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THE

IMPERIAL GAZETTEER
OF INDIA

VOL. XX

PARDI TO PUSAD

NEW EDITION

PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OP HIS MAJESTY'S
SECRETARY OF STATE FOR INDIA IN COUNCIL

OXFORD

AT THE CLARENDON PRESS
1908

HENRY FROWDE, M.A.

P1TBUSHER TO THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD

LONDON, EDINBURGH
NEW YORK AND TORONTO

INTRODUCTORY NOTES
NOTES ON TRANSLITERATION

1 Vtnvel-Sounds

a has the sound of a in ' woman.'
a has the sound of a in * father/
e has the vowel-sound in ' grey.'
i has the sound of/ in 'pin/
I has the sound of / in ' police/
o has the sound of o in ' bone/
u has the sound of u in * bull/
u has the sound of u in ' flute/
ai has the vowel-sound in ' mine/
au has the vowel-sound in * house/

It should be stated that no attempt has been made to distinguish
between the long and short sounds of e and o in the Dravidian
languages, which possess the vowel-sounds in ' bet ' and * hot ' in
addition to those given above. Nor has it been thought necessary
to mark vowels as long in cases where mistakes in pronunciation
were not likely to be made.

Consonants

Most Indian languages have different forms for a number of con-
sonants, such as d y /, r, &c., marked in scientific works by the use
of dots or italics. As the European ear distinguishes these with
difficulty in ordinary pronunciation, it has been considered undesir-
able to embarrass the reader with them ; and only two notes are
required. In the first place, the Arabic , a strong guttural, has
been represented by k instead of ^, which is often used. Secondly,
it should be remarked that aspirated consonants are common ; and,
in particular, dh and / (except in Burma) never have the sound of
th in ' this ' or ( thin/ but should be pronounced as in * woodhouse '
and 'boathook.'

iv INTRODUCTORY NOTES

Burmese Words

Burmese and some of the languages on the frontier of China have
the following special sounds :

aw has the vowel-sound in ' law.'
6 and ii are pronounced as in German,
gy is pronounced almost like j in c jewel.'
ky is pronounced almost like ch in ' church.'
th is pronounced in some cases as in * this,' in some cases as in

'thin/

w after a consonant has the force of ?//. Thus, ywa and pwe
are disyllables, pronounced as if written yuwa zxi&puwe.

It should also be noted that, whereas in Indian words the accent
or stress is distributed almost equally on each syllable, in Burmese
there is a tendency to throw special stress on the last syllable.

General

The names of some places e.g. Calcutta, Bombay, Lucknow,
Cawnpore have obtained a popular fixity of spelling, while special
forms have been officially prescribed for others. Names of persons
are often spelt and pronounced differently in different parts of India ;
but the variations have been made as few as possible by assimilating
forms almost alike, especially where a particular spelling has been
generally adopted in English books.

NOTES ON MONEY, PRICES, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

As the currency of India is based upon the rupee, all statements
with regard to money throughout the Gazetteer have necessarily been
expressed in rupees, nor has it been found possible to add generally
a conversion into sterling. Down to about 1873 the gold value of
the rupee (containing 165 grains of pure silver) was approximately
equal to 2S., or one-tenth of a ; and for that period it is easy to
convert rupees into sterling by striking off the final cipher (Rs. 1,000
= 100). But after 1873, owing to the depreciation of silver as
compared with gold throughout the world, there came a serious and
progressive fall in the exchange, until at one time the gold value of
the rupee dropped as low as is. In order to provide a remedy for
the heavy loss caused to the Government of India in respect of its
gold payments to be made in England, and also to relieve foreign
trade and finance from the inconvenience due to constant and
unforeseen fluctuations in exchange, it was resolved in 1893 to close
the mints to the free coinage of silver, and thus force up the value of
the rupee by restricting the circulation. The intention was to raise

INTRO D UCTOR Y NO TES v

the exchange value of the rupee to is. 4^., and then introduce a gold
standard (though not necessarily a gold currency) at the rate of Rs. 15
= i. This policy has been completely successful. From 1899 on-
wards the value of the rupee has been maintained, with insignificant
fluctuations, at the proposed rate of is. 4^. ; and consequently since
that date three rupees have been equivalent to two rupees before 1873.
For the intermediate period, between 1873 and 1899, it is manifestly
impossible to adopt any fixed sterling value for a constantly changing
rupee. But since 1899, if it is desired to convert rupees into sterling,
not only must the final cipher be struck off (as before 1873), DUt
also one-third must be subtracted from the result. Thus Rs. 1,000
= 100 - = (about) 67.

Another matter in connexion with the expression of money state-
ments in terms of rupees requires to be explained. The method of
numerical notation in India differs from that which prevails through-
out Europe. Large numbers are not punctuated in hundreds of thou-
sands and millions, but in lakhs and crores. A lakh is one hundred
thousand (written out as 1,00,000), and a crore is one hundred lakhs
or ten millions (written out as 1,00,00,000). Consequently, accord-
ing to the exchange value of the rupee, a lakh of rupees (Rs. 1,00,000)
may be read as the equivalent of 10,000 before 1873, and as the
equivalent of (about) 6,667 after 1899 ; while a crore of rupees
(Rs. 1,00,00,000) may similarly be read as the equivalent of
1,000,000 before 1873, and as the equivalent of (about) 666,667
after 1899.

Finally, it should be mentioned that the rupee is divided into
1 6 annas, a fraction commonly used for many purposes by both
natives and Europeans. The anna was formerly reckoned as i\d. ,
it may now be considered as exactly corresponding to id. The
anna is again subdivided into 12 pies.

The various systems of weights used in India combine uniformity
of scale with immense variations in the weight of units. The scale
used generally throughout Northern India, and less commonly in
Madras and Bombay, may be thus expressed : one niaund = 40 seers ;
one seer = 16 chittaks or 80 tolas. The actual weight of a seer
varies greatly from District to District, and even from village to
village; but in the standard system the tola is 180 grains Troy
(the exact weight of the rupee), and the seer thus weighs 2*057 lb.,
and the maund 82-28 lb. This standard is used in official reports
and throughout the Gazetteer.

For calculating retail prices, the universal custom in India is to
express them in terms of seers to the rupee. Thus, when prices
change what varies is not the amount of money to be paid for the

vi INTRODUCTORY NOTES

same quantity, but the quantity to be obtained for the same amount
of money. In other words, prices in India are quantity prices, not
money prices. When the figure of quantity goes up, this of course
means that the price has gone down, which is at first sight perplexing
to an English reader. It may, however, be mentioned that quantity
prices are not altogether unknown in England, especially at small
shops, where pennyworths of many groceries can be bought. Eggs,
likewise, are commonly sold at a varying number for the shilling.
If it be desired to convert quantity prices from Indian into English
denominations without having recourse to money prices (which would
often be misleading), the following scale may be adopted based
upon the assumptions that a seer is exactly 2 lb., and that the value
of the rupee remains constant at is. 4^. : i seer per rupee = (about)
3 lb. for 2s. ; 2 seers per rupee = (about) 6 lb. for 2s. ; and so on.

The name of the unit for square measurement in India generally
is the bigha^ which varies greatly in different parts of the country.
But areas have always been expressed throughout the Gazetteer either
in square miles or in acres.

MAP

PUNJAB to face p. 394

IMPERIAL GAZETTEER
OF INDIA

VOLUME XX

Pardi Taluka. Southernmost laluka of JSurat District, Bombay,
lying between 2?o 17' and 20 32' N. and 72 50' and 73 7' E., with
an area of 163 square miles. It contains one town, PARDI (population,
5,483), the head-quarters; and 81 villages. The population in 190 1
was 61,691, compared with 58,245 in 1891. Land revenue and cesses
in 1903-4 amounted to nearly \\ lakhs. The taluka adjoins the
Portuguese territory of Daman, and is for the most part an undulating
plain sloping westwards to the sea. The fields are, as a rule, unenclosed.
Pardi is divided into an infertile and a fertile region by the Kolak
river. Its climate has a bad reputation. The annual rainfall, averaging
72 inches, is the heaviest in the District.

Pardi Town. Head-quarters of the taluka of the same name in
Surat District, Bombay, situated in 20 31' N. and 72 57' E., on the
Bombay, Baroda, and Central India Railway. Population (1901),
5,483. The town contains a dispensary and three schools, two (in-
cluding an English school) for boys and one for girls, attended
respectively by 230 and 94 pupils.

Parenda Taluk. Crown taluk in the wes>t of Osmanabad District,
Hyderabad State, with an area of 501 square miles. The population
in 1901, including jdglrs^ was 59,685, compared with 71,860 in 1891,
the decrease being due to the famine of 1900. The taluk contains
112 villages, of which 6 are / agir, and PARKNDA (population, 3,655)
is the head-quarters. The land revenue in 1901 amounted to i8 lakhs.
The soil is chiefly regar or black cotton soil.

Parenda Village. Head-quarters of the taluk of the same name
in Osmanabad District, Hyderabad State, situated in 18 16' N. and
75 2j' E. Population (1901), 3,655. The fort, erected by Mahmud
Gavan, the celebrated Bahmani minister, contains several large guns
mounted on bastions. Parenda was the capital of the Nizam Shahis
for a short time after the capture of Ahmadnagar by the Mughals in
1605. It was besieged unsuccessfully by Shah Jahan's general in 1630.
It was, however, reduced by Aurangzeb during his viceroyalty of the

2 PA REND A VILLAGE

Deccan. The fortifications are in good order, but the old town is in
ruins. Numerous ruins in the neighbourhood and the fort testify to
the former populousness of the place. It now possesses a tahsll and
police inspector's office, a custom station, a school, and a taluk post
office. - -

Parganas, The Twenty-four.- District in Bengal. Sec TWKNTY-
FOUR PARGANAS.

Parghat. Old pass or loutc across the Western Ghats in Bombay,
leading from Satara District to Kolaba. Two village*, Par Par or Par
Proper and Pet Par, situated 5 miles west of Mahabaleshwar and
immediately south of Pratapgarh, give their name to and mark this old
route into the Konkan, which goes straight over the hill below Bombay
Point, and winds up a very steep incline vsith so man) curves that it
was named by the British the Corkscresv Pass. Passing through the
two Pars, the farther line of the Western Ghats is descended by an
equally steep path to the village of Parghat in Kolaba District. This
route was maintained practicable for cattle and the artillery of the
period from very early times, and toll stations for the levy of transit
duties as well as for defence vsere stationed at various points. Afzal
Khan, the Muhammad^n general of the Sultan of Bijapur, brought his
forces by this pass to the famous interview at Pratapgarh, where he was
murdered by Sivajl. Until the building of the Kumbharli road in 1864
and the Fitzgerald Pass road in 1876, the Parghat was the only highway
leading from Satara to the Konkan.

Pargi. Taluk in Mahbubnagar District, Hyderabad State, with an
area of 220 square miles. The population in 1901, including jdglrs^
was 31,425, compared with 22,008 in 1891. It contains 71 villages,
of which 22 areyV??/'. Pargi (population, 2,361) is the head-quarters.
The land revenue in 1901 was Rs. 48,000. In 1905 this taluk was
enlarged by the addition of villages from the Koilkonda and Jedcherla
taluks, and now contains 114 khalsa villages.

Parichhatgarh. -Toun in the Mawana tahsll of Meerut District,
United Provinces, situated in 28 59' N. and 77 57' h., 14 miles east
of Meerut city. Population (1901), 6,278. The fort round which the
town is built lays claim to great antiquity ; tradition ascribes its con
struction to Parlkhshit, grandson of Arjuna, one of the five Pandava
brethren in the Mahabharata, to whom is also attributed the foundation
of the town. The fort was restored by Raja Nain Singh on the rise of
Gujar power in the eighteenth century. It was dismantled in, 1857,
and is now used as a police station. The town is administered under
Act XX of 1856, with an income of about Rs. 1,700. The trade is
local. There are branches of the Church Missionary Society and the
American Methodist Mission, and two primary schools.

Parkal. T&luk in Karimnagar District, Hyderabad State, with an

PARLAKIMEDI ESTATE 3

area of 654 square miles. The population in 1901, including jdgirs, was
84,228, compared with 74,048 in 1891. The taluk contains 117 villages,
of which 5 axe jdglr \ and Ambal (population, 1,849) * s tne head-
quarters. The land revenue in 1901 was 3*1 lakhs. Rice is extensively
laised by tank-irrigation.

Parlakimedi Estate. The largest permanently settled impartible
estate in Ganjam District, Madras, lying in the west of the District,
with an area of 614 square miles, and a population (1901) of 256,414.
In 1903 \hv peshkash and ceases amounted to Rs. 1,05,900.

The Raja claims descent from the Orissa Gajapatis. The whole
Kimedi country, consisting of the present zamlndaris of Parlakimedi,
Peddakimedi, and Chinnakimedi, was under one ruler until 1607 : but
in that year the Kimedi Raja allotted Peddakimedi and Chinnakimedi
to his younger son, whose descendants subsequently divided them
into the two existing zamlndaris of those names. The British first
came into contact with the Parlakimedi family in 1768, when Colonel
Peach led a detachment against Narayana Deo, the zamtnddr, and
defeated him at Jalmur. In 1799 the Company temporarily assumed
control of the estate for breach of an engagement. Restored to the
family, this difficult country was the scene of continued disturbances
for many years. In 1816 it was ravaged by Pindaris; in 1819 it was
found necessary to send a Special Commissioner, Mr. Thackeray, to
quell a rising in it ; while in 1833 a field f rce wab sent under General
Taylor, and peace was not finally restored till 1835. No further
disturbance took place for twenty years, but in 1856-7 the employment
of a small body of troops was again necessary to restore order.

The estate was under the management of the Court of Wards from
1830 to 1890, owing to the incapacity of two successive Rajas. When
the estate was taken under management there was no money in hand
and the fcshkash was heavily in arrear. During the management
considerable improxement was effected in its condition, a survey and
settlement being made, good roads constructed, sources of irrigation
improved at a cost of 29 lakhs, and cultivation greatly extended ; the
income rose from Rs. 1,40,000 to Rs. 3,86,000, and the cash balance
in 1890 amounted to nearly 30 lakhs. The Raja who then succeeded
has recently died, and the estate is again under the management of
the Court.

Parlakimedi is singularly favoured by nature, the soil being fertile
and 'irrigation available from the Vamsadhara and Mahendratanaya
rivers, a channel from the latter, and many large tanks. The lands are
lightly assessed, and the ryots are much better off than in the other
zamlndaris of the District.

There are 120 miles of metalled road in the estate. A light railway
of 2 feet 6 inches gauge, 25 miles in length, was constructed by the

4 PARLAKIMEDI ESTATE

late Raja at a cost of 7 lakhs from Naupada, a station on the East
Coast Railway, to PARLAKIMEDI, the chief town of the zamlnddri.
This is the first work of the kind undertaken by a private individual
in Southern India. Besides its capital, the chief places in the estate
are MUKHALINGAM, a place of pilgrimage, and Patapatnam, Battili, and
Hiramandalam, which are centres of trade.

Parlakimedi Tahsil. Westernmost zamlnddri tahsll in Ganjam
District, Madras, lying between 1 8 31' and 19 6' N. and 83 49' and
84 25' E., with an area of 972 square miles. The population in 1901
was 311,534, compared with 304,359 in 1891. The tahsll contains
one town, PARLAKIMEUI (population, 17,336), the head-quarters; and
1,015 villages. The demand for land revenue and cesses in 1903-4
was Rs. i, 1 6,000. The tahsll consists of the PARLAKIMEDI ESTATE,
which is described separately, and the Parlakimedi Maliahs. The
latter are attached to the estate and are chiefly inhabited by Savaras.
They have an area of 358 square miles, and contained a population
in 1901 of 55,120, compared with 52,302 in 1891. They consist of the
forts (as the head-quarters villages are termed) and muttahs (groups of
villages) of the ten Bissoyis, or hill chiefs. Of their 348 villages, 122
are situated below the Ghats and the rest above. In 1894 the Raja
of Parlakimedi brought a suit in the Agent's court to obtain possession
of these Maliahs and won his case. On appeal it was held by the
High Court that he had no right to any portion of them. A further
appeal to the Privy Council wab dismissed, and the Government has
ordered the introduction of a ryotovdri settlement in the 122 villages
below the Ghats. The Bissoyis hold the muttahs as service inamdars,
on condition of keeping order in the hill tracts and maintaining
an establishment of sardars and paiks. The latter may be described
as the rank and file, and the former as the titular commanders of
a semi-military force which the Bissoyis employed in olden days to
overa\ve the Savaras, and to garrison posts at the passes as a check
upon their irruptions into the low country. The Bissoyis pay a quit-
rent called kattubadi, and this was included in the assets on which
the peshkash of the Parlakimedi zamlnddri was fixed. They collect
mdmuls (customary fees), which were settled and fixed in 1881, from
the Savaras. The Maliahs contain considerable forests, in which is
some good sal (Shorea robustd). The highest point in them is
Devagiri, 4,535 feet above the sea.

Parlakimedi Town. Chief place in the zamlnddri and taksll of
the same name in Ganjam District, Madras, situated in 18 47' N.
and 84 5' E., 25 miles from the Naupada station on the 'East Coast
Railway by the 2 ft. 6 in. railway which the late Raja constructed to
meet the main line there. The town stands in the midst of picturesque
scenery, being situated in an amphitheatre of hills with beautiful tanks

PAR LI TOWN 5

idjoining it. Its population is increasing rapidly, and in 1901 amounted
o 17,336. The chief buildings are the palace, constructed for the
Raja from designs by a former Government architect at a cost of
5 lakhs, and a second-grade college, maintained entirely by the Raj!,
ivhich has a hostel attached to it. In 1903-4 the college had an
iverage attendance of 488 students, of whom 40 were reading in the
P. A. classes. The Raja also maintains a girls' school and a resthouse
or native travellers. Parlakimedi was constituted a municipality in
1886. The municipal receipts and expenditure during the ten years
mding 1902-3 averaged Rs. 15,000 and Rs. 14,000 respectively. In
1903-4 they were Rs. 17,000. Most of the income is derived from
axes on houses and lands, and tolls. Fine mats, fancy baskets, flower-
>tands, cheroot-cases, &c., are made here from a species of reed. The
:hief trade is in rice.

Parli Fort (or Sajjangarh). Fort in the District and taluka of
Satara, Bombay, situated in 17 40' N. and 73 55' E., on a detached
>pur of the Western Ghats, about 6 miles west of Satara town, and
r,o45 f eet above the plain. Population (1901), 1,287. T ne f rt was
Duilt by one of the kings of Delhi in the thirteenth century. Parli
>vas the favourite residence of Ramdas Swami (i 608-81), the spiritual
*uide or guru of Sivaji (1627-80), who gave it to the Swami in indm.
The local tradition is that, if Sivaji in Satara required counsel from
Ramdas, the Swami reached Satara through the air in a single stride.
The temple of Ramdas is in the middle of the village, surrounded by
.he dwellings of his disciples. The temple of basalt with a brick-and-
nortar dome was built by Aka Bai and Divakar Gosavi, two disciples
jf the Swami. A yearly fair, attended by about 6,000 people, is held in
February. On the north-west of Parli village are two old Hemadpanti
emples. The existence of these makes it probable that a fort had
Deen constructed before Musalman times. It was subsequently occu-
pied by them, and surprised by a detachment of Sivaji's Mavalis in
May, 1673. A few days before his death in 1681 Ramdas Swami
addressed from Parli a judicious letter to SambhajT, advising him for
the future rather than upbraiding him for the past, and pointing out the
example of his father, yet carefully abstaining from personal comparison.
In 1699, when the Mughals were besieging Satara, Parshuram Trimbak
E'ratinidhi prolonged the siege by furnishing supplies from Parli. After
the capture of Satara in April, 1700, the Mughal army besieged Parli.
The siege lasted till the beginning of June, when the garrison evacuated
the fortress. Aurangzeb renamed it Naurastara. In a revenue state-
ment of abOut 1790 Parli appears as the head-quarters of a pargana
in the Nahisdurg sarkdr, with a revenue of Rs. 22,500. In 1818 it
was taken by a British regiment.

Parli Town. Town in the Amba taluk of Bhir District, Hyderabad

6 PARLI TOWN

State, situated in 18 51' N. and 76 33' E., 14 miles north-east of
Amba, at the foot of the spur of hills passing through the taluk.
Population (1901), 7,289. The temple of Baijnath, built on a hill to
the west of the town, is an important place of pilgrimage. Parli is
a centre of the cotton trade, and contains a ginning-mill employing
50 hands daily.

Parmagudi. Zamlnddri tahsil and town in Madura District,
Madras. See PARAMAGUDI.

Parner Taluka. Taluka in Ahmadnagar District, Bombay, lying
between 18 50' and 19 21' N. and 74 n' and 74 44' E., with an
area of 727 square miles. It contains 117 villages, including PARNLK
(population, 5,300), the head-quarters. The population in 1901 was
72,617, compared with 79,093 in 1891. The density, 100 persons per
square mile, is much below the District average. The demand for
land revenue in 1903-4 was 1-3 lakhs, and for cesses Rs. 10,000. The
surface of Parner is very irregular and hilly, consisting of a series of
plateaux of various heights. The highest is the Kanhur or central
plateau, formed by the widening out of the summit of one of the
spurs of the Western Ghats, which traverses the taluka from north-
west to south-east. The average height of the central plateau is about
2,800 feet above sea-level, though some points on it are 300 feet higher.
On the whole, the water-supply is fairly good. Many of the smaller
streams have a perennial flow.

Parner Village. Head-quarters of the taluka of the same name
in Ahmadnagar District, Bombay, situated in 19 N. and 74 26'
E., 20 miles south-west of Ahmadnagar city and 15 miles west of
Sarola station on the Dhond-Manmad Railway. Population (1901),
5,300. Parner contains numerous money-lenders, chiefly Marwaris,
with a bad name for greed and fraud. In 1874-7 disturbances arose
between the husbandmen and the money-lenders. The villagers placed
the money-lenders in a state of social outlawry, refusing to work for
them, to draw water, supply necessaries, or shave them. The watchful-
ness of the police saved Parner from a riot. Near the camping-place,
at the meeting of two small streams, is an old temple of Sangameshwar
or Trimbakeshwar. The village contains a Sub-Judge's court and
a dispensary.

Parnera Hill. Hill in Surat District, Bombay, situated in 20 34'
N. and 72 57' E., 4 miles south-east of Bulsar, and 120 miles north of
Bombay, rising to a height of about 500 feet above the plain. From
its commanding position the fortified summit has long been considered
a place of consequence. Originally a Hindu fort, it remained under
the Raja of Dharampur, till, about the end of the fifteenth century,
it was taken by Mahmud Begara, Sultan of Gujarat (1459-1511),
The fort remained for some time under the charge of Mubalman

PARON 7

commanders, but in the disorders that marked the close of the power
of the Ahmadabad kings it fell into the hands of a chief of banditti.
According to a Portuguese writer, Parnera was twice (in 1558 and 1568)
taken by expeditions from Daman, and on the second occasion the
fortifications were destroyed. After it had been in ruins for more than
a hundred years, the fort was, in April, 1676, taken and rebuilt by
Moro Pandit, one of Sivaji's generals. For about a century Parnera
remained under the Marathas. It was then (1780) taken by a detach-
ment of English troops under Lieutenant Welsh. At first, as a pro-
tection against the raids of Pindaris, the fort was occupied by a military
detachment ; but early in the nineteenth century the garrison was
removed, and during the Mutiny of 1857 the fort was dismantled.

Paro. Town in the State of Bhutan, situated in 27 23' N. and
89 27' E. Paro is the head-quarters of the Paro Penlop, the governor
of Western Bhutan.

Parola. Town in the Amalner tdluka of East Khandesh Dis-
trict, Bombay, situated in 20 53' N. and 75 7' K, 22 miles west of
Mhasvad on the Great Indian Peninsula Railway. Population (1901),
13,468. Parola has been a municipality since 1864, with an average
income during the decade ending 1901 of Rs. 8,700. In 1903-4 the
income was Rs. 9,800. It is said to have been raised by its proprietor,
Hari Sadashiv Damodar, from the position of a small village of fifty
houses to that of a walled town. He is also said to have built, about
1727, the spacious fort, one of the finest architectural remains of the
kind in Khandesh. It must have been at one time a very strong
place; it is surrounded by a moat, and the entrance was formerly
protected by a drawbridge and large flanking towers. During the
Mutiny in 1857, the proprietors proved disloyal, and their estate was
confiscated, the town being taken possession of by Government, and
the fort dismantled. A considerable trade is carried on in cattle,
cotton, lugdas (women's robes), and grain ; and the village of Mhasva,
2 miles distant, is famous for gte. The town contains two cotton-gins,
a cotton-press, a dispensary, and five schools, with 620 pupils, of
which one, with 54 pupils, is for girls. Four miles south-west is a
handsome temple of Mahadeo on an island in the Bori river.

Paron (or Narwar). Mediatized chiefship in the Central India
Agency, under the Resident at Gwalior. It is a minor State, about
60 square miles in area, surrounding the village of Paron.

Though the holder is of very ancient family, being descended
from the KachwSha clan, of which the Maharaja of Jaipur is now the
principal representative, the present holding has only existed since
1818, the chiefs ancestor having been driven from Narwar in the
beginning of the nineteenth century by Daulat Rao Sindhia. In
1818, through the mediation of the Resident at Gwalior, the present

8 PARON

estate of Paron was granted to Madho Singh under the British guar-
antee, on the condition that he disbanded his army and ceased from
plundering. When the Mutiny broke out in 1857, Man Singh, nephew
and successor of Madho Singh, joined the rebels. His fort was as-
saulted and he was forced to fly. Seeing the turn events were taking,
he surrendered in 1859, and was reinstated in his possessions. Later
on he undertook to secure the rebel Tantia Topi, the Nana Sahib's
agent, who was then wandering in these districts. After handing
over Tantia TopT, an annuity of Rs. 1,000 was granted to him and his
heirs in perpetuity. On his death on December 31, 1882, the Gwalior
Darbar contended that the guarantee should lapse, owing to the chiefs
defection in 1857, a view which the Government of India declined to
accept, and the succession was continued to his son, Gajendra Singh.
The present holder is Raja Mahendra Singh, who was born in 1892,
and succeeded in 1899, the State being administered by a Kamdar
under the direct supervision of the Resident at Gwalior. The chief
bears the title of Raja. The population has been : (1881) 7,328, (1891)
7,984, and (1901) 5,557. Hindus number 4,562, or 82 per cent. ; and
Animists, 891, chiefly Saharias and Mlnas. Of the total population,
only i per cent, are literate. There are thirty-one villages, of which
Munderl (population, 1,165) is the largest, though not that from
which the State takes its name. The head-quarters of the present
administration are situated in this place, and a school and a dispensary
have been opened there.

Of the total area, 16 square miles are under cultivation, of which one
square mile is irrigated ; of the uncultivated area, 24 square miles are
capable of cultivation. Good crops of all ordinary grains and poppy
are grown. The total revenue is Rs. 25,000, of which Rs. 18,500
is derived from the land.

Parsoli. Chief place in an estate of the same name in the State
of Udaipur, Rajputana, situated in 25 7' N. and 74 53' E., about
84 miles north-east of Udaipur city. Population (1901), 831. The
estate consists of 40 villages, and is held by a first-class noble of
Mewar, who is termed Rao and is a Chauhan Rajput descended from
the BEDLA family. The income is about Rs. 20,000, and a tribute
of Rs. 740 is paid to the Darbar.

Partabgarh State (Pratapgarfy.Stete in the south of Rajput-
ana, lying between 23 32' and 24 18' N. and 74 29' and 75 E., with
an area of 886 square miles. It is bounded on the north and north-
west by Udaipur ; on the west and south-west by Banswara ; on
the south by Ratlam ; and on the east by Jaora, Sindhia's districts
of Mandasor and Nimach, and a detached portion of the Rampura-
BhSnpura district of Indore. The greater portion of the State consists
of fine open land ; but the north-west is wild, rocky, and hilly, and

PARTABGARH STATE 9

a range, which in places attains an elevation of 1,900 feet, forms the

entire western boundary. There are no rivers of any importance ;

the Jakam, which is the largest, rises near ChhotI

Sadri in Udaipur, flows through the north-west of the a o c t

State, and eventually falls into the Som, a tributary

of the Mahl.

A large proportion of Partabgarh is covered with Deccan trap, the
denudation of which has exposed underlying areas of older rocks
belonging to the Delhi system, such as shales, quartzites, and lime-
stones, which in the west rest unconformably upon gneiss.

In addition to the usual antelope, gazelle, and small game, tigers,
leopards, bears, sambar (Cervus unicolor\ and chltal (C. axis) are to
be found along the western border.

The climate is generally good and the temperature moderate. The
annual rainfall, measured at the capital, averages a little over 34 inches.
More than 63 inches fell in 1893, and less than n in 1899.

The territory was formerly called the Kanthal, meaning the * border '
or Boundary' (kantha) between Malwa and Gujarat. The northern
portion was inhabited by Bhlls and the rest by
various Rajput clans, such as the Sonigaras (a
branch of the Chauhans) and the Dors or Dodas. The founder of
the State was one Blka, a descendant of Rana Mokal of Mewar, who
left his estates of Sadri and Dariawad in 1553, proceeded south 5
and subdued the aboriginal tribes. In 1561 he founded the town
of DEOLIA or Deogarh, naming it after a female chieftain called Devi
Mini, and subsequently he overpowered the Rajputs living farther
to the south and east. About sixty-five years later, one of his suc-
cessors, Jaswant Singh, being considered dangerously powerful, was
invited to Udaipur and treacherously murdered with his eldest son
in the Champa Bagh, whereupon the Kanthal was occupied by
Mewar troops. Jaswant Singh's second son, Hari Singh, proceeded
to Delhi about 1634, where, partly by the interest of Mahabat Khan,
Jahanglr's great general, and partly by his own skill and address, he
got himself recognized as an independent chief by the emperor Shah
Jahan on payment of a tribute of Rs. 15,000 a year. He also received
the rank of Haft hazari, or ' commander of 7,000,' and the title of
Rawat or, as some say, Maharawat. On his return the Mewar garri-
son was expelled with the help of the imperial forces, and the whole
countty brought under subjection. Hari Singh's son, Pratap Singh, who
succeeded in 1674, founded the town of Partabgarh in 1698 ; and from
it the State'now takes its name, though some of the people still use the
older name Kanthal, or, uniting the names of the former and the
present capitals, cafl the State Deolia-Partabgarh. As recently as
1869 the chief was described in an extradition treaty then ratified as

PARTABGARH STATE

the * Rajah of Dowleah and Partahgurh.' In the time of Sawant Singh
(1775-1844) the country was overrun by the Marathas, and the Maha-
rawat only saved his State by agreeing to pay Holkar a tribute of
Salim shdhi Rs. 72,720, in lieu of Rs. 15,000 formerly paid to Delhi.
The first connexion of the State with the British Government was in
1804; but the treaty then entered into was subsequently cancelled by
Lord Cornwallis, and a fresh treaty, by which the State was taken
under protection, was made in 1818. The tribute to Holkar is paid
through the British Government, and in 1904 was converted to
Rs. 36,360 British currency.

The chiefs subsequent to Sawant Singh have been Dalpat Singh
(1844-64), Udai Singh (1864-90), and Raghunath Singh, who was
born in 1859, succeeded by adoption in 1890, and was installed with
full powers in 1891. He bears the titles of His Highness and Maha-
rawat, and receives a salute of T 5 guns.

Among places of archaeological interest are Janagarh, TO miles
south-west of the capital, with its old fort, in which some Mughal
prince is said to have resided, and the remains of a mosque, bath,
and stables ; Shevna, 2 miles cast of Salimgarh, which tradition says
was the capital, Shivnagri, of a large state, and which must have been
a fine city. Besides a fort it contains several temples, one of which,
dedicated to Siva, is beautifully carved. At Virpur, near Sohagpura, is
a Jain temple said to be 2,000 years old, and old temples also exist
at Bordia, 20 miles south of the capital, and at Ninor in the south-
east ; but none of these places has been professionally examined.

The number of towns and villages in the State is 413, and the popu-
lation at each Census has been: (1881) 79,568, (1891) 87,975, and
(1901) 52,025. The decrease of nearly 41 per cent, at

Population. t ^ e | ast enumera tion was due partly to the famine of
1899-1900, followed by a disastrous type of fever, and partly, it is
believed, to an exaggerated estimate of the Bhlls in 1891. The State
is divided into the three "Alas or districts of Partabgarh, Magra, and
Sagthali, as shown below :

Number of

Number able

Towns.

Villages.

write.

Magra
Partabgarh

97
'44

32^66

1 08
1,666

; Sagthali .

...

171

'4.013

414

j State total

412

5V>2 5

2,188

The only town is PARTABGARH, the capital. Mpre than 61 per cent,
of the people are Hindus, 22 per cent, are Animist Bhlls, and
9 per cent, are Jains. The language mainly spoken is Malwl or

TRADE AND COMMUNICATIONS ii

Rangri. By far the most numerous tribe is that of the BHILS, the
original inhabitants of the country, who in 1901 numbered 11,500.
Next come the Mahajans (5,600), the Brahmans (3,200), the Rajputs
(3,200), the Kumhars (3,000), and the Chamars (2,600). About
51 per cent, of the population are dependent on agriculture.

The north-west (the Magra district) is hilly and stony, and here
maize is almost the only product; elsewhere the soil is excellent,
being mostly black intermixed with a reddish-brown .

loam. The principal crops arc wheat, sugar-cane,
maize, jowar^ gram, and barley. Poppy is extensively cultivated.
The Bhlls largely practise the destructive form of shifting cultivation
known as walar, which is described in the article on BANSWARA
STATE.

Irrigation is mainly from wells, of which more than 2,000 are worked
in the khalsa portion of the State; there are nine irrigation tanks,
but they arc old and out of repair, and the area watered from them
is insignificant.

The hilly portions of the State are fairly well wooded, teak, black-
wood, ptpal (Ficus religiosd), and babul (Acacia arabica) being fre-
quently met with, while the south produces sandal-trees, which are
a State monopoly. There is no systematic forest conservancy, and
the Bhlls burn the jungle for purposes of sport or agriculture practi-
cally unchecked.

Manufactures are unimportant, the products consisting only of coarse
cotton fabrics, black woollen blankets, and a little
enamel work of gold on glass, the latter being
confined to a few families at the capital.

The principal exports are grain and opium, and the imports are
cotton cloth and salt. The trade is mostly with Bombay. During
the eight years ending 1900 the average number of chests of opium
exported was 629, worth about 3 lakhs, and the export duty levied
by the Darbar averaged Rs. 7,700. In 1901 this duty was raised
from Salim shahi Rs. 27 to British Rs. 27 per chest of i| maunds,
and the 532^ chests exported in 1903-4 paid a duty of more than
Rs. 14,000. Salt is obtained from Sambhar, about seven to eight
thousand maunds being imported annually.

There is no railway in the State, the nearest station being Mandasor
on the Rajputana-Malwa line, 20 miles from Partabgarh town by a
metailecj road which was constructed in 1894, and of which 13 miles
lie in Partabgarh territory. With this exception and a few streets at
the capital, the communications are mere country tracks. Two British
post offices and one telegraph office are maintained, and the State
has no local postal system.

Partabgarh is less liable to famine than most of the States of

VOL. XX. B

12 PARTABGARH STATE

Rajputana, but in 1899-1900 the rainfall was less than one-third of

the average and both harvests failed. The system of relief was ade-

. quate and efficient, and the extent of the operations

was limited only by the financial resources of the

State. Practically no land revenue was collected; more than 727,000

units were relieved on works and nearly 100,000 gratuitously in villages

and poorhouses. Including advances to agriculturists and remissions

and suspensions of land revenue, the famine cost the State about

1-7 lakhs, and one-third of the cattle perished.

The State is governed by the Maharawat with the help of a Kamdar

. . . . or minister and, in judicial matters, of a committee

Administration. , . , \ . , , ->_. ' , , . ~ , r

of eleven members styled the Raj Sabha. Each of

the three districts is under a hakim.

In the administration of justice the courts are guided generally by
the Codes of British India. The lowest courtb are those of the hakims^
two of whom (at Partabgarh and Sagthali) arc second-class magis-
trates, and can decide civil suits the value of which does not exceed
Rs. 500, while the third (in Magra) is a third-class magistrate and can
decide civil suits up to a value of Rs. 250. The Sadr Criminal and
Civil Court, besides hearing appeals against the decisions of hakims^
takes up cases beyond their powers, the presiding officer being a first-
class magistrate with jurisdiction in civil suits up to a value of
Rs. 1,000. The highest court of the State i.s the Raj Sabha; it can
punish with a fine of Rs. 2,000, five year&' imprisonment, and two
dozen stripes, and decide civil suits not exceeding Rs. 3,000 in value,
while it hears appeals against the decisions of the Sadr Court. When
presided over by the chief, its powers aie absolute. The principal
nobles have limited jurisdiction in their own estates over their own
people ; in criminal cases they can award six months' imprisonment
and Rs. 300 fine, while on the civil side they decide suits the value
of which does not exceed Rs. 1,000. Cases beyond their powers
go before the Raj Sabha.

. The normal revenue of the State, excluding income from land*
alienated to Rajputs, Brahmans, temples, &c., is about 1-7 lakhs,
of which one lakh is derived from the land, Rs. 40,000 from customs,
and Rs. 20,000 as tribute from jdgirddrs. The normal expenditure
is about i -4 lakhs, the main items being privy purse (Rs. 40,000),
tribute (Rs. 36,360), cost of administration (Rs. 33,500), and army
and police (Rs. 24,000). The State is in debt to Government to
the extent of about 6| lakhs, and the finances have consequently
since 1901 been under the control of the Resident in Mtwar.

According to the local account a mint was established at the capital
early in the eighteenth century, but the storjr is improbable. The
coins struck there have for a long time been commonly called Sdlim

ADMINISTRATION 13

skate, the name being derived from that of Salim Singh, the ruler
of Partabgarh from 1758 to 1775, or possibly a contraction of Shah
Alam II, who is said to have confirmed the right of coining. The
local rupee was formerly worth from 12 to 13 British annas, but
in January, 1903, it exchanged for about 7 annas only. It was con-
sequently decided to replace the local currency in 1904 by British
coin ; but as the actual market rate of exchange during the period
of conversion was more favourable to holders of the Partabgarh rupee
than the rate fixed on the average of the previous six months, no coins
were tendered for conversion. The Salim shdhi currency is, however,
no longer legal tender in the State, and the Partabgarh mint has been
closed in perpetuity.

There are three kinds of land tenures in the State : namely, khalsa,
chdkrdna^ and dfiarmada. Khalsa land is the property of the State
and is leased generally on the ryotwdri system, there being few inter-
mediate zamlnddrs. The lessees can neither sell nor mortgage, but,
on the other hand, they are never, without sufficient reason, deprived
of their holdings, which usually descend from father to son. Chdkrdna
lands are those granted to Rajputs and officials for work performed,
and are held on the usual tenure of service and tribute. Lands
granted to Brahmans, temples, Charans, and Bhats are called dhar-
mdda \ they are held rent free, but neither they nor chdkrAna lands
can be mortgaged or sold.

A rough settlement was made in 1875, when leases were granted
for ten years, but the people were opposed to a settlement of any
kind, and it has since been customary to grant annual leases. Regular
settlement operations are, however, in progress, which were to be
finished by the end of 1906. The current assessment per acre
varies from 8 annas to Rs. 1-8 for 'dry' land and from Rs. 2-8 to
Rs. 1 7-8 for ' wet ' land, and the revenue is collected mostly in cash.

The military force consists of 13 gunners, 22 cavalry, and 76
infantry, with 19 unserviceable guns; while the police force numbers
170 of all ranks, including 6 mounted men. The jail has accom-
modation for 23 males and 17 females, the average daily number
of prisoners in 1904 being 33. A new jail is under construction.

Education is at a low ebb, only 4 per cent, of the population
(8-3 males and about o-i females) being able to read and write.
In 1901 there was but one regular school, attended by 194 pupils,
or less*than 3 per cent, of the population of school-going age, while
the total expenditure on education was Rs. 600. The daily average
attendance aft this school fell in 1903 to 98. Recently two more
schools have been started : namely, a nobles' school at the capital
for the sons of Th&kurs and of people of means, and a small
vernacular school at Deolia. The daily average attendance at these

B 2

14 PARTABGARH STATE

institutions in 1904 was, respectively, 30 and 14, and the total
expenditure on education was Rs. 2,650.

The State possesses one hospital, with accommodation for 4 in-
patients, and one dispensary. In 1904 the number of cases treated
was 9,311, of whom 16 were in-patients, and 643 operations were
performed. The cost of these institutions, about Rs. 1,900, was
borne entirely by the State.

Vaccination is very backward. Only one vaccinator is employed,
and in 1904-5 the number of person* successfully vaccinated was
244, or about 4 per 1,000 of the population.

\Rajputixna Gazetteer, vol. iii (1880, under revision).]

Partabgarh Town (Pratapgarh) (i). Capital of the State and the
head-quarters of the district of the same name in Raj pu tana, situated
in 24 2' N. and 74 47' E., twenty miles by metalled road west of
Mandasor station on the Rajputana-Malwa Railway. The popula-
tion in 1901 numbered 9,819, of whom 52 pur cent, were Hindus,
27 per cent. Jains, and 20 per cent. Musalmans. The town, which
was founded by, and named after, Maharawat Pratap Singh in 1698,
lies i, 660 feet above sea-level, in a hollow formerly known as Doderia-
ka-khera. It is defended by a loopholed wall with eight gates built
by Maharawat Salim Singh about 1758, and on the south-west
is a small fort in which the chiefs family occasionally reside. The
palace, which is in the centre of the town, contains the State offices
and courts ; and outside the town are two bungalows, one used by
the chief and the other as a guest-house. Partabgarh used to be
somewhat famous for its enamelled work of gold inlaid on emerald-
coloured glass and engraved to represent hunting and mythological
scenes. The art of making this jewellery is said to be confined
to five families, and the secret is zealously guarded. In the town
are eleven Jain and nine Hindu temples, a combined post and tele-
graph office, a small jail which has accommodation for 40 prisoners
and is generally overcrowded, an Anglo-vernacular middle school
for boys (daily average attendance 98 in 1904), a school for the
sons of the wealthier classes (daily average attendance 30 in 1904),
and a hospital called the Raghunath Hospital after the present chief,
which was built in 1 893 and has accommodation for 4 in-patients.

Partabgarh District (Pra(apgar/i). - Southern District of the
Fyzabdd Division, United Provinces, lying between 25 34' and
26 21' N. and 81 19' and 82 27' E., with an area of 1,443- square
miles. It is bounded on the north by Rae Bareli and Sultanpur ; on
the east and south-east by Jaunpur ; on the south by ARahabad ; and
on the west by Allahabad and Kae Bareli. Portions of the District
are enclosed in Jaunpur and Allahabad, and some villages of Allahabad
form enclaves within Partabgarh. The general aspect is that of a richly

PARTABGARH DISTRICT 15

wooded and fertile plain, here and there relieved by gentle undulations,
and broken into ravines in the vicinity of the rivers and streams. The
southern portion is perhaps more densely wooded
than other parts. Barren tracts of uncultivable land
impregnated with saline efflorescence (reh) are met
with in places, but do not extend over any considerable area. For
the most part, Partabgarh is under rich and varied crops, dotted with
many villages and hamlets, which are surrounded by fine groves of
mango, mahua, or other trees.

The Ganges forms part of the southern boundary, and the Gumtl
touches the north-east corner of the District. The chief river is,
however, the Sai, which enters Partabgarh from Rae Barell, and after
an exceedingly tortuous south-easterly course falls into the Gumti in
Jaunpur. This river runs chiefly between high banks, broken by deep
ravines, at a considerable depth below the level of the surrounding
country. It is navigable during the rains, when it swells into a con-
siderable stream ; but in the hot season it runs nearly dry. It receives
a number of tributary rivulets, but none of importance. The District
contains many tanks and swamps, some of which in the rains measure
several miles in circumference.

Partabgarh is entirely composed of alluvium, and kankar or nodular
limestone is the only rocky formation.

Small patches of jungle land occur in many parts, chiefly covered
with dhak (Bittea frondosa). The babul (Acacia arabicd) grows in the
ravines, and the usual varieties of fig and other trees are scattered
about the District. Groves of mango and mahud (Bassia fatifolid) are
exceptionally numerous and large, one of them covering an area of
80 acres.

Wild animals are not numerous, owing to the closeness of cultiva-
tion. Wolves are fairly common in the ravines and broken land, and
wild hog and a few nilgai are found in the tamarisk jungle along the
(ranges. Jackals and foxes occur in all parts. Wild-fowl are un-
usually scarce, though in the cold season geese and duck visit the
large sheets of water. Both rivers and tanks abound in fish.

The climate is dry and healthy. The mean monthly temperature
ranges from about 60 in December and January to 92 in May.

Over the whole District the annual rainfall averages 38 inches,
evenly distributed. Considerable fluctuations occur from year to year,
and th^fall has varied from 19 inches in 1877 to 75 in 1894.

Tradition connects most of the ancient sites in the District with
the Bhars ; but some of them certainly date from the Buddhist period.
Legend ascribes the foundation of Manikpur on the
Ganges to one Manadeva, son of a mythical Baldeva IS ry *

of Kanauj, and its change of name to Manik Chand, brother of the

1 6 PARTABGARH DISTRICT

great Jni ("hand. The Khars were displaced by the Somavansis from
JHUSI, and other Rajput clans spread over the District. In the
eleventh century the warrior saint of Islam, Saiyid Salar, defeated
the Hindu princes of Manikpur and Kara, but Muhammadan rule was
not established till the defeat of Jai Chand by Muhammad Ghorl.
Manikpur and Kara on the opposite bank of the Ganges were im-
portant seats of government in the early Muhammadan period.
Ala-ud-dfn Khilji was governor here, before he gained the throne of
Delhi by murdering his uncle on the sands of the river between these
two places. In the fifteenth century the District came under the rule
of the Shark! kings of Jaunpur, and after its restoration to Delhi the
Rajput chiefs and the Muhammadan governors were frequently in
revolt. The Afghans long retained their hold on the District, and
early in the reign of Akbar the governor of Manikpur rebelled.
Manikpur lost its importance when Allahabad became the capital of
a Province, and from that time it was merely the chief town of a
sarkdr. The Rajputs again rose during the anarchy which marked the
disruption of the empire after the death of Aurangzeb. They were,
however, gradually reduced by the Nawabs of Oudh, and in 1759
Manikpur was removed from the Sufrah of Allahabad and added to
Oudh. The later history of the District is a record of constant
fighting between the officials of Oudh and the Rajput chiefs. At
annexation in 1856 the eastern part of the District was included in
Sultanpur, while the west formed part of Salon (see RAE BARELI
DISTRICT). A new District was in process of formation when the
Mutiny broke out. Raja Hanwant Singh of Kcalakankar escorted the
fugitives from Salon to Allahabad, and then turned rebel. With few
exceptions all the large landholders joined the mutineers, and the
District relapsed into a state of anarchy. Troops advanced in July,
1858, but the campaign was checked by the rains, and it was not till
November that British rule was re-established. On November r, 1858,
the proclamation of the Queen, assuming the government of the
country, was read to the army by Lord Clyde at Partabgarh town.
The area of the District then formed was altered in 1869 by the
transfer of territory to Rae Bareli.

Only one or two of the ancient sites which are found in many parts
have been excavated 1 . The chief memorials of Muhammadan rule
are at Manikpur, where the vast mound of the ancient fort still rises
high above the Ganges, and a number of ruined mosques and palaces
dating from the reigns of Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan attest the
former importance of what is now a mere village.

Partabgarh contains 4 towns and 2,167 villages. The population
has increased considerably during the last thirty years. The numbers
1 Cunningham, Archaeological Survey Reports, vol. xi, pp. 63 and 70.

AGRICULTURE

Population.

at the four enumerations were as follows: (1869) 782,681, (1881)
847,047, (1891) 910,895, and (1901) 912,848. There are three tahslls
PARTABGARH, KUNDA, and PATH the head-quarters
of each being at a place of the same name, except
in the case of Partabgarh, the tahsllddr of which is stationed at BELA.
This is the only town of importance, and is also a municipality and
the head-quarters of the District. The following table gives the chief
statistics of population in 1901 :

Tahsil

Area in square
miles.

Nun

a
o

3
i

iber of

Population per
square mile.

Percentage of
variation in
population be-
tween 1891
and 1901.

Number of
persons able to
read and
write.

Partabgarh .
Kunda .
Patt!

District total

43^
543
467

679
686
802

316.580
323-508
272,760

733
50 r >
584

+ 3-3

- 2-8

+ 0.5

10,942

9,701
7,308

1,442

2,167

912,848

+ 0-2

3 7>95I

Hindus form nearly 90 per cent, of the total, and Musalmans
ro per cent. The whole District is thickly populated, and supplies
considerable numbers of emigrants to other parts of India and to the
Colonies. The AwadhI dialect of Eastern Hindi is spoken by almost
the whole population.

The most numerous Hindu castes are Kurmis (agriculturists),
1 12,000 ; Brahmans, 1 1 1,000 ; Ahlrs (graziers and cultivators), 102,000 ;
Chamars (tanners and labourers), 98,000 ; Rajputs, 70,000 ; Pasls
(toddy-drawers and labourers), 51,000; and Banias, 33,000. Musal-
mans include Shaikhs, 27,000; Pathans, 12,000; and Julahas (weavers),
7,000. Agriculture supports 77 per cent, of the total population,
a high proportion. The District supplies a considerable number of
recruits for the Indian army. Rajputs hold nine-tenths of the land,
Sombansis, Bachgotls, Kanhpuri t as, Bilkharias, and Bisens being the
chief clans. Brahmans, Kurmis, Rajputs, and Ahlrs occupy the largest
areas as cultivators.

Only 43 native Christians were enumerated in 1901, of whom
36 belonged to the Anglican communion. A branch of the Zanana
Bible and Medical Mission was founded here in 1890, and a branch
of a Canadian mission in 1903.

In tKfe south-west near the Ganges lies a strip of low alluvial land,
which is generally sandy and unproductive. Beyond the high bank

is a tract of rich loam, which gradually stiffens to . . ,
i r.i, i, r i r. i j r Agriculture,

clay. 1 he valley of the Sai is mainly composed of

a light fertile loam, deteriorating to sand near the river and its
tributary streams. North of the Sai lies another clay tract. Both

i8 PARTABGARH DISTRICT

of these areas of stiff soil are studded with lakes and swamps, and
are liable to waterlogging in wet seasons owing to defective drainage,
but in ordinary years they produce excellent rice. The cultivation of
sugar-cane is chiefly confined to the PattI tahsll.

The usual tenures of OUDH are found. About two-thirds of the
total area is included in talukdari estates, while nearly 10 per cent,
is held by sub-settlement holders and under-proprietors. The main
agricultural statistics for 1903-4 are given below, in square miles :

Tahsil

'lotal an-a

Cultivated

265
289
256

""*-<< C ^

Paitabgarh
Kunda .
Patli

Total

4.V
543
467

127 38

I5 1 5
136 4r

1,442

Sio

414 129

Rice covered 207 square miles, or 26 per cent, of the total, barley

192 square miles, gram 138, wheat in, arhar 88, peas and masur 62,

jowdr 54, and bajra 52. The chief non-food crops are poppy (19),

fti//-hemp (16), and sugar-cane (19). A little indigo is also grown,

and there are many small pan gardens.

A marked increase occurred in the area under cultivation between
the first and second regular settlements, chiefly due to the reclamation
of waste. A large area near the Ganges, once occupied by a swamp,
was reclaimed by a European, who constructed a large dam and
erected pumps. The drainage of the PattI tahsll has recently been
improved. The area bearing two crops in a year has also risen, and
the principal changes in the methods of cultivation have been directed
towards increasing this area. The larger areas under rice, sugar-cane,
and poppy are also noticeable. Advances are taken with some
regularity under the Land Improvement and Agriculturists' Loans
Acts. During the ten years ending 1900 the total loans amounted to
i 6 lakhs, of which ii lakhs was advanced in 1896-7. In the next
four years the advances averaged Rs. 3,500 annually.

The cattle bred locally are small and inferior. The ponies of the
District are also poor, but a stallion is now maintained by Govern-
ment. Sheep and goats are largely kept, and a fine breed of sheep is
found in the Kunda tahsll. The Gadarias, or shepherds, who own
the latter keep them chiefly for their wool.

Wells are the chief source of irrigation, supplying 257 square miles
in 1903-4. Tanks or swamps served 153 square miles, but the area
supplied from them is liable to considerable fluctuations. Thus in the
dry year 1897 more than 84 per cent, of the irrigated area was supplied
from wells. Other sources are negligible. The number of wells is

ADMINISTRA TION rq

increasing rapidly, and masonry wells have replaced unprotected ones
to a considerable extent. Water is almost invariably raised from wells
in leathern buckets drawn by bullocks, and from tanks and jhlls by
the swing-basket. Some of the tanks used for irrigation are artificial
but these are of small size.

Kankar or nodular limestone is the chief mineral product, and is
used for metalling roads and for making lime. A little saltpetre is
extracted from saline efflorescences, and glass is also manufactured.

There are very few industries besides agriculture. Indigo is still
made on a small scale, and sugar-refining is of considerable importance
in the east of the District. An interesting experi-
ment in the rearing of silkworms and manufacture
of silk is being conducted by the talnkdar of Kal5-
kankar. Coarse cotton cloth and woollen blankets are made at a
few places.

The District exports grain, oilseeds, opium, .raw-hemp, and hides,
and imports piece-goods, metals, hardware, and sugar, the local pro-
duction of common sugar being insufficient. Bela is the chief mait,
and small markets have sprung up at several places along the railway.

The main line of the Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway passes from
south-east to north-west across the District, and at Bela meets the
Allahabad-Fyzabad branch running from north to south. There are
615 miles of road, of which 64 are metalled. The latter are in charge
of the Public Works department ; but the cost of all but 24 miles is
charged to Local funds. The chief routes arc from Partabgarh town
to Allahabad and Fyzabad, and towards Rae Bareli and Akbarpur.
Avenues of trees are maintained on 97 miles.

The District is so well protected by means of irrigation that it has
suffered little from famine. Deficiency of rain caused some damage
to the crops in 1864, 1868, and 1873. In 1878 the
effects of drought in the previous year were more
marked, and relief works were opened, but never attracted more than
4,600 persons on one day. The early cessation of the rains in 1896
was felt, because it followed a series of years in which excessive rain
had done much damage. Relief works were opened in December,
but were not largely resorted to, and distress was less severe than in
the adjoining Districts.

The Deputy-Commissioner is usually assisted by four Deputy-
Collectors recruited in India, and a tahsildar is stationed at the
head-quarters f of each tahslL The cultivation of
poppy is supervised by an officer of the Opium dmimstratlon -
department. *

Two Munsifs and a Subordinate Judge have civil jurisdiction in the
District, which is included in the Civil and Sessions Judgeship of Rae

PARTABGARH DISTRICT

Barell. Crime is light and not of a serious type, the more heinous
forms being rare. Thefts and burglaries are the chief offences. Female
infanticide was once very prevalent, but has not been suspected for
many years.

A summary settlement was made in 1856, and on the restoration
of order in 1858 a second summary settlement was carried out, by
which the revenue was fixed at 7-3 lakhs. A survey was then made,
and a regular settlement followed between 1860 and 1871. The
assessment was largely based on the actual rent-rolls, and average rates
were derived from these to value land cultivated by proprietors or held
on grain rents. It resulted in an enhancement of the revenue to
9-9 lakhs. A large number of claims to rights in land were decided
by the settlement courts. The second regular settlement was made
between 1892 and 1896 by the Deputy-Commissioner in addition to
his regular duties. It was based, as usual, on the actual rent-rolls, and
allowance was made in valuing land which did not pay cash rents for
the difference in rents paid by high-caste and low-caste cultivators.
The new revenue amounts to 13*4 lakhs, and the incidence is Rs. r6
per acre, with very slight variations in different parganas.

Collections on account of land revenue and revenue from all sources
have been, in thousands of rupees :-

1880-1.

1890-1.

IQOO-I.

1903-4.

Land revenue .
Total revenue .

W3
n,75

9,96
12,98

13,26
lS,20

13>3
18,13

There is one municipality, BELA, and three towns are administered
under Act XX of 1856. Beyond the limits of these, local affairs are
managed by the District board, which in 1903-4 had an income of
Rs. 90,000, chiefly derived from local rates, and an expenditure of
Rs. 97,000, including Rs. 49,000 spent on roads and buildings.

The District Superintendent of police has under him a force of
2 inspectors, 65 subordinate officers, and 237 constables distributed in
12 police stations, besides 32 municipal and town police, and 1,719
rural and road police. The District jail contained a daily average of
125 prisoners in 1903.

In regard to education, Partabgarh does not hold a high place.
In 1901, 3i per cent, of the population (6i males and oi females)
could read and write. The number of public schools increased from
88 with 3,i2r pupils in 1880-1 to 126 with 7,037 pupils in 1900-1.
In 1903-4 there were 161 such schools with 7,493 pupils, of whom
65 were girls, besides 48 private schools with ,1,036 pupils, including
2 girls. Only 916 pupils had advanced beyond the primary stage.
Two schools are managed by Government and 100 by the District

PARUR 21

board. The total expenditure on education was Rs. 40,000, of which
Rs. 24,000 was provided from Local funds, and Rs. 6,000 by fees.

There are ten hospitals and dispensaries, with accommodation
for 95 in-patients. In 1903 the number of cases treated was
49,000, including 674 in-patients, and 1,489 operations were per-
formed. The expenditure amounted to Rs. 11,000, chiefly met from
Local funds.

About 24,000 persons were successfully vaccinated in 1903-4,
representing the low proportion of 26 per 1,000 of population. Vacci-
nation is compulsory only in the municipality of Bela.

[H. R. Nevill, District Gazetteer, 1904.]

Partabgarh Tahsil (Pratdpgarh). Central tahsil of Partabgarh
District, United Provinces, comprising the farganas of Ateha and
Partabgarh, and lying between 25 43' and 26 n' N. and 81 31' and
82 4' E., with an area of 432 square miles. Population increased
from 306,427 in 1891 to 316,580 in 1901, this being the only part
of the District which showed an appreciable rise. There are 679
villages and three towns, BELA (population, 8,041), the District and
tahsil head-quarters, and PARTABGARH (5,148) being the largest. The
demand for land revenue in 1903-4 was Rs. 4,17,000, and for cesses
Rs. 67,000. The density of population, 733 persons per square mile,
is the highest in the District. Through the centre of the tahsil flows
the Sai in a very winding channel. The banks of the river are sandy,
but good loam is found at a short distance. In the south the soil
is clay and swamps abound. In 1903-4 the area under cultivation
was 265 square miles, of which 127 were irrigated, wells being the
chief source of supply.

Partabgarh Town (Pratapgarfi) (2). Town in the District and
tahsil of the same name, United Provinces, situated in 25 54' N. and
81 57' E., 5 miles south of BELA. Population (1901), 5,148. It is
said to have been founded about 1617 by Raja Partab Singh. The
fort was of some importance in the eighteenth century and sustained
several sieges. In the nineteenth century it was taken by the Oudh
government. The Raja of Partabgarh resides in a fine building,
portions of which are of considerable antiquity. He maintains a large
school with 164 pupils, and a dispensary. Partabgarh is administered
under Act XX of 1856, with an income of about Rs. 600. There
is a flourishing local trade.

Parifr (Paravur\~^ Head-quarters of the taluk of the same name
in Travancore State, Madras, situated in 10 10' N. and 76 15' E.,
about 17 miles north of Ernakulam, the southern terminus of the
Cochin-Shoranur Ruilw^y. Population (1901), 12,962, including almost
all the Jews of Travancore. A Raja of Pariir once ruled here. At one
time the place belonged to Cochin, but it was made over to Travancore

22 PARUR

in 1762. It was then converted into a military station for the frontier
troops. TipO, in his second invasion of Travancore, destroyed a great
portion of it. It is now a busy trading centre, and contains the courts
of a District and Sessions Judge, a Munsif and a magistrate, and other
public offices.

Parvatipur. Village in the head-quarters subdivision of Dinajpur
District, Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated in 25 40' N. and
88 56' E. Population (1901), 1,787. It is an important railway
junction, where the Assam and Bihar sections of the Eastern Bengal
State Railway branch off east and west from the main line.

Parvatlptiram Subdivision. Subdivision of Vizagapatam Dis-
trict, Madras, consisting of the zannndari tahsil s of PARVATIPURAM
(including Agency area), BISSAMCUTTACK, RAYAGADA, GUNUPUR,
BOBBILI, and SAU~TR (including Agency area).

Parvatipuram Tahsil. Zamlndari tahsil in Vizagapatam District,
Madras, lying between 18 38' and 19 8' N. and 83 17' and 83
50' E., in the north of the extensive plain drained by the Nagavali or
Langulya river, with an area of 799 square miles. The population in
1901 was 160,523, compared with 157,014 in 1891. The head-quarters
are at PARVAT!PURAM TOWN (population, 17,308); the number of
villages is 498. The northern part of the tahsil is hilly and lies within
the Agency limits ; the rest is flat and presents no features of interest.
The tahsil is all zamlndan land, belonging partly to the Belgam and
Parvatipuram estates and partly to the zamlnddrs of Kurupam,
Sangamvalsa, and Merangi. The demand for land revenue and cesses
in 1903-4 was Rs. 77,500.

Parvatipuram Town.- Head-quarters of the subdivision and
tahsil of the same name in Vizagapatam District, Madras, lying in
1 8 47' N. and 83 26' E. Population (1901), 17,308. An Assistant
Superintendent of police and a police reserve are stationed here.
Lying at the junction of roads from Bengal, Jeypore, Palkonda, and
Vizianagram, Parvatipuram is a rapidly growing centre of trade
between the hills and the low country.

Pasni. An open roadstead and port in Makran, Baluchistan,
situated in 25 16' N. and 63 28' E., about 220 miles from Karachi,
on a sandbank connecting the headland of /arren with the mainland,
The inhabitants live in mat huts ; the telegraph bungalow and three
other structures constitute the only permanent buildings. The popu-
lation (1904) numbers 1,489, and consists of Meds (1,065) wifn a few
Hindus, Khojas or Lotias, and Kalmatis. Pasni obtains its importance
from its proximity to Turbat, the head-quarters of Makran, about
70 miles distant. Mail steamers make fortnightly calls at the port,
but the open roadstead affords poor anchorage. Improved facilities
for landing are now in contemplation. The trade of Pasni is rapidly

PA TAN TALUK A 23

expanding, and amounted in value to about 4| lakhs during the twenty?
one months from June, 1903, to February, 1905. The annual customs
lease has also risen from Rs. 4,500 in 1899 to ^ s - 18,000 in 1905.
The only industry is fishing, on which the majority of the population
subsist.

Pasriir Tahsil. Central tahsil of Sialkot District, Punjab, lying
between 3 1 56' and 32 20' N. and 74 32' and 74 57' E., with an area
of 394 square miles. The population in 1901 was 193,746, compared
with 203,875 in 1891. The head-quarters are at the town of PASRUR
(population, 8,335), and it also contains the town of KILA SOBHA
SINGH (3,338) and 443 villages. The land revenue and. cesses
in 1903-4 amounted to Rs. 3,10,000. Irrigation dams are an im-
portant factor in cultivation, especially in the south and west of the
tahslL The richest tract is the north-east corner. In the centre the
country lies higher and is less fertile, \vhilc in the south the soil is
a sour clay. The Degh passes through the eastern portion.

Pasrur Town. Head-quarters of the tahsil of the same name in
Sialkot District, Punjab, situated in 32 16' N. and 74 40' E., on the
road from Sialkot to Amritsar, 18 miles south of Sialkot town. Popu-
lation (1901), 8,335. I 1 wab originally called Parasrur after Paras
Ram, Brahman, to whom the town was assigned by its founder ; it is
mentioned by Babar as a halting-place between Sialkot and Kalanaur,
and seems to have once been of considerable importance. It possesses
a large tank, constructed in the reign of Jahanglr. To feed this, Dara
Shikoh dug a canal, traces of which are still extant. Near by are the
remains of a bridge built by Shah Daula. At the Muharram a great
gathering takes place at the shrine of Mian Barkhurdar, a famous
Muhammadan saint. The trade of Pasrur has much decayed, partly
through the opening of the North- Western Railway, and partly on
account of the octroi duties which have diverted trade to the neighbour-
ing village of Kalaswala. Hand-printed cotton stuffs are the only manu-
facture of importance. Pasrur is a station of the American United
Presbyterian Mission. The municipality was created in 1867. The
income during the ten years ending 1902-3 averaged Rs. 7,900, and
the expenditure Rs. 7,800. The income in 1903-4 was Rs. 8,000,
chiefly from octroi; and the expenditure \\as Rs. 6,900. The town
contains an Anglo-vernacular high school maintained by the District
board, and a Government dispensary.

Patan Taluka (i). North-western tdluka of the Kadi //-#/, Baroda
State, with an area of 409 square miles. The population fell from
136,083 in i8i to 104,136 in 1901. The tdluka contains two towns,
PATAN (population, 31,^.02), the head-quarters, and BALISNA (4,650);
and 140 villages. It presents the appearance of a fairly wooded plain,
with the river Saraswati running through the centre. To the west and

24 PA TAN TALUK A

north the soil is black, while to the east it is light and sandy. In
1904-5 the land revenue was Rs. 3,26,000.

Patan Town (i). Head-quarters of the tatuka of the same name,
Kadi print) Baroda State, situated in 23 51' N. and 72 10' E., on
the Gaikwar's State line from Mehsana on the Rajputana-Malwa
Railway. Population (1901), 31,402. In former times it was known
as ANHILVADA or Anhilpur, and was founded about A.D. 746, or,
according to some accounts, in 765, by Vanaraja, the forest-born son
of the beautiful Ram, Riip Sundri. He was the first of a line of kings,
named Chavada, a dynasty which was succeeded by the Solankis, and
afterwards by the Vaghelas. The town, afterwards known as Nahrwara
or Nahrwala, was celebrated for its size and magnificence, and yielded
much plunder to Mahmud of Ghazni. The last of the Vaghelas,
Karan Ghelo ('the insane'), was overpowered in 1298 by Ulugh Khan ;
and the Muhammadans afterwards levelled the walls of the town,
buried the temples in their foundations, and ploughed up the ground
on which they stood. The modern Patan has sprung up on the ruins
left by the ancient conquerors, but does not possess the magnificent
palaces, parks, tanks, schools, libraries, markets, and offices which are
said to have adorned the old town. Some remains, however, are still
to be seen which indicate the former greatness of Anhilvada. One
of these is the Rani Vav, or large well built by Udayamati, the queen
of Raja Bhima, in the eleventh century, of which a few battered
fragments remain. The \\ater is said to possess the power of curing
infantile cough. The Sahasra Ling Talav, or ' tank with the thousand
shrines,' was dedicated to Siva by the famous Jay Singh Siddha Raja
of the Solanki line (1093-1143), when he set out on his expedition
against Yasovarma, king of Mahva. But of this nothing now remains,
save a large field with the ruins of a Muhammadan building in the
centre, constructed on the site of a temple. Bairam, the minister of
Humayun and Akbar, was assassinated on the bank of this lake in
1561, while on his way to Mecca. A marble statue of Vanaraja, the
founder of the place, in one of the Jain temples, bears an inscription
dated 1467. Another tank worthy of notice is the large reservoir to
the south of the town, known as the Khan Sarovar, which, however,
is of Muhammadan origin. The modern town of Patan, together with
the citadel, is the result of Maratha efforts. It is situated to the south-
east of old Anhilvada, nearly a mile from the Saraswati river. A lofty
wall, most of which is of great thickness, entirely surrounds it, and
there are numerous gateways. The public buildings, of which the chief
are the offices in the citadel, the high school, and the ciVil hospital, are
of no great interest ; and the general aspect of the streets and houses,
with the exception of a few which display profuse and elaborate wood-
carving, is depressing. The Jain temples in the town are said to

PA TAN TOWN 25

number 1 08 or no, but none is of much architectural or archaeological
importance. In these thousands of palm-leaf manuscripts are carefully
preserved, of which a list has recently been made. The manufactures
carried on at the present day are not of great importance, though there
is a fair out-turn of swords, betel-nut slicers, patolas (variegated saris\
embroidery, and pottery. The last is said to be superior to any of its
kind in Gujarat, and is remarkable for its glaze. It is, however, of a
very fragile nature. Wood-carving and ivory-turning are also practised.
The town is the most important centre for trade in the Kadi prdnt^
and its commercial facilities have been greatly increased since the
opening of the line from Meh&ana to Patan. The municipality, which
was reconstituted on a partly elective basis in 1905, has an income
of Rs. 10,000 from excise, customs, and tolls, besides an annual grant
of Rs. 5,000 from the State.

[J. Burgess and H. Cousens, Architectural Antiquities of Gujarat

(1903)-]

Patan Taluka (2). South-easternmost taluka of Satara District,
Bombay, lying between 17 8' and 17 34' N. and 73 39' and 74 4' E.,
with an area of 438 square miles. It contains 203 villages, but no town.
Patan is the head-quarters. The population in 1901 was 104,167, com-
pared with 131,833 in 1891. The density, 238 persons per square
mile, is the same as the average of the District. The demand for land
revenue in 1903-4 was 1-2 lakhs, and for cesses Rs. 11,000. Patan is
hilly. The chief feature in the west is the Koyna valley running south,
with lofty flanking hills. On the east the valleys of the Koyna, Tarli,
and Kole open into the plains of the Kistna. The soil of the eastern
valleys is good, yielding both early and late crops, chiefly jowdr and
ground-nuts, and, when watered, sugar-cane. The re^t of the soil is
red, and except in the hollows where rice and sometimes sugar-cane
are grown, is under nomadic cultivation. The Koyna and the Tarli
with their feeders furnish abundance of water to the villages on and
near their banks. Away from the rivers, both on the tops of the hills
and in the valleys, especially during March, April, and May, water ib
scarce. The climate is cool and healthy in the hot season, but the
chilly damp of the rains makes it feverish. Compared with the greater
portion of the District the rainfall is heavy, averaging 67 inches
annually.

PHtan Town (or Lalita Patan) (2). One of the chief towns of Nepal,
situated* approximately, in lat. 27 41' N. and long. 85 20' E., on
rising ground, a short distance from the southern bank of the Bagh-
mati, about 2 ftiiles south-east of Katmandu. Patan is thus described
by Dr. Wright, formerly Surgeon to the British Residency in Nepal :

' It is an older town than Katmandu, having been built in the reign
of Raja Bir Deva in the Kaligat year 3400 (A. D. 299). It is also

26 PAT AN TOWN

known by the names of Yellondesi and Lalita Patan. The latter name
is derived from Lalit, the founder of the city. Its general aspect is
much the same as that of the capital [Katmandu]. The streets are
as narrow and dirty, the gutters as offensive, and the temples even
more numerous ; but it appears much more dilapidated than Katmandu,
many of the houses and temples being in ruins. The main square,
however, in the centre of the town, is very handsome. On one side is
the old Darbar with a fine brazen gateway, guardian lions, and endless
carvings. In front of this are monoliths, with the usual figures on
them, and behind these a row of handsome old temples of every
description. The parade-ground lies to the south-east of the town,
the road to it passing through a suburb abounding in pigs. The
parade-ground is extensive, and there are several large tanks to the
west, while on the southern side stands a huge Buddhist temple of
the most primitive description. This temple is merely a mound or
dome of brickwork, covered with earth. There is a small shrine at
each of the cardinal points, and on the top what looks like a wooden
ladder. Many similar mound-temples or chaityas exist in and around
Patan. The population of the town is said to be about 30,000, mainly
Newars.'

From the early part of the seventeenth century Patan was one of the
three petty Newar States in the Valley of Nepal, and its quarrels with
its neighbours at Katmandu and Bhatgaon paved the way for its
conquest by the Gurkhas in 1768-9. The town is now garrisoned by
the Gurkha government.

Patan. District and head-quarters thereof in the Bundi State,
Rajputana. See KKSHOKAI PATAN.

Patancheru. Village in the Kalabgur taluk of Medak District,
Hyderabad State, situated in 17 32' N. and 78 16' E. Population
(1901), 1,886. It was formerly the head-quarters of the Subahdar
(Commissioner) of the Bidar Division, and is still the head-quarters of
the Commissioner of the Medak Gulshanabad Division. Groups of
underground Hindu temples are said to exist in the vicinity of the
village, buried under the sand. Some old copper coins were recently
discovered here. A pillar bearing the zodiacal signs, sculptured in
a circle around a lotus or conventional representation of the sun, is
an interesting relic. The place contains many buildings and tombs
of Musalman origin.

Pataudi State. Native State in the Punjab, under the political con-
trol of the Commissioner of the Delhi Division, lying between 28 14'
and 28 22' N. and 76 42' and 76 52' E., in the midst of tl^e British
District of Gurgaon. Its area is 52 square miles; population (1901),
21,933; and it contains one town, PATAUDI (population, 4,171), the
capital, and 40 villages. It consists of a level plain, badly watered,
except in a few villages to which floods give occasional irrigation. The
ruling chief of Pataudi ib descended from a saintly Afghan family,

PATJIANKOT '1 OWN 27

which settled originally near Samana in Patiala. A descendant, Talab
Faiz Khan, who was closely connected with the Jhajjar family by
marriage, was in the Muratha service and received the fief of Rohtak.
On the defeat of the Marathas in 1803 he was employed under Lord
Lake, who in 1806 granted him the Pataudi territory in perpetuity.
In 1826 he took part in the siege of Bharatpur. His son, Akbar AH,
behaved loyally during the Mutiny of 1857. The present Nawab was
born in 1863 and succeeded in 1898. The administration is carried
on by a nazim, who exercises judicial functions and superintends the
revenue administration, which is in the hands of a tahsilddr with
a staff of eleven subordinates. The State maintains a small force of
horsemen as the Nawab's personal escort, and 33 infantrymen who are
employed on guard duties. It also supports a dispensary and a pri-
mary school at Pataudi, and 4 village schools. The total land revenue,
as settled in 1891, amounts to Rs. 76,631. The excise administration
is leased to the British Government for Rs. 650 per annum.

Pataudi Town. Capital of the Pataudi State, Punjab, situated
in 28 2c/ N. and 76 48' E., 19 miles south-west of Gurgaon, and
2-J- miles from Jatauli station on the Rajputana-Malwa Railway.
Population (1901), 4,171. It was founded in the time of Jalal-ud-
dm Khiljl, by Pata, a MewatI, from whom it derives its name. The
town contains the residence of the Nawab of Pataudi and the public
offices of the State.

Patdi. State in the Kathiawar Political Agency, Bombay, lying
between 23 7' and 23 8' N. and 71 48' and 71 58' E., with an
urea of 40 square miles. The population in 1901 was 2,190, residing
in seven villages. The revenue in 1903-4 was Rs. 22,000, and the
cultivated area 94 square miles. The State ranks as a fourth-class
State in Kathiawar.

Patdi. Town in Ahmadabad District, Bombay. Sec PATRI.

Pathankot TahsIL- -Tahsll of Gurdaspur District, Punjab, lying
between 32 5' and 32 30' N. and 75 20' and 75 56' E., with
an area of 367 square miles. It consists mainly of a narrow strip
of broken country along the left bank of the Ravi, but includes a
small fertile tract to the west of the river, irrigated by hill-streams.
It includes the hill station of DALHOUSIE (population, 1,316), together
with the cantonments of BALUN and BAKLOH, and the cart-road
leading thereto. It also contains the towns of PATHANKOT (population,
6,091), the head-quarters, and SUJANPUR (5,687); and 395 villages.
The populatioy in 1901 was 141,623, compared with 140,850 in
1891. The land revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to Rs.
2,76,000. .

Pathankot Town. Head-quarters of the tahsil of the same name
in Gurdaspur District, Punjab, situated in 32 16' N. and 75 40' E.,

Lv XX. C

28 PATHANKOT TOWN

and the terminus of the Amritsar-Pathankot branch of the North-
Western Railway. Population (1901), 6,091. A good cart-road leads
from Pathankot to Palampur (70 miles) and Dharmsala (52 miles), and
another to Dunera (for Dalhoubie and Chamba). The situation of
Pathankot has, from very ancient times, made it an emporium of trade
between the hills and plains. From coins found here, Cunningham
concluded that it was at an early date inhabited by the Udumbaras,
who are coupled in the Puranas with the Traigarttas and Kulindas, or
people of Kangra and Kulu, and with the Kapisthalas, who must be
the Kambistholi mentioned by Arrian as dwelling on the Ravi ; and
that the kingdom of Dahmeri, which in historical times included most
of Gurdaspur and Kangra, bears a name derived from this people.
The capital of this State was Ntirpur in Kangra, but Pathankot must
have been a place of some importance, as from it the Pathania Rajputs
of Nurpur take their name l . It was from ancient times held by a line
of Rajput chiefs, of whom the most noted are Raja Bakht Mai, who
fought for Sikandar Sun at Mankot ; Bas Deo, who rebelled against
Akbar ; Suraj Mai, who rebelled against Jahanglr ; and Jagat Singh,
\\lio rebelled against Shah Jahan and accompanied Daril Shikoh to
Kandahar. r j he State of Pathankot was taken by Ranjit Singh in
1815. Th e municipality was created in 1867. The income during
the ten years ending 1902-3 averaged Rs. 11,500, and the expenditure
Rs. 11,200. In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 10,500, chiefly from octroi ;
and the expenditure was Rs. 11,800. Pathankot is the seat of a
considerable blanket and shawl-weaving industry, and, lying at the
point where the trade routes from Chamba, Nurpur, and Kangra unite,
is a place of some commercial importance, with a growing trade. The
District board maintains an Anglo-vernacular middle school and a
dispensary.

Pathardi. Town in the Shevgaon td/uka of Ahmadnagar District,
Bombay, situated in 19 10' N. and 75 n' E., about 30 miles east
of Ahmadnagar city. Population (1901), 6,299. The town lies pic-
turesquely on the side of a steep hill which rises in the midst of
a barren tract, skirted on the north and east by a range of hills running
from Dongargaon into the Nizam's Dominions.

Patharghata. Hill in the head-quarters subdivision of Bhagaipur
District, Bengal, lying between 25 if and 25 22' N. and 87 12'
and 87 16' E., on the bank of the Ganges. On the northern side
of the hill are some rock sculptures, apparently of a date prior to the
seventh or eighth century A.D., the most interesting of which is a long
row of figures known locally as the Chaurasi sunni (' 84 sages '). The

1 Anhaeologual Suwey Reports y vol. xiv, p. 115. l The name of Pathankot has
nothing to do with the trans-Indus Pathans, but is often \vritten Paithan, and accoid-
ing to Cunningham i a corruption of l^raiisthana^ 'the established city.'

PATHARI STATE 29

hill also contains five caves, in the most important of which, the
Bateswar cave, bronze and silver relics have been discovered.

[M. Martin, Eastern India, vol. ii, pp. 64-5 ; Archaeological Survey
Reports, vol. xv, pp. 36-7. ]

Pathari State. A petty mediatized State in Central India, under
the Bhopal Agency, with an area of 22 square miles, and a population
(1901) of 2,704. Locally the State is called Baro-Pathari or Chor-
Pathari, the former from the old ruined city of Baro, the latter from its
former unenviable notoriety as the home of marauding gangs.

The chiefs, who are descended from the Bhopal house, are Pathans
of the Barakzai family and the Mirzai Khel. Mund Muhammad Khan,
father of the original grantee, held a jdglr in Rahatgarh (now in the
Central Provinces), of which he was deprived by Mahadaji Sindhia.
On the mediation of the British authorities, however, his son, Haidar
Muhammad Khan, received the Pathari jdgir in 1794, as a grant from
Daulat Rao Sindhia. Land is still held by the Nawabs at Rahatgarh,
in the Saugor District of the Central Provinces. The present chief,
Abdul Karini Khan, succeeded in 1859 as a boy of live, and received
powers in 1872. He pursued, however, a course of extravagance,
plunging the State so deeply in debt as to necessitate his removal
from the management in 1895. He resides at Sehore with his family,
and the State continues under British administration. The chief bears
the hereditary title of Nawab. The archaeological remains at Pathari
are of considerable interest, forming in fact a part of those at Baro,
which is situated one mile south of this town. The road from Baro
to Pathari is marked by the remains of numerous temples, satl stones,
and other indications of an extensive settlement.

The soil is fertile and produces good crops. Of the total area of
22 square miles, 5 square miles, or 23 per cent., are cultivated, \\hile
12 square miles are capable of cultivation, the rest being grazing,
jungle, and waste land. The chief ordinarily exercises limited powers,
all serious matters being dealt with by the Political Agent. The State
has a revenue of Rs. 9,000. Its finances are at present burdened with
a debt of Rs. 30,000.

The chief town of Pathari is picturesquely situated on a small sand-
stone hill 1,800 feet above the level of the sea, on the edge of a lake
enclosed by a fine dam of undressed stone, in 23 56' N. and 78 13' E.
It is n miles distant by metalled road from Kulhar station on the
Great Indian Peninsula Railway. Population (1901), 1,106. A British
post office and a jail are situated in the town.

Pathari shows many signs of its importance in the early days ot
Hindu rule, though, as ^t now stands, it is purely Muhammadan in
character. The remains of numerous statues, carved stones from
Hindu temples, and old foundations are everywhere visible. The

c 2

30 PATHARI STA7'E

principal object of interest is the magnificent column which stands
to the east of the town. It is cut from a fine white sandstone,
apparently hewn in the old quarry close by, and is 47 feet high,
42 feet being in a single piece. It is surmounted by a bell capital,
on which there were originally two human figures back to back, but
only a part of one remains. Close by is a small temple, which now
contains a lingam, but was originally dedicated to Vishnu, as is shown
by the figure of Garuda over the doorway. On the northern face of
the pillar there is an inscription of thirty-eight lines. The record is
dated in A.D. 86 1, and sets out that the temple of Vishnu (no doubt
that close by) was built by a king Parabala of the Rashtrakuta race,
who set up this Garuda bannered pillar before it. The record is
additionally interesting in connexion with the Monghyr copperplate,
which records the birth of the Pala king Devapala, who was born
of Ram Devi, daughter of king ParabaU. A slab in an old baori
(well with steps), dated in 1676, records its construction by Maharaja
Prithwlraj Ju Deo, in the time of Aurangzeb. The Hindu town was
destroyed by the Muhammadans, possibly by Alamgir.

[Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. xvii, part ii, p. 305 ;
A. Cunningham, Archaeological Survey Reports, vol. vii, p. 64 ; vol. x,
p. 69 \ Nachrichten der Konig. Gesell. der Wissen. zu Gdttingcn (1901),
p. 519 ; Indian Antiquary, vol. xxi, p. 258.]

Pathari. Thakurat in the MALWA AGENCV, Central India.

Patharia. Thakurat in the BHOPAL AGLNCY, Central India.

Pathar Kachhar. State in the Baghelkhand Agency, Central
India. See BARAUNDA.

Patheingyi. Township to the east of Mandalay city in Mandalay
District, Upper Burma, lying between 21 51' and 22 8' N. and 96 3'
and 96 24' E., with an area of 213 square miles. Its population was
31,597 in 1891, and 28,546 in 1901, distributed in 152 villages, the
head-quarters being at Patheingyi (population, 532), about 6 miles
north-east of Mandalay. The western part of the township is irrigated
by the Shwetachaung Canal and produces rice ; the eastern is high land
bearing 'dry crops.' May in rice is cultivated below the Nanda tank
and west of the Shwetachaung Canal, and the centre of the township
is now irrigated by the Mandalay Canal. The area cultivated was
65 square miles in 1903-4, but will probably increase largely now that
the Mandalay Canal has been completed. The land revenue and
thathameda amounted to Rs. 2,02,000.

Pathri Taluk. Western taluk of Parbhani District, Hyderabad
State, with an area of 784 square miles. Including jaglrs, the popula-
tion in 1901 was 119,324, compared with 123,353 in 1891, the decline
being due to the famine of 1900. The taluk contains two towns,
PATHRI (population, 5,828), the head-quarters, and MANWAT (7,395);

F ATI ALA STATE 31

and 170 villages, of which 19 arejagfr. In 1905 this tahtk receued
8 villages from the Ambarh tahtk of Aurangabad District, and gave
6 villages to that taluk in exchange. The land revenue in 1901 was
3-8 lakhs. The Godavari river separates it from Bhir District
on the south. The soils are chiefly alluvial and regar. North is the
jdgtr taluk of Partur; population (1901), 28,213. It comprises 90
villages ; and Partur (4,043), its head-quarters, is a station on the
Hyderabad- Godavari Valley Railway. It has an area of about
374 square miles, and contains a ginning factory, a State post office
and a British sub-post office, a school, and a dispensary, the last two
being maintained by the jdgir authorities.

Pathri Town. Head quarters of the taluk of the same name in
Parbhani District, Hyderabad State, situated in 19 15' N. and 76
27' E. Population (1901), 5,828. The town contains a talisil and
police inspector's office, a post office, and two schools.

Pathyar. Village in Kangra District, Punjab, 12 miles south-east
of Dharmsala. Population (1901), 1,983. An inscription of a primitive
type, cut in both the Brahmi and Kharoshthi scripts, in letters of
remarkable size, recording the dedication of a tank, probably in the
third century B.C., has been found here. The village suffered serious
damage in the earthquake of April 4, 1905.

[Epigraph ia Indica, vol. vii, p. 116.]

Patiala State. The largest in area, wealth, and population of the
three Phulkian States, Punjab, and the most populous of all the Native
States in the Province, though second to Bahawalpur in area. It lies
mainly in the eastern plains of the Punjab, which form part of the
great natural division called the Indo-Gangetic Plain West ; but its
territories are somewhat scattered, as, owing to historical causes, it
comprises a portion of the Simla Hills and the Nrirnaul ilaka, which
now constitutes the nizamat of Mohindargarh, in the extreme south-east
on the borders of Jaipur and Alwar States in Rajputana. The territory
is interspersed with small tracts or even single villages belonging to the
States of Nabha, Jlnd, and Maler Kotla, and to the British Districts
of Ludhiana, Ferozepore, and Karnal, while, on the other hand, it
includes several detached villages or groups of villages which lie
within the natural borders of those States and Districts.

Its scattered nature makes it impossible to describe its boundaries
clearly and succinctly, but briefly it may be described as consisting of
three portions. The main portion, lying between 29 23' and 30 55' N.
and 744o'and 76 59' E., and comprising the plains portion of the State
west of the Jumna valley and south of the Sutlej, is bordered on the
north by the Districts of Ludhiana and Ferozepore; on the east by
Karnal and Ambfila ; on the south by the State of Jlnd and Hissar
District; and on the west by Hiss-ir. This portion forms a rough paralldo-

32 PATIALA STATE

gram, 139 miles in length from east to west, and 125 miles from north to
south, with an appendage on the south lying south of the Ghaggar river
and forming part of the nizdmat of Karmgarh. The second block lies in
the Siwalik Hills, between 3o4o'and 3iio / N. and 7649 / and 77 19' E.
It is bordered on the north by the Hill States of Bhagal, Dhami, and
Bhajji ; on the east by those of Koti, Keonthal, and Sirmur ; on the
south by Ambala District ; and on the west by the States of Nala-
garh and Mailog, and by Ambala District. This portion is 36 miles
from north to south, and 29 miles from east to west, and forms a
part of the nizdmat of Pinjaur. The third block, the nizdmat of
Mohindargarh, lies between 27 47' and 28 28' N. and 75 56' and
76 i7'E., and is entirely surrounded by Native States Jfnd to the
north, Alwar and Nsbha to the east, and Jaipur to the south and west.
It is 45 miles from north to south, and 22 miles from east to west.

No great river flows through the State or along its borders, the chief

stream being the Ghaggar, which runs in an ill-defined bed from the

. north-east of its main portion south-west through

aspects. thc Paw5 dh to the Bangar and thence in a more

westerly direction, separating the Pawadh from the

Bangar (Narwana tahsil), after which it leaves Patiala territory. The

other streams are mere seasonal torrents. They include the Sirhind

Choa or stream which enters the State near Sirhind and traverses the

Fatehgarh, Bhawanigarh, and Sunam tahslh, following probably the

alignment of the canal cut by Firoz Shah III about 1361. South

of this through the Bhawanigarh and Karmgarh tahslls flows the

Jhambowali Choi, and the Patialewali NadI, which passes the capital.

Both fall into the Ghaggar. There are minor streams in the Pinjaur

tah&l and the Mohindargarh nizdmat. In the former alone are there

any hills of importance, the rest of the State being a level plain.

Geologically, the State may be divided into the Patiala Siwaliks,
composed entirely of Tertiary and principally of Upper Tertiary
deposits ; the Aravalli outliers in Mohindargarh : and the portion
which lies in the Indo-Gangetic alluvium.

Botanically, the State includes a large portion of the Eastern Punjab,
belonging partly to the upper Gangetic plain, and partly to the desert
area ; the territories of Narnaul, &c., in north-eastern Rajputana, with
a desert flora ; and a tract near Simla in the Outer Himalayas, whose
flora is practically that described in the Flora Stmtensis. The klkar
{Acacia arabica\ which grows abundantly in the Pawadh dnd Dun,
is used for all agricultural purposes. The beri (Zizyfhus Jujuba) is
planted near wells and in fields, and in the Mohindargarh nizdmat and
at Sunam, Samana, and Sanaur in gardens. Banur and Sirhind, the
eastern parts of the Pawadh, are noted for their mangoes. The fipal
(Ficus religiosa), barota (Ftcus indicd), and film (Melia Azadirachta)

PHYSICAL ASPECTS 33

are planted close to wells and ponds near villages. The shltham
(Dalbergia Sissoo) is planted in avenues along the canals, and siras
(Albizzia LebbeK) on the road-sides. The frans (Tamarix orientalis\
common near villages, is used for roofing. The dhdk (Butea frondosd)
is found in marshy lands and btrs (reserves). The jand (Prosopis
spicigera\ kikar, reru^ and jdl are common in the Jangal, Bangar, and
Mohindargarh. The khair (Acacia Catechii) 2fo&gugal(Balsamodendron
Mukut) are common in the Mohindargarh nizdmat^ and the khajur
(Phoenix dactyUfera) in Pinjaur, Dun, and in the Bet (Fatehgarh tahsif).

Chltal (spotted deer), charkh, kdkar (barking-deer), musk deer,
gural, and leopard are common in the hills ; and the following mam-
mals are found throughout the State : wolf, jackal, fox, wild cat, otter
(in the Bet), wild hog (in the blrs\ antelope, nilgai (in the birs^ Bet,
Narwana, and Mohindargarh), monkeys (in the Narwana tahslt)^ and
gazelle (chinkdra).

Game-birds include peafowl, partridges (black and grey), quail,
lapwing, chikor^ and pheasant (in the hills). The crane, snipe, green
pigeon, goose, and sand-grouse are all seasonal visitors. Among
venomous snakes are the cobra, chitkabra or kauridla (found every-
where), dhdman, ragadbans, and padma (in the Mohindargarh nizdmat}.

The healthiest parts of the State are the Bangar and Jangal tracts
and the Mohindargarh nizdmat. The Bet and the thanas of Ghuram
Ghanaur and Baniir are very unhealthy, consisting largely of swamps.
In the Pawadh, where there is no marsh-land, the general health is fair.
The climate of the hills is excellent, except in the Pinjaur thdna. In
the Pinjaur hills the winter is cold, and the rainy season begins some-
what earlier than in the plains, while in summer the heat is moderate.
In the Jangal tract and the Mohindargarh nizdmat the heat is intense
in the hot season, which begins early, and the air is dry all the year
round. But if the sky is clear the nights are generally cool.

The rainfall, like the temperature, varies considerably in different
parts of the State. About Pinjaur and Kalka at the foot of the Simla
Hills it averages 40 inches, but decreases away from the Himalayas,
being probably 3 o inches at Sirhind, 25 at Patiala and Pail, 20 at
Bhawanigarh, and only 12 or 13 at Bhatinda and in the Mohindargarh
nizdmat. In the south-west the rainfall is not only less in amount, but
more capricious than in the north and east. Fortunately the zone of
insufficient rainfall is now for the most part protected by the Sirhind
Canal, but Mohindargarh is still liable to severe and frequent droughts.

Patiala town lies in a depression, and there were disastrous floods in
1852, 1887, and 1888. The greatest achievement of the State Public
Works department hag been the construction of protective works,
which have secured the town from the possibility of such calamities
in future.

34 P ATI ALA STATE

The earlier history of Patiala is that of the PHULKIAN STATES. Its
history as a separate power nominally dates from 1762, in which year
Ahmad Shah Durrani conferred the title of Raja
is ory. U p 0n Ala Singh, its chief; but it may be more justly
regarded as dating from 1763, when the Sikh confederation took the
fortress of Sirhind from Ahmad Shah's governor, and proceeded to
partition the old Mughal province of Sirhind. In this partition
Sirhind itself, with its surrounding country, fell to Raja Ala Singh.
That ruler died in 1765, and was succeeded by his grandson Amar
Singh, whose half-brother Himmat Singh also laid claim to the throne,
and after a contest was allowed to retain possession of the Bhawanigarh
pargana. In the following year Raja Amar Singh conquered Pail
and Isru from Maler Kotla, but the latter place was subsequently made
over to Jassa Singh Ahluwalia. In 1767 Amar Singh met Ahmad
Shah on his last invasion of India at Karabawana, and received the
title of Raja-i-Rajgan. After Ahmad Shah's departure Amar Singh
took Tibba from Maler Kotla, and compelled the sons of Jamal Khan
to effect a peace which remained unbroken for many years. He next
sent a force under his general Bakhshi Lakhna to reduce Pinjaur,
which had been seized by Gharlb Das of Mani Majra, and in alliance
with the Rajas of Hindiir, Kahlur, and Sirmur captured it. He then
invaded the territory of Kot Kapura, but its chief Jodh having been
slain in an ambush, he retired without further aggression. His next
expedition was against the Bhattis, but in this he met with scant
success; and the conduct of the campaign was left to the chief of
Nabha, while Amar Singh turned his arms against the fortress
of Govindgarh, which commanded the town of Bhatinda. After a long
struggle it was taken in 1771. Soon after this Himmat Singh seized
his opportunity and got possession of Patiala itself, but he was induced
to surrender it, and died in 1774. In that year a quarrel broke out
between Jlnd and Nabha, which resulted in the acquisition of Sangrur
by Jlnd from Nabha, Patiala intervening to prevent Jlnd from retaining
Amloh and Bhadson also. Amar Singh next proceeded to attack
Saifabad, a fortress only 4 miles from Patiala, which he took with the
assistance of Sirmur. In return for this aid, he visited that State and
helped its ruler Jagat Parkash to suppress a rebellion. In a new
campaign in the Bhatti country he defeated their chiefs at Begran,
took Fatehabad and Sirsa, and invested Rania, but was called on to
repel the attack made on Jlnd by the Muhammadan governor of
Hansi. For this purpose he dispatched Nami Mai, his Dlwan, with
a strong force, which after defeating the governor of liansi overran
Hansi and Hissar, and Rania fell soon after. ut the Mughal govern-
ment under Najaf Khan, its minister, made a last effort to regain the
lost districts. At the head of the imperial troops, he seized Karnal

HISTOR Y

and part of Rohtak; and the Raja of Patiala, though aided for
a consideration by Zabita Khan Rohilla, met Najaf Khan at Jlnd and
amicably surrendered Hansi, Hissar, and Rohtak, retaining Fatehabad,
Rania, and Sirsa as fiefs of the empire. The wisdom of this moderation
was evident. In 1777 Amar Singh overran the Farldkot and Kot
Kapura districts, but did not attempt to annex them, and his newly-
acquired territories taxed his resources to the utmost. Nevertheless, in
1778 he harried the Mani Majra territory and reduced Gharib Das to
submission. Thence he marched on Sialba, where he was severely
defeated by its chief and a strong Sikh coalition. To retrieve this
disaster Amar Singh formed a stronger confederacy, enticed away the
Sialba troops by offers of higher pay, and at length secured the sub-
mission of the chief without bloodshed. In 1779 the Mughal forces
marched on Karnal, Desu Singh, Bhai of Kaithal, being in alliance
with them, and hoping by their aid to crush Patiala j but the Delhi
minister found it more profitable to plunder the Bhai, and the Sikhs
then united to oppose his advance. He reached Kuhram, but then
retreated, in fear of the powerful forces arrayed against him.

In 1781 Amar Singh died of dropsy, and was succeeded by his son
Sahib Singh, then a child of six. Diwan Nanu Mai, an Agarwal Bania
of Sunam, became Wazir and coped successfully with three distinct
rebellions headed by relatives of the Raja. In 1783 occurred a great
famine which disorganized the State. Eventually Nanu Mai was
compelled to call in the Marathas, who aided him to recover Banur
and other places; but in 1788 they compelled him to pay blackmail,
and in 1790, though he had been successful against the other enemies
of Patiala, he could not prevent them from marching to Suhlar, 2 miles
from Patiala itself. Saifabad had been placed in their hands, and
Nanu MaPs fall from power quickly followed. With him fell Rani
Rajindar, cousin of Amar Singh, a woman of great ability and Nanu
MaPs chief supporter, who had induced the Marathas to retire and
visited Muttra to negotiate terms with Sindhia in person. Sahib
Singh, now aged fourteen, took the reins of state into his own hands,
appointing his sister Sahib Kaur to be chief minister. In 1794 the
Marathas again advanced on Patiala, but Sahib Kaur defeated them
and dr.ove them back on Karnal. In this year Bedi Sahib Singh
attacked Maler Kotla and had to be bought off by Patiala. In 1798
the Bedi attacked Raikot, and, though opposed by the Phulkian chiefs,
compelled its ruler to call in George Thomas, who advanced on
Ludhiana, where the Bedi had invested the fort, and compelled him to
raise the siege. Thomas then retired to Hansi ; but taking advantage
, of the absence of the Sifch chiefs at Lahore, where they had assembled
to oppose the invasion of Shah Zaman, he again advanced and laid
siege to Jlnd. On this the Phulkian chiefs hastened back to the relief

36 P ATI ALA STATE

of Jlnd and compelled Thomas to raise the siege, but were in turn
defeated by him. They then made peace with Thomas, who was
anxious to secure their support against the Marathas. Sahib Singh
now proceeded to quarrel with his sister, and she died not long after-
wards, having lost all influence in the State. Thomas then renewed
his attacks on the Jlnd State, and as the Phulkian chiefs united to
resist him he invaded Patiala territory and pillaged the town of
Bhawanigarh. A peace was, however, patched up in 1801, and Thomas
retired to Hansi, whereupon the Cis-Sutlej chiefs sent an embassy to
General Perron at Delhi to ask for assistance, and Thomas was
eventually crushed. The British now appeared on the scene ; but the
Phulkian chiefs, who had been rescued from Thomas by the Marathas,
were not disposed to join them, and remained neutral throughout the
operations round Delhi in 1803-4. Though Holkar was hospitably
received at Patiala after his defeat at Dig, he could not obtain much
active assistance from Sahib Singh. After Holkar's flight to Amritsar
in 1805, the dissensions between Sahib Singh and his wife reached
a climax, and the Rani attacked both Nabha and Jlnd. These States
then invoked the intervention of Ranjit Singh, Maharaja of Lahore,
who crossed the Sutlej in 1806. Ranjit Singh did little to settle the
domestic differences of the Patiala Raja, but despoiled the widows
of the Raikot chief of many villages. Patiala, however, received no
share of the plunder ; and on Ranjit Singh's withdrawal the conflict
between Sahib Singh and his wife was renewed. In 1807 Ranjit Singh
reappeared at Patiala, when he conferred Banur and other districts,
worth Rs. 50,000 a year, on the Rani and then marched on
Naraingarh.

It was by this time clear to the Cis-Sutlej chiefs that they had
to choose between absorption by Ranjit Singh and the protection
of the British. Accordingly, in 1808, Patiala, Jlnd, and Kaithal
made overtures to the Resident at Delhi. No definite promise of
protection was given at the time; but in April, 1809, the treaty with
Ranjit Singh secured the Cis-Sutlej territory from further aggression
on his part, and a week later the desired proclamation of protection
was issued, which continued to ' the chiefs of Malwa and Sirhind . . .
the exercise of the same rights and authority within their own posses-
sions which they enjoyed before.' Two years later it became necessary
to issue another proclamation of protection, this time to protect the
Cis-Sutlej chiefs against one another. Meanwhile internal v!onfusion
led to the armed interposition of the British Agent, who established
the MaharSni As Kaur as regent with sole authority. She showed
administrative ability and an unbending tenjper until the death of
Maharaja Sahib Singh in 1813. He was succeeded by Maharaja
Karm Singh, who was largely influenced at first by his mother and

HISTOR Y

her minister Naunidhrai, generally known as Missar Naudha. The
Gurkha War broke out in 1814, and the Patiala contingent served
under Colonel Ochterlony. In reward for their services, the British
Government made a grant of sixteen parganas in the Simla Hills
to Patiala, on payment of a nazarana of Rs. 2,80,000. Karm Singh's
government was hampered by quarrels, first with his mother and later
with his younger brother, Ajlt Singh, until the Hariana boundary
dispute demanded all his attention. The English had overthrown
the Marathas in 1803 and had completed the subjugation of the
Bhattis in Bhattiana in 1818; but little attention was paid to the
administration of the country, and Patiala began to encroach upon
it, growing bolder each year, until in 1835 her colonists were firmly
established. When the attention of the British Government was
at last drawn to the matter, and a report called for, the Maharaja
refused to admit the British claims, declined arbitration, and pro-
tested loudly when a strip of country more than a hundred miles
long and ten to twenty broad was transferred from his possessions
to those of the British Government. The Government, however,
listened to his protest, the question was reopened, and was not finally
settled till 1856, when some 41 villages were handed over to Patiala.
When hostilities between the British and the government of Lahore
became certain at the close of 1845, Maharaja Karm Singh of Patiala
declared his loyalty to the British ; but he died on December 23,
the day after the battle of Ferozeshah, and was succeeded by his
son Narindar Singh, then twenty-three years old. It would be idle
to pretend that the same active spirit of loyalty obtained among the
Cis-Sutlej chiefs in 1845 as showed itself in 1857. The Maharaja
of Patiala knew that his interests were bound up with the success
of the British, but his sympathies were with the Khalsa. However,
he provided the British with supplies and carriage, besides a contin-
gent of men. At the close of the war, he was rewarded with certain
estates resumed from the Raja of Nabha. The Maharaja sanctioned
the abolition of customs duties on the occasion of Lord Hardinge's
visit in 1847.

The conduct of the Maharaja on the outbreak of the Mutiny
is beyond praise. He was the acknowledged head of the Sikhs, and
his hesitation or disloyalty would have been attended with the most
disastrous results, while his ability, character, and high position would
have mide him a formidable leader against the British. On hearing
of the outbreaj:, he marched that evening with all his available troops
in the direction of Ambala. In his own territories he furnished
supplies and carriage, #nd kept the roads clear. He gave a loan
of 5 lakhs to Government and expressed his willingness to double
the amount. His troops served with loyalty and distinction on many

38 P ATI ALA STATE

occasions throughout the campaign. Of the value of the Maharaja's
adhesion the Commissioner wrote : ' His support at such a crisis was
worth a brigade of English troops to us, and served more to tran-
quillize the people than a hundred official disclaimers could have
done/ After the Mutiny "the Narnaul division of the Jhajjar terri-
tory, jurisdiction over Bhadaur, and the house in Delhi belonging
to Begam Zlnat Mahal fell to the share of Patiala. The Maharaja's
honorary titles were increased at the same time. The revenue of
Narnaul, which had been estimated at 2 lakhs, was found to be only
Rs. 1,70,000. On this, the Maharaja appealed for more territory.
The British Government had given no guarantee, but was willing
to reward the loyal service of Patiala still further; and consequently
parts of Kanaud and Buddhuana, in Jhajjar, were conferred on the
Maharaja. These new estates had an income of about one lakh,
and the Maharaja gave a nazarana equal to twenty years' revenue.

In 1858 the Phulkian chiefs had united in asking for concessions
from the British Government, of which the chief was the right of
adoption. This was, after some delay, granted, with the happiest
results. The power to inflict capital punishment had been with-
drawn in 1847, but was exercised during the Mutiny. This power
was now formally restored. The Khamanon villages (the history
of which is given under 'Administration' on p. 47) were transferred
to Patiala in 1860. Maharaja Narindar Singh died in 1862 at the
age of thirty-nine. He was a wise ruler and brave soldier. He
was one of the first Indian chiefs to receive the K.C.S.I., and was
also a member of the Indian Legislative Council during Lord
Canning's viceroyalty.

His only son, Mohindar Singh, was a boy of ten at his father's
death. A Council of Regency was appointed, which carried on the
administration for eight years. The Maharaja only lived for six years
after assuming power. During his reign the Sirhind Canal was sanc-
tioned, though it was not opened until 1882. Patiala contributed
one crore and 23 lakhs to the cost of construction. The Maharaja
was liberal in measures connected with the improvement and general
well-being of the country. He gave Rs. 70,000 to the University
College, Lahore, and in 1873 he placed 10 lakhs at the disposal
of Government for the relief of the famine-stricken people of Bengal.
In 1875 ne was honoured by a visit from Lord Northbrook, who
was then Viceroy, when the Mohindar College was founded* for the
promotion of higher education in the State. Mohincjar Singh died
suddenly in 1876. He had received the G.C.S.I. in 1871.

A long minority followed, for Maharaja R^jindar Singh was only
four when his father died. During his minority, which ceased in
1890, the administration was carried on by a Council of Regency,

HISTOR Y 39

composed of three officials under the presidency of Sardar Sir Dewa
Singh, K.C.S.I. The finances of the State were carefully watched,
and considerable savings effected, from which have been met the
charges in connexion with the Sirhind Canal and the broad-gauge
line of railway between Rajpura, Patiala, and Bhatinda, In 1879
the Patiala State sent a contingent of 1,100 men to the Afghan
War. The Maharaja was exempted from the presentation of nazars
in Darbar, in recognition of the services rendered by his troops
on this occasion. He was the first chief to organize a corps of
Imperial Service troops, and served with one regiment of these in
the Tirah expedition of 1897. Maharaja Rajindar Singh died in
1900, and a third Council of Regency was formed. The present
Maharaja, Bhupindar Singh, was born in 1891. He is now being
educated at thfe Aitchison College, Lahore. He ranks first amongst
the chiefs of the Punjab, and is entitled to a salute of 17 guns.

In 1900 it was decided by the Government of India to appoint
a Political Agent for Patiala, and the other two Phulkian States of
Jmd and Nabha were included in the Agency, to which was after-
wards added the Muhammadan State of Bahawalpur. The head-
quarters of the Agency are at Patiala.

The Siva temples at KALAIT, in the Narwana tahsil, contain some
old carvings supposed to date from the eleventh century. Of PINJAUR,
it has been remarked that no place south of the Jhelum has more
traces of antiquity. The date of the sculptured temples of Bhima
Devi and Baijnath has not been determined. The walls of the
houses, &c., in the village are full of fragments of sculptures. The
gardens, which are attributed to Fidai Khan, the foster-brother of
Aurangzeb, were modelled on the Shalamar gardens at Lahore, and
are surrounded by a wall originally made of the debris of ancient
buildings, but the fragments of sculpture built into it are much
damaged. At SUNAM are the remains of one of the oldest mosques
in India. At SIRHIND Malik Bahlol LodI assumed the title of Sultan
in 1451, and his daughter was buried here in 1497, in a tomb still
existing. The oldest buildings in the place are two fine double-
domed tombs, traditionally known as those of the Master and the
Disciple. The date is uncertain, but the style indicates the four-
teenth century. Shah Zaman, the refugee monarch of Kabul, was
buried in an old graveyard of great sanctity near the town. The
first certain mention of Sirhind is in connexion with events which
occurred in 1360, but the place has been confused by historians
with Bhatinda or Tabarhind, a much older place. The fort at Sirhind
was originally named Firozpur, probably after Firoz Shah. The tomb
of Ibrahim Shah at NARNAUL, erected by his grandson, the emperor
Sher Shah (1540-5), with its massive proportions, deeply recessed

P ATI ALA STATE

Population.

doorways, and exquisite carvings, is a fine example of the Pathan
style. Bhatinda was a place of great importance in the pre-Mughal
days \ but the date of the fort, which is a conspicuous feature in the
landscape for miles round, is unknown. At Patiala and at Bahadur-
garh, near Patiala, are fine forts built by chiefs of Patiala.

The State contains 14 towns and 3,580 villages. Its population at
the last three enumerations was: (1881) 1,467,433, (1891) 1,583,521,
and (1901) 1,596,692. The small increase in the last
decade was due to the famines of 1897 and 1900,
which caused much emigration from the Mohindargarh nizamat. The
State is divided into the five nizamats, or administrative districts, of
KARMGARH, PINJAUR, AMARGARH, ANAHADGARH, and MOHINDARGARH.
The head-quarters of these are at Bhawanigarh, Basi, Barnala, Rajpura,
and Kanaud respectively. The towns are PATIALA, the capital, NAR-
NAUL, BASI, Govindgarh or BHATINDA, SAMANA, SUNAM, Mohindargarh
or KANAUD, SANAUR, BHADAUR, BARNALA, BANUR, PAIL, SIRHIND,
and HADIAYA.

The following table shows the chief statistics of population in
1901 :

Number of

1 "

Sec coo ft
rt o 2 ^ 5\

fe^rtl

Xisaniat.

Area in
mik

lf\

Karmgarh

',834

665

500,635

273.0

- 0-8

Pinjaur .

784

1,588

212,866

271.4

- 5-97

3,095

Amargarh

858

605

365-448

+ I- 06

Anahadgarh .
Mohindargarh

575

454

268

377,367
140,376

205.5
243.8

+ 8-62
- 5'9

8,899

State total

5,412

3,58o

1,596,692

295.0

+ 0-83

38,097

NOTE. The figures for the areas of nisamats ai c taken from revenue returns. The
total State area is that given in the Census Report.

Hindus form 55 per cent, of the total, and Sikhs, though Patiala is
the leading Sikh State of the Punjab, only 22 per cent., slightly less
than Muhammadans. Jains, fewer than 3,000 in number, are mostly
found in the Mohindargarh nizamat. The density, though higher than
the Provincial average for British Districts, is lower than the average
of the Districts and States situated in the Indo-Gangetic Plain West.
It is lowest in the Anahadgarh nizdmat^ where less than 14 ^>er cent,
of the total area is cultivated. There is not, however, much room for
extension of cultivation, as the cultivable tracts are fully populated.
Punjabi is the language of 88 per cent, of tfce population.

Nearly every caste in the Punjab is represented in Patiala, but the
Jats or Jats, who comprise 30 per cent, of the population, are by far

AGRICULTURE 41

its strongest element. Other cultivating castes are the Rajputs, Ahirs
(in Mohindargarh), Gujars, Arains, and Kambohs. Brahmans and
Fakirs number nearly 8 per cent, of the population ; and artisan and
menial castes, such as the Chamars, Chuhras, Tarkhans, &c., comprise
most of the residue. Of the whole population, 62 per cent, are
dependent on agriculture ; and the State has no important industries,
other than those carried on in villages to meet the ordinary wants of
an agricultural population.

In 1901 the State contained 122 native Christians. The principal
missionary agency is that of the American Reformed Presbyterian
Church, which was established in 1892, when Maharaja Rajindar Singh
permitted Dr. Scott, a medical missionary of that Church, to establish
a mission at Patiala town, granting him a valuable site for its buildings.
The only other society working among the native Christians is the
American Methodist Episcopal Mission, established at Patiala in 1890.
In the village of Rampur Katani (Pail tahsll) an Anglo- vernacular
primary school, started by the Ludhiana American Mission, teaches
22 Jat and Muhammadan boys. There is also a small mission school
at Basi, where twelve or thirteen sweeper boys are taught.

Agricultural conditions are as diversified as the territory is scattered.
In the Pinjaur tahsll they resemble those of the surrounding Simla
Hill States, and in the Mohindargarh nizamat those
of Rajputana. Elsewhere the State consists of level
plains with varying characteristics. The Rajpura, Banur, and Ghanaur
tahsils of the Pinjaur nizamat^ the Patiala and part of the Bhawanigarh
tahsil of the Karmgarh nizamat^ and the Fatehgarh (Sirhind) and
Sahibgarh (Pail) tahsils of the Amargarh nizamat lie in the Pawadh,
a naturally fertile tract of rich loam. Sirhind and Pail are both pro-
tected by wells, and, though not irrigated by canals, are the richest in
the State from an agricultural point of view. The Narwana tahsll lies
in the Bangar, a plateau or upland in which the spring-level is too low
for wells to be profitably sunk. The remaining parts of these three
nizdmats, and the whole of Anahadgarh, lie in the Jangal, a tract
naturally fertile, but unproductive owing to the absence of rain and
the depth of the spring-level until irrigated by the Sirhind Canal.
The Jangal consists of a great plain of soft loam covered with shifting
sandhills, with a few wells on the borders of the Pawadh ; but agri-
culturally it is in a transition stage, as the canal permits of intensive
cultivation.

The bhaiyachdrd is the general form of tenure, except in Mohindar-
garh, where the pattlddri form is prevalent.

The main agricultural statistics for 1903-4 are given in the table
on the next page.

The principal food-grains cultivated are gram (area in 1903-4,

P ATI ALA STATE

660 square miles), barley and gram mixed (587), wheat (432), bdjra
(367), jowar (362), wheat and gram mixed (284), and maize (239).
Mustard covered 286 square miles, chari (joivar grown for fodder) 238,
and cotton 72. In the hill tract (Pinjaur tahsil) potatoes, ginger,
turmeric, and rice are the most valuable crops, and Indian corn is
largely grown for food. In the Sirhind and Pail tahslls sugar-cane
is the most paying crop. It is also grown in parts of the Patiala,
Amargarh, and Bhawanigarh tahslls. Cotton is grown generally in all
but the sandy tracts of the south-west, and it forms the staple crop in
Narwana. Tobacco is an important crop in the Pawadh tract. Rice
is grown in the three tahslls of the Pinjaur nizdmat which lie in the
Pawadh. Wheat is the staple crop in the north-western half, barley
and gram, separately or mixed, in the south and west, and millet in
the Mohindargarh nizdmat. In the latter millet is an autumn crop,
dependent on the monsoon rains. In the rest of the State the spring
harvest is more important than the autumn harvest, and its importance
increases as canal-irrigation is developed.

Nizaniai,

Karmgarh
Pinjaur .
Amjirgaih
Anahadgarh .
Mohindargarh

Total.

Cultivated.

Irrigated.

Culti table
w.istc.

1,834

1,338

368

386

784

467

217

858

6 7 2

243

128

1,836

1,66 1

4 6 5

575

445

5,887

4,5*3

i, 2 57

876

Total

Cash rents are very rare. The landlord's share of the produce varies
from one-fifth to one-half, and one-third may be taken as the average
rate. Land irrigated from wells usually pays a higher rate than other
land, except in the dry tracts to the west and south, where the soil
is inferior and the expense of working wells heavy. The highest rates
are paid in the submontane country to the north and east of Patiala.
The wages of unskilled labour when paid in cash, as is generally the
case in towns and more rarely in the villages, vary from 3 annas a day
in outlying tracts to 6 annas in the capital. A reaper earns from 6 to
1 2 annas a day, and a carpenter from 8 to 1 2 annas or even R. i in the
hills. Prices have risen about 12 per cent, in the last fifteen years.

Few State loans to cultivators were made prior to the revision of the
settlement which began in 1901 and is still proceeding, and Very high
rates of interest were charged. During the three yea/s ending 1906,
a total of nearly Rs. 80,000 was advanced. The rate of interest on
loans for the construction of wells and the purchase of bullocks is just
under 4! per cent., while loans for the purchase of seed are given free
of interest.

FORESTS 43

The cattle of the Jangal in the south-west and of Mohindargarh are
fine up-standing animals, but the cows are poor milkers, and cattle-
breeding hardly exists. Ponies of a fair class are raised in the Bangar,
in the Narwana tahsil \ and there is a State stud at Patiala, established in
1890, with 5 horse, i pony, and 3 donkey stallions, and 25 brood-mares.

Fairs are held twice a year at Karauta and Dharson, both in the
Mohindargarh nizdmat^ at which about 20,000 cattle change hands
yearly. Cattle fairs were also started in 19034 at Bhatinda, Barnala,
Mansa, Boha, Dhamtansahib, Sunam, Patiala, Rajpura, Dhuri, Sirhind,
and Kanaud.

Of the total area under cultivation in 1903-4, 1,257 square miles, or
27 per cent, were classed as irrigated. Of this area, 342 square miles,
or 27 per cent., were irrigated from wells, and the rest from canals.
The State contains 12,696 wells in use, besides unbricked wells, lever
wells, and water-lifts. Patiala owns 84 per cent, of the share (36 per
cent.) of the Sirhind Canal possessed by the Phulkian States. The
Hissar branch of the Western Jumna Canal, which irrigated 85 square
miles in 1903-4, also secures against famine a large pait of the Narwana
tahsil '; and in the tahslh of Baniir and Ghanaur a small inundation
canal from the Ghaggar, which irrigated 14 square miles in 1903-4,
serves a number of villages. Wells are mainly confined to the Pawadh
and the part of the Jangal which adjoins it. Wells are also used in the
Mohindargarh nizamat^ but the water in some is brackish and only
beneficial after rain. Jats generally use the bucket and Arains the
Persian wheel on a masonry well, but some of the Arains and Kambohs
in the Baniir tahsil use the dingli or lift.

In the hill thanas of Pinjaur, Dharmpur, and Srlnagar, in the Pinjaur
Dun and Siwaliks, the State possesses valuable forests, in which con-
siderable quantities of chll (Pin us longifolLi), pine,
oak, deodar, and bamboo are found. The first and
second-class forests have an area of 109 square miles, with 171 square
miles of grass lands. It also possesses several * reserves ' (birs) aggre-
gating 12,000 acres in the plains. The forests are controlled by
a Conservator, who has two assistants in the hills and one in the
plains. Avenues of shisham (Dalbergia Sissoo) arc planted along the
canal banks, and of klkar (Acacia arabica) along the roads. The forest
revenue in 1903-4 was Rs. 51,000.

Kankar is found at many places. Slate, limestone, and sandstone
occur in t?he Pinjaur hills, and in the detached hills of the Mohindar-
garh ntzdmat. Saltpetre is manufactured in the Rajpura, Ghanaur,
Banur, Narwana, and Narnaul ta/islls, and carbonate of soda in the
Bangar. Copper and leajl ores are found near Solon ; and mica and
copper and iron ores in the Mohindargarh nizamat.

Manufactures, other than the ordinary village industries, are virtually

VOL. xx. - D

44 P ATI ALA STATE

confined to the towns. Cotton fabrics are made at SunSm, and silk at
Patiala. Gold lace is manufactured at Patiala, and silsi at Patiala and
Basi, the latter being of fine quality. At Samana
communications. and Narnaul le g s for beds are turned, and at Pail
carved doorways are made. Ironware is also pro-
duced at four villages. Brass and bell-metal are worked at Patiala and
Bhadaur, and at Kanaud (Mohindargarh), where ironware is also
manufactured. The only steam cotton-ginning factory in the State
is at Narwana. A workshop is situated at Patiala. The number of
factory hands in 1903-4 was 80.

The State exports grain in large quantities, principally wheat, gram,
rapesecd, millet, and pulses, with ghi, raw cotton and yarn, red pepper,
saltpetre, and lime. It imports raw and refined sugar and rice from
the United Provinces, piece-goods from Delhi and Bombay, and
various other manufactures. The principal grain marts are at Patiala,
Narnaul, Basi, Barnala, Bhatinda, and Narwana; but grain is also
exported to the adjoining British Districts and to Nabha.

The North- Western Railway traverses the north of the State through
Rajpura and Sirhind, and the Rajpura-Bhatinda branch passes through
its centre, with stations at the capital, DhQri Junction, Barnala, and
Bhatinda. The latter line is owned by the State, but worked by the
North-Western Railway. The Ludhiana-Dhuri-Jakhal Railway, with
stations at Dhuri and Sunam, also serves this part of the State. The
Southern Punjab Railway passes along the southern border, with a
station at Narwana in the Karmgarh nizamat. A mono-rail tramway,
opened in February, 1907, connects Basi with the railway at Sirhind.
There are 185 miles of metalled roads, all in the plains, and about
194 miles (113 in the plains and 81 in the hills) of unmetalled roads
in the State. Of the former, the principal connects Patiala with Sunam
(43 miles), one branch leading to Sangrfir, the capital of Jfnd State,
and another to Samana. The others are mainly feeder roads to the
railways. There are avenues of trees along 142 miles of road.

The postal arrangements of the State arc governed by the convention
of 1884, as modified in 1900, which established a mutual exchange of
all postal articles between the British Post Office and the State post.
The ordinary British stamps, surcharged * Patiala State/ are used.
Under an agreement concluded in 1872, a telegraph line from Ambala
to Patiala was constructed by Government at the expense of the State,
which takes all the receipts and pays for the maintenance of the line.

The earliest and most terrible of the still-remembered famines was

the chdltsa of Samvat 1840 (A.D. 1783), which depopulated huge tracts

Famine in the Southern Plln Jab. , In 1812 and 1833 the

State again suffered. The famine of 1860-1 was the

first in which relief was systematically organized by the State. Relief

- ID MINIS TRA TION 4 5

works were opened; over 11,000 tons of grain were distributed, and
3| lakhs of revenue was remitted. The famine of 1897 cost the State
nearly 2 lakhs in relief works alone. Three years later came the great
famine of 1900. It was a fodder famine as well as a grain famine, and
cattle died in large numbers. Relief measures were organized on the
lines laid down for the British Districts of the Province. Nearly 4 lakhs
was spent on relief works and gratuitous relief. Two lakhs of revenue
was remitted and 2\ lakhs was suspended.

The Political Agent for the Phulkian States and Bahawalpur resides
at Patiala. He is the representative of the Licutenant-Governor, and

is the channel of communication in most matters . .

, , ,, L , ,, u i i Administration.

between the State authorities on the one hand and

British officials or other States on the other. He has no control over
the State courts, but he hears appeals from the orders of certain of
the District Magistrates, &c., of British Districts, in their capacity as
Railway Magistrates for the various railways which pass through
Patiala territory.

During the minority of the Maharaja, his functions are exercised
by a Council of Regency consisting of three members. There are
four departments of State : the finance department (Dlwan-i-Mdt)
under the Dlwan, who deals with all matters of revenue and finance,
the foreign department (Munshi Khdna) under the Mir Munshi, the
judicial department (Sadr Addlaf) under the Adalati, and the military
department (Bakhshi Khdna) under the Bakhshi or commander-in-
chief. The Chief Court was created by Maharaja Rajindar Singh, to
hear appeals from the orders of the finance, foreign, and judicial
ministers. There is no regular legislative department. Regulations
are drafted in the department concerned and submitted for sanction
to the Ijlds-i-KhdS) or court of the Maharaja. Under the present
arrangements the power of sanction rests with the Council of Regency,
the members of which possess the power of initiation. For general
administrative purposes the State is divided into five nizdmats^ each
being under a nazim> who exercises executive powers and has sub-
ordinate to him two or three naib (deputy) ndzims in each nizdmat,
and a tahsllddr in each tahslL

The lowest court of original jurisdiction in civil and revenue cases
is that of the tahsllddr , from whose decisions appeals lie to the nazim.
The next higher court is that of the naib-ndzim, who exercises criminal
and civifr powers, and from whose decisions appeals also lie to the
nazim. The nazim is a Sessions Judge, with power to pass sentences
of imprisonment not exceeding fourteen years, as well as an appellate
court in criminal, civil, and revenue cases. From his decisions appeals
lie in criminal and civil cases to the Sadr Addlat^ and in revenue
cases to the Dlwan, with a second appeal to the Chief Court, and

16 PAT! A LA STATE

a third to the Ijlas-i-Khas ; both the last-mentioned courts also
exercise revisional jurisdiction in all cases. All sentences of death or
transportation for life require the confirmation of the Maharaja, or,
during his minority, of the Council of Regency.

Special jurisdiction in criminal cases is also exercised by the
following officials. The Mir Munshi, or foreign minister, has the
powers of a Sessions Judge with respect to cases in which one or both
parties are not subjects of the State ; cases under the Telegraph and
Railway Acts are decided by a special magistrate, from whose decision
an appeal lies to the Mir Munshi; certain canal and forest officers
exercise magisterial powers in respect of offences concerning those
departments; and the Inspector-General exercises similar powers in
respect of cases in which the police are concerned. During the settle-
ment operations the settlement officers are also invested with power to
decide revenue cases, and from their decisions appeals lie to the
Settlement Commissioner. At the capital there are a magistrate and
a civil judge, from whose decisions appeals lie to the Mudwtn Addlat.

The Sikh Jats are addicted to crimes of violence, illicit distillation,
and traffic in women, the Hindu Jats and the Rajputs to cattle-theft,
and the Chuhras to theft and house-breaking, while the criminal
tribes Sansls, Baurias, Baloch, and Minis are notorious for theft,
robbery, and burglary.

In 1902 a few panchdyats were established in the Narwana and
Govindgarh tahslls for the settlement of disputes of a civil nature.
The experiment has proved successful, and there are now 76 of these
rural courts scattered about the State. Up to the end of 1906, they
had disposed of more than 45,000 cases, the value of the claims dealt
with being considerably over 60 lakhs. The parties have the right
to challenge the decision of the panchdyat in the ordinary courts, but
up to the present less than 2 per cent, of the decisions in disputed
cases have been challenged in this manner.

The chief of the feudatories are the Sardars of Bhadaur, who
between them enjoy a jagir of over Rs. 70,000 per annum. Like
the ruling family, they are descendants of Phul ; but in 1855 the
claim of Patiala to regard the Bhadaur chiefs as feudatories of her own
was disallowed by Government, and their villages were brought under
British jurisdiction. Three years later the supremacy over Bhadaur
was ceded to the Maharaja as a small portion of the reward for his
loyalty in 1857. The tenure of the jdgtr is subject to much f the same
incidents in respect of lapse and commutation as similar assignments
in the British portion of the Cis-Sutlej territory. There are at present
six sharers in the jdgtr, while the widows of (jjeceased members of the
family 'whose shares have lapsed to the State receive maintenance
allowances amounting to Rs. 8,699.

ADAIIN2STRA T1ON

The numerous jaglrdars of the Khamanon villages receive between
them over Rs. 90,000 a year from the State, and are entitled, in
addition, to various dues from the villagers. Ever since 1815 Patiala
had been held responsible for the general administration of this estate,
though the British Government reserved its rights to escheats and
military service. In 1847 the question of bringing the villages
entirely under British jurisdiction was mooted. The negotiations were
prolonged until after the Mutiny, when, in 1860, Government trans-
ferred its rights in the estate to Patiala in return for a nazarana of
Rs. 1,76,360. T}\z jagirdars are exempted from the appellate juris-
diction of the ordinary courts, and are entitled to have their appeals
heard by the foreign minister. The jaglrdars of Pail constitute the
only remaining group of assignees of any importance. Their jagirs
amount in all to over Rs. 18,000, and are subject to the usual incidents
of lapse and commutation.

The main area of the State corresponds roughly to the old Mughal
sarkdr of Sirhind, and was subject to Akbar's fiscal reforms. Formerly
the State used to collect nearly all its revenue in kind, taking generally
one-third of the produce as its share, calculated either by actual
division or by a rough and ready appraisement. In 1862 a cash
assessment was first made. It resulted in a total demand of about
30-9 lakhs, reduced three years later to 29-4 lakhs. Afterwards
summary assessments were made every ten years, until in 1901
a regular settlement was undertaken, a British officer being appointed
Settlement Commissioner. The present demand is 41-5 lakhs or,
including cesses and other dues, 44-8 lakhs, of which 4-7 lakhs are
assigned, leaving a balance of 40 lakhs realizable by the State. The
revenue rates on unirrigated land vary from a minimum of R. 0-6-4
in parts of Mohindargarh to a maximum of Rs. 5-11-3 in the Bet
circle of the Sirhind tahsll^ and on irrigated land from 12 annas in
Pail to Rs. 9-9-6 in the Dhaya circle of Sirhind. There are wide
variations from circle to circle in the average rates. The average
'dry' rate in one of the Mohindargarh circles is ten annas, while in
the Bet of Sirhind it is Rs. 3-14-6. Similarly, the average 'wet 1 rate
in the Sunam tahstl is Rs. 1-13-4, and in the Dhaya of Sirhind
Rs. 5-11-3-

The collections of land revenue alone and of total revenue are
shown bejow, in thousands of rupees :

1880-1.

1890-1.

1900-1.

1903-4.

Laud revenue .
Total revenue . * .

32,68
40,92

32,71
53,^

33, J 7
65,34

34,63
66,75

The principal sources of revenue, other than land revenue, and the

48 P ATI ALA STATE

amounts derived from each in 1903-4, are: public works, including
irrigation and railways (14-1 lakhs), excise (2-2 lakhs), octroi (1-9 lakhs),
stamps (1*7 lakhs), and provincial rates (1-4 lakhs); while the main
heads of expenditure are public works (14-4 lakhs), army (9-1 lakhs),
civil list (4*5 lakhs), police (4*2 lakhs), land revenue administration
(4 lakhs), general administration (3 lakhs), religious and charitable
endowments (1-9 lakhs), and medical (1-8 lakhs).

The right of coinage was conferred on Raja Amar Singh by Ahmad
Shah Durrani in 1767. No copper coin was ever minted, and only on
one occasion, in the reign of Maharaja Narindar Singh, were 8-anna
and 4-anna pieces struck ; but rupees and gold coins or ashrafis were
coined at intervals up to 1895, when the mint was closed for ordinary
coinage. Up to the last the coins bore the legend that they were
struck under the authority of Ahmad Shah, and the coinage of each
chief bore a distinguishing device, generally a representation of some
kind of weapon. The Patiala rupee was known as the Raja shahi
rupee. It was rather lighter than the British rupee, but contained
the same amount of silver. Rupees known as Ndnak shahi rupees,
which are used in connexion with religious ceremonies at the Dasahra
and Dlwali festivals, are still coined, with the inscription

Degh, tegh o fateh nusrat be darang.
Ytift az Ndnak Guru Gobind Singh.

Prior to 1874, the distillation, the sale, and even the use of liquor
were prohibited. The present arrangement is that no distillation is
allowed except at the central distillery at Patiala town. The distiller
there pays a still-head duty of Rs. 4 per gallon. The licences for retail
sale are auctioned, except in the case of European liquor, the vendors
of which pay Rs. 200 or Rs. 100 per annum according as their sales
do or do not exceed 2,000 bottles. The State is privileged to receive
a number of chests of Malwa opium every year at a reduced duty of
Rs. 280 per chest of 140^ Ib. The number is fixed annually by the
Government of the Punjab, and varies from 74 to 80. For anything
over and above this amount, the full duty of Rs. 725 per chest is paid.
The duty paid on the Malwa opium imported has, since 1891, been
refunded to the State, with the object of securing the hearty co-
operation of the State officials in the suppression of smuggling.
Import of opium into British territory from the Mohindargarh nizdmat
is prohibited. The importers of opium into Patiala pay p. duty of
R. i per seer to the State. Licences for the retail sale of opium and
hemp drugs are sold by auction. Wholesale licences' for the sale of
liquor, opium, and drugs are issued on payment of small fixed fees.

Patiala town was constituted a municipality in 1904 and Narnaul
in 1906.

The Public Works department was reorganized in 1903 under a

ADMINISTRA TION

Superintending Engineer, who is subject to the control of one of the
members of Council of the Regency. An extensive programme of
public works has been framed, the total cost of which will be 85 lakhs ;
and a considerable portion of it has been carried out at a cost of
25 lakhs during the three years that have elapsed since the reorganiza-
tion of the department. Public offices, tahslls^ police stations, schools,
dispensaries, markets, and barracks have been erected. The darbdr
chamber in Patiala Fort has been remodelled and reroofed, and is
now a magnificent hall. A large Central jail has been constructed at
Patiala, and a number of new roads have been made. Among build-
ings erected during the last few years by private subscription may be
mentioned the Victoria Memorial Poorhouse at Patiala, which cost
Rs. 80,000, and the Victoria Girls' School, which cost half that sum.

In 1903-4 the regular police force consisted of 1,973 f a ^ ranks.
The village watchmen numbered 2,775. There are 42 police stations,
3 outposts, and 17 road-posts. The force is under the control of an
Inspector-General. District Superintendents are appointed for each
nizdmat with inspectors under them, while each police station is in
charge of a thanadar. The State contains two jails, the Central jail
at the capital and the other at Mohindargarh, which hold 1,100 and
50 prisoners respectively. The Imperial Service contingent maintained
by the State consists of a regiment of cavaJry and two battalions of
infantry. The local troops consist of a regiment of cavalry, two
battalions of infantry, and a battery of artillery with eight guns. The
State possesses altogether fifty serviceable guns. The total strength of
the State army- officers, non-commissioned officers, and men is 3,429.

Patiala is the most backward of the larger States of the Punjab in
point of education. The percentage of literate persons is only 2-4
(4-2 males and o-i females) as compared with 2-7, the average for the
States of the Province. The percentage of literate females doubled
between 1891 and 1901, but that of literate males declined from
5-3 to 4-2. The number of persons under instruction was 6,479 m
1880-1, 6,187 m 1890-1, 6,058 in 1900-1, and 6,090 in 1903-4. In
the last year the State possessed an Arts college, 21 secondary and
89 primary (public) schools, and 3 advanced and 129 elementary
(private) schools, with 538 girls in the public and 123 in the private
schools. The expenditure on education was Rs. 83,303. The
Director of Public Instruction is in charge of education, and under
him are two inspectors.

The State possesses altogether 34 hospitals, and dispensaries, of
which 10 contain accommodation for 165 in-patients. In 1903-4 the
number of cases treated was 198,527, of whom 2,483 were in-patients,
and 10,957 operations were performed. The expenditure was
Rs. 87,076, wholly met from State funds. The administration is

50 P ATI ALA STATE

usually controlled by an officer of the Indian Medical Service, who
is medical adviser to the Maharaja, with nine Assistant Surgeons.
The Sadr and Lady Dufferin Hospitals at the capital are fine buildings,
well equipped, and a training school for midwives and nurses was
opened in 1906.

Vaccination is controlled by an inspector of vaccination and regis-
tration of vital statistics, under whom are a supervisor and thirty
vaccinators. In 1903-4 the number of persons successfully vaccinated
was 43,782, or 27 per 1,000 of the population. Vaccination is no-
where compulsory.

The Bhadaur villages in the Anahadgarh tahsil were surveyed and
mapped by the revenue staff in 1854-5, and the whole of the
Mohindargarh tahsil in 1858, while they were still British territory.
In 1877-9 a revenue survey of the whole State, except the Pinjaur
tahstl) was carried out; but maps were not made except for the
Mohindargarh and Anahadgarh nisatnats, and for a few scattered
villages elsewhere. During the present settlement, the whole of the
State is being resurveyed, and the maps will be complete in 1907.

The first trigonometrical survey was made in 1847-9, an d maps
were published on the i-inch and 2-inch scales; but the Pinjaur tahsil
was not surveyed until 1886-92, when 2-inch maps were published.
A 4-inch map of the Cis-Sutlej States was published in 1863, and in
the revised edition of 1897 the Pinjaur tahsil was included. The
i-inch maps prepared in 1847-9 were revised in 1886-92.

[H. A. Rose, Phulkian States Gazetteer (in the presb) ; L. H. Griffin,
The Rajas of the Punjab (second edition, 1873); Khalifa Muhammad
Hasan, Tarikh-i- Patiala (T**77); also the various Histories of the
Sikhs.]

Patiala Tahsil (or Chaurasi). - North-eastern tahsil of the Karm-
garh nizamat, Patiala State, Punjab, lying between 30 8' and 30 27' N.
and 76 1 7' and 76 36' E., with an area of 273 square miles. The
population was 121,224 in 1901, compared with 128,221 in 1891. It
contains two towns, PATIALA (population, 53,545), the head-quarters,
and SANAUR (8,530); and 197 villages. The tahsil lies wholly within
the Pawadh. The land revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to
2-1 lakhs.

Patiala Town. Capital of the Patiala State, Punjab, situated in
30 20' N. and 76 28' E., on the west bank of the Patiala stream,
34 miles west of Ambala cantonment, and on the Rajpura-Bhatinda
branch of the North-Western Railway. It is also connected with Nabha
and Sangrur by metalled roads. Population (1901), 53,545.

After the fall of Sirhind in 1763, Raja Ala Singh built a masonry fort
on the site of Patiala, then a petty village, from the customs dues
collected at Sirhind. The inhabitants of Sirhind migrated in large

PATKAI 51

numbers to Patiala, which has ever bince been the capital of the chiefs
of the State. It is the centre of a considerable local trade, many
articles of luxury being manufactured in it. It contains a State work-
shop. The old palace is in the middle of the town, which is not
unpicturesque, the bazars being wide and straight, though the side
streets are narrow and crooked. The environs of the town are, how-
ever, beautifully laid out with gardens and shady roads, among which
are the numerous public buildings and residences of the Maharaja and
his officials. Of the former, the Mohindar College, the Rajindar
Victoria Diamond Jubilee Library, the Rajindar Hospital, the Baradari
or royal residence, the Moti Bagh, or * pearl garden,' and the Victoria
Memorial Poorhouse deserve mention. The sanitation of the town
is efficient ; but owing to its low-lying situation it is subject to heavy
floods, which occasionally do much damage to its buildings, and cause
malarial fevers in the autumn months. A municipality has recently
been established. The town contains the Sadr and Lady Dufferin
Hospitals, and the Lady Curzon Training School for midwives and
nurses, opened in 1906. The Victoria Girls' School was opened in
the same year.

Patkai. A range of hills lying to the south of Lakhimpur District,
Assam, between 26 30' and 27 15' N. and 95 15' and 96 15' E.
The general height of the range is about 4,000 feet, but it contains
.summits nearly 7,000 feet in height. The hills are composed of Upper
Tertiary rocks, and their sides are clothed with dense forest. The pass
over the l\atkai is the recognized route between Burma and the Assam
Valley, though, as it entails a long march through wild and hilly
country, there is little intercourse between the two Provinces. It was
by this route that the Ahoms entered the valley of the Brahmaputra in
the thirteenth century ; and it was used by the Burmese when they were
summoned to Assam at the beginning of the nineteenth century to
assist Chandra Kanta, one of the last of the Ahom Rajas. In 1837
Dr. Griffiths crossed the Patkai into the Hukawng valley, and in 1896
a railway survey party traversed the range. The construction of a
line from Ledo in Lakhimpur District over the Patkai and down the
Hukawng valley to Taungni station in the Mu valley was estimated
to cost 383 lakhs for a total length of 284 miles. The line, if made,
would be carried through the summit of the Patkai in a tunnel 5,000
feet in length and situated 2,750 feet above the level of the sea. The
rocks in that neighbourhood consist of an indurated sandstone. The
hills are inhabited by Naga tribes. Those who live on the Hukawng
side of the watershed are subject to Singpho chiefs. They are armed
with daos, muskets, and -cross-bows, and their villages are usually well
situated for defence. An account of these people is annexed to the
teport of the railway survey party.

PATLUR

Patlur. < Crown ' taluk of the Atraf-i-balda District, Hyderabad
State, lying south of Bidar District, with an area of 595 square miles
including jaglrs. The population in 1901 was 52,833, compared
with 53,878 in 1891. It contains 138 villages, of which 23 are jagir^
and Dharur (population, 1,949) is the head-quarters. The land revenue
in 1901 was 1-6 lakhs.

Patna Division. A Division of Bihar in Bengal, lying between
24 17' and 27 31' N. and 83 19' and 86 44' E. It is bounded on
the east by the Bhagalpur Division, and on the west by the United
Provinces, and extends from Nepal on the north to the Chota Nagpur
plateau on the south. The head-quarters of the Commissioner, who
is assisted by an Additional Commissioner, are at BANKIPORE. The
Division includes seven Districts, with area, population, and revenue
as shown below :

Land i cvenuc

District.

Area in
square miles.

Population,
1901.

and cesses,
. iQ<>3-4,
in thousands

of rupees.

Patna

2,075

1,624,985

I9>5 8

Gay a

4<7!2

2,059,933

19.54

Shahabad

4,373

1,962,696

21,62

Saran

2,674

2,409,509

J6,22

Champaran

3)53i

l,7 f >4 6 3

6,8 9

Muzaffarpur

,W,5

-',754^790

13,64

Darbhan^a

3,348

2,912,611

^,93

Total

23,74*

I 5*5 I 49 8 7

1,10,42

NOTE. In the Census Report of 1901 the area of Satan was shown as 2,656
square miles, of Muzaftarpur as 3,004 square miles, and of Darhhanga as
3,33S square miles. The figures adopted above ate taken fiom the recent
Settlement Reports.

The population increased from 13,118,917 in 1872 to 15,061,493 in
1881 and to 15,811,604 in 1891, but in 1901 it had fallen to 15,514,987.
This decrease was shared by all the Districts except Muzaffarpur and
Darbhanga. In Champaran the decline is attributable to the un-
healthiness of the District, which suffered greatly from malarial
affections and severe epidemics of cholera. Elsewhere the decrease
is mainly attributable to the direct and indirect losses caused by the
plague epidemic, a very heavy mortality, the flight of the immigrant
population, and, in some parts where the epidemic was raging at the
time of the Census, the failure of the census staff to effect an ex-
haustive enumeration. Prior to 1901 the epidemic kad been most
virulent in Patna, whose population declined by 8-4 per cent, during
the decade.

The average density is 653 persons per square mile, a high propor-
tion compared with Bengal as a whole. The population exceeds that

PATNA DIVISION 53

of any other Division, and is, in fact, about the same as that of the
whole of the Bombay Presidency excluding Sind, while it is nearly
three times as numerous as that of Assam. In 1901 Hindus constituted
88*4 per cent, of the total and Musalmans 11-5 per cent.; there were
7>35 Christians (of whom 3,146 were natives), and 999 Jains.

The Division is intersected from west to east by the Ganges. North
of the river it is a flat alluvial formation, rising very gradually towards
the foot of the Himalayas, and possessing many tracts of great natural
fertility. On the other side of the river it contains a strip of alluvium
along the bank of the Ganges, but farther south the soil changes, and
the surface becomes more undulating and gradually rises till the Chota
Nagpur plateau is reached. The north of the Division enjoys in
ordinary years ,a comparatively copious rainfall increasing towards the
north, but is peculiarly liable to failure of crops in seasons of deficient
rain. In the south a large area is protected by the SON CANALS
system, and elsewhere the undulating surface enables the people to
construct small reservoirs from which to water their fields, The four
North Ganges Districts have recently been surveyed, and a record-of-
rights has been prepared. This tract is the main seat of the indigo
industry in Bengal, and its out-turn in 1903-4 amounted to 907 tons,
compared with 476 tons from the rest of the Province. The com-
petition of synthetic indigo and the consequent fall in prices have
struck a severe blow at the prosperity of the industry, and for some
years it has been steadily on the decline. Experiments are being
made with a view to increase the out-turn and to improve the quality
of the dye, while several factories are now devoting their attention to
other crops, and attempts are being made at Ottur in Muzaffarpur
District and elsewhere to revive the old sugar industry.

The Division contains 35 towns and 34,169 villages. The largest
towns are PATNA (population, 134,785), GAYA (71,288), DARBHANGA
(66,244), ARRAH (46,170), CHAPRA (45,901), MUZAFFARPUR (45,617),
BIHAR (45,063), DINAPORE (33,699 including the cantonment), BETTIAH
(24,696), SASARAM (23,644), and HAJ!PUR (21,398). Owing to the
prevalence of plague at the time of the Census (March, 1901), these
figures do not in several cases represent the normal populations of the
towns ; a subsequent enumeration held in July showed the population
of Patna city to be 153,739. Patna is, after Calcutta and its suburb
Howrah, the largest town in Bengal, and is a very important commercial
centre ; a large amount of traffic also passes through REVELGANJ,
Hajipur, and MOKAMEH, while the workshops of the Bengal and North-
Western Railway are at SAMASTIPUR.

The Division contains* the oldest towns in the Province; and Patna,
Gaya, and Bihar have a very ancient history. Patna was the Pataliputra
of Greek times and, like Gaya, contains many interesting antiquities.

54 PATNA DIVISION

This neighbourhood was at one time a stronghold of Buddhism;
and many Buddhist remains occur in Patna, Gaya, Champaran, and
Muzaffarpur Districts, among the most important sites being Patna
city and BUDDH GAYA. Four pillars mark the route taken by Asoka
through Muzaffarpur and Champaran on his way to what is now
the Nepal tarai. Of these, the pillar near LAURIYA NANDANGARH
is still almost perfect ; another stands near BASARH, which is probably
the site of the capital of the old kingdom of Vaisall. Interesting
remains of the Muhammadan period are found in the town of Bihar,
in the city of Patna, and at Sasaram, ROHTASGARH, SHKRGARH, and
MANER. BUXAR was the scene of the defeat in 1764 of Mir Kasim
in the battle which resulted in the civil authority of Bengal, Bihar, and
Orissa being conferred on the East India Company. Several places
in the Division are associated with incidents in the Mutiny of 1857.
After the outbreak of three regiments at Dinapore, Shahabad, from
which the native army was largely recruited, was for some time overrun
with the rebels, and the story of the defence of ARRAH is well-known.
Gaya was traversed by several bands of mutineers, and on three occa-
sions the jail was broken open and the prisoners released. At SAGAULI
in Champaran District Major Holmes was massacred by his troops.

Patna District. District of the Patna Division, Bengal, lying
between 24 57' and 25 44' N. and 84 42' and 86 4' E., with an
area of 2,075 square miles. It is bounded on the north by the river
Ganges, which divides it from Saran, Muzaffarpur, and Darbhanga j on
the south by Gaya j on the east by Monghyr ; and on the west by
Shahabad.

With the exception of the Rajgir hills in the south, the whole District
is quite flat. The land along the bank of the Ganges is slightly higher
than that farther inland, and the line of drainage
aspects consequently runs from south-west to north-east.

The Rajgir hills, which enter the District from
Gaya, consist of two parallel ranges ; they seldom exceed 1,000 feet
in height, and are for the most part rocky and covered with low
jungle.. The principal river is the Ganges, which flows for 93 miles
along the northern boundary. The Son forms the western boundary
of the District for 41 miles, entering it near Mahabalipur and flowing in
a northerly direction to its junction with the Ganges. A little above
the junction it is bridged by the East Indian Railway at Koelwar, from
which point the river divides into two streams with a fertile island in
the middle. The Punpun river, which rises in the fsouth of Gaya
^District, flows through Patna in a north-easterly direction. At Naubat-
pur it approaches the Patna Canal, and from that point it turns to
the east, and falls into the Ganges at Fatwa. Some 9 miles above
this point it is joined by the Morhar. The Panchana and the Phalgu,

PATNA DISTRICT 55

though comparatively small streams, are of the greatest value for irriga-
tion purposes; the whole of their water is diverted into artificial
channels and reservoirs, and their main channels are mere dried-up
beds for the greater part of the year. The Sakri is another river which
fails to reach the Ganges owing to the demands made upon it for irriga-
tion purposes, nearly all its water being carried away by two large
irrigation channels constructed on its left bank, 12 miles below Bihar
town.

The whole District is of alluvial origin except the Rajgir hills, which
consist of submetamorphic or transition rocks.

The District contains no forests. The level country near the Ganges
has in the rice-fields the usual weeds of such localities. Near villages
there are often considerable groves of mango-trees and palmyras
(Borassus flabellifer)^ some date-palms (Phoenix sylvestris), and nume-
rous examples of the tamarind and other semi-spontaneous and more
or less useful species. Farther from the river the country is more diver-
sified ; and sometimes a dry scrub jungle is to be met with, contain-
ing various shrubs of the order of Euphorbiaceae^ the palas (Butea
frondosa) and other leguminous trees, and various kinds of Ficus^
Schleichera, Wendlandia, and Gmelwa. The grasses that clothe the
drier parts are generally of a coarse character.

Antelope are found near the Son river, and wild hog in the diaras or
islands of the Ganges ; bears and leopards occasionally visit the Rajgir
hills, and wolves also are sometimes seen.

Owing to its distance from the sea, Patna has greater extremes of
climate than the south and east of Bengal. The mean temperature
varies from 60 in January to 88 in May. The highest average maxi-
mum is 101 in April. Owing to the dry westerly winds with increasing
temperature in March and April, the humidity at that season is
very low and averages 50 per cent. With the approach of the monsoon
the air gradually becomes more charged with moisture, and the
humidity remains steady at about 86 per cent, throughout July and
August, failing to 71 per cent, in November. The annual rainfall
averages 45 inches, of which 7 inches fall in June, 12-2 in July, 11-3 in
August, and 6-9 in September. Floods are common, but they ordinarily
do little damage and are seldom attended with loss of life. Heavy
floods occurred in 1843, 1861, 1870, and 1879; of late years the prin-
cipal floods were those of 1897 and 1901, when the Son and the
Ganges* wfere in flood at the same time.

The District possesses great interest for both the historian and the
archaeologist. It was comprised, with the country now included in the
Districts of Gaya and Shahabad, within the ancient
kingdom of Magadha, whose capital was at RAJGIR ;
and its general history is outlined in the articles on MAGADHA and

56 PATNA DISTRICT

BIHAR, in which Magadha was eventually merged. Its early history
is intimately interwoven with that of PATNA CITY, which has been
identified with Pataliputra (the Palibothra of Megasthenes). It con-
tains the town of Bihar, the early Muhammadan capital, from which
the sub-province takes its name ; and it was a famous seat of Buddhism,
and many places in it were visited and described by the Chinese
pilgrims, Fa Hian and Hiuen Tsiang.

In recent times two events of special interest to Englishmen stand
prominently out and demand separate notice. The one is known as
the Massacre of Patna (1763), and the other is connected with the
Mutiny of 1857. The former occurrence, which may be said to have
sealed the fate of Muhammadan rule in Bengal, was the result of a
quarrel between Mir Kasim, at that time Nawab, and the English
authorities. The Nawab, after much negotiation, had agreed to a con-
vention which was also accepted by Mr. Vansittart, the Governor, that
a transit duty of only 9 per cent, should be paid by Englishmen, which
was far below the rate exacted from other traders. This convention,
however, was repudiated by the Council at Calcutta ; and Mir Kasim,
in retaliation, resolved to abandon all duties whatever on the transit
of goods, and to throw the trade of the country open to all alike a
measure still less acceptable to the Company's servants and their
relations with the Nawcib became more strained than ever. In April,
1763, a deputation, consisting of Messrs. Hay and Amyatt, was dis-
patched from Calcutta to Monghyr, where the Nawab had taken up his
residence ; but it was now too late for negotiation. Numerous and
fierce disputes had arisen between the gumdshtas (agents) of the English
and the Muhammadan officers ; and an occurrence which happened
at Monghyr, while Messrs. Hay and Amyatt were there, hastened the
rupture. Mir Kasim seized and detained some boat-loads of arms
which were passing up the Ganges to Patna, on the ground that the
arms were destined to be used against himself, whereupon Mr. Ellis,
the chief of the factory at Patna, ordered his sepoys to occupy Patna
city, which was done the following morning, June 25. In revenge
the Nawab sent a force in pursuit of Mr. Amyatt, who had been allowed
to return to Calcutta, Mr. Hay having been detained as a hostage.
Mr. Amyatt was overtaken and murdered near Cossimbazar. In the
meantime the Company's sepoys, who had been plundering Patna city,
were driven back to the factory, a large number of them being killed.
The remainder, less than a sixth of the original force of 2jooo men,
after being besieged for two days and nights, fled in their boats to the
frontier of Oudh, where they ultimately laid down their arms. They
were brought back to Patna, to which place had been conveyed
Mr. Hay from Monghyr, the entire staff of the Cossimbazar factory,
who had also been arrested at the first outbreak of hostilities, and

HISTORY 57

some other prisoners. As soon as regular warfare commenced, Mir
Kasim's successes came to an end. He was defeated in two battles
by Major Adams, at Giria on August 2, and at Udhua Nullah on
September 5. These defeats roused the Nawab to exasperation, and
on September 9 he wrote to Major Adams : * If you are resolved to pro-
ceed in this business, know for a certainty that I will cut off the heads
of Mr. Ellis and the rest of your chiefs, and send them to you.' This
threat he carried out on the evening of October 6 with the help of
a renegade named Walter Reinhardt, who was known to the Muham-
madans as Sumru. About 60 Englishmen were murdered, their bodies
being thrown into a well in the compound of the house in which they
were confined, and about 150 more met their death in other parts of
Bengal. This massacre was followed by an active campaign in which
the English ' were everywhere successful ; and finally in August,
1765, after the decisive battle of Buxar, the administration of Bihar,
Bengal, and Orissa was made over to the East India Company. An
English Resident was appointed at Patna ; but the administration of
Bihar, which then comprised only Patna and Gaya Districts Patna
city itself being regarded as a separate charge remained in the hands
of natives. In 1769 English Supervisors were appointed, and in 1770
a Council for Bihar was established at Patna. In 1774 the Supervisors,
who had meanwhile been designated Collectors, and the Council for
Bihar were abolished, and a Provincial Council was established at
Patna. This lasted till 1781, when Bihar was made a District under a
Collector and a Judge-Magistrate. In 1865 it was divided into Patna
and Gaya Districts, the Bihar subdivision being included in the former,
and nineteen estates were transferred from Patna to Tirhut in 1869,
thus constituting the District as it now exists.

The other important event in the modern history of the District is
the mutiny of the sepoys stationed at Dinapore, the military station
attached to Patna city. The three sepoy regiments at this place in
1857 were the 7th, 8th, and 4oth Native Infantry. General Lloyd, who
commanded the station, wrote expressing his confidence in their loyalty,
and they were accordingly not disarmed ; but as the excitement in-
creased throughout Bihar, and stronger measures seemed in the opinion
of the Commissioner, Mr. Tayler, to be necessary, the general, while
still apparently relying on the trustworthiness of the men, made a half-
hearted attempt at disarming the sepoys. The result was that the
three regiments revolted and went off in a body, taking with them
their arms and Accoutrements, but not their uniforms. Some took to
the Ganges, where their boats were fired into and run down by a
steamer which was present, and their occupants shot or drowned. But
the majority were wiser, and hastened to the river Son, crossing which
they found themselves safe in Shahabad. The story of what took place

58 PATNA DISTRICT

in Shahabad will be found in the article on AURAH. When the
news reached Bankipore that the rebels, headed by Kunwar (or Kuar)
Singh, had surrounded the Europeans at Arrah, an ill-fated attempt
was made to rescue them. A steamer, which was sent up the river
on July 27, stuck on a sandbank. Another steamer was started on
the 2Qth ; but the expedition was grossly mismanaged. The troops
were landed at 7 p.m., and fell into an ambuscade about midnight.
When the morning dawned, a disastrous retreat had to be commenced.
Out of the 400 men who had left Dinapore fully half were left behind ;
and of the survivors only about 50 returned unwounded. Two volun-
teers, Mr. McDonell and Mr. Ross Mangles, both of the Civil Service,
besides doing excellent service on the march, performed acts of
conspicuous daring. The former, though wounded, was one of the
last men to enter the boats, and subsequently stepped out of shelter,
climbed on the roof of the boat, and released the rudder, which had been
lashed by the insurgents, amidst a storm of bullets from the contiguous
bank. Mr. Ross Mangles's conduct was equally heroic. He carried a
wounded man for 6 miles till he reached the stream, and then swam
with his helpless burden to a boat, in which he deposited him in safety.
Both these gentlemen afterwards received the Victoria Cross as a
reward for their heroism.

The chief places of archaeological interest are RAJGJR, MANER,
PATNA CITY, BIHAR, and GIRIAK. The village of BARAGAON has been
identified as the site of the famous Nalanda monastery, and with the
neighbouring village of Begampur contains masses of ruins ; at
Tetrawan and Jagdlspur are colossal statues of Buddha, and at Telhara
and Islampur the remains of Buddhist monasteries. Many other
Buddhist remains are of more or less interest.

The population increased from 1,559,517 in 1872 to 1,756,196 in
1881 and to 1,773,410 in 1891, but dropped to 1,624,985 in 1901.
The apparent increase between 1872 and 1881 was
largely owing to defective enumeration in the former
year, while the decrease recorded in 1901 is due mainly to the direct
and indirect results of plague, which first broke out in January, 1900,
and was raging in the District at the time when the Census was taken,
causing many people to leave their homes and greatly increasing the
difficulties in the way of the census staff. The loss of population was
greatest in the thickly populated urban and semi-urban country along
the banks of the Ganges, where the plague epidemic was most virulent.
The south of the District, which suffered least from plague, almost held
its ground. Plague has since become practically an annual visitation
and causes heavy mortality. The principal statistics of the Census of
1901 are shown in the table on the next page.

The chief towns are PATNA CITY, BIHAR, DINAPORE, MOKAMEH, and

AGRICULTURE

BARH. The head-quarters are at BANKIPORE, a suburb of Patna. The
density is highest along the Ganges and in the Bihar thana^ and least
in the Bikram and Masaurhibazurg thdnas in the south-west and in the
Rajgir hills. There is a considerable ebb and flow of population across
:he boundary line which divides Patna from the adjoining Districts,
xnd, in addition to this, no less than one-twentieth of its inhabitants
have emigrated to more distant places. They are especially numerous
in Calcutta, where more than 30,000 natives of this District were
enumerated in 1901 ; these were for the most part only temporary
ibsentees. The vernacular of the District is the Magahi dialect of
Bihari Hindi. Hindus number 1,435,637, or 88*3 per cent, of the
total population, and Musalmans 186,411, or 11-5 per cent.

Number of

u- , 1
es **

oj S-fi Q^ . 1 Vr <u

Subdivision.

c 5

ill?

|S|2

ii u

Bankipore
Dinaporc .

334
424

975
791

34 1 >54
315,697

1,021

7-15

- 15.6
- 10-4

^7,778

Barh

- 10-5

22,509

Bihar

791

2,111

602,907

762

- 0.9

3^833

Dibtnct total

2,075

4,95*

1,624,985

- 8.4

104,275

The most numerous Hindu castes are Ahirs and Goaias (220,000),
Kurmls (181,000), Babhans (114,000), Dosadhs (96,000), Kahars
(85,000), Koiris (80,000), Rajputs (64,000), Chamars (56,000), and
Telis (52,000). Agriculture supports 62-3 per cent, of the population,
industries 17-1 percent., commerce 1-2 per cent., and professions 2-4
per cent.

Christians number 2,562, of whom only 139 are natives. The
principal missions are the London Baptist Missionary Society, the
London Baptist Zanana Mission, the Zanana Bible and Medical
Mission, and the Roman Catholic Mission. The Zanana Bible and
.Medical Mission possesses a well-equipped hospital in Patna city ; the
Roman Catholic Mission has a boys' school at Kurji, and u girls'
boarding-school and European and native orphanages at Bankipore ;
while each of the other missions, in addition to evangelistic work,
maintains some schools.

The agricultural conditions are fairly uniform throughout ; but the
Bihar subdivision is for the most part lower than the rest of the District

and is better adapted for the cultivation of rice, . . ,.

, ., , -r. , i ,. . . . , . Agriculture,

while the Barh subdivision is more suited to rabi

crops. The most naturally productive soil is the diara land along the
bank of the Ganges ; but the most valuable of all is the fertile high
VOL. ^cx. K

PATNA DISTRICT

land in the vicinity of villages, where well-irrigation can be practised,
and vegetables, poppy, and other profitable crops are grown.

The chief agricultural statistics for 1903-4 are shown below, areas
being in square miles :

Subdivision.

Total.

Cultivated.

Irrigated
from canals.

Cultivable
waste.

Bankipore .
Dinapore .
Barh.
Bihar

Total

334
424
526
791

246

^88

584
!,5*9

2 7

2 >75.

It is estimated that 10 per cent, of the cultivated area is twice
cropped. Rice is the staple food-crop, covering 338 square miles.
It is sown in June and reaped in December ; in low-lying marsh lands
sowing may commence as early as April. The greater portion of it is
transplanted, but on inferior lands it is sown broadcast. Of other
food-crops, wheat (202 square miles), barley (127 square miles), jowdr
(20 square miles), marud (97 square miles), maize (189 square miles),
gram (149 square miles) and other pulses (175 square miles) are widely
grown. Maize forms the principal food of the lower classes, except in
the Bihar subdivision, where marud takes its place. Mai/e and rahar
are frequently sown together, the maize being harvested in September
and the rahar in March. Oilseeds are grown on 74 square miles,
while of special crops the most important is poppy (27 square miles).
The poppy cultivated is exclusively the white variety (Papaver somni-
forum\ and the crop, which requires great attention, has to be grown
on land which can be highly manured and easily irrigated. Potatoes
are also grown extensively and are exported in large quantities, the
Patna potato having acquired more than a local reputation. Little use
has been made of the provisions of the Land Improvement and
Agriculturists' Loans Acts; Rs. 2,800 was advanced under the former
Act during the scarcity of 1897.

In addition to the common country cattle, two varieties are bred :
one a cross between the Hansi and the local stocks, and the other with
a strong English strain known as the Bankipore breed. The former
class are large massive animals, and the bullocks do well for carts
or ploughs, though the cows are not very good milkers. The Bankipore
breed is the residue of an English stock imported some fifty years ago.
The cows are excellent milkers, but the bullocks age not heavy or
strong enough for draught purposes. The breed has fallen off greatly
of late years through in-breeding and the want of new blood, but the
District board has recently imported two Jersey bulls from Australia.
Bullocks from Tirhut are largely used for ploughing. Pasture grounds

TRADE AND COMMUNICATIONS 61

are very scarce, and the cattle are usually fed with chopped straw or
maize stalks with bhusa (chaff) and pulse, or with linseed cake when
available. Persons wishing to buy horses or cattle usually go to the
Sonpur fair in Saran or the Barahpur fair in Shahabad, a fair at Bihta
with an attendance of 5,000 being the only cattle fair held in Patna
District. Of other fairs, that held at Rajgir is by far the most
important.

The whole District depends largely on irrigation. In the head-
quarters and Dinapore subdivisions the Patna Canal, a branch of the
SON CANALS system, irrigates an area of 70 square miles, and supplies
most of the needs of the people. r l*he length of the main canal (in this
District) is 42^ miles, that of the parallel channels 24 miles, and that
of the distributaries 161 miles. In the Bihar subdivision an extensive
system of private irrigation works fed from the local rivers is maintained
by the zamlndars. Each zamlndar has vested rights in a certain
quantity of river water, which he carefully stores by means of embank-
ments and distributes through reservoirs and channels to his ryots.
It is estimated that the area thus irrigated in this subdivision is about
437 square miles, out of a total cultivated area of 584 square miles.
The system works> admirably as long as the rivers which feed the
irrigation works bring down their normal quantity of water; but a
serious drought, both locally and in the hills of Chota Nagpur where
these rivers rise, means an almost complete failure of crops. The
absence of a proper system of managing the head of supply has caused
many old streams to silt up and rendered useless some of the
distributing channels. Well-irrigation is universally used for vegetable
and poppy cultivation, and occasionally for irrigating the rabi crops ;
one well will irrigate about 2 acres of land. Irrigation from tanks is
seldom practised.

Carpets, brocades, embroidery, pottery, brass-work, toys, fireworks,
lac ornaments, gold and silver wire and leaf, glass-ware, boots and
shoes, and cabinets are made in Patna city ; carpets
in Sultanganj, Plrbahor, and Chauk ; and embroidery
and brocade work in the Chauk and Khwaja Kalan
thanas. Durable furniture and cabinets are made at Dinapore. The
manufactures of the Barh subdivision are jessamine oil (chameli)^ coarse
cloth, and brass and bell-metal utensils ; and of the Bihar subdivision
soap, silk fabrics, tubes for hukkas^ muslin, cotton cloth, and brass and
iron-ware. Apart from hand industries, certain articles, such as stools
and tables, are made in the workshops of the Bihar School of Engineer-
ing, and chests for packing opium in the saw-mills of the Patna Opium
Factory. Opium is manufactured by Government at a factory in Patna
city. Some iron foundries are at work in Bankipore and Dinapore,
and an ice and aerated waters factory has been started at Bankipore.

K 2

62 PATNA DISTRICT

The principal imports are rice, paddy, salt, coal, kerosene oil,
European cotton piece-goods, and gunny bags ; and the principal
exports are wheat, linseed, pulses, mustard seed, hides, sugar, tobacco,
and opium. A large amount of trade is carried by the railway, but the
bulk of it is still transported by river. Patna city, with its 7 or 8 miles
of river frontage in the rains and 4 miles in the dry season, is the great
centre for all the river-borne trade. It is by far the largest mart in the
District, and its commanding position for both rail and river traffic
makes it one of the principal commercial centres of Bengal. Goods
received by rail are there transferred to country boats, bullock-carts, &c.,
to be distributed throughout the neighbourhood, uhich in return sends
its produce to be railed to Calcutta and elsewhere. The river trade
is carried by country boats and river steamers between Patna and
Calcutta and other places on the Ganges and Nadia Rivers, and by
country boats between Patna and Nepal. Trade has declined very
greatly of late years, largely owing to the reduced freight charged by the
railways on goods booked direct to Calcutta. Other important markets
are DINAPORE, BIHAR, BARH, MOKAMEH, Islampur, FATWA, and
HILSA. The principal trading castes arc Telis, 'Baniyas, and Agarwals.
The transport by river is mostly in the hands of Musalmans, Tiyars,
and Mallahs, while the road traffic is almost monopolized by Goalas
and Kurmis.

The main line of the East Indian Railway runs through the north of
the District for 84 miles from east to west, entering at Dumra station
and leaving at the Son bridge. The chief stations are at Mokameh,
Barh, Bakhtiyarpur, Patna, Bankipore, and Dinapore. From Bankipore
one branch line runs to Gaya, and another to Gigha Ghat in connexion
with the Bengal and North-Western Railway ferry-steamer which
crosses the Ganges to the terminus of that railway at Sonpur. A third
branch line from Mokameh to Mokameh Ghat establishes another
connexion with the Bengal and North-Western Railway. A light
railway (18 miles in length) connects Bakhtiyarpur and Bihar. Ex-
clusive of 673 miles of village tracks, the District contains 614 miles
of road. Of these 132 miles arc metalled; 10 miles are maintained
from Provincial and 17 from municipal funds, and the remainder by
the District board. The chief road crosses the north of the District
through Barh, Patna city, Bankipore, and Dinapore, leading from
Monghyr on the east to Arrah on the west. Other important roads
are those from Bankipore to Palamau, from Bankipore to Ga^a, from
Fatwa to Gaya, and from Bakhtiyarpur through Bihar to Hazaribagh.

The Ganges and the Son are the only rivers navigable throughout
the year. The former is navigable by steamers, and daily services
run between Dlgha and Goalundo, Digha and Buxar, and Dlgha
and Barhaj, with an extended run every fourth day to Ajodhya

ADMINISTRA TION 63

on the Gogra. Paddle steamers ply from Dlgha to Goalundo, but
above Dlgha there are shallows and only stern-wheelers can be used.
The passenger traffic consists principally of labourers going to Eastern
Bengal in search of work, while the goods traffic is mostly in grain,
sugar and its products, and piece-goods. The Patna Canal is navi-
gable, and a large number of bamboos are brought down by it to
Patna. A bi-weekly service runs on it between Khagaul (l)inapore
railway station) and Mahabalipur in the head-quarters subdivision via
Bikram. Several ferries cross the Ganges, the most important being
those from Bankipore and Patna.

The District is not ordinarily liable to famine, and even in 1896-7
only local scarcity in the Barh and Bihar subdivisions was felt. Test
works were opened, but were closed almost at once. The total amount
spent on relief was only Rs. 31,000.

The District is divided into five subdivisions : BANKIPORE, BIHAR,
BARTI, PATNA CITV, and DINAPORE. The staff subordinate to the
District Magistrate-Collector at head-quarters con- . .
sists of a Joint-Magistrate, an Assistant Magistrate, mims r
and seven Deputy-Magistrate-Collectors. The other subdivisions are
each in charge of a European officer in the case of Bihar a Deputy-
Magistrate-Collector, and in the case of Barh, Patna city, and Dinapore
a member of the Indian Civil Service. The subdivisional officers
of Bcarh and Bihar are each assisted by a Sub- Deputy-Magistrate-
Collector.

The civil courts for the disposal of judicial work are those of the
District Judge, who is also the Sessions Judge, three Sub-Judges
and three Munsifs at Patna and one Munsif at Bihar, while the
Cantonment Magistrate at Dinapore is vested with the powers of
a Small Cause Court Judge. Criminal courts include those of the
Sessions Judge, District Magistrate, and the above-mentioned Joint,
Assistant, and Deputy-Magistrates. The majority of the cases which
come before the courts are of a petty nature. Both burglary and
robbery are, however, more common than in the other Districts of the
Division. Riots are also numerous ; they are generally connected
with land disputes or arise out of cattle trespass or questions of
irrigation.

Under the Muhammadans the District formed part of Siibah Bihar.
After it ^passed under British rule the principal feature of its land
revenue history has been the remarkable extent to which the sub-
division of esuftes has gone on. In 1790 there were 1,230 separate
estates on the roll held by 1,280 registered proprietors and copar-
ceners, the total land revenue in that year amounting to 4-33 lakhs.
In 1865 the Bihar subdivision with 796 estates was added to the
District, and four years later 19 estates were transferred from Patna

64 PATNA DISTRICT

to Tirhut. This brought the District practically to its present dimen-
sions. In 1870-1 the number of estates was 6,075, while the number
of registered proprietors had increased to 37,500 and the revenue
to 15-08 lakhs. In 1903-4 the number of estates had still farther
increased to 12,923 and of proprietors to 107,381, while the current
land revenue demand was 14-97 lakhs. This subdivision of estates
has added greatly to the difficulty of collecting the revenue and of
keeping the accounts connected therewith. The average area held
by each ryot, as shown in the latest settlement papers of certain
Government estates, varies considerably in different parts of the Dis-
trict, ranging from 1*47 acres in the Bihar to 4-76 acres in the Barh
subdivision for ordinary holdings, and from 7-30 acres in Dinapore
to 13-04 acres in the head-quarters subdivision for the diaras or river
islands. The rents of homestead land arc between Rs. 6 and Rs. 24
per acre. The average rate for clayey soils is about Rs. 5, while
land in which sand predominates lets for about half that amount.
The best didra lands fetch as much as Rs. 30 per acre, and the
worst, where the soil consists chiefly of sand, as little as 12 annas.
The rent of this class of land is higher than it would otherwise be,
owing to the fact that in many cases the tenant has no occupancy
right. About two-thirds of the Bihar subdivision is held under the
bhaott or produce-rent system. Three forms of this system prevail :
namely, danabandi, where the value of the produce is estimated and
the equivalent of the landlord's share paid in cash or rice; batai,
where the actual produce is divided ; and a fixed payment of rice
and dal. The last is comparatively rare. In the case of danabandi
and batai the shares are supposed to be equal, but actually the
landlord gets more than half. A common proportion is known as
'nine-seven/ i.e. out of every 16 seers the landlord takes nine and
the tenant seven. The ryot always gets the straw and other by-
products.

The following table shows the collections of land revenue and of
total revenue (principal heads only) in thousands of rupees :

1880-1.

1890-1.

i goo -i. 1903-4.

Land revenue .
Total revenue .

27.*73

14,76
28,03

14,91 15,07
31.85 32,68

Outside the municipalities of PATNA, BARH, BIHAR, and DINAPORK,
local affairs are managed by the District board, with subordinate local
boards in each subdivision. The District board has guaranteed
4 per cent, interest on the capital (8 lakhs) of the Bakhtiyarpur-
Bihar light railway, but it is entitled to receive half of any profits
in excess of that amount. In 1903-4 its income was Rs. 2,86,000,

PATNA CITY 65

of which Rs. 2,09,000 was derived from rates ; and the expenditure
was Rs. 2,47,000, including Rs. 1,46,000 spent on public works and
Rs. 44,000 on education.

The District contains 28 police stations and 31 outposts. The
force subordinate to the District Superintendent consisted in 1903
of 6 inspectors, 49 sub-inspectors, 88 head constables, and 1,195
constables; there was also a rural police force of 176 daffadars and
3,240 chaukidars. The District jail at Bankipore has accommodation
for 453 prisoners, and subsidiary jails at Barh and Bihar for 28 and
25 respectively.

Of the population 6*4 per cent. (12-3 males and o6 females) could
read and write in 1901. The total number of pupils under instruction
increased from about 27,000 in 1883-4 to 43,941 in 1890-1 ; it fell to
38,162 in 1900-1, but rose again in 1903-4, when 41,533 boys and
1,689 gi^ w ere at school being respectively 34-4 and 1*3 per cent,
of the children of school-going age. The number of educational
institutions, public and private, in that year was 1,829, including
two Arts colleges, 25 secondary, 1,255 primary, and 547 special
schools. The expenditure on education was 3-51 lakhs, of which
1*45 lakhs was met from Provincial funds, Rs. 44,000 from District
funds, Rs. 7,000 from municipal funds, and 1-16 lakhs from fees.
The chief educational institutions are the Patna College, the Patna
Medical College, and the Birmr School of Engineering at Patna, the
Bihar National College and the female high school at Bankipore, and
St. Michael's College for Europeans and Eurasians at KurjT, situated
half-way between Bankipore and Dinapore. There is a fine public
library at Bankipore.

In 1903 the District contained altogether 15 dispensaries, of which
5 had accommodation for 163 in-patients. The cases of 142,000 out-
patients and 2,500 in-patients were treated, and 12,000 operations
were performed. The expenditure was Rs. 39,000, of which Rs. 3,000
was met from Government contributions, Rs. 19,000 from Local and
Rs. 14,000 from municipal funds, and Rs. 3,000 from subscriptions.
A lunatic asylum at Patna has accommodation for 206 males and
56 females.

Vaccination is compulsory only in municipal areas. During 1903-4
the number of persons successfully vaccinated was 35,000, or 21-7 per
1,000 of the population.

[M. Martin, Eastern India (1838); J. R. Hand, Early English
Administration* of Bihar (Calcutta, 1894); and Sir W. W. Hunter,
Statistical Account of Bengal^ vol. xi (1877).]

Patna City (or Azirrfabad). Chief city of Patna District, Bengal,
situated in 25 37' N. and 85 10' E., on the right bank of the Ganges
a few miles below its junction with the Son. Included within the

66 PATNA CITY

municipal limits is Bankipore, the administrative head-quarters of
Patna District and Patna Division. The city is situated on the East
Indian Railway 332 miles from Calcutta; and though its prosperity
has somewhat diminished of late years, it still possesses an important
trade, its commanding position for both rail and river traffic making
it one of the principal commercial centres of Bengal, and, after
Calcutta, the largest town in the Province. Buchanan-Hamilton
estimated the population at 312,000; but his calculation referred to
an area of 20 square miles, whereas the city, as now defined, extends
over only 9 square miles. The population returned in 1872 was
158,900; but the accuracy of the enumeration was doubted, and
it was thought that the real number of inhabitants was considerably
greater. It is thus probable that the growth indicated by the Census
of 1881, which showed a population of 170,654, was fictitious. There
was a falling off of 5,462 persons between 1881 and 1891, while the
Census of 1901 gave a population of only 134,785, which represents
a further decrease of more than 18 per cent. This was due mainly
to the plague, which was raging at the time of the Census and not
only killed a great number but drove many more away. A second
enumeration taken five months later disclosed a population of 153,739.
The decrease on the figures of 1891, which still amounted to 7 per
cent., may be ascribed, in addition to the actual loss by deaths from
plague, to a declining prosperity due to the gradual decay of the
river-borne trade. The population at the regular Census of 1901
included 99,381 Hindus, 34,622 Musalmans, and 683 Christians.

Patna has a very ancient history. It is to be identified with the
Pataliputra of ancient India, the Palibpthra of the Greeks, and the
Kusumapura of the early Gupta emperors. Megasthenes describes
the city as situated on the south bank of the Ganges at the con-
fluence of another large river, Erannoboas (the Greek form of Hiranya-
Vahu} or Son, which formerly joined the Ganges immediately below
the modern city of Patna. The tradition of this junction still lingers
among the villagers to the south-west of Patna, where there is an old
channel called the Mara (' dead ') Son.

Regarding the origin of the city various legends exist. The most
popular ascribes it to a prince Putraka, who created it with a stroke
of his magic staff and named it in honour of his wife the princess
Patali. This story is found in the Katha Sarit Sagar and in Hiuen
Tsiang's travels. Diodorus attributes the foundation of Falibothra
to Herakles, by whom perhaps he may mean Balarasi, the brother
of Krishna. According to the Vayu Purana and the Sutapitaka, the
city of Kusumapura or Pataliputra was founded by the Sisundga
king Udaya, who ruled in Magadha towards the end of the fifth
century B.C.; but the Buddhist accounts place its origin in the reign

PATNA CITY 67

of Udaya's grandfather, Ajiltasatru. When Buddha crossed the Ganges
on his last journey from Rajagriha to Vaisall, the two ministers of
Ajatasatru, king of Magadha, were engaged in building a fort at the
village of Patali as a check upon the ravages of the people of Vrlji,
and he predicted that the fort would become a great city. The
Nandas who overthrew the Sisunagas removed the capital of Magadha
to Pataliputra from Rajagriha, the modern Rajgir, in the south-east
of Patna District. Under Chandragupta, the Greek Sandrokottos,
who established the Maurya dynasty in 321 B.C., Pataliputra became
the capital of Northern India. It was during the reign of this king
that in 305 B.C., or a little later, Megasthenes, whose account of
it has been preserved by Arrian, visited the city. He says that
Falibothra, which he describes as the capital city of India, is distant
from the Indus 10,000 stadia, i.e. 1,149 miles, or only 6 miles in
excess of the actual distance. He adds that the length of the city
was 80, and the breadth 15 stadia ; that it was surrounded by
a ditch 30 cubits deep; and that the walls were adorned with 570
towers and 64 gates. According to this account, the circumference
of the city would be 190 stadia or 24 miles. Strabo, Pliny, and
Arrian call the people Prasii, which has been variously interpreted
as * eastern ' (prachyd) people, or the men of Parasa, a name applied
to Magadha, derived from the palds-tree (Butea frondosci).

Asoka ascended the throne in 272 B.C., and was crowned at Patali-
putra in 269 B.C. During his reign of forty years he is said to have
changed the outward appearance of Pataliputra. He replaced or sup-
plemented the wooden walls by masonry ramparts, and filled his capital
with palaces, monasteries, and monuments, the sites of which have not,
as was once thought, been washed away by the river, but still remain to
be properly excavated and identified by archaeologists. Dr. Waddell
has already shown that Bhiknapahari, an artificial hill of brick debris
over 40 feet high and about a mile in circuit, now crowned by the
residence of one of the Nawabs of Patna, is identical with the hermitage
hill built by Asoka for his brother Mahendra ; a representation of the
original is still kept at the north-cast base of the hill, and is worshipped
as the Bhikna Kunwar. The site of Asoka's new palace Dr. Waddell
places at Sandalpur. South of this, near the railway in Buland Bagh,
is a curious big flat stone, to which the marvellous story still clings
that it cannot be taken away but always returns to its place. This, in
Dr. Waddell's opinion, is the actual stone bearing the footprint of
Buddha which WAS seen and described by the Chinese pilgrims, Fa Hian
and Hiuen Tsiang. Fragments of a polished column, the outline of
monastic cells, carved storres, and other remains point to Kumrahar as
the site of the old palace. In the adjacent hamlet of Nayatala is a
sculptured pillar in highly polished hard sandstone of a pair of Matris,

68 PATNA CITY

or 'divine mothers,' in the archaic style seen in the Bharhut sculptures.
In the land to the south, which is still called Asobhuk or ' Asoka's plot/
are situated brick ruins known as Chotapahari and BarapahSri (pro-
bably the hermitage hill of Upa Gupta who converted Asoka), while in
the Panchpahari Dr. Waddell recognizes the five relic stupas of excep-
tional grandeur which Asoka is said to have built. According to tradi-
tion, the third Buddhist council at Pataliputra was held in the seven-
teenth year of Asoka's reign. With the death of that monarch in
231 B. c. the city disappears from history for 530 years, during which
period the first empire of Northern India was destroyed by the
Scythians and Andhras. But in A.D. 319 the city, now under the
name of Kusumapura, witnessed the birth of a second empire, that of
the Gupta kings. Chandra Gupta I married a Lichchavi princess of
Pataliputra. The date of his coronation, March 8, A.D. 319, marks the
beginning of a new era in Indian history. Though Kusumapura is un-
doubtedly identical with Pataliputra or Patna, yet of this second line of
emperors not a single trace remains except a broken pillar which stands
among some Muhammadan graves near the dargah. Samudra Gupta,
the son and successor of Chandra Gupta I, greatly enlarged the empire
and removed the capital from Pataliputra or Kusumapura westwards,
but Pataliputra was still a sacred place for the Buddhists. About 406,
during the reign of Chandra Gupta II, Fa Mian, after visiting Upper
India, arrived at Pataliputra, of which he gives a short description,
and resided there for three years while learning to read the Sanskrit
books and to converse in that language.

The next description of Patna is supplied by Hiuen Tsiang, whc
entered the city after his return from Nepal, in 637, more than n
hundred years after the fall of the Gupta empire. At that time
Magadha was subject to Harshavardhana, the great king of Kanauj.
Hiuen Tsiang informs us that the old city, called originally Kusuma-
pura, had been deserted for a long time and was in ruins. He give?
the circumference at 70 //', or nf miles, exclusive of the new town o1
Pataliputra.

Little is known of the mediaeval history of Patna. In the early year?
of Muhammadan rule the governor of the province resided at the cit)
of Bihar. During Sher Shah's revolt Patna became an independent
capital, but it was reduced to subjection by Akbar. Aurangzeb madt
his grandson Azim governor, and the city thus acquired the name ol
Azlmabad, which is still in use among Muhammadans. The two im
portant events in the modern history of Patna city <the massacre oi
1763, and the mutiny of the troops at Dinapore cantonments ir
1857 have been described in the account of PATNA DISTRICT. Tlu
old walled city of Patna extended about i^ miles from east to wesi
and three-quarters of a mile from north to south. It is to this day verj

PATNA CITY 69

closely built, mainly with mud houses, but the fortifications which
surrounded the city have long since disappeared.

The city was constituted a municipality in 1864. The municipal
limits include the suburb of Bankipore on the west. The income
during the decade ending 1901-2 averaged 2*18 lakhs, and the
expenditure 1-91 lakhs. In 1903-4 the income was 1.93 lakhs, in-
cluding Rs. 83,000 from a tax on houses and lands, Rs. 21,000 from
a conservancy rate, Rs. 16,000 from tolls, Rs. 13,000 from a tax on
vehicles, and Rs. 35,000 as grants. The incidence of taxation was
R. 0-14-5 P er nea d of population. In the same year the expendi-
ture amounted to 1-74 lakhs, the chief items being Rs. 5,000 spent on
lighting, Rs. 10,000 on drainage, Rs. 48,000 on conservancy, Rs. 20,000
on medical relief* Rs. 7,000 on a new hospital building, Rs. 31,000 on
roads, and Rs. 6,000 on education. A drainage scheme was carried
out between 1893 and 1895 at a cost of 2*68 lakhs, but was defective
owing to its being unaccompanied by any flushing scheme. Two
complementary schemes were carried out in 1894 and 1900, by
which 4^ square miles of the total area are now flushed.

For administrative purposes the city, excluding Bankipore but in-
cluding a few outlying villages known as the rural area of the City
subdivision, has been constituted a subdivision under a City Magis-
trate, who holds his court at Gulzarbagh in the heart of the city. The
courts and jail are situated at BANKIPORE. Patna is the head-quarters
of the Commissioner and Additional Commissioner, the Bihar Opium
Agent, a Deputy-Inspector-General of police, a Deputy-Sanitary Com-
missioner, and the Executive Engineer of the Eastern Son division.
The Patna College is a fine brick building at the west end of the city.
Originally built by a native as a private residence, it was purchased by
Government and converted into law courts. In 1857 the courts were
removed to the present buildings at Bankipore; and in 1862 the
college was established here. It possesses a chemical laboratory,
and a law department and collegiate school are also attached to it.
Close by is the Medical College, in front of which a new hospital has
been erected. In this neighbourhood also stands the Oriental Library,
founded by Maulvi Khuda Bakhsh Khan Bahadur, C.I.E., the present
librarian, who has collected a number of valuable Persian and Arabic
manuscripts. This library is subsidized by the Bengal Government, by
the Nizam,of Hyderabad, and by private subscriptions. Farther east
at Afzalpur, on the ground formerly occupied by the Dutch factory,
have been erected some fine buildings for the Bihar School of Engineer-
ing, which was opened in August, 1900, out of funds originally col-
lected to commemorate trie visit of the Prince of Wales to Patna in
1876. It has a good workshop for practical work, and the course of
studies is the same as that of the apprentice department of the Civil

70 PATNA CITY

Engineering College at Sibpun About 3 miles farther east, in the
quarter called Gulzarbagh, the Government manufacture of opium is
carried on. Patna is one of the two places in British India where
opium is manufactured by Government. The opium is made up into
cakes, weighing about 3^- Ib. and containing about 3 Ib. of standard
opium. These are packed in chests (40 in each) and sent to Calcutta,
whence most of them are exported to China. The opium buildings are
on the old river bank, and are separated from the city by a high brick
wall. Beyond Gulzarbagh lies the city proper. The western gate is,
according to its inscription, 5 miles from the gold at Bankipore and
12 miles from Dinapore. In the southern quarter called Sadikpur, a
market has been laid out on the ground formerly occupied by the
Wahhabi rebels. Nearly opposite to the Roman Catholic Church is
the grave where the bodies of Mir Kasim's victims were ultimately
deposited. It is covered by a pillar, built partly of stone and partly of
brick, with an inlaid tablet and inscription. The chief Muhammadan
place of worship is the monument of Shah Arzani, who died here in
1623, and whose shrine is frequented by both Muhammadans and
Hindus. An annual fair is held on the spot in the month of /ikad,
lasting for three days and attracting about 5,000 votaries. Adjacent
to the tomb is the Karbala, where 100,000 people attend during the
Muharram festival. Close by is a tank dug by the saint, where once
a year crowds of people assemble, and many of them bathe. The
mosque of Sher Shah is probably the oldest building in Patna and
the madrasa of Saif Khan the handsomest.

[L. A. Waddell, Pataliputra (Calcutta, 1892), and Report on the
Excavations at Pataliputra (Calcutta, 1903).]

Patna State. Feudatory State of Bengal, lying between 20 9' and
21 4' N. and 82 41' and 83 40' E., with an area of 2,399 square
miles. Up to 1905 the State was included in the Central Provinces.
It lies in the valley of the MahanadI, bounded on the north by
Sambalpur, on the west by Raipur District, on the south by the
Kalahandl State, and on the east by the Baud State. The head-quar-
ters are at Bolangir, a village with 3,706 inhabitants (1901), 75 miles
from Sambalpur by road. The State consists of an undulating plain,
broken by numerous isolated peaks or small ranges, while a more
continuous chain of hills runs along the north-western border. The
northern and southern portions are open and well cultivated, and are
divided by a belt of hilly country covered with dense forest which
traverses the centre. The Tel river divides Patna frm Kalahandl on
the south, and the Ong from Sambalpur and Sonpur on the north.
The Suktel and Barabhailat traverse the centre of the State.

The Maharajas of Patna formerly dominated a large extent of
territory to the east of the Ratanpur kingdom, and were the head

PATNA STATE 71

of a cluster of States known as the Athara Garhjat or ' eighteen forts.'
The present rulers are Chauhan Rajputs, and claim for their family an
antiquity of 600 years in Patna, with a pedigree of twenty-eight genera-
tions. According to their traditions, their ancestor was a Rajput
prince who lived near Mainpurl and was expelled from his territories
by the Muhammadans. He came with his family to Patna, where he
was killed in battle ; but his wife, who was pregnant, was sheltered by
a Binjhal, in whose hut she brought forth a son. At this time Patna
was divided among eight chiefs called the Ath Malik, who took it in
turn to reign for one day each over the whole territory. The Rajput
boy Ramai Deo, on growing up, killed all the chiefs and constituted
himself sole ruler. In succeeding reigns the family extended their in-
fluence over surrounding territories, including the greater part of what
is now Sambalpur District and the adjoining States, the chiefs of this
area being made tributary. Chandarpur was conquered from the rulers
of Ratanpur. The twelfth Raja, Narsingh Deo, ceded to his brother
Balram Deo such portions of his territories as lay north of the river
Ong. The latter founded a new State (Sambalpur), which very soon
afterwards by acquisition of territory in every direction became the
most powerful of all the Garhjat cluster, while from the same time the
importance of Patna commenced to decline. In the eighteenth century,
when the Marathas conquered Sambalpur, Patna had become a depen-
dency of that State, and was also made tributary ; and its subsequent
history is that of Sambalpur. It was made a Feudatory State in 1865.
In 1869 the tyranny of Maharaja Sur Pratap Deo and of his brother
Lai Bishnath Singh caused a rising among the Khonds of Patna.
They were speedily reduced, but not until Lai Bishnath Singh and his
followers had committed many atrocities in cold blood. An inquiry
into the causes of the outbreak led to the deposition of the chief, and
the assumption of the management of the State by the British Govern-
ment in 1871. The Maharaja died in 1878, and was succeeded by
his nephew Ramchandra Singh, who was born in 1872 and educated
at the Rajkumar College, then located at Jubbulpore. He was in-
stalled in 1894, but had already then begun to show some signs of
derangement of intellect, and in 1895 h e snot n ^ s w ^ e anc * himself in
the palace, both dying instantaneously. As he left no male issue, his
uncle Lai Dalganjan Singh was recognized as chief, on his undertaking
that he would conduct his administration with the assistance of a Diwan
appointed by Government. In 1900, in consequence of the unsatis-
factory condition pf the State and an outbreak of organized dacoity,
the chief was called on to invest his Diwan with large judicial powers
and control over the police. A Political Agent in subordination to
the Commissioner of Orissa, as Superintendent of the Tributary Mahals,
controls the relations of the State with the Bengal Government.

72 PATNA STATE

The population in 1901 was 277,748, having decreased by 16 per cent,
during the preceding decade. The decrease is mainly to be attributed
to the famine which visited the State in 1900. The number of in-
habited villages is 1,850, and the density of population 116 persons
per square mile. Nearly the whole population are Oriyas, and speak
Oriya. Gahras or Ahirs, Gandas, Khonds, Gonds, and Savaras are
the most numerous castes.

The soil is generally light and sandy, but some black soil is found
in the north. About a third of the whole State is comprised in
zamlnddri or other estates held on special tenures, of which no survey
or measurement has been made. Of the remaining portion, 426 square
miles were cultivated in 1904. The staple crops are rice, covering
243 square miles, //'/ 86, pulses 41, and cotton n. The surveyed area
contains 1,139 wells and 1,581 tanks, from which 48 square miles can
be irrigated. The exact area under forest is not known, but it has
been estimated at 1,400 square miles. The principal timber tree is
sal (Shorea robusta), with which are associated sdj (Termi-nalia tomen-
tosa\ bljdsdl (Ptcrocarpus Marsupiuni)^ and other common species.
There is a very little teak in the extreme south. Owing to the distance
of the State from a railway, the exports of forest produce are not
important. The sale of the hides of animals forms, however, a not
inconsiderable item of revenue. Iron ore is found, and is smelted by
indigenous methods and made up into agricultural implements. The
State contains 45 miles of gravelled and 58 of embanked roads.
The principal routes are those leading from Sambalpur by Bargarh
to Bolangir and on to Bhawani Patna, the Bolangir-Sonpur road, and
the road leading from Raipur to Vizianagram, which passes for
13 miles through Patna. Exports of produce are sent principally to
Sambalpur.

The total revenue in 1904 was Rs. 2,00,000, of which Rs. 77,000
was derived from land, Rs. 25,000 from forests, and Rs. 20,000 from
excise. The land revenue is obtained by settlement with the headmen
of villages, who are allowed a percentage of the ( assets.' In the area
called the Kondhan, inhabited by the forest Khonds, the revenue is
paid through the tribal chiefs, who receive remuneration in cash. The
three tracts of Angar, Soranda, and Patnagarh are regularly surveyed
and assessed on the ' soil-unit ' system of the Central Provinces, and the
remaining area is summarily assessed. The total expenditure in 1904
was Rs. 1,70,000: the principal heads being the tribute,* Rs. 8,500;
expenses of the ruling family, Rs. 39,000 ; general administration,
Rs. 14,000 ; police, Rs. 22,000 ; and public works, Rs. 33,000. The
tribute is liable to revision. The publip works of the State were
managed by the Chhattisgarh States division from 1893 to 1904, and
during this time Rs. 2,33,000 was expended. Besides the roads already

PATTAN MUNARA 73

mentioned, a palace for the Maharaja, a courthouse, and a dispensary
have been constructed, in addition to minor works. The educational
institutions comprise one English and one vernacular middle school,
a girls' school, and 37 primary schools with a total of 3,819 pupils,
including 672 girls. The expenditure on education in 1904 was
Rs. 9,200. At the Census of 1901 only 5,142 persons were returned
as literate, 1-9 per cent. (3-6 males and o-i females) being able to read
and write. A dispensary has been established at Bolangir, at which
25,000 patients were treated in 1904.

Patoda. ' Crown ' taluk in the south-west of Bhir District, Hyder-
abad State, with an area of 353 square miles. The population in 1901,
including jagirs^ was 30,022, compared with 42,085 in 1891, the de-
crease being the result of the famines of 1897 and 1899-1900. The
taluk contains 74 villages, of which 3 zrejagir, and Patoda (population,
3,179) is the head-quarters. The land revenue in 1901 was ii lakhs.
The Manjra river rises in the hills west of Patoda. The taluk is
situated on a fertile plateau, and is hilly toward the north and west.

Patri (Patdi\ Town in the Viramgam tdluka of Ahmadabad
District, Bombay, situated in 23 n' N. and 71 53' E., on the
Bombay, Baroda, and Central India Railway, 58 miles west of Ahmad-
abad city, on a bare plain at the border of the Rann of Cutch. The
town is surrounded by a wall and contains a strong castle. Population
(1901), 5,544. The chief trade is in cotton, grain, and molasses.
The town has a dispensary and two vernacular schools, one of which
is for girls, attended by 242 and 128 pupils respectively.

Pattadkal. Village in the Badami taluka of Bijapur District,
Bombay, situated in 15 57' N. and 75 52' E., 9 miles from Badami
town. Population (1901), 1,088. It contains several old temples,
both Brahmanical and Jain, with inscriptions dating from the seventh
or eighth century, and considered by experts to be pure examples of
the Dravidian style of architecture.

Pattan Munara. Ancient ruin in the Naushahra tahsll of Baha-
walpur State, Punjab, situated in 28 15' N. and 70 22' E., 5 miles
east of Rahmiyar Khan. At the close of the eighteenth century the
remains of four towers surrounding the central tower of a Buddhist
monastery still existed here, but only the lower storey of the central
tower now remains. Tradition avers that it had three storeys, and that
the extensive mounds around it are the ruins of a city which was over
100 square? miles in extent. It is possible that the ruins mark the site
of the capital o Mousicanus, who, after a brief submission to Alex-
ander, revolted and was crucified in 325 B.C. The name Mousicanus
probably conceals the name of the tribe or territory ruled by the chief-
tain, and it has been suggested that it survives either in the tribal name
of the Magsi or Magassi Baloch or in that of the Machkas. Another

74 PATTAN MUNARA

theory identifies the capital with Aror in Sind. A Sanskrit inscrip-
tion, now lost, is said to have recorded the existence of an ancient
monastery. The town was refounded by the Sumras in the tenth
century, but it is now a desolate ruin.

Patti Tahsil. Eastern tahsll of Partabgarh District, United
Provinces, conterminous with the pargana of the same name, lying
between 25 39' and 26 4' N. and 81 56' and 82 27' E., with
an area of 467 square miles. Population increased from 272,592
in 1891 to 272,760 in 1901. There are 802 villages, but no town.
The demand for land revenue in 1903-4 was Rs. 406,000, and for
cesses Rs. 57,000. The density of population, 584 persons per square
mile, is the lowest in the District. Through the centre of the tahsll
flows the Sai, while the Gumti touches the north-east corner. A con-
siderable area is badly drained, and a cut is now being made to
improve it. The greater part, however, is fertile, and sugar-cane is
grown more largely than elsewhere in the District. In 1903-4 the
area under cultivation was 256 square miles, of which 136 were irri-
gated. Wells supply twice as large an area as tanks or swamps.

Patti Town. Town in the Kasur tahsll of Lahore District, Pun-
jab, situated in 31 17' N. and 74 52' E., 38 miles south-east of
Lahore city and the terminus of the Amritsar- Patti branch of the
North- Western Railway. Population (1901), 8,187. Patti is an
ancient town, and has been identified by some authorities with the
Chinapati of Hiuen Tsiang. It contains an old fort, used by Ranjit
Singh as a horse-breeding establishment. The population consists
principally of Mughals, and is largely agricultural. The municipality
was created in 1874. The income during the ten years ending 1902-3
averaged Rs. 5,300, and the expenditure Rs. 4,700. In 1903-4 the
income was Rs. 5,400, chiefly derived from octroi ; and the expendi-
ture was Rs. 5,100. The town has a vernacular middle school and
a dispensary.

Pattikonda Taluk ( c Cotton-hill '). Westernmost taluk of Kurnool
District, Madras, lying between 15 7' and 15 52' N. and 77 21' and
78 i' E., with an area of 1,134 square miles. The population in
1901 was 143,033, compared with 138,703 in 1891. The density is
126 persons per square mile, compared with the District average of
115 and the Presidency average of 270. The taluk was the worst
sufferer in the District in the great famine of 1876-8, when it lost
about 60 per cent, of its inhabitants. It contains 104 villages, includ-
ing five ' whole indmsj but no town. PATTIKONDA, ^YAPALLI, Kodu-
mur, and Maddikera are places of some importance, the first being the
head-quarters. The demand for land revenue and cesses in 1903-4
amounted to Rs. 3,20,000. The Tungabhadra forms the northern boun-
dary, separating it from the Nizam's Dominions. The only other river

PATTUKKOTTAI TOWN 75

is the Hindri, which rises near Maddikera and drains nearly two-thirds
of it. Pattikonda was part of Bellary District till 1858. It was then
called Panchapalaiyam, or the 'land of the five poligdrs? Almost
every village contains a ruined fort. The rainfall is 23 inches, about
two-thirds of which is received during the south-west monsoon. The
taluk is almost entirely 'dry/ there being only 34,925 acres of 'wet'
cultivation supplied by petty tanks and wells. The prevailing soil is
black cotton soil, but the southern portion is gravelly and hilly. The
taluk contains 112 square miles of ' reserved ' forests, almost the whole
of which lies on the Erramalas in the southern and south-eastern
portions.

Pattikonda Village. -Head-quarters of the taluk of the same
name in Kurnool District, Madras, situated in 15 24' N. and
77 31' E. The population in 1901 was 4,373, and it is a Union
under the Madras Local Boards Act V of 1884. It consists of two
portions : the old pettah^ and the new Munro's pettah which is named
after Sir Thomas Munro, Governor of Madras, who died here of
cholera on July 6, 1827, when on tour. To his memory Govern-
ment constructed a fine stone-faced reservoir, built a mantapam, or
porch, close by, and planted round it a grove of tamarind-trees. The
grove and well are maintained by the Ramallakota taluk board.
A weekly market is held in front of the grove.

Pattukkottai Taluk. Southern subdivision and taluk of Tanjore
District, Madras, bordering on Palk Strait, and lying between 9 49'
and 10 35' N. and 78 55' and 79 32' E., with an area of 906 square
miles. The population in 1901 was 295,894, compared with 271,626 in
1891, showing an increase in the decade of nearly 9 per cent., due to
the influx of labourers for the extension of the District board railway
recently under construction. PATTUKKOTTAI TOWN, the head-quarters,
has a population of 7,504, and ADIRAMPATNAM, a small port, 10,494.
The number of villages is 792. The demand for land revenue and
cesses in 1903-4 amounted to Rs. 2,97,000. In several ways it forms
a striking contrast to the other taluks of the District, since practically
no part of it is within reach of the Cauvery. The greater portion is
' dry ' land, the small ' wet ' area within it being watered by tanks and
wells; and the soil is nearly all of a red ferruginous variety which
forms arable land of inferior quality. Four-fifths of the total area is
either zamlndari or inam^ a further point of contrast to the rest of the
District ; rjut in the remainder the percentage of unoccupied land is
higher, and the -incidence of the assessment per head and the rent
of the average holding are lower, than in any other taluk. Pattuk-
kottai is the most backward tract in Tanjore in point of education,
and, though the largest of the taluks, is the least densely peopled.

Pattukkottai Town. Head-quarters of the taluk of the same

76 PATTUKKOTTAI TOWN

name in Tanjore District, Madras, situated in 10 26' N. and
79 19' E., with a station on the District board railway. Popula-
tion (1901), 7,504. An inscription in the ruined fort relates that
this building was erected by Vanaji Panditar in honour of Shahjl
Maharaja in A.D. 1686-7. In the western part of the town is an
elaborately sculptured and ancient Siva temple of considerable size,
containing many inscriptions. In 1815 Sarabhoji, the Raja of Tan-
jore, erected a miniature fort and column, with an inscription in
English to commemorate the triumph of the British arms and the
downfall of Bonaparte. Brass vessels, mats, and coarse cotton cloths
are manufactured.

Patuakhali Subdivision. South-eastern subdivision of Backer-
gunge District, Eastern Bengal and Assam, lying between 21 49' and
22 36' N. and 89 59' and 90 40' E., with an area of 1,231 square
miles. The subdivision is a fertile deltaic tract, merging to the south
in the SUNDARBANS, where there are extensive areas of waste land
covered with forest. The population in 1901 was 522,658, compared
with 496,735 in 1891. It contains one town, PATUAKHALI (population,
5,003), the head-quarters, and 1,051 villages, and is the most sparsely
populated subdivision in the District, supporting only 425 persons per
square mile, the density being lowest towards the south where the
Sundarbans have been only partially reclaimed.

Patuakhali Town. Head-quarters of the subdivision of the same
name in Backergunge District, Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated in
22 22' N. and 90 22' E., on the Paturikhali river. Population (1901),
5,003. Patuakhali was constituted a municipality in 1892. The
income and expenditure during the decade ending 1901-2 both
averaged Rs. 3,000. In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 5,000, half of
which was derived from a property tax ; and the expenditure was
Rs. 4,000.

Patur. Town in the Balapur taluk of Akola District, Berar, situated
in 20 27' N. and 76 59' E. Population (1901), 5,990. In the side
of a low hill just east of the town are two caves hewn in the rock.
These are simple viharas with a veranda. The inscriptions on the
pillars and architraves have not yet been deciphered, and the caves
are otherwise unadorned, and contain no images except a portion of
a seated figure with the legs crossed, which has been held to be a Jain
saint, but may possibly be Buddhist.

The town is commonly known as Patur Shaikh Babii from the
shrine of Shaikh Abdul-Aziz, commonly known as Shaikh Babu, who
is said to have come to Patur from Delhi in 1378, and to have died
here eleven years later. According to the legend the saint was highly
regarded by Muhammad bin Tughlak, whom he cured of fever on one
occasion, and who built the shrine over his grave. But unfortunately

PAUKTAW

for the legend, Muhammad bin Tughlak died thirty-nine years before
the shrine was built. An inscription in the interior of the shrine con-
tains a chronogram giving the date of the saint's death, while another
over the principal gate records the fact that the shrine was repaired in
1606-7 by Abdur Rahlm, Khan-i-Khanan, son of Bairam Khan. A
Hindu fair is held annually in January-February, lasting upwards of
a month. A Musalman fair, lasting for three days, is held at the
shrine of Shaikh Babu. The gates in the walls of the town bear
some inscriptions, now illegible.

Pauk Subdivision. South-western subdivision of Pakokku Dis-
trict, Upper Burma, comprising the PAUK, SAW, and SEIKPYU town-
ships.

Pauk Township. Central township of Pakokku District, Upper
Burma, lying between 21 10' and 21 49' N. and 94 i8 / and
94 44' E., with an area of 1,490 square miles. It is a rugged tract,
bounded on either side by hill ranges, and watered by the Kyaw river,
a considerable affluent of the Yaw, which flows through its southern
areas. Along these two streams a considerable amount of rice is
grown. The population was 36,515 in 1891, and 41,021 in 1901,
distributed in 190 villages. Pauk (population, 1,826), a village near
the junction of the Kyaw and Yaw streams, about 40 miles west of
Pakokku, is the head-quarters. The area cultivated in 1903-4 was
42 square miles, and the land revenue and thathameda amounted to
Rs. 94,000.

Paukkaung. Eastern township of the Prome subdivision of Prome
District, Lower Burma, lying between 18 48' and 19 n' N. and
95 2i'and 95 53' E., with an area of 694 square miles. The popu-
lation in 1901 was 29,797, including nearly 5,000 Chins, and in 1891
was 31,995, so that the decrease has been 7 per cent, in ten years.
The eastern half of the township is covered by the forests of the
Pegu Yoma, and the density is low. There are 241 villages, the head-
quarters being Paukkaung (population, 1,224), which is connected
with Prome by a good road. The area cultivated in 1903-4 was
32 square miles, paying Rs. 15,000 land revenue. The total revenue
for the same year was Rs. 88,000.

Pauktaw. Township of Akyab District, Lower Burma, lying
between 19 47' and 20 24' N. and 92 56' and 93 15' E., on the
eastern bank of the Kaladan river, with an area of 496 square miles,
the greater part of which is flat country intersected by tidal creeks.
The population- was 40,875 in 1891, and 43>395 in r 9 01 - There are
190 villages, but no town. The head-quarters are at Pauktaw (popu-
lation, 755), on a tidal creek to the east of Akyab town. The area
cultivated in 1903-4 was 127 square miles, paying Rs. 1,88,000 land
revenue.

78 PAUMBEK

Paumben. Island and village in Madura District, Madras. Sec
PAMBAN.

Paundravardhana. Ancient kingdom in Eastern Bengal and
Assam. See PUNDRA.

Paung. Township in the Thaton District of Lower Burma, lying
between 16 28' and 16 52' N. and 97 14' and 97 36' E., with an
area of 353 square miles. It is bounded on the north by the Thaton
township ; on the east and south by the Donthami and Salween rivers ;
and on the west by the Gulf of Martaban. The township is fertile
and thickly populated. The population was 46,332 in 1891, and
55,071 in 1901, inhabiting 142 villages. The head-quarters are at
Paung, a village of 1,651 inhabitants, on the western slopes of the
Martaban hills, which run north and south through the centre of
the township. The ancient site of Martaban lies at its south-eastern
corner on the Salween, opposite the port of Moulmein. The area
cultivated in 1903-4 was 224 square miles, paying Rs. 3,23,600 land
revenue.

Paungbyin. Central township of the Upper Chindwin District,
Upper Burma, extending on either side of the Chindwin river from
the Yoma to Katha District, between 23 48' and 24 35' N. and
94 32' and 95 12' E., with an area of 2,719 square miles. Except in
the valley of the Chindwin, it is a mass of low hills. The population
was 19,190 in 1891, and 26,409 in 1901, distributed in 268 villages, of
which the most important is Paungbyin (population, 1,167), the head-
quarters, on the Chindwin, about 70 miles north of Kindat. The
area cultivated in 1903-4 was 40 square miles, and the land revenue
and thathameda amounted to Rs. 68,000.

Paungde Subdivision. South-eastern subdivision of Prome Dis-
trict, Lower Burma, comprising the PAUNGDK and THEGON townships.

Paungde Township. South-eastern township of the Paungde
subdivision of Prome District, Lower Burma, lying between 18 26'
and 18 52' N. and 95 23' and 95 50' E., with an area of
379 square miles. Except in the neighbourhood of the Pegu Yoma
in the north-east, the township is flat and thickly populated. The
population increased from 56,430 in 1891 to 60,604 in 1901. There
are 250 villages and one town, PAUNGDE (population, 11,105), the
head-quarters. The area cultivated in 1903-4 was 86 square miles,
paying Rs. 86,000 land revenue.

Paungde Town. Head-quarters of the subdivision of the same
name in Prome District, Lower Burma, situated in '18 30' N. and
95 31' E., on the Rangoon-Prome railway, 130 miles from Rangoon
and 32 miles by road from Prome. The population in 1901 was
11,105, and has steadily increased since 1872. Paungde was con-
stituted a municipality in 1884. The municipal income and expen-

PAVAGARH 79

diture during the ten years ending 1900 averaged between Rs. 31,000
and Rs. 32,000. In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 42,000, the chief
sources of revenue being tolls on markets and slaughter-houses
(Rs. 26,000), and house tax (Rs. 4,300) ; and the expenditure was
Rs. 37,000, the principal items being roads (Rs. 6,500) and conser-
vancy (Rs. 4,200). The town contains a jail, a hospital, and a middle
school. The Provincial reformatory was removed from Paungde to
Insein in 1896, the premises being converted into a jail, and in 1900
new jail buildings were erected. The middle school, established in
1875, has 130 pupils.

Paunglaung. River of Burma. See SITTANG.

Paunl. Town in the District and tahstl of Bhandara, Central
Provinces, situated in 20 48' N. and 79 39' E., on the Wainganga
river, 32 miles south of Bhandara town by road. Population (1901),
9,366. Some bathing ghats or flights of stone steps have been con-
structed on the bank of the Wainganga, and the town contains a fort
which was stormed by the British in 1818. Pauni was constituted
a municipality in 1867. The municipal receipts during the decade
ending 1901 averaged Rs. 4,200. In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 4,500,
mainly derived from a house tax. The staple industry of the town is
the manufacture of silk-bordered cloths, and thread of very fine counts
is woven. The weavers are, however, not very prosperous. The town
stands in the fertile black-soil tract called the Pauni Haveli. It
contains vernacular middle and girls' schools, a school for low-caste
Dher boys, and an Urdu school, and also a dispensary.

Pauri. Head-quarters of Garhwal District, United Provinces,
situated in 30 8' N. and 78 46' E., at an elevation of 5,390 feet
above sea-level. Population (1901), 486. The village lies on the
northern slope of the Kandaulia hill, with a magnificent view of
a long line of snow-clad mountains. Pauri was chosen as the head-
quarters of the Garhwal subdivision of Kumaun District in 1840.
Besides the usual offices, it contains a dispensary and a jail. The
American Methodist Mission has its head-quarters here, and maintains
a dispensary, a female orphanage, and schools for boys and girls.

Pavagarh. Hill fort in the Kalol^ tdluka of the Panch Mahals
District, Bombay, situated in 223i'N. and 73 36' E., about 28 miles
east of Baroda and 1 1 miles south-east of Champaner Road station on
the Baroda-Godhra Railway. It stands on an isolated hill surrounded
by extensive plains, from which it rises abruptly to the height of
2,500 feet, being about 2,800 feet above the level of the sea. The
base and lower slopes are thickly covered with rather stunted timber ;
but its shoulders and centre crest are, on the south, west, and north,
cliffs of bare trap, too steep for trees. Less inaccessible, the eastern
heights are wooded and topped by massive masonry walls and bastions,

8o PAVAGARH

rising with narrowing fronts to the scarped rock that crowns the hill.
To the east of Pavagarh lie the vast Barya State forests, and the
hill seems to form the boundary between the wild country to the east
and the clear open plain that stretches westward to the sea. On the
east side of the north end of the hill are the remains of many beautiful
Jain temples ; and on the west side, overlooking a tremendous preci-
pice, are some Musalman buildings of more modern date, supposed to
have been used as granaries. The southern extremity is more uneven,
and from its centre rises an immense peak of solid rock, towering to
the height of about 250 feet. The ascent to the top of this is by
a flight of stone steps, and on its summit stands a Hindu temple of
Kali, with a Musalman shrine on its spire. The fortifications include
the lower fort, a massive stone structure with strong bastions stretching
across the less precipitous parts of the eastern spur. This line of
fortification is entered by the Atak Gate, once double, but now with
its outer gate in ruins. Half a mile farther is the Moti or Great Gate,
giving entrance to the second line of defence. The path winds up the
face of the rock through four gates, each commanding the one below
it. Massive walls connect the gates and sweep up to the fortifications
that stretch across the crest of the spur. Beyond the Moti Gate, the
path for about 200 yards lies over level ground with a high ridge on
the left, crowned by a strong wall running back to the third line of
defence. This third line of defence is reached through the Sadan
Shah Gate, a winding passage cut through the solid rock, crowned with
towering walls and bastions, and crossed by a double Hindu gateway.

In old inscriptions the name of the hill appears as Pavakgarh or
* fire hill.' The first historical reference to it is in the writings of the
bard Chand, twelfth century, who speaks of Ram Gaur the Tuar as
lord of Pava. The earliest authentic account is about 1300, when it
was seized by Chauhan Rajputs, who fled from Mewar before the
forces of Ala-ud-din Khilji. The Musalman kings of Ahmaclabad more
than once attempted to take the fort, and failed. In 1484 Sultan
Mahmud Begara, after a siege of nearly two years, succeeded in
reducing it. On gaining possession, he added to the defences of the
upper and lower forts, and for the first time fortified the plateau,
making it his citadel. In spite of its strength, it was captured through
treachery in 1535 by the emperor Humayun. In 1573 it fell into
the hands of Akbar. In 1727 it was surprised by Kristynajl, who
made it his head-quarters, and conducted many raids into Gujarat.
Sindhia took the fort about 1761; and Colonel Woodington cap-
tured it from Sindhia in 1803. In 1804 it was restored to Sindhia,
with whom it remained until 1853, when the British took over the
management of the Panch Mahals.

P3,vugada. North-eastern taluk of Tumkur District. Mvsore.

PAW AY AN TOWN 81

detached from the rest, and almost entirely surrounded by Madras
territory. It lies between 13 53' and 14 21' N. and 77 o' and
77 31' E., with an area of 524 square miles. The population in
1901 was 61,241, compared with 53,377 in 1891. The taluk contains
one town, Pavugada (population, 2,840), the head-quarters; and 144
villages. The land revenue demand in 1903-4 was Rs. 99,000.
The Tenner flows across the east. The west and north of the taluk
abound in rocky hills, many crowned with fortifications, among which
the needle-peak of Nidugal (3,772 feet) is conspicuous from all the
surrounding country. The separate tract east of the Penner is also
bounded by hills. The soil is sandy, and contains many talpargis
or spring-heads. In some parts wells have to be cut through a soft
porous rock. Some tobacco and cotton are grown. Iron and rice
are exported.

Pawafuri (Apapapuri, the 'sinless town ').- -Village in the Bihar
subdivision of Patna District, Bengal. Population (1901), 311. Maha-
vlra, the last of the Jain patriarchs, is said to have been buried in the
village, which possesses three Jain temples and is a great place of
pilgrimage for the Jains.

Pawayan Tahsil. North-eastern tahsll of Shahjahanpur District,
United Provinces, comprising the parganas of Pawayan, Baragaon,
and Khutar, and lying between 27 55' and 28 29' N. and 79 53' and
80 23' E., with an area of 591 square miles. Population fell from
249,222 in 1891 to 223,359 in 1901, the decrease being the largest
in the District. There are 653 villages and one town, PAWAYAN
(population, 5,408), the tahsll head-quarters*. The demand for land
revenue in 1903-4 was Rs. 2,90,000, and for cesses Rs. 46,000.
The density of population, 378 persons per square mile, is the lowest
in the District. In the north lies an area of about 52 miles of forest.
The Gumti, which is here a small stream, crosses the centre of the
tahsll t and on either bank extends an arid stretch of sandy soil with
malarious swamps in the low-lying places. The western portion is
more fertile, and there is some good land between the forest and
the central tract. In 1903-4 the area under cultivation was 360
square miles, of which 114 were irrigated. Wells supply three-quarters
of the irrigated area, and swamps or jhlls most of the remainder.

Pawayan Town.- -Head-quarters of the tahsll of the same name
in Shahjahanpur District, United Provinces, situated in 28 4' N. and
80 5' E?, on the steam tramway from Shahjahanpur city to Mailani
in Kherl District. Population (1901), 5,408. Pawayan was founded
early in the eighteenth century by a Raja whose descendants still
own a large estate in the neighbourhood. It contains a tahsll'^
a munsifi, a dispensary, and a branch of the American Methodist
Mission. Pawayan is administered under Act XX of 1856, with an

82 PAWAYAN TOWN

income of about Rs. 1,800. The bazar is poor and straggling, but
there is some trade in sugar and brass vessels. The tahslll school
has 158 pupils.

Payagale. Central township of Pegu District, Lower Burma, lying
between 17 15' and 17 57' N. and 96 i' and 96 54' E., with an
area of 1,236 square miles. It contains one town, PEGU (population,
14,132), the head-quarters of the District; and 242 villages. The
township head-quarters are at Payagale, a village of 882 inhabitants
on the railway, about 14 miles north of Pegu. The population was
69,822 in 1891, and 93,209 in 1901. The western half of the town-
ship is hilly and sparsely populated, and, though the eastern half is
a level plain crowded with villages, the average density is only
75 persons per square mile. The area cultivated in 1903-4 was 296
square miles, paying Rs. 4,73,300 land revenue.

Payanghat (' below the Ghatb ') ( r).--Thc name given by the Mubal-
mans of Bijapur to the low country in the east of the present Mysore
State, conquered by them from Vijayanagar in the seventeenth century.

Payanghat (2). The name given in Berar to the valley of the Puma
river, the principal affluent of the Tapti. The valley lies between
the Melghat or Gawllgarh hills on the north and the Ajanta range
on the south, and varies in breadth from 40 to 50 miles. Except the
Purna, which is the main artery of the river system, scarcely a stream
in this tract is perennial.

Peddapuram Subdivision. Subdivision of Godavari District,
Madras, consisting of the PEDDAPURAM and RAMACHANDRAPURAM
taluks.

Peddapuram Taluk. Inland taluk in Godavari District, Madras,
lying between 16 57' and 17 39' N. and 81 55' and 82 20' E., with
an area of 504 square miles. The population in 1901 was 167,020,
compared with 161,841 in 1891. It contains one town, PEDDAPURAM
(population, 12,609), the head-quarters; and 200 villages, of which
Jaggammapeta is an important local market. The demand on account
of land revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to Rs. 3,89,000. The
taluk has a good system of irrigation from reservoirs, and the Lingam-
parti tank, the largest in the District, irrigates 5,000 acres. Along the
Yeleru, a perennial stream running through it, is some exceptionally
fertile soil. The greater part of the taluk^ however, is covered with
hills and jungle. The chief crops are rice, oilseeds, rdgi, pulses, and
(in the Yeleru valley) sugar-cane.

Peddapuram Town.- Head-quarters of the taluk of the same
name in Godavari District, Madras, situated in 17 5' N. and 82 8' E.
Population (1901), 12,609. Peddapuram ' was formerly the- head-
quarters of a large zamlnddri\ and the ruins of a fort stand on the
hill overlooking the town. The place possesses a large weekly market,

PEGU DIVISION

and a high school maintained by the American Evangelical Lutheran
Mission. Local affairs are managed by a Union panchayat.

Pegu Division. Division of Lower Burma, lying between 16 19'
and 19 n' N. and 94 41' and 96 54' E., and comprising the greater
part of the strip of country that stretches between the Irrawaddy and
the Sittang rivers from 19 N. to the Gulf of Martaban, and, with
the exception of a single township, wholly to the east of the former
river. It is well watered and, except for the area covered by the
Pegu Yoma at the northern end, forms one expanse of plain land
of extraordinary fertility.

The population of the Division at the labt four enumerations was :
(1872) 848,077, (1881) 1,215,923, (1891) 1,523,022, and (1901)
1,820,638. Its head-quarters are at RANGOON, and it contains ihc
following Districts:

Rangoon City
Ilanthawaddy
Thanawaddy .
I'egu . .
Frome .

Total

Land revenue, '

Atea in

Population,

1903-4,

square mili\->. 1901.

in thousands
of rupees.

19*

234,881

3>-'3

484,811

34,29

^,851

395.57

11,22 ,

4,276

339>572

18,72

2,9*5

365,804

4,8 1 ,

13,084

1,820,638

69,36 1

* Exclusive of i iver areas.

Of the inhabitants in 1901, 1,541,388 were Buddhists, 65,534
Musalmans, 152,191 Hindus, 38,274 Christians, and 21,709 Animistb,
the majority of the remainder being Sikh.s and Jews. According to
race, 1,330,816 were Burmans, 103,420 Karens, and 78,576 Talaingb.
The density was 139 persons per square mile, or a little over three
times as great as that of the Province as a whole. In 1901 the
Division contained 8 towns and 6,817 villages. Of the towns only
two RANGOON (234,881), and PROMK (27,375) had a population
exceeding 20,000. Rangoon lies at the southern end of the Division,
and there is no other commercial centre. In PROME and PEGU,
however, it possesses towns of historical interest, once the capitals
of two dynasties of the past, that of the Pyus in the north and
that of the TALAINGS in the south, and both the scene of warlike
operations during the first and second Burmese Wars. Syriam, close
to and west of Rangoon, also has a place in the history of Burma
as a famous emporium of olden days, and one of the first of the
ports at which the peopte of the country entered into commercial
relations with the strangers who were destined centuries later to be
their conquerors.

84 PEGU DISTRICT

Pegu District. District in the Pegu Division of Lower Burma,
lying between 16 54' and 18 25' N. and 95 57' and 96 54' E., with
an area of 4,276 square miles. It was formed in 1883 by taking the
townships of Kyauktan, Paunglin (now Hlegu), Pegu (now Kawa and
Payagale), and Pagandaung (now Thabyegan) from Hanthawaddy Dis-
trict In 1895 the Pyuntaza and Nyaunglebin townships were transferred
from what was then Shwegyin District to Pegu, and Kyauktan and
Thabyegan were returned to Hanthawaddy. Pegu is separated on the
north from Toungoo District by the Kun stream, which rises in
the Pegu Yoma and flows in an easterly direction into the Sittang
river, which in its turn constitutes the eastern boundary of the Distiict.
The Pegu Yoma forms the western boundary ; and on the south the
District is separated from Hanthawaddy District by an irregularly
demarcated line drawn along a spur of the Yoma eastward to the
Gulf of Martaban.

Portions of the hilly country in the north-west are picturesque, but
the greater part of the District and more than nine-tenths of the in-
habited area have little claim to attention except
aspects' ^ rom an a g r i cu l tura l or commercial standpoint. East
of the railway line, as far as the horizon, lies a vast
almost treeless plain, green in the rains, but very bare during the hot
months of the year.

The only rivers of importance are the Pegu river, the Ngamoyeik or
Pazundaung creek, and the Sittang. The first rises in the Yoma, and
after flowing past Pegu town in u south-easterly direction, finally enters
the .Rangoon or Hlaing river near its mouth. The second, also rising
in the Yoma, has a southerly course through the south-west corner
of the District, and flows into the Rangoon river close to where the
Pegu river enters it. The Sittang river is navigable by boats of
shallow draught, but is extremely dangerous in its lower reaches
owing to an enormous bore, which rushes up it from time to time
from the Gulf of Martaban. To avoid this, and at the same time to
facilitate trade with Rangoon, the Pegu-Sittang Canal was constructed.
This canal extends from Myitkyo, on the Sittang, as far west as Tavva,
on the Pegu river, and forms one of the most distinctive geographical
features of the District. Other streams which flow from the Yoma
eastwards into the Sittang, draining the Nyaunglebin or northern
subdivision, are the Kyeingyaung, the Yemve, and the Pugangwe,
which are perennial, but navigable only during the monsoon.

The rocks of the PEGU YOMA, which occupies the north-western
portion of the District, consist of what have been called Pegu groups
of beds, and are miocene in age. The rest of the District is alluvial,
the type of alluvium being that common to the whole of the delta. In
the west, where the land is high, laterite exists in large quantities.

PHYSICAL ASPECTS 85

The forests are of two kinds, evergreen and deciduous. The former
may be either closed or open in character. The closed evergreen
forests consist of lofty trees of Stercitha, Albizzia, Pterocarpus,
Dipterocarpus ^ Parashorea^ and Hopea species, under which are
smaller growths. Among palms are found Livistonia^ Arcnga saccha-
rifera, Areca, and Calamus. Climbers and creepers are very numerous
and varied, and the flowering shrubs are beautiful. The open ever-
green forests are found along the eastern base of the Pegu Yoma
as far down as Rangoon. They are less damp than the closed forests,
and contain fewer creepers and climbers. Chief among their con-
stituents are Dipterocarpus laevis, D. alatus, Pamshorea stellata^
Pentace burmannica^ Albizzia lurida^ Lager stroemia tomentosa, and
DUlenia parviflpra* The deciduous forests are either open or mixed
in character. The open are of two kinds, /;/ forests and low forests.
The former are found chiefly on laterite, and are characterized by in
(Dipterocarpus tubcrculatus), Dillenia pulcherrima^ Shorea leucobotrya^
Pent acme siamensis, Xylia do lab r if or mis ^ Lagers (roe mia macrocarpa,
and Strychnos Nnx-vomica. The low forests are similar to the in
forests, but this tree itself is generally absent, and the ground is
covered with long stiff grass. The mixed forests are of several kinds.
The lower mixed forests are not unlike the low forests, but are without
the dense grass covering and the vegetation characteristic of laterite
soil ; the upper stretches, typical of the Pegu Yoma, contain teak in
abundance, and also Xylia dolabriformis^ Dillenia pannflora, three
species of Sterculia and Terminalia^ Lagerstroemia Flos Reginae,
L. tomentosa, and ffomallum tomentositm. Bordering the rivers are
savannah forests bimilar to those described under HANTHAWADDY
DISTRICT. Orchids abound everywhere 1 .

The jungles are the habitat of all the beasts common to Lower
Burma. In the month of December, before the crops are reaped,
herds of wild elephants come down from the hills and do great
damage ; bison, hog, and many kinds of deer are also met with,
but their numbers annually decrease owing to their destruction by
man, and they are gradually retiring into the hills farther from the
haunts of civilization.

The climate of Pegu is very similar to that of Rangoon, but,
probably owing to its proximity to the hills, the rainfall is heavier.
The average fall for five years is 119 inches recorded at Pegu town,
and 114 inches farther north at Nyaunglebin. It is probably rather
higher in the hilly areas to the west, and lower in the extreme north
near the Toungoo border. Large tracts of country are unprotected
by embankments, and on this account are liable to be flooded by
the overflow of the Sittang.

1 Sec Kurz, Preliminary Forest Report of Pegu (Calcutta, 1875}.

86 PEGU DISTRICT

Legends relate that the town of Pegu was founded by Thamala
and Wimala, two sons of the ruler of the Talaing kingdom of Thaton
in A.D. 573, the elder son, Thamala, being conse-
crated king. From the commencement of the
historical period Pegu was an important centre of Talaing rule, in
the end taking the place that had been occupied by the ancient
capital of Thaton, and during the closing years of their independence
the Takings were generally known as Peguans. Little is known of
the history of Pegu until the beginning of the fifteenth century. The
Takings were constantly at war with the Burmans, and for two cen-
turies and a half were under Burmese dominion. In 1385 Razadirit,
one of the greatebt of the Talaing kings, came to the throne. This
monarch was constantly engaged in hostilities, but it is recorded that
before hib death in 1422 he found time to devote himself to religion
and good works and to the reorganisation of his kingdom. In the
year 1534 Pegu was besieged by Tabin Shweti, of Toungoo, and
ultimately captured. Tabin Shweti reigned ten years in Pegu, and
is entitled to the merit of having built numerous pagodas in the
District. On his death one of his generals, Bayin Naung, who took
the name of Sinbyumyashin (' the lord of many white elephants '),
made himself master of the whole of the Sittang Valley. Cesare de'
Federici, who visited Pegu in 1569, wrote of this monarch :

* The emperor has twenty-six tributary crowned kings and can
bring into the field a million and a half of men, and, as they will eat
anything, they only want water and salt, and will go anywhere. For
people, dominions, gold and .silver, he far excels the power of the
great Turk in treasure and strength.'

On his death in 1581 Sinbyumvasbin's enormous territories, larger than
any ever ruled over by a monarch in Burma, were left to his successor,
but with the removal of his controlling hand the empire soon resolved
itself into a congeries of minor principalities. Pegu fell into the hands
of the Burmans of Ava at the beginning of the seventeenth century,
and it was not till 1740 that the Taking dynasty was revived. Seven-
teen years later the town was once more and finally captured from the
Takings by the famous Alompra (Akungpaya). The conqueror had
from the first made the eclipse of Pegu by his newly founded town
of Rangoon one of the main features of his policy, and with the final
defeat of the Takings the old capital ceased to play a part of any
importance in history.

During the wars with the British, Pegu was the scene of several
encounters. After the capture of Rangoon in 1824 the Burman
commander-in-chief retired here, but the inhabitants rose against
him and handed the place over to the British. During the second
Burmese War the town was more stubbornly defended. Early in

POPULATION

June, 1852, the defences were carried by a force under Major Cotton
and Commander Tarleton, R.N., the granaries were destroyed, and
the guns carried away. The Talaing inhabitants, however, at whose
request the expedition had been sent, were unable to hold the town
after the withdrawal of the British, and the Burmans reoccupied the
pagoda platform and threw up strong defences along the river. In
November of the same year a force under Brigadier McNeill was
sent from Rangoon to retake the town, which object it accomplished
after considerable fighting and with some loss. Most of the troops
were withdrawn, a garrison of about 500 men with a few guns under
Major Hill being left. Hardly had the main force retired, however,
when the Burmans attacked this garrison, which was not ultimately
relieved till a considerable force had been dispatched against the
enemy. As the result of the war, the province of Pegu passed to the
British and became, with the previously acquired provinces of Arakan
and Tenasserim, the Chief Commissionership of Lower Burma. Ran-
goon has ever since been the capital of the Province.

The District contains several interesting pagodas, most of which
are situated either in or close to the capital. At Payagyi, 10 miles
north of Pegu on the railway, is a large pagoda which was first built
by Nga Ya Gu, the son of a minister of one of the early Peguan
kings. The building has long been in bad repair, but is now being
renovated.

The population at the last four enumerations was: (1872) 110,875,
(1881) 184,815, (1891) 237,594, and (1901) 339*572- These figures
show a rapid growth, only exceeded in Lower Burma
by the increase in Myaungmya and Pyapon Districts.
The distribution according to townships in 1901 is shown in the
following table :

Population.

Number of

w .

o c

Township.

I
1
t

lilt!

lltli

Number o
ersons able
read and
write.

Towns.

"**

^ 1

Hlegu

703

...

233

49,642

+ II

13,907

Kawa
Payagale .

5*4
1,236

206
2 4 2

7957
93,209

154

+ 31

+ 33

24,579
29,799

Pyimlaza .

...

232

52,952

+ 129

13,315

Nyaungltbin

380

26l

64,712

170

+ 64

15,172

District total

4,276

i,i74

339,572

+ 43

96,772

The great majority of the inhabitants are rural. The District con-
tains one municipal town, PEGU, its head-quarters, and one other
urban area containing more than 5,000 inhabitants, NYAUNOLEBIN,
administered by a town committee. As is the case everywhere in

88 PEGU DISTRICT

Burma, Buddhists (305,500) form the majority, but the number of
Hindus (18,600) is not insignificant. The latter are for the most
part Tamil-speaking cultivators from Madras. The number of Chris-
tians is 9,000, and of Musalmans 4,800. Burmese is the language
of 83 per cent, of the population. Karen is freely spoken, but only
a small proportion of the Takings use their ancestral tongue.

The Burmans, with a total of 223,500, outnumber all other nationali-
ties. The Talaings are, however, about 45,000, and the Karens about
33,000 in number. In 1901 no less than 68 per cent, of the total
population were directly supported by agriculture. Of these, 4,580
were dependent on taungya (shifting hill cultivation) alone.

There are 8,885 n &tive Christians. The American Baptist Mission
works among the Karens, the chief centres of Christian population
being Pado, in the neighbourhood of Nyaunglebin, and Intagaw, in the
Kawa township ; but the Pwo Karens near Hlcgu and the Sgaws in
the Payagale township continue as a rule in the Buddhist faith. There
is a Roman Catholic mission at Nyaunglebin, with a good brick church.
In 1901, 6,982 persons were returned as belonging to the Baptist
communion, the number of Roman Catholics being only 257. It is
probable that a good many of the Roman Catholics of the District
omitted to give their denomination at the Census, and thus were
included in the total of those whose -sects were not returned.

Pegu consists for the most part of a vast alluvial plain, formed by
the deposits of the Sittang and Pegu rivers and their tributaries. The
soil is a rich loam, and generally fertile. In the
north of the District, where cultivation is com-
paratively recent, the crops are particularly plentiful ; but in the
southern townships of Hlegu and Kawa the soil is beginning to show
signs of exhaustion, and fallows are not infrequent. The easternmost
part of the Kawa township has been quite recently formed by fresh
deposits of the Sittang, and the soil here is so impregnated with salt
that cultivation is not on the whole very profitable. To the advantages
of a fertile soil are added those of a plentiful supply of rain. In fact
cultivation sometimes suffers from an excess of water ; and owing to
the uniform flatness of most of the District, when a flood does occur
its effects are apt to be very far-reaching.

There is little that calls for special note in connexion with the
systems of cultivation in the District. In growing rice the ordinary
methods obtaining in Lower Burma are followed. Ploughing is begun
in June, shortly after the beginning of the rains, and transplanting,
where in vogue, is generally completed by the end of August. In
most parts, however, transplantation is not largely adopted. Sowing
broadcast is much cheaper ; and under favourable conditions of soil
and rainfall this method is found to produce a sufficiently good crop,

AGRICULTURE 89

so that, as a rule, transplanting from nurseries is undertaken only in
order to fill up gaps where sowing has not proved successful. The
practice of pruning the rice by cutting off the tops of the blades before
the plant comes into ear seems to be not uncommon. Reaping is
begun in December, and the harvest is generally completed by the end
of January.

The following are the main agricultural statistics for 1903-4, in
square miles :

Township.

Total area.

Cultivated. ' Forests.

Illegu ....

703

161 \

Kawa ....

514

345

Payagale

1,236

2 9<> i Y 2 ,557

Pyuntazrjj
Nyaunglebin

',443
380

170 1
188 ;

( Total | 4,276 i i,r6o 2,557 j

In 1903-4 rice occupied 1,133 square miles, out of a total cultivated
area of 1,160 square miles, or as much as 98 per cent. Several
varieties are produced, that known as ngasein being the commonest
in all parts, but the preference for any particular kind seems to depend
on little else than custom or the whim of the cultivator. After rice,
the principal food-crops are mangoes, plantains, and jack-fruit. Nearly
11,000 acres are under orchards, about a quarter of this being given
up to plantains. Some maize and tobacco and a little sesamum are
grown, but these products are of no great importance.

In most parts of the District the area under cultivation is being
rapidly extended. It stood at 908 square miles in 1891, 1,141 square
miles in 1901, and r,i6o square miles in 1904. It has, in fact, been
found necessary of late to depute several officers for the sole purpose
of making grants of land. The new ground on the bank of the Sittang
furnishes the most important field for their work. Farther north, too,
lie large tracts of hitherto unoccupied jungle land, which are being
taken up and cleared for cultivation. Apart from the increase in area,
cultivation does not seem to be very progressive. Little or no improve-
ment can be noted in the quality of the seed, nor have attempts to
introduce new varieties met with any success. The working of the
Land Improvement and Agriculturists' Loans Acts is said to be not
altogether successful in Pegu. In spite of the precautions that are
taken to prevent large areas of land from falling into the hands of
speculators, the annual statistics show a large increase in the landlord
class.

Cattle-breeding is not carried on to any great extent. Most of the
cattle used by cultivators are imported from the Shan States or Upper
Burma. There are, however, in the north a few low-lying tracts where

90 PEGU DISTRICT

the ground is too deeply flooded for cultivation, and here buffalo-
breeding becomes an occupation of some importance. In the Pyuntaza,
Nyaunglebin, and Hlegu townships no difficulty is experienced in feed-
ing cattle. In the Payagale and Kawa townships, however, where
cultivation has practically monopolized the whole available area, more
grazing grounds are urgently wanted. From the Nyaunglebin sub-
division herds of buffaloes have to be sent after the ploughing season
to other parts of the District, where they can be more conveniently fed
till the following rains. There is no sheep or goat breeding.

The District is so well provided with water that no system of irriga-
tion is necessary. There are over a hundred fisheries in different parts,
especially in the flooded tracts of Pyuntaza and Kawa, which are leased
annually for sums ranging from Rs. TOO to Rs. 5,000; but the fishing
industry nowhere assumes the importance that it does in the Irrawaddy
delta.

With the exception of a few areas reserved for fuel-supply in the
middle of the cultivated plains, the whole of the forest system lies to
the west of the railway, covering the broken and hilly
country on the slopes of the Pegu Yoma. South of
the Kodugwe stream is an extensive evergreen tract, which is one
of the most remarkable and beautiful features of the District, but it
produces only the pyinma (Lagers troemia Flos Reginae) and t hit si
(Melanorrhoea usitatd) among trees which have a marketable value.
In the deciduous forests are found teak, pyingado (Xylia do1abriformis\
kanyinbyu (Dipterocarpus alatus), kokko (Albizzia Lebbek), and /";/
(Dipterocarpus tuberculatus\ together with other trees, many with
gorgeous flowers and luxuriant foliage. Savannah forests are still to
be found near the mouth of the Sittang, but they are fast disappearing,
to give place to cultivation. The few patches of scrub jungle east of
the railway line contain large quantities of a creeper (Parameria
glanduliferd) which yields a good quality of rubber. Minor products
of more importance commercially, however, are wood-oil, shaw fibre
(Sterculia\ bamboo, and cane. A quantity of timber is floated down
the Sittang, and thence, through the Pegu-Sittang Canal, into the Pegu
river. Of the whole area of 4,276 square miles comprised within the
District of Pegu, 2,057 square miles are included in * reserved ' forests,
and about 500 square miles are classed as ( unprotected ' forest land.
The gross forest receipts in 1903-4 amounted to 2 lakhs. ^

Very few minerals are known to exist. A prospecting licence to
search for gold in the bed of the Sittang river has recently been
granted to a European firm, who have large interests in the petroleum
trade in Upper Burma, It remains to be seen whether their operations
will have any result in that portion of the stream that skirts Pegu
District. Laterite is plentiful in the west, and clay is extensively used

TRADE AND COMMUNICATIONS 91

for pottery work at Pegu and Tawa, and for the manufacture of bricks,
of which a large and constant supply is required for pagoda building.

In a District so largely devoted to rice cultivation, only domestic
industries or those ancillary to agriculture provide employment for
any considerable number of the people. Pegu was

in former days famed for its pottery, but the article Trade and

... / . . r J ' communications,

well-known throughout the country as the ' Pegu jar *

is not now manufactured to any extent in the District. The industry
is still carried on, however, in Pazunmyaung, on the bank of the
Sittang, and in the town of Pegu itself. Here, in the dry season, pots
of the ordinary domestic kinds are made in large quantities for local
use, the glazing material being brought from the hills east of the
Sittang ; but the ceramic art is no longer practised with the skill and
assiduity of former days.

Mention must be made of the silver-work of Pegu. There is nothing
peculiar in the methods of the silversmiths ; but special care and
dexterity appear to be applied to the work, and prizes have been won
by local artificers at exhibitions. In parts of the Hlegu township,
where the thinbyu reed is readily obtainable, mat-making is practised.
Carts and agricultural tools are made in quantities, but only for the
local market. In spite of the vast quantity of paddy produced, the
rice-milling industry is practically non-existent. There are two small
mills at Pegu and one at Nyaunglebin, but the rice-mills of Rangoon
are so easily and quickly reached that the profits of local millers are
barely sufficient to make it worth their while to work regularly.
Timber-sawing affords employment for some of the inhabitants of the
western part of the District, and there are steam saw-mills at Pegu,
at Nyaunglebin, and at Madauk on the Sittang river.

The enormous plain which occupies the eastern portion of the
District is entirely given up to the cultivation of rice, which finds its
market in Rangoon. During the months of January and February the
resources of the railway are severely strained to convey the mountains
of paddy that are stacked at the stations north of Pyinbongyi. The
ceaseless roll of carts, the volumes of dust, and the babel of voices
make existence intolerable in any of these so-called railway towns
during the busy season. The rice from the southern part of the
District is generally conveyed by the numerous waterways that con-
verge at Rangoon. On the east side the canal south of Minywa is
alive with traffic at this time; and the lock at Tawa, where boats
congregate to await the tide in the Pegu river, presents at night an
animated and striking scene. On the south-western side of the District
the Pazundaung creek, which flows into the Hlaing at Rangoon, carries
down almost all the rice from the Hlegu township. The great majority
of the population are engaged in some way in agriculture, even traders

VOL. xx. G

92 PEGU DISTRICT

and others striving hard to get possession of land. The monopoly of
commerce is practically in the hands of Chinamen and natives of India,
though in the large bazars of the District are to be found numbers of
Burman silk- and cloth-dealers.

The main railway line connecting Rangoon with Mandalay runs
through the heart of the District, making a parabolic curve eastward,
with its vertex at Nyaunglebin. There are at present nineteen railway
stations in the District. A railway from Pegu to Martaban is in
process of construction. The road from Pegu to Rangoon runs almost
parallel to the railway, but inclines more to the west, until it reaches
the Prome road at Taukkyan, in Hanthawaddy District, where it turns
south. The road to Toungoo in the north runs more or less parallel
to the railway, and numerous cross and feeder roads connect the main
lines of communication, such as the Dabein-Hlegu, the Nyaunglebin-
Pazunmyaung, the Pegu-Thanatpin, and the Payagyi-Payabyo roads.
The most important highways are maintained from Provincial funds.
Embankments are plentiful in the low-lying parts of the country. In
the south-eastern portion of the District communications are far from
perfect, for, with the exception of two short highways in the Kawa
township, there are absolutely no means of reaching in the rains an
enormous area which is being brought under cultivation west of the
mouth of the Sittang, a great deal being new land formed from deposits
swept by the river from the eastern or Thaton bank. The lengths of
metalled and unmetalled roads are, respectively, 140 and 68 miles.
Further means of communication are provided by the Pegu-Sittang
Canal, which runs from Myitkyo on the Sittang to Tawa on the Pegu
river, and by a branch running through the Thanatpin lake into the
old town moat of Pegu. Along this canal ply a number of launches.

The District is divided into two subdivisions, Pegu and Nyaung-
lebin, of which the former consists of three townships, HLEGU, KAWA,

and PAYAGALE. and the latter of two. NYAUNGLEBIN
Administration. , ,. _ mi XT i i- LJ-

and PYUNTAZA. The Nyaunglebin subdivision is

ordinarily in charge of an Assistant Commissioner, while the Pegu
subdivision and each of the five townships are administered by Extra-
Assistant Commissioners or myo-oks. There are still eleven circle
thugyis in the District, the remnant of the old revenue-collecting
agency. These petty revenue officials have, however, for the most
part been superseded by ywathugyis (village headmen). The village
headmen number 531 ; and on their efforts in helping the police,
collecting the revenue, and generally assisting District officers prac-
tically depends the success of the administration. Except where there
is a circle thugyi, village headmen are paid by commission on the
amount of revenue they collect, and they are also authorized to take
fees in petty cases which they are empowered to decide. At head-

ADMINISTRATION 93

quarters are a treasury officer, an akunwun (in charge of the revenue),
and a superintendent of land records, with a staff of 6 inspectors and
51 surveyors. The District forms a Public Works division, with sub-
divisional officers at Pegu, Nyaunglebin, and Thanatpin ; it is also
conterminous with the Pegu Forest division.

Till recently the administration of justice in the District, as in the
Pegu and Irrawaddy Divisions generally, was in a transitional stage.
The Commissioner was Sessions Judge and the Deputy-Commissioner
was District Judge, but the greater part of their judicial work was done
by Additional Judges. The Pegu and Toungoo Districts now, how-
ever, form the charge of a whole-time District Judge with head-
quarters at Pegu, and Pegu with Hanthawaddy forms the charge of
the Hanthawaddy Divisional and Sessions Judge, whose head-quarters
are at Rangooh. There are no whole-time subdivisional judges ; but
the township courts of Hlegu and Kawa are presided over by a judge
at Kawa, the Nyaungiebin and Pyuntaza township courts by a judge at
Nyaunglebin, and the township court of Payagale by a judge at Pegu,
who also exercises Small Cause Court powers in Pegu town. As might
be expected, where the country is so fast coming under cultivation, the
majority of civil cases are brought on assignments of land. In spite
of the elaborate precautions taken to prevent large areas from falling
into the hands of adventurers and speculators, the annual statistics
prove that the landlord class has obtained a firm hold. The large
number of undefended suits is an index of the hopelessness of resis-
tance to the mortgagee's claims, and on the survey maps it is easy to
trace the huge holdings that have passed into the hands of cosmo-
politan capitalists. Chinamen and Chettis, Chulias and Coringhis,
generally clothed with an innocent a/ias, apply, and often success-
fully, for large grants of land, which others are hired to clear and
cultivate. Thus, not only old, but large portions of new, land have
already passed into the possession of absentee landlords.

Violent crime is not so common in Pegu as in the neighbouring
Districts of Hanthawaddy and Tharrawaddy. Freedom from this
form of criminality is said to be due to the fact that there are prac-
tically no toddy-trees in the District, and that liquor is not so readily
procurable as in some localities. During the year 1902, with a popu-
lation of nearly half a million, not a single murder was reported.
Dacoity is rare, and in the cases that do occur the accused are often
found to "belong to other Districts. Cattle-theft is undoubtedly com-
mon, though the statistics compare favourably with those of the sur-
rounding areas ; but the presence of cattle-thieves is not surprising,
when one considers the completely unprotected state in which cattle
are allowed to roam for months at a time, before and after they are
wanted for ploughing.

G 2

PEGU DISTRICT

Up to 1883 Pegu formed part of Hanthawaddy (or Rangoon)
District. The southern portion of the present District, including the
whole of the Pegu subdivision and a further area subsequently trans-
ferred to Hanthawaddy, was cadastrally surveyed in the years 1881-3,
and was brought under settlement in 1882-4. ^ n l %95 * ne District
boundaries were altered ; Kyauktan and Thabyegan in the south were
relinquished to Hanthawaddy, and the Pyuntaza (now called the
Nyaunglebin) subdivision was added in the north. The settlement
of the southern areas was for a period of fifteen years, and had there-
fore to be revised during 18981900. This resulted in a net increase
in revenue of Rs. 3,00,000, or nearly 26 per cent. The northern sub-
division, with the exception of the Bawni circle, was settled in the year
1897-8. The highest rate of land revenue at present paid is Rs. 4 per
acre. This is levied in about 38 villages in the Kawa township, in the
middle of the large plain east of the railway line, which is not reached
by the tidal waters of the Sittang. In some of the circles which lie
farther east, and in the Hlegu and Payagale townships, the rates vary
between Rs. 3-8 and Rs. 2, though in the newly cleared and hilly lands
west of the railway line they are as low as Rs. 1-4. In the northern
subdivision, too, the prevailing rates are between Rs. 2 and Rs. 3-8,
but on the whole the average assessment there is lower, in consequence
of the distance from the Rangoon market. The overflow of the Sit-
tang and the vagaries of the hill streams, especially in the vicinity
of Pyuntaza village, are responsible for the low rates fixed in some of
the northern circles. It was originally intended that the Bawni circle,
which lies in the township of Pyuntaza, should be settled along with
the rest of the Nyaunglebin subdivision in the season 1897-8. Owing,
however, to the extraordinarily rapid extension of cultivation, it was
discovered that the cadastral maps were already out of date by the
time the Settlement officer arrived, and it was decided to postpone
the settlement till a resurvey had been effected. The rate assessed
on garden land is generally Rs. 2-8 per acre in the southern sub-
division, and Rs. 2 in the northern ; but somewhat higher charges are
made on land under tobacco, dani palm, or miscellaneous cultivation.
The average assessment on land under cultivation of all kinds is a
fraction over Rs. 2 per acre, and the average size of a holding is
26-6 acres.

The following table shows the growth of the revenue in recent years,
in thousands of rupees :

1880- 1.

1890-1.

1900-1.

1903-4.

Land revenue
Total revenue

5,3<>
5,83

7,95
8,74

15,64
25,23

18,72
3o,7 2

ADMINISTRATION 95

The other main items besides land revenue in 1903-4 were capitation
tax (Rs. 3,49,000), excise (Rs. 4,14,000), and fisheries (Rs. 2,10,000).

The District cess fund, administered by the Deputy-Commissioner
for the provision of various local needs, yielded an income of
Rs. 2,39,000 in 1903-4; and the expenditure was Rs. 2,42,000, of
which about half was devoted to public works. The only munici-
pality in the District is PEGU, but NYAUNGLEBIN is administered by
a town committee.

The police are under the control of the District Superintendent.
Each subdivision is in charge of an Assistant Superintendent, and
each township has an inspector. The subordinate civil police force
consists of 8 head-constables, 40 sergeants, and 249 constables. The
military police force numbers 3 native officers, 26 non-commissioned
officers, and '196 sepoys, who are employed to escort prisoners and
treasure and to patrol the District in the dry season. The number
of headmen is 531, and these, with a large number of Hen-house'
gaungs, constitute the rural police. There are sixteen police stations
and one outpost. Military police are posted at the subdivisional and
township head-quarters, and at two other outlying police stations.
There is no jail in the District. Convicts are sent to the Rangoon
Central jail to serve out their sentences.

The proportion of literate persons is high. It amounted in 1901
to 45 per cent, in the case of males and 9-2 per cent, in the case
of females, or 28*5 per cent, for both sexes together. The number
of pupils was 8,740 in 1891, 16,446 in 1901, and 18,361 in 1903-4, of
whom 3,705 were girls. In the last year there were 20 secondary,
281 primary, and 363 elementary (private) schools in the District.
These figures include both lay and monastic seminaries. The public
institutions are under the supervision of three deputy-inspectors of
schools. The work of one of these is confined to the Karen schools.
The Burman schools were till recently under the charge of a single
deputy-inspector, but a second officer of this class has been appointed
recently. The Karen schools form a considerable proportion of the
total. The only institution worthy of special note is the Pegu muni-
cipal school. Local fund expenditure on education amounted, in
1903-4, to Rs. 43,800, of which Rs. 37,600 came from the District
cess fund, and Rs. 6,200 from municipal funds. The Provincial
expenditure was Rs. 5,100.

The District contains two hospitals with 52 beds, and three dis-
pensaries. Excluding the figures for two of the latter, 24,316 cases
were treated in 1903, of whom 2,120 were in-patients, and 1,121 opera-
tions were performed. Of a total income of Rs. 13,500, municipal
funds provided Rs. 6,700, the District cess fund Rs. 1,500, and town
funds Rs. 2,800.

96 PEGU DISTRICT

Vaccination is compulsory only within municipal limits. In 1903-4
the number of successful vaccinations was 10,167, representing 30 per
1,000 of the population.

[H. Des Voeux, Settlement Report (1899); W. E. Lowry, Settle-
ment Reports (1900 and 1901); W. V. Wallace, Settlement Report
(1902).]

Pegu Subdivision. Subdivision of Pegu District, Lower Burma,
consisting of the HLEGU, KAWA, and PAYAGALE townships.

Pegu Town. Head-quarters of Pegu District, in the Pegu Division
of Lower Burma, situated in 17 20' N. and 96 29' E., on the railway,
47 miles north-east of Rangoon. The town stands on the banks of
a river bearing the same name, and partly on a ridge which forms the
extremity of a long spur of the Pegu Yoma. Its population at each of
the last four enumerations was: (1872) 4,416, (1881) 5,891, (1891)
10,762, and (1901) 14,132. Its increase during the past thirty years
has been steady, though it seems probable that it will in the future owe
its reputation rather to its antiquity and historical associations than
to its commercial importance. The majority of the inhabitants are
Buddhists. Pegu, doubtless, originally derived its importance from the
fact that it was situated at the highest navigable point of a perennial
river, which is easily reached from all points of the rich rice plain
on the east, and which flows directly past Rangoon, the principal
port of the country. In far distant times the rising ground where
the town now stands was almost certainly situated on the sea-coast;
and the legend goes that Hanthawaddy (a term originally applied
to a considerable tract of country in the neighbourhood of Pegu)
was the name given to the spot where the geese (hintha\ like the
ark on Mount Ararat, first settled after the retirement of the
waters.

Pegu has for centuries been connected with the Takings or Peguans,
who from the commencement of the historical period till comparatively
modem times were the dominant nationality in the southern portion of
what is now Burma. Thaton was the earliest known Talaing capital.
It is said to have been in A.D. 573 that the Peguans established them-
selves in Pegu. The town first became known to the outside world,
however, in the days when the Toungoo dynasty of Burmese kings
ruled in it. It is described by European travellers in the sixteenth
century as of great size and magrvificence. Cesare de* Federici, who
visited it in the latter portion of the sixteenth century while it was
the capital of the Toungoo kings, has given a detailed description of its
glories. When Alaungpaya overran and conquered Pegu in the middle
of the eighteenth century, he employed every means to efface all traces
of Talaing nationality, destroying every house in the town and dis-
persing the inhabitants. His fifth son Bodawpaya, who succeeded in

PEGU TOWN 97

1781, pursued a different policy, and in his time the seat of the local
government was for some time transferred from Rangoon to Pegu. The
town figured in both the first and second Burmese Wars. In the
second War it was twice captured, and was the scene of a good deal of
fighting.

The present town consists of two portions, the areas within and with-
out the four walls by which the old town was encompassed. In general
plan and configuration it may be compared more closely to Ava than to
any of the other royal residences. On the top of the walls, which are
about 40 feet wide, are built the residences of the European officials,
and under the shade of the mango and other fruit trees which stud
the slopes there is a delightful retreat from the surrounding heat and
glare. Between the western face of the old fortifications and the river
are the bazar and main portion of the native town, while in the centre
of the enclosure, towering to a height of 324 feet, is the golden cone of
the Shwemawdaw pagoda, one of the most remarkable buildings in
Burma, and an object of greater veneration to the Talaings than even
the Shwedagon pagoda at Rangoon. The shrine owes nothing to its
site, but in symmetry of design and beauty of structure it is perhaps
unrivalled. Along the roads in this part of the town are the principal
Government buildings and private houses, the courthouses, municipal
office, circuit-house, and school, while across the river stretches an iron
double-girder bridge. This was originally intended for Akyab town, but
fortunately for Pegu it was found too short for the purpose for which
it was required there. Farther to the west, beyond the railway, and
about a mile from the river, is a gigantic recumbent image of Buddha
called the Shinbinthalyaung, one of the most interesting monuments
in the Province.

The management of the town has, since 1883, been vested in a
municipal committee. Between 1890 and 1900 the income of the
municipality averaged Rs. 48,000 yearly. In 1903-4 it was Rs. 1,14,000.
Fees from bazars and slaughter-houses yield about half of the receipts,
while direct taxation, including levies on account of conservancy
and lighting, produces nearly Rs. 20,000. The expenditure, which
during the decade averaged Rs. 51,000, amounted to Rs. i, 01,000 in
1903-4. The chief objects on which money is expended are edu-
cation (Rs. 4,000), conservancy (Rs. 16,000), public works (Rs. 22,000),
hospital (Rs. 20,000), and general establishment (Rs. 8,000). The
principal problems that the committee has to solve are the provision
of a water-supply, the setting on foot of an adequate scheme of con-
servancy, and the improvement of the drainage system. The first of
these is very difficult. The water of the river is not fit for drinking
purposes, and that obtained from shallow wells, sunk in different places,
has, on analysis, been found impregnated with noxious germs. An

98 PEGU TOWN

attempt was made to form a reservoir in a portion of the old moat,
and to this end several houses were expropriated from sites on its
banks ; but this scheme was doomed to failure, owing to the discovery
of impurities in the moat water. The town, which has in many parts
a subsoil of laterite, and slopes gently down to the banks of the river,
has a good natural drainage, but this requires much artificial assistance
in the congested portions near the bazar. The masonry drains at
present existing are inadequate, and a considerable outlay will be
needed for their extension and improvement.

The bazar claims notice as being the hive round which the native
inhabitants swarm from the first break of dawn until long after midday.
The main portion of the building consists of five sheds, with brick walls
and shingle roof of little architectural value. It is perhaps due to their
proximity to the river that these buildings have escaped for so many
years destruction by fire. Next to the bazar the favourite rendezvous
is the bank of the canal which has been constructed to join the main
Sittang Canal near Thanatpin. The traffic along this waterway is so
great that, in their efforts to crush competition and continue a mono-
poly, the principal launch-owners have even conveyed passengers
without charge, In the carrying trade by steam-launch, by Chinese
sampan^ and by the long Chittagong boat, which is now so popular
in the delta, the Burman has practically ceased to compete. The
town possesses no industries of importance. Pottery and silver-work
are turned out, and two small rice-mills are at work. By no means
the least important institution in the town is the hospital, with 36
beds. It is built in three blocks, one for the public generally, a
second for the offices and storerooms, and a third for members of
the military police.

Pegu River. River of Burma, rising in the north-west corner
of Pegu District on the eastern slopes of the Pegu Yoma, and flowing
into the RANGOON RIVER immediately east of the city of Rangoon,
about 1 80 miles from its source. For the first two-thirds of its course
it runs in a south-easterly, and for the last third in a south-westerly
direction. The only town of importance on its banks is Pegu, one
of the ancient capitals of the Taking kingdom, now the head-quarters
of a District, where the stream is crossed by a substantial iron bridge.
Below Pegu the river is connected with the Sittang river on the east by
the Pegu-Sittang Canal, a navigation channel constructed to facilitate
communication between Rangoon and the Sittang. From Pegu to
Rangoon the stream flows through a dead level in a winding, channel
of no great breadth. At its mouth the river is about a mile wide.
Here it separates the eastern portion of the city of Rangoon from
Syriam, which was once famous as a trading centre and has of late
shown signs of regaining a portion of its lost commercial importance.

PEGU YOMA 99

The Pegu river is navigable for light-draught steamers as high as Pegu
during the rainy season.

Pegu-Sittang Canal. A navigable canal in Pegu District, Lower
Burma, running generally north-east a.nd south-west and connecting
the PEGU and SITTANG rivers. The canal was originally begun in
1873-4, and consisted in the first instance of the length from Tawa, a
few miles due south of the town of Pegu, to a village called Minywa.
This section joined the Paingkyun and Kyasu creeks ; and, as the
former flows into the Pegu river and the latter into the Sittang, these
rivers were thus connected. In 1878 a lock was built at Tawa, while
the Kyasu creek was closed and the canal was extended to Myitkyo,
a village in Pegu District on the Sittang, where another lock was
built. A branch running from Pegu south-eastwards into the main
canal at Pagannyaungbin was dug in 1883. The length of the canal
from Tawa to Myitkyo is 38 miles, and the length of the branch is
8 miles. Tolls are levied for the use of the canal by boats or rafts,
yielding about a lakh in 1903-4. The total capital expenditure on
the work has been about 44 lakhs. A lock at Minywa, 14^ miles
from Tawa, is under construction, which, when completed, will esta-
blish communication with the Sittang 47 miles below Myitkyo. In
the construction of the canal advantage was taken of the numerous
natural channels which existed. The canal is consequently very
irregular in trace and in bed-width. There are four escapes, at Kyaik-
padaing, at Pagannyaungbin, at Minywa, and at Abya. The canal is
protected from the floods of the Sittang by the Pagaing embankment,
which extends from Myitkyo to Tazon, and from the floods of the
Pegu river by the Pegu river embankment. A third barrier, from
Zwebat to Moyingyi on the Pagaing embankment, forms a reservoir
which will serve to feed the canal in the dry season. The Pagaing
embankment incidentally renders cultivation of a large area of land
possible, and the Zwebat-Moyingyi embankment will bring further
areas under the plough.

Pegu Yoma. A chain of hills in Burma, to the east of the
Irrawaddy, running north and south and forming the watershed be-
tween the Irrawaddy and the Sittang, from about 17 20' to 20 N.
Like the last-named river, its northern end is situated in the District
of Yamethin and its southerly limit lies a little to the north of
Rangoon ; t in fact it may be said to extend, in the shape of undu-
lating ridges, into Rangoon itself, one of its final mounds being
crowned by the great golden Shwedagon pagoda, which lies to the
north of the city. The total length of the chain is about 200 miles ;
and its crests separate the Districts of Magwe, Thayetmyo, Prome,
Tharrawaddy, and Hanthawaddy on the west from those of Yamethin,
Toungoo, and Pegu on the east. From its eastern slopes flow the Pegu

ioo PEGU YOMA

river and several of the tributaries of the Sittang, while to the west it
sends down no stream of importance, but its more southerly hills hold
the springs of the various watercourses that swell the volume of the
Myitmaka or Hlaing river, upon the banks of which Rangoon is built.
The Yoma is of no great height, its loftiest peak being only about
2,000 feet above the level of the sea, but it is steep and rugged. Its
geological structure is simple. The beds composing it have been
thrown into gentle broad synclines and anticlines, and their sands and
shales probably overlie conformably the Nummulitics on the eastern
slopes of the ARAKAN YOMA. A portion of the range is no doubt
of miocene age, but it is probable that representatives of other geo-
logical groups are present in it. The forests are rich in teak and other
valuable timber, the bulk of which is floated down the Myitmakca to
Rangoon. The inhabitants of the Yoma are for the most part Karens ;
but in the north, on the borders of Prome, Magwe, Toungoo, and
Thayetmyo Districts, there are a few villages of Chins, the only known
representatives of the race in any strength to the east of the Irrawaddy.
They appear to have come from the Arakan Yoma, but the date of
their migration is doubtful.

Pehowa. Ancient town and place of pilgrimage in the Kaithal
tahsll of Karn t al District, Punjab, situated in 29 59' N. and 76 35' E.,
on the sacred SaraswatI river, 16 miles west of Thanesar. It lies
in KURUKSHKTRA, and its name is a corruption of the Sanskrit
Prithudaka, the * pool of Prithu/ the son of Raja Vena. Two inscrip-
tions dating from the end of the ninth century A.D., found at Pehowa,
show that it was then included in the dominions of Bhoja and his son
Mehendrapala, kings of Kanauj. The more important inscription
records the erection of a triple temple to Vishnu by a Tomar family ;
but no traces of ancient buildings remain, the modern shrines having
been erected within the last century. After the rise of the Sikhs to
power Pehowa came into the possession of the Bhais of Kaithal, whose
palace is now used as a resthouse ; but with Kaithal it lapsed to the
British Government, and has since lost its importance, the population
having decreased from 3,408 in 1881 to 2,080 in 1901. It is still,
however, a place of pilgrimage ; and close to it are the temples of
Pirthudakeshwar or Pirthiiveshwar, built by the Marathas during their
supremacy in honour of the goddess SaraswatI (Sarsuti) and of Swami
Kartik. The latter is said to have been originally founded before
the war of the Mahabharata in honour of the war-god Kartaya. The
town has a dispensary.

Peikthano (or Paikthado). Ancient capital in Upper Burma.
See MAGWE DISTRICT.

Peint. Formerly a Native State, and now a tdluka of Nasik Dis-
trict, Bombay, lying between 20 i' and 20 32' N. and 73 15' and

PEN TALUK A ioi

73 39' E., with an area of 432 square miles. There are 227 villages,
but no town. The head-quarters are at Peint. The population in
1901 was 53,392, compared with 59,601 in 1891. The density, 124
persons per square mile, is below the District average. The demand
for land revenue in 1903-4 was Rs. 37,000, and for cesses Rs. 2,500.
In both climate and appearance the taluka resembles the Konkan.
A maze of hill and valley, except for some rice-fields and patches
of rough hill-side cultivation, Peint is covered over its whole area
with timber, brushwood, and grass. Towards the north, a prominent
range of hills passing westwards at right angles to the main line
of the Western Ghats gives a distinct character to the landscape.
But over the rest of the country ranges of small hills starting up
on all sides crowd together in the wildest confusion, with a general
south-westerly direction, to within 20 miles of the sea-coast, and
divide the valleys of the Daman and Par rivers. The heavy rainfall,
which averages 87 inches annually, the thick forest vegetation, great
variations of temperature, and a certain heaviness of the atmosphere
combine to make the tract unhealthy. The prevailing diseases are
fever and ague. The population consists almost entirely of forest
and hill tribes, nominally Hindus, poor and ignorant, unsettled in
their habits, and much given to the use of intoxicating spirits. Their
language is a corrupt Marathi, with a large mixture of Gujarat! words.
A large part of Peint is well suited for grazing, and considerable
numbers of cattle and sheep are exported. The chief products are
timber of various kinds (including bamboos), rice, ndchni, oilseeds,
beeswax, honey, stag-horn, and hides.

The ruling family, by descent Rajputs of the Puar tribe, adopted
many generations back the family name of Dalvi. A branch of the
family embraced Islam in the time of Aurangzeb. During the Maratha
supremacy the Peint estates were for a long period placed under
attachment by the Peshwas. In reward for services rendered in
1818, the family were reinstated in their former position by the
British Government. The last chief, Abdul Momin alias Lakshadir
Dalpat Rao III, died in 1837, leaving only a legitimate daughter,
Begam Nur Jahan. The State was placed under British management
on the death of the last male chief, but the Begam was allowed a life
pension of Rs. 6,000 a year, in addition to one- third of the surplus
revenues of, the State. On her death in 1878, the State finally lapsed
to the British Government. Harsul, the former place of residence
of the Begam, is situated in 20 9' N. and 73 30' E.

Pempa La. Pass in the State of Bhutan, situated in 2739'N. and
89 15' E.

Pen Taluka. North-eastern taluka of Kolaba District, Bombay,
lying between 18 28' and 18 50' N. and 73 and 73 22' E., with

102 PEN TALUK A

an area of 293 square miles, including the petty subdivision (pethd)
of Nagothana. It contains one town, PEN (population, 9,229), its
head-quarters; and 198 villages. The population in 1901 was 76,559,
compared with 74,516 in 1891. The density, 261 persons per square
mile, is below the District average. The demand for land revenue
in 1903-4 was 1*22 lakhs, and for cesses Rs. 8,000. The chief
river is the Amba, of which the water is sweet and drinkable from
June until September. The prevailing soils are reddish and black.
A large area of tidal swamp is used as salt-pans. The climate is
generally healthy. The annual rainfall averages 121 inches.

Pen Town. Head-quarters of the tdluka of the same name in
Kolaba District, Bombay, situated in 18 44' N. and 73 6' E.,
16 miles east-by-north of Alibag. Population (1901), 9,229. It has
been a municipality since 1865, having an average income during
the decade ending 1901 of Rs. 14,000. In 1903-4 the income was
Rs. 15,500. Pen is connected with the Deccan by the Konkan road
and the Bor Pass. Steamers from Bombay call daily at Dharamtar
ferry on the Amba river, 5 miles distant ; and cargo boats up to
50 tons burden come to Antora or Pen bandar^ a mile and a half
distant, at spring tides. The neap tide port, Bang bandar, is 4 miles
below Pen. In 1903-4 the exports amounted to 3-21 lakhs and the
imports to 3-70 lakhs. Pen is one of the two ports forming the Sakse
(Sankshi) customs division. The water-works were constructed in 1876
at a cost of Rs. 28,000. Pen contains a dispensary, a middle school,
and five other schools.

Pendhat. Village in the Mustafabad tahsil of Mainpuri District,
United Provinces, situated in 27 21' N. and 78 36' E., 29 miles
north-west of Mainpuri town. Population (1901), 2,423. It is noted
for the worship of Jokhaiya, a deity believed by the lower classes
in the Doab to have great powers. Jokhaiya was a Bhangi, who,
according to tradition, fell in the war between Prithwi Raj of Delhi
and Jai Chand of Kanauj. The shrine is visited annually by thou-
sands of pilgrims in the hope of obtaining offspring or an easy
childbirth.

Pendur. Town in the Malvan tdluka of Ratnagiri District, Bom-
bay, situated in 16 3' N. and 73 42' E. Population (1901), 5,364.

Penganga. River of Berar, having its source in the hills beyond
Deulghat, on the western border of Buldana District, in 20^31' N. and
76 2' E. After flowing in a south-easterly direction through this
District and a portion of Akola, it forms the southern boundary of
Berar, joining the Wardha which forms the eastern boundary of the
province, at Jugad, in the south-eastern corner of Yeotmal District
(19 52' N. and 79 n / E.). The course of the Penganga, from
its source to the point where it joins the Wardha, exceeds 200

PENNER 103

miles in length ; and its principal tributaries are the Pus, the Arna
and Aran, which unite before they flow into it, the Chandrabhaga,
the Waghari, which displays on its banks a curious laminated forma-
tion of Purana sandstone, and the Vaidarbha, which is the adjec-
tival form of the name of the old kingdom of heroic times. All
these tributaries flow into the Penganga from the north.

Pennahobilam. Village in the Gooty taluk of Anantapur District,
Madras, situated in 14 $2' N. and 77 19' E. Population (1901),
only three persons. It stands on the bank of the Penner river just
where this turns eastwards for the first time. The channel at this
point is narrow and rocky. The village is a sacred place of pilgrimage,
as it contains a famous temple to Narasimha, the man-lion incarnation
of Vishnu. This building is not architecturally remarkable, much of
it being made only of plaster ; but it is most picturesquely situated
on rising ground among fine trees, under which stand a crowd of
buildings for the accommodation of pilgrims.

Penner (Uttara Pindkini or Northern Pennar). River of Southern
India which rises on Channarayan-betta, to the north-west of Nandi-
droog in the Kolar District of Mysore, and running north-west past
Goribidniir, enters the Anantapur District of Madras, at one point
again crossing Mysore in a projecting part of the Pavugada taluk
(Tumkur District). Some distance north of Anantapur it turns to the
east, and passing through Cuddapah and Nellore Districts, falls into
the sea below Nellore town. Its tributaries from Mysore are the
Jayamangali, Chitravati, and Papaghni.

In Anantapur District the Penner runs for the most part in a wide
and sandy bed. It comes down in sudden freshes (generally in
October and November) for two or three days at a time, and then
as quickly dries up again. In Cuddapah it is joined on its right bank
by the Chitravati, and the two streams have forced a passage for them-
selves through the picturesque gorge of GANDIKOTA, about a mile
long and 300 feet deep. Lower down the Papaghni flows into it, and
thereafter, as it winds through the Eastern Ghats, its course again
becomes wild and beautiful.

The river enters Nellore District through a narrow gap in the Ghats
near Somasila, and thenceforward is for the first time rendered useful
for irrigation. From Sornasila to Sangam, a distance of 25 miles,
it waters about 5,000 acres from inundation channels. At Sangam
it is crossed by a dam, built in 1886, which is 4,072 feet long. On
the left bank of the river this dam supplies the great Kanigiri reservoir,
and thus irrigates 86,000 acres \ and a channel is being constructed
from it on the right bank, which will fill the Nellore reservoir and
water 10,000 more. Lower down the river, at Nellore town, a dam
constructed in 1855 was repaired and brought into its present shape

io 4 PENNER

by Sir A. Cotton in 1858. The channels from it supply 64,000 acres
of land on the right bank. Altogether the river irrigates 155,000 acres
in this District, yielding a revenue of 3^ lakhs, or about 5^ per cent,
upon the capital of 6r lakhs which has been invested. The great
Tungabhadra Project now in contemplation proposes to turn much
of the surplus water of the Tungabhadra into the Penner, and this
water would be utilized in Nellore District by constructing a high
dam across the narrow gap at Somasila and forming a huge reservoir
there. It is calculated that channels from this on both sides of the
river would command 500,000 acres.

The Penner is crossed by the Madras Railway at Penneru in
Anantapur District, and by the East Coast section of the same rail-
way at Nellore, near its mouth.

Penukonda Subdivision. Subdivision of Anantapur District,
Madras, consisting of the PENUKONDA, DHARMAVARAM, MADAKASIRA,
and HINDUPUR taluks.

Penukonda Taluk. Southern taluk of Anantapur District, Madras,
lying between 13 54' and 14 22' N. and 77 20' and 78 2' E., with
an area of 677 square miles. The population in 1901 was 92,482,
compared with 81,104 in 1891. The taluk contains 96 villages and
one town, PENUKONDA ('big hiir) (population, 6,806), the head-
quarters, situated at the base of a large hill from which it takes its
name. It is a place of historical importance, having become the
capital of the fallen Vijayanagar monarch after his overthrow in 1565
at the battle of Talikota. The demand for land revenue and cesses in
1903-4 amounted to Rs. 1,56,000. It is the most hilly taluk in the
District, and much of it is consequently quite unfit for cultivation.
There is no black soil, and red and gravelly soils predominate. The
unirrigated crops are cholam and horse-gram, and the irrigated staples
are rice, sugar-cane, and some rdgi. The Penner river flows along its
western and the Chitravati along its eastern boundary. At Bukka-
patnam the latter river has been dammed up and a very large tank
formed ; but the Penner is at present little utilized for irrigation,
though a project for damming it has been proposed. Seven other
tanks irrigate an area of more than 300 acres each.

Penukonda Town. Head-quarters of the subdivision and taluk
of the same name in Anantapur District, Madras, situated in 14 5' N.
and 77 36' E. Population (1901), 6,806. It is picturesquely placed
at the foot of a steep, rugged, and strongly fortified hill over 3,000 feet
in height, on the edge of an uneven plain which is flanked and crossed
by smaller elevations of manifold shapes and sizes. From the hill, and
connected with it at both ends, a semicircular line of massive fortifica-
tions stretches out for some distance into the plain, and is washed on
its southern side by a considerable tank. Partly within and partly

PENUKONDA TOWN 105

outside this line is the present town ; and the remains of the ancient
buildings on the lower ground, the towers and mantapams on the
slopes of the hill, and the trees and the green crops of the cultivated
patches combine to make a very pleasant picture, while an air of
departed greatness is afforded by the numerous ruins and fragments
of carved stone which lie about on every side. The view of the town
and its surroundings from the top of the hill is well worth the climb.
According to tradition, it was founded by one Kriyasakti Udaiyar.
The earliest inscription, on the northern gate of the fort, says that
king Bukka I of Vijayanagar entrusted the province of Penukonda to
his son Vlra Virupanna Udaiyar, in whose time the fort was built.
Thus at the very beginning of the rule of the Vijayanagar dynasty the
place was the residence of one of its princes. It evidently continued
for many years to be one of the chief strongholds of the line ; and
Krishna Deva, the greatest of its kings, is declared to have made it
his residence for a period. When the Vijayanagar power was over-
thrown by the Musalmans at the battle of Talikota, it was to Penu-
konda that the king fled, taking with him a few followers and the
treasures of his palace. The place then became the head-quarters
of what remained of the fallen empire. In 1585 the king moved to
Chandragiri in North Arcot, and then Penukonda was ruled by local
governors. In 1577 the Sultan of Bijapur blockaded it closely, but
a part of his troops were bought off and the siege failed. In 1589 the
Sultan of Golconda made another attempt on it, but it was most
heroically defended by Jagadeva Raya, and the Musalmans eventually
retreated. It fell at last to the Sultan of Bijapur in 1652, the governor,
so says tradition, being bought over. About a century later it became
part of the possessions of Morari Rao, and from him it was taken
by Haidar All in 1762. It remained a Mysore possession, with some
slight interruptions, until the death of Tipu in 1799.

Of the many buildings in and about the town the most handsome
is the Slier Khan mosque, which is constructed of dark green granite
with black hornblende mouldings, and contains some excellent carving.
Both this and another mosque in the fort have clearly been at one
time Hindu temples. Babayya's dargdh is another well-known Muham-
madan institution. Babayya, says the legend, was a prince who turned
fakir. His spiritual guide gave him a twig, and told him to plant it
wherever he stopped and to take up his residence at the place at which
it budded. It budded at Penukonda, and the fakir and his following
accordingly established themselves in the chief Hindu temple there.
News of the sacrilege having been brought to the ruler of the place,
he put the fakir and the priest of the temple through several tests
to see which of them was the more holy man. In all of these the
fakir was victorious, and the king accordingly allowed him to remain

106 PENUKONDA TOWN

in the temple. The dargdh is now a great place of pilgrimage for
Musalmans and the centre of an organization of fakirs which extends
throughout the Presidency.

The chief Hindu building in Penukonda is the Gagana Mahal or
palace. It is a handsome two-storeyed erection, possessing a tower
from which a good view of the town is obtained. It is built in the
same Hindu-Saracenic style which was also adopted in the palace
buildings at Vijayanagar.

Penukonda now contains the offices usual to the head-quarters of
a subdivision and a taluk, and is the station of a District Munsif.
It is also of some importance from a commercial point of view, and
takes the lead in all intellectual matters in the south of the District.

Perambakkam. Village in the Conjeeveram taluk of Chingleput
District, Madras, situated in 12 51' N. and 79 35' E., about 14 miles
north-west of Conjeeveram town. Population (1901), 1,117. Near
here occurred, in 1780, the defeat of Colonel Baillie's force by Haidar
All, one of the most severe reverses that ever befell the British arms
in India. Sir Hector Munro, the Madras Commander-in-Chief, had
directed Baillie, who had 2,800 men with him, to meet him at Con-
jeeveram. Haidar received intelligence of the plan and set out to
intercept the force. Baillie thereupon sent to Sir Hector for reinforce-
ments, and a detachment was dispatched to him which increased his
strength to 3,700 men. Baillie, however, delayed too long in setting
out, and was caught by the whole of Haidar's army in a defile studded
with palmyra palms. Here his force was subjected to a cross-fire from
fifty guns. Baillie and most of his officers were soon wounded, and
eventually the blowing up of two tumbrils of gunpowder in the middle
of the square in which the troops were formed started a panic. The
British, however, concentrated the small remnant of their men on
a little eminence, and repulsed thirteen attacks of the enemy during
another hour and a half. Baillie then surrendered, and indiscriminate
slaughter of the prisoners was prevented by French officers serving in
Haidar's army. In the Darya Daulat, Haidar's garden-house on the
island of Seringapatam, is a fresco depicting this defeat in quaint
native fashion, an exploding tumbril being given a prominent place
in the composition. This has been renovated and is in excellent
preservation.

[A full account of the battle is to be found in Lives of the Lindsays
(vol. iii, pp. 250-60), contributed by the Hon. John Lindsay, who was
one of those taken prisoners to Seringapatam.]

Perambalur. Northern taluk of Trichinopoly District, Madras,
lying between 10 55' and 11 32' N. and 78 40' and 79 10' E., to
the south of the Vellar river, with an area of 674 square miles. The
head-quarters are at the village of the same name. The population in

PERIM 107

1901 was 204,257, compared with 195,006 in 1891. The number of
villages is 128. The demand for land revenue and cesses in 1903-4
amounted to Rs. 4,01,000. The general aspect of the taluk is flat,
except in the north-west, where the Pachaimalais, which separate it
from Musiri, run for a short distance into it. From these hills, up to
and along the banks of the Vellar, stretches a continuous plain of black
cotton soil in which are large tracts of stiff black clay. In the southern
portion the country is rocky, and the soil as a rule poor. Channels
from the Vellar and its two affluents the Kallar and Chinnar irrigate
a part of the tdluk^ but otherwise the irrigated crops depend upon tanks
and wells. The annual rainfall is usually the highest in the District,
averaging 39 inches. The area still available for cultivation is large,
being nearly two-fifths of the total unoccupied area in the District.

Per ambur. Suburb of MADRAS CITY.

Periakulam. Taluk and town in Madura District, Madras. See
PERIYAKULAM.

Periapatam. Village in Mysore District, Mysore. See PIRIYA-

PATNA.

Perim (i). Island in Ahmadabad District, Bombay. See PIRAM.

Perim (2). Island in the narrowest part of the Straits of Bab-el-
Mandeb, situated in 12 40' N. and 43 23' E., distant from the
Arabian coast nearly i^ miles, and from the African coast n miles;
greatest length, 3^ miles ; average width, about i J miles ; circumference
(following the sinuosities of the coast-line), probably more than 30 miles ;
area, 5 square miles. The island is administered along with Aden ; and
the following account of it is taken from Captain F. M. Hunter's
Statistical Account of Aden (1877), pp. 171-2:

1 Perim is called by the author of the Periplus the island of Diodorus,
and is known among the Arabs as Mayoon. The formation is purely
volcanic, and consists of long, low, and gradually sloping ranges of
hills, surrounding a capacious harbour, about a mile and a half in
length, half a mile in breadth, and with a varying depth of from 4 to 6
fathoms in the best anchorages. The hills were formerly intersected
by bays and indentations, which in the course of time have been filled
up with coral and sand, and are now low plains, scantily covered with
salsola, sea-lavender, wild mignonette, and other plants which delight
in a soft sandy soil. These plains occupy about one-fourth of the
island, and occur principally on the north side. The rocks, which are
all igneouSj are nowhere exposed, save where they dip perpendicularly
into the sea ; they are covered with a layer of volcanic mud of from
two to six feet in depth, above which is another layer of loose boulders,
or masses of black vesicular lava, in some places so thickly set as to
resemble a rude pavement. The highest point of the island is 245 feet
above the level of the sea. All endeavours to find water have failed,
and but a scanty supply is procurable from the adjacent coasts. Water-
tanks were constructed, which used to be chiefly supplied from Aden,

VOL. xx. H

io8 PERIM

and it was proposed to erect reservoirs to collect the rain ; but, as at
Aden, a condensing apparatus was found more suitable.

* Perim has never been permanently occupied by any nation save the
British. Albuquerque landed upon it in 1513 on his return from
the Red Sea, and, having erected a high cross on an eminence, called
the island Vera Cruz. It was again occupied for a short time by the
pirates who frequented the mouth of the Red Sea, and who amassed
considerable booty by plundering the native vessels engaged in the
Indian trade. They formed a project of settling here and erecting
strong fortifications ; but having with much labour dug through the
solid rock to a depth of fifteen fathoms in a fruitless search for water,
they abandoned their design, and removed to Mary's Island, on the
east side of Madagascar.

* In 1 799 Perim was taken possession of by the East India Company ;
and a force under Lieutenant-Colonel Murray was sent from Bombay
to garrison it, with the view of preventing the French troops, then
engaged in the occupation of Egypt, from proceeding to India to effect
a junction with Tipu Sultan. But it was deemed untenable as a military
position, and the Straits were too broad to be commanded by any
batteries on the shore ; the troops were accordingly withdrawn.

* In consequence of increasing steam navigation in the Red Sea,
the attention of the Indian Government was directed to the necessity
of a lighthouse to facilitate the navigation of the Straits. Perim was
consequently reoccupied in the beginning of 1857. The lighthouse
was completed in 1861, and quarters were also built for a detachment
of native infantry, 50 strong, who garrison the island. The detachment
is relieved every two months when practicable.'

The garrison is still maintained on the island, which has a population
(1901) of 1,236, and is provided with a police force of 10 men. The
island contains a coal depot, a condenser producing annually 170,000
gallons of water, and two lighthouses. An Assistant Resident with
first-class magisterial powers is stationed here.

[J. S. King, Description and History of the British Outpost of Perim
(1887).]

Periyakulam Taluk. Taluk in the Dindigul subdivision of
Madura District, Madras, lying in the south-west corner of the Dis-
trict, between 9 $2' and 10 15' N. and 77 n' and 77 51' E., with
an area of 1,520 square miles. The population in 1901 was 320,098,
compared with 263,253 in 1891. The taluk contains three towns,
PERIYAKULAM (population, 17,960), the head-quarters, BODINAYAK-
KANUR (22,209), an d UTTAMAPALAIYAM (10,009); an d $3 villages.
The demand for land revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to
Rs. 3,75,000, wcApeshkash from zamlndari estates to Rs. 32,000. The
taluk) compared with other parts of the District, is sparsely populated.
Through it flow the Vaigai and Suruli rivers, the latter of which receives
the water of the Periyar Project, and the tributary rivers Teni and Vara-
hanadl. On three sides it is hemmed in by hills on the west by the

THE PERIYAR PROJECT 109

Western Ghats, on the north by the Palni Hills, and on the south
by the smaller Andipatti range. A large valley running up into the
Western Ghats, known as the Kambam Valley, is one of the pleasantest
parts of the District.

Periyakulam Town. Head-quarters of the taluk of the same
name in Madura District, Madras, situated in 10 7' N. and 77 33' E.,
on the banks of the Varahanadi, about 45 miles west of Madura city
and 35 miles south-west of Dindigul. Population (1901), 17,960.
The town was created a municipality in 1886. The receipts and
expenditure during the ten years ending 1902-3 averaged Rs. 15,600
and Rs. 15,400 respectively. In 1903-4 the income, most of which
was derived from tolls and the taxes on land and houses, was
Rs. 19,800; a,nd the expenditure was Rs. 20,500. A scheme for
supplying water is under consideration. The town is an important
centre for the trade of the Kambam Valley, and, being distant only
5 miles from the foot of the ghat by which the ascent is made to
Kodaikanal, has a considerable trade in grain and fruit with that
place and the adjoining hill villages.

Periyar Project, The. The Periyar ('big river') is a river of
Southern India which rises on the western side of the range of the
Western Ghats, and flows down to the Arabian Sea through the
Native State of Travancore. The area through which it passes is
within the zone of the heaviest rainfall in the south of India, and
the crops there are grown by the aid of rain alone and without
irrigation. Consequently the water of the Periyar ran uselessly to
the sea. The great project to which the river has given its name
consists in the construction of a huge masonry dam across the upper
waters of the river, in Travancore territory, forming a great lake, and
taking the water of this lake through a tunnel in the Western Ghats
across to the opposite, or eastern, slope of that range to supply the
arid areas which lie immediately below it on that side. In short,
a great river which formerly ran down one side of a mountain range
has been bidden to turn back and flow down the other side of it.
The lake has an area of 8,000 acres in Travancore territory, which
land has been rented from that State for Rs. 40,000 per annum. The
height of the dam, which is situated in 9 32' N. and 77 7' E., is
173 feet, and it is made of solid masonry throughout. The tunnel
through tfie Ghats is 5,704 feet long, and the open cutting 01
debouchure on the northern side which leads to it from the lake
adds 500 feet to its length. The tunnel proper has an entrance
sluice 12 feet wide by 7^ feet high and a gradient of i in 75, anc
is drilled through hard granite. The bed of the Vaigai river if
utilized for some distance to carry the water to places where ii
is wanted, and the scheme includes in addition 36 miles of mair

no THE PERIYAR PROJECT

canal and 190 miles of distributaries. Up to 1904 the total capital
cost of the Project had been 92 lakhs.

The scheme was suggested as early as the commencement of last
century, but was at first thought to be chimerical. It was revived
in 1862, but it was not until 1882 that a beginning was seriously
made with the preparation of estimates for the Project. The success
of the work was mainly due to the efforts of Colonel Pennycuick,
R.E., C.I.E., Chief Engineer to the Madras Government It was
carried to completion in the face of enormous difficulties, the country
being entirely uninhabited and most inaccessible, the climate infected
with deadly malaria, the difficulty of getting labour and transport
immense ; and many of the technical problems involved in the work
were of an entirely new description. The foundations of the dam
were carried away time after time before they had proceeded suffi-
ciently to be out of the reach of floods, and unforeseen difficulties
and trials had constantly to be met and overcome. The official
History of the Project, by Mr. A. T. Mackenzie, one of the staff of
engineers who carried it to completion, gives a full account of the
undertaking and the manner in which it was effected.

It is too soon as yet to judge of the financial result of the Project,
as the whole of the land commanded has not yet been prepared for
' wet ' cultivation by the ryots and so cannot be supplied with water.
At the end of 1903-4 the total area of land irrigated, including
second -crop cultivation, was 142,000 acres, and the net revenue was
Rs- 3>55>> giving a profit of 3-86 per cent, on the capital outlay.
The total cultivable area commanded by the main canal and its twelve
branches is 121,000 acres, including land of all classes. The supply
available is probably sufficient for only about 111,000 acres; and the
most important problem that now remains is concerned with the
extension of the system, by forming a second reservoir in which to
store the surplus water which still runs to waste.

Peruah. Ruins in Malda District, Eastern Bengal and Assam.
See PANDUA.

Perur. Village in the District and taluk of Coimbatore, Madras,
situated in 10 58' N. and 76 $6' E., 4 miles from Coimbatore city.
Population (1901), 1,636. It is sometimes called Chidambaram, the
prefix Mel (western) being added to distinguish it from Kll (eastern)
Chidambaram in South Arcot. It contains a remarkab'e Hindu
temple of great sanctity, which enjoys the distinction, shared by few
others, that Tipu spared both its buildings and its lands. Fergusson
considers 1 the date of the erection to be about the beginning of the
eighteenth century, as a figure of a soldier carrying a matchlock is
sculptured in the porch in front of the shrine, and his costume and
1 History of Indian Architecture (1876), pp. 370-2.

PESHAWAR DISTRICT in

the shape of his weapon are exactly those found in contemporary
pictures of the wars of Aurangzeb or the early Marathas. He thinks
that its completion was probably interrupted by the Musalman usurpa-
tion in Mysore. The inner shrine is no doubt much older, as Perur
is a place of ancient sanctity. The modern portion of the temple is
richly sculptured, but in a coarse and clumsy fashion in rough material.
For this reason the effect is disappointing, though the labour bestowed
upon the building must have been immense. The priests declare
that the principal portion of the temple was built by Alagadri Naik,
brother-in-law of Tirumala Naik of Madura (1623-59). An annual
festival in the Tamil month of Margali (December-January) is very
largely attended by the people of this District and of Malabar.

Peshawar District, District in the North-West Frontier Province,
and the most north-western of the regularly administered Districts in
the Indian Empire. It lies between 33 43' and 34 32" N. and
71 22' and 72 45' E., with an area of 2,611 square miles. It is
bounded on the east by the Indus, which separates it from the Punjab
District of Attock and from Hazara. On all other sides it is encircled
by mountains, at the foot of which, except on the south-east, the
administrative border runs. These hills are inhabited by independent
tribes, whose territories lie in the following order, beginning from the
north-east corner, where the boundary leaves the river. The Utmanzai,
Gadun, Khudu Khel, and Salarzai clans are hamsayas of the Bunerwals ;
north of Mardan lies a small piece of Utman Khel country, west of
which is Sam Ranizai sloping up to the Malakand pass ; beyond Sam
Ranizai comes the main Utman Khel country, which stretches as far
as Abazai on the Swat river ; the country between the Swat and Kabul
rivers belongs to the Burhan Khel, Halimzai, and Tarakzai Mohmands ;
from the Kabul river to Jamrud at the mouth of the Khyber Pass is
Mullagori country ; the hills between the Khyber and the Kohat Pass
are the abode of the Malikdin and Aka Khel Afrldis ; on both sides of
the Kohat Pass live the tribes known as the Pass Afrldis, beyond whom
on the south side of the District live the Jowakis, whose territory runs
nearly as far as Cherat. East of Cherat the range is inhabited by
Khattaks, and forms, except for the Khwarra and Zira forest on the
banks of the Indus, part of Kohat District.

To the north-east great spurs, separated by intricate lateral valleys,
run into tjje District, the Mora, Shakot, and Malakand passes leading
through them into Swat. From the north-west out-
lying ranges of the Hindu Kush run down the aspects,
western border, loftily isolated peaks to the north
merging in the confused and precipitous heights on the south bank of
the Kabul river. South of the Khyber, the range sinks to a mean level
of 4,000 feet, and at the point where the Kohat pass leads out of the

ii2 PESHAWAR DISTRICT

District turns sharp to the east, and runs along the south border of the
District to the Indus. On this side the highest points are Cherat,
with an elevation of nearly 4,500 feet, and the Ghaibana Sir, 5,136 feet
above sea-level. The shape of the District is an almost perfect ellipse,
the greatest length of which is 86 miles, its greatest width being
54 miles.

Viewed from a height it appears a vast plateau, whose vivid expanse
of green is in abrupt contrast with the grey precipitous slopes of the
hills which rise sharply from its edge ; but its true formation is that
of a huge basin into which flow the waters from the surrounding hills.
This basin is drained by the Kabul river, which traverses the valley
eastwards from its debouchure through a deep ravine north of the
Khyber Pass until it falls into the Indus above Attock. Throughout
its course the Kabul is joined by countless tributaries, of which the
principal is the Swat ; and before they unite below Prang (Charsadda),
about 24 miles from the hills, these two rivers cover the central part of
the western plain with a perfect network of streams, as each divides
into several channels. The Bara, flowing from the south-west, also
enters the Kabul near its junction with the Swat ; and the united
stream, now known as the Landai, or 'short river/ flows for 12 miles
in a wide bed as far as Naushahra, and thence for 24 miles in a deep
channel to the Indus. Other streams are the Budni, a branch of the
Kabul; and the KalpanI or ChalpanI, the 'deceitful water/ which,
rising beyond the Mora pass, receives the drainage of the Yusufzai
plain and falls into the Landai below Naushahra.

Peshawar has not been geologically surveyed, but the general struc-
ture of the District appears to be a continuation westwards of that
of Hazara. Judging from partial traverses and from information of
various kinds, one may say that its northern portions, including the
hills on the northern border, are composed, like Hazara, of meta-
morphic schists and gneissose rocks. Much of the flat plain of
Peshawar and Naushahra and the northern slopes of the Cherat
hills consist of a great slate series with minor limestone and marble
bands, some of which are worked for ornamental purposes. South
of the axis of the Cherat range, the rest of the District is apparently
composed of a medley of folded representatives of Jurassic, Cretaceous,
and Nummulitic formations. They consist of limestones, shales, and
sandstones of marine origin, the general strike of the rock bands
being east and west across the Indus in the direction of ftazara and
Rawalpindi. Much of the valley of Peshawar is covered with sur-
face gravels and alluvium, the deposit of the streams joining the Kabul
river on its way to the Indus \

1 W. Waagen, 'Section along the Indus from the Peshawar Valley to the Salt
Range/ Records, Geological Survey of India , vol. xvii, pt. iii.

PHYSICAL ASPECTS 113

The District, wherever irrigated, abounds in trees, of which the
mulberry, shlsham, willow, tamarisk, and tallow-tree are the most
common. In the drier parts scrub jungle grows freely, but trees are
scarce, the palosi or ber being the most frequent. The more common
plants are Flacourtia sapida, F. sepiaria^ several species of Grewia,
Zizyphus nummularia, Acacia Jacquemontii, A. hucophloea, Alhagi
camelorum^ Crotalaria Burhia^ Prosopis spirigera, several species of
Tamariv, Nerium odorum^ Rhazya stricta, Calotropis procera, Peri-
ploca aphylla, Tecoma undulata, Lycium europaeum, Withania coagu-
/ans, W. somnifera, Nannorhops Ritchieana^ Fagonia, Tributes, Peganum
Harmala, Calligonum polygonoides, Polygonum aviculare, P. plebejum^
Rumex vesicarius, Chrozophora plicata^ species of Aristida, Anthi-
stiria, Cenchrus, and Pennisetum.

The fauna is meagre. Mdrkhor are found on the Pajja spurs which
jut out from the hills north of Mardan, and occasionally near Cherat,
where uridl are also seen. Wolves and hyenas are now not numerous,
but leopards are still met with, though rarely. The game-birds are
those of the Northern Punjab ; and though hawkirg and snaring are
favourite amusements of the people and many possess firearms, wild-
fowl of all the migratory aquatic species, including sometimes wild
swans, abound in the winter. Non-migratory species are decreasing
as cultivation extends. The Peshawar Vale Hunt maintains an excel-
lent pack of hounds, the only one in Northern India, and affords
capital sport to the large garrison of Peshawar. There is fishing in
many of the streams near the hills.

The best time of the year is the spring, February to April being the
months when the air, though cold, is bracing. December and January
are the coldest months, when the temperature sometimes falls below 30
and the nights are intensely cold. During the hot season, from May
to July, the air is full of dust-haze. Dust-storms are frequent, but,
though thunderstorms occur on the surrounding hills, rain seldom falls
in the plains. This season is, however, healthy, in contrast to the next
months, August to October, when the hot-season rains fall and the
air is stagnant and oppressive. After a fall of rain the atmosphere
becomes steamy and fever is common. In November the days are
hot owing to the clear atmosphere, but the nights are cold. Showers
are usual during winter. Inflammatory diseases of the lungs and
bowels and malarial fever are prevalent at this season. The principal
disease fr5m which the valley, and especially the western half of it,
suffers is malarial fever, which in years of heavy rainfall assumes a
very deadly form, death often supervening in a few hours.

The annual rainfall varies from n inches at Charsadda to 17^ at
Mardan. Of the total at Mardan, n inches fall in the summer and
6^ in the winter. The heaviest rainfall during the last twenty years

H4 PESHAWAR DISTRICT

was 35 inches at Mardan in 1882-3, and the lightest 3 inches at
Katlang in 1883-4.

The ancient Hindu name for the valley of Peshawar as it appears
in Sanskrit literature is GANDHARA, corresponding to the Gandarites
of Strabo and the country of the Gandarae described
is ory. ^ ptolemy, though Arrian speaks of the people
who held the valley against Alexander as Assakenoi. Its capital, Peu-
kelaotis (or Pushkalavati), is mentioned by Arrian as a large and
populous city, captured by Hephaistion, the general of Alexander,
after the death of its chieftain Astes. The site of Pushkalavati has
been identified with Charsadda, where extensive mounds of ancient
debris are still to be seen. The Peshawar and Kabul valleys were
ceded by Seleucus to Chandragupta in 303 B.C., and the rock edicts
of Asoka at Mansehra and Shahbazgarhi show that Buddhism had
become the state religion fifty years later. The Peshawar valley was
annexed by the Graeco-Bactrian king Eucratides in the second cen-
tury, and about the beginning of the Christian era fell under the rule
of the Kushans. It is to the intercourse between the Greeks and the
Buddhists of this part of India that we owe the school of art known as
Graeco-Buddhist, which in turn served as the source of much that is
fundamental in the ecclesiastical art of Tibet, China, and Farther Asia
generally. For it was in this District that the Mahayana school of
Buddhism arose, and from it that it spread over the Asiatic continent.
Buddhism was still the dominant religion when Fa Hian passed
through in the fifth century A.D. Sung Yun, who visited Peshawar
in 520, mentions that the Ephthalite king of Gandhara was at war
with the king of Kabul ; but at the time of Hiuen Tsiang's visit in
630 Gandhara was a dependency of Kabul. Buddhism was "then
falling into decay.

Until the middle of the seventh century, epigraphic evidence shows
that the population remained entirely Indian, and Hinduized rulers
of Indo-Scythian and Turkish descent retained possession of Peshawar
itself and of the Hashtnagar and Yusufzai plains. They were suc-
ceeded by the so-called Hindu Shahis of Kabul or Ohind. In 979
one of these, Jaipal, advanced from Peshawar to attack Sabuktagln,
governor of Khorasan under the titular sway of the Samani princes ;
but peace was effected and he retired. Nine years later Jaipal was
utterly defeated at Laghman, and Sabuktagln took possession of
Peshawar, which he garrisoned with 10,000 horse. On his death in
998, his son Mahmud succeeded to his dominions, and, throwing off
his nominal allegiance to the Samani dynasty, assumed the title of
Sultan in 999. In 1006 Mahmud again invaded the Punjab; and
on his return JaipaTs son and successor, Anandpal, attempted to
intercept him, but was defeated near Peshawar and driven into

HISTORY 115

Kashmir. But he was able to organize further resistance, for in
1009 he again encountered Mahmud, probably at Bhatinda, on the
Indus, where he met with his final overthrow. The Ghaznivid
monarchy in turn fell before Muhammad of Ghor in 1181 ; and after
his death in 1206 the provincial governors declared their indepen-
dence, making the Indus their western boundary, so that the Pesh-
awar valley was again cut off from the eastern kingdom. In 1221 the
Mongols under Chingiz Khan established a loose supremacy over it.
About the close of the fifteenth century, a great tide of Afghan immi-
gration flowed into the District. Before Tlmur's invasion the Dilazaks
had been settled in the Peshawar valley, in alliance with the Shalmanis,
a Tajik race, subjects of the rulers of Swat. The Khakhai (Khashi)
Afghans, a body of roving adventurers, who first come into notice in
the time of Timur, were treacherously expelled from Kabul by his
descendant Ulugh Beg, whereupon they entered the Peshawar valley
in three main clans the Yusufzai, Gigianis, and Muhammadzai and
obtained permission from the Dilazaks to settle on a portion of their
waste lands. But the new immigrants soon picked a quarrel with
their hosts, whom they attacked.

In 1519 Babar, with the aid of the Dilazaks, inflicted severe punish-
ment on the Yusufzai clans to the north of the District ; but before his
death (1530) they had regained their independence, and the Dilazaks
even dared to burn his fort at Peshawar. The fort was rebuilt in 1553
by Babar's successor, Humayun, after defeating his brother Mirza
Kamran, who had been supported against Humayun by the Ghorai
Khel tribes (Khallls, Daudzai, and Mohmands), now first heard of in
connexion with Peshawar. After his victory Humayun returned to
Hindustan. On his departure the Ghorai Khel entered into alliance
with the Khakhai Khel, and their united forces routed the Dilazaks
and drove them out of the District across the Indus. The Ghorai
Khel and Khakhai Khel then divided the valley and settled in the
portions of it still occupied by them, no later tribal immigration
occurring to dispossess them.

The Khalils and a branch of the Mohmands took the south-west
corner of the District ; to the north of them settled the Daudzai ; the
remaining Mohmands for the most part stayed in the hills, but settlers
gradually took possession of the triangle of land between the hills and
the Swat and Kabul rivers ; the east portion of the District fell to the
Khakhai Khel : namely, to the Gigianis and Muhammadzai, Hasht-
nagar; and to the Yusufzai and Mandanrs, Mardan and Swabi and
the hill country adjoining.

In the next century the Mandanrs were driven from the hills by the
Yusufzai, and concentrated in the east portion of the Peshawar valley,
whence they in turn expelled the Yusufzai. Peshawar was included in

n6 PESHAWAR DISTRICT

the Mughal empire during the reigns of Akbar, Jahanglr, and Shah
Jahan ; but under Aurangzeb a national insurrection was successful in
freeing the Afghan tribes from the Mughal supremacy.

In 1738 the District fell into the hands of Nadir Shah; and, under
his successors, Peshawar was often the seat of the Durrani court. On
the death of Timur Shah in 1793, Peshawar shared the general dis-
organization of the Afghan kingdom ; and the Sikhs, who were then in
the first fierce outburst of revenge upon their Muhammadan enemies,
advanced into the valley in 1818, and overran the whole country to the
foot of the hills. In 1823 Azlm Khan made a last desperate attempt
to turn the tide of Sikh victories, and marched upon Peshawar from
Kabul ; but he was utterly defeated by Ranjit Singh, and the whole
District lay at the mercy of the conquerors. The Sikhs, however, did
not take actual possession of the land, contenting themselves with the
exaction of a tribute, whose punctual payment they ensured or ac-
celerated by frequent devastating raids. After a period of renewed
struggle and intrigue, Peshawar was reoccupied in 1834 by the Sikhs,
who appointed General Avitabile as governor, and ruled with their
usual fiscal severity.

In 1848 the Peshawar valley came into the possession of the British,
and was occupied almost without opposition from either within or
without the border. During the Mutiny the Hindustani regiments
stationed at Peshawar showed signs of disaffection, and were accord-
ingly disarmed with some little difficulty in May, 1857. But the
55th Native Infantry, stationed at Naushahra and Hoti Mardan, rose
in open rebellion ; and on a force being dispatched against them,
marched off towards the Swat hills across the frontier. Nicholson
was soon in pursuit, and scattered the rebels with a loss of 120 killed
and 150 prisoners. The remainder sought refuge in the hills and
defiles across the border, but were hunted down by the clans, till they
perished of hunger or exposure, or were brought in as prisoners and
hanged or blown away from guns. This stern but necessary example
prevented any further act of rebellion in the District.

Peshawar District contains 7 towns and 793 villages. The popu-
lation at each of the last three enumerations was: (1881) 599,452,

Population. ( l8 9 I ) 7"795> and (1901) 788,707. It increased
by nearly n per cent, during the last decade, the
increase being greatest in the Mardan tahsll, and least in that of Nau-
shahra. The District is divided into five tahslls^ the chief statistics
of which are given in the table on the next page.

The head-quarters of each tahsil is at the place from which it is
named. The chief towns are the municipality of PESHAWAR, the
administrative head-quarters of the District and capital of the Pro-
vince, NAUSHAHRA, CHARSADDA, TANGI, and MARDAN. Muham-

POPULATION

117

madans number 732,870, or more than 92 per cent, of the total;
Hindus, 40,183; and Sikhs, 11,318. The language of the people is
Pashtii.

Number of

<5 c j> M

_ __

c'5

SB'G c^B

i-3 a ,

Tahsil.

tn jy

Cfl

rt
1

sl'l g-s

^S^c

I'S'

V- fl g C

w g-2 rt

sg|e

Peshawar .

45 i

259

248,060

+ 9-7

Chaisadda

380

168

142,756

376

+ 7-4

Mardan .

610

130

i37> 21 5

225

+ 20t 5

k r5

Swabi

467

. . .

144,513

309

-f 10-6

^ s

Naushahra

703

142

116,163

1 66

+ 7-3

District total

2,611

793

788,707

302

4- 10-8

31,247

Peshawar is as much the home of the Afghans as Kabul, and hence
we find that of the total population of the District 402,000, or 51 per
cent., are Pathans. They are almost entirely dependent on agriculture.
Their distribution is as above described. The Khattaks are the prin-
cipal tribe in the Naushahra tahsiL Among these fanatical Pathans,
the Saiyids, descendants of the Prophet, who occupy a position of
great influence, number 24,000. In the popular phraseology of the
District, all tribes who are not Pathans are HindkTs, the most
numerous being the Awans (111,000). They are found only in the
Peshawar and Naushahra tahslls^ and besides being very fair culti-
vators are petty traders as well. Gujars (16,000) and Baghbans
(9,000) are other Hindki agriculturists. These tribes are all Muham-
madans. Of the trading classes, Aroras (17,000) and Khattrls (13,000)
are the most important, and the Parachas (carriers and pedlars, 7,000)
come next. Of the artisan classes, Julahas (weavers, 19,000), Tar-
khans (carpenters, 16,000), Lohars (blacksmiths, 8,000), Kumhars
(potters, 8,000), and Mochis (shoemakers and leather-workers, 5,000)
are the most numerous. The Kashmiris, immigrants fiom Kashmir,
number 9,000. Of the menial classes, the most important are
Nais (barbers, 9,000), Dhobis (washermen, 8,000), and Chuhras and
Musallis (sweepers, 8,000). The Mlrasfs (4,000), village minstrels
and bards, and the Ghulams (300), who are chiefly engaged in domestic
service and appear only in this District, are also worth mentioning.
Agriculture supports 60 per cent, of the population.

The Church Missionary Society established its mission to the
Afghans at Peshawar in 1855, and now has branches at Naushahra
and Mardan. It organized a medical mission in 1884, and in 1894
founded the Duchess of Connaught Hospital. The Zanana Mission
has a staff of five English ladies, whose work is partly medical and
partly evangelistic and educational. The Edwardes Collegiate (Mission)

PESHAWAR DISTRICT

School, founded in 1855, is now a high school with a collegiate de-
partment attached.

With the exception of the stony tracts lying immediately below the
hills, the District displays a remarkable uniformity of soil : on the
surface, light and porous earth with a greater or less
intermixture of sand ; and below, a substratum of
strong retentive clay. The only varieties of soil are due to variations
in the depth of the surface earth, or in the proportion of sand mixed
with it ; and with irrigation the whole valley is capable, almost without
exception, of producing the richest crops. Sandy and barren tracts
occur in some few localities, but they are of small extent, and bear an
insignificant proportion to the total area. The spring harvest, which
in 1903-4 occupied 70 per cent, of the total area cropped, is sown
chiefly from the end of September to the end of January, and the
autumn harvest chiefly in June, July, and August, though sugar and
cotton are sown as early as March.

The District is held almost entirely by communities of small peasant
proprietors, large estates covering only about 153 square miles. The
following table shows the statistics of cultivation in 1903-4, in square
miles :

Tahsll.

Total.

Cultivated.

Irrigated.

Cultivable
waste.

Not available
for
cultivation.

Peshawar

451

203

J 5 2

'57

Charsadda

380

261

175

Mardan .

610

409

119

148

Swabi

467

317

Naushahra

703

177

259

267

Total

2,611

^367

53i

562

682

The chief food-crops are wheat (555 square miles), barley (287), and
maize (231). Sugar-cane (32) and cotton (26) are also of some
importance. The neighbourhood of Peshawar produces apricots,
peaches, pomegranates, quinces, and other fruits in great abundance;
and 8-62 square miles were under fruits and vegetables in 1903-4.

The area cultivated at the settlement of 1895-6 showed an increase
of 7 per cent, in the previous twenty years, largely due to the extension
of canal-irrigation in the Naushahra and Peshawar tahsl[s. Since
1895-6 there has been a slight decrease in the cultivated area, which
seems to show that the limits of the resources of the District in this
respect have been reached. Little has yet been done towards improving
the quality of the crops grown. Loans for the construction of wells and
the purchase of plough cattle are readily appreciated by the people,
and during the five years ending 1902-3 an average of Rs. 9,100 was

TRADE AND COMMUNICATIONS 119

advanced. In 1903-4 Rs. 6,460 was advanced under the Land
Improvements Acts, and Rs. 5,420 under the Agriculturists' Loans Act.

Wheeled carriages are common throughout the District, though there
is much pack traffic mainly carried on bullocks, which are fine strong
animals, much superior to those used in agriculture. Horses are not
extensively reared in the valley. The Civil Veterinary department
maintains a horse and seven donkey stallions, and the District board
three pony and two donkey stallions. Large flocks of sheep and goats
are owned by the border villages, which have extensive grazing rights
on the stony plains at the foot of the hills.

Of the total cultivated area of the District in 1903-4, 531 square
miles or 40 per cent, were irrigated. Of these, 7 1 square miles were
irrigated from weljs, 453 from canals, and 7 from streams and tanks.
In addition, 26-5 square miles, or 2 per cent., are subject to inundation.
Well-irrigation is resorted to in the eastern half of the District wherever
the depth of the spring-level allows. The District contains 6,389
masonry wells worked with Persian wheels by bullocks, besides 5,121
unbricked wells, lever wells, and water-lifts. The most important
canals of the District are the SWAT, KABUL, and Bara River Canals.
The two first are under the management of the Canal department, the
last named is in charge of the Deputy-Commissioner. The Michni-
Dilazak canal, taking off from the left bank of the Kabul river, and the
Shabkadar branch canal from the right bank of the Swat river, belong
to the District board. The District also contains a large number of
private canals, which are managed by the Deputy-Commissioner under
the Peshawar Canals Regulation of 1898.

There is ample historical evidence that in ancient times the District
was far better wooded than it is now, and the early Chinese pilgrims
often refer to the luxuriant growth of trees on hill-slopes now practically
bare. The only forest at present is a square mile of military * reserved '
forest ; but large areas of waste, in which the people and Government
are jointly interested, have been declared ' protected ' forests. Of these,
the most important is that known as the Khwarra-Zira forest in the
south-east corner of the District. Fruit gardens and orchards are
numerous, especially near Peshawar city.

The District contains quarries of slate and marble, and kankar is
found in considerable quantities. Gold is washed in the Indus above
Attock and -an the Kabul river, but the yield is very small.

Peshawar is noted for its turbans, woven either of silk or of cotton,
with silk edges and fringes; and a great deal of cotton cloth is pro-
duced. Cotton fabrics, adorned with coloured wax,
and known as * Afrldi waxcloth,' are now turned out com mtmica?ions.
in large quantities for the European market. The
principal woollen manufactures are felted mats and saddle-cloths, and

120 PESHAWAR DISTRICT

blankets ; glazed earthenware of considerable excellence is made, and
a considerable manufacture of ornamental leather-work exists. Copper-
ware is largely turned out. Matting, baskets, and fans are made of the
dwarf-palm.

The main trade of the District passes through the city of Peshawar,
and, though of varied and not uninteresting nature, is less extensive
than might perhaps have been expected. In 1903-4 the value of the
trade as registered was 182-5 lakhs, of which 68 lakhs were imports.
The bulk of Indian commerce with Northern Afghanistan and the
countries beyond (of which Bokhara is the most important), Dlr, Swat,
Chitral, Bajaur, and Buner, passes through Peshawar. The independent
tribes whose territories adjoin the District are also supplied from it
with those commodities which they need. Besides Peshawar city, there
are bazars in which a certain amount of trade is done at Naushahra,
Kalan, Hoti Mardan, Shankargarh, Tangi, Charsadda (Prang), and
Rustam. The chief exports in 1903-4 were European and Indian
cotton piece-goods, raw cotton, yarn, indigo, turmeric, wheat, leathern
articles, manufactured articles of brass, copper and iron, salt, spices,
sugar, tea, tobacco, and silver.

The transactions of the Peshawar market, however, are insignificant
when compared with the stream of through traffic from the direction of
Kabul and Bokhara which passes on, without stopping at Peshawar,
into the Punjab and Northern India.

The main line of the North-Western Railway enters the District by
the Attock bridge over the Indus, and has its terminus at Peshawar,
whence an extension runs to Fort Jamrud. A branch line also runs
from Naushahra through Mardan to Dargai. The District possesses
157 miles of metalled roads, of which 40 are Imperial military, 93 Im-
perial civil, 17 belong to the District board, and 7 to cantonments.
There are 672 miles of unmetalled roads (23 Imperial military, 123
Imperial civil, and 516 District board). The grand trunk road runs
parallel with the railway to Peshawar and thence to Jamrud at the
mouth of the Khyber Pass, and a metalled road from Naushahra
via Mardan crosses the border from the Malakand pass into Swat.
Other important roads connect Peshawar with Kohat, with Abazai,
with Michni, with the Bara fort, and with Cherat. The Khyber Pass
is the great highway of the trade with Kabul and Central Asia, and is
guarded two days a week for the passage of caravans. *The Indus,
Swat, and Kabul rivers are navigable at all seasons, but are not much
used for traffic. The Indus is crossed by the Attock railway bridge,
which has a subway for wheeled traffic, and by three ferries. There
are four bridges of boats and six ferries on the Kabul river and its
branches, two bridges of boats and six ferries on the Landai, and three
bridges of boats and twelve ferries on the Swat river and its branches.

ADMINISTRATION 121

The District is divided for administrative purposes into five tahsils,
each under a tahsllddr and naib-tahsildar, except Peshawar, where
there are a tahsllddr and two naibs. The tahslls . .

of Mardan and Swabi form the Yusufzai subdivision,
in charge of an Assistant Commissioner whose head-quarters are at
Mardan, the home of the famous Corps of Guides. This officer is
entrusted, under the orders of the Deputy-Commissioner, with the
political supervision of Buner and the Yusufzai border. European
officers with the powers of subdivisional officers are in charge of
Peshawar city, and of the Charsadda and Naushahra tahslls. The
Deputy-Commissioner is further assisted by an Assistant Commissioner,
who is in command of the border military police. There are also three
Extra- Assistant Commissioners, one of whom has charge of the District
treasury. The District Judge and the Assistant Commissioner at
Mardan have the powers of Additional District Magistrates.

The Deputy-Commissioner as District Magistrate is responsible for
the criminal work of the District ; civil judicial work is under a District
Judge, and both are supervised by the Divisional and Sessions Judge
of the Peshjiwar Civil Division. The Assistant Commissioner, Mardan,
has the powers of a Subordinate Judge, and in his civil capacity is
under the District Judge, as also are two Munsifs, one at head-quarters
and one at Mardan. There is one honorary Munsif at Peshawar.
The Cantonment Magistrate at Peshawar is Small Cause Court Judge
for petty civil cases within cantonment limits. The criminal work
of the District is extremely heavy, serious crime being common. The
Frontier Crimes Regulation is in force, and many cases are referred to
the decision of councils of elders. Civil litigation is not abnormally
frequent. Important disputes between Pathan families of note are,
when possible, settled out of court by councils of elders under the
control of the Deputy-Commissioner. The commonest type of civil
suit is based on the claim of reversionary heirs to annul alienations of
lands made by widows and daughters of deceased sonless proprietors,
as being contrary to custom.

The plain south of the Kabul river and the rich dodb between
the Kabul and Swat rivers have always been under the control of
the central government of the time, while the Khattak hills and the
great plain north of the Swat and Kabul rivers have generally been
independent.

In 1834 the Sikhs finally gained a firm hold on the dodb and the
tract south of the Kabul river. They imposed a full assessment and
collected it through the leading men, to whom considerable grants
were made. The Sikh collections averaged 6^ lakhs from 1836 to
1842, compared with 5 lakhs under the Durranis. These figures
exclude the revenues of Yusufzai and Hashtnagar, which are also

122

PESHAWAR DISTRICT

excluded from the first summary settlement, made in 1849-50, when
the demand was 10 lakhs. Yusufzai was settled summarily in 1847
and Hashtnagar in 1850.

In 1855 a new settlement was made for the whole District. It gave
liberal reductions in Peshawar, the doab, Daudzai, and Naushahra,
where the summary assessment, based on the Sikh demands, had been
very high, while the revenue in Yusufzai was enhanced. The net
result was a demand of less than 8 lakhs. This assessment was treated
as a summary one, and a regular settlement was carried out between
1869 and 1875, raising the revenue to 8 lakhs. The settlement worked
well, particularly in those villages where a considerable enhancement
was made, the high assessment acting as a stimulus to increased effort
on the part of the cultivators. The revenue, however, was recovered
with the greatest difficulty ; and the history of the settlement has been
described as one continuous struggle on the part of the tahsildar to
recover as much, and on the part of the landowners to pay as little, of
the revenue demand as possible. This was due to the character and
history of the people, and does not reflect at all on the pitch of the
assessment. The latest revision began in 1892 and was finished in
1896. The chief new factors in the situation were the opening of the
Swat and the Kabul River Canals, the development of communications
in 1882 by means of the railway, the rise in prices, and the increase in
prosperity due to internal security. Assessed at half the net ' assets ',
the demand would have amounted to 23! lakhs, or Rs. 2-7-7 per
cultivated acre. The revenue actually imposed was slightly more than
ii lakhs, an increase of about i\ lakhs, or 28 per cent., on the former
demand. Of the total revenue Rs. 1,89,000 is assigned, compared
with Rs. 1,76,000 at the regular settlement. The incidence per culti-
vated acre varies from Rs. 1-11-4 in Charsadda to R. 0-8-8 in
Mardan.

Frontier remissions are a special feature of the revenue administra-
tion. A portion of the total assessment of a border estate is remitted,
in consideration of the responsibility of the proprietors for the watch
and ward of the border. The remissions are continued during the
pleasure of Government, on condition of service and good conduct.

The collections of total revenue and of land revenue alone are shown
below, in thousands of rupees :

1880- 1.

1890-1.

I9OO-I.

1903-4.

Land revenue
Total revenue .

6,83
9*72

7,"
9>72

9,69

18,54

10,03
16,70

PESHAWAR CITY is the only municipality. Outside this local affairs
are managed by a District board, whose income is mainly derived from

ADM1NISTRA TION 1 2 3

a local rate. In 1903-4 the income of the board was Rs. 1,15,000,
and the expenditure Rs. 1,21,000, public works forming the largest
item.

The regular police numbers 1,265 f a ^ ranks, of whom 210 are
cantonment and 277 municipal police. There are 27 police stations
and 20 road-posts. The police force is under the control of a Super-
intendent, who is assisted by three European Assistant Superintendents ;
one of these is in special charge of Peshawar city, while another is
stationed at Mardan.

The border military police numbers 544 men, under a commandant
who is directly subordinate to the Deputy-Commissioner. They are
entirely distinct from the regular police. The posts are placed at
convenient distances along the frontier ; and the duty of the men is
to patrol and prevent raids, to go into the hills as spies and ascertain
generally what is going forward. The system is not in force on the
Yusufzai border, as the tribes on that side give little or no trouble.
The District jail at head-quarters can accommodate 500 prisoners.

Since 1891 the population has actually gone back in literacy, and
in 1901 only 4 per cent. (6-5 males and o-i females) could read and
write. The reason is that indigenous institutions are decreasing in
number every year owing to the lack of support, while public in-
struction at the hands of Government has failed as yet to become
popular. The influence of the Mullas, though less powerful than it
used to be, is still sufficient to prevent the attendance of their co-
religionists at Government schools. The education of women has,
however, made some progress. This is due in a large measure to
the exertions of lady missionaries, who visit the zandnas and teach
the younger women to read Urdu, Persian, and even English. The
number of pupils under instruction was 1,833 in 1880-1, 1.0,655 m
1890-1, 9,242 in 19001, and 10,036 in 1903-4. In the latest year
there were 10 secondary and 78 primary (public) schools, and
30 advanced and 208 elementary (private) schools, with 64 girls
in public and 755 in private institutions. Peshawar city contains an
unaided Arts college and four high schools. The total expenditure
on education in 1903-4 was Rs. 61,000, to which District funds
contributed Rs. 25,000, the Peshawar municipality Rs. 6,400, and
fees Rs. 14,700.

Besides . the Egerton Civil Hospital and four dispensaries in
Peshawar city, the District has five outlying dispensaries. In these
institutions there are 133 beds for in-patients. In 1904 the number
of cases treated was 202,793, including 2,980 in-patients, and 9,290
operations were performed. The income amounted to Rs. 27,600,
which was contributed by municipal funds and by the District board
equally. The Church Missionary Society maintains a Zanana Hospital,

VP T ,.xx. i

124 Jt'&bJHAWAK

named after the Duchess of Connaught, which is in charge of a
qualified European lady.

The number of succebsful vaccinations in 1903-4 was 24,000,
representing 33 per 1,000 of the population.

[J. G. Lorimer, District Gazetteer (1897-8).]

Peshawar Tahsll. Head-quarters tahsll of Peshawar District,
North-West Frontier Province, lying between 33 43' and 34 13' N.
and 71 22' and 71 45' E., with an area of 451 square miles. The
population in 1901 was 248,060, compared with 226,113 in 1891. The
tahsll consists of two distinct tracts. The first is a low-lying riverain
basin, through which flow the branches of the Kabul river north of
Peshawar city ; this tract comprises the old Daudzai tappa, which is
low-lying and swampy, and that of Khalsa, which also contains a good
deal of marshy ground, especially near Dilazak and Muhammadzai.
The second tract consists of uplands which rise gradually to the
Afridi hills \ it comprises the Khalil and Mohmand tappas, so named
from the Pathan tribes which hold them. The tahsll is intersected by
the KABUL RIVER CANAL. It contains the city and cantonment of
PESHAWAR (population, 95,147)1 its head-quarters, and 259 villages.
The land revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to a little more than
Rs. 5,00,000.

Peshawar City. Capital of the North-West Frontier Province,
and head-quarters of the District and tahsll of the same name, situated
in 34 i' N. and 71 35' E. The cantonment is situated on a ridge
overlooking the surrounding plain and the city, which lies near the
left bank of the Bara stream, 13^ miles south-east of the junction of
the Swat and Kabul rivers, and 10^ miles from Jamrud fort near the
entrance of the Khyber Pass, It is distant by rail from Calcutta
1,552 miles, and from Bombay 1,579 miles, and by road from Kabul
190 miles. It is the terminub of the grand trunk road, but a branch
of the North- Western Railway runs on to Jamrud. The population
was 79,982 in 1881, 54,191 in 1891, and 95,147 in 1901, consisting
f 68>35 2 Muhammadans, 18,552 Hindus, 5,144 Sikhs, and 3,063
Christians. Of the total population, 21,804 live in cantonments.

Peshawar was in the time of Fa Hian the capital of the Gandhara
province, and is historically important at all later periods. (See
PESHAWAR DISTRICT.) It was famous during the early centuries of
the Christian era as containing the begging-pot of the Budjdha, a holy
///a/-tree whose branches are said to have given shade to the Master,
and an enormous stupa built by Kanishka. Buddhist remains still
mark its early greatness. The name is not improbably derived from
Parashawara or Purushapura, the seat of a king named Purush ; and
the present form Peshawar is referred to the emperor Akbar, whose
fondness for innovation is said to have led him to change the name,

PESHAWAR CITY 125

of whose meaning he was ignorant, to Peshawar, the ' frontier town.'
In 1552 Humayun found the fortress in ruins, but had it repaired
and entrusted it to a governor, who successfully defended it against
the Afghans under Khan Kaju. The town appears to have been
refounded by Balgram, a contemporary of Akbar, and was much
enlarged by General Avitabile, its governor under the Sikhs. It
became the head-quarters of a British District in 1849, and the capital
of the North-West Frontier Province in 1901.

The modern city has but slight architectural pretensions, the houses,
though lofty, being chiefly built of small bricks or mud, held together
by a wooden framework. It is surrounded by a mud wall, built by
General Avitabile, which is gradually being replaced by a wall of
brick. The city has sixteen gates. The main street, known as the
Kissa kahani/ which is entered from the Kabul Gate (re-erected as
a memorial to Sir Herbert Edwardeb), ib a broad roadway 50 feet
in width, consisting of two double rows of shops, the upper rooms of
which are generally let out as lodgings ; the street is, well paved, and
at busy times presents a very picturesque sight. The remainder of
the city proper consists of squares and markets, with narrow and
irregular streets and lanes. A masonry canal runs through the centre
of the city, which is, however, only used to carry off drain-water and
sewage. Drinking-water is brought down in pipes from the water-
works, for which the municipal committee pays a yearly rental. Wells
are used only in the hot season to supply colder water than the pipes
afford. The sanitary and conservancy arrangements are very good,
and all the drains are paved. There are now very few old houses of
architectural importance, most of them having been destroyed at the
time of the capture of the city by the Sikhs from the Durranis.
Several handsome mosques ornament the city ; and a large build-
ing, known as the Gorkhattri, once a Buddhist monastery, and sub-
sequently formed into a Hindu temple, is now used as the tahsili.
Just without the wall, on the north-western side, a quadrilateral fort,
the Bala Hisar, crowns a small eminence completely dominating the
city. Its walls of sun-dried brick rise to a height of 92 feet above
the ground, with a fausse-braye of 30 feet ; bastions stand at each
corner and on three of the faces, while an armament of guns and
mortars is mounted above.

South-west of the city, stretching from just outside the walls, are
the suburos of Bhana Mari and Deri Baghbanan, where there are
gardens noted for their fruit, producing quinces, pomegranates, plums,
limes, peaches, and apples in abundance. These gardens, especially
a public garden called the Wazir Bagh, form a favourite pleasure-
ground of the people; north of the city is another public pleasure-
ground, the Shahi Bagh or ' royal garden.'

I 2

126 PESHAWAR CITY

Two miles west of the city lie the cantonments, where the civil
offices are also situated. The cantonments were occupied by British
troops soon after annexation in 1848-9. The garrison has been much
reduced and consists at present of one battery of field artillery, two
regiments of British and three of Native infantry, one regiment of
Native cavalry, and one company each of sappers and miners, bearer
corps, and army hospital native corps. The garrison forms part of
the Peshawar military division of the Northern Command, and the
head-quarters of the division are situated here.

The municipality was constituted in 1867. The income and
expenditure during the ten years ending 1902-3 averaged 2*3 and
2-15 lakhs respectively. In 1903-4 the income was 2-8 lakhs, of
which more than 2 lakhs were derived from octroi, while the
expenditure amounted to 2-9 lakhs, the chief heads of charge being
conservancy (Rb. 26,000), education (Rs. 12,000), hospitals and
dispensaries (Rs. 18,000), public safety (Rs. 46,000), and administra-
tion (Rs. 36,000). The income and expenditure of cantonment funds
during the ten years ending 1902-3 averaged Rs. 53,000 and
Rs. 52,500 respectively; in 1903-4 the income was Rs. 69,000, and
die expenditure Rs. 70,000.

The main trade of the District passes through the city of Peshawar.
Though of a varied and not uninteresting nature, it is less extensive
than might perhaps have been expected, but its position makes it
important as an entrepot for Central Asia. The principal foreign
markets having dealings with Peshawar are Kabul and Bokhara. From
the former place are imported raw silk, worsted, cochineal, jalap,
asafoetida, saffron, resin, simples, and fruits, both fresh and dried,
principally for re-exportation to the Punjab and Hindustan, whence
are received in return English piece-goods, cambrics, silk, indigo,
sugar, tea, salt, and spices. Bokhara supplies gold coins, gold and
silver thread and lace, principally for re-exportation to Kashmir, whence
the return trade is shawls. Iron from Bcajaur, skins, fibres and mats
made of the dwarf-palm (mazri\ are the only remaining items of
importance coming from beyond the border.

The city possesses an unaided Arts college attached to the Mission
high school, and four high schools : namely, the municipal and
Edwardes Mission Anglo-vernacular high schools, and two unaided
Anglo- vernacular high schools. It also contains a civil hospital and
four dispensaries. Another institution is the Martin Lecture Hall
and Institute, with its reading-room and library, also maintained by
the Peshawar Mission.

Peth. Former head-quarters of the Valva tdluka of Sat&ra District,
Bombay, situated in 17 3' N. and 74 14' E., 45 miles south-east of
Satara town. Population (1901), 6,820. Peth is a local trade centre,

PHAGWARA TAHSlL 127

the chief articles of trade being grain and cattle. A yearly fair attended
by about 5,000 people is held in February.

Pethapur State. Petty State in MAHI KANTHA, Bombay.

Pethapur Town. Chief town of the State of the same name in
the Mahi Kantha Agency, Bombay, situated in 23 13' N. and
72 33' E., on the west bank of the Sabarmati. Population (1901),
5,616. The town is noted for the brilliancy of its dyes and for the
manufacture of cutlery, but the latter industry is declining. Consider-
able quantities of cloth are brought into the town to be coloured, and
are then exported to Siam.

Petlad Taluka. Taluka in the Baroda prant, Baroda State, lying
to the north of the river Mahi, intersected by parts of Kaira District,
with an area of 181 square miles. The population fell from 157,786
in 1891 to 134,558 in 1901. It contains 7 towns, PETLAD (population,
15,282), the head-quarters, SOJITRA (10,578), VASO (8,765), NAR
(6,525), PIHIJ (5,282), DHARMAJ (4,827), and BHADRAN (4,761); and
68 villages. The taluka consists mostly of a level plain, without rivers
and woods, but with numerous trees lining the fields or clustering
about the villages. About one-fourth of the soil is black, one-half
is light red or gordt, and the remainder a mixture of these called besdr.
The taluka is specially known for its excellent tobacco. In 1904-5
the land revenue was Rs. 4,83,000.

Petlad Town. Head-quarters of the taluka of the same name,
Baroda prdnt^ Baroda State, situated in 22 29' N. and 72 50' E.,
on a broad-gauge line from Anand on the Bombay, Baroda, and
Central India Railway to Cambay. Population (1901), 15,282. Petlad
contains a naib-subatis office, a civil court, a jail, Anglo-vernacular and
vernacular schools, a dispensary, a library, and numerous dharmsalas
and temples. It is administered as a municipality, with an annual
grant from the State of Rs. 3,100. Being the centre of a tobacco-
producing tract, a prosperous trade is carried on in that product ;
and there is in addition a considerable manufacture of cloth, brass
and copper pots, and locks.

Phagwara Tahsil. Tahsll of Kapurthala State, Punjab, lying
between 31 9' and 31 23' N. and 75 44' and 75 59' E., with an
area of 118 square miles. The population increased from 63,549
in 1891 to 69,837 in 1901. It contains one town, PHAGWARA
(population, 14,108), and 88 villages. The land revenue and cesses
in 1903-4 amounted to 2-1 lakhs. The tahsil^ which lies in the
great plain of the Doab, is fertile everywhere. It is divided into
three tracts known as Sirwal, ManjkT, and Dhak. The characteristic
of the Sirwal is a soft blackish sandy soil, containing moisture, and
generally capable of producing sugar-cane and rice without inunda-
tion. The Manjki has a hard red soil, productive of good crops with

128 PHAGWARA TAHSTL

timely rainfall or sufficient irrigation, The Dhak has a soil of fertile
blackish clay.

Phagwra Town. Town in the Phagwara tahsil, Kapurthala
State, Punjab, situated in 31 14' N. and 75 47' E., on the North-
Western Railway. Population (1901), 14,108. The town is growing
rapidly in population and commercial importance, as the exemption of
its market from octroi enables it to compete on favourable terms with
neighbouring towns in British territory. It is now the largest mart in
the Jullundur Doab, and possesses a high school and a dispensary.

Phalakata. Village in Jalpaigur! District, Eastern Bengal and
Assam. See FALAKATA.

Phalalum. Peak in Darjeeling District, Bengal. See PHALUT.

Phalauda. Town in the Mawana tahsll of Meerut District, United
Provinces, situated in 29 u' N. and 77 51' E., 17 miles north of
Meerut city. Population (1901), 5,214. It is said to have been
founded by a Tomar named Phalgu, whose descendants were dis-
possessed by Mir Surkh, a Persian from Mazandaran. The town
is a poor place, with narrow dirty streets, but has fine mango groves
surrounding it. There is a dargah of a saint called Kutb Shah, where
a religious fair is held annually ; and the Church Missionary Society
has a branch here. Phalauda is administered under Act XX of 1856,
with an income of about Rs. 1,300. It contains a primary school with
75 pupils in 1904.

Phalia. Tahsll of Gujrat District, Punjab, lying between 32 10'
and 32 44' N. and 73 if and 73 $3' E., with an area of 722 square
miles. The Jhelum bounds it on the north-west and the Chenab on
the south-east. The plateau which occupies most of the northern
portion of the tahsll is separated from the riverain tracts to the north
and south by a high bank, below which the country slopes gradually
towards the rivers. The population in 1901 was 197,974, compared
with 203,938 in 1891. The tahsll contains 311 villages, including
Phalia, the head-quarters. The land revenue and cesses in 1903-4
amounted to 3*2 lakhs. CHIUANWALA, the scene of Lord Cough's
battle with the Sikhs in 1849, is in this tahsll^ and the Jhelum Canal
has its head-works at MONO RASUI.. The village of SADULLAPUR
is of some historical interest.

Phalodi. Head-quarters of a district of the same name in the
State of Jodhpur, Rajputana, situated in 27 8' N. and 72 22' E.,
about 70 miles north by north-west of Jodhpur city. Population
(1901), 13,924. It is a large and flourishing town, the home of many
enterprising merchants trading, in some cases, beyond the borders
of India ; and it possesses several fine houses with beautifully carved
sandstone fronts. The town contains a post office, an Anglo-vernacular
school, and a small hospital. The principal manufactures are metal

PHAPHUND 129

utensils and mats of camel hair. Phalodi is said to have been founded
about the middle of the fifteenth century, and, along with the district,
was taken by Rao Maldeo nearly 100 years later. It was granted
to the chief of Jaisalmer by Akbar, and was subsequently included
for a short time in Bikaner. The fort, a large and well-built one, with
walls over 40 feet high, has a capacious reservoir for water and some
fine palaces. About 10 miles to the north is a large depression
(5 miles in length and 3 in breadth) called the Phalodi salt source.
It was leased to the British Government in 1878 and worked till 1892,
when it was closed, as the manufacture was found to be unprofitable
owing to the distance from the railway.

Phaltan State. Petty State in the Satara Political Agency,
Bombay. See^ SATARA AGKNCY.

Phaltan Town. Chief town of the State of Phaltan, Bombay,
situated in 17 59' N. and 74 28' E., 37 miles north-east of Satara.
Population (1901), 9,512, The town was founded by Nirnbrajl in the
fourteenth century. The streets are well kept and clean, and the road
round the town is well shaded by trees. The municipality, established
in 1868, had an income of over Rs. 14,000 in 1903-4. Gujarat Vams
carry on a brisk trade between the roast and the interior. The town
contains a dispensary.

Phalut. One of the loftiest peaks in the Singalila spur of the Him-
alayas, in the head-quarters subdivision of Darjeeling District, Bengal,
with a height of 1 1,81 1 feet, situated in 27 13' N. and 88 3' E. The
view of the great northern snowy mountains from this hill is one of
indescribable grandeur. A jagged line of snow connecting the two
highest known mountains in the world, Everest and Kinchinjunga,
dazzles the eye ; and, while the deep silence around impresses itself
upon the spectator, the thick clumps of pine forest with their wide-
spreading arms add a weird solemnity to the scene. The Nepal frontier
road passes by this hill, and there is a staging bungalow which is avail-
able to travellers on application to the Deputy-Commissioner of Dar-
jeeling.

Phaphiind. Town in the Auraiya tahsll of Etawah District, United
Provinces, situated in 26 36' N. and 79 28' E. 36 miles south-east of
Etawah town. Population (1901), 7,605. The town was a place of
some importance before British rule, but it declined during the eigh-
teenth century. It was formerly the head-quarters of a taks'il, and is
still the residence of a Mnnsif, and contains a dispensary. The tomb
and mosque of a celebrated saint, Shah Bukharl, who died in 1549,
attract about 10,000 pilgrims annually. Phaphiind is administered
under Act XX of 1856, with an income of about Rs. 2,000. There is
little trade. The town school has about 200 pupils, and a girls' school
about 30.

130 PHENI

Pheni. River of Eastern Bengal, and also subdivision and village
in Noakhali District, Eastern Bengal and Assam. See FENNY.

Phillaur Tahsil. Tahsil of Jullundur District, Punjab, lying on
the north bank of the Sutlej, between 30 57' and 31 13' N. and 75
31' and 75 58' E., with an area of 291 square miles. The population
in 1901 was 192,860, compared with 189,578 in 1891. The head-
quarters are at the town of PHILLAUR (population, 6,986) ; and it also
contains the towns of NURMAHAL (8,706) and JANDIALA (6,620),
with 222 villages. The land revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted
to 4' 2 lakhs. The Sutlej forms the southern boundary of the tahsil ^
and along the right bank is a narrow strip of low-lying alluvial land
about i-| miles in width. The uplands which form the greater part
of the tahsil are an unbroken plain with a loam soil.

Phillaur Town. Head-quarters of the tahsil of the same name
in Jullundur District, Punjab, situated in 31 i' N. and 75 48' E., on
the north bank of the Sutlej, on the North-Western Railway and the
grand trunk road. Population (1901), 6,986. The town was founded
by Shah Jahan, who built a royal sarai here, converted by Ran jit
Singh into a fort in consequence of the British occupation of Ludhi-
ana. A cantonment was established here after the first Sikh War,
but the native troops mutinied in 1857 and it was not reoccupied.
The fort was made over in 1891 to the Police department, and is now
occupied by the Police Training School and the central bureau of
the Criminal Identification Department. The chief commercial im-
portance of the place is as a timber market. Its only manufacture
is that of cotton cloth. The Sutlej is crossed here by a railway bridge
5,193 feet long, completed in 1870. There is no foot-bridge, but ferry
trains are run at frequent intervals. The municipality was created in
1867. The income and expenditure during the ten years ending 1902-3
averaged Rs. 9,400. In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 11,000, chiefly
from octroi; and the expenditure was Rs. 11,000. The town has an
Anglo-vernacular middle school, maintained by the municipality, and
a Government dispensary.

Phul Nizamat. A nizdmat or administrative district of the Nabha
State, Punjab, lying between 30 8' and 30 39' N. and 74 50' and
75 50' E., with an area of 394 square miles. The population in
1901 was 111,441, compared with 101,245 in 1891. It contains two
towns, PHUL (population, 4,964), the head-quarters, and D.HANAULA
(7>443) ; and 96 villages. The land revenue and cesses in 1903-4
amounted to 4*3 lakhs. The nizdmat includes five separate areas
interspersed with the territories of Farldkot, Patiala, and Jind States,
and with the British Districts of Ferozepore and Ludhiana. Its main
block is the territory round the towns of Phul and Dhanaula, which has
an area of 289 square miles, Jaito and Lohat Baddi parganas com-

P HULK I AN STATES 131

prising most of the rest. It is divided into the five police circles of
Dyalpur, Phiil, Dhanaula, Jaito, and Lohat Baddi. The nizamat lies
wholly in the great natural tract known as the Jangal, which is dry
and healthy, possessing a sandy soil of considerable fertility where
water is available. The spring-level is too far below the surface for
well-irrigation, but the nizamat is now commanded by the Sirhind
Canal.

Phul Town. Head-quarters of the Phul nizamat of Nabha State,
Punjab, situated in 30 20' N. and 75 18' E. Population (1901),
4,964. The town was founded by Chaudhri Phul, the ancestor of the
Phulkun houses, who in 1627 left Mahraj and founded a village, to
which he gave his own name, 5 miles east of that place. It contains
a vernacular middle school, a police station, and a dispensary. Ram-
pur, a station on the Rajpura-Bhatinda branch of the North-Western
Railway, 3 miles from Phiil, possesses a large grain market ; and
Chotian, a large village 2 miles distant, has an Anglo-vernacular
middle school for Sikhs.

Phulbani. Head-quarters of the Khondmals subdivision of Angul
District, Bengal, situated in 20 29' N. and 84 16' E. Population
(1901), 475. Phulbani contains the usual public offices; the sub-jail
has accommodation for 14 prisoners.

Phulcharl. Village in the Gaibanda subdivision of Rangpur Dis-
trict, Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated in 25 12' N. and 89 3*]' E.,
on the right bank of the Brahmaputra river. Population (1901), 2,782.
It is the terminus of the Brahmaputra-Sultanpur Branch Railway, and
a large jute-exporting centre.

Phuljhur. River of Eastern Bengal and Assam, formed by the
union of the Karatoya and Halhalia in Bogra District, in 24 38' N.
and 89 29' E. It is subsequently joined by the Hurasagar, an offshoot
of the JAMUNA (3) ; and the united stream, after being further aug-
mented by the Baral and ICHAMAT! (i) near Bera in Pabna District,
flows into the Jamuna (3).

Phulkian States. The three Native States of PATIALA, JIND, and
NABHA in the Punjab are collectively known as the Phulkian States.
They are the most important of the Cis-Sutlej States, having a total
area of 7,599* square miles, with a population (1901) of 2,176,644 and
a gross revenue of 97-5 lakhs. The main area of this group of States
contains 5,n square miles, and lies between 74 10' and 77 3' E.
and 29 4' and 30 54' N. It is bounded on the north by the District
of Ludhiana ; on the east by Ambala and Karnal ; on the south by
Rohtak and Hissar ; and on the west by Ferozepore and the State of

1 These figures do not agree with the area given in the article on the PUNJAB,
which is the area returned in 1901, the year of the latest Census. They are taken
from more recent returns.

132 PHULKIAN STATES

Farldkot This area is the ancestral possession of the Phulkian houses.
It lies mainly in the great natural tract called the Jangal (desert or
forest), but stretches north-east into that known as the Pawadh and
southwards across the Ghaggar into the Nardak, while its southernmost
tract, round the ancient town of Jlnd, claims to lie within the sacred
limits of KURUKSHETRA. This vast tract is not, however, the exclusive
property of the States ; for in it lie several islands of British territory,
and the State of Maler Kotla enters the centre of its northern border.
Oh the other hand, the States hold many outlying villages surrounded
by British territory. While the three States, as a group, form a com-
paratively continuous area, individually each resembles Brunswick or-
the county of Cromarty, its territory being scattered and inextricably
intermingled with that of the other States. Besides its share in the
ancestral possessions of the Phulkian houses, Patiala holds a consider-
able area in the Simla Hills, acquired in 1815. In addition to these
possessions, the three States hold a fairly compact block of outlying
territory in the south-east of the Punjab, between 75 58' and 76 27' E.
and 27 48' and 28 27' N. The area of this tract is 1,534 square
miles. It is bounded on the north by Hissar ; on the east by Rohtak
and Gurgaon ; and on the south and west by Rajputana. Each of the
States received a part of this territory as a reward for services in the
Mutiny.

The ruling families are descended from Phiil, their eponym, from
whom are also sprung the great feudal, but not ruling, families of
Bhadaur and Malaud, and many others of less importance. Collaterally
again the descendants of Phiil are connected with the rulers of Farldkot,
the extinct Kaithal family, and the feudatories of Arnauli, Jhamba,
Siddhuwal, and, north of the Sutlej, Atari. These numerous branches
of a vigorous stock belong to the great Siddhu-Barar tribe, the most
powerful Jat clan south of the Sutlej, and claim descent from Jaisal,
a Bhati Rajput, who, having founded the State of Jaisalmer in 1156,
was driven from his kingdom by a rebellion and settled near Hissar.
Hemhel, his son, sacked that town and overran the country up to
Delhi, but was repulsed by Shams-ud-dln Altamsh. Subsequently, in
1 2 12, that ruler made him governor of the Sirsa and Bhatinda country.
But his great-grandson Mangal Rao, having rebelled against the
Muhammadan sovereign of Delhi, was beheaded at Jaisalmer. His
grandson, Khiwa, sank to the status of a Jat by contracting a marriage
with a woman of that class ; and though the great Siddhu-Barar tribe
in the following centuries spread itself far and wide over the MALWA
country up to and even beyond the Sutlej, the descendants of Khiwa
fell into poverty and obscurity, until one of them, Sanghar, entered
the service of the emperor Babar with a few followers. Sanghar
himself fell at Panfpat in 1526 ; but the emperor rewarded his devotion

PHULKIAN STATES 133

by granting his son Baryam the chaudhrayat or intendancy of the
waste country south-west of Delhi, and thus restored the fortunes of
the family. The grant was confirmed by Humayiin ; but in 1560
BarySm fell righting against the Muhammadan Bhattis, at once the
kinsmen and hereditary foes of the Siddhu tribe. Baryam was
succeeded as chaudhri by his son Mahraj and his grandson Mohan,
who were both engaged in constant warfare with the Bhattis, until
Mohan was compelled to flee to Hansi and Hissar, whence he returned
with a considerable force of his tribesmen, defeated the Bhattis at
Bhedowal, and on the advice of the Sikh Guru Har Gobind founded
Mahraj in Ferozepore District. But the contest with the Bhattis was
soon renewed, and Mohan and his son Rup Chand were killed by
them in a skirmish about 1618. His second son Kala succeeded to
the chaudhrayat and became the guardian of Phiil and Sandali, the
sons of Rup Chand. Phill left six sons, of whom Tiloka was the eldest,
and from him are descended the families of Jind and Nabha. From
Rama, the second son, sprang the greatest of the Phillkian houses, that
of Patiala. The other four sons succeeded to only a small share of
their father's possessions.

In 1627 Phul founded and gave his name to a village which is now
an important town in the State of Nabha. His two eldest sons
founded Bhai Riipa, still held jointly by the three States, while Rama
also built Rampur. The last named successfully raided the Bhattis
and other enemies of his line. He then obtained from the Muham-
madan governor of Sirhind the intendancy of the Jangal tract. His
cousin Chain Singh was associated with him in the office ; but Rama
could brook no rival and caused his cousin to be assassinated, only to
fall in turn a victim to the vengeance of Chain Singh's sons. The
blood-feud was duly carried on by Ala Singh, Rama's third son, who
killed all but one of the sons of Chain Singh.

Ala Singh, now quit of his nearest enemies, established a post at
Sanghera, to protect its people against the chiefs of Kot and Jagraon.
In 1718 he entrusted Bhadaur to his brother, and rebuilt Barnala,
where he took up his residence. Shortly afterwards his son Sardul
Singh attacked and destroyed Mina, the possession of a Rajput who
was related to the powerful Rai Kalha of Kot. This roused the Rai
to a determined attempt to destroy the rising power of Ala Singh ; and
collecting a large force led by the Rajput chiefs of Halwara, Malsin,
Thattar, and Talwandi, and the famous Jamal Khan, Rais of Maler
Kotla, and strengthened by an imperial contingent under Saiyid Asad
All Khan, general of the Jullundur Doab, he attacked the Sikhs outside
Barnala. The imperial general fell early in the day and his men
abandoned the field. The troops of Maler Kotla and Kot followed
their example, and the Sikhs obtained a complete victory, routing the

i34 PHULKIAN STATES

Muhammadan forces and taking many prisoners and much booty.
This victory raised Ala Singh to the position of an independent chief,
and the Sikhs flocked to his standard. But the next ten years were
consumed in desultory warfare with the Bhattis, and Ala Singh allied
himself with the imperial governor of Sirhind against the chief of Kot,
who was forced to abandon his principality. Ala Singh, however, soon
quarrelled with his ally, and was in consequence thrown by him into
prison, where he would have perished but for the self-sacrifice of
a follower, a relative of Chain Singh, his hereditary foe. Thus freed,
Ala Singh built the fort of Bhawanigarh, 22 miles west of the town
of Patiala. Three years later his general, Gurbakhsh Singh, Kaleka,*
subdued the territory of Sanaur or Chaurasi, in which the town of
Patiala lies, and fortified the latter place, to hold the conquered territory
in check. Meanwhile the Diwan of Samand Khan, governor of Sirhind,
had fled for protection to Ala Singh, who refused to surrender him.
Samand Khan thereupon marched on Sanaur, only to meet with a
severe defeat. Bhai Gurbakhsh Singh, the founder of the Kaithal
family, next invoked the aid of Ala Singh in subduing the country
round Bhatinda, which was then held by Sardar Jodh Singh. Ala
Singh dispatched a considerable force against this chief, but effected
nothing until the Sikhs from the north of the Sutlej came to his aid,
overran the country, and placed Bhai Gurbakhsh Singh in possession
of it. Ala Singh then turned his arms against two neighbouring chiefs,
who, having called in vain upon the Bhattis for help, were slain with
several hundred followers and their territories annexed. With his son
Lai Singh, Ala Singh now proceeded to overrun the country of the
Bhatti chiefs, who summoned the imperial governor of Hissar to their
aid ; but in spite of his co-operation they were driven from the field.
This campaign terminated in 1759 with the victory of Dharsul, which
consolidated Ala Singh's power and greatly raised his reputation.
Ahmad Shah Durrani on his invasion of India in 1761 had appointed
Zain Khan governor of Sirhind ; but the moment he turned his face
homewards, the Sikhs, who had remained neutral during his campaigns
against the Mughal and Maratha powers, attacked Sirhind, which was
with difficulty relieved by Jamal Khan of Maler Kotla and Rai Kalha
of Kot. In 1762 Ahmad Shah Durrani determined to punish the
Sikhs for this attempt on Sirhind ; and though a great confederacy of
the Phulkian chiefs and other Sikh leaders was formed and opposed his
advance near Barnala, the Durrani inflicted on them a crushing defeat,
their loss being estimated at 20,000 men. Ala Singh himself was
taken prisoner and Barnala occupied by the Afghans. The chiefs
ransom of 4 lakhs was paid with difficulty, and he was released ; but
Ahmad Shah, in pursuance of his policy of employing the Sikhs
against the Mughal power, gave Ala Singh a robe of honour with the

PHULPUR TOWN

135

title of Raja and authority to coin money in his own name, thus
founding the Patiala State. These gifts, however, raised the suspicions
of the Sikhs ; and Ala Singh only recovered his position in their eyes
when, in 1763, he headed the great force of confederated Sikhs which
took Sirhind, after Zain Khan had been defeated and slain outside
its walls. In this battle the nascent State of Jind was represented
by Alam Singh, a grandson of Tiloka, and that of Nabha by Hamir
Singh, his great-grandson. After the victory, the old Mughal district
of Sirhind was divided among its conquerors. Sirhind itself, with its
surrounding country, fell to Ala Singh, Aniloh to Nabha, and a con-
siderable area to Jind. In this year Jind and Nabha may be deemed
to have come into being as ruling States, and henceforward their
histories diverge.

The right of adoption was granted to the chiefs of Patiala, Jind, and
Nabha in 1860, together with the further concession that, in the event
of the chief of any one State dying without male issue and without
adopting a successor, the chiefs of the other two, in concert with the
Political Agent, should choose a successor from among the Phulkian
family. Succession in these cases is subject to the payment to the
British Government of a nazarana or fine equal to one-third of the
gross revenue of the State. The Political Agent for the Phulkian
States and Bahawalpur resides at Patiala.

Phulpur Tahsll. Tahsll of Allahabad District, United Provinces,
comprising the parganas of Sikandra and JhusI, and lying between
25 18' and 25 45' N. and 80 53" and 82 10' E., on the north bank
of the Ganges, with an area of 286 square miles. Population fell from
176,851 in 1891 to 171,653 in 1901. There are 486 villages and two
towns, including PHULPUR (population, 7,611), the tahsll head-quarters.
The demand for land revenue in 1903-4 was Rs. 3,04,000, and for
cesses Rs. 49,000. The density of population, 600 persons per square
mile, is above the District average. Stretches of alluvial land border
part of the course of the Ganges, but most of the tahsll lies in the
fertile uplands. In 1903-4 the area under cultivation was 172 square
miles, of which 65 were irrigated. Wells supply a rather larger area
than tanks orj/ii/s, and no other sources are important.

Phulpur Town. Head-quarters of the tahsll of the same name in
Allahabad District, situated in 25 33" N. and 82 6' E., on the
metalled road from Allahabad city to Jaunpur. Population (1901),
7,611. The place is said to have been founded in the seventeenth
century, but has no history. Besides the usual offices, it contains
a dispensary, a police station, and a post office. Phulpur is admin-
istered under Act XX of 1856, with an income of about Rs. 1,300.
The market is of some importance, and there is a considerable trade
in cloth, cotton, and metal vessels. Sugar was formerly an important

136 PHULPUR TOWN

article of trade, but is so no longer. A little cotton cloth is made.
The tahslll school has about 90 pupils.

Phultala. Village in the head-quarters subdivision of Khulna
District, Bengal, situated in 22 58' N, and 89 29' E., on the Bhairab
river. Population (1901), 3,911. It has a brisk sugar manufacture
and a large trade, in rice, betel-leaves, &c. Phultala is a station on the
Eastern Bengal State Railway, and is also connected with Khulna town
by a good road.

Phulwari. Town in the head-quarters subdivision of Patna Dis-
trict, Bengal, situated in 25 34' N. and 85 5' E. Population (1901),

3.4I5-

Pigeon Island (also known as Netrani or Nitran). Island 10 miles
off the coast of North Kanara District, Bombay, situated in 14 i' N.
and 74 16' E., about 15 miles north-west of Bhatkal. The island is
about 300 feet high and half a mile broad. It is well wooded, and
has a good landing on the west side. In clear weather it is visible
25 miles off. Its shores abound in white coral and lime, which are
taken by boats to the mainland. The number of pigeons that haunt
its caves have given the island its name. Besides pigeons, the island
is frequented by the swiftlct (Collocalia unicolor), whose nests the
Chinese esteem a delicacy. It also contains one of the largest known
colonies of the white-bellied sea-eagle.

Pihani. Town in the Shahabad tahsll of Hardoi District, United
Provinces, situated in 27 37' N. and 80 12' E., 16 miles north of
Hardoi town. Population (1901), 7,616. The Hindus trace the foun-
dation of the town to a settlement of Brahmans, while the Musalmans
claim that it was founded by Saiyid Abdul Ghafur, Kazi of Kanauj,
who remained faithful to Humayun after his defeat by Sher Shah.
Several of his descendants attained high rank, while his nephew
became chief mufti under Akbar, with the title of Sadr Jahan. His
tomb and mosque are the chief adornments of the town. Pihani was
administered as a municipality from 1877 to 1904, when it was con-
stituted a 'notified area.' During the ten years ending 1901 the
income and expenditure averaged Rs. 4,000. In 1903-4 the income
and expenditure were Rs. 7,000. Pihani was formerly noted for the
manufacture of sword-blades of the finest temper, and of woven
turbans ; but both of these arts have declined. There are three
schools, including one for girls, attended in all by 250 pupils, and
the American Methodist Mission has a branch here.

Pihewa. Ancient town in Karnal District, Punjab. See PEHOWA.

Pihij. Town in the Petlad taluka> Baroda prant, Baroda State,
situated in 22 40' N. and 72 49' E. Population (1901), 5,282. The
town possesses a vernacular school.

Pllibhit District. North-eastern District of the Bareilly Division,

PILIBHIT DISTRICT 137

United Provinces, lying between 28 6' and 28 53' N. and 79 37' and
80 27' E., with an area of 1,350 square miles. On the north it is
bounded by Nairn Tal ; on the north-east and east by the State of
Nepal and Kherl District ; on the south by Kheri and Shahjahanpur ;
and on the west by Bareilly. Though separated only by a short
distance from the outer ranges of the Himalayas, Piilbhil consists
entirely of a level plain, containing depressions but
no hills, and intersected by several streams. The aspects
largest river is the SARDA, which, after a long course
through the Himalayas and across the boulder-strewn tract known
as the Bhabar, becomes an ordinary river of the plains at the north-
east corner of the District. It then flows south-east, sometimes
dividing Pilibhit from Nepal, and often giving off smaller channels.
A few miles south-west of the Sarda is an affluent called the Chauka,
which flows in what was probably an old bed of the main river.
In the centre of the District a long swamp, called the Mala, lies
north and south, dividing it into two distinct portions. The eastern
tahsll of Puranpur contains a large area of forest land, and is remark-
able for its unhealthy climate, the poverty of its inhabitants, and
the instability of cultivation. Tire river GUMTI rises in the centre
of this tract, but has a badly-defined bed, consisting of a series of
swamps. West of the Mala conditions are better, and the country
gradually assumes the prosperous appearance of the plains of Rohil-
khand. The Khanaut, Katna, and Deoha are the principal rivers
in this tract.

The District consists almost entirely of alluvium, though the bed
of the Sarda contains gravel and small boulders.

The flora of the District presents no peculiarity. In the north
and east a large forest area is found, consisting chiefly of sa/,
which gives place to the ordinary trees of the plains in the south
and west.

In the wilder parts of Puranpur tigers and leopards are numerous,
but elsewhere scarce. Wild hog and deer of various kinds are found
in many parts, and do much damage to the crops. The jackal and
wolf are also common. Black and grey partridge, quail, sand-grouse,
jungle-fowl, peafowl, geese, ducks, and snipe are the commonest
game-birds. The mahseer is found in the Sarda, and fish are com-
mon everywhere.

Fever is endemic throughout the District, and is especially viru-
lent in the swamps near the forests in Puranpur. Except for fever,
Pilibhit is fairly healthy, and its proximity to the hills causes a
more even temperature and cool climate than in the Districts farther
south.

The same cause ensures a copious rainfall, the annual amount

tj8 PILIBHIT DISTRICT

averaging more than 49 inches. The two northern tahslls receive
52 inches and Bisalpur in the south about 44. Damage is occasionally
caused both by excess and by deficiency of rain.

At the end of the tenth century a line of princes of the Chhinda
family ruled in the north of the District ; nothing is known of them
but their names, recorded in an inscription found
near Dewal, and the fact that they made a canal.
Local history commences with the rise of the Rohilla power in the
eighteenth century, when Pilibhit fell into the hands of Hafiz Rahmat
Khan, the great leader of the Rohillas after the death of All Muham-
mad. He resided for a time at Pilibhit, which is indebted to him for
its mosque and walls, some of its markets, and all that distinguished
it before the advent of British rule. Rahmat Khan was killed in the
battle near KATRA in 1774, fought between the Rohillas and the
Nawab of Oudh, who was aided by a British force lent by Warren
Hastings. Pilibhit was occupied without resistance, and became part
of the new dominions added to Oudh. In 1801, with the rest of
Rohilkhand, it passed to the British, being ceded in lieu of the
payment of tribute.

At the time of the Mutiny, in 1857, part of the present District
was included in a subdivision of Bareilly. News of the rising of the
troops at Bareilly reached Pilibhit on June i, and tumults at once
broke out among the population. The Joint-Magistrate was forced
to retire to Naini Tal ; and while the surrounding villages remained
a prey to the rapacity and extortions of rival zamlndars, the city
nominally submitted to the authority of Khan Bahadur Khan, the
rebel Nawab of Bareilly, a grandson of Hafiz Rahmat Khan. Order
was restored in 1858, and has since then only been seriously disturbed
in 1871, when a riot, which was not suppressed without bloodshed,
occurred between Hindus and Muhammadans on the occasion of
a Hindu festival.

Besides the ruins near DEWAL several extensive mounds are situated
in various parts of the District, which have not been explored. Local
tradition connects them with the mythical Raja Vena.

There are five towns and 1,056 villages. Population has fluctuated
considerably, owing to the unhealthy nature of a great part of the
. District, and the facility with which its inhabitants

migrate. The numbers at the four enumerations
were as follows: (1872) 492,098, (1881) 451,601, (1891) 485,108, and
(1901) 470,339. The famine of 1877-8 and the fever epidemic of
1879 had serious effects on population. There are three tahslls BISAL-
PUR, PILIBHIT, and PURANPUR each named from its head-quarters.
The principal towns are the municipalities of PILIBHIT and BISALPUR.
The following table gives the chief statistics of population in 1901 :

AGRICULTURE

Number of

*. .

Q.4J

*O v-n

TahsH.

E
K

tuOC gOO rt

||||

||t|l

JiS^

P-i a

Bisalpur .
Pilibhlt .

363

474

424

196,333
184,922

54 1
39

+ 2.9

4,260
5,066

Pii ran pur .

5*3

242

89,084

J 74

- 6.4

^447

District total

',350

1,056

470,339

348

-3-0

ro,773

Hindus form 82 per cent, of the total and Musalmans more than
17 percent. The density is below the Provincial average, owing to the
large area of forest and waste in Piiranpur. Almost the entire popula-
tion speak Western Hindi, Kanaujia being the prevailing dialect.

Among Hindus the most numerous castes are : Kisans (cultivators),
54,000 ; Kurmis (agriculturists), 47,000 ; Lodhas (cultivators), 35,000 ;
Chamars (leather-workers and labourers), 31,000 ; Brahmans, 25,000 ;
and Muraos (market-gardeners), 25,000. The chief Muhammadan
tribes and castes are: Julahas (weavers), 15,000; Pathans, 13,000;
Shaikhs, 12,000; Behnas (cotton-carders), 6,000; Banjaras (grain-
carriers and agriculturists), 5,000 ; and Rains (cultivators), 5,000. The
Kisans and Lodhas are found chiefly in the Bareilly and Agra Divisions,
the Kurmis in the centre of the Province, and the Banjaras in the sub-
montane tracts. About 69 per cent, of the population are supported by
agriculture a high proportion ; 6 per cent, by general labour, and
2 per cent, by weaving.

Out of 1,283 native Christians in 1901, 1,138 were Methodists. The
American Methodist Mission has worked in this District since 1861.

In the north-western tahsil of Pilibhlt, with its clay soil and heavy
rainfall, rice forms the most important crop ; wheat and gram are
also grown, and the cultivation of sugar-cane has
extended considerably. Piiranpur produces rice and
wheat, but barley and oilseeds are grown to a larger extent than in
Pilibhlt, as the soil is lighter. In the south of the District rice is
also an important crop, but sugar-cane is more valuable, and wheat
and gram cover a larger area than in the north-west. The standard
of cultivation varies considerably. In the south and west it will bear
comparison* with the best of the Rohilkhand Districts ; but in the
north-east and east, where the energies of the cultivator are devoted
to protecting his crops from the depredations of wild beasts, tillage is
slovenly and irrigation rare.

The ordinary tenures of the United Provinces are found; but the
District is remarkable for the extent to which zamlndari mahals have
remained undivided, especially in the two northern tahslls. Out of

VOL.. XX. K

Agriculture.

140

PlLIBHIT DISTRICT

1,493 Mahals in these, only 30 are pattlddri^ while in the Bisalpur tahsil
617 mahalt xttpattidari and 371 zamlnddri. The main agricultural
statistics for 1903-4 are given below, in square miles :

Tahsil.

Total.

Cultivated

Irrigated.

Cultivable
waste.

Bisalpur
Pffibhit.
Puranpur

Total

363
474
5i3

241
240

I 7 8

37
18

59
230

i>35

6 59

139

355

Rice covered 186 square miles, or 28 per cent, of the net cultivated
area, and wheat 194 square miles, or 29 per cent. ; gram, barley, and
bajra are the next most important food-crops. Sugar-cane was grown
on 58, and oilseeds on 23 square miles. Hemp (sdn\ though it
covered only n square miles, is increasing in importance.

There has been no permanent increase in cultivation during recent
years, and fluctuations are considerable, owing to climatic reasons. A
rise is, however, noticeable in the area sown with the more valuable
crops, rice and sugar-cane. Wheat sown alone has been replaced by
barley or by mixed crops, and there has been an increase in the area
double cropped. Except in adverse seasons, loans from Government
are rarely taken. No advances were made from 1890 to 1894; and
though Rs. 97,000 was lent during the next ten years, Rs. 53,000 of
this amount was advanced in 1896-7.

The District contains large stretches of grazing ground, especially
in the Puranpur tahsil^ and a special breed of cattle is found here,
called panwdr ; the bullocks are of average size, quick movers, and
fiery tempered. Some Hansi bulls were once imported, but were not
a success. Very few ponies or horses are kept, and the sheep and
goats are generally inferior.

There is great divergence between the different tahslls in the
methods of irrigation, and the need and facilities for supplying water.
In 1803-4 wells supplied 64 square miles, lakes and swamps 37,
rivers 19, and Government canals 19 square miles. The canals, which
are situated entirely in the western part of the Pilibhlt tahsil, consist of
two systems, drawn from the Bahgul and Kailas, both of which are small
streams. In ordinary years irrigation is not necessary, ancj small tem-
porary wells can be made wherever required, except in the sandy tracts
of Puranpur. In the Bisalpur tahsil the supply from wells is regularly
supplemented by a defective and wasteful private arrangement of dams
on the small streams which traverse that area, especially on the Mala
swamp. The minor rivers are similarly used in the Pilibhlt and
Puranpur tahsils in seasons of drought*. Water is generally raised

FAMINE 141

in earthen pots suspended from a lever (dhenklT), as the spring-level
is high.

The ' reserved ' forests of PllibhTt District cover 149 square miles,
and are included, with some forest lying in Nairn Tal District, in the
Pilibhit Forest division. They lie on both sides of the Mala swamp
and south-west of the Chauka, forming an area shaped like a horse-
shoe. The forests are the poorest in the Province, and are chiefly
valuable for the grazing they afford, and the products used by the
inhabitants of the neighbourhood. Sal (Shorea robusta) and haldu
(Adlna cordifolia} are the most valuable trees ; but many years must
elapse before timber of value is produced. About 64 miles are occupied
by similar forests belonging to private persons in the Puranpur tahsil,
and 44 miles in the south of Blsalpur are covered with jungle, chiefly
dhdk (Buteafrondosa).

Sugar-refining is the most important industry. Boat-building and
wood-carving were formerly carried on largely ; but
the carpenters have now turned their attention to
cart-making. There is a small manufacture of
hempen bags and metal vessels, and cotton-weaving is carried on,
but chiefly for local supply. Catechu is prepared in the north of
the District.

The staple exports are wheat, sugar, and rice. In the last few years
an export trade in sari-hemp has sprung up. The finer varieties
of rice grown in the rich lowlands of Nepal are exported through this
District, and there is also a considerable trade in hill produce, such as
borax, pepper, and ginger. Neoria, Blsalpur, and Puranpur are the
principal trade centres, outside Pilibhit town.

The Lucknow-Sltapur-Bareilly metre-gauge railway passes across the
centre of the District, and a branch is contemplated from Pillbhit town
to Tanakpur, the mart at the foot of the Kumaun hills. The District
is very badly provided with roads, and the northern and eastern parts
are almost impassable, except by elephants, during the rainy season.
There are 13 miles of metalled roads from Pillbhit towards Bareilly,
and 299 miles of unmetalled roads. The absence of kankar or nodular
limestone is the chief cause of the want of better roads. Avenues of
trees are maintained along 84 miles.

The natural moisture of the soil is generally sufficient to protect the
District from the extremity of famine, and excessive rain is more to
be feared than drought. In the sandy tracts in the
east and south, however, where wells cannot be made,
drought affects the people. Large remissions of revenue were made in
1825-6, and the famine of 1837-8 was felt. Details of later famines
are not available till that of 1868-9, when Rs. 43,000 was spent on
r^iiVf nnd large advances were made for seed and bullocks. The

K 2

T 4 2 PILIBHIT DISTRICT

famine of 1877-8 caused some distress and the revenue demand was
reduced. In 1896-7 scarcity was again felt, but liberal advances were
made and the District recovered rapidly.

The Collector is ordinarily assisted by two Deputy-Collectors re-

. , . . . cruited in India, and a tahsildar resides at the head-
Admimstrahon. ^ r i , 7 -, A & r *t. T-

quarters of each tahsiL An officer of the Forest

department is stationed at Pilibhit, while the canals are part of the
Rohilkhand Canals under an officer at Bareilly.

Pillbhit is included in the Civil and Sessions Judgeship of Bareilly,
and there is one District Munsif. Crime is usually light.

At annexation, in 1801, Pilibhit was included in the large District of
Bareilly. From 1833 to 1842 part of the area now forming Pilibhit was
included with other tahsih in a District called North Bareilly. A sub-
division was then created, consisting of Pilibhit, Puranpur, and other
territory, which became a separate District in 1879. In 1880 the
Baherl tahsll was restored to Bareilly, and the BTsalpur tahsll added
to Pilibhit. The early settlements were thus made as part of BAREILLY
DISTRICT, to which reference may be made for the methods followed.
The demand fixed at the first regular settlement, under Regulation IX
of 1833, on the present area was 5-9 lakhs. At the next settlement,
between 1865 and 1872, the Blsalpur tahsll was treated as part of
Bareilly District, and the Pilibhit and Puranpur tahsih were settled
separately. The total revenue was raised to 7-2 lakhs; but a succession
of bad years caused reductions to be made, and part of the District
has since been under a system of short settlements. The Blsalpur
tahsll was again settled in 1902 together with Bareilly District, the
revenue being raised from 3-1 to 3*3 lakhs; but the revision of settle-
ment in the other two tahsih has been postponed for ten years. In
1902-3 the incidence of revenue was R. i per acre, varying from
5 annas in Puranpur to Rs. 1-5 in Pilibhit.

The total collections on account of land revenue and revenue from
all sources have been, in thousands of rupees :

1880-1. 1890-1.

1900-1.

1903-4.

Land revenue
Total revenue

7,18 j 7,01
9,24 , 9,81

7,29
10,52

7,^
i,74

There are two municipalities, PILIBHIT and BISALPUR; and three
towns are administered under Act XX of 1856. Beyond the limits of
these, local affairs are managed by the District board, which had an
income of Rs. 72,000 in 1903-4, chiefly derived from rates. The
expenditure was Rs. 79,000, including Rs. 40,000 on roads and
buildings.

The District Superintendent of police has a force of 3 inspectors,

PILIBHIT TOWN 143

55 subordinate officers, and 221 men, distributed in 9 police stations.
There are also 109 municipal and town police, and 1,066 village and
road police. Up to 1902 convicts were sent to the Bareilly District
jail ; but a jail has now been built, which contained a daily average of
48 prisoners in 1903.

Pilibhit occupies a medium place as regards the literacy of its popu-
lation, of whom 2-3 per cent. (4 males and 02 females) could read and
write in 1901. The number of public schools rose from 62 with 2,124
pupils in r88o-r to 77 with 3,066 pupils in 1900-1. In 1903-4 there
were 107 public schools with 4,289 pupils, of whom 238 were girls,
besides 45 private schools with 667 pupils, including 46 girls. Three
of the schools were managed by Government, and 87 by the District
and municipa\ boards. The total expenditure on education in 1903-4
was Rs. 27,000, chiefly met from Local funds.

There are 5 hospitals and dispensaries, with accommodation for
66 in-patients. About 52,000 cases were treated in 1903, of whom
777 were in-patients, and 1,100 operations were performed. The
expenditure was Rs. 10,000, chiefly from Local funds.

In 1903-4, 21,000 persons were vaccinated, giving the high pro-
portion of 45 per 1,000 of the population. Vaccination is compulsory
only in the municipalities.

{Settlement Report of Pilibhit (1873); Bareilly District Gazetteer
(1879, under revision) ; Assessment Report ', Tahsll Blsalpur (1902).]

Pilibhit Tahsll. North-western tahs'il of Pilibhit District, United
Provinces, comprising the parganas of Pilibhit and Jahanabad, and
lying between 28 29' and 28 53' N. and 79 37' and 80 3' E., with
an area of 474 square miles. Population fell from 199,039 in 1891 to
184,922 in 1901. There are 390 villages and three towns, including
PILIBHIT (population, 33,490), the District and tahsil head-quarters.
The demand for land revenue in 1903-4 was Rs. 3,03,000, and for
cesses Rs. 50,000. The density of population, 390 persons per square
mile, is considerably above the District average. The Deoha and
Katna and many smaller streams traverse the tahsil^ and in the west
two canals from the Bahgul and Kailas irrigate a small area. A long
swamp, called the Mala, forms the eastern boundary, fringed by a sal
forest. In 1903-4 the area under cultivation was 240 square miles,
of which 37 were irrigated. In dry years temporary wells can be made
readily, and the rivers are also used.

Pilibhit Town. Head-quarters of the District and tahsil of the
same name, United Provinces, situated in 28 38' N. and 79 48' E-.,
on the Lucknow-Sltapur-Bareilly Railway. Population (1901), 33,490.
The name is derived from Periya, the title of a Banjara clan, and bhlt %
a * wall ' or ' mound.' It has no history till the middle of the eighteenth
century, when it became the residence of Hafiz Rah mat Khan, the

144 PI LIB HIT TOWN

Rohilla leader. In 1763 he surrounded it with a mud wall, and six
years later with a brick wall. For a time Pilibhlt was called Hafkabad,
after the title of the great soldier. The town never rose to the
importance of Bareilly ; and after the defeat and death of Hafiz
Rahmat Khan in 1774 it declined under the rule of Oudh, and under
the British, to whom it was ceded in 1801. At the time of the Mutiny
in 1857, Pilibhit, though it had been the capital of a District from
1833 to 1842, was the head-quarters of a subdivision. The Joint-
Magistrate was compelled to retire to Nairn Tal, and the town was the
scene of constant disturbances, though nominally subject to the rebel
governor of Bareilly.

Pilibhit is almost surrounded by water. It lies between the Deoha
and Kakra, which were formerly connected by ditches still forming
drainage channels, though not constantly filled. A fine mosque built
by Hafiz Rahmat Khan, in imitation of the Jama Masjid at Delhi,
is the chief ornament of the town. The public buildings include
the District courts, male and female dispensaries, a clock-tower,
a Sanskrit school, and a Turkish bath. The houses are largely built
of brick, and there are several good market-places lined with shops.
Besides the ordinary District staff, a Forest officer resides at Pilibhit,
and there is a branch of the American Methodist Mission. The
municipality was constituted in 1865. During the ten years ending
1901 the income and expenditure averaged Rs. 46,000 and Rs. 45,000
respectively. In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 76,000, including octroi
(Rs. 35,000) and rents (Rs. 22,000); and the expenditure was
Rs. 71,000. A revised drainage scheme has lately been carried out.
The trade of the town is largely concerned with the agricultural
produce of the District, wheat, rice, sugar, and ^a;/-hemp forming
the chief exports. In addition, Pilibhit is an important depot for the
produce of Nepal and the Himalayas. Carts and bedsteads are
largely made and exported. The municipality maintains eight schools
and aids four others, attended by 724 pupils.

Pilkhana. Town in the Sikandra Rao tahstl of Aligarh District,
United Provinces, situated in 27 51' N. and 78 17' E., n miles
south-east of Aligarh town. Population (1901), 5,109. The town is
old, and gave its name *o a taluka farmed to Daya Ram of Hathras at
the beginning of British rule. It is administered under Act XX of
1856, with an income of about Rs. 1,200. There is a primary school
with 60 pupils.

Pilkhua. Town in the Ghaziabad tahsil of Meerut District, United
Provinces, situated in 28 43' N. and 77 40' E., 19 miles south of
Meerut city on the Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway, and on the metalled
road from Delhi to Moradabad. Population (1901), 5,859. The town
is badly drained and surrounded by stagnant pools, though a small

FIND DAD AN KHAN TAHSIL 145

drainage cut has been made. It contains branches of the Church
Missionary Society and the American Methodist Missions. From
1872 to 1904 it was administered as a municipality, with an income
and expenditure averaging about Rs. 3,000, but it has now been
declared a * notified area. 7 The chief manufacture is country cloth,
which is especially noted for a peculiar pattern made by dyeing. There
is also a considerable trade in leather and shoemaking, and the pro-
ducts are exported as far as Calcutta and Bombay. In 1904 there was
an aided primary school with 35 pupils.

Pimpalner. 70/*//fo of West Khandesh District, Bombay, lying
partly above and partly below the Western Ghats, between 20 50' and
21 16' N. and 73 51' and 74 33' E., with an area of 933 square miles.
There are 15 \ villages, but no town. The head-quarters are at Sakri.
The population in 1901 was 56,638, compared with 59,278 in 1891.
The density, 61 persons per square mile, is about two-fifths of the
average for the District. The demand for land revenue in 1903-4 was
i 3 lakhs, and for cesses Rs. 8,000. The plains are intersected by
abrupt mountain ranges, of which the range of the Selbari hills is
the most considerable. The tract below the Western Ghats is com-
posed of steep hill ranges, clothed with forest and inhabited by Bhlls.
The climate is unhealthy, especially to Europeans and natives of the
Deccan. There is a fair water-supply, the rivers being utilized for
irrigation by means of masonry dams. The annual rainfall averages
21 inches.

Pimpladevi. Petty State in the DANGS, Bombay.

Pimpri.- Petty State in the DANGS, Bombay.

Pinahat. Former name of a tahsll in Agra District, United Pro-
vinces. See BAH.

Pinakini, Northern and Southern. Two rivers of Southern
India. See PENNER and PONNAIYAR.

PindarL Glacier in the District and tahsll of Almora, United
Provinces, situated between 30 16' and 30 if N. and 80 and
80 3' E. The glacier is fed by the snow from the lofty peak of
Nanda Kot and other mountains lying north of it, and is the source
of the Pindar river, a tributary of the Alaknanda, which flows into
the Ganges.

Pind Dadan Khan Tahsil. Southern subdivision and tahsll
of Jhelum* District, Punjab, lying between 32 27' and 32 50' N. and
72 32' and 73 29' E., with an area of 875 square miles. It is bounded
on the south-east by the Jheluni river, and is traversed in its northern
portion by the Salt Range. The hills consist of two roughly parallel
ranges about 6 miles apart, with a strip of richly cultivated and fairly
level uplands between. The southern slopes of the hills are steep
and barren. The rest of the tahsll consists of a belt of alluvial plain,

146 FIND DADAN KHAN TAHSIL

a portion of which is much affected by saline deposits. The population
in 1901 was 170,130, compared with 173,071 in 1891. It contains the
town of FIND DADAN KHAN (population, 13,770), the head-quarters;
and 207 villages. The land revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted
to 2-8 lakhs. KATAS and MALOT are places of considerable archaeo-
logical interest, the village of JALALPUR possesses historical importance,
and the MAYO MINE at Khewra is one of the chief sources of the
supply of salt in India.

Find Dadan Khan Town. Head-quarters of the subdivision
and tahsil of the same name in Jhelum District, Punjab, situated in
32 36' N. and 73 4' E., on the right bank of the Jhelum river, and on
the Sind-Sagar branch of the North-Western Railway. Population
(1901), 13,770. It was formerly the dep6t to which salt was brought
from the Mayo Mine, and from which it was carried across the river
to the railway ; but the bridging of the Jhelum at Haranpur, and
the extension of the railway to Khewra, have ruined this trade. Brass
vessels are made in the town, which also has a considerable weaving
industry, while its embroidered lungls are often sold at high prices.
Boat-building is largely carried on, and river boats of Pind Dadan
Khan make are in request throughout the whole course of the Jhelum.
Ungla/ed pottery of a deep red colour, ornamented with black patterns
and remarkably strong and good in quality, is a speciality of the town,
as also are stout leathern riding-whips made after English patterns.
The municipality was created in 1867. During the ten years ending
1902-3 the receipts averaged Rs. 28,700, and the expenditure
Rs. 28,100. In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 22,300, chiefly from
octroi; and the expenditure was Rs. 27,000. The town has a high
school, maintained by the municipality. There is also a Government
dispensary.

Pindi Bhattian. Village in the Haiizabad tahsil of Gujranwala
District, Punjab, situated in 31 54' N. and 73 19' E. It is a strong-
hold of the Bhatti Rajputs, from whom it takes its name, having been
founded by them in the time of Akbar. The Bhatti chiefs were
expelled by Ranjit Singh, but were reinstated by the British Govern-
ment, to whom they had rendered considerable assistance in the
Sikh Wars. They also did good service in the Mutiny. The town has
some trade in gki, thread, grain, and Kabul fruits, and good saddles
are made. It contains a wealthy community of Arora merchants, and
formerly had a municipal committee which was abolished in 1890.
It has prospered greatly since the construction of the Chenab Canal,
the population having risen from 3,674 in 1891 to 6,145 * n r 9 O1 > an d
it is now administered as a ' notified area.'

Pindi Gheb Subdivision. Subdivision of Attock District, Punjab,
consisting of the PINDI GHEB and TALAGANG tahslls.

PINJAUR TAHSIL 147

Pindi Gheb Tahsil. Tahsll of Attock District, Punjab, lying
between 33 o' and 33 47' N. and 71 42' and 72 40' E., with an area
of 1,499 square miles. The Indus bounds it on the north-west. Its
highest point lies in the KALA-CHITTA range. The tahstl is mainly
a bleak, dry, undulating and often stony tract, broken by ravines, and
sloping from east to west : a country of rough scenery, sparse popula-
tion, and scanty rainfall. West along the Indus are the ravines and
pebble ridges which surround Makhad, Only near Pindi Gheb town
does the broad bed of the Sil river show a bright oasis of cultivation
among the dreary uplands which compose the rest of the tahstl. The
population in 1901 was 106,437, compared with 99,350 in 1891. It
contains the town of PINDI GHEB (population, 8,452), the head-quarters ;
and 134 villages. The land revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to
i -9 lakhs.

Pindi Gheb Town.- Head-quarters of the subdivision and tahstl
of the same name in Attock District, Punjab, situated in 33 14' N.
and 72 1 6' E., 21 miles from Jand station on the North- Western
Railway. Population (1901), 8,452. Formerly known as Pindi
Malika-i-Shahryar or Malika-i-Auliya, or * queen of the saints,' it
derives its modern name from the Gheba tribe of Jats, and is now the
ancestral home of the Jodhra Maliks, who founded it in the thirteenth
century. The municipality was created in 1873. The income and
expenditure during the ten years ending 1902-3 averaged Rs. 4,400.
In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 5,200, chiefly from octroi; and the
expenditure was Rs. 5,800. A vernacular middle school is maintained
by the municipality, and a dispensary by Government.

Pinjaur Nizamat. A nizdmat or administrative district of the
Patiala State, Punjab, lying between 30 4' and 31 11' N. and 76 29'
and 77 22' E., with an area of 784 square miles. The population
in 1901 was 212,866, compared with 226,379 in 1891, dwelling in one
town, BANUR, and 1,588 villages. The land revenue and cesses
in 1903-4 amounted to 6*5 lakhs. The nizdmat forms the north-
eastern part of the State, and is divided into four tahslls RAJPURA,
BANUR, PINJAUR, and GHANAUR. Of these, the first lies in the
Himalayan area, and the other three in the Pawadh. The country
is scarred by torrent-beds, and is characterized by a peculiar subsoil
which makes irrigation from wells difficult. The head-quarters are at
Rajpura. PINJAUR VILLAGE is a place of some antiquity.

Pinjaur Tahsil. North-eastern tahsll of the Pinjaur nizdmat,
Patiala State, Punjab, lying between 30 41' and 31 n' N. and
76 50' and 77 22' E., with an area of 294 square miles. The
population in 1901 was 55,731, compared with 56,745 in 1891. The
tahsll contains 1,136 villages, of which PINJAUR is the head-quarters.
The land revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to Rs. 84,000.

148 PINJAUR VILLAGE

Pinjaur Village. Head-quarters of the Pinjaur nizamat and tahsil,
Patiala State, Punjab, situated in 30 48' N. and 76 59' E., 3 miles
from Kalka on the Simla road, at the confluence of the Koshallia and
Jhajhra, two tributaries of the Ghaggar. Population (1901), 812. The
name is a corruption of Panchapura, and the place is of considerable
antiquity, being mentioned by Abu Rihan in 1030. In 1254 it
formed part of the territory of Sirmur, which was ravaged by Nasir-ud-
dfn Mahmud, king of Delhi. It was the fief of Fidai Khan, foster-
brother of Aurangzeb, and the R t aja of Sirmur recovered it in 1675
from the son of its former holder, a Hindu. Fidai Khan laid out
the beautiful gardens, which still remain. Wrested from the Muham-
madans by a Hindu official who made himself master of Mani Majra,
it was taken by Patiala in 1769 after a desperate siege, in which the
attacking force, though reinforced from Hindur, Kahlur, and Sirmur,
suffered severely. There are extensive Hindu remains and fragments
of an ancient Sanskrit inscription in the village. Bourquin, Sindhia's
partisan leader, dismantled the fort about 1793. The village has
a dispensary and a police station, and is famous for its sacred tank,
Dharamandal or Dharachettra.

Pinlebu. South-western township of Katha District, Upper Burma,
lying between 23 40' and 24 22' N. and 95 6' and 95 48' E., on
either side of the Mu stream, with an area of 1,367 square miles. It
was, together with the rest of the State of Wuntho, annexed in 1891.
The population in 1901 was 29,321, distributed in 362 villages. The
head-quarters are at Pinlebu (population, 617), on the Mu, in the
centre of the township. The surveyed area under cultivation in
1903-4 was 35 square miles, and the land revenue and thathameda
amounted to Rs. 75,700.

Pipar. Town in the State of Jodhpur, Rajputana, situated in
26 23' N. and 73 33' E., on the left bank of the Jojri river (a tributary
of the Luni), about 32 miles east of Jodhpur city, and 7 miles south-
east of Pipar Road station on the Jodhpur-Bikaner Railway. Popu-
lation (1901), 6,785. The town is of some commercial importance,
and is noted for its dyed cloths. Tradition assigns the foundation of
Pipar either to a king of the Paramara Rajputs prior to the Christian
era, or to a Paliwal Brahman named Plpa.

Piplia. Thakurat in the MALWA AGENCY, Central India.

Piplianagar. Thaknrdt in the BHOPAL AGENCY, Central India.

Piploda. One of the mediatized chiefships of the Central India
Agency, in the Malwa Political Charge. It has an area of about
60 square miles.

The ancestors of the present chief were Doria Rajputs, who migrated
from Kathiawar, one Kaluji seizing the fort of Sabalgarh, 7 miles from
the present town of Piploda, in 1285. In 1547 Shardul Singh, sixth

PIRAM 149

in descent from Kaluji, greatly extended his possessions and founded
the town of Piploda. The estate was reduced to its present dimensions
by the inroads of the Marathas, the Thakur becoming subject to Amir
Khan. When independence was guaranteed to JAORA in 1818 by the
twelfth article of the Treaty of Mandasor, the question of the status of
Piploda arose. Through the mediation of Sir John Malcolm, the
Nawab of Jaora agreed in 1821 to allow the Thakur to hold his lands
on paying Rs. 28,000 a year as tribute, and surrendering half the
sdyar dues of the holding. In 1844 a fresh agreement was made,
without the cognizance of the Government of India, in which the
Thakur's position was more carefully defined. During the Mutiny
Thakur Shiv Singh furnished cavalry and men to the British authorities
at Mandasor. , The present chief, Thalcur Kesri Singh, succeeded in
1887, having been educated at the Daly College at Indore.

The estate has a population (1901) of 11,441, of whom Hindus
form 84 per cent. There are 28 villages in the thakurat^ the
revenue of five of which is assigned to Panth-Piploda (see MALWA
AGENCY). About 72 per cent, of the population speak the Malwi
dialect, and 90 per cent, are agriculturists, the principal caste supported
by it being the Kunbl.

The land is for the most part highly fertile, being chiefly black
cotton, producing excellent crops of all the ordinary grains and of
poppy. Of the total area, 33 square miles, or 55 per cent, are
under cultivation, 3 square miles of this being irrigable. About
30 square miles produce cereals, 3 poppy, and one cotton. There
are two metalled roads in the estate, one leading to Rankoda, the
other to Puniakherl.

The Thakur administers the estate with the assistance of a kdmdar,
and has limited judicial powers, all heinous cases being referred to the
Political Agent. The total revenue is Rs. 95,000, of which Rs. 90,000
is derived from the land. The Thakur receives small yearly tdnkas
(cash payments) from the States of Dewas (Rs. 253) and Jaora
(Rs. 1,000). Revenue from irrigated land is collected in cash, from
unirrigated in kind. The incidence of the revenue demand is
Rs. 3-3 per acre of cultivated area.

Piploda, the capital of the estate, is situated in 23 36' N. and
74 57' E., ii miles from Jaora, with which it is connected by
a metalled <road. Its population in 1901 was 3,282. A </#-bungalow,
a British post office, a hospital, a jail, and a school are situated in the
town. Seven miles away stands the old fort of Sabalgarh, the first
capital of the holding.

Piram (Perini). Island in Ahmadabad District, Bombay, situated
in 21 36' N. and 72 21' E., in the Gulf of Cambay, 4^ miles
south of Gogha, and 2\ from the nearest part of the Kathiawar shore.

150 FIR AM

Piram is a reef of rock covered in part by brown sand, its dimensions
at high water being one mile by about half a mile. It is included in
the estate of the Gogha Kasbatis^ to whom it was assigned by one of
the Delhi emperors. Except on the south, it is surrounded by rocky
reefs rising to the surface from a depth of from 60 to 70 feet. Past
the island the tide runs with extreme force. To avoid the chopping
sea and sunken reefs, boats crossing from Gogha to Piram stand out
as if making for Dehej Bara at the mouth of the Narbada, In the
east of the island millet is grown and the low sand-hills are covered by
asclepias. Beyond these are some mm trees (Melia Azadirachtd) and
a fringe of mangrove bushes. The island is uninhabited in the rains,
but contains a few families of husbandmen and fishermen in the fair
season. On the ruins of an old bastion there is a dioptric light of
the fourth order, visible for 17 miles.

Piram is the Baiones Island of the Periplus. Till the fourteenth
century it would seem to have remained in the hands of Bariya Kolis.
Then under their leader Mokharjl, the Gohel Rajputs, who about
a century and a half earlier had retired from Marwar to Gujarat,
passed south from Ranpur near Dhandhuka. and took Gogha and
Piram. Strengthening himself in his island fortress, Mokharjl became
a great pirate chief; but his power was short lived. About the year
1300 complaints of his piracies were laid before Muhammad bin
Tughlak, who was then in Gujarat quelling a revolt. Advancing in
person he attacked Piram, slew Mokharjl, and took his fort. The
island was then deserted, and an attempt to colonize and fortify it
failed. The Hindu seamen of the Gulf of Cambay still cherish
Mokharji's memory, seldom passing Piram without making him an
offering. Of his stronghold there remains, skirting the shore, a ruined
wall, with, below high-tide level, a gateway ornamented by two rock-
cut elephants 10 feet long and 8 or 9 feet high. No further attempt
would seem to have been made to fortify Piram, till, on the decay of
Mughal power, about the middle of the eighteenth century, the
ambitious Surat merchant Mulla Muhammad All built a fort on the
island and tried to establish himself as an independent chief. Afraid
of the climate his people forsook him, and the Mulla, giving up Piram,
built a fort at Athva on the Tapti, a few miles below Surat. The lines
of the Mulla's fortress, from whose ruins the lighthouse tower was
built, may be seen near the centre of the island stretching across its
entire breadth. Besides traces of fortifications there are remains of
temples, one of them with a rudely cut sitting figure of Buddha. The
local story that Mokharjl built a mole from the mainland to Piram
has, perhaps, no better foundation than the half-sunk wall and gate-
way and the reefs that, at low water, stand out like a giant's causeway.

Its large store of fossils gives a special interest to Piram. Besides

PIRIYAPATNA 151

masses of petrified wood, large quantities of animal remains were found
in 1836. Almost all were embedded in the rock in the south-east
corner of the island, where the sea washes bare the lower conglomerate.
The remains are the same as those of Upper Sind and of the Siwalik
Hills. Besides two titanic ruminants, apparently with no living types,
named the Bramatherium and the Sivatherium, there are species of
elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, horse, ox, antelope, several forms
of crocodile, fresh-water tortoises, and fishes of gigantic size.

PirEwa District. One of the Central India parganas of the State
of Tonk, Rajputana. It is for certain purposes included in the charge
of the Political Agent, Malwa. It has an area of 248 square miles,
and lies between 24 i' and 24 24' N. and 75 51' and 76 n' E.,
being bounded on the north by Indore, on the west by Indore and
Jhalawar, and on the south and east by Gwalior. A group of Indore
villages almost divides the northern from the southern half. The
country is undulating in character, the uplands being chiefly reserved
for grass, while the rich black soil in the valleys yields fine crops.
The population in 1901 was 25,286, compared with 40,806 in 1891.
There are 126 villages and one town, the head-quarters of the district.
The principal castes are Sondhias, Minas, Dangis, and Chamars,
forming respectively about 20, 14, 9, and 8 per cent, of the total.
Nothing is known of the history of the district prior to the time
of Akbar, when it formed part of the Kotrl-Pirawa sarkar of the
Sub ah of Malwa. It was included in the territory bestowed on Ratan
Singh of Ratlam by Shah Jahan, but when Maharajci Sawai Jai Singh
of Jaipur was Subahdar of Malwa it was transferred" to Baj! Rao
Peshwa. Subsequently, Holkar took possession; and in 1806 Jaswant
Rao Holkar made it over to Amir Khan, the grant being confirmed
by the British Government under the treaty of 1817, Of the total
area, 210 square miles, or 84 per cent., are khalsa^ paying revenue
direct to the Tonk Darbar, and the khaha area available for cultivation
is about 1 66 square miles. Of the latter, about 59 square miles, or
35 per cent., were cultivated in 1903-4, the irrigated area being nearly
6 square miles. Of the area cropped, joivdr occupied 58 per cent.,
cotton 9, maize 8, and poppy 6 per cent. The revenue from all
sources is about 1*4 lakhs, of which four-fifths is derived from the
land. The town of Pirawa is situated in 24 9' N. and 76 3' E.,
about 1 40* miles almost due south of Tonk city. Its population in
1901 was 4,771, Hindus forming nearly 50 per cent,, Musalmans 31,
and Jains about 19 per cent. The town, which, from the inscriptions
in its Jain temples, appears to date from the eleventh century, contains
a picturesque fort of no great age, a post and telegraph office, a small
jail, a vernacular school, and a dispensary for out-patients.

Piriyapatna. Town in the Hunsiir tahtk of Mysore District,

152 PIRIYAPATNA

Mysore, situated in 12 20' N. and 76 6' E., 13 miles from Hunsur.
Population (1901), 3,872. Its original name was Singapattana, but
the king who built the fort of stone and extended the place in the
sixteenth century named it after himself. It was in the possession
of the Changalva kings of Nanjarajpatna (in Coorg) till 1644, when
it was taken by Mysore. The Coorg Raja was confined here in the
time of Tipu Sultan, but the fort was dismantled by the British on
their advance against Seringapatam in 1791. The town is inhabited
chiefly by traders, who export cotton, tobacco, and other commodities
to Coorg, Cannanore, &c. A pack of hounds is maintained in the
neighbourhood, which is regularly hunted by planters from Coorg and
others. The municipality dates from 1898. The receipts and expen-
diture during the three years ending 1901 averaged Rs. 1,100 and
Rs. 900. In 1903-4 they were Rs. 2,100 and Rs. 1,700.

Pir Mangho. Hot springs in Karachi District, Sind, Bombay.
See MAC.AR TALAO.

Firmed. Hill station on the Firmed range of hills, forming the
southern portion of the Cardamom Hills, Travancore State, Madras,
situated in 9 33' N. and 76 59' E. Population (1901), 9,932. Its
general elevation is from 3,000 to 3,500 feet. Around it are thirty
tea estates owned by Europeans, containing about 8,000 acres under
crop. Roads connect the station with Changanacheri, Kottayam,
Trivandrum, and other important places on the west, and with Madura
District on the east. It is the head-quarters of the first-class magis-
trate and Assistant to the Superintendent and District Magistrate of
the Cardamom Hills, and contains postal and telegraph offices. Firmed
is supposed to be an abridgement of Plr-medu (' Fir's hill '), and to
have been so called because a Musalman saint named Fir Muhammad
once lived here in seclusion.

Pirojpur Subdivision. Western subdivision of Backergunge Dis-
trict, Eastern Bengal and Assam, lying between 22 i' and 22 54' N.
and 89 52' and 90 14' E., with an area of 692 square miles. The
population in 1901 was 553,494, compared with 519,603 in 1891.
It contains one town, PIROJPUR (population, 14,119), the head-quarters,
and i, 066 villages, and supports 800 persons per square mile, the
density being greatest in the north and centre. In the extreme north
it is covered with great swamps like the adjoining parts of Farldpur
District, while in the south in the Matbari thana, where the density
is only 480 persons per square mile, it merges in the SUNDARBANS.

Pirojpur Town. Head-quarters of the subdivision of the same
name in Backergunge District, Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated
in 22 35' N. and 89 $9' E., on the Baleswar river. Population
(1901), 14,119. Pirojpur was constituted a municipality in 1885. The
income during the decade ending 1901-2 averaged Rs. 6,300, and

PITIIAPURAM ESTATE 153

the expenditure Rs. 6,200. In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 9,000,
of which Rs. 5,000 was derived from a property tax ; and the expen-
diture was Rs. 8,000.

Pirpainti. Village in the head-quarters subdivision of Bhagalpur
District, Bengal, situated in 25 i8 / N. and 87 2$' E., on the East
Indian Railway. Population (1901), 2,741. There is a considerable
export of country produce. Stone is quarried in the neighbourhood.

Pishm. Subdivision and tahsil covering the centre of the Quetta-
Pishin District, Baluchistan, lying between 30 i' and 31 12' N. and
66 21' and 67 48' E. It consists of the southern slopes of the Toba
hills and the basin of the Pishm Lora, the latter being a plain lying
about 5,000 feet above sea-level. The area of the tahsil is 2,717
square miles; its population in 1901 was 51,753, showing an increase
of 14,573 since 1891. Pishm, the head-quarters, which has sprung
up since the British occupation, is 6 miles from Yarn Karez rail*
way station. The villages number 271, and the land revenue in
1903-4 amounted to Rs. 80,700. Large revenue free grants, a relic
of Afghan rule, are held chiefly by Saiyids. The tahsil contains two
irrigation works, the Shebo canal and the Khushclil Khan reservoir.

Pishm Lora 1 . River in Baluchistan, having its source in the
western slopes of the Kand mountain of the Toba-Kakar range and
terminating in the Hamun-i-Lora. Its total length is about 250 miles.
The principal affluents meet near Shadizai in Pishln. In addition
to the Barshor Lora or main stream, they consist of the Krikar Lora,
the Surkhab, and the Shorarud. Below the confluence of the upper
tributaries the bed is 200 yards wide, and lies between scarped banks
about 20 feet high. The running stream, however, is usually not more
than a few yards wide and quite shallow. On entering the hills west
of Shorarad the course becomes deep and narrow, until it debouches
into the Shorawak plain (30 22' N., 66 22' E.). Here it becomes
dissipated into several channels which find their way through Nushki.
The area drained includes the west of the Sarawan country, Quetta-
Pishm, and Nushki in Baluchistan, besides Shorawak in Afghanistan.
For purposes of irrigation, water is taken off wherever it can be made
available. The Shebo canal and the Khushdil Khan reservoir in
Pishln are dependent on it for their supply; and in 1903 an embank-
ment for irrigation was constructed in the north of the Nushki tahsil
across the $ur channel.

Pithapuram Estate. A permanently settled zamlnddri estate in
Godavari District, Madras, with an area of 383 square miles, of which
the greater part lies in the zamlnddri tahsil of Pithapuram and the
Cocanada taluk. The estate contains 168 towns and villages, and has

1 Lora is a Pashtii word signifying a channel cairying flood-water, as distinguished
from nld, a perennial stream.

154 PITHAPURAM ESTATE

a population (1901) of 280,317. The total demand on account of land
revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to 4 lakhs.

After the subjugation of the present Godavari District by the
Sultan of Golconda (circa 1572), the parganas of Selapaka, Cocanada,
and Prolunadu (as the country round Pithapuram was then called)
were constituted a revenue farm. These parganas were the nucleus
of the existing Pithapuram estate. In 1647 tnev were transferred,
apparently because the holder had fallen into arrears, to Ravu
Chandra Rayanam, a court favourite. This Rayanam was of the
Velama caste, and from him the family still holding the estate traces
its descent. As a special mark of favour he was allowed to repair
and occupy the fort at Pithapuram, which henceforward became the
residence of the family.

For the next few years the history of the estate was uneventful ; but,
like its neighbours, Pithapuram took advantage of the struggle for
power in the Deccan to withhold the peshkash, or tribute. It shared
their fate when Asaf Jah, Nizam-ul-mulk, proved victorious (1724);
and under the stern rule of his Sarlashkar, Rustam Khan, the recal-
citrant zamlnddrs were ousted and their estates brought under direct
management. After Rustam Khan's death his successors for some
time pursued the same policy, but about 1742 the estates were
restored to the families of the former owners.

Pithapuram took little part in the conflict between the French and
the English. Some acts of hostility in conjunction with the neigh-
bouring zaniindar of Peddapuram led, however, to the seizure and
occupation of Samalkot fort by the Company's troops in 1764. Other-
wise the estate emerged intact from this troubled period, and in 1787
was described as one of the most fruitful and best cultivated zamln-
daris under the Company. The zaniindar collected the land customs,
and also claimed the sole right of manufacturing and vending salt in
the Rajahmundry sdrkar. The military force maintained was small
and merely sufficed for the collection of the revenue, which was paid
almost entirely in cash an unusual circumstance.

In 1802 the estate was permanently settled, when the revenue was
estimated at about 4 lakhs and a peshkash of 2-6 lakhs was imposed.
Up to 1827 considerable additions were made. In that year, owing
to the minority of the holder, it came under the Court of Wards and,
in common with similar estates in Godavari District, passed through
a period of depression. In 1844 it was heavily in arrears. To
restore the financial position most of the recently acquired portions
were relinquished, and the ancient zamwdari was handed over free
of encumbrances to the proprietor. The estate is now again under
the management of the Court of Wards, owing to the minority of the
present holder.

PITHAPURAM TOWN 155

The zamlnddri is very fertile. Much of it is watered by the Go-
davari irrigation system, while the remainder is supplied by the small
river Yeleru or by tanks. An engineering establishment is maintained
to supervise the estate works in connexion with the Yeleru irrigation,
which are numerous. The chief crops, as elsewhere in the District, are
rice, other cereals, and oilseeds. Until quite recently the prevailing
system of land tenure was the vantu varadi. Under this, each village
was assessed for a term of years in a lump sum. The amount to be
levied from each holding was then settled by a committee of the ryots
themselves. Any person dissatisfied with the assessment imposed on
his holding had the right to challenge the owner of a similar holding
which he considered under-assessed. The latter had then to submit
to an enhancement of his assessment, in which case the challenger
received a corresponding diminution, or to exchange holdings. This
system, owing to its manifold disadvantages, has now been generally
abandoned, and in most cases the highest rent offered is assumed to
be the proper rent of a holding, the leases being sold by auction.
A field survey, to be followed by a regular settlement, is in progress,
and the revenue system will probably in course of time be assimilated
to that in Government land. The average rates paid for * wet ' and
'dry' land are Rs. 7-0-2 and Rs. 3-15 per acre respectively. The
total income of the estate is roj- lakhs, of which the land revenue
brings in 9^ lakhs.

Among the places of importance within the zamlnddri are the
towns of COCANADA, the District head-quarters, SAMALKOT, and
PITHAPURAM. CORINGA, which also belongs to it, was once a well-
known port, but its trade has now altogether disappeared.

Pithapuram Tahsil. Zamlnddri tahsll in Godavari District,
Madras, lying between 17 3' and 17 19' N. and 82 10' and
82 32' E., with an area of 191 square miles. The population in
1901 was 84,089, compared with 83,824 in 1891. It contains one
town, PITHAPURAM (population, 13,220), the head-quarters; and
48 villages. The demand on account of land revenue and cesses
in 1903-4 amounted to Rs. 2,90,000. The tahsll lies on the coast
to the north of the delta of the Godavari, and receives a low rainfall.
It would be an infertile area were it not for the excellent irrigation
from the Yeleru river.

Pithaptfiram Town. Head-quarters of the zamlnddri tahsll of
the same name in Godavari District, Madras, situated in 17 7' N,
and 82 15' E., 10 miles from Cocanada by road and 398 miles from
Madras by rail. Population (1901), 13,220. The weekly cattle market
is an important institution, and there is a small local industry in the
manufacture of bell-metal ware. Pithapurarn with its hamlets consti-
tutes a Union, and the town contains the residence of the zaminddrs

VOL. xx. L

156 PITHAPURAM TOWN

of the estate of the same name. The principal temple has some
inscriptions of importance ; and in front of it is a pond called Pada
Gaya, to which Pithapuram owes its reputation as a place of pil-
grimage.

Pithoro. Recently formed taluka of Thar and Parkar District,
Sind, Bombay, lying between 25 and 25 35' N. and 69 15' and
69 40' E., with an area of 481 square miles. The population (1901)
was about 37,713, and the taluka contains 128 villages, Samaro being
the head-quarters. The land revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to
more than 2 lakhs. The Jodhpur-Bikaner Railway traverses the taluka,
which is irrigated by the Mithrao, Jamrao, and Hiral Canals. The
chief crops are rice and cotton.

Plassey (from palas^ the Butea frondosa). Village in the head-
quarters subdivision of Nadia District, Bengal, situated in 23 47' N.
and 88 16' E., on the left bank of the Bhaglrathi river. It is famous
as the scene of Clive's victory over Siraj-ud-daula, Nawab of Bengal,
on June 23, 1757. After the capture of Calcutta by Siraj-ud-daula in
June, 1756, Clive was dispatched with reinforcements from Madras to
re-establish the British factories in Bengal, and he recaptured Calcutta
in January, 1757. After prolonged negotiations he succeeded in gain-
ing over Mir Jafar, the Nawab's general, whom he promised to install
as Nawab in place of Siraj-ud-daula. In March Chandernagore was
taken from the French, and on June 13 a fresh advance was made;
Katwa was captured on the i8th, and on the 2 2nd the troops marched
to Plassey, where Siraj-ud-daula was encamped with an army of 50,000
foot, 18,000 horse, and 50 pieces of cannon, mostly 24-pounders and
32-pounders drawn by bullocks. To oppose this army Clive had a
force of 900 Europeans, of whom 100 were artillerymen and 50 sailors,
100 topasses or Portuguese half-castes, and 2,100 sepoys; the artillery
consisted of 8 six-pounders and 2 howitzers. Clive encamped in a
mango grove, which has since been washed away by the Bhaglrathi,
and the enemy were entrenched on the river bank to the north of him.
At daybreak on the 23rd the enemy advanced to the attack, enveloping
his right, Mir Jafar being on the extreme left of the line. Both sides
maintained a vigorous cannonade until 2 o'clock, when Siraj-ud-daula
drew off and returned to his entrenchments. At this, Mir Jafar
lingered behind on the left and eventually joined the British. Clive
advanced and cannonaded the Nawab's entrenchment, and entered his
camp at 5 o'clock after a slight resistance, Siraj-ud-daula having already
fled to Murshidabad. This decisive victory was won with only a small
loss, but it made the British masters of Bengal. A monument marks
the scene of the battle-field.

Pochamcherla. Taluk in Nalgonda District, Hyderabad State.
It was formed in 1905 from the Kodar svb-tdluk of Warangal Dis.

POINI 157

trict, and 15 and 35 villages taken from the Suriapet and Mirialguda
taluks of this District. Pochamcherla (population, 1,899) ' s tne head-
quarters, and the taluk consists of roo khdlsa villages, its land revenue
being 2*77 lakhs. Rice is extensively cultivated by tank-irrigation.

Podanur. Village in the District and taluk of Coimbatore,
Madras, situated in 10 58' N. and 77 o' E., 4 miles from Coim-
batore city. Population (1901), 6,568. It is the junction of the
Nllgiri branch of the Madras Railway with the main line, and the
site of considerable railway workshops. It enjoys a cool and healthy
climate. A sugar manufactory has recently been opened.

Podili Tahsil. Zaminddri tahsll in the north-west of Nellore
District, Madras, lying between 15 23' and 15 45' N. and 79 12' and
79 49' E., with an area of 564 square miles. The population in 1901
was 58,937, compared with 68,400 in 1891. It contains in villages,
of which Podili is the head-quarters. The tahsll is a part of the
VENKATAGIRI ESTATE. There is a temple on the Velikonda hills near
Garladinne, where a largely attended festival is held annually. These
hills run through the west of the tahslL Of Other scattered eleva-
tions, the most conspicuous is a fine range some miles south of Podili
village. Two rivers, the Musi and Gundlakamma, run through the
tahsll and empty themselves into the Bay of Bengal.

Poicha. Petty State in REWA KANTHA, Bombay.

Poila (or Pwela ; Burmese, Pwehld). State in the Myelat division
of the Southern Shan States, Burma, lying between 20 43' and 20 55' N.
and 96 38' and 96 46' E., with an area of 102 square miles. It is
bounded on the north by Pangtara ; on the south by Hsamonghkam ;
on the east by Mawson and Yawnghwe ; and on the west by Kyong
and Kyawkku. Two circles are detached and border on the Meiktila
District of Upper Burma. The State consists of open rolling downs ;
there are no perennial streams, and the country is dry. The population
in 1901 was 7,866 (distributed in 62 villages), about half of whom were
Taungyos. The greater part of the remainder is made up of Danus
and a few Taungthus. The residence of the Myoza is Poila (population,
1,247), a village near the centre of the State boasting a large bazar.
The revenue in 1904-5 amounted to Rs. 8,100, and the tribute to the
British Government is Rs. 4,500.

Poini. River of North Arcot District, Madras, which rises in the
hills of tte Chandragiri taluk in 13 34' N. and 79 6' E. It flows
almost due south, and after receiving the waters of numerous smaller
streams finally joins the Palar not far from Arcot, after a course of
about 45 miles. Its waters are largely used for irrigation, and it is
crossed by a dam, 792 feet in length from wing to wing, which was
built in 1853. The dam was much damaged in 1874 by the same
flood which breached the Palar dam, and was subsequently recon-

L 2

158 POINI

strutted. During the south-west monsoon the Poini has a more
regular supply of water than the Palar. The area commanded by
the dam is 26,500 acres, of which 22,000 acres were irrigated in
1903-4. The supply might be further increased during the north-
east* monsoon if the storage capacity of the reservoirs which are fed
by it were enlarged ; but during the south-west monsoon all the surplus
water running over this dam has to be sent down to the Palar barrage,
where the supply is often deficient.

Point Calimere. Headland in Tanjore District, Madras. See
CALIMKRE, POINT.

Point Divi. Headland in Kistna District, Madras. See DIVI,
POINT.

Point, False. Headland and lighthouse in Cuttack District,
Bengal. See FALSE POINT.

Pokaran. Head-quarters of a jagir estate of the same name in
the Sankra district of the State of Jodhpur, Rajputana, situated
in 26 55 X N. and 71 55' E., about 85 miles north-west of Jodhpur
city. Population (1901), 7,125. It has a post office, a vernacular
school, and a dispensary. The town is on low ground closed in by
hills to the north, south, and west, and water is plentiful. The small
fort is well built and strong in appearance, but is commanded by
the adjacent hills. About 2 miles away are the ruins of Satalmer,
a village founded by Satal, the eldest son of Rao Jodha, about the end
of the fifteenth century, but dismantled by Rao Maldeo (1532-69) to
find material for the Pokaran fort. The site of Satalmer is still marked
by a conspicuous Jain temple and the monuments raised to the memory
of the deceased members of the Thakur's family. Close to the town
of Pokaran is a salt marsh about 4 miles in length and 2 in breadth,
where salt was formerly manufactured. The estate of Pokaran consists
of 100 villages, yielding a revenue of about a lakh. The Thakurs of
Pokaran are the head of the Champawat sept of the Rcathors, and are
descended from Champa, a brother of Rao Jodha. They enjoy the
privilege of attesting all grants of land or villages made by the Darbar,
and are entitled to a seat just behind the Maharaja of Jodhpur on an
elephant, from which, on state occasions, they flourish the morchal^ or
peacock feather fly- whisk, over their chiefs head. The present Thakur
of Pokaran (Mangal Singh), besides being the pradhan or premier
noble, is a member of the council and a Rao Bahadur. *

Pol. Petty State in MAHI KANTHA, Bombay.

Polavaram Subdivision. Subdivision of Godavari District,
Madras, consisting of the minor taluks of POLAVARAM, CHODAVARAM,
and YELLAVARAM.

Polavaram T^luk. Minor taluk in the Agency tract of Godavari
District, Madras, lying between 17 7' and 17 28' N. and 81 5' and

POLLACHI TOWN 159

81 37' E., with an area of 564 square miles. The population in 1901
was 58,274. It contains 292 villages, Polavaram being the head-
quarters. The demand for land revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted
to Rs. 64,000. The taluk is situated on the right bank of the Go-
davari river. At the point where the river enters stands BISON HILL,
which belongs to the Papikonda range, running the whole length of the
taluk. There are extensive forests in Polavaram, the Government
Reserves extending over 112 square miles. About 20 per cent, of
the inhabitants belong to the hill tribe of Koyis. The picturesque
island of Pattisima, a little below Polavaram village, is the scene of
a large yearly festival ; and another festival is held at Taduvayi in the
interior.

Pollachi .Subdivision. Subdivision of Coimbatore District,
Madras, consisting of the taluks of POLLACHI, PALLADAM, and
UDAMALPET.

Pollachi Taluk. South-west taluk of Coimbatore District, Madras,
lying between 10 15' and 10 55' N. and 76 49' and 77 16' E., with
an area of 710 square miles. The population increased from 183,669
in 1891 to 195,608 in 1901. It contains one town, POLLACHI (popu-
lation, 8,958), the head-quarters; and 158 villages. The demand for
land revenue and cesses in 1903-4 was Rs. 3,04,000. The north of
the taluk consists of an undulating plain, but the southern portion
is covered by the great Anaimalai Hills and their dense forests. The
former faces the Palghat Gap in the Western Ghats, and consequently
receives some of the south-west monsoon which is prevented by this
range from reaching the east of the District, and so has an early
cultivation season. The taluk contains less irrigated land than any
other except Kollegal, but its ' dry ' land is usually good and includes
some black loam on the extreme east. Nearly half the small extent of
zamlnddri land in the District lies in this taluk.

Pollachi Town. Head-quarters of the tahik of the same name in
the south-west corner of Coimbatore District, Madras, situated in
10 39' N. and 77 i' E. Population (1901), 8,958. Standing on the
highway from the east to the west coast, it must always have been
an important market town. Evidence of its early importance was dis-
covered in 1800, in a hoard of silver coins of the emperors Augustus
and Tiberius. It has, however, no industry except agriculture. The
divisional Officer is stationed here. The hospital at Pollachi has
accommodation for 36 in-patients and a maternity ward. It was
founded in 1858, the building being erected by private subscrip-
tion, and has an endowment of Rs. 17,700. In the vicinity of the
village are a number of interesting dolmens and rude stone circles,
which are termed by the people ' graves of the dead/ Several of them
have been opened, and have been found to be arranged in circles

160 POLL AC HI TOWN

of diameters ranging from 10 to 45 feet, and to contain fragments
of human skulls and bones, and occasionally broken pieces of earthen-
ware and a few implements and ornaments. These objects were
usually met with at a depth of from 5 to 7 feet below the surface.
Three bronze images of male and female figures were found ; and
that these are of non-Aryan origin is to be inferred from the position
of the woman, who is seated at the right side of her husband, instead
of the left side as in all Brahmanical rites.

Polur Tahsil (or Sulurpet). Zamlnddri tahsll in the southern
corner of Nellore District, Madras, lying between 13 30' and 13 59' N.
and 79 51' and 80 9' E., and bounded on the east by the Bay of
Bengal. Its area is 355 square miles, and the population in 1901
was 74,512, compared with 69,^93 in 1891. It contains 139 villages,
the head-quarters being Sulurpet. There is only one river of im-
portance, the Swarnamukhi, which supplies some of the tanks. The
soil is generally sandy or gravelly, and the principal crop is rice,
though rdgi and cambu are also grown. Irrigation is mostly from
rain-fed tanks.

Polur Taluk. Southern taluk of North Arcot District, Madras,
lying between 12 20' and 12 4$' N. and 78 51' and 79 22' E.
Area, 596 square miles; population in 1901, 155,673, compared with
I 397 I i n 1891. The taluk contains 170 villages and one town,
POLUR (population, 9,206), the head-quarters. The demand for land
revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to Rs, 3,02,000. The taluk
is essentially a mountainous area, a large part of it being occupied by
the JAVADI HILLS. The forests have great potential value, and yield
a considerable amount of timber and other produce.

Polur Town. Head-quarters of the taluk of the same name in
North Arcot District, Madras, situated in 12 31' N. and 79 7' E.
Population (1901), 9,206. It stands about 2 miles from the northern
bank of the Cheyyar, and east of some hills. Between these is built
the embankment of the Polur reservoir, which is fed by the waters of
the Manjalar. The Sampatgiri hill near by is topped by a holy temple,
and there is another shrine in the town. A small ruined fort, without
any history, stands not far off. The town is poorly built, with narrow
and ill-arranged streets, but has a brisk trade in grain.

Ponabalia Shamr ail. Village in the head-quarters subdivision
of Backergunge District, Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated on the
bank of the Sundha or Shugandha, 5 miles from Jhalakati. Population
(1901), 498. Ram Bhadra Rai, zamindar of Ponabalia, is said to have
defeated the Maratha army here in 1 748. The village contains a temple
of Siva, which is one of the fifty-one places of Hindu pilgrimage,
scattered over India, where tradition relates that a limb or some por-
tion of the body of the goddess Sat! fell, while her husband Siva was

PONDICHERRY 161

perambulating the whole earth with her corpse on his shoulders. The
nose of the goddess is said to have fallen at this place.

Ponani. Taluk and town in Malabar District, Madras, See

PONNANI.

Pondicherry (Puducheri, Pulcheri). The chief of the French
Settlements in India, the capital of which, a town of the same name,
is the head-quarters of their Governor. The town is situated on the
Coromandel coast in 11 56' N. and 79 49' E., about 12 miles north of
Cuddalore. It lies on the road leading from Madras to Cuddalore, and
is the terminus of the Villupuram-Pondicherry branch of the South
Indian Railway. The distance from Madras to Pondicherry is 122 miles
by rail and 105 by road. The area of the Settlement is 115 square
miles, and its population in 1901 numbered 174,456. It consists of
the four communes of Pondicherry, Oulgaret, Villenour, and Bahur.
The population of the town of Pondicherry in the same year was
27,448, of whom 12,904 were males and 14,544 females. Hindus
numbered 14,544 and Christians 7,247, most of the latter being
Roman Catholics. The history of the place is given in the article on
the FRENCH POSSESSIONS. The Settlement was founded in 1674 under
Francois Martin. In 1693 it was captured by the Dutch, but was
restored in 1699. I fc was besieged four times by the English. The first
siege under Admiral Boscawen in 1 748 was unsuccessful. The second,
under Eyre Coote in 1761, resulted in the capture of the place, which
was restored in 1765. It was again besieged and captured in 1778
by Sir Hector Munro, and the fortifications were demolished in 1779.
The place was again restored in 1785 under the Treaty of Versailles of
1783. It was captured a fourth time by Colonel Braithwaite in 1793,
and finally restored in 1816.

The Settlement comprises a number of isolated pieces of territory
which are cut off from the main part and surrounded by the British
District of South Arcot, except where they border on the sea. This fact
occasions considerable difficulty in questions connected with crime, land
customs, and excise. The Collector of South Arcot is empowered to
deal with ordinary correspondence with the French authorities on these
and kindred matters, and in this capacity is styled the Special Agent,
At Pondicherry itself is a British Consular Agent accredited to the
French Government, who is usually an officer of the Indian Army. The
town is compact, neat, and clean, and is divided by a canal into two
parts, the Ville blanche and the Ville noire. The Ville blanche has
a European appearance, the streets being laid at right angles to one
another, with trees along their margins reminding the visitor of conti-
nental boulevards, and the houses being constructed with courtyards
and embellished with green Venetians. All the cross streets lead down
to the shore, where a wide promenade facing the sea is again different

162

from anything of its kind in British India. In the middle is a
screw-pile pier which serves, when ships touch at the port, as a point
for the landing of cargo and, on holidays, as a general promenade for
the population. There is no real harbour at Pondicherry ; ships lie at
a distance of about a mile from the shore, and communication with
them is conducted by the usual masula boats of this coast. Facing the
shore end of the pier is a statue of the great Dupleix, to whom the place
and the French name owed so much. It is surrounded by a group of
carved stone columns which are said to have been brought from the
ruins of the celebrated fort of GINGEE. Behind is the Place Dupleix
(or Place de la Republique) with a band-stand ; and west again of this
the Place du Gouvernement, a wide extent of grass with a fountain in
the middle of it, round which stand the chief buildings of the town,
including Government House, the Hotel de Ville, the High Court, and
the barracks. Other erections in the town are the Secretariat, the
Cathedral of Notre Dame des Anges, the college of the Missions
trangeres, the Calve college, two clock-towers, a lighthouse, the
hospital, and the jail. The town alsq contains a public library of
about 16,000 volumes, and public gardens with a small collection of
wild animals and birds.

Pondicherry was made a municipality in 1880, with a mayor and
a council of eighteen members. The receipts and expenditure of this
body during the ten years ending 1902 averaged Rs. 47,000. There
is no drainage system ; but the water-supply is excellent, being derived
from a series of artesian wells, which are one of the features of the
place. Until they were discovered, about the middle of last century, the
only source of supply was from ordinary wells sunk within the town.
The best of the present artesian sources is at Mudrapalaiyam, from
which pipes have been taken to reservoirs in the market and the Place
du Gouvernement. The roads of the town are kept in excellent order.
The ordinary means of locomotion is the well-known * push-push, 'which
is pushed and pulled by two men. The chief educational institutions are
a college belonging to the Missions trangeres, which teaches up to the
B.A. standard in French, and the Calve college, a non-denominational
institution in which both Europeans and natives receive instruction up
to the Matriculation. The latter is affiliated to the Madras University.
The industries of Pondicherry consist chiefly of weaving. The Patnul-
karans, a Gujarati caste of weavers, make a kind of zephyr fabric which
is much used locally and is also exported largely to Singapore. Cotton
stuffs are also woven by machinery in the Rodier, Savana, and Gaebele
mills. A new industry is the manufacture of cocotine, a substitute for
ghl) at the Sainte Elisabeth factory. The total value of the imports by
sea in 1904 was 179,000, and of the exports 1,102,000, of which
27,000 and 435,000 respectively were brought from and sent to

PONNAIYAR 163

France or French colonies. The principal imports are wines and spirits
and areca-nuts, but the total is made up of a number of items of which
none is individually important. The exports mainly consist of ground-
nut kernels and oil ; but cotton fabrics, coco-nut oil, and rice are also
items of importance. The boats of the Messageries Maritimes Company
call regularly at the port.

Ponmudi. A picturesque hill in the north-east of the Nedumangad
taluk of Travancore State, Madras, situated in 8 44' N. and 77 10' E., at
the head of the basin of the Vamanapuram river. It is about 3,000 feet
high and contains a sanitarium which is largely visited. Tea is exten-
sively grown in the neighbourhood, and a company called the Ponmudi
Tea Company has been formed. .

Ponnagyun. Central township of Akyab District, Lower Burma,
lying between 20 n' and 21 N. and 92 48' and 93 6' E., with an
area of 704 square miles. The township is long and narrow, and com-
prises a considerable portion of the country lying between the Kaladan
and Mayu rivers. In the south, where it borders on the Akyab town-
ship, it is a network of tidal creeks ; in the north it is hilly. The popu-
lation increased from 44,700 in 1891 to 49,555 ^ n 1 9 QI - It contains
290 villages, and the head-quarters are at Ponnagyun (population, 565),
among the southern creeks. The area cultivated in 1903-4 was
106 square miles, paying Rs. 1,62,000 land revenue.

Ponnaiyar (or Ponniar; the Dakshlna Pinakini or Southern
Pennar). River of Southern India, which rises on Channarayan-
betta, north-east of Nandidroog in the Kolar District of Mysore, and,
runs through the east of Bangalore District, forming the large Jangam-
kote and Hoskote tanks. Leaving Mysore to the east of Sarjapur, it
flows south-east through the Salem District of Madras (where it is
crossed by the Madras Railway), and, some distance north of Dhar-
mapuri, turns east to South Arcot District, and falls into the sea to the
north of Cuddalore. Its length in Mysore is about 50 miles, where
about 86 per cent, of its water is stored for agricultural purposes. It
flows through the Madras Presidency for about 200 miles, and the area
of its drainage basin is 6,200 square miles. The river is bridged near
Cuddalore, and also at the point (near Panruti) where it is crossed by
the South Indian Railway. Its only considerable tributary is the
Pambar, which joins it on the left bank in Salem District. In South
Arcot the Ponnaiyar runs in a wide sandy bed between low banks. At
one time it seems to have flowed down the Malattar (' barren river '),
which is now merely a small branch into which it occasionally spills, at
high floods ; for ancient Tamil works speak of Tiruvennanallur, which
is now on the southern bank of the Malattar, as lying on the southern
edge of the Ponnaiyar. The river is very liable to sudden high freshes,
and serious floods occurred in 1874, 1884, and 1898, those of 1884

164 PONNAIYAR

being the worst. The Ponnaiyar and the neighbouring Gadilam river
overflowed and joined, and for twenty-four hours their combined waters
rushed through Cuddalore New Town to the sea. Thirteen arches of
the bridge over the Ponnaiyar were swept away and much other
damage was done.

The river is not at present utilized for irrigation on any consider-
able scale until near the end of its course. The dam near Tiruk-
koyilur in South Arcot waters about 24,000 acres, from which the
total revenue is Rs. 93,000. Of this, about Rs. 11,000 is due to the
improvements made, representing an interest of over 4 per cent, on
the capital outlay. The construction of a dam higher up the river,
to supply a large area in two of the upland taluks of the same Dis-
trict, has been suggested.

Like other large rivers, the Ponnaiyar is sacred. It is deemed
especially so in the first five days of the Tamil month of Tai, when
the Ganges is said to flow into it by underground ways. Festivals
are then celebrated at many of the important villages along its
banks.

Ponnani Taluk. Southernmost coast taluk of Malabar District,
Madras, lying between 10 15' and 11 3' N. and 75 52' and 76 13" E.,
with an area of 426 square miles. It contains 73 amsams, or parishes.
The population increased from 449,290 in 1891 to 478,376 in 1901,
giving a density of 1,123 persons per square mile. It is the most
populous taluk in the District, and the density is greater than in any
other in the Presidency. The land revenue demand in 1903-4
amounted to Rs. 5,19,000. The head-quarters are at the seaport of
PONNANI (population, 10,562), situated at the mouth of the river of
the same name. In comparison with the other taluks of the District,
Ponnani is flat and uninteresting, especially along the coast. Inland,
however, are some small ranges of low hills, clothed with scrub or
rough grass ; and between these, as usual in Malabar, wind green rice-
fields fringed with groves of trees.

Ponnani Town. Head-quarters of the taluk of the same name
in Malabar District, Madras, situated in 10 48' N. and 75 56' E.,
at the mouth of the Ponnani river. Population (1901), 10,562, mostly
Mappillas. It is a busy port 1 , at which in 1903-4 the imports were
valued at 8 lakhs and the exports at 6 lakhs. Kerosene oil and salt are
the chief imports, and coco-nuts, coir, and copra the chief exports. The
Ponnani Tangal, or Mappilla priest, is the chief of his sect, and the
town is the centre of Muhammadan education on the coast, possessing
a religious college. There are 27 mosques, the principal of which, the

1 Some English ships, under Captain Bonner, visited Ponnani (Ponana) in 1619, and
unsuccessfully attempted to purchase pepper from the Zamorin, who was then residing
there (W. Foster, The English Factories in India, p. 71 \

POONA DISTRICT 165

Jamath Masjid, is supposed to have been built in 1510. Besides the
usual taluk offices, the town contains a District Munsif s court.

The Ponnani river, which is the longest in Malabar, rises in the
Anaimalais and flows through the Palghat Gap due west, with a total
course of about 150 miles. The bed of the stream, unlike that of
most of the Malabar rivers, is shallow and usually contains little water;
but during the rainy months it is navigable for a considerable distance
inland, and is used for floating down timber from the hills near Palghat.
At its mouth it is connected by backwater with Tirur station on the
north, and by canal with the Viyattil lake and the line of backwater
which extends to Trivandrum on the south.

Ponne. River in North Arcot District, Madras. See POINI.

Ponneri.-r-Northern taluk of Chingleput District, Madras, lying
between 13 n' and 13 34' N. and 80 2' and 80 21' E., on the
shore of the Bay of Bengal, with an area of 347 square miles. The
population in 1901 was 136,597, compared with 122,418 in 1891. It
contains the town of PULICAT (population, 5,448) and 240 villages
(including the head-quarters, Ponneri). The demand on account of
land revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to Rs. 2,70,000. The
Korttalaiyar and Araniya Nadi flow through the taluk> which is an
uninteresting tract of nearly level land sloping towards the sea. The
coast is fringed with a line of hillocks of blown sand, inside which
are a series of backwaters connecting Ennore with the Pulicat Lake.
The annual rainfall is 47 inches, or slightly more than the District
average.

Poodoocottah, Native State in Madras. See PUDUKKOTTAI.

Poona Agency, The. Political Charge, consisting of the State of
Bhor in the south-west of Poona District, Bombay. See BHOR.

Poona District (/Va). District in the Central Division of the
Bombay Presidency, lying between 17 54' and 19 24' N. and 73 19'
and 75 10' E., with an area of 5,349 square miles. It is bounded
on the north by the District of Ahmadnagar ; on the east by Ahmad-
nagar and Sholapur ; on the south by the Nira river, separating it from
Satara and the estate of the chief of Phaltan ; and on the west by
Kolaba. Two isolated blocks of the Bhor State, one in the west and
the other in the south, are included within the limits of Poona
District.

Toward^ the west the country is undulating and intersected by
numerous spurs of the Western Ghats, which break off in a south-
easterly direction, becoming lower as they pass .
eastwards, and in the end sinking to the general aspects
level of the plain. On the extreme western border
the land is so rugged and cut up by valleys and ravines that on the
slopes and sides of the hills a system of spade tillage takes the place

1 66 POONA DISTRICT

of ordinary cultivation by ploughs and bullocks. Along the western
border of the District the Western Ghats form a barrier inaccessible,
except by a few difficult passes or ghats. Of these, the Borghat,
traversed by both a road and a railway, is the only line fitted for
wheeled vehicles. The ridges, which form the main line of the moun-
tains, have the flat tops and steep sides common to basaltic hills.
Within the limits of the District not a few of the hills have had their
sides hewn into rock temples, or their summits crowned with fortresses.
Many streams rise in the Western Ghats, and flow eastwards, until they
join the BHIMA river, which passes through the District from north-
west to south-east. The main tributaries are, on the left the Vel
and Ghod, and on the right the Bhama, Indrayani, Mula, and
Nlra. The water of the rivers is good for all purposes, and all of
them are sources of supply to the many villages along their banks.
Poona is well supplied with water from six artificial lakes, of which
the chief is the Kharakvasla lake, 10 miles south-west of Poona city,
with an area of 5-3 square miles.

Almost the whole rock of Poona is stratified trap. In many parts
of the hilly portion of the District the hill-tops are crowned with
collars of trap resembling the walls of a fortress. Beds of basalt and
amygdaloid alternate, their upper and lower planes being strikingly
parallel with each other and apparently with the horizon.

Poona District, lying as it does partly on the Western Ghats, pos-
sesses a varied flora, of the Konkan or Ghats type on the west, pass-
ing into the Deccan type in the east. The chief plants of the Konkan
type are Clematis hedysarifolia, Dillenia pentagyna, Bocagea Dalzellii,
Cocculus macrocarpus, Capparis Moonii^ Garcinia indica, Thespesia
Lampas, Kydia calycina^ Sterculia colorata, Erinocarpus Nimmoanus,
Linum mysorense, Impatient, Ileynea trijuga, Gymnosporia Rothiana,
Smithia, Desmodium^ Mucuna, Careya, Casearia, and Begonia. Of the
Deccan type the following are a few familiar examples : Clematis
triloba, Fumaria, Capparis, Flacourtia, Abutilon muticum, Triumfetta
rhomboidea, Tribulus terrestris, Ailanthus excelsa, Balanites Roxburghii,
Boswellia serrata, Heylandia lattbrosa, Taverniera Nummularia, Dichro-
stachys cinerea, Mimosa hamata, Acacia arabica, Anagallis arvensis, and
Caralluma fimbriata. The commonest road-side trees are the plpal
(Ficus religiosa\ vada (Incus bengalensis), nandruk (Fiats retusd),
pipri (Ficus Tsield), umbar (Ficus glomerata\ karanj, tamarirtd, mango,
jdmbul (Eugenia Jamboland), and babul. Oranges, limes, grapes, figs,
plantains, and guavas are grown and are of good quality.

The spread of tillage and the increase of population have greatly
reduced the number of wild animals. Tigers, leopards, and bears are
found only in the Western Ghats, and even there in small numbers.
The sdmbar and the spotted deer are rare, and bison is now unknown.

HISTORY 167

The wolf is found in small numbers over the whole District. Wild
hog abound in the babul groves on the banks of the Bhima and Ghod,
in the western hill forests, and, since the opening of the Mutha canal
(1873), in the neighbourhood of Poona. The antelope and the Indian
gazelle, and sometimes the hog deer, are found in the hills. The Dis-
trict is poorly supplied with game-birds. Except for quail, and on rare
occasions for duck and snipe, no large bags are made in the District.
Snakes are numerous but mostly harmless. The rivers and streams are
fairly stocked with fish, about thirty kinds being offered for sale in the
Poona market. During the rains, and still more towards their close,
when the waters of the streams dwindle into chains of pools, fish are
caught in nets and traps by the chief fishing classes, the Maratha
and Kol! Bhois.

The height of the Poona plateau (1,800 feet), its freedom from
alluvial deposits, and the prevalence of westerly breezes, make its dry,
invigorating air better suited to Europeans than any climate in Western
India. The air is lighter, the heat less oppressive, and the cold more
bracing than in almost any other District of the Presidency. November
to February form the Poona cold season, March to June the hot, and
June to October the wet. During the cold season cool land winds
prevail, with s,ea-breezes mostly after sundown. The hot winds, the
chief characteristic of the hot season, are over by the middle of May.
During the hot season the air is occasionally cooled by severe thunder-
storms, bringing heavy rain and occasionally hail. The temperature
falls to 48 in November and rises to 107 in May. The south-west
monsoon begins about the middle of June and lasts till the end of
September. The rainfall varies considerably in different parts of the
District. In the western parts of the Junnar, Khed, Haveli, and Maval
talukas it is heavy and regular ; in the central belt it is moderate ; and
in the Bhfmthadi and Indapur talukas on the east it is very irregular.
At Lonauli on the Ghats it averages over 185 inches annually. In
Poona city 32 is the average, while farther east it does not exceed
20 inches in places.

In prehistoric times Poona District is said to have formed part
of the Dandakdranya or Dandaka forest of the Ramayana, infested

by wild men. In very early times it was crossed by

, 1-111 i T r i i History,

important trade routes, which led to the Konkan by

such passes'* as the Borghat and the Nana pass. Ample evidence on
these points is to be found in the rock-cut inscriptions at Bhaja, Bedsa,
Karli, and the Nana pass. The history of the District commences
with that of the town of Junnar, 56 miles north-west of Poona, and
1 6 from the rock-cut steps which lead down the Ncina pass into the
Konkan. A century before Christ the town was ruled by an Andhra
king. In the succeeding two centuries Buddhism established itself

1 68 POONA DISTRICT

at Junnar, and the circle of hills round the town became honeycombed
with caves for the monks of this religion. At Bedsa an inscription
of this period furnishes one of the earliest known notices of the
Marathas. Until 1290 no further evidence is forthcoming regarding
the fortunes of the District ; but it seems probable that it passed
successively under the dominion of the early and Western Chalukyas
(550-760), the Rashtrakutas (760-973), the Western Chalukyas (973-
1184), and the Deogiri Yadavas. Under the latter, it was divided
between petty Maratha or Koli hill chiefs. With the fall of the
Deogiri Yadavas, Poona came under the dominion of Delhi, and
Muhammad bin Tughlak marched against Kondana, the present Sinh-
garh forf, in 1340. The Bahmani dynasty incorporated Poona in its
possessions, and held it at the time of the Durga-devI famine (1396-
1407). An interesting account of Poona under the Bahmanis has
been recorded by the Russian traveller Athanasius Nikitin (1468-74).
The founder of the Nizam Shahi dynasty of Ahmadnagar, Malik Ahmad,
made Junnar his head-quarters for a time. One of his successors con-
ferred Poona as a jdglr on Maloji Bhonsla, the grandfather of Sivaji,
who was born at Shivner fort, close to Junnar, in 1627. The emperor
Shah Jahan about this period penetrated into the Deccan and recovered
for the Mughals the northern portions of the District. With the rise
of Sivaji, Poona became the scene of conflict between the Marathas
and the Delhi emperors, the former holding the forts and passes in the
hills and the latter the open country. To this period belongs one
of Sivaji's most famous exploits, the capture of Sinhgarh. An expedi-
tion of Aurangzeb into the Deccan led to the capture and death of
Sivaji's son Sambhaji, and the temporary re-establishment of the
Mughals. Sambhajl's son Sahu recovered the District from Aurangzeb,
and thenceforward it remained under the rule of the Peshwas, of whom
the first, Balajl, was Sahu's minister. For the next hundred years
(1714-1817) Poona was the seat of the Peshwas, the heads of the
great Maratha confederacy. Baji Rao Ballal, second Peshwa, insti-
tuted the dakshina or money gifts to learned Brahmans that led to the
foundation of the Deccan College. His successor Balajl Baji Rao
brought the Maratha power to its zenith, though destined to witness,
at the close of his rule, the disastrous defeat of Pampat (1761). The
subsequent years are full of stirring events, when the Peshwas first
opposed the Nizam and Haidar All, and subsequently allied them-
selves with different members of the Maratha confederacy in the
hope of raising a barrier against the advancing power of the British.
In these intrigues they were ably assisted by the famous minister
Nana Farnavis. Alternately the ally of Sindhia and Holkar, both
of whom in turn plundered Poona city (1798 and 1802), Baji Rao
Peshwa was finally brought into conflict with the British owing to

POPULATION 169

the murder of Gangadhar Shastri, the minister of the Gaikwar of
Baroda, whose safety they had guaranteed. In the Treaty of Poona
an attempt was made by Baji Rao Peshwa to conciliate the British
power ; but a subsequent resort to force led to the battle of Kirkee on
November 5, 1817, and to the end of Maratha rule in the District. After
annexation the District was managed by Mr. Elphinstone, the former
Resident at the court of the Peshwa. In 1826 the Ramosis rose
in revolt, and were joined by the Kolls from the hilly western tracts.
This rising and a similar one in 1844 were quelled without much
difficulty. Since then, the most notable chapter in the history of the v
District is connected with the disaffection that arose in Poona city
in 1897 over the measures taken to check the spread of the plague.
Discontent was rife, and ended in the murder of the special plague
officer, Mr. Walter Rand of the Civil Service. The subsequent depor-
tation and imprisonment of certain leading citizens, together with the
establishment of a strong punitive police post, put an end to acts
of violence ; and the peace of the District has since remained un-
broken.

The earliest historical remains are the caves of JUNNAR. The
inscriptions in these caves and at the Nana pass in the vicinity are
of special interest, being the oldest known Brahmanical inscriptions
yet discovered. Later in date are the Buddhist caves at KARLI,
BHAJA, BEDSA, and Shelarwadi, probably all dating from the first
and second centuries after Christ. Later Hindu dynasties have left
the Saivite rock temple at Bhambhurda, 2 miles west of Poona,
and scattered Hemadpanti remains varying from the tenth to the
thirteenth century, which it is customary to attribute to the Gauli-raj,
or Deogiri Yadavas. The chief Hemadpanti remains are the Kuka-
deshwar temple at Pur 10 miles north-west of Junnar, the tanks of
Belhe 21 miles north-east of Junnar, and Pabal 21 miles north-east
of Poona ; transformed mosques at Poona, Junnar, and Sasvad ; and
the Ganga and Jumna rock-cut reservoirs on the top of Shivner fort
in Junnar.

The number of towns and villages in the District is 1,189. Its
population at each of the last four enumerations was: (1872) 922,439,
(1881) 901,828, (1891) 1,067,800, and (1901) 995,33- p opu i atioil .
The decline in 1881 was due to the famine of 1876-7,
while the decrease in 1901 is chiefly due to the famine of 1900 and to
plague. In both famines the eastern portion of the District suffered
severely.

The distribution of the population by talukas in 1901 is shown in
the table on the next page.

The chief towns are: POONA CITY, KIRKEE, JUNNAR, BARAMATI,
SIRUR, LONAULI, SASVAD, INDAPUR, TALEGAON-DABHADE, KHED, and

T70

POONA DISTRICT

ALANDI. The villages with population exceeding 5,000 are TALEGAON-
DHAMDERE, OTUR, GHOD, MANCHAR, and PANDARE. Of the total
population, 93 per cent, are Hindus, 5 per cent. Musalmans, 10,703
Jains, and 14,484 Christians. Marath! is the chief language, being
spoken by 90 per cent, of the population.

Number of

1 <u

C 1 0. 1)

<$ c i M

Tdluka.

srii

</>

O "

^llel

8 w-o-c

$ fi

|.g-|t}"g

S c d >
J O ^

Junnar

59 T

158

"7-753

199

4- I

5,020

Khed . . )
Ambegaon pctha \

876

I 7 6

H3,449

42,826

1 179

4-726
1,372

Siriir ....

60 r

65,992

i ro

- 23

3,160

Maval

385

162

65,176

169

3,346

Haveli . . )
Mulshi pctha \

823

I.'.

299,988
26,967

| 397

I:;

35,685

421 1

Purandhar .

470

72,716

J 55

- 18

3,341

Bhimthadi . . )

i 0^6

\ I

80,814

)

i + 9

3,081

Dhond/^/m \
Indapur

567

42,754
66.895

118

-36

- 6

3-524
2,130

District total

5,349

1,178*

995-330

1 86

- 7

65,805

* According to the latest returns of the Agricultural department, the number of villages is 1,205.

The Hindu population is largely composed of Marathas and allied
castes, of which a description will be found in the article on the
BOMBAY PRESIDENCY. The local Brahman sub-caste is the Deshasth,
who form 60 per cent, of the total number. Next to Deshasths in
importance are the Chitpavans or Konkanasths (14,000), a sub-caste
that came from the Konkan, and rose to a position of great power
in the days of the Peshwas, who themselves belonged to this sub-caste.
Many Brahmans are money-lenders, general traders, and landholders.
The Marathas of the old fighting class number 333,000, or one-third
of the total population ; while Maratha Kunbis, who are closely allied
to them though socially inferior, number 98,000. An important cul-
tivating caste is the Mali or gardener (61,000). In the hilly western
portion of the District the land is for the most part in the hands
of Kolis (46,000). Dhangars or shepherds number 42,000. Mahars
(82,000) and Mangs (22,000), the depressed classes, who probably
represent primitive tribes dispossessed by the Aryans, are numerous,
a few families being found in almost every village, where tney occupy
a hamlet apart from the houses of their better caste neighbours.
The vicinity of Bombay city induces many of the labouring classes to
seek work in that place during the busy season. The emigrants are
chiefly drawn from the Ghats villages, where the peasants are much
involved in debt, and are known in Bombay as ghdtls. Ramosis or
professional watchmen (22,000), widely distributed throughout the

AGRICULTURE

171

District, once formed part of the Maratha fighting forces. Chamars
or leather- workers number 18,000. Musalmans (46,000) are chiefly
Shaikhs (27,000), a term loosely used to designate either converts
from Hinduism or descendants from Arab invaders. In Junnar they
are an indication of the former predominance of the Musalman king-
dom of Ahmadnagar. Agriculture supports 57 per cent, of the popula-
tion, and industries and commerce 15 and 2 per cent, respectively.

In 1901 the native Christians, who numbered about 8,000, included
3,765 Roman Catholics, 1,131 of the Anglican communion, 117
Presbyterians, and 243 Methodists. The Church of England Mission
has a branch known as the Panch Houd Mission in Poona city and
another small branch in the Haveli taluka^ which perform social,
educational, and religious work among both sexes. The Church
Missionary Society carries on evangelistic work in seven stations and
maintains in Poona city a divinity school, where natives are trained
as catechists. Closely connected with it is the Zanana Bible Medical
Mission, working among women. The Church of Scotland Presby-
terian Mission, with its head-quarters in Poona cantonments, maintains
a hospital in Poona city, a boarding-house, orphanage, and 23 schools,
of which ii are for girls. The United Free Church of Scotland
Mission, established in 1882, has branches at Lonauli and Sasvad ;
and the Methodist Episcopal Mission, established in 1873, maintains
a home for Eurasian boys and girls and four boys' schools in Poona
city. The American Marathi Mission, established in 1855 at Sirur,
maintains two orphanages, and several schools for low-caste children,
in which special attention is paid to industrial training. An energetic
Brahman lady, Pandita Rama Bai, established in the Bhlmthadi
tdluka in 1896 the undenominational Mukti Mission, which comprises
a church, school, printing press, and a large boarding establishment,
costing Rs. 80,000 a year and financed from Great Britain, Australia,
and America. The Poona Village and Indian Mission, styled inter-
denominational and embracing all the Protestant sects, was established
in 1895; it has three stations in the Bhor State and maintains a hos-
pital, two orphanages, and a school. Among minor establishments
are the Zanana Training Home at Wanowri, a Boys' Christian Home
at Dhond, the St. Vincent of Paul Society for the relief of the poor,
and the St. Anthony's bread guild which provides clothing and rations
for the destitute. The Salvation Army has branches at Sirur and
Talegaon-Dhamdhere.

In Poona all arable land comes under one or other of three
great heads c dry-crop ' land, watered land, rice land. The khanf or
early crops are brought to maturity by the rains of the .

south-west monsoon ; the rabi or spring crops depend
on dews, on irrigation, and on the small cold-season showers which

VOL. XX. M

172

POONA DISTRICT

occasionally fall between November and March. The principal kharif
crops are spiked millet (bdjra), mixed with the hardy tur, and jowar.
These are sown late in May or in June, and are reaped in September
and October or November. In the wet and hilly west the chief har-
vest is the kharif, which here consists of rice and hill millets, such as
rdgi and van. The rabi crops are sown in October and November,
and ripen in February and March. They are chiefly the cold-season
Indian millets, such as shdlu, tdmbdi, and dudhmogra, and wheat,
together with gram, lentils (masur\ kuUth, and other pulses. As in
other parts of the Deccan, the chief kinds of soil are black, red,
and barad or stony. The black- soil, found generally near rivers,
is by far the richest of these. The red soil is almost always shallow,
and coarser than the black. The stony soil is found on the slopes
of hills. It is merely trap rock in the first stage of disintegration ; but,
if favoured by plentiful and frequent rains, it repays the scanty labour
which its tillage requires. With four bullocks, a Kunbl can till some
60 acres of light soil. The same area of shallowish black soil re-
quires six or eight bullocks. Eight bullocks can till 50 acres of deep
black soil. Many husbandmen possess less than the proper number
of cattle, and have to join with their neighbours for ploughing.

The District is mostly ryotwdri, only about 15 per cent, of the
total area being indm or jdglr estates. The chief statistics of cultiva-
tion in 1903-4 are shown below, in square miles:

Taluka.

Total.

Cultivated.

Irrigated.

Cultivable
waste.

Forests.

Junnar

592

427

9 6

Khed

876

593

148

Siiur

601

493

Maval

385

235

Haveli

823

586

103

Purandhar

470

358

Bhlmthadi

1,036

794

Indapur

567

406

Total

535*

3,392

146

710

* Statistics are not available for 89 squaie miles of this area, which is based on
the latest information.

The chief crops are bdjra (1,100 square miles) and jowar (885),
grown almost entirely in the eastern portion of the District. Bdjra
is sown on light lands whenever the early rains suffice. Rice occupies
no square miles, and is grown mainly in the western portion known as
the Maval. Inferior hill millets, with wheat, peas, beans, and gram as
second crops after rice, are grown in the Maval when the moisture
is sufficient. The central belt grows a variety of products. Its cereal
is bdjra, and the chief oilseeds are niger-seeds and ground-nuts.
Safflower covers 92 square miles. Wheat (126 square miles) is grown

AGRICULTURE 173

as a * dry crop ' in a considerable area in the Maval and in the central
portions of the District. Of pulses, which occupy about 352 square
miles, the most largely grown are gram, tur, math, kulith, and mug.
Sugar-cane is extensively grown (20 square miles in 1903-4), chiefly
under irrigation. Vegetables form an important market-garden crop
near Poona, as also do grapes, figs, papayas^ guavas, oranges, and other
favourite fruits. Among special crops, the grape-vine ( Vitis vimferd)
is occasionally grown in the best garden land on the border of the
western belt and in the neighbourhood of Poona city. The vine is
grown from cuttings, which are ready for planting in six or eight months.
It begins to bear in the third year, and is in full fruit in the sixth or
seventh. With care, a vine goes on bearing for sixty, or even, it is
said, for a, hundred years. The vine is trained on a stout upright,
often a growing stump which is pruned to a pollard-like shape about
five feet high ; this mode is said to be most remunerative. Or a strong
open trellis roof is thrown over the vineyard about six feet from the
ground, and the vines are trained horizontally on it ; this mode is
preferred by the rich for its appearance and shade, and is said to
encourage growth to a greater age. The vine yields sweet grapes
from January to March, and sour grapes in August. The sour grapes
are very abundant, but are not encouraged ; the sweet grape is tended
in every possible way, but is apt to suffer from disease. After each
crop the vine is pruned, and salt, sheep's droppings, and dried fish are
applied as manure to each vine after the sour crop is over. Vines
are flooded once a year for five or six days, the earth being previously
loosened round the roots. Blight attacks them when the buds first
appear, and is removed by shaking the branches over a cloth, into
which the blight falls, and is then carried to a distance and destroyed.
This operation is performed three times a day until the buds are
an inch long.

The cultivation of sugar-cane and other valuable ciops has greatly
increased of late years, owing to the construction by Government
of irrigation canals, as also has the use of new manures. English
ploughs are used in a few places, and iron sugar-cane mills are seen
everywhere. The Poona Experimental Farm, which is situated about
2 miles from the city in Bopudi village, originated in a small piece of
land taken for the agricultural class at the College of Science in 1879.
In i888*it was handed over to the Agricultural department, which
since that date has superintended the raising of hybrids of cotton,
wheat, and joivdr^ the growing of forage crops for the use of the model
dairy attached to the farm, the testing of new crops, the trial of new
agricultural implements, and the distribution of seed both to agricul-
turists and, for scientific purposes, to experimental farms at Pusa
and elsewhere. The farm is used for educational purposes by the

M 2

i?4 POONA DISTRICT

students of the College of Science, by junior civilians, and by visitors
and agriculturists ; and it is furnished with an increasing collection of
soils, manures, seeds, fibres, botanical specimens, and indigenous and
imported implements. A portion of the land, which measures 66 acres,
is annually reserved for growing small plots of all important varieties
of typical crops. A second farm at Manjri, occupying about 45 acres,
and 8 miles distant from Poona, is devoted to experiments in sugar-
cane cultivation. Since 1894 attention has been directed to the
system of manuring sugar-cane, to testing several methods of culti-
vation, to the acclimatization of imported varieties of cane, and to
studying the most profitable methods of utilizing bone manure.
Botanical experiments in cotton and wheat are also carried out.
A sewage-farm, on which sugar-cane, fodder, ground-nuts, maize, and
sweet potatoes are grown, forms part of the Manjri Farm. The model
dairy farm at Kirkee contains 68 cows and 53 cow-buffaloes, and sells
dairy produce of an annual value of about Rs. 24,000. The gardens at
Ganeshkhind are maintained for botanical and experimental purposes,
and are in charge of the Economic Botanist. They contain excellent
mango orchards. Advances to agriculturists under the Land Improve-
ment and Agriculturists' Loans Acts amounted during the decade
ending 1904 to 21-4 lakhs. Of this sum, n lakhs was advanced in
the three years 1899-1900, 1900-1, and 1901-2.

The District has ten breeds of cattle, of which the khilari, or herd-
cattle from West Khandesh, are the most valuable draught animals in
the Deccan. Buffaloes are common in all parts and are of eleven
kinds, but the best breeds are imported from Sind, Cutch, and
Gujarat. For rice-field work the Poona cultivator prefers the buffalo
to the bullock, and the cow-buffaloes supply most of the milk used
in the District. Poona has long been famous for its horses, and there
are few villages in east Poona without one or two brood-mares. Of
eight breeds of horses the local or deshi variety, bred on the banks
of the Bhlma and Nira, was most esteemed by the Marathas. The
Dhangar pony, thick-set, short-legged, and strong, very unlike the
ordinary village pony, is of the same breed as the Nira pony. Horse-
breeding is carried on by the Army Remount department, which
maintains eight horse stallions and four pony stallions at Sirur, Bara-
mati, Dhond, and Indapur. Donkeys are used as load-carriers by
stonecutters, limeburners, potters, and washermen. Mules," chiefly
cast commissariat animals, are used by charcoal-burners for carrying
loads and drawing carts. Flocks of sheep are found in most large
villages, and goats are common. Fowls are reared everywhere,
while turkeys, geese, and ducks are found in the towns, where also
many Musalmans and some Hindus breed pigeons for amusement
or profit.

AGRICULTURE

175

Of the total cultivated area, 145-5 square miles, or 4 per cent., were
irrigated in 1903-4. The areas under the various classes of irrigation
sources were : Government canals, 56 square miles ; private canals,
7 square miles ; tanks, 6 square miles ; wells, 75 ; and other sources,
one square mile. The chief water-works made or repaired by Govern-
ment are the Nira and Mutha Canals, and the Shetphal, Matoba,
Kasurdi, Sirsuphal, and Bhadalwadi tanks. The MUTHA CANALS,
completed in 1878, and the reservoir from which they are fed, LAKE
FIFE, command 16,800 acres; while the NIRA CANAL, fed by LAKE
WHITING, completed in 1886, commands 113,000 acres. The former
supplied 7,000 and the latter 31,000 acres in 1903-4. Well-irrigation
is of great importance in Indapur and other drought-stricken parts of
the east. t Wells are circular, 8 to 10 feet across and 20 to 50 feet
deep. Water is raised in a leathern bag. Near Poona city good crops
are raised by well-irrigation for the Bombay and Poona markets,
and many additional wells have been constructed out of Government
loans during recent 'years. The District contains 22,177 wells and
27 tanks, used for irrigation purposes.

The forest lands may be roughly grouped into three classes : hill,
river-bank, and upland Reserves. Except in the Sinhgarh range the
hill Reserves, consisting of mixed evergreen woods and teak coppice,
are found in the west. The evergreen woods yield little timber, but
the teak coppices, chiefly on the slopes and terraces of the easterly
spurs, furnish a valuable revenue. The groves found along the banks
of almost all the larger rivers consist mostly of well-grown babul. The
third class of forest lands, the upland or mdl Reserves, are found in
every subdivision, but chiefly in Sirur, Bhimthadi, and Indapur. The
chief forest trees are : the mango, the ain^ the ndna and the bondara
(Lagers troemia lanceolata and Z. parvifolia, two closely allied species),
the hedu (Nauclea cordifolid), the kalamb (Nauclea parvifolia), the asau
(Bridelia retusa\ the savi (Bombax malabaricutri), the dhaura (Cono-
carpus latifolia}, the teak, the jdmbul (Eugenia Jambohma\ the yela
(Terminalia belericd), the dhaman (Grewia tiliaefolia), the myrabolam,
and the bamboo. The Forest department is in charge of about
500 square miles of ' reserved ' forest in the District, and the Revenue
department manages 210 square miles of fodder reserves and pasture
lands. In 1903-4 the forest revenue amounted to Rs. 60,000.

Excepi iron, which occurs in various places as hematite associated
with laterite, or as magnetic grains in stream beds, the District
produces no metallic ores. The trap rock yields good building stone
and road-metal almost everywhere, boulders being preferred to quarried
stone. A variety of compact dark-blue basalt, capable of high polish,
is worked into idols and pedestals for wooden pillars. Quartz occurs
throughout the trap in various forms, either crystalline or amorphous

T76 POONA DISTRICT

in the form of agate, jasper, and heliotrope. Stilbite, and its associate
the still finer apophylite, though less common than quartz, are by nc
means rare. One magnificent variety consists of large salmon-coloured
crystals 2 or 3 inches long. The other mineral products are commor
salt, carbonate of soda, sand for mortar, and limestone.

The chief manufactures are silk robes, coarse cotton cloth, and

blankets. The Poona cotton and silk-embroidered fagris have a wide

spread reputation, and the brass- and silver- worl<

communications ^ ^ 1C same I^ ace * s much admired. Among othei
special manufactures may be mentioned toys, small
clay figures carefully dressed, and ornaments, baskets, fans, &c., ol
khas-khas grass, decked with beetles' wings. The manufacture oi
paper by hand, formerly of some importance, has of late year?
practically ceased. A few Musalman papermakers are still to be
found in Junnar town.

Among the factories of the District are two cotton-spinning anc
weaving mills, a paper-mill, a flour-mill, and a brewery. In 1904 the
cotton-mills contained 308 looms and 13,924 spindles, employee
1,069 hands, and produced i6 million pounds of yarn and 700,000
pounds of cloth.. A Government gun-carriage factory and an arms
and ammunition factory at Poona and Kirkee employ about 2,ioc
hands. There are also railway workshops at Lonauli.

Of late years, except the development caused by cheap and rapic
carnage of goods, there has been no marked change in the trade o;
the District. It is, generally speaking, small. The increased demanc
for raw sugar has led to a larger production. The raw sugar goes
mostly to Bombay and Gujarat. The chief exports are grain, ra\N
sugar, cotton cloth, vegetables, fruits, brass-ware, and silk cloth. The
chief imports are rice brought from Ahmadnagar and Thana, wheat
salt, and copper and brass sheets. The chief agencies for spreading
imports and gathering exports are trade centres, markets, fairs, village
shops, and pedlars' packs. The leading merchants are Marwar Vanis
Gujarat Vanis, Bohras, Parsis, and Brahmans.

Besides about 222 miles of metalled and 913 miles of unmetallec
roads, 112 miles of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway traverse the
District from west to east, and this section is joined at Dhond bj
the north to south cross connexion from Manmad. The Southerr
Mahratta Railway runs from Poona southwards for a distance o
about 48 miles within the District, and has nine stations in thai
length. Metalled roads place the District in communication witf
Nasik, Ahmadnagar, Sholapur, Belgaum, Satara, and Kolaba Districts
With the exception of 341 miles of unmetalled roads, all the roads an
maintained by the Public Works department. The chief of therr
are the Bombay-Poona mail road to the foot of the Borghat, the

ADMINISTRA TION 1 7 7

Poona-Ahmadnagar road, the Poona-Sholapur road, and the Poona-
Nasik road ; while of roads maintained by the local authorities the
chief are those from Manchar to Ambegaon, from Khed to Bhorgiri,
from Siriir to Nira Bridge, from Junnar to Belhe, and from Baramati
to Patas.