The imperial dictionary of universal biography [manuscript]

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THE

IMPERIAL DICTIONARY

OF

UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY:

A SERIES OF

0BI6INAL MEMOmS OF DISTINGDISHED fflEN,

OF ALL AGES AND ALL NATIONS.

BY WRITERS OF EMINENCE IN THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF
LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ART.

CONDUCTED BY

PROFESSOR JOHN EADIE, D.D., L.L.D.,
PROFESSOR J. P. NICHOL, LL.D.,
JOHN FRANCIS WALLER, Esq., LL.D.,

P. E. DO'VE, Esq., General Editor.

J. BROWN, Esq., Corresponding Editor.

EDWIN LANKESTER, Esq., M.D., F.R.S.,
PROFESSOR FRANCIS BOWEN, LL.D., U.S.,
Editor of '* North American Review."

A Dictionary of Universal Bioghapht, wlien faithfully and judiciously executed, is an accurate pano-
rama of the celebrated members of tlie human family, from its origin to the present time ; exhibiting, for
approval or reprobation, every variety of character tinder every diversified circumstance.

It is also a record of the origin and gradual progress of every department of science or art.

In the pages of such a work, every reader, whatever his peculiarity of talent or taste, will meet with
something of special interest ; and from every prominent memoir, all may derive some lesson of practical
wisdom, some incentive to industry and virtue.

In proportion, however, to the value of a sterling and etdightened system of Biography, is the
difficulty of the execution. Fiction must not be allowed to pass for reality. Traditions and assertions
must be scrutinised. Conflicting testimonies must be patiently and dispassionately compared and appre-
ciated. Besides, the space to be travelled over is immense ; and the attention accorded to each successive
portion should exactly correspond to its respective importance.

Keeping these considerations constantly in view, and aiming unswervingly at the strictest Mstorical
Justice, the conductors of the present publication indulge the hope, that no sectarian spirit, either of a
reUgious, a literary, or a political nature, will be found to have exerted influence either on the selection
of the subjects, the comparative length of the sketches, or the tenor of any statement the work may
contain.

This Work will be completed in about Thirty-six Parts, each containing Sixty-four Pages of Letter-
press, and Two Portraits engraved on steel, copied from original and authentic sources, and executed in the
highest style, by some of the first artists of the day. The Price of each Part will be TVo Shillings.

To give additional interest to the Work, Biographical Sketches of eminent Individuals stUl living wUl
be inserted. These will be distinguished by an asterisk before their names. The initials of the contributor
will be appended to all the important articles.

WILLIAM MACKENZIE,

lONBON, GLASGOW, EDINBURGH,

22 paternoster row. 4.5 & 47 HOWARD STREET. 39 south eridqe.

LIVERPOOL, 64 SEEL STREET. I NEWCASTLE, 27 CARLIOL STREET.

LEEDS, 22 COBOUKG STREET. BRISTOL, 18 PEITCHAKD STREET.

ABERDEEN, 5LI CASTLE STREET. j BOSTON, U.S-, 12 TREMONT STREET.

NEW YORK, 29U BROADWAY.

THE FOLLOWING AEE AMONGST THE CONTRIBUTORS.

w. L. A. REV. W. LINDSAY ALEXANDER, D.D., Propessok of Di\n[NiTY, Edinburgh.

J. A., L. EEV. JOSEPH ANGUS, D.D., Pkesident of Stepney College, Regent's Park, London.

J. A., D. JOHN ANSTER, LL.D., Regius Professor of Civil Laav in the University of Dublin.

T. A. THOMAS ARNOLD, B.A., Oxon., Dublin.

E. B. EDWARD BAINES, Esq., Leeds.
J. B., o. REV. JOHN BAINES, M.A., St. John's College, Oxon.

T. B. THOMAS BAINES, Esq., F.S.A., Liverpool.
J. H. B. JOHN HUTTON BALFOUR, M.D., F.R.S., Regius Professor of Botany, Edinburgh University. •

E. B. EDWIN BEEDELL, Esq., Author of " Mercantile and Mariti.me Guide," &o.
J. s. b. JOHN STUART BLACKTE, Esq., Professor of Greek, Edinburgh University.

F. E. FRANCIS BOWEN, LL.D., Harvard College, Cambridge, United States.

d. b. SIR DAVID BREWSTER, K.H., Principal op the United College, St. Andrews.
^Y. B. c. W. B. CARPENTER, M.D., F.R.S., University Hall, London.
G. L. o. GEORGE L. CRAIK, A.M., Prof, of History and English Literature, Queen's College, Belfast.

a. d. rev. SAJIUEL DAVIDSON, D.D., LL.D., Late of the Independent College, Manchester.
J. F. D. EEV. JOSHUA FREDERICK DENHAM, M.A., F.R.S., Rector of St. Mary-le-Strand, London.

J. D. JAMES DONALDSON, A.IL, Classical Master, High School, Edinburgh.
J. w. D. REV. J. W. DOPwVN, LL.D., Rector op Beeston, near Norwich ; late Association Secretary of

the Church Missionary Society.
p. E. D. P. EDWARD DOVE, Esq., Author of " The Theory of Human Progression," &,c.
J. E. EEV. JOHN EADIE, D.D., LL.D., Professor of Biblical Literature, &c., Glasgow.
p. f. rev. PATRICK FAIRBAIRN, D.D., Professor of Divinity, Free Church College, Glasgow.
•w. f. EEV. WILLIAM FLEMING, D.D., Professor of Moral Philosophy, Glasgow University.
w. G. WILLIAM GREGORY, M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Chemistry, Edinburgh University,
f. j. h. FELIX JOHN HAMEL, Esq., Solicitor for Her Majesty's Customs, London.
E. N. H. E. N. HORSFORD, Harvard University', Cambridge, United States.
T. J. EEV. T. JACKSON, M.A., Prebendary of St. Paul's, and Rector of Stoke Newington, London.
r. k. sir ROBERT KANE, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.I.A., President op Queen's College, Cork.
J. K. JAMES KENNEDY, Esq., Late Her Majesty's Judge at the Havana.

E. L. E. LANKESTER, M.D., F.R.S., Lecturer on the Prac. op Med., St. George's School of Med., London.
w. L. EEV. WILLIAM LINDSAY, D.D., Professor of Theology, Glasgow.

p. L. REV. PETER LORIMER, D.D., Professor op Theology and Hebrew, Presbyterian College, London.
a. A. M. G. A. MACFARREN, Esq., Professor of Composition and Harmony, Roy. Acad, of Music, London.
E. M. EDWARD MASSON, A.M., Formerly op Athens.
J. m. JOSEPH MAZZINI, Esq., London.

J. m'c. rev. JAMES M'COSH, LL.D., Professor op Logic and Metaphysics, Queen's College, Belfast.
E. M. RAFFAELLE MONTI, Esq., Sculptor, London.
J. p. N. JOHN PRINGLE NICHOL, LL.D., Professor of Astronojiy, Glasgow Observatory.
c. G. N. EEV. C. G. NICOLAY, F.R.G.S., Librarian, King's College, London.
R. s. o. REV. E. S. OLDHAM, M.A., Oxon., St. Mary's, Glasgow.
- F. p. FREDERICK PENNY, M.D., Professor of Chemistry, Andersonian University, Glasgow.

f. p., l. FRANCIS PULSZKY, Esq., F.H.A., &c., London.
w. J. M. E. W. J. MACQUORN RANKINE, LL.D., Professor of Engineering and Mechanics, Glasgow University.
E. p. R. EDWARD F. EIMBAULT, LL.D., F.E.S., Member of the Royal Academy of Music, Stockholm ;

Musical Examiner in the Royal College of Preceptors, London, &c., &c
w. H. R. WILLIAM H. RUSSELL, LL.D., " The Times" Crimean Correspondent.
E. s. R. SIEGFRIED, Ph.D., Lecturer in SjVsscrit, Trinity College, Dublin.
A. s. ALEXANDER SMITH, Esq., Secretary to the University of Edinburgh.
E. A. s. ROBERT ANGUS SMITH, Ph.D., F.C.S., Secretary to Literary and Phil. Society, Manchester.
J. s. JAMES SUMMERS, Esq., Professor of Chinese, King's College, London.
w. s. EEV. WILLIAM SYMINGTON, D.D., Professor of System-^tic Theology, Glasgow.
J. T. REV. JAilES TxVYLOR, D.D., Author of the " Pictorial History of Scotland."
E. D. t. R. D. THOMSON, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry, St. Thomas's Ho.spital College, London,
t. principal TULLOCH, St. Andrews.
E. V. REV. ROBERT VAUGHAN, D.D., Author of " Life of Wickliffe," &o., &c.
E. w. EDWARD WALFOED, M.A., Balliol Coll., Oxon.
J. P. w. JOHN FRANCIS WALLEE, LL.D., M.E.I.A., Hon. Secretary to the Eoyal Dublin Society.
w. w. REV. W. WEBSTER, JI.A., Cajib., King's College, London.

THE

IMPERIAL DICTIONARY

UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY:

A SEEIES OP ORiaiNAL MEMOIRS.

AA

AAR

AA, Gekakd van dee, and his two sons, Adolphds and
Philip, three Dutch patriots, who acted a distinguished part in
the emancipation of their country from the Spanish yoke in the
reign of Philip II. — M.

AA, Petek van dbr, an eminent lawyer and writer on
jurisprudence, bom at Louvam about 1535. After being some
time professor of law in the university of Louvain, he was
appointed, in 1565, assessor of the supreme council of Bra-
bant, and, in 1574, president of the high com-t of justice at
Luxemburg. Died in 1594. — M.

AA, Peter van der, a celebrated Dutch publisher. He
commenced business at Leyden about 1682, receiving into
partnership his two brothers, Hildebrand, an engraver, and Bald-
win, a printer. His principal publications were, — " Voyages
and Travels relating to the East and West Indies," in 28 vols.
12mo. ; " Pleasant Gallery of the World, with Maps and
Views," in .^3 vols, folio ; " Tcones Arborum ;" " Travels
in Tartary, Persia," &c., in 2 vols. 4to. ; Vaillant's Botanicon
Parisiense;" " Gronovius' Greek Antiquities," in 13 vols,
folio ; " Graevius' Roman, Italian, and Sicihan Antiquities,"
in 67 vols, folio; and "Erasmus' Worts," ui 11 vols, folio.
Died m 1730.— M.

AA, Christian Charles Henry van deb, for fifty-one
years pastor of a Lutheran congi'egation at Haarlem, was bom at
Zwolle in 1718. He studied theology at Leyden and Jena,
and was long secretary to the Haarlem academy of sciences, to
whose establishment he had prominently contributed. Various
able dissertations of his on physical science were published in a
Dutch periodical. Died at Haarlem m 1793. — M.

AACS or ACS, Michael, a Hungarian philosopher and
divine, was bom at St. Martin in 1631. After studying in
Germany, he successively held a pastoral charge at Hemegyes-
Ala, Raab, and Rosenau. In 1669 he published at Tubingen a
work, entitled " Pontes Calvinismi Obstracti," and a Hmigarian
work at Strasburg in 1700. Died in 1708. — M.

AACS or ACS, Michael, a Hungarian divine, son of the
preceding, was bom at Raab in 1672. After completing his
studies at Wittemberg and Tubingen, he was appointed chaplain
to a Hungarian regiment. Author of several theological works
in Latin and Hungarian. Died in 1711. — ^M.

AAGARD, Christian, bom in 1616, at Wiborg, was ap-
pointed in 1647 professor of poetiy in the university of Copen-
hagen, where he had studied, and, in 1658, principal of the
college of Ripen. He has left some Latin poems remarkable
for purity and elegance of diction. Died in 1664. — M.

AAGARD, Niels or Nicholas, elder brother of the preced-
ing, bom at Wiborg, in Denmark, in 1612. At first (protes-
tant) pastor at Faxoe, he became, in 1647, professor of rhetoric,
and librarian at Soroe. Besides several Greek and Latin poems,
he published various critical dissertations, one of which is on the
style of the New Testament. Died m 1657. — M.

AAGESEN, Suend, the oldest Danish historian, better
known by Ms Latin name of Sueno Agonis filius. Under
the auspices of Absalom, ai'chbishop of Lund, he drew up, in
barbarous Latin, a compendious history of the Danish Mngs,
from the year 300 to 1187. He also wrote a Latin translation
VOL. I.

of the military code of Canute the Great. Died about the be-
gmning of the thu'teenth century. — M.

AALAM, a Persian astrologer of the ninth centmy. — M.

AALI, a celebrated Turkish writer. His work on universal
history comprehends a history of the Ottoman empire, from its
foundation to within a few years of his death, which took place
in 1597. There is also an abridgment of his lai'ge work. — M.

AALST. See Aelst.

AARE, Dirk or Thierry van der, bishop and prince of
Utrecht, famous for Ms obstinate and sangumary war with the
count of Holland. Died in 1212. — M.

AARGENS, called also Arthus Claesson, a Dutch painter
of great reputation, originally a wool-carder, bom at Leyden in
1498. But for Ms dissipated habits, he would have attained
general esteem as well as affluence. At the age of sixty-six he
was accidentally drowned. — M.

AAEON, a Hebrew, of the tribe of Levi, the son of Amram,
and the brother of Moses, with whom he co-:)perated in effect-
ing the deliverance of his countrymen from the bondage of
Egypt. He was a man of ready and eifective eloquence, and
being better acquainted with the people than Moses, who had
been absent from Egypt about forty years, he served as a
medium of commimioation between him and them. After the
host of Israel reached the desert of Ai-abia, he was uivested
■with the office of high priest, which was made hereditary in his
family, and his sons were associated with him as inferior priests,
to perform the rites and ceremonies of the Mdfeaio law. Al-
though a more persuasive speaker than Moses, lie was not pos-
sessed of the same strength of character or depth of religious con-
viction. While his brother was upon the mount, receiving the
law from Jehovah, he yielded to the sohcitations of the people,
who, conceiving that then- leader had perished amid the flames
that enveloped the mountain, besought him to make for them
idols which they might worship. Collecting, therefore, the
golden earrings of the women, he melted them down mto one
mass, and fabricated out of them a golden calf, before which the
people shouted, saying, " These be thy gods, 0 Israel, which
brought thee up out of the land of Egypt." Although doubt-
less this image was an imitation of the Egyptian idol Mnevis,
yet Aaron does not seem to have considered it as a rival to
Jehovah, but rather as a symbolical representation of the
divme presence, for, in proclaiming a feast at the inauguration
of it, the words employed were these, " To-morrow is a feast to
Jehovah." He knew, however, that he was doing wrong, for,
m answer to the indignant remonstrance of Moses, he excused
hunself by throwing the blame upon the people, and many of
them were cut off as a punishment for this lapse into idolatry.
At one period Aaron manifested some jealousy of the superior
position and influence of Moses, for he jomed with Miriam,
their sister, in the attempt to raise up opposition to his
authority. Aftenvards he was doomed to encounter a similar
trial Mmself, for a number of the leading men in the different
tribes conspired against him, on the gi-ound that he had no
right to the exclusive possession of the privileges of the priest-
hood. This conspiracy was signally defeated. The rebels were
swallowed up by the yawning earth, and when their friends

B

ll^u

ABD

[SPKCIMBN PAGE.]

ABD

* ABDEL-KADER, an illustrious Arab emir, wlio displayed
consummate genius, intrepidity, and perseverance, in resisting,
for fourteen years, the French arms in Africa. Algiers was
taken by the French m July, 1829. Its capture, and the ex-
tinction of the Algerine central authority, threw the population
of the Algeiine territory into a state of anarchy, except where
the French held actual possession. This teratory, extending
along the MediteiTanean from Tunis to Morocco, is about 250
leagues in length, and from 60 to 80 m breadth. The indige-
nous inhabitants consisted of four distinct races. Two of these,
the Moors and Jews, feeble and pacific, chiefly resided in the
towns ; while the Arabs and the Kabyles (the latter of whom
are descendants of the ancient Numidians), energetic and war-
like, occupied the mountains, valleys, and jilains. The mUitaiy
force of the Arabs consisted mainly in cavalry, and that of the
Kabyles in infantry. Part of the population requested French
protection, but the greater portion stood aloof, nnmistaliably
detesting the invaders, and planning their expulsion. In under-
taking the expedition to Algiers, Charles X. had disclaimed all
intention of permanent conquest, assuruig his allies that his sole
object was the suppression of pii-acy, and that the future
condition of Algiers and its temtoiy would be left to the
decision of a European congi'ess. In fact, his real object was
to gratify the national vanity and supposed interests of the
French, and divert then: attention from political agitation.
Louis Philippe, on becoming sovereign of the French, at once
found the Algerian conquest a source of embarrassment, and
was forced to temporize. To hold it definitively might endanger
the peace of Em'ope ; while to relinquish it might peril his own
throne, as pubUc opinion in France had declai-ed for retaining
and extending the Algerian conquest at all hazards. Hence the
passive attitude enjoined, for several years, on the French
commanders in Africa ; and hence the subsequent change of
measm-es, and final definitive conquest of Algeria. Mai'shal
Clausel, notwithstanding his instructions to remain on the
defensive, deemed it imperative to meet the menacing prepa-
rations and encroachments of the bey of Tittary ; and having
defeated and deposed him, took possession of his capital,
Medeah. In the meantime determined hostility to the French
was manifesting itself among the native tribes, an extensive
confederation was formed, and a venerable Marabout, doctor
of the Moslem law, was invited to put himself at its head. He
declined, on account of his advanced age, but recommended his
third son, Abdel-Kader, as a person in every respect pecuharly
fitted to direct the enterprise. Abdel-Kader was elected emir
and commander-in-chief, and commencing at once, in concert
with his father, to proclaim a holy war, and raise an army, soon
found himself at the head of 10,000 cavalry. The yomig emir
had been carefully trained under his father's superintendence ;
and had eaidy distinguished himself by unrivalled proficiency in
every branch of a superior Arab education — literary, legal, and
military. By visiting Mecca, he had acquired the honom'ed
title of Hadji, or Pilgrim,; and at the period of his being
declared emir, he was residing with his family in retii'ement at
his native spot in the environs of Mascara, admired for his
accomplishments, and revered for his zeal in upholding the
tenets, and liis strictness in practising the precepts, of the
Moslem faith. The first movement of the confederates was
an attack on Oran, in May, 1832, then in possession of the
French, as its bey had submitted to them soon after the cap-
ture of Algiers. The assault, though renewed with great daring
for several successive days, was unsuccessful, but proved of
great advantage to the emir. By his mtrepidity and skill, he
secured to himself the confidence of his troops, and taught them,
by his example, to stand the fire of artillery, which had liitherto
been to them an object of dismay.

Abdel-Kader now proceeded with great activity and judgment
to extend, by pohcy or force, his power among the tribes ; while
General Desmichels satisfied himself with merely occupying two
advanced military positions, Arzew and Mostaganem, and shortly
after, ui conformity with the desire of the French government
to appease the natives and prevent hostilities, entered into a
treaty with Abdel-Kader, which gave the emir the virtual
sovereignty of Oran, with an entire monopoly of the trade, — a
point gi-eatly desired by the enterprising Arab, who, having
visited Egypt, wished to imitate the strange commercial pohcy
of Mehemid All. This treaty, on the one hand, invested the
emir with an important prestige, but awakened the envy of

native chieftains. By one of these he was surprised m April,
1834, and, after a most heroic resistance, signally defeated.
The news of this disaster extended the insun-ection, which the
emir, however, abetted by General Desmichels, was soon able to
suppress. The proceedings of this general were condemned at
Pai'is, and General Trezel was sent to supersede him. The new
French commander, professmg to regard the emir's operations
as a breach of the existing treaty, marched against him, but
sustained a serious defeat at Macta, 28th June, 1835. The
news of this reverse created an immense sensation at Paris.
Public opinion denounced the temporizing policy of Louis
Phihppe, and demanded an immediate and entire change of
measm'es in Afiica.

Marshal Clausel was now sent to act against Abdel-Kader
with vigour and in earnest. He marched at once on Mascara,
which he found abandoned and in ruins. Retm-ning to Oran,
he proceeded, in January, 1836, to Tlemsen, in the vicinity of
Morocco, and occupied the town, which the emir had just
quitted. The mai'shal traversed a large extent of country, but
with little pei-manent result, the emir hanging on his rear, and
harassing his troops in their march, and, shortly afterwards,
inflicting a signal defeat on a large French convoy intended for
Tlemsen. The French government now sent out General
Bugeaud, with instructions to neutrahze, by treaty or force, the
restless activity of the emu-. Bugeaud's profiered terms were
rejected ; and the emir attempted, by laying waste the coimtry
along the tract to Tlemsen, to baffle the eftbrts of the French
to provision that place. But Bugeaud, amply provided with
loaded camels and mules, continued his march. The emir,
having suddenly attacked him in the defile of Sakliak, was
repulsed with the loss of 1200 Idlled and wounded. The terms
previously ofiered by Bugeaud were now accepted. The emir
agi'ced to pay tribute to France, and obtained a large accession
of teiTitory. Without loss of time, he proceeded strenuously to
assert his authority over the provinces ceded to him, and to
extend his influence in the interior beyond them. It has been
generally stated and believed that Abdel-Kader had, previously, by
a breach of his treaty with Desmichels, given occasion to Trezcl's
renewal of hostilities ; and that now, by the alleged massacre of
a tribe, and other proceedings, he had flagrantly violated his^
treaty with Bugeaud. But a distinguished French officer,
Major Boissonet, has proved, by facts, that these charges are
utterly groundless, and that the emir strictly observed, on all
occasions, his stipulations with the French. The alleged
massacre was a fiction. On the remonstrances of the governor-
general, a new treaty, partly explanatoiy, and pai-tly supple-
mentary, was agreed to at Algiers, in July, 1838. In the
meantime the emu- proceeded with vigour to improve his civil
and military administration, and to make every possible pro-
vision for the easily foreseen renewal of the war. The emh-'s
growing power alarmed the French authorities ; and, to
counteract his influence, a French array was marched into the
interior, and through a celebrated defile, called the Iron Gates,
which the Tm-ks, at the height of their power, had never
ventured to pass without special leave of the natives. This
demonstration produced, as was intended, an immense sensation,
and was regarded by the tribes as the preliminary or commence-
ment of hostilities. The emir, in the spirit of chivalry, gave
due notice, by letter, to the French governor-general, that, in
spite of his remonstrances, a holy war had been proclaimed, and
that his countrymen, with hunself at their head, were about to
appeal to arms. After some unsatisfactory operations on the
part of Marshal Valine, Bugeaud was sent a second time
to Africa. He- had now insti-uctions to subdue the emir, and
complete the conquest of Algeria. Bugeaud soon captured the
new forts which the emir had erected, and, by carrying off' the
flocks, destroying the crops, and bm-ning the villages of all
who refused submission, he caused great numbers of the emir's
troops to desert ; and, in the next campaign, reduced him to such
straits, that Algeria was officially announced at Paris as now an -
integi-al part of the French dominions. But the spirit of the
bold Ai-alj was not yet crashed. By the amazing rapidity and
fearlessness of his movements, he continued to inflict on the
French no small annoyance and damage. In October, 1843,
however, he sustained so thorough a defeat, that he instantly
sought refuge in the empire of Morocco. The population
declared in his favour, and the emperor, but for his fear of the
French, would have eagerly espoused his cause. The French

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