lachman, L. (1987). Hiding places. Madi-
son, WI: Square One Publishers.
Page, C. G. (1987). Hallie's secret. Chicago, IL:
Moody Press.
Posner, R. (1987). Sweet pain. New York: M. Evans.
Quinn, P. E. (1986). Renegade saint: A story of hope,
a child abuse survivor. Nashville: Abingdon
Press.
Rosa, G. (1978). Edith Jackson. London: Viking.
Seixas, J. S., & Youcha, G. (1985). Children of al-
choholism; a survivor's manual. New York:
Harper & Row.
Swan, H. & Mackey, G., (1983). Dear Elizabeth:
Diary of a survivor of sexual abuse. Leawood,
KS: Children's Institute of Kansas.
Woolverton, L. (1987). Running before the wind.
Boston: Houghton.
Conclusion
With general knowledge of the characteristics
and classroom needs of the child abuse victim, the
home economics teacher can effectively utilize
teaching techniques that will enhance the learning
environment for this special student. The victimized
student commonly lacks a sense of trust, a good self-
esteem and an understanding of age-appropriate be-
haviors—especially communication skills. Fortu-
nately the home economics curriculum commonly con-
tains subject matter content and teaching techniques
that may help the victim progress to a survivor. The
knowledgeable teacher can select content and teach-
ing strategies and techniques that will be beneficial
to all students including both the students who have
identified themselves as victims as well as those
students who have behaviors that are consistent
with a history of victimization. Though the class-
room teacher is not a therapist, she or he can guide
the victimized student to facilitate her or his own
personal growth and insight through specific class-
room assignments.
References
American Association for Protecting Children
(AACP). (1986). Highlights of official child
74 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1990
neglect and abuse reporting 1984. Denver, CO:
The American Humane Association.
Belcher, V. B. (1983) History need not repeat itself:
Make children aware of child abuse through lit-
erature. School Counselor. 44-48.
Cicchetti, D. & Carlson, V. (Eds.), (1989) Child
maltreatment: Theory and research on the causes
and consequences of child abuse and neglect. New
York: Cambridge University Press.
De Charms, R. (1976). Enhancing motivation in the
classroom. New York: Irvington.
Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis.
New York: Norton.
Fugitt, E. D. (1983). "He hit me back first" Creative
visualization activities for parenting and teach-
ing. Rolling Hills Estates, CA: Jalmar Press.
Heifer, R. E. & Kempe, R. S. (1987). The battered
child. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Lawrence, D. (1987). Enhancing self-esteem in the
classroom. London: Paul Chapman Publishing,
Ltd.
Lynch, M. A. & Roberts, J. (1982). Consequences of
child abuse. New York: Academic Press.
Murray, E. (1972). Students' perceptions of self-actu-
alizing and non-self-actualizing teachers. Jour-
nal of Teacher Education, 23, 383-387.
Pratt, R. (1978). Perceived stress among teachers.
Educational Review, 30, 3-14.
Rongione, L. A. (1972). Bibliotherapy: Its nature
and uses. Catholic Library World. 496-501.
Ryan, G., Lane, S., Davis, J., & Isaac, C. (1987). Ju-
venile sex offenders: Development and correc-
tion. Child Abuse and Neglect. 11, 385-395.
Seghorn, T., Boucher, R. J. & Prentky, R. A. (In press.)
Childhood sexual abuse in the lives of sexually
aggressive offenders. Journal of the American
Academy of Child Psychiatry.
Swift, C. (1979). Prevention of sexual child abuse:
Focus on the perpetrator. Journal of Clinical
Child Psychology. 133-136. •••
Continued from page 69.)
group chooses and uses a mediator, and the third se-
lects and utilizes an arbitrator. Each group is en-
couraged to think through the issues, use facts, and
offer a solution. Following the small group activity,
reports could be given to the class.
Conclusion
Effective communication techniques assist in re-
solving or managing conflicts. It is helpful to define
the problem and consider the parties before deter-
mining whether to use brainstorming, mediation, ar-
bitration, or some other negotiating technique. If the
goal is to solve the problem without alienation, then
careful planning and wording are essential for both
parties. Learning a variety of practical techniques
increases awareness of procedures useful in resolving
frictions.
A degree of harmony is essential if students,
teachers, parents, and others are to thrive at home
and work. Home economists have unique opportuni-
ties to assist students in dealing with conflicts
through guiding, modeling, and other teaching tech-
niques.
References
Bahr, S. J. (1989). Family interaction. New York:
Macmillan.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Engle-
wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Berger, K. S. (1987). The developing person through
childhood and adolescence. New York: Worth.
Brown, S. (1989). Better negotiating for better rela-
tionships. Bottom Line Personal, 10(2), 7-8.
Business Confidential. (1988a). Controlling arbitra-
tion costs. New York: Boardroom Reports, 225.
Business Confidential. (1988b). How to communicate
effectively. New York: Boardroom Reports,
227.
Business Confidential. (1988c). Running a brain-
storming session. New York: Boardroom Re-
ports, 82-83.
Hoffman, H. (1989). What the stress experts
haven't told you. Bottom Line Personal, 10(1), 8.
Karrass, C. L. (1983). The book of business knowl-
edge. Melburn, NJ: Boardroom Books.
Matheny, M. D. (1989, May). Joint managing conser-
vators—legislative forced reasonableness.
Texas Bar Journal, pp. 531-533.
McKechnie, J. L. (1983). Webster's new universal
unabridged dictionary. New York: Simon &
Schuster.
Morehead, A., & Morehead, L. (Eds.). (1972). Web-
ster's dictionary. Chicago: Times Mirror.
Storrer, I. (1989). Teaching survival techniques in a
changing world. Illinois Teacher, 33(2), 54-55.
Thompson, C. L., & Rudolph, L. B. (1983). Counseling
children. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Uhlenberg, B. (1989). Strengthening single-parent
families. Illinois Teacher, 33(2), 43-44. • • •
ILLINOIS TEACHER, November /December, 1990 75
Encouragement and Direction for the
Cooperating Teacher
Annabelle Dryden Slocum
Faculty of Education
The University of Western Ontario
London, Ontario
Introduction
In this article, I will explore what it means to be
a cooperating teacher and how to live it. The ideas
presented in this piece are grounded in the lived
experiences of three cooperating teachers and myself.
I hope the words and images brought together here
are not simply a recalling, a retelling of our lived
experience but a representing, a recreating, of a
possible universal human experience in which many
will be able to recognize themselves.
In the midst of our busy and anxious schedules, we
often wonder what is at the heart of answering the
call to become a cooperating teacher? In what ways
is hope manifested in the face of reality in our
everyday lives and practice as cooperating teachers?
These questions reveal our desire to be cooperating
teachers, to work in our classrooms with becoming
teachers, but also our uncertainty about the meaning
and practice of being a cooperating teacher.
Although the experience of being a cooperating
teacher is talked about "in general," it always hap-
pens "in particular." What is the nature of this par-
ticular experience? Can it be that what is most per-
sonal for one can have meaning for others? In many
different ways, the stories of cooperating teachers
tell us that what is most personal is also most
universal.
I have written this article for teachers who
have a persistent urge to participate as cooperating
teachers, but who experience personal uncertainty
about the direction they should take. I also want to
speak to the many teachers who may be considering
becoming cooperating teachers for the first time,
attracted in their desire to work with student
teachers by a mixture of a sense of duty and curiosity,
anxiety and hope. It is based on research I conducted
in which several cooperating teaching and I
reflected on what it means to be a cooperating
teacher.
Hope Reawakened
Hope is built on memories. Memories can give us
expectations. Good memories can renew confidence
and courage in us. In times of distress and despair, we
can hope for a better day because we have had better
days. Our good memories set images before us that
fed us and sheltered us in the midst of unsettledness
and turmoil. We become our memories as they
penetrate and permeate our being deeply and
unforgettably. In particular times, memories can
have revitalizing power and help to push us forward
to new possibilities. Our sense of being is not only
dependent on events in our present lives, but on
memory of the past. Our memories help us to make
sense of ourselves and our new world, just as present
situations help add meaning to our past experiences.
Hope is at the Heart of Heeding the Call
The initial reaction to the invitation to become a
cooperating teacher, the sense of inner turmoil and
uncertainty, unfolds in the words~"I said I'd never
have another one." That persistent urge expressed as
professional duty reveals itself in the reluctant and
unreflective statement "somebody has to do it." In an
ordinary way, we may think of duty as an obligation,
a task we feel we must do even if we do not feel like
doing it. Accepting one's duty is somewhat taken for
granted in the statement "I've done it before. I
imagine I can handle this again." Do these words
speak of a duty that has lost its hope? If so, what
other aspects of duty does the meaning of being a
cooperating teacher encourage and foster so that
teachers continue to answer "yes" to the call to
become one.
In situating duty as a dimension of education,
Heubner (1984) lifts its meaning above the mundane
and sedentary and provides an encouraging vision for
cooperating teachers when it said education as duty
is "a call from the other that we may reach beyond
ourselves and enter into life with the life around us"
(p. 114). Duty in this sense reveals the hidden hope
for participation in the life of the student teacher. In
this duty and this hope, cooperating teachers find
the courage to try once again, to plan, to schedule, to
76 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1990
guide, to contribute, to look once more for possibilities
in the form of and for the student teacher. Hope
compels us to explore and pursue expectations and
anticipations in the midst of uncertainty and doubt.
In what ways is hope manifested in the face of
reality in everyday life and practice as cooperating
teachers?
Hope as Hospitality
In considering that question, let us explore some
conditions that hope creates for the cooperating
teachers in their lived world. Hope frees us from
clinging to the familiar, the routine and allows a
particular kind of leadership to come to life. The
cooperating teacher as "leader with hope" can
respond to the call for personal concern and
involvement with the student teacher's personhood
beyond lesson plans, teaching techniques, and
questioning skills. Cooperating teachers can be
present, waiting for and with the student teachers in
their experiences. However, the multiple realities of
cooperating teachers' lived experience as leader are
influenced both by forces operating from within the
context of the educational institutions and the
mystery of hope within them, a hope framed and
shaped by their own journey, and personal biog-
raphy.
How is Hope Manifested in the Face of Reality?
Henri Nouwen (1979) in The Wounded Healer
advocates three particular features of leadership for
today's complex society. Nouwen envisions a leader
"as the articulator of inner events" (p. 36) who
"makes compassion the core and even the nature of
authority" (p. 40) while being a "contemplative
critic" (p. 43). Investigating the lived experience of
the cooperating teacher with Nouwen's portrait of a
leader as a guide, provides opportunities for
uncovering the taken-for-granted conditions that
influence and promote the conventional leadership
role of the cooperating teacher. At the same time,
Nouwen's representation offers possibilities for re-
vealing ways in which hope is manifested in the
face of our multiple realities.
The following passages reveal the lived experi-
ence of three cooperating teachers regarding fostering
ways of being a student teacher, being with the
student teacher, and the experience of the relation-
ship; and, cooperating teachers as a compassionate
and authoritative leaders.
1 . As the articulator of inner events
As cooperating teachers explore their lived re-
alities within the practicum, a willingness to put
their own insecurities and hopes at the disposal of a
student teacher is uncovered. In what ways can and
do cooperating teachers articulate and share their
journey with student teachers in a continuing effort to
make sense of their experience as teacher, as
cooperating teacher, as person in the world? The
cooperating teacher's unfolding journey is offered as a
source of recognition and clarification of that student
teacher's own condition. In the shared theme, fos-
tering ways of being a student teacher, cooperating
teachers reclaim and share their lived reality. Here
is how some cooperating teachers expressed their
reality.
I like a student teacher who will sit down
and discuss and be open and deal with rela-
tionships .... getting them to see below the
surface . . . why (the students) are acting as
they are . . . Warn them . . . see kinds of
situations that teachers live in.. .why they
might act like they do.. .not to make
judgments.
Be flexible enough to say. .I'll step in here
and help.
Respect your students.
Hope and positiveness.
Helping them feel more confident.
Not sure s/he's... comfortable in my class. ..I
should be doing more to help develop a feel-
ing of being comfortable, taking over my
classes. ..I'm. ..puzzled. ..how I should be
doing this.
In the shared theme ways of being with the stu-
dent teacher cooperating teachers recapture and
reveal their own past for the student teacher. Sensi-
tivity to the student teacher's vulnerability is re-
flected in the cooperating teacher's way of being
involved with her/him in their shared reality as
expressed below.
They need a chance to talk and discuss and
not feel like you are always evaluating, cri-
tiquing them.
Give them support toward a positive
experience.. .set the situation so that when
they go out on their own, they can survive.
Understand how they feel if they are con-
cerned that they are not learning. That it is
ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/December, 1990 77
being a successful day, and things are going
right and that is what a teacher is all
about.
Cooperating teachers remain vulnerable. Daily
they see, hear, touch their uncertainties. In a mood
of anxiety and anticipation, they point the way to
channels through which student teachers can
discover themselves as teachers.
You feel like you just want to get in there
and ask the question.. .you stop and say.. .you
need to check with your (student) teacher.
As they (student teachers) get to various
stages of independence... you have to let the
apron strings go. And that can be hard.
They (students) need to learn to come to
her/him (student teacher) so that s/he gets
that student/teacher relationship. ..I have
to sort of pretend like I'm invisible.
Channels have boundaries while remaining
open. Palmer (1983) in To Know As We Are Known
proposes that a learning space has three dimensions:
openness, boundaries, and an air of hospitality. To
create space for learning is to allow ourselves room
for not knowing, for not having to be the expert with
all the answers. Not knowing can generate a positive
mood of anxiety toward an "adventure into the un-
known" (p. 72). In the shared theme entering the
experience, cooperating teachers reveal an openness
toward the experience.
It's a questioning.. .of yourself.
Why I'm a cooperating teacher.. .it's a chal-
lenge.
Sense of accomplishment.
You think a little bit differently when the
student teacher is around.
Sometimes it's difficult for a cooperating
teacher to provide open spaces for learning,
for the student teacher to emerge as teacher.
To let go of some of them (students) it may be
kind of hard. You have ones that maybe are
kind of special to you.
As a cooperating teacher, I'm very
protective of her/him, and if something
didn't go right, I'd be stepping in and
helping explain to the supervisor may be
why it didn't go right.
"The openness of a learning space is created by
the firmness of its boundaries" (Palmer, 1983, p. 72).
Without boundaries, a learning space is an invitation
to confusion. Cooperating teachers know this. An
undefined open space can at first be liberating;
however, it can become a fraught with difficulty
that can threaten and numb the student teacher's
confidence. Imposed boundaries can create
distractions. They can restrict the unique and
particular lived experience toward which the co-
operating teacher is pointing the student teacher.
I haven't used it very much. ..(the home eco-
nomics student teaching handbook). I
haven't got time for answering some of those
(questions). ..I'm not sure.. .as to whether I'm
being fair. Am I expecting too much or am I
not expecting enough in each one of those
categories?
Firm boundaries can offer security to a student
teacher who is experiencing tension that is inherent
in the struggle to emerge as teacher.
I will make suggestions in her/his journal. ..or
I'll ask her/him questions.
Why did it happen this way?
We have a daily conference.. .some days.. .10
minutes. ..other days a whole hour. I think
we can always try to improve.
When cooperating teachers articulate their own
lived experience, they can lead student teachers out
of that sense of confusion that often accompanies
entering a new place into a new self-realization and
new self-knowledge.
2. Compassion is the core of authority
The cooperating teacher as a leader has
particular responsibilities. These responsibilities
carry a measure of authority. In the lived world of
the cooperating teacher, let us look at two kinds of
authority, one evolving, one imposed.
An evolving authority calls for community and
solidarity, a standing in the midst of the student
teacher's struggles within her/his learning space. In
the classroom where an air of hospitality is present,
the cooperating teacher receives the student with
78 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1990
care and compassion. For the cooperating teacher
who is a leader with hope "a learning space needs to
be hospitable not to make learning painless but to
make the painful things possible" (Palmer, 1983, p.
74).
This is the time to try them out (teaching
techniques). ..when there is somebody there
that can help you out.
Lots of times when they come in after a class
the student teacher says, "Well, what do
you think?" or "How did that go?" That's
how we begin the discussion. What could
have been done differently, or what are our
possibilities as we look at this.
The authority that is imposed on the cooperating
teacher by those in charge of the practicum places an
emphasis on supervision and leadership to encourage
the student teacher to fit into the system, to master
appropriate content, and to develop skills in a
variety of teaching techniques. The cooperating
teacher now defined by another, voices
disillusionment in the shared theme suggestions for
the university supervisor. The question "will it make
a difference?" and the acceptance of "that's the way
it is, that's the way it's supposed to be" reveals the
human condition of "no longer knowing why we are
doing what we are doing" (van Manen, 1984, p. 26).
An evolving authority lives with hope. Leaders
with hope welcomes the invitation to allow "the
stranger" within themself, their student teachers,
and others to reveal its presence, to be called forth.
In the common event of "reexperiencing classroom
practice" the stranger is unveiled as a gentle
reminder of past practice while bringing to light new
possibilities.
Sometimes you get into a rut. ..student
teacher. ..want(s) to try a different
way. ..that may spur you on to make some
changes.
It does stir up some sense of "am I doing the
best job I can do?" I analyze my relationships
with the students. ..more.
I learned from her/his actions.
Concern that the stranger may overpower the co-
operating teacher and the student teacher, is voiced
in the common event "cooperating with the
university."
It's like s/he's coming to see what we're
doing. We need to do a great job.. .so that it
looks like you're doing a good job.
Like I am protecting her/him from her/his
supervisor.
The first time, I always kind of wonder what
they'll think.
Unmasking the stranger brings to light the possi-
bilities toward communication for those involved in
the practicum:
There needs to be some more collabora-
tion...feedback to the cooperating teacher.
Some interaction.. .as a group knowing we
are all in the same boat.
Being on campus with her/him.. .have not
just the supervising teacher/cooperating
teacher meeting... have the student teacher
there also.
Hearing what supervising teachers are say-
ing to student teachers as far as their expec-
tations go.
In the lived world of the cooperating teacher,
compassionate authority makes it possible to recog-
nize hope and possibilities. Compassionate
authority uncovers the cooperating teacher's
vulnerabilities and insecurities as teacher, as human
being. Recognition of "the stranger" in their own
midst as a source of freedom or repression reveals
persons who influence and are influenced, forgive,
and are forgiven.
3. As Contemplative Critic
The cooperating teacher as leader with hope is
not only articulate and compassionate, but can be a
contemplative critic as well. There is danger in
simply articulating and sharing personal struggles.
Mutual commiseration is not a source of hope and
possibility. The cooperating teacher who is a
contemplative critic is often an active, engaged
leader who can keep a certain distance so as not to
become absorbed in the most immediate, the most
urgent. Being present while standing back frees
student teachers to face their own insecurities, to
move beyond immediate satisfaction towards being
and becoming teachers.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/December, 1990 79
If it's going to be the best learning
experience it can be, they're going to
develop more from it.. .then they need to
suffer the consequences a little more.
I will start leaving her/him on her/his
own, so s/he has to stand on her/his own two
feet.
By not being in here, so I'm not so handy for
her/him.
As cooperating teachers actively engage in the
lived experience of the student teachers, they invite
unsettling questions that look behind the familiar,
the usual. For the cooperating teachers, risks are
revealed as a part of making sense of their reality.
Sometimes. ..you have to justify to
them. ..why you do certain things in a
curriculum, why you don't have this
particular class. ..maybe somebody else
thinks you should have.
Where they (the students) are talking out
and s/he doesn't do something with it. I'm
wondering, the question in my mind, "Was
the class like that when s/he came in
here?"
In what ways can cooperating teachers point the
student teachers beyond their immediate perfor-
mance towards more thoughtful action and what are
the constraints?
It takes more time to guide than it does to
tell.
If things are not going as s/he wanted
...what was the problem...what caused it.
We all started out trying to be buddy-
buddy...we have learned to be their friend,
we can be concerned about them, but we
cannot be their (the student's) best buddy.
We should communicate more by writing.
Maybe that's the answer when you don't
have time to sit down for a reflective type
discussion.
Cooperating teachers make visible in daily
events the fact that behind tensions and insecurities
are challenges and rewards, hope and possibility.
I found it hard because I thought s/he felt I
was coming down on her/him pretty
hard.. .the air had to be cleared, in order for
her/him to feel good about her/his student
teaching experience. And for me to feel good
about her/him being her/him.
There's little things every day that don't go
right...s/he is learning to handle those.
It's little things, just a word or even a
gesture that a student teacher can give you,
s/he may just even smile, when a student
gives her/him answer, or when something
happens or you have eye-contact or give
her/him a sign like, o.k.
Summary
In this article, I have used the voices of
cooperating teachers and my own to describe the
cooperating teacher as a leader reawakened with
hope in the midst of uncertainty and doubt. Such
leadership becomes possible precisely because
through their articulation of inner events
cooperating teachers can lead others from confusion
to clarification. As compassionate authorities,
they guide the student teachers out of the narrow
confines of the taken-for-granted roles into the wider
world of their own lived reality. Hope is manifested
in the face of their lived reality as cooperating
teachers break through the circle of immediate needs
and point the way towards student teachers being
and becoming "teachers."
References
Huebner, D. (1984). The search for religious
metaphors in the language of education.
Phenomenology + Pedagogy, 2 (2), 112-113.
Nouwen, H. (1979). The wounded healer. Garden
City, NY: Image Books.
Palmer, P. (1983). To know as we are known. New
York: Harper & Row.
van Manen, M. (1984). "Doing" phenomenological re-
search and writing: An introduction. Monographs
of the Department of Secondary Education Publi-
cations Curriculum Praxis, 7. Edmonton, Alberta:
University of Alberta. • • •
Be not afraid of going slowly, be only afraid of standing still.
Chinese Proverb
80 ILLINOIS TEACHER, November/ December, 1990
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GUIDELINES
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6. Submit articles anytime.
7. Editorial staff make the final decision about publication.
8. Please forward articles to:
Illinois Teacher
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, n c/j o.
'■O
U Volume XXXIV, No. 3
January/February, 1991
ILLINOIS TEACHER
Foreword, Mildred B. Griggs 81
The 1990 Home Economics Teachers of the Year,
Compiled by Sally Rousey and Linda Simpson 83
KIDS: What makes Them Tick, Ginny Klemann 95
Children in Action!, Ruth Wilson 96
The Washington Hospital Center Culinary Curriculum, Barbara Barbaccia 99
Parenting: Choice Not Chance, Linda Schroeder 101
Work Activities, Doris Jean Keller 103
Consumer and Family Studies, Gayle Erskine 104
After School Latchkey Program, Mary Jo Kohl 104
Career Exploration, Susie Cox 105
Money Management, Cathy Lobe 1 06
Infant/Toddler Developmental Program, Ozaree Twillie 106
Pre-Employment Lab Experience in Child Care, Merriott Terry 107
Live, Learn and Train: Home Economics with Alternatives, Joan H. Odom 108
Home Economics Teachers Can Be the Best Recruiters, Donnell Barton 110
Home Economics Students as Tutors for English as a Second Language,
Laura W. Bertelson and Frances M. Smith 112
A Holistic Perspective in Home Economics Curriculum, Gwen Blair Frazier 115
Parenting With A Plus, Ruth Brunton 117
Parenting For Responsible Behaviors, Ann K. Mullis and Ronald L. Mullis 120
Illinois Teacher of Home Economics
ISSN 0739-148X
A publication of the Division of Home Economics Education,
Department of Vocational and Technical Education,
College of Education, University of Illinois,
Champaign, Illinois 61820
Illinois Teacher Staff
Mildred Griggs, Professor and Editor
Norma Huls, Office Manager
June Chambliss, Technical Director
Sally Rousey, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Linda Simpson, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Other Home Economics Education Division Staff and Graduate
Students
Alison Vincent, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Volume XXXIV, No. 3, January/February, 1991. Pub-
lished five times each academic year. Subscriptions
$15.00 per year. Foreign, including Canada, $18.00 per
year. Special $10.00 per year ($12.00 Foreign) for un-
dergraduate and graduate students when ordering by
teacher educator on forms available from Illinois
Teacher office. Single copies $3.50. Foreign $4.00. All
checks from outside the U.S. must be payable through a
U.S. bank.
Address: ILLINOIS TEACHER
University of Illinois
347 Education Building
1310 S. Sixth Street
Champaign, IL 61820
Telephone: 217/244-0820
© 1991
Foreword
Good teachers deserve recognition from their peers and others. In this issue we give
recognition to the national and state winners of the American Home Economics
Association annual Teacher of the Year award contest. They personify our current
theme of "Home Economics Teachers as Leaders in the Workplace and Community."
We extend a hearty congratulations to them.
You may notice that there are less than fifty honorees. That is because in some
states, Association members did not participate in the Teacher of the Year award
program.
We hope that you will enjoy reading about these teachers' programs and views on
education. Perhaps some of you will be inspired to nominate yourself or another
excellent teacher for this award in the future.
In addition to the Teacher of the Year feature, this issue contains some articles on
recruiting, tutoring, curriculum content and teaching techniques that we think you will
find interesting and helpful. We encourage you to write articles about your good
curriculum ideas and success experiences to share with our readers.
The Editor
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1991 81
Joan Rice
Hockessin, Delaware
Ruth Ann Zaugg
Idaho Falls, Idaho
NATIONAL WINNER
Joan Hughes Odom
Miami, Florida
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Brenda Oakley Southwick
Cadiz, Kentucky
Barbara Barbaccia
Gaithersburg, Maryland
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Ruth Wilson (IA TOY)
Ft. Collins, Colorado
Elaine Racek
Colby, Kansas
Linda Madsen
Ham Lake, Minnesota
Amy Ashman
Albuquerque, New Mexico
Kay Mehas
Eugene, Oregon
82 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January /February, 1991
The 1990 Home Economics Teachers of the Year
Compiled by Sally Rousey and Linda Simpson
Illinois Teacher salutes the Home Economics
Teachers of the Year. Each year the American Home
Economics Association sponsors the Teacher of the
Year (TOY) award program. This is the 17th year
that the award has been given to outstanding home
economics teachers from different states. A primary
goal of the Teacher of the Year award is to increase
public recognition of the important contributions
home economics teachers make to their students,
their families and their communities. The winners
are recongnized for their outstanding contributions: to
the improvement of the quality of family life, to the
development of outstanding education programs,
teaching techniques and activities that might engage
other educators, and toward building community
awareness of home economics education. By recogniz-
ing these teachers and their programs, we are bene-
fiting the entire home economics profession.
Each year AHEA conducts a statewide search for
candidates to compete in the Home Economics
Teacher of the Year Awards Program. Each state
winner is considered in the final selection at AHEA
headquarters in Washington, DC, for the National
Teacher of the Year award. The 1990 national winner
was Joan Hughes Odom of Miami, Florida. The top
ten winners were: Joan Rice of Hockessin, Delaware;
Ruth Ann Zaugg of Idaho Falls, Idaho; Ruth Wilson
of Fort Collins, Colorado (Iowa TOY); Elaine Ptacek
of Colby, Kansas; Brenda Oakley Southwick of
Cadiz, Kentucky; Barbara Barbaccia of Gaithersburg,
Maryland; Linda Madsen of Ham Lake, Minnesota;
Amy Ashman of Albuquerque, New Mexico; and Kay
Mehas of Eugene, Oregon. Congratulations to this
years winners!
This year's national winner received $1,000 and
$500 toward expenses for the annual meeting. In
addition, all finalists received a TOY pin and
certificate.
ALABAMA
Linda W. Meadows
Alexander City, AL
Title: Exploratory, Home & Personal Manage-
ment, Basic, Advanced, & Family Living
/Housing
Focus: Career Awareness/Job Skill Training
ARIZONA
Betty Blaylock
Superior, AZ
Title: Global Connections
Focus: Nutrition Education/Diet & Health
(Note: Mrs. Blaylock passed away shortly after re-
ceiving the nomination.)
ARKANSAS
Ozaree Twillie
Forrest City, AR
Title: Infant/Toddler Developmental Program
Focus: Creative Dimensions/ Alternative Pro-
gram Designs
COLORADO TOP TEN
Gayle Gardner Erskine
Aurora, CO
Title: Consumer and Family Studies
Focus: Creative Dimensions/Alternative Pro-
gram Designs
CONNECTICUT
Marilyn Young Bishop
South Windsor, CT
Title: Fashion Design & Merchandising — Self-
Growth Through Creativity
Focus: Creative Dimensions/Alternative Pro-
gram Designs
DELAWARE TOP TEN
Joan R. Rice
Hockessin, DE
Title: Teaching Teen Mothers Nutrition
Focus: Nutrition Education/Diet and Health
FLORIDA NATIONAL WINNER
Joan Hughes Odom
Miami, FL
Title: Live, Learn and Train
Focus: Creative Dimensions/Alternative Pro-
gram Designs
IDAHO TOP TEN
Ruth Ann Zaugg
Idaho Falls, ID
Title: Consumer Homemaking and Teen Parent-
ing
Focus: Family Life/ Personal and Social Devel-
opment
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February 1991 83
ILLINOIS
Janet Ruth Chapman
Belvidere, IL
Title: JUST SAY WAIT, Parenting is Permanent
Focus: Family Life/Personal and Social Devel-
opment
IOWA
Ruth D. Wilson
Fort Collins, CO (on a one year sabbatical)
Title: Children in Action
Focus: Career Awareness/Job Skill Training
KANSAS TOP TEN
Elaine V. Ptacek
Colby, KS
Title: Nutrition and Fitness
Focus: Nutrition Education/Diet and Health
KENTUCKY TOP TEN
Brenda Oakley Southwick
Cadiz, KY
Title: "Building Tomorrow Today ... By
Strengthening Basic Skills"
Focus: Career Awareness/Job Skill Training
LOUISIANA
Marquerite Y. Anderson
Monroe, LA
Title: Adult Responsibilities
Focus: Family Life/Personal and Social Devel-
opment
MAINE
Pamela F. Smith
Jonesport, ME
Title: Babes From the Beginning
Focus: Family Life/Personal and Social Devel-
opment
MARYLAND TOP TEN
Barbara (Bobbi) L. Barbaccia
Gaithersburg, MD
Title: Culinary Arts/Washington Hospital
Center Culinary Curriculum
Focus: Nutrition Education/Diet and Health
MASSACHUSETTS
Cheryl L. Gucwa
Grafton, MA
Title: Independent Living and Life Skills
Focus: Family Life/Personal and Social Devel-
opment
MINNESOTA
Linda Madsen
Ham Lake, MN
TOP TEN
Title: History & Cultures
Focus: Creative Dimensions/Alternative Pro-
gram Designs
MISSISSIPPI
Gail Sumrall Baldwin
Monticello, MS
Title: Occupational Child Care - Classy Cubs
Day Care
Focus: Career Awareness/Job Skill Training
MISSOURI
Susie Cox
Columbia, MO
Title: Career Exploration
Focus: Career Awareness/Job Skill Training
MONTANA
Ginny Klemann
Manhattan, MT
Title: KIDS: What Makes Them Tick
Focus: Creative Dimensions/Alternative Pro-
gram Designs
NEBRASKA
Rose M. Kastl
Lincoln, NE
Title: Preparing for the World of Work and
Family
Focus: Creative Dimensions/Alternative Pro-
gram Designs
NEVADA
Sharon J. Tueller
Reno, NV
Title: Home and Career Skills - Who's in
Charge?
Focus: Career Awareness/Job Skill Training
NEW HAMPSHIRE
Deanna P. Rush
Pembroke, NH
Title: Children Are The Future
Focus: Career Awareness/Job Skill Training
NEW JERSEY
Lynn Bullock
Glassboro, NJ
Title: Nutrition in Sports and Wellness
Focus: Nutrition Education/Diet and Health
NEW MEXICO TOP TEN
Amy J. Ashman
Albuquerque, NM
Title: Entrepreneurship
Focus: Career Awareness/Job Skill Training
84 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1991
NORTH CAROLINA
Everlene Davis
Whiteville, NC
Title: MAPS (Male Awareness: Premarital
Sex)
Focus: Family Life/Personal and Social Devel-
opment
OHIO
Mary Jo Kohl
Defiance, OH
Title: After School Latchkey Program
Focus: Family Life/Personal and Social Devel-
opment
OKLAHOMA
Karla Eischen
Okarche, OK
Title: Family Living - Facing Realities
Focus: Family Life/Personal and Social Devel-
opment
OREGON TOP TEN
Kay Y. Mehas
Eugene, OR
Title: Food Science
Focus: Nutrition Education/Diet and Health
PENNSYLVANIA
Grace Ganter Anderson
Pittsburgh, PA
Title: Cooking Up A Storm ... Of Thought and
Action
Focus: Nutrition Education/Diet and Health
SOUTH CAROLINA
Dean H.. Lucas
Camden, SC
Title: Skills for Living
Focus: Family Life/Personal and Social Devel-
opment
SOUTH DAKOTA
Linda Schroeder
Scotland, SD
Title: Parenting: Choice or Chance
Focus: Family Life/Personal and Social Devel-
opment
TENNESSEE
Angela Alverson Cathey
Nashville, TN
Title: TOTS (Teens on Target, Infant Care Pro-
gram)
Focus: Creative Dimensions/Alternative Pro-
gram Designs
TEXAS
Merriott J. Terry
Spring, TX
Title: Pre-employment Lab Experience in Child
Care (Child Care and Guidance Manage-
ment and Service)
Focus: Career Awareness/Job Skill Training
UTAH
Sherry S. Heaps
Orem, UT
Title: Interior Design Visual Resources
Focus: Creative Dimensions/Alternative Pro-
gram Designs
VIRGINIA
Elizabeth W. Orndoff-Sayers
Annandale, VA
Title: Child Care Occupation/Child Develop-
ment Center
Focus: Career Awareness/Job Skill Training
WASHINGTON
Cathy Lobe
Spokane, WA
Title: Money Management
Focus: Consumer Education/ Family Finance
WEST VIRGINIA
Doris Jean Keller
Keyser, WV
Title: Work Activities
Focus: Creative Dimensions/Alternative Pro-
gram Designs
WISCONSIN
Sue Kruizenga
New Richmond, WI
Title: Family, Food and Society
Focus: Creative Dimensions/ Alternative Pro-
gram Designs
We, at Illinois Teacher, believe these outstand-
ing teachers have worthwhile ideas, opinions, and
experiences that we would like to share with you.
We surveyed the 39 Teachers of the Year and 32 state
awardees responded. The following are some of their
responses to our survey questions.
Why do you like being a teacher?
Linda Meadows — Alexander City, Alabama — "I
like teaching because it provides new experiences.
Each school year is like beginning a new chapter in
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February 1991 85
the book of life. Teachers get a new chance to be
better than the year before."
Ozaree Twillie — Forrest City, Arkansas — "I like to
be involved with young people. I like helping youth
to adapt to daily living and applying basic
principles. Being a teacher is an exciting and
rewarding experience. I like meeting people and
sharing my experiences with them."
Gayle Gardner Erskine — Aurora, Colorado — "I love
being a teacher because I have had the privilege to
share in the lives of so many terrific young people."
Joan Rice — Hockessin,
Delaware — "I like the inter-
action with students. I like
the feeling that my classes
are filling a need of the stu-
dents."
Joan Rice
Joan Odom — Florida TOY —
"Teaching is a very honorable
profession that affords one the
opportunity to serve others.
During my twenty-five year
career, I've been able to help
make a difference in the lives
of many. Really, is there
anything that can be more
rewarding?"
Joan Odom
Janet Chapman — Belvidere, Illinois — "I feel the
greatest satisfaction when I can provide information
or guidance to a young person that helps them reach
their potential, and be able to lead a happy
productive life."
Ruth Wilson— Fort Collins, Colorado (Iowa TOY)—
"I enjoy the challenge of working with today's
youth and hope that I will have a positive effect on
their lives."
Elaine Ptacek — Colby, Kansas — "I love the
everyday challenges, teaching by doing, working
with our future leaders, and watching them grasp
new ideas and assume leadership roles."
Brenda Southwick — Cadiz, Kentucky — "Next to
parenting, teaching is the most important job anyone
can hold. I like teaching because I love working
with young people, helping them feel good about
themselves, and helping them learn they can
succeed and be an important part of today's society."
Linda Madsen — Ham Lake, Minnesota — "It's
always changing, never boring, and fast paced. I
feel I am making a positive contribution to our
society by being a teacher."
Susie Cox — Columbia, Mis-
souri— "It gives me an oppor-
tunity to provide a "safe" en-
vironment for students to try
new things without fear of
failure. I also like being a
teacher because of the kids
and their enthusiasm!"
Susie Cox
Gail S. Baldwin — TOY Mississippi — "I like teaching
because I love to see a student light up when the
pieces come together after knowledge and skills have
been taught. It becomes a challenge at times, but one I
find exciting."
Ginny Klemann — Manhattan,
Montana — "I like being a
teacher because it gives me
the opportunity to make a
difference in the lives of some
of my students. I like that
challenge. I love the reward
of having students tell me
after they have graduated
that I have made a difference
or taught them something
that they value."
Ginny Klemann
Sharon Tueller — Reno, Nevada — "I like to see stu-
dents eyes light up when they know they have just
learned something they can use."
Lynn Bullock — Glassboro, New Jersey — "It is very
rewarding to see students gain useful knowledge and
put it into practice."
Amy Ashman — Albuquerque, New Mexico — "I think
it is exciting to be a teacher. Truthfully, that ex-
citement may not remain constant or always be posi-
tive, but it is fun to teach. I enjoy the personal chal-
lenge and subsequent personal growth I experience
from trying new ideas, failing at some, while suc-
ceeding at many."
Mary Jo Kohl — Defiance, Ohio — "I enjoy teaching
children and young adults because they are inquisi-
tive and interested in the world around them."
86 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1991
Karla Eischen — Okarche, Oklahoma — "Teaching is
very rewarding and satisfying. It gives me the op-
portunity to see each student have the satisfaction
of contributing to today's society. It is such a chal-
lenge to prepare students to meet the demands and
changes affecting the family in today's society."
Dean Lucas — Camden, South
Carolina — "Teaching
touches the lives of young
people. Teaching important
life skills helps prepare
these young people for roles
in families, which are the
backbone of our American so-
ciety."
Dean Lucas
Linda Schroeder — Scotland,
South Dakota — "I enjoy the
day to day challenges and ex-
citement of working with
teens. The rewards of teach-
ing are to see the students'
personal growth, and through
them have an effect on the
future."
Linda Schroeder
Angie Cathey — Nashville, Tennessee — "I enjoy the
challenge of working with the students especially
because I know that I am teaching them skills
which are vital for them to have a mentally and
physically happy life."
Merriott Terry — Spring,
Texas — "A teacher enables
students to be pathfinders. I
like being a guide for youth!
A guide arranges learning or
is the facilitator of learn-
ing."
Merriott Terry
Cathy Lobe — Spokane, Washington — "I like help-
ing people, especially those on the threshold to
adulthood. I love what I do. I care about the well-
being of teens. I want to be a positive part of their
lives."
Doris Jean Keller — Keyser, West Virginia —
"Working with students, getting to know them indi-
vidually, and observing their growth is the best
part of teaching."
Sue Kruizenga — New Rich-
mond, Wisconsin — "I love
working with the students!
Keeping in touch with their
lives and watching them
grow and change as people
brings me many personal re-
wards, and I often make life-
time friendships that con-
tinue to add to my life."
Sue Kruizenga
If you were choosing your career again, would you be
a home economics teacher?
Linda Meadows — AL TOY — "I would choose to be a
home economics teacher again because I know of no
better background for life than a degree in home
economics."
Janet Chapman — TOY IL — "Yes, because I feel that
our teaching is not limited to subject matter facts
that can only be used by some students, but is life
skills that are used by all students."
Ruth Wilson— IA TOY— "Definitely! In home
economics we have a variety of content areas,
therefore, a continual change is taking place within
the home economics curricula."
Elaine Ptacek— TOY KS—
"Yes, home economics is the
most practical, relative life
learning career possible."
Elaine Ptacek
Brenda Southwick — KY TOY — "Yes, no other field
offers one the opportunity to reach so many aspects
of life in such an enjoyable way. The unlimited
opportunities are there and working to meet them is
a challenge that reaps loads of rewards."
Barbara Barbaccia — Montgomery Village,
Maryland — "Absolutely! Combining my love of
teaching, cooking, and catering makes my daily life
so much fun. I cannot believe it is work."
Susie Cox — MO TOY — "Yes, probably so because
home economics is ever changing and the curriculum
has immediate impact on the individual and
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/February 1991 87
family. The needs are so diverse for living in
today's world, and we are the discipline that can
help students prepare for the diversity."
Ginny Klemann — TOY MT — "Definitely. Home
economics is such an exciting field. Although it is
sometimes difficult to keep up with all the changes,
it is really exciting to teach in such a changing field.
Home economics is the most important subject matter
that a student can learn."
Amy Ashman — NM TOY — "Certainly, I would
choose to be a home economist. I feel so strongly that
I am helping my kids lead better lives. If I didn't
believe in home economics, I couldn't justify working
as a home economics teacher."
Mary Jo Kohl— TOY OH—
"Yes, I would choose to be a
home economics teacher
because this area allows so
much flexibility in teaching
young people. You are able
to talk to the students and
help them understand the
issues that they will be
facing. Also, with the many
changing facets of home
economics one can change
topic areas year after year."
Mary Jo Kohl
Kay Mehas — Eugene, OR — "Yes, it provides such a
diverse background from which a person can
specialize and be creative."
Grace Ganter Anderson — TOY
PA— "Absolutely! The only
thing I would change is the
position home economics
holds in our educational
system. I'd like to see it
become one of the core
courses."
Grace G. Anderson
Dean Lucas — SC TOY — "Yes, because I believe that
a strong America, the hope of our world, depends on
a strong family structure."
Linda Schroeder — SD TOY — "Yes, I feel comfortable
with my career choice. I enjoy teaching home eco-
nomics because it provides the needed opportunity
for teenagers to express their concerns in personal
and family development."
Doris Jean Keller — WV
TOY— "Definitely, I would
choose to be a home eco-
nomics teacher again. I am
extremely proud of my pro-
fession and the impact it
has on people. I believe this
will continue to be a criti-
cally important profession."
Doris Jean Keller
Sue Kruizenga — WI TOY — "It is definitely an
indescribable feeling to see students' faces when
they make connections between classroom learning
and real life situations. It is like watching one
gigantic puzzle being put together with students
grasping ideas and trying to piece together in their
life."
What did it mean to you to be a teacher of the year?
Linda Meadows — TOY AL — "Being teacher of the
year has given me that extra encouragement to try
even harder to be the best because I wanted to live
up to the title."
Ozaree Twillie — AR TOY — "TOY is indeed an
esteemed honor for me to be a winner in this type of
competition. Setting goals and being able to achieve
them is a very satisfying accomplishment. I take
great pride in representing home economics teachers
of Arkansas on the state and national levels as
TOY."
Janet Chapman — TOY IL — "I felt that I was chosen
to represent the best from all of the individuals that
have contributed to my education and teaching
experiences. This includes my parents, my teachers,
fellow teachers, and administrators. To be selected
by your peers is the greatest honor."
Ruth Wilson — IA TOY — "I was extremely proud to
represent my state and the profession. I had
admired the home economics teachers and coworkers
who were previously teachers of the year."
Elaine Ptacek — KS TOY — "I was honored to be
selected and very proud to represent Kansas home
economic teachers. My fellow peers have given me
so much these last 17 years, it's my turn to give."
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1991
Barbara Barbaccia — TOY
MD — "It was a great thrill to
be honored in such a way. It
made me realize the impor-
tance of my program, as well
as the impact it has had on
the students and community."
Barbara Barbaccia
Linda Madsen — MN TOY — "It is an honor to be
recognized by my peers in home economics and by the
staff in my school and district. It was positive for
me personally, as well as for our entire junior high
home economics staff in our district in that our work
is recognized and respected."
Gail S. Baldwin — Mississippi TOY — "It's a
wonderful honor to be chosen by your peers as
Teacher of the Year. It not only gives me
recognition, but recognition to all former and present
students, my school, and community."
Rose Kastl — NE TOY — "It is a very exciting and
humbling experience. I do not feel that I am a better
teacher than most other home economics teachers,
but that I represent those teachers. I am hopeful
that I can be a good representative!"
Deanna P. Rush — TOY NH — "It's a great honor to be
selected by my colleagues for this recognition. I
work very hard to be a good teacher and it's nice to
know my effort is appreciated. I really felt honored
when one of my students brought in a news clipping
about my TOY selection, and she told me she was
going to put it in her scrapbook."
Lynn Bullock— NJ TOY— "I
was extremely honored and
overwhelmed. There are so
many good home economics
teachers in the state that I
never expected it."
Lynn Bullock
Amy Ashman — NM TOY — "Being named teacher of
the year by my colleagues is wonderful because it
does so much to validate my work as a professional.
As all teachers experience burnout, awards like this
do so much to put out the fire out! In addition to
personal validation, recognition of this sort helps
other teachers, other administrators, and the public
to see the validity and worth of our programs."
Mary Jo Kohl — TOY OH — "Being named teacher of
the year was a great honor especially since my peers
were the ones to select me. I think all home
economics teachers offer many excellent projects and
activities to their students. To be chosen teacher of
the year is an honor I will always cherish."
Karla Eischen— TOY OK—
"Being teacher of the year,
gives you the overwhelming
sensation to become even better
and to go even farther. It is
very motivating and a
tremendous honor. I was
nominated for teacher of the
year by one of my former
students. That in itself was an
honor."
Karla Eichen
Merriott Terry— TOY TX— "I was elated at the
opportunity to share our program ideas with others.
Most of all, the honor helped me reach one of my
goals as a teacher: to be able to enrich the lives of
youth and in so doing, both lives have been changed
because we have walked those miles together."
Cathy Lobe— TOY WA— "I
felt extremely proud because,
to me the award means
recognition by others in my
profession that I am making a
difference."
Cathy Lobe
Sue Kruizenga — WI TOY — "It is wonderful to be
recognized for something that I have always
believed in strongly and tried to convey the
importance of home economics to my students, their
parents, and the community as a whole."
What do feel is the most important contribution to
society as a teacher?
Linda Meadows — TOY AL — "My most important
contribution to society as a teacher is influencing
young people to be problem solvers in society rather
than a problem for society."
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February 1991 89
Ozaree Twillie
Ozaree Twillie— AR TOY— I
feel my most important contri-
butions as a teacher are,
"Being a role model, helping
youth to be able to make wise
choices in life, being a leader
in home economics education,
teaching employable skills,
and teaching personal and in-
terpersonal living skills."
Joan Rice — TOY DE — My most important contribu-
tion as a teacher is, "Raising the self-esteem of some
of my students."
Ruth Ann Zaugg — ID TOY — "I work to shape lives
and give my students skills that will help them
succeed as an adult."
Janet Chapman — TOY IL — My most important
contributions as a teacher are, "My willingness to
'never give up' on a student or project, my willingness
to accept change, try new ideas, and listen to student
needs and concerns."
Elaine Ptacek — KS TOY — I feel by most important
contribution as a teacher is, "My energy level and
creative thinking skills which keep me changing
courses and adding new challenges for my students."
Brenda Southwick — TOY KY — My most important
contribution as a teacher is, "The desire to do my
best, no matter what it takes; and very often it takes
lots of time, energy, and family sacrifice. I feel that
I am willing to go the extra mile, to be a caring
person and to always do my best. My mother always
said, 'no matter what you do, give it your best.'"
Linda Madsen— MN TOY—
"My expectations for my
students are high and I want
them to work to their
potential. I also truly like
and respect junior high
students for whom they are.
Junior high can be a difficult
time for all students and I
feel that I am their
advocate."
Linda Madsen
Barbara Barbaccia — TOY MD— I feel my most
important contribution as a teacher is, "To be able to
help train our youth to be productive members of
society and to enjoy what they are doing."
Susie Cox — TOY MO — My most important
contribution as a teacher is, "To help build a sense of
community among our young people and let them
know someone cares. I am able to reach out to my
students daily to encourage them to build on their
good qualities and to excite them about learning and
life."
Ginny Klemann — TOY MT — "I think my greatest
contribution is working with students both in the
classroom and in extracurricular activities in such a
manner that reinforces the importance of growing up
to be a worthwhile, contributing person in our
society."
Rose Kastl — NE TOY — "I think it involves shaping
the lives of our young by teaching them the basics
about our culture and also by teaching them to think
and question so that our society can continue to
evolve and improve with each generation."
Lynn Bullock — TOY NJ — I feel my most important
contribution as a teacher is, "My ability to
communicate to the students and community the
importance of all facets of home economics."
Mary Jo Kohl — OH TOY — "My most important
contribution to society is to show young people that
the family is a major concern for today. In class we
discuss the many family issues that arise and help
students through practical reasoning find solutions
that will best help them to deal with a specific
issue."
Kay Mehas — TOY OR — I feel my most important
contribution is "The modeling of communication
skills and interpersonal skills. Students need role
models and heroes in this mechanical age and
teachers can provide that. They can also inspire
and promote self-esteem in all their students."
Karla Eischen — TOY OK — "I encourage each of my
students to grow and reach inside themselves to
unlock doors of opportunity. I teach my students
that the most important resource they have is what
lies inside each of them and they can become what
they want to be."
Dean Lucas — SC TOY — "One of my main goals as a
teacher has been to be a role model for the students.
I teach setting good examples for a well-rounded,
healthy lifestyle."
Linda Schroeder — TOY SD — "As a teacher I can be a
resource for my students' needs and the needs they
will have in the future. I can influence my students
to become respected citizens and family members."
90 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1991
Angie Cathey— TN TOY— "I
feel that I have made a
difference in many of the
students' lives which I have
known. I feel that I have a
great working rapport with
students and feel that this is
one of my greatest strengths
as a teacher."
Angie Cathey
Merriott Terry — TOY TX — "I feel my most important
contribution as a teacher is to enable young people to
develop positive self-concepts so that they can set
goals and attain them."
Cathy Lobe — WA TOY — "My most important
contribution to society as a teacher is helping teens
to be successful in what they choose to do. Giving
them skills to think intelligently and to make good
decisions for life."
Doris Jean Keller — TOY WV — "My contribution to
society as a teacher is to assist students so that they
develop problem solving and decision making skills.
A student then has the ability to use available
resources to improve individual and family life."
How do you keep from getting out-of-date, bored,
unenthusiastic, tired of it all?
Gayle Erskine— CO TOY—
"I'm a perpetual student and
love learning. Each year I go
back and take classes. These
classes inspire me to be a risk-
taker and to try new ideas in
the classroom."
Gayle Erskine
Ruth Ann Zaugg — TOY ID — "I attend workshops,
conventions, read professional journals, watch for
creative ideas and work with enthusastic people."
Elaine Ptacek — TOY KS — "I'm always looking for
ideas for new courses, visiting with peers at
meetings, and surveying the students on new courses
they would like to see offered."
Susie Cox — MO TOY — "Change is the key for me, I
don't teach the same thing the same way each year
but evaluate curriculum to maintain relevant
content. I also work with adults through inservice
Gail S. Baldwin
for the district on effective instruction. Networking
through professional organizations is an excellent
way to keep current and innovative in home
economics."
Ginny Klemann— TOY MT— "I love to take
workshops and classes to keep updated. That
always fires me up. We also have a state home
economics educators network, which meets a couple
times a year. My favorite part of the network is
exchanging ideas. One other opportunity that keeps
me enthused is supervising student teachers.
Working with a new teacher with lots of new ideas
is always refreshing."
Gail S. Baldwin— TOY Mis-
sissippi— "Like a lot of
teachers, I am active in pro-
fessional and community or-
ganizations. I also attend
courses at the university,
workshops, conferences, and
etc. But mainly, I have
learned to follow the lead of
my students. If they are con-
cerned about a particular is-
sue, I find it's usually current
and they are enthusiastic and
eager to learn, therefore,
their energy motivates me to
continue and keep going
while at the same time enjoy-
ing it."
Amy Ashman— NM TOY— "I
rarely do the same thing the
same way twice. I try very
hard to look for new and
interesting things to do, not
only for my own sake but for
my students. The nature of
the Entrepreneurship is such
that the kids make decisions
for their own companies, so
that no two classes are ever
alike. I do get bored doing
the same thing over and over,
so I spend summers and other
vacation time looking for
other ideas."
Amy Ashman
Karla Eischen — TOY OK — "I continue to keep going
back to school to keep from getting out-of-date. I
have become very actively involved in my state an
national teacher associations and that keeps me
enthusiastic."
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February 1991 91
Merriott Terry — TX TOY — "When one takes
advantage of the state and national conferences,
there is the opportunity to get that 'shot in the
arm'. It is always a boost when returning graduates
share with you the areas of teaching that have
made a difference in their lives."
Sue Kruizenga — TOY WI — "Never allow yourself
not to try a new idea! Even though your head or your
gut tells you differently. ..don't be afraid to ask
other teachers for help or share ideas with them.
Every night before you go to sleep, force yourself to
list three successes that occurred in school that
day."
If you could give new teachers one sentence of advice,
what would it be?
Ozaree Twillie — AR TOY — advises new teachers to,
"Like what you teach, be flexible, and be receptive
to change."
Gayle Erskine — TOY CO — offers this advice, "Keep
a sense of humor! Laugh at yourself often."
Ruth Ann Zaugg— TOY ID—
"The way may not be smooth
and easy but when you watch
for the special moments or
touch a life it makes the
rewards great."
Ruth Ann Zaugg
Janet Chapman — IL TOY — suggests, "Don"t get so
caught up in your course content that you fail to have
time for getting to really know your students as
individuals and understand their needs. I've had
many students come back and talk about when I
helped them with a problem that allowed them to
stay in school or let them get angry without
removing them from class, but rarely have they
discussed the food preparation or the stitches they
learned."
Barbara Barbaccia — TOY MD — advises new
teachers to, "Give your students the same respect
that you want from them. A little goes a long way!"
Susie Cox — MO TOY — gives the following advice,
"Don't be afraid to show your enthusiasm for home
economics; if you don't believe in your program, no
one else will."
Brenda Southwick— KY TOY
— says, "The challenge is
great; give it 100 percent and
you'll get more than that
back."
Brenda Southwick
Sharon Tueller — TOY NV — advises, "Love your
students no matter what they do."
Amy Ashman — NM TOY — states that, "Although
not all teaching days are successful, others have the
potential to be absolutely wonderful, if you will
always remember to keep on trying, because the T
can do it' attitude is essential for overall success."
Kay Mehas — TOY OR — gives the following advice
to new teachers, "Use your personal strengths and
look to the future!!"
Dean Lucas — SC TOY — advises new teachers to,
"Know your students, show concern for them and
help them feel good about themselves by
experiencing success."
Describe any innovative programs or curriculum
topics that you have found to be successful.
Gayle Erskine — CO TOY — "I love interdisciplinary
teaming. I've teamed with foreign language, social
studies, technical education, health, art, and the
school nurse!"
Janet Chapman — TOY IL — "My most recent program
on 'Parenting Is Permanent, Just Say Wait',was
successful. My students had to research the topic
and then present it to the entire student body. It was
successful in two main ways: 1. supplied information
on teenage parents and their babies. 2. allowed my
class to feel good about themselves and improve
their self-confidence in their abilities."
Elaine Ptacek — TOY KS — An innovative program
that I found successful is "Nutrition and Fitness-an
aerobic exercise and wellness course. We exercise
three days a week and study all aspects of nutrition
the other two days. We do a fitness profile on
students at the beginning and end of the course,
including cholesterol screenings and also use field
92 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1991
Ruth Wilson
trips, scavenger hunts, speakers, etc. It's exciting
and students are very concerned about their health."
Ruth Wilson— IA TOY—
"Curriculum sharing may be
the concept for the future.
Thus, look at what your
school is currently teaching
and possibly do some team
teaching. Ankeny, Iowa has
a course called 'Living on
Your Own' which is team
taught with industrial tech-
nology. I wrote a proposal for
a sex equity grant, then helped develop the curricu-
lum for the course."
Susie Cox — MO TOY — "Cooperative learning has
been so exciting along with using critical thinking
skills to expand the classroom environment. With
cooperative learning you get the opportunity to
interact with students on a different plane; you are a
facilitator and students are the teachers for each
other."
Ginny Klemann — TOY MT — suggests four successful
programs, "1. KIDS: What Makes Them Tick-a
preschool program where students have hands-on
experience in the child care area. 2. Food Service
Co-op for Disadvantaged Students-students learned
about all types of food service jobs and worked in
food service jobs in the community. 3. Special Needs
Home Economics-a self-esteem and basic life skills
program for students with special needs. 4.
Welcome to Reality Unit-part of the adult living
class-students make a budget and learn to live with
it."
Rose Kastl— NE TOY— "The
new Nebraska Base Curricu-
lum for Family Focused Sec-
ondary Home Economics is
certainly one of the newest
and innovative programs
that I know of. I have also
used curriculum materials
from Wisconsin, Minnesota,
and Ohio successfully in the
classroom. The Lincoln Public
Schools curriculum guides are
the main source of curriculum materials for me. They
are sold nation-wide and have been used by many
teachers in out-state Nebraska and by teachers in
other states as well.
The University of Nebraska Department of Con-
sumer Science and Education has offered several
workshops on teaching reading and writing,
Rose Kastl
cooperative learning, teaching broad concepts, and
critical thinking and practical reasoning that have
been very helpful. I have not used any commercial
materials that I can readily name but I like many of
the new textbooks and materials developed by
companies for home economics that are incorporating
critical thinking and practical reasoning."
Sharon Tueller— NV TOY—
"I apply the decision mak-
ing/problem solving process
to all the traditional hands-
on homemaking activities."
Sharon Tueller
Amy Ashman — MN TOY — "I have never felt as
successful as I have since I have adopted
Entrepreneurship as my curriculum. All content
areas of home economics can be incorporated into
this true life skills program."
Karla Eischen — TOY OK — "In teaching the process
of aging as part of the life cycle, students draw from
the situation cup for a simulated handicap such as
blindfolded, ears stopped up, confined to a
wheelchair, on crutches, wearing gloves, etc. The
students then spend the day with the simulated
handicap to comprehend some of the frustrations the
elderly feel from declining physical capacities."
Merriott Terry — TX TOY — "At the national meeting
I will be conducting a workshop on positive self-
concept for high school students. The materials I use
are a culmination of state and national conference
materials that have worked for me and my students.
This year our theme was xyou are good stuff! What
fun!! Texas Education Association (TEA) made a
videotape of this teaching unit for publication.
Videos are available from the Home Economics
Curriculum Center at Texas Tech University."
Please list any resource materials that have been
particularly helpful to you.
Joan Rice — TOY DE — suggests the following resource
material: "Dairy Council — nutrition speakers and
materials; March of Dimes - videos, posters, and
literature; Center for Science in the Public Interest -
posters; and American Dietetics Association
materials."
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/February 1991 93
Linda Meadows — AL TOY —
"Attending the 1990 Ameri-
can Home Economics Associ-
ation meeting in San Antonio
provided many resource ma-
terials that will be helpful
to me during the coming
school year."
Linda Meadows
Janet Chapman
Janet Chapman— IL TOY— "I
use Choices magazines because
the students enjoy reading the
articles. I have also found
"Sunburst, Real People" series
to be very helpful and
appealing to the students. I
participated in the VIP
program when I first started
teaching fashion merchandis-
ing and I believe it made the
difference between
the textbook teacher and a teacher that could share
information with confidence and creativity."
Ruth Wilson— TOY IA— "I have found excellent
resource materials developed by the commodity
groups - Beef, Pork, Dairy, and Egg Councils."
Elaine Ptacek— KS TOY— states that the "Dairy
Council has numerous tapes, films, and workbook
materials. (Additionally) IMS - University of
Utah has a variety of excellent video tapes on
health, nutrition, and wellness for a small rental
fee."
Linda Madsen — TOY MN — suggests that, "The
Population Reference Bureau in Washington, DC is
an excellent source of information when focusing on
global education."
Susie Cox — MO TOY — "An outstanding curriculum
for middle/junior high school is Comprehensive
Guide for Exploratory Home Economics Programs by
Joan Hansen, Instructional Materials Laboratory,
University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri. The
National Dairy Council curriculum materials are
always great and Mary Thompson, St. Louis Dairy
Council representative, is excellent at inservicing on
the use of the materials."
Grace Ganter Anderson — TOY PA — states, "My best
resource is other enthusiastic teachers. In addition,
I write for any curriculum I hear about that is
recommended."
Sue Kruizenga — TOY WI — recommends, "A Guide to
Curriculum Planning in Home Economics - Wisconsin
Department of Public Instruction."
Deanna P. Rush— NH TOY—
"As a vocational child care
services teacher, I particu-
larly like Day Care & Early
Education (Human Sciences
Press, Inc.) and Lollipop
Magazine (Good Apple
Press). I also like many of
the Delmar Press books, espe-
cially Creative Activities
For Young Children."
/ i
Deanna P. Rush
1991 TEACHER OF THE YEAR AWARE PROGRAM
Who is eligible for the TOY Award Program?
Eligibility
Any individual is eligible who is a home economics
teacher, grades K through 12 only. The award may also be
given a second time to an individual for outstanding
contributions different than that for which the first award
was given.
Nominations
Nominations may be submitted by any individual or
organization using the 1991 nomination procedures and
forms available from the state Home Economics
Association's Teacher of the Year Chair or through the
AHEA Foundation office. Each state may submit one
nomination for the national competition. All entries must
be postmarked by March 1, 1991.
Basis for Selection
Some of the selection criteria are:
• Pertinence and timeliness of program for the
community/population it serves;
• Innovation/creativity;
• Impact on students' lives beyond the classroom;
• Integration of other related subject matter with home
economics subject matter;
• Heightened visibility of the home economics concepts;
and
• Professional commitment.
The program focus areas may be selected from any of
the following:
• Career Awareness /Job Skill Training
• Consumer Education/Family Finance
• Creative Dimensions/Alternative Program Designs
• Family Life/Personal and Social Development
• Nutrition Education/Diet and Health
94 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/February, 1991
tt
KIDS: What Makes Them Tick
Ginny Klemann
Teacher of the Year
Montana
A preschool/playschool/nursery school unit in
child development not only provides an excellent
hands-on learning experience for your students, but is
also a super public relations project for home eco-
nomics in general. I would like to share some ideas
with you of how I set up my preschool unit. My class
is a semester class for juniors and seniors, titled
"KIDS: What Makes Them Tick."
Program Goals and Objectives
The objective of the KIDS is to prepare students
for opportunities with children, whether that be as
a parent or an employee in some area of child devel-
opment. I try to keep current and make the classes I
teach as interesting as possible. My classes involve a
lot of individualized instruction, where I encourage
students to strive to be their best. I ultimately try to
develop the whole student.
The following are the goals of the program. The
student shall:
5.
6.
7.
9.
study pregnancy and good prenatal care;
learn about physical, social, emotional and in-
tellectual development of children from birth to
age 5;
be exposed to information about child abuse and
neglect and what can be done about it;
demonstrate their understanding of the cost of
having and raising a child by completing the
necessary project;
visit local preschool/daycare centers to learn
about what is involved in setting up a center;
study clothing and toy selections for children;
explore different styles of parenting;
investigate the possibilities of career options in
the child development area;
have the opportunity to actually set up a
preschool for children in the community.
Organizing a Preschool for the Classroom
The first several weeks of the semester, students
learn about prenatal care, the cost of having and
raising a child, the physical, social, and emotional
development of the preschooler, as well as disci-
pline and child abuse. Students visit various day
care centers and preschool s to learn how they oper-
ate. Students then have the opportunity to set up
their own preschool.
Our class met first period in the morning. We set
our day care up in three segments — two year olds,
three year olds, and four or five not yet in school.
Each segment lasted three weeks, with the
preschoolers attending three days per week. The
other two days of the week were used for planning
and preparing activities for the class. Later in the
quarter, we changed to one planning day per week
and had guest speakers come in the other "planning"
day each week to talk on their philosophy of par-
enting. We used our local newspaper to inform the
community about our project. The response was over-
whelming. We had a total of 22 preschoolers in
attendance.
After proposing the idea to the principal, we
had to obtain approval from our school insurance car-
rier. When we had the okay, we set forth with our
plans. We chose to have four learning stations — art
I, art II, science and math. In addition, we had an
activity for the children as they arrived, story or
group time, and snack time. My students (I had 22 in
this class) were assigned as teacher, helper, snack,
story or observer. I set up a schedule and rotated
them through the assigned duties. Teachers and
helpers worked together to plan their activity sta-
tion, had me approve their activity and then
prepared materials for the activity. Snack people
were responsible for planning and preparing a
nutritious snack (at least two food groups) appropri-
ate for the age level. Group time people had to plan
a story, puppet show, finger play, game or activity
for the students. Observers were responsible for the
activity that the students did when they first ar-
rived, as well as observing and filling out an evalua-
tion form for one preschooler of their choice.
Time Schedule:
8:30 - 8:35 preschoolers arrived and did observer
activity
8:35 - 8:42 station 1
(Continued on page 98.)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/February 1991 95
tt
Children in Action!
Ruth Wilson
Teacher of the Year
Iowa
Children in Action! Students in Ankeny High
School are familiar with that course name. As the
name suggests, students have the opportunity to be-
come involved in the action of young children.
Would you like to work with children in their natu-
ral settings? This is the question being answered by
junior and senior students as they register for classes
each year.
Children in Action is a course which was devel-
oped ten years ago as Ankeny Community School
District's answer to the occupational program. At
that time it was felt that the community would not
support an occupational program; however, there
were many young people who wanted to have an op-
portunity to work with children of different ages
and needs. The students do not receive any payment
for their services; however, they do earn two credits
and the opportunity to learn about and experience
different types of child related careers. Enrollment
varies from 14 to 24 students.
One prerequisite for Children in Action is the
completion of a parenthood class where students get
a background in child growth and development. In
the parenthood class, the semester is spent in
preparation for the challenging career of parenting.
Guest speakers from one of the preschools discusses
with the students the qualifications necessary to
become a preschool teacher. The students also are
assigned to a preschool for two days where they
work with children. This builds an interest in the
students to further their experiences of working with
children.
In Children in Action, students have an opportu-
nity to work in day care centers; preschools; elemen-
tary schools (K-6); various special needs programs
such as learning disabilities, emotionally and be-
haviorally disturbed, handicapped class with in-
tegration (SCIN), mental disabilities, and
preschool handicapped; and in specials areas like
music, physical education, and art.
Students must discuss their anticipated career
goals, and then rank their choices of where they
would like to be placed. Next the students are
matched with available classroom openings. The
student may want to work with a specific teacher or
in a certain school. It is preferable to have the
students placed in grades three or lower; however,
some students have requested the higher grades.
One student asked to be placed with a sixth grade
teacher she knew personally. In a visitation the
teacher responded, "Debbie has never seemed to
enjoy school or do well. In the elementary classroom,
she relates so well with the children and is a great
help to me. I think she has finally found her niche!"
On occasion, a student who would like to experi-
ence three placements for different types of child in-
teraction. Susan was speaking to the local Rotary
Club about the Children in Action class and told
them:
My first assignment was in a preschool, where 1
was certain I had found my calling. My second
placement was the special needs classroom for
emotionally and behaviorally disturbed. I was
extremely uneasy as I walked into the class-
room, but one of the boys came to me and said
'May I take your coat'. The students treated me
with respect and cooperated with all I asked
them to do. My third assignment was a second
grade classroom. My mind changed again as I de-
cided to pursue a career as an elementary class-
room teacher.
Today Susan is in the work and family dual role of
elementary teacher and mother.
It has been very interesting the number of
students who desire to be in a class for emotionally
and behaviorally disturbed children. Those are
usually the students who might anticipate working
with juvenile delinquents or in criminal justice. One
student decided at the end of the semester that she
did not mind the "challenging children" but would
much prefer to work with those who were older.
One of the students requested to help with music
since she was planning on majoring in music and was
extremely active in the high school music and
96 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1991
drama department. Jill took all the different in-
struments she played to the elementary school and
demonstrated how to play them for the children.
She also involved three of her friends in a major
project which included all the students in her ele-
mentary school. Jill knew how to use sign language.
She and her friends taught the children how to sign
the song "Love in Different Languages". It was one of
the most touching activities ever completed in the
elementary school.
The students are assigned to two locations for
approximately seven weeks in each place. They
work with the teacher four days a week - Tuesday
through Friday - for two class periods which would
run approximately one hour and fifteen minutes. In
the assigned location the student will do anything
the teacher feels he or she is capable of handling.
The student may work one-on-one with a child; give
dictation; help with math by checking papers,
doing flashcards, or playing math games; listen to
the children read; or with small groups prepare
plays or puppet shows, do make-up work, listen to
show-and-tell, direct a craft activity; or be
responsible for the entire group of children with pre-
senting the calendar and weather dolls, explaining
a concept, or leading various other activities.
The student may also correct papers, prepare
bulletin boards, or do other paper work. However, at
least 50 percent of the time is to be spent in working
with the children. It was always such a great
feeling when one of the teachers would comment,
"The high school students are much better with the
children and in completion of the assignments than
are the college students." Two teachers who had
been given Children in Action students were visiting
in the hall before class one morning. The first said,
"There isn't anything Dionne can't do. She has done
everything in the classroom except for completely
taking over the teaching assignments." Because of
her success in the Children in Action class, Dionne
was hired by parents to tutor during the summer.
One of the students came back to the high school
all excited one morning. The physical education
teacher was ill, so Stacy had the responsibility of
teaching the children until the substitute teacher
could arrive. The principal, who remained in the
gymnasium, was extremely impressed with the con-
trol Stacy maintained and the respect she had from
the students.
Because of graduation the senior students are re-
leased from school one week before the other stu-
dents. During that week, many of the seniors return
to their assigned locations to spend the entire day
helping in the classroom and attending field trips
with the children. Two of the graduating seniors ac-
companied four classes of third graders to the dairy.
Those two girls were probably more excited about
the field trip than the children.
The students are in the high school classroom
the first two weeks of the semester and each Mon-
day. On Mondays, time is allocated for discussing
the student's problems, concerns and positive experi-
ences. Learning activities, which are appropriate
for the age or grade level the student is assigned to,
are carefully prepared. The activities covered areas
of science, music, creative and imaginative play,
reading and math games, and listening skills. The
activities are presented first to the students enrolled
in Children in Action and then to the children. Stu-
dents design various bulletin board ideas which will
be presented to the teacher in the school or day care
and in most instances will be completed and dis-
played in the classroom. Films about special chil-
dren, types of schools, and social, emotional, and in-
tellectual development of various age children are
viewed.
Each student keeps a journal which includes
his/her feelings about what has happened
throughout the week. They write about the chil-
dren, teacher, themselves, enjoyable times, discour-
aging times, and questions or comments from the
children. As they receive stickers, valentines and
notes from the children, those items are glued into
their journals.
The students always enjoy having guest speakers
and going on field trips. Some of the field trips have
included Smouse, a Des Moines school for severe and
profound special needs children, and the Habilita-
tion Center for Children in Johnston, which is a resi-
dential home for special needs children. Other trips
included a visit of the Des Moines Area Community
College Child Development Program and Preschool,
Des Moines General Hospital's Lil' General Devel-
opmental Center and Preschool, and Lil' General
Sick Bay, for sick children who need daytime care
for a day or two.
Some of the guest speakers who have visited
the class are a principal and teacher from an ele-
mentary school, who tell the students what to antic-
ipate and what the expectations will be while they
are in the schools. Other speakers are a director
from a corporate day care, home day care owner,
county resource director, foster parent, speech diag-
nostician, physical therapist, occupational thera-
pist, school psychologist, school social worker, area
education agency learning disabilities coordinator,
talented and gifted teacher, and former nannies.
The students will hopefully become more aware
of signs and symptoms of when a child needs special
assistance, whether it be the student's own child or
one which the student is teaching. Each student re-
searches a specific career, which s/he may select as
a career choice. S/he discusses the advantages and
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February 1991 97
disadvantages, educational/training requirements,
licensure/certification, time spent on and off the job,
special working conditions, available localities,
special requirements and abilities needed for the
position, salary range, possibilities for
advancement, and duties and responsibilities for the
position.
Students with all interests and capabilities en-
roll in Children in Action. The learning ability of
the student does not dictate how well the student
will succeed in the class. Those students with low
abilities have an opportunity to perform as well as
those who are in the top ten percent of their class.
Some of the former students are now directors or
head teachers of day care centers and some are
teachers in elementary schools working with stu-
dents in normal classroom situations or with special
needs students. One former student, valedictorian of
her high school class, is now a physical therapist
and another student, who was in the high school
learning disabilities program, is a head teacher for
infants in a hospital day care. One of the male stu-
dents is enrolled in courses in child psychology;
whereas, another is teaching mathematics. A few
students presently operate home day care. Two stu-
dents were employed in summer day camps and two
others worked at all-summer camps while working
their way through college. Several of the students
have been employed as nannies in different parts of
the United States.
Corporate day care centers call the high school
for referrals from Children in Action class to hire for
their day care, and parents call for students to
babysit before school where the student will get the
children ready for school. Students apply what
they learned in parenthood to their activities in
Children in Action. They find reading information
from a book is entirely different from the applica-
tion within the classroom. They use problem solving
techniques when encountering children who do not
want to participate or share. The students must use
decision making skills when they are on a play-
ground and a child gets hurt.
The excitement carries over into other areas such
as the home economics student organization. Because
of working in the community with businesses, the
students and teacher are able to become acquainted
with the directors. Before Christmas one year, it
was decided to gain permission from a local day care
to use their facilities on a Saturday for babysitting.
Parents who wanted to do last minute holiday
shopping or baking could bring their children into
the day care for a minimal fee. All the money was
then donated to Amanda the Panda, an organization
for children with cancer.
One of the best features with the exception of
the students having the opportunity for career
awareness and job skill training is the amount of vis-
ibility in the community the home economics pro-
grams and school receive. Children will see one of
the students in a local store and tell their parent
"that is my teacher". Junior students frequently sign
up for independent study as a senior so they can
continue to work with children in some capacity.
Children in Action has encouraged students to
express creativity, foster caring, and develop lead-
ership which will be used in all aspects of the stu-
dents' lives, no matter which career path each will
take. As one student said, "This experience kindled
in me a desire to work with these kids someday."
(Continued from page 95.)
8:42 - 8:49 station 2
8:49 - 8:56 station 3
8:56 - 9:03 station 4
The preschoolers were divided into four groups
and rotated through each group every 7 minutes, so
teachers and helpers repeated their activity 4
times, each time with a new group.
9:03 - 9:12 snack time
9:12 - 9:20 group time
9:20 get papers and coats, so parents could
pick up preschoolers at 9:25
My students were amazed how much different
two year olds were than four year olds. Many of the
students have expressed an interest in careers in the
child development area. I think parenting skills
were also greatly enhanced.
Although the preschool is a lot of work for the
teacher to facilitate and set up, it is a very reward-
ing opportunity for the preschoolers, the high school
students and the parents. I am still getting calls
about what a wonderful opportunity it was.
Our school district has a handicap preschool,
which was new this year. Next year, I am hoping to
incorporate some opportunities for my students to
work with the preschoolers in that program as well.
My students were graded on their preschool ac-
tivities according to criteria sheets that I devel-
oped. This seemed to work well. I have talked to
other teachers who have had students contract for
grades. Whatever works for your particular group of
students is fine.
I got a lot of positive feedback from my students
throughout the unit. I am already planning some
additions to the class for next year. If you would like
to start a preschool in your school and think I could
be of help, please contact at: Home - 8045 Weile
Ave., Manhattan, MT 59741 (406) 284-6843 or School
- Belgrade High School, P.O. Box 166, Belgrade, MT
59714 (406)388-6862. •••
98 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1991
The Washington Hospital Center
Culinary Curriculum
ta
Barbara Barbaccia
Teacher of the Year
Maryland
BACKGROUND
In the winter of 1988, the Washington Hospital
Center, the most comprehensive and experienced
heart care center in the national capital area, asked
me to collaborate on the creation of heart healthy
dessert recipes. Desserts were the one course that
restaurant chefs, who were involved in the
hospital's Dining with Washington Heart program,
had difficulty creating to meet low fat, low salt
guidelines.
This culinary curriculum was an offshoot of this
experience. The idea was to offer a culinary arts
curriculum modeled after Washington Hospital
Center's Washington Heart program philosophy.
Using their clinical guidelines in conjunction with
the New Dietary Guidelines distributed by the
Department of Agriculture, it was our hope that
budding chefs could learn to cook heart healthy as
well as develop eating patterns that would benefit
them the rest of their lives. Washington Hospital
Center awarded a grant of $17,000.00 to cover salary
for developing the curriculum and teaching it at
Rockville High School during the 1989-1990 school
year. Eighty-four students benefitted from this
heart healthy nutritional education during the first
year
PROGRAM DESCRIPTION
A survey of 757 Rockville High School students
revealed 64 percent came from families with a
history of heart disease, 37 percent of those patients
followed special diets, and 75 percent of the students
indicated they would choose heart healthy foods if
given options.
The curriculum was designed to create awareness,
give options and minimize future health risks. This
program was integrated into all food classes.
Students studied fats, cholesterol, disease states,
and choices which are low in saturated fats and
sodium, yet satisfying. Classes are taught during 45
minute periods, five days per week in the Ramequin
Room Restaurant. This 45-seat facility, complete
with a commercial kitchen, is housed in Rockville
High School's vocational wing, and doubles as the
classroom for all culinary programs. Baking and
gourmet foods classes focus on basic skills. Culinary
Arts I provides basic culinary technique and
restaurant skills, while Culinary Arts II allows the
students to manage the restaurant and carry out
daily operations. Culinary Arts III (the Washington
Hospital Center Culinary Curriculum) is a double
period, where students research and develop low
cholesterol recipes.
The Hospital Center's sponsorship gave students
a variety of experiences: internships at the Hospital
Center, apprenticeships at restaurants in the
hospital's Dining With Washington Heart program,
along with recipe analysis and consultation by
hospital dietitians. Publicity about the heart
healthy offerings at Rockville High School
appeared in the local press and on television. As a
result, the students gave demonstrations and catered
events for community organization such as:
• Celebrate Health Fair (Washington Hospital
Center community event attended by 2,000)
• Mended Hearts (organization of former heart
bypass patients)
• The Village House (retirement home)
• Maryvale Community Wellness Fair
• East-South Regional Food Show, Washington,
DC (attended by 10,000)
Students served original dishes and distributed
recipes and program information. Through this heart
healthy consciousness, home economics is extending
beyond the individual, through the classroom, to the
community and back again.
In addition to the Hospital Center's grant, the
high school administration provided funding for
field trips, federal vocational funds provided the
means for equipment and professional development,
and income from Rockville High School's Ramequin
Restaurant kept its daily operations self-sufficient.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February 1991 99
The public is enthusiastic about the alternative
menus and the experienced "staff". This continuous
positive reinforcement serves to encourage students
who may otherwise not even be in school, yet are now
thriving from this vocational experience. Evidence
of change is noted in the students' choices of menus
and recipe selection.
Based on the positive results of this pilot
program, Washington Hospital Center has awarded
a grant for the 1990-91 school year. Plans are well
underway to make the second year even more
beneficial.
RESOURCES
Washington Hospital Center Culinary Curriculum
Clare Fiore
Director
Public Affairs and Marketing
Washington Hospital Center
110 Irving Street, N.W.
Washington, DC 20010-2975
202/877-6301
Barbara B. Oliver
Assistant Director
Public Affairs and Marketing
Washington Hospital Center
110 Irving Street, N.W.
Washington, DC 20010-2975
202/877-6301
Barbara Lynn Barbaccia
Culinary Arts Teacher
Rockville High School
2100 Baltimore Road
Rockville, MD 20851
301/279-8518
SAMPLE MENU
Tropical Fruit Slush
(Beverage)
1 C. tea (2 minutes, two tea bags in 1 cup water)
1/2 C. sugar
6 oz. orange juice concentrate
6 oz. lemonade concentrate
31/2C water
1/2 C. pineapple or grapefruit juice
Mix all ingredients until well blended.
Freeze until firm. Remove from freezer 30-
60 minutes before serving to form icy but
more liquid mixture. Serve with spoons!
Makes about 10 servings.
Calories: 103
Total fat: Trace
Saturated Fat: 0
Cholesterol: Trace
Sodium: 4.3 mg.
Chicken Cacciatore
8 Boneless, skinless, chicken breasts
1 T. olive oil
1 T. crushed garlic
Brown garlic lightly in oil. Add chicken,
cook until gently browned pour off excess
fat.
2
medium onions cut in wedges
IT.
1/2 1.
3/4 1.
parsley
oregano
basil
1/4 1.
fennel
1/8 1.
1
pepper
bay leaf
Combine onions and seasons with the
chicken mixture, cook until onions are
translucent.
2 cans crushed tomatoes (about 32 oz. or about 8
large fresh tomatoes)
Add tomatoes, simmer about 1 hour or more
until tender. Serve over rice, pasta, or by
itself.
Option: add capers, red, yellow, or green
pepper strips, add other vegetables for a
more complete meal. Serves 8.
(Note: analysis does not include rice or pasta)
Calories.
333
Total fat
: 8.2 gm.
Saturated fat: 2gm
Cholesterol: 146 mg.
Sodium:
312 mg.
Lemon Broc
lib.
broccoli
3t.
olive oil
11 t.
grated lemon rind
It.
Dijon mustard
IT.
fresh lemon juice
pepper to taste
(Continued on page 111.)
100 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1991
Parenting: Choice Not Chance
tt
Linda Schroeder
Teacher of the Year
South Dakota
Parenthood is one of the most important roles in
life, if not the most important role in life. Yet, par-
enthood is the role for which youth is given the
least amount of training. With these ideas in mind I
developed a parenting program that I hoped would
benefit teenagers. Those efforts were made
worthwhile when one student said, "This was the
one class that I think will most be used in my life."
This is a semester class with a variety of classroom
activities including role playing; personal ex-
periences shared by mothers; tours of a hospital and
child care facility; videos; country health nurse and
special education teacher as guest speakers; personal
and role playing journals; and a play school.
The semester begins with an evaluation of per-
sonal values and goals to see if parenting really fits
into the lifetime goals of the students. I use a series
of discussion questions, role play situations, and some
questions for them to take home to discuss with their
parents or guardians. As the students discuss their
ideas on parenting, they clarify their own thoughts
and they are challenged by their peer's ideas. It is
also beneficial to have the students discuss some
questions on parenting with their parents. The stu-
dents are given guidelines for discussion especially
when their personal thoughts are at risk. The im-
portance of parenting is expressed by one student who
said, "The class helped us to understand the affects
on the child from the sort of relationship the parents
had while the baby was growing up." Also from the
discussion sessions another student remarked, "It is a
lot easier (to be a parent) if you are in a stable mar-
riage with someone who will be there to share the
tasks."
One area of our parenting study is decision mak-
ing and the importance of making good decisions
which can affect their future. It is also pointed out
how teenagers as well as adults set an example in
what they do and say for young children who are
easily influenced. To set these two concepts into the
student's memory, four different drug and alcohol
awareness projects were carried out by the students.
A guest speaker from the Division of Criminal Inves-
tigation (DO) came to class and not only spoke about
the dangers of drugs and the drug situation in the sur-
rounding area but also brought some samples of the
different drugs that were readily available. The
students carried out a campaign to encourage the
teachers and staff members to quit smoking by ob-
serving a quit smoking day. They provided the
smokers with healthy snacks to munch on during the
day and information packets to help them quit smok-
ing.
In regards to making decisions about alcohol the
outline of a person's body was marked on the floor of
the high school hallway. In the center of the body
was placed a sign which read "This could be you, if
you drink and drive." The second project that stu-
dents did to remind themselves and their peers of
how their decisions about alcohol can affect their
future was a project called "Angels of Death." It has
been predicted that every twenty minutes someone in
the United States is killed by drinking and driving.
To represent this person's death, every twenty
minutes two 'Angels of Death' (students dressed in
black with black masks) would announce a student in
our school as being a victim of death on our
highways due to drinking and driving. This person
would wear a black bag over their body to let
everyone know they represented a death, and they
could not speak to anyone for the day except their
teachers.
As the students were deciding if they felt par-
enthood was part of their life plan and if they could
make responsible decisions for their lives, it was de-
cided that our county health nurse should come to
class to talk with the students about all methods of
family planning and the advantages and disadvan-
tages of each.
The stage is then set for the students to play the
role of a parent. A knock on the classroom door an-
nounces the arrival of "Dr. Bob," a high school staff
member, with a handful of letters, one for each of
the students. These letters have all been prepared
with the pretense that the students or the student's
mates have all been to the doctor recently for a visit.
When their lab tests came back, it was discovered
that YES, they were pregnant. It is at this time that
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February 1991 101
the student will begin to study pregnancy and begin
to realize how amazing it can be.
The same day that the letters are handed out,
each student is also given a journal to make
recordings in as they go through their pregnancy.
Each school day now will count as one month of their
pregnancy which helps us study the sequence of
prenatal development and the mother's health. The
"expectant mothers" give special attention to their
food cravings as well as eat nutritious snacks and
meals during this pregnancy. The students are also
warned that there are such things as premature
births and early arrivals of "babies," so many of the
students will bring blankets and their "baby's" first
outfits to school on their seventh or eighth month
(day). There are always a few who wait until the
last minute, and their "baby" has to go home in a
blanket provided by the "hospital."
On the day which represents the eight month
approximately ten percent of the class will have an
early delivery. The rest of the class will give birth
during the ninth month (day). The ninth month
(day) is an anxious day as the "expectant mothers"
and their partners are awaiting to see if they have a
boy or girl, to see how much their baby weighs, to see
if they have a single birth or twins, and to see if
they have a healthy "baby."
As the class seems to be slowly moving on that
day and some of the "pregnant girls" are fussing over
the early deliveries, there comes a long awaited
knock at the door. "Dr. Bob" is now dressed in a
white coat with a mask over his face and he has a
very large bassinet of crying babies (the use of a tape
recorder helps to set the atmosphere). He proceeds
to deliver a "flour sack baby: to each of the students.
As each "baby" is delivered, a coin is tossed to see if
it is a boy or a girl. I see a mixture of emotions as
these "babies" are delivered. Some of the students
are speechless, some are giggling, and some are
saying 'I don't want it, take it back.' There is also
the possibility that ten percent of the class will
have a "baby" with a birth defect. The students
each get a birth certificate which will be filled in
with the weight and length of the "baby." The
"babies" each need some hair and a face so the "new
mothers" get to design those features.
There were rules set up to help make this ex-
perience feel more like a real life situation. These
rules related to babysitting, time spent in school,
child abuse, and kidnapping. The journals are con-
tinued at this time as a diary for themselves and
their "baby." The "new mothers" are also given cer-
tain questions to research and answer each day con-
cerning the cost for the "baby" or illnesses the "baby"
may have.
On the last day of the "motherhood" experience
one of the "babies" is taken away early in the day
due to an unfortunate situation of "SIDS." At the end
of the day on the last day of the experience the
"babies" are all undressed and handed in with some
mixed emotions again. The students are glad to be
relieved of the experience, yet they are sad. Some
say they will not eat bread again (thinking that the
slice may be made from their "baby"). This
"motherhood" experience is followed with a tour of
our local hospital to see the labor and delivery
rooms, the nursery and to hear one of the nurses
explain the treatment that the mother goes through
while she is in the hospital.
The semester is continued with the study of the
infant, toddler, and preschooler. The physical, emo-
tional, social and mental development of each age is
studied. During the time we discuss mental devel-
opment, the special education teacher comes to class
to talk with the students about the mentally handi-
capped child and the parent's reaction to this fam-
ily problem. There is a time set aside for the stu-
dents to research and report on birth defects. A
mother of an infant is invited to bring her child to
class to share her experience of pregnancy, child-
birth, and what the developmental stages of her in-
fant were at that time.
I feel it is important for the students to look at
parenthood as a very positive experience that in-
volves a lot of responsibility and maturity. They
also need to realize that not every couple is able to
give birth to a child, not every child is able to live
with their birth parents, and not every person that
gives birth to a child is able to be a parent to that
child. I therefore include a unit on adoption with
the main points covered by an adoptive mother. As
she shares her adoption experience, she has the
power to make it very clear to the student how much
she and her husband respect the woman who loved
her child enough to give him up for adoption.
The final project for the semester is to set up and
conduct a play school for preschoolers. The
preschoolers are children the high school students
know from the community. The number of preschool-
ers invited to the play school is determined by the
number of high school students enrolled in the class.
The class period is divided into time for the
preschoolers to have some free play time as they
wait for everyone to arrive. They have a planned
creative activity, a nutritious snack and have a
story/music time.
The students are divided into four groups for this
activity. They are either a teacher, an assistant
teacher, a teacher's helper, or an observer and they
rotate duties so they have a chance to have all four
responsibilities. Each day students record observa-
tions on development, techniques, and personal feel-
ings in a notebook. It is a time for the high school
(Continued on page 103.)
102 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1991
Work Activities
tt
Doris Jean Keller
Teacher of the Year
West Virginia
Because of the strong family service role of home
economics, a Work Activities curriculum was
developed under vocational home economics. The
purpose of the class was to provide a half-day al-
ternative vocational home economics exploratory
program for ninth and tenth grade students desig-
nated as high risk potential dropouts. The goals for
the program were to:
1)
2)
3)
4)
Establish an environment which would encour-
age personal growth and success at simulated job
sites related to life activities.
Instill a feeling of responsibility for reliable at-
tendance and staying in school.
Practice decision making and leadership skills.
Involve the students in service activities for
others.
The purpose of the two education facilities that
are used for the job sites are ideal for the first pro-
gram goal. Clary Street Developmental Learning
Center is a specialized handicap education facility
that serves severe to moderate handicapped stu-
dents as well as students with behavior disorders.
The other practice site is at Keyser Headstart. As
the Work Activities students become involved in as-
sisting as aides to the instructors, educational spe-
cialists, and service personnel, they gain a sense of
self-worth and accomplishment. The students rotate
in different work areas approximately every six
weeks.
Students are required to call the supervisor in
the morning of the day they will be absent. This
notice before the absence rather than an excuse
afterwards gives the student a more realistic idea of
the importance of attendance at the work place.
This practice, plus rewards for perfect attendance
each grading period, address the second goal of the
program.
The last two goals are accomplished through
many of their FHA activities and in the classroom.
Locally the FHA planned and directed play
activities for preschoolers for the Founder's Day
Weekend. They cooperated with the Key Club to
raise funds for Cystic Fibrosis. When Keyser High
School sponsored the Blood Mobile, the Work Ac-
tivities students prepared snacks for the donors. For
Wellness Day sponsored by Potomac Valley Hospi-
tal the students planned and arranged an educa-
tional display of foods high in fiber and rich in beta
carotene. They also prepared a buffet based on a
cancer prevention diet.
The Work Activities class has become a worthy
ambition as shown by the high rate of success of the
students who have been enrolled in the class for the
last five years. The dropout rate among girls has
been cut into half since this class became available.
A high percentage of the students that enrolled in
the class have completed high school and are work-
ing or are still in high school at the present time.
(Continued from page 102.)
students to realize what really bothers them about
children as well as what children do that really
makes them feel good inside. After the play school
experience, teach student writes an intensive study
on one of the preschool children. One of the high
school students aid when asked on an end of the
semester evaluation which of the semester activities
should be kept for following years, "Play school is a
must!" Another student commented, "When we
planned the nursery school project it helped me to re-
late to what activities kids that age are able to do
and what they enjoy doing."
The high school yearbook recorded the experi-
ences of this class on the vocational classes section
which proved that their minds did capture some of
the experiences in this class. An impact had been
made. • • •
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/February 1991 103
tt
Consumer and
Family Studies
tt
After School
Latchkey Program
Gayle Erskine
Teacher of the Year
Colorado
Mary Jo Kohl
Teacher of the Year
Ohio
The Prairie Middle School Consumer and Family
Studies program was designed to meet the students'
needs for increased skills in child care, meal prepa-
ration, clothing repair, first aid, and parenting.
Classes include a diverse group of students of all
backgrounds, many of which are latch key students
who provide child care in the community. Course-
work features discussions on self-concept, child care,
first aid, mass production, parenting, careers, con-
sumerism, clothing and nutrition. Clothing study
features selection of clothing, repair of clothing, and
art applied to fabric. Students also learn how to
prepare quick, healthy meals, use the microwave,
and analyze their diet by using the computer.
One unique unit of the course is S.T.R.E.T.C.H.
(Student Teams Reaching Excellence in Technology
and Consumer Home Economics). During this inter-
disciplinary unit students worked with Tech Ed and
Foreign Language teachers to mass produce 2500 Rus-
sian Tea Cakes and 250 sleighs for the less fortunate
in the community. Students surveyed the public,
mass produced, advertised, and distributed the
product. Through community organizations, cookies
and sleighs were given to the elderly, handicapped,
and homeless. Most importantly, students were in-
volved in volunteer work that connected them to
those less fortunate in the community. The local TV
news featured the program as "students who make a
difference." (Video Available.) Students know that
what they are learning is meaningful and useful.
The Latchkey Program at Holgate Local Schools
was started two and one-half years ago with an
adoption grant from the Ohio Early Childhood
Education Department for $6,000. The program meets
every school day from 3-6 p.m. in the home economics
room with a certified teacher and two home
economics students to oversee the program. Daily
activities include homework and tutoring if
necessary, nutritional snacks, crafts, cooking, videos
or computer time, as well as, social time.
Home economic students participate in two ways.
If interested they may complete an application and
interview for a teacher aide position. If hired they
are required to attend an inservice training meeting.
Daily responsibilities are to assist the teacher in
any capacity that is needed. Teacher aides are
evaluated three times during the year and receive a
monthly salary.
The other option for students is to volunteer their
services for ten days to fulfill an 'individual ex-
tended experience.' These students are required to
fulfill necessary duties that the teacher and aid
may not have time for.
The Latchkey Program is now operating on stu-
dent fees and local donations. A board of directors
consisting of parents, businessmen and educators gov-
ern the program and set policies for the director to
oversee. The Latchkey Program for the Holgate Lo-
cal Schools has been an asset to the school as well as
the community. • • •
104 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1991
tt
Career Exploration
Susie Cox
Teacher of the Year
Missouri
,r. »*
Many times in a young person's life the question
will be asked "What do you want to be when you
grow up?" Career choice is a decision we all have to
make, and what a better time to start examining
things to be considered when making career choices
than in junior high. At Jefferson Junior High in
Columbia, Missouri our ninth graders are given the
opportunity to spend a day on a job they are inter-
ested in, so I decided to start career awareness with
seventh graders in our exploratory block class. The
major thrust of this brief unit is to raise the level of
awareness about what attracts people to careers
based on personalities and environments.
The idea for this two-day unit came from a uni-
versity vocational guidance course where John Hol-
land's (1985) theory of careers was introduced in an
entertaining, simple activity called the Party. The
Party provides students their first glimpse of the
unit. They are instructed to listen carefully to the
descriptions of the different groups of people at the
Party because they will have to decide what groups
they find interesting and want to join. Students are
asked to make notes of the groups they are interested
in and record the letter of each group they choose.
The descriptions for each group follow:
The "R" (Realistic) group is made up of people
who are athletic or mechanical, prefer to work with
their hands, objects, machines, plants, or animals
and who like to be outdoors. Conversation in this
group may include sports or activities the people are
involved in.
The "I" (Investigative) group includes people
who like to observe what is happening, learn,
investigate, analyze, or solve problems. These
people are rather quiet and tend to watch what is
happening in other groups. The conversation may be
focused around math or science activities such as
research projects.
The "A" (Artistic) group consists of people who
have artistic talents and like to work in an
unstructured setting in which they are able to use
their creativity and imagination. The conversation
may be about favorite entertainers, concerts or
artistic projects they are involved in. The "A" group
is a little louder than the other groups and more
outgoing.
The "S" (Social) group, also very talkative and
loud, is made up of people who are very outgoing,
friendly and interested in all kinds of people. The
individuals in this group are looking around to see
what is happening in the other groups as well as
being a part of the "S" group; they like to work with
and help people.
The "E" (Enterprising) group is also made up of
people who like to work with people but they like to
influence or persuade and are often interested in
economic gain. Conversation in this group centers
around economic issues, politics or new enterprises.
The "C" (Conventional) group is probably the
quietest group. They like to work with numbers,
data, detail and are very good at following through
on assignments. These people pay close attention to
detail.
The letters, R, I, A, S, E, C are used in Holland's
code to identify career interests. Students are given a
few minutes to choose the first group they are
interested in and are asked to put the letter down on
paper and to write down a couple of words that
attracted them to that group. They are then asked to
choose two other groups in their order of preference.
These three letters, for example S, E, A, become their
individual Holland's code. Descriptors of individual
characteristics, things these individuals like to do,
things they are good at and some career possibilities
for each group are presented on transparencies.
Students are asked to share their combination of
letters, and the class looks at how the student fits
into a 3-letter code along with the kinds of
careers/jobs they would probably enjoy. Through
(Continued on page 119.)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/February 1991 105
tt
Money
Management
Cathy Lobe
Teacher of the Year
Washington
The community requested that a Money
Management course be provided as part of the high
school curriculum. Business leaders in our community
expressed concern about the lack of student financial
preparedness necessary for independent living. The
community is an active part of the program. Several
business experts are guest speakers in the class. In
turn, the speakers from the Spokane community
become aware of the benefits of the MONEY
MANAGEMENT course. A financial planner comes
to the classroom six times during the semester to as-
sist in teaching certain aspects of budgeting, spend-
ing, and financial planning.
The major program goal for the course is to assist
students in the development of attitudes, knowledge,
and skills for achieving satisfying personal and fam-
ily living, for preparing to manage a home, and for
attaining entry-level skills for employment. The
course I teach contains many activities which pro-
vide hands-on opportunities for students to simulate
"the real world" and to make decisions necessary to
achieve their chosen standard of living.
The program goal is achieved through activities
which address the following objectives:
1. The student will set up a budget.
2. The student will maintain and balance a check-
ing account.
3. The student will evaluate purchases.
4. The student will develop job search skills.
The course is introduced by providing students the
opportunity to analyze their values and the things
that are important to them. Throughout the
semester, students continually refer back to their
(Continued on page 114.)
Infant/Toddler
Developmental
Program
tt
Ozaree Twillie
Teacher of the Year
Arkansas
The Infant/Toddler Developmental Program
was designed to accommodate the students in the
Forrest City Alternative School who have the re-
sponsibility of caring for their child/children. The
students are able to bring their child /children to re-
ceive good nutrition and care, early training in basic
living skills, experience in the socialization process,
creative and guided learning experiences, and self-
selected activities. The program was funded for
$61,000 for a three year period.
This program enables the student to remain in
school until securing a high school diploma or a GED
(General Education Degree). With the pre-employ-
ment lab, students are trained for entry level em-
ployment in child care. Many of the students who
had dropped out of school, enter the Alternative
School with a great incentive to complete their sec-
ondary education, mainly because of this unique set-
ting.
The Infant/Toddler Developmental Program is a
basic entity of the Forrest City Alternative School.
It provides the necessary assistance for students to
succeed in the program. Two licenses have been is-
sued to the facility to accommodate children up to
school age (Infant/Toddler, eight weeks up to three
years old, the Child Care, two and one half up to six
years). Each program is licensed for twenty chil-
dren, making a total of forty. Transportation and
breakfast is provided for parents and child. On-site
social workers and vista workers are provided. A
school nurse is on call and transportation to the
health center or the doctor is also provided.
Impact of the program beyond the classroom is
growing. JFTA (Job Training Partnership Act) sends
(Continued on page 114.)
106 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1991
tt
Pre-Employment Lab Experience in Child Care
Merriott Terry
Teacher of the Year
Texas
The Child Care and Guidance, Management, and
Services Program is designed for employment
training in the area of child care and guidance. The
"basics" for child care are addressed, followed by
current information needed for today's child care
worker. This means on the job training is provided in
an actual child care center set up as a laboratory on
the Wunsche Campus. Students use this course as a
beginning step toward a future career in working
with children. An articulation agreement with
North Harris County College affords the students
seven college credits in child development upon
completion of the two-year program. Many of our
graduates further their education in college and most
are in some child care field or related occupation.
At the lab school there are twenty three and four
year old preschool children playing in various learn-
ing centers which include drama, art, music, blocks,
library, science, computer, cooking, water-play,
table games, and outdoor trike trail and playground.
The high school students plan and conduct learning
activities for the lab school children. Job rotation to
special needs classes, pre-kindergarten, early
childhood as well as the infant rooms enables the
student to gain a varied background for ages birth
through fifth grade. The second year students work
in a mentor program with Salyers Elementary School
next door to the Wunsche campus. The students ob-
serve and serve as teacher aides in elementary class-
rooms.
One area of my greatest concern is child abuse.
We teach students how to identify it. It is interest-
ing that a number of my students are attracted to my
course because they were abused. They want to find
out the way they should have been treated. When
they begin working with the lab children the stu-
dent opens up and sees possibilities of becoming a
whole person.
An important factor in my lab program is that
the teacher is with the student. We know in stress-
ful situations, people revert to old role models and
"tapes." To me, this is why it is necessary for stu-
dents to have this lab situation so that the teacher
can correct or role-model immediately. Unlike most
day care centers, we can provide the best in
staff/child ratio, but train on the spot for how chil-
dren should be appropriately treated. • • •
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February 1991 107
tt
Live, Learn and Train:
Home Economics with Alternatives
Joan H. Odom
National Winner
Teacher of the Year
Florida
The Live, Learn and Train Program was designed
especially for the J. R. E. Lee Opportunity School.
The program services our regular student population
as well as all ranges of exceptionalities on our cam-
pus, including a severely emotionally disturbed unit
which was added to our school this year. The S. E.
D. (severely emotionally disturbed) students are
provided home economics enrichment activities
during the home economics teacher's planning period
once or twice weekly. The S. E. D. Unit teacher also
utilizes some of the material from Live, Learn and
Train in her social skills training classes.
This program provides opportunities for students
to acquire training skills, to improve and/or develop
interpersonal family life skills, to improve grooming
and sanitation habits, to acquire general homemak-
ing skills, to improve nutritional habits, to become
better informed consumers, and to recognize and ap-
preciate creativity in the home.
Most of our students are two or three grades be-
low level; therefore, their reading and comprehen-
sion abilities are very limited. Live, Learn and
Train is designed to provide many hands-on activi-
ties in a family setting. A great majority of our stu-
dents come from a very deficient and/or unstable
family background; therefore, they really do not
know how to interact correctly in a wholesome fam-
ily setting. Through family role-playing situations,
participants learn how to act and how to interact in
a "family." Through life lab experiences, they also
learn manners, how to care for others, how to respect
others, how to resolve conflict, how to be responsible
on the job, and how to use valuable homemaking
skills.
Many of the J. R. E. Lee students never make it to
a job training program in the school system. They are
fortunate if they survive work experience training.
More than likely, home economics classes will be
their only source of job training. The Live, Learn and
Train Program focus and ultimate goal is to prepare
students for family life and for the world of work.
Everyday, our activities somehow relate to the fam-
ily and to the world of work.
The general objectives of Live, Learn and Train
"mesh" with the required state course codes for the
middle school home economics curriculum. The pro-
gram received grant funding in conjunction with the
After School Alternative to Suspension Program.
The flexibility of this curriculum affords many op-
portunities for the program to be used in the
"traditional" classroom as well as for enrichment ac-
tivities during or after school.
The primary goal of Live, Learn and Train is to
make home economics a real life learning laboratory.
Hopefully, these experiences will prepare partici-
pants to live happier and healthier lives, to de-
velop to their fullest potential, to effectively utilize
their resources, to become creative and conscientious
homemakers, and to earn an honest living.
Program Framework
1 . Define the goals of Live, Learn and Train — The
student will be able to:
a . Identify reasons for participation.
b. Identify individual goals.
c. Identify group goals.
d. Plan program activities.
2. Create a functional "FAMILY" Framework for
Live, Learn and Train — The student will be able
to:
a. Describe the characteristics of a functional
family.
b. Analyze personal attributes that contribute
to a harmonious family.
c. Develop conflict resolution skills necessary
in the family.
d. Identify the rules necessary for a functional
family.
e. Identify the responsibilities, privileges, and
contributions of family members.
f . Practice effective communication skills.
g. Dramatize effective family interactions.
108 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1991
3. Explore interpersonal skills necessary for posi-
tive social development — The student will be
able to:
a. Identify personal habits that are socially
acceptable.
b. Practice socially acceptable behavior.
c. Dramatize acceptable social manners.
d. Recognize meals and snacks as social activi-
ties.
e. Plan social functions.
f. Demonstrate the ability to host social func-
tions.
g. Assume the role of a gracious host or hostess,
h. Display socially acceptable behavior at
group functions,
i. Develop socially acceptable entertainment
skills.
4. Plan means and snacks for Live, Learn and Train
Activities — The student will be able to:
a . Identify the Basic Four Food Groups.
b. Classify foods according to nutritional value.
c. Prepare nutritional snacks an d meals.
d. Preserve nutrients during storage and prepa-
ration of foods.
e. Manage personal behavior through proper
nutrition.
f . Appreciate new foods and new tastes.
g. Recognize and respect various cultural foods,
h. Analyze and improve personal eating
habits,
i . Create table settings for various meal activi-
ties.
5. Plan a safe and sanitary environment — The stu-
dent will be able to:
a . Create a clean, neat and safe environment.
b. Develop sanitary work habits.
c. Identify proper storage procedures for food
and equipment.
d. Identify unsafe work habits and conditions
found in many homes.
e. Practice safe work habits.
f . Demonstrate the ability to correctly use and
care for major and small appliances.
6. Develop effective management strategies for
Live, Learn and Train — The student will be able
to:
a . Conserve time, money and energy.
b. Develop a creative environment.
c. Devise creative and innovative management
skills.
d. Manage a clean, neat, safe, attractive and
harmonious environment.
e. Respect and protect our natural resources.
7. Recognize the importance of creativity in the
home — The student will be able to:
a. Define creativity.
b. Analyze the creative process in the home.
c. Recognize and appreciate creativity in the
home.
d. Assess individual talents and creative abili-
ties.
e. Develop family life skills that relate to
creativity.
f. Demonstrate individual creative talents in
preparing unique meals, table settings and
table decorations.
g. Recognize and appreciate Live, Learn and
Train as a creative learning opportunity.
8. Explore career opportunities related to experi-
ences provided in Live, Learn and Train — The
student will be able to:
a. Identify careers related to family life skills.
b. Analyze individual career interests/
abilities demonstrated during participation
in Live, Learn and Train.
c. Review various career opportunities and re-
quirements.
d. Role play various job or career positions.
(Continued from page 116.)
References
Axinn, N. (1981, May). Inappropriate technology
transferred or biscuits be damned. SECID
Seminar: Responding to the basic needs of rural
women. Frankfort, Kentucky.
Brown, L. (1981). Building a sustainable society.
Toronto: George J. McLeod.
Elgin, D. (1981). Voluntary simplicity: Toward a
way of life that is outwardly simply and
inwardly rich. New York: William Morrow and
Company Inc.
Gregg, R. (1936, August). Voluntary simplicity.
Visva-Bharti Quarterly, India. Report in Duane
Elgin, Voluntary simplicity. New York:
William Morrow and Company, Inc., p. 31.
Kulahci, S. (1981, May). Reciprocity in the
development process. SECID Seminar:
Responding to the basic needs of rural women.
Frankford, KY, 4-5 May, 1981.
Schumacher, E. F. (1973). Small is beautiful. New
York: Harper and Row Publishers, Inc. • • •
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/February 1991 109
Home Economics Teachers Can Be
the Best Recruiters
Donnell Barton
Doctoral Candidate
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University
Blacksburg, VA
In the past, home economics teachers have been
the best recruiters for the profession by encouraging
their students to enter home economics teacher
preparation programs. Students often selected a
home economics career based on their observations
and impressions of their home economics teachers.
This teacher-as-researcher system is not working as
well as it used to. In many states teachers have had
to deal with curriculum changes, teacher testing,
career ladders, and budget cuts. Because of these and
other concerns teachers have not been as actively
encouraging students to enter the profession. At the
same time it is predicted that many of our current
teachers will retire by the year 2000 which will
create an increasing need for qualified teachers
(Personick, 1989). Other research studies indicate
that many home economics positions are available
across the nation (Personick, 1989). Many schools
have home economics openings and are unable to fill
them (Clark, 1990). In 1986, five or fewer
baccalaureate degrees in home economics education
were awarded in 60 percent of the universities which
offer the degree (Weis & Pomraning, 1986). Today,
many women are drawn to male-intensive fields
because of higher pay and job status. At the same
time, men are less likely to pursue a nontraditional
career like home economics (Kellett, 1989). As a
result of these trends an extensive effort to recruit
new teachers for the profession is needed.
One project now underway to identify strategies
that will enhance the profession is a recruitment
task force made up of representatives from across the
country. Information provided by the task force is
helping to identify recruitment strategies that can be
implemented by the Vocational Home Economics
Program Service of the Virginia Department of
Education. A major activity of this group involved a
survey related to renewing the profession. One of the
major findings was that home economics teachers
have been the best recruiters for the profession. If
action is taken now the positive impact that home
economics teachers can have on their students will
not only benefit the students but also the profession.
This renewal is especially critical because home
economics courses address the concerns of today's
society and continue to develop to meet the needs of
our changing world. Home economics educators care
about the future of humankind and believe that our
contribution to a brighter future is to make the
immediate tomorrow better for each individual with
whom we work (East, 1980). Because home economics
teachers can have a great influence on their students,
they are best able to demonstrate the positive
impact home economics has on society.
Since the home economics teachers are so visible,
they have the perfect opportunity to recruit for the
profession. From the first day of class teachers will
influence students. This influence takes on many
aspects, including providing a role model. When a
successful person is asked "Who influenced your
life?", many will respond with the name of a
teacher. Home economics teachers can demonstrate
to students the abilities which enables success in
both personal and professional roles. This role
model identity is maintained by daily contact with
students and enhanced by the subject matter taught in
home economics courses. The personal nature of the
subject matter allows teachers and students to
develop a rapport which facilitates development of
a clear concept of home economics. Thus, students
develop an understanding of the goals of the
profession and how the profession has a positive
impact on society. Home economics educators have
the opportunity to demonstrate the contributions
that the profession makes to society and encourage
students to enter the profession.
Clark (1990) states that home economics
educators must consider recruiting future home
economics teachers as a professional responsibility.
Recruitment strategies that home economics teachers
can implement are:
Bulletin boards. Display suggestions include
pictures or titles of home economics teacher
roles, a brief history of home economics, or
how the profession adjusts to meet the needs
of a changing society.
110 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1991
Guest speakers. Invite home economists to
make presentations to home economics
classes.
Career day. Feature home economics
educators who can highlight advantages of
a teaching career.
Video presentations. Check with national
and state FHA offices for videos on home
economics. Better yet, have students develop
a video about home economics courses in their
school.
Articulation. Develop a program with a
community college that enables students to
receive college credit for a class while still
enrolled in high school.
Mentoring. Become a mentor to a student and
give guidance and support in career planning.
This is not a new concept, but it is currently
receiving lots of media attention.
Positive role modeling. Demonstrate
enthusiasm and commitment to the profes-
sion of teaching.
Teen magazines. Place information about the
profession in magazines that influence teens.
These recruitment strategies can be implemented
effectively by home economics teachers who want to
encourage students to consider a career in home
economics teaching. One of the strengths of home
economics has been the ability to creatively adjust to
a changing society. By continuing to work to promote
the growth of the profession, home economics
education can remain as a positive influence in
meeting societal needs.
References
Clark, V. L. (1989). Developing future educators for
home economics. The Home Economics Educator,
2.
East, M. (1980). Home economics past, present, and
future. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, Inc.
Kellett, C. E. (1989). Home economics education:
Changes as we approach the 21st century.
Illinois Teacher, 32(3), 98-102.
Personick, V. (1989). Industry output and
employment: A slower trend for the nineties.
Monthly Labor Review, 122(11), 21.
Weis, S. F., & Pomraning, D. (Eds.). (1986). The
national directory of vocational home economics
teacher educators and state supervisors.
National Association of Teacher Educators for
Vocational Home Economics. • • •
(Continued from page 100.)
Cook broccoli until form tender. Drain.
Quickly place under cold water to retain
bright green color. Drain well. In small
saucepan, mix oil, lemon rind, and mustard;
stir constantly with wire whisk. Add
lemon juice slowly. Whisking
continuously. Adjust seasonings. Pour over
broccoli. Serve at room temperature.
Serves 4.
Calories:
Total fat:
Saturated fat:
Cholesterol:
Sodium:
65
3.8 gm
05 gm
0
30 mg
Crust:
11/4C
2T.
1/4 t.
Seven-Up Pie
Filling:
1/2 G
1
1/3 C
2 t.
2t.
1/3C
1/4 1.
11/2C
plain graham cracker crumbs (or 10
crackers, crushed)
tub margarine
cinnamon
In small bowl, combine crumbs, margarine,
and cinnamon. Press mixture onto bottom
and sides of well-greased 9" pie pan.
Chill.
lemonade concentrate
envelope unflavored gelatin
sugar of 1 1/2 pkg. artificial sweetener
grated lime rind
grated lemon rind
lime juice, from limes used in grating
vanilla extract
frozen yogurt
Pour lemonade into small saucepan and
add gelatin to soften. Add sweetener of
your choice and warm until dissolved. Do
not allow mixture to get hot. Transfer to a
bowl and stir in 1 teaspoon each of grated
citrus rind, lime juice and vanilla. Chill.
When cool, whip with whisk or beater
until fluffy. Fold in frozen yogurt and
whisk again. Pour into prepared crust.
Sprinkle with 1 teaspoon each of the
lemon and lime rinds. Freeze. Remove
from freezer 15-30 minutes before serving.
Serves 8.
Calories:
164
Total fat:
3.9 gm
Saturated fat:
0.6 gm
Cholesterol:
0
Sodium:
81 mg
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/February 1991 111
Home Economics Students as Tutors for English
as a Second Language
Laura W. Bertelson, Graduate Student
and
Frances M. Smith, Associate Professor
Family and Consumer Sciences Education
Iowa State University
Ames, IA
Laura W. Bertelson
Frances M. Smith
Literacy programs for adult learners of English
as a Second Language (ESL) are burgeoning in our
nation's cities as well as in smaller communities. As
refugees from southeast Asia have settled into our
communities and as Spanish speaking Americans
have moved from Spanish speaking communities to
available jobs, ESL classes are needed to assimilate
these adults culturally and to prepare them to live
and work in an English speaking society. Official
registry information shows that from 1982 to 1987,
362,600 refugees arrived in the United States and an
average of 575,000 immigrants entered annually
during the 1980s, many of whom were non-English
speakers (Statistical Abstract of the United States:
1989; Statistical Yearbook of the Immigration and
Naturalization Service, 1988).
Home economics students can work with commu-
nity ESL programs to help these programs become
more meaningful and effective by using resources
found in the home or home economics classroom as
springboards to ESL literacy [learning]. Many of the
first English contacts non-English speaking adults
have are related to the accomplishment of home and
family tasks such as shopping for food and other
essentials, registering for health care or other social
services, and communicating with a child's school
officials. These are only a few of the tasks that
require an ability to read and write English in this
society.
ESL programs must often involve broad literacy
education efforts. Besides learning a second language
the ESL student may face additional difficulties:
adult ESL literacy students may have had little
former experience with formal education, may be
illiterate in their native language, and may not
have experience with literacy concepts (Bell and
Burnaby, 1984).
ESL adult literacy education differs from child
literacy education in fundamental ways. Whereas
children learning to read and write are familiar
with hearing and understanding the vocabulary
they are using, adult ESL literacy students are less
familiar with the English vocabulary. Children
learning to read and write have twelve years of
formal education in which to build their skills;
adult ESL literacy students have limited time to
develop a working use of the language in oral and
written form.
Adult learners have a depth of experience and
maturity of approach to aid them in literacy
learning. This experience must be capitalized on so
that the learning process is not a demeaning one.
Unfortunately many of the literacy materials
available are geared toward the teaching of reading
to children. These materials emphasize learning to
read and write simple words without meaningful
contexts for the adult. A natural point of entry to
adult learning is the adult's area of interest
(Knowles, 1975; Finocchiaro, 1984). The home
economics classroom and experiences from home
economics content areas could provide a stimulating
backdrop full of meaningful contexts for the adult
ESL literacy student.
With the availability of equipment, props, and
other teaching materials in the home economics
classroom, ESL students could experience
relationships between objects, actions, and written
material regarding the home, family life, and some
vocations. The high school home economics student
has knowledge about items familiar to the ESL
student and could use this knowledge as a basis for
ESL tutoring. Some of the items available in a home
economics classroom which could be used as props in
tutoring include: textbooks with pictures, recipe
books, cooking equipment, instruction booklets for
equipment, child development materials, check
books, budget forms, job application forms, consumer
112 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1991
contracts, catalog order forms, sewing equipment,
fabrics, clothing labels, furniture, and cleaning
materials.
ESL students may be motivated by their desire to
follow recipes written in English, read package
labels, order from catalogs, communicate with school
or medical professionals, or read and write about
other home and family related tasks. Related
reading materials found in the home economics
classroom will be meaningful to the ESL student and
will thereby improve motivation and lead to success
in reading and comprehension.
Home economics students could work in ESL
programs in a variety of ways. Extra credit projects
to supplement classroom activities could be made
available to students, or an FHA service project could
be designed around ESL program participation The
extra-credit or FHA project would be designed in
conjunction with a local community ESL literacy
program. Home economics students would work with
ESL literacy students for a short period of time,
perhaps four to six sessions.
In preparation for this experience the ESL
program director or an ESL instructor could be invited
to speak with the home economics students about the
history and philosophy of the ESL program and the
population it serves and what the home economics
students might expect in working with ESL adult
students. In the weeks before their work with the
ESL students begins, home economics students could
review reference materials on the culture of the ESL
students with whom they would be working, practice
some ESL literacy teaching strategies, and determine
what equipment or supplies from the home economics
program they may use when working with the ESL
learners.
Using reference books on teaching activities or
the native cultures of the ESL learners, home
economics students could write reports on topics
related to working in a tutoring capacity with ESL
adults. The starred references at the end of this
article contain teaching activities appropriate to
ESL tutoring.
Each home economics student could be assigned to
work with one or two ESL students (see the extra
credit contract). They could work with the ESL
students in the home economics classroom after
school hours (for a total of four to six sessions). The
students could write a brief evaluative description
after each tutoring session of the work that was done
and make suggestions for subsequent sessions.
It might be helpful to have the home economics
students meet together to discuss what is happening
in their tutoring sessions at the beginning, middle,
and end of the lesson series. Progress of the ESL
learner in understanding oral and written English
may not be as rapid as the home economics students
expect. Meeting together throughout the duration of
the project to share experiences, ideas, and
encouragement could be critical to the tutors' feelings
of success about the project.
Tutoring adult ESL literacy students could
benefit both the ESL students and the home
economics students. Benefits to ESL students may
include the availability of an additional core of
volunteers for tutoring and the availability of
teaching tools, content, and site for the tutoring. ESL
students may become familiar with school settings
and school environments which their own children
may attend and which they personally may have
avoided.
Benefits to the home economics students include
experiencing interpersonal relations, overcoming
difficult communication situations, increasing their
understanding of their own society, understanding
another culture, and gaining teaching experience.
The students also will be reinforcing their own
understanding of the home economics content. They
will become experienced community volunteers.
Participation in an ESL program may lead home
economics students to a better understanding of the
importance of home economics related knowledge
and skills as they see them used in less traditional
ways in the community.
References:
*Allen, V. F. (1983). Techniques in teaching
vocabulary. New York: Oxford University Press.
*Bell, J. and Burnaby, B. (1984). A handbook for ESL
literacy. Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies
in Education.
*Byrne, D. (1987). Techniques for classroom
interaction. New York: Longman.
*Dougill, J. (1987). Drama activities for language
learning. London: MacMillan Publishers.
Finocchiaro, M. (1984). "Teaching for the learner" in
Focus on the learner. S. Holden (ed.). Oxford:
Modern English Publications.
Knowles, M.S. (1975). Self-directed learning. New
York: Association Press.
*Rinvolucri, M. (1984). Grammar games: Cognitive,
affective and drama activities for ESL students.
New York: Cambridge University Press.
*Sadow, S. (1982). Idea bank. Rowley, Mass:
Newberry House Publishers, Inc.
Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1989
(109th ed.) Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Commerce, Bureau of the Census.
Statistical Yearbook of the Immigration and
Naturalization Service. (1988) Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Justice, Immigration and
Naturalization Service.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February 1991 113
EXTRA CREDIT CONTRACT
l.
(student's name)
sessions working with the ESL program between
agree to spend
one hour
(4-6)
I will be working with
(dates)
and
(ESL student name)
(ESL student name)
Signature
Parent/Guardian
ESL Coordinator
Yunus, N.A. (1981). Preparing and using aids for
English language teaching. Singapore: Oxford
University Press. • • •
(Continued from page 106.)
values to help them understand the importance that
their values play in their decisions about money.
Students keep records of income and expenses
throughout the semester. After two months of record
keeping, they budget their income and revise spend-
ing. Seeing what they spend usually prompts a re-
valuation of spending habits. Students complete a
budget assignment with income based on their
real/imagined first full-time job. All living
expenses are budgeted based on take home pay. The
differential between budgeted expenses and actual
income is often most enlightening. Students discuss
the relationship between personal values and
spending habits noting differences between people's
spending patterns. They evaluate their own buying
habits and seek to make changes where necessary.
Students state they recognize a need to make
positive changes in buying behavior as a result of
this experience. Students are required to keep
notebooks which become reference files and are kept
for use after graduation. Former students return often
to share how they have used information from the
course in their everyday lives.
I do not have the answers for the students, but
hope that they leave this course with a true under-
standing of their own values and the very important
part that they play in making decisions about how
they behave as consumers and that each is different
from the other and what one person values may not
be what another values and that it is okay to have
values different from one another. • • •
(Continued from page 106.)
their clients to the program for on the job training
(OJT). We now have three persons from the
Grandparent Program, one male, two females. The
food service workers invited the parents on WIC
(Women, Infants and Children) to hear extension
home economist Jeanne Thompson on choosing food
for infants and children. Student projects in making
children's learning books, mobiles, and place
mats/pictures relating to a child's world, has
stimulated student growth and involvement. The
mobiles are hanging over the cribs in the in-
fant/toddler room.
The first semester follow-up report on the
children in our program shows that all are on grade
level or above. Students presently in the child care
program have learned their telephone numbers,
addresses, and can spell their first name. Students in
the Child Care and Guidance Management and
Service are showing improvement in daily anecdo-
tal record observations. Test scores average right at
the seventy-five percentile.
With guided learning activities, students are
becoming more creative and gaining new ideas. Art
seems to be more evident of integration of other
subject matter with home economics. Students have
been innovative in doing the bulletin boards in the
classroom and in the program. Students seem to have
more confidence in themselves. A field trip is being
planned for the Child Care and Guidance
Management and Service class to visit a child care
facility in West Memphis, Arkansas. Also several
students are planning to attend The Home Based
Business Seminar to be held at East Arkansas
Community College, sponsored by the Extension
Service. • • •
114 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1991
A Holistic Perspective in Home Economics
Curriculum
Gwen Blair Frazier
State Consultant
Home Economics Education
Concord, NH
As educators, we must prepare students to make
choices that will lead to a lifestyle that is
personally satisfying, globally responsible and
ecologically sustainable. A tall order to say the
least but not a task we can afford to ignore. In New
Hampshire, to achieve this goal we initiated a
curriculum development project to utilize a holistic
perspective and integrate content related to these
concepts, where appropriate, into existing courses:
Sustainable Lifestyles
Ecologic Responsibility
Technological Literacy
Appropriate Technology
International Reciprocity
Balanced Development
Global Education
Voluntary Simplicity
Here are our working definitions of these
concepts.
Sustainable Lifestyles:
While a sustainable lifestyle is based on a com-
patible relationship with the ecosystem, its social,
economic, political, and technological aspects are
equally important in the successful achievement of
such a lifestyle. A sustainable lifestyle involves an
intricate balance of all influences operating within a
culture. Lester Brown (1981) details the ways in
which cultures have lost perspective on long-term
sustainability, and stresses the need to address this
idea in modern society.
Ecological Responsibility:
This concept addresses living within the
parameters of the natural ecosystem. It is
increasingly necessary for us to examine the
environmental consequences of our everyday choices.
What responsibility do we as consumers have for
creating consumer demand for products that create
toxic wastes in their production? How can we learn
to make a home fit more closely into the natural
ecosystem? This concept can be addressed at the
local household level as well as at the global level.
We can no longer afford the luxury of ecological
isolationism. What happens in one area of the
world influences the environment for all of us.
Technological Literacy:
I choose to define technology, in the broadest
sense, as the tools we use however simple or complex
they are. The person who is truly literate in the use
of technology approaches a task with a command of
the whole spectrum of technology and has the skill
to select the appropriate one. Too often, we assume
that teaching about higher order technologies will
make one literate in the use of technology.
Concentrating our efforts on advanced technologies
may allow our skills with lower order technologies
to atrophy. This leads to technological dependence.
We are then enslaved rather than freed by
technology. This also puts a culture in danger of
losing whole bodies of technology over time.
Appropriate Technology:
Appropriate technology is a term first used by
Schumacher (1973) to explain the human scale and
culturally specific elements of successful technology.
The effectiveness of any technology depends on the
degree to which it is compatible with various
aspects of the culture. (Indigenous technologies,
those that develop over time within a culture, differ
in effectiveness from technologies transferred from
one culture to another.) The cultural "fit" or
appropriateness of technology governs its usefulness.
Technology should make the task easier. The tools
should serve the people, not the reverse.
International Reciprocity:
This concept is best defined by Kulachi (1981) as
"each gives, each receives, and all benefit from the
exchange." In being aware of the richness of one's
own culture, it is easy to see what one's culture has to
offer cultures in other countries, especially less de-
veloped countries. Nancy Axinn (1978) explains that
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/February 1991 115
the reverse is also true. Less developed countries ex-
pect reciprocity in cross-cultural interactions with
more developed countries. We are wise to remember
that in cross-cultural interactions, each has much to
give, and each has much to gain.
Balanced Development:
This term taken from the work of George Axinn
(1978), outlines an alternative framework for
defining the term, development. Rather than using
industrialization, per capita income, and standard of
living as indicators of development, he uses
equilibrium. Axinn (1978) theorizes that cultures
cycle through stages of underdevelopment, balanced
development, and overdevelopment (see diagram).
Overdevelopment
/
\
Balanced
Development
Balanced
Development
\
/
Underdevelopment
Global Education:
Global education is a blend of many elements
that contribute to the development of a perception of
the world as a whole and the self in relation to the
whole (Hanvey, 1982). It includes knowledge of
global dynamics, cultural awareness, sensitivity to
cultural bias and the ability to see relationships
between local and global levels.
Voluntary Simplicity:
Voluntary simplicity was first used by Richard
Gregg in 1936 to describe strategies to help adjust con-
sumption levels to enhance life satisfaction. Duane
Elgin (1981) describes it as a philosophy that can
free people from the demands of abundance in excess
of their needs. It differs from poverty, which is
involuntary, because it results from a conscious choice
to limit consumption to enhance the quality of life.
We believe that increased knowledge and
awareness in these areas will enable students to deal
more effectively with current and future issues in
both local and global contexts. We also believe that
these are appropriate concepts to include in home
economics courses to achieve the goal of preparing
students to make choices that will lead to a lifestyle
that is personally satisfying, globally responsible,
and ecologially sustainable.
Indicators of Development Used in Axinn Model
Underdevelopment
Balanced Development
Overdevelopment
local resources
underused
Balance of local
resource supply and demand
overuse of local resources,
use of resources from other
cultures
local energy supply
exceeds demand
one-way communication
from overdeveloped
countries to less developed
energy demands do not strain
local supply
open exchange of ideas with
other countries as two-way
package
energy demands exceed local
supply
closed communication with
other countries, gives help, but
does not accept it from other
countries
workers can perform all
functions for life, low
dependence on others
workers specialize in some
tasks, moderate dependence on
others
workers perform some specialized
task, highly dependent on others
(Continued on page 109.)
116 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1991
Parenting With A Plus
Ruth Brunton
Retired, University of
Arizona
Cooperative Extension
Phoenix, AZ
Babies don't come with instructions. You get
more information with your new car than with your
new baby. What children learn in their first five
years influences their future success in school and
life. Parents are children's first and best teachers.
The home is the classroom. How will parents learn
to teach their children?
When parent-teachers are given information,
guidance, encouragement and empowerment, they
develop children who have the independence, self-
direction and self-pride needed to succeed in life.
Home economics teachers have background and
teaching in child development which they can share
with parents to help them to understand and nurture
their children's growth. Home economics teachers
can also help facilitate parent groups to discuss prob-
lems and possible solutions of their own and other
growing children.
This article describes a program with leader
guides and parent information on six basic topics that
have been selected as essential by lay and profes-
sional child caregivers. These discussion guides may
be used as starters for parenting groups, or to enrich
already established programs.
The topics discussed by the program participants
and in this article include: building self-esteem, dis-
cipline and love, communication and feelings, food
for fun and health, how do you talk to your child
about sex? and stress management and family fun.
Besides the leader guides and parent handout mate-
rials, I use audio and video tapes with these discus-
sions. They are available from the author.
What Are Our Goals?
Before discussing specific parts of the program,
parents and child caregivers meet with the facilita-
tor (home economics teacher or other trained leader)
to introduce themselves, their families, their con-
cerns and goals. Participants discuss what they want
for their children, e.g., to become healthy, secure, re-
sponsible, self-sufficient and caring people. They
rate their children on several items, before and after
the whole program, to determine growth and build
their children's self-esteem.
Likewise, participants rate themselves and score
their own growth in self-esteem and parenting skills
before and after the whole program. These pre and
post-tests, along with anecdotal comments through-
out the program, serve as evaluation tools. Parents
are reminded that nobody expects perfection.
They model for their children that they are
learning to be the best parents they can be; and they
expect their children to learn to be the best people
they can be! At the close of the program partici-
pants are presented Certificates of Participation
which seem to be effective in impressing children.
Program Planning
Participants are asked to list the topics they
would like to have discussed during the program,
and the leader plans the programs to meet those ex-
pressed needs. Most parents ask for help with disci-
pline and love, so the facilitator usually schedules
that lesson early in the year.
Building Self-Esteem
Because most professionals in the field of child
development believe that good self-esteem is essen-
tial to mental health, the group facilitator may
wish to start the program with this introductory and
overriding subject. Participants discuss the meaning
of self-esteem and why it is so important. They
describe behaviors of children and adults with high
and low self-esteem. After discussing many ways to
build self-esteem, parents describe methods they
have used and results achieved. Parents list their
own attributes, aptitudes and skills; their own short
and long term goals; their own support groups. They
add to the lists throughout the year. At home
parents go through this exercise with their children,
individually, and thus work together in building
their self-esteem and family strength.
Discipline and Love
These cornerstones of child development are dis-
cussed as two sides of the same coin. We love our
children; therefore we discipline them. The saddest
child is the one whose parents do not care at all.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February 1991 117
The true meaning of discipline is discussed. Par-
ents identify what they hope to teach their children
and assess a variety of discipline methods and what
they teach. Old autocratic and permissive methods
are discussed, and their natural and logical conse-
quences are contributed by participants as they list
their children's discipline problems, causes and pos-
sible solutions. Parents learn how to teach their
children the principles of good decision making and
the consequences of making good and bad choices.
Communication and Feelings
Communication is the lifeblood of relationships;
the difference between POWER and POVERTY. Poor
communication is one of the greatest causes of family
break down. To communicate well we must first
understand each other's FEELINGS, or emotions. We
are emotional and feel first and think later. In times
of crisis, we often forget to think. We tend to react
emotionally, as our parents did, perhaps in
destructive ways. Mental abuse may be even worse
than physical abuse. Participants learn to identify
their basic feelings.
Parents need to learn what good communication
is and why it is esential to maintain a "warm-line"
of communication to strengthen families.
Participants discuss BARRIERS of good commu-
nication, and ways to build strong BRIDGES. By role
playing they practice active listening, reflection,
rephrasing, body language and other communication
skills. After the parents and child caregivers
identify what is bothering them at home, they
practice giving "I" messages to describe their
feelings to others, and learn to assertively express
their own needs. Conflict resolution is part of the
outcomes developed.
Food for Fun and Health
The basis of good physical health is good nutri-
tion and regular exercise. "You are what you eat."
Everybody talks about exercising and eating right,
but few people do it. Food supplies nutrients for
growth and physical health, and brings pleasure
and fun for emotional health. Parents and child care
givers discuss the ages and stages of their children,
their nutritional needs and problems with feeding.
Realizing that nutritional needs vary with age, sex,
activity and heredity, participants learn that their
most important goal is to have their children eat a
nutritionally balanced diet that includes a variety
of foods and adequate amounts.
Parents learn to plan and serve attractive, bal-
anced menus. They realize they must model good
eating practices themselves. They understand that
their responsibility is to provide adequate well
balanced meals each day to meet the needs of the
family. The child's responsibility is to eat and enjoy
the food. If s/he chooses not to, within an
appropriate length of time, the food is removed until
next meal or snack time. Meal time should be
comfortable and happy. Parents discuss how they
promote their children's interest in eating good food
by exercise, rest, planting and growing foods, helping
to plan, purchase, and prepare healthy foods, and
being praised for eating. Recipes and samples of
health, nutritious, delicious foods are distributed for
all to taste and try. An emphasis is made on using
low calorie, high nutrient fibrous foods.
How to Talk to Your Child About Sex
Although 86 percent of the population believe
that schools should teach children about sex, the
vocal 14 percent who don't believe it have convinced
some local school boards to avoid it (Gordon, 1980).
People tend to agree that PARENTS should teach
their children about sex; but very few of them do it.
Often parents don't know what to say to their
children, and are too uncomfortable to say what they
DO know. So children learn distorted facts from
friends on the street, television and movies.
Excitement and glamour are stressed. Values,
responsibility and long range consequences are seldom
discussed. Youth receive the message: "Everybody's
doing it. Why not me?"
Nationally we suffer the tragic results: an epi-
demic of teenage pregnancies, children having chil-
dren. Our rate is twice as high as England's and
Canada's; seven times as high as the Netherlands
(Planned Parenthood, 1984-5). Low birthweight
babies, born at risk, cost our taxpayers millions of
dollars in medical care, education and welfare
assistance, crime, mental illness and grief. We help
parents learn to talk to their children about sex?
After describing their children's ages, sex, and
questions, parents and child caregivers discuss the
importance of giving straight answers and education.
Participants define "sex", discuss reasons for
early pregnancies, and what parents can do to help
prevent them. Together they practice talking to
their infants about all parts of their bodies. Parents
communicate to their children that human sexuality
and feeling good about one's body are tied closely to
love and responsibility. They learn to keep open the
lines of communication about sex so that they feel
free to grow together through the years.
Parents role-play and practice making appro-
priate answers to children's questions like: Where
did I come from?" "How did I get here?" "Why does
he have a penis?" "Why did I wet the bed last
night?" "What is menstruation?" "How do girls get
pregnant?" "What is love?" Parents become deter-
mined to help their children develop strong self es-
teem, decision making skills and realistic lifetime
goals.
118 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1991
Stress Management and Family Fun
"The number one source of children's stress is the
home. Schools should teach parents about parent-
ing," says Margaret Fitch, assistant school superin-
tendent in Omaha. We try to help parents and
children manage their stress so that they can have
happy home lives and productive work places. In
this discussion, participants analyze the meaning of
"Stress." They identify "good" and "bad" stress,
pointing out the symptoms and benefits. They also
discuss healthy and unhealthy ways of dealing
with stress. Relaxation exercises are provided.
Parents list the things that cause them stress. They
discuss probable causes and possible ways to manage
them. Just hearing that others have the same
problems often helps to relieve stress for parents, and
ultimately their children. Participants act out a
scenario of a typical American family during the
pre-dinner 'Time Bomb Period." Everybody discusses
each character's problems, and how they could have
helped the family to function more smoothly. Also
ideas for family fun are shared by all participants.
They agree that their families are the most
important sources of joy and hope in their lives and
that they need to spend more time and energy in
learning how to be the best parents they can be.
Summary
Parents are children's first and best teachers.
Parents deserve training and support for their most
important and difficult job. I believe that home
economics teachers are prepared and able to help
teenagers and adults prepare for and practice the
profession of parenting. A few states have
recognized this need and required that every school
provide parent education.
My dream is that all parents will have
accessible classes and support groups to help them
improve their parenting skills, self-esteem and
feelings of competency. I present a parent education
program containing discussion leader guides and
parent information on six basic topics that have been
selected as essential by ray and professional child
caregivers. The guides may be used as starters for
parenting groups, or to enrich already established
programs. Topics discussed include: building self-
esteem, discipline and love, communication and
feelings, food for fun and health, how do you talk to
your child about sex?, and stress management and
family fun. Strong families are the basis of a strong
society.
Reference
Gordon, S. (1980). Schools and parents — Partners in
sex education. Public Affairs Committee, Inc.,
Pamphlet N.
Teenagers, sexuality education, pregnancy national
overview. (1984-5). Planned Parenthood
Federation of America, Inc. • • •
(Continued from page 105.)
discussion of the six major groups in various
combinations from student examples, a general
overview of career areas can be explored. Students
are asked to list careers they might be interested in
that fall within their individual codes. Everyone
becomes interested in seeing the different
combinations found in the class; it provides an
opportunity to discuss how different jobs attract dif-
ferent personality types and how important that at-
traction is to fill all the jobs in the workplace.
After students have listed career ideas, they
identify information about themselves that may af-
fect career decisions. Students look at factors such as
personal values, family influence, interests, skills,
dreams and anything else they can think of that
would affect their career decisions. To analyze the
information collected, students write a summary of
what they found out about themselves related to ca-
reers.
At the conclusion of this activity, students are
more aware of factors that influence career choices,
particularly personal characteristics and interests.
Perhaps they will discover new areas of interest and
realize the importance of considering personality
and environment when choosing a career.
To expand the unit, additional career resources
using Holland's code could be researched in the li-
brary and through guidance counselors. A good activ-
ity to bring visibility to home economics would be to
have home economics students help other students
identify their Holland code at a career fair. If you
would like more information or copies of my
transparencies, you may contact me at Jefferson Junior
High School, 713 Rogers Street, Columbia, MO.
65203.
Reference
Holland, J. L. (1985). Making vocational choices: A
theory of vocational personalities and work
environments. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice
Hall. •••
ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February 1991 119
tt
Parenting For Responsible Behaviors
Ann K. Mullis
Department of 4-H and
Other Youth Programs
University of Florida
Gainesville, FL
Ronald L. Mullis
Head and Professor
Department of Family, Child
and Consumer Science
Florida State University
Tallahassee, FL
Family life education courses, particularly
those emphasizing parenting, have traditionally
emphasized teaching about what is involved in
childrearing and the guidance and discipline of
children. Thus the content has focused on general
child development, what one can expect from
children at progressive stages of development and
how to get children to behave in appropriate ways,
given their level of development. One area that has
received much less attention in family life education
courses has been the topic of enhancing children's re-
sponsible behaviors during interactions with others.
Consequently, the following article will address
this issue by suggesting some techniques for teaching
parenting for responsible behavior in courses of
family life education.
Behaving Prosocially
Often, guidance or discipline is taught as
something that is said or done to a child following
some misbehavior. In some cases prevention of
certain behaviors, like biting or spitting, is
discussed but, once again, the emphasis is on the
negative behavior of the child. How is it that
children learn about socially responsible behaviors
like helping, sharing and caring, what researchers
have termed "prosocial behaviors"? Although
parents or would-be parents need to be prepared to
deal with negative behaviors, they also need
assistance in preparing children to make positive
social contacts with peers and adults.
Prosocial behavior may be defined as behavior
directed toward another person which promotes or
sustains positive benefit to that person. This
definition implies a variety of actions including
helping, sharing, comforting, cooperating, nurturing,
respecting other's feelings, and being socially
responsible. Most researchers have found that as
children advance in age the incidents of prosocial
behavior will increase including behaviors of
cooperation, sharing and helping
Teaching About Prosocial Behavior
In the high school and junior high school
classroom a teacher might take a two-pronged
approach to teaching about prosocial behaviors.
One is teaching directly about how children can
learn helping, sharing and caring behaviors and
why they are useful in assisting children in the
formation of relationships. The second is more
indirect, giving students the opportunity to examine
their own prosocial behavior and to learn strategies
for developing more successful social skills.
Observation
After reviewing introductory information on
prosocial behaviors with students, a concrete
experience helps reinforce the content. This ex-
perience might take the form of an observation.
Armed with behavioral definitions of several
prosocial behaviors, students might tally the
occurrence of these behaviors with three different
age groups, e.g., children in occupational child care
programs, second graders and fourth graders.
Lacking facilities and proximity to young children,
a teacher could videotape three different age groups
of children at play. The value of this latter
technique is that it provides a standard stimulus,
opportunities to rewind the tape and, through
discussion, examine behaviors again. Try to find
clear examples where children benefit from use of
positive behaviors and those where children are
unsuccessful in their social contacts because they
show little or no concern for their peers. Most
adolescents enjoy being scientists in a mini-human
relations laboratory.
120 ILLINOIS TEACHER, January/ February, 1991
)esigning Curriculum
After analyzing "naturally" occurring prosocial
behaviors students might move to the next stage,
that of designing a curriculum to teach children
social skills. Rogers and Ross (1986) outlined three
elements of effective social interaction. First, the
ability to assess what is happening in a social
situation. Second, the skill to perceive and correctly
interpret the actions and needs of the children in a
group at play. And third, the ability to imagine
possible courses of action and select the most
appropriate one(s). Two keys for students to consider
are building opportunities for group play and teach-
ing children communication skills to use in entering
and participating in play groups successfully.
Interviewing Children
A final activity to assist students in under-
standing the importance of prosocial behaviors is to
present them with a series of questions put forth by
William Glasser (1965).
1 . How do you make friends?
2. What is a friend?
3. What makes a good friend?
4. How do you find a friend?
5. Is it better to have lots of friends or just a few
friends? (p. 172)
The students could interview children at three
different age levels using these questions or they
could respond to these questions as if they were four-
year-olds, seven-year-olds, and ten-year-olds. Some
may be willing to reflect on their own strategies for
making friends and how those strategies have
changed over the years.
Family life education programs for junior high
and high school students provide educators an
excellent opportunity to enhance students' awareness
of responsible behaviors in children and themselves.
Adolescents' first needs are for relationships with
others with whom they can share common interests
and concerns. With increasing age, they desire closer
caring and sharing relationships with peers and
adults. Knowing about and developing an under-
standing of positive social behaviors in themselves
and children aids adolescents to assume more
responsible behavior with others and become more
prepared to transmit these values in their own
families in the future.
References
Burleson, B.R. (1982). The development of comfort-
ing communication skills in childhood and ado-
lescence. Child Development, 53, 1578-1588.
Glasser, W. (1965). Schools without failure. New
York: Harper & Row Publishers, Inc.
Radke-Yarrow, M., Zahn-Waxler, C, & Chapman,
M. (1982). Children's prosocial dispositions and
behavior. In P.H. Mussen (Ed.) Handbook of
Child Psychology: Vol. IV. New York: John Wi-
ley & Sons.
Rogers, D.L. & Ross, D.D. (1986). Encouraging posi-
tive social interactions among young children.
Young Children, 41, 12-17. • • •
Teaching Basic Skills Through Home Economics:
is a publication of the Home Economics Education
Association developed by the Basic Skills
Subcommittee of the Home Economics Research
Committee, American Vocational Association.
The purpose of this publication is to help home
economics teachers develop basic skills through
their instruction. It is divided into four sections,
each dealing with a different major basic skill the
authors believed was particularly relevant to home
economic, i.e., communication, mathematics,
physical and life science, and social studies.
Each section begins with an introduction to the
use of the basic skill area in home economics,
followed by student activities that can be used in
teaching the skill. Within sections, activities are
organized into the following content areas: consumer
education/resource management, housing/home
furnishing human development, nutrition/foods, and
textiles/clothing.
For each activity, the home economics content
area, basic skill, and home economics application
are indicated. The activities are examples of only
some of the applications of integrating
communication, mathematics, physical and life
science, and social studies in home economics
education.
Teachers can select and use those activities that
seem most suitable for their classrooms. Further,
teachers should feel free to modify or revise the
materials to make them meet the needs and interests
of their students.
Some of the activities have previously been
published by the authors in funded project materials
and curriculum guides. Others were developed or
adapted specifically for this publication.
Strengthening Academic Skills in Home
Economics available November 30, 1990.
For information write to:
Home Economics Education Association
1201 Sixteenth Street, NW
Washington, DC 20036
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March/April, 1991
ILLINOIS TEACHER
Foreword, Mildred B. Griggs 121
Facing the Challenge: A Community Based Curriculum
Joseph A. Weber and Sheila Forbes 122
Curriculum Determinants or Confusing Deterrents?,
Kendra L. Vance, Julie M.Johnson, and Dixie J. Torres 125
What Do They Have That I Don't Have?, Betty B. Aultman 128
Do First Impressions Last Forever in Classroom Settings?, Usha Cho vvdhary 1 29
Voluntary Simplicity: A Life Style to Be Lived and Taught, Ruth Pestle 134
Nutritional Recommendation Should Promote Sustainability,
Robert J. Reber 135
The Parent Connection, Marie A. Allen 138
Instructional Use of Microcomputers: Why We Haven't Gone As
Far As We Expected, Maureen E. Kelly, Molly Longstreth, and
Karen L. Paris 140
Reality Testing for a Career in Child Care, Ann K. Mullis and
Ronald L. Mullis 141
Incorporating Cooperative Learning Strategies into Housing Curriculum,
Deborah G. Wooldridge, Marge S. Sebelius, and Mary Jeanne Weber 144
Sports Nutrition: A Modern Approach to Teaching Foods in High School
Home Economics, Sheryl Metzger 148
Fashion Retail Education: A Guide for Home Economics, Ann E. Fairhurst 1 50
Decision Making: Having a First Born at Age 35 or Older,
Patricia H. Williams and Tommie Lawhon 153
Transforming Home Economics: An Australian Perspective,
Margaret I. Henry 156
Illinois Teacher of Home Economics
ISSN 0739-148X
A publication of the Division of Home Economics Education,
Department of Vocational and Technical Education,
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Champaign, Illinois 61820
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Norma Huls, Office Manager
June Chambliss, Technical Director
Sally Rousey, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Linda Simpson, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Other Home Economics Education Division Staff and Graduate Students
Nancy Stone, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Julie Way, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Volume XXXIV, No. 4, March/ April, 1991. Published five times each
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©1991
Foreword
As in the past, this issue contains articles that contribute to our thinking about what to
teach, why it should be taught, and how it could be taught. These are perennial concerns of
home economics teachers who are leaders in their schools and communities. We are pleased to
be able to contribute to their success.
We often hear from our readers that the Illinois Teacher is a very useful and relevant
journal for them. Our intent is to publish the kind of articles that will help to enable home
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reach only a sample of the total population of home economists who teach. In order for the
journal to continue to exist, it is imperative that we increase the number of our subscribers.
Please help us, encourage your colleagues, teacher education students and friends to subscribe.
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121
Facing the Challenge:
A Community Based Curriculum
tt
Joseph A. Weber
Associate Professor
Department of Family Relations
and Child Development
and
Sheila Forbes
Assistant Professor
Extension Program Specialist
4-H and Youth Development
State 4-H Department
Oklahoma State University
Stillwater, Oklahoma
Previous studies (Erikson, 1968 and Mitchell,
1986) have shown that the adolescent period is a
difficult time of life for students to feel worthwhile.
There are several circumstances and reasons why
many students never feel a sense of worth. First, teens
are encouraged to strive for short-term solutions and
answers to the many problems they may face. Sec-
ond, many school settings encourage day-to-day con-
formity which can limit creativity and establish a
sense of monotony. Third, and possibly the most im-
portant, is the likelihood that adolescents have lit-
tle opportunity to engage in worthwhile work or to
participate in a significantly meaningful activity
(Mitchell, 1975). Even though it is a tall order, the
point remains that teachers must be aware of a stu-
dent's need to focus on activities which can establish
a sense of success, self-worth and accomplishment.
Youth are now facing a world previous genera-
tions would hardly recognize. As society moves into
the 21st century youth have almost unlimited oppor-
tunities for personal growth and development but
there are also issues and concerns affecting young
people that are particularly disturbing. Across the
country statistics show that alcohol and substance
abuse, teenage pregnancy and sexual activity,
dropouts and illiteracy, child neglect and abuse, and
depression and suicide are at record highs (US De-
partment of Education, 1988). Are local schools and
family service providers meeting the challenge? Can
home economics teachers give students an opportu-
nity to positively face the future? As a result of
these trends the Oklahoma State University Coop-
erative Extension Service developed a dynamic
school curriculum based on community involvement.
Students are making decisions daily that can af-
fect their future, their family and their community.
Students are making decisions as they decide on such
things as doing homework, going to the movies,
helping with chores around the house, not becoming
a drug abuser, or thinking about career opportunities.
Many students have difficulty making logical and
rational decisions because of limited information, an
inability to perceive consequences, and a lack of
experience.
The Oklahoma State University Home Eco-
nomics and 4-H Cooperative Extension Service real-
ized there was a need to develop a curriculum guide
which uses both formal and informal techniques to
help students learn about issues directly affecting
themselves and their classmates. The curriculum
guide known as the Oklahoma Community Youth Ef-
fort includes information on problem solving, issue
identification, public and community issues, decision
making, action plans, proposal writing, and a
wealth of information and exercises addressing
adolescent concerns. A training video was also
developed to explain and show examples of how
students can approach and solve a problem.
The major goal of the Oklahoma Community
Youth Effort (OCYE) curriculum is to help students
learn good decision making skills as they cooperate
in a community based project. OCYE provides stu-
dents experiential learning opportunities as they be-
gin looking beyond themselves and understanding
how "real-life" issues and concerns can impact their
school and community. Students ultimately become
excited about reaching out and making a difference.
Teachers who use the OCYE curriculum are en-
couraging students to become responsible and produc-
tive citizens. These objectives are accomplished as
122
students develop leadership skills, provide service
to others, understand problems facing them and their
communities, encourage others to make positive
choices and develop solutions to problems that affect
daily lives.
The OCYE curriculum guide is titled, "Free To
Face The Future" and is based on the idea that teens
learn more about themselves and gain a greater de-
gree of personal maturity and responsibility when
they can become involved in community concerns.
Adolescents have a need to become involved in
worthwhile activities to which they can commit
themselves (Cantril, 1964; Havighurst, 1972 and
Mitchell, 1986). Students have a stronger commit-
ment to programs in which they have been inte-
grally involved in the actual design, implementa-
tion and evaluation. Keeping this in mind the four
basic objectives of the curriculum are as follows:
1. To help students believe in themselves and make
the most of their potential.
2. To give youth the experience of providing
service to others and their community.
3. To help adolescents understand the interrela-
tionship between problems facing themselves,
their school and their community.
4. To give students an opportunity to develop an
action plan which addresses a specific problem
or issue of immediate concern. The action plan
follows the five step problem solving procedure
of defining the problem, searching for
alternatives, developing a plan, implementing
the plan and evaluating the plan.
How Does OCYE Work?
How does OCYE work? I repeat, it's very
simple. A home economics class, along with their
teacher and even an adult who may like to
participate decide that they want to form an OCYE
group. This classroom community action group can be
organized as an entire class or smaller more concen-
trated clusters of students who are interested in
addressing a specific issue. A class may have more
than one group organized with each focusing on a
different issue or the entire class can become
involved in varying aspects of a larger concern.
Next, the class goes through orientation as
outlined in the OCYE (Free to Face the Future)
curriculum guide which helps the class get
organized and carry out a community action project.
The curriculum includes information on identifying
community issues, group problem solving techniques,
developing an action plan as well as information on
specific issues and concerns of particular interest to
adolescents. Lists of references and resources are also
included.
Depending on the problem selected, a class may
work on a particular issue for only a few weeks to a
year or more. When the class has finished with one
issue, it can move on to others.
Blue Print for Action
A community action group is intended to help
students gain a better understanding of their
community and actively participate in its overall
improvement. A class can affect some of the
decisions being made in their community and
provide leadership necessary to make and carry out
these decisions.
Regardless of the issue a class chooses for a
community activity, there are certain basic steps to
follow for organizing a class project:
I. Determine Needs
The first and maybe the most important step is to
determine the real needs and problems in a particu-
lar community. Ask the class to list what they see as
the major problems and concerns in their community.
The class should also ask others (i.e., parents, local
officials, civic leaders, other youth, ministers, etc.)
to add to the list of needs.
A major section of the curriculum is devoted to
understanding and analyzing public issues. This sec-
tion explains how issues affect communities and
discusses a series of problems which can particularly
impact an adolescent. The issues discussed in detail
include alcohol and substance abuse, peer pressure,
stress, depression, suicide, illiteracy and dropouts,
and human relationships. Each issue section includes
factual information about that issue, class exercises
and activities to help a class understand that par-
ticular problem and a series of suggested community
project ideas.
II. Choose a Project
The class should choose an issue or problem from
the list of community needs. This can be very diffi-
cult because many issues will emerge and each issue
will be very important or critical depending on the
circumstances. Try to choose an issue which interests
the entire group, that there is time to accomplish,
that something can be done to correct the problem
and the class can experience some degree of success.
III. Get Approval
Students with the teacher's assistance should
check with local/county officials to see if any type
of permission or permit is needed to proceed with the
project. Students should also check with city/ town
officials and police or other law enforcement people
if the project will draw a crowd, involve streets or
123
highways, or any unusual activity. If appropriate
ask permission of land owners or business people.
IV. Check Resources
A class should be aware that outside resources
are available and can be used to get a community
project implemented. Besides the resources/ expertise
each student has, try to involve or network with
others in order to make the community effort more
lasting and have a greater impact. A class can turn to
civic clubs, local businesses, churches, medical asso-
ciations, law enforcement agencies or other youth or-
ganizations in order to seek support and resources.
V . Develop a Plan
The class should set specific goals and determine
a plan of action. This is done by outlining the steps to
carry out the project and determining which class
members will do what. Every student should be as-
signed a specific job with certain responsibilities. A
time table is also developed with starting dates and
when certain activities are suppose to take place.
VI. Work the Plan
The class project should be carried out with total
group involvement. After the project is implemented
students should remember to stop, look, listen and
make changes when appropriate.
VII. Evaluate
Keeping track of what happens during the life of
a community project is essential in determining the
success of that project. The teacher can encourage dis-
cussion among students as they determine if project
goals were reached and objectives accomplished.
Class Developments
A variety of OCYE projects have been carried out
in Oklahoma. One class surveyed other teens and
adults and decided to address the issue of drinking
and driving. After studying the many facets of alco-
hol abuse and contacting law enforcement agencies,
this class developed a 15-minute skit. The skit took
a lot of time and effort to develop. The class divided
the responsibilities of researching statistics on
teenage alcohol abuse, writing a script, making props
and producing the final product. The skit involved
the entire class as each member had a chance to par-
ticipate at different levels. To date this skit has
been presented at several neighboring schools, civic
organizations and youth groups.
Another class sponsored a public debate on a con-
troversial local highway toll issue. The class first
researched community awareness of the toll issue
and talked with many local and state transportation
officials. From the interviewing process the class de-
termined that a public debate was needed. A date
was set and key citizens were asked to participate.
The debate was quite a success as it allowed the
community to compare both sides of this controver-
sial issue.
Several school classes have sponsored programs
on substance abuse for the entire school as well as the
elementary grades. These school programs not only
allowed students to leam about substance abuse issues
but they had an opportunity to participate in a
poster contest.
The previously mentioned activities are a few
examples of OCYE class projects. The OCYE curricu-
lum is an excellent tool to help home economics
teachers direct in-class discussions, provide relevant
issue based exercises and have students participate
in experiential learning activities. The curriculum
has been used for classroom exploration of other is-
sues affecting teens and to help students practice de-
cision making skill.
A Challenge for Home Economics
Home economics teachers have a unique leader-
ship role in addressing issues and concerns which af-
fect students, families, schools, communities and the
larger society. Social forces are influencing the types
of challenges young people are experiencing as they
critically evaluate their choices. Students with the
guidance of home economics teachers and the "Free
To Face The Future" curriculum guide can move in new
directions as they bridge the gap between conceptual
obstacles and the reality of community issues.
Becoming involved in a community concern that
has a personal implications and ramifications on
students can instill in a class feelings of achieve-
ment, success and personal worth. Over time students
will be proud of their accomplishments, assume more
responsibility, tolerate frustration, approach new
challenges with enthusiasm and develop a high
level of self-esteem (Erikson, 1983).
Oklahoma County Extension Home Economists
and 4-H are working with schools to implement the
"Free To Face The Future" materials. Since these
materials were developed, several school districts
have implemented this program. The future looks
bright as extension professionals, home economics
teachers and students focus on new approaches in
making the community the classroom.
References
Cantril, H. (1964). A fresh look at the human de-
sign. Journal of Individual Psychology, 20, 129-
136.
(Continued on page 152.)
124
Curriculum Determinants or
Confusing Deterrents?
Kendra L. Vance
Project Assistant
and
Julie M. Johnson
Associate Professor
Department of Consumer
Sciences and Education
College of Home Economics
University of Nebraska
Lincoln, NE
Dixie J. Torres
Home Economics Teacher
Adams High School
Adams, NE
With emphasis on improving our schools during
the 1980s, home economics curriculum, like others,
has come under scrutiny to see what changes might be
made to help students grow and learn to lead produc-
tive lives. Laster (1986) identified questions that
should be answered when designing curriculum:
What subject matter should be taught? What learn-
ing processes should be included? What curriculum
design should be used? What should be the goals or
valued ends? What mode(s) of thinking should be
inherent in the design?
Who should say what home economics curricu-
lum should include? Martin, Saif, and Thiel (1987)
reported that at least two-thirds of the curriculum
developers responding to a national survey thought
administrators, parents, community representatives,
and teachers should be involved in curriculum devel-
opment.
Typically, needs assessments are conducted for
specific vocational areas to determine what various
groups think should be included within curriculum.
Using the needs assessment model, a need is identi-
fied as a gap or discrepancy between a future desired
condition and the existing condition. After determin-
ing the future desired condition and the existing con-
dition, curriculum development can occur to address
the identified need(s). This paper cites numerous
studies that have been conducted in the most recent
decade, and identifies philosophies about curriculum
that should impact today's curriculum decisions.
Needs of people within a society are continually
changing. Smith, Krouse, and Atkinson (1961) iden-
tified needs of secondary school age youth. Those re-
lated to vocational home economics curriculum in-
cluded: 1) the need to develop salable skills and at-
titudes, 2) the need to understand the significance of
the family and the conditions important for a suc-
cessful family life, and 3) the need to know how to
purchase and use goods and services intelligently, by
understanding the consequences of one's actions. More
recently, Keitz (1987) identified process skills such
as oral and written communication, problem solving,
decision making, critical thinking, human relations
skills, personal skills, and societal skills as neces-
sary to lead a productive life.
Studies conducted during the 1980's focused on
the groups Martin et al. (1987) identified as consid-
erations for curriculum development. Brink (1984)
thought that legislators, policy makers, and con-
cerned officials should also be consulted when plan-
ning so that a broad spectrum of societal issues would
be considered. In this study legislators indicated
their perceptions of the appropriateness of thirteen
concepts in subject matter areas for a personal and
family living program. Using overall conceptual
means to indicate appropriateness, concepts were
ordered as follows:
1) Feeding the family nutritiously
2) Managing money, time, and human resources
3) Skill in making decisions
4) Personal, family, and community health
5) Preparing both men and women for family and
work roles
6) The needs of elderly family members
7) The family in relation to the world of work
8) Dealing with family crisis such as divorce,
family violence, and alcoholism
9) Child rearing and parenting
10) Dealing with public policy issues that affect
the family
11) Getting along with other people
125
12) Preparation for marriage
13) Sexual development and adjustment as a family
member.
The legislators' ratings seem to mirror their world of
laws and public policies that address societal con-
cerns—nutrition, management of resources, decision
making, health, care of the elderly, and rights and
responsibilities of workers.
Members of local boards of education have indi-
cated that they perceive family financial resource
management, family life and relationships, and how
to be a good parent to be of greatest value in a home
economics program, with expansion needed in the ar-
eas of occupational education, consumer education,
and parenthood (Markussen, 1987). Hughes, Kister,
and Smith (1985) suggested that occupational skills
would increase self-esteem, positive attitudes to-
wards work, safe work habits, job seeking, and inter-
personal skills.
Parent opinions, perceptions, and attitudes
should not be overlooked during curriculum planning.
Nichols, Kennedy, and Schumm (1983) found that
mothers prioritized home economics topics differ-
ently for their daughters than for their sons. Parents
were also primary respondents in a needs assessment
conducted by Johnson (1986) in which economically
disadvantaged and non-economically disadvantaged
parents were surveyed to determine their perception
of the importance of 136 home economics concepts
within eight home economics subject matter areas.
Although there were minor variations, all parents
perceived Basic Employability Skills to be of great-
est importance, followed closely by Child Develop-
ment and Parenting and Management and Other Pro-
cesses. Clothing and Textiles and Housing and Home
Furnishings were perceived to be least important.
Using the same questionnaire format and con-
cepts, Vance's (1987) survey indicated that although
teachers emphasize Child Development and Parent-
ing and Management and Other Processes, they place
much less emphasis on Basic Employability Skills
than parents would like. Completing the cycle
which Johnson began in 1986, Torres (1989) asked se-
nior students in high school home economics classes
to identify subject matter areas and specific concepts
in home economics which they considered to be im-
portant. Like teachers, students perceived Child
Development and Parenting to be the most important
subject matter area. However, students perceived
Basic Employability Skills to be significantly more
important than teachers emphasized. Student per-
ception of the importance of Management and Other
Processes was significantly less than parents' and
teachers' perceptions of this subject matter area.
What do home economics teachers see as impor-
tant subject matter to be taught? This could be de-
termined, perhaps, by examining what was actually
being taught in home economics classrooms in the
decade of the 80's? Spitze's (1985) observations sug-
gest that Sewing/Clothing, Cooking/Food, Child
Development, Family Relations, Consumer Educa-
tion, Housing, Crafts, Personal Care/Health, Occu-
pations/Career Development, and Art Elements were
the areas (from most to least often) being taught.
Teachers' responses in Newkirk and Lodl's study
(1986) ranked subject matter areas, in descending
order of importance, as: Food and Nutrition, Human
Development/Family Relations, Textiles and Cloth-
ing, and Family Economics/ Home Management. Be-
ginning and experienced teachers (Cargin and
Williams,1984) reported the most-to least-fre-
quently taught subjects were: Food and Nutrition,
Clothing and Textiles, Family Living, Child Devel-
opment, Consumer Education, Housing, and Family
Finance. More recently, Vance (1987) found teachers
to be emphasizing Child Development and Parent-
ing, Management and Other Processes, Family Rela-
tionships, Food and Nutrition, and Clothing and
Textiles more than Consumer Education, Basic Em-
ployability Skills, and Housing and Home Furnish-
ings.
This is, to say the least, an interesting and yet
confusing array which, at times, offers contradictory
pieces of information and recommendations to con-
sider. How should they decide? Should teachers
base their curriculum decisions on student percep-
tions, parent perceptions, or perceptions of the local
school board? Should they also consider emphasiz-
ing the concepts that were emphasized by subject
matter specialists in college when they were under-
graduates? It is no wonder that a teacher may be
confused by the myriad of research and opinions on
this topic.
These ideas and questions, however, may simply
be "confusing deterrents" to the real issue. The ques-
tion of what concepts to include in one's curriculum
may depend on the beliefs and values held by the
teacher (Jax, 1986). Perhaps the issue is not the se-
lection of the concepts home economics teachers
should teach, but rather the orientation to curricu-
lum used to select those concepts.
Eisner and Vallance (1974) have identified five
different orientations to curriculum. These orienta-
tions are "ways of thinking", not merely changes in
strategies or methods that a teacher may use. Each
orientation is constructed by a web of beliefs, values
and premises the teacher may hold about the pur-
pose of education, the role of the teacher, and the
role of the student in the learning environment.
These "ways of thinking" or orientations should in-
fluence all the actions taken by the the teacher, in-
cluding the selection of concepts for the curriculum.
One orientation to curriculum is cognitive pro-
cessing. The main idea in this orientation is to de-
126
velop "the muscles of the mind". All learning is fo-
cused on causing students to become better thinkers. A
second orientation, identified by Eisner et al. (1974),
is academic rationalism. This orientation argues
that the "major function of the school is to foster the
intellectual growth of the student in those subject
matter areas most worthy of study" (p. 66). Those
subject matters are ones associated with a basic and
liberal education. This would exclude home eco-
nomics. A third orientation is personal relevance.
This orientation or "way of thinking" emphasizes
personal meaning and the development of the indi-
vidual. Individual values would be supreme. Social
reconstruction is a fourth orientation and is aimed at
"developing levels of critical consciousness among
children and youth so that they become aware of the
kinds of ills that society has and become motivated
to alleviate them" (p. 76). The emphasis is on what
is best for society, not individual values or goals. A
final orientation is technology. This is basically a
means-to-ends undertaking. The ends or behavioral
objectives are identified, and then means are taken
to accomplish them.
A teacher's orientation or way of thinking about
the overall purpose of education should have a defi-
nite impact upon concepts that are chosen for the cur-
riculum. Perhaps the confusion about what to teach
would become more clear if the teacher had a well
developed idea about his/her beliefs and values re-
lated to education. What should the orientation to
curriculum be in home economics?
Brown (1986) saw home economics as a field that
"we create and re-create socially" (p. 39). Because of
this, home economists have an obligation to concep-
tualize what it could be. She believed dialogue
should center on which conceptualization
(orientation to curriculum) is more morally defensi-
ble than others. In order to determine the nature of
home economics curriculum and select the important
concepts necessary in this curriculum, home economics
teachers must look beyond teaching only traditional
subject matter areas of home economics. They must
join in the discussion and dialogue about the meaning
of home economics and which curriculum orientation
should guide curriculum decisions.
For the decade of the 90' s, who will make curric-
ular decisions, and what factors will influence con-
tent decisions? Linking the individual, the family,
technology, and societal and world concerns with a
teacher's values, attitudes and beliefs about educa-
tion is a challenge that is to be met if curriculum is to
address current needs and lay the foundation for
youth as they shape the 21st century.
References
Brink, C. (1984). Legislators' perceptions of con-
sumer and homemaking programs' contributions
in public education. Journal of Vocational Home
Economics Education, 2(2), 91-103.
Brown, M. M. (1986). Home economics: A practical or
technical science? In J. F. Laster & R. E. Dohner
(Eds.), Vocational home economics curriculum:
State of the field (Yearbook 6, pp. 39-55). Peo-
ria, IL: Macmillan.
Cargin, J. B., & Williams, S. K. (1984). Educational
perspectives and practices of home economics
teachers. Journal of Vocational Home Economics
Education, 2(2), 3-17.
Hughes, R. P., Kister, J., & Smith, J. (1985). Redi-
recting secondary home economics programs.
Journal of Home Economics, 77(3), 14-17.
Jax, J. A. (1986). Home economics curriculum frame-
works. Illinois Teacher of Home Economics, 29,
105-108.
Home Economics Needs Assessment. (Project Report).
Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska.
Keitz, R. (1987). Integrating curriculum for tomor-
row's students. Educational Leadership, 44(4),
68-70.
Laster, J. F. (1986). Introduction. In J. F. Laster & R.
E. Dohner (Eds.), Vocational home economics cur-
riculum: State of the field (Yearbook 6, pp. 18-
26). Peoria, IL: Macmillan.
Markussen, P. A. (1987). Nebraska high school
board members' attitudes and perceptions of
home economics curriculum. Unpublished mas-
ter's thesis, Kearney State College, Kearney,
NE.
Martin, D. S., Saif, P. S., & Thiel, L. (1987). Cur-
riculum development: Who is involved and how?
Educational Leadership, 44(4), 40-48.
Newkirk, G., & Lodl, K. (1986). Importance of home
economics concepts taught in secondary school
programs. Unpublished manuscript, University
of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE.
Nichols, C. W., Kennedy, C. E., & Schumm, W.
(1983). What home economics programs do
mothers want for sons and daughters? Journal of
Home Economics, 75(1), 28-30.
Smith, E. W., Krouse, S. W., Jr., & Atkinson M. M.
(1961). The educators' encyclopedia. Englewood
Cliff, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Spitze, H. T. (1985). Observations in forty high
schools: Is our nation at risk? Journal of Home
Economics, 77(3), 7-11.
(Continued on page 139.)
127
What Do They Have That I Don't Have?
Betty B. Aultman
State Supervisor
Home Economics Education
Mississippi Department of
Education
The qualities of good teachers can be measured in
terms of the competencies they demonstrate in ef-
fective teaching. Classroom teachers serve as role
models and possibly as mentors for the students with
whom they work. Realistically, teachers are
ordinary persons, but it is difficult to separate their
personal lives from their professional role. Their
personal lives have much to do with their success as
teachers. Whether in a classroom situation or in a
leadership organization, the teachers are the
leaders/ supporters and set the image.
One of the major competencies of good teachers
are effective skills in human relationships. Ef-
fective teachers must know how to work effectively
with students, their parents, members of the school
administration, staff, and the community. Effective
teachers have a sense of humor, a genuine smile, and
maintain a positive attitude. Effective teachers are
also cognizant of the fact that students are people
with special strengths and weakness, who have the
potential for human growth if given consistent love
and understanding.
Up-to-date knowledge in methods and materials
of instruction in the subject area is the second
important competence of good teachers. Effective
teachers must not only have a thorough knowledge of
the subject they teach, but should also possess skills
to work harmoniously with all students to help them
understand and appreciate the subject. Effective
teachers must know how material in the subject fits
into today's world and into the projections for the
21st century.
Effective teachers use a variety of evaluation
techniques that strengthen student learning
abilities, enabling them to reach their fullest po-
tential through positive reinforcement at all learn-
ing levels. Effective teachers are forever a student
and strives to maintain current knowledge in the
subject by attending meetings and seminars and
reading current literature related to the subject.
They continue to develop new techniques and
strategies to cope with the ever changing trends and
technologies in today's world.
Effective teachers are dedicated to professional
improvement. Since teachers share so prominently in
the development of the curriculum, they should take
an active part in acquiring solutions to curriculum
problems. Effective teachers understand the total
curriculum of the school and how the goals and
objectives of the district relate to the goals and
objectives of the state educational system. They
know it is important to incorporate the philosophy
of general education into the goals and objectives of
each subject area. Effective teachers use the required
state curriculum structure, if one exists, to enhance
these goals and objectives to meet the needs and
interests of each student.
Finally, effective teachers are aware of com-
munity problems and resources through actively
participating in various community activities. Ef-
fective teachers know that one of their most impor-
tant roles is to help young people grow into mature
adults, who are responsible for their own actions,
and who become contributing members of our society.
They serve as a living role model through their own
involvement and leadership in their community.
When a teacher asks, "What do they have that
I don't have," the question may not be "What do
they have that I don't have; but, "How do they
effectively use their knowledge and available
resources?" Effective teachers meet the challenge to
use time effectively, maintain enthusiasm, retain a
positive attitude, keep a sense of humor, stays
current, and set an example for their students to
emulate. Effective teachers are cognizant of the
needs, interests, and abilities of each student and are
creative in the use of classroom teaching activities.
Teaching effectively in the 21st century will require
not only patience, timeless energy, dedication, and a
sense of humor, but also a knowledge of techniques in
stress and resource management.
The "best teacher" may not be the winner of
awards. Teachers can be winners because of self-
knowledge and the ability to motivate students to
excel to their optimal potential. •••
128
Do First Impressions Last Forever
in Classroom Settings?
Usha Chowdhary
University of Missouri
Columbia, MO
Several changes have taken place around the
world. The Berlin Wall is demolished. Germans are
hoping to have a unified Germany. Russia is moving
away from its conservative approach to exercise all
the rules of communism. The world community is
transforming into a global village. Should Ameri-
cans be perceptive to the changes occurring globally?
Should they take time to understand the life styles
of other people around them? The reason for learning
about others is that the United States is a country of
immigrants, some of whom came hundreds of years
ago and some are entering now. It is a melting pot.
The data indicate that by the year 2050, the ratio of
Caucasians and other immigrants will be fifty per-
cent each. Forty percent of the nation's students will
be minorities and ninety-five percent of the teachers
will be white (Watkins, 1989). To better prepare the
future citizens of the nation, it would be wise to ad-
vise them to be open-minded so that they can take
advantage of the opportunities available for them
world-wide. There can not be a better place to study
and implement this change than the classroom.
Stereotypical views and limited knowledge about
others can damage the social fabric of any nation
(Arluke and Levin, 1989).
Arluke and Levin (1989) identified stereotypes
as culturally shared negative images that are used
to justify unequal treatment exercised against minor-
ity groups. The stereotyping is a labeling process
that affects social interaction and perceptions of self
and others. In a broader context, the issue regarding
poor communication skills of foreign-born teachers is
one of the issues that could be addressed to dispel
some of the myths regarding them. Do students' per-
ceptions of their foreign-born teachers change over a
period of time? Or do first impressions last forever?
Considerable research has been done on the
power of sex, clothing, stereotyping, and stigmas in
influencing people's perceptions in general and stu-
dents' perceptions in specific. A majority of the prior
work used slides, line drawings (with or without
face), or single encounter perception, except Chowd-
hary (1988) who used a process approach in well
controlled naturalistic conditions for an extended pe-
riod of time. The assumption in Chowdhary's (1988)
research was that repeated appearances in nat-
uralistic conditions sensitize the individual to the
situation, reinforce the stereotypes attached to un-
familiar cues and help the perceiver to a more accu-
rate interpretation of symbols in a given context than
is possible in single encounters or one-shot slides or
line drawings. Chowdhary (1988) also reported that
a shift from unfamiliar to familiar dress cues im-
proved students' perceptions of teaching when course
syllabus, room, text, assignment and manner of pre-
sentation were controlled. The reported work is an
extension of Chowdhary's (1988) project. However, a
review of other literature is reported to provide the
rationale for the reported study.
Watkins (1989) reported the need for teachers to
learn about other cultures and fears that in the ab-
sence of any action the cultural diversity of the 21st
century could affect communication between and
among groups. Byrne and Clore (1970) and Byrne and
Nelson (1965) reported that individuals are at-
tached to those who have similar views. Interac-
tions with such individuals are rewarding because
they reinforce and support an individual's personal
views. Bickman (1974) and Buckley (1983) are also
proponents of this opinion. Hoffman and Kremer
(1980) found that a significant relationship existed
between student/teacher attitudes and students' rat-
ings. In contrast, Tollefson, Chen, and Kleinsasser
(1989) found that student-teacher attitude similar-
ity accounted for a small proportion of variance rat-
ings when teacher-generated variance was sepa-
rated from student-generated variability.
Leone and Robertson (1989) reported that sex-
typing is one means of achieving social control. Ku-
mar (1989) found that people use stereotypes to at-
tach meanings to people's behavior. In his study,
men were given better letters of recommendation
than women. Goffman (1963) perceived the use of
stigma as a negative force in social interaction. He
defined stigma as "an attribute that is discrediting"
(p.2). Ray and Lee (1989) asserted that some stigmas
129
are more discrediting than others. They defined
"master stigma" as a "characteristic of an individ-
ual that he perceives to have the strongest negative
effects on his interactions with others" (pp. 855-856).
"Being a foreigner" in their study was perceived to
be a "master stigma" by the students from Iran, Tai-
wan and Venezuela.
'Excellence' was the key word of the 80s
(Dickerscheid, 1985) and 'change' is the by- word of
the 90s. It is important to study the means that
would enhance student interaction and promote
learning irrespective of teacher's age, sex, race or
nationality. Chowdhary (1988) found that the
instructor's attire had an impact on college students'
evaluations of their instructor. The students
perceived their instructor more positively in West-
ern versus exotic clothing. Reeder and King (1984) re-
ported that the instructor in a skirted suit was con-
sidered more capable, trustworthy and organized,
whereas the instructor in a dainty feminine dress
was perceived to be more approachable. Rosenblatt
(1980) found that teachers in fashionable clothing
intend to portray a clear organized and controlled
manner of teaching. In contrast, the instructor in less
fashionable clothing emphasizes group discussion.
The issue that thus arises is whether an instructor
should change appearance to become a reflection of
the stereotypical expectations of students, or allow
some time for getting mutually accustomed to each
other.
In a close observance of the course evaluations of
one instructor from a foreign country, a steady in-
crease was observed in the mean scores in all six cat-
egories: overall teacher rating, manner of presenta-
tion, course organization, interest and enthusiasm,
evaluation and testing, and attitude toward stu-
dents. These evaluations were for freshman, sopho-
more, junior and senior level courses in a university
setting. Since this observation could be biased be-
cause of between-group variations over a period of
time, it was deemed important to examine whether
students felt that the instructor's performance im-
proved when they took a second or third course with
the same instructor. Therefore, the purpose of this
research was to investigate if increased interaction
with an instructor with a different background from
students would increase consonance between the two
irrespective of their nationality.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Blumer's (1969) symbolic interactionism pro-
vided the umbrella framework for the study. Sym-
bolic interactionism suggests that people use symbols
to interact with other people in any society. How-
ever, shared perceptions of the meanings of symbols
is an important factor for effective communication
(Bickman, 1974, Kaiser, 1985). The theory of "First
Impressions" is embedded in symbolic interactionism
and suggests that favorable first impressions result
in a positive interaction and arouse the curiosity of
an observer to learn more about the perceived
(Douty, 1963). However, the lasting nature of first
impressions can be attributed to "primacy" and
"recency" effects (Coursey, 1973). Some individuals
refer back to the first meeting with the perceived
(primacy effect) while others retrieve their
impressions from the last meeting with the observed
person (recency effect). However, these perceptions
are largely based on people's past experiences and
tendency to draw inferences by grouping their
personal and behavioral characteristics (Taguiri,
1969).
Miller (1987), in his information processing
model of cognition presents three major cognitive pro-
cesses: perception, memory and thought. Perception
is the process at the sensory level in which stimuli
are interpreted based on peoples' past knowledge
about the stimuli registered by the individual's
senses. The perception process can occur by pattern
recognition and/or selective attention. Memory rep-
resents, organizes and retrieves the information. In-
dividual differences exist with regard to their mem-
ory. In representation, memory uses both verbal
(analytic) and visual (analogue) codes. Miller (1987)
believes that the use of both provides more holistic
information. Organization revolves around three
memory systems: episodic, semantic and procedural.
Of these three he singled out the semantic memory
that is organized in the form of conceptual frame-
works. He also reported the complexity in terms of
differentiation (distinction between different parts
of people's thinking), and integration (linking dif-
fering units). Retrieval is defined as a search process
that activates concept nodes and brings them to the
conscious level of the perceiver. Thought refers to
the use by an individual of acquired or stored infor-
mation in conjunction with the current information.
Individuals use three types of inductive reasoning:
classification (learning and acquisition of conceptual
categories), analogical reasoning (encoding, infer-
ring, mapping and applying), and judgment (treating
both negative and positive information impartially
to reach an optimal decision). Miller (1987) contends
that his integrated model of cognitive styles consid-
ers individual differences at every level.
Others have suggested that people use several
antecedental processes before assigning meanings to
symbols and drawing inferences about activities or
objects. Some of these processes include stereotyping
(Coursey, 1973; Douty, 1963), deference (Fortenberry,
MacLean, Morris & O'Conell, 1971), attraction to-
ward similarity (Bickman, 1974; Buckley, 1983;
Buckley & Roach, 1981, Harris and Baudin, 1973),
and cognitive consistency (Kerr & Dell, 1976). Since
130
accent, teaching style, and /or appearance of foreign-
born teachers may not be familiar to students in the
Western setting, the attributions based on first im-
pressions may be the result of temporary cognitive
inconsistency. However, when the same student
takes a second or third course with the same
instructor, the foreign-born instructor's accent, style
and appearance may not remain as foreign as the
first time and the result could be improved cognitive
consistency, attraction toward similarity developed
due to increased interaction, improved student-
teacher interaction, and positive global perception.
METHODOLOGY
The study was conducted at a medium-sized state
university, with predominantly white students. Ap-
proximately, one hundred students who have had
one instructor (foreign-bom) for two or more courses
between December 1988 and April 1990 were invited
to participate in the research. Fifty-four (mostly
female) participated in the study. The students
were asked to give a process rating (a range of scores
from what they thought when they took their first
course with the instructor to the last course they
were taking with the instructor) on six aspects of the
instructor's teaching: overall teacher rating, manner
of presentation, course organization, evaluation and
testing, interest and enthusiasm and attitude toward
students. The scale read 1 (Poor), 2 (Below Average),
3 (Average), 4 (Above Average), 5 (Excellent). The
same instrument was used successfully by Chowd-
hary (1988). Students did not write their names on
the self-administered one-page questionnaire that
was executed in the last two weeks of the Fall 1988,
Winter 1989, Fall 1989 and Winter 1990 semesters.
Anonymity and confidentiality of students' responses
was guaranteed. A majority of the participating stu-
dents in the study were from the College of Human
Environmental Sciences. Paired t-tests and one-way
ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) were used to ana-
lyze the data.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The paired t-test analysis indicated that the
group's mean scores improved for all six categories
(Table 1). However, the differences were significant
for the overall teacher rating (r><.0001), interest and
enthusiasm (j><.003), manner of presentation (p<.01),
and course organization (j><.05).
The findings from one-way ANOVA of courses by
the six factors used to determine teaching effective-
ness indicated that only "overall teacher rating''
was rated higher by those who took two versus three
courses with the instructor (Table 2).
The results reflect that an increased exposure to
new instructors with a different background from the
students may reduce students' anxiety and improve
student-teacher interaction. Both groups become
more accustomed to each other and the communica-
tion gap is reduced. However, it was interesting to
note that increases were significant for four of the six
categories (overall teacher rating, manner of presen-
tation, course organization, and interest and enthusi-
asm) when the rating between the first and the last
course were considered. However when ratings were
compared between those who took two versus three
courses with the same instructor, significant differ-
ences were observed only in one of the six categories
(overall teacher rating). This observation may be at-
tributed to the fact that with increased exposure ex-
otic background becomes less of a barrier because stu-
dents get used to the accent, appearance and style.
However, it would be interesting to examine how
much students' ratings would change if they took a
fourth or fifth course with the same instructor, or if
the ratings would get stabilized after taking a cer-
tain number of courses with an instructor irrespective
of their backgrounds.
The findings can be explained on the basis of the
existing literature on impression formation. Douty
(1963) reported that favorable first impressions mo-
tivate the perceiver to seek more information about
the perceived. Taguiri (1969) noted that individuals
make inferences regarding the stimulus largely by
drawing information from their past experiences and
grouping their personal and behavioral characteris-
tics. If people are unaware of the personal and be-
havioral traits of people with different back-
grounds, they would not know how to interpret cues
which are new to them. Therefore, they may with-
draw believing that the other person does not under-
stand them and they do not understand the person
with a different background from theirs. This inter-
pretation relates to Miller's (1987) contention that
individuals use three cognitive processes in informa-
tion processing (perception, memory and thought). If
the students have had no prior experience with for-
eign-born instructors, they would interpret their be-
havior based on perception alone because nothing
would register to the level of consciousness from the
memory. It would be hard for them to integrate
stored and new information for there is nothing
available to compare it with. Consequently, opinions
would be based on one of the three feasible options
available to them. However, with an increase in the
number of encounters, students' new experience will
become registered in their memory and can facilitate
them to integrate stored information with the new
information based on their personal experiences.
However, Miller's recommendation of individual
differences at every level of cognitive processes
should not be ignored while interpreting results.
Arluke and Levin (1989) noted stereotypes as cul-
turally shared negative images that are used to jus-
131
tify unequal treatment exercised against minority
groups. These processes of labeling (stereotyping or
use of stigmas) people have been reported to be used
extensively in social interaction by several re-
searchers (Chowdhary, 1988; Coursey, 1973; Douty,
1963; Goffman, 1963; Kumar, 1989; Ray and Lee,
1989). Whether students use stigmas or stereotyping,
their interpretation of strangers' behavior could be
biased. Increased exposure could either reduce the ef-
fect of stereotypes (as was the case in the reported
study) or reinforce their belief(s) regarding the
stereotype under question. The author believes that
increased interaction with students by course with an
instructor who has a different background from stu-
dents better familiarizes both groups with each
other. Thus, cognitive incongruence is reduced and
consonance increases based on the theory of similar-
ity attracts.
The findings have implications for higher edu-
cation, where a majority of the teaching instructors
in some disciplines are foreign born. However, get-
ting native students more interested in learning about
other cultures than is done now can contribute toward
reducing their anxiety. If "change" is the byword of
the 90s, why not use it in classrooms to the
advantage of both students and instructors. Repeat-
ing this experiment with foreign-born instructors in
hard science courses such as math, computer science,
chemistry, etc., will improve generalizability of
this effort. Also, repeating the same experiment
with American natives will add a new dimension to
determine whether the stamp of being a foreigner is
the major contributor to the reported variations or
whether it is a normal process of evolution for all
teachers irrespective of their background. The pro-
gram in which this experiment was conducted does
not attract many male students. Therefore, extending
this effort to greater representation of male students
is also warranted.
Selected References
Arluke, A. & Levin, J. (1989). Another stereotype:
Old age as a second childhood. In Harold Cox
(Ed.), Aging. Guilford, Connecticut: The Dushkin
Publishing Group. 73-77.
Bickman, L. (1974). The social power of uniform.
Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 4, 47-61.
Blumer, G. H. (1969). Symbolic interactionism:
Perspective and method. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Buckley, H. M. (1983). Attraction toward a stranger
as a linear function of similarity in dress. Home
Economics Research Journal, 12, 25-34.
Buckley, H. M. & Roach, M.E. (1981). Attraction as a
function of attitudes and dress. Home Economics
Research Journal, 10, 88-97.
Byrne, D. & Clore, G. L. (1970). A reinforcement
model of evaluative responses. Personality: An
International Journal, I, 103-128.
Byrne, D. & Nelson, D. (1965). Attractiveness as a
linear function of proportion of positive
reinforcements. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 1, 659-663.
Chowdhary, U. (1988). Instructor's attire as a
biasing factor in students' ratings of an instructor.
Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 6, 17-22.
Coursey, R.D. (1973). Clothes do make the man, in
the eye of the beholder. Perceptual and Motor
Skills, 36, 1259-1264.
Dickerscheid, J. D. (1985). Excellence: The code word
of the 80s. Journal of Phi Upsilon Omicron, 66, 7-
10.
Douty, H.I. (1963). Influence of clothing on
perception of persons. Journal of Home Economics,
55, 197-202.
Fortenberry, J.H., MacLean, J., Morris, P. &
O'Connell, M. (1978). Mode of dress as a
perceptual cue to deference. The Journal of Social
Psychology, 104, 139-140.
Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Harris, M.B. & Baudin, H. (1973). The language of
altruism: The effects of language on dress and
ethnic group. The Journal of Social Psychology,
92,37-41.
Hoffman, F.E. & Kremer, L. (1980). Attitudes toward
higher education and course evaluation. Journal
of Educational Psychology, 72, 610-617.
Kaiser, S. B. (1990). The social psychology of
clothing. New York: MacMillan Publishing
Company.
Kerr, B.A. & Dell, D.M. (1976). Perceived
interviewer expertness and attractiveness:
Effects of interviewer's behavior on attire and
interview setting. Perceptual and Motor Skills,
52, 843-852.
Kumar, P. (1989). The evaluation of unexpected
behavior. The Journal of Social Psychology, 129,
121-122.
Leone, C. & Robertson, K. (1989). Some effects of sex-
linked clothing and gender schema on the
stereotyping of infants. The Journal of Social
Psychology, 122, 609-619.
Miller, A. (1987). Cognitive styles: An integrated
model. Educational Psychology, 1, 251-268.
Ray, M.C. & Lee, M. Y. (1989). Effects of stigmas on
intergroup relationships. The Journal of Social
Psychology, 129, 855-857.
132
Reeder, E.N. & King, A. C. (1984). Are teachers
dressing for success? Illinois Teacher May/June,
212-213.
Rosenblatt, S. (1980). The relationship of clothing to
perceived teaching styles. College Student Jour-
nal, 14. 230-236.
Tollefson, N., Chen, J.S., Kleinsasser, A. (1989). The
relationship of students' attitudes about effec-
tive teaching to students' ratings of effective
teaching. Educational and Psychological Mea-
surement, 49, 529-536.
Watkins, B. T. (1989) Colleges urged to train future
school teachers to deal with expected influx of
immigrants. The Chronicle of Higher Education,
December 13,36, A41-A42.
Table 1 Paired t-tests between mean ratings for first versus last course for six teaching effectiveness variables.
Teaching effectiveness variable
Overall teacher rating
Manner of presentation
Course organization
Evaluation and testing
Interest and enthusiasm
Attitude toward students
Mean (Tl)
Mean (T2)
t-value
First course
Last course
n=54
n=54
3.5
4.0
-4 9 ****
3.5
3.8
-3.0**
3.9
4.1
-2.4*
3.7
3.8
-1.8
4.3
4.6
-3.2**
4.4
4.5
-1.2
* £ <.05
4=above average
5=excellent
**** p. <.0001 **£ <.01
l=poor 2=below average 3=average
Table 2 ANOVA showing courses by six teaching effectiveness variables (significant results only). n=54
Teaching Effectiveness
Variables
Sum of
Squares
Degree of
Fredom
Mean
Square
R-Ratio
Overall teacher rating
Between groups
Within groups
Total
3.4
2
1.7
19.4
49
0.4
22.8
51
4.3'
£<.05
133
Voluntary Simplicity: A Life Style to Be
Lived and Taught
Ruth Pestle, Director
Center for Family Services
Florida State University
Tallahassee, FL
The question of whether we live in a fragile en-
vironment or not used to be debatable. However,
politicians have agreed on the matter lately. Scien-
tists report that the hole in the ozone layer over
Antarctica increases in size each spring. We dump
garbage into rivers and oceans, only to be upset later
at the levels of mercury found in fish or the contami-
nation found in drinking water. The press reports
negatively upon oil spills which destroy generations
of wildlife and their breeding grounds.
We now agree that nations artificially have di-
vided the world which is actually very interdepen-
dent environmentally. For example, nations in east-
ern Europe depend on western countries for food be-
cause the level of development of their agriculture
does not provide enough food. Within a huge country
like the USA, when record cold temperatures hit
New England in December of 1989, oil prices rose
dramatically due to its short supply.
In trying to determine how I became focused on a
voluntarily simple life style — I recall my Vermont
heritage. My dad was a farmer and a science
teacher. As children, we heard about the interde-
pendence of weather, soil, fertilizer, light and luck
which might mean something like how deep the
Vermont frost penetrated in winter killing roots. We
posted NO HUNTING signs in our fields to prevent
deer from being hunted on them. When dusting the
house, any creatures such as daddy-long-legs or spi-
ders which I found, had to be transported outside
alive on the dust rag so the creature could eat things
there and be helpful to us. I recall dad watching
electrical repair crews cut limbs from our maple and
black cedar trees where they touched power lines to
be sure the least possible limbs were cut. Looking
back, these many small, everyday parts of life illus-
trate how he felt about disturbing nature versus pro-
moting it. The use of a compost pile, braided rugs
from winter garments, and canned goods are other ex-
amples. Dad also read the National Geographic
aloud to us in the days before television. He put its
maps on our living room wall and connected places
mentioned in the news to continents and oceans. My
parents encouraged my love of travel. I travelled to
Europe as a work camper with the World Council of
Churches and I travelled as a Quaker on a world
study tour. It thus became easy for me to understand
the relativeness of poverty and richness, erosion and
fertility, war and peace from first hand observa-
tions.
When asked what I am doing to practice this
life style, the answers are "walk to church; ride city
buses on days when I do not have an 8:00 a.m. class to
teach; set the summer thermostat at 80 degrees and
carry an oscillating fan to the room where I need to
work; set the winter thermostat at 63 degrees and
wear layers; recycle and use a compost pile; set the
water heater to be on two hours per day; copy mate-
rials on back of paper; grow tomatoes, peppers and
onions; pick and freeze fruits; line dry clothes; eat
mostly incomplete proteins; and wash dishes by
hand." My income affords me a dishwasher, clothes
dryer, etc., but as a single person I am able to carry
out some practices which may not be as feasible for
other types of families. Each person must make there
own choices.
I have been referred to in many ways. For exam-
ple, "damned yankee, futurist, old-fashioned, on the
cutting edge." Whatever I am, I know that as a
home economist I have the option to allow man and
other life forms a happy co-existence. I can help to
maintain a global perspective on maintaining the
earth's resources. I can link, generationally and
globally now with like-minded persons.
Teaching home economics students to see how the
family can contribute to environmental protection
may require some major curriculum changes. Students
tend to focus on "me" and "now" rather than "them"
and the "future." Yet taking a long range perspective
is needed.
One approach is through hands-on experience,
and recycling is a concept that lends itself to that.
Examples of hands-on experiences are: sorting school
or family waste into paper, glass and aluminum, for
recycling plus a photo session at the city dump or
(Continued on page 139.)
134
Nutritional Recommendation Should
Promote Sustainability
Robert J. Reber
Extension Specialist in Nutrition
School of Human Resources & Family Studies
University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, IL
Permission to reprint granted from the Agroecology
Program, College of Agriculture, University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign .
As we move toward sustainability as a major so-
cietal goal, a more holistic approach will be re-
quired of every discipline. Linkages between wide
ranging disciplines - from economics to ecology to
ethics must be explored and understood. Nutrition is
no exception. Nutritionists must consider how their
discipline is connected to the whole.
Nutrition is a central theme of the biological
world. All species interact and interrelate in one
humming biota of competitive and cooperative rela-
tionships (Leopold, 1987), many of which are prey
or predatory in nature. This interwoven, interlocking
web of lifeforms is essential for the orderly flow of
nutrients and energy from soil, water, air and sun up
through the land pyramid to the top predator, man.
The more diversity that exists in this feeding
web, the more options that are open for this continu-
ous flow of sustenance and the more stable the sys-
tem becomes. In a system composed of fewer species,
chaotic, catastrophic events such as extinction or
disease that wipe out or greatly reduce numbers of a
particular species can spell disaster.
Any process or event that disrupts or constrains
this flow of nutrients and energy becomes a nutrition
problem. In this sense, soil erosion becomes a more
profound, basic problem than does obesity or iron de-
ficiency anemia. Nutritionists ought to promote
practices that protect the integrity, stability and
beauty of this land community (soil, water, air, all
biologic species). Sustaining this land community be-
comes paramount. Certainly nutritionists cannot di-
vorce themselves from the natural environment nor
the food production systems that provide sustenance.
Thus nutritionists ought to take the broad view of
their discipline when making recommendations be-
cause so many varied factors influence the avail-
ability and safety of our food supply.
Traditionally, nutritionists have based recom-
mendations on the nutrient content of foods. Addi-
tionally, cost and safety considerations have influ-
enced recommendations. Advice based on such a nar-
row view is inadequate. Food choices should be
made not merely in terms of their health and eco-
nomic impacts on the individual but also in terms of
their impact on the long-term stability of the food
system (Gussow, and Clancy, 1986). Nutritional
recommendations that are designed to meet health
goals but that contribute to the demise of our long-
term food production capacity are self-defeating.
Nutritional recommendations must take into account
the natural environment upon which food production
depends. Food production systems that waste soil,
waste people. Systems that squander energy, limit
future options. Systems that pollute, compromise
health.
Two key concepts that have been woven into nu-
tritional recommendations are variety and modera-
tion. These concepts are certainly in tune with sus-
tainable agricultural systems, but they may not go
far enough. Diversity is a key concept for both the
nutritional and agricultural facets of sustainability.
Diverse agroecosystems are more stable and re-
silient— both ecologically and economically. Di-
verse diets better meet the nutrient needs of individ-
uals. That means that recommending a varied diet
can support diverse agroecosystems.
Growing just a few crops that possess narrow ge-
netic bases is a suspect economic, ecologic and nutri-
tional strategy. But that has been the trend world-
wide. Fewer and fewer species are being relied upon
to feed the world. Thirty species provide most of the
world's food supply with just four species (wheat,
rice, corn, potatoes) contributing the largest share
(Harlan, 1976). Genetic diversity within a species
also has been decreasing. While the number of
individual food items available in supermarkets is
increasing, this is not the result of additional
species being used as food sources. Rather, the
increased items available are the result of increased
fabrication of the same crop species. Thus, when
recommending a variety of foods, a true variety of
species must be emphasized for nutritional well-
being as well as sustainable agricultural systems.
The question of how and from where we obtain a
wide variety of foods to meet nutritional needs is not
135
easily answered. Generally speaking, the purchase
of foods grown locally or in one's own bioregion has
been recommended in support of sustainable systems.
There are many persuasive reasons for this thinking.
Energy requirements to transport foods long distances
is a major concern. Overall, our present food produc-
tion systems are very inefficient when judged on an
energy in/energy out criteria. On the average, for
every calorie that comes to the table, ten have to be
expended (Gussow and Clancy, 1986). Some
transportation energy expenditures are substantial.
The calculated cost of flying one five-calorie
strawberry from California to New York is 435
calories. (Pimental and Pimental, 1979).
Nutritionists should consider these trade-offs when
recommending out-of-season produce as a way of
consuming a variety of foods. Support of local
economies is another reason often given for buying
food produced locally or in one's own bioregion.
Certainly practices that sustain local rural
communities and support self-sufficiency are to be
promoted. Creating a demand for a variety of
locally grown foodstuffs has additional positive
impact beyond energy savings and promoting one's
own local economy. Such demand encourages the de-
velopment of more diverse agroecosystems whose
ecologic, economic and nutritional advantages have
been discussed elsewhere.
Obviously, there are some constraints on consum-
ing locally grown foods. Climatic conditions and soil
types put constraints on what can be grown which
can limit overall variety and seasonal availability.
Additionally, soils in some regions may have either
excesses or deficiencies of required elements which
are reflected in the foods grown on them. Iodine de-
ficient soils and high selenium soils are cases in
point. Eating foods grown in different bioregions usu-
ally compensate for these kinds of problems. Model
sustainable systems that promote the consumption of
locally grown foods will have to consider potential
nutritional problems caused by the lack of or excess
of certain trace elements in the soil.
Consuming foreign produced food is often dis-
couraged by proponents of sustainability. The most
obvious detriment is the high energy expenditures
needed for transportation. Also, pesticide use in for-
eign countries is often less stringently regulated re-
sulting not only in greater residue problems in food,
but also in more negative environmental impacts at
the production sites. In some developing countries,
food is produced with blatant disregard for the nat-
ural environment and people indigenous to the area.
The destruction of Brazilian rain forests to establish
grasslands on which "fast-food" beef is grown is a
recent, highly visible example. Such practices have
led to boycott pleas from environmental groups. An-
other less obvious negative effect of purchasing for-
eign grown food is often pointed out. Rich nations,
such as the United States, can effectively outbid the
citizens of developing countries for their own natural
resources, thus crippling efforts toward self-suffi-
ciency and sustainability (Oxfam America, 1984).
Frequently, crops grown for export are specialty,
luxury items, such as coffee, tea, spices, etc., that
occupy lands required to produce staples needed for
native populations. And land barons often reap the
profit from sales, not the local residents. Indeed,
land reform is often cited as a key prerequisite for
sustainability in many developing countries.
Excluding meat from the diet is often recom-
mended on an ethical/philosophical basis, as well
as a way to promote wise use of resources. Such rea-
soning has resulted in various degrees of vegetarian-
ism from lacto-ovo vegetarianism to strict veganism.
While excessive feeding of grain to livestock can be
criticized from an energy-efficiency standpoint and
because it can divert grain away from human con-
sumption (Lappe', 1975), such criticism ignores the
multiple options livestock offer in increasing
agroecosystem diversity as well as other positive
environmental and nutritional outcomes. Ruminants
and forages integrate well into sustainable systems.
Properly managed ruminant-forage systems are
among the most ecologically sound food production
systems available (Hopkins and Thomas, 1984).
Forages offer protection from wind and water
erosion. Forages used as a part of crop rotation
schemes break up pest life cycles and decrease
dependence on pesticides. Legumes that fix
atmospheric nitrogen and livestock manures increase
the fertility, organic matter content and water-
holding capacity of soils. Thus, the need to purchase
commercial fertilizer is lessened. Of course the key
is proper management. As mentioned earlier, unwise
use (e.g., rain forest destruction, overgrazing) can be
ecologically devastating.
Ruminant-forage systems can produce nutrient-
dense human food from nonhuman feedstuffs espe-
cially for inhabitants of developing countries. These
systems can take atmospheric nitrogen and incorpo-
rate it into a very high quality protein, improve the
bioavailability of trace elements and take the en-
ergy locked in crude fiber and make it available to
humans (Reber, 1987). Concern over the saturated
fat and cholesterol content of animal-source foods
must be considered. There is little doubt that a
prudent diet is in order for persons at significant risk
of coronary heart disease. However, lean meat in
moderation can be a significant part of most diets.
The approach advocated by the Committee on
Technological Options to Improve the Attributes of
Animal Products (NAS-NRC) should be given
serious consideration. They have suggested methods
of reducing the total fat in meat and modifying fatty
136
acid composition through various breeding, feeding,
marketing and processing strategies (National
Research Council, 1988). Certainly, nutritional rec-
ommendations that include the moderate use of lean
meat are consistent with agricultural as well as
global sustainability.
Another concern that is often voiced when con-
sidering nutritional sustainability is the level of
processing and packaging of foods. It has been sug-
gested that consumers should be instructed to select
minimally processed and minimally packaged foods
(Knorr and Clancy, 1984). There are persuasive
reasons for this view. As processing and packaging
increase, energy expenditures also increase.
Packaging contributes to the problem of solid-waste
disposal. Also, processing may sacrifice some
nutritional value. However, some level of processing
is necessary to extend the food supply beyond the
growing season, to make foods available to
consumers who have limited storage options and to
render foods safe and wholesome. A balance must be
struck between the competing viewpoints.
If sustainable food systems are to succeed, sup-
port by rank and file consumers will be required. In-
creased interest in environmental issues should lead
to increased interest in the sustainability concept.
Meaningful public support can come through at least
two routes. The public can demand and/or support
government policy that encourages sustainability. In
addition, the votes cast at the cash register are ex-
tremely important. Nutritionists' recommendations
can do much to encourage appropriate food-dollar
votes. Thus, nutritionists ought to consider sustain-
ability issues along with nutritional value when
making recommendations. Protecting the health of
the land community, and thus its ability to provide
sustenance, is a task for all. Nutritionists ought to
accept their share of this responsibility.
References
Gussow, J. D., & Clancy, K. L. (1986). Dietary
guidelines for sustainability. Journal of
Nutrition Education, 18(1)
Harlan, J. (1976). The plants and animals that
nourish man. Scientific American. 235: 88-7.
Hopkins, L., & Thomas, G. (1984). The nutritional
aspects of animal protein consumption. Nutri-
tion Today, 19:1, January-February.
Knorr, D., & Clancy, K. (1984). Safety aspects of
processed foods. In Busch L and Lacy W. (eds.),
Food security in the United States. Boulder, CO:
Westview Press.
Lappe, F. M. (1975). Diet for a small planet. New
York: Ballantine Books.
Leopold, A. (1987). A Sand County almanac and
sketches here and there. New York: Oxford
University Press.
National Research Council. (1988). Designing
foods-animal product options in the market-
place. Washington, DC: National Academy
Press.
Oxfam America. (1984). Food exports from the
Third World: Senegal - opening the road to
hunger. Facts for Action 11.
Pimental, D., & Pimental, M. (1979). Food, energy
and society. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Reber, R. J. (1987). The ruminant and human nutri-
tion. Forage and Grassland Conference Proceed-
ings. Springfield, Illinois. • • •
Conflict Resolution
Negotiation Behaviors
A-E-I-O-U- Chart
A stands for ATTACK behaviors
(threatening, criticizing, or challenging).
E stands for EVADE
(ignoring, withdrawing, or postponing).
A and E behaviors take people further away
from resolving a conflict and often help to
escalate it.
I stands for INFORM
(present feelings, reasons, positions).
Q stands for OPEN
(asking questions relating to needs, active
listening and summarizing, being
nonjudgemental).
12 stands for UNITE (establishing common
ground, building rapport, proposing solutions).
I-O-U behaviors bring people closer to reaching
an agreement.
Developed by Ellen Raider, International Center
for Cooperation and Conflict Resolution (ICCCR)
at Teacher's College University. Reprinted from
Educator, Fall 1990, Vol. 4, Number 3, p. 31.
137
The Parent Connection
Marie A. Allen
Home Economics Teacher
Stanton Middle School
Wilmington, DE
Involving parents/care givers in the education of
their children should be a major commitment of any
educational program. Project: Taking Charge, an Of-
fice of Adolescent Pregnancy Programs; (OAPP)
funded project, developed and implemented by the
American Home Economics Association (AHEA) is so
designed. It is a program in family life education for
early adolescents and their parents/care givers. It
has a research component that was instituted, dur-
ing the field testing at three sites in the United
States — Delaware, Mississippi, and Ohio.
The main purposes in teaching the curriculum
are to increase adolescents' self-esteem and decision-
making skills, enabling them to plan for their future
roles and to manage peer and media pressures, re-
garding sexual involvements. Additionally, it at-
tempts to empower parents/care givers to communi-
cate about sexuality, their sexual standards, and
provide them with skills in helping their children
to realize their vocational aspirations.
With any family life program it is imperative
that parents/care givers be involved from the onset.
Project: Taking Charge has three parent/youth ses-
sions built into the curriculum, based on two assump-
tions related to parental roles.
• Parents should be the primary sexuality educa-
tors for their adolescents but frequently need a
vehicle to open communication and facilitate the
sharing of values, attitudes, and knowledge con-
cerning sexuality.
• Adolescents prefer to learn about sexuality from
their parents but are uncomfortable to initiate
discussions.
With these in mind then, the overall objective
of the parent/youth sessions is to increase the skill
and comfort levels in communicating with each
other. It is necessary for both to be present and to
participate in the experiential activities for the
program to have a more acceptable level of success.
PARENT PARTICIPATION
Make it easy for parents/care givers to partici-
pate in the programs. It will mean more time away
from home in their already very busy lives. Some
tips that may help are as follows:
1. Involve them in the planning stage of the pro-
gram.
2. Include them in your advisory council.
3. Approach the PTA for support and input.
4. Send home a brief survey to find best times and
days for sessions; also, problems (ie. transporta-
tion, child care, language barriers)
5. Plan for these problems, if at all possible.
6. Provide incentives for parents and teens —
money, refreshments, local resources, free-
bies/hand-outs.
7. Publicize — send reminders home. Use school/
agency newsletters. Use phone call follow-ups.
8. Speak to board members, administrators, super-
visors, media personnel to get their participa-
tion and support.
9. Show that you respect and admire the parents
who do attend, for taking the time to partici-
pate with their child.
A note can be added here that all the parents
who did participate in the Delaware sessions, gave
very positive comments and feedback, when asked
about the program and their involvement.
PARENT/YOUTH SESSIONS
At the parent/youth sessions, begin by reassur-
ing the parent/care givers. Talk of the normal
adolescent as being on an emotional roller coaster.
Compliment them for being there; tell them to relax
and be patient with their child. You can empower
them by giving them information they desire.
Keys to successful sessions include:
• Be prepared for all possibilities!
• Be organized, especially if you are doing it all
yourself. Run through your presentation. Your
comfort level will be better and, therefore, so
will your session.
138
• Have your meeting rooms reserved a month
ahead of time, and check it out ahead of time.
• Have all audio-visual equipment and
duplicates of forms ready; make name tags, and
displays ahead; have index cards, flip charts,
extension cords, coffee pot, etc. readily
available.
• Anticipate questions and concerns ahead of time
and /or set up a question box for parents and /or
teens.
• Have refreshments set up early, or get a
colleague or student group to assist.
• Make sure you allow for a break time.
• Allow time for questions/answers, more than
once, if possible.
• Make sure you summarize sessions' main points,
and again thank them for their involvement.
• Be approachable and sensitive to your group. (If
you do not feel comfortable, they won't either.)
• Use outside resource people to help you, espe-
cially if it is a subject you are not up-to-date on.
There are three parent/youth sessions designed
to work with Project: Taking Charge. This is three
parent/youth sessions within a seven week time
span, so tell participants all the dates and times in
advance. The first session should be from a week
before the curriculum is actually implemented to
sometime during the first week.
Some examples of the experiential learning that
are incorporated into the sessions, and that were
very well received are described below.
1 . Getting to know each other "ice-breakers"
2. "Reverse question box" — parents and teens write
questions on cards (parents one color; teens, a dif-
ferent color). Parents and teens are put in random
groups; parents draw and try to answer teens'
questions. Teens try to answer adults' questions.
3. "Bridges and Barriers" to good communication —
teacher-lead discussion with participants
brainstorming; view video suggested; discuss
scenes from video in small groups.
4. "Feelings and Facts" questions about human sex-
uality concerns. (Develop prior to session.)
5. Mini job fair and/or guest speaker on job-related
topic.
SUMMARY
Always reemphasize that whatever is being
discussed in the sessions, must be supplemented by
and reinforced by the parents/care givers at home.
Tell the parents to find time for their child or each
of their children, maybe on a regular basis special
time for walks together; or while going to a game or
a practice; lunch together; doing a chore together.
They should take time to communicate to help their
child feel an important part of the family;
hopefully, increase the teen's self-esteem, and
thereby, producing success for all involved in this
most important effort. • • •
(Continued from page 127.)
Torres, D. J. (1989). High school home economics
students' perceptions of subject matter needs in
home economics curriculum. Unpublished mas-
ter's thesis, University of Nebraska, Lincoln,
NE.
Vance, K. L. (1987). Home economics teachers' per-
ceptions of what is being taught compared with
parents' and agency representatives' perceptions
of what should be taught. Unpublished master's
thesis, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE.
(Continued from page 134.)
landfill. The concept of recycling has always been
part of home economics as we taught students to
make casseroles and frozen dinners or use older gar-
ments for simple, small beginning sewing projects.
If we want students to visualize heat loss around
windows which do not close well, we can hang a
plastic garment bag there to flutter in the air cur-
rents. Pulling a dollar bill out of a closed refrigera-
tor door makes the same point.
The family energy consumption to heat or cool a
home is the greatest part of its utility bill. Thus any
life style change promoting change in such energy
consumption has real impact, be it wearing sweaters
in the north or looser fitting clothes in south, plant-
ing trees for shade, or renting rooms with windows to
open and close for temperature control. At the same
time students can learn about the use of wind power
in California for generating electricity, as well as so-
lar-thermal plants which convert sunlight into elec-
tricity.
Heating water in the home is also a large utility
expense. Therefore, when life styles are adjusted to
conserve hot water, for example, when all members
of the family take showers in sequence rather than
at widely different times of day, energy is saved.
One home economics teacher simply measured the
contents of a bucket held which she had placed un-
der a drippy faucet and reported to the principal
each afternoon how much hot water had gone to
waste that day.
Students are idealistic. They tend to enjoy being
outdoors in the clean air, where water is safe for
drinking and swimming. The connection needs to be
made in their minds that family life styles con-
tribute to either saving or destroying this pleasant
world. Individual actions do count. • • •
139
Instructional Use of Microcomputers: Why We
Haven't Gone As Far As We Expected
Maureen E. Kelly
Associate Professor of
Home Economics
and
Molly Longstreth
Assistant Professor
Family and Consumer
Resources
University of Arizona
Tucson, AZ
Karen L. Paris
Fort Leavenworth, KS
Molly Longstreth and Maureen Kelly
The telephone rings. You answer and begin chat-
ting with one of your colleagues about the curriculum
project you are working on together. Hold that
thought for a minute and answer this question for us:
How much do you remember about picking up and us-
ing that telephone?
Now, let's try this scenario. In your third hour
lesson today, you used a videotaped segment to illus-
trate the importance of clear communication skills.
How much do you remember about using the video
cassette recorder?
If you are like most teachers, it is likely that
you cannot remember either event, even though you
know you used both technologies. That is because of
the transparency of the innovation. The concept of
"transparency" simply put means the technology
used to deliver the message goes unnoticed by the
user.
The idea of transparency was first described by
Oettinger in 1969. In this early work on computers as
an educational innovation, the author maintained
that the transparency of the innovation was its most
critical attribute.
Initially, computers looked as though they
would be a transparent technology. In fact, many
saw this innovation as an opportunity to free teach-
ers and students from routine work, allowing them to
focus on higher levels of activity and thinking. Yet
astute writers have observed the computer movement
is at a plateau, largely because of the lack of acces-
sibility of the equipment to teachers (Knupfer, 1988;
Dronka, 1985).
While teachers generally prefer to use computers
within the confines of their own classroom (Knupfer,
1988), they have been forced to relocate their stu-
dents to another area of the school to use computers.
A survey reported in Forecast Magazine showed that
twice as many teachers were using computers located
in a centralized classroom rather than their own
classroom or department (Burkart, Muller, &
O'Neill, 1985). Furthermore, in a survey of 225 Wis-
consin home economics teachers, Petrich (1987) re-
ported that while 63 percent had computers in the
school, only 4 percent had computers in the depart-
ment.
The lack of adequate funding for software is an-
other problem which has been a major influence in
departments in small schools, where teachers lack
the support mechanisms to encourage computer use.
Bozeman and House (1988) noted that larger schools
or districts are likely to have a media specialist to
assist teachers in computer purchase, software selec-
tion and utilization. Moreover, larger school dis-
tricts generally draw from a variety of funding
sources to purchase computers and support their use.
Our recent survey of southern Arizona home eco-
nomics teachers illustrates this situation. While 58
percent had access to computers in school, only 20
percent had a computer located in the classroom.
While nearly every teacher had funds to buy soft-
ware, only half of the teachers who had access to
computers for instruction either in the school or class-
room actually used them.
We believe that the teachers who responded to
our survey are like the readers of this publication.
Most had taken some work beyond the bachelor's de-
gree and had taught for ten or more years. More than
half of the group were high school teachers from ur-
ban and rural schools with student enrollments of
1000 or fewer. On average, there were 1.7 teachers
per department and they had approximately three
preparations per day. Twenty-three percent of this
group had computers at home and had used other
(Continued on page 143.)
140
Reality Testing for a Career in Child Care
tt
Ann K. Mullis
Institute for Food and
Agricultural Sciences
University of Florida
Gainesville, FL
Ronald L. Mullis
Family, Child and
Consumer Science
College of Human Sciences
Florida State University
Tallahassee, FL
During the high school and junior high school
years students often with pressure from peers and
adults begin to think about their career opportuni-
ties. Most students start out with broad categories of
things they would like to do and, over time and with
experience they narrow career possibilities. This
narrowing process is an important phase and adult
guidance in this decision making process can be very
important. Adolescents are easily influenced by
peers, media and family members and, because their
experiences are often limited, adolescents may not
base their decision making in reality.
Teachers of occupational child care and home
economics are in positions to teach their students a
framework for career exploration. As part of an oc-
cupational child care course students will probably
learn about the need for well trained child care pro-
fessionals. Fifty-four percent of women with chil-
dren under six years of age are in the labor force. It
has been estimated that two-thirds of the mothers
of preschool children will be labor force participants
by the mid-1990s (Kahn & Kamerman, 1987). This
trend, along with the growing belief among parents
that group experiences with other children is impor-
tant to a child's social, emotional and cognitive de-
velopment, has meant that, in some areas, supply
(availability of child care programs) has not kept
up with demand.
This bit of information may trigger an interest,
on the part of the student, in becoming a child care
provider. After all, jobs should be plentiful and
"playing with children all day" seems like a do-
able task. Family day care may look particularly
attractive because the play takes place in one's own
home and involves few children.
It is important that students not be discouraged
from entering any career, but they can be assisted in
collecting data on important aspects of a career, that
seems to be of interest. Although child care will be
used as an example, the following kinds of data can
be utilized by and generalized to any career path.
1. Educational requirements. At least a high
school education is required for careers in li-
censed, registered and educational child care
programs. This information can be used to help
students plan with regard to the need for post-
secondary education.
2. Hours worked and earnings. Yearly earnings
alone do not give a clear picture of income of
child care providers, especially when the num-
ber of hours of direct contact with children is con-
sidered. One study of providers in Illinois indi-
cated that income from family day care was less
than $8000 per year and that providers worked,
an average, 10 hours per day. Collecting this in-
formation from local child care providers en-
ables a student to compare wages for careers with
similar education and training requirements. It
is also necessary to collect data on benefits such
as health insurance and vacation, to more accu-
rately determine salary.
3. lob satisfaction. Commitment to a career is not
based on salary and benefits alone. Giving stu-
dents a semantic differential scale (see sample
interview form) allows them to collect informa-
tion on providers' feelings about their job, both
negative and positive.
4. Cost of operating a program. There is more to
child care than having space and a few toys. Li-
censing regulations in most states mandate
health and safety requirements. These regula-
tions should be reviewed by students. Develop-
mentally appropriate toys and expendable sup-
plies and equipment are expensive. Liability in-
surance further increases the cost of a provider
doing business.
141
These four areas only scratch the surface of a
career exploration process, but they provide some
important information to assist students in the
decision making process. An in-depth exploration is
particularly important in child care if the high
turnover rate among child care providers is to be
avoided. Staff turnover is not beneficial to children
in a provider's care, nor is it good for the provider's
track record as an employee.
The following interview form can be used by
students to survey child care providers to get
additional information for the career decision
making process. Students may have additional
questions to add to the form or want to collect
additional information via this process. The results
of the interviews can be reported and discussed in
class.
Sample Interview Form for Child Care Providers
Education
1. How many years of education are required for
your jobs?
2. How much formal education have you had?
(Please check the highest level you have
completed)
some high school
high school diploma
technical /vocational school
some college courses
2-3 years of college, no degree (specify field):
college degree (specify major):
some graduate coursework (specify major):
graduate degree (specify degree)
(specify major):
3. Are you certified in any of the following? Check
all that apply.
early childhood certification
kindergarten - primary grade certification
elementary school certification
special education certification
junior high/middle school or secondary
certification
Child Development Associate Credential
other (please specify):
none
Have you had any special training in early
childhood education, child development or a
related area (e.g., psychology, elementary
education, home economics)? (Check the highest
that applies)
_ monthly food program workshops
_ inservice workshops, conferences (specify
frequency):
_ high school courses
_ 1-6 college credits
_ 7-15 college credits
_ associate's degree
_ bachelor's degree
_ some graduate work
_ graduate degree
Hours Worked and Annual Income From Child Care
5. Children you care for:
1.
Age
i
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
Sex
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
Hours per week
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
6.
What rates do you charge for your services for a
child enrolled full-time:
(amount) per (check the correct time
interval)
hour
week
month
7. What time is your earliest arrival? AM
8. What time does your last child leave? PM
9. Annual income from family day care:
less than $5,000
$5,000-10,000
$11,000-15,000
$16,000-20,000
more than 520,000
lob Satisfaction
10. Here are some words and phrases which I would
like you to use to describe how you feel about
your role as a child care provider. For example,
if you think what you do is very "enjoyable", put
an x in the box right next to the word
142
"enjoyable". If you think it is somewhere in
between, put an x where you think it belongs.
PUT AN X ON EVERY LINE.
Miserable
Discouraging
Tied Down
Lonely
Boring
Useless
Disappointing
Doesn't give me
much chance
Hard
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
()()()()()
( )
( )
Enjoyable
( )
( )
Hopeful
( )
( )
Free
( )
( )
Friendly
( )
( )
Interesting
( )
( )
Worthwhile
( )
( )
Rewarding
( )
( )
Brings out
the best in
me
( )
( )
Easy
11. All things considered, how satisfied or
dissatisfied have you been with your job as a
whole over the past two months. Place an X in
the box that best describes how satisfied you
have been.
Completely
Dissatisfied
Costs
()()()()()()() Completely
Neutral Satisfied
12. If you have liability insurance, how much does it
cost you?
13. If you supply meals for children, how much does
it cost you? week
month
.a year
Reference
Kahn, A. J., & Kamerman, S. B. (1987). Child care:
Facing the hard choices. Dover, MA: Auburn
House Publishing Company. • • •
teacher in the department, the probability of hav-
ing a computer nearby increased by 6 percent. De-
partments located in larger schools were more likely
to have computers than their counterparts in smaller
schools. Vocational education funding for software,
however, seemed to make the biggest difference.
Availability of these funds increased the depart-
ment's chances of having a computer by 70 to 80 per-
cent. In addition, the more computer training teach-
ers had, the more likely they were to have the
equipment in their classrooms.
If computers are available, what determines the
extent of use? Teachers' positive attitudes toward
computers increased their use. More importantly,
having colleagues within the department provides
additional encouragement. Furthermore, those with
computers in the classroom used them more exten-
sively.
As Rosegrant (Dronka, 1985) so accurately noted,
"Something we've always known and never
admitted is that you need an inordinate amount of
time on the machine to gain the real advantage" (p.
3). The results of our study confirm this. Teacher use
of computers in instruction is inextricably linked to
the location of computers in their schools. Thus, it is
likely that teachers who have ready access to com-
puters use them to manage and prepare more effi-
ciently and are apt to be more enthusiastic in using
computers with their students.
Until teachers have frequent and easy access to
computers, this technology will not become transpar-
ent. Contrast teacher use of computers in your school
with their use of telephones and video cassette
recorders. If computer use seems low, consider
relocating equipment into vocational education
classrooms and departments.
References
(Continued from page 140.)
types of electronic equipment. Having taken an av-
erage of 1.5 computer classes, these teachers held
positive attitudes toward computers.
In our survey, we looked to see what types of
schools had computers and which department had
them. First, we found that urban schools were
nearly 10 percent more likely than rural schools to
have purchased computers. Local district funding of
software increased the probability of schools having
a computer by 11 percent.
Second, home economics departments of two or
three teachers were more likely to have computers
placed within the department rather than else-
where in the school. In fact, for every additional
Bozeman, W. G, & House, J. E. (1988). Microcomput-
ers in education: The second decade. Technologi-
cal Horizons in Education Journal, 5(6), 82-86.
Burkart, A. C, Muller, E., & O'Neill, B. (1985).
Computers in the home economics classroom: Pre-
sent uses and future implications. Journal of
Home Economics, 77(3), 24-31.
Dronka, P. (1985). Computer integration into instruc-
tion is stuck. ASCD Update, 27(5), 1-4.
Knupfer, N. N. (1988). A training plan for instruc-
tional computing: Method and content. In
Miller-Gerson, M. (Ed., Eighth Annual Confer-
ence on Microcomputers in Education: The Emerg-
ing Frontier-Artificial Intelligence, Interactive
Video and Classroom Technology. Tempe, AZ:
Arizona State University.
(Continued on page 160.)
143
tt
Incorporating Cooperative Learning Strategies
into Housing Curriculum
Deborah G. Woold ridge
Assistant Professor
and
Marge S. Sebelius
Instructor
Department of Home Economics
Southeast Missouri State University
Cape Girardeau, MO
Mary Jeanne Weber
Home Economics Teacher
Notre Dame High School
Cape Girardeau, MO
Introduction
In the last twenty years the economy has shifted
from an industrial based economy to an informational
based one- This new economy emphasizes creating,
processing and distributing information. The value
has now been placed on acquisition of knowledge
rather than on acquisition of industrial based skills.
Also, this new literacy-intensive, high technologi-
cal based society demands educators to develop stu-
dents with basic skills such as mathematics, read-
ing, and writing with an emphasis on more complex
skills. Other skills needed, as well as basic skills,
are communication skills, problem solving skills, so-
cial skills, and collaborative skills (Reich, 1989).
The education community has also been encouraged to
develop curriculum and incorporate strategies to fa-
cilitate active, interdependent, life-long, reflective
learning.
As teachers educate students for the twenty-first
century, a variety of teaching styles must be in-
tegrated into the classroom in order to improve in-
struction and increase learning. Lecturing can be used
to transmit information, coaching to teach a skill,
socratic questioning to increase understanding, criti-
cal thinking strategies to facilitate formal opera-
tional thought, and cooperative learning to improve
interpersonal skills (Boyer, 1983; Piaget, 1952; Task
Group on General Education, 1988; Wooldridge, Sebe-
lius & Ross, 1989).
Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning is an organizational
medium which can encourage active, reflective
learning, improve interpersonal skills, and increase
creative, critical thinking. In Circles of Learning,
(Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 1986) cooperative
learning is defined in terms of four basic elements.
First, group members must be positively interdepen-
dent with one another. This element may be at-
tained by common goals, allocating tasks among
group members, and by sharing rewards.
For cooperative learning to occur, students must
be involved in face-to-face interaction, the second
basic element. Verbal exchanges made between
group members can clarify the task to be completed
and ensure that all members are working toward the
same goal.
The third basic element is individual ac-
countability. Feedback is given to the group and to
individual students providing help and encourage-
ment.
The fourth basic element involves the use of in-
terpersonal and small group skills. However, the
teacher must realize that some students may not
have developed the skills necessary for functioning
in a group. Thus, time must be spent with students in
developing the needed group skills. Time must be al-
lotted for students to analyze how well the group is
functioning. Then, students should develop a plan to
improve and maintain the working relationship
within the group.
Johnson, et al. (1986) suggest several ways to
help students acquire cooperative skills:
1. Students must see the need for learning the skills
to become motivated.
2. The students must attain a clear understanding of
cooperative learning.
3. As with any new skill, cooperative learning
takes practice and students should be given
opportunities to practice these newly-learned
skills.
4. Following the practice session, the teacher and
students should give group members feedback.
The discussion would evolve around the students'
use of cooperative skills and what improvement
could be made for the next session.
144
5. It takes time to develop a new skill into an au-
tomatic process. Practice sessions should continue
until the students routinely use the skills.
Student commitment and involvement are the
two factors which make cooperative learning effec-
tive. The traditional classroom situation has been
accused of allowing students to play only a passive
role in education. Another criticism is that students
may regard learning as a singular process where they
work alone and compete with the other students
(Astin, 1987). Smith (1987) supports cooperative
learning because students are given the responsibil-
ity for learning. Increased levels of achievement and
improved attitudes toward school and classmates
were other reasons Smith (1987) cited for advocating
cooperative learning. Astin (1987) suggests two
important benefits of cooperative learning:
teamwork and cooperation.
Students can benefit both academically and so-
cially, according to Johnson and Johnson (1985). Aca-
demically, a student can reinforce and expand skills
by observing the strategies of group members. By be-
ing exposed to the variety of ideas posed by team
members, students can increase creative and critical
thinking skills. Each member will be evaluated on
the work produced by the group; therefore, they are
encouraged by one another to stay on task and partic-
ipate in accomplishing the group goal. Socially, the
students experience acceptance, encouragement, and
support from other group members.
Although cooperative learning seems to be an ef-
fective method of learning, there are certain situa-
tions when it can best be used. The following sugges-
tions were given by Johnson and Johnson (1985) when
considering if cooperative learning is the best goal
structure to implement. Tasks which require in-
depth, divergent, or creative thought can best utilize
cooperative groups. A complicated task can be com-
pleted more effectively and efficiently when stu-
dents work in collaboration. On a social level, coop-
erative groups may be implemented in order to pro-
mote positive interaction among a diverse popula-
tion of students. In this type of interaction, students
begin to realize their potential as resources for other
classmates.
Research indicates instructional methods used in
classrooms 80 to 93 percent of the time are individu-
alistic or competitive structures. Cooperative struc-
ture is implemented only 7 to 20 percent of the time
(Johnson & Johnson, 1985). Cooperative learning has
been found to increase scholastic achievement
(Glasser, 1986; Goffin, 1987; Slavin, 1990; 1987), in-
crease social skills development (Johnson & Johnson,
1985; Slavin, 1990), and increase student motivation
level (Smith, 1987). Johnson, Johnson, and Skon
(1979) attribute this to the fact that at least 90
percent of human interaction is cooperative. Thus,
cooperative learning has been found to be an effec-
tive classroom method.
Teaching Housing in Secondary Curriculum
A review of recent housing education research
revealed housing concepts ranked low in terms of im-
portance in secondary curriculum (Cargin &
Williams, 1984; Lodl & Newkirk, 1988). Spitze
(1985) found housing was taught only 4 percent of the
time in the secondary classroom. Yet, approximately
30 percent of the household annual income is paid out
toward housing expenses. Housing decisions are a
major concern for adults and the skills to make in-
formed decisions should be included in the secondary
curriculum.
Teaching housing concepts at the secondary level
should be increased due to changing economic condi-
tions, an increase in homelessness in the United
States, and an increase in the number of housing al-
ternatives. Critical thinking and values clarifica-
tion need to be addressed due to the decrease in the
ability of people to acquire the "American Dream".
The housing area of the home economics curricu-
lum is where creative thought is utilized and an ex-
cellent area to incorporate cooperative learning into
the selected instruction methods. Cooperative goal
structure has been identified as the best goal struc-
ture to improve creativity. The following is a sample
plan for incorporating a cooperative learning strat-
egy to encourage students to analyze housing needs
and preferences throughout various stages of the life
cycle. The plan allows for further development of
creative and critical thinking as well as collabora-
tive skills.
Housing Needs Through the Life Cycle Cooperative
Learning Activity
Topic: Village Planning
Objective: The students will analyze differences in
housing needs and preferences through-
out various stages in the life cycle.
Methods: The students will plan a small commu-
nity or village specially designed for one
of the following groups:
1) young single adults
2) newly married couples with no chil-
dren
145
3) single parents
4) married couples with young children
5) married couples with teenage chil-
dren
6) middle-aged couples with no chil-
dren
7) empty nesters
8) retired couples
9) retired singles
Directions for the teacher: Students work in teams of
three to five (Glasser, 1986; Johnson, Johnson, &
Johnson-Holubec, 1986) depending on the size of the
class, to come up with an analysis of their market,
and a conceptual sketch of the proposed village.
This activity can be preceded by lectures and
class discussions of housing needs and preferences,
Maslow's hierarchy of needs, life styles, values,
and/or community planning.
The project is adaptable to many different time
frames and levels of ability. More extensive re-
search and interviewing could be added on the front
end. Detailed plans could be required at the comple-
tion of the project for design or planning experiences.
Another variation of this project could focus on
the ways in which one community could change to
meet the needs of a changing population.
Materials: See the following work sheets which can
facilitate the critical and creative
thinking processes of the group.
List some of the common stereotypes associated with
this group in the space provided below:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
\)
Now, using the references listed on the following
pages, or other sources available, collect some facts
on this group, including income, buying patterns,
housing preferences, educational level, etc. Type a
one page summary of your group findings.
From these findings, what would your group consider
to be the major goals of the community designed for
this group? List three to five goals below.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Village Planning Group Work Sheet #2
Directions: In this step of the group project you will
use information gathered in Phase 1 to pinpoint real
needs for the community.
Using the list below as a starting point, discuss the
amenities and support features which this commu-
nity would need. Keep in mind that this village,
which houses approximately 1,000 people, is within
ten miles of a city of 250,000.
Village Planning Group Work Sheet #1
Directions: In this project, your group will be plan-
ning a small village which is targeted to meet the
needs of a specific portion of the population. Later in
the project your group will be asked to develop con-
ceptual plans for the village, but first your group
must research the market.
The market you will be planning for is
Bank Grocery store
Beauty salon /barber shop Library
Convenience store
Day care center
Fast food restaurant
Gas station
Golf course
Medical clinic
Meeting place/clubhouse
Postal station
Recreational space/outdoor
Swimming pool
146
List and describe the features which you, as a group,
would consider:
1) Absolutely essential:
2) Important:
3 ) Probably not necessary:
Village Planning Group Work Sheet #3
Directions: Using diagram A and the accompanying
information, develop a conceptual sketch, as close to
scale as possible, of your village.
Include in this sketch all housing and other features
discussed in Phase 2.
The site is basically flat with a few rolling hills in
the northeast corner. A small creek cuts across the
site. The climate is rather mild; average daytime
winter temperature is 34 degrees and in the summer
it is 76 degrees. The area enjoys approximately 275
days of sunshine annually.
Village Planning Selected References
American Demographics; monthly issues
"Annual Consumer Survey"; Builder Magazine, De-
cember issues annually. Cahners Publishing
Company.
Lindamood, S., & Hanna, S. (1979). Housing, society,
and consumers. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing
Company.
Roske, M. (1983). Housing in transition. New York,
NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Sherwood, R. F., & Eubanks, E. (1990). Homes:
Today and tomorrow. Mission Hills, CA: Glencoe
Publishing Co.
Wedin, C, & Nygren, L.G. (1976). Housing perspec-
tives. Minneapolis, MN: Burgess Publishing
Company.
Diagram A
Summary
The issue of cooperative behavior is not a recent
one. In 1979, Margaret Pollitzer (cited in Goffin,
1987), who was co-director of a school which inte-
grated cooperative behavior into the curriculum,
wrote, "Perhaps above all else, in (our) school we
recognize the fact that people must live with peo-
ple. In business, in politics, in the family, it is neces-
sary to have a sense of social responsibility." A co-
operative goal structure in the classroom can enable
students to learn social responsibility. Students each
share in the responsibility of achieving a common
goal (Schniedewind & Salend, 1987). When working
cooperatively, if one student achieves the goal, the
group's goal has likewise been achieved. One mem-
ber of the group cannot achieve the goal unless all
members of the group achieve their goals (Johnson, et
al., 1983). Incorporating the cooperative goal struc-
ture in a housing course can help facilitate student
achievement.
References
Astin, A.W. (1987). Competition or cooperation?
Change, 19(5), 12-19.
Boyer, E. L. (1983). High school. New York: Harper
& Row, Publishers, Inc.
(Continued on page 149.)
147
Sports Nutrition:
A Modern Approach to Teaching Foods
in High School Home Economics
tt
Sheryl Metzger
Home Economics Teacher
Old Mill Senior High School
Millersville, MD
The traditional approach to the teaching of
foods in home economics classes has been from the
perspective of developing a basic comprehension of
nutrition. This has been accomplished through the
media of demonstration and guided experience and
adherence to basic food groupings. Although this
approach has been intended to develop a sense of ba-
sic nutritional understanding in the student, there is
a tendency to not associate this nutritional informa-
tion with caloric needs related to individual activ-
ity level. The net result is that students want to rush
through the didactic experience and move immedi-
ately to the much more enjoyable laboratory experi-
ence.
Recently, through discussions with the physical
education teachers at Old Mill Senior High School
it became clear that a distinct population of stu-
dents, the athletes, were basically ignorant of the
relationship between proper nutrition and athletic
performance. Old Mill Senior High has a popula-
tion of 2,200 students ranging from grades 9-12.
Roughly 600 of those students participate in athletic
programs during the school year. These students
were not aware of proper nutrition, as demonstrated
by simple observations of student athletes gulping
down soda, candy bars, and junk food during training
periods and immediately prior to competitions. This
lack of association between proper nutrition and op-
timal athletic performance can also be related to
academic performance. The mission of the Home
Economics Department at Old Mill Senior High
School is to expose students as individuals and as
members of family units to a variety of "life skills"
designed to help them deal with everyday life in a
complex world. The home economics department al-
ready offered food courses which included the study
of nutrition. Nevertheless, it became clear that this
subpopulation of student athletes, both male and
female, were not signing up for food courses. It
became clear that here was a distinct group of high
school students that could gain immediate benefits
from a well-tailored regimen of proper nutrition.
The idea, then was to couple an awareness of the in-
terrelationship between nutrition and physical ac-
tivity.
Discussions were held with the physical educa-
tion staff and, together with the approval of the
principal, a trial semester program was outlined out.
In the home economics program at Old Mill, in accor-
dance with the curriculum of the Anne Arundel
County Public Schools, an appreciation is fostered of
good nutrition as a lifelong goal. Students are en-
couraged to think critically, make reasoned deci-
sions, and deal with change. The basic approach to
nutritional awareness involves developing a basic
understanding of the chemistry of food and the rela-
tive energy values of carbohydrates, proteins, and
fats. These principles were tailored to the individ-
ual athlete through an estimation of the basal
metabolic rate together with the activity level for
the specific sport, in which the student is engaged,
be it wrestling, cheerleading, football, etc. With
the aid of The Food Processor II, a dietary analysis
software for the Apple He, students were encouraged
to individually evaluate their prior diets and their
performance in athletic competition and determine
whether there was a potential correlation between
poor eating habits and suboptimal performance, and
vice versa. Through the use of these analyses the
student athlete was encouraged to formulate a diet
which adhered to USDA dietary guidelines as mod-
ified for their particular body type, activity level,
and sport.
Case #1: Weight Training. A student athlete at-
tempting to enhance muscle strength was adhering to
a self-styled diet which included 300g of protein per
day, an amount far in excess of dietary guidelines
and potentially harmful to bodily function (e.g.,
148
kidney). The student believed that large amounts of
protein were required to build muscle. After a de-
tailed analysis of body type and activity level, it
was determined that a diet with a far lower protein
content and higher carbohydrate content was more
appropriate, together with the increased exercising
of the different muscle groups was best for attaining
his individual goals.
Case #2: Wrestling. It is a time-honored tradition
among high school wrestlers that attaining fixed
and specific weight levels to enable competition in
particular weight classes could be achieved by de-
hydration and fasting immediately prior to the pre-
meet weigh-in. However, self-analysis of perfor-
mance levels revealed to the student-athletes that
by the time of the meet they were not in optimal
form. Accordingly, diets were designed, again utiliz-
ing analysis of body type, desired weight range, and
dietary guidelines, that enabled the students to at-
tain the proper weight without resorting to drastic
and rapid weight fluctuations. The subjective eval-
uation by the individuals was that they were better
prepared for the competitions as a consequence of
their enhanced knowledge of nutrition.
Case #3: Field Hockey. High school girls competing
in field hockey, eating a diet that did not compen-
sate for the increased activity levels of a training
and competition regimen, felt tired and lethargic.
An analysis of their dietary input, compared with
their increased activity level during the field
hockey season, revealed that their caloric intake
was insufficient to sustain the demands of the ath-
letic training and competition. Again, using USDA
guidelines together with individualized computer
analyses, diets were tailored for specific needs, in
this instance with increased calories derived from
more carbohydrates in the diet.
In all instances, the student appeared to have an
increased awareness of the composition and content
of their diets. In particular it became clear that
high-fat diets also rich in sugar were inconsistent
with maintenance of optimal body weight and with
the ability to sustain proper conditioning and train-
ing. In many instances individual students expressed
a subjective increase in their performance. Moreover,
their understanding of the inter-relationship be-
tween proper nutrition, health and athletic perfor-
mance was greatly enhanced. For instance it became
common knowledge that eating fresh fruit (bananas,
rich in potassium) was one way of replacing essential
electrolyte loss. In general, by the end of the course
in 'Sports Nutrition' the student athletes expressed a
level of enthusiasm for the study of foods and nutri-
tion, that caused many to re-evaluate previously
held negative notions concerning the value of home
economics.
The appreciation for proper nutrition and the
balance between activity level and diet is a concept
that should follow the student through school and
beyond. It is these types of life skills that are cru-
cial to furthering basic understanding of individual
self-image. The knowledge that the student-athlete
takes away from this course represents a contribution
by home economics that lasts a lifetime. • • •
(Continued from page 147.)
Cargin, J.B., & William, S.K. (1984). Educational
perspectives and practices of home economics
teachers. Journal of Vocational Home Economics
Education, 2(2), 3-17.
Glasser, W. (1986). Control theory in the classroom.
New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc.
Goffin, S. G. (1987). Cooperative behaviors: They
need our support. Young Children, 42(2), 75-81.
Johnson, D.W., & Johnson, R.T. (1975). Learning to-
gether and alone: Cooperation, competition, and
individualization. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Pren-
tice-Hall, Inc.
Johnson, D.W. & Johnson, R.T. (1985). Cooperative
learning: One key to computer-assisted leaning.
The Computing Teacher, 13(2), 11-15.
Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., & Johnson-Holubec, E.
(1986). Circles of learning. Alexandria, VA: As-
sociation for Supervision and Curriculum Devel-
opment.
Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R.T., & Skon, L. (1979). Stu-
dent achievement on different types of tasks un-
der cooperative, competitive, and individualis-
tic conditions. Educational Leadership, 4, 99-
106.
Lodl, K., & Newkirk, G. (1988). Housing: A critical
component of home economics curriculum. The
Home Economics Educator, 2(4), 5-8.
Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in chil-
dren. New York: International University Press.
Riech, R.B. (1989, April). The future of work.
Harper's Magazine, 26-31.
Schniedewind, N., & Salend, S.J. (1987). Coopera-
tive learning works. Teaching Exceptional
Children, 19(2), 22-25.
(Continued on page 152.)
149
tt
Fashion Retail Education:
A Guide for Home Economics
Ann E. Fairhurst
Assistant Professor
Department of Apparel
Merchandising and Interior
Design
Indiana University
Previous research has predicted that the inclu-
sion of fashion merchandising in many states' high
school curriculum will increase over the next five
years (Ward & McNabb, 1989). Inclusive in the
fashion merchandising programs will be an empha-
sis on job and career preparation. Nationally, fash-
ion or apparel merchandising is one of the most popu-
lar majors in colleges and universities, but few high
schools offer courses that will help prepare students
for their selected field (Delaurent, 1988). In addi-
tion, upon graduation, many high school students ac-
cept a job in the field of fashion merchandising and
become a member of the retail work force. For either
option, with the development of a special home eco-
nomics course focusing on retail math, students can be
given an understanding of the dynamics of their ca-
reer choices.
Currently, many entry level sales positions
within retail organizations from discount merchan-
disers to specialty stores are being filled by high
school graduates. Sales associates are expected to
work a cash register, write up sales tickets, and
make change (Dolber, 1986). Other responsibilities
include sales data analysis to learn what's selling
and why. It is also important for sales people to
know how retail prices are obtained and how to cal-
culate markdowns which are periodically taken by
every retail store. In addition to these responsibili-
ties, every sales associate is required to reach a sales
goal. It is imperative that a sales associate can cal-
culate their individual goals and be aware of the
components of their productivity.
To effectively accomplish these tasks, basic
math concepts are needed. Consequently, an impor-
tant part of the fashion or apparel merchandising
curriculum should be retail math. Focus should be on
the types of math calculations used in merchandising
activities.
Course Components for Teaching Retail Math
If retail math is incorporated into high school
fashion merchandising curricula, many concepts
could be included. Excerpts taken from a proposed re-
tail math course that illustrate some of the these
concepts are included.
Concept 1: Sales Quota Goals
As a sales associate within a retail store, you are
asked to maintain sales quota goals which is an indi-
cation of your productivity. An important factor to
determine your sales productivity is selling cost. It
looks at the relationship between your salary and
the dollar sales you produce. The formula to calcu-
late selling cost is:
SELLING COST % = SALARY + NET SALES
For example, if last week you generated $800.00
in sales and received a salary of $90.00 then your
selling cost would be:
SELLING COST % = SALARY + NET SALES
= $90.00 + $800.00
= 11%
Once selling costs are known, your sales quota
goal can be established. The formula used to deter-
mine a sales quota goal is:
SALES QUOTA GOAL = SALARY + SELLING COST
For example, your salary last week was $90.00
and your selling cost was 11%. Your weekly sales
quota goal should be:
SALES QUOTA GOAL = SALARY * SELLING COST
= $90.00 + 11%
= $818.00
STUDENT PROBLEM
Calculate sales quota goals for three employees
in a specialty store:
Sales Quota Selling
Goal Salarv Cos!
Salesperson 1:
Salesperson 2
Salesperson 3
Salary
$150.00
$ 85.00
$160.00
11%
7.5%
9%
150
Concept 2: Sales Data Analysis
Often, a sales associate is given sales data and
asked to analyze the sales to help identify trends.
This is especially important in multi-unit chain
stores. Sales are analyzed to determine sales by mer-
chandise classification, price and store. For
example, in the jewelry department, this sales re-
port was generated:
Department: Costume Jewelry
Sales
Classifi cation
Rings
Unit Price
$20.00
25.00
Store 1
$100.00
175.00
Store 2
$140.00
75.00
Store 3
$125.00
100.00
Total
$65.00
350.00
Watches
15.00
150.00
180.00
308.00
748.00
This chart indicates that Store 2 sells the most
$20.00 rings and Store 1 sells the most $25.00 rings. In
watches, Store 3 sells the most $15.00 and $22.00
watches. Overall, the $20.00 ring sells better than
the $25.00 ring and the $22.00 watch sells better
than the $15.00 watch.
STUDENT PROBLEM
Analyze
Department:
Classification
Anklets
Slouch
Patterned
the sales data for the sock department.
Socks
Unit Price
$3.00
3.25
4.00
3.50
4.25
5.00
3.00
3.75
4.25
Store 1
$30.00
55.25
48.00
42.00
38.25
50.00
42.00
52.50
38.25
Sales
Store 2
$36.00
42.25
40.00
35.00
55.25
70.00
51.00
33.75
80.75
Store 3 Total
$42.00
32.50
32.00
38.50
42.50
90.00
60.00
41.25
51.00
$108.00
130.00
168.00
115.50
136.00
210.00
153.00
127.50
170.00
Concept 3: Markup Calculation
Pricing is vitally important to the profitability
of a retail store. The selling or retail price should
serve the needs of the retailer's target customer,
meet competitor's prices and enable the store to gen-
erate profit. To help make pricing decisions, the fol-
lowing factors are considered: cost price of the mer-
chandise, retail prices that will be assigned to the
merchandise, and markup which should cover oper-
ating expenses and retail reductions and provide a
profit.
Markup, a part of the retail price, determines
the success or failure of a business. It needs to be high
enough to cover expenses and cost of the merchandise.
Markup should also be in line with competitive pric-
ing strategies.
To help monitor markup, a percentage is used.
Markup percent is the relationship of the markup
dollars to the selling price. Retail price is used as
the base or 100%.
The formulas that are used to determine retail,
cost or markup dollars and percent are:
RETAIL = COST + MARKUP
COST = RETAIL - MARKUP
MARKUP = RETAIL - COST
MARKUP% = MARKUP
RETAIL
For example, if you were asked to determine the
retail price for a blouse that cost $9.00 and was
marked up $7.00, the solution would be:
RETAIL = COST + MARKUP
= $9.00 + $7.00
=$16.00
To determine the markup percent:
MARKUP % = Markup/Retail
= $7.00/$16.00
= 44%
STUDENT PROBLEM
Using the formulas given, complete the chart be-
low by calculating retail, cost, markup or markup
percent.
Markup
Retail Cost Markup Percent
l.
2.
3.
4.
$5.00 each
$18.00 each
$1.25 each
$12.00 each
$8.00 each
$15.00/dozen
$2.00 each
$13.00 each
40%
52%
5%
Concept 4: Markdown Calculation
Many times a sales associate is asked to mark
down merchandise. This means that the original re-
tail price will be lowered. Markdowns are taken to:
clear out old stock, meet prices of competition, and
bring in customers for a "special price" promotion.
To calculate markdowns:
MARKDOWN DOLLARS =
MARKDOWN PRICE
ORIGINAL PRICE
For example, for a special store wide sale, the ju-
nior department marked down stretch leggings. One
group of 75 leggings was marked down from $25.00 to
$19.99 and another group of 35 leggings from $15.00 to
$7.99. To calculate the dollar value of markdowns.
UNIT MARKDOWN = ORIGINAL RETAIL -
MARKDOWN PRICE
Group 1 =$25.00 -$19.99
= $5.01
75 units were marked down so total markdowns
for Group 1 leggings:
151
TOTAL MARKDOWN = NO. UNITS X MARK-
DOWN PER UNIT
= 75 X $5.01
= $375.75
UNIT MARKDOWN = ORIGINAL RETAIL -
MARKDOWN PRICE
Group 2 = $15.00 - $9.99
= $7.01
35 units were marked down so total markdowns
for Group 2 leggings:
TOTAL MARKDOWN = NO. UNITS X MARK-
DOWN PER UNIT
= 35 X $7.01
= $245.35
To find the total markdowns taken for leggings in
the junior department:
TOTAL MARKDOWNS FOR LEGGINGS = MARK-
DOWNS FOR GROUP 1 + GROUP 2
= $375.75 + $245.35
= $621.11
STUDENT PROBLEM
Find the total markdowns taken in the acces-
sories department for purses, using the following in-
formation:
24 units of Style 525 were marked down from
$49.00 to $28.99
17 units of Style 727 were marked down from
$58.00 to $35.00
References
Delaurenti, M. (1988). New curriculum horizons:
Fashion merchandising. Illinois Teacher, 173-
175.
Dolber, R. (1986). Opportunities in Fashion Careers.
Chicago, II: National Textbook Company.
Ward, S. A. & McNabb, K. (1989). Assessment of
home economics state supervisors regarding the
status of fashion merchandising classes at the
secondary level. In C. N. Nelson (Ed.), ACPTC
Proceedings, 120. • • •
(Continued from page 149.)
Slavin, R.E. (1990). Cooperative learning. Engel-
cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Slavin, R. (1987). Cooperative learning: Where be-
havioral and humanistic approaches to class-
room motivation meet. The Elementary School
Journal, 84(A), 409-422.
Smith, R.A. (1987). A teacher's views on coopera-
tive learning. Phi Delta Kappan, 68, 663-666.
Spitze, H.T. (1985). Observations in forty high
schools: Is our nation at risk? Journal of Home
Economics, 77(3) 7-11.
Task Group on General Education. (1988). A new vi-
tality in general education. Washington, D.C.:
Association of American Colleges.
Wooldridge, D.G., Sebelius, M., & Ross, S. (1989).
Inductive teaching: A strategy to teach housing
concepts. Illinois Teacher, 33(2), 68-69,71,78.
Other concepts that would be included in the
complete curriculum are: 1) profit including a simpli-
fied profit and loss statement comprised of sales, cost
of goods sold and operating expenses, 2) stock
turnover, 3) assortment planning, and 4) inventory.
Conclusion
As home economics educators we must provide a
curriculum that is timely and relevant to the needs of
students. Fashion merchandising is a program that
can generate interest because many students at the
secondary level display an affinity for fashion. By
focusing on retail math as an integral part of the
fashion merchandising curriculum, students who se-
lect that field will have a higher level of compe-
tence in the retail industry.
(Continued from page 124.)
New
Erikson, E. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis.
York: Norton.
Erikson, E. (1983). Our children's self-esteem. Fam-
ily Life Educator, 2(4), 5-7.
Havighurst, R.J. (1972). Developmental tasks and
education (3rd ed.). New York: McKay.
Mitchell, J.J. (1975). The adolescent predicament.
Toronto: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Mitchell, J.J. (1986). The nature of adolescence. Al-
berta: Detselig Enterprises.
U.S. Department of Education. (1988). Youth indica-
tors 1988: Trends in the well-being of American
youth. (CES Publication No. PIP 88-834). Wash-
ington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
152
Decision Making: Having a First Born
at Age 35 or Older
Patricia H. Williams
Doctoral Student
University of North Texas
Teacher, Duncanville
Independent School System
Tommie Lawhon
Professor
College of Education
University of North Texas
Denton, TX
There are misconceptions and myths related to
childbearing by women who are aged 35 or older. In
junior and senior high schools one may hear com-
ments like, "I want to have my kids while I am
young so I can enjoy them." This statement indicates
that older parents cannot enjoy children. "If you
wait to have children, you will be too old to play
with them." A comment of this nature reflects the
attitude that play for adults stops at a young age.
"Have them early so they will be out of the house,
and you can enjoy your marriage before you hit 40." A
perception of this type indicates that children will
leave home and will not move back into the house-
hold or produce grandchildren for grandparents to
rear. It suggests that parents will not enjoy their
marriage until the children are launched. "If you
have a child after 30, the child will be deformed."
These students do not realize that there is a greater
chance of infant deformity, mortality, and abuse
when the mother is very young.
Home economists have an opportunity to share
valuable information with preteens, teens, students
in higher education, and others about some of the
pros and cons of a woman having a first born at age
35 or older. Current research findings provide mate-
rials that are useful in discussing and reaching de-
cisions regarding the timing of childbearing.
Births to older women have increased in recent
years. First births to women in their 30s quadrupled
between 1970 and 1986 and accounted for 12 percent of
all first boms in 1986 (Ventura, 1989b). In the 1970s
the increases were greatest for women aged 30-34,
but in the 1980s the first births were more numerous
for women 35-39. Women ages 35 to 39 accounted for
2.1 percent of first births in 1970 compared to 4.7
percent in 1986 (Ventura, 1989a).
This increase in births to older women has pro-
voked questions such as those that follow. What are
the advantages and disadvantages of beginning a
family after the woman is 35 years of age or older?
Are there medical risks for the mother and baby?
Some answers to these questions are addressed be-
low.
Reasons for Delaying Childbirth
Demographic trends account for an increase in
childbearing by older mothers. These trends include
postponement of marriage, increases in divorce, and
growth in the number of older women.
More women are postponing both marriage and
childbearing to pursue educational interests and to
enhance career development. They are also con-
cerned about marital failures and the lack of child
support following marital dissolution. These two
factors highlight the importance of obtaining edu-
cation and career preparation before taking on the
additional responsibilities associated with mar-
riage and parenting.
Following divorce, many women remarry later in
their reproductive lives. Whether remarrying or
marrying for the first time, having a child is seen as
a confirmation of a new family (Griffin, Koo, &
Suchindran, 1985).
In 1970, 15 percent of women aged 25-29 were not
married, but this increased to 36 percent by 1986
(U.S. Bureau, 1987). Also, the increase in babies
produced during the baby boom years has resulted in
more older women than there were a decade earlier
(U.S. Bureau, 1988).
In summary, some reasons for postponing child-
bearing include "women's career priorities, ad-
vanced education, infertility, control over fertility,
late and second marriages, and financial concerns"
(Kirz, Dorchester, & Freeman, 1985, p. 7).
153
Additional information about women who decide to
have children early and those who postpone
parenthood can be found in the Journal of Marriaqe
and the Family (Callan, 1986).
Advantages in Delaying Parenthood
Many of the benefits of delaying parenthood
have been reported. Among these are psychological
advantages for older mothers, including better
knowledge of their personal identities, an increased
sense of achievement, higher incomes, and more en-
during commitment to their spouses (Winslow, 1987).
There are some positive effects of delaying par-
enthood for at least five years after marriage (Issod,
1987). Those who delay parenthood were able to
provide emotionally healthier environments than
those who had children within the first three
years, and they were more at ease with parenting
and the added responsibilities of having a child.
Women delayers experienced easier transitions to
motherhood, recorded fewer interruptions from their
babies, and were not as concerned as the younger
mothers about having less time with their spouses.
Men who delay parenthood reported that they were
less affected by loss of sleep than males who had
children within the first three years of marriage.
Exploring the advantages of parenting later in
life assists students in decision making. However,
there are some disadvantages to late parenthood
that need to be acknowledged.
Disadvantages to Late Parenthood
Some drawbacks of having a first born later in
life include the idea of a "still occupied nest"
(Freeman, Ryan, Mehnert, & Sullivan, 1984, p. 367).
All of the activities and responsibilities associated
with raising children, such as homework, meals,
and chauffeuring children to activities and school
will be priorities when parents might relish more
personal time for social and civic work. Mothers and
fathers could feel a crunch from caring for young
children as well as for their own aging parents. The
struggle to save for retirement and a child's college
education may need to be dealt with simultaneously.
Also, parents might find that they are out of synch
with their peers.
Those who delay childbearing shorten the time
that their children have withtheir grandparents.
There is the possibility of death of a grandparent
during the child's young years (Mayer, 1978).
Similarities in Parenting Concerns
There are some similar concerns that are common
to both younger and older parents (Roosa, 1988).
When older and younger parents were compared, no
differences were found in the transitional experience
to parenthood. Both groups reported lower marital
satisfaction after the birth of their children.
Responsibilities are expanded when children
arrive. These include greater demands on time,
energy, money and other resources. There are also
concerns regarding the health and welfare of the
child and the mother.
Medical Risks
An important concern in having children at age
35 or older is the medical risk to the mother and
baby. Traditionally, women have been advised by
the medical profession to have their children before
reaching age 35. At 35, women have been labeled as
high risk for childbearing. However, recent studies
find that many of the earlier reports were flawed
(Mansfield, 1987).
Mansfield (1987) found that many inquiries used
older women who were poor, who had large numbers
of children, and who received little or no prenatal
care. One investigation used first-time mothers who
had problems of infertility, which can sometimes
account for difficult labor, low birth weight, and a
higher infant mortality rate. Chronic diseases are
more common in older women and can affect their
pregnancies. Many studies failed to account for these
and other factors.
Often physicians treat older women with more
caution than younger patients. This could be one fac-
tor relating to the higher utilization of caesarean
sections in older mothers. Only 13.1 percent of the
women experiencing first births at age 24 or less had
a caesarean, while 18.5 percent of women 25-34 and
28.2 percent of the women 35 and older had this
surgery (Martel, Wacholder, Lippman, Brohan, &
Hamilton, 1987).
When a caesarean section is performed too
early, there is an increased risk of respiratory dis-
tress syndrome (RDS) for the baby. A delivery by
caesarean may increase the risk of RDS fourteen
times (Hack, Famaroff, Klaus, Mendelawitz, &
Merkatz, 1976). Many of these operations seem to be
the result of overly cautious physicians. "In other
words, it appears that elective abdominal deliver-
ies may have been more common among middle-aged
women because their physicians anticipated compli-
cations, not because complications actually were pre-
sent" (Mansfield, 1988, p. 449).
Another example of physicians treating older
women differently than younger ones is that older
patients often receive more drugs during labor and
delivery. The additional drugs can lead to compli-
cations for the mother and the baby (Mansfield,
1987).
154
When comparing delivery outcomes of younger
mothers with older mothers, the latter had more
vacuum deliveries and deliveries with forceps. This
could be because more older patients opt for epidural
anesthesia (Kirz, et al., 1985).
An older woman can suffer pregnancy-related
stress by believing that her advanced age may cause
harm to herself or the baby. Down's syndrome is a
worry for older mothers. However, the incidence of
Down's syndrome varies from study to study, and the
use of amniocentesis and chorionic villi sampling can
detect this defect. Finally, one caution to older
women is that after 40 a great decline in fertility
seems to take place (Stein, 1985).
Despite all of the research relating to the risks
of childbearing for the older woman, when confound-
ing variables are controlled the risks nearly disap-
pear (Mansfield, 1986). Because of these findings,
women need to read the most current research avail-
able before making decisions about childbearing.
Teaching Methods and Ideas
There are many ways of presenting ideas to stu-
dents in home economics so that they can consider
their options. Information that will aid in eliminat-
ing certain myths and misconceptions about having
and rearing children at age 35 and older may be con-
veyed in the following manner:
1. Panels could provide some insight into the var-
ied attitudes and practices of parents. Preparing
questions that are common to each group and giv-
ing these questions to the participants in ad-
vance allows parents a greater opportunity to
make comparisons and draw conclusions. For ex-
ample, having presentations by two mothers
who postponed childbearing until they were 35
or over on one day and two mothers who had
their children when they were much younger on
another day will assist students as they draw
some conclusions regarding decision making and
children. The same procedure could be followed
for fathers.
2. A physician who is knowledgeable about obstet-
rics and gynecology could speak to the students.
Providing a list of points that are to be covered
aids the speaker in preparing for the class.
3. Before the arrival of the panelists and the
physician, mini-lectures on the pros and cons of
postponing parenting provide the students with
some valuable information and a common back-
ground.
4. Collecting and analyzing family histories can be
a valuable teaching tool. A questionnaire com-
pleted by class members could provide informa-
tion on the ages of their parents and grandpar-
ents when the first borns arrived. Other rele-
vant materials may be collected on the same in-
strument.
5. Each student might interview a parent and/or
grandparent to seek their views on the timing of
the births of their children. The teacher and
the class could work together to develop and
agree upon questions prior to the interviews.
6. A current report on the increasing numbers of
homeless mothers and children which includes
the ages of the mothers and their offspring
would be enlightening.
7. A speaker who is knowledgeable about the rela-
tionship between the ages of mothers and chil-
dren who are welfare recipients could present
this information to the class.
8. Data comparing the ages of the mothers and the
rates of maternal deaths, infant mortalities,
stillbirths, child abuses, and other similar ar-
eas would give students additional facts that
could assist decision making.
9. Exploring the changes in life expectancies and
how these have increased over the past 50 years
would be beneficial before students examine
their own family trees and as they discuss the
materials gleaned from their questionnaires and
interviews with family members.
Teachers and students can, through brainstorm-
ing and other methods, find numerous ways of gath-
ering additional information to provide a strong
base for making informed decisions about the timing
of the first born. Some additional points that may be
made relate childbearing to income, housing, careers
and jobs, divorce, and child support.
Summary
The pros and cons of having a first born when the
woman is 35 years of age or older were examined.
Some of the advantages relate to financial stabil-
ity, more enduring commitment to spouses, and a
healthier emotional environment for the family.
Disadvantages include being parents in a different
developmental stage than their peers and attempt-
ing to save for retirement and the education of chil-
dren at the same time. Medical risks to mother and
baby seem to be less than commonly believed. Many
similarities are found between younger and older
parents.
(Continued on page 160.)
155
Transforming Home Economics:
An Australian Perspective
Margaret I. Henry
Lecturer
Department of Human Ecology
Queensland University of Technology
Australia
Home economics is at a crisis point in Australia:
enrollments in the subject are falling, in schools the
subject has been relegated to an elective in the cur-
riculum; as a profession we are unclear of our aims
and purpose and uncertain of our future. What is to
become of our subject, one which we believe has so
much to offer, so much potential? Will our subject
survive in Australia in the 1990s and beyond? Read-
ing this list of calamities that embroil us at the pre-
sent time, we might well experience a sense of fore-
boding, that this crisis signals the demise of the
subject. The Chinese word for crisis means both dan-
ger and opportunity. This provides us with another
perspective from which to view our present
dilemma. We can view this situation as an opportu-
nity for growth, an opportunity to determine our fu-
ture. This paper presents an alternative approach to
the study of home economics, one that has the poten-
tial to transform the subject, to make it more relevant
to our present times.
Contextualizing the Problem
It seems that home economics has always been
fraught with problems. In its beginnings there was
uncertainty about the aims of this area of study. For
instance, Brown (1984b, 1985a) records the division
between the various interest groups present at the
first Lake Placid Conference. In Australia there was
also some ambiguity surrounding the early attempts
to establish the subject then known as domestic
economy. Reiger (1990) notes the contradictory roots
of the subject in Australia. On the one hand domestic
economy was introduced to educate girls, to give
them equal status with boys. On the other, it was
introduced to prepare girls to fit into the emerging
industrial society.
In the last one hundred years since domestic
economy was first introduced in Australia, the subject
has undergone many changes, changes in name, con-
tent and focus. In Queensland, for example, the sub-
ject has been known as domestic economy, domestic
science, home science, home management, homecraft
and home economics. These changes in name have re-
flected changes in content and approach to the sub-
ject. Writers such as Jehne (1977) claim that the
changes in the subject have indicated that home eco-
nomics is adaptable, that it readily responds to
changes in society, that this is its strength. Jones
(1989) supports this view stating: "to be a home
economist is to reshape our values as continuously as
we are reshaped by the newness of this changing
world" (p. 146). Such a stance implies that home
economics is dependent on the social order of things,
that it responds to, rather than preempts, change.
On the other hand, Brown (1980, 1984b, 1988a, 1988b)
and Baldwin (1986a, 1986b, 1989) advocate that
home economics must assume a more aggressive stance
in shaping the future of our world. Reiger (1990) pro-
poses that home economics is at the cutting edge of a
number of debates including issues that concern the
future of the family, ecological concerns, and the
like.
As we enter the 1990s we need to reassess where
home economics is going. We need to determine what
we will seek to achieve in the future and how home
economics can play a more vital role in education and
in our society.
Problematizing Home Economics
As a profession we are faced with a number of
different perceptions of the subject. A review of the
literature (Henry, 1989) indicates that several per-
spectives have been adopted: skill development,
management, consumerism, science, social science eco-
logical approach, and a critical theory approach, to
name a few. There is disagreement within the pro-
fession regarding our purpose and focus. This lack of
agreement has led to confusion within home eco-
nomics. It has also resulted in a great deal of conflict
between various interest groups within the profes-
sion. One such debate has existed between those who
support management as the focus of home economics
and those who support the family focus of the subject
(Mander, 1987). What has tended to happen when
156
such differences occur is that, rather than resolving
these conflicts, we have broadened our parameters to
include an ever-increasing range of subject offerings.
Writing in 1977, Jehne warned that the subject was
becoming seriously hampered by an "ever-widening
sphere of knowledge, skills and attitudes." The
situation in the meantime has become increasingly
worse.
There are other issues that we must also address:
the low status of the home economics, the practical
nature of the subject, its alleged gender bias, the val-
ues which home economics promotes, and the image
of the subject. Compared with other subject areas,
home economics does not rate highly in the school
curriculum. This is sometimes attributed to the prac-
tical nature of the subject. Others argue that home
economics encourages and indeed attracts students
who adopt confirming, skills oriented, rule-follow-
ing behaviors (Henry, 1989). We need to ask our-
selves, Is this what we really want for our students?
Is there not more that home economics can offer? As
a profession we are criticized for promoting and rein-
forcing "middle-class values; we are criticized for
being readily swayed by prevailing opinion, that we
passively receive and fall in line with "mainstream
thinking" (Brown, 1988b). We tend to become
defensive when these criticisms are directed toward
us, rather than at least hearing what our critics
have to say. Perhaps there is an element of truth in
these comments. We need to assume greater re-
sponsibility for our subject, what we are teaching,
and the values which we are promoting. Perhaps, as
Brown (1989b) suggests, we need to be more reflective,
we need to question the values, attitudes, beliefs and
practices that are part of the common-sense
knowledge (the unquestioned knowledge) of the sub-
ject.
The current crisis in which we now find ourselves
might well provide an opportunity for us to become
more self-critical and more reflective. Perhaps, now
is the time for us to stop and take stock: What are
the values we are promoting in home economics?
When we say we are for the well-being of individu-
als and families what do we mean by this? Is there
gender bias in home economics? If so, what purpose
does it serve and, whose interests do we serve in
home economics? These questions are not readily an-
swered. They require considerable debate and argu-
mentation. We have a long way to go!
Family Studies: A New Approach in Home Eco-
nomics in Australia
This preoccupation with the future of home eco-
nomics is not new. There have been those in the pro-
fession asking these questions and seeking answers
for many years. In the early 1980s, for example,
home economists throughout Australia met in an at-
tempt to make meaning of the varying interpreta-
tions of the subject (Dixon, 1980). An outcome of that
discussion was the production of the HEAA (Home
Economics Association of Australia, 1984) which
claimed that home economics is for the well-being of
individuals and families.
Thus the family, the intimate group with which
the individual engages, assumes a vital role in home
economics. Arising out of this debate, a program en-
titled "Family Studies" was developed in Queens-
land in 1987. This program took as its focus "the well
being of individuals and families" (Department of
Education, 1987b, 1987c). The intention here was to
develop a home economics program which adopted a
central focus or theme, all areas of study were to be
related to this focus (Henry, 1989).
I think a family studies program has the poten-
tial to transform home economics, to transform the
perspective of the subject from a technical to an
emancipatory one. This transformation is not
achieved, however, simply by changing the name of
the subject, nor even by using alternative teaching
strategies. It requires home economics educators to
adopt a new approach, one which reconceptualizes
the subject. For example, family studies may well
achieve nothing, if it continues to be taught as a
skills-based subject with a knowing-how/knowing
that orientation. If the subject simply focuses on the
acquisition of another set of skills, it is no less tech-
nical than some of our present approaches to home
economics. If we are serious in our attempt to trans-
form home economics, to make it more meaningful
and relevant to our students, if we want to empower
our students to become more autonomous, responsible
members of society, then we must adopt a new ap-
proach. We must question our previous practice, we
must think of new ways to assist our students towards
emancipation.
A family studies program which is emancipa-
tory in orientation is one which is concerned with
confronting issues of social, political and economic
importance to families. It seeks to identify" the con-
tradictions and ambiguities that exist in society. It
is alert to issues of power and domination, control,
manipulation and coercion, that prevail and ad-
dresses issues of social injustice, inequality and con-
flict within and between groups of people.
How, then, would such a program be developed?
Baldwin (1989) suggests that there are three ways in
which home economics can become emancipatory in
its intent: 1) it must promote enlightenment; 2) it
must seek to empower students, and 3) its overall
goals must be emancipation of those whom it serves.
157
Thus, an emancipatory approach would be very dif-
ferent from many of the home economics programs in
Australia at the present time. There would be less
emphasis on the skills orientation of the subject, for
instance, less stress placed on memorizing and regur-
gitating information, and more emphasis on investi-
gating issues of social concern, questioning social
practices, and participating in rational agrumenta-
tion and debate.
For instance, family studies, from an emancipa-
tory point of view, might be concerned with the prob-
lems of providing nourishing meals for low income
families. In addition to utilizing the skills used in
meal preparation, such an approach would also be
concerned with the problem of why inequality of re-
sources among families prevails. A similar stance
might be taken with regard to housing. Rather than
focusing on the selection of building materials for
homes, an emancipatory approach would be con-
cerned with a range of possible housing including low
cost forms of housing and why some families are
forced to live in substandard accommodations, espe-
cially in such an affluent society as Australia. An-
other issue might be child abuse. Discussions might
attempt to determine why there is an escalating in-
cidence in problems of abuse and why they are al-
lowed to continue.
Students might also be encouraged to work in
community settings such as local hospitals, women's
refuges or day care centers in order to gain a clearer
understanding of the problems faced by specific
groups in the community. Students might even con-
sider lobbying for special projects such as adequate
community facilities for young people. Such an ap-
proach gives students access to real rather than arti-
ficially-constructed knowledge. Rather than deal-
ing with reified, abstract or hypothetical problems,
this approach enables students to grapple with the
everyday issues that families must confront. Such an
approach prepares students for their present and fu-
ture roles as members of society.
However, an emancipatory approach would not
simply engage students interest in issues relevant to
the family. Other social issues which influence the
day-to-day existence of students would ultimately be
challenged. In addition, this approach could not be
constrained within one subject area of the school cur-
riculum. In time, learning experiences would begin to
cross the compartmentalized subject boundaries as
students begin to realize that these issues are not re-
stricted to a single subject, or indeed to schooling,
they are part of the fabric of society.
A family studies program which has an emanci-
patory orientation is thus potentially empowering.
Through the experiences that engage their interest,
students gain real insight into the problems that con-
front individuals and families in their everyday
lives. In doing so, family studies has the potential
to become empowering for students, it liberates them
from dogmatic domination and enables them to act
with autonomy and freedom.
Singh (1987) argued that an emancipatory ap-
proach to home economics is further characterized by
participatory forms of communication, decision mak-
ing and action. Here, the focus is on collaboration,
the active participation of students in all aspects of
curriculum development. Students engage in negoti-
ating the curriculum. Together, with the teacher,
they decide what aspects of home economics will be
addressed. In addition, students are actively in-
volved in the generation of knowledge, what Singh
(1987) refers to as "working knowledge", knowledge
that is "grounded in the experiences and life circum-
stances of students and their community." This
knowledge evolves through discussion, argumenta-
tion and debate and through critical reflection. Fi-
nally, Singh (1987) says, an emancipatory approach
to home economics is characterized by participatory
forms of action. Singh (1987) proposes that the way
to engage society, social issues and social structures is
through the experience of working with them.
Rather than learning being confined to the class-
room, he suggests that students might become in-
volved in issues that are of community concern. Singh
(1987) suggests that "the home economics department
functions as a community resource, whereby it pro-
vides a research service for local community organi-
zations."
Conclusion
The process of transforming home economics is not
a simple matter, nor as Kemmis, Cole and Suggett
(1983) propose is it an end point in itself. It is an on-
going process. Yet, if home economics is to survive in
the 1990s and beyond it is a process that we must se-
riously consider. We need to ask ourselves if our pre-
sent theories and practices in home economics are
relevant to the present and future needs of our stu-
dents or society. And, if not, how can we intervene
and change our direction. In this paper, I have ar-
gued that family studies provides one orientation for
home economics in Australia and by addressing the
issues of significance to individuals and families we
can provide an approach to home economics which is
emancipatory. An emancipatory approach can
empower our students in that it can enable them to
become autonomous, independent, responsible mem-
bers of society. As a profession, I believe we have a
serious problem to address. If we are to be included in
the curriculum in the 1990s we can no longer afford to
158
side-step this important issue. The time has come
for us to intervene, to take responsibility for what we
are doing in the name of home economics. We need to
act before it is too late.
References
Baldwin, E. E. (1986a). Toward defensible theory
and practice in home economics education. Paper
presented at a meeting of Australian Home Eco-
nomics Administrators, Victoria.
Baldwin, E. E. (1986b). Home economics and quality
of education. A paper presented at a meeting of
the Queensland Association of Home Economics
Teachers, Brisbane.
Baldwin, E. E. (1986c). The rise of technology.
Canadian Home Economics Journal, 36(4), 164-
167.
Baldwin, E. E. (1987). The need for philosophy in
home economics. Paper prepared for presenta-
tion at the Annual Conference of Home Economics
Association of Queensland and Queensland Asso-
ciation of Home Economics Teachers, at the Bris-
bane College of Advanced Education, Kelvin
Grove Campus, Brisbane.
Baldwin, E. E. (1989). Toward autonomy in the 90s.
Problems and possibilities for practice in home
economics. Paper prepared for presentation at
the 9th Triennial Conference of the Home Eco-
nomics Association of Australia at Launceston,
Tasmania.
Brown, M. (1980). What is home economics educa-
tion. Minneapolis-St. Paul, MN: University of
Minnesota.
Brown, M. (1984a). Needed: A critical science per-
spective in home economics. Meeting of the
American Home Economics Association.
Brown, M. (1984b). Home economics: Proud past,
promising future. 1984 Commemorative Lecture,
American Home Economics Association Meeting,
Anaheim, CA.
Brown, M. (1985b) Philosophy studies of home eco-
nomics in the United States (Vol. I arid II). East
Lansing, MI: Michigan State University.
Brown, M. (1985b). The need for alternative modes
of research in home economics. Paper presented
at the Mid-West Regional Conference in Home
Economics Education, Michigan State Univer-
sity, East Lansing.
Brown, M. (1988a). The purpose of home economics:
Conceptual and political implications of critical
theory. Paper prepared for the Postgraduate
Summer School in Home Economics, sponsored by
the O'Malley Trust and the University of Mel-
bourne, Melbourne, Australia.
Brown, M. (1988b). Appearance and reality in un-
derstanding society: Implications for home eco-
nomics. Paper presented to the Biennial Confer-
ence of the Western Region College and Univer-
sity Professors of Home Economics Education.
Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University.
Department of Education. (1987a) P-10 curriculum
framework. Queensland: Department of Educa-
tion.
Department of Education. (1987b). Submission to the
P-10 curriculum committee: Justification for the
inclusion of a family studies strand in the P-10
curriculum framework. Queensland: Department
of Education.
Department of Education. (1987c). Core home eco-
nomics: Family studies (A work program for use
in trial schools). Queensland: Department of
Education.
Dixon, B. (1980). Home economics in Australian
schools. Canberra, Australia: Curriculum De-
velopment Centre.
Henry, M. I. (1989). Towards a critical theory of
home economics: The case for home economics.
Master's thesis, University of New England.
Home Economics Association of Australia. (1984).
Home economics in Australia: A position state-
ment (Draft). Australia.
Jehne, C. (1977). The scope and limits of home eco-
nomics. Unpublished manuscript. Queensland,
Australia.
Jones, R. (1989). Conference summing up. Proceedings
of the Nineth Triennial Conference of the Home
Economics Association of Australia Inc., Launces-
ton, 145-147.
Kemmis, S., Cole, P., & Suggett, D. (1983a) Toward
the socially-critically school. Victoria: Victo-
rian Institute of Secondary Education.
Logan, G. (1981). A centenary of home economics ed-
ucation in Queensland: 1881-1981. Brisbane:
Department of Education, Information and Publi-
cations Branch.
Mander, E. (1987). A social-historical perspective
on the development of home economics - human
development and society. Journal of Home Eco-
nomics of Australia, XXX(l), 7-14.
Reiger, K. (1990). Feminism and the future: Past
lessons and present possibilities. Opening ad-
dress at Queensland Association of Home Eco-
nomics Teachers Professional Development Sem-
inar, Brisbane.
Singh, M. G. (1987). A home economics program
with a socially critical perspective. Paper pre-
sented at the Inaugural Joint Conference of the
159
Queensland Association of Home Economics
Teachers and the Home Economics Association of
Queensland, Brisbane.
Smith, L. (1983). The role of women in society and
their effect on technical education - domestic
economy. Proceedings from the Seventh Trien-
nial Conference of the Home Economics Associa-
tion of Australia. Sydney, Australia, 62-66.
Continued from page 143.)
Oettinger, A. (1969). Run, computer, run: The
methodology of educational innovation. Cam-
bridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Petrich, B. (1987). Computers in home economics
teacher education: Survey data related to deci-
sion-making. Journal of Vocational Home Eco-
nomics Education, 5(1), 51-58. • • •
(Continued from page 155.)
Having a child later in life is a personal deci-
sion and one that each couple needs to enter into
with careful thought and discussion. Home
economists will find the research helpful in provid-
ing information that can be conveyed to those who
are considering their options regarding the birth of
the first child.
References
Callan, V. J. (1986). The impact of the first born:
Married and single women preferring childless-
ness, one child, or two children. Journal of Mar-
riage and the Family, 48(2), 261-269.
Freeman, S. L., Ryan, C. W., Mehnert, W. 0., & Sul-
livan, L. J. (1984). Delayed parenthood: Impli-
cations for school counselors. The School Coun-
selor, 31(4), 366-372.
Griffin, J. D., Koo, H. P., & Suchindran, C. M. (1985).
Childbearing and family in remarriage. Demog-
raphy, 22(1), 73-88.
Hack, M., Famaroff, A., Klaus, M., Mendelawitz,
B., & Merkatz, I. (1979). Neonatal respiratory
distress following elective delivery: A pre-
ventable disease. American Journal of Obstetrics
and Gynecology, 126, 43-47.
Issod, J. L. (1987). A comparison of "on-time" and
"delayed" parenthood. American Mental
Health Counselors Association Journal, 9(2), 92-
97.
Kirz, D. S., Dorchester, W., & Freeman, R. K. (1985).
Advanced maternal age: The mature gravida.
American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology,
152(1), 7-12.
Mansfield, P. K. (1986). Re-evaluating the medical
risks of late childbearing. Women & Health,
12(2), 37-60.
Mansfield, P. K. (1987). Teenage and midlife child-
bearing update: Implications for health educa-
tors. Health Education, 18, 18-23.
Mansfield, P. K. (1988). Midlife childbearing:
Strategies for informed decision making. Psy-
chology of Women Ouarterly, 12, 445-460.
Martel, M., Wacholder, 5., Lippman, A., Brohan, J.,
& Hamilton, E. (1987). Maternal age and pri-
mary cesarean section rates: A multivariate
analysis. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gy-
necology, 156, 305-308.
Mayer, N. (1978). The male mid-life crises. New
York: Doubleday.
Roosa, M. W. (1988). The effect of age in the transi-
tion to parenthood: Are delayed chiidbearers a
unique group?. Family Relations, 37(3), 322-327.
Stein, Z. (1985). A woman's age: Childbearing and
childrearing. American Journal of Epidemiol-
ogy, 121, 327-340.
U. S. Bureau of the Census. (1987, December). Mari-
tal status and living arrangements: March 1986.
Current population reports, series p-20, no. 418.
Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Of-
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1980 to 1987. Current population reports, series
p-25, no. 1022. Washington, DC: U. S. Govern-
ment Printing Office.
Ventura, S. J. (1989a). First births to older mothers,
1970-86. American Journal of Public Health,
79(12), 1675-1677.
Ventura, S. J. (1989b, June). Trends and variations in
first births to older women 1970-1986. Vital
Health Statistics, series 21, no. 47. Hyattsville,
MD: U. S. Department of Health and Human
Services, Public Health Service, Centers for
Disease Control, National Center for Health
Statistics.
Winslow, W. (1987). First pregnancy after 35: What
is the experience? Maternal-Child Nursing Jour-
nal, 12, 92-96. • • •
160
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Vol. XXXIV, No. 5
May/June, 1991
ILLINOIS TEACHER
Financial Planning Education — It's Never Too Early, Barbara O'Neill 162
Home and Career Skills in Nevada, Amy Heintz 164
Middle School Home Economics Curriculum Development in Georgia,
Willodean D. Moss and Martha S. Staples 167
What do Students Need to Know?, Dixie J. Torres, Kendra Vance, and
Julie M. Johnson 170
Family-Centered Learning: An Even Start Project, Cathleen T. Love,
Robert T. Williams, Carol Salas, and R. Brian Cobb 173
Family Diversity in the United States, Sharon Y. Nickols, Linda Asmussen,
and James D. Oliver 178
Utah's Entry Level Curriculum: Technology-Life-Careers Vocational Core,
Janet E. Preston and Phyllis Horner 180
When It Comes To Food, Do We Care Too Much About Appearance?,
Cooperative Extension Service, University of Illinois 184
The Environment: Can Home Economics Make A Difference?, Carol Ann Watkins 185
Bequests, Marsha Woodbury 187
Salmonella: Simple Precautions Can Handle This Infamous Bug,
Cooperative Extension Service, University of Illinois 189
Change Through Collaborative Inservice Education, Edythe D. Conway and
Jean C. Stevens 190
Development of Model for Teaching Cultural and Ethnic Awareness,
Dorothy Z. Price 196
Inventory Liquidation Order Form 199
Illinois Teacher of Home Economics
ISSN 0739-148X
A publication of the Division of Home Economics Education,
Department of Vocational and Technical Education,
College of Education, University of Illinois,
Champaign, Illinois 61820
Illinois Teacher Staff
Mildred Griggs, Professor and Editor
Norma Huls, Office Manager
June Chambliss, Technical Director
Sally Rousey, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Linda Simpson, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Other Home Economics Education Division Staff and Graduate Students
Alison Vincent, Graduate Assistant and Ph.D. Candidate
Address: ILLINOIS TEACHER
University of Illinois
347 Education Building
1310 S. Sixth Street
Champaign, IL 61820
Telephone: 217/244-0820
© 1991
Hello and So Long
Under normal circumstances, we, the staff, are in a celebratory mood when we
get an issue of the Illinois Teacher ready to go to the press. This time our mood is
somber and we feel a great deal of regret and sorry because this, the fifth issue of vol-
ume 34, is the final issue of the Illinois Teacher of Home Economics.
We have anguished over this decision for some time. However, due to the de-
clining number of subscribers (and consequently the reduced amount of income
from subscriptions and the sale of material) and the escalating cost of producing and
mailing the Journal, we have no other recourse. Our circulation has gone from 5600
in 1976-77 to less than 2000 currently. I am sure that there are many things that have
contributed to this tremendous decline. I won't speculate about what they are. I
know, however, that we have been affected by them. We have a history of getting by
on a limited budget but we are now stretched beyond our limit.
Thank you for your support, encouragement, and words of appreciation in the
past. The former editors, staff and writers richly deserve this recognition. The Illi-
nois Teacher began with the late Letitia Walsh, then Chairperson of Home Eco-
nomics Education at the University of Illinois. It was subsequently edited by other
faculty including the late Elizabeth Simpson Pucinski, the late Mary E. Mather, and
Hazel Taylor Spitze. A large number of our graduate students have worked on the
staff, edited issues, and written articles. Sometimes the work of our undergraduate
students was published in Illinois Teacher. Many people in the profession across the
U.S. and in some foreign countries have shared their work via Illinois Teacher. We
are thankful that for the past 34 years we were able to provide a voice for home
economics and the profession.
We hope that you will take advantage of our inventory closeout sale to purchase,
at extremely low cost, back issues of the Illinois Teacher, Innovative Teaching Tech-
niques (including the Home Economics Low Literacy Materials, Self-Teaching Book-
lets, Games and Simulations, and Reference Materials), and, Illinois Teacher Confer-
ence Proceedings. The order form is printed at the end of this issue. Please complete
it and mail it to this address: Illinois Teacher, 51 E. Armory, University of Illinois,
Champaign, IL 61820. This offer is available through July 31, 1991.
Thank you and best wishes,
Mildred Barnes Griggs, Editor
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1991 161
tt
Financial Planning Education
It's Never Too Early
Barbara O'Neill
Associate Professor and
Extension Home Economist
Department of Home Economics
Cook College
Rutgers University
New Brunswick, NJ
As much as $81 billion is spent annually by chil-
dren and teenagers, who have the largest discre-
tionary income of any age group in the country
(Coleman, 1990). They also influence the spending of
up to $200 billion more by their parents and have
access to over 3.5 million credit cards (College for
Financial Planning, 1990a). How do teenagers get all
this money? The old-fashioned way, they earn it.
Teens make up 10 percent of the U.S. labor force with
about 56 percent of 12- to 17-year-olds employed
(Horner, 1984).
More and more, today's teens are going to school
by day, working by night, and spending their money
on weekends. Nearly half own their own television
sets and about 20 percent own video cassette recorders
(Leichner, 1990). Fifty-six percent of 1,858 high
school students nationwide, who responded to a 1990
survey by The College for Financial Planning, held
jobs while maintaining a full academic schedule
(College for Financial Planning, 1990b). The study
revealed that, of those who worked, 62 percent spent
16 or more hours per week on the job.
In light of these figures, it is imperative that
students learn the basics of the financial planning
process. Yet, many graduate from high school with-
out a basic comprehension of what it takes to manage
money in today's world. One reason is that educators
often disagree about the definition of "an economic
education." Some believe that the curriculum should
focus on economic concepts, such as supply and de-
mand, while others want to stress career or business
education. There is also a school of thought that be-
lieves that economics should be presented in a way
that is directly relevant to students' lives.
What worries kids about the future? A 1990 sur-
vey of 26,946 teens showed that concern about finan-
cial security is something children are learning from
their parents. A full 74 percent said they were con-
cerned about finding a good job and 67 percent about
supporting a family (Barrett, 1990). This same
sample of youth aged 12-16 also expected to earn a
$50,000 median income by age 30.
Clearly, students need a heavy dose of "reality
training" before they graduate from high school.
Parents, educators, and school policy makers need to
be concerned about the students' role as consumers.
Unfortunately, with almost any new educational
program thrust, funding is a primary concern. It
takes scarce tax dollars to train teachers, develop a
curriculum, and purchase the textbooks and other
necessary materials. Many American parents also
never get around to teaching their children money
management skills. Like sex education, fear, lack of
time, and lack of know-how are common
explanations given.
Fortunately, there is a way for educators to help
counter the "financial illiteracy" of the nation's
youth. The College for Financial Planning in Denver
developed a financial planning curriculum called the
High School Financial Planning Program (HSFPP)
and has spent more than $1 million developing the
program, which it began testing in Denver schools in
1984 (Financial Planning, 1989). To date, more than
101,200 students in 1,540 schools have participated
(Schiever, 1990). The HSFPP is available free of
charge to public and private schools and youth
organizations (e.g., 4-H clubs) throughout the
country.
The goal of the HSFPP is to provide a solid
background in basic financial concepts (e.g.,
compound interest, the "large loss principle" for risk
management) and relate them to real-life situations
such as opening a bank account and purchasing car
insurance.
Unlike some class materials developed by busi-
nesses that are decidedly biased in approach and
content, the HSFPP is strictly educational in nature
with no product orientation and nothing to sell. The
program was designed to be incorporated into a vari-
ety of classes, including home economics, business,
economics, math, or social studies, and can be com-
pleted in as few as 10 classroom hours or over a longer
period of time as specified by the classroom teacher.
The HSFPP materials were designed to allow in-
structors flexibility in presenting the information.
162 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May/June, 1991
The program is divided into six units and employs a
building-block format to move from one unit to the
next (College for Financial Planning, 1990a). The
topics of the six units are as follows:
1. Understanding the Financial Planning Process
helps students gain a basic understanding of the steps
in the financial planning process, including goal set-
ting and decision making. In this unit, students de-
velop personal and financial goals and objectives and
begin to track their income and spending.
2. How Income Affects Your Goals provides students
with an understanding of the roles education, earn-
ing, and protecting income play in the financial
planning process. Concepts discussed in this unit in-
clude variables affecting a career choice, the differ-
ence between net and gross income, and payroll de-
ductions.
3. Managing Income and Credit explains the bud-
geting process, and the importance of effectively
managing income, spending, and credit. Students
learn the various uses and sources of credit, the im-
plications of debt, and factors to be considered in ap-
plying for credit.
4. Owning and Protecting Your Assets concentrates
on the need to protect one's assets against personal or
financial loss. Essential concepts include the various
types of insurance, how insurance works, and factors
that determine the cost of insurance.
5. Saving to Achieve Your Financial Goal empha-
sizes the importance of saving and investing to meet
financial goals. Students examine how time, money,
and rates of interest relate to meeting specific finan-
cial goals, the relationship of risk and reward, and
investment alternatives.
6. Taking Control with Your Own Financial Plan
helps students integrate the material learned in
units one through five. This unit focuses on the cul-
mination of the financial planning process, and
developing a financial plan to meet established
goals.
A 500-page HSFPP instructor's manual contains
teaching outlines, transparency masters, class hand-
outs, learning activities (e.g., case studies), student
assignments and exams. In addition, a 113-page
workbook is provided for each student. To obtain a
copy of the curriculum and enroll in the HSFPP, con-
tact The College for Financial Planning at (303) 220-
1200 or a local sponsor (certified financial planner or
extension agent).
In 1988, The College for Financial Planning im-
plemented the HSFPP state representative system
through the Cooperative Extension Service. The fol-
lowing 18 states currently have designated state rep-
resentatives: Arizona, California, Florida, Idaho,
Kansas, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana,
New Jersey, New Mexico, Oklahoma, South
Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Vermont, Vir-
ginia and West Virginia. For further information
about the HSFPP in these states, contact your county
extension home economist or state extension family
resource management specialist.
So what's "the catch?" In return for the free ma-
terials, The College for Financial Planning expects
classroom teachers to send them updated student en-
rollment figures and a written evaluation each time
the course is conducted. This way, new ideas can be
fed into the program for future additions to or revi-
sions of the course.
With money flowing in and out of teenagers'
pockets at an ever-increasing rate, consumer educa-
tion is a necessity, not a luxury. The HSFPP is an
ideal way for home economics educators to provide
students with the information they need for a life-
time of financial responsibility.
References
Barrett, M. E. Third annual teens back to school '90
issue," USA Weekend, August 17-19, 1990, pp. 4-
5.
Coleman, P. (1990). Money management in educa-
tion. What's New In Home Economics, May /June,
p. 6.
College for Financial Planning. (1990a). High
school financial planning program (HSFPP
brochure). Denver.
College for Financial Planning. (1990b). High
school financial awareness survey. Denver.
Financial Planning. (1989). Not just kid stuff. Jan-
uary, p. 13.
Horner, B. G. (1984). How teens spend $45 billion a
year. Co-ed, September, p. 44.
Leichner, J. (1990). The power of teen consumers.
What's New In Home Economics, September/Oc-
tober, pp. 26-27.
Schiever, E. Letter to HSFPP State Representatives,
College For Financial Planning, November 16,
1990. •••
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May/June, 1991 163
tt
Home and Career Skills in Nevada
Amy Heintz
Education Consultant
Home Economics Education
Nevada Department of Education
Carson City, NV
The author is indebted to: Jean Stevens, New York De-
partment of Education: For giving of her time and her
willingness to share experiences in the development of the
New York Home and Career Skills Program as well as as-
sisting us with site visitations in New York; Mary Monroe,
Utah Department of Education: For her willingness to
share the Utah TLC curriculum as well as assisting us with
site visitations in Utah; Eunice Foldesy, Research As-
sociate, University of Nevada Reno: For her outstand-
ing leadership in coordinating the inservice workshops for
Nevada Home and Career Skills teachers; The Nevada
Home and Career Skills teachers: For their dedica-
tion, perseverance and sense of humor which saved us all;
and Bill Trabert, State Director of Occupational and
Continuing Education: For his support of this project.
History
In Fall of 1987, the Nevada State Board for Oc-
cupational Education appointed a Task Force on Oc-
cupational Education to review and update courses of
study in occupational education that were new pro-
grams for a new age. The Task Force, made up of
Business and Industry representatives and educators,
developed the objectives and validated the
competencies for a course and study in Home and
Career Skills. The course of study is an outline that
includes broad general objectives describing student
performance. In May, 1988, the State Board adopted
the course of study for Home and Career Skills into
the Nevada Administrative Code effective
September 1, 1992.
During the 1988-89 and 1989-90 school years, four
school districts were funded through the Carl D.
Perkins Vocational Education Act to implement the
course of study in Home and Career Skills in seven
project sites.
In 1988, at the request of local school district
administrators, the Nevada Department of Educa-
tion agreed to assist school districts by coordinating
the development of a curriculum and providing
teacher inservice workshops for this new program. A
committee of local administrators set the agenda and
determined the content, format and parameters of
the curriculum to be developed. The actual work,
writing and selection of materials was completed by
a committee of district appointed home economics
teachers who developed this competency-based cur-
riculum to meet the course of study requirements for
Home and Career Skills. This curriculum is not a
mandate; it is a guide and a resource from which dis-
trict curriculum writers and teachers may choose to
develop their own curriculum based upon their indi-
vidual needs.
Rationale
By the young age of 15, substantial numbers of
American children are already at-risk. They may
reach adulthood unprepared and unable to:
• Meet the requirements of the workplace;
• Commit to successful relationships with fam-
ily and friends; and
• Participate responsibly in a democratic soci-
ety.
These young people, who were born as recently as
1975, are extremely vulnerable to multiple high-risk
behaviors and school failure. It is alarming to watch
these youth demonstrate their feelings of alienation
from school and society as they increase their sub-
stance abuse., school absenteeism and too may drop
out of school. At a time in their development when
the ability to learn is at a peak, the engagement of
these at-risk youth in learning is diminishing. The
equation is a sad and wasteful one:
• While the numbers of youth disengaged from
the educational system grow competition in
the global economy requires a highly edu-
cated and trained work force; and
• We face the spectre of a divided society: one
affluent and well educated, the other poor
and illiterate.
To most of us this is terrifying information and
for some of us, especially parents, this information is
overwhelming. Part of the problem results for the
fact that the majority of adolescent reach puberty
before they have the mental and social maturity to
deal with peers and the middle junior high school
environment. As daily life becomes more complex, it
is increasingly important that our students learn how
to take responsibility for their own lives.
164 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May/June, 1991
The Program
The Home and Career Skills curriculum is orga-
nized into four interrelated and interdependent units:
• Process Skills
• Personal Development
• Personal and Family Resource Management
• Career Planning
(See Table 1)
The Home and Career Skills course concentrates
on the development of the cognitive process of
decision making, leadership, management and prob-
lem solving skills needed to solve the challenges of
Table 1
Components of Home and Career Skills Course of Study
Process Skills
Personal Development
Personal and Family
Resource Management
Career Planning
Decision Making
Problem Solving
Application of process skills
to individual lives and
relationships including:
Application of process
skills to the individual
resources regarding:
Application of process
skills to individual re-
sources regarding:
Management
Self Esteem
Food and Nutrition
Career Awareness
Leadership
Peer Pressure
Clothing Awareness
Worker Traits
Parenting
Personal Environment
Employability Skills
Family
Consumerism
Entrepreneurship
Relationships
daily living and choosing alternatives that result in
positive consequences. This program is designed to
prepare adolescents to meet their present and future
responsibilities as family members, consumers, home
managers and wage earners. It includes:
• Process Skills: The ability to do things that
often involves a number of steps. Topics for
discussion may include:
a) Distinguishing between habitual, daily
and policy decisions (level);
b) Recognizing that decisions may be
economical, technical, and social decisions;
c) Recognizing that the same decision differs
in terms of frequency, classification and
complexity for different individuals.
• Personal and Social Development: Under-
standing self, personal potential, and their
relationships with others.
• Personal and Family Resource management:
Time and financial management, consumerism,
wardrobe planning, nutrition, wellness and
living space; and
• Career Planning Skills: Entrepreneurship:
Employment skills, career exploration and
tentative career choices. Topics for discussion
may include:
a) Describing three examples of tangible and
intangible rewards of paid work;
b) Describing three examples of tangible and
intangible rewards of non-paid work;
c) Discussing the "value of work" to the
worker and to society; and
d) Discussing "job satisfaction" and how it
may change over time.
Instruction is designed to allow students to
develop higher order thinking skills:
• Critical thinking: solving problems, making
decisions;
• Problem solving: reaching a specific goal by
resolving identified problems; and
• Reasoning: making a judgment based on facts,
values and attitudes.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1991 165
Instruction is also designed to allow students to
develop employment skills:
ACADEMIC AND CRITICAL THINKING
SKILLS
English Language
Reading Comprehension
Writing
Speaking
Communication
Listening
Computational Skills
Whole Numbers
Fractions
Decimals
Percent
Measurement and Calculation
Make Change
Computer Application
Critical Thinking
• Transfer of Information
• Development of Work Plan
• Decision Making
• Problem Solving
• Reasoning Skills
• Product or Performance Evaluation
Creative Thinking
• Create Original Products
• Modify Former Products
DEVELOP PRE-EMPLOYMENT SKILLS
Individual Career Plan
Labor Market Awareness
Job Acquisition, Management
• Progression and Change
• Job Search Skills
• Resume and Cover Letter
• Job Application Forms
• Successful Interviewing Skills
• Job Retention Skills
DEVELOP WORK MATURITY TRAITS
Interpersonal Skills
• Initiative
• Integrity
• Positive Attitudes Toward Work
• Confidence
• Reliability
• Dependability
• Work Efficiently with Others
• Cooperation
• Accepts Divergent Points of View
• Adapts to Change
• Effective Working Relationships
Personal Management Skills
• Self Discipline
• Job Responsibility
• Dependability
• Effective Use of Time (Set Priorities)
• Appropriate Dress for the Job
The curriculum has 37 measurable objectives
which are completed by the end of eight grade. It is
designed to be taught in 27 or 30 weeks. There are 20
out of 39 middle/junior high schools in Nevada
where this program is taught. It is taught by the
home economics teacher. Home and Career Skills is a
growing program in Nevada. Many creative ways
have been developed to assure that this program is
available to all students without cutting out other
instructional programs.
The curriculum is competency based with compe-
tencies validated by business and industry. There is
an individual student competency profile which in-
cludes a certificate of completion. Teachers complete
the profile, noting students success rates, as the stu-
dent moves through the program. The curriculum is
75 percent hands-on. Technology (i.e., computers,
video cassette recorders, camcorders, etc.) is an
integral part of the instructional delivery system as
is cooperative learning.
The curriculum units are color coded so that when
activities are dovetailed to teach competencies from
more than one objective, the pages can be replaced in
the appropriate unit at the completion of the
activities. Activities from published materials are
used as resources but not printed therein. Teacher
developed activity sheets are contained in the doc-
ument and printed in white so they are easily repro-
ducible.
The Home and Career Skills program replaces
the traditional home economics program. Home eco-
nomics teachers are the teachers most qualified to
teach the program. They work directly with the
school counselor in presenting the Career Planning
unit as the Home and Career Skills program is the
vehicle in Nevada by which the comprehensive Ca-
reer Guidance program is delivered to seventh and
eight grade students.
The numbers of home economics teachers teach-
ing the program have gone from four to twenty in
(Continued on page 169.)
166 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May/June, 1991
Middle School Home Economics Curriculum
Development in Georgia
Willodean D. Moss
Head and Associate Professor
Consumer and Family Sciences
Berry College
Mount Berry, GA
Martha S. Staples
State Supervisor
Home Economics Education
Georgia Department of
Education
Atlanta, GA
Introduction
In the 1980s under the leadership of Governor Joe
Frank Harris, the Georgia legislature passed the
Quality Basic Education Act. Part of this Act in-
cluded a component for statewide curriculum devel-
opment including the update and revision of guides
every five years. Phase one of the process calls for a
task or competency list for each curriculum that will
meet the Quality Core Curriculum, minimum objec-
tives to be taught for each content area that will re-
inforce the requirement for basic skills which are de-
fined as reading, writing, speaking, viewing, listen-
ing, mathematics, reasoning and computer literacy.
Basic skills are interdependent with each other and
are necessary tools for acquiring skills and knowl-
edge in all academic subjects and disciplines. These
basic competencies or abilities must be developed to
serve as tools for acquiring and applying other skills
and knowledge (Georgia Department of Education,
1987).
The Berry College Consumer and Family Sciences
Department was awarded a contract for developing
the task list during 1990 and another for developing
the home economics middle school curriculum guide
during 1991. Georgia middle school home economics
teachers were chosen by the Home Economics Unit of
the State Department of Education to be the writers
for both phases of the project.
Review of the Literature
Home economics in the Georgia middle school is
one of the exploratory courses designed to meet the
needs of the middle school student. Exploratory
courses must:
• reinforce knowledge and skills that foster the
development of logical and critical thinking;
• expose students to various high school subject
areas so as to facilitate decisions concerning
electives in high school;
• focus upon knowledge and skills currently or
eventually useful to students (Georgia
Department of Education, 1987).
The primary focus is on maintaining and /or de-
veloping a positive self-concept, relationships with
peers and family members, and enhancing personal
growth of the student in all areas including career
choice education.
These objectives must fit into the goals of Geor-
gia middle schools and be congruent with the middle
school concept. The objectives include:
• interdisciplinary teaching teams of academic
teachers with a flexibly scheduled day and a
common planning period;
• an exploratory program (including home eco-
nomics) which gives students opportunity to
explore short term, high interest topics; (The
Georgia State Department of Education
Taxonomy of Approvable Courses and
Classification of Instructional Programs
(1987) states that exploratory home economics
instructional programs provide individuals in
elementary, middle, and junior high schools
the opportunity to explore all home economics
subject matter areas, including instruction in
the development of positive self-concepts:
understanding personal growth and develop-
ment; and relationships with peers and
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1991 167
family members in becoming contributing
members in the home, school, and community.)
• a physical education and health component;
continued orientation and articulation of
school goals for students, parents and
teachers;
• a core curriculum which encourages personal
development, continued learning skills, and
basic knowledge (Alexander & George, 1981;
Georgia State Department of Education,
1987).
The curriculum being developed must focus on the
needs of middle school students at their develop-
mental stages:
• rapid physical growth;
• concern over body conformation;
• the beginning of abstract thinking;
• egocentric fear of what others think of them;
• an identity formation that achieves a
balance between self and society
(Dohner and Kister, 1990).
Methodology
The objective of the total project was to design a
curriculum that will more readily meet the per-
ceived needs of the middle school student. The first
step was a study of curricula from various school sys-
tems (see Appendix) from which a list of 160 items
now being taught was compiled and grouped into
compatible categories. This list was distributed to:
• Georgia middle school principals - 380;
• curriculum directors where applicable - 380;
• all middle school home economics teachers -
205;
• parents from ten randomly selected middle
schools classes - 300.
Each person was asked to rate each item on a scale of
1-5 with 5 being high as to whether or not they per-
ceived the item as being important in the life of the
middle school student.
In August at the state inservice meeting for voca-
tional teachers, a session was held for middle school
teachers to enable them to make suggestions regard-
ing any aspect of the project.
The results of the mail survey were computed
and all items scoring between 3 and 5 were grouped
into logical areas by the teacher/ writers, the subject
matter monitor from the State Department of Educa-
tion and the project director. These survey results
were reviewed by the state supervisor for Home Eco-
nomics Education and the liaison with the division
for curriculum development. The teacher/writers
then developed task analysis worksheets which
were reviewed, areas were redefined, the scope and
sequence for the three grade levels was established
and in some cases items were combined.
Finally, a technical committee made up of
teachers, representatives from business, and an ex-
tension agent reviewed the materials and made sug-
gestions. These worksheets are now being refined
and will be used as the basis for the curriculum guide
development to be completed during 1991.
Summary of the Data
Total surveys returned were 321 or 25 percent.
The breakdown by group is as follows: 102 principals
or 27 percent; 52 curriculum directors or 11 percent; 33
parents or 11 percent; 124 home economics teachers or
61 percent, the highest rate of return for any group;
and 6 completed by various other persons such as the
wife of one principal because he knew "nothing about
home economics." One counselor said that home
economics should not be taught to anyone at any time
anywhere!
Approximately 60 middle school teachers par-
ticipated in the workshop held in August. Their
suggestions proved very helpful in grouping items
and in making decisions as to which grade level each
concept should be assigned. Many good suggestions
were also made as to the curriculum guide contents
and ways by which it might be designed to be of op-
timum use.
Items were grouped into the following areas and
grade levels:
Grade 6 - Family Living
Personal Development
Grade 7 - Foods, Nutrition and Wellness
Child Care
Grade 8 - Space and Resource Management
Clothing Skills and Application
In the present organization of the competencies,
the sixth grade will focus on self-esteem, self-con-
cept, physical development, social development,
interpersonal relationships outside the family, roles
and responsibilities as a family member, freedom
and responsibility, values clarification, decision
making, personal budgeting, communication skills,
and leadership development. At the seventh grade
level the curriculum will focus on the importance of
168 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May/June, 1991
eating a variety of foods, the economic aspects of
food, nutritious snacking, food purchasing, using
mixes in food preparation, food safety and
sanitation, social, psychological and cultural aspects
of food, child safety and babysitting.
At the eighth grade level the curriculum will fo-
cus on textiles and its relationship to the selection
and care of clothing, the use of the sewing machine
and mending; management of time, personal energy
and money; care and organization of clothing and
personal living space; conservation of natural re-
sources; and good consumer practices.
The CHEC System (Consumer Home Economics
Careers System) will be introduced at the sixth
grade level and utilized as an optional component of
the curriculum in all home economics classrooms
equipped with the program.
Implications
The project staff has developed a curriculum
that focuses each year on different topics and incor-
porates the laboratory days of 25 percent required by
QBE and is determined to devise a method of making
the guide "user friendly" whether the teacher is
teaching a 6, 9, 12 or 18 week term.
One of the primary goals of the new curriculum is
for the student to have a very good experience so
that s/he will want to take additional courses in
subsequent years. The best teachers possible will be
teaching an interesting, appropriate and important
curriculum to a very critical age group of young
people. These teachers will be trained at inservice
workshops and at the summer teachers' conference.
Teacher educators will have copies of the curriculum
guide so that new teachers will be familiar with the
subject matter content.
This project will help more teachers make a pos-
itive difference in the lives of individuals and fami-
lies.
enth Year, and Sixth-Year Program.) Marietta,
GA: Cobb County School District.
Department of Home Economics Education for U.S.
Department of Education, Office of Research and
Improvement. Exploratory Home Economics for
Early Adolescents, (1986). Ames, IA: Iowa
Curriculum Assistance System.
Instructional Materials Laboratory. (1987). Compe-
tency-based scope and sequence for vocational
home economic programs in Missouri. Columbus,
MO: Instructional Materials Laboratory.
Maryland State Department of Education, Division
of Instruction, Division of Vocational-Technical
Education. Enhancing Thinking in Vocational
Programs. Baltimore, MD.
Minnesota Instructional Materials Center, Middle
School - Junior High Co-Educational Mini-Units
in Home Economics.
Oregon State University. (1987). Middle
school/junior high home economics. Corvallis,
Oregon: College of Home Economics.
Pough, C. R. (1989). South Carolina Guide For
Middle School Home Economics. Prepared by
South Carolina Department of Education for U.S.
Department of Education, Office of Educational
Research and Improvement. Columbia, SC.
State of Oregon, Department of Education Home Eco-
nomics Foundational Course Outline. Salem, OR.
Tennessee State Department of Education, Division
of Vocational-Technical Education. Teen Living
- A Curriculum Guide for Teachers, Consumer and
Homemaking Education for Grades 5,6,7, and 8.
Nashville, TN.
West Virginia Department of Education, (1988).
BASE Home Economic Curriculum Grades 5-8,
Utilization Handbook developed in cooperation
with Department of Home Economics at Mar-
shall University, Huntington, West Virginia.
References
Alexander, W. M., & George, P.S. (1981) The exem-
plary middle school. New York: Holt, Rhine-
hart and Winston, Inc.
Dohner, R. E., & Kister, J. (1990). Approaching
home economics curriculum at the middle level.
Illinois Teacher, 22(6), 47-49.
Georgia Department of Education. (1987). Exhibit B:
Student compentencies required by Quality Basic
Education Act. Atlanta, GA.
Appendix
Cobb County School District, Teacher's Topic Outline
- Home Economics Program. (Eighth Year, Sev-
(Continued from page 166.)
three years. They continue to participate in depart-
ment coordinated inservice workshops.
There is more work to be done, however. All
middle/junior high school home economics teachers
in schools where Home and Career Skills will be
taught need to receive inservice workshops in how to
teach this process based course of study. The 1991
Nevada State Legislature is considering one-time
funding to secure basic equipment for all classrooms
where the program still needs to be implemented.
And finally, we need to proceed with the develop-
ment of competency based courses of study in home
economics education for grades nine through twelve.
We look forward to these challenges. • • •
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May/June, 1991 169
What Do Students Need to Know?
Dixie J. Torres
Home Economics Teacher
Adams High School
Adams, NE
Kendra Vance
Project Assistant
and
Julie M. Johnson
Associate Professor
University of Nebraska
Lincoln, NE
Dixie J. Torres Kendra Vance
Julie M. Johnson
Several factors are important when evaluating
curriculum. Besides considering each specific course,
its content, and the concepts to be included, an
assessment must be made of societal conditions rele-
vant to that course content. Another essential com-
ponent to the assessment process requires that the
needs of learners and their developmental stage be
the focus for course content determination and means
of delivery. Following the report, A Nation at Risk
in 1983, politicians, school administrators and edu-
cators evaluated what appeared to be ineffective
and inefficient learning systems. The response by
curriculum developers was to implement changes in
the subject requirements for math, science, computer
science, reading, and writing in the belief that these
changes were the necessary ingredients for improving
the literacy of young people. Although many of
these changes were made in school districts across
the nation, student performance has not improved
significantly. In addition, these changes have not
helped young people cope with complex societal
pressures. This fact appears to be demonstrated by
the increased incidence of teen pregnancy, teen alco-
holism and teen suicide.
The content within the subject of home economics
can provide learning experiences to meet the needs of
youth in a changing society. Jorgenson and Haley
(1985) identified the following societal problems
and conditions which can be addressed in home eco-
nomics: functional illiteracy, family abuse, adoles-
cent pregnancy, economic/ social problems of changing
family structures, alcohol/drug abuse, ethnic diver-
sity, and an aging population. Even though these is-
sues need to be addressed broadly in an entire school
curriculum, home economics subject matter areas are
especially unique and suited to guiding the cognitive
and affective development of young people in these
areas.
But to what extend are youth themselves able to
participate in the curriculum decision making pro-
cess? Spitze (1985) visited 190 home economics class-
rooms in 40 high schools in different parts of the na-
tion. From her observations of the strengths and
weaknesses of specific curricula, she was prompted to
recommend: "More active involvement of students —
physically, intellectually, and emotionally — in
their own learning activities" (p. 11). Riggers (1985)
voiced a similar opinion that students themselves
ought to be involved both in planning and imple-
menting their learning.
When curriculum developers begin their task of
assessing the needs for a school district's curriculum,
all groups and individuals within a community see
themselves as significant participants in defining
what ought to be included. The results of a national
survey conducted by Martin, Saif, and Thiel (1987)
indicated that "at least two thirds of the respon-
dents thought that administrators, supervisors,
teachers, students, the board of education, parents,
and community representatives should be involved in
curriculum development" (p. 46). Although students
were seen as logical participants in the curriculum
development process, students participated very lit-
tle. They were involved less than parents and other
groups.
Student effectiveness could be enhanced, and
they might become more responsible for their learn-
ing if they had more opportunity for participatory
decision making (Wagner, 1987). The research by
Martin et al. (1987) indicated a surprising fact:
those people whose needs must be addressed in any
curriculum change were among the least involved in
the curriculum decision making process.
170 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May/June, 1991
Johnson's (1986) Home Economics Needs Assess-
ment form was used to conduct a survey in the spring
of 1989. Senior students in high school home eco-
nomic classes gave their perceptions of the impor-
tance of 136 concepts in the home economics curricu-
lum. Questionnaires were mailed to home economics
teachers in 22 schools in economically depressed
counties in a midwestern state. The questionnaire
was completed by 174 senior home economics stu-
dents.
The concepts on the survey form were divided
into eight subject matter areas: consumer education
(17 concepts), management and other processes (9 con-
cepts), basic employability skill (10 concepts), food
and nutrition (19 concepts), housing and home fur-
nishings (20 concepts), child development/ parenting
(21 concepts), family relationships (22 concepts),
clothing and textiles (18 concepts). Possible re-
sponses ranged from 1 = not important to 5 = essential.
Means were calculated and analyzed statistically
using t tests with Tukey-(HSD) follow-up proce-
dures. Students' mean scores ranged from 3.30
(clothing and textiles) to 3.98 (child develop-
ment/parenting).
In 1987, Vance conducted a survey of high school
home economics teachers. Teachers were asked to
what extent they emphasized the same 136 concepts
that were on Johnson's Home Economics Needs
Assessment form in their teaching. Scores for teach-
ers were assigned from 1 = not included to 5 = greatly
emphasized. Teachers' mean housing and home fur-
nishings) to 4.03 (child development and parenting).
Comparisons were made between the findings of both
studies that revealed there were differences between
students' perceptions of subject matter and specific
concepts they needed and the home economics teach-
ers' perceptions of what is emphasized in their
teaching (See Table 1).
Significant differences were found between the
responses of the students and teachers in four subject
mskills as essential yet, teachers did not report em-
phasizing at a level that corresponded to the stu-
dents' perceived need. Conversely, students per-
ceived the subject matter areas of management and
other processes, food and nutrition, and clothing and
textiles to be less important than the emphasis
teachers reported placing on these areas in their
teaching. The areas of food and nutrition as well as
clothing and textiles represent two areas that Spitze
(1985) observed being taught most frequently in the
home economics classroom. It is ironic that students
who are more likely to experience this content in
home economics classes do not perceive it to be as im-
portant as what teachers emphasize. Home eco-
nomics teachers have often said that students want
to cook and sew; therefore, they include these tradi-
tional areas. Evidence from this study does not sup-
port this reasoning.
Table 1. Differences Between Students and Teachers for Subject Matter Areas
Subject Matter Areas
(Number of Concepts)
Students
(N=174)
Teachers
(N=45)
Child development/parenting (21)
Basic employability (10)
Family relationships (22)
Management ahome furnishings (20)
Consumer education (17)
Food and nutrition (19)
Clothing and textiles (19)
3.98
4.03
3.89
3.43*
3.76
3.75
3.43
3.42
3.41
3.52
3.31
3.75*
3.30
3.71*
*Significant Difference
Note: Scores used in the student questionnaire were assigned as follows: 1 = not important, 2 = little impor-
tance, 3 = important, 4 = very important, 5 = essential.
Scores used on the teacher questionnaire were assigned as follows: 1 = not included, 2 = not emphasized,
3 = somewhat emphasized, 4 = moderately emphasized, 5 = greatly emphasized.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1991 171
In addition to looking at the overall subject mat-
ter areas, each concept within these areas was ana-
lyzed to determine whether or not significant differ-
ences existed between what teachers emphasized
and what students thought was important. Listed
below are those concepts where significant differ-
ences existed. Students perceived these concepts to be
more important than what teachers emphasized. If
teachers placed more emphasis on these concepts in
the eight subject matter areas, students' perceived
needs might be met more effectively.
Child Development/Parenting
1. Child abuse
2. Safety/first aid
3. Selecting daycare/nursery school services
4. Parenting affects society
Basic Employability
1. Job application
2. Effective communication
3. Job hunting techniques
4 . Job training knowledge
Family Relationships
1. Preventing family violence
2. Characteristics of life partner
3. Identifying special needs
4. Caring for elderly
Management and Other Processes
No concept within this area was as impor-
tant for students as what teachers emphasized.
Housing and Home Furnishings
1. Legal rights/influencing change
2. Caring for home
3. Government and housing
4. Culture/ housing future
Consumer Education
1 . Insurance
2. Taxes/social security
3. Financial records
4. Transportation
Foods and Nutrition
1 . Consumer agencies
2. World food supply
Clothing and Textiles
1 . Choosing clothing budget
2. Clothing/life cycle
3. Altering and recycling clothing
How might these differences impact curriculum
development and student participation? Innovative
teachers should consider a variety of ways to include
students in curriculum decision making. Home eco-
nomics students could participate in a needs assess-
ment to identify specific needs in either one or all
subject matter areas. These results could help to de-
fine a school district's needs when curriculum is
evaluated, and identify changes which might be
made for course offerings. At the beginning of a year,
students could brainstorm subject matter concepts that
would best meet the needs of class members and pri-
oritize their ideas. Several times during the year,
students and teachers could assess what needs have
been met and determine which ones remain to be ad-
dressed. Students might also serve on advisory com-
mittees to help make decisions about relevant issues.
One goal for developing curriculum is to facili-
tate greater student learning. When students are
given a chance to experience the democratic process
through participation in curriculum decision making,
they may assume greater responsibility for their
learning. With cooperative interaction, this curricu-
lar goal will be accomplished.
References
Johnson, J. M. (1986). Nebraska Home Economics
Needs Assessment. (Project Report). Lincoln,
NE: University of Nebraska.
Jorgenson, S. R., & Haley, E. G. (1985). Future fami-
lies in a nation at risk: The promise and poten-
tial of home economics. Illinois Teacher of Home
Economics, 280), 94-99.
Martin, D. S., Saif, P. S., & Thiel, L. (1987). Cur-
riculum development: Who is involved and
how? Educational Leadership, 44(4), 40-48.
The National Commission on Excellence in Educa-
tion. (1983). David Pierpont Gardner, chair. A
nation at risk: The imperative for educational
reform. Washington, DC: U.S. Printing Office.
Riggers, M. L. (1985). Content or process? How to
meet the challenge. What's New in Home Eco-
nomics? 20(3), 2, 14.
Spitze, H. T. (1985). Observations in forty high
schools: Is our nation at risk? Journal of Home
Economics, 7793), 7-11.
Torres, D. J. (1989). High school home economics
students' perceptions of subject matter needs in
home economics curriculum. Unpublished mas-
ter's thesis, University of Nebraska, Lincoln,
NE.
(Continued on page 177.)
172 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May/June, 1991
Family-Centered Learning:
An Even Start Project
Cathleen T. Love
Associate Professor and Coordinator
Home Economics
Colorado State University
Robert T. Williams
Professor
School of Occupational and Educational Studies
Colorado State University
Carol Salas
Minority Liaison Coordinator
Poudre R-l School District
R. Brian Cobb
Associate Professor
School of Occupational and Educational Studies
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, CO
A significant number of children in the United
States enter the school system without having had
a book read to them, without having had paper or
crayons to color or scissors to cut and without many of
the skills we assume kindergarten children have ac-
quired. We believe educational systems have a re-
sponsibility to provide opportunities to facilitate
educational successes for all students. We have come
to believe that educational empowerment of all per-
sons is beneficial to all of society. Further, we be-
lieve that educational success is an economic invest-
ment which prepares learners to be successful, pro-
ductive citizens in their personal, family and occu-
pational lives.
The public schools are now faced with children
who are poorer, are more ethnically and linguisti-
cally diverse and who have more handicaps that
will affect their schooling (Boyer, 1987). A priority
for the public schools has to be to assist these at-risk
youth to overcome barriers to learning and realize
their academic potential. Excellence in education
must be tied to addressing the problems of the poor,
the dropout rate of minorities, the effects of the
break up of the home, the changing work and family
patterns and the variety of ways that children
learn (Boyer, 1987; Wehlage, Rutter and Turnbaugh,
1987). This is a major task for the schools because
these are the children that the schools have served
the worst and they are becoming a larger part of the
school population (Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development, 1988).
In the spring of 1989, we had the rare opportu-
nity to act on a dream which we had been discussing
for over a year. A request for proposals from the
United States Department of Education for an Even
Start Program appeared in the Federal Register in
March of 1989. The goal of Even Start is to elimi-
nate the gap between those children who are pre-
pared to enter the public schools and those who are
not by assisting parents in becoming promoters of
their children's education. Families who are eligi-
ble to participate must have children ages one to
seven and the parents must be eligible for adult basic
education. Even Start programs must promote the
literacy of parents, train parents to support the
educational growth of their children, and prepare
children for success in regular school programs.
Acting on our beliefs and our observations, we
wrote a project which acted on our beliefs about edu-
cational empowerment and our Even Start proposal
was awarded $200,000 a year for four years. The
goal of our project is to produce and evaluate the out-
comes of a model home-based and family-centered
instruction program. The program brings together
children, their parents and professionals into an in-
teraction to develop the literacy skills of both the
children and their parents. The emergence of liter-
acy is developed through a home-based program
featuring a life skills curriculum.
The United States Department of Education re-
quires a match from the local community for each
year of funding. The first year has a 10 percent
matching requirement and each subsequent year it
increases 10 percent. By the fourth year, therefore,
40 percent of the cost must be raised within the local
community. For the costs of the first year of the
Family-Centered Learning project, 70 percent was
generated through the grant; we were able to
provide a 30 percent local match.
Critical Need
The target population for our project is an educa-
tionally and economically at-risk mobile home
community. The neighborhood is isolated from the
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1991 173
general population, lacks affordable transportation
and has limited access to educational resources. The
homes in this community are trailers which often
have limited space and overcrowded conditions.
Data gathered from the school district's work
with at-risk families suggests that the majority of
families placed a high value on education, will
work cooperatively with schools, and will take ad-
vantage of opportunities to learn. For example, dur-
ing interviews with parents of at-risk students, 96
percent wanted their children to graduate from high
school; 100 percent felt it was important for their
children to master the English language.
The parents in our Even Start project have not
graduated from high school and many only attended
a few years of elementary school. Some grandmoth-
ers raising children have never attended school. Due
to their low educational level, many parents do not
have the experiential base and knowledge required
to support their children's educational endeavors, in
areas such as homework assistance, learning strate-
gies, and educational counseling. For children from
families who are unable or unreceptive to providing
educational support, Even Start is a valuable re-
source.
Project Plan and Operation
Our Even Start project has been a collaborative
effort. The project director is an administrator for
Poudre R-l school district and the codirectors are
faculty at Colorado State University. The support
from both institutions has been critical to the success
of the project. In addition, many resources of the Fort
Collins community have been incorporated into the
project.
The plan of operation has been developed based
upon goals and objectives. The six goals that have
assisted us in maintaining our focus are listed below.
We have operationalized these goals through the
variety of activities now being implemented as a
part of our project.
Goal 1: Train parents to become full partners in the
education of their children.
Goal 2: Assist children in reaching their full
potential as learners.
Goal 3: Provide parents with literacy training.
Goal 4: Collaborate with school and community
service providers to coordinate on-site re-
sources for program participants.
Goal 5: Evaluate project outcomes through a forma-
tive and summative process.
Goal 6: Disseminate demonstration project.
The Start-Up
The first six months of the project was devoted
to setting the groundwork. Critical on our list was
developing an understanding relationship with the
community where we wanted to establish the learn-
ing center. We listed a series of homes and talked
about our goals and asked what their particular
needs were and how we might work together to ad-
dress the needs. The families were all warm and
welcoming.
Hiring of staff was a major time investment. We
were careful about the advertising, the screening of
applications and the interviewing for each position.
We made a commitment to hiring minority members
and persons who are bilingual. Staff members were
also hired for their personal commitment to empow-
erment for families. Staff are the critical link in the
community.
Because the homes of the families were limited
in space, we had contracted for the purchase of a
doublewide mobile home to be put in the community
as a learning center. We wanted the center to be
handicapped accessible so we had to have it built
with special dimensions. We also wanted to have it
located in the community where it was visible so we
were careful about choosing the best lot. The man-
ager of the mobile home community donated the lot
space because of his personal belief in the Even Start
mission.
Although the start-up of the project required in-
put from all of us, splitting of the tasks was critical
to assure there was enough energy to get all the work
done. Carol, as project director for the school district
administers the funding and oversees the staff at
the center. She assists with school district and
community collaboration and is always searching for
opportunities for additional funding. Cathy has
taken over the writing of the life skills curriculum
and collaboration with Colorado State University.
Robert and Brian are sharing the responsibility for
the evaluation; Robert focusing on the local evalua-
tion and Brian the requirements for the national
evaluation.
Training for the staff was also an important di-
mension of this start-up phase. We knew that the
premise from which we wanted to operationalize
our Even Start project was empowerment. We wanted
everyone to be learning if they were working with
us: the teachers, the family mentors, the secre-
taries, the families, the community members, the
project directors, school district personnel, univer-
sity faculty and students, etc. We wanted the fami-
lies to be more independent as a result of Even Start
resources, not more dependent. We wanted to help
the staff learn to help families to help themselves.
174 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May/June, 1991
Another dimension of staff training was taking
care of our own personal health and well-being. We
explored with staff the energy it can take to assist
at-risk families and helped them to explore
healthy boundaries for themselves and their per-
sonal families. We assured them that we would
evaluate job descriptions if we found that expecta-
tions had been set too high for the time that was
designated for each position. We wanted staff to
model a healthy lifestyle and we did not want to
lose them to burnout.
Colorado State University requires a number of
practicum experiences for both their undergraduate
and graduate students. The project directors began to
explore how those practicum experiences might as-
sist with the needs of the Even Start families.
Through an open invitation to professors in the uni-
versity we were able to obtain expertise and energy
from students from a variety of disciplines.
The Structure
The learning center is open Monday through Fri-
day from eight to five. There is a secretary and the
learning center coordinator in the facility all day.
We also have hired through the local Employment
and Training Office a Job Training and Partnership
Act (JTPA) an employee who is a mother in one of
the Even Start families.
There are four family mentors. The family men-
tors are the persons who interact with the families
at least once a week. The family mentors are teach-
ers and outreach workers for their families. When
they visit families they deal with their basic hu-
man needs before they attempt to work on literacy.
Family mentors know their families well and they
have developed a special relationship with each.
After much discussion and trial efforts the de-
livery of structured learning was agreed to be one
home visit and and a ninety minute class session at
the learning center. Every class session is led by a
staff member and with at least one family mentor
present. Some classes have members whose only lan-
guage is Spanish so we also have a translator
available when necessary. The center is equipped
with a playroom and a child care provider is avail-
able when needed.
The Curriculum
Ready-made curricula did not fit the needs of
our families. Much of the curricula we evaluated
was created for a specific age group from a middle-
class family. We had to develop a model for curricu-
lum which was family-centered and applicable to
low-income, culturally diverse families. This pre-
sented a challenge because of the variety of ages of
the children and the educational level of the par-
ents.
Our staff have generated curriculum ideas based
on a life skills approach. Our families have an in-
terest in home economics related topics such as par-
enting, consumer issues, foods and nutrition, man-
agement, relationships, communication, and child
development. Each week the staff meets as a cur-
riculum team and discusses what the critical events
are that are happening for families and we brain-
storm ways that families can learn to handle these
events.
To facilitate parents becoming the first teach-
ers of their children we have developed a format for
the delivery of the curriculum which enables par-
ents to practice teaching their children both as a
part of the learning center session and during the
home visit. Each learning center lesson follows this
lesson plan outline:
Introduction (15 minutes)
(Together in individual family groups)
Teacher greets families and gets them started on
an activity which will be reinforced in the lesson for
the day. Parents and children are given an activity
to do together without the assistance of the teacher.
Parents lead their children through activities such
as drawing pictures, cutting out or categorizing
similar items, creating a decoration, or following a
recipe.
Lesson Planning (20 minutes)
(Parents and children are separated. Children have
free play.)
The teacher discusses with parents the lesson for
the day. She describes the objective and lesson in-
tent and explains the purpose of the previous activ-
ity and how it meets the lesson objective. Parents are
shown in detail the activity they are about to par-
ticipate in with their children. Teachers and fam-
ily mentors role play when appropriate what the
parent/child interaction might be like. Parents
have a clear idea of what they will be doing with
their child/children. Parents are asked how they
are feeling about the lesson and any necessary ad-
justments are made based on their input.
Lesson Plan
(Together as a total group)
Parents then work with their children as part-
ners. Parents carry out the planned activities. Some
examples of teaching that the parents have done
are conducting family meetings, asking children
what tasks they could do at home, discussing family
communication, setting goals, eating healthy food,
and managing time.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May/June, 1991 175
Evaluation
(Parents and Children are Separated)
Parent Activity. Parents process and evaluate
the lesson. The staff reinforces why the lesson was
taught and how parents can continue the lesson at
home. Staff ask parents what they liked and
disliked and what they needed more help with.
Parents are always asked, "How will this activity
help to get your child ready for school?"
Children Activity. Children do a separate
activity to reinforce the content learned. Sample
activities include reading books, playing games or
talking about what they learned.
Follow-up Activities. As a part of each
curriculum meeting activities are planned for a home
visit and ideas are given to the families for family
practice.
Home Visit. Family mentors bring to the homes
activities for the entire family to do together. Each
visit helps families to learn together. Family men-
tors attempt to provide variety and fun in their
lessons. Reading is always a part of the home visit
as is a hands-on activity.
Family Practice. Parents are encouraged to prac-
tice with their children some aspect of the lesson be-
tween classes. Staff assist families in creating activ-
ities which can be done.
Vocabulary. Throughout the lesson staff at-
tempt to inset key words that parents and children
can add to their vocabulary. Without stretching the
content of the lesson, an effort is made to help fami-
lies learn concepts that will increase their literacy
level.
We have been pleased with the lesson format
and the families appreciate the consistency it pro-
vides them. School has not been a positive experi-
ence for the majority of our families and we have to
work hard to keep them engaged in our Even Start
lessons.
In addition to the curriculum at home and in the
center, we have taken the families on field trips in
the local community. The families have attended
Colorado State University sports events, gone to a
farm to pick pumpkins and visited some of our state
and local parks. We want the families to experience
the enrichment activities that are available in the
local community so that they will utilize them.
Other Related Activities
When the center is not being used for Even Start
activities, we have arranged other educational op-
portunities with resources from the community.
There is an after school campfire program from
three to five p.m. This is led by a coordinator who is
being funded by Annheiser-Busch. In the early
evening there are education practicum students who
come to assist elementary and junior high students
with their homework. We have begun a men's sup-
port group and a babysitting cooperative. GED
classes are offered as well as English as a second
language. Special programs on topics such as parent-
ing are offered for anyone in the park who would
like to attend. In the summer, a complete summer en-
richment program is offered for children in the pub-
lic schools.
Evaluation
All of the Even Start Projects are a part of a
large, comprehensive evaluation conducted by Abt
Associates of Cambridge, MA, with a subcontract to
RMC Research Corporation of Portland, OR. This
evaluation component is called The National Eval-
uation and Information System (NEIS). The follow-
ing description of the aspects and components of the
evaluation program draws heavily from the NEIS
manual developed by RMC Research Corporation.
There are four aspects of the evaluation: ( 1 ) partic-
ipant characteristics and family information, (2)
core services received, (3) program implementation,
and (4) adult and child outcome data.
The first aspect includes participant character-
istics which is demographic information about par-
ticipants and family information which includes in-
formation about parent-child interactions and par-
ent as teacher. Information is gathered about the
beliefs and behaviors of adults and children partic-
ipating in the project.
The second aspect collects information about the
types and amount of core services Even Start family
members receive. These services might include ( 1 )
adult-child services, (2) adult education, (3) early
childhood education, and (4) parent education to
enhance child development.
The third aspect details the program implemen-
tation including characteristics of core services, sup-
port services and social activities, recruiting,
screening and assessment procedures, staff charac-
teristics and staff development cooperative ar-
rangements, and other factors influencing imple-
mentation.
The final aspect is the record of adult and child
outcome data. This aspect includes the pre- and
post-assessment of adults and children using stan-
dardized assessment instruments. The assessment in-
struments used with the adults is the Comprehen-
sive Adult Student Assessment System (CASAS).
The child assessment instruments are the Preschool
Screening Inventory (modified to a 32 item inven-
176 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May/June, 1991
tory), and the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test.
Both the Preschool Screening Inventory and the
Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test have Spanish
versions.
In addition to the NEIS requirements, each Even
Start project may conduct local evaluation. We
have not implemented any other evaluation to date.
We anticipate including assessments which
evaluate children under four years of age and which
more finely assess development. We anticipate
having graduate and undergraduate students from
the Department of Communication Disorders at
Colorado State University conduct individual
language samples and other language assessments of
children younger than 4 years old. We have chosen
to use the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test with
adults.
Conclusions
Rewards for obtaining federal projects are often
debated within the educational systems. There is no
debate for us with Even Start. We have imple-
mented a win-win grant. The families in our Even
Start community are learning and the staff, school
district, and university personnel are learning. We
will be different educators as a result of working
with our Even Start families. We have made as-
sumptions in the past about who our students are and
the resources that are available to them.
It has been difficult to focus on helping families
to help themselves. It would be easier to do for
them. We take time through staff retreats to remind
ourselves that our goal is to empower our families.
That cannot happen if we rescue rather than teach.
We have started on a healthy journey of cooperation
and collaboration. We are growing as a result and we
need to remind each other that healthy growth is
an ongoing process.
What do parents say about Even Start . . .
• It's the best thing that happened to Poudre
Valley park. The kids really liked the
program; they learned from it. The teachers
were great. Thank you.
• I felt it was a good program for my kids to be
in. I hope more programs get started in other
neighborhoods where more kids could
participate.
• My son enjoyed coming; I couldn't do too many
things because I work. I think the program is
excellent. The teachers and people involved
worked very hard to help the children. Very
nice to talk with too. Thank you for all your
kindness and the excellent way you handled
everything.
• The Even Start Summer Program was exactly
what Chris needed! His teachers were great.
He had nothing but praise for them every day
that he went. Three of my five kids went and
it was good for them in more ways than one!!
• I feel the program broke up the summer for
Brandon. He really didn't get a chance to get
bored. He likes the field trips and computer
time. He tells me he's learned a lot from
them.
• Kids really had fun on the field trips. This is
a good program for kids. I hope it continues.
• My kid like it; she had fun. She wants to go
next year. I think Even Start Summer Program
is a good program for kids and for parents to
get involved.
• I like Even Start Summer Program because it is
good to learn and work for children and school.
• I think it's a very good program. I hope it
keeps up the good work.
• Even Start is off to a great start. I'm
impressed with the staff and ETS workers
that have been working.
References
Boyer, E. L. (1987). Early schooling and the nation's
future. Educational Leadership, 44(6), 4-6.
Opening doors for students at-risk. (1988). ASCD
Update, 30(2), Iff.
Wehlage, G. G., Rutter, R. A., & Turnbaugh, A.
(1987). A problem model for at-risk high school
students. Educational Leadership, 44(6), 70-73.
(Continued from page 172.)
Vance, K. L. (1987). Home economics teachers' per-
ceptions of what is being taught compared with
parents' and agency representatives' perceptions
of what should be taught. Unpublished master's
thesis, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE.
Wagner, T. (1987). Educating for excellence on an en-
dangered planet. In A. Molner (Ed.), Social is-
sues and education: Challenge and responsibil-
ity (pp. 101-112). Alexandria, VA: Association
for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1991 177
Family Diversity in the United States
Sharon Y. Nickols
Director
School of Human Resources and Family Studies
and Assistant Director
Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station
Linda Asmussen
Research Associate
Division of Human Development and Family Studies
James D. Oliver
Associate Director for Urban Programs
Illinois Cooperative Extension Service
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Reprinted from: Illinois Research, Vol. 32, Spring/Summer 1990.
College of Agriculture, University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign.
Over the past 25 years, there have been
tremendous changes in the family as a social
institution and in the definition of the U.S. family.
Although the United States has always been a
pluralistic society, family diversity was recognized
only recently. Previously, all family types were
judged by a middle-class Euro-American model of the
"ideal" family.
Today's contemporary family, however, reflects
a multiplicity of living arrangements, gender roles,
and relationships. To understand and work with
modern families, we need to recognize this diversity.
Each family has the potential to contribute to
individual development and to the broader society.
But rapid changes have made the family more
vulnerable both economically and socially.
This article summarizes some of the major trends
in U.S. families in recent years. We have drawn
upon U.S. Census data and other sources for the
statistics and trends reported here. We also identify
policy implications that may affect the family's
ability to add value.
Diversity of Family Structure
Typical household. In 1971, 81 percent of us
lived in households that included a married couple.
But only 73 percent of us live in such a household
today.
To illustrate, let a hypothetical block of ten
households correspond to the total distribution of
U.S. household types (see figure). Six households —
three of which have children present — are
maintained by married couples. Two other
households are maintained by persons living alone.
One household is maintained by a single parent, one
by other combinations of persons living together.
Household types by distribution in the U.S. population
married couples
married couples with children
persons living alone
single parent with children
SSL
jfllEL BBS* BBL
some other combination
of persons living together
Julfi
In 1986, married-couple families accounted for
83.4 percent of white families, 70.8 percent of His-
panic families, and 52.7 percent of African-American
families. One-parent families, however, comprised
16.7 percent of white families, 29.1 percent of
Hispanic families, and 47.2 percent of African-
American families in the United States.
Divorce. Divorce affects the lives of approxi-
mately 2 million adults and more than 1 million
children in the United States each year. In Illinois,
the divorce rate in 1985 was 4.2 per 1,000 population,
slightly less than the national rate of 5.0 per 1,000
population.
After a sharp increase between 1965 and 1980,
the divorce rate in recent years has stabilized.
Slightly more than one-half of all new marriages
are expected to end in divorce. Most divorces occur
after seven to eight years of marriage — a pattern
that is similar for white, Hispanic, and African-
American populations.
Remarriage. Current statistics, however, indi-
cate declining rates of remarriage. Five of six di-
vorced men and three of four divorced women eventu-
ally will remarry if present trends continue.
178 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1991
Remarriage usually occurs within the first two to
three years after divorce. Comparing divorce and
remarriage rates for women by race indicates that
there is variation among racial groups (see table,
below).
Children and Their Families
Single-parent families. In 1981, approximately
20 percent of children below the age of 18 were living
with one parent. The 1990 Census is expected to
reveal an increase of these children — likely more
than one-fourth of all households (26.5 percent). On
the average, children spend six years in a single-
parent family created by divorce.
Stepfamilies. Approximately one-third of all
children born in the early 1980s will live with a
stepparent during some part of their childhood. In
1987, there were approximately 11 million remar-
ried families. There were 4.3 million stepfamilies
(families that include children at home under the
age of 18 who were born before the remarriage oc-
curred). Stepfamilies comprised 6.7 percent of all
families and 17.4 percent of married-couple families
with children at home under the age of 18.
Divorce and Remarriage Rates for Women*
Divorce rate
for first
marriages
Remarriage
rate after
divorce
African- American
White
Hispanic
Percent
30.6 45.7
26.7 64.3
19.5 55.1
*Data for women age
20 to 54 years
of age in 1985.
Pregnancy and birth. By age 19, one-fourth of all
females have a baby. Eighty percent of these
mothers are not married. The proportion of children
born to unmarried mothers increased from 5 percent in
1960 to 19.2 percent in 1987 of 12 percent of white
births and 55 percent of African- American births.
Illinois ranks among the five states with the
highest incidence of infant mortality and low
birthweight among the nonwhite population. For
every 1,000 live births in Illinois, 12.4 infants die
before the age of one year. One grim statement
summarizes these dismal statistics — an African-
American baby born in Chicago is more likely to die
in the first year of life than a baby born in Costa
Rica.
Changes in Gender Roles and Economic Status
Working mothers. A majority of married-couple
families, 60 percent, have dual incomes. Women
with young children are the fastest growing segment
of women in the work force. In 1987, 50.8 percent of
women who gave birth in the preceding twelve
months were working. Employed mothers with
preschool-age children numbered over 8 million
nationally in the first quarter of 1990.
On the average, employed mothers' earnings in
married-couple families with children are 41.3
percent of total family earnings, a significant
portion. Thus, families have come to depend upon
the earnings of both husband and wife.
Children in poverty. Despite modest increases in
median family income in the mid-1980s, recent data
on household income reveal that certain groups are
losing ground. In 1987, one in five children lived in
households with incomes below the poverty level.
The 1990 Census is expected to show that 25
percent of the nation's children are living in
households with incomes below the poverty level.
Among white children, one in every six is poor
compared to more than one in every three Hispanic
children and nearly one in every two African-
American children.
Children are especially vulnerable to economic
insecurity if they live in a household with a female
single parent. Median family income of household
headed by women is considerably less than half that
of families headed by married couples or by men.
Between 1979 and 1986, the number of jobholders
who fell below the poverty level increased from 8.5
to 8.9 million nationally.
"Safety net" programs are reaching fewer
eligible people today. For example, the Food Stamp
program fails to reach one-third of those who are
eligible; the Women, Infants, and Children (WIC)
nutrition program serves less than 50 percent of high-
risk, low-income women and children; and Aid to
Families with Dependent Children (AFD) went to
only 60 percent of children in poverty in 1986,
compared to 72 percent in 1979.
Implications for Family Policy in the 1990s
Recent trends in family characteristics reflect
thousands of individual decisions in response to
changing social and economic conditions. The
cumulative effect of these decisions and other socio-
demographic factors have markedly changes the
profile of the U.S. family.
As families and personal relationships change,
families will become even more diverse. Because
families are process-oriented, they are constantly
(Continued on page 183.)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1991 179
tt
Utah's Entry Level Curriculum:
Technology-Life-Careers Vocational Core
Janet E. Preston
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Home Economics and
Consumer Education
Utah State University
Logan, UT
and
Phyllis Horner
Department Head
Home Economics
Wasatch High School
Heber City, UT
Utah's new entry level program for middle/junior
high school is referred to as the TLC Vocational
Core. The project was named Technology-Life-Ca-
reers (TLC) Vocational Core Curriculum to reflect the
emphasis on technology and up-to-date equipment
used in preparing for present and future life roles.
The vocational areas participating were clus-
tered into the following three groups — Technology
Education/Agriculture, Business/Marketing and
Home Economics/Health Occupations. This curricu-
lum provides a basic overview course and exploration
of related careers. It was written specifically for stu-
dents' first introduction to vocational programs at the
6th or 7th grade level. The major objectives were to:
provide a coordinated vocational core to introduce
students to vocational programs; to provide experi-
ences for students with advanced technology, activity
centered group work, and individualized challenge
projects; and to help each student prepare for life
skills useful for the selection of occupations and the
management of work and family (Utah State Office
of Education, 1990).
The vocational core curriculum is a result of some
forceful opposition imposed on vocational education
and vocational home economics programs. One of the
major events was a new definition for Vocational Edu-
cation used in Public Law 94-482, October 12, 1976.
The definition used in this Act: "The term 'vocational
education' means organized educational programs
which are directly related to the preparation of in-
dividuals for paid or unpaid employment, or for ad-
ditional preparation for a career requiring other than
a baccalaureate or advanced degree" (Terrace & Com-
fort, 1979, p. 2211).
The unpaid employment terminology was ac-
cepted as a part of vocational preparation for the
first time. The inclusion of voluntary work without
benefit of wage was proposed to have many implica-
tions in all facets of occupational home economics ed-
ucation. Homemaker became an occupation for both
paid and unpaid employment and for part- or full-
time work.
Programs were redeveloped to meet the interpre-
tation of the Education Amendments of 1976 for Voca-
tional Education, as interpreted by the American Vo-
cational Association. These programs included ex-
panded audiences, greater participation of males and
females, homemakers in transition, individuals with
special needs, concentrations of economically disad-
vantaged, unskilled, and unemployed in urban areas,
and persons in sparsely populated areas. It also al-
lowed for curriculum development in new and chang-
ing occupational fields, individuals with special
needs, nontraditional occupations and to eliminate
sex bias and sex discrimination (Terrace & Comfort,
1979).
Another major impact on vocational programs and
vocational home economics was the Nation at Risk
report of 1983. The recommendation of increased
graduation requirements, stressing academic excel-
lence, higher admission requirements for college and
universities and curriculum development were all out-
come strategies for the improvement of education
mentioned in this report.
During these changes, social trends have also
had an effect. Rapid technological advances, an in-
crease of women in the labor force, increasing numbers
of dual-career families, and inflation have created
problems. Several national risk factors such as men-
tal illness, suicide, drug and alcohol abuse, crime,
management of personal resources, and child abuse
have also taken their toll on society. Home economics
educators have a special challenge to ensure that
what they teach is truly meaningful in terms of real
180 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May/June, 1991
problems faced by individuals and families in to-
day's society (Way, 1983).
The Utah State Office of Education took on a sen-
sitive role January 1, 1984, when they adopted a new
statement of philosophy for the elementary and sec-
ondary school program of studies and high school
graduation requirements. The philosophy stated
that: "the primary goal of education is the develop-
ment of individuals who possess the knowledge,
skills and human characteristics necessary to enable
them to live meaningfully as individuals and as posi-
tive contributors to society" (Utah State Office of
Education, 1984-85, p. 4). To meet this goal, one of the
first major projects was to develop the new vocational
core curriculum.
TLC Vocational Core, an activity oriented cur-
riculum by design, is relatively inexpensive and can
be implemented into existing facilities. The Utah
State Board for Vocational Education recommends
that one class period during the first year of middle
or junior high school be devoted to this curriculum.
The school year is divided equally into three twelve
week segments, one for each area of emphasis. Guid-
ance and counseling lessons are infused into the pro-
gram areas and are covered throughout the year.
HOME
ECONOMICS
& HEALTH
OCCUPATIONS
Middle School / Junior High School Vocational Curriculum
Utah State Oltice ot Education
The home economics and health occupations seg-
ment of Utah's Technology-Life-Careers Vocational
Core focuses on-skills related to consumer and home
economics, occupational home economics and health
occupations and explores related careers. The infor-
mation is organized into six divisions which include:
• Independent Living Skills: developing
independence, self-concept, stress man-
agement, communication;
• Families: social skills, introduction to
families, family economics, family com-
munication;
• Child Care: children's safety, child care
provider qualities;
• Textile Technology: occupational skills,
equipment technology, textile care, con-
sumer information;
• Foods and Nutrition: kitchen manage-
ment, food science, measuring food, read-
ing a recipe, food preparation terms, food
labels, dietary guidelines, nutrient den-
sity, small kitchen appliances, food
technology, recipe variations;
• Free Enterprise: introduction to free en-
terprise, desirable work habits, job
application forms, public relations, work
skills, and restaurant simulation;
• Health Occupations: vital signs, car-
diopulmonary resuscitation, abdominal
thrust, handicapping conditions (Utah
State Office of Education, 1990, pp. XIX-
XX).
Students are provided with a wide variety of ac-
tivities in experiences which help them develop ba-
sic skills in each of the major divisions. Although it
is not necessary to complete every activity or lesson
within each unit, it is recommended that the order of
topics be followed to maintain continuity.
Curriculum Format
The printed format of this curriculum includes the
following sections under each topic:
1 . Teacher information (colored paper, printed dou-
ble-sided)
List of Activities
Required Supplies
Procedural Information and Instructions
Background Information
Career Information
Test Question Bank
Teacher Keys
2. Student Activity Guides (white paper, single-
sided printing to promote quality reproductions)
Materials that must be copied for student use
3. Activity Aids (white paper, single-sided print-
ing to promote quality reproductions)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May/June, 1991 181
Teacher and/or Student Aids for the Activities
Games Posters
Definitions Career Posters
Student Instructions
Scope and Sequence
A suggested scope and sequence for nine, twelve,
and eighteen-week programs is provided to assist
teachers in planning for their teaching schedules.
Student Activities List
A list of all the student activities in the curricu-
lum was added to the document to assist teachers in
developing workable scope and sequences for their
teaching schedules. This list gives the teacher a
quick overview of content in the curriculum. The
teachers may use the list to select activities useful for
their teaching schedules and/or needs of students. Of
course the list can also be modified (cut and pasted),
enlarged, and posted for student and teacher refer-
ence.
Independent Living Skills (competencies) are the
specific skills the students will have experienced
upon completion of the activities within a given
topic. Standards, competencies, and questions are
numbered in a coordinated manner to assist teachers
in tracking students' progress.
Test Question Bank
The test question bank provides teachers with
questions tailored to each lesson and competency(ies)
for use in student evaluations. The question bank also
includes a teacher's key. There are more questions
than a teacher would ordinarily need, so the teacher
must select the questions s/he feels will coordinate
with each unit. The test questions are organized nu-
merically to match the competencies that have been
identified at the beginning of each topic.
A computer disk, which contains all of the test
questions, has been included with this curriculum.
This disk should make it easier for teachers to de-
velop class evaluations.
Career Information Ideas
To add interest and provide emphasis in the ca-
reer exploration aspect of this curriculum, teachers
are encouraged to consider presenting a "Career of the
Day" and spotlight a different career each day. This
may be done with students giving oral reports or as a
class motivator presented by the teacher. Career
aids, as well as a directory for locating these aids
within the curriculum, are available for reproduc-
tion.
Round Robin Activities
Activities were planned in work stations orga-
nized throughout the home economics facility. This
method allowed students to have hands-on experi-
ences with limited amounts of high-tech equipment,
such as computers. It also helped many teachers to
manage their overcrowded classrooms and dispel po-
tential discipline problems. The work stations were
organized and included directions for students to fol-
low. This management technique allowed the teach-
ers to act as supervisors of instruction with greater
freedom to answer questions or give assistance when
needed.
Examples of How This Curriculum Operates
Each division has activities which are practical
for present and future roles as individuals and family
members. The first topic entitled "Independent Living
Skills" promotes student participation by having
students develop a notebook which places emphasis
on the individual, development of self-concept and
management of time and energy.
The "Family Unit" divides students into groups to
represent family types in class. The students review
family traditions, and then are assigned an income to
live within. They create a family flag and family
name and generally assume that name for the length
of the entire curriculum, just for fun. The student fam-
ily groups must decide on a mode of transportation
and must go through a process of buying or renting a
place to live while staying within their budget.
In the "Foods and Nutrition Unit," the emphasis
is on nutritious foods and applying science principles
in food preparation.
The "Child Care Unit" emphasizes caregiver
skills and encourages teachers to take responsibility
for teaching these skills. This emphasis was placed
here due to the number of students who need to learn
to care for themselves and for younger children in
their own homes.
In the "Health Occupations Unit," students take
temperatures, pulse and respiration rates and are
carefully supervised when taking blood pressure
readings with electronic digital blood pressure/ pulse
monitors. These monitors have three safety settings
and provide each student/patient with a printout.
The students are also exposed to the extra challenges
handicapping conditions can add to one's life. Stu-
dents wear swim goggles or safety glasses smeared
with detergent to feel what it is like to have im-
paired vision and immobilize a wrist or ankle with
splints and ties to simulate an orthopedic impair-
ment.
Evaluation Procedure
During Spring quarter of 1988, twenty-six test-site
teachers were surveyed for their likes and dislikes
about each lesson in this program. Sixteen responded
to this survey.
182 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May/June, 1991
These same test-site teachers were interviewed
periodically in small group meetings of five or six
teachers. The curriculum was reviewed page-by-page
to collect suggestions for revision of this document. As
a result of the teacher survey and group interviews, a
list of twenty-four suggested changes was formulated.
All test-site teachers participated in a final re-
view of the suggested revisions at the June 1988, Utah
Vocational Teachers Conference held in Orem, Utah.
The twenty-six teachers in attendance voted on each
itemized change and provided suggestions for revi-
sions.
The curriculum was revised accordingly and
printed the Spring of 1990. Copies of the curriculum
were then distributed to school districts electing to
participate in this program. The one requirement for
participation was for teachers to agree to attend a
two and one-half day training session.
The curriculum design was a new approach in the
organization and formatting of the lesson plans. It is
easy for the teacher to read and follow, with clearly
written instructions, lessons and student activities.
Teachers can manage the classroom activities with
relative ease with one workshop training session.
A list of equipment is included as a support to the
program, however, all equipment is not required and
most of the curriculum is relatively inexpensive to
implement. The TLC Core is easily operated in exist-
ing home economics facilities, whether new or tradi-
tional.
Vocational education, vocational home economics
and health occupations have undergone many
changes recently in Utah. One of the major changes is
in curriculum reform, as with this new middle/junior
high curriculum that addresses real issues related to
individuals and families.
Future evaluations are needed to provide Utah
educators and parents with a review of how useful
this prevention program is in promoting independent
living skills for the management of work/ school and
home environments.
Utah State Office of Education. (1990). Program
planning and curriculum development guide for
vocational home economics education, grades 6-
12. Salt Lake City: Utah State Board of Educa-
tion.
Utah State Office of Education. (1990). Technology-
life-careers vocational core curriculum for home
economics and health occupations. Salt Lake
City: Utah State Board of Education.
Way, W. L. (1983). Content analysis: A tool for home
economics researchers in uncovering subtle mes-
sages from contemporary life. Journal of Voca-
tional Home Economics Education, 1(2), 3-20.
• • •
(Continued from page 179.)
adopting new features and adapting to changes in
the economy and governmental policies.
Policies and programs that once worked well
may need adjusting in new situations. Policies and
programs that work well with one population
segment may need redesigned to meet the concerns
and needs of other populations. No one should know
this better than the people of Illinois with our
diverse geography, economy, and population
distribution
As the forces of change remake the economy,
increasing opportunities in some areas and decreasing
opportunities in others, some families can provide
only the barest necessities for themselves.
Of particular concern for the future is the
growing number of children living in households
below the poverty level. Because they can do little
more than meet daily survival needs, these
households are severely hampered in their ability
to add value to their children's lives.
To meet some of the critical challenges facing
the family during this decade, U.S. policies and
programs should focus on the economic well-being of
single-parent families.
Specifically, some of the key issues that would
add value to these families relate to:
References
National Commission on Excellence. (1983). A nation
at risk: The imperative for educational reform.
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Of-
fice.
Terrace J. J., & Comfort C. H. (1979). Teaching occupa-
tional home economics. Peoria, IL: Chas A. Ben-
nett Co., Inc.
Utah State Office of Education. (1984-85). Elemen-
tary and secondary core curriculum, field trial
document (p. 1). Salt Lake City: Utah State
Board of Education.
• Availability of affordable housing;
• Access to quality, affordable health and child
care;
• Education and career training;
• Creation of job opportunities that provide
adequate income and advancement.
Census data and large-scale surveys conducted by
government agencies can provide an overview of
trends in family composition and economic status.
In-depth studies are needed to discover the
intricacies of family decision making and
relationships that provide value-added models of
interaction. • • •
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1991 183
When It Comes To Food, Do We Care
Too Much About Appearances?
Reprinted from: Food Safety Today, January, 1991, Cooperative
Extension Service, College of Agriculture, University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign
They squeeze the melons, pull down the husks on
sweet corn and pick up a dozen tomatoes before choos-
ing one. "They" are most consumers. And for the most
part, consumers are finding picture-perfect produce,
whether they shop at a grocery store, roadside stand
or farmers' market.
One reason the produce looks so good is that
growers strive to meet federal grading standards.
Cabbage, for instance, must show no worm holes
anywhere to earn the number one grade. Holes on the
outer leaves, but not on the head, will drop the grade
to two or three. Heads with holes or worms are
graded five and six and are not marketable.
Pesticides are among the tools growers use to
keep insects, weeds, diseases and time from turning
their crops into low-grade produce. But the legal
standards may be too high in light of increasing con-
cerns about the effects of pesticides on the environ-
ment and human health, suggests Roscoe Randell, an
entomologist with the University of Illinois Cooper-
ative Extension Service.
"When I see a number-one grade cabbage head, I
suspect the grower has done too good a job of
chemical control," he says. "We don't eat the outer
leaf around the head, so there's no good reason to
require no holes there."
In the case of cabbage, a grade three is the most
desirable when pesticide concerns are taken into
account, Randall says.
But even if USDA changed standards to allow
for some pest damage, shopping patterns indicate
that most consumers won't buy cabbage with worm
holes in the outer leaves, says John Masiunas, a
University of Illinois Extension vegetable crops
specialist.
"Consumer preference for blemish-free produce
requires growers to meet standards that are even
higher than legal standards set by the USDA," he
says.
But the growers are not the only ones setting
tough standards. Food processors' standards —
developed to satisfy consumer demand for uniform,
high-quality products — also are tougher than
USDA's standards, Masiunas adds.
Also, the practice of storing and shipping most
fruits and vegetables further complicates the issue.
Because many pest problems multiply over time,
growers must ensure that produce has little or no
evidence of pests or pest damage when it comes out of
the fields. Most sweet corn, for example, is plowed
under if growers find two-week-old worms on the
ears.
"Pesticide use is one of the trade-offs society
makes to be able to buy whatever we want anytime,"
Masiunas says.
There is potential for harvesting, storage,
shipping and packaging technologies to help growers
reduce pesticide use and still present appealing
produce to the marketplace, he says. But as growers
adopt new technologies, such as using shrink wrap or
controlling storage atmosphere, higher food prices
are likely.
Consumers might influence growers to use less
pesticide by changing their buying habits, he
suggests. For instance, consumers could select only in-
season produce and produce that store well
naturally. They could rely more on dried, pickled or
pre-packaged produce.
Importantly, consumers should become more
knowledgeable about judging produce quality.
Randell and Masiunas advise. Consider this:
• A majority of consumers would reject an ear of
corn with one small worm on the end. Yet they would
likely buy that same ear if the end was cut off and it
was packaged in shrink wrap. Presence of a single,
small worm is no indication that the ear is infested
with worms.
• Most consumers wouldn't buy packaged spinach
if they saw ladybugs in the package. But, ladybugs
don't feed on spinach; they just get caught in the
harvest sometimes. A thorough rinsing would rid
the spinach of the hitchhikers.
• Unlike Randell, Most consumers would choose
the grade-one cabbage over a grade-three cabbage,
even though the edible parts of the heads are
comparable.
(Continued on page 195.)
184 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1991
The Environment:
Can Home Economics Make a Difference?
Carol Ann Watkins
Department Head
Home Economics
Bradwell Institute
Hinesville, GA
According to one recent advertisement in Time
magazine, "Throughout history, many great civi-
lizations have been buried. None, however, by their
own garbage" (Thompson, 1990, p. 115). Disposal of
solid waste is the nation's third largest domestic
expenditure. Americans spend $6 billion annually to
collect and dispose of our trash. We create enough
garbage each day to fill the New Orleans
Superdome twice (Purcell, 1981). Landfill acreage is
quickly being filled up and new areas of waste
disposal are limited. The preferable choice is to
reduce waste at its source and divert waste back to
useful purposes.
Recycling cuts down on the amount of waste that
has to be disposed of by our municipal systems. Pa-
per makes up nearly one third of municipal solid
waste and well over half by volume. For every ton of
waste paper that is recycled, 3 cubic yards of land-
fill space is saved (Environmental Protection
Agency, 1988).
When paper is recycled instead of being thrown
away resources are conserved and the environment
protected in other ways as well. The wastepaper be-
comes raw material for new paper products and takes
the place of virgin wood pulp. This helps lower the
demand on our forests. Recycling a ton of wastepaper
saves 17 trees (Chandler, 1984). When paper is
made from wastepaper rather than from virgin pulp,
the manufacturing process causes 35 percent less
water pollution, 74 percent less air pollution, and 65
percent less energy is required in the production
process (Institute of Scrap Recycling Industries, 1987;
Pollock, 1987).
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has
set a national goal of reducing and recycling 25
percent of our waste by 1992. If this goal is to be
achieved, education must be a part of the strategy.
What better discipline to carry out this educational
task than that of home economics? What better
organization to begin a grass roots effort in this area
than Future Homemakers of America.
Bradwell Institute Gets Involved
The local FHA Chapter at Bradwell Institute in
Hinesville, Georgia, has adopted the environment
as their main concern for 1990-91. "FHA Makes
Earthday Every Day" as their chosen theme. Sev-
eral events led up to this interest and commitment to
the environment.
Two newly elected officers of the chapter at-
tended Future Homemakers of America National
Leadership Meeting in San Antonio, July, 1990. It
was announced there that the national executive
council had adopted five critical issues for the up-
coming year. The environment was one of those is-
sues. One of the meeting sessions attended was pre-
sented by environmental troubadour Bill Oliver. In
an entertaining way he shared his concerns about
endangered species, land management, and recycling.
Another new officer attended Global Food Web
Conference sponsored by the Cooperative Extension
Service. Recycling and other environmental issues
were explored in depth and the students were en-
listed to help spread the work to their peers. In
November, 1990 at the Atlanta FHA Cluster Meeting
another workshop entitled "How to make the world
a better place" was given by the Atlanta Depart-
ment of Community Affairs. This only served to
strengthen the chapter's resolve to make a difference
in their community.
Planned activities for the chapter's main concern
included the following:
1 . peer education through the use of posters, public
service announcements, flyers posted in restroom
stalls, bulletin boards, and displays.
2. planned FHA meeting with a guest speaker to
educate the chapter on environmental issues.
3. working with a local radio station to make
public service announcements to the community.
4. planning and presenting an educational program
about protecting the environment to the elemen-
tary school-age children in the community.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1991 185
5. adopting an acre of South American rain forest
land in the name of the local FHA chapter,
available through the Nature Conservancy.
6. working with the local FFA chapter in their con-
tinuing effort to recycle aluminum cans, using
half the profit to buy and plant trees.
7. implementing for the first time an office paper
recycling program at Bradwell Institute.
8. publicizing our progress in our local and school
newspapers, Georgia News (state FHA newspa-
per, and Teen Times (national FHA magazine).
9. entering our chapter project in the Nutrasweet
Giving it 100 percent For Community Service
contest.
10. entering our chapter project in the new FHA Star
Event in Volunteer Action.
Recycling Catches on
One of the most successful of these project ideas
was the office paper recycling project. The chapter
project chairperson began by surveying each of the
115 teachers in the building to determine if s/he
would be willing to participate in the project. The
overwhelming response was "yes." In fact 70 percent
of the teachers participated by placing a special
receptacle in their classrooms/offices to collect
recyclable paper.
The chapter worked in close association with
Liberty County Clean Community Commission and its
executive director. She came to school to address the
faculty about the importance of recycling and which
types of paper should be collected. She was also in-
strumental in working with the local county commis-
sioners to place the county's first ever office paper
recycling dumpster on the Bradwell Institute campus.
Once school-wide interest and permission was
obtained, planning started as to how the paper
would be collected. The local FFA chapter again
volunteered their services in cooperation with their
sister organization. It was decided that every Fri-
day during the last period of the day, students would
go to the rooms which had collection bins, empty
them into large plastic trash bags, and deposit the
bags into the recycling dumpster. The FFA would do
it one week, then FHA two weeks on a rotating basis.
The dumpster was kept locked so that no foreign
matter was thrown in by accident. When the dump-
ster was full, the local recycling firm would be called
to come pick it up. Office staff, counselors, the
library, and the Board of Education also got
involved.
Other schools in the county have heard about
the project and called inquiring about how they could
set up a similar program at their school. The FHA
chapter was recently honored for their efforts. The
Liberty County Clean Community Commission hosted
a reception in honor of "People Who Make A Differ-
ence" in Liberty County. At that reception the city
administrator presented a certificate to the chapter
in recognition of their achievements.
Conclusion
The challenge of cleaning up and protecting our
endangered environment is becoming an increasingly
urgent critical issue in America today. Home eco-
nomics can address this issue by educating young peo-
ple about what is happening to our environment and
what can be done to reverse the effects of pollution
and indifference. Nothing seems more closely re-
lated to improving the quality of life for individuals
and families. Through classroom activities and pro-
jects in Future Homemakers of America chapters,
students learn that they can make a difference in
their community and world.
References
Chandler, W. U. (1984). Converting garbage to
gold — recycling our materials. The Futurist,
February.
Environmental Protection Agency. (November, 1988).
RCRA Permit Quality Control; (Draft.
Publication 530-SW-88-050), 143.
Institute of Scrap Recycling Industries. (1987).
Recycling, combating the high costs of energy.
Washington, DC.
Pollock, C. (1987). Mining urban wastes: The
potential for recycling. Washington, DC:
Worldwatch Institute.
Purcell, A. H. (1981). The world's trashiest people:
Will they clean up their act or throw away
their future? The Futurist, February.
Thompson, J. W. (Dec. 3, 1990). Time. Detroit, MI.
For more information:
Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Solid Waste
401 M Street SW
Washington, DC 20460
Recycling Hotline: 1-800-424-9346
Coalition for Recyclable Waste
17 E. Church St.
Absclon, NJ 08201
(609) 641-2197
Environmental Defense Fund
257 Park Ave.
New York, NY 10010
Recycling Hotline: 1-800-CALL-EDF
(Continued on page 188.)
186 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1991
Bequests
A $5000 gift to your child. What would you do?
Marsha Woodbury
Graduate Student
University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign
My mother, Carolyn Cook, died in May at the
age of 74. Only the night before I sat at our kitchen
table with my sons Luke and Matt and told them
gently that Grandma would not live until the end of
summer. Luke, who is ten, took the news in silence.
Matt, only six burst into tears and bawled, "Soon
you'll die, too." I assured him I hoped for another
forty years, but I was all too correct about Grandma.
Within ten hours she had slipped away.
We flew to California for the burial. After the
wake we discovered a puzzle. This one came from
her will. Like so many other grandparents and aunts
and uncles, she bequeathed money to immature peo-
ple, in this case her seven grandchildren, all aged
between six and eleven. She left $5000 to each one.
The gesture was typical of her in several ways.
For one thing, it was generous. For another, even
though she knew death was near, she never dis-
cussed the money with the grandchildren. She was a
lady, and, in her mind, there were some things
ladies just did not talk about.
Like my mother, many people simply do not dis-
cuss the subject of inherited wealth, even when talk-
ing about humble sums. Psychiatrist Sari Aranson
(1990) recently observed that money is a more
forbidden topic than sex. Looking for hard research
on the subject is like trying to find out where the
neighbors got the money for that new boat. The key
words about children and money are always
allowance, earnings, gifts, handouts. No one talks
openly about inheritance.
Yet, plenty of money is handed down from one
generation to the next. The Federal Reserve Board
figured that over a million households enjoy a net
worth of at least $1 million (Kirkland, 1986).
Others, like my mother, still have thousands to
leave their children and grandchildren. In some
instances, people use grandchildren as a means of
beating stiff inheritance taxes, which can take up to
55 percent of their assets.
How were the $5000 bequests handled in the
various Cook households? Each parent treated them
differently. We had to plow new fields here, for
there was no "right" way.
In our case, my husband and I felt my mother was
handing on a legacy, a part of her, to be used for
something really important, like college. The chil-
dren would be told about the gift, and in the process,
they would learn about money. Together we con-
verted the $5000 into crisp savings bonds with
$10,000 (the eventual value) blazed across the front.
We put them into a safety deposit box.
You have no more right to consume happiness
without producing it than to consume wealth
without producing it.
Bernard Shaw, Candide, 1. (1856-1950)
Meanwhile, in my sister's home, the idea of
inherited wealth was received with ambivalence.
If left to her own judgment, she and her husband
would have put the money away into bonds, never
told their three children about the bequest, and used
the money for something significant when the
children needed it. She had three reasons for
concealing the bequest:
• She didn't want her children to connect death
with inheriting money. Death should be simply
the loss of a loved one, uncomplicated by dollar
signs.
• The other set of grandparents had much less
money to leave. Her goal was to prevent compari-
son of bequeaths.
• She feared the money would spoil the children.
"We want them to work hard and to think they
have to," she said. "Being self-reliant means you
can enjoy the success you have earned."
My brother Leo shared her judgment, although
he did reveal the money in vague terms to his two
children. "I didn't mention numbers. If I did, Mar-
shall (who is seven) would just go to school and
blab," he said. The money has gone into a limited
partnership in a real estate development. If the
$10,000 is lost, Leo says he will still able to put his
children through college.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May/June, 1991 187
When they are 21 or 18 or whatever, my nieces
and nephew will learn that Grandma, a shadowy
figure who died when they were quite young, left
them this money. It is rather detached, not a part of
their consciousness.
Can we demystify money and reduce it to its
proper and useful place by examining our own
values and attitudes, attempting to perceive
financial affairs through the eyes of chil-
dren, and providing simple explanations for
the not-so-magical functions of money?"
Jennifer Birkmayer (1986)
As usual with parenting, what you do is more
important than what you say. Attitudes about
money are often caught, not taught. Like anything
secretive and dark and forbidden, inherited money
can take on a power all its own, for if it is a secret, it
must be bad.
According to Sally Horton (1988) of Washington
State University, giving children money whenever
they need it or ask for it, instead of on a regular
schedule, makes it hard for them to plan ahead.
The same could apply to a legacy.
There seems to be a cultural taboo about grand-
parents sharing their wishes with the parents and
grandchildren. That leaves the parents completely
in the saddle, in control, and possibly unsure of the
donor's exact intentions. I spoke to Dr. Lawrence
Jeckel (1990), a psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, who
said he'd seen hundreds of examples of clients who
are disturbed about money. "You have to find what
the meaning of money is to the family. It comes from
our earliest development." He said if the heir is
ambivalent about the loved one, the money could be
spent in a week.
How do children learn healthy attitudes to-
wards inheritance? Some good tips:
• Have grandparents and parents tell their heirs,
as is appropriate to their age, about their legacy
in order for children to adjust to the idea. I think
it would have been beautiful if my mother could
have done that. I fear for the 18-year-old who
suddenly comes into a large sum without any
preparation.
• Some experts advise children to save part of any
large money gift. If they get in the habit at
birthdays and Christmas, it could carry over into
inheritance.
• In some families, the money has been lost to poor
investments. The parents, as guardians, have to
understand that the money is not theirs to lose.
• Ask the children not to broadcast their good
fortune. Reality is reality. No one likes to know
other people have more. Luke and Matt taught us
that lesson. On returning home from California,
they met a new kid on the block, who invited
them to go swimming.
"Does your grandfather have a Cadillac?"
asked Luke.
The youngster paused for a moment and said,
"No, but I have a grandfather."
Ultimately, grandmother's bequest of $5000 will
be measured by what she left them of herself.
Not what we give, but what we share,
For the gift without the giver is bare.
J. R. Lowell, Vision of Sir Launfal II
(1967)
References
Aranson, S. (1990). Interview at McKinley
Health Center, University of Illinois at Ur-
bana-Champaign.
Birkmayer, J. (1986). In Silverman, P. and
others. Resources for parents and others who
care about children. Ithaca, NY: Cornell
University, p. 105.
Horton, S. (1988). Money sense for your children.
Pullman, WA: Washington State University.
Jeckel, L. (1990). Interview by telephone.
September, 1990.
Kirkland, R. B. (1986). Fortune. September 29,
pp. 18-26.
Shaw. G. B. (1856-1950). In Hyman R. (1988) Robin
Hyman's dictionary of quotations, Lincolnwood,
IL: National Teachers Company, p. 295. • • •
(Continued from page 186.)
National Recyling Coalition
1101 30th St. NW, Suite 305
Washington, DC 20007
(202) 625-6406
Environmental Action Foundation
1525 New Hampshire Ave. NW
Washington, DC 20036
(202) 745-4870
The Nature Conservancy International
1815 N. Lynn St.
Arlington, VA 22209
1-800-228-8258
Earth Care Paper, Inc.
P.O. Box 14140
Madison, WI 53714-0140
(608) 277-2900 • • •
188 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May/June, 1991
Salmonella: Simple Precautions Can Handle This
Infamous Bug
Reprinted from: Food Safety Today, January, 1991, Cooperative
Extension Service, College of Agriculture, University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign
Salmonella is the leading celebrity among food-
poisoning agents. Dubbed "superbug" — the food poi-
soner of the 1980s — this infamous type of bacteria is
highlighted in the news every so often.
Despite all the media attention, Salmonella is
hardly a newly emerging food-poisoning monster,
and consumers do not have to live in constant fear of
contracting it from food.
Salmonella is easily controlled in the kitchen
when the cook follows a few food safety guidelines,
according to Susan Brewer, a food safety specialist
with University of Illinois Cooperative Extension
Service.
Salmonella is most often found in the digestive
tract of animals. While you can get salmonellosis in
any number of ways, turkey, chicken, eggs, pork and
beef are reported as the major means of infecting hu-
mans. In recent years, Salmonella has become a
growing problem in poultry because of the spread of
disease in confined henhouses where chickens are
raised, Brewer says.
Mammals become sick when they are exposed to
Salmonella, but birds infected with the bacteria
may show no sign of illness. It is easy to see why the
infection can spread throughout the flock without
the producer becoming aware of the problem.
An estimated 80 percent of live chickens are
likely to be contaminated with Salmonella, accord-
ing to the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Careful
processing of poultry eliminates some of the problem,
but 37 percent of poultry in the grocery is still con-
taminated with Salmonella bacteria.
"It is virtually impossible to totally eliminate
Salmonella in fresh poultry products, so it is wise to
assume that all chicken we buy in the grocery is con-
taminated, and to treat it accordingly," Brewer says.
"Yet it's certainly not a reason to stop eating chicken
and turkey."
Salmonellosis occurs when someone eats a suffi-
cient number of the Salmonella bacteria in raw, un-
der-cooked, poorly handled or inadequately refrig-
erated food. Careful attention to food preparation
and handling can prevent the illness from occurring,
Brewer says.
Fortunately, Salmonella is very heat-sensitive.
Cooking raw meats, poultry and eggs thoroughly
will kill the harmful Salmonella bacteria.
Cooking is one way to control Salmonella, but
food handling is another matter. It's easy to re-con-
taminate cooked food with careless food prepara-
tion.
"When raw chicken juices leak onto wood cutting
boards, counters and utensils, it is easy for cross-con-
tamination to occur," Brewer says. "The uncooked
juices where Salmonella is multiplying may cross-
contaminate cooked chicken meat. So always wash
your hands with hot, soapy water after contact with
raw meats and their juices. It is also a good idea to
use separate utensils for raw and for cooked foods."
The cutting board is a prime culprit for food con-
tamination because Salmonella just loves to multiply
in the grooves of the soft wood. Washing the board
with soap and water will not always kill the bacte-
ria. Instead, either sanitize the board with bleach
after each use, or use separate cutting boards for raw
and cooked foods.
"The best option is to use a plastic cutting board
and wash it thoroughly with soap and water if you
are going to use the board before and after cooking
chicken," Brewer says. "Using a plastic cutting
board may be harder on the knife, but it is easier on
the stomach."
If Salmonella is given the chance to thrive, it
will grow rapidly, doubling in numbers every 20 min-
utes. The bacteria will multiply at room tempera-
tures from 40° to 140° F, so it is important to keep food
refrigerated at temperatures below 40* F. Always
keep hot foods hot and cold foods cold. Properly
store leftovers as soon after the meal as possible.
Pets can infect humans with Salmonella bacte-
ria, so keep all pets and insects always from kitchen
and dining areas. Wash your hands after handling
household pets.
With certain types of Salmonella, illness can
strike when as few as 20 microorganisms per gram of
good are ingested. Generally, through, more than
10,000 organisms per gram are ingested before illness
occurs in healthy adults. The organisms produce
chemical irritants that cause nausea, vomiting, in-
testinal cramps, diarrhea and fever 12 to 24 hours
after eating the contaminated food.
(Continued on page 195.)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1991 189
tt
Change Through Collaborative
Inservice Education
Edythe D. Conway
Coordinator
New York State Home
Economics Inservice
Lansing, NY
Jean C. Stevens
Active Bureau Chief
New York State Education
Department
Albany, NY
In the early 1980s, New York State engaged in a
process called "Futuring" (New York State Depart-
ment of Education, 1984a) which addresses the
growing gap between current education and what
students needed to know and be able to do in order to
be productive workers and successful and happy
family members. This Futuring process began the re-
structuring that changed occupational education in
New York State. A new initiative, "The Regents'
Action Plan to Improve Elementary and Secondary
Education Results" (New York State Department of
Education, 1984b) spanned both general education
and occupational education in the effort to better
prepare students to meet the challenges of the fu-
ture. These reform efforts directly affected home
economics.
1. Home and Career Skills course.
A new course called "Home and Career Skills"
was developed for the middle school/junior high
school level. It is taught by home economics teachers
with cooperation from school counselors. After two
years of field testing, the course was revised as
needed and is now a required course for all students
in New York State.
The purpose of the Home and Careers Skills
course is to "help adolescents live in a society of con-
stant change and to improve their quality of life by
preparing them to meet their present and future re-
sponsibilities as family members, consumers, home
managers, and wage earners" (New York State De-
partment of Education, 1986).
The broad objectives are to:
• Develop skills which lead to effective deci-
sion making, problem solving and manage-
ment in the home, school /community, and
workplace.
• Develop concepts and skills basic to home and
family responsibilities.
• Develop personal skills that will enhance
employment potential.
Home and Career Skills is the transformation of
the old junior high home economics. It uses home
economics subject matter plus career awareness as the
vehicle for teaching youngsters decision making,
problem solving and personal resource management.
Thus, the content is divided into four modules.
The Process Skills module must be taught first. Then,
each other module is taught using the generic deci-
sion making, problem solving and management prin-
ciples and applying them in a "hands-on" learning
situation to foods and nutrition, clothing and design,
housing and environment, consumerism and money
management, human development and relation-
ships, and career planning.
1. PROCESS SKILLS
• How do I decide?
• How do I solve problems?
• How do I manage?
2. PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT
• What makes me, me?
• How do I relate to others?
3. PERSONAL RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
• How can I be a responsible consumer?
• How can I make money work for me?
• How do I choose what to eat?
• How do clothing decisions affect me?
• What will I do with my living space?
4. CAREER PLANNING
• What does working mean to me?
190 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May/June, 1991
• What kind of work can I do?
• How do I make working work for me?
Home and Career Skills is a process-oriented
course, not a product-oriented course. Naturally,
products are produced but that is not the main objec-
tive. For example, to teach decision making and
problem solving a lesson was developed around mak-
ing popcorn. The class assignment was to:
• Choose a group of four to make popcorn;
• Pop 1/4 cup popcorn — with no lids provided
for the pans;
• When finished, put popcorn in a bowl, clean
up, then sit at your table;
• Do not eat the popcorn until after class discus-
sion.
When students asked how to do it, the teacher
said, "figure it out." Students found many ways to
get the corn popped. Some students:
• Put plastic wrap on the pan and found that it
melted into the popcorn.
• Put a china plate on the pan and found the
plate got hot and was difficult to remove.
• Put aluminum foil over the pan.
• Put their hands over the pan and tried to keep
the popcorn in.
• Used no cover and let the popcorn go all over
the stove, then picked it up to put into the
bowl.
• Used the microwave and let it pop all over,
but it was in a contained space.
• Used the microwave and put plastic wrap over
the bowl.
• Sat for awhile as they couldn't decide how to
do it — then copied another group.
Eventually, all the groups produced the popped
corn. Students listed the methods they used to pop
the popcorn on the blackboard. The teacher then led
a discussion with questions such as: How much pop-
corn do you actually have to eat? How many ways
did your group think of to pop the corn? Why did
you use the method you did? What were the results?
Are you satisfied with the results? Would you do it
the same way again? What would be a better way?
This was a concrete example of the decision making,
problem solving process. It started with student ac-
tivity and led naturally to learning the steps in the
process. Students consciously thought about identify-
ing a problem, suggesting alternatives, seeing conse-
quences of actions, evaluating results. Clearly, the
emphasis was not on producing the best tasting pop-
corn or on the most efficient way to pop the corn. Yes,
a product was produced and students enjoyed eating
it, but the main point of the lesson was learning the
process skills of decision making and problem solv-
ing.
Was the lesson fun for students? Super! Did stu-
dents remember the process? Yes. Could they use the
process at other times? Yes. Did students tell others
about this class? You bet!
2. How the transformation took place.
Since the Home and Career Skills course was to
be process-oriented, a model was designed that
made the process of developing the course and the
process of providing inservice education very impor-
tant. It was critical that teachers take ownership of
the new course if they were really going to change
the content they taught and adopt a process-orienta-
tion in teaching the concepts.
This collaborative model was based on the fol-
lowing beliefs:
• Those who implement change must be ac-
tively and significantly involved in making
decisions regarding the change. This devel-
ops ownership and commitment from those
who are to implement the planned changes.
• Teachers have many talents and strengths.
By respecting and working with them, and
developing peer leadership skills, teachers
will become better teachers. They are more
likely to empower their students, and will be
better able to provide broader leadership in
the school and community.
• No subject matter area in a school is an island
unto itself. Each must be part of the total
school program. Each teacher, administrator,
school counselor and colleague in other subject
areas must acknowledge the contribution of
each subject to the preparation of the total
student. The whole is indeed greater than the
sum of its parts. The contribution to the edu-
cation of the student will be different, but
each is significant in its own way. And, one
never knows which will be most important to
any particular student.
3. Teachers and counselors wrote the course.
What makes Home and Career Skills such a
special course is not only the content, but also the
way in which the course was developed. Junior high
school home economics teachers and counselors who
would have to teach the course were actively in-
volved in writing the course. Teacher educators and
administrators also provided input. Because the
philosophical issue of process-orientation versus
product-oriented was hammered out and justified,
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1991 191
and objectives and suggested teaching strategies
were written by the teachers and counselors
themselves, the course had credibility with all of
the teachers and counselors right from the beginning.
This truly was a case of shared decision making.
The State Education Department set guidelines,
then allowed Home and Career Skills to be written
by the "grassroots", and after extensive field test-
ing, approved the course. This developed a first
level of trust for the Home and Career Skills course.
This course is now the state home economics curricu-
lum taught in all middle schools/junior high schools
in New York State.
4. Some problems to be solved in getting started.
Clearly, the process of how the course was in-
troduced to the local teachers was extremely im-
portant. It would be a critical factor in whether or
not this course would be successfully implemented.
Many teachers liked what they were doing and did
not see the need to change. However, the Home and
Career Skills course was not to be merely a "paper
shuffle and name change." It could not be like new
food on a plate with teachers only nibbling at it
around the edges — they needed to eat the whole
thing. It was a state mandate and home economics
teachers needed to change if they were going to sur-
vive.
To make matters more complicated, school coun-
selors were to be involved with the Career Planning
module. This opened up the turf issue for home eco-
nomics teachers and was potentially a problem.
Counselors were not thrilled since they had heavy
counselling loads, and many did not want to be ac-
tively teaching a whole class of students. However,
being involved did not necessarily mean alot of
teaching. Counselors could cooperate in other ways
as resource persons, providing materials or being
guest speakers. Of course some counselors were
pleased to teach career planning for a week and had
the opportunity to administer interest inventories
and work with students to help them discover more
about themselves. And of course some home eco-
nomics teachers welcomed this collaboration,
although at first many did not.
Many administrators were also concerned. Since
home economics had not been a state requirement be-
fore, some schools did not teach it. In those schools
teachers had to be hired, rooms set up and equipment
ordered. However, one of the biggest stumbling
blocks seemed to be to fit the course into the school
schedule.
So, everyone was wary — although all thought a
course like Home and Career Skills would benefit
students.
5. Inservice education and field testing.
An extensive inservice education and field test-
ing project was initiated by the State Education De-
partment and a coordinator was hired. Field testing
Home and Career Skills course was an integral part
of inservice education. The purpose was to get as
many middle level home economics teachers
actively involved as possible. By providing
inservice education in local regional areas, all
teachers had reasonable access. By inviting all
middle level teachers to participate in field testing
the course, all teachers could influence the course
revision and develop ownership in the course.
In order to carry out the inservice education, and
provide leadership for field testing, a State Home
Economics Inservice Education Leadership Team was
established. Our model of inservice education and
communication network looked alot like a ferris
wheel.
• at the center is the axle — State Education Dept.
• around that is the hub — the project coordinator
• spokes radiate outward — eleven regions of the State
• baskets hold people at — leadership teams
the end of each spoke
As on the ferris wheel, people were nervous, but
also laughing, having a good time, enjoying the
sensation of doing something different — something a
bit daring that seemed not quite safe. They held
onto each other for support.
Each basket (each team) was independent, yet
connected with all the rest of the teams and with
the State Education Department through the Project
Coordinator. (See figures 1 and 2 on page 193.)
Take a look at one particular basket (one re-
gional team). Each team had a super view of the
world. Because of their vantage point, their special
leadership inservice education, these people had a
broader perspective and a clearer view of the situa-
tion than those in the crowd on the ground. Who was
put into a basket together? What comprised a re-
gional Leadership Team?
6 middle school /junior high school home eco-
nomics teachers (the Home and Career Skills
teachers)
1 school administrator
1 school counselor
1 home economics teacher educator
Each group was included because they were
essential to getting the Home and Career Skills
course implemented. A "train-the-trainer" model
was used. Each group worked as a team and also dis-
seminated information to "their own kind", i.e., ad-
ministrators to administrators, counselors to coun-
selors, etc.
192 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May/June, 1991
Figure 1
Home and Career Skills Collaborative
Inservice Education Model
Figure 2
Regional Team
Communication Network
Home economics teachers were the backbone of
the team. They knew the home economics content
and were well trained in the philosophy of the new
curriculum. They developed exceptionally fine les-
son plans and very creative ways for teaching deci-
sion making, problem solving and personal resource
management in a direct "hands-on" way. They
shared their expertise with teachers in their re-
gions.
Administrators came to better understand the
Home and Career Skills course and home economics.
They wrote letters to other administrators and gave
talks at administrators' conferences. They helped
teachers see the course in the context of the total
school. It was the administrators who had to fit the
course into the school schedule. Without the admin-
istrators' support the course simply wouldn't have
been a respected part of the total school program.
Teacher educators often are left out of public
school course development and implementation.
They were part of this Leadership Team so that
they would interact directly and often with
teachers. Teachers came to believe the colleges did
care about what went on in their classrooms. Teacher
educators felt connected with what they were
preparing their college students for. They made the
resources of the colleges more available and
developed summer courses to meet the needs of
teachers which were created by the new Home and
Career Skills course.
KEY
H - Home Economics Teachers
A - Administrators
G - Guidance
TE - Teacher Educators
6. Leadership Team responsibilities.
The Leadership Teams had three major respon-
sibilities: 1) provide inservice education to teachers,
administrators and counselors, 2) work with field
test teachers providing ideas, support and encour-
agement, and 3) disseminate information from the
State Education Department. This was alot to ask of
people who already had full-time jobs!
In order to be better prepared to do this, the
Leadership Team attended three inservice educa-
tion conferences throughout the year sponsored by
the State Education Department. They received the
latest information on home economics content, the
process skills, and leadership skill development.
They heard inspirational speakers and partici-
pated as decision makers with State Education De-
partment staff and the Project Coordinator. They
came to believe they did make a difference in the
direction that home economics was taking in New
York State. Since this was a train-the-trainer
model, much of the information, techniques, and en-
thusiasm generated were passed on to the local
teachers in the inservice education that Leadership
Teams provided. As the project coordinator was a
mentor to the Leadership Teams, the Leadership
Teams became mentors to the local teachers.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1991 193
The state invited all schools to field test the
new curriculum. Schools self-selected themselves on
a voluntary basis. Approximately 1,500 teachers
participated and sent in just over 4,000 critiques. Cri-
tiques were a detailed six page form which asked
for such things as the teacher's rating of the level of
the objective, its clarity, and comments on suggested
teaching strategies. It also asked for recommenda-
tions for resources and additional teaching strate-
gies. Additional teachers attended the inservice ed-
ucation even though they were not field testing the
course.
The Leadership Team went well beyond what
was expected. They contributed all hours of the day
and night, literally. In addition to the required in-
service education they were expected to provide,
many regions further subdivided their region into
smaller, more local clusters. They also held many
meetings on teaching specific topics and /or objec-
tives in order to assist teachers in learning to teach
in a decision making, problem solving mode. As
teachers gained confidence they brought copies of
their best teaching ideas and shared them with
other teachers. A strong local network developed,
people telephoned each other and commiserated or
congratulated each other as appropriate.
The project coordinator was also available at
any time, especially to the Leadership Team, but
also to the local teachers. The State Education De-
partment was readily available to the project coor-
dinator so that questions were answered quickly.
Communication took place between the teachers, the
Leadership Team, the project coordinator, and the
State Education Department.
7. Course revision
Based on the data gathered and analyzed, a
small group of teachers, counselors and the project
coordinator, with input from the State Education
Department staff, revised the Home and Career
Skills Course. A second year of intensive inservice
education and field testing followed. Only minor re-
visions needed to be made.
8. Results
The overall result was a feeling of accomplish-
ment for all. Specific results of this collaborative
model of curriculum development, field testing and
inservice education were:
• Middle level home economics changed signifi-
cantly and Home and Career Skills was a well
established course.
• Teachers changed the way they taught.
• Teachers became confident and enthusiastic about
Home and Career Skills.
A strong communication network among teachers
was established.
Teachers worked collaboratively with adminis-
trators.
Teachers worked collaboratively with school
counselors.
The image of home economics was much
improved.
Peer leadership developed.
Teachers became well informed of State Educa-
tion Department policies and new initiatives.
An excellent working relationship developed be-
tween teachers and the State Education Depart-
ment.
The State Education Department developed
respect for teachers and shared decision making.
Local teachers became more confident and articu-
late with their colleagues in other subject matter
areas.
Local teachers became more proactive — willing
to talk to school boards, write to regents, legisla-
tors, etc.
Many administrators and counselors understood
home economics better and supported Home and
Career Skills.
Home economics in New York State became fo-
cused and cohesive.
Teacher educators became part of the group and
developed courses specifically for Home and Ca-
reer Skills teachers.
Students benefitted from a contemporary home
economics course (Home and Career Skills)
relevant to their current and future needs.
A survey of principals and teachers conducted by
consultants in 1988 found that:
• 97 percent of principals said that Home and
Career Skills supported the inquiry method.
• 96 percent of principals said that Home and
Career Skills was valuable to students.
• 93 percent of principals said Home and Career
Skills was appropriate.
• Enthusiasm for Home and Career Skills by the
teachers was directly related to the amount of
inservice they participated in. The more
inservice the more enthusiasm.
9. Conclusion
Changing middle level home economics educa-
tion statewide was a massive undertaking and a dif-
ficult process. However, the collaborative model
produced the desired changes and home economics
became stronger because of it. Students benefited
from the new Home and Career Skills course and the
renewed vigor of the teachers.
194 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May/June, 1991
One teacher who had planned to retire, stated
that this was the most exciting teaching she had
done in thirty years. She is still teaching and is "one
of the best."
Students realized that home economics was rel-
evant to their daily lives, both now and in the
future. One seventh grade boy said, " Now that I
know how to make good decisions, I will know how
to choose a wife."
Because this collaborative model of inservice
education worked so well, the model has been
expanded to include the local high schools and area
occupational/technical high schools.
As a result, New York State has a network of
teachers and other professionals able to work
together for home economics in a constructive manner
They actively engage in activities to ensure that
students have access to quality home economics
programs which will prepare them to meet the
challenges of a changing family, work, and global
environment.
As Mark Twain once said, "Even if you are on the
right track — if you don't keep moving you'll get run
over." So, to keep moving in New York State, the
process continues.
References
New York State Department of Education. (1984b).
The regents action plan to improve elementary
and secondary education results. Albany, NY:
The State University of New York.
Office of Occupational and Continuing Education
Department. New York State Department of
Education. (1984a) Futuring — Home economics
education. Final report to the State Depart-
ment of Education. Albany, NY.
The State University of New York and the New
York State Department of Education. (1986).
Home and career skills syllabus. Albany, NY. .
(Continued from page 184.)
"Consumer preference is an integral part of the
whole issue of pesticide use. We've grown to expect
perfect, plastic-like produce at a low cost," Masiunas
says. "The price society will pay for demanding less
pesticide use is likely to include higher food prices
and decreases in general availability of produce.
We may need to look at what our parents and
grandparents ate and shift some of our expectations."
Going back to the days of fresh produce in the
summer and preserved foods in the winter isn't a
pleasant alternative for Dan Meador, a University
of Illinois Extension fruit crops specialist.
"The American public now has the best quality,
largest quantity food at the cheapest price relative
to income that they've ever had," he says. "Almost
everyone eats like the kings of history did and it's
possible for the general public to eat better than the
elite wealthy of just a few generations ago.
"We don't go to the store and hope what we want
is there; we assume it will be. Pesticides help make
that possible.
"Indirectly, pesticides are part of society's shift
toward convenience in foods and shopping," Meador
says. Increasingly, today's consumers want produce
to eat as is or with minimal preparation; they don't
have time to cut out bruised spots or make pies and
soups with low-quality produce. And they don't
want to shop daily. To store well in the home,
produce must be in top condition at purchase.
"Over and over we see consumers choose the
reddest, most attractive apples, even though those
apples may not have the best flavor," Meador says.
"As long as consumers prefer the picture-perfect
produce, there can be no distinction between pesti-
cides used out of necessity and pesticides used for
cosmetic purposes." • • •
(Continued on page 189.)
Recovery usually occurs in two or three days, but
some individuals develop symptoms that persist for
weeks. Salmonella is especially dangerous for in-
fants, pregnant women, elderly individuals and any-
one who has a weakened immune system.
"Research has shown that Salmonella can have
accumulative affects as well," Brewer says.
"Multiple Salmonella infections have been corre-
lated with arthritis. You may recover from a
Salmonella infection and feel fine, but you could feel
the effects 20 years later."
Because the symptoms of Salmonella are very
much like those of the flu, many people don't realize
they have been poisoned by food they ate one or two
days earlier. If a Salmonella infection is suspected,
there is little that can be done but let the illness run
it's course, Brewer says. If symptoms are severe,
however, call your doctor. • • •
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1991 195
tt
Development of Model for Teaching
Cultural and Ethnic Awareness
Dorothy Z. Price
Professor
Department of Child, Consumer and Family Studies
Washington State University
Pullman, WA
Much has been written and said in recent years
about the growing importance of cultural awareness
in the United States. Henry (1990) provides an
example of this discourse when he points out that 25
percent of Americans currently define themselves as
Hispanic or non-white. He also states that a truly
multi-racial (and therefore, multi-cultural) society
is harder to govern. If this is true, it follows that a
multi-racial and/or multicultural society provides
greater challenges to anyone working in areas deal-
ing with families, and with human resources in gen-
eral. Beyond this, we need to consider the fact that
our multi-cultural society is increasingly intertwined
with decisions being made in other countries, and
will be affecting decisions made in these countries.
In a recent conference which focused on countries
of the Pacific Rim, a panel of political analysts, con-
suls of other countries and international educators
agreed that ethnocentrism in political, economic and
educational institutions was a major impediment to
how well the United States will be able to compete
and, also, to cooperate with people and institutions
in other countries (Lewiston Idaho Tribune; 1990).
Panelists also agreed that education was the major
area from which change must come.
Development of Model
This paper reports on the development and use of
a model for teaching cultural and ethnic awareness.
The model was developed initially as part of a re-
search project that focused on consumer decision mak-
ing in various countries. After the model was used to
identify and analyze consumer decision making in ten
Pacific Rim countries, it became evident to the re-
searchers that the model offered a potential organi-
zational framework for teaching about individuals,
families, households and consumers in other coun-
tries, as well as those representing various cultural
groups within the United States.
A model (Figure 1) was adapted from one devel-
oped by Hodge and Johnson (1981). It provides a
framework for guiding search for data, and for orga-
nizing and analyzing the available data. . Experts in
international and multicultural education indicate a
need for a holistic approach to understanding other
cultures. This model facilitates a holistic approach
because it includes three major environments which
affect an organization, in this case, the family or
household unit. These are:
• The macro-environment, which refers to the
entire social subsystem of a society.
• The intermediate environment, which con-
nects the organization to its macro-environ-
ment.
• The micro-environment, which includes the
different activities that a unit uses to reach
some of its goals.
Figure 1
Model of the consumer decision making organization
196 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May/June, 1991
The macro-environment includes external sys-
tems which affect lives, and while they are outside
their direct control, they still have a great influence
on decisions. This environment is made up of three
major systems: cultural, economic, and political.
The intermediate environment is a network of
systems which connects an organization, such as a
household unit, to the elements of the macro-envi-
ronment. Specific elements of the macro-environment
make household (or family) units different from
each other, yet still connect each of them to the more
general environment. For example, personal and
family goals and behavior are fundamentally af-
fected by aspects of the systems within their inter-
mediate environment, such as roles, resources, needs,
values, and motivation.
The micro-environment stems from the interme-
diate environment. It includes interrelated linking
systems which form the boundaries for the behavior
of the specific unit. This is the environment which is
closest to the individual. The micro-environment en-
compasses family or household structure, decision
making processes, and communication patterns.
Use of the Modules
An experimental university course was devel-
oped around the organizational decision making
model discussed earlier. It was assumed that it was
necessary for students to understand individual and
family decision making within the context of all of
the various environments which affect it. Use of this
model underscores the human ecology/ family re-
source management approach to the course. This
holistic view was constantly emphasized.
Teaching modules, developed around the model,
that related to Japan, People's Republic of China,
Taiwan, and South Korea were distributed to stu-
dents. (See Appendix A for for an example of the
type of data included in study modules.) They were
then asked to identify possible decision situations
which individuals and families in each of these
countries could be expected to face. These were to
include a variety of types of decisions which ranged
from minor to very important and which focused on
varied units, from the individual to the family and
to the society as a whole. Students analyzed each
decision situation, considering the effects of elements
in all three environments: macro-, intermediate and
micro-. Analyses for each country were presented for
class discussion; questions then were formulated in
relation to information that was still needed to ade-
quately understand each decision situation.
APPENDIX A
Tapan
Macro-Environment
Cultural
• Appears to be patriarchal, but females dominate
the home.
• Emphasis on group, not individual.
• Important to always work for harmony and never
give offense.
• Emphasis, almost to a fanatic level, on gift giving.
• Most basic group is the family unit, which still
retains relatively strong parental authority.
Economic
• Job seen as sense of being part of something larger
and more significant than individual.
• "Lifetime" employment system is very important,
but does not affect all Japanese; those not affected
have a different approach to economic security
than that usually assumed for Japanese.
• Where there is 'lifetime" employment, it is also
accompanied by a seniority system and very close
employer - employee relations.
Political
• Great emphasis on fear of vulnerability, and
therefore, need to protect Japan.
• Extreme importance on quality control standards.
• Consumer demand plays major role in deter-
mining standards.
• Importance of self-sufficiency especially in regard
to food.
Intermediate Environment
Motivation, Needs and Values
• Basic need level is similar to that in United States
• Great value placed on education.
• Consensus and conformity are seen as important.
Roles
• Strongly defined and tied to traditional culture.
• Many marriages are still arranged.
• Men spend many hours with male friends.
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1991 197
• Women care for men and children, but do not
consider themselves inferior.
• "Role playing" is very important, since society
largely dictates "proper" content of each role.
Resources
• Although somewhat lower than mean disposable
income in the United States, income is high.
• More consideration given to expenditures even of
relatively small monetary amount (such as $5.00).
• Land, especially for housing, is a scarce resource.
Micro-Environment
Structure
• Nuclear family is now most important, but ex-
tended family is still revered.
• Increasing number of employed, married women.
• Elderly becoming a larger and more important
segment of population.
Communication
• Strong hierarchial structure.
• May use vague, ambiguous communication, al-
lowing for different interpretations.
• Avoids open confrontations.
• Stress non-verbal communication which centers
on intuition and feeling of what is correct and
proper.
• Much emphasis on nonverbal communication;
because of homogeneous society, this is readily
understood by Japanese but not by others.
Decision Making
• Decision making by consensus is the norm.
• Takes a long time to reach a decision, but action
then comes quickly; this is largely opposite the
approach usually used in the United States
• Generally dislike making decisions.
• Prefer to avoid risks, but to avoid a negative result
are willing to take major risks; this usually occurs
only in important decisions, with conservative
approaches taken with minor decisions.
This represents only a sample of the data included in
the study modules. The completed modules are much
more extensive.
Special emphasis was given to helping students
appreciate the importance of the broad view of cul-
tural understanding the macro-, intermediate, and
micro-environments. Students seemed comfortable
when discussing elements of the micro-environment,
and found it quite difficult to relate to issues within
the intermediate environment and very difficult to
incorporate aspects of the macro-environment into
their analyses. This is analogous to problems often
found in international marketing research and in
other multicultural research which often focus on a
specific area looking for a specific quick answer. In
other words, frequently only micro-environmental is-
sues are studied. (Occasionally, macro-aspects may
be mentioned, but their relationship to micro issues is
not investigated.) The tendency to stay with what is
familiar, and seems to be more likely under one's
control (at least to some degree) appears to make it
more difficult to appreciate broader environmental
influences on personal, family, or even business be-
havior. Since this class was experimental in nature
and designed primarily to elicit student response to
the content, evaluation of student's work was done in
an informal, highly qualitative manner. This relied
on an open-ended questionnaire and a follow-up class
discussion. (Future classes will make more use of
specified pre- and post-tests for each country or cul-
ture.)
Students also evaluated of the course. Evalua-
tions were almost unanimously positive with strong
recommendations that the course be required and be
offered earlier in the curriculum (such as at the
sophomore level). Students agreed with the percep
tions of instructors that the macro-environment
aspect of a culture was the most difficult to under-
stand and to relate to individual and family prob-
lems. However, it was apparent that they had be-
come aware of the importance of this aspect and rec-
ommended that additional course material and time
be devoted to this area.
Future Plans
Since the class has been taught, a new set of
modules, focusing on cultures within the United
States has reached a preliminary stage of
development. These will first include cultures
important within Washington State: Cambodian,
Laotian, Vietnamese, various Hispanic groups and
selected Native American tribes. Questions could be
raised as to why these cultures were not initial
targets for the study modules. There are a number of
reasons why the sequence was selected
(Continued on back inside cover.)
198 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May/June, 1991
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contained in each issue. Capital letters indicate emphasis.
KEY:
(n)
No. 4,
.No. S,
Means to Excellence (a,b,d,f,h,i,k,l,m,0,p,r)
Excellence Means Solving Problems (a,b,d,e,f,g,h,i,k,m,o,r)
(a) Nutrition/foods
(b) Consumer education (o)
(c) Special needs education (p)
(d) Adult & Continuing ed. (q)
(e) Career & Vocational ed. (r)
(0 Textiles & Clothing fe)
(g) Child & Family life ed. (t)
(h) Housing & resource mgmt. (u)
(i) Teaching as a profession (v)
(j) Environment & quality of life (w)
(k) Human roles & relations (x)
(1) FHA/HERO
(m) Home Ec. around the world
Indexes
Teaching techniques
Curriculum development
Educational technology
History & Philosophy of H.Ec.Ed.
Future Orientation of Home Ec.
Public Relations
Research
Employment issues
Ethics/Values
Entrepreneurship
Volume XXVffl, 1984/85, HOME ECONOMICS IN A NATION AT RISK
No. 1, Can Home Economics Help Reduce the Risks? (a,b,d,f,g,k,l,o,p,q,r)
No. 2, Encountering The Challenges (a,b,c,d,f,g,i,j,k,m,0,p,q,r)
No. 3, Families At Risk: What Help Do They Need? (b,c,d,f,C,j,k,l,m,o,p)
No. 4, At Risk: Let Us Count The Ways (a,b,e,g,h,j,k,0,p,q,r)
No. 5, Some Philosophy and Human Relations (a,e,f,g,i,j,k,l,m,n,0,p,q,r)
Volume XXVIL 1983/84, THE PROCESS OF EDUCATION
No. 1, Curriculum Reform and Home Economics: What Do We Do Now?
(a,b,g,I,j,k,l,n,o,p,q,r)
Focus on Family Resources — Education for the Good Life
(a,b,c,d,g,h,Lk,0,p)
Nutrition Education for 1984 and Other Important
Matters (A,d,e,g,Lj,k,o,p)
With Emphasis on Family Relationships (b,G,i,k,o,p)
With Emphasis on Clothing and Textiles (d,e,F,g,h,i,k,m,o,q)
_No. 2,
.No. 3,
No. 4,
.No. 5,
Volume XXXTV, 1990/91 HOME ECONOMISTS AS LEADERS IN THE WORKPLACE
AND THE COMMUNITY
No. 1, Urbana Middle School Leadership in the Workplace and the
Community (Guest Edited Issue) (a,c,g,h,J,K,m,0,p,r)
No. 2, Home Economics Curriculum Development. (b,c,d,g,i,j,k,o,P,R,,t,v,w)
No. 3, Illinois Teacher Salutes 1990 Home Economics Teachers of the Year
(a,b,c,d,e,f,C, i, j,k,0,P,r,v)
No. 4, Home Economics Curriculum Development (a,e,f,G,h,i,j,k,m,o,P,t)
No. 5, Leadership in Home Economics (A,b,g,j,k,o,P,w)
Volume XXXUL 1989/90, CRITICAL AND REFLECTIVE QUESTIONING OF OUR
UNDERSTANDING OF HOME ECONOMICS TOWARD ACTION.
N°- L Canadian Home Economics Education (Guest Edited Issue)
(e,i,k,m,p,q,r,s)
No. 2, Understanding Home Economics (a,d,g,h,i,k,o,p,t)
No. 3, Understanding Home Economics (d,f,g,h,i,k,p,r,s,t,u)
No. 4, A Salute to the 1989 Home Economics Teachers of the Year (o,i)
No. 5, Understanding Home Economics (g,i,k,o,p,t)
Volume XXVL 1982/83, THE ROLE OF HOME ECONOMICS IN REVITALIZING OUR
ECONOMY
No. 1, Families and the Economy (a,e,g,h,i,k,m,0,p,r)
No. 2, Home Economics— The Responsive Profession( a,b,c,e,g,i,j,k,l,o,p,r)
No. 3, Unemployment, Entrepreneurship and Human Relations
(a,E,g, h,i,k, L m,o, p,r)
No. 4, Revitalizing Ourselves and the Curriculum (a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,o,p,q,r)
No. 5, Thinking Consumers and Global Home Economics ( e,g,h,l,k,m,p,r)
Volume XXV, 1981/82, A LOOK BACK TO PLAN AHEAD
No. 1,
.No. 2,
.No. 3,
No. 4,
No. 5,
Nutrition Education in the '80s (A,e,h,i,k,n,0)
Home Economics Teachers and Extension Home Economists Work
Together (a,B, D,e,g,h,i,k,m,o,p)
Pre-School, Middle School, High School, Adult Education and
Teacher Education (a,b,d,e,g,h,i,k,m,o,p)
What Do the 80s Require? (d,e,g,h,i,k,m,o,q,r)
Curriculum Planning (e,g,h,i,k,m,P,r)
Volume XXXII, 1988-89, HOME ECONOMICS: KNOW YOUR PROFESSION
_No. 1,
_No. 2,
_No. 3,
_No.4,
No. 5,
A Home Economics Respoonse to the Evolving Family Structure
(Maine Guest Edited Issue) (b,g,j,k,p,q,s,u,v,x)
Home Economics from Different Viewpoints (a,g,o,p,s,u,w)
Home Economics Education. The Challenge to Create History
(Minnesota Guest Edited Issue) (g,j,k,p,r,s)
Recognized Teachers and Some of Their Programs
((a,b,f,g,h,Lj,k,o,p,s,w)
The Wisconsin Project: Reflective Considerations by Practicing
Teachers (c,g,i,k,p)
Volume XXIV, 1980/81, VISIONS AND DECISIONS FOR THE '80s
No. 1, Consumer Education for the Decade Ahead (a,b,g,h,i,o,p,r)
No. 2, The Education and Rehabilitation of Handicapped Persons (C,e,p)
No. 3, Human Relationships in the Next Decade (d,G,h,Lo)
No. 4, Broadening Our Horizons in Home Economics (a,b,d,e,f,g,k,l,o,p,r)
No. 5, Information for Congressional Decisions in '82.. and Other Ideas
(b,c,e,g,h,i,rr\o,R)
Volume XXXL 1987/88 (No central theme)
_No. 1,
_No.2,
_No. 3,
_No.4,
No. 5,
Articles and Cumulative Index by Subject, Volume XII to XXX
(g,Lj,k,o,s)
Global Connections: Development Education for American Teenagers
through Home Economics Ox,Lm,o,p,s,t)
Thoughts on Relationships, Basics and Textiles (c,g,k,p,r,s,t)
Oregon Issue (a,g,i,o,p,t)
The 1987 Home Economics Teachers of the Year and Responses to
Progressive Retrenchment (a,g,h,i,l,o,p,q)
Volume XXX, 1986/87, ETHICS IN TODAYS WORLD
No. 1, Ethics and Home Economics 0<, o,p,R)
No. 2, Enhancing Learning Effectiveness (e,g,h,i,o)
No. 3, Public Relations, Promotion and Publicity (1)
No. 4, Ethics and Critical Thinking (g,l,o.p)
No. 5, Ethics at Home and School (e,f,g,i,k,o,p)
Volume XXIX, 1985/86 , EXCELLENCE IN EDUCATION: THE HOME ECONOMICS
CONTRIBUTION
No. 1, Your Philosophy is a Key (a,b,f,g,i,o,r)
No. 2, Present Patterns & Future Directions (a,b,c,d,g,i,k,m,o,r)
No. 3, Excellence In Education: The Home Economics Contribution
(a,c,h,k,o,p,r)
Volume XXIE,
No. 1,
No. 2,
No. 3,
No. 4,
.No. 5,
1879/80, REDEFINITIONS AND REVALUATIONS
Redefining Bassics and Social Problems (c,e,g,h,j,k,o)
Redefining Challenges and Revaluaring Actions ft>,c,g,j,p)
Redefining Home Economics and Revaluating Nutrition Education
(a,b,f,i,j,p,o)
Signs of the Future (a,b,c,d,e,g,i)
Redefining Human Relationships 0>,d,e,g,h,k,n)
Volume XXII, 1978/79, A NEW LOOK AT THE BASICS: LEADERSHIP THROUGH
HOME ECONOMICS
_No. 1, A New Look at the Teaching of Foods (a,c,i,k,o)
Human Development and Relationships as Basics (g,k,o,p)
Basics: Philosophy, Housing, Clothing (f,g,h,j,o)
Some Basics Via Future Homemakers of America and HERO
Chapters (d)
Work as One of the Basics ft>,cl,e,g,m,n,o)
No. 2,
No. 3,
.No. 4,
No. 5,
Volume XXI, 1977/78, CURRENT CONCERNS IN HOME ECONOMICS EDUCATION
No. 1, Current Concerns of the Secondary Teacher (g,h,k,l,m)
No. 2, Expanding Our Scope of Service Q>,c,e,g,k)
No. 3, Resource Conservation in Home Economics (c,f,h,j,l)
No. 4, Current Concerns in Human Relationships (a,c,g,h,o)
No. 5, Current Concerns in Consumer Education (b,n,p)
Volume XX 1976/77, FUTURISM AND HOME ECONOMICS
No. 1, Perspectives on our Habitat (h,j)
ILLINOIS TEACHER, May /June, 1991 199
_No. 2, Foundations for the Future (e,g,h,f)
_No. 3, Futurism and Nutrition Education (a,l,o)
_No. 4, Sex Roles and Home Economics (e,k,m)
_No. 5, Towards Home Economics for All (g,j,k,n)
No. 2
Volume XIX, 1975/76, THE QUALITY OF LIFE AND HOME ECONOMICS
No. 1 Quality of Life and Home Economics: Implications for Curriculum
(h,j,LO)
No. 2 Quality of Life for Home Economics Teachers (b,c,j,m,o)
No. 3 The Teaching of Family Relationships and the Quality of Life
(g,j,m,n)
No. 4 Nutrition Lifestyles and Quality of Life (e,h,m,o)
No. S Consumer Education and the Quality of Life (a,b,j,n)
Volume XVIII, 1974/75, NEW FACES AND PLACES FOR HOME ECONOMICS
No. 1 United Arts Programs Including Home Economics (b,e,g)
No. 2 Thoughts on Our Theme: Leaders in Home Economics (b,g,l)
No. 3 Serving AU Ages (a,g,i,l)
No. 4 Vocational and Career Education (e,g,l)
No. 5 Human Roles: Examining Choices Through Education (b,g,l)
Volume XVD, 1973/74, REACHING ALL MINORITIES THROUGH HOME
ECONOMICS
No. 1 Capitalizing on Interest in Children (c,f,g,i)
No. 2 Exploring Careers in the Junior High School (e,i)
No. 3 Better Health Through Better Nutrition (a,b,i,o)
No. 4 Housing— Designing for Peoplp's Needs (h,e,c,b)
No. 5 Better Management and Improved Consumer Education for all Ages
(b,h)
Volume XVI, 1972/73, HUMANENESS AND HOME ECONOMICS IN THE
SECONDARY SCHOOL
No. 1 Nutrition Education for Increased Humaneness (a,i)
No. 3
No. 4
No. 5
Consumer Education and the Quality of Life; Drug Education; Legal
Aid; Ecology; Nutrition (b,f)
The Family in Today's Society; Occupational Program in Child
Development; Drug Abuse Prevention; Urban Communes; Toys for
Consumers (b,e,g,h)
The Liberated Family; Woman's Rights Movement and VOTEC
Education (g)
Career Selection as a Humanizing Experience (e)
Volume XV, 1971/72, OLD VALUES AND NEW APPLICATIONS
No. 4 Home Economics and Vocational Education (a,e,g)
Volume XIV, 1970/71, HOME ECONOMICS FOR THE SEVENTIES: ACCENT ON
No. 1 Nutrition for Consumers (a,i,o)
No. 2 Meeting Low Literacy Needs (a,c,h,i)
No. 3 Curriculum Ideas for the 70's (a,b,c,f,g,h)
No. 4 Accent on Home Economics Occupations (e,p)
No. 6 Values and Practices in Clothing Selection (f)
Volume XUI, 1969/70, RELEVANCE IN;
No. 3 Relevance— Through Vocational Education (e)
No. 4 Family Life Education (g)
Volume XII, 1968/69, ACTION AND INNOVATION
No. 1 Feasibility of Studies about Employment Education (e,g)
Occupational Program Description and Legal Aspects of Such
Programs (e,f)
Teaching Those With Special Needs
Independent Study Techniques; Displays; Occupations in an
Institution for
the Mentally Retarded (c,e,g,i)
Video Tape Techniques; Employment Education Course (e)
No. 2
No. 3
No. 5
No. 6
* A. HOME ECONOMICS LOW LITERACY MATERIALS. Third to fifth grade
reading level.
A5. SAFETY! CHILDREN AT HOME! Janet Tracy, 32pp. illus. The dangers of
poisoning and some preventive measures are presented in three stories
about preschool children.
A6. THE NU 1 KITION GAZETTE. A four-page "newspaper" concerning so-
called health foods including ads showing comparative costs, "Ann
Landers" type column, and information from authoritative sources.
O B. SELF-TEACHING BOOKLETS. For use by a student in independent study
or by a group, with or without a teacher. Fourth to fifth grade reading
levels except booklets BIO and Bll.
Bl. HAMBURGER AND YOU. Janice Tronc and Judy Oppert. Included are a
booklet and instructions for making a puzzle board, instructions to the
student, and answer sheet. Teaches that a hamburger contains nutrients
which are broken down and become part of the cells of the human body.
B2. CALORIES AND YOU. Carolyn J. Wasx The booklet uses analogies,
explanations, questions, and problems to lead the student to discover the
body's need for energy and its relationship to calories. The student would
need a set of Comparison Cards* which are not included.
B3. HOW TO USE THE COMPARISON CARDS. Janice Tronc. Booklet
explains in very simple language for slow learners how to use the
Comparison Cards. The student would need a set of Cards* which are not
included.
B4. LET PROTEIN WORK FOR YOU. Carolyn J. Wax. Part one uses situations
and related questions to illustrate how protein works for the body. The
student discovers what kinds of foods provide protein in the second part.
B5. SHOPPING FOR PROTEIN-CALORIE-WISE AND S-WISE. Carolyn J.
Wax. The student classifies foods as poor, good, or very good sources of
protein, and which foods are high in protein and low in cost and calories.
In part two, the student makes food plans that are economical and provide
100% of the RDA. The student would need a set of Comparison Cards*
which are not included.
B6. DISCOVERING A PATTERN FOR A BALANCED DIET. Hazel Taylor
Spitze. This booklet contains instructions for making a jig-saw type puzzle
with 72 pieces, in five shapes, each representing a food. To work the
puzzle, a student selects any 14 pieces that will fit the 10 x 12 inch board.
After working the puzzle four times, the student discovers that the only
pieces s/he has left are foods which do not help "balance" the diet. The
foods used are categorized by type and totaled. The student discovers that
every time the puzzle "works" there is a pattern. There is no mention of
the "Basic Four" although this is the pattern s/he discovers. An
accompanying leaflet provides questions and suggestions.
B7 & 8. CHILD CARE IN DAY CARE HOME. Virginia Nash. These booklets, B 7
for the teacher and B8 for the student, include a series of stories,
illustrations, and questions; teach how to prepare for, organize, and
conduct a day care home and include information on licensing, equipment
needed, procedures to assure safety, etc.
B9. YOU AND COMMUNICATIONS. Gary T. Werner. Booklet examines the
significance of communication and its basic component in an effort to
improve human relationships. Skits, analysis, and discussion questions
explore verbal and non-verbal communication.
B10-B11. EXPLORING OUR ATTITUDES TOWARD AGING. Penny Ralston.
Eighth grade reading level. Booklet designed to help students examine
their attitudes toward older people and toward the aging process.
Discussion includes how stereotyping affects older people. Suggested
learning activities are provided along with a free teacher's guide.
B12. APARTMENTS. . .? the dollar and sense of it. Wynett Barnard. A mini
curriculum guide containing five lesson suggestions and an appendix with
supplementary material including a lease form and case studies.
Illustrated. Teaching techniques include simulations.
B13. HOW INSURANCE WORKS. Barbara Bazzell. Includes information on
activities on several kinds of insurance. References. Evaluation devices.
© C GAMES AND SIMULATIONS
CI. NUTRITION INSURANCE. Judy Oppert. A set of "insurance policies" for
health with suggestions for use. Some students represent insurance agents
and try to "sell" their policy to other students. Each student "customer" is
given a set amount of calories with which to "buy" his/her nutrients to
insure against the disorder. Students discover that some foods pay the
premium for several policies. Policies include insurance for: goiter,
nervousness, diseased bones and teeth, iron-deficiency anemia, cell
separation, overweight, and "wearing out."
C2. CONCENTRATE ON PROTEIN. Linda Valiga. This game may be played
in groups or individually. The card game is similar to 'Concentration"
and emphasizes the concept of protein complementarity, that is
improving protein quality in some plant foods by combining them with
certain other foods.
O D. REFERENCE MATERIALS
Dl. INSIDE INFORMATION. Carolyn J. Wax. "Inside Information" is basic
nutrition information in very simple language about 11 nutrients in
question-answer format. Information is printed so that it can be cut out
and pasted on 3 x 5 cards to be filed, or to be placed on boxes labeled
"Building Blocks of Food." An accompanying leaflet suggests some
possible ways to use the information in teaching.
D5. NUTRITION KNOWLEDGE TEST FOR CONSUMERS. Hazel Taylor
Spitze. This 280-item test is n 46 clusters of true-false items based on the
Basic Conceptual Framework of Nutrition. In simple language and with
reliability around .90, it may be useful in both teachers and researchers.
D6. A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY IN HOME ECONOMICS EDUCATION.
1966 to 1976. Sarojini Balachandran. 114pp. This bibliography deals with
the following topics as they relate to Home Economics Education:
changing marital forms, sex roles, consumer problems, family relations,
futurism, human relations, human rights, leisure time, population and
world food problems. Over 300 journals cited.
■E. El. Proceedings of the Conference on Current Concerns in Home Economics
Education
E2. Proceedings Silver Jubilee Conference Interrelationships Between Work
Life and Family Life 64 pp.
E3 Ethics in Today's World. Proceedings from the 30th Anniversary
Conference.
F. Fl. The Conversation and Company of Educated Women: A colloquy on
Home Economics Education. Linda Peterat.
AHEE 1001 Energy Conservation in the Home- You Can Make the Differ-
ence, 16 p.
AHEE 1002 Metric Units of Measure-Length, 12 p.
AHEE 1003 Metric Units of Measure— Area and Volume, 12 p.
AHEE 1004 Metric Units of Measure-Mass and Temperature, 8 p.
AHEE 1005 Selecting Toys: The Choice Is Yours, 20 p.
AHEE 1006 Saving Clothing by Removing Stains, 8 p.
AHEE 1007 Learning to Be a Satisfied Renter, 16 p.
AHEE 1008 Quick Meals at Low Cost, 12 p.
AHEE 1009 The Way We Act- Developing Self-Esteem and Assertive Behav-
ior, 8 p.
AHEE 1010 Ruin It or Renew It in the Laundry, 12 p.
AHEE 101 1 What's New in the Supermarket? 8 p.
The Package: 1 of each HEE 1001 to 1011 Special rate— $3.00
We pay postage
200 ILLINOIS TEACHER, May/June, 1991
fontinued from page 198.)
Since data was already available for other coun-
tries, these could quickly be assembled for use in
an experimental class which would then provide
needed data for development of final modules.
2. Perhaps surprisingly, university students seem to
have more contact with people from other coun-
tries than with those from cultures other than
their own within the state. They are more likely
to meet students and families from these coun-
tries on campus and interact with the foreign
children in preschool and local field experience
settings. To some extent, it is easier to begin mul-
ticultural study by viewing other countries. Also,
it is important to understand the country and cul-
ture of one's ancestry before trying to study that
group within the setting of this country. For ex-
ample, an understanding of Mexico will provide
necessary background for study of some Hispanic
groups. Although students below college level
may not always have as much exposure to stu-
dents from other countries, there may be some
through international exchanges, and so on. Even
where this is not the case, there is some evidence
that cultural sensitivity may be easier to initi-
ate with cultures which are further from us.
3. Finally, we realize that our students are entering
a world which is becoming increasingly interna-
tionalized. In their professional and personal
lives, it will be more important for them to oper-
ate in foreign cultural settings and to operate at
home with people from these environments.
Americans have, for years, been prone to disre-
gard other cultures. Terpstra (1985) speculates
that this has been due to the vast size of the
country and the fact that the common language
which has generally been spoken makes it possi-
ble for Americans to avoid real exposure to other
ways of behaving and thinking. Our past ideol-
ogy of a melting pot hid the fact that in many
ways we had become both a closed culture and a
closed economy. The United States now finds it
imperative to think in terms of interdependence.
The reasons for this can be altruistic and
humanistic, but are more likely to be in terms of
economic survival. Therefore, one needs to be
able to work effectively within an international,
as well as a multi-cultural context.
Plans now are to make these study modules
available to everyone in the college, which includes
departments in both home economics and agriculture.
These will be offered as separate modules or as a
course. The fact that each module is an independent
unit allows a variety of methods of use. A student can
do an individual self-study, accompanied by a pre-or
post-test. A course can be developed using selected
modules to focus on specified sections of the world or
country. The modules can also be focused on an under-
standing of given areas, depending on additional ex-
amples and directions given to discussion. For exam-
ple, parent-child relationships may be emphasized,
or roles of women, or problems of low-income people,
or of elderly.
In addition, the information from each module is
being condensed and rewritten in a form which can be
used by the general public, beginning with adoles-
cents. These short "fact sheets" are being done in
conjunction with the Washington Cooperative Exten-
sion Service and will be made available to many
groups in the state (including extension agents, high
school teachers and counselors, law enforcement
groups, social service agencies and others).
There is a great challenge to all of us to focus our
efforts more directly on international and multi-cul-
tural efforts in an attempt to prepare students for ef-
fective involvement in a global, multi-cultural soci-
ety.
References
Henry, W. (1990). Beyond the melting pot. Time.
April 9, pp. 28-31.
Hodge, B., & Johnson, H. (1981). Management and
organizational behavior. Huntington, NY:
Robert Kreigcr Publishing.
Terpstra, V. (1985). International dimensions of
marketing. Boston: Kent Publishing.
Terpstra, V., & David, K (1985). The cultural envi-
ronment of international business. Cincinnati:
Southwestern Publishing.
Terpstra, V., & David, K. (1985). Global thinking
seen as key to success. Lewiston Tribune, Lewis-
ton, Idaho, October 11, 1990. •••
9-(e who dares to teach must never cease to
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